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THE

MICROGEAPHIC DICTIONARY.

O Jo
THE

MAINAED M.

tiETCALF,

MICROGRAPHIC DICTIONARY;
A GUIDE TO THE EXAMINATION AND INVESTIGATION
OF THE

STRUCTURE AND NATURE

OF

MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS,
BY
J.

W. GEIFFITH, M.D.
THl*;

MF.MBEE OF

&c., ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS

ANU

ARTHUR HENFREY,

F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN KING's COLLEGE, LONDON.

FO UR TH EDITION.
EDITED BY
J.

W. GRIFFITH, M.D.
ASSISTED BY
J.

&c.,

The Rev. M.
T.

BERKELEY,
AND

M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

RUPERT JONES,

F.R.S., F.G.S.,

LATE PROFESSOR OP GEOLOGY, STAFF COLLEGE, SANDHURST.

ILLUSTRATED BY FIFTY-THREE PLATES AND EIGHT HUNDRED AND EIGHTEEN WOODCUTS CONTAINING FIGURES OF 2680 OBJECTS.

VOL. I. TEXT.

LONDON:
JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.
MDCCCLXXXIII.

PRINTED BT TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, ^LEET STREET.

ALEUE

&

PLAMMAAf.

/CTo^
\^

"V-^o
M.

METOAlf

MICROGRAPHIC DICTIONARY.

Aberration.The
rajs of
lijrht

from the true focus

deviation of the of a lens or

cui'ved mirror, in consequence of which they do not unite at a single point, but form an indistinct or coloured image of an

The cutaneous surface of the body, or ectoderm, is covered Avith a very dehcate epidermis (PI. 49. tig. 2). Cilia exist on various parts of the body, especially the
Fig.
1.

the It arises from two causes object. of the lens or mirror, when it is called spherical aberration and the different refrangibihty of the rays of hght, when it is
:

form

called chromatic aberration.

of remarkable for their parasitic habit and the absence of a thallus. The species are now referred to Lecidea.

ABROTHAL'LUS, Notaris and A genus Lichens, Fam. Lichenacei,

Tulasne.

A. Smithii (Welwitschii and microspermus) = L. parineliamm. A. oxi/spori's = L. oxysporus. A. inquinans = L. inquiiians. BiBLiOGEAPHY. Lindsay, Brit.Lich. 311 Tidasue, Ann. Sc. Nat., Bot. xvii. p. 112, 1852 De Notaris, Mem. R.Acad. Sc .Turin, X. p. 3-")l, 1859; Berkeley, Cryp. Bot. 405
; ;

Thaumantias hemisphaerica, magnified 2 diameters.

arms, tentacles,

cirri,

&c

upon which

also

384, 1879. (Medusa)).An order of Coelenterata, commonly Imown as Sea-nettles, on account of their producing urtication when touched or Jelly-fishes, or Sea-

Leighton, Lichen-Flora,

ACALETHJE

p.

peculiar stinging organs and organs of adhesion occm*. In those species which are notorious for their urticating powers, these organs are also situated in aggregations be-

blubbers, from their gelatinous consistence. They consist of a transparent, floating and free, discoid or spheroid body (hydrosoma), often shaped like an umbrella and vary in size from a mere speck to a yard in diameter. Margin of the disk furnished with filiform tentacles, cirri, &c. The organs are radiate aroimd a longitudinal axis, occupied by a central peduncle or stalk (manubriuni), at the bottom of which is the mouth. The disposition of the parts
;

The neath the epidermis of the body. stinging organs, or nematocysts, usually form oval capsules, in which a spirally coiled filament is enclosed (PI. 49. fig. 3 a, b) this flies out on the slightest touch, with the capsule to which it is attached, from the irritated part of the slrin (I'l. 49. fig. 3 c). In some Acalephpe, these stinging organs are replaced by oval capsules from which a
;

These rigid bristle projects (PI. 49. fig. 4). urtication, but enable the animal to adhere to other bodies. Near do not produce
the surface of the body and between the composing its substance, pigment-cells frequently occur, some of which are isolated,
cells

is

generally quaternary.

39

79.'-)

ACALEPH^.

ACALEPH.E.

The paler otliers aggregated into groups. and more delicate coloiu's are said to arise in some instances from pigment uniformly it dissolved in the substance of tlie body is most probable, however, that they arise from iridescence. Muscular sr/sfem forming long, thin, reticular fibres and bundles, almost everywhere penading the contractile substance of the
;

run from the stomach or cavity throughout the body, the principal branches forming rays from the centre to the margin, communicating finally with a circular vessel traver.~ing its circumference (PL 49. fig. 5 d). These are also Imed with cilia, and contain both the focd and water But there is no regvdar circuvessel-lilce canals

central

lation.

body.
floating and locomotion of these animals are often aided by larger or smaller cavities filled with air. The nervons system consists of a ring following the margin of the disk, with ganglionic expansions at intervals, giving off branches to the tentacles and the radial
canals.

The

The Acalephae are propagated by the formation of ova, and according to the plan of
alternation of generations. They are either hermaphrodite or xmisexual. The reproductive organs of the two sexes are often so similar in colour, external form,

and arrangement, that they might easily be mistaken for each other, without examination of their contents. They forni either
utricular or strap-shaped stripes, placed at various parts of the body, often near the rays of the gastrovascular system. In the former case, the speiTuatic fiuid and the ova are evacuated through distinct excretory ducts ; in the latter, the spermatozoa and ova escaping fi-om the strap-shaped testis or ovary, pass directly outwards, or into

The orc/ans of sense consist of tubercular or spathulate bodies situated near the margin of the body or at the base of the tentacles, and connected with adjoiningganglia. Some of these are regarded as organs of and consist essentially of a vision (ocelli) membranous capsule containing a clear liquid with cr^-stals of carbonate of lime, and sometimes a red or black pigTuent Those which contain no (PI. 49. fig. 5 //). pigment have been considered to be of
;

auditoiy function, and the crystalline bodies Some of them are protected by otolithes. an overhanging fold of membrane hence the distinction of covered- and naked- eyed Medusa- but the latter are now regarded as the sexual zooids or gonophores of the
;
;

capacious cavities opening externally by wide orifices. The ova are round, and surrounded by a single very delicate capsule and the genninal vesicle with its simple germinal spot is visible through the whitish,
;

violet, or

yellow yolks. The spermatozoa rapidly in, and are imaft'ected by water ; thej are linear, or one end is rormded, the other prulonged into a capil-

move

Ilydroida (THArMANTiAs).
digestive cavity, which is situated in the middle of the body, is lined with cili-

lary appendage (PI. ^9.

fig.

5*).

The

ated epithelium and furnished with distinct walls (endoderm), which are directly continuous with the general parenchyma of the body, so that there is no abdominal cavity.

metamorphosis of is very remarkable. When the ordinary process of segmentation of the entire yoUc is completed, the ova be-r

The developmental some of the Acalepb.fe come converted

into

ovate infusoria-like
-\\

The mouth

either single and central, or In the former case, it is situated multiple. at the end of the peduncle, in the middle of the under side, and leads into a stomach,
is

hich embryos or planida? (PI. 49. fig. 6), revolve upon their longitudinal axis by means of cihated epidermis, and swim about
species of Levco}>hrys or Bursaria. After a time, they become fixed at the anterior extremity to some body; arms then shoot cut from the imattached extremity, between which the mouth of the polvpe-like animal (Hvdra-tuba state) is
like

is frequently furnished with cacal appendages. "When several oral apertures are present, either several cesojdiageal canals conduct the nutriment through the arms, in which the oral apertures are placed, to a central stt>mach, or each separate mouth is connected with a distinct tubular stomach. distinct hepatic organ has not yet been found. ]Jay Lankester dcscriles the inception of natural food-materials in the cells of the endodeim. GastrovascuJar system. number of

which

developed (PI. 49. figs'. 7 & 8). At this stage of development, the larvas multiply by the foimation of gemmae (PI. 49. fig. 9 o), and cffsets or stolons (PI. 49. fig. 9 h) and ultimately each undergoes transverse dithe Aision, which takes place as follows: larvse grow in length, and the body be;

comes constricted into several

segments

ACA^'TIIACJLE.

ACANTHOMETRINA.

(PI. 40. fig. 10), from each of wliicb oiglit bipartite processes shoot out in a -whorl The segments of the body (Strobila-state).

Char. Rounded, green, with moveable radiating spines and pseudopodia. Body minute fusiform flexible, covered with

then separate from each other seriatim, from before backwards, swim about ^yith eight
rays (PI. 49. fig. 11), and at last become gradually developed into perfect Medusaj. Many of the JMi'dusfe are phosphorescent, and render the sea luminous. Gegenbaur divided a Thaumantias into a hundred pieces, and found that each piece, provided it contained a portion of the margin of the umbrella, grew into a perfect small 31edusa. Many of the organisms formerly considered Mechisce are now regarded as the Medusoid buds or gonozoids of the Hydroida. See Thaumaxtias. small 3Iedi(sa, with 2 names Craspeda-

curved spicula
bifid,

spines discoid at base.

;

straight,

hollow,

A. twfacea (PL 51. fig. 9), Found in heath-bog water; diam. of body jjx". BiBL. Carter, Ann. N. Hist. 1863, xii. p. 263; Hertwig, .7i. Zeitsch. (Qu.Mic.Jn.
1878, xviii. p. 2l)5).

ACANTHO'DIUM

fam. Acanthacets). Kippist first described the curious hairs upon the seed of Acantho-

(Flowering Plants,

dimn sjncatum, Defile (PI. 28. fig. 24). The entire surface of the seed is clothed with hairs of whitish colour, appressed and closely
adherent in the dry state, being apparently glued together at their extremities. When placed in water, the hairs are set free and spread out on all sides they are then seen
;

Soicerhyi pm^Li mnocodimnVicfnria ^i&s been found in the tropical fresh-water lilytank at the London Royal Botanic Gardens. This ought to be the Medusoid gonophore of a hydroid zoophyte
ciistes
!

to consist of clusters of
sijiral cells

from five

to

twenty

BiBL. Eschscholtz, Sifst. d. Acal. Berlin, 18:?9; WiU, Horoi ten/est. ^'c, 1844; Ehreuberg, Ahhandl. d. Bed. Ahad. 1835 ; Art. AcaL, Todd's Cycl. (R. Jones) Sie;

bold, Lehr. d. J'erc/l. An. ; Pluxley, Invertehrafa Lesson, Suites a Btiffon (Zooph. Acfdfphes) Wagner, Icon. Zootom. ; Ge; ;

genbam-, Vergl. An at. 1878 Gosse, Mar. Zool. Forbes, JVak.-ei/ed Medusrs (Ray Sec); KoUiker, 7fo?2.^/.s?'o/'. I860; Haeckel, Si/st. d. 3Iedi/s., 1879; Romanes, Plnl. Tr. 1876, p. 269 {Muse, syst.); Nicholson, Zool, 1878; Pascoe, Zool. Class., 1880; Kowalewsky, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1867, xx. 228; R. Lankester, Qu. Mia: Jn. 1881, p. 119. The seeds of many genera of this family are clothed with hairs
; ;

firmly coherent below, but free above and separating from the cluster at different heights, expanding in all directions like plumes, and forming a very beautiful The free portions of microscopic object. the cells elongate so as to separate the coils of one, two, or occasionally three internal spiral fibres, which are sometimes branched and not unfrequently broken up into rings ; at the lower pail of the cells the turns of the spiral are connected by perpendicidar jirocessessoas to convert the spiral into a reticulated strnctm-e. See Spieal Steuctuees. BiBL. Linn. Trans, xix. p, 65. A, Miill. genus of

ACANTHOME'TR

ACANTHOMETEINA.

ACANTHA'CE^.

composed of hygi'oscopic cells, containing unreliable spiral fibres or detached rings. Among these are Acantliodium s2ncatmri,J)eOther hle, Blepharis, and liueUia fvrinosa.
species and genera have the hygroscopic cells destitute of internal fibre, as i??<cW liitoraFlun/Jopsis ijlutinosa, Barleria noctijiora, Fui1.her particulars reLepidayatlds, ^-c.
lis,

ACANTHOMETRI'NA. family of Radiolarian Rhizopoda. Char. Body minute, spherical, capsular traversed by numerous elongate, mostly angular and hollow siliceous spines, which meet in the centre. Between the spines pseudopodia radiate from the body (PL 51. Marine. fig. 10), as in Adinophrys. The body contains yellow globules, and is sometimes covered with small spicules
; ;

specting the hygroscopic cells will be found mider Cell-jiEMBEA>'E and Spieal StetjclUEEs. See also Acaxthodium and

enveloped by a softer cortical sarcodic mass. The Acanthometrina, with the Polycystina, have been rearranged by Hackel, in
it is

and

RuELLiA, and,

for a similar

phenomenon

in

other families, Collomia, Cob^a, Salvia. BiBL. Kippist, Linn. Trans, xix. p. 65.

ACANTHOCYS'TIS,
Actinophryina.

Carter.A genus

of Rhizopoda, apparently referable to the

monograph, into 68 genera and 150 species. They are found recent on the surface and at the bottom of the sea, in the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the North Sea. They form beautiful microscopic objects. See Radiolaeia. B 2
his splendidly illustrated

ACAKTirorus
BiBL. Mliller, Ber. d. Bcrl. Ah. 1855, Ahh. d. Berl. Al: 1858, p. 1; Hiifkel, liadiolar., 1802; Claparede and Lachraann, Infns. p. 69.
p. 'J48; id.

ACARUS.
bristle,

minated by a long
suckers.
distinct

and without

(Parasitic.)
;

ACAN'TIIOPUS, Vernet. A

g-emis of

Uemodex. Body elongate cephalothorax from the ringed abdomen legs terminated bv 4 or 5 very minute claws.
;

ridae.

Eiitomcistraca, Ord. O^tracoda, fain. CytlieL^ke of Geneva. l^iBL. Bibl. Univ. 1877 {Jii. Mic. Soc.

ACAKEL'LA, Kent. A
;

fusoria

near Halteria.
214.

genus of InKent, Man. Inf.

1880,

p.

1878, p. 80).

ACA'REA. A family
to

AOAREL'LUS,
of Aracbiiida, be-

posed genus of Acarina.

Westwood.A supSee Hypopus and

Phy-

longing nida).

the

order Acarina

(Arach-

Phytoptida. They seem to

consist of larvae of

curring in cheese, sugar, flour, &:c. Some also occur upon the skin of man and itch and the animals, producing the

These animals are commonly called mites ; and every one is famiJiar ^vith them as oc-

Hypopus. BiBL. Westwood, Proc. Entom. Soc. 1864, and 1870, p. 30 Tatera, Mon. Mic. Jn. p. 30, 1872, viii. p. 2(33; Murrav, Econ. EnUmiol. p. 246; Mclntire, M. Mic"^ Jn. 1874, xi. p. 1.
;

topti or species of

mange.

The parts of the mouth and the legs, upon

vrhich the characters are usually founcled, he best made out by crushing the animal upon a slide with a thin glass cover, and washin"' awav the exudinfj stibstance with water, as directed in the Article PrePARATION ; sometimes hot solution of potash is requisite, with the subsequent addition of acetic acid and further washing. AYhen afterwards dried and immersed in Canada balsam, the various parts become

AOARPNA. An order of Abachnida, ACARUS, Linn. (Tyroy/yp/iMs). A

may

genus of Arachnida, of the Order Acarina, and family Acarea (see Abachxid.a. and

Acaeka). The palpi adherent

to the labium, the

perfect legs, and the transverse fiuTow distingidsh the genus. Ac. domesticus, or siro (PI. 6. fig. 1), the

common

Cheese-mite.

Body

oval,

soft,

beautifully distinct, and may be permanently preserved. Acai-us (Tyror/hiphns), Body with a transverse furrow between the 2ud and 8rd legs nearly equal, all perfect, pairs of legs and terminated by a membranous sucker or claws, or both palpi adherent to the la; ;

bium

(or lip).

Hypodera^. Body very long, legs very short, and the 2 anterior and posterior pairs far apart parasitic beneath the skins of
;

bu'ds.

whitish, turgid and furnished with long feathery hairs (b). The transverse fiurow (c) occurs at about the anterior fourth of the body and another is seen between the head and the part corresponding to the thorax. The head is susceptible of elevation and depression.. In its natural state it appears conical (r?), and is furnished with two large mandibles these consist of a soft retractile basal joint (e), and a second, dilated, non-retractile joint (/) resembhng the fixed claw of a lobster, and a moveable The piece (/*) working against the latter. last two pieces are toothed where in contact
;

Front pair of legs mostly Hypopus. largely developed posterior almost atroParasitic on animals and plants. phied. Eostnnn (l)eak) short, Trichodactylu!^. with minute bristles 4th pair of legs longer
; ;

without claws, and terminated by a very long bristle, the rest with 2 claws. (Parasitic on Bees.)
than the
rest,

with each other. These mandibles can be advanced separately or together, and be "Wlien in a separated or approximated. state of repose, they form as it were a roof above the labium. The lal)ium (y) is quadrilateral, elongated, notched at the end, thin anteriorly and in the middle, and consolidated laterally with thi> palpi, which are 4- or

Body soft, depressed, spiny P.<iorop)fcs. beneath and at the base of the legs posterior pair of legs small and rudimentary, the rest with a claw and sucker body terminated by two bristly projections. (Parasitic on the Plorse.) Sarcopies. Body soft, transversely wrinanterior kled, and with dorsal papilla? 2 pairs of legs with suckt-rs, posterior ter; ; ;

The k'gs are reddish, in5-joiuted iyhh). serted in two separate groups, but not very far distant as in So rcoptes. The anterior pair of legs are remarkable for their size in the male, which is smaller and more active than the female the third pair are the shortest and smallest ; the third joint or fcnnnr is larger and longer tlian those next it; the sixth joint is long and thin; the
;

AOARUS.
seventh joint
is

'->

ACAIIUS.
figs,

with a cordifurm and a sino'lo simple claw or hook rostrum and legs rcddisli. This species is viviparous and oviparous, and the eggs very numerous. The larvee
fuvuislied

dried

and
p.

other

saccharine
618,
pi.

fruits,
f
.

membiauuus

carunck',
;

llering.

Nova Acta,

xviii. p.

45.

14,

15

Megnin,

141.

are hexapod.

These mites are very abiuidant upon old cheese, ihe powder of which entirel}- consists of them, with their eggs and excrement. Ac. loiifiior. Body and hairs longer.

Found upon Gruvere and Dutch cheese

(PL
6.
fig.
-2).

(ih/viphayus (llering). Body soft, not di\ided into two parts by a transverse line or furrow, but with a dorsal depression, and an anal projection legs perfect, with acetabida hairs feather}'. Found on dried A. i^Gl.) pnmorum. plums produces the grocer's itch. Hering, Nova Acta, xviii. p. 619. pi. 45. f, 16, 17 ;
;
;

This

is

the so-called Ac.

Vrossii.

Murray, p. 278, fig. A. {Gl.) hippopodos.

Body

as broad as

Ac.

Sictdiis.

With short legs.

Megnin,

Found
p.

in
;

Ac. 7ni/coph(i(/us. Body long. Found on mushrooms. Megnin, p. 143. Ac. cntomopluKjus. Fomid in collections of insects, of which it devours the body.

powdered Cantharides. Murray, p. 274.

14o

long, very acute anteriorly, entirely covered with short hairs ; a minute projection at On tdcers of the end of the abdomen. horses' feet. Tiering, Nov. Act. xviii. p. 607 ;

An undescribed Murray, p. 279, fig. Acarus has also been mentioned as occurring upon the feet of sheep aflected with the
canker.

Megnin, p. 14-3 Murray, p. 263. Ac. mcdus. On apple-trees in N. America.

;

Miu-ray, p. 275.

Groguier, Zool. veter. p. 233. Found on weeping A, {Gl.} hericius. rdcors of ehns. Robin, Joicrn. d. V Anat.
1808, p. 603.

Ac.
Oeylon.

trctnslucims.

On
JJ.

coffee-plants

in

jNIurray,

27o.

Ac. bicaudatus.

Abdomen furnished with

two

each of Avhich

pedif orm tubercles, beneath the base of Found upon is a stigma. the feathers of an ostrich. Found Ac.fari'nce, same as A. domesticus.

A. {Gl.) cursor. Found in the feathers of the owl and in the cavities of the bones of skeletons. The hairs are jointed. Gervais, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xv. p. 18, pi. 2. f 5 a ; Murray, p. 278, tig.
.

A.

in in

bad

flour.

DeGeer,

Mem.

vii.

p. 97, pi.

smaller

15. tig. 15.

{Ac.feculcs, found

Guerin-MeneviUe, Ann. potatoes. Hist. 1867, xix. p. 71.) Tarsi with Ehizoglyphus (Claparede). Vegetable feeders. claws, but no suckers.
li. echinojnis.

by myriads N.

&
fig.

Like G. cursor, but the anal appendage short. Frem, Rob. Jn. Anat. 1867 Murray, p. 281,
(Gl.) spinipes.
;

A. (Gl.)bal(snarum. On whales. Murray,

p.

282, fig. G. pliimiger.

_

Mui-rav, p.
49.

In the bidbs of hyacinths. 257, fig.; Megnin, p. 144, fig.

hairs.

"With strongly feathery In cellar-dust, stables, &c. Murray,

p. 283, fig.

A beautiful object.
;

R. p1tylloxer(S. p. 258.

On

vine-roots.

Murray,

SmaUer than the chee.'-e G. palmifer, hairs leaf-like mite body granular. Found with the Murray, p. 284, figs.
;

On potatoes, dahlia, and M. Robinii. Murray, p. 259. hyacinths. On decaying mushR. rostroscrndus. rooms. Murray, p. 2G0.
serrate
8.

last.

Mandibles strongly Serrator (]\It5gnin). a hook, but no caruncle.

;

A. {Gl.) {Surcoptes) palumhiniis. On the pigeon. Koch, I. c. fasc. 5. pi. 12 ; Robertson, Qu. Micr. Jn. 1866, p. 201. Some other species have been insufficiently examined
pi. 6. fig. 9.
:

amphibius.

In decomposing mush-

Ac. aviculuniin, DeGeer,

Mem,

vii.

100.

rooms. Megnin, p. 144, fig. 50. Ac. Bysenterke. Nyander, Amocnit. Acad. Limi. Gmel. p. 2929. Foimd in V. p. 97 also in old the dejections of dj-sentery
; ;

Mem.
Ac.
i.

of the grouse. Lyouet, Mus. xviii. 281. pi. 15. f. 10. marilce, Gervais, Diet. Sc, Nat. Suppl.

Louse

45.

casks.

Ac. favorum.

Found upon young Ac. passerinus. birds. DeGeer, vol. vii. 139. Ac. chdopus,
Herm. Mem.
Apterol. p. 82,
pi. 3. fig. 7.

Herm. Mem.

Found in old honeycombs, Apterol. p. 86,

Ac. (Carpor//yphi(s) pasHHlarum.

With
upon

two very long buccal

bristles;

fives

Ac.funyi, Herm. /. c. Myobia (Heyden). B(jdy elongate, manylobed; rostrum styliform. M, musculinus, Schrauck, p. 501^ pi. I.

ACAULON.
f.

ACHETA.

Snrcoptes muse, Koch, Crust. iS-c. 13 Ou the mouse, Murray, p. 315. Hypopus. See llvpoi'us. destructive disease in the sugar-cane is caused in various parts of the world by a minute red Acarus, which swarms round the stem. BiBL. Dup-es, Ann. d. Sc. Xaf. 2 ser. ii. p. 40 ; Koch, Deutschl. Crust. ; Walckenaor,
5. f asc. 5. pi.
;

further remains of the body are distinguishable. The hooks are figured in PI. 21.
tig.

lb.

See E.xtozoa and Echinococthis

cus-.

ACERVULI'NA. Schultze.Under
name

Fiuuouze and Eobin, Apteres, 3 (Gervais) Journ. d. VAnut. I<s67, oOo, oOl ; Buisduval,
;

L'Untomol.
;

hurticole,

p.

76

3Iic.

Soc.

Jn. l>i80,Gl>/c. dev. p. 249; Murray, ^c.^^. 1880 Meo-nin, Parasites, 1880. AOAU'LON, C. Midler. genus of Phascacete (Acrocarpous Mosses), taken as a section of Phascum by Wilson. A. muticam is common on mnist banks. BiBL. Mliller, Syno]>s. Mtisc. i. p. 21

Schultze, in 1854, grouped as a genus some of the adherent varieties of Planorhnlina variabilis, D'Orb., that have an irregular growth, with heaped chambers. They are found in Avarm .seas, attached to algfe and " other bodies. The word " acervnliue is to any such wildly aggregated applied growth in Foramiuifera.

Wilson, Bryol. Brit

p. 20.

ACEPH'ALOOYSTS. term used to denote certain simple sacs filled with a transparent liquid, found in the bodies of animals, and usually known as Hydatids by pathologists. They were formerly regarded as distinct parasitic animals but recent observations show that they often consist of the cysts or larval forms of cestoid Entozoa. The cysts in many cases contain at first only an amorphous substance or a liquid. At a later period their real nature is determined by the presence of the included Echinococcus head and hooks. The .sacs or vesicles are oval or spherical, and vary
;

BtBL. Schultze, Orf/anism. Polythal. 67 ; Carpenter, P'oram. 200. ACETIC ACID. This is the wellknown acid of vinegar. It occurs in the juice of the flesh of animals sometimes in the stomach in indigestion also in the human blood after the use of alcoholic liquors, and in that of animals whose food has been soaked in spirit. It is also a common product of the decomposition of vegetable substances, both by fermentation, and in distillation, as well as a component of the natm-al plants, mostly combined with lime or potash it is also a rare constituent of some mineral waters. The only salt of this acid requiring mention is the acetate of copper (neutral), which
; ; ;

in size from a pin's to a child's head. The walls of the sacs vary in thickness and transparence. They present no appearance of either head or body. In the larger cysts the walls are distinctly laminated. They exhibit no fibrous structure, but appear composed of a homogeneous substance
closely resembling albumen in properties. species have been distinguished A. oidof/om (socialis vel jiro/ifcra), the This is met pill-box liydatid of Hunter. with in the liver, kidney, ovary, testis, and caA'ity of the abdomen. developed in the substance of an organ, it is

made by dissolving common verdigris in excess of dilute acetic acid, filtering and The crystals, crystallizing upon the slides. when mounted -in Canada baUam, exhibit well the phenomena of dichroism. PL 30.
is fig. 2.

Acetic acid is one of the most connnon and valuable micro-chemical reagents. It is particularly useful on account of its action upon animal cells in general, rendering the cell-walls transparent aud the nuclei more

Two

When

The ordinary strong acid (sp. gr. 1044) should be used. ACETEXOP'SIS, Kent. A genus of Eufusoria, familv Ophrvodendrid;i3. BiBL. Kent, Man. Infus. 1880. ACIIAPtAD'RIA, Wright. genus of
distinct.

A
;

enveloped by areolar tissue. cysts are detached from the inner surface of the parent. A. cx(uiena in this the progeny is developed from the outer surface found in the ox and other dometic animals. In the examination of cysts supposed to be hydatids, careful search should be made for the hooks of ErhinococcKs or Ci/sticcrcus which can frequently be found when no
: ;

always The secondary

Ilydroid Zoophytes. A. larynx resembles in habit Tiihularia larynx polypes orange. Marine on stones. i3iBL. Str. Wright, Qu. Mic. Jn. 186-5,
;

iii.

ACIIE'TA. A genus
sects,

p.

50

Ilincks, Brit. Zoopln/t. p. 133.

of Ort'hopterous in-

one species of which, A. domestica, the house-cricket, is familiar to every one. The

general structure of this insect agrees so closely with that of Blatta oricntalis, the common cockroach or black beetle, which is

ACPILYA.
described at some
lenjrtli,

AOIILYA.
states that their ripe spores

that it requires no

heim

do con-

(See Blatta.) Some special iicitice here. parts of the internal structure of the cricket are very beautifid, as the tongue (PI. 33. the o-izzard (PL 34. tig-. 1), and the fig-. 23),
ear in the fore legs (PI. 34. tig. 71/). These, as also the curious mechanism by which the chirping noise of the male is produced, are described under Insects.

tain starch.

Kiitzing describes a
this genus,

number

of species of

Nees ACH'LYA,microscopic plants,sometimes Remarkable

(SV//;/-o/t'_(/w/a,Kutzing-).

under the name of Saproleynia, while a recent observer, Piingsheim, regaids them all as forms produced by varying exA. de Bary separates ternal conditions. Achlya prolifera, Nees, from Saprolcijnia ferax, Kiitzing, referring to the former the Saproleyiiia ferax of Cams and the HaprocapituUfera of Ak'X. Braun, to the Achlya pruUfera of Cams, and, doubtfully, the >S'. molluscornm of Nees and Gruithuisen. The distinction between these is said to lie in the details of the formation and emission of the active gonidia or zoospores; but we cannot make out satisfactory
lc(jnia

NEMA Muscce (Einpusa Muscco, Cohn), the common tiy-fungus. Cohn and Al. Braim
deny the
Bassiana.
sitically

referred to the Algae, but more properly Cienkowski has rebelonging- to Fungi. cently confirmed the idea formerly entertained, that Ach/i/a is an aquatic form of the Mucoriuous Fungus called Sporendo-

latter the

dilferences.

identity, while Berkeley thinks Aclihja may be an aquatic form of Botrytis

The following

details respecting the for-

They are found growing paraupon the bodies of dead files lyingin water, also upon fish as salmon, salmoneggs, frogs, &c., and in some cases upon decaying plants. To the naked eye they ap-

mation of the active gonidia and the resting spores are given at length on account of
their well illustrating modifications of freecell formation. In about thirty-six huurs after the appearance of a specimen on any body, the apices of the erect tdaments

pear like colourless minutely filamentous tufts, adherent to such objects, forming a kind of gelatinous cloud more or less enWhen placed beneath the Teloping- them. microscope, the tufts are seen to con.sist of long, colourless, tubular filaments, spreading out in all directions, with or without lateral branches these erect filaments arise from a kind of mycelium of ramified filaments hdng upon the object upon which the plant grows. The erect filaments are devoid of septa, narrowed upwards, and vary in thickness, being usually of smallest diameter in those cases where they are closely crowded; the ordinary thickness varies from 1-lOUU to 1-350 of an inch. The tubes contain a colour;

The granular exhibit remarkable changes. protoplasm, which at first is equally diffused throughout the tube, only densest where it lies on the wall, increases in quan" " travels tity and up into the end of the
tube, becoming accumulated there, giving it a brownish colour and at the same time causing its distention, so that the upper part of the tube acquires a clavate form, rouiided off above. sharp lirie of demarcation is soon formed by the di^ i.sion of the primor-

by the production t f a septum, which shuts ofi'this clavate joint as the sporange and a little projecting pouch or beak is developed at the summit, or sometimes a little below this on one side.
dial utricle, followed
;

slightly granular protoplasm, which denser on the walls and these sometimes exhibit an irregular spiral arrangement of the granules the granules are seen to move slowly in anastomosing currents running in various directions, exhibiting, that is, the well-known phenomenon of the circulation of cell-contents, such as is met with in the hau's of Tradescantia, &c. The walls of the tubes are coloured blue by iodine and sulphuric acid, therefore consist of celhdose the contents are nitrogenous, taking a bright yellowish brown with iodine no trace of starch or chlorophyll can be detected in the cell-contents in this stage, whence these plants are regarded by some authors as
less
is
; ; ;

The contents,becoming- still more condensed,

again apply themselves as a tliick investment on the wall, leaving a lighter spaco in the middle of the cavity. luequalitie.-, or nodular protuberances, are soon observable
in this layer

isolated portions, individualization of these commencing at the summit of the sporange and becoming

up

into

and it numerous
;

speedil)'
little

becomes broken
,

The

completed gradually from above doAvuwards. end-cell is now a clavate sporange filled with numerous polyhedral or globular new
cells," in

"piimordial

the development of

-''ungi

but, as mentioned hereafter, Prings-

special parent-cell no trace of nuclei or " can be detected ; their size is parent-cells about 1-2700 of an inch; and they have

which from the contents of the general "

ACriLYA.

ACHLYA.
make room
for their successors,

clearly defined outlines, but are stiU connected together by a gelatinous substance in wliicb they are completely imbedded. These secondary cells then become retracted from the walls, and accumulate in a dense, rather confused looking mass in the centre of the sporange ; endosmose of water through the now bare ceUidose wall of the sporange

as to

and

seems to exert a pressure upon them,and also on the wall itself, whicli finally bursts at the mentioned above, and the process or beak
secondary cells nearest the opening are shot out with some force, the rest following, but There is no indegradually more qidetly. pendent motion of the contents, or j erking
of the secondary cells, before this emission of the latter ; on the contrary', while in the
Fig. 1*

the whole remain adherent together as a " " globidar mass or capitidum seated on the apex of the sporange they reassume, more or less completely, the spherical form, by degrees, after they have escaped from the sporange those w'hich can expand freely become globular; those pressed upon by their fellows become polyhedral. At the time of emission, these secondary cells exhibit a double line at the circumference, which seems to indicate the thickness of the primordial utricle. Soon after the expulsion another deUcate line is detected external to these and this indicates a newly produced envelope, which becomes thicker with age, and after a certain time can be 'coloured blue by sulphuric acid and iodine, which demonstrates its composition of cellulose. Application of a strong acid is necessary for
; :

this purpose.

The globular head of secondary cells remains for two or three hours attached upon the summit of the empty, colourless Then these minute cells emit sporange. their contents by a lateral orifice, giving origin, each of them, to a zoospore or active Neither the motion nor the gonidivmi. appearance of cilia follows the expulsion immediately, but takes place after the gunidia
have increased somewhat in size and acquired an ovate form. The duration of the motion lasts from a few seconds to a few minutes, after which the gonidium sinks to rest and begins to germinate. The gonidia possess no cellulose membrane while in
motion, but acquire one when they come to rest and germinate. The cilia are two, and arise fi'om the point which first emerged from the parent vesicle, and which at all
periods exhibited a lighter tint, indicating a vacuole in the protoplasmic mass. If the expulsion of the gonidia is prevented (as occurs sometimes when the plant is kept under the pressure of a glass slide, in too
httle water, in microscopic investigation of it), the gonidia germinate within their ceU-membraues, wliich, instead of dis-

Achlya

prolifera, discharging its zonsporps: the

;

lower

zoospores treated with iodine

magnified 400 diameters.

sporange, they adhere so closely that their shape is scarcely distinguishable, and it is only when the greater portion have escaped that it is iierceived that the pressure had caused them to assume a spindle-shape. As the emission of the secondary ceUs goes on, those escaping first are only removed so far

charging active zoospores, emit germinating prolongations, just like those issuing from the single germinating gomdia. These spread out here in all directions from the globular capitvlmn, still seated on the end of the
sporange.

During the formation of these sporanges and the gonidia, after the septum has been
completed, the tube sends out lateral branches from just below it, which some-

ACHLYA.

ACriNANTIIES.

times equal the sporaoge in length by the time the latter discharges its contents; then this branch becomes developed as a sporange, either at its summit or in its whole length, or, when the branch is very short,

water; these have not been seen to germinate. These Hask-shaped bodies resemble the formations seen by Carter in SpiroGYEA and we have seen them in other
;

the portion of the maiu tube below the first Sporauges of septum becomes a sporange.

Al. Braun at first described them Algaj. as a species of Chyteidium, but subse-

a third rank may succeed to those of the second rank, and so on, until the plant has exhausted the supply of food at its service. In another form the active gonidia are produced at once in the sporanges, without the intervention of secondary cells and then they begin to move even before leaving the
;

quently has expressed an inclination to regard them as antheridial spores of Achlya. In addition to the above, Al. Braun has described curled tubular processes, resembling the horns of Vaucheria, associated with the sporauges in which resting spores are formed; and he is incUned to regard them
as antheridia exercising a fecundating oihce,

parent sac.

Achlya prolifera also produces, though more rarely, globular ur spindle-shaped sporanges, either terminal or borne on special short lateral branches, in which are developed resting spores, characterized by a larger size, double cell-membrane, and by the absence of the cilia and consequent motion. The mode of their development is similar to that of the active gonidia but they are much fewer in number, sometimes
;

hke the horns of Vaucheria. Similar bodies have been recorded in other Sapyoleynice, especially in Achlya cornuta. (See PL 27.
figs.

22-27).

A. lignicola is found upon wood in water. BiBL. A description of the supposed species -svill be found in Kiitzing's Sp. Algarum, For further information on the dep. 159. velopment, see AJ. Braun's Rejuven. {Ray
Society,
185.3,

pp. 188, 268)

1.

as twenty, sometimes only four, three, two, or even one being present in a

as

many

a sporange. sjnndle-shaped sporange, they are ranged in two rows, alternately, so that each is partially interposed between its two opposite neighbours. Their diameter varies from 1-1250 to 1-750 of an inch, the colour brownin

When

Nova Acta, xxiii. pt. Anton de Bary, But.

Pringsheim,

p. 307-460, Zeit. x. 473,

p.

1852 1852

;
;

number occur

numerous oil-drops in the granidar contents when mature. The sporanges producing them display a number of round orifices when the spores are ripe but the spores appear to escape by the decay of the walls. These resting spores may remain unchanged in water for a long time when no suitable nidus exists, but will quickly germinate if a dead insect or similar object be thro%vn in. The resting spores are from 1 to 20, while the active gonidia are from 6 to 150, the nimiber depending in each case on the size of the sporange, not upon the size of the
ish, displaying
;

linger, JUnncsa, 1843, p. 129 {A7in. d. Sc. Nat. ?j^^ ser. ii. p. 5. pi. 1, 1844); Meyen, Pflcmzenphys. iii. 457 Nao-eli, Zeitschr.flir Wis. Bot. heft 1, p. 102, heft 3, 4, p. 28 {Ray Soc. 1845, p. 278, 1849, p. 101) Thuret, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 3** ser. t. xiv. p. 20, p. xxii, 1851 Ch. Robin, Vcyet. Paras. 2nd edit. 1853, p. 372 Varley, Tr. Mic. Soc. iii. Cienkowski, Bot. Zeit. xiii. p. 801 Al. Braun, Chytridimn, Abh. Berlin. Ak. 1855 Verjilny. iii d. Natur, p. 318 (Ray Society,
;

1853, p. 298).

A Hst of all the writers who

;

had treated of Achlya before 1843 is subjoined to Unger's Essay in the Linnaa Pringsheim, Jakrh. Bd. 1. heft 2, bd. 2. heft
2; Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1867, p. 120; Sachs,^o^. 1874, p. 276 Pfitzer, Monatsber.
;

d.

Berl.

Akad. Mai 1872

Grevillea,

March

1878 (woodcuts).

spores or gonidia, which is tolerably regular. Pringsheim states that starch occurs in the contents of the resting spores of >S'.
ferax. third form of reproductive organ is described by Cienkowski, which in the earlier stages resembles a sporange of I'esting spores but the spores produce each a

ACHNANTIIES, Bory. genus of Diatomaceee (Cohort Achnanthefe). Char. Frustules compressed either sin;

long tubular neck, which bores through the wall of the sporange and discharges its contents as minute swarming bodies into the

or united into a straight filageniculate in front view, without septa attached by a stipes fixed to one angle uppermost valve with a longitudinal median line, lowermost with a longitudinal line, and a median nodule or stauros. The individual frustule, when single, or the lowermost when they are united, is furnished with a stipes or stalk, arising
gle, in pairs,

ment
;

ACHNANTHIDirJM.

10

ACHORION.

from one end of the lower margin. Side view of frustules elliptical, oblong or limnir, sometimes slightly constricted in the middle markings of upper and lower valves ditlerent, the upper (PL IG. fig. 2) exhibiting transverse rows of dots (appearing like striaj under a low power) interrupted by a longitiulinal line, the lower (PI. 16. fig. 3) being also furnished with transverse rows
;

Torula ; but it occui-s in definitely bounded patches having a special arrangement of the microscopic elements of which it la
constituted.

Much has been written by medical authors but we shall not regarding these bodies
;

of dots, interiupted by a stauros, as also by a longitudinal line which in some has a nodule at each end. The valves being much compressed, the transverse rows of dots appear also in the front view. The hoops

enter into this part of tlie subject here, further than to state that the presence of this vegetable structure seems to be essential and causative in the disease of the skin to

exhibit faint longitudinal and sometimes transverse striae.

Achnnnthes resembles

Striafella

in

its

stalked flag-like filaments, but may be known from it by the absence of internal siliceous plates or vitta3.

Species

which we have alluded. Remak was unable to make any of the spores germinate in or on animal substances some however emitted prolongations when placed upon an apple; but the surface then decayed and turned brown -watliin the week, and became covered with mildew (Peuicillium f/laucum) One of the entire corpuscles kept upon the arm for several days, fell off without leaving any mark; but a fortnight after a /Vav/^ began
;
.

Freshwater; markings faint (minute) A.exilis*. Marine or brackish water; markings

di-itinut.

to be developed. Gruby states that he inoculated various parts of the body with it, and

even caused

it

to

grow upon wood(?). Ben-

Stipes longer than frustnles Stipes shorler than iVustules.

A.
A.
A.
t

lonffipes^.

Ends of valves acute Ends of valves obtuse

* PI.
16. fig. 4.

nett ultimately confirmed the statements of Gruby as to the inoculation.

brevipes.
subsessilis,
1.

PI. 16. fig.

Kiitzing enumerates 15 species oi Achnanlhes. BiBL. Ralfs, Ann. N. Hist. xiii. 489; Kiitzing, Bacill. p. 75, & Sp. Alg. p. 54 Smith, Brit. Dial. ii. 25 ; Eabeuhorst, Fl. Alq. 109.
;

-Unfortunately, most authors who have written on the parasitic fungi which occur in morbid conditions of the human frame, or are productive of disease, have not been well acquainted with either Fungi or Algse. Numberless names have been assigned to

ACIIXANTIIIDIUM,
gle,

Kiitz.A genus

of Diatomacete (Cohort Achnanthea^).

Char. Those of Achnanthes, mostly tinand Avithout the stipes. Five British species freshwater
: ;

and in consequence, while many of ; these organisms have been considered Algfe, they have been regarded by others as It is, however, probable that all of Fungi. them are mere conditions of the most universally difYused species of Pcnivillium, Aspcrf/illits, Jl/icor, or Cladosporium genera which are ca])able of propagation by cells

them

Filament of numerous frustules ... A. lauceolatum. Fru^tulcs few, valves constricted in middle A. coarcialum. Frustules few, often straight; valves einstricted ue.arthe end A. microcephalum* Frustules few; valves obtuse, uacoustricted
* PI. 16.

thrown

off

from the threads, other

norn)al fruit. as supposed

.

tlian the It is quite impossible that,

by Ardsten, such a genus

be

as

Fuccinia
tissues.

could

produced on animal
Vcf/.

A.

lineare.

Frustules few, median line sigmoid A.JIexeUum^.

BiBL. Ch. Robin,

parasites,

1853,

%.

5.

PI.

1<3-

i!g-

t5.

Frustules very small, and markings very

faint.

(plates, 2nd edit.) ; Bennett, Month. Jn. Med. Sc. 1850 (tigs.), and Tr. Boy. Sac.

BiiiL. Smith, Brit. Diat.

Bacill. 75,

ii.

&

30 Kiitzing,
;

Sp. AI(/.

5."}.

ACIIO'lilOX,

I.'ink

and

Komak. The

generic name applied to one of the vegetables occurring in Fams, and characteristic of that disease of the skin (also called Porriyo or Tiiieci favosa). The structure of the plant, Achorion Schoenleinii, bears

much resemblance

to

that of the genus

Edinh. 1842, XV. pp. 227-294; Gruby, Compt. Bend. 1841, xiii. p. 72; Mycodermes Tinea favosa, Midler's Ar8^c., ihid.. o09 chiv, 1842, p. 22; Hannover, MiUIer's Arch. 1842, p; 281-295, pi. 15. hgs. 7-9; Miiller and Retzius, Midi. Archiv, 1842, p. 192, pi. 8 and 9 Lebert, Phi/. Path. ii. p. 477, Paris, 1845 Reniak-, Diaqn. u. pathoqen. Unters. 193-215 Bazin,"Zes Teiqnes, Berlin, 1845,p. Paris, 1853, 8vo (plates) ; Robin, Micr. 1877, p. 8(30.
;

ACHROMATISM.
ACHRO'MATISM. A
sig-nifyiujr freeclt)iu
I'roiu

11

ACINETINA.

term properly

ralion, but

commonly

cliromatie aberused to denote free-

iii.

dom from
aberration.

both spherical aud chromatic

BiBL. Vmcmi,Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 3 s^r. Zool. & ix. Ehr. Inf.; Duj. Inf.; Claparede and Laelimann, I^tiidex, ^-c. Ann. N. II. 1857, xix. Stein, Infm.; Cegenbaur,
;

3Iorph. Jaln-h. 1875.

A CIC LTL A'RIA, D' Archiac One of the

Foraminifera imperforata, related to Dactyhpuru, aud consisting- of numerous chambers arranged in close order side by side without intercommunication, and forming
pering plates. Known fossil only in some Tertiary beds of France. BiBL. Carpenter, Introcl. For am. 137.

minute aciculate cylinders, or narrow ta-

ACINETI'NA, Ehr. family of Radiolarian Rliizopoda. Char. Those of the Actinopliryina, but with usually capitate aud suctorial tubular tentacles, the body being more or less enclosed in a carapace, which is generally
prolonged to form a
stalk.

ACIXE' RIA, Duj

Char,
pressed, the
i'ore

A genus of Infusoria,
or lanceolate, de-

of the family Trichodiiiia.

part somewhat obUquely recurved like the blade of a sabre ; a row of cilia,directed foiwavds, arisingfrom one side. Dillers from Traclidius, Buj., in the arrangement of the cilia aud in the anterior curvature; devoid of a mouth, like Trachethe prelius, Avhich especially distinguishes
"2 sent genus from Pclecida. species incurvata (PI. 30. fig. 1) ; marine, colourless length 1-590 inch. A. acuta (PL 30. fig. 2), found in fresh
:

Body oblong

structure and relations of these animals are still very unsettled. The researches of Pineau and Stein tended to render the existence of the species doubtful, by showing that they were stages of development of Episti/lis, Va(/inicola, Vorticella, &c. but this has since been found to be in;

The

They exliibit a nucleus, and one or more contractile vesicles. The remarkable suctorial character of the tentacles has not been proved to occur in all the genera
correct.

and

species.
:

Many, however, have been

A^

length 1-580 inch. Bujardiu figures in the latter species cilia upon both margins, those on one side being directed forwards, and those on the other

water

seen to take food voraciously, which is thus effected when an Infusorium touches the button-like end of the tentacle, it usually remains adherent to it the end becomes still more dilated so as to constitute a sucking disk, and the ray becomes thicker and shorter, the other rays at the same time
;

backwards.

Claparede and Lachmann refer these to Amphileptus, BiBL. Dujardin, /ji/s. p. 402; Clap, and

Lachm.

genus of RhizoAciuetina. poda, belonging to the family Claparede aud Lachmann enumerate 8

ACINETA, Ehr.A

Inf. p. 356.

(PL 51. fig. 11). Yellowi-h brown, rounded, tentacles in two bundles 1-120 to 1-800. On Lcmna minor. A. patida (PL 51. fig. 12). Body as if resting on a cup-shaped carapace, variable On in form; contains brown granules. marine AlgiB. Norwav. Length 1-100". Colourless A. iuherosa (PL 30. 'fig. 4). or yellowish brown, triangular wlien expanded; tentacles arising from the distal angles only. Salt or brackioh waters; 1-lCO"
;

species. A. iwjstacina

making grasping movements and endeavouring to attach their extremities to the captured prey. A current of chyme-particles is then soon seen running from the captured infusorium into the body of the Acineta. The chyme-particles form at first a slender row,but afterwards collect in a drop. The body of the Acineta then becomes opaque, from the collection of the drops. The colourless or coloured ova described
ai'e partly chyme-particles, drop-like globules which make their appearance in the Acindcs after animal food. The ciliated swarm-germs to which they give origin have been traced Fission has been directly into .Acinetce. observed in Acineta vii/stacina, not in the others. The genera may be thus divided

by Ehreuberg
partly
oil

*Tt'ntaele9 not borne

upon a

proboscis.

Tentacles unbranched.
Stalks simple.

to 1-410".

Ko
A

shell <

fA peduncle Xo pedun- (free..

\_

1.

Podophriia.

2.

Sphrrophrya.
Trichophrj/a.]

A. Lyncjhyi, fcrrum-equinum, and cylindrica are referied by Ci. aud Lachm. to

Podophrija. A. Notoncdee.

cle

) fixed. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7.

On

the hairs of the legs of

N. glauca.

Peduncle absent... Ftalka branched Tentacles branched **Tentacles borne on a long pro")

sh >n
'"'

(Pfli'ic'p present.

Acineta.
Solenophri/a.

Dendrosoma.
Dendromycetes.

boscis

8.

Ophryodendrion.

ACOMIA.
thria, Ephelota,

12

ACROSTALAGMUS.

Here belong, perhaps, the genera Coreand Zooteira (Wright) and

;

Char. Shell somewhat harp-shaped, the

anterior inferior margin projecting and obtusely angular, inferior antennae long beak blunt, very sliglitly curved downwards; shell striated withlongitucUnal ribs directed obliquely do^\niwards and forwards colour;

Alder's animalcules.

Du]. genus of Infusoria, of the family Euchelia. Char. Body oblong-ovate or irregular, colourless or granular, turbid, composed of a glutinous homogeneous substance containing irregular granules, and ciliated only or principally at one end. Dujardiu desci'ibes

ACO'MIA,

less.

2 species

each branch fig. 1) of inferior antenute with 3 long setae from

(PI. 19.
;

A. harpce

the extremity of the last joint only.

eight species, to

which Perty adds

one.

Marine, or inhabiting decomposing infusions. Minute and colourless. A. vitrea (PI. 80. fig. 3) ; freshwater
;

A. 7iani(s (PL 19. fig. 2), much smaller than the last anterior branch of inferior antemiEe with 4 setae, one arising from the second, and three from the end of the last
;

joint.

length 1-808. BiBL. Duj.

Kenntiiiss,
i^'c.

Infiis. p.
p. 149.

382 J Perty, Zur

This genus is scarcely di.stinct from Camptocercus.

Brady. genus of Eutomostraca, Ord. Copepoda. A. scutatus and A. annatus ; marine around the British coasts. BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda {Ray Soc), 3. p. 69.
;

ACONTIOPH'ORUS,

Brit.

BiBL. Baird, Ami. N. Hist. Fniomos.129.

xi.

91

and

ACPtEMO'NIUM, Link A
;

ACPtOSPEB'MUM, Tode. A genus of Sphaeronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), consisting of minute, somewhat cartilaginous perithecia, a few lines higli, discharging
long, wavy, erect, simple, microscopic .spores from a terminal pore or ostiole. British
species
:

geuiis

of

H}-phomycetous Fungi, belonging to the division Mucedines distinguished by its jointed threads bearing numerous patent branchlets, each of which is terminated by
Fie:.

A. compressmn, Tode.
herbaceous plants.

On dry
is

stalks of

A. yraminitvi, Libert. A. cornntum, which

on the
7'OSilS.

On dead grasses. not uncommon

gills of blackened Agarics, is merely the winter resting-state of Ayaricus tube-

BiBL. Fm/l. Flora, v. pt. 2. Grev., Sc. Crypt. Flora, t. 182.

p.

221

ACROSPO'RIUM, Xees.A

name
Acremonium fuseum

generic formerly applied to certain species of

Oidiiim (see Oidiu.ai).

(magnified).

MUS, Corda. A genus

:

ACROSTALAG'-

a single globose spore. Perhaps only states of some other genus. British species A. verticiUatum, Link. On dead wood, trunks of trees. A. alternatum, Link, On decaying
leaves.

of Mucorini (Phycomycetous Fungi), distin-

guished by

its

whorled

branched
threads,

septate

each branch terminated by a globose

vesicle, which is pierced

A. fuscmn, Schmidt

(lig.

2).

On

dead

wood and

sticks.

A. ra/ufienum, B. and Br. On dead frofj-s. Distinguished by tlie threads being matted together below into a distinct stem. BiBL. Enril Flora, v. pt. 2. p. 347; Greville, .W. Cryp. Fl. 1. 124. figs, land 2; Berk, and lb-. Ami. N. Hist. 1871,.Tune. AC1I()CA1^'PI.Anartiticialdivisionof Mosses (see Mosses). ACllO'PElltLS.A genus of Eutomostraca, of the family Lyuceidse (Baird).

by the tip of thebranchlet, from which numerous spores are given within the vesicle.
is
ott'

J^erticilliumlati'ritiHin

a form of this beauti-

mould, with minute naked spores.

i'ul

The
fisrure

aceompannn?
Aci-ost.^lagnmscinnabarepresents Aero1 nil us
.

(hichly magni-

Htalayinus cinnabannus,

fled).

ACROSTICIIE.E.
Corda.
It arrows in large

13

ACTINOOOCCUS.
marked by interrupted transverse

patches on rotten Iloirmanu regards it as a mere potatoes. form of Trir/idflicciinn roseum, which is
rather a Dacfi/liian.

curiously

markings (lig. 2). In r(^productive power they almost equal

BiBL.
see also

lierkeley,

Cn/pfor/.

Bvf. p. 294;

Trichothecium and Verticilof Poly-

LIUM.

ACROSTICH'E.T^..A family
sori.

naked podiaceous Ferns, with

thellydrtT; when cut across, new tentacles form in a few weeks on the lower half, and each piece becomes a new animal. They are the embryos usually propagated by ova being ciliated. INIany of the species exhibit the most splendid iridescent colours.
;

Illustrative Genera.

BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph.\ Tugwell,

Common
nol.

Acrostkhum. Sori seated on all the veins, on venules, and parenchyma, sometimes

Gosse, ActiEnfjlish Sea-Atiem. " Britnnn. 18G0, Mar. 7moI. 1, and Be; ;

both surfaces; veins very much branched, and anastomosing in more or less regidar meshes. Sori forming large patches Flati/ceriitm. on the lower surface of the fertile fronds, which are dichotomously forked with stag'shoru-like divisions.

vonshire Coast ;" Bronn, Die Klass. 8fc. d. Thierreichs Gegenbaur, Vergl. Anat. 1878 Nicholson, Z(>o/. p. 178; Strieker, ifMjnfm
;

.y

ACTINIS'CUS, Ehrenberg. A doubtfid

Comp.

Uistol.

genus of Diatomacefe,provided with siliceous shells bearing radiating spines. (Cohort

Actinisceee.)
C/iar. Individuals microscopic, solid, ra-

ACROS'TICI-IUM, L. A genus of AcroSee

sticheae(Polypodiaceous Ferns), ^^^th naked sori seated on all parts of the leaf. Species

diate,

very

numerous, Hairs.
(Zoophytes)
;

mostly

tropical.

ACTINIA. A

resembhng a star marine. These organisms, which are found both recent and fossil, are especially remarkable for their valves being frequently found per;

genus of

Coelenterata

forated.

Species

class Actinozoa.

C/iar. Body conical or cylindrical, admouth hering by a broad discoidal base one or more simple, superior, surrounded by
;

Tetrasterias, Ehr. (PI. 18. fig. 1). Stellate, with 4 free rays; diam. 1-1000". A. Pentasterias, Ehr. (PI. 18.

A.

Virginia.
fig. 2).

uninterrupted series of conical, undivided, tubular retractile tentacula; marine.

Rays 5 diam. 1-1200". Recent on the shores of Norway fossil in the chalk;

marl of Greece.
18.
fig.

A. quinarius,
;

Ehr. (PI.

The species are commonly known as seaanemones, and are found on the sea-coast adhering to rocks and stones. A. mesem-

hryayithemum (I-I5" diam.), with numerous azure-blue tubercles surrounding the maron the gin of its oral disk, is very common
British coast.

ravs 5, free; diam. 1-3000". ^gina.^. Sirius, Ehr. (PI. 50. Rays 6, acute, winged at the fig. 45). base; diam. 1-1200". Shore of Norway, recent.^. Discus, Ehr. (PL 18. fig. 4). Disk-shaped, centre smooth, 8 marginal ravs not exserted; diam. 1-1200". Gran.
3).

Stellate,

The body

is

formed of a thick

coat, the

^.

inner layer'of which consists of longitudinal and transverse unstriated muscular fibres. The tentacles are covered with stinging threads and capsules, as in the Acalephse, often forming beautiful objects; and at their bases are often foimd chromatoThe space between the stomach phores. and the skin is divided into cellular
spaces
teries,

Eota, Ehr. (PL 18. fig. 5). Diskshaped, centre smooth, 10 marginal rays exserted; diam. 1-1900". Gran. A.Lan-

ceorius, Ehr.

Stellate,

with 8 marginal lan-

ceolate rays, and some central rays which are Antshorter on one side; diam. 1-240".
arctic Ocean.

by radiate partitions or mesenthe ovaries and the spermatic convotissue of the

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Leb. Kreidethierchen, &c. p. m-,' Monatsher. 1844, p. 76, Klitzing, Bacillarien, 1844, p. 139; Spec.
1840,
;

Algarum, 1848,
Infusoria.

p.

141.

luted tubes being attached to these partitions.

ACTINOB'OLUS,

Stein. A genus of
p.

The connective

body

is

com-

BiBL. Kent, Infus. 1880,

214.

posed of numerous fibres, cells, and intermediate stages, of extreme delicacy (PL 41. Dispersed throughout it are numefig. 1). rous spindle-shaped, flexible, organic spicula (PI. 41. figs. 1 a and 2), many of them

genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fimgi). No

British species vet recorded.

ACTINGCLA'DIUM, Ehr. A
ACTINOCOC'CUS,

Kiitzing. A genus

of

exotic Algse (marine), referred to Ri-

ACTINOCYATIIUS.
rularin
fig. 2).

14

ACTINOPHRYS.

hy Sulir

(Kiitz.

Tah,

rhyc. 31,

ACTINOCY'ATHUS, Keut.A

genus

2 (PI. 53. fig. 1); diam. 1-2000". A.pusilla; diam. 1-3250". BiBL. Kent, Infus. p. 227.

A. mirahilis species:

of Infusoria.

ACTINOCYC'LUS.A genus of Diatomaceee (Coliort Cosciuodiscese). Char. Frustules solitary, fi'ee or adherent to other hodies disk-shaped valves circu; ;

BiBL. Kent, Man. Inf.

ACTINOPHRYl'NA,
of Radiolarian Rhizopoda.
in

l)uj. A family

Char. Body usually rounded, contained a shell or shell-less, giving off radiate
;

non-ngglutinating pseudopodia, either fiom the entire surface, or from parts only spicules and spines absent.

lar,
is

exhibiting cellular markings, with ravs or bands radiating from the centre, which
free

The genera may be divided thus

Shell absent.

from the
;

cellular appearance;

no

internal septa

marine.

Pseudopodia arising from

the surface

all

parts of

cellular appearance arises from the existence of depressions upon the surface.

The

Actinophrys.
(^Aoanihocysiis.) arising from a zone

Pseudopodia

near
Trichodiscus. IHugiopkrys.

The radiant bands arise from undulations of the surface, which are best seen in the
front view (PL 2o.
fig.

the circumference

Pseudopodia arising from one side

Shell present. Free. Incrusted with foreign matter Not incrusted, oblong.
Orifice lateral Orifice terminal Attached to foreign bodies

17

b).
;

A. undulatus
diam.
l-2.-i0 to

(PI. 25. fig. 17 a)

ravs G,

Plciirophrys.

1-1100".

Trinema.
y.urjhjpha.

Kiitzing enumerates 34 species; some are

found

JJrnuLa.

fossil.

Smith admits A. duocknanns (rays 12), A. sedenarius (rays 16), and A. ocfodenftrius (rays 18) as British species referred by Elirenberg and Kutzing to the genus Adinoptychus. These are found in the Medway.

AOTI'NOPHRYS, Ehr.A
Actinophryina.

BiBL. That of the genera.

genus

of

The

species of Actinophrys are found in

salt

both fresh and

water.

The body ex-

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Leh. Kriedethienhen, 1840, p. o7 Monatsber. 1844, and Mikroy. Sp. Alyarnm^ Kutzing, Bacillar. 1844 Smith. Brit. 1849 Roper, 3Iic. Jn. ii.
;

hibits contractile vesicles,

mostly near the

Diat. 35.

i.

25,

and

ii.

^'o

Rabenhurst, Fl. Aly.

ACTINODIS'CUS, Grev.A
Diatomacete.

genus of
;

Cliar. Frustules free, disk-shaped

valves

margin, but sometimes more ditfused and giving it a cellular appearance. Conjugation has been repeatedly observed but authors are not agreed upon its import. The movement of the pseudopodia is veiy .slow granules may be seen, contiiuially moving in them, as in the Gromida and Foraminifera but the circulation is much slower, and
;
:

granular, with a central nucleus, and numerous (15) linear smooth rays extending from it to the margin.

requires great attention to render it visible.

and a high power

A. Barhadensis (PI. 36. fig. 22). 1-250". In the Barbadoes deposit.

Diam.

A. sol, E. (PI. 30. fig. 7i). Spherical, colourless, whitish tentacles radiating from all parts of the body; 1 or 2 contractile
vesicles strongly prujectiug on the surface; reticiJar; diam. 1-430 to 1-1200"; fresh water.

BiEL. Greville, Mhr. Trans. 1803, 69. genus of DiatomacefB. Char. Prismatic, frustules not forming a filament, subspherical, with 7 or more

ACTINOGO'Nimi, Ehr. A

parenchvma not
A.

A. Eichornii, E.
sol,

angles.

A. septenarium

(PI. 18.

fig.

8).

With

or less 1-100'

As (PI. 30. fig. 7 a). but parencliyma presenting a more regular celhdar appearance; diam.
As A. sol, but marine. movements of tentacles

Found fossil in Barbadoes earth, angles. with Polvcvstina. BiBL. 'Ehr. ILmatshcr. d. Bnrl. Ak. 1847 Ann. N. Hist. vol. xx. p. 127. ACTINOM'ONAS, Kent. genus of
;

A.

marina.^ D.
rapid. hreririrrhis,

rather smaller, and

more
A.
cular

Infusoria, Ord. Flagellata (Radio-flagellata, Kt.). Char. Resembles a stalked Actinophrys with a long anterior flagellum ; neither test nor central capsule.

P. Greenish, not retipseudopodia very short and very numerous.

;

A. pcnnipes,

CI.

&

L.

Not

reticular;

pseudopodia few, slender, and very long; no projecting vesicle.

A.

viridis,'E, (PI. 30. fig. 6).

t

Spherical

ACTINOPTYCIIUS.
;

15

ACTINURUS.

rays shorter than the body greenish Perdiam. 1-280"' to 1-620"; fr. wator. haps A. sol coloured by chlorophyll. A. ch'i/ifafa, D. Colourless, depressed, teulaclos llexible, thickened at base, and
;

doubtful; hence it becomes a question wlujther this genus should not be consoli-

contracted forming tinger-hke prolongations; diam. 1-770"; fr. water. A. gramda, 1). Spherical; opaque in centre rays taper, shorter than body fr. water. A. jmradoxa, Carter (PI. 51. fig. 13).
;

when

"With numerous capitate and longer simple

tentacles
;

fr.

water,

A. sol? ocidata, St. TricJiodiscus sol, E. (PL 32.

A.

Bombay. A.

discus,

D.=

fig. 8).

dkeUaia, D=rodoj)/tn/a /i.ra, E. PertY = the eggs of one of the Eotatoria. The manner in which these animals feed is cui'ious. Any part of the surface of the body may be converted into a temporary stomach. When an infusorium or a minute with one of the alga comes into contact tentacles, it generally becomes adherent. The tentacle with the prey then slowly shortens, and the surrounding tentacles aptheir points ply themselves upon it, bending around the captive, so that it gradually becomes enclosed on all sides. In this way the prey is gradually brought to the surface The spot at the surface of the of the hoA.y, body upon which the captured organism is lying slowly retracts, and forms at first a

A. peA. stella,

dated with ActinoLijclus. Kiitzlng enumerates 16 species, distinguished principally by the number of septa and rays A. ternarius, septa 3 A. quaternarius, septa 4; A. senai-ius, rays 6 (PI. 2o. A. hexupterus, with 6 thick, fig. K')), &c. solid conical rays, is one of the calcareous the margin of corpuscles of an echinoderm the disk thick, undulate, and toothed within. Many of the species are fossil. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. Ahh. d. Berl. AJcad. 1838, and Berl. iferickt. 1844 Kiitzing, Bacill. 134; Sp. AJg. 130; Greville, Micr. Trans. 1866, p. 5 llabenhorst, Ah/.
; ;
; ; ;
'

Perty. A doubtgenus of Khizopoda. Char. Body minute, spherical, suri'ounded with ii'regular, rather rigid processes. Mov ement that of swimming on various axes.

ACTINOSPH^'RA,

ful

less,

Processes stout and taper. Body colourcontaining greyish-green (food-) spots. BiBL. Perty, Zur Kenntniss ^V. p. 189.

ACTINOSPH^'IIIUM =
in part.

Acti'nophrtjs,

ACTIXOTHYRTUM, Kuuze. A genus

..r-"".-iji-..
;
.;

of Sphperonemei (Stylosporous Fungi), formino- minute round, Y\cr A

flat,

blackspots, with a central boss of close,

,;.-v, '

V
'

'"'^fe"

shallow depression, which gradually becomes deeper and deeper, in which the organism is As the depression becomes finally lodged. still deeper, its edges coalesce, and thus a cavity closed on all sides is formed, in which it remains for a certain time and becomes If there be any indigestible residigested.
is

'
-

radiating,fibrousstructuie. British species:

4^^^

^?r
"5;^,

;F
.

A. gramiyiis, Kunze. On leaves and stalks of

Grasses in spring
4).
(fig.

"
r.
-- >

'''^-^''?/-'';

due, a passage for its exit is formed^ and it expelled by further contractions of the substance of the body, and in the same or a difterent direction from that at which it entered, the canal and the aperture entirely

The innate, radiately fibrous, shield-like perithecium finally dissolves at the apex. The stylospores, which are spindle-shaped, are formed be-

Actinotliyriiungraminis (ingi'ly magnilied).

neath the disk, attached by their bases; Fries conjectures that they are transformed
asci
It is

disappearing.

probably a state of some Sphceria or

t.

BiBL. KoUiker, Zeiischr. f. 2visse7is. Zool. Bd. i. {Qt. MiiT. Jn. i.) ^tein, ArcJnv f. Brightwell, Infus. of Katunjesch. 1849 Norfolk Pritchard, Infus. Carter, Ann. K. Hist. 1864 Claparede and Lachmann, Etudes Tevty, Z. Ae?i77tniss ^x: p. 150.
; ; ; ;
;

allied genus.

BiBL. Greville, Crypt. Flora,

Infusoria, fam. Oxytrichina.

218.
of

ACTIXOT'PJCIIA, Kent.A genus

ACTINU'RUS. A

genus of Eotatoria,
;

ACTIXOPTYCHUS; Ehr. A genus

(Cohort Coscinodiscepe.)

of

Diatomacese.

of the family Philodinasa, Ehr. Char. Eye-spots-two, frontal (red) taillike foot with 2 lateral horny processes and

C/iar. Frustulessolitary, free, disk-shaped,

with rays and internal radiating septa;

valves apparently cellular (areolar), except opposite the rays. The presence of true internal septa is

3 terminal toes. the foot.)

teeth 2 in each
1 species,

{^Rotifer

with 5 points to

Agrees with Rotifer

in general structure ;

jaw

(PI. 43. fig. 2).

A. Neptunius (PL

43. fig. 1).

ADELOSIXA.
;

IG

ADULTERATIONS.

Colourless, body attenuated length 1-18" to 1-86". Very common, aquatic.

as a generic form, but now recognized as only the young condition of some of the Milioline Imperforate Foraminifera. 8piroloculina, Quinqneloculina,

ADELO_SI'NA,D'Orb.Attirst regarded

and Triloculina,

subgenera of Miliola, commence their growth, after the fashion of their congeners also, with a relatively large, subglobose " primordial chamber ;" and the suca curved flaskceeding growth produces like chamber, closely enwrapping one side
Until the successive lateral overlappings by new chambi'rs buikl up the* nearly o\-al outline of the adult Miliola, the young shell is one-sided, and may be termed " Adelosina." Found in aU seas, and common among Tertiary and Cretaceous fossils
at

the Table given at the end of the Introduction be kept in view in this proceeding, but few points will probably be overlooked. On then comparing these results with those obtained by a similar mode of proceeding in regard to a suspected substance, there will in general be found little difficulty in deter-

mining whether

it is

pure or not.

If

im-

Fig. 5.

of the former.

many places.
BiBL.
;

Carpenter, Introcl. Foram. 75 D'C)rbigny, For. foss. Vienne, 301. ADE'XOID or Retiform Tissue. variety of connective tissue, consisting of very fine hbres, forming a network, in the meshes of which are found numerous lymph-corIt forms the stroma of the spleen, puscles. the lymphatic glands, &c. The fibres are formed by the union of the processes of the original connective-tissue cells. See Glakds of Animals, and Lymphatics. ADENO'MATA. These are tumours composed of new formations of glandular tissue. They occur in the mamma, mucous membranes, the sebaceous and pineal glands, the ovaria, and the liver. BiBL. Green, Pathol. Riudfleisch, Path. 1878.

Adiantum Capillus Veneris (pinnule with

sori

covered by indusia)

5 diam.

would require that the structure and composition of every kind of substance, either natural or artificial, should be known, which
sessed by no one.

purities or adulterating ingredients are present, the next point ^a ill' be to determine their nature. To do this with certainty,

would imply an amount of knowledge posBut the question is sim-

ADENOPLEU'RA,Macalister.Agenus
ofAcarina, fam. Ixodida?.

plified in practice, because substances used in adulteration must be cheap, and either

A.

compressu7n.

scales of the

Found between the West-African Pangolin {Manis

Murray, Econ. Entom.

L. 1-16". multiscutafa). BiBL. Macalister, Qti. 3Iic. Jn. 1872, xii.

p.

287

(figs.)

p.

200

(%)

ADIANTUM,Linn. AgenusofPteridec-B (Polypodiaceous I-'''erns), with one elegant indigenous (fig. 5), and many exotic species.
(PI. 2). veij important use to which the microscope is

ADULTERATIONS

applicable, consists in the detection of various adulterations of articles of food, drugs, and products of the arts and manufactures. Tlie first point in a question of adultera_

of what they will probably conIn Plate 2 will be found the true structure of the adulterated articles and that of the adulterants. When the adulteration consists of a chemical substance as it might be called, i. e. a salt, metallic oxide, proximate principal, &c., its nature is readily' determined by chemical analysis; but when it consists of a vegetable tissue, which has been perhaps subject to a partly chemical

grown or manufactured in quantities at Hence home, or imported from abroad. they are generally common, and it is pretty
well
sist.

known

tion is, to determine, by microscopic and micro-chemical analysis, the structure and composition of the pure substance and if
;

process of mainifacture, the judgment must a arious parts, their size, relative position, and other particulars holding a place in the Table already alluded to.

be based upon the form of the

ADULTERATIONS.
The following
list

17

^CTDIUM.
;

of

adulterations of

Diet. d. falsif. Sfc, 1874

Blyth, Anal, of

articles of jreneral consumption will serve as a o-iiide to the inquirer, and as an index to

Food.
dinei

the special articles in this work in furtlier details will be found.

which

genus of Ure(Coniomycetous Fungi), consisting of parasitic fungi infesting leaves and herbaceous stems, appearing in their full-grown condition as little cups filled with a reddish or brownish powder (spores), formed by a raising-up and bursting of the epidermis by the parasite developed within. Many may be detected in earlier stages by the deformities they produce in the growing structure of the plants infested, or by pale or reddish spots on the green surface, arising from the presence of the imperfect fungus underneath. These plants are commonly known under the name of blight, brand, ifcc. Their history has recently received much elucidation at the hands of Tulasne, De Bary, and others and they are found to exhibit a
;

^'CIDTUM, Persoon. a

Sfc.

Arrow-koot
Bread.
rice,

(PI. 4G. fig.

20). Cheaper
bean-flour,
rice,

kinds of starch. alum.

Mashed

potatoes,

Cayenne Pepper.

Ground

mus-

tard-husks, deal sawdust, formerly mineral coloiu'ing-matter of lead, &:c. Chicory. Roasted flours of corn and
beans, acorns, mangold-wurzel, parsnips,
carrots,

mahogany-sawdust,

burnt

sugar, red ochre, &c. Cinnamon. Flour of grain cheap starches, &c.

and potato,

Cocoa and Chocolate

(fig.4).

Arrow-

root and other starches, flours, sugar, chicory, red ochre, &c. Coffee (fig. 5). Chicory and its adulterations, as above, locust-beans, date-

more complicated organization than was

formerly imagined.

Curry powder. Flom-, ground

stones,
figs.

and

The organs of fructification are pi'oduced in two forms, bearing gi-eat resemblance to the conditions lately
ascertained to exist generally in the Lichens. brief account of the natural history of certain of the species, derived

rice,

red lead, red ochre.

Flour

(PI. 4(3).

Meal

of other grains,

beans, potato-starch, rice. Flours of various kinds, mustard-husks, cayenne pepper, turmeric. Gelatine from bones. Isinglass. Lard. Potato-flour. INIusTARD (fig. 11 ). Flour, turmeric.

Ginger.

Oat-meal. Barley-meal. Pepper and other spices

(fig.

12).

from De Bary and Tulasne, Avill give a general idea of the character of this genus. The nascent JEcidia are observed as minute spots upon the herbaceous parts of the plants which they infest. When sections are made of these and placed under the microscope, it is fouud that the parenchyma of the plant is deformed, irregular, and interrupted by large intercellular passages,among which ramify the filaments of the mycelium of the fungus these are delicate, muchbranched and septate, about 1-3G00 of an
;

Flours of grain, peas, potatoes, &c., ground mustard, linseed, rice-husks, &c. Pickles. Dilute sulphm-ic acid (vitriol)

instead of vinegar. Sugar. Potato-flour, starches. Tea (fig. 1). Various leaves (sloe, elder), catechu, mineral colouring-matters, iron-filings, rice-husks. Tobacco (fig. 16). Various leaves (dock, rhubarb, coltsfoot), paper, &c.

inch in diameter. At certain points these filaments are crowded and interwoven into

hollow globular conceptacles, about 1-180 of an inch in diameter, immediately beneath

the epidermis, the interior of which conceptacle is lined with delicate filaments (about 1-12000 of an inch in diameter) arising at all parts and converging towards the centre, except at the upper part, (Avhich is open, and only shut from the external air by the persistent epidermis of the nurse-plant,) where they are directed upwards. granular mass occupies the centre of the conthe converging filaceptacle, separating ments from each other. By the growth of the upper filaments and the increase of the central granular mass, the whole structure increases in size, so as to pusli the epidermis up above the surrmmdiug surface, finally

BiBL. Ure, Diet, ofArts and ManufartHres Mitchell, Adult, of Food; Normandy, Iland-b.
;

Comntercial A}iahjsis; Schacht, Pruf. d. vorh. Gnvehe, 1853 Wiesner, Mikroshq)., i<fc.\ Angus Smith, Itt'p. of Man-

im Handel

18G3 Hassall, Food, Parliam. Rep. on the Adidt. of Food, and Adult, detected, 1857 Od^c, 18-55 ling, Jonrn. Soc. Arts, 1858, vi. 318; Garnierand llareU, Fahijicat. d. Siibst. Aliment. Pereira, Mat. Med. Sorby on Spectroscope, in Qu. Mic. Jn. 1800, p. 358 Klencke,
chester iSanit. Assoc.
Sf-c;
; ; ;

Verfulsch.

t^'-c.

(illustr.),

1879; Soubeirau,

iKCIDIUM.
bursting
it,

18

JECIDIUM.

when

tlie

7yi/}Iii/-fe-i)

grow out

upper filaments (^^atlirongb the oritice and

form a little funnel- shaped tuft on the summit of the protuberance, through the middle of which the granular mass formed below makes its escape. These bodies may be found commonly on the spurges (yE. Eupliorhirp)^ the barberry {JE. Berberidk), nettles {^. Urticce), Composite (^. Compositarum), &c., early in the season ; later they

opposite sides of a leaf; and then the spermogonia are oftenest on the upper, the perirthecia on the lower face (PI. 26. fig. 1 sp). After a number of spermogonia have been successively developed and discharged their
spertnatia, the mi/celiutn,

from which they

frequently be recognized in a dried-np condition, being forerunners of the true sporiferous bodies (PI. 26. tig. 1). The name applied to these organs is spermogonia. The filaments converging into the centre of these, termed sterigmafa (PI. 20. figs. 2, 3, s t), are the important parts of the structure they terminate in rows of minute bodies of oval form, about 1-6000 of an inch long and

may

originated, produces a new globular body formed of densely interwoven iilaments, usually in the interior of the substance of the leaf or stem, not immediate^ beneath the epidermis, and ordinarily colourless. Increasing in size in all dirt'ctious, this glo-

1-12000
into

in

diameter

(ibid. 8 p),

which be-

come detached and

separated, falling loose

the cavity, where, by a continued growth and shedding of similar bodies from the converging filaments, they accumulate to form the granular mass above spoken of as

The nimiber existing in that situation. ultimately becomes enormous, and a gelatinous substance is secreted, glueing them "When placed in water under into a mass. the microscope, or when wetted by rain in its natural jJosition, the ripe mass swells and is protruded through the orifice of the spermogonium on the svu'face of the leaf. By a longer action of moisture the jelly dissolves, and the minute bodies (spermatia) spread about in the water, exhibiting "an oscillatory motion, as of a body attached at one extremity." De Eary states that he found iodine arrest this motion, while it persisted for some time in solution of chloride of calcium. No cilia can be detected. Fresh spermatia were coloured brifiht purple red by sugar and sulphuric acid, but at the same time were so acted on that it could not be
possessed a membrane free from nitrogenous matter. Solution of potash renders invisible the outlines, not only of the spermatia, but of the sterigmata and paraphyses. The resemblance of these bodies to the spermatia of the Lichens (see Lichens), is too eAident to be mistaken hence the same terms are applied to the corresponding organs. The spermogonia occur either in regular groups, or scattered just like the periflucia when the latter are on the same surlace of a leaf, they often form a circle round the

bular body, the perit/ieciion, soon presents at its base, i. e. the point furthest from the nearest epidermal surface, another body composed of very numerous free-ending filaments enclosed in a cellular membrane, which body rapidly gi'ows up within the peiithecium, in the direction of the surface of the leaf or stem. The filaments, at first very delicate, are crowded very close together and each exhibits in its interior a row of short, colourless, roundish cellules, the uppermost of which is always the largest and the most advanced in development. These cellules are the sjjores, and the filaments in which they are found are the spoThe membrane enclosing rangia or thecce.. the sporangia, the peridiiini of Persoon,
;

grows pari passu with them, and is composed likewise of rows of cells, which stand in a circle around the sporanges, but are firmly connected together side by side by an intercellular substance this membrane closes in like a bell or vault over the spo;

ranges.

By

the reciprocal pressure of

all

parts, the cells of this

spherical or

membrane, at ovate, become polygonal.

first

At

made out whether they

a certain stage the apex of the perithecium gives way, so that it forms a kind of cup around the membrane enclosing the mass of sporanges arising from the base. The whole structure has by this time come immediately up to the underside of the epidermis, which is next ruptured, and the perithecium and the sporanges are protruded, more or less, according to the habit of the

The upper porspecies (PI. 26. fig. lp,p). tions of the rows of cells composing the peridial membrane then separate more or less from each other, splitting into lobes, so as to set the sporanges free, and form a kind of cup with toothed margins seated in the expanded perithecium figs. 6 and G a) The spore>(, which are at first delicate cellules, subsequently ac(juire a tough mem(
.

former.

Frequently they burst through on

brane, increasing considerably in size, so as to distend the parent utricle or sporauge,

tECIDIUM.
wliicli is ultimately

19

AElilAL ROOTS.

only recognizable where coimeets the spores together iu a moniliforiu series. Tiie spores iu most cases now acquire a deeper colour (except in ^. leucoit

^cidium Compositarum, Mart.

Fio-. 6.

which are common, especially those of the Mints, the Compositte (such as the Coltsfoot, &.C.), the Barberr}', the Cloosebeny, Buckthorn, Spurge, Nettle, &c. (^Z?. Coinpusitarum, Mcutlice, Berheridis, Grossularice, crasstcm, Euphorbice, Urticce, 4'C-)Oersted and De Bary have made experiments which seem to prove that jEcidiKin Berberidis is a development of Puccinia a full account of which will (//ainims be found in Cooke and Berkeley, Futiyi,
;

The British species of ^Ecidium are numerous; more than thirty are described by Berkeley in the Jiritish Flora, many df

p. ISO.
:

p.

Peridia in various stages of growth on the surface of leaf: 30 diam.

BiBL. For Species Brit. Flora, ii. pt. 2. 309 Greville, Sc. Crypt. Flora, pis. 7, 02, 97, 180, 209 Reess, Disp. Ured. 1S79. For Auat. and Physiol. Uuger, Exan;
; :

Fig. 6

a.

theme, pp. 297, 300,' t. 3. f. 18, 19, t. 4; Meyen, PJlanzenpath. pp. 143, 148-50 Tulasne, Vompt. limdus, March 24 and 31, 1851 ; Ann. d. Sc. A'af. ser. 3. t. xv. ibid.
;
;

ser. 3.

pp. 126, 173; Leveille, Sur le dev. des Uredinees, A7in. des Sc. Nat. ser. 2. t. xi. Corda, Icon. Funy.
;

t.

vii. p.

45;

ser. 4.

t. ii.

iii. t.

3.
p.

f.

1853,

45 55 et

De

Bar}', Brandpilze, J3erliu,

pis. 5, G,
;

seq.

BotaniJi, 1874, p.

332

and 7 Sachs, Heufrev, Bot. (Mas;

ters), 1878, p. 460.

Perpendicular section through a hurst peridium, showing the sporanges contained in it 100 diam.
:

Persoon. genus of Stilbacei (Plyphomycetous Fungi) characteiized by short necklace-like threads consisting of irregular spores produced from flexuous, branched, radiatiug- sporophores, forming a subglobose mass. yE. Candida, Persoon, grows on damp twigs iu marshy places, consisting of scattered white grains about the size of a poppy-seed. ^E. setosa, Grev., belongs to the genus Volutelhi.

^GERITA,

to contents chieiiy accumulated in the centre. Their membrane is colom-less, their form finally irregularly
coniuni),

owing

BiBL. Greviile, Crypt.

Fl

pi.

268.

fig. 1

polygonal and the diameter varies much, even in ripe spores of one and the same species, from 1-1000 to 1-1800 of an inch. The upper spores are often ripe at an epoch
;

Ann. N. H. 1859, iii. 362, jjl. ix. f. 7. ^FIGYRIA. A genus of Infusoria=^rJE. leyumen=Erv. leyumen, D. vilia, Duj.

Three other species. BiBL. Claparede and Lachmann, Infus.

&-C.
i.

when young spores

are

.-till

in course of pro;

duction at the lower end of the sporanges finally, however, the development ceases below, and the tube elongates a little beneath the lowest spore, forming a kind of pedicle or basicUum to the row. The ripe spores either soon fall apart and fill the cup as a
loose powder, along with short incomplete sporanges, or the rows persist even after are mature, held together they

Br. and Sch. A genus of LeptotrichaceoLis Mosses, including many Dicrana, and Ccrutodon cylindricus, Br. and Sch. BiBL. Miiller, Sipiops. Muse. i. p. 426 ; Wilson, Bryoloy. Brit. pp. 72, 85.

p.

288.

ANGSTR(E'MIA,

probably by

a firmer peridial membrane.

ROOTS. very large proportion of the exotic Orchids are epiphytic plants and produce aerial roots, which absorb moisture from the atmosphere; the same structure occurs in many
tropical
.

AERIAL

c'2

^TEA.
is

20

AGATE.

Araceas. The surface of these aerial roots clothed by a peculiar tissue, formed of cells containing a delicate spiral fibre upon the wall (PL 4S. fig. G). The strata of spiralfibrous cells are sometimes numerous, and they cover up the true epidermis of the The growing points of such roots are root. green but the spiral-librous cells soon come to contain nothing but air, and then assume
;

sections

must be very thin, and require a power for satisfiictory observation. The sections keep tolerably well put up in chloride of calcium or glj'cerine, and are luost instructive when taken from a series
high
of specimens of ditFerent ages.

See AgaEicus, Basidiospores, and HymenomyCETES. The bodies called cystidia or ^w//jfiaria, are globular or oval cells, found associated' with the basidia, containing

a silvery-white colour. ^TEA, Lamx. See Anguinaria, ^THA'LIU -M, Link. A genus of Myxomycetes. The common ^^thalium^ AL. septictim, L. ijlavum, Grev.), occurs frequently on tan in hot-house^, where it is very injurious,

granular matter exhibiting molecular motion Avhen These organs have been supdischarged. posed to represent antheridia, but are more

from the rapidity of its growth and the abundance of its spores. The ordinary form is yellow; but violet and reddish-brown It grows varieties have been met with. Other species of also on mosses in woods. JEihalmm have been found growing upon
iron,

probably paraphyses or abortive basidia. BiBL. Berkeley on the Fructif. of llymenomye. Fungi, Ann. N. Jlid.i.Sl Leveille,
;

Siir

l^

Hymenium des Champignons, Ann.

ser.
viii.
;

S'c,

Nat. 2
xiv. p.

321

Hoffman, Bot.
Illustr.

Zeit.

137

Cooke,

Brit.

Fungi,

1881.

AGARICUS, Linn. A
cini

lead,

or

other mineral

substances,

(Hymenomycetous Fungi

genus of Agarione of the

;

sometimes a few hours only after they have been heated, so that the appearance seems

largest genera in the Vegetable

Kingdom,

The cream-like matter, quite marvellous. of which the part answering to the mycelium or allied production in other Fungi consists, exhibits Amwha-\\k'? movements.
BiBL. GreviUe, Crypt, Flora, t. 272; Sowerby's i^?25^j, t. 399. fig. 1 (as liettcularia hortensis, Bull.), figs. 3 & 4 (as R. carnosa and H. cere(i) Bolton, Brit. Fungi, t. 134
;

comprising not only a multitude of European species, but many from tropical climates.

(as

Mucor

sepfiats,

L.)

Berkeley, Cryjtt.

Bot. pp. 23G, 339.

Ag. catnpestris is the common Mushroom. See Hymenomycetes. AGATE. The term agate is specially applied by geologists to the concretions and geodes of chalcedony, formed in the steam-holes and the fissures of volcanic rocks. They consist of crystallized and crystalline varieties of silica, coloured with metallic oxides. Successive and concentric

family of Basidiomycetous Fungi, belonging to the tribe Ilymenomycetes, comprising a great portion of the more important esculent species, characterized by an inferior hymenium spread over distinct gill-like processes, which are In a often easily divisible into two plates. few species the interstices of the gills are traversed by veins so as to produce the semblance of pores. Amongst the more obscure species of the vast genus Ayaricus, the hymenium is at first superior, but finally becomes inferior by the turning over of the at one point only, pileus, which is attached or by a very short stem. Tiie hymenium is composed of vertical cells, called hasidia by L6veill^, sporophores by Berkeley. These bodies are elliptical or elongated cells growing out from the surface of the lanielhe, with four slender stalk-like

AGARICIM.A

layers of chalcedony, coating the insides of the cavities, have formed solid or hollow nodules, the innermost layers being often colourless or amethystine quartz. In the chalcedony no definite crystallization can be seen, only an obscure fibrous structure at right angles to the planes of deposit, which
latter are usually

Imnpy

or mammillary,
flaky.

and

often

render

the mass

In some

specimens this fibrous structure becomes more evident in successive layers minute, close-set, crystalline prisms being visible on fracture ; and these may be succeeded by

Those paler variregular quartz-crystals. which consist of concentric layers of radiately grouped cr^'stalline
eties of quartz,

needles,

processes at the upper end, each bearing a single spore, which becomes detached when These basidiospores are observed by ripe. means of cross sections of the lamelUe ; the

frequently polarize light very From the unequal resistance beautifully. of some of the layers to hydrochloric acid, cut agates may be prepared' to take printer's ink and to give impressions on paper. The

open prismatic structure of some layers allows agates to be partially coloiu-ed by the absorption and carbonization of oil
relatively

AGATE.
or

21

AGATTIISTEGIA,
an Alcyonitic structure

honey, or by chemical infiltrations. Nearly all the agates (onyx, sardonyx, &c.)
Carnelian of commerce are thus treated. and sard are either burnt or naturally oxiSometimes agate dized portions of agate. contains crystals of calcite imbedded in its substance and whether coated over, or replaced, these have sometimes given the outlines in the fortification-agates, which
;

has also described in a moss-agate.

common and elegant objects. Small stalactites, or concentric knobs, of chalcedony enclosed and invested in the cavities,
are

when

cut through, give rise to the pretty Some chalcedonies contain eye-agates. delicate branching filaments of delessite and other minerals, and are known as moss-

The supposed vegetable structures in the majority of such agates, described by Turpin, Midler, and oihers, have been shown by Goppert to be inorganic products, chiefly dendritic deposits of oxide of iron. His essay contains an elaborate history of the strange notions which have at various times been propoimded concerning these Gergens has imitated the coloured objects. confervoid appearances by decomposing green vitriol with a weak solution of silicate
of soda.

Confervoid bodies, however, have been

recognized in the green moss-agate of India and a living Conferva was actually
;

agates and mocha-stones. Great microscopic interest lies in the so-called mossagates of the south coast of England and the Isle of Wight. These are altered sponge-masses from the chalk and greensand and, with the chert and flints, have
;

found in colloid

silica

by

Roberts and

been examined by Bowerbank, who supposed them to have originated in the attraction and solidification, by sponges, of silica dissolved in the water of the ancient
ocean. The spicula of sponges are commonly fovmd also very frequently the
;

Slack. Schaftiier has described green confervoid tissue, referable to Vaucheria, Spirogyra, &c., besides spores, in green Indian stones and he traced the green colour of the spots in a red opake jasper to Proto;

coccus.

There are two distinct points connected with the presence of these supposed organic one is, whether they remains in agate really are organic, and the other is whether
:

sometimes in a perfect state of preservation, but usually presenting the appearance of having sufiered to a great extent from maceration and disruption of their
fibres,

they are related to the formation of the

;

component parts previous

to fossilization.

Generally the fibres adhere together in confused masses, presenting a moss-like appearance, with here and there one or two in a better state of preservation and occasionally, near the outer surface of the mass, small portions of the tissue are found quite perfect in other parts all the intermediate
; ;

agate, or merelj^ accidentally present. The we have only first is a very dilficult point the microscopic appearance of the bodies under one set of conditions to judge from this is always very unsatisfactory many of the appearances most peculiar to organic bodies, especially when the latter are not connected so as to form a tissue, can be
: ;

Still imitated by crystallization. the mass of evidence is decidedly in favour of the appearances really representing por-

closely

between perfect preservation and nearly complete decomposition may be obstates

The siliceous matter in which these remains are imbedded, usually presents a clear and frequently a crystalline aspect, while the remains of the organized mass are strongly tinted with colours bright but red, brown, and ochre-yellow prevail
served.
:

occasionally the colours are milk-white, or Sometimes the interior of bright green. the tubular fibre only is filled with ceilouring-matter, whilst the sides are semipellucid or of a milky white in others the whole of the fibres are impregnated with it. PI. 25. fig. 14 represents sections of a piece of mossagate (Indian), showing the silicified fibres of sponge rt, the gemmules h, a separate
;

and Confervo3. BiBL. Bowerbank, Trans. Geol. Soc. (2) Ann. N. II. x. (1842), 9 and 84 vi. 181 Quart. J. G. S. iv. 319 Goeppert, Batishon Flora, 1848, p. 57 Brewster, rhil. Mag. 213 Noggerath, Ilaidinger's Nat. (.3) xxii. Abhandl. iii. 93, 147, and Neucs Jahrb. f. Min. 1847, 473 Gergens, N. Jahrb. f. M. 1858,799; Schafiner, Flora, 1859, no. 36; Chcm. Geol. iii. 630 ; Lehrb. Bisehof,
tions of sponges
;

Fieusch, Poggendorf's ^n. cxxii.94; Lange, Halbedelsteine, ^-c'., 1808 ; Hamilton, Q. J. Geol. Soc. iv. 209 Billing, Ihe Science of Gems, 1867 Zirkel, Beschaffenh. Min. u. Gest. 1873, 108 Rupert Jones, Proc. Geol.
; ; ;

Assoc, iv. 439 1877, 23.

Rudler,

Po/j. Sci.

Rev. xvi.

fibre at

c,

and spicula at

d.

Bowerbunk

AGATIHSTE'GIA, D"Orb. An order of

AGLAOniENIA.

22

AIR.

Fornminifera in D'Orbigny's classification It may be said to comprise Cor(l<S:?o). MUiola (subgenera Unihcidhia, 7ni.spira,

Bihmdina, Trilocvlina,

Qiiingueloeuh'na, Spirnlocn/hui, Cnicilocnlina), Ilaucrinn, and of the family 3Iiliolida, Fahtdaria, members as established by Car] enter. The peculiar

green, containing separate particles of carbonate of lime. Hassall, Brit. Fr. Alyce, Ixv. 1. 4 Kutz. Tab. Fhi/c. vol. ii. pi. 63. 1 Zonotrichiu hcematites, Rabenhorst, Ala.
;
;

ii.

212.

ball-of-thread-like folding of the segments, "whence the name, is constant in the three

A. calcarea, Kiitz. Fronds 1-4 to 1-2" in diameter, orbicular, convex, idtimately confluent, sometimes greenish, often dark chestnut, composed of dichotomous filaments,.at length incrusted continuously with carbonate of lime. Kiitzing, I.e. jjI. 63. 2;
Z. calc.

last-named genera

merged

but in CoruN.-^pira it is in a discoidal spire at an early stage

; ;

of growth.

Rab.
fio-.

Lithonema

calcaria, Hassall,

BiBL. D'Orbigny, Foratn. Cnha, p. 145 Foram. Canaries, p. 140; Foram. Americ. For. Foss. Vienn. p. 255 AYilliamp. 68
; ;

tab. Ixv.

2.

son, Int.

AGA'VE.
riidse.

Brit. Foram. Foram. p. GG.

p.

78, &c.

Carpenter,

Kiitzing states that the gelatinous sheaths of the filaments of yl. afpina have a spiralfibrous structure. See Spieai, Stetc-

TUEES.
(Pfr.).

See Fibeotjs Structuees.

AGLAOPHE'NIA, Lamx
myriop]i;iIh(m,

genus of Polypi, of the family PlumulaIt consists of I'limiularia crixfuta,

and pennatiila (Johnston). See Plumulauia. BiBL. Iliucks, Brit. Hydr. Zooph. p. 284, pis. 63 & 64. AGLAOS'PORA, De Notaris. A genus proposed for Sjiha-ria profvsa, on account of the a'ici containing only 4 sporidia but Tulasne has extended it to some species with eight sporidia, on account of the rela;

tion of the pycnidia to the perithecia. The brown spores of A. profiisa, which is not uncommon on Rohinia pseudacacia, are beautiful microscopic objects.

AIR. It need scarcely be remarked that the air consists essentially of a mixture of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion by volume of about 21 parts of the former to 79 of the latter, with variable quantities of gaseous carbonic acid (about As the l-2000th) and aqueous vapour. component molecules of gases are invisible with any powers of the microscope, the air possesses no microscopic characters. In two respects, however, the study of the air is of 1st, in regard to the opgreat importance tical appearances produced by the passage of light through it when contained in bodies
:

submitted to microscopic examination and 2ndly, in regard to the particles which are always, in greater or less numbers, sus;

BiBL.. Tulasne.

AGO'NIUM,

CErst. A genus of Cou-

Sel. Fimf/.

Carp.

ii.

p. 158.

pended in

it.

fervoid Alg;is, fam. Oscillatoriaceee. Char. Filaments very slender, rigid, flexuous, tufted, jointed a single sporidium in each joint.
;

In microscopic investigations, we meet with air either existing in cells or cavities

A. ctntrale (PI. 3. fig. 1). 5'" long; attached to stones.

Marine

3-

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Alg. ii. 160. genus of Nem-opterous See LiBELLULiDiE. Insects. AGY'RIUM, Fr.A genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, tribe Graphidei. 1 sp., A. rafiim. Thalliis forming whitish spots; apothecia bright red. On

AG'RION.

old posts.

AINAC'TIS, Kiitzing.A genus

BiBL. Leighton, Lieh. FL,

p.

392.

of Os-

cilltdoriaceous plants growing on stones in The two known species alpine streams. have been found in Britain. A. alpina. Fronds from 1-12 to 1-2" in
diameti'r, often confluent, formed of repeatedly dichotouious filaments, dark olive

form of bubbles, confined by the liquid in which the objects are usually immersed. "VVhen surrounded and confined by liquid, it mostly assumes a spherical form, in accordance with the law of hydrostatics, that the pressure of fluids is equal in all directions; sometimes the spherical form is exchanged for that of a compressed or oblong spheroid, the result of the pressure of the glass slip covering the When confined in cells or cavities, object. It is in geit assumes the form of these. neral easily recognized by transmitted light from the smooth and even darkness or shading given to its margins, whilst in the centre it appears luminous and clear. Sometimes the dark margins of air-bubbles have a pale purjjlish-yellow, blue or greenish tinge. By reflected light, of course, no darkness is produced, but it then appears vitreous and shining, in co^isequence of the rein various tissues, or in the

AIR.

23

AIR.

So flection taking place from its surface. of long as air-bubbles or confined portions
air are large, the optical appearances above described are sufficiently characteristic alshould any doubt exist as to the
;

though

There is yet a source of fallacy in the detection of air imprisoned in structures where these are of a hard resisting nature, as in mineral bodies. An illustration of this, with the method of its avoidance, is given
under Topaz, and Rocks.
In regard to the solid particles present subsiding from the air, and forming dust, these consist principally of the spores of fungi, lichens, mosses, and algas, pollen, the detritus of the soil, fine fragments of
in, or

nature of a supposed accumulation of air, the latter must be displaced, either by pressure bet^veen two slips of glass, or by im-

mersing the object in which it exists in some When, however, liquid and apphnng heat. air is couiined within very minute cavities,
especially when these possess definite forms, the clear centre is frequently no longer to

be detected, the whole appearing perfectly black and solid; and serious errors have arisen from inattention to this cii-cumstance, as explained in
(p.

the Introduction

xxxv).

The corpuscles of dried bone were thus formerly considered sohd bodies, as their

name

implies, and as consisting of calcareous matter, until it was found that they could be filled with a liquid. In all cases, tlieu, where absolute certainty is required of the nature of an apparent air-bubble or accumulation of air, attempts should be made to displace the mass, either by pressm-e or prolonged immersion in a liquid, of gentle heat. especially with the aid The appearance presented by air contained in tissues, is easily studied in a dry section of any kind of pith or other vegetable structure, such as elder-pith, ricecork is really heavier than paper, or cork water, and owes its lightness to the air it On immersing these in water, contains. this liquid soon enters the lateral cells, but long digestion is required before the internal cells become filled with it and the whole of the air is displaced. Soaking in
;

vegetable and animal fabrics accidentally separated and diffused during the ordinary operations of every-day life, the dried but not dead bodies of infusoria, crystals, and metallic particles, and the ova of the lower members of the animal kingdom. The kind of bodies present in the air varies according to the locality thus in cities, the dust consists mostly of fragments of products of manufactures, with the spores of fungi, mixed Avith particles of carbon or soot, the ova of the lower animal forms being comparatively few and belonging to a limited number of species ; whilst in open places in the country, a more ready diffusion of the spores of plants and the ova of animals takes place, and the sources from which fragments of textile fabrics are derived are
;

less

numerous.
air,

The inorganic
the

from

particles deposited from consist of fine grains of sand, wafted the soil by winds, and rarely fall other-

wise than near the currents by which they are borne. They are easily recognized by their angular forms, their resistance to compression, and their not being destroyed or decomposed by exposm'e to a red heat. Certainty as to their composition can only See be obtained by chemical analysis.

alcohol before immersion in water greatly facilitates the displacement of the air. The determination of the actual nature, as regards chemical composition, of air confined in tissues, is a matter of difficulty where the quantities are microscopic. The nitrogen can only be detected by its negative properties to reagents. The presence of

Sand.

The organic forms deposited from the air formerly gave rise to much perplexity. It has long been known that when solutions of various organic substances, or liquids containing these matters undergoing spontaneous decomposition, were exposed to the air, the liquids were soon found to teem
with
the
life infusoria and fungi, according to nature of the decomposing matter, being discovered in them in abundance. It seemed very natura"l to conclude that these derived their origin from the substances undergoing decay and it is not to be wondered at, that the fact should have given rise to the conclusion that here was evidence of the spontaneous or equivocal generation
;

oxygen might be determined by moistening a section of any structure with recently boiled distilled water and then placing it in a cell containing a solution of protosulphate of iron, or an alkaline pyrogallate, and immediately sealing the cell with varnish and allowing the action to continue for some
time.

For the detection of that article.

Caeboxic Acid, see

of animals.

AIR.
This theory lias
ledgecl
:

24

AIR.
under Tissues,

now ceased to he aclinowfallacious

scribed

Animal and Ve-

aud a common source of

getable.
Organic bodies derived from the air are sometimes met with in snow and hail. See S^'ow and Hail. The air has frequently been examined in regard to the presence of animal or vegetable organisms,
;

reasoning lies in overlooking the fact, that the air contains the germs of numerous organic forms, still capable of resuming their active vitality when they meet with the Of this we have conrequisite conditions. vincing proof. For, if the liquid containing the decomposing matters be heated to ebullition for some time in a bottle or other vessel, into the cork closing which two bent tubes are inserted, and, after the air has been completely displaced by the vapour, the fresh air admitted be previously passed through red-hot tubes, or Pasteur's filter of cotton-wool, organisms cease to be met with, and the decomposition of the substance and growth of the organisms no longer take

which might accoimt for the production of epidemic and infectious diseases but the results obtained in this direction have not been very satisfactory. Yet as, on adopting the principle of Pasteur's filter, and the use of germicides in the treatment of wounds, and in pm-ifying the
air

when

infectious diseases prevail,

most

That place, even in an indefinite period. the liquid in these cases does not experience alteration rendering it incapable of supporting the life of the animal forms introduced, is shown by subsequently admitting ordinary air, when the organisms appear as
rapidly as in fresh liquids. Vegetable forms are also constantly met with as deposited from the air. In them, the spores are probably alone the bodies by means of which the diifusion of the lower plants by the agency of the air is efit?cted. Minute fungi are frequently found, like the animalcules above alluded to, in various

decided benefit has been shown to result, the further examination of the air may allow of the detection in it of the germs of disease which have probably been too often passed over as mere granules, globules, &:c.
of no import. The best plan of making these experiments is to connect a glass tube, twice bent at right angles, with an aspirator the free end of the tube should be
:

vegetable and animal liquids undergoing fermentation and decomposition. The question of the relation of these fungi to the processes will be found discussed under

to a tine point; aud just above this the tube should be blown into a bidb. The point is then immersed in a small quantity of pure water, and the water allowed to run very slowly from the aspirator. The water is then slowly drawn into the tube, and the air is washed as it passes by the water in the bulb. When a large quantity of air has been washed by the water, the latter is shaken b'riskh- and allowed to run into a clean glass for examination.

drawn

Feemektation and I'i'teefaction

and

the various genera and species found in different kinds of liquids are treated of mider the heads of these liquids. Fungi and algae
are also met with as parasites and entophytes upon and in living animals for an account of these, see Parasites. The lower forms of fungi are frequently
:

Another method consists in closing, by fusion, the end of a glass funnel, filling this Avith ice, and collecting the of
drops

on its ouside, in a receptacle placed beneath. See Miceozymes and Schizomycetes. Pouchet and Maddox have devised other forms of apparatus for this purpose.
air

water condensed from the

found growing upon surfaces from which they can derive no nourishment, as upon In these &c. slips of glass, window-panes, cases they must derive their nourishment from the atmospliere. When found in these
however, they soon cease to gxow by subdivision of cells or gemmation, but The most common speedily form spores.
situations,

The appearances presented by air as existing in cell-cavities is represented in PI. 47. 23 , in the delicate cavities of a hair fig. in PI. 29. fig. 1 and the lower part of the same figure represents a portion from which the air has been displaced bv liquid.
;

BiBL. Pasteur, Ami.

d.

&

Chim. 18G2, p.64,

Siir les corpuscles organises de Voir, d. Sc. Not. (Zool.) 1801, xvi. p. 26;
p.

Ann. Magnin,

ones in these situations are the sugar-fungus Penicillivin glaticum and Asjiergilhis peniciUatus, Miicor, &c.

The method
any minute

of distinguishing whether

Impabtdisyne, ^-c, 187G; Robin, Micr. 1877, ^70; Miquel, Comptcs Jx'cndus, 1,^79; Cunningham, Mic. e.vcnn. of air, Ca/cidta ; Tissandier, Poiissicres de rair Pouchet,
;

particle deposited from the air is of animal or vegetable natme, is de-

Aeroscopie, 1870

Tvndall, Led. Lond. Inst. (Times, Dec. 12, 1877), k I'roc. Hoi/. Sue.
;

AIR-BLADDER.
1880,

25

ALARTA.
See Equisetace^.
in

1878; Beauregard & Galippc, Guide S)C. Robin, Micr. 1877, p. 870. p. 764 AIH-BLADDER of Fishes. See SwiMMIXG BLADriEB. AIR-BUBBLES. See Air. AIR-CELLS or Sacs of animals.These
;

their hollow stems, seen Avell in cross sections.

AIR-SACS

Plants. The genus Utri-

cidaria, or Bladder-wort, takes its from a peculiar sti'ucture of its leaves. common species, U. vtdyaris, L., often

name The
fouud

are dihTtations or expansions

passap'es. In birds, these are

of

the airca^ities

membranous

communicating with the lungs and distributed through the chest and abdomen. They extend over almost all parts of the body, around the joints of the extremities, into the bones, the quills, and the feathers, and even between the skin and subjacent muscles. During inspiration, the air enters
all these cavities.

In insects, the air-cells or sacs consist of

dilatations of the trachepe. See Teacher. Their obvious use is either to diminish the specific gravity of the body, or to act as reservoirs of air during the impeded respi-

with flight. BiUL. Siebold and Stannius, Lehrh. cl. veiy/l. Anat.; Owen, ILoit Led.; Carpenter, Cotnpar. Anat. Gegenbaur, Vergl. Ariat.
ration connected
;

just below the surface of the water, in qiuet streams, is pro^ided with a curious floating apparatus, formed by modification of portions of the feathery leaves, consisting of small membranous sacs or pouches, closed, by a valve. The opening of the pouch is somewhat funnel-shaped and the mouth, as also the internal walls of the cavity, is fm-nished with curious microCertain of the cells scopic glandular hairs. contain a blue-colouring-matter, distinct in its nature from chlorophyll. The valve of the pouch appears to be capable of opening inwards only so that while it is turgid with sap, in the vigorous periods of life, it is kept closed by the pressure of the air apparently secreted within the pouch afterwards the tissue loses its tension and the air makes

swimming

1878.

way out, allowing water to enter, and thus putting an end to the performance of the function of the air-sac.
its

AIR-PASSAGES

in plants

are large

BiBL. Meyen, Secretions-Orf/.

zen,

intercellular passages occurring especially in the stems of Monocotyledons and in the

1837, p. 12, Bot. Zed. 1847,

Zeit.

t.

5.

figs.
f

p.

721
;

d. Pflan1-0; Goppert, Benjamin, Bof.

leaves and stems of aquatic plants. Their form and arrangement are sometimes very

regular and elegant, especially when they depend upon a certain regular peculiarity of shape in the cells which form the walls of the Thus cross sections of the compassages. mon rush are pleasing microscopic objects, exhibiting regular stellate cells, the rays of

Schleiden, Pmicip. o/"i?of???/, Engl, transl. pp. 77-279; Henfrev, Elem. Course (Masters), 1878, p. 523; Sachs, Lehrh. d. Bot., 1874, p. 664. AIR-TUBES of Insects.These are horny tubes found in some insects which live in water, as the larvse of many Diptera and
;

1848

1 et seq.

some water-bugs (Nepa, Banatra).

are placed either at the
first

They

which
Large

air-passages, giving the spongy texture to the structure.

air-

are separated

by large

or last ab-

passages, communicating with the stomata, are not unfrequently lined by a cuticular layer similar to that found upon the external surface of epidermal cells. In

dominal segment. Insects.

See

Nepa, Culex,

AIR-VESSELS inlnsects, see Teacher.

In plants, see Spiral Structures. ALA'RIA, GreviUe. A genus of Lami-

the Nymphceacete (Water-lily Order) the large air-passages in the floating leaves and the stem have peculiarly developed star-like cells projecting freely into these cavities; these ceils are filled with a granular substance very unlike the contents of the large cells of the general parenchyma of the leaf. Their nature and oJKce are yet unknown. The partitions separating the air-cells \\or\zontiillYin Lvn7iocha7-is Pli/mien <indAlis7na
planiaf/o form beautiful microscopic objects. The stems of the Eqtdseta, or Horse-tails, present a very regular arrangement of peraii'-passages in the thin walls of

nariaceae (Fiicoid Algae), distinguished by the superficial fructification, arranged in definite patches on the surface of special fronds, something like the sori of Ferns. The patches consist of sporanges resembling the thecfB of lichens, crowded tdgetlier and

interposed between.perpendicular epidermal The sporanges of A. esculenta are cells. described by most authors as pyriforms/jor^s enclosed in a perispore but they perhaps produce biciliated zoospores like those of
;

Laminaria. See Laminaria. BiBL. Harvey, Brit. Mar. Alqce,

pi.

pendicular

p. 29, Grevilie, AUj. Brit. p. 25, pi. 4.

ALBERTIA,

26

ALBUMEN.
fleshy, or a

ALBER'TIA.A
See Albeetina.
(Duj.).

genus of Eotatoria.
of Rotatoria

and

hard and horny condition.

ALBERTI'NA. A fam%
Cliar.

Combined conditions are often met with in the same structure, as when a fleshy tissue
contains starch or
oil in

the cavities of

its

vei'mifonu, rounded in front, with an oblique oritice, from wliicli the ciliated organ, scarcely
cylindrical,

Body

cells, >tc.

broader than the body, projects, terminated behind by a short conical tail. Jaws forceps-like, simple or unidentate. This family contains only a single genus, and this a single species, A. vermicuhts (PL 43. tig. 4), -ohich lives parasitically in

StarcJu/, meal)/, or farinaceous albumen constitutes the cliief part of the seeds of many plants, especially of those of the Grasstribe, and is that portion of the corn-grains whence white flour is obtained. Here the cellular tissue is composed of membranous
cells

densely

filled

fig. 3).

The edible portion

with starch-grains(P1.46. of the cocoa-nut

worms (Lumhrici) and Length 1-47 to 1-79". Within the body are seen ova and young The in various stages of development.
the intestines of
slugs {Lunaces).
ciliated apparatus in front of the mouth is surmounted by a liood-like appendage.

the corresponding region of that seed, and good example of an oily albumen, composed of tolerably thick-walled
is

affords us a

ALBU'JMEX

(Chemical).

A proximate

principle of animal and vegetable bodies, with, which we are familiar as occm-ring in the white of egg. It exists in two states,

with a viscid mucilage, in which numerous oil-globules are suspended. The stone of the Date, the nut of the Areca Palm (PL 47. fig. 21 ), are good examples of a horny albumen, the cells possessing walls of extreme thickness, traversed by pores and formed, like wood-ceUs, by the deposition of
cells fiUed

uucoagulated and coagulated. At a temperature of 160 F. it is reduced from the It is former into the latter condition. reddened by Millon's test ; is insoluble in
acetic acid; is rendered purple by Petteukofer's test, but the reaction requires some time for its production. In the coagulated
it is distinguished from fibrine by the action of acetic acid, and by its insolubility under prolonged digestion at a heat of 110 F. with solution of nitrate of potash. When heated with strong muriatic acid, it

state

is

coloured purple.
;

It possesses no microscopic characters wlien coagulated, it appears to consist of extremely tine amorphous granules.

ALBUMEN, term used This a technical

or
is

PERISPERM (of seeds).

in

Botany to

denote the cellular structure which exists in

greater or less quantity in all seeds where the development of the embryo is not accompanied by the entire absorption of the nucleus of the ovule. When the embi-yo does so displace the nucleus, it becomes immediately invested by the seed-coats in other cases it is found imbedded in a mass of cellular tissue of varying structure, which is the albumen.' The structure of albumen corre?pondsto that of the cotyledons of seeds devoid of albumen, botli serving the same office, namely that of reservoir of nutriment This nutriment for the germinating seed. may be laid up in different conditions namely, in the state of starch, oil, aleurone, or of cellulose, and in the last case in a soft
;

In the ripe seed the successive layers. structure of this horny albumen is generally much disguised, and a section exhibits the appearance of a homogeneous horny substance excavated into irregular cavities. By apphdug dilute sulphuric or sulpho-chromic acid, the true boundaries of the cells may generally be distinguished, and often even the lamination of the walls (PL 47. fig. 22). The substance called Vegetable Ivory is the albumen of the seed of the Pliyteleplias Palm, and is an instance of an extreme degree of development of the cellulose albumen, vying with the hardest woods in the solidity of its cell-walls. thin section of this albumen, especially if treated with acid, at once reveals the cellular structure of this dense substance (PL 47. fig. 23). The true structure may also be detected by the help of

'

The polarized light (see Polarization). cotyledons of many seeds are, as above stated, formed of elementary structures find resembling those of albumen. them farinaceous, fleshy, or oily, but rarely attaining to a very great degree of solidity in the horny forms. The cotyledons of beans are composed of a fleshy cellidar tissue with thick, porous walls, coloured blue by iodine alone (amyloid), while the cavities of the cells are filled with starch-grains. The cotyledons of the almond, nut, kc. are examples of fleshy cells containing abundance of oil-globles. The albumen of seeds may be formed by the development of the tissue of the nucleus

We

ALCYONELLA.
;

27

ALDERIA.

of the ovule, in wliicli case it is distinguished bv some botanists as the epispenn genethe rally it is formed from the cell inside embryo-sac, the latter expanding to dis-

which becomes absorbed such albumen is called endosperm. Some seeds, such as those of the Nymph asacese, Piperacte and others, have both endosperm
place* the nucleus
;

Sarcochitum, Hass. Incrusting, covered with perforate prominences in which the cells are immersed; eggs scattered singly throughout the poh-jjidom. BiBL. See the Genera.

ALCYONID'IUM, Lamx.A
ouidiidse.

genus of

Infundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Ctenostomata, and family AlcyChar. Erect, lobed, or simple
;

and episperm, i. e. albumen formed inside The term and outside the embryo-sac.

cells

im-

jyerisperm is often (advantageously) substituted for albumen, which has qiute a diflerent
signification in physiological chemistry.

mersed, pentagonal.

The albumen of seeds is examined by means of fine sections. In the horny or bony seeds, the application of solution of
in potash or nitric acid is very serviceable ascertaining the true cellular structure. BiBL. Schleiden and Vogel, Nova Acta, 1838, xix. p. 52 (plates) Sachs, Botcndk, 1874, p. G81; Heufrey, Bot. (Masters), 1878, p. 154.
;

Nine British species they occur attached to marine objects by a narrow base. A. gelatinosum. Lobed, lobes subcylindrical, surface smooth; attached by a narrow base. Deep water. A. Jnrsidum. Lobed, compressed, surface papillar from partial protrusion of the
;

polype-cells.

Common.
Zoojih. p. 858 j HassaU, Ann. N'. Hist. Reid, ibid. xvi. p. 393 Tliucks,

A. parasiticum. Incrusting, earthy, surface porous.

ALCYONEL'LA. A

BiBL. Johnston,
Gosse,
vii. p.

Brit.

genus of fresh-

Mar.
370
;

Zool.

ii

water Polyzoa (Bryozoa), belonging to the order Hippocrepia and family Plumatellidse.

Poli/zoa, 1880, p. 490.

Clior.

Tubes branched, adherent

their sides
;

to each
;

other

by

orifices terminal

(statoblasts) presenting free from spines.

ova an outer ring, but

Polypary (polypidom) incrusting, and forming a sponge-hke brown or greenish mass, attached to submersed wooden posts &c. A. stagnorum (fiim/osci) , PI. 41 fig. 3. Polypary indefinite orifices of tubes entire, and without a furrow. Pare. A. Benedeni. Polypary indefinite tubes emarginate at the orifice, and furnished with a longitudinal furrow. Rare. A.flahellum. Polypary fan-shaped tubes Rare. furrow. prostrate, with a BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. p. 391 Allman, Polyzoa (Ray Society), p. 80 j Nitsche,
.

genus of Coelenterata or Zoophytes, belonging to the order Anthozra, and family Aleyonida3, C/iar. Polype-mass lobed or incrusting, spongy, containing scattered calcareous The skin (ectoderm) coriaceous, spicula.

ALCYO'NIUM. A

marked with stellate spores interior gelatinous, netted with tubular fibres and per;

forated with longitudinal canals terminating in the poly]3e-cells, which are subcuta-

neous and scattered.

Marine.

Polypes

exsertile.

A. digitatum

Commonly
fingers,'

(spicula, PI. 41. called dead man's

'

fig.

28). toes or

and cows' paps.

skin

J'orm of polyorange-

pidom

variable, greyish- white or

coloured,
sm-face.

somewhat wrinlded, stud-

ded over with stellate pores, even with the

Midi. Archiv, ISOS.

(Halcyonellea, Ehr., Johnston). family of marine Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the order Tnfuudibulata, and

ALCYONID'nD^E

Very common, so that on many parts of the coast scarce a shell or stone can be dredged from the deep that does not serve as a support to one or more specimens.
A. glomeratum. Colour deep red;
rare.
p.

suborder Ctenostomata. Char. Polypary sponge-like,

fleshy,

of

BiBL.

Johnston, Brit.

Zooph.

174

irregular form; cells irregularly arranged, immersed, with a contractile orifice ; no exGenei'a ternal ovarian capsules. Akyonidium, Lamx. Erect ; lobed or
:

simple

cells

(jijdoum^
clusters.

with imperforate

pentagonal. Hass. Incrusting, covered eggs in circular papillae

;

Gosse, Mar. Zool.-, Gray, Ann. A". Hist. 1869, v. p. 117. doubtfid geALDE'RIA, Pritchard. nus of animals discovered by Alder. The body of one species (PI. 49. fig. 14) consisted of a vase- or cup-form, expanded at the top and furnished with numerous pointed tentacles, abruptly thickened to-

ALECTO.

28

ALG^E.

wards the base and forming more than one row. Body attached to a Sertularia by a
tolerably stout stem. second species was rather smaller, body ovate, with a very slender and shortish stem tentacles capitate, not so numerous as in the first species, and placed in a single row round a narrow disk. This was also found on a Sertularia. third (PI. 49. fig. 15) was found in fresh water. Body pear-shaped or, rather, bell-shaped, with a distinct rim,and a single row of delicate capitate retractile tentacles stem long and slender. They come nearest to the o-euus Acineta. Similar orijanisms

renders the interior brick-red, but does not colour the wall. Each granule consists principally of albuminous matter, but also contains gum and sugar. In many oily seeds, as castor-oil, Brazil nuts, kc, the aleurone gxains contain a crystalloid and a globoid

body.

The crystalloids possess angular forms,

;

been observed by Str. Wright. Trans, of Tifneside Nafuralists' BiBL. Ann. N. Hist. vii. Fidel Club, i. p. 365
ha-i'e
;

and so resemble crystals they are not dissolved by water or acids, but swell in Liq. PofassfP, and are coloured yellow by iodine. The globoids are small rounded masses, not crystalline, but composed of pliosphate of lime and magnesia: they are soluble in acids, but not in alkalies. Sometimes crystals of oxalate of lime are also met with in the grains. Aleurone is usually colourless, sometimes green, as in pistachio-nuts, yellow in Ailanthus-seeds, or blue. It is most easily examined in a thin section of an almond or castor-oil seed immersed in oil or spirit.
Fiff.

p.

420

Pritchard's Inf. p. 5G2.

ALECTO, Lamx.

(Stomatopora).

genus of marine Polyzoa, of the suborder Cyclostomata and family Tubuliporidte. The species are found upon old shells and stones from deep water. Cells in one or occasionA. granulata. ally two rows, their walls granular. A. major. Cells in more than one or two rows, their walls smooth. A. dilatans. Branches of polvpary dilated at the ends; cells in several rows, their
walls granular. Nine other species.

b.

**

BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zoopli. p. 280; Busk, Cat. of Mar. Polyz. (Brit. Mus.) ; Hincks, rohfzoa, 1880, p. 424. ALECTO'PtIA, Acharius. A genus of Six British Lichens, fam. Lichenacei. species on alpine rocks. BiBL. Leighton, Lichen-Flora, 1879,
;

Magnified 400 diameters.

* Pisiim satiTum,

Magnified 800 diameters.

p. 77.

ALEU'PONE (Gluten-flour). This organized cell-substance, like starch, is veiy generally diffused through the A'egetable kingdom, occurring in the endosperm and
cotyledons of most seeds. It exists in large quantity in castor-oil and lupine seeds, in nuts, almonds, cocoa, and coffee-beans &c. It was long overlooked, on account of its soluIn starchy seeds it consists bility in water. of minute granules, of a spherical form, often pitted on the surface, either solid or hollow, and covered by a membrane while i 1 oily seeds, the grains are larger and more
;

thepardenpea; showing the small grains of aleurone, and the large starch-grains. ** Cell of Rieinns communis, showing the granular protoplasm with oil-globules, and the ovoid aJeuronegrains, containing the round globoids and the angular
crj-stiilloids.

The nutritive properties of as peas, nuts, almonds, &c.,

many

seeds,

depend to a

complex.

They are insoluble in ether, alcohol, and fixed oils, but soluble in water, dilute acids, and alkalies. They are coloured deep yellow by iodine, and intense red
Nitrate of mercury

considerable extent upon the presence of And the solubility of aleurone in aleurone. Avater is a point of great consideration in regard to the formation of dietary tables. E'or in boiled peas for instance, the nitrogeif, nous proportion is calculated according to that naturally existing, and the liquor be not consumed, the diet will be deficient in that principle to a corresponding degree. BiBL. Ilartig, Bot. Zeit. 1857 ; Wiesner,

TecJm.Mikr.

ALG^,

p. 74, 1807; Sachs, .SoC. p. 52. Sea-tccecls 4't. This class of

by carniiue-soluliou.

Thallophytes includes the Sea-weeds and the multifarious greeui vegetable forms of

ALG-E.

29

ALG.E.

simple cellular structiu-e met -with in all streams, ditches, ponds, or even the smallest accumnlations of fresh water standing for any length of time in the open air, and commonly on walls or the ground in all perma-

views are referred to under the Orders, and

Vegetable Kingdom.
Order
1.

FLORiDEiE or Rhodospore^e,
marine plants, with a
leaf-like or

Almost

all

The great variety nently damp situations. of conditions of organization, all variations as it were on the theme of the simjjle vegetable
cell, produced by change of form, number, and arrangement of this simple

tilameutous rose-red or purple, rai'ely brownred or greenish red, thallus. Fructification 1. spores, conappearing in three forms tained in external or immersed definite masses, mostly enclosed in conceptacles or
:

element, renders the Algae peculiarly interesting as objects of microscopic research, even in regard to morphological conditions
alone.

This simple condition of the structures is here, as in other cases, accompanied by a delegation of the physiological functions most completely and fully to the individual cells that is to say, the marked dift'ereuce of
;

purpose seen in the leaves, stamens, seeds, &c. of the flowering plants is absent here, and the structures carrj-ing on the operations

and those of reproduction are so commingled, conjoined, and, in some cases, identitied, that a knowledge of the microto the scopic anatomy is indispensable even
of nutrition

cystocarps (ceramidia, coccidia, favelUdia, 2. tetraspores or tetragonidia, red or &c.) purple, either external or immersed in the frond, rarely contained in proper conceptacles (stic/tidia), each consisting of a transparent membranous sac containing, when ripe, four spores 3. antlieridia, pellucid sacs tilled with yellow motionless spherical corpuscles, collected in masses in situations corresponding to the spore-fruits. Fertihzation is eSected through the agency of a style-like filiform process or trichogyne, with which the sperniatozoids copulate. The trichogjTie is either only the prolongation of the cell in which the spores are produced
; ;

roughest conception of the natural history of

or, more generally, it is supported upon small cells, which take no direct part in the formation of the spores. See Floride.^.

Added to this, we find these these plants. we can plants of such simple structure that

Order 2. Fucoide^ or Melanospore^e, Marine plants with a leaf-like, shrubby,

cord-like or filamentous thallus, of olivegreen or brown colour. Fructification very 1. in Fucace^ varied consisting of monoecious or dioecious conceptacles or oogonia
:

see through and through them while hving in a natural condition, and hj means of the microscope penetrate to mysteries of organization either altogether inaccessible, or

only to be attained by disturbing and destructive dissection, in the higher forms of

vegetation. This Class comprehends a vast variety of a wonderfvd midtiphcity plants, exhibiting of forms, colours, sizes, and degrees of combut the subdivision of plexity of structure them into tkree groups, characterized by striking external characters, which are adopted in the classifications of some of the leading Algologists, facilitates the cursory consideration to which we are confined here.
;

containing sporanges

and

antlieridia,

the

spores being fertilized by sperniatozoids after the discharge of both from the parent 2. in Lamiuariacese and allied orders consisting of definite or indefinite collections of clavate or filiform sporanges, producing
;

These three Orders are theSed-s^wi-ed AJyce

bicihated zoospores, which germinate di3. in Cutleriacea3 of similar sporanges producing zoospores, together with 4. in Dicantheridia, like those of Fucacete tyotaceae presenting three forms resembling those of Floridete, viz. collections of tetraspores, oi sporanges containing simple spores,
rectly
; ;

(Floride-e or Rhodospoee^), theZ>;-A-spored Algce (Melajstospore^ or FucoiDEJE), and the Green-sporedAkjfe (ConFERVOiDE^, or Ciilorospohe^e) the first two consisting almost exclusively of Seaweeds, the last of marine and more especially of freshwater plants, the majority of

and

of

antheridia.
3.

See

Fucoide^ and

Ph^ospore.e.

Chlorospore^ or ConferPlants growing in sea or fresh water, or on damp surfaces, mostly green, with a filamentous, or more rarely a leaf-like, pulverulent or gelatinous thallus the last
Order
voiDE.E.
;

are microscopic when viewed singly. The Algaj are diftereutly distributed by Thuret, whose researches on their fructification have thrown so much light upon this

which

essentially microscopic, consisting frequently of definitely ari'anged groups of distinct cells, either of ordinary structure

two forms

or with their

class, also

by Rabenhorst and Sachs, whose

macete).

membrane silicified (DiatoThe green colouring matter con-

ALG^.
sists

30

ALKALOIDS.
;

simply of cliloropliyll in one group, forming the Chloropliyllophycete of Rabenhorst,

Algarum, 1865
d. Sc.

Nat. 1867,

Bornet and Thuret, Ann, vii. p. 166 (Ann. N. Hist.

as

the

Desniide;e,
it

Confervse,

&c.

While in the other,

exists

combined with
;

Phycocyanine, giving it a bkiish tinge these forming the PliycochromophyceEe of Rabenhorstjthe Cyanophycese of Sachs, as in
the OscillatoriacesejNustocliacejie, andliivulariaceoe. Fructification varied in its details, but essentially reducible to three forms 1. resting spores produced from the cellcontents after fertilization, either by Coxju:

1867, xix. p. 35), iSf Notes Algologiques, 1876; Sachs, Lehrb. d. Bot. 1874; Wright, Spicil. Phycohx/. 1870.
of leafy Liverworts JuNG-ER.MANNiE^), Containing one British species, common on hedge-banks. A. scalaris = Jungerniannia
(see

A genus

ALIO UL A'RIA, Corda.

spennatozoicls produced from the contents of other cells 3. zoospores, 2-, 4-, or multi-cUiated active gonidia, discharged from the vegeta-

GATiON
;

or impregnation

by

(2.)

scalar is, Schrad., J. lunceolata, Eng. Bot. (fig. 7).

which has

Jangerm. compressa, Hook., stipules only on the

is

innovations,

tive cells without impregnation and germinating directly in some instances these
;

genus bv Fries and others. BiBL." Hooker Brit. Jungermannice, Enr/l. Bot.
pi.
pi.

included in this Aliuaiana .cala"s. Immature

conjugate

(Coxjugatiox).

The simple

61

^^.^eTiJeU'^
gone
Se'D-

Sowerby,

(magai-

vegetative increase of the Unicellular forms is a process essentially analogous to the cell-division of the filamentous forms, but results necessarily in multiplication of the The Volvociueaj are remarkable species.

605.

ALKALOIDS. The

utility of the micro-

iox their passing the vegetative stage of existence in the form of ciliated zoospores,

scope in distinguishing the more common alkaloids from each other, has been shown in an able paper by Dr. Anderson. The characters consist in the crystalline form of the alkaloids, and in that of their sulphocj-anides.

mostly collected witliinagelatinous common envelope, or cojnobium, into a definitely arranged family. See CoNFERVOiDEiE. Some Algae have been found fossil. (See

The

alkaloids

are

dissolved

in

dilute

Agate.)
:

the genera Cryptococcus, Kg., Uliina, Kg., and

Sphcerotilus,

Excluded families of Algos CRYPTOCOCCEiE, Kg., containing

Kg.

containing the genera Hygrocrocis, Ag., Sirocrocis, Kg., Leptomitus, Ag., Arthromitus, Leidy, Cladophytum., Leidy, Mycothamnion., Kg., Erehonema, Ikomer, Chmnancma, Kg., Nemafococcus, Kg., ChionipJie, Thienemann, Motilinea, Ch. Robin, Enterobryvs, Leidy, Eccrina, Leidy. Ph^oneme^, containing the genera Stereonema, Kg., Thceonema, Kg., Thceosiphonia, Kg. These consist, for the most part, of aquatic states of MucoEiNi, or of Schizomy-

Leptomite^, Kg.,

hydrochloric acid, and the dilute solution mixed, on a glass plate, with solution of ammonia of moderate strength if the alkaloid itself is to be examined, or with a strong solution of the sulphocyanide of potassium if the sillphocyanide is required, and at once placed under the microscope. The only precaution requisite is to avoid having the solution too concentrated, as the crystals are then less well-defined than if a
dilute solution
is

employed.

The power employed should be 250 diameters for if a very high power is used, tlie
;

form of the crystals

guished.

is

not so readily distin-

CETES. BiBL. Harvey, Brit. Alg(P, 2nd. ed. 18J0 P/iyeol. liritann.; C. Agardh, Syst. Alg.; J. Agardh, Species ^-c. Algar. Kiitzing, Tahuke Pliyc. Phycol. generalis 8p. Alg. Phycol. Germ. Lyngbye, Hydrophyhdogia
;

Atropine is precipitated in the amorphous by ammonia, and not at all by the sulphocyanide of potassium. salt of bruciain a sufficiently Brucia. dilute state, mixed with ammonia, does not give an immediate precipitate but in the
state

l)anica\ Greville, Alqcv. Brit.; Lerkelev, Crypt. Bot. p. 84; Henfrey, Elem. Bot. (Masters) Thuret, Ann. d. So. Nat. 1855
;

Etudes PJiycoJogiques {Anal. d. Algues inarines), 1878 Rabeuhorst, Flora Eurojj.

Sr
;

course of a very short time, irregular starlike groups of pointed crystals are observed, as in PI. 11. fig. 1 a. Sulphocyanide of potassium produces a precipitate in tufts of extremely thin and feathery crystals, which either radiate from a centre, or present a The latter form, sheaf-like appearance. however, is much better marked in the crystals deposited after st^me hours from a

ALKALOIDS.
dilute solution, wliich are
still

31

ALONA.
the
solution
is

microscopic,

unless
trated.

highly

concen-

although somewhat larger than those represented in the ligure (PL 11. tig. 1, h). Cinchonine is obtained by precipitation with ammonia in the form of minute granular masses, made up of more or less distinctly acicular crystals, radiating from a centre. It is, hoAvever, somewhat difficult to obtain them well-marked; and they not uufrequeutly appear as a confused mass of granules, in which the radiated structure is very imperThey form best when the solufectly seen.
tions are rapidly mixed (PL 11. tig. 2). With sulphocyauide of potassium, cinchonine gives a precipitate consisting of six-sided plates,

Its solution gives with ammoQuinine. nia a perfectly amorphous precipitate with sulphocyanide of potassium small irregular groups of acicular crystals, resembling those produced by strychnia, but longer
;

and more irregular (PL 11. fig. 8). When the precipitate is produced in a test-tube, and with a concentrated solution, it falls immediately as a white powder composed of extremely minute needles but when
;

together with a variety of irregular crystalline masses, and a few rectangular plates formed by mixing (PL II. fig. 3). in a test-tube with agitation, and allowing it

When

the solution is dilute, it is deposited after the lapse of twenty-four hours, in crystals from 1-lth to l-3rd of an inch in length. See Quininp: and Crystals. BiBL. Anderson (T.J, Edin. Mn. J. viii. p. 570.

some time, the crystals are still microscopic, but much more definite, and
to stand for

sometimes consist almost entirely of isolated

six-sided tables, of great regularity. The precipitate dissolves readily in hot water, and is deposited as the solution cools, in irregular plates. Narcotine is precipitated by ammonia in branched groups of pointed crystals (PL 11. In concentrated solutions a precifig. 4). pitate is thrown down by sulphocyanide of potassium, which dissolves readily in hot water, and is again deposited on cooling. Under the microscope it is perfectly amor-

ALLAN'TOIN. crystalline organic substance found in the liquid of the aUantois and in the renal secretion of the calf &c. As artificially prepared, it is one of the products of oxidation of uric acid.
Its crystals form transparent colourless needles and four-sided prisms, with mostly dihedral unequal summits, PI. 10. fig. 20; not very soluble in either cold or boiling water, more soluble in alcohol, but not at
all in ether.

BiBL. See Chemistry.

phous.
Strychnine.
Tlie hydrochlorate, treated

with ammonia, gives an immediate precipitate, consisting of minute prismatic crystals, all nearly of the same size and very well defined. Most are isolated, but some cross each other at an angle of about 60. When
lying in one position, they exhibit more or le.ss an appearance of a Saint Andrew's

ALLAN'TOIS. An oblong or pyriform sac developed during a very early period of embryonic life from near the end of the intestine. Its function is that of a temporary The capillaries in the respiratory organ. aUautois of the chick are distributed closely like those of the lungs of the Batrachia. BiBL. Wagner, Phys. by Willis ; Miiller,
by Baly Carpenter, Hum. Phys. Ivirkes' Pln/s., by Baker. ALLOMOP.PHI'NA, Reuss. One of
;
;

a peculiar arrangement of their terminal facets (PL 11. fig. 5.) The sulphocyanide consists of flattened needles, sometimes single, but generally in irregular
cross,

with

groups, as in

PL

11. fig. 6.

They

are either

terminated by a blunt acumination or are truncated. Those precipitated on the large scale present the latter forms. Morphia. Ammonia does not produce an immediate precipitate in solutions of morphia but in the course of a Linger or shorter period, according to the degree of dUulion, crystals form, which gradually increase in size, and po.ssess the form represented in 11. fig. 7. Salts of morphia are not prePL_
;

Peuss's " Cryptostegian "genera of perforate Foraminifera. It has the appearance of an irregular Miliola subtriangular, with the chambers in a triple spire and overlapping so much that only the last three chambers are visible. The. aperture is a transverse slit on the inner border of the last chamber. Fossil in the Upper Chalk and Tertiary of
;

Germany.
BiEL. Reuss, Denks. Akad. Wien, i. 352 H. B. Bradv, Qu. Mic. Jn. xix. 67. ALLOT'RICHA, Kent. A genus of
;

Infusoria, of family Ox-s-tricLina. BiBL. Kent, Infusoria, 18S0.

cipitated

by sulphocyanide of potassium,

ALO'NA. genus of Entomostraca, belonging to the order Cladocera and family Lyuceidas.

ALSOPHILA.
The
three
British species
:

32

ALYCUS,
of

distinguished
,

may

be thus

ALTEPtNATION

Genekations.

r Shell reticulated I Shell striated or grooved /"Anterior margin of shell nearly straight, shell brown 2 J Anterior margin of shell convex, J shell colourless (.
'

reticulata*.
2.

See Generations. ALTEUTHA, Baird (PeUidiujn, Brady). A genus of marine Entomostraca, of the order Copepoda, and family Cyclopidte.

quadrangularis]
ovata.

Found

PI. 19. fig. 4.

PI. 19. fig. 5.

A. depressa (PI. 19. fig. 3). Eye red. in Berwick Bay, but not common. A. i7iterrtipta, common A. crenatula. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Fatom. p. 216; Brady,
;

BiBL. Baird,
pi. 16.

Brit.

Eiitomost.

p.
8.

131 j

Copepoda (Ray Soc), p. 158. AL'TICA. See Haltica.

ii.

ALU'CITA.
Fig.
gejuis of
-^'

A genus

of

Lepidopterous

Brown. A

ALSOPH'ILA, E.

insects, of the family Alucitidfe.

The

species are remarkable

from having

PolypodiaceousFerns. Exotic (fig. 8). Char. Sorighihose, dorsal, on a vein or in the fork of a vein. Receptacle
elevated,
Ions. sent.

/;

;>;ji.7:;s:f^>

M\

the wings divided into six lobes or rays which are fringed with long narrow scales resembling hairs, giving them a beautiful feathery appearance. They are not imcommon in gardens, and sometimes enter outhouses.

mostly
vil-

f^kj/m
j^^W^"^^
<'Mht'im

often

The

species of Pterojjhorus exhibit the

Involucre ab-

Veins

simple

or furcate, free.

Alsophiia excelsa. Pinnule with sori.

Arborescent,

mostly

tropical;

species

same structure, except that the anterior wings have two, and the posterior three lobes. BiBL. See Insects (Wings). ALUM. This well-known substancecon-

numerous.
Sections of their petioles exhibit fine scalaslits between the fibres forming many perpendicular rows.
riforni ducts, the

BiBL. Hooker & Baker, Sxjn. FlHc.-p. ALTERNA'llIA, Nees. A

Microscopic
fila-

31.
9.

chemically of potash and alumina, ^vitll sulphuric acid and water. Itscry-stals belong to the regular cubic or tesseral sy-stem, and usually' assume the octahedral form. When dissolved in boiling water with slaked linie,
sists

genus of Torulacei (Coniomyce- Fig.

tons Fungi).

mentous Fungi, remarkable for

their flask-shaped, cellular spores, produced in cliaius which ultimately break up into the single

The term alum lias it crystallizes in cubes. recently been extended to those compounds in which the potash is replaced by other thus we have ammonia-alum, bases ; chrome-alum, &c. The crystals exert no influence upon polarized light. Common
alum
interest.

links

(fig. 9).
fj^i^

but little microscopic possesses Its solution is used in some of

A. tenuis grows parasitically upon other filamentous Fungi, and on decaying gourds, and is

(,^3

the preservative liquids.

AL VEOLINA, D'Orb. A genus of Fora;

common about
and other

Berlin,

Prague,
A

-^A

!ol

places.

Corda made
ij

the ripe spores germinate on Cladosporimn herharum kept moist. They usually first protruded a filament from the neck or attenuated projection, and afterwards others from the cells at the sides and opposite end of the spore. These tilaments became branched, The Messrs. Tulasne have shown that Alternaria tenuis is merely a state of the common Sphccria herharuin,

'*"'

miniferaImperforata,of the family Miliolida (Carpenter), nearly allied to Orbiculina, but Orelongated in the direction of the axis biculina being greatly compressed in this direction. Alveolina rotella (D'Orb., sp.), howAl. melo, var. a, Ficht. var. ^, oblately spheioidal prolately' spheroidal; Al. ovoidca, D.'Orh., Al. sahulosa, Montft., fu^^ielongate-oval form and Al. elonyata, l)'Orb., is subever, is nautiloid
is
;

and MoU,

Alternaria

p ",."[][>
spon-boar'/Jj*]

cylindrical.

A. fuslformis
(pi.

(pi.

23.

fig.

15)

A.

rotella

23.
fi'g^.

'i'"'''^'^"''

16).
riiil.

magnified).

Buii.. CJarpenter,

552

Foram.

fig.

C(n-(la, Ic. Fuihj. iii. p. 5, pi. 1. 16; Pracliljl. eHr<>2K iSeliiu))nelhil(l .y\. 13; Tulasne, Fung. Carpoloyia, ii. pi. 32,

BiBL.

A72n. Nat.

Parker and p. 99 ; Hist. ser. 3. viii. p. 161.

Koch.

Trans. 1850, p, Jones,

AL'YCUS,

A genus of Acarina,

fam. Trombidiua.

ALYSCUM.
A.
roseus.

33

AMBLYSTEGIU:S1.

Body

papillose.
;

BiBL. Koch, Uchi'i-sivld, &e. Ec. Entotit. p. loO (tig-.).

of the family Enchelia. Duj. Al. saltans (PL .30. fig. "8).

Murray,

from the presence of numerous minute cavitiis,varvingin diameter from 1-1000" to

1-100,000" "(Sorby).
tain gas,

ALYSCUM, Duj. A genus of Infusoria,

Colourless,

Some

of these con-

some

liquid,

and others both.

The
fir,

structure of the wood of the Amberrinites succinifer, Gopp., approaches

with faint lonsfitudinal furrows; movement abruptly jerking; length 1-12(30 to 1-1000". Found iu infusion of hay, and river-water,

closely that of our Pmi(s Abifs and l\ Fi\rn,

in the the bordered pore.s, which are of slightly different form. Two microscopic Fungi preserved in amber have been described and figured by Berkeley Penicillium curtipes, and Brachycladium Thomasiimm, a form approaching third form, deC'orefhrojn's of Corda. scribed at the same time as Slreptotlirix spiralis, he now considers to be an appearance produced by enclosed bubbles of air. Ehrenberg detected Diatomacete in amdirt'ering scarcely in

any respect but

smaller

number

of

which have been kept.

Bujardin remarks that it differs from Enchelys nodulosa^ Duj. {Pantotrictim EndtehjSj Ehr.), only in the presence of the
retractile cilia.

BiBL. Dujardin, Infvs. p. 301. Linn. A genus of Cruciferse (Flowering Plants), possessing elegant stellate hairs. See H.^ies of plants.

ALYS'SUM,

AM.EK^'CIUM, or AMAKOU'CIUM,
M.-Edw.
Tunicata, and family Botryllidfe. Four British .'pedes 2)''"^if''>'"'^'^ (PI- 18.

Agenusof MoUusca, of the order

Arc/iis,

fig.

10),

Nordmauni,

and

albicans.

BiBL. M.-Edwards, Mem. s. les Ascid. Comp. Forbes and Planley, Biit. MoUusca,
;

i.

15

Gosse, 31ar. Zool.

ii.

33.

namely, Amphora ffravi/is, Coccoiteis Cocconema Cishda, Frayilaria capiicina, Navicida affinis, N. AmphioA-ys, K. Bacillam, Pinmdaria capitata, and P. Gasfram. BiBL. Goppert and Bereudt, Peyenshnrg Flora, vol. xxviii. p. 545, 1845 EJhrenberg, Ber. Berl.Ak. 1848, p. 17; Berkeley, .o?^W.s
ber,
boiealis,
;

AMA'THIA, Lamx.

AMBER.

See Sekialaeia. This substance, found as a

in
p.
p.

Amber, Ann.
380,
tab.
xi.,

JV. Hist.
xii.
;

2nd ser. vol. ii. Idem, Crypt. Bot.

mineral, but strongly resembling iu appearance various gum-resins, is the f os.sil resin of one or more Coniferous trees belonging to a

303

Sorbv and Butler, Mn. Mic. Jn.

xvi. p. 225, 1876.

vegetation now extinct. It i.^ found in drops, lamellae, and stick-shaped pieces, the form and condition depending probably on the mode and situation of its exudation from the In many instances the frngments of trees. amber contain well-preserved remains of the animals and plants which lived at the period of its formation, these having been enclosed by the fluid resin as it escaped from the tree, in a manner which may be exactly compared

AMBLY'ODON,Pal. de Beauv. Agenus of Funariacefe (Acrocarpous Mosses). The only species, A. {Bryum) dealbatum, is rare
in Britain.

AMliLYO.M'MA, Koch. A genus of Acarina (Arachnida), fam. Ixodea. Infests cattle, &c. South America, and
Sandwich
Ijlbl.

BiBL. Miiller, Syn. Muse. son, Bn/ol. Brit. p. 267.

i.

p.

127

Wil-

Islands.
;

with our mode of preserving microscopic

objectsin Canada balsam. Numerous insects, Arachnida, and other animals, with leaves, twigs, fruits, even flowers of plants, have been described and referred satisfactorily to their systematic position; and the aid of the microscope has been largely called in for this

Ent.

AMBLY'OPHIS, Ehr. A
;

p.

Koch, Arachnid. 201 (fig.).

Mun-av, Ec.

genus of In-

fusoria, of the family AstasiiTa.

speck
tail.

Char, Unattached a single (red) eyea simple flagelliform filament, no

;

purpose, since the elementary structures are The in many cases perfectly preserved. tissue of fragments of Coniferous wood, the stomata of leaves, and glandular and other hairs have been recognized and besides the
;

larger Orsqjtogams, Mosses, Jimgermanniaj, &c., peculiar microscopic Fungi and Diatomacese have been preserved in a perfectly distinct condition. Some of the pieces are cloudy or opaque,

Green length 1-210 to 1-140". Anterior end of the body colourless, and cleft so as to represent a two-lippt-d mouth nucleus near the middle of the body. Several authors regard this as a Euyleua. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. p. 103; Duj. Infus. Kent, Inf. p. 385. p. 036 AMBLYSTE'GIUM, Br. and Sch. genus of Mosses included under Hypnum by Miiller and Wilson,
A.
; ;
;

One species. viridis { PL .30. fig. 55).

AMEIRA,
AMEI'R A
A.
,

34

AMMONIA.

Boeck.

A genus of Copepoda

(Entomostraca).

Marine. Nortli Britain. lonr/ipes. BiBL. Boeck, Overs. Norr/es Copepoder, 1864, 49 Brady, Coijcpoda {Ray Soc), ii.
;

more being distinguishable than radiating indicating the needles of which they are composed. But if examined by polarized light and Avith the analyzer, when
lines,

these are so arranged that the plane of polarization of the analyzer is at right angles to that of the polarizer (the field being black ), the disks present the appearance of
little stars, sometimes almost white, at others splendidly colom'ed, each being also traversed by a black rectangular

36.

AMI'BA,
BiATE

Duj.

AMMONIA,

salt crystallizes in cubes, octabedra, and trapezobedra. Wben crystallized rapidly it forms curious featbery aggregations (Bl. 11. fig. 9). Tbe crystals do not polarize ligbt. AMMONIA, OXALATE OF. Tbis salt is readily prepared by neutralizing a solution of oxalic acid with ammonia or its carbo-

OF. This

See Amceba. IIYDROCHLORATK OR MU-

beautiful

cross

(PL

;]9. fig.

II).

nate, and evaporating. It crj^stallizes in long slender needles, belonging to the right rhombic prismatic mounted in Canada balsam,

system. When these form a very beautiful object for the polariscope (PI. 39. fig. 7). AMMONIA, oxALiTRATE OF formerly known as the lithoxanthate of ammonia.
;

be prepared by mixing with 32 parts of water, and beating tbe mixture in a porcelain capThis
salt

may

rotating the slide, no change is produced. But on rotating the analyzer or polarizer 90, the arms of the cross appear to rotate, which, as there are no fixed points visible in tbe disks, gives rise to the appearance of the disks themselves rotating. When the analyzer has been rotated a quarter of a revolution, the former position of the black cross is occupied by a white one, and the colours of the intermediate parts become complementary to (forming white light with) those which they at first possessed, these appearances being alternately repro-

On

1 part of uric acid

it

duced

at each quarter revolution. If a plate of selenite is placed beneath

is

sule until

acquires a boiling temperature.

the slide, the beauty of the objects

much

Strong

nitric acid, previously diluted

with

2 parts of water, is next added in small quantities at a time, until nearly the whole The liquid is of the uric acid is dissolved. then boiled, filtered, mixed with excess of solution of ammonia, and concentrated by As it cools, the salt is depoeva])oration. sited in needles or warty groups of crystals. These are freed from the luother-liquor by
pressure between blotting-paper, dissolved in w-irm water, and a little solution of fimmonia added. On evaporation the pure salt
sejiarates.

parts of the slide, dendritic aggregations of the needles are seen (PI. 39. fig. II a).
fig.

augmented

(PI.

.39.

12).

On some

The oxalurate
the

of

ammonia forms one

of

Sometimes the colours are disposed in concentric rings when these are well defined, a concentric arrangement of the groups of needles is distinguishable on examining the disks by common light. simple experiment will show the origin of the cross and tbe colours. If eiglit crystals of any doubly refracting salt be arranged upon a slide in the directions of equidistant radii of a circle, they may be
;

When a small quantity izing microscope. of its aqueous solution is slowly evaiiorated on a slide, some of it usually crystallizes in circular crystalloid disks or very flat spheres, consisting of minute needles radiating from a centre and in an intimate state of mechasometimes the extremities nical adhesion of tlie needles are seen projecting beyond
;

most beautiful and interesting substances that can be examined by the polar-

regarded as forming two crosses, alternating in position. If the slide be placed under the microscope, with the plane of polarization of the polarizer and analyzer at right angles, and the crystals be simultaneously rotated and kept in the same relati\e position, a point will be reached at which each
alternate crystal will become black, the intermediate ones appearing coloured and im continuing the rotati(m, th(> crystals which were at first black vdU appear coloured, those which were coloured appearing
;

the circumference of the disks.

;

The

latter

appear colourless or yellowish by reflected light pale or dark brown or even black by transmitted light, according to their size and
thickness,

^Vben immersed

in

Canada

Ijal-

sam, they become transparent, often nothing

black. Tb(i blaclniess of the crystals aiises from the plane of primitive polarization of the light transmitted by the polarizer being or neutral axis of the parallel with the
opticj

AlNIxUOXIA.
crystals,

[
is

35

AMCEBA.

consequently there

no double
to produce

refraction
;

and no interference

Dujardin added ten, and others have since been added but the characters cannot be
;

colour whilst in the coloured crystals, the with optic axis of which does not coincide the plane of polarization, double refractiou and interfereuce ensue, by which the colours The tint of colour varies are produced. according to the thickness of the disks.

depended upon. They are found in almost all infusions which have not become putrid also in the slimy debris covering bodies immersed in fresh or salt water sometimes on moss or
; ;

earth.

See Circular crystals and PolarizaTIOX.

Their size varies from 1-70 to 1-2800".

Ainceha diffuens
is

represented in the ex; ;

AMMONIA, PURPURATE
ide.

OF, or Is an artificial product of the

Murexdecom-

It may be prepared position of uric acid. by dissolving uric acid in dilute nitric acid, as directed under Ammonia, oxalueate The solution is evaporated until it OF. acquires a tile-red colour then cooled to exactly 158 Fahr., and dilute solution of ammonia added to it until it is neutralized.
;

by PI. 30. fig. 9 a and when contracted, by fig. 9 b fresh water. A. princeps. Yellowish wlnte, fiUed with panded
state

highly refractive granules j 1-50" in diam. In pools. A. bicdtce, found in the common cockroach, has tbe body striated (probably the
early stage oi&Gregarina).

Half its bulk

it cools.

of

water

is

then added, and

the

Amoeba villosa (Wallich) has one part of body covered with short processes or ^
In

the mixture deposits the salt in crystals as

vUli.

many

Amcebce,

when

the pseudopodia

The

crystals

form

sided prisms (PI. ruby-red by transmitted light, and the two broad surfaces are emerald-green by reflected light.

short, flattened, four11. fig. lOj ; they are

They

are also analytic.

BiBL. See Chemistry.

AMMONIA, irate of. See Urates. AMMONIO-CHLOPJDE of Platinum.

See Platinum. AMffi'BA, Ebr.

are expanded, the margin of tlie body appears very transparent, while the inner portions remain granidar ; this has been regarded as indicating the existence of an endosarc and an exosarc. But when a drop of liq. potassfs is added to an Amoeba, all is dissolved, except the gTanular matter of the body, which consists of foreign particles,
oil-granules, &c. Many so-called

A genus of Rhizopoda,
;

of the order Lobosa, and family Amcebfea. Char. The same as that of the family but the pseudopodia of one kind only. These curious organisms constitute the simplest forms of animal beings for they consist of a single kind of matter, a simple mass of sarcode. When first placed upon a slide, they represent minute rounded semitransparent masses but soon, one or more rounded or pointed lobes, or transparent expansions, are seen to shoot out from the margin. These muve almost imperceptibly along the slide, and, becoming fixed to it, slowly diaw the mass toAvards the fixed They are usually found to contain point. within them Infusoria, Diatoniacete, Desmidiacese or other minute Algse wliich are supposed to serve as food these bodies being involved in the same manner as occurs in the case of Actinophry's, a temporary Somedigestive cavity being thus formed. times vacuoles or contractile vesicles are seen within them, containing simply the these contract occasurrounding liquid
; ; ; ;

Amoebce are probably but in such, early stages of Fungi, &c. simple structureless bodies, nothing can be stated certainly, without the use of chemical
;

tests.

Certain Amoiba-io\'-ms, in which no nucleus or vacuoles occur, have been separated b}^ Hjickel as Monera ; but since any detached fragment of an Amoeba, or even of any Rhizopod, will live and form a new being, it is evident that such characters are
valueless.

Amoeba-like movements of the sarcode or protoplasm are often perceptible in isolated

normal and pathological structures

the

as

in

blood-curpuscles, the liver-cells, the corpuscles of dropsical liquids, the embryonal cells of ova, &c. also in various vegetable cells, the root-cells of Chara, Volvox, the spores of Algae, ,the Myxogastres, &c. Amaba-\\ke movements may even occur in
;

dead

cells (Lieberkiihn).

An Amoeba

with a large cilium and a

;

sionally

and disappear. Ehrenberg admitted four species to these

j

by Carter and a free swimming Amoeba with a ciliiun by Tatem. Bill. Ehr. In fits. 12G; Dujardin, Inf.
villous tail has been described

d2

AMCEB.EA.
231
\ii.
;

36

AMPHIMONAS.

805

Auerbacli, Sieb. and K611. Zeitsch. Schultze, Polythal. Carter, Ann.

;
;

N. Hist. 18o6 aud 18(14; Wallicb, ihid. Broun, Thier-Reich, 1880 1863, p. 198 Mic. Perty, Z. Kenntn. p. 188 Tatem, Mn. Jn. 1. p. 352 Lieberkiihn, Ann. A^. Hist. 1870, Ti. p. 497; Greeff, Arch. f. mik.An. X. 1873, p. 51. ii., & AMCEB.^'A, Ehr. family of Rbizopoda, of tbe order Lobosa. Char. Animals sbell-less, composed of a
; ;

placing the genus among his Paramecina. Body elongated, fusiform or lanceolate, narrowed at eacb end, or at least at the anterior extremity, and furnished with an oblique

mouth. Tbese animals are usually found in clear marsh water, and in streams, between aquatic plants. They are all fm-nisbed with in some these are arranged in cilia but one
lateral
;

longitudinal rows.
;

Species

glutinous substance, witbout integument or internal structure, constantly clianging form by tbe protrusion and retraction of parts of tbe body, wbence result variable expansions movement slow.
;

Amphileptus anser, E. (Dileptus anser, D.). Colourless length 1-120". Proboscis obtuse, as long as tbe body. A. margarilifer^ E. and D. Colourless
;

1-72".

Proboscis acute, as long as the

moniliger.,
;

body.

Tbey
sion.

Wben

are propagated by spontaneous fiscut or torn, eacb segment

A.

upon itself and forms a new being. Spermatozoa bave been stated to be formed from tbe nucleus, and ova formed from tbe sarcode,by Carter in Amoeba GreelFalso decontracts
;

proboscis short to 1-96".

E. and D. Colourless; nucleus moniliform 1-72

;

A.

viridis,

E. and D,

Green

1-120 to

1-46".
A.fasciola, E. andD. Colourless; linearlanceolate 1-720 to 1-144" (PI. 30. f. \0a,
;

but tbese are doubtful. Gen. Amoeha. Pseudopodia of one kind. Podostoma. Pseudopodia of two kinds, one large and for locomotion, tbe otber forming a proboscis, and serving for nutrisciibes spermatozoa,
:

from above b, side view). A. tneleaffris (Loxophi/llunimelear/ris, D.). Colourless 1-72" (PI. 31. f. 42 a; b, anterior
;

;_

tion.

portion in side view). A. loiujicoUis, E. Colourless

rounded
;

Petahpus. Pseudopodia cylindrical, expanding at tbe ends into tbin plates. AMPELOM'YCES, Ces. See Oibium. AMPHIBLES'TllA, Presl. genus of now referred to Polypodiaceous Ferns Dictyozypldnm and Pteris. Exotic. AMPIIICAM'PA, Ehr. doubtful genus of Fossil Diatomacefe.

behind, tapering in front; 1-120 to 1-96". A. papillosus, E. Yellowish brown body covered with papillfe 1-000 to 1-430".
;

A. vorax, Colourless.
Colourless.

D.

i^Trachelius vorax,
(^Trachclius
ovittn,

E.).

A. ovmn, D.

E.).

Claparede and Lachmann describe other

species.

A. Eruca (PI. 18. fig. 11). A. mirahilis (PL 18. fig. 12).
Fossil at Tisar, Mexico. BiBL. Ebrenberg, Ber. d. Berl.

Ah. 1855,
genus

See Teachelina. BiBL. Ehr. Infusionsth. p. 354 Dujardin, hifus. p. 483 Claparede and Lachmann,
;
;

86

and Mikroq.
CI.

AMPlIlDINiUM,

aud

L. A

Infus. p. 3J9; Kent, Infns.^. 523.

"AMPHILO'MA

(Fr.'),

Nyl.A genus

of

of cilio-flagellate Infusoria.

A. operculatum (PI. 53. fig. 2). Marine, Norway. BiBL. CI. and Lacbm. Infus. p. 410 Kent,
;

Lichens, fam. Lichenacei. Char. Thallus white, pulverulent, soft, submcmbranaceous, containing granida

gonima.
tose.

Hypothallus bluish-black, tomen-

Inf. p. 461.

"AMPIIID'HTM,

Mosses, included under

Nees. a genus Zygodon.

of

A. lanuginosum.
frequent.

On shady mossy

rocks,

AMPHILEP'TUS. A genus of Infusoria,

; ;

BiBL. Leigbton,
of the family

of tbe family Colpodea (Ehr.). Eye-spot wanting no tongue-like pro-

AMPIIIM'ONAS. A genus of Infusoria,

Monadina
(Duj.).

Zzc'A.-i^Zora, 1879, p. 156.

proboscis aud tail present. The so-called proboscis resembles in appearance a neck. Tlie mouth is situated beneath the junction of the proboscis and the body. Dujardin gives the foiJowing characters.
cess

Found
water.

Species :

in kept saline solutions

'

and marsh

A. dispar. Colourless length 1-3860 to 1-2700" (PL 30. fig. 11). A. caudafa (Bodo saltans ?, Ehr.). Colourless 1-2180 to lrl270".
; ;

A3IPHDI0RriIINA.
A.
brachiata.

37

AMnriSTEGIiNA.
Larger tiian A. N. Amer. (tSrun,
Indian Ocean,
p,
i.

Colourless.
p. 292.

A. Lhidheimcri.
in fr.-wat. torrents,

pell.

BiBL. Dujardiii, Infus.

Oestr.

AMPHIMOEPIII''NA,
Oue

Neugeboren.

Biat.

i.

p.

469,

fig.).

of the dimorphous Nodosariiie Foraminifera, in which the t)lder portion has grown

A. Frauenfddii.
ut supra.
p.

Grun,

on the Froudicularian plan, and the younger chambers are Nodosariau or Dentahne. Tertiary, Germany.
BiBL. Verhand. genus of
feras).

BiBL. Kutzing, Bacill. 88 Smith, Brit. Diat.

;

103; Sp. Alg.

p.

45

Raben-

horst, Flor. Alg.

i.

p. 143.

Siebejibiiry.

AMPHIPEX'TAS,
fossil

Ehr. A

1850. doubtful

Diatomacese (Cohort Anguli;

Char.
solitary,

Unattached frustides bi\-alve, and pentagonal.

diam.
1-240";
;

cubical,

A. PeiUacrinus;
marl.

Greek

AMPHIPPtU'RA, Ehr.Agenus of Diatomacese (Cohort Naviculese). Char. Frustules free, sohtary, constricted in the middle valves convex, having a median keel, with a nodule at each end, and either a nodule or stauros in the middle. Marine, or inhabitants of brackish water. Frustules sometimes much twisted, oc;

A. alternans (PI. 25. fig. 11) Cuba. BiBL. Ehrenb. Ber. d. Berl. Ak. 1840 and 1843, Abhl. 1841 Kutzing,^c. p. 1.3G; Babenhorst, Alg. i. p. 3J 9. AMPHIPLEU'KA, Kiitz.A genus of DiatomacetB (Cohort Amphipleurefe).
;

casionally resembUng a violin in form, from one half of the frustule being in a longitudinal plane almost at right angles to that of the other. Surface of the valves more or less distinctly marked with transverse strife,

Char. Frustules free, straight oi- slightly sigmoid valves lanceolate or linear-laureolate, with a median longitudinal line which is thickened and expanded longitudinally at each end, but without a median nodule. The valves appear to resemble those of Nitzschia in their inecjuality but they are compressed in the opposite direction to those of that genus, and thus the median hues of both valves are visible at once. That the Hues seen upon the frustules are the same as the median lines of the separated valves, is e\ident from their exhibiting the terminal This view is confirmed by the expansions. sides of the frustules being half as broad again as the separate valves. A. pellucida (PI. 16. fig. 7a, side view of frustule b, of valve). Valves linear-lanceolate length 1-225" furnished with longitudinal and transverse strite, of extreme delicacy, requiring the best object-glasses of large aperture, and the most oblique light, to render them visible. Sollitt estimates them at 125 to 130 in 1-1000". Nelson at
;

which under high powers and proper manipulation are resolvable into dots, arranged as in PI. 15. fig. 8. Many species.

Common (PI, 16, fig, 8 a alata, E, view b, front view), Fr, twisted fr. view linear, ends rounded valves narrowly elliptical. A. constricta, E. Fr. straight, narrow valves with a transverse line, ends acute. Babenhorst separates the species with a distinctly curved, mostly sigmoid keel, in a genus A?nphka7npa. BiBL. Ehr. Abh. Berl. Ak. 1841, p. -333 Sp. Alg. p. 93 Kutzing, Bacill. p. 107
A.
side
;

Smith, ^y-i?!. Diat. i. Mic. Tr. 1863, pp.

p.

43,

ii.
;

p.

92; Greville,
p.

1.3,

20

1865,

105

Ann. N. Hist. 1865, xvi. p. 5; Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 33 Grun, Verh. Wien, 1860, p. 569 Donkin, Qti. Mic. Jn. 1861,
;
;

Rabenhorst, Flora Alg. i. p. 253. genus of Infusoria, fam, Oxytrichina, BiBL. Kent, Inf. 1880.
p.
;

14

AMPHISTA, Kent. A

AMPHISO'RUS. The compound

or

80to 1-1000" longitudinal, and 96tranverse,

p. -152,

(by vertical illumination) Jn. Mic. Soc. Freshwater: Brit. 1881),

:

i.

A. ri(/ida,K.
;

(sif/t)ioidea,Sm.).

Marine;

aged individuals of Orbitolifes orbicnlus, having chambers on both faces of the disk, are grouped by Ehrenberg under this genus of his Bryozoa polysomatia. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Abh. Berl. Ak. 1838;
Carpenter's For.
p. 105.

valves nan-owly linear-lanceolate, slightly sigmoid length 1-150" (PL 16. fig. 7 c, side

view)
cate
;

British.

Valves lanceolate, trunlength 1-400" coast of Denmark. A.injiexa. Marine; linear, lunate, slightly attenuate at ends, obtuse length 1-330"
;

A. Danica, K.

D'Orb. One of the high-class genera of Forayninifera perforata, of the Nummuline family. It differs from

AMPHISTEGINA,

cal,

British.

in not being symmetrione face being more conical than the other. On the flatter face the alar flaps of the chambers are as in Nummulina but on the
;

Nummulina mainly

AMPinSTOMA.

38

AMYLOBACTER.
;

other they are packed in around the umbo among the chambers, to which they are attached by very narrow necks. The aperture also lies somewhat on this side of the median plane. Living abmadantly in some parts of the tropical seas and found fossil some Tertiary strata younger than those

tufted, flagelliform filaments with crowded fine articulated fibrils at the base. On wet rocks, the sides of aquaria, &c. ; fr. water.

AMPHIZONEL'LA, Greeff.A genus of

Rhizopoda=-(4wi(E6a with a very delicate
shell.

A. papilhm (PL 3. fig. 4). BiBL. Rabenhorst, Alg. ii.

p. 229.

Nummulites. Recent, South Seas fossil, Middle Tertiary, Australia, Europe. Amphistegina Haueri (PI. 24. fig. 38).
rich in

BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien.

penter,

Car-

Foram.

AMPinS'TOMA
Char.

p.

241.

disciis).

(Holostotnum, A genus of Entozoa of the Diplofamily

Trematoda.
nical
;

Body soft, oval, cylindrical or cointestine 2-branched two pores, one

;

3 species fresh water. BiBL. Greeff, Arch. f. mik. An. 1866, ii. p. 323 Broun, Klass. pi. 1. fig. 7. AM'PHORA, Ehr. A genus of Diatomaceee (Cohort Naviculete). Char. Frustules solitaiy, free or adherent; valves with a nodide or a stauros at the middle of the margin on the inner side. The nodules exist on the flat side of the
;

anterior, the other posterior forming a large sucker. The species are numerous, most common
in birds, but
reptiles,

sometimes occur
fishes
;
;

in

mammalia,

frustules the fr-ustules are plano-convex ; PL 16. fig. 10 a represents a transverse section the side view of the frustules can only be seen when these are made to roll over
; ;

and

alimentary canal of an inch.

colic valve; red;
Si/sf.

general!}^ inhabiting the length from 1-10 to 4-5

by sliding the glass cover upon the shde with the mounted needle. (Inteoduction,
p. xxiii.)

A. homim's, in imm (India)

^" long.

near the ileo-

strife,

BiBL. Dujardin, ^e/?H.

Jlchn.
;

p. 327; Diesing, Proe. Asiat. Sue. 1876 ; Col)-

AMPHITET'RAS, Ehr. A genus of Diatomacese (Cohort Anguliferfp). Char. Side view of the f rustules rectanguvalves lar, the angles sometimes produced covered with depressions, which are readily seen imder a low power. This genus approaches Isthmia and Bid;

bold, Paras. 1879, p. 37 (fig.).

vahes are furnished with transverse resolvable into dots, but iu some species these are excessively minute. The species are both marine and aquatic. A. oralis, K. Aquatic; frustules turgid, oval, ends rounded or truncate length
Tlie
;

in its rectandulphia, from which it differs gular and not compressed figure. A. antedUuviana (PI. IG. fig. 9) a, frustules united c, front view h, side view ; Lateral surfaces of d, perspective view. the frustides with concentric radiating deBritish ; sides concave. pressions, their
; ; ;

1-400"; common. (PL 16. fig. 10, front view; 10 a represents a transverse secticm.) A. mi7ititissima, S. Aquatic, adherent to other Diatomacese ; valves with a stauros length 1-1200". A. costata, S. Marine ends beaked ; valves longitudinally ribbed length 1-500".
: ;
;

A. membranacea,
brackish water.

S.

(PL

16. fig.

11);

Rabenhorst describes 54 European and 22 other species. BiBL. Kiitz. Bacill. p. 107 Sp. Alq. p. 93; Smith, Brit. Diat. i. p. 19 Rabenhorst,
;

marine.

Flor. Ah/,
:

i.

A. adriatica. Depressions concentric and radiating angles of the frustules ol>

surfaces of frustules Avith ; straight sides Adriatic sea. A. parallela. Depressions parallel in

AMPHOROPII'ORA, Buckt. A
of Aphidas.

p.

86.

genus
;

tuse

lateral

A. amimllata is very large, green eyes red, with very long antennae fixed on "the
fi'ontal tubercles
;

cornicles large, dilated in

Greek marl. 10 other species.

p.

the

middle,

orifices.
;

On
p.

BiBL. Kvitzing, Bacill p. 135 Sp. Ahj. 133 Ehrenberg, Ahh. d. Perl. Ak. 1839, pp.122, 144; Greville, M(c. Traiis. 1805, Fhr. AUj. p. 105, 1866, p. 9; Rabenhorst,
;

BiBL.
1879, L

with black trumpet-shaped Cystopteris montana. Buckton, Aphides (Pa)/ Soc), ^'
187.

i.

p. .818.

AM'PIIITHRIX, Ktz. A genus

Algse
;

Tr.5cul. The organisms to which this name has been applied are obtained by macerating tlie stems of
plants of various families in water. are round, or oval, of);en bacillar and

AMYLOBACTER,

of Rierect,

They
capi-

vulariaceous

consisting

of

AMYLOID.
tate
;

39

ANALYTIC CRYSTALS.

about 1-50,000" in lonj^th (PI. 53. Tliey are formed Avitliin the laticiferoiis vessels, but also within cells or fibres, and between the cells. They are coloured yellow by iodine, sometimes purple by sulfig. o).

Jardaceous degeneration, as the small artethe liver, the kidneys, the spleen, and the lymphatic glands.
ries,

See Cellulose and Starch.

phuric acid.

They seem

to correspond to

AMYXCJM. See Starch. AMYMO'NE, Glaus. A genus

poda (Entomostraca). A, sphcerica and longhnana.
ings.

of Cope-

amylaceous Bacteria. They sometimes exhibit rapid movements. Their formation witLiu closed spaces has raised the question
of spontaneous generation.

In dredg-

Trecul, Compt. rend. 1865-7-8; Nvlander, Flora, xxxviii. 522, 1865 Robin, iyVcr.881; v.Tieghem, Btdl.S. hot. Fr.xxiv.
;

BiBL.

BiBL. Brady, Copepoda (JRay Soc), ii. 28, ANABAI'NA, Bory. SeeTRicHORMUs. ANACALYP'TA, Rohl. genus of

AM'YLOID.

This

Mosses,

made a

section of Pottia

name was given by

by MiiUer.

Schleiden and Vogel to a peculiar moditication of ATgetable substance met with in the thickening layers of the cell-walls, in the
cotyledons of certain Schofia spenosa, S.
Courbaril,
latifolia,

BiBL. Miiller, Syn. Muscor. i. p. 5J7; Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 97. ANACH'ARIS, Rich. A genus of Hydrocharidaceaa (aquatic Monocotyledonous

Leguminosse, viz. Hj/mencea

3Imuna

vrens,

M.

gigantea,
;

and

ihe tAmsxmdi {Tamarindus indica) also of the common white Haricot bean. When in a dry condition, it is of a soft horny con-

when wetted, it softens, becomes gelatinous and ti'ansparent it is soluble in boiling water, strong acids, and in solution of potash, but not in alcohol or ether. It is coloured blue by iodine, like starch, the compound being soluble in water with change to a yellow colour. The 'amorphous starch,' described by Schleiden, in the seeds of Cardamomum viiims, in the rhizomes of Carex arenaria and Sarsaparilla, seems
sistence
;

A. Alsinastrujn, Bab., which is apparently identical with TJdora canadensis, a North-American plant, has become widely diffused in Britain during the last few years in ponds and streams. It is of great interest to microscopic observers, on account of the facility with which the Rotation of the cell-contents may be observed in its living
Plants).
It is commonly cultivated in jars of water for this purpose. BiBL. Wenham, Qu. Mic. Jn. iii. p. 277. ANAL'GES, Nitzsch. Agenus of plumicolous Acarina, fam. Sarcoptidae. In the the 3rd species, the integument is striated pair of legs very large and long j the abdotissues.

men

entire.
;

scarcely distinct fi-om amyloid ; it forms a thick viscous layer lining the cells. Amyloid forms a transitional substance between starch and bassorin and cellulose, and probably presents modifications approaching more nearly to one or other of them in different plants. When cellidose is treated with a mixture of 4 parts of sulphuric acid and 1 of water, it swells into a clear jelly, which is at first stiff", but gradually acquires liquidity ; alcohol or water throws down from it white flakes of amyloid, which are colom'ed blue like starch hy iodine. It differs, however, from starch in the circumstance that the iodine can be washed out of it, and the blue colour made to disappear by the action of water, which is not the case with starch. The so-called Amyloid substance of Virchow consists of a nitrogenous matter, It is coloured closely allied to albumen. deep reddish-brown by iodine, the addition of sulphuric acid sometimes producing a bluish-black or violet tint. It occurs intisseus and organs affected with the waxy or

Five species on birds. BiBL. Megnin, Parasites, 1880,

pi. 6.

p.

149,

genus of Palmellaceous Algse consisting of very numerous spherical green cells, imbedded in mucus, and enclosed in a lamellar envelope. A. marginata (PI. 52. fig. 8*). Found floating in fr. wat. pools, or on other algte. A. Grevillei, on dead stalks of asparagus. Other species. BiBL. Kiitz. Tah. Phycol.i. pi. 9. figs. 2-4;
;

ANACYS'TIS, Meneg. A

Sp. Alg. p.

209

Berkeley, Gleanings

^-c.

Hassall,i?/7V.^/(/.(Ccccoc/t^ons);Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. ii. p. 52.

ANALYTIC CRYSTALS.A
Fox

term

proposed by

Talbot, in 1837, to designate those crystals which possess the power of analyzing polarized hght, like the tourmaline. The substances in which this property is best exhibited are the nitrate of potash, the sulphate of chrome and potash dissolved in tartaric acid by heat, boracic acid, the oxalate of chromium and potash, allantoin, hippm-ic acid, urea, oxalate of urea,

ANALYTIC CRYSTALS.
uric acid, Sec.

40

ANAULUS.
;

Canada balsam.

They must be immersed in The cryi^talline compound

by the same boundary

of disidphate of quinine with iodine is infeThe phenomena rior to none in this power. scarcely need description, since analytic crystals merely play the part of a thick plate of tourmaline, or a Nicol's prism i. e. if polar:

so that while this part analyzes the tints of a plate of sulphate of lime, the rest of the crystal is inactive.

That internal reflection and dispersion, however, are not the cause of the separation
of the coloured rays, is shown by the fact that those lateral surfaces of crystals which, when viewed through the microscope (with the polarizer and plate of selenite alone ), appear of a certain colour, say green, exhibit the complementary tint, red, when viewed with the naked eye from the side of the stage hence the two coloured rays are se;

ized light be transmitted through them (a polarizer alone being used), in one position they sutler it to pass freely, while if they are rotated 90 they arrest or absorb it entirely, or to a greater or less extent and if a plate of selenite, or other depolarizer, be placed beneath the slide upon which the crystals are situated (without the analyzer) the lateral surfaces are seen to be coloured, the complementary tints appearing at each
:

quarter rotation. Of course these crystals will act equally as Fox Talbot gives polarizers and analyzers. the following explanation of the cause of the phenomena in the crystals which he examined. When a beam of polarized light is transmitted very obliquely through a small

parated merely by refraction. The margins of cavities containing air and air-bubbles, which sometimes exist in the crystals, exhibit the colours in the same manner and from the same cause as the
lateral oblique surfaces of the crystals.

Nothing can sui'pass the curious and beautiful

tals,

prism of

two

nitre, its outUne generally exhibits colours instead of one for while the edge of the prism, which is on that side from which the ray of light comes, is, for instance, red, the opposite edge will appear On reversing the polarization of the green. This oblight, these colours are exchanged.
;

appearance presented by analytic crysthe delicacy and briUiant transparency of their coloured margins giving them the aspect of figures drawn ^"ith coloured ink. PL IL fig. 11 a, ft, represent two crystals of nitre, viewed with the polarizer but with (.)ut the analyzer or the plate of selenite; fig. 12 a, 6, represent two crystals as seen when the polarizer and jilate of selenite are used, exhibiting the complementary colours; fig. 12 c represents an air-bubble enclosed in the crystal.

servation shows why the phenomenon only occm'S in crystals possessing strong double refraction, like nitre, in which the refractive indices of the two rays are materially different. When a ray of common light is incident upon such a crystal, and therefore is

See DiCHROiSM and Polarization. BiBL. Brewster, P/nl. Trans. 18.3.5 Fox
;

Talbot,
part.

ibid. 18.37.

ANAliTIIROP'ORA, ^m\ti,= Lejmilia

A. monodon=Lepr. man. on stones from deep-sea water. BrBL. Hincks, Pohjzoa, p. 232. ANAU'LUS, Ehr. genus of Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules single, compressed, subquadrate, not furnished with either tubular processes, nodules or aperturesi, but ha\ ing
;

divided into two rays oppositely polarized, both rays are transmitted through the central parts of the crystal, which are bounded

by

approaching to parallelism. But when tlie bounding planes of the crystal are much inclined to each other,

parallel planes, or by planes

refract the light in the manner of a prism, the refi'active indices of the rays mav diflPer so much, that while one passes freea prism, theothercannot pass ly through such

and therefore

lateral constrictions.

In the latter character

dulphia.

it

resembles Bid:

at

all,

but suffers total internal reflection,

;

Kiitzing admits one species

and is thereby dispersed just as if the prism had a larger "^reflecting angle with respect to that ray than to the other. Therefore if

A.
flat

turgid in the

Valves fig. 7). very broad and when mature; having 4, G, 8, or 14

scalaris,

Ehr. (PI. 18.

state,

young

two

are presenop])ositely polarized rays ted to such a crystal as in our experiment, one will be transmitted and the other not.

lateral constrictions, which give the front view a ladder-like appearance; marine; diameter 1-470 to 175". Antarctic Ocean.

That from

the true explanation appears when the obhque planes are well-formed and clearly defined by the microscope, the colour also is accurately limited
this
is

A.
p.

this, that

indicus, Ehr.= Terpsinoe indica, Kiitz. BiiJL. Ehrenberg, Ber. d. Berl.Ak.l8U,

197; 1845,

p. 3l3l; Kiitzing-,

-S^^.

Ala. pp

119, 120.

ANBURY.

41

ANEMIA.
sigmoides,
;

AN'BURY, or Ambury, popularly clubroot or tingers-and-toes, is a di.sease peculiar It consists in the forto the Brassicacete. mation of galls or warts, often of large size, on the lower part of the stems and the It has been attributed to various roots. causes in some instances, the larv8e of a weevil have been found within the galls, to which their origin might fairly be attribu:

A.
Jersey

among

decaj-ing Fueus,

length 1-5000".
Infiis. p.

BiBL. Kent,

247.
Pferoi)tus,

ANCYS'TR0PU8, Kohl.A

found on Egyptian bats; dull yellow, with blackish markings, legs brown. JNIurray, Ec. Ent. p. 180 (tig.).

ANDRzE'A, Ehr. See ANCRiEACEiE.

genus of Mosses.

The Aphidaj have also been supposed to produce these tumours; this Buckton denies. The later researches of Worouin have ti-aced this disease to the agency of an ally
ted.

ANDR.'EA'CE^-E. A family of Schistocarpous Mosses, characterized especially by

Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.

of the

Myxomycetes,

called Plasmodiophora
;

Brassiccp.

BiBL, Johnson, Gordener^s Diet. p. 31 Buckton, Aphides {Ray Soc), ii. p. 20; Worouin, Priiif/sheim Jahrb. xi. p. 548 (pis.).

AXCHOREL'LA,

Ouvier. A genus of

Crustacea, of the order JSiphonostoma.

Cliar. Body short, produced in front into a Ivind of neck, which is transversely rugose arms two, furnished with a sucker or adhesive disk at the end, and contlueut throughout their length. Two British species A. uncinata (PL 19. fig. 7), milk-white found on the gills and gill-covers of the cod,
;

Andraea rupestris.
Fig, 10.

Fig

11.

A A

sporange not yet open. sporange burst into four valves, united at their points. Magnified 20 diameters.

haddock, and whiting; length about 1-2". A. rugosa, found ou a species of cod; length about 1-3". I'he above characters refer to the female. BiBL. Baird, Brii. Entom. p. 336. ANCYR'IUM, Werneck. An obscure

the peculiar mode of splitting of the fruit, somewhat analogous to that which is found in Ju7}germaimia, the urn-shaped capsule
di\-iding perpendicularly when ripe into four or eight valves, which usually remain attached together at their points (figs. 10 and 1 1) But the capsules always differ from those of Jungermannia in the presence of a columella. The cells of the leaves are parenchymatous, with their walls thickened, and somewhat papillose on the surface. The calyptra at first covers the capsule entirely, then splits off" as a mitre-shaped or bellshaped cup. The archegonia and antheiidia are either on the same or distinct plants, and the latter terminal on distinct branches. The few British species are natives of rocky,
.

genus of Infusoria. Char. That of an Enterodelous Bodo, with a moveable setaceous foot. 6 (?) species. BiBL. Wemeck, Ber. d. Bed. Ak. 1841,
p. 377.

ANCHYLOS'TOINIA, Dubini.A genus

Nematoid Entozoa. A. duodeNali'i=Uochmit(s duod. A. di/sent erica (PI. 53. tig. 4) is

of

fid position.

of doubtIt is about 1-100" in length ; cuned and transparent in front, yellow and opake behind, and expanded at the base. It

usually alpine
districts,

and

belong to the
^&a.\x&Andrcea.

is

in large numbers tions of diarrhoea

;

tirmly attached to the mucous membrane and occurs in the dejecand dysentery in hot cli-

In
tic

Acrochisgenus, the

ma, an antarcsporange splits only part of

the

mates.

BiBL. Douuon, Parasites ^-c. 1877; Beauregard, Mic.

1<*>80, p.

610.

genus of flagellate Infusoria, fam. Monadidte. Char. Ovate or elongate, free or adherent
;

ANCYRO'MOXAS,

Kent

way down.
I,

BiBL. Wilson
r.

Anemia mandioccana

to disBrilol. Group of sporanges bursting -,-,' charge the spores. Magnified.

Britann.^.W.

flagellum single, trailing at the end, vibratile elsewhere; a nucleus and vesicle present.

ANE'MIA (v4?2(? /ma), Swartz. A genus

(fig. 12),

of Schizseaceous Ferns

ANELLLDA.

42

ANGUILLULA.

Char. Capsules small, very abundant, forming a copiout<ly branched panicle. Several species 5 _mostly from trojDieal America.

among the Infusoria, but arranged in the order Nematoidea of the class Eutozoa by
The popularly known zoologists. " eels ' in vinegar and paste belong to this genus. Char. Body filiform, narrowed at the
modern
ends mouth terminal, round, naked anus subterminal tail of male either naked or furnished with a membrane (winged); a double spiculum tail of female conical, Mouth succeeded by an oblong caacute.
;
;

The

fertile frond.s,

bearing the sporangia,

p. 431.

are reduced to

mere ribs. BiBL. Hook. Sp. Filic.

ANEL'LIDA. See Annulata. ANEU'RA, Dumortier

Pelliese

(Hepaticontaining

cse), gi-o wing in wet

places,

3 British species. A. pinguis, L.

Frond
sinuate,

irregularly

branched, margins
calyptra

smooth, whole
brownishplant = J", phif/ut's, green. Hooker, Br. Jungerm.
13).

stomach top-shaped or vity (pharyux) spherical, ftu'nished with a kind of dental armature. Tail of the female fi-equently Uterus bitid ; prolonged into a fine point. vulva situated near the posterior third of the body. Oviparous or viviparous. These animals are especially remarkable and interesting on account oif their great tenacity of life ; resembling in this respect the Tardigrada and Rotatoria. Thus Ang.
;

46

flutiaiilis,

A. multijida, L.

when existing in places exposed to the heat of the sun, will dry up and become hard and brittle. But as soon as remoistened by rain, it revives, swells up, becomes soft, takes food and exercises its re-

Frond bipinnately
divided, calyptra J. tuberculate.

Hooker, Br. Juugerm. t. 45 (figs. 14 and

mnltijida,

K^
Aneura pinguis. Burstinp; sporanges. Magnified 2 diameters.

productive functions as before.

The same

faculty is possessed to an extraordinary degree by Aug. tritici, which will revive after

15).

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Aneura muUiflda.
Fig. 14.

Portion of a frond with young perichsetes, magnified 20 diameters.

Fig. 15.

periehffite, more magnified, cut open to show the archegonia.

A. palmata, Nees. Frond palmate, calyptra tuberculate, =/. multijida, var. jyalmata, Hooker. BiBL. Hooker,
Sachs, Bot. 1874,
Brit,
p. 355.

having been kept in a dry state for more than five years. Nor are they destroyed by being frozen. A)ig. fluviatilis (?) (Ang. terresfris, Duj.) (PL 21. fig. 4). .White" about 15 times as long as broad cesophagus fusiform, expanded posteriorly so as to become contimious with the much larger stomach; length of male 1-50 to 1-12". Found in wet moss and moist earth,whence it gets washed into rivers and ditches; sometimes also in the intestinal canal of snails, frogs, fishes, worms, and insects. From 30 to Am/, aceti (PI. 21. fig. 5). 45 times as long as broad, narrowed posteriorly and terminated by a drawn-out point; cesophagus cvlindrical; tail conical, pointed; length 1-30 to 1-17". This species was formerly very common in vinegar, and tlie " eels in vinegar " were
;

Jungermannice

ANGIOP'TEEIS, Hoffmann. A genus

Exotic.

of Marattiaceous Ferns.

BiBL. Hooker, Sp.

ANGUIL'LULA,
Duj.).

A genus of animals, formerly placed

Fil. p. 440 (\^\. 0). iMiiller {lihahditis,

favourite popular microscopic objects. To the freedom of our vinegar from mucilage, and the addition of sulphuric acid allowed by law, must be attributed their comparative rarity in the present Still, if to day. clieap vinegar, in which a few may be perceived by a haiid-lens, a little flour be added,

thev

mav

be bred in swarms.
fi^.

Ang.

tritici (V\. 21.

G).

20 times as

ANGUILLULID^.
;

43

ANGULAR APERTURE,

long as broad in the adult state length 1-42 to 1-4"; pharynx with an exsertile epear, trilobed at the base.

A genus ofmarinePolyzoa,ofthe suborder

Cheilostomata, and family Kucratiida^. Char. Cellstubular, erect, scat tered,rising from a creeping fistular fibre adnate to a foreign base; aperture terminal or subterBritish species Cells spatulate at the end, curved, ringed. A. recta. Cells straight. A. triincata. Cells truncate at the end, surface punctate, not ringed. Fom- foreign species.

Found

infesting the leaf-sheaths,

where we have found them reproducing by ova, in great numbers. About 20 times as long Aiiff. gluiinis. as broad, terminating posteriorly in a fine
elongated point; length l-lo". Found in sour paste.

in blighted wheat, and sometimes young plants, burrowing in the

minal.

A.

Sj)afulata.

Other so-called AmjuilMcs are found in the same situations as A. Jluviatilis, See

Enoplid^.
Aug.
{Leptode7-d) stercoralis is a simple,

smooth-bodied nematode 1-G25" long; somewhat narrowed in front, and more so behind the males and females being nearly
;

Found in enormous numequal in size. bers in the evacuations of patients in CochinChina. Ang. {Lept.') intestinalis is a larger species, sometimes found with the above, but
less

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 292 Gosse, Zool. ii. 13 Busk, Cat. Mar. Pohjz. 31 Hincks, Polyz. 1880, p. 2. ANGUINEL'LA, V. Bened.Agenus of marine Poh'zoa, of the suborder Ctenostomata, and family Vesiculariidse. A. puhnata. Palmately branched, largely composed of mud; tentacles 12; no gizzard;
;

Mar.
;

British.

BiBL. Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 22 Van Beneden, Bryoz.; Hincks, Mar. Polyz. 1880,
;

numerous;

length

1-11",

breadth

p.

539.

l-7o7;'. It is almost impossible to dissect these minute beings in the ordinary manner the
;

ANGULAR APERTURE.The anguan object-glass

is

lar aperture of

best

body,

method of proceeding is to wound the and gently press out the contents
;

under water. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1826, ix. Bauer, PJiil. Tr. 182.3 Ehrenberg, Symhol. Phys.; Dujardin, Helminthes Davaine, Ann. N. H. 18o6, xviii. p. 2(38; Bavay, ibid. 1877, xix. p. 350 Kiihn, Sieb. & K61liker's Zeitsch. 1857, p. 129; Bastian, Linn. Tr. 1805, XXV. 73; Cobbold, Entozoa, 1879, p. 236 (figs.).
; \

the angle the centre focal point of the object-glass, the radii being formed by the most extreme lateral rays which the objectglass admits. Thus let fig. 16 represent a perpendicular section of the lowest combination of an a is the object-glass of small aperture

measured by the arc of a of which is formed by the

circle,

Fig. 16.

Fiff. 17.

ANGUILLU'LID^.A

family of ne-

matoid worms.
This family corresponds pretty nearly to the Enoplidse of Dujardin. The genera have been re\'ised by Bastian in an excellent

genera and 100

and

who

which several new species are described figured; to which we must refer those are specially interested in this curious
monogTaph, in

new

group. small nematoid

is

very destructive to angle of aperture and /, e are the most oblique I'ays which the object-glass will admit the angle is measured by the dotted arc b. In the object-glass of larger aperture, fig. 17, the arc b which measures the angle is much larger, and the radii representing the extreme lateral rays are much more oblique. Hence it is evident that the object-glass of larger aperture admits all
;
;

young cucumber plants, forming cysts in the roots. M. Cornu has recorded a similar
disease in the Rubiacefe. The genus to which these nematoids belong has not been

determined.

BiBL. Bastian, ZmM.r;'.xxv.p.73, 1865; Cornu, Compt. rendus, 1878-9 Beauregard, Mic. 1880, p. 604.
;

ANGUINA'RIA,Lamk.(^ETEA, Lamx.).

ANGULAR APERTURE.

'

44

ANGULAR APERTURE.

those rays admitted by tliat of less aperture, and a certain number of other rays, these

being more oblique. Mcasnrcmoit of the migle of aperture. It is of the utmost importance to know the angle of aperture of the object-glasses used in investigations because the appearances

Wlien used, the object-glass to be tested screwed to the end of the body next the pin, and so adjusted that its focal point is
is

presented hy objects vaiy according to tlie magnitude of this angle, and this variation must always be taken into account in determining the structure of an object from
its

appearance.
is

ratus

particular piece of apparequisite for this purpose (fig. 18),

as nearly as possible perpendicularly over the pin. lamp is placed 2 or 8 yards from the board and upon exactly the same level as the axis of the body of the microscope, the straight side of the board being next the lamp and when the arm has been so adjusted that the pointed end is opposite 90, the lamp is placed so that the flame is seen through the body of the microscope. The eyepiece is next put into the other end. The arm supporting the body of the microscope is then moved on one side, the eyepiece looked through in the usual manner, until the field is seen to be divided into two parts, a dark and a luminous half the degree which the pointed end of the arm coincides with is then noted, and the arm is moved in the other direction until the division of the field is again seen the number of degrees included in the arc thus traversed measures the angle of aperture. This is the old method (Lister's), and that

which may

of board must be procured, the shortest sides of which are about 2 inches longer than the body of the microscope, and the longer sides twice this length. small hole must then be made opposite the middle of one of the long sides, at about half an inch from its margin, and from this, as a centre, a semicircle must be traced upon the board, and the semicircular line divided into 180 the portions outside the semicircle being cut away. The wooden plate of this form is shown in perspective in fiat thin piece of wood () the woodcut. rather broader than the body of the microscope, a little longer than the radius of tlie semicircle and pointed at one end, is then placed upon the board in such a manner that

A rectangular piece

easily be constructed as follows.

by which object-glasses are still geneially measured so that, for the purposes of comparison, it will be found useful. But it is considered that it gives an erroneous excess of aperture, from the admission of rays from lateral pencils, which
;

should be excluded. Wenhani recommends as a more accurate method, that half the front lens of the. object-g'lass be covered
tin-foil. The degrees from the half lens are then subtracted from those of the entire lens, and twice the diflereuce represents the aperture. very rough method of determining whether an object-glass has a small or large angle of aperture is this direct the objectglass, with the lower end towards the eye, to the sky at a window then, keeping the object-glass fixed, move the eye on one side until light is no longer visible in the glass. The extent to which the eye can be moved round, before the light vanishes, indicates the extent of aperture. Another method is described in Carpenter's 'Microscope,' 1868, p. 172, or Ro-

with a piece of

the pointed end corresponds with the graduated margin, wliilst tlie other end is transfixed by a pin (h) wliich below is driven Tluis we have a rotating into the ])oard. arm or radius of the semicircle, which may be compared to the hand of a watch or clock, the pin forming the centre of rotation. To the upper surface of this arm are glued two thin pieces of wood, excavated in the middle, so as to form supports for the body of the microscope the excavations should be triangular, the apex being directed downwards.
;

"

bin, 'Microscope,' 1877, p. 103: also Abbe's Apertometer," with figs., in the Jn. 3Iicr. Soc. 1878, i. p. 19 and H. Smith's "Univer;

sal

Apertometer," in the Jn. Micr. Sue. 1879, p. 775 (fig.).

ii.

According to Abbe (Crisp), tlie aperture of an optical instrument indicates a greater or less capacity for receiving rays from
I

ANGULAR ArEPtTURE.
tho object, and transmittinginiag'e.

45

ANGULAR APERTURE.

them

to the

In the microscopic object-glass, the angular apei'tuie is determined by the ratio between its focal length and the diameter of the emergent pencil at the plane of its emergence from the back lens of the combination.
is expressed for all media and n being the refractive cases by n sine u index of the medium, and u the semi-angle of aperture. The values of n sine ti, for any particular cases, are the numerical apertures of the object-glasses, so that in dry object-

This ratio

all

glasses ?( and in
glasses,

=1

iu water-immersion, n

= r33

w = l-52.

homogeneous

immersion object-

F. Crisp gives a Table of the relation of the ordiuar}^ expression of the angular aperture to the numerical {Jn. Mic. Soc,
1881,
i.

aperture of 60 or 70, as illuminated by the ordinary light of the mirror, nothing more is seen than the more or less coloured valve with a distinct outline, the central line and the nodules and no change is produced in the appearances, however intensely the object may be illuminated. But if an object-glass of larger angular aperture be used, a number of fine dark parallel lines are seen traversiug the valve. Hence the object-glass of larger aperture possesses a particular power of rendering indications of structure evident, which is not possessed by the one of less aperture. 2. If, in the same experiment, the mirror be brought towards one side of the stage, and the light be then thrown upon the object, the Hues will become more distinct if
;

180 apertiu'e = l num. apert. 98 = 0-76; G0 = 0-50 &c.

p.

325).

Thus

The

corresponding immersiou-apertm-es are also given in this Table. As an object-glass of large aperture admits a greater number of oblique rays than one of less apertm-e, the central rays being in nowise interfered with, so the total number of rays admitted is greater, and objects
will thereby be more brilliantly illuminated. This is one of the advantages gained by the use of an object-glass of large aperture ; and the explanation applies especially to its use in the examination of opaque objects, in regard to which it can be readily understood that a greater number of the rays reflected from all parts of an object being admitted, will render it more luminous and distinct. In this case the same effect would be produced by condensing an additional amoimt of light upon the object.

previously' visible, and frequently visible when not so before. 3. Placing a stop in the condensing lenses of the achromatic condenser or object-glass will increase the distinctness with which the markings are seen, if already visible, and wiU

frequently render
before.

them

visible

when not

so

These experiments show, that using an

object-glass of large aperture in the examination of an object, bringing the mirror to one side, and placing a central stop in the object-glass or the condenser, or in both, produce the same effects, viz. that of render-

when not

ing the markings upon an object visible so previously, or of rendering*

distinct if previously visible. evident that the alterations of the conditions imder which the object is examined in the above experiments, involve simply the viewing of the object when illuminated entirely or more completely by obFor an object-glass of large lique light.

them more
it is

And

however, another far more important use of large angular aperture in an It was first foimd by Goring object-glass. that the longitudinal and transverse lines upon the scales of Lepidopterous and other insects could be seen under certain objectand that the glasses, but not under others

There

is,

power of displaying these, or the penetrating power of the object-glass, as it was called, depended upon the magnitude of the anThe same has since been gular aperture. found the case with the markings upon the
valves of the Diatomaceoe, thus If the valve of a Pleurosignxi angulatmn 1 be examined under an object-glass of 1-4 or 1-8 of an inch focus, and an angular
:
.

aperture admits more oblique rays than one of less aperture, the central raj^s being in nowise interfered with inclining the mirror to one side, causes all the rays which are reflected from it to become oblique and the use of central stops excludes all the central rays, so that only the oblique Hence the visibility or rays are admitted. greater distinctness of the markings upon an object depends upon its illumination by
;

oblique light.

Experiment also shows that the degree of obliquity of the light requisite varies with the delicacy or fineness of the markings, being greater as these are more delicate so that the most delicate markings require the
;

most oblique

light

which can possibly be

ANGULAR APERTURE.

46

ANGULAR APERTURE.
;

obtained, to render them evident, and the angnlar aperture of the object-giass must necessarily be proportionately large, otherwise none of these oblique rays could enter it. In attempting to explain these phenomena, we may take the opportimity of exa-

mining somewhat minutely the reason why objects become visible to us under various
circumstances.
of objects becoming visible to us under the microscope, is tbata certain mmiber of the rays of light transmitted through or incident upon them or their parts, either become absorbed, refracted or reflected. Plence the parts at which refraction or absorption occurs may become either coloured or dark, whilst those which transmit or reflect the light become shall leave the cases of abluminous. sorption and reflection out of the question at present, and consider only those of re-

phenomenon is constantly met with in microscopic investigations thus it is well known that parts of structure which are visible most cleai'ly bv the light of a lamp in a dark room, cannot fee distinguished when the room is illuminated by ordinary dayand luminous objects are best seen light on a black ground, and dark objects on a
;

The ordinary cause

light ground. The refraction of the light out of the field

We

fraction. If the parts which refract the light are large in proportion to the power of the oband of irregular form, they will ject-glass, refract a certain number of rays, so that

these cannot enter the object-glass, and they will hence become dark, and will shadow out, as it were, in the image formed of the object, the structural peculiarities of the But if the parts are minute, of a object.

curved form and approximatively symmetheir lenticular foci will produce a luminous or dark appearance, according to the relation of the foci to that of the objectof an object may apglass. Thus, the parts pear dark and defined, from the refraction of the light from the held of the microscope also, iVom the concentration or dispersion of
trical,
;

of the microscope or beyond the angle of aperture of the object-glass, is the ordinary cause of the outlines of objects becoming and in these cases an increase of the visible angular aperture of the object-glass will impair their distinctness, because it will allow of the admission of those rays which would otherwise have been refracted from the field, and tlie margins will become more luminous and less contrasted with the luminous field. All that is required here is that the objectglass shall be achromatic, and that the marginal rays shall not be decomposed, so that any of the coloured rays should enter the in which case, the margins of the obfield jects would appear colom-ed instead of black, and thus the contrast requisite for distinctness would be lost. But in certain objects, the irregularities of structm-e are of such extreme minuteness, or the difi'erence of the refractive power of tlie various portions of the structure is so slight, that the course of the rays
;

is

but

little

them;

altered by passing through and under ordinary illumination,

portions of the light by these parts, all the rays being admitted by the object-glass, or entering the field. Another condition, rather physiological

all the rays will enter the object-glass ; neither are the lenticular foci sufticient to map out the little light or dark spots in the field of the microscope according to their relation to that of the object-glass. Let us take the instance of an object with

minute markings on the

surface, as the valve of a These are Pleurosifpna. so minute, that when the

Fig. 19.

concerned in tlie question of the distinctness with which an otiject is seen, nay, even of its absolute invisibility. It consists in tlie relati(m which the luminousness or darkness of an object bears to that

than

optical, is

light

reflected

from the

f=^

of the field or background upon wliicli it is apparently situated and all objects, even those seen with the naked eye, may be regarded as viewed upon a background or
;

ordinary mirror is used, the rays passing through the depressed and the undepressed portions are not
siiliiciently

refracted

to

field,

the microscope. The familiar instance of the visibility of the stars by day from the bottom of a coal-pit, whilst invisible from the surface of the earth, may servo to illustrate this point. The same
field of

comparably to an object viewed

in tlie

cause either set to be excluded from the ol)ji'ctglass, consequently both sets will enter it (fig. li)).

But on transmitting oblique light througli the object, as represented in

I

fig.

20, one set of

ANGULAR APERTURE.

i7

ANGULAR APERTURE.

the rays will be refracted so as not to enter the ohject-g-lass, whilst the other set will pain admifisiou thus the two parts, Avhich have dilFereutly refracted the rays, will become distinct. If the markings were more
;

^^

Fig. 20.

duced by refraction or reflection) of the rays within the object, and their interference at the upper focal plane of the object-glass, where they produce distinct interferenceUnless at least one of the ditlracimao'es. ted beams is admitted by the object-glass, together with either another beam or the direct incident pencil, no indication of structhe microscopical image. of aperture of an object-glass represents a specific property, entirely distin.ct from the magnifying and other properties of the object-glass. If the interference-images are stopped off, or if the angular aperture of the object-glass is too small, the corresponding details disappear entirely from the microscopic images. xVbbe holds also, that structures of this
is visible in

ture

And the angle

between the repower of the two portions of the valve were less than that represented in woidd enter the objectfig. 20, both sets But on rendering the light still more glass. oblique, one set would be again excluded, from being refracted out of the field. Hence
delicate, or the diflerence
ii'active

minute kind which an object-glass with direct illumination does not render visible, are also not visible when the object is inclined at any angle whatever to the axis of
the microscope even when, while lying perpendicularly to its axis, they are perfectly resolved by oblique light. An important residt of these views is, that minute structural details are not, as a rule, imaged by the microscope dioptiically, in accordance with the real nature of the object, and cannot be interpreted as morphological but only as physical characters not as images of material "forms, but as signs of material differences in the nature of the particles composing the object, so that nothing more can safely be inferred from the image aspi'esentedto the eyethan the presence in the object of such structural peculiarities as will produce the particular difli-actionphenomena on which the images depend
; :

evident why the angular aperture of object-glass must be larger, as the markings are finer, or the difference between the refractive power of the two portions of tissue is less ; because the obliquity of the light requisite to cause the exclusion of one set of the rays will be very great, and the other set will be too oblique to enter the object-glass, unless it be of correspondingly
it is

the

large aperture.

In this way, we were wont to account for the action of large angles of aperture and oblique light in rendering visible the finer markings of objects. But the entirely new researches of Professor Abbe of Jena, confirmed by others,
especially Crisp, Stephenson, andNiigeliand Schwendener, have entii'ely altered the views upon this subject. According to Abbe's experiments and mathematical demonstrations, the resolution of the more minute structural peculiarities of objects those of less size than 5^00^ of an inch is produced by the superposition of two images, one of which principally contains the outlines of the object, and is produced according to the ordinary laws of

(Abbe). In regard to the action of oblique light and angular aperture in rel.iUou to colour: neither oblique light nor largo angular aperture possesses any power of rendering coloured transparent objects more distinct; and markings, when arising from the presence of pigment, are perfectly visible under an object-glass of smnll aperture, and the ordinary light of the mirror.

dioptrics; while the other, which yields the finer structural details, arises from the difiraclion (or an equivalent deflection pro-

When objects are examined under immersion-lenses, they appear more brilliantly illuminated, especially in regard to the finer This is partly to be attributed to details. the diminution of the loss of light from reflection at the surfaces of the cover and the under surface of the object-glass; but mainly to tlie circumstance that a larger number of oblique rays are enabled to enter the

ANGULAR APERTURE.
power

48

ANLMAL KINGDOM.
J.

object-glass, from the higher refractive of the immersiou-liquid, which produces the effect of an increased angle of

aperture in the object-glass. This admission of an increased number of oblique rays, would tend to invalidate the view, that the more delicate structures are rendered visible by the removal from the field of certain but it would favour the oblique rays rendering of the markings visible by their lenticular foci. According to the diffraction-theory, the admission of a larger number of diffraction-results would explain the increased distinctness resulting from the
;

immersion-arrangements.

Many rather controversial articles on the relation of the dry- to the immersion-apertures will be found in the M. M. Jn, from 1872 to 1877. It was noticed by Goring, that although the lines on the scales of certain msects required an object-glass of comparatively large aperture to show them, yet those existing upon glass micrometers did not so. But this statement is only partially correct for although the coarser lines upon micrometers are well seen under an object-glass of small aperture with good defining power and direct light, yet the finest lines upon
;

& 1876, xvi. 285 1878, i. 321; Abbe (abridged by Fripp), M. M. Jn. 1875, xiv, 191, 245; id. {Theor. d. Mik.) Arch. f. mik. An. 1873, ix. 420; (estimation of aperture) Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. 388; Apertometer (figs.), Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, iii. 20; Helmholtz (Theor. Grenze f. d. Leist.), Poyyen"Stedorff's Ann., Jubelband, 1874, p. 566 phenson, M. M. Jn. xiv. 3 & xvii.82; Nageli andSchwendener, Mikr. 1877, p. 82; Stokes, Jn. 3Iic. Soc. 1878, i. 139; F. Crisp, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. p. 303 (full description and illustrations of Abbe's views) Wenham, Amer. Jn. Micros. 1881. ANIMALCULE. little animal a term usually applied to the Infusoria, RoIt was formerly applied also tatoria, &c. to many of the lower Algfe. The Latin term animcdcidi(m (plural animalcula) is frequently met with. In accordance with our plan, as laid down in the Preface, we give here a tabular view of the animal kingdom, so that the position of the various classes and orders alluded to in various parts of this work may be readily found. Those
id.

M.

Jn.

1872, Mic.

viii.

231

80c.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Nobert's test-slide require penetrating power in the object-glass, and oblique light. Thus, R. Beck found that a -ith-in. object-glass of 120 would show all the 20 sets of Nobert's lines; when cut down to 110, it woidd not resolve the 20th band at 100 the 17th was the limit at 80 the 14th and at 60 the 10th. Our space vrill not permit of entering into further details on this important matter
;
;

classes, orders, families, and genera to which particular interest is attached in relation to structure or other qualities, which the micro-

scope is required to investigate, are specially treated of mider their respective heads.

Kmgdom ANIMA'LIA.
Class
I.

Subldugdom I. Vebtebha'ta. Mamma'lia.

1.

Order

Bi'riana.

we shall refer to it again, in its relation to the markings on the L)iatomace^. Aperfxres of Objed-ylasses. The following apertures of (dry) object-glasses may be taken to represent those usually niet with in good glasses 2", 14 1", 25 f ", 32
but

Homo, man. Order 2. Quadru'mana.

Simia,
key.

ape

Cercopithecvs,

common

monkey; Semnojnthecus^Yin^iAW monOrder

Order
3.

Cheirop'teka.
Insecti'vora.
;

VespertiUo, bat.
4.

i",40-80'-^; i", 75-140; ^",140; -fV, The i4rj-170; 5!^", 160'^;_ and ^V" l-'50.

Erinaceus, hedgehog

Talpa, mole.

apertures of the foreign object-glasses usually over-estimated by the malcers

their price-lists.

ai*e

in

transverse lines seen upon the of insects are noticed under Scales sects. The structure of the valves Diatom ACE.^ is discussed imder that
see also

The

scales

of Inof the

head

Introduction,
;

p.

xxxix,
;

/.

BiBL. Lister, Phil. Tr. cxxi. Goring, Pritchard, Micr. Ccthinef R. Beck, Treatise ^-c. 19 Weuhani, M.

Mkrogrnphia

Order 5. Oaiini'vora. Cams, dog and wolf; TTrsns, bear; Aasua, coatimondi. Felis, lion PiNNiPEDiA. Phoca, seal. Order 6. Ceta'cea. Balatna, whale Phoccena, porpoise. SiRENiA. ^rt/jcore, dugong Manatus, manatee. Order 7. PAcnYDER'MATAf. Equus, horse; Sus, hog; Hippopota; ;
;

mus

Choir opotamus.
I

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Order

49

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Ganoi'dea, bony pike;

PnoBOSciDEA. Elephas, elephant. 8. Iiuminan'tia fC'<rwi(V*",

;

Class V. Pisces, fishes.

Bos, ox;

camel

Ci?n?MS,

deer

Order
;

1.

Cupi-a, goat

Oris, sheep.

Order Order

9.

Edenta'ta (Bruta).
;

Lepidosfeus, geon.

SfMrio, stur-

Dasj/jms, aruunliUo
10.
;

Order
f^loth.

2.

Placoi'dea.
;

Bradijpus,
;

Koden'tia.
; ;

Carcharias, sliark

Baia, skate.

Cavia, guiuea-pig Lepus, hare Mus, mouse and rat Sciurus, squirrel beaver and Cdsfor, musquash ;
Chinchilla.

Order Order

3.

Ctexoi'bea.
Cycloi'dea.
Cy-

Perca, perch.
4.

Salmo, salmon; Cliipea, herring;

prinus, carp.

Order 11. Maksupia'lia, Macrojms, kangaroo; Didelphys, opossum. Order 12. Moxotkem'ata.
Ornithorhyndtus, duck-Lillod platjquis.

Order

5.

Cyclos'tomi.

Petromyzon, lamprey.

Order

6.

Leptocar'dea,
lancelet.

Amph ioxus,

tt These two orders form the Class Uugulata of

some authors.
Class

Subkingdom II. Mollusc A. I. Cephalop'oda.

;

Class II.
a.

AvES, Hrds. Carixatje. Order 1. Eapto'kes; birds of prey.

Aquila, eagle
;

Nautilus. Sepia, cuttle-fish Class II. Gasterop'oda.

Helix, snail; Limax, slug; Littorina, periwinkle. Class III. Pterop'oda.
per;

Strix, owl.
;

Order

2.

Insesso'ees (Passeres)
finch
;

chers.

Clio.

Frinf/iUa,

Hirundo, swallow
;

Class IV.

Conchie'era (Lamellibran;

Turdus, thru.sh, blackbird. Order 3. Scanso'kes climbers. Cuculus, cuckoo Psitiacus, parrot. Order 4. Galli'n.t. IIaso'kes. Galhis, fowl Columba, pigeon. Order 5. Grallato'rks waders.
; ;

chia'ta), shell-iioh. Ostrea, oyster Mytilus, mussel. Class V. Brachiop'oda.

Terehratula, lamp-sliell.

Class VI. Tunica'ta.

Ascidia, Salpa, BofryllHs,A>}iarouciuni. Class VII. Polyzo'a (Bryozoa), Seamats, &c.

Gi^us, crane.

Order 6. Natato'res swimmers. Larus, gull; Anas, duck; Anser,

;

goose.

Ratit^. Order 7. Cueso'res

h.

Subkingdom
;

III.

Arthrop'oda

(Arli-

culata).

rmmers.
Class
I.

Siruthio, ostrich.

Class

m.
1.

Order

Crustacea, crabs, 1. Decap'oda.

;

lobster, &c.

Order

Reptilia, reptiles. Chelo'nia.

Sau'ria.

Cancer, crab
fish.

Astacus, lobster and cray-

Tesfudo, tortoise.

Order

2.

Stomap'oda.

Order
Order

2.

Squilla.

Lacerta, Uzard.
3.
;

Order

3.

Amphip'oda.
shrimp.

Ophid'ia.
Coluber, snake.

Boa
Order

&'?y?2/-M5, freshwater Order 4. Isop'oda.

;

4.

Crocodil'ia.

Crocodilus, crocodile.

Class IV.

Amphibia.
Axlt'ra.
;

Order

1.

Bana, frog Biifv, toad. Order 2. Urode'la.

Jy-iVon, water-lizard
;

Oniscus, wood-louse Asellus, water wood-louse Limnoria. Order 6. Phyllop'oda. Branchipus, Ariemiu. Order (3. Cladoc'era. O Daphna, water-fieas. g o Order 7. Copep'oda. GO
;

Cyclo})s.

)rt-<

Menopoma; Pro-

?3 SO

Ordt r

8.

Ostraco'da,

teus.

Cypris.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
;

50

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Subkingdom IV. Vermes.

Ordor 0. Cirmpk'dta {Cirrhopoda). Balanus, acorn-.shell Lepas^ barnacle. Sii'Honos'toma {JcMhi/oOrder 10.
phthira)
;

Class

I.

Anxula'ta
1.

{AneUida).

fish-lice.

Order

Order 11. Pcecilop'oda. Limulus, king-crab.

Class II.

Setig'era. Lumhri'cus, earthworm; Nais) Ta'hife.v

;

Aphrodi'ta.

Order

1.

Abachni'da, spiders. Arane'ida.

;

Order 2. Sucto'ria. Hirudo, leech. Order 3. Turbella'ria.

Planaria.
Class II.

Aranea, house-spider
spider.

Epeira, garden-

Order
Order

2.

Pedipal'pi.

PtOTATORiA (Potiferu).

Scorpio, scorpion.
3. .Solif'uga.
4.

Class in. Entozo'a.

Galeodes.

Order

1.
;

Order

Pseudoscoepio'nes.

Tcenia

Cestoi'dea, Tape-worms. Bothrioeephalus, Acanthocepha-

Chdifer.

lus (Ct/stico, Ci/sticercus, Echinococcus, Ca'tiurus).

Order o. Phalan'gida. Phalnmjium, harvest-spinner. Order 6. Acari'na. Acdfus, mites. Order 7. H XRT>i(i'B,XT>x{Colopoda); waterbears.

Order

2.

Tremato'da.
(Cercwia); Gijrodac-

I)is'fo)na,iinke,
li/liis.

Order" 3.

Acanthoceph'ala.
Nematoid'ea.

Echinorhi/nchus.

Order

8.

Pycnogon'ida

{Polygonopoda).

Order

4.

Pycnoyonuni,
Class III. Myriap'oda.

Tricocephalus, Filaria, Ascaris (OxyTrichina. uris), Anyuillula, Gvrdius,

Order

1.

Chilogna'tha.
Chilop'oda.

piADIATA.

lulus.

Order

2.

Subkingdom V. Echixoder'mata.
Class I. A'poDA. Chirodota. Class II. Pebicella'ta.

Lithohius.

Class IV. IxsECTA, insects.

Order

1.

Coleop'tera.

Aster ias, star-fish

Beetles.

hog
;

Ophiocoma

Echinus, sea hedgeSpatanyus.

;

Order

2.

Orthop'tera.

Acheta, cricket. Blatta, cockroach Order o. IIemip'tera. Cimex, bug Aj)his Aphrojyhora, cuc; ;

Subkingdom VI. Ccelentera'ta {Zvo2)hytes).

koo-spit.

Class

Order

Neurop'tera, Ephemera Lihellula, dragon-fly. Order 5. Lepidop'tera.

4.
;

Actinozo'a (Anthozoa, Order 1. Zoantha'ria.

I.

Polypi).

Actinia, sea-anemone rejjora, stone-coral.

Sayartia;

Mud-

Butterflies

and moths.
oxit.

Order

Order

G.

Hymenop'tera.
Dip'tera. Musca, house-fly. Strepsip'tera, bee-parasites.
;

2. Alcyona'eia. Akyonium, Goryonia,

sea-fan.

^^s, bee; J>S7>, wasp; Formica,

Order

7.

Class II. IlYDROiiEDTj's^ (Ilydrozo'a).

Oestrus, bot-fly

Order

8.

Sti/lops. Order 9.

Aphanip'tera {Siphonaptera

Order 1. Discoph'ora (Acakphcs). Medu'sa, sea-nettle, jelly-fish ; Cyancca. Order 2. IIydroi'da.

;

Sucioria).
Pule.v, flea. Order 10. Anoplu'ba.

Order

Hydra; Sertularia; C'a7npanularia. 3. Siphonoph'oba.

Physalia, Portuguese man-of-war.

Pediculus, louse. Order 11. Tiiysanu'ra.

Lepisma, Podura.

Class III. Ctenoph'ora. Beroe.

ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Subkingdom VII. Pbotozo'a.
Class
I.

51

ANNUAL

RINGS.

to one of these species, as also to the genus

Hefrroiiiifa, Duj.

Infcsob'ia.

BiBL. Dujardin,
p. 434.

I/ifns. p.

345

Kent, Inf.

Class II. Rhizop'oda.

Order 1. Reticula'ria. Gromia, Foramiuifera. Order 2. Radiola'ria.

Ac/inop/iri/s, Acanthonietra tina.
]

ANKISTRODESMUS,
diuin, Rabenh.).
Po/i/ci/s-

Curda (liaphiA genus of Desmidiaceae.

Char. Cells elongated, attenuated, entire,

aggregated into faggot-hke bundles. The ceUs only ditFer from tliose of ClosteSpecies : A.falcatus, Corda {^Rhaphidium fascicuCells numerous, crescentlatum, Kiitz.). shaped length 1-549", breadth aquatic
riuin in their aggregation.
:

Order 3. Lobo'sa. Amahtt, ArceUa. Order 4. Ctregari'nida.

Class III.

Spongida.

1-7353"

MONEEA.
BiBL. Rvmer Jones, ^n. Kitifjd.; Todd's ofAnaf. Siebold and Staniiius, Lehrb. d. rergl. Anaf. D'Orbigny, Did. cVHist. Kat. V. d. lloeveu, Ilundb. d. Zool. Owen, Hunt. Led. Carpenter, Compar. Physiol. CuAier's An. Kiwjd., by Blyth, Mudie, JohriStoii, Carpenter, and Westwood; Vogt,
Ctfd.
; ;
; ;

(PL 14. fig. 47.) A. fimformis, Corda. i Carlsbad. A t r\ ^ A. convolutus, Corda. )

;
I

common.
1

/-i

BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Desmidieee, pp. 179 and 222 Corda, Alman. d. Carlsbad, 1835,
;

p.

ANNUAL

121, 1838, p. 199.

RINGS.

The

concentric

lines seen in transverse sections of

Fiff. 21.

Dicoty-

Zool. Briefe Gosse, Zvof. {Inverfehrata)

; ;

Zool. Caru?, Ic. Blancbard, licyne Animal Leydig, Lehr. d. Hist. Baird, Nat. Hist., 1863; Green, Cfefew/era^'ff, 18G3;
;
;

Mar.

Van Beneden, Anat. Cvmp.

d.

Mensch.
;

Morph.

Strieker, Geiv. Thieve, 1872 Hackel, Gen. Cheuu, Bncyd. d'Hist. Nat. (8000
;

u.

%s.), 18(36; Thome, Zool, 1875; Hayek, ZooL, 1877 'Uxown, Die Klass.d. ThierreicJis, 1880; Clans, Grundziuje d. Zool, 187o Schmidt, Handb. d. veryl Anat., 1876 ; Sc'hmarda, Z)ol, 1878 Nicholson, Man. ZjoI, 1878; Gegenbanr, VerylAnat., 1878 HiLxley, Liv. Sc Vert., 1872 R. Lankester, Qu. M. Jn. 1877, xvii. p. 399 Pascoe, Zool. M' Alpine, Zool., 1881. Class., 1880
;

Cross section of a Dicotyledonous stem with annual

rings.

genus of Infubelonging to the family Thecamonadina (Flageliata, Kent).

soria,

ANISONE'MA, Duj.A
Char.

ledonous stems (tig. 21) generally indicate successive annual additions to the woody structure; and in these cases depend on the
Fig. 22.

Body

colourless,

oblong, move

or

depressed, covered 'wdth a resisting tegument, from an aperture in which t^wo filaments emanate one flagelliform and directed forwards; the other thicker, trailing and retracting the body of the animal ; movement slow. 2 species A. acinus ((jrunde). Movement directly forwards, colourless; length 1-1280 to 1-810" ; fr. wat. among Confervce. A. sulcata (PI. 23. f. 12). Movement vacillating in a circle; colourless; fr. wat.; length I-llOO". 3 other species. Piijardin suggests that the Bodo grandis of Ehrenberg is refeiable
less

Magnified croai section of stem of Finns, exhibiting parts of three annual rings, 1, 2, 3.

difference of the character or condition of the tissues produced at difl'erent seasons.

e2

ANNUL ATA.

52
is

ANNUL AT A.
said to be

Ordinarily there are a number of ducts grouped near the inner part of each concentric layer of wood, as in the Oak. In the Sumach a layer of cellular tissue occurs at the boundary of each ring. Li the Conifers, the markings result from the greater thickness of the secondary deposits on the walls of the cells in the outer part of each layer, no ducts existing in their wood (fig.

sometimes met with beneath

the epidermis and forming a corium or true

skin.

In the Turbellaria, the outermost cutaneous layer consists of ciliated epithelium.

The opalescentand often beautiful!}' coloured

skin of

many of the Annulata does

not gene-

rally owe its tints to distinct pigment, but to iridescence produced by the fibres.

The rings of the body are usually furnished

seems that these rings cannot be taken strictly as annual rings in all trees, especially
It

in

those of equable climate, since they appear to depend upon external influences
affecting the activity of vegetation ; and thus, even in temperate climates, a great loss of foUage in the summer, followed by recovery, may produce two rings in one year.

sometimes arranged in covering the greater part of the surface of the body.
with
bristles or hairs,
tufts, at others

In moist tropical climates, where the leaves reappear almost continuously, the rings probabij' answer to j^eriods of great renewal of
foliage.

The bristles are most exquisite objects for microscopic observation, displaying the greatest variety of form, constituting lances, spears, knives, saws, sickles, hooks, &c., of innumerable elegant shapes, often curiously jointed, and usually fashioned out of an
elastic material that rivals the clearest glass

(Gosse).

Sometimes fuliaceous appendages

ANNULA'TA,

Anellida. The

class of

red-blooded worms, &c. Char. Elongated animals, living in water or moist earth, not par asitically within other animals body usually ringed or jointed feet not jointed, and frequently replaced by
; ;

bristles

setigerous tubercles, llespiration eflected either by external branchiie or by internal vesicles, or by the skin itself. Distinct organs of circulation present, contractile vessels replacing a heart. Nervous system consisting of a single or double ventral cord, furnished with ganglia at intervals, and eueircUng

or retractile

cover the body Uke. scales. Most of the Annulata are covered with a kind of mucus, some secreted by the cutaneous glands in others live in leathery tubes or sheaths a case is made by the consolidation of the secretion from some part of the skin with fragments of shells, grains of sand, &c. in others, again, the calcareous tubes appear to be whoUy secreted by a portion of the cutaneous surface. The muscular sj/stetn is usually well de; ;

veloped.

The muscular
in three layers,

fibres are in

some

arranged

an outer consisting of annular, an inner of longitudinal, and an

in others intermediate of oblique fibres there is an outer layer of oblique fibres, an inner of longitudinal, with annular fibres at the two ends of the body. The muscular fibres consist of cylinders, the transverse
;

the oesophagus above. The skin consists of a very delicate structureless and transparent epidermis, beneath

which (in Il(S7)toch(iris (I'iscicola), Clepsine, and Kep/ic/is) there is a layer of cells, Avhich,
in the adult animals, presents the

appearance

membrane (PL 49. fig. 16). (PL 49. iig. 166) leave spaces between them which appear like holes
of a fenestrated

The

cells

but the addition of acetic acid brings to light in each space a distinct nucleus (PL 49. 16 c), and in very young animals the fig.
clear spaces are distinct cells, distinguishable from the surrounding cells by their size and containing numerous clear vesicles as

section of which is rounded (PL 49. fig. 17a), flattened or incurvated (PL 49. fig. 17 i). They are covered externally by a delicate sheath or sarcolemma (PL 49. fig. 186). TJie cylinders themselves consist of a clear, homogeneous, cortical substance (PL 49. fig. 18a), and an internal cavity (c), the latter being filled with a finely granular substance, in which scattered nuclei are imbedded (PL 49.

17 c). At the two ends of the body, the muscular fibres branch dichotomously
fig.

The smaller cells contain well as a nucleus. a nucleus and numerous nuclear granides.
Beneath this cellular layer are numerous large fat-cells, pigment-cells, and connective tissue, the latter consisting of a transparent, homogeneous, semisolid mass. layer of line but firm fibres, crossing each obliquely,

(PL 49.

fig.

19c).
;

The

fibres are usually

smooth, but sometimes longitudinally or transversely striated this appearance arising either from folds in thesarcolemma or proper sheath, or from the granules being arranged
in linear series.

In the Turbellaria, phe muscular system

ANNULATA.
is

'53

ANNULATA.

but slightly developed, the tissue beneath slriii consisting of globuUir masses resembling the general parenchyma of the
the

a muscular proboscis. The mouth is usually surrounded by turgid lips, and sometimes possesses a distinct dental armature (see

and in this, peculiar cellular bodies ; are often imbedded, resembling the urticating organs of the polypes. These enclose six, eight, or more rod-shaped bodies, which are sometimes parallel with each other, sometimes somewhat spirally curved. The cell-membrane of these bodies subse-

body

IIiRUDo). The oral aperture is frequently surrounded by a number of erectile tentacles

or cirri.

The

and furnished with

intestinal canal is usually straight, lateral appendages, or

;

constricted at intervals sometimes a separate oesophagus, stomach and intestine are

di.-tinguishable.

they frequently project beyond the skin. Ley4ig figures similar rod-shaped bodies as occurring in the nuclei of the fat-cells situated beneath the skin. In many of the Annulata, the muscular fibres are grouped into distinct bundles, serving to move the bristles, parts of the

quently disappears, and

The

inner,

and sometimes

mouth, Sec. Beneath the skin at the ends

exist
;

of, or all

over the body, a number of peculiar glands these consist at the closed end of a nucleated cell (PL 49. fig. 19^*0^), and a long, somewhat coiled duct opening at the surface of the body. The nervous system consists of a longitudinal, single or double series of ventral ganglia, connected by longitudinal cords the uppermost ganglion lies above the oesophagus, and the two cords which connect it with the second ganglion encircle this organ.
;

The uppermost ganglion

is

enveloped in

a neurilemma consisting of longitudinal and transverse fibres, and not unfrequently The cords and peculiar pigment-cells. filaments are composed of extremely delicate primitive fibres, between which, in

the outer surface of the alimentary tube is covered with ciliated epithelium. yellow or brown glandular layer surrounding the alimentary canal represents the liver. The general arrangement of the circulatory system is, that two main vascular trunks, one dorsal, the other ventral, traverse the body longitudinally and the red or green blood moves in the dorsal vessel from behind forwards, whilst in the abdominal vessel it moves from before backwards; these trunks being connected by The transverse vessels or meshes of them. anterior portion of the dorsal vessel is usually broader, and appears to form the rudiments of a heart. The respiration of the Annulata is effected either by the skin by external gills in the form of tentacidar filaments or tufts, sometimes ciliated by ciliated depressions, or by vesicles at the sides of the body. The internal convolute ciliated canals, or watervessels, which were formerly considered

the ganglia, ganglion-globules are situated. The filaments distributed to the body arise piincipally from the ganglia. Many of the Annulata are furnished with these are usually denoted by the eyes brown, black, or red spots seen upon various It is a disputed point parts of the body. whether all these represent true eyes or not ; but Quatrefages has described a lens, transparent cornea and vitreous humour in some of them, and he has no doubt tliat the red points found at the sides of each ring in several species of Nais are true eyes.
;

coloured) corpuscles much resembling the colourless corpuscles of the Vertebrata, and is considered by some to represent the true blood. The Annulata are propagated by transverse division, by gemmation, and by means of sexual organs. The embryos are at first minute, rounded, and partially covered with
vibratile cilia.

respiratory organs, are now regarded as In many instances a secretory tubes. transparent colourless liquid occupies the interstices between the skin and the organs of the body this contains colourless (rarely
;

Order

1.

Ch^topoda (Setigera). Body

In some Annulata, no distinct head

;

is

ringed, elongate, with feet or setigerous rudiments of them ; external branchiae

present in others this is distinguishable by its form, and is furnished with eyes and one or more filaments, which are regarded as antennae. In those in which the head is not
distinct,the mouth is situated at the anterior end of the body in the others the mouth is
;

usually present.

Order

2.

SrcxoniA (Apoda).
;

Body

elongate, ringed, without bristles or footlike tubercles locomotion by sucking-disks ; no external branchiaB.
soft,

on the ventral surface, and

is

furnished with

Order 3. Tuebellaeia. Body bilateral, covered with vibratile cilia, not seg-

ANODUS.
merited
;

54

ANOPLURA.
Infi/s. p.

eyes distinct

sexless or

herma;

BiBL. Kent,

511.

phiodite.

BiBL. Siebold, Lehrh. d. vergl. Anat. i. Jones, A71. KiiKjd. V. d. Hoeven, Ilundb. d. Zool. i. INIilne-Edwards, Tvdd^s Cyc. of Anat. Si-c. ; Johnston, Brit. Anell. Gosse, Ma7\ Zool. i. Vogt, Zool. Briefe Claparede, An. Chetopod. (Qu. M. Jn. 1869, p. 306) id. Ann. N. H. 1867, xx. p. 337 ; Elders, D. Borsti'mciirmer, 1869 Agassiz, Attn. N. H. 1867, xix. p. 242 Quatrefages, Suites a Gegenl)auer, Verrjl. An. 1878 R. Biiffon Lankester, An. X. H. 1871 Art. Anellida, Encyd. Brit. 1875, ii.; Marion, M. 31. Jn.
;
;

(Opalina,-pQ. ANOPLOPH'ORA, SteinInfusoria. A genus of Holotrichous

Cliar. Body elorgate or ovate, nucleus band-like, axial ; contractile vesicles evident. The (15) species are intestinal parasites of JVais, LumhricKs, and other Invertebrata.

BiBL. Kent,

order of Insects; sometimes termed Parasitica or Epizoa. Char. Legs six wings none parasitic, and not undergoing metamorphosis eyes two, simple, or none.
;

AIsOPLU'KA. An

Infits. p.

563

Stein, Inf.

1875, xiv. 17 (coloured corpuscles in blood) Pascoe, Zool. 1880, p. 58 Hallev, TurleU. 1880; Wilson, An. N. H. 1880, vi. 407
: ;

These insects are parasitic upon mammials and birds, and are commonly known as lice.

The order
Subord.

is

thus subdivided

(devel.).

AN'ODUS, Er. & {->b. = SELiGEi!iA. AK(ECTAN'GIUM, Br. & Sch.=ZY-

Haustellata (Rhyxchota). Mouth with a tubuhu", vei-y short

Heshy haustellum. Pediculid^e.
Autennre
five-

GODON.

Fam.

some exceptions (as An. eleyans, D'Orb., which is a small Discorhi}ia^ the Anomalincs are somewhat bicunvex Trimcaiulinep, neat, dhcoidal, and subnautili.id, witli nearly as much convexity of the chambers on the lower as on the upper side of the shell. Abundant, both
recent and fossil.

ANOMALI'XA, D'Orb. Witb

jointed. Gen. Phthirius.

Anterior legs for walking, posterior for climbing. Pt'dicuhis. Legs all for climbing abdomen of seven segments. As Pedicuh/s, but abdomen Pedivinus. of nine segments.
;

Ha-matojnnus.
Jo/-. Foss.

BiBL. D'Orb.,

Vicnn. p. 169;

abdomen
Subord.

Legs all for climbing of eight or nine segments.

Claws
single.

Carpenter, For. p. 208.

genus of Entomostraca, of the order Copepoda and family Diaptomidfe.

distinguishable fi-om the body, with a bifid beak and a hooked spine at the base on each side ; thorax with six, abdomen with four segments; foot-jaws three pairs last pair of legs diflfering from the others eyes single, pedunculated in the

ANOMALO'CEKA, Temp. A
Char.

IIcc7nat(>mi/zus.

Mandibulata (Mallophaoa). Mouth with two hornj^ mandibles.

Antennaj
fili-

Fam. PniLOPTEKiDiE.

Ilead

form, maxillary palpi none.

Antennas five-jointed Pltiloptcrus. tarsi two-jointed, claws two.

Trichodcctes.
tarsi

Fam.

Antenna} three-jointed two-jointed, with one claw. LioTHEiB^E. Antenna? clavate

male; right superior antenna with a swollen binge-joint (in the male): inferior antennse not branched, three-jointed, basal joint with a slender twig. 1 species: A. Patersonii (PI. 10, fig. 6, the male).

maxillary palpi conspicuous. Liothenm. Tarsi two-jointed, with two

claws.
Ci/ropus.

Tarsi two-jointed, with one

claw.
It appears that alllu ugh the Anoplura do not undoigo metamorphosis as in the more

Mai inc.
BiBL. Templeton, Tr. Fntom. Soc. vol. ii. 1837; 15aird. Brit. EntomoMr. p. 229. ANOM'OBON, Hook, and Taylor. See Neckeija and IIypnvm,

perfect insects, consisting of larva, pupa and imago, widely ditiering from each other in

A]S'()PIlUY8,Cohn. -A genus of
tiiclious Infusoria.

IIolo-

Char.

pointed

behind

Eree swimming, elongate-ovate, and curved in front, rounded a fascicle of longer and stouter
from the ventral oral
(PI. 53.
tier.

cilia issuing

cleft.

In salt water, with decaying animal matter.

6).

A. saraphajia

general appearance, habits, and functions, yet a seiies of semitransformations takes place in the shedding of the skin a definite niim])er of times, by which the individual acquires a greater symmetry of foim, and most probably a greater perfection of parts or organs. Bim,. Nitzsch, Germar and Zinclen^s May. d. Entom. iii. Burmeister, Gen.
; I

ANOUEELLA.
InRcct.
id.
;

55

ANTENNAEIA.

Leach,

Zool.

Misc.

iii.

Gurlt,
Brit.;

Thicrhcilh. viii.;

Denny, Mon. Anopl.

;

{Cliinese), Qu. Mic. Jn. 18G4, p. 18; Walckenaer, Hist. d. Insect, xiii. Landois, Sieh. Sf- KoU. Zeits. 18C.5 {Qu. M. Jn. 1800, Mtnray, Ec. Entomol. 1879, p. 375; p. M)
;

Mt^jmin, Parasites, 1880.

AIsOURELLA, Bory
EJEA, Ehr,

and Duj. = Anu-

ANTEN'NyE, of Insects. The two moveable jointed organs, situated on the head, near the eyes (PI. 33. figs. Iff, 3a, 24 a, and figs. 7 to 21 inclusiye).
The form, number of joints, &c. of the antennas are used as characters for distinguishing the genera and species of Insects.
Three parts are generally recognizable
the antennas
:

in

the scapus or basal joint (figs. 10, 18, and 19 ) is often very long, and is connected with the torulus, or part upon which it moves, by a ball and socket articulation 2, the ^lediceUa or second joint
1,
;

(the same figs., h), which is mostly minute and nearly spherical, allowing of the freest motion, and supporting the remaining portion of the antennje, which forms, 3, the The principal clavola (figs. 10 and 18 c).

terms applied to the antennfe according to the form and arrangement of the joints
of the clavola are these They are called setaceous
:

when the

succes-

gradually formed Itnob (fig. 10), or capitate the knob is suddenly formed (fig. 17), as in the Pentanierous Coleoptera; plumose when one or more minutely pectinated branches arises from the joints, as in some of the Muscidae (fig. 20), or when tufts of capillary filaments arise from the joints, as in the Culicidas (fig. 21) knnellate, as in the lamellicorn Coleoptera, when the knob is composed of a number of lamellas or plates 18 f/), andperfoliate when the joints of (fig. the knob are separated slightly from each other by a minute foot-stalk. There are many curious variations in the structure of the antennte thus, in some of the Muscidse, the filamentous portion represents the true clavola, while the larger lobe is simply an in Glvbaria Leachii appendage (fi^. 20) the pedicella is not a small rounded joint, but is elongated like the scapus (fig. 19 5), whilst the clavola (c) ends in a large capitulum attached laterally to the base of the fifth joint, and directed backwards. The use of the antennae is that of hearing or feeling the vibrations of the atmosphere, and of smell. B. Hicks has pointed out the existence in numerous insects of minute cavities or pits in the surface of the antennae, furnished with a nerve-branch at the base, to which these functions are attributable. Hicks recommends the use of an aqueous

when

sive joints gradually diminish in size from the base to the apex, as in the families

Achetidoe, Blattidfe, and Gryllidae (fig. 7) ensiform when the successively diminishing joints are angular at the sides, forming a sword-like organ, as in some of the Locustidse (fig. 8) filiform when all the joints of the clavola are of uniform thickness, as in the Carabidfe (fig. 9) moniliform when the joints are spherical or rounded, as in the
;
; ;

solution of chlorate of potash, acidified with muriatic acid, for bleaching the chitine, and rendering these organs distinguishable. An additional function in many insects
is

that of common feeling or touch. G. Hauser describes also a terminal sensory organ in the antennae, composed of
bacillar
cells,

connected with a largish

;

nerve.

BiBL. Kirby and Spence, Entomol.

meister's

Bur;

10) ; serr?'/ when the joints appear like inverted triangles, with the inner margin more produced than the outer, as in sf)me of the Elateridae (fig. II) imbricated when the acute base of each joint is inserted into the middle of the broad ajiex of the joint behind it, as in the Prionidfe (fig. 12); pectinated
(fig.
;

Tenebrionidffi

and Blapsidfe

Man.

SfC, transl.

Hicks, Linn. 323; Claparede, Ann.d. Sc. Nat. Zool. 1858, x. p. 230; Hauser, Zeit. tciss. Zool. 1880, xxxiv. p. 307 (Jn. Mic.
;

Newport, Art. Insects, Westwood's Introd. ii.

by Shuckard Todd's Ci/cl. An. Sj'c.

S^c.
;

Tr. 1859, xxii. pp. 147

&

Soc. 1881,

i.

joint is developed on one side into a process or spine, as in the Lampyridas

(fig. 13); bipectinated when a process or spine exists on each side of the joints, as in the Bombycidas (fig. 14) fiabellate when each of the processes is flattened, and nearly as long as the whole of the succeeding joints taken together, as in some of the Elateridas clavate when the clavola ends in a (fig. 15)
; ;

when each

state of Capnodium. They are byssoid products growing upon dead or living structures, or sometimes in cellars.

supposed Phycomycetous genus of Antennariei to Perisporiaceae, Fungi), referred by Fries and probably often consisting of forms of a
(

ANTENNA'RIA, Link. A

p. 33).

Mucediuous

A. (Eacodium) mlhiris is the fungus of winecellars, and is placed by Fries in the genus Zasmidium,

ANTENNARIEI.
Fig. 22 a.

56

ANTHER.
and the extent to which they are and these are elegant micro;

placed,

developed

scopic objects.

Antennaria

laevigata.

Highly magnifled.

BiBL. Corda, Icones, i. pi. 6. fig. 289 Berkeley, Crypt. Bot. p. 275 Oooke, Hand';
;

book, p. (WS.

a very delicate sometimes provided with stomata this epidermis usually remains unaltered, but in some cases {LupinKs} the walls acquire fibrous thickening. Beneath this epidermis ordinarily lie one or more layers of cells which form the spiral-hbruus tissue.This may extend all round the anther, or be wanting at certain points, over the connective, before and especially behind sometimes all the cellular tissue of the connective itself assumes the same chaepidermis,
;
;

The anther is clothed with

ANTENNARIE'I. A

supposed family

of Phycomycetous Fungi, consistiug of diffuse plants, forming tlocculent or byssoid wbicb appear patches upon leaves or bark, the to be merely states of other genera Antennarice are referred to Capno;

racter (with the exception of its vascular bundle) Purkinje has furnished a most extensive
.

epii^liytic

notice of the conditions of these fibrous cells in the diflerent families of Flowering Plants. The following plants are selected as afford-

dium, which, like Zusmidimn (Antenn.

laris), is a Perisporiacea.

cel-

other genera, Pkuropyris and Pisomyxa, were described by Corda, but little is kuown respecting

Two

ing considerable diversity of forms Narcissus poeticus, Po~ a. Spiral fibres. jmlus alba, Lonicera tartarica, Hi/oscyamHS orientalis, Datura Stramonium, Cheirantlms
:

them. BiBL. Fries,

Cheiri (PI. 40.

Summa
i).

Berkeley, Cn/pt. Bot.

Veg. Scan. p. 400 296.

b.

Annular

fig. 1). Iris florentina, fibres.

IlyaChei-

ANTENN'ULA'HIA, Lamk.a

genus

cinfhus orientalis, Bunias orientalis, ra)dJius Cheiri, Convallaria.

c.

of Hydroid Zoophytes, family

riidse.

Plumula-

Distinguished by the whorled, hair-like

branohlets,
:

species A. antonnina.

and

uniserial cells.

Two British
and

Main

stalks simple, clus-

Reticulated fibres. Fritillaria imperi(on the internal face), Tu'lipa Gesncriana and Viola odorata (ditto), Saxifraga urnbrosa (PI. 40. fig. 2). d. J'ibres arched (found on three sides of the walls, the fourth being free). Knphar
alis

On sandy soils tered, branchlets short. stones lying in sand ; deep water. A. ramosa. Main stalks branched.
old shells and stones from deep water.

On

Bryonia diuica, Cynoglossiim, Pulmonaria, Prijmila sinensis, Passijlora coirulea, Liqiistrmn rnlt/arc, Cucurbita, Pyriis, Liipilufea,
m'ls (PI. 40. fig. 3).
e. Plbres short and straight, pieces upon the walls standing vertically to the epidermis. Arum, Calla cethiopica, Calceolaria,

BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 85; Gosse, Mar. Zool. i. 24 Hincks, Brit. Zooph.
;

p.

279.

ANTHER. The
or
fertilizing

essential

part of the

organ of Flowering Plans, supported on a longer or shorter stalk or filament, and constituting with it the stamen. The microscopic examination of anthers turns in two distinct, both very interesting directions, namely, study of the development and characters of the pollen produced in the anthers, and examination of the celhdar structure of the walls of For the former, see the perfect anther.

male

Polygonum, Tropfculum majus, J^eronicajierfvliata, Pvlygida Clianuehu.rus, liubia tinetorum, Armeria. g. Fibres vertical, very short, numerous and close, like teeth on the walls. Grasses, Casuarina, Jlyosotis, Phlomis fruticosa, Bobinia, Adonis vernalis, Glauciwrn luteum, Chelidonium majus. Magnolia^ Liriodendron, Daldia, Le(mtodon, Solidago, Bellis percnnis (I'l. 40. fig. 5), Geranium, Pelargonium, Pinus, Cupressus, Juniperus.
I

Delphiniu m, Anemone. f. Like d, but converging towards the centre of the upper wall of the cell, sometimes forming a star. Corydalis lutea, Impatie)is, Fumnria, Cactus (PI. 40. fig. 4),

Pollen, The cells

of the anthers of almost all plants exhibit depo.sits of a more or less fibrous character, ^alying much in the patterns according to which the fibres are

AJsTTIERIDIA.
/*.

r>7

ANTIIINA.

The walls simply thickened

like

wood-

Zamia. Other iutermediate modifications exist; and it is necessary to observe that the chacells.

and Lichens have been provisionally named spcrmaiia. The antheridia of the Marsileacese are represented by the smaller form of spore produced in the sporanges (see Marsileacese). This is also the case in regard to the Ijvcopodiaccte so far as Schtijinella and Isoetes are concerned (see Lycopoi)IACe.t3). In the Ferns and Equisetacere the antheridia are produced along with the Fig. 23. archegonia on the prothallium or cellular frond resultino- from the gei-mination

racter of th(Munrkino-s often diifers in difThe ferent parts of tho wall of the anther. side of the cell-wall next the cavity is that

generally most

marked the onter wall lying next under the epidermis is often smooth and unmarked. similar structure is found on the walls of the sporanges of many of the Hepaticae, such as Marchantia (PI. 40. fig. 35), Jungermannia, &c. (see 1Iep.a.tic^i;). Also on the
;

of the
.

spure

(see

walls of the sporanges of Equisctnin (see For further particulars Equisetace^). respecting the relations of these cells to other spiral-fibrous tissues, see Spiral

Ferns and EcjuisetaCE^)

In the Mosses and
leafy Liverworts, the antheridia are produced in terminal or axillary buds, associated with or separate from the archegonia In the fron(fig. 23). dose Liverworts, they are imbedded in the frond, Bartramia fontana. or more or less raised Male inflorescence from it on special recen- "^'^^ antheridia and tacles (see Mosses and nified 40 diameters.

STRrCTUEES.
BiBL. Purkinje,
Wratislavij-e,

De

cell,

anther. Jibrosis,
JBot.

18.30;

Sachs,

1874,

525.

The general name applied to all the various structures in which, certainly or probably, the f ertiliziug function of reproduction resides in Flowerless Plants,
and which consequently correspond physiologically to the anthers of the Flowering Plants. They differ to some extent in the character of the final products, which are extremely minute bodies, some exhibiting spontaneous motion when placed in water.

AXTHEPJUIA.

Hepatic^). The antheridia are represented in the Characeaj by the so-called globule, in which
are produced filamentous spermatozoids resembling those of Mosses (see Chara). Antheridia occiu'in Saprolegnise (Prinirsh.

The antheridia of the higher Flowerless Plants, those with leaf and stem, produce active filaments, coiled more or less in a is here connected spiral form, and the motion with the presence of cilia upon the spiral filaments. With regard to those of the Thallophytes, the antheridia are not everywhere Their existence is so well imderstood. clearly ascertained in the Fucacese, and the The function of active bodies are ciliated. the so-called antheridia of the Floridetie is
not yet proved, and it is denied by Thuret that the autherozoids (or spermatozoids) have a power of motion recent researches among the Confervacese have shown the existence of antheridial cells, producing active spermatozoids, to be very general in that order. In the Fungi and Lichens the antheridia seem to be represented by a different kind of structure, Avhich produces
;

Jahrb. Bd.

vi. p.

249 &c.

Tab. Fungi,

fi^.

20), and have been observed in Tuber Peziza. (See Pringsh. Jahrb. Bd. ii. p.

and 378

Nut. Juin 1806, Dec. 1860, p. 211.) The supposed antheridial organs of the Lichens are called spermof/otiia, and will be found described under Lichens; and the
;

&c.
p.

De
;

Bary, Ajin.

d. Sc.

343

Tidasne,

ibid.

analogous structures found in certain Fungi called by the same name, are described under Coniomycetous Fungi, also imder the heads of certain genera of that family. The antheridia of the Algfe are described under Frcus, Floeide^, CEdogonxltm,

Vauciieria, Sph^roplea, Volvox. ANTIIEROZOIDS. The term applied by the French authors to Spermatozoids. ANTHTNA, Fries. A genus of Isariaeei (II_^^ihomycetous Pimgi); composed of mi-

minute stick-shaped bodies, apparently not endowed with spontaneous motion. The moving bodies from the antheridia
are

nute fibrous plants, often of bright colours, growing upon dead leaves &c. in autumn. One British species is recorded
:

spermatozokh, anthei-ozoich, or spermatic flauienU in the higher CryptoThe active bodias of the Fungi gamia.

called

A.Jla)nmea,Yv. Attenuated downwards, smooth, crimson-safiron, dilated upwards, feathery, yellow. Clavaria miniata, Purton.

ANTHOCEROS.

58

ANTHOPIIORA.

beautifully coloured Fungus, varying as to the degree of ramification, scarcely 1-2" thick at the base thickened up>vards, as also are the branches ; fibrous and feathery at the summit solitary from 1-2" to 1" high turning blackish when dried. The spores separate very readily when the specimens are placed in water for examination.
; ; ; ;

It may, however, be doubted whether even AntlnnaJJammea, Avhich occurs occa-

sionally in considerable quantity'- amongst dead leaves in shady woods, is an autonomous fungus, though it may be difHcidt to

The conical body by degrees grows up into the narrow pod-like sporange, which attains a length of about 2 inches, and is supported on a short pedicel, 2 to 3 lines high, almost concealed iu the perichfete. The sporange middle into two valves, splits down the which become slightly twisted, and leave in the centre a thread-like column, to which adhere for a time many of the spores and The spores, the development of elaters. which has been a subject of much study, and from the long sporange is very instructive,

a point out of what species it may be state, unless it be related to Thelephora multizonatd, Berk.
Syst. d. nize, 1837, Veqet. p. 405.

BiBL. Purton, iii.t.18; Nees and Henry, t. 6 Fries, Siimina

;

ANTHO'CEROS,

Mich.- -A genus
Fig-.

of

Anthocerotete (Ilepaticfe). The forms found in Britain

are regarded by Hooker as varieties of one species. B}'-

24.

thecontinental botanists they

aredividt'd into
tdtus, Avith the

two A.punc:

containing specimens of successive!}'- older formation from one extremity to the other, are of the ordinary character of these tribes, having a reticulated outer coat, nuirked by ridges indicating the mutual pressure of the four spores formed iu each parentThe elaters are much simpler than cell. usual, consisting merely of membranous tubes, not very long, but sometimes irregularly curved or branched, without any spiral Gemmae also occur fibre in their interior. on the frond oiAnthoccros. BiiiL. Dev. ofthe Fruit generally: Ilofmeister, Ilohern. Knjptoyanten, Leipsic,

frond dotted and divided at the margin and A. Iccvis, Avith the frond
;

1851
V.

Schacht, Entio.
Icevis,

cl.

Fnicht unrl Spore

:

smooth (fig. 24). These plants are found

very moist

Mohl, Lhuwa, Tubingen, 1846

;

in

situations, at the

sides of ditches kc, fruiting in spring. The ovate-oblong fronds are from ^ to f of an

Spores Vennischte Schrift., Nageli, Veyet. Cells {liay Society), 1840, p. 229; Carrington, Bnt. Hep., 1881 Sachs, Bot. 351. ANTIIOCEROTE.E. tribe of Liver18;]9
; ;

AnfJioceros

Boi. Zei'. 1850.

inch long, lying flat, and often forming round patches, overla]3ping one another, radiatiue-

worts or Ilepaticfe (which see), containing one British genus, Anthoceros. ANTHOPHUltA, Latr.A genus of Insects, of the order Ilymeuoptera, and
family Apidfe.
.

from a centre, and

,,

more

or less divided at the margin. The texture is be-

Mn{,mif5etl 2dia-

metura.

tween membranaceous and

tlesliy, inclining to the latter; the colour deep green, lighter the margins. The antheridia and archeat gonia are usually abundant on the same inThe antheridia are spherical, with dividtinl. short stalks, of a yellowish-orange colour,

Cliur. Wings with three complete submargi nal cells of equal size labial palpi with the third joint afhxed obliquely; maxillary palpi 0-jointed; intermedifite legs of male with long brushes of hair. There are two species, A. rctusa and A.
;

Ilmcorfhdita. A. rctusa (mason bee)

is

commonly seen

included in cup-shaped, deeply toothed receptacles on the upper face of the fronds. The young archegonia differ from those of any other Ilepaticfe in their structure, since, instead of free, flask-like cases, they are tulnilar cavities running down from the upper face of ihe frond, with an embryonal cell at the bottom, which increases by degrees into a conical body, and finally emerges on the surfac(>, surrounded by a perichrcte continuous with the epidermis of the frond.

flying about sunny and sandy banks from March to the beginning of June. Its head and tropin are represented in I'l. 3.". fig. 24. The (uitonuc [<t) are inserted in the centre of the fiice, not approximating, short, geniculated, and L')-jointed in the male; basal

joint (scapus) very pubescent, second (pedicella) globose, third as long as the first, fourtli shorter than any of the following, which are oblong they are similar in the
;

female, but a

little

longer,

and 12-jointed.

Lahriim

(<0 deflexed,

convex, with two black

ANTIIOPIIYSA.
spots at
tlu'

^0

ANTLIA.
;

hdso, antevior

margin a

little

Mandibles (/) slightly curved, clothed ^vith long hairs, notched near the apex; larger iu the females, and hut MaxilUc slightly notched below the apex. short and broad, ((/) with the basal portion hairy, the edge above pectinated, terminal lobe long and lanceolate, with a small pencil of hairs at the apex. Palpi {h) rather long and setaceous, G-joiuted, basal joint short, second long, the remainder decreasing in Mentam rather short and linear. length.

convex

aiul ciliated.

thicker in front length of stalks 1-2-50 to 1-120", length of single animal 1-2000", with P^ig. 13 b represents a detached animal the larger tiagelliform filament. This is the EpistyUs vc(j('taus of Ehrenberg. The detached groups of bodies form a species of
Uvella, Ehr. ( Uvella uva ?).

Body

Fresh water,

common.
A.
socialis.

Bodies about 8 in a group.

;

On

Confervas.

TinKjue (*) very long and slender, ringed and tubular, the interior margins very pilose, terminated by a lanceolate appendage. Pa7-af/l(>sscc (.v) lanceolate. Palpi (k) extending as far as the tongue, slender, tapering, 4-jointed, basal joint very long, second not
b.alf

BiBL. Dujardin, Infus. Ehr. Inf.; Cohn, Ann. N. Hid. p.' lOU; 186(;, xviii. p. 429; Kent, Inf. p. 2(')G. ANTIIOSO'MA, Leach. genus of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and

Nova Acta, 18o4,

family Ergasilina, Found upon the gill-covers and

sharks.

gills

of

the length, ciliated towards the apex, inserted below the apex, and very Head subsmall, as well as the fourth.
third

BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entom. Cons, gcner. sur I. Crustac.

Desmarest,

ANTIGRAM'MA,
otic.

Presl.A genus of

trigonate

eyes (c) long and narrow

ocelli

Scolopendriete (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

Ex-

Thorax much broader than the (b) three. head in the female. Legs rather robust ;
pilose externally, .and the intermediate ones also in the females tarsi, intermediate pair long in
tibiffi,

posterior dilated
;

and very

the males, the basal joint of the 4 posterior dilated in both sexes, and furnished with a strong brush at the apex in the hinder pair Claws bilid in the males, of the female. with a tooth on the underside in the female.
Pulvilli distinct.

of soda. The production of this salt by the addition of antimoniate of potash to a neutral or alkaline solution of a salt of soda, is used as a test of the presence of soda. The crystals are represented in PI. 10. fig. 21.

ANTIMONIATE

BiBL. See Chemistry. ANTIMONY. See Aesenic.

ANTITRICHIA,
KEEA.

Br. and Sch.

= NEC-

Male thickly and minutely

punctured, and clothed with fulvous or yellowish hairs, more or less black at the apex of the abdomen female black, very pilose. See Insects. BiBL. Curtis, Brit. Entomol. viii. p. 357 Westwood, Infrod. &c. ii. p. 277. AKTIIOPHY'SA, Duj. genus of InFlafusoria, of the famih' Monadina, Duj. gellata, Kent. Char. Bodies ovoid or pyriform, with a single anterior flagellifcrm filament (two, one shorter than the other, Kent), and aggregated at the ends of the branches of a support or polypidom, which is secreted by them.
;
;

The spiral tongue or probosthe Lepidoptera. Tliis well-knowni beautiful organ (PI, 33. fig. 28), when extended, forms a long suctorial tube, and when coiled up represents a It flat spiral, like the spring of a watch. consists mainly of two modified maxillte
cis of

ANT'LIA.

The

groups, when free, resemble UvcUa, and revolve in the liquid containing them. The branched support is of an irregular arborescent form, at first soft and glutinous, afterwards becoming bro^\T:ish, horny, and nodidar in appearance. According to Cohn, the brownish filaments so frequently found in decomposing^ pond- &c. water, are the stalks of Anthophijm, and form Kiitzing's

genus Sfereonema. A. MiUlcri {vcfjefans) (PI.

?,0.

fig.

1.3).

(see Insects). According to Newport, each maxilla is composed of an immense number of abort transverse muscular rings these are convex externally and concave internally, and the two connected organs form a tube. "Within each there are one or more large tracheae (fig. 28 c* J) connected with the trachea} in the head. The inner or concave surface which forms the tube with a very smooth (fig. 28 ct) is lined membrane, and extends along the anterior margin throughout^he whole length of the At its commencement at the apex organ. the whole (fig. 28/*), it occupies nearly breadth of the organ, and is smaller than at its termination near the mouth, where the concavity or groove does not occupy more than about l-3rd of the breadth. In some
;

ANTROPHYUM.

CO

ANYSTIS.
strife,
it is
;

species, the extremity of each maxilla is furnished along its anterior and lateral margin with a great numher of minute These, in l^aufssa Atalanta (the papillae. red admiral butterfly) for instance, form little barrel-shaped bodies (tig. 28 6, ,/), furnished at the free end with three or more

in three it is smooth in furnished with teeth or spines in fr(int, in seven also behind. One species, A. hiremis, has two moveable spines on each
side.

tudinal thirteen

marginal teeth, and a larger pointed body in their centre. There are seventy-four of these in each maxilla, or half the proboscis. Newport regards them as probably organs of taste. There are also some curious appendages arranged along the inner anterior margin of each maxilla, in the form of

Dujardin gives the following characters. Carapace in the form of a depressed utricle or sac, toothed in front and with a wide
allow of the protrusion of the rotatory organs, which are usually well developed in th6 form of two rounded lobes, accompanied by setoe or non-vibratile cilia in several bundles no tail jaws digitate a
orifice to
;
; ;

minute hooks, which, when the proboscis

is extended, serve to unite the two halves together, by the points uf the hooks in one half being inserted into little depressions between the teeth of the opposite side sometimes these are furnished with a tooth below the apex (fig. 28 e). This description of the structure of this interesting organ does not appear to be correct. believe that the older view, regarding each half of the AntUa as containing a distinct canal, to be true, and that the transverse rings, in fact the entire frame-work of the organ, consists of chitine. But the subject requires further investigation. The only muscular structure we have detected in the organ, consists of bundles of
;

red eye-spot above the jaws; ova voluminous, often adherent to the parent. Tlie species are both aquatic and marine, and many of them ai'e common in pure fresh water length from 1-240 to 1-10". Ehrenberg describes 14 species to which
;

Gosse adds

4. 5,

A. curi-icornis, E. (PI. 4.3. fig. from above fig. G, side view).

:

viewed
;

We

BiBL. Ehr. hifus.

Buj. tnfus.
"

Ann. N. H. IBol, viii. p. 202. AN YS 'TIS, Heyd. {Enjfhrmis, Duges A genus of ArachTromhidiuni, Herra.). nida, of the order Acarina, and family

Gosse,
;

Trombidina.
Cluir. Palpi large, free, bi-unguiculate mandibles uuguiculate body entire legs
;

at

muscular hbres taking an oblique longitudinal direction.

Newport, TodcVs Cycl. of An. and Hicks, Linn. 'Tr. 18G0, rhys. ii. p. 901 See also Insects. xviv. p. 148.
BiBL.
;

Kaulf.

ANTROTHYUM, A genus of

thi-ir insertion contiguous, cursorial, i. e. uuguiculate, long, the last joint slender and very long posterior legs the longest. A. pariefinum. Colour vermilion; legs Found between stones and in moss pale. and on book-shelves. Tromb. parietiniim, Ilerm. 3Icm. Apt. p. 37, pi. 1. f. 12.
;

I'olypodiaceousFerns, fam. Grrammitideae. Char. Sori carried along the veins, imperfectly
reticulated,
superficial or immersed in a groove.

Fronds
firm

simple, of fleshy texture,

A. ruricola. P)ody very minute, depressed, nearly oval, slightly emarginate at the sides, and broader behind than before; a few hairs scattered over the surface eves two, black, placed at the anterior obtuse angles of the body; colour bright carmine, sometimes blacldsh in the middle, paler along the back and in front legs and palpi colourless, except a bright red spot on each at a little distance from the body. On stones
;

with uniform hexagonal areolae. 10 species;

BiBL. Hooker,
Fil. p. 302.

and on dry paths.

fig. 3.)

(PI. 60. fig, 4,

and

PI. 2.

XT

r.

Antrophyumplantagineum.
Partofasorus. Magnified.

O/J.

ANUR/E'A, Ehr. A genus of Rotatoria,

of the family Brachionsea. Char. sing](> (red) eye-spot at the back of the head, no foot or pediform tail. In seven species the back of the carapace is furnished with facets, in four with longi-

A. flava. Yellow. A. if/nipes. Mottled with greyish brown and yellowish red. A. cuisoria. Rose colour. A. cornif/fira. Red with two blackish
lines

down

tlie

back.

Actiwda, Koch, is not generically different from A/ii/s/is (Murrav). BiBL. Hermann, Mem. ApteroJ. Duges,
;

APATITE.
Aim.

01

APIIID.E.

(I. Se. Xaf. 2 sf?r. i. and ii.; Koch, Deu/sch. Cruiif. ^c. Heyden, Isis, p. lOO Gervais, Walckenacr's Hist. d. Ins. iii.
; ;

Murray, Econ. Enfom.

p. 1-iO.

A. virescens (PI. 3. fig. 2). On wot rocks and stones. Other species. RiDL. Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah/, ii. p. 48. APIIANOCILETE, Braun. A genus
of Chfetophoreaj (Confervoid Alg;c) allied to Coleochcete tlie bristles arising from tlie backs of the ceUs are not sheathed, but
;

APATITE, see Rocks. APIIANIZOM'ENON, Morren {Limnochlide, Kiitzing).

A genus of Nostoc-hacese

(Confervoid Algse) forming a delicate bhiishgreeu mucous stratum on the surface of lakes The filaments are very or standing water. The slender, tiaccid and obscurely jointed. spermatic cells are much elongated, either scattered or, more frequently, solitary near the ceutre of the filament. AUman inclines to think they are formed by confluence of he found vesicular cells adjacent cells (heterocvsts) also, which Ralfs did not deThis genus seems to form a consc'iibe. necting link between the OscillatoriacesB and Nostochacete, as indicated by Hassall. Ivalfs enumerates three British species,
;

jointed in the upper part.

in Britain.

Not yet detected

BiBL. Braun, Verjuity. p. 19G (Ray Soc. transl. 1853, p. 184j ; Rabenhorst, A!y. iii.
p.

390

Niig. A genus of Confervoid Algse. Cliar. Cells minute, rounded or oblong, seruginous, enclosed in a gelatinous en-

(fig.).

APIIANOTHE'CE,

velope. A. 7nicroscopica (PI. 3. fig. 3). In marshy Many other species. places, everywhere.

BiBL. Rabenhorst,

viz.

APHTDvF:.A family
insects

Alt/,

ii.

p. 63.

of Insects belong-

A. Flos-aqucs, Linn. (PI. 8. fig. 1). Filaments about 1-3000" in diameter, cohering laterally in flat lamellae which separate at
their extremities into fasciculi
;

ing to the order Hemiptera (Homoptera, This family comprises the Westwood).
as plant-lice. or less perpendicidar or inflexed, varying in length, being in some

known

Rostrum more

spermatic

cells cylindrical, with an inconspicuous covering. Ralfs, A7i. N. Hist. 1850, v. pi. 9.
fig. (j;

Limnochlide Fhs-aquce, Klitz. Tab, rhyc. cent. i. pi. 91. fig. 2 a. A. cyaneum, Ralfs. Filaments free, aggregated into a thin mucous stratum sporangia linear, 8 to 12 times longer tlian broad, with a conspicuous hyaline covering. Ralfs, I. c. pi. 9. fig. 7. Limnochlide Flosaqiue, var. hercynica, Kiitz. Tab. Phyc, c. i. 91. fig. 11 pi. A. incurvimi, Morren. " Filaments arti;

species longer than the body, and consisting of four joints (PI, 36. fig. 1). Labrimi long and pointed at the tip. Antennae of moderate or of great length, setaceous or
filiform, and usually composed of 3-7 joints, the last joint being sometimes obsolete and the third longest (PI. 36. fig. 2). Ocelh three to six in number, forming a large tri-

globose.

.P

culated, cohering together in flat laminae, laciniated at the apex articulations 2 to 8 times longer than broad." Ralfs states that the Irish specimens identified by Morren
;

do not agree with this character, being held together by the mucous matrix rather tiian cohering, as in Fbs-aqucs., and they are neither fasciculated nor laciniated at the
ends. Ralfs,
I.

c.

9. fig. 8. pi.

vum, Thompson, An. N. H.

Hassall, Algcs, t. 70. fig. 0. Flos-aquce, var. Harveyana,

Aph. incur1850, v. 82
;

Limnochlide
Kiitz.
I'ab.

Phyc.

c. i. pi.

91. fig. 2.

liiBL. Ralfs,

AUman, Qu. Mic.

Confervoid Algfe
gi-een cells,

Ann. N. Hist. 1850, v. 3-39; Jn. iii. p. 21, and the

other works cited above.

APHANOCAP'SA,
;

Niig.A genus of
an amorphous ge-

consisting of spherical
in

imbedded

eyes compound, prominent, and semiThorax oval, with the prothoi'ax forming a transverse coUar ; abdomen short and convex, ovate or elongate-ovate, soft, and generally furnished with a more or less elongated tubercle or cornicle on each side near the extremity. Wings, when present, four; the anterior much larger than the posterior, placed obliquely or nearly perpendicularly on the sides of the body in repose the anterior with a strong subcostal nerve, terminating near the apex in a broad stigma, and giving off" two or three obUque nerves rimning to the posterior margin of the wing of these the one nearest the apex is usually forked once or twice. These variations in the arrangement of the postcostal nerve form "the distinguishing characters of the Tribes (Buckton). papilla with three bent hooks on the costal margin of the hind Avings, works in a fold of the posterior margin of the anterior wing, some-

angle

what

latinous mass.

as in tlie Ilymenoptera. Legs usually very long and slender, with the thighs some-

APIIID^E.
times thickened;
tarsi two-jointed.

62

APHID.E.

The

sometimes clothed with a mealy or cottony secretion, secreted by roundish warts which stand in rows upon the back

body

is

in some t-pecies this covering is so long that the animal is entirely concealed by it, and looks merely like a moving flock of wool. It is sometimes employed by the females as a covering for tlieir eggs. The Aphidte, hke the rest of the order to

which seek the Aphides for the purpose of sucking it from them, sometimes inducing them to excrete it by stroking them with their antennte, but sometimes biting and Kaltenbaoh contearing them to get at it.
abdominal tubes to be merely produced stigmata, and states that the saccharine fluid is emitted through the anus; this is also the opinion of De Geer, K}ber, and
siders the

others.

which they
;

belong, are active in all their stages the pupfe being distinguishable from the perfect insects only by their possessing the rmliments of wings upon the back of In the wingless the thoracic segments. species this distinction of com-se does not
exist.

These insects
societies,
;

reside,

usually

in

large

species of but the ditlereut species of plantplant lice, like the true lice of animals (Anoplura), are generally restricted to one or two particular plants or when they are common to

upon

almost

every

The propagation of the Aphides presents, some most remarkable peculiarities, and is well worthy of a careful study. The ordinary colonies of these insects, which may be met with eveiy where during the summer, consist of winged and wingless individuals, the latter being for the most part larvfe and pupaj. The winged individuals are all viviparous and capable of producing young larvte without any intercourse with a male insect. During the whole course of the summer, none but
these so-called viviparous females are to be met with, and generation follows generation without the appearance of a single male. It is only in the autumn that males and true females are produced as the last result of the the latUn' are viviparous reproduction usually apterous, even in the ordinarily winged species and, after copulating, the females lay eggs, which serve to continue The the race in the following summer. viviparous individuals of some species are, however, said to live through the winter ; and the viviparous reproduction may be continued uninterruptedl}' for an indeflnite period by the maintenance of the necessary conditions of temperatiu'e &c. at least Kyber observed it for four consecutive years in a colony kept in a room at a uni; ; ;

a greater number of vegetable species, the Each latter are usually very nearly allied.
species is also restricted to some particular part of the plant but no part is exempted from the attacks of particular species, which are found upon the young shoots, the buds, the leaves, the stem, even of trees, and the roots. Of these parts they suck out the juices,
;

by placing the rostrum in a pei-pendicular position, and forcing the included bristles
into the tissues of the plant

the v>-ouud thus formed is frequently enlarged by movements of the body of the animal. In some instances the irritation caused by these Avounds, inflicted by a colony of Aphides, gives rise to a distorted state of leaves and twigs, and even to gall-hke excrescences, in the interior of which the insects may be
;

foimd iu great numbers. The abdominal tubercles or tubes above mentioned, wliich, however, are reduced to simple openings in some species, are generally regarded as excretory organs, through This wliich a saccharine fluid is exuded. ii uid is pn >duced by nianv Apliides, especially those which live upon trees and shrubs, in great abundance ; it constitutes the well-

The males are rarer, form temperature. mostlj' alate, and with a smaller abdomen. The true nature of this wonderful mode of propagation has been the subject of much
It will be dispute, especially of late years. unnecessary for us to enter upon the consideration of tlie various opinions that have been put forward ; it is sufucient to mention that it is now generally admitted to be an example of the alternation of generations or parthenogenesis, which occiu's so frequently amongst the lower animals, the viviparous forms being regarded as the products of a sort of internal gemmation. According to Huxley, the organs in Avhich the j'oung of the viviparous forms are produced ( pseitdovan'a) are strictly homologous with the true ovaries, and the germs of both forms are identical, (the existence of the germinal spot

known honey-dew, which drops

in large

quantities from some of our common trees (particularly the Lime), and forms small The latter t>liiniug spots upon their leaves. were supposed by Liebig to be products of a disease of the plants upon Avhich they The sweet fluid is much hked by occur. ants and other llymenopterous insects,

APHIDiE.
in the

G3

AniRODlTA.
;

pseudova

is,

however, denied)

but

gall-like excrescences

in the oviparous females, the germ is surrounded by a vitellus and vitelline mem-

elm

on the leaves of the and the Peniphi;/as hwsarius (PI. 30.

a woolly species, resides in similar on the leaves and foot-stalks of the

fig. 5),

brane in the usual

whilst
in

way

to

form a true egg

individuals

galls

the viviparous

the

poplar.

germinal vesicle itself enlarges and undergoes a considerable change bef(5re acquiring an investing membrane, within which the

embryo

is

gradually developed.

Balbiani,

Of the subterranean species, which suck the roots of plants, the most abundant is Trama radicis (PI. 30. fig. 0), wliich occurs upon various composite plants, including the common dandelion and the
Forda fonnican'a (PI. 36. 7) is the species commonly found in ants' nests it fives in small societies on the roots of grasses, and is tended with
garden-lettuce.
tig.
;

however, maintains that the viviparous Aphides are really hermaphrodite. From the nature of their production, it will be easily miderstood that the fecundity The of the Aphides must be very great. most prolific species only live for about three weeks, and in that time produce 30-40, or, according to Reaumiu", 90-100 j'oung. In these species there may be from 15-17 generations in the course of the summer and Schrank, starting from Bonnet's obser;

great care

by the

ants.

Phi/Uoxera vasta-

trix (PI. 53. fig. 7) is the vine-pest.

The colouring-matter of the Aphides partakes of the nature of chlorophyll (Sorby). BiBL. Westwood, Introd. 8,-c. Walck;

vations, calculated the total theoretical progeny of a single Aphis in the course of one

summer at 23,740,000. Their numbers are, however, constantly kept in check by the
attacks of numerous enemies, amongst which we may mention the common Lady-birds, both in their larva and perfect states, the larva3 of the Dipterous genus Syrphis, and of the Hemerobiidfp., which prey upon them whilst many of the smaller Ichneumonidse and Chalcididee attack them for the pm-pose of depositing eggs in their bodies. Notwithstanding these checks upon their production, the plant-lice increase suffi;

Kaltenbach, Moiiof/. d. enaer. Hist. d. Ins. PflanzenldKse, 1843 Koch, Aphiden, 1857 Burnett, Sillimayi^s Jn. 1854, xvii. (tigs.) Walker, Ann. N. Hist. 2nd pp. G2,_ 2(31
; ; ; ;

ser.

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

&c. (1848-49)
;

Claparede,

Ann. N.

Hist. 1867, xix. p. 300; Balbiani, ibid. 1866, x^iii. pp. 62, 106 id. & Signoret, ibid. 1867, XX. pp. 20, 149 Boisduval, Entorn. Horf. p. 240 Iluxlev, Linn. Tr. xxii. pp. 193, 221; Sorby, Tr. Mic. Soc. xi. p. 352;
; ;

Buckton,
1876.

Apliides

(^3Ionogr,),

Pay

Soc.

APPIRODITA, L.A
lata.
is

One

well

genus of Anntispecies of this genus {A. acidenta) known as the sea-mouse, and is
the
sea-coast,

ciently to render them exceedingly injurious to cultivated plants. The most noxious species are the turnip-flv {Aphis BrassiccHj PI. 3(3. fig. 3), the bean-fly {A. Papaveris),

commonly found on

and

always admired on account of the splendid iridescent colours reflected from its spines

occurs upon the poppy and various other plants, and the hop-ily (A. Humiili). The latter, when it abounds to an unusual extent, causes the almost total destruction of the crop of hops. One of the most abundant species is the rose-fly (A. Hgscs), which is often exceedingly injurious to roses in gardens, by attacking the young succident shoots. Lac/unis Quercus, a large species with the rostrum three times the length of the body, is found in the fissures of the bark of old oaks the other species of Lachnvs live for the most part upon the shoots and leaves of coniferous trees the
also
; ;

which

and bristly hairs. Body from 3 to 5 inches long, Ih broad, and oval ; back of an earthy Head small, entirely concealed, colour. with two round clear spots, or oyes, on the vertex. The hairs and brist'es run down each side of the body the back is rougliish, with a thick felt of hair and membrane forming a kind of skin. When this is cut through, fifteen nearly circular plates or scales (elytra) are found on each side,
;

L. pinicola. Eriosoma lani(/era (PI. o3. fig. 3) is a common species upon the stems of apple-trees, hving in societies in cre-sices of the bark, on which it forms small, white, Tewoolly patches. traneura Ulmi (PI. 36. fig. 4) lives in small
is

commonest

If two of partly coA-er each other. the plates lying next each other be separated, we then see up(ni the intermediate ring small tubercles divided by a pit, furnished behind with -pectinate appendages, the gills or branchitc.

which

Antennas minute palpi large, subulate, jointed at the base. Month with a large retractile edentulous proboscis the orifice encircled with a short, even, thick-set fringe of compound penicillate filaments divided
;

APHROSIXA.
into

G4

APIOCYSTIS.

two

sets

by a

fissure

on each
;

side.

the Tliirtj-uine pairs of feet, biramous upper branch carries the long-, flexible,
brilliantly coloured bristles

This fungus appears to arise in the same as other analogous fungi, as those the in kept organic liquids, in mine, &c.

manner

forming the silky

fringe ou each side of the body. This animal is a very interesting object to the microscopist, as its tissues are very

transparent and easily examined. The brilliant colours of the bristles and hairs arise from iridescence, produced by a

number

of longitudinal stiise or interspaces

between the component fibres of -which the bristles and hairs consist they also exhibit
;

splits or cracks 5 they are not materially changed by the action of boiling solution of potash, except that the external coat of the liau's becomes transversely wrinkled, giving these the appearance of being surrounded by a number of fibres (PI. 49.

transverse

spores are probably always fioating in the air and dropping from it upon all the exposed parts of the body and wherever they In find a proper nidus, there they grow. diseases accompanying or preceding aphtha, the regeneration of the oral e2)ithelium is probably to a great extent checked, the secretion of the saliva also, which would wash away these organisms why they occur so frequently in infants, is probably to the saccharine natm-e of the diet, owing which is especially favourable to theu' de; ;

velopment.
be observed of the numerous Fungi which have been described as preying on animal tissues, that a great portion are mere conditions of common species of AspergiUns, Penkil/ium, Mucor, &c., which as~ume difierent forms according
It is to

parasitic

tig.

20).

BiBL. Johnston, Ann. N. Hist. 1839, Van d. Hoeven, Zool. p. 232. p. 430 minute, paAPHKOSI'NA, Carter. rasitic, poriferous Foraminifer, with numerous irregular, vesicular chambers. Allied
;

This has not to the nature of the matrix. been sufficiently kept in view by authors unacquainted with the genera of Fungi; and
consequence, a great nimiber of spurious genera have been proposed, and considerable confusion has ensued while the fashion of late with Ilallier and his followers has been to confound things which are essenSee Oidium. tially distinct. BiBL. C. Robin, Hist. Nat. d. Vc(/. Parain
;

to Caiyejiteria.

BiBL. H.

APHTHA. A disease
It exhibits itself in the

J. Carter, J.

Micr.

S.

ii.

500.

aftectiug the

mu-

cous membrane of the mouth, tongue, kc.

form of rounded

patches of larger or smaller size, of a whitish One form of it, vulor yellowish colour. " thrush," and in French garly called the mtir/uet, which occurs very frequently in children, and in advdts towards the fatal termination of chronic diseases, is of special interest, inasmuch as the patches consist of numerous epitb(>lial scales mixed with the filanifuts and isolated cells of a fungus

sites,

1853, p. 488, where are mentioned.

.

many other works

APIOCYSTIS, NJigeli. A genus of PalmeUaceaj (Confervoid Algce). Aquatic plants

upon Confervfe, consisting of pear-shaped or clavate vesicles from 1-50" to 1-2U" high, and about half as thick, attached by the narrow extremity, and conparasitical

{Oidium
rous oval

albicans).

poi-tion
:

under the microscope exhibits

examined nume1,

taining

numerous
to

green primordial ceDs

cells (a, PI. 38. fig. 1), rarely

con;

about 1 -2500

1-3500" in diameter.

Young

2, taining an internal globule or uiicleus long filaments (i) exhibiting a further advanced stage of development the filaments
;

are but rarely jointed 3, epithelial scales, sometimes perfect (d), but usually wrinkled and otherwise altered in form, and frequently more or less opaque (c) , so as to be hardly recognizable except when treated ' with pota-h intermingled with these bodies are sometimes vibriones or bacteria {BacL tenno,f) and a molecular form of
; ;

sacs contain regularly 2, 4, 8, lU, 32, &c. ; and in large ones the number amounts to 300 to 1600. At first they lie iiTegularly in the cavity, afterwards they lie upon the wall in one or more layers sometimes they are attached to the wall in groups of eight.
_

a certain stage, the primordial cells befree in the cavity, move actively, and finally escape by the rupture of the sac,

At

come again

swarm

as biciliated zoospores for a time,

then settle
&c.
Brit.

down and

germinate.
;

matter
terino
;

(//),

probably an early stage of

Bad.

A. Brauniana

(PI. 5. fig. 5)

in ditches,

for it is always found witli and prior to it in decomposing liquids, in addition to the molecular granules found in all

animal

liquids.

BiRL. Niigeli. FJnz. Alr/en, p. G7, t. 2. A. and 2 llonfrey, 7V. iU/r. Soc. I80O, iv. p. 49, pi. 4 5 liab. Alt/, iii. p. 43.
figs. 1
;

APIS.

65

APUS.

A 'PIS, L. A genus
Insects.

of Hymenopterous

meUifica, the honey-bee, pi'esents interesting- points of structure.

A.

some

the apothecia, namely, pelta, scuteUa, patella, scyphus, nrhiculus, lircUtt, and verruca, indicating the forms occurring in particular
Fig. 27.
Fir. 28.

proboscis (PI. 3.3. fig. 2o) agrees with that of Anthophora. The " " tongue (labium*) is a very beautiful and favourite microscopic object its minute structure requires a higher power than that used in maldng our sketch, to render distinct the elegant transverse ridges or folds and the terminal liairy lobe. The legs are peculiarly formed for the special purpose of collecting and carrying the poUen of flowers. The tibife of" the hind legs are dilated, smooth on the outside in the neuter or working bees, and hollowed into a shining plate (PI. 34. fig. 46), whilst the basal joint of the tarsi is hooked at its outer superior angle and dilated into an oblong or somewhat triangular plate (PL 34. fig. 4a), which is furnished with transverse rows of hau's, forming pollen-brushes.
essentially
;

The

Fig. 27. Apothecia, magnified. Fig. 2S. Thecoe and paraphyses, from a vertical section of an apotliecium, magnified 200 diameters.

genera.

They

are shield-shaped,

flat,

cup-

BiBL. Westwood, Intr. &c. Ent. 769.

cal aberration (in lenses).

Cm-tis, Brit.

APLAXATISM. Freedom from spheriAPLIDIUM, Sav. AgenusofMollusca,

shaped, globular, papilliform bodies, or linear ridges, upon the upper surface of the thallus, either immersed, superficial, or elevated on peduncles. They contain the thecse or sporecases. For the structure, see Lichens.

APPENDICULARIA, Cham.A genus

1 British species; A.JlagelUna.

of Mollusca, of the order Tunicata, and

family Salpidae.

of the order Tunicata, and family Botrjdlidae.

The common mass

high
long.
;

3 inches and the animal bodies about J-| inch

is

from
:

1 to

BiBL. Gosse, Mar. Zoot. i. misso. Nova Acta Acad. Cur.

Phil. Trans. 18-51, p. 59,5.

p. x.

37; Cha;

Huxley,

Four British species Jicus, dark olive, orifices six-rayed A. fallax, honey-yellow, with white' and brown specks, orifices circular A. 7mtans,
A.
;
;

APTOG'ONUM,
midiacere.
flattened
;

Ralfs.-A genus of Des-

straw-yellow, tinted with brown, orifices invisible; and A. ven-ucosum, olive-green,

orifices entire.

BiBL. Forbes and Hanley, Brit. MoUuxca,

i.

10.

APOTHECIUM. The
Fig. 26.

name

applied to

Char. Filament elongated, triangular or joints bicrenate at the free margins an oval foramen between the joints. Kiitzing and others placed this organism in the genus Desmidiian, where it might very well have remained. A. Desmidimn. Joints in front view quadrangular, broader than long.
;

a.

Filaments triangular, regularly twisted,

;

Dirina Ceratoniae.

length of joints 1-1-500", breadth 1-1000" (PI. 14. fig. -5-5, front view fig. 52, side view). crenatnres shal/3. Filaments flattened lower and slightly angular. A. Baileyi. P'ilaments not cronate joints about equal in length and breadth. American. The latter cannot- be retained in this genus, unless the characters bo altered, on account of the absence of the crenatnres BiBL. Kalfs, Br. Besmid. pp. 03, 208.
;
;

crenatnres rounded

A'PUS,
the female or spore-fruits of the Lichens, ^everal special names have been applied to

Scop.

traca, of the order Phyllopoda,

genus of Entomosand family

Aspidephora.

ARACHNIDA.
Char. Head, body, and oreater part of

G6

ARACHNIDA.
.

tlae

abdomen covered by
"which
sessile
is

a sbield-like carajjace,
; ;

deeply notched behind eyes two, and approximate a single pair of minute, short, styliform and two-jointed
antennas legs, sixty pairs, the first pair furnished with three long jointed bi'auclies, extending beyond the carapace, the rest branchial body composed of numerous rings two long jointed caudal appendages. A. cancriformis. Freshwater, in stagnant
; ;
;

modified antennfe Next come two maxillary palpi (fig. 7 1), which do not differ in structure from the legs, except in their tarsi being composed of a single joint, generally terminated in the females by a small hook, but in the males of more complicated structure the basal joints of these palpi are
:

pools

brownish yellow; length 2i inches. Not British an elongated oval lamina between the two caudal appen;

A.

produdiis.

dages.

Eijtom. p. 18 R. LanJn. 1881, xxi. p. 343. ARACHNI'DA. class of animals containing the spiders, scorpions, Szc. Char. Head united with the thorax, fonuing a cephalothorax antennfe none

BiBL. Baird,

B)-if.

kester, Qu.

Mia:

A
;

enlarged and project forward, forming the maxillae (fig. id); these are stated to contain certain glands, opening on the inner side. of the upper face. In the scorpions, the mandibles and maxillary palpi terminate in pincers or forceps. Lastly a labium, situated between the niaxillse (fig. 7 e), and consisting of a single piece. The mouth in the other families is described under the respective heads.

The eyes

are simple (ocelli, .stemmata),

;

eyes simple (ocelli)

soft

legs eight, jointed.

but they are absent in the parasitic Acarina they consist of a simple arched cornea, a spherical lens and a concavo-convex vitreous body, with a cup-shaped retina, and a layer
of

The integument of tlieArachnida is usually

pigment corresponding to the choroid.

may

consists principally of chitine. Two layers usually be distinguished, an outermost or cuticle, which is tlie firmest and strongest,

and leathery, rarely horny or brittle, and

The cephalothorax is usually separated from the abdomen by a well-marked constriction

;

but sometimes the head, thorax,

are fused together.

and abdomen

and not unfrpqueutly exhibits a cellular appearance in the extremities and the cephalothorax. The cuticle of the abdomen of
the Aranene, Acarina, kc. presents very beautiful wa-vv' or undulating lines, sometimes surrounding the roots of the hairs &c.
least,

legs of the Arachnida, which are attached to the cephalothorax, do not co-

The

concentrically, and arising, in some cases at from the existence of folds (PI. 6. figs. 4 The cuticle of the Arachnida is fre5).

&

quently covered with warty and bulbous excrescences, bristles and simple or feathery hairs, and sometimes with scales. The innermost cutaneous layer consists of a very delicate and almost colourless membrane, of a finely granular or fibrous appearance, close beneath which is situated a layer of pigment granules and cells, which are visible through the general integument, and to which the beautiful colours of many of the Arachnida are owing. The organs surrounding the mouth varv in structure in the difierent f\imilies. In the Spiders, two mandibles are situated at the front of the head. These consist of two a basal, very thick one (PL 6. fig. Ga joints & 7 re), and a terminal, curved and shaiply

incide exactly with those of insects. They usually consist of seven segments tapering towards the end, so that the tarsi are less distinct from the other parts than in insects. If we suppose that the last two joints belong to the tarsus, the tibia then consists of two joints, of which, in some (the scorpion and Phrifnus) the first, in others the second, is

the longest. The preceding long joint is the femur, next to which comes an annular or inverted conical joint, corresponding to the trochanter of the six-footed insects. The first, broad, usually inversely conical joint, which is adherent to the cephalothorax, corresponds to the coxa of insects. The last joint of the tarsus usually supports three curved hooks or claws (PI. G. fig. 8), which are frequently toothed on the concave mar-

6 & 7 h). The latter is pointed one (fig. traversed by a canal terminating at its apex, through wliich the secretion of a poisongland passes into any body transfixed by the claw. These mandibles are perhaps, strictly,

and in some a membranous vesicular or hairy cushion (pulviilus) on its under side. The most characteristic feature of the Arachnida consists in the division of the tibia into two unequal pieces. The first pair of legs is supposed to represent the labial palpi of insects. The alinienfari/ canal is mostly short and In the Arauere the oesophagus straight. enlarges into a prismatic muscular expansion just before its termination in the stogin,

ARACHNIDA.
mach
;

67

ARACHNIDA.

tbe stomach splits j ust behind the above apparatus into two branches, which curve forwards and form a ring, from which the roots of the legs and palpi. Salivary glands are present, consisting in the Aranere of a transparent glandular mass situated in a cavity above the palate also a hepatic apparatus, in the form of a compact mass, consisting of a number of ramified and
five pairs of diverticula pass to
;

and mucli concealed, at others at the sides of the body above the tliivd pair of feet, as in the Gamaseoe, or behind the last pair, as
in the Ixodeae.

closely-crowded ca?ca, containiugthe hepatic cells and opening at about the middle of the alimentary canal in four short ducts. This hepatic apparatus was formerly mistaken for the fat-body. In the Tardigrada, Acarina, and some others the liver is represented by the granule-cells, usuallj'^ brownish yellow, of the walls of the diverticula of the stomach. The poison-glands of the Araneaj consist of two long, sometimes slightly curved blind sacs, the walls of which are surrounded by a simple spiral layer of muscular fibres. Circulatory S;/sfem. In the loAver Arachnida, as the Tardigrada, Acarina, &c., there is neither dorsal vessel nor blood-vessels. Hence in these there is no regidar circulation of blood, but the nutritive fluid or the blood is distributed free in the interstices of the

They are usually more tufted than branched as in insects. In the Ilydrachnea, which live in the wato respire, ter, and do not rise to the surface the tracheas must possess the power of abIn the sorbing the air from the water. sacs Araneaj, the lungs consist of rounded situated at the anterior part of the under
surface of the abdomen, and open externally by a transverse slit. At the outer convex surface of each lung-sac there are a number

of thin but firm triangular or rhomboidal

closed toplates, like the leaves of a book, examined by gether (PI. 6. fig. 9). refiected light, they present a silvery lustre ;

When

body, and is irregularly moved backwards and forwards, propelled in the cavity of the body, and into the extremities, by muscular movemeuts and the contractions of the intestinal canal.

whilst by transmitted light they appear dark Each of these plates violet or almost black. consists of a fold of the skin, between which the air of the sac is widely distributed they contain on blood-vessels hence probably the blood brought by the arteries is poured out around the lungs, and so bathes the lungThe position of the lung-sacs is inplates. dicated externally by a triangular and horny cutaneous plate, at the posterior margin of which the respiratory fissure exists. Behind these fissures there are two other openings, the orifices of a tracheary system which does not difi'er materially from that of such
:

as have tracheae only.

is

a dorsal vessel consisting of a spindle-shaped tube lying principnlly in the abdomen, constricted at intervals and furnished with lateral apertures and valves. This heart sends off lateral and terminal arterial branches, which gradually become lost. There are no veins but the further course of the blood takes the form of lacunal currents, which re-enter the heart at the valvular orifices. In the scorpions, there are veins as well
;

In the Araneoe there

as arteries.

In the Tardigrada Respiratory System. and some parasitic Arachnida, Demodex, Sarcoptes, Acariis, &c., no trachea} or other respiratory organs have yet been discovered hence the respu-ation must be cutaneous. The
;

higher Ai'achnida breathe either by trachege (many Acarina), or by lungs, or by both. Thetrachefe of the Acarina are remarkably delicate, so that the spiral fibre is with great
difhculty distinguishable.
in

tween the front

an unramitied bundle from two stigmata, which are sometimes situated anteriorly, belegs, as in

They arise usually

the Hydrac'hnea,

These organs, by means Spinning-orr/ans. of which the Araneida form their webs, are The external organs conof great interest. sist of three or rarely two pairs of cones or conical papillie, or spinnerets, placed at the end of tlie abdomen, below the anus they are somewhat flattened at the summit; and of two joints, usually the middle pair consist and the anterior and posterior pairs of three The sides ot the cones are covered joints. with hairs; and on the summits are a number of delicate horny spinning-tubes, at first sight these form conclosely resembling hairs Sometinuations of the spinning-vessels. times, however, the lower portionsof the sides
: ;

Nervous System. Varies in degree of complexity. In its simplest form it exists^ as a single oesophageal ganglion, sending off" radiating branches and in its most compound forms it presents a large cephalothoracic bilobed ganglion, and one or two ventral ganglial chains or cords. The primitive nervous fibres and ganglion-cells are very small and delicate.
;

of the cones are furnished with spinning-

p2

AEACHXIDA.
tiiVx^p,

68

AEACIJKEDA.
men
end.
;

the reinaiuder being covered with Each spinning-tube consists of two a thicker basal portion and a thin parts terminal portion, from the orifice of which the substance of the fibre exudes (PI. 6. fig. The number of 10, 10 , separate tubes). these spinning-tubes vai'ies according to the species, the sex, and the age of the spiders. In some there are more than 1000, in others 400, 300, 100, &c., and in others still fewer. The glands which secrete the tenacious transparent secretion are very variable in
hairs.
:

palpi large, leg-like, chelate at the

(Pulmonary sacs present.) Order 3. SoLiFrG.i (Solpugida). Cephalothorax distinct from the jointed abdo-

men

palpi fihfurm, extended, as long as

;

the legs, unarmed.

4. Pseudoscorpioxes (Obisida) Book-scorpions. Cephalothorax distinct from the ringed abdomen palpi large, chelate. (Tracheae only present.) Order 5. Phalangita (Opilionina) Har-

Order

number,

fiirm,

and arrangement, and occupy and tubes, lined with nu-

the interstices of the other abdominal viscera, consist of sacs

Cephalothorax distinct from the annulate or transversely plicate abdomen palpi simple, filiform mandibles chelate legs very long, terminated b}' a
vest-spiders.
;
; ;

cleated cells, and either simple or variously ramified, terminating in ducts which open at the roots of the spinning-tubes. The filaments of which the webs of many The spiders are composed are not all alike. radiating filaments are but little elastic, and are composed simply of one or more threads; whilst the more numerous (tangential) filaments connecting these are covered at tolerably regular intervals with minute spherical masses of glutinous matter (PI. 6. fig. 11), the filaments themselves being highly elas-

single claAv.

Order

6. Acarina (Mites). Head, thorax, and abdomen fused together; legs di-

stinctly jointed

palpi simple.

Fam.

1.

Acarea.
;

Head terminated

in

front by an eraarginate labrum, or single bifid process palpi adnate or adherent to the labium, difficultly distinguished ; mandibles chelate ; no distinct ocelli ; legs generally terminated by a vesicle or

These masses give the fibres an elegant beaded appearance under low powers of the microscope. The viscid masses cause the
tic.

more ready adhesion of the filaments to insects which may accidentally become entangled in them, and render the spider more
sure of holding liis prey. The Araclmida generally Propagation. are propagated by sexes. The sexual apparatus consists of two ovarian or seminal sacs, sometimes fused together in the middle line they are situated in the abdomen, and termi-

adhesive acetabulum and claAvs. Fam. 2. Oribatea (Beetle-mites). Body covered by a hard horny envelope mandibles chelate palpi fusiform, 6-joiuted; legs furnished with claws, but no vesicle or acetabulum. Most of the species live in mosses at the roots of trees in some the body is surrounded bya projectinglamella on each side.
;

Fam. 3. Ixodea (Ticks). Palpi canaliculate, sheathing the rostrum mandibles tluee-jointed, basal joint internal, second joint external and long, third short and
;

denticulate
teeth.

labium covered with reflexed

nate in two excretory ducts, which usually open at a common orifice placed at the base of the abdomen, or below the cephalothorax. penis is not generally present theseminal fluid is applied to the vulva of the female by the maxillary palpi of the male. Parthenogenesis has been observed in Acarina. Spiders are oviparous the eggs are enveloped in a cocoon, and are often elegantly

(Parasitic.)

Fami. 4. Gamasea (Insect-mites). Palpi free, filiform mandibles chelate feet with two claws ajid a carimcle, or a lobed membranous appendage; ocelli none
; ;

(Generally parasitic.) (Water-mites). Palpi with the last joint unguiculate or spinous two or four distinct ocelli coxjb

or indistinct.

Fam.

5.'

Ilydrachnea

sculptured.

There
erdysis.

is

no metamorphosis, but repeated

:

broad, legs generally ciliated, natatory, the posterior longest. (Aquatic.) Fam.d Bdellea (Snouted mites). Palpi

The Arachnida may be thus subdivided Order 1. Arankida. Cephalothorax constricted from the unj oiuted abdomen
;

antenniform mandibles terminating in claws or pincers rostrum resembling an elongated head body generally divided between the second and third pairs of legs
;

palpi unarmed.

by a
soft,

transA^erse fiu-row or stricture.

Order

(Phrynida). Cephalothorax distinct from the jointed abdo-

2.

PEDiPALn

The

species are minute,

variously coloured,

more or and living

less

in

AEACIINIDA.
places beneath moss, caves, &c.

GO

ARACHNOID MExMBRANE.

damp

upon sand of

Fam. 7. Trombidiua (Harvest-mites). Palpi with the last joint obtuse, the the last but second joint very large one (penultimate) resembhng an incurvated claw feet cursorial, terminated by
; ;

dip between the convolutions of the brain, but enters and lines its ventricles. Its outer surface is covered by a delicate epithelial layer its inner surface is smooth, but not covered with epithelium. It is reflected upon the surface of the dura mater as an
;

two claws. Fam. 8. Hypoderidae (Subcutaneous

mites). Oval-oblong, almost transparent sacs ; the anterior and posterior pairs of
legs widely apart
fine hairs.
;

It consists principally of reticulated bundles of connective tissue, with fibres of elastic tissue coiling around or pursuing a rectihnear course through them. In some parts the fibrillse of the

epithelial layer only.

tarsi

terminated by two

The

species are found in the subcu9.

taneous tissue of birds.

Fam.
Legs

Phytoptidte

(Gall-mites).

four, the hinder pairs replaced tubercles or hairs.

by

Order

In the galls and buds of plants. Water7. Tardigeada (Colopoda) bears. Legs rudimentar}^, very short,
;

former run parallel without forming bundles, and contain, as do the bundles, round, elonIn others, gated, or spindle-shaped nuclei. connective tissue of a rather homogeneous appearance here and there forms a coat to the bundles, or is situated between them. F"ig. 29 represents two bundles of the connective tissue of the human arachnoid,
after the addition of acetic acid, the fibres of elastic tissue.

showing

conical,

indistinctly three-jointed, and

;

with three or four claws abdomen not distinct from the thorax. (Aquatic.) Order 8. Pycnogonida (Polygonopoda) Crab-spiders. Cephalothorax forming a abdomen rudimentary 4-jointed body legs as long as or (small and conical)
;

Fig. 29.

longer than the body. Sluggish marine animals, living under stones, upon marine plants, or parasitic

upon fish and Crustacea. BiBL. Treviranus, Bau der Arachn. Bd. 1, 1816; id. Vermischte Se/u-{ft. ^-c.
;

Dufour, An.
Siebold

d. So. phi/sicj. d. Bru.v., iv.-vi. Walckenaer, Hist. nat. d. Ins. Apt., i.-iii.

& Stannius, Lehrb. d. vergl. An. i. Blackwall, Brit. Spiders {Ray Soc.) 1861-4, and Linn. Tr. xvi. Blanchard, Ann. A\ H. and 18-j2, x. loO Newport, 18-"i0, vi. 67
;
;

Phil.

Tr.

1843

Koch, Uebersicht
;

8fc.,

and

Claparede, Vevol. i^'c. 1863 id. Circulation, ^-c, Ann. N. H. 1865, XV. p. 16; Cambridge, Encxjl. Brit. 1875, ii Jones, An. Kingd. 1870 Gegeubaur, Walker, BrU. Spiders Vergl. Anat. 1878 Econ. Ent. p. 33. Soc. ) Murrav, {Eay
pis.)
; ; ;

Arachnid. (534

ARACHXID'IUM, Hincks. A

genus of

Ctenostomatous Polyzoa

(Bryozoa), fam.
Connective and elastic tissue of arachnoid, after treatment with acetic acid. Magnified 350 diameters.

Arachnidiidse. Three British species. BiBL. Hincks, Poh/zoa, 1880, p. 508.

ARACHNOID MEMBRANE

Is a delicate transparent arachnoidea). membrane, lying between the cranial dura mater and the brain, and extending between the spinal cord and its dura mater so as to envelope these nervous centres. It does not

{Tunica
BiBL. Kolliker, Mik. An. gem. Anat.
ii.
:

Henle, All-

ARACHNOIDIS'CUS, Bailey (Hemigenus of Diatomaceae. ptychus, Ehr.). Char. Fiustules adherent, disk-shaped;

ARACHNOSPIS,

70

ARCELLA.

valves plane or slightly convex, with radiating and concentric lines (rows of dots), and a central pseudo-nodule. The markings upon the inner valves are not the same as those upon the outer (or parent) hence the mere variations of the markings are not characteristic nor is the number of rays constant.
: ;

hrasiliensis, A. imhricata, &c. reservoirs of turpentine seem to be in the bark and not in the wood. See Coni-

do also A.

The

fer.^,

ARAUC ARI'TES, Goeppert (Dado.vylon, Endlicher Pinites, Lindl. and Hutt.). A

;

Wood,

and Secondary Layers.

A. ornatus, Ehr.
nular
;

rays29,equal.

Valves very finely graIn Patagonian guano.

genus of Fossil Coniferae, characterized by a structure resembling that of Araucaria. BiBL. Witham, Fossil Vef/elahles, p. 72, pi. 4-11. Edinb. 18.33 Lindley aud Huttou,
;

A. Ehrenherfiii, Bail. I'seudo-nodule surrounded by an inner ring of linear radiating and an outer ring of circular or angular breadth markings (depressions) marine 1-200 to 1-60" occurs also in guano. (PI.
;

Fossil Flora, l.t. 2,3.

of Rhizopoda, of the family Arcellina. The Arcellfe correspond to Amoebae contained in a carapace. In some species the

ARCEL'LA, Ehr.A genus

16. figs.

12

&

1.3,

side view.)

&^^\^ <iNicobar '1 <\ ol. hg. 4). j, BiBL. Ehr. Be): d. Berl. Ak. 1848 & 1849 Smith, Br. Diat. i. p. 25 Shadbolt,
fig.

A. mdicus (PI. 51. ^ 7 /-m A. mcobaricus (PI.

;

^^
3).
J
i

membranous and uniform in calcareous and exhibits fine striae, depressions, or granides spirally arranged. A. vidgaris (PI. 30. fig. 14a). Carapace brownish yellow, plano-convex, or hemicarapace
others
is
;

it is

TV. Mic. Soe.

p.

159

ARA.CHN0S'P1S, Kent. A genus

Arnott, Micr. Jn. 1858, Greville, Micr. Tr. 1865, p. 47.

iii.
;

These spherical, covered with depressions. markings or depressions are very beautiful

of

and interesting. They agi-ee with those upon the valves of the Diatomaceae in regard to the requirements for their display with unilateral oblique light, lines only are Their true structure resembles that visible.
;

Infusoria, fam. Halteriidas. BiBL. Kent, Infus. p. 214.

ARACHNU'LA, Cieuk. genus of Rhizopoda. Char. Naked, colom-less, without nucleus one or more contractile vesicles pseudo; ;

in

PL

15. fig. 41, or

PL

17. fig. 29,

except

that the rows are

spiral.
;

somewhat wa'vy or even

podia branched, very slender, anastomosing; bodies connected by thickish cords. Move-

ment A.
Sea.

active.

Fr. wat. breadth 1-500 to 1-200". In the young state it is very transparent and pale,'and the markings are with diiliculty distinguished. The shell is cast several times

impatiens.

In brackish water.
ScJi.

Black
xii.

BiBL, Cienkowski,
p. 27.

Arch., 1876,

ARANE'IDA.A
(

family of Arachnida,

comprising the true spiders. The species of genera belonging to this family as A. civilis and domestica, housespiders, Epeira diadema, garden-spiders &c.) are readily accessible for examining the
the skin, structural peculiarities of spiders the eyes, the organs of the mouth, the maxillarv palpi, the spinnerets, the legs, &c.

before arriving af maturity. PL 32. fig. 24 represents the animal with its processes protruding from the carapace. have seen two of these animals conjugating, and so firmly united by the soft internal substance, that they were not separable by rolling them over between two plates of glass. A. (Ec/iitiopi/xis) acvleata (PL 30. fig.

We

(See
;

PL

0.)

14 Z>). Carapace brownish, discoidal, convex above, with one or more irregular spinous prolongations at the margin fr. wat. ; breadth 1-200" without the spines. A. dentata (PL 30. fig. 14 c). Hemi;

BiBL.Walcken., ^p^eres, i.; \\oc\\, Arachn. viii. Treviranus, Bau d. Arachn. Walker,
;

Brit. Spiders

ARAUC

JNIurray, Ec. Ent. p. 43. A'RI A, Jussieu. genus of Co;

niferse (Gymnospermous Flowering Plants), remarkable for the character of the markings on the walls of the cells of the wood, where the pits or bordered pores appear in two or more parallel rows (PI. 48. fig. 5). Arauearia {Eufassa) exceha is the Norfolk- Island Pine, which grows to an immense size, as

carapace or wat. breadth 1-560 to 1-200". greenish A. aureola (Ci/phidixin auroleum, Ehr.) (PL 30. f. 38). C'arapace yellow, angular, with numerous tubercles, four of which are larger and more projecting a single expansion of varied size breadth 1-560 to l-420"j fr. wat. Fig. 38 a represents the carapace viewed from above, b the same supported
spherical,
;

anguloso-polygonal
;

membranous, homogeneous, vollowish

;

fr.

upon one angle, and

t\ie

single expansion.

AECELLINA.
A. arenaria
lichens.
in sand, Otiier species.
\

"1

ARCYRIA.
In the Lycopodiand Marsileacepe they are produced

under moss and

;

mination of the spores.

ace;e

BiBL.

Elirenberg,
Infiis.

Infus.
p.
(pi.).

Chiparede
;

and Lacliniann,

444

Biitsclili,

Schultzes Arch. xn. 459

ARCELLl'NA,
bose Rhizopoda.

Elir. A family of Lo-

upon the cellular plate, representing a prothallium, developed in the large spores when these begin to germinate. The corpusctda of the Ooniferse are analogous bodies to the last.

SeeHEPATICACE..E,MuSCACE^,FlLICACE^,
EQUISETACEiE, LYCOPODIACEiE, MaRSILEACEJE also Conifer.^ and Ch.a.iiace.e.
;

Cltar, Animals contained in a univalve membranous or solid inflexible carapace,

of an urceolate or shield-like form, with a sinp-le orifice from which one or more irregular and variable expansions are protruded, which form the organs of locomotion. Biitschli describes conjugation but the
;

ARCHID'IUM,Bridel. AgenusofPhascace^e(Acrocal'pousMosses), of which but one species is found in Europe (A. j}/iascoides= Phascum alternifoUum, Hook, and T. ), grow-

result

is

The

doubtful. substance of the

of an Amoeba.

Gen,

body resembles that

Pseudochlamys. Ampkizonella.
Arcella.

Shell flexible, dorsal... Shell flexible, universal Shell solid, inflexible. Not incrnsted with foreign matters. Incrusted with agglutinated foreign matters. With tubular prolongations Without tubular prolongations...

ing upon banks and fallow ground, on clay or chalky soil. It is remarkable for the sessile globular capsule, without a trace of an operculum, the columella soon obliterated, and the spores being few in number, very large and angular in form (figs. 32 &
Fig. 82. Fig. 33.

Echinopyxis.
Difflugia.

ARCH^DIS'CUS, Brady.A
lenticular,
;

small,

asymmetrical, hyaline Forafound in miuifer, of the Nummuline type the Carbonifei'ous Limestone. BiBL. Bradv, Ann. N. H. 1873, xii. 286. ARCHEGd'NIUM. Also called ;j2s<7/The rudimentary organ representing dium. the ovule in the higher Flowerless Plants, such as Mosses, Ferns, &c. (excluding the

Archidium.

Open capsules devoid

spores.

of columella and with large Magnified -10 diameters.

Thallophytes). These organs are more minutely described under the heads of the various Classes, in speaking of their reproduction. In the Mosses and Liverworts they are flask-like cellular bodies, found in terminal
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.

The calyptra is torn away in the middle during the expansion of the capsule, as in Sj)/>af/tium, leaving a short tumid vaginula. BiBL. Wilson, Bn/ol. Brit. p. 24. ARCTO'A, Br. and Sch. lJicRAXTJM. Hill. genus of Myxomycetes, growing on rotten wood, with fre33).

ARCYRTA,

quently bright-coloured spores and filaments. The elastic filaments of the capillitium have no spiral fibres, but are a little
tuberculated. The species in general are not confined to Europe or the United States, but have a very wide geographical range, occurring in tropical and subtropical districts as well as in those which ai'e tem-

Archegonia of ^VTosses. Magnified 50 diameters.

Common ; spores and dark form capillitium purpli.sli vermilion. is separated by Rostafinski as A. ferru~ Grev. Sc. Crypt, Fl. t. 130. ginea. Not uncommon ; A. incarnate^ Pers. smaller, with a shorter stipes and with fleshA. punicea,
Pers.

perate.

Species

or axillary buds on the 30 leafy stems & 31). In the Ferns and Equiseta (figs. are they on the prothallium, after the produced ger-

coloured spores and capillitium. A. cinerea, Bull. Spores and capillitium

cinereous.

A, nutans, Bull. Spores and capillitium Trichia dirty-yellow capillitiiun nodding.

;

ARECA.
nutans, Sowerby ,t. 260 Sc. Cnipf. Fl. t. 309.
;

72

ARKENURUS.
(figs of all species)
;

Arcyriajlava, Grev.

Murray, Ec. Entom. 180

jMegnin, Paras. 1880, 133.

A. umhrina, Sclium. Spores and capillitium ochraceous, capillitium erect; peridiuin ovate.

AR'GULUS,
Argulidffi.

Miill.

cea, of the order

A genus of CrustaSipbonostoma and family

;

A. ochroleuca, Fr. Spores and capillitium pale-ochraceous, peridium globose,

evanescent
smaller than the preceding 1-12" high. BiBL. Berk. Hooke>-''s Brit. Fl. ii. pt. 2. p. 318; Crypt. Bot. p. 337 Fries, Summa Rost. Sluzowce Cooke, Veget. p. 45G
;
;
;

Cliar. Carapace membranous, covering the cephalothorax like a shield antennae concealed beneath the carapace, four, short, anterior two-jointed, terminal joint hooked ;

3Iy,:

ARE'CAjL. genus of flowering plants (Earn. Palmaceag). The albumen of the seed of the Areca catechu (the Areca nut, as it is called) atfords a good instance of horny consistence produced by secoudarv lavers upon

posterior four-jointed; rostrum acuminate ; five pairs of legs, the place of the first (6th) pair being occupied by two suckers second pair short, five jointed, the two basal joints
;

spinous, the last joint with two small hooks ; the last four pairs of legs two-cleft, and

furnished with ciliated filiform processes. the stickleback

;

Albumen

the cell-walls (PI.

'^^^.

figs. 21^

&

22).

See

Parasitic on A.foliaceiis (PI. 20. fig. 1). [G aster osteus) and other fishes carapace greenish.

genus of Couiomycetous Fungi closely allied to Puccinia, comprising the species with many cells which occur on various Rosaceie, as the common dark parasite of the Rose and

(of seeds). AREGr'MA, Fries.

BiBL. V.

d.
;

Ilueven, Zod.

Entom.

p. 2-42

; Baird, Brit. Thorell, Ann. N. H. 1866,

xviii. p. 149.

Bramble. Like Puccinia, the species always

seem connected with a Uredinous form, and are propagated by secondary spores produced on the multiseptate bodies after germinating.

ARPAC'TICUS, Baird. A genus of Entomostraca, of the order Oopepoda and family Cyclopidte. Char. Head undistiugiushable from thorax foot-jaws two pairs, forming strong cheliform hands; antennae in male furnished with a swollen hinge-like joint antennules
; ;

(inferior
;

BiBL. Fries, Summa Veg. p. 507 Berk. Crypt. Bot. p. 325 Tidasne, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 1847, Jan. p. 12 De Bary, Ueb. d. Brand;

the

fifth pair

single.

Two

antennae) simple; legs five pairs, rudimentary; eye single; ovary

species
:

ARE'OLAR TISSUE
Connective
Tis.sue.
of the order Acarina

of animals.

See

AR'GAS, Walck. A genus of Arachnida,

Marine, closely resembling Cyclops. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entom. p. 212. ARRENU'RUS, Duges. genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina and family
chelifer
nobilis.

A.

and A.

and family Ixodea. Char. Rostrum inferior, concealed, as also the palpi, beneath a projection of the anteunder part of body rior part of the body granular, not scaly, and consisting of a single piece; first joint of the palpi longest; legs approximate at their insertion, feet termi;

Hydrachnea ( = Caudate Hydrachnaj). The posterior part of the body of the male is narrowed and produced into a truncate or The body of the fecylindrical appendage. male is truncated posteriorly. The prolongation is terminated by two angles and a
;

nated by two claws, but no vesicle. These animals are frequently parasitic some live in upon pigeons, fowls, &c.
;

sinuous intervening margin. At the middle of the latter is situated the penis above which are two hooks. In both sexes the

back

gardens. A.reflexus{ Wiynchoprion OJnmbcsJ lerm. ) Body marked witli tortuous furrows and depressions, yellowish or violet after food. On
.

pigeons, especially

when young. Blood-red colour, back covered with scattered elevated white spots.
A.
persiciis.

hard, crustaceous, as if shagreened, or spinous. In some species the thicker layer of the skin is furnished with a number of conical apertures (PI. 0. fig. 12). The eyes are two, distinct, blackish. The intestinal caeca are distinguishable through the
is

The venomous bug

of Persia

said to cause

death in the human subject. There are other species. BiBL. Gervais, Walcken.

The mouth is round and surroimded by a kind of hood (PI. 6. fig. 13, c). Arrenuriis viridis, Duges 's typical species (PL 6. fig. 13), has the palpi short and clavate (a); the fourth joint longest and largest,
skin.

Aptcres,

iii.

the fifth falcate, and the mandibles ung-ui-

AE ROW-ROOT.
!

73

ARTERIES.
Char,

culate (b). According to Murray, this is the male of Ata.v histrionicus The species are very numerous and of almost all colours red, green, yellow, grey, purple.

tail,

BiBL. Walckeu. Apt'eres, iii.; Duges, Ann. N. 2 ser. i. Koch, Ueberskht ij-c. 5 Murray, Ec. Ent. p. 154. ARROW-ROOT. A name given to various kinds of starch, derived from the plant Maranta arundhiacea and other species. True West-India arrow-root is from this
d. Sc.
;

Abdomen prolonged in the form of a composed of nine segments or joints, the end joint simply divided into two lobes superior antennte slender and filiform in both sexes inferior antennae in the male large, flat, curved downwards and two-jointed, re;
;

sembling horns in the female short, pointed and slightly curved basal joint of male inferior antennae provided with a short coni5 ;

cal process. A. salina.

26j and M. allonya and M. nobilis (N. O. Marautacece). East-India arrowroot is ohtained from species of Curcuma (N. O. Zingiberaceaj) (PI. 46. fig. 19), and apparently also from a Sagus, if we may j udge from a specimen (PI. 46. fig. 18) from Singa46. fig. 22) is pore. Tahitan arrow-root (PL obtained fi'om the plant called Tacca pinnaand the substance tifda (N. O. TaccaceEB) called Portland arrow-root (PI. 46. tig. 11) is extracted from the Arum macidatum (N. O. Araceae), a common hedge-weed in this In all these cases the fecula concountry. sists of starch-grains, which are produced in in great quantity before the season of rest, the succulent tubers or rhizomes of the the arrow-root is extracted from the
(PI. 46.
fig.
;

brine-worm.

The Lyminglon shrimp Found in the salt-pans

or
at

Lymingtun. Length about 1-2". Each segment of the thorax shortly bilobed at the apex, and with a pair of branchial feet; each lobe of the end joint of abdo-

men

giving ofip several short setae. Agrees generally in structure ^^ ith Branchipus. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entom. Rackett,
;

Linn. Tr.

xi.

These are the tubes or vessels which convey the blood from the heart to the various parts of the body. The structure of the arteries is very complicated and difiicult of investigation; and the coats or timics of which they consist are so intimately connected as to be by no means
easily separable.

ARTERIES.

plants;

grated root-stalks by washing, to separate the cellular tissue and remove the often
acrid juices.
is subject to adulteration with cheaper kinds of starch, especially with sago and potato-starch. BiBL. Pereira, Mat. 3Ied. ; Hassall, Food and its Adulterations, p. 31. ARSENIC. The common term for arseArsenious acid assumes two nious acid. in an crystalline forms, and occurs also

See Starch. The arrow-root of the shops

amorphous state. The most common form

or tetrahedral.
is

is

the octahedral

less

The second (right rhombic) common, and is only obtained by

sublimation,

.\ttention to the form of the crystals is important, because it is used as a means of identifying arsenic in cases of It must, however, be borne in poisoning.

In the larger arteries, three coats are usually distinguishable, an outer or adventitious coat, a middle, and an inner coat or Their intima, with its epithelial Huing. composition and thickness vary in arteries of different sizes. The general character of the arteries is that the middle coat is thick and strong, consisting of several layers, and its elements run transversely. In the largest arteries it is yellow, very elastic and of great strength ; as the vessels become smaller, it diminishes in thickness, becoming redder and more contractile and near the capillaries it is very The inner coat thin, finally disappearing. is always thin, yet thickest in the large veswhilst the outer coat is absolutely sels thinner in these than in those of a moderate size, in which it equals or even exceeds the
;

mind that protoxide of antimony (Sb O3)

yields crystals
(PI. 10. fig. 22).
\ised

by sublimation of exactly

the same form as those of arsenious acid

Solution of arsenious acid is sometimes as a preservative liquid for animal

middle coat. In the small arteries the epithelial lining consists of very delicate pale, flattened, fusiform cells with longish oval nuclei. An elastic layer is expanded beneath the epithelial layer, which is smooth in the

preparations.

BiBL. Guy, Mic. Tr. 1861, p. 54. ARTE'MIA, Leach. A genus of Entomostraca, of the order Phyllopoda and fa-

mily Branchiopoda.

living vessels, whilst in these, when empty, it exhibits numerous transverse or longituIt forms what is called a fenesdinal folds. trated membrane, generally exhibiting more or less distinct reticulated fibres, and usually

ARTERIES.
;

74

ARTERIES.

small elongated openings more rarely a very dense network of principally longitudiFig. 34.

The middle coat of the smaller arteries is The fibres or fibre-cells, purely muscular. W'hich are transverse and connected into layers, may be isolated by dissection, or by maceration and boiling in a mixture of nitric acid with four parts of water. The outer coat consists of connective tissue with
elongated nuclei and fine
elastic fibres, and is nearly as thick as, or even thicker

than the middle coat. In the smallest arteries, the outer coat gradually
contain elastic merely of areolar tissue and the nuceases
to
tissue, consisting
clei
its

this gradually loses fibrous character, next

;

becoming homogeneous, and finally a thin perfectly structureless membrane, In the and disappearing. same manner the middle
Magnified
3.50

diami ters.
:

Tein (J) (about 1-lSO" in ^A small artery (a) andthe addition of acetic acid of a after
;

diameter) from the mea, exfernal coat, with child, sentery elongated nuclei /3, nuclei of the muscular fibres of the middle coat, partly seen from the surface, partly the sectional view y, nuclei of the epithelial
;

coat gradually loses

ers of

its

lay-

muscular fibres, until these and the fibres themselves

cells

S,

fibrous layer of elastic tissue.

nal elastic
fissures.

fibres,

with narrow elongated

.35.

ultimately vanish. tracing the smaller arteries downwards, the inner coat is first

On

found to lose
Flo-.

its'

elastic fibres

and

at last

the epithelial cells cease to be isolable, all that can be distinguished consisting of their but by maceraclosely aggregated nuclei tion in very dilute solution of nitrate of silver, the lines of demarcation of the cellwalls are rendered beautifully distinct. In 7no(h'ratc-sized avtevies the middle coat increases in thickness, but, in addition to a larger number of muscular layers, fine elas;

in open networks are added, at running somewhat irregularly through the muscular elements, and in the larger vessels of this category mixed with areolar tissue and here and there forming layers alternating with those of the muscular fibres. The inner coat sometimes contains between its elastic layer and the epithelium several other layers, forming, with fine networks of elastic tissue more externally
tic

fibres

first

Magnified 350 diameters.

Muscular
acid;
2,

fibre-cells
;

from human
b,

the popliteal
nuclei.

a,

before,

from a twig of the anterior

arteries. 1, from after the addition of acetic tibial artery: a,

situated in homogeneous granular or fibrillar areolar tissue, a strong middle layer, the elements of. which are longitudinal. The outer coat in these vessels contains more elastic tissue, in the fqi-m of laminte.

ARTERIES.

75

ARTIIROBOTRYS.

In the largest arteries, the epithelial cells of the inner coat are not so elongated, and the inner coat consists principally of layers of a homofyeneous, striated, or even distinctly tibrillar substance, agreeing with areolar tissue, traversed by finer and coarser longitudinal networks of elastic tissue. Immediately beneath the epithelium the networks or elastic fibres are either very fine, or are replaced by one or more striated layers, vrhich, when nucleated, often appear as if composed of fused epithelial cells, and

the middle coat. They also receive branches of the sympathetic and spinal nerves. Transverse sections of the arteries are best made with the freezing section-cutter The epithelial cells require or microtome. the use of solution of nitrate of silver.

The most important

to

which the

the

patliological changes arteries are subject, consist of deposition of fat in their substance

(fatty degeneration) and of atheromatous matter. These will be noticed under Fatty

DEGENERATION

Avhen

homogeneous resemble pale elastic membranes. The middle coat contains, as a new element, elastic membranes or plates,
as many as 50 or GO, which, except in their transverse direction, resemble the elastic inner coat, sometimes forming the densest networks of elastic fibres, at others fenestrated membranes. These layers alternate Fig. 36.

and ATHEROMA. See Vessels. BiBL. Heule, Allg. An.; Kolliker, Geivehelehre Wedl, PatJi. Hist. Rokitansky, Krankh. d. Art. Frey, Histologie, 1881 Eberth, Strieker's Handlmch, v. p. 190; Rutherford, Hist. p. 100 ColwikQim, Pathol.
; ; ; ;

1878,

ARTHO'NIA, Ach. A

p. 1(38.

genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, tribe

Grapliidei.

Char. Thallus thin or subepidermal and evanescent apothecia dark, in;

asci pyrinately sessile form spores 4-8, septate, upper cell larger no paraphyses.
;
;

32 species, some common on trees, holly, ash, oak &c. BiBL. Leighton, Lich.
;

Flora, 1870,
Magnified 30 diameters. Transverse section of the human aorta below the superior mesenteric arc, 1. Inner cat: a, epithelium 6, striated layers tery, after acetic acid. e, the muscular and 2. Middle coat d, its elastic layers elastic layers. areolar tissues. 3. Outer coat with its network of elastic tissue.
; ; : ;

p.

414.

with those of the muscular fibres traversed by areolar tissue and networks of elastic The muscular layer of the middle tissue. coat is less developed, its cells smaller and less regularly and perfectly formed. The outer coat is relatively and absolutely thinner than that in the smaller but the
;

Kze. genus of Dematiei (Ilyphomycetous Fungi), of which one species has been found in Britain, growing upon dead leaves of Eriophorum

ARTHRIN'IUM,
A

the same, except that its inner elastic layer is much less developed. In some of the larger arteries of man, as the axillary and popliteal, and the mesenteric arteries of other mammals, the internal coat This contains unstriped muscular fibres. is the case also with the outer coat of the larger arteries in animals, but not in
structure
is

angustifolium. A. sporophlceum, Kze. Filaments elongated, tufted, often not more than 1-50" long, but frequently confluent in a linear form, with a kind of velvety surface; spores numerous,angular, or like a double cone, attached in whorls at the joints of the filaments.

BiBL. BQxk(i\ej,Ann.X.H. 18:i8, Torula Eriophori, Berk. Enql. FL

i.p.

436

v. pp. 2,

359

Corda. A genus ofMucedines ( Hypho my cetous Fungi) bear-

Fries,

Sum. Veg.

p. 502.

ARTIIROBOTRYS,

man.
All except the smallest arteries are furnished with nutrient blood-vessels, the vasa vasorum these ramify principally in the outer coat, in the larger ones extending into
;

ing elegant nodular groups of septate spores. No species is yet recorded in Britain. Corda describes one species, A. superha (fig, in this the spores are about 1-1500" 37) long. Fresenius describes another, A. oligospora, perhaps not distinct, which has the erect filaments about 1-50" high, solitary,.
;

ARTHROBOTRYUM.
;

76

ARTOTROGUS.

not in tufts, and mostly with only one these are pear-shaped, group of spores 1-700" long, and have the septum below the middle it was found on damp wood, fruit and earth, in a fungus-bed.
:

in the middle; segTuents entire, with a single

spine on each side. A. convergens. Segments elliptic

fig.

(PL

14.

length 1-598 to l-53iJ". A. incus, Breb. Segments with truncated ends; length 1-1103".

27)

Fig. 37.

A. minutus, Kiitz. (PL A. truncatus, Ehr. A. suhilatus.

18. fig. 9).

Fier. 38.

Other species. BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Desmid. pp. 117, 200 Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. p. 176; Ehrenberg, hifus. p. 158 Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. p. -I'lo. ARTHROGY'RA, Ehr. An obscure genus of Diatomacete. A. guafemaknsis (PL 51. fig. 8). Fila;
;

ment

straight.

A. semilunaris.

Filament curved.

Both

&Yi\
Arthrobotrys superba.
37. Fertile filament

in

Guatemala

earth.

BiBL. Ehrenbero-, Mikrogeolo(/ie, pi. 33. ARTHROM'ITUS, Leidy. Described as a genus of the Leptothriceee of Kiitzing (Algaj Confervoidese). Two species, A. cristatus and A. nitidus, were found in the inof spores.

with

many groups

38. Fertile articulation of ditto,

with most of the spores detached from the spine-like processes on which they are borne. Magnified
400 diameters.

Magnified 200 diameters.

testinal canal of lulus marginatus, a kind of These objects appear to have millipede. been imperfect forms of some filamentous

Fungus. See Parasites. BiRL. Leidv, Proc. Ac. Philadelphia, iv. p. 225, 1849 (Aiiti. N. H. 2ud ser. v. p. 74).
;

BiBL. Corda, Schimmelb.

Fresenius, Beitr. zur 1-8. pi. 3. figs.

p.

43,
i.

t.

21

ARTHROXE'MA, HassalL A

Myc, Heft

genus of

p. 18,

A RTHROBO'TRYUM.Agenus of Mu-

Oscillatoriacese (Confervoid Algae). A. cirrhosum (PL 8. Filaments fi^. 20), of considerable- size, striae close, evident.

cedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), proposed by Cesati, characterized by a stem composed of jointed threads, bearing above large so as to form a jointed radiating spoi'es, little head. They are beautiful microscopic British species objects. On dead nettleA. atrum, B. & Br. stems. A. stilhoideum, Ces. On a poUard-willow. BiBL. Berkeley, Out. Br. Fung. p. 342
:

in bundles.

Tufts widely spreading, filaments floating In lakes at Lismore Island.

BiBL. KassnW, Brit. Algce,

horst, Fl. Alg.
ii.

-p.

23S; Raben-

p. 2(')7.

ARTHRtiSI'PHON,
TALONEMA.

Kutzing.

See Pe-

ARTICULI'XA, D'Orb.Very narrow

varieties of f^ertelralina,

which commence

Hechvif/ia, tab. 4.

ARTIIROCLA'DIA, Duby. A genus of

A.

fig. 1.

villom, Sporochnacese (Fucoid Algaj). Iluds., is a rather rare Bi itish annual subin 4 to o fathoms marine species, growing water bearing a curious pod-hke nucleated
;

with a Milioloid (Trilocuhna) growth, and proceed with straiglit moniliform chambers, were separated by D'Orbigny under this name. Recent and fossil. Articulina gihhcrula (PL 23. fig. 9 a h). BiBL. D'Orbigny, Ann. Se. N. vii. 300
;

Carpenter, Tntr. For. 73.

fruit.

p. 24,

BiBL. Harvev, Brit. Mar. Alga, 2d ed. Eng. pL 6C.{ Phyc. Brit. t. Ixiv. Bot. t. 546 Derbes and Sober, yinn. d. 8c. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. p. 33, figs. 18-20. ARTIIllODES'MUS, Ehr. A genus of
; ;

ARTOTRO'GUS, Mont. genus of Sepedoniei (Hyphomycetous Fungi) containing one species, growing and fructifying in the intercellular passages of
germinating
potatoes. This genus is supposed by Berkeley to be founded on a secondary 'form of fruit of some mould probably o'f Perono;

Desmidiiiceje. Char. Cells single, compressed, constricted

spora infestims. See Peroxospora. A. hydnosporus, Mont. Berkeley, Jn.

ARTOTROGUS.

ASCIBICOLA.
Uterus consisting of two lobes (ovaries); ovidnct (k) opening externally

Horticult. Sac. i. p. 3, pi. 4. figs. 27-29 Crypt Bot. p. 247 De Bary and Wciroiiin,
;
;

pendage.
(/()

Beit. iv.

ARTOTRO'GUS, Boeck. A

genus of
Brilisli

Entomostraca, Ord. Copepoda. Four

species; marine, living in the brancliial sacs of Ascidice, or on the integument of marine

Invertebrata.

near the middle of the body. A. mystax {cilata, Bell), 2 to 3 inches long, as broad as a crow-quill common in the cat, occasional in the human body. A. niyrovenosa, with the intestine black, is found in the lungs of the frog and toad
;

BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda {Ray

p. 59.

Sac.'),

iii.

and parthenogenesis

is

supposed to occur.

A'RUM,
PLmts).

L.

maoilatum, the common has a tuberous rhizome in which is produced much starcli. This starcli is extracted in the same way as Arrow-root starch is from the rhizomes of Marantacefe &c.,and is called Portland Arrow-root (PI. See Staech. 40. lig. 11). AS'CARTS.A genus of Entozoa, of the order Coelelmintha and famil_y Nematoidea. Char. Body cylindrical, narrowed at each end head furnished with three tubercles or
Cuclvoo-pint,
;

Anmi

A genus of Aracese (Flow.

The young live in the lungs. pass into damp earth or mud, where they grow into sexual forms also producing embryos, which do not arrive at sexual matuNo males rity until they reach the lungs. are fomid in the lungs.
The females
BiBi.. Dujardin, Hehninthes Leuckart, Menscli. Parasit. ii. 153 Downe, Mn. p. Mic. Jn. 1871 ,T. p. 55 {A. lumbr.) Cobbold,
; ; :

mouth terminal, situated between Aalves the three tubercles male with one or two
:

Entozoa, 1879, p. 243 Duj. Helm. p. 178 Leuckart, Paras., 1879, p. 128. 'L A, Brady. One of the branching Arenaceous Eoraminifera. The chambers inflated, with 2 or more tubulated apertures, any of which may produce a new
;

ASCHEMONEL

spicula.

species are very numerous, occurring in all the classes of theVertebrata and doubtfully in Insects. They are most commonly shall found in the alimentary canal. only notice the species met with in man.

The

chamber. BiBL. H. B. Brady, Qu. Jn. Mic. 1879,

We

A. Imnhricoides.

The common round

worm.
tine
;

small intessometimes found also in that of the

Inhabits the

human

ASCIDIA, B.ist. A genus of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family Ascidiadse. Several British species. See Ascidiad^, ASCIDTADJi. family of Tunicate Mollusca.

xix. p. 44.

length from 3 to 15" is of a whitish colour the head distinct, with the three valves (PI. 21. fig. 9) finely denticulated on their inner border, and each furnished near the summit with a slightly projecting papilla. Female larger and more common than the male.
; ;

ass, wild-boar, pig,

and

ox.

"\'aries in

Distinguished by their being single, usually fixed (to foreign bodies, as seaweeds, shells, &c.), and the attachment of the mantle to the test at the orifices only. Irregularly shaped, from half to several inches long, often incrusted with stones and with two orifices, one branchial shells, &c. and pharyngeal, the other anal. British
;

Spicida two, equal. The recent ova are surrounded by an albuminous layer, the surface being studded with numerous projecting tubercles. A. vermiadaris {0.vyi(ris verm.). The human thread-worm. Found usually in the rectum. White head frequently appearing winged, or exhibiting two lateral vesicular expansions (PI. 21. fig. 8 a), produced by endosmosis. Mouth round when contracted, exhibiting the three lobes when expanded. CEsophagxis (e) containing a triquetrous canal, and separated by a constriction from the spherical stomach (d). Length, female 8 to 4-10 of an inch male shorter, with the tail spirally coiled, much more rarelv met with. Anus (cf) about 1-8 from the end of the body spicidum single, with an ap; ;

genera

Ascidia, Bast.

Test leathery

branchial

orifice eight-lobed, anal six-lobed,

both

cir-

branchial sac not plaited. Globose, attached or Molyula, Forbes. free test membranous, usually covered with foreign matters branchial orifice six-lobed, anal four-lobed, both on contractile naked
cular
; ; ;

tubes.
Sessile test leathery ; Cynthia, Sav. branchial sac plaited longitudinally both
;

orifices four-sided.

'

p.

BiBL. Forbes and Hanley, Brit. Moll. i. 29 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. p. 35 Pascoe,
;
;

Zool. 1880, p. 171.

ASCIDIC'OLA, ThoreU. A genus

of

Entomostraca, Ord. Copepoda. marine.

1 species,

ASCLEPIADACE^.
BlBL. Brady, Copepoda {Ray Soc),
p. 145.

78

ASCOMYCETES.

ASCLEPIADA'CE^. A family of

Di-

cotyledonous flowering plants, presenting some remarkable characters in the pollen The stems of some of these (see Pollen). tenacious fibres, which plants contain very have been used for economical purposes

relation to the Lichens, which, indeed, are included under this order by some botanists but the existence of green colouring-matter in the cells, and oi ffunidia or brood-cells, in the Lichens, forbids such an association.
;

Fibres, vegetable). ASCOB'OLUS. A genus of HelveUacei distinguished from Peziza by the asci being projected from the hymenium at maturity. Ascoholus ftirfuraceus is common on cowdung but there are numerous other British
(see
;
;

The Ascomycetes ditFer much in external form, and approach in this particular several tribes belonging to the other orders thus the Tuberacei are very much like many of the Gasteromycetes, the HelveUacei like
:

Fig. 39.

Fig. 40.

The sporidia are often beautiful microscopic objects (Cooke, Seemann^s Jn.
species.

Bot.,

Billr. genus (form) of Coccohacteria fieptica, consisting of very minute colourless globules, closely united into globular or oval families, irregularly lobed, surrounded by a thick gelatinous envelope, forming a soft, flocculent, easily
disintegrated

May 1864). ASCOCOC'CUS,

membrane.
Stein.-

See Coccobac-

TEEIA.

ASCOGLE'NA,

-A genus of Flaflayida.

gellate Infusoria. C/utr. Those of Eufflena, enclosed in and fixed by the base to a flask-shaped lorica. A. vaf/im'eola. Green, with eye-spot in
;

Spathulea

fresh water.

ASCOMY'CES. A
cetous Fungi, changed

BiBL. Kent, Inf.

p.

393

Fig. 39. Entire plant (reduced). Fig. 40. Highly magnified section of fructifl cation, showing asci and paraphyses arisingfromthe hymenium.

(fig.).

genus of Ascomy-

by some

some Hymenomycetes,
in the
(figs.

botanists,

mode

without reason, into JExoascus, characterized by the absence of any receptacle, the asci forming a thin pulverulent stratum. All the species are parasitic on living leaves or

&c., differing chiefly of the production of the sporidia

39-42).
Fig. 41. Fig. 42.

young shoots. It is the lowest form to which Ascomycetes can be reduced. British
species
:

A. hidlatus. On pear-leaves. A. (hfonuans. On peach-leaves, producing a form of blister and on young plums, forming what are called bag-plums, in which
;

the stone

is

not developed.

A. trientalis. A. jinjlandis. A. carnosa.

(fmeiim, cences.

On On On

producing

leaves of T. europcca. walnut-leaves. li/iododcndron ferrularge gall-like excresvol.

ix.

p.

ASCOMYCE'TES. An order of Fungi characterized by producing the spores in tubular sacs (asci or thecce), frequently inphyses)

BiBL. Berkeley, Jn. Ilort. Soc. 48 ])>: Fun//, p. 37G.

;

Leotia geoglossoides.
Fig. 41. Fig. 42.

Group of planls

(reduoedl.
asci with spores.

Highly magnified

termixed with empty filiform sacs {pnraa near (lig. 40), and hence bearing

The Onygenei are little Fimgi growing on dead animal substances, feathers, horn. Sec,

ASCOMYCETES.
little

'9

ASCOMYCETES.

and have a flocculent niycelium, bearing columnar bodies terminating in a thickened head the sporange, which is a kind of hood falling ofl" at matinitv. The sporifcrous structure, loosely filling up the hood, is composed of interlacing branched filaments,

which

are lined with the asci or spore-saca containing four or eight spores. The degree of complexity of the lacunose mass
in dift'erent genera, being in some simple, in others very complicated. The fructification of the Helvellacei vai'iea much in form, the simpler resembling closely some of the Phacidiacei some kinds are minute fleshy cups lined with asci forming a superficial layer, as in Propolis or they are large fleshy cups, often raised on a stalk (Peziza), these cups being closed at In first, but opening widely afterwards. the Helvellce, the cup is converted into a stalked mitre-shaped body clothed above with asci. Others are of columnar form, thickened at the summit, which is clothed with the asci, as if a cup-shaped receptacle
differs
: ;

bearing at their free ends globular cells (asci or thecce) filled with spores.

The Perisporiacei are likewise very simple, consisting of parasitical Fungi growing upon
the leaves of trees or herbaceous plants. They have a flocculent mycelium, often radiating from a centre, where is found a

membranous,

sac-like, globular conceptacle,

containing sometimes a definite, sometimes

an iudetinite mmiber of clavate sacs or asci, alone or mingled with paraphyses, and
containing ovate spores. The conceptacle bursts either regularly or irregularh' at tlie

summit.

on a common receptacle, and consisting of a firm capsular structure, hued with asci, and opening at the apex by a regular pore in the form of a papilla or beak when mature.

The Sphseriacei have the conceptacles more developed, either single, or associated

had been turned down over it (Spathulea, tliis thickened head becoming more considerable and excavated into little pits in Morcliella. These plants are mostly found on the ground or decaying vegetable substances, in damp places, and are frequently
fig. .39
)

The Phacidiacei difler chiefly in the dehiscence by slits, either single or longitudinal, or several and parallel or stellate, or circular so as to detach a lid most of these have the sporanges collected on a common receptacle, either of horny or fleshy consist;

of gelatinous consistence. If a Peziza, MorcheUa, Phyfisma acerinum, or similar Fungus, in its last stage of
is kept shut up in a bottle for several hours, and then gently taken out, the contact of the external air causes an immediate and abundant explosion of spores, which may be collected on slips of glass for microscopic examination. If care is taken in the experiment, it will be found that a considerable quautity of a colourless hquid

development,

ence.

In these two families, and in Helvellacei, Coniomycetous forms of spore are foimd upon the same receptacle, either contemporaneously or at diflerent stages of development. Attention is directed to this subject under the head of that order and more will be found under Sph^eia, Tympanis,
;

expelled with the spores, which liquid contains minute molecules, and evaporates very rapidly, leaving more or less apparent See Sph^ria. spots on the glass.
is

Ehytisma, Doth idea, Cobdiceps, &c. The true Tuberacei are Ascomycetous re-

Helvellacei.
tate, stalked,

Synopsis of the Families. Fruit fleshy, of various

presentatives of the Hypogseous Gasteromycetes, being subterraneous, solid, globidar or lobed bodies, of fleshy consistence, the Truffle being a well-known example. The organization of the Tuberacei is analogous in all cases, but the structures differently
arranged. They all have an inconspicuous flocculent mycelium, from which arises the solid sporange. The sporange exhibits, when cut across, an outer tough coat (peridium), enclosing a fleshy structm-e excavated with sinuous cavities giving it a marbled appearance. These sinuous cavities are produced by the convolutions of the fructifying layer, which is folded and reflected back-

forms, ultimately expanded, clavate, capimitre-shaped, cup-shaped or beU-shaped, the upper surface clothed by

elongated sacs (asci), each containing eight simple or septate spores. Tuberacei. Fruit (subterraneous) glosolid bular, with an adherent peridium and fleshy within, and excavated sinuously into numerous cavities clothed by asci containing fom- or eight spores the internal mass drying up or becoming pidverident or
; ;

floccose

when mature.

Phacidiacei.
sporiferous or by a slit

branched, more or

wards and forwards, leaving

interstices

Fruit fleshy, simple or less cup-shaped in the region, which opens widely when mature, and exposes a

ASCOPflORA.

80

ASPERGILLUS.

cavity lined with elongated asci mixed with paraphyses. Sph^riacei. Fruit usually forming a common, often horny, receptacle, in which are excavated conceptacles, lined with asci, opening by a terminal pore. Pr.RispORiACEi. Common receptacle floccose, radiating from a centre, bearing conceptacles free or surrounded by filaments, opening by a terminal pore, with asci attached at the base filled with simple ovate
spores.

larly interesting to the microscopist, on acits forming the most readily procurable object for examining the dorsal vessel and in motion. It circulating liquid is found in almost all stagnant waters. The currents of the circulating liquid, with

count of

Onygenei.

Mycelium

floccose, bearing

capitate, stalked sporanges, which open by a circidar slit at the base, causing the

upper part to fall off like a cap exposing a fructifying mass composed of interlacing branched filaments, bearing globular asci at
;

the colourless corpuscles, are readily seen streaming through every part of the body. Beneath the large scutiform joint of the body (the abdomen), are three flattened branchial false legs or gills on each side, covered by two jointed gill-covers these are in almost constant motion during life. BiBL. Desmarest, Consid. Gen. s. I. Criistaces Treviranus, Vermischte Schriften, i. M. -Edwards, Crustaces, iii. (Suites a Buf; ;

fon).

the free extremities of the branches. BiBL. See under the heads of the Families. ASCOPH'ORA, Tode. See Mucor. ASCOT'RICHA,Berk. Agenusof Perisporiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), containing

ASPERGIL'LUS, Micheli. A geuus of Mucedines (Ilyphomycetous Fungi) forming common mould, such as the blue mould of The chains of spores cheese, A. glaucus. arise from a more or less globular head at the apex of the fertile
filaments (fig. 4.3). It is often stated that the heads of spores are originally enclosed in a peri-

one species. A. chartarum, a kind of mildew growing on paper, forming a broAvnish, angularly and dichotomously branched mycelium, from
arise globose, black, hairy peridia con-, tainiug linear asci, each containing a single row of chocolate-coloured spores. Peridia from 1-20 to 1-30" in diameter.

which

dium

according to our observations this is not the case the spores bud out from the capitular
; ;

BiBL. Berkeley, Ann. N. H.

pi. 7. fig. 8.

18-38,

i.

257,

cell,

which enlarges very

the forma-

AS'CUS. The term apphed to the

much during
cylin-

tion of the head of spores.;

forming parent ceU of the sporidia in the Ascomycetous Fungi. It is frequently called a
tlie

drical globose or clavate tubnlar sac

and when these have been detached, the head is left bare, but covered with
short spiny processes (the Aspergillus glaucus. A fertile filament points of attachment of the chains of spores), and with ciiainsof spores
,? ^^v,"^^"\n'''''^... rnr M;igniUed 50 diaa young periduun of Mii- meters. has been co}\ Aspej'ffiUns found to produce a secondary form of fruit, being that forming the subject of the genus

Asci consist theca also (tigs. 40 and 42). of a double membrane, the inner often visibly projecting when the ascus is broken little lid is frequently separated across. from the apex when the sporidia are discharged, as in Ascobohis, in which genus the asci are shot out from the common

thenlookssomethmo-like

hymenium.

See Ascomyoetes. 'Bibl. 3/w/. Zord. <^- Bot. vol. ii. p. 222; Frhu/sh. JaJirb, Bd. i. p. 189 Cooke, Hand;

EuROTiUM.
*

British species

book.

Fertile filaments simple.

ASEL'LUS,
1

nise).

woodGeoffroy (the A genus fJrustacea, of the family

water
of

Isopoda.
(J}ia7\ Antennae four, outer much longer than the inner ones legs shorter than the body, the first pair not clielate two posterior projecting bifurcate abdominal appen;
;

Link. Sporidia globose, vawhite to glaucous, close {A. candidi/s, Link) or lax. Heads about 1-100" in diameter when mature. On cheese, lard, bread, kc, very common (fig. 43). It has been found also in the lungs and air-cavities of birds,
f/lnnofs,

A.

riable,

Mucor
A.

glaucus, L.
;

dages.

roseus, Lk.

A. milgarh

(PI. 18. fig. V?,).

Length 1-4
is

small, rose-red
tate.

to 1-2" or more.

This animal

particu-

On damp

Sporidia globose, very filaments not seppaper, lint, carpet, &c.

fertile

ASrEROCOCCUS.
A. aureusi Berk.
cal, thinly scattered,

^1

ASPIDISCA.
Ann.
Sv.

Sporidia large, golden-yellow

elliptifertile

Thuret,

Nat. 3

s.5r.

xiv. p.

238

Derbes and

On bark. filaments without septa. referred with A. mirantiacus, from which it scarcely diiFers, to the genus Rhinotric/mm.

Now

Solier, ibid. p. 208, pi. 34. fig. 11.

Fiff.

Fig. 44.

45.

A. auranfiacus, Berk. Sporidia oval, the lowest of the chain much larger, mycelium rusty orange, the heads often proliferous, so as to produce a complicated mass. On bark. Ann. X. If. vi. p. 430, pi. xiii.
22. aurantiacum, Nematogonium fig. Desmaz. Ann. des Sc. Nat. 2 ser. ii. p. 69,
1. pi. 2. fig.

** Fertile Jilaments branched.

A. maximus, Lk.

Sporidia very large,

;

at length yellow-brown, mycelium a fleecy mass of the same colour fertile filaments dichotomous, clavate above. On decaying

Asperococcus Turneri, Dillw.

Fig. i\. Fronds, reduced to one third. Fig. 45. Fragment of ditto, magnified 50 diameters. Fig. 46. A section at right angles to fig. 4.i, showing the

Fungi.

sporanges and paraphyses, magnified 50 diameters.

A. moUh, Berk. Sporidia large, subwhite fertile globose, white, mycelium

;

filaments dichotomous, standing in minute, scattered, white bundles. A. virens, Lk. Sporidia, like the filaments, greenish tufts of fertile filaments rather dense, entangled, suberect. On decaying fungi and other bodies. "a. alternatus, Berk. Sporidia grey- black, subtruucate fertile plants branched alternately in a zigzag manner, erect or decumbent,"forming extremely minute orbicular
; ;

ASPIDIE'.E. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns, with indusiate sori. Genera: Didymocldcena. Sori elliptical, intramarindusium obginal, terminal on a veinlet long-elliptical, emarginate at base, attached to the linear receptacle, free at edge.
;

Aspidiiim.

Sori rounded, dorsal or terpeltate.

minal

indusium orbicular,

patches on
i.

damp
f.

paper.
11.

Ann. N. H. 1838,

p.

262, pi. 8.
ditbius,

Corda, would appear to differ Mr. Berkeley generically from the above. states that its capitular cells bear linearprocesses, each surmounted by four sterigmata, on which are attached the chains of

A.

spores. fig. 77.

2, p.
;

On

dung.

Corda, Ic.

ii.

t.

11.

Nejyhrodium. Sori rounded, dorsal or terminal; indusium cordato-reniform, attached by the sinus. Sori round, arising from Ncphrolejns. the apex of the upper branch of a vein, generally near the edge indusium roimdish veins free. or reniform Sori round, in a rovs^ near the Oleandra. base of the compact free veinlets indusium reniform. Fadyenia. Sori oblong, biserial, terminating free veinlets indusium large, subreniform, attached by the centre, free at
; ; ; ;

BiBL. Berkeley, Hooker^ s Br. Fl. ii. part 349 Ann. K. II. i. 262, vi. 436, 2nd ser. vii. 100; Crypt. Bot. p. 298; Fries, Syst. Mycoloy. iii. 383 Corda, Ic. Fimy. Robin, Parasites, p. 515. ASPEROCOC'CUS, Lamour.A genus of Dictyotacese (Fucoid Alga?), of which three species are found on the British coast.
; ;

margin. BiBL. See Ferns.

ASPIDIS'CA, Ehr. A genus

ria,

of Infuso-

of the family Aspidiscina. Cliar. That of the family.

hjnceiis (PI.

A. {Trichodn, Mull.)

30. fig.

The

15 a, under view). Carapace suborbicular, truncated posteriorly, uncinate anteriorly;

aquatic,

fructification consists of groups of sporanges (commonly called spores), intermixed with paraphyses, scattered over the whole
suriiice of the frond.

among

Confervce, &c.; length 1-

When

mature these

sporanges discharge zoospores. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alyc, 2nd ed. p. 42, pi. 8 C. Phyc. Brit. t. xi., Ixxii. and cxciv.j
;

liOO to 1-560". A. dentindata (PI. 30. fig. 15 6, side Carapace suborbicular, rounded at view). the ends, truncate and denticulate on the left side; aquatic; length 1-560". See

OxiTEICHA.

ASPIDISCINA.
BiBL. Ehrenb. Infns.; Steiu, hifusionsthiere &c.
fusoria.

82

ASTASIA.
tooth
;

Duj.

Infus.;

Female: jaws with a single

spot single
;

eye-

tremulous bodies attached to

;

ASPIDISCI'NA, Ehr. A

family of In-

an extended filament
24".
:

aquatic
;

length 1-

Char. carapace present in tlie form of a transparent flattened shield, projecting^ beyond the mouth in front; flexible bristles on the ventral surface of the body, with

Male jaws, pharynx, and stomach absent body truncate length 1-40". A. priodonta (PL 4.3. fig. 7, female). 3
;

dehcate oral

cilia.

eye-spots tremulous bodies attached to a tortuous filament; aquatic length female 1-48", male 1-110" jaws of female serrated
;

Ehrenberg describes an alimentary canal, the inferior orifice of which alone is terminal.

(7
p.

V).

Hence they coiTespond

to Evjjlotes,

with

BiBL. Brightwell, Ann. N. H. ser, 2, ii. I0.3, pi. (j; Dalrvmple, Tr. Hoy. Soc.
;

the excrementitial orifice terminal.

Dujardin places them among his C'occu-

J 849, and Ann. K. II. 1849, iii. p. 618 Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1850, vi. p. 18, viii.

p. 197.

The
ing,

setae, styles,

whilst by enabled to swim. This family should not be retained, but the single genus of which it is constituted, Asjndisca, referred to the Euplota. ASPID'IUM, Schott. genus of Aspi-

serve for climbthe cilia the animals are

or

cim

ASPLENIEVE. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns, with indusiate sori. Genera Asplenimn. Sori dorsal or submarginal,
:

Fig. 47.

indusium similar in shape, straight or curved, single or double, plane or tumid, bursting along the outer edge. AUantodia. Sori dorsal, linear-oblong, attached to the primary veins ; indusium of
linear or oblong
:

the same shape, and entirely enclosing them, bursting in an irregular line down to the
centre. Actiniopteris.

Sori linear elongate, sub-

indusium of the same shape, folded over them, placed one on each side of the narrow segments of the frond, and opening towards the midrib. Frond flabelmarginal
;

late.

BiBL. See Ferxs.

An
diese

trifoHatiim. indufcium covering a soruB.

Aspidium

Presl, SpIeen-wor/.A well-known genus of Aspleniete (Poh-podiits

ASPLE'NIUil,

(Polypodiaceous

Ferns), in

old

sense including

many

of our native species,

aceous Ferns), containing a number of indigenous species.

Fig. 48.

Aspidium trifoliatum.
Side view, cut through perpendicularly. Magnifitd 25 diameters.

but

now broken up into subdivisions, raised to the rank of genera. A. Lonchi/is and aci(Ieafum,mc\ud'mp lohatvm and anqnJare as varieties, are British. ASPLA]NCH'NA, Gosse. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatinsea. Char. Foot, intestine, and anus absent

eye-spots (1 to 3) and mandibles present sexes separate.

ASSILI'NA, D'Orb. variety ofJVummidina (grouped as a subgenus), in which the alar lobes are reduced to a minimum, and thereby the faces of the shell are left unthickened, except perhaps at their centres ; and nearly or quite all the whorls are exThese sliells are the Xnmjnulinfe posed. AssiexplanatcB of D'Archiac and Haime. lina exponens, Sow., sp., is the best type of this subgenus of Kummulina. It abounds, with the more perfect type, in the older Tertiary strata of Switzerland and India. BiBL. D'Orbigny, Ann. Sc. Kat. vii. 296 (the Modele 88 hert> referred to, however, is an Opcrcidina); D'Archiac and .7. Haime, Foss. Ann. de Vlnde Parker and Jones, Ann. N. II. ser. 3, v. 110, and viii. 232. ASTA'SIA, Ehr. A genus of Infusoria
;

of the family Astasiaea.

A. Brightwellii{Kotommatasyrirw, Ehr. ?).

Char. Unattached, no eye-spot.

Flagel-

ASTASI.EA.

83

ASTERIGERINA.

liform filament single, arisinp- suddenly from the anterior part of the body, or from a
oral aperture or less deep notch in it very extensile {Kent), leading to a long oesophagus. Dujardin forms an unnecessary genus, Peranema, to contain those species in which the filament arises from tlie gradually narrowed anterior extremity of the body. A. hcematodes, E. (PI. 30. fig. 16). Fuat fii'st green, then siform, tail very short red length 1-380". The flagelliform filament was absent in the specimens represented in the figure. The substance of the body was insoluble in caustic potash, even when heated to boiling, merely becoming swollen. It exhibited numerous vacuoles, which in some of the organisms were filled with green grains of
;

more

The forms included under the family thus characterized are still very imperfectly understood and it is probable that some of
;

them, separated generically by Ehrenberg,

are only transitional condirions of others. Infusoria exactly resembling Astasia hcematodes and Euglena viridis occur without the flagelliform filament Euglena also occurs in a resting form, surrounded by a gelatinous
;

envelope, like Chla})iido7Honas,iind

undergoes

division into 4, 8, IG or more new individuals in this state, so as to form irregular,

floatmg Algoid patches.

The

gi-een bodies

their escape from the gelatinous envelopes under certain circumstances, just in the same way as the zoospores escape from the cells of the Confervoid Algae. This resting form also exhibits another character, especially in winter; the gelatinous envelope

make

colour arose from distinct granules of pigment, scattered through the colourless substance; when treated with solution of iodine and then sulphm'ic acid, the AsiasicB became spherical, and were coloured blue, bluish green, and purplish blue, the purple tint apparently indicating the It was, however, presence of cellulose. afterwards found that these colours were produced by the acid alone. This curious organism colours the water of ponds &c. blood- red. A. Ihrnnda, D. (PI. 30. fig. 17). Fusiform, colourless length 1-550". There are other species but they are illchlorophyll.
;

The

acquires a firm, dense, membranous coat over its periphery, like the resting spores of the Confervoids, and in some cases this coat is polygonal and marked with ridges &c. It is probable that the colour of the species is not constant, since it seems to depend upon similar substances to that of the PalmeUacese, which are known positively to change from green to red, and vice versa, and even to fade into an almost colourless state when kept in the dark. These organisms stillrequire much careful examination, not of isolated speci-

mens, but by watching their developmental history constantly for extended periods and
through different seasons. More is said on this subject under PEOTOCOCCrs. The following Table gives the genera of Ehrenberg and Dujardin
:

A. 7iivalis, Shuttleworth, found in red snow, would appear to be an active form

defined.

of Protococcits nivalis.

BiBL. See Astasi^a; also Shuttleworth, Pibl. de Geneve, Feb. 1840; Kent, Infus.
p. 375.

Attached Unattached.

CofactuTO,

Ehr.
'Ehr.

Two

eye-spots

ASTASI^'A, Ehr. A family of Flagel-

One flagelliform filament. One eve-spot. With a tail-like process

Without

DMigma,

late Infusoria.

Char. Body of spontaneously variable form, mostly with one or more flagelliform filaments. Insoluble in solution of caustic
potash.

Ko
IVo

eve-spot

Euglena, Ehr. Amblyoyhis.'Ehi. Ehr. (&

^s/aa,

flagelliform filaments.

Both alike. Animals green, with a red

eye-spot

This family corresponds nearly to the Euglenia of Dujardin, who asserts the existence of a contractile integument. Foi-m of the body variable, sometimes becoming spheothers cylindrical, fusiform, &c., and exhibiting a head or tail-like process, or both. The Astasipea are distinguished from the Amcebeea by the absence of the irregular processes sent out by the latter from all parts of the body and'by the presence of a distinct moutli.
;

One

Colourless, no eye-spot anterior, the other trailing

retractile

ChIoroqonimn,'E. Zygoseimis,D\x].
Heteroiienxa.Jiw]. Polyselmis, Duj.

and

Several filaments
;

rical, at

BiBL. Ehrenberg, J??/. Dujardin, Infus.; Morren, Pxibefact. d. Eaux, Brux. 1841 ; Cohn, Protococ. plitv., Nova Acta Ac. L. N. C. xxii. p. 397. (Abstr. Rarj Soc, Bot.

1853, p. 352.)

ASTATIIE. See Primobdial Utricle.

ASTEPJGERI'XA, D'Orb. A pseudogenus of Foraminifera, comprising species G 2

ASTERIONELLA.

84

ASTEROPHORA.
;

of both Hotalia and Discorhina, that have star-like patterns on one face of the shell. In some Rotalice an astral arrangement of subsidiary chamberlets around the umbo is

formed as in Amplmtegina and in several DiscorhincB the deep radiating sulci around the umbilicus are roofed over with distinct, more or less perfect plates of shell. BiBL. Carpenter, In1r. For. 204, 213. ASTERIONELLA, Ilass. genus of
;

BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844, p. 73 Greville {Monnqr.), Mic. Tr. 1860, p. 102, 1862, 41, 18G3, 227, 1865, 99; Kiitzing, Sp. Alq. 129. ASTERO'MA, D.C. genus of Sphte-

DiatomacefB (Cohort Fragilarise).

Distinguished by the inflation of one or both ends of the frustules, and by the adherence of their adjacent angles into a stellate form. Doubtless the frustules are originally parallel, forming a straight filament. A.formosa (PI. 18. hg. 14). Erustules 4-8 in the front view somewhat more enlarged at the attached than the free end. Aquatic; length 1-384". A. Ealfsii. Frustules linear valves attenuated towards one end, constricted toAvards the other, which is rounded and capi; ;

(Stylosporous Fungi) growing upon leaves and stalks, forming very minute, coloured or black spots, shghtly prominent more or less confluent, seated on more or less distinct Fries radiating filaments. separates part of the species under the name of Actinonema. Species
:

ronemei

A. rcticulalnm, D.C. Dothidea reticnlata, On decaying leaves of CnuvalFr., Corda.

Plooker, Br. Fl. ii. part 2. p. 288. f7//,Klotsch. On elm-leaves. Hooker, Br. Fl. ii. part 2. p. 289. A. PruneUce, Purt. On green leaves of Prnnella vulgaris. Hooker, Br.Fl. ii. part 2. p. 289.
laria.
yl.

t ite.

Aquatic

length
;

l-fjof)".

A. Padi, Grev, On Prnnvs Padus. Hooker, Brit. FL ii. pt. 2. p. 289 Berkeley, Ann. K. II. vi. 364, pi. 11. fig. 4. A. Bosce, Lib. On rose-leaves. Libert, Tr. Linn. Soe. Paris, 1826; Berkeley, Ann.
;

Bkaheletjii. Frustides linear, enlarged at the base. Marine length l-4o4".

A.

iV.

H.
A.

vi. p.

364,

pi. 11. fig. 5.

labes,

Berk.

Ann. N. H.

vi.

364.

pi.

11

2 other species. BiBL. Hassall, Micr. Exam, of London Water; Smiih, Br. iJiat. ii. 81; Greville, Ann. K. H. I860, xvi. p. 4 Rabenhorst,
;

fig. 6.

A. Verontc(B, Desm. Berkeley, Mag.

Sf

Zool.

Bot.

i.

p. 511.

Flor. Alq.

i.

p. 141.

BiBL. Fries, Siimma Veqet. Sean. 424. ASTEROM'PHALOS, Ehr. genus of

ASTliRODIC'TYON,
Akad. 1845).

Ehr. (Ber.

d.

Berl

Diatomacese.

See Moxactinus.

genus of fossil Diatomacefe, allied to Asterolampra and Astcromphalox but distinguished by one septum dividing halfway frcim tlie centre, and proceeding to two of the compartments, the intermediate smooth ray being smaller than the others, 3 species rays from 5 to 9. EiBL. Johnson, Stlliman's Jn. 1852, xiii.
; ;

ASTERODIS'CUS, Johnson. A

Resembles Asterolampra, except that two of the central septa are parallel, and one of the marginal rays absent or almost obliterated.

The .species occur in the Antarctic ocean the diameter of the valves lies between 1-900 and 1-47". They are distinguished by the number and direction of the central
;

rays.

p. 33.

ASTEROLAM'PRA, Ehr. A
(7iar.

A. Dancinii. Central rays A. Ilookerii (PL 25. fig. 2).

six,

five, flexuous.

Central rays

genus of

marginal

five, straight.

fossil Diatoniaceae.

portion divided by thin septa, which do not reach the margin, but alternate with rays extending to the margin, unsupported by septa
;
; ;

Free

circular

central

A. Rossii. Rays six, inflexed. A. Buchii. Rays six, straight. A. Bcavmnntii. Rays seven,
(PI. 18. fig. 15). A. Iliimboldtii.

inflexed

Intermediate between Aclinocyclus and Act inojity elms. A. marylandica (PI. 25, fig. 5). Marginal rays eight, septa eight interstices between the rays exhibiting elegant curved series of
fussil.
;

A. Cuvierii. A. Brookii.
BiBL.

Rays eight, straight. Rays nine, straight. Ravs ten.

d.

Ehr. Ber.

Berl. Akad.

1844;

Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 129.

ASTEROPH'ORA, Dittm. A

genus of

dots; diam. 1-180",

land.

Found

fossil in

Mary-

Other

species.

Sepcdoniei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), composed of minute fibrous plants, growing parasitically upon dry blackened Agarics^

ASTEROTIIRIX.
-\vhat

80

ATAX.
Fig. 49.
Fig. 50.

deriving their name from the anguLir, soniesteUate spores now shown by Tidasne to be the conidiiferous state of a species of Two British species Ilifpomyces. A. agaricoides, Fr. Stipe solid, 1" high, 1'" or more thick, villous, bearing a head, at first hemispherical, then plane, about 1-2" wide, at lirst covered by a white fugacious tonientum. with lamell;T3 uuderneatli spores
; :

G-angled.
perdioidi-s,

On

decaying Agarics {A. adustns,

pipi'ratus), in

autumn, gregarious.
s

A.

li/co-

Dittm. Sturm

Deutsch. Fl.

A. hjcoperdioides, Fr. Stipe 1'' high or obsolete; head hemispherical or globose, witliout lamelloe beneath spores 5-6-angled. In similar situations, rather more common.
;

Ayaricus h/coperdioides. Sow. BiBL. Hook. Br. Ft. ii. part 2. p. 322; Sowerby, Fungi, t. 279; Sturm, Deutsehl. Fl. iii/t. 26; BuUiard, Herb. t. 166, 516,
fig. 1
;

Astomum subulatum.

Astomum

alternifolium.

leaf,

showing the cellular structure.

-10

Section of sporange. Magnified 40 daametera.

Magnified

diameters.
its

Tulasne,

C(irpolo(/ia,

AS'TEROTHRIX,
iointed,

Ktz. An
p.

iii.

54.

obscure

extruded from between

grains.

constituent sand-

genus of Algaj. Char. Filaments very minute, indistinctly

very rigid, stellately greenish, branched, acutely cuspidate at each end, A. Pertyana (PL 3. fig. 5). floating; 3 species fresh water. BiBL. Kiitzing, P/(yc. (?en.p.2O0; Eabenhorst, Flor. Aly. iii. p. 391 ; Perty, Klcinst. Lehensf. p. 216. AStH'MATOS, Salisb. genus of
:

handl. 1857, p. 299; Soc. 1869, p. 289.

late

BiBL. Sandahl, Ofvers. Vef.-Akad. ForCarpenter, Pr. Boy.

genus of Flagel-

ASTROSI'GA, Kt. A
Infusoria.
:

Resembling TJvdla, but flagellum surrounded by a hyaline collar. A. diyuncta fresh water.
BiBL. Kent, Inf.

ASTROTHE'LIUM, Eschw. A
A. parmidaria.

p. 341.

genus
very

Cilio-flagellate Infusoria.

of Lichenaceous Lichens.

Char. Free, rounded, with an anterior cilia, and a flagelliform filament. A. ciliaris (PL 53. fig. 9). In the mucus of the eyes, nose, and throat, in catiirrh and length 1-1200". Probably the hay-fever ciliated epithelium covering the mucous membranes of these passages. Kent, Inf. p. 466.

On young

oaks,

bundle of

rare.

AS'TOMUM, Hampe. A

BiBL. Leighton, Lich.-Flura, p. 499. ATAX, Duges. A genus of Arachuida, of the order Acariua, and family Hydrachnea. Char. Body ovoid a genital fissure borbered by two plates, upon each of which are three transparent rounded tubercles

genus of Bru-

chiacese (Acrocarpous Mosses), including some of the Phasca of Linnfeus, &c. A. suhulatum, Hmp. PAsci suhida-

tum, L. (fig. 49). A. alternifoUum,

lium, Dicks, Crypt,

Hmp. =
(fig.

Ph. alternifo-

anterior coxae posteriorly in contact in the median line, wedging the labium between them anteriorly the two groups of posterior coxae distant; fourth coxa very broad, in contact with the third throughout its whole length; palpi with the fourth joint veiy
;

50).

A. nitidum, \l\n.^.= Ph. axiUarCj Dicks.

BiBL.
Miiller,

Syn. Muscor.

Wilson,

long, attenuate-, slightly excavated towards the end to receive the fifth joint in a state of extreme flexion; fifth joint forming a

Bryol. Brit. p. 24.

ASTRORHI'ZA, SandahLA relatively

Varylarge Rhizopod, related to Lituola. ing from sphseroidal to irregularly starshaped, and having sometimes a disk J inch broad, besides radii or digitated branches.
test is arenaceous and thick, without any large aperture, the pseudopodia being

mandibles consisting of a pointed claw thick body cut off^obliquely like the point of a pen posteriorly, truncate anteriorly, and terminated by a large, strong, and labium oval, concave slightly curved claw
; ;

and

bifid,

Its

Several species, of various brilliant colours. A, hidrionicus (^Hydrachna histrionica,

ATAXOPHRAGMIUM.
Herm.)

86

AULACOSIRA.
suiTomided by a simple whorl of
filifoi-m

(PI. 6. fig. 14). Body dark red, paler in frunt of the eyes, a square black spot iu

cis,

front of

them

dorsally

marked with
;

longi;

tudinal converging striae five black spots on the anterior portion of the ventral surface palpi and legs blackish green. The black spots are produced by the viscera indistinctly visible through the skin.

tentacles. A. arenosa. Surface sanded. and roots of Lnminaria.

On

stones,

BiBL. Hincks, Hi/dr. Polypes, p. 87. AT'RICHUM, Palis. genus of Mosses, forming a subdivision of Polytri-

CHUM.
BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 202. ATRO'PIA (Atropine). See Alkaloids.

A. Bonzi is semitransparent, yellowish, with some brown parasitic iu the shell of

;

the freshwater mussel. Murray states that Arrenurus viridis the male of Atax histrionica.
;

AT'ROPOS, Leach. A

is

nopterous Insects,
(Termitidse).

genus of Hymeof the family Psocidae

BiBL. Walckenaer, ^4y>f('/rs, iii. (Gervais) Hermann, 3Iem. Aptcrol. Duges, Ann. d. Sc. N. 2 ser. i. Koch, Deutschl.Crust., &c. Claparede, Studien an Acariden {Ann. N. H. 1. 1871, 5.5); Murray, Econ. Entom. 154.
; ; ;

tennae,

Characterized by the long setaceous anwhich have more than ten joints, the absence of wings, the eyes of moderate size, and the three-jointed tarsi.

ATAXOPIIRAG'MIUM,

Reuss.

The

A. pulsatorius (book-mite)

is

veiy com-

mon in

Buliminse with arenaceous shells come under this denomination. BiBL. Reuss, Sitz. Ak. Wien. xliv. 383.

Atheromatous deposits consist of globules of oil of the most varied mixed sizes, frequently exceedingly minute, with albuminous matter in the form of amorphous masses or fiakes and molecules, of carboplates of cholesteriue and granules nate of lime. ATHY'RIUM, Roth. subgenus of

ATHERO'MA.

dried collections of plants, old books, It is about 1-20" &c., which form its food. long, of a dirty-white or yellowish colour ; head oblong; joints of antennae elegantly striated transversely ; mandibles horny and

toothed

abdomen oblong-ovate, depressed

Psociis

posterior femora thickened.

the head genus broad, and the posterior margin of the fore The species wings with three or four cells. are found upon old palings, the bark of
allied

The

has

trees, &;c.
id. Introduct.

A^pleniumCPo\y\wd.ia.CQO\xs Ferns). To this belongs the lady-fern, A. Filix-fa'mina, formerly known as an Aspidium and a Ladrcea. AT'OMA, or Astoma, Latr.= Thombi-

BiBL. Westwood, Eyitom. Text-book, 308 j 6,-c., ii. 17 & 20. AT'THEYA, West. A genus of Diato;

DIUM,

supposed genus of Stilbacei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), characterized

ATRAC'TIUM. A
now
by
its

pt,

maceae. Char. Frustules compressed, annulate valves elliptic lanceolate, with a median
angles spinous. longitudinal line A. decora (PI. 51. fig. 39). Druridge
;

but

fusiform elongated spores, believed to be a state of some

iii.

Nectria.

Bay. BiBL. Micr. Tr.

BiBL. Tulasne, Carpohgla, ATR ACTOB'OLUS, Tode.

Formerly
genus of
;

p. 104.

ATTHEY'EL'LA, Brady. A
Copepodous Entomostraca,
thocamptus.
;

viii. p.

152.
allied to

genus of Can-

described as a genus of Nidulariacei (Gasteromycetous Fungi), is merely the egg of a

Raphiqnathns.

ATRACTOXE'MA,

St.

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Free, fusiform, flagellum single oral aperture connected with the contractile
vesicle, nucleus central. A. teres (PI. 53. fig. 8).

2 species fr. water. BiBL. Brady, Copepoda {Ray Soc.). ii. 58. AUGITE. See Rocks. AULACODISCUS. See Eupodlscus.

AULACOG'.RAPHA,

Leighton.A ge-

Fresh water.

ATRAC'TYLIS, Wright. A genus of marine Polypes, of the order Hydroida, and

family Atractylidie. Char. Polypes naked, borne on a stolon, erect, funnel-shaped, with a conical probos-

BiBL. Kent, Infus.

p. 373.

nus of GraphidetB (Lichenaceous Lichens), fouudod on the species Atdacoyrapha {Ope(jrapha) elvyans, Sm., distinguished by the peculiar furrows of. the projier mai'gins surrounding the di>ks of the lirellae. Grows on the bark of trees. BiBL. Leitrliton, Ann. N. II. xiii. p. 389, i/c/ti-i^/. 427. pi. 7, 1854; AULACOSI'RA. See Melosika.

AULISCUS.
AULIS'CUS, Ehr.A genus
Diatomacea?.

87

BACILLUS.

of fossil

Differs from Eupodiscus in the processes being more solid and less fragile, and in the markings of the valves consisting of wavy festooned striaj, in some resolvable into But the genus seems dots, in others not.

Kaulf. genus of Marsileacese or Rhizocarpefe, consisting of a few species of small floating plants, occurring The in Australia and throughout America. mode of reproduction is evidently analogous to that of iSalrinia but its development has
;

AZOLLA,

not yet been fully examined.

unnecessary. Eupodiscus scHlptus (PI. 16. fig. 31) form a species of Auli'seus. Auliscus pruinosus, PI. 18. fig. 60. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Ber. d. Berl.
Bailev,
Smit/is.

woidd

Ak.
;

BiBL. R. Brown, F/iiiders^s Voyage, ii. App. p. 611 Meyen, Nova Acta, xviii. Griffith, Calcutta Ja. of N. Hist. v. p. 507 p. 227 Mettenius, Linncca, xx. p. 259, 1847 {Ann, des Sc. Nut. 3 ser. xi. p. 111).
; ; ;

Contrib.

18-54

Greville,

{Monogr),

ibid, Micr. Tr. 1863, p. 36 (neiv spec), 186.3, p. 75; 1864, pp. 82, 88 186-5, p. 5 1866, p. 6 Rabeuhorst, Flor.
; ; ;

B.

Alg. p. 320.

AULOCOM'XIUM,
of Mosses.

Schwjegr. A genus
mineral composed
scales of
its

AVAX'TURIXE. A

See

Mnium.
substance, or

of silex, with

numerous minute

mica interspersed through

traversed in all directions by minute fissures or cracks, giving it an elegant sparkling or

iridescent appearance. Artificial Avanturine
consists

BACILLA'RIA, Gmeliu. genus of Diatomacete. Char. Frustules bacillif orm, at first united transversely into a straight tabular series, subsequently forming oblique series; valves with a longitudinal row of puncta, and an excentric keel marine.
;

B. paradoxa (PI. 16. fig. 14, and PI. 18. Front view of frustules linear, fig. 17).
rectangular, valves linear-lanceolate length 1-220". {a, front view of oblique series of frustules ; b, valve.)
;

of

glass

with numerous minute crystals of metallic copper distributed through it. These crystals are mostly in the form of triangular or hexagonal plates, the angles sometimes curiously prolonged or bealced. It fonns a oeautifid microscopic object. It was originally manufactured at Venice, But MM. and the process kept secret. Fremy and Clemandot have shown that it may be prepared by heating glass with protoxide of copper and iron scale (protoxide of iron) the latter reduces the protoxide of copper by combining with the oxygen so as to form the peroxide. BiBL. Wohler, Chem. Gaz. i. Fremy and
;
;

B. socialis, Greg., and B cursoria, Donk. BiBL. Ktitz. Sp. Alg. and Bacill. Smith, Brit. Died. ii. 8 Rabenhorst; Fl. Alg. i.
;

16-5.

BACIL'LUS, Cohn.Ageuus

of Schi-

zomycetous Fungi. Char. Filaments very minute, straight, slender, short or of moderate length, rigid or fiexible, moveable or not, joints indistinct never found naturally in the Zoogloea;

form.

Clemandot,

/.

c. iv.

AVEXEL'LA, Dalyell. A genus

of In-

fundibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder Cyclostomata, and family Vesicidariidfie. Distinguished by the thread-like, nearly simple base the large, scattered, solitary, and slightly contracted and curved ceUs the 20 to 24 tentacles and small gizzard.
; ;

The single species, A. Dcdyellii {fusca), brown, occurs matted with foreign matters cells about 1-16" long. On Sertuhirise, from
;

deepish water. BiBL. DalyeU, Anim. of ScofJand, ii. 6-5 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 21 Hiucks, Poh/z. 526. AVICULA'EIA. term applied to the birds'-head processes of the Polyzoa. See
;

B. subtilis (PI. 7. fig. 18, PI. 1. fig. 19). Filaments very slender, elongate joints single or many, with a cilium at each end movement flexuous, active. In stagnant waters, kc. It forms Pasteur's butyric ferment, and the hay-baciUus length 1-5000" and upwards. B. anthracis. Like the last, but generallength I-6OOO" and ly longer, motionless upwards. In the blood and tissues of cattle and sheep, the horse, &c., producing the disease termed Aiithrax, or splenic malignant fever, the Charbon of the French, the Milzbrand of the Germans, also the human malignant pustule, and the wool-sorters'
;

disease.

B. ulna
ted, thick

(PI. 7. fig. 20).

Filaments joinrotary and cilia as in

and

rigid,

movement

Polyzoa.

progressive.

Warming describes

BACTEllIASTRUM.

88

BACTPJDIUM.

In infusions, salt and Bacterium tenno. fresh in stale infusions of boiled egg ; length 1-600". B. ruher. Filaments single, or in twos and fours, movement very active. lu a red
;

coming suiTounded with gelatinous matter forming masses the Zoogkea-form. Furnished with a cilium at each end (DaUinger and Brysdale, and Warming). This is the first and true cause of ordinary

mucilaginous matter on rice. B. Other species have been described malarice (ague-fungus), Klebs B. viride, B. leprusus, in leprosy and B. V. Ticghem
:

putrefaction.

B. cafemda (fig. lib). In foetid infusions, and the excretions of typhoid fever. B. jmnctum (fig. c). In animal infusions;
length 1-5000", breadth 1-10000". B. triloculare (fig. lid). Oval, two to five times as long as broad, with from 3 to - 1-5000". G joints length 1-2000" Cells straight or B. lineoki (fig. lie).
;

iyph i ahdom iiudU.

Amylubacter
BacUlus.

is

sometimes

referred

to

Reproduction is stated to occur by fission, and by the formation of globular or oval spores developed within the joiuts some of these form restiug-spores. In B. anthracis, cultivated in the dog, sporanges with 3 to 6
;

B. termo, single slightly cm'ved, larger than In animal or in twos ; movement active. and infusions, marine and fresh

Cohn also spores are stated to be found. describes giobidar or elliptical strongly refractive headlets, supposed to be germinated
from
gonidia.

vegetable water. Zoogloea-plasma with dark puncta.

Turns milk sour.

coloured species have been descricows' milk, colouring it yellow B. si/nci/anum, in sour milk, B. ceruginosum, in pus, rendering it blue rendering it blue; B. brunneum, in brown decomposinginfusions of maize; B. rubescens and sulphuratum appear to be the same as

Some
:

See Schizomycetes.

bed

B.

xant/iiu))i, in
;

BiBL. That of Bacterium.

BACTEEIAS 'TR UM, Shadb.A doubtful

genus of marine Diatomaceae, character-

ized

by the compound

cylindrical frustules,

forming a filament, and the discoidal valves with radiate marginal slender rays. B. curvatum (I'l. 18. tig. IS). Rays enB. furccdum, rays straight, tire, arched forked B. nodidosiDu, rays simple, straight, B. WidUcJiii, rays covered with nodules
; ;
;

Monas
served
slide.

Many

vinosa. of the Bacteria

may be

well prea

by simply drying

them upon

simple, straight.

BiBL. Shadbolt, Qu. Mic. Jn. ii. 14 Rabenhorst, Fl. Alt/, p. 322 ; Lauder, Mic. Tr. 1864, p. 7.
;

Numerous other organisms are sometimes included under the term Bacteria, some of them globular. The subject will be treated
generally under

Schizomycetes. See CoccoBACTERiA'and Micrococcus.

;

also

BAG TER ID' IUM= Bacillus.

BACTE'RIUM, Ehr.A

genus of Schi-

BiBL. Ehrenb., Ivfus. Dujardin, Inf. Sanderson, \2th and IWi Privy Council
;

zomycetous Fungi. These organisms were formerly arranged with the Infusoria; subsequently with the Algne, with which Davaiue, Rabenhorst, Cohn and Cieukowski still associate them, on account of the resemblance of form, the grouping, the mode of multiplicatitjn, and their affinities with the genera Beggiatoa and Leptothrix. Char. Cells cylindrical or elliptical, very minute, siugle or in twos during division, rarely four motion oscillatory. Many species have been described. By
;

Repts.

Cohn,

Beitraije,

i.

and
;

ii.

Pasteur,

Ann.

de

Chimie. 1862, 60

Warming, 77;

repeated subdivision Bacteria are resolved into a Micrococcus-iovm. (CienkoMski). B. termo (PI. 7. fig. 17r/, and Pi. 1. fig. Colourless twice to five times as long 20). as broad, slightly swollen in the middle, - 1-12000"; iointsoneor two; length 1-1000" "breadth 1-12000" - 1-50000". Occurs in animal and vegetable infusions often be;

densk. Medd. 1875, 322; Kjiibcnliavn, Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1873, 408 Magnin, Bacteries, 1878; Koch, CoJin's Beit. 1877, ii. Davaine, Diet. Bncycl, Art. Bacterie; Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1878, xviii. 455 Ewart (B. anthracis), Proc. Boy. Soc. 1878; DaUinger, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, i. 175 Mhn. Ac. Petersb.xxv. (figs.); Cienkowski, (Qu. Mic. Jn.), IS7S, xviii. 456; Roberts, Phil. Tr. 1874, 46G Waldstein, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1880, XX. 190; Lister, Qu. Mic. Jn. xiii. 380 Livon, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1879, ii. 760 Dowdeswell (Atmo(Bacteria no poison) 82 Klebs, spheric), Qu. Mic. Jn. 1878, xviii. V. Tieghera, Bull. Soc. Zeitschrift, 1879; Bot. Fr. (Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, i. 89) Tyn;
; ;

dall, l^itrefaction SfC, 1881,'

BACTRIDTUM, Kunze. A

Torulacei (Coniomycetous Fungi)

genus of micro;

BADIiAMIA.
scopic plants of tufted habit, decaying wood, old bark, &c.
at

89

BANGIA.
intestines,

growing upon

In the human B. entozoon. and those of frogs.

white tiist, but coloured subsequently by the condensation of the grunious contents Three species of the spores. are recorded as British On elm . Jlavum, Kze.
:

BiBL. CI.

& Lachm.

(Canada). The liquid resin of the Pinus Bcdsamea. This is the ordinarily used and best medium for the preservation

BALSAM

Infus. p.

227.

stumps. . Ilehellce,

B. B.

and

Br. Bactridium candiiium.

On

Peziza testacea.

JB. atrovirenSf

On dead

Magnified 200
diametera.

stumps. BiBL. BerkeleY, Brit. Fl. ii. pt. 2. p. 350; Kunze, MycoJ. lleft i. Cri/pt. Bot. p. 330 20 and 21 Nees, pi. 1. iig. 2, pi. 2. figs.
; ;

Nova Acta,

ix. pi. 1. fig. 3, pi. 2. fig. 21.

BADHA'xMIA, Berk. genus of Myxogastres (Gasteromycetous Fimgi), consisting sacs growing in of little
;

The more coof dry transparent objects. It should be kept lourless it is, the better. in a wide-mouthed bottle, covered by a large piece of iron-wire cap, fitted by grinding. should be kept in the bottle, so that the desired quantity can be easily removed. It becomes thicker by keeping, but may be rendered thinner by mixture with oil of turpentine and di<?estion at a gentle heat, or with benzole, if too thin, it should be exposed to a gentle heat in a bottle covered

variously-coloured allied patches on decayed oak-branches, &c. to PItysarum, but remarkable for the spores, at first enclosed in a common sac, adhering Filaments of the capilLitium in clusters. broad. BiBL. Berk. Limi. Tr. xxi. 152, pi. 19 Crypt. Bit. p. 338. B.EOMY'CES, Pers. genus of Lichenaceous Lichens. The fom* species are found on the earth
;

with paper, to exclude dust. See PeeserVATION. BALSA'MIA, Vittadini. A genus of

Tuberacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), characterized by the hollows Avhich are lined by the fructifying cells not leading to the sm'face, and its cylindrical or oblongo-elliptic even
sporidia.

Balsamia platyspora occurs in ditferent parts of England, and is eagerly scratched up by squirrels attracted by its strong scent. BiBL. Tulasne, Fvnyi Ilypoycei; Berk.
Outl. p. 378; Cooke,

Handbook.

and stones. BiBL. Leighton, Lich.-Fl., 50. BAIRDIA, M'Coy. A marine genus of Bivahed Entomostraca, belonging to the Ostracoda and related to the Cypridse.

BANA'NA.

See Musa.

BANGTA,
L'lvese

Lyngb.

A genus of Porphyplaced

rete (Florideous Alga?),

among the

First
fossil

known
;

\)j its

valves alone,

which

are

subtriangular.

Abundant, both recent and

found also in the Palaeozoic rocks. BiBL. M'Coy, Curb. Foss. Ireland (1844), 165 Jones, Money. Tert. Eniom. 51 G. S. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 360 and 388 Jones and Kii-kby, Q. Jn. Geol. S. xxxv. 565
;

by most authors, but stated by M. Thuret to be Florideous. Species marine, forming purplish, brownish-green, or red tufts of filaments, upon rocks and stones or on the fronds of other Algae, from 1 to 4 inches long, or in B. eiliaris, only half a

Harvey admits five, three of them, however, as doubtful B. fusco-ptirpurea, Dillw. Brownish
line long.
:

(5

BALAXI'XUS, Germ. A

pis.).

genus of Co-

leoptera, of the family Curcidionidae. B. nucum is well known as depositing its

eggs in nuts, upon which the larva lives, and it escapes, leaving a hole. The beetle is 1-3" long, with a rostrum Laiwa white, nearly as long as the body.

green or purple glossy, several inches long ; near highwater mark. Phyc. Brit. t. 96 ; Brit. Ak/fe, t. 25 C Eny. Bot., t. 2055 & 2085. B. eiliaris, Carm. Forming a minute pink fringe on Zostera marina.
;

from which

B.

ceramicolu,
;

Lyngbye.

Purplish rose.

On

small Algte
?

B.

about 1" long. Pale red tufts on carnea, Dillw.

with a brown head and strong jaws, BiBL. Stephens, Brit. Col. p
val, Ent. Hortic. p.

Confervse.

152

Calwer, Kdferhuth,

548

(tig.).

BALANTID'IUM,

CI.

& L. A

B. ? eleyans, Chauv. Minute tufts 1'" or 2'" long, rose-red, parasitic on small Algae, Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 246. rare.
See ScHIZOGO^'IUM. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Algce, 1849, 217 Berthold, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, (figs.)
;

genus

of Infusoria, fam. Bursarina.

Like Kondyhstoma, but the body dilated behind and narrowed in front.

i.

97.

BARBULA.

90

BARK.
;

BAR'BULA, Hedw. A genus of Pottiaceous Mosses, synonymous with Tortula, and including some of our commonest mosses, growing on walls Szc. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 134. BARK. The outer coat of the ti'imks and branches of Dicotyledonous shrubs and trees, succeeding to the epidermis as the

then the cork-substance fourth, or fifth begins to increase in an important degree

by

the multiplication of

its cells at

the inner

side, bordering on the cellular envelope.

Xe w

young shoots become

is

solid

and woody. Bark

;

a complicated structiu'e, composed of elementary tissues of various characters and the great differences of appearance which it presents upon trees which have attained a certain age, residt from the growth and multiplication of the elementary organs being subject to very different laws in different plants. Bark is the collective term applied to the entire cortical mass outside the cambium-region of the stem (Cambium). It contains three distinct regions or forms of structure and in young branches the epidermis, still remaining on the outside, constitutes a fourth. If we examine a young shoot of the Maple {Acer campestre) while stiU green, by making
;

layers of cork-cells are produced successively, expanding much in the radial direction. They are thin-walled and destitute of contents, of squarish form (PI. 47. figs. 16 SzlT), and soon become dry. The outer lavers being unable to expand sufficiently to allow the enlargement of the stem,tear irregularly, and give the surface of the stem a rough and cracked aspect. On old stems we observe that the formation of these layers has not been continuous, but in successive groups or sets, which causes the appearance of a darker

and more

solid structm-e,

lar cells, at tlie points

composed of tabuwhere successive sets

fines of

of layers adjoin, just as is the case at the union of the annual rings of wood in But these lines are Dicotyledonous stems.
shai'e in

very irregular.

no

The celUdar envelope takes the formation of the cork of this

tree.

transverse and perpendicular-radial sections, we find the surface to be covered by an epidermis composed of small cells, closely conjoined at their sides. Under this occur six or eight strata of thiu-waHed, colourless

In the Birch (Befula olba), there is a very decided distinction between the layers of the cork-substance, namely between the large thin-waUed colourless cells and the denser tabular cells forming the dark streaks in the cork. The epidermis is succeeded here

which stand vertically over one another, and when mature are extended in the radial direction of the branch. These
cells,

form the cork-substance, sideroiis layer, or periderm. Beneath or within these, we find
a layer of thin-walled parenchymatous cells, tilled with protoplasm and chlorophyll granules, forming the cellular envelope, corkcambium ov jjhellogen. Interposed between the cellular envelope and the cambium region occur the liber-bundles (see Liber), forming X\iQ fibrous layer of the bark. In the bark of the ]\Iaple, the corky substance grows very fast at first, and soon splits the epidermis above it, but after a certain number of years its growth slackens, so that it seldom acquires verj' great thickness, especially as it is very soft and readily rubbed ofi"; the cellular layer does not

by a jjericlerm composed of tabular cells with brown contents, corresponding to the darker parts of common cork in stems of 20 years' growth, the bark presents as
;

many

as fifty lamellae

of this substance,

which lamellis are separated from each other by layers of the lax white cork-cells. The readiness with which the latter structure
gives way causes the lamellas to peel off in thin scales; and these bring away a portion of the white intermediate sti*ucture on both faces, and thus acquire their pecidiar silvery
aspect.

In the Beech (Fayics sylvatica), where the bark is smooth, even on old trees, the growth
takes place chiefly in the liber-layers, and the cellular envelope and cork-substance merely expand to make room for the enlargement of the stem ; the cork-substance is here a periderm, i. e. composed of the flat tabular cells, not loose cork tissue. The Holly, Ivy, and other smooth-barked trees are analogous to tliis. The scaling ofl"of the bark of the Plane (Plataims occidentalis) arises from the formation of layers of tabular peridermal cells between tl)e layers of liber the bark outside the layers dries and falls away by the
;

grow fast, merely keeping pace with the enlargement of the stem which it surrounds. The layers of liber increase year by year so as to form a very distinct hbrous layer. In the Cork-Oak (Quercus Suber), the bark of which, when young, does not differ much from that of the Maple, the cellular layer grows most in the earlier years, and the epidermis is not destroyed until the third,

BAKLEY.

91

BARTRAMIOIDEyE.

Here, tearing of these peridernial layers. therefore, the periderm is produced from
the ceUular envelope. In the Lime (Ti/ia), the Oak {Q.Robur), and other trees, a similar production of the liber takes peridernial layers within but the layers remain in situ for a place
;

in water. (See Starch.) Pearlbarley is obtained by a peculiar mode of grinding, by which the outer coat or shell of the grain is removed. BAUTRA'MIA, Hedw. genus of

immersed

long time, and

fall away ii regularly, often number of persisting for a considerable years as rugged, many-layered scales. In many of the Conifers (such as the Scotch Fir and Larch), the peridermal struc-

Bartramiaceous Mosses, containing several common species. B. poviiformis, with its on dry sandy apple-like capsules, is common banks. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol Brit. p. 277. BARTRAMIA'CE.'E. tribe of Bar-

ture

is

in

hke manner developed from the

here, however, the cells

cellular envelope ; are not tabular,

but parenchymatous, and

multiply and enlarge so as to form a thick

layer of cork-like tissue, which loses all relation with the medullary rays. The turpentine-canals and liber-fibres, engaged in this corky periderm, become distm-bed and

tramioidese (operculate Apocarpous Mosses) containing several genera. British genera PeConostomum. Calyptra dimidiate. teeth sixteen, lanceolate, ristome simple equidistant erect lohen %oet or dry, densely
: ;
;

line,

by its irregular growth. In some plants, such as the Vine, the Honeysuckle, &c., the bark is always stringy, which arises from the formation of each annual layer of liber being followed immediately by the drying-up, and soon by the
displaced'

and nodosely tuberculated, with a median connate in pairs at their apices, and coherent into an oblique closed cone. Bartramia. Cah^Jtra dimidiate. Peristome either absent, simple, or double. External, of sixteen lanceolate, smooth, tuberculate teeth, with a median line or sometimes

destruction, of the layers of the preceding year, so tbat no proper periderm of suberous or cellular layers exists here after the first The same takes place in the third or year. fourth year in Clematis. The scales, plates, and rings of bark thrown off, form the rhitidome of some

separating in the middle, erect when incurved wetted, when dry, red. Internal a membrane with sixteen
:

folds,

produced in-

to sixteen lanceolate, keeled,

broad

authors. The inner layers of the bark are especially distinguished by the presence of laticiferous canals in those plants in which that tissue exists these are said by Schacht to be in many cases a modification of the liber-tissue. Further particulars are given on this head under Liber, where also the intimate structure of the liber will be explained. See also
;

teeth, ultimately split into two diarticuvergent lated lobes, with one to three cilia interposed or none
(fig.

52).

Bai'traiiiia marchica. Magnified fragment of peristome.

Catascopinm.
smallish.

Lexticels and Cork.

BiBL. Henfrey, But. (Masters)
; ; ;

Mohl,

Vei-mischt. Schrift. 1845, p. 212 Haustein, Bau d. Baumrinde, Berlin, 185.3 Schacht,

teeth sixteen, lanceolate, very short, trmicate-lanceolate, differing in form, unequal, transversely articulated, with a median line, whitish, rugulose, rigid and suberect. Capsule inclined on the collum, globose, small, discelioid, shi;

Calyptra Peristome simple

hood-shaped,

Sanio, Pringsheirn's Jahrb. ii. 39 Sachs, Bot. 107. BARLEY. One of the important cereal grains,furnishedby the Hordeum sativum and its varieties (Monocot. Plants, N. 0. GramiThe starch of the albumen of the nacese). seeds has a form somewhat resembling that of wheat, but it may be distinguished under the microscope (PL 46. fig. '2) and the small starch-grains are more numerous and smaller than in wheat or rye, and many of them are in active molecular motion when
Pflanzenzelle, p.
;

237

ning-brown, and ultimately gi'owing black, thick-skimied, almost horny, without an annulus, smooth. BARTRA]\ni>'ULA, Br. and Sch. {BarA genus of Mosses sepatramia, Miiller). rated from Bartrainia by some authors on account of the smooth capsule and absence of a peristome. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 276. BARTRAMIOI'DE^. family of operculated Acrocarpous Mosses, of csespitose habit and var^ang size. Leaves very varied

BARYTA.
in form, erect or reflexed,
cells

92
;

BASIDIOSPORES.

with terete nerves

parenchymatous, and, except in certain on species, furnished with solitary papillae the transverse walls on both faces, mostly
lax or square or more or less hexagonal loosish, and densely filled with chlorophyll, or with a persistent prinioi-dial utricle, rarely thickened. Capsule with a long neck, funa;

tween the epithelium and submucous tissue of the mucous membranes and their proIt is of considerable firmness, longations. and serves to support the layer or layers of It is not epidermal or epithelial cells.
always easily separable and demonstrable, but is perhaps most readily so in the urinary
tubules of the kidneys. In chemical composition, this mostly resembles elastic tissue.

pear-shaped or spherical, regular or asymmetrical, straight or variously inchned, smooth or grooved, with an operculum mostly hemispherical or conical, rarely beaked. This family is divided into two
rioid,

membrane

BASIDTA.
by Sachs
spores

See Basidiospores.

BASIDIOMYCE'TES. A name applied

See

tribes

jMeesiace^e.
lax,

Areolation of the leaf smooth, often destitute of primordial

Agaricim and Fungi.

to those Fungi which have naked situated in a distinct hymenium.

BASIDTOSPORES. The name

applied

utricle (Meesia), or lax and densely papillose (Paludc'lla). Capsule erect, elongated,

to the acrogenous spores produced in groups, mostly of a definite number, more frequently

with a more or less elongated neck, hence more or less pear-shaped, smooth, the neck
bearing stomata.

Bartramiace^.

Capsule papillose. erect or inclined, horizontal or pendulous, regular or asymmetrical, smooth or grooved, but more or less spherical, devoid of stomata. knowledge of the crystal-

and smooth, lax and smooth, or dense and

Areolation either lax papillose, dense and

BARYTA. A

of four, on the hymenium of many Fungi, the term basidium (sporophore, Berk.) being applied to the four-branched cell upon which they are attached. Basidiospores are produced both by the Hymenomycetous and In the former Gasteromycetous Fungi. they are found upon the external fruitbearins surfaces, such as the ffills or vertical plates of Agarics, on the walls of tlie tubes of Polypoms, &c. In the Gasteromycetes

forms of the salts of baryta is sometimes useful in determining the presence of this substance.
line

Butxjrate of baryta (PL 10. fig. 23). When rapidly separating from an aqueous solution, forms a pearly film upon the surface, contranssisting of dense aggregations of very parent crystalline laminaj, not perfectly separable from each other (a). When more slowly formed, stellate groups of crystals The individual crystals are produced (6). and some are so thin and are rarely perfect transparent that their outlines are scarcely
;

v^
Development of the basidiospores of

Hymenangium

gi-iseum.

they are produced upon the convoluted hy-

menium which
Fij?.

occupies the interior of the

Fig. 55.

54.

distinguishable. Hydrofluosilicate of baryta (PI. 10. fig. 24). Its production is a test for the presence of The crystals are scarcely aflected baryta. by either nitric or muriatic acid. "

Svlphate of baryta (PI. 10. fig. 25). When rapidly formed, consists of crystalline granides (). AV'hen more slowly precipitated from dilute solutions, it consists of very

minute

stellate foliaceous crystals,

somewhat
Basidia and basidiospores of Alelanogaster variegatug.

resembling those of the ammonio-phosphate See Strontia and Lime. of magnesia (i). BASALT. See Rocks.

BASEMENT MEMBRANE,
mals.

Is

of

Ani-

Basidia and basidiospores of Octaviana asterosperma.

a very thin, transparent, elastic

Magnified 400 dianieters.

and structureless membrane, lying between the cutis and epidermis of the skin, and be-

Fungus in the eailier stages of growth and when the spores are mature, the hymenium
;

BAST.
and

![

93

BATRACHOSPERMUM.

tlio basidia becoming dissolved, the The basidiospores fall loose in the cavity. spores sprout out gradually from the basidia, becoming soon shut oft" by a cross septum ; and in some rases they finally acquire a dense and dark-coloured outer coat. II. i. 81, pi. 4 BiBL. Berkeley, Attn.

and o, 2 ser.

155, pi. 5; Lf^veiUe, Ann. Sc. Nat. viii. 391, pi. 8-11 ; Tulasne, Fiaif/i Hi/pof/fpi, passim.
iv.

the terminal dome-shaped cell. While the cells or joints of the axes are still young, they send oft" a number of radiating processes, which soon become cut off by septa, so as to constitute distinct cells, and then elongate and ramify so as to form tlie Avliorls of articulated ramules (fig. 59), which at length become very dense (fig. 57). From the basal cells of these branches
Fig. 56. Fig. 57.

BAST

or

BASS.

See Libeb.
singular genus

BATARRE'A, Pers. A

of Tricliogastres (Gasteromycetous Fungi), characterized by a universal gelatinous vol va, and a hat-shaped receptacle seated on the top of a tall stem. B. phalloides is occasionally found in England, but only in a very few locaUties, either in sand or in the du.^ty residue in the inside of lioUow trees. BiBL. Sow. t. 330 Berk. Out. p. 290.
;

Fig. 59.

Sars. delicate thread-like spicular Foraminifer. S.JiUformis. In the Bay of Biscay and

BATHYS'IPHON,

Fig. 58.

the Norwegian fjords length 1" and more. BiBL. Sars, Vidensk. Selsk. Furhandl.
;

1871,

BATONE'US, Kirch. A
;

p.

251.

of Phytoptidffi
lus tremula.

doubtful genus found on the roots of PopuSee Phytoptid^.

BATRACHOSPER'ME.E. Afamilyof
Confervoid (?) Algpe. Brownish-green or filamentous, purplish freshwater plants coated with gelatine. The fronds composed
;

of aggregated longitudinal filaments, bearing at intervaii whorls of short, horizontal, Dicecylindrical or beaded, jointed ramidi. cious. Fructification: ovate spores attached to the lateral ramuli, which consist of minute dichotomous filaments. British genera Batrachospermum. Lateral whorled ra;

Batrachospermum moniliforme. Natural size. A portion of an axis with whorls of branches. Magnified. Fig. .58. A tuft of branches with spores in the midst. More magnified. Fig. .59. Highly magnified view of a few cells of an axis with nascent radiating ramules and their descending cortical ceUs.
Fig. Fig.
ofi.
.57.

muli beaded spores collected in globular knobs in the whorls. Stems continuous, whorled, arThorea. ticulated, sometimes branched, ramuli cyHndrical, the spores at their bases. BiBL. See these genera.

secondary branches gTow

down

perpendicu-

larly over the cell of the main axis immediately below (fig. 59), forming at length a

kind of rind over

it.

This

difters

from the

BATRACHOSPERMUM, Roth .A ge;

nus of Batrachosperme^ (Confervoid Algoe), regarded by Thuret and A. Biaun as referable to the Floridese consisting of delicate, branched, filamentous plants of green, yellow, red, or purple colour, growing in clear slowly rimning fresh water. The branched axes of the plants of Batrachospenninn (fig. 56) consist of rows of large cylindrical cells applied end to end, and increase in length by the successive transverse ceU-division of

analogous structure in Chara, in the fact that there branches grow up as well as down from each articulation of the axis, and meet halfway. Some of the ramules which grow out free become fertile, and produce sports at their extremities, while others grow out
into transparent capillary points. The spores are produced in large numbers in each tuft, forming an agglomerated heap The branches (fig. 58) at each articulation. of the main axis are produced by lateral

budding of its cells, just above and as it were in the axils of the smaller whorled

BATRACHOSPERMUM.

9i

BEANIA.
iii. Rabenhorst, 404; Bornet and Thuret, Ann. N. 1867, vii. p. 144; Sachs, Bot, 1874,

Braun has found specimens of branches. a. canilescens and B. Suevonim destitute of the glomerules of spores, but with smaller
hj'aline (Antheridial) cells at the the branches, as in Nemaleon.

Sp. Alg.
Fl. Alg.
cl.

p.

535, Tab. Phyc.

p.

iii.

Sc.

ends of

293.

According to Bornet and Thuret, trichogynes exist. These consist of a basal cell (ultimately the cystocarp), communicating by a narrow neck with the upper portion, which is not capillary, but expands into an
cell, to which the antheridia adliere. These are single, rounded cells, arising from the summit of certain peripheral

BDELLA, Latr. {Scims).K genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina, and family
Bdellea.

nida).

Char. Those of the family (see ArachSpecies numerous. B. longicornis {vulgaris) (PL 6. fig. 31 a,
; ;

oval

when much

elongated branches each producing a single spermatozoid. The specimens frequently change colour
;

b, mandible). Scarlet; rostrum longer than the front segment of the body eyes 4 length 1-24". B. cceruUpes (PI. 6. fig. 31 c, mandible).

Rostrum
bles thick

tolerably short

and obtuse

and stout mandieyes 4 ; body red;

dried upon paper, becoming usually darker. Bory St. Vincent carefully examined the distinctive characters of this
:

dish

legs blue.
(PI. 6. fig. 44).
;

B. elaphus
flated at base

Rostrum

in-

genus and he is followed by Hassall, who, however, erects several of his varieties into The following forms are given species. under Kiitzing's arrangement: B. momliforviB, Roth. Vaguely and greatly branched, colour various (purple,vio-

shades each side.

;

carmine-red, with iridescent eyes 2, blackish a long bristle on

;

green, seruginous, fuscescent, or nigrescent) whorls or nodes moniliform, distinct, globose, those of the branches confluent. Dillwyu, Tab. ii. Kiitz. Tab. Phyc. iii. pi. 22, Hassall's^jM^c/ferrantfm, stxifjiuile, and rubmm are considered to be varieties of
let,
; ;

Other species. BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer's Apt. p. 154 Koch, Deutschl. Crust. 8)C. Duges, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. i. 21 Murray, Peon. Entom. 144. BDELLEA. family of Arachnida, of
; ;

the order Acarina.

are minute, more or less variously coloured, and live in damp places beneath moss, upon the sand of caves, &c. Palpi geniculate, attached to the sides of the rostrum, as the antennas in the Curculionidae. Movements slow. The single
soft,

The members

this.

B. cjiganteum, Desv.

Very

large, purple

when

dry, axes clothed with very long, bifurcated branches. Kiitz. Tab. Phyc. iii.
pi. 2.3.

genus,

BdeUa, has the characters of the family,

B. co7)fusum, Hass.

2\ib. Phyc. iii. pi. 24. B.affine, Kiitz. B. cceruhscens, Bory. ^ruginous, slender, very much branched, branches tiagelliform, equal, slender, slightly thickened at the tips, Avhorls of the lower and upper

and includes the genera Amonia, Koch.

Scirus, Dug.,
A2}t. p.

and
154;

BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer's Koch, Peidschl. Crust, ^-c.

BDELLOIDI'NA,

Carter.

sessile,

branches confluent, those of the intermediate distinct, contiguous, depressed.

Kiitz.

arenaceous, Lituolid Foraminifer, with numerous,transverse, successive, sublabyrinthic

Tab. Phyc.

iii.

pi. 24.

chambers. BiBL. Carter, Ajin. N. II. March 1877,

p. 201.

B. vayum, Ag. ^ruginous, dichotomously branched, equallj' thick throughout, whorls all confluent. Kiitz. Tab. Phyc. iii. 25 var. teMuissiinum = Conf. atra, Eng. pi.
;

BEAN-FLOUR. The

flour of the

com-

Bot.

pi.

600.

Ranenhorst admits two species, B. moriliforvie, with nine, and B. vagurn, with five
varieties.

BiBL. Bory
xii. pi. 22,

pis.

St. Vincent, Ann. d. Mvscum, 29 Ilassall, Algce, p. 101 and 13-16 and 63 Decaisne, Ann. d. Sc. Nat.
;
,

s^r. xvii. p.

340, pi. 15,

i.

Braun,

Ver-

j'iingung, p. 160 (Pay Soc. 1853, p. 150) ; Alg. Unicell. Appendix, p. 105 j Kiitzh.g,

bean, F(d)a vulgaris, is used to adulterate wheat-flour; and that of the locustbean, Ceratonia siHqua, to adulterate coffee. See Adxti-teration and Staisch. BEAN'IA, Johnst. A genus of Infundibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder Cheilostomata, and family Eucratiida;. Distinguished by the creeping adherent branched thread, upon which the sessile erect scattered cells are placed, each with two rows of spines on one side.

mon

B.

mi)-abilis.

Parasitical

on

shells

and

BEE.

95

BIBLARIUM.

rocks at or ^v^tlu^ low water-mark, or creeping among the roots of Bai/ida {^Cellitlaria) Cells 1-24" long. aviculan'a. BiBL. Johnst. Br. Zooph. x. 371 Gosse,
;

when not

fresh, in attempts to procure hipIt may be distinguished from puric acid.

Mar. Zool. ii. 15 Busk, Catal. (Brit. Mus.)} Hincks, Pohjz. U5. BEE. See Apis. BEKR. The fermentation by which this liquid is produced results from the Lirowth
;

hippm-ic acid by its much greater solubility in ether, by its crystallization in thin plates, and their form (PI. 11. fig. 13).

BERGMEHL. The
A

German

expression

for mountain-flour.
less

powdery or more or

of the yeast-plant, a microscopic

Fungus.

coherent mineral, consisting principally of the siliceous valves of the Diatomaceae. In some countries it is mixed with articles of
food in times of scarcity. See

See

a precipitate of the ammonio-phosphate of magnesia falls, resembling that subsiding from urine under the same circumstances (PI. 13. This, in the sugar-beer as now fig, 3). made, is almost absent and the beer is deprived of an important element of nutrition. BEGGIA'TOA, Trevis. genus of Os;

Yeast and Fermentation. \Yhen ammonia is added to beer,

Diatomace^.

Greville. Diatomacese (Cohort Naviculefe). Distinguished by the navicular being immersed in the branches of tinous frond, which is rounded at

BERKELEY'A,

genus of
frustules

the gelathe base.

The valves

and transparent. No markings have been detected upon them but there can scarcely
;

are exceedingly thin, brittle

ciJlatoriacere (or properly Schizomycetes),

distinguished by the free, rigid, sheathless fibres, enveloped in mucus, and the w^hite

be a question that they exist. B.frac)iUs(V\. 19. fig. 8). Filiform branches
valves lanceolate, length 1-330". British. Branches about 1-4" in length. Found upon marine plants and rocks. B. adriatica. Branches lax, subdivided, attenuate and flagelliform valves narrowly lanceolate, almost linear, somewhat obtuse ; length 1-200", BiBL. Grev. Crj/pt. Fl. tab. 294 Ralfs,
;

mostly simple, crowded

obtuse
;

granular eudochromes. Five species found in warm mineral and sulphur springs. BiBL. Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah/, ii. p. 04.
:

BELBA, Heyden (Dmnaus, Koch). genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina and family Oribatea.
Char.

Cephalothorax ribbed; abdomen

;

separated from the thorax, rounded as if legs long, geniculate, with one claw. The species live on moss, under stones, &c. B. (jenicuiata. Beneath the bark of the pear-tree, &c.

bulbous

Arm. N. H. 1845, xvi. p. 110; Kiitzing, Bacill., and Sp. Ala. Smith, Br. Dial. ii.
;

67.

p.

BiBL. Walcken. Apttres, iii. (Gervais), 256 ; Koch, Uehers. <-c. Murray, Econ.
;

Entom. 215.

BENZOIC ACID.This
known
as occurring

acid is well naturally in benzoin

donous Plants,N. O. Betulacese), remarkable for its peculiar silvery peridenn. See Babe-. The bark of B. nigra contains reservoirs filled with an aromatic oil and also a peculiar resin, called Birch Camphor, which is used in the manufacture of Russia leather.

BET'ULA,L. TheBirch-tree(Dicotyle-

and some other resins. It is found in animal secretions (urine) as a product of the
decomposition of hippuric acid. It is also a product of the oxidation ofproteine compoimds. It is but slightly soluble in cold, more readily in hot water and in alcohol,
also in ether.
Its ciystals

belong to the right-rhombic

;

YRICHTA, M'Ooy. An extinct genus, belonging probably to the Ostracoda, very abundant throughout the palaeozoic rocks, and presenting a great variety in their small oblong and deeply lobed valves. Forty-two species are recorded from the Silurian, two from the Devonian, and seven from the Carboniferous rocks.
BiBL. Jones, Ann. N. H. 1855, xvi. 81 163; 3fn. Mic. Jn. 1870, 191.

BE

It is readily sublimed prismatic system. and the crystals thus produced form shining delicate needles. When crystallized from a

&

usually forms dendritically arranged superimposed plates, with angles of 90, sometimes narrow six-sided needles or piisms; occasionally the angles are truncated, so that the inclination of the edges amoimts to an angle of 135'^.
solution,
it

BIBLA'RIUM, Ehr. A

genus of

fossil

Diatomaceae.

Distinguished from Tetracifclvs by the

frustules being single,

which

difi'crence pro-

bably depends upon the species only having been found bv Ehreuberg in the fossil state.

Twelve
38-48).

It is not unfrequently obtained

from urine

species (Pis. 50. fig. 39; 18. Fossil in Siberia and Oregon.

figs.

BICELLARIA.

96

BIGENERINA.

BiBL. EhrenlDerg, Ber. d. Berl. Ak. 1844-45, and Ayin. N. II. 1848, i. 393 KiitSmith, B)\ Died. ii. 37, zing, Sp. A/ff. BICELLA'RIA, De Bl.A genus of Infiindibiilate Polyzoa, of the .suborder Chei;
;

the angles are more prolonged and acute, and the markings indistinct, are retained by Kiitzing in the genus OdonteUa, Ag. (Denticella, Elir.

in part).

lostomata, and family Bicellariidfe. B. ciliata ( CcUularia ciliata, Johnst.) (PI. 41. figs. 5 a and 5 b), is parasitical upon Algae, Polypi, &c. within low- water mark
;

B. pukhella, Ehr. {B. fri-, qvinque-, and sej)fc)iiloculuris, Kiitz.) (PI. 16. fig. 15). Costse 3-7, central one with two or three short spines produced angles rounded markings coarse length 1-4U0 to 1-200".
; ;
;

spines about eleven. An elegant microscopic object. B. Alcleri; spines six.

B.aurita,Breh.{F\.l9.i}g.9). Markings
indistinct
;

costte

none

spines

two or

three, central

BiBL.

See BrCELLAEIID^.

(CeUuIaria, Johnst. in part). family of Iiifundibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder Cheilostomata. Distinguished by the erect plant-like polypidom being dichotomously divided into narrow hgulate branches in two or more rows; the absence of whips (vibracula); and the avicularia when present being stalked

BICELLARIID^ A

B. Ehr.

rhombus,
?)

Smith

angles horn-like length 1 -800". {Zyqoceras rh.

;

16, Smith).

(PI. 19. fi^. 13, Ehr.'; PI. 50. fig. Markings indistinct ; costte
;

none

spines near the hoop

angles hornindistinct;

like; lejigth 1-60 to 1-260".

B. Baikyi, Sm.
costpe

Markings

and jointed.
BiceUarin.

Genera (British)
Cells
;

top-shaped,

distinct,

armed with
;

oritice looking upward. spines Cells elliptical, closely conBugula. tiguous orifice very large margin simple, not thickened (avicularia frequently red or blue). BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. Busk, Cat. (Brit. Mus.) Hincks, Poh/z. 67.
; ; ;

none; angles horn-hke; sides of frustules with two slight elevations, each with one or two long spines length 1-250". B. turgida (^Cerataulus turyidus, Ehr.). Markings faint costae none angles cylinfrustules with a row of drical, truncate short and two large submedian spines on each side length 1-240". B. Beyina. Sides of frustules each with three rounded median elevations spines none angles rounded, with distinct mark;
;
;

BICHRO'MATE OF POTASH.
Clark. A

See
of

Potash.

BICOSCE'CA,

genus

ings length 1-220". Several other species, but not British. BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacill and Sp. Alq. Ehrcnb. Ber. de Berl. Ak. 1843 & 1844;
;

Flagellate Infusoria. Char, Solitary, two flagella, 1 long and 1 short; contained in a stalked horny
lorica.

Ralfs, Ann. N. H. 1843, xii. 273 Smith, Br. Diat. ii. 47 Greville, Mia: Tr. 1864, 1865, pp. 6, 19, 49 18n6, pp. 6, pp. 9, 85 81 Rabenhorst, Fi Alg. i, p. 310; Pritchard,
;

B.

lacustris (PI. 63. fig. 10).

Pond-water,

common.
B. yracilipes. Stalk long; marine. BiBL. Kent, Inf. p. 274. BIDBULPH'IA, Gray.A genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules compressed, quadrilateral, connected with each other by the angles; filaments attached by a stipes angles of the frustules equal and produced valves covered
;

BlFORrNES. Under this name Turpin, described certain cells occurring in the septa of the air-chani])ers of the leaves of the Araceoe, characterized especially by the presence of a large bundle of raphides. They contain a thick fiuid and when they are placed iu water, cndosmose causes them to biu'st and See Raphides. discharge the crystals. BiBL. Tm-pin, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 &\\ vi.
;

Infus. p. 847.

with depressions

(visible

by

direct light),
;

p. 5, pi. 1-5.

centre giving them a cellular appearance of valves with spines marine. This genus resembles Isthmia and Amphitetras in the general appearance of the frus;

BIGENERl'N.N., D'Orb.One of the numerous modifications of the Textularian type instead of continuing to form bilateral
:

tules and valves.

But

it difi'ers

from the

in the angles being alike, and from the latter in the compressed side view of

former

the frustules. Frustules often with rounded transverse elevations, between wliich are Those in wliich costte or shallow vittse.

alternate (Enallostegian) chambers, it advances in growth with a straight single (Stichostegian) series; and the aperture becomes central, terminal, and rounded, instead of being a transverse arch low down on the septal face. If the aperture be excentnc. we have the Gemmulina of l)'Or-

BIGNONIACE^.
Common

07

BINOCULAR.
;

B. agglutinans (PI. 23. fig. 50) is an bigny. elongate and coarso-slielled variety of B.
nodosan'a.
in

many

seas,

and in
;

the

fossil state.

BiiiL. D'Orbiguy, For. Foss. Vien. 237 Carpenter. Litrod. For. lUl. BIGNOXIACE.E ( Dicotyledons) .The wings of the seeds of this family allbrd very beautiful objects. They are either thin membranes composed of a layer of lignified cells or, as in the Catalpas, the -sving consists of a fringe of hairs. BILE. Three colouring - matters have been obtained from the bile, viz. cholepyr;

yellowish-red but after remaining a day or two in the liquid of the cysts, they became almost perfectly yellow. When mounted in balsam, the rhombs remained unaltered, whilst the long filamentous groups of needles lost all colour, leaving a barely disBoth tinguishable transparent skeleton. kinds were insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in potash with a yellow colour. In morbid bile, crystals of cholesterine, globules of fat, and small bundles of needles of margarine are also occasionally found.

See ILematoidine. BiBL. Gineliiis Handb.

viii.
;

d.

Chem.

vii.

&

These rhine, biliverdine, and bilifulvine. Avero formerly regarded as distinct but later researches have tended to show that they are modifications of the same pigment.
;

Virchow, An.
;

d.

Phartn. 1851 (Chem.

et

Gaz. X.); Karsten, I)e hep. et bile Crustac. Mollusc. Frey, Histol. &c. 187G, p. 551 ; Stiideler, Fogq. Anmd. cxxxii. p. 323.

Cholepi/rrhine ovhilirtihine, the colouringmatter in its ordinary state, is characterized by the series of tints through which it passes when treated with nitric acid, contain nitrous acid; especially if this

of the Milioline Foraminifera, in which each successive segment embraces more or less completely the preceding segments, on alternate sides, so that only two chambers of the shell are visible externally. It varies much in form and size the Varieties are
;

BILHARZIA. See Distoma. BILIFULVINE. See Bile. BILOCULI'NA, D'Orb. One

becoming

first

brownish, then green, bluish,

and finally yellow. It is sometimes found in bile and the liver-cells in the form of yellow semicrystalline gi-ains also
violet, red,
;

it

enters

into the
is

composition of biliary

calculi.

Biliverdine

gall-stones; it is oxidation. It is

found in the bile, but not in formed from bilu'ubine by most abundant in the bile

very common, recent and fossil, and have numerous names the largest has been found at 650 fathoms in the North Atlantic {CarB. ringens (PI. 23. fig. 3) is taken penter).
:

as the type.

of the Herbivora.

Biliprasine is brown, becoming green with it occm's in decomposing bile. acids

;

BiBL. B'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien. 261 Williamson, Brit. For. 78; Carpenter,
Intr. For. 75, 78.

BiUfulvine is also sometimes found in bile which has been retained in the gall-bladder. The bile then appears thick and dark brown, and exhibits small dark grains the crystals are found in these grains. They form
;

BIMETJA,

T. S.

Wright.A genus

of

longish, very fine needles, of a reddish-yellow colour, either single or severalcombined.

Hydroid Zoophytes, family Atractylidse. The body and lower part of the tentacles enveloped by an opaque brown membrane. B. vestita. Attached to zoophytes and
sea-weeds.

AVhen aggregated, they sometimes resemble

the crystals of lu'ate of soda, and are often curved and twisted. Caustic potash disAcetic acid solves them tolerably readily. produces no change in them. Nitric acid has but little efiect upon them, unless the
action
is

BiBL. Ilincks, Ili/droid Zoophutes,

BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE. This

p.

103.

very intense,

when they are decom-

Yirchow notices the occurrence of posed. these crystals upon the walls of the cysts of Echinococci in the liver, where we have also found them, and in the liquid contents
In this instance, tAvo kinds of the cysts. of crystals were met with (PL 13. fig. 15) some" of these were rhombs (b), others were twsted and elegantly curved bundles of nee:

has been alluded to at p. xiv of the Introhave no space for the figures requisite to illustrate descriptions of the three principal forms of binocular microhence we must be satisfied with scope referring to the works in which they will be foimd. In the examination of new structiu-es, no reliance should be placed upon the appearances presented by objects under binocular vision, unless controlled by the means pointed out in the second part of the
duction.

We

dles ()

^Vheu

first

examuied, they were

and Stephenson.

Introduction. The three principal forms of binocular construction are those of Wenham, Holmes,

BIOMYXA.
(Beale, JIo70

98

BLATTA.
;

ToUes has invented a binocular eye-piece and Abbe c^-c, p. 15, fig.) another: Jn.Mic. Soc. 1881, i. p. 298 (fig.)BiBL. Wenhani, Ilicr. Tr. 1860, p. 154,
;

82-84
1.

Enq. Bot.

t.

1328; Brit Fl.

p. 347.

ii.

part

BLASTOT'RICHUM, Corda.A

130; Sachs,

i^oi-.

sup-

1861, 1861,
p.

p.
p.

109

274; Frev, B. 3Iikr. 1881 p. 61 The 31icrosc. 1881. BI'OLITE. See Rocks.
;

15, 1866, p. 103; Holmes, M. 31. Jn. 1869, iii. Stephenson, 31. 31. Jn. 1870, iv,
;

Qu. 3Iw. Jn.

Carpenter,

posed genus of Dematiei (Hj^phomycetous Fungi), of curious habit, growing in and out of water upon aquatic plants. B. confervoides, Corda (fig. 61), forms felted tufts of an agreeable rosecolour upon li\ing and dead parts of aquatic EuphorhicE,

Fig

BIOMYXA,
poda. B.
vrrf/rms.

Leid. A genus
Resembles

of Rhizo-

in

autumn.

pseudothe body. podia of a Gromin, separated from

the

The
very

filaments are

much liranchand
the

Fr. Avater.

ed, the brauchlets

BiBL.

Leidv, Proc.
xiV. p. 88).

Phil.

Acad. 1875,

dichotomous
subulate
;

{31. 31. Jn.

genus of Fig. Torulacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), 60.

characterized

BISTORA, Corda. A
by
its

uniseptate

and solitary spores forming simple bead-lilce chains at the apices of \A desshort, slender, erect filaments, ^( titute of septa, arising from a creep-

spores rose-coloured, containing a gelatinous nucleus within. The spores are irregidarly di- Blastotrichum confc-rvoides. of fertile filament. vided; and some Fragment

was separated ing mycelium. from torula by Corda on account

It

remain imperfect ; Magnified but both these and the

200 diameters.

double character of the spores. According to Fresenius, the chains of spores are pedicellate as above described, and the growth of the
of the

The reproduce the plant when sown. form occurring above the surface of the water IS of closer habit than the submerged, in which the filaments are longer and more
lax.

perfectly septate

chains appears to take place by division of the terminal cell or spore. . mo7iilioides, Corda, of which 60 represents the chains of fig. is Bri- Bispora spores without the pedicels,
tish (Torj/^rt auct.).

D. (Trichothecium)
BiBL.
pi. 9. fig.

Berkeley is of opinion that this plant is only a state of some DactyUum, perhaps
roseiwi.

CoiHla,

50

On

sticks.
^

li^Xs.

BLAT'TA.

BiBL. Corda, Ic Fitny. vol. i.Magmflpd 143 Fresenius, Bcitr. z. 200 diam. pi. 2. fig. 3T}icolMiie, Heft 2. p. 27, pi. 6. figs. 46-54
; ;

Insects, of the family Blattidte. BJatta orienta'lis is the common house blackbeetle or cockroach. The head and

Icones Fung. ii. p, 10, Berkeley, Cnjpt Bot. p. 302. genus of Orthopterous

GiVville,

t.

255.

BITARTRATE OF POTASH.
BLASIA, Micheli. A

See

Potash.

The (Hepaticte). occurs on moist heaths, not uncommonly in the mountainous parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In addition to the
silla, L.,

genus of Pellieae British species, B. jm-

the various organs of the mouth are figured in PI. 33. fig. 1, the upper and front view 2 the under view fig. fig. 22 the parts of the mouth separate.
; ;

Head

large
(fig.

antheridia and pistillidia, and the sporanges developed from the latter, this plant produces

formed i/emmce of two kinds. One in receptacles hollowed out of the nerve, furnished with a long tubular beak, whence the gemma) escape when mature. The second kind is dcscribcnl as black spherical
kind
is

pubescent, and with very numerous joints; they are inserted close to the inner maro-ins of the eyes basal joint stout and subo\^ite, second and third squarish, than
;

oval, and concealed beneath the plate of the prothorax. Antenncc 1 a, brok-en off j very long, setaceous,

larger

masses of granular or pulpy substance, and occur within the epidermis on the under side of the frond, often covered by the scales. liiBL. Hooker, Brit. JunyermannicP, t.

which are ring-shaped base of the antenniB, become square (in the side view) at the middle, and oblong at the apex. Laljrum (fig. 1 e, fig. 22 lower part of a) exsertod, entire, roundish, truncated at the base. Mandibles (fig. 22 b) short, stoiit, toothed at the tip and on the inner margin; basal portion of the inner
towards
tlie

of tlie following,

any

BLEOHNE.E.

99

BLIGHT.

margin membranous, forming a little lobe. inner Ma.iiUce (figs. 1 & 2(j, 22 c) bilobed lobe (laciuia, fig. 22 cf) dilated and ciliated on the inner margin, acute, curved inwards outer at the apex so as to form a tooth lobe (galea, fig. 22 c *) longer, thick, rounded and naked maxillaiy palpi (figs. 1 & 2 h) elongated, rough with short hairs, 4-jointed,
;

tween the midribs and the margins of tbo Indusium membranous. pinnre.
Spicant, With., is the Hard Fern, also called sometimes Bl. boreale, but

BL

BLECH'NUM, Linn. A genus of Ferns.

properly

LoM.VRiA Spicant.

The species are tolerably numerous, closely

resembling each other, and dififused -widely throughout Tropical and South Temperate
regions.

the

last joint

somewhat hatchet-shaped.
bifid,

palpi 2 k) pubescent, 3- jointed, last joint (fig. truncated obliquely. Mentum (fig. 2 1) short, convex at the base. Eyes (tig. 1 c) kidney;

Labium (fig. 2-2 e) elongated, two more slender inner lobes

with

labial

BiBL. Hooker

&

BLEPHAmS'MA,
TOMA,
pt.

Baker, Syii. Fil. 183, Perty, = Plagio-

shaped.

Thorax semicircular, the base convex; elytra coriaceous, one overlapping the other, and with numerous nen-es. Wings large,
folded longitudinally, withnumerousnerves. Females apterous. Abdomen flat, oval, and terminated by two short, conical, compressed, jointed appendages in both sexes besides which, in the male, there are two slender, external, not-jointed appendages or
;

is used in common language in an exceedingly loose and undefined way, being applied to almost every cause of disease in plants, as well as to the diseases themselves, which are variously explained by agencies of meteorological con-

BLIGHT. This word

ditions, parasitic plants and insects, operating singly or in combination. Blight is,
in many cases, since a frequent source of disease in vegetation is sudden change of temperatiu-e or hygi-oscopic condition of the atmosphere, deranging the processes of evaporation and respiration in the tender, actively developing portions of the foliage or inflorescence of It is also often in the air in anplants. other sense, but much less specially than is commonly supposed the plagues of para*

indeed,

in the air

'

styles, also

an elongated intermediate one.

;

Legs long and compressed coxfe elongated femora stout with a series of and stout spines beneath; tibiae clothed with very tarsi 5-jointed, strong movable spines
; ;

'

'

three basal joints gradually diminishing in length claws curved and acute. An Amceba and some Bursarina are parasitic in the intestines of Blatta.
;

See Insects. BiBL. Westwood, Introd. Sfc; Kirby, Brit. Entom. i. 12.

BLECH'NE^.A
_

family of Polypo-

diaceous Ferns. Char. Sori linear or oblong, dorsal, parallel with the midrib and edge of the segments, not close to the latter. Involucre of the same shape as the sonis, superior, opening towards the midrib. Gen. Blechnmn. Sori linear, continuous or
:

fungi and insects which sometimes cause such devastation, seem undoubtedly to arise immediately from the transport of the microscopic reproductive bodies, spores and the like, through the air but the peculiar atmospheric condition often obsened as accompanying the sudden irruption of
sitic
;

nearly so, parallel with and contiguous to the midrib. Sadleria. Sori in a continuous line close to the midrib on both sides, placed on an elevated receptacle. Indusium narrow, subcoriaceous, at first wrapped over the sorus,

then spreading. IVooduardia.

Sori sunk in cavities in the frond, in single rows parallel with and contiguous to the midribs of the pinnse and pinnules. Indusium subcoriaceous, closing over the cavity like a lid. Doodia. Sori oblong or slightly curved, in one or more rows parallel with and be-

the warm overcast weather, almost proverbially designated as the cause or the herald of blights, is merely an index of a condition of the atmosphere especially favourable to the rapid multiplication of the Fungi and lusecta which are seen to increase so rapidly at such times and the germs of these must be abeady present, through other causes, for the production of the phenomena rmder such circumstances. Only a few of the animal blights need be referred to here, such ds the plant-Uce, the
these bodies
;
;

large masses of such blights,' are only collaterally connected with the development of
*

most familiar form

'

in cultivated plants (see Aphid^) ; pepper-corn or ' ear-cockle of wheat, Atu/uUhda tritici (see the wheat-midge (CeciANGtirLLiTLA)

of

'

'

blight
'

the

'

D05IYIA); the vine-pest (Phyxloxeea); the turnip-fly (Haltica); the Phytoptid^;

h2

BLIGHT.

100

BLOOD.
;

and the species of Cj/nips and allied genera, whicli produce galls and similar excrescences
the irritation of the vegetable tissue, resulting from their presence. Many caterpillars of moths and butterflies are exceedingly destructive, and form a kind of blight but these scarcely come within oiu*

by

Mic. Jn., July ] 854) Sidney, Blights of the art. Blight, in Jllient, Bel." Tract Soc; Brande^s Diet., the Penny Cgelop.; Lihr. of
Entertaining Knowledge Boisduval, Entom. Horticole Ilallier, Bhytopathologie. BLINDIA, Br. and Sch. genus of Dicranaceous Mosses, including some Weissics
; ;

province. The vegetable blights, the parasitic

Fungi

and Ggmnosioma of authors. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

growing upon living specimens of the higher plants, and displaying themselves either as the cause or the accompaniment of some disease and disorganization, have of late years become objects of most earnest attention, on account both of the enormous damage which the diseases have caused to crops of plants of high importance to man, and also of the many curious facts in their history -nhich have been brought to light. The Potato blight and the Vine disease of recent years have incited renewed efforts to
elucidate the liistory of these productions, as yet, howeAer, imperfectly made out. The okl notion, that these products were the result of skin-diseases or exanthemata of plants, is now discarded, especially as many

with the general appearance of which in the hio-her animals every one is so familiar, is no less difficult in its microscopic study, than it is complex in its chemical composition. In
fluid,

BLOOD.This

p. 57.

animal

man and mammalia, birds, reptiles and fishes,

it is

a viscid liquid of a red colour. In those of the lower classes in w^hich it exists, it is

mostly colourless, sometimes, however, red,

bluish, purplish, greenish or milky.

When

the blood

examined under the liiicroscope is found to consist of a liquid por-

tion, containing in suspension a large

num-

of them have been their spores.

grown

artificially

from

ber of minute corpuscles, which are known commonly as the globides or corpuscles of the blood. In the Mammalia, Birds, Eeptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes generally, the liquid portion, or liquor sanguinis, is nearly colourless,
;

general history of the conditions of their occurrence, and a summary of the investigations into their history, are given vmder the head of Parasitic Fungi. The particular history of the more remarkable genera will be found under the heads indicated by the capitals in the following
paragi'aphs.

The

or of a pale yellow tinge and the corpuscles are of two kinds, one of a red colour when

viewed in mass, butpale reddish yellow when seen singly or separately, and to these the red colour of the blood is owing the others
;

Corn-bUghts consist chiefly of mildew (Puccinia), 7-ust ovred-rohin (Uredo, TriCHOBASis), simtt, hunt, or hrand (Tilletia, UsTiLAGO, PoLYCYSTis), ergot (CORDICEPs), &c. Cystopus ( C/'rcf/o) attacks Cru3Iildeivs of pease, peaches, other cultivated plants are produced by species of Erysiphe. OiDitJM is a common mildew, and is known in many cases to be only an earlier condition of Botrytis is another common Erysiphe. yEciDiUM forms a kind of rust, iniidew. as is the case with the allied Pcestelia,

consist of perfectly colourless bodies. The red corpuscles are far more numerous than the colourless ones, about 500 to 1, and consist of delicate membranous colourless

ciferous plants.

hops, and

many

red hquid In the Mammalia they assume the form of circular flattened disks or discoidal cells, the sides of which are impressed or hollowed out, so as to make them resemble doubly concave lenses, with rounded margins fPl. 49. figs. 22 & 23) the Camel tribe, 21, however, they are elliptical and doublv convex. In Birds (figs. 24 & 25), Fishes (figs. 26 & 27),
cells enclosing a
.

Amphibia and
they are

Reptiles

(figs.

2S,

29

it

30),

elliptical
:

and

infecting pear-trees.

PoLYCYSTIS, ces, Epitea, Phragjiidium, FusrspoRiuM, ToRui>A, Peridermium, Sclerotium, SpiLoc^^^A,

See also Uromyces, OOLEOSPORIU.M, PrOTOMY-

Sph^ria.

Brandpilze, BerHu, 1853, Berkeley, Tr. Hort. Soc, s A. Braun, Gardener Chron., passim Krcmhlieiten dcr rflunzen, Berlin, 1854 (Q.

BiBL.

De Bary,
102
;

the sides varying they are convex, excepting the Cyclostomes or lamprey Order among the latter, in which they are circular, flattened and slightly concave, oidy diiiering from those of man in being somewhat larger; and in the Leptocardea Amphioxus lanc^olatus, tho lancelet,

flattened, the form of thus, in Birds and Fishes

chap.

3. p.

there are no blood-corpuscles. In ihe Aiuphibia and Reptiles, in which they are elliptical; very and
Ip'ge,

comparatively

BLOOD.
tliiu, tlie

101

BLOOD.

surfaces of the corpuscles arc rather

laterally.

concave than convex, the nucleus pi'ojectiug

corpuscles of tlie Mammalia are not furnished with a nucleus, whilst in Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles a distinct nucleus exists this is usually oval, but sometimes rounded in the latter. The ctiloKrh'gs corpuscles of the Vertebrata or (figs. 21-30 b), or the lymph-corpuscles, the blood-leucocytes as they are sometimes called, are spherical, of a granular appear;

somewhat The red

moiin), 1-34G8; Monkey, mean of eight other species, 1-3450 Lemur, mean of four species, 1-4077.
;

ance, highly refractive, and specifically They lighter than the coloured corpuscles. consist of a cell-wall containing numerous or smaller granules and molecules, larger with one or more nuclei. Acetic acid dissolves the granules, and brings the nuclei to

Cheiroptera. {Vespertilio murmtcs), 1-4175 Bat ( Vespertilio 2nj)istrellm), 1-4324. Insectivora. Hedgehog {Erinaceus europcevs), 1-4085; Mole ( Talpa europmt ), 1-4747. Carnivora. Badger {Meles vidf/aris), 1-3940; Bear, mean of five species, 1-3708; Dog {Canis familiaris), 1-3542 Fox {Canis Vulpes), 1-4117; Lion (Felis Leo), 1-4322; Seal (Phoca vituliua), 1-3281. Cctacea. Dolphin {Delphinm Phocfpna), 1-3829; Whale {Balmia Mysticetus), 1-4000 ; Whale {Balana Boops), 1-3099 ; Manatee
;

Bat

(3IanatMs), 1-2400.

view. Tlie cell-wall is often undistiuguishable, unless water be added to the corpuscles, which being imbibed, separates it from the contents. When blood is kept at a moderate heat, these corpuscles exhibit various Aina-ba-like processes, crawl over the slide, and even take up particles of foreign substances, as vermilion, carmine, &c. The blood of the Invertebrata has not been so thoroughly examined. In many of them there are two circulating liquids one

Pdchydermata. Elephant {Eleplim iiidiHorse {Eqinis cabedlus), 1-4706 ; Pig {Sus Scrofa), 1-4230 ; Rhinoceros indicns), 1-27 'ib
;

cus, 1-3705.

Buminantia. Camel ( Camclus bactriamis),

length 1-3123; breadth 1-5876; Dromedary {Cameltts dromedarius), 1. 1-3254, b. 1-5921 (yo&t {Capr a Mr cus), 1-636G; Musk {Moschus javanicus), 1-12325; Stag {CervuselaOx (Bos Taurus), 1-4267; pkus), 1-4324; Sheep (Oris Aries), 1-5300. Edentata. Armadilhj (Dasypus sex-cincSloth (Unau, Bradmms didactus), 1-3457 tylus), 1-2865. Rodentia. Guineapig {Cavia
; ;

coloured, and sometimes containing heematine, but no corpuscles the other colourless, and containing rounded or irregular granular colourless nucleated corpuscles (figs. 31-?>5), much resembling the colourless corpuscles of the Vertebrata, but remarkably prone to shoot out processes like the Amoebse. The sizes of the coloured corpuscles of many vertebrate animals are given in the
;

1-3538; Mouse (Mus imisculus), 1-3814; Rabbit (Lepus cunicidus), 1-3607 Rat {Mus
;

cohai/a),

Rattns), 1-3754. 31arsupialia. Kangaroo (Macro2}us), of three species, 1-3460.

mean

subjoined list, nearly all the measurements It may be rebeing those of Gulliver. marked that, whilst the largest coloured corpuscles occur in the Reptiles, the smallest are found in the Mammalia, and that the size of the corpuscles is in general proportional to the size of the animal, in animals of the same order, but not in those of different orders. Thus, in the laro^er Kummants and Rodents the corpuscles are larger than in the smaller ones, whilst the smallest British mammal, the Harvestmouse, has corpuscles as large as those of the Horse and in the common mouse they are larger than in the Horse or Ox.
;

Motwtremata. Platypus, duck-billed (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus), 1-3000. Birds. Chaffinch {Fringd'a c?fe6s), length 1-2253, breadth 1-4133 Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus),\.l-2Q)2S, b. 1-3600: ^i\^\e{Aquila), mean of four species, 1. 1-1640, b. 1-3651 Fow1(6'//ms domesticus), 1.1-2102, b.1-3466; Gull(Mew-,Z;-MscanMs), 1. l-1973,b.l-3839; Humming-bird (Trochilus), 1. 1-2666; b. 1-4000; Ostrich { Strut hio camelus), 1.
;

1-1649, b. 1-3000 Owl {Strixjlammea), 1. 1-1882, b. 1-3740 Parrot (Psittacus), mean of twelve species, 1. 1-2042, b. 1-3724 Pi;

geon (Columba), mean of sixteen species, 1. 1-2135, b. 1-3679 Sparrow (Fringilla do;

mestica),

1.

1-2140,

b.

1-3500.

Mammalia.
Bimana.
glodytes),

Amphihia and Reptiles. Crocodile (Crocodilus acutus), 1. 1-1231, b. 1-2286; Frog

(Ba7ia temporaria),
1.

Man, 1-3200 to 1-3500". Qufidrumana. Chimpanzee (Simia Tro1-3412;

1-1108,
;

b.

1-1821;

Monkey

{Cercopitkecus

Lizard {Lacerta viripara), 1. 1-1660; Siren Toad (Bufo lacertina, 1. 1-435, b. 1-800 vulgaris), 1. 1-1043, b. 1-2000; Triton {Lis^

BLOOD.
sotriton punctatus) ,
1.

102

BLOOD.

1-830; Amphiuma,\.

rendering them smaller, more flattened, and

1-340.
Fishes, Cai-p {Oyprinus carp{<)),\.\-2\i:2,
b.

b.

1-3429; Eel {AnquiUa vulgaris), \. 1-1745, 1-2842; Jack {Esox lucius), 1. 1-2000,
1-350.5; Miller's

b.
1.

Thumb {Cottm
;

producing wrinkles, folds, or a granular appearance in the enveloping membrane. Frequently also they appear covered with little points, giving them an elegant stellate
is

</ohio),

1-2000, b. 1-2900; Perch {PercafliwiaTench {Ct/prinas tilis), 1. 1-2099, b. 1-2824 Tinea), 1. 1-2286, b. 1-2722. The colourless corpuscles do not vary so much in size in diftereut animals as is the case with the coloured corpuscles. Those of the human blood are about 1-2500" in diameter. third corpuscular element of the blood, related to its formation, is described by Norris. The red corpuscles of blood consist chemically of Htemoglobiue ( Haematoglobuand this is composed of a colouringline) matter hsematine, and an albuminous subtance globuline. They are readily altered in form by most liquids; those of less specific gravity than the liquor sangmnis dis-

aspect; tins stellate or crenate appearance not uufrequently seen immediatelv that fresh blood is examined under the microscope, especially at the margins of the drop. Two principal conditions are especially favourable to its production, viz. a concentrated state of the liqidd, and an increase in the proportion of alkaline chlorides ; the action of alcohol also tends to produce this condition.

The comparative
in the races of

size of the corpuscles

tend them, rendering them larger, paler, and more transparent, and effacing the lenticular appearance and the elHptical form when If a small quantity of water be present. added, the corpuscles in motion are seen to be highly elastic, becoming altered in shape when coming into contact with each other, but resuming their form when free. If the liquid be added in large proportion, the envelope or cell -membrane becomes extremely thin and pale, until at last it is no longer
distinguishable ; sometimes it bursts. These phenomena are the residt of endosmosis. The red corpuscles, however, are not all equally acted upon some are much more affected than others some even appear almost entirely to resist the action of endosmotic agents, and are found but little altered, even when the blood is mixed with a large proportion of water. Although water and other endosmotic agents distend the coloured corpuscles, and render their envelopes so extremely transparent that
: ;

is treated of by KichJn. 1877, xvii. 212). The corpuscles of the blood of the hepatic vein are smaller, more spherical, Avithout the central depression, and resist the action of water for a longer time than the ordinary corpuscles similar corpuscles are also met with in the spleen. These are by some regarded as young newly formed corpuscles while those of the portal vein possess the ordinary characters. Matters which coagulate the albuminous matter of the red corpuscles, such as alcohol, tannic acid, and creosote, also heat, alter their form, giving rise to the production

man

ardson (3/.

M.

of tail-Uke processes, with adherent minute globides, wJiich also cover the surface of the corpuscles.' And by pressui'e the latter are broken up into a number of similar

globules.
It is a disputed point whether the red The corpuscles have a cell-wall or not. action of osmotic reagents tends to show that they have ; and " the membrane can be distinctly seen with 1000 diameters in the newt's corpuscle after the addition of " (Rutherford). magenta and tannic acid Beale shows that they may be crushed into

they can no longer be recognized, yet many of them may be restored to view by the addition of reagents which either act cxosmotically,

fragments by pressure on the cover but as the haemoglobiue surely coagulates, this and moreover, the hsemois accounted for globine is readily soluble in water and in serum and it seems difficult to understand
;
; ;

opaque as solution of iodine, of bichloride of mercmy, and various other salts. Dilute acids act nearly in the same manner as Dilute water, but much moi-e rapidly. solutions of alkalies produce the same effect, but soon dissolve them completely. Solutions of neutral salts act exosmotically,

colour

them,

or

rendcjr

them

resists the solvent action of the serum unless defended by a cell-wall. The red corpuscles of the blood contain or consist of Ilajmoglobine (ILematogloThis may be obtained in a crysbuline). talline state by adding 6ther by drops to defibriuated blood, and shaking until the bright and opaque colour of the blood is replaced by that of syrupy transparence.

how it

BLOOD.

103

BLOOD.

After setting aside for some hours, it separates in fine red crystals. Or, on a smaller scale, place a drop of blood on a slide, and

add twice as much water, mix the two, and

set aside for evaporation. The crystals will then form, often most distinctly at the

after removal from the body, the corpuscles are seen to be diffused irregularly over the field but after the lapse of about a minute, the red corpuscles unite by their
;

margins.

Under very high powers, a number of very

delicate, colourless, radiating

broad surfaces, gradually arranging themselves into rows resembling strings of figs these interlace, forming an irregular red network, within the meshes of which the colour;

or reticular

less

corpuscles are seen

latter

(PL 49.

fig.

37).

be seen traversing the corsometimes also the nucleus propuscles, bably arising from the coagulation of the
filaments

may

remain isolated, having no tendency to unite with the former. To observe these phenomena, the thin glass covering
the drop of blood must not be pressed down otherwise the free motion of the corpuscles will be impeded. After a time, the fibres break up, and the corpuscles float separately in the serum. The coagulated fibrine is also seen distributed over the field, partly in a granular form, but mostly in that of a network of very delicate fibres. Sometimes the running together of the red corpuscles begins to take place immediatelj" the blood has left the body, and the rows are seen to be formed very much more rapidly than in the healthy fluid and when this is the case, the upper surface of the clot will be found to be free from the red colour, and more or less cupped or concave this upper layer is called the huffy coat, and is in general a sign of inflammation. Considerable doubt still exists in regai-d to the nature of this buffy coat. It is also met with in blood which has been covered with a layer of oil before coagulation. But in the natural state it arises from the subsidence of the corpuscles before the commencement of the solidification of the fibrme, whereby the particles of the latter are brought into closer contact, thus allowing of its greater contraction. Certain salts prevent the separation of the fibrine in the form of fibres, and cause it to assume the form of minute granules or globules. In addition to the corpuscles above described which are constantly found in the blood, it sometimes contains globules of oil,
;
; :

The

contents.

Carbonic acid causes a cloudiness with

enlargement in the red corpuscles, removed

by oxygen
them.

or

air,

which

also

contracts

Electricity produces smaller or larger processes, the corpuscles finally becommg globular and colourless. The colourless corpuscles are much less
affected
slightly, distinct.

by reagents.

Water

distends

them

rendering their granidations less Acetic acid does the same to a gi-eater extent, bringing to light the nuclei. When blood is Alkalies dissolve them. mixed with a large quantity of water, the mixture shaken and set aside, a pale bufl'
precipitate subsides this consists of some of the albumen thrown down from the serum, with shreds and walls of ruptured coloured corpuscles, a few of the latter un;

altered,

and some unaltered or but shghtly

of

changed colourless corpuscles. Almost immediately after the blood

the Vertebrata has
left

the blood-vessels, it begins to coagulate. Within about three minutes, the surface of the coagulating blood becomes gelatinous in about ten minutes it is gelatinous throughout; and after a further lapse of time, the coagulation of the
;

fibrine apparently
this

attains

its

maximum

process, however, is not really completed until from twelve to thirty-six hours. then find a firm red clot immersed in a

We

The fibrine during its yellowish liquid. coagulation entangles a large number of the coi-puscles, which impart to it the red colour this is greatest towards the lower part of the clot. The liquid from which the clot has separated, the serum, also contains some of the globules in suspension most of those not entangled in the clot, however, subside to the bottom of the vessel. The sp. gr. of the serum is about 1030. The appearances presented under the microscope by a drop of coagulating blood are
;

and, after meals especially, two distinct kinds of a white, extremely fine, molecular substance one consisting of fat, the molecular base of the chyle, the other a very finely divided albuminous substance. They render the blood milky in appearance. The distinction of the muscular base of the chyle from the molecidar albuminous deposit must be effected by ether, which dissolves the but great care latter but not the former is requisite in judging of the action of

very interesting.

If

examined immediately

ether.

BLOOD.
for the enumeration of the

104

BLOOD.
first

Some methods hare receutly been devised

blood-corpusMalassez uses a glass tube, having a cles. capillary bore "with a dilatation near the upper end, in -which is placed a glass To this end is attached an indiaglobule. rubber tube the other end is pointed. The
;

blood-corpuscles are formed from with granular contents, identical with the formative cells of the embryo, by their losing the granules and becoming filled with haematine. These
colourless nucleated cells

The

tube

accurately graduated. made of gum acacia and water, or a saline solution of know^n strength. The point of the tube is then inserted in the blood to be examined, and a certain quanmeasure of the serum tity is sucked up. is then drawn m, and the apparatus well The corpuscles are thus spread shaken. through the serum so as to be diffused and For this purpose the readily counted. mixture is introduced into a capillary tube fixed to a slide, and the number of corpuscles read oft" by the aid of a micrometer The proportions of the dilution eye-piece. must necessarily be carefully taken into acThe colourless corpuscles can be count. enumerated in the same manner. Further details will be found in Robin, Mio:, 477

is

An

artificial

serum

is

coloured, nucleated, primary blood-cells, which are spherical, larger and more deeply coloured than the coloured blood-corpuscles of the adult, form, with the colourless formative cells, the only elements of the blood. Soon, however, many of them begin to increase by division (PI. 49. fig. 3G), becoming
flattened, and closely resemcoloured corpuscles of Reptiles, producingtwo, rarely three or four roundish nuclei, and then becoming resolved into two, three, or four new cells by the formation of one or more annular constrictions. These corpuscles then gradually lose their nuclei,
elliptical

and

bling

tlie

become flattened and excavated laterally, and form perfect coloured corpuscles.

The formation
produced

after birth

of the second set, or those and in adults, is more

or Rutherford, Hist., 62 (figs.). colour of the blood of the Vertebrata varies according to whether it is removed from the arteries or the vems, in the former case being of a much lighter and brighter red than in the latter. It is beyond our province to enter into the details of the suftice it to say, causes of their difference that it arises principally from an alteration in the globules, by which they are enabled to reflect light more copiously. In the Invertebrata the coagulation of the blood is imperfect, and the clot much less firm and copious than in the Verte(tigs.)
;

The

obscure. The most probable view appears to be that they are produced from the lymph and chyle-corpuscles, or certain corpuscles in the spleen and liver, by their losing their nuclei, becoming flattened, and producing hfematine. At aU events, corpuscles apparently identical with the so-called proper corpuscles of the chyle, siu'rouuded with a membrane which is more or less distended

with a red liquid, are met with in the chyle and lymph, and occasionally, but rarely, in
blood itself. Physiologists are not agreed as to the above views but the preponderance of evidence appears decidedly in their favour. Recklinghausen has directly observed the conversion of the colom'less corpuscles of the frog into the coloured
the
;

brata.

uses of the blood scarcely require It is at the same time the nutritrive fluid from which all the tissues of the body are formed and renovated, and that in which the components of the secretions are

The

corpuscles.

mention.

As unusual constituents
mentioned
. :

of blood,

may

be

produced and from which they are separated.

The red

particles are subservient to the pur;

poses of respiration they are most numerous in those animals in which the respiratory function is most active, and which consume the largest proportion of oxygen, as birds

and mammalia.

Development of the Coloured Corpuficks. In the Vertebrata, two sets of coloured corpuscles are developed. The first, or embryonic blood-corpuscles, exist alone, until lymph and chyle begin to be formed, wlieu they are gradually superseded by the second.

1 Cells or masses of protoplasm enclosing coloured blood-corpuscles; found in the blood of the spleen, liver, &;c. 2. Granule-cells, either colourless or containing granules of pigment. 3. Peculiar concentric bodies, three or four times as large as the coloured corpuscles of the blood, resembling those found in the thymus gland.' 4. An vm usually large number of colour-

less corpuscles in Leucocytha^mia. 5. Pus-corpuscles.

0.

Caudate

cells,

sometimes containing

pigment.
7.

Crystals of haimatoidine, sometimes

BLOOD.

lor,

BLOOD.

witliin tlio coloured corpuscles, at others free also crystals of licemoglobine (lipeluatoglobuliiie).
;

8. The two molecular substances previously mentioned. Filaria hominis; other 9. Ilreniatozoa. Bilharzia. species in the deer, dog, rat, &c.
;

10.
11

ITfematophyta.

Bacteria,

Bacilli

Sjnrochcrfc (relapsing fever).

Altered colouring matter of the blood, forming minute rounded or angular black particles, contained in the colourless corpuscles in splenic disease, and malaria.
.

appearance. This can be done b}^ digesting the blood in a solution of bichloride of mercury, Kobin's liquid fp. lOU), or a f-l-p. c. salt-solution, and placing it under a bellglass for some hours; the red corpuscles may then be detached with a camel's-Jiair pencil, and examined. Of com-se, only those corpuscles should be measured which evidently retain their natural form. The red corpuscles of the mammalia are readily distinguishable from those of the lower classes in the animal

kingdom by their circular diseoidal form and

the absence of a nucleus but those of individual groups can only be recognized by a difference in size. And great difference of opinion exists as to whether the blood-corpuscles of man can be distinguished from those of other animals. This point has been particularly discussed by Richardson, Am, Jn. Med. Sc. 1874, 102 (3/. M. Jn. 1874, xii. 130) and Woodward, 31. M. Jn. 1875,
; ;

sometimes becomes of importance to be enabled to determine the presence of blood in supposed blood-spots, &c., and to
It

distinguish that of man from that of aniAs regards the former point, it is a mals. matter of no great difficulty. When blood has been dried at ordinary temperatures, the dried serum and contents of the corpuscles redissolve on digestion with cold water; and this is the condition under which the blood is generally presented for then have examination in such cases. the fibrine left undissolved, which may be tested as to its chemical and microscopical characters (Fibmne). The Uquid is decolorized by boiling, and the coagulum asIt siunes a brown colour (H^mati^'e). also contains iron, is unaltered in colour by solution of potash, and contains a proteine

xiii.

65.

We

Virchow recommends that the blood-spots be mixed with dried and powdered chloride of sodium next, that glacial acetic acid be
;

added, and the mixture evaporated at 212, when the blood-crystals (chloride of hsema-

abundantly deposited. should recommend those who are likely to undertake such investigations to

tine) are

We

make

their

own

table of sizes

for it curi-

tities

compound. In heating very minute quanupon a glass slide, the liquid must

always be covered with a slip of thin glass, to prevent its drying. The mere presence of blood can thus be chemically determined

without much
tions

difficulty;

for these reac-

be obsened under the microscope in a very miniite quantity but the distinction of small quantities of the blood of man from that of animals by chemical have therefore means, is impossible. only the morphology of the elements or the spectral analysis to decide from. The portions of blood presented for examination will be almost invariably in a dried state and the red corpuscles, when dried in a very

may

We

ously happens that in general the size of the same objects given by different observers varies considerably. This arises probably from using too low a power, want of practice, and the use of a false standard. And we should not advise anj-one to attempt to form a judgment in a judicial question of this kind except he be thoroughly acquainted with the use of the microscope and micrometric investigations and the most difficidt spectroscope, and has made numerous ex-

periments upon this special point. The corpuscles of the blood are best studied while existing in the serum of that liquid; butthe white of egg neutralized with acetic acid exerts but little action upon them, as is also the case with a solution of bichloride of mercury. The colourless corpuscles are most easily recognized when the blood has been mixed with water. They are best preserved when dried in a very thin layer upon a slide a drop of blood being placed upon the slide, and the latter placed in a perpendicular position, so that a very thin layer will remain in the liquid state, a solution of 1 part of bichloride ot mercury, and 2 of chloride of sodium, in
;

thin layer, retain so nearly their natui'al size and outline, that any kinds of blood which are distinguishal^le in the fresh state, are certainly so when dried but it will seldom happen that the blood Avill be dried upon a transparent substance, and in thin layers, permitting of its examination by transmitted light. It must therefore be separated from some fabric or structure, and restored as nearly as possible to its original
;

BLOOD OX BREAD.
(Robin). BiBL. Kolliker, Hand,

106

BODO.
Rend. 1852
;

200 parts of water, will preserve them well

d.

Geicebel.

tlie

Ann. N. H. 2 ser. x. Berkeley, Crypt. Pot. p. 264 SteH. 1853, xii. p. 409, pi. 17. phens, Ann.
Co7npt.
p.

309

Manuals on Physiology, by Mliller, Valentine, Wagner, Carpenter, Forster, and Kirkes; the Dictionaries of Todd and Bowman, and Wagner; Hassall, Micr. An. Ann.N. H. xvii. Gulliver, GerhersAnat. Pr. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 91 Schmidt, Dia; ; ;

BLOOD-VESSELS. See Vessels. BLOOD- WORM .The larva of Chiro-

gnostik vcrdcichUger Flecke, &c. 18-48 Frey, Histolof/ie, and the copious Bibl. therein ; Browning {Spectroscope), Mn. Mic. Jn. ii. Rollett, Strieker's Ilandh. i. p. 574 ; p. 116 Cornil and Ranvier, Hist. path. Rutherford, Hist. Beale, How 4't. Ralfs, Action of Chloral hydrate, Chloroform, and Prussic acid on {M. M. Jn., ] 871, y'u 75) ; Sorby, M. M. Jn. 1871, vi. 9 {Spectroscope) Richardson, ibid. 1876, xv. 30 {Sp.) Carpenter,
;

BL0X.1MIA, Berk, and Br. A genus of SphEeronemei(?) (Stylosporous Fungi), consisting of minute pimctiform sacs, soon burstijag above, containing closely packed tubes producing each a row of squarish
anomalous genus, allied to and Myxormia. P. truncuta has been found on dead Wych elms. Bibl. Berk. & Broome, Ann. N. H. 2 ser.
spores. Cystotrichia
xiii.

nomus pluinosus.

An

468,

BL ri'TIA, Endlich.A genus of PelHe*

(Hepaticaj) founded on the Junyermannia remarkable for the double fruit, the outer being very short, dentate and laciniated, while the inner forms a largish, somewhat plaited The antheridia arisino' from the cylinder.
Lyellii of Hooker, envelope of the

pi. 16. tig.

17

Berk. Crypt. Pot. 329.

Beale, Hoiv 4'-c. 273 Osier, Jn. 1874, xii. 141; E. Hart, Qii. Mic. Jn. 1881, xxi. 132 (enu?n.) lilein, Hist. Lewis, Qu. Mic. Jn. xix. 24o {Hce-

Micr.

107

M. M.
;

matozoa)
xix. Soc.

ibid. ibid. 1879, 109 (Pats) 356 {Microphytes) Norris, Jn. Mic. 1880, iii. 229 DowdesweU, Qu. Mic.
; ; ; ;

rib are covered

by
are

incumbent

scales,

which

Jn. 1881, xxi. 154.

paste,

sometimes

BLOOD OX BREAD. Bread,

flour,

much laciniated
and
times
bernica,

and similar substances are sometimes attacked by a fermentation-fungus, which produces patches of a blood-red (or sometimes of an amber) colour. Most authors attribute the plants to Oidiian, or to forms of Penicillium. Ehrenberg observed only minute corpuscles, which he called Monas We have found these patches 2)rodiyiosa. on sour paste, of red and yellow colour, consisting of isolated oval cells not more than 1-3000" in diameter and they were associated with PenicilUiim ylaucum, of which they are probably a conidial form. This form is called Cryptococcus ylutinis by Fresenius, who thinks it distinct from the
;

crowded
{J.

together, somehi-

Hook.

Prit.Junyerm.)
ed, lax

scarcely toothand iar-

er,
t.

BiBL. HookPr. Jung. 77 & t. 78;

Lcberiii.

Xees, moose,

Blyttia Lyellii, magn. 2 diam.

so-called

Monas prodiyiosa of Ehrenborg, which he found in the form of corpuscles

Flora Danica, t. 2004. BO'DO, Ehr. A genus of Infusoria, belonging to the family Mouatlina. (Monads with a tail.)
;

313

about 1-24000 to 1-48000" in diameter.

Montague regards the plant as a Pahnella and H. O. Stephens is of the (prodiyiosa) same opinion. Cohn rightly refers this or;

Char. tail; no eye-spot present; mouth terminal animals sometimes united in the form of a mulberry or a bunch of grapes.
;

Ehrenberg describes eight

species.

ganism

to Micrococcus.

This substance sometimes occurs on deThe blood-rain on damji wall-paper, calico, and old gourds and melons, is the mycelium of a species of

Some of them inhabit the intestinal canal of frogs, insects, &c. One is green, the rest are colourless.
Dujardin regards one syteeies {Podo granas comprising both his Heteromita ovata and a species of Anisonema the others he considers imperfectly examined species belonging to his genera Cercomonas
dis)
;

caying Fungi.

Bibl. Ehrenb., Fresenius, Heft ii. p. 78 Desnon, 3Icm.

;

Mycologie,
Soc.
d.

Sc.

aiid

Nat. de

Cherboui-y, iv. p.

19

Montague,

Amphimonas. Podo yrandis, E. {I^eteromita

ovata, D.).

BCEHMERIA.
Fr wat.
fig.
;

107

BONE.

leugth 1-940 to 1-720" (PI. 30.

18

),

liacese,

Bodo
Fr. wat.

socialis,
;

E.

(PI.

30.

fig.

18, h, c).

mily of Dicotyledonous plants called Slercusome genera of wliicli are called Silkcotton trees, from the lung hairs which enve-

length 1-3000".
; ;
;

BiBL. Ehreuberg, Inf. Dujardin, Inf. Kent, Inf. 254. Pritcliard, I/if. BCEHME'KIA. Jacq. genus of Urticaceous plants closely allied to our common Stinging Nettle, and characterized, like that

lope their seeds, as in the true cotton plants. These hairs (from Chorisia spcciosa, Bomhcix,
sp. var., Friodendron, sp. var.) cannot be spun, but are used for stufiiug cushions, &c. The Adansonia, or Baobab-tree, produces a pulpy fruit, which contains a considerable proportion of starch. The wood of some kinds, as of Bomhax pentandra and Pachyra
its light( Carolinea) minor, is remarkable for ness and almost corky texture, resulting from being composed almost exclusively of parenchymatous cellular tissue, with scattered porous ducts and true wood-cells. See Wood. BONE. It need scarcely be stated that

and other species of Urtica, by containing tenacious liber-fibres. Two species are emaccount. ployed in the East Indies on this . nivca, Gaudichaud, yielding the fibre from which Chinese grass-cloth (PI. 28. fig. 25) is manufactured, is a native of China, where it
is it is

where largely cultivated, also in Sumatra, called Caboose, and at Pido Penang, where it is called Rami. B. Puya, Wallich, of Nepaul yields the Pooah or Puya fibre and Sikkim (PI. 28. fig. 26), which has long been extensively used in India, and is said to
equal the best European tiax when properly di-essed being ordmarily roughly prepared, it is dirty and bad-coloured, but makes excellent sail-cloth and cordage, BiBL. Hooker, Jn. of Bot. i. & iii.
;

Fig. 63.

BOLACOT'RICHA, Berk.&Broome. A

genus of Mucediues (Hyphomycetous Funone species, B. grisea, found gi), containing

growing upon dead cabbage-stalks, old mats made of Typha., &c., in tufts forming large, Messrs. Berkeley and effused, grey patches.

ir

Broome
its

express themselves doubtfully as to In habit it approaches diftersinits simple threads il'/y.ro^'nr/a/wi, but and large spores, while the spores are not in
real affinities.

?~

chains as in Sporodum, or minute and linear The threads are pale as in Trichokchunium. purple under the microscope, strongly curved at the tips like tendrils. Blbl. IBerkeley and Broome, Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2.
vii. p.

7.<

BOLETUS,

Dill. A genus of Polyporei

97, pi. 5. fig. 4.

,'

(Hymenomycetous Fungi), consisting of pileate Fungi,or 'toad-stools,' often of large size, growing in woods. See Basidiospores. BOLiVI'XA, D'Orb. subdivision of

the Bulimine Foramiuifera, in which the peculiar infolded notch-like aperture is retained but the chambers grow bilaterally alternate (Euallostegiau), instead of triserial
;

:^

and obliquely spiral (Helicostegian), as in Bidimina proper. The shell is delicate and porous. B. punctata and B. costata are the two
seas,

leading forms. Varieties are common in all and date from the Cretaceous period. BiBL. B'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien. 239 ;

Carpenter, Intnd. For. 19G. BOMBA'CE/E. subdivision of the fa-

Magnified 90 diameters. Segment of the transverse section of a human metacarpal bone, a, outer surface of the bone, with the outer laminae ; b, inner surface next the medullary canal, with the inner lamina;; c, ori flees of the divided Haversian canals, with their laminae ; d, interstitial laminae e, lacunae, with their canaliculi.
;

BONE.
bone

108

BONE.

is the hard substance sen'in^ to give firmness to the bodies of the Vertebrata, to

form protect their delicate organs, and to points of attachment for muscles. To the naked eye, bone appears to consist

of an apparently homogeneous basis^ surrounding certain cavities, areolfe or cancelli ; these are most numerous and larger towards

the centre,where, in the Mammaliaand Birds, they form a larger cavity called 1 he med uUary This contains the marrow in the canal. former class, but air in the latter. Hence we recognize in bone an outer compact and an inner spongy portion. On examininor a thin transverse .section of bone under the microscope by transmitted light and with a low power, it is found to exhibit a number of round or oval apertures; these are the orifices of the divided vascular or Haversian canals (fig. 63 c). These canals contain blood-vessels in the natural state.

They are cylindrical, sometimes flattened, communicate freely with each other and the medullary canal, and also open upon the outer surface of the bone. They mostly run
Magnified 60 diameters. Haversian canals from the superficial layers of a human femur, at eighteen years of age, treated with muriatic acid, a. Haversian canals; 6, osseous substance with lacunae.

parallel with the axis in the long bones ; whilst in the flat bones they are parallel to

the surfaces, frequently following a radiating The brandies by which they comcourse.

mimicate with
lique,

each other

are either transverse or ob-

and pursue a radiating or tangential course. Hence in a longitudinal or superficial section of bone, the canals are seen running

and here longitudinally, there connected by anastomosing branches, and forming elongated somewhat rectangular meshes (fig. 64). In transverse sections of fo?tal and incompletely de-

veloped bones, scarcely any of the apertures are met with, but the canals are seen pursuing a tangential or radial course (tig. 65 a) so that the bones appear to consist of short thick layers, each of
;

which belongs to two canals, which separation is also indicated by a faint median
line in

each layer.

The Haversian canals vary

C

considerably in size, from about 1-1000 to 1-200". The osseous substance or basis of bone possesses a laMagnified 25 diameters.

minated

structure.

The

shaft of the human femur, at eighteen years of age. a. Haversian canals; b, their internal oriUces; c, the external orifices; d, osseous substance, wilh lacunrc. There' are no transVerse sections of the Haversian canals, nor concentric lamina;.

Segment of a transverse section of the

laminoe are visible in sections of dried bone (fig. 63

h),

but

much

more

BOXE.
FiR. 66.

109

BONE.
Fig. 67.
o
b

I..

it iV

/f'

,,'."/",

'^?

**

^'v

>'

',#.',

'
-

l'

",

^f

^vvx;.
*:,

.ST i

it.

HU,

''J ^

^^

Magnified 250 diameters. Portion of a transverse section of the shaft of the hua. Haversian merus, treated with oil of turpentine, canals; b, their laminae, each lamina with a lighter and a darker portion, and radiating striae in the latter; c, darker lines, probably indicating greater interruptions in the deposition of the osseous substance; d, lacunae without evident canaliculi.

Magnified 100 diameters.

Section of the surface of the shaft of the femur, a. Haversian canals b, side view of the lacui^ae in the Haversian laminae c, surface view of lacunae.
; ;

fleeted light, they appear white.

The

la-

bone from Tvlaicli the inorganic matter has been removed by digestion in In this the laminae dihite muriatic acid.
distinctly in

cunas are generally longer than broad, and flattened. They are about 1-1100" in length, 1-2000 to 1-2800" in width, and

are easily separable. They frequently exhibit a fibmus appearance and near the surfaces of the bones they run parallel with
;

these surfaces

but in the other a, b) (fig. portions they mostly surround tlie Haver;

63

1-3800 to 1-6000" in thickness; but their dimensions are subject to great variety. The canaliculi vary in breadth from 1-20,000 to 1-00,000" and at their narrowest part, which is furthest from tlie lacunpe, they anastomose with those of the adjacent
;

sian canals concentrically (fig. 6-3 d). "When a section of bone is examined with a somewhat high power, it exhibits numerous dark spots, witli fine lines branching

lacunte.

The walls
consist of a

of the lacunas and canaliculi

homogeneous

calcified

mem-

from them on
;

all sides

the former are the

lacuna;, bone-corpuscles, or bone-cells (fig. 67 c, b) and the latter are the canalicnli or

calcigerous canals (fig. 68 b, c, d). They derive their dark appearance in dried bone from containing air if this be displaced by immersion in oil of turpentine, they become so transparent as to be scarcely distinguishable (tig. 66) ; and when examined bj' re:

brane. In a transverse section of bone, the lacunae of the laminae surrounding the Haversian canals are seen to be placed tangentially to the orifices of these canals, as in figs. 66 and 68 whilst those of the laminae near the surfaces are parallel with these surfaces
;

(fig. 6.3).

In a longitudinal section made through the Haversian canals, they appear arranged

BONE.
Fig. 68.

110

BONE.
Fig. 69.

.**?'

.'i^^Ji

It
-i

Magnified 350 diameters. Portion of the outer surface of the tibia of a calf. dots represent the orifices of the canaliculi, the larger dark indistinct spots are their lacuii89 Been through the osseous substance.

The

7A
;*

Fig. 70.

J
i

^'''

.1,,

J
.^^

r<<

^w.
o,

''"
Magnified 300 diameters.
Magnified 350 diameters.
Cartilage of bone, after boiling in water, cunar corj useles 6, nuclei.
;

Part of a transverse section of the shaft of the hnmerns. Haversian canals; 6, c, d, lacuna with theii' canaliculi.

n, la-

Fig. 71.

Magnified

ih(\

diameters.

Ijacunne (surface view) with the cannliiuli, from (he parietal hone. The dot?i seen tipon or between the lacunrp rc]iresent divided cnnaliculi, or their orifices opening into the lacunee; a, a, a, groups of transversely divided canaliculi.

BONE.
in
allel -with

in

BONE,

numerous longitudinal rows running par-

the Haversian canals (fig. 67). The general arrangement is, that the long axis of the lacunne is parallel with the laminfe in which they are contained, or beare situated.

In Bii'ds, the Haversian canals are more numerous and smaller than in the Mammalia, and frequently run in a direction at
right angles to the sliaft the lacunte are also more numerous and smaller, and the canaliculi very tortuous. In Reptiles and Amphibia they are few and very large, larger than in either of the other classes the lacunae and the canaliculi are also very large, and the latter very
; ;

tween which thoy

the section coincides with the surfaces of a set of the lacuna, they present a very elegant round or oval form (fig. 71), iiTegularly surrounded by a perfect tuft of canaliculi, which, being turned directly towards the observer, appear more or less shortened, and a small number of others, which are diffused through the surface of the lameUoe. Here and there, in the thinnest portion of the section, a group of transversely divided canaliculi is seen (fig. 71 a, a), without the lacunse to which they belong, giving the substance a sieve-like appearance. At the outer and inner surfaces of the bones, the canaliculi terminate by open mouths (fig. 69) and those nearest the Haversian canals open into them.
;

When

numerous. In Fishes, the structure is more irregidar there are no concentric laminae the Haversian canals are sometimes absent, at others very large and numerous frequently the
:
; ;

lacimte are absent, whilst the canaliculi are unusually long and elegantly wavy and

branched.

The structures representing the bones in the Invertebrata are noticed under the respective classes.

The marrow or medullary tissue of bones, consists of ordinary fatty tissue, free fatty
matter, a particidar liquid, and cells, with and nerves, surrounded and traversed by a small quantity of areolar tissue. In the foital or red marrow, numerous marrow-cells resembling the colourless coralso puscles of the blood are met with
vessels
;

Sharpey's perforating fibres are calcified pointed fibres, running fi-om the periosteum towards the Haversian canals they are irregular and variable, and are best seen in the bones of amphibia and fishes. If the cartilage of bone be boiled for two or three minutes in water or a solution of caustic soda, the bone-cells or protoplasts and their nuclei are often rendered very disAfter macerating bone in tinct (fig. 70). nauriatic acid also, the lacunar dilute
;

some comparatively very large or giant cells, containing numerous nuclei (fig. 72) Kcil:

liker's osteoclasts.

Fig. 72,

corpuscles, with longer or shorter processes, become isolated, and appear as independent

formations.

In regard to the minute structm-e of bone, independently of the lacunse and their canaliculi, a dry polished section exhibits a very delicate dotted appearance, which makes the bone appear granular, as if composed of closely aggi'egated pale gi-anules, about 1-50,000 to 1-60,000" in size. This is best
seen in a transverse section. "\Mien bone is calcined and the residue is rubbed between two pieces of glass, or when bone is digested in a Papin's digester, minute inorganic gi-anules are left these are oval or oblong, frequently angular, and are about 1-10,000 to 1-20,000" in diameter. Hence bone probably consists of an intimate mixture of organic and inorganic matter, in the form of minute, firmly united
;

Magnified 350 times.

Giant
nuclei,

cells,

of the

human

from the veiy young marrow of the

skull.

or Myeloi^Iaxes, containing nnmerous

flat

bones

gi-auules.

The above remarks apply to human bones; and those of the other Mammalia agree
essentially in structure with the former.

"When animals, especially young ones, are fed with madder, the bones speedily acquire a beautiful red colour, principally around the Haversian canals, because it is here that

BONE.
the process of formation of new bone is most active and the earthy matter precipitated from the blood carries down Avith it the colouring
;

112

BONE.

matter of the madder.

The l)Iood-Yessels of bone which are distributed to the marrow (the nutrient vessels), enter particular canals on the external surface whilst
;

those connected with the Haversian canals are derived from the periosteum and from those of the marrow,

The two

sets

anastomose

freely.

Chemically, bone consists of gelatine (not choudriue, as in cartilage), with phosphate of lime, small quantities of carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, fluoride of calcium, and sometimes a httle oxide of iron and
magnesia.
13y digesting bone with dilate muriatic, chromic, or picric acid, the

inorganic
lies

matter

is

removed,

and

by treatment with
be separated.

solutions of alka-

or incineration, the inorganic substance or so-called cartilage may

BONE.

113

BORACIC ACID.
ftspai'agoides (PI. 4. fig. 15) has a frond

walls of the cancelli and canals, of generations of stellate connective tissue corpus-

B.

to

12 inches

lonj^-,

frrmving near Inw-water

forming a jiseudo-cartilage, occurs, which becomes calcified to form the true bone the absorption of IJie calcified cartihige, and the deposition in its place
cles (Osteoblasts),
;

mark

or deeper, of ddii-ate feathery cluiracter and deep crimson colour. Bibl. Harvey, Flii/c. Brit. pi. 51 Br.

Mar.
Br.

A/(/<T,
]()('.,

p
pi.

7, pi.

12
is

Greville, Al(jce

of the new tissue, continuing until the structure of the bone is perfected. But in certain bones, as the flat sknll-

BURACIC ACID

p.

1^
the
acid of

the

bones, the jaw-bones \'c., the bone is formed without the aid of cartihige. Here tlie inner surfeces of the periosteum produce the osteoblasts, which ultimately become the

well-known salt, borax, in which it exists combined with soda, in the pi'oportion of two atoms of the acid to one of tlie base. Buraric acid is prepared by mixing three parts of
borax dissolved in tw^elve parts of boiling water with one part of sulphuric acid or common oil of vitriol. As the mixture cools,
the boracic acid separates in the crystalline form. It may be purified by re-solution in

bone-corpuscles. In certain morbid conditions, as inricliets, the development of the bone is arrested at the state of ossified cartilage ; secondary deposit occurring in the cells of the primary cartilage as in the case of vegetable cells

hot Avater, and subsequent cooling

finally,

the spaces left having great (tig. 74), resemblance to the lacunae and canaliculi of
bone.

Adventitious bone agrees in general structure with the normal; and is met with iu all stages of development. To examine the structure of bone, thin sections are requisite. The method of making these is described under Preparation. By macerating bone in muriatic acid diluted with from 10 to 20 parts of water, or nitro-chroniic acid, the inorganic matter is Thin removed, the cartilage being left. sections of this can then be readily made, and stained with picro-carmine or purpurine.

the crystals are pressed betw^eeii blottingIjoracic acid belongs to paper, and dried. the doubly oblique prismatic system and the crystals possess two optic axes. Those deposited from the hot aqueous solution are mostly six-sided plates they exhibit the
;
;

phenomena

of analytic crystals, but at their

lateral surfaces or edges only ; and when their entire surface appears dark or co-

The canaliculi are not easily seen when sections of bone are immersed in liquids for these fill them up. But it is a dirticult matter to measure the lacunre, unless the section be moistened with turpentine or
;

other liquid. ^'ery thin sections may be preserved in the dry state those which are thick may be mounted in inspissated Canada balsam, which does not easily enter the canaliculi, yet greatly increases the general transparency of the section. BiBL. Kolliker, Mikr. Anat. ii. Tomes, Todd's C'l/cl. Anat. and I'/ii/s., art. Osseous Tissue; Quekett, Tr. Mic. Soc. 1846;
;
;

loured with the polarizer alone, the crystals are found to be laminated. But when an alcoholic solution of boracic acid is evaporated on a slide, or, still better, when some phosphoric acid is added to a solution of borax, and the mixture evaporated, minute disks or spheiiiles of the acid are formed these wdien carefully examined, are seen to be composed of minute needles radiating from a centre, exactly as iu the oxahu'ate In some of them the needles of ammonia. are so closely in contact that they are undistinguishable and the circumference ot the disk appears entire in others, the free extremities of the needles are seen projecting beyond the circumference. They ai-e perfectly colourless, and almost transparent
;
;

when viewed by ordinary light, immersed in balsam. But when examined with polarized
light,

each disk exhibits the most beautiful

Quain and Sharpey, Anat.

Sieb.
Si-

H. Midler,

147 Rutherford, Hist. 82 Schonev, Sch. Arch. xii. devel. (M. 31. Jn. xvi."l876, 67, tigs.); Frey, Histoloqie, and the full Bibl. therein.
Kiill. Zeitschr. ix.
;
;

rings, just as in the case of the oxalurate of ammonia, in which we have described the phenomenon more fully. In some of the specimens of boracic acid the crystals form -elegant arborizations, which also possess considerable analytic

cross

and coloured

power.

genus of Laurenciaceae (Florideous Algae), bearing pear-shaped spores in stalked ceramidia.

BONNEMAISO'NIA, Ag. A

The proportions of phosphoric acid and borax requisite to produce the disks cannot be laid down they can only be prepared by
:

accident in

anumber of trials. Even the same

BOERERA.

11^

BOTRYDmA.

solution will sometimes yield tlieni, at otliers not. Drops of the solution should be placed upon a number of slides, and these laid upon a warm iron plate. The disks are much

Thirty-four species are enimierated by

more beautiful than those ofoxalurate of ammonia, appearing more transparent and the colours more brilliant, probably from their being more highly refractiye. They
are difficult also to preserve.

Rudolphi, ten of which are doubtful. Dujardin enumerates twenty-three species. Bothriocephalus Jatiis {Tcenia lata, the broad tape -worm) is met with in the human

The head is somewhat ovoid, with two elongated opposite depressions, but no hooks the neck generally not disintestines.
;

Even when

mounted
place.

in

after a time,

Canada balsam, they deliquesce and large crystals take their

Talbot,
185.3.

BiBL.

Fox

Phil

Tr.

1837;

Brewster, Optics,

BORRE'RA, Ach.,=PHYSciA.
BOS'MINA, Baird. A
genus of Entomostraca, of the order Oladocera, and family Daphniadae. Char. Head terminated in front by a sharp beak directed forwards, and from the end of which project the long, many-jninted, curved and cjdindrical superior antennje inferior antennoe two-branched, one branch with three, the other with four joints fire pairs of les's.
; ;

joints of the body are very broad in proportion to their length. The orifices leading to the ovaries are situated in the centre of the flat surface of each joint; and around them the oviducts are seen, having a radiated or stellate appearance. Sometimes a minute body can be
tinct.

The

seen projecting from the genital pore the It exclusively inhabits the small intestines. It is rare in England. It is 20 feet or more in length. Ova

male organ.

1-350" long.
hooks.

Embryos

ciliated,

with

six

B. cordatvs, with the head cordate, is found in dogs, and rarely in man (Leuckart, ci: p. 438, fig.).
'

B.
rare.

cristatus.

B.

longlrosiris (Bl. 20. fig. 2).

p.

antennae with twenty joints. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entom.

dig,

Superior Fr. water.

;

forming

papillate

With two prominences rostrum. Human;

Daphnid.

p.

244

105 LeyNorman and Brady,

Br. Entom. (No/ih. and I p. 5).

Eur ham

Trans.

BOSTRYCHTA, Fries.

See Cytispoea.

BOSTRYOH'IA, Montague. A

genus

See T^iEXiA and Entozoa. BiBL. Rudolphi, Entoz. Synops. Breniser, Wiirmer, &c. Bujardiu, Helminth. Eschricht, Die Bothr. Blanchard, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xi. Davaine, Traite 8,-c. Leuckart, Farasit. i. p. 416 Cobbold, Pa; ;

of Rhodomelaceae (Florideous Algae). Frond purple, slender, B. scorpioides. branches involute at the end. Marine.
I^IBL.

rasites, p. 106.

BO'TACHUfe, Brady.A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. B. cylindratus. BiBL. Brady, Copepoda,

i.

Harvey, Mar. Alqcp, 79.

genus of Ophioglossaceous Ferns. Moon-wort {Botrychinm Lunaria) is an indigenous representative.

BOTRYCH'IUM, Swartz.A

BiBL. Hooker,
140.

tissue of See Tissue, Vegetable, and referPlants. ences under that head.

BOTIIREN'CHYMA. Pitted

genus of PalB. vuk/aris, melleae (Confervcid Algae). the only species (PL 7. fig. 9), forms a

BOTRYDl'NA, Breb. A

Si/n. Fil., p.

447.

BOTIIRIOCEPHALUS, Rudolphi. A
genus of Entozoa, of the order Sterelmintha,

somewhat gelatinous, blackish-green stratum on the ground, on trees, or on mosses, in damp places. The spores, about 1-10,000" in diameter,
till they form sphecomposed of many cells, the peripheral layer of which is diaphanous, the internal green from granular contents; the

and family Cestoidea.

Char. Body long, flat, soft and jointed, joints short head slightly tumid, oval or
;

increase b}^ cell-division

rical bodies

somewhat quadrangular, with two opposite

depressions, or with four ear-like appendages, or with four depressions furnished witli hooks genital pores mesial. The species are common in fish and birds, more rare in mammalia, and very rare in reptiles. They usually inhabit the
;

internal vesicles multiply, with constant increase of size of the whole, imtil the little fronds acquire the dimensions of a pin's

head (1-36", Kiitzing)

structure
is

the whole cellular

Gonr.
cTAIg.

BiBL.

firmly coherent. Brebisson, Noiiv.

alimentary canal, sometimes the abdominal

cavity.

(18;59), p. 3, fig. 3 ; toch. p. 98, pi. 13.

Meneghini, Monoy. Kos2 Hassall, Freshu;

fi^.
;

BOTRYDIUM.
Al(/(e,
pi."
;

115

BOTRYLLOIDES.

Desv.). genus of Sipbonere (Confervoid Algoe), of which one species is fonnd in this country, growing upon damp, clayey ground, the dried-up bottoms of ponds, &c. single plant, as developed from a spore or gonidium, exhibits a remarkable character, having a lower branched filamentous portion, growing in the ground, and an erect spherical or obovate portion, or head, about the size of a mustard-seed, of a bright green colour, the whole structure consisting merely of a single cell, with one continuous cavity running through the entire plant.

BOTR YD'IUM, A

320, pi. 81. fig. 2 Kiitzing, Tab. rin/c. 10; Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah/, ii. p. 37.
VVallr." (II,/drof/asfrum,

Rostafinski & ^^'oronin, Bot. Zeit. 1877 {Qn. Mic. Jn. 1878, xviii. 446). BOTRYL'LIILE. A family of Tunicate Mollusca. Distinguished by the individual bodies being united into a common mass, which is attached and by the mantle being united to the test at the orifices only. These animals form translucent gelatinous or cartilaginous masses, of various hues of
;

and are found under

orange, purple, yellow, blue, grey, and green stones, or rocks, or in-

crusting sea-weeds, near low-water mark. The bodies are often arranged in elegant the anal oristar-like clusters or systems fices usually terminating in a common cen;

tral cavity or vent.

Genera

75) represents such a specimen, with a second budding from it by veFig. 75.
figure
(lig.

The

getative increase and in this way the plants come to form tufts or
;

variable; systems numerous central cavity none bodies with thorax, fore and hind abdomen ; branchial orifice six-rayed; anal simple and indis-

Aplidium.
;

Form

tinct.

groups, like little bunches of gi-apes hence the name. The cell;

Sidymim. Incrusting systems conical, truncate and starred at the summit, centre
;

membrane acquires considerable thickness and at the period when

;

thorax and abdomen present depressed branchial orifice eight-rayed. Polyclinum. Form variable systems numerous, convex and radiating, with central cavity ; bodies with thorax, fare ab;

it

is

softening,

and

about to dissolve to allow of the escape of

the gouidia, it is seen clearly to be composed of numerous lamelte, S^a^r/oTatetr like that of HydrodicThe globular head is lined, in the tyon. full-grown specimens, with a layer of pro-

domen, and long-stalked hind abdomen branchial orifice six-raj^ed; anal projecting
;

horizontally.

Lobed or incrusting, sesor stalked ; systems numerous, with a central cavit}^ bodies as in Aplidium.
Amaroucium.
;

sile

toplasm (primordial utricle), containing abundance of chlorophyll-globules and at a certain period breaks up into numerous
;

free globular asexual gonidia.

the air is dry, the protoplasm descends into the branches, in little masses, each forming a subterranean sporange, pro-

When

Zq}tocli7mm. Thin, incrusting; systems numerous; bodies with thorax and abdomen branchial orifice six-rayed anal opening into a common vent, more or less branched. Distoma. Sessile; cartilaginous; form variable systems numerous, circular bodies in one or two rows at unequal distances from a common centre, with thorax and stalked abdomen; branchial and anal ori; ; ; ;

which are also someducing zoospores times formed in a vesicle springing above ground, and capable of resisting desicca;

fices six-rayed.

Botryllus.

Incrusting, gelatinous;

sys;

tion.

direct rays of the sun, the head-protoplasm breaks up into cells, at first green, then red. These, when free, produce biciliated zoospores, which copulate.

Under the

tems numerous bodies horizontal, in stars round a common vent bodies undivided branchial orifice simple, remote from the
; ;

vent.
Botrylloides.

As

the

last,

but stars

ir-

regular
orifices
iu"-

and

ramifj'lng;

bodies vertical;

approximated.
;

Greville, AJqce Br. 106, pi. 19; Hassall, Fr. Algce,^ SOo, pi. 77. fig. 5 Kutzing, I\ova Acta, xix. pt. 2, pi. 69. figs. 1-10 ; Braun, Verj. (Ray Soc. 1853) Itzigsohn,
; ;

BiBL.

fomiSyntethys. Mass sessile, gelatinous, oria single system ; bodies sessile fices simple, without rays.

BiBL. See the Genera.

Sot. Zeit.

xiii.

p.

257; Sachs, Bot. 275;

BOTRYLLOIDES, M.-Edw. A
i2

genus

BOTPtYLLUS.
of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family trvUidse.
Cliar.

116

BOTRYTIS.

Bo-

quarter of an inch high, on decaying herbaceous plants, especially potatoes.

See Botryllid^. B. Leacliii, hyaline, purwhite and yellow B. plish, stars mottled albicans, tran -parent, stars white; B. 7-otiferu, yellowish, systems speckled with red ; B. rubrum, intense orpiment-red. BiBL. Gosse, Mar. ZooJ. ii. 34; Forbes

Four

species

B. pulehrum, Corda (tig. 70), forming mealy patches on living or decaying herbaceous plants.

BiBL. Corda in Stm-m's Deutschl. Fl.

iii.

Prachtjl. Euro}}. ScJmnm. p. 39 ; Greville, Sc. Cn/pt. Fl. t. 126. tig. 2; Currev, Qu. J. Mic. Sc. V. p. 117.

and Hanlev,

Brit. Moll.

i.

23.

Gaertu. genus of Tunicate MoUusca, of the family Butryllidfe.

BOTRYL'LUS,

BOT'RY'TIS, Mich.A genus of Muce(Ilyphomycetous

Fungi),

dines

among

Char. See BoTRTLLiDiE, Six species B. Scklosseri (PI. 18. fig. 20), stars numerous, individuals ten to twenty or more, yellowish and reddish, common B. poli/ci/clus, stars numerous, individuals eight to twenty or more, bluish, general B. riolacens, B. smaragdus, B. bivittatus,
:

which are found some of the commonest moulds of decaying vegetable substances, and some veiy important parasitic fungi. Corda separated the species with the filaments continuous into a genus Peronosjwra articulate fila(fig. 77), from those with
Fig. 77. Fig. 78.

and B. gemmeus. BuBL. Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 34; Forbes and Ilanlev, Brit. Mollusc, i. 19. BOTRYOCOC'OUS, Kiitzing. A genus
of floating Palmelleas (Confervoid Alga3),

forming lobed and irregular bodies enclosed

in a
sac,

common,

large, hyaline,

membranous

about 1-24" in diameter, and containing a number of ovoid cells 1- "000 to 1-5000" in diameter, of a s'r( or red
colour.

B. Braunii. In lakes. BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Alg.

horst, Fl. Ah/,
iii.

p.

S92

EabenBotrytis (Peroncjspora).
Botrytis.

p. 42.

BOTRYOCYS'TIS,Kiitzing.Described
as a genus of Palmellese

Magnified iOO diameters.

Magnified 200 diameters.

(Confervoid Alg*) found fre.'^^h water, but apparently forms related to Volvox. See VolYOClNEiE. BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Ah/. 208; Tab. Phjc. pi." 9
in stagnant
p.

Fitr.

76.

ments

(fig. 78). Among the remaining forms are distinguished species of varving habit, separated b}* some authe)rs under the name of Polgactis and Ilapluria. The Potato-fungus and the Muscardiue of silk-

worms
below

gmg,
iSoc.

and 10; Braun, Vcrjibi&c. p. 170 {Bag

18o3).

BOTRYOSPO'RIUM,
C orda
Tries).

achy (St genus A

lid in m, of Mu-

are species of Botrytis, as described their natural history is further treated of under the liead of PaeasitiC FrNGi. The following have been described as British species B. {Ilaplaria, Lk.) grisea, Fr. Fertile filaments simple or forked, grey, slender, rather rigid, septate, with little heaps of
;
:

cedines

(Ilyphomycetous Fungi) aUit'd to Botrgtis, but distinguished by the

Botrrosporiiim

globose grey spores at the api( es and sides. On decaying vegetables, usually on S/)ar-

pulehrum. lateral position of the spo- A fertile filament bearing fporiferoua riferous branches (fig. 70). lateral branches.

ganiwn and
i.

allied plant*.

Corda,

Ic. Futxf.

pi. 4. fig.

246.
Fertile fila-

B. (Polgactis) cinerea, Pers.

British species

Magnified

2(J0

diam.

ments gregarious, almost simple, cinereous,

soon .'-trangulated, with white spures attaclied lieve and there. Not uncommon on stems of herbaceous plants.

B.

ciijfusvm,

Corda

(Stachglidium dtfftmnn, Fr., Botrgtis difwhite tufts, a fusa, Greville), forms loose

BOTRYTIS.

117

BOTRYTIS.
Berkeley, JT Ho7-t. Soc. 26; Corda, Ic. Funy. v. pi. 2.
i.

Fertile B. (Poh/cic/is) cana, Sclnnidt. filaments cinoreons or whitish, branched at the apex; spores large, oval. On rut(in<i:
steins

bages, &c.).
fig.

pi.

fig.

4 18

and
t.

leaves.
tig. 7.

Mucor

racemosusj Biil-

Hard,

504.

vulgaris, Fr. (fig. 263). Fertile filaments grey, divid.^l at the apex into lobe-like branches, on wliich are col-

B.

{Pohjadis)

Botrytis, Sowerby, pi. 359. B. (Peronospora) cffusa, Greville. Fertile filaments purplish-gi ey, branched above branches short, divaricate spores large, oval. Frequent on the lower face of leaves
;
;

Mucor

lected the globose minute spores. Common on rotting plants. B. acinorum, Pers. Freseuius, BeUr.
vult/an's,
z.

Mi/c

i.

pi.

(?).

Pohjadis

Nees,

Si/st. fig.

57.

of spinach, B. {Peronospora) curia, Berk. Fertile filaments simple, abbreviated, denticulate at the tips, grey-brown On spores oval. Anemone nemorosa. Berk. Ann. Nat. Hist.
;

Fertile filaments grey, B. vera, Fr. branched above, forming spikes about the On decaying substances, slender apices.
fungi, Sec.
fig. 3.

I.

c.

pi. 8. fig. 13.

Mucor

Botrytis, Bolton,

pi.

132.

B. crustosa, Fr.

simple, tritid and verticillate On stems and bose, ternunal.

Fertile filaments -white, spores glo;

Icixves.
;

Fertile iilanients grey, erect, scarcely septate branches alternate, the last forked, hooked, and divaricated; spores obovate, much attenuated at the base. Very destructive on species of Allium (onions &c.). Berk. Ann. Nat. Hist. vi. p. 436, pi. 13. fig. 23.
;

B. {Peronospora) destructor.

Berk. Mycelium white fertile filaments erect, articulated, branched branches subcymose, and, hke the obovate On dead brandies spores, lemon-coloured. of cherrv-trees. Berkeley, Ann. N. H. i.

B.

citrina,

B.

(Peronospora)
fertile

White;
;

Berk. Arenaricp, filaments dichotomous

above, divaricate-forked, not hooked at the

On the leaves of Aretips spores ovate. 7iaria trinervis. Berk. ./. Hort. Soc. i. p. 31,
pi.

p.

262,

pi. 8. fig.

12.

4. fig. 22.

Fertile filaments Pers. v^hite, quaternately divided at the tips, each On rottip bearing a single globose spore. Berk. I. c. pi. 14. fig. 24 Staten .sticks. chyJirlixm terrestre, Grev. So. Crypt. Fl.

B.

ten-estris,

B. (Peronospora)
fertile
;

gate obovate, apiculate.

White ; Vicics, Berk. filaments sparingly branched, elonbranchlets bifid , not hooked spores
;

On common Vetches
grow

ph 257. B. Jonesii, Berk, and Br. Fertile filaments erect, fa ^^^l-coloured, branched above branches and branchlets divergent, mostly
;

(a distinct species, purple, is said to on peas). Berk. /. c. pi. 4. fig. 23.

B.

White

Berk. arborescens. {Pei'onospora) fertile filaments very much branched

;

the last fasciculated, the centre always sterile and very acute; spores roundOn dung. Attn. N. S. 2 ser. ish, spiny.
opposite,
xiii. pi.

above, di-trichctomous, somewhat forcipate at the apex spores smallish, subglobose. On common red-poppv leaves. Berk, /. c.

pL *

4. fig. 24.

15. fig. 12.

Fertile filaments B. Tilli'fii, Desm. branched, fulvous branchlets very short, On mosses whorled spores subglobose. and various leaves. Desmaz. Cn/pt. Exs. Ann. cl. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. x. fa.sc. V. No. 226
; ;

B. {Pei'onospora) yanylio7iifor77iis, Berk. White, in patches fertile filaments branched above branchlets curved, dilated in ganglioid thickenings below the tips spores
;
;

On lettuces. Berk. /. c. small, subglobose. B. ye7ninafa, Unger, Bot. pi. 4. fig. 25.

308.

B. (Pero7iospo7-a)

urticee,

Libert,

MSS.

Fertile filaments gi'eyish lilac, (Berk.). branches forming loosely di^-ided above
;

Zeit. V. pi. 6. fig. 9. Bre7nia lactucce, Regel, Bot. Zeit. 1843, i. p. 665, pi. 3 B. B. (Peronospo)-a) 7nacrospora, Ung. Fertile filaments erect, several from the same

an acute angle extreme branchlets simple or forked, sometimes ciu'ved, rarely inflated
; ;

On spores large, ovate, apex papillilbrm. nettle-leaves. Berk. Ann. N. H. ser. 2, vii. p. 100. B. {Peronospora) parasitica, Pers. Fertile filaments white Branches ramulose ;
;

point, white, branched above ; spores very On leaves of parslarge, elougate-py rif orm Exannips and other Umbelliferse. linger,
.

theme,

pi.

2. fig.

14

B.

{Peronospora)
figs.

i7ifestans,

(PI. 26.

5, 6).

Montagne The Potato-fungus.

very large, globose. Caspary has found here cysts containing minute spores On Cruciftrae (turnips, cab(sporidanyia).
.spores

on the lower surface of This grows the leaves, and also on the tubers of the white mealy spots. The potato, forming mycelium ramifies in the intercellular pasin tufts

BOTRYTIS.

118

BRACHIOX.EA.
Veget. p.

the fertile sages of the leaves, and sends out filaments from the stomata, so that these of the appear scattered among the hairs 1-30" epidermis; they are usually about high upon the leaves, branched at the apex, 6 branches are septate and white. The 2 to erecto-patent, acute, virgate, nodose from numerous ehptical thickenings. The spores in large specimens are at first globularovoid, then elliptical, and finally somewhat of the shape of a gourd-seed, with a sub-

Summa
p.

490

Berkeley, Crypt. Bot.

307.

BOUGAINVIL'LIA, Lesson.A
marine

of

Hydroid

Zoophytes,

genua family

one end, very shortly apiculate mamilla at of the same colour pedicellate at the other, as the filaments, chiefly white, densely fiUed with sporules enclosed in an endospore, about

AtractylidfB. Char. Stem branched, rooted by a filiform stolon pol^-pes fusiform ; a single wreath of fihform tentacles around the base 3 British species. of the conical proboscis. BiBL. Ilincks, Hydr. Zoopli. p. 108. Farre. genus of Infundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the
;

BOWERBAX'KIA,

suborder Ctenostomata, and family Yesiculariidae.

These sponUes have been shown by Ue Bary to be zoospores when fully developed, moving about by means of two cilia. Besides the normal spores, there are restingwhich have spores in many Peronosporce, been described by the same author in Ann. d. Sc. N. 1863, XX. p. 10. Artotrof/us of

1-800" long, 1-1200" thick.

Montague
Soc.

is probably the resting-spore of Peronospora infestnns. Berkeley, Jn. Ilort.

i. Botrytis 30, pl.^ 2-4. figs. 4-19. Solani, auct., var. i?. fallax, Desmazieres. B. devastatrix, Libert Morren, Ann. de la Soc. de VA(j. de Gcmd, 1845, p. 287 ; Pero;

Distinguished by the matted and creeping or erect and irregularly branched polypidom (polyzoarium), the tubular densely clustered cells, the eight to ten tentacles, and the strong gizzard. B. imhricata (PI. 18. fig. 19), the only species, has the cells ovate or ovato-cylindi'ical, in dense clusters irregularly scattered on the polypidom. Parasitic on other Polyzoa, Polypi, and Algae. Polypidom in the young state creeping and matted, and formerly regarded as a in the adult distinct species {B. densa) condition forming bushy confervoid flaccid tufts, an inch and a half high, much and Branches smooth, irregularly branched.
;

nospora trifurcata, Unger, Bot. AV. Smith, M. pi. 6. figs. "1-6;

xiv.

Zeit. v.

M.

J.

314, 1875,

transparent and hollow, cells aggregated on

110

(figs.).

one
It

side.

Botrytis Bcissiana, Balsamo, is the fungus growing in the bodies of silkwonns, causing the disease called Muscardine, which sometimes produces most extensive destruction in the districts where they are cultivated. figure of it is given by Mr. Berlceley in the paper on the Potato-fungus referred to

forms a favourable object for the study of the structure of the Polyzoa, on account
of
its

transparency.
species.
;
;

Four other

above.

papers on it exist in the Comptes liendus; and the whole history, with figures, will be fouud in Robin's Vcyetaux

Many

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 377 Farre, Phil. Tr. 1837, 891 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. Hincks, Poh/zoa, 518 Repiachofl^, p. 21 Zool. Anz. ii. 1879, 660 {Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, iii. 238 embryol.).
;

BOX.

The wood of the box-tree, Bu.rus

like.

Botrj/tis lateritia, Fr., not uncommon in the hollows of decaying potatoes, beet-root, &c., appears to be a form of Acrodahiymus See Acrostalagmus. parasitans, Corda. The genus Botrytis, like many other genera, has been divided and subdivided till the genus itself has almost vanished. ' Outlines of British It is restricted in the to those species which have Fungology Avith septate, hyaline or coloured threads, terminal spores, as B. Tilletii, citrtna,Jo7iesii, Several of the so-called and terrestris. species are states of Ascomycetous Fungi. See Tulasne, Carpohyia, vol. iii. BiBL. As given under the species. Fries,
'

Parasites, p. 560.

sempervirens, L. (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceoe, Dicotyledon), is remarkable for its hardness, offering a great contrast to that of Bomhax

and the
toria.

See "Wood.
family of Rota-

BRACIIIONJi'A. A

Char. carapace (testida) present ; rotatory organs two, simple. The rotatory organ sometimes appears to consist of five parts, three median and

two

lateral. The two larger lateral ones only are true rotatory oi'gans, the cilia of the median ones remaining extended without motion during the action of the others. Tlie carapace resembles that of a

tortoise.

BEACHIONUS.
Genera
:

119

BRANCIIIPUS.
(

BiBL, Buckton, Aphides

;
.

Ttay Soc

),

ii.

Eye-apot3 absent

foot forked ( e J foot absi-nt I I f,,^|. f^,j.].p,:,

^

Nofeus.

Eye-spots

present^

j.^^^ ^^j^^^^^

Anuria. Bmckionus. Fompholyx.

..

p. 146.

^two

-^

j.^g^ styliforin

Pterodina.

See IIydrocora and Dipodina. BRA'CHIONUS, Hill. A genus of Rotatoria, of the family Bracliionaja. Char. single eye-spot at the

BRA'CIIYODUS, Nees. genus of Leptotrichaceous Mosses, separated from Gyninostommn or Weissia of some authors. BiBL. Wilson, Bn/ol. Brit. p. 52.

BRACIIYSTE'LIUM, Reichb. A

ge-

nus of Orthotrichaceous Mosses.

A
;

back of
is is

the head foot forked. The anterior margin of the carapace furnished with teeth, as in some species the posterior margin also.

Braclujstelium 'polyphylhim, IIscli., Pti/chondtrium pohiphyllus, Br. and Sch. BiBL. Wilson, Bn/'ul. Brit. p. 173.

BRACHYTHE'CIUM,
Hypnum.

Br.

and Sch.,=

B. amphiceros (PI. 43. fig. 8). Carapace smooth, furnished both at the anterior and aquatic posterior margin with four teeth
; ;

length 1-70".

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 337. BRA'DYA, Boeck. A genus of Entomostraca (Copepoda). B. typica. Anterior autenuiB very short,
7-jointed.
Scilly Isles.

B. ruheiis. Carapace smooth, with six acute teeth in front, and rounded posteriorly; body reddish ; aquatic length 1-50" teeth,
: ;

BiBL.
p. 16.

Brady,

Copepoda (Ray Soc.)

ii.

PI. 43. fig. 9.

Eleven other species have been described;

some of them freshwater, others marine.

BiBL. Ehrenb.
8,-

//".;

Dujardin,/Mf.; Gosse,
p.

Ann. N. H. 1851,
KnUih.

Viii.

202; Cbhn, Sii^.

BRACHYCLA'-

Zeit. vii. p.

459.

DIU]\[,Corda.
of Dematiei

A genus
\^';

(Hyphomy-

BRADYCINE'TUS, Sars. genus of Eutomostraca, of the order Ostracoda (section Myodocopa) and family Cypridinidee. Characterized by the 2-branched lower autenniB, and the one pair of feet. B. brenda = Ci/pridina brenda, Baird; B. Macandrei = Ci/p. Mac. B. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Trans, xxvi. p. 466. BRAIN. See Nerves.
BRAl'NEA, Hook.A
genus of Grammitidete (Polypodiaceous Ferns), with continuous sori along transverse veins near the midrib, produced along the veins towards the edge of the frond. The single species, B. insiynis, is found at Hong Kong &c. BiBL. Hooker, Si/n., p, 390.

cetous Fungi), not separated by any marked characters from DenDTtYPHiUM forming a
;

delicate

mould on dry
of

stems
plants.

herbaceous
filaments

The

and branches are formed

of squarish cells, swollen so as to produce a moni-

BRAN. See Corn. BRAN'CHM^. This

ous with
is

term

is

synonymhowever,

liform appearance, the walls being thick and coloured. BrachycladI um cillatum. The so-called species

gills.

The

latter term,

peni-

are probably stages of An crert, filament with fertile branehes. Ar>nnivppfmi<? Fiino-i l. Cetous r

ASCOm^

ung Magnified 200 diameB. jyenicillatum, Lorda, ters. is said to extend over stems, sometimes in tracts a foot long the filaments and branches are blackish, the spores white (fig. 79). B. Tliomasinum has been found in amber. BiBL. Corda, Ic. Fung. Fries, Summa
;

usually applied to the aquatic respiratory organs of fishes, whilst those of other animals retain the name of branchife. Their structure is described with that of the reSee spective classes in which they occur.
also

Ephemera and Libellulid^. BRAN'CHIPUS, Schfeffer {Chiroce-

phalus).
didae.

genus of Eutomostraca, of the order Phyllopoda, and family Branchipo-

Veq. p. 504.

BRACHYCO'LUS, Buckton. A

genus

of Aphidye.

B. stellarice. Body mealy, very long and narrow. On Stellaria Jwlostea and HuJcks
mollis.

Char. Abdomen prolonged in the form a tail, composed of nine segments or well-devejoints, the end joint -^^dth two loped plates or lamellar appendages superior antennae, in both sexes, slender, filiform, and many-jointed; inferior antenniB in the male large, curved downwards, twojointed, furnished at the base with fanof
;

BRAND.
;

120

BRONCIIOCERCA.
p.

shaped and digitiform appendages in the female stout, short, somewhat acute, slightly curved, and not furnished with appendages
at the base.

BiBL. Tlincks, Polyzoa,

Qu. Mic. Jn. 1858,
MIA.
vi. p.

27

'

Dyster,

260.

BREUTE'LIA, Br. and Sch.,= BartraBiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 283. BRLA'REA, Cord'a. A genus of Mucedines

B.

stMfinalis (PI. 20. fig. 3).

;

An

inch in

length tinged with red. This beautiful animal is found in stagnant water, as the ditches and deep cart-ruts on the edges of woods and plantations. Ovarian sac and -B. rtibricaudatus, Kl. tail-fork red the former long, cylindrical, terminating in a curved prickle. In rain-water, atlvossier (Red Sea). BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entuin. p. 39 Ivlnn; ;

(Ilyphomycetons
J'elated to

Fungi), nearlv
Penicillium,

Asperf/i/iKs,

and Moni/ia, distinguished

f romthe first and last by

the

moniliform rows of

sp;:)res

arising, directly, in a ter-

minal

zinger, Sieb.

BRxAND.

A
4'-

Klill. Zeitsch. xvii. p.

23.

disease of Cereal Grasses

and other plants, depending on Fungi. See Blight.

BREAD. The interest of the microscopic examination of bread depends chiefly on the impurities it may contain, or the
peculiar Fungi-development in it during decay. The commonest intentional adulteration of bread is the addition of mashed potatoes to the flour but it must be remembered, that potato-yeast is somotimos used to produce the fomentation of the dough. Tlie cells of the potato are retulily recognizable in bre;i,d after the starch has been Tlie aduldissolved and washed away. teration of the flour with other meals, as
;

while the erect filament is not expanded into a capituluin to bear them, as is the case in AsperyiUus. British spetuft,

fertile

cies

Briarea penicilJata

(fig.

80), (Mojiilia, Fries, ^-l.s/^c^r(/illus, Greville). The erect

filaments are simple and geniculate, the spores hyaline,

Briarea ponicillata.
M.igniftod 200 dia-

meters.

forming long nodding moniliform rows. It is of dark grey

coh;;ur,

and

is

found on damp

grass,

mouldy hay,

straw, &:c.

BiBL. Corda, Ic. Fimq. v. 16, and in Sturm, Dvutschl. Flor. ii. pi. 6 Greville, Sc. Cnipt. Fl. t. 32 Berk., Hook. Br. Fl.
; ;

corn-flour, rice, beans, &c., is easily ascertained before it is made up but the baking greatly aflects the form of the starch-gra;

345.

nules.

See Starch.
spores of the parasitic Fungi of wheat

The

(UiiEDiNEi, UsTiLAGiNEi), poUen-graius, and other vegetable bodies are occasionally

as accidental impurities, and are present in" large nimabers in inferior and " damped flours. The fermentation of bread depends upon the development of the Yeast fungi in the dough an account of this will be found under that head, and Fermentation. JNlouldy bread presents various microscopic fungi in a mature condition, some evidently the fruit of the yeast-plants, Fenicillium, ]\TuroR, &c. others, like the so-called blood on bread,' appear to be peculiar states of the vegetative structure of the
: ; '

BRIGIITWELLIA, Ralfs. A genus of Diatomacese. Char. Valves disk-shaped, with a large granulated centre, separated from a broad punctate limb by a ring of oblong cells. B. coronata, Mic. Tr. viii. p. 95, pi. 5.
f. 6; B. elaharata, ibid. 1861, i. p. 73; B. Johnsoni, ibid. 1806, vi. p. 4. BiBL. Ralfs, Pritchard's Infns. p. 940. BRINE- WORM. See Artemia. BRISTLE. See Hairs.

met with

BROMELIA'CEyE. family of Monocotyledons (Flowering Plants), of which the Pine-apple, Ananas or Ananassa, is the most familiar example. Tliis is interesting microscopically from the scurfy character of the epidermis of the leaves, dependent on The cells of the peculiar cellular scales.
epidermis are of very elegant form (PL 47. 15) and the fibres of the leaf are manufnctured into very fine muslin. See Scales,
fig.
;

same Fungi. liiBL. That of Anui.TE.RATiON

Coulier, ]\J<nu'l

and
922.

jniET'TIA, Dyster. A genus

:

^^-c.

Rubin, Micr.

p.

Epider^iIis, and Fibres.

of Cliei-

loslomatous Polyzoa (Ih-yozoa), family l']ucratiida). 'J'wo species found between tide-

BRONCHI. See Lungs. BRONCIIOCER'CA. J/oHO<WT

the caudiform foot cleft at the end.
species have been described; but
it

with Five

marks, and

in di edgings.

appears

BROOKE'S APrAPtATUS.

121

BRYOBIA.
present,
:

that they do not difler by well-marked diaracters i'loiu tlie spoc-ies of Monucercn.
13IBL.

Wcrueck, Bcr. Bed. Ak. 1841,

Intro-

377.

BROOKE'S APPARATUS.
duction,

internal soft, lamellose, British genera Mii'lichoferia. Calyptra conical-dimiPeristome wanting diate, split at the side. or simple, then of sixteen equidistant, fili-

when

membranous.

family of inoperculate Acrocarpous Mosses, gregarious or Cfespitose and terrestrial, in which the fruitstalks

BRUCHIA'CE/E. A
sometimes appear

p. xxi.

lateral,

through
;

arising from innovations. The stems dwarf, either simple or branched by innovations the leaves lanceolate or awl-shaped from a more or less oval base, composed of parenchymatous cells, larger and sometimes lax at the base of the leaf, smaller and squarish

toward the apex, and furnished with a flattened broad nerve (fig. 49), and standing up the pericha^tial leaves broader like bristles at the base and sheathing all of firm membranous character, shining and smooth.
; ;

form, liattish, articnlat(>d pale teeth, sometimes placed on a sliort, sulcate, reticulate basilar mi>mbraue (fig. 81). Capsule lateral, with a double annulus. Orthodontium. Calyptra smallish, hoodshaped, fugacious. Peristome arising below the orifice of the capsule, double; external of sixteen lanceolate-subulate teeth, like those in Bryuin Avhen dry, deflexed below the orifice of the capsule, when moistened, erect; internal: cilia alternating with the external teeth, half as long or about equal, filiform, from a short, somewhat keeled membrane. Capsule annulate or exannulate, with a lougish collum.
: ;

Capsules oval or globose, mostly straightbeaked iig. 50). British genera Arc/tidunn. Calyptra completely enclosing the (globose) capsule, biu'sting above.
(
:

Bn/um. Calyptra dimidiate, hood-saaped. Peristome double

Fig. 82.

smallish,
(fig.

82)

Inflorescence moncf'cious, bud-shaped. Astomum. Calyptra dimidiate. Capsule Inflorescence either monoecious, equal. gemmif orm and axillary, or witb the antheridia

BRU'OHUS, Linn.A

and archegones together. genus of Coleo;

pterous Insects. B. jnsi is a common small beetle black, mottled with white. The larva feeds upon Several other species. peas. BiBL. Stephens, Brif. CUeopt. p. 204;
Boisduval, L'Entomol. Horticole, p.
1-57.

operculate Mosses, acrocarpous, or by innovation pleurocarpous, with lanceolate, oval, round, or spathulate leaves, composed of cells parallelogrammic below, rhomboidal - parenchymatous above,

BRU'CIA. See Alkaloids. BRYA'CE^-E. A family of

Bryum intennedium.

A
external of

portion of the peristome. Magnified 150 diameters.

sixteen lanceolate,
teetli, flat

soft,

lowish equidistant

yel-

on the back
flexu-

and transversely trabeculated, with a

;

more or less dense, with much chlorophyll or a persistent primordial utricle, or at length empty, very

smooth. Capsule more , ,

J^
,

^|

'17-

duced into more or less perfect lanceolate teeth, often with intermediate cilia, sometimes without. Capsules mostly annu.

ous longitudinal line in the middle, lamellate within, hygroscopic internal a large delicate membrane with sixteen keels, pro-

, , .^., Miehchoferia nitida.

late.

d.

or

pear-.shaped, ,, ^, ^ ' *^ leeth Irom the peiistome. 1 Savate, oval or cylm- Magnified 150 diameters.

less

BiBL. See Mosses.

drical.

Mith a hemi-

BRYO'BIA, Kocli. A genus

rina, family

of

Aca;

Trombidina.
;

spherical or conical operculum, erect, nodExternal peristome, ding or pendulous.

Char. Legs 0-jointed fore legs longest eyes near the hind angles of the cephalo-

BRYOPSIS.
thorax
;

122

BUDS.

abdominal margin studded with

the sixth week to branch,

cies
:

short, sorae\Yhat triangular sparse papillae.

British spe-

B. speci()>'a. BiBL. Kdch, Ec. Ent. 117.

Uebersicht,

01

Murray,

BRYOP'SIS, Lamouroux. A marine

genus of Siphonete (Confervoid Algfe), of which the British species form beautiful
feathered silky tufts, from 1 to 4" high upon rocks or upon other Algae, in tide-pools. The whole axis and proper branches of each plant consist of one large ramified cell, the cavity being continuous throughout, the membranous wall rather thick, and somewhat gelatinous externally the branches are naked below, but clothed above by small raniuli,
green,
elastic,
;

B. plumosa, Huds. (PI. 4. fig. 19). Deep 1 to 4 inches high, more or less branched the branches pinnated with subgi-een,
;

somewhat

opposite distichous or rarely irregular ramules. IIarvey,3/r. Algce, 2ud ed. pi. 24 B ; Greville, Alyce, pi. 19 ; PInjcol. Brit. pi. 3 Engl. Bot. (Ulva plumosa), 2375.
;

B. hypnoicles, Lamour. YeUow-gi'een, 2 to 4 inches high, more slender and more branches repeatedly divided, rabranched,

arranged like leaves, distichously, spirally, The main axes and branches or irregularly.
indefinitely by development of the the rarauli are limited in their development, and they are ultimately shut off by septa, at last falling oft' by the circular rupture of their wall, just above theii" point of origin. When examined early, the ramuli are

mules irregularly scattered, somewhat pinnate, more or less dense. Harvey, Pht/a. Brit. pi. 119. BiBL. S^'stematic, as above, and Klitzing, Sp. Alg. p. 490 Physiologv, &c., Agardh, Ann. d. So. Nat. 2 s^r. vi. 200, pi. 12 Xageli, Zeits. wiss. Bot. 1844-46 {Ray Sac.
; ;

grow

1845, 269,
figs.

pi. 6. figs. 11,

12; 1849, 97, pi. 2.

apices;

Ken. Ah/en-Si/steme, 1847, 171, Thm-et, A^m. d. So. N. pi. 1. figs. 44-56 3 ser. xiv. 8, pi. 16. figs. 1-6 Braun, Verj. 137 {Bay Soc. 1853, p. 120) Pringsheim, Monatsber Berl. Alcad. 1871; Sachs, Bot.
1-3)
;
;

275.

found to have their walls lined with largish elliptical green grains, each of which has at first a round light central body, colourable blue by iodine when fully formed (starchThe branches exhibit the phecorpuscle).

BRY'OZO'A.
BRY'UI\1,

See Polyzoa.

A genus of operculate Mosses, usually acrocarpous, containing a

Dill.

nomenon

of reproduction, in irregular order,

large number of British species, even in its restricted condition. Among the most common of these are

in the following way. their walls multiply

increase in size pletely fill the tubular cavity of the ramule, pressing upon one another so as to form a

The green bodies on by subdivision, and and number until they com-

B. nutans
capillare,

older

467), cernnum, intermedium, &c. Many of the species are now included under
(fig.

ccespiticium,

Mnium.
BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. p. 221. undulatum, the common Whelk. The tongue forms an

compound dark-green mass. A peculiar swarming movement is next observed in the green bodies, which increases more and more: and, the parent tube opening by a pore
near
apex, the green bodies escape as elongated pear-shaped zoospores or active gonidia with cilia, according to Thuret, two and four in B. hypnoidcs, only two in B. plumosa. The successive emission of the gonidia from the various tubes of one
its

BUC'CINUM, L. i?.

plant occupies several days. After the gonidia have come to rest, they acquire a spherical form, and gradually increase in size at the end of a month or six weeks their diameter is twice or thrice the original dimensions and then they begin to elongate into a tube similar to the pisreut. Agardh found them elongate, either in one direction or in two, at first but one end soon swelled into a thickened organ of attachment, while the other began about
; ;

interesting microscopic object. BUDS. The buds of plants form interesting objects of microscopic investigation on many accounts, first, in tracing the development of the organs, and also of the tissues of which these are formed; secondly, on account of certain temporary structures which they exhibit. The thick epidermis of the scales of the winter-buds of ordinary trees, as of the ash, &c., is a very favourable object for sections to show the character of this tissue when highly developed. The internal soft scales and young leaves of very many of these winter-buds, as well as other buds of herbaceous plants, are clothed

with glandular hairs, which disappear wlieu the buds are expanded and these often
;
,

afford advantageous material for studying cell-development. See CiEiiMiE.

BUG.

123

BULBOCH^TE.
;

A ston).

BUG. See Cimex. BU'GULA, Okeii {Cellularia

part,

John-

on the cell from which it arises sometimes multiplication takes place at its
sessile

genus of Infuadibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Cheilostomata, and family Bicellariida?. Distinguished by the elliptical closely contiguous cells in two or more rows, the very large oritice with a simple not thickened margin, and the stalked, jointed, frequently blue or red avicularia. B. Jiahdiata. Cells in many rows, oblong, truncate at ends, with one or two
spines at upper angles orifice extending to the base avicularia ou the sides of the cells ovicells cucullate, capitate, surface smooth with a very wide orifice. B. avicularia {Cellularia avic, Johnston). Cells in two rows, elongate, contracted below oritice not reaching quite to the
; ; ; ;

base, so that one or

more

cells are

inter-

posed

the bristle of the branch.

;

is

always the oldest part

These plants are multiplied by zoospores,

after

ing-spores

and by restformed
fertilization
cells.

by the contents of
antheridial

The zoospores
or

are

formed from the whole contents of a

globular
cell

oval
Bulbochoete setigera.

produced between the bristlecell and the cell on

base, obovate with two spines on the outer avicularia side, and one on the inner above
;
;

which it is attached, which dehisces bv

Portion of n fllamentwith a
8porii'erou3 cell.

Magnified 150 diameters.

lateral,

late

capitate, surface granular or areoovicells superior, subglobular : orifice

Deep water. B. 2^l"iosa. Cells elongate, narrowed below, with a spine at upper and outer angle orifice as wide a? the cell above, elliptical avicularia capitate, close to outer below margin of the orihce ovicell superior, glosmall.
;

bular.

a circular slit, causing the upper part with the bristle to separate, and allowing the single zoospore, crowned by a wreath of cilia (as in CEdogonium), to escape into the water, where it moves actively for a time, acquires a cellulose coat, and then germinates into a new filament. have not space to give the details of the development of the parent-cell of the zoospore, which, however,

We

B. Murrayana (Flustra 3Iur., Johnst.). many rows, narrowed about the middle and below orifice oval, with one to four incurved marginal spines on the outer and one on the inner edge a strong hollow spine on each side of the top of the cell, and a capitate avicularium on the front of some
Cells in
; ;

are very interesting'. The resting-spores are formed, in the first place, somewhat in the same way and in the same situations as the zoospores but the cell;

of the cells below the

Bir.L. Busk,

orifice. Very rare. Mar. Polyzoa {Br. Mus.),

;

43
73.

Johnston, Br. Zooph.

Hincks, Polyzoa,

BULBOCILE'TE, Ag.A

genus ofCE-

dogonieae (Confervoid Algte), distinguished by the branched habit, and by the cells resembling bristles with a bulbous base situated at the tips of lateral shoots. They form villous tufts 1-4 to 1-2" high on fresh-

contents do not escape. An orifice is formed in the wall of the parent-cell, through which the spermatozoids coming from the antheridia penetrate. The spore-mass then becomes encysted and its contents are changed, the green colour arising from the presence of chlorophyll giving- place to a brown tint. The resting-spore ultimately escapes by the rupture of the parent-cell (oof/otiium, Pringsheim) and in its germination (in the following season) the contents are developed into four zoospores, which escape from the
; ;

spore-membrane and grow up singly into

water plants in lakes and pools.

new

The
in the

cells

of the

main filament multiply

is

same way

as those of Gi]DOGONiu.\r,

under which head the process

The parent-cell breaks by a cirdescribed. cumscissile dehiscence to allow the expansion of the two new cells. The bristles which are formed at the upper ends (alternately on each side of the filament, fig. 83) likewise break out from a slit in the cell from
which they
arise.

minutely

plants (PI. 5. fig. 22). history of the antheridia of the (Edogonieoe is somewhat complicated. In the present genus, a few short cylindrical cells are developed underneafh the bristle-cell, either on special branches or ou the sporangial branches, between the parent-cell of the

The

by

The

bristle is

sometimes

These cells break spores and the bristle. circumscissile dehiscence, and discharge their contents in a form exactly resembling the vegetative zoospores, but much smaller.

BULBOTPJCHIA.
monly

124

BURSARINA.

When they germinate, they become short filaments composed of one, two, or several cells, in each of which is developed one or two spermatozoids, which are minute globular active bodies with a wreath of cilia, almost colourless, but in other respects resembling the much larger zoospores. These spermatozoids escape by the cells breaking across, and have been observed to enter the oriliees in the walls of the parent-cells of the spores and effect the fertihzation. Pringsheim has described a number of species, characterized by the form of the sporange and the unicellular or multicellular condition of the anlheridial plants, and by the relative dimensions of the organs. AVe are not assured of the value of these chamcters, and confine our list to one species.
plant,

These ultimately come to rest, and comattach themselves to germinate upon tlie walls of the parent filament, often on the outside of the mother cell of the spore.

is

towards the umbilical axis. The aperture an infolded notch of the septal face, and

The shell hyaline in the usually oblique. state, coarser in the adult. Many fossil specimens are arenaceous these come under Afa.rojj/iraf/minin, Reuss. The varieties are infinite, both recent and fossil, and the names numerous. The oldest is found in the Trias. B. Preslii, Reuss, is pupoidcs (PI. 23. fig. 46) is a typical. common Atlantic furm. BiBL. irOrb. For. Fos. Vien. 61 Williamson, Br. For. 61 Carpenter, Introd. For. 194. BUXT. disease of Cereal Grasses,
young
;

kc, depending on Fungi.

TiLLETIA.
_

See Blight,

Ag, (fig. 83), is a common variable in the relative length and diameter of its cells, on which ground
B.
setigera,

genus of Infusoof the family Bursariua. Ehrenberg described fourteen species. They are mostly found in stagnant fresh water ; some in the intestines of the frog, Nais, &c.
ria,

BURSA'RIA, Ehr. A

and

is

B. vernalis

(Pano/)Iir>/s, D.,
fig.

&

Frontonia, CI,

L.)

(PL

30.

19),

Body ovate-oblong,

Kiitzing has separated a B. minor, where the diameter is equal to or greater than the length. Hassall, A/c/. pi. 54. tigs. 1-4 ; Dill-

turgid, green,

rounded at each end, sonn

what narrowed posteriorly, the mouth placed

behind the anterior third or fourth of the body fresh wat. length 1-130 to 1-110". B, ranarum (Opalina ran.) (PI. 31. fig,
;
;

wyn,

Conferv. pi. 59.

B. Prhujsheimiana, Archer. Qu, Mic, Jn.

186G, p. 122.

Rabeuhorst describes 16 species. BiEL. Alex. Braun, Verjiing. (Bai/ Soc. 1853); Hassall, A7in. N. H. xi. 36; Ahj. 209, pi. 54; Decaisne, ^ra. d. Sc.Nat.2 ser.
xvii. 335, pi. 14. fig. 5
;

47). Body ovate, lenticular, compressed, large, white, the dorsal and ventral surfaces

Kiitzing, Sp. Ah/.

429; Pringsheim, Berlin Ber. 1855 (Ann. jV. H. ser. 2. xv. 346; Qu. Mic. Jn. iv. 131, 185G) Ja/irh. f. tviss. Bot. i. 11, 1857 Ue Bary, Mus. Scnckenbera, 1856, 29 Rabeuhorst, Fl. Ah/, iii. p. 357 Sachs, Bot. 281. BULBOTRICII'IA, K. doubtful ge; ; ; ;

keeled, anterior part subacute, often trun-r cate posteriorly,- mouth inferior, near the anterior pointed end; length 1-210 to 1-70", In the intestines of the fi-og. B. enfozoon, Ehr., which is found in the rectum of frogs, is Balantidiiim entoz. of CI.

and Lachm. CI. and Lachm. admit only

1 species

B. decora. Body urn-shaped, with a long convolute nucleus, and very numerous contractile vesicles, scattered

nus of Algse. Char. Filaments

through the par-

indistinctly jointed, branched ; colourless, subcartilaginous, branches bulbous at the base, tumid at the

enchyma.

Berlin.

The

species of B. (Ehr.) are referred to

;

other genera.

apex, forming sporangia.

B.
roofs.

hofri/dides.
;

Forming a hoary-green
sporangia green.

powdery stratum

On

B. peruana. On rocks. BiBL. Kiitzing, Tab. P/n/c.

benhorst, Fl. Ah/,
iii.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. Bnj. Infm. Stein, Infux. Fidwiclu'l. Clap, and Lachm. Inf. Kent, Inf. p. 574. p."25] BURSA.1II'.\A, i)uj. family cf In; ; ;

fusoria.
iv.

1^.22 ;

Ra-

An important BULIMI'NA", DOrb. group of Foraminifera, so called from their Bulimine shape, due to an increasing and spiral series of one, two, and e^en three chambers, close-set, with their apertures

p.

374.

Char. Body very contractile, of variable form, usually oval, ovoid, or obloug, ciliated all over a large mouth with cirri forming a row or part of a spire. Claparede and Lachmau divide the family thus
; :

BUSKIA.
StzntorinA (subfamily). Body not truncate in
"jiuecal spire

125

BUXBAUMIA.
liCe
;

carapace, at least at one period of

anus anterior.
Ch(BtoKpira. Freia.
it.s

front.

borne on a narrow pvoeops Buccal spire borne on a broad bilobed membranous expansion Body truncated in front by a broad siu-face bearing the buccal cirri on
;

circumference

Stenlor.

BURSARINA

(subfamily) proper. No carapace anus posterior. Watch-glass organ absent. No row of cirri within the buccal fossa. Front not projecting. Body truncated in front by an oblique surface with buccal cirri at Body not truncate in front. Anterior bundles of cirri absent from buccal fossa. No cirri on the right side.

its

circumference

Leucophrys.

on the right side also. Body elongate, of uniform breadth Body globular, narrowed in front Buccal fossa very large, with two anterior bundles of cilia Fore part iirojecting beyond the buccal fossa. Po3sa oblique Fossa not oblique Buccal fossa funnel-shaped, with a row of strong cirri A watch-glass-shaped organ at the side of the mouth
Bordered with
cirri

Body linear Body not linear

Spirosfomum.
JPlagiotoma.

Kondjlostoma. Balantidium.
distinct

from the buccal

cirri

Lembadium.
Metopus. Froulonia. Bursaria. Ophryoglena.

includes several new genera, 21 in all. BiBL. Duj. Infus. CI. and Laclim. Inf. 574. p. 211; Kent, //. p. BUS'KIA, Aider. genus of Cteno;

Kent's arrangement

differ.?

from

this,

and

peristome
cious.

(fig. 93). Brit, genus

Inflorescence monoe-

BUXBAU'MIA,

IlalL A genus

of

Bux-

stomatous Polyzoa (Bryozoa). B. nitens. On Hydroida, &c. BiBL. Ilincks, Polyzoa, p. 631.

The detection of the adulteration of butter is rather a matter of chemistry than of microscopic investigation. But Michels points out that the spurious butter (oleo-margarine) exhibits numerous free stellate or feathery crystals, often also while true fragments of animal tissues butter presents a iraiform appearance of and is perfectly free from fatty globules, those of_ chloany' crystalline forms except (Michels, ride of sodium or common salt. Amer. Jn.Micr. 1878; Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, i.
;

BUTTER.

baiuuiacefe (Acrocarpous Mosses), represented in Britain by B. apkt/Ua, a plant of remarkable character. The annulus, which persists after the operculum has fallen, resembles a third, outer circle of peristomal teeth (fig. 93) the real external peristome is closely applied upon the inner, which forms a truncated cone, slightly twisted when dry. When ripe, the wall of the oblique capsule at one side, falls oft' and (fig. 88) gives way exposes the spore-sac (fig. 89) which bursts
; ,

The columella discharge the spores. and the operculum is (fig. 94) is very large attached to its summit. The antheridia are oval cellular bodies opening by the separato
;

Buxbaumia
Fig. 84.

aphylla.

p. 378.)

Fig. 85.

Fig. 86.

BUTTERFLIES. See Lepidopteea. BUXBAUMIA'CE/E.A familyof oper-

culated Acrocarpous Mosses, of very dwarf stemless habit, arising from a minute tuft The of radical filaments (figs. 84, 86, &c.). leaves are small and flat, composed of few minutish, hexagonal or polygonal parenchvmatous cells, emptv, destitute of chlorosealed phyll (fig. 86). The capsule (fig. 87), on an elongated, thick, fleshy and very scabrous stalk, is more oblique than in any other Mosses, very ventricose on one side, obliquely erect oii the other (dorsal) side, on its cup-shaped at the base, articulated

Fig. 84.

male antheridiiferous plant, magnified 40

diameters.
Fig. 8.5. An antheridium burst and discharging spermatozoids, magnified 100 diameters.
differFigs. Sti, 90, and 91. Ar^'hegoniiferous plant, in ent stages, magnified 40 diameters.

with an fungoid in general habit, and a obtusely conical straight operculum,

stalk,

BYTHOCYTIIERE.
grumous masses of spermatozoids
in Aberdeenshire,

126

CABEREAD.E.
Buxbaumia
aphylla.

tion of the cells like teeth above, to emit

(tig.

80).

Fig. 90.

B. indusiata has been found at Aboyne,

Fig. 91.

Fig. 92.

by Prof. Dickie.

BiBL. Bruch and Schimper, Bri/ol. Europ. part i. Wilson, Bnj. Brit. p. 198.
;

Buxbanmia
Fig. 87.

aphylla.

Fig. 88.

Fig. 89.

Fig. 92. A young fertile plant elevating its sporange coTered by the calyptra, magnified 15 diameters.

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

Fig. 87. ripe capsule, magnified 15 diameters. Fig. 88. plant iu which the capsule has burst lost the spore-sac, &c., magnified IS diameters.

A A

and

Fig. 89. Spore-sae exposed by removal of the wall of the capsule, showing the filaments by which the sporesac is suspended within the latter ; magnified 40 dia-

meters.

Fig- 93. Mouth of capsule, with double peristome and recurved persistent annuhis; magnified L'O diameters. Fig. 94. Columella with adherent operculum, both capsule-wall and spore-sac having been removed; magnified 60 diameters.

BYTHOCYTHE'EE, Sars. A genus of Eutomostraca (Ostracoda), fam. Cytheridae.

Distinguished by the toothed mandibles, the 4-iointed lo\s'er, and the 7-jointed upper
antennfE. 3 British living species
constricta,
:

c.

B.

sim]ilex,

B.

and B.

fiirc/ida.

BiBL. Brady, Linn.

450.

Tr.

xxvi.

pp. 393,

BYTHOTREPIIES, Leydig. A
of

Entomostiaca,

ord.

Cladocera,

genus fam.

CABE'REA, Lamx. genus of Infundibulate Poh'zoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Cheilostomata, and famih' Cabereadse. Distinguished by the unjoiuted polypidom, with narrow branches ; the cells in two or three rows, \\\i]\ large vibracula (whips) or sessile avicularia at the back, Two British placed obliquely in two rows.
species. C. Hooheri
( CeJhdaria Hook., Johnston). Cells rounded, diverging, and projecting.

Allied to Polyphenms and Evadne. B. lonf/imamis. Caudal bristle t^vo or three times the length of the body. Found
JXaphniadas.
in Scania.

BiBL. Leydig,
18G2,
Lx. p.

Z)(7/j7/7i2V/.

244; Ann. N. H.

130.

Rare. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 338; Busk, Mar. Poli/z. 37 Iliucks, Polyzoa, 57. CABE'READ.E. family of Infundi;

>

CABINET.
biilate

1-^7

CALTCIUM.

Polyzoa (Biyozoa), of

tlie

suborder

Cbeilostomata.
Distinguished by tbe unjointed polypiin two dom, the narrow branches, the cells or more rows, with vibracula (whips) or Genera sessile avicularia at the back. ]iack of branches covered with Caheren.
:

mentary skeleton. Connnon in the Chalk of Mae.-itricht, and in several Tertiary strata and living abundantly in the Mediterranean and other warm seas.
;

C. Spcngleri (I'l. 24. fig. 27).

large vibracula.

Amastujia.
Britisli.

Vibracula

absent.

Not

BiBL. Busk, {Brit. Mtis.) Catal. of Mar. Johnston, Bn'f. Zoopli. CABINET for holding microscopic obSee IxTRODiCTiON, p. xxiii. jects. C ACTA'CE.E. Asiugular family of Dicotyledonous plants, especially remarkable, structure microscopically, for the peculiar of their wood-cells. See Spikal Fibrous Structure, and Wood. BiBL. Schleiden, Jnat. der Cadeen, 184 xix. 165. Miquel, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 2 ser.
Poli/zoa, :37
;

BiBL. Reuss, Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wicn, xliv. 315, 1861; Carpenter, Foram. 1862, 216, &c. CALCIUM, CHLORIDE OF. This salt may be prepared by adding excess of prepared chalk to dilute muriatic acid, boiling and filtermg the solution, and then evapoThe crystals belong rating it to di'yness. to the rhombohedric system, and are de-

liquescent.

An

aqueous solution of chloride of

is

cal-

cium

of great service in microscopic researches, as objects which have been immersed in or moistened with it do not beat ordinary temperatures. Hence, a drop of the solution be added to an obcovered with thin glass, and excluded ject from dust, it may be preserved without the use of a cement to enclose it in a cell (see Preservation). Its use in determining the presence of cell-membranes has been already alluded to (Introduction, p. xli,
if

come dry

CA'DIUM, Bail. A genus of Rhizopoda,

fam. Aetinophryina ?. Animal unknown. Cliar. Shell 'siliceous (?), ovoid, with a often bent beak, and a circular aperture with a long curved tapering appendage at the base, and with numerous meridian lines, of which about twelve are visible at once.
;

C.

marinum

(PI. 51. fig. 30).

Soundings

in the sea of

Kamtschatka, and the Gulf'

stream.
p. 3, pi. 1.
pi. 3.

BiBL. Bailey, SilUmmis J. 1S56, xxii, f. 2 Wallich, M. M. J. i. p. 107,

;

'MIIIM. Solution of the oxide or carbonate of this metal in sulphuric acid, when evaporated on a slide, yields disks or circular aggregations of minute radiating needles (circular crystals) of the sulphate, whicb exhibit essentially the same phenomena under the action of polarized light as those of the oxalurate of ammonia. The disks frequently exhibit irregular unduconcentric dark bands, lating, somewhat indicating parts where no double refraction takes place. PI. 39. fig. 10 gives but a very imperfect idea of the appearances presented by these
crystals when viewed by polarized light. C.EOMA'CEI. See Uredinei and Us-

CAD

When employed for this purpose, its 4). action must always be controlled by the action of water, crushing, &c. The strength of the solution may be about one part of salt to two of water, or a saturated solution may be used it should be kept in one of the test-bottles (Introd. with a lump of camphor floating p. xxvii),
;

its surface. It frequently happens that the solution in which objects have beeu immersed (on a These usually conslide) exhibits crystals. sist of either the chloride itself, the sulphate

on

or the phosphate of lime, the two latter formed from the alkaline salts derived from

the object.

CALCULI.

See Concretions.

genus of Neuropterous Insects, belonging to the family LlBELLITLID^.

CALEP'TERYX, Linn.A
CALIA,
W^erneck.

doubtful genus

of Infusoria.
C/iar. Monads included in jelly (Pandorin(B) fixed to aquatic plants, not swimming
free.

TILAGINEI.

CALA'NUS, Leach, = TEMORA. CALCAPJ'NA, D'Orb. One of the RoForamiuifera

;

Two

species.

BiBL. Werneck, Ber. de Berl. Ak. 1841,

377.

taline
coid,

asymmetrically heli-

with three or more whorls or chambers coated with exogenous shell-growth, as granules, spines, and stick-like processes. Shell thick, with the vascular and supple;

C ALI'CKTM, Ach. genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, tribe Caliciei. Char. Thallus granular, powdery, squamulose or evansceut. Apothecia black, sti-

CALIGONUS.
spores pitate or subsessile Spermatia short, obloug. Eighteen British species.
;

128

CALOTHRIX.

brown

or black.

CALLITHAM'NION, Lyugb.A genus

of Ceramiaceas ( Florideous Algai) , containing

C. hyperellum

ou oak, lime, &c. Very common. BiBL. Leig-hton, Lich.-Fl. 1879, 39 lasne, Ann. d. Sc. N. 3 ser. xvii. 209.
rina, fam.

Tu-

CALIG'ONUS, Koch. A genus of AcaTrombidina,

line

Has

the legs 7-join-

ted,

and a abdomen.
;

between cephalothorax and

figured
124.

Not described by Koch, but very minute. BiBL. Koch, Uehers. ; Murray, Ec. Hat.
C. nlQer.

a large number of species, some common, many rare. In the smaller species the structure is very simple, the branched feathery fronds being composed of single rows of tubular cells in the larger species the stem and larger branches are strengthened by external filaments, which grow over the original axis, apparently originating at the base of the upper branches and growing
;

down (somewhat
and
the

as in Batrac7<u!'per7nani).

Antheridia have been observed in C. Barreri

C. corymhosuni, collected in tufts on The favdlce are ultimate branches. naked, and the tetraspores are tetrahedrally

Miiller. genus of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and family Caliginea {Calk/ idee). Char. Head in the form of a large buck-

CA'LIGUS,

arranged.

having anteriorly large frontal plates, which are furnished with a small suctorial disk or lunule on the under surface of each
ler,

BiBL. Haryey, Mar. Alqts, pi. 23 Phyc. Br. pis. 129, 272, 2.30, kc; Thiiret, Ann. d. Sc. K. 3 ser. xvi. p. 16, pi. 4; ]N'a;

geli,

lateral

portion

antennte

small,

fiat

and
;

CALLODIO'TYON, Carter. A genus of

;

Ah/en-SiiAteme, 198,

pi. 6.

two-jiiinted. Thorax with only two distinct articulations, thoracic segments uncovered

Rhizopoda (Flagellate Infusoria, Kent). Char. Naked, free, ovate or variable,

highly vacuolar fiagella three, food admitted by the surface
C.

second pair of jaw-feet two-jointed and not in the form of a suctorial disk. Legs, four pairs with long plumose hairs, fourth pair slender, of only one branch and serving
for walking.

triciliatum.

Length ^4 o "

Fresh
;

water, Bombay. BiBL. Carter, Ann. N.

Inf. 307.

H. 1865

Kent,

Four
to 1".

species.

Found upon
trout,

the
j

brill,

cod,

mackerel, plaice,

&c.

length

1-5

"CALO'CERA. A

genus

of Clavariei

(Hymenomycetous Fungi)
;

difi'ering

from

BiBL. Baird, BHt. Eatom. pp. 25(5, 2G9. CALLIBT'NA, Ehr. A genus of Kotatoria, of the family Philodiu;ea. Char. Eye-spots absent a proboscis and a foot with horn-like processes. The rotatory organ is double, but not furnished with a stalk proboscis also ciliated foot elongate, forked, and with four accessory horn-like processes, hence -sNith teeth small and nusix points altogether merous (two only in each jaw in one species, Gosse). Fresh water. CrysC. eleqans, Ehr. (PI. 43. fig. 10).
; ; ; ;

Clavaria in the subcartilaginous texture and the structure moreover viscid hymenium approaches that of Tremellini. C. viscosa, which occurs on decayed pine-stumps, is one Tln-ee or four of our most beautiful Fungi. more species occur in this country. BiBL. Berk. Oatl. p. 284.

CALODIS'CUS, Rabenhorst, = Crtwi^^yo(Ct>nfervoid Algpe), the filaments forming

discus.

CA'LOTIIRIX, Ag.A genus

latoriea)
tufts,

of OscUgrowing in

talline; 'length 1-70". (PI. 43. fig. 11, jaws.) Granular or fieshy, ova C. rediviva, Ehr.

red

C. hide/is,

length 1-70". Gosse.

Teeth two in each jaw

length 1-45".
C. constricta, Duj. Rotatory organ constricted; length 1-50". On Gammarus and C. parasitica, Gig.

a branched frond by lying in apposition and being concreted by their sheaths here and there. C. mirahilis, Ag. (PI. 8. fig. 22), is a rare freshwater species in England, found on mosses in small streams, ajrugiuous green, growing blackish. Diameter of the filaments about 1-1200 to 1-1800". Accord-

ing to Hassall, C. atroviridis, Harv.,

distinct.

is

not

Asellus.

Other
; ;

species.

BiBL. Ehreub. Inf. p. 482 Diijardin, Inf. Pritchard, Inf. p. 701 Gosse, Ann. p. 055 N. H. 1851, viii. p. 202; Giglioli, Qn. Mic.
;

J. 1863, p. 237.

Fig. 95 illustrates the close annulations on the filaments of this genus the nature of which will be treated more particularly under the head of Oscillatoeiace.^.
;

CALYCELLA.
KiitziniT, Tab. Phi/c. cent.
ii.;
ii.

129

CAMBIUM,
(fig.
:

BiBL. Hassall,^/r,243,pl.69.1; Fig. 95.

Dillwyn, Br. Confervm
;

simple
ternal

pi. 29. {C. })n-

Ex9G), or double (fig. 98). sixteen lanceolate or long-subulate,

with a longitudinal
Internal
:

rabilis), pi. 9lj

ii.

Rabeiiliorst, Sp. Alg,

ciliil'orm teeth, mo.-;tly line, reddish, rugiUose.

a delicate

270

Boruct

&

Tliuret,

Notes
g-e-

membrane adherent
into cilia

Algol.

CALYCEL'LA,
foeidfe.

Ilincks. A

produced opposite or alternating with the

to the tecith,

nus of mariue Zoophytes, of the order Hydroida, aud family LaChar.

Stem

creeping, simple; or

CALYPOGE'IA, Raddi. genus of Jungermanniese (Hepaticse), founded on The Jungermannia Trichomanis, Dicks. leaves have a peculiar glaucous hue the
;

erect, compound aud cells tubular, with an

branched

sporange

is

spirally twisted.

Gemmge

are

formed

of

operculum convergent segments or

;

produced at the extremities of

longations of the stem.
Etu).

leafless propi.

a plaited membrane polypes cylindrical, "nith a conical proboscis.

C. syringa
^,
,

Campanularia

syr.

OALYPTOS 'TOMA, Cambridge. A ge;

BiBL. Hooker, Brit. Jungerman. Botany, 1728.

79

Very common on sea-weeds, &c, ' ._r

C. jastuiiata.

^ ^, Calothnx Tomasi,
.

nus of Acarina, fam. Trombidina.

C. Hardii. lieddish-yellow, punctate eyes 6, in 3 pairs, forming a triangle.
;

CALYMPERACE.E. A
:

BiBL. Slmc\is,Brit.Zooph.-a.2Qo.
tribe

niana.

of Pottioid Mosses, containing one British genus

j^agment oTa
Ma'ifled

Among moss Cheviot Hills. BiBL. Cambridge, Ann. N. Hist. 1875, xvi. 384 (fig.); Murray, Ec. Entojn. 140.

Encalypta. Calyptra long, cylin- soodiauTs. dricJilly bell-shaped, narrow above on account of the clavellate operculum, surpassing the capsule, firm, entire, torn or
Fi^. 96, Fig. 98.

CAM'BIUM. The name

applied to the

cellular layers from which the structures of plants are developed.

young

woody

When

sections are made near the growing points of any stems, as in terminal or axillary buds, we find a quantity of extremely delicate,
slender, elongated cells, distinguished from the generally rounded cells of the paren-

chyma, and forming rudimentary cords in the situation of the future woody and vascular bundles.

In the Dicotyledons, they

:

Fiff.

97.

so as to separate the pith from the young bark the ring may be seen in cross sections a little below the At the very apex of the growing-point. stem all the tissues merge into the delicate universal generative tissue or meristem. In the apex of Monocotyledonous stems, and also those of Ferns and the higher Flowerless plants, the cambium is found in delicate cords imbedded in the nascent general parenchyma, indicating, even in this early condition, the position and arrangement of the isolated fibrous and vascular bundles. Sections of the outer region of the stem of Dicotyledons demonstrate the existence of a layer of cambium at the outer surface of
circle,

stand in a

the youngest wood, which indeed passes gradually into the cambium (figs. 792, 808). This cambium is the tis.ue from which the
Pig. 96. Encalypta vulgaris. Peristome. Fig. 97. E. ciliata. Calyjitra. Fig. 93. E. streijtocarpa. Fragment of peristome.

ciliated

below

(fig.

97).

Peiistome absent,

succeeding layers of wood are generated ; its position on the outside of the fibrovascular bundles gives these their indefinite power of development. The cambium of the Monocotyledonous bundles becomes in-

and

CAMBRIC.

130
of

CAMPTOCERC'US.
Hydroid Zoophytes; family Campanu-

closed between the wood and vessels of individual bundles, so that their growth is The cambium of the outside of limited. the wood of Dicotyledons forms new layers of liber, in most cases, on the inside of the old ones, pari passu with the development of the layers of wood. Cambium, which is in great part only an early and transitional form of cellular tissue, afterwards
into wood, is composed of delicate cellulose cells enclosing to

lariidse.

Distinguished by the creeping or erect polypidom, the filiform continuous main tube, giving oft' its stalked and campanulate cells irregularly or in whorls, the usually long, ringed stalks, and the scattered, sessile vesicles.
:

become developed

a primordial utricle, nucleus, and abundance of nitrogenous protoplasm, but usually without chlorophyll. The cells multiply
transverse division in the elongation of and by perpendicular division ("tangential and radial) as the stem expands This process is effected by in diameter. the constriction of the primordial utricle and gradual development of a septum, as
bj^

Hincks defines the genus thus Stems simple or branched; cells bell-shaped and hyaline, without operculum; polypes with a large cup-shaped proboscis; germ-cells borne on the stems or the creeping stolon, with fixed spore-sacs. 13 species; 3 doubtful. C. voluhilis (PI. 41. fig. 4). Stem a
single tube, creeping, filiform
;

the stem,

cells on long, slender ringed stalks, campanulate, with a serrated margin vesicles ovate, wrinkled concentrically. Parasitic on sea-weeds &c. ;
;

frequent.

It forms an elegant microscopic

in

ordinary

The

vegetative cell-development. cambium of most Dicotyledons is gra;

object. C. dumosa.

dually matured into wood from within outwards but in the Monocotyledons and Flowerless Cormophytes it often remains in great part in a delicate and soft condition, forming the vasa propria of Mohl. Owing to the delicacy of its structure, cambium was formerly imagined to be a thick mucilaginous fluid poured out in the growing regions of plants (as between the wood and liber of Dicotyledonous stems in spring)
;

Stem compound,

erect or

climbing, irregularly branched; cells long, tubular, patent, almost sessile, orifice entii-e. In deep water. BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 107; Gosse,

Mar.
160.

Zool.

i.

24

Hincks, Brit. Zoopli.

CAMPANULAR'IID^E,
stalked.

Johnston.A

family of marine Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Those of Sertulariidte, but cells

which by degrees becomes organized and converted into cellular tissue, by the independent origin and subsequent coalescence
of a

number

of cells generated in this fluid.

others.

Genera Campamdaria, Laomedia. Hincks revises the family thus: Cells terminal, stalked, campanulate polypes with a large trumpet-shaped proboscis.
:

This erroneous view was strongly supported

And

admits the genera Clytia, Ohelia, Cam-

by Mirbel and

pannlaria^ Lovenella, Thaumantias, and Gonothi/rcea.

BiBL. Treviranus, PJiys. d. Gewdchse, i. 159; Mirbel, Ami. d. Sc. X. 2 ser. xi. .321, xix.197; 'Piiyen,Co7npt.Eend.lSS9; Schleiden, Botanik Henfrey-Masters, Botany Nfigeli, Zcitsch. f. n-iss. Bot. iii. 6-1, & Mikr.
;
;

BiBL.

Mar.

Zool.

CAMPANUBI'NA, Van Benedon. A

genus of marine Hydroid Zoophytes; family Campauulinida3.

Johnston, Brit. Zooph. i. Hincks, Br. Zooph.

;

Gosse,

p. 137.

576; Pfanzenzelle

^ioh\,Ve(jetah. Zelle (l^Ywasl.)]

' ;

Schacht,

CAMBRIC. This name was formerly apstrictly to the finest kind of linen cloth, now in a loose sense in trade.

Sachs, Bot.

8.3.

?lied used t is

French cambric, however, ought to be linen. Scotch and English cambrics are commonly made of cotton, while Indian cambric is

made

The fibres of the grass-cloth flbre. may be distinguished under the microscope, and the value of the fabric thus ascertained.
See FiBROtTS Substances and Cotton.

Stem simple or branched, rooted pointed above polypes cylindrical, with webbed tentacles reproduction by free medusa-buds, single in each capsule. 3 species. BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zoopih. p. 186. CAMPANULPNID^E. family of Polypi, order Ilydroida. Char. Cells ovato-conic, stalked; polypes long, C3dindrical, with a small conical proChar.
;

cells

boscis.

CAMERA LUCIDA.
p. xxii.

Introduction,
genus

G eneva CampanuUna, Zygodactyla, Oper:

cularclla:

CAMPANULA'RIA, Lamk. A

CAMPTOCER'CUS,

Baird

{Lynceus

CAMPTOSURUS.
Miill. pt.).

131

CANDONA.
;

genus of Entomostraca, order Cladocera, fiimily Lynceid;^. Char. Carapace ovoid beak blunt, directed forwards or slightly downwards ab;

transversely arcuate valves heterogeneous the inferior costate, the superior cribrosopunctate nodules absent. C. Argus. Atlantic.

domen

long, slender, tail-like, extremely

:

1 species flexible, and serrated. C. macroiirufi (PI. 20. fig. 4).

Carapace

CRANUM.

BiBL. Grun, Wien. Verhayidl. 1802, 429. CAM'PYLUPUS, Brid. (Musci) = DiBiBL. Wilson,
Brytil. Brit. p. 87.

striated longitudinally, slightly sinuated and ciliated on the anterior margin ; beak rather

blunt; aquatic. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Enfom. p. 128. CAMPTOSU'RUS, Presl, = Seolopendrimn, pt.

and Lachm. A genus of marine Infusoria, family Oxytrichina. C. paradoxus (PI. 51. fig. 29). With six

CAM'PYL0PUS,C1.

CA3IPT0THE'CIUM,Br. Sciich. = Hyp-

nuin in part.

CAMPTOUM,

Link.A genus

posterior setae, and eight posterior feet, six on the right and two on the left side. Remarkable for its bounding leaps, which make it very difficult of observation.

of

Dep.

BiBL. Claparede and Lachmann, Lifus,

184.

matiei (Hj^phomycetous Fungi), allied to Arthrininm. C. ci/rvatum, Lk. (Arthrinium

curvitfum, Kze.) grows in tufts of very slender filaments, bearing very minute, curved
spores,
viii.

A genus of
authors.

CAMPYLOSTE'LIUM,

Br.

and Sch.

Leptotrichaceous Mosses, inclu-

ding some Dicrana and Grimmice of older

upon

Scirjnis si/!vuficus.
JV.

BiBL. Berk, and Br. Ann.

Ic.

H. 2
;

ser.

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

of Diatomaceae
:

CAMPY LODIS'CUS,

100; Fries, Funq. iii. pi.

Sijst. 1. fis'. 17.

Myc.

iii.

377

Corda,
of

CAMPYLOS'TYLUS, Shadb.A genus

p. 51.

Ehr.A genus

= Sijnedra,

sp.

BiBL. Greville, Qu. Mic.

Diatomacefe. Char. Frustules single, free, disk-shaped disk curved or twisted (saddle-shaped) furnished with mostly radiate markings, which
; ;

CANADA BALSAM.
CANALICULL

J. 1862, 232.

See Balsam.

See Bone.

are frequently interrupted.

Aquatic and

CANCER. See Tumoues. CANCROID. See Tujioues, Cancroid. CANDA, Lamx. (CeZ/M/a/va part, Johngenus of lufundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Cyclostomata, and family Cellulariidse. Distinguished by the jointed, branched, erect polypidom, the flat, linear branches with the cells on one plane, and the cells having a vibraculum in a notch on the outer side but no avicularium at the upper angle. Placed with Scrupocellaria by Hincks.
ston).

marine.
are costae or canalicidi, forming minute canals between the internal

The markings

cell-membrane and the surrounding fluid

(Smith).

Smith describes 9

species (British)

Ra-

benhorst describes 28 European species, and

enumerates 27 foreign and

fossil species.

C. costatus, Smith (PL 16. fig. 16). Valves circular ; radii 30-40, extending about half-

the centre, which is minutely punctate diameter 1-270" aquatic. C. spiralis, Smith. Outline of front view resembhng a figure of 8; valves elliptical;

way

to

C. rt'pfans (Cellularia rept., Johnston) Orifice oval, (PI. 41. figs. 5, 5 c, and 5 d).

radii

about 00, nearly parallel and transverse; length 1-160" aquatic. C. clypeus, Ehr. (PI. 2o. fig. 18). Valves
;

with 3 or 4 marginal spines, and a stalked operculum with a lobed lamina. Common. BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph Busk (Brit. Mm.) Polyzoa, 26 Hincks, Polyzoa, 43. CANDA'CE, Dana.A genus of Entomostraca (Copepoda).
;

suborbicidar, exhibiting a circular and a median transverse hyaline line radii broad, interrupted in the middle, which is punctate
;
;

G. pectinata.

Dredged

at Scilly.
1.

BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda (Ray Soc),

CANDEI'NA, D'Orb.A

48.

"modification

length 1-200" aquatic and fossil. BiBL. Smith, Br. Diat. Kiitzing, BaciU. and Sp. Aly. Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. i. 4o Grun, Wien. Verh. 1862 j Schmidt, Atlas
; ;

of the Globigerine type of Foraminifera (according to Brady); built up with a three-sided alternation, and having a row of

pseudopodial pores along the base of its last

Diatom.

CAMPYLOXE'IS, Grun.A
Diatomacese, family Entopylcaj. Char. Frustules scutelliform,

genus of
adnate.

chamber. BiBL. D'Orbignv, For. Foss. Vien. 193 Bradv, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1879, xix. 78.

C ANDO 'N A, Baird( Cypris in part, MUll.)

k2

CANNA.

132

CAPILLARIES.
as

-^A genus of Ostracoda (Entomostraca), family Cvpridse. Char. Two pairs of antennae superior long, with numerous joints and a pencil of
;

regarded

kind of emulsion.

See

Latex.

CAPILLARIES. The
diate vessels

minute intermetraverses in

which the blood

long filaments

without

inferior stout and pediform, a tiift of long hairs or filameuts (see

;
:

passing from the arteries to the veins. The capillaries appear to consist of a delicate, transparent, tolerably resisting and elastic membrane, and a number of oval or

Cypeis)

eye single
;

motion creeping only.

freshw.

Five British species

C. albicans, Br.
;

lactea,Bd.; compressa, Candida, INIiill. BiBL. Baird, Entom. 159 Norman, Ann. N. II. 1862, ix. 46; Brady, Linn. Tr. 1868, xxyi. 381. CANNA. genus of Monocotyledonous plants belonging to the same natural family as the arrow-root (Marantacese), and valuTous-les-mois is able from the same cause. a starch derived from the tubers of a Canna, supposed to be C. edulis, Ker. The grains of genuine Tous-Ies-muis have distinctive microscopic characters, as shown in PL 46.

Koch

rounded longitudinal nuclei but when treated with very dilute solution of nitrate of silver, the dark dyed outlines of the epithelial cells, to which the nuclei belong, are brought to light (PL 51. fig. 31). The diameter of the human capiUaries varies from 1-5000 to 1-1000", the most common being perhaps 1-3000". The size of the capillaries in the Vertebrata generally, bears a relation to the size of the coloured corpuscles of the
;

Fig. 99.

fig.

25.

ricini

genus of Aga(Hymenomycetous Fungi), differing from Aqaricusm the vein-like gills.

CANTHAREL'LUS. A
CAN'THOCAMPTUS,

pt.,

Miill.). genus of Entomostraca, of the order Copepoda, and family Cyclojndae. Cha7\ Jaw-feet small, simple; inferior antennae simple ovary single. Four species one aquatic, three marine.
;
:

Baird {Cydops,

C.

minutus (PL 20.

fig. 6).

Thorax and

abdomen not

distinctly separate, coiisisting

of ten segments, successively diminishing

in size, the last terminating in two short lobes, from which issue two long filaments, antennae slightly serrate on their edges; in the male, nine in short,
;

seven-jointed the female inferior antennae simple, twofirst joint with a small lateral jointed, the feet five terminated by four setae
joint,
;

pairs.

Common

in

ditches

colour reddish,
:

length about 1-15". (PL 20. fig._ 6 a, inferior antenna; b, first pair of jaw-feet; second pair.) c, In a coal-mine. C. crypt Oram, Brady. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entom.; Brady, Qu. M. Jn. 1860, p. 23. gum-resinous substance contained in the milky juices of many but most abundantly in those of the

CAOUTCHOUCA

Magnified 300 diameters.

of the smallest vessels from the arterial side. 1, smallest artery '2, transition ve-isel 3, large capillaries ; small capillary, a, structureless membrane \yith few 4, nuclei, representing the adventitious coit; 6, nuclei of the muscular flbre-cells; c, nucleus inside the small artery; d. nuclei of the capillaries and intermediate From the human brain. vessel.
;

One

plants, families Euphorbiacere, Urticace.'u

and ApoIndia-rubber of comeynacea3, whence the mence is obtained. The caoutchouc appears in the form of minute globules suspended in a watery fiuid containing a gummy subbe stance; SO that the milky juice may

blood

Fishes,

and thus they are largest in Birds, and Reptiles. The larger capillaries

CAPNODIUM.

133

CARBASEA,

have thicker -v^-alls aud more numerous cells than the smaller ones. The capillaries branch and anastomose freely, giving- rise to the beautiful networks
60

well

objects

known as favourite when injected.

microscopic

The most important pathological changes which the capillaries undergo are those of the Fatty and amyloid Degeneratiox, The general arrangement of the capillaries
best seen in injected preparations (InjecTheir structure may be examined in pieces of the pia mater, of the retina, or the mesentery of an animal a minute portion of washed lung will also answer the purpose Tliese should be dissected with the well. mounted needles. The relation of the cais

of their tips project beyond it, forming a fringe; the cells of this fringe readily become detached and appear to reproduce as conidia. The central sac contains largish delicate asci, probably often absorbi^d at an early period, so as to set the spores free in the cavity. Particular joints of the filaments sometimes become 7/c/(-/m, producing free spores in their interior, without asci. Several species seem to occur in Britain ;

tion).

and amongst them C. elonc/atum, Berk. Desm. On pear-leaves.

C. C.

&

(^Fumago) quercinum, Pers., grows on

oak-leaves.

(Fumago)

Footii, Berk.

&

Desm., on

surrounding minute strucbe shown in portions of tissue which have been imperfectly injected, or injected with a liquid containing a small
pillaries to the

evergreens, on the birch-tree, and on Mercwialis 2}ere7iiiis. BiBL. Berkeley, Cn/pt. Bot. p. 275 Berk.
;

tures

may

&

Broome, Ann. N. H. 2ud

Berk.

&

Desmazieres,
JV.

J.

Hort. Soc.
ser.
iii.

ser. xiii. p. 408 iv. 2-t3

p.

Montagne, A/in.
lariefe.

H. 2nd

520.

quantity only of opaque colouring-matter in these the capillaries may be recognized by their containing the scattered granules of the colouring-matter. Between the cells are certain spaces (stomata), best seen in In the spleen-pulp, silvered preparations. and in the tissues of many of the lower animals, the finest currents of blood pass through lacunae or wall-less channels. The capillaries are developed from Non"branched connective corpuscles. medullated nerves have been traced into the walls of the capillaries. Acetic acid is frequently of use in rendering the tissues transparent, and bringing the The finer capillaries are nuclei to light. made more distinct by dyeing with carmine or logwood. BiBL. KoUiker, 31{kr. An. Bd. ii. Henle,
; ;

CAPSOSI'RA, K. A genus

of

Rivu-

Char. Filaments erect, narrow, crowded, moniliform, sheathed cells thickwalled. C. Brebissonii (PI. 63. fig. 11.). Greenish On stones, in streams (France). black.
parallel,
;

BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 344 ; Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. ii. 223. or Lorica. term somewhat indefinitely applied to the whole or a part of the shell or outer coat of certain

CARAPACE,

animals

as

those belonging to the classes

Allg. Anat.

graphy)
1
(tigs.)

Frey, Histohgk (full BiblioSchmidt, Mn. Mic. Jn. xJii. Eberth, Stricker-^s Hanclhxch
;

Chrzonszczewsky, Virchoid's Arckiv, 169; Cornil SciianyieT, Hist, path.;

fleisch, Ht'st.
;

xxxv. Rind-

and the Bibl. of Tissues. genus of Perisporiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi) growing as a kind of mildew on leaves and shoots, forming a blackish flocculent coat composed of short, branched, beaded or moniliform

CAPNODIUM, Montagne. A

The perifilaments, densely interwoven. thecia arise vertically from this, and are either simple or branched, at first simple sacs, but probably aftei'v\-ards thickened by a layer of cells a nmnber of threads ultimately grow lip from the mycelium, partiallycover the central sac and, closely crowded, some
; ;

Crustacea, Rotatoria, Infusoria, Sec. In regard to the Rotatoria and Infusoria, it has been divided into the testa or testula, an envelope resembling that of the tortoise, within which the body of the animal is enas closed, the head and the tail being free in the genera Brachionus, Monura, Colurus, &c. the sciitelhnn, a round or oval envelope, covering only the back of the animal, in the manner of a buckler; and the urceolus, a membranous or firm envelope, sometimes gelatinous, in the form of a bell or cylinder, open at one end and closed at the other, and within which the animal can completely retract itself as in Dipflugia &c. Ehrenberg extended the use of this term also to the external envelope of Volvox, Gonium, and the Dia'tomacese. As these
:

have been removed to thevegetablekingdom,

it is
_

not

now

CARBA'SEA, Gray. A genus of Infun-

applied to them.

dibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder Cheilostomata, and family Flustridae (Flustra, pt., Hincks).

CARBOLIC ACID.
Distinguislied
erect
flexible,

134

CARrOMITRA.
;

by the expanded, leafy, and the cells polypidoms being arranged in many rows, on one side
;

Char. Pedicle branched, spirfilly flexible bodies of the animals all alike ( = branched
Vorticellce).

only. C. impyrea (Flustra carhasea, (PI. 41. tigs. 19, 20). Cells oblong,

C.pohipinum
Johnst.)

(PI. 30. figs. 20, 21).

Cam;

and truncate
waters.

beloAv, convex,
7?/-.

narrowed unarmed. Deep

;

EiEL. Johnston,
3Iar. Poh/zoa, 50
;

Zooph. 345

Busk,

CARBOLIC ACID
substance
antiseptic,
is

Ilincks, Pohjz. 123. or Phenole. This largely used as a germicide and

is

the prevery valuable servation of animal and vegetable structures. The pure crj'stallized acid should be j>rocured. See Pbeservation.

and

panulate, expanded in front; cuticle smooth; nucleus recurved in a longitudinal plane pedimcle not jointed; length of bodies 1-580-1-430"; freshw. C. spectahilc. Thimble-shaped, not expanded cuticle finely striated nucleus recurved in a longitudinal plane, with several sinuosities; peduncle not jointed freshw.,
;

foetid.
C. EpistijUs. Body very narrow, smooth nucleus curved in a transverse plane peduncle distinctly jointed; freshw., in iusect;
;

CARBONATE OF LIME.
Carbonate
of.

See Lime,

larvce.

CARBO'NIA,
chiefly

Jones.

A genus of small

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. and Bei:

;

d.

Bed. Ah.

Carboniferous strata,

Cypridiform JEntomostraca, found in the and distinguished

by

their peculiar muscle-spot.

5

BiDL. "T. R. Jones, Geol. May. iii. 218, Jones & Kirby, Ann. N. II. pi. 9, f. 4-10
1879,
iv. 28.

The presence of this gaseous acid is usually determined by the addition of another acid, as acetic or muriatic, to the object under the microscope;
if colourless and inodorous bubbles escape, it is concluded, and in most cases correctly, that carbonic acid is present. It must be borne in mind that if the object be immersed in liqiiid, the gas may arise either from this or the object; for it i.s well known that the escape of a gas from a Hquid

CARBONIC ACID.

and

1840, 199 Dujardin, Inf. 551; Stein, Infus. 48, &c. Clap, and Lachm. /?;/. 97; Kent, Infusoria, 690. doubtful genus of CA'RIS, Latreille. Acarina. C. vespertilionts is found upon the bat ( Vespertilio i)ipii^treJh(s)j supposed to be the larva oH Deriiunii/ssus, or Arc/as. BiEL. LatreUle, Gen. Crustac. ^-c. i. IGl Audouin, Ann. d. Sc. N. Zool. xxv. 412 ; Walckenaer, Ajrieres (Gervais), 227. CARMINE. This beautiful pigment is sometimes used to feed Infusoria and fill their sacculi or gastric spaces (Infusoeia). It is also used as a colouring-matter for injections and. for dyeing or stainiag tissues
;

(see

Staining).

CAR'PAIS.

See Gamasus.

greatly facilitated by the presence of a solid and especially a pointed body, and that the gas escapes from the thus the liquid at its surface or point false appearance is produced of the gas being liberated from the body. Hence the importance of washing the object before the addition of the acid. When crj'stalline bodies of different forms are present, these must be separated before the addition of the acid; otherwise the bubbles liberated from tliose of one kind, by escaping at the surface of the others, may give rise to the false conclusion that they were derived from the latter. Recollection of the fact that carbonic acid is readily absorbed by solution of potash, would allow of the distinction of bubbles of this acid from those of air. CARCHE'SIUM, Ehr. genus of Infusoria, belonging to the family Yortiit is
;

charged with

genus of Foraminifera allied to Globif/rrina, but ceasing at an early age to grow spirally, and then forming expanded tent-like chambers

CARPENTE'RIA, Gray.A

which enclose the first-formed cells attached by the base to shells or corals, and
;

with a crater-like common aperture at the

apex.
Siliceous spicules occur in the cells. (PI. 51. fig. 28.) BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. Furam. 186. ^ca?-Ms Robin,
C. halanifurmis.

CARPOGLY'PHUS,
^

sp. (p. 5).

CAR'POGON,the name applied by Sachs

to the fruit or sporocarp of his Class Carposporefe. See Vegetable Kixgdoji. GARPOMI'TRA, Klitz. genus of

Sporochnacea3 (Fucoid Algfe) containing one rare British species, C. Cahrerce, Clem., remarkable for the peculiar mitre-shaped
conceptacle containing the spores. BiBL. Harvey, Marine Alg. Phyc. Brit. pi. 14.
pi.

5 B,

cellina.

CARTILAGE.

135

CARTILAGE.
The simplest form
cells only, is

CARTILAGE. Cartilage
firm,

consists of a

but

elastic, l)lui.sh,

substance, which either a simple parenchyma composed of celb, or a structure consisting of cells immersed in an intermediate basis. The cells of cartilage are usually round, oval, elongated or angular, frequently Hat-

milky or Yellowish morphologically forms

In tened and sometimes spindle-shaped. some cartilage they appear stellate, or exhibit
distinct radiating processes, as in that of the cuttle-fish, the sharks and rays,

of cartilage, viz. that met with in the chordd dorsalis or notochord of embryos, in the adult skeleton of many fishes, the tentacles of the Acalephaj, and in the cartilage of the ear of many mammals. The protoplasm in these cells often exhibits radiating strife in which currents are visible. The structure is beautifully seen in the chorda dorsalis of a young tadpole or Triton, or in the ear of the moase (PI. 49. fig. 38). In

composed of

and enchondromatous

gi'owths.

Fig. 101.

In the ossifying pseudo-cartilage of true bone, real stellate cells are however met with. See BoxE.
Fig. 100.

../

Magnified

3.50

diameters.

Cells from the gelatinous nucleus of the intervertebral ligaments. 1 a, large primary cell with a septum formed by two secondary cells, and five tertiary capsular cells or cells of the second generation with concentric walls and shrunk nuclei c in the small cell-cavities.
2,

cavity

primary cell a, with two secondary cells separated by a delicate septum b, with thickened walls, a small and a shrunk nucleus e.

Magnified 350 diameterB.

Primary (parent-) cells with one and two nuclei, or two and four secondary cells and intervening basis.

From

the cranial cartilage of a full-grown tadpole.

cell-Avalls are generally thick, and or frequently composed of several layers " The contents consist of a clear capsules. sometimes the cell liquid and a nucleus and sometimes both the cell and the nucleus contain one or more globules of oil. The cells also frequently constitute other or parent-cells, i. e. cells containing secondary cell? within them, these con-

The

the latter instance, each cell is filled with a globule of oil, which must be separated by digestion in ether before the cell-structure can be jjroperly examined but boiling on a slide in solution of potash, or the addition of sulphuric acid will liberate the globules of fat from parts of a section. This variety resembles in appearance ofcartilage exactly a section of vegetable cellular tissue. The second variety of cartilage, in which the basis is more abundant and homogeneous or finely granular, true or hyaline
;

cartilage as it is called (PI. 49. fig. 39), is met with in the larger cartilages of the
respiratorv' oigans, in the articular, costal, ensifurra and nasal cartilages. In this the cell-walls are closely adherent to the inter-

taining also nuclei or tertiaiy cells. The secondarv' and tertiary cells sometimes exhibit well the internal layers. It is undecided whether these capsular layers are hardened products of secretion of the cells, or whether they represent the changed peripheral portions of the cellbodies themselves. The latter seems most
probable. The intervening basis is either homogeneous, finely granular, or fibrous; sometimes the fibres are distinct and can be isolated.

cellular

ba.sis, so that they are rarely visible without the use of reagents. The cells are

most numerous in the articular cartilages, and arre mostly smaller the further they are from the bone. Their long axes are placed
perpendicularly to the axis of the bone, in a thin layer next the surface of except the joints, in which they are parallel to the Both the cells and the nucleus of surface. this cartilage exhibit a fibrous network.

CASEINE.

136

CATHAEIXEA,
The
deposit examined microscopito

The third variety of cartilage forms fibroIn or reticular cartilage (PI. 49. fig. 40). this, the fibres consist either of white
fibrous tissue, forming white fibro-cartilage, as in the intervertebral and interarticular or of elastic tissue, forming cartilages yellow or elastic fibro-cartilage, as in the epiglottis, the ear. and the Eustachian tube. It consists principally of fibres, single or in bundles, sometimes running parallel, at
;

terms.

others interlacing; and between them lie Sometimes the the cartilage corpuscles.
basis of hyaline cartilage becomes fibrous, and true fibres may be found in it. Bubnoff describes, in cartilage treated with osmic acid, a complex network of
canals, passing in all directions
cartilage.

giving the chemical reactions of a proteine comwith entangled globules of oil. This pound, rendered it probable that it consisted of the caseine of milk, with globules of butter. It was afterwards recollected that milk had been put into a tumbler kept in the place from which this had been taken and thus the toatter ended. CASSAVA. The coarser part of the starch (tapioca being the finer) derived from the tuberous root of the Jatropha Mnnihot, L. (Janij)ha Manihot, Knth. Mcmihot vtilissima, Pohl), a Brazilian plant of the
;
;

cally and microchemically was found consist of an amorphous substance,

through the

family Euphorbiaceos. are represented in PI. 46.

The
fig.

starch-grains
14.

In regard to chemical composition, the homogeneous basis usually consists of chonThe cell-walls are composed of a driue. substance allied to elastic tissue they are not dissolved by boiling in water, and are acted upon with difficulty by acids and The liquid within the cells is alkalies.
;

probably albuminous

it is coagulated by water and dilute organic acids, and is readily

;

CASSEBEE'RA, Kaulf. genus of Pteridefe (Polypodiaceous Ferns), nearly re3 species Brazil. lated to Adiantum. Bibl, Hooker, Siin. Fil. 142. CASSIUULI'NA, D'Orb. group of JPo?-amm2yf?' subordinate to Bidimina. The chambers are alternate in unequal pairs, and form a more or less discoidal, instead of
:

soluble in alkalies. When sections of cartilage are subjected to the action of Schultze's test, the cells are coloured red, but not the basis. By macerating hyaline cartilage in dilute acids or warm water, the matrix often exhibits concentric lamina?. Some staining agents are useful in enabling the components of hyaline cartilage to be distinguished. Thus, the fat-globules are blackened by osmic acid ; chloride of and nitrate gold colours the cells violet of silver stains the matrix (Rutherford).
;

spiral, coil. The aperture is oblique, formed by an inverted slit-like fold of the lower

part of the septal face, as in Bulimina. Two British recent species, C. Icevigcda (PI. 23. fig. 45) and crassa, are common and a few others, with these, are found in all seas, and in the middle and later Tertiaries.
;

Bibl. "Williamson, Foram. 68, figs. 140-144; Carpenter, i^or^TO. 197; Parker and Jones, PW. Tr. civ. 377.

CATASCOTIUM,
ley, Brit.

Brid. A genus

of

BartramioidefE (Acrocarpous Mosses). Bibl. Wilson, i?^7/o/. iV/;!. p. 285; Berke-

Mus.

BiBL. Kolliker, Mik. An. Bd. i. Henle, Alh/. Atnit. Redfern, J^d. Month. Journ.
; ;

'CATENEL'LA ,Grev. Agenus

p. 168.

of Cryp-

1851-1854 Mulder (and Bonders), Vhys. Chemie Frey, Histol. 184 BubnofF, Ber. d. Wien. Ak. Ivii. Klein, Hist., 48 Gegenbam-, Vergl. An. 27; RoUett, Strieker^ s GetceM. and the Bibl. of Tissues.
;

tonemiacese (Florideous Algas), represented by one British species, C. Opitntia (PL 4. which is not uncommon on marine fig. 21), rocks near highwater mark. It presents a

CASEINE
milk.
ters.

is

It possesses

the proteine constituent of no microscopic charac-

mass of creeping fibres, from which arise densely matted fronds 1-2 to 1" high. Colour dull dark purple. The favci/idia are
contained in the lateral capsular bodies the tetraspores are imbedded in (fig. 102) the peripherv of the loosely cellular axis
;

years since, a tumbler containing was a small porter, at the bottom of whicli quantity of a whitish sediment, was brought to us for examination, suspicion being entertained that the white deposit consisted of some poisonous substance which had been added by a woman R'ith the view of poisoning her husband, the two not being on good

Some

(fig.

103).
;

Bibl. Greville, ^/r/. ^r^V. pi. 17; Harvev, Br. Mar. Ak/. pi. 20'B Ph/c. Brit. 88 ;
pi.

Ent/1. Bot. {Bivularia Opuntia), p], 1868.

CATERPILLARS. See Insects. CATIIARrXEA, Ehrh. A genus

of

Polytrichaceous Mosses, containing some of

CATTLE-PLAGUE.
Fig. 102.

137

CELL.
wound
the ovai'y, and so cause

Fig. 103.

yellow larvpe

a form of blight. C. destructor, the

or Hessian
crops.
fly,
is

American wheat-midge, still more injurious to

These insects may be found among the ears of corn in the evening during the month of May or June.

wood, Intr.

BiBL. \sAxh\,Linn. Tr.m..,i\.,x.\ WestSidney, BliyMs of the p. ol9 Wheat, p. 109. CE'CROPS, Leach. A genus of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and family
;

Caligina. C. LatreilUi.

Found on the

sun-fish

Female, length 1", (^Orthaqoriscus viout). male 1-3". BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entomosf. p. 289; V,
CateneUa Opnntia.
Fig. 102. Fragment of a frond, with lateral capsular bodies containing the favelMia. Magnilled 10 diameters. Fig. 103. Transverse section of the axis, showing the immersed tetraspores. JVIagniiled 50 diameters.

d.

CEDAR. The
'

Hoeven. Handb.

d. Zoologie,

i.

Cedar of Lel)anon

is

the
so-

Abies or Pinus Cedrus.

called
cedar,'

The fragrant

of

made, is the wood See CoNiFERJE and

pencils &c. are of Juniperus virginiana.

which

the Pohjtricha of autliors, having a naked ^Atrichum aud Oligotrichum oi calyptra Wilson's Bryoloqia. BiBL. ^Yllson, Bryol. Brit. pp. 202, 204. or Rinderpest. This terrible disease requires a brief notice
;

CATTLE-PLAGUE

on account of its microscopic relations. Careful examination of the muscles of animals ^^hich had died of it showed the preThe.se were found sence of "Entuzoa." afterwards to be Psorospermice, and to exist in healthy as well as in di.<eased animals so that they had no connexion with the malady. A most copious Bibliography of the parasites infesting cattle is given in Cobbold's work, p. 3o2. BiBL. Beale, Q>i. 3Iic. Jn. 18G6, p. 141 Cobbold, Parasifes, 1879, p. 280. (figs.) PEPPER. This substance
;

tissues and organs of animals, like those of plants, are in great part made up of or derived from cells but the full-grown structures of animals are strikingly distingui-shed in general from those of vegetables by the departure from or disguisal of the primitive ceUidar consti;

CELL, Animal.

Wood. The

tution.

the cell

of Cell, vegetable, defined as a vesicle or sac consisting of a membrane composed of cellulose, containing within it a nitrogenous structure, the vital part, called the protoplasm or primordial utricle. In animals, as in the earlier stages of many plants, this
is

Under tbe head

protoplasm

may

exist alone, either

forming

CAYENNE

consists of the ground seed-vessels of various species of Capsicum ; it is often adulterated

the entire organism, or its parts only, without a membranous envelope forming the true cell or closed sac, as in Amceba and analogous organisms; but ordinarily the animal cell, like the vegetable, is a true shut
sac, enclosing liquid or gelatinous protoplas-

botb with substances increasing the bulk, and with mineral colouring-matters. For the detection of the former the microscope
employed, first studying the characters observed in the true unground peppers. Turmeric and rice-flour are named as falsifying substances red earths, vermilion, and red lead are detected by chemical analysis. BiBL. That of Adulterations. CECIDOMYTA, Latr.A genus of Dipis
;

mic contents, the membrane, however, being Here almost always composed of a nitrogenous compound, and only in a few cases of celhdose or allied substances such as prevail in the solid parts of plants.

The membrane of-animal cells is ordinarily

transparent and colourless, mostly smooth, and so thin as to exhibit only a single boundary line more rarely the membrane is tolerably firm, presenting a measurable while it is sometimes very thick, thickness,
;

tera, of the family Tipulidfe. C. tritici is the wheat-midge,

posits its eggs in the flowers of

which decom. Tiie

and appears to consist of several

layers.

CELL.

138

CELL,
;

Occasionally the membrane lias a granular appearance, arising from projections deon granules lying on the inside. Kendent To structure can be detected in the cell-

membrane itself. The membranous

tence of

cell

generally contains
in this float, or are

a liquid or semifluid protoplasm, the consis-

which

varies

suspended, molecules, granules, globules, or other very minute cells. But modern observations indicate the existence of a network of filaments, traversing the substance of the protoplasm. In most cells, we also find one or more of those bodies which are termed nuclei, often attached to some jiart of the cell-wall in these again, a network of fibres is stated to occur. The nuclei con;

The cell-contents likewise include, in particular structures, products of

tain nucleoli.

consist also of a proteine compound they are soluble in potash,' but not in acetic acid. The action of potash distinguishes them from globules of fat. The carmine-ammonia solution has a much more rapid and powerful dyeing action upon the protoplasm and the nuclei than upon the cell-walls. It must be remarked that the appearances interpreted to be nuclei and nucleoli are frequently not respectively identical in kind; the nuclei are sometimes homogeneous, at others true cells; sometimes they relate to the formation of the cell ; at others they are young secondary cells, vacuoles, &c. the same applies to the nucleoli. These important points have not hitherto received sufficient attention. Cells, or rather their protoplasms, are en;

secretionmatters separated by the

cells

from the circulating

fluid, as in the cells of

the renal epithelium, pigment, &c.

&c.,

dowed with peculiar vital forces, by which they are capable of free movement, absorption, and the elaboration of the absorbed
of growth, reproduction, and of The entire organism of the higher and most of the lower animals consists, at a certain period of life, of cells, but some-

also

crystals,

matter;

secretion.

The /or??JS presented by animal cells are not so varied, or generally so geometrical, as those occurring in the cells of vegetables. In regard to size, the largest are the yelkcells of ova, especially of Birds and Reptiles, and of some animals consisting of a single curious organisms cell, as certain of those the Greyarince.
nuclei are usually spherical or lenticular, non-contractile, transparent, and colourless or yellowish. They are sometimes solid or homogeneous ; at others they are vesicles, with a very delicate membrane. They sometimes contain, exclusively of the nucleolus, a transparent colourless or yel-

times of protoplasm alone. Formation of Cells. Cells are formed in two ways either from a blastema, protoplasm, or formative substance existing withThe out, or contained within, other cells.

The

protoplasm is a semifluid substance, consisting of proteine or albuminous matter, fatty

matter and salts. The formation of cells in a free blastema is not a general process in fact, its occur;

rence

is

now mostly

denied.

The only

in-

Fig. 104.

lowish liquid, in which water and acetic acid produce a precipitate of gramdes resembling those existing in the cell-contents hence in the ordinary manner of examining them they seldom present their natural transparency. The nuclei seem to be se;

creted or formed by the protoplasm, and are regulators of the vital plienomena. The nucleoli are roimded, well defined,

Magnified 350 diameters. Contents of a Jliilpighian body from the spleen of an

01.
a,

small,

b,

larger cells;

c,

free nuclei.

very minute, sometimes immeasurable. Chemically, the cell-membrane ordinarily

consists of a proteine compound; it is mostly dissolved, or rendered so transparent as to become invisible, by acetic acid and solution thus differing in a striking manof
;

potash ner from that of vegetable cells. Cell-membranes composed of cellulose occur in some it is deanimals, as in the Tunicata &c. tected here, as in plants, by the action of
;

iodine

and sulphuric

acid.

The

nucleoli

stances of its supposed occurrence in man and the higher anim;^ls were in the formation of the chyle and lymph corpuscles, the cells of certain glandular secretions (seminal cells, ova), and glandular organs (the closed follicles of the intestine, the lymphatic glands, the splenic corpuscles with the and the thymus) ; lastly, of splenic pulp, the cellular elements in the impregnated uterus, in the corpus luteum, the marrow of foetal bones, and in the soft ossifying bias-

CELL.
teniata.

130

CELL.

In the case of the chyle and the

spleen, at tlie

commencement

of cell-forma-

tion, there occin- ronndish,apparentlv

homo-

geneous bodies of 1-11000 to l-rjGOU" diameter, which, increasing in size, soon appear distinctly as vesicles (tig. 104), and, on the addition of water, exhibit an internal large

and resolved into two nuclei. After this the nuclei separate from each other, and a partition is formed between the cells, dividing the parent cell into two perfectly distinct spaces, each of which encloses a nucleus and half of the contents (fig. 100). The exact manner in which the increase of
the nucleus occurs is not certain but it appears that the nucleoli always become resolved into two by subdivision, and then In the nuclei, separate from each other. which at the same time become elongated, the first trace of division is then usually a median partition, which in favourable instances appears to arise from the presence of two secondary cells in close contact by plane surfaces and entirely filling up the
;

body resembling a nucleolus, as also several The minute details of this stage granules. of the process of formation are not accuAs soon as the nuclei are rately known. formed, cell-membranes are formed around
them, but not always in the same manner.

Sometimes the

cell-wall is deposited directly

around the nucleus, so that it is but little larger than the latter; at others the nucleus becomes surrounded by a larger or smaller quantity of protoplasm which becomes more sohd. and around which the cell-membrane
is

The latter ocsubsequently deposited. currence has hitherto only been satisfactorily observed in the case of the ovum, in which the germinal vesicle, i. e. the nucleus of the ovum-cell, which is formed first, becomes surrounded by a quantity of yelk, before the vitelline membrane is formed. On the other hand, the formation of the cell-wall directly around the nucleus has been supposed to take place in all the other
localities

parent nucleus. Very frequently nothing is seen but first an elongated nucleus with a partition and two nucleoli, and then two hemispherical nuclei in contact by their
plane surfaces
(fig.

lO.o),

no endogenous

Fig. 105.

mentioned above

and to be espeof
free

Magnified 350 diameters.

elongated nucleus, and one containing two secondary nuclei, from the ovum of an Ascaris dentata.

cially

shown by the occurrence

An

and larger cells, together with very small cells closely surrounding the nuclei, or separated from them by a slight interval It is possible that, in this instance only. also, the cell-membrane, even at its first formation, may be separated from the nuclei by a quantity of protoplasm too minute to be detected. The free formation of cells has been observed by Weissmann in insects during denuclei

velopment.

The

extracellular formation of cells

in plants.

is

unknown

And

nucleus-formation being perceptible in this case, division of the nucleus has taken place, the parent-nucleus containing two nucleoli becoming finally resolved into two by a deeper and deeper constriction. This mode of cell -formation is often continuously repeated, frequently so long as the growth of the organism continues. The parent-cells then either continue their existence as such, or they disappear sooner or later as histo;

probably,

when

observers are agreed, it will be found that all protoplasts and cells are deiiAed from parent protoplasts by some form of segmentation.

formations, and become consolidated with the substance connecting the ceUs.
logically distinct

or the formation very common, and may be readily observed in the tissues of embryos. In the most ordinaiy foi-m of this kind of cell-formation, an original or parentcell produces within it two secondary cells, which from the first completely fill it. The first phenomenon observed in the parentcell is the increase of the nucleus, which of cells within others,
is

The endogenous method,

The endogenous cell-formation, which agrees essentially with the formation of cells in a free protoplasm, is well estabhshed in the case of the young cartilages of all
animals
;

it

also

probably

occin-s in

embry-

acquires

two

nucleoli,

becomes elongated

onic organs in general, in which, from the period at which they consist of true cells, the entire growth depends upon the multiplication of the existing cells without free It also occurs in patholocell-formation. gical products, as in cancer. In addition to this the most common

CELL.
others, viz.
a.

140

CELL.

kind of endogenous cell-formation, there are

:

In the ora of most animals at the earliest

period of development, a peculiar process occurs called the segmentation of the jelk, which must be regarded as preliminary to the formation of tlie first embryonic cells; and which, as the ovum bears the import of a simple cell, falls under the type of endogenous cell -formation. The essential features of the segmentation are as follows. After the original nucleus of the ovum-cell the germinal vesicle has disappeared in consequence of impregnation, the granules of the yelk no longer remain aggi-egated

mentation, because here the entire yelk is applied to the newly-formed nuclei partial segmentation agrees with this in all essentials, and only dilfers from it in the circumstance that in it, not the whole of the yelk, but a larger or smaller part of it, varying in different animals, envelopes the nuclei in process of formation (figs. 106-108). When the process of segmentation has reached a certain stage, the segmentationglobules become surrounded with membranes and form true cells, whence it ap:

pears justifiable to arrange this process with

into a compact mass as before, but become distributed throughout the entire cell. The first sign of commencing development is then constituted by the formation of a new nucleus the first embryonic niicleus,around a new nucleolus, which acts as a centre of attraction to the yelk, and causes it to reunite into a globular mass the first globule of segmentation. In further development, two new nucleoli are formed from the

In fact it is endogenous cell-formation. nothing more than a preliminary to cellformation in the ovum-cell, and only differs from the ordinary phenomena of this kind in the circumstance that first, the nucleus

of the parent-cell or the germinal vesicle in most cases has nothing to do with it se;

condly, the parent-cell itself persists and, thirdly, the portions of the contents formed in it by the successive increase of nuclei do not assume the form of cells until subse;

quent generations.

This view

is

moreover

nucleus by endogenous growth, which, as soon as they are set free by the development of the parent nucleus, become separate from each other, act as new centres to the yelk-granules, and thus the first globule of segmentation becomes resolved into two. The increase of the nuclei and of the globules of segmentation continues in the same way, the first always preceding, until a very large number of small globules are present, which entirely fill up the yelk-cell sometimes, but exceptionally, the globules are not resolved until the nuclei have become
first
;

justified, since the cells formed from the last segmentation-globules continue for a

long period to multiply by endogenous production (or division) and the entire segmentation-process may be regarded as a
;

kind of endogenous cell-formation, in which, on account of the rapidity with which the
nuclei increase, in the first generation of globules it does not come to the formation of membranes (see Ovum).
b. In some respects allied to segmentation, are those forms of endogenous cell-formation in which a greater or less number of secondary cells are formed within persistent parent-cells, as seen here and there in carti-

Fig. 106.

Fig. 107.

Fig. 108.

lage, the suprarenal capsules, the pituitary body. Sec. In this case, either two second-

Magnified

:!50

diameters.
:

Three ova of an Ancaris nigroreiwsa 1, in tiie first' 2, in the second, nnd 3, in the third stage of segmentation, wilh two, four and sixteen segmentation-globules.
a,

ary cells are formed in the usual way in a almost or entirely filling it, and from these other generations, either free or all or individual ones enclosed in parent-cells of the second and subsequent generations, or only one secondaiT cell is formed in a cell, whence cell-formation then proceeds in either manner (fig. 109), or the secondaiy cell is formed in a bud-like protrusion of the
cell,

In

outer coat of the ovum; ft, ecgmentation-globiiles. 1, the nucleus of the lowest globule contains two in 2, the lowest globule two nuclei. nucleoli
;

parent-cell (see

Echikococcus).

increased to three or four, so that three or four globules are formed from each, instead of two. This process is termed total seg-

The formation of a larger number of nuclei within cells, which frequently precedes cell-fornuition, but may also exist alone, may be well arranged under endogenous cell-growth. Even in ordinary endogenous cell-fonnation (and also in seg-

CELL.
Fig. 109.

141

CELL.
Fig. 110.

Magnified

.350

diameters.

Ivory-cells from the tooth of a dog.

with

because the cell-formation, seminal filaments are developed within them; and the same applies to those cells of the lower animals, the numerous nuclei of which are converted into urticating organs. Whether in these cases the nuclei
multiply by division or endogenous
is

i;

'

Magnified 350 diameters. articular carCartilage-cells from a fibrous Telrety all lying iu a tilage of the condyle of a human femur a, single cells, with flbi-ous basis, and easily isolated, or without thickening "of the cell-wall, and one or two nuclei: 6, secondary cells, or cells of the first generaone, two, five, and many tion, with one or two nuclei cells in the parent-cells 6'; c, cells of the second generation, one to three in those of the first, hh\ c/, free group of secondary cells.
;

mentation)

-sre

and four nuclei

not unfrequently find three in one parent-cell, so that

then, instead of two, a larger number of secondary celLs are formed at once, as e. g. in the liver-cells of embryos. In certain animals ( CucuUanus, Ascaris clentata, Disfoma, and the Cestoidea), instead of segmentation-globules, in the first stage of development, nuclei only are formed in the ovum-

Cell-formation hy division has been observed" in the coloured blood-corpuscles of the embryos of Birds and Mammalia, and the earliest colourless blood-corpuscles of the larvae of frogs (tadpoles) it also probably occurs in the colourless blood-corand the chyle-corpuscles of embiyos Mammals. In all these puscles of adult cases the cells first become elongated, and the single nuclei appear to become divided into two the cells are then constricted in the middle and finally resolved into two, each with a nucleus (PI. 49. fig. 36). peculiar kind of cell-gr-owth, most the cells nearly allied to di\'ision, occurs in of the ivory of the teeth in which the nu; ;

growth

unknown.

which do not become surrounded by cell-membranes until they have accumulated into a large heap by successive endogenous growth. The same appears to take place in the cells of the germ of the Crustacea, in which from ten to twenty nuclei The numerous nuclei, frequently exist. however, in the seminal cells of most animals appear usually to have no connexion
cell,

while continually elongating, enlarge from time to time and become constricted, so that whilst that portion next the ivory serves to a certain ossifies, the remainder
clei,

extent as a reserve for the subsequent for-

mation of newly ossifying portions (fig. 110), The term cell is frequently used in a
totally difierent sense, to denote a partially closed space, or the cup-like body enclosing

CELL.
;

142

CELL.

the space as in the case of the cells of a Polype, or Polyzoon, the cells of a sponge, &c. BiBL. Treatises on Physiologif Schwann,
;

Einstimmioni
Physiol.
in)
;

(St/d.

Soc.)

id.

Waffner's

Valentin, Phys.
d.

webelehre
;

KoUiker, GeMenschen (and the Bibl. there;

Siebold, Zeitschr. f. ivissens. Zool. i. p. 270; Ptollett, Sf richer' s Handbuch (Syd.

Soc.)
i.
;

Histolor/ie, and the Bihl.) Virchoio's Archiv, xl. ; Reckxxviii. ; ibid, Weissmann, linghausen, Zeitsch. f. rat. Med. 3rd ser. xv. Klein, Qu. Mie. Jn. 1878 and 1879, and Hist. Strassburger, ZeltenbilCarpenter, Phys.

Frey,

Cohnheim,

dung, 1880; and the Bibl. of Tissues. CELL, Animal, artificial formation of. When oil is immersed in a liquid containing albumen, it becomes surrounded by a layer of coagulated albumen, forming a cell and this cell will exhibit the phenomena of endosmose and exosmose in the same manner The same phenomenon as any natural cell. has been observed with metallic mercury and albumen, chloroform and albumen, chloroIt has not yet ftjrm and chondrine, &c. been satisfactorily explained. The natural formation of cells has been supposed to be

are indeed in all cases the important vital All young vegetable parts of the structure. cells contain a quantity of semiiiuid nitrogenous formative substance called protoplasm, which may be chiefly adherent as a thickish and more or less continuous layer on the inside of the cellulose wall, forming a kind of lining to it, and therefore enclosing all the rest of the contents, in which case it forms the primordial utricle of Mohl ; or this dense protoplasm may fill up the whole cavity of the cell as a gelatinous mass. Or the gelatinous mass of protoplasm may emerge from the cellulose sac, with a definite form and organization, furnished with cilia enabling it to move freely in water and here the protoplasm presents
;

independent, and indeed as the primary element of all cellular tissue it occurs in this condition in the zoospores of the Confervoid Algne. These free bodies, devoid at first of a cellulose wall, are evidently analogous to the corpuscles of sarcode constituting certain animals, such as Amoeba, while the cartilage-cells &c. of animals are analogous to the cellulose sacs of plants. In this work, then, the word cell, as applied to organic structures, is always used
itself as
:

'

'

produced by this method

but

it

appears

inapplicable to the purpose, as the nuclei or masses of blastema, around which natural cells are formed, do not consist of fat.

See Concretions. Bibl. Ascherson, Miiller's Archiv, 1840, Wittich, De hymenogonia albup. .44, &c. minis, Eegiomout. 1850 Harting, Neder. Lane. Sept. 1851 Melsens, Bull, de VAcad. de Belg. 1850 Panum, Archiv f. path. Ati. Kiiliv. 2 ; Bennett, JEd. Mn. Jn. viii. 16G Schmidt, liker, Geweb. d. Mensch. 10 Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, v. 10.
;

in its ordinary sense. Hiickel's unnecessary terms Cytode for the simple protoplast, and Cell for the nucleated protoplast, are ignored in botanical works. Form. Cells may present almost every and this possible modification of form depends on two sets of conditions the ori-

CELL, Vegetable. The

cell

definition of

in Tegetable anatomy, ordinarily adopted, is, a closed sac composed of an (originally) imperforate membrane formed of the chemical substance called cellulose, this membrane enclosing more or less fluid

the term

tality.

contents so long as the ceU retains its viAll the solid permanent structures of plants are formed of cells answering to this character, the differences of the full-

tissues depending upon peculiar modifications and alterations of the original In animal structures, the term cell cells. is commonly applied, not only to structures really analogous to the cells of plants, but also structures analogous to the contents of

grown

ginal development and shape, and the mode of growth and expansion. It is frequently stated that the primary form of all vegetable cells is that of a sphere, or at all events that this is the type, from which all the others must be considered deviations. This is true only so far as it is intended to signify that most cells which originate free in the midst of fluid, suffering no external compression, have a globular form and that in numerous cases where cellular tissues are very lax and free to expand in all directions, the component cells acquire a globular form during the enlargement to their full size. But in a very large majority of cases the cells do not originate in a free condition, they are produced by subdi\ision of older cells, and
;

the true cellulose plants, which, however,

consequent^, when first developed, they have the shape of the half, the quarter, or whatever segment it may be. of the parentcell moreover, in a majority of these cases the mode of expansion also depends upon a special law of the particular tissue, or even
;

CELL.
of such tissue in the particular

143

CELL.

group to

which the plant belongs, and not upon any The general law of globular expansion. above law does prevail widely in some famiand we very frequently lies, as in the Fungi
;

rounded ends or attenuated ends, as in wood or they may and liber tissue generally be prismatic, and then square or six-sided, as in stems of most herbaceous plants
;

spindle-shaped,
;

see

it prevailing in pith up to a certain period but it will not hold as a general rule for the lax tissues of leaves, of succulent stems, &c.
: ;

offer

vai'ied

most strildng deviations, as do also the and often elegant forms of lower
It
is

a largo number of woods, such as that of Conifers, Box, &c. and, in fact, of almost every conIn lax tissues, the walls ceivable form. of the cells often grow very unequally at
as in

different points,

frequently stated in books, that the effect of pressure on cells having a tendency to become globular, is the production of a dodecahedral form but this again is far too a generalization, and the
Algae.
;

jections,

wheuce result angular proby which the cells ordinarily co113)

;

here

(tig.

or these
stel-

grow out

into

arms or rays, producing

the

late cells, as in the pith of

sweeping

Rush (PL
ot

47.

Fig. 113.

fig.

18),

expanding

real fact is that globular cells of equal size, in a confined space, often become twelve-sided mutual pressui-e ; but far

and the parenchyma of many

aquatic
stalk
jalants, in

by

the leafthe Banana, &c.

more often the cells of a tissue are of diverse size, and hence a polyhedral form is much more common (tig. 111). Cells may be
Fig. 111.

Cells which are free, as in the lower cellular plants, sometimes grow out into lono' tubular structures such as Vaunkeria, with a conti-

t^^ ^ *"^^
^^

)'

nuous cavity, and indeed sometimes ramify into a complication of branches, as in Brt/opsis and C'odium, while in Botnjdium (fig. 7o) the globular cell sends down a number of root-like filaments Avhicli are mere protrusions of its own wall. The cells of Chara
In the Flowering attain very large size. plants we have an example of extraordinary growth of a single cell in the pollen-tubes, which, in some cases, become as much as three inches long. SV^e.^The dimensions of cells vary to infinity, and, indeed, often extremely in one and the same tissue, but not as a rule. And the diameter of cells is very frequently incomparably less than the length, as in all filamentous and fibrous cells. Taking a very general view, we may sav that parenchymacells vary from l-2o0 to 1-1000" in diameter but the spores of many Fungi measure no more than 1-0000 to 1-8000", while the cells of the juicy parenchyma of many fruits and piths attain as much as 1-100". The smallest cells appear to occur in
;

Yeast-plant, and many globular, as lower Algse, in the lax tissue of young pith of many Dicotyledons (PI. 47. fig. 14), &e. ; oval, as is much more common in parencliymatous tissues squarish, as in cork (PL 47. or tabular, as in the epidermis figs. 16, 17) ;
in the
;

of numerous plants, under which circumstances the side walls may be square, rhombic, hexagonal or irregular, as in many the outlines may petals and also be undulated or even Fig. 112. beautifully zigzagged, as in /X^_^ the leaf of Hellehorus fcetidus .S^ of many &c., the petals flowers, or in the leaf of the
;

Pineapple (PL 47. fig. 15), &c. while the upper exposed face may be flat or vaulted, as in most petals, or even papilliform, as in the petals
;

the Sweet William and of most flowers with glistening surface. Cells may also be cylindrical, and then either with flat ends (fig. 112), as in the parenchyma of many Monocotyledons and in the filaments of Confervae, or
of

Talmella hyalina, where they measure the 1-83,000". In elongated cells, such as those of liber and most woods, the diameter is ordinarily less than in parenchyma, while the length is far greater: thus in wood the length varies from about 1-40 to 1-12", while the diameters are respectively 1-300 and 1-100"; in liber the length may extend to 1-8 or 1-4", with a diameter of 1-800 and 1-400". (See Fibres.) Hairs composed of a single cell often attain a great length,

CELL.

144

CELL.

as in Cotton, where a single filamentous cell may measiu'e 1 to 2". (See Tissues,

Vegetable.)
Cells may be examined either in situ, as parts of tissues, or free, separated naturally For the lirst it is simply or artificially. requisite to make fine slices with a razor, in various directions through the structure if soft or thin, it should he placed between the two halves of a split vial-cork and sliced with the cork, the cork being afterwards removed from the slide with a needle. Slices of many kinds of cellular tissue are made more clear by the addition of a little diluted sulphuric acid, which, however, often swells up some
;

ture often forms a semifluid layer lining the cellulose wall of the cell. All the other cell-contents are enclosed or imbedded in
this protoplasm and with it they collectively constitute what is called by some authors the endochrome of the cell. In a very large number of cases, we find in the protoplasm at this time, a peculiar body called the nucleus, to which some writers attribute great importance in the Its nature is not dovelopment of cells. well defined ; but in the best-observed cases, it consists of a small globular or lenticular mass, apparently composed of the protoplasm in a condensed and granular (solid) con;

of the layers.

For examining
cells,

we may

isolated or nearly separate take the lower Algae or Fungi,

higher plants. The parenchymatous tissues may usually be separated into their elementary cells by maceration in water the decomposing ends of floAver-stalks which have been in water several days will generally afford tissue in such a state that it may be broken up with a needle in the pulp of ripe fruits, such as currants, strawberries, &c., mere pressure separates the cells. Boiling will do with some of the denser kinds while for the woody tissues it is requisite to heat fragments with a particle of chlorate
:

or germinating spores of the higher plants, or we may separate the cells of the tissues of

is usually present in the higher plants, but is often absent in those of the ThaUophytes. It mostly exhibits one or more bright granules or

dition.

The nucleus

cells of the

points in
nvclcoli.

its

Many

of the first importance in cell-development but as we are by no means satisfied as to the character of its agency, its peculiarities and its relation to the cell are spoken of separately under the head of Nucleus
;

substance, which are called authors consider this body

them macerate for 12 to 24 hours), and wash them well with water: liber-cells, woody cells, &c. may be isolated by this means or still better by treating them with chromo;

of potash

and a drop of

nitric acid (or let

(PL47. figs. 8,9 w). The ordinary development of new cells depends upon the division of the protoplasm of existing cells into two or more portions, which, becoming independent centres of life, produce new cellulose membranes, and become new cells. The phenomena in which this law is manifested are far more varied tlian would be iinagined from this simple statement. The numerous subordinate modifications,

however,

maybe arranged under

:

sulphuric acid. Formation of Cells. This subject has undergone a great amount of investigation during the last few years and the views which have been propounded at various

three
2.

1. principal lieads Cell-division, sometimes called ;f/7'sw;^/c cell-formation;

Cell-division with liberation

;

of the new

cells

3.

Free cell-formation.

times have conflicted strongly in many It would be exceeding our limits, points. however, to enter upon a critical examination of the theories of cell-development;

and we

shall therefore conlhie ourselves to

1. Cell-division is the process which occurs in all reproduction of cells connected with vegetative growth or increase of the mass of This is the manner in existing structures. which the cells are multiplied in the growth of the thallus of the interior plants, and in

a brief account of those phenomena and laws of the reproduction of cells upon which the diversity of opinion only afl'ects subordinate particulars. All vegetable cells (using this term in the sense of the cellulose sac loit.h contents, as defined above) in which the capacity for reproduction exists, contain an internal structure or protoplasm, varying in its condition and
in difappearance at different epochs and This strucferent plants or parts of plants.

the growth of the stems, leaves, roots, and other organs of the higher plants. It occurs also in the formation of the basidiospores or sti/loKpores of Fungi, the spcrniiifi'a of these and Lichens, of (/ontdia in the Lichens, and conidia in the Fungi. The essential fact observed in all the cases is, the division of the protoplasm of the parent-cell into two or more distinct portions, each of which secretes a layer of cellulose over its whole surfece ; and thus, when the two are in ap-

CELL.

145

CELL.

i, formed dividing the position, a partition The pavent-coll into two or more parts. form of tlie secondary cells depends of course on that of the parent-cell at the time of

In the case of cellulose tissues, such as those in the pvnclum irf/efafionis of the buds of the h igher plants, in camhitrm ,k c,
division.

the division

is

which respectively grow

;

to the pirent of these divides again in the same way, and so on, luitil the whole structure is comIt is evident that the external pleted. forms of all cellular structures must depend of the greatly upon the laws of division For example, supposing we cells of plants.
start

ordinarily into two parts, until equal in size and either both or only one

elongate a little before dividing transversely. If the filament is to branch, the wall of the parent-cell bulges out gradually at the point where the branch is to appear the bulging soon becomes a pouch, and this pouch is soon shut off" by the formation of a partition at its base. Bead-hko rows of cells Ukewise divide by budding in this way, as may be observecl, for instance, in the Yeast-plant the new cell first appears as a little 'bubble' on the side of the parent, with its cavity continuous; and after it has acquired a certain size, its protoplasm detaches itself from that of the parent, and a partition is formed at the point whence the second cell
;

from a single square cell, when this divides into two halves, and these grow to equal the parent-cell, we have an oblong
figure
;

emerged (PL 20. fig. 23). Another point which must be noticed here, is the question whether the parent
protoplasm divides instantaneously, at a given epoch, into the new utiicles, or whether it parts gradually, by a sort of constriction advancing from the surface towards the centre,

continually divided, leaving one new cell If the pair of it at each division. cells produced by the first halving divide at right angles to "the first division, a square and if this law gi-oup of four cells results continues to act, a flat plate of cellular tissue will result. Further, if the cells also divide by horizontal partitions ( in the third direction of space), the mass of cells will gradually acquire thickness or height as well as length and breadth. Lastly, if the cells of particular regions cease to divide sooner than others, irregular or complex but definite as those parts structures w411 be produced where the cell-division goes on will emerge from the general mass, in the Cellular plants as lobes, and in the higher plants as conical
cell

the half-cells divide again in the same direction, we shall in time get a long filament and if both new cells divide again each time, the filament will grow much longer in a given time than if only the endif
;

behind

roughly comparable to what occurs when a ligature is slowly drawn tight round an elastic tube, or w^hen a bar of soap is cut in two by passing a string round it and gradually drawing the loop tight. It seems
;

probable that the segmentation of the protoplasm is always gradual and it is certain that it is so in many cases. Its gradual constriction has been observed in those Confervae where the protoplasm forms a hollow sac, lining the whole internal surface of the parent-cell it may be traced in the larger Confervae, in Spirogyra, &c., by keeping the plants growiug in water under the microscope. It appears that the division is generally completed during the earlier hours of the morning.
;

2.
cells.

bodies which are gradually developed under The diversimilar laws into the organs. sities of internal organization depend also to some extent on the same laws, but less on these than on the laws regulating the forms which the cells acquire when fuU-grown. Cell-division may be observed most easily in the lower Cellular plants, or in the simpler structures (such as hairs) of the higher plants The Confervfe afford (PI. 47. figs. 8, 9). exceedingly favourable opportunities, as do also the filamentous or thalloid structures
of germinating Mosses, Ferns, microscopic

step in this process is analogous to what takes place at the outset in the preceding set of cases; but we find much more important modifications here. This is the mode of development of spores of the Ascomycetous Fungi, of the spores and tetraspores of the Algae, the spores of Lichens, the spores of all the higher Cryptogamia, the active gonidia or zoospores of "the Algte, the parent-cells of the spermatozcids or active spiral filaments of the higher Cryptogamia, and of the pollen-grains
first

The

Cell-division icith liberation

of the new

The behaviour of the parentcell before division exhibits some diversities.

Fungi,
t&c.

If a simple filament is increasing by celldivision, the cylindrical parent-cells merely

of the Flowering plants. The general character is Division of the whole protoplasm into segments, which either acquire a cellulose coat within the parent-cell before they are set free by its solution or bursting, or escape from the
:

CELL.
a cellulose coat, parent-cell witliont secrete this afterwards.

146

CELL.

and

modifications occur a. Division of a nearly solid protoplasm into four, either directly or by two halvings. This occurs in the development of pollen and of the spores of Mosses, Ferns, &c. The parent-cells of the pollen or spores become free in the interior of the anther or sporange, by the solution of the walls and
:

The following

Numerous intermediate conditions occur which connect all these together and the last case, d, does not difier essentially from what takes place in the formation of the
;

endosperm-cells, placed under 3.

3.

Free Cell-for mat iun. Here the new formed by a portion of the parent protoplasm separating itself from the rest
cell is

septa of their parent-cells. The protoplasm of the free cells divides into four segments, After this, either entirely tilling the ceU. partitions are formed between these (pollenor they cells), to be subsequently dissolved, at once clothe themselves with a cellular coat {Marchmitia). In either case, they ultimately lie free in the parent-cell, which is itself finally dissolved (PI. 47. figs. 10-13). b. Division of a homogeneous protoplasm into a large number of segments, each of which acquires a cellulose coat, the whole of the new cells lying closely packed but This occurs in the free in the parent-cell. antheridia of the higher Cryptogamous plants, in the formation of the parent-cells of the spermatozoids, also in the formation of the parent-cells of the spores and the elater-ceUs of the Ilepaticse. The formation of the spores in the asci or thecae of the Ascomycetous Fungi and the Lichens belongs either to this or the preceding case
(PI. 37.
c.

of the protoplasm, assuming a globular or oval form, and secreting a cellulose membrane upon its surface, so as to form a new cell lying free in the cavity of the parent

primordial utricle. instance of this case

The most remarkable

is

the formation of the germinal vesicles in the embryo-sac of the Flowering Plants (PI. 47. figs. 1-4) but this is denied by Strassburger. Other cells sometimes occur, formed in the same way, at the opposite end of the embryo-sac.
;

The embryo-sac

filled, after fertilization,

frequently becomes by a large increase of free cells developed out of the layer of protoplasm or primordial utricle lining the walls; these {endosperm-cells) accumulate in the sac, and sometimes become consolidated into a tissue (albumen) in which the embryo lies imbedded in exalbuminous seeds they are re-absorbed during the growth of the
also
;

embryo. The embryo itself is developed from the germinal vesicle by cell-division such as
described under 1 (PI. 47. figs. 5, 0). Cell-formation also occurs, without division, in cases where the entire contents of a cell separate fi-om the parent, and form a
is

fig.

12).

Division of the homogeneous protoplasm into segments which do not acquire a cellulose coat until after they are discharged from the parent-cell. Tliis occurs in the development of the zoospores of most of the Coniervoidete {C/adop/ioj-a, Biyopsis, AcJili/a, Ulothrix, &c.), where the primordial utricles become free in the cavity of the parent-cell when they divide, and break their way out into the water, where they form a cellulose coat after they have swum about freely for some time by means of
their cilia.
d. Division of a sac-like protoplasm into a number of portions, which appear at first as papillffi on the walls of the cell, and in the cavity. This filially become isolated occurs in the development of the gonidia of Hydrodictyon, Botrydium, &c. These last two cases are connected with a and h, by the circumstance that the zoospores or

yeocloiniim.,

as in Sti(rejuvenescence) CEdvyoniiim, and other Confervoid Algfe. Here also must be referred the new cell-

new organism

formation resulting from Conjugation. Karsten considers that the formation of every cell within a living organ is original and that the cell is not divided into two
;

new

individuals by transverse septa or proorigin

;

liferation.

The hypotheses of the independent

of cells

from organic substances by generatio but a-quivoca seem to require no notice allusion may be made to certain curious phenomena which have been called 'abnor-

mal

cell-formations,' occurring in

some of
the

the Confervoids.

The protoplasm of

active gonidia are replaced, under certain circumstances, by cells that is, the bodies produced in this way acquire a cellulose coat before they leave the parent-cell.
;

Siphoneaj is very apt to collect into globular masses in injured filaments; and tluso globular masses apparently acquire a cellulose coat in some cases: they have been observed in Vaucheria and Bryopsis a somewhat similar phenomenon often occurs in the contents of the cells of iSpirogyra. It
;

CELL.

147

CELL.
where no

appears to be a land of goniclial reproduction, in wliicli portions of llie living- contents are enabled to save themselves from the
(See Pseudogogeneral decomposition. Some forms -tt-hich we incline to NiDiA.) refer here, have been described as distinct

state of simple cell- membranes,

infiltration of foreign

matter has occurred, the application of sulphuric acid of moderate

strength, with solution of iodine in solution of iodide of potassium, brings out a bright blue ciilour and this is regarded as a test for cellulose, the universal basis of vegetable
;

genera and species of parasitic Algre

this subject see

on

Parasites, Chytkidiuji,

Pythium, and Amy'lobactee.

all young organs of succulent structures, and all tlie delicate tissues of the higher plants, and in the majority of the Cellular plants in almost the entire organization, the cellular membranes consist of a thin structureless pelhcle, possessing a considerable degree of toughness and a

Memhraue. Li

certain

amount of elasticity.

(C. J.

Agardh
;

has indeed asserted that cell-membrane is composed of spiral librous structure but this doubtless is an error as regards the pri-

any kind can be detected in it but young, and indeed soft cell-membranes generally, imljibe more or less water, and swell to some extent, It often becoming more or less gelatinous. is stated by Schleiden that the membranes
orifices of
;

mary membrane.) by vrater, while no

It is readily

permeable

of nascent cells are soluble in water, but genei'al experience does not confirm this statement the only approach to a corro;

deposition of new layers of cellulose upon the inside of the primaiy cell-membrane. Although these new deposits are thin layers of cellulose hke the primary membrane, they are rarely so totally devoid of detail structure, and in the majority of cases exhibit orifices and irregularities of the most striking character. Moreover, in one class of cases, they are not deposited as a continuous coat, but as a fibrous structure applied upon the

cell-membrane. When the cell has attained a certain age, new deposits of membranous substance take place inside; and the walls thus acquire more or less thickness, together with a very varied appearance, according to the character of the deposits. The new layers are known as Secondary Layers and the term Cell-wall is perliaps the most convenient collective term which can be applied to the various structures produced by the
;

boration of it that we have met with, is in the lower Algte the zoospores are often extruded in the interior of an extremely delicate sac formed of cellulose, which almost immediately vanishes and sets the zoospores free. The external membranes of many of the filamentous and unicellular
:

primary membrane, as in spiral-fibrous cells; and in wood-cells they are formed one within another to such a thickness that the cellwall loses its original membranous character, and becomes a solid case, with the internal cavity reduced to a comparatively small chamber in the centre. The simplest condition of a thickened

Algae become gelatinous, and giadually dissolve away as the inner membranes are successively deposited, forming a gelatinous
coat, as in Prvtococcus, Nostoe,
ceae,

met with in the unicellular and filamentous Algfe, where the primary membrane becomes coated in the interior by
cell-wall, is that

Desmidia-

&c.

Diatomaceae, Zyf/neona, Oscillatorieas, the same also takes place in the de-

velopment of spores and pollen-grains, which are set free by the parent-cell membranes This, however, is becoming dissolved. scai'cely direct solution in water, and comes rather under the head of decomposition. Young and delicate cell-membranes are perfectly transparent and colom-less, as is
seen in the Yeast-plant, in the mycelium of

Mildews, in the cellular tissue of tuberous structures like the Potato, and in piths (after the mucilaginous cell-contents have been
removed).

As they

gi-ow older, they often

become coloured, sometimes very deeply, which is suppu.-ed, howcAer, to depend on

the infiltration of foreign matters.

successive continuous layers of cellulose exactly resembling itself, and which often indeed can only be known to exist by comparing the thickness of old and young cells, since no lamellation can be detected generally speaking, however, the action of moderately diluted sulphmic acid swells up such membranes, and renders the lamellas more or less distinct (Pi'. 47. fig. 24). The thickening layers of the unicellular and filamentous Algte are scarcely to be compared with those of the cells of higher plants, since they are rather to be regarded^as the primary membranes of new cells produced in the interior of the older cells, in mauj' cases set free by the solution of the latter. These cell-walls sometimes exhibit peculiar fibrous appear;

ances.

In the

See Spiral Structvees. These layers may be coloured blue by

l2

CELL.

148

CELL.

sulphuric acid and iodine; wlien very young, even by iodine alone; but when old or where they undergo spontaneous solution into a kind of jelly, as in lilamentous Algse, this at all events celliUose reaction seems to fail it is so uncertain in its behaviour, that, although it gives a positive result in successful cases, a negative residt is altogether inconclusive. In the cells of the generality of plants of higher organization, the secondary cellmembranes exhibit a striking difference from the primary, inasmuch as we find them

cells of

many plants exhibit a delicate spiral striation of their walls, while some liber-cells Some display it with especial distinctness.
of these cells give way in a spiral direction when torn by pulling lengthwise. In par-

enchymatous cells this spiral structure is often very fully developed in all its varieties ; but it is especially characteristic of the vessels and ducts ; while in certain woods, as in Taxus, we have a combination of the porous with the spiral secondary deposits,
the earlier thickening layers leaving spots uncovered while the latter ones are deposited along a spiral line coiling up the cell-wall from bottom to top, and thus the cell appears to have a spiral fibre lying upon its
walls.

constantly perforated by holes, slits, or orifices of some shape, so as to leave the primary membrane bare whence resvdts a spotted or streaked appearance of the cellwall, as may be seen even in cells with the walls still very thin, such as fully-formed pith-cells of the Polder. The earlier vegetable anatomists regarded these spots or dots as orifices through the but they are in reality only j^its cell- wall opening into the cavity of the cell, and closed externally by the original membrane of the "When the cell-wall becomes much cell.
; ;

These structures are spoken of at

length under the heads of Splr^vl deposits and Pitted cells. Cellulose is distinguished, when in the

form of membrane or fibrous structure, by the blue colour it usually assumes when treated with iodine (starch differs in its granular form and its solubility in acids and potash, and its swelling up in hot water).

The nitrogenous protoplasm

thickened, as in cells of horny albumen or wood-cells, the layers successively deposited over the inside mostly correspond pretty exactly with the earliest layers, and leave the spots always free, so that these become gradually converted into tubular canals running through the thick cell-walls (PI. 47. and 27). In the majority of figs. 21-2o cases, but not in all, the spots or pits in the cell-wall are opposite to similar spots in the walls of the adjacent cells, so that the cavities of the two contiguous cells are only separated from each other by the primary

is always coloured yellow-brown by iodine. The blue colour appears in many membranous parenchymatous tissues when the cells are soaked

membrane

of each, as at first, allowing free permeation of fluid from one to the other. In old cells these primary membranes become destroyed, and thus the cavities

in tincture of iodine, dried, and then wetted with water. In other cases it is necessary to apply dilute sulphuric acid and solution of iodine simultaneously. It is sometimes difficult to bring out the blue reaction in old cells ; various methods are had recourse to for this purpose. In corky or other epidermal tissues, the blue colour of cellulose may be brought out by soaking the cells for twenty-four liom-s or more in strong solution of potash, washing it well, soaking in tincture of iodine, drying, and then wetting with

communicate

freely through these canals running out through their hard thickened

The various complications of these walls. of under the head of Pitted pits are spoken
CELLS.

Old wood-cells undergo the same change by boiling in nitric acid, instead of treating with caustic potash, and then adding the iodine, &c. as above. All the solid structures of cell-membranes yield to one or other of these means, and exhibit the blue colour with iodine, which, if not
water.
indicative of a composition of cellulose, points to a substance intermediate between
this lose

The secondary layers are further distinguished from the primary membrane by the prevalence of a tendency to assume the character of spiral bands or fibres winding upon the original cell-wall. This may be detected even in many cells which remain
quite

and starch, produced out of the celluby the chemical action. The most

characteristic property of cellulose, however, is its solubilit}' in ammuniin-et of

membranous,
hairs, also

as in

some Confervce and

lignified cells,

many

in pitted

where the thickening layer forms a general coat upon the inside of the cell the liber;

The cells of Fungi copper (Cellulose.) and many Lichens and Algse do not exhibit the ordinary reactions of cellulose, becoming brown instead of blue with iodine and sul-

CELL-CONTENTS.
acid, and they are issolved by anunoniuret of Shui'ic

1^9

CELLULARIID/E.
Zool. 17;
(

moreover not
;

Mar.
Soc.

copper while certain cell-walls of Lichens are coloured blue by iodine alone, from the presence of Cell-membranes and their mogranulosa.
difications are examined, of course, in similar preparations to those mentioned as displaying the forms &c. of cells. further information will be given in the articles relating to the structures into the composition of which the cells enter. BiBL. General. Henfrey-Masters, Bo-

foss.)

Infundibulate

of Polyzoa, of the suborder Cheilostomata, and fimily Porinidse.

CELLEPORELLA,Gray. A genus
species.

Busk, Polyz. ii. 85 Paleont. 1859 Ilincks, Polyzoa, 398.

; ;

Two

BiBL. Hincks, Polyzoa, 413.

CELLEPO'RID.E. family of Infundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder

Cheilostomata.
C/iar.

Those of the single genus

Cel-

lepora.

Cell, tr. by Henfrey, Schacht, 'PJlanznizelle, Berlin, 1852; Uuger, An. u. Phi/f. Pfunzen, \'ienna, 1855; Meyen, PjianzenpJnjs. Phytutomie Morren, Bull, de Px4.cad. de BntxeUes, v. No. 3

tany

Mohl, Veget.

CELLULAR

TISSUE, of Animals.
See

1853

See Connective Tissue.

CELLULAR TISSUE, of Plants.

Tissues, Vegetable.

CELLULA'RIA,
lariidfe.

Pallas. A genus of

1853 J; Pringsheim, Jahrb. wiss. Bot. 1858, i., ii. Mohl, Cellulose, Bot. Zeit. V. {Scientijic Memoirs, 2nd
Braun, Bejuv.(Ray
Soc.
;

lufundibulats Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Cheilostomata, and family Cellu-

90) Bot. Zeit. xi. 753; Harting, Mulder's Phys. Chem. 1849 Bot. Zdt. v. 337; Kiitzing, Phil. Bot. 1852; Agardli, Cell, veget. &c. 1852 Caspary, Streifuny d. Zellemoand, Bot. Zeit. xi. 801 Criiger, Primitive Fase.r, Bot. Zeit. xii. 57, xiii.
ser. vol.
i.
; ; ;

Distinguished by the jointed, branched, erect polypidom, with flat, linear branches ; the contiguous cells in two or three rows,
perforated behind, and more than four between two joints; and the absence of One British avicularia and vibracula.
species
:

p.

601 Dippel, Veyetah. Zelleiibild. 1858 Hofmeister, Pflanzenzclle, 1867 Karsten,

; ; ;

Ann. N. H. 1863 and 1864; Nageli, Mikr.

1877, 532
;

C. Peachii (Cellularia Peachii, var., Johnston). Cells narrowed downwards, truncate

Sachs, Bot. 1874,

8.

See also

PRniORDIAL UTKICLE.

CELL-CONTENTS.This

and somewhat rounded above usually a small spine at the upper and outer angle
;

term corre-

three

to five
;

perforations
;

behind

orifice

sponds, in regard to vegetables, to the word endochrome as used by Thwaites, Ralfs, and

oval, regular

minutely granular
tessellated

some of the French botanists. It refers here most essentially to the pi'otoplasm or primordial utricle, as this is the part effective in development while the substances imbedded in or lying in the cavity of this are variable according to age, stage of deve;

margin somewhat thickened, ovicell globular with a On stones &:c. from surface.

deep water.
C. ciliata

(Johnston)
;

= Bicellaria
C.

oil.

C.

avicularia =^ Buy nia avic;

ternata=MeScrupoceUan'a

nipea

tern.

(,'.

scruposa

lopment, &c.

See Peimordial utricle.

of Infnndibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder Cheilostomata, and family Celleporidye. Distingmshed by the massive, globose, and incrusting, or erect and branched, calcareous polypidom, and the irregularly heaped vasiform cells, vertical to the com-

CELLA'RIA = Salicornaria. CELLE'PORA, Fabr. A genus

mon plane, with

furnished with British species.
C. pumicosn.

a beak on one or both sides,

an

avicularium.

Seven
;

cells suborbicular,

Rough, porous, massive the mouth round. Com-

CELLULA'RIID.E. A family of Infundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa), of the suborder Cheilostomata. Distinguished by the branched, erect polypidom, and the flat, linear branches, with the cells in one plane. Genera Cells in two or three rows, Cellularia. contiguous, perforated behind, more than four between two joints no avicularia nor
: ;

plumosa = Buyula j)lu7)i. BiBL. Busk, 31ar. Polt/z. 20 id. Ann. Nat. H. 1851, vii. 82 Hincks, Polyz. 33.
C.
; :

scrap.; C.7'eptans=Cand(irept.; C.Hookeri Cnherea Hook. ; C. neritina Buyula ner. )

vibracula.

mon.
Incrusting; cells ovoid, very small, pearly, and irregularly arranged. BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 295; Gosse,
C. vitrina.

Menipea. Cells oblong, narrowed downwards, not perforate one or two avicularia below the orifice in front. Cells with a vibraculum Scrupocellaria.
;

CELLULOSE.
behir.d,

I'^O

CEMENTS.
;

and a sessile avicularium at the upper and outer angle orifice spinous. Canda. Cells with a vibraculiun iu a notch on the outer side no avicularium at the upper angle. BiBL. That of the genera.
;

482) Schweitzer, Chem. Gaz. xvi. Ilimdh. d. Chem. vii. 574 ; ; Gmelin, Hancock, Linn. Proc. 1807. CEMENTS. These are used for closing the cells in which microscopic objects are
xii. p.

60,

.3.30

proximate principle of which the permanent cell-menibraues of plants are always composed it occurs
;

CEL'LULOSE.

The

placed for preservation also for fastening pieces of glass to each other, to form cells, &c. Those, the method of making which we have not described, can be procm-ed at
;

also in

some structures of

certain animals,

any

as the mantle of the Tunicata, the skin of the silkworm, the elytra of some insects, the tegument of some Crustacea, &c. In plants, its physical characters differ very much iu
different cases; sometimes it is exceedingly soft, and at once acquires a blue coloiu* Avith iodine (amyloid ?). Usually it be-

oil-shop. AspJialt-varnish consists of a solution of asphalt (must be real) in boiling linseed-oil, or oil of turpentine, or iu a mixture of the

two

it should be cream3\ Black Japan consists of asphalt, gum anime, amber, linseed-oil, and oil of turpen;

tine.

comes blue when soaked in tincture of iodine, dried, and then wetted with water. In other cases it is more dense, and does not become coloured blue with iodine until after treatment with sulphuric acid, when it becomes more or less bright blue (the ordinary
test for cellulose) Occasionally this reaction gives a purplish colour. In old, infiltrated, or greatly consolidated cellulose structure, this test gives only a yellow-brown colour but boiling iu nitric acid (for woody tissues) or solution of potash (for epidermal tissues) will generally bring the cellulose into a state in which, if wetted with tincture of iodine, dried, and then Avetted with water, it turns blue. The blue colour is produced in some resisting kinds of cellulose by a solution of iodine in chloride of zinc or by iodide of zinc. (Schulze's Test.) Sulphuric acid swells and dissolves cellulose solutions of potash and nitric acid do not act so quickly, But the best test for especially the latter. ordinary cellulose is the amnioniuret of
.

Brunswick hJack consists of asphalt, drying linseed-oil, and oil of turpentine. Asphalt dissolved in benzole. Canada balsam a. alone b. digested
:

with

sufficient ether, benzole,

it

or chlorofluid.

form, to render

slightly
:

more

Electrical cement a. is made by melting together 5 parts of rosin, 1 part of bees'wax, and 1 of red ochre, b. The addition of 2 parts of Canada balsam renders this cement much more strongly adhesive to
glass.

Gold-size may be prepared by boiling 25 parts of linseed-oil for three hours with 1 part of red lead and ^ of a part of umber ; then pour oft". Successive portions of a finely powdered mixture of equal parts of white lead and yellow ochre are then added to the oil, being well rubbed and mixed with it, until a tolerably thick liquid is formed
;

this

must be once more thoroughly

boiled.

It is also sidd.

Da mmara- resin,
in benzole
;

copper,

must

dissolves it. Care be taken in testing for cellulose with

;

which quickly

is often used, dissolved a third of gold-size is an advan-

iodine, that

no extraneous matter lodges on the preparation fragments of cotton,

blotting-paper, &c., consisting of cellulose, might give rise to error. Minute crystals of iodine precipitated from the tincture will give the object a bluish tint. In the Tunicata, the intercellular substance consists of the cellulose, not the
cells (Sc/ic/cht).

tage. Gutta-jyercha cement is made by adding 15 parts of oil of tui-pentine to 1 part of finely cut-up gutta percha, and dissolving by the aid of a continued heat and stirring.

The

BiBL.

See

Amyloid and

Cici-t.-ajem-

BTtANES. Schaeht, ]\Iiiil. Arc/iiv, ISol ( Qh. 3Iic.Jn. 1802, pp. .34 and lOG); Huxley, Qm. Mic. Jn. ]8o2, p. 22; Schmidt (Taylor's Sa'eni.

solution is then strained through a cloth. In the strained solution, 1 part of shell-lac is then dissolved by heal and stirring. The application of the heat is continued until a drop of the solution let fall upon a cold surface becomes nearly hnrd. It can be rendered thinner by the addition of more oil of

turpentine.

Mem.

v. p. 1)

KiJlliker

and

Ann. Sc. N. Zool. 184(5, p. l!):l; Yirchow, Compt. Mend. 1S53 (Ann. N. II.
Linvig,

Alarine f/lue consists of caoutchouc and shell-lac dissolved in coal-naphtha by the aid of heat. It is sold by microscope-

makers and those who mount objects.

CEMENTS.
Scallncj-ioa.v varnish.

1'^^

CEPHALOPODA.
;

Prepared by

arld-

ing enough spirit of wine to cover coarselypowdorod sealing-wax, and digesting at a gentle heat. Shell-lac varnish. Prepared in the same
as sealing-wax varnish, shell-lac being substituted for the sealing-wax. 20 drops of castor-oil to the ounce is an im-

manner

black or any colour, by adding correspondingly coloured scnxling-wax. Tiiey should all be old, or kept some time before use. CENAN'GIUM, Fries. genus of Phacidiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi) growing upon dead twigs, bursting through the bark in the form of little cups or hollow

provement.

hard varnish consists of gum sandarac dissolved in spirit of wine, and mixed with turpentine varnish.
IJliife

Bismidh-cement.

Made by tbickening

solution of mastic in chloroform with subnitrate of bismuth.

Made with India-rubber and asphalt. India-rubber -30 grs., asphalt 4 oz., mineral naphtha 10 oz. l)issolve the caoutchouc in tlie naphtha, then add the asphalt, and heat
if

Tulasne has recently made some observations upon this genus, and shown that the plants present two or even three kinds of reproductive bodies, asci with spores, and also spcrniogonia and pi/cnidia with sperviatia and sttjlospores. In C. Cerasi, Yw, the pycnidia are minute tubular bodies upcin the same stroma as the
papilla}.

interesting

young cupules or asciferous cups. They have been described as species of Sphceria and as
imperfect cupules of C. Cerasi; but their walls are lined with basidia, producing
short-stalked stylospores, which are linear and flexuous, and very large, viz. about 1-500' long they exhibit three transverse In this species the pycnidia are septa.
'

necessary. JMiite lead mixed with drying linseedoil, and oil of turpentine (white paint). Wlieat-paste shoidd have a few drops of some volatile oil, or carbolic acid added to
it.

Giim-arabic dissolved in water, with a small quantity of glycerine, and a few drops
of volatile oil. Zinc-cement.
zinc, drying oil, zoline.

found in groups, and sometimes become In C. Fra.vini, Tul. (PI. 26. confluent.
fig. 17),

This

is made with oxide of Dammara-resin, and ben-

French cement, is made by melting Indiarubber scraps in a covered iron pot. When quite liquid, lime previously slaked by exposure to the air and in tine powder, is added in small quantities at a time. When moderately thick, it is removed from the tire, well beaten in a mortar, and moulded in the hands until of the consistence of
It is useful for mounting large miputty. drawn-out croscopic preparations &c. thread of this is pressed upon the top of the the object and liquid are then added, cell and the cover pressed upon the cement, beginning at one side, so that the superfluous liquid may escape. number of other cements, applicable to various purposes, are described by Beale in to Work &c. p. 54. The method of using these cements is treated of mider

the pycnidia contain not only stylospores at the base of the cavity, but around the upper part are found spermatia seated on branched articulated filaments. These organs, however, are not regularly coexistent, but occasionally occur alone in a
;

and sometimes the spermatia pycnidium occur even in the asciferous cupules. The asci in the cupules of C. Framjulce line the bottom of the cups, and are mixed witk paraphyses; each ascus or theca contains four spores. Several other species are com-

mon

in Britain.
;

BnjL. Berk. Rooh. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2, 211 Ann. N. H. vi. 359, 2 ser. vii. 185 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xx. 133, pi. 16. CENOMY'CE. See Cladonia,
;

CENTROP'AGES, Kj^oyer.A
Copepodous Entomostraca. C. typiciis brown Nortb Sea, C. hamatus marine.
; ;
;

genus of

How

BiBL. Brady,
p. 64.

Copepoda {Ray Soc),

i,

CEPHALOP'ODA.An
fossil

order of Mol-

Preservation. The varnishes should be kept in widemouthed capped bottles, or in bottles accurately closed by a cork, in the imder part of which a camel's hair pencil is inserted. black colour may be imparted to any of

lusca, containing the Nautilus, the Argonaut, the Octopus, the Cuttle-fish (Sepia), &c.,

with the

Belemnites and Ammonites.

The

cartilage of the cuttle-fish is noticed under Cartilage ; the dorsal plate or se-

piostaire under

Shell.
or cutaneous pig-

the varnishes, by mixing them with lamp-

The chromatophores,

CEPHALOSIPHON.
tissue are interestinp: structures.

152

CERATAULUS.
Frond filiform, inarticulate, Favcllce sessile, involucrate. Frond filiform, articulate, the joints opaque. Favellce
Tetraspores
inarticulate;

ment-cells, and the cutaneous connective

Microcladia.

dichotomous.

CEPIIALOS'IPHON
nus of Rotatoria.
C. limnias.

doubtful ge-

On

BiBL. Pritcliard, Infus.

Ceratophylhim. p. G70; Hudson,

Stein.

Ceramium. dichotomous; sessile, mostly involucrate. mostly immersed.

Spyridia.
tlie

M. M.

Jn. 187o, xiv. n. IGo.

CEPHALOTHAM'NIUM,
genus of Flagellate Infusoria.

Frond

filiform,

Char. Those of Antliophysa, but the pedicle stiff, hyaline, and homogeneous 5 filaments two. attached to C. c<espitosa. Pedicle short
;

branches clothed with minute setiform, articulated raraelli. Favellce pedunculate, involucrate. Tetraspores sessile on the
ramelli.
Griffithsia.

Frond

articulated, dichoto-

mous, or clothed with whorled, dichoto-

C. cunealum, pedicle long Cyclops. on Cyclops. BiBL. Kent, Inf. p. 272.

also

mous

ramelli, rose-red. Jf/re/te involucrate,

sessile or

pedunculate.

Tetraspores sessile,

on Avhorled ramelli.
articulated, pinnate, Wrangelia. terminal, involucrate, containing tufts of pear-shaped spores. Tetraspores sessile, scattered on the ramelli. Frond articulated. TetraSeirospora. spores arranged in terminal, mouiliforra
Favellce
strings.

CEPHALOT'KICPIUxM, Fr. A genus

Frond

of Dematiei (Ilyphoniycetous Fungi).

C. curtum is an extremely minute plant growing upon the leaves of Sedges with scattered, short, brown, erect filaments, bearing somewhat globular heads composed of tufts of forked or ternate branches, with one or two short acute brauchlets, slightly scabrous, bearing smooth spores. BiBL. Berkeley, A^in. N. H. vi. p. 432, pi. 12. fig. 13; Corda, Ic. Funy. i. pi. 5.
;

Ccdlithamnion. Frond, at least the branches and ramidi, articulated, mostly

pinnate.
Favellce terminal or lateral, sessile,

withont involucre (except

in C. Turneri). tered.

fiffs.

253-4.

CE'PHEUS, Koch.A genus of Oribatea

(Acarina). Char. Cephalothorax witli lamellar appendages tectum attached to cephalothorax by its base only claws 3, alike. C. vulyaris. Common near Paris. BiBL. Nicolet, Oribatea {Monograph^ Murrav, Ec. Eutom. 221 Michael, Tr. Mic.
; ; ;

Tetraspores

sessile or pedicellate, scat-

Chantransia.

Fre.-^h-

water

fronds filamentous, articulate, branched, cells

;

in single series

favellce in

terminal corymbs.
Alqce;

A genus of CERAM'BYX, Linn. Pseudotetramerous Longicorn Coleoptera.

C. ( Astynomus') (cdilis (fig. 367).

Soe. 1880, 177.

BiBL. Harvey, Man. Jir. Ceram. Cramer, 1863; Sachs, Bot. p. 393. See also the Genera.

Found

on old timber.
family of Florideous Algfe. Rose-red or purple sea-weeds, one freshwater, with a filiform frond, consisting of an articulated, branching filament, compo.sed of a single string of cells, sometimes coated with a stratum of small cells.
Fructijication: l.favcUcc; berry-like receptacles, with a membranous coat, containing or less immersed in the substance of the branches, 3. unfltcridia, produced in tlie scattered British same situations as the spores.
;

CERAMIUM,
genus of

Roth.
Ceraroium Des-

Ceramiacete

CERAMIA'CE^. A

longthanipsii. (Florideous Algte), containof a frond ing a number of species, Fragment

mostly

growing

between

showing one
in

te-

tiaspoie

situ,

tide-marks, of which C. cili- and two emiity parent-cells. atuni is noted as a beautiful Magniiled nO diaobject under a low magTiify- meters.

numerous angular spores; 2. attached to the ramuli or more

tetrasj)ore^\

ing power. The tetraspores are often only triple, and arranged tetrahedrally and not in a row (fig. 114).

genera

Ptilota.

Frond compressed,

disticlious, pectinato-pinnate.

inarticulate, Favcllce pe-

dunculate, involucrate.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alyce, pi. 22 C ; Phyc. Br. pis. 1.39-41, &c. CERATAU'LUS, Ehr. genus of Diatomacece. Char. Frusfulos binate or concatenate, valves turgid, suborbieular or septate; broadly ovoid, with 2 tubular processes alternating with 2 spines. Marine and fossil.

CERATIDIUM.
C.

153
C.

OERCOMONAS.

C. Icevis = UtipodiscHs radiutus BiddulpJiia h'vis; C. thermalis. ]}iBi.. J-]hreubero-, Ber.. Berl. Ah. 184.3, 270; Kiibeiihorst, Fl. uihj. i. .31o. CERATIU'IUM. Ehr. genus of Infusoria, of the famih" Oxytrichina." Char. Furnished ^\ith cilia, horns on the fore part of the body, but neither hooks nor
S))v't/iii
;

tiirgidus

Biddulphia

furr/ida

fasc;

C. gracilis=Ni(zsc}na tcenia; C.lonyissima = JS'^i/zscli iu hirostrata. Rabenhorst admits C. arcus, C. amphioxys, and C. toxon (Pcrty). JiiBL. Ehr. Bcr'.d. Berl. Ak. 18;?9, 1840 et seq. Kutz. Bacill. and Sp. Aly. Smith, Br. Didt. Rabenhorst, F'l. Aly. i. p.. 76 ;
; ; ;

Pertv, Lehcnsf.

stylos.

One species, C. cuneatum. Diijardin considers this to have been a mutilated O.vytrieha. The appearance of horns arises from
the anterior part of the body being deeply notched. BiBL. Ehr. Infiis. Dujardin, Inf. 421.
;

genus of Leguminosae (Flowering Plants). The pods and seeds or beans of C. siliqua the Carobor Locust-tree of Spain, are used for adul-

CERATO'NIA, Linn. A

p.

205.

PI. 2. tig. 8, a, b, repreterating coffee. sent the characteristic tissues of the pod e and d, those of the bean.
;

CERATOP'TERIS, Bronguiart. A

ge-

CERA'TILTM. -Agenusof Isariaoei (Hyphomycetous Fimgi) containing a generally

diffused British plant, C. hydnoides, wliich grows on rotten wood as a tuft of white simple or slightly branched oblong processes, which produce on their surface sterigmata (spicules, Berk.), each of which is sur-

mounted by a spore which easily falls off. The whole plant readily collapses into a mucilaginous mass. The cellular appearance figured by Greville depends on the
collapsing of the processes. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. Grev. Crypt. Fl. pi. 168.
Cilio-flagellate
ii.

nus of Pteridepe (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Exotic. The inroUed margin of the leaf simulates an indusium. C. thalictroides 226-7 tropics (figs. thecae, 228-30 spores). BiBL. Hook, Fit. Si/ii. p. 174. CERCA'RIA, Miiil. These organisms were formerly regarded as constituting a genus of Infusoria, but are now known to
;

consist of the larva) or nurses of Trematoda, as Distoma, &c.

pt. 2.

320

CERA'TIUM, Schrank. A
Infusoria

The body is oblong,depressed, cha,ngeab!e mouth subterminal, armed or unarmed. Acetabulum subcentral. Tail hliform, sim;

the

= Feridinia
;

genus of with

horns.

CERATOCLA'DIUM, Corda. A
of

attenuate at the apex, deciduous. parasitically on the bodj'', or within the intestines, liver, ovaries, &c.
ple,

They are found

genus

of Mollusca (Lynmaiis, Planorbis, &c.)

and

consisting of a single species, C. microspermurn (tig. 349), characterized by the erect, septate horny threads, clothed with a pallid stratum

Hyphomycetous Fungi

be obtained by wounding the body in water. C.fareata (PI. 51. fig. 32). On Lymnceus

may

bearing simple terminated by

spore.

sporophores
a
single

(basidia),

C. hesfaynaJis, in autumn; length 1-12". Ucis viciparcs, in the liver of Paludina vivi-

staff-shaped

para.

BiBL. Corda, Prachtfl.

pi. 20.

CER'ATODON,
Pottiaceous Mosses.
C. purpureus,

Biidel.

C. planorbis, in the ovaries of Planorbis Cornells and maryinatns. " See Diesiug describes 12 species."

genus of

Distoma.

very

common on banks and

C. cylindricus, seta

CERCO'MONAS, Duj.~A genus of

gellate Infusoria.

Fla-

walls, seta purple-red;

pale.

BiBL. Wilson, Bryolog. Br. 83

Brit. Moss. 274.

Berkeley,

of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules cymbiform, free, with a more or less distinct central nodule, the apices rostriform and produced. Smith places the British species in other genera, thus C. arcus = Eunot{a arcus; C. closterium
:

CERATONE'IS, Ehr.A genus

Char. Free, body rounded, discoidal or oblong, sometimes tuberculated, with a variable posterior prolongation in the form of a tail, which is longer or shorter and more or less filiform (PI. 30. figs. 22, 23).

Dujardin remarks that the only absolute

difference

between

,the

Cercomonads and

the

Monads

consists in the presence of the

=zNitzschia

cl.

C. fasciola =:

Pleurosiyma

posterior prolongation, which is formed by the substance of the body becoming agglutinated to the slide, and more or less drawn out so as to form sometimes merely a tubercle, at others an elongated tail, or a filament

CERCOMONAS.

154

CERUMINOUS GLANDS.
;

almost as slender as the auterior Qlament and susceptible of an oscillating motion; also that he thinks he has frequently seen Monads gradually pass into the state of Cerconionads. See Bono.
iu infusions, pool-waters, Sec. C. cranfiiC. acuminnta (PL 80. fig. 22). cnuda (PI. 30. tig. 23). C. intmtinalis, in

49?

Perty, Z. Kennt. 171 Kent, Inf. 2-58 ; Dallinger and Divsdale, M. 31. Ja. 1873, X. r,3, 245.
;

CEREUS.
the ear.

See Cactacete.
so-called

CERU'MEN. The

'wax'

of

Fouud

typhoid diarrhoea, cholera;

other species,

many

doubtful. Dallinger and Drysdale describe in a species of Cercomonas {C. ff/picirs, Kent),
old, re-

Its morphological elements are 1. Hairs these exhibit very beautifully the external 2. layer of epidermic scales. Occasionally, the Demodex folliculorum. 3. Numerous
: ;

epidennic scales, mostly compressed, shrunk, or so altered as to resemble fibres, but resolvable into their original form
;

fouud in cod-maceratious 2-3 months

by warm-

production by transverse fission also by conjugation the individuals becoming amoea smooth jjoid, fusing together, and forming cyst, from which myriads of aluiost imperceptible germs arc subsequently liberated. BiBL. Duj. Lifiis. 287; Pritchard, Lif.

ing with solution of potash and the subseby this treatquent addition of water ment they are frequently rendered brown, 4. Very nupurplish, or almost black.

Fig. 115.

merous cells, filled with pale fatty matter, of a rounded or elongate, fiattened, or in-egular form these are derived from the sebaceous follicles.
;

5.

Numerous

free oil-globules

most varied sizes. 6. Yellow or brown granules, and aggregations of them, mostly free, sometimes conof the

tained in

cells. 7. Various elements derived from with-

out, as fibres of cotton, linen, &c. The deafness of old persons usually arises from an

accumulation of indurated cerumen. See Cebuminous

Glands.

CERU'MINOUS GLANDS. The glands which secrete

the wax of the ear. They are situated in the tube of the ear, or the meatus auditorius exteruus of anatomists. They closely resemble the sudoriparous ducts in appearance, and exist only iu the cartilaginous portion of the passage, where they are situated between the skin and the cartilage, or the fibrous mass
'
'

y f
.-//

which Each

occupies its place. consists of a simple tube coiled at one end, so as to form a gland (fig. 115 rf),
the other being continued in the form of a duct (fig. 115 e) to the surface of the skin, upon which it opens; occasionally, however, into the upper part of the hair-follicle. The glands consist of an ex-

Magnified 20 diametera. Perpendioular section of Ihe meatus auilitoriiia oytornns.

; ;

n.

Corium;

e, llicir diuts; c. cpidi'miis tl, ct'iuminous (glands; 6, rcte mucosum /, their terminal orifices; g, hair- follicle ; A, sebaceous follicles; i, fatty

tissue.

CERVmiA.

155

CH.ETOGLENA.

tornal coat of connpctive tissue, with scattered, somewhat spindle-shaped nuclei, and

CETRARIR'I.

A
;

tribe

of Lichens;

very tine nuclear fibres a layer of Hmooth, longitudinal, ninscnhir fibres, consisting of sliort fibre-cells with elongated nuclei; and an inner single layer of epitlielium, composed of polygonal cells, from 1-1800 to
;

family Lichenacei. Char. Thallus compressed, fruticulose, or membranously dilated apothecia marginal;
spores 8, small, colourless, simpl(3. Genera Cetruria and Plafysnia.
:

1-1100" in diameter, with roundish nuclei. These cells contain round or irregularlyshaped 3'ellowish-brown granules, of very
various sizes, as also globules of oil. The duct has a coat of connective tissue, and an
epithelial coat, consisting of several layers of small nucleated cells, not containing fat

genus of Melancouiei (Stylosporous Fungi) closely related to Phoma, one common species of which (G phacidioidcs) grows on hollyleaves; another occurs on the Cherry-laurel It is probable that these are (C. Lauri). only forms belonging to some Ascomycetous
genus.

CEUTIIOS'PORA, Fr.A

or pigment granules.

genus of marine Copepodous Entomostraca. Oban. C. Bradyi. BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda (Hay Soc), i. 85.

UERVINTA,

Noi-man.

CESTODISCUS, Grev.Fi'ustules
;

disk-

shaped, cii'cular or oval valves with radiating granules, and a submarginal circle of obtuse processes unconnected by special radiating lines of dots with the centre. 4 species. BiBL. Greville, Mic. Trans. 1865, 48 j

3-5 cells in the C. phacidioides, Grev. stroma, splitting into 3-5 plain short teeth. C. Lauri, Sow, Unilocular, splitting into 3-4 acute teeth. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. p. 283; Grev. Crypt. Fl. pis. 253, 254. CILETO'CEROS,Ehr. -A genus of Diatomaceae. CJtar. Frustules concatenate valves equal,
;

subcylindrical,

each

18U6, 123.

CE'TER ACH, Willd. genus of Ferns, usually arranged with the Asplenie^, although there is only a rudimentary iudusium, the place of this being supplied by Cefescales. C. ajficiiiamm (Asjjlenium rach), the native species, occurs chiefly in limestone districts. OETOCHILUS. genus of Entomostraca (Crustacea), belonging to the order

on which, in the young state, are very short and tubular, forming very long horns as the frustules become older horns subsequently converted into very long, thin and interwoven siliceous filaments. Marine
processes, one
side,
;

mth two

and

fossil.

allied to Biddidphia. Rabenhoist admits 18 species. C. didymus (PI. 50. Some British. fig. 47). BiBL. Ehrenb. Ber. d. Berl. A7c. 1844,

Somewhat

198;
75
;

Kiitzing, Sp. Aly.

Copepopa, and

famil)' Cetochilida3.

3Iicr. Jn. vi.

155

l)istingiushed

by the two small styliform

;

appendages to the head the two-branched inferior antenn.ie, the branches nearly equal; the unbranched jaw-feet; the six-jointed thorax, and four-jointed abdomen; and the last pair of legs being formed like the rest. Marine. C.septentrionalis-^ bright red; forms part of the food of the whale and various
fishes; length 1-10", Bldl. Baird, i?/-/;;. ^i5o2os. p.
2.3-3
;

321. Rabenhovst, FL Aly. CH.ETOCOC'CUS, Ktz.A

i.

138; Brightwell, Lauder, Mic. Tr. 1804,

doubtful

genus of Algse. Char. Filaments rigid, short, spiniform, arising from a cellular substratum.
violacevs, radiate, green, becoming on diying, on Hhizoclonium C. hyulion Cladfijuhora. iius, BiBL. Rabenhorst, Flor. Aly. ii. 199.

C.

violet

Grob-

ben, Clam's Arh. 1880, 243, &0C. 18.S1, i. 734).

tribe Cetrarit
C/tar.
i.

iii.

{Jn. Mic.
:

CETRA'BIA, Ach. A genus of Lichens

or ascending,

Thallus bright brown, rigid, erect, divided into laciniae, with

CIIyETODIS'CUS, Grev. genus of Diatomacepe. Char. Frustules disk-shaped; valves circular or oval, with radiating dots and a submarginal circle of obtuse processes unconnected by means of special radiating lines of dots with the centre.
4 speciee. BiBL. Greville, Mic. Tr.
1806,
p. 123.

shining cortical layer. Apothecia dull or bright brown. Spermatia cylindrical. 3 British sp. C. islandiva, the well-known Iceland Moss C.Delisei; and C.aeidcata. BicL. Nvlander, Sy)i. 298; Leighton,
:

1865,

p.

48;

CILETOGLE'NA, Ehr. A genus

of In-

fusoria, of the family Peridiujea.

Lichen-Flora, 1879, 91.

Char. Carapace hispid, or studded with

CH^ETOMIUM.
rigid spines
;
;

156

Cn.ETOPHORACE.5'.

spot present filament.

C.

no transverse furrow an eyeorgan of motion a flagelliform

(PI.

berg among the Rotatoria (Rotifera), and by Dujardiu with the Infusoria.
DiXA.

Volmcina
;

30. fig. 24 a).

;

internal

spot red

substance brownisli-green length 1-1100". Aqiiatic. This appears to be the same as Trachelomonas

Oval, eye-

Ehreuberg places it in the family IchthyDujardin gives the following cha:

racters

Body oblong, convex, and furaished with

hairs or scales above flat and provided with very minute vibratile cilia beueath terminated in front by a rounded margin, near which is a distinct mouth posteriorly bifurcate or terminated by two caudiform
;

Volvocina. See Trachelojioxas. C. eaudata. Oval, hispid, with a short tail; internal substance green; eye-spot red; margin of carapace urceolate and toothed
;

length 1-850" BiBL. Ehr.

;

aquatic.
;

processes.

Ber. d. Berl. Ah. 1840, 199 Dujardiu, Infus. 239. CH.ETO'MiUM, Kunze. genus of
Infiis.
id.

Perisporiacei (Ascomycetous Fnngi), having a filamentous mycelium bearing superficial roundish or ovate conceptacles clothed with
hairs, finally opening above and containing clavate asci with paraphyses sporidia sim;

The three or four species are found in fresh water, amongst aquatic plants. Their structure requires further investigation. C'hcetonohis larus (Pi. 31. fig. 24 ). Length 1-710 to 1-220". Dujardin appends Ichthydium, Ehr., to
this genus.

ple, ovate.

The

asci in this

genus are very

Mecznikow,

delicate and are readily absorbed, so that frequently there is not a trace of them, and the sporidia seem naked. British species C. elatmn, Kunze. Conceptacles subovate, black or brown, more or less crustaceous sporidia apiculate at each end. On mouldGreville, Sc. Cnjpt. FL pi. 230. ering straw, old matting, &c. Very com: ;

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 389; Duj. Inf. 568; Sieh. ^Kdll. Zeitsch. 1865 {Qu. Mic. Jn. 1866, 240).

CILETO'PHORA, Schrank. A

genus

of Chffitophoracefe (Confervoid Algse), characterized like Draparncddia by setigerous

branched filaments, but differing from the

latter

mon.
C.

chartarum, Ehr.
;

Conceptacles sub-

globose, black, surrounded by a bright yellow spot sporidia roundish. On paper. On damp straw. C. (jlahnim, B. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. p. 328;

by the filaments being imbedded in a The ChcpfophortB are gelatinous matrix. found in fresh water, forming little green protuberances on stones, sticks, &c., usually The zoospores are formed bright gi-een. singly in the joints, and bear four ciha.
True
fruit is figured

by Berkeley

in C. pisi-

Kunze,

3Ii/tolof/.

Heft

i.

Fries,

Si/st.

My-

fonnis, Gleani)igs of Br. Alg. pi. 1. fig. 1. The membrane of the filaments is very delicate; and the zoospores appear sometimes
to escape by its solution. British species C. endivicpfoUa, Ag. Hassall, Alq. pi. 9. Kutz. Tab. Ph/c. iii. pi. 21. fig. 3, fia-s. 1 , 2 Ulva incrassata, Eng. Bot. 967. Common in sti'eams.
: ;

col. iii. p.

CH./E'TOMONAS, Ehr. A genus

254, 255.

of In-

fusoria, of the family Cyclidina. Char. oral vibratile organ (whether a fiagelliform filament or riug of cilia is

An
;

uncertain) movement of animal slow, but leaping elJ'ected by means of non-vibratile brittles situated upon the body.

C. tuberculosa,
7,

Hook.
pis.

Kiitz.

I.

c.

Hass. 19 and 21.

I.

c.

Rhmkma

pi.

9.

In putrid animal and vegclable infusions; Closin di'ad bodies of other organisms

tuberculosa, Eng. Bot. 2366. Boggv pools. C. elegans, Ag. Hass. I. c. pi. 9. 3, 4 ; Kiitz. /. c. pi. 20. Stagnant pools; com-

teria,

&c.
(PI.

mon.
30. fig. 25).
setae

C. globulus

Nearly
;

ash-coloured, length 1-2700".

spherical,

numerous

constricta (PI. 30.

fig.

25

h).

Oblong,

constricted in the middle, hyaline, setaj len<?th 1-5400". BiBL. Ehr. Infvs. p. 248.

two

Hass. /. c. pi. 9. 5, 6 150; Kiitz. /. c. pi. 18; Thuret, A)in. So. Xat. 3 ser. xiv. pi. 19. figs. 1-3. Subalpine lakes. C. dilatatn, Hass. l. c. pi. 13. fig. 2.
C. pisiformis,

Ag.
t.

Greville,' Crijpt.

CHzbrrOM OKl'Il A,

Kiitz.

= CoxFERViE
p;

C. lonf/ceva, Carm. A doubtful species. Hook. Br. Fl.u. pt. 1. Rabenhorst admits 10 species Fl. Alg.
:

spec. (Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah/,

iii.

327

).

iii.

383.

CH/ETONO'TUS, Ehr. A genus

of mi-

BinL.

As

above.

croscopic aquatic animals, placed

by Ehren-

CILETOPHORA'CE^.A

family

of

CH/ETOPSIS.

157

CHALAZA.
;

Confervoid Algae, growing in sea or fresh water, rarely terrestrial, invested with gelatine either tilii'orm, or (a number of tila;

BiBL. Ann. N. 11. 1857, xix. pi. 9. figs. 6 and 7 Claparede and Lachmann, Inftts. 216
;

Kent, Infus. 601.

ments being connected together) expanded

into gelatinous, branched, delinitely-foruied Filaments or shapeless masses or fronds.
jointed, famished with bristle-like processes. Fructification consisting of spores and four;

CH^TOSTllO'MA,
TELLA.

Corda.

See Volu-

CH^TOTYPH'LA, Ehr. A
Infusoria, of the family PeridinEea.

genus of

ciliated zoospores, formed out of the contents of the articulations.

Si/?702)sis

Char. Carapace (siliceous P ) hispid or covered with rigid hairs ; no transverse

furrow, no eye-spot.
C.

of British Genera.

armata (PL

.30. fig.

26

a,

side-view

Draparnaldia.

Filaments

free,

gelati-

nous, the primary nearly colourless, bearing zootufts of coloured ramuli at the joint spores formed singly in the joints of the ramuli. I'ilaments dichotomously Chcptophora.
;

posterior end view). Ovato-subglobose, rounded at each end, hispid with short setae, posteriorly a ring of dark prickles ;
h,

branched, aggregated shapeless, crusting or branched, gelatinous fronds, the joints bearing bristle-like branches; zoothe spores solitary in the articulations membranes of the filaments very fugacious.
;

into

in-

Frond disk-shaped or irColeochccte. regularly expanded, adherent to leaves &c. of aquatic plants under water, formed of jointed dichotomous filaments radiating from a centre, more or less conjoined laterally; the joints producing from the back a slender truncate open tube, from which a Fructification long bristle is exserted. spores and zoospores formed in the joints. Frond discoid, appressed ; OcMochcBfe. filaments cylindrical, radiating from a centre, irregularly branched, consisting of a single series of cells, each of which is commonly prolonged above into an articulate bristle.
:

length 1-0:20". C. aspera (PI. 30. fig. 26 c). Oblong, rounded at each end, hispid with short setse scattered without order ; posterior prickles length 1-550". C. ? pyritce. Oblong cyliudiical, ends rounded sette slender and elongate no posterior prickles length 1-llOU", breadth half the length. Fossil in flint. Ehreuberg questions whether this is not a Xanthidium. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 250; Duj. Inf. 328. CHAITOPH'ORUS, Koch. genus of
;
;

Aphidse. Char. Antennae hirsute, 7-jointed; upper wings with a doubly forked cubitus lower
;

with two oblique veins; abdomen studded with tubercles tufted with bristles dimor:

phous. Several species occurring upon the willow, poplar, birch, &c.
;

BiBL. Buckton, Aphides {Hay Sac),

120.

ii.

CHA'LARA. A

genus
;

Foreign
Kiitz.

genus.

See

Aphanoch-s;te,

(Hyphomycetous Fungi)

of Mucedines characterized by

BiBL. See the genera.

cedines terized

CH.FTOP'SIS, Grev. A gemis

of

Mu-

the erect jointed threads, which at their slender apices break up into cylindrical
spores. C. longipes has been found in this countiy. BiBL. Sturm, D. Fl. 29, pi. 35 ; Saccardo,

(Hyphomycetous Fungi) characby erect jointed threads, whorled below, above simple and flagelliform, bearing cylindrical spores from the tips of the branclilets. One species only is known, C.
Wauchii.

Fasc.

i.

The teim ap(in plants). plied to the base of the nucleus of ovules,
Fis-.

CHALA'ZA

pis.

29-35.

BiBL. Grev. Crypt. Fl. pi. 23G Berkeley, Br. Fung. .35.3 Cooke, Handbook, 614. CH.ETOSPI'RA, Lachmann. genus of Infusoria, of the family Bursarina. Char. Buccal spire supported on a nan-ow
;
;

116.

Ch^

r_U-,

band-like process, at the base of which is the mouth. C. Miilleri. Shell lageniform, horny. On torn leaves oiLemna trisulca. C. mucicola. Shell gelatinous. Among Algae, fresh water.

Section of an anatropons ovule r, /", fimiculns ch, chalaza; p, external coat of testa s, internal coat or tegnjen n, nucleus.
:

raphe;

where the substance of the former

is

con-

CHALCIDID.E.
tinuoiis

158

CHALCIDID.E.

with the

coats,

cular cord derived

and where the vasfrom the placenta termifamily of

nates

CHALCID'ID^. A

(tig.

IK), ch).

Eutomo:

phagous Tert'brant Ilvmenoptera, distinguished by the following characters Head transverse, with the eyes lateral and the face usually bisulcate for the reception of the base of the anteimje (PL 36.

the majority of which are of extremely minute size, and adorned with the most" brilliant metallic colours. This circumstance, coupled with the delicacy of their form, renders mauy of the species most beautiful
objects ; and considering their interesting habits, they certainly do not deserve the almost total neglect which have met
;

Antennfe short, frequently thickfig. ened at the tips, sometimes branched, composed of not more than thirteen joints, and almost always geniculated at the ex8).

tremity of the elongated first joint. Palpi Thorax veiy short, sometimes branched. A\" iugs nearly ovate, with a distinct collar. destitute of veins the anterior with a rather strong subcostal vein running parallel to the anterior margin for about half the length of the wing, and terminating in a stigma, from which a short vein is given ofl' obliqiielv towards the disk of the wing the posleritir sometimes veinless, sometimes with a short hinder subcostal vein. Ijegs moderate thighs sometimes much thickened tarsi of four or five joints. Abdomen generally composed of seven segiuents in the males and of six in the females, united to the thorax by
;
;

which occur in many species of this family, do not always indicate that the insects possessing tliem are endowed with saltatorial powers on the other hand, many species which are destitute of thickened and according to Westthighs leap well
; ;

they The largest species belong to the genus Leucopsis but none of these greatly exceed half an inch in length, and they are not found further north "than the South of Europe. The thickened hinder thighs
with.

wood's observations, this is especially the case with those in which the intermediate tibic-e are furnished with a large spine at
the extremity {Encyrti's,

The

perfect insects

PL 36. fio-. 12). may be met with

in

a peduncle of variable length ovipositor usually concealed entirely in a cleft of the lower surface of the abdomen, which extends nearly to the base (tig. 9), but sometimes exserted and very long. The structure of the ovipositor is the same as that of
;

abundance duiing the summer and autumn iipon the leaves of trees and plants. They may be taken either by sweeping the herbwith a net, or by beating trees or age hedges over a broad net or umbrella.

The sexes are olten distinguished in this family by remarkable external characters, especially in the structure of the auteume. These, in the males of many species, are beautifully branched, in consequence of the
oft" processes from their sides Eiduphus (fig. 13) we usually find three branches and in some foreign genera recorded by Westwood the number is increased to five, seven, and even nine. A few species have the wings rudimentary or entirely wanting; and it is remarkable "that in some cases the male only is deprived of wings, the female being well furnished with

the

Ichnei(?)tO)iid(B.

joints giving
in
;

The

larvte, like those of the rest of the

petiolated Hymenoptera, are footless fleshy gi-ubs (flg. 10). Like the larvse of the Ichneumonida?, they usually live in the interior of

other insects; but it is remarkable that those of a few species attach themselves to the skin of their victim, and in this position The internal feed upon its substance. feeders generally change to the pupa state within the pupa of the insect attacked by them a few, however, break through the skin of the larva and attach themselves to it or to neighbouring objects by a glutinous The secretion, or by a small silken cocoon. pupje have the limbs more closely attached to the body than in the other Hymenoptera; and in those which have an elongated oviturned up over the positor, that organ is The pupa; are at first whitish, but back. afterwards become brown or black they
; ;

these organs. The Chalcididoe are parasitic upon insects of nearly all orders, and deposit their eggs in them in all stages of their growth. Some of the minute s]ircies even" find sutficieut

nourishment in

tlie

amongst these we may mention Pteromalus ovulorum as a common species, which has been reai'ed from the eggs of Lepidojjterous
insects.

eggs of other insects

tion,

are usually naked (fig. 11). The family Chalcididaj includes an immense number of parasitic Hymenoptera,

a single ^go^ of this descripfive or six individuals of a mmute species, described by him under the name of Pteromalvs atomo's. \A'estwot)d also m(>ntions the occurrence of two species of this family in the egg-cases

From

Fouscolombe obtained

CHALCIDID^E.

159
ii.

CHALK.

of species of Mantis from Brazil and the of I'raiioe aud Sells has recorded the occurrence of uo less lliau ninety-four specimens of a small Pleromulus in a single eggcase of a Blatta.
;
;

Me

Boyer de Fonscolombe, Mon. Chalc. Ann. Sci. Nat. xxvi. Walker, Man. Chalcid.; Dalman and Bohe;

Gallo-l'rovincifB,

man

in Koixjl.

Vet.

Alutd.

JIandlinyar

Other minute species deposit their eggs aud their larvie in the bodies of Aphides tind a 8utKeient supply of nourishment even Some, iu such small insects as these.
the genus especially those forming
2)Jio(/us

Walker, Entum. May. and Ann. N. H. Gueriu's May. de ZouL, Ent. May. &c., and Haliday, Enfom. Mag. CllA'LIMUS, Burm. A genus of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and fa;

Cocco-

of

Westwood, attack the

Coccidcc,

of which they destroy great numbers. Other species, including most of the larger

forms, live parasitically in the cells of the Amongst these solitary Bees and Wasps. -we may notice the singular genus Monodontomerus, one species of which, first discovered by Audouin, and described by Newport iu the Linnean Transactions,' is found in the nests of Odynerus, AnfJiop/tora, aud Osmia. The male of this remarkable insect has only rudimentary wings, so that it is unable to quit the cell of the Bee or
'

mily Caligndse. Char. Fourth pair of legs slender, of only one branch, and serving for walking frontal plate with a long aud slender prehensile appendage arising from the middle of its
;

anterior surface. scombri. Found upon the mackerel, and upon species of Caliyus, of which it has been supposed to be the young length

about 1-U". BiBL. Burmeister, N.A.Acad. N. C. Bonn, xvii. Baird, Brit. Entomostr. p. 278. CHALK. An eartliy form of carbonate
;

"Wasp

in whicli it passed its earlier stages,

w'hilst the female,

being well provided with to wings, can fly about, after impregnation, seek other nests iu which to deposit her eggs. The species which are furnished with long belong chietly to the genus t'alovipositors

of lime, constituting strata of great thickness in England and several parts of Europe, &c. The application of the microscope to the examination of chalk brought to hght the interesting fact that this substance has

not had
since
it

its origin in

chemical precipitation,

limome

(tig. 14, C. cynipis) ; they deposit their eggs in different kinds of galls, the

vegetable excrescences caused by the punctures of various other insects upon plants. The larvfe of these gallicclous ChacididcO devovu" the rightful occupant of the gaU. The instinct which prompts these insects to deposit their eggs in the larvai of these
astogall-producing insects, is scarcely so nishing as that by which others are impelled to insert theirs into the bodies of other parasitic insects, whilst still enclosed within the tissues of their victim. Some of these, such as Viirysolaminis si(spc7isus and C'oruna claiata, attack the larvie of the Apltidii, minute Ichneumons which infest the bodies and De Fili[ipi has recorded of Aphides the occurrence of the larvte of one species within a small Dipterous larva which itself lives in the (^^^ vi lihyniliites Betuleti in the vineyards near Turin (^Ann. N. H. 1852,
;

contains abundance of the inorganic remains if marine animals, and a few plants, perhaps doubtful. Many of these relics are not microscopic, as those of Fishes and Reptiles, the shells of
(

Malacostracous Crustacea, Mollusca, Echinodermata, the polypidoms of Zoophytes, &c. hence their consideration does not come within our province yet it must be
;
:

remembered that their microscopic structiire

is

characteristic, so that the class, order, or even the more minute division of the animal kingdom to which they belong may be See Bone and Shf.ll. discovered. The chief microscopic constituents of the calcareous formations examined by Ehrenberg, viz. chalk, and uummulitic and other compact limestones, were found to be
shells of Foraminifera, spicules of sponges,

and peculiar bodies called crystalloids and several siliceo-calcareous earths he found to be wholly composed of s]iicules, Diato;

l>e Filippi is inclined to regard ix. 4(jl). the phenomena observed by him as an instance of alternation of generations; but they evidently constitute an example of double parasitism. BiBL. Westwood, Introd. ii. & Zod. Jn.
;

maceje, I'olycystina, and Foraminifera. The F( raminifera found by Ehrenberg in the Grave.-end chalk were: Cristellaria

Glohiyerina cretacca, Ilelerostoniella acrdeata aud tiinums, Nodvsaria ovictdtrata,

cnla,

Spinola,

138-152 Nees von Eseubeck, Jlynenopt. Ichncum. Man.

xvii.
;

Ann. 3Iiiseum,

phina

Flanorhidina ammunoides, PolymorTJivimti, Pulvinidina Micheliniana, Textularia ayylutinans, yiilosa, ylolulosa,

CHALK.
striata,

160

CHAM.ESIPHON.
;

and subangulata, Vagimdina laevigata VerneuUina spinuhsa, and l~ulvidiua pennatida. D'Oibigny enumerated 22 species from the English chalk, including some of the above many others have also been found. The genera and subgenera in which they are grouped are Bolwina, Bulimina, CalCARiNA, CristeJlaria, DentaUna, Flahellina, and
loTiga,
;

the point of a pen-knife then diffuse it through the water, and set it aside for a few seconds. Next remove the finest particles which are suspended in the water, together with most of the water, and allow the re-

Frondicularia,

Gaiidnjhui,

Globigerina,

IIaplophragmu(m,IIeterostomcUa,Lingulma, IjAGKNA, Lituola, Marginidina, Miliola, Kodosan'a, Xodosarina, Plamdaria, Pla-

mainder to become perfectly dry. Moisten remainder yv\t\\ oil of turpentine, and warm it over a spirit-lamp then add Canada balsam, and digest it upon the brass table (Intr. xxviii), but without its frothing." A preparation thus made seldom fails and when magnified 300 diameters, the mass is seen to be chiefly composed of minute
this
; ;

Planorbulina, Polymorphina, PuLviNULiXA, Qiiinqueloctiliiia, llamulina, RoTALTA, Sagrina, Sph^eroidina, TexTULARiA, TiNOPORUS, Tvitaxia, TeochamMiNA, Truncatidlna, Valvulina, J\'nuiulina, Virgtdina, and Wchhina. Ehrenberg found two Diatoraaceaj in the
indina,

English chalk, viz. Fragdaria capttcina i^F. rhabdoso7na), and Fr. jnnnata, Ehr. (=:i^. mutabdis, Sm.). Some other Diatomacese referred by Ehrenberg to the chalk, belong to foreign chalk and to totally different beds. The material of chalk comprises very
minute, numerous, and remarkable bodies, called crystalloids and morpholites byEhrenThey are elliptical berg (PI. 25. hg. 15). or rounded, and flattened, from 1-10,000 to 1-25C0" in length, the most numerous per-

As thus prewell-preserved organisms. pared, the cells of the Foraminifera first appear black, with a white central spot (PI. 24. fig. 3), which is caused by airbubbles contained within the cells. The balsam gradually penetrates into the cells, the black rings of the air-bubbles disappear, and the minute, frequently very elegant cells of the Foraminifera become visible. See Flint, and For.\minifera.
crystalloids are best examined in or powdered chalk, which has been shaken with water and set aside.

The

common whiting,

very minute quantity removed with a dipping tube will exhibit them. BiBL. The various works on geology, as those of Lyell and Ansted Mantell, Won;

haps 1-3000"; some of them consist of a simple ring (a) in others this is marked
;

with pretty regular trans-^erse lines, so as to make it appear jointed (h) in others, again,
;

a thinner central portion, often exEhrenhibiting one or more granules (c). berg regarded these as arising from the disintegration of the microscopic organisms forming the chalk into much more minute calcareous particles, and their reunion into regular elliptical plates or disks by a pecuthere
is

Medals of Creation, and Ann. N. H. 1845, xvi. p. 73 Bowerbank, Geol. Tr. 2 s. vi. Ehrenberg, Ahh. d. Berlin. Ak. 1 838 {Ann. N. II. 1841, vii.), and Ahh. d. Berl. Ak. 1840 (Taylor's Sc. Mem. iii.), and 3Iikrogeologic, 1854 Parker and Jones's Ehr. resume, Ann. N. II. 1872 "Williamson, Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. viii. 1847 MorCat. Br. Fossils, 1854 ris, D'Orbignv,
ders,
; ; ; ; ;

Mem.
123

Soc. Geol. d. France,

vii.
5

iv.

(Abs.,

Ann.
1878,

N. H. 1841,

p.3U0)
IJixou's

Zirkel, Mineralien
/S'i^ssc.r,

4-C..1873, .303

liar process, diffei'ing essentially from,

and

coarser than that of crystallization, but comparable with it, one probably preceding all sicno crystalline formation, and causing, but not alone, the granular state of solid inorganic matter. These microscopic bodies have of late years been regarded as the agglomerated or separate plates of very

simple protozoan organi.sms by Huxley, Wallich, and Sorby. By Carter they are believed to belong to an Alga (CoccoLITHS). The best method of examining chalk for minute Foraminifera is this: place a drop of water upon a glass slide, and put into it as much iiuely sci-aped chalk as will cover

A supposed CIIAM/ENE'iNfA, Kiitz. genus of Leptotricheous Algae, consisting of dusky-coloured jointed filaments, forming flocks in various syrups. Doubtless the mycelia of some Fungi, such as Penicillium. BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Alq. 158. CHAM.*]'SIPHO\, B'raun.A genus of
Oscillatoriacere (Confervoid Alga3).

This term is vulthe white concretions formed around the joints in chronic gout, or, as it is sometimes called, rheumatic gout. They consist of very minute needles of urate of soda (PI. 12. Iig.l2i).

& 283. CHALK-STONES.

applied
to

ed.,

garW

Char.

Trichomata

erect,

asruginous or

CIIANTRANSIA.
violet, parasitic, sheatlied, articulate
;

101

CITARACE^E.
Fig. 117.

terI'^our

minal joints Ibrmiug roLiuded gonidia.

species. C. confervicola (PI. 3. fig. 6).
tJirix,

On

Calo(tigs.).

Vaucherio, Sec. BiBL. Kabonliorst, Fl. Alg.

Fries.

ii.

CHANTRAN'SIA,

148 A

genus

of Ceraniiacefe (Florideous Algas). Species numerous, purple, violet, or ferruginous. Found on stones, submerged mosses, and -wood. Antlieridia subglobose, terminal, tetraspores rare. liiBL. Rabeuliorst, Fl. Alg. iii. 401
;

Priiigslieim, Beit. z. Morph. Al(/en Ilassall, Alff. 75.

;

d.

Meeres-

femily of plants generally classed among the Algte, but which, fi-om the character of their reproductive organs, perhaps demand a more elevated position. They may be placed on the boundary between the Algfe and the Ilepaticje. They are remarkable for their well-known
circulation,' first discovered by Corti. The Characege are aquatic plants, of filamentous structure, exhibiting elongated axes furnished at intervals with whorls of branches
'

CHARA'CE.-E.A

CIIA'RA,

L.

See Chaeace^^e.

these are sometimes regarded as In some species this axis is a simple tube (fig. 124), sometimes a tube with a cortical layer of smaller tubes surrounding it (figs. 118, 119). Some authors have divided the species, on this and some
(fig.

117)

leaves.

other grounds, into two genera, Nitella (simple tubes) &\\AChara (corticated tubes) but according to Al. Braun, who has devoted great attention to this family, the The mode of characters will not hold. ramification of the simple tubes is seen in 125 that of the compound axes figs. 124 & is fundamentally the same, but other cells arise from the branch cells at the articula; ;

Fig. 118.

Fig. 120.

one below each branch on the upper side of the branches gTOw up over the central axis to meet those descending from the under side of the branches of the whorl next above, the ends becoming intercalated about the middle of the internode in this course
:

tions, one above and (C. crinita). Those

Fig. 119.

Fig. 117. Chara vulgaris. Natural size. Fig. 118. Fragment of stem, magnified 15 diam., show-

of growth, cell-division takes place, and the primary cortical tubes are not only made up of many lengths in each internode, but each
is perpendicularly divided into two, one large and one smaller tube (C vulgaris), or produces a secondary tube on each side {. aspera) ; the primary tubes stand out as ribs from the surface. These cortical tubes describe a spiral course around the internode.

ing the cortical tubes.

Fig. 119. Fig. 120.

Branch with nucule and

section of ditto, magnified 30 diam. globule, 10 d'f.m.

Filamentous radical cells are also produced from the whorls. The cells of the main axis and its branches, and the primaiy cortical cells, are those in which the circulation of the contents may be seen best. The cell-wall is liced by a close layer, like a
ii

CHARACEvE.

162

CHARACE^.
Fig. 121.

pavement, of cliloropliyll-globules imbedded in colourless protoplasm, arranged in a some-

Fig. 124.

what

spiral order

within them
;

lies a

thick

layer of semigelatinous consistence (the and the centre is circulating protoplasm) filled up with a watery liquid. The circulation in the ordinary cells consists in the movement of the gelatinous protoplasmic sac, as one mass, slowly up one side of the cell, across the ends, and doAvn the other not perpendicularly, however, but in side, an oblique or spiral course, as indicated in The fiuid in the centre does not fig. 125. circulate, but contains vesicles, granules, or other bodies floating in it, whicli are free,

and up the side of the cell, until they fall down again by The young cells from which gravitation.
sac, are carried along
it

and when resting upon by

tlie

protoplasmic

the fruits are developed exhibit a circulation of green vesicles; the cortical filaments have acirculating primordial utricle without chlorophyll-globules. The circulation is obscured in many Charce by the existence of an incrustation of the cell-wall hj carbonate of lime, often found
in rhomboidal
crystals.
tra7islucens, Jiexilis,
;

In and other

C.

(NiteUa)

species, this

does not exist and these species without cortical tubes exhibit the phenomenon more Those species, clearly than the others.

however, which are subject to incrustation have comparatively little about the tips of the shoots and if they are kept growing for some time in a jar of water pretty free from lime, new shoots maybe obtained very
;

When we caresuitable for examination. fully examine the conical terminal cell of a shoot, we find the following characters
:

The cell-membrane
;

is

distinctly laminated,
Pig. 121. A globule, magnified 50 diam., showing the triangular valves. Fig. 122. A globule cut in half, to show the oblong cells and the septate filaments in the centre, 50 diam. Fig. 123. Portion of a sejitate filament, 200 diam. ; with two bieiliated spermatozoids, 400 diam. Fig. 121. Chara transhicens, showing its simple tubes and nucules grouped in threes under the terminal globule. Fig. 125. Diagram representing the course of the circulation in the main tube and branches of Chara.

and thickened at the conical apex of the when sulphuric acid and iodine are cell
applied, the cell-wall exhibits a thick internal layer of a blue colour, indicating its composition of cellulose, while a thin layer

extending all over the outside becomes bright yellow, and thus presents a resemblance to the cuticular layer of the higher The cell-wall is lined by a thin plants. layer of protoplasm, in which are in:bedded a vast number of chlorophyll-globules,
closely
stated.
;

set

and arranged

spirally, as

above
chloro-

a clear line extends obliquely up in

this layer, bare of chlorophjdl.

The

pliyll-globules have much the appearance of vesicles here, and contain starch- corpuscles, which cause the whole layer to

turn

blue with iodine.

(See

Culoro-

riiYLL.) Within this motionless layer is found the thick rotating layer of protoplasm, in which again are imbedded numerous starch and chlorophyll-globides, a vast number of minute granules, and a number of globular bodies of larger size, 1-1500", according to Goppert and Cohn covered with The internal boundary of this rigid cilia.

CHARACE-E.
;

163

CHEESE-MITE.

and thus its layer is wavy and irregular rotation carries along, to a certain extent, the watery juice tilling up the centre of the

which lie numerous transparent protoplasm-vesicles, ciliated bodies, and granular matters. Thefructiticationof Chara is very curious, and its homologies are not yet satisfactorily made out. Upon the branches are found bodies of two kinds, either on the same or on different branches, or on different plants ; called the glohde and the nucule. The glohuJe (figs. 120, 121) or antheridium is a spherical body, of a red or orange-colour when ripe, presenting a transparent thickish outer coat, enclosing an inner wall of curious construction. This is composed of eight triangular plates, each composed of a
cell, in

a resting-spore, which germinates, and becomes developed into a new plant. The germinating spore does not, however, dibut, rectly give origin to the young plant
;

as in the higher Cryptogamia, a prothallus

first formed, and upon this, the first branches of the plant arise by ordinary gemmation. The prothallus consists of a single row of cells, forming a filament. This is not produced, however, in Kifella. The CharcB also multiply by gemmse, produced at the articulations of the stem of which there are three modifications. Carter has published some interesting observations on the development of the rootcells of Chara also an account of the abis
;

normal products which are sometimes found

in decaying cells. BiBL. Corti, Osserv. sulla Circulazione, 1774; Amici, Mem.d. Societa itaUana,\SlS;

numberof long wedge-shaped cells radiating fi'om a central cell. The plates have dentate margins, by which they fit into one anotlier The cells contain a red colour(fig. 121).
ing-matter. In the centre of each plate, inside, rises an oblong cell running in toward the centre of the globule, where it meets its fellows from the other plates, and

N. 1824 Dutrochet, Ann. cl. Sc. 349; Meyen, I'Jianzen-jjhys. ii. 206 Varlev, Tr. 8oc. Arts, xlix. 1633 Micr. Tr. ii. 93, 1849 Slack, Tr. Soc. Arts,
d. Sc.
;

Ann.

Nat.

ser. 2. x.
;

xlix.

65, 3 ser.

Thuret, Ann. xvi. 18

;

d. Sc.
;

Nat. 2

ser. xiv, d.

Treviranus, Phys.

they are united by a

;

collection of spherical cells a ninth cell, of similar form but larger size, comes to join these in the centre,
little

Gewcichse, i. 1839 Kiitzing, I'hyc. qen. 313 ; C. Miiller, Bot. Zeit. 1845 {Ann. N. H. xrii.

being the pedicle of the globule, arising from the branch upon which it is seated, and enterino: the Eflobule between the lower four valves. At the point where these nine
it

meet in the centre, a number of long septate filaments arise (fig. 122). These are composed, when mature, of a large number of cells placed end to end (figs. 122 & 123), each of which finally discharges a ciliated spiral filament (spermatozoid), which swims The globule bursts, actively in the water. by the separation of its triangular valves,
cells

254) Goppert and Cohn, Bot. Zeit. vii. 665, 1849 Bvh\m,Ber. Berl. Ak. 1852-3 (Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xii. 297) Carter, Aym. N. H. 2 ser. xvi. 1, xix. 13; Pringsheim, Jahrb. 1864; Berk. Suppl. Enxj. Bot. t. 2762; Nageli, Beit. ii. 1860 De Bary, 3fonatsb. Berl. Ak. 1871 Sachs, Bot. 29o. CHARA'CIUM, Braun. A genus of Confervoid unicellular Algae, of doubtful
; ; ; ; ;

when mature

position reproduction by repeated binary division of the eudochrome. Allied to Ifi/drocytimn. Adherent to larger submerged Algae. Perhaps only male spores of CEdo;

and

it is

after this that the

spermatozoids are emitted. The form of these spermatozoids is very like that of those found in the Mosses, and different from what is seen in the Fems, Lycopodiacese, &c.
(PI. 40. figs. .31-34).

gonium and allied genera. Kabenhorst describes 13 species. C. Siebokm (PI. 5. fig. 2). On Algae and freshwater mosses.
BiBL. Tlabenhorst,i'7.^i(r/.
Ah/. Umcell. Gen. nova, 1855.
iii.

filiform

82; Braun,

nucule or carpogon of the Chares (figs. 120 & 124) forms an oval body coated by five cells, wound spirally around a central tough sac; the five cells terminating above in five or ten smaller cells, which proj ^ct like teeth from the summit, forming a kind of crown. The cells of the crown separate from each other at a particular period, leaving a canal leading down to the central cell, which contains protoplasm, oil, and starch-globules. Ultimately the nucide falls off, fcn-ms

The

CHASMATOS'TOMA, Engehnann. A
; ;

genus of Holotrichous Infusoria.

Char. Free, ovate or reniform cilia long, mouth near the centre of the flattened ventral surface, enclosing a minute

matted

undulating membrane. C. reniforme. Fresh water length -^\ -'. BiBL. Engelmann, Zeitsch. wiss. Zool. Kent, Lif. 540. 1802, u. CHEESE-MITE. See Ac.vrxjs domesTICUS. M2
;
;

CHEESE-MOULD.
CHEESE-MOULD.
CHEILAN'THES,
Pteridi'se

164

CHELIFEE.

See AsPERGiLLrs.
S\v.

geuus of

(Polypodiaceous Ferns), nearly related to Adkintum. The marginal lobed indusium is very narrow some species have the under surface of the leaves mealy, from the presence of microscopic hairs. large geuus tropical. BiBL. Hooker, Siin. Fil. 131.
;

PoRixiD-E. Poh'zoarium incrusting, or and branched cells with a raised tubular or subtubular oritice, and frequently a special pore on the front walls. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. Busk, Cat.
erect
; ;

Mar.
i.
;

Polyz. {Brit. 3Ius.); Gosse, 3Iar. Zool.

1.

Hincks, Polyzoa,

CHEtROCEPH'ALUS.
PUS.

See Braxchi-

genus Jungermannieae (Hepaticae), founded Vi^ow Jung ennannia jjohjanthus, L.,v?hich is

of

CHEILO'SCITHUS, Corda.A

not unfrequent in wet places. BiBL. Hooker, Brit. Junxjerm. pi. 62 Corda, in Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. ii. 19, 20,
;

CHEIROS'PORA, Fries genus of Melanconiei (Stylosporous Fungi upon the twigs of the beech. The mycelium spreads under the epidermis, and bursts
through in rounded or irregular,
conical,

black pustules, 1-20" in diameter, which are

p. 35, pi. 9.

CHEILOSTO'MATA.

composed of a
suborder of

large

number of fine filaments,

lufundibulate Polyzoa (marine). Char. Oritice of cell hlled with a thin membranous or calcareous plate, with a curved mouth, furnished with a moveable
lip-

unequal in length, and waved, each terminating in a bunch of spores. The heads are formed of chains of spores like a Penici/liiim, when young, but crowded togetlier more
densely as they become more fully developed into a globular or oval head, about 1-700"; the spores about 1-400U". This genus cor-

It is divided into

numerous
Tribe

families

two sections, contaming and genera.

1. Articulata. Polyzoarium jointed. Salicornahiidje. Polyzoarium erect,cells cylindrical, dichotomously branched arranged on all sides.
;

CELLAKnD^.
linear,

CELLULARHDiE.
branches
plane.
fiat,

Polvzoarium
ceUs
in

erect,

responds to Stilhospora, Montague, 3l//riocephalum, De Notaris, and, ajiparently, Hyperomyxa, Corda ; but the latter is said to have a mucous vesicle enclosing the head. C. hotryospora, Fr. On dead beech twigs, Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. v. 455. Fresenius finds a variety on the horn-

the

same

beam.

Tiibe

2.

Inarticulata.

Polyzoarium unCells in one

508 448
Ic.

jointed.

EtJCRATiiD^
row.

(Scrupaiiidaj).

BiBL. Cheirospora, Fries, Sinnma Veyet. StilbosjMr.a, Fries, Syst. Mycoluy. iii. Montague, Ann. Sc. Kat. 2 ser. vi. 338, pi. 18. fig. 5; Hyperomyxa, Corda,
; ;

Aeteid^e.
;

Funy.

iii.

fig.

78

Kat. 2

ser.

xx. 378

Gemellariid^. Cells in pairs opposite. Cabereid^. Branches narrow cells in two or more rows, with whips or sessile
birds' heads at the back,

BiCELLARiiD.E. As the last, but whips absent, and birds' heads stallied and jointed. Flustrid^e. Zoaiium expanded, foliaceous, and flexible. Membraxiporid^. Expanded, incrusting, stony
;

CHELlDO'XrUM, L.A genus of P.ipaveraceous plants, remarkable for the yelli-w juice contained in the laticiferous canals.
See Latex.

Notaris, Mem. Accad. Torino, Fresenius, Mykuloyie, 39, pi. (2tes Heft).

Montague, Ann. Sc. Myriocephalum, De

ser. 2.
vii.
;
.

o.

^"^)^,

1-9

CHEUIFEPt, Leach. A genus of

;

Pseu-

cells horizontal, quincuncial.

MlCROPORID^E. Celleporid-e. Massive, globose,

crusting, or erect, stony; the common plane, irregidarly
ther.

doscorpiones (Arachnida). Char. Cephalothorax with a transverse furrow eyes 2 no tail.

;

incells vertical to

C. cancroides (PI.

-53.

fig.

12).

Brown,

palpi stout; length

I".

In old books, her-

heaped toge-

baria, etc., and shady places. C. muscorum. weaker;

Expanded and leafy, or branching, stony cells in tlie same plane,

EscHARiD.E.
;

Palpi

abdomen
;

with a small appendage at the

reddish.

last joint

quincuncial.

Cribru.inid.e, MyRIOZOIDiE.

Micropoeellid.e,

Many other species. BiBL. Gervais (Walckenaer), Ins. Apt. 77 ; Murrav, Ec. Ent. 34.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
DUCTiox,

1G5

CniLODON.

iNTiio-

following works be found useful for study or reference in regard to chemical subjects: Stockardt, (imeliii, Ilandhiirh Rose, Mcj}er. Chem. FreAnal. Chem. Will, Chetn. Analyse Heiutz, Zoochemic senius, Anal. Chem. Schmidt, Gorup-Besanez, Zooch. Anal.

CHEMISTRY. The

p. xlii.

nules, this substance being replaced by inuline in most of the plants of this family. The presence of starch, therefore, in samples

may

UntersuclmngsmcfJiode Iloppe-Sevler, Tr. iVanal. chim. phys. et Chem. Watts, Diet. Roscoe, path. Miller, Lessons l^c, and his larger work Eugel. Chim. med. et hiol. Mehu, Chem. med. and path. chem. Ralfo, Demonstr. in phys. The progress of chemistry is reported in the Chemical News.' CIIEY'LETUS, Latreille. genus of Acarina (Arachnida), of the family Tromallg.
;
;

Entw.

ein.

'

of chicory denotes adulteration, which, when by roasted corn or beans, is easily detected and the integuments of roasted Other comgrain may often be identified. mon adulterations are roasted carrots, parthe first of these snips, or mangel-wurzel is difficult to detect, as tlie structure of the roots is very similar, as is the case to some extent with the parsnip, in wdiich, however, traces of the starch usually remain the parenchymatous tissue of mangel-wurzel is formed of cells very much larger than those of chicory. In addition to the above, certain substances containing astringent or colom'ing-matters are occasionally found in ground
effected
;
: ;

chicory and coffee

tan,

such

as oak-bark

and

bidina.

Char. Rostrum prominent, palpi very thick, resembling arms, and falciform at the ends; antenna! forceps (mandibles ?) didacKoch tarsi with 2 simple claws.
tylous describes 6 species
;

Michael and Meguin

other kinds of sawdust. These are easily detected by the microscope, from the presence of woody fibre and libsr-cells, the origin of which is often to be made out by careful comparative examination.

mahogany and

add

others.

BiBL. HassaU, Food and

its

Adulterations,

C. enulitiis (PI. 53. fig. 13).

Found

in

108, 199, .352.

soria, of

books and museums. Parthenogenesis has been found to occur in this species (Beck). C. 2}(ii'(tsitivonts, found at the root of the
hairs of rabbits, feeding upon Listrophori C. heteropalpus, on the feathers of the Columbidse &c. ; C. macronychus, on the fea;

genus of Infuthe family Trachelina. Char. Body covered with cilia mouth with teeth arranged in the form of a tube fore part of the head produced into a broad
;

CHPLODON, Ehr. A

thers of Insessores ; C. venvstissimus, on fodder in a stable and C.jiaheUifer, on the w alls of a beer-cellar (Michael).
;

membranous or ear-like lip. The cilia form longitudinal rows.

DeC. cucullulus (PI. 30. fig. 27). pressed, oblong, colourless, rounded at the ends, slightly aiuiculate or beaked anteriorly on the right side ; freshwater and marine length 1-1120 to 1-140 (PI. 30. Contains a red eyefig. 27 h, side view.)
;

BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer's Apteres, iii. Robin, J. de ^-c. VAnat.imi (figs.), p. 506: Beck, Mic. Tr. 1866, 30 Murray, Ec. Ent. 285 Michael, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, 1-33 & 313 (figs.);
;

Koch, Deutsch. Cnistac.

;

'.

Megnin, Parasites, 1880, 240.

spot. C. uncinates.

CHICKWEED,
common

Stellaria

media. Th\s

Depressed, oblong, rounded

;

plant is of great interest to the microscopic observer, on account of the facihty with which the embryo-sac may be See Griflith, Text-book, 45, dissected out. pl.l.

at the ends, colourless; narrowed and curved anteriorlv so as to appear hooked fresh w.;

CHICORY.This

substance,

used for

or adulterating coffee, consists of the roots of the plant of the same name Cichorrnm Intybus). The structures com( posing the root (PI. 2. fig. 6) are recognizable
after it has

mixing with

been roasted and groimd, con-

sisting of membranous cellular tissue, c, short-jointed reticulated ducts of large size, laticiferous tubes, a. Pure chicory b, and does not appear to contain any starch-gra-

length 1-430". C. aureus. Ovato-conical, turgid, goldenyellow, anterior end curved so as to form an obtuse beak, posterior end naiTowed ; Xassula (?). aquatic; length 1-140". C. ornatus. Ovato-cylindrical, goldenyellow, ends rounded, a violet spot at the neck; aquatic and marine; length 1-174". Nassula (?). Dujardin admits only the first species ; referring the others to the genus Kassvla. BiBL. Ehr. Infns. .336; Duj. Inf. 490;

Stein, 7??/. Inf. 335.

i^c.

Claparede and Lachmann,

CHILOMONAS.
CHILOM'ONAS,

166

CHLORASTER.
;

Elir. A genus of Fla;

gellate Infusoria, of the family JMonadiua.

;

vol. ix. 442,

Char. No tail nor eye-spot body ovoid, oblong, siirmouuted by a lip with two very delicate tiagelliform filaments ; revolving
its centre.

1863 Ann. N. H. 1862; Mn. Mic.Jn. 1871. CHIROD'OTA, Eschsch. A genus of Echinodermata, closely allied to Synapta.
Soc. Bomhaij, 1861, 1862,
C. violacea possesses curious wheel-like calcareous plates in the skin.

upon

C. volvox. Oval, narrowed and notclied in front, colourless and transparent, lip long; fresh water ; length 1-1400".

Not

British.
;

BiBL. V. der IToeven, Zool. i. 150 Carpenter, J//c/-oscq/je, 564; HerapathjQw. Mic.
Jn. 1865,
1.

C.

paramecinin.
;

Oblong, keeled,

trila-

teral, coliiurless

and opaque, sometimes ag-

gregated

fresh water ; length 1-1020". destruens. (J. Oblong, variable in form fi-om its softness, colourless or yello^vish ;
;

water and marine length 1-800". gramdosa (PI. 30. fig. 28). Oblong, broader in front, colourless, with granides which appear to project on the surface length 1-840". In an infusion of mosses. C. ohliqua. Ovoid or pyriform, nodular, colourless, variable in form length 1-2700". BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 30 j Duj. Inf. 295; Kent, Inf. 423. CHILOSTOMEL'LA, Reuss. A Foraminifer, consisting of subovate chambers, overlapping one another, almost completely, on opposite sides alternately; with crescentic almost terminal aperture.
fi'esh

C.

is the horny substance which, gives firmness to the tegumentary system and other parts of the Crustacea, Araclmida, and Insects ; probably also the carapace of the Rotatoria consists of it. It is left when the above stiiictures are exhausted succes-

CHITINE

with alcohol, ether, water, acetic acid, alkalies, retaining the original form of the texture. It is dissolved by concentrated
sively

and

mineral acids without the production of colour. It is not dissolved by solution of potash, even when boihng. Neither does it
give the characteristic reactions ^^^thJMiUon's or Schultze's tests. It contains nitrogen.
p.

BiBL. Odier, Mem. Mus. d'Hist. N. i. 35 Lassaigne, Compt. Rend. xvi. p. 1087;
;

Schmidt,
Eend.

Vercjl.

Phys.

d.

toirbellos.
;

Thiere

(Taylor's Sc.

Mem.

v. p. 1)

Pay en, Compt.

Fossil (Tertiary), recent (Atlantic

Pacific).
i,

and

xvii. p. 227.

BiBL. 'Re\v-s. Denhschr. Ak. Wien, 18o0, 16 Brady, Qu. Mic. Jn. xix. 66.
;

CHIODEC'TON, Ach.
Lichens
species, (tribe
C.

See ProtoCienkowsky, Lot. Zeit. 1865; and liabenhorst, Rostafinsky, ibid. 1871

CHLAMIDOCOC'CUS.
also
;

coccus;

genus

of

Fl. AJq.

iii!

94.
of

Graphidei), of which one

CIILAMID'OJ>ON, Ehr. A genus

myrticola, has been found in Ireland ; and its var. sarniense in the Channel Islands. BiBL. Leighton, Aug. Lich. 24, pi. 8. fig. 4, pi. 9. fig. 1 ; Lich. Flor. 435 ; Tulasne,

Infusoria, of the family Euplota.

Ann.

Sc. Nat.

genus of Mucorini (Phycomycetous Fungi), found growing upon melting snow. Chionyphe Carferi, Berk., is a curious fungus, which is supposed to be the cause of that formidable disease the Fungus-foot of India. It has, however, been doubted whether it is really the cause, or only a secondary growth on the truffle-like nodules composed principally of stearine (?)
are characteristic of the disease. considers the disease somewhat similar to the amyloid lardaceous disease which attacks various other parts of the body. BiBL. Thieneman, X(n-a Acta A. C. L. C.

CHIONY'PHE, Thienem. A

ser. xviii. pi. 10.

Char. Furnished with cilia and a cylinder of teeth, but neither styles nor hooks. (Oxytricha with a lorica and teeth.) C. mnemosyne (PI. 30. fig. 29). Elliptical or the anterior end somewhat broader, ovate; or colourless, and containing rose-red green vesicles lorica projecting beyond the body; length 1-570 to 1-240"; marine.
;

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 376

CHLAMIDOM'ONAS
b, c, d, e).

Kent, Inf.

(PL

30. fig. 30ff,

See Protococcus.

CHLAMYDOCYSTIS, Grunow, =
Stein,

Pro-

tococcics, part.

CII LOR ASTER, Ehr. A genus of Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Single, free, a single fi'ontal eyespot, no tail, middle of the body with radiate warty processes.

CIILORAN'Gimr,

=CoLACir jr.

which

Hogg

xi.

1839

Ann.
;

Sc.

Nat. 2

ser.

xiv.

03

Allied to the genera Glenomorum and Phacelomonas. Does not admit coloured
particles. C. yyrans.

Intdl. Obs. 1862

viii.

141, pi. 10; Carter, Ti:

Berkeley, Jn. Linn. Soc. Med. and Vhys.

Green, fusiform, acute at the

CHLORATE.
;

107

CIILOROGONIUM.

ends radiate processes in a whorl of four, at tirst obtuse, then subacute flagelliform
;

filaments 4-5; length 1-1030"; freshwater. It revolves radidly upon its axis, and

undergoes spontaneous division. Two other species, one marine. BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Bed. Ak. 1848, 236; Kent, luf. .'ilo. CHLORATE OF Potash. See Potash.

CHLO'REA, Xvl. genus of Lichens, family Lichenacei, tribe Usnei. 6 species. C. vidpina occurs in Europe. BiBL. Nyl. Syn. 274, pi. 8. f. 13-15; Jacq. Misc. ii. pi! 10. fig. 4. CHLORIDES. See the bases.

piece of unpainted timber and old trunk we meet with in the country. C. murorum, Gr. is perhaps a Palmoyhcd, Kiitz. Rabenhorst remarks that this species closely resembles the gonidia of Lichens, but that the cells have a nucleus, which is This is, wanting in the Licheii-gonidia. however, incorrect, as the nucleus is quite distinct in these gonidia. Rabenhorst describes 12 species ; but places C. vuhjare in the genus Pleurococcus.

BiBL. Greville, Crypt. saU, Algte, pi. 81. fig. 5.

FL

pi.

262; Has-

CIILOROGONIUM, Ehr.A

genus of

CHLOROCHYT'RIUM, Cohu.A

ge;

nus of Confervoid Unicellular Algae, allied to Hydrociitium., Cliaracium, and Chj/tridiiim

consisting of single, globose-ovoid, or irregularly curved, 2-3- or multilobed cells,

Infusoria, of the family Astasitea. red eye-spot, a tail, and two Char. anterior filaments. (ISf ot attached by a fixed

pedicle.)
C.

euchlornm (PI. 30.

fig.

31).

shaped, acute at each end,

tail

densely

filled

with green protoplasm

first

1-1150 to 1-280".
as

Found

Spindleshort ; length in enormous

;

diA-iding into larger segments, then separating into innumerable pyriform zoospores,

numbers in pools and puddles

frequently

many

as 10,000 in a single drop.

;

escaping through a tubular process. C. lemnce. In the parenchyma of trisuica diam. ^ jo".
;

Lemna

BiBL. Cohn, Beitr. Irish Acad. xxvi.

i.

1,

87; Wright, Tr.

These organisms do not admit colouringmatter or foreign bodies hence they are probably not Infusoria, but Algae. They often adhere to each other in gi'oups by the
so-called tails (PI. 30. fig. 31, upper figure), sometimes to foreign bodies (PI. 30. fig. 31, lower figure), which exhibits themadheiing to a dead Vorticella). They undergo oblique spontaneous divithis commences in sion (PI. 50. fig. 1) the internal substance, which is constricted
;

CHLOROCOC'CUM,

Grev.

genus

of Palmellaceae (Confervoid Algse). have assig-ned to this the common

We

green pulverulent stratum which is found upon eveiT old tree, on all old palings and other exposed woodwork, &c. this proves to be really a distinct plant, and not an accumulation of germinating gonidia of Lichens, it will still difter from the plants we have assembled under the name of Pro-

before the outer portion.

They

also

propagate by

swarming, which takes place thus

process of : the in-

toeoccKS in its general habit, especially in the absence of zoospores. This point is, however, still open to inquiry, since it appears that the gonidia of the Lichens do divide into two, fom", and eight, to form a

ternal substance first separates somewhat from the transpai'ent wall, subsequently becoming irregularly constricted at various
parts. The constrictions deepening, the constricted portions separate from each other as independent vesicles (?), and the internal

pulverulent stratum, which exactly represents Chlofococciim and Prutococcus. Chi. vulgare, Grev. (PI. 7. fig. 1). collection of extremely minute cells, multi-

plying by division into twos and fom-s, no gelatinous substratum, no zoospores. Diameter of single cells 1-3000 to 1-4000" (Protococciis viridis, 1-2000 to 1-3000"). Old

substance acquires the appearance of a blackberry or bunch of grapes, consisting of a fusiform aggreg'ation of uniform longisli oval granules. Up to this period, the parent organism continues its movements subse;

dry palings, bark of trees, iSrc. eveiywhere. Calculating from the known size of the cells and the wide distribution, this, if a species, would appear to be the most fecund A.lga
in existence. There are 300 millions of individuals on a square inch, in a layer 1-100" thick ; and such layers clothe almost every

The granules have quently these cease. now acquired independent vitality, and their filaments become developed. The envelope then brefiks near its middle, and the swarm In their somewhat of young ones escape. more developed stage they form Glenoinorum timjens, Ehr. See Protococcus. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 113; Weise, Wiegmanns Archiv, 1848, i. 65; Stein, Infus,
188.

CHLOROPHYLL.

168

CHLOROPHYLL.
When any of these forms

CHLOR'OPHYLL
name

(leaf-green).

The

applied to the green colouring-matter of plants. The nature of tlie substances which are understood under this term is still somewhat questionable. It is ordinarily stated that chlorophyll exists commonly under the form of globules or granules, and occasionally as an amorphous granular substance, in either case more or less adlierent to, or imbedded in the primordial utricle of the

different periods. of chlorophyll are treated

with ether, benzole, alcohol, or chloroform, the colour is abstracted, while the organized forms, the corpuscles, &c., remain so that the true chlorophyll is really only a soluble substance, dyeing the bodies called chlorophyll-corpuscles &c.
;

It

are

becomes a question then whether these homogeneous semisolid corpuscles, or

vesicles containing the colouring-matter in

lioweyer, a contested point whether the chlorophyll-corpuscles are semisolid homogeneous globules in which the chlorophyll is imbedded, or vesicles composed of a delicate membrane enclosing a green liquid the former view is now, however, g'enerally adopted. Chlorophyll presents itself in the form of distinct corpuscles (f/ranuku of authors), in the cells of the flowering plants generally, particularly the parenchyma of leaves and the subepicell.

It

is,

from whicli it is extracted by the ether Nageli and others assert the vesicular chai'acter of the chlorophyll-corpuscles and the appearances are sometimes much in favour of this view but in the many cases in which Ave have obtained the appearance of a double line around them, under high magnifying powers, we have never been
sacs,'

&c.

able to divest ourselves of the impression that this was an optical illusion. Nageli asserts that the corpuscles multiply by di-

dermal parenchyma
shoots.

of

green stems and

are especially large and distinct in certain water-plants, and may be well seen lying scattered, singly, imbedded in the circulating protoplasm of the cells of the leaves of Vallianeria and other water-plants. The corpuscles are very evident in the cells of the prothallia of Ferns, in the leaves of SelcKjineUa, of Mosses

The granules

and Liverworts

also in Chcira,

where they

are very abundant and form a continuous layer, or numerous rows, embedded in a

gelatinous stratum between the cell-w^all and the circulating mass of protoplasm. In the Oonfervoids the chlorophyll often appears both formless and corpuscular in one and the same cell, but usually more or less formless in young cells, and more completely converted into granules in the fullgrown, as in Vaucherin. In the Confervacoa3, such as Cladophorn., and in CEdogoniuni, it presents itself in a granular stratum

which is true, but does not prove that they are vesicular structures. The observation of Giippert and Cohn, of a chlorophyll-corpuscle swelling up and bursting through endosmose, may be explained without supposing a regularly organized coat. are inclined to believe that tlie bodies bearing the green colouring-matter are structures belonging to the protoplasm, the green colour being only an additional cliaracter, produced by the action of light, superadded to the ordinary character of the granular structurs occurring in the protovision,

We

plasm or nitrogenous cell-contents.

See

Protoplasm.
very important point connected with chlorophyll is its relation to starch. The bodies called starch-granules occur very
clilorophyll-corpuscles in the green parts of plants, and they become substituted for each other under varying circumstances. Some authors have imagined that chlorophyll is produced by a chemical decomposition of starch, while others think tliat starch is deyeloped from chlorophyll. The chief ground for the latter view is the fact that starchgranules are often found in the centre of chlorophyll-corpuscles, like a kind of nucleus. "We have traced, in Hepaticie, the gradual formation of a group of starchgranules in the interior of a chlonjpliyllcorpuscle (where they are readily detected by the application of iodine) and this goes on in certain cases until almost all the green colour is lost. Starch occurs universally at a certain period in the bright distinct

commonly with
cells of

the

with numerous larger bright corpuscles and in Hpinxiyra, Zi/tjnema, &c. the chlorojiliyll takes the form of tlie spiral or annular band to which it is adherent, without large granulations in the general mass, but with a number of distinct, larg(;, bright;

looking corpuscles at intervals (I'l. Si. fig. In Profococcus, in zoospores, and in 18). the indiyidual ciliated bodies of the Volvocineai, the chloropliyll appears to tinge the general mass of granular protoplasm, leaving the conical apex (beak) uncoloured (I'lates 7 & 9), while more or less distinct
corpuscles or granules are scattered through tie mass, varyiu"' in number and size at

>

CIILOROrilYLL.

1C9

CIILOROrHYLL,

chlorophyll-corpuscles of Chara and of so tliat the Confervacejc, iSj>iroi/i/ra &c. these are coloured blue by iodiue, although green before its application. But this starch may disappear agaiu in the course of nature, for it always vanishes from these corpuscles
;

Chlorophyll-corpuscles, when set free in water, expand by imljibing water, sometimes becoiuing vacuolated and bursting.

are about to become organized In tact the green chlorointo zoospores. phyll is predominant dm-ing active vegetation, and starch in periods of rest or in full-

wheu they

Alcohol and most acids coagulate them, while acetic acid will often blend the corpuscles into an irregular mass. After the separation of the chlorophyll, the protoplasmic base retains both its form and volume constituting a solid soft body,
;

often containing small vacuoles.

grown
phyll

Moreover, while chloroappear independently in young cells without being preceded by starch, in green tissues starch makes its appearance without previous existence of chlorophyllcorpuscles in subterranean structures, as for example in the potato and other tubers. The truth of the matter therefore appears to be, that the chlorophyll-structures, as above
structures.

Chlorophyll

is

turned yellow-brown by
;

may

stated, are granular structures belonging to the general protoplasm or nitrogenous cellcontents, that they become coloured green in the light by a chemical change connected with the vital processes, and that in undergoing this change they do not lose the power, which the ordinary protoplasm possesses, of secreting starch and decomposing it again when required for the nutrition of the plant.

tincture of iodine ; sulphuric acid gives it a more or less deep blue colour ether and alcohol discharge the green tint. Preparations mounted in chloride of calcium or often lose their green colour; those glycerine preserved in water will sometimes retain it a long time. The green colouring-matter extracted by alcohol is a complex substance, containing a kind of wax and a matter allied to indigo.
It

phyll

was formerly considered that chlorowas the only colouring-matter of

Starch-granules, when free and uucoloured, appear to be produced originally from granular or vesicular protoplasmic structures, only differing by absence of colour from chlorophyll structures. For example, the

under the infiuence of oxygen of producing all the varied and beautiful colours of flowers. Subsequently, two colouring-matters, a blue-phyllocyanine, and a yellow-phylloxanthine, have been separated by chemical reagents, and considered
plants, capable

granular protoplasm around the cell-nucleus in the cells of herbaceous Monocotyledons (such as the Lily, Tradcscanfia Szc.) will sometimes become converted into chlorophyll- granules (in superficial cells), inside which stai'ch may be subsequently devebut (in deeper-seated cells) the loped granular protoplasm may give rise at once to starch-granules (PI. 46. fig. 28 a) without the previous existence of the green modification of the protoplasm, i, e. chloro;

the real colouring-matters, which by mixture produced the most varied colours. The old view has lately been rebut the whole question must at vived present be considered as unsettled. In autumn, at the fall of the leaf, the chlorophyll becomes dissolved, and conveyed to the perennial portions of the plants, the cells become filled with liquid containing crystals and a number of bright yellow granules if the leaves are red, this arises from a substance dissolved in the liquid, the
as

their

phyll.

The views of the nature of chlorophyll above expressed (in the first edition of this work) have been since confirmed by the
observations of v. Mohl and Gris and repeated observations have furnished us with In Caspary's observations similar results. on Ilydrillefe also, will be found confirmation of the statement that the supposed vesicular structure is an illusion.
;

Chlorophyll occurs in the animal, as well thus in Infuas in the vegetable kingdom soria {Stentor &c. ), the zoophytes {Hi/dra),

the TurbeUaria, Aphidse, &c.

yellow granules being also present. BiBL. Mohl, Ve(/et. Cell. {Transl. 1852), 41 Vennischte Schriften, 34'J ; Botan. Zcit. 1855 {Ann. N. H. 2nd ser. xv. 321); Nfigeli, Zeitsch. f. wiss. Bot. iii. 110 {Bay Soc. 1849); Milkier, Physiol. Chem., Tr. 266; Goppertand Cohn, But. Zeitmuj, 1849, vii. 665; Schleiden, Grunrhi'iye wiss. Bot. 3rd ed. 196 Braun, Verjiinr/. {Bay Soc. 1853, 195); Morot, Colo?: cksVer/etaux, Ann. Se. Nat. 3 ser. xiii. 160; Guillemin, ^n, Sc. Nat. 4 ser. vii. 155; Gris, ibid. 1857, vii. 179; Casparv, Primjsheim's Jahrh. xoiss. Bot. i. 399, ibid. 1881; Fremy, Compt. Bend., 1. 405 Gmelin, Ilandb. Ghent, vii. 1430 Ilofmeister, PflanzntzcUe, 1867, sect. 41 Kraus, Jahr. ivissensch. Bot. 1871, viii.
; ; ;
; ;

CHLOROPTERIS.
; ;

170

CHOLERA.
It

131 Henfrey-Masters, Bot, 498 Saclis, Bat. 72\}; Sorby, Beale, IIoiv ^-c, 278; Z. Kenntniss. d. CM. Farbstoffe, 1872 Kvaus, (Spectroscope) Askenasy, Bot. Zeit. 18G7, 225 Geddes, Proc. Boi/.'Soc. no. 194 (Qn. Mic. Jn. 1879, xix. 434) ; Palmer, M. M. J.
; ;

ally in Great Britain. a considerable size. xviii.

sometimes attains

BiBL. Vitt. Mon. Tab. 50; Ann. N. H. 80 Sow. Fung. t. 310 Tul, Fung.
; ;

1877, xvii. 22.J

(figs.).

CHLOROP'TERIS, Mont. genus of Confervacese (Confei-void Algfe). 1 species not British. Rabenhorst, Fl. Alq. iii. 346 (fig.).
:

CHOLERA. The attempt has often been made to discover some animalcule or minute vegetable organism in the air, water, and the intestinal and other animal liquids,
daring the existence of cholera, which might explain the origin of this fearful disease ; and statements have been published anNone of these have, nouncing success. however, stood the test of rigid investigation. When the cholera prevailed at Berlin in 1832, the renowned Ehrenberg, who had then been engaged in the study of microscopic organisms for many years, declared, after special and careful examination, that neither the air nor the water from various

Hyp. 170,

tab. xix. fig. 7.

CHLOROSPILE'RA,
MOSPH^EA, De
Bary).

AHonfrey of(EreUnigenus

cellular AlgJB, prolDably related to Q3dogonieoe (Rabenliorst places it among the Palmellaceiie) of which one species, C. Oliveri {E. viridis, De B.) (PI. 5. fig. 4) is known, consisting of a single globular cell, about 1-200" in diameter, densely filled with green contents, sometimes exhibiting a radi;

ated appearance. The cell is multiplied by dividing into two parts by a septum, and forming a new perfect cell in each half, the two new cells escaping through slits in the
parent-cell

contained any thing unusual. Repeated examinations of the air and water
localities

of infected

localities,

made

in

1849, and

membrane, with

elasticity,

when

Resting-spores, formed in fours in a parent-cell and of a brown colour, have been observed, but not their germination nor any formation of zoospores. C. Oliveri

mature.

dui'ing the more recent accessions of the cholera, have afforded also conclusive negative evidence.

was found

in a

boggy

ditch, at

Prestwach

Car, Northumberland. It has been found elsewhere in turfy pools. BiBL. llenfrey, Mic. Trans. 1859, vol. vii.

Hallier subsequently attempted to show that it was probably derived in the first instance from a fungus infesting rice. It is, however, a remarkable fact that rice is ftir less subject to attacks of Fungi than any other cereals. The researches of Thwaites and others have been directed to this espe-

25

CHLOROTYLIUM, Ktz. A
;

De Barv,

Cotrj. 56.

genus of

ChtetophoracejB ((^onfervoid Alga3). Char. Filaments jointed, repeatedly di-

chotomous, parallel joints of two kinds, some elongate and colourless, others swollen, abbreviate, and with green eudochromes. 4 species. On rocks, submerged timber, and the bottom of ponds. BiBL. Kiitziug, Sp. Alg. 432 ; Rabenhorst, Fl. Alq. iii. 386 (fig'.). CHOCOLATE. See Cocoa. CHCE'NIA, Quennerstedt. genus of Holotrichous Infusoria. Char. Free, elongate, with a brush-like

and have in no respect confirmed views; added to which, it was quite evident that the fungus which appeai'ed in cholera-evficuations was not the De Urocystis, to which he referred it. Bary altogether denied the justice of his views. Lewis and Cunningham were placed
cial point,

Hallier's

by the government authorities in communication with De Bary and Hallier, and quite accorded with the former of the two and the very careful observations of Lewis at Calcutta confirm De Bary's views. See
;

tuft of large cilia at the anterior

extre-

mity.
C. teres,

marine,

= Trachelius

t.

Duj,

Btbl. Kent, Inf. 521.

genus of Tuberacei (Ascomycetous Fungi) characterized by a definite base, even common integument, clavate nsci and splierical sporidia.
C. meandrifonnis, Vitt., occurs occasion-

CIIOIROMY'CES. A

of examining the air in regard to this point are described under Air. BiBL. Baly and Gull, Bep. of Cliolera Suhconvnittee of Boy. Coll. Phys., London, 1849; Robin, 'T^e^e^;. Parasites, S,-c., 1853, HaUier, Das Choleraappcndice, 076 Co)ifagium Privy Council Beports, 186()and 1870; Sansom, J^/J. of Science, 1871, 153; Berkeley, Mic. Jn. July 1869 Lewis, Beport on Objects found in Cholera-evacuations; and Med. Chi. 'Bev. 1871.
;
;

MiCROZYMES. The methods

C HOLER A-FLY.

in

CHORDA DORSALIS.
?).
is

CriOLERA-FLY.Knox,
ii.

Lancet, 1853,

filaments (anthoridia

crispus

becomes

471).

CllOLES'TERINE.
;

This

horny when dry, and

substance

the liish moss or

exists naturally in most animal liquids in a state of solution also in many animal solids, as in the blood, the bile, the meconium,

BiBL. Harvey, Br. Mar. Alg. pi. 17 D ; Phyc. Brit. pi. 63 & 187 aieville, Alg.
;

Carrai/een of the shops.

Brit. pi. 15.

the brain and spinal cord. As an abnormal product, it occurs in the crystalliuo form in the bile, biliary calculi, various dropsical effusions, the contents of cysts, pus, old tnbercles, malignant tumours, the excrements, expectoration of phthisis, &c. In the vegetable kingdom it occurs in peas, beans, almonds, many seeds, &c. The crystals form thin pearly rhombic plates (PI. 13. fig. 21). The acute angles are =79 30', the obtuse =100 30'. Sometimes the angles are truncated. Cholesterine is insoluble in water and solution of potash, even vi^ien boiling but soluble in ether and boiling alcohol, crystal;

nariaceae (Fucoid

genus of LaraiAlgte), with fronds of a pecidiar, simple cylindrical form ; two species, CjHutnanil Clomeiitaria, ?iYe found between tide-marks on British coasts the former grows from 1 to 20 or even 40 feet long, with a greatest diameter at half its The cord-like frond length, of 1-4 to 1-2". is tubular, but has at intervals thin dia;

CHOR'DA, Stackh.A

phragms, formed by interwoven transparent The wall of the tube is comfilaments.

posed of a number of layers of very regular six-sided cells, upon which are implanted little erect clavate cells which coat the entire surface of the frond. These present

lizing on cooling. It is most easily procured from a gallstone by boiling in alcohol it falls on coolThe crystals thus obtained are usually ing.
;

two forms, apparently

7'anr/es

constituting oospopr7//;eK<^,

{spores,

Harvey,

Ag.)

and

thicker than the natural plates.

genus of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and

family Lernaeopoda.

CHONDRACAX'THUS.A
C. Zei.

{cmtheridia, Harvey, The first are single sacs prospores, Ag.). a number of zoospores; the second ducing are filaments composed of about five joints, each of which gives birth to a zoospore.
trichosporatKjes,

BiBL. HarveV, Br. Mar. Ah/. 31,

of Zeus, short rePht/c. Brit. 107, &c. ; Thuret, 3 s'er. xiv. 240, pi. 29. figs.
;

Found upon the giUs the Dory. Body is covered with

pi.

3 B;

Ann. Sc. Nat. 5-10 Derbes

ser.

flexed spines. Length 4-5". BiBL. Baird, Brit. JEntomostr. 327 gnin. Parasites, 442.

Me-

and Sober, Ann. pi. 33, figs. 7-10

28

Sc.
;

Kat. 3

xiv. 208,
pis.

&

Kutzing, Phyc. gen.

29.

CHONDRIA, Ag. See Latteencia. CHONDRINE. The gelatinous matter

of the permanent true cartilages. Its solution differs from that of the gelatine of bones &c., in being precipitated by acetic acid, acetate of lead, and alum. The acetic precipitate is insoluble in excess. It is coloured red by MiUon's test ; but is imaffected by th at of Pettenkofer. CHOX'DRUS, L. genus of Cryptonemiaceae (Florideous Algae), composed of cartilaginous sea-weeds with flat dichotomously-divided fronds, the cellular structure of which exhibits three layers a central of longitudinal filaments, an intermediate of small roundish cells, and an outer of vertical coloured and beaded rows of cells, " interthe whole imbedded in a

CHORDA

DORSA'-

LIS, or NoTociioRD. The embryonic represen-

Fio-.

126.
i

tative of the spinal column of the Yertebrata ;

the permanent spinal column of the Cartilaginous Fishes. It somespindleshaped, transparent, gelatinous-looking cord, with the broadest part near athe tail at others it is
;

times forms a

cylindrical

or

conical,

rounded anteriorly and

tapering posteriorly. It usually consists of an outer comparati-vely thick and firm structure1 p
1

cellular

"

matrix.
:

tough See Intercbllulae,

Magnified 350 diam. Portion of the chorda

SUP.STAXCE.
Fructification
lidia

spoirs contained in favel;

immersed in the frond tctraspores in imbedded sori and " nematheciaj' tubercles composed of radiatinocollected
;

dorsalis of the embryo membrane, forming f^ ^^eep, rather more a sheath, and of pale nu- than 1-2" in length, a, cleated cells, which fill sheath; 6, ceUs. the sheath (fig. 120). In some instances, however, its structure is

less

CIIORDARrA.
fibrous,

172

CHROMOPHYTON.

branous.

and that of the sheath fibro-memThe cells are mostly angular or Their polyhedral, and closely crowded.
size varies; in the embryo of a sheep rather more than 1-2" in length, they measured

ranges and trichosporanges attached to the filaments forming the supei'ficial layers of the frond. British genera Chordaria. Axis cartilaginous, dense filaments of the circumferauce unbranched.
:

about 1-1800".

The walls

of the cells readily dissolve in

;

solution of potash but they yield neither The gelatine nor cliondrine on boiling. liquid Avithin the cells is not coagulated by boiling, but the chorda itself becomes cloudy

Mesocfloia. Axis gelatinous, loose filaments of the circiuufereuce branching, BiBL. Harvey, Marine Algce Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xvi. o, &c. See also
;

the genera.

CHORIOP'TES, Gervais.A
with

subgenus

and granidar.
In its earlier stage of development, the chorda consists simply of a longituduial band of ordinary formative or embryonic cells the sheath is subsequently formed. It appears that the spinal column is not developed from the chorda itself, but from a blastema secreted by its component cells and effused around them. The chorda is most readily examined in the larvae of frogs (tadpoles), of Tritons,or of Fishes, and may be separated by macerating the dead animals for twenty-four hours in w^ater. On cutting off the tail, it may then be pressed out by gently scraping along its course from the end of the tail, or from the head towards the wound. It is a beautifully delicate structure, and closely resembles in
;

the body bilobed, or notched posteriorly, the mandibles short, didactylous, the tarsi with strong claws, and very large suckers. on the legs and C. bovis (spathiferns) hind quarters of the horse, the goat, and the ox C. setifertis, on the hyseua and fox C. ecaudatus, in the ears of dogs, cats, and ferrets. There are other doubtful species.
of Sarcoptes,
;
;

BiBL. Megnin, Parasites, Murray, Ec. Entom. 312 (fig).

liJS

(figs.)

CHORIZOP'ORA =

Lepralia

pt.

C.

Brominiartii.

Cells connected by a tubular

network. Marine. BiBL. Hincks, Pohjzoa, 222.

CHOROID MEMBRANE. See Eye. CHROMATE OF LEAD (neutral) is ,.ne

of the best materials for coluuring size in

injections.

appearance a piece of vegetable cellular

tissue.

BiBL. Kolliker, Mihr. Anat. ii. 346; Stannius, Verql. An.; Gegeubaur, Vert/. An. 450 Frey, Hist. 197. CHORDA'KIA, Ag. genus of Chordariacea3 (Fucoid Algce), remarkable for the solidity of the cellular texture of the filiThe axis and branches are form fronds. composed of a central mass of longitudinal cells, upon which stand horizontal clavate filaments, formed of a row of beaded cells, constituting a distinct peripheral layer, which gives a velvety texture and slimy character to the surface. The so-called spores attached to the liorizontal filaments are oosj)oranf/es, and discharge zoospores when mature trichosporanges have not yet been observed. CJlaffellifonnis, MuW., is common on rocks and stones between tide;

See Lvjection. be prepared by adding gradually from 120 to loO parts, by volume, of pure concentrated sulphuric acid to 100 parts of a; cold saturated solution of bichromate of potash. The crj-stals of the

CHROMIC ACID may

acid separate as the solution cools. The mother-liquor should be poiu'ed off", and the crystals dried upon a tile; they may be

from solution excess of sulphuric acid, chromic acid is a valuable reagent for dissolving the intercellular stibstance of
ptu'ified

by

re-crystallization

in water.

With

phints.

Chromic acid is readily decomposed by organic matter, as dust &c., and must therefm-e be preserved in a well-stoppered Its aqueous solution, which should bottle. be of a pale yellow colour, is used for
cuhir tissues, &c.

marks. BiBL. Harvey, Br. Mar. Ah/, pi. 10 A ; ill Brit. pi. P/n/c. Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 237.
;

hardening and preserving nervous and musIt should bo prepared

required.

when

CIIROMOPirYTOX,

Woronin.

CTIOHDARIA'CEyE. A family of Fucoid Alg;e. Olive-coloured sea-weeds with a gelatinous or cartilaginous, branching frond, composed of vertical and horizontal filaments uiterlaced together; the uospo-

doul)tful organism, probably allied to the

Palmellaceoo, forming a yellow isli-brown dust on the surface of boggy pools (Finland). Two forms were met with the larger consisted of splicrical moniliform or variable bodies, composed of a hyaline matrix, con
:

CllPtOOCOCCUS.

1'3

CIIYLAQUEOUS.
and immersed
pi.

taininpr rounded or ribbon-shaped yellow 1ciliated zoospores, l-oOOO" long, each with a

tetraspores are 3-partite

in

the branclilets.

yellow pig'iueut-spot,
or

and containing one

;

these multitwo contractile vesicles The finer had the same plied by division.

BiBL. Ilarvev, Br. Mar. Ahj. Phyc. Brlt.vl 114.

13

A;

CIIRYSO'MOXAS, Stein. A
Flagellate Infusoria.
C. JiavicaHs = Manas
;

genus of

composition as the larger. Resting-spores were formed in the empty cells of Sp/Kignum and ILjpniim, from which the motile forms

were traced.
C. liosaiioffii, the single species.

BiBL.
6-11
;

Woroniu, ot.

Ze.if.
i.

1880, 62o,

Jn. Mic. Soc, 1881,

100.

has the fl. Ehr. a terminal flagellum, two lateral colour-bands, no dilated pharynx, and an eye-spot. Ditch water. BiBL. 'Kent, Infus. 408. CHRYSOPYX'IS, Stein. genus of

body

ovate,

CHROOCOC'CUS,

Nag.

See Peotothis,

coccus. Eabenhorst retains genus, with 23 species.

as

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Bodies o^ ate, contained in a sessile

lorica
flagella 2, equal two colour-bands, but no eye-spot. C. bijies. Lorica with two posterior spines. Attached to the cells of Mougertia or other freshwater algae. BiBL. Kent, Infus. 408. CHTHONOBLAS'TUS, Kiitz. See Mi;

generic name applied to certain byssoid structures found on rocks, bark of trees, &c. They consist of jointed, variously branched filaments, the
joints expanding to form sporangia, filled with biciliate zoospores. C. aureuin (PL 3. fig. 7 ) is composed of rigid opaque, ultimately brittle filaments, forming soft cushions of a yellowish colour; (J. Jolitlius, odoratum, and lichenicola are of orange or fulvous colour. Another series of species, These C. ehenea &c., are black, or purple.

CIIROOLEPUS, Ag.A

CROCOLEUS.

CHY'DORUS, Leach
part).

{Li/nceus, Miill., in

genus of Entomostraca, of the

;

have been regarded sometimes as Fungi and sometimes as Algae. Rabenhorst describes 11 species: the genus forming the type of the family Chroplants
olepidfe (Confervoid Algae). Reproduction by biciliated zoospores. Some species emit

order Cladocera, and family Lynceidae. Char. Nearly spherical beak very long and sharp, curved downwards and forwards inferior antennjB very short. C. sphcericus (PL 20. fig. 7). Shell smooth ;
;
_

oUve-green,

Found

in

ponds and ditches.

;

C. globosus.

the

last,

Shell more rounded than in and nearly six times as large an-

teriorly reddish,

with circular
;

striae

and

a violet-odour. BiBL. Hooker, Brit. Flora, v. pt. 1. 384 Kiitzing, Spec. Enyl. But. pi. 702 & 1G39 Ahj. 42-5; Casparj^, Flora, 1858, oOlj Ea; ;

numerous black spots

fresh water.
;

benhorst. Fl. Ah/,

lariiin

iii.

371.

CHRYSALlbl'XA, D'Orb.A

Textu-

Foramiuifer, with a tviserial arrange-

BiBL. Baird, Brit. Evtom. p. 125 NorBradv, Brit. Fnton. pp. 47, 48. CHYLA'QUEOUS or chylo-aqueous liquid and system. In the Invertebrata, two distinct kinds of nutrient liquids exist. In some classes of

man and

ment of chambers and with large pores, and sometimes tubes, opening fi'om chamber
to chamber. C'h. gradafa, D'Orb., the Cretaceous strata of France.
is

from

A dimorPanama

subkiugdom. these two liquids coexist same organism, though contained in distinct systems of conduits while in others they become united into one. Williams
this
in the
;

phous form, which

state, lives in the

is

imiserial in its old

Indian ocean and

distinguishes these two kinds of liquid as the Uood proper or true blood, and the

Bay. BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foas. Vien. 194;

Cai-penter, Introd.

Forum. 193.
J.

CHRYSBIE'XIA,

Ag. A

genus of

Laurenciacese (Florideous Algi>j). C. ckivellosa is a red sea-weed 3 to 12" high, forming a feathery frond composed of a branched, tubular, long, not constricted or chambered, cellular structm-e, filled with a

The former is always chylaqiieous liquid. contained in definitely organized (walled) blood-vessels, and has a determinate circuthe latter, with equal latory movement constancy, in chambers, irregular perivis;

ceral cavities,

and

eells

communicating
;

in-

The spores are angular and juice. are contained in dense tufts in ceramidia borne on the sides of the branchlets. The
watery

not variably with the peritoneal cavity having a determinate circulation, bufe a toand-fro movement, maintained by muscular and ciliary agency. The true-blood system does not exist under any form, even the most rudimentary, below the Echmoder-

CHYLE.
;

174

CHYTRIDIUM.

mata in other words, the true-blood system beo'ins at the Echinodermata. Below
the Echinodermata, viz. in the Polypi and the digestive and circulatory systems are identified, consequently the external medium is admitted directly into the nutrient vessels. This circumstance constitutes a fundamental distinction between the chylaqueous system and that of the true
Acalephse,
blood, into which, under no conditions, is the external inorganic element directly introduced. In every class in which the chylaqueous liquid exists, it is charged more or less abun-

and the

colourless corpuscles of the blood, are pale, round, nucleated cells, 1-4500 to 1 2000" in diameter their contents be;

come tm-bid when water

is

added; and they

are rendered very transparent by the addition of acetic acid, the granular nucleus becoming at the same time very distinct. Sometimes they exhibit a number of Amoeba-like processes (PI. 50. fig. 2 d). At the origins of the lacteals the chjde-corpuscles are few in number, or even absent near the mesenteric glands, they are met with under;

dantly with organized corpuscles. These corpuscles are marked bj' distinctive characters, not in different classes and genera only, but in different species, entitling these bodies to great consideration in the establishment of species. In those classes, as the Echinodermata, the Entozoa, and Annelida, in which, in the adult animal, these two orders of liquids coexist, though distinct, in the same individual, an inverse
proportion prevails between them, as respects their magnitude or development. The system of the chylaqueous liquid does not exist in the adult, but only in the larval state of the higher members of the articulated series, as the Myriapoda, Insecta, aud the Crustacea. BiBL. Williams, Trans, and Proc. of Roi/. Soc. 18o2 (thefoi-mer contains figures of the
id. Ann. N. H., passim after corpuscles) 1852 Agassiz, Sieb. and Kiill. Zeitschr. 1856, vii. 17(5; Nicholson, Zool. 1878. CHYLE. The chyle consists of a llqiud which coagulates when removed from the vessels, containing in suspension molecules, nuclei, colourless corpuscles, and colom'ed blood-corpuscles. The molecules (PI. 50. fig. 2 ) are very numerous, and probably consist of fatty matter surrounded by a coat of a proteinecompound to them is owing the milky appearance which the chyle possesses during active digestion. They form the molecular base of Gulliver. The free nuclei (PI. 50.
; ;

going division. The coloured blood-corpuscles are probably derived from without. Chemically, the chyle consists of a saline
liquid, containing albumen and fibrine in solution, the latter when coagulated forming a soft and loose clot.

BiBL. Kiilliker, Mikrosh. Anat.

;

ii.

561

Wagner, Handwort. art. C'hylus id. Elcm, of Fhys., by WiUis; Gulliver, 6^e;-ie/-'5 Anat.;
Lister, Diihlin Hosjt. Gaz. 1857, 347 Frev, Hisfol. 8,-c. p. 140 ; and the Bibl. of Che;

mistry.

CHYLOCLA'DIA, Grev. genus of Laurenciacefe (Florideous Algye), containing a few British species, with fronds of small size, composed of a branched, cylindrical and tubidar structure, cut off" into chambers within by diaphragms at intervals, and filled with a watery juice. The walls are composed of small polygonal cells. Niigeli has given the minute anatomy oW.(Lo?nentaria)
Icalifornis.

The

spores are wedge-shaped,

contained in tufts in ceramidia borne on the

branchlets.

The tetraspores, 3-partite, are immersed in the branchlets. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ah/, pi. 13 B Pln/c.
;

Brit. pi. 145, &c.; Grev. 'Ah/. Brif. pi. 14; W.ge\\, Alr/en-systeme, 246, pi. x. figs. 13-21.

CHYTRID'I'UM, Braun. genus of Unicellular Algae, perhaps allied to the Myxomycetes (Sachs), consisting of minute, globose or pyriform, usually colourless cells, operculate at the sunmiit, with a root-like base, attached to Confervoid or allied plants,
and penetrating
very numerous, long cilium.
their cell-walls.
glob'ilar,

Zoospores

with a single veiy

fig.

a somewhat homogeneous thev are not numerous, about 1-11,000 to 1-5000" in diameter, frequently appearing cell-like and granular after the addition of water. Tliey are only met with at the origins of the lacteals, in the mesenmetery, and in tlie vasa efFerentia of the senteric glands, but never in the thoracic duct. The chyle-corpusrles (PI. 50. fig. 2 c), which are identical with those of the lymph 2
b)

have

aspect;

C. olla (PI. 5. fig. 7).

The commonest form is that of a somewhat ovate cell 1-5000 to 1-2000" long,
by the thick end on the outside of the cell-wall of the plant it infests, and,
sessile

according to Braun and Cohn, sending fine radical tubes into the interior the cellcontimts of -the infested cell are usually found disorganized and discoloured. In
;

CIBOTIUM.

175

CILIA.

anotlier form, distinguished by Priiigslieira under the name of Pi/f/iium, the cells are globular and occur in the infested cells, pushing a long tubular neck out through

broadest at the base, tapering towards the

In both forms the contents the ceil-wtdl. of the C/iri/(ridhan-ce\l are tinally resolved
gonidia, which escape and swim about. lu the external form, the cell often opens by a lid (like the androspore cells of G^DOGONiuJi); in the internal form Braun the slender neck opens at the end. has described no less than twenty -three of these obscure bodies, while Eabenhorst
into
ciliated

end sometimes they are flattened. Their length is very variable, having been estimated at 1-50,000 to 1-500" probably 1-15,000 to 1-500" would include most of termo they are them in Bacterium 1-200,000" in diameter (Dallinger). The larger size is attained by the cilia existing on the point or angle of the giUs or branchial laminse of the whelk {Buccinmn undatum). Numerous examples of animals furnished with cilia, showing their appearance when
free
;

and they have been admits six species observed by Cohn, who connects them with Achh/a, considering them aquatic fimgi. Carter has observed them in Spirof/t/ra and we have found both forms in and on the Braun and Cohn cells of Chlorosph.t'.ra. declare them to be really foreign bodies, that is, true parasites; but we are not clear
;
;

at rest, are figured in Pis. 30, 31, 32, 43, 44. During life, and for some time after death, they are usually in constant motion,

&

on this point

they seem rather products

of diseased protoplasm, if they be not modifications of the antheridial structures of

some of the Confervoids.

BiBi.. Al. Braun, Verjiinqunfj ^-c. (liai/ Trand. 1853, 185); Berl. Abhdndl. 1856,2 Ueb. CJuitridhim, Berlin, 1856 (plates) Bail, Alff. Unicell. Gen. A"or. Leipsic, 1855 Bot. Zeit. xiii. 678 Cienkowski, Bot. Zeit. XV. 233 Carter, Attn. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. xvii. 101, and xix. 259 Barv & Woronin,
;
;

Ber. Geselkch. Freih. 18ti3 AYoronin, But. Zeit. 1868, 81 Nowakowski, Cuhn, Biol, d,
; ;

genus of Dicksoniese (Polypodiaceous Ferns) with a bivalve indusium ; now made a subgenus of Dicksonia.
;

Pfl.\. 1, ii.l877, 73, 201. CIBOTIUM, Kaulfuss.

giving the parts of the field of the microscope in which they are situated a tremulous appearance when their motion is very rapid and the cilia are very minute. When they are large, as on the gills of the common sea-mussel (IMytilus), especially when their motion is slackening, they are seen waving to and fro, or lashing the water, and producing in it strong currents, rendered visible by the motion of minute particles The accidentally contained in the water. motion is mostly uniform, or in one direction occasionally, however, it has been observed to cease for a moment, and then to assume an opposite direction to that preDuring the motion, the viously exhibited. whole filament is usually more or less cuned but in some instances among the Infusoria, the basal portion of the cilia remains rigid, whilst the terminal portion under these circumstances the vibrates
; ;

cilia are

ments.

distinguished as flagellifi>nu filaSometimes the cilia move around an imaginary perpendicular axis, in a rota-

BiBL. Hooker,

81/71.

Fil. 49.

Fig. 127.

ting direction. Cilia are found in all the Vertebrata, and in the Invertebrata, excluding the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Insecta. have, on two occasions, distinctly obtained cihated epithelium, resembling that in PL 49. fig. 13, by womidingthe bodies of the larva3 of gardenmoths but were unable to follow the obser-

We

vations. In
cells
;

Man; they spring from epithelial the localities in which they are foimd

Cibotinm macrocari.um. pinnule with sori. Magnified 10 diameters.

CILIA

(plural of ciliuvi) of

Animals.

These are microscopic filaments attached by one end to the surfaces of various parts of animals, and exhibiting a vibratory or rotatory motion. They are usuall}^ rounded and

are stated under Epititeliltsi. The uses of the cilia are of two kinds : when the body to which they are attached is of no great bulk or specific gi-avity compared with that of the medium in which they reside, the cilia become organs of locomotion, as in the Kotatoria, Infusoria, the young AcalephjE, the ovum, &c. but if the inertia of the body be too great to be
;

CILIA.

1-G

CILIA.

overcome by the feeble power of the cilia, tbey produce motion iu the surrounding medium, as on the giUs of fishes, of young

and of the Mollusca, tlie gill-tufls of the Annulata, and the various mucous surfaces of the Vertebrata upon whicli they
reptiles,
exist, in

excretion.

which they favour respiration and liy the same agency they also

bring particles of food suspended iu the It need medium towards the mouth. scarcely be remarked, that the motion of cilia must be stronger in one direction than the other, otherwise there could be no
current.
of the motion of cilia has long formed a subject for discussion but it is In some instances, as in the still unknown.
;

of solution of iodine, bichloride of mercury, or of osmic acid, or drying them at a gentle heat. Both methods should be adopted to check each other: for molecular movement has some resemblance to ciliary motion when feeble, although there is absence of a definite current and fine hair-like Algpe or Fungi attached to aquatic organisms often resemble cilia, but are deficient in the
;

motion.

See

lating
^c.
;

Infusoria Membranes, unduand Molecular motion.

;

The cause

In Infusoria, it appears to be voluntary. certain cases it might be attributed to the action of a contractile amorphous tissue, It such as that composing the Amwb(e. would naturally be attributed to muscular agency ; but no muscular tissue can be detected in fact, cilia are quite structureless ; moreover they are often of less breadth than the ultimate hbrillfe of muscle. Neither the most powerful poisons, as strychnine,
:

BiBL. Purkiiije & \'alentin, Comm. Phys, Sharpey, Todcfs Ci/cL of An. i^- Phi/s. i. 606; Valentin, Wagner's Handto. Phys. Si'c. i. 481 Yirchow, Archiv, vi. 133 Fngelmann, Jen. Zeitschr. iv. 321 Roth, Virchoiv's Arch, xxxvii. 184 Ilackel's Biol. Stud. 147 Frey, Hist. 1876, 173.
;
; ; ;

CILIA

of Vegetables. These
;

minute

vibratile threads, apparently of the same (unknown) nature as those of animals, are in all cases met Avith in connexion with the

prussic acid,
electricity,

opium and belladonna, nor

protoplasmic or nitrogenous structures of plants, the structure bearing the closest relation to animal organizatiuu. Cilia have as yet been found only in Flowerless Plants, viz. in all the higher or stem forming

produce any elfect upon ciliary motion, provided the structure upon which the cilia are situated be not injured. It also lasts a long time after death, having been observed iu the lower aniirials nineteen

days after this occurrence, and when putrefaction was far advanced. The question has however, lost its interest in regard to its necessary dependence upon muscular action, because cilia are common among the lower this is out of the question. plants, where The cilia and their motion may readily be observed in the common Rotatoria and Infusoria, or iu a thin piece cut from the margin
of the gills of the oyster; or still better, the sea-mussel in the latter they form a most
;

Cryptogams, and in the Alga3 among the Thallophytes. In the Marsileaceaj, Lycopodiacese. Ferns, Equisetaceae, Mosses, Ilepaticae, and Characese, they are found upon the active filaments (spermatozoids) diocharged from the antheridia. In the Algjfc they occur upon the zoospores and sometimes upon the spermatozoids, and on the fully-developed plants of the family Volvocineas. They have been stated to occur in certain other complete organisms, as iu Closteriwn but this statement we believe to be erroneous. Rigid filaments bearing some resemblance to cilia occur occasionally
;

'

upon Diatomacpte and

Osciliatoriefe

but

Fresh beautiful and interesting object. water almost innnediately arrests the motion of the cilia in marine animals. In some cases,
solution of potash excites the movement of animal-cilia after it has become languid. The detection of the cilia is fi-equently of of Infugreat importance, as the characters based upon their numsoria, &c. are often ber and arrangement. The means are either as by the addition of moistened indirect of colouring-matters, as indigo &c.,

these are not vibratile organs. The mode of arrangement, &c. varies considerably among the cases above cited. In the spermatozoids of the Marsileacefe, Lycopodiacete, I'erns, and Equisetacei^, they are set in considerable number along a filament
spirally or heliacally coiled
(1*1.

40. tig. 34).

In the Muscacea), Ilepaticfe, and Characeoe, a pair of very long cilia is attached at one end of the filament (fig. 123, p. 162). In
zoospores, either they occur in a pair at the apex, as in Prvtococcus, Conferva, Cladophora, Cvdiuin, &c., or there are four iu the same situation, as in Ulothrix, (Jhcetophora^ Ulva, &c. while the large zoospores
;

particles to the living organisms,

and watching

the movements of the particles or dircct,by examining the structures after the addition

for

CILIARY,
of

1T7

CIMEX.

(Edogonmm bear
aud the groat

crown of

vibratile

zoospore of Vnucheria is clotlied with them over its whole surface. In the Volvocinea^, tliere is a pair of cilia attached, just like those of zoospores, to each niemher of the family of which the compound organism is made up and these project through orifices in the common envelope, so as to render the perfect plant locomotive, while the cilia of ordinary zoospores disappear when they become encysted in a cellulose coat preparaThe spermatozoids of tory to germination. the Fucaceae, and the zoospores produced in the sporangia of other Fucoids have a there different arrangement of the cilia are always two but they are attached on a reddish point on the side of the zoospore, not at its apex, and one of the cilia is directed forwards from the apex or beak, while the other trails behind like a kind of rudder. The mode in which these transitory cilia some authors are lost is variously stated think they are retracted into the protoplasm from what we have seen, we believe they are thrown off entire. The cilia have the same chemical reactions as the protoplasmic sul)stance generally, and are apparently processes of it; they are stained brown by
cilia,

elliptical

Char. Antenn.ie four- jointed ; labium three-jointed, the basal joint the longest;

thorax subluiiate, not transversely divided

depressed, and more or less orbicular ; elytra reduced to a pah' of short, transverse, scale-like pieces ; wings none ; legs moderately long and slender ; tarsi
three-jointed.
C. lectularius (the

abdomen much

ochre

bed-bug). Ferruginrmsthorax deeply emarginate, its sides

;

retlexed ; abdomen suborbiculate, acute at the apex third joint of antenna3 longer than the fourth ; rostrum inflected beneath

the thorax

labrum

short, broad, subovate,

setae,

trigonate and ciliated.

The common bug has only three

one stouter than the
or serrated (PI. 33.
fig.

rest,

and not toothed 27 a), and two others

;

extremely slender and very finely serrated near the ends (PL 33. fig. 27 b) these are about 1-20,000" in breadth at the sen-ated portion (hence about the l-20th part of the Ijreadth of the lancets of the flea). The female is larger and more elongated than the male. The offensive odour is due to a
liquid secreted by a pyriform reddish gland, situated in the centre of the metathorax,

which also stops their motion and them partly solid. The mode of detecting and observing cilia is given in
iodine,

renders

the preceding article. Further particulars of individual cases will be found under the heads of the families and genera named above. BiBL. Thuret, Zoospores cles Algues, ^-c, Ann. cles Sc. Koi. 3 ser. xiv. & xvi. Antheridies des Fonc/eres, Ann. Sc. N. 3 ser. xi. 5 Hofmeister, Vergleich. Unfersuch. ^-c, Leipsic, 1851 linger, Die Pfianze im Momente der TJiierwerdimg, 34, Vienna, 1843 ; Al. Braun, Verjiinynng, 8(c. {jRay Soc. 1853) Cohn, ProtococcKs pluvialis, Nova Acta A. L.
; ; ;

aud opening between the hind legs. The eggs (PI. 39. fig. 20) are white, elongateo^-al, elegantly pitted, and terminated by a off" when the yoimg lid, which breaks The latter are very small, white escape. and transparent, and have a much broader head, with shorter and thicker antennae than the mature insect. They undergo four moultings, and are eleven weeks in attaining their full
C.
size.

columliarius
;

(Bug of the
;

pigeon).
orbicular,
;

Ferruginous-ochre

thorax deeply emar-

ginate, sides reflexed

abdomen
;

C. C. xxii.

735 {Bay Soc. 1853, 352)

on

Siebold Kolliker's SfephanospJicsra, Zeitschr. iv. 77 {Ann. N. II. 2 ser. x. 321) ; Henfrev {Ferns), Linn. Tr. xxi. ; Focke,
Physiol. Studien
;

&

Sachs, Bot. 244.

of infnsiomim, resembles Act. sol, but is much smaller produces swarm-germs in the scum of old infusions.

CILIARY PROCESSES. See Eye. CILTOPHRYS, Cienk. A genus

C.
;
;

subacute at the apex third joint of antennre slightly longer than the fourth length about 1-5". C. hinmdinis (Bug of the swallow). Fusco-ferruginous thorax slightly emarginate sides flat abdomen ovate, subacute at apex antennae s'hort, tliird aud fourth joints nearly equal; length about 1-7". Found in swallows' nests. C. jripisfrelli (Bug of the bat). Ferruginuus-ochre, shining thorax deeply emar; ; ; ;
;

Actinophryina.

ginate, sides slightly reflexed ; abdomen ovate, posteriorly attenuate third joint of
;

(Cit-nkowski. Schnitzels Arch. 1876,

Linn. (Bug). genus of Inthe order Hemiptera, suborder Heteroptera, and family Cimicid^e.

CIMEX,
of

xii.

29.)

antennae longer than the fourth length On the common bat. 1-6". maintains that these all belong Megnin
;

sects,

to C. lectularius.

BiBL.

De

Geer,

Mem.

iii.

Dumeril,

CINCHONINE.
Cons. yen.
id.
Br'if.
s,
I.

178
;

CIEEIPEDIA.

Ins.

Westwood,
;

Infr.

N. II. i. 640 Jenyns, Ann. N. H. 1839, iii. 241 Curtis, Brit. Entom. xii. 569 Landois, Sieh. (^ KiiU. Zeitschr. 1868 {Anat.) {Qu. Mic. Jn. 1868, 208); Leidy, Jn. Megnin, Parasites, 1880, 53
Cijd.
;
;

See Ammonia, OxALtrRAXE of, and PoLARIZATIOX. BiBL. Brewster. Optics, 1853, 269.

CIRCULATION

in

Animals.

The

movement

ilf/c.

&r. 1878,

i.

27.
Cinclioniiie is insoluble

in a temporarily or permanently definite to-and-fro direction, of the nutritive can only enumerate liquids of animals.

We

CIN'CIIONINE.
in etlier.

See Alkaloids. BiBL. See Chemistry.

CINCLID'IUM, Swartz. A genus of Mniacefe Mosses, arranged (operculate among the Acrocarpi from prevailing liaLit); of -which one species, C. stygium, has been found in Yorkshire. BerkeBiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. 260 ley, Brit. Moss. 181. 'CINCLIBO'TUS, P. de B. See GuemBELIA. CINNAMON.This consists of the inner part of the bark of Cinnamomum Zeyhmi~ aitn (Lauracese) that of Cassia (C. Cassia), a coarser and less aromatic substance, is These both consist of often substituted.
;
;

here the articles in which will be found a notice of the circulation, whether true or spurious, as occurring in the most easily
accessible or interesting organisms ; suffice it to say that circulation is produced either by the agency of muscular or other contractile tissue, or by the action of cilia.

AsELLUs, Aeachnida, Entomostraca, Infusoria, Insects (Coccinella, Ephemera, LARViE, LiBELLULID-S;), RaNA, Triton. CIRCULATION in Plants. See Rotation and Latex.

CIRRIPE'DL\

An

or order of Crustacea.

CIRRHOPODA.
The
barnacles or

acorn-shells.

pitted liber-cells andoil-beariiigpareuchyma containing starch-granules, and are scarcely This distinguishable by the microscope. instrument, however, enables us to detect the fraudulent extraction of the aromatic
oil,

Char. Marine animals, in the adult state attached to other bodies enclosed in a multivalved shell or in a coriaceous involucre furnished with calcareous points, the rudiments of a shell eyes none in the adidt state six pairs of legs, each with a short
;
; ;

torts

since heat applied for this purpose disand destroys the characters of the

fleshy peduncle,

horny

cirri

and two many -jointed mouth furnished with mem;

starch-gi'anules.

Ground Cinnamon and

;

Cassia are adulterated with flours of dift'erent kinds, to increase bulk these are detected bv the characters of their starch-granules. ' BiBL. Hassall, Food ^-c. 399. CIONIS'TES, S. T. ^^'rigllt. genus of Ilydroid Polypes, fam. Podocorynidfe.

branoso-corneous mandibles and maxilla? tail terete, acuminate, reflexed between the legs body npt divided into segments, although there are indicatit ns of them in the form of transAerse furroA\s on the dor;

C. reticulata.

BiBL. Hincks, 5n'^. Zooph. 134; "VYi-ight, Aim. N. H. 1861, viii. 123 (fig. 1). CIRCULAR CRYSTALS. This term has been applied to the flattened groups of radiating crystalline needles formed by many salts and other crystalline substances. The term, however, is objectionable as
tending to obscure their true nature.

The six pairs of arms or legs sal surface. which are situated on the ventral surface have each, supported on a short peduncle, two long thin incurved filaments, consisting of numerous joints, and covered with
hairs.

The animals protrude

these

flla-

They

ments incessantly from the orifice of the shell, and retract them, whereby water for respiration and, with the water, food is brought into the shell. Cirripeds are sometimes diceusually hermaphrodite
;

form beautiful polarizing objects. Among the most interesting may be mentioned boracic acid, oxidurate of ammonia, salicadn)ium. They ciue, and sul])hate of
are further noticed under their respective Some of them are figured in PI. 39. heads.
flgs.

cious.

The yomig Cirripeds, after loavinp' the ovum, resemble some of the Entomof-trata,
as Cyclops ^ Cypris (Nauj>liiis-fonn) are unattached, and possess eyes.
;
.

They

9-12.
is

interesting to remark that some of these circular crystals, as boracic acid, although belonging to a biaxial system, yet exhibit a single series of coloured rings.
It

BiBL. Cuvier, Man. Mus. d'lIi.Ht. Kat. 1815, ii. Saint-Ange, Mem. Cirrij}. Coldstream, Todd's Cyclop., art. CirrJiopoda liurmeister, liankcvfusser J. Y. Thompson, Zool. Bescarchcs, and Bhil. Trans. 18:;5,
;
.

355

Darwin, Monoij. Cirripedia {Bay

S'o-

CLADINA.
cieti/)
;

170

CLADOPTIORA.

Nicholson, Zool. 1878, 271

and the
of Cla-

Bihl. of

AxufAL KixGDOjr. C'LAUI'NA, Nyl.A subgenus

C.
si/lvrifica,

guished by the branched habit of the attached filaments. The CladopharcB are interesting in

many

respects, in particular for

donia.

amaju-ocrcea,

rancjiferina,

and

unriaiis,

with their varieties, occur in

Great Britain. BiBL. Leighton, Lich.-Fl. G. B. m. CLADOBOT'HYUM, Nees. See Dac-

TYLIUM.

series of Lichens (fam. CLADO'DEI. Lichenacei), comprising the tribes Bseomycei, Cladoiiiei,

and Stereocanlei.
of

CLADO'DIUM, Brid.A synonym

of

some species

Bkyum.
genus of

CLADOGRAM'MA, Ehr. A

the thick laminated structure of the cellwall, the special projecting orifice in this by which the zoospores are discharged, the large number of the zoospores, and, lastly, by the favourable opportunity they afford of observing cell-division in the groAvth of the branched filaments. The filaments are composed of cylindrical cells attached end to end, from which the branches arise by the gradual protrusion of a cylindrical pouch near the upper end, Avhich' pouch, becoming shut off by a septum, forms the first cell of The cellulose wall acquires the brancli.

Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules disk-shaped, valves convex, with radiating irreguhirly forked lines
;

connecting-zone ring-like. C. caUformcum, Ehr. (PI. 51. fig. 14). C. conifum, Grev. Barbadoes deposit. BiBL. Elirenberg, Mikrog. pi. 33 Greville, Mic. Trans. 186-5, 97. CLADO'MOXAS, Stein. genus of
;

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Bodies ovate, with two equal anterior flagella, inserted in ends of a branched

tubular zoary.
C. fruticidnsa, fresh water.

BiBL. Kent, Infus. 284.

CLADONE'MA, Duj. A

genus of

Hy-

droid Polypes, fam. Stauiidiiclse. C. radiatum. Devonshire coast. BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. 61 Dev. Coast, 257.

Gosse,

CLADONE'MA, Kt. A
gellate Infusoria.

genus of Fla-

Char. Bodies p^oiform, oblique in front, attached to a branched pedicle flagella 1 long and 1 short, lateral. C. la.xa. Fresh water on Myriophyllum. BiBL. Kent, Infus. 264. CLADO'NIA, Fee. genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, with a somewhat shrubby
;
;

repeated layers of thickening with age and longitudinal and transverse strife may be detected in these by careful management. (See Spiral Structures.) The cellulose wall is lined by a layer of protoplasm (primordial utricle), upon the inside of which lies the chlorophyll, not, however, really imbedded in it, as it is often seen retracted from it in the centre of the cell. At certain periods, numerous starch-granules occur in the mass of chlorophyll but these disappear when the latter is about to subdivide into zoospores. When this takes place, the whole mass of chlorophyll is contracted from the wall, and becomes broken up, by a kind of segmentation, into a very large number of 2- sometimes 4-cihated zoospores (these sometimes occur in paii's, through imperfect The zoospores, which are prodivision). duced in all the cells, are discharged through a special papilliform orifice in the cell-wall they have a distinct red (PI. 9. fig. 13) Numerous supposed species inhabit spot. fresh, brackish, or sea-water in Britain some are veiy common and abiuidant but it is difticidt to draw out difterential characters, as the habit appears to be A"ery variable. They are Conferva of older
; ; ;

authors.
C. ylomerata,

and fistular podetia, abundant on moors and heaths. It comprises the subgenera PycnothiUa and Cladina. The Reindeer Moss (C. rancfiferina) is common in such localities. 26 other British species. BiBL. Hook. Brit. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 238 Eiu/l.
thallus,
;

DiUw.,

is

of a dark green
;

colour, and grows commonly in long drawnout skeins, in pure running water but it seems to be identical with the rarer C. cegagropila, L., which forms dense balls 2 to 4"

Bot.

pi.

173, 174, &c.

Leighton, Lich.-Fl.
of Lichenaceous

G. B. 52.

CLADONIE'L A tribe
CLADOl'HORA,
Confervacea;

Lichens, series Cladodei. Gen. Chidonia and Pilophoron.

Kiitz. A genus of
Algae),
distin-

(Confervoid

while there is also a in diameter, in lakes marine variety. C. crispata, Sm., is perhaps not distinct or dull green strata, it forms yellowish everywhere common in fresh water frequent in brackish water. It is the same as C. fracta, Fl. Dan., is C.Jlarescens, Both. probably a form of this.
;
;
;

n2

CLADOPHYTUM.

180

OLATimOCYSTIS.

The commonest marine species, whicli are often found in large quantities on the seashore, remarkable by their bi ight green tint, are C. rupestris, L., Icetevirens, l)ilhv., albida, Huds., Icmosa, Roth, arcta, Dilhv., and glaucescens, Griff. but some of these, and of the rarer, appear doubtful. The species require a careful study of fresh specimens in
;

Ectocarpaceae (Fucoid Algae), containing

two common British species, C. verticillatus and C. spongiosus, which grow on rocks and stones, and form olive tufts a few inches high, composed of rigid irregularly branched cellular axes, clothed by whorls of short, mostly simple, articulated branches. Harvey
states that the summer branches contain dark grains in their withered tips, and are deciduous, being replaced in winter by othei-s which bear numerous lateral stalked It is probable that these represent spores. respectively the trichosporangia and oosporangia found in Ectocarpus, and that the See so-called 'spores' emit zoospores.

Kiitzing {Sp. Alg.) has made an inextricable mass of confusion of his species.
all stages.

Eabenhorst admits 8
rous varieties. BiBL. Hassall,

species,

with nume;

213, pi. 65-67 ; Harvey, Mar. Alc/ce, 199, pi. 24 Tliuret, Rech. sur les Zoosp. Sfc, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. vol. xiv. 10, pi. 16; Al. Braun,

Aly.

ECTOCAEPUS.
BiBL. Harvey, Br. Mar. Alg. Phyc. Brit. pi. 33 and 138.
pi.

Verjungung, c^-c. {Ray Soc. 1853) Mohl, Vermischte Schrifteti, 362, pi. 13 Raben; ;

horst,

Flm:

Ah/.' iii. 333.

Probably Leidy. the mycelium of a fungus. Found in the intestine of a lulus. BiBL. See Aethromitus.

CLADOPH'YTUM,

CLADOT'RICHUM, Corda. genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), forming dark flocculent points, or
confluent
strata,

into

powdery
consists of

Fig,

CLADOSPO'RIUM, Link.A genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi j, stated by Tulasne to be conidiiferous forms of CI. herharuni is one of the Sphseriacei.
commonest moulds
spreads over the surface as a dense or loose web of confluent tufts of microscopic filaments, straight or ciu-ved, more or less varicose, simple or branched from these arise chains of spores, simple or with one or more septa, round,
;

on dead stumps, kc.

The mycelium
rigid,

it

much-branched, septate filaments, the upper oiuts swollen the spores j in chains together at the ends of branches, and bi-, in triseptate, constricted
;

the middle.

The

species

are

pro-

oval, or longish according to age, and finally becoming detached from one another. CI. herharum, Lk. Tufts effused, at first green, then black spores olive very variable in habit. Everywhere common on decaying substances. Corda, Ic. Fung. iii. pi. 1. fig. 24; Fresenius, JJei^r. zur Myk.
; ;

bably states of Ascomycetous Fungi. Cl. Berk, triseptatum, and Broome. Spoi^es oblong, very obtuse, with three septa, and constricted opposite the middle
septum.
C.

Cladotrichum
polysporuiu.

Magn. 200 diam.

2, vii. p.

Ann. Nat.

Hist. ser.

pi. 3. fig.

29

Dematmm

articulatum,

Sow-

pi. 5. fig. 7.

On

98,

a dead stump.

erby,

400. fig. 8. On leaves of dendriticum, Wallr. C, pi/roi-um, pear-trees and hawthorn. Berk. Gardn. Chron. 1848, 398. 'Hchmnthospo)-ium 2>.'/''"'""''>^i Desmaz. No. 1051. C. orhiculalwn, Desm. Ann. iSc. Nat, 3 ser. 275. Cl. depressum, Berk. & Br. On living leaves of Angelica. Ann. If. II. 2 ser.
t.

Cl.

biseptate.
;

polysporum, Corda (fig. 128). Spores Corda, Icon. Fung. iv. pi. 6. fig. 83 Frachtflora Fur. Schinwulbild. {I'olythrincium, Fries, Sunim. Vcg.)

CLATIIROCYS'TIS, Henfrey. A

ge-

nus of Pabuellaceous Algae, founded on

Microct/stis (Pulycystis) ceruginosa of KiitzThe plants occur in (PI. 5. fig. 9.) ing. autumn in myriads in freshwater ponds,

vii.

97, pi. 5.

fig. 8.

hrachormium, Berk. of Fumitory. Ibid.

Cl.

&

Br.

On

leaves

Cl. ligincohnn, Covda. On dead wood. Corda, Icon. Fang. i. pi. 3. fig. 206. Cl. nodulosmn, Corda. On stems of herbs. Corda, lam. Vang. i. ])1. 4. fig. 212. CLADOS'TEiaiUS, Ag. -A genus of

giving the water a rich grass-green tint the colour when dry is that of verdigris. Their appearance to the naked eye is that of a mass of green granules suspended in a colourless liquid. Under the microscope each granule is found to be a gelatinous body 1-50 to 1-15" in diameter, in which ai'e imbedded an infinite number of green
;

CLATriRITLINA.

181

CLAVICErS.
from a common creeping root-like and the mantle being united to the

cells about 1-8000" in diameter. Tlie gelatinous masses expand by tlie nudtiplication of the green cells in the peripheral stratum, so that they become hollow sacs, the walls of which burst at various points and produce a clathrate structure. Tlit- processes of tl}e network ultimately break asunder and commence a new development of the same kind. BiBL. Henfrev, Mic. Trans, new ser. iv. 53, pi. 4. figs. 2S-3G; Currev, Mic. Ja. vi. 215 Klitz. Tab. Phyc. i. pi. 8 Duncan, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, iii. iz. CLATIIRULINA, Cien. genus of Actin(iphryiua a stalked Actinopknjs contained in a fenestrated glnbularor pvriform
; ;

arising
fibre,

test at the orifices only.

These animals are very transparent, and well calculated for the study of the internal structure of the order. Genera Clavelina. Bodies ()bL)ng, erect; branchial and anal orifices without rays; thorax marked with coloured lines. Perophora. Bodies rt)uudish, compressed thorax not marked with coloured lines.
:

BiBL. Forbes and WaiAqj ,Brit.Mollusca, i. 25 Goose, Mar. Zool. i. 135; Lister, Phil. Trans. 1834 M.-Edwards, Ascid. Comp.
; ;

CLA'VIPES,

Tulasne.

genus

of

carapace. The pseudopodia project through the lenestrae. '2 species or varieties. BiBL. Cienkowski, ArcJiiv f. mik. Anat. iii. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1868, p. 31. p. 311 CLATHRUS, Mich. genus of Gasteromycetous Fungi, fam. Phalloidei. C. cnnceUatus, fig. 273. genus of marine HyCLAVA, Gm. droid Polypes, fam. Cla^-idfe. 6 British species j height \ to 1^".
;

SpluTriacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), contaiiiiug the plants which produce the enjot of rye and other grasses. These plants have recently been extricated from great confusion by Tulasne, who appears to have placed their history on a satisfactory basis. The first sign of the attack upon the flower of a grass is the appearance of a

C. mulficornis.
;

Rose-coloured,

mouth

white Common on stones be\\'' high. tween tide-marks. BiBL. Hincks, i?;7V. Zooph. p. 1.

CLAVATELLA,

Hiucks. A genus

of

Hydi'oid Polypes, fam. Clavatellidae.

C. prolifera, British.

BiBL. ilincks, Brit. Zooph. 70. CLAVATELLIB.E. A family of

droid Polypes.
1 genus, Clavatella.

Hy-

white mould, sometimes accompanied bj' a honey-like secretion, consisting of minute cells, somewhat after the fashion of the a swelHug (sphacelia) then yeast-plant takes place upon the outside of the nascent pistil, which extends to the outer part of the substance of the wall of the ovary, growing with this until it forms a fungoid mass of the same shape as an ovary, but At obliterating the cavity of the latter. this time it is soft, white, grooved on the surface, and excavated by irregular cavities, which are connected with the external folds
;

BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. G9.

CL A VA'TI. A family of Hymenomyce-

tous Fungi, characterized by bearing basidiospores covering the tip and sides of branched or simple club-sha2)ed or variously cylindrical, compressed, or foliaceous receptacles.

or grooves the surfaces of these are all covered with parallel linear cells, like anhymenium and from the extremities of these ai-ise elongated ellipsoid or oval cells, about
; ;

See Basidiospobes,

Hymeno-

MYCETES.

CLAVELI'XA, Sav. A

genus of Tuni-

cate MoUusca, of the family Clavelinidre, imder which head the characters are given. C. lepadiformis. Thorax a third of the length of the body, lines yellow; length \ to I". On rocks and stones at low water.
C. prodiicta. short, as broad as long, abdomen very long. C. pumilio. Nearly sessile and square. Bibl. That of the family. CLAVELI'XID.E. A'family of Tunicate Mollusca. Distinguished by the separate bodies

1-5000' in length. These become detached, and, when they are placed in water, germinate and emit filaments. These bodies are spermatia, sti/lospores, or perhaps conidia the}' exhibit no motion in water, although they resemble the spermatia of some other fungi. At this time Tulasne calls the structure a spermogonium. At a certain epoch a viscid fluid exudes from the sphacelia, flow:

'

Thorax very

ing over it and carrying about multitudes of the spermatia or stylospores (PI. 26. fig. 1 7) but previously tO this, a solid body, of a violet colour on the surface and white within, has originated at the base of the
;

spermof/oniinn, and it gradually grows and rises out of the pale;B of the flowers, forming the spur or ergot. This is not a meta-

morphosed

seed,

residting

from diseased

CLAVID.E.

18:2

CLIMACONEIS.
p. 1.

conditions, but a real new fungoid structure, When the Sclerotiimi of DC. and others. this e>yot is sown in the earth like a seed, it produces a number of little pedicles sur-

BiBL. Ilincks, Hi/dr. Zooph.

CLAYULA'RIA, Grev. A

genus

of

mounted by thickened heads, repesenting stalked Sph(en(B (PI. 26. fig. 18) and on
;

these heads are ultimately found fine points, which indicate the ostioles of little couceptacles (fig. 19). The walls of these conceptacles are lined with asci of elongate clavate

Diatomacese. Chor. Frustules free, linear, with numerous transverse pseudo-dissepiments, interrupted by a central smooth external Valves with a central inflation, and plate. a longitudinal row of short subcapitate
processes.
C. barhadensis (PI. 51. fig. 33). In Barbadoes deposit. BiBL. Greville, Micr. Trans. 1865, p. 24. A modified CLAVULI'NA, D'Orb.

form

with linear, slightly (figs. 20, 21), clavate paraphyses. These bodies are the

Sphceria purpurea of Fries, System. Myc. Our space does not admit of fui-ther details but it must be noted that very varied opinions have hitherto prevailed as to the nature of Ergot. Smith and E. Quekett, as also Leveille, Phoebus, Mougeot, and Fee, regarded the ergot as a mere diseased form of the seed, associated with a parasitic
;

Vcdvulina, in

which the

triserial

arrange-

ment

of the

chambers (three in one whorl

of the spire) has passed into a uniserial or linear row, making altogether a claviform
shell.

The long dimorphous

;

Textularice,

having

Fungus

{Sphacelia,

Lev., Fee

Eryotcetia,

a similar shape, liave been recorded as Clabut the absence of the septal vcdve vulince
distinguishes them.
C. parisie?isis (PI. 23. fig. 51.) is a neat form, with a marked distinction of triserial and uniserial growth. These long dimorphous Valndince are common in some Tertiary deposits, and in the Indian and Australian seas.

Quekett).
often accompanied by a Mucedinous fungus, wliich is certainly not the result of germination of tlie stylospores as might be imagined, but a distinct plant. Tulasne describes three species C. purpurea, Tul. (PI. m. figs. 18-22). The ergot of grasses := SpJueria entomursphacelia
is
:

The

BiBL.
ser.

rhiza,

Schum.
; ;

Sphceria (^Cordyceps) pur:

3,

V.

Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 467-469; Carpenter, For. 147,

purea, Fries Kentrosporium mitrotmn, Wallr. Sphcerojms funyorum, Guibouvt On the Cordyliceps purpurea, Tulasne. flowers of Grasses, such as rye, wheat, oats, and numerous pasture grasses. C. microcephala, Tul. Kentrosporium mierocephaluin A\ allr. Sphceria microcc;

193.

CLEISTOCAR'PI,
inoperculate).

An

(Closed-fruited,

i.

e.

artificial division of

the

Mosses. In this group, the capsule bursts irreguIt contains the families Bruchiacese, larly.
Phascacefe, and Ephemerefe. See Mo-ssES.

phala,

AN'allr.

Sphceria arms, Trog.

Cordy-

ceps purpurea, var. ucus,

Desm. On Pliruymites communis and Molinia ccerulea. C. niyricans, Tul. On species of Scirpus. BiBL. Tulasne, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 3 ser. XX. 5-43, pis. 1-4, where all the previous literature is reviewed Quekett, Li7in. Tr.
;

CLETO'DES,Brady. A genus of Copepoda (Entomostraca). 4 species. In di'edgings on the north British coasts. BiBL. Brady, Copepoda {Bay Soc.).

CLIMAC AM'MINA, Brady. An arena-

1839; Cesati, i?,.^. Zeit. 185o, 74; Currey, Qu. Mic. Jn. 132; Konorden, Bot. Zeit. 1858, 97 Lindley, Vey. Kinyd. IvUlm, Mitt, landw. Inst. Halle, i. 18G3 Sachs,
; ;
;

ceous, coarse Textularian Foraminifer, of bigeuerine growth; with labyrinthic structure inside the chambers, and cribriform aperture. Fossil in the Mountain-limestone of P)ritain and Russia not rare.
;

Bot. 381.

CLA'VID.E. A
C]iar.

BiBL.
family
of

IT.

B. Bradv, Monoy.Carb. ForatJi., '

Hydroid

Pal. Soc. 1876, 67.

Polypes.

CLIMA'CIUM, W. and Mohr. A genus

of Mosses, droides).

Polypes clavifomi or fusiform, with

synonymous with Ilypnum (denp.

scattered tentaeula.

Genera

Polypes stalked. Stem simple Stem niuoh branched Polypes sessile. Tcntncles few
Tentacles very numerous
...

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol.Brit.

Tubiclava.

325 Berke;

ley, Brit. Moss. p. 140.

Cordylopkora.
Tiirris.

CLIMACONEIS, Grun.A

genus of
(?),

Clava.

UiatomacefB. Char. Frustules bacillar, free

with

CLIMACOSniEXIA.
2 ."calariform dissepiments
puuotatc^, costoe none. Yahes C. Lorenzii.
;

la-^

CLOSTERIUM,

valves striato-

the number varying in different species, of a darker green thau the rest of the endo-

linear-lanceolate,

chrome (PL

14. figs. 40, 41, 43).

num-

swollen at the ends and the middle.

Adriatic.

In the

BiBL. Grimow, Wien.

421,
pi. 8.
fiff.

Verhandl. 18G2,

ber of chloropliyll-vesicles are frequently visible in the endochrome, sometimes scattered irregularly, at others arranged in lonat certain gitudinal series (PL 14. fig. 43) periods these contain starch-granules.
;

7.

CLLMACbSPHE'NIA,

Ehi-. A genus

of Diatomaceoe. Char. Frustules cuneate, stipitate, divided into loculi by transverse septa valves obovato-lanceolate, vrith moniliform vittae Marine not British. in the front view.
;
;

C. australis. Very shortly stipitate sides of the valves not (very faintly ?) striated.
;

On

Algce from

New

Holland and South

Africa.
C. monilicjera (PI. 25. fig. 9). Stipitate, sides of tlie valves transversely striated {a, front view b, side view). In the Gulf of Mexico.
;

Rabenhorst enumerates 6 species. BiBL. Ehrenb. Abh. Berl Ak. 1841, 401 id. Ber. 1843 Kiitzing, BaciUar. 123, and
:
;

Sp.Alq. 114; Rabenhorst, Alg.

i.

299.

CLIMACOS'TOMUM, Stein, = S^nrodovirens,

miim

Ehr.
Gi"ant.

CLI'OXA,
Sponges.

genus of marine

of the spicula imbedded in their surface, they burrow into rocks, shells, and stones. BiBL. Gosse, Mar. Zool. i. 5 Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1849, i. 321 Bowerbank,
; ;

By means

Brit. Spoq.

ii.

p. 212.

CLONOS'TACHYS, Oorda. Agenus

of

The green endochrome is separated from the cell-wall by a stratum of colourless protoplasm which occupies a bluntly triangular In many cases space at each extremity. the protoplasm at these ends exhibits a large roundish vacuole, in which a number of minute granules are contained, often in active motion. Similar granules are visible in the marginal line of protoplasm, which exhibits a distinct circulation, requiring a power of about 403 to show it clearly. Focke, Osborne, and others have described cilia inside the cell-wall, and attributed the circulation to their action but this is erroThe protoplasm appears to flow up neous. over the interior of the cell-wall on all sides, from the centre to the extremity, then to turn round past the vacuole, and return over the surface of the green endochrome parallel to the upward course. Wills states that the vacuoles at the ends of the cells are contractile vesicles, connected with the flow of the currents. The Closteria are reproduced in various ways. The individuals divide, like the re.-t of the Desmidiacese, the separation taking place transversely in the situation of the
;

Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), apparently not distinct from Botrytis. C. araucaria (fig. 347) has been found in
Enirland.

BiBL, Corda, Prachffl. europ. Schimmello Currey, Qu. Mic. Jn. v. 126. CLOSTE'RIUM, Nitzsch. A genus of Desmidiacea? (Confervoid Algae). Char. CeUs single, elongated, attenuated towards each end, entire mostly curved
bi/cl pi.
; ;

Innately or arcuate

junction of the seg-

ments marked by a pale transverse baud. Endochrome green.

This beautiful genus is of great interest to the scientific microscopic observer. Many of the species are veiy common, so that scarcely a drop can be taken from the bottom of a clear pool without some of them being contained in it.

transparent space, where two new half-cells become developed, subsequently separating. As tliese new halves' are often very small at the epoch of separation, specimens occur with the two portions very unequal. Another mode of reproduction is by conIn this, a pair of individuals bejugation. come united somewhat in the same way as in the Zygnemaceoe ordinarily the individuals conjugate by the convex side. The The outer membranes of process is this the parents split circularly in the situation of the central transverse space a delicate
'

internal membrane is protruded from each as a sac, and these meet and coalesce. Sometimes the sacs are in paii's from each

Each

cell is

composed

of

two equal por-

(See Conjugation.) parent-cell. the cross process is complete, the contents of both parent-cells pass into it and become collected iuto a globular or squarish cell or

When

tions, uniting at a transverse line occupying the middle of the cell. The endochrome

exhibits longitudinal bands

(PL

14. fig. 40),

zygospore (PL 14. tigs. 42 & 46.). Different statements are made with regard to the ultimate history of this; and it is

CLOSTERimi.

l'^4

CLOSTERIUM.
7

states that it probably variable. Morren becomes a moving gonidium, while most authors state that it becomes a restiug-spore with lirm membranous coats. Again, Morren assumes the segmentation of the green contents of this spore or gonidium into a number of portions, each of which becomes

;
J

^Cell minute, acicular; sporangium cruciform Cell not acicular sijorangium orbicular V.
;

8
<
j
i <
j^

(Ends obtuse
7.

yl\iQii

1
f

T-, iinds acute

acutum,
1-177"

which seems and it would

a perfect individual. Focke gives a figure to bear out this statement

;

/Cell semilunate or semilanceolate, lower margin inclined upwards

at ends Cell with either truncate ends, or lower margin inclined downwards at ends
<

-(

of reproduction

astrum, described by Caspary and Brauu. a (See Pediastrum.) Focke also figures cov^diiionoiClosterium Lunula, in which the whole of the green contents of an individual cell had become retracted from the walls, and converted into a number of green globular bodies, with proper coats, resembling the resting spores found under certain conditions in many filamentous Algse. (See

find an analogy in the mode by active gonidia in Pedi-

12
,

itjo" 10 Vesicles in a longitudinal row Ends of cell slightly curved up- i tiirgidum, J 1.1-39". wards longituoiual strise distinct ( 10. J Ends of cell straight; striae none "i 11 or indistinct V ends coni- j aeerosum t, I Cell linear-lanceolate ; 1 1. 1-70 to 1-58". cal, obtuse 11. ends auh- \ lanceolatum, Cell semilanceolate; ) 1.1-64". y. acute I 13 i Cell not striated, crescent-shaped 12 ^ Cell either not crescent-shaped, or
(
; ;

J Vesicles numerous, scattered

else distinctly striated

17
-5

OEbogonium and Spuiogyea.)

The Cloden'a are capable of fixing themby one extremity to foreign bodies, and Ehrenberg asserted the existence of a
selves
; j"

Vesicles numerous, scattered

I'^l'.tiS'^"'

13.

^ Vesiclesin longitudinal
'

row
ends

14

cell ( Empty

colourless, ends round-

ed..

15 16
of cell inflated at j moniliJerumX, 1 1. 1-70 to 1-60". *" "
<
-')so"
1

foot-like organ The individuals also possess a to exist. of moving in water, but the nature

but no such structure seems

14

Empty

cell usually reddish,

subacate

Lower margin
15,

middle

power

of this

is

ments of the outer membrane separate from each other when their contents decay, and

inexplicable at present.

The

seg-

Cell not inflated at midtUe

when they are dried. The membrane coloured blue hj sulphuric acid and iodine in its natural condition it often (cellulose) has a reddish tint, especially towards the
often
is
;

(Cell inflated at middle 16. J Cell slender, notinflated at (

/

T-9U to 1-60".

middle^ "^r'l^l^O"
/,^^^
" '' i.h-''

Lower margin of
Ends

17.

up- ^ij J wards at truncate ends; longitu- j dinal striae none or indistinct ...
1 [

cell inclined

'

of cell inclined

downwards

stria" distinct
I

18
19

ends.

Rabonhorst describes 52 numerous varieties.

(

species,

with
:

18.
(

Longitudinal striso to 7,prominent Longitudinal stri numerous, fine

or crescent-shaped -j
i
-^

20
"
'^"^

Analysis of ordinary British species

1, '

rCell semiluna
19
"(

"75'"

angiistuhim,
j.

Cell suddenly narrowed at the ends J at fen uatum, 1.1-57". into a conical point \ 2 Cell not suddenly narrowed into a beak "Cell striated, tapering at ends, lower margin prominent 3 at middle
I

(Celllmear (Cell narrowly

20,

i.^q". to 1-111".

linear,

nearly Sjiineidion,

)
I

:. straight Cell tapering, curved

n-69
21

.'Longitudinal
21 j

stria;

crowded, 8U-

s/ri'oZn/iini,

"[

not striated, nor lower margin - 1. l-oOO to l-4oU". ( prominent at middle Cell not beaked if striated, lower L margin not prominent at middle 6 Beaks setaceous, as long as or lon4 ger than body Beaks linear, much shorter than
;

Cell very minute, beaked, straight,

Griffilkii*,

) 1.1-80 to 1-68". turcslto3.. Longitudinal striae not crowded ( intermedium, more than 3 "i 1. 1-77 to 1-54". \ sutures usually

xiv. 201 ; Dcsjnidiexe

BiBL. Meneghini, Syn. Desmid.,Linncpa, Ehrenb. Infus. Ralfs, Brit. Smith, Ann. N. H. 1850, v. 1
; ;

Brebisson, Ahf. Fidaise,

e^'-

Conjiujaice

Kiit-

i
(

Beaks much longer than body Beaks about as long as body

Cells

|j
(

^.n^jir

ros/ra/um,

")!. 1-169".

inflated at middle, j lialfsii, ^^ C 1.1-79". ( I rapidlv tapering at ends Cells slightly inllated at middle, ( Jinealuin, 1.1-48". ends ^ I gradually tapering at
1

much

1853, 2 s^r.- v. 257

Ann. N. H. zing, Spec. A/c/. 16:^.; iiei]ie\e\, ser. xiii. 25G Braun, licjuv. (Bay Soc. Morren, Ann. Sc. Nat. 280, 292)
; ;

Osborne, Qu.
PI. 14.
t

Focke, Physiol. Stud. 1847 Mic. Jn. iii. 54; Ileufrey,

;

fig. 40.

* PI. II.
t

figs.

1*1. 14. figs.

57 45

& 58. & 4t> (Conjugation).

PI. 11. figs. 41 t PI. 14. fig. 43. ^ PI. 14. fig. 44.

&

42 (Conjugation),

CLYPEASTER.
Ann. N. H. 3
ser.
i.

185

COAL.

419

74(3; Rabenliorst, i^/or. Ahj. hi. Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, iii. 84-j.

Pritchard, Infus. 123 Wills,

;

CLYPEAS'TER, Lamk. A

genus of

Echinodevmata.

next place the degree of metamorphosis of the vegetable matter may be equally varied, so that we have it .still retaining its structure very evidently, as in liynites, fcc., or with the structure greatly destroyed, or
altogether lost, as in much ordinary coal and anthracite, which however are apparently of somewhat ditl'erent origin from the more recent lignites. Some of the old coal-beds

The hairs or spines springing from the shell are beautiful microscopic objects.

CLY'TIA, Lam.
1 Brit, species laria roluhUis.
:

genus of Hydroid

Polypes, fam. Campauulariidae.

C. Johnstoni-=-

Campann-

appear to have been formed from depo.^its analogous to our peat-bogs, and hence naturally consist in great part of vegetables

BiBL. Ilincks, Hyd. Zooph. p. 140. CNEMLDA'KIA, Presl. genus of Now Cyathese (Polypodiaceous Ferns). consolidated with Hemitelia,

whose remains soon become

imdistingiii,<h-

Fig. 129.

Fig. 130.

able; but that arborescent vegetation was also prtsentand contributed to form the coal, is proved by the detectic >n of woody .struc ture somewhat like that of the Coniferse in certain specimens of coal. Sometimes the woody structure is even evident to the naked eye, in a charcoal-like appearance of the fractured surface or bed-planes of coal. In many lignites the coal consists of trunks of trees converted into coal without much alteration of the appearance of texture of the wood ; and in these the structure is very readily made out by means of the microscope. Some old coal is largely or entirely compo.'^ed of sporangia of Lycopodiaceous or Lepido-

Fig. 131.

Fig. 132.

dendroid plants, cemented together by a brown substance derived from the decom-

position of the tissues of the coal-forminoIt would be out of plants. place here to enter upon the geological and chemical

C. (Hemitelia) horrida.
rig. 129. Fragment of a pinnule, the sori covered by indusia. Magnified 5 diameters. sorus with indusium destroyed. Fig. 130. Fig. 1-31. The same, side view, showing the fragment of the indusium at the base. Fig. 132. Vertical section of a sorus.

Figs. 130-132 magnified 25 diameters.

COAL.
from

This substance, although classed

questions connected with coal; the object of applying the microscope to it is to ascertain the existence or absence of organic structure. For this purpose various methods are employed. That most in use is the preparation of exceedingly thin slices in the manner usually adopted for fossil structures, but the brittle and opaque character of coal opposes great difficulties here. Traces of structure may be made out in some cases by grinding coal to fine powder and examining the fragments but this plan is
;

its mode of occurrence in nature in the mineral kingdom, is in all cases of vegetable The degree, however, in which origin. traces of organic structure may be detected in it varies extremely. Coal may be either tolerably irure, containing but shght admix-

third method is to very uusatisfactoiy. burn the coal to a white ash, and examine this under the microscope it often exhibits perfect skeletons of vegetable cells, but the.^e are very fragile, and require great care in
:

their

management.

ture of earthy matters, or it may contain large quantities of earthy substance, and pass gradually into a carbonaceous impregnation of an earthy basis, as in the various modifications of bituminous shales. In the

cautiously with turpentine and Canada balsam, and placing on the covering glass when the latter has become rather firm, permanent preparations may often be obtained. Schulze

By imbuing them very

recommends boiling
incinerating the coal.

in nitric acid before Tlie method which

has been attended with most success in our

COB^A.

180

COCCOCHLORIS.

The coal is maceraterl hfinds is as follows. for about a week in a solutiou of carbonate of potash ; at the end of that time it is with a possible to cut tolerably thin slices These slices are then placed in a razor. watch-o-lass with strong nitric acid, covered
then yellow, when the process must be arrested by dropping the whole into a saucer of cold "water, or else the coal woidd be The slices thus treated appear dissolved. of a darkish amber colour, very transparent, and exhibit the structure, when existing,

and gently heated; they soon turn brownish,

most

clearly.

We

This insect exhibits the circulation through the elytra. If one of these is separated from the body without being detached, and arranged in such a manner that it may be viewed as a transparent object, slow and uniform continuous currents, one ascending and the other descending, will be seen between the lamiuaj of Avhich the elytrum On dividing the latter an amber consists. transparent hquid containing colomless globules -escapes. BiBL. Nicolet, Aym. Sc. Kat. 3 ser. vii. ; Westwood, Introd. Sfc. Curtis, Brit. Ent,
;

have obtained longitu-

dinal and transverse sections of Coniferous wood from various coals in this way ; althis structure is most abundant in

Stephens, Brit. Entom, ferbuch, 690.

;

208

Calver,

Kd~

COCCOBACTE'RIA. A term employed

though

lignites.

in glycerine, in cells

for spirit renders them has the opaque, and even Canada balsam same defect. Schulze states that he has with iodine, produced the cellulose reaction
;

The specimens

are best preserved

in coal treated of potash.

with

nitric acid

and chlorate

The proper identification of vegetable structures in coal must of course depend upon a sufliicient knowledge of the characters of vegetable tissues and organisms being the observer. possessed by BiBL. Withani, Fossil Vegefablcs, Edinb.
1833; Link, Abh. Bed. Akad. 1838;_.'J4;
Gfippert, Preisschrift
;

to designate the Schizomycetous Bacteria and their allies. The author regards the globular forms Coccos, and the rod-like forms Bacterium and Bacillus, as belonging to a single organism the former arising from the division and spore-formation of the latter, and the two forms being often found in the same filament or zoogloea-form ; the whole constituting his C'occobacteria Billroth gives new names to the sepfica. various forms, and regards them as colourless parallel states of many of the lower Algse. The occurrence of these organisms in various liquids, and tlnnr influence in the

by Billroth

iih.

1848 Lindley and Schleiden and Schmidt, Geognost. Verhiiltn. des SaaUhules, Leipzig, 1840 Ehrenbcrg and Schulze, Berlin Bet: 1844; F. Schulze, Ann. JV. H. xvi. p. 69 Bailey ibid. 1855 xviii. 67; Unger, {Anthracite), Ann. N. H. Gen. et Spec. Plant. Foss. 1850 Carruthers, Mn. Mic. Jn. ii. 177, 225, iii. 144; Williamson, ibid. ii. 66 Lyell, Princip. of GeoL; Dawson, Huxley, Contemp. Rev. 1807
; ; ; ; ; ;

Steinkohlen, Leiden, Hutton, Fossil Fl.

production of decomposition and disease, are fully treated in his elaborate and wellillustrated treatise.
septica, 1874.)

(Billroth, C'occobacteria

COCCOCARTE.E
COCCOCARTIA,

(Algaj).

SeeCnYP-

TONEMIACEiE.

Pers. A small genus

of mostly tropical Lichens,

now

united with

Pannaria.
C. (P.) plmnbea, Lightf., is British, and has the thallus orbicular, livido-cinerascent, aduate apothecia reddish-brown spores 8,
;

Acadian Geol. 1868; Mn. 31ic. Jn. 1870, 319 AYilliamson, Phil. Proc. ^- Trans. 1873 et seq. Zirkel, Mineralien, 1873, 257
; ;

simple.

Reinsch. Steinkohle, 1881.

COB^E'A, Cuv. A

cliiubing Dicotyledo-

nous plant, of the Nat. Order I'olcmoniaceEe, common in cultivatitni, remarkable for the
curious pvriforiu cells upon its seeds, con28. fig. 20). See taining a spiral fibre (PI.

BiBL. Liglitfoot, Fl. Scot. ii. 820, pi. 26 Leighton, Lich.-Fl. G. B. 154. COCC^OCIILO'RIS, Sprengel (Palmof/lwa, Kiitz). genus of Palmellaceas (Confervoid Algje), consisting of green microscopic cells, oval or globvdar, imbedded in a gelatinous matrix, which is at first definite in form (tliusdiii'eringfrom Palmella),
:

Spiral Structures.
in the Florit)E.^5.

COCCIDTUM. A form

of fructiEcation

COCCINEL'LA,

Linn. (Lady-bird). A

subsequently eliiised and shapeless. The green cells are vesicles, filled with granular colouring-matter (chlorophyll) Avhen in
active veiivtation. They nudtiply by division and besides this, some of them grow much larger than the rest, and their contents are converted into a number of cells :
;

of the order Coleoptera, genus of Insects, and family Coccinellidse.

C. septempunctata, the

common lady-bird.

COCCOLITIIE.

187

COCCONEIS.
foinns

these large cells become free from the general frond, and lav the foundation cif new which inones, originally of detinite form, crease in size by the division of the individuals within a persistent gelatinous investment. Brebissou, Ralfs, and Braun describe a process of conjugation in C. Brebissonii Two cells come into contact, (PI. 7. tig. (5). and their membranes become fused the intermingled contents then nndergo a meta;

Two

were recognized, Discolithi and Similar niicroliths had been noticed as forming a large proportion of white chalk by Ehrenberg, Reade, and Wallich also found them in the Sorby. North Atlantic, in chalk, in tropical floating Coccospheres, and in dredgiugs in the English Channel. Haeckel subsequently found them in the harbour of Lanzarote, Carter in the English Channel, and GuemCi/ntJioUthi.

morphosis, brownish oil-globules replacing the chlorophyll and the spore-cell thus rest produced passes through a period of before resuming its vegetative development. Thwaites states that the slender filamentous bodies sometimes found in the frond are part of the organization of the plant (see Palmellaceje). Several British species are described
'

bel in limestones of

all ages.

'

these little bodies Morpholites of the chalk,' and regarded them, like his crystalloids,' as due to the rearrangement of calcareous particles. Sorby, Huxley, Wallich, and Haeckel differ in opinion as to whether they exist indepenCarter dently or not of Coccospheres.

Ehrenberg

termed
'

'

Spreug. Frond green, irregularly lobed, spreading on the ground, cells eUiptical, about 1-30U0", enlarged vesicles 1-500 to 1-1000". Hassall, Alffce, pi. 76. Pabnella protube82. figs. 6-10 fig. 7, pi. rans, Grev. Sc. Cn/pt. Fl. pi. 243. fig. 1.
C. protuberans,
;

C.

muscicula, Meneghini.

Hassall,

/.

c.

pi. 78. figs.

I.

a,

3 2

b.

C./aj(iJuia,^ienegh.
c.

Freshwater.
b.

Hass.
pi. 78.

pi. 78. figs.

a,

them to an Alga (Melobesia). Coccoliths of either kind, treated with dilute acid, leave a soft flexible cast or film, which is coloured yellow by iodine, pale red with carmine, red by Millon's test, and is dissolved by alkalies. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Monatsber. Ak. Berlin, 1836 Poqg. Ann. 1836, xxxix. 101 AbN. Jahrb. f. handl. Ak. Berlin, 1838, 67 Min. 1840, 080; Journ. prald. CJiemie, 1840, Edin. N. PJiil. Journ. 1841, xxx. xxi. 95
ascribes
;
; ; ;

C. depressa,
figs.

Menegh.

Hass.

/.

c.

4 a, 4 b. C. Mooreana.

Hass. /. c. Hass. /. c. pi. 78. 6 a b. C. rivularis. Frond minute, denseC. Grerillei, Hass.
1 a, 1 b. pi. 78.

ly crowded, globose or somewhat lobed, In healthy moist situations, fregreen.

;

8 quent. Hass. I. c. pi, 78. figs. 7 ab and Pabnella brotiyoides, Grev. Sc. Cnjpt. Fl. 2. pi. 243. fig. The plants are not yet satisfactorily imthe relations to Pahnella and derstood Gloiocapsa are confused. BiBL. Meneghini, Monogr. Nostoch.
; ;

353 Mikrogeohgie, 1854 Reade, MantelFs Wonders of Geology, 7th ed. ii. 953 Huxley, Ueep-sea Soundings, ^c. 1858, 64; Qu.Mic. Journ. 1868, 203 Wallich, Life at Great Ann. Nat. 'Hist. 1861, Depths, 1860, 13 vii. 396, ibid. viii. 52 Sorby, Proc. Lit. Ann. N. H. Sept. Phil. Soc. Sheffield, 18G0 1861 Haeckel, Jen. Zeitschr. v. 1870 Guembel, Jahrb. Miinch. 1870, 753 Carter, Ann. N. H. 1871, vii. 184. COCCONETS, Ehr. A genus of Diato;
;

Kutzing, Phijc. gen.

Braun, Rejuv. {Pay Soc. 1853), as Pahnoglaa Thwaites, Ann. N. H. ser. 2, vol. i'i. 312 (as Palmdla) Rabenhorst, Niigeli, Einzell. Algen, 1849 Fl.Alg.W. 67.
; ; ; ;

maceae. Char. Frustules single, depressed, adnate; valves elliptical, one of them with a median line and central nodule. The valves are mostly covered with dots

COC'COLITHE
metallic silicates).

or

COCCOLITE. A

term applied to the granular varieties of pyroxene (native silicate of magnesia, with

(minute depressions), appearing like lines under a low power. The upper valve differs from the adnate one in not being furnished with the central nodule under a low power it appears to have a median fine as well as the adnate valve but this, in some at least, arises from
: ;

COC'COLITHS.The name
in 18j8, to

given

by

minute oval or round, Huxlev calcareous bodies (PI. 23. fig. 56 6), 1-900" and less in size, abounding in the Atlantic ooze, either loose or attached to small lumps
of pi'otoplasm
('

CoccosphereS;'

Wallich).

the dots or markings at this part being more closely in contact than elsewhere. The frustules are often found densely incrusting filamentous Algte. Frustules C. pedicidus {V\. 16. tig. 17). very slightly arched (front view) valves
;

cocco^:ema.
elliptical, strife longitudinal, faiut
;

188

COCOA.
exhibit

length

they
&c.

slow motion.

Tn

turf-pits

1-1200 to 1-700"
C. flacentula.
liptical
;

aquatic.

Frustules

tiat

valves el;

1-760"

striae longitudinal, faint length fresh water, common. ; Frustules C. scutellum (PI. 16. fig. 16).
;

by WalHch

BiBL. Pertv, Kleinst. Lehens. 1852, 104. COCCOSPHERES.The name given

to

minute lumps of colourless

striae

valves ovato-elliptical, dorsally convex transverse or slightly curved length 1-700" ; marine. /3. Nodule dilated into a
;

protoplasm, found in deep-sea ooze, and He describes them floating in the tropics.
as spherical or multilobed, 1-830" in size, imitating in
c/erina,

from 1-5000 to
shape Orbulina,

stauros. C. Thwaifesii (^Achnanthidimn Jtexettum, Ends of valves slightly Bre'hiss., Kiitz.).

produced
licidi
;

C. Grevillii.

fresh water, length 1-900". Oval, with transverse cana;

Nudosaria, Texiilaria, Rotalia, and Globiand coated with numerous oval Coccoliths (PI. 23. fig. 56 o). From the Atlantic ooze, also, Huxley
describes minute granular colourless sarcodic bodies as Coccospheres, 1-4500 to 1-1700" in diameter, some having Coccoliths on or in them and he distinguishes (1) the com;

marine.

C. diaplmna. Elliptical, diaphanous marine. Kabenhorst describes 37 European speand enucies, with numerous varieties merates 37 foreign species (with the re;

ferences).

hoUow, flattened sphaeroids with an envelope, and (2) loose (1-4500 to 1-760"). The corpuscles are free, touching or overlapping, 1-11000 to 1-4500" in breadth,
pact,

BiBL. Ehrenb. Infm. Kiitzing, Bacill., Smith, Brit. Dial. i. 21 Sp. Aly. oO Greville, Rabenhorst, Flor. AUj. i. 98 Micr. Tr. 1804, 9, I860, 33, 1866, 126. COCCONE'MA, Ehr.A genus of Dia;

sometimesmingied with Coccoliths(l-11000

to 1-1600").

and

Ann.

BiBL. That of Coccoliths, and WalUch, A^. H. 1877, xix. 342 (figs.).

tomaceae. Char. Frustules stipitate, navicular, somewhat arched (side view) valves with a submedian line, with central and terminal
;

Fresh nodules Cymbellce). water. Valves transversely striated, the striae being resolvable into dots. 7 European species (Rab.). C. lanceoJatum (PI. 16. figs. 19 & 20).

= stipitate (

genus of Infuthe family Ploesconina. Char. Body oval, depressed or almost discoid, often shghtly sinuous at the luargin; convex, furrowed or granular and glabrous above concave beneath, and furnislied with vibratile cilia and cirri or corniculate apsoria, of
:

COCCUDI'NA, Duj.A

pendages, ser^ ing as legs

no mouth.

The

species

pf

this

genus

known

to

Ehrenberg are arranged among his Oxytrichina and Euplota.

C. costata

margin length 1-150", Common. Stipes dichotomous, jointed. C. cymhiforme. Scarcely distinct from the last (Sm.) stipules fihform, obsolete, interwoven into a gelatinous mass length 1-330".
;

Front view of frustules lanceolate, truncate at the ends valves semilanceolate, very sUghtly inflated at the centre of the concave
;

narrowed and sinuous in front, convex and furrowed above, or with from five to six very pi'ojecting tubercular ribs appendages grouped at the two ends the anterior more slender and vibratile length 1-950" in
; ;

(Pl_.

50. fig. 3).

Body obliquely

marsh-water. Three other species. Dujardin remarks that Ehrenberg's genus Aspidisca belongs
here.

C.

cishtla.
;

Front view elliptic-oblong,

;

valves inflated on concave margin or subracestipes elongate, filiform, simple mose length l-4o0" common. Several other foreign C. parvum (Sm.).

obtuse
;

BiBL. Dujardin, Infns. 445

Claparede

and Lachmaun,

Inftis. 188.

COCKCHAFER. See Meloloxtua. COCK-ROACH, or house black-beetle.

See Blatta.

species.

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. Smith, Br. Dmf. i. 75 Kiitz. Bacill., and Sp. Ah/. 59. COCCOSPILE'RA, Perty. An obscure
; ;

COCOA. This substance consists of the seeds of Theobronia Cacao (Ternstra?miacex), and is largely used in a manufactured
form under this name and, mixed with sugar and other ingredients, it forms chocolate. The various powders and pastes thus
;

genus of Infusoria (Algae ?), consisting of veiy minute spherical granules, with a black, brown, or red nucleus, aggregated into irregular revolving lumps, 1-400" in diuni. ;

designated

are

often

very

extensively

COCOA-NUT.
faltiified.

189

CODOSIGA.

difference of quality is in the place produced by the admixture or still exclu!<iou of the husk of the seeds
first
;

more important degradation

arises

from

the use of flours of various kinds, ground roots such as chicory added to give weight, together with coloured earths to disguise
these.

a slender base, by which it is attached to Length, when full-grown, about piles, &c. 1-2")", diameter of the clavate part about The 1-300" green above, clear below. into green contents are finally converted
;

many

rupture of the

2-ciliated zoospores, which escape by of cell, as in the sporanges

The tissues forming the husk of the Cocoaseed include outer loose filamentous cells, belonging rather to the seed-vessel a membrane composed of a single layer of flat parenchymatous cells with thin walls (PI. 2.
;

tig.

and another, thicker, consisting of a number of layers of large parenchymatous cells containing mucilage and crystals (fig. 4 b), with spiral vessels and woody fibre
;

4 a)

Codium. C. gregariwn was found at Heligoland, on submersed timber, and may be looked for on the British coast. BiBL. Braun, AJq. Unicell. 1855, 19, pi. i. CO'DIUM, Staciih. genus of Siphomarine. The nacese (Confervoid Algae) fronds of species have dark green spongy cylindrical, flat, globular or crust-like form,

some inches

in size,

composed of interlacing

the outer part of the dark-coloured albumen of the seed is composed of angidar, the
internal mass of rounded cells of delicate structure filled with oil-globules and starch-

continuous filaments devoid of septa, terminating in radiating club-shaped filaments The sporanges at the surface (fig. 133).
Fig. 133.

granides (PI. 2. fig. 4 e). In the interspace between the lobes occurs a finely fibrous
tissue, in

which are found

crystals.

The

presence of the filamentous, the large parenchymatous cells, and the spiral vessels indicates when the bark has been gi'oimd up with the finer part of the seed. The various fioiu's and starches are to be detected by the characters of their granules (Stabch) the pitted ducts betray the presence of chicory or other roots (see Chi:

cory).
Chocolate
starches
is

a compound
sugar,

and

cinnamon, vanilla, The examination of its preparations must perhaps be hmited to comparative richness
in cocoa, and to the detection of coarse substitutes for arrowroot and similar starches. BiBL. Ilassall, Food and its Adult. 207.

made up Avith and flavoured with and other ingredients.

Codium tomentosujn.
Saccate cells arising from the filaments at the sorface. Magnified 10 diameters.

(spores) are produced in lateral branches from the clavate cells, forming long elliptical
into a vast

COCOA-NUT.The seed of the Cocoanut Pahn, Cocas mieifera (Monocotyledon). Sections of the remarkably hard shell of this nut afford good specimens of veiy while greatly consolidated woody tissue the fleshy contents form an example of oily albumen, the soft thick-walled cells containing abundance of drops of oil in their The husk of the nut is composed cavities.
;

which are converted number of biciliated zoospores, discharged when mature (PI. 6. fig. 15). BiBL.' Harvev, Br. Mar. Alq. pi. 24 A ;
sacs, the contents of

Phyc. Brit. pi. 93. 35 B &c. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 2.32,

and thuret, Ann.

pi. 23. figs.

1-5.

CODONEL'LA, Haeckel.A
(?)
;
;

genus of

Heterotrichous Infusoria

closely re-

sembling minute Medusee {Jen. Zeitschr. 1873 Kent, Inf. 615, figs.). CODONCE'CA, Clark. A genus of Flagellate Infusoria.

of fibres analogous in their structure to See liber, and used for similar purposes. FiBBOrS STRUCTrRF..S. CODI'OLUM, Braun. genus of Unicellular Alga;, of which the only known

Char. SoHtary, 1-flagellate,

erect stalked lorica.

sessile, in

an

2 species Inf. 261.)

marine and fresh water. (Kent,

of Fla-

species,

C.

gregarium

(PI.

5.

fig.

6),

is

"CODOSI'GA, Clark. A genus

Cliar.

marine. It consists of a clavate tubular cell, attenuated from about midway into

gellate Infusoria.

Ovate, attached to a simple or

CCELASTRIUM.
branched pedicle, with a
flagellum
division,
;

100

OOLACIUM.

and a single by longitudinal and encysting, with division into

collar,

Char.

reproduction

albuminous
of w'hich a
cylindrical

liquid,

simple vesicle filled with an upon the outer surface

of
soft, short, retractile,

number

germs. C. lotnft{s=Epkfylis h. Ehr. (PI. 53. fig. other species. (Kent, 15). Fresh water.
Infus. .333.)

and rugose rather than jointed bodies (scolices) are situated. The head of each resembles that of a T<ema, having four di,slis and a crown of hooks.
C. cerebralis (PI. 21. fig. 10) is the larva of Tcenia ccenurus, which infests the dog. It occurs in the brain of sheep, producing " the " staggers sometimes also in that of the Hor.^e", the Ox, the Rabbit, &c. The vesicle is as large as the e^g of a hen or a The scolices when extended are pigeon. about the 1-5 or 1-6" in length. When retracted they appear to the naked eye as
;

CCELASTRUM, Niig. Agenus of Pediastrese (?) (Confervoid Algae). Cliar. Cell-grovip or frond globose, hollow internally, formed of a single relicidar

layer of green

cells.

C. Kaer/elii (PI. 3. fig. 8).

3 other species:
;

found in boggy pools. BiBL. Niigeli, Einzell. Aly. 97

horst, Flor. Ah/,
iii.

Raben-

79.

C(ELENTERA'TA,Leuck. AsiibMngdom of the Aximal Kingdom, composed

of the ZoophA'tes.

opaque white specks. Other kinds occur in the lemur and the
rabbit.

C(ELOCYS'TIS,Kiitz. Probably a resting form of EuGLENA, Ilenf. = Coelospha;;

rhim, Rab.

CCELO'MONAS, Stein. -Agenus of Flagellate Infusoria.

Char. Free, 1 flagellum, variable, mouth leading to a larce chamber. C.(jra7uUs = Monas (/. Ehr. (PL 53. fig. mar.sh-water. (Kent, Infus. 392.) 16)
:

CCELOSPH^'RIUM, Niig.A genus of

Palmellaceas (Confervoid Algse). Char. Frond globose, minute, hollow within, consi.^ting of minute aeruginous
cells

immersed

in a simple

mucous enve-

lope.

genus of Oscillatoriacea;, distinguished by the filaments growing ''within a tough,

shinny, more or less perujanent outer coat." C. Smithii forms a red mat of interlacing threads on boggy soil the separate.filaments are gTeen. C. cirrhosum, Eng. Hot. p. 2920, is a De-smonema. BiBL. Bnqlhh But. 8uppl. pi. 2iM0. CCENOCtO' JsIUM, Ehr. doubtful genus of tropical Lichens, usually placed among the Lecideinei. The thallus has a outicular stratum variously and curiouslj*
;

3 species. In ditches and pools. BiBL. Rabeuhorst, FLAhj. ii. 54; Archer, Qu. Mir. Jn. 1879, xix. 440. 0(ENOCO'LEUS,Berk. and Thwaites.

BiBL. Dujardin, Hehninthfs, 636; Kiichenmeister, Parasiten Cobbold, Entozoa, 1879. COFFEE. The "berries," as they are vulgarly called, of coflee, are the seeds of Cojf(Pa urnhica, a Dicotyledonous plant, of the Nat. Order Cinchonacese. The " berries " consist of a mass of hard endosperm (horny Albumen), composed of closely adherent thick-walled angidar cells (PI. 2. fig. 5 b), with a thick skin composed of a layer of thin-walled parench^niiatous cells forming a membrane, and a layer of hard, easily separable, ]iitted, thick-walled pareuchjinatou? cells of larger size (PI. 2. true spiral vessels occur in the fig. 5 a) groove on the inner face of the seed. Ground cofl'ee is subject to very extensive adulterations, recognizable under the microscope by which the vascular and parenchymatous tissues of roots, the starch or the integuments of various grains and seeds, &c. (mentioned more particidarl}' under Ohicoey)
;
;

be discovered. BiBL. Hassall, Food <St. COIR.^ The term coir-rope is applied to cordage manufactured from the fibrous tissue of the husk of the cocoa-nut. See

may

Fibrous Steuctubes.

COLA'CIUM, Ehr. A
late Infusoria.

genus of Flagel-

mnrked. 14 species, growing on leaves,

trees,

and

earth. BiBT,. Leifrhton, Ceylon IJch. 172.

Char. IHagellum single, free like ^/7/?ffl or attaclK^d by a simple or branched stalk, gTeen, with red eye-spot.
C. vesicuhsvm '(PL 30. fig. 32). Oyatofusiform, variable, internal vesicles distinct, length l-8()0". Fresh water, on Cyclops &c. C. sfciiforium. Cylindrical, conical, or funnel-shaped, variable, vesicles less dis-

C(ENU'R'US, Rudolphi.
relraintha,

a
:

supposed

genus of Entozoa, placed in the order Steand family Cystica since proved to be uurse-lbrms or lar^as of lanice.

COLEOCILETE.
tinct,

lt>l

COLEOSrORIUM,

pedicel generally branched, bright Other species length 1-800". green mostly on Entomostraca (Ehr. Inf. 115;
;
;

Kent; Inf. 393).

COLEOCILE'TE, De Bri^biss. genus of Cha;toplioracea3 (Confervoid Algaj), of which one species, C. sci/fata, is apparently pretty common in freshwater pools, forming minute green disks (fig. 134) adhering to leaves, to the larger Confervffi, sticks, Sec, also to the sides of glass vessels in wliich aquatic plants are kept growing. The disks are formed of a number of dichotomous filameutsTadiating from a central cell and cohering laterally, the whole being closely applied on the surface of support, so tliat the discoid fonn is occasionally modified by this (we have seen it forming a kind of cup and irreguhir fan-like lobes, on the ends of the articulations of IIj/dn>dicfi/o7i). In certain cases the filaments are more or less free from their lateral union. From the back of many of the cells projects a long, tubular
Fig. 134.
Fig. 136.

back, therefore, in C. scutata, at the ends of the branches in C. pnlvinafn. These enlarge very much, and become surrounded by a kind of rind or cellular coat, through growth of cellular branchlets frour the preceding and the surrounding cells, which branchlets meet and enclose them. The sporanges, with their trichogynes open at the end, receive the spermatozoids, and their contents are then converted into 5-8
resting-spores. directly form
:

The

new

resting-spores do not plants, but numerous

swarm-spores, and exhibiting alternations of generations the first swarm -spores produce only asexual plants, with repeated broods of swarm-cells; finally comes asexual generation, monoecious or dioecious according to the species and then the spores or
;

oogonia. The antheridia are flask-shaped the spercells, situated near the sporanges matozoids are biciliated, one in each cell. C. smtata, De Breb. (fig. 1.34) =PhyU
;

Fronds discoid, sporanges lactidium, Kiitz. on the back. On aquatic plants, kc, common. variety, /3 sohita, occurs with the radiating filaments more or less free. C. pulvinata, Eiaun. Fronds composed of tufted-branched, radiating, free filaments; sporanges globose, at the ends of the filaments. Cheetop7iora tuberculata, 0. Miill,, according to Kiitzing. liabenhorst describes 7 species.

BiBL.
i. -I'd,

De
;

pi.

Fig. 135.

10; Rejuv. (Ray Soc. 1853) Kiitzing, S);. Alg. 424 Miiller, Regensb. 'Flora,' xxv. B. ri. 513, pi. 3; Pringsheim, Jahrb. 1860, ii. 1 Rabenh. Flor. Alg. iii. 388; Sachs, Rot. 289.
pi.
;

Brebisson, Ann. !Sc. Xal. 3 ser. 2 Fvalfs, Ann. N. H. xvi. 309, Hass. Alg. 1YI, pi. 77; Braun,

COLEOP'TEKA. The
containing

1st

order

of

Insects,

the beetles.

See Ix-

SECTS.
Coleochaete scntata.
Fig. 1?4. A perfect plant. MBgnified 2o diameters. Fig. 135. Cells with tubular processes from the back of the frond. Mognifled r.0 diameters. Fig \:Hi. CoDinii ncHnient of the development of a

COLEOSPO'EIFM,
of Urediuei

Leveille. A genus

young frond.

Magnified

KO

diameters.

process (fig. 134), with a bulbous base. Reproduction by zoospores and by fertilized The former are resting-spores (oospores). produced singly in the cells, from the wliole contents bear two cilia, and break out at the back of the cell in C. smtata, from the
; ;

(Hypodermous Fungi), separated from TJredo, which proves to be a form of many distinct and indesecondary pendent plants (see Ueedo). These fungi, which may be well observed in C. senecionis, Schlecht., and other common species, appear as yellow, reddish, or brownish pulverulent spots upon the leaves of
Their mycelium, creeping in living plants. the intercellular tissues of the plants upon which they are parasitic, consists of delicate branched filaments, which collect together at certiiiu points, become interwoven, at the same time acquiring orange or yellow

side in C. jmlvhiata.

The resting-spores
;

are

formed in cells near the margin, in penultimate cells of the radiating filaments on the

COLEOSrORIUM.

192

COLLEMA.
of Infu-

cell-contents, so as to form a flat cusliionFrom this like body (clinode or stroma). arise vertical or radiating, branched, club-

COLEPI'NA, Ehr. A famUy

soria.

shaped, sac-like prolongations of some of the filaments the oldest are found in the centre, the youngest at the circumference of the group. The club-shaped bodies, filled -with yellow or brown contents, become firmlj'^ coherent laterally (at this stage This they constitute Uredo tremellosd). first spore is formed near the summit of the clavate sac, leaving a little clear space at the tip then a second spore below the first, and so on to a third and a fourth, occasionally to a fifth ; these increase in size so as to conceal the existence of the sacs on which they are seated only the tips of all the laterally coherent sacs foi-m by their imion a transparent layer, presenting, when seen from above, somewhat the appearance of the cornese of the compound eye of an insect. This lamella is burst open, with and the epidermis of the infected plant the spores (now styhspoi-es), which grow into oval and globular forms, become detached from one another and lie loose, forming the yellow, red, or brown pulveruThe spores lent spots above alluded to. have a granular cuticle, and their coat is double. The above is the Uredo-foi-m besides this there is another form of fruit, in which the stalked rows of stylospores are represented by oblong 4-5-locular sacs, each of the chambers of which ultimately emits a long slender tube terminating in a minute British reniform sporidium (Tulasne). species (we cannot find distinctive cha:

Char. Carapace barrel-shaped, traversed longitudinally or transversely, or both, by furrows, in which are situated minute vibratUe cilia; truncate, and either smooth or dentate in front ; posteriorly pointed or terminated by from two to five teeth fresh and salt water. Ehrenberg states that the oral and anal orifices exist at the opposite ends of the body. The gastric sacculi are readily filled with colouring-matter. Motion, that of revolution upon the longitudinal axis.
;

single

genus

CO'LEPS, Ehr.

C'oleps.

genus of Infusoria,

of the family Colepina.

Char. Those of the family. These animals are very voracious, and feed freely under the microscope upon the portions of the body of crushed Entomostraca, which attract them as much as sugar attracts flies. C. hirtus (PI. 30. fig. 33 a, Ehr. ; fig. 33 i,

Duj.) Oval, white, rounded behind, carapace tabulate, furrows transverse and longitudinal; posterior teeth three length 1-570 to 1-430".
;

elo7if/aliis.

Cylindrical, elongate, length

as in the last.
C. vir/dis. Ovate, furrows transverse and longitudinal, green, posterior teeth three ; length l-9(i0to 1-570".

'

'

racters) C. synantherarmn, Fries.

<S:c.,

C. ami^hacanfhus. Ovate, carapace divided by transverse furrows only, anterior teeth unequal posterior teeth three, large; length 1-280". C. incarvtis. Oblong, nearly cyhndrical,
;

On

Colt's-foot,

U. comjyratisor, Schlecht. U. tnssihiffirijs, Pers. (in part) On Groundsel, comC. senecionis, Fr. U. senccuinis, Schleclit. mon.
;

common.

slightlv curbed, white, posterior teeth five length" 1-430". C. tmcmatvs, Berlin ; fresh water,
C. ftisus,

Norwav.
Inf.
.')G6
;

C. campamdaccai'itm, Lev. nulcs. U, campamdcB, Pers.

C.

On Campa-

&c.

rhinanthaccannn, Lev. On Euphrasia, U. rhinanthaccarum, De C.

U. ]mlsatillaru7n,

C. pidsatillarum, Fr. Strauss.

leaves, &c. of roses, U. efftisa, Strauss; Grev. Sc. common. Cnjpt. Fl. t. 10. BiBL. Leveille, A^in. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. viii.

C. pinguis, Lev.

On

Barv, lirandpdzc, Berlin, L'^53, Berk, Fries, Summa Vct/et. 512 24, pi. 2 in Jlook. Br. FL ii. pt. 2. 377-0, .'Vrc. Tula-ne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. ii. 135, 179; Cooke, Micr. Fungi,

309;

De

Duj. Inf. 565; Kent, Inf. 506. COLLA'KIUIM, Liuk.A genus of Sepedoniei (Ilyphomycetous Eimgi). Filaments crowded, septate, branched, with the spores agglcjuieratid in little spots upon them. C. nigrospennvm, on diied paste C. The frm-tigernm, on decaying apples. species should be referred to the Schizomycetes. COLLE'MA, Ach. A genus of gelatinous Lichens. Thallus without cortical laj^er, but consisting of a gelatinous mass
Clapar.

BiBL, Ehr. hif. 317;

& Lachm.

of cells, with granular

form

series,
;

apothecia

gbnima in moniliand with I^ecanorine reddish spores simple or septate. 40-50

COLLEMACEI.
of whicli 27 are found species rocks, trees, See. iu Great Britain.
;

193

COLLOSPH Ji:RA

on earth,

BiBL. Xylander,

Si/n.

101, pis.

2,3,4;

gular masses, which occasionally possess a In a third form it constitutes spherical, rounded or oval,

laminated structure.

Lei-iliton, Lic/i. Fl. 1879, 15.

COLLEMACEI. A

having a gelatinous
the tribes
see.

family of Lichens, tliallus compris-ing

;

sometimes flattened microscopic simple masses of sarcode (Pi. 38.corpuscles flg.22).

These are either homogeneous, or exhibit numerous laminte (concentric colloid corsometimes a puscles) (PI. 38. fig. 22 h) kind of nuclear body is present (fig. 22 c); at others they contain carbonate and phosphate of lime (fig. 22 cZ). Sometimes they exhibit a radiate appearance (fig. 22 e). In
:

LIC^E^El and Collemei, which

tribe

COLLEMEI. A

of

gelatinous

Lichens, fam. Collemacei, with a membranous lobate thallus. Gen. Pjfrenoiisis, Sijnalissa, Collema, Leptof/iutn,

Collemopsk, and Pi/renidhwi.

of Colthe thallus glau-

"COLLEMOP'SIS, Nyl.-A genus

lemaceous Lichens, with cous-green internally. 7 British species. BiBL. Leighton, Lich. Fl. 35. COLLEXt'HYMA.A peculiar kind of thickening of celkdar tissue iu the subepidermal layers of many herbaceous stems, such as limner, Beta, Chenopodiiim, &c. which some have regarded as intercellular substance, while others, more correctly, have
;

the liquid form, colloid exudation is found within cysts iu the thymus and thyroid glands, the ovary, &c., and within the enlarged areolae of areolar tissue around these It is found in a free state upon organs, &c. the surface of inflamed serous membranes. The colloid corpuscles are met with in the hypertrophied heart, in the prostate, the thyroid, and the thymus glands, in the choroid membrane, in the brain and spinal cord, and iu the (waxy) spleen, &c. The liquid colloid matter is not precipitated by acetic acid it becomes of a gelatinous consistence, retaining its transparency or turbid and opaque, by heat.
;

stated

it

to consist of

condary layers inside the

metamorphosed secells. See Inter-

cellular

SuBST.AJvCE.

COLLETONE'MA, Brebisson. A genus

of Diatomace8e. Char, Frustules
navicular, sigmoid or straight, arranged in rows, and immersed in a gelatinous mucus, forming a filiform frond. Fresh water. C. eximiimi. Valves sigmoid length 1-340".
;

colloid corpuscles do not, however, appear to be uniform in composition sometimes they consist of a proteine-compound
: ;

The

at others, doubtfully, of cellulose or loid, as iu the brain (true Corpora

amyahy-

C. vulgare.

slightly

contracted

Valves elliptic-lanceolate, at ends length 1;

lacea). These bodies are further noticed under the heads of the tissues and organs in which they occm*. See also Tumours
{Colloid cancer).

410".
C. neqlectum.

BiEL. Rokitansky, Path. Anut.

1.

304;

Valves elliptic-lanceolate

length i-250".
6'.

suhcohcerens

Micromega

suhcohce-

rens.

Forster, Hand. spec. Path. ; Virchow, Arch. Path. Anat. v. ; Rindfleisch, Path. Gexvehelehre, 29 ; Green, Pathol. Sf-c. 57.

Wedl, Path.

Histol.

custre,

Three other species, C. viridulum, C. laand C.Jle.vile. Rabenhorst aiTanges these in a section of

the genus Sckizonema,

zing, Sp. Alg.
i.

BiBL. Smith, Brit. Dial. ii. 69; KUt105 Rabenhorst. Fl. Alg.
;

COLLO'MIA, Nutt. genus of Polemoniaceas (Dicotyledons) remarkable for the spiral structures produced in the epidermis of the seeds (PI. 28. fig. 22) (see Spiral Structures). The gummy substance in which fibre is imbedded is soluble iu water and not in spirit therefore the best way to observe the elastic opening of the spiral fibres is to make fine sections of the coat of the seed and place them in a little spirit of wine, 'upon a slide, with a covering glass, to adjust the focus, and then to add water carefully at the side of the covering glass so as to wash away or dilute the spii-it.
;

265.

or exudation is applied to a transparent, viscid, yellowish, structureless or slightly granular matter, resembling liquid gelatine, arising from the metamorphosis of the protoplasm of the It occm-s as a normal and a cells. pathoIn a state of greater conlogical product. it sometimes forms flakes or irresistence,

CORPUSCLES (animal). The term colloid matter

COLLOID MATTER, exudation

and

COLLOSPILFIRA,

Mlill. A genus of o

Radiolariu, fam. Thalassicollidae.

COLORADO BEETLE.
rical

194
in

COLPODA.

Chart Skeleton consistinp; of simple spheroundish or polyhedral fenestrated

variegated petals, to contain distinct colours, the line of demarcation being accu-

shells,

surrounds
capsules.

smooth or spinous, each of which one of the combined central

Iluxleyi {ThaJassicoIIa punctata., pt.). Shell smooth: diam. ^J^". In various seas.
C. spiiiosa.

Shell spinous,

Lessina.
;

by the cell-walls, through which the colours do not transude, unless the cells are injured by pressure. In young tissues the colour often has a granular appearance in the cells; but this is a deception arising from the mode in which the colour is deverately fixed

BiBL. Haeckel, JRadwka: 533 Iluxlev, Ami. N. II. ]S51, viii. 434, pi. 16. fio-. 6. COLOEADO BEETLE. See Dory'

PHORA.

COLOSTRUM. The
creted

first

by the mammary

liquid seSee glands.

The colourless protoplasm originally the cells becomes excavated, as it were, by water-bubbles, and the watery contents of the excavations become coloured they gradually enlarge as the proloped.
filling
;

Milk.

COLOUR.
See PiGJJENT.

COLOURING MATTER, of Animals.

SeelNTEODTTCTiONjp.xxxiv.

depends upon the presence of Chlorophyll, and head. The red and is spoken of under that yello'w colours assumed by leaves and herbaceous shoots in autumn depend upon a chemical metamorphosis of the chlorophyll, or on its absorption and the discoloration of
gi'een

COLOURING MATTERS, The colour of vegetables

of

Pxants.

colours of red cabbage, copper beech and similar plants, depend upon the existence of a colouringliquid in the usually colourless epidermal cells, obscuring the chlorophyll wliich lies beneath. The red colour presented by many of the lower Algas, such as some of the Palmellacea5, appears also to depend upon a

the cellular tissue.

The

itself more completely to the walls of the cell, until they become confluent and the coloured liquid fills the whole cell-cavity. The isolation of the coloured juice in each particular cell seems to depend upon the primordial utricle or when this is pjirietal layer of protoplasm injured by pressure, or other external cause , endosmose is soon set up and the integrity of the cell destroyed. In some cases the liquid colouring-matters of flowers have been found to contain solid the red colour-cells of Salvia corpuscles splendens, and the blue ones of Stn'Iitzia and according to irr/iva, contain globules Mohl, this is still more commonly the case Avith the yeUow colours in the yellow perigonial leaves of Sfrelitzia rer/ina the yellow colour is said to depeud upon the presence of crescentic and curled filaments floating in the cell-sap.

toplasm applies

metamorphosis of the chlorophyll, connected with the vital processes it is met with also in the contents of the restingspores of many of the iilamentous ConfcrThe protoplasm assumes a reddish voids. colour in the functmn rer/etatiunis of the buds of Monocotyledons in the autumn, which probably depends upon a similar The bright coloiu's of flowers and cause.
;

The Avhite patches upon variegated and spotted leaves, such as those of Auciiha, Holly, variegated Mint, Becjonia anjyrostigma, &c., arise from the absence of chlorophyll in the cells sulijacent to the epidermis at those parts, which produces the same effects as we see in leaves mined by
caterpillars.

BiBL. Von Mohl, J^crm. Schrift. 575,

poda, Ehr.
537).

other parts of the inflorescence of plants, as also of the lower surface of many leaves
(L'c(/(mi(r, Vidoricc, &c.) and herbaceous shoots, arise from the presence of matters of a difterent kind, almost always dissolved in the watery cell-sap. The colour of petals
is

COLPIB'IUM, Stein, = Paramcehim h>l& CI. & Lachmann (Kent, Iiifi/s.

ordinal ily found to depend upon a certain number of the cellssubjacentto the epifluid

COLPOCEPLI'ALUM. A subgenus of Liothenm (Anoplxtra). C. hmyicaudtnn, and four other species found on pigeons. BiBL. Megnin, Paramtcs, 91 (fig.).
;

dermal layer being filled with a coloured and the depth of the colour is proportionate to the number of superimposed layers of such cells, which act like so many
;

COLPO'DA,

Schrank,

Ehr. A genus

of

Ilolotrichous Infusoria, of the family Colpodea, Ehr., Colpodina, CI. & L. Char. No ej^c-spot body sinuous or
.

layers of a pigment.
filled

Each

cell is

usually

notched on one

loped

with one colour when fully devebut adjacent cells arc often seen,

sometimes reniform, surface reticulated or marked with nodular

side,

obliquely interlacing

strite

mouth

lateral,

COLrODELLA.
situated at
tlie

195

CONCHOPHTHIRUS.
genus ofEotato;

bottom of the notch, and

Turgid,

COLU'RUS, Ehr. A

furni.-^hed ^vith a projecling lip. C. cuci/llus (PI. 31. fig. 2o).

Common is vegetable infusions, especially of hay. Ecdysis has been observed iu this animalcule. Stein describes the encysting process and as occurring iu reproduction from germs this infusorium.

slightly compressed, reuit'orm, often narrowed'in front ; length 1-1720 to 1-280".

of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Two frontal eye-spots tail-like foot forked carapace cylindrical or comria,
;

pressed.

Carapace open beneath cervical appendage curved; jaws with two or three teeth
;

each.
C. defle.vtis (PI. 43. fig. 12, dorsal 13,

view;

C?

rcn.

rounded

at the ends

Ovato-cyliudrical, reniform, fresh wat. ; length

;

1-280". C. ? cuculUo (Lo.rodes cue, Duj.). Compressed, iiat, elliptical, slightly sinuous in front fresh Avat. length 1-000". C. parvi/rons, CI. & L. No anterior recurvature, contractile vesicle not terminal.
;

ventral view; 14, teeth). Carapace ovate, compressed, its posterior points long and directed downwards; terminal points of foot (toes, E.) shorter than the foot itself; length of carapace 1-240".

Freshwater.
C. caudatus. Carapace ovate, compressed, posterior points of carapace distinct, points of foot longer than the foot itself ; freshwater and marine length 1-240". C. ? imcinatus and bicuspidatus are doubt;

Fresh Avater. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 347; Duj. Inf. 478; Stein, Infusionsth Claparede & Lachmann, 270; Kent, 7>?/Ws. 512. COLPODEL'LA, Cienk. genus of
;

ful species.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 475. COMBEA, D.'N. genus of podetii-

Fliigellate Infusoria. Char. Free or adherent, ovate or elon-

1 species, forni Lichens, tribe Eoccellei. C. moUusca ; rocks. Cape of Good Hope.

BiBL. Ach. Meth. 235,

Sijn.

pi. 4.

f.

Nyl.
p.

gate, one flagellum, with a suctorial cavity at the base ; becomes encysted.

257,
;

pi.

8.

f.

1.

COMPKESSOPt.
xxiii.

Introduction,
is

Fresh water previuaon Chlmnydojnonas; length 1-2000". (Kent,V/: 378.)

C.

pm/nax

(PI. 53. fig. 14).

Ross's new compressor in Qn. Micr. Jn. 1864, 44,

described

family of Infusoria, characterized by the presence of cilia all over the body, the patent and ciliated oesophagus, and the absence of rows of buccal cilia directing the particles of food to the mouth.

COLPODI'NA,

CI.

& L. A

COMP'SOGON, Mont.A
1

genus of Le-

maneece (Confervoid Algaj).

European species

C. Corinnldii.

Ca-

piUarv,

CONCEPTACLE.A

much branched, violet. Freshwater,

form of
fructifi-

cation in the

Flobide^ and FrcoiBE^.

Also occurring iu the fructification of some

Fungi.

Genera No

Membranous
mouth

lips absent.

setae projecting

from the
1.

Parameciitin.

Setae projecting from the mouth.

CONCHCE'CIA, Dana. genus of Ostracode Entomostraca, fam. Couchoeciadae. Char. Those of the family. C. obtusaia^ Sars. Shetland.
BiBL. Dana,
Sec.
;

bundle of short setae forming a lower lip

2.

Colpoda.

Sars,

Oral

No

setoe long, isolated. ventral setEe

118
3.

CycUdium.
I'leuronema,

bundle of ventral

seta?... 4.

Lips membranous, oscillatory

Glaucoma.

COLPONE'MA,

Stein.

family of Entomostraca, of the order Ostracoda. Char. Inferior antennte 2-branched, one

CONCHCE'CIAD^. A

Crustac. Explor. U.vpedit. Oversigt af Noryea mar. Ostr. Brady, Litm. Tr. xxvi. 469.

genus

of

branch rudimentary and immoveable

1 genus, Conchcecia.

feet

Flagellate Infusoria. C/iar. Free, ovate, pointed and curved, with a ventral groove ; flagella two, one apical and vibratile, the other ventral and
trailing. C. lo.rodes.

2 pairs, posterior rudimentary, eyes none.

CONCHOPHTHI'RUS, Stein. Agenus

of Ilolotrichous Infusoria.

Char. Free,

oblong,

dorsally

convex,

Fresh water

(Kent,

Inf.

striate.

297).

COLUREL'LA,
Ehr.

Borv, Duj.

Colums,

In " of freshwater Molbody-mucilage 2 other species. (Kent, Inf. 490.) lusca.

C.

anodontce= Lencophrys an. Ehr.

the

''

o2

CONCEETIONS.

196

CONFERVA.

CONCRETIONS and CALCULI. These terms are rather indefinite. A hard body of comparatively considerable size, formed -within an animal organism, would
be called a calculus, whilst a body of considerable comparative size in which hardness was not a marked feature, or a Lard body of small or microscopic dimensions, would be called a concretion. Under the latter term, the notion of a compound
structure is usually implied. Calculi generally consist of various organic and inorganic substances enteiing into the composition of the secretions of the body, which are precipitated from various causes. Those found in the intestinal canal are mostly composed of imdigested vegetable tissues derived from the food. Most, if not all, calculi and concretions are mixed with ani-

272; Rainey, Medico-Chh: Bev. 1857, and Qu. Mic. Jn. 1858; Meckel, Mikroqeoloqie.

CONDENSER, Achromatic, BULL'SEYE,

&c., for

opaque objects.

Lxteo-

DTTCTION, pp. xix

& XX.

CONFER'VA, Plin. genus of Confervacete (Confervoid Algse), which, as restricted here, contains chiefly marine
species but we have thought it to retain in it the species separated by Kiitzing as Chatomorpha and by Thuret as so that our Conferva correMicrospora sponds to Ilassall's proposed genus Aploncma. The plants consist of unbranched filaments, composed of cylindrical or moniliform cells, the length and diameter of which have a very variable relation in dif;

advisable

mal matter (proteine-compouuds) derived from the mvicous cavities in which they are
or simultaneously precipitated, contained, with their characteristic compounds, from the secretions in the midst of which they Hence when the proper calare formed. culous matter is dissolved by a reagent which exerts little or no action upon the animal matter, a mass is left which exhibits the form of the original body ; and the organic cast often so resembles a cell, that some hasty observers have attributed to calculi a cell-origin. Calculi and concretions enlarge by the deposition of new matter upon their outer surface and as this deposition is not uniform and uninterrupted, either in regard to the nature or proportion of the respective constituents, they mostly exhibit a lamiThis is visible to the nated structure. naked eye in the larger ones, and evidenced in those which are microscopic by the appearance of concentric rings, and of a nucleus or nuclei. These concentric rmgs and nuclei are distinguishable equally in concretions formed artificially as in those
;

ferent species, and containing starch-granules. The species with moniliform cells form Kiitzing's GlccoiUa. They are repro-

duced by zoospores formed from the cellBraun says that C. homhycina contents. produces four in a cell. According to Thuret, C. cerea produces large numbers,

which escape hy a lateral

species

orifice

while the

he describes

as

Microspora Jloccosa

forms a number which escape by a circular dehiscence breaking up the filaments. The zoospores are 2-ciliated in general, but sometimes bear four. The spores have not been observed; and hence Kiitzing has suggested that the Conferroi may be sterile forms of (Edoe/oniinn but the true CEdoyo;

niu

produce

solitary

crown
species.

of cilia.

zoospores with a Rabeuhorst describes 30

:

British species

Freslncater.
C. homhycina, Ag. Filaments 1-3G0 to 1-180" in diameter, foiu- or five times as lorg, foiTuing a yellow-green cloudy stratum. Common in stagnant water. Dillw.

Confervcs, pi. GO.

occurring naturally. The inorganic matter in concretions is in the crystalline state, the crystals being
usually small, gi-anular or radiate, and intermingled with the organic substance; which arrangement is conveniently ex" crystalloid.'' pressed by Ehrenberg's temi The crystalloids have a great resemblance to cells, fur which they have often been mistaken. BiBL. Taylor, 7/wi^. Catalogue, CcilcnW; Quekett, Med. Times, 1851, xxiv. 551 ; Grifiith, Med. Times and Gaz, 1862, xxv.

More C./occosr/, Ag. (PI. 9. fig. 11 J). robust ; articulations once or twice as long as broad. 3licrospora Jloccosa, Thuret, Ann.des Sc.Kat. 3 st^r. xiv. pi. 17. figs. 0,7.
Marine.
Thirteen species are described by Harvey

{Mar.

Algce),

of which C. a-rea, I)illw.,

is

one of the commonest, remarkable for the large size of the tufted filaments, as thick as nog's bristles, growing- 3 to 12" long, of
a

yellow-green colom*.
;

Web. and Mohr, has

equally thick

C. Melayonimn, erect tufted filaments while C. Linum, Roth, has

COXFERVACE.E.

107

CONFERVOIDE^.

entangled filaments twice as thick, deep glossy green, and many feet long. The cell-walls of these large marine species present a curious striated appearance when treated with acids, which led

the organization is reduced to the condition of a single microscopic membranous vesicle

enclosing nitrogenous contents, ordinarily tinged with chlorophyll, and containing starch Such we have in Protococeus, which in its various forms appears as a green or red stain on damp surfaces, or a green or red scum in water. These plants multiply by the subdivision of the cells iuto two or four new ones, which separate and repeat the In addition to the vegetative process.
.

Agardh, apparently erroneously, to suppose they are composed of spind filaments. (See Spiral Stecctures.) BiBL. Harvey, Phyc. Brit. Thuret, loc.
J.
;

Kiitziug, Sp. Alg. ; Ilassall, Freshiv. Braun, Rrjuv. {Ray Soc. 1853, 184) ; Rabenhorst, FL Alg. iii. 322. COXFERVA'CE.E. family of ConMarine or freshwater Algte fervoideiB. composed of articulated filaments, simple or branched ; cells cylindi-ical, shortish, not
cit.
;

AUj. 213

growth by subdivision, going on in damp air (the cells being held together more or less
firmly in a gelatinous crust), the contents of the individual cells are set free by solution of the membranes when placed in w*ater, and emerge as ciliated zoospores, endowed with active motion. Advancing a step, we come to a number of genera not yet w^ell defined, in which the membranes of the parent cells soften into a kind of gelatine, during the process of subdivision, and hold the new cells together in groups of defijiite or indefinite form among these are Palmella Gloeocapsa, and others of like nature, in which at present no zoospores have been In C'occochloris a process of discovered. These genera exhibit conjugation occurs. a res^iVi^form, characterized by the increased thickness of the membrane of the cell, and a change of the gi'een contents into a brownish, reddish, or even crimson colour. With the Palmellacese we shall associate a number of Unicellular Algse, whose characters and affinities are still obscure. The Ulvacese are not widely separated from the Palmellaceae but the conjunction of the cells into a definite membrane, indicates a higher organization. In other re; ;

conjugating. The fom-th and fifth genera given below are placed here doubtfully Stigeoclonium, if a good genus, leads to Draparnaldia among the Chsetophoraceae. spores unReproduction by zoospores
;

known.
Synopsis of the British Genera. Filaments unbranched. Zoonumerous in the cells. Sea, spores' minute, brackish, and fresb water. Glmotila, Microspora, Chatomorpha, Claclophora. Filaments tufted, much branched. Sea and fresh, water. Zoospores minute, many in a cell. Filaments decumbent, Rhizoclonium. with small lateral rootlilie branches. ZooConferva.

and

Sea, brackish, spores minute, numerous. fresh water. Ulothrix. Filaments simple, often fasci-

culated, joints short. Zoospores 4-ciliated; Fresh water. two, four, or more in a cell. Stigeoclonium. Filaments branched, forming tufts, the ramules running out into
cell-walls often dissolving slender points to emit the zoospores. Zoospores 4-ciliated, one in a cell. or An order of Algas. The ChLjrothe lowest order of spores or Confervoids, the Algae, display a preponderating number of truly microscopical plants, and constitute one of the favourite and most instructive fields of microscopic research. As yet, however, the minute history of development is wanting in a very large number, Avhile the facts akeady disclosed are so varied that it becomes a matter of difiiculty to draAv up a sketch of their characteristics in a brief
;

RE^.

CONFERYOI'DE^

CHLOROSPO-

however, they hardly differ more from more perfect genera of Palmeland laceae, than those do from Protococeus therefore, although more conspicuous and extensively developed than the Nostochaceae and Desmidiacese, it seems natural to place the Ulvacese near the Palniellacefe, espespects,

some

of the

Among the Palmellaceae we find some of the simplest forms of vegetable life, -where

space.

reproduction by cell-division is analogous in all respects to what is seen in Protococeus, of which they woidd appear to be the permanently aquatic representatives. Prasiola and Schizogonium, however, differ fro'm the other Ulvacete in the absence of zoospores, the homogeneous not gi-auular contents of the cells being discharged as motionless spore-like bodies, fi'om which new fronds grow up. The Nostochaceae exhibit but a slight advance in organization over the Palmel-

cially as the

and by zoospores

CONFEEVOIDE^.
lacas.

198

CONFERVOIDE^.

They

are

composed of

linear series

of cells, mostly inflated so as to give tlie filaments a beaded appearance the linear
;

series increase in length by transver.-^e division, and in some stages subdivide longitu-

the other hand, diverge from the ordinary characters of plants so much in other respects, that some authors have placed them in the animal kingdom. Like the Desmidiacese,

dinally; larger globular cells (sporanges) occur at intervals in the lines, with others devoid of endochrome (vesicular cells, ThAvaites). Diu'ing the increase, the older external membranes soften into a gelatinous coat. In Kosfoc, where the filaments accu-

they are microscopic simple cells, isolated or coherent in gi'oups and either free, or imbedded in a definitely or indefi;

mulate in large numbers, they he elegantly curled and entwined in masses of this jelly, which exhibit a more or less definite, lobed, external form appearing to the naked eye as gelatinous crusts or globular masses, as they lie upon damp ground or among mosses. Each sporange produces one resting-spore, which breaks out from it in
;

nitely formed mucous nidus. They difier however from the I)esmidiacea3,in possessing, when free, a more active power of locomotion, and also by being often attached by a kind of foot, and this either singly or
in large poljq^iform famihes. Their great distinctive character is the presence of a sihceous coat to the cell, which preserves the form of the organism when the soft parts are removed by fire or acids. The cell-

germination.

contents of the Diatomaceae are usually of a dirty yellow colour, the colour of the chlorphyll being concealed by a yellow

Nearly

allied

to

Profococcus stands

family which until recently liave often been regarded as animals, namely the Volvocinese which consist essentially of groups of organisms identical with the ciliated zoospores, held together in a definite form by a common membranous envelope or cceno;

diatomine (phycoxauthine). The reproduction is by division, and by conjugation, analogous to that of the Desmi-

matter

diacese.

The

plants, the

Oscillatoriacese are truly filamentous component parts of which though

,

through which the cilia penetrate, so that the entire full-grown plant moves freely in the water, as in Volvox, Gojiium, PanThese plants multiply by dividorina., &c. sion, the swarm-cells conjugating; also by resting-spores, which are formed after a true fecundation by spermatozoids. The Desmidiaceae form another tribe of very simple organization, where the individual plant is composed of a single cell but here the coat or enclosing membrane is peculiarly characterized by the assumption of remarkable forms uulike any other vegetable structures preseutingangular and escalloped
biuni,
;
;

readily separating under external intluences, are often combined into complex fronds in their normal state. The filaments of this group are mostly very minute, and exhibit transverse markings, which in some cases are so delicate that they cannot be regarded as actual divisions of cell-contents by septa; yet the filaments break readily across in

these places, and the fragments go on growIn the larger forms the articulations ing. of the cell-contents are more distinct but even here the filaments look like rows of individual masses of cell-contents contained in a common tube, forming a kind of sheath. In some genera the filaments are contained
;

outlines or elegant processes projecting from the wall, but always so as to exhibit a bilateral

symmetry.

These

cells are isolated

in bundles in secondary sheaths. The most remarkable point about this tribe is the occurrence of the peculiar kind of motion

or

arrauged in linear series or beautiful complicated star-like groups, enclosed at first in a common gelatinous envelope, but
readily breaking up into isolated frustules. They are further remarkable for exhibiting the process of conjugation with great distinctness; resulting in the production of
peculiarly formed bodies, zygospores, with which are external membranes, rigid generally regarded, probably correctly, as sporanges. They are also reproduced by zoospores.

in the typical genus OsciJlatvria, whence derives its name the iilaments emerge readily from their sheaths and wave backit
:

wards and forwards, and tlie broken fragments oscillate like tlie beam of a balance from what cause, or by what means, is still
;

undecided.
I'he only

known mode

of reproduction

is

by the breaking up of the filaments into

longer or shorter pieces, or into single joints. Peculiar large cells occur at the base of the filaments of some of the adnate genera but their nature is unexplained. The Siphonacea) i^re plants of larger
;

The Diatomacea)

many

are nearly related in respects to the Desmidiaceso ; but, on

CONFERYOIDE^.

199

CONFERVOIDE^.

dimeiisiou3 and higher organization than any of the preceding; and indeed they are

placed

authors. They seem to lis to be more in They are composed of tubular place here. cells of much larger size than those of any other Confervoids, the entire plant often while in consisting of one undivided tube, other cases the brauche.> arise from true In Bofri/duon a very cm-ious articulations. structure is exhibited the plant consists
:

among

the lower Fucoids by some

from the entire contents of certain cells, which are impregnated by sperniatozoids produced on other parts of the plant, or by antheridial plants developed from some of
the gonidia. The Z3'gnemacea9 are somewhat similar filamentous plants, remarkable for the pro cess of CONJUGATION Or inosculation of neighbouring cells of distinct filaments in order to the production of the restingspores. They are also distinguished by the

ground, In Vaucheria very large undivided cell. and liryopsis the tubular cell grows into a long filament, more or le-s branched, but not divided. In Ili/drodicfi/on, which from
its general structure appears referable here, the plant is a large net with meshes half an inch broad, the net itself being composed of large tubes rounded at both ends, articulated at the intersections of the meshes. In Codium, the filaments are closely comThe fructificabined into a spongy mass. tion of these genera is very varied, so that the group appears scarcely natural but
;

of a tough membranous globule, tilled with green matter, rising from a branched, colourin the damp less, root-like portion spreading the whole con-<istiug only of one

endochrome being arranged

doubtful

in spiral or other patterns on the cell-walls.

bands
It is

here normally. The Confervaceai are simple or brauclied filamentous form*, of which the essential characters are imperfectly known. They produce numerous zoospores with two or four cilia, in each cell. The Chfetophoracese differ from the Confervacefe principally in their habit and mode of branching. They occur in fresh water and in the sea and are chai'acterized by the presence of a jelly enveloping the filaments,
zoospores
;

whether

occur

the plants

ai'e

all

more or

less

anomalous,

and have affinities with very difterent tribes, while the comparatively enormous cells of

which form branched, round, or shapeless masses, or flat discoid or irregular plates, and by the cells constituting the joints of the filaments bearing slender bristle-like branches. They are reproduced by zoospores, either numerous or solitary' in the
cells,

which they are composed are peculiar to them among the filamentous Confervoids. Vcmcheria is reproduced by very large oval
gonidia covered with innumerable vibratile
cilia,

formed

bearing four ciHa; also by spores after fecundation. The Batrachospermese exhibit a greater

of which they swim actively the gonidia are developed from in water the contents of the ends of the filaments and zoospores, produced under various circumstances, seem to occur in all the other

by means
;

complexity of structure, consisting ofjointed moniliform filaments, composed of rows of cells, branched and bearing whorls of ramuli ; the filaments of the whorls dense, dichoto-

genera.
is

In Vaucheria sexual reproduction sporangial and autheridial branches being formed at the sides of the
also

known

mous, and beaded, some of them growing down o^er the central filament, and forming a sheath round it. The fructification consists of spore-like bodies, or cystocarps with trichogynes, borne on the filaments of the
whorls, and of bodies resembling the antheridia of the Floridec-e. The plants are brownish green or jjurplish, and occur in fresh Avater. The Lemaneeae are freshwater Alge, occurring in rapid rivers, attached to stones, by some supposed to bear a close relation to

main

Saprolegnxecc {Achhja, in this family, on account of their general structure but they are distinguished by the absence of chlorophyll in their cell-contents, and their
Sec),

filaments.

The

were formerly included

parasitic habit, which gives them the character of aquatic Fungi. The ffidogoniacete are green, simple or branched, filamentous plants, attached to foreign bodies under water their cells, filled with green matter, presenting a pecidiar mode of division; and the entire contents of the cells are converted into zoospores which have a crown of numerous cilia. In the sexual reproduction, the spores are formed

the lower Fucoids. The fronds are branched and of leathery textiu-e, consisting of tubes composed of cellular tissue, the superficial layers small, polygonal, and firmly conjoined the deeper layers, bounding the The cavity of the tubes, lax and spherical. fructification consists of beaded filaments arising from the internal cells, and grow-

CONFERVOIDE^.

200

CONFERVOIDEJE.

ing out freely in tlie cavity of tlie tuhe, finally breaking up into the component bead-like cells (sjwres), which reproduce the plant. The genus Lemanea deserves
further investigation.
Synopsis of the Families.

dividing into four sporules before germination.

freshwater,

Lemanee^.
ticulate,

Frond

filamentous, inar-

hollow, cartilaginous-leathery, furnished at irregular distances with whorls of warts, or necklace-shaped. Fructijicafion tufted, simple or branched, necklace-shaped filaments, attached to the inner surface of
:

Simple or branched, filamentous plants, attached without gelatine. Cell-contents uniform, dense. CeU-division accompanied by circumscissile dehiscence of the parent cell, producing rings upon the filaments. Re2)roduction by zoospores formed of the whole contents of a cell, with a crown of numerous and resting-spores formed in sporangial cells after fecundation by ciliated spermatozoids formed in antheridial cells.
cilia
;

(Edogoniace^.

the tubular frond, and finally breaking up Freshwater. into elliptical spores. Plants filamenBateachosperme.^. tous, articulated, invested with gelatine. Frond composed of aggregated, articulate,
longitudinal cells whorled at intervals with short, horizontal, cylindrical or beaded, jointed ramuli. Fructification: oyate spores, and tufts of antlieridial cells attached to the lateral ramuli, Avhich consist of minute, radiating, dichotomous, beaded filaments.
;

SiPHONACEs;. Plants found in the sea, fresh water, or on damp ground of a membranous or horny hyaline substance, filled with green granular matter. Fronds consisting of continuous tubular filaments, either free or collected into spongy masses
;

Freshwater plants.
Plants growing in Ch^tophoeace^. the sea or fresh Avater, coated by gelatinous substance either fihform, or (a number of filaments being connected together) constituting gelatinous, definitely formed or shapeFilaments jointed, less fronds or masses.
:

of various shapes, either crustaceous, globular, cylindrical or fiat. Friicfijication by zoospores either single or very numerous ; and by resting-spores formed in sporangia! cells after the contents have been impregnated by the contents of antheiidial cells of different form.

OsciLLATOEiACE^.

Plants

growing

either in the sea, in fresh water, or on damp ground, of a gelatinous substance and fila-

bearing bristle-like processes.

tion
: ;

Fnictificu-

zoospores produced from the cell-contents of the filaments resting-spores formed from the contents of particular cells after

impregnation by ciliated spermatozoids produced in distinct antheridial cells {(Joleochcste^,

Confervace.^. Plants growing

water, or in the

in fresh

sea, filamentous, jointed,

without evident gelatine (forming merely a delicate coat around tlie separate filaments).
Filanients very variable in appearance, simthe cells constituting the ple or branched articulation of the filaments more or less filled with green or very rarely brown or
;

mentous structure. Filaments very slender, tubular, continuous, filled with coloured granular, transversely striate substance seldom branched, though often cohering together so as tp appear branched, usually massed together in broad floating or sessile occasionstrata, of very gelatinous nature ally erect and tufted, and still more rarely collected into radiating series bound together by firm gelatine, and then forming globose, lobed, or flat crustaceous fronds. Fructijication the internal mass or the cell-coninto roundish or lenticular tents, separating
;
; :

gonidia.

NosTOCHACEJE. Gelatiuous plants growing in fresh water or in damp situations among mosses, &c. of soft or almost leathery substance, consisting of variously curled or twisted necklace-shaped filaments, colourless or green, composed of simple (or in some stages double) rows of cells, contained in a gelatinous matrix of definite form, or heaped together without order in a gelatinotis mass. Some of the cells enlarged, and then forming cither vesicular
;

purple grainilar matter, sometimes arranged in peculiar patterns on the walls, and conNot convertible into spores or zoospores.
jugating.

Zygnemaceje.

Freshwater filamentous

plants, without evident gelatine, composed of series of cylindrical cells, straight or curved. Cell-cimtents often arranged in elegant

patterns on the walls. lieproduction resulting from conjugation, followed by tlie development of a true sjwre, in some genera

empty crlls or densely filled, sporangial cells. lieproduction by the breaking up of the filaments,and by resting-spores formed singly in the sporauges.

CONFERVOIDE.E.

201

CONTFER.E.

Ulvace.e. Marine or freshwater Algfe, consisting of membranous flat and expanded tubular or saccate fronds composed of polygonal cells firmly conjoined by their sides.
Heproduced by zoospores formed from the cell-contents and breaking out from the surface or by motionless s/jo/ts formed from the whole contents of a cell.
;

a siliceous coat composed of two usually symmetrical valves variously marked with a connecting band or hoop at the suture,
;

by longitudinal division and by the formation of ncio laryer individuals out of the contents of conjwjaled cells perhaps
^lultiplied
;

also

Pai.iiell.vce.^. Plants foiining gelatinous or pidverulent crusts on damp surfaces of stone, wood, kc, or more or less regular masses of gelatinous substance, or delicate pseudo-membranous expansions or fronds, of flat, globular, or tubular form, in fi'esh water or on damp ground ; composed of one or many, sometimes innumerable, cells with green, red, or yellowish contents, the simplest spherical or elliptical form, being isolated cells (found in groups of two, four, eight, &c. in course of multiplication); others permanently formed of some multiple of four; the highest of compact, numerous, more or less closely conj oined cells. Reproduction by cell-division by the conversion of the cell -contents into zoospores and by

cellular, Microscopic, freshwater plants, composed of groups of bodies resembling zoospores, connected into a definite form by their enveloping mem-

by spores and VoLvociNE.^.

zoospores.

branes. The plants (families) are formed either of assemblages of coated zoospores united in a definite form by the cohesion of their membranes, or of assemblages of naked

zoospores enclosed in a large common inThe individual zoovesting membrane. spore-like bodies with two cilia throughout life, perforating the membranous coats, and by their conjoined action causing a free movement of the entire group. lieproducor by single by division (Goninni) becoming converted into zoospores which conjugate and form new families {Pandorina, Volmx) and by resting-spores formed from some of the cells after impregnation by spermatozoids formed from the contents of other cells of the same
tion
;

cells

restinr/spores,

formed sometimes

after con-

jugation, in other cases probably after fecundation by spermatozoids. shall include under the head of Palmellacepe, all those obscure Unicellular Algfe whose place is not at present satis-

We

family.

BiBL. See the Families.

CONID'IA. The name

applied

by

I'ries

factorily

known.

Desmidiace^. ^ Microscopic, gelatinous plants, of a green colour, growing in fresh water composed of cells devoid of a siliceous coat, of peculiar forms, such as oval, crescentic, shortly cylindrical, or cylin;

to the stalked spores, stylogonidia, or reproductive cells, produced directly from the mycelium of many Fungi (PI. 26. fig. 8) : characteristic of the Coniomycetes. Late discoveries have rendered the term of some-

what equivocal value

sufficiently

and

it

is

not yet

di-ic-oblong, &c., with variously-formed rays or lobes, giving a more or less stellate form, presenting a bilateral symmetry, the junc-

distinguished
as

from

Stylo-

spores and Spermatia.

they are
regarded gonidia of Lichens.

Physiologically, equivalent to tlie

tion of the halves being marked by a division of the green contents the individual cells either free, or arranged in linear series, collected into faggot-like bundles, or in
:

mous

elegant

Gymnosperfrom the peculiar form of the female inflorescence, in which

plants, so

CONIF'ER^.A

class of

called

star-like groups,

which

are

common
division,

gelatinous coat.

imbedded in a Reproduced by

and by rcsfinff-spores produced in sporanc/ia formed after the conjugation of two cells and union of their contents and by zoospores formed in the vegetative cells
;

the flowers are collected into imbricated cones this is the case at least in the Abiein the Taxinese, tineaa and Cupressineae which are separated by some authors, the female flowers are solitary. These plants
;

(Pedias(>-U7n), or in the

germinating resting-

spores.

DiATOMACE^.
bodies,

The proare remarkable in many respects. cesses occurring in the fertilization of the ovules are quite different from those in the
Angiospermous flowering plants, and form a link with the conditions in the higher
Flowerless plants.
(See Gymn-ospermia.)

growing

water

cellular Microscopic in fresh, brackish, and seafree or attached single or imbedded

; ;

in gelatinous tubes

the individual cells

The

{frmfides) with yellowish or brownish, rarely greenish, contents, and provided with

pollen (PI. 40. fig. 16) is of a remarkThe most able form in the Abietineae. striking point, however, in relation to the

CONIFERS.

202

CONIOCYBE.

microscopic structure, is the condition of The wood is the stems of these plants.
entirely composed of prosenchymatous cells, of large size, without intermixture of ducts or vessels; and those walls of the cells
parallel

the

The following analysis of the structure of wood of some of the most important, is
from Ilartig
\

slightly modified

with

the

A. Cells of the pith mth thin walls, a. Liber-cells in erofs-seclion broad

medullary rays

(very

rarely those at right angles) are marked with one or more rows of the peculiar bordered pits which have been wrongly called glands (PI. 1. lig. 4). The structure of these is explained under the head of Pitted

and mostly short,

isolated in scat-

(.

,pt,,b.

tered(jroups,orinbands ofseve- j'-a-amnNH.*.. ral rows, or wanting / *Wood with turpentine -canals. t Medullary rays with varying pits Pinus. ttMeduIlary rays with uniform
pits.

Structures.

It

must be understood, how-

ever, that the pecidiarity of Coniferous wood does not depend on the presence of these, Avhich are common, but on the simultaneous absence of ducts. The wood of the Yew presents in addition a spiral fibre, between the coils of which the pits lie. (See Taxus.j These peculiar conditions of the wood render it possible to identify it in microscopic sections in a recent, and, if tolerably well preserved, even in a fossil "the Coniferous structure may be state readily detected in silicihed wood, in which almost all trace of organic matter is lost, the silica forming complete casts of the
;

jCords of secretion-cells at the outer limitof the annual rings. Outer wood-cells of the an-} p^j,, '-'"'*' nual ringi smooth within... ) ^^Outer wood-cells of the an-] nual rings with an obscure >Larix.
spiral fibre
J

isolated rows } -pof secretion-cells ^Jricea. **Wood without turpentine-canals, t Medullary rays with distant pits. I Wood-cells with distant jjits, I I aj or -J rows in pairs ^^ces. II Wood-cells with crowded pits, 1-5 rows, in spiral arrange-

JJWood without

ment.

4Wood without

cords of secretion-cells 5$ Wood with cords of secretion-cells

>

\Araucana.
I

n
j-.

\Cunninghamia.
l

ttMeduIlary rays with crowded

pits
b.

ara.

microscopic structures. Tliis is beautifully seen in some silicified wood brought from Australia by Dr. Hooker, parts of which are so friable, that microscopic sections may be obtained by splitting it with a
knife (PI. 25. tig. ;J3J. wood, sections made

Liber-cf.Us with square or oblong \ cross-section, ui concentric rows, (

Taxine.E and

alternating
cells

icilh

parenchymatous rPoDOCARPE/E. J
.

have also readily detected required. the structure in Coal by the process we have given under that head. The only case of a structure approaching near enough to that of Coniferous wood to leail to misconception, appears to be that of the wood of certain Magnoliacere, such as
JJrimys, Sphcerostema, and Tasmantiia,\yhe\'e there is likewise absence of ducts and vescells have sels, while the prosenchymatous bordered pits; but the wood difiers considerably in the character of the medullary and in the number and arrangement raj'S, of the pits on the Avails of the cells. (See

We

With solid silicified by the lapidary are

*Pith with thick-coated liber-cells **Pith ^Yithout thick-coated libercells,

t

Salisburia.

Wood-cells with

openly-coiled

-r,

spiral fibre tt Wood-cells

j-iaUTttS.

smooth within.
with thick-coated without thicktcith thick walls,
; )

TLiber-layers * . Pi.lls

^Podocarpus.
\

TTLiber-layers coated cells

B. Cells of the pith
liber-cells

,.

\
)

Dacrydmm.

square

[CUPEESSINE.E.

*Libcr-cells without pit-canals. tPith with a roundish cross-sec-)

tion, bark caniils

without turpentine- r Taxodium.

)

ttPith with quadrangular cross-) section, bark with turpentine- > r^K/n.
canals **Liber-celIs with pit-canals.
J

tWood-cells smooth inside. JPilh ;!-angled

JPith 2- or l-angled t\Voi)d-cell8 with a spiral fibre,
)

Juniperus.

WiNTEREiE.) The wood of many of tlie Conifers is traversed by turpentine- canals, which are bounded by large intercellular passages
thin-walled cells
in others these occur in Ta.ius and Tvronly in the bark, while wliere none reya both are devoid of them occur in the wood, there are generally isolated rows of cells filled with secretions but not even these occur in the wood of Abies pcctinata.
;

Ciipressus. .,
.

likerx^

'\Calhtris.

BiBL. Goppert, Be Conifer. Stnic. 1841; Anat. McKjnoliac. Linnsea, xvi. 135, Aim.
Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xviii.
vi.
;

Ilartiir,

Botan.

Zeit.

12M, 1848; Schacht, Pfiunzenzelle, 435; Ilenfrev-Masters, Bot. 358, U25; Sachs, Bot. 40(').

genus of Calidistin(Licheuaceous Lichens), guished by the yellow powdery thidlus,

_

CONIO'CYBE, Ach. A

ciei

CONIOMYCETES.

20.3

CONIOMYCETES.

globose yellow powdery stipitate liead-like apotheeia, and colourless spores.

CONIOM YCE'TES. A section of Fungi composed of microscopic forms, for the most part parasitical upon plants, growingbeneath the epidermis, or overgrowing decaying vegetables, and then more or less imbedded in
the matrix.

o European, 3 British species. BiBL. LLntrhton, Lich. FL G. B. 45.

primitive stipitate spores formed in the conceptacles, called by Tulasne pycnidia; he regards as pycnidial forms of Sphseriacei most of the species of the genera Diplodia,

Sporocadus, Sp/ufropsis, Jlendersoiiia, M;,xo-

The

fructification consists of

groups of
Fries,

sessile or stalked spores (sporiclia,

sfi/lospores,

Phoma, and their allies. These forms almost always occur united with the perfect or Ascomycetous forms to whicli they are to be referred. A third kind of acrogenous bodies occur often in the same conceptacles as the stylospores, but
cychis, rhyllosticta,

and

Tulasne) arising from

are

much

smaller, ordinarily of linear form,

;

the tilamentous myceliimi. In the simplest forms the mycelium consists of short tilaments, which are more or less completely converted into spores or it forms an irregular tlocculeut patch in decaying matter or under the epidermis of plants, in which the spores are found intermingled, breaking out on the surface of the epidermis in the parasites but in the more complete forms the mycelium becomes organized into firm structures of definite form (concept acles) which are hollow, the walls being lined with short filaments terminating in spores. These conceptacles are either produced on the surface of the epidermis of the plant infested, or they are formed internally, and are exposed by breaking their way through to the surface of the epidermal structures in which they are imbedded. 'We must not omit, in giving a description of this order as it stands in systematic works, to notice that recent observations go to it rests upon a very insecure prove that basis, and that certain supposed genera belonging to it appear to be merely forms of genera which exhibit at other stages of growth, or even at the same time, asciferous structures which have formed the bases of
; ;

and are usually confounded ultimately into a gelatinous mass these are the spermatia, which are supposed to exercise a fertilizing
influence. The genera Cytispora, Nemaspora, Libertella, Septoria, Chedaria, Leptothyrium, &c., are chiefly based on the sper-

The moyonous apparatus of Sphoeriacei. fourth form of spore is found enclosed in

the presence of these ascospores forms the basis of the class Ascnmycetes. Further details are given under the heads of the families, and genera there referred to. The Uredinei exhibit similar polymorphism since the genera there included, such as ALcidium, Puccinia, based upon the most perfect form of fruit, mostly exhibit also a stylosporous form (on which is founded the false genus Uredo), together with
asci
; ;

sper-

mogonia containing spermatia.

Synopsis of the Families.

Ascomycetous genera.

summary
points
:

The

The following is a of the views of Tulasne on these

Hypoxylous Fungi possess

Conceptacles horny, breaking- through the epidermis of leaves, &c., at first closed, afterwards bursting longitudinally spores septate, and in chain-hke series, intermixed with paraphyses on the internal walls of the con;

PHRAGiiOTBiCHACE.T:.

ceptacles.

Top.uLACEi.

Mycelium

at least fom* distinct kinds of organs of re-

growing on the surface of decayed vegetables, bearing erect filaments, terminating in rows of simple or compound spores.

filamentous,

production, among which the conidia liold the tirst rank these are bodies of various forms arising directly from the mycelium, or from the droma which is formed upon this. Conidiiferous forms of Sphcieriacei,
;

Uredinei. Mycelium a filamentous mass growing in the interior of living vegetable structures, finally brealcing out on the surface in patches, margined or and

which have been regarded

as autonomous Fungi, have given origin to the following genera of this order: Melanconium, Stilhospora, Stef/anospon'um, Coryneum, Exospurium, Cylindrosporium, Macrosporium, Ver-

naked, bearing simple or compound spores, single

or in beaded series.
,

mictdaria,

Mi/sfro-ywrium,

C'laduspdriutn,

Hehninthospormm, Periconium, Polythrindum, Tuhercularia,Stilbum,Atractium, GraThe stylospores are the naked and pliiiim.

UsTiLAGiNEi. Mj-celium filamentous, growing in the interior of organs of plants, or septate spores, producing simple finally breaking up, without bursting through to
the surface, so as to leave a cavity
dust-like spores.
full

of

BiBL. Berkeley and Broome,

Iloolcers

CONIOPHYTUM.
London Journ. of Bot.
;

204

COXJUGATION.
and becomes fused

iii. 320; Tulasne, Compt. Remhis, 'March 1851 {Ann. N. H. Ann. So. Nat. 3 S(5r. xv. 1851, viii. 114) 370, XX. 129, 4 ser. ii. 77, v. p. 108 Botan. Zeit. xi. 49; Compt. Rend. 1854 {Ann. N. H. 2 ser. 1854, 715) Fries, St/sf. Mijcol
;

De Bary, Brand-Pihe,

Berlin, 1853.

CONIO'PPIYTUM, Hassall {Dolichogenus of Nostochaspermiim, Ralfs). cese (Coufervoid xAlgte), consisting of one sheets of water of species colouring large a deep coppery green, by its minute fronds, each composed of a number of filaments variously curled and interwoven, densely in the centre, and more loosely towards the circumference these fronds being free, look

like a pulverulent or granular accumulation in the water, when viewed by the naked The genus differs from its allies in eye. the relative positions of the spermatic and vesicular cells, the former being either

into a single mass, or This operation is always connected with reproduction in plants, sometimes also in animals. In the vegetable kingdom it has been observed in the Algae, viz. in the Zygnemaceae, the Desmidiacepe, the Diatomacete, the Palmellaceag, and in the genus Si/zygites of Fungi; also in the Myxomycetes. It also occurs in the zoospores. In all these cases it consists essentially in the blending together of the contents of two distinct cells either by the complete fusion of two free cells by the passage of the contents of one cell into the cavity of another through newly-formed connecting tubes or by the emission of the contents of both cells into a space between them, where the mixed contents become enclosed in a special en-

tact

zj'gospore.

A'elope.
liest

next to, or at a distance from the latter. This fact seems to throw some doubt on the value of this character as a distinctive mark. Thompson!; Ralfs (PI. 3. fig. 9), = Z)oUchospermnm Thomp., Ralfs, Ann. N. H.

The conjugation eardiscovered was that

of the Zygnemacese, which the cells of distinct filaments lying parallel

with one another,

late-

become united by
ral

1850, v. 33(3,
aqitcs,

3. pi. 9. fig.

Anahainn Flos1

inosculation or

Harvey, Brif. Algce, ed. also Bot. Algce, pi. 75. f. 2

;

Hassall, Gaz. 1850

;

cross branches,

by formed

by the budding out of

the walls of the cells opposite to each other, the protruded processes

{Colour of the Serpentine?).

COXIOTHE'CIUM, Corda. Anobscure

;

genus of Torulacei (Couiomycetous Fungi) the so-called species being probably forms of some other Fungi.
C.

amentacearum is extremely common on dead wiUow-twigs. BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 1850, V. 460 Corda, Ic. Fiinc/. i. figs. 21, Fries, Smnma Veqet. 523. 25, 2G CONIOTHY'RIUM, Corda. A genus of Sphaeronemei (Stylosporous Fungi). C. ylomeratum, Corda, recorded by Berkeis said by Fries ley and Broome as British, It is a to' belong to his genus Cliaosporwn. microscopic plant growing in the cracks of dead wood (elm) composed of minute free membranous peridia enclosing numerous
;
; ;

coming into contact, coand bscoming confluent by tlie absorphering

tion of the surfaces of

Zygnema

cruciata.

Conjug-itin^ filaments. Magnified 250 diameters.

contact

(fig.

137).

The
cells

cavities of the

two

being thus freely

opened into one another, the contents be-

come mixed

in Spiro-

gyra and Zygnema the contents of one of the

travel cells usually across into the cavit}' of the other (P1.9. tig. 18); \ in Zygogoniinn the contents of both cells collect
is

spores,

which escape by the bursting of the

Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 400; .Corda, iv. f. 208; Fries,

apex.

in the cross-piece, this the case also in Meso(fig.

BiBL.
1854,

carpus

138)

and

xiii.

Siimma
Nat. 3

Veget.
xii.

522
304.

Montague, Ann.
or

Sc.

StaUrocarpits, in the latter of which the cross-

p.5r.

CONJUGATION

process occurring the substance plants and animals, in which of two distinct organisms comes into con-

A ZYGO'SIS. among many of the lower

piece becomes greath" The contents Mesocarpus scalaris. enlarged. filaments in all these cases be- Conjugating with spores. come retracted from the Jlagnifled 200 dia,

cell-wall, and, secreting

meters.

CONJUGATION.
special coats, boccme spores,

205

CONJUGATION.
and a pair of spores or sporangia are

which escape by

the rupture of the conjugated cells. geotio (fig. 139) there is no crossFig. 139. branch. The fila-

InMou-

ments become angularly bent and

inosculate at

the

angles. spore is said to be form-

A gelatinous investment is secreted around the conjugating sac-like processes, and the spore is generally at first imbedded in an abundant gelatinous coat. (See DesMIUIACE^.) In the DiatomacetB there does not appear to be any delicate internal membrane, like that of the Desmidiacese, concerned in the
formed.

place,

in each cell here. (See Zyg-

ed

NESr.\CEJE.)

Pseudo - spores are sometimes formed in the cells of Zygnemaceae without conjugation, in which case

Mougootia

genuflt'xa.

Conjugating filaments. Magnified 100 diameters.

The two conjugating indiconjugation. viduals, lying near together, become connected together by the excretion of a collecthe siliceous tion of gelatinous substance coats then dehisce, and the contents of the meet parent-cells, escaping from the valves, between them to unite into a globular mass, which does not become a spore, but gradually is acquires the form of the parent. There no connecting tube here only the investing
;
;

they are barren. In the Desmidiacese, the process preIn the seuts a number of modification?. filamentous forms, such as Hyuhtheca and Didymoprimn, conjugation does not usually take place until the single cells of the filaments have become separated ; but in

In Ilhnantidiwn and in Surirella, one new individual is formed the conjugation (PI. 10. fig. 5) in Eunotia, Cucconema, Gomphonema, and Schzonema, the contents of the parent-cells appear to
gelatinous matter.
;

divide

traiisversely

before

extrusion,

and

some
tion

cases, of the
also.

as

in

D.

filamentous

observed,

perhaps In Closterium, Penimn, Tetmemorus, Costnariian, Szc, the free cells In ahnost all these conjugate in pairs. cases the mode of union appears to be

conjugagroups has been occurs in Desthis

Borreri,

thus form a pair of new individuals in the conjugation (PI. 10. fig. 6) (as in the case of the spores of the Closterium lineatimi). peculiar condition occurs in other genera

midium

{Cyclotella, Melosira,

kc). which

is

supposed

to be a conjugation of the divided contents of one frustiile. (See Diatomace^.)

seen in Zygnemaceai for the external membrane dehisces more or less completely, so as to separate the parent-cells into two valves, while a delicate internal membrane previously lining this is protruded as a sac, to meet its fellow from the corresponding conjugating individual; these sac-like processes coalesce, and thus the contents of the cell are enabled to mix. In Hyalotheca dissUiens and Penhnn Breh'ssom'i, there is said to be union of the primary or outer cell-coat, as in Zyyncma. The resulting spore or sporangium is mostly formed in the connecting piece (Closfermm,
different
;

from that which

is

Among the Palmellacese, conjugation has been observed in Coccochloris Brehissonii {Pabnoylosa macrococca, Braun), where two vegetative cells become completely fused,
membrane and
contents, to form a spore which acquires a firm coat and oily contents, and passes through a stage of rest before recommencing vegetative development (PI. 7.
fig.6,c,c^).

Fig. 139*.

Cosmariitm, Tetmemorus, Hyalotheca) (Pl.lO. 1-3) or in one of the cells (^Didyinoprium GreviUii, and perhaps in Desmidium). In Closterium lincntuni it has been observed that the corrugating cells divide completely
figs.
;

by constriction of their delicate internal membrane just before conjugation, so that the dehiscent primary membranes emit from
each parent individual a pair of
in close appo.-ition
;

Pandorina morum.

Conjugation of zoospores. Magnified 300 diameters.

little sacs,

and these meeting their

much

The zoospores of Pandorina conjugate

as in Coccochloris; they approximate
(c)

fellows, a double or ficin conjugation takes

by their apices (fig. 139*, J), become fused

CONJUGATION.
then lose their
cilia,

206

CONNECTIVE TISSUE.
; ;

and acquire a red

(cI).

colour, finally forming a resting- spore

1859 Griffith, A7in. N. H. 2 ser. xvi. 92 ; Carter, ibid. xvii. 1 Hoftmann, Phys. Bot.
155 &c. De Bary, Ann. Sc. N. 1866, 343 Tulasne, /. c. 1866, 211 Rostafinsky,
ii.
;
;

The supposed conjugation of Yaucheria and similar phenomena in some other Confervoids, are cases of fecundation of sporangial
cells

Bot. Zeit. 1871, 787.

by

i/y?//AY-antheridialcells;no permanent

imion taking place.

the

Animals: Kolliker, Sieb. n. KoUik. Zeitsch. i. 1, 198 {Qu. 3Iic. Jn. i. 98); Siebold, ibid. i. 270, iii. 62;
Stein, In/us.
;

The well-known case of conjugation Fungi described by Ehrenberg" SyzYGiTES, a genus of Mildew Fungi,
See also

in in
is

Wieynuatn's Archiv,
Beitriiye,
ii.
;

1849,
i.
;

described under that head.

Myxo-

MYCETES.
Bary, Tulasne, and others have observed in several Fungi, as JErysijy/ie, Pyro-

56 222 Allman, M. M. Jn. 1875, xiv."l78 Kent, Inf. 92. CONJUNCTl'VA. See Eye.
;

147

Nordmann, Mikr.

Clapar.

&

Laclim. Infus.

De

CONNECTIVE TISSUE,
tissue.

of Animals,

sometimes called areolar or fibro-cellular

Connective tissue is very generally diffused throughout the bodies of vertebrate animals, fiUing up the interspaces between the various organs and structures, and entering into the composition of most of

nema, Feranonpora, Szc, a sexual process is exactly analogous to what takes place in certain Alga^, and in the abnormal the body containing the male Saprolef/nice element coming into contact with thefemale organ, and thus producing fruit. This process seems rather to come under the term copulation than conjugation. The conjugation observed in the animal kingdom, consists in the direct union, by a more or less extensive, sometimes complete,

which

them. There are several

varieties.

fibrous or areolar variety consists essentially of white fibrous tissue, mostly

The

containing the elements of the yellow or

elastic tissue.

fusion of the substances of two or more disIn Diplozoon parad<ixu7n tinct individuals. the two indi-\iduals become united by a

The most common form

is

of

the white fibrous element

that of minute,

delicate, transparent fibres, called fibrilltB,

and the remarkable result is that sexual organs become developed in both bodies after this. Apparent conjugacross branch
;

with pale outlines (PI. 49. fig. 41); these are sometimes single, at others united into
bimdles or fasciculi. The fibres as well as the bundles sometimes pm'sue a straight course at others they are elegantly curved
;

tion takes place also in Actinophn/s, AciIt is, howe^ er, proneta, Gregaritia, &c. bable that the fusion which occurs in many of these cases is spurious, and unconnected
is one of the best instances of true conjugation, the resulting compound individual containing 8 embryos The in a single cavity common to both. true process has also been observed in Acineta (mystacina), Vorticella {microstoma), Paramecium, several Flagellata, &c. The researches of Balbiani tending to show that in many of the Infusoria the conjugation is a true sexual process, have not been confirmed.

and wavy, interlacing in

all directions,

and

with reproduction. Podophrya pyrum

leaving larger or smaller areolae or spaces between them, the larger of which are visible to the naked eve. The fibrillas are about 1-40,000 to 1-20,000", and the fasciculi about 1-7000 to 1-3000" in diameter. In the fasciculi, the fibres are connected by an amorphous, transparent, gelatinous substance. Intermingled with the fibres, are

rounded, elongate, or branched cells (connective corpuscles) or nucleated protoplasts, which may be well examined in the transparent laminae separating the muscles of a
frog's leg.

Some

of these are stationary,

Vaucher, Confer res; Meyen, PjJan.phys. iii. 413 Ilassall, Ah/ce Kiitzing, P/h/c. //?.; 'R&\k, Desmid.\ MorSmith, ren, Ann. 8c. Nat. 2 s(?r. v. 257 Brit. Uiut. Thwaites, Ann. N. JR. xx. and ser. 2. i. and iii.; Braun, Pejur. (Pay 'SbFocke, Physiol. Studien, ii. ciety, 166S) Karsten, Pot. Zeit. Nfigeli, Atyen-Sysf. 175 X.89; Ehrenberg VerhayuU.Naturf.Freund. i. 98 Areschoug, Siced. Trans. 1853 Bot. Zeit. xiii, 364 De Bary, Conjuyatce,
;
;

BiBL. Vegetables:

hut exhibit changes of form. Others are locomoti\ e, with ama^boid movement, and correspond to the white blood-corpuscles.

The connective corpuscles may often be rendered more distinct by staining with magenta. AN'lien treated with acetic acid, the fibres swell, become paler, and lose their distinctness, the bundles appearing as if
fused into a gelatinous mass (fig. 29. p. ()9) and round or elliptical nuclei, with their long axes parallel to tho direction of the
;

CONNECTIVE TISSUE.
fibres,
fig.

207
ii.

COPPER.
(71/.

are brought to view, as in PI. 49.

170

42.

Mn. M. Jn.
Arch. An.

The retiform variety consists of a very delicate network of fine fibrils, formed originally by the union of branched connectiveThis constitutes the tissue corpuscles.
stroma of the spleen, and the lymphatic glands. A i?till finer variety form the Neuroglia.

Jn. xvi. 04) Satterthwaite, 1870, xvi. 101 241 Flemming, 8f Phys. 187(5, xii. 391.
;

M.

TELLA.

CONOCEPH'ALUS,

Hill.

See Fegagenus of Ro-

CONOCHI'LUS, Ehr.-A
tral gelatinous nucleus,

tatoria, of the family CEcistina.

Char. Animals aggregated around a cenand forming a re;

The yellow fibrous tissue occurs in the form of fine or coarser fibres, with dark these sometimes run straight, or outlines
;

volving sphere
spots.

two

persistent frontal eye-

are wuvy or reticular at others they are coiled or form rings around the bundles of the areolar tissue, or running parallel with
;

and between them, sometimes forming perforated membranes. They are best seen when the tissue has been rendered transparent by the addition of acetic acid. In the gelatinous or mucous variety, the
intercellular substance forms a soft semi-

From ten to forty in each sphere. Nucleus sometimes green, from the presence of parasitic monads. Four thick conical papillfe arise from the middle of the frontal surface, each having a bristle at its apex. C. volvox (PI. 43. figs. 15-17). Carapace and body white, gelatinous, and hyaline length 1-60", breadth of sphere 1-8". 2 kinds of eggs male and Freshwater.
;

female.

transparent mass, containing rounded spindle-shaped or branched cells, often imited by the branches it is met with in the luvertebrata, as the Medusce, the integument of the MoUusca, &c.
;

BiBE. Ehr. Infus. 393; Davis, 31. 31. Jn. 1876, 1 Bedwell, Jn. 3Iic. Soc. 1878,
:

i.

170.

CO'NODONTS. Minute,
cal,

curved,

brownish bodies, found

slender, coniin a

truly cellular form, which is also the Invertebrata, consists of rour.d or elongate cells, with but little it occurs in the intercellular substance Articulata, the Mollusca, and in the Chorda

The

common among

sandy Lower Silurian clay near Petersburg, and supposed by Pander to be minute fishteeth. Possibij^ they belonged to Cyclostome fishes of extinct genera. occur

They

also in later strata.

dorsalis.

gelatine, solution

Connective tissue consists chemically of which may be obtained from it in

by boiling

elastic tissue consists

of elastine. The various complex structures into the composition of which the connective tissue enters, as the mucous membranes, skin, fatty tissue, &c., are noticed vmder their respective heads. Cartilage and Bone are also considered connective-tissue formations. Connective tissue is developed from the embryonic corpuscles. These become elongated, or fusiform, and branched. They unite with each other, and the ends become into the component fibrillse of the split future tissue. But whether the corpuscles are solid bodies or protoplasts, or true cells,
is

BiBL. Pander, 3Ion. foss. Fische, kc, 1856; Murchison, Sihiria, 1859, 375, and 1867, 350 Hinde, Qu. Geol. Jn. xxxv. 356, CONOS'TOMUM, Sw. A genus of Bartramiaceous Mosses. Conostomum horealc, Sw., on Scottish mountains.
;

CONULI'NA,

D'Orb. A top-shaped,

many-chambered, stichostegian Foramiuifer, having the septal face shghtly convex and multiperforate, is the only recorded sample of this doubtful genus, which is probably
related to Lituola.

Bibl. D'Orb. Foram. Cuba, 1839. CONULI'TES, Carter. A Foraminifer

to, if

of the Glohiyerinida family, closely allied not the same as, Patellina.

Bibl. Carter, Ann. N. H. ser. 3,

Carpenter, Introd. For. 233,

viii.

457

not at present agreed upon. BiBL. KiJlliker, Gciceleleltre

PJnjs.
;

COPE'PODA.
;

See Entomosteaca,
of metallic copper

Mulder;

COPPER. Crystals
exist inartificial

Donders, Pkys. An.

;

Todd-Bowman, Drummond, Ed. Mn. Jn. 1852

; ;
;

Chem.

Rollett, Stricl-er's Ilandb. .38 Beale, Simple Tissues Klein, Hist. Gegenbaur, Vergl. An.] Frey, Hist, and the copious Bibl. ;

Av.\XTrEiNE. The acetate of copper is noticed under Acetic acid. Copper occurs in minute quantities, in the human bile, biliary calculi, and the blood and in the blood of some Crustacea
; :

Kirkes-Baker, Phys. Rutherford, Histolugy ; Waldeyer, Arih. f. mik. An, 1876,

;

also in the

Cephalopoda. The ammoniiu'et of copper is prepared by

COPPINIA.
with Liq.

208

COEALLIUM.
structure

digesting copper turnings in an open bottle, Amm. (P. B.) it must be used fresh. Its action is well displayed when it is brought into contact with cotton-wool. Hass. genus of Coppi;

The
plants,

may

be examined in these
;

__COPPI'NIA,

niidfe (Il^droid Zoophytes).

Char. Cells long, crowded, united by a cellular mass at their bases ova developed in the cavities of the cellular mass. arcta. Incrusting the stems of other zoophytes, common greenish yellow.
;

for some time in vinegar or dilute muriatic acid which wiU remove the lime, and allow of the substance being sliced in the same way as other Algfe. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg^.^\. 13 C Phyc. Brit. pi. 222 Decaisne, Ann. Sc. Xat. 2 ser. xvii. pi. 17. fig. 1, xviii. p. 119;
;

by keeping them

;'

Solms-Laubach, CoruH.-Alqcn Golf KeapcL 1 y J

^

1881.

BiBL. Ilassall, 3/ic. Tr. iii. 160; Hincks, Brit. Zooph. 219. CO'P A, Fr. tropical genus of Lichens,

approaching Coccocarijia.
1 species
:

C. pavonia.
;

family of Floridete. Rigid, articulated, or crustaceous, mostly calcareous sea- weeds, purple when fresh, fading, on exposure, to milk-white ; composed of closely-packed elongated cells or filaments, in which carbonate of lime is
deposited in an organized form.
Tetrasjwres
tufted, contained in ovate or spherical conce/?;'c/^'s(cerrt>(V/;'a, Harvey), fiu-uished with

COR ALLINAX'E.-E. A

BiBL. Fries, 8yst. Orh. Veg. 300

Nyl.

Ann.

general to the calcareous polypidom or skeleton of Polypes or Zoophytes, and in particular to that of CORALLIUil.

CORAL. A term applied in

Sc. Nat. 1855,

iii.

151.

a terminal pore.
*

British genera

genus of Corallinacete (Florideous Algse), of stony chaThe common racter, looking like corals. C. officinalis grows everywhere between tide-marks, on rocks, &c. and presents a
;

CORAL'LTNA, Linn. A

FrondJiUfor m,
CoraUina.

articulated (Corallineaj).

Frond pinnated.

Ceramidia

terminal, simple. Jania. Frond dichotomous. Ceramidia tipped with two horn-like ramuli.

**

Frond

Fiff.

140.

crustaceous or foJiaccous, opaque, not articulated (Niilliporte).

F-ond stony, forming either Melohesia. a crustaceous expansion, or a foliaceous or a shrub-like body. Frond cartilaginous, not Hildchrandtia. stony, forming a crustaceous expansion.
***

Frond plane, hyaline, composed of cells radiating from a centre. Fructijication unknown (Lithocysteae).
Lithocystis (a

minute

parasite).

CORALLINES.The
Corallina officinalis.

Corallinacefe,

family of Alga?, were formerly imagined to be of animal nature, and were classed among On the other hand, Ellis the Zoophytes.
applied the term Coredlinc more extensively, including under it Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and Sertulariau and similar Zooph-s tes (Polypes); the name is still often vulgarly used in this

branch of the frond. Natural size. Fig. 140. the end of a branch terminating Fig. Ml- Ascctionof Magnified 10 in a ceramidinm, containing tctrasiiorcs.
diameters.

tuft of articulated branched, mostly pinnate filaments evenly coated with carbonate of The tctraspores are borne in tufts in lime. ceramidia (tig. 141), usually at the apices of the branches (being the last jomts transformed) or they occur laterally (tig_. 140),
;

The term shoidd properly be resense. stricted to the family to which the genus Corallina gives the name.

CORAL'LlUxM,

Lam. A

genus

of

sometimes

in pairs

larly over the

and sometimes irreguwhole frond opening by a

;

small terminal pore

(tig.

141).

Zoophytes, of the order Actiuozoa. The red coral of comijierce is the intei-nal skeleton of Corallium ruhrum, Lam. A por{Isis nohilis, Lin.) (PI. 41. fig. 6 c). tion of the diied animal matter is usually

CORDYCEPS.

209

CORINNA.
t.

found adhering to its surfece, and contains aLundance of spicula (PL 41. lig. 7). The furrows seen upon the outer surface
of unprepai-ed
vessels
coi-al,

301, C. filaments and spores white, candidum, Nees,

Floccaria glauca, Grev. 8c. Crypt. Fl.

is

and

Penicilliuin crastaceiuii ^, Fries.

are the impressions of

which traverse the cortical substance and form a medium of communication between the various polypes.

Fig. 142.

The structure of coral is rather obscure. The ti-ansverse section (PI. 41. hg. 8 a) exhibits somewhat uudetined hnes, some of
which are semicoucentric with the marginal furrows, and appear to be lines of growth these are intersected by darker and narrower
;

The orifices of lines, apparently cauals. The longitularger canals are also visible.
dinal section (PI. 41.
tig.

b) exhibits lon-

gitudinal lines, probably those of growth, with an indistinct intermediate structure. When treated with acid, the residue is soft and easily folded so as to produce a lined appeai-ance ; and in parts the organic skele-

tons of spicula
it

may

be distinguished. Hence

probably consists of spicula, aggregated and ultimately consolidated, so that their structure is no longer distinguishable. BiBL. Cuvier, Regne Animal, 18-53, Zoophjtes Lacaze-Duthiers, Hist. Nat. Corail, Nicholson & 1864 Dana, Corals, 1872 Etheridge, An. N. H. 1877, xx. 161, 388
;
; ; _; ;

Coremium niveum, Corda.

Magnified 200 diameters.

on decaying substances,

is

Penicillium can-

didum

/3,

Fries.

Milne-Edwards & Haime, Monoy. fossil Duncan, ibid. (Pal. Soc.) COR'DYCEPS, Fries. See Sph^ria and Claviceps.

BiBL. Hook. Brit. FL v. pt. 2. 344; iii. 408 Greville, loc. cit. Corda,, IconesFimy.ii. pi. 11. tig. 73; PrachtFries, Si/st. Mycol.
flora, pi. 25.
;

CORD YLO'PHORA

Allman. A genus

of Zoophytes, order Hydroida, and family Freshwater. Clavidas. Char. Polypidom horny, branched, rooted by a creeping tubular fibre branches tubular polypes existing at the extremities of the branches, ovoid, the mouth at the distal extremity, and furnished with scattered fili; ;

CORE'THRA, Meig. genus of Dipterous Insects, of the family Tipulidae. The larva of C. jyJumicvrnis forms a beautiful microscopic obj ect ; it inhabits fresh water. BiBL. Karsch, Monoy. d. Coreth. plum. ;
Ray
Laukester, Pop. Sc. Bev. 1865; Leyiii.

dig, Sieb. 4' B^oll. Zeitsch.

435

Rymer

form teutacula.
C. lacusfris,

the only species; height 2-3

The only inches. in fresh water.

P/iil.
; ;

compound Polype found

BiBL. Allman, ^ww. iV. ^.xiii. 330; and Tr. 1853 Johnston, Br. Zoophi/fes, 44 Hincks, Zooph. 15 Schnitzels Arckiv,
;

CORE'THRIA, Wright.A genus of Rhizopoda, family Actinophryina ('/). Body oblong, with a long club-shaped appendage, bearing a thick brush of 8-40 tentacles at its summit.
C. sej'tularice.

Jones, Mic. Tr. 1860. 99 ^- Koll. Zeitsch. 1866, 45.

Weismaun, Sieb.

1871.

spurious genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), not

CORE'IMIUM, Link. A

BiBL. Piitchard. Infus.

CORIN'NA,

Scrtidaria pumila^ p. 563. Heib.^A genus of Diato-

On

from Penicillium but differing from the characteristic form of that genus in having the erect fertile filaments compacted into a kind of cellular pedicle to
really distinct
;

macete. Char. Frustides punctate-areolate, united into semicircrdar fascife, angles produced, spiniferous, the uppermost longest, inter-

bear the strings of spores (fig. 142). C. leufilaments white, spores gi-een copus, Pers. not uncommon on decaying fruits, &c.=
; ;

mediate portion hemispherical, with septa

valves ellipsoidal, transversely apiculate at each end.

bicostate,

COEK.

210

CORPORA AMYLACEA.
genus of
pt.

Shores of Denmark. C. elegans. BiBL. Heiberg, Consi). Died. 1863, 53,

pi. 3. tig. 8.

Lichens = ^/ec;'o;-/

CORNICULA'RIA, Ach. A

CORK. Ordinarily

the outer layer of

bark of the Cork Oak ( Quercus Suber), for the deTelopmeut of which, see Bark. Vertical and trausverse sections of the large
liirht-coloured cells of cork are shown in PI. 47. figs. 16 and 17. The term cork is applied generally to excessive developments of the suheroiis layer of barks. CORN. The general name applied to the seeds, or rather the fruits of the various plants furnishing the ordinary materials for

bread. These all belong to the Mouocotyledonous family, Graminacese (Grasses) for Buck-wheats cannot be considered as true corn, The grains of the Grasses are enveloped in the adherent pericarp, which is dry and smooth the seed which this encloses is characterized by the presence of a comparatively larger mealy albumen, composed of thin-walled parenchyma, more or less densely filled with starch, which makes up the great body of the grain a few layers of cells subjacent to the surface, however, contain little starch, but abundance of nitrogenous proto;
;

CORNS consist of thickened epidermis, the scales being increased in number, much flattened, and closely aggregated from pressure. This is the structure in their simplest form. When larger they represent an ordinary bhster, conjoined with the thickening of the epidermis hence the origin of the The cavity in the centre of many of them. papillfe of the cutis are generally hypertroThe epidermic scales may be renphied. dered distinct by digestion with acetic acid or solution of potash. CORNUSPI'RA, Schultze. This genus, restricted, comprises the planorbiform 3Iiliolida, which, commencing with a somewhat agathistegian growth, soon become discoi;

is a common Foraminifer, white and opaque, with the whorls rapidly increasing in width in the adult state. It has abounded from the older Tertiary times to the present, chiefly in shallow water, but found at 530 fathoms,

dal and non-segmented. C.fol/acea (Pi. 23. fig. 13)

plasmic matter, or yliden. These layers containing the greater proportion of the gluten, together with epidermis, are removed from fine flour in grinding, as the bran and pollard the fine white flour consisting The forms of the chiefly of the starch.

North Atlantic, by Carpenter. BiBL. Carpenter, Foram. 68 Pr. Roy. Soc. 1869; Schultze, Ann. N. H. 1861,
;

306.

COR'PORA AMYLA'CEA. These

resembling starch-grains in appearance. They are found in

are

microscopic rounded bodies, exhibiting a number of concentric rings, and somewhat

starch-grains difter considerably, as also their condition in the cell (PI. 46). In Wheat {Tritiaim), the starch-grains are lenticular (fig. 8), and lie loose in the cells ; in Barley (Jfordewn) they are very similar, but the larger grains are squarish and
,

in Oats (Aveiia), polygonal, (fig. 9) but compacted together into roundish masses (fig. 10) in Rice (Oryza) , the starch-

thinner

grains are veiy small, and packed so closely together that they press upon one another, thus acquiring a parenchymatous form (figs. 12 & 13) and then, as they adhere firmly together, the contents of the cells
;

appear like one solid mass; hence the horny character of the grains of rice, and the gritIn Maize (Zca), the tiness of rice-flour. outer part of the grain is horny from the same cause as rice, and presents a similar appearance (fig. 3), but in the centre the cells are often less densely filled, and the

Fig. 143. the/orau', 'Cn^septuin lucidum, the walls of the ventricles, and the /( cortical substance of the brain, the medullary substance of the spinal cord, the Magnified 350 diameterswaxy spleen, &c. Corjiora amylacea, from are but little the hiuuan ependyma. They acted upon by dilute acids; caustic alkalies render them more transparent, and gradually dissolve them. Solution of iodine gives them a bluish tinge and the subsequent addition of sulphuric acid produces the bluish-violet colour seen when cellulose is treated with these reagents. The reaction is best seen when the action of the acid takes place slowly. Hence these bodies have been regarded as consisting of
'

amyloid or

cellulose.

For grains lie more or less loose (fig. S). further particulars of the characters of the starch-grains, see Starch.

The corpora amylacea must be

sand,' or the acervulus cerebri.

distin'

guished from the concretions forming brain-

CORNEA.

See Eye.

These are also rounded, single, or aggregated, usually

CORPUSCULA.
forming

211

COSCINODISCUS.

exhibiting the concentric rings, sometimes cylindricttl, ramified, or reticular fibres. Tliey are met \vitli in the choroid plexuses, the pineal gland, the arachnoid membrane, and sometimes in the walls of the ventricles. These consist of an organic (proteine) skeleton, containing carbonate and phosphate of lime. When treated with acids, the latter are dissolved, the former being left and retaining the original form of the concretions.

Berk.
iV.

&

Broome, Ann.
ser. v.

H. 2

Fig. 144.

458;

Currey, Qii. Mic. Jn. v. 127; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. v. 110; Corda, Icones Fang.

CORYNO'PSIS; Allman.
rine

A genus
Hydroid

of

ma-

Polypi, family Hydractiniidje. C. Alderi. Durham.

BiBL. Purkinje, Midlers Archiv, 1836 & 1845 KoUiker, Mihr. An. ii. Virchow, Archiv path. An. 135, 268, 416, and Ann. N. Hist. xii. 481 Green, Pathology, 1871,
; ; ;

BiBL. Hincks, Brit.

Zooph.
p. 34.

Coryneum disciforme.
Vertical section of half
a pustule. Magnified. 200 diams.

COSCINODISCUS, Ehr. A genus of

71
35.

Frey, Histol.

Eindfleisch, Path. 1878,

of the Coniferfe.

CORPUS'CTJLA,
GVMXOSPEEMIA.

See

SUBLIMATE, the bichloride of Mercury. saturated solution of this salt is very useful in rendering very transparent bodies consisting of proteinecompounds more opaque and distinct, as the bodies and cilia of Infusoria &c. CORYC.E'US, Dana. genus of Cope-

CORROSIVE

Diatomaecce. Char. Frustrules free, single, disk-shaped; valves circular, fiat, or sliglitly convex, exhibiting a cellular or areolar appearance ; no internal septa, nor lateral processes. The cellular appearance arises from the
existence
objects.

of depressions, different sizes. The valves

which are of form beautiful

which are
C.

poda (Entomostraca).
C. anglicits. Marine. BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda {Ray Soc),
"^

enumerates forty-one species, either marine or fossil. Smith admits four British species.
Kiitzing

iii.

32.

CORY'CTA,

Duj.

Auerbach (Duj. Ann.

d. Sc.

CORYMOR'PHA,

Amosba bilimbosa, N. 1852, p. 41). Sars. A genus of

of

Depressions irregular and Sm.) margin of valves freshwater and marine ; diam. 1-1200 to 1-500". C. radiattis, E. (PI. 51. fig. 1). Depressions obscurely radiating, marginal ones
minor, E.
;

crowded smooth

(circular,

marine Hydroid Polypi, family Tubulariida^. Bi3L. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. p. 125.

CORYNACTIS, Allman.A genus

1 species
:

margin of valves smooth marine and fossil; diam. 1-550 to 1-180" (a, side view h, front view).
smallest
;
;

Anthozoa (Zoophytes).
C. viridis.

C. eccentricus, E. in

curved

lines,
;

latest

EiBL. Gosse, Actinologia Britannica (the work on Sea- Anemones). CORYiSTE, Gfertn. A genus of marine

the centre to 1-200".

Depressions arranged with the convexity towards marine and fossil; diam. 1-400

Hydroid Polypi, family Corynidae. 'BiBL. Hincks, BrU. Zooph. p. 37.

C0RYN'EU31, Kunze. genus of Melanconiei (Stylosporous Fungi), consisting of pai'asitic plants growing upon dead twigs,
biu'sting out as convex solid pustules from beneath the epidermis. vertical section of half of one of these pustules is shown in fig. 144 the cellular stroma is covered Six forms by stalked multiseptate spores. are recorded as British. That figured, C. disciforme, Kze., grows on dead twigs of

C. pyxidicula, Kg. (PyTidicuIa and Craspedodiscus coscinodiscns, E.) (PI. 18. fig. 21). Margin tumid, elegantly cellular, central areola veiy fine, diminishing towards the centre no umbilical star marginal cells Fossil. diam. 1-400". hexagonal, larger
; ; ;

birch.

Tulasne states this genus to consist of the conidiiferous form of Melanconiei (Sphaeriacei).

Virginia. C. craspedodiscus, K. Craspedodiscus eleMargin of gans, E. (PI. 25. figs. 7, 8). valves tumid, elegantly sculptured, central an umbilical star markings radiating formed of 5 to 6 .oblong larger cells ? ; diam. 1-120". Fossil. Bermuda. C. oculus iridis. Areolae hexagonal, with central " eve-spots." BiBL. Ehr. Ahhandl. Berl. Ak. 1838 and 1839; id, Ber. Berl. Akad. 1840 et seq.;

BiBL.

Hook.

Br. Ft.

v.

pt.

2.

355;

Kiitzing,

Bacill.

and Sp. Alg.

Smith,

p2

COSCrXOSPIRA.
Brit. Biat. 1
;

212

COTTON.

Wallifli, Q>t. Mic. Jn. 1860, Greville, Mic. Trans. 1864, 9 ; 1865, 1866, 3, 78. 25, 43

38

COSCIN OSPI'RA,

Ehrenberg.

The
;

C. radiatnm, the surface being covered by densely crowded hyaline filaments, like those of Actinophrys, but closer.

elongate subtype of Peneroplis, one of the Foraminifera imperforata. It is a synonym of Spirolina, Lamarck. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Tr. Berlin Ac. 1839 Parker and Joues. An7i. N. H. ser. 3, v. 180. COSMAIIIUM, Corda. genus of Desmidiaceae. Char. Cells single, constricted at the middle segments as broad as or broader than long, neither sinuated nor spinous. peculiar swarming motion is observable at times in the cell-contents of this genus, difterent from the circulation in From some observations by Closteri^iin. Mrs. Thomas, it appears that the spore-ceU divides into numerous individuals in germination.

BiBL. IX&lis, Desmicl. dlk2\2; Thomas, Mic. Tr. new ser. iii. 33 Lobb. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1866, 55 Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1860, 235,
;

1864, 178.
fossil

COSMIOBIS'CUS, Grev.A
Diatomacese. Char. Frustules

genus of
;

simple, disk-shaped valves radiato-punctate or areolar, with linear radiating spaces (no processes nor internal septa). 3 species in Monterey
:

and Barbadoes deposit.

BiBL. Greville, Qn. Mic. Jn. 1866, 79. COSMOCLA'BIUM, Breb. genus of Desmidiacete (Palmellacete, Rab.). Char. Cells rounded, compret^sed, deeply constricted, attached to a branched stipes.

Reproduction by gonicUa. C. pulchdJum (PI. 51. fig. 38), attached

in turfy pools. 2 other species (unattached). BiBL. De Brebisson, Lisfe d.

Rabenhorst describes 77 European species. Among the most common British species
are
:

Desm. 133;

pyramidatum (PL 14. fig. 18, 19 empty cell). Oval, with depressed and truncate ends, deeply constricted end view elliptiC,
;

Rabenhorst, Fl. Alq.

soria, of the

iii.

53.

COTHURNIA, Ehr.A
Char.
Solitary
;

genus of Infufamily Vorticellina, subfamily

carapace
of^ cilia is

cal

segments punctate, entire length 1-470 to 1-260". C. hioculatum. Smooth, depressed, constriction producing a gaping notch on each end view elliptical segments subelside sporangium orbicular, spiliptic, entire nous length 1-1410"'. C. crenatum (Pl. 14. fig. 20). Punctate,
; ; ; ;

Ophrydiua.
urceolate,
stalked, fixed

An
cella.

by the posterior extremity.

present.

anterior ring

The

body contracts suddenly,

like that of Vorti-

Dujardin unites this genus with Vaginicola.

deeply constricted segments crenate at the margin, depressed at the end; end view spines of sporangium very short elliptical length 1-470".
; ; ;

Deeply end segments semicircular view elliptical rough with pearly granules,
constricted
;
; ;

C. tetraophthalmum('P\.\A.?i.^.'22).

E. (PI. 32. fig. 20). Stalk shorter than the hyaline carapace ; body yellowish aquatic length of carapace 1-280". Found upon Cyclops qiiadricvrnis. Stalk much shorter C. maritima, E. than the carapace body whitish, hyaline ; length of carapace 1-570". On Ceramium.
C. imberhis,

much

which give a crenate appearance margin length 1-2:30".

;

to the

manjaritifernm (PI. 14. fig. 21). Rough with pearly granules, whicli are as broad as long end view elliptic segments semicircular or reniform length 1-500 to 1-300". C. ornatum. Segments twice as long as broad, rough with granules giving a dentate appearance to the margin end view with a truncate projection on each side;
C.
;

C. havniensis, E. Stalk much longer than the carapace body whitish; length of carapace without the stalk 1-280", stalk
;

twice this length. On Scrtularice iSrc. Stein adds 3 species, C, Sieboldii, C. found upon Astacus astaci, and C. curva CI. & L. deJliiviatilis (the Cray-fish), scribe 12 species, 4 new.
;

length 1-610".

ends rounded

C. cucurhita. Punctate, constriction slight, transverse view circidar;

;

length 1-580". Lob b describes an extraordinary species,

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 297; Duj. Inf. 564; Stein, Infus. ; Clap. & Lachm. Infns. i. 121 ; Kciit, //. 719 Ilutton, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, i. 49. The hairs from the epidermis of the seeds of various species of Gossypium (Malvacepe, Dicotyledons). These hairs are
;

COTTON.

readily distinguished imder the microscope

COVERS.
from the various textile
liber structures.

213

CRIBRAKIA.

fibres consisting of the abseuce of the regular thiekouiug layers, the cells of the cottoD-hairs bect)me collapsed when dry, appearing like a flat baud with thickened borders, while liber-cells of all kinds remain cylindrical, and taper to a point at

From

filaments geniculate ; sporange or zygospore with a double cyst the inner spherical, the outer thick, shortly cylindrical, subf^uadand exrate, with an annular furrow, cavated at each pole.
;

each end (PI. 28.

fig.

1).

See iiBuous

STRUCxniES
18G4, 218.

and Mitchell, Qu. Mic. Jn.

In pools. 6'. laievirens (PI. 3. fig. 10). BiBL. Braun, Alg. tlnicell. 1855, 60; Rabeuhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. 258 (fig.). CREATINE or' KREATINE. Occurs

COVERS. See Ixtroduction, p. xxiv. CRASPEDODISCUS, E.A genus of

fossil

Amphibia, and Fishes;

in the juice of the flesh of Mammals, Birds, in exudations, in the

Diatomaceoe.
2)i/xidicula,

C. coscinodisciiSy ',.-= Pyxidiciila coscino-

discm, 'E.= Coscinodiscus

Kg.

amniotic liquid, the blood, and the brain. It crystallizes from an aqueous solution, in transparent, highly refractive, oblique-rhombic prisms and needles (PI. 11. fig. 22) belonging to the oblique-rhombic prismatic system.

(PI. 18. fig. 21). Coscinodiscus craspedodisC. eleyans, E. cm, Ko-. (PI. 25. figs. 7 8). BiBL. Ehr. Ber. d. Berl. Ak. 1844, 261-

&

CREATINIXE
The

or

KREATINIXE.

Occurs in the
malia.

lU'ine of

2r,6; Kiitzing, Sp. Alq.

Greville, Mic. Trans. 1866, 79; Pritchard, Inf. 831, 939.

;

126

crystals

man and of Mamform colourless prisms

CRASPEDO'PORUS,
of Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules
free,

Grev'.

A
;

genus
valves

di>k-shaped

with club-shaped rays, each with an ocellus

near the margin.

belonging to the oblique-rhombic prismati system (PL 11. fig. 23). Creatinine forms a crvstallized cnmpiiund with chloride of zinc (PI. 11. fig. 24). This is very difficultly soluble in water, and not
at all in alcohol or ether.

Valves areolar, rays 8; diam. 1-220". Barbadoes. C. Johnstonianus, Rays 5 diam. 1-400". Barbadoes. BiBL. Greville, Mic. Trans. 18G3, 68.
Half's ianus.
;

CRE'NOTIIRIX, Cohn. -A genus

Oscillatoriacefe (Confervoid Algfie).
CJiar.

of

Filaments
;

narrow, jointed, ar;

genus of Myxomycetes, consisting of minute yellow or' brown cup-like bodies, of papery consistence, closed by a deciduous operculum
145) arising from an evanescent gelatinous
(fig.
;

CRATERIUM,

Trent. A

cuate or twisted into little free or adherent tufts with hyaline sheaths endochrome homogeneous; sporanges terminal. Microgonidia formed from a row of cells by successive division, rounded, very minute,

Fig. 145.

crowded, and without cilia. Macrngonidia of the entire or 2-4-divided ceU-contents. Intermediate between Lynyhya and Chaincpsiphon.

mycelium, gTowing over

moss

leaves, bark, c&c

In wells and springs. C. polyspora. BiBL. Cohn, Beit. Biol. i. 108. CRESS WEL'LIA, Grev. genus of

Most of the species are common. The black spores

contained within
these
are

Craterium pyriforme. Magnified 10 diameters.

Biatomaceae. Char. Frustules cylindrical, cohering by short filiform (spine-like) processes into a continuous filament. Valves cup-like, arefossil

cups intermixed with crowded, obscurely arti-

olar, destitute of siliceous connecting or hoop.

band

which do not anastomose, and

culated filaments (destitute of spiral fibres), are at length Five British species. A. Murray's erect. remark upon Craterium, that it is an Acarus, applies to Afractubolus.

C. turris. Other species. Clvde. BiBL. Greville, Edin. Ph. Tr. 1857, xxi. 5.S8; Mic. Tr. 1801, 68; 1865, 4; 1806,

78.

BiBL.
Cijathuti

Hook.

Brit.
t.

Sowerby, Func/i,
minutu&).

Fl. v. pt. 2. 316; 239 (C. minutum, as

CRATEROSPER'MUM, Braun.A

ge-

genus of (Gasteromycetous Fungi), consisting of minute stalked capsules growing upon rotten wood kc. The capsules (peridia) are mem1)ranous the upper part

CRIBRA'RIA, Schrad. A

Myxomycetes

nus of Zyg-nemacese, with the green endochrome not in spiral bands. Conjugating

falls

or decays oft' when the spores are mature and the anastomosing filam n ts
;

CRIBRILINA.

214

CRONARTIUM.

terior,

(capillitium) ^vliicli ai-e contained in the inare coufluent witli the outer wall,

where they lorm a permanent spherical cage or network (fig. 147), from the meshes of which the spores escape. The tliree or
four species recorded as British, are intermedia, Berk., beintermediate Fig. 146.
C.

Cells and branches covered with dots Pear-shaped vesicles are met with on the polypidom, resembling those of the SertulariidaB.

alternate

one or two rows, subterminal and entire. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 382 Hincks,
Crista.

Cells in

orifices

Poh/zoa, 418.

tween C. vulr/ai-is and C. anrantiaca.

CRISTATEL'LA, Cuv. A genus

of

The peridium is yellow with a white

stalk
;

the

spores

Cribraria aurantiaca.

Polyzoa (Bryozoa). Char. Polyzoary free, disk-shaped, polypifcrous at the margin; tentacles numerous, Freshwater. pectinate upon two arms.
Cristatellidse,

yellow.

(Figured

Natural
Fis:.

size.

as SpJi(rrocarpus semitrichioides by Sowerby, t. 400. To this fig. 5.)

or

C. imicedo (PI. 41. fig. 9). Three, four, more polypes arise from the locomotive

147.

polypidom.

young

Pseud-ova (stato blasts) in the state enclosed in a ciliate membrane,

have recently been added C. ariiiUacea, aurantiaca, and

intricata.

They

are

interesting very obmicroscopic

jects.

fm-uished with marginal spines Avhieh are hooked at the end (fig. 10), and opening with a lid. In clear lakes and ponds, creeping over stones and the stems of aquatic plants and occasionally in large numbers in the holes made bv the feet of cattle aroimd ponds.
clisk -shaped,
;

BiBL.

Hook.

Brit. Fl. V. pt. 2. 318; Fries, Syst.

Mycoloy.

iii.

1(JS

Cor da, Icon. Fung, V. pi. 3. tig. 35;

Cook, Handb. 400.

Length'l^", breadth J". BiBL. Cuvier, Beyne Animal, 1817, iv. 68; Turpin, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. vii. 65; Gervais, ibid. vii. 77 Johnston, Br. Zooph. 387 Varley, Lond. Phys. Journ. iii. 37 ; Allman, Poh/zoa {Bay Sac).
; ;

CRIBRILFNA,
genus Gray. of Cheilostomatous

CRISTELLA'RIA, Lamk. Among the hyaline Foraminifera grouped generically as Xodosarina and varying in mode of
growth from straight and partially curved to discoidal, the Cristellarics are the more symmetrically lenticular and uautiloid, varying, however, in outline and in thickness. The chambers, either triangular or falciform, iire close-set and communicate at the outer The shell is neat, often delicate, angle. and ornamented on the margin with keel or crest, and on the sides with raised unibones,
granulations, cross bars, and septal ridges. Cristellaria is common in the Lias and

Cribraria aurantiaca.

PolyZOa(BryOZOa), Peridium burst, with the capiUitium exserted. = LepraUce with Maguified 25 diameters. the front cells OCcupied by transverse or radiating punctured furrows. 5 species. On shells and Algee. BiBL. Hincks, Polyzoa, 184. CRICKET. See Acheta.

CRIS'IA, Lamx. A genus of CrisiidiB, Cyclostomatous Polyzoa. Char. See CnisiiD^. Three species.
C. cornuta.

Cells curved, orifices turned

a long bristle above each cell. eburnea. Cells loosely aggregated, curved, ends free. Common. Cells loosely aggregated, C. denticidata. nearly straight, joints black. CRISIID/F. family of Cyclosto-

one

way

C.

matous Polyzoa.
Distinguished by the plant-like jointed and branched calcareous polyzoary and the tubular cells in one or two rows, with round orifices mostly looking to opposite
sides.

succeeding formations, very large in the Tertiary deposits of Italy, and not uncommon in existing seas. C. simplex (PI. 23. of growth, is present always fig. 34), feeble with other Cristellarics. C. cnlfrata (fig. 37) is a A\'ell-grown and typical form. BiBL. D'Orbiguy, For. Foss. Vien. 62; Morris, Brit. Foss. .33 Williamson, Bee. For. 24 Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xix. 200; 3 ser. iii. 477; v. 114; Carall
; ;

penter, Foram.

1()2.

CRONAR'TIUM,

Fries. A

genus

of

Urediiiei (Coniomycetous Fungi), presenting the most perfect form of structure in

CROUANIA.

215

CRUSTACEA.

The spores are contained in tlint family. a peridiiim, which bur.sts by a regular or
The perfect spores irregular apical orific(\ are produced on a columnar cellular body, called the ligule, which rises out of the centre of the Uredo-form or of its empty C. Vincetoxici is the perfect peritheciuui. form of Uredo Vincetoxici.
BiBL. Tulasne, Ann. Sc, Nat. 4
188.
ser.
ii.

surfaces, in patches 2 to 3" in diameter. This ' skin' is formed of vertical tufts of simple articulated filaments imbedded in a gelatinous matrix. One of the cells of each filament is larger than tlie rest. The tetraspores occur at the bases of the fila-

smooth

ments. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg.

Brit. pi. 117.

pi.

20

Bliyc.

OROUA'NTA,

J.

Agardh.A genus

of

Cryptouemiaceae (Florideous Algaj). C. atteniutfa is a very rare plant, which has been found epiphytic on Cladostephus spongiosus.
Its frond consists of a single-tubed

CRUSTA'CEA. class of Animals, belonging to the subkingdoni Articulata. no trachea) Char. Apterous respiration aquatic (branchial), or effected by the dorsal vessel, venskin: legs jointed.
;
;

jointed

with

filament, with the joints clothed dense whorls of minute dichotomously

multiplied brauchlets, somewhat beaded. favellidia are stated to occur near the tips of the branchlets; the tetraspores (large) are affixed to the bases of the latter. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. pi. 21 D Phyc. J. Agardh, Akj. Medit. 83 Brit. pi. 106

The

Agardh,

Sp.
;

nodulosa) thamnio7i).

Alg. ii. 136 (as Grijfithsia Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 651 (Calli-

or heart; integument composed partly of chitiue. The integument of the Crustacea usually forms a hard calcareous shell, sometimes, however, being leathery or horny it constitutes an external skeleton. In its most complex condition four layers are distinan outermost, very thin, transguishable the parent, and structureless or cellular beneath this, a layer of pigepidermis ment-cells to which the colour is owing, but
tricle,
; :

CRUCIB'ULUM,
cayed sticks, itc, Avorld. parts of the

Tulasne. A genus
found in

of

Nididariacei (Gasteromycetous Fungi). C. vtdgare occurs frequently on ferns, de-

and

is

many

not contained a thick layer, forming the greater part of the substance of the integument, impregnated with calcareous salts, and frequently furnished with
is
;

sometimes the pigment within cells under this

is

BiBL. Sachs, Bot. Ami. Sc. N. 1844.

Zeit. xiii.

833; Tulasne,

CRUCILOCULI'NA, D"Orb. Triloculine Miliola with a crucial fissure for its aperture that is, having four small symmeKnown only trical valves, instead of one. from the Patagonian coast.

BiBL. D'Orb. For. Amer. Mer. 1839; Carpenter, Introd. For. 80. CRUME'NULA, Duj. genus of Infusoria, of the family Thecamonadiua. C7>ar. Oval, depressed, with a resisting

obliquely striated or reticulated tegument, from a notch in the fore part of which a long flagelliform filament issues a red eyeMovement slow. spot.
;

(PL 30. fig. 34). Green ; aquatic; length 1-510". Filament three times as long as the body. Dujardin appends Prorocentrwn, E., to
C. testa

direct prolongations in the form of tubercles, See Shell. spinous appendages, or hairs. The innermost layer consists of a delicate fibrous coat, corresponding to an internal periosteum or true skin it plays an important part in the moulting process [ecdysis) which the Crustacea undergo, probably secreting the new layers of the integument. The higher Crustacea (the Decapoda) have mostly two pairs of antennfe. The oral organs consist of a transverse labrum or upper lip beneath which is a pair of powerful toothed mandibles, acting lateNext come rally, and furnished with palpi. two pairs of maxillpe the first are membranous and hairy at the margin, but without the second are also membranous and palpi hairy, and correspond to the labium of Insects. Between the mandibles and the first pair of maxillie is sometimes situated a soft,
;

tongue-like,

sometimes

cleft

appendsge.

this genus.

BiBL. Duiardin, Infus. p. 339. CRUOR'iA, Fries. A genus of CryptoC. 2)efHla is nemiacese (Florideous Algae). common on exposed rocks and stones beskin,

oral organs undergo various modifications in the lower Crustacea these will be
;

The

tween tide-marks, forming a glossy purplish between gelatinous and leathery, upon

considered under the respective heads. Behind these are three pairs of secondary or auxiliary jaws, or rather legs converted into jaws, and comparable to the six legs of Insects ; these are furnished externally with

CEUSTACEA.

216

CRYPTOMOXADDsA.
;

Next follow five pairs of true thopalpi, racic legs, heLind which are five pairs of false or abdominal legs.

Bell, Stalk-eyed Brit, (figs.)

Bate and West-

wood,

Sessile-eyed.

The Tokmtary muscles

CRYPH.^ A,

Mohr. =PiLOTRicnrir.

of the Crustacea
:

CRYPTOCOC'CE^E. One of Kiitzing's

are transversely striated. The eyes are either simple

;

consisting of a convex cornea, behind which is a rounded refracting body or lens this lies in a cupshaped mass of pigment, perforated by the

without facets optic consisting of a smooth cornea, behind Avhich a number of closely-placed eyes are situated ; sometimes a modification of this form occurs, in the existence of a smooth outer and an inner faceted cornea or compound faceted as in the eyes of insects. The facets are frequently four-sided, but sometimes six-sided. In some of the eyes a conical vitreous body is situated behind the The eyes are sometimes sessile, at lens. others stalked. The alimentxiry canal is usually short and
; : ;

nerves compound

families of Algae, including hisgenera Cryptococcus, Ulrina, and Sphcerotihis, all of which appear to be forms of the mycelia (conidia ?) of Mildew Fungi they consist of masses of extremely minute colourless globides, aggregated into a membranous or mucous stratum, and found floating in
;

aromatic waters, vinegar, &c. CRYPTOCOC'CUS, Kutz. See CbypTOCOCr'FJE CEYPTOGA'ML^. This term was applied by Linnaeus to his 24th Class, which included all plants in which no true flowers exist the name signifying that the sexual In Natural Arrangeorgans are hidden. ments of the Vegetable Kingdom the term but in this is often used in the same sense case as one of two great divisions, being
; ;

nearly straight, sometimes curved or coiled. Its wall consists of three or four layers, the outermost, more or less fibrous,' representing a peritoneal coat ; the innermost, a

opposed to Phanerogamia or Phaeuogamia, which are plants with the sexual organs See Vegetable Kixgdoji. conspicuous.

CRYPTOGLE'NA, Ehr. A
; ;

transparent,

epithelial coat, furnished at the part corresponding to the stomach with calcareous teeth, scales, or hairs, and which is thrown oS^ during the

structureless,

flagellate Infusoria, of the family

genus of Crypto-

monadina. Char. Free

ecdysis.

Between these two coats is a layer

of smooth muscular fibres.

The liter exists either in the form of simple follicles surrounding the alimentary canal ; of branched eoeca situated at its upper
end, sometimes with short ducts or as two glandular tufts or branches, consisting of more or less ramified and closely-connected caeca, with short ducts. In many of the Crustacea the walls of the alimentary canal are surrounded by cells containing a bright orange-yellow or blue these are either scattered or fatty matter arranged in the form of lobules. They correspond to the fatty body of Insects.
;
;

a red eye-spot carapace a scutellum, rolled in at the margins, without a neck. Freshwater. C. conica (PL 30. fig. 35 a). Conical, expanded, and truncate in front, posteriorly subacute; bluish green; length l-lloO";

two flagelliform

filaments.

Ovato-sub(PI. 30. fig. 35 6). globose, emarginate in front gi-een length

Cpigra

l-lloO". {Chloromonas, slow filament single.

:
;

Kent.)

Motion

C. ccerulescens. Ellii^tic, depressed, emarginate in front bluish green length 1-GOOO"; motion rapid ; no cilia distinguished. Carter adds 3 species.
;

The Crustacea undergo remarkable metamorphoses, the larvae diflering strikinsrly

from the adults and to these, special names were applied, being considered as distinct genera: as Nauplius, Zo'ea, and Meyalopa. See AsELLUs, Cirripedia, EntomosTRACA, Gammaeus, 0^'ISCTJS, and Sipho;

Bibl. Ehr. Infvs. 46 ; Duj. Infus. 333 ; Carter, Ann. N.II. 1858, ii. 253;" 1859, iii. 18; Pritchard. Infus. 509; Kent, Inf. 419.
of Pteridea) (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Char. Sterile and fertile fronds usually different ; sori terminal on the veins, at

CRYPTOGRAxM'MA, Brown.A genus

first separate and rounded, then confluent; indusium formed of the involute margin of

NOSTOMA. BiBL. That of AxiMAi. Kingdom, and the Bibl. of the articles just cited; Gegenbaur,
I'ercjl. Anat. 247; Schultze {eyes), Qu. Mic. Jn. 1868, 17.:} Chatin, Compt. Eend. 1876, Ixxxiii. 1052 {M. M. Jn. xvii. 92)
;

the

froiid.

C. crispa. British. Bini,. Hooker, Sipi. Fil. 144.

CRYPTUMOXAJJI'NA, Ehr. A family

envelope or carapace, either

of Infusoria. Char. An

CRITTOMONAS.
soft or hard
;

217

CRYPTONEMIACE^.
Fructification:

no ajipendagres (organs of mo-

filaments.

1.

Concep-

or tion, D.) except anterior cilia, or one more fiagelliform filaments ; form constant. (Envelope insoluble in potash ?) These organisms do not adn)it colouringmatters, hence they should probably be reOne or more cilia or ferred to the Algaj. fiagelliform filaments have been detected in
all

tades (favellidia), forming globose masses of in swellspores immersed in the frond or ings of the branches. 2. Ji2('?-rt.s;jores variously 3. Antheridia (Nemaleon). dispersed. Subtribel. CoccoCAiirE.TS. Frond solid, Favellidia dense, cnrtilaf/inous or horny. contained in semi-external tubei'cles or sioellings of the frond. Grateloiipia.

the genera but one (Lm/eneUa).

The family corresponds very nearly with

the Thecamonadina of Dujardin.

Frond pinnate,

flat,

nar-

No

eye-spot.
.

Carapace with a distinct tooth in front Prorocentrum Cryptomonas. Carapace without a tooth
E}-e-spot present.

row, membranaceo-cartilag-inous, of very dense texture. Favellidia immersed in the branches, communicating with the surface
Tetraspores scattered. Frond pinnate, compressed, narrow, homy, of very dense structure. Favellidia immersed in swollen ramuli. Tetraspores forming subdefined sori in the

by a pore.

Carapace with a nock Carapace without a neck Carapace a scutoUum Carapace not a scutellum
:

Gelidimn.

Lagenella.
Crt/pfoglena.

Trachelomonas.

c\\\Cti\\g Eu(/le)ia,T^.

Dujardin adds the genera Phociis, D. {\nin part), CrumenuJa, D.,

ramuli.

Diselmis, D., Clami(loinonas,^.,Plceotia,J),, Anisonema, D. (including Bodo (jrandu, E., and 0.vyrr/ns,D. Prorocentrum: E.); and

appends doubtfully Chatoglena, E., and Chcctotyplda, E. See Thecamonadina, Ophidomonas, and

Frond cartilaginous, cylinGiyartina. drical or compressed ; its flesh composed of anastomosing filaments, lying apart in firm gelatine. Favellidia contained within external tubercles. Tetraspores massed together in dense sori, sunk in the frond.
Subtribe2. SpoNCiioCARPE.^.
lid,

Frond soFavellidia

Peotococcus.
BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 38
fusoria, of the family

dense, cartilaf/inoi/s or horn^.

CRYPTOMOXAS, E.A
Char.

Duj. Infus. 32-3. geniis of In-

No

eye-spot
;

anterior tooth.

Cryptomonadina. carapace without an Dujardin says Globular or

; :

Wart-like of several, imperfectly hnoion. swellings coinposed of Jilaments ; sometiynes containing tetraspores, sometimes spores.

Chondrus.

Frond fan-shaped,

dicho-

tomously

secreting a membranous slightly depressed flexible carapace, and furnished with a very delicate fiagelliform filament. Ehrenberg admits seven species ; and to

of very dense texture. Tetraspores collected into sori, immersed in the substance of the frond.
cleft, cartilaginous,

PhyUophora.

i^/-of?

stalked, rigid,

mem-

these Dujardin adds two. C. ovata, E. (PI. 30. fig. 36 a) 1-570" freshwater. C. lentkularis, E. (PI. 30. fig. 36 b) 1-1730" freshwater.
; ;

branaceous, proliferous from the disk, of very dense structure. Tetraspores in distinct superficial sori, or in special leafletlike lobes.

length
;

length length

Peyssonelia.

a fitsca, E. (PI. 30. fig. 36 c) 1-1500"; freshwater. a (/lobuhis, D. (PI. 30. fig. 36 d) 1-2500" freshwater. a incBqualis, D. (PL 30. fig. 36 e) 1-2500" freshwater.
; ;

rooting zoned,

Frond depressed, expanded, by the under surface, concentrically membranous or leathery. Tetra-

length length

spores contained in superficial warts. Gymnogongrus. Frond fihform, dichotomus, liorny, of very dense structure. Tetraspores strung together, contained in
superficial wart -like sori. Foot scutate. Polyides.
drical,

Dujardin appends Cryptoglena, E., and LaqeueUa, E., to this genus. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 40 j Dujardin, Inf. 329; Kent, Inf. 404. CRYPTONEMIA'CE^. family of

Frond

cylin-

dichotomous, cartilaginous. Favellm Tetracontained in spongy external warts.

spores scattered through the peripheric stratum of the frond, cruciate. Foot branching. Frond Furcellaria.

Floride?e. Purplish or rose-red sea-weeds, with a filiform or (rarely) expanded, gelatinous or cartilaginous frund, composed wholly or in part of cylindrical cells con-

Faimknown. Tetraspores deeply imbedded among the filaments of the periphery,

cylindrical, dichotomous, cartilaginous.
vellcp.

nected together into filaments. Axis formed of vertical, periphery of horizontal radiating

in the swollen pod-like upper branches ox the frond, transversely zoned.

CPtYPTOXEMIACE.E.
Subtribe
3.

218

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

Gastrocarpe^.

Frond

CRYPTOS IPHUM, Buckt.Agenusof

Aphidae. Char. Cornicles none or mere pores; Cauda small antennae with 7th joint short.
;

yelatinously membranuceoKs or Jiesliy, often of lax structure internaUy. Favellidia immersed in the central substance of the frond,

very mimerous.

C. Artemisice.

Brown

Frond cylindrical, tubular, Dumontia. membranaceous. Tufts of spores attached

to the wall of the tube inside.

Hahjmenia. Frond compressed or flat, gelatinoso-membranaceous, the membranous surfaces separated by a few slender anastomosing filaments. Masses of spores attached to the inner face of the membranous wall. Frond cylindrical, dichoGinannia. the tomous, traversed by a fibrous axis Masses of spores wall membranaceous. attached to the inner face of the membranous wall.
;

CRYPTOSPO'RIUM, Kze. A genus of Sphferonemei (Stylosporous Fungi). Microscopic Fungi growing upon bark and leaves, producing spindle-shaped spores, at first conglutinated beneath the epidermis of the nurse-plant. Two species have been
recorded as British. C. Caricis, Corda.

mealy; eyes reddish. On Artemisia vulgaris, deforming and colouring the leaves. BiBL. Buckton, Aphides, ii. 145.

or blackish, very

punctiform;

of spores curved, dark brown and pellucid. On leaves of various Corda, apud Sturm, DeutscM. Flor. sedges.

Heaps

spores

slightly

Kallynienia.

Frond expanded,
solid,

leaf -like,

t.

1.

of dense strucFavellidia like pimples, half imture. mersed in the frond, and scattered over its

fleshy-membranous,

C. vulgare, Fries. Heaps confluent ; On dead spores curved, black ( subhyaline) twigs of birch, hazel, alder, &c. Corda, /. c,
.

surface.

t. li.

Iridaa.

Frond expanded,

leaf-like, thick,

fleshy-leathery, solid, of dense structure. Favellidia immersed, densely wholly

ser. V.

Bfbl. Berkeley and Broome, Ann. N. H. 371 Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 481.
;

CRYPTOSTE'GIA, Reuss.A gToup of

crowded.
branched, constricted at intervals into oblong articulations j the tube filled with lax filaments. Frond Subtribe 4. Gloiocladie^. the filaments hjiny apart loosely gelatinous from one another, surrounded by a copious
filiform,
;

Catenella.

Frond

hyaline Foraminifera, having an Agathistegian or Miliohne mode of gi'owth, comprising Chilosfojnella and Allomorphina, Reuss, and probably Ellipsoidina, Brady. These are near allies of Sphceroidina, and thereby related to Pullenia and Globigerina.
Chilostomella has successive chambers, almost entirely overlapping (jne another, as in Biloculina, but with a hyahne, and not a porcellaneous shell. Allomorphina is
triloculine.

gelatine.

Favellidia immersed

among

the

filaments of the periphery. Frond crustaceous, skin-like. Cruoria. Kaccaria. Frond filiform, solid cellular the ramuli only composed of radiating free
,

filaments.
Gloiosiphonia.

Frond tubular, hollow

Recognized in Cretaceous and Tertiary and in existing oceans. BiBL. Reuss, Sitzungs. Ahad. Wien, 18G1, xliv. 372 Bradv, Qu. Mic. Jn. xix.
strata,
;

walls of the tube composed of radiating

filaments.

66.

Nemaleon.
;

Fronds
;

filiform, solid, elastic,

CRYSTALLINE LEXS. See Eye. CRYSTALLOG'RAPHY. The laws of

crystallography teach us that in perfectly

filamentous the axis composed of closelypacked filaments the periphery of monilif jrm free filaments.

formed crystals, each peculiar chemical ccmbination corresponds to a distinct relation of all the angles which can possibly arise from the primary form hence by" ascertaining the latter, we can usually infer the former. It was our intention to have given a sketch of the method of determining the primary forms of the more common microscopic crystals, and the systems to which they belong but our space is far too limiti d for this purpose, and the subject is so difiicult, that we must rest satisfied with a re;
;

iJadresnaia.

Frond

filiform, solid, gela-

tinous, filaiuentous ; the axis composed of a network of anastomosing filaments; the periphery of moniliform free filaments. Crouania. Frond filiform, consisting of a

jointed filament, whorled at the joints, with minute, multifid, gelatinous ramuli. BiBh. Harvey, Marine Algce Derbes et See Solier, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 273. also the Genera.
;

CRYSTALLOIDS.
subject.
8,-c.

219

CTENOSTOMATA.

ference to works specially devoted to tlie

BiBL. Schmidt, Untw. ein. allff. Untersuch. Robin aud ^'eldeil, Chimie Anatom.
; ;
;

Phillips, Intr. to Mineral. (Brooke aud MilK>r) Daua, Mineral. Nauiuaun, Elem. d. Min. Nicol, Man. of Miner. Rammelsberg, Kri/stallkunde Niigeli & Schwendener, Mikr. 478. CRYSTALLOIDS.These bodies have beennoticed under Chalk aud Coccoliths. The term has been more recently extended to certain bodies formed of the

SiC

The forms of crystals vary according to the conditions under which they are produced; but there can be no doubt that, under absolutely the same conditions, their forms woidd be relatively constant. In mauv animal and other liquids, the forms assumed by the crystals deposited are tolerably characteristic, so that their composition may be
inferred
is

but where accuracy is reqiured, it always well to use chemical reagents. See Raphides.
;

The

cavities in topaz

and other mineral

protoplasmic contents of vegetable cells, Tvhich assiuue crystalline forms, and exhibit the facets aud polarizing properties of
crystals, yet possess resemblances to organic cell-structures. They are usually colourless,

crystals were shown years ago by Brewster to enclose a liquid, crystals, or even a va-

cuum.

This subject has been further inbj'

sometimes coloured, the colouring matter being removeable. They swell with reagents, and consist of two substances of different solubility. Thev are found in the
cell-nuclei of Lathrea, the cells of the sldn of the potato, in seeds, and in aleurone-

Sorby and Rutley iu rocks, aud important geolog-ical conclusions have been deduced therefrom. Attention has also been drawn to the cavivestigated
stones, lava, &c.,
ties

crystals,

containing air or vapour in artificial aud to the crystals formed in blow-

grains (page 28, fig. Qb). So that we now have .3 kinds of crystalloids Ehrenberg's chalk- and concre:

pipe beads. Crystals, when rapidly formed, constitute beautiful microscopic objects the arborescent, radiating and other appearances which they present are well knowu and a more exquisitely curious and interesting sight
; ;

tionary crystalloids
loids

the vegetable crystal-

(dialytic) crystalloids true crvstalline mattex-. '

; ;

and Graham's

itself

BiBL. Hartig, Bot. Zeit. 262 1856_, Badlkofer, Kryst. prot. 1859 Naseli, Bay. Ak. 1862, 23.3; Sachs, Bot. 50;"Rodweil, Diet. Sc. 162.
;

cannot be witnessed than the very formation taking place under the the microscope. This may he readily seen in a drop of any
spontaneously evaporating

saline solution

CRYSTALS. Crystals
;

upon a slide. See Ueic acid and Polarization; and for crystals iu plants, Raphides.
BiBL. Sorby, Geol. Jn. xviii. id. (blowpipe beads) Mn. Mic. Jn. i. .349 and Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, i. 1 Guy, Mic. Trans. 1868, 1 Davies-Matthews, M)Mijw9, 111 ;
; ;

are

constantly

met with in the examination of animal and vegetable products and the determination of their nature or composition is often of great importance.
five methods of ascertaining by ascertaining the atomic weight of the substance, or by its quantitative analysis 2, by tjie study of its crystallographic properties 3, by its qualitative analysis 4, by its spectroscopic analysis; 5, by its

There are
:

Chemistry, Crystallography, and Rocks.

also

this

1,

polariscopic analysis.

CTENOSTO'MATA. suborder of Infundibulate Polyzoa (Bryozoa). Distinguished by the cell-orifice being surrounded by a fringe of bristles (more or less developed) when the animal is protruded. Families
:

The

first

l)elongs to the

domain

of che-

AlcyonidiidcB.

mistry, and reqiures an appreciable quantity of substance.

fleshy, irregular in

Polypary spouge-lilve, shape cells immersed,

;

with a contractile
Vesiculariidce.

orifice.

The second requires well-formed crystals, and a knowledge of crj-stallography. As the

latter is

tubidar
flexible

cells

free,

an exceedinfjly

Polypary plant-lilce, horny, deciduous, the ends

difficult science, re-

and

invertible.

generally had to the third method, upon which some remarks have already been made in the Ixtroductiox, p. xlii the fourth is indispensable in many cases, but

course

is

requires expensive apparatus and great practice ; the fifth is only partially applicable.

Polypary plant-like, creeping, adherent, sending up at irregular intervals free, erect, stalked bodies, without distinct cells. Flustrellidce. Cells immersed in a gelatinous crust, orifice bilabiate.

Pedicellinidce.

CUCULLAXUS.
Arachniidce.
Cells

220

CULICID.E.

more

or less distant,

membranous.
JBi(skud(s. Cells contracted below, not continuous witli the creeping stolon ; with

a ventral apertiu'e. CyUndracidfe. Cells not contracted below, closely united to the stem no membranous
;

jointed in both sexes, but plumose in the male (PI. .33. fig. 21) and pilose in the females (PI. .3.3. tig. 30 ) the basal joint is subglobose and tubercular in form. Eyes lunate ocelli obsolete. Thorax oblong;

area.
TritkellidcB.

and a attached to a rigid peduncle by a moveable joint, deciduous. Cells originating in an enVictoreUidce. largement of the creeping tubular stem, with which they are continuous at the base free and cylindrical above, not deciduous. BiBL. Johnston, Br, Zooph. Gosse,
ture,
;

Cells horny, with an aperventral membranous area

Mar.

Zool.

ii.

Hincks, Polyz. 489.

CUCULLA'NUS,MU11.Agenus of Eutozoa, belonging to the order Coelelmintha,

and family Nematoidea.

Char. Body elongate, posteriorly attenuate ; head broad, with a bivalve manducatory apparatus ; mouth anterior, terminal, forming a long vertical fissure.
C.
eleijans.

In the intestine, stomach,

and pyloric appendages of the perch and Almost all the other 'freshwater fishes.
other species of this genus live in the intestines of fishes. Length 1-6 to l-o".

of the following parts 1. An outer tubular canal (PI. 33. figs. .30 & 31 e), representing the labrum, forming the most robust part of the mouth, except the labium. 2. pan- of slender, needle-like pieces, the mandibles, serrated on the inside near the tip (PI. 33. figs. 30 & 31 /), thickened at the back, like a scythe, and transversely striated. 3. second pair of very delicate and slender organs (PI. 33. figs! 30 & 31 r/), dilated at the base, to which the palpi are attached, 4. representing the maxillae. slender, needle-like instrument, lanceolate at the traversed by a narrow canal (PI. 33. end, figs. -30 & 31 d), the analogue of the tongue. 5. The outer tubular canal PI. 33. fig. .30 /), in which the others are lodged when at The rest, and representing the labium. labrum and labium are each traversed bv a
:

Abdomen long and slender, upon which the wings are incumbent when at rest the latter have the veins fiu-nished with scales (PI. 34. fig. 22). Legs very long and slender. The proboscis of the female is composed
oval.
;

Colour, reddish yellow. C. foveolatm, in the plaice. BiBL. Dujardin, Helminthes, 245 ; Cobbold, Paras. 474. CUCURBITA'RIA, Grev. See Sph^KIA. CU'LEX, Linn. genus of Dipterous Insects, of the family Culicidje. CJuir. Palpi longer than the proboscis in the male, very short in the female Manv species. C. ^npiens, the common

throughout their length". males the labrum and tongue are absent. It has been supposed that, when the lancets of the female gnat are introduced into the skin, a venolongitudinal
slit

It appears that in the

mous

liquid is simultaneously instilled into the woimd, and that the great irritation

produced

may

thus be accounted

more probable, however, that

for. It is this arises

gnat.

"^See

CvLiciJi^
family of

CULTC'ID^. A

from the deeper penetration of the lancets for they are of great compainto the skin rative length about four times that of the

Dipterous

the common Insects, as the type of which be examined. _ gnat ( Cule.v pipiens) may The parts of the mouth are produced into a slender elongated rostrum or proboscis, half the entire length of the which is
nearly
insect,

and slightly thickened

at

the

tip.

lancets of the flea. The eggs are deposited in a small boatshaped mass which floats upon the surface of the water. They are oval, with a small narrow knot at the top, and are arranged side by side, and closely packed. The lar^ fe inhabit standing waters, and

This proboscis,"sim"ple as it appears, in reof seven pieces in the females, ality consists besides a pair of many-jointed palpi, which are as long as, or even longer than, tlie rostrum in some of the males, and very in the females, howhairy at the extremity; Head short. ever, they are generally very Anteuna3 slender and filiform, as email. and 14long as, or longer than the thorax,

may

be observed frequently, summer, jerking about with great agility, or for the purpose of themselves,
spring and

during the themselves

suspending
respiration,

immediately below the surface of the water, with the head downwards; Tiie head (PI. 35. fig. 1) is distinct, large, rounded, and furnished with two unjointed antenna, and several ciliated appendages, which serve for

CULTIVATION.

221

CURCUMA.

The thorax is furobtaining- nonrisliment. nished with bundles of feathery hairs the abdomen is long, nearly cylindrical, much narrower than the front parts of the body, and divided into ten segments, the eighth of which is furnished with a long respiratory the air-tube, terminated by a small star last joint is terminated by setae, and by live
; ;

be thoroughly sterilized by boiling before use, and should be kept in stoppered More recently, the cut surface of bottles. a potato, or beetroot, has been used as a cultivation-bed also a layer of gelatine so saturated with water as just to solidify on In these experiments, it has been cooling. found that there is no transition of forms,
;

conical slender plates. After several moultings, the larvse are transformed into pupae, w^hich also move about with agility by means of the tail and

among the pathogenous Schizomya micrococcus producing micrococci, a bacillus and a spirillium sjnrillia bacilli,
at least

cetes

only.

two terminal swimming

state they take
is
?.

no food

In this organs. and the position in

BiBL.

See

ScHizoMYCETES
iii.

Maddox,

M. M.
;

Jn. 1870,

14
;

Koch, Qu. Mic.

which they suspend themselves

in the water the reverse of that previously assumed, The respiratory e. the head is upwards.

organs consist of two air-tubes placed upon the thorax and the body is much curved. The final transformation takes place in three or four weeks, the exuvife of the pupa servin"- as a raft, upon which the insect remains until its wings are extended.
;

Jn. xvii. 87, and xxi. 050 Lister, ibid, xviii. 191 Klebs, Rep. Intern. Med. Cong., Times, Aug. 8, 1881 Pasteur, ibid. Aug. 9, 1881.
;

CUNEOLINA,

D'Orb. A Textularian

Foraminifer, extremely compressed transversely to the usual direction of the compression in Textularia. Rare in the Lower Cretaceous formation.

BiBL. "SYestwood,
;

Introcl.

iii. 1827, Desvoidy, Mem. Soc. d'Hist. 390 Stephens, Zool. Jn. i. Curtis, Brit. Entom. xii. 537; Macquardt, Dipt. (Suites a Bi(f.);y<'iillieY, Insect. Brit^ Dipt. iii. 242. CULTIVATION or CULTURE.This term has recently been iised in a specific of the Schizosense, to signify the growth mycetes, such as Bacterium, Bacillus, &c., It has been observed, inartificial liquids.
;

507 Robineau N.
;

BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Tien. 1846; Carpenter, Infrod. For. 193. C UPRESSIN'E.E. A suborder of Coniferae

erect ovules

(Gymnospermous Flowering Plants), distinguished from the Abietinefe by the and spheroidal pollen-grains. Further particulars will be found under
Conifer.^ and Wood.

that

these organisms reproduce themselves in organized bodies, the reproduction takes place" by simple vegetative division. But when grown in the artificial soils, wdth free exposure to air, they produce new forms and give rise to spores. At the same time, in the case of those Bacteria &c. which are the origin of specific diseases, their virulence is found to be destroyed and on inoculation, instead of the original virulent disease being produced, a mUd form of the

when

CURCU'LIO, Linn. genus of Coleopterous Insects of the family Curculionidae

(weevils). Curculio imperialis, the diamond-beetle, is well known on account of the splendid colours which its elytra exhibit. Many other members of this family present coloiu-s

almost equally brilliant. These colours

are produced mainly by the action of minute scales upon the incident light. See Scales
of the Curculionidse are curiously placed at the end of an elongated rostrum which represents the head, and to the sides of which the antennae are attached. BiBL. Westwood, Introd. ; Stephens, British Beetles. CURCU'MA, L. genus of Zingiberacese (Monocotyledons), remarkable on account of the tuberous rhizomes. Those of C. lomja form the substance called turmeric; and the starch from the cells of the young tubers forms one of the kinds of East- Indian The tubers of other species arrowroot. yield very pure starch, and furnish East-

OF Insects. The oral organs

same, which exerts a protective iniiuence, is the residt. Several cultivation-liquids have been be used, among which the following may mentioned. Pasteur's liquid, composed of phosphate of potash 2 pts., phosphate of lime "2, sulphate of magnesia -2, tartrate of ammonia 10, sugar-candy 150, and water

857

pts.

or tartrate
1, distilled

of

ammonia
pts.

pt.,

yeast-ash

water 100

Cohu's

of 1 pt. phosphate of potash, liquid consists of magnesia, 2 tartrate of am1

sulphate

monia, and

"1

of chloride of calcium

water. pts. of distilled

m 200 These liquids should

CUSCUTA.

222

CYATHE^.
and are oblong stalked bodies, divided

Indian arrowi-oots. The grains of an unknown Curcuma imported under that name
are represented in
.

hairs,

fia-.

19 of Plate 46.

CUS'CUTA,

Touruefort. A curious ge-

by perpendicular and transverse septa into (usually) 8 chambers, each of which gives
birth to a zoospore capable of germination. The antheridia occur in an analogous condition on distinct plants they are more sausage-shaped, and divided into a greater
;

nus of Convolvulaeeae (Dicotyledons), consisting of parasitical, leafless plants, annual or perennial, nourished by short radical processes, which they usually send into the interior of the stems of the plants upon which they live, although they sometimes afHx themselves to leaves also ( C. EpithyC. Epi/hmm, wdiich grows in culmtim). tivated fields of flax, and C. TrifuUi, parasitical on clover, twine round the stems Uke

number of minute chambers, from which the spermatozoids or antherozoids are expelled when mature these have never been seen to germinate.
;

red string, and produce root-prorows on the side next the nurseCareful plant, never on the free side. sections show that the woody structm'e of the roots of the parasite penetrates the camhium (or even the pith) of the nurse-plant, and becomes completely grafted on it. In the perennial kinds {C. verrucosa), the roots become imbedded in the annual rings. The embryo of Cuscnta is curious, being filiform, and coiled up like a watch-spring in the seed.

fine

cesses in

BiBL. Ilarvev, Mar. Alg. 36, pi. 6. Phyc. Brit. pL 75; Greville, Brit. Alg. pl.'lO; Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 241, pi. 31, xvi. 12, pi. 1; Kutzing, Phijc. gen. pi. 25. fig. 2.
;

Fig. 149,

i. BiBL. Wheeler, Phytolocjist, 753; Schacht, Beit, Brandt, Linncea^ xxii. 81 z. An. nnd Phys. 1854, 167 ; Uloth, Flora, 1860, 265. CUSPIDEL'LA, Hincks. genus of Hydroid Polj'pi family Lafoeidse. C. Jmmilis. Wales, Shetland, Northum;

berland.

BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. 209. CUTICLE or Animals. See Skin. CUTICLE OF Plants. See Epidermis.

CUTLE'RIA. A
genus of Cutleriacea3 (Fucoid Algae), represented in Britain

Fig. 148.

by

has a " rooting," fanirregularly shaped,

C. multi/ida, -which

laciniated frond from 2 to 8" long, the lacinise riband-like, be-

Cutleria dichotoma. Section of a lacinia of a frond, showing the etalked in tufts with eight-thambered oosporanges growing intercalated hairs. Magnified 50 diameters.

tween and

cartilaginous

CUTLERIA 'CEyE.A family of Fucoid

Algfe.

membranous, olive, with scattered sori, Ijearing on some pl:ints(which have an

orange
dia,
tint) antheri-

CUTTLE-FISH.

See Cutleria. See Sepia.

and on others

ooCutleria dichotoma.

sporatif/es (fig. 148).

oosporanges occur at (fig. 148) the bases of tufted

The

Fragment of a
Kat.
size.

frond.

CYATHEVE. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns, distinguished by the dorsal the forking of globose sori, often at or near a vein, and the insertion of the sporanges on a projecting axis, the annulus of the indusporanges being vertical' (fig. 151) sium (except in Aho^^JdJa) enclosing the
;

sori.

CYATHEA.
Tropical or
rescent.
subtropical,

223

OrCLAMMINA.

mostly

arbo-

Genera.
Sori hemispherical, regularly Cyathea. Indusium at first closed, at aiTanged. length bursting in a circumscissile manner,

spermous Flowering Plants. The microscopic structure of the wood is analogous to that of the Conifers; and the mode of fertilization of the ovules is similar. (See GymNOSPKRMi.A..) Species of Cycas, Zar/iia, &c. are commonly cultivated in botanical gardens. Tliey offer interesting subjects of

and cup-shaped.
Ahophila. Sori globose, regularly arranged. Sporanges inserted on a globose axis, and imbricated. Sori globose, each solitary Ilcmiti'Ua. on a venule. Indusium an ovate, concave, torn scale, situated at the lower side of the
base.

Cnemidaria.

microscopic investigation. The parenchymatous tissue, in the form of pith, large medullary rays, and in Cycas of concentric rings alternating with those of the wood, is remarkable for the quantity of starch contained in it at certain periods. Tliis is extracted and used as arrowroot or sago. Cycas circinalis furnishes a kind of sago (its starchgrains are represented in PL 46. fig. 17). Dion edule yields a kind of arrowroot in Mexico. Encephalartos yields Caffre-bread at the Cape, &c. The wood is composed,
in Cycas and Zamia, almost wholly of large dotted tubes, somewhat hke those of Araucaria (with many rows of bordered pits) (PL 48. fig. 20) but a medullary sheath
;

Receptacle small, scarcely eleDicalpe. vated. Indusium liard-membranaceous, entire, finaUy bursting irregularly at the

summit capsules numerous, nearly sessile, annulus broad. Mutonia. Keceptacle expanded into a firm and membranaceous umbrella-shaped obscurely 6-lobed indusium, enclosing 6 large
;

sessile capsules.

genus of Cyathe88(Polypodiaceous Ferns), most of which are tropical. They have a cup-like inArborescent. dusium, whence the name.
(Figs. loO, 151.)

CYA'THEA, Smith. A

Thyrsopteris.

exists, composed of unrollable spiral vessels, with tubes of varied character, reticulate,

55

species.

Fig. loO.

Fig. 151.

annular or other fibrous forms, as in the and in Zamia the dotted Dicotyledons tubes are said to be uuroUable in some cases into spiral ribands. In Zamia and Encephalartos there does not appear to be a distinction of concentric rings of wood ; but in Cycas these exist, separated by layers of
;

cellular tissue.

rings, hoAvever, not " annual," only five or six existing in old trunks. The leaves of the Cycalarge

The

are

Cyathea elegans. Fig. 150. Pinnule with sori. MagniBed 5 diameters. Fig. 151. Vertical section of a sorus in a cup-like indusium. Magnified 25 diameters.

dacese possess a remarkably solid epidermal structure and in Cycas the upper thickened walls of the epidermal ceUs exhibit porecanals or deep pits running from the cavity of the cell towards the outer sm-face, as well as towards the contiguous cells (PL 47. See Epidermis. The pollen of fig. 28). the Cycadaceae is angular, collected in masses, and transparent ; it is contained in anthers of peculiar form seated on the lower surface of the scales of the male cones.
;

BiBL. Don, Ann.

Trans,
xvi.
xvii.
;

Is.

H.

v.

48; Linn.
Sc.
;

Brongniart, Ann.
Schrift.
;

Nat.

BiBL. Hooker and Baker,

Syn. Fil. 16.

CYATHO'MONAS,
;

From.
;

= Monas

truncate or excavate in front. 8 species freshwater length 1-3000 to 1-1000". C. spissa (PL 53. fig. 17). BiBL. Fromentel, Microzoaires Kent,
;

Link, Icon. Select, fasc. ii. t. ix. & xv. Miquel, Linncea, xviii. 125, and pis. 4, 5, 6 {Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. v. 11). Also the Bibl. of

589

Mohl, Verm.

195

Gymno.spermia.

CY'CAS,

L.

See Cycadace.e.
arena;

Inftis. 141.

CY ATHUS, Hall. See Xidulariacei. CYCADA'CE.E. A family of Gymno-

subglobose, with numerous chambers, lab\Tinthic within ; last chamber opening with a transverse

ceous Foraminifer

CYCLAM;MINA, Brady. An
nautiloid,

CYCLIDINA.
slit
;

224

CYCLOPS.

parts of
p. 43.

and some large pores. Recent in deep tlie Atlantic and Pacific. BiBL. II. B. Brady, Qu. Mic. Jn. xis.

C YCLOCH.E'TA, Jackson. A genus of

Peritrichoiis Infusoria, allied to Trichodina. C. sponf/iUce. In the interstices of the

CYCLIDI'NA, Ehr.A
Char.

family of In-

fusoria.
orifice

freshwater sponge. BiBL. Jackson, Qu. Mic.Jn. 1875 Inf. 050.

Kent,
re-

No carapace; a single alimentary appendages in the form of cilia or

cilia
inp;

"CYCLOCLY'PEUS,

Carpenter.- A

bristles.

latively large, discoidal, Nummuline Foraminifer, winch grows by concentric annuli

formCyclidium.
scat-

a circle
cilia

Bounded,
tered {Flattened,
bristles

Panfotrichum.
Chcetomoiias.

of chamberlets, instead of spirally with successive chambers. It thus beai-s the same relation to its ally Hcteroste(/ina that Orhitolites does to Orbiculina. Known only re-

cent from Borneo.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus.

p. 244.

Hill, Holotrichous Infusoria.

CYCLIDIUM,

Ehr.A genus
;

BiBL. Carpenter, Phil. Tr. 1856 Foram.

;

of

292.

CYCLOGLE'NA, Ehr. A genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatintea.

;

Char. Body compressed organs of locomotion a circle of abdominal cilia-like feet mouth ventral, -o'ith a hood-shaped extensile

Char. Eyes more than three, forming a

cervical group
;

foot forked.

membrane.

C. f/laucoma (PI. 30. fig. 37 c, side view ; Oblong-elliptical, entire, d, dorsal view).

Pharyngeal jaws with one or perhaps

three teeth.

lupus (PI. 43.

; ;

fig. 18).

Body

ovate-

Kent); very fine

-with a long saltatory seta in front (behind, circle of cilia large; dorsal lines
;

contractile vesicle placed at the

; ;

front end (back, Kent) freshwater length 1-2880 to 1-1150". CI. & L. include under
this species Acomia ovuhim, Ah/scum saltans, Enchelys iriquefra, and Uronema marina. C. viaryaritaceum. Orbicular-elliptic,
slightly emarginate posteriorly
lete
;

oblong or conical, not auricled; foot and toes short aquatic length 1-144 to 1-120". C. ? clef/ans. In Egypt. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. p'. 453.

CYCLOGRAM'MA, Perty.A genus

of

Infusoria. C. rtdjcns

cilia

obso-

a Kassula, CI. >t L. Clap. & Lachm. Infus. p. 326 Pertv, Lebensf. p. 146.

BiBL.

pearly; freshwater; length 1-2100 to 1-1000" (this is Glaucoma inaryaritaceiim,

Clap.

& Lachm.). Two doubtful species, C.

&
L.

^ilarmm and

lentiforme. C. el(if;atiim, CI.

of CycUDujarciin includes his species dium, the relation of which to those of Ehrenberg is doubtful, in the family Monadina, with the characters Bodv disk-shaped, depressed or lamelliform, but httle variable in form, with a

CYCLOLiNA, D'Orb. An excessively thin di,^coidal condition of Patellina, consisting of perfect annidi and very little umbilical cell-growth. In Cretaceous strata, France. BiBL. D'Orb. For.Fos. Vien. 139; Parker and Jones, Ann. N. II. ser. 3, vi. 30; Carpenter, Introd. For. 230, 233 ; Carter, An. N. H. 1861, Dec, 464. CYCLOPI'NA, Clans.- genus of Co-

pepodous Entomostraca.
C. littoral is, gracilis,

and
i.

ovalis

single flagelliform filament.

Four

in dredg-

species

ings.

freshwater. nudtdosum.

"With

series

of nodules

and vacuoles; length 1-530".

motion

extremely

slow;

C. abscissttm (PI. 30. fig. 37 b). liform, oval, truncated posteriorly

Lamcl;

motion

slow: length 1-020". C. distortum (PI. 30. fig. 37 a). Oval, nodular, irregidarlv twisted margin thickened length 1-1800". C. crassnm. Length 1-1800 to 1-1100".
;
;

Miiller. A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca, family Cyclopida?. Char. Foot-jaws large and strong, branched eye single, frontal inferior antenna) simple external ovaries two. (Both superior antennae in the male furnished with the swelling and hinge-joint.)

BiBL. Brady, Copep.

91.

CY'CLOPS,

a qjiadricornis (Pi. 20. figs. 8-15). The Variable in colour freslionly species. water length 1-17 to 1-14".
.

CI.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 245 Duj. Infus. 28G; & L. Inf. 27i Kent, Inf. 544.
;

Thorax composed
(apparently the
tail)

of four, and abdomen of six segments ; head

UYCLOrS.
Cdiisolidated

225

(JYCLOTELLA.

with the first and largest joint of the thorax last joint of abdomen consisting' of two separate lobes. Superior antenna3 (hgs. 8, 9 a) composed of many joints (twenty-six, Jiaird), from each of which one or more setfe arise in
; ;

The tail consists of two lobes, each terminated by four variously setigerous filaments, the two intermediate being the longest, and jointed near their origin sometimes there are two to each, and the outer ones Joints
;

male, each superior antenna exliibits a swelliuii- at about its middle (tig. 8 b), followed by a sudden contraction, the first articulation of which forms a hinge-joint inferior antenuaj (tig. 9 b) four-jointed, each joint with seta^, the terminal with six of unequal length. The mandibles (fig. 11) consist of an ovate body (a), narrowed and twisted above, and terminating in a number of brownish teeth, with a marginal serrated seta (b) each mandible has also a palpus, consisting of one segment and two longtlie
;
;

are also jointed. Scarcely a pool of water can be found in which this animal may not be seen darting about in various directions. It varies greatly in structure and appearance, according to age, locality, sex, &:c. ; and these varieties have been admitted as so many species by some authors.

n. 20. fig. 16 represents a recently hatched Cyclops (Nanplius-ioYm) The individuals are frequently covered with VorticeUceanA other parasitic Infusoria.
.

filaments.

Behind the mandibles, the first pair of foot-jaws (fig. 12) are situated each consists of a body, convex externally, concave internally, furnished at the end with two or three strong teeth, and with a single-jointed
;

BiBii. Baird, Ent. 198 Koch, Deutschl, Crustac; Clans, Wier/. Arch. 1857 ; Tr.M. Soc. 1880, 251; Brady, Copep. {Ray Soc). CYCLO'SIS. See Rotation. CYCLOSTO'MATA. suborder of marine Infundibulate Polyzoa. Families Tubuliporidje, Crisiidfe, Hor;

palp-like organ terminated by setse. The second pair of foot-jaws (fig. 13 a b) are divided to the base into two portions an internal (b) smaller, and consisting of four joints, each with one or more setigerous and an external spines, the last with three (a) composed of three joints, to the base of the first of which the internal portion is attached ; this first joint is the longest, and
; ;

neridffi,

and Lichenoporidae. CYCLOTEL'LA, Kiitz. A genus

of

Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules free or adherent, diskshaped, mostly solitary; valves circular,
flat,

convex, depressed or undulated, stria;

ted

strife radiating.

The
stance.

immersed

frustules of some of the species are in an amorphous gelatinous sub-

furnished on its inner side with two tubercles, each with one or two setigerous spines, a longer jointed spine arising from near its distal extremity the second joint is fm'nished with two strong claws of nearly equal size and to its upper edge is attached the third joint, smaller than the second, also furnished with two claws; some of the spines are themselves setigerous. There are five paii'S of legs or feet, four of
;
;

When the valves of (all ?) the species of Cydotella are examined under an objectglass of large aperture, Avith the central stop (Inte. p. xix), the surface is found to be marked with dots in radiating rows, as in some species of Coscinodiscus hence these two genera should probably be united. Some appear to represent the fiaistules of Melosira seen in end view.
;

which are branchial, uniform, and arise from the thoracic segments. Each of these legs (fig. 14) is composed of two branches arising from a common base each branch is threejointed, and each joint is furnished with elegantly plumose setae, the last having six or seven. The fifth pair of legs (fig. 15) are rudimentary, and arise from the first and smallest segment of the abdomen they are two-jointed in the female, and three-jointed in the male. The external ovary (fig. 9) communicates directly with the internal by means of a small canal on each side between the first and second segments of the abdomen.
;
;

K. (Pyxkh'cula opercniata, Discopka Knfzmyn^E.) (PI. 16. fig. 21 a, side view b, front view). Angles of frustules in front view rounded stri89 obC. oncrcuJata,

E.,

scure, very short, giving the margin a punctate diameter appearance ; freshwater
;

attaining 1-1000". K. /3. rectangnia,

(PI. 10. fig. 22).

(C

Ki'dzhigiana,

S.)

Angles of front view not

distinct.

rounded
.

striae

more

C.Menef/hiniana. Valves plane, distinctly at the margin ; fr. wat. ; length 1-1440". Twice as broad. ^. major.
striated
C. antiqwt,

S.

(Discopka atmosphenca, Q

CYCLOTEIOHA.
:

226

CYLINDROTHECA.

Valves convex ; striae broad, reaching E.). neither the centre nor the margin fr. wat. ; diam. 1-7G0". Kiitziug characterizes three marine species, Avith the valves free from striae, and
seventeen doubtful species, marine and fossil, belonging to the genera Actinocydus, Discoplea, and Hyalodiscus of Ehreuberg.

FilaC. catenatum, Ralfs (PI. 8. fig. 4). ordinary cells orbicular ; vesicular cells oval sporanges oval, cate-

ments monilif orm

nate.

(Ralfs, Ann. N. H. 1850, vol. v. pi. 9. fig. 14.) Forming a bluish stratum, containing very delicate, elongated, straight or slightly flexuose, generally parallel filaments.

Rabenhorst describes 9

species, BiBL. Kiitzing, Syn. Dial. Bacill. 50, and Sj). Aly. 18; Ehrenberg, Bcrl. Ber., Infus.,
;

The remaining British species are not described by Ralfs ; but the following are noticed as British by Kiitzing.
Filaments O. macrospermiim, Kiitz. thick, equal ; ordinary cells oblong, l-700th of a line in diameter ; sporanges oblong,
tm-gid, fh-m, fuscous, 1-100 to 1-00" long, 1-300 to 1-200'" thick. Kiitzing, Sp. Aly. 293 ; Tah. Phyc. vol. i. pi. 98. fig. 4. Anahaina impalpehralis, Hassall, Alyce, pi. 75.
'

and

Mikrog. Smith, Brit. Diat. 27 ; Thwaites, Ann. N. H. 1848, i. 169. CYCLOT'RICHA, Kent. genus of Holotrichous Infusoria.

citrea=Ophryoylena

citreum,

01.

&

Lachm.

CY'CLOUM, Hass. genus of Infundibulate Ctenostomatous Polyzoa. Char. Zoar}' fleshy, iucrusting, covered with imperforate papillfe ; ova in clusters. C. impUlosum. Tentacles 18 ; on Fucus serrafns referred to Alcyonidium.
:

BiBL. Hassall, Aym. N. H. 1841, vii. p. 483; Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 19 (fig.); Hincks, Polyz. 493. CoccoCYLINDROCYS'TIS. See CHLOHIS.

Standing water; forming an aeruginous green stratum. Filaments C. mesohptum, Kiitzing. densely entangled, unequal, 1-800 to 1-850'" thick; sporanges oblong, 1-180 to 1-150'" long, 1-350 to 1-300"' broad, slightly constricted in the middle. Kiitzing, Sp. Aly. Tah. Phyc. vol. i. pi. 98. fig. 5. Anahaina
fig. 3.
;

constricta,

Hassall,
;

^riiginous green

CYLINDRCE'CID^.
:

family

of

Excluded yatum = Spha'rQzyya

C.

Algce, pi. 75. fig. 9. in brackish marshes. C. elonspecies of Kiitzing

:

Ctenostomatous Polyzoa. Gen. Cylindroccbim and Anyuixella. CYLINt)R(E'CIUM, Hincks. genus of Cyhudrrecidee, Ctenostomatous Polyzoa.

leptospermum
;

= Sphcerozyya

eJastica,

Ag. (Ralfs);
leptosperma

C. Car michaelii= Sphccrozyya Car(Ralfs) michaclii (Harvey) ; C. Balfsii= IJoIicho-

Cliar. Cells elongate, cylindrical, arising

from a creeping stolon; no gizzard. species, marine, on rocks, sea-weeds, &c. BiBL. Hincks, Polyz. 535.

C. HassaUii= Cospiermiua Balfsii (Ralfs) niophytum Thompsoni (Hassall). Rabenhorst describes 13 European species. BiBL, Ralfs on Nostochinece , Ann. N, H.
;

CYLTNDROLEBE'RIS, Brady. A
:

ge-

Kiitzing, Sp. Aly. 1850, vol. V. 321 benhorst, Fl. Ah/, ii. 180.
;

Rasup-

nus of Ostracode Entomostraca, fam. Cypridinidee.

CYLINDROS'PORUiAI, Grev.A

2 recent British species C. marue and teresj both marine. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Trans, xxvi. p. 404.

posed genus of parasitic Fungi, stated by Tidasne to consist of the conidiiferous forms
of Sphaeriacei. C. concentricum, Grev.

= Uredo

CYLINDR'OPSYL'LUS, Brady. A
iii.

cylindro-

ge-

nus of Copepodous Entomostraca.

in dredgiugs.

C. Icevis,

BiBL. Bradv, Copcp. (Bay Soc),

30.

CYLINDRbSPER'MUxAI,Klitzing(^r2rtand others). A genus of buina, Bory

spora ,\\oo\<.. Br. FL, grows upon the leaves It appears however, that of cabbages. Greville's plant is really a species of Glaosporinm, and quite different from the fungi with Avhich it has been confounded.
ley,

Nostochaceae (Confervoid Algae), with the filaments less radiating than in the allied distinguished under the miSphccrozyya croscope by the resemblance of the filaments to an aunulose animal the ordinary cells looking like a long jointed body, the large elliptic sporangial cell like a thorax, and the terminal ve.:^icular cell often bearing fine British species hairs, like a head.
;

BiBL. Grev. <S'c. Crypt. Fl.t. xxix.; BerkeMort. Tr. iii. 2Go; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. v. 100 Berkeley, Oidl. 325.

CYLINDROTHE'OA, Rab.A

genus

of Diatomacoa?. Char. Frustules fusiform, free, ends acute ; with 2 (rarely 1 or 3) longitudinal flexuous costae ; no nodules.
C. Gerstenherycri (PI. 51
i'ruatules cylindrical,
.

fig.

34).

Living

obtusely attenuate at

CYLINDROTIlECimi.
ends
;

227

CYNIPID.E.

leiig-tli

dried frustules fusiform, acuminate ; 1-90". Conimonin pools and ditches

i.

Cymhalopora is rare in the Upper Chalk, and some Tertiary strata more common in
;

(Germany).
BiBi,. Kabenliorst, Flor. Ah/,
p. 145.

the tropical seas. BiBL. Carpenter, Foram. 215.

CYLINDROTIIE'CIUM,
=Nf,ckera.
BiBL. Wilson,
constricted

i3r.

and Sch.

CYMBEL'LA, Ag. A

genus of Diatofree
;

Bri/ol. Brit. p. 3i'G.

macete. Char. Frustules

Fl.

solitary,

valves

CYMATONE'MA,
G^O(/onia.
Ah/,
iii.

Kiitz.

mididate-

(Kabenliorst,

cymbiform, unsymmetrical, with a subcentral and two terminal nodules, a submedian

longitudinal line, and transverse or slightly radiating striae. Freshwater and fossil. Frustules sometimes immersed in an amorphous gelatinous mass. C.Ehrenbergii, K, (PI. 51. fig. 2: a, front
,

genus of Diatomacefe. This genus was founded by Hassall as Sphiiicfoci/s/is, and should be retained (see the laws of nomenclature, in the Ann. N. H. 1843, ii. 259); but Smith's excellent Monograph has caused his term to be generally adopted.
Char.

CYMATOPLEU'RA, Sm. A

351.)

view

h,

side view).

Broadly lanceolate,

Frustules free, single

in
;

front

view hnear, with undidate margins valves oblong or elliptical, sometimes constricted
in the middle.

apices slightly produced, somewhat obtuse ; striae distinct (resolvable into dots) ; length 1-200". (Fossil in San Fiore deposit.) Several British species, and more foreign, differing characters.

from each other by slight

Freshwater.

Valves with coarse, transverse or nearly rounded elevations appearing as dark bands an interrupted median line coarse marginal dots, and transverse strite ; but neither alae nor nodules.
so,
; ;

cies,

Rabenhorst describes 31 European spewith numerous varieties. BiBL. Smith, Brit. Dial. 17; Kiitziug, Bacill. 79, and Sp. Alg. 57. CYMBOSIRA, Kiitz.A genus of Dia-

Several British species.

Valves linearthe elliptic, narrowed on each side towards middle transverse strife evident extreme length 1-216". Undidations six common. undulations fewer, 0. JMucli shorter ; ends apicidate. S. Valves (PI. 16. tig. 24).
S. solea (PI. 16. hg. 23).
;

tomacese. Char. Frustules resembling those ofAchnanthes solitary or binate, stipitate, attached end to end, and thus concatenate. Marine. Frustules C. Agardhii (PI. 19. fig. 18).
;

linear,

elliptica^

broadly elliptic, or elliptic-oblong; striae obscm'e undulations foiu- or five ; length 1-280" common.
;
;

finely striated, slightly arcuate, at ends ; valves oblong-linear, slightly dilated in the middle, apices obLength 1-960 to 1-280". tusely rounded.

rounded

S.

hihernica.
;

acuminate
25'0'.

Valves broadly elliptic, midulations three ; length 1;

C. minutula, Grun. BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacill. 77, and Sp. Alg. 57 Grunow, Wien. Verh. 1863.

CYNIP'ID/E, Gall-flies. A family

BiBL. Ilassall, Ahjcd, 436 Smith, Br. i. 36 Eabenhorst, Fl. Ahj. i. 60. CYMATOSIRA, Grun. genus of Diatomaceai. Cliar. Frustules united into bands; un-

of Insects, belonging to the Entomophagous section of the order Hymenoptera.

Dmf.

dulate in front view

distinctly punctate
C.
;

valves lanceolate,
line.

no median

Valves broadly lanceolate, very convex ends produced. At the bottom of the Adi'iatic. BiBL. Rabenhorst, Flor. Ah/, i. p. 124.
(PI. 51. fig. 35).
;

Lorenzmna

Char. Head small, transverse; antennfe inserted in the middle of the face, of moderate length, slender, not geniculated, composed of twelve to fifteen j oints ; maxillary palpi of four or five, labial of two or three joints ; thorax oval, gibbous, with the mesothorax large, and the scutellum very

prominent
veins,

CYMBALO 'POR A,

wings transparent, with few anterior usually with three or four cells, and the posterior with a single

the

Hageiiow. One

of

vein

abdomen

sKort,

much

compressed,

the Foraminifera Globt'i/erinhla, in which the spiral is merged in a cj'clical growth at an early stage, the shell increasing by rings of sac-like chambers, which open into the hollow base of the trochoid shell. C. Poeyi (D'Orb.) (PI. 24. f. 17) is the type.

with a short peduncle, its basal segment veiy nari-ow rings. large, the rest small, forming In the females of these insects, which are all of small and some of minute size, the
last

segment of the abdomen, which occupies a considerable portion of its lower surface,

q2

CYNIPIDJE.
forms a channel, in which
is

228

CYNIPID^.

lodged the very

This organ, the condelicate ovipositor. struction of Avhich has heeu the subject of some controversy, consists, as pointed out by Westwood, of the same parts as that
of
parasitic Hymenoptera of {Iclineinnonidcc, Chalcidid(P, Sec), immely,

the

ordinary

a superior

bristle,

channelled beneath, and

of two finer inferior bristles, ceived into the channel of

which are

re-

the former. Although this ovipositor is not exserted, it is of great length, reaching up to the base of the abdomen in a subspiral curve it is enclosed at its base between two broad the basal joints of the plates, representing bivalvular sbeath of the ovipositor in other Hymenoptera and the slender second j oints of these valves accompany it to the apex of All these parts are concealed the abdomen. within the walls of the abdomen (PI. 36.
;
;

the ground, and there pass to the pupa-state. The larvae are liable to be attacked by species of parasitic HjTnenoptera, especially tlie long-tailed Chalcididje (such as Ccdlimome, PI. 36. fig. 14) these pierce through the substance of the gall and deposit their eggs in or upon the Cynipidous larvae, which are subsequently devoured by those hatched from the eggs of the parasite. The recent elaborate researches of Adler show that the Cynipidae exhibit the phenomena of parthenogenesis, and that they are dimorphic. Thus, in some broods, both sexes are present while in others, fe;
;

males only are produced. The members of the two broods are quite dissimilar, and have been regarded as constituting different genera
difl'erent.
;

the galls they produce are also

fig. 15).

These observations serve to solve the mystery existing some years ago as to the non- occurrence of males among large
broods of Cynips, He also states that the reproductive organs in the two kinds of broods are very similar and that tliere is a rudimentary receptaculum semiuis in the
;

in the

Although placed from their organization same section of the Hymenoptera as the parasitic Ichueumonidfe, most of
the Cynipidae feed upon \egetable subThe females stances in the larva-state. bore with their ovipositor into the tissues of their plants and trees, and there deposit eggs, from which small footless larvee are produced. The irritation caused by the injury thus done to the tissues, gives rise to a morbid action in the part of the plant attacked, which is thus incited to grow out into an excrescence varying in size, form, and structure according to the specificnature of the plant, the part of the plant upon which, and the parasite by which, the wound has been inflicted. Thus the oak, which, of all our native trees, is most infested by Cynipidas, furnishes nourishment to upwards of a dozen species, which attack all parts of it, from the leaves and flower-buds to the root, and each of which confines its operations to a particular portion of the tree, and gives rise to a pecuThese morbid growths liar excrescence. are commonly known as ffalls, and the insects producing them as GaU-Jlies the
;

agamic generations.

The
soft

tissues of the galls are

sometimes

juicy, sometimes hard and woody ; in the latter case the woody tissue lies im-

and

mediately beneath the skin, and within it is a layer of cellular tissue filled with These galls are usually starch-grains. formed on branches or twigs. One of the most remarkable of them is the Bedeguar gall of the wild rose, which is produced by the puncture of Rhodifes liosce (PI. 36. tig. it is a large gall entirely covered with 16) compound bristles, like those of the mossrose, which give it the appearance of a
:

ball of
cells,

moss
;

in its interior are

numerous

each of which serves as a habitation

and the whole is produced at for a larva the extremity of a shoot of the wild rose, upon which the female gall-fly deposits

numerous

eggs.

family, also, is called GalUcola- by some The larvae feed in the interior of authors. the galls those of some species are solitary, whilst of others numerous individuals may
;

be found in the same gall, according as the parent insect has deposited one or more eggs in the same spot. When full-grown,
the larvaj usually undergo their transformabut in some instances tions within the gall they eat their way out, bury themselves in
;

The Cherry-gall of the oak-leaf is produced by Cynips folii (tig. 17), one of the commonest of our native species and another gall-fly, Teras termuudis (fig. 18), by attacking the young shoots of the oak, gives The origin to the well-known oak-apples. leav6s of the oak are also attacked by at least two so-called species of the genus Neuroterus, which really consists of the
;

parthenogenetic brood of Spaf/wf/uster, the punctures of which give rise to small, flat, rounded galls, attached to the leaf only by a small portion of their lower surface, and

CYNIPID^.

229

CYPHELLA.
;

bearing so close a resemblance to certain Fuiio-i, that tlioy wore at one time supposed
to
bi>

Ihalia segments nearly equal in length cidteJlata (PI. .30. fig. 20) is one of the largest

parasitic vegetable growths.

These

galls,

which are commonly known as oakspamjh's, may be met with in abundance

during the winter on the fallen leaves in oak woods the flies are i)roduced in the spring
:

and

the
is

most

abundant species in

this

British Cynipidas. Adler's admirable memoir, in whieh many of the galls are figured, will allow of the identification of most, if not all the British kinds. BiBL. Reaumur, Me moire s Burgsdorf,
;

the Neuroteris longipennis (fig. The root of the oak is attacked by 19). several kinds, one of which, Biorhizn aptera, the partheuogenetic form of Teras terminalis, is destitute of wings; another deposits its eggs in the male catkins of the same tree, producing a series of galls resembling a small bunch of currants. It would be impossible for us here to enimierate the different kinds of galls produced by these beautiful little insects even upon our indigenous plants and trees, the history of which in many cases is very imperfect, whilst we have scarcely any information with regard to exotic species. The most important of all is the common gall-nut, which is produced by the puncture of the Cynips lincforia upon the shoots of the Qucrcus infectoria, a species of oak growing in the Levant. The celebrated Dead-sea apples are also found upon this oak they ai'e as large as a good-sized apple, and of a spongy texture internally, containing only a single larva of a species which has been described by Westwood under the name of Cynips insana. All the species of Cynipidce do not, how-

coimtry

Schriften Gesellsch, naturforsch.

iv.
;

Boyer de Fonscolombe, Ann.

;

Freunde, !Sc. Nat,

xxvi. Westwood, Introd. vol. ii., May, Nat. Hist. vi. and viii., and in Guerin's Mag. Zoohgie ; Walker, Ent. Mag. ii. & iii. j Brandt and Ratzebm-g, Medizin. Zool. ii. ; Ratzeburg, Forst-Insecten Bouche, Natnrgesch. d. Insecten ; Hartig in Germar's Zeits,
;

fiir die Zool. liii.

Mn.
443
;

Entomol. Adler, Zeitsclir. iviss. 151 Abridg. McLachlan, Entom. Mag. 1881, xvii. 258 Jn. Mic. Soc. i.
; ; ;

Ormerod, Man. Inj.

Ins., 1881.

OYNODON'TIUM, Br. and Sch.=DiCBANTJM. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. 60. OYNOPHAL'LU'S. genus of Phalloidei (Gasteromycetous Fungi), distinguished from Phallus by having the pileus

imperforate.
C. caiiinus occurs

amongst decayed leaves

;

in Avoods.

BiBL. Sow.

t.

330

CYNTHIA, Sav. A
length.

Berk. Outl. p. 298. genus of Tunicate

Mollusca, of the family AsciDiADiE. The numerous species are from |-2" in

ever, produce galls.

galls,

The species

of Hartig's

genus Syneryus deposit theu" eggs in other

larvae,

BiBL. That of the family. CYPHEL'LA, Fries. genus of Hymenomycetes (Basidiomj^cetous Fungi),

upon the substance of which the when hatched, feed parasitically, and
devour the original tenant.
Besides

Fig. 152.

Fig. 153.

finally

these species, which live partly upon vegetable and partly upon animal food, there are

many

others,

forming

several

genera in
Cyphella Taxi.
Fig. 152. Entire plant, magnified 10 diameters. Fig. 153. Horizontal section of the wall of the cup, showing the basidioSiiores, magnified 250 diameters.

Hartig's classification, which live entirely as parasites upon other insects, especially Aphides and the larvae of Dipterous flies ; thus justifying the otherwise anomalous of the Cyoiipidfe, as a phytophagous position family in the Entomophagous group of the Amongst these we need Hymenoptera. only mention the species of the genus Allotria, "SVestw. (Xystus, Hartig), of which a very abundant one is parasitic upon the roseAphis, and those of the genera Anaeharis, of which one Figites, and Ihalia. The latter,
species only
is

forming somewhat

membranous minute

cups, sessile or stalked upon branches of trees or upon mosses ; bearing basidiospores on a layer foTming a kind of lining to the cup; the spores ultimately separating as a powder in the interior. Some supposed species of Peziza, as P.
villosa

known

in this country, is

and P.

albo-violascens,

appear to be
sporiferous

remarkable from the structure of its abdomen, which is knife-shaped, and has the

species of Cyphella, or rather states of Pezizce,

CYPHIDIUM.
Ann.
BiBL. Fries, Syst. Myc. ii. 201 Sc. Kat. 2 ser. xvi. 237.
;

230

CYPRIS.
Entomostraca,
fam.

L^veille,

of Ostracode
dinidfe.

Cypri-

CYPPIID'IUM, Ehr.A genus

of Infu-

Char.

Valves oval or oblong, smooth,

antero-inferiorly,

soria, of the

family Arcellina. Char. Carapace urceolate, tuberculated expansion variable, broad, single and entire. The carapace is combustible, and resembles a small cube, with a short pedicle.
;

notched

posterior

end

somewhat produced.

Superior

antennae

C. mircolum (PI. ?>0. Cubical, fig. 38). fr, gibbous, expansion (fig. 385) layaline wat. length 1-570 to 1-432". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 135. CYPHODE'lilA, Schlumb. genus of Rhizopoda, of the family ArceUina. Char. Carapace membranous, resisting, ovoid, elongated in front, recurved and constricted in the form of a neck and marked with oblique rows of projections orifice
_

seven-jointed; setfe of moderate length; natatory branch of inferior antennpe ninejointed, bearing moderately long setfe; secondary branch very small, subulate. Basal joint of mandibular feet bearing an entire subconical and densely hairy process penultimate joint much elougated, and beset on the internal margin with numerous ringed setre last joint very short and al;

most obsolete. 2 European species

Messinensis.

C.

Norvegica and C.

Many

fossil

forms, apparently identical

oblique expansions very long, filiform, very slender at the end, simple or
circular,
;

branched.

with Cypridina, occur in the Mountainlimestone and the Coal-measures of Europe and the British Isles some also in the
;

Agrees with Diffliujia enchelys, E. {Trinema, Duj.), in the oblique orifice, the oblique rows of markings, and the nature of the expansions, but differs from it in
the presence of the anterior neck-like constriction.

Maestricht Chalk. BiBL. Brady, Zool. Proc. 1871, 289; M.-Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust, jii. 409; Jones, K., & B., Mongr. Carh. Entom., Pal. Soc. 1871.

CYPllID'IUM.A genus
chous Infusoria (Kent,

of Hj^otri-

Probably species of Em/hjpha (CI. & L.). C. marf/aritacea. Carapace yellowish, expansions twice its length ; fr. wat. length 1-380 to 1-180". BiBL. Schlnmberger, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1845, iii. p. 255. CYPIIONAU'TES, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Megalotrochaea. Char. Eyes absent no teeth.
;

C YPRIDOP'SIS,Br. A genus of Ostracode Entomostraca, family Cypridaj. Char. Those of Cypris, except that the post-abdominal rami are rudimentary and
setiform. 5 hving British species. C. vidua, Br. Cypris vidua, Bd. ; C. villosa, Jir.= Cypris Westiooodii, Bd. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 375 ; Ann. Nat. Hist. 1872, ix. G4.

Inf., 215).

C. compressus (PI. 43. fig. 19, side

fig.

view

20,

view from above).

;

Compressed,
:

obtusely triangular, truncate in front, subacutely gibbous at the back marine length
1-180"".

BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 395.

CYPREL'LA,
Found

I)e
'

Koniuck. A
;

CY'PRIS, Mliller. A genus of Ostracode Entomostraca, family Cypridae. Char. LoAver antennfe simple, with a brush of sette and clawed at the apex setae
;

fossil

Cxipridina carapace annulated by superficial transverse furrows. in the Carboniferous Limestone of Belgium and the British Islands. BiBL. De Koninck, Carh. Foss. Belq. 1844, 589 Jones, M. Mic. Jn. 1870, pi. (Vl
;
.

Ostracod, related to

of upper antennae very long ; feet two pairs, the last bent up between the valves. Post-

abdominal rami forming two elongate rami, clawed at the apex. Animal swimming
freely.

f.

10.

CYPRIDEL'LA, De Kon.- A

fossil

Os-

tracod closely allied to Cypridina. Very common in the Carbonifei'ous Limestone of the British Isles and Belgium. BiBL. De Koninck, Carh. Foss. Behj. 1844, 590 Jones, M. Mic. Jn. 1870, pi. 61.
;

Body enclosed within a bivalve, horny, mostly subreniform uv long oval carapace or shell. Superior antennfe (PI. 20. fig. 18) seven-jointed, with pretty long, mostly feathery filaments, arising from the three or
four last joints.
Inferior antennae
(fig.

19)

leg -like, five-jointed, giving oft" the tuft of usually feathery filaments, the last joint terminated by four strong curved claws.

f.

9.

CYPRLDI'NA, M.-Edwards. A

genus

Labrum composed of a somewhat hoodshaped piece, projecting between the two

CYRTOSTOMUM.
inferior antenuaB
o-ated
;

^'31

CYSTOPHRYS.

labium or lower lip elonMandibles (tig-. 20) five teeth large, pointi'd at one end, with at the other, and furnished with a three-

and

triang-ular.

larger crystals usually exhibit a number of smaller liexagoual tables irregularly arranged

jointed setigerous palp, the basal joint of which has a small branchial jouit with live terminal digitations. First pair of jaws a large basal plate (a), (tig. 21) consisting of with fonr hnger-like processes at its anterior extremity, one of which is two-jointed, and all terminated by several long filaments from the outer edge of this plate arises a large elongated branchial lamina (b) giving oft' from its crescentic margin Second nineteen long pectinate spines.
:

The crystals usually exhibit colour with polarized light. Cystine is most readily obtained in crystals from a calculus by solution in ammonia and
are
-with.

upon them; sometimes rectangular plates

met

but

little

pair of jaws (ftg. 22) small, and composed of two flattened joints, the terminal one having several rigid hairs at the end, and a First pair of feet lateral palp-like process. the last (fig. 23) slender and five-jointed, Second pair of joint with a strong hook.

the last joint terminated by two short hooks and a spurfeet (fig. 24) fom--jointed,
like posterior filament. species. virens {tristriata, Bd.) (PI. 20. figs. Shell oval, and somewhat reni17-25).

Twenty-seven living British

spontaneous evaporation. Some of the forms of lithic acid prepared artificially, resemble those of Cystine (PI. 12. group 8 b) tliey may be distinguished by the addition of ammonia, which dissolves the cysthie, but has little or no action upon the uric acid. Carbonate of potash also somewhat resembles cystine in the form of its crystals but water or acetic acid (PI. 10. fig. 13) will at once distinguish them. CYSTICER'CUS, Rud. Formerly considered a genus of Cystic Entozoa but now known to be the scolices of Tmnia. They consist of the short body of a Tcenia, with the double crown of hooks and the suckers, terminated posteriorly by a larger or smaller cyst or vesicle. They occur in the organs and the tissues of animals when reaching the alimentary canal, becoming
;

form, posteriorly exhibiting three narrow oblique streaks or dark bands valves convex, green, and covered with dense short hairs. Near the centre of each valve are about seven small lucid spots. Fr. wat.
;

developed into the perfect Tanics. They have no sexual organs. C. cdluhsca (PL 21. fig. 3), the most common, is the scolex of Tcenia solium.

very common.
Several
Ci/pris
fossil

The head is almost tetragonal, neck very short body cylindrical, often longer than
;

Ostracoda are referred to

;

BiBL. Baird, Eidom. 151 Straus, Mem. Nat. vii. 1821 ; Edwards, Tr. Hist. N. Crust, iii. ; Brady, Linn.
d. JIus. d. Hist.

by

palteontologists.

xxvi. 360, and Ann. N. H. 1872, ix. 64 ; Rup. Jones, Mon. Tert. Entom., Palceont. Geol. Mar/, vii. 158. Soc. 1836 CYRTOS'TO^IUM, Stein. genus of Holotrichous Infusoria.
;

C.

CYSTIC OXIDE

leucas= Bursaria {Frontonia)

I.

very rare component nary calculi in man and the dog. It is stated also to occur in the lU'ine, in solution and as a crystalline deposit ; but we have never met with it. Cystine is insoluble in water and alcohol soluble in mineral acids, but not in acetic
;

or CYSTINE. or constituent of uri-

the vesicle breadth of cyst half an inch length of body, 1-6 to 2-5", or 1" when extended. Occurs in the anterior chamber and beneath the conjunctiva of the Qje, also in the voluntary muscles and brain of man in the connective tissue of the pig, " producing measly pork ;" also in the ape, the dog, the ox, &c. C. tenuicolUs of the sheep is the scolex of T. marginuta of the fasciolaris, of the rat and mouse dog T. crassicollis of the (PI. 21. fig. 3 b, head) cat; C. pisifor7nis of the i-nhhlt= T. serrata of the dog C. talpce and C. lonc/icollis, in; ;
;

festing moles, become respectively T. tenuicolUs and T. crassiceps of the fox.

BiBL.

Dujardiu, Helm.

632

Monier,

Cysticerq. 1880 ; Beueden, Vers Cestoiden ; Cobbold, Parasites, and the Bibl. of T.^nia.

soluble in solutions of fixed alkalies, their carbonates, and in solution of ammonia. It is precipitated from its solu-

acid;

also

CYSTINE. See Cystic Oxide. CYSTOCOC'CUS, Nag. = Pbotococcus.

CYS'TOPHRYS, Archer.A
Rhizopoda
:

genus of

tion

by

acetic acid.

Its crystals form colourless, regular sixsided plates or prisms (PI. 13. group 5) the
;

2 species C. Hdcheliana and C. oculea, Bibl. Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 259.

CYSTOPTERIS.
CYSTOr'TERIS, Bernbardi. A
Fio-,

232

CYSTOSEIEA.

genus

even

of Davalliete (Polypodiaceous Ferns), coii-

when they have fallen apart, these connecting pieces are seen projecting on
them hke
have been broken

154.

which thej' Both the adherent sporangial membrane and the smooth proper
parts of a stalk from
ofi^.

coat of the spores are colourless, the contents granular and whitish. Tulasue has recently discovered another form of spore, spheroidal or trigonal, and of a yellow colour, only one or two of which are foiined from the end of a fertile filament. Oospores are also found deeply seated amongst the

mycelium

and zoospores (PL 27. fig. 14) have been found by De Bary in C. canSee Ueedinei. British species clidus. formerly placed in the Uredinei, but more
;

Cystopteris fragilis. pinnule with the sori covered by the indusia. Magnified 10 diameters.

nearly allied to Peronosporfe C. candklus. Lev. Very

common on

little indigenous tainiug several elegaut species (fig. 154). BiBL. Hooker and Baker, Syn.Jil. 103. CYS'TOPUS,Leveille. genus of Uredinei (Pliycomycetous Fungi), of which the ' white rust common on cabbages and other

Crucifer^e, producing great distortion in the Uredo Candida, Pers., Grev. Sc. growth. Cnjpt. Fl. t. 251.
C. cuhicus, Str.

On goatsbeard.

Cooke,

Exs. no. 88.

C.Sepif/onijDe By. On Spergularia rubra. Cooke, Exs. no. 88. Cspinulosus, De By. On Cirstmn arvense. Cooke, Exs. no. 89. BiBL. Leveille, A)in. Sc. Nat. 3 ser.
viii.

'

Cruciferous plants is a good example apburstpearing in white pustules, eventually of the ing and destroying the epidermis
;

of leaves, stalks, flowers, and seed-vessels fine slices of the infected plants. these pustules are examined under the mi-

When
is

croscope, the

among

the cells of the parenchyma, com-

myceHum

found, creeping

branched posed of inarticulate, tubular, filaments, with a colourless membrane and whitish granular contents. Numerous ramifications spread out in the plane of the in tufts epidermis while others spring up
;

Berkeley, Jforf. Trans, iii. 265 Bary, Brandpilze, Berlin, 1853, p. 20, pi. 2. figs. 3-7, and Ann. Sc. Nat. 18G3, XX. 130 (zoospores) Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. ii. 108, 171 Sachs, Bot. 279. C YSTOSEI'RA, Ag. genus of Fuca;

3G9
;

(figs.)

De

cea3(rucoidAlge),of much-branched habit, some species of which are common on rocks in tide-pools or between tide-marks. The gradually attenuated branches contain infiated air-sacs, atintervalsalongtheir length, within their substance. The conceptacles

of two to seven, or rarely singly, perpendicular to tlio former, to produce spores. These erect branches are at first mere horizontal filapouches projecting from the ments; they gradually swell into ovateThe consacs. cylindrical or club-shaptKl tents in the summit of each such sac become organized into a spore, which at leugtli of the sac (sporange). quite fills up the top Then the sac or sporange becomes constricted under this first spore, and the formation of a second commences under the This is repeated until a neckconstriction. lace-like chain of spores is produced, the

immersed in the ends of the branches, which are pierced by their numerous pores. They contain both spores and antheridia, but not mixed the spores occur at the bottom of the cavity, the antheridia above, near
are
;

the pore.
coat.

The antheridia have only a single The antherozoids are expelled in a

somewhat spores subsequently becoming The number apjjears cylindrical or cubical. five and seven spores have been indefinite found in a chain they are united by the constricted portions of the sporange; and
;
;

mass, and soon after begin to move, turning rapidly upon their axes. They are oval or spherical in one direction, and rather compressed in the other. They have two cilia inserted on a red granule; the long cilium in front moves rapidly, while the posterior short one is motionless. See Fucace^.

Bibb. Harvey, Mar. Akj.

Brif. 133, &c. Thuret, xvi. pp. 7 10.
;

pi. 1

Ann.

Sc.

B rhyc. Nat. 3 s5r.

;

&

CYSTOTRICHA,
CYSTOT'RICIIA,

233

CYTHERURA.

Berk, and Jiioome supposed genus of Sphasroneniei (Couiomycetous Fungi). Minute fungi forming dots or lines upon wood from which the baric has been stripped. Only one species

Numerous

fossil species, from the Carboniferous to Tertiary strata inclusive. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 472 Zool, Tr. V. 362 ; R. Jones, Mon. Cret. EnUmi. 1849, 28 ; Mo7i. Tert. Lntom., Palceont. Soc.
;

is

described.
C.striohl,^^evk.

1856, 54.
fossil

and Br. Perithecia black, with a reddish tiuo-e, opening by a reddish

disk.

C YTIIERELLI'N A, Jones. An obscure Ostracod, very common in the upper

iii.

BiBL. Berk, and Br. Ann. N. H. 1850,

467,
10. pi. 1-2. tig.

v.

Silurian strata of Britain and Europe. BiBL. R. Jones, Aim. N. IT. ser. 4. 215.

CYTII'ERE, Miill. genus of Eutomostraca, of the order Ostracoda,aud family

Oytheridpe. Char. Shell

CYTHERID'EA, Bosquet. A genus of Ostracode Entomostraca, family Cytheridse. Char. Shell subtriangular, thick and compact,

usually hard,
;

calcareous,

rough and uneven

;

mouth with
;

a lip and

Mouth with

labr urn masticatory organs well developed ; maudibles toothed at the end lower an-

smooth, pitted, papillose or rugose. a lip and labrum masticatory organs well developed mandibles toothed at apex; lower antennae four-jointed upper
; ; ;

four-jointed; upper antennae fivejointed, last three joints elongated, spiniferous feet in the male and female alike internal lobe of the first pair of maxillae weU developed. Not capable of swimtemi{B
; ;

five-jointed,

elongated, spiniferous ; feet in male and female unlike right foot of first pair in the male prehen;

last

three joints

sile,

right of

the second pair

weak and

ming. Those having the valves almost regidarly oblong, with the surface very irregular ,being wrinkled, ridged, and beset with tubercles, and crenulate or strongly toothed on the margin, have been separated by Rupert Jones imder Cythereis.

rudimentary. 10 living British species. Several fossil Cretaceous and Tertiary species. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi, 421 Zool.
;

Tr. V. 370 R. Jones, Mon. Tert. Entom., Pal. Soc. 1856, 40, and Geol. Mag. vii. 76, 158.
;

CYTHERIDETS,
some
fossil

Jones. A subgenus
C.

46 living British

species.

Many

fossil

Cytherae are recorded, which, however, most probably belong to allied genera, undistinguishable by the valves alone. Brady records 22 species as occurring in post-tertiary deposits of Britain. BiBL. Baird, Brit. JEnfom. 163
;

of Ostracode Entomostraca. 1 living British species,

Tertiary.
IcEontog. Soc.

subulata

reputed species, Cretaceous and

Brady,
ser. 4.

BiBL. Jones, Monogr. Tert. Entom., Pa1856, 46 (shell) Brady, A7in. N. IL 1872, ix. 58 (animal).
;

Linn.
ix.

I'r.
;

xxvi. 394, and

Ann. N. H.
Jones.

CYTHEROPSIS,
Bradv.

Sars

Eucythere,

68

Zool. Tr. v. 376.

CYTHERE'IS, Rup.
THERE.

See Cy-

CYTHEROP'TERON,

Sars. A genus

Bosquet. C YTHEREL'LA, Entomostraca, A genus of Ostracode

R. Jones and

of Ostracode Entomostraca, Char. Valves of shell unequal, with pro-

fa-

mily Cytherellidse. Char. Valves unequal, very thick and calcareous, not notched in front. Upper antennse very large, seven-jointed, and geniculate at the base lower broad, flattened, and two-branched; mandibles very small, witb a large pectinate-setose palp three of hinder limbs, scarcely pediform, the
;
;

minent lateral alee. JNlouth with labium and labrum masticatory organs well developed maudibles toothed lower antennae
; ; ;

five-jointed; upper five-jointed; postabdomiual lobes broad and short, with three
setae
;

eyes none.

pairs

two

anterior pairs

branchial,

the

others

rudimentary.

Abdomen terminating in two

lamintc. vei-y small, uaiTow, spiniferous Ova and embryos borne beneath the shell of the female. 2 living British species, C. scofica and C. in tho Minch. Icevis; from deep dredging

9 living British species. Also some Cretaceous and Tertiary species. BiBL. Brady, Linn. I'rans. xxvi. 447, and Ann. N. II. ,1872, ix. 61 R. Jones, Geol. Maq. vii, 76 and 158, C YTIIERU'RA, Sars, genus of Os;

tracode Entomostraca, Char. Shell oblong or subtriangular, posterior extremity prolonged into a beak. Superior antennae six-jointed, shortly setose,

CYTISPORA,
tapering;

234
;

DACTYLIUM.

inferior anteunte five-jointed terminal claws short mandibles robust teeth blunt eyes two. 24 living- British species also some Cretaceous and Tertiary species. BiBL. Brady, Linii. Tr. xxvi. 439, and
; ;
;

Hooker's Jn. of Bot. iii. 319; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 s^r. xv. 375 {Ann. N. H. 2nd ser. viii. 114) Ann. Sc. Nat. xx. 129 ihid. 4 ser. v. 115 Bot. Zeit. xi. 49 (1853). CYTOBLAST. See Nucleu.s.
;
; :

Ann. N. H. 1872, Mn(i.\n.n, 158.

ix.

55

R. Jones, Geol.

CYTISTORA, Ehrenb. genus of Sphieronemei (Coniomycetous Fungi), remarkable for emitting the minute bodies
formerly regarded as spores, agglutinated together into a more or less gelatinous mass, The relationship in the form of a tendril. between the forms called Ci/stispora and various species of Sphceria has long been noticed and Fries stated that he had seen C. leucostoma pass into S. leiicostoina. C.fiu/ax was stated by BerL'eley to be exactly anaRecent researches logous to 'S". sdlicina. seem to prove that the present genus, with
;

CYTOBLASTE'MA, Blastema, or Protoplasm. The amorphous proteinesubstance of which animal and vegetable cells are more or less entirelj' composed. See Cells, and Protoplasm. CY'TODE.A term applied by Hackel. to an organism consisting of a simple lump

of sarcode

to our protoplast (185(3).

Bibl. Hackel, Oen. 3Iorph. i. 269. CYTOLEI'CHUS, jSIegn.A genus of

Acarina, near to Sarcoptes. C. sarcoptoides, has the body rounded, the rostrum obtuse, and the tarsus of the 2nd pair of legs with a short cirrus directed upwards or outwards. In the air-sacs and bronchi of the Gallinae.

Septoria and others, are really only forms belonging to various Ascomycetous Fungi, and that they bear the same relationship to the latter as the spermogonia of Lichens do to the theciferous fructification. Hence the so-called spores of Cytispora &c. appear in reality to be the spermatia or styloAs these quessjwres of the Sphajriacei. tions are not yet completely worked out, we retain the names of these pseudo-genera and species at present. See SpHJEnrACEi. Cythpora rubesccns, Fr. Disk dirty brown; On Rosacefe. spores {?) reddish. Disk black C. chn/sospenna, Pers.
;

Bibl. Megnin, Parasites,

15.3.

D.

DACRY'MYCES, Fries. genus of Tremellini (Ilymenomycetous Fungi), consisting of lobulated gelatinous bodies growing upon wood. D, stillatus, a very common
species on moist rotting wood, is orange, turning brown when dried. Tuoblasne has pubhshed some curious servations on thi^ genus, showing that the spores produced on the basidia of the external hymenial layer, are of two kinds ; of which one kind germinates, while the other produces minute stalked bodies, one from each chamber of the septate spore, destitute of gerrainative power {spermatia?)
(PI. 27. fig. 5). ]3iBL. Berkeley,

spores yellow.

On

Poplar bark.

Disk dingy; C. carpliosjierma, Pers. spores straw-coloured. On Hawthorn and other Rosacse. hucosperma, Pers. Disk dirty white spores white. On various trees. Common.

Nemasporinn rosarum, Grev.

Fl.
t.

Scot.

Crypt.

Hooh. Brit. Fl.

;

v. pt. 2.

20.

210
Bull.

C.

fuynx,

Disk

dirty

spores' pale.

On Willow
Berk.

branches.

brown Very
; ;

Criipt. Fl. pi. 1.59 ;

;

Bot. 353

Greyille, Sc. Crypt.

Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 kr.

xix. 211, pi.

common.
C.
orbicularis,

12 & 13. DACTYLI'NA,Nyl. A

,

doubtful genus

Disk yellowish

of Lichens.

Upon small orange spores pale vinous red. gourds. Berkeley, Ann. Nat. Hist. i. pi. 7.
tig. G.

C. Hendersoni, Berk, and Broome. Disk On whitish spores large, dirty white. Dog-rose. Berk, and Br. Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. V. 379.
;

D. arctica, Hook. a singular fungus-looking plant, inhabits Arctic America. Bibl. Leighton, Linn. Jn. ix. 192, pi. 2. figs. 11-17.

DACTYL'imi,Nees. Agonus of Mucedines

to

C. pulveraccajPjcvli.

Br.Flora=Ceutho-

spora 2^hacidioidvs, Desm. BiBi.. Berkeley, Brit. Flor. vol. ii. pt. 2. 281, Cry])t. Bat. 331 Berk, and Broome,
;

(Hyphomycetous Fungi), nearly allied Trichothccium, consisting of moulds gi'owing over deca)'ing plants. Fries refers Corda's species of Dactylium to Dendry-

phium. OnQ species, Dactylium ooyenum, Moutagno; is remaa-kable for its place of

DACTYLOCOCCUS.
:

235

DAPHNELLA.
rings,

occurrence it grows upon the surface of the membrane within the shell of the eggs It of fowls and oth(>r birds. 15o. does not appear to have been observed in this country but several foreign writers have investigated it and from the
;
;

such
walls,

with interspaces, thickened and subsidiary cavities. The simple

f.

forms

(Z>. eruca, PI. 23.

53) live in the

tropical seas. The more complicated species are of Tertiary age in France, Italy, and San Domingo ; D. reticulata (PI. 23. f. 54) is one of these.

experiments made by Spring and Wittich, it appears that the spores pass through orifices existing in the shell, and

BiBL. Parker and Jones, Ann. N. II. 473; Carpenter, For. 127;Gumbel, Ahh.bay. AJcad. 1872. DACTYL'OPUS, Clans. A genus of
ser. 3.

germinate

in the interior, often in the air-chamber. full account of this plant, and

of the literature, is given by Ch. liobiu. Many of the

species are undoubtedly coni-jj^p^yu^j,^^ ^t^^^^ diiferous forms of SphcericB a fertile fllaSee ment with septate (Tulasue, Carpoloqia).

Entomostraca, order Copepoda. Marine. I), tishoides. BiEL. Claus, Copepod. 127 Brady, Trans. North umherland. DALTO'NIA,Hook. andTayl. genus of Pleurocarpous Mosses, the species given being restored here on account of the structure of the leaf while D, heteromalla of
;

Dexdryphium and
THOSPORir JI.
cies
:

its

nELJiiN-i;;;-;^^^^_i'''

Hooker goes
ground.

to

Ilypnum on

the

same

British

spe-Magn.200 diams.

D. pyriforme, Fr.

On mouldering stems

D. splanchnoides, Hook. splanch. Hook.

andT. = IIookeria

of herbaceous plants. Z>. macyosporum, Fr.

leaves, and fungi. D. dendroides, Fr.

On

rotton wood,
agarics,

DAM^'US, Koch. See Belba. DAM'MARA-" 6^M?." The resin

Dammar a
;

of

australis,

N. O. Piuacese.

It is

&c.
pi.

Very common.
12G.
fig. 1.

On decaying

Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl.

D. obovatum, Berk. On willow twigs, in damp. Aim. Nat. Hist. vi. pi. 14. fig. 26. D. s])hcerocephalum, Berk. On dead ivytwigs,
I.

often used, dissolved in benzole, as a varnish and as it dries quickly, it is useful. It is also largely used as a substitute for Canada balsam but we prefer the latter.

DAN^'A, Smith. A

genus of Marat-

c.

fig.

27.

D. teiuUum, Fr.
;

On

moss.

Fig. 156.

BiBL. Berk, in Hook. Brit. Fl. v. pt. 2. Berk, and 345 A7in. N. H. tit supra Broome, Ann. N. II. 2 ser, vii. 102 Robin, Parasites, 2nd ed. 543, pi. 2. figs. 5 & 6 Summa Veget. Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 414
;
;

491.

DACTYLOCOCCUS, Nag. A
PalmeUaceous iilgie, and Ilydrianum.

genus of
Dausa.
Part of a pinnule with
so;i.

allied to Cliaracium

Char. Cells oblong or fusiform, free, 2-8 Two species, together, then separating. one green among other Algce, or on the side of pools about 1-2500" long. BrBL. Nageli, Einz. Aly,- p. 80 Eabenhorst, Fl. Ah/, iii. p. 46 (fig.).
; ; ;

Magnified. 5 diameters.

tiaceous Ferns,' whence thefamilv is sometimes called also Danseaceae. Tropical America.

DACTYLOP'ORA, Lam. Regarded by

as one of the Foraminifera imperforata but by others as belonging to the The simplest fi)rm precalciferous Algas.
;

some

sents a set of sac-like chambers, side by side, for a part or the whole of a circle, with their mouths in one direction along

12 species. BiBL. Hooker and Baker, Syn. 442. DAPH'NE, L. See Thymeleace^. DAPHNEL'LA, Baird. A genus of Entomostraca, of the order Cladocera, and
family Daphniadre. Char. Inferior antennse very large, posterior branch two-jointed only.

the inner median line. Various modifications lead to the structure of a cylinder of

DAPHNIA.
D.
water.

236

DASYA.

Winf/n (PI. 20.

fig.

27).

Fresh-

BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entomos. 109. DAPH'NIA, Miill. A genus of Eutomostraca, of the order Cladocera, and family Daphniada3. Char. Head produced into a more or less prominent beak superior antenuse situated beneath the beak, either one-jointed or consisting of a minute tubercle with a tuft of short filaments inferior antennae large and powerfid, two-branched, one branch threejointed, the other four-jointed; five pairs
; ;

of legs.

Valves of the carapace finely reticulated,

the leg, with two or three plumose setae. The branchial legs are constantly in motion during life; and this gives rise to the quivering appearance seen in the Daphnice with the naked eye or a simple lens. The ova on then* escape from the body become lodged between the back of the animal and the shell, where they remain until completely hatched but at certain seasons of the year ephippial or winter ova (PL 20. fig. 37) are produced (Entomostkaca). According to Lubbock's observations, the latter only are true ova although both kinds become hatched and perfectly developed, this may occur without impreg; ;

and terminated below by a longer or shorter Anterior branch of inferior serrated spine. antennas (PI. 20. fig. 286) fom'-jointed, first joint very short; from the end of the third a long filament arises and the fourth joint
;

nation.

Seven Biitish species of Daphnia are

:

re-

three others posterior branch three-jointed, the first and second olFa long filament, the third joints sending terminated by three of them the filaments ai-e jointed near the middle, and usually
is
; ;

terminated by

cognized some of them may be found in almost every collection of water, which they frequently colour. D.pulex (PL 20. fig. 28) (common waterValves oval, their dorsal margin not flea).
serrated head large, rounded above and in front ; superior antennae (PL 20. fig. 28 a) very small filaments of inferior antennae plumose posterior portion of abdomen with four projections at its curve, the first prolonged and bent upwards below these are two jointed filaments ; the end portion has; ; ; ;

feathery.
lenses.

Eye

spherical,

with about twenty

35) flattened,

Labrum

(PI. '20. fig.

and with a large hairy lobide at the end. Mandibles (PL 20. fig. 34) consisting of a fleshy -looking body, bent inwards near the end, and terminated by numerous minute Jaws (PI. 20. fig. 36) composed of a teeth. strong body terminated by fom- horny spines, thi'eeof which are curvedinwards. Legs five
pairs, those of the first pair in the
;

two dentate

arches,

and

terminates in two strong hooks. Some other species are

common
tial

(PI. 20. fig. 29) three-jointed outer edge of the second joint are three small projections, each with four or five terminal joint very long jointed setae small, and with one or two similar setae the setse not plumose. In the male they are more slender, with a strong claw at the end of the second joint, wliile the seta arising from the terminal joint is very long, nearly the length of the body, and floats outside the shell. The second (PL 20. fig. 30), third (fig. 31), and fourth (fig. 32) pairs of legs are bran;
;

female upon the

but their essencharacters have not

;

been briefly expressed. BiBL. liaird, Br. Entom. 80; Lubbock, Ajin. N. II. 1857, XX. 257
;

Leydig, Daphnid. 18G0; Weismann, Daphnidcn,

1877, and Zeitschr. Zool. 1876, 7.
rciss.

Brady, ( = Poh/chelcs, B. ). -A genus of Ostracode Entomostraca. 1 British species: D.

DAPtWINEL'LA,

chial

and somewhat

similar, tlie joint fur-

Stevensoni.

nished with jointed and mostly plumose also oft' setae, and a branchial plate giving

BiBL.

Brady,

Ann.
ge-

N. H.
nus

ssr. 4. vi. 2o.

numerous plumose

The fifth pair of setaj. the portion legs (fig. 33) are three-jointed, con-espiiudingto the branchial plate rounded and without filaments; above this is a

DA'SYA, Ag. A
of
,,
, ,.,

_,

curved, jointed, and plumose spine, the third and fourth joints forming finger-like from the lower end of processes springing

Khodomelaceae Dasya Kiit/.injjiana, -ithasti.-hiaiuii. (Florideous Wxta), con^. .. auil two rows of p ,., ot tulted hlamensisting tetrasiwrcs. toUS sea- weeds, of a red, Magnified .50 diameters, or purple colour, brown, growing on rocks near low-water mark.

DASYDYTES.
The

237

DEGENERATION, FATTY.
; ;

are filaments stoiitisli, principal branclied,audclot]iod with branched raniules, upon which arc borne the sticJtidia containing tetraspores (fig. 157), or ceraniidia conFour taining spores, on distinct plants. British species are recorded, of which D. coccinea and V. Arhuscula (PI. 4. fig. 9) are the commonest.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alqce. 93, pi. 12 B Phyc. Brit. pi. 40, :?24, 22o & 25-3. i)ASY'I)YTES, Gosse. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Ichtliydina. Char. Eyes absent body furnished with
;

or sub-marginal indusium terminal on the veins somewhat urn- or cup-shaped, the mouth truncated (figs. 158 and 159), apex free veins pinnate. Sori globose, on the back of Cijstopteris. the veins ; involucre membranous, sub-orbicular, inserted by its broad base under the sorus, which at the beginning it covers like a hood fronds two or three times divided, thin, veins free.
; ;

DEGENERATION, FATTY. The

ab-

bristle-like hairs

tail

simple, trvuicate.
; ;

Hairs long, each hair bent at an abrupt angle neck constricted length 1-146" fr. wat. IJ. antennifjer. Hair short, doAvnv a pencil of long hairs at each angle of the posterior extremitj^ of the body head with
(fiiuiathrix.
;
; ;

D.

normal deposition of free fatty matter in the histological elements of animal bodies. When, from whatever cause, the iiormal functions of the morphological element of
a tissue

in

cells,

formed

them

or the secondary become languid

deposits or inter-

rupted, free globules of fat or oil deposited in them ; and as this

become

two club-shaped organs resembling antennae

length 1-170". BiBL, Gosse, Ann. N.

fatty matter increases in amount, the tissue loses to a greater or lesser extent its natural vital and

H. 1851,

yiii.

198.

DASYGLCE'A, Thwaites. genus of OscillatoriacejB (Confervoid Algaj). D. amorpha (PI. 8. fig. 11) forms a shapeless gelatinous stratum, consisting of curled
and entangled filaments, with very large sheaths, open at the ends in marshy places. BiBL. Eiuj. Bot. Supp. 2941; Kiitzing, <S)j, Tah. Phjc. Cent. i. pi. 72. fig. 2. Alq. 272 The fridt of the Date-palm,
; ;

physical properties hence it is said to be in a state of fatty degeneration. The discovery of the fattj' degeneration of tissues is probably one of the most valuable fruits of
;

microscopic study science for it has

;

in

shown

regard to medical us that maladies

supposed formerly to arise from too great abundance of the circulating fluid, have really had their origin in a decayed state of the tubes
or vessels in which the fluid was contained, and that the natural process of human decay, as it is called, is a morbid process or disease,

DATE.
;

PJwenix clactyJifcra, N. 0. Palmace?e. Roasted dates are used to adidterate real

a so-called date-coffee is also manufactured from the entire fruit, or from the seed (perisperm) only. The principal tissues of the latter are represented in PI. 2. fig. 9.
coiFee

probably to a certain extent as remediable or as many other diseases to preventible

which man

is

natiu'ally liable.

Here

is

DAVAL'LIA, Sm.
tropical.

A very large genus

indeed a matter of deep interest. In addition to the deposition of fat within the elements of a tissue undergoing fatty
degeneration, amorphous finely granular proteine-matters are sometimes found occasionally also brown, yellow, red, or black granular pigment is met with (pigmentary degeneration), together with amorphous or crystalline calcareous salts, as the carbonate and phosphate of lime &c. (calcareous degeneration) sometimes the fatty matter is crystalline, it then generally consists of
:

DAVALL'IE.E. A
diaceous Ferns.
Fig. 158.

BiBL. Hooker,

Sijn. 88.

family of Poh-po-

Fig. 159,

cholesterine.

Davallia pyxidata

pinnule with sori. Magn. 5 diam.

sorus with the

15 diam.

indusium cut open.

Magn.

Davallia. Sori globose or elongate, intra-

Fatty degeneration of cells is well seen in those of the liver when undergoing this change. In the noi-mal state, these as well as most cells, except those of true fatty tissue, contain merely one or two very minute or no globules of fat, whilst in the degenerated tissue they contain a considerable niunber of larger or smaller globides (fio-. At the same time, the cell-walls and 160).

DEGENERATION, FATTY.
nuclei

238

DELESSERIACEyE.

lliinner and paler, or atrosimilar state to that T\-hich is abnormal in man, is normal in the lower animals. Sometimes the substance intervening

become

phied.

The formation of adipocere seems to be an instance of post-mortem fatty degetion.

neration.

between cells becomes degenerated^ and thus

Fi^. 160.

Amyloid degeneration Amyloid.

BiBL. Virchow, Path.
Path. Hist.
;

is

noticed under

Cell.

1861; Wedl,

Wagner,
187-8, 46.

Forster, Spec. Path. Anat. ; Nach\ d. Ges d. Wiss. z. Gottin-

qen, 1851 {Chem. Gaz ix. 309); 'Path. 31, 1871 ; Riudfleisch, Lehvh.

Green, Geweh.
of

DELAVA'LIA, Brady.a genus

En-

tomostraca, order Copepoda.

Si

D. imludris. Northumberland. BiBL. Brady, Trans. XorthuinherlandSi-c., Copepoda (Ray Soc).

DELESSE'PJA, Lamx. Agenus of Delesseriacete (Florideous

Algae),

consisting

of
flat,

sea-weeds with a

membranaceous,
CeEs of the human liver; cell with pigment granules
matter.
a,
;

rose-

nearly normal cells; 6, c, cells containing fatty

Magnified 400 diameters.

we have

intercellular fatty degeneration Other instances of fatty degeneration are noticed under the respective
(PI. 38. tig. 16).

coloured frond, having a percurrent midrib, growing on rocks or on other larger Algte, mostly from 2 to 8 Six speinches high. cies are described as
British,

vesicles

heads of the tissues kc:, as the Graafian and the cells of the corpora lutea

most of them
leaf-like

common. The

(Ovary), the epithelia of the mucous and serous membranes, and of the various glands,
the vessels, the exudation-corpuscles of inilammation, the muscles, &c. The fatty degeneration of the capillaries is represented in PI. 38. fig. 13. In the larger blood-vessels, when reaching a more advanced degree, it forms atheroma.
appe.ar paradoxical to regard the presence of numerous fat-globules, in such instances as the cells of cancer, and the
It

lobes of the frond arise from a kind of stalk, or from the midribs of Delesseria sanguinea. older lobes. The texMidribs of fronds in winture is densely paren- ter
bearing sporophylls.
If at. size. chymatous throughout. D. sanyuinea (PI. 4. fig. 5) ripens its fruit and then the membranous in the winter
;

might

exudation-cells of inflammation,

where the

vital processes are so evidently augmented, as indicating a state of degeneration. But in

these, as in other instances, the functions of the cells, after the latter have attained their

part of the fronds decays, leaving the midribs clothed with tufts of the sporophijUs or leafy lobes containing the tetraspores (fig. 161), and stalked coccidia cont.aiuing the spores. The fructification is somewhat similar in D. alata, while in D. sinuosa the coccidia are immersed in the frond, and the tetra-

spores in cilia-like processes

fringing

its

development, cease, and the cells undergo degeneration and decay. The free fatty matter is probably derived in general from the liberation of that previously dissolved in the contents of the cell but it may be produced bj^ the formation of fatty nuitter from the proteine or other constituents of the cell-contents. It
full
;

margin

and

in 1>. Hypocjlossum the coc-

cidia are

seated on the midi'ib, and the tetraspores arranged in longitudinal linear rows like sori on each side of the midrib.

is

curious that portions of the llesh and other proteine-components of one animal, when kept in the peritoneal cavity of another

living animal, will undergo fatty degenera-

BiBL. Harvev, Mar. Algce, 113, pi. 16 A; Phyc. Brit, pis! 2, i>6, 83, 151, 247, 259; Greville, Alt/. Brit. pis. 72-74, 76. DEL1-:SSERIA'C1LE.A family of Floridete. Rosy or purplish red, or blood-red sea-weeds, with a leafy, or rarely filiform, areolated, inarticulate frond, composed of polygonal cells. Lobes of the frond deli-

DELTOMONAS.

239
;

DEMATIEI.

Fructification double cately membranous. 1. Conceptacles (coccidia) external, or halfimmersed, hemispherical, usuallj- imperforate, containinu" beneath a membranous ]U'vi-

Filaments simple, uniBolacotricha. formly articulate at the apex spores con;

glomerated, large, globular, shortly stalked, contents distinctly granular.

Triposporinni.
tate, sterile
;

carp a tuft of dichotomous filaments, whose

artu-ulations are tinally changed into spores. 2. Tetmspores in distinctly definite s<vi, either scattered through the frond or placed in proper fruit-lobes or sporophylls.

Synopsis of British Genera. Frond leafy, of indefinite Dehsseria. form, -with a percurreut midrib. Nitophjllxm. Frond\Q?Lij ,oi definite form, without a midrib (sometimes traversed by

vague, vanishing nerves).

spreading at the tips solitary, stellate, mostly very shortly stalked spores. Filaments erect, subuHelicosporium. late, closely septate, continuous and diaphanous at the summit spores thread-like, septate, spirally coiled, then expanding themselves with elasticity. Filaments erect, septate, Cladotrichum. branched branches and branchlets bearing
; ;

Filaments erect, sepbranches solitary, more or less fertile branches shorter, bearing

Flocaminm.
compressed,

Frond

linear

much

branched,

or filiform, distichous ;

septate spores at their tips.

raunili pectinate, secimd.

BiBL. See the genera.

DELTOMONAS,
;

Kent.A genus

Filaments erect, septate, Dematiiim. with verticiliate branchlets below, simple and whip-like above spores crowded on the
;

of

Flagellate Infusoria. Bodies variable, wedge-shaped, Char. Freshwater. stalked flagella two, equal. transMultijtlication by longitudinal and verse division, and the breaking up of the

apices of the ramules. Filaments erect, septate Cladosporiiwi. above, bearing the spores arranged in rows forming short moniliform branchlets.
tate,

bodv

family of Hyphomycetous Fungi, growdug on the dead parts of the mostly plants, and characterized by septate spores being attached to rigid thickwalled filaments, which are continuous or
septate.

DEMATIET. A

into germs. In ponds. (Kant, Inf. 283.)

Filaments suberect, sepevanescent, bearing erect, stipitate spores, with many transverse and usually some longitudinal septa. Arthriniiwi. Filaments tufted, suberect, annulate, with opaque thickish septa ; spores fusiform, septate, large. Filaments as in the preCamptoum. ceding spores ovate, cm-ved, small.

Macrosporium.
delicate,

According to the observations of Tulasne, many of the supposed genera of this family are merely conidiiferous states of Asconi)^for instance Chidosporium. cetous Fungi We enumerate them here according to the older arrangement, as their history is not
;

Common stem comArthrobotrymn, Spores large, posed of jointed filaments. radiating, so as to form a little head, dark,
septate.

yet fully cleared up.

Synopsis of British Genera. Fertile filaments stalklike, erect, septate, tenuinating in a globose capitule formed by radiating forked or ternate branches bearing globular spores
Cephalotrichum.
at their tips.

Dendryphiiim. Filaments free, jointed, branches simple below, branched above and branchlets often monilioid spores septate, acrogenous, concatenated.
; ;

Stem composed of fasciPericonia. culated compacted filaments head globose spores fixed to the free tips of the filaments.
; ;

Haployraphiuni. Filaments jointed, black spores concatenate, liyaline.

;

fi'ee,

Filaments rather fibrous, Sporocybe. subrdate, capitate, bearing simple spores conglobated into a terminal head.

Monotospora

.'

Filaments

free,

black,

(Edemium. Filaments rigid, erect, almost continuous, or annulated, bearing at

the sides globular masses of spores. My.rotrichum. Filaments erect, scarcely septate fertile branches crowned by globules
;

bearing one or rarely two (by division) large, black, subgiobose spores at their
tips.

Helicoma. Filaments erect, dark, jointed, bearing on their sides pale, flat, spiral
spores.

of heterogeneous conglutinate spores.

Filaments moniliform Polythrincium. spores springing from the midst of the fila;

Helminthosporium.
simple, septate
;

Filaments

erect,

spores traasversely septate.

ments, didymous. Gonatosporimn, Filaments erect, jointed,

DEMATIUM.
thiclieiied
irreg-iilarly

240

DEMODEX.

at

the

articulatious

spores
ai)gular,

bicouical,

somewhat

attached in whorls.

Filaments erect, jointed; Sporodum. threads of inarticulate spores moniliform, seated towards their base.
Allied or uncertain Oenera.

hair-follicles of the human skin. The minute size of the various parts renders it extremelv difficult to isolate them. It varies in leng-th from about 1-150 to 1-50". At the anterior part of the body are two two-jointed organs (PI. 6. fig. 43rt), the basa joint longe.st, the distal smallest, and terminated by a strong claw these appear
;

Pedicels ascending or branched, continuous floating, very spore.s oblong, transversely sei)tate. Pedicels branched, &&\\Stachyohotrys. tate branches crowded at the tips with whorls of niammillary very sliort branchlets formiug a capitulum spores didymous. Helicotrichum. Filaments creeping, branched, septate only at the tips ; spores

Blasfotrichmn.

much

spiraliv curled,
tiei

DEMA'TIUM,
Fig. 162.

somewhat septate. Pers. A genus of Dema(Hyphomycetous Fungi), groAving upon

Fig. 163.

to represent maxillary palpi. Between these are two narrow elongated organs (fig. Behmd these is a 43. i), the mandibles. triangular labrum (fig. 43 c) ; a labium has also been described. Above or upon the basal joint of the palpi are two minute tubercles, one on each side Similar tubercles are seen upon (fig. 43 d). the dorsal surface of the thorax, between the second and third, and the third and fourth pairs of legs. On each side of the thorax are four pairs of very short conical legs ; these are apparently three-jointed, and
fine transverse stria).

Fig. 164.

marked by irregular

The abdomen is longer than the thorax, tapers posteriorly, and exhibits indications of transverse rings, in the form of numerous delicate transverse lines.
These animals may be obtained by pressing out the contents of the folhcles existing upon the sides and alte of the nose, especially Avhen these appear enlarged, whitish, and exhibit a terminal black spot. drop of oil should then be added to the secretion, and the whole allowed to macerate for some hours at a gen'tle heat. Or the secretion may be digested in a mixture of alcohol and ether, to dissolve the fatty matter, and then treated with soluticm of potash. The secretion contains the ova, the young animals, and the exuvia^. When contained in the follicles, the tail is directed towards

Dematium griseum.

Magniiled 200 diameters.

dry leaves, bark, &c., distinguished by the sporiferous branchlets arising closely together near the base of the erect filaments. British species
:

D. yrisemn,

Pers.

(figs.

162-4).

On

rotten hazel-stumps. C/xstopsis Wauchii, Grev. Sc. Crypt Fl. pi. 236. See Echino-

their orifice.

BOTRYUM.
BiBL. Berk. Hooh. Brit. Fl. v.
;

pt. 2,
;

338

Var. caninus occurs iu the pustules of the skin of the dog afl'ected with the " mange." The average size of this is less than that of
D.follicnlormn, amomitingto 1-150 to 1-lUO"

Ann. N. H. i. 260, vi. 435; Grev. /. c. Fries, Sum. Vc(/. 499 Corda, Ic. Fung. i. pi. 4.
figs. 242,'

243.

genus of Arachnida, the exact systematic is doubtful, although position of Avliich

usually placed in the fixmily Acarina. Chcu: Legs terminated by two claws (only one, Beck), no acetabula abdomen
;

DEMO'DEX, Owen

(Simonia, Gerv.).

appear to constitute Gruby found that, by inoculating the dog with the human parasite, a disease resembUng, if not identical Avith, the mange was produced. Var. cati, on the cat about \ less than
:

It does not iu length. a distinct species ; for

I), follicidorum.

annidose.
(PI. 6. fig. 42), the AvaSimouia, or Entozoon foUiculormn of some authors, inhabits the sebaceous and

D.folUcHhntm

rus,

BiBL. Simon, 3Iidler'sArckiv, 1842, 218: i. 251; .Gervais, Walckenai}r\^ Apthres, iii. 282 Wilson, Tr. Hoy. Soc. 1844, 305; Tidk, Ann. N. H. 1844, xiii. 75 Gruby, Ed. Mn. Jn. vii. 333

Owen, Hunt. Led.

DENDRITINA.

241

DERMANYSSUS.
I.

Wedl, Path. Hist. 803; R. Beck, Ac/ir. Micr. 6, pi. 24. fig. 1 Megnin, Parasites,
;

pi.

BiBL. Berkeley and Broome, 6 Fries, Siimrna Veqet. 504.

;

c.

176,

265.

DENDRITI'NA, D'Orb. The nautiloid,

or compactly discoidal, conditiou of PeneCommon in tropical seas, ropUs. BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. For. 88.

DENDROCOME'TES,
ful

Stein.A doubt-

genus of Acinetiua. The single species, D. paradoxus (PI. 32. fig. 36), is supposed

by Stein to constitute the resting stage or Acineta form of Spirochona yeminipara. It is found upon the gill-plates of Gammai-us
pulex.

DENTALI'NA, D'Oibigny.The bent, oblique, and somewhat excentric varieties of Kodosaria pass under this name for convenience rather than for zoological reasons. Innumerable modifications of these curved and tapering stichostegian Foramijiifera occui' in all formations from the Carboniferous to the Tertiary, and abound in existing seas. D. communis, D'Orb, (PI. 23, f. 33)
is

the type, and has persisted the longest of

any.

BiBL. Stein, Siebold Sf Kdlliher''s Zeitschr. 1852, iii. 492 id. Infm. 205 ; Kent, Inf. DENDRO'MONAS, Stein. genus of
;

BiBL. D'Orb. For. Foss. Vien. 1846; Williamson, Pec. For. 17 ; Morris, Brit. Foss. 34 Carpenter, Foram. 163 ; Jones,
;

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Bodies pyriform, obliquely trmicate, single at the ends of a rigid homo-

Parker, and Bradv, Moiioy, Foram. Pal. Soc. 1866, 53,"' &c,

Crag,
stichoin its
fossil ;

DENTALINOP'SIS, Reuss.A stegian Nodosarina, commencing

Cretaceous,

two one geneous branched pedicle flagella Freshlong, and the other short, lateral. 2 species. water. (Kent, Inf. 265).
; ;

gi'owth as a Phabdoyoniuni (OrthocerincC),

and continuing as a Dentalina.

BiBL, Reuss,
Sitz.

Only

DEXDROSO'MA, Ehr. A genus of Ehizopoda, of the family Acinetina. Char. Consists of a thicli branched pedicle, fixed at its base, the branches supporting at their ends numerous bodies, a little larger than the pedicles, each resembhng an Actinophrys. D. radians.

Ak. Wien, xHv, 367.

DENTICEL'LA, Ehr. See Biddulphia. DENTIC'ULA, Kutz, A genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustides free, single or binate, straight, oblong or linear in front view valves elliptical or narrowed at the ends,
;

Bodies conical, thick, soft

transversely striated.
Striae
;

Freshwater.

and smooth, alternately branched; branches iucrassate and tentaculate at the ends. Size
1-96'
'.

mostly coarse, not resolvable into dots (costse) valves -^dthout a median fine
or nodules ; ends of the strife \nsible at the margins of the front view of the fioistules ; no internal septa. Seven Em'opean Five British species. species
;

Freshwater.
Infus.
(fig.).

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Lachni. Inf. iii. 140

316; CI.

&

DENDRYPHIUM, Walb.A

genus of

Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), consisting of moidds gi'owing over dead herbaceous plants, nearly related to Dactyliuni but there are often several spores chained together at the tips of the branches; perhaps not di;

one

fossil (California).

D.
c,

ohttisa

(PL

16. fig.

25

d,

front view

Valves lanceolate, attenuate valve). obtuse at the end ; length 1-830".

size

and

The other species differ D. sinuata is undulate

; ;

principally iu in side view.

;

from Brachycladium, Corda,whose species of Dactylium (fig, 165) are brought under this genus by Fries.
stinct

BiBL. Kiitzing, 6'/;, Aly. 11 Smith, Br. ii. 19 Rabenhorst, Fl. Aly. i. 114. DEPA'RIA, Hook.A genus of Dicksoniseous Ferns, with stalked indusia, shaped
Diat.
like ancient flat' goblets
(fig.

166, p. 242).

British species

D.
Br,

curtttm,

Berk,

and

On dead stems. Ann.

vii. pi, 6. fig. 9,

Five very rare tropical species. BiBL, Hooker, Syn. 56, DEPA'ZEA, Fries, See Spimieia, DEPOSITS, URINAR Y. See Urine.

N. H. 1851,

DERMALEPCHUS,
Dendryiihiiuu fu-

Koch = ANALGES

D.
Br.
fig.

Iaxii7n,

On
10.

Berk, dead stems.

and
L.
c.

mosum.
JMagn. 200 cliams.

D. yriseum, Berk, and Br. On dead stems

c. fig.

DERMANYS'SUS, Duges, A genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina, and family

Gamasea.
Char.

(Muii-av, Fcrnt. E7it. 327).

L.

11.

Body mostly

soft

palpi, the fifth

DERMANYSSUS.
Fig. 166.

242

DESMIDIACE^.
;

Gervais, WalcJcenaer^s Arach. iii. 222 Busk, Mic. Jn. 1842, ii. 65 Kolenati, Sitz. AJc. Wien, 18o9, 172 Murray, Ec. Ent. 169 Megnin, Paras. 1880, 115.
; ;

DERMATIS'CUM, Nyl. A

genus

of

Lecauorei, formed to contain Endocarpon TTiunberf/ii, a native of the Cape of Good Hope. BiBL. Nvlauder, Enum. Gen. 116.
Lichens, tribe

DERMATODEC'TES = Sarcoptes.
DERMES'TES, Linn.A

genus of Der-

mestidfe.

Deparia prolifera. Borus enc'osed in the stalked indusium.

Magnified 25 diameters.

DERMES'TID^. family of Coleopterous Insects. The larvfe of these insects, which are often minute, create great ravages amongst dried skins, Airs, t^c. they also feed upon
;

feathers, bacon,

books, papei',
itc.

insects

in

labium acute mandibles of the male chelate, external claw very

(last) joint smallest
; ;

long

of the female, ensiform ; anterior legs eoxje approximate. Found in the t), avmm (PL 6. fig. 24). cages of tame singing birds and upon poul;

longest

ovate-oblong, depressed, slightly sometimes emargiuate posThe sixth joint of the legs (c) is teriorly. Mouth forming a kind of the longest. moveable head attached to the under part of the anterior margin of the body it contry.

Body

broader and

sists of:

triangular labium, pointed in front, and with two palpi (fig. 24 a*), the second joint largest, the fifth smallest and accompanied by a large but short, moveable, external seta and, 3, the two mandibles of of male). Red or reddish {b, of female
; ;

1, a

are particularly interesting to the microscopist, on account of the peculiar and beautifid structure of certain of the hairs (PI. 1. fig. 1, a, b) existing upon their bodies. The hairs form three distinct tufts on each side of the hinder segments of the bodies of the larvae. The ordinary finely spinous hairs on the rest of the body are shown in c. Although these hairs are generally called the hairs of Dermestcs, it so happens that this genus is almost the only one in the species of which the hairs do not exist. British gen. Anthrenus, Attagenm, Mecabinets,

mummies,

They

gatoma, Tiresia^, Dermesfes, and Trinodes. BiBL. Westwood, Introd. i. ; Cui-tis, Br.
Insects,

682

brown.
This species sometimes infests human beings, producing a skin-disease, being derived from fowls.

DES3LAREL'LA, Kent. A

Stephens, Manual, 142.

genus

of

Infusoria.
C7iar. Free, united laterally into rows flagellum single, terminal, encircled at the base by a collar. 2 species, 1 in fresh, the the other in salt water length of bodies
; ;

D. ves^jertilionis. Found upon the mousecoloured bat ( V. 7n)irinm). Rostrum nearly as long as the palpi, broad or oval at the
base, narrowed in front, cleft longitudinally above, and containing the two long and

4oVo".

slender mandibles.
I), pipisf relit.

On

the

common

bat

V.

genus of Sporochnaceoe (Fucoid Algae), consisting of oUve or broAvnish seaweeds, with repeatedly pinnate, feathery fronds, from one to several
feet long,

DESMARES'TIA, Lamx.A

(Kent, Inf. 341.)

pipistrelli(s) D. hirtindinis.

growing
in

chiefiy

between

tide-

In the nest of the swalthe common fowl. In the nostrils of the goat-

marks or

deep water.

The characters

of

low.
1), (ialUn(S,

On

D.

Nifzfclni.
(

sucker
bat

Caprimtdcjns).

the reproductive structures have not yet been made out, as the species rarely fruit on omcoast, although the plants are common. BiiiL. Ilarvev, iHar. Aly. 23, pi. 5D;

Other species are found on the noctule

the merlin, the turkey, the ( V. nocfula), snail, thf mouse, serpents, &c. ; and two on the p;\}ony and the convolvulus. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2s^r. ii. IJJ ;

my

c.

pi. 5. figs. 1

Brit. 49,' 115; to 6.

Greville, Alg. Brit.

DESMIDIA'CE.E (PI. 14). family of Oonfervoid Alga;, consisting entirely of microscopic flexible org^anisms inhabiting
fi'esh

DESmDIAOEiE.

243

DESMIDIACEyE.

water, scarcely a specimen of which can be foimd that does not contain some of them. They occur in greatest abundance in clear poofs in open exposed situations, the larger the species being generally found nearest Sometimes they adhere in large bottom.

numbers

films investing

to aquatic plants, forming green them ; at others they rest as

a thick coating at the bottom of the water, or lie intermingled with Confervpe, &c. They are most striking objects under the microscope, from the peculiarity, beauty,

sheath of Hyalotheca often presents delicate dark striae, which, if the gelatinous sheath is not clearly seen, loolv like rigid cilia standing these upon the sm:face of the cell-wall appear to be either fissures in the gelatinous sheath, connected with the breaking up of the filamentous groups into single cells, or they are referable to a fibrous disintegration of the gelatinous sheaths, such as occurs in
;

many Oscillatoriace^.
The contents
of the cells of the

Desmi-

and variety of their forms,

their

their colom', and external markings and appendages that which is most distinctive in their appearance is the bilateral symmetry, indicative of the tendency to divide transversely Each frustule into two valves or segments. is in reality a single cell, as is shown by the fact that the entire contents escape when an but in the generality of orifice is made the forms, a constriction, or more or less deep notch, or a kind of suture exists in the middle of the external cellidose coat. In a few instances, such as Scenedestmis, the symin Pediastruin metrical form is absent (PL 14. figs. 48, 49) it is only indicated by a notch on the outer side ; but a graduated series may be formed, from those genera in which this character is inconspicuous, to those in which it is fully developed. Thus in Closterium (figs. 40 to 45) and some spein cies of Penium, there is no constriction
; ; ; ;

diaceee appear to resemble those of the green Confervoids generally, in consisting of a mass of protoplasm coloured green by chlorophyll, and being entirely enclosed in a primordial utricle, which does not appear to be

adherent to the cellidose coat in mature

specimens.
tain

The contents

of the cells con-

minute starch-granides as in the other

Confervoids, in the full-grown condition,

and in the zygospores. It was stated some years ago by Focke,

that the internal surface of the outer coat of Closterimn is ciliated and Osborne has declared that the membrane of the endo;

chrome (primordial utricle) is ciliated both on its inner and outer surface. These statements are erroneous, as is shown under Closterium. The Desmidiaceas, at all events many of them, have the power of fixing themselves to external objects, and possess a feeble power of locomotion, which is not produced

Tetmemorus (tig. 33), some Cosmaria 22), and Hyalotheca (fig. 1), it is quite
dent, although but sHght
;

(fig.

by the aid

evi-

in

and Desmidium

it is (fig. 7),
;

notch at each angle

whUe in Splicerozosma, Micrasterias (fig. 13), and some other genera, the constriction is very deep, the connecting portion foi-ming a mere isthmus between the segments, which appear like
distinct cells.

Didymoprium denoted by a

of cilia, and cannot be explained, imless on the principles which have been assumed to account for the same phenomenon in the Diatomace^. It enables

the Desmidiacese,

when mixed with mud,

to make their way to the sm-face ; and they will be foimd to travel and fix themselves to that side of a glass vessel next the light.

In some instances,
the sm-face of the
this dries up.

also,

mud

they retire beneath

of pools
ifcc.

before

frequently exhibit external waity or spinous processes (PI. 14. fig. 23), and the cellulose coat (coloured blue by means of iodine and sulphuric acid) presents minute markings which, unhke those on the siliceous envelope of the Diatomacese, are always elevations. The cells are surrounded by a more or less perfect and distinct sheath, of gelatinous consistence, and
cells

The

The Desmidiaceae, like other green plants, evolve oxygen when exposed to the sim's
light.

The reproduction of this family exhibits number of very interesting and varied Four modes have been obphenomena. served; and some points connected with
a the subject still remain to be cleared up. The simplest kind of reproduction is by frustule divides cell-division, where each The manner in transversely into two. which this takes place differs to some extent in its details in the various genera, according to the form. Thus in Ciostemtm

very

In Hyalotheca, Didymoprium, transparent. Sphcsrozosma, &c., this is very well defined 14. figs. 1 to 6) but in other genera it (PI. is more attenuated, and the fact of its existence can only be discovered by its preventing the contact of the cells. The
;

e2

DESMIDIACEiE.

244

DESmDIACE^.
by Caspary and Braun, in PediThe contents of the parent-cells
their

the parent-cell acquires a constricted appearance iu the middle, probably not by actual constriction, but by the two halves retreating from each other, Avhile a new hour-glass-shaped prolongation of the membrane is formed in the middle. It appears probable also that the primordial utricle

described astrum.

become retracted from

active
ciliated

walls,

and

the whole transformed into a

zoospores,

number of which are dis-

becomes constricted, since specimens are met with in which this appears divided into two portions in the line of the division. The constriction of the outer cell-wall at length becomes complete the halves separate and the truncate new end of each then grows out so as to restore the symmetry of
first

within a delicate sac from the parent, and after some time come to rest and arrange themselves within this sac (PI. 10. %. 11) into a colony having the regular

charged

pattern of

coming one of the notched group (see Pediasteum).

the species, each zoospore befrustules of the

the

new

frustule.

In such forms as Desmi-

dium, Didymoprium, &c., the di\"ision takes place in a manner apparently resembling that occurring iu the tilamentoas Confervte. Here there is no necessity for the subsequent restoration of sjTnmetry, as in Closteriuin. In those forms where pau's of globular or elliptical or aug-ular lobes are united by a narrow neck (bipartite forms), the process of division is very curious, and displays itself very To produce two new symmetrical clearly. frustules out of one, it is evident that two new half-frustules must be formed, as in but in the present cases the Closterium foundations of the new halves are laid, and theii' development often far advanced, before the division of the parent is completed. The central region of the isthmus expands
;

third process, analogous to this, has been observed by Priugsheim in the genus Coelastrum, hkewise composed of grouped families here the contents of each cell are
:

divided into a number of portions, as if for the formation of zoospores {still zoosjwyes), but no motion takes place they acquire cellulose coats, arrange themselves within the parent according to the typical pattern and then the wall of the parent-ceU splits and peels off, leaving them as the foundation of a new gxoup. Comiected with this, is a phenomenon which has been observed
; ;

and figured in Closterium, by Focke, where the entire green contents were only retracted from the AvaUs, and broken up into a number
of green encysted globules (PI. 10.
fig. .3B),

closely resembling the thick-walled restingspores or winter-spores of Volvox (PI. 7. figs. 20, 34), &c.

enlargements are the rudiments of the new *haK-frustules;' and they increase in size the halves (PI. 14. fig. 11), gradually pushing of the parent-cell apart, until they form two complete half-frustules, back to back, connected by a short neck, at which point they are sooner or later detached from one anIn Sjjhcevozosma the cells thus proother. duced remain connected in rows in a gelatinous sheath and this mode of division is well illustrated by the cells iu various stages sometimes seen in such filaments in Euas; ;

and displays two globular enlargements, separated from each other, and from each These two half of the parent, by a neck.

The fourth mode of reproduction is by what is called Conjugation, where two cells of a single filament, or of two separate filaments, contract an organic union, their cavities

becoming contimious, and their contents becoming blended to form the substance of a zygospore. These are at first cellulose vesicles filled with green and graniUar contents, then- starch being converted into fat ; by degrees they become brown or red,

and the coats become thickened. In some genera the coats remain smooth iu others
:

they acquire a granular, tuberculated or even a spinous surface (PL 14. fig. 12),
these spines being either simple or forked. Bodies exactly resembling these are found fossil in flint, and are regarded as of the same nature bj- Ralfs and others Ehrenberg described them as species of Xaxthidium. Li germination, the contents of the zygospore escape as a thin-walled vesicle, and become divided into a more or less
;

trum, Cosmarium,Staur<istrum, &c.,the new cells separate, the old half-frustules taking away each their new halves as new bipartite individuals.

The membrane
and

of the
at first

nascent halves is very delicate, devoid of the characteristic markings and that these processes and it often happens are not completely formed before the division Archer has described some is complete. monstrosities of these new halves. second mode of reproduction has been
;

numerous brood of secondary cells,resembling

those of the parents (PI. 10. fig. 3 d.). The Desmidiaceae may be collected in the same manner as is recommended for the

DESMIDIACE.E.
Dr.vTOMACE-s:.
difficult

[
is

245
a

DESmDIACEiE.
Desmidie^e.
Cells united into an filament (sporangia

Their preservation

m,

vative

Those producing change are Thwaites's liquid, Ralf s's liquid, or simple camphor-water but these liquids A cells. always escape in time from the few, for example Pediastrum,Kve unchanged calby concentrated solution of chloride of cium very gradually added, except that the colour becomes rather paler, or solution of acetate of potash moreover the cell-memthe forms of which the brane, upon
: ;

matter, as almost all the preseror less. liquids alter them more the smallest amount of

elongated jointed spherical, smooth).

Geniculai-ia.

Filament cylindrlcal,smooth
fig. .36).

endochrome

spiral (PI. 51.

Gonatozijgon. fusiform, smooth

Filament cylindrical
;

or

endochrome longitudinal,

wavy

(PI. 51. fig. 37).

Filament cylindrical, ceUs Hyalotheca. crenate (PI. 14. figs. 1, 2).

characters mainly depend, remains unaltered in all the kinds when kept in these
solutions.

Didymoprium. Filament cylindi'ical or bisubcylindrical ; cells with two opposite dentate projections (figs. 5, 6). Desmidium. Filament triangular or quadrangular
;

cells

with two opposite bidentate

prefer glycerine, medium really the best preservative some cases glycerine-jelly is used.

Many

which
;

is

projections

(figs. 7, 8),

in

Aptogonum. Filament triangular or plane, with foramina between the joints (figs. 52,
55).

See Preservation.
Analysis of the Tribes and Genera. (PI. 14.) Cells single, elongated, I. CLOSTERiE-tE. never spinous, freqiiently not constricted in the middle (sporangia smooth). Closterimn. Cell crescent-shaped or arcunot conate, or much attenuated at the ends, stricted in the middle (figs. 40-45, 57, 58). Cell straight, not or very Penium. rounded slightly constricted in the middle, at the ends (fig. 36).
Cell straight, constricted Tetmemorus, i the middle, notched at the ends (figs. 33,
34).

Sphisrozosma. Filament plane, margins deeply incised or sinuated (figs. 9, 10). IV. Ajstkistrodesiil^. Cells elongated, entire, small, gTouped in faggot-like bimdles. AnJcisirodesmus (fig. 47). Cells grouped in the V. Pediastre^. form of a disk or star, or placed side by side in one or two short rows.

Pedtastrmn.

CeUs forming a disk or

bidentate
(fig.

star,

marginal
margbial

cells

48).

Cell straight, constricted in Docidium. the middle, truncate at the ends (figs. 38, 39). Spirotmiia. Cell straight, not constricted j

Cells as in Pediastrum, but uuidentate (PI. 36. fig. 28). Cells placed side by side Scenedesmiis. in one or two rows (figs. 50, 51, 53, 54). Ccelastrtim. Cells forming a hollow sphere

Monactiyius,
cells

(PI. 3. fig. 8).

endochrome
II.

spiral (fig. 59).

Three interesting genera are described and figiu-ed by Wallich from Lower Bengal {Leuronema, Onychonejna, and Streptonema). Tetrachastrum, AxQh.e:\=Micrasterias,^i. ; Triploceras= Docidium, pt. Lejitoajstine^na, Arch.= Gonatozygo7i, De Bary; Spondylosiuin= Splicer ozosma, pt. Eabenhorst places Cosmocladium among the Palmellacefe.
;

Cells single, distinctly CosMARiEiE. constricted in the middle segments sel;

dom

longer than broad (sporangia spinous

or tuberculated).

Lobes of the segments inMicrasterias. cised or bidentate (fig. 13).

Euastrum. Segments sinuated, generally notched at the ends, and with inflated protuberances (figs. 14 to 17). Cosmarium. Segments neither notched nor sinuated, end view elliptic, circular, or cruciform (figs. 18 to 22). Xanfhidium. Segments compressed, entire, spinous (figs. 23 to 25). Arthrodesmus. Segments compressed, each with only two spines (fig. 27). Staurastrum. End view angular, radiate, or with elongated processes (figs. 26, 28-32, and 56).

BiBL. Ralfs, Br. Desmid,

Pritchard, Infus. Nageli, Einzell. Alg. 1849
Inf.
;

Ehrenberg,
Ah/ce
;

Hassall,
;

Braim, Verjiing.
;

1853); Focke, Phijs. Studien, Caspary, Bot. Zeit. viii. 786, 1850 Hofmeister, Pringsheim, Flora^\S&'2, 486 Ann. N. H. 3 ser. i. 1 Carter, ibid. 2 ser. Mir. Tr. 3 ser. xvii. Thomas, Bailey

{Ray
1848

Soc.

Smiths. C'ontr. 1854; Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. 102 WaUich, Ann. N. H. 1860, v. 184, 273; Archer, Qu. M. Jn. 1860, viii. 85, 215, 235 Brebisson, Liste, 1856, 2 plates
; ; ;

DESMIDIUM.
Sachs,
ItalicTie,

246

DLLPTOMUS.
Fig. 168.

Bot.

262;

1867:
pis.).

Notaris, Desmidiacee Delaporte, Desm. snhalp.

DIACH^'A, Fries.Agenus of Myxomycetes, consisting of perishable

little plants,

1877 (23
diacese.

DESmD'IUM, Ag. A genus of

Char.

Desmi-

growing over either living or dead plants, with an elongated

Cells united into a brittle, reguor quadrangular filament, and two-toothed at the angles. The filaments exhibit one or two dark, oblique, wavy lines, arising from their being twisted. In the side view of the cells, the endochi'ome exhibits thick,frequently cleft rays, corresponding in number -nith the angles. D. Stvartzii (PI. 14. fig. 7; fig. 8, side view of separate cell). Filament triangular. Length ofjoint 1-2000 to 1-1660" ; breadth of filament 1-630". Not uncommon. Sporangia round or oblong.
larly twisted, triangular

membranous peridimu,
falls oft' lilie

wliich a cap, and displays a white reticidated capillitium furnished with a floccose cen-

column, with interspersed blackish-red spores. Diachcsa diners from Stemonitis in the peridium, the columella, and the habit of growth.
tral

D.

elegans, Fr. {Stemonitis,

the only species, has been foimd in England, upon the living leaves of the
Trentep.),

gular.

D. quadraiu/ulatum. Filaments quadranLength of joint 1-2400" breadth

;

of filament 1-600 to 1-450".

BiBL. Ralfs, Br. Desmid. 60; Kutzing, Sp. Alfi. 190. Ehr. of

DESMOGONIUM,

Lily of the Valley &c. (fig. 168). BiBL. Fries, Syst. Mycol. iii. 155; Berk. A7in. N. II. i. 257 Corda, Ic. Fung. v. pi. 3. Diach^a elegans;
;

fig.

38.

Magn. 25 diams.

Diatomacese. Char, Frustules those of Synedra united into tablets, which are coherent by the angles.

DIADES'MIS, Klitz.A genus

of Dia-

tomaceas (Cohort Naviculese).

Char. Frustules navicular, closely united into elongated biconvex filaments valves with a median and terminal nodules.
;

D.

Eiitzinyii.

Submarine marshes; Ger-

many.

D. Gnjanense.
Flor. Ah/,

Found

in

Asia, Africa,
;

and America. BrBL. Ehrenberg, Mih'og.

i.

Freshwater and marine. The markings have not been

investigated.

satisfactorily

Eabenhorst,
of Phi-

142.

DEUtZ'IA, Thunberg.A genus

(PL
28. fig. 26*),
in-

D. confervacea

(PI. 16. fig. 27).

Breadth

ladelphaceffi (Dicotyledonous Plants) remarkable for the stellate hairs upon their

foliage

membrane covering
structures

and the reticulated the seeds; both of which

of frustules (in front view) about half the length; valves lanceolate, acuminate and acute at the ends; length of frustules 1-960".

form

Eight species, some BiBL. Kutzing, <S)j.

fossil.

^?/7.

95; Rabenhorst,

teresting microscoSee pic objects.

Fhr. Alq.

i.

259.

DIAMOND-BEETLE.

See Cubculio.

Haihs and Seeds,

DIACAL'PE,
Bl. genus of Cyathe8e(Polypodiaceous Fems), with

globular
splitting

indusia, open at

the top(fig.l67), and

containing sporanges inserted on a punctiform receptacle

genus of Entomostraca, of the order Copepoda, and family Diaptomidae. Char. Head distinct from thorax; inferior antennae two-branched thorax and abdomen each of five segments foot-j aws unbranched legs five pairs, the first pair with two branches, one three- the other twojointed; three succeeding pairs with each branch three-jointed external ovary single, large, lying across the abdomen.
;
; ;

DIAP'TOMUS, Westw. A

rising

from

the middle of the Part of a pinnule with sori. vein. Hei'baceous ; Magnified 10 diams. leaves tripinnate, membranous. Native of Java, &c.

Diacalpe asplenioides.

B. castor (PI. 20. fig. 38). Found in ponds and slowly-running water common in spring and autumn. Length about 1-8". BiBL. AVestwood, Eyitom. Text-hook Baird, Br. Fntom', M.-Edwards, Crust, iii.
; ;

BiBL. Hooker,

Sj/n. 45.

427.

DIAS.

247

DIATOMACE^.

DIAS,
D.

Lillj.

A geuus of Copepoda (EnCumberland.

5.

tomostraca).
lonffiremis.

genus of lufundibulate Polyzoa, of the suborder and family Tubuliporidfe. Cyclostomata, Distinguished by the iucrustiug, undeand the alternate, fined or foliaceous zoary tubular, horizontal, immersed cells, with a
;

DIASTOT()RA, Lamouroux. A

BiBL. Bradv, Copepoda {Ray Soc.)

50.

lowish-brown layer on the bottom of the water, at others adhering to various waterplants, decaying stems, stones, &c., or scattered between the filaments of Confervae and marine Algas &c. They also occur among Mosses, Oscillatorice, and on damp
ground.

raised circular orifice.

D. ohelia. Crust thin, closely adnate. Three other species. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 276 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 8 Hincks, Polyzoa, 457. DIA'TOMA, DecA genus of Diatomaceae (Cohort Fragilaripe). Char. Frustules (in front view) linear, sometimes cuneate at first united into flat
; ;
;

The individual cells of the Diatomaceae are called frustules or testules, and are furnished with a coat of silica (Cytioderm). This consists of two usually symmetrical portions or valves comparable to those of a
bivalve shell,

which

are in contact at their

an intermediate piece (the hoop), variable in breadth, according to age &c. When this is very narrow, it forms a mere junction line, and is called the line of
suture
;

margins with

and that aspect of the

:

frustules in

filaments, afterwards partly sepai-ating so as to remain connected by the generally alternate angles only, and thus forming a zigzag chain. Filaments either free or fixed by a stipes. Frustules prismatic, without rittae valves with transverse continuous strife (costae)
;

towards the observer forms the front or front view primary side, Kiitzing; secondarv side, Rabenh. (PI. 15. PI. 16. figs.^ 9 a, 30 b). That aspect fig. 7
;

which

this is turned

which the surface of the valves is turned towards the observer, forms the side or side-view of the frustules
of the frustides in
:

and intermediate finer striae, not always ends of the striae visible by direct light
;

extending into the front \'iew. Five British species D. vulyare (PI. 16. fig. 26 a, side view
:
:

secondary side Kiitzing, primary side, Rabenh. (PI. 15. fig. 6; PI. 16. fig. 30 a). The separate valves are of various forms circular, oblong, elliptical, linear, saddleshaped, boat-shaped (navicular), undulate, sigmoid, &c. (Pis. 15, 16, 17); and their
; :
_

Fixed by an inconspicuous front view). stipes; frustides rectangadar, oblong valves elliptical, contracted and obtuse at the ends; striae evident; length of frustules 1-430".
b,
;

surfaces exhibit various more or less delicate sculpturings and markings, in the form of bands, lines either parallel, radiate, or crossing each other, and dots, or a cellular
(areolate) appearance. These markings are in general not well seen, and in some cases cannot be seen at all, until the valves have been properly prepared. They are of special interest, not only on account of their extremely beautiful

Freshwater.
Frustules very slender, slightly attenuated towards the middle valves linear, evidently' striated, tumid and roimded at the ends length 1-280". Freshwater. D. grande. Valves linear, constricted near the rounded ends costae evident. Freshwater. D. hycdinum. Filament of numerous frustules; valves linear-elliptical, ends subMarine. acxite, striae obscui-e. D. minimum. Fnistules two or three valves elliptical, ends roimded striae obscure. Marine.
;

D. ehngatuin.

delicacy and symmetiy, but because they are used as tests for the quality of the

regard to angidar aperof the markings is described under the individual genera and the modes of viewing them will be spoken
object-glasses
ture.

in

The nature

of further on.

In some the hoop is a simple filament, so curved or bent as to assume the form of
the section of the frustules, or the edges of the valves (PL 15. fig. 11). In others, it is broad, and marked like the surfaces of the In others, again, valves (PL 17. fig. 2 a). the hoops are numerous, flat, and arranged like the leaves of a book, each with a round or oval aperture in the middle, so that the cavity of the frustules is divided into loculi ;

BiBL. Ralfs, Ann. N. II. 1843, xi. 449; Kiitzing, Bac. ^' Sp. Alg. 16; Smith, Br. Diat. ii. 38 Eabenhorst, Fl. Alg. i.
;

family of Confervoid Algae, of very peculiar character, consisting of microscopic brittle organisms, found in almost all fresh, brackish, or salt water; sometimes forming a uniform yel-

piATOMA'CEvE. A

DIATOMACE^.
these frustules

248

DIATOMACE^,

we shall distinguish as compound (PI. 18. fig. 69). During the process of multiplication by division, which is almost always going on,
the annular siliceous, narrower or broader band, or hoop, imdergoes an increase of width, and the two valves are removed some distance apart (PI. 15. figs. 7, 45
;

The cause of this motion is undetermined. It has been supposed to be produced by the
endosmotic changes connected with the nutrition of the organisms but this is very improbable, otherwise it woidd be met with frequently in other minute unicellular organisms; moreover, the diffiisi on -movements are far too slow and gentle to explain them. No true vibratile ciUa have been
;

PI.

IG.

fig.

1).

Sometimes

it

two

one overlapping of the valves are furnished with processes, called cornua or tubuli (PI. 16. fig. 30 b) the surfaces of others are undulate, producing the appearance of dark curved or wavy lines or bands (PI. 16. figs. 22, 23,
pieces,

consists of the other.

Some

upon the Diatomaceee, although Thwaites imagined, from the appearance of currents in the water, that they exist on
detected

Some are not unfrequently found bearing tufts of or fringed with rigid cilia, like those often seen at the ends of
Bacillaria.

24)

sometimes curiously arranged

lines,

either imperfect internal septa, the internal margins of the flattened hoops, or certain inflections of the margins

(vittfe) indicate

of the valves
figs.

(PL

1.

figs.

14,

15

PI.

17.

17, 18).

In the young state of these organisms, the endochrome or cytioplasm is imiformly distributed; but after a certain time, it

becomes accumulated into various, usually very regular and often elegant forms, and minute granular globules are formed, transparent vesicles become visible, drops of oil,

and

with granides, which at are motionless, but afterwards move about as in the swanniug motion of the Algse. Frequently a considerable nucleuslike body is present in the middle of the frustule (PL 15. fig. 33 a). As we have seen it,
vesicles tilled
first

the filaments of Oscillatorics these woidd seem to be formed like the fringes met with in the Desmidiace?e, by a modification of the gelatinous envelope; they never exhibit motion. It has more recently been supposed to arise from the action of a delicate layer of protoplasm investing the frustules, or protruding through chinks between the valves of the frustules at the suture. (H. L. Smith, Jn. Mic. Soc. i. 1878-79.) In placing the Diatomaceae among plants, we assume an agreement between the frustule of a Diatomacean and an individual cell of any undoubted vegetable, such as Protococcus and between the series of frustules
; ;

delicate processes were visible arising from it. The frustules of the Diatomacese are

sometimes surrounded by a transparent gelatinous sheath, frequently of great delicacy, or contained in gelatinous simple or branched tubes ; in some genera they are attached by a stipes or stalk to water-plants &c. Those Diatomacese which are not fixed by a stipes, and especially such as are linear or spindle-shaped, are capable of spontaneous motion they may be constantly seen slowly moving across the field, or now and
;

then starting somewhat suddenly forwards, moving mostly in the direction of their length, sometimes receding, sometimes performing a rotatory movement on their axis.

Those which are contained

in

numbers

in

gelatinous tubes, like Mict/07iema (PL 19. fig. 10), are capable of moving backwards and forwards in these; and Thwaites described a curious movement of the frustules of Bacillaria parndoxa, where the frustules, united in a band, slid backwards and for-

wards over one another.

such as we find in Fragilaria (PL 16. fig. 33), or Melosira (PL 17. fig. 5 a), and the cellular filament of a Conferva or a Zygnema. This agreement does imdoubtedly exist and the siliceous shell is really only a result of the incrustation or permeation by silica of a true vegetable cell-membrane, just in the same way as takes place in the epidermis of Equisetum. It is not yet ascertained in either case whether the silica is outside or in the substance of the cell-membrane certainly it is not inside, as that would be incompatible with the known phenomena of division. It may be removed by hj-drofluoric acid, leaving the basement membrane in but this proves nothing. The probasitu bilities are that the substance of the membrane is imbued with it. In regard to the cell-contents of the Diatomacese, there exists a layer of protoplasm forming a primordial utricle, inside the cellmembrane, and enclosing the rest of the In the coloured substance concontents. stituting the mass of th^ endochrome the chlorophyll is obscured by a yellow colouring-matter, diatomine or phycoxanthine it takes a green or greenish-blue tint with
; ;
; ;

DIATOMACE^.

249
;

DIATOMACE^.
new
half-frustules formed inside the of these genera slip out from it like

sulphuric acid, and also often bj drying and H. L. Smith has shown that it exhibits the spectroscopic reactions of chlorophyll.
are also found, Oil-globules, soluble in ether, sometimes of large size, in particular stages of growth, probably representing here the starch-grains found in other Confervoids, or indeed the oil which occurs in them and other plants in seasons of rest. No starch transhas been detected in this family. parent rounded nuclear body is often observed in the centre of the contents. Schmidt found in Frusculia salina, after

the

hoop

the inner tubes from the outer case of a In Melosira (PI. 10. fig. 8) the telescope. hoops appear to keep the new frustules united together for some time ; and here
there
is

no overlapping.

removing the oil by ether and the protoa substance identical iu plasiui by potash,
composition with the cellulose of Lichens. This was probably derived from the organic matter of the silicified membranes of the
frustules.

of the stipes to which the frustules of many genera are attached, Cox suggests that in Isthis obscure mia, a separate internal ceU exists, near the point at which the frustule is attached, having the office of secreting the gelatinous substance of the stipes.

The development
;

The only mode of reproduction, besides the division, known certainly to exist in the Diatomacefe, is that in which conjugation takes place. This has been observed in a number of genera, and presents considerable
In Fraqilaria details. and Surirella (PI. 10. fig. 6) the conjugation takes place between two free frustiUes lying near together, each of which opens at the suture and extrudes its contents iu a mass (probably enclosed in the primordial utricle) the masses of contents coalesce, the whole meanwhUe becoming involved in a mass of gelatinous substance. After a while, the body resulting from the conjugation is seen to assume the form of a frustide, of larger size than the parents, which Thwaites, the discoverer, called a In the majority of sporangial frustrde. cases, however, as iu Eunotia (PI. 10. fig. 6),
variation
in
its

The ordinary mode of increase of the cells of the Diatomacese is, like that of all other vegetable cells, a process of division. In Melosira, Isthnia, &c. this bears a close resemblance to the process which occurs in form of Spiror/i/ra ; and it is only a modified the same process that is found in the free Diatomacete. It may be briefly described
thus
:

(PI. 10. fig. 4)

the primordial
into

utricle, enclosing

the

contents, divides separate from one with the sides of the two valves of

portions, which another in a plane parallel the individual frustules ;

two

the parent-cell gradually separate from one another, remaining con-

nected by the simidtaneous gradual widening of the hoop. In the space thus afforded, the two segments of contents secrete each a new layer of very delicate, easily crumpled membrane without markings, which ultimately becomes silicified over the surfaces, constituting

tion

two new

half-frustules,

back to back, corresponding to and conjoined with the two half-frustules of the parent to form two new individuals. The markings on the new valves are sometimes The different from those upon the parent. history and ultimate fate of the hoop seems Sometimes it becomes to be variable. solidly silicified, but not much expanded in breadth, and falls oft" when the two frustules are complete, allowing them to separate this is the case in Pleurosigma, and probabl)' in all the allied forms; these hoops are often to be found in large numbers in the settlings of water in which Diatomacese have been kept a long time.
;

&c., the conjugadouble, as is the case in Closterium lineatmn (Con-tugation) the contents of the parent-frustules apparently divide into two portions (as if for cell-division) before conjugating and then there is a collateral conjugation of the two pairs, two sporanIn Melosira gial frustules being the result. (PL 10. fig. 8) and Orthosira (PI. 10. fig. 9) the appearances presented seem to indicate that the conjugation takes place between two segments of a frustide which have separated as if for ordinary cell-division ; but, instead of forming new half-frustules, have coalesced again and secreted a coat over the entire surface, thus constituting one new independent sporangial frustule of In Achnanthes and lihabdolarger size. netna, two sporangial frustules are formed after the conjugation of the two halves of

Gomphonema Cocconema,
is

Perhaps the most remarkable development of the silicified hoop occiu's in Biddulphia (PI. 19, fig. 9), Isthmia, and similar forms
:

one (just-divided) frustule. Probably this is a case of very early division of the conjugation-body. In Melosira (PI. 10. fig. 8) the conjugation-body has been observed to

DIATOMACE^.

250

DIATOMACILE.

increase by cell-diyisioii, and form a new filament of far greater diameter than that to which it owed its birth. The sporangial fi'ustules of the free forms doubtless increase by cell-division in the usual way (see Con-

bifrons may probably reproduce S. Microcora, In some of Thwaites's figures of conjugating Diatomacete (PI. 10, fig. G), there are appearances which would lead to

jugation). In some cases the first product of the conj ugated mass is a siliceous sheath, inside which a new frustule is developed, and finally set free by dehiscence of the sheath
(see

the idea that spores were occasionally produced in this process. The principal attraction of the Diatomaceae to microscopists, however, lies at

present
coats.

in the

structure of the

siliceous

The great difficulty meets us here. necessary consequence of the conjugation just described is, that every species in which it occurs must be represented by two forms, one small and the other large, between which a gap exists, over which we
no means of bridging except by supposing that the two new halves formed in cell-division need not always be equal, and that, by a dwindling away through a succession of steps of this kind, the progeny of the sporangial frustules may be reduced to the original size. The size of the frustides is said also to vary with the depth The effect of of the sea, in marine species. all this seems to have been disregarded in systematic treatises on the Diatomacese. have
at present
;

Navicula).

Some remarks upon the method of rendering the markings \T.sible have been made in the Introduction, p. xxviii {lllumination) and upon the cause of their becoming visible under proper iUumiuation, in the
;

article

Angular Aperture. The grounds

Some of the book-species appear to produce other book-species by conjugation; according to Focke, Sunrella sjjiendida produces and it is not S. bifrons, a very distinct form splendida is produced by improbable that the conjugation of ^S". Microcora (Focke). There is great probability, however, that the observations made by Focke upon the contents in certain species will lead to the discovery of another mode of increase a reproduction by gonidia, either active or quiescent, such as occurs in the DesmiIndeed diacese and the other Confervoids. the contents of the cells of Melosira have been observed to display a motion like
; *S'.

most the finer markings are depressions have also been mentioned But the (Introduction, p. xxxix, I.). general view now entertained is, that the finer markings of the valves are the optical expressioQ of hemispheres of silica (PI. 15. fig. 46) although it is curious, that neither Schultze nor Abbe agree with this view. Yet the formation of the various costae, xittse, and other siliceous structm'es in the valves, cannot be referred to any simply crystalline or crystalloid hemispherical defor the belief that
;

position.

swarming.' Such spores or gonidia dis* charged from the large sporangial frustules might reproduce the small form, just as the young filaments developed from the
'
'

are very slenzoospores of Cluctophora Sec. der compared with those of full-grown filaments. Focke describes and figures appearances in the contents of the frustules of Pinmdariu viridis, Sunrella hifrons, and others, very like what occur occasionally in the cell-contents of Closten'uni, namely en-

cysted globules (W. 10. fig. 10) resembling the resting-spores of Volvo.v and the fila-

nerating them upon a very thin plate of mica or platinum foil over the flame of a This is the quickest method ; spirit-lamp. but it has the disadvixntages of the valves often becoming semifused or agglutinated to each other by the effects of the heat in the presence of the alkaline salts contained in all organic matters, especially those which are of marine origin. 2. Boiling with strong nitric acid; this is the best method. The water containing the Diatomaceai is allowed to settle for twenty-fdur hours, the supernatant liquid poured oft", and the deposit dried in a porcelain dish. Strong nitric acid is then added, the wliole mixed witli a feather or glass brush, and poured into a flask or test-tube and boiled for some time, a portion being removed occasionally with a narrow dip-tube to determine when the valves are When this is the case diperfectly clean. stilled water is added to the mixture, and the whole allowed to settle. The supernatant liquid is then carefully decanted, more water added, and the mixture again

Preparation of the valves, to render them as distinct as possible, is essential. This may be effected in two ways: 1. By inci-

mentous Confer\-8e (CEdogonium) and he considers that such bodies produced in S'.
;

allowed to

settle,

poured

off,

and

tliese

ope-

rations repeated until a drop of the liquid

DIATOMACEtE.
containing the valves,
slide, leaves

251

DIATOMACE^.

when evaporated on a no film (of calcareous salts) at the margins of tlio drop. This is a somewhat tedious process but it is essential that If the it should be tiioroughly carried out. valves be not thoroughly washed, the film of nitrate of lime remaining upon the slide will absorb water from the atmosphere, and the whole will be spoiled. It has been found advantageous, after the treatment of the valves with acid and washing, to shake them up with a mixture of equal parts of gljxerine and water they then sinlv through the water into the glyceruie, the flocculeut matter being retained by the water. Thorough washing and decantation will then remove the glycerine (Neil). Boiling with a small portion of
;

of all the Diatomaceoe are furnished with

markings, although in some of thorn they have not yet been detected. In the most difficultly resolvable of those at present known, lines only can be rendered evident, although these probably consist of rows of
dots ; these very difficult valves require the use of an Amici's prism (Introduction,
p.

xxi), Powell's latest modified Gillett's condenser, the method described in the
p.

Introduction,

xxx, with immersion-

or Wenham's reflex-iUuminator lenses, (See also Illu^mination).

yellow soap, after the acid treatment, is highly recommended (H. L. Smith). The appearance of the valves thus prepared will var}' according to their structure, and the manner in which they are examined. In some cases the valves appear colourless, and the markings perfectly distinct with
the ordinary direct light of the mirror, provided the power be sufficient (PI. 17. tigs. In others (PI. 15), 2, 29; PI. ol. fig. 1). the valves appear coloured when viewed by the ordinary light. But when the mirror is brought to one side, and the light is thus thrown upon the object obliquely, one or two sets of fine parallel black lines are seen traversing the valves (PI. 1. figs. 17, 18;

And when an PI. 15. figs. 10, 12, 15, &c.). object-glass of considerable aperture is used,
with the condenser and central stop exactly centrical (Introduction, p. xix), the lines
are replaced eutirelv or in part by a series of black dots (PL 1. tig. IG; PI. 15. figs. 39,40,

have already stated that we believe the dots to consist of depressions. In reviewing the considerations relating to this point, we may divide the valves into those which exhibit the dots by ordinary light, and those which require oblique light and the use of stops. In those visible with ordinary light (PI. 17. PL 51. fig. 1, &c.), the valves are fig. 29 thinner and weaker at the parts occupied by the dots, so that the line of fracture corresponds to these parts and the depressions, are distinctly visible at the edges of the cm'ved portions of the valves (PL 17. fig. 2 b). In those requiring the use of oblique light and stops, the line of fracture also corresponds to the rows of dots, provided the light be equally oblique on all sides and the same appearances are presented by the dots in both cases, beginning with those in which they are very large (as in Isthmici), to those of moderate and small size (as in the species of Coscinodiscus), down to those in which
; ;

We

they are extremelj^ minute (as in Qyrosigma &c.). Moreover, analogy aftbrds a strong confirmatory ground; for the Diatomacese form a very natural family and if the dots
:

under a high eyepiece, have distinctly angular forms, sometimes appearing regularly hexagonal (PI. 15. fig. 41). If the condenser and stop be not exactly centrical, or the surface of the valve be not flat, the appearance of dark dots will be
&c.)
;

these,

are depressions in

some genera, we might

expect

them to be so in the others. The explanation of the manner in which

replaced by that of a set of brilliant pearls

(PI. 15. fig. 46),

which, as

we have

stated,

many

observers consider to represent little hemispherical elevations on the surface of the valves ; or the true form of the dark dots win be replaced by some other thus hexagonal dots may be made to appear triangular, quadrangular, &c., and those dots
;

oblique light renders the dots visible, has been given under Angular Aperture, The method of determining the structure of the frustules of the Diatomaceaj is the same as that of microscopic bodies in general, and has been laid down in the Introduction, p. xxxviii. The presence or absence of a gelatinous envelope or a stipes should first be decided. The general form of the frustides, both in the front and side

view,

which cannot be conceived

hexagonal (PI. to appear so. There can be
15.
fig.

to be really

39)

may

be

made

is next examined, which should be done while they are immersed in water, the frustules being made to roU over by gently moving the glass cover with the

little

doubt that the valves

point of the mounted needle, the eye being

DIATOMAOE^.

252

DTATOMACE^.
;

kept upon the object, and a somewhat low

power used. The frustules should then be prepared, and examined when dry as to their markings. Perhaps these may be visible by
ordinary light if not, the mirror should be turned on one side as much as possible, If to obtain the eiTects of oblique light. lines then become visible, it does not foUow that the valves are marked with lined structures such as grooves or ridges, because the shadows of rows of dots may
;

with them if, however, the masses of Diatomaceae are merely entangled in the meshes of their stems, they may be detached and collected in the " ring-net " (Introduction, p. xxviii),and the pieces of muslin placed in the bottles. A stick with a loop
of string at the end, is often useful in procuring those which would be otherwise reach the neck of the bottle being beyond engaged in the loop, and the mouth kept downwards when immersed in the water until opposite and close to the masses of Diatomacese, it is then inclined upwards and filled. On exposing the bottles to the light for some hours, the Diatomaceae will collect on the surface of the mud or other matters, and can then be removed with a
:

into lines imder oblique illumination in any direction in which the dots will form a linear series. This point must, liowever, be decided by examination with the aid of the condenser, stops, &c.

become extended

In using verj^ oblique unilateral light, spurious rows of parallel lines are often seen, not only upon the valves of the Diatomacese, but upon objects not possessing a lined structure, as many crystals &c. These can only be distinguished from those connected with the presence of dots, by their not being resolvable into dots, their greater
coarseness, and their variability in number in a given space under different kinds of illumination. If the direction of the lijies changes with the variation of the position of the valve to

dipping-tube.

them from minute

It is often difficult to free this particles of sand

;

may, however, generally be done by

dif-

fusing the deposit through distilled water, allowing the mixture to stand for a short time, and then pouring off the uppermost portions; the sand being the heaviest, will subside first. The deep-sea species may be obtained by dredging, or by treating' the alimentary canal of fishes, mollusca, &c. with strong nitric acid as above dnected.

The Diatomaceae

are often found fossil

that of the incident light, it may be pretty surely predicted that the lines are spurious, and that the condenser and stops will effect their resolution into dots. The prepared valves of the Diatomacese frequently appear coloured when dry, the colour vanishing when they are moistened. This colour arises from iridescence, and not from the presence of pigment or other colouring - matter (Introduction,
p.

occurring in vast numbers in freshwater and marine geological deposits, forming also in peathills, rocks, and various strata
;

polishing powders, as tripoli, berg-mehl, &c, The deposits from Franzenbad, Bilm, Richmond (U.S.). San Fiore
beds,
fossil

(Tuscany), Bermuda, Lough Morne (IrePeruvian guano, kc, are well known as containing many of the most beautiful species, and are sold hy the dealers in miland),

croscopic objects and apparatus.

xxxiv,

3).

In collecting the Diatomacefe, a number of phials (1- to 2-oz.), with wide mouths and furnished with corks, must be in which they may bo brought provided, home. The mouth of the bottle being closed with the thumb and brought as closely as possible to masses of them in the water, on removing the thumb, the water will enter and carry the Diatomaceae with it into the bottle. spoon is frequently of use in removing layers of them from the bottom of the water, or from pieces of
Collection.

The masses may sometimes be disintegrated by placing lumps in a test-tube, covering them -^-ith Liquor Potasses, boiling for a short time until the whole breaks up into a mud, and then instantly pouring it into a quantity of distilled water, and well
washing.
Preservation.

The Diatomaceae may be

woodwork &c. immersed in the water. Many of them are entangled in the meshes
of Confervaj and other Algae, or on the submersed stems of the higher plants; these, if fixed to the stems, can only be removed

preserved either in the dry state, immersed in balsam, in water, or dilute spirit one to six (Preservation). For exhibiting the delicate markings, they should be mounted in the dry state, placed upon and covered by the thinnest glass which can be obtained. The moimted sable-hair or bristle will be essential in isolating single valves (Intro-

duction,

p.

xxvi)

t'or

mounting.

With regard

to the systematic arrange-

DIATOMACE.E.
ment
of the Diatomacese,
structure
it

253

DIATOMACE^.
3.

appears impos-

Coh.

Feagilarie^.
or united
;

sible at present to divide tliem satisfactorily.

single

The

of the frustules of

many
;

chain
striae.

Fr. quadrilateral, into a filament or v. with continuous or granular

o-enera is imperfectly known and described and the supposed species have hitherto been viewed rather in relation simply to their

Diatoma. Fr. linear or rectangular, united by the angles so as to form a zigzag

chain
;

differences in form, relations.

than to their specific

strife

continuous

freshwater

and marine
Asterionella.

(PI. 16. fig. 26).

The following synopsis, however, will serve to aid in comparing the principal In it, the work. genera scattered through we have used fr. to denote the frustules as
seen in front view v. the valves granular constriffi for strife resolvable into dots, tinuous striie being costfe or canaliculi. The genera included within brackets are or have been imperfectly denot
;
;

Fr. adherent by the adjacent angles into a star-like filament freshV. inflated at one or both ends
; ;

(PI, 18. fig. 14). Fr. linear, Frayilaria.

water

laiited into a straight close filament striae granular, faint freshwater and marine (PL 16.
; ;

fig._3.3).

Denttcida.

British, scribed.

Fr. linear, single or binate,

;

rarelv more united fi-eshVater (PL 16.

striae

continuous

Genera. Analysis of the Tribes and

Odontidium.

* Frustules not enveloped

in

a yelatinous
tubes.

As Denticula, but fr. formfreshwater and ing a close filament

;

fig.

25).

mass, nor in gelatinous

marine (PL

17. fig. 14).

Tribe
versely
areolate.

1. Striates.

striate,

Frustules usually transbut neither vittate nor

imited, margin Cpnatosira. undulate in front view valves lanceolate, punctate, obtuse, without a lon;

Frustules

t Valves tvithout a mediati nodule.

gitudinal line; marine (PI. 51. fig. 35). Plagiogramma. Frustules quadrangular, valves with free, forming filaments two transverse-median and terminal
;

Cohort

Fr. arcuate, single 1. ErNOTiE^. or united into a straight filament. with Epithemia. Fr. single or binate, transverse or slightly radiant strife,

costfe, the intervals transversely stri-

ated; marine (PL 51.

fig.

41).

Coh.

some at least continuous no terminal nodules freshwater and marine (PI. 16,
; ;

Fr. cylindrical, diskshaped, globose; v. punctate, or often with radiate continuous or gra4,

Melosiee^.
or

nular

strife.

tig.

32).

Eunotia.

Fr. single or binate ; \. with and slightly radiant granular striae, terminal nodules ; freshwater (PL 51
fig. 27).

Cyclotella. tarv ; v.

Fr. disk-shaped, mostly soliwith radiate marginal striae freshwater (PL 16. figs. 21, 22).
;

Melosira.

Fr.

cylindrical
;

or

spherical,
;

united into a filament

v.

punctate, or

Himantidium.
;

Fr. as in Eunotia, but imited into a filament ; strife parallel, transverse freshwater (PI. 16. fig. 36). Fossil (PI. 18. figs. 11, lAmphicain^ni.
12).]

with marginal radiate granular striaa freshwater and marine (PL 17. figs. 5, 6), Podosira. Fr. united in small numbers,
cylindrical or spherical, fixed

by a

ter-

minal
tate
;

stalli

V.

hemispherical, punc19. fig. 34).

Cob.

Meeidie^, Fr. cuneate, single 2. or united into a curved or spiral band ; valves with continuous or granular
strife.

marine (PL
Fr.

[Mastoyonia.

single ; v. unequal, angular, mfimmiform, circular at base,

without
Fr.

umbilical
;

processes;
18. figs.

angles

united into a freshstrise continuous spiral band water (PI. 16. fig. 28 PI. 17. fig. 7). Eucampiu. Fr. united into an arched
Meridian.
cuneate,
;

radiating
24, 25).

fossil

(PL

23

a, b

PododiscHs.

;_

Fr. -single or united, with

v. circular,

a marginal stalk;

convex
free
;

bfind;

v.

pimctate;

marine (PI. 50,

(PL

17. tig. 16).

v.

[^Oncosphema. Fr. smgle, cuneate, uncinate at the naiTow end strise granu;

Pyxidicida. or sessUe

Fr. single
;

or binate,
;

convex hoop absent ? fi'eshwater and marine (PL '26. fig. 13).
Fr. single, disk-shaped
;

lar

freshwater.]

Stephanodiscus,

DIATOMACEyE.
V. circular, equal,

254

DIATOMACE^.
free; v.
linear

with
teeth
;

punctate or striate, a fringe of minute marginal freshwater (PI. 18. figs. 26, 27,

or lanceolate,

usually

with a median pseudo-nodule and longitudinal fine freshwater and marine

;

28, 29).

(PL

17. figs. 23-25).

Stephanogonia.

Fr. as in Mastogonia, but ends of valves trimcate, angular,

; ;

and spinous fossil (Pi. 18. fig. 30). Hercotheca. Fr. single, tiu'gid laterally
V.
fig.

TryhUonella. Fr. free, linear or elliptical ; v. plane, with a median line, transverse striae, and submarginal or obsolete alas ;

freshwater and marine

(PL

17. figs.

with marginal
31).

fit'ee

setse

(PI. 18.

30-32).

Goniothecium. Fr. single, constricted in the middle, suddenly attenuate and truncate at the ends (hence appearing

Coh.

Rhaphone{s= Doryphora without a stalk. Fr. free, single, 6. Ajiphipleure^.

straight or shghtly sigmoid v. lanceolate, or linear-lanceolate, with a median
;

Coh.

18-23).] Fr. single or binate, quadrilateral, oval, or saddle-shaped, sometimes constricted in the middle; V. with transverse or radiating continuous or granular sti'ite, interrupted in the middle, or with one or more longitudinal rows of puncta often keeled. Fr. prismatic, straight, at Bacillaria. v. with a metu'st forming a filament dian longitudinal row of puncta ; ma5.

angular) (PI. 51.

SuEiRELLE^.

fi^s.

longitudinal luie. Amjyhipleura. Char, as above (PL 16. fig. 7 a, h, c).

Cijlindrotheca

(PL

51. fig. 34).

tt Valves with a median nodule, Coh.

7.

CoccoNEiD.^.

attached by the end or side;

elHptical, equilateral. Fr. single, Cocconeis.

Fr. straight or bent, valves

nate

v. elliptical,

compressed, adone of them with a

rine

(PL
;

16. fig. 14).

median
Coh.
8.

line

(PL

16. figs. 17, 18).

Campylodiscus,
;

Fr. single, free, diskshaped V. curved or twisted (saddleshaped) freshwater and marine (Pi. 16.
fig.

16

PL

Doryphora.
ceolate

25. fig. 18). Fr. eingle, stalked ; v. lanor elliptical, with transverse
striae

Fr. bent, stalked at one angle or free ; v. -nith a stam-os. Fr. compressed, single or Achnanthes. rarely united into a straight filament, curved, attached by a stalk at one

AcHNANTHE^.

granular
Podocystis.

16. fig. 20). Fr. attached, sessile ; v.

(PL

with

angle uppermost valve with a longitudinal median line, lowermost with the same, and a stauros or transverse
;

a median line, transverse-continuous and intermediate granidar striee (PL 61.

fig. 7).

line

marine (PL 16.

;

AchunifJiidiiim.

figs. 1-4). Fr. those of Achnanthes,

but free

Nitzschm.

Fr. free, single, compressed, usually elongate, straight, ciu'ved or sigmoid, with a not -median keel, and one or more longitudinal rows of

Cymbosira.

freshwater (PL 16. figs. 5, 6). Fr. those of Achnanthes, solitaiy or binate, stipitate, and attached end to end marine (PL 19. fig. 18).
;

Coh.

puncta
figs.

freshwater and marine (PL 17. 9-13).

;
.

Fr. free, Cymatopleura {Sphinctocystis) single, linear, with undulate margins ; V. oblong or elfiptical, sometimes constricted

in

the

middle;

freshwater

Fr. straight or curved, free or stalked at the end ; V. ineqiulateral, not sigmoid. Fr. free, solitary v. naCyvibella. vicular, with a subcentral and two terminal nodules, and a submedian longitudinal fine ; freshwater (PL 51.
9.
;

Cymbelle^.

16. figs. 23, 24). Fr. free, single, ovate, elliptiSurirella. cal, oblong, cuneate, or broadh' linear ; V. with a longitudinal median line or

(PL

fig. 2).

Cocconema.
20). 10.

Fr. those o Cymbella, but stalked; freshwater (PL 16. figs. 19,

clear space,

margins winged, and with

;

Coh.

GoMPHONEMEJE.

Fr.

wedgev.

transverse or slightly radiating continuous strife fresliwater and marine

shaped, straight, free or stalked;

equilateral.

(PL 17. figs. 21-22). (Playiodisms.) Synedra. Fr. prismatic, rectangular, or curved; at fii'st attached to a gelatinous lobed cushion, often becoming

Gomphonema.
;

Fr.

single

or

binate,

wedge-shaped, attached by their ends to a stalk v. with a median line, and

a median and terminal nodules
;

fresh-

water (PL 10.

fi^'.

34).

DIATOMACE^.
[Sphcnella.
fig-

255

DI ATOM ACE /E.

Fr. free, solitaiy, wedge]9. shaped, involute; freshwater (PL

19)-

Podosphenia, Fr. those of Licmophora but single or in pairs, sessile upon a thick but little-branched pedicel ma;

Sphcnosira. Fr. united into a straight filament ; v. wedge-shaped, at one end rounded, suddenly contracted and pro-

rine

(PL

17.

fig.

17).

duced freshwater (PI. 17. fig. 2G).] Coh. 11. Navicule^. Fr. free, straight V. equilateral, or sometimes sigmoid.
;

Naviciila.

Fr. single, free, straight; v. & oblong, lanceolate or elliptical, with median line, a central and two terminal nodules, and transverse or slightly radiant lines resolvable into dots
;

Fr. those of Licmophora, Rhipidophoi-a. single or in pairs, upon a branched marine (PL 17. fig. 19). stipes Climacosphenia. Fr. cuneate, rounded at the broad end, divided into loculi by transverse septa or vittae ; marine (PL
;

25. fig. 9).

Coh, 13. Steiatelle.?:. Fr. tabular or

fila-

mentous;
Striatella.

vittae straight (not arched). Fr, compoimd, stalked at one

freshwater, marine, fi^s. 6-9). {Stigmaphora.)

and

fossil

(PI. 15.

angle

vittae
;

longitudinal and conti-

nuous
20).

V. elliptic-lanceolate,
;

not

stri-

ated (ord. ilium.)

marine (PL

17. fig.

PleurosH/ma. Fr. those of Kavkida, but valves sigmoid freshwater and marine (PI. 15. figs. 10-38).
;

Phabdonema.

vittae inten-upted,

Fr. as in Striatella, but and v. with transstriae

;

verse granular
fig.

marine (PL

17.

{Toxonidea.)

18).

Pinmdaria.

Fr. those of Kavicuht, but transverse lines continuous and not resolvable into dots ; freshwater and marine (PL 15. figs. 1-5). Stauroneis. Fr. those of Navicula, but the median nodule replaced by a stauros;
figs.

Tetracycliis.

Fr.
;

compound, filaments

compressed
ted
;

vittae alternate, interrupV. inflated at the middle ; costae

;

freshwater and marine (PL 15.

43-45). Fr. those of Staitro7ieis, Stmirosigma. with a sigmoid longitudinal line. Fr. those of Navicula., united Diailesmis. into a straight filament; freshwater

transverse, continuous freshwater (PL 17. fig. 28). Tahellaria. Fr. united into a filament, svibsequently breaking np into a zigzag chain ; vittae interrupted, alternate ; v. inflated at the middle and ends ; fresh-

water (PL

17. fig. 27).

(PL 16. fig. 27). Amphiprora. Fr.

pairs,

free,

solitary

or

in

Fr. tabular, united into [Pleiirodesmiwm. a filament, and with a transverse median hyaline band marine. Hyalosira. Fr. tabular, fixed by a stalk
;

constricted in the middle ; v. keel, and a median and terminal nodules, often twisted marine

with a median

at one angle vittae alternate, interrupted, bifurcate at the end; marine

;

(PL 17.
Anaidus.

fig. 1).

(PL 16. fig. (DonMnia.)

Ampihora.

8).

Fr. plano-convex, elliptical, oval or oblong, solitary, free or adnata, with a marginal line and a nodule or stauros on the flat side; freshwater

Fr. rectangular, single, compressed, with lateral inflections, giving the valves a ladder-like appearance
;

marine (PL
Bihlarium.
single
figs.
;

18. fig. 7). Fr. as in Tetracyclus,

but
18.

fossil

(PL 50.

fig.

39

PL

and marine (PL

16. figs. 10, 11).

35-48).

Frustules navicular, free, Perizonium. with thickened zones (PL 51. fig. 42.)

Terpsinoe. Fr. tabular, obsoletely stalked,

subsequently
vittae
;

connected
short,

by

isthmi

Tribe

EE.

Vitiates.

Fr. witb vittae.

transverse,

interrupted

t Valves withotct a median nodide.

Cob.

12.

LicMOPHOEE^.

Fr.

cimeate;

vittae arched.

Licmophora. Fr. cuneate, rounded at tbe broad end, radiating from a branched vittai curved (formed by inflecstalk tion of the upper margins of the valves) marine (PL 17. fig, 3),
;

and capitate freshwater and marine (PL 25. fig. 10 PL 19. fig. 3.3). Fi\ compound; v. circuStylobihUi(m. lar, sculptured with continuous striae fossil (PL 18, fig. 50).]
;

tt V-

lovth

a median apparent
nodide.

(^pseudo-)

Grammatophora.

Fr.

at

first

adnatej

DLlTOMACiLE.

256

DL^TOMACE^.
few erect spines;
53).
fossil

afterwards fonning a zigzag chain ; vittse two, lougitudinal, interrupted at

ends, and more or less figured marine (PL 1. figs. 14, 15). Fr. quadrangular Diatomella. vittse two, interrupted in the middle and at each end (PI. 51. fig. 16).
;
;

(PI,

18.

fig.

Symbolophora. Fr. single, disk-shaped V. with incomplete septa radiating from the solid angular umbilicus, and intermediate bundles of radiating lines ; marine and fossil (PL 25. fig, 6 ; PL 18,
;

figs.

54,55, 56).

Tribe III. AreoJatce. Valves circular, with cell-like (areolar) markings, visible by ordinary illumination.
Subtribe 1. Disciformes. Valves ahke, without appendages or processes.

SystepJumia.

Fr. single

valves circular,

areolar, without rays or septa, with a crown of spines or an erect membrane on the outer surface of each valve;
fossil

(PL

18. figs. 57, 58).

Coh. 15. AxGULiFER^,

Coh. 14. CosciNODiscE^. Valves circular,

Actinocyclus. Fr. solitary; v. cncular, undulate, the raised portions appearing as raj's or bands radiating from the
centre,

Valves angular. Amphitetras. Fr. at fh'st miited, afterwards separating into a zigzag chain, v. rectangular, the anrectangidar
;

gles often produced

tig. 9).

marine (PL 16.

;

which

is free

from markings;

marine and

fossil (PI. 25. fig. 17).

Fr. as in Actinocyclus, Actinoptychus. but radiating internal septa, as well as rays marine and fossil (PI. 25. fig. 16). Fr. single ; v. circular, Coscinoclisciis. areolar all over ; marine and fossil PI. 25. figs. 7, 8). (PI. 51. fig. 1 Fr. single v. circular, Arachnoidlscus. not undulate, with concentric and radiating lines, and intermediate areolaB, absent from the centre (pseudo; ; ;

Fr. solitary v, pentaAmphipentas. gonal fossil (PL 25. fig."^ll). Lithodesmium. Fr, united into a straight filament v, triangular, one side plane, the others undulate; marine (PL 17,
; ;

fig. 4).

Tribe IV, Appendictdatce Valves mth processes or appendages, or with the angles produced or infiated,
.

Coh, 16, Et:podisce.5:,

V, circular,

Fr, disk-shaped

nodule);
fig.

marine and
Fr,

fossil

(PI.

16,

12),

Eiqmdiscus.
single
;

Fr,

single,

disk-shaped

Asterolampra.
finely

v,

circidar,

areolar,

except in

the centre

and on equidistant clear marginal rays radiating from the centre, which is dark lines traversed by radiating (septa) alternating with the marginal
rays
;

with tubular or horn-like processes on the surface; freshwater and marine (PL 16. figs. 30, 31).
V, circular,

\_Auliscus.

As Eupodiscus, but processes obtuse and more solid fossil (PL 18,
;

fig.

60),
;

fossil (PI, 25. fig. 5),

As Asterolampra, but Asterojnphalos. two of the central dark lines parallel,

and the corresponding marginal ray
obliterated; fossil {PI. 25.
18. fig. 15).
;

fig.

PI.

Halionyx. Fr. single v. circular, without septa, with rays not reaching the centre, and with intermediate shorter between the rays transverse rays
;

Fr. single, fusiform v. equal, a median turgid ring between them=terete Biddulphia; marine.] Coh. 17. BiDDXJLPHiE^. Fr. flattened v. elliptical or suborbicular. Fr. rectangular, more or Biddidphia. less miited into a continuous or zigzag filament the angles inflated or produced into horns ; v. convex, centre usuallv spinous marine (PL 16, fig.
Insilella.

\n\\\

(concentric P) areolar lines ; fossil

18. fig. 51).

(PL
;

15

PL

It), fig.

9).

Isthmia.
Fr. single,
lenticular
v.

Fr. rhomboidal or trapezoidal,

;

Odontodiscus.
in

covered with puncta (areolae) arranged

radiating
lines, teeth; fossil

curved

rows or excentrically and with erect marginal (PL 18. fig. 52).

angles procohering by one angle duced; marine (PL 17. fig. 2). v. equal, Chcetoceros. Fr. compressed with a long spine or filament on each side; marine (PL 50. fig. 47).
;
.

Oniphalo2)elta. upper part of

As

Actinoptychus,

but

Hhizoselenia,
cal,

margin of valves with a

marked with transverse

Fr. elongate, subcylindrior spiral

DIATOMACE.E.
lines,

257

DIATOMACE^.
2->hiplci(ra,

ends olilique or conical, and with one or more terniiual bristles marine
;

(PI. 50. fig. 46). Fr. united Corinna.

into

seniicironlar

angles produced, s]iinifcrous, intermediate portion hemispherical, septate; valves elUpsoid, transversely
bicostate, apicidate at each end. Fr. single, compressed, rec\_Hemia>ilus. produced into tubular

bands;

tufted in railiating gelatinous filaments (PL 19. lig. 11). Colletonema. Frond filamentous, filaments not branched ; fr. like Navicula or Pleurosigma freshwater.
;

Schizonrma. Frond filamentous, branched; fr. like Navicula marine PL 19. fig. 12).
.;

Eneyonerna. Frond filamentous, but little branched; fr. Hke Cymhella; fresh-

tangular, angles direct processes, those on one valve longer than those on the other fossil
;

water (PL

19. fig. 10).

Fr. those of Cymhella, united Syncyrlia. in circular bands, immersed in an

(PI. 25. fig. 3). Fr. single, terete, acuSt/n'iH/idinm. minate at one end, two-horued at the other marine (PI. 18. figs. 32, 33).
;

amorphous gelatinous frond (PL 19. fig. 14).

Frustulia.
larly scattered
fig-

marine

Fr. those of Navictda, irregu-

through an amorphous
;

Periptera.

Fr.

single,

compressed

v.

gelatinous mass
17).

freshwater (PL 19.

unequal, one simply turgid, the other svith marginal wings or spines ; fossil
18. tigs. 66, 67). Jjicktdia. Fr. single ; v. unequal,

(PL

one tur;

gid and simple, the other two-horned fossil (PI. 18. figs. 61-65). Trinacria. Porpeia, Hydrosera (PI. 51. Solium. GlyZygoceros. fig. 40).
phodiscus.

Attheya

(PI.' 51. fig.

39).]

Mtcromeyn. Fr. those of Navicula, arranged in rows, in gelatinous tubes, or surrounded by fibres, these being enclosed in a filiform branched frond marine (PL 17. fig. 8). Many other species are noticed and figured in this work under the genera, which have not been described with suffi;

Valves angular. Tricerntinm. Fr. free; v. triangular, each horn angle with a minute tooth or marine (PI. 17. fig. 29). \_Syndendrium. Fr. single, subquadranv. unequal, strictly turgid, one gular smooth, the other with numerous median spines or little horns branched at the ends (PI. 18. fig. 59).] Eabenhorst makes the Angulatse a subcomprising the family of Biddulphiese

Coh. 18.

Angulat^.

cient brevity to allow of their being tabulated, or are not well established.

BiBL. Ralfs, Ann. N. H. 1843, xi. 447, 104, 271, 346, 457; Thwaites, Ann. N. H. 1847, xix. 200, xx. 9, 343 1848, i. 161 Smith, Br. Diat. Bailey, Silliman^s Jn. xli.,xlii. id. Ann. N. H. 1851, viiL 157, and Smithson. C'ontrih. 1854 Ehrenberg, id. Berl. Abh. 1839, 1840 id. Berl. Inf.
xii.
; ; ; ;

European genera Triceratium, Trinacria, and Lithodesmium,

** Friistvles envelojjed in a 7)u/ss of gelatine, or contained in gelatinous tubes, forming

a frond.
Mastogloia.
tules
loculi
fig.

Mikrogeologie Brebisson, Diatomees Kiitzing, Bac. and S}). Algarum ; Pritchard, Inf. (full account of species) Braun, Veijiiny. (Bay Sac. 1853) Nageli, Einzell. Alg. 9: Focke, Physiol. Stuclien, 1853 Meneghini, SuW Animalit. kc. (Bay Soc. 1853) Gregory, Diat. Clyde, 1857
;

Ber. passim
;

id.

Frond mammillate
Kaviciila,

frus-

like
;

but hoops with

freshwater and marine (PI. 51.

26). Dickieia.

Frond

leaf-like

frustulos like

Smith (South France) Qii. M. Jn. 1855; id. (Pyrenees), 1857 Greville, Qu. M. Jn. 1859 (Californian), 1865 (Hong Kong), H. L. Smith, ^M. N. H. 1869, iv. 218; 1 Giunow, Verh. zool.-bot. Geselhch. Wien, 1858, '60, 'Q-2- Qu. M. J. 1877, 166 (Hon;
;

Navicula or Stata-oneis; marine (PI. 19.

fig.

16).

Berkeleya.

Frond rounded
at
;

at base, fila;

mentous
navicular
filiform

circumference

frustules

marine (PL

19. fig. 8).

Homaodadia.
;

Frond sparingly divided,

frustules like Nitzschia, rine (PL 19. fig. 15). Frustules those of Phaphidogloea.

ma-

Am-

Xylander, Diat. Fennice fossil, addit. Weisse, Schioarz-Erde (TschernoSpnn), 1855 Heiberg, Consp. Diat. danic. 1863 (6 pis.) Wenham, M. Mic. Jn. ii. 158 (illmnimtting) Qu. M. J. 1855, iii. 244 ; Wallich, Mic. Tr. 1860, 129, viii. 36; Ann. N. H. 1863, xi. 351 M. M. J. 1877, xvii. 61 Schultze, Struct, d. Dint.-Schale, Verhandl. Naturh. Ver. i^reuss. Bheinl. xx.
duras)
;

1861

DIATOMELLA.
1 (figs.), f'br. in

258

DICLADIA.

Qx.

M.

Jn. 18G3,

iii.

120;
;

Antelmiiielli, Qn. M. Jn. 1868, 254 {reproduct.) Flfigel, Arch. mikr. An. iv. 472
;

Macdonald, Ann. N. H. 18G9, iii. 1 INIanoury, I)iat. 1870; Fritscli & Miiller, Slailpfur, 1870 {ejcellent photof/raphfi) Donkiu, Br. Diaf. 1871 Rabenliorst, Fl. Pfitzer, Hanstein's Bot. Ahh. 1871, Alff. i. ii. Compt. 120; Millarclet and Kraus, rendits, Ixvi. 505 Aslieusky, Bot. Zcif. Bot. Zeit. 1 862 (colourimj 1809, 790; Luders,
; ; ;

Hickie, Schumann''s Diat. formulce, 1875, xiv, 6 Habirshaw, Qdal. Bint. 1877 Lewis, Diat. of United-St. Sea-

matter)

M. M.

J.

board; Schmidt, Atlas {pqs. of all species 1878; Pettitt, Jn." Mic.'Soc. 1878, i. 8,-c.), 237, pis. (Campbell Island), & Bidl. Soc.

with the different planes of primitive polarization of these rays to the axis of double refraction of the crystals, so that the two pencils formed by double refraction are dillerently coloured. In the acetate of copper, the two colours are deep blue and yellowish green in the chloride of palladium, they are red and in the oxalate of chromium and green Ijotasli they are blue aud green, and in the tourmaline they are not always the same; The variation in colour is entireh^ independent of the thickness of the crj'stal. BiBL. Brewster, Pldl. Tr. 1819, and Optics, 353 ; Ilerschel, Fncyc. Metr. art. Liqht, 1064.
this absorption varying relative positions of the
; ;

Bot. d. France, xxiii. & xxiv. (Kitton, M. M. Jn. 1877,xviii. 10 & 05; classn.); Cox, Amer. Jn. 3Iic. 1878, iii. 100 lieurck,
; ;

biCKIEI'A, Berkeleyand Ealfs. A genus of Diatomaceae.

Char. Erustules navicular, irregularly scattered through a flat undulate frond or subgelatinous layer, narrowed at the base so as to appear substipitate.

Syn. mat. 1880 (Bekjiqne, pis.) Cleve & Grunow, Diat. Arct. 1880; Laiizi, A71. Soc. Beh/e (Jn. Mic. Soc. ii. 1879, 38, </(//?<);' Mereschkowsky, Bot. Zeit. 1880, xxxYiii. 529 (Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. 102) Borscow, Bac. Busslands, 1873 Eng-elmann, Bot. Zeit. 1879; Ilallier, Diat. 1880
; ;

D. nhoides
nat. size
;

(PI.

19.

fig.

16:

a,

frond,

(movement).

DIATOxMELLA,
fig.

Grev.

D. Balfoririana,
(PI. 51.

portion, magnified ; c, prepared frustule, front view d, valve). Stipes very short, capillary frond oblong, irregularly lobed or crenulate; frustules oblong, obtuse-angled, truncate at the ends: valves
b,
; ;

Qy.-=Grammat(iphora B.j Smith

oblong, with a stauros

1 to

DIOEL'LA, AVeineck.A

IG) :=Disiphimia aastralis, Ehr.

U"

of frustules,

length of frond 1-1000 to 1-720" ;

doubtful ge-

marine.

nus of Infusoria (Berl. Ber. 1841, 377). DICIIONE'MA, N. ab Es. A genus of Ilymenomycetous Euugi, iuhabitiug tropical America and I'olyuesia.
sericeinn consists of a reticulation of Confervoid filaments, interlaced "with myce-

Frond very pale purplish white. Recent frustules with a round colourless spot at each of the four angles (in the front view).

D.

Found in shallow pools between higb aud low-water mark.

D.
piiinata.
;

Frond

irregularly divided,

lium, and at length, like Cora, producing a distinct hymenium which cracks into

or laciniate

This genus is somescattered patches. times called Dictyoncma. Spreading in an orbicular form, from branches of trees; a
curious microscopic object (,Leightou). BiBL. Esenb. JS. Acta, xiii. 12. DI'CHROISM (double colour) is the term applied to the property possessed by many doubly refracting crystalline substances, of exhibiting two colours when light is trans-

Marine. BiBL. Berkeley and Ralls, Ann. JV. H. 1844, xiv. 238, and 1851, viii. 204 Kiitv. like Naricida.
;

zing, Bacill.

and Sp. Alq. 109; Thwaites,

1848,
i.

Ann. N.
ii.

II.

171

;"

Smith, Brit. Diat.

166.

genus of Ferns), including fine arborescent species. All exotic. DlCKSO'NIEy^E. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns.

DICKSO'NIA,

L'lleritier.

Dicksonieaj

(Polvpodiaceous

mitted through them in difierent positions. It may be observed under the microscope in crystals of the tourmaline, the acetate of copper, the chloride of palladium, and the oxalate of chromium and potash, or of

Genera

Onoclea, Hypoderris, Woodsia,

Spheeropteris, Dicksonia,

nnd Deparia,

BiBL. Hooker, Syn.

Fil. 45.

chromium and ammonia.

Dichioism depends upon the absorption of

some of the coloured lays of the polarized

light in their passage tlirough the crystal

DICLA'DIA, Ehr. genus of Diatomacefc. Char. Frustules single ; valves imequal, one turgid aud simplej the other twohovued, the horns sometimes branched.
Marine and
fossil.

DICORYNE.
D. caprcolm
lennata {P\. 18.
fig.

259

DICTYOCHA.

{V\. 18. figs.

fig.

0-3,

04);

7).

an-

(U)

D. hulbom

(V\. 18.

Q2); D. clathrata (PI. 18. fig. (5o). BiBL. Ehrenb. Berl. Ber. 1844, 73, and
;

Mikroqeolaqie

Bailey, SilUm. Jn. 18-30

PeriDicranum. Calyptra dimidiate. stome simple, teeth counate at the base into a more or less emergent membrane, or equidistant and arising below the orifice of the in capsule, split more or less deeply, even

GreA-il'hN Slic. Tr. 18Gb, 56, 98.

DICORYXE,
droid Polypi,

Allra. A genus of Ily-

some more

cases to the base, into

free

two

or rarely

Atractylidfe. old shells, Bnccinum, &c. BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. 105. DICOTYLE'DONS. One of the two great divisions of the Angiospenuous Flow-

fjira.

arms, purple below, trabeculatenodose above (figs. 169 & 170).

Fiff.

D.

conferta.

Ou

169.

Fig. 170.

ering: Plants, synonymous with the B.ror/etis of Decandolie, and opposed to Monocotylethe name being derived from the dons, condition of the embryo prevailing throughout the vast majority of plants included in As in all other natural this assemblage.

groups, instances occur wherein the particular character from which the name is derived, the presence of a pair of cotyledons in the embryo, is absent, as in Orobanche, &c. (like the Orchidacete and other plants among the Monocotyledons) but in these cases the plants agree generally with Dicotyledons in all the rest of the prominent characters, such as the structure of stem,
;

Dicranum palustre. Fig. 169. Mouth of the capsule with the peristome everted. Magnified 40 diameters. Magnified 100 Fig. 170. Portion of the peristome.
diameters.

DI'CRAJsUM, Hedw. A genus

of Di-

leaves, plan of flower,

Szc.

See Vegetable

cranaceiB (Apocarpous operculate Mosses), including numerous British sp?cies, very varied in size and habit ; some, such as D.

Kingdom, Wood, and Seed.

scoparium, very

common (see Angstroemia

Schrad.
;

DICRAN A'CE.^.A family of Apocar-

pous operculate Mosses, branching by innovations, or with the tops of the fertile Leaves branches several times divided.
lanceolate or subulate, channelled-concave, with a nerve mostly dilated and flattened,

and LEUCOBRYtTM). BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

DICTYD'IUM, A genus of Myxomycet'^s

exceedingly
elegant
plants, gro-s^ang

little

The rarely slender, scarcely cylindrical. cells prosenchymatous (often mingled with parenchymatous), rarely papillose, mostly empty, often thickened upwards, thereby rounded or elliptical ; the basilar cells arranged in a curved manner at the margins of the leaves, distinctly diverse, parenchvmatous, lax, thick, large, flat or with a more or less thick and patel lif orm front, delicate or robust, hyaline, fuscous, brown or
purple, ultimately marcescent, mostly very conspicuous (alar cells). Capsule oval or cylindrical, arched or straight, with a su-

wood.

upon rotten The peridium is ex-

cessively delicate, and the peculiar capillitium adherent to it ; so that, when the the transspores are expelled, a parent case appears Hke cage, formed of the veins There are no filaalone.

ments
spores.

mingled with the B. umbilicatum{iig.

;

is

it is a British species of a browui-sh-purple colour until the spores are dis- j^'^^~^-^ ^^^^^^

171)

bulate operculum. Peristome, if present^ purple, teeth ti'abeculate.

British Genera.

is iicatum. charged, then hyaline it 25 diam. o-reo-arious in its habit of Magn.

;

Blindia.

ped,

Calyptra dimidiate, hood-shaperistome wanting or simple, then

of sixteen equidistant, lanceolate, distantly articulated, smooth, slender teeth, .slightly

growth. BiBL. Berk. Sook. Br. FI. v. pt. 2. 317; GreviUe, Sc. Crypt'. Fl. pi. 153; Fries, Si/st. Nov. Gen. 11; Mi/c. iii. 164; Schrad. Cmda. Ic. Fimq. v. pi. 3. fig. 36.

trabecuLate within, purple, Capsule exannulate.

cartilaginous.

DICTY'OCHA, Ehr. The nature of the curious bodies, of which the genus Dictyocha consists,
is

unknown.

They

consist

DICTYOCYSTA.
;

260

DICTYOTACE^.
Olive-coloured
sea-"weeda

of a single piece hence they are not Diatomacese. This piece is siliceous and loosely Marine and fossil. reticulate or stellate.

of Eucoideae.

Kiitzing enumerates twenty-nine spedistinguished principally by the number of external spines and internal areolae they vary in diameter from l-lloO to 1-370".
cies
;
;

with cylindrical branched fronds, the oosporanyes imbedded lengthways in the substance of the frond, opening by a pore on.
the surface.
British Genera,

D.
view;

yracilis (PI. 2.5. fig. 19, perspective 20, side view ; 21, view from above).

D. fibula (PL
;

51. fig. 5).

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Berl Ahh. 1838, and Mikroij. Kiitzing, Bacill. and Sp. Aly. 142
Pritchard, Inf. 735.

Root a minute naked Dictyosiphon. disk ; frond cylindrical, branched oosporattyes scattered irregidai-ly, solitary or in dot-like sori. Root a minute naked disk Striaria.
; ;

frond

DIUTYOCYS'TA,
;

Ehr.

oosporaiiyes cylindical, branched arranged in transverse lines on the sm-face

;

genus of

of the frond.

Peritrichous Infusoria. Cliar. Free enclosed in siliceous perforated or pitted loricse, with an anterior fringe of long cilia, and an inner circle of uncini surface smooth. 6 species. Marine.
;

BiBL. See the genera.

DICTYOSPn.E'RIUM, Nag. A genus

of Palmellaceous Algae. Char. CeUs oblong, green, connected by filaments, united into free, rounded, platelike layers.

(Kent,

DICTY'OLAMPRA, Ehr. A
;

Itif.

024.)

Freshwater.

genus of
;

2 species.

D. Ehrenheryii

(PI. 3. fig. 11).

;

Diatomaceae. ( 'Jtar. Frustules single no internal septa valves equal, cellular (apparently) in the middle, the smooth margin radiate. D. Stella (PL 18. fig. 68). The only species. Found among Polycystina from Barbadoes. BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl Alcad. 1847,54.

BiBL. Niigeli, Einzell. Aly. 73 Qu. Mic. Jn. 1866, 127.

Archer,

DIOTYOSPOR'IUxM, Corda. A genus

of Torulacei (Coniomycetous Fungi) containing one species, D. eleyans (fig. 172), a minute

DICTYOP'TERIS, PresL genus of Polypodiaceous Ferns, deriving their name from the reticulated arrangement of the veins, =^ Pulypodium, pt. DICTYOPYXIS, Ehr., Grev. genus of marine Diatomacejie. Char. Frustules areolar, united into short bands valves convex, cupuliform, hoop

fungus growing upon oak which has been stripped of its bark very remarkable
;

for the reticulated character of its spores.

Diotyosporium
elegans.

BiBL. Berk. & Br. Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 sef. v. 460 , _"
T
;
. .

Spm-es magnified
lOUO diameters.

Uorda,
fig.

Ico7i. rioiy.

ii.

pi. 8.

29.

ahuent,

= Py.ridicula,

Ehr. brevis, Grev.; BiBL. Grev. Mic. Jn. 1862, 22 (fig.); 'Ehx. Berl. Ahh. 1844; Pritchard, //.825;
IJabenhorst, Fl. Ah/,
i.

D.

pt. I), cruciata,

DICTY'O'TA, Lamx. genus of Dictyotaceae (Fucoid Algae), containing one British species, D. dichotoma 4. (PI.
fig.

2),

common between
;

tide-marks,

on

rocks, &c.

remarkable for

its

dichotomously

36.

DICTY^OSI'PIION, Grev. A genus

of

Dictyosiphonacete (Fucoid Algae), represented in Britiiin by a common brauclied filamentous sea-weed (-D. faniculaceus), with the frond growing from one to several feet lonjT, of an olive or rustv-brown colour.

divided membranous frond, of olive-green colour, 3 to 12" long, which, on distinct individuals, produces three kinds of re-

productive organs, viz. l.tefraspores, divided crucially, and either scattered or arranged in sori 2. spores grouped in sori and covered by the common epidermis of the thallus
;
;

The

fructilication at present

known

consists of ovoid sporanges, imbedded in the cellular tissue of the branches, lying lengthways tliey open by a pore at the
;

antheridia, in patches on either face of the thallus. BiBL. Harvev. Brit. Ah/. .39, pi. 7A; Phyc. Brit. pi. 103 ; 'Greville, \ily. Brit. pi. 10 ;
3.

and

surface.

Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4

;

ser.

iii.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Aly. 40, pi. 7 D Greville, Air/. Brit. pi. 8 ; Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 2-38. DICTYOSlPIlONA'CE.aE. A familv

of FucoiOlive-coloured inarticulate sea-weeds, with ItiY^e spores like those of Fucacea?, superficial, in definite spots or lines (sori),
dea3.

DICTYOTA'CE.E. A family

7, pi. 2.

DICTYOXYrillUM.
or scattered.
fibres.

2G1

DIDYMOCIIL^NA.

TJoot coated with woolly

flat.

Frond

dozen species are recorded as British, of whicli the sessile D. g/ohosum, and the obscurely stalked

other genera are included in this but Thui'et has pointed out that the genera here named produce spoi-es, while the structures described as such in the others are oospo-

Many

D.

i-ernicosnm, appear the

faniily

by most authors

commonest.
Berk. Hook. Br if. Fl. v. pt. 2. Ann. N. II. i. 257 (Jrgpt. Bot. 337 Summa Veg. 4o0 ; Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 96

BiBL.
;

310

Padixa presents some interesting ranges. All the points of microscopic structm-e. genera are formed of very regular muriform parenchyma.
British Genera.
Haliseris,

Greville, So. Cnjpt. Fl. pis. 3, 122

&

132

Corda,

Ic.

DIDIMTUM, Stein. A

Funq.

genus of Peri-

Frond dichotomous, with a Frond

ribless, fan-shaped, conSori linear, concen-

midrib. Padina.
tric,

trichous Infusoria. Char. Free, ovate, or subcylindrical, with an anterior and posterior ciliary wreath; snout-like in front. B. nasutiim. Pond- water ; length 1-300",

(Kent, Inf. 638.)

centrically streaked.

DIDYM'lUM,

Schrad.

genus

of

bursting through the epidermis. Zonaria. Frond ribless, lobed, concenSori roundish, containing trically striate spores and jointed threads Frond ribless, irregularly cleft, Taonia. some what fan-shaped. Sori linear, concentric, superficial, alternating with scattered
spores. Dicfi/ofa.

Myxomycetes, consisting of minute plants growing upon leaves, bark, rotten wood, &c. (fig. 174), distinguished by its double
peridium, of which, however, the inner membranous layer is the true case (bursting irregularly), while the Fig. 174. outer forms a kind of bark, which breaks up into little furfuraceous
scales or

Frond

ribless,

dichotomous.

mealy down. Filaments

Sori roundish, scattered, bursting throug-h the epidermis, or (on distinct individuals) scattered spores. For other genera often included here, see

exist twining among the spores adherent to the peridium. Six-

Spoj80ch:n-ace.^e,Puxctariace.^,DictyosiPHOXACE^, and Cutleriace^e. BiBL. See the genera.

DICTYOXYPH'IUM, Hooker. A
DICYE'MA, KolL A

teen species are recorded as Bri- Liidjaiiium hemispha;tish, several of which are not rieum. uncommon. They vary in habit, Magnified like the Didermce, 20 diams. being either stalked, sessile, or adnate to their
support.
Z).

ge-

farinaceum

is

figtu'ed

nus of Lindsayeoe (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

Exotic.

^J
;

Sowerby

genus of Infuso-

Ann. N. H.
113
;

as Trichia sphcerocephula. BiBL. Berk. Hooh. Br. Fl. v. pt. 2,

i.

257, 1850, v. 365,

;

xiii.

312 459

ria (?), allied to Opalina. D. Miilleri is found in the kidneys &c. of

Cephalopoda. BiBL. Erdl, Erichs. Arch. 1843, 162; Kolliker, Wllrzhurg Ber. 1849 ; Clap, and

Myc. iii. Vec/. Sowerbv, Fungi, pis. 12, 240, 412; Corda, Ic.Fung. DIDYMOCHL.E'NA, Desv. A genus
Fries, Syst.
;

Crypt. Botany, 337

Sumtna

451

Lachm.

DIDER'MA, Pers.A

Infax.

ii.

201.

Fig. 175.

mycetes, plants of
(fig.

genus of Myxoconsisting of minute epiphytic

Fig. 176.

tolerably persistent structure The peculiar cha173). racter resides in the double Fig. 173. layer of the peridium, the outer being smooth and crustfragile

like,

and
is

dehiscent,

while the inner

cies

very deli-

cate and evanescent.

The spe-

vary in habit, being either Diderma lepithe stalk more dotum. stipitate with

{Leangium, Uk.) or
carpus, Lk.) ferent cases,

distinct

less {Leoyi^^i^^^2o in difdiams.

Didymoehlfena ainuosa.
Borus, from above. Fig. 175. Magn. 20 diams. Fig. 176. Transverse vertical section of ditto.

and

sessile.

DIDYMOCLADON.

262

DIDYMOSPORIUM.

of Aspidiepe (Polypodiaceous Ferns), with a curious elliptical" indusium opening on each Exotic. side (fifrs. 175 & 176).

DIDYMO'CLADON,
of Desmidiaceoe. Chnr. Cells single,

Ralfs.A genus

found in the water containing the filaments. In the ferruginous gelatine are found some fibres of a very minute Nostochaceous
probably Anabaina suhtilissima, Didymohelix is by no means common, even in waters which contain a very copious ferruginous deposit. It is found in ditches in Dumfriesshire, 10 or 12 inches in
plant, Kiitz.

constricted at the middle, end view tri- or quadrangular each angle with two processes, one lateral and in the front view nearly parallel with the corresponding one of the other segment, the other superior and divergent.
;

thickness.
It

may

be preserved either

in

the

dry

The two processes distinguish this genus from S/aiirasfrum. I), fwcu/ems (PL 14. fig. 32, front view end view). fig. 56, a, end view triangular. end view quadrangular. j8, Length, including processes, 1-330",
BiBL.
Ilalfs, Brit.

state, in chloride of calcium, or in balsam. have enumerated this as a test-object

We

for the general excellence of a high-power object-glass, also of the observer's manage-

ment

of the microscope. See Test-Objects, BiBL. Griffith, Ann. Nat. H. 1853, xii, 438; Davies, 31. M. Jn. 1877, xvii. 54. DIDYMO'PEIUiM, Kutz.A genus of

Desmid. 144.

Gritfith. Agemisof Oscillatoriacese (Confervoid Algae), with the threads consisting of pairs of microscopic,

DIDYMOIIE'LIX,

Desmidiaceae. Char. Cells with a bidentate or bicrenate process on each side, united into an elongated,
fragile,

cylindrical,

interlacing,

ferruginous, spiral filaments;

twisted filament.
Diflers

and regularly (Sheath either present,

probably
It

surrounded by gelatine. seems to have no relation with Gcd-

wanting, or indistinct.)

lionella as

formerly supposed. Found in ferruginous bog-water. The structure of the compound filaments of which this beautiful and curious organism consists requires great care to elicit, both on account of their minute size and their the filaments peculiar form. The breadth of is from l-oOOO to 1-30,000", the average Filaments imbued 1-10,000 to 1-20,000".

from Desmidium in having only and not being angular, and in the number of rays of the endochrome in the side view not depending upon the

two

processes,

number of angles. D. Borreri (?].!.

flated,
;

fig.

11).

Joints in:

barrel-shaped, longer than broad side view circular angles bicrenate. (Sheath
indistinct.) delicate longitudinal lines were proprosed by Jeuner as a test-object for the power of the microscope; they are best seen

wanting or

The

with peroxide of iron, containing no silica, or not more than a trace, such as is naturally invariably associated with the peroxide. "With hydrosulpliuret of ammonia, they beActed upon slo^^ly with dicome black.
lute

i]i

the

empty

cells

when

dried.

Breadth
fig. 6,

of fllament 1-1030". D. Grevdlii (PL 14.

fig.

side

muriatic acid, the colour gradually Tanishcs, a very transparent colourless cast of the original being left. If the compound filaments are macerated for some time in distilled water, the filaments Avill separate Under a ;|-inch object(PI. 1. fig- 10(/). the filaments present the appearance
glass,

view). Joints broader than long, with a thickened border at their junction side
;

view broadly
(Sheath
1-470".

elliptic

angles

bidentate.

distinct.)

Breadth of filament
p. 55,

BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Desmid.

represented higher power

in PI.
is

fig.

10

a.

When

DIDYMOSPO'PJUM, Nees. A

genus

of iNIelanconiei (Stylosporous Fungi),

grow-

used, they appear as in

fig.

10 h, which represents them as seen when too much liquid is contained between the slide and the cover, or when llie proper
correction
is not made for the thicknpss of the glass cover and of tlie liquid, or when When lying flat upon the lying edgewise. slide, and tlie correction is perfect, they apPL 1. fig. 10 c. pear as in In the natural state, a quantity of yellowish-brown gelatinous mutter is always

ing upon shoots of trees. The only British species, D. profusum, Grev., has very minute, oblong, uniseptate spores, at first glued together like a depressed conical nucleus, bi>neath the epidermis, afterwards bursting
I), elevatum, through and becoming free. Lk. = Mclaneonium bico/oi; Nees. Greville's plant, however, has not truly uni,-.(>plate spores, and is rather a Melancoiiiiim, re*"erred as a conidiiferous form by Tulasne to yJelanconii{m stilbostoma.

DIFFLUGIA.

263

DLMORPIIINA.
j

BiBL. Berk. Kooh. Brit. Fl,r. v. pt. 2. 357 Ann. N. II. 1840, vi. 438 Grcville,
; ;

culated, irregular ribs 1-1()0 to 1-120".

I),

freshwater; length

8c. Cnipt. i^/.pl. :?12.ti<r. 1 (as Stilhosjjora);

Till.

DIFFLU'GIA, LeclercA genus

Carp.

ii.

li'O.

of

Rhizopoda, of the family Arcellina. Char. Contained in a spherical or oblong, urceolate, incrusted carapace, from the anterior extremity of which are emitted
variable numerous or
niultifid

anscr (Amphileptus anser, E.). D. margaritifer {Amphile2)tus marr/., E.). Dujardin separates these species from the genus Amj)hil('pfus, on account of their not possessing a reticulated integument, and
their undergoing diilluence.
CI.

& Lachm.

unite

them with

A?nphileptu.ji,

tentacular

BiBL. Duj. Infus. 404.

expansions. Freshwater. The carapace is membranous, incrusted with minute grains of sand (and carbonate of lime ?) in some it is covered with depre>-sions or tubercles; these form the genus D. Enchebjs forms gemEiKjhjpha, D. mie, and also resolves itself into four "
;

DILOPHOS'PHORA, Desm.A

genus

of Sphferonemei (Stylosporous Fungi), consisting of S/iA<re/7a-like plants (without asci), growing upon the leaf-sheaths and glumes

Fig. 177.

spores."

Species verv numerous.

D. proteiformis, E.

(PI. 30. fig. 39.)

Ca-

rapace oval or almost spherical, covered with minute grains of sancl; length 1-240". D. oblo)if/a, E. {D. i/lobulosa (:-'), D.). Carapace oval, oblong, or rounded, smooth, brownish; length 1-200". BiBL. Leclerc, Mem. Muricum, ii. 474 Ehr. Inf. 130 and Berl. Ber. 1840 Du; ; ;

Spores.

Dilophosphora graminis. Magnified 800 diams.

Ann. Sc. //i/. 248; Schluinberger, Nat. 184o, iii. 254; Schneider, Ann. N. II. 1854, xiv. 332 Clap. & Lachm. Inf. 447 Lauix, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1865, 285 Tatem, M. M. /. 1870, iv. 313; Archer, Qu. M. J. 1877, xvii. 115. DIGLEXA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatinaea. Char. Eyes two, frontal foot forked. There are no other appeudages than the foot and the rotatory organ.
jardin,
;
; ;

of grasses

remarkable for the curiously ap-

pendaged spores (fig. 177). I), graminis, Desm. = Sjyhrvria Ahpecun, Fries. Sometimes very destructive to wheatcrops in the south of England. BiBL. Desmazieres, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2
xiv. p. 4. pi. 1. fig. 2.
ser.

DIMASTIGOAU'LAX, Dies. Peridiniutn cornutum, Ehr., Ceratium c, Clapa,rede & Lachmanu. (Kent, Inf. 462. )

DBIEREGRAM'MA,

Pritch.A genus

43. figs. 21, 22). Body oval, transparent, trimcate in front ; foot suddenly attenuate, somewhat more than l-4th of the body in length ; toes l-3rd

Nine species. D. lacmtris (PI.

of Diatomaceae. Frustules quadrangular, two or Char. more together; valves (undulate, Rab.)with transverse costfe interrupted by a smooth

freshwater ; part of the foot in lenoth length 1-70". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 441 Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 200. DILEP'TUS, Duj. genus of Infusoria, fam, Trichodina. Char. Body fusiform, prolonged anteri(jrly in the form of a swan's neck, ^^dth a lateral mouth at the base of the prolongation entire surface covered with vibratile
;

longitudinal line. Several species.

BiBL. Pritchard, Inf. 123 Grun. Wien. Verh. 1862; Gregory, D/;^. (/ Clgde, 22; Rabenhorst, F/or. Alg. i. 123. DI'310NAS, Kent. genus of Flagel;

late Infusoria.

2,

equal

Char. Free, ovate or p^i'iform mouth very dilatable.

;

flagella
salt

Two
hav.

species

in infusions, fresh

and

(Kent,

Inf

421.)

cilia,

which are more

distinct in front

and

near the mouth. D. folium, D. (PI. 30. fig. 40). Body very flexible, in the form of a lanceolate
leaf,

narrowed in front

with nodular,

reti-

hyaline Foraminifer, in which the early chambers have the alternate growth of a Polgmorpliina, and the later ones the linear arrangement of a Nodosaria. D. tuberosa, D'Orb.

DIMORPHI'NA,

D'Orb.

DIMORPHOCOCCCS.

264

DIXOPIIYSIS.
by gemmation
;

Modele no. 60, is the type of this dimorphous Poh/inur])lnna. Fossil and recent. BiBL. Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. ser.
3. xvi.

tion

freshwater. (Astasiaea

28; D'Orb. For. Foss. Vien.

;

2l>l.

DIMORPIIOCOCCUS, Braun. A
nus of Palmellaceous Algse
consisting

geof

with a carapace.) 1\a'o genera, Dinohryon and Fpipg.vis. In Dinohryon an interior red eye-spot is present, but not in Epipyxis. In the former
a flagelliform filament is present this is sometimes met with in the latter, but not
;

free botryoidal substipitate groups of ovate or lunate green cells, 4 in each.

con.-tantlv.

D. lunatus Germany.

(PI.

51.

fig.

43).

In pools

BiBL. Braun, Ah/.

Unicell. 44.

genus of Sphoeronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), consisting of minute plants forming spots upon the leaves of grasses. F>. gramineum, Lev., the only British species, = Excijmla grammis, Berk. Br. Fungi, No. 328, and Frc. gram., Corda. It has a scattered conceptacle, closed at first, and subsequently widely opened, forming a disk CO vered with white spores of a peculiar

DINEMASPO'RIUM, Lev.A

122; Duj. Inf. 320. genus of Infusoria, of the family Binobryina. Char. Carapaces urceolate, united in the
In-f.

BiBL. Ehr.

DINOB'RYON, Ehr. A

form of a branched polvpidom. D. serialaria, E. {n. 30. fig.

41).

Cara-

paces sessile or subsessile, slightly constricted near the somewhat expanded and excised end length of zoary 1-144 to 1-120", of bodies 1-570". Hermann and Archer point out that the bodies become encysted at the mouth of the
;

capsules,

forming

Chlamydomonas

- like

organisms.

Bodies yellow or green, with a red eyespot in front.

form, abruptly produced into filaments at each end (%.

178).

BiBL.
Leveille,
v. 274;

Berk, and Broome,

ser.

E. Carapace conical, truncate. gracile, E. Carapace slightly constricted in the middle.

sociale,

D. D.

Ann. N. H. 2
Ann.
(u OV^a,, pi. 5. fig. 79.

v.

456
3

Sc. Nat.

ser.

Icon. Fung. \il. Dinemasporium gramineum.

DI^ EMOU 'RA, Latr. A eoo diams^ genus of Crustacea, belonging to the order Siphouostoma and family Pandaridse.

Lamellar elytriform appendages First covering the thorax, only one pair.
Char.
three pairs of legs setiferou's the posterior foliaceous and membranous. D. alata and D. Lammc have both been found upon the Beaumaris Shark {Lamna
;

D. petiolatum, D. (PI. 30. fig. 42). Carapaces with long stalks, bodies green length of the polvpidom 1-100", of a carapace 1-1420". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 124, and Beri. Ber. 1840, 109; Duj. Inf 321; Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 186G, V23 Kent, Inf. 409. DINO'CIIARIS, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. single cervical eye; foot forked; carapace closed beneath, and without teeth at the ends. Jaws ^v^th one (or two.^) teeth each. Aq uatic. Two horns at the base of the foot.
; ;'

mo7iensis).

D.
JBrit.

tetractis

(PL

43. fig. 23;

fig.

24, teeth).

DINENYMTHA, Leidy. A
Holotrichous
Free, over.
Ir.fusoria.

BiBL. Baird,

Entomostr. 282.

genus of
all

Carapace acutely triangular, two horns at the base ofthe foot, and two toes; lengthl-120".

Two

other species.
of Fla;

elongate,

flexible,

ciliated

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 471.

DINO'PIIYSiS, Ehr. -A genus

D.

gracilis, in the intestines of

white ants.
family
of

gellate Infusoria, of the family Peridina3a

(Kent, Inf. 555.)

DINOBRYl'NA,

Ehr. A

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Bodies variable in form, with Iwo contained in flagella, one short, one long urceolate capsules, which are either single, or aggregated into a branched zoary from the new capsules remaining adlierent by their bases to the summits or the bases of the preceding the result of multiplica; :

marine. Char. Free, single; carapace membranous, urceolate, with a transverse ciliated furrow, and a median plicate crest no eye-spot. Form, that of Vaginicola; nature, that of Peridmium. The transverse furrow is close tu the truncated anterior end and from this furrow there extends down thebody a folded crest or fringe, like that of Sientor, except that it is a part of the (jarnpace. crown of
; ;

DIOPIIEYS.
cilia exists

2Go

DiPLOnONTUS.

liagelliform filament.

around the neck, and a longer Carapace punctate.

;

in that genus, is cleft down the back) is destitute of spines both in front and behind ;

D.

norioeffica

length 1-4:20".

foot

and toes long and

slender.

Eleven

species, Kent.

Forms a connecting link between Salpina

with themselves
;

The

species are found in sea-water

luminous

animals

probahly

luminous. BiBL. Ehr.

JBerl.

Ahh. 1839, 125, 151

Kent, Inf. 458.

ria,

DIOTHKYS, Duj. A

genus of Infuso-

Carapace in side view forming nearly a parallelogram, greatly compressed length 1-170" freshwater. I), trigona. Carapace trilateral surface delicately punctured length 1-160" fresh; ; ; ; ;

and Dinocharis. D. vomp>ressa.

of the family Plossconina. Char. Body of irregular discoidal form, thick, concave above and convex beneath, with five large vibratile cilia at the anterior, and four or five very long geniculate Marine. setje near the posterior end. D. mariiia (PL 30. fig. 43 a, under view b, side view). Body oval, with a longitudinal excavation; length 1-580".
:

water.

BiBL. Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 201. DIPLOCO'LON, Nag. A doubtfid genus of Scytonemaceous Algse. D. Heppii. On calcareous rocks; Ger-

many.
BiBL. Nageli, Nov. Act. 1857
horst, Fl. Alq.
ii.
;

Raben-

246

BiBL. Duj. Inf. 445

I?if.

Clap.

& Lachm.

400.

DIORITE.

See Rocks.

13IOSAC'0US,Boeck.AgenusofCopepoda (Entomostraca.)

DIPLO'UiA, Fr. A genus of Sphteronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), usually growing upon dead twigs &c., bursting through the Numerous species have been epidermis. described as British by Mr. Berkeley but
;

(fig.).

the resemblance of
is

many to various

One species marine. BiBL. Brady, Copep.,

;

Ray

DIPHA'SIA,
rine
riidfe

Agassiz.
;

A genus of ma-

Soc.

ii.

68.

Hydroid Zoophytes, family Sertula<S'('/-(';</rt/'m,

cies

with the

comprising the spept. ovigerous vesicles cleft at

7 species. the margin. BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph.

DIPHYSCIA'CE.E. family of operculate Acrocarpous Mosses, having a capThe leaves sule of very curious structure. are of two kinds, the cauline tongue-shaped, composed of perfectly Pottioid, densely
hexagonal, parenchymatous cells filled Avith the perichietial leaves much chlorophyll protruded, exceeding the cauline, composed of cells ultimately destitute of chlorophyll, therefore of looser texture. Capsule very large, oblique, gibbous, somewhat like that Inflorescence monoeciuus. of Buxhaumia.
;

p. 244.

remarked by him, and they are only stylosporous forms of species belonging to that genus or its allies. BiBL. Berk. Ann. N. H. vi. 365, pi. 11; 1850, V. 371 xiii. p. 459 Hook .Jn. Bot. iii. Leveille, Ann. Sc. Nat. 320, V. 40; 3 ser. V. 290 Tulasne, ibid. xx. 136 ibid. 4 ser. V. 115.
; ; ; ;

SphcericB Tulasne states that

DIPLODON'TUS, Duges. A genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina, and family

Hydrachnea. Char. Mandibles terminated by a straight, acute, and immoveable tooth, to which is palpi opposed a moveable hook or claw shortish, with the fourth joint longest and
;

terminated by a point as long as the

fifth

joint; coxfe not very broad, in four separate groups, the posterior of which are semia bivalve, granulated, heartdivergent shaped genital plate, the apex directed for;

British genus
cal,

wards.
coni-

DIPHYS'CIUM, Mohr. Calyptra

Peristome covering the operculum. simple, internal, resembling that of Buxhaumia, surrounded at the base by a large multiplex, soluble annulus.
BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. 200
lev, Ilandb. 214.
;

Berke-

"DIPLA'SIUM, Presl. A genus

DI'PLAX', Gosse. A genus

pleniefe (Polvpodioid Ferns).

ria,

of AsExotic.
of Rotato-

of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Those of Salpina, except that the eye is wanting, and the cai-apace (which, as

D. scapularis (PI. 6. fig. 80 fig. a, labium with a palp, under view 6, a separate mandible more magnified than a). Eyes very small, but projecting, wide apart, placed at the anterior rounded angles of the body, blackish and reniform, arising from the Anterior half of fusion of two stemmata. the body black, speckled with a few red spots posterior half scarlet, but divided by a median longitudinal black band. Length of female 1-10"; male l-3rd or l-4th the
:

size of the female.

D.

Jilipes.

Palpi

much curved down-

DIPLOMASTIX.
wards, but
little visible fi-om

266

DISCOMYCETES.
(Pritchard, Inf. 713.)

above. Body bright red, sometimes marbled with dark brown spots, from the digestive organs being visible through the
elliptical, depressed,

lar constriction of its tarsal nippers or toes.

At Wismar.

integument. Eyes four, at tlie very anterior Intemargin, so best seen from beneath.

Hincks. genus of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa. D. verrucosa; Cornwall. (Hincks,Po/(/soa,

DIPOR'ULA,

220.)

gument finelv granular, without hairs. Legs red. Length 1-25". D. mendax. Two clear longitudinal rays
at the fore part of the body.

DIP'TERA.The seventh order of Ix" SECTs, containing the flies," &c. DIRI'NA, Fr. A genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, tribe Lecanorei.

DIPLOMAS'TLY, Kent.A

BiBL. Duges, Ann.

Sc.

Nat. 2

ser.

i.

148.

genus of
;

D. ceratonice (fig. 26, D. repanda. Occurs

p. 65).

in Jersey.
p.

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Ovate, free, colourless, variable flagella 2, one vibratile, the other trailing

BiBL. Leiahton, Lich. Fl. G. B.

;

226.

mouth

distinct.
;

Three species salt and fresh water. BiBL. Kent, Inf. 431. DIPLO'MITA," Kent. A genus of Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Solitary, ovate, attached by a retractile filament to the base of a stalked horny lorica, flagella two, alike ; eye-spot

operculate Acrocarpous Mosses, of gregarious habit, very dwarf and stemless, arising from a green prothallium spreading on the ground.

DISCELIA'CE.E. A family of

The sheathing

leaves are appressed, obluug,

acuminate and nerveless, composed of cells lax at the base and apex, rhomboidally parenchymatous, destitute of chlorophyll, fuscescent and empty. Capsule subglobose and inclined, with a short collum, annu ate and long-stalked. The antheridial and a-chegonial flowers are upon the same runner of the prothallium. British genus:

sometimes present no mouth. D. socialis. Brownish, length 1-lGOO" pond-water. BiBL. Kent, Inf. 2S9. DIPLONE'IS,"Ehr. = Aw?<Z with the
;

valves constricted in the middle.

DIPLOZO'ON, Nordm.~A
Treraatode Entozoa.
Cliar.

genus

of

DISCELIUM, Brid. Calyptra longish, very narrow, split almost to the summit, wider in the middle, with the margin involute on each side at the base. Peristome
simple, of sixteen lanceolate teeth, tissile in the middle, trabecidate, striate, cartila-

of individuals soft, elongated and flattened; united in pairs by tlieir fusion near the middle, thus resembling an each body terminated posteriorly by a trans-

Body

ginous, reddish or orange. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. 286 ley, Ilandb. 107.

Berke-

verse, oval, or almost quadrilateral expansion, furnished with four suctorial disks. Mouth terminal, anterior, accompanied by two oblong suctorial disks.

D.paracloxum, the double animal. Found

upon the giUs of freshwater

fishes, as

the

carp, the roach, the bream, &c. l-<) to 1-5", or twice this length.

Length

The separate individuals {Diporpa, Duin a state of jardin) are smaller than those conjugation (length 1-100 to 1-45"), and contain no trace of reproductive organs. Ova formed in each individual after the
conjugation;
shell

'DISCEL'LA, Berk, and Br.A genus of Splneronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), forming scattered, disk-like, dark spots upon twigs ; at first covered by the epidermis, which afterwards splits and separates. Five species are described, occurring on the wiUow, lime, plane, and elder. BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. II. 2 ser. V. 370, pi. 12. fig. 8 Berkeley, Outl
;

322.

DISCOCEPH'ALUS, E. A

genus of

they ai'e yellow, with the narrowed and prolonged into a filamentous spiriil or coil.
BiBL. Nordmaun, Mi7>:r. Beit. 1832, i. 50; Ann. Sc. Nat. 1833, xxx. Ehrenberg, Wiefjmann's Archiv, 1835, ii. 128; Mayer, An. (l.Entoz. 23 Sicbold, Siel). u. Koll. Zeits. iii. 02; Vogt, MiiUcr's Archiv, 1841,33. DIPODINA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria. Differs from Notommata by a particu;
;

Infusoria, of the tauiily Euplota. C]>ar. Head distinct from the body ; hooks present, but neither stvles nor teeth. D. rotaiorius (PL 30. fig. 44). Hyaline, head narrower flat, rounded at each end
;

than

body; length 1-380". Imperfectly examined. BiBL. Ehr. Infu.-. p. 375.

tlie

Red

Sea.

DISCOMYCETES. The
including the
th(^

name

of the lamilies of
sification,

Fungi under

of one Fries's clas-

Helvellacei and

Phacidiacei of

Ascojiycetes.

DISCOPLEA.
DISCOPLE'A, Ehr.A genus

267

DISTIOIIIUM.
;

of Diato-

macoa\ not now retained, the species being

refenvdto tlie genera Ct/clofc/laiind CoacinoEhr. Jier. Ber'l. Ak. 1844, p. 197. rf/mw. prSCORBT'NA, Parker and Jones. One
of the Rofcdinco, having a turbiuoid spire, with vesicuhir chambers, opening one into anotlier by slit-like apertures, which are umusually tented over by a succession of
bilical Haps,

the Mediterranean oval or oblong, often constricted in the middle colourless when young, greenish when older, red when adult no eye-spot.
; ;

Probably marine Algas. BiBL. i)ujardin, Inf. 340; Joly, Hist,

d'un Petit Crust ace
51.
fig. \iS)=.
^-c'.

1840.

DISIPHO'NIA, Ehr. Z>.

amtralis (PI.

forming a star-like ornament AsTKRiGERiN.vK The shell is usually coarsely, sometimes finely, and occasionally D. Fossil and recent. partially porous.
(see

Diato7neUa, pt, DISO'MA, Ehr. genus of Infusoria, of the family Enchelia. Char. Body double, not ciliated mouth without teeth, ciliated and truncated ( = En-

rosacea\V\. of D. turbo.

:34. fig.

7 a, b)

is

a neat variety

cheli/s with a double body). J), vacillans (PI. 30. fig. 45).
;

Segments

BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. Foram. 203. DISOO'SIA, Libert. genus of Sphreronomei (Stylosporous Fungi), probably re-

clavate, filiform hvaline and narrowed at the anterior end; lengtb 1-380 to 1-288",

lated to some of the Spha-rice, as stylosporous forms. The species have been described under various names and the genus Ph/i/ctid'mm of Notaris is synonymous with it. The British species recorded seem to have been greatly confused by ditlerent writers ; for Discosia alnea, Libert, found on the leaves of alder and beech, = S';j/w^/-/ arfo;

In the Red Sea. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. .302. DIS'SODON, Grev. and Arnott. genus of Splachnaceas (Acrocarpous o])ercu-

late Mosses), including

some Splachna of authors and a Cyrtodon. BiBL. Wilson, Bry. Brit. 295 ; Berkeley, liandh. 163.

DISTEM'MA, Ehr.A
toria, of the

creas, Tode.

Xi/hima f(igineum,Ve\'$., Vhlijctidium nitidinn, Wallr., Ph. clypoatum, Notaris, and, from its name, we conclude also Dothidea alnea, Pers. of Hook. Brit Flor., with its synonyms. Fries, in his Smnma
Veget., gives

genus of Rotafamily Hydatintea. Char. Eves two, cervical foot forked.

;

D.forfcida

(PI. 43. fig. 25; fig. 26, teeth).

;

D.

artocreas, alnea,

and
.3

chj-

cylindiico-conical eyes red ; toes strong, recurved, toothed at the base; fr. water; length 1-120".

Body

peata as three distinct species.

BiBi.. Leveille,

Ann.
Veget.

Sc.

Nat.
;
;

ser. v.

286

Fries,
z.

Sum.

423

Fresenius,
;

Beitr.

Mycol. Heft i. 66, pi. 8 De Notaris, Mem. Accad. Torino, 1849, 2 ser. x. Berk., Hooh. Br. Fl. 278, 288. DLSCOSIRA, Ptab. genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules disk-shaped, concatevalves nearly plane, with curved nate

Three other species, two of which are freshwater, and one marine. In the latter, D. marina, the cervical eye-spots are colourless; if these do not really represent eyes, this species must be referred to the genus Pleurotrocha. BiBL. Ehr. Infvs. p. 449.

DIST10HIA'CE..E.Afamilyofoperculate

costfe

; margin denticulate cately punctate.

centre

deli-

Acrocarpous (terminal-fruited) Mosses, of Cfespitose habit the stem increasing towards the point, simjjle or branched the leaves with a dorsal keel-like nerve, equi;

D.

sulcata.

Italy.

tant-concave, densely imbricatively overlapping, parencbymatously areolated. Cells minute, with thick walls, somewhat papillose, very densely packed, squarish. Capsules British genus oval, equal. DISTIC'HIUxM, Br. and Schimper.-Calyptra dimidiate. Capsule annulate. Peristome simple, with sixteen equidistant teeth, free at the base, once or several times slit from the base to the apex, trabeculate, deep
:

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Flor. Alg. i. p. 36. DISEL'MIS, Duj. = Chl.vimidomoxas, Ehr. {Chi. pidvisculus, Tj. = Disebnis viridi.f, D. PI. 7. fig. 2b,c.; PL 30. group -30). See Protococcus. Dnjardin describes a marine species, D. marina. Body almost globular, obtuse and rounded in front, gi-anidar within, and (from generic characters) with a non-contractile tegument and two similar cilia. He adds to this genus D. Di/nalii=3Ionas Dunalii, Joly, giving rise to the red
;

colour of the reservoirs of the salt-works of

purple, homogeneous, smooth or rough. Inflorescence monoecious. BiBL. Wilson. Bry. Brit. p. 104 ; Berkeley, Handb. p. 266.

DTSTIGMA.
DISTIG'MA, Ehr. A genus
ria,

268

DOCIDimi.

of Infusoof the family Astasisea. Char. Unattached, two blackish eye-

B. hepaticum is of special interest, on account of the immense destruction it causes

of sheep. When the young Bistoma leaves the ovum, it resembles an obconical ciliated Infusorium, with a short terminal proboscis the cilia are subsequently cast off, and a sporocyst or Beclia is formed, which attaches itself to MoUusca, and in which numerous CercaricB are then produced.
;

sp(its,

Flagelliform filaments two, one long, one short motion similar to that of a leech. Body variable in form ; freshwater.
;

B. protem (PL
hyaline,

.30.

fig.

4(3 a).

Body
;

obtuse at the ends, alternately contracted or expanded from side to side eye-spots distinct length 1-570 to 1-430".
;

B. viride (PI. 30. fig. 46 b). Body filled with green granules, alternately contracted and expanded eye-spots distinct length
; ;

1-570".

Two

other species

one yellow, the other

colourless.

BiBL. Ehr. Bifus. 116; Kent, L>f. 418. DIS'TOMA, &a3rtn. genus of Mollusca, of the order Tunicata, and family

These when liberated, swim in water, and are swallowed by sheep, or the moUusca containing them are eaten with the grass ; and so the young Bistomata enter the alimentary canal, to take up their final abode in the biliary ducts. B. lanceolatmn has the intestine once it occurs in the branched, then simple liver of man, the ox, the sheep, the pig kc.
;

Botiyllidaj.

B. (Bil/iarzia) hcematohia, the African Trematode, has the body vei-miform the male I", the female 1" long. It is found
;

Distinguished by the

sessile, semicarti;

in the bloodvessels of
ritius,

man

in Egypt,

Mauthe

laginous, polymorphous mass the numerous circidar systems ; the individuals in one or two rows at imequal distances from a common centre, with thorax and stalked abdo-

South Africa, &c.

sinensis occurs in the liA'cr of

B.

Chinese.

Some

of the species are microscopic.

; ;

men

and the branchial and anal

orifices

six-rayed.

On marine
30.

Algie {Fuciis ^c).

fig.

BiBL. Dujardin, Helminth. 381 BeneCobden, Ann. Sc. Xat. 3 ser. Zool. xvii.
bold, Parasites, 1879, xiv. BoAvles, Sheeprot Tirties {remedy) Apr. 10, 1881 Ann.
; ; ;

B. rubrum (PL
thick.

individuals yellowish; 5"

Mass red, 23). in diameter, 5"

B. variohsinn. Reddish- or yellowishwhite bodies orange-red. BiBL. Forbes and Hanlev, Br. Moll. i.
;

18.

40o; Sommer, Aymt. 1880. DITTO LA. genus of Tremellini (Basidiomycetous Fungi) consisting of saucer-shaped -margined gelatinous Fungi, wdth a discoid hymenium, which is at first
vi.

N. H. 1880,

DIS'TOMA,

Zeder, or

Bisfomum.A

genus of Entozoa, of the order Sterehnintha, and family Trematoda. C/iar. iiody soft, depressed or cylindrical, more or less elongated, not jointed, brown furnished with two distinct suckers one

Bitiola radicata occurs rarely in veiled. this country on decayed firwood. B. tiiida,

B. and Br., is considered by Tulasne synoUATnous with Bacrymi/ces deliquescens. " BiBL. Alb. & Schwein. pi. 8. f 6 Berk.
.

Oidl. p. 291.

and containing the terminal, mouth, the other situated on the ventral surface between the former and the middle
anterior,

DOCH'MIUS, Duj.A

genus of Xema-

toid Entozoa.

of the body.

Species very
scribes 164
;

numerous Dujardin demost common in birds and

;

fishes, generally inhabiting the alimentary Each Bistoma has its separate Cercanal.

B. {Anchi/losfoma) ditodenalis is filiform, the head pointed and curved the mouth with four unequal converging curved teeth body pointed behind in the female, blunt in the male viviparous; length of male -f", of female ^". Occurs in the human small
; ;
;

caria,

which

live

in

as

many

distinct

intestines,

in Italy,

animals.

South America,
chlorosis.

Austria, Egypt, and producing anaemia and

gall-bladder

B. hepaticum (the fluke) occurs in the and hepatic ducts of slieep

affected in

occurs also in the horse, the ox, the goat, the hare, the
rot
;

when
stag,

with the

'

'

it

and

man.

The

intestine

is

two-

branched, and the Length 4-5 to 1}".

branches

ramified.

in the dog. Sangeri, in the elephant. BiBL. Dujardin, Helm. /O ; Cobbold, Paras. 211 (fig.). DOCIDTUM, Brebisson. genus of Desmidiacese.

B. trigonocephalus,

B.

DOCOPHORUS.
Char. Cells
gated, linear,
;

269

DORYPIIORA.
;

sinp:le, straight,

nincli elon-

cells

the euds; truncate segments usuallj^ inflated at the base. Rabenhorst includes the species in Pleu7-of(enium.

sometimes atteuuatod towards constricted in the middle, ends

elliptic drical, one or

pi. 9. fig.

two

sporanges elliptic or cylinin each .series. Ralfs, I. c,

iSplicnrozyi/a

Ralfm, Thwaites,
Cj/lindrospermum

Harvey's Algce, 2

ed.

2.")3.

Ralfsii, Kiitzing, Tab, Phycol. i. pi. 98. fig. 7. Forming extensive strata of a velvety

Docidhnn, like Closterium, has the termiand its nal spaces with moving molecules vesicles are either scattered or arranged in a single longitudinal row Sec _. D. truncatum (PI. 14. fig. 38) nients three or four times as long as broad, with a single iuiiation at the base suture on each side length 1-80 to
; ;

rich dark green colour, sometimes verging tovirards aeruginous green, on rivulets and in bogs. D. SmitJiii, Th.^a\ies. Filaments straight, each included in a definite gelatinous

projecting 1-72".

ordinary cells subspherical, compressed, about as long as wide vesicular cells subspherical, somewhat barrel-shaped, half as wide again as the ordinary cells,

sheath

D. hacuhnn

(PI. 14. fig. 39).

Segments
;

invery slender, with a single conspicuous vesiflation at the base, otherwise linear cles in a single series; length 1-111". D. nodidosum. Segments four to six times as long as broad, constricted at regular intervalsso as to produce an undulated
_

pimcta very distinct; sporanges cylindrical, very unequal in length, and with the ends rounded and somewhat truncated. Ralfs,
I.

Fresliwater boggy pools. Thwaitesii, Ralfs. Filaments straight, or nearly so ordinary cells quadrate ; vesicular cells oblong, subquadrate, puncta very
c.

pi. 9. fig. 4.

D.

distinct; sporanges

1-50". m.argin; suture projectmg; length Several other species. BiBL. Ralfs, Desmid. 155; Pritchard,
Infus. 744 Rab. Fl. Alg. iii. 141 Hobson, Qu. Mic. Jn. iii. 18(33, 169 (Bombay).
; ;

numerous, cylindrical, with truncated ends, very variable in length c. (Ralfs, I. pi. 9. fig. 5). SpJi(Brozyga Thw. Freshwater or Harvey, Br. Algce, 2. 232.
brackish pools.

{D. Thompsoni, Ralfs, see

CoNIOPHYXt'M.)

DOCOPH'ORUS,

Nitzsch.A subgenus

DOMOP'ORA, D'Orb. A

genus of Cy-

oi FhUopterus (Anoplura), distinguished by the small moveable tooth or trabecula in front of the antenna, and the dark lines running from them to the occiput. On Inses35. fig. 5). D. c<jmmu7us
(PI.
sores.

clostomatous Pol3'zoa,= Tiibulipora, pt., Johnstone. 2 species; deep water. (Hincks, Pol. 481.) DO^^iaNTA, Ralfs. genus of Diato-

D.
geese.

icterodes.

Common

on ducks and

DOLICHOSPER'MUM, Thwaites (P1.8.

go-. 6).

genus of Xostochacepe, allied to frichormus, SphaTozijga, &c., established

Aniphiprora with decussating strite, but without alfe to the valves. Pritchard describes 7 species. Rabenhorst describes 4 European, and enumerates 12 extra-European species. BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. 920 Rabenh.
macese,
;

Flor. Alg.

i.

242. of BlechExotic.
of

by Thwaites for five British species, which Hassall has separated one under the

from

DOO'biA, Brown.A genus

nese (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

this

of Cuniophjium. Thwaites noticed in genus that "the contents escaped in an undivided mass from the elongated and

name

DORIP'YGrS,
;

Brady.A genus

Copepodous Entomostraca. Four species inhabitants

sacs of simple Ascidians. Raif Soc. i. 132.)

of the branchial

spermatic cells (spotruncated at ranges), which are invariably the ends. Filaments moniliD. inceqiiaJe, Ralfs.

mostly cylindrical

(Biadv, Copep.,

f orm

; ordinary cells at first quadrate, finally orbicular ; vesicular cells large, spherical catenate (Ralfs,^/j. N.H. spoi-anges linear, 2 ser. V. pi. 9. fig. 1). Forming extensive masses strata, composed of thick gelatinous
;

i)ORYPH'ORA, KUtz. genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules single, stalked valves orbicular - lanceolate or broadly elliptical, with a median longitudinal line, but no nodules. Marine. The valves are fiu^nished with transverse
;

of a deep green colour, on boggy pools ; filaments consisting of 100 to 200 cells. D. Ralfsii (Kiitziug). Filaments moniliforni : ordinary cells spherical ; vesicular

or slightly radiating rows of dots. D. amphiceros, K. (PI. 16. fig. 29 a, side view of frustule i, front view c, prepared
:

valve.)

Valves

orbicular-lanceolate

or

DORYPIIORA.
broadly elliptical, ends produced 1-500 to 1-800".
;

270

DRAPAEXALDIA.
species of
;

lengtli

(Cocconenia B., K.). Valves elongato-lanceolate, ends somewhat obtuse; length 1-144". This species appears to have a median and terminal nodules.
Boeckii,

D.

S.

is

D. alnca removed to Discosia, and D. pifrenophora and sphceroides are placed under Dothioha, The whole of Fries, a stylosporous form.
these plants require further study, since
;

and D, CJt(stomium, Kze., are Stigmatea in the Summa Veg.

it is

BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacill. 74, S>. Alg. 50 Smith, Diatom, i. 77 Rabenhorst, Fl. Aly. i. 126 (Ilap/ioncis).
; ;

Illiger. genus of Latr.) (Tetramerous, Coleoptera, fam. Chrysomelidse. The very numerous species are found in The thorax or meequinoctial America. sosternum is armed with a long point, pro-

DORYPH'ORA,

Subpentamerous

probable that they are really connected with the SplifBronemei or Melauconiei for Berkeley's observations go to show that Asteroma TJhni is a form oi Dothidea Ulmi, while Tulasne has found upon Dothidea Bihesii spores or spermatia like those of Xijlarice, others in excavated cavities having the character of the spores of Septoria, while in ordinary cases the surface is covered with conceptacles filled with eightspored asci. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 285; Ann. N. H. vi. 364 Berk, and Br. Ann. N. H.
;

jected forwards. I), decemlineata

(fig.

178*)

is

the Colorado

Fig. 178*.

418

Fries, Suimna Veget. 386, Corda, Ic. Fung. iv. 119 Tulasne, Ami. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. v. 118. BOTHIORA, Fries. See Dothidea. DOXOCOC'CUS, Ehr. genus of Infusoria, of the family Monadina.
ser. ix.

385
;

&

421

No tail; no eye-spot; motion C/iar. that of an irregular kind of rolling-over. I), ruber (PI. 30. fig. 47 a, after Ehr.). Body globose, brick-red, more or less
opaque
Dorypiora decemlineata.
c,

breadth 1-1728"; freshAvater. This organism is almost beyond doubt the

;

a,

natural size

b,

eggs

larva.

same as that represented in PI. 30. fig. 24, d and/ {nobis), i. e. a form of Trachelomonas
volvocina

It is of an orange-yellow potato-beetle. 5 colour, each elvtrum lieing marked with

(Tbachelomonas).

This was

longitudinal, dark rough-edged striiie. under eggs are yellow, and attached to the side of the leaves of the potato, to which so explant the hatched larvfe have proved tremely destructive in America, as to have annihilated entire crops. The beetle has

The

been brought over to this country by ship, but has fortunately not become diifused and
naturalized.

suspected bv Ehrenber?. 1). puhiscidm, E. (in. 30. fig. 47 b), is the same. probably an early stage of The other two species D. globulus, subbreadth globose or ovate, hyaline, marine, 1-804"; and D. incrqualis, subglobose, unwith green freshequal, hyaline, speckled are probably water breadth 1-2400"

Algaj, or their spores. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. p. 28.

An Order in Council prohibits the keepa severe ing of these beetles alive, under
penaltv.
riacei

DRAPARNAL'DIA,Bory. A

genus of

Fries.A genus of Sphnc(Ascomycetous Fungi), often growing upon leaves. Distinguished from Spharia and the more closely allied genera by the

DOTHID'EA,

Chsetophoracere (Confervoid Alg?e), espelimited here in accially distinguished fas cordance with Kiitziug) by the filaments

asci

being contained in cavities in the stroma, without any distinct peritliecium. ]Slumero\is species are described as British

being composed of an ;ixis of cells of much cells greater diameter than that of the tufted forming the branches (fig. 179). The species placed here by Hassall and others, devoid of this character, will be found under

by Berkeley, some
luider

thus D.Geranii, liohertiana, Jiamuioili, Potentillfe and Alchemillm of the Brit. Flora,

which are now placed other genera by himself and Fiies

of
:

Stigeoclomum. The green contents of the cells form a broad band in the middle of the cell. These plants are propagated by 4-ciliat(>d zoospores, formed from the contents of the cells of the branches (fig. 180)
;

DRAPARNALDIA.
aud hy
situation walls.
in tho

271

DUDRESNAIA.

restin.a-spores formed aud set free by the solution of the

same

xiv.
pi.

15; Currov, Qu. Mic. Jn. vi. 207, 9; Hicks, ibid. 1809, 383; Kabenhorst, Fl. Alf/.m. 381.

J)11']':PAN0S'IPII0N,
Fig. 170.
Fiff.

Koch. a genua

180.

of Aphidas. D. platanoides,

sycamore.
182.)

and I), acerina, on the (Buckton, Aphid., Bai/ Soc. i.

liacejB

genus of Magno(Dicotyledonous Plants), remarkable for the microscopic structure of the wood. See WiNTEEEiE.

DRI'MYS, Forst. A

ROT. peculiar decay in wood, caused either by the presence of Fungi, as Mendius lacrymans and Thdephorapateana, or by a chemical process known under the name of Eremacausis or gradual combustion. Many remedies have beeen proposed sulphate of copper, corrosive sublimate and
;

DRY

creosote, especially the latter, are amongst the most approved. In domestic architectm'e, a free circulation of air and exclusion of moisture are essential.

DRYMOGLOS'SUM,
Fig. dir.ms.
179.

Presl. A genus
Ferns).

of Grammitideaj (Polypodiaceous
Draparnaldia glomerata. Portion of a filament. Magnified 20O
Portion of a branch discharging zoospores Magn. 400 diams.

D. cornosum,
botany
the
to

DUCTS. A term
those

exotic.

Fig. ISO.

applied in structural forms of pjo-. 181.

from

its cells.

so-called vascular tissue which consist of long tubes

D. glomerata, A.^. (fig. 179). Principal filament about 1-800" iu diameter, irreaurameUi l-:?400 to 1-3000", larly branched iu ovate tufts, generally alternate, and patent. Hassall, AUj. pL 13. 1 Erujl. Bot. 1 746 Yauch. Conferves, pi. 12. fig. 1. Com; ; ;

constructed out of perpendicular rows of cells, which are thrown into one by the absorption of their adjoining Ducts are thus easily ends.

and wells. mon D. plumosa, Ag. Principal filaments

in streams

somewhat piunately branched, size about the same as the preceding ramelli, in linearlanceolate tufts, mostly approximated to the
axis (Vauch. pi, 11.
fig.
c.

distinguished from vessels, hich taper off to closed ends, by the constrictions upon the walls of the tubes, indicating the junctions of the compo-^

nent

cells

(tig.

181).
;

2; Ivlitzing refers

Tissues,
Vi<;RSELS.

vegetable

See Dotted duct from J and the Melon.

Magn. 250 diams.

Hassairs plumosa,
ojjposita,

I.

pi. 12. fig. 1, to

D.
iu

Ag. as doubtfid). streams and wells.

Common

D. repetita, Hass. Principal filaments composed of repeated series of cells, each

seiies consisting of five or six cells, diminishing in size from the lowest to the highest, the series adjoining each other obliquely tufts of ramelli dense, alternate. Hass. I.e. Pare. pi. 12. fig. 2. See SxiGEOCLONirir. BiBL. Bory, Ann. Museum, xii. Yaucher (as Bafrachospennum), Conferves d'Bau douce Link (as Charospcrmwn),IIor. Phys. iii. Hassall, Ah/ce, 118; Decaisne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 s6r. xvii. 314 Thui-et, ibid. 3 s^r.
;

genus of Cryptonemiaceag (Florideous Algfe), containing two minute British species, with delicate, branched, filiform fronds, a few inches high, of ,rose-red or reddish-brown 1). coccinea, s\hich is a colom'. very rare plant, and seldom found except on the south coasts of England and Ireland, and D. Hudsoni, a not uncommon sea-weed,
present very elegant microscopic structure, the fronds being composed of a central cellular axis, clothed with tufts of delicate, diehotomous, moniliform filaments, standing perpendicularly upon it. The fructifying process in this genus is very complicated.

DUDRESNAI'A, Bonnem.A

DUFOUREA.
rhyc. Brit.

272
;

DYTISCUS.
:

BiBL. Harvey, Brit. Alg. 154, pi. 21 C pis. "l 10, 244; Sachs, Bot. 294.' DITOU'REA, Ach. A genus of LiD. mndreporifvrmis occurs in Switcliens. zerland and Germany.

DUMOX'TIA, Lamx. A genus of

Crvp-

tonemiaceje (Florideous Algse), containing one British species, D.Jiliformis, having a delicate tubular frond, of yellowish.greenish, or purple colour, of variable length and diameter,

the tip acute, the outer lobe palpiform the true maxillaiy palpi about twice as long as the maxillfe mentum transverse, with the sides produced into two lobes labium short and square, palpi about twice its The structure length, and three-jointed. of the anterior tarsi in the male is very curious (PI. 34. fig. Go), the three basal
; ;

joints

with numerous
;

filiform

branches,

being expanded laterally so as to form a broad and rounded patella or shield, convex above, and covered beneath with a

are long on short fronds, and short on long fronds growing commonly on rocks &c. between tide-marks. The waU of the tube is of a double layer of tissue, the

which

composed
cells

outer of roundish cells, the inner of longish forming filamentous rows. The spores are attached in clusters to the internal wall of the tube (which is filled up with gelatinous substance), while the tetraspores are found amcing the surface-cells. BiBL. Plarvey, Brit. Alg. 147, pi. 20 a
;

of various sizes, 6 6. a small one). This structure enables the male to retain his hold upon the back of the female, the elytra of the latter being furrowed lonThe three gitudinally, to aid in this effect. basal joints of the tarsi of the middle pair of legs are also flattened beneath, and covered with the stalked disks.
(fig.

number of suckers or disks some of which are stalked

Fig. 182.

Phyc. Brit.
17.

pi.

o9

Greville, Alg. Brit. pi.

D YSPOXTI US, ThoreU.A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca.

DYEING.

See Staining.

D.

sfriatus, in dredgings.

(Brady, Copep.,
of

Bay Soc. iii. Go.) DY^STE'RIA,

Hypotrichous

Huxley. A genus

fam. Ervilina. Distinguished by the valves of the carapace being united behind, but below only. MaInfusoria,

rine
CI.

five species.

BiBL. Huxlev,

Qu.

M.

Jn.

1857,

78;

DYSTERI'NA,C1. & Lachm. = Ervilina.

& Lachm.

Inf. 284.

Linn., or Dg'ticns, a genus of Coleopterous Insects of the family Dy-

DY^TIS'CUS,

tiscidpe.

Dytiaeus latissimus.
:

Natural

size.

antennae long external lobe of maxilla; articulated anterior pair of legs shorter than the posterior pairs, which are flattened and fringed with hairs. Freshwater. The genus Dgtiscus is characterized by the first three joints of the anterior tarsi in

Characters of the family

;

and slender
;

about two inches in Full-grown length of a dark ochre or dirty brown colarvae
;

D. marginalis is common in ponds and pools. The head is well adapted for the display
or organs of the moutli. transverse mandibles short and robust, with a strong internal tooth ; maxof the
trophi,
Lii brum
;

the male being very large, and expanded into a patella or shield; the didactyle claws; and the maxillary palpi having the second and third joints of equal length. The species of Dytiscus are of large size ;

illae

short, flat,

and

ciliated internally,

with

lour; the body long, subcyliudrical, and the two terminal joints eleven-jointed long and conical, the sides of the' apex Terminal segment furfringed with hairs. nished with a pair of long and slender pilose appendages, by means of which the insect can susjjend itself at the surface of the water these are tubular, and communicate with the tracheae of the body. Head (PI. 85. fig. 14) large, oval, or rounded, depressed, and with live or six small elevated tubercles near the anterior angles represenTwo rudimentary, ting the eyes (fig. 14 a). antennae (A) are inslender, seven-jointed serted in front of the eyes. The mouth
; ;

ECCRIXA.
;

273

ECHINOCOCCUS

has no aperture the food, consisting of the a canal juices of the prey, passes throuj^h ti-aversing the long, siciile-shaped, acute mandibles (c). Maxillae (d) slender, cylindrical, and termiuated by a short lateral tht maxillary palpi (e) are of the spine same thickness, arising from the tip of the
;

the cysts is yellowish or reddish, albuminous, and frequently contains plates of cholesterine, and crystals of bilifulvine (PI. 13 some of the latter refig. 15) (see Bile) semble in form and colour those of Hjema;

TOIDINE.

The

scolices appear to the

naked

and seven-jointed. Labial palpi (/) slender and four-jointed, the fii'st and third joints being very short. The head of the larva, and the three pairs
maxilL^e,

eye as minute, white, opaque si^ecks, varying in size from about the 1-300 to 1-100" in
length. They also vary greatly in form ; when the head is retracted (fig. 1 a) they

of legs of the perfect insect, are commonly mounted as microscopic objects, as are those of other genera belonging to the family Acilius &c.

BiBL. "Westwood, Introd. &c.

Stephens, Brit. Beetles.

i.

p.

95

E.

ECCRI'NA,
us.

Leidy.

See

Enterobrt-

EOHINEL'LA,

Acharius.

plied first to a group of ova of some aquatic animal, next to a genus of Infusoria, more recently to a genus of Diatomaceee, but now no lonsrer used.
ful
gi).

A term ap- probably

appear more rounded than when this is protruded (fig. 1 c, 1 d, If). The hooks surrounding the anterior end of the body basal portion, (fig. 1 b) consist of a broadish an internal transverse blunt tooth, and a carved terminal portion or claw they are about the 1-1500 to 1-1000" in length. In some of the scolices a kind of pedicle exists at the base, by which they are attached to the wall of the cyst (figs. 1 a and 1 c) sometimes two or more lines may be perceived, running from the head towards the pedicle, and connected in front by a transverse line
;

ECHINOBO'TRYUM,Corda. A doubtgenus of Torulacei (Coniomycetous FunJE. atrum has been found in Britain,
parasitic

upon a species of PacJmocybe. BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. V. 460 Corda, Icon. Fung. ii. fig. 6. ECHINOCOCCUS, End. supposed genus of Entozoa, of the order Cestoidea and family Cystica now shown to consist
;

representing vessels (fig. 1 c). Interspersed through the substance of the body are minute highly refractive corpuscles, containing carbonate of lime. In the quite recent state, the scolices have been seen swimming actively in the liquid of the cyst this motion is produced by cilia existing upon the surface of the body. Mingled with the perfect scolices are generally found some in which neither hooks nor suckers are visible, and in which the form is very irregular some of these assume the natui'al form when treated with
; ;

of the larvae of T^nia. Char. Consisting of a vesicle of very variable size, sometimes surrounded by a coat of condensed areolar tissue, and containing within, one or more secondary cysts ; attached to the walls of these cysts, or suspended in their liquid contents, are numerous oblong, rounded, or oval bodies (scolices), each with four suckers, and a double crown of hooks. E. veterinoriim, the larva of Taenia echinococcus (PI. 21. figs. 1 & 2), occurs in the liver, the cavity of the abdomen, the heart, the voluntary muscles, and the ventricles of the brain of man in the liver, lungs, &c.
;

acetic acid. The scolices appear usually to be developed by gemmation from the interior of

the cysts; but, as Kuhn long since showed, they are sometimes produced by external gemmation (fig. 2) the contents produce a slight protrusion of a part of the wall of
:

the cyst; the protruded portion enlarges, afterwards becoming constricted at its base, at last probably separating from the parent, to become itself a parent in the same manThe example figured in PI. 21. fig. 2 ner. was not isolated there were many, contained with numerous other larger cysts, of the most varied sizes, all in one very large
;

of the ox, sheep, goat, ape, pig, &c. Commonly called hydatids. The walls of the brood-cysts consist of numerous concentric layers or plates, resembling those of colloid cells or cysts. The liquid existing within

parent cyst. The Echinococci do not attain their full development into Tcenice, unless they reach The cysts and their the alimentary canal. contents, including the Echinococci, sometimes undergo a kind of degeneration, be-

ECHINODERMATA.
coming
calcareous matter

274

ECIIIXODERMATA.

partially converted into fatty or or the entire contents ;

In the Echinidea (-E'c///?H<s-family) and Asteridea (Asterias-i'dmily), other curious

become amorphous and granular, the hooks

remaining longest unaltered, but finally disappearing also. See T^NiA. BiBL. Kuhn, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1 ser. xxix.
Siebold, Wiegm. Archiv, 1845, ii. 241, and Siebold und KnUiker^s Zeits. iv. ;

appendages occur, called pedicellarice (PI. 45. fig. 3) they are met with all over the cutaneous surface, and consist of a forcipate
;

or valvular ap]iaratus, acting as organs of

273;

Dujardin, Helminth. 6:55

112.

Cobbold, Paras.

ECHIXODER'^MATA. A
in

Subkiug-

the Animal Kingdom, including the star-fishes (Asterias), the sea-hedgehogs or sea-eggs (Echinus), the sea-slugs (IIolothuria), &c.
'

dom

The pcdicellarice of the Asteprehension. ridea usually consist of two or three forcepslike or two broad valvular arms, and have hence been divided into forcipate and vallate pediccllarice. They are mostly without In the Echinidea (Echinus) they a stalk. are most numerous around the luouth, ani
have been subdivided, according to their 1. Gemmiform, form, into having three short lentil-shaped arms 2. Tridactyle, having three long and laterally toothed arms and 3. Ophiocephalous, with three spoon-shaped laterally toothed arms. These pedicellarice contain a reticular ddcareous mass as a basis, and in Echinus are placed upon a stalk, the lower portion of which encloses a calcareous nucleus, whilst the other portions are soft, extensile, and spi:

The Echinodermata are marine animals, with a coriaceous or calcareous integument alimentary canal distinct, suspended in the cavity of the abdomen, and with either one
;

or two orifices distinct organs of circulation and re.'^piration sexes usually distinct,
; ;

and external generative organs never present;

;

disposition of organs generally qui:

naiy body usually radiate or globose, sometimes cylindrical nervous systemforming a ring generally surrounding the mouth and giving oft" radiate branches. cutaneous skeleton usually exists as a network of calcareous corpuscles (PI. 45. fig. 1), or numerous calcareous plates pretty regularly perforated so as to form a solid continuous network (PI. 45. fig. 2). The at others plates are sometimes moveable, connected by sutures some are perforated with larger apertures the ambulacral pores; thev are often furnished with calcareous ap-

The pedicellaria of Echinus, are partially covered with ciliated epithelium, can seize larger or smaller bodies, and pass them from one to the other so
rally retractile.

which

that an object grasped by one of them situated on the posterior half of the body, or near the anal region, can be gradually passed on towards the mouth. The abdominal cavity of the Echinoder-

mata
in

is always filled with sea-water, kept motion by cilia covering the intestinal

canal.

pendages, tubercles, prickles, spines, hooks, &c., some being imbedded in the leathery integimient itself. Many of these appendages, as well as the calcareous corpuscles,

form beautiful microscopic objects, and possess very remarkable analytic power (see Echinus, Synapta, and Shell) they
;

true blood-vessel system, as well as the water-vessel or ambulacral system, is also present, into the structm-e of which and other particulars we have no space to enter. In their youngest state, the Echinodermataconsist of infusoria-hke bilateral beings,

are also of importance in classification. The muscular system consists of distinct

flattened primitive fibrils and bmidles, not The organs of locotransversely striated. motion exist in the form of little tentaclelike organs, the so-called feet or ambulacra. These are veiy contractile hollow prolongations of the cutaneous surface, expanded at the end, and connected by the ambulacral pores with contractile sacs (the ambulacral of the vesicles) placed on the inner surface of the body ; leatliery or calcareous covering they act as organs of adhesion and as
feelers.

without organs, and swimming by means of cilia on the surface. BiBL. Siebold, Vergl. Anat. 74 Sharpey Cycl. Anat. ^- Ihys. ii. 30 Agassiz, Echinod. viv. ct foss. Valentin, Echiuoderm
;
; :

Forbes, Br. Starfishes-. Miillerand Troschel,

Ahh. 1846-1851; Huxley, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 1 Gosse, Mar. Zool. i. 54 V. d. Iloeven, Zool. and Sujypl. (Leuckart) Gegenbaur, Vergl. An. 205 Herapath, Qu. M. J. 18(i5, 175 (pediAsteriden;^l.\x\\>ix, Berl.
; ;
; ;

cellarice)

Frey, BedecJi. u-irbcll.Th. ;Koren,

;

Arch. Scandinar. i. 166,449; Norman, Ann. N. II. 1865, XV. !)8 Stewart, Qu. M. J. 1871 ; Nicholson, Zool. 1878, 181 Sladen, Ann. N. H. 1880, vi. 101 (pedicellarice).
;

ECIIINORTI YNC QUS.

275

EELS.
of
Fig. 183.
,

ECHINORHYN'CHUS, MiiUer. A genus of Entozoa, order Acauthocephala.

sacciform, cylindrical somewhat elastic, transversely rugose, obtuse at both ends furnished with a retrac;

Char.

Body

or

very simple main axes or branches being composed of

structure, the

Filaments

tile

proboscis,
;

which

is

armed with from

;

one to sixty regular transverse rows of recurved spines sexes distinct no mouth. The species, which are very numerous, many microscopic, reside in the alimentary
canal,

single rows of cells (tig. 183), as in Vladophora. The reproductive bodies at present known, ciliated zoospores, are

most commonly

of fishes

less so in that of mammals, rai'ely in that of birds.

and reptiles, and still more

formed in the cells of the branches, sometimes in the terminal cells, producing the siliquose or elliptical (fig.
183) sporanges, and sometimes in interstitial cells, beyond which the branch is

mon

E. anthuris (PI. 21. fig. 35) is very comin newts E. proteus in fish. BiBL. IJujardin, Helminth. 483 Leuc; ;

ECHI'XUS, Lam.A
dermata, of
urchins,' or
tlie
'

genus of Echinofamily Echinidea. The species are popularly known as ' sea-

prolonged into a tine filament. In E. siliculosus the extremities of the branches are converted into sporanges the
:

Eotocarpiis verminosus.

Portion of a
J''"^'''^* lateral

fl-

cell-contents first divide into

,

sea-eggs.' The beautifully symmetrical structure of their spines, and their curious pedicellarice, afford favourite objects to the admirers of

nature's minute wonders. These organs are not confined to this single genus of the

a number ot layers, while the cal sporanges. part of the filament contain- Magn. 50 diama. ing these swells up and acquires the pod-like form the layers of contents are then resolved into lines of zoospores piled regularly one above another.
;

^'^.^""S
ellipti-

-1

ii

family.

See

EcHixoPEEMATA and Shell.

genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. Four species among sea-weeds. (Brady,

;

ECTINOSO'MA, Boeck. A
ii.

Copep.^ Itay Sue.

coideee.

ECTOOARPA'CE^. A

8.)

family of Fu-

Olive-coloured, articulated, filiform sea-weeds, with sporanges (producing ciliated zoospores) either external, attached to the jointed ramuli, or formed out of some of the interstitial cells. British genera
;

of the pod finally bm'sts, and the zoospores escape. The empty sporange exhibits fine transverse strige, as if delicate septa existed between the layers of zooIn E. litoralis, Harv., the fertile spores. cells are not terminal, but interstitial, and form beaded rows surmounted by a hairlike prolongation of the branch the zoospores escape by a lateral pore. The germination of these zoospores has been observed Sixteen British species (Harby Thm'et. vey), some of which are common, particularly the two above mentioned.
;

The summit

Frond

rigid ;

each articulation composed

cells

of numerous
Cladostephus. Sphacelaria.
ted.

(Sphacelarieae).

Ranndi whorled.

RamuU

distichous, pinna-

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 58, pi. 9c; Phyc. Brit. pis. 162, 197, &c. Eng. Bot. Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 pis. 2290, 2319, &c. ser. xiv. 234, pi. 24. figs. 1-7 Agardh, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. vi. 197 Crouan, ibid. xii.
;

p.

**

ECTOPLETJ'RA, Agassiz. A

248, pi. 5.

genus of

Frondflaccid ; each

articulation
cell.

com-

posed of a single
Ectocarpiis. scattered.

Hydroid Zoophytes, fam. TubulariidaB. E. Dumortierii. Isle of Man, Ostend.

Frond branching; ramidi

EEL {Anguilla). It is popularly believed

that the eel has no scales.

BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooj^h. 124.

Myriotrichia. Frond unbranched; ramuli whorled, tipped with pellucid fibres.

They

are,

how;

BiBL. See the genera.

_

ECTOCAR'PUS, Lyngb. genus of Ectocai-pacese (Fucoid Algae), consisting of olive or Drown sea-weeds, with fronds composed of flaccid capillary filaments,
growing

ever, present, but immersed in the skin and their structure is curiotis (Scales of Fish), The dried skin of the Eel, mounted in

Canada balsam, exhibits well the scales, covered by the epidermis, and the beautiful
layer of stellate pigment-cells. EiBL. Yarrell, Brit. Fishes,
ii.

between tide-marks or upon other Algse.

EELS, in paste (ANGurLLULAGLUTixis). t2

j:els.

276

EL.EAGNACE^.
;

EELS, EGGS.

vinegar (ANGurLLrxA aceti). The minute ova of certain aniin

mals have alwaysbeen favourite microscopic their cmious forms, the objects on account of beautiful stmcture of their outer chitinous the sinenvelope, their varied colours, and which some of them are gular lids with The most interesting are those furnished. of insects among them we may mention the brown eggs of the puss-moth, Cerura vinula (PL 39. fig. 19) of the large and
:
;

from evaporation when the protection and for this purpose its pools become dry It might also structure is well adapted. afford a protection against the attacks of predatory animals, many of which could easily devour an ovarian ovum, while they could not break through the homy cases of the winter ova and these winter ova are only formed when the ova are not to be hatched soon after extrusion from the paThe ova of those animals which are rent.
;

small cabbage-butterflies, Pontia bmssicce and rajjce (PL 39. fig. 21) of the small tortoiseshell butterfly, Vanessa urticce the or Phhxjophora angle-shades moth, JVoctua the common meadow brown meticulosa butterfly, Hipparchia Janira the biimstone moth, iltimia cratagata the water-scorpion, Nepa ranatra the common cow-dung-fly,
; ;
;
;

never hatched immediately after leaving the parent, have always a coat corresponding to that of the winter ova.

The structure and development of eggs are considered under Ovum; see also Shell.
BiBL. See Ovum.

Scaiophaga stercoraria, which are very -dmif common on cow-.^iiig , the bug-, Cimex lectidarius (PI, 39. fig. 20), Hxjdrometra stagnorum, &c. Their surfaces exhibit markings of the most varied forms spines, tubercles, pits or of considerable length processes, sometimes (PL 21. figs. 22, 23), often arranged with

EHRENBERGI'NA, Eeuss. Cassiduline Foraminifer with the later portion of the shell uncoiled. BiBL. Carpenter, Inirod. Foram. 198. ELACHIS'TEA, Fries. genus of

Myrionemacefe (Fucoid Algae).

Minute

epiphytic sea-weeds, consisting of a dense tuft of simple, articulated, olivaceous filaments, fi-om a common tubercular base composed of a closely combined mass of

regreat symmetry, and frequently closely

sembling the cellular structure of plants in delicate anappearance. Sometimes very the gular spaces are mapped out upon them,
intervals being most minutely dotted, as in the eggs of the common blow-fly, Musca vomitoria (PL 34. fig. 35). It is a general fact, exemplified in both

upon larger Fucoids, such

manthalia, Cystoseira, &c.
tion
is

dichotomously branched filaments, growing as Fucus, Hi-

The fructificatwo forms unilocular (spores, Harvey) and multilocular sporanges {paraneinata, Harvey). The unilocular are formed of metamorphosed terminal cells at
borne
in

the animal and vegetable kingdom, that imicel hilar, or the corresponding stages or exhibit phases of the higher organisms, markings of some kind upon their external membrane or wall, as is seen in the cells of the Desmidiaceae, the Diatomacete, the and pollen-grains, eggs of animals, the spores and the seeds of plants, At certain seasons of the year, the eggs of some aquatic animals are provided with a veiy thick horny coat, as in the EntomosThese have been called traca, Hydra, &c. winter ova, from the notion that here was a defence against a low temperature they or restingconespond to the resting-spores of the Infusoria and Al^se, some of stages which were formerly included in the aniThe formation of this coat mal
;

kingdom. can scarcely have any relation to temperaor from its ture, either from its structure which has no requirement in an organism
heat to retain.
Its presence

fectly intelligible,

would be perhowever, as a means of

the ends of the dichotomous filaments; they are long ovoid sacs, the contents of which are ultimately converted into a vast number of zoospores. The multilocular sporanges arise exactly in the same place and way, but take the form of long, slender, articulated filaments, in the joints of which similar but smaller zoospores are developed. Both forms of fructification nestle on the surface of the tubercle of the frond, at the base of the long simple filaments. The zoospores of both kinds of fruit germinate and these occur together in some cases (JS. attenuata), in others at different seasons of the year. Harvey describes seven British species; the tufts of some are half an inch long, of others less than a line. BiBL. Harvey, Mor. Alg. 49, pL 10 F DiUw. Phyc. Brit. pls.'240, 2(50, 261, &c. Conferv. pi. 66 &c. Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. p. 236, pi. 25. figs. 1-4. EL^AGNA'CEyE. family of Dicotyledons, the leaves of which are usually covered with a kind of scurf formed of very
; ;
; ;

ELAPHOMVCES.
HlPPOPHAE.

277

ELASTIC LIGAMENTS.
and inand the

elegant microscopic scales. See Hairs, and

ELAPHOMY'CES, Nees. genus of Tuberacei (Ascomjcetous Fungi) consisting of subterraneous truffle-like plants, with a "vvarty or hairy rind, not bursting spontaneously, but divided into little chambers
by intersecting plates of sporifeThe spores are formed in sacs (asci) {tig. 185), from four to eight in each, filaai'ising fi-om branched anastomosing ments {capiUitium). Three species are found in this country E, anthracinus, Vitt., in clayey ground; E. granulatus, growing in heathy groimd and E. muriinternally

menta subflava), in the stylo-hyoid ternal lateral ligaments of the jaw,

186.

rous tissue.

Transverse section of the ligamentum nuchse of an treatment with solution of caustic soda a, connectiTe tissue, appearing transparent ; 6, section of elastic fibres. Magnified .350 diameters.
ox, after
:

catus, Fr. {E. variegatus, Vitt., Tulasne), attached to the rootlets of beeches. L. and C. Tulasne have analyzed this

carefully
ii.

genus.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.

pt. 2.
:

306

Ann.

N. H.

L. and 0. Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Xat. 2ser. xvi.p.5,pls. 1-4; Hypog. Fungi, 1850 Vittadini, Monog. Tuber. App. 66, &c., pis. 3 & 4 J Berk. & Br.
vi. 4-30, pi.

11. fig.

10

ligamentum nuchae, or 'paxy-waxy,' of animals. They contain but few vessels, and no nerves. The elastic fibres (fig. 187) are from 1-7500 to 1-3500" in breadth, slightly flattened (fig. 186), mixed with still finer and some coarser elastic fibres, formino; a
dense network, taking a general direction

Beof the spine. parallel to the long axis tween these fibres are loose undulating
Fig. 187.

Ann. N. H.

xviii. 81.

Fig. 184.

Fio-.

185.

Fig. 184.

Elaphomyces

hirtns.

Section, nat. size.

Filaments of capiUitium, Fig. 18.5. E. variegatua. with asci containing spores, and also loose spores wiiich have escaped. Magnified 300 diameters.

ELASTIC LIGAMENTS.These

are

Elastic fibres! a, from a human Hgamentam snbflavum, with intervening connective tissue, b. Magnified 450 diameters.

yellowish strong bands, consisting of elastic or yellow fibrous tissue, with a small quantity of connective tissue. They are met with connecting the arches of the vertebrae (liga-

lel to

bundles of connective tissue, running paralthe elastic fibres. BiBL. Kdlliker, Mik. An. ii. 306, and

ELASTIC TISSUE.
Gewehel.
Getveb.
i.

278

ELASTIC TISSUE.
effect

d.

Mensch.

RoUett, Strieker's

which has little or no

this is also the case

upon them; and

59.

low

of animals, or yelfibrous tissue, occurs in the ligamenta siibiiava of the vertebrae, iu the thyro-byoid and cricoid membranes, the vocal chords,

ELASTIC TISSUE

with solution of potash. Sometimes by their anastomoses they form fibrous networks [tig. 189), or plates perforated

membranes

irregularly by (Hg. 188).

holes

fenestrated

The

fibres are also

the trachea, forming the longitudinal elastic bands of that tube and its branches, in the internal lateral ligament of the javf, the stylo-hyoid ligament, the transversalis fascia of the abdomen, the blood-vessels, and almost everywhere mixed with the fibres of connective tissue.
It differs
elasticity

themselves sometimes transversely perforated by irregular rounded apertures. Chemically, elastic tissue consists of elasIt is coloured red by Millou's test, tine. but not by that of Pettenkofer, and does not yield gelatine by boiling. Elastic tissue is probably developed from cells. In all parts of embryos where elastic tissue occurs, peculiar fusiform or stellate cells (fig. 190 a) with acute ends or processes are met with, by the fusion of wliich b & 191) long fibres or networks (fig. 190 are formed, in which the spots corresponding to the cells at first form dilatations with

from white fibrous and its yellow colour.

it

tissue in its

But some

as a variety of this. Its elementary form is that of round or flattened fibres, varying in size from an

physiologists regard

almost immeasurable tenuity to that of 1-2200" or even more the finer ones have been termed nuclear fibres by the Germans
;
;

elongated nuclei.
cation of
tlie

The

fibres

frequently
;

they are either isolated, arranged in bundles, or branching and anastomosing (fig. 1S9), sometimes undulating or spiral, at others When brolcen, they curl nearly straight. up, the ends appearing abrupt or truncated. They are highly refractive, their edges appearing dark, well-defined, and mostly smooth, but sometimes toothed or serrated.

remain in this condition, forming a modifiso-called nuclear fibres

or

Fig. 190.

Fig. 191.

Sometimes they exhibit transverse cracks upon the smface.

Fig. 188.

Fig. 189.

Fig. 188. coat of the

Nebvork of elastic tissue, from the ixiiilillo pulmonary artery of the horse. Maguilitd

350 diameters
Fig. 189.

Network of
child.

fine elastic fibres

from the

peritoneum of a

Magnilied 350 diameters.

They are easily distinguishable from fibres of connective tissue by the use of acetic acid,

Fig. 190. Formative cells of elastic tissue, from the tendo Achillis: a, of a four months' embryo; 6, of a seven months' fcetus some of the cells are free, with one or two processes, others fused in twos and threes. Magnified 3.i0 diameters. Fig. 191. !-'tellate formative cells of nuclear fibres, from the teiido Anhillis of a newly born infant. Mag;

nified 350 diameters.

ELASTINE.
all

279

ELYTRA.
;

traces of the original composition vanish, uniform fibres or networks alono roniaining'. There is. however, great dill'erence of )pi niou among physiologists as to the development
(

extremity (PI. 40. fig. 37 b) so that the entire fibre may be compared to a piece of string with its ends united, and laid out
so as to represent two cords, side by side, which are then twisted spirally round one In Targioni.v the tubes are another.

of elastic tissue,

from

as arising librillatiou of the intercellular subit

some regarding

stance.

sometimes branched.

Elastic tissue occurs in the same situations in all classes of the Vertebrata as in man
also in

the spiral fibres

is

The development of similar to that of the

See Hepatic^e.

spiral fibres of vessels.

special localities, as in tlie ligaments of the claws of the cat, the folds of the wing-membrane, and tlie pulmonary In the luvertebrata, this sacs of birds.
tissue appears to occur but rarely
;

some

and

it is

Structures apparently analogous to these elaters of the Ilepaticae occur in some of the Myxogastrous Fungi, as in Tuichia (PL 40. fig. 39) while in other genera of this family filamentous bodies occur, either
;

uncertain whether the elastic ligaments existing in them, e.g. those oi the mollusca, agree anatomically and chemicallj' with the elastic tissue of the higher animals or not.
;

plain

or obscurely marked.

In Batarrea

elater also, one of the Puft-balls, a kind of exists accompanying the spores ( see Trio ho-

BiBL. KiiUiker, Gewehel.; Reichert, MM. Archiv, 1850, lift. vi. o5 Leydig, Hist. 27 Frey, Histol. 1876 (very complete literaBeale, Simple Tissues RoUett, ture), 24:6
; ; ;

G ASTRES ). It has been stated by Schleiden and Schacht that the elaters of these Fungi are solid filaments with spiral ridges upon them, or flat solid ribands twisted on their
This statement is at longitudinal axis. variance with our observations, and is not borne out by the drawings given by these authors themselves. CuiTey, while also the contesting Schleiden's view, states that a cona tube, spiral line is a ridge outside dition of things unlike any thing else we are

Strieker's

ELASTINE. The
which

Handb.

i.

59.

proximate chemical

principle of

EL'ATERS. This

elastic tissue consists.

name

is

applied to

two forms of structure occm-ring in the higher Cryptogamous Plants. The elHptical
spores of the Eqnisetaceje are

furnished

acquainted with in vegetables.

with what are called elaters, viz. four elastic filaments, attached about the middle of one side, which are coiled once or twice round the spore before it is discharged from the capsule, in the position where they were but when the spore originally developed is discharged, they uncoil with elasticity,
;

twelfth, with a high eyepiece, and a good of light they may then be seen to consist tubes with spiral fibrous secondary deposits upon the iiiside of their walls (PL 40. fig. 40).
;

The power

elaters of Trichia require a very high for their elucidation, an eighth or

causing the spore to be jerked away. They appear to be produced by the outer coat of the spore splitting in spiral fissures, and separating in ribands from the inner coat.

See Spiral Structure.s. BiBL. See EQUisETACEiE, Marchantia, Trichia, and Spiral Structures.

ELDER. Samhueus

niger, the

common

See Equi.setace^.
ticse

Elder tree (Caprifoliaceaj, Dicotyledons), is remarkable for the great development of its
pith
;

elaters of the Liverworts or Hepaare of difierent nature they consist of more or less elongated delicate membranous tubes, which are closed cells, inside which one or more elastic spiral fibres are coiled up. They occur mixed with the spores in the capsules of the Jungermanniepe, sometimes attached to the valves they here mostly present the appearance of cylindrical celhiJo.se tubes, closed at the ends, with a flat spiral band coiled in an open spiral, adherent to the cell-membrane forming the Willi (PL 40. tig. 38). The elaters found among the spores of Marehantia polymorpha (PL 40. figs. 36, 37) are very long, and contain a double coil, the ends of the two fibres coalescing into a loop at each
; ;

The

and convenient parenchyma.

sections of thisfuruish very accessible illustrations of vegetable

ELLlPSOIDI'NA, Seguenza. An eggshaped hyaline Foraminifer, probably Cryptostegian.

The adult has

three concentric

chambers, one within another, touching at their bases and kept apart at the apices by an internal column. An irregular septal orifice surrounds the column as it passes through the chamher-waU. E. ellipsoides
its varieties only are known. the Mid-Tertiary beds of Sicily. BiBL. Brady, Ann. N. H. 1808, i.

and

From

horny anterior pair of sometimes called wrings of the Coleoptera wing-covers or wing-cases, because thuy
;

ELYTRA. The

p.

333.

EMBRYO.

280

EMBRYO.

cover and protect the subjacent pair of membranous wings of these insects when not in use. The elytra may be regarded as consisting of an elongated, depressed fold of the integument, comparable to the web between the Four fingers, or that of the bat's wing.
structures are distiuguishable in them an outer, firmly adherent, epidermic layer, composed of minute cells, frequently undistinguishable, or at least only to be dethis layer is continued tected in parts around the margins of the elytra, so as to cover their inferior surface also, forming, 2, the inner epidermic layer, in which the cells
:

striking character in further subdividing the Angiospermous Flowering Plants into their

two great natural groups, viz. Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, in which, respectively, the embryo bears one or two cotyleor seed-leaves. Cases occur both the Dicotyledons and the Monocot}-ledons where the typical structure is departed from. ThusinOrobanchaceJB (Dicotyledons) the embiyo is a mere globular mass of cellular tissue, the result of an arrest of development, the cotyledons and radicle never becoming distinct the same is the case in the Orchidaceae among the Monocotyledons, the embryo not advancing beyond the state of a globular mass of parenchyma. The relation of such embryos to the perfect forms is well illustrated by comparing the stages of gi'owth of embryos which acquire

dons

among

1,

more rounded, and more closely placed than those in the upper layer, hence presenting a more dithis layer is easily stinctly angular form detached from the elytra, and its surface
are stated to be less distinct,
;

next the body of the insect is frequently furnished with a number of very minute hairs, or spiniform papillfe directed back-

fully-developed cotyledons and radicle (fig. In Cuscuta, a leafless plant, the 192).
Fig. 192.

wards

epidermic layer
;

(PI. 34. fig. 2). is 3, a layer of

Beneath the outer

dark resinous

pigment whether contained in cells or not has not been determined. 4, an intermediate portion, composing the principal thickness
of the elytrum, representing the

two fused
of (ievelopment. All exhibit the suspensor; and 4 has the cotyledons appearing, separated by a notch. Magnified 50 diameters.

strata of the cutis, and consisting of a number of fibres, running in different directions,

A young Dicotyledonous embryo in successive stages

variously interlacing, anastomosing, and crossing, so as to form numerous plates or secondary layers, many of which present a
fenestrated appearance as many as sixteen of these plates have been separated. The veins or nerves of the elytra .either traverse the intermediate thick layer of the its under surface and elytra, or run between the inner epidennic layer, to which they See Insects. sonir'times remain adherent. The structure of the elytra can only be
;

anomalies of another kind also occur. Some Monocotyledons, such as those of Grasses, have the rudiment of a second cotyledon but this is above and not opposite the other larger one. In Dicotyledons the cot^dedons are not unfrequently unequal, and sometimes soldered together. In the Coniferae
;

embryo has no

distinct cotyledons.

Other

out by macerating them for a long time in solution of caustic potash, or water. BiBL. Schmidt, Tai/lor's Sc. Memoirs, V. IG; Meyer, MilUer's Archiv, 1842, 12; Nicolet, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 s^r. vii. and the

made

the embryos appear to have four, more cotyledons in different cases

eight, or
;

but

it is

stated that there exist only two, divided or

BiBL. OF IXSECTS.
is the conapplied to the rudimentary plant tained in all true seeds. Seeds cnnt'\ining embryos are borne exclusively by Flowering Plants and while the external conditions under wliich the seeds are produced afford the character for the first subdivision of this

EMBRY'O, OF Plaxts. This

name

compound, cotyledons (see Seeds), Occasionally more than one embryo occurs in a seed (see Polyembeyoxy) and in the Coniferae a number of embryos are at first produced, of which one only becomes perfectly developed (see Gyjixospermia). The enibrvo sometimes constitutes the whole mass of the seed, merely enclosed in the coats in other cases it is embedded in In the former case the a mass of albumem.
; ;

province of the Vegetable

tui'e

Kingdom (AxGIOSPKRMS and Gymxosperms), the strucof the

tissue of the cotyledons often assumes characters similar to those of the albumex, serving as a receptacle for stored nutriment

embryo

is

taken as the most

for the germinating plant, in the form of

EMBRYO-SAC.

281

ENCALYPTA.

fleshy secondary deposits, starch, oil, Szc. The position of the embryo in the albumen, or the modes in which the embryo is folded up within the seed-coats, are of great im-

cavity, and by further expansion obliterating the embryo-sac and nucleus. See

up the

Albumen,

of Seecls.

portance in systematic botany, for the characterization of families. Particulars regarding these points, and the manner of examining them, are given under the head of Seed. The development of embryos is described

In the Coniferae the embryo-sac, originally formed by the excessive expansion of one of the cells near the apex of the nucleus,

becomes subsequently filled up by cellular tissue, in the upper part of which become
developed the bodies called corpuscula, each of which possesses a kind of secondary embryo-sac of its own, in which the germinal vesicles are developed (see Gymnospermia). The term embryo-sac might also be applied to the large cell at the base of the archegonia of the Ferns, Lycopodiace^,

under Ovule.
BiBL.

See also
-

Orchidace^,
Bot.
14,

Orobanchace^, Cuscuta.
Henfrey
Masters,
xi.
;

634
&c.

Brongniart, Ann.

Sc. Nat.

xii.

Jussieu, ibid. 2 s6r.

Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. Abh. sdchs. Ges. Wiss. vi. & vii. Sachs, Bot. 553; and the Bibl. of the articles Ovule, Seed, &c., ahove referred to. EMBRYO-SAO, of Plaints. A cell which becomes enlarged into a sac in the substance of the upper part of the nucleus of the ovule or rudiment of the seed. In
; ; ;

341 St.-Hilaire, v. 193 Duchartre, x. 207 Hofmeister,

Mosses.
Bibl. See

Ovule and Gymnospermia.

Cohn.
See Sporendo-

EMPUSI'NA,
nema.
Schultze).

EMYDTUM, A genusDoyere (Echiniscm, of Arachnida, order

the cavity of this are developed the germinal vesicles (PL 47. figs. 3, 4, 5), one of which
(occasionally more), after fertilization, gives The most common origin to the Embryo. condition of the embryo-sacis tliatof a large cavity excavated in the nucleus, bounded by
its

Colopoda, family Tardigrada. Char. Head furnished with appendages ; mouth conical, without appendages or terminal sucker epidermis semisolid, presenting, especially on the upper surface of the body, an evident annular division.
;

testudo
;

(PI.

50.

fig.
;

7).

Reddish-

own cell-membrane, and containing abun-

brown
;

dant protoplasm, and subsequent^ germinal and endosperm-cells (see Ovule). Not uufrequently, however, it becomes devesicles

snout conical, presenting traces of division into three rings head indistinctly divided into three segments, the first and third presenting short

body ovoid, opaque

veloped into diverse saccate processes, either pushing their way through the substance of the nucleus in variable directions (Scrophulariace(B itc), or emerging from the micropyle,

setiform filaments supported upon ver}^ short tubercles, the second with a palpiform, blunt and flattened appendage pharyngeal tube
;

to meet the pollen-tube ( Viscum), or even so much developed externally

coming

very slender; stj-les straight bulb without an internal jointed framework; eye-spots
;

small,

oval,

simple,

most

visible

at the

that the embryo is formed and perfected altogether outside the nucleus (Santahan). These and other conditions are further deWhen the germinal scribed under Ovule. vesicle is fei'tilized, and is imdergoing development to produce the embryo, the embryosac often becomes completely filled with endosperm-ceUs, at first free, but afterwards

adhering together through their crowded These may persist and form an condition. endosperm to the seed, as in Nuphar, where there is an additional episperm formed outside the embryo-sac from the substance of the Albuminous seeds generally have nucleus. either an episperm or an endosperm alone. In exalbuminous seeds the endosperm originally existing inside the embryo-sac becomes absorbed through the pressure of the

under aspect of the body; trunk divided into four simple rings, with spines and long filaments; legs three-jointed, each with and strong claws, the posterior pair large with a kind of spur also at the back part of the lower margin of the second joint; movement excessively slow length, from the end of the extended snout to the posterior border of the fourth ring, 1-80". Found on
;

the moss covering tiled roofs E. spinulosum

\

common.

77 j.

279 D'Orbigny's orders of Foraminifera, having the chambers alternate in two or three rows, not spiral such as Polymorphina and Tex~

ENALLdSTE'GIA.

rare. 14 \ granulatum Bibl. Doyere, Ann. Sc. Nat. xiv.

\

One

p.

of

tularia.

growing embryo, the embryo gradually fiJHng

ENCALYP'TA, Schreb.Agenusof Ca-

ENCALYPTA.

282

ENCIIELYS.

lymperacese (Pottioid Mosses), containing several British species. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Br. 140; Berk. Handh. 246.
Fig. 193.
Fig. 194.

ENCEPH'ALOID,
C.\NCER.

That

or

Enceph.^loid

form of cancer in which

the morbid substance has the appearance and consistence of the medullarv part of the brain; hence sometimes called medullary
cancer.

ENCHE'LIA, Ehr. A
soria.

See Tumours, Cancerous. family of Infu-

Char. No carapace, ciliated, oral and anal -orifices at opposite ends of the body. Ehrenberg distinguishes the genera thus
:

/"Mouth
Surface
directly

I
|

trun!

i '^l^U

f^mgle}
I
i

^"^*^^^-

Mouth

with very
fine
-j

cate,
lip

no

'=^'^1
. .

^mmm

lothless

cilia
I

.Disoma. V ( double oblique- / -7t i j Tru'h,Hl<,. Iv truncate,with t "''f'^ k a neck Lucryinaria.

Mouth
ij

Sur-

face

Mouth
cate,

obliquely trim-

with
evi

with a

lip

i t Leucophrys.

Mouth
cate,

directh'

trunlip

tt

dent

without a

,\SoJopkrya.
Prorodon.

Mouth

^cilia with te eth

Enoalypta commutata.
Fig. 193. Fig. 194.

single plant.

The mouth uf the

Magnified

.5

diameters.

Dnjardin's family Enchelia bears no relation to that of Ehrenberg. He defines it as consisting of animals partly or entirely
covei'ed

capsule, showing the

with diffused
it

rudimentary peristome.

Magnified 50 diameters.

subdivides

thus

cilia,

no mouth

and

Fig. 195.

Fig. 196.

all

Acomia, ciHated (. ^'^'^ '^ ^ longitudinal furrow Gastrochtsta. over f

r>-r*^
/"Cilia all alike Both cilia and trailing

*^'^i^ ^t

one end

Enckefys.
)
.

S'/'**'^-l an o\er
|

retractile filaments

Alyscnm.

q^^^ j^^

straiglit

U'ilium pSsterioriy

Vronema.

Kent includes
3{efaci/stis,

in the family

Enclielys,

Perispira,

AnopJuys, Colpoda,

and

Tillina.

ENCIIEL' Y0D0N,01.&Lach. A genus

of Holotiichons Infusoria. Char. Free, ovate, narrowed in front; mouth terminal, with a longitudinally plicate oesophagus. Two species freshwater and marine. (CI.
;

Eachni. Inf. .316: Kent, Inf. oO-^.) EN'CIIELYS, Hill. A genus of Infusoria, family Enchelia, Ehr. "(Tii--^cnELiNA,
CI.

&

&

Each*.).

Char.
ciliated
Enoalypta commutata.
Fig. Fig.
19.5.

Body single,

ovate, free, very finely

;

on the surface

teeth,

ciliated,

and calyptra above.

19(5.

Capsule on

with vaginule at base, 10 diameters. Capsule enclosed in its cah'ptra. 20 distalk,

water and E. pupa, E.

directly truncated. infusions.

.

mouth without Bog-

(PI. ;30. fig. 48) P.ody ovate, turgid, attenuated in front, contaiuiug j-el-

ameters.

lowish-green granules; length 1-144".

ENCHONDROMA.
E. farcimen. E. arcuatit,
(,'1.

283

ENDOSMOSE,
cellis

Smaller than

the

last,

always coloured, the use of the term

contents

1-14;V2"; intornally whitish.

to be preferred in all cases, as not indicating any positive characters.

Two

other species. Diijardiu's genus Enchehjs belongs to Cyclidium.

EXDOCOCCUS, Nyl. genus of Lichens containing the parasitic species of

Verrucaria.
BiBL. Leighton, Lich. Fl. 492.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. 298 Dujanlin, Inf. 385; Stein, Inf. 137; Clap. & La:hm,/y. 309 Kent, Inf. o09. ENCHONDRO'MA. See Tumours. EXC YONE'MA,Kutz. A genus of Dia; :

EXDODRO'MIA,

Berk.

curious ge-

tomaceiB. Char. Frustules resembling those of

bella,

Cymseries,

arranged mostly in longitudinal

in gelatinous tubes; freshwater. Valves very variable in form,

even in the

same tube, showing how httle dependence is to be placed upon this feature as a chaE. prostratum (PI. 19. fig. 10). Filaments nearly simple; length of frustules 1-1560 to 1-600". E. cfpspitositm. Filaments divided at the
ends, tufted.

nus of Mucorini (Phycomycetous Fungi), distinguished by a very delicate vesicle perforated by the stem, filled with delicate branched radiating threads and globose spores, each of which has a nucleus endowed with active motion. E. vitrea, the only species, is found on sticks in damp woods. BiBL. HooTc. Jn. iii. 79 Berk. Outl. 408. EX'DOCtEN. See Monocotyledons.
;

EXUO'GONE, Lk. A
rini

genus of Muco-

(Phycomycetous Fungi), consisting of one or two Ilypogaeous species, the flocci

2 other European species, and 2 foreign. BiBL. KiitzLng, BacUl. 82, and Sp. Alq. 61; Ralfs, Ann. X. II. 1845, xvi. Ill; Berkeley, ib. 1811, vii. 449 Smith, Brit.
;

being collected into a globose spongy mass, and terminated by globose vesicles, solitary or in fascicles. Two species, E. pisiformisj Lk., and E. lactijlua, B. & Br., have been found in this country. BiBL. Atm. N. H. 1846, xviii. 81 ; Berk.
Ouil. 409.

Diat. ii.'68; liabenhorst, Fl. AUj.

part.

i.

85.

ENDOS'MOSE,
in

ENDIC'TYA, Ehr.=CosciNODiscus
E. oceanica=C.
or.

K.
genus of

ENDOCARTOX, Hedw^ A
;

Lichens, tribe Pyrenocarpei, with pale perithecia immersed in a peltale or squamiform coriaceous thallus gi-owing on rocks, in streams, and on the ground.
rufescens,

4 British species E. miniatum,Jluviatile, and hepaticu'rn.

:
;

BiBL. Leighton, Angioc. Lich., Ecn/ Soc. Lidi. Fl. 441 Tulasne, pi. 1, and Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xvii. 90, 218, ])ls. 10 & 12; Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 159; Schajrer,
1851, 10,

applied to a phenomenon which takes place when two difl'erent liquids, having an attraction for each other, are separated merely by a porous diaphrag-m or an organic membrane. diffusion takes place, by which the liquids become mixed, but one of them flows more rapidly into the other. Thus when alcohol and Vater are so placed, the water flows into the alcohol (endosmose) much more strongly than the alcohol into the water (exosmose). The same attraction occurs when syrup or a solution of gum is substituted "for the
is

This

name

Osmosis or Dialysis.

Enum.

230,

applied to the cell-contents, or the miscellaneous collection of substances and structures enIn an Alga, closed in the cavity of a cell.
therefore,
like

EX'DOCHROME. This term

pi.

9. fig. 2.

is

acids spirit, and also alkaline salts. or acid salts are placed in the same relation to water, the current is strongest towards

When

Zygnema,

it

comprehends

the pritnordial utricle or layer of protoplasm lining the cell-wall, together with the chlorophyll-globules or vesicles, starch
grauides, nucleus, and liquid

the water. Acids and alkaline solutions exert the strongest action, neutral substances the weakest. Dilute solutions act more efficiently (proportionally) than strong ones. The importance of the effects of

and granular

endosmose on microscopic objects viewed in liquids, has been mentioned in the Introd.
Delicate structures are often ad(p. xli). vantageously wetted with dilute solution of sugar, common salt, or glycerine, to prevent the changes from endosmosis which result from the u.-e of pure water. Graham divided organic matters into two

protoplasm contained in the cavity of the cell. It is perhaps a useful word in rouglily describing a species, but it is too indefinite to be admissible in any accurate description of cellular structures moreover, as it is not a definite collection of substances, nor
;

ENDOSPERM.
:

284

ENOPLID^E.

classes the crj-stalloid, or those which will pass through a porous membrane, as soluble salts the colloid, or those which will not, as albuminous matters. This subject is of special interest in regard to the nutrition of animal and vegetable cells. For if their walls are impervious to the so-called colloid substances, a cell may be bathed with them, and yet have to produce its own sarcodic matter or protoplasm.
;

BiBL. Fischer, Fogg. Ann. xi. 126 Dutrochet, Cycl. Anat. and Phi/s. ii. 98 Works on Physics, as Buffj JExpe/-itn .-Fki/sik Pouillet, Elem. d. Physique Peschel, PhyGraham, Proc. Pay. Soc. vii. 83 sics, &c. L'Hermite, Ann. Watts, Diet. (Dialysis) Sc. Nat. 4 ser. ii. 73; Nageli, Phys. Unters. Hoppe-Seyler, Chim. Phys. 11 ; Rod well,
; ;
;

body, the uterus divided into two opposite branches ova large, oblong. D. stagnalis. In the intestines of the carp and Ga4erosfetis. D. marinus marine. Passalu'rus. I'usiform, elongate, narrowed behind, with a subulate tail, or suddenly narrowed head obtuse mouth with three oblong pieces (jaws), united by a resisting folded membrane oesophagus claskin vate, succeeded by a broader stomach male with a single transversely striate female with the vulva near the spicule stomach uterus and ovaries simple eggs
;

large, oblong.

P.

ambiyuus.

Large intestine of the

rabbit and hare.

Filiform, narrowed at the Enop'his. ends, most behind head angular or trunmouth with cate, with a few opposite setae three uncinate jaws oesophagus almost
; ; ;

Diet. Sc. 162.

EN'DOSPERM.
Plants.

See

Albumen,
applied

of

EN'DOSPORE. The name

some authors See Spose.

by

tail cylindrical, cavity triquetrous ending in a kind of sucker one or more red
; ;

eye;

to the inner coat of spores.

ENERTHENE'iAIA, Bowm. A

genus
;

of Myxoinycetes interesting from the fact that the spores have been observed in situ they are produced, five or sis together, in globular sacs (asci) attached to the free apices of the filaments of the capilHtium, which arise from a disk at the top of the

on the oesophagus skin smooth male with a supplementary orifice (anus or sucker) in front of the genital orifice, and with two equal curved spicules vulva near the middle of the body uterus divided into two opposite branches elliptical. Marine and freshwater.
like spots
;
;

percurrent stem (PI. 27.

fig. 9).

was found by Bowman near Wrexham

and
lina,
it

E.eleyans
;

has since been found and in Scotland.

the
clustered

in

South Caroit

In

Badhamia and some

figured by Corda.

spores species of Peticularia

resembles

Linn. Tr. xvi. 151, pl. 16 Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 1850, V. 366, pl. 11. fig. 7.

BiBL.
;

Bowman,

ENHYDROSO'MA,

Boeck. A genus

Oncholai'mns. Filiform, more or less narrowed at the ends head obtuse buccal cavity large, with two or three curved or hooked jaws, placed lengthwise, at least one with a prominent tooth oesophagus elonno stomach tail gate, nearly cylindrical apparently terminated by a sucker skin smooth. Male tail suddenly narrowed, Female vulva short; spicules two, equal. near, or slightly behind the middle uterus two-branched eggs elliptic, large. Marine and freshwater length 1-10". Anyuil'hda (Phabdifis). Pharynx with
;
;

of Copepodous Entomostraca. E. curvatum, in dredgings, (Brady, Copepoda, Ray Soc. ii. 97.) ENOP'LID^E, Duj. tribe of Nematoid Entozoa, distinguished by an oral or pharyngeal armature, consisting either of The memstyles, hooks, or rods (bacilli). bers are niicroscopic, and live in fresh or sea- water, whence they sometimes find their way into the alimentary canal of higher animals. Genera Dorylai'7))Hs. Filiform, narrowed at the

two

or three longitudinal bacilli.

Atrac'tis.

Mouth with two

unequah
:

or three

jaws

spicula two,

Doubtful genera Amblyu'ra, Ehr. Filiform, mouth trimcate, with cirrhi tail subulate, slightly expanded at the end, where there is a suctorial papilla spicule single, retractile, without a sheath. Probably species of Oncho; ;

lainius or Enoplus.
in

ends mouth tubular, roti'actile, armed with a single very long horny style; male Avilh
;

A. serpentulus= Vibrio s., Miiller. Found an old vegetable infusion. A. gordius Vibrio g., Miill. In marine
Filiform, pointed bejiind ; Phanogle'ne. truncate, bilobed, with cirrhi, and

infusions.

two equal, short, falciform spicules; female with the vulva in the middle of the

mouth

ENTEROBRYUS.
v^itli

285

E^'TOMOSTRACA.

red eye-spots behind the head; spicule

single. P. luicans.
t-v\-o.

Eye-spots contiguous; In the intestine of the larva of a

cirrhi

21.37 Sc 2328; Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 sdr. xiv. 224, pi. 20. figs. 8-12 ; M4m. de Clierbourg, n. Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. 312.
;

ENTER0'PL1'L\, Ehr. A genus of Ro-

neuroptercHis insect. P. harbi(jer. Cirrhi four; red spots separate.

tatoria, of the

family Hydatinsea. Char. Eye-spots none ; teeth absent; foot

In stagnant -water. EnchUid'htm. Filiform, a single red eyethe body, situate at some spot, as broad as Marine. distance fi-om the head. See Anguilltjlid.^. BiBL. Dujardiu, Helminth. Jim Aniaun, Lamarck's Anim. sans Vert. Bastian, Linn. Tr. xxv. 73.

forked.
nical, hyaline

E. hydatina (PL 43. fig. 27). Body cofoot small ; aquatic length
; ;

1-120".'

pQ\

iii.

5G4

Probably the male of Hydatina. BiBL. Ehrenb. Tnfus. p. 411. ENTODIN'IUM, Stein. A genus of Peritrichous Infusoria.
ovate, flattened; surface often with one or more terminal spines. Three species in the rumen and reticulum of Ruminants.

EXTEROBRY'US, Leidy.A supposed

Char.

Free,

genus of Kiitzing's Leptomiteae, probably the mycelium of some fungus, found in the
intestines of insects.

smooth, indurated

Eccei'na, Leidy,
forms.

is

another

of

these

BiBL. Stein, Lif.

653.

ii.

168;

Kent,

Inf.

BrBL. Leidy, Proc. y. H. Soc. Philadel. 1849, 225, Ann. N. H. 1850, v. 72 Robin, Teget. Parns. 1853, 895, pi. 4. figs. 5, 6.
;

ENTOGO'NIA, Grev. A genus

of fossil

EXTERO'COLA, Van Ben. A

Copepodous Entomostraca.
JE.

genus

of

DiatomaceiB. Char. Frustules in side view triangular, containing a central triangular figure, having a broad border divided by transverse costse
into punctate or cellulate species of Triceratium.

eruca, tine of Ascidia int^stinalis. poda, Pay Soc. i. 147.)

is

found adhering to the intes(Brady, Cope-

compartments

ENTEROMORTHA, Link. A genus of

11 species.
(figs.).

BiBi.. Greville,

Barbadoes. Qw. Mic. Jn. 1863, 235

Ulvaceee (Confervoid Algte), consisting of freshwater and marine plants, with branchthe ed, tubular, green fronds, the walls of tubes being composed of a single flat layer of polygonal cells. Reproduction by ciliated numbers zoospores, formed in considerable from the transformed contents of the cells (PL 9. fig. 4). In this genus, Thuret states one that two foi'ms of zoospores occur, large and four-ciliated the other, in fronds with a yellower tint, smaller and with two The zoospores cilia; both kinds germinate. escape from the cells by a pore on the outer surface (PI. 9. fig. 4 a) near the centre of and the latter persist for some the cells time in an empty condition. The marine forms, of which nine species are described by Harvey, are mostly from 1-2'" to several lines in diameter, but many inches long. JE. GrevUlei, Thuret {Uha Lactuca, Grev., Harv.), however, is thicker and saccate, E. intestinalis, which finally bursting. and in brackish- and grows both in the sea freshwater ditches, often attains a length of 2 feet and more, and varies in thickness

EN'TOINIIS, Jones. An estinct bivalved Entomostracan, known by its oval, transversely sulcate, and sometimes concentriThe sulcus is nuchal cally wrinkled valves. and much stronger than in some of the Oypridiniform allies marked with this feature. Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous. BiBL. Jones, Mem. Geol. Surv. Edinh. 1861, 137 Ann. N. H. 1879, iv. 183.
;

ENTOMONETS,

ENTOMOSTE'GIA.

lL\xx.=Amnhiprora,
of

One

pt.

D-Qr-

bigny's orders of Foramiuifera, having the chambers in two rows, alternate, coiled into a spiral. This alternation of chambers, however, in the coiled Foraminifera arises from very different modes of growth, and is not a group-character. It is due to
:

bilateral

asymmetry (Cassididina)

1, 2, to

and intercalation of the chambers in Pobertina (Bidimitia) 3, to extreme alar division with interdigitatiou of the chambers on .one {-Ace (Amphisfegi7ia);
lateral elongation
;

from

1'" to 2-3".

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 213, pi. 25 D, Phyc. Brit. pls.^OS, 262, 282 Greville, Alg. Brit. 179, Sc. Ci-ypt. Fl. t. 313, Eng. Bot.
;

5, to tentlike cavities imder umbilical flaps (Asferigerina).

;

4, to irregular growth chambers (Heferosfegina)

of

semi-auuular

and

ENTOMOSTRACA.-A division
class Crustacea.

of the

ENTOMOSTRACA.
Char. Free
;

286

ENTOMOSTRACA
the water, at others resembling

freshwater or marine

body

through

or less distinctly jointed, mostly contained in a horny, leathery, or brittle shell or carapace, formed of one or more pieces, often bivalve branchife attached either to the jaws or legs legs jointed, and more or
; ;

more

In some genera they legs (tigs. 5, 17, &c.). are furnished with curious appendages, effecting the purpose of the hinge-jointed In some, again (Cythesuperior antennae.
ridse),

development accompanied by a regular moidting or change of shell, sometimes amounting to metamoi-phosis. Many of the Entomostraca are very common in ponds, pools, and other collections When examined with the naked of water.
;

less ciliated

are

the lower antennae (PL 19. fig. 37) annedwith alougcurved2- or3-jointed

urticating seta (b), connected at its base by a duct with a vesicular gland situated in the anterior part of the body (a). An external stalked vesicle is also sometimes

found attached to this antenna.

eye, in a bottle or glass containing the water, they appear as minute specks, generally in
in jerking motion. often beautifully transparent, sometimes spotted with pigment, variously striated, reticular, or notched, sometimes spinous or tuberculated. It consists of chitine impregnated with a variable amoimt of carbonate of lime, which is sometimes so great as to render it brittle, and to cause copious effervescence on the addition of a and when boiled it turns red, dilute acid It varies in like the shell of a lobster. sometimes consisting of two structure, valves, united at the back, resembling the at others it is bivalve shell of a mussel simply folded at the back so as to appear bivalve, without really being so or it conIt sists of a number of rings or segments.

active

and often
shell
is

The eyes are usually large, the pigment black or red, and the muscles and the nervous branches distributed to them fi-om the
cephalic ganglion very distinct. labrum or upper lip is often present, compressed and terminated by a hairy lolje sometimes also a labium. (PI. 20. tig. 35) Behind these are situated two mandibles, furnished with either blunt or pointed teeth, often having a palpus or palp-tike organ

The

often presents a reticular appearance resembling that of a ceU-structure.

The body itself, which

is

more or

less in-

timately connected with the shell, is mostly divided into numerous seg-ments. The head is furnished with one or two pairs of antennae the superior or anterior are usually smallest, and in some genera easily overlooked (PI. 20. fig. 28 a) sometimes one or both of them are furnished in the male with a hinge-joint, allowing considerable flexure, so as to permit of its grasping the female (PI. 20. tig. 8 a, of male; 9 a of fe;

even when the animal is at rest. In some genera, as Canthocamptus, Cyclops, and Diapfonms, the respiration is exthe water being drawn into clusively anal and expelled from the rectum at intervals,
;

Next to these, comes a (tigs. 11, 20, 34). pair of maxillae, jaws or foot-jaws (figs 12, 36), furnished with spines, hooks, or claws, and sometimes branchiae (fig. 21). Behind these is a second pair of foot-jaws (tigs. 13, The legs are variable in number and 22). structure; they are often furnished with flattened processes, fringed with beautifully citiated or plumose filaments (figs. 30, 31, thus exposing a large extent of surface 32), to the water, by which respiration is effected; hence they represent giUs, and are called branchiae or branchial legs or feet ; similar branchiae are often appended to the foot-jaws and they are in constant motion,
;

as in

many aquatic larvte of insects. As the structure and arrangement of

these

sometimes they are long, and provided with a tuft of filaments (PI. 20. tigs. 17, 18) at others they are simply long, and In some filiform or setaceous (fig. 38). the upper Cypridinidse and Conchceciidse,
nale)
; ;

parts aflbrd characters for distinguishing the genera &c., the details are given under their respective names.

antennae become organs of special sense (smell or hearing), being clothed with

toothed club-shaped appendages, which arise directly from the antennae (Cowc/io^cta), or from its 'bristle-shaped appendages {Cy-

pndma).

The inferior pair or posterior antennae vary in size and structure like the former, being sometimes large and branched to row the animals (fig. 28 b), and serving

The abdomen is of variable length, jointed with a variously lobed post-abdomen, often resembling a tail in a])pearance (figs. sometimes it is bilobed sometimes 3, 8) furnished with a kind of spur near the end, for supporting the ova within the shell. Li some genera the external ovaries or ovisacs containing the ova pass out between two of the abdominal joints, yet remaining attached, and gi^ ing a remarkable appearance to the animals (figs. 9, 38). The in; ;

ENTOMOSTRACA.
testiiial

287

ENTOMOSTRACA.
;

canal

is
;

usually straiplit
sonietiiues,

or but
it is

slightly curved coiled (fig. 7).

however, The Entomostraca

are

carmostly herbivorous, although some are The sexes have not been distinnivorous.
in guished in all the Eutomostraca, although distinct. It appears are some

Branchi.ie atlyegion 1. Lophyropoda. tached to the organs of the mouth leg8 few, not exceeding five pairs, serving for

locomotion,
less

articulation
;

mostly more or

anteunie two pairs, one cylindrical pair used as organs of motion.

they

perfectly

also that in certain of them, reproduction takes according to the law of alterna-

Order

place females only being tion of generations and produced through several generations, the males appearing only at certain seasons. The spermatozoa are often of most re-

1. Ostracoda. Shell consisting of 2 valves, entirely enclosing the body feet 1-3 pairs, adapted for progression ; no external ovary.
;

Sect. 1.

markable structure (see Spermatozoa). The ova are mostly rounded sometimes tbev are covered with spines, and often They are either brilliantly coloured. hatched in the external ovaries mentioned above, or in a space between the body of the parent and the posterior part of the shell or they are deposited in massi>s upon
;
;

Inferior antennae simsubpediform, geniculate, clawed at the end. (Includes all the freshwater and most of the marine Ostraple,

PoDocoPA.

coda.)

Fam,

and glued to water-plants, and hatched independently of the parents. At particular seasons of the year, the ova in certain species are furnished with thick in a dark opaque capsules, and imbedded substance presenting a minutely cellidar
appearance, and occupying the above-mentioned interspace between the body of the animal and the back of the shell (fig. 37 a). This is called the ephippium, and the ova or winter ova (Eggs). ephippial "\\ hen first hatched, the young (fig. 16) difier very strikingly in form and structure from the adults (figs'. 8, 9). The larval forms of the higher Crustacea often bear considerable resemblance to the
perfect Entomostraca. The minute structure of the Entomostraca is difficult to determine ; for although the bodv and shell are frequently comparatively delitransparent, the parts are exceedingly cate and soft, so that they are easily crushed and mutilated,and their appearance distorted. The Entomostraca are best preserved in solution of chloride of calcium or glycerine (see Preservation). Some use glyceriuejelly.

1. Cyprid^. Superior antennoe mostly 7-jointed, with a dense brush of long setae eye usually single feet 2 pairs, the last bent up between the valves abdominal rami 2, elongate, clawed at end. Gen. Cypris (PL 20. figs. 5 & 19), Can; ; ;
:

dona^ Cypridopsis, Pai-acypris, Ac/Iaia, Notodromas, Fonto(ypris, Argiiloecia, Bairdia, Macrocypris, and Chlamydotheca.

Earn. 2.

Cytherid^.

Superior antennae

5-7 -jointed, setigerous or spinous; inferior 4-6-jointed, without a brush; feet 3 pairs, ambulatory post-abdo;

men

rudimeutaiy, consisting of 2 very small lobes. (Comprises most of the marine species, and almost all the nu-

merous fossil species.) Gen. Cyfhere (PI. 20. tig. 2Q), Limnon/:

there, Cytheridea., Eucythere, Ilyobates, Liixoconcha, Xestoleheris, Cytheriira,

Cytlieropteron^
rideis,

Sderochilus,

Bythocy there, Cytheand ParadoxoInferior antennae

stoma.
Sect.
2.

Myodocopa.
:

A large number of Entomostraca are found fossil among which must be specially mentioned the Trilobites, of which 1600
;

2-branched one branch rudimentary, the other powerful, many-jointed, with long natatory setae mandibular palp very large, subpediform, geniculate, not branchial. Post-abdomen with 2 broad plates, clawed.
;

species are described.

Earn.

following systematic arrangement comprises the most common genera and Numerous others are described, species. Brady enumerating 67 genera of the Copepoda'ouly: these are briefly mentioned mider the individual heads.

The

3. Cytrldinidje. Feet 1 pair; vermiform, annulated, long; mandibles obsolete second pair of jaws with a large branchial plate eyes, 2 com; ;

pound, 1 simple. Gen. Cypn'dhin, Asferope, Btadyn'nefus

:

{Eurypjyius),

Fhilomedes,

Cylindrole-

ENTOMOSTRACA.
beris
fossil)
.

288

ENTOMOSTRACA.
2.

{CyprideUa, Cyprella, Entomis?,

Fam

Diaptomid^.

Head

consolidated
;

Fam.

4.
:

Entomoconchid^.
Heterodesmus, Entomoconchus.

Gen.

Fam.

Feet 2 pairs, 5. Conchceciid^. posterior rudimentary; mandibles distinct eyes none.

; :

with the first j oint of thorax foot-jaws three pairs, well developed last pair of legs differing in structure from the others, and differing from each other in the two sexes eye single, sometimes pedunculated in the male right antenna only with the swollen hinge; ; ;

Gen.
Sect.

Conchoscia, Halocypris.

joint in the male.

antennae 2-branclied, both branches well devenataloped, natatory upper antennpe

3.

Cladocopa.
;

Inferior

Eiaptomus. Cephalothorax and abdomen each of five segments (PI. 20.

fig.

38).

Temora.

Cephalothorax of

five,

abdo-

with a lash of long tory, not geniculate, mandibles distinct, palp short setae
;

men

of three segments.
of four-

2 pairs of thoracic appendages

rior large, natatory, posterior

ante;

Anomahcera.

abdomen
fig. 6).

Cephalothorax of seven, segments (PI. 19.

membra-

naceous and branchial.

Dias.

Fam.

6.

Polycopidje.
Polycope.

Char. Those of

Fam.

3.

Cetochilid^. Head consolidated

;

the section.

with

Gen.

Sect. 4.

Platycopa.

Lower
;

antennae 2-

branched,
jointed,

flattened

branches fewsetae.

first joint of thorax; foot-jaws three pairs, strongly developed eves two right antenna only with the hinge-joint in the male.
;

Cetochihis
22).

with numerous
;

Supe-

(PL

19. fig. 21).

rior antennae strong, geniculate, shortly

Notodelphys,

Provisionally (PI. 19.

fig.

small, palp spiniferous 3 pairs of thoracic appendlarge first and second ages, all maxillifoi-m ; with a large branchial pairs of jaws
;

mandibles

Legion 2. Branchiopoda. Branchiae attached to the legs legs from four to sixty
;

pairs.

plate.

Order

Fam.

7.

Cytherellidje.

Gen. Cytherella.

Order

Shell jointed, forming 2. Copepoda. a buclder, enclosing the head and thorax for swimlegs five pairs, mostly adapted ming ovary external.
; ;

1. Phyllopoda. Legs from eleven to sixty pairs in number, joints foliaceous and branchiiform, chiefly adapted for respiration and not motion eyes two or three, sometimes pedimculated antennae one or two pairs, neither adapted for
; ;

swimming.

Fam.

1.

Cyclopid^.
;

Head
fifth pair

consolidated
pairs,

Fam.

with the thorax; foot-jaws two

generally small
(larger)

of legs rudimentary ; eye single ; both superior antennae in the male furnished

with a swollen hinge joint. Foot-jaws large and strong, Cyclops. branched; ovaries double (PI. 20. figs.
Foot-jaws small, simCanthocamptus. 20. fig. (>); ple ovary single (PI. terminated Arpactims. Foot-jaws stout, by a claw ovary single. Alif.utha. Foot-jaws small, simple body a strong falciform appendage to flat the fifth segment of the body on each
;

8,9).

1. Branchipodida. Body not enclosed in a carapace or shell antennae two pairs, the inferior horn-like, and with prehensile appendages in the male ; legs eleven pairs. Arteniia. Tail simply bilobed; no appendages at the base of the cephalic horns. Bramhtpus. Tail formed of two plates,
;

cephaHc horns with fan-shaped appendages at the base (PI. 20.

fig. 3).

Fam.

side (PI. 19. fig. 3). Delavalha. Tachidius, Dactylopus,

Body enclosed in antennas one or t^Ao pairs legs more than eleven pairs. Ajms. Shell flat, bucliler-like antennae one pair, small ej-es sessile. Shell folded at the back anNebalia.
2.

Aspidophora.
;

a shell

ENTOMOSTRACA.
tenure

289

ENTOMOSTRACA.

two

pairs, large

eyes stalked

Fam.

(n.
Fani.

19.

%.

26).

3. DiTmiirDA. Bivalve. Lininadia, Estheria, Limnetis,

Order

2.

cliietiy

large

Cladocera. Legs four to six pairs, branchial eye single, and very antennte two pairs, inferior large,
;

3. LYNCEiD.ii;. Superior antennas very short; inferior of moderate size, branched, each branch three-jointed; legs five pairs eye single, with a black intestine convoluted, spot in front having one complete turn and a half. Shell subquadrangular, abEurycercits.
; ;

domen forming
plate (PI. 20.

fiat,

densely serrated
;

fig.

39).

branched and adapted for swimming.

Fam.

1.

Daphniad.e.

Superior antennae
;

small ; inferior large, two-branched legs live or six pairs, all enclosed within

the carapace; eye single, large. *

Nearly spherical beak very inferior anlong, sharp, and curved tennas very short (PI. 20. fig. 7). abdomen long, Ovoid Camptocercus. slender, and very flexible, serrated (PI, 20. tig. 4).
Chydorus.
; ;

(Daphnina.)

Legs

five pairs

inferior

Acropenis.

Somewhat harp-shaped, with

;

auteunaj two-branched, one branch f oui-, the other three-jointed.

superior autenuaj very small (PI. 20. fig. 26). Moina. Head rounded and obtuse superior antennae large (PI. 19. tig. 20).
; ;

an anterior inferior obtuse angle

rior antennae

infetigs.

rather long (PI. 19.

1,2).

Daphnia. a beak

Head produced below

into

Alonn. Quadrangular, striated or grooved inferior antennae short longitudinally

;

(PI. 19. tigs. 4, 5).

Plewoxas.
ly
;

Giblaous above and anteriorobliquely truncate below first pair

;

Macrothrix. Head rected forwards

;

beaked,
superior

beak

di-

one-jointed,

hanging from

antennae the beak

(PI. 19. fig. 25).

Bosmina.
dii'ect

Head
beak
;

terminating in a sharp

superior antennae long, mauv-iointed, projecting from end of

beali (PI. 20.
fig.

of legs very large (PI. 19. fig. 32). Peracantlm. Oval, lower end with a curved posterior point, fringed inferiorly and antero-superiorly with strong hooked spines (PI. 19. fig. 31). Monospilus.

2).

See Crustacea and Siphonostoma. BiBL. Baird, Br. Entom. M. -Edwards,

;

Drepmiothrix, Lathonura, Acantholehei'is,

Ilyocryptus.

Cnistac.

iii.

Straus,
vii.

Mem.

Mits. 1819,
;

v.

380, and 1821,

;

33;

Koch,

Beutsclil.

Legs tennae two-branched from the edge of larger branch antennae of moderate size.
(Sidina.)
; ;

**

six pairs inferior ana row of spines arising

;

Crustac. Desmarest, Crustac. Jones, Entom. Cretac. Form. {Palceont. Sac); Entom. Tert., and Foss. Edherice Zencker, Miiller^s
;

superior

Archiv, 1851 {Micr.

Brit. Foss.

Tr.

i.

273)

Morris,

Sida.

of inferior antennae three-, the other two-iointed (PI. 19.

27).

One branch

fig.

Daphnellu.

Both branches two-iointed

(PI. 20. fig. 27).

Lubbock, Linn. Tr. xxiii. 176, and xxiv. 197 Dana, Classif. Crust. 1853, Report on Crust. U. S. Exped. 1855 Baird, A^in. N. Hist. 1862, ix. 132, and x. 1; Grube, Esth. m. Limnad., Archiv Nat. xxxi. 1865 Plateau, Ann. iV. H. 1869, iii. 12
; ; ; ;

98

Fam.

2.

Polypheshd^.
one

Inferior antennae

branch four-, the other three-jointed; lower part of shell forming a large vacant space for containing the ova and young eye very
two-branched,
;

large

legs four
shell.

paii's,

not

contained

within the

Polyphemus. Tail-like abdomen projecting outside the shell freshwater (PI.

:

19.' fig.

29).

Evadne.

Abdomen
shell
;

pi.), 1863; Brady, 59 {New Ostracoda) ; ii. 1868, (Ostr. from Scandinavian Seas, Mauritius, c^'c); 1869, iii. 45; lA.. Linn. Tr. and 1868, xxvi. 353 (Monoyr. Ostracoda) Copepoda {Ray Soc.) Norman and Brady, Monogr. 1867; Sars, Orersiyt af Norges Mar. Ostrac. 1865 Lilljeborg, De Crustaceis, 1853; Zencker, Mull. Arch. 1850 {Cyid. Arch. Naturg. 1854 ibid. 1851 pris) Hartog, J7i. Mic. S. 1880, 243 Brady and Robertson, Ann. N. H. 1872, ix. 48 & Tr.

Schcedler,

Cladocera (3
xiii.

Ann. N. H. 1864,

;^

scarcely

from the

projecting
19. fig. 30).

Palceontog.

Soc. xxviii.

Clans,

marine (PI.

Copepoda,

1881

and the

BiBi.. of the genera.

ENTOPIIYSALIS.

290

ENTOZOA.

ENTOPHY'SALIS,

KLitz. A genus of

ding some of the Gymnostoma and Weissice

of authors.

Palniellacepe (Confervoid Alppe). Char. Frond globose, cartilaginous, containing numerous more or less confluent

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol.

ley, Ilandh. 175.

Brit,.

272

Berkeof Os-

families of minute oblong cells. E. f/rannlosa. On mariue rocks. Dalmatia.

"EN'TOTHIIIX, Kiitz. A genus

(Confervoid AlgiB).
Char. Frond tubular,
slender

cillatoriacese

BiBL.

Kiitziiig,

r/i;/c.

Gen. 177,

pi.

18;

composed of nufilaments,

Piabenhorst, A/g.

iii.

43

general term applied to parasitic plants (chiefly Fungi), growing in the interior of animal or vegetable
structures.

EN'TOPHYTES. A

(fig.).

merous

See Pabasites, vkgegenus of Diato-

TABLE.

ENTOP'YLA, Ehr. A
macete. Char.
;

Frustules prismatic, compressed, the two end valves compound, arcuate of transversely striated, not alike, one them being convex outwards, the other concave, and with a large pore (?) at each end.

densely twisted into a cord, and enclosed in a lamellar sheath. E. funicidnris. Filaments continuous, brownish, flexuous. In long-kept water. BiBL. Kiitzing, Phyc. Gen. 224, pi. 6. fig. 8 Ptabenhorst, Fl. Akj. ii. 160 (fig.). ENTOZO'xV. class of Vermes containing the intestinal worms, &c. The Entozoa are animals mostly residing parasitically, during either the whole or a part of their lives, in the cavities or in the substance of the organs of other animals

very

Valves linear, rounded at E. australis. each end, with more than forty transverse costse, traversed by a longitudinal flexuous
line

inner plates in the adult state sixteen, young state only three marine, and in the young found in guano ; length
;

in the

state 1-720"

and with
JScrl.

l-240"_, only six

costfe

be-

they are very generally met witli throughout the Animal Kingdom and they derive their nourishment from the liquids of those animals of which they constitute the paraTheir form is mostly elongate, and sites. the body more or less distinctly jointed. The integument consists of a delicate ho;

tween the

pores.

BiBL. Ehr.

Ber. 1848, G

Ann. N.

Hid. 1848,
pt.
is

i.

393.

ENTOSI'PHON, Stein, = Anisoncma, Duj.,

ENTOSOLE'NIA, Ehrenb. A Laf/em

said to be Eutosolenian if it has its neck, or stolon-tube, growing inw^ards (inThis was once thought to be "troverted). a generic character but it occurs in Poh/morpMna, and is not even of specific value.
;

epidermis, often thrown into transverse folds sometimes also into longitudinal folds, giving the body a winged appearance. In some species it is furnished with papillre, spines, or horny reflexed prickles, either scattered over the greater part of the surface or confined to the anterior extremity' of the body, in the latter case serving as organs of adhesion. Beneath the epidermis is the cutis, intimately fu.^ed with or almost entirely consisting of layers

mogeneous

Entosolenia
fig.

(Lat/eiut)

ylohosa,

PI.

23.

23, a,
fossil.

h, is

a very

common

form^

recent

and

BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. Foram.

Fig. 107.

1.57.

and oblique flattened fusiform muscular fibres, resembling the organic or unstriped muscular fibres of the Vertebrata. Beneath or in the substance of the skin, in the Cestoid Entozoa, are numerous minute oval or rounded bodies, containing carbonate and phosphate of lime; these are regarded as forming the rudiments of a cutaneous skeleton, and they possess a concentric laminated structure. The form and structure of the head and in the shape of hooks, suckits apppcndages, ersj etc., are described with the genera and
of transverse, longitudinal,
species, as their form and used as generic characters.

arrangement are

Entosthodon Templetoni.

Fragment of the peristome.

Magnifled 100 diameters.

genus ]':NTC)S'TII()1)()N, Schwagr. of Fuuariacea) (Acrocarpous Mosses), inclu-

The nervous system of the Entozoa is not well known. In the cystic or larval forms, In the Cestoids none has- been detected. and Acanthocephala, it consists of a single

ENTOZOA.

201

ENTOZOA.

to cephalic rranfjlion, sondin;i- off branch(>s the proboscis. In the Treinatoda, of two transcesophag-eal ganglia, connected by a verse cord, and sending ofl" two lateral branches, which traverse the body longituIn the Nematoidea, it is composed dinally. of a single longitndinal cord, furnished at its origin and termination with a ganglion. Organs of special sense appear to be absent in the Entozoa, excluding that of touch, which resides in the various cephalic In some, especially in the appi'udages. ciliated embi'yonic form, there are red or black cervical spots, which have been re-

TIk." ova culum), and vesicula sominalis. are round or oval, often furnislied with a shell, which sometimes has a lid. The development of tlie ova of the Entozoa takes place according to two methods:

either the yolk-mass undergoes the ordinary process of segmentation, idtimately forming the embryo or large transparent embryoiial cells form in the J'olk, the latter not becoming segmented, but undergoing subdivision and diminution in size,
;

garded as eyes but they do not appear to contain any refracting body comparable to a lens. Helminthologists have diffi^red as
;

the growth of the embryonal cells conat the expense of the yollf-ma=3 the entire until it is entirely consumed mass then becomes covered with a delicate, sometimes ciliated, epithelium, and forms the
tinuing
;

embi'yo.

to the presence of a digestive, circulating, and water-vessel system in the Cestoidea and Acanthocephala, certain tubes found in them being regarded as belonging to each the of these svstoms bv different authors longitudinal vessel-like tubes with lateral branches terminatins: in a caudal pore, are
;

In numerous instances, after this primary

stage of development the embryonal-cell condition has been attained, the embryo does not become directly developed into a form of being resembling the parent but the intermediate larval or nurse forms, de-

however, now regarded as excretory organs. In most of the remaining Entozoa, the
is well developed, the distinct, the posterior portion of the alimentary tube much ramified, and terminating either in a cnecal extremity Remarks upon or in a distinct anus. these systems will be found under the

scribed under Ctkxerations, Alternation OF, are produced from it by a non-sexual process and ultimately, forming the last
;

digestive apparatus

mouth

Entozoa are propagated by spoutaneons division, by gemmation or the formation of gemmae, and by sexual organs and they illustrate the law
;

genera. Propagation.

The

stage of the metamorphosis, beings resembling the parent, and furnished with sexual The discovery of organs, are produced. the alternation of generations has brought to light the fact that many of the supposed or species of Entozoa are only the larval nurse forms of the true species and that many of these forms only complete their
;

of alternation of generations. The spontaneous division,

Infusoria and Zooph\^es, in the new individuals produced not being perfect a certain

ways

ti'ansverse,

differs

which is alfrom that of the

stages of metamorphosis when placed under bodies particular circumstances, i. e. in the of different animals, or in different organs of the same animal. The foUov.ing arrangement may serve as

an index to the articles upon the Entozoa, contained in this work :

numbar

of

organs only being reproduced,

Order

as in the joints (proglottides) of the body of the Cestoidea. The formation of gemma? occurs in the Coenurus larval or cystic forms of Tcenia

1. Sterelmintha. Alimentary canal often absent, or not distinct wlien present, with a single orifice only, and
;

branched.
Earn.
1.

and Echinococcus. In those Entozoa which are propagated by sexes, the individuals are either hermaphrodite or unisexual. In the Cestoidea the sexual organs are usually repeated in each those near the head. And it joint, except appears that there are two Irinds of ovaries one for the production of the germ (the germinal vesicle and spot), and the other In addition to which, there for the yolk. is mostly a uterus, vagina, testis, penis (spi-

Cestoidea (tape-worms).

Body

or indistinctly strap-shaded,' distinctly divided into transverse joints; male and female organs in each joint ; alicanal indistinct or none.

mentary

Bnthrioccphalns, Tcenia. (Ci/dica) Nm-se or larval

Cestoidea

forms of

Echinococcus. Cysticercus, Coenurus,

Earn.
2.

Trematoda.
;

Body mostly
canal

flat-

tened

alimentary

distinct,

u2

EOSINE.
branched
;

292

EPENDYMA YENTEICULORUM.

male and female organs in

DipJozoon
(Diporpa),

each individual.

Ainphistuma,
Earn. 3.

Distoma {Cercarin), Gyrodactijlus.

Acanthocephala.

Body

flat-

tened, transversely "wrinkled, becoming cylindrically distended by the imbibition of water ; sexual organs in separate individuals. Ech in orhyn ch us.

EOZO'ON,Dawson. AEoraniinifer,with hyaline and tubular shell-structure, and very numerous irregiUai' chambers. Outspread for about a square foot, and hea;ped up nearly half as high, with diminishmg size, it occurs imbedded in the Laurentian and other old limestones of Canada, The chambers, stolons, Bohemia, &c.
pseudopodial passages, and canal-system are represented by delicate casts of magnesiau silicates, such as pyroxene, serpentine, and
loganite

Order
Earn.

2.

Coelelmintha.

present, distinct, simple,

4.

Alimentary canal with two oritices.

worms). Body

Nematoidea

(roiuid
;

hollow sexes separate. Trichocephalus, l''{layia,Ascaris{ Oxyurus), AngiiUhda, Trichina, Anchyhstoma, Dochmius.
cylindrical,

sometimes by calcite, Uke that of the shell itself. In the former case they can be separated by the removal of the calcareous shell in slices of the marble, by
;

dilute acid.

See AcEPHALocYSTS and E^TOPLIT)^. BiBL. Siebold, Vergl. An. Eudolphi, Enfoz. Hist. Nat. and Entoz. Si/n. Dujardin, Hchninth. Bremser, Icones Hehninth. Owen, Todd''s Cyci.\i.l\\; Blanchard, ^;^?^. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. Zool. vii. viii. x. xi. xii. Vogt, Zool. Briefe Diesing, Helminth. Beneden, Vers cesto'i'des, 1850 id., Vers intestin. (27 pL), and Icon. d. Hehn. 18G0; Pagenstecher, Trevudod-Larvcn KiichenCobbold, Parameister, Farasiten, 1881 Schneider, sites; Ebertli, Nematoden, 18G3 Nematoden (22 pi., 130 cuts), 1860 Pa1877 Linstow, Hehninvaine, Entozoaires, thol. 1878; Wagener, Cestodcn (22 pi.) ; Leuckart, Menschl. Parasit. 1881. EO'SINE. A beautiful rosy dye, having the composition of tetiabromo-lluorescine, produced by the action of bromine upon nuorescine dissolved in acetic acid. It is a
;
; ; ; ;

Layer after layer of Eozoon formed banks, thus constituting a large proportion of the massive limestones and the sarcode was mostly replaced by hydrous silicates, such as have been injected into the pores of Siliu'iau and other fossils, and just as glauconite takes the place of the soft parts of Eoraminifera, Polyzoa, &c. in existing
;

seas.

The Eozoonal limestone, with its associated muds, sands, and shingle, has been folded, crushed, and variously metamorphosed, often in a high degree.
,

BiBL. Logan, Dawson, Carpenter, and Hunt, Quart. Jn. Geol. Sac. 18G5, xxi. 45, and 18G7, xxiii. 257 Carpenter, Intel. Ohserv. 18Go, vii. 278: and Microscope, 1881; Giimbel, Sitz. layer. Akad. 186G Zirkel, Mineralien, 1873 Mcebius, Eoz. Can. 1878 King and Eowney (disputing the organic character of Eozoon), Proc. Pay. Irish Acad. ser. 1. x. and ser. 2. i. & An Old
;
;

Chapter

ra])id staining agent,

dyeing the protojilasm of nucleated blood-corpuscles, but not the nuclei it is also useful in the distinction of nerve-structures. BiBL. Gibbes, Hist.; Dreschfeld, Jn. Anat.
;

EPEIRA, Walck. A

^-c.

1881.

genus of Arach-

xi.;

Watts, IHct.Chem.; W'issozky, Schultze's Arch. 1877, xiii. 479. EOS'PHORA, Ehr. A genus of llotatoria, of the

family Hydatiufea. Char. Eyes three, sessile two frontal, Ereshwater. foot forked. one cervical

Among
E.

Confervcs.
species.

nida, of the order Araneidea. E. diadema (the common autumnal garden-spider) forms a favomable object for the examination of the various structural as the integument pecidiarities of spiders, (PL G. fig. 4) ; the legs, with their hairs and claws (fig. 8, a, b) ; the toothed hairs at the end of the feet (fig. 8) show very clearly the transition from the hairs to the claws, in fact, that the latter are mere modifications of the former ; also the lung-plates

There are three

(figs. 9,
:

b)

the spinnerets, the

;

web

(fig.

dif/itafa (PI. 4:5. fig.

28
not

Body
l-'JG".

conical,

liyaliiie,

29, teeth). aiiricled, toes

fig.

11), &c.

one third of the foot in length.

BiBX,. Ehr. Infits. p^ 451.

Length

BiBL. Walckenaer, Apteres Brandt, Medizin. Zool. Walker, Brit. Sjrid. {Pay Soc).
;

EPEN'DYMA YENTEICULORUM

is

EPHEBE.

293

EPHEMI^.RID.E.

the name griven to a layer whioli eoats those portions of the ventiieles of the braiu which are not connected \vith the prolongaas the floor of the tions of the pia mater fourth ventricle, the ar|neduct of Sylvius, the floor and the sides of the third ventricle, the fifth ventricle, with the roof, the anterior and postin'ior cornua, and a considerable part of the inferior cornua of the lateral ventricles. It consists of deUcate ciliated (?)

2 species.

mouths of

BiBL. Ed. New Phil Jn. 1858,

On Serfidaria, and in the shells containing hermit-crabs. Pritchard, Inf. p. 662; Wright,
p. 7.

pavement epithelium, situated either immeor npon diately upon the cerebral substance,
an intermediate layer of connective tissue, or of a soft homogeneous or granular mass. The Cells are nucteated, and vary in diameter from 1-900 to 1-490" ; they sometimes eontain pigment.

genus of Neuropterous Insects, of the family Ephemeridae. Char. Wings four posterior filaments three head of larva with cornua. The larva and pupa are favourite microscopic objects, for showing the dorsal vessel, the circulation, branchial plates, &c. See
;

EPIIEM'ERA, Linn. A

Ephemerit)^.

considered by many of the arachnoid membrane. Corpora amrjlacea are often met with beneath it ; sometimes also brainis

The ependyma
a

anatomists

portion

EPlIEME'REzE. family of inoperculate Acrocarpous (terminal-fruited) Mosses, usuallj' dwarf, caespitose, or gregarious. Stem almost simple. Leaves more or less oval or lanceolate, slightly concave, pellucid, with or without nerves. Cells of the leaves parenchymatous, lax in all parts, elongate,
not papillose.
apiculated.

Capsule mostly obliquely

British Genus.

sand.

BiBL. KoUiker, Mikr. Anat. EPHE'BE, Fr. A genus of Collemaceous Lichens, usually described in an imperfect state as species of Stiyonema, a supposed genus of AlgjB. E. ptihescens has a hairy, branched, cartilaginous frond, covering the sm-face of damp sub;ilpiue rocks with a blackish-brown felt tlie branches are subu;

Ephcmencm. Calyptra campanulate. Inflorescence monoecious or dioecious (antheridia on a very short special brcanch situated near the base of the stem).

EPHEMERTD.E(May-flies). Afamily
of Neuropterous Insects. Characterized by the minute size of the antennfe ; the unequal size of the anterior and posterior pairs of wings (the latter of which are in some absent) ; the membranous and almost obsolete mouth and the elongated j ointed setfe at the posterior end of tlie body.
;

and the plant is dicBcious some specimens have the branches swoUen into spindleshaped receptacles, in which are imbedded numerous conceptacks, opening by a pore, lined with clavate theccs, each containing other specimens eight unisepate sjwres
late,
;
;

bear spherical or subovoid subapicalj)?/c?< idia, in which are immersed spermogonia, deMsciug by a pore, containing numerous linear basidia (sterigmata), supporting very Two supposed slender oblong spertnntia. species of Stigonema, Ag. (atrovirens and ??iammilIosiim). have been foimd in fruit as perfect Epjhebce, by Thwaites. According to Flotow, forms of this Lichen have been described under many names by Kiitzing

Body long, slender, and soft ; head small, ti-ansverse-trigonate ; eyes large, nearly oval, ocelli three, forming a triangle belateral
;

tween the eyes antennie three-jointed, the two basal joints thick, the third forming a
;

Abdomen consisting of long nine joints; the terminal the longest, and gradually narrowed and furnished at the
slender seta.

and
ser.

others.
xviii.
15.3, pi. 7

apex in both sexes with two or three long, slender, many-jointed filaments. Legs slender anterior pair in the males pon-ected, much elongated, with the tibiae and tarsi
;

BiBL. Bornet, Ann.

;

Sci. Naf. 3 Berk, and

vii.

Fig. 198,

Br. ^/?. N.

Nvlander, Syn. pi. 2. figs. 1 & 7 Leishton, Lich. Fl. G. B. 10.

H. 1851,

188

EPHELO'TA,

Wright. A

genus of marine Infusoria, fam. Actinophryina (Acinetina, Clap. and Lachm.), resembling Podophrya, but the tentacles pointed instead of capitate, and forming a wreath or circlet.

Ephemera Swammerdamii.

Nat. size.

EPHEMERID^.
appearing soldered together
;

294

EPIDERMIS.
;

basal tarsal

BiBL. Westwood, Introd.

Pictet, Lis.

joint very miuiite, tarsi tive-joiuted, terminated in the fore legs of the male by two oval pulvilli in the four posterior legs tarsi
;

Nevropt., 1843; Curtis, Brit. Entnm. 70S; Pritchard, Micr. lllustr. Gl (pi. 2. fig. of
C'lceon

short, hve-joiuted,

oval pulvillus, claw.

and terminated by a large and a single broad notched

Ilampe.A genus of Ephemere8e( Acrocarpous Mosses),including

pupa).

EPHEM'ERUM,

These insects must have been seen by every one, rising and falling on the wing, near the banks of rivers-and pools; in the perfect state their life lasts but a few hours, whence the name. The ova are deposited
in the water.

part of Phasciim of authors. EiBL. AVilson, Bryol. Brit. 27; Berkeley, Brit. Mosses, 304. EPIIIP'PIA.The winter-ova of the

Entomostraca.

See

Eggs and Entomos-

TEACA.

The larva bears a

considerable

EPIBLE'MA,
Plants.

See the Epidermis of

of

resemblance to the pupa, from which it diifers in the absence of rudimentary wingcovers they are frequently mistaken for each other. The pupa of the common Uphemera (vidgata) (PL oo. fig. lo) has the prothorax as broad as the head, transverse-quadrate the mesothorax gibbous the head rather small, with two short horns in front, and two horny toothed mandibles, furnished at their upper labrum angles with a long curved horn flat, membranous, ciliated, and with the
;
;

EPICLIN'TES, Stein. a genus

potrichous
(Stein, //(/.
cei

Hy-

Infusoria,
ii.
;

fam.
Itif.^

Oxytrichina.
of Stilba-

Kent,

EPICOC'CUM, Lk. Agenus

(Ilyphomycetous Fungi), parasitic upon dead leaves, &c., consisting of very minute

gregarious tubercles, somewhat linearly arranged, reddish or purplish, containing numerous spherical, smooth or roughish, JS. nef/lectian is adnate reticulate spores. to a short pedicel. When mature the

angles rounded maxillte small, membranous, curved, pointed at the tip, and internally setose maxillary palpi four-jointed, and not extending beyond the front of the
;

'

stroma is quite covered with spores about Uredo Bqui^eti, 1-2000" in diameter. Br. Flora,' is an Epicocciun with smooth

spores.

head labium large, membranous, four-lobed, and furnished with a broad tongue labial palpi broad and three-ji anted; antennae
; ;

about twice the length of the head, manyjointed and ciliated legs short, broad, and much compressed tarsi two-jointed, with a terminal hook abdomen nine-jointed, the six basal segments being furnished on each side with a pair of elongated, rather narrow, gills or branchial plates {a), with long, narrow filaments at their edges, through each of which a trachea extends to the tip, the trachefe from each contiguous pair of filaments uniting near the base, and then running to the large tube which traverses the centre of each plate there are in all 24 branchial plates. At the end of the abdomen are three elegantly feathery sette. The pu})a of Claoii another of the Ephemeridic, in which the imago has two wings and two abdominal setfe resembles that of Ephemera, but has the antenna3 as long as the body. The larva3 and pupre of the Ephemeridfe may be most easily caught in the ring-net, and are admirably adapted for showing the dorsal vessel, with its valves, and the circulation. They are perhaps best preserved in glycerine, or solution of chloride of calcium.
; ; ; ;

One species of Epicoccum, which grows on decaying vegetable matter, produces a form of what is commonly called BloodIt was developed on the calico cm-rain. tains of a shower-bath during the prevalence of choleiti in 1834, and excited some consternation, as it was supposed to be connected with the malady. It occm-red a short time afterwards in considerable abundance on a water-melon. BiBL. Desmaz. Aim. Sci. Nat. 2 ser. xvii. 9o Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. II. 18o0, V. 466, Crypt. But. 312 Fries, Summa Veg.
;

476.

EPIUER'MIS OF Animals.

See Skin.

EPIDERMIS

OF Plants. There are

few parts of the structure of vegetables that have given rise to more discussion than the epidermal cells and the tissue they constitute. Even the term epidermis has become
to a certain extent equivocal, since it is used by some authors in the sense in which
cuticle is

used by others, and vice versa. Our

object here will be to state as briefly as and the pos.'-ible the most remarkable facts, explanations which are received by the best
authorities. If we gently scrape the surface of the leaf of a hyacinth, or other soft-leaved bul-

EPIDERMIS.

295

EPIDEKMIS.

bous plant, and seizp a litllo piece of the ragged edge with a pair of line forceps, we

A ratlier more solid form,

When this is placed under the microscope, it is found to be composed of a layer of cells united tirmly together by their sides like stones in a pavement, but loosely connected with the subjacent tissue, which adheres here and there to tlie detached strip in ragged patches. The firm continuous layer of cells is what botanists call the Such a layer of cells ej)i(lermis of plants. clothes the entire surface of the higher plants, from the Flowering plants down to those in which the organs, such as the leaves, are reduced to mere layers of cells like the epidermis itself, as in the Mosses. In a very young and delicate state, such as we find it clothing the surface of organs still concealed in buds, or of young ovules in the ovary, it has been called epiUema.
pellicle.

strip oft' large pieces of wliat appears to the naked eye to be'a thin homogeneous

may

as Aucnhn and J'isoim. In most cases, however, the epidermis of structures belonging to the stem disappears about the same time as the leaves fall oft" and is replaced by the

suberous layer of the bark structure, which change is evident externally by the surfiice assuming a brown colour, the subjacent tissue containing chlorophjdl being hidden. The green colour of parts clothed with epidermis depends upon the subjacent tissue

showing through the transparent epidermis, the cells of which are usually colourless, and filled with watery contents.

When sections are made perpendicularly to the surface of any fidly developed leaf,
but above all of those of leathery texture, the walls of the cells next the external surface are found much thicker than the
rest, this

down over the contiguous side walls. When

thickening extending more or less

but still soft and devoid of thickening layers, such as exists on the surface of the growing parts of rootlets Sec, is called epithelium.

Both these

terms appear useless, and only calculated to confuse the student still more than the
use of the words epidermis and cuticle, which already endanger misconception from the very different characters of the structures called by those names in animal
organs.

a layer of epidermis is macerated in nitric acid, a thin pellicle, destitute of cellular structure, becomes detached in
sheet-s

When

from the outer surface of the plate of

cells; this is the cuticle (fig.

such sections are treated with sulphuric acid and iodine, the greater part of the thickness, from without inward, of this outer wall is stained yellow, while the rest of the walls assume the blue colour ordinarily taken by cellulose with these reagents. Some authors suppose that the whole of this yellow part corresponds to the cuticle above mentioned: but such is not the case; if such a section is boiled or macerated for a long time in solution of caustic potash, then washed well with water and treated with tincture of iodine, the thick upjjer wall also assumes the blue tint, and, moreover, a laminated structure becomes evident in it, sho\\dng that it is produced by the deposition of secondary layers inside the
cell.

epidermal

199)

The true layer of cuticle (which is dissolved off" by the continued action of potash) is really extremely thin in almost all cases. The true nature of this thickening of the outer walls is well illustrated by the epidermis of
Viscum (Mistletoe), which remains tipon the shoots for many years ; here several layers of cells subjacent to the

Cuticle of a cabbage-leaf, removed by the action of nitric r, hairs; F, oriHces corresponding to stomata.

Magnified 250 diameters.

of botanical anatomists, concerning which much njisconception has prevailed. As epidermis advances in age it becomes considerably solidified, especially on evergreen leaves, and on shoots of shrubs &c. which remain green for a lengthened period, such

original superficial stratum become involved in the process of solidification, and their cavities completely filled up by the secondary deposits. acid The true structure of the enormously thick epidermal layer of old shoots, as brought out by the action of potash, is seen in the example of PI. 47. fig. 26. The true cuticle is sometimes of considerable thickness, as in the leaves of Cyeas (PI. 47 The thickening layers of the epifig. 28). dermal cells are true Secondary Deposits.

EPIDERMIS.
The nature
some regard it dened over the

296
;

EPIDER^nS.
Fig. 200.

of the cnfide is yet ixncertaiu as a kind of excretion harsurface, otiiers as the persistent original outer wall of the parent-cells of the epidermal cells, metamorphosed chemically where exposed directly to the action of the air (in a manner analogous to that in "which the parent-cell membranes become converted into a gelatinous investment of the filaments of Confervfe, the cells of PalThis seems borne out to mellaceaj, &c.). some extent by the change of condition of the consolidated part of the outer walls, coloured yellow by sulplunic acid and iodine but it is unlniown wlaether there is here a real chemical change, or merely an infiltration capable of being removed by the action of potash (see Secondaby Deposits), Although the cellular plants possess no true epidermal layer, the superficial cells form a kind of cortical struetiu'e in the Lichens and larger Algte and in the lower Algae the cells of the filaments S:c. composing the fronds bear some resemblance to epidermal cells in structure, insomuch that they have laminated walls (partly produced by the persistence of those of the parent cell after cell-division), with the outer layer possessing much of the physical character of the cuticle of the higher plants. As just mentioned, the gelatinous sheaths of the lower Algae must be regarded as a kind of
;
;

Epidermis from petal of the balsam, with stomata, The epidermal cells here have elegantly sinuous
side walls.

S.

Magnified 200 diameters.

produced by the peculiar development of particular cells or groups of cells of this

superficial layer.

have already alluded to the different conditions of the epidermis in different parts of plants. The delicate layer covering young
organs in buds becomes very variously developed as these attain the complete conditions. On the leaves and shoots the epidermis becomes consolidated by secondary deposits, and this in greatest proportion on leathery or woody leaves, &c., such as those of evergreens, shrubs, and trees. Remarkable examples of this may be found in the leaves of the ProteacejB, Cycadaceae, the Holly, Box, itc. (woody), and in the ^Vloes, Cactaceae, Oleander, Ilakea, Ficus, kc. (leathery). In all cases the solid character of foliage depends almost exclusively up(m the character of the epidermis by which the leaves are The epidermis of the outer scales clothed. of the winter-buds of trees is remarkably
thick.

We

cidicle,

and as produced by gradual disorganization of the outer layers of membrane while cell-development and the formation of new layers is going on Avithin. For further discussion of the nature of the thickening layers of epidermis, see Interoffer a great variety of points of interest to the microscopist. The epidermis of those growing parts of the higher plants which are exposed to the air is not absolutely continuous and without orifices like the epidermis of roots, but is perforated with myriads of breathing-pores or stomata These con(fig. 200, s) as they are called. sist of gaps left by the separation of the

CELLULAR SuBSTANCE. The epidermis and its appendages

superficial epidermal cells at their

meeting

angles, the interspace

guarded and

between th(>m being more or less filled up by

The thickening layers are sometimes found on the walls of the stomatal cells and adjacent cells bounding the intercellular cavity, forming the pseudo-structure called a cistome (see Stomata).
The epidermis of petals and similar delicate organs never acquires much solidity; but the outer walls often become elevated more or less above the surface, producing a
minute papillosity of the epidermis, which
gives

(usually) a pair of cells, situated just beneath the outer orifice, and having a slitlike passage

between them.

Hairs, scales, thorns, stinr/s, and the various forms of (/lands of plants, are appendages of the epidermal structure, being

When

the peculiar

gli.-~teuing
still

appearance.
further,
villi

this elevation goes

EPIDERMIS.

297

EPIDEEmS.

or short h;iirs are produced, rendering tlie surface volvety (see Hairs). The side walls of epidermal cells are sometimes flat faces of tolerably regular geometrical figures, such as cubes, parallel o-

lyptus,

unpipeds, hexagonal prisms, Sec. ; but not IVequently they are very sinuous, and then,

when

the epidermis is seen from above, it does not look like ordinai'v parenchyma,

Aracifc, grasses, Sec. ; 2, a simple layer of grains, in Allium cepn, Brns^ica oleracea, Sec. ; -3, a layer of rods perpendicular to the surface, as in Musarete, Saccharum, Sec. ; and 4, a membranous wax-layer or crust, as in Sempcrvioum, Thuja, and Taxus. Some of the wax-grains are not recognizable until the tissues are heated to

212,

with square, rectangular, or hexagonal tessellae, but the component cells are fitted together so as to pi'esent lines, which, when regular, might be described by the heraldic terms scallopped,wavy, indented,&c. (PI. 47. and when less regular resemble fig. lo),
roughly the lines of j oint in the old-fashioned puzzle-maps of children (fig. 200). Such forms of the epidermis are frequently found on petals, on the leaves of Ferns, on those
of Hellebore, &c., and constitute very pleasing microscopic objects; especially as, in addition to the lines, the stomata at the angles add to the elegance of the pattern. The cuticle on many petals, as those of the Daffodil, and on leaves, as those of the genus Hellehorus, Diantlius, Sec, when the epidermis is viewed from above, exhibits elevated strise running in various ways over the surface, sometimes converging in the centre of each cell, in other cases running in tortuous lines over the siu'face, continuous beyond the boundaries of the indisimilar condition of the vidual cells. cuticle occurs upon the haiks of many plants, especially of Cruciferye, RanuncuThis condition is lacese, Boraginege, Sec. evidently analogous to the equally mysterious states of the outer membrane of PoL-

when they form drops. The epidermis of the Equisetacese and

the Grasses is remarkable for the deposition of silica, apparently in the walls of the cells of the epidermis, to such an extent and so equably, that the whole of the organic matter may be removed by heat or acids, and a perfect skeleton of the structure be obtained, composed exclusively of silex, exhibiting the boundary lines of the epidermal cells and the stomata (the dentate side walls, with the stomata arranged in linear series, are described in most microscopic books in a very curious manner, from an old paper by Sir D. Brewster). Preparations of this structure are obtained by treating little pieces of the wall of the fistular

stem with strong nitric acid, to remove and then burning them until quite white on a slip of platinum or very thin These should be mounted in Canada glass.
alkalies,

LEX-GRAiNS and Sporrs, where points, ridges, reticulations, &c. of the same kind
constantly occur. The stomata are found on both surfaces of manv leaves of delicate structure, but most abundantly on the lower surface in other plants they occur exclusively on the lower in floating leaves they exist only on face the upper face while on submerged leaves none at all occur, and the epidermis here has no very distinct difference from that of young roots. The characters of Stomata are spoken of more at length under that head, as also those of H.\ies, Scales,
; ; ;

balsam. In the Equiseta, the siliceous films thus obtained are covered with minute spines, presenting somewhat the dotted appearance of the valves of the Diatomacete. The seeds of many plants are clothed with an epidermis of remarkable character, the cells containing spiral fibres this occurs in the Acanthace.^, in Collomia, Salvia, &c., and is further treated under those heads and under Hairs and Spiral
;

Structures.
BiBL. Mohl, Veqetahle Cell, 1852, Li^irusa, xvi. 401, Verm. Schrift. 200, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xix. 201, ibid. 3 ser. iii. 158, Bof. Zeit. V. 497 (1847); ibid. vii. 593, 1849; Schleiden, Wiss. Bot. 3 ed. 335 (Principles, 70) ; Brongniart, A)in. Sc. Nat. xviii. 427, 2 ser. i. 65; Link, Eletn. Fhil. But. i. 83 Wigand, Intercelhdar-Substanz u. Cuticula, 1850 ;
;

Karsten, Bot.

Stings, Thoexs, Gi.axds.

layers of the epidermis often contain deposits of wax upon or withDe Bary distinguishes four in the tissues. of granules in several kinds 1, heaps layers, or of delicate needles, as in Euca-

Zeit. vi. 729, 1848; Cohn, Linn(su, xxiii. .337, 1850 'Raxi\g, EnttvicH. der Pfl. 1843, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. i. 352 ; Garreau, linger, Bot. Zeit. v. 289, 1847
; ;

The

cuticlar

Ann.

Sc. Nat.
vi.

s^r. xiii.

Harting,

ilf /(/e?-'s P//s.

Mulder and Chem.\ Goldmann,

304
; ;

Bot. Zeit.

zenzelle, 89,

1867

Schacht, Pflan857, 1848 1852 Wiesner, Techn. Mikr. Leitgeb, Denkschr. Wien. Ak. 1865,
;

EPIPYXIS.
xxiv.
25.*)
;

298
;

EPITHELIUM.

Pfitzer, ibid. vii. 561,

Thomas, Jahr. wiss. Bat. iv. 33 and viii. 17; I)e liarv,
i^oi?.

round, polygonal, spindle-shaped, cylindriand are united by a small cal, or conical

;

Bot.Zeit. 1871; Sachs, Masters, Bot. 1878.

1874; Ileafrey-

EPIP YXTS, Ehr. genus of Flagellate Infusoria, of the family Diuobiyina.

Char. Fixed by a pedicle absent no cilia nor appendages.
;

quantity of intercellular substance. They contain a clear or granular nucleus, with one or more nucleoli. In some instances they contain granides of black pigment or

eye-spot

E. utriculus (PI. 30.

;

tig.

50).

Carapace

melanime. Three kinds of epithelium are usually distinguished but intermediate forms are
;

urceolate body filled with yellowish granules on Conferva; length 1-650". Probably the young state of Diiiohrj/on sertidnria, like which it contains a diskshaped nucleus.
;

also

met with. Pavement-

or

tessellated

epithelium,.

This consists of roundish, oval, or polvgonal flattened cells, about 1-2000 to 1-500" in
diameter, and containing nuclei with nucleoli. It occurs upon the surface of the serous and synovial membranes the membrane of the aqueous humour, the choroid, the capsule of the lens, the retina, and the conjunctiva of the ball of the eye the cathe lower half of vity of the tympanum tlie pharynx, the oesophagus, the endocardium some veins many glands and ducts, as the racemose, the sudoriparous and ceruthe minous glands the hepatic ducts vagina and female urethra the bladder, uterus, pelvis, and tubules of the kidneys and the air-cells of the lungs. In the arteries and many veins the cells are spindle; ; ;

EiBL. Ehrenb.7///(.123; Kent,Jn/"M.s.400. EPISTY'LIS, Ehr. A geims of Infusoria, of the

family "Vorticellina. Char. Pedicle rigid, not contractile, simple or branched all the bodies of the animals of the same form. Claparede and Lachmann refer the species of Opercularia to this genus. Stein has pointed out the occurrence of the encysting-process in the species of this genus and indicates the presence of a lidlike discoidal process, protrusible from the orifice, as in Vorticella, furnished with vibratile cilia but this does not occur in all the species admitted by Ehrenberg. The species are numerous, and mostly attached to aquatic animals or algte. Clap, it Lachm, admit 10 species. E. anastatica (PI. 30. fig. 51 a, c). Body small, conical, not plicate, anterior margin
; ; ;

shaped.
Cylindrical epithelium.

In this form the

pyra-

cells are either cyhndrical, conical, or

large and projecting; pedicle dichotomous, smooth, or covered with minute or foreign of bodies entire lenii-th 1-14-4 to 1-14"
; ;

about 1-1000" in length, and so situated that the axis of the epithelial scal(>s or cells is at rigbt angles to the surface upon which they are placed. Sometimes the subjacent cells are of a rounded form.
midal,

single body, 1-288''.

Cylinder-epithelium is met with in the mucous membranes, inLieberkiihn's follicles,

E.

gra)idis.

Body

large, broadly

campa-

and the ducts of the gastric as well as those

of all other glands o^jening into the intesin the lachrymal and the mammary glands the male urethra the vas deferens ; the vesicidas seminales, the prostatic ducts, with Cowper's and the uterine glands. In this the form Ciliated epithelium. and aiTaugement of the cells is much the same as in the List but their free ends

nulate; pedicle decumbent, slender, smooth, laxlv branched, not jointed, forming large tufts length of body 1-140 to 1-120".
;

tine

E. vegetans (Anthophysa Mi'illeri, Buj.). BiBL. Ehrenb. Iiifns. 27!); Stein, //. Claparede and Lnchmnnn, Inf. 107; Tatem, Mic. Tr. 1868, 31; Kent, liif. 700. EPIT'EA, Fr. See Ukkdinei, Pheag;

MiDiuM, and Mf.lampsoha.

EPITTIE'LIUM.

are furnished with

numerous

vibratile cilia

The

membranous

(PI. 40. fig. 13).

layer lining the various internal cavities, and covering the internal free surfaces of animal bodies, as the mucous canals and cavities, and their involutions forming the glands and ducts, the serous cavities, the
vessels, &c. It consists of

one or more layers of nucleated cells, the form and arrangement of which are very variable. They are either

Ciliated epithehum occurs in the larynx, trachea, and bronclu the nares and pharynx above the level of the base of the nasal bones, and the cavities opening into them ; the inner surfiice of themenibrana tympani, the Eustachian tube the- uterus, the Fallopian tubes ; the lachrymal sac and nasal duct; the palpebral conjunctiva; and the
; ;

ependyma.

EPITHELIUM.
In most opithelia, the
nuclei
are
cells

299

EQUISETACEyE.
Kiitzing,

and
;

tlioir

BiBL.
;

but in readily distinguished others, especially those of the vessels and serous membranes, staining with magenta, kc, is required to render the nuclei distinct,

Smith, Brit. Diatom, Aly. 1 benhorst, Sp. Al(). i. 02.

BnciUar. 33, and Sp. 13 Ra1.

;

EPOCIPNIUM, Lk. A
mycelium

genus of

Toru-

and

silvering to bring out the cell-

lacei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), forming a stratum over larger fungi or dead twigs,

boundaries, (See Staining.) In many cases, intervals are left between the epithelial ci'lls, usually at the points where several cells meet these are called stomata. They are often connected with the lymphatic system. See Stomata. The epithelium covering the outer svuface of the body forms the epidermis or
;

consisting of a

of

irregularly

branched and anastomosing filaments, which bear, on short lateral branchlets, oblong or
globular septate spores, which soon faD off and lie among the mycelium-threads,

cuticle.

Further particulars of the special forms of the cells are given under the heads of the organs or tissues in connexion with which the epithelia are found.
BiBL. KoUiker, Mikr. An. and Handb.
Valentin, Tfcu/iier's Handb. d. Flimmerbeiveyunf/ and Epitltel. Henle, Allgemein. An. Todd and ] bowman, Phys. Frey, Histologie, 1876, 153 and the full literature.
d. Geivebel.
;

E. fungorum is very common, forming' a dark-green stratum over Thdephorce; E.macrosporoidium was found by 13erkeley on a dead twig, apparently of red currant. SphcBria Epochnii, B. & Br., has been found on Epochnium fungorum:, and it is very probable that it is the perfect state of a conidiiferous mycelium. BiBL. Berk, in Brit. Flora, vol. ii. pt. ii.

3o2 An7i. N. H.
;

i.

263,

pi. 8. fig.

U.

Pliys., art.

This

EQUISETA'CE^E

and

EQUISE'TUM.

EPITHELIUM
dermis
of Plants.

OP Plants.

See Epi-

EPITHE'MIA, Brebisson. genus of Diatomacea3. Char. Frustules suigle, attached by a part of the surface to other bodies valves with transverse or slightly radiant strias, some of them not resolvable into dots. Frustules prismatic, quadrangular, mostly curved, sometimes slightly undulating in the side view one face of front view (that by which they are attached) flat or concave, the other convex and broader than the former, so that the transverse section forms a trapezoid. Between, or corresponding with the transverse striae, which are not
;
;

is a very distinctly characterized family of Flowerless Plants, consisting of a single genus, the Equiseta, or Horse-tails, which are immediately recognized, when one species is known, by their peculiar aspect andhabit of growth. The stems and branches are alike tubular, and present in almost all cases a rather coarsely (per201. pendicularly) streaked surface. The stems appearing above ground are shoots from a creeping under-

ground which

stem
differs

(fig.

201),

from

the

erect stems in being of a deep brown colour and solid, in giving off rootfibrils, and sometimes in

resolvable into dots, are often transverse rows of dots or depressions. The species are numerous. Fi'eshwater and marine. Rabenhorst describes 21 Eu-

Conjugation has been observed in ropean. three of them.

being covered with hairs. erect stems are either barren or fertile in the barren stetns the joints become gradually thinner upwards from a certain

The

E. turyida (PL IG. fig. 32 a, side view Front view oblong, slightly h, front view). dilated towards the middle side view somewhat convex, g-radually attenuated towards the very obtuse ends. Freshwater length 1-240".' In conjugation, PL 10. fig. 6 a, b,
: ; ; ;

point, at last tapering off to an obtuse apex; the fertile stems bear a kind of

c, d, e.

E. gibba (PI. 51. fig. 6). Straight inflated in the middle on each side in front view A^alves gibbous in the middle on one
; ;

club-shaped head, resembling in some degree the Equisetum arvense, male cones of Coniferous One half of "'i'- ^'^e, trees, or more particularly those of some Cycads (fig. 201). These club-shaped bodies are the fruits or heads
of sporauges.

side J freshwater

and

fossil;

length 1-140".

The anatomical structure of the rhizome and shafts present some interesting points.

EQUISETACE-E.
In the solid rhizome the centre
is

300

EQUISETACE.E.

occupied

cellular tissue of tolerably strong texture ; outside this, as seen in a cross section, stands a circle of air-canals, each surrounded

by

next comes of vascular bundles a complete cii'cle of vascular bundles composed almost wholly of annular ducts ; between this vascular ring and the outside lies parenchyma like that in the centre, traversed by another concentric circle of and immediately beneath the air-canals epidermal cells there exists a layer of compact blackish-brown parenchymatous cells. When the rhizome is coated with hairs, these are formed by development of the epidermal cells into slender tubular processes. Tracing the solid rhizome up towards the points where the erect stems arise, the central cellular substance is gradually lost, and the outer portions are mo-

by a ring

fruit-spikes consist of a central axis forming the last joint of the stem, on which are attached numerous mushroom-shaped gi-oups of sporam/es, the stalks of each adhering to the central axis, so that we only see the upper side of the

The club-shaped

cap externally

(figs.
;

an angular border

202, 203).

This has

and the adjacent spo-

ranges being veiy close, the outer ends of these bodies cause a tessellated appearance of the whole in the earher stages of deAs the sporanges ripen, they velopment. separate more from each other and when one is removed (fig. 204), it is seen to
;

possess a

number
;

imder the overhanging outer portion and roimd the stalk these pouches burst by a perpendicular slit inwards, and discharge
the spores.
Fig. 202.

of httle pouch-like cases

The distribudified in their arrangement. tion of the air-canals and the vascular bundles varies; in some cases, the peculiarities are even regidar enough to afford specific The surface is clothed by an characters. epidermis composed of elongated cells often

Fig. 203.

elevated into papillfe, and especially refor the quantity of silica deposited This epidermis is studded in their walls.

markable with

variously formed stomata usually an-auged in double lines and the foi-ms of the epidermal cells and stomata are perash which fectly preserved in the siliceous remains after burning off the organic substance from a portion of this EPiDEEiiis, Beoffering a curious microscopic object. tween the epidermis and the central cavity, in a cross section lie first, a layer of thickwalled elongated cells, -nathin which, in the a circle of species, comes
;

Fig. 204.

angular-stemmed

Fig. 205.

masses, usually crescentic, of cellular tissue containing chlorophyll. Next come usually two concentric rings of air-canals, those of the inner circle being individually surrounded by annular ducts and, moreover, in some species a circle of 6-10 vascular bundles separates the inner from the outer the strnctm-e of the circle of air-canals
;

Eqnisetiun arvenae.
Fi-^.

202. Fruit-spilco.

bundles is variable, exhibiting annular, spiThe inner circle ral, and reticulated ducts. of air-canals lies in the parenchyma which At each joint bounds the central cavity. this cavitv is cut oft" by a diaphragm comin the intermediate posed of three layers,' of which, of brownish cellular tissue, Hes an the vascular anastomosing ring, where all bundles coalesce and give off branches to the sheath (and branches when present).

Fig. 203. Fig. 201.

Fig. 205.

A spike halved vertically. Magn. 3 diams. A stalked group of sporanges removed from
preceding.
sjiore

Magnified 3 diams.

Magn. 25 diams. with elaters uncoiling. Magn. 200 diams.

The spores of the Equiseta are very reIcno^ni vemarkable, and unhke any other are roundish cells, getable structure. They with apintrenfly only one coat; for the outer coat splits up" into four thread-like prothickest and rather clubbed cesses
{elaters),

EQUISETACE^.
at their free ends.

301

ERIODERMA.

"While the spore

renifiiiis

the spore but when the spores are discharged, the coiled fibres uncm-1 (fig. 20-")), and assist in scattering the spores, their
;

in the sporange, those tibres are rolled

round

elasticity causing

The

to spring out. Equisc'ta possess only this one

;

them

containing only herbaceous plants. The Equisetacete of former ages were far more important as regards size. jjiBL. Francis's British Ferns, 5th ed. 1855 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xi. 5 ; Milde, But. Zeit. viii. 448, and x. 5:57,
;

kind

of spore and the germination is analogous to that of the Ferns, in which likewise only one kind of spore exists. The membrane of the pushes out a pouch-like process, which after a time becomes cut oft" by a septum the end-cell grows on and
;

Linncca, xxiii. 545 Hofmeister, Vercjleich. Unters. 1851, Verh. k. Siichs. Akad. d. Wiss.
;

iv.

Bischoff, Krypt. Geivlichse, Heft 1, 27, pis. 3, 4, 5, Botan. Zeit. xi. 97 Prings; ; ;

123

spore

niultiplies in

both directions, until a lobu-

lated prothallium is produced ; on this arise arehc(jonia and antheridia, in distinct individuals, the archegonial prothallia being larger than the antheridial, and resembling in all essential respects those produced on the corresponding structure in the Ferxs. The antheridia are formed on the ends or the margins of the male prothallia. The are larger than those of other sjiermatozoids Cryptogamia ; they have 2 or 3 coils, the

heim, Bot. Zeit. xi. 241 Sanio, Bot. Zeit. xiv. 177, XV. 657: Milde, A^om Acta, 1867, XXXV. ; NageliandLeitgeb,ArtV/.5ej^.iv.l867; Janczewsky, Bot. Zeit. 1872, 420 Tieghem, Ann. Sc. Nat. 5 ser. xiii. Sachs, Bot. .389.
; ;

EREBONE'MA, Rcim. supposed genus of Kiitzing's family Leptomitese. Some imperfect filamentous organism, probably belonging to a Fungus. BiBL. llomev, DeutscJd. A!(/. 70 Kiitzing,
;

S^}.

Ah/. 157.

EREM^E'US, Koch. A
Char.

genus of Ori;

batidas (Acarina).
tarsi

posterior thickened portion being furnished with an appendage, supposed to consist of

Cephalothorax without lamellae with heterodactyl claws. AUied to

(Murrav, Be. Ent. 222, fig.) ChloiioSee

Hoplophora.

an imdidating membrane. After the fertilization of an archegonium, the germ-cell contained in it becomes developed as an embryo, and a new Equisetumstem of the ordinary structui'e springs up a creeping rhizome with (tig. 206), forming
Fig. 206.

EEE'MOSPH^ERA.
soria, of

ERE'TES, Werneck. A genus

carapace. One species
377.

of Infuthe family Crvptomonadina. Char. Those of Phacelomonas with a

:

the spores of an Alga ? BiBL. Werneck, Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844,

ERGOT and ERGOT^'TIA.

VICEPS.

See Cla-

ERIN'EUM, Pers. A

supposed genus

abnormal developments of "the cells of the epidermis of the trees upon which they are supposed to be parasitic; or galls, produced by the action of Phytoptidae. They occur chiefly upon the Amentacefe, Aceracese, and Rosaceae
(Apple-trees, Plum-trees, &c.).

of Fimgi, really consisting of

See Taphrina. BiBL. Fries, Sijst. Mycol.

ley, Bindleifs Vey.

iii.

521

Berke;

Kiniidom,

art.

Fungales

Murrav, Ec. Entom. 331.

Equisetum arvense. Young stem arising from a prothallium.
Magnified 15 diameters.

ERiODER'^MA, Fee. genus of tropical Lichens, tribe Lecanorei, externally resembling the Peltigerae consisting of a green membranaceous thallus, spreading from the centre, hairy above, and with
;

upright fistular shafts, resembling the parent plant from which the spores were derived. The family Equisetacese is represented in existing vegetation by a single genus,

woolly anastomosing nerves beneath. Apothecia marginal, with hispid hairs on the margin underneath. Bibl. Fee, Cryjit. 145, pi. 34. fig. 2.

ERIOSOMA.
ERIOSO'MA.
See Aphid^.
Berk.

302

ERYSIPHE.

ERIOSTORA,

& Br.A

genus

of Sphajronemei (Stylosporous Fungi j, doscribed (E. leucosfoma) a,3 foiTuing minute brown spots upon dead leaves of the bulrush. The conceptacles are globose, and collected in numbers on the stroma, bursting by a single common (white-bordered) pore to discharge the spores (stylospores), which are filiform and very slender, and arise in fours from a sporophore. (See Coniomy-

leaves of living plants, mostly Dicotyledons. The mycelium is formed of slender ramified filaments, which spread and form an entangled web over the epidermis of the infected plant, sending into the substance sucker-like processes or hausteria, by which nourishment is obtained from the juices of the leaf. From the creeping mycelium arise

numerous upright short-jointed filaments, the last one or more of the cells or joints of which sweUs so as to render the erect
These exbecome detached with the greatest readiness, and, w^hen they fall upon the supporting leaf, germinate and produce new mycelium threads. In this state the Erysiphce cannot be distinguished from the genus Oidiiim; and as this state is succeeded in most cases by the true conceptacle of
filament clavate or monihform.

CETES.) BiBL. Berk, and Br. Ann. N. H. 1850,

V. 455, pi. 11. fi^. 1.

panded

cells

CTTTANEOUS. The scales, crusts, scabs, contents of vesicles, pustules, &c. formed in various diseases of the skin,

ERUPTIONS,

usually consist of epidermic cells alone, more or less fiatteued or othei'wise altered, or of these with the ordinary products of inflammation. Granules of soot are frequently found, in London at least, mixed with the above elements and these were once regarded as the microzymes of smallpox. Fmigi exist in the crusts of some The itchskin-diseases, as FAvrs, &c.
;

the genus En/siphe, the Oidia (such as O. Tuckeri, the Vine-fungus), which grow under the same circumstances, but do not

insect,

nor Demopex.

Sarcoptes, must not be forgotten, See Parasites.

Laehm.). Duj. ERVIL'IA,of {J^f/yHa,C\. the family of A genus

Infusoria,

Ervilina. Char. See the family. Marine. E. ler/nvien Enplotes monoxtyhis, E. Body with (PI. 30." fig. 52 ; h, side view). two ventral contractile vesicles ; length

produce conceptacles, are regarded by most authors as iwpevfectEn/siphcs. (See Oidium, PL 26. figs. 12-14.) \Vhen the mycelium of an Erysiphe is developed late in the year, it seldom produces any thing but the ovate cells {conidia); but if developed early in the summer, the mycelium grows at certain points into denser white ^atahes {receptacles, Lev.), fi'om which arise the conceptacles,

1-650 to 1-420". 3 other species. BiBL. Duj. Infus. 455

Inf. 288.

which are fertilized by poUinodia, as in These are small globular sacs, Eiirotinm. composed of a double layer of cells from the base of the outside of the sac arise a number of radiating filaments, simple or
;

branched
;

Clap.

& Lachm.

(appetidicles,

Lev.), while in

its

"ERVILI'NA, Duj.
Lachm.).
Chen'.

A family of
Body

(Dysterina, CI.

&

interior are developed one or many sacs, (asci, sporanges, Lev.), in each of which

Infusoria. oval, more or less depressed,

entirely or partly ciliated, with a tail-like foot, usually also with a persistent mem-

In are produced mostly eight sporidia. addition to the above, a third form of fruit occurs, in which the conidium becomes transformed into a sac (pycniduuu) filled

branous carapace.

Genera

Carapace present. Composed of two distinct valves Composed of two united valves. Valves united behind and below only Valves united all dovm the back Carapace absent

Idiina.
...

Dyfteria.
F.rriUa.

Tulasne has figured spores. a second form, apparently of conidia, in Phyllactinia gidfata. Leveilld, in an elaborate essay on this genus, has subdivided it into six genera, which may perhaps be better taken as subgenera, and may be distinguished in the

with minute

Hiuleyia.

following manner

Dujardin questions whether Urocentrum,

E., does not belong to this family.

Conceptacles with one

asciis.
.

BiBL. Duj. hifus.

Infus. p. 278.

p.

454; Clap.& Lachm.

fil.

Appendicles dichotomously branched. floocose

Fodosphtpria. Sphoerotheca.

"ERY'SIPIIE, Hedw.

genus of

Conceptacles with v\any asci. aciculate FhyVactinia.

Fungi), (AscomycetoTis P^n-enoniycetes consisting of little mildews overgTowing the

Vncinula. uncinate dichotomously branched... Microsphairia,

floccose

Erysiphe. \

ERYSirHE.
Podo^phrrrid.
Tlio TTawthorn-bliii'lit
bi'luiii^-

303

EUACTIS.

and

the rium-blijrlit
SpJuerotheca.

to this division,

Tulasne, Compt. Pendus, 18-'53; Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. vi. 299, and C'arpoloipa, i. 18G0; Cooke,

The Hose-mildew, E. panthis proup,

nnm,

auct., belong-s to

and

is

E. maculan'x, ^\'alh. the Ilop-mildew, by the appeudicles of the former beinp; white, whik^ those of the latter are cohiured. The mycelium of the rose-mildew seems to be the same tiling as Oidium leucocunium, Desm. The similar structure of the Ilop-mildew has been described and figured (from Dr. Plondey's drawings) in the Trans, of the Horticultural Society. He was the first to discover the conversion of one of the oidioid
di.stin<ruislied

from

(S. Casfaipici,

.T. lit?

v.),

Handbook, 645 Taylor,' M. M. Jn. 1875, 121 De Bary and Woronin, Peit. z. Morph. 1870; Sachs, Pot. 312. See also Oidium. EliYTHR.E'US, Duges. See Anystis.
;

xiii.

matous Polyzoa

family of Cheilostocontaining the genera Lepralia, Unibonula, Porella, Escharoidcs, Smittia, Phylactella, MucroneUa, Palmicel;

ESCHAR'lDyE. A

laria,

genus of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, fam. Escharidae. 2 species deep water. (Hincks, Polyzoa,
;

ESCHAROl'DES, Smitt. A

and Retepora.

cells into pycnidia.

336.)

Phi/Uactima. E. fpiffatn, Schlecht., comthe hazel and other trees and large shrubs, is dislinguislied from the other

ESPAR'TO. The

bast-fibres of a

^rass,
;

mon on
base to

forms of Phi/Udctinia by having a bulbous

its

appeudicles,

which contain 2
is

to
re-

sporidia. T'ncinula.
;

Lyyeimi spartum {Stipa tenacissima, Linn. Makrochloa, Kunth), a coarse fibrous material, extensively used in the manufacture of paper. The fibres are shorter than those of most allied substances and the epider:

is the ferred here existence of the hooked appendicles. Found E. bicornis, Lk., occurring on willows.

E. odiinca, Schlecht., its distinctive character

mic wavy margined

cells are so short as to

render the distinction of this material tolerably easy. It occm*s extensively in the south of Europe, in North America, and in the centre and south of Spain.

upon maples

i^'C, has eight spores. E. lienicillata, occm'ring 31icrosphcpna. on Vibnnnnn Opnlus, &c. Several species occur in this country, of which one of the

BiBL. Henfrey-Masters,5o^.400; Wiesner,

Techn. Mikr. 225
(fig.).

The characis M. penicillata. ters of the appendicles, which are dichotomously branched at the tip, are the same as those of Podosp/tceria but there are many asci, instead of one only.
best-known
;

ESTHE'RIA, Rlippell and Straus-Diirckheim (Cyzicus, Audouin

;

Isatira, Joly).

bivalved phyllopodous Entomostracon,

having 24 pairs of foliaceous limbs, and

ovate valves, horny, delicate, concentrically ridged, bearing from 7 to 80 lines of growth, with intermediate reticidation or other
sculpturing. 2G species are

Erysiphe. of LeveiUe,

E. I'm, Grey.,
distinguished

is

E. Martii
globose,

by

its

many-spored asci and the simple or irregularly branched appendicles. E. tortilis, Lk., has coloured appendicles ten or more
times the length of the conceptacle. It grows on Cormts sancpdnea, the Dogwood E. communis, Lev., is not x-eiy well tree. ch.aracterized it has coloured appendicles, which are only twice or thrice as long as the conceptacle the asci vary from four to eight, as do also the spores contained in each. This species grows on a great variety of herbaceous plants, Eanunculacese, Com;

brackish waters of

known, from fresh and warm climates and more than 20 fossil, Devonian to Tertiary.
;

30

BiBL. Baird, Zool. Proc. 1849, 87; 1852, 1859, 232 1860, 188 and 392 Rupert Jones, Fuss. Estherice {Pal. Soc), 1862 E.
;
;

Grube, ^rc7?./. Naturgesch. 1853,

1865, xxxi.

xix.,

and

EUACTIS,
lariese,

Kiitz. A genus of Oscillato-

riaceaj (Confervoid A]ga3), of the tribe Rivxi-

consisting of little, hard, solid, elastic,

positae,

Leguminosaj,

Cruciferse,

Polygo-

mostly hemispherical bodies, from 1-2 to 2'"

in diameter,

nacere, &c.

growing upon stones in the sea

;

Perhaps a doubt might be admitted whether the above subdivisions really represent more than six species of this genus. BiBL. Lt5veille, Ann. Sc. ^at. 3 ser. xv. ion, pis. G-1 1 Berk., Hook. Br. El. ii. pt. 2. 325; Tr. Ilort. Soc. London, ix. Gl Greville, Sc. Crypt. Fl. pis. 134, 164. figs. 2, 29G
;
;

or rivers, &c. concentrically zoned, composed of radiating, flagelliform, repeatedly sheathed filaments, the sheaths of which are

open and slit above (PI. 8. fig. 16), but connected together side by side, so as to form a tough gelatinous mass, not becoming incrusted "with carbonate of lime. To this

EUASTEUM.

304

EUCHLANIS.

genus Kiitzing refers Hivulann jylicata, atra, and perhaps applunata of Harvey. These plants are interesting- on account of the
fibrous

decomposition

of

the

gelatinous

sheaths.

26

BiBL. Harvev, Brit. Mar. Alg. 222, pi. A (Rimtlarici) Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 339 ;
;

Tab. Ihi/c. cent.

ii.

genus of Desmidiacese. Char, Cells single, compressed, deeplydivided into two segments, which are genecircular rally pyramidal and fm-nished with protuberances, lohed or sinuated at the margins, and emarginate at the ends. Ralfs desciibes twenty-one British species, of which the following are the most

EUAS'TRUM, Ehr. A

pis.

74-82.

of hyaline wedge-shaped frustules, with Tlie joints yellowi>h granular contents. shrink in drying, and are destroyed by heat. The marldngs consist of dots. E. zodiacus (PL 50. fig. 10). Frustules with a median excavation on each side ; valves elliptical; length 1-710". E. britannica. Frustules not excavated ;

length 1-380".

E.

striata.

Valves circiUar

endochrome

green.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Ab7i. Berl. Ak. 1839, 125; Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. li>l, Bacillar. pi. 21. fig. 21 ; Smith, Br. Dint. ii. 25 ; Stolterforth, Jn. M. Soc. 1879, ii. 835.

EUCERTYDTUM, Ehr. A
E. ampulla (PI, 39. 26, imder view). See POLYCYSTIXA.
fig.

genus of
;

Polycystina.
25, front view
fig.

common.
*

Segments deeply lohed; end

cuneate, partly included in
tiveen the lateral lobes.

lobe

distinct, notch be-

E. verrucosum (PI. 14. fig. 14). Rough segments three-lohed, lobes broadly cuneate, with a shallow notch length 1-2G7". E. ohlongum (PI. 14. fig. 15). Smooth, oblong segments five-lobed ; lobes cmieate
;
; ;

EUCIILAJS^IDO'TA, Ehr. family of Rotatoria. Char. Rotatory organ multiple, or divided into more than two lobes a carapace pre;

sent.

The carapace forms either a testa or a scutellum various appendages are present,
;

emarginate; length 1-156". E. crassum. Smooth segments threelubed, subquadrilateral ; end lobe cuneate length 1-190 to 1-130".
;

**

Segments simtated ; end

nech.

lobe exserted and united with the basal po7'tion by a distinct

representing either straight bristles, cm'v-jd bristles or hooks, minute horns so-called and in one respiratory tubes or antennae, genus a frontal hood. The eleven genera are thus distinguis^^ed

Eyes absent;

foot forked
^

Sf/ff

cell).

E. didelta (PI. 14. fig. 16; 17, empty Segments with inflated base, intermediate tubercles, and notched and scarcely dilated ends; side view, four shallow lateral lobes, and one at each end length 1-185".
;

Eyes present. Eye single (cervical).

Foot styliform. Carapace depressed

prismatic

Jlononfyla. Alastigocerca.

Foot forked. Carapace open beneath

closed beneath.

Euchlanis.
Salpina. Diiwcharis.

***

End lobe indistinct

minal portion.

frequently a process or acute angle at the corners of the ter;

Carapace with horns without horns ,. Eyes two (frontal). Foot styliform

forked.

Moyioctrca,

E.

elegans.

Oblong
roimded

pouting, and 1-420".

;

ends emarginate, length 1-890 to

Carapace compressed or prismatic. Cohtrus. depressed or cylindrical. Head without a hood Metopidia. with a hood Siejihanops.

Eyes four;

foot forked

Squaiiiella.

Conjugation has been observed in several the sporangia are spherical, with species
_

BiBL. Ehrenb.
toria, of the

EU'CHLANIS, Ehr.A

Itifus. p.

455.

genus of Rota;
;

conical tubercles, or acute or obtuse spines. BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Desmid. 76; Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. 179.
allied to the l)(\smidiace?e,
is

family Euchlanidota.

EUCAM'PIA, Ehr. A marine organism,

among which
it

Char. Eye single, cervical foot forked carapace cleft or open on the ventral surl'ace. Aquatic.

refers it placed by Kiitzing, whilst Smith to the Diatomaceaj. It forms articulated, arcuate or spiral,

fasciteform,

microscopic fronds, composed

Ehronberg describes six species, to which Gosse adds three. E. triquetra (PL 43. fig. 30; fig. 31, teeth). Carapace very large, with a dortal crest; foot without setae length 1-48".
;

EUCRATEA.
BiBL. Elu-enb. Infus, 461
;

305

EUGLENA.

Gosse, Ann.

N.

11. 1851, viii. 200.

EUCRAT'EA,
genus

Lanix. {Scruparia).K

process, and a single fiagelliform filament; freshwater. Many species, or rather forms, are distin-

of Cheilostomatous lufundibulate Polyzoa, of the family Eucratiidaj. i'. chelata ( V\. 86. tiir. 24), the only species. Parasitic upon Fuci, crabs, and stones.

gidshed by Ehrenberg and Dujardin.

They

(Hiucks, Fo/i/zoa, 11.)

EUCRA'tllD.E

(Sciupariada?).

family of Ckeilostomatous Infuudibidate Polyzoa. Distinguished by the unjointed polyzoary and the uniserial cells. Polyzoary usually Five genera loosely adnate. Eucratea (Scruparia). Erect, branched, branches arising from the horn-shaped cells above or below the oblique oritice.
:

are often present in vast numbers in pools, &c., rendering them green or red, and forma brilliant pellicle upon the surface. ing In the free condition the Euylence swim about in the water, not apparently by the help of the fiagelliform filament, which seems to be often deficient, but by the contractile action of the whole Taody, the changes

of form and movements of which may be roughly compared to those of a leech when crawling sluggishly over the surface of a
glass.

The

Etigleiice present

many

points of

Ilijypothoa. Creephig, adherent, irregularly branched or netted, branches arising fi-om the sides of the cells. 36. (PI. fig. 25). Erect, Salpimjia

branched
lateral.

cells

elongated,

with trumpetoritice oblique,

shaped processes at the base,

tered,

Anguinaria {JEted). Cells tubular, scatarising from a creeping, adherent

resemblance to the lower Alga;, especially Protococcus, like them varying in colour from green to red, and, moreover, passing through a resting stage, encysted in a kind of cell-membrane, which is sometimes gelatinous, transparent, and spherical, sometimes rather horny, and polj^gonal in form. The encysted forms occm' commonly aggregated together into indefinite frond-like masses and the individuals multiply by
;

thread.

Beania. Cells erect, scattered, with a double spinous keel on one side, and arising from a creeping, adherent, branched thread. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 288 Busk, Mar. Polyz. 28 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 12 Hincks, Polyzoa, 11.
;

division into two, four, &c., in this quiescent The frond-like groups may be found stage. in autumn, and even imder the ice in

winter,

while the active forms abound most in sprint, in fine weather. Carter has published some elaborate observations on the organization of these and allied forms, which we have

EUCYTHE'RE,
Sars).

Brady

{Cijtheropsis,

genus of marine Entomostraca,

We can only notice two or three of the forms.

E.
viridis (PI. 31. fig.
;

notspaceto enter upon here. (See Astaslea.)

2 a, b). Fusiform head narrowed, short tail
;
;

fam. Cytheridse. 2 species.

when extended
p. 429.
pt.,

EUDEN'DRnD.E
Johust.).

BiBL. Brady, Linn. Trans. 1868,

conical, short (not cleft)

family of Hydroid Polypi. Characterized by the branched stem, and the terminal naked polypes, with a single whorl of tentacles suiTounding the base of a trumpet-shaped pruboscis. Eudendritwi. 1 genus
:

(Tubulariidas,

green, hyaline at the ends; length 1-1150 to 1-240".

E. pyrum

(PI. 31. fig. 1).

Body, when

genus of Hydroid Polypi, fam. Eudeudriidas (Tubulariidie, Johnst.).

EUDEN'DRIUM, Ehr.A

Char. Those of the family. 7 British species. E. ramosum {Ttibularia rain., Johnst.) is common on oyster-shells, &c. BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Zoojjh. 79; Johnstone, Brit. Zooph. 46.

3 & 63). Depressed, elliptical or oval, frequently twisted on its long axis, green, with longitudinal striae tail as long as the bodv, hyaline, subulate ; length 1-280 to 1-120".
figs.
;

extended, oval, turgid, pyriform, obliquely fm-rowed, green tail nearly as long as the body, acute; length l-lloO to 1-860". E. lonyicauda, Phacus lonyic. D. (PI, 31.
;

E.act(s{V\. 31.
subulate,
line
;

fig. 4).

Fusiform, slender,

green in the middle ; head attenuate, somewhat truncate, hyastraight,

tail

very acute, "hyaline

length 1-570

to 1-216".

EUDORI'NA. See Pandobina. EUGLE'NA,_ Ehr. A genus of

soria, of
;

Infu-

the family AstasiiBa. Char. Free a red eye-speck, a tail-like

BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 104 ; Dujardin, Infus. 358 Morren, JRuhef. d. Eaux. Brux. 18*41 ; Carter, Ann. N. Hist. 1856, xviii. 115, and 1857, xx. 21 ; Kent, Inf. 379.
;

EUGLENIA,
EUGLE'NIA,
ASTASI^A. The essential
Duj.
(Infusoria).

306
4

EUPLOTES.
Smith, Brit. Dial.
1844,
xiii.
i.

See

15

Ralfs,

Ann. N.

H.

450.

cliaracter of this family is the presence of a contiactile integument; this is probably of little importance, as in many cases the nature of the integument has been shown to depend upon season, locaUtv, and stage of development.

EUXOTOGRAMMA,
of fossil Biatomaceae.

Weisse.A genus

Char. Front view as in Anatdiis', side \iew lunate, with undulated dorsal and
ventral margins. E. tri-, qidnque-y septem-, et 7iovemIocidata. Side view divided by 2, 4, 0, or 8 transverse Russia. septa into 3, 5, 7 or 9 loculi.

EU'GLYPHA, Duj. A
;
;

genus of Rhi-

zopoda. Char.

Free single carapace membranous, transparent, resisting, elongate-ovoid, iirceolate, covered with rows of tubercles or depressions orifice toothed expansions
;

BiBL.

Pritchard,

Bull. St. Petersbonrg,

EUODIA,
macefe.
CJiar.

In/us. 860; Weisse, xiii. 278. Bailey. genus of Diato-

munerous, simple. This genus appears unnecessarily separated from Diffiugia, E. E. fMbercuIata (PI. 30. fig. 53). Carapace covered with oblique or longitudinal rows Freshwater length of rounded tubercles.
;

Frustules areolar or granular, side

view lunate.
3 species: Ooniothecia. 2
fossil,

recent.

Perhaps
852;

BiBL. Bailey, Pritchard's Infus. Greville, Micr. Trails. 1861, 67.

1-280".

Sometimes posterior

spines

are

EUPLEURIA, Am.A
:

genus of Biato-

present. E. alveokita (PI. 30. fig. 54). Carapace covered Avith polygonal depressions, in reFreshwater; length gular oblique rows. 1-280". Posterior spines also present.

maceae. 3 species

New Zealand

and Africa (Ichavi.

boe guano).
BiBi,. Arnott,
soria.

EUPLO'TA, Ehr. A

Qu.Mic.Jn. 1858,

89.

family of Infu;

See DiFFLUGiA. BiBL. Dujard. Ltf. 251; Carter, ^?j.

Hist. 1805, XV. 290.

iV".

EUMEEID 'ION,

Kiitz.

Consolidated
of

Char. Body surroimded by a carapace two distinct alimentary orifices, neither of which is terminal ( = Oxytrichiua with a
carapace).

with Meridion.
macete. Char.

EUNO'TIA, Ehr.A genus

Diato-

Frustules free, single or binate, linear or linear-oblong in quadrilateral front view, curved or concavo-convex in valves with terminal puncta side view (nodules ?) and transverse or slightly ra; ;

Locomotive organs consisting of cilia, hooks, claws, or styles. Dujardin states that the carapace undergoes diffluence like the substance .of the body. The genera are thus distinguished
:

Cilia,

diating

water

Freshstriae, but no canaliculi. and fossil. Allied to Epithemia.

of the species

claws, or

fArouth
J

)
,

hooks

"^.

(
\

Head distinot

N fp

>f

^o distinct
teeth

...Discocephahis.

head. Hiininitophoriis.
Chlamidodoii.
Euplotes.

Many

have undulations or

noTn"es

Mouth with [
and

ridges upon solvable into dots, but in some species difficult to detect ; transverse section of frustule
trapezoidal.

the convex surfaces; stria3 re-

Cilia, claws,

styles present

Dujardin includes this family in his Ploesconina.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 374

describes
;

Dujard. Inf.

forty-four species Smith admits seven as British. E. tetraodon {Himanfidium Mr., K.") (PI. 27: a, side view; i, front view). 51.

Kiitziug

429.

fig.

Frustules with four ridges striae distmct length 1-570". E. vwnodon {Himant. monodo7i, K.). Side view lunate, no ridges, sliglitly constricted near the obtuse ends slriie obscure ; length
;
; ;

EUPLO'TES, Ehr. (Ilccscama, Duj., for the most part). genus of Infusoria, of the family Euplota, E. Char. Furnished with cilia, styles, and

hooks

1-800".

E. triodon. Bidges three; ends attenuate, rounded; striae obscure; length 1-500". BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacill. 3(3, and Sp. Al;/.

teeth absent. species are very numerous. E. patella, E. (Plcesconmpat., D.) (PI. 31. Carafig. 5 a, under view ; b, side view). pace a testa, oval or suborbicular, slightly truncated in front, margins extending beyond the depressed body dorsum raised or bossed vvith fine radiating striae cUia form;

The

EUPODISCUS.
ing-

307

EURYCEROUS.

a curvilinear series; freshwater; length 1-288 to 1-216". E. cimc.r, E. i^Coccudina cimex, 1).). E. c/ttirun, E. (Piasconia charon, 1).). E. vannus, E. {PI. vannus, D.) (PI. 31.

fig. 6).

E. monosfi/his, E. (Ervilia legtimen, D.)

(PI. 30. tig. 52).

BiBL. Ehrenb. Tnfus. 377; Duj. In/us,

435

EUPODIS'CUS, Ehr.A
tomaceifi.

Stein, Infus. 158.

states that

phorous form in the Eurotium fruit. He he not only foimd them grow-

of a distinctly cellular membrane, enclosing sacs or asci containing several minute sporidia. According to De Bary, these conceptacles are produced upon the myceUum of Aspergillus, under certain unknown conditions and the ordinary fructification of AspergiUm is only a basidiosporous form of the same plant which produces an ascolittle
; ,

genus of Dia-

Char. Frustules single, disk-shaped, cirwithout internal septa valves furnished with tubular or spinilbrm processes.
cular,
;

Marine and

fossil.

processes are so easily broken ofF, that the apertures corresponding to the points of attachment are generally alone seen. The valves appear either distinctly
lar,

The

areolar, the depressions being large ; granufrom their being minute or striated. Two groups are recognizable
; :

ing upon the continuations of the same branched mycelium filament, but that he has raised Aspergillus.! which fruited, from the spores both of Aspergillus fruits and the sporidia of Eurutinm Eumtium could not be obtained from Aspergillu.s spores. The connexion between these forms is regarded as analogous to that between Oidimn and Erysiphe. The fruit oi Eurotium is a sexual The product, and originates as follows. ends of certain branches of the mycelium coil up like a cork-screw, becoming more
;

a.

Etqwdiscus proper.
(PI. 16. fig.

Valves areolar or
: ;

striated.

closely approximated, until at length they into contact, and form a cylindrical or conical mass, marked externally by the

come

30 a, side view b, Valves slightly convex prodiameter 1-156". E. sculpfm, Sm. (PI. 16. fig. 31). Valves striated, central striae forming a quatrefoil processes two diameter 1-770 to 1-400". b. Atdacodiseiis, E. Valves granular processes veiy short, their bases connected with
E. an/us
front S'iew). cesses three
; ;

spiral lines of conjunction of the turns of the filament. From the base of this mass tJiin branches sprout, running up over it, one

the centre of the valve by a furrow. E. crvx (PL 50. fig. 43). Diameter 1-380". E. Petersii. Processes four, with larger granules at their bases. Diameter 1-380". BiBL. Ehrenb. Ahh. Bed. 1839 id. Ber. 1844, 73, 1845, 361 Smith, Brit. Diat. i. 24 Kiitzing, Sp. Ah/. 134 Shadbolt, Qu. Mic. Jn. ii. Roper, 1858, ibid. vi. -Greville, Mic. Trans. 1863, 73, (Aidacodisctts) 1864. pp. 0.82, 87, 1865, p. 26,1866, pp. 5,80. EUPO'DIUM. genus of MarattiaExotic. ceoiis Fems.
; ;

EURO'TIUM, Lk.A genus of Pyrenomycetes (Ascomycetous Fungi), on the distinct nature of which great doubt is thrown by the recent observations of De Bary. E. hcrbariorum of authors is a mildew, common upon decaying or preserved fruits, plants imperfectly dried for herbaria, &c., forming a whitish or yellow crust, composed of interwoven mycelium filaments, which are delicate when young, but become thickened and
often coloured with age. Upon these are produced globular conceptacles or peridia, from 1-15 to 1-20"' in diameter, composed

of them fusing with its apex, forming an antheridium or polliuodium, and producing fertilization. After fertilization, the young perithecia become segmented, the segments forming shoots, which branch, the terminations forming the asci or parent cells of the The ripe sporidia often exhibit a sporidia. curious form, hke little cylinders with a concavo-convex cap applied over each these appear to be the two halves of the dehiscent outer membrane (e.xosjjore) for in the germination of perfectly globular furms the filaments break through the outer mycelium tough coat, like a pollen-tube from the inner coat of a pollen-grain. The sporidia are about 1-350"' in diameter, and of a light yellow colour in mass. The dimensions &c. of Eurotium, like those of Aspergillus, seem to vary with the external conditions,
:

De

Eurotitmi Bosarium, Greville (Sc. Crypt. Fl.)=- Spharotheca pannosa. BiBL. Berk, in Hook. Brit. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 333 ; Greville, Scot. Crypt. Fl. pi. 164. fig. 1; Sowerby (Farinaria), ])1. 379. fig. 3;

Bary, Bot.
xi.

Zeit. xii.

425 (1854)
Fresenius,

Riess,
p.

ibid.

p.

]34,

and

474

(1853).

genus of Entomostraca, of the order Cladocera, and family Lvnceidse.

Mull.).

EURYCEROUS, Baird (Z?/c<5. in part,

x2

EUTERPE.
abdomen very
;

308
;

EXPECTORATION.

Char. Subquadrangular (in side view) broad, flattened, densely serrated beak blunt, slightly curved downwards. Freshwater. E. lamelhdus (PI. 20. fig. 39). Shell olive, ciliated on the anterior ventricose margin, arched behind beak rather blunt and short; superior antennae terminating in six short spines, each with a line seta or bristle anterior branch of inferior antennte wdth five long filaments one from the end of the first and second joints, three from the third, as also a small spine posterior branch with three long filaments at the end of the last a short joint, the first and second each with
;

fusifomi; and long hair-like processes are sometimes mixed with the sporophores which line the disk. Fom* British species are recorded E. fusispora and E. strujosa of Fries, and E. macrosticha and E. chcetostroma of Berk, and Br. Perhaps related to some Ascomycetous form, (See Gonio:

MYCETES.) BiBL. Berk, in Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2, 296 Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 1850,
;

V.

450.

EXIB'IA, Fr.A genus of Tremellini (Hymenomycetous Fungi), forming gelatinous, truncated black or coloured bodies on the trunks and branches of trees. Gommon Tulasne has lately in autumn and winter. published some interesting observations on the structure of the hymenium which This is composed clothes the upper face. of a densish layer of very slender filaments, which bear at their free surface globular cells (basidia) divided vertically into two or four chambers fiom each of these arises a slender process (sterif/nia), at the end of which is developed a stylospore. In E. spicu;

pi. 11. fig. 2.

spine only. It generally lives at the bottom of the vessel in which it is kept. BiBL. Eaird, Brif.. Entom. p. 123. EUTER'PE, Glaus. genus of Cope-

poda.
1

species:

Ireland.

(Brady, Coiwpoda,
of Fla-

Bay Soc. ii. 22.) EUTREP'TIA, Perty.A genus

gellate Infusoria. Char. Free, ovate, or pyriform, green; swimming or creeping flagella two, equal ; an anterior red eye-spot.
;

E. viridis. Length o^o"- Pond- water. BiBL. Perty, Kl. Lebensf. 1G8 Kent,
;

Inf. 410.

EVADNE, Loven. A genus of Eutomand family

Char.
;

ostraca, of the order Cladocera,

Polypheniid^te.

Abdomen
;

losa, spermatia were also observed in young specimens, at the ends of very slender filaments passing through the mucilaginous (See layer overlying the layer of basidia. Backymyces, Hkeneola, and other genera of Tremellini.) BiBL. Berk, in Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 217 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xix. 202, pis. 11 & 12.
;

from the shell head not body marine. E. Nordmanni (PI. 19.
less,

short, scarcely projecting distinct from the

EXOAS'GUS.

See Ascomyces.

EXOBASIDIUM,

Wor.

The

lowest

Colom-fig. SO). excepting the eye. Forms part of the food of the herring. BiBL. Lov(5n, Wiec/manns Archiv. 1838, Bd. i. 143; M.-Edwards, Crust, iii. 390; Baird, Brit. Entom. 114. EVER'NIA, Ach. genus of Lichenaceous Lichens, tribe Ramalinei; cosmopo-

E. Vaccinii is form of Hymenoniycetes. common on Ixhodvdendron and Vaccinivm,

causing fleshy swellings on the leaves. It is Ascomyces carnosa, Berk. BiBL. Be Barv and Woronin, Ber. Nat. Gesell. Freiburf/,\x. 397 Sachs, Bat. 336.
;

EXOCOG 'G'US,Nageli. Probably a P/vBiBL.

tococcus or PalmeUa.

litan in its range; recognized by its fiattened, flaccid, laciuiate, white or grey thallus, lateral apothecia, and simple spores.

EX'OGEN. See Dicotyledons. EXOS'MOSE. See Enbosmose.

Niigeli, Netc, Alyensyst. p. 169.

EXPEGTORATION. The

various ob-

Two species:

E.furfaracea {E. But. pi. 984) and E. prunastri (E. But. pis. 8o9 & 1353) occur in Great Britain. BiBL. Nylander, Si/n. 283 Leightou,
;

jects which may be fomid in the expectoration are noticed under their respective heads, jr those of the tissues from which they are

derived

Lich. Fl. G. B. 81.

genus of Spha-ronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), forming horny tubercles on dead stems and leaves, finally o]iening by an entire orbicular apeiture.

EXCIP'ULA, Fr. A

The

stylosporcs are elongated, lauceolate or

list only need be given here. corpuscles epithelial cells, of the pavement, cylinder, or ciliated forms ; exudation globules, or granule-cells pus and pyoid corpuscles coloured corpuscles of the blood pseudo-membranous flakes of fibrine ; tubercle ; fatty matter in the form of glo;

Mucous

EXUDATION.

300

EYE.
parts
:

bules, rarely of crystals ; earthy matters, aiuorphous orcrvstalline various substances derived from the food, as muscular fibre,
;

the one anterior, cornea; the the larger and opaque

parent

two

smaller and transother, posterior

sclerotica.

The

entostarch-granules, cellular tissue, Szc. zoa, or ffagments of them, as portions of the cysts or hooks oi Echinococcus; infusoria and
;

history of the development and the minute structure of these prove that "they must be considered as forming a single continuous

alg\T?, as Monads, Bacteria, Sarcina, Sec carbon and true pigment, either in the free state or contained vvithin epithelial cells
;

membrane.

and fragments of pulmonary

tissue.

aid of the microscope in the examination of the expectoration will occasionally throw an unexpected light upon the diaAnd it gnosis of disease. has been shown, that by
boiling-

The

The cornea may be regarded as consisting of three layers 1, the corneal conjuncand 3, the memtiva 2, the true cornea brane of the aqueous humour. The corneal conjunctiva (tig. 207, C) consists of laminated soft epithelium the
:

Fig. 207.

the sputa with solution of caustic soda and washing, the pulmo-

nary fibrous tissue may often be detected in

Phthisis.

EXUDATION
PUSCLES.
flammation.

EXUDATION,

and

COR-

See In(exuvia;

EXU'VIUM

The or exuvise, plur.). cast or shed sldn of animals. The exuvium of

many minute
hibits the

animals ex-

form and structiu'e of the skin, and the parts upon which it is better than moulded, these can be discerned in the living animals, on
account of
rence.
its

transpa-

The exuvium of the Triton (PI. 49. fig.

12) exhibits the cellular structure of the epider-

mis veiy beautifully.

EYE.^

From

want of

space, we are compelled to assume that the reader possesses a knowledge of

the component parts of the eye and their relative position, as far as can be obtained without the use
of magnifying glasses. These parts are generally described in works upon anatomy, and in most of

Section of the
Sc/., sclerotica
;

membranes of the

eye, near the ciliary processes.

those upon optics. The outer fibrous coat of the eye is commonly

i. forming the pectinate ligament; h, venous canal; k, muscle arising from the inner wall I of the venous canal m, pigmentlayer of ciliary process^es; n, that of iris 0, fibKius layer of iris ; p, its epitheUum; 5, anterior wall of capsule of lens; s, ep'theliimi of capsule ^ anterior thickened portion of hyaloid membrane , zonule of Zinn, or anterior lamina of hyaloid membrane; v, posterior lamina of the same; , colourless of this epithelium ; ?r', anterior end epithelium of the ciliary processes X, conjunctiva of sclerotica ; z, posterior wall of the capsule of the lens.

C, cornea; Pr. eiZ., ciliary process ; C a, anterior chamber; Cp, posterior chamber ; Cr, vitreous humour ; C. P., canal of Petit ; i, lens ; : a, I, iris conjunctiva of the cornea epithelial layer; b, subjacent elastic layer ; c, fibrous layer of the cornea; </, membrane of the aqueous humour; e, its epithelium ; y, end of the membrane and its fusion with the fibres ,9, which

pass to the iris at

ciliary

Magnified 12 diameters.

regarded as consisting of

EYE.

310

EYE.

under layer of cells elongated and placed perthe middle cells pendicularly to the surface, rounded, those in the upper layer forming softer nucleated plates. Many of the latter are furuished with larger or smaller depresso as to sions, arising from mutual pressure, Beneath appear stellate in the side view.

the aqueous humour merges into a peculiar system of fibres, which Ci.mmence ni.'ar tlie margin of the cornea, at the anterior surface of the aqueous membrane (fig. 207//) a-; an extended network of fine fibres, resembling
elastic fibrilloe
;

this increases in thickness,

the epithelium is a structureless layer (b), the anterior elastic or Bowman's luembrane, consisting of the remains of the formerly vascular layer of the corneal conjunctiva. The tnte cornea (tig. 207 c), w4iich forms the principal part of the membrane, consists of a substance nearly allied to connective Its elements are pale bundles ft-nm tissue. 1-GOOO to 1-3000" in diameter, with still finer fibrilL-B, united to form larger lamellar bundles, the surfaces of which are parallel to that of the cornea these are connected with the bundles before and behind, so as
;

and at the very margin of the cornea the aqueous membrane becomes lost in a tolerably dense network of these fibres, which curve around the margin of the iris (fig. 207^), some passing through the anterior chamber, and become fused -^-ith the anterior surtiice of this membrane and the ciliaiy These fibres form ligament (or muscle). the pectinate lic/ament of the iris, which is much more distinct in some animals (as the dog) than in man. The epithelium {e) of the aqueous membrane consists of a single layer of polygonal cells. These become smaller near the margin of the cornea, where the membrane terminates as a continuous layer but isolated
;

to

form a coarse

reticular tissue.

Between

the bundles are a large number of anastomosing, fusiform, and stellate lacimje, within which are contained cell-structures formcells undering the corneal corpuscles. The partly forming the

go fatty degeneration, arcus senilis and they sometimes contain

_

portions of elongated or spindle-shaped cells are continued over the pectinate ligament to the anterior sm'face of the iris. The cornea yields choudriue on boiling,

pigment. The cornea contains numerous fine nerves, which ramify nearly to the surface, between the epithelial cells.
or tunica fifths of alhuginea covers the posterior four the ball of the eye it is a milk-white, very firm, fibrous membrane, continuous posteof the optic nerve, riorly with the sheath

and not gelatine. The cJioruid membrane contains a large number of blood-vessels, and abounds in pigment. Its anterior, smaller, and transverse portion / forms the iris. The posterior portion, or proper choroid

The

sclerotica (fig.

207,

Scl.)

becoming gradually thinner

at
its

in front, except termination, 'where the tendons of the It conrecti muscles become fused with it. sists of connective tissue, the bundles of which are mostly straight, intimately united as in the tendons, forming alternating lonof various gitudinal and transverse layers breadth and thickness. ]\Iingled with the
fibres, in

membrane, is from 1-360 to 1-180" in tliickuess, and extends from the entrance of the optic nerve to near the anterior margin of the sclerotica, where it becomes thicker, forming the ciHary body, whence it is continued into the iris. The choroid consists essentially of two an outer vascular and thicker layer, parts the proper choroid and an inner deeply coloured layer, the j)i(imentum nif/rnm. The former may again be separated into three parts, although these are not really
:

connective tissue are numerous fine elastic the form of a network, with thickremains of the enings which indicate the nuclei of the formative cells these, in the inner portions, contain pigment. During of this network, in parts, life, the elements with liquid conappear to involve canals tents so that, when dried, they contain air. The membrane of the aqueous Jnimour consists of an elastic, perfectly (fig. 207 d)
; _

distinct

1,

an outer, brown,

soft layer,

which supports the ciliary nerves and long ciliary vessels, and contains anteriorly the the outer pigment layer ciliary ligament

a less highly colom-ed proper vascular layer, with the larger arteries and veins ; and 3, a colourless delicate inner layer,
2,

structureless (Descemet's)

membrane, some-

containing an extremely copious capillary network the choro-capillary membrane, which docs not extend anteriorly beyond tlu! margin of the retina. The stroma of

and loosely connected with the cornea, an inner epithelial fining. Towards the circumlereuce of the cornea, the membrane of

what

tlie clioroid proper consists of very irregular spindle-shaped or stellate cells, from l-loOO to 1-GOOO" in length, either paler, or con-

EYE.

311

EYE.

taining a large qiiantity of pigment, and

by nuinovdus long and very slender processe^s (tig. 208). These cells are most distinct in the
ana.stoniosing

outer layer

whilst

Fig. 208.

internally, and especially in the ohomemro - capillary

more

as the termination of tlie retina, consists of a single layer of beautiful, regularly sixsided cells (fig. 209 a, b), from 1-2000 to 1-1500" in diameter tlicy contain abiuidauce of pigment. Beyond the margin of the retina, the cells form mostly two layers, and become rounded and more loaded with The granules of pigment are pigment.
;

pa^ss

brane, they gradually into a homoge-

neous or slightly striated nucleated tissue, containing but little

and ultimately no pigment. In some animals the choroid membrane contains musCells from the stroma of ^' cular fibres. the choroid; a, eontaining ,1 Tj 5et\veeu tne Stropigment; b, fusiform cells ma and the pigmen- without pigment e, anaturn nigi-um is a very thin elastic layer ; this is either structureless, granular, or finely reticulated, and is comparable to a base, .

very minute, rounded, from 1-20,000 to l-.30,000" in diameter, and exhibit molecular motion. In the eyes of albinos, and in the region of the tapetum of animals, the cells contain no pigment. The iris (fig. 207, I) consists of three a poslayers : an anterior epithelial layer terior layer of pigment, called the uvea, and continued from the inner pigment layer of the choroid ; and a middle, the thickest or
;

^^^l^^^^l

fibrous layer. The fibrous layer difiers fi-om the choroid, in containing connective tissue forming delicate loose bundles, some of which pursue a radiating, others a circular course, and interlacing variously ; in this tissue are a number of spindle-shaped or stellate cells,

ment membrane. The ciliary muscle

207 k)

composed of a tolerably thick uustriated muscular fibres these, intermixed with pigmentcells of the choroid, pass from the anterior margin of the sclerotica to the ciliary body, and lose themselves in its anterior half,
is

tensor choroidecs

(fig.

layer

of

radiating

opposite the base of the ciliary processes. The fibre-cells are 1-600" in length, broader

than most fibre-ceUs, and not easily isolated

in

man.

The

stroma as the choroid

cells are

ciliary processes consist of the same but the stellate

;

delicate and fewer, and, with the exception of those at their base, do not contain pigment nor are they furnished

more

containing pigment, corresponding to those of the choroid, and in addition to numerous blood-vessels and nerves, two sets of muscidar fibres the latter in some animals are transversely striated but in man they resemble the ordinary unstriped fibre-cells, and are 1-600 to 1-400" in length. One set forms a sphincter for closing the pupil, its fibres taking a circular direction the other set consists of bundles of radiating fibrecells, traversing the stroma of the iris. The pigment layer or uvea consists of the same elements as those of the corresponding layer of the choroid. The anterior coat consists of a single layer
: ; ;

of rounded, flattened epithelial cells. The blood-vessels of the choroid

mem-

with the

elastic lamina.

The piymentum

nif/riwi (fig.

207

?/?)

lines

the inner surface of the choroid, and as far

Fig. 209.

#
view
;

brane and cihary processes are easily injected (e. y. in the sheep or ox) from the ciliary arteries, and form a magnificent object. The retina is the terminal membranous expansion of the optic nerve within the globe of the eye. It consists of nerve-cells and fibres, imbedded in a spongy supporting

connective tissue.

<,?',

Cells of the human pigmentum nigrum: a, surface c, pigment-gi-anuies. ; 6, side view

Nine layers are distinguishable in a transverse section of the retina (fig. 210), commencing from within viz. 1, the internal limiting membrane (b) ; 2, the layer of optic nerve-fibres (r7) ; 3, a layer of nerveor ganglion-cells (?) 4, a molecular layer ; 5, an inner gi-anular layer (/) ; 6, an inter: ;

Magnified 350 diameters.

mediate granular layer \y)

7,

an outer

EYE.
;

312

EYE.
of the retina
is

limitgranular layer (7i) 8, a narrow outor ing membrane and 9, the layer of cones and bacilli (k). The pigment-cells ({), of the choroid membrane are also sometimes considered a layer of the retina.
;

The remainder

mainly
parallel,

composed of a verv large number of

Fiff.
ffwrnmrTiT^T^miTTTTriTTiniTiiii'

210.

very slender (1-60,000 to 1-20,000" diameter), highly refi-active, radiating fibres or tubes (^1 tiller's fibres), with their axes at right angles to the sm-face of the choroid, upon which their outer ends rest, whilst their inner, triangular or branched extremities are in contact with the limiting membrane. They produce the striated appearance presented by a section of the retina (fig. 210). They are furnished at certain parts of their course with expansions containing each a nucleus and the fibres are very numerous. These nucleated expansions being opposite each other, or in the same planes, give rise to the appearance of distinct granular layers mentioned above. The more internal nucleated expansions are
;

human retina. a, hyaloid membrane with nuclei 6, internal limiting membrane c, ends of the radiating fibres, so altered
of the
;
;

Perpendicular section of a piece of the posterior part

Fig. 211.

as to present a cellular appearance; d, layer of nerTe-cells; /, inner optic nerve-fibres: e, layer of granular layer g, intermediate or finely granular fibres are more distinct layer, in which the radiating than elsewhere; %, outer f(ranular layer; i, inner division of the layer of bacilh, with the cones k, outer true division, with the processes of the cones and the
; ;

bacilli.

Magnified 350 diameters.

The

internal limiting

membrane

(?;)

is

an

extremely delicate structureless iilin, coverof the retina, including ing the inner surface the entrance of the optic nerve, and the

macula

lutea.

The expansion of the optic nei-ve forms a membranous layer of extremely delicate
transversely radiating fibrils (fig. 211, S), from 1-24,000 to 1-12,000" in diameter, and mostly exhibiting varicosities. They contain no nuclei, and appear to consist of the axial fibres only. They are aggregated into flattened bundles which either run

anastomose with each other. parallel or least as a coherent They are absent, or at the macula lutea, layer, opposite 'The layer of nerve-cells {e) consists of or ordinary norve-cells, pyiiform, roundish, in angular, with pale processes they vary diameter from 1-3000 to 1-750".
;

bacilli

The molecular layer lies between the and the inner granular ganglion-cell layer {c) The outer limiting membrane layer (/). the outer granular is" situated between of cones and bacilli layer (A) and the layer
ii).

Elements of the himian retina. 1. Radial fibres vrith A-, bacillus, connected with the fibre (c) br its inner acute end A, nucleated expausion (cell), appearin the outer granular layer /, ex))anded end of the ing fibre, resting upon the limiting membrane i k\ a bacillus connected with a cone i r', fibre running from the cone to the celiy of the inner granular layer n, branched termination of a radial fibre, often present. 2. Bacilli separated from the fibres, broken and curved, &c. 'A. Fibrils from the expansion of the human optic nerve n a, larger, b, smaller, fibrils with varicosities ; c, undulating pale fibres belonging probably to the proper radiating system. 4. Two cones connected with bacilli, and fragments of the fi.bres remaining a, bacillus b, cone ; c, nucleus of cone.
:

Magnified

.350

diameters.

EYE.
by minute nerve-tubes.

313

EYE.
c),

coimectod with the nerve-cells of the retina

rounded or angular cells (fig. 210, which they were once mistaken.

for

Their outer portions have been distinguished as the haciUi and cones; but the vehole probably form one continuous system of nerve-cells and tubes. The haciUi, regarded (fig. 211, 1 h k', 2) as
distinct bodies, are cylindrical,

narrow and

elongated, of the same breadth throughout, truncated externally, and terminating internally in a more slender portion of the fibre they are from 1-4-30 to 1-330" in length and 1-15,000" in breadth near the point of attachment to the fibre is a transverse line. They are extremely delicate, and easily broken or deformed. The cones (fig. 211 i ^, 4 ^) are bacilU with a conical or pyriform body, and are also very easily slight constriction divides each inj ured. cone into two parts, the innermost of which 211 Ji c) contains a nucleus. The cones (tig. are from 1-GOOO to 1-4000" in diameter. In most parts of the retina the cones are surrouuded by several bacilli opposite the macula lutea they alone form a continuous layer whilst at its margins, single bacilli intervene between the cones (fig. 212).
;

It is thus evident that, excepting the layer of nerve-cells and that of the fibres of the optic nerves, the retina cannot truly be The considered as composed of layers. series of bacilli and cones, when torn from their connexion with the radial fibres, form the so-called Jacob's me7nbrane. Between the nerve-fibres, from the outer to the inner limiting membrane, lies the this also connective supporting tissue forms a considerable portion of the moleIn modem cular and granular layers. works, the fibres of this tissue are called
;

But KoUiker has shown that the true radiating or Miiller's fibres are not dissolved by boiling, and are coloured red by Schultze's test; so that they have not the chemical composition of connective
Miiller's fibres.
tissue.

Fig. 212.

cannot enter into the physiology of these radial fibres, which have been shown to be the percipients of light. The crystalline lens is Crystalline lens. contained in a capsule (fig. 207 q s), consisting of a perfectly structureless, very elastic membrane, the anterior half of which is lined with a single layer of very
Fig. 213.

We

of the rows of bacilli and cones from the 1, opposite the macula Intea, cones only margins 3, at the middle of the retina, a, cones or spaces corresponding to them b, bacilli of the cones, the ends of which are often situated somewhat beneath the level of those of the true bacilli, e.
ontside.
;

End view

2, at its

Magnified 350 diameters.

Opposite the entrance of the optic nerve, both bacilli and cones are absent. These curious bodies are more distinctly seen in many animals than in man (PI. 50. fig. 5),

and they present certain

varieties:

thus,

the cones are deficient in bats, the hedgehog, the mouse, the mole, and the sharks and rays while the bacilli are deficient in the reptiles. The inner ends of the radiating fibres when overlapping each other, and especially when swollen by the action of water, present the appearance of a number of
;

Fibres or tubes of the lens of the ox. Magnified 350 diameters.

EYE.
cells

-314

EYE.

(fig. transparent, polygonal, epithelial 207, s), from 1-2000 to 1-1200" in diameter. The lens itself consists of long, transparent, six-sided, flattened fibres (fig. 213), fi-om 1-4800 to 1-2400" in breadth and l-Srm to 1-13,000" in thickness ; these are of the tubular, at least in the outer portions sarcodic sublens, and contain a tenacious the ends of the stance, which escapes from broken fibres in irregular globules. The form of the fibres is best seen in a transverse section (fig. 214).

replaced by a homogeneous or finely gramilar matter. The arms of the star present upon the surfaces are the extremities of of planes extending through the substance the lens, from which the inner fibres take The arms of the anterior and their origin. each posterior stars are not parallel with other nor are the fibres arising from any part of the arm of one cross inserted into the corresponding part of the arm of the
;

Fig. 214.

Great variety exists in difopposite cross. ferent animals in the structure and arrangement of these stars and planes. Thus in the human foetus the star has three arms or planes, whilst in the adult there are fri)m nine to sixteen, of which three are frequently
In some distinct than the others. animals they are replaced by a pole, from which the fibres radiate like meridians, as in in the cod, the Triton, and Salaviandra

more

others, there is a single plane, as in some the fishes, the frog, the hare, the rabbit, and dolphin whilst in most of the mammalia
;

Transverse section of the fibres or tubes of the hu-

man

lens.

Magnified 350 diameters.

narrower, and more highly refractive towards the centre of the Their general arrangement is such lens. that their broad surfaces are parallel with the surface of the lens, and that they follow a direction from the middle oi the

The

fibres are iirmer,

there are three, and in the whale, the bear and the elephant there are four. The edges and marginal surfaces of the fibres of the lens are uneven or toothed, so that their lateral connexion becomes more hence the lens separates more intimate readily into parallel laminae in the direction of the siu-face than in the opposite
;

direction.

anterior to that of the posterior surface, curving laterally in their course not, however, exactly from the middle, but from the arms of a star-shaped kind of centre, at which parts (fig. 215) the fibres are

In many animals, especially fishes, as the cod, the roach, &c,, the irregulariti(>s of the fibres of the leus are replaced by beautifid teeth (PI. 50. fig. G). Vitreous humour, or body, is enclosed in
a membrane, the hyaloid memhrani',
;

which

Fig. 215.

behind the dentate margin of the retina is extremely thin and delicate anterior to this it becomes firmer (fig. 207 t) and passes, formiug the zonule of Zinn, to fuse with the
rates

Anterior view of

ln.,i,.iii

i-ywUilline

lens (adult),
fibres.

ehowing

tlie

stara

and the direction of the

Magnified 5 diameters.

In thus doing, it sepacapsule of the lens. a posterim* (v), into two layers: which becomes consolidated with the capsule of the lens somewhat behind its margin and an anterior (u), connected with the ciliary processes, which becomes attached to the capsule of the lens, a little in front of its circumference between these two is the canal of Petit {C, P.). The posterior layer is sometimes considered as arising from a condensation of the tissue of the The structure of the vitreous humour. vitreous body is still obscure. Th(! structure of the eye is very difficult of examination, the parts being so delicate and easily injured. Many of them can be

EYE.

316
;

FASCDE.
mobile claw
of
(c).

made out by dissecting the eye under water

tliick

Fig. 28 d, under

but the more delicate ,><tnictures sbould be immersed in the liquid of the anterior Solution of chromic acid and chamber.
alcohol is useful for hardening the parts to allow of sections being made with a Valen-

The cornea may be hardened knife. in chromic acid, sections cut in parafhne,
tin's

body, exhibiting from betoro backwards: the mouth, with the hood, aiid the palpi next two groups of anterior coxae ; the vulva and two stigmata the four posterior coxte and, lastly, the anus in the middle, with a stigma on each side.
surface

and stained with logwood.

The nerves and

corpuscles are best stained with nitrate of The retina may silver or chloride of gold. be hardened in chromic acid and spirit, and the rods and cones in osmic acid,
sections being made by freezing logwood stains the granular layers, the rods and cones remaining unaltered. The lens should be hardened, either by maceration in soluThe tion of chromic acid, or by drying.
;

The larva3 are hexapod, reddish, pellucid, with the eyes four, wide apart. R. confnis, K. E. atomaria, K. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. i. 156 Gervais, Walcken. Arachnid, iii. 207 Koch,
;
;

Ueutschl. Crustac.

fibres
state.

may

be well preserved in the dry

FABULARIA,

Defrance. A porcella-

The structure of the eyes of the lower animals is briefly noticed under the classes, &c. In the mammalia generally, it is
essentially the

neous Foraminifer, growing like a Biloculina, but having its chambers fiUed with
labp'inthic shell-matter, the cavities in are mostly elongate with the axis of the shell. They are narrow, and, open ing terminally, make a cribriform septal

which

same

as in

of the ox

or sheep examination.

man may be

and the eye selected for

face.

BiBL.

Kolliker,
Fliys.

Mik. An.
of
;

Bowman's

Man

Todd and
MliUer, H.,

Comptes Bendus, 1856, 743 {Ann, N. H. 1856, xviii. 492) Nunneley, Qu. Micr. Jn. 1858, 136 Schultze, An. unci P/n/s. d.
; ;

Retina (8 pi), 1867, & Strieker's Handhiich, 976 Hulke, Mn. Mic. Jn. ii. 227, Phil. Tr. cv. 109; Lawson, Ciliary Muscle of Birds, ibid. ii. 204 Frey, Histol.,^ 1876, and the fuU literature therein Klein, Histol. 342 ; Hannover, Ret. de Vhomme et d. Vertcbr., 1877; Gerlach, An. mensch, Auge, 1880 Eloni, Cornee d. an. vert. 1881.
;
;

Quinqueloculina saxorum has thickenings within, making internal grooves and ridges, thus verging on the Fabularian type and Hanerina has a cribriform septal plate, but without superadded internal structure. Fahularia ovata (De Roissy), known also as F. discolithus of Defrance, abundant in the Eocene Tertiaries of France, is the only
;

known

species.

EiBL. CaiiDcnter, Introd. Fui-am. 82. FADYE'XIA, Hook. genus of Aspidiese (Polypodiaceous Ferns) ; 1 spec,

EYLAIS,

Latr.

A genus of Arachuida,

Brazil.

of the order Acarina, and family Hydrachnea. Char. Palpi longish, fourth joint longest, the fifth obtuse, somewhat tumid, spinous
;

mandibles uuguiculate rostrum very short, mouth roimd body depressed two approximate pairs of eyes coxfe comparatively narrow, the fourth only in contact with the third at its base. E. extendens (PI. 6. fig. 28). Sldn soft,
;
;

F^CES. shaU not dwell upon the nature of the objects contained in the faeces ; suffice it to say that they may consist of the elements of the various secretions poured into the intestinal canal the products of inflammation undigested remains of articles of food, or bodies taken with the food or drink and entozoa {Anchylostoma,

We

AnguiUida,Trihoce2^hahis),Ama;b(P,Bacteria &c. Some of these resemble other bodies very closely to the naked eye. The use of

visible

furrowed, with the ramified alimentary canal through its substance. Between the two anterior coxse (d) is seen the bilobed labium {a), the posterior portion containing the round and ciliated mouth, the anterior palpi (b) portion furming a kind of hood with the three first joints very short; mandible consisting of a long thick joint, with
;

chemical reagents should never be omitted in their examination. FARPtEL'LA, Ehr. genus of Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, fam. Vesiculariida^. F. repents no gizzard; on shells, algae &c. (Hincks, Pohjzoa, 528.) FASCIA. The fasciae consist of the same elements as Aeeolar Tissue, and

FATTY DEGENERATION.

31G

FEATHERS.

of arrangement inpresent all the varieties termediate between it and Tendon. DEGENERATION. See De-

FATTY
is

tricht Chalk, is a thin asymmetrical (planoconvex) Poli/stomella, somewhat thinner or

flatter than P. maceUa (F. & M.), which is a subcomplanate, perhaps starved, variety of P. crispa (Linn.), BiBL. Parker and .lones, Ann. N. H. 3 ser.

generation, Fatty.

This

FATTY

TISSUE,

or

Adipose Tissue.
cells,

formed of colourless

with a

when isolated, or polygonal aggregated, and from 1-800 to 1-300" and the fat so fills them, in diameter that neither the nucleus which they contain nor the cell-wall is visible. The fat may be removed by drying them, and digesting with ether, when the cells appear contracted and wrinkled. In emaciated and dropsical subjects, each cell contains a number of small globules of fat, frequently of a reddish colour (PI. 38. fig. 3), together with serum, and the nucleus is very distinct. Sometimes in these cases the cells are somewhat spindle-shaped or stellate. The fat contained in the cells is ordinarily in a liquid state but sometimes the margarine separates in the crystalline form (PI. 11. fig. 15 a). In the mammalia generally the fatty tissue occurs in the same localities, and has the same structure, as in man. In fishes,
are rounded

very delicate, transparent, structureless cellwall, enclosing, in the normal state, globules of yellowish fat (PI. 49, fig, 41 ). The cells generally occur in groups, surrounded by or imbedded in connective tissue. They

when

Carpenter, Introd. 213, 286. form of the conceptacular fruit of the Florideous Algpe, where the spores are collected in spherical masses situated wholly upon the external surface of the frond, as in Ceramium and Callifhamnion, form of the conceptacular fruit of the Florideous Algte, where the spores are collected in spherical masses attached to the wall of the frond or
V.
;

104

FAVEL'LA. A

FAVELLIDTUM. A

imbedded in its substance, as in Hahjmenia and Dumontia. The term is usually extended to similar fruits not perfectly immersed,
&c.,
e. g.

those of Gigartina, Gelidium,

where they form tubercles upon the branches. Sometimes these tubercles open by a pore on the surface, when mature, to

FA'VUS (Pon-igo in part, Willan and Bateman). A disease of the skin, characterized by the presence of cup-shaped isolated or aggregated crusts, consisting of a Fungus.

emit the spores.

(See AcHORiON.)

FEATHERS or

Birds.Feathers agree

the fatty matter is deposited principally in the liver. In reptiles, it occurs chiefly in the abdomen thus in the frog and toad it forms long appendages occupying the sides of the spine. In birds, it exists chiefly between the peritoneum and the abdominal muscles, and in some of the bones. In many of the lower animals it appears to exist in the state of solution only. Fatty tissue is formed from connective:

in all essential points of structure with the hairs of other animals. Each feather is composed of a quill (containing the pith), a shaft, and a vane or beard with its barbs. The whole consists of a number of epidermic cells, often containing pigment, but in most parts so con-

solidated or fused together as to be imperceptible.

tissue cells.

Fatty matter

may

be deposited in

cells

of all kinds, as in
solution.

fatty degeneration.

of cells, it exists in action of solution of potash is often of service in distinguisliiiig globules of pi\)toplasm, which have a high refractive power, and much resemble those of as it dissolves the fat, from this substance, of osmic former, but not the latter solution acid renders fat-globules black.

During the development

The

In the quill, the cells are flattened, elongated, and arranged with their long axis in the direction of that of the feather, and their nuclei have the same form as those of the corresponding part (cortex) of the human hair. The cells of the pith are often undistinguishable in old feathers, whilst in the younger ones they are veiy distinct, rounded or polygonal, and contain air. Tlie sliaft and the barbs exhibit the some cortical and medullary structure the latter is often
;

J5inL.
Kiilliker,

Todd and JJowman,

;

Flti/s.

Mik7: An. Klein, Hist. 42

of Man ; Frey,
;

beautifully distinct (PI. 22. figs. 14 & 15 c), and causes them to resemble closely the hairs of some Rodents. The barbs are some-

FAUJASINA, D'Orb. A delicate and handsome Foraminifcr, but not typical. F. carinata, D'Orb., found in the Maes-

Hist.

times furnished with secondary barbs, or barbules, resembling them in form, but differing mostly in the absence of the pith. Featliers are diiveloped in a capsule, and from a pulp or matrix, as in the case of

FEET.
hairs.
hair.

317

FERMENTATION.
Raddi {Conoccphalm, A genus of Marchantiaceous llepaF. conica

Hence a feather may bo reg'arded simply as a hirge, doubly or triply pimiate

Durinj? development, the cell structure is very distinct but in the mature feathers, digestion with solution of caustic potash is requisite to render this visible; and frequently even under these circumstances, the nuclei alone can be detected. The barbs of some feathers resemble the shafts', being rounded or angular, and free but in others or unattached (figs. 17 & 18) they are flattened, and hnked together in a remarkable manner, much resembling that met with in the wings of Hymenopterous and other Insects (PL 34. figs. 11 & 13), and which has been so often adduced as one of the many wonderful instances of design in the creation. Thus the upper or outer margin of each barb is fi'inged on both sides with hair-like elongated processes or pinnse (PI. 22. fig. 15 a, U), which difler in structure ou the two sides. On one, and this always the same side of each barb (fig. lob), the piunfe are toothed ou one edge (fig. 166*), whilst the pinnfe arising from the other side (fig. 15 c) exhibit, beyond the middle, a number of curved hooks (fig-. 16 a), which clasp around the first kind existing upon the adjacent barb, so as to retain a firm hold
; ;

FEGATEL'LA,
Hill).
ticoe.

(Marchuntia conica, Brit. Fl.), the only British species, is not untribe.
is one of the largest of the It is distinguished from Marchuntia its nearly entire conical fertile receptacle. is

common, and
by

The dichotomously divided frond

of a

yellowish green colour. This genus is remarkable for the mode in which the pedicel of the sporange becomes detached from the base of the epigone before the former bursts the (fig. 220) perigone holds the sporange firmly between its valves until empty, and
;

then
dicel.

lets it fall out,

together with

its

Hence fully-developed sporanges

(See

pe-

are seldom found in dried specimens.

Mahchantie^.)
Fig. 219.

Fig. 220.

by the teeth, them from slipping. If the relative position of the two sets of piunee which spring from two adjacent barbs be upon them,
wJiich prevent

this being aided

Fegatella conica.
tile

upper part of a ferreceptacle, showing four of the sporanges surrounded by their perigones and epigones almost en-

Fig. 219. Vertical section of the

examined, it will be seen that they cross each other at a considerable angle, so that any pinna from one barb crosses several of those belonging to the next barb. Hence each pinna is connected by its hooks with

closed in the conical recejitacle. Magnified 10 diama. Fig. 220. A sporange just before bursting, enclosed in epigone; its pedicel detached at the base. Magn. 20 diama.
its

BiBL. Hooker, Brit. Fl.

chofl:.

Nova Acta,

v. pt. 1. 107 ; Bisxvii. 970, pi. 68 j Engl.

which it crosses for the pinnas with hooks are situated outside or above those not furnished with these appendages. The imder or inner margin of
several of those
;

But. pi. 504.

FEL'SPAR. FEL'STONE.

See Rocks. See Rocks.

each barb

simply membranous, and curved so as to overlap that of the next. The free barbs of feathers are often met with in the examination of liquids &c. left exposed to the air (figs. 17 & 18). BiBL. Schwann, Mik. Unfersvch. Reis
;

clam,

De Plamar.

Evulut.

Leydig, Histol.

99

R. Beck, Achr. Micr. 31.

In descriptions, &c., of the Articulata, especially of Insects, the word feet is mostly used to designate the legs hence when met with in the works of systematic and other writers on these classes, it must be understood to mean the legs.
;

FEET.

FENESTRELLA, Grev. genus of Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules fi'ee, disciform disk with minute radiant dots, interrupted in the middle by a transverse band, composed of parallel lines of dots, baud terminated at each end by a fiat ocellus (nodule). F. barbadensis. Barbadoes deposit. BiBL. Greville, Micr. Tr. 1863, p. 67.
;

FEET

OF Insects.

Under this name are understood vafious processes of decomposition of organic compounds; although it would be desirable to restrict it to those taking place with the cooperation of living organisms. The most familiar examples of
the fermentation produced by the growth

FERMENTATION.

See Insects, Legs.

FERMENTATION.

318

FERMENTATION.

of li%d!ig organisms, are those which convert saccharine infusions into spirit, vegetable and juices into beer, wine, &c., or vinegar occur generally in watery solutions of vegetable substances containing saccharine matters or other ternary compounds with a certain amount of nitrogen with these is included also tlie putrefactive fermentation of moist animal or other highly nitrogenous substances.
;
;

forming cloudy flocks in and decomposing

various saline solutions, &c., described as species of Ilyejrocrocis^ Leptomitus, &c. The decay of wood, again, is often greatly accelerated by the growth of the mycelium of Fungi, which seems to decompose the organic compounds in the wood in the same way that the Yeast does those in organic liquids. general law indeed appears to prevail throughout the Fungi, that their nutrition differs from that t)f all other plants in depending exclusively on the absorption and decomposition (with the evolution of carbonic acid) of organic compounds, therefore consisting of the performance of the operation of fermentation on the organic matters upon which they feed. Details upon

obscurity still prevails upon this but all investigations appear to tend in the direction of proving that these changes are absolutely dependent upon the and that each kind agency of Fungi of fermentation is produced by a distinct vegetable organism. Thus the vinous fersubject
;
;
:

Much

mentation appears to depend entirely upon the growth of Yeast, a microscopic fungus, in the liquid (see Yeast) while milk-fermentation is caused by Bacterium lineola
; ;

the microscopic phenomena attending fermentation produced by Fungi will be foimd

butp'ic fermentation by Bacillus subtilis &c. Yet, according to the experiments of Muntz and Pasteur, it appears that the living cells of the higher plants, can in the absence of oxygen, act like fungi, and produce a true
iutrocellular alcoholic fermentation. The Y'east-plant as ordinarily known, appears

under Yeast, Vinegae-plant, Tokula, Penicillium, and Schizomycetes. The fermentation of animal substances, and of vegetable substances containing abundance of nitrogen, in which ammonia
liberated, is genex&lly cviWe^ put)-efaction, or ih& putrefactive fermentation. This process has been shown to be produced by the those growth of living organisms
is

so associated with Penicillium, that there seems no doubt as to the necessary relation find that beer, exposed between them.

We

resembling causing the fermentations alluded to in the foreo-oing paragi-aphs and when the organic
;

to the air at ordinary

summer temperatures,

liquids are thoroughly boiled

and

sterilized,

soon becomes coated with the minuter globules (conidia) of Yeast, forming a drylooking whitish powder over the surface and very soon after, Penicillium glaucinn
;

makes its appearance in fruit. Turpin found the same thing in milk. Again, the vinegar-plant,' as it is called, which converts
*

solutions of sugar into vinegar, seems to be

undoubtedly the mycelium of Penicillium glaucum, as it fructifies with the characters of this when the liquid is exhausted but the gelatinous mass of mycelium contains, intermixed with the ordinary filaments of this genus, spherical and elliptical cells and
;

they may be kept indefinitely without change. These organisms appear in myriads during the decomposition which takes place when a piece of meat, &c., shces of potato, fleshy Fungi, &c., are kept moist and exposed to the air for some days in wai-m weather; and they continue to multiply until the putrefaction is complete, when they die away. It is a question perhaps whether they liberate the ammonia and carbonic acid by a kind of respu-ation while living, or as an excrement. One point of interest connected with the fermentation-plants must not be passed
over, viz. that the supposed distinction be-

chains of cells of

all sizes,

many

of

which

are undistinguishable from the Yeast-plant, and the mycelium of Oidium. It must be recollected also, that the growth of true Yeast is favoured by a certain amount of heat, while the Pejcj7/m??i-mycelium grows luxuriantly at ordinary temperatures. Dead Yt>ast causes no fermentation. The mother of vinegar, which finally decomposes the acid, appears to be the same
'
'

tween the chemical processes of nutrition in animals and plants, falls to the ground when these Fungi are taken into consideration as thev do not live by converting inoryanic substances mto organic compounds, but, like animals, decompose readv-formed organic compoumds into others kud into
:

their inorganic elements.

and no satisfactory distinction can be drawn between this and those mycelia
plant
;

BiBL. Turpin, Mem. Museum, 1840 Bail, Flora, 18-37, 417 Mulder, Chem. of T'eg. and An. Phys. Liebig, Lett. Chemistry, 1231; Gmelin, Organ. Clam.; Lowig, Chein.
;

FERNS.

319

FERNS.
naked eye look
like

Anorg. Verb. i. 22.3 ; Mitscherlicli, Poc/ff. nal. Iv. 224 ; Lehrb. 4. ed. .371 ; Cagniard
Latoiir,
ibid.

to the

spots, streaks,

Pof/g.
;

Ann.

xli.

19^

Schwann,

\}vQ,BiUioth. Genev. 1839 ; Helmholt z, Midler's Archiv, 184-3, 4-53; Reess, Pasteur, Akohohfiihrunqs - Pilze, 1870 ; Etudes 's. I. Vmaiffre, 1868, s. I. Tin, 1872, V. Tieghem, Atin. Sc. Nat. 8. 1. Biere, 1870 Tiii. 1868; Fremy, Gcner. d. Ferments, 1875;

184

or patches of a brown colour (son) at the back or lower surface of the leaves or fronds these fer(fig. 221), or at their margins, tile leaves either resembling the rest, or being modified in a manner which more or less disguises their natui'e, as in what are

Schutzeuberger, Ferment. 1875; Gayon, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1875, i. 5 Muntz, Ferment, Compt. Bend. 1878 (Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, 23) Lister, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1878, xviii. 177 Sachs, Niigeli, Theor. d. Gdhrung, 1879 Bot. 254 Tyudall, Putrefaction ^c. 1881. See also Torula and Pexicillium. FERNS. This class of Flowerless Plants ofi'ers very many points of interest to the microscopist and indeed the use of magni; ; ;
; ;

miscalled 'flowering Ferns' {Osmunda (figs. 222 & 223), Botrychium, Sec). The Ferns possess a stem which is more
or less developed in different cases in our native kinds it is either a slender, horizontal, subterraneous rhizome or rootstock, or a thick, short, erect one rising little above the ground but in foreign kinds this erect
:

Fig. 222.

Fig. 223.

fying-instruments

is

indispensable in their

examination for botanical purposes.

Fig. 221.

The

Fig. 222. Fig. 2-JS.

Osmunda regalis. Upper part of a fi-oud, l-6th

fertile

nat. size.

parench}nia.

pinnule bearing thecse without Magnified 10 diams.

stem attains the forms and dimensions of a cotree, growing up into a tall unbranched lumnar stem, sometimes more than fifty feet
high.

The anatomical structure of the stem of the Ferns is peculiar and special, depending on the character and arrangement
of

the fibro-vascular

bundles

(see

Tissues, vegetable), which afford the best examples of that form of elementary tissue called the Scalaeifoem ducts. The more creeping rhizomes are often clothed
or less thickly (as are also the leaf-stalks) with brown membranous scales called RaScolopendrimn Tulgare underside of frond. Kat. size.
;

Ferns are characterized by the position of their spore-cases or fruits (thecre, sporangia, or capsules), which are collected into what

and these often aflbrd elegant microscopic objects, from the peculiar aiTangements of the cells. The leaves are geneand the green rally very greatly developed blade is of more" or less complex structure

MENTA

in diflerent genera.

In the Ilyme^iophyUa,

FER^^S.
Filmy Ferns, the leaf

320

FERNS.

is ordinarily a mere of a single layer of cells, throug-h which ramify scalarifrom ducts, to form the veins consequently there are no stomata ; but in the other orders, in Pteris for ex-

membrane

ture, and reduced occasionally to a mere ramification of veins or ribs supporting the

spt)rangia

(fig. 22-!3).

The groups
they
ditl'er

much

of sporangia are called so7-i ; in form and arrangement,

,

ample, the leaf has an upper and lower epidermis with stomata, with loose cellular
tissue {niesophyllum), between and through which ramify the fibro-vascular veins the epidermal cells often have elegantly zig:

zagged or waving side-walls, which produce a pleasing appearance in the sections of the structure obtained in slices shaved off horizontally from the surface of the leaf.
of ramification of the veins or nerves of the leaves is important in system-

and are either naked (Polypodium) or covered by a special membranous structm-e, more or less continuous with the epidermis of the lower siu-face of the leaf, called an irvdusium or involucre (fig. 224) sometimes this indusium is so constructed as to form a kind of cup (figs. 127 & 151), which, again, exhibits a great variety of modifications.
;

(See

SoM

and Indusium.)
;

The mode

and may be observed for such purposes by immersing the dried leaflets in turpentine or oil, or mounting them
atic Fihcology,

in Canada balsam. The collections of sporangia or capsules on the back of the leaves sometimes occur on all of these ; in other

or sporanc/ia are usually collected in great numbers in the son and consist of minute stalked sacs or cases, composed of simple cellular membrane, the cells of which are either all alike (Ophioglossum), or a row of them running almost round the sac are modified by the thickening of their walls, so as to form an elastic
thecte

The

Fig. 224.

band (annulus), which causes the bursting

when ripe. In the Polypodiaceae the annulus starts from the stalk of the capside (fig. 225) ; in Hymowphyllum and
of the sac

Fig. 225.

Polypodiiun verrucosum.
Stalked thecae with annuli.

Magnified 25 diameters.

Fig. 226.

Fig. 227.

Nephrodiiun. Pinnule with indusiate

sori.

Magniiied 10 diameters.

cases

there are barren leaves and fertile leaves, the latter of which are generally somewhat modified in form, deprived of a ce'lain portion of the green expanded struc-

Curatopteris thalictroides. Fig. 226. Thica. Magn. .=10 diams. Fig. 227. Do. bursting. Do.

FERNS.
Trichomanes
it

321

FERNS.
Fig. 232.

runs round in an oblique line

line on a frlobe) ; in Gloi(like the ecliptic cheiiia it is alst) oblique (tig. 231) ; and in
Scfiizcea
it

and A^teimia (fig. 12, p. 41) &c. forms a kind of cap on the summit of the
229.
Fifr.

case.

230.

Fig. 234.

Fig. 235.

Figs. 228-230. Spores.

Ceratopteris thalicfroides. Magn. 150 diains.

Fig. 231.

Spores of Ferns.
Fig. 232. Aneimia asplenifolia. Fig. 233. Polyijodium aiireum. Fig. 234. Cystopteris fragilis. Fig. 23.5. Pteris longifolia.

Magnitied 100 diameters.

Gleichenia."

The reproduction of the Ferns by tlieir spores exhibits some very remarkable phenomena.

theca.

Magnified 40 diams.

These membranous sporangia are filled with spores having a double coat, like poland, as in these, the outer coat is ordinarily coloured, and either smoothish or marlted with points, streaks, ridges, or
len-grains
;

When the spores are sown, they germinate after a time by a protrusion of the inner coat as a delicate membranous
pouch (fig. 236), which elongates and becomes divided by septa into an articulated cellular filament; some of the cells emit

reticulations (figs. 228-230, 232-235). (See

Spores.)
Fig. 236. Fig. 237.

slender tubular, not septate, filaments, forming radical hairs; and while these remain imcoloured, the larger cells from which they

Fig. 238.

Fiff.

239.

Grermination of Pteris longifolia.

Magn. 100 diams.

The chlorophyll-gTanules. joiing 2}rot/ialliiim, as it is called, increases in size by cell-division, and at length acquires somewhat the form of a heart (figs. 2-36-239). Some of its cells produce, upon the margin or the under sm-face, the trichomatous structures called anther idia; which consist of staUied cellular bodies, of simple but peculiar structm-e, in the interior of which are developed minute cellules containing
arise

acquire

and the front end finely ciliated. the bursting of tlie antheridial sac, they escape, not only from this, but from
coils,

On

their

own

parent-cells,

actively in the water

vibratile cilia

and swim about by the aid of their

34).

(PL

40.

fig".

antheridia are often formed in large numbers, and the prothallium goes on proit exists; but at a than that of the earlier antheridia, there appear near the middle, at the front of the under surface of

The

ducing them ns long as

period

somewhat

later

ciliated spiral filaments, the spermatozoids.

These are corkscrew-shaped, with 3 or 4

FERNS.
more complex

322

FIBRINE.

the protliallium, other cellular bodies, of structure, which are the

The arcliearcheijonia or ovule-like bodies. goiiiuui consists of a cellular papilla, composed of a few colourless cells, with a caual running down its centre (an intercellular passage) leading to a cell {emhnjo-ceU) at
the b.jttom, contained in a cavity {Pinhri/osac) in the substance of the prothalliuui. The ciliated spiral filaments make their way down this canal, like the pollen-tubes through the micropyles of Phanerogamous and then the embryo-cell becomes ovules developed into an embryo, which soon exhibits rudimentary leaves and rootlets, bursts out from the cavity of the protlial;

without an indusium, usually stalked, more or less completely surrounded by a vertical annulus, and bursting transversely (except
in Hymjnophylleai).

OsMUNDACE^. Thecsetwo-valved, opening across the apex, with a short horizontal annulus; vernation circinate.

ScHiz^ACE.E. Thecfe two-valved, opening down the side, crowned bv a complete operculiform annulus vernation circinate. MARATriACE.E. Thccps opening by a lateral slit or a pore at the apex no annulus, usually united into concrete masses (synangia) vernation circinate.
;
;

Ophioglossace.e.
;

lium, which decays away, and grows up into the ordinary leaf-bearing stem of the Ferns (fig. 240). Fio-. 240. The prothallia bear a variable number of archegonia, but not nearly so many as of authcridia and they exhibit,
;

valved, opening down the side nearlv to the base no annulus vernation erect. BiBL. Berkeley, Crypt. Bot. 507 Presl,
;

Tliecse deeply

two-

Pteridof/raph.

IS-'jtj;

I'ayen,

Z?o^.

Cryptoc/am.
;

1850; iMrichoitKniptoyam. Getrdc/ise, 1828;

in

most fully-developed spe-

cimens, a number of effete organs of both kinds, which are readily distinguished by the deep-brown colour assumed by the membranes

Mohl, Martinson I'lunt. Cryptoy. Brasil. Moore, Index Filicum & Handb. of Br. Ferns Newman,i)r.i^ftrwA'; Henf rev, D^re/. of Ferns from Spores, Linn. Tr a ns.xxi. 117, 18*53 Heproduct, of Cryptoyajnia, Ann. N. II. 1852
;
; ;

Pteris, seedlin"

bounding their

cavities.

Ilofmeister, Entuickehiiiy, Sachs. Ges. 1857, v. Reess, Jnltr, wiss. Bot. v. 1866 Strasburger, Bcfruchfunq, Ja/ir. unss. Bot. 1869, vii. 390 ; Kny, Mmafsh. Berl. Aknd. 1869 ; id., Jahr. wiss. Bot. A'ii. 1 ; Janczewsky, Bot.
; ;

characters of the prothallium of the somewhat from the ordinary forms the prothallium is developed in the soil, several inches below the surface, and is of a whitish-yellow colour internally, being destitute of chlorophyll and starch ; The antheits external surface is brown. ridia are chiefly produced upon the upper side, the archegonia below, both immersed The in the substance of the prothallium. spermatozoids are described as being larger
Ophior/lossaceci' differ
:

The

Zeit.

1872,418; Sachs, Bot. 415; Hooker,

Filic. (fiys.
;

Syn.

of all yen. and description of

II.

all species)

Kny, Ann. N.
ibid.
;

1870,
;

v.

233

Strasburger,
Filic.

1870, v. 331

1875
;

"V^'aldner,

1880

Smith, Hist. Ferns of Germany,

FIBRINE. Fibrine
;

Blair,

European Ferns, 1881.

is

rous fine fibres

invisible.

and so transparent by

exhibits very numesoluble in, or rendered acetic acid, as to be

than

in Polypodiacete.

Its chemical relation to the other proteine-compovmds has not been substance resatisfactorily determined.

on the leaves of full-grown plants; and even the

also (jemmce

The Ferns produce

of vegetative mulprothallia are capable f )r if their archegonia are all tiplication

;

abortive, they go

on

vegetating for a

long

time, and produce new prothallia, by some of their marginal cells budding out and reof the peating the original mode of growth

of its characters, if not identical with it, occurs upon the surfaces of inflamed membranes, &c. in these cases it generally includes the other elements of inflammation, and almost always a number of mimite granules of fat.

sembling

fibrine in

many

spore itself. These innovatioits usually bear antheridia alone, and not archegonia. The Ferns are divided into six orders. Sori dorsal, of few Gleiciieniace^I':.
theca) opening vertically by a broad transverse complete annulus. Sori dor.-al or mnrpiPoi.Yi'OT)iACE.i3. nal, subglobose ; tliecse numerous, with or
thecpe,
;

Fibrine is coloured by the test-liquids of Millon and Pettenlcofer. According to Schmidt's experiments, fibrine does not pre-exist in blood, but is formed by the chemical combination of
a fibrinogenons substance occurring in the blood-plasma with a fibrino-plastic matter contained in the blood-corpuscles, which

naked

escapes from them more recently, Schmidt considers the separation of fibrine to depend
;

FIBROIN E.

323

FILAMENTOUS STRUCTURES.

upon the action of a ferment (see Froy, HM. 1(5, and -M. Baker, IViys. !J8). Till' tibrinons plasma of the lower animals
resemble?: tibrine in man^' re.-<pects, but does not separate in tibres. The principal cliemical FIBiiOINE. constituent of silk, cobwebs, and the horny

and the woody part of the fibro-vasfular bundles of the Monocotyledons. (See Tissues,

The characters of VEGETABLE.) structures of this kind will be given under Liber and Wood. Secondly, the term
is

Jihve

skeleton of sponges but the latter is now considered to be composed of a new subIn the pure state, it is stance, spomiine.
;

white, insoluble in water, alcohol, ether,

acetic acid,

and ammonia. Bmr,. That of CHinrisTRY, animal. FIBRO-PLASTIO TISSUE. See Tis-

applied to the secondary deposits cells, vessels, ducts, &c., which, instead of forming continuous pitted layers, take the pattern of spiral or analogous lines, and, by increasing in consistence, subsequently form real fibres, often elastic and unrollable, of firmer substance than the

upon the walls of

sue, nnno-PLASTic.

FIBROUS
BrXDUP]S.

and

FIBRO-VASCULAR
of Plants.
and

See Tissuks, vegktable.

FIBROUS STRUCTURES somewhat equivocal, This

terra is

upon which the}^ Avere originally The numerous modifications of these^6ro2M clepodts upon the walls of cells are spoken of under the heads of Spiral Structures, Vessels, and Secondars
cell-wall

deposited.

DEPOSITS.
It must not be omitted here that the walls of many cells and liber-fibres, which appear at first sight to be composed of homogeneous laminpe, may often be made to exhibit spiral streaks, by the use of reagents and maceration indeed they present themselves during the natural dissolution of the membranes of some of the OsciUatoriacec'e (Aixactis,
;

In comrequires a little explanation here. mon laujiiiage all vegetable substances are termed fibrous which can be separated into more or le.-s line threads possessing a certain degree of tenacity special examples are furnished by those forming the materials But the anatomical or for textile fabrics.
;

microscopical structures comprehended here are exceedingly varied, including not only
liber-fibres, but spiral vessels, hairs. Thus, Flax (PI. 28. fig.

and
2)

even
is

ScHizosiPHON PL 8. figs. 13, 15). Hence some authors have recently recurred to the old notion that all vegetable membranes are
cemented or blended togeagain strongly combated by others, as regards the primary membrane of cells. enter more particularly into the details under the article Spiral Strucformed of
ther.
fibres
is

tlie

liber of

Linum usHatissimum
; ;

Hemp

(PI.

This

Jute (Pi. 28. fig-. 3) fig. 6) of Cayinahis of Corchorus capsuJaris kc. Puya (PI. 28. and the material fig. 26) of Bcehnieria Puya, of Chinese gi-ass cloth (PI. 2^. fig. 2o) of Bahmcria nivea; Coir (PI. 28. fig. 4) the liber-like fibre of the husk of the cocoa-nut; Manilla hemp (PI. 28. fig. 7) of the fibroNewvascular bundles of Musn textilis Zealaad flax of Phormmin tenax Esparand Cotton to grass of Lijgeum esparto (PL 28. fig. 1) consists of the hairs covering the seeds of species of Gossypium. These and similar substances are also spoken of
28.
; ;
;

We

tures fif Plants. FI'CUS, Linn.

some of which possess a remarkably thick epidermis and curious pseudo-glandular structures connected with it. Ficus elastica, one of the
plants j'ielding india-rubber, now commonly grown in pots in rooms, is a good example. The clavate bodies (PL 48. fig. '27) of Meyen, developed in cavities in the leaf, beneath

(Figs). of Urticaceae (Dicotyledons),

A large

genus

under Liber, Hairs, and under

theii' re-

spective heads. In botanical language, the word fibre has come into use in two very different senses. First, any long cell attenuated to a point at both ends, and with its walls thickened with ligneous secondary deposits, is called a Jihre by some authors. Thus the term woody fbre is applied to the shorter cells of this kind which make up the substance of most solid woods; while the term liher-Jibve is applied (with more justice) to the often

the epidermis, contain crystalline deposits. (See Glands and Raphides.)

FILAMENTOUS STRUCTURES

Plants.

op This name would be more appli-

extremely elongated wood-tubes which form the elements of the liber of Dicotyledons

cable than fhroiis strncfures to such substances as Cotton, which consists of elongated hairs (PL 28. fig. 1), and indeed to all elongated cellular filaments with thin and collapsing walls. It would include aU long vegetable hairs, like those forming the coma on many seeds (Poplars, Asdepias, Gossypium, Sec.) also those forming felty coatings on the epidermis, as in many Com;

posita),

&c.

It is also

applical)le

to the

y2

FILAEIA.
cells of

324

FISSIDEXTE.E.
;

most of the Coufervoid Algae, to the mj'celium (flocci) of Fimgi, and to tiie medidlaiy layer of the lichens. Many other instances will suggest themselves to the microscopist.

obliquely in a very small point tegument not striated; vulva behind the middle; length 1-2" ; breadth 1-140". BiBL. Dujardin, Helmint/i. 42 Diesing,
;

riLA'KIA, Mull. genus of Eutozoa, of the order Nematoidea. Char. Body filiform, very long, nearly uniform head not distinct from the body mouth romid or triangular, naked or with white, yellowish, or red, from 48 papillae to 100 times as long as broad; oesophagus
;
;

263 Kiichenmeister, Parasiten, 304 Lewis, San. C'omin. 8th Hep., Calcutta, 1872; Leuckart, Paramt. 1879, 65 (tig.) Gruby and Delafond, Cnnpt. rend. xlvi. 1217 Leidv and Welch, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1873, 157; Ann. N. II. 1878, ii. 199; Cobbold, Parasites, 1879 (inost complete
Hebninfh.
ii.
; ;
;

literature).

short, tubular, narrower than the intestine anus terminal, or nearly so spicula two, of unequal size, more or less twisted vulva situated very near the anterior extre; ; ;

rine

FILELLU]\r, Hincks. A genus of maHydroid Polvpi, fam. Lafoeidae,

:

mity. Several species, many of which have been They are most imperfectly examined. commonly found in the abdominal cavity and between the peritoneal folds of mammalia and birds, in the blood and the aircells of the latter, sometimes in the subcutaneous cellular tissue. Species are also

1 species F. serpens common on the larger Sertulariidfe, especially ;S'. abietina. IBrBL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. p. 214.
;

FIR.

See

Wood. FISCH'ERA, Schwnbe.A

Pixus,

Conifers,
genus

and
of

Oscillatoriaceaj (Coufervoid Algae). Char. Filaments irregularly branched, composed of miiserial cells, with interstitial

met with

in reptiles, fishes, arid insects.

surrounded by mucus, subglobose cell forming an amorphous gelatinous stratum.

;

F. medinensis. The hair- or Guinea- worm. Common in the intertropical regions of the old world. Length G to 10" breadth 1-20 to 1-10". F. hronchtaUs occurs in the human bronchi F. lachrymalis in the laolirvmal gland F. ocuJi (papillosci) in the globe of the eye, or beneath the conjunctiva; F. imniifis in the heart of the dog; F. rliyti2)leurites in the cockroach, &c. F. sanr/uinis is capillary, unifonn, without papilke, the neck narrowed, the tail of female simple, bluntly pointed, the vulva close to the head, and the anus near the tip of the tail length of adult 3i", of embr^'os It is found in the immature i5o-tV". form in human blood and urine, in chyluria and endemic ha3maturia. The adult form occurs in the subcutaneous connective tissue of the scrotum, &c. Two species occur in fresh water, under the leaves of aquatic plants Fem. wliite, constricted F. aquatilis. behind the spherical head tegument not
;
;

On the walls of warm springs (Rabenhorst, Fl. Air/, ii. 285). FISSIDEN'TE.E. family of opercuF.
thermalis.

late

Acrocarpous (sometimes cladocarpous)

Mosses, of gregarious or cajspitose habit, with simple or much-branched stems. The leaves are amplexicaid (fig. 242), composed of minute parenchymatous cells, closely areFig. 241.

Fig. 242.

Fig. 243.

striated

oesophagus capillary, very long, narrowed to a tail gradually sinuous curved point vulva anterior to tlie middle of the bodv length 3-10 to 4-10"; breadth 1-250". F. Idciisfn's. Fem. reddish-white, slightly narrowed in front, but without a constric; ; ; ;

tion

mouth very small,

lateral,

oeso])hagus filiform, very lojig, origm ; tail conical, obtuse,

and oblique; nodose at its

Fissidons bryoides.
Fig. 241. A plant of F. bryoides. Leaves detached. Fi^s. 212 &' 243. to

Magn.

5 diams.

More magnified

terminatmg

show the appendage.

FISSIDEXS.

325

FLAX.

olatecl, often very papillose, produced at the back and point into a lamina beyond tlie

whence three parts (tigs. 24o-24(J), the 1, distinguished in the latter true liorizoutal blade 2, the dorsal lamina, arising vertically from the back of the nerve; 3, the apical lamina, the preceding lamina produced beyond the true horizontal blade
leaf
ai'e
:

size, and when well dressed is excellent for culinai'v purposes. The flesh wlien cut resembles tliat of beet-root.

an enormous

tab. 17.

i. t. Go; Berk. Outl 257, Cooke, Ilamlh. 292. FLABELLI'NA, D'Orb. One of the

BiBL. IIuss.
fig. 1
;

that It is dimorphous having two successive plans of growth

K(>(hisariu<e.
;

is,

Fig. 244.

Fig. 247.

the first spiral, lOce that of CristeUaria the later rectilinear, like that of Nodosaria, or rather of Frondicidaria, which latter it

Fig. 245.

resembles in its chevron-shaped flattened chambers. It differs from Frondicidaria in an eccentricity, or tendency to coil, in the earliest chambers, and thus connects the Stichostegian with the Ilelicostogian groups.
It is to Frondictdaria as Vayimdina, Margimdina, and Plunidaria are to Nodosaria.

To many
;

large flat

C'risteUarife

C. cassis)

Tnonnnnnnnnr-ii u
Fissidens bryoides.

'

semigeniculate chamber give a Flabelline feature but pure FlubeUime are rare in the recent state (Batsch figured one) and in Tertiary strata. In the Chalk (Fl. n/yosa, PL 23. fig. 38), Gault, Lias, and other Secondary strata, Flahellince abound. BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vicn. 92
;

Morris, Brit. Foss. 35

Parker and Jones,

;

Ann. N. H.
Magn. 100 diams.

3. xii.

136

Pigs. 244, 245, 246. Sections of 243, at various heights

Carpenter, Introd.

from the base.

Fig. 247.

For. 100, 164.

Fragment of

pei-istome.

FLAGELLA'TA. See Infusoria. FLANNEL, NATURAL. This term

has been applied to sheets or layers of a harsh fibrous textvu'e, sometimes found covering meadows, rocks, &c. after an inundation. It consists of the interwoven filaments of Confervas, with adherent or entangled Diatomacese, Infusoria, crystals of carlDonate of lime, &c. To the naked eye it closely resembles a piece of coarse or Similar layers are loosely woven cloth. frequently found upon the margins of pools during the summer. As the water evaporates, the Confervse and other organisms remain supported upon the stems of rushes, or blades of gi-ass, and, when dry, form the yellowish, greenish, or gi'eyish layers of the so-called natural flannel. See Paper, meteoric. FLAX. The liber-fibres from the stems of the Flax-plant, Linum usitcdissimum(jx&t. Under the ord. Linacese, Dicotyledons). microscope, the fibres (PI. 28. fig. 2) are readily distinguished from those of Cotton by the form and consistence, being round and attenuated to a point at each end, and

of the leaf in a two-edged form, on each side of the nerve. Capsule equal, rarely British genus Fissiiien.s. annulate. FIS'SIDEXS, Hedw. genus of Fissidentese. Character that of the family. Inflorescence moncecious or dioecious, terminal on the main stem or on short secondary
:

branches.

Montague has

separated

the

species w-ith an entire calyptra under the generic name of ConomUrium. F. Im/oides (tig. 241), not imcommon, is

a most elegant little moss. BiBL. Wilson, Bnjol Brit. FISSURI'NA, Reuss.

p. 301.

compressed

Layena, with

slit-like aperture.

same

relation to

It has the Layena that Linr/ulina has

to Nodosaria.

BiBL.

Ak. Wiss. Wim,

Reuss, Monogr. Lagen. in Sitz. xlvi. 18G3. FISTULI'NA. A genus of Polyporei

i".

the

(Hymenomycetous Fungi), characterized by papillaj of the fleshy hymenophorum

at

being

length elongated

and

forming

distinct tubes, of Solenia.

which

call to

mind those

Fistulina heputica occurs not imfrequently on old oaks, on which it sometimes attains

of a firm wood}' consistence, which prevents them from collapsing, and having pits in the New-Zealand Flax is a totally differwall.

FLEA.
ent sulDgtance

326

FLORIDE^.

(Phoemium).
of Plants, and
is

STnrCTUEES

See Fibrous Liber,

FLEA.
FLINT.

See Pulkx. This a subtranslucentTariety

of silica, forming nodules or bands in most The organisms in flint are the limestones. same as those met with in the chalk or other limestone of which the flint forms part, as

of the common species of which must be familiar to eyery one, as the delicate feathery or leaf-like plants brought away by most yisitors to the sea-coast and the red colour, more or less permanent or fleeting, is a pretty general characteristic of this order
;

varying
mixed

however
;

to

purple, brown, and

a pseudomorphic replacement of the orig-inal amorphous carbonate of lime by silex, generally where decomposing organic matter induced the conditions of change. Much of the flint of the South of England has been formed out of the calcareous mud, crowded with small sponges, spicules, and Foraminifera, which hold the same position
in the flint as they did in the cretaceous ooze. Large sponges are often included, with shells of Mollusks and Echinoderms, scales of Fishes, and sporangia of Desmidiaceae, formerly recorded as distinct organ-

and yellow, and the green colour of the chlorophyll being often obscured by a red pigment, phyco-eri/fhrine. They chiefly grow in deeper water than the other sea-weeds, and are met with in finest and darkest colour in deep tide-pools of sea-water, especially on the side facing the north, where they are overhung by the larger dark-coloured Algae, and thus shaded from the sun's rays. The greater number do not grow more than six inches
tints of red, green,

dirty white

high,

isms (XanthifJi(t).
crystallized calcite of Echinoderms shells is not replaced by silex in limestones, but remains as cayities in exposed flint-masses. Many yarieties of lime-

The

and some

few more than two feet. The simple.'t foims are filaments composed of cylir.drical cells attached end to end they next rise to a gelatinous or cartilaginous expansion, composed of such filamentous structures adherent in layers, and forming a compact frond of definite shape. These are said to be oijUomentous structure. Others have the
;

limestone in France, freshwater limestone in France and Turkey, orbitoidal limestone in Jamaica, oolitic limestone at Poilland and elsewhere, are conyerted into flint, hornstone, See. of fine or coarse grain according to the constitution of the original limestone. Wallich has suggested that chalk-flints are due to the nearly continuous protoplasmic layer among extensive spongestone, yiz. polyzoan

growths haying become silicitied. In the examination of flint, thin sections should be made by grinding and polishing some kinds exhibit the organisms contained in them best by reflected, others by transSome specimens, in which mitted light.
;

they are abundant, will exhibit them well

in chips

frond composed of a number of polyg< ual cells, evenly arranged, and with thick walls, or, as some state, an intercellular substance binding: them all together into a mass these are technically said to be of ceUtdar structure. Sometimes all the cells of the frond contain colouring-matter, sometimes only those of the surface, or of a shallow superficial stratum. The general external appearance of the Red Sea-weeds is very varied. Sometimes the fronds are like little leafless bushes at others they form broad lamiutx? sometimes the lower part is stalk-like, and the upper In Uclesparts spread into leaf-like kibes. seria we have a close imitation of a regularly formed leaf of one of the liigher plants.
; ; ;

remoyed by

hammer.

See Agatk and Chalk. BiBL. That of Agate and Chalk; Ehrenb. Ann. N. H. 1838. ii. ]6i>; Turner, Phil. Maq. 1833 Ansted,^w. i\^ II. 1844, xiii. 248'; Jiowerbank, ihkl. 1847, xix. 240 Charlesworlh, Geol.Jn. 1847, i. 20; Church, Proc. Chcm. Soc. 18(32 id. Chem. Ketcs, y. 95, and Phil. Mciq. (4) xxiii. 95 Sutherland, GeoJ. Man. ii. 220; Johnson, "i'7//," 1S71
; ;

Jones, iVoe. Geol. Af.i>.oc.\\.A?j^; "\\'alli(h, Qv. Jn. Geol. *Sbc., Feb. 1880; Sollas, .l?^

N.

II.

FLOPTP'EyE or PTTOPOSPO'PE.E. An order of Alga). l\ed sea- weeds, some

leaf-like forms are either simple, lobed, or exquisitely pinnate or feathered and the lihodosperms of warmer climates exhibit most elegantly reticulated fronds. Some of these plants deposit carbonate of lime in their tissues in such quantity that they become quite stony, so tliat, the vegetable form alone remaining, they are commonly mistaken for true corals (see Coral). By placing these cornllincs and nulliporcs in vinegar or diluti' h\droc]doric acid, the lime is removed, and the cellular vegetable oigaThe tropical nization may be recognized. forms of the corallines are far moreyariid and beautiful than our own.
;

The

FLORIDE.E.

327

FLORlDEiE.
141), and in
cases

I\ed or colourless albuiiiinous crj'stalloids an' found in souie ot" the Floridt';u. Three kinds of reproductive structures
2, uporca

{[\g.

some few foreign genera,

Fig. 2r)0.

they are grouped iu hol-

occur iu these plants, viz. 1, tcfra^porcs or anfhcrozoids. 3, spcrmatozoids

:
;

low
fig.

(co/iccpfnch's,

250).

In

many

in-

These or fefiru/onidia. similar organization of throughout the order They consist of an

The

tt'tnispores

structures

are

stances, however, they are found in pod-like bodies (sfichidia, ri. 4. iig. l.-5?>),

either

formed by metamorphosis of portions of

frond
it.

Fig. 248.

the lobes or lobules of the iiiiciaui'aiuMU(ia[ucLCci.o comKituiecuauuuuuaaw or (Pl(icaniiu>n),

Hildenbrant
san-

on arising independently In others the tetraspores

are

guinca. Section of a conceptnammon), scattered over tacle containing tetrathe sides or fixed at the tips spores, -^=g"- 5 d.ams.

naked

(Calli-

In the of the branches. these bodies are majority of cases, however, immersed in the substance of the lobes or
lobules, not evident externally except by the darker colour of the frond at the point

lihyiKUococcus eoronopifolius. Section of the frond with tetraspores.

Magnified 200 diameters.

oblong or globular external cell or sac (penspvre), at tirst filled with gramUar contents,
Fig. 249.

a lens is then are collected they here required for their detection appear to be formed either of the cells of the surface or of others immediately sub-

where they

jacent. Harvey, Thwaites, Priugsheim, and others regard these bodies as (/emmiiles or

gonidia; Decaisne, J. Agardh, and other Algologists regard them as true spores. Pringsiieim states that in Cerammm they grow up at once into a thallus. The true spores are simpler structures than the tetraspores, but mostly occupy a more important position. They are never scattered through the frond, but always grouped in definite masses, generally enclosed in a special capsule, conceptacle or cystocarp, which is furnished with a closed tube or

Ptilota plumosa.

Section of frond with tetraspores. Magnified 200 diameters.

which contents subsequently separate into four portions, called sporules, either by three transverse fissures (fig. 248) by two
;

In fertilization, trichoyync (PL 4. fig. 12 c). the spermatozoids conjugate with the tricLogyne (PL 4. fig. 12 a). Its basal cell then subdivides, the new cells forming a sporiferous heap as in Nemalvon (and JBcdrachospermum). Or, the trichogyne-cell takes no direct part in the formation of the spores, which are produced after fertilization in laterally arising new cells, as in the Ceramiaceje &c. In Diidresnaya the elongated trichogyne is spiral at the base. After its
;

fertilization, cells sprout

fissures

at right angles, cutting

;

them
'

quarters like an orange or by fissures which part them into the tetrahedral' group (fig. 249) so often found in the division of spore- and pollen-cells the last two occur in the spherical tetraspores.
:

into tri-radiate

from beneath it, and elongate to form connecting tubes, These pass over the ends of tlie fructiferous branches, which aVe short with an enlarged terminal cell, becoming soldered with them
at the points of contact, the contents being

The

mixed: each connecting tube conjugates

witli several of the fertile branches.

any capsular structure

tetraspores are rarely found collected in but in the Corallines

;

The

simplest form of the spore-fruit con-

FLORIDE^,
sist 9

328

FLOSCULARIA.
;

of spherical masses of spores, attached to the Avail of the frond, or imbedded in its substance without a proper conceptacle, in which latter case the cells surrounding the mass of spores are devoid of colouringmatter such a fruit is called a favellidium, and occurs in Jlalymenia and the same name
: ;

shaped flat plate, as in Laurencia or occupying portions of the general surface of the thallus. Each of the minute cells contains a rounded motionless spermatozoid.
Synopsis of the Families.

is ordinarily applied to fruits of similar structure not perfectly immersed, such as those of Gigaiiina, Gelidium, Sec, where they form tubercular swelhngs on the lobes. In some cases the tubercles present a pore at the summit, when mature, through which the spores find exit. When such a fruit is wholly external, as in Ceramimn and Callithmmiion, it is called a favella. The coccidiutn, characteristic of Delesseria (PL 4. tig. 5 c), i\7/opliijllum, Sec, which is nearly related to this, either occurs on lateral branches, or is sessile on the face of the frond, and consists of a hollow case with thick cellular walls, containing a dense tuft of angular spores attached to a central column. It is generally imperforate, but occasionally exhibits a pore through which the spores escape. The a'ramidiuni is the most complete form of the conceptacular fruit, and is an ovate or lu'n-shaped case, furnished with an apical pore, and containing a tuft of pear-shaped spores arising from the base of the cavity. The walls are usually thin and membranous, and the hollow space considerable, as in

Rhodomelace^.
lated or articulated.

Frond

cellular, areo-

Ceramidia

external.

Tetraspores in rows,

immersed

in rannili, or

contained in proper receptacles {stichidia). LAirRENCiACE.E. Frond cellular, continuous. Ceramidia external. Tetraspores scattered, immersed in the branches and
_

ramuli.

CoKALLiNACEJE. Frond calcareous or Ceramidia external, coucrustaceous, rigid. taining the tetraspores.
Delesseiiiace.i:.

Frond

celliJar,

con-

tinuous, areolated. Coccidin external. Tetraspores collected into definite clusters (sori).

RnoDYMENiACEiE.

Frond

cellular, con-

Coctinuous, the superficial cells minute. cidia external. Tetrasporessc&iiere^ through the frond, or forming luidefined, cloud-hke
patches.
lar,

Cryptonemiace^e. Frond fibroso-cellucomposed of articulated fibres connected together by gelatine. FaveUidia immersed
Tetrasjjores

immersed

in the frond or sub-external, in the frond.

Polysiphonia, Lcmrencia, Dusya (PI. 4. fig. 9 c), &e. From the account given by Pi-ingsheim, of Cerammm, it would appear that these (capsule-) spores first produce a kind of prothallium, somewhat in the manner of the

Ceramiace^. Frond ^Wiovva, consisting of an articulated filament, simple or coated with a stratum of small cells. Favellce naked berry-like masses. Tetraspores external, or partially immersed.
"

higher Crj'ptogamia. Peculiar bodies, forming external warts,

PoRPHYEACE^. Frond plane and exceedingly thin, or tubular and fihform, of a purplish colour, with oval spores in sori, and tetraspores scattered over the frond.
BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alga, 1849,
Brit.
;

and composed

entirely

of vertical fibres,

&

rhijc.

but without spores, called nemcdhecia, are sometimes confounded with the conceptacular fruit, and are probably immature forms
of
it.

spermcdozoids are found in peculiar which the name of (odheridia has been applied, from the supposed analogy to the organs so called in the other CryptoThe antheridia are progamous plants. duced pretty much in the same situations as the other organs of fructification, and are often developed on different individuals. They are collections of very small colourstructures, to
less cells (PI. 4. fig. 126) ; sometimes collected into a bunch, as in Gri/fif/tsia : some-

The

Thuret, Ann.^ Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xvi. 5, 4 ser. iii. 5; Derbes and Solier, ibid. 3 ser. xiv. 261, 4 s6i\ v. 209; Pringsheim, JBerl Ber. 1855; Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. iii. 363 Bot. Zeitung, xv. 784 Henfrey-Masters, Bot. 1878 IJornet and Thuret, '^?iH. Sc. Nat. 1867, vii. 166 ;
Kiitzing, Phycol. gen.
;
;

Bend. 1866 Rosanoft", Coinpt. Cohn, Sc/mltze's Archiv, iii. 24 Askenslry, Bot. Zeit. 1867 (col. matter^ Solms-Laubach, Bot. Zeit. 1867; Sachs, i?o/. 1874, 291. FLOSCULA'RIA, Oken, Ehr. A genus
; ;
;

times enclosed in a transparent tube, as in Pohjsiphonia clothing a kind of irregularly;

of Rotatoria, of the family FIosculari;\3a. Char. Attached eyes two, red carapace single rotatory organ divided into more than four lobes, with elongated cilia radiating from their extremities.
; ; ;

floscui.ari.t:a.
Eyes sometimes absent
mals.

329

FORAMINIFERA.

in the adult ani-

Sheath or carapace irequently so transparent as to be scarcely distinguishable. Rotatory organ with five or six lobes
;

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. p. 398. FLUKE. See Di stoma.

FLUS'TRA,
trida3.

of Oheilostomatous

Linn. (Sea-mat). genus Polyzoa, family Flus-

the number, hcnvever, appears variable for Ehrenberg states in one place that the lobes are tive or six, in another that they are
;

Char. Polyzoarium plant-like, foliaceous,

flexible
;

cells in contact, alternate, in seve-

proalways six. The so-called proboscis bably only one of the lobes of the rotatory
is

freshwater. ornuta, E. (PI. 43. fig. 32). Carapace six (Ehr.), tive hyaline; rotatory lobes -svith long ciha, but no central proorcrans
;

>.

sides of the polypiaperture transverse, semicircular or Marine. lunate, valvular and subterminal. F. foliacea. Cells narrow at the base, rounded at the end, with scattered marginal
ral rows,

and on both

dom

(J3uj.),

boscis; length 1-108". Lobes of"" rotatory organ thickened at the ends.

Common; .about 4" high. spines. Cells F. cliartacea. oblong, slightly broader in the middle lateral margins with
;

E. Carapace hyaline; 6-lobed, with short cilia centrtd proboscis length, when extended, 1-18". Teeth (tig. 33). Differs from F. F. campanulata, Dob. these oniatd, Ehr., in having five lobes, and flattened length, when extended, 1-50". Dob. F. Rotatory organ 6F.
pj'oboscidea,

rotatory organ surrounding a

a single minute spine. About 1" in height. F. truncata. Cells linear-oblong, truncate 4-5" at the end, margins without spines
:

high.

F. aviF. carbasea= Carbasea papi/rea cularis= Bi((/ula Jlahellata F. Murrayana = Bugida 31iirr. F. membranacea, coriacea,
;
; ; ;

cornuta",

lobed,

one of the lobes with a narrowed, not ciliated cornu attached, arising from its outside cilia long length, when extended,
:
'

and lineata = Membranipora m., c, and /. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 342 Reid, Ann. N. H. 1845, xvi. 385; Busk, Brit, litis. Catal. 47 Hincks, Pohjz. 114.
family of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa. Distinguished by the expanded, foliaceous, flexible and erect polyzoary, with its nu-

1-40".

FLUS'TRAD^. A

Other species. These exquisitely beautiful animals are foimd adhering to aquatic plants, as Conferva, CeratopJtyJlmn &c. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 407; Duj. Inf. 609; Dobie, Ann. N. H. 1849, iv. 233 Cubitt, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1869, ii. 143 (PI.), and 1871,
, ;

merous contiguous

cells. Two genera, Flustra. Cells on both sides. Cells on one side only. Carbasea.

83 (new spec.) Weisse, Sieh. S, KiJll. Zeitsch. xiv. 107 (PI.) Hudson, Jn. Mic.
vi.
; ;

Soc. 1881,
toria.

i.

FLOSCULARLE'A.A family of RotaC/uir.

;

4.

Busk, Mar. Pohjz. (Br. Mus.) 46. genus of Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, of the order Infundibulata, and family Alcyonidiidaj. BiEL.

FLUSTREL'L.\, Gray. A
Incrustiug, cells

radiating or alternate,
;

the circumference with setaj

angular. F. hispida.

oritice rect-

Furnished with a carapace or sheath rotatory organ single, with a tiexuous, lobed or divided margin. The cilia are often long, and only vibrate
exoccasionally, mostly remaining rigidly

Common
Fitcus

near

low-water

mark

upon

serratus.

Polyzoary
;

tended.

brown, fleshy. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 363 Redfern, Qu. Mic. Jn. vi. 96; Hincks, Polyz,
504.

Genera,
Eyes absent
1-

Tubicolaria.

FLY.

Eye

single

^-

Stephanoceros.

Eyes two}

3. Lhnnins. (t)\ -L J j single 4. Lacinulurla. j Rotatory J --'ooea-^ aggregate

organ

4-lobed

o. .Uelicertn. 6.

(.5-

orb-lobed

Floscularia.]

The eyes
;

in

some of the genera {Stephadisappear in

the

of pleurocarpous Mosses. F. antijn/retica, ^greater water-moss in rivulets. F. sqnamafa. (Wilson, Bri/ol.

;

FOLLICULA'RI A = i^;r/ff FO^TINA'LIS, L. A genus

.

See MrscA.

noceros and Floscularia) so that they must be looked for adult state in the young, or even in the partly hatched ova, in which they may often be distinctly
fceen.

Brit. 422.)

FORAMINIF'ERA. An
Char. Gelatinous,

order in

the

Animal Kingdom, belonging to the Subkingdom Protozoa, and class Rhizopoda.

structureless, usually

FORAMINIFERA.

.330

FORAMIMFERA.

marine contained auimala, microscopic within calcareous sliclls, from orifices or pores in which tine retractile processes are
emitted, by which locomotion and prehension are pertornied. The shells are sometimes simple, consisting of a sing-le cell or chamber (Unilocular, Monothalanious, or Monostegian), as in UnilocuUna, Qjrnuqnra, Ovulites, some

In a few of the Foramiuifera the shells are

composed of a number of perfectly distinct cells, each with a separate outer orifice
{Dactylopora, PI. 23. fig. 53). The plan of g-rowth offers no solid ground for the classification of these organisms but the character of their shell-structure serves better for there are two distinct kinds of shell one white, opaque, and not traversed with tubules ("porcellaneous" and the "imperforate"), such as the 3IilioIce other sub translucent and tubular ("vitreous" or " hyaline,'' and " perforate "), such as NodosariiKi, Bulituhia, and Nnmimdites. Shells of each kind, however, are liable to become " arenaceous," by particles of sand or minute organisms being taken up in their structure, as Quinqttclocuiiua, Liliiula, Trochaminhut, Valvulina, Textularia, and Bidi;

Trochaitintuue, La(/e)t(i, Orhidina, S'jnrillina; but the cells are usually aggregated into a compound shell (Multilocular or PolythaIn some they are arranged end lamous). to end in a straight row (Stichostegiau), as

some Articidince some Litiwlce, Nodosaria, Frondicularia. In others the single row is rolled into a spiral (Helicostegian, Naiitiin
,

loid,
2)lis,

Turbinoid, or Fusuline), as in Penero-

Lituola, CristeUana, Folystomilhi, Globigerina, the Rotalince, Nummtditcs, Fusulina. Or the cells are arranged in two alternate rows, spirally coiled (EutomosteSomegian), as in T(dndiiui, Bidimina. times the cells forju two or three alternate rows, but not spirally coiled (Euallostegian), as in Vohjmoriddiia, ZJviyerina, Textularia whilst in others the cells are arranged around an (imaginary) axis, upon two or more opposing laces (Agathistegian), as in There are also dis3idiola, C'lnhistomella. coidal shells with alternately concentric cells (Cyclostegian), as Orbitoldes and Cycloclypeus. Many modifications, with dimorphic and even trimorphic modes of growth, also exist ; thus Textularia antiectens (PI. 23. fig. 52) is helicostegian at first, enallostegian subsequently, and stichostegiau at last ; whilst Biyenerina and Clavulina (PL 23. figs. 50 tfc 51) have only the alternate and linear modes of growth and Spirolina (PI. 23. fig. 12) is first spiral and then linear. Between the chambers are septa, consisting of either single or double plates, pei'forated by one or more apertures
; ;

mina.
of the hyaline shells presents punctate appearance, arising from the presence of very numerous foramina, which are the outer orifices of tubides passing through the walls of the shell. The arrangement of these tubules and that of another set traversing the walls and the septa, as well as, in fact, the general structure of the shell, may be illustrated by a description of the shell of Opercidina arahica (I'l. 24. fig. 23), in which they have been Here the carefully traced by Mr. Carter. outer surface, after the removal of a greenish epidermic layer, is seen to be covered with large and small papilla; the former 1-2150", the latter I-8G00" in diameter neither of which are present over the Each septa or at the margin of the shell. of the septa encloses within its walls two calcareous tubes, spaces, or channels, one on each side the intraseptal channels these are about 1-1900" in dia(tig. 20) meter, and in their course give ott" two sets of lateral branches, terminating upon the two surfaces of the septum in which they run. The tubes communicate at each end with a network of smaller ones one set of which ramifies in the upper, the other in the under wall or margin of each chamber these are the marginal plexuses (fig. 24 h) ; and the former terminate upon the outer margin of the shell (// //). The inner wall of the chambers is pierced by innumerable tubules about 1-9000" in diameter, which pass directly downwards from the small In a vertical papillic on the outer surface. section of the shell, in addition to these

The surface

(whence the name Foramiuifera), the marwhich are sometimes more or less prolonged to form tubes, as shown in figs. 31 & 41. This tube is sometimes turned inwards (entosolenian). As the more recently formed chambers are often larger than the others, the shells ai'e often more
gins of

The lines of or less conical or pyramidal. junction of the chambers, visible externally, are called the septal lines these are sometimes sunk, sometimes raised into ridges. Frequently the outer chambers extend laterally beyond the inner, so as to conceal them they are then said to be embracing.
; ;

minute tubes, seven, eight, or more parallel

FORAMIXIFERA.
;

331

FORAMINIFEEA.
;

these horizontal lines are seen (fig. 25 c) are the lines of C( intact of tlie hiyers comThe posing the shell, or the lines of growth. margin of the shell is traversed hy elongated inosculating vessels, which cause the marginal portion to hreak up into calcar(>ou9
24), 1-237" long and 1-900" In a transverse section of the mar100 of these are seen, formgin, more than ing a triangular bundle or cord (fig. 25 a), the apex being directed towards the chamber, the base outwards forming the free rounded margin of the shell and parallel to its side run the papillary tubes of the
spicnla hroad.
(iig.
;

quite chitinous some have a chitinous base with either a sandy or a calcareous coating. Mostly they are altogetlu-r composed of carbonate of lime, and therefore effervesce with a dilute acid. By carefully acting upon the recent organisms with muriatic in the proportion of a drop of the acid, strong acid to a watchglassful of water containing them, the animal is left (PI. 23. 32), retaining the general foim of fig.

the shell, which

self.

it

has mouldi'd upon

it-

In the ''porcellaneous" group the shellmatter covers each segment of sarcode tentwise, the edges of the new" chambers resting on the outside of the older part of the shell. In the "hyaline" group each segment is,in

chamber

25 b). (tig. In addition to the the oritices of the

common foramina and

marginal plexus, the chambers, especially those which terminate the series, are furnishetl with other larger
opening ext:ernally; these are of various forms find ditlerently situated sometimes they are round, numerous, and comparatively small; at others they are
orifices
;

many

cases,

fully

enwrapped with

shell,

except at the septal orifice, through which the stolon connects the new and old segments. Besides this tubuliferous shell-layer, many of the hyaline Foraminifera lay down other coats, by the investing sarcode,

single

and

large, circular, semicircular,

or

lunate, &c.

The nature of the Foraminifera has been very difi'erently viewed. They were formerly regarded as microscopic Cephalopoda, then as Bryozoa (Polyzoa), and again as intermediate between the Polypi and Echinodermata. Dujaidin's view^, however, is now fidopted, that their structure is very simple, and that they are closely allied to the Arcellina, the body being single and composed of a simple sarcodic substance, without the distinct separation of organs, the filiform processes (pseudopodia), which issue from the various external apertures of the shell being comparable with those of Ainaha, Arcella, and other members of the
family. Tlie

before new segments are set off; and these supplementary layers not only form " interridges and tubercles, but also the mediate skeleton," in which vessels or canals, for the sarcode passing outwards, are more or less prevalent, constituting the "

Canal-system." Recent Foraminifera can be procured by dredging, or sometimes from the sand of the sea-shore. They often form white lines or To separate bands, between tide-marks. them, the sand should be washed in fresh water, dried, and spread upon a piece of black paper, or the black disk (Intbod, p. xxvi), and examined as an opaque object ; when the shells, easily distinguished by their forms, may be picked out by means of
a

chambers contain a soft translucent and often one or more colourless substance
;

minute,

(sarcoThese appear to have blasts) are present. been sometimes regarded as nuclei. If the corpuscles described by Hertwig and Schidze as nuclei are really such, the Foraminifera may be ranked as high as the Amoebina. The nature of the contents of the intraseptal and marginal vessels is doubtful Mr. Carter regards them as performing a water-vessel function comparable to that of the circulating system of the sponges {Graiitia) whilst ^Villiamsonand Carpenter consider them to be filled with the organic substance (if the body.

round,

granular

bodies

stirred up with water and allowed to settle the sandy particles will then subside, and the shells, from their cliambers being filled with air, may be skimmed off the surface or they may be poured off through muslin, with the disturbed water, before all the sediment has had time to settle. In the fossil state, the Foraminifera abound in Chalk, from which they may be obtained in tJie manner directed under
; ;

mounted bristle. Or the dried sand may be

Chalk

in fact this substance constitutes

one of the best sources of them for examination. In other calcareous rocks or limestones they are also extremely numerous.

Thus

in the stones

of

The

which the buildings

shells

of Foraminifera

are

rarely

in Paris are constructed, the shells of tlie

FOEAMTNIFERA.
may

332

FORAMINIFERA,

Miliolidfe are so abundant, that tliis city be said to be built of them. The Nummulites or coin-stones which form mountains in the Mediterranean and

c. ? Dactyloporina. Ovulitcs, Lam. ; Dacfi/!ina, Zbor. ?), Ilaploporella, Gihnhel ( PL 23. fig. 53; Dactylopurella, Giimb. {=DactyInpora, Lamarck, in parte), PL 23.

North-Indian regions, and of which the pyramids of Egypt are principally composed, are Foraminifera (PI. 24. figs. 21, 22). Many clays, such as those of the Lias, the Oolitic and Cretaceous series, and London
Tertiaries, those of Prussia, Belgium, Malaga, San Domingo, &c., and many shelly sands of Tertiaiy age in Suffolk, Italy, Ger-

fig.

54

Giimb. Michelin
;

ThyrsoporcUa,Gum\).\ Gyroporella, Giimb. Uteria, CylindreUa,

;
;

Acicularia, d'Ai'chiac.
3.

Subdivision

ARENACEA.

Group III.

Test calcareous and arenaceous.

3.

Zealand, Australia, and elsewhere, also yield Foraminifera by careful

many, France,

New

Fam.

Astrorhizidse.
;

washing. See the articles

Swosphcm'a, Psammosphcera, Schultze Brady; Saccammina, M. Sars; Pilulina,

Chalk and Rhizopoda.

Genera and Suhgenera
in parentheses.)

Carpenter
nitella,

Storthosphcera, Schidze
;

I'ech-

Norman
Str.

Synojitical List of the

monella, Br.

Pelosina, Brady Astrorhiza, Sandahl

;

Asche-

Dendro;

of Foraminifera.

phrya,
Sars
;

Wright
Br.
;

(The subgenera are placed

Division A.

JacideUa,

Rhabdammina, M. Hyperammina, Br.

;

Psanimatodcndron,
nella,

Norman (MS.);

Saye-

IMPERFORATA.
1.

pella,

Subdivision

CIIITINAOEA.

MarsiCarpenter JLdiphysema, Bowerbank ; Polyphrayma, Reuss.

Br.
;

Botellina,
;

Norman

Group
Groniia,

I.

Test chitinous, imperforate.

Fam.

4. Lituolidse.

Fam.
parede
;

1.

Gromidae.
Cla-

Dujardin ; LieberkzieJmia, Shepheardella, SiddaU.

2.

("These comprise sandy isomorphs of the simpler types of the Ilyalina, such as Lagena, Nodosaria, Glubigerina, Botalia, iVb-

Subdivision

CALCAREA
lanea).

(Porcel-

Group

II.

Test calcareous, imperforate,

;

porcellaneous, and sometimes sandy occasionally chitinous and sandy.

PL 23. fig. 23 {Peophax, de Montfort; Haplophraymium, Reuss; HaBdclPlacopxiliua, d'Orb. phistiche, Rss. Trochammina, Parker & loidina, Carter)
; ;
'

nionina, &c.) Litnola, Lam.,

Fam.
a.

2.

Miliolidae.
;

MiLiOLixA.
;

Bath ysiphon, G. O. Sars

DeSqwimidina, Schultze; Nuhecularia, france Miliola, Lamarck, Plate 23. fig. 1

Williamson); (Uniluci/lina, d'Orb., PI. 23. fig. 2; Bilocnlina, d'Orb., PL 23. fig. 3 Spirolocuilna, d'Orb., PI. 23. 7 Trihcidina, d'Orb., PI. 23. fig. 4
(
;

Jones, PL 23. fig. \4:(Hormosina,V>i-AA\ Ammodiscus, Rss. Webbina, d'Orb., PL 23. fig. Inwlutina, TerNodosinella, Br. 21) quem Endothyra, Phillips Stacheia, Br. Thurammina, Br.; Hippocrepina , Parker; Cyclammina, Br.
;

= Miliolina,
;

Fam.

5.

Parkeridse.
;

Parheria, Carpenter

Loftusia, Brady.
(Vitrea vel

fig.

PI. 23. figs. 5, 6; Quinqitelocidina, d'Orh., Crnciloculina, d'Orb. ) Cornuspira, Schultze, PI. 23. fig. 13 {Ojjldhalmidium, Kiibler) ;
;

Division B.

PERFORATA
Hyalina),

Ninnniuloculina,

Steinmann

Hauerina,

Group

dOrb., PL

PL
9);

"a^.?)', Vertehralina, d'Orb., 23. fig. 9 (Articulina, d'Orb., PL 23. tig. Fahularia, Defr.

23.

IV. Tests of many of the larger forms arenaceous, with more or less
;

of a calcareous perforate basis

smaUer

b.

Orbitolitina.

Peneropjis, de Mont(Bendrifina, d'Orb.

;
; ;

forms hyahne and perforate.

Lamarck, PL 23. fig. 12.) Orln'cu23. fig. 19 OrhitoUtes, lina, Lam., PL Lam., PL 23. fig. 17 Alveolina, d'Orb., PL
8pirolina,

fort,

PL

23.

fig.

11.

a.

Fam. 6. Textularidae. Textularina. Te.rtnlaria, Defrance,

PL
23.
fig.

23, figs. 47,

fig.

52 (Vulvulina, d'Orb.,

PL

49;

23.

TO. figs, ir,,

50;

Biyenerina, d'Orb., PL 23. Pavonina yenilina, Gumbel;

FORAMINIFEEA.
d'Orb.
; ;

333

FORAMINIFERA.
PL
24.
fig.
;

Cnncolina, Sju'roplecfa, Ehrenberg Venwuilina, d'Orb. {Gaudryiita, d'Orb.) ; K^s. d'Orb., PI. 23. fig. 48 HetcrostomeUa, ValTrifa.rin, Rss.) ChniMilhlina. d'Orb. PI. '23. tig. 20 {aariihna, vuli'iia, d'Orb., d'Orb., PI. 23. fig. 51). b. BuLiMiNiXA. Bidiminct, d'Orb., PI. Bolivina, 23. fig. 46 ( Viri/idina, d'Orb. d'Orb. L'iffinii(i,'l\ kJ .; liobcrti)ia,dVvh.
; ; ; ;

d'Orb.,
pe.rtia,

9; yl?)/)!////,d'Orb.)

Pu-

Wallich
;

Carpentaria, Gray; Polg-

trema, Risso; Tinopiorus, Carpenter (= Gypsina, Carter) Cyndxdopora, von Hagenow (PL 24. fig. 17) Tkalamopora, Rss.
; ;

Pd-

vinidina, P.

& J. PL 24. figs. 11

(

Lamarck (PL
d'Orb.

24.

tigs.

16) Rot alia, 13, 14); Calcarina,

, ;

Pkurostoinella, Reuss).
e.

Cassidulinina.
fig.

Cassidulinn,

Group VI II.
tubulated

d'Orb.,

Test calcareous, very finely all the higher forms with a

PI. 23.

4.J

Ehrenhergina, Reuss.
iDerforate.
a.

system of interseptal canals.

Group V.

Test calcareoiis, finely

Fam.
(PL 24.
fig. 55, b.

11.

Nummulitidae.

Fam.

7. Cliilostomellidee.

Polystomellina.
fig.

Nonionina, d'Orb.
Lam. (PL
23.
;
;

18)

Poh/stomella,

Allomorphina, Reuss; ChilosfomeUn, Reuss EUipsoidina, Seguenza.

;

PL

24. figs. i9, 20).

NuMMULiTiNA.

Archcsdiscus, Brady
; ;

Fam.
a.

8.

Lagenidse.

Lagenina.

La(/ena,
22,
;

Walker

and
;

FuAmphistegina, d'Orb. (PL 24. fig. 28) Eozoon, sulina, Fischer (PL 24. fig. 15) HeteDawson Cydoclypem, Carpenter
;

Jacob, PI. 23.

Ehr.,

figs.

24-27 {Entosolenia,
:

rostegina, d'Orb.
;

Operculina,

d'Orb. (PI.

Bamulma,

23 Fissurina, Reuss) Jones. Nodosarina Nodosaria, Lam., PI. 23. fig. 28 {GlanduUna, d'Orb.; Benfalina, d'Orb., PL 23. fig. 33; LiiiffuOrfhocerina, d'Orb., =Rhahlina, d'Orb.)
PI. 23. fig.

figs.

24. figs. 23-26) Nummulites, 21, 22 (Assilina, d'Orb.).

Lam.,

PL

24.

Unplaced groups

do(/oniinn, Rss.,
laria,
fio-.

PL
;

23. fig.

36

Frondicu-

Group IX.
a.

Testamojbiformia, Carter.

2Jhina,

Neugeb.) Vaginulina, d'Orb., PL 23. 35 (Bimidim, d'Orb.); Marginnlina, CristeUaria, d^Orb., PL 23. tigs. 30-32; Lam., PL 23. figs. 34, 37 {Plamdaria, FlabeUma, d'Orb., PL 23. fig. 38. Defr.) b. Polymorphinina. Pohjmorphina, 40-43 (Dimorphina, d'Orb., PL 23. figs. 44 Uvigerina, d'Orb., PL 23. fig.
;

Defr.,

PL

23. fig.

39

{Amphimov-

Lobose forms.
teodictyina, Carter.
b.

Ilolocladia and CysTest chitinous. Cerastestina, Carter.

Test calcareous.

Group

X. Syringosphaeridae, Duncan. Test calcareous, with radiating groups of tubules.

d'Orb.)

{Sagriyia, d'Orb.).

Syringosplireria

and StoUczharia, Duncan,

Group XL

Group

coarse

YI. Test calcareous, generally witli perforations; without canal-

Receptaculitidae, Giimbel. Test calcareous, consisting of an inner and

an outer

system.

Fam.

9.

Globigerinidae.

floor of plates, connected by the tubes of an anastomosing canalsystem.

PL 24. figs. 2, 3 {OrGlobigerina, d'Orb., bidina, d'Orb., PL 24. fig. 1); Pidknia, Parker and Jones Spharoidma, d'Orb.
;

Receptaculites, Defr. ; Ischadites, Konig ; Tetragonis, Eichwald; Sphceronites, Hisinger ; Sp)hcerospongia, Salter.

(PL

24. fig. 4)

Ccmdeina, d'Orb.

BiBL. D'Orbigny,Z>c^.

Sc.
iv.

NatAS2Q,x\\.;
;

Mem.
forate
;

Soc.

Geol. France,
;

Diet. d'Hist.

Group VIL

Test calcareous, coarsely persome with double chamber-

walls and interseptal canals.

Fam.
Spirillina,

10. Rotalidde.
;

PaEhrenb. (PL 24. fig. 5} 24. fig. 8) Discortellina, Williamson (PL bina, P. & J. (PL 24. fig. 7); PlanorbuUna, 12 (TruncatuUna, d'Orb., PL 24. figs. 6, 10,
;

Nat. foss. Vien. 1846 ; Ehrenb. Mikrog. 1854; lA. Abh. Ah. Berlin, 1838, 1839, 1841, 1847, &c. Weaver, Ann. N. H. 1841, vii. 296, 374 Dujardin, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1835, iv. & v. Clark, Ann. N. II. 1849, iii. 388, 1850, v. 161; Williamson, Tr. Micr. Soc. ii., and Recent Foraminif. {Ray Soc.) Carpenter, Tr. Geol. Soc. 1849 Microscope; Phil. Tr. 1856, 59, 60, 69;
1845, V.
; ; ;
;

Foram.

FORD A.
Introd,
X.,

334

TEA GIL ARIA.

;

Carter, Ann. N. H. 1852, 1854, xiv., &c. Schultze, Organism. Polyf.hal. ; Mii/ler's Archiv, 185L! J. Micr. Soc. v. 220) ; Wiec/mann^s (Q. Archiv, 18G0 {Ann. N. II. ser. 3, vi'i. 30G) Parker, Jones, and Brady, Ann. N. II. 2.
;

Foram.
xi.,

18')3,

xix. ; 3. iii., iv., vi., viii., xi., xii., xv., xvi. ; 4. iv., vi., viii., ix., x. ; Q. J. Geol. 8oc. xvi.

to be cut into thin sections and polished by the lapidary the friable kinds, where the infiltration has merely filled the cavities of the cells and vessels, may be split with a knife and mounted in balsam. Examples are given in PI. 25. figs. 29-33. PI. 48. fig. 32, exhibits concretions of silica imi-

292, 452 xxviii. 103 Phil. Trans. 1865 Tr. Linn. Soc. 1864 and 1870; Monoijr. lieusa, Verst. Cray For. ( Pal. Soc. ) 18()6 liohm. Kreid. 1845-46 Haiding. Ahhandl.
; ;
;
;

The stems of Palms and Dicotyledonous trees are met with completely converted into siliceous blocks, sei-tions of which exhibit all the miuutiaj of
tating structure.

the structure.

iv.

Denksch. Akad. Wien, XXV. Sitz. Ak. Wien, pas.sim

; ;

i.,
;

vii., xxiii., Zsitscli. dent,

FOSSOMBRO'NIA, Raddi.A
PellietB

genus of

geol. Ges.

iii.,

vii.,
;

&c.

Ro.uer, Vou Ilageuow, Pliilippi, Reuss, Czjzek, Alth, Bornemanu, Egyer, Neogeboren, Karrer, &c. Since 1875 the following have added to the bibliography of the subject A. M. Norman, J. D. Siddall, J. II. Carter, W. J. Sollas, .1. F. Blake, E. Vanden Broeck, Joseph Wright, H. B. Brady, A. W. Waters, Ph. de la Harpe, W. K. Parker, T. R. Jones, G. Stache, F. Karrer, C. W. Giimbel, J. W.
:

bayr. daui,

Ak.

x. tfcc.

also the

Giimbel, Abliandl. memoirs of Sol-

(Hepaticie), nearly allied in the character of its vegetative structure to the Jungermaunieee, having large, squarish, The stout stems irregularly waved leaves. are procumbent, and set with purple radicles all alou'j: the underside. The fruitstalk arises from the underside of the stem, and turns back; the periclnete is very large; and the capsule bursts irregularly into four slender crose valves, F.pusilla is the Jungermannia pusilla of the British Flora ; found chiefly on clay banks.

Schwager, M. von llantkeu, G. Steinmann, G. C. Wallich,P, M. Dnncan, G. Terrigi, C. Miibius, J. Seguenza, &c. FOR'DA, Ilevdeu. See Aphid.!-:, p. 63. FORFIC'ULA, Linn. F. auricidaris is

Dawson,

(J.

the

common

or acid of ants. This acid occurs in ants, especially the red ant, Furmicarnfa; in the stinging hairs of some insects, as of the procession caterpillar {Bomhy.v processionea); and in the pi-isonous secretion of the stings of insects perhaps also in the stinging organs of the AcalephtB and Polypes. In the higher animals it is a frequent product of the oxidation of organic substances, and is also foimd in the juice of flesh, in the lu'ine, in vomited liquids, and also in the stinging hairs of in the blood the nettle &c.
;
;

FORMIC ACID,

earwig.

BiBL. Hook. Brit. Junyerm. pi. 69, Brit. Flur. ii.pt. 2. 117; Endlicher, Gen. Plant. suppl. i. no. 472-7. FOVIL'L.A. The name appUed to the liquid granular matter tilling the pollencell and pas.-ing into the pollen-tube of Flowering Plants. The minute granules, which are of various but altogether indefinite sizes, exhibit an active quivering motion the molecular motion, as it is called which is displayed in the same way by all finely-divided solid substances, living or

dead, and is apparently dependent on purely They appear to consist of physical causes. starch-grains, minute globules of oil, and granules of protoplasm probably composed
of proteine compounds. These granules are exceedingly transparent in many kinds of

FOSSIL
called.

INFUSORIA. The

pollen when fresh,' from their refractiiigpowx'r being nearly equal to that of tlie
fluid

fossil

valves of the Diatomaceoe were formerly so

visible

See Diatomace.e. WOOD. This occurs in very dift'erent conditions as, for example, converted into lignite, and the modifications of coal or with the vegetable substance almost entirely removed .and replaced by forms of sile.x;, preserving all the organic the tissues. The mode of examining and mounting Coal, kc, is given under that article. Silicilied woods wliich have been completely infiltrated and solidified require

FOSSIL

FRAGILA'RIA, Lyngb. A genus of Diatomaceae (Cohort Fragilarieic). Char, Frustules (in front view) linear, symmetrical, united into straiglit ov twisted
flat. filaments
;

surrounding them. They bv adding water.

may be made

valvs lanceolate, oblong or

in the filaments not

linear.
Difl'ers

from Diatoma

becoming

separated into zigzag chains. Transverse stria? only visible under oblique or "slopped'" illumination. Kiitzing enumerates sixteen species, of

FREDERICELLA.
which ten
!J

335

FRONUICULAKIA.

Eahenhorst fidwith nunierous varieties. F. capucina, K. (F.rhabdusoma, E., PI. 16. Friistules linear iu front view fig. 33). valves narrowly and acutely lanceolate breadth of tilament 1-700", Freshwater.
are dduhtful.
luits
spt>cii'8,
;
;

taining the frog may then be placed upon a plate of wood, witli a circular aperUue at one end, over which the foot is to be extended by tying the toes with silk or cotton threads to little tacks or nails driven into

the

wooden

plate.
frog,

Common
3.

in pools, &c.

are sold for the purpose.

Valves attenuate towards the obtuse

kidney of the
knife, will

" Metal " frog-plates Sections of the made with a Valentin's

ends.

F. rirescens, Ealfs {F. pectinalis, Ehr.). Frustules in front view linear, rectangular or cuneate valves obtuse at tlie contra'ted and produced ends. Freshwater. Endochronie green. (3. Valves cohering by the angles only. F. striafidn. ^'alves linear, narrowed toward.^ the very obtuse ends. Marine. BiBL. Kutzing, BacUl. 45; id. Sp. Ak/.
;

show the ciliated epitlielium of the necks of the urinary tubules. The circulation of the blood in the lungs and the mesentery may be examined but tlie animal should be rendered insensible by chloroform before the experiment. The ova of the frog (frogs' spawn) have formed the subject of some of our most
;

interesting

experiments on

impregnation

and development.
exhibit well

14; Ralfs, Ann. X. H. 1843,

Smith, Brit. Diat.
Alq.
i.

ii.

21

106; Rabenhorst, Flor.

xii.

118.

FREDERICEL'LA,

Gervais. A genus

of Polyzoa, of the order llippocrepia, and family I'lumatellidas. Char. Polypidom fixed, coriaceous, tubular, branched polypes protruding from the ends of the branches tentacular disk nearly circular tentacles about twenty-four, arranged on the margin of the disk in a single series, and invested at their origin by a
;

The larva) (tadpoles) the circulation in the gills, tail, and more transparent parts, and afford easily obtained matei-ials for the study of the development of the tissues. The chorda dorsalis is well seen in a young tadpole. The frog and tadpole, however, are inferior in most respects to the Triton and its larvae for exhibiting these phenomena. The injected organs of the frog afford most interesting and beautiful preparations,
especially the lungs, kidneys, skin, tongue, and Aveb of the foot. The injection should be thrown in at the heart, and the slightest The simplest method possible force used. of killing a frog without injury, is to immerse and retain it in warm water. The muscles of the frog often contain

membrane.

Freshwater.
;

F. sultana. Polyj^e-cells erect, cylindrical. Height of zoary about 2" tufted, shrubby stem dichotomously branched. Eggs
;

bean-shaped, smooth. BiBL. AUman, Freshw. Polyzoa {Bai/ Soc), 110; Johnston, Br. Zooph. 40-5.

FREI'A, CI. & L. genus of Infusoria, of the family Bursarina.

Char. Those of
Steyitar,

a nematoid mamii).

parasite

(^Myonjhtes

Weiss-

FRONDICULA'RIA, Defr. This

do-genus comprises

pseu-

with the buccal

spire borne by an anterior membranous bilobed expansion. 3 species marine. F. elegans (PI. 62. fig. 1.). BiBL. Clap, and Lachm. Infits. 217; St. Wright, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1862, 217.
:

flat stichostegian Nodosarina, which have geniculate or chevron chambers. They are the extremelj^ compressed and dilated forms of the group,

having tlie quasi-genus Lhujrdina to connect them with the cylindrical Nodusarke. In
Fro7idtctdaria the shell
is

equilateral
;

nar-

FREY'A. See Frkia. FROG. The common frog (Bana

tempo-

raria) affords a means of studying several interesting points of structure. Thus, by genth' scraping the back of the roof of the mouth with the handle of a scalpel, ciliated epithelium (PI. 49. fig. 13) may be obtained, and the ciliary movement studied. The circulation in the web of the foot, and the phenomena of inflammation may be observed, by enclosing a frog in a wet bag,

row-oblong, rhomboidal, or ovate greatly compressed; chambers iu a straight row, depressed, each forming two sides of a triangle, with the angle sometimes prolonged ;
septal lines often raised as ridges
;

inter;

first spaces sometimes striate chamber oval; aperture roimd, on the upper

mediate

angle.

Recent in the Atlantic. Fossil in the Tertiaries of Italy, Spain, and West Indies ; and abundant in the Chalk, Gault,Lias, and
Fr. spafhulata (PI. 23. other fossil clays. the early portion of a specifig. 39) shows

leaving one leg projecting.

The bag con-

FRONTOXIA.

336

FUCACE^.

men from the Chalk, closely allied to the typical Fr. complanata, Defr. BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. 57 Williamson, Fee. For. 23 Moms, Br. Foss. 35 ; Reuss, Boh in. Kreid. Carpenter, Introd. For. 160, 164. Ehr. genus of Infusoria, of the family Bursarina (CI. & L.). Char. Resembles Ophri/of/leiia, except in the absence of the watch-glass organ. Most of the species of Dujardin's genus
; ; ;

Brit. Flora, ii. pt. 1. 128 : Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Suppl. i. No. 472-10.

FRONTO'MA,

FRUSTU'LIA, Ag. genus of Diatomacese. Char. Fnistules naviculoid, free or irregularly scattered through an amorphous gelatinous mass valves elliptic-lanceolate, without central and terminal nodules longitudinal line interrupted in the middle.
;
;

Fanophrys belong

here.

F. leucos (Bursan'a 1.,'Ehr.). Parenchyma armed with trichocysts buccal fossa oval, pointed behind j a single contractile vesicle. Freshwater. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 329 Clap, and
; ;

Lachm. Fifus. 259. FRULLA'NIA, Raddi. A genus of Jungermanniefe (Hepaticfe), containing three British species, the Jimgermmmia Hutchinsi'ce, dihffafa, and Tamarisci of Hooker's British Flora. F. dilatata is very common, creeping on the bark of trees, its dark brown

Frustules in front view very narrowly linear, rounded at the ends valves suddenly acute at the ends transverse stria} evident; gelatinous envelope continuous length of frustules 1-2200 to 1-864". Found in a saline spring. This organism is of particular interest, as having formed the subject of Schmidt's ultimate analysis, in which he determined the presence of cellulose. (Diatojiace^^e,
;
; ;

Freshwater. F. salina, Ehr.

dry foliage appearing like minute spreading

Fig. 251.

p. 249.) F. membranacea^ nobis (PL 50. fig. 6). Frustules in front view linear, very slightly narrowed towards the ends valves lanceoobtuse ends; late, constricted near the length of frustules 1-1250". Found abundantly forming a thin stratum or film upon the sides of a glass jar con;

taining water-plants. F. saxonica, Rab. (PI. 19.

tules in front

view

linear,

fig. 17). Frusrounded at the

ends

valves

Forms
mulous
rocks.

elliptical,

somewhat

acute.

du-ty olive-brown, gelatinous, tremasses, contained in small pits in

This
It is

is

sometimes used as a test-object.

regarded by Dallinger and others as the same as Navicida rhoinboides and crassi-

nervis.

Rabenhorst
fossil.

describes

species
;

one

Fmllania Tamarisci.
Portion of a stem, with branches bearing the pericheetes from which the sporanges emerge.

Ehreub. Lifiis. 232 Kiitzing, 109; id. Sp.Alg. 96; Rabenhorst, i. 227; M. 31. Jn. 1876, Fl.Alq. llidda, XV. 122 Stodder, ibid. 253 DalHnger, ibid.
Bacill.
;

BiBL.

Magn.

5 diams.

1877, xvii.

1,

173.

blotches

the almost sessile capsides are somewhat inconspicuous, but are distinguished by their whitish colour. The valves of the capsule and the elaters aftbrd beautiful microscopic objects, illustrative of the F. Tamarisd spiral structures in cells. (tig. 251) has longer and more regidarly pinnate stems, forming large lax tufts on the
;

FUCA'CE^:. family of Fucoideje. Olive-coloured inarticulate sea-weeds, whose reproductive organs are borne in staUced sacs upon the walls of spherical cavities excavated in the substance of the frond. Fructijication,
sporanyes or spore-sacs and anfheridia. The spores of Fucus divide into two, four, or eight within the sac those of the other genera remain undivided. The antheiidia are filled with spermatozoids or antherozoids, which in Fucus have been seen to fertilize the spores. See Ftjcus.
;

ground and hnv

countries.

buslies, cliieHy in

Subalpine
pis. 1, 5,

BiBL. Ylook. Brit. JwKjcrman.

6;

FUCOIDE.E.
British Genera.
*

337

FUCOIDE^.

Air-vessels stalked.

Sargassum.
leaves
;

Branches

bearing

ribbed

air-vessels simple. Ilalidn/s. Frond linear, pinnate, leafless ; air-vesseis divided into several cells by

composed of a number of stout, supeijacent, branched cords, growing out of the frond one above another, and attaching themselves to the rock, like the roots of a Tree-fern or a Palm. Some (Pycnophycus)
cese, it is

transverse partitions.
** Air-vessels immersed in the substance of the frond or absent.
Cystoseira.

Root

scutate.

Frond much

branched, bushy. Eeceptacles cellular. Frond Pycnophycus. Boot branching.

cylindrical.

Beceptacles cellular.

Fucks. Boot scutate. Frond dichotomous. Beceptacles filled with mucus, traversed by
i2oo< scutate. Frond cupshaped. Beceptacles (frond-lilie) very long, strap-shaped, dichotomouslv branched. FUCOI DE.'E, or MELA^'OSPORE^. An order of Algae, deri^-ing their ordinary name from the Funis or Wrack, one of the most common genera of the family. They of difference present many remarkable points from the red"^ sea-weeds in their higher forms, while the loAvest forms approach the simpler the higher forms of genera of that order and the Confervoideae. The Fucoids are exclusively marine, and are at once distinguished

jointed threads. Himanthalia.

spring from a creeping stem-hke portion, spreading in a netted mass over the rocks, while many of the smaller are parasitical or, more properly, epiphytic, growing on the fronds of the larger kinds, to which they attach themselves by minute 'sucker '-like Some appear to be true parasites disks. {Elachistece and Myrionematd). Several are of minute size, but very few strictly microAlmost all present three regions, scopic. resembling respectively the root, stem, and leaf or leaves of the higher plants, although they are not ordinarily reparded as the morphological analogues of them. In a fewcases the frond is a shapeless mass or crust, lying close to the surface of the rocka. None become calcified like the Corallines. The fructijication of these plants is still in a somewhat obscure condition as regards the order in general; for great apparent divei'sities occur in the physiological phenomena presented by what at first appear like idenhave here, as in the tical structures.

We

2^Zor/f7e(?,thi'ee distinct forms of reproductive

1, zoorespectively as: and 3, spermatozoids. 1. The zoospores are the reproductive boand in the dies most frequently met with lower forms the arrangements are not very different from those in the filamentous ConIn Ectocarpus, where the frond fervoids. is composed of jointed cellular filaments, the cells at the ends of the branches, or other articulations, become enlarged and

structure,
sjjores
;

known
;

2, sjxjres

by their

olive or

dark-brown colour; and

although some of the larger kinds grow in deep water, the majority are met with on rocks between high- and low- water mark, where they are exposed to the atmosphere at each efflux of the sea those which are occasionally drawn up from deep water prove that this exposiu-e is necessary for healthy and the growth, by their weak structure absence of fi'uctification. Some of them
:

filled

are also provided with air-bladders, which maintain them floating or erect and with at least their upper lobes little beneath the These air-bladders surface of the water. are very well seen in our common Bladder-

with gi'anular matter which is ultimately converted into zoospores. These enlarged cells are called by Thuret sporanyes, and are commonly described as spores in algological works but they burst and dis;

charge the numerous microscopic zoosjjores, which are pear-shaped, with a clear, beaklike,

wrack {Fucus vesiculosus, fig. 252) and still more so in the celebrated Gulf-weed {Sargassum bacciferu7n),yvheTe the stalked berrylike bladders are the most striking feature
;

narrow end, of
cilia,

olive colour,

and have

of the plant. All the larger kinds grow on rocks, to which they are attached by a root-like structure, of somewhat conical form, cleaving, like the 'sucker' with which school-boys in many this cone lift stones, to the rock is solid, and composed of tough cellular iu others, especially the Laminariatissue
;

not arising from the beak, but from a reddish point on the coloured portion one cUium is longer than the other, and directed forwards the other is short, and trails behind like a kind of rudder. Their movements are very active and they

two

seek the light.

When

they germinate, they

become immovable and spherical, acquire a membranous coat, and emit a tubular prolongation, which soon becomes divided by
cross septa, and
is

developed into a

new

FUCOIDE^,
fi'ond.

338

FUCOIDE.^.
wall
of

In some cases the sporanges are multilocular {t}-ichospo)-anffes) consistmg of very slender, and usually rather short, j ointed filaments, in each joint (cell) of which a single zoospore is produced. These occur in considerable number, occupying the same place as the unilocular kind, which they sometimes accompany and the two forms appear to pass one "into the other. The zoospores are perfectly similar, except that those produced singly in the filaments are not so large as those developed in large numbers in the large, ovate, unilocular
,
;

from the Fucus.)

3.

sacs consisting of a cell (perispore^ springing

the

chamber.

(See

Spermatozoids have been met with, as

sporanges.

The two forms of sporange producing zoospores have been found in the Myrionemapege,OhordariaceEe, Sporochnacese, Punctariaceae, and Dictyosiphonacepe in Chorda lomentaria only the multilocular, and in the other Laminariacese only the unilocular, have been seen at present. The Cutleriacese present the remarkable phenomenon of the occurrence of sporanges containing zoospores together with antheridia analogous to those of the Fucace^.
;

well as zoospores, in the Cutleriacese. The spermatozoids or antherozoids exactly resemble those of Halidrys and rycnoplujcas, described below. In Dictyota the spermatozoids occur on separate plants, in antheridia grouped in sori like the spore-fruit. In the Fucacefe the spermatozoids or antherozoids occur with the spores above described. In Fucus canalicidatus {Pelvetia, Dene, and Thuret) and F. plntycarpus (Thuret) the antheridia are found, in company with the spores, in the conceptacles in the other species of Fucus the two kinds of organs are never met with together in the
;

(See CUTLERIA.) Those Fucoidese in which the reproduction is effected by zoospores only, form Thuret's group of Phseosporese. 2. The spores occur in the Dictyotaceje and the Fucacece, as large granular bodies of ovate form, enclosed in a sporange or oogonium, and clothed besides by a gelatinous coat called the epispore these large spores are always devoid of power of motion. In some cases they are simple reproductive
;

same conceptacle in Himanthcdia lorea they are on distinct plants, in Halidrys silicpiosa intermingled, and in Pycnophycus tuherculatus in the same chamber but not mixed. The antheridia of these plants consist of transparent ovoid sacs, inserted in great number on the branched hairs (para7icmata) (fig. 254) clothing the inside of the fruit-chambers or scaphidia. In some genera they have a double coat, in others only one when two exist, the inner is expelled as a sac on the rupture of the antheridium when only one exists, the spermatozoids are expelled individually and
;

freely from the single coat, which always remains attached upon its support. The

in others they subdivide, after escaping from the perispore, into two, four, or

spores

eight sporules, each capable of germination. (See Fucus, and figs. 253, 256.) In the Dictyotacefe these spores are collected into on the surface of the definite groups {sori) In the Fucaceae the spores are frond. fovnid in spherical cavities immersed in the substance of the frond, sometimes occurring

sometimes collected in special These cavities communicate with the external surface by pores, and are usually from the swollen sliiny appearperceptible ance where they open. Where no general little spherical chamreceptacles exist, the where bers are excavated in the frond these do occur, as in Fucus, the spherical chambers are attached to the inside of their walls, one beneath each external pore. Tliese chambers, called by some scaphidia,
in
all parts,

regions.

spermatozoids or antherozoids found in these sacs are little hyaline globules, each enclosing a granide of grey colour in Fucus canalicidatus, red-orange in all other species of Fuctis and other genera. They bear two locomotive cilia, verj' slender, and of unequal The form of the corpuscles and the length. arrangement of the cilia difl^er in difterent In all the species of Fucus the genera. spermatozoids are of the shape of little bottles, the neck of which, always foremost in the movement, bears the shortest cilium the longer arises from the coloured granule, and trails behind. In Halidrys, Pycnophycus, and Cystoseira, the corpuscle is oval or
;

by others

concepfacJes,

antheridia, or both.

The

contain spores or spores occur in

spherical in one dimension, and compressed, sometimes a little convex, in the other; both the cilia are inserted on the red granule, and during the locomotion the corpuscle turns upon its own axis, with the longer cilium in advance, vibrating with rapidity, while tlie shorter is motionless. In Himanthcdia the antheridia have a double coat; the

FUCOIDE.E.
form of the antlierozoids

339

FUCUS.

is not clearly made of the Fucacefe have their discoverer, to be analogous to the spermatozoids of the higher Cryptogamia, and to perform a fertinot to reproduce the plant lizing function like the zoospores of the other families and the multiplication appears to be effected solely by the large olive-coloured spores.

The antherozoids been shown by Thuret,

out.

cation : nnilocular sporanges springing from the base of the vertical filaments forming the epidermis of the frond; and mtdtilocrdar sporanges developed later from the filaments surrounding the former. MvRiONEMACEiE. Frotid tuber-shaped, crustaceous, or spreading as a crust, of fila-

(SeeFucACEiE.)
Spwpsis of the Families. Frond leathery or FuCACK^..

mentous strncture. Fructification : nnilocular and multilocular sporanges attached to the superficial filaments, and concealed among them. BiBL. See that of the Families.

mem-

branous, cellular. Fructification : spores and antheridia contained together or separately cavities imbedded in the frond. in
spherical

FU'CUS, Linn. A genus of Fucaceee (Fucoid Algae), including some of the commonest and most abundant of our olivecoloured sea-weeds, growing upon rocks and stones between tide-marks, their large fronds waving in the water at high tide, and lying matted together over the rocks when the tide is out; continually cast ashore in quantities after rough weather. F. vesiculosus, the common bladder-icrack, is familiar to every one who has visited a seacoast. Decaisne and Thuret divide the

DiCTYOTACE.^.

Frond
:

cellular,

flat,

compact. Fructification spores, antheridia in definite spots (and tetraspores?) arranged or lines (sori) on the surface.

Froud cellular, comCuTLERiACEiE. dot-like scatFrnctiJjcatio7i pact, ribless. tered collections of sporanges divided into
:

eio-ht
sistino-

and antheridia concompartments of chambered filaments in groups of

;

EcTOCAHPACE^. Frond filiform, jointed. Fructification: unilocidar sporanges, ovate sacs developed at the ends or intermediate ioints of the filaments; and multi/ocidar of minute jointed sporanges, consisting Anfilaments found in similar situations.
Avith spermatozoids theridia foimd in Sphacelaria.

curved jointed

hairs.

genus into three: Pelvetia{F.canalicidattis), Ozothallia (F. nodosus), and Fiicus proper, including F. serratus, vesiculosus, and ceranoides.

In F. nodosus and F. Machaii the recepand stallied but in all the rest they are terminal and continuous with the frond (fig. 252), forming oval thickened
tacles are lateral
;

have

been

Fiff.

252.

LAMiNAEiACEiE. Frond leathery or gelaFructification

:

tinous, cellular.

unilocnlar

cloud-like patches, sporanges in indefinite or covering the whole surface of the frond or nndtilocular sporanges clothing the whole surface of the frond like an epidermis.
;

DiCTYOSiPHONACE^. Frond cylindrical,

branched, of filamentous structure. Frucovoid sporanges imbedded lengthtification of the frond, opening ways in the substance by a pore on the surface.
:

PrxCTARiACE^B.
flat,

Frond

cylindrical or

unbranched, cellular. Fructification: ovate sporanges in groups on the surface, intermixed with clavate filaments (jparaphyses).

End of a branch

of F. vesiculosus, bearing two terminal

receptacles.

SpoROCHNACEiE.

Jy-dMfZ leathciy or

memclubs,

Half the

nat. size.

branous, cellular, branched. Fructification ; uniloadar or multilncular sporanges attached to external jointed filaments, free or collected in knob-iike masses. Choedaeiace^. Frond cartilaginous or of horizontal and vergelatinous, composed tical jointed filaments interlaced. Fructifi-

on which, by the naked eye,

may

be

distinguished a number of spots or pores. These are the orifices of the conceptacles, which are globular cases immersed in the substance of the receptacle, and communicating with the outer surface by a pore (fig. The central portion of the receptacle 263).

z2

FUCUS.
is filled

340

FUCUS.

up Tvatli a delicate network of jointed filaments surrounded by a gelatinous sul> etance, this medullary structure forming a bond of imion between the numerous couThe internal wall of the conceptacles. deceptacles is lined with a dense mass of licate jointed filaments (fig. 253) standing
vertically (jMraphyses), among which apin the pear the stalked sjwre-sacs, alone dioecious and monoecious forms, mixed with

spores, in F. nodosus (Ozothallia) into four, and in F. serratus, vesicidvsus, and the other Fuel proper, into eight, by segmentation.

matm^e, the sporange bursts at the the epispore enclosing the spores is expelled, and makes its way towards the pore of the conceptacle, and falls into the water, where it undergoes the following modifications. Taking F. vesiculostis as an example, the expelled epispore encloses

When
;

apex

Fig. 253.

eight spores, forming what Thuret calls an This swells and the spores beoctospore. come rounded, separating from each other and the upper part of the epispore begins to
;

spores become removed from the lower part of the epispore (marked by
dissolve.

The

Section of a concfiitaLlu ui' i i.uialiculatus, containing sporanges, antheridia, and paraphyses. Magnilied 40 diameters.
.

the impression of the stalk of the sporange) ; and it then becomes evident that they are enclosed in a third membrane, which is attached to the episjiure in the centre of its base, so that as the spores emerge from the dissolving summit of the epispore the internal membrane becomes stretched upward, until it finally bursts and sets the spores free. These changes of the octospore are generally

antheridia in the hermaphrodite. The antheridia occur alone in similar conceptacles F. in the monoecious and dioecious forms. canaUculatiis is hermaphrodite (like Pycnophyctts tuhercidatus, which, however, has antheridia only at the upper part of the conceptacle, near the pore, spore-sacs at the lower part) in F. serratus, ceranoides, vesi;

passed through in about an hour, sometimes

much more
The

rapidly.

antheridia consist of minute ovate sacs, attached in great numbers to hair-liko filaments growing from the internal surface of the conceptacle (fig. 254). When young,

Fig. 254.

Fig. 255.

ctdosus,

and twdosxs the male and female

conceptacles occur usually on distinct plants; but both kinds sometimes occur on F. nodoThe male and female individuals of sus. the dioecious species may often be distinguished, when mature, by the yellowish colour the antheridia give to the receptacles; and if these are exposed for a short time to the air, the antheridia are expelled in masses through the pores of the conceptacles,
papillae.

Fig.
fect

2.54. A branched cell of F. nodosus, bearing a perand an imperfect antheridium. Magn. 200 dianis. Fig. 2.55. Sao of an antheridium of F. serratus, nearly

empty.

Magn. 400 diams.

and form

little

orange-coloured

The female plants under similar circumstances exhibit olive-coloured papillae at the mouths of the pores, consisting of
masses of spores.

they are filled with colourless granular matter but subsequently this becomes condensed into little corpuscles (spermatozaids
;

The sj7oranges or spore-stacs consist of ovate sacs, stalked, on the walls of the conthey have a double ceptacle (fig. 253) membrane an outer, the sporatu/e or j)erispore, and an inner, the epispore these are undistinguishable until the spores escape but then the epispore becomes evident as an inner sac. The epispore encloses at first a mass of olive-coloured cell-contents in F.

or antherozoids), forming a greyish mass dotted with orange points. The sac is and the internal one is expelled double from the outer like the epispore from the sporange, and fuids its way out from the pore of the conceptacle. The spermatozoids
;

actively

up the central part begin to move and the sac soon bursts at one or both ends to discharge them. The sperma-

which

fill
;

canalicidattts {Pelvetia) this divides into

two

tozoids (fig. 255) are excessively minute, transparent bodies, scarcely 1-5000" long, enclosing a granule of an orange-colour in

FUCUS.
most

341

FUNARIACE^.
description corresponds in all

spores, but frroyish in F. cnnaliculafus. speriuatozoids have two cilia, of unequal length, one directed forwards, the other backwards; the form of the spermato/oids and the direction of the cilia vary in different the one directed forspecies,

The above

The

essentials to the process as it occurs in the other species. The spores of F. vesicuJosus
fertilized with spermatozoids of F. serratus by Thuret but no other experiments of hybridation were siiccessfid. One or two other points deserve notice. The orange spot of the spermatozoids is coloured blue by sulphuric acid (like Chlorophyll). Sugar and sulphuric acid colour the spermatozoids red (Proteine), The membrane of the sporange {perispore) is coloured blue by sulphuric acid and iodine (Cellulose) but this is not the case with the epispore nor the internal membrane, even after treatment with caustic potash. In F. canaliculatus, however, there is a laminated coat immediately surrounding the spores, which when placed in sea-water separate, while the coat swells and forms a kind of gelatinous envelope, which appears as if covered with cilia; these pseudo-cilia seem to be analogovis to the similar appearances in the gelatinous sheath of DesmiDiACEJE and other Confeevoids.

have been

ward usually moving with great rapidity, and producing locomotion, while the other
trails

behind like a rudder. interesting and important point connected with the genus Fucus is the

The most

process of fecundation. When a drop of sea-water containing active spermatozoids, is added to a slide upon which the free spores above described have been previously placed, the whole operation of the fertilization may be traced under the microscope. The spermatozoids attach themselves in great numbers to the
spores, and by the motion of the cilia commimicate to tliem a I'otatory movement, often very rapid. The held of the microscope becomes covered with these large brownish spheres bristling with spennatozdids, and rolling in all directions among the crowd of those still unattached. After about half an hour, the movement of the

the spermatozoids move for In a few minutes after the contact of the spermatozoids, such fertilized spores will be found coated with a membrane, the presence of which is readily made out by placing the spore in syrup, which causes the granular contents to contract and shrink away from the envelope, which, moreover, may be coloured blue by The spore next sulphuric acid and iodine.
spores ceases
;

some time longer.

The months from December to March are the most favourable for observing the above phenomena. No covering glass must be used on the slide, unless prevented by a thin glass support from pressing on the spores and deforming them, power of 150 to 200 diameters suffices for most of the obfor the spermatozoids and the servations, actual fecundation, a power of 300. Seawater must always be used. The germination of the spores maybe observed by placing

them on

glass slides moistened

with sea-

begins to enlarge and grow by cell-division, one end becoming elongated into a transparent filament like a radicle (fig. 256) several more of these are afterwards formed
;

water, and keeping them under a bell-glass standing in a dish containing sand moistened with sea-water,

Fig. 256.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 18, pi. 1 D Phyc. Brit. pis. 47, 52, 158, 214 Greville, Decaisne and Thuret, Alg. Brit. pi. 181 Ann. Sc. Nat. ,S ser. iii, 5 Thuret, ibid. xvi. 6, 4 ser. ii, 197, vii. 34 Sachs, Bot.
;
;

284

Bower, Jn. 3Iic. Soc. 1880, FUNA'RIA, Schreb.A genus of Funa;

riacefe

(Acrocarpous Mosses), the

common

(F. hygrometrica') is well known on account of the hygroscopic character of its fruit-stalk, which twists in
It
Spores of F. serratuB in various stages of germination.

species of

which

drying, and untwists again when wetted. exhibits stomata on the neck of the
(fig.

Magnified 100 diameters.

capsule

262).

BiBL. Vs'\\&on,Bryol.Br.2QS', Berkeley,

grows and they become organs of attachmpnt by which the young frond is fixed to a stone or other support.
as the upper part
;

Handb. 176.

FUNARIACE.E. A
rioidese

family of Funa(Acrocarpous Mosses) of loosely-

FUNARIACE^.
;

342

FUNARIACEiE.

tufted or gregarious habit, growing on the ground the stem loosely leaved, very simInflorescence monoecious; antheridial ple. flowers disk-shaped, mostly terminal on a
special

branch.

Antheridia

small,

oval.

Archegones small, narrowly apiculate.

Pa-

raphyses filiform at base, club-shaped and articulate at the apex. Peristome, if present, cartilaginous, red, streaked, tary, oblique, trabeculate teeth.

with

soli-

British

Genera.

Funaria. Capsule asymmeti'ically arched 257); orifice oblique, very small; stalk much curved, elongated, very hygroscopic and twisting. Calyptra ventricose-dimidiate, rounded at the base, obtuse, shorter than the capsule, or larger and truncate at the base (fig. 258). Peristome double, erect
(fig.
;

F. hibernica.

Teeth of the peristome, with appendices.

Magnified 150 diameters.

erect, pyi-iform,

without a peristome. Operareolate.

culum regularhj

outer of sixteen, oblique, broadly lanceolatesubulate, trabeculate teeth, with appendices near the point (fig. 259), chained together at the apex by a reticular disk the inner as many as the outer, opposite and adnate at the base, lanceolate, granular, with a longi;

Physcoinitrium. Cah'ptra mitre-shaped, split at the base into several lacinia3, entire much shorter than the capsule, with below, a long apiculus. Capsule symmetrical, straight, pyriform, without a peristome.

Operculum regularly
Entosthodon,

areolate.

Fig. 257.

Fig. 258.

Calyptra bladder-like, dimidiate, with a long Ym. 260. apiculus, entire, roimded or truncate, readily

Capsule sympear-shaped, straight, or declined on an arched stalk, with or without a peristome.

splitting.

metrical,

Peristome,
dry,

horizontal,

if present, erect when internal simple

;

wanting

scarcely perceptible ; composed of very short lacinias.

or

Teeth lanceolate, ivithPhyscomitrium out appendar/es, simple pyriforme. or twin, flat outside, ,^^ ..,. ' .... T ,' Capsule, maen. 2odjiams. trabeculate within, mostly oblique at the summit, connivent
F. hibernica.
Fig. 257. Fig. 208.

but

not

connate.

Operculum regularly

An

A ripe

capsule with its twisted seta. immature capsule, covered by its calyptra.

areolate.

Magnified 25 diameters.

tudinal line.

Cells of the operculum circinately reticulate at the apex.

Pyramidium. Calyptra squarely pyramidal, apiculate, entire at the base, far exceeding the capsule, totally covering it, inflated and persistent, bursting at the middle of the side, longer. Capsule symmetrical.

A7nhIyodon. Calyptra hood-like, narrow, very fugacious, lougish, very slender, composed at the apex of very small, thickened, square cells. Capsule asymmetrical, pearshaped, straight, with a peristome and an external annulus. Peristome double
:

teeth sixteen, short, lanceolate, obtuse, erect, trabeculate with a slender longitudinal line //(^<'r/ teeth equal in number, lanceolate, subulate, fissile longitudinally in the middle,

FCNARIOIDE^.

343

FUNGI.

in smooth, mucli exceeding the exterual on a shortl}^leugth, yellowish, placed grooved "membrane. Operculum regularly

areolate.

FUNARIOIDE^E.

suborder

of

operculated Acrocarpous (terminal-fruited) Mosses, with broadly-oval spathulate leaves, furnished with a lax cyhndrical nerve, comentirely of large parenchymatous lax and parallelogrammic at the base, towards the lax, hexagonal, or polygonal filled with chloroapex, often very densely or less pellucid. Capphyll-granuleSj'more sule pyriform,apophysate, the neck {coUtim)

almost guished from healthy specimens of all other plants by the total absence of the colour depending on the presence of chloand of rophyll or its red modifications, starch for it is scarcely to be doubted that the various colourless filamentous structures
;

in infusions, (Leptomitese, &c.) occurring

posed
cells,

mostly bearing stomata on

(fig.

its

epidermis

262).

Fig. 261.

Fig. 262.

chemical solutions and the like, are Fungi, and not Algse as some have supposed. They are allied by certain forms with the Algae and with the Lichens but they are distinsimilar forms of guished from all outwardly the first by the spore-bearing fruits always being elevated into the air, when mature, although the thallus or mycelium may be The higher forms of Fungi can aquatic. the higher scarcely be confounded with ' The separation from the Lichens is Algaj. more difficult indeed some authors have come to the conclusion that the Lichens must be reduced to forms of Fungi. Yet the presence of green gonidial cells in the
; ;

r. hvgrometrica.

annulus. Magn. 100 diams. Fig. 261. Portion of the witti stomata. Fig. 262. Epidermis of the coUum, Magn. 100 diams.

thallus will generally sufliciently distinguish shall here follow the old the Lichens. and the distinction ordinarily laid plan down is, that the Lichens are enth'ely aerial while the Fungi have their

We

mcrMSiim^ plants,

This suborder
milies
:

is

divided into two fa;

FuN.\EiACE^.
restrial.

Stem very simple

ter-

the mevegetative structure immersed in dium in which they grow. Some of the beepiphyllous lichens, however, originate neath the cuticle. The structm-es of all Fungi exhibit a weUdefined separation into two parts, namely: struc1, a mycelium (thallus), or vegetative ture, consisting of a mass of exceedingly

Splachnace.^.
branched
;

much very mostly occurring upon the dung

Stem
class of Cellular Flowerless

of animals.

FUXGI.

delicate, jointed

and branched,

colourless,

Plants, growing in or upon damp (vegetable) mould, in or upon the wood and the herbaceous parts of li-ving or dead plants,
living or decaying animal substances, few in solutions of organic matters, &c. occui' on bare stones or other inorganic substances, as a species of Cyphella and some

upon

Myxomycetes; but

A very large portion of the plants belonging

this is quite exceptional.

to this strange class are microscopic bodies, only to be made out clearly by means of a very high magnifying power. As in the rest of the Thallophytes, moreover, the reproductive bodies are simple and exceedingly minute in the larger forms of Fungi ; consequently dissection under the microscope is requisite when it is desired to obtain a satisfactory insight into their natui'al
history.

kind of interlacing filaments, forming a the cottony or felty mass when growdng in earth, in vegetable structm-es, &c., or cloudy flockswhen growing in decomposing liqmds. In some cases, as in certain Sphcerice, the threads are woven into a close mass, or, as in Phallus, into filiform cords while in the Myxomycetes the threads become obsolete or are replaced by a jelly-like substance resembling sarcode. 2, of the reproductive structure or fruit, which, unlike the mycelium, ditiers extremely in appearance in the
;

various tribes.

The Fungi do not appear to be capable of assimilating inorganic food, and are distin-

The mycelium may be well examined in the "spawn" used for planting mushroombeds this cottony substance consists of the mycelium of that plant. The formation and growth of the mycelium of the microscopic species, such as moulds, mildews, &c., may be traced under the microscope by scattering some of the dust-hke fructifications (as the blue powder of common paste-mould) upon
;

FUNGI.

344

FUNGI.
Fig. 264.

warmslips of glass, and keeping them in a ish place under a bell-glass over water, for The filaments will be seen several days. spreading from the spores in all directions,
and often advancing
fructification.

to the formation of the

The. fructification of the simplest

Fungi

is

nothing more than a modification of one or more cells at the end of a filament which rises up from the general body of the mycelium. In ToRULA, one or more globular cells are produced at the ends of filaments

licxagoma glabra.

composed of elonsfated, more or less cylinthese globules drical cells (PL 26. fig. 7) drop off, and develop into new mycelia. In
;

Upper

surface.

Nat. size.

Fig. 265.

Botrytis

(figs.

77, 78, 263), the tips of the

Fig. 26.3.

Lower

surface,

Hexagonia glabra. Ifat. size. with orifloes of the hymenium.

fungous mass (which is all that ordinary observers notice) developed from a flocculent mycelium imbedded in the matrix on

which the plant grows,

Botrytis (Polyactis) vulgaris.
Fertile filaments.

is a fruit, composed of dense cellular tissue, and possessing pits, channels, cavities, or the like, the walls of

Magnified ^00 diams.

fertile filaments are branched and clothed with heaps of spores arising from short peIn PeniviUium (PI. 26. fig. 15), the dicels. filament which rises up, forks at the end, each branch forking again, and so on, until

whicli are clothed with papillose cells, each bearing four free sporanges, which drop off singly to reproduce the plant. The Mush-

room, as gathered and brought to table, is merely the fruit of the Fungus {Agaricus) and similar cells bearing four sporules are found clothing the fiat sides of the paper' '

a close tufted pencil of branches is formed, each branch beai'ing a bead-like row of Innuspores, which drop off separately. merable modifications of this mode of fructification are met with in the microscopic Fungi and the same plan also forms the basis of the fructification of some of the
;

like plates or 'gills' which radiate on the under side of the flat 'cap' of the Fungus.

highest forms.

(See Basidiospores.) second kind of fructification is seen in the Phycomycetes, where the upright filament arising from the flocculent mycelium does not bear free spores as in Penicilliiim, Botrytis, Sec, but a comparatively

The way
arises is

in which the greater complexify by an increased development of the

structures supporting the layer

{/n/meniifvi)

upon which

the

spores

of tissue are

borne. Thus, in the leathery Fungi growing over damp trunlcs of trees and dead wood, such as the Hydna, Thelephorce, Hexagonia (figs. 264, 265), the conspicuous

large sac, filled with minute sporules; and these sporidia are scattered by the bursting In the Helvellce, Pezizce, Sj)aof the sac. thulea (fig. 40), Leotia (fig. 41), &c., structures of a fleshy or leathery character, growing upon damp wood &c., we have counterparts to the Hydna, TJtekpliorce, Sec, since they have fruits arising from a flocculent

FUNGI.
mycelium but their spore-beariug
;

345

FUNGI.
which again produce mycelium,

cells apof pear as detiiiite groups of vesicles or sacs elongated form, producing sporules (usually of two, eight but sometimes two, multiples In or multiples of eight) in their cavities.

the Truffles (Tuber, Elaphomyces, fig. 185), &c. the sporidia are found in twos, fours, or eights, iu sacs in the internal convoluted substance while in the Puti'-jjalls, except Scleroderma, where the internal mass finally breaks up iuto powder, the spores are deveMore loped free, as in the Agarics &c. minute accounts of these structures will be found under Thecaspores and the various
;

are ultimately produced sexual organs, consisting of the polUnodium or antheridium, and the carpogonium or sporange these are often much alike, but the latter is usually larger, and composed of
:

conidia, Ou this

more numerous

cells.

The pollinodium

It was long imagined that these two modes of producing the spores alforded a firm basis for the classification of the Fungi but recent discoveries seem to indicate that
;

genera.

cell, not containing spermato/oids. It comes in contact at the apex or through its whole length with the sporange, which it fertilizes by diffusion, as in the pollen-tube of the embrj'osac but there is no fusion of contents. In Ascobolus, the carpogonium or sporange consists of a curved row of cells. The slender branches of the pollinodium
;

forms a slender branched

closely applied to and fertilize it. After this, one of the middle cells of the carpogonium grows more than the others,

become

characters derived from the fructification are as unsafe here as in the Algaj. Thus, if De Bary's observations on Agancus are correct, an asciferous structure occurs in the highest group of the basidiosporous classes. It is now, however, pretty certain that the on ascigerous structure which he found Agaricus mellevs was a species of Ilyphoand Asmyces. The orders Coniomycetes co'mvcetes also are confounded together by the numerous genera which exhibit both

and produces buds which ultimately form the asci. In Peziza, the end-joints of the carpogonial branches form ovate vesicles with an

The slender wedgeappendage. shaped pollinodium arises on the same branches beneath the carpogonium, with which it becomes connected. Numerous filaments then spring from the base of the sexual organs, forming a dense network^
apical

although the latter may perhaps be regarded as merely a modificaTulasne tion of the ascosporous structure. has also pointed out a peculiar structure
asci a,nd sfgtospores,

analogous to the so-called sj^ermatozoids of the Lichens, namely very minute cylindrical bodies growing upon free points from the these fructifjnng surfaces of the Fungi bodies, quite distinct from the basidiospores
;

the hymenial layer, in which the asci are subsequently produced. It appears that Botryfis cinerea is a conidiiferous form of Peziza (Fuckeliaiia). remarkable peculiarity in the sexual formation of spores iu many Fungi, as in some Algse is, they are frequently not formed in the directly fertihzed cell, but in the newly formed cells springing from its sides or base. The sexuality of the Ascomycetes, how-

and thecaspores, are called spermatia (PL 2(3. 17 s). According to Cornu, these figs. 3, 4,
germinate. Certain more recent observations on the sexual reproduction of the Fungi require
special notice.

ever, is disputed.

Zoospores have now been discovered Pero^ospoba and Cystopus.

in

In the Saprolegnipe, this has been described under Achlya. In Cystopus, the conidia are stated to be formed at the ends of the branches. Subsequently sporangia or oogonia are produced by the swelling of the ends of branches of the mycelium
;

while on another branch, a shoot grows towards the sporangium, swells, and forms fine tube from this an antheridium. bores through the sporangium, and produces fertilization. In the Ascomycetes, a mycelium is formed from the true spores on this are produced

of the structure of the Fungi treated most satisfactorily under the heads of the orders (Ascomycetes, Coniomycetes Sec), since the elements are very similar in all, Avhile the modes of combination are very varied, and in most cases peculiar to the families. In consequence of the numerous discoveries of Tulasne, De Bary and others, tlie older arrangement of the Fungi, based upon the views of Fries, is not at present satisfactory. adopt, therefore, that of Sachs, slightly modified retaining, however, in great measure the nomenclature for those Fungi which are manifestly merely states of higher forms, and are not autonomous.

The minutias

may be

"

We

FUNGI.

346

FUSARIUM.
1881
;

I. of ScHizoMYCETES. Consisting threads which break up into minute cylin-

2nlze,

Bary

&

Woronin, Morph.
_

d.

Pilze, 1881.

drical

bodies,

sometimes

straight,

some-

times curved, or microscopic globular particles in the former case, sometimes at length swarming and forming a cloudy
;

FUNGUS-BED. Mycologists find this very useful for growing the microscopic Fungi. It is best made of a small wooden
box
half-filled

with damp bog-earth, and

it

gelatinous mass in solutions or in decomposing substances. II. Phycomycetes. Aquatic or epiphytous, propagated by zoospores, or by
:

covered with a plate of glass. In winter should be kept in a warm room.

oospores arising from fertilization. 1. Saproleynice. Aquatic. 2. Pero7iosporece. Epiphytic. 3. Mucorini, Fermentigerous

FURCELLA'BIA, Lamx. genus of Cryptonemiacese (Florideous Algae), coutaixiing one common British species, growing
on rocks and stones between tide-marks,
consisting of a fastigiate, dichotomouslydivided frond, 6 to 12" high, of a brownishpurple colour, and somewhat cartilaginous texture. The teti-aspores, which are linearly arranged, are imbedded in the periphery of the swollen pod-like extremities of the branches. Conceptacular fruit as yet un-

Sapro-

phytic (Moulds). '

III.
1.

Hypodeemle.
\

Epiphyllous.
,

Uredinece.
rr
^

o 2.

-7

I
\

bmutS

c,

r.

iXC.

(Jstilaginece.

IV.

Basidiomy'cetes.

Spores

seated

upon Basidia or Sporophores arising from a distinct hymenium.

1.

known.
BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 147,
;

pi.

18

2.

Tissues gelatinous; hymenium exposed. Hymenomxjcctes. Tissue cellular, hyTremelliiKB.

P/iyc. Brit. pi. 94 ; Greville, Alg. Brit. pi. 11 Fnr/. Bot. pi. 894 ; Thuret, Ann. Sc. N.

1855,

iii.

5.

menium
3.

inferior

(Mushrooms

&c.).

FURCULARIA, Lam. A
;

genus of Ro-

Gasteromycetes. Hymenium intricate, cellular, internal (Puff-balls &c.).

tatoria, of the family Hydatinsea. Char. Eye single, frontal tail-like foot

V.
1.

AscojiYCETES,
Protomyces.

Sporidia contained

in Asci (thecse).

More properly perhaps

Gas-

associated with Peronosporese. 2. TuberacecB. Hymenium as in

3.

4.

teromycetes (Truffles &c.). On animal substances, Onyijenece. very rarely on decayed wood. Asci contained in Fyrenomycetes.
perithecia.

Several species ; all freshwater but one, Avhich is marine. F. Reinhardtii, E. (PL 43. fig. 34: fig. 35, teeth). Body fusiform, truncated in front foot elono-ate, cj'lindrical toes two, short length 1-120".
forked.
;

Found creeping upon Laomedea genicidata.

5.

Discomycctes. disciform.

Hymenium

superior,

F. gibha. Body oblong, slightly compressed, dorsally convex, ventrally flat ; toes stvliform, half as long as the body ;
Freshwater. BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 419 Dujardin, Inf. 648; Gosse, Ann.'N. H. 1851, viii. 199. FUSA'RIUM, Lk.A genus of Stilbacei (Hyphoraycetous Fungi), not very satisfactorily distinguished from Fl'Sisporium but having a firm, cellular, pulvinate, fleshy stroma, upon which thespoi'es are borne on distinct sporophores glued together into an erumpent discoid stratum. P. tremelloides is common, forming roundish orange-red but it is spots on decaying nettle-stems now believed to be a spore-bearing state of Peziza fusarioides. F. roseum forms little gregarious red dots on the stems of beans, Jerusalem artichokes, and other plants. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2.
length 1-96".
;

Spores amoeboid in germination, subsequently conjugating. BiBL. Berkeley, Fungales, Lindley's Veg. Kingd, Fuiigi, in Hooker's Br-. Fl. and

VI.

Myxomycetes.

also numerous papers in Ann. N. H. Montague, Ann. N. H. ix. Corda, Ic. Fung. 1837-40 Greville, Scott. Crypt. Nees v. Eseubeck, Syst. Pilze Fries, Fl.

Crypt. Bot.
;

Syst.Myc.
;

& Summa

Veget.; Tulasne, i^tiw^.

Carp. 18(30-5; id. & Woroniu, Morph. S)-c. d. 1863, 11 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. N. 1860, vi. Pilze, 1870 217; Janczewsky, Bot. Zeit. 1871; Fuisting, Bot. Zeit. 1868; Baranetzki, Bot. Zeit. 1872; Cornu, Ann. Sc. N. Sachs, Bot. 1874, 307
;

De Bary,

Frucht. Ascomycet.

1876 {M. M.Jn. xvii. 1877, 295); Tieghem, Ann. Sc. N. 1875, ii. 365 (sexuality disputed); Cooke, Br. Fungi, 1871 (descript. of sp., ^' Jigs, of gen.) Brefeld, Schimmel\

Fries, Syst. 3Ii/c. iii. 469, Sununa Veg. 472;. Greville, Sc. Crypt. i=^/. pi. 20; col. Heft 1. 35. Fresenius, Beitr. z.

355

My

FUSIDIUM.

347

GAMASEA,

FUSTD'IUM, Lk. A genus of Mucediues (Hypliomycetous Fungi), cliaracterized by very delicate white or coloured llocci, wliich do uot form a moist or gelatinous mass as in Fusisjyoriion, and are very evanescent.
Spores straight,
stratum.
filiform.

The

species

grow

on dead leaves, forming a thin powdery

BiBL. Berk. Oidl. 357; Cooke, Bi\Fung. 609; GreviUe, Vnjpt. Fl. pi. 102. FUSISPO'KIUM, Lk. A genus of Sepedoniei (Hypliomycetous Fungi), growing

or in vegetables by the action of animals, especially insects of the order Hymenoptera. They were supposed to arise from the irritation caused by a poisonous liquid discharged into the orifice made by the insect for the introduction of its egg. At all events a convergence of the nutritive juices towards the wound takes place, whence results a kind of hypertrophy of the tissues, and frequently the accumulation of such substances as starch in the cells. The forms may be regidar or irregular most of

upon

upon vegetable substances often when decanng, characterized by elougate fusiform curved septate spores (fig. 206), which ultimately form a gelatinous mass, the fiocci being in general more or less obscure, or if present very delicate, the spores in fact forming the Numeprincipal element. rous species are recorded as British. J*', atrovirens is destructive to onions.

Fig, 266.

characteristic, as, for example, the well-known nut-gall, the oak-apple, the bedeguar of the rose, &c. Both cellular and vascular structures contribute to form

them

are

the substance of galls.

We

cannot enter

into their minute structure here, but refer to an elaborate paper by Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers and to Adler's more recent memoir,

F.

betce

Fusisporiuin. Spores. Magn. 400 diama.

Adler's plates will enable the identification of most, if not all, the British oak-galls, and will perhaps lead to the discovery of
others.

See

Aphidje,

Phytoptid^,
3
ser. xix.
is
;

Cynipid^, and
Sc.

common on

decaying mangold-wurzel.

F.

BiBL. Lacaze-Duthiers, Ami.

rature
liii.

Nat,

cut surface of fceni sometimes runs over the 'a havstack,forming broad orange-red patches. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 251, Ann. N. H. vi. 438, pi. 14. fig. 28 2 ser. vii. 178; Fries, S>/st. Myc. iii. 442, Sum. Veget. 473; GreviUe',*. Cnrpt.Fl.^l. 102. figs. 1&2. FUSULl'NA, Fisch. genus of spiral,
;

273, given

where
;

also the earlier liteAdler, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.

151

M'Lachlan, Fnt. Mn. Mag. 1881,

xvii. 259.

GALUM'NA, Heyden, Gervais. genus of Arachnida, of the order Acariua, and family Oribatea.
Char.

hyaline Foraminifera, near Nonmiina and Nummulina, hwi fusiform instead of uautiloid, the umbilical axis of the shell being much extended. The lateral tapering elongations of the chambers in some cases are
simple, yielding symmetrical casts figured ' Mikroby Fhrenberg as Borelis in the but in others the chambers are geologie divided throughout by labyrinthic segmentation, giving more complex casts and sec' ;

Abdomen
;

subglobular, depressed;

sides of the

pseudo-thorax forming a salient or wing-Uke angle legs of moderate length. This genus approximates to Belba.

The three species, the bodies of which are of a blackish, blackish-chestnut, or ash colour, are found on mosses.
Hermann, Mem. ApUr. 91 Koch, Deidsch.
;

BiBL. Walckenaer, Arachn. (Gervais)

Crusfac. &c.

tions.

F. cylindrica (PI. 24. f. 15) and its varieties form enormous masses of limestone in the Carboniferous system, in Russia and North America. BiBL. Carpenter, Foram. 304 M. Mic. Parker and Jones, Ann. Jn. 1870, 180 N. H. 1872, 260 Brady, ibid. 1876, 414 MciUer, Foram. Buss. 1878.
;
;

GAMA'SEA. family of Arachnida, of the order Acariua. Characterized by the free fihform palpi, the chelate mandibles, and the 7-jointed Genelegs with two claws and a caruncle.
rally parasitic,

birds;

some
;

mammals

and found on insects and upon fishes, reptiles, and

eyeless.

G.

GALLIONEL'LA,
Agardh.

Bory,

= Melosiba,

Galls. These are abnormal growths, tumours as they might be called, produced

Body soft; last joint of mandibles palpi smallest labiunl acute of male, chelate, outer claw very of long, female, ensiform ; legs with two claws and a caruncle, anterior longest, coxae approximate. On bii-ds and bats (PI. 6. fig. 24).
Dermanyssus.
;

Gamasus.

Body hard

labium

tritid

GAIMASUS.
body
-with usually
terior

348

GASTEROMYCETES.

two dorsal plates ; angenerally longest, second pair sometimes incrassate 5 no eyes. On insects, &c. (PL 6. fig. 20).
legs
last joint Pteroptus. Body depressed of palpi longest legs stout, with short On bats (PI. 6. %. 39). joints.
;

There are twenty-three species of Gammarus, many of them marine. Taliti'us saltator, the sand-hopper, found burrowing in and hopping upon the sand of the sea-shore,
also belongs to the family Gammarina. BiBL. Besmarest, Consid. gen. Crust.
;

M.-Edwards, Crustac.
Sc.

iii.

Gervais,

Ann.

Uropoda. Body depressed, with a round dorsal plate, and a deciduous funnel-shaped anal peduncle, serving to fix the body. On
beetles, mosses, &c. (PI. 6. fig. 25).

1835

iv. West wood, P/7. Tr. Bate and Westwood., Ann. N. H. 1857, xix. 135; Rentsh, Gatnm. orn. 1861.

Nat. 1835,
;

HaJarachne.
sal

Body
;

elongate, with a dor-

GANGLION-GLOBULES,
cells.

or

nerve-

and ventral plate

labium

bifid.
.

In the

nostrils of a seal [Halichoerns) See also Argas and Caeis.

See Nerves. GAPES. Achsease occurring in poidtry, arising from entozoa {Sclerostoma and

Sgngamus)
Apt.
iii.

BiBL. Gervais, 215 Duges, Ann.

;

TJ'alcJienaer\s

GAPtVEI'A,

So.

Nat. 2

ser.

24
;

in the air-passages. T. S. Wright.

A genus

of

Deutsch. Cnistac. and UehersicJit Ec. Entom. 157; Megnin, Paras. 11-3; Kramer, Wieqm. Arch. 1876, i. '2S; Tr. Mic. Soc. 1880, 177. GAM'ASUS, Latr. genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina, and family GaJIASEA.

Koch, Murray,
;

Hydroid Polypes, fam. Atractylidse.

G. nutans. Body red, tentacles yellow ; marine; height 1" On rocks and sea-weeds. BiBL. Hiuoks, Brit. Zooph. 101.

GASTEROMYCE'TES.

tribe

of

Species numerous
insects
;

mostly parasitic upon

;

upon the ground others on the higher animals. G. coleoptratorum (PL 6. fig. 26). Found upon dung-beetles {Geotrttpes &c.). Anterior coxae attached at a little distance from those of the second pair tarsi (fig. 26 a) with two claws and an elegant caruncle ; mandibles terpalpi of moderate length minated by a curved hook ; fawn-coloured.
; ;

some

found

Basidiomycetous Fungi, characterized by the production of their free spores upon basidia seated on a sporiferous structure forming convolutions in the interior of an excavated fruit, which ultimately bursts to allow the sporiferous structure to expand
scatter its spores. The fruit of the is ordinarily a globular, elliptical, or shapeless mass, varying in size

and

Gasteromycetes

from microscopic minuteness to the dimensions of large balls, often stalked, arising

G. marginatum.
darker. on a fly,

Found
and

in the on beetles.

Body laroader behind human brain; also

;

G. mtiscarum. On the house-fly, G. auris. In aural meatus of ox.

from an inconspicuous fiocculent mycelium. This external body consists of a leathery or membranous, simple or double sac \peridium), which bursts in various ways at When examined young, these maturity. Fungi appear solid but as they advance,
;

Other species. BiBL. That of the family Leidv, Proc. Acad. PkU. 1872 {Ann. N. II. 1873, xi. 79) JMurray, Ec. Ent. 158.
; ;

GAM'MARUS,
tacea, of the order

Latr. A genus of CrusAmphipoda, and family

Gammarina. The searcher

for the freshwater ]3iatoma-

cepe will surely meet with Gammarus pidex (PL 18. fig. 22), the freshwater shrimp, in muddy brcioks and streams. It attains a

various structures become gradually marked out in their interior, and appear more and more distinct until mature. In the Nidulariacei little conceptacles are developed in the interior of the sac-hke peridium and when the latter is mature, it opens like a cup or vase at its summit, exhibiting the conceptacles within, lying like eggs in a nest. These conceptacles are hollow, and lined with basidia bearing free
;

spores.

length of about 1-2", and moves its curved body through the water by menus of its caudal appendages, frequently lying on its back or side during the process. Gervais distinguishes G. ^//nviafilis from G. jmle.v, by the former having a dorsal spine at each abdominal joint, whilst in the latter this is
absent.

The Trichogastres exhibit in most cases the appearance of a leather ball, arising from an inconspicuous fiocculent mycelium but in Broomcia the peridia are imbedded in large numbers in a common fleshy matrix. The internal structure diflers to a considerable extent in its earlier stages. The peridin m is either single or double, the outer being often quite free, and becoming everted
;

GASTEROMYCETES.
Fig. 268
Fiff.

349

GASTEROMYCETES.
Fig. 270.

2G7.

Fi- 271.
f^"^

IfS^

Polysaccum
Fig. 267. Fig. 268.

crassiped.

Natural

size.

Scleroderma rulgare.
Portion of the internal mass. Magn. 200 diams. Fig. 271. Cells of the hymenium, with basidia and spores. Magn. 400 diama.
Fig. 270.

Section from ditto, showing the loculi.

bers

continued inwards to form chamforms a single or double sac, containing a fleshy substance (gleba), hollowed out into sinuous cavities clothed with In course of ripening, the spongy basidia.
is
;

which

it

mass disappears, leaving only a collection of minute spores and filamentous fragments, which are emitted by the bursting of the
peridium, a process exhibiting many curious peculiarities in this group. The Phalloidei are roundish or ovoid fleshy balls in their earher stages, but when opened exhibit a distinct peridmm and a central lacunose sporiferous structm-e. The
Polysaccmn erasaipes. hymenium, with basidia and spores.

Fig 272.

Cells of the

Magn. 400 diams.

The interior of at the time of dehiscence. PoJysaccum (fig. 268) and Scleroderma (fig.
270) consists, in the early state, of a mass of cellidar matter, formed by the prolongation of the peridium, in the form of septa, in all directions into the interior, so as to divide it into chambers, each of which is lined with a hymenium or conceptacle, hollow in the centre, into which project the ends of the filaments, bearing basidia with two to At the epoch of maturity all six spores. the internal structure has vanished, except the spores and detached particles of the filaments on which they were developed and these escape, on the iDursting of the now bag-like peridium, as a fine powder. In Lyc&perdon, &c., it is not the peridium
;

Lycoperdpn ceelatum.
Section of the gleha showing the loculi, on the walls of which the spores are produced. Magn. 200 diams.

peridium consists of two layers, an inner and an outer, united by firm gelatinous

GASTEROMYCETES.

350

GASTEROMYCETES.
Fiff.

tissue traversed by transverse membranous septa, and exhibits a tendency to split, like an orange, into quarters.

274

Fig. 275.

When

the peridium bursts, which it usually does at the apex, the

central

Fig. 273.

sporiferous

structure

emerges, under various forms. In Phallus it is a capitate or clavate column in Clathrus (fig. 273), an elegant, globular, fleshy trellis in Aseroe, a column with a stellate bead, &c. In all cases, the spores, Avhicb are developed on convolutions of the fleshy sporiferous mass
;

Clathrus
cancellatus.

on tjasidia, are found The sporiferous detached and confluent into a ^'^'^^'^ : ^'^'"'^
(ffleba),
,

to the sporiferous surface at the time this has emerged from the

wet

Viscid

mass aahermg

11

ji

eniereed from the ruptured peridium. ^-^"^'^ ^'^- '^^

peridium and expanded to its full size. This wet condition of the mature sporiferous layer is distinctive between the Phalloidei and the Hymenomycetes, to which
they bear

many

relations.

ITypogaei receive their name from tbeir subterraneous habit of growth; in which they resemble Truffles, a tribe of Ascomycetes bearing much external similarity to these plants (see Tuberacei). The general character is that of globular or de-

The

pressed balls, growing underground, sessile on a flocculent mycelium. They exhibit a peridium enclosing a fleshy r/leba, excavated into sinuous cavities lined by a membrane bearing basidiospores. Tliese fruits do not

Secotium erythrocephalum.
Fig. 274. Natural size. Fig. 275. Vertical section. Fig. 276. Vertical section through the head,

the labyrinthiform cavities.

showing

Fig. 277. Portion of a septum dividing the loculi, bearing basidia. Magnified 400 diameters.

by decaying. Lastly, the Podaxinei bear much resemblance to the Trichogastres but they always contain a central fleshy column, called the hymenophore. The yoimg plants exhibit a peridium passing internally into a fleshy mass hollowed into labyrinthiform cavities with a solid column in the centre (fig. 275), The cavities are lined by a memof all.
;

burst, but set free their spores

Synopsis of the Families.

Peridiutn dehiscent, enclosing a sinuously excavated, fleshy, sporiferous mass, falling to powder or permanent when mature, with a central solid column.

Podaxinei.

Hypogjei.
ing a fleshy,
raneous.

Pendium

indehiscent, coat-

sporiferous

mass.

Subteren-

brane bearing basidiospores (fig. 277). The gleha sometimes breaks up into a pulverulent mass of spores and filaments sometimes it The internal structiu-e of is permanent. this order presents many points of gi-eat morphological interest, but rather as regards
;

Phalloidei.
closing a fleshy,

Peridium dehiscent,
sporiferous mass,

which

emerges from the burst peridium as a clubshaped or capitate column, or a globular network of wrinkled fleshy precesses, coated on the sporiferous surfoces with a darkcoloured foul-smelling .slime (composed of minute spores imbedded in mucus).

the

mode

of arrangement and composition

of the tissues than the character of the ultimate elements themselves, which consist

of the ordinary filamentous interwoven tissue of Fungi in the general mass of the structure, and of globular loosely packed cells in the sporiferous regions.

Trichogastres. Peridium double, more or less distinct, dehiscent, enclosing a multilocular, fleshy, sporiferous mass, which finally breaks up into dust, without a central

column.

CtASTROCH.ETA.

3ol

GENEHATIONS.

NiTiULATJiACEi. Peridium dehiscent, and then fonuinfr a cup or upst, containing one or many globose, oval or discoid conceptacles, lined with iilanients bearing spores. Btbl. See the Families. GASTROCILE'TA, Duj. genns of Infusoria, of the family Enchelia (Uuj.). Char. Body oval, with one side convex, the other being traversed by a longitudinal

G. lorictdata (PI. 86. fig. 26). CeUs inversely conical, obliquely truncate. Common a few fathoms Ijclow low water-mark. BiBL. That of the family.

GEMELLA'RIID/E. A family of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, of the order Infundibulata.

and the

furrow, which
cilia,

is furnished' with vibratile at the ends. priucipallv G.fssa (PI. 3] fig. 7). Body semitransti-micated in front, parent, colourless, oval, minute blunt point at the with a
.

Distinguished by the unjointed zoary, Two cells being opposite in pairs. genera GemeUaria. Cells jointed back to back, orifice all the pairs facing the same way
: ;

oval,
fig.

oblique

no birds'-heads

(PI.
.

36.
.

middle of the posterior margin, convex and smooth above. Freshwater; length 1-400". BiBL. Duiardin, Infus. p. 38.5. GAUDRVI'NA, D'Orb. Textularian

very

26).

Notamia. Each pair of cells ansmg from the next pair but one below it by
tubular prolongations pipe-shaped birds'heads above each pair (PI. 36. fig. 21). BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 293 Busk, Mar. Polyzoa, 34 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii, 14
; ; ;

Foraminifer, having the

early

chambers
;

arranged triserially, as in a Vei-neuilma, makino; the sheU three-keeled at first but it subsequently becomes compressed and wrinkled, the' chambers being alternate with biserial growth, as in Texfidaria. The
in Texfidaria, a slit aperture is usually, as on the inner wa'U of the chamber but it niav be almost terminal and somewhat rounded and pouting, thus passing into_.HeterostomeUa. Some Gaudryince. are twisted and Buliminoid. Fossil and recent. PI. 23. G. pvpoidcs, D'Orb., in the Chalk. fig. 48, BiBL. D'Orb. For. Foss. Vim. Parker & Jones, Annals N. H. ser. 3, xi. 127. GELATINE. This chemical proximate the basis of the various principle constitutes forms of connective tissue, as existing in the true skin, areolar tissue, tendon, ligaments, the swimming-bladder of fishes also of bone &c. (isinglass) It possesses no microscojiic characters it forms a most valuable vehicle for the
;
; ;

Hincks, Polyz.
cellular

GEMMiE. This term

structures,

17.

is

applied to those

formed in Flowerless Plants, which become detached, and reproduce the individual independently of the
spores.

GEMMULI'NA,
NEEINA.

D'Orb.

See

Bige-

GENERATIONS, alternation of. The ordinary plan upon which the reproduction of animals is elFected, viz. that of sexes, involving the action of the spermatic secretion upon the ova, and the subsequent

colouring-matters of liquids for injection.

GELID'IUM, Lamx. genus of Crywhich ptonemiacese (Florideous Algse), of one species {G, corneum) is very common It has a red, pinnated, on our shores. homy frond, from two to six or eight inches high very variable in the appearance of its pinnate subdivisions; both spores and tetraspores are found on the ramules, the former in faveUidia immersed in swollen ramules. BiBL. ITaiweT, Mar. Alg. 137, pi. 17 B, Fhyc. Brii. pi. 53. GEMELLA'PJA, Sav. A genus of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, of the order Inand family Gemellariid* fundibulata,
;

changes ultimately giving rise to individuals resembling the parents, is and the in some instances departed from embryos of certain animals, after their escape from the ova, do not become directly developed into individuals resembling the parents, but produce a new, larval kind of being, which produces generations of the same larval or other kinds, the last of which resemble the original parents.
series of

new

by the ordinary sexual

"While, therefore, in animals reproduced process, the new individuals resemble each other, or differ only in sex, in those which produce these alternate or intermediate generations the new individuals differ from the parents and even from each other, until the last of the series returns to the state of the first parents. This mode of reproduction has received the above name, from ~ the alternation of the larval generations with the ordinary sexual

form.

(Eucratiidse, H.)

Many instances of this process are mentioned under the heads of the Classes &c. in which they occur ; as under Acaxeph^,

GENERATIONS.
Aphit)^, Entozoa, T^nia, &c.

352

GENERATIONS.

Thus,

for instance, iu the Acalephse, the ciliated embryo (PI. 49. fig. 6) produced by the

ordinary sexual process becomes fixed (fig. 7), and passes into the state of an asexual

polype

(fig.

8)

it

then reproduces new

(fig. 9),

in which they assume forms analogous to animals ( or plants) belonging to classes of lower (simpler) organization. 2. In the highest animals, the metamorphoses ai'e intra-uterine, as iu most of the Mammalia in the lower animals these
;

individuals from

gemmae and stolons

metamorphoses are
uterine.

in part or

wholly extra-

ultimately becoming segmented (fig. 10), and producing new individuals which resemble the sexual parents. The intermediate or nurse forms are those represented in figs. 7-10. Again, in Tcenia, the Ci/sticerciis or Echinococcus forms the nurse, producing new individuals bj'' gemmation, these, on reaching the alimentary canal, becomingtransformed into Tcsnice with sexual organs. But the alternation of generations, or a modification of it, also occurs in animals in which sexes are not known to exist, as in some Infusoria and Rhizopods. In these, the ordinary plan of reproduction by division and

In the higher plants the changes are partly intra-uterine (i. e. the embryo has already become a leafy axis within the ovary, but it becomes perfected into the sexual form subsequently), in the lower
partly or wholly extra-uterine.
3. The lower animals and all plants are capable of an asexual or vegetative reproduction, by the isolation and separation of a portion of their substance. 4. Many animals and all plants are ca-

gemmation
difl'ering

and an animal

departed from, from the parent, or

is

a nurse-form res^embling or identical with Acineta and Act inoj)hri/s, is produced, which
gives rise to embryos subsequently growing But in these ininto the parent form. stances the nurse-form is the result of a kind of metamorphosis, rather than of generation.

In the Aphidfe, the process

is

exhibited

by the repeated formation of viviparous broods of beings, from apparently female

without impregnation, the final progeny being sexual. This is called parinsects,
ilienogenesis.

The phenomena designated by the phrase

alternation of generations are also strikingly exemplified in the vegetable kingdom; but the conditions are A'ery complicated, and the an.ilogics with those occurring in animals somewhiit difficult to trace. The Mosses, Hepatica;, and Ferns afford very clear analogies to the Medusae and others admit but it appears to us that of being made out Steenstrup and others have confounded various distinct points, in the parallel drawn between the alternation of generations of animals and the metamorphoses (commonly will endeavour so-called) of plants. to give a summary of the general facts connected with the doctrine.
;
;

pable of being multiplied by this vegetative reproduction in their intermediate stages of extra-uterine development and in such cases the reproduction, fissiparous, gemmiparous, or other, assumes the character peculiar to the class to which the intermediate form is analogous (e. g. the polypifonn reproduction of the Acalephse, the coufervoid growth and multiplication of the proembryo of the Mosses). The product of the vegetative reproduction is either like or unlike tlie body which produces it in the former case the vegetative reproduction will be repeated but in the latter case the product is usually provided with sexual organs, and the cycle of development is completed by the reproduction of a fertilized ovum. In the latter case we have what is called an
; : ;

We

1. All animals and plants reproduced by a sexual process (and there is reason to believe that this will ultimately be found universal), originate from a simple protoplast or cell, and undergo a series of changes, the course of their development to the complete form endowed with sexual organs,

we here exclude consideration the metamorphoses within the sphere of the individual shoot on plants that is, the metamorphosis of the leaf, the morphological element of the higher It appears to us that these are not to plant. bo taken as parallels to the metamorphoses of animals comprehended by Steenstrup under the name of alternation of generations, which would rather be found in the cases where bulbs, bulbils, tubers, &c. appear in the place of shoots, as the product of branch-buds. The analogy would hold also with the gemmcp of the Mosses, &c., and with the govidia of the Thallophytes. Our space does not admit of a more minute exaIllustrations of mination of the subject. the phenomena in vegetables will be found
from

alternation of generations. It will be evident that

under Fehns, Mosses,. CoNrERvoir>E^,

Lichens, certain Fungi, Penicjllium, &c.

e.

g.

Eeysiphe,

GENERATION.

3.>3

GEPIIYllIA.
Conjugating joints
36).

Strictly speaking, the torm alternation of generations is incorrect the process really consisting of an alternation of reproduction by gemmation, with that by sexual reproduction. BiBL. Steenstrup, Altern. of Gen. {Bay
;

spirals (left-handed). geniculate.

a. spirota'uia
slightly

(PI. 51. iig.

Cells

expanded at the ends, cell-walls

Erankfort.

rough.

BiBL.
Fl. Alg.

De
iii.

Soc. 1845)

N.
iv.

11.

Owen, Parthowgcm'sis, and Ann. 18.")1, ii. 5i); A. Thomson, Cycl. An.
;

Barv, Conjug. 77 Rabenhorst, 156; Pritcliard, Inf. pi. W. tig. 31.

;

GEO'DIA, Lamk.

genus of marine

Suppl.

liraun, Rejuv.,

Hay

Soc.

1853

Heufrey, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. ix. 441; Radlkofer, Befrucht. 1857, Ann. X. H. 2 ser. xx. 241 Huxley, Inv. and T'erteb.; Leuckart {Cecidomyia larvce), Ann. N. H. xvii. 18G6, IGl ; Sachs, Bot. 227; Nicholson, Zool.
;

sponges. Distinguished by the rounded form, the solid structure permeated by sinuous canals, and the solid external crustaceous covering formed of globules of silex. O. Zetlandica. Deep water. BiBL. Bowerbank, Brit. Spong. ii. 4o.
tion
of

1878,

3.3.
;

GEOLOGY. The microscopic investigageological

GENERATION, spoxtaneous

some-

products

is

treated of

times called equivocal generation, epigeuesis, or heterogeny. The doctrine of spontaneous generation was considered to have become a matter of ^^'e noticed under Air (p. 24), the history,

under Rocks.

experiments which were supposed to have negatived the idea that microscopic plants and animals derive their origin from the direct transformation of decaying animal have also there and vegetable remains. stated the modes by which the lower forms of organic life, most commonly found in de-

GEOPHTLUS, Leach. genus of Chilopodous Myriapoda. G. longicornis, with the body brownishof more than 40 yellow, slender, consisting joints, is common in garden-mould, under flower-pots, &c. G. subterrnneus is phosphoSee Myriapoda. rescent.
GEOR'GIA, Ehrh. A
genus of Muiaceous Mosses,

We

Fig. 278.

called,

from the four

the
peristome,

teeth of

composing infusions, propagate with extraordinary rapidity.

doctrine
is

More

recent

ments have shown conclusively that

untenable.

experithis

The supposed occurrence

species of

of particular

Entozoa within the bodies of other animals, not to be found in any other
situations,

TetrapJiis and Tetrodontium but these names are of later date thanEhrhart's G. Mni'inos^jne (1780). presents, besides its male and female inflorescence, a peculiar form of terminal
;

was formerly considered to find a ready explanation in the doctrine in ques-

leafy

bud

(fig.

278), which

tion. Later investigations, however, have proved that these supposed species are larval or other forms of tiue species of this Class, which do not attain their perfect development on account of their not existing in a

produces stalked gemmae in the interior. In tlie figure, numerous arche-

suitable locality. BiBL. Schultz,

Fogg. Annal. xli. 184; Helmholtz, Jn. prak. Chem. xxxi. 429
;

gouia are also shown. Georgia Browniana, C. Mliller, = Tetr aphis Broion., Grev. Georgia MuemosyneG. Mnemosyne, Ehrh. A shoot with two

Tetraphis

^Je//ciV/rt,

Gross, tSieb. unclKoll. Zeits. iii.G8; Reissek, Ber. Wien, 1851 Pineau, Ann. 8c. Nat., Zool. 1845, 1848; Pasteur, Compt. Bend, 1860, U. 348, 675, and 1861, lii. 1142; Pouchet, Heterogenie, 1859 id. Nouv. Exp. 1864 Bastian, Begimiinys of Life, 1872 Evolution of Life, Med. Press and Circular, 1872: Tvndall', Putrefaction, 1881.
;
;

Hedw.

Magn.

terminal leafy buds. 15 diameters.

GEPHYRTA,
macese. Char.
cellulate annuli
late, finely

Arn

-A genus

of Diato-

Fr. arcuate, attached, destitute of

and septa
striate.

hoop sublanudValves arcuate, with

;

GENICULA'RIA, De Bary.A

genus

of Desmidiaceae. Char. Cells cylindrical, elongate, neither constricted nor incised, united into long filaments. Eudochrome forming 2 or 3

one median and several lateral costae, dissimilar inferior with the costse disappearing below the ends of the valve superior with them reaching the summit. G. incur vata. Ichaboe and Patngonian
;

guano. G. media.

Californian guano.

2 a

GERANIUM.
G. Telfairm.

351

GILLS.

Mauritius. Qu. Micr, Jn. viii. 20 Greville, Micr. Tr. 1866, 77, 122 (tig.)GERA'NIUM. Tile sepals of the common wild Geraniums and the garden Pelargonia form pleasing objects when dried and mounted in Canada balsam, the cells con-

BiBL. Arnott,

the fore legs. The legs do not possess any special structure by which they are enabled to repel the water, beyond a number of short hairs. Velia rifulorum, with the basal joint of the antennae longest, the legs of moderate
length and equally apart, and Hgdromi-tra stagnoruin, with the first and second joints of the antennfe short, the third being the longest, are allied members of the same family, and are commonly met with on the surface of pools, &c. The elegantly sculptured eggs, and the curiously placed eyes of

taining regularly arrani;ed raphides

kett,

(Que-

Ann. N. H.
CI.

ria,

genus of Infusofam. Vorticellina, Char. Sessile, resembling Sqfphidia, but distinguished by the absence of the pos-

GER'DA,

& L. A

1846,'xviii. 82).

terior sphincter or sucker, G. glans (PI. 52. fig. 2). Body elongate, contractile cylindrical or clavate behind vesicle posterior, continued into a long ves-

Hydrometra, are interesting

objects.

sel.

Freshwater. BiBL. Clap. & Lachm.

Infiis.

117

Kent,

Inf. 657.

GERMINAL VESICLE

of Animals.

See Ovusr.

GERMINAL VESICLE of Plants. This structure, the existence of which is now universally admitted by physiological
botanists, is the

germ of the

future plant,

GIGAR'TINA, Lamx. genus of Cryptonemiaceae (Florideous Algae), with cartilaginous irregularly-divided fronds, the internal substance of which is composed of rather lax tissue, the outer of dichotomous filaments perpendicular to the surface, strongly united by their moniliform terminations (fig. 279). Four British species are

In the anteriortarsi of Velia, minute membranous retractile lobes have been described. Bibl. Westwood, Ixfrod. ii. 4G7, and Si/n. 119; Douglas and Scott, Brit. Hemipt.

formed from one of the protoplasmic germmassesi which exist before impregnation (Tula sue is doubtful whether before) in the embryo-sac of Flowering Plants. In most
cages' three masses are originally produced, and in rare as in Orchis (PI. 47. fig. 4) instances two of these are fertilized, and two
;

embryos produced in one seed; sometimes only one exists, and ordinarily only one is This becomes at first elongated fertilized. into a cellular filament called the sxspeiisor, wliich is cut oft' by septa into several cells, the last of which usually becomes the
embryonal vesicle or embrgo-cell, which is then developed into the embryo (fig. 192, See Ovule and Embryo. pa'^e 280).

GERMINATION. The act of development of a seed or spore into a new pi int. The phenomena attending the gerrainatim

of all the Cryptogamic plants require the aid of the microscope for their investigainstances highly intion, and are in most terest ii^ig and important in a physiological view. For particulars, see the point of classes of Flowerless Plants.

Gigartina iiistillata. TransTerse section of tlie frond.

Magnified 50 diameters.

known, growing from 2

to

6 inches high,

joint legs very long

GER'RIS, Latr. genus of ITemipterous (Ileteropterous) Insects, of the family HydronietridfB. Gerris lacitstris is everywhere seen skimming the surface of water. It has the basal of the antennas longest, the four liind
and
at a great distance from

of a dull purple colour. Reproduced by spores (in favellidia) and tetraspores scattered among the peripheral filaments.

G. acicularis (PI.

4. fig. 17).
pi.

Bibl. Harvey, Mar. Alga;, 139,

17

Greville, Alg. Brit. 146, 147, pi. 16.

GILLS OF

Fishes.

These organs form

injected
objects.

beautiful and favourite

They must be injected from the heart, or from the branchial artery, which ascends

GILLS.
from the
as the

355

GLANDS.

lioart much in the same manner pulmonary artery ascends from the

heart of the higher animals.

It
is

may

be

situated nmch nearer to the anterior end of the body than in the Mammalia.

remarked that the heart

of tishes

liiBL. Stannius,
let,

J'erc/l.

An.\

Lerebonl;

An. Com]), de I'Appar. liespir. Ilyrtl, Med. Jahrb. (Ester. iSfaat. bd. 24 Leydig, Jlinfol. '.iS2 Gegeubaur, Veiyl. An. 505. GILLS OF IxsKCTS, or brauchife. These
;
;

OP Antmat.r. Glands are organs, the general function of which is to separate from the blood certain compounds destined to perform some special oliice in the economy. They are divided into true and vascular glands. or secernent glands The secernent glands, the secretions from which esca])e either by rupture, or through
;

GLANDS

ducts, are thus arranged

1.
:

Glands consisting of closed vesicles

are hair- or leaf-like processes (I'l. 35. figs. 2 //, 15, 19, 21) projecting from the surface of the body, and containing one or more

which dehisce laterally the Graafian vesicles of the ovary, and the follicles (Nabothian) of the cervix uteri.
Glands composed of cells reticularly the liver. (See Liver.) in 3. Racemose or aggregated glands, which aggregations of roundish or elongated glandular vesicles occur at the ends of the excretory ducts. These are either, ff, simple, with one or but few lobules, comprising the mucous glands, the sebaceous and the Meibomian follicles or, b, compound, with
2.

and their ramifications, which commmiicate with those of the body geneInsects furnished with gills or Ijranrally. chiae have no occasion to rise to the surface of the water in which they live, the diffusion by which the respiratory process is effected taking place between the gaseous contents of the tracheae and those of the water, GlXAN'iSIA, Montague. A genus of
traciicaj

united

Cryptonemiacese (Florideous Algaj), containing one British species, G.furcellata, a inrare, pinky-red sea-weed, about 2 to ches long, with a dichotomous, terete, membranaceo-gelatinous frond, the divisions of which have a kind of fibrous axis. The

and salivary glands, the pancreas, the prostate, Cowper's and the mammary glands in this category must also be placed tfie lungs.

many

lobules, the lachrymal

4. Tubular glands, in which the secreting elements have a moi'e or less tubular form.

These are

either, a,

simple, consisting of

produced in spherical couceptacles imbedded just beneath the surface of

spores
are

one or but few cascal tubes

the frond.

BiBL. Harvoy, Mar. Algce, 148, pi. 19 C E. Botany, pi. 1881. GINGER. This substance finds a place here on account of its liability to adulteraIt tion when sold in the form of powder. consists of the rhizomes of Zimjihcr offiThe bulk of cinale (N. O. Zingiberaceas)
;

structure consists of parenchymatous with pitted walls, containing scattered starch-granules, and here and there filled with a combined mass of starchgranules and yellow coloming-matter of very distinct character ; besides these, occur the pitted ducts and a small quantity of woody fibre. The starch-grains nearly resemble those of the species of Curcuma

the

cellular tissue

including the tubular gastric and intestinal (Lieberkiihu's), the uterine, sudoriparous and ceruminous glands or, 6, compound, consisting of numerous reticular or ramified glandular canals comprising the testis and the kidney. The vascular glands, which have no ducts, and the contents of which escape by transudation, are subdivided into 1. Those composed of large and small cells imbedded in a stroma of connective tissue comprising the snpra-renal capsules, the anterior lobules of the pineal gland, and the pituitary body. 2. The closed follicles, consisting of a
;

basement-membrane, an epithelial lining, and transparent contents, forming the thyroid gland. 3. The closed foUicles, with a capsule of areolar tissue and contents consisting of nuclei, cells, and liquid, to which belong, a, the solitary follicles of the stomach and intestines b, the aggregated follicles of the small intestines, 'or Peyer's glands, in ani;

which yield East-India arrowi-oot. Adulteration is effected with cheap starches (sago-, wheat-, or potato-fiour), which may be detected by the form of the granules while MusTABD-husks and Cayenne pepper are employed to give pungency to the same
;

mals also those of the stomach and large

follicles of the c, the glandular root of the toiigue, and of the pharynx and the tonsils and, d, the lymphatic glands. 4. Here belongs the spleen, consisting of

articles. The characters of these substances are given under their respective heads. BiBL. Hassall, Food ^-c. p. 390.

reduced

intestines;

2a2

GLANDS.

356

GLANDS.

a cellular parenchyma containiug numerous closed follicles like tbe last.

5. The thymus gland, in which aggregated glandular vesicles open into a common closed canal or wide space. The glands are further noticed under their respective heads.

BiBL. Kolliker, Mik. An., and Gew('beHenle, AUg. An. ^^^agner, Handw. Phys. Todd and Bowman, Phys. Anat.
lehre
;
;

the fluid contents, which are squeezed out by the pressure, and probably by the tension of the tissue around the bulb. Compound external glands difier from the simple only in the fact that they are coinposed of a greater or a smaller number of cells combined into a mass, usually of spherical or allied form. They may be sessile,

upon a simple or compound hair. Examples of sessile form occur in Dictamnus

or stalked
albiis

Carpenter, Physiol.

GLANDS

Frey, Histol. 374.

of

OF Plants.The glands

the leaf of

plants are special structures formed of cellular tissue, in which are produced secretions of various kinds, such as oils, resins, &c. They are ordinarily more or less closely

the mulberry and the Hop (fig. 14), and the stipular glands of Cinof the stalked, in the chona, Galium, &c.
;

(PI. 28. figs. 38, 30),

Rohinia

viscosa,

connected with the epidermal tissues, but not in all cases, the latter instances forming a kind of transition to the receptacles of
special secretions, turpentine-reservoirs &c., found in the interior of the stems of many plants. Glands may be conveniently divided into external and internal the former are
:

Rose (fig. 46), species of Huhiis, Drosera, and on many aromatic or viscid plants. Internal glands. These consist of cavities
in the subepidermal tissue, of variable size, bounded by a firm layer of cells, and filled

with oily or resinous secretions. pear to be formed either of one

small, or,
cells,

They apcell,

when

when

which,

large, of a definite mass of after the production of the

sessile, or stalked

(when thsy present the

grandular hairs., of variou,-; forms) while the latter are generally visible externally as transparent dots scattered over an organ, such as a leaf, giving it the
character of
;

secretion, have their Avails obliterated so as to form a large chamber possibly, however, some may be intercellular spaces into which
;

the secretion poured out. Examples of moderate dimensions are found in the leaves
is

appearance of having been pricked all over when of more considerable with a pin dimensions, and with thicker walls, they produce tuberculation of the surface, as on
;

of Dictainnus, 3Iagnolia

(PI.

28.

fig.

12),

the rind of the orange, &c.

E.rternalylands. These may besubdivided into simple and compound. Simple e.vternal (/lands are either sessile
vesicles or hairs, composed of a single vesicular or elongated epidermal cell filled with secretion; or they are hairs composed of a

Hypericum perforatum, and other species, Myrtacece, Puta graveolens (fig. 11), &c. Very large glands of this kind contain the oil in the rind of the orange (fig. 280) and
other species of Citrus.
Fig. 280.

"-(^

simple

row

of cells, one or

are filled with secretion.

more of which Examples of this

Section of the rind of an orange, showing the internal

may be found
Achimenes

sinensis, Gilia tricolor,

in the epidermis of Priinida Erodiiun cicviarinm, (Bl. 28. fig. ,32), Stachys, Marru-

hium, Digitalis jmrjnirea

rhinum omijus (fig. 34), bor us fat id us, Scropliularia nodosa (fig. 41), Sempervivum, Salvia, Thymus, Mellissa, Me.<icmb-yanthemum, Garden Chrysanthe-

33), Antir(Enothcra, llcUe(fig.

Magn.

glands, R, R. 50 diams.

mum

The nectaries of flowers have their tissue metamorphosed into a condition resembling that of the secreting part of glands and
;

(fig.

30), &c.

The slings of the nettles ai-e to be placed here; they consist of very long, tapering, and a single hairs, with an obtuse point,
bulb-like expansion at the base, imbedded in a dense layer of epidermal tissue (1*1. 28. The hair is filled with the poisonous fio-. 8).
secretion.

When
ofi"

the

point

touches

tlie

skin, it breaks

and allows the escape

of

the hairs of the stigma of Flowering Plants produce a secretion at the period of impregnation. Brongniart has lately pointed out the existence of internal glands in the dissepiments of the ovaries of the petaloid Monocotyledons. These structures form a transition to the turpentine-canals &c. of the Conifer;. (See Secreting organs of I'lants.) The Gummi-Keiden of Meyen

GLANDULINA.
(ci/stoh'flis

GLEXOPIIORA.
Fig. 281.

of "VVeddpll) are also related to

(See Raphidf.s.) Bennett draws attention to certain glands, imbedded in the leaves of Droseiut, I'inyuiglands.
ciila, and Callifriche, at first sight resemThey are bling stomata, with two papilla?. supposed to be related to a carnivorous function. Similar structures seem to exist in leaves of the garden rhubarb (PI. 2. fig. 14).

BiBL. Meyen, Secretionsorg.

Berlin, 1837
; ;

d. Pflanzen.

Fig. 282.

Brongniart, Ann. Sc. Nat.

;

4 st5r. ii. 5 Lawson, A7m. N, H. 2 ser. xiv. IGl Trecul, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 s(?r. iii. 303 Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xvi. 146 Tieghem, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1872 Sachs, But. 92 Bennett, M.
; :
;

M. Jn. 1870, XV. 1. GI.ANDULI'XA, D'Orb. A Nodosarian Foraminifer.

It has
;

straight, ovoidal shell

a free, regular, globular, almost com-

Gleichenia.
Fig. 281. Fertile pinnules with sori. Magn. 5 diams. Fig. 282. Sorus composed of four crucially arranged

pletely embracing chambers, the last being convex and prolonged and a round, minute,
;

capsules.

Maga. 40 diams.

terminal orifice. G. IcBviyata (PI. 23. fig. 28). Eecent and Common in the Lias and Chalk. fossil. BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien. 28; Morris, Br. Foss. 36; Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xix. 280. GLAUCO'MA, Ehr. genus of Infusoria, of the family Trachelina, E.

GLEXODIN'IUM, Ehr. A

genus

of

Infusoria, of the family Peridinfea.

Char. Carapace membranous, rounded or oblong, with one or more distinct furrows

furnished with vibratile

cilia

an elongated

or horse-shoe-shaped red (eye-) spot present no horn-like processes.

;

C/iar.

Body

ciliated

all

over;

mouth
placed

longitudinal,

oval,

without teeth,

These organisms are doubtful Infusoria. They are common in pools and bog-water. &'. cinctum (PI. 31. Ovate fig. 10 a, b).
or subglobose, ends obtuse, yellow; carapace smooth eye-spot large, transverse and semilunar length 1-576", G. apicidatum (PI. 31. fig. 10 c). Oval, ends obtuse, greenish yellow carapace smooth eye-spot oblong length 1-480". G. tabulatum. Oval, greenish yellow ; carapace granular, reticulated with prominent lines ends acute or denticulate eyespot oblong; length 1-480".. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 257; Dujardin, Inf. 373 Kent, Inf 446.
;

laterally near the anterior third or fourth

of the body, and furnished with one or two tremulous laminiB or lips. Stein describes the encysting process as

occurring in one species. G. scintiUans, E. (PI. 31.

;

fig.

8).

Body

colom'less, slightly depressed, elliptical or ovate sacculi large; length 1-290". Freshwater, and in infusions (of hay, &c.).

oval mouth large, nearer the middle than the anterior end of the body; length 1-630". In putrid rain-water collected in an empty winecask coated with cream of tartar.

G.

viridis,

D.

Body gi-een,

"GLENOM'ORUM, Ehr. The

Glenomo-

Infiis.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Infus. 334 475 Stein, Infus. 250.

;

Dujardin,

order of Ferns, distinguished by the soriof few (2-10) obliquely annulated sporangia, -which open

GLEICHENIA'CE^.

An
:

Genera vertically (fig. 2^2). Gleichenia. Sporangia collected in roundish sori. Indusium absent. Leaves forking.
Exotic
(figs.

)'um ttngens of Ehrenberg (PI. 31. fig. 14), which consists of aggregated revolving groups of green bodies, with two anterior cilia, and a red (eye-) spot, has been shown by Weise and Stein to form the young state of Chlorogonium, which itself appears probably to be a stage of development of

Pbotococcus.

281

&

282).

Sporanges collected in pointIndusium spurious, formed by the revolute margin of the leaf. Leaves undiPlatyzoma.
like sori.

GLENOPITORA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Ichthydina. Char. Free ; eyes two, frontal rotatory organ circular and frontal tail truncated,
;

vided.

without toes, G. trochus (PI. 43,

fig.

36).

Body

ovato-

GLENOSPORA.

358

GLCEOCOCCUS.
development

conical, colourless, the turgid front and the narruwed foot truncated eyes blackish ;
;

Gloeocapsa are early stages of of Lichens, from gonidia.

length 1-57U" IVeshwater. BiBL. Ehreub. Inftis. p. 391. GLEN0S'P01?A, Berk. & Desm. genus of Uematiei (?) (Hyphomycetous Fungi), of which one species (G. Thtoaitesii) appears to have been fou)id in Britain. Blbl. Berk. Hort. Journ. iv. p. 2o(J. A typical GLOBIGERI'NA, D'Orb.
;

Stratum gelatinous, green. Diam. of cell-contents, 1-1200 to 1-600'".= lite mat Qcocciis minutissimus, Hassall ? G. montana. Stratum gelatinous, green
G. conjluens.

vesicles concentrically striated; cell-contents 1-1000 to 1-500'" in diam. if. microsjiurus,

Hass. G. (jranosa.
cles

minute and globose, consisting of a series of ten or fewer

Foraniiuifer.
shell
is

The

globular chambers, arranged spirally or tlnee whoils, and increasing rapidly from Surface l-iiOOO to 1-80" in diameter.

in

two

foraminated and rugose, sometimes prickly. Each chamber opens into the umbilical hollow by a crescentic orifice. In G. cretaeca and G. hirsuta the shell is almost discoidal and nautiloid in G. hulloides (PL 24.
;

Stratum green, firm vesicell-contents concentrically striated 1-300'" in diam. 7/^. c/trmosus, Hass. G. j)ol)jdcrmatica (PI. 7. fig. 4 ). Stratum hardish, olivaceous, somewhat compact or concentric lamellse evident, granular thick ; cell-contents 1-800 to l-oOO'" in
;

diam. = ^. rnpestris, Hass. G. (TTuginosa. Stratum grey-feruginous,

iigs. 2,

in 3) the chambers become heaped; G. helicina the later chambers expand and grow irregular. In some cases the last chamber overlaps all the others, and the

vesicles large (1-100 ; to 1-60'"), irregular; cell-eoiitents 1-1000 to 1-600'".=^. ceruyinosus, Hass.

granular-crustaceous

G.

lividia.

ish, soft,
;

Stratum dirty olive or blackbut tubercular ceU-contents seru;

becomes an Orhulina. G. buUoides is very abundant in the Atlantic and other oceans, also in the shallow water of the Adriatic. Many varieties occur, recent and fossil, from the
shell

ginous 1-700'". H. lividits, iiaas. G. Mac/ma. Stratum purplish-blaclc, criistaceous, granular; cell-contents 1-600 to 1-320'". tSorosjiora montana, Hass. G. sanc/iiinca. Stratum black internal cells deep blood-red ceU-contents 1-000 to
;

Triassic period to the present day. BiBL. Wallich, Biolog. Glohiy. 1876; CarParker and Jcnes, Phil. penter, For. l8l Tr. IBGo, 36o Bradv, Mic. Jn. 1879, 70.
; ;

1-400'".

= Ilcematococcus sanyuineus,
;

Ag.,
;

Hass. G. Shuttleu'ort/iiana.
internal cells orange to 1-900'".

Stratum dirty red ceU-contents 1-1000

;

GLOBULIN A,

GLOBULI'NA, DOrb.
PHINA.

Turp. = GL(EOCAPSA. See Polymor-

GLCEOCAP'SA, Kiitz.A

genus of Pal-

mellacea3 (Confervoid Algae), distinguished by the rounded cells, single or grouped into families, with special and general lamellar

Stratum dirty purple G. Balfsiana. internal cells rosy-purple cell-contents l-7oO to 1-^00'" Surospora Palfsii, Hass. In PI. 7. fig. 13 is represented a form we
.

have met with among freshwater Algas, which appears to agree with Kiitzing's
G. ampla.

As we have adopted it, it is envelopes. the persisdistinguished from Palmella by tence of the coats of the parent-cells as of several envelopes enclosing their progeny number of 4, 16, 64, or generations, to the more secondary cells, the membranes becoming confluent subsequently, however, by From solution, into a gelatinous mass. Cvccoc/ihins the chief distinction seems to be in the persistence of the lamellte of the parent cells in the membranous condition, and the globular instead of cylindrical or of the cells, while the habit ellipticnl form is to form rather fiat irregular strata tlian From Protoglobose or papillose masses. cocvus it is distinguished by the persistent recent writers, gelatinous investment. Some the species of especially Sachs, assume that

Those resting forms of Euylena where the encj'sted groups are devoid of a firm outer coat, bear considerable resemblance to a
large Gloeocapsa. Babenhorst describes 55 European species.

216,
pi.

BiBL. Kiitzing, Pht/c. (/en. 173, Sp. Alt). 7rti. Phyc. pis. VSetseq.; Hassall, ^/y,^<^,
79, &c.
;

Sachs, But. Zeit.

xiii. 1

Al.

Braun, Bejuv. (Bay Soc. 1853), 131, 182; Rabenhorst, Fl. Ak/. ii. 34. GLQ^OCOC'CUS, Braun. A genus of
Palmellaceoe, consisting of active liiciliated gonidia resembling the moving form of Protococcus, but connected into families by a mass of soft jelly. See Palmellace^b. BiBL,. A. Jkaun, 7Vr/yV//i<?;/7, 169: CJiytridien, 57; Rabenhorst, Fl. Aly. iii, 36 (fig).
v

GL(EOCYSTIS.

359

GXETACE.'E.

GE(EO0YS'TIS, Niiu-cli^ Ghvocapm, pt.

GL(E().SPO'lUUM,xSlc)utagiu>. Ageiuis of Sphaeroiiemei (Stylosporous Fungi), developed Ijeiieatli (lie .surfixve of leaves, and biav-ting through, fi)riuiug-a kiud of rust on
the surface. G. paradoxum (HTi/.vos2)orium paradoxum, De Notar.) occurs on ivv. O. Lnhes. Asteroma Labes, Berk. Brit.
Fiiiiyi.

cover to exclude dust, forweelcs and months without alteration. It renders objects very
transparent, which is sometimes advansolution tageous, sometimes the reverse. of gum-arabic in diluted glycerine is often

used for mounting objects which do not bear

drying. The solution is made by dissolving 1 oz. of very clear gum in 1 oz. of water, and

G. concentricum (^CyUndrosporum concenGrev. Se. Cn/pf. Flor. p. 27) forms a while rust upon cabbage-leaves. BiBL. Berk. & Br. Ann. Nat. Hid. 2 ser.
tn'ci/m,
V. p. 4.5-)
;

Berkelev, Ilort. Trans,

GL(EOTIIE'CA,

Nag. A

vi. p.

genus

121. of

adding subsequently 1 oz. of glycerine: great care must be taken, in incorporating the glycerine, to avoid forming air-bubbles, which are difficult to get rid of on account of the viscidity of the fluid. The mode of mounting objects is to soak them in pure glycerine, and then to operate as with

Pahnellaeea} (Confervoid Algiie), disting-uished by the obloug or cylindrical cells, with thick, often lamellar envelopes. 13 species on humid rocks (Rabenhorst,
;

Canada balsam, only not applying heat. GLYCIPH'AGUS^Hering.Asubgenus of ACARUS, p. 8. GL Y'PHIS, Ach. A genus of Graphidei

Fl. Ah/,

ii.

of Confervaceje with simple, submoniliform filaments, endochrome of the cells becoming

GLCEO'TILA, Kiitz. A genus

and
;

60).

contracted

rounded.
iii.

Ten

species.

(Lichenaceous Lichens). G. labi/rinthica, on trees, very rare, (Leighton, Lich.-Flara, 436.) GLYPllODES'MIS, Grev. A genus of Diatomacese. Chnr. Fr. united into a filament; side view
naviculoid, with a central nodule, median line, and transverse rows of granules; structure clathrate (?), the granules being developed within square areohe, arranged in
parallel rows.

Freshwater

in ditches

and aquaria.

(Raof

benhorst, Fl. Ah/,

GLOIOSIPH'O'NIA, Carm. a genus

319.)

Cryptonemiacene

(Florideous Algse), the single British representative of which is a rare, feathery, red sea- weed, .3-12 inches high, with a semigelatinous tubular frond. The spores are in dense masses, scattered among the radiating j linted filaments which clothe the periphery of the branches.
i

G. eximia. In scrapings of marine shells. Jamaica. BiBL. Greville, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1862, 234
(figs.).

BiBL. Harvev, Mar. Aly. 152, pi. 21 A, Eny. Bot. pi. 1219. GLYCERINE is the sweet principle of fats. It may be prepared by boiling fats with oxide of lead and water. The aqueous solutions are freed from the lead by sulphuretted hydrogen, the filtered liquid evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and It is finally in vacuo over sulphuric acid.

now procured by decomposing the fats with high-pressure steam. Glycerine, when pure, is a colourless, highly refractive, syrupy liquid, of a sweet it mixes in all taste proportions with alcohol and water, but it is insoluble in ether. The property possessed by glycerine, of constituting a liquid which does not become dry, and mixes with water, renders it very useful for the preservation of microscopic objects; especially those which will not permit of being dried, such as preparations of vegetable structure, which may be left on a slide in a di'op of glycerine, with a glass
;

GLYPHODIS'CUS, Grev genus of Diatomaceee. Char. Fr. four-sided, the angles much rounded. Valves with a large 4-angled nucleus, the angles alternating with those of the margin and a circular prominent process within each marginal angle, from which costse radiate to the nucleus while similar costae radiate from the angles of the nucleus to the sides of the disk. G. stellatus. Monterey stone. BiBL. Greville, Mic. Tr. 1862, 91.
; ;

GLYPHOMIT'RIUM, Bridel.A genus

of Orthotrichaceous Mosses, deriving its name from the gi'ooved calyptra. Gh/phomitriiDu Daviesii, Brid., is found in Wales and Ireland on rocks, mostly near the sea. It is peculiar to Great Britain and Ireland.

order of Flowering Plants, remarkable for their jointed stems, composed of ducts and wood-cells marked like the wood of Conifers. The rind and

GNAT. See Culex GNETA'CE^E.An

and Culicid.^.

go:mpitillus.
Fig. 283.

360

GONATOZYGOX.
;

long, thick, densely intei-woven frustules 1-216 to 1-180".

.

length of

G. oUvaceimi Densely crowded, forming a mucous mass frustules broadlj^ cuneate strife valves obovato-lanceolate (fr. V.) distinct; length of frustules 1-1020''. G. cu7-vatum. Frustules curved ; valves
; ;
;

obovato-lanceolate; 1-720".
84,-

striae

faint;

length

Glyphomitrium
Teeth of the peristome.

Daviesii.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 215 Kiitzing, Bacill. and Sj). Alff. 6S; Smith, Br. Diatom. 76; Ealfs, Aim. N. H. 1843, xvi. 459.
:

Magnified 150 diams.

G0:MPH0SPH^E'RIA, Ktz. a

genus

pith, also, contain curious

cells.

branched

liber

of Palmellacese ; with the cells radiating, and united into groups in a globose mucous

GOMPHIL'LUS, Nyl.A
Lichenaoeous Lichens.
G.
calycioidc'S.

genus

of

envelope. G. ajyonina.
Al(f.
ii.

In pools.

(Rabenhorst, Fl.

On mosses, rare.

(Leigh-

ton, Lich.-Flora, 50.)

GONATOBO'TEYS, Corda. A genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), the f erFig. 284.

Fig. 285.

55.)

GOMPPIOGRAM'MA, Biauu. A genus

of Diatomacese, cohort Fragilariese. Char. Frustules solitary or geminate, front view tabellar, -with interrupted clavate longitudinal vittaB, ends internally dentate valves ovate or elliptic-lanceolate, Avith
;

transverse continuous costte.

G. rivpestre (PI. 62. rocks (freshwater).

fig.

3).
i.

On

moist

BiBi.. Pabenhorst, Fl. Air/, p. 12 (fig.).

IIG; and

GOMPHOXE'MA, Ag. genus of Diatomacefe. Char. Frustules mostly single or binate, attached by a filiform stipes, vvedge-shaped in front view valves with a median fine and a nodule at the centre and at each end, and
;

striated with transverse or slightly radiating

granular
species.

strife. Freshwater and fossil. Conjugation has been observed in several

Gonatobotrys simplex.
Fig. 284. Fig. 285.

Kiitzing describes thirty-eight species;

A A

fertile filament.

sporiferous

joint,

Magn. 100 diams. with most of the

Smith admits twelve

of the frustule
is

as British.

The form
;

spores removed.
tile

Magn. 600 diams.

subject to great variety and the specific characters are probably of little value. The most common species are
:

filaments of which present at intervals swollen articulations, on which are attached

G. acuminaf 1(771 (PI. 16. fig. 34 , b, c). Frustules in front view simply cuneate, or inflated in the middle valves attenuated at the base, ventricose in the middle, beyond which they are again expanded ends acuminate, or truncate with an acuminate prolongation; sti-ife distinct; length of frustules San Plore deposit. 1-360". G. (/emin(ifu77i. Valves ventricose in the middle, constricted and rotundo-truncate stalks stria3 distinct towai'ds each end
; ; ;

simple ovate spores (figs. 284, 285). BiRL. Corda, Icones Fungo7-vm. Corda. GONATOR'RHODON, (Hyphomycetous genus of Mucedines Fungi), the fertile filaments of which have at intervals swollen artictdations, whence arise moniliform chains of spores (fig. 286).

BiBL. Corda, P/'c/<(^.

pi. 3.

eu7-op. Schiiimielb.

GOXATOZY'GON, De Bary. A

genus

of Biatomacene. Char. Cells cylindrical or truncate-fusiform, neitlier constricted nor incised, united

GONGROSIKA.
into

3r,i

GONIUM.
B.

long

fragile

Fig. 286.

GONIOCYTRIS,
;

& R.A

minute

endocliroiue simple, uniilanionts;

dulate and twisted.

species

fresli-

Ostracode,with yellowish, compressed, triangular valves found in the rivers and dykes of Eastern England. BiBL. Brady and- Robertson, ^?m. N. II.
1870,
vi. 15.

Avater.

G.Iialfsii (PI. ol.

fig.

GONIO'DES, Nitzsch. A subgenus

of

37).*

BiBL.
p.
1.5.5.

Raben-

hoi-st, Fior. Alff. iii.

GONGROSl'RA,
Ktz.

C h ae t o p

genus of
li

or a c e

88

(Confer void Algas),

Gonatorrhodon speoiosum.
Fertile filaments with swollen joints bearing chains of spores. Magn. 100 diams.

Philopterus (Anoplura), distinguished by the large head, with projecting temporal antennae forcipate in angles, no trabeculaj the males, cylindrical in the females. Several species, on the turkey, the guineafowl, the domestic fowl, the pheasant, and the grouse. GONIOM'ONAS, St. genus of Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Free, or adherent posteriorly ; flagella two, equal, obliquely truncate in
;

front.

Filaments sub-diehotomously jointed, branched or tufted, attenuated at the base to form a root-like thread; joints as long or twice as long as broad, toridose. Four on stones, wo ad, and minute species
; ;

aquatic plants. 37.)

(Rabenhorst, Fl.

Alff.

iii.

The name applied to cells Thallophytes perform an office the analogous to that of the Geisiji^ of higher Crj'ptogams, and theseparatiugbudstructures such as bulbils, stolons, &c. of the

GONID'IA.
in the

G.truncata. Freshwater. (Kent,77?/.280.) genus of Byasaceous Lichens. G, velutimim. On subalpine rocks rare. (Leightou, Lich. Fl. 9.) GONIOTHE'OILM, Ehr. genus of fossil Diatomacese. Char. Frustules terete, with a median

GONIONE'MA, NyL A

which

Flowering Plants,

being

cells

developed

from the vegetative tissues, ultimately thrown off, and capable of propagating the The gonidia of the Lichens are individual.
globular cells with green contents, developed in the central layers of the thallus, afterwards set free by the destruction of the cortical of multiplication layer; they appear capable by subdivision before growing out into the filaments which form the foundation of the new thallus (see Lichens). And the endochrome has lately been observed in a few Lichens to be resolved into zoospores, a cir-

(longitudinal) constriction (suddenly attenuate and truncate at the ends, hence appearing angular). Corresponds to Pt/xidicida, constricted in the middle, and truncate at the ends. Found in America. have figured several of the nine or ten species, some of wdiich do not appear to have the characters of the genus. G. harhatum G. Annidus (PL 51. fig. 18) G. monoG. didymurn (fig. 20) (fig. 19) G. don (fig. 21) G. naviciila (lig. 22) G. qastridium (PI. 60. Roqersii (fig. 23)

We

fig.'

40)

G. odontella

(iig. 44).

cumstance which brings Lichens inan imThe nearer to Fungi. portant point still are usually termed gonidia of the Fungi CoNiDiA (see that article, and FuxGi). The are best known in the gonidia of the Algse

Ehrenberg, Ahh. Berl. Ak. 1841, 401, Berl. Ber. 1844, 82, and Mikroyeol. Kiitzing, Bacill. 51, and aS^^. Aly. 23 ; Greville, Mic. Tr. 18(35. 56. GO'^'IUM, Miiller. A genusof VolvoBiBL.
;

cinese (Confervoid Algaj), forming microscopic, square, flat fronds, either cihated and

CoxFERVOiDS, where they are formed from the cell-contents, and generally present themselves ciliated, as Z^oospoees. The
the Floridete are probably tetraspores of the homologues of gonidia.

endowed with a power of motion, or devoid of cUia and motionless it is possible that these two conditions are only stages of deve;

GONIO'COTES, Nitz.A

Philopierus, like Goniodes, alike in both sexes. G. hohyaster, on the fowl.

subgenus of but the antennae

at one time and species- active The perfect fronds are resting at another. composed of usually sixteen cells, enclosed in wide coloiu-less coats (young fronds but four cells, some kinds have more than sixteen) united together into flat square masses by adherence at various points of their cir-

lopment in

GONOTHYR.EA.

3G2

GRAMMATOXEMA.

cumference. light vacuole in the suhstance of the cell-contents may often he observed to exhibit a rhythmical con*:raction arid expansion, as in Vo/vo.r. The cells of the active forms have each a pair of vibratile cilia, which run out from the central protoplasmic mass, through the b^'aline envelope, and project as free processes, rowing the frond about in the water. They are commonly observed to increase by division, a frond composed of sixteen cells breaking up into four fronds, each composed of four cells, &c. but it is probable that other kinds of development exist, and that the motionless
;

from 7 to 10" in length and about 1-25 to 1-20" in breadth, of a brown or blackish colour, and is found in water or damp
places.

The mouth

is

very indistinct

the

tail of the

male is bifid, that of the female simple and rounded.

The ova, agglutinated in long strings, are deposited in water, and being devoured by
insects or Arachnida, undergo development within their bodies. These animals frequently coil themselves into a knot-like form, whence the name. See Mermis. BiBL. Dujardin, Helminth. 290, and Arm. So. Nat. 1842, xviii. 142 Ent,. Zcit. 1842
;

forms are resting states of active species. Gonium pectorale is an exceedingly interesting microscopic object, not uncommon in freshwater pools.

Frond square, sixteen bright-green cellcomposed masses enclosed in hyaline envelopes, each with a pair of cilia size of green masses
G.pedorale
of
(PI. 7. tig. 11).
;

1-1960 to 1-1150"; frond not exceeding

1-280". In clear water, salt and fresh, near the surface. G.imncialum. Cells sixteen; cell-masses green, with black granules diam. 1-4600" ; frond of sixteen, 1-576". G. tranqniUum (PI. 7. fig. 12). Cells cell-masses green, diam. 1-2880" sixteen frond of sixteen, 1-144 to 1-288", sometimes twice as broad as long the cell-masses
; ; ;

-43, and Erichson's Archiv, 1843, ii. 302 Berthold, Ban d. Wasserkulbes, 1842 ; Meissuer, Sieh. Sf Koll. Zeits. 1856, i. Siebold, ibid. 141 Grenadier, Sieh. S^- Koll. Zeitsch. 1868 Villot, Ann. N. H. 1872, x. 231 Compt. Rend. 1880, 1569 Ann. N.H. 1880, vi. 160. GORGO'NIA, Linn.^ genus of marine Polypi, of the order Actinoida, and family
;
; ; ; ;

Gorgoniadffi.

Char. Polypidom rooted, and consisting of a central, branched, horny, and sometimes anastomosing flexible axis, coated with a
soft

and fleshy pohqiiferous

crust.

found in division (biuate or quaternate), motionless. (Possibly not a Gonium, but a

Palniellacean Tetraspora P). G. hyalinum. Cell-masses hyaline, diam. 1-3000"; frond of twenty or twenty-five, In stagnant water. 1-600". G. fjlaucmn. Cell-masses bluish gi'een, from four to sixty-four in a frond, diam. 1-7000 to 1-4200"", ditto of frond not exceeding 1-570". In sea-water.

species are popularly known as seafans; they are not microscopic, often attaining very considerable dimeui^ions. The polypidom, as well as the crust, contains spicula of .various forms imbedded in them, a specimen of which is exhibited in

The

PL

41.

fig.

27.
;

BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 166

(spicules), noloqia.

M. M.

Jn. 1870, 76

Gosse,

Kent Adi-

GOSSYPIUM. See Cotton. GOUT-STONES. See Chalk-stones. GRACILA'RIA, Grev. A genus of

Rhodymeniaceae (Florideous Algae), with feathery fleshy-cartilaginous fronds, 3 to 12" or more long, of a red or purplish colour, the central substance of which is composed of large cells, the cortical of closely packed
horizontal filaments.

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 55 Cohn, Nova Acta, xxiv. 109, pi. \^ Fresenius, Mtis.
;
;

Setickenh. Gesell.

ii.

GONOTIlYRyE'A, Alhnan.A

187, 1856.

genus

of Oampanulariidse,

Hydroid Zoophytes.

2 species. G. Loveni (Laomedia dichotoma, Johnson), on the fronds of the large sea-weeds, and on stones, at low-water mark. BiRL. Hincks, Hydroid. Zooph. 180. genus of NemaGOli'DlUS, Linii. toid Entozoa. Char. Body veiy long and slender, filiform alimentary canal (none, Vill.) with a

The

spores are formed

in tubercles consisting of a thick coat composed of radiating filaments, containing a mass of minute spores on a central placenta.

tetraspores are imbedded in the cells of G. eonfervoides is the only conmion species; it grows from 3 to 20" long, and as thick as small twine. BiBL. Ilarvev, Br.Mar.Aly. 128,pl.l6C;

The

the surface.

single orifice, sexes distinct. G. aquations, the common hair-worm, is

Em/l. Bot.f\. 16(J8.

GRAMMATONEMA, Ag. A

genus of

GRAMMATOPIIORA.

303

GRANTIA.

microscopic marine plants, by some referred to the l>iiito!iuicea3, by others, including Kalfs and Kiitzing, to the lJe.sni:diaceiie, The recent observations of Smith show that it belon<xs to the former family, and to the genus Fnti/ilaria. G. stri((tuluin = Fr. sfriatula.

the end curved inwards to form a kind of hook; stiiaj oblique. Marine; length 1-200". G. ? Balfouriana. Vittie straiglit valves linear, inflated in the middle, and with
;

rounded ends.

Freshwater. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Berl. Abh. 1839, 120,

;

GRAMMATOrii'OllA, Ehr.A

and Ber. 1840,

;

genus

of Uiatomacese. Char. Frustules in front view rectangular, at tirst aduate, but after^Yards forming zigzag chains vittix; two, longitudinal, interrupted in the middle and more or less curved.
;

Marine. Valves linear or

transverse
stri;ie,

elliptical

furnished Avith

iV-c. Kiitzing, Sp. Ah/. 120; Bailey, Sillivians Jount. vii. Smith, Br. 42 SchifF, Sckulfzc^s Archiv, iii, Diat. ii. 81 Rabenhorst, Fl. AUj. i. 303 Petit, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. 109. GRAMMITID'E.-E. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns. Char. Sori on the back of the fronds, more than twice as long as broad, usually
; ;
;

nary

in most, invisible by ordiillumination, and in a few so dithcult of

linear.

Genera

detection that the valves have been regarded as Test Objects. Sometimes a median and terminal nodules are present. Rabenhorst describes eleven species. Four are British one doubtful G. marina (PL 1. fig.l4; PL 16. fig. 35). The markings or strite are invisible by ordinary illumination; vittte near the middle valves semicircidarly cur\ed outwards linear or elliptical, gradually attenuated towards the obtuse ends striae transverse length 1-108 to 1-240". The form and structure of the frustules and valves appear greatly to vary. Sometimes the frustules are perfectly square, at In some others sis times as long as broad. specimens the valves are suddenly, at others uniformly inflated at the middle (PL 1. 14 h PL 10. fig. 35 c), some have the fig. ends capitate. Again, in some valves there is a median line and a small central nodule (PL 16. fig. 35 c) in others there is neither median line nor nodule, but a large internal ring (PL 1. fig. 14 b). Lastly, in some valves the strife extend over the whole of the valves, while in others they are deficient at their ends. Some of these variations have formed the ba^is of distinct species, but probably
:

Jamesonia. Sori oblong, on the flabellate veins of the back of the pinna3, not reaching the margin. Brainea. Sori continuous along transverse veins near the midrib, also produced along the veins towards the edge of the
frond. Notochlcena.

Sori marginal, oblong or rounded, then confluent into a marginal line, the edge of the frond frequently iiiflexed to form an involucre veins free. Monogramma. Sori linear, close to the midrib on one or botli sides. Gymnogramma. Sori on the veins of the under sm'face of the frond, linear, simple or
;

furked.

3Ieniscium. Sori oblong or linear, occupying the conuivent transverse veinlets of the simple or once pinnate fronds. Antrophgnm. Sori on the veins, imperfectly reticulated. Sori in continuous marginal or Vittaria. slightl} intramarginal lines. Tcenitis. Sori linear, the line sometimes interrupted, central or submarginal.

Like Tanitis, bat the Drgmoglossmn. fronds dimorphous. Hemionitis. Sori continuous along the
veins, and copiously reticulated, sometimes also slightly developed between them.

with httle reason.

A
fig.

variety, G. snbtilissima, Bail.

a, b),

(PL

1.

has been pointed out by Prof. Bailey, in which the form of the frustules and valves agrees with the above characters, but in which the transverse striae are extremely difiicidt of detection when mounted in balsam. G. macilenta. Fr. slender, often curved valves linear, slightly vittae as in the last
15
; ;

GRAMMFTIS, Swartz., is merged into Pulypodium and Ggmw)gramma. C'eterach is sometimes taken for a Grammitis.

GRAMMONE'MA,
NEMA.

Ag.

= Gbammatogenus
of

GRAN'TIA,
Sponges. Char.

Fleming.

Marine ; inflated at middle and ends. length 1-300". 6r. serpentina. Vittae long, serpentine, with

variable; firmish and inwhite, with a close but porous texture, and composed of a gelatinous base, with imbedded calcareous spicula; orifices distinct. Marine.
elastic, usually

Form

GKANULE-CELLS.
posed of carbonate of lime

364

GEEGARINA.

Spicula simple, radiate or stellate, com;

hence easily

distinguished from the siliceous spicula of other sponges h v their dissolving with effervescence in a dilute acid. The organic basis is stated not to be fibrous as in most other

GRATELOU'PIA, Ag. A genus of Cryptonemiaceae (Florideous Algse), represented by a very rare British species, G.Jilicina, seldom growing more tlian 2 inches high with us. Fructiti cation minute, immersed, faveUidia opening by a pore, and cruciate, tetraspores vertically placed among the filaments of the peripherv. BiBL. Ilarv. Mar. Aly. 137, pi. 17 A; Grev. Aly. Brit. pi. 16. AND.According to the observations of Ehrenberg and Bailey, the

sponges. The British species are found growing iipon or from rocks, sea-weeds, shell-fish and j;oophytes, between tide-marks. They vary in size from about the 1-10 to 3 or 4". Gemmules have not been found.

GREENS

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Sponr/es, 172; Grant, Compar. Anat. and New Phil. Journ. i. and ii. Bowerbank, Br. Sporuj. ii. 1. GRANULE-CELLS. This term has been applied to cells found in animal solids and liquids containing a number of globules of fat or oil (PI. 38. hgs. 7, IG a, 17 e). They
;

glauconitic grains frequent in many geolodeposits, especially in certain beds known as Greensaud, are formed of fossilized organic bodies, mostly casts of Foraminigical
fera.

of variable size, perhaps the average be placed at 1-2000" and are easily recognized by the dark margins and light centres of the globules, which are insoluble The in acetic acid and solution of potash. cells sometimes contain a nucleus, at others

are

may

BiBL. Ehrenbera:, Ahh. Berl. Akad. 1856, 85-176; Monatsber.l%o^,?>-2^; BnWej, Ann. N. H. 8. 2. xviii. 425; Parker & Jones, ^;/;;. N. H. s. 4. X. 263 SoUas, Geol. Mag. 1870,
;

53t.

The term granule-cells should properly be limited to cells of new formation, as those found in inflammation, cancer, &c.; but it has been so generally applied to cells of whatever kind, containing fatty globules, that it has no pathological signihcation.
not.

See Degexebation, Fatty, and Inflam-

mation.

GRANULOSE. See Staech. GRAPE-FUNGUS. See Oidium. GRAPHID'EIAtribeofLichenaceous

Lichens, having a thin, crustaceous, scarcely
or subepidermal thallus, with lirelliue apothecia. It includes the British genera Af/yrium,
A'isible
:

curious of organisms, which was formerly placed among the Entozoa, is now placed among the Protozoa, forming the Order Gregarinida but there are still doubts as to their structure and nature. They exist as parasites within the bodies of animals, and often inhabit the intestinal Most canal, or the cavity of the abdomen. frequently they are met "with in insects, but sometimes also especially their larvas
gi-oup
; ;

GREGARI'NA, Dufour. This

in Annelida, both freshwater and marine (Lumbricus &c.), in the Crustacea and Mollusca and even in human organs.
;

less

are mostly microscopic, and colourround, oval, fusiform, or cvlindrical and consist of a (PI. 21. figs. 25, 28, 34) smooth transparent cell-wall, enclosing a

They
;

Arthonia,

CJiiodecton,

Gli/phis,

Grap/iis,

gi'anular,

more or

less

hquid mass, with one

.Lithoyraplin.1 Melaspilca, Ope(/ra]>ha^

grapha, Plyclioyrapha,
XyloyrapJia.

PhtfytSfiynmtidium, and

BiBL. Leighton, Brit. Lichen-Flora^ 390. GRA'PHIS, Ach.--A genus of Graphidei, containing ten British species, very va-

mostly whitish or yellow papery expansions on the bark of trees, beset with irregular black markings (lirelline apothecia) like writing. BiBL. Leigliton, Brit. Lich.-Fl. 420.
riable in their appearance
;

nuclei or uucleoh. Sometimes they exhibit a constriction in the middle, or are divided by a transverse septum. In some a process resembling a head is situated at one end ; this may be short, round, and obtuse or pointed, or more elongated and furnished with reflexed hook-like processes. The GreyarincB are capable of motion, which is either that of slow progression, ensuing

or

more

GRASSES. A family of Monocotyledonous Flowering Plants, remarkable in many

respects for their microscopic structure, especially the siliceous Epidermis and the Starch grains in the Albumen, for which see those heads.

without contraction of the body, or produced by irregular contraction of the membrane or substance of the body. Vibratile cilia have been detected both upon the outer and tlie inner surface of the membrane; and the internal granules often
exhibit molecular motion, especially after the addition of water. One or more lono-

GRIFFITIISIA.

3G5

GRIMMIA.

motionless filaments sometimes arise from the outer surface.

Tlie membrane and its contents, except the nucleus, are soluble in acetic acid. Their method of propagation, if such it and is, represents a form of conjugation, Two indivitluals takes place as follows. coming into contact bj corresponding portions of the body (PL 21. fig. 34), become shortened and firmly united. transparent

The

antheridia consist of a kind of shrubby extremely minute iilaments arising from an axial filament which arises from a ramellus of the involucre. Fig. 287 represents a branch terminating in an involucre of whoried ramelli bearing tetraspores the lower figure is a portion of a ramellus
tuft of
;

Fig. 287.

capsule is next formed around them, encloses them in a cyst (tigs. 20, 30), the adjacent portions of the cell-membranes are absorbed, and the substance of the two

which

bodies become intimately fused. Globules or cells are then formed in the contents of the cell, which subsequently assimie the form of XavicuUe, and have been called
(erroneously navicellce pseudo-navicuhx? these burst, producing figs. 31, 32, 33); Amcebifoi'm bodies, which develop into new
:

Gre(/ari)ue. It was supposed that the pseudo-naviculae were really Xavicidcp, and that the cysts con-

Grifflthsia sijhaerica.

Fig. 287.

Fragment of a frond bearing an involucre with tetraspores. Magn. 50 diams.

at-

taining them were sporangia ; but the pseudo-naviculse do not possess a coat of silex. In some cases it appears that the contents of the two cells in conjugation remain are distinct until the pseudo-naviculse formed but it is not certain whether each single cell in these instances has not arisen from the fusion of two others. very large number of species of Gregarina have been described and arranged in
;

Detached ramellus of the inTolucre, showing the tachment of the tetrasfiores. Magn. 40 diams.

showing the mode of attachment of the

traspores.

te-

numerous genera.
BiBL. IXifom', Ann. Sc. Nat. 1837, vii. Ann. N. H. Stein, Miiller's Arch. 1848 Frantzius, Greqar. 1850, v.. and Infus. 1846; Henle, Midler's ArcMv, 183o, 1845 Siebold, Natwff. d. ivirhdlos. Thure, 1830 Kolliker, Sieh. ^- Kollikers ZeiUchr. 1848 & 1849 Ray Lankester, Qu, Mic. Jn. 1863, iii. 83, and l/^c. Tr. 1866, 23 (PL); Y. Beneden {G. of lobster), Bull. V Acad. d. la Belqique, 1869 {M. M. J. 1870, 47), and
; ; ;

In the antheridial involucres, the plumose antheridial structure is attached in exactly the same way. Seven British species are recorded, of which one or two are not uncommon. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ah/. 167, pi. 23 B ; Decaisne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. x\ii. p. 353, Thuret, Ami. Sc. Nat. 3rd ser. xvi. pi. 16 Derbes and Solier, ibid. xiv. 276, 16, pi. 5 Migl. Bot. pi. 1479 & 1689. pi. 36
; ; ;

GRIM'MIA, Ehrhart.A.
British species.

genus of Or-

;
;

thotrichaceous Mosses, containing numerous

Fig. 288.

Ami. X. H. 1872,

x. 309.

of Ceramiacese (Florideous Algge), with feathery fronds 3 to 6" long, composed of delicate dichotomously-branched tilaments consisting of a single row of cells, the branchlets colour crimson or rosy-red. often whoried The fructification consists of spores, anfhe;

GRIFFITH'SIA, Ag.A genus

ridia, and tetraspores, all lar situations, namely at

produced in simithe articulations,

Grimmia.
Teeth of peristome.
Magnified 150 diameters.

where they are surrounded by a kind of involucre formed of short ramelli, to which the tetraspores and antheridia are attached.

Many

of the species of Trichostomum of

GROMIA.
Hedwig and
Scliwaegviclien are placed here
Miiller.
;

GUTTA-PERCHA.

by Bruch and Schimper and C.

ley,

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit. 152

Berke-

Handh. 287.

CtRO'MIA, Duj.
of
tlie
(Jlnir.

A genus of Rhizopoda,
mem-

order Reticiilaria.

Carapace brownish yellow,

soft,

thotrichaceous Mosses, including various species separated from Grimmin on account of the peculiar calyptra, also the Cinclidoti of P. Beauvais. G. orbicularis, Hmpe. (?mmja orbicularis, Br. Eur. G. riparia=Cinclidotits riparius, Wils.

branous,

globular or oval, with a small

Fig. 289.
Fiff.

round orihce, from which very long, filiform branched expansions with vei'y delicate extremities protrude ; the presence of a nucleus and contractile vesicle is doubtful, or variable. G. oviformis. Carapace globular, with a short neck; marine; size 1-25 to 1-12";

290.

Fig. 291.

among marine

plants.

Carapace G.fuviutilis (PI. 31. fig. 15). globular or ovoid, without a neck fre.<hbreadth 1-280 to 1-100". Found water;
;

upon

Schlumberger

Ceratophylluni. describes

freshwater

(liydUnd), differing from the last in size (l-SGO to 1-520''), and in the carapace being colourless, perhaps the young state of
G.Jltiviatilis.

Gromin

Schultze desci'ibes some

:

new

marine species G. oviformis, G. Dnjardinii, and G.paludosa; G. terricola (Leidy) is cream-coloured, and occurs in earth be-

Guembelia fontinaloides.
Fig. 289. A fertile shoot. Magn. 10 diams. Fig. 290. Capsule with ealypti-a. Fijj. 291. Teeth from the peristome. Magn. 1.50 diams.

tween paving-stones.
;

"

BiBL. Dujardin, Ann. 8c. Nat. 1835, Schlumberger, Ann. Sc. iv., Infus. p. 252 JVat. 1845, iii. 255 Schultze, Polyihal. 55; Cienkowski, Schultze's Arch. 1876, xii. 32
;
;

G. fontinaloides fontinaloides, P. B.

(tigs.

289-91)=
p.

0';(c/.

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

Leidy, Claparede and Lachm. Inf. 465 Sill. Am. Jn. 1875 (M. M.'Jn. xiii. 87).

GROWING-SLIDE. Several
See Smith, Ann. N.
II.

modifi-

cations of this apparatus (Infrod. p. xxiii) have been recently described.

(not oily) secretions of plants. Gums have no microscopic structure when pure and clean, but often exhibit under the microscope traces of structures, such as d6bris of
cellular
tissue,

GUM. A name applied to various viscid

L39.

filamentous

Fungi,
in

i*cc.,

1865, xvii. 334

which have become imbedded

them

Barker, Qu. M. Jn. 1866, 267; R. Beck, Mic. Tr. 1866, 34; Miiller, M. M. Jn. i. 1869, 174 Maddox, M. M. Jn. 1870, iii. 14; Broeck, M. M. Jn. 1876, xv. 221; Lewis and Cunningham, ibid. 198 Jn. Mic.
;
;

while soft. What is called gum Trngacanth consists of partly decomposed cell-

membranes,

in a condition allied to

amy-

Soc. 1880, 333 ; Beale, terill, Jn. Mic. Soc. xix. M. Mic. Jn. 1874, xi. 97.

How

loid, retaining traces of their organizatiim. Sections of very soft tissues or very minute

8fc.
;

76

Bot-

34

Dalliuger,

is well Inunvn, guano is imported into this country in large qu;intiIt consists principally of ties as a manm-e. the excrement of birds, in a more or less decomposed state. It affords the micro-

GUANO. As

objects may be made hy imbuing them with or immersing them in solution of gum, and allowing the whole to dry up to a tough, semisolid mass, capable of being sliced with a razor. The slices are freed from gum by dissolved in Glysoaking in water. ckhink forms an excellent medium for

Gum

mounting vegetable

tissues.

means of procuring many foreign marine Diatomaceaj, the frustules and valves of which are often contained in it in large numbers. The ] )ialomace,-r' nuiy be obtained from guano as recommended at page 250.
scopist a

GUTTA-PERCHA.A

substance pro-

GUEMBE'LIA, limp. A

genus of Or-

duced by the evaporation of the milky juice of the Isonandra gutta, of the Natural Order Sa]>i>tnceie, a native of Suuialra and tlie neighbouring regions. Its relatinn to the microscope arises from its use in a

GUTTULINA.

367

GYRINUS.
genus

solid form and as cement, in mounting microscopic objects in cells. See Cements

GYMNOMIT'RIUM, Oorda. A

and Prepauation.

GUTTULINA.

See Polymobphina.

of Jungermanniese (Ilepaticae), containing one Britisli alpine species, the Jtinyennatinia co)ici)Uiaf(i of the British I'lora.
Si)n. Juny.

GY'GES, Boiy.Described by Ehrenbfrg as a genus of Volvocinete, having neither eye-spot, tail, nor iiagelliform iilament the carapace (cell-membrane) simple,
;

BiBL. Hook. Brit. Juny. pi. 3; Ekart, Enql. Bot. pi, pi. 8. fig. 63
:

1022.

GYM'NOPHRYS,
(Jhar.

Cienk.A genus

of

subglobose
cies
:

freshwater. Motion very slow. lie gives

;

Reticularian Rhizopoda.

two

spe-

G. granuhmi (PI. 50.

;

fig.

14).

Ovate or

subglobose; internal granular mass dark green diam. 1-11-50". G. bipartitm. Nearly spherical internal mass yellowish green, frequently bipartite
; ;

Body naked, wdthout nucleus or The pseudopodial reticulations, which exhibit the granular currents, arise from a few variable points of
contractile vesicles.

the surface. G. cometa. In marine and boggy pools, among algns. (Cienkowski, Schultze's Arch.
1876,

diam.' 1-480".

So far as appears from the descriptions and figures, these do not seem to diifer from Protococcus.
(For

G YMNOSPER'MIA. A division
;

xii. 31.)

of the

Red Sxow.)

G. sanyuinea^
I/) fits. p.

Shuttleworth, see
61.

BiBL. Ehr.

GYMNOAS'CUS, Bar. A
;

very minute
;

and simple form of Ascomycetous Fungi found on horse- and sheep's dung. (BaraSachs, Bot. 310 netzki, Bot. Zeit. 1872 Eidam, Cohti's Beit. iii. 267 Jn. Mic. Soc.
;

GYMNOSPORAN'GIUM, B.C.A genus of Uredinei (Hypodermous Fungi). G. juniperininn grows upon living branches
like

Flowering Plants (see Vegetable Kingdom), including the Coniferje and Cycadace^ deriving this name from the mode of development of the Ovl'les.

1881, 489).

genus of Cilio-flageUate l\ii\xsox\?i^=Periclinia without a lorica. 7 species in fresh and salt-water (Kent,
;

See Ascomtces. GYMNODINTUM, Stein.

common Juniper, appearing at first an exanthema on the bark, which in wet weather swells up into an orange-coloured,
of the

Infus. 442).

"G

YMNOGON 'GRUS, Mart. A genus of

tremelloid plicate mass, Avhich readily dries up, however, and then is scarcely visible. Somewhat rare, but when present generally copious. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. vi. part 2. 361 ; Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 505 Tidasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. 'ii. 171 & 188.
;

Cryptonemiacefe (Florideous Algae), with horny branched fronds, the divisions cylindrical or compressed, a few inches high, of a purphsh-red colom-. The substance of the branches presents three layers of closely packed filamentous cells, the central longitudinal, the intermediate curved, and the peripherical horizontal and moniliform. The spores have not been observed; the

GYMNOSPO'RIUM, Corda. A genus ofToridacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), characterized by an obscure mycelium and unicellular black spores arising apparently from the matrix. It is the lowest condition of which Torulacei are capable. G. arundinis occurs in this country on
reeds.

BiBL. Corda,. Anleituny. 10: Berk.

32*^

Oiitl.

tetraspores (cruciate) are arranged in moniliform rows, in wart-like thickenings of the branches.

GYMNOS'TOMUM,
nus of Mosses

now

Schwagr. A
into

ge-

distributed

Py-

Enql. Bot.

BiBL. Harvev, Mar. AUj. 145, pi. 1089 & 1926.

pi.

18 B;

eamidium,
genera.

Physcomiteium, and other

;

GYMNOGRAMMA,

Desv. A genus

of Grammitidete (Polypodiaceous Ferns), some of the species of which are remarkable for a yellow or white pulverulent appearance on the back of the fronds, owing to the presence of abundance of microscopic

BiBL. MiiUer, Syn. Mtisc. Bruch and Schimper, Bryol. Eur. Wilson, Bryol. Br. 39 Berkeley, Handh. 237. GYPSI'NA, Carter. See Tinoporus. GYRI'NUS, Geoffr. A genus of Coleo;

G. Calomelanos, G. cfiry-^opht/lla, ochracea, &c. Many species, mostly tropical. (Hooker, Syn. Fil. 376.)
cellular hairs, ex. gr.

pterous insects, of the family Gyrinidas. G. natator, one of the eight British species of this genus, is very commonly seen in groups performing its gyrations upon the

GYRIXUS.

368

GYROSIGMA.
Westwood,
G'oleop. 7e>.

surface of pools or rivers, whence it has received the popular name of whirligig. The body is ovate or elliptic, and deThe pressed, the elj-tra black and shining. antennae are short and retractile within a cavity in front of the eyes; the basal joint minute the second large, globular, and furnished externally with an ear-like joint fringed with coloui'less, flattened, hair-hke the remaining seven j oints form processes a clavate mass, being very short and closely united, the first commencing by a very narrow base or pedicle. The eyes are divided by a transverse septum into two parts, the upper of which serves for viewing objects in the air, the latter those in water by some authors these insects are described as possessing fom- distinct eyes. The tei'minal segment of the abdomen is fm-nished
;

BiBL.

Introd.

i.

105; Ste-

phens, Br.

GYROC'ORiy, St. genus of Peritrichous Infusoria. Char. Free, with one or more spiral or circular wreaths of cilia, stylate posteriorly.

G. o.vyicra. With anterior eye-spot ; motion revolving, rapid. Stagnant water. (Kent, Lif. U40.)

G YRODAC T YLUS, Nordm. A genus

of Trematode Eutozoa. G. aurivulutns (PL 21. fig. 7) is often foimd adhering to the gills of fishes, as the carp, stickleback, &c.

BiBL.
gener,

Dujardin, Helminth. 480; WaQn. M. Jn. l60l, 19G; Cobbold,

Faras. 465.

GYROPH'ORA,

Ach. A

genus

of

with two

retractile ciliated lobes.

The two

fore legs are long, and of the ordinary form, whilst the four hind legs (PI. 34. fig. 5), wliich are used as oars, are short, flat, and dilated; the femur (d) and tibia {c) some-

Phylloidei (Lichenaceous Lichens), combined with UmbiUcaria by many authors. GYliOPOREL'LA, Gumbel.-A small cylindrical Foraminifer, belonging to the
iJactijloporiyia, and consisting of ring-like segments traversed by simple canals. Its several species constitute large masses of

what

triangular, the tibia also fringed with short spines and long flattened filaments in the middle pair of legs the latter exist
;

Triassic limestone in the Alps.

on both margins, whilst in the hind legs these are present only on the outer marthe three basal joints produced on the inside into long, flat, leaf-like lobes fringed with spines the fourth joint is of about the same size, and semicircular, the fifth being very short and attached to the fourth near the end, and both are fringed on their outer margin with flattened filaments resembling those upon the tibia all the tarsi are furnished with two distinct claws. The anteriol- tarsi of the male differ from those of the female, as in Di/tiscus. Tlie circulating currents can be seen in the hind
gin.
tarsi

The

(a)

are

five-jointed,

BiBL. Giimbel, Abh. Miinchen, xi. 268. GYR'OPUS, Nitzsch. genus of mandibulate Auoplura (Insects), of the family

Liotheidae. Char. Tarsi two-jointed, -n-ith a single claw. Mandibles without teeth maxillary palpi conical and four-jointed; labial palpi none; antennae four-jointed; thorax two-jointed;
;

abdomen

eight-jointed.

Head ferrugifig. 8). nous, transverse, with a lateral produced lobe on each side ; thorax and legs ferrugiG. ovalis (PI. 35.

legs.

nous; abdomen nearly orbicular, yellowish white ; claws long, curved, and strong length 1-48"; found on the guineapig
;

larva (PI. 35. fig.19), which is aquatic, is of a dirty-white colour, long, narrow, aud depressed, resembling a small centipede it consists of thirteen segments including the head. Its antennae are filiform aud fourjointed the eyes numerous and tub;-rcular, grouped on each side of the head. The three pairs of legs are attached to the eight anterior segments of the body the remaining segments are furnished on each side with a branchial filament, excepting the last, which has two of them, and four minute conical points, bent downwards, and used by the insect when in motion.
;

The

(Cavia cvbaj/a). G. yraciUs. Head and thorax ferruginous; elongate, segments with a transverse striated iDand at each suture claws very short and minute; length 1-36"; also on the guineapig. 3 other species on the agouti, the sloth,

abdomen

and the peccary. BiBL. Denny,Anqplur.Monu</r.

Paras. 94.

Megnin,

GYROSIG'MA,
SIGMA.

Hass.

See Pleuro-

H^MALASTOR.
II.

3G9

ILEMATOPINUS.
amorphous
is

H.EMALAS'TOPt, Kocli.A genus of Ixodea (Acariiia) -with the body of male entirely covered by a shield, yellow or red; no emargrination in front eyes clear and conioal. Two species on bats &c., Brazil and Hun^arv. Murray, Ec. Ent. 198, figs.) H.EMAPHY'SALIS, Kocli. A genus of Ixodea (A carina) with the palpi very small, almost broader than long, three;

colourless proteine subsom.^times separated from the crystals by the action of mineral acids.

An

stance

Hfematoidine maybe artificiaUy procured from various sources, perhaps most readily from the blood of fishes by spontaneous
evaporation. The blood of the spleen of the horse changes almost entii'ely into prismatic In obtaining the crystals of it in dr\nng. crystals the presence of the serum is prej udicial, and it should be washed away with a small quantity of water. If recently dried blood be treated with a vegetable acid (acetic, oxalic acid, &c.), and a drop of the solution be placed upon a slide, covered with thin glass, and kept at a temperature of 80 to 100 F.,the crystals may also be obtained. This reaction might be of use in judicial The addition of water and investigations. a little alcohol or ether to the blood, sometimes favours the separation of the
crystals.

cornered, the posterior margin of the second

joint

expanded outwards.
rosea.

H.
200,

West

Indies (Murray, Ec. Ent.

fig.).

H^E'M ATINE.The red colouring-matter of the blood, in tlie globules of which it exists combined with globuline. It possesses no morphological characters.

BiBL. See Chejiistby.

H.EMATOCOC'CUS.
cus and Glceocapsa.

See Pkotococsubstance, to

H.EMATOTDINE.This

which Mrchow first drew attention, is not uuf requeutly met with in masses of extravasated blood which have remained for some
time in the living bodies of the Vertebrata, as in old apoplectic clots, sanguineous extravasations resulting from contusions and

Crystals of hfematoidine (?) have been found within the blood-globules prior to

the addition of reagents. Their preservation is difficult

effected by this liquid

it is

best

washing them with alcohol, or somewhat diluted with water, and drying them under the air-pump, or

wounds, the eft'usions accompanying the rupture of the Graafian vesicles, &c. It occui's in the form of granules, globvdes,
These are somewhat distinct crystals. highly refractive, and mostly of a ruby-red or yellowish-i'ed colour; they are stated also The most to have been found colourless. common forms are represented in PI. 13. to belong to two fig. 16, and they appear

over sulphuric acid.

and

BiBL. S'irchow, Ann. Clicm. u. Pharm. (Chem. Gaz. 18-32) Funke, Zeitsch. f. rat. Med. 1851, i. 172, 18.52, ii. 109 & 288 Kuude, ibid. 1852, ii. 271 Lehmann,
18-51
; ; ;

G/Hclin^s ITatidb. viii.

Sanderson, Edinb.
Kolliker, Mik. An.;

Mn.
;

Jn. xiii.216, 521

Zeits. f.

the oblique rhombic prisdistinct systems matic, and the regular system. The properties of haematoidine are as inconstant as the crystalline form and it is probable that several diflferent substances have been ranged under the above title, or of the same substance perhaps modifications in different states of hydration for so insuperable has Iseen the difficulty of obtaining haematoidine in quantity and a state of purity, that its true natm-e has not been
;
;

Teichmann, 375 Frey,

Kn/stalle ; 1877, 242.

rat.

Med. 1853,
;

iii.

Histol.

1876

Preyer, Blut-

Hoppe-Seyler,

Anal.

Chini.

H^EMATOPTNUS, Leach.A genus of

Insects, of the order Anoplura, Pediculidee.

and family
;

Char. Legs all formed for climbing thorax generally narrower than the abdomen,

and distinctly separated from it abdomen composed of eight or nine segments. This genus contains several species (28 Megn.), which live as parasites upon various
;

By some it is satisfactorily determined. considered as bilirubine, or a modification

of
it.

animals
&c.

the field-mouse, rat, dog, ox, horse, ass, calf, hog, rabbit, hare, squirrel,

It is

mostly insoluble or

difficultly soluble

H.
leg).

Sills

(PI. 35. fig.

fig.

4*, anterior

in water, alcohol, ether, acetic and dilute mineral acids, and solution of potash. Some-

Dusky ferruginous abdomen grey

;

or

times it is soluble in acetic acid, with a yellow colour, at others readily so in water. It contains no iron.

ashy-yellow, flat and membranaceous, with a black horny excrescence surrounding each of the v/hite spiracles legs long and thick
; ;

femur transversely striped

tibiae

2b

very ab-

H^MATOPOTA.
tarsi

3'0
;

HAIR.

ruptly clavate, dark-coloured at tlie end with a large fieshy pul villus. Found upon pigs out of condition length
;

1-10 to 1-6". BiBL. Denny, Anopl. Brit. 21 WalcTcendur s Apteres, iii. 301
Paras. 76.

of aggregations of icy spherules, should contain air within them, which does not appear to be the case but in deciding this question, attention must be paid to the
consist
;

Gervais,

principles laid
p.

Megnin,
genus of

H^MATOPO'TA, Meig. A
Dipterous Insects,
nidse.

down in the Introduction, xxxvi,/., which atford a simple means of deciding the point.
In some liquefied hail-stones, the spores
of fungi and algae, with infusoria, been found.

of the

family I'aba-

have
;

Distinguished by the six-jointed antennae, are longer than the head, with the third joint thickened at the base.

which

H. pluvialis, of which most persons must have experienced the pungent bite in or near woods in warm weather, is interesting on account of the great development of the lancets, and the beautiful iridescence of the
eyes.

BiBL. Pouillet, Elem. d. Phij.tique, ii. Waller, Phil. Tr. 1817, 23; id. Phil. Mar/'. 1846, xxix. 103, and 1847, xxx. 159 ; Har'ting, Skiz. aus d. Natur.

HAIR

OF Animals.
is

The

structure of

the hair of animals

gation. of man, in
fectly

very complicated, and requires careful manipulation for its investi-

We shall commence
which
it

H^MATOZO'A,
p.

See Blood,
consists

p. lOo,

&

with the hair has been the most per-

examined.

FiLAEIA,

321.

H^'MINE. This
ILEMO'CHARIS,

of

hydro-

chlorate of hsematine.
Blainv.).

A genus of Annulata. {Piscicola,

(Piscicola geometra ) is a leechfound upon the cai"p, tench,
1 to 2".
;

Sav.

hair. When a hair is viewed imder a low power, it appears black at the sides and light in the middle, so as to convey a notion of its being a tube: such is not, however, the case, although this notion was

Human

H. jn'scmm
like animal,

long admitted.
hairs are secreted by the skin, and of modified epidermic formations. Each is implanted in a cutaneous depression, termed the hair-foUicle (fig. 292), at the bottom of which it is fixed by a dilatation called the knob or bulb of the hair (c). The free portion, or that projecting bevoud the skin, is the shaft or scape {a) and' that
consist
;

The

roach, &c.

Length

BiBL. Leo, Mailer's Arch. 1835

Siebold tind Kdllikers Zeitschr. weU, Ann. N. H. 1842, ix. 11.
i.
;

Leydig, Bright-

H^MOGLO'BINE.
If. sanffuisorba,

H^'MOPIS, Sav.A
lata.

See Blood, p. 102. genus of Annu-

the common horse-leech. In this animal the teeth are less numerous and more obtuse than in the medicinal leech (Hirudo officinalis). HAIL. The microscopic structure of hail-stones does not appear to be uniform. In some a central nucleus surrounded by concentric layers has been noticed in others the nucleus is enveloped by a radiating crystalline crust; or, again, the entire mass has

above the bulb but contained within the The bulb encloses follicle, is the root (b).
or suiTOunds a conical or roirndt-d body (?j, the papilla or pidp. Three varieties of hair are met with upon different parts of the body: 1, consisting of long, soft hairs, from 1 to 3" and more in length, as tlie hair of the head 2, short, rigid and thicker hairs, from 1-4 to 1-2" in length, as in the eye-lashes and 3, short, very slender hairs, from 1-12 to 1-6" in length, as in the down or woolly hairs of
;
;

been found to consist of

When

little spheres of ice. hail-stones liquefy, a copious evolu-

Hail-stones may tion of gas takes place. best be collected for examination in a blanket, which being a bad conductor of heat, retains them longest in the solid state. Connected with the structure and formation of hail-stones, is the composition of spherules of condensed vapour. These are generally believed to consist of films of water enclosing portions of air; but AValler's observations have led him to the conclusion that they are simply composed of water. If tlie former view were con'ect, those hail- stones which

the face, the back and extremities. When the shaft of a hair is examined under the microsoope by transmitted light, two structures are mostly distiuguishable, a median, more or less black, somewhat

the u-regularly granular and linear portion medulla or pith; and an outer, fibrouslooking portion, mostly more or less coloured according to the colour of the hair the cortex, cortical or fibrous portion. The cortical portion is that upon which

the firnmcss, elasticity, and coloiu- of the

fL\IR.

371

PLVIR.
;

hair depends, and constitutes the greater It exhibits numerous portion of its bulk. longitudinal striiie, or interrupted dark lines and dots. When acted upon by strong sul-

form being spindle-shaped but they are mostly flattened and angular, or curved from mutual pressure, resulting from their aggregation into the shaft of the hair. The cells are about 1-500 to 1-300" iu length, and
Fig. 293.

Fig. 292.

i
I

iv.

MagnifleJ 50 diameters.

A hair of
shaft
c,
;

b,

moderate size, contained in its follicle, a, root c, bulb or knob d, cuticle of the hair
;
;

inner sheath of the root /, outer sheath of the root; h, transg, structureless membrane of the hair- follicle verse- and longitudinal-fibrous layer of the same i, paexc' etory ducts of the sebaceous glands or pilla ; k, follicles, with their epithelial and fibrous layer; I, cutis of the orifice of the hair-follicle m, rete mucosum n, cutaneous epidermis; o, termination of the inner sheath of the root.
; ;
;

Magnliied 330 diameters.

Plates and cells of the cortical substance of a hair, after treatment with acetic acid. A, separate cells. 1, front view (three of them isolated, two united); 2, side view. B, a layer, composed of several cells.

phuric or some other acid at a gentle heat, it becomes at first resolved into plates or fibres (tig. 293 B) of the most varied sizes, both as t^o length and breadth but if the action of the acid be continued, these fibres
;

from 1-6000 to 1-2200"

in breadth.

They

become separated into cells (tig. 293 A). These cells present imeven surfaces, and a more or less eliptical outline, thek true

mostly contain elongated, dark-looking nuthese are clei, 1-1100 to 1-400" in length well seen in a coloui-less hair, heated with soda or potash (fig. 294 A h, and B) iu
; ;

coloured hair they also contain pigmentgranules, to which the coloiu' of the hair is

2b2

HAIR.

372

HAIR.

The pigment-granules principally owing. are exceedingly minute, about 1-50,000" in

diameter, rounded, and, as existing in the hair, are mostly arranged in linear groups.
Fig. 294.

The ineduUa, like the cortex, consists of a number of cells. Its structure is best ob
-

served in a hair which has been treated with soda or potash. The cells are then seen Lo
Fig. 295,
Fi''.

96.

&

Magnified 350 diameters.

of the root Fig. 295. Two striated cells from the cortex close above the bulb, with nuclei. 29*5. Cells from the deepest portions of the bulb; Fig. a, from a coloured bulb, with pigment-granules and partly concealed nuclei; 6, from a white hair, with distinct nuclei and a few granules.

Magnified

-350

diameters.

A^ Portion of a white hair after treatment with soda, o, nucleated rells of medulla, free from air; 6, eortieal substance with fibrillation and linear nuclei c, cuticle. B, three isolated nuclei from the cortex.
;

be arranged in one or more linear series they are angular or rounded, (fio;. 294 a) 1-2000 to 1-1000" in diameter; and if the action of the alkali has not been too long continued, they exhibit a nucleus they fremore granules or quently also contain one or of fat (fig. 297). In the shaft and
; ;

globules

Fig. 297.

their colour and numher varying with that The pigment- granules are best of the hair. separated by the action of caustic potash or soda, and they frequently exhibit molecular

motion.

Magnified

;J60

diameters.

and dotted appearance of the shaft of hairs is not produced simply by ihe nuclei, nor by the pigment, but arises in part also from the unequal lefraction of the light by the various parts of the cells, and from the presence of minute spaces filled with air. The nature of each can always be determined by attention to the principles laid down in the Iathoduction.
striated

The

Medullary

cells

with pale nuclei and fatty granules, from a hair treated with soda.

upper part of the root of the hair, tliese cells contain air, -which gives them a dark or black appearance by transmitted light and
;

it

Towards the bulb, the cells of the cortex are more distinct, less elongated, and, as Avell as the nuclei, more easily isolated when treated with acids, (fig. 205), whilst in the bulb itself they are round (fig. 29G), 1-4000
to

opinion, u)itil we pointed out the error several years ago, that this darkness or blackness arose from The contrary, the presence of pigment.

was the generally received

however,

may

be easily proved by mace-

1-1800" in diameter, closely crowded,

o)ily a colourless

rating the hair in oil of ttirpentine or any air escapes in bubbles and liquid, when the becomes displaced by the liquid moreover, on drying the hair, the air and black ap;

and sometimes containing

nucleus, at others pigment-granules.

pearance return. I'l. 29. fig. 1 repre-sent.s a white haiiv in ^^ liich the medullaay cells of

HAIR.

373

HAIR.
Fig. 299.

the lower part are filled with Canada balsam, whilt^t those of the upper portion still contain air. Again, examination by reflected light is equally conclusive for \uider it the black nu'dullary portions become w-hite, which would not be the case did the blackness arise from pigment. PI. 29. (ig. 9 illustrates this .in the hair of the Lion where a represents the hair as seen by transmitted,
;

and

by

reflected light.

Cidicnlar coat. The shaft and root of the hair, above the termination of the inner root-sheath, are coated externally by a

firmly adherent, thin, simple, membranous layer, consisting of flat, imbricated, epithelial scales. In the natural state of the hair, the existence of these scales is only indicated by the presence of irregularly transverse and anastomosing lines seen upon the surface, or slight dentition of the margin But when the hair has been (tig. '2-JSA).
Fig. 298.

Magnified 250 diameters. Portion of the root of a dark hair, slightly acted upon by soda: o, medulla, the cells still containing air; h, cortex with pigment; c, inner cuticular layer; rf, outer eutieular layer e, inner layer of the inner root-sheath ; f, outer perforated layer of the same.
;

are often black, and, as the other parts are transparent, they are apt to be overlooked. They are about 1-700 to 1-500" in length, and one half or one third of this in

Magnified 160 diameters.

A. surface of the shaft of a white hair, the curred lines indicating the free margins of the epidermic scales. B, scales isolated by the action of soda.

transparent, somewhat quadrangular, flattened or curved cells (fig. 298 B), not containing a nucleus theii* margins or edges
;

treated with an acid or an alkali, the scales become separated. Their free margins are directed towards the unattached end of the The scales are much more distinct hair. without treatment, in the hair of the newlyborn infant (PI. 29. fig. 3). They are very

and remaining firmly adherent (c), whilst the outer (d) remains attached to the inner root-sheath, its cells also being broad and without nuclei. At the bulb, both these layers become transformed into soft cells broader than long, with transverse nuclei finally becoming fused with the round cells of the bidb.

diameter. In the lower part of the root, below the termination of the root-sheath, the cuticular coat is double, or consists of two layers. The above-mentioned cuticle of the shaft and upper part of the root forms the continuation of the innermost of these, which possesses nearly the same structure, except that the scales of which it consists are somewhat longer, and directed more obliquely outwards. These layers are best seen in a hair treated with an alkali, especially with the aid of pressure they then become separated (fig. 299), the inner, with the roo of the hair, assuming an undulating
;

form,,

HAIR.

374

HAIR.
It consists of several layers resembling those of the

The hair-foUides are pouches, about 1-10 to 1-4" in length, pretty closely surrounding the hairs, and extending in the short hairs
into the substance of the upper layer of the but in the long hairs, into its deepest cutis portion, or even into the subcutaneous cellular tissue. They may be regarded as prolongations of the skin, with its components,
;

tudinal layer. of nucleated

rete

cells,

mucosum

of the skin, the outer having

their long axis perpendicular to that of the hair, the others, especially towards the bulb,

being roimded.

This outer root-sheath

is

most

distinct in the follicles of the skin of

the cutis, basement-membrane, and epiderHence three parts are distinguishable mis. in them an external, fibrous, very vascidar a baseportion the proper hair- follicle ment-membi'ane and a non-vascular celluthe epidermis of the follicle, or, lar coat because it surrounds the root of the hair, the root-sheath. The fibrous portion of the follicle con-

the negro, from which it may be withdrawn with the epidermis after maceration.
Fig. 300.

much more delicate, and only (tig. 300 ) is extends from the base of the hair-follicle It to the orifice of the sebaceous follicles.
consists of a single layer of transverse fibres, with long and narrow nuclei, resembhng

two layers or membranes. The outer one (fig. 292 /<) is the thicker, and contains vessels and nerves. Its inner surface is connected with the inner layer; externally it is attached to the surrounding areolar tissue and above, it is continuous with the outer layer of the cutis. It consists of common areolar tissue, the fibres of which are longitudinal, with elongated The inner layer spindle-shaped nuclei.
sists of
;

unstriated muscular fibres. The third layer (fig. .300

6),

or basement-

membrane, is transparent and structureless, and extends from the base of the follicle,
without apparently covering the papilla, as far as the inner root-sheath, and perhaps It presents delicate transverse higher. anastomosing lines, producing a fibrous
appearance.

Magnified 300 diameters.

Portion of the inner fibrous coat and basement-membrane of a hair-follicle a, inner coat with transverse fibres and elongated transverse nuclei; b, basementmembrane, seen as it were in section c, its lacerated margins d, fine lines (fibres ?) on its inner surface.
: ; ;

The pulii or papilla of the hair (fig. 292 i) belongs to the follicle, and corresponds to a It is rounded or oval, papilla of the skin. 1-96 to 1-480" in length, is connected with the fibrous coat of the follicle by a kind of
stalk,

and

consists

areolar tissue with fat, but contains no cells. The two root-sheaths consist of the epiThe dermic covering of the hair-follicle. outer 292/) is the continuation of the
(fig.

of indistinctly fibrous nuclei and granules of

rete mucosum of the skin, and lines the Its lower part is in contact entire follicle. externally with the basement-membrane of but above the termination of the follicle the inner transverse layer of the follicle, it is in direct contact with the outer or longi;

The inner root-sheath (fig. 299, e,f) forms a transparent, very firm and elastic, yellowish membrane, extending from near the base of the hair-follicle to near the mouths of the sebaceous follicles, where it terminates abruptly with a jagged margin. Externally it is connected with the outer root-sheath, internally with the outer layer of the cuticle of the hair hence no interval exists naturally between it and the Jiair. At first sight it appears as a perfectly homogeneous membrane, but on closer examination it is seen to be distinctly cellular it consists of two
;

HAIR.

375

HAIR.

or three layers of polygonal, longish, transparent cells, with their long axis parallel to that of the hair. The outermost (Ilenle's)
layer
(figs.

299/, 301 A)
Fig. 301.

consists of long,

consists of a single layer only of beautiful, polygonal, nucleated cells (fig. 301 C) tliese becoming soft, delicate and rounded, gradually pass into the outer layers of the round cells of the bulb. In regai'd to development, the rudiments of the hair appear as processes of the rete mucosum descending in the substance of the cutis. These are solid, and consist of cells, the internal of which become horny, and form first a small slender hair in the axis of the process, next an inner sheath sm-rounding the former, whilst the outer cells remain soft, and form the outer sheath and the cells of the bulb. After birth the foetal hair appears to be
;

mfmi

new hairs being formed in the old follicles, which displace the first set, as shown in figs. 302, 303.
completely shed,
Fig. 302.

Fig. 303.

n J)

iilll

\:f'^
Magnilicd 350 diameters.

inner non-perforated layer. C, nucleated cells of the lower part of the inner sheath, which consists of a single layer only.

Elements of the inner root-sheath. A, external layer 1. isolated pirates 2, the same in connexion, showing the int^^rspaces (a) between the cells (6). -B, cells of the
: ;

Magnified 20 diameters.
exhibits a process Eye-lashes of a child a year old. (jn) of the bulb or outer root-sheath, in which the central cells are elongated, and form a cone distinct from the outer cells. -S, one more advanced, in which the inner cone has become developed into a hair and an inner root-?heath a, outer, b, inner root-sheath of the young hair; c, pit for the pulp; c?, bulb; e, shaft of the old hair; f. bulb, .9, shaft, h, summit of the young hair; k, three sudoriparous ducts openi, sebaceous follicles ing into the upper part of the hair-follicle.
: ;

flattened, non-nucleated cells, from 1-700 to l-oOO" in length, with fissures between The ina fenestrated layer. them,

forming

nermost (Huxley's) layer (figs. 299 e, 301 B) consists of one or two layers of shorter and broader polygonal cells, from 1-1200 to 1-600" in length their nuclei, which exist in the lower part only of the coat, are often broader at the ends than in the middle, sometimes curved and pointed. At the base of the hair-foUicIe, the inner root-sheath
;

The hairs sometimes found developed upon mucous membranes, and within encysted tumours and ovarian cysts, possess the normal structure in every respect. Of the morbid states of the human hair, we need mention only the loss and change

HAIR.

HAIR.
:

When of colour, and tlie presence of fungi. the colour entirelj^ vanishes, and. the hair becomes white or grey, the cells of the meThis arises dulla contain abundance of air.
from degeneration or impaired nutrition the liquid contents of tlie cells are not supplied in sufficient quantity they therefore evaporate, and the cells being pi-evented from collapsing by their adhesion to each other and to the hrm cortex, become filled with air, which replaces what would otherwise constitute a vacuum. Fungi are found in Favus upon the cortex of the hair, Avithin the follicles, and even within the In Porrigo decalhair itself, as is stated. vans also, fungi are stated to occur in the
;

of the bats but the cells of the medulla are very distinct. (See Spixes.) Carnivora (figs. 9-13) In this Order the structure of the hair varies considerably. In the lion (fig. 9) the cortical cells are di.

stinct, but not projecting; the medullary cells are very and the

niunerous, air-spaces minute, but closely aggregated, as we often find them in the human hair. In the bear (fig. 10), the large hairs present much the same structure as in the lion the wool;

bairs difier strikingly from these, however, in the distinctness of the cortical and me-

didlary

cells.

hairs.

principal differences between the bair of animals, and that of animals from each other, relate to 1, the size; 2, the relative proportions of the cortical and medullary structures; 3, the locality of the pigment; 4, the arrangement of the medullary cells ; 5, the comparative amount of true hair, and wof)lly hair, down, or wool

The

of

man and

and

0, the size and projection ficial cortical cells or scales.

of the super-

Of these we
(PI. 1. figs. 1-3,

shall

give a brief
29).

sketch
is
;

and PI.

The

hair of the INIammalia generally

formed upon the same plan as that of man in its comgreat variety, however, exists of plexity of structure and the arrangement the component parts. Qvadnnnana (PL 29. figs. 4 & 5). In the
(Indian) (fig. 4), the hair presents of the same structure as in man; the pigment is confined to the cortex, but the air-cells of the medulla are larger a,nd less crowded this is seen to a greater extent in the hair of the lemur (fig. 5). In the bats (PL 1. fig. 2; Cheiroptera. PL 29. figs. G & 7), a striking character is the peculiar development of the cortical In the hair of the scales of the surface. common bat (PL 1. fig. 2), Avhich is one

(figs. 14-17). In this Order the hairs present a development corresponding with that of the skin; being very thick and complex in structure. In the elephant (fig. 15, transverse section), each hair resembles a number of hairs fused together. Scattered through its substance are pale spots formed by cells containing little or no pigment, with an irregidar perforation in each, probably arising from rupture of the cells. Surrounding these medullary centres are innumerable cortical cells loaded with pigment. In the jjig (fig. 16), the distinction between the cortex and meduUa is not well raarked,_and the cells assimie a radial direction, as indicated by those which contain most pigment. In the Cheiropotamus (fig. 17) the distinction is more evident.

Fachydermata

monkey

much

of the Test-objects, and Australian bat (PI. 29. fig. 7), this character is not so striking as in that of the Indian bat (fig. G), in which the scales are grouped in whorls at pretty regular intervals along the shaft, and project considerably beyond the surThe pigment is principally confined face. In some of the to these whorled scales. white hairs of the bat, the individual scales are very beautifully seen (PL 1. fig. 2 c). The hair of the mole (PL Insectivora. to that 29, fig. 8) bears some resemblance

Rmninantia (figs. 18-22). In this Order the hair presents great In the variety. camel (fig. 18) and dromedary (fig. 19), the true hair exhibits much the same structure as that of the higher Orders, whilst in the deer (fig. 20, moose-deer; fig. 21, musk-deer) the medullary portion is enormously deveat the e.Vpense of the cortical loped p'ortion in no hair is the cellular structme more distinct than in the two latter, the medulla closely resembling a piece of vegetable cellular tissue. The wool-hair in this class presents the characteristic structure. That the camel (fig. 18 b) agrees in structure of_ with the type of wool from the sheep in its softness, flexibility and (fig._ 22) waviness, and in the disthictuess of the
;

cortical cells.

Edentata (figs. 23 k 24). The difierence between the hair of the three-toed sloth and that of the armadillo (fig.' 23)
is

(fig. 24) well-marked. In the former, the cortical cells take a remarkably oblique or radiating course, whilst in the latter thej run longitudinally. Eodentia (figs.' 2o--35), In this Order the

HAIR.
pigment
is

''77

IIAIII.

met with sometimes

iu

the

me-

jNlammalia.

others in the ciu'tex. The arrangement of the air-cells is often very beautiful, and has reridered these hairs favourite mousemicroscopic objects. Portions of a hair in various parts of its length are rethe free end. presented in Hg. 27, a forming same Fig. 28 displays two portions of the haTras histolyzedby treatment with solution of potash. The cortical parts have not been resolved into their component cells, whilst those of the medulla have assumed their rounded and natural form, and exhibit midiiihx, at

completely

solid,

In other instances the Lair is but exhibits no trace

whatever of cell-structure. It remains to be shown whether the latter may represent the epidermis hardened in an amorphous state, and whether those lined with cutis may be regarded as epidermic formations upon an exserted papilla of the skin whilst
;

mite grannies of pigment, with larger globules of fat. The arrangement of the me-

two rows is seen The pigment within the cells in

dullary cells iu
iu
tig.

in

fio-.

28 b. wool

those presenting the air-cells when dried correspond to an outer hardened epidennic layer, and an inner retaining its distinctly In those lined with cutis, cellular state. the circiUation can sometimes be observed. have space to notice only a few instances of variety of form, many of which occur, and have long rendered these hairs

We

situ is seen

31

b,

from the rabbit.

l"he

in a marked degree, presents its characters the projection of the outer layer of cortical cells and the distinctness of the medullary air-cells being very evident.

interesting and elegant microscopic objects. Thus, in some of the Arachnida they are feathery, giving oft' slender lateral branches, as in Lycosa (PI. 29. fig. 40), Epeira (PL 6.
fig.

In this cuMarsitpialia (lig-s. 30 & 37). rious Order the hair greatly resembles that That of the kangaroo preof the Rodents. sents very beautifully imbricated cortical
cells (fig. 36).

8 5), Acanis (PI. 6. fig. 1 i), &c. ; in others these branches are directed forwards near the middle of the shaft, but recurved at the end, as in Mygale (the bird-catching

(PL 29. fig. 41); or, while the branches on the shaft resemble the above, the end of the hair is thickened, cylindrical
spider)

Monotrernata.
of the

The

structure of the hair

Ornithorhyuchus is as peculiar as It presents that of the animal in general. that of hair and avooI combined (tig. 38). The basal portion resembles wool, and is very long and narrow the structure of two
;

and longitudinally striated, with minute setae arising from the strijB, as in fig. 42 again, some of them are simple, but furnished with spiral striae {E'peira, PL 0. 8 ) in Tromhidium they are sometimes fig.
;
;

of its length is seen pieces in different parts At the end of this porin fig. 38 c and d. tion is attached the proper hair containing the pigment within the cortical substance the surface-view of (b) ; tig. 38* represents

the hair, showing the imbricated scales. In Birds the hair is replaced by fea-

very elegantly feathery. In Insects, Arachnida, kc, they often appear to rise from a bulb at the base but the bulb is not solid, and bears no resemblance in structure to the bulb in the Mammalia; it consists of a thickening or fold of the ejjidermis of the skin, not of the hair, from which it is separated by a white
;

thers.
Invertebrata does not structiu'e as that of the present the same some physiologists have higher animals therefore limited the term hair to the filiform epidermic formations of the Mammalia, whilst others admit the occurrence of hair in all classes of the animal kingdom. At all events, the hairs of the Invertebrata are not usually cuuiposed wholly of epidermis. They consist of an outer cortical or

The

hair of the

ring, indicating thinness of this coat, and often corresponding to a joint; the hair arises from the base of a depression situated within the annular bulb. The hair of some of the larvse of the Dermestidae is very

and is used as a Test-object. forms are met with in one (PI. 1. 1 c) the shaft is simply covered with fig. densely aggregated, minute, spinous secondary hairs; in the other (PL 1. fig. 1 , b),
beautiful,

Two

and epidermic layer, frequently coloured,

upon which their firmness depends

lining

this is sometimes a prolongation of the cutis, at others a colourless substance which,

when

cell-like

is dried, presents an irregular appearance and contains air, so as to resemble the air-cells of the hair of the

the hair

the spines or scales upon the shaft are narrow, acute, and placed in pretty regular whorls; in the uppermost whorl they are broader, the spines remaining as midribs, whilst the margins are more developed, the whole resembling a flower with four or five but at the end of the hair, the petals
;

scales are longer, narrower,

and recurved,

HAIR.
eacli

378

HAIRS.
;

midrib being terminated below by a knob. The examination of the hair and its dissection can only be effected by the aid of
little

1845

Histol.
siol.

chemical reagents, especially sulphuric acid, These should solution of potash or of soda. and if no separation of first be used cold the components ensues, heat even to boiling must be apphed the subsequent addition of water is sometimes advantageous. Sections
; ;

Arts and Mamif. Bonders, Mtdder's FhyChem.; Be Morgan, Phil. Tr. 1859 (Cmstacea) Pfaft^ D. mensch. Haar. in Bedeut. 1869 2^hys., pathol., ^ forem.
;
;

Griffith, ibid. 18J8, 844 ; Heusinger, ; Gurlt, Miill. Archiv, 1836 ; Aikin,

of hair can be made with a razor, a bundle of hair being fixed between two flat pieces Transverse of cork, or between two cards. sections of the human hair can be obtaiued by shaving a second time, an hour or two the sections should then be after the first washed in water. The cortical cells are most beautifully seen in white hairs which have been thoroughly soaked in oil of tur;

and mounted in Canada balsam, ?entine, 'he air-cells of the medulla are best observed in hairs which have been mounted in balsam without the previous application The sheaths of the hair of turpentine. keep best in solution of chloride of calcium
or glycerine. Many of the structures of the hair of the Mammalia may be well observed in the of the ox, large hairs or bristles (whiskers) &c. ; in these also the pulp is seen to contain
blood-vessels, which have not been detected with certainty in that of man. They also exhibit bands of smooth muscular fibres,

Goette, Schultze's Archiv, 1868, 273 Biesiadecki, Strieker's Ilandb. 600 Ilofmann, M. M. Jn. 1873, 167 Frey, Histolog. 1876, 419 Sorby, Jn. Linn. Sac. 1881, xv. 337. HAIRS OF Plants, trichomata or tri' The term hair is applied in botany chomes. to filamentous productions upon the surface of the organs of plants, consisting of one or more ceUs arising out of and constituting Hairs of part of the epidermal structure. plants present a great variety of conditions ill the simplest kind those composed of a simple, cylindrical, conical, bifurcated or steUate cell they may be varied in form by the pecuhar shape of the constituent cell, in individual character by the presence or absence of special secretions in the cellcavities, and in their collective character by the mode of arrangement on the epidermis, since they may be few and scattered, or so numerous as to form a velvety coat. Comjyound hairs, namely those composed of a number of cells, vary in fike manner, and, moreover, in the examples where the cellwalls acquire considerable thickness, pass
;

"^

gradually from pure hairs into bristles, and thence into the structures called Thorns
(distinguished from true spines by beinoappendages of the epidermis). The" stellate
fornis also present many variations intermediate between hairs proper and Scales.

from the cutis, descending through the hair-follicles, and terminating below the sebaceous follicles, forming the erectores
arising
pili.

hairs of some animals polarize light. interesting object of this kind may be made by placing two series of the white hair of a horse in balsam, so as to cross each other at an angle, and viewing them by polarized fight (PI. 39. fig. 39). In regard to the discrimination of the hairs of one animal from those of another, we believe that the examination of indi-

The

An

vidual hairs can in general be but little whilst a comparison of depended upon their form, length, and breadth, with the hair to that of the proportion of the true wool, conjoined with the consideration of the internal structure, may often enable an observer to arrive at a satisfactory con;

curiosity They likeA\-ise strongly attract the attention of the physiologist from the simplicity of their organization and their free condition, allowing the phenomena presented by the cell-contents to be readily observed under the microscope. In reference to their characters as microscopic objects, it Avill siifiice to indicate their principal modifications, and state a certain number of exaruples. For this
fornis.^

These structures are interesting to tha microscopist on account of the varietv and often extreme elegance or of their

be classified as follows

purpose

they

may

clusion.
d.

BiBL. KiiUiker, Mikr. Eble, Haare in An. (jesammf. organ. Nutur Ilenle, Allff. Todd & Bowman, Phys. of Man-, Erdl, Miinchen. Ahh. Bd. iii. Huxley, Med. Gaz.
: ; ;
,;

Simple hairs: vnbranched. Cabbage-leaf (Brassica, fig. .304), (Emdhera, Dicfammts (VI. 28. fig. 39 a), Anchusa (fig. 17) ; bifin-cated, Capsella (fig. 36), Draba (tig. 307) ; inflated or capitate, Antirrhinum ( fig. 306 and PI. 28, fig. 34), Salvia (fig. 305), Helleborusfoitidus
j

branched, in

many Crucif era^,

HAIRS.

379

HAIRS.

as Sist/v>hiuin Sophia (fig. 35), AJternanthera 'axUlaris (fig. 37) stellate, Ahjssum Very often hairs composed of a (fig. 308) sliort stalk, single cell are supported upon a
; .

and
;

tlien

developed horizuntally in

tAvo

directions, as in Grevillia lithidophyUa (fig. in several so as to form a star, as in 129)

Deutzia scabra (fig. 26*), Ahjmim (fig. 28). Structures analogous to the last occur upon the septa of the air-cavities of the NymphteVicaceae, such as Nuphar lutea (fig. 15),
toria, Szc.

Fig. 304.

Fig. 305.
<s

Fig. 306.

Hairs of:

Fig. 308.

dosa (fig. 41), Bryonia alha (fig. 42), the inner scales of tlie winter leaf-buds of the Or the hairs are torulose, as in ash, &c. Lamium album, the common white Deador mouiliform or nettle necklace-shaped, as on the stamens of Tradescantia (fig. 311) the Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis, fig. 309).' The transition from these to the branched forms is presented commonly in the simpler forms of the pappus of the Compositfe, as in that of the Groundsel, which has toothed in other examples the lateral teeth hairs grow out into branches, as in the species of Hieracium and other Coniposita3, presentinopinnate or plumose forms, according to the extent of ramification. The seeds of Catalpa Bungeana bear a fringe the hairs of which resemble Pitted Ducts. Verhascum Thapsus (PI. 28. fig. 19) has compound hairs branched at the joints. Compound hairs likewise exhibit the horizontal development; the hairs of the garden Chrysanthemum are horizontal navicular cells, on a
;

Brassica (leaf). Salvia (calyx). Antirrhinum (corolla)*

tall articulated pedicle (fig.

supported 30) the stellate

;

Fig. 307.

hairs of the Ivy (fig. 27) are compound, and supported on a short stalk-cell. \'er3' varied forms of compound, more or less stellate hairs occur on the leaves in the orders Jas-

minaceae and Oleaceas.

The

last

form a

and many Ferns, such as Acrostichum.

Fig. 309. Fig. 310.

transition to the scales of the Eleaonacese

Fig. 311.

Draba

(leaf).

Aljssum MagniSed 100 diameters.

(leaf).

and often imitate, on diversity of character, a larger scale, the forms of the simple hairs as in the hairs of they may be wibi-anchecl, the garden Pelarcjonia (PL 28. fig. 18), and
\

Compound Hairs. These exhihit a similar

Hairs of:

a large proportion of ordinary silky hairs Cotton is a of plants. upon'the epidermis of the hairs of striking example, consisting the seeds of Gossijpinm (fig. 1). Commonly these hairs are cylindrical; but not unfrequently one or more of the uppermost or all the component cells are expanded into a more or less globular form. Capitate
particularly

Mirabilis. Antirrhinum (calyx). Tradeseantia (stamen).

Magnified 100 diameters.

examples

often occur on corollas, and glandular hairs on the inner scales of leaf-buds the bulbils of Achimenes (fig.

of Digitalis (fig. 33), Lijsi32), the corolla machia vulgaris (fig. 40), Sci-oi)lmlaria no-

hairs above noticed are mostly solilu the Malvaceas (iZ'/J/scMs) tufted or tary, and stellate groups of hairs are met with in the air-cells of Utricularia are seen Marruhium curious groups of four hairs. a-eticum is another example of this kind of structure (fig. 47). Almost all of the above-described forms of hair may contain merely watery colourless or coloured contents ; or they may have
;

The

ITAIRS.

P'^0

HAIRS.

one or more of the component cells filled with special oily, resinous, or saccharine In the latter condition they are secretion. termed gkmdidar hairs. The characters of these organs are spoken of under the head of Glands and SECRKxiNa OnaANS of Plants. The gum-resinous secretion found upon the buds of trees (^sadtis, &c.) is formed by glandular hairs. Some of the hairs with watery cell-contents present favourable opportunities for observing the Rotatiox of the protoplasm; for example, the young hairs of the stamens of Tradesvantia or spider-wort ; the stinging hairs of nettles also show this when

the petals and stamens of many flowers, by the same liquid colouring-matter as the cells beneath the epidermis; stings are filled with
acrid watery juice, glandular hairs with various secretions, which, like the watery juices, appear at first in vacuoles, gradually occulting the place of the protoplasm which follows the expanding cell-walls.

Hairs, being epidermal structures, possess a more or less evident cuticular layer, which may be detached by the action of acids
(fig. 199, p. 295); sulphuric acid often causes this to separate and expand as a kind of vesicle from the surface of the hair, as is

young and probably it might be observed in all young hairs, where sutficiently transOne precaution parent and uninjured.
;

greatly facilitates the observation

namely,

shown in PI. 28. fig. 1.3 {SiphocampyJus) the cuticle of the full-grown moniliform hairs of Tradescautia may be separated in like manner (see Epidermis). This cuticle
;

also exhibits in

to dip' the hairs into alcohol for an instant, and immediately plunge them in water ;
after this operation, the structure is readily

ings

many cases the same markwhich occur on the surface of the

wetted by water, and no longer obscured by the abundance of air-bubbles that remain entangled with and adherent to the surface of the fresh hairs. These young hairs likewise exhibit at their apices the various conditions of the contents (nucleus, protoplasm, 47. &c.) of cells multiplying by division (PI. The circulat^ion takes place in 8 &
figs.

0).

the dark streaks represented as forming a network connected with the nuclei (). Stings, such as those of the Nettle (PI. 28. of simple cells ha^dng a fig. 8), consist bulbous base enclosed in a cellular case, formed by the growing-up of the epidermis round the base of the hair; the latter tapers away upward to near the apex, where it again expands into a little globular head. The walls are rather thick and spirally striThe bulbous base is filled with the ated.

epidermis of certain plants, as Helhhorus, Cakile, &c. (PI. 28. figs. 9 & 10), consisting of elevated spots, ridges, reticulations, &c. composed entirely of thickenings of the cuticular layer. This is well seen in the hairs of the Boraginacese, e. g. Anchusa (fig. 17), the Cruoiferas, as of Farsetia, Cheiranthus, kc, or Dclphinitim (fig. 16). The spiral striae on the sting of TJrtica urens (fig. 8) appear to be of similar nature. T. West has described the raised markino-s upon some hairs as bulgings or wrinkles in the cell-wall. Finally, it is necessary to mention the remarkable structure of the hairs upon the surface of the seeds and pericarps of certain plants among the Acanthaceas, PolemoThose niacece, Labiatse, Compositre, &c. of the Acanthace,^ have been spoken of
partly under that head and under A caxTHODIUM. They are hairs composed of

when the irritating liquid, which exudes knob-like head is broken off, through the tension of the cellular investment of the
sac.

The intimate structure of the hairs of of interest. The plants presents many points cells are of course composed of a cellulose wall, with contents varying according to When young, age and other circumstances. they are always densely filled with protowhich becomes plasm (PI. 47' figs. 8 & 0), and exgradually excavated by vacuoles, so as to form a mere reticulation or
panded a few streaks upon the wall, mostly connected with an evident nucleus. The cavity of the cell is then filled, in hairs proper, with watery cell-sap, sometimes coloured, as in

cylindrical cells, simple {Ruellia, PL 28. 21), or conjoined into a compound and branched hair [Acanthodium, fig. 24), the cell-walls of which receive when young a spiral (fig. 24) or annular (fig. 21) fibrous
fig.

deposit, and subsequently become partially disorganized so that, if placed in water in the mature state, the primary cell-wall almost dissolves into a kind of jelly, and the spiral-fibrous structure expands' witii The conditions are similar in elasticity. CoUomia (fig. 22), and, according to Schlei;

den, in Oilia, Ipomopsis, Pokmonium, Canamong the Polemoniaccfe and somewhat the same in many species of Saltua, &c.
;

iv'a (fig. 23), Ocgmiim, DracncepJadum moldavicum, &c. among the Labiatje. In Cobcea

HALACARUS.

381

IIALIONYX.
:

scandens, the spiral-fibrous hairs take rather the form of miiurte scales, ami they do not spontaneously expand elastically (Pi. 28. Among the Ooniposit;c, these fig. 20).

found crawling upon sealow water, or in dredgings. BiBL. Gosse, 3far. Zool. i. 177 Murray, Econ. Entoin. 205 (tigs.).

Five species
at

weeds

have been observed on the pericarp of Huckeiia, some species of

spiral-fibrous hairs
'TrichocUne, Eiiriops,

marine Acarina

IIALAKACH'NE, AUman. A genus

;

of

family Gamasea.

31eso(/rainma,

occur on the seed of JL/drocharis. The best way to observe the elastically expanding hairs is
to place a thin slice of the skin of the seed on a slide in a little alcohol, which does not sot'ten the cell-wall when the object is in
:

Clmfticefolia, OUyothrix gracilis, and Spiral cells also species of Senecio.

Doria some

Body elongate subcyliudrical, with an anterior dorsal plate, //. halichceri. In the posterior nares of a seal (Ilalicharus grgphus) length 1-8". BiBL. Aliman, Ami. N. II. 1847, xx.
;

47

HALECTID.E, Hincks. A
:

Murray, Econ. Ent. 167

(tigs.).

family of

focus, the addition of a little water causes the gelatinous softening of the cell-walls,

Ilydroid Zoophytes. Gen. Huleciuni and OpModes.

the spiral hbres fly out from the surface of the seed-coat and show clearly the characThe primary ter of these beautiful objects. membrane may be detected, even in its gelatinous state, by adding sulphuric acid and iodine, which produce a purplish or
violet colour.

of Hydroid Zoophytes, family Sertukriid;e. Distinguished by tlie plant-like polypidom, the stem consisting of numerous parallel capillary tubes, and the cup-like sessile cells arising alternately on nearly opposite sides of the stem, one under each
joint.

HALE'CIUxM, Oken.A genus

Further remarks on this head

will be found under Spirai, Stkuctuhes. The hairs on the stigma of Campamda are remarkable for the intussusception which is observed to take place in the mature hairs. The filiform processes growing from the under siu-face of the frondose HepaticjB, the thallus of Lichens, the prothallium of Ferns, kc, are commonly called radical In most cases they present no rehairs. markable points of structure in Marchan;

H,

Common

hulecinmn. Vesicles oval or oblono-. on shells and stones in deep water

4-10" high.

H. Bcanii. Vesicles calceohform. Rare. H. muricatum. Vesicles spinous.

5 other species. BiBL. Johnston, 5/7^. Zooph.oS: Hincks, Ilydroid Zooph. 220. HALIOHOND'RIA, Flem. genus of

Sponges.

have tia, however, peculiar spiral markings been detected (see Marchantia). BiBL. Meyen, Secretions-oryane d. Pflanid. P/ianzen-jjhysiol. ; Cohn, Cuzen, 1837 Schleiden, ticida, Linncea, xxiii. 3o7, 18o0 Midler'' s Arc/iiv, 1838; Beitr. z. Botanik, DeLeipsic, 1844, i. 121 {Sc. Memoirs) caisne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xii, 251, pi. 4 Leighton, Ann. X. H. vi. 257 Brongniart, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 s^r. xii. 244, pi. 4; Pril5; Tuiien lieux, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. West, Qu. Mic. Jn. vii. 22; Weisse, I>. Pflanzenhnare, 18G7 Hanstein, Bot. Zeit. Banter, 1871; Trichomgeh. 1868, 6U7
; ;
;

HALTDRYS, Lyngb.A
stones

genus of Fu-

cacese (Fucoid Algas), containing one British species, H. siliquosa, common on rocks and

somewhat above low-water mark.

It is readily distinguished by its pod-like septate air-vessels. The fructification, which

is terminal on the branches, much resembles that of Fucus, except that the interior of the receptacles is tilled with hrni

up

-^

polygonal cellular tissue. The antheridia, moreover, are terminal on their pedicels, often in tufts, short in form, and intermixed with spore-sacs in the same conceptacle.

Martinet, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1872, xiv. Bot. 103.

Sachs,
of

HALACARUS, genus marine Acarina. Char. Body sometimes covered with a dorsal shield rostrum bulbous, pointed palpi terminated by a fang-like claw; legs formed f()r walking, arising from the outer
;

Gosse. A

BiBL. Harvey,-^;-. Mar. Alg. 15, Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser, xvi. 8,

pi. 1

HALIO'N YX, Ehr.A

pi. 3.

genus of Diatovalves
equal,

macese. Char.
_

Frustules single;

circular, surface radiate, the rays not commencing at the umbihcu.-i; no internal septa.

Marine.

margin of the body, directed two pairs forwards and two backwards, and with a pair
of hooks.

//. senarius. Rays six, the interveninospaces with shorter rays of equal len^-th parallel to the larger, and with transverse

HALISARCA.
laxly cellular lines entire diara. 1-720".
;
;

382

HAPLOMITRIUM.

umbilicus punctate,
18.
fig.

H.

iindenarins

(PI.

51).

Rays

eleven or twelve. BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Akad. 1844, 198.

an anterior circle of cilia, and sometimes a peripheral row of longer setae, which by their sudden contraction produce a leaping motion.

Gen. Halteria, with both

:

cilia

and

setje

HALISAR'CA,
Bowerbk.).

A genus of
and pores.

Duj.

(Hymeniacidon,
marine Sponges.

Forms a tliin semitransparent gelatinous amber crust on rocks and shells, with indistinct oscula

only; Mesodinium, with a proboscis and setae Acarella, with cilia and a carapace Arachnidkini, with stout teutacle-hke cilia; and Uidinium, with an anterior and posterior circle of

Strombidium,

-with, cilia

The only species. Gosse, Johnston, Br. Sponges Mar. Zuol. i. Bowerbank, Br. Spony. ii.

H.

Dujardinii.
;

cilia.

BiBL.

224.

HALIS'ERIS,

Tozzetti.

genus of

Dictyotacea3 (Fucoid Alg*), containing one British species, with a brownish olive, sometimes forked frond with a midrib, from 4" to 1' high, having a very powerful otteuThe fructification sive smell when fresh.

111. genus of Coleoptefam. Galerucidae. " H. nemorum, the turnip-fly." Oblongovate, black elytra greenish black, with a broad uninterrupted sulphm--yeUow streak, not reaching the apex. Movement jump-

HAL'TICA,
;

rous Insects

ing.

produced in sori, arranged in lines on each side of the midrib, or scattered, conis

taining large spores.

BiBL. Stephens, Brit. Coleopt. 291. HALYME'XIA, Ag. A genus of Cryptonemiaceae (Florideoiis Algaj), containing one British species, found on the southern It is a somewhat palmate, memshores.
branous, rose-coloured sea-Aveed, usually from to 12" long, composed of a double membrane, the layers being separated by a
loose network of jointed filaments. The fructification consists of faveUidia buried in the frond, attached to the inner surface of the membranous laminae, scattered all over the frond, appearing to the naked e}'e like

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Akj. 36,

HALOCYTRIS, Dana.A

pi.

6 B. marine Os-

tracode, with very tliin, subquadrate, saddleshaped valves, beaked in front at the upper The closely allied Conchfscia, Dana, angle. has longer and subrectangular valves. Both are related to Cypridina, and have two distinct pairs of feet, weak upper antennae, mandibles, large frontal tentacle, and no
eyes.

red dots.

Living in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. BiBL. Dana, E.vpL Exped., Crust. 1.301 Bradv, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 409.

HAPAEOSI'PHON, Nag.A
Oscillatoriaceae.

BiBL. Harvev, Brit. Aly. 148,

19 D. genus of Filaments branched, formed

pi.

HALTE'RIA, Duj.A

genus of Infu-

soria, family Halterina.

Char. Body almost spherical or topshaped, with an anterior circle of cilia, and a peripheral row of longer slender setae, which by sudden contraction produce a leaping motion. Freshwater.

of a t-ingle row of cells, \A\h. delicate coloured, indistinctly lamellar sheaths. Four species; on freshwater plants. (Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. 283.)

HAPLA'RIA,
grisea.

Link.

See

Botrytis

H. yrandineUa=Trichi)dina yrandindln, Ehr. (PI. oO. hgs. 11, 12) greatest breadth,
;

HAPLOMIT'RIUM, Nees. A genus of Jungermannieae (leafy Hepaticae), containing one British species, H. (Jiingermannia) Hookeri, an Alpine plant, which lias been
carefully studied

1-850".

by Gottsche.

It

is

re-

H.
closer

volvo.v

like II. yrandinella,

but with

a second peripheral row of shorter and 3 other species. cilia. Stein points out the resemblance of this animalcule to the swarm-germs of an ^4cneta foimd upon Cyclops. BiBL. Dujardiu, Inf. 414; Stein, Inf.; CI. ct Each. Inf 369;" Kent, Inf 631. HALTERl'NA, CI. & Each. family of Peritrichous Infusoria.

having leaves (without amphigastria) inserted on all sides of the stem. The terminal capsule emerges at length from a large oblong fleshy epigone (fig. 328).
for
of.

markable

antheridia (fig. .323) occur in the axils the leaves; they. have a double coat, the interior of whicli consists of reniform cells

The

Ci'iur.

Free, globose or flask-shaped, with

(fig. 322), which become isolated and more or less dissolved. The spermatozoids, produced in minute vesicles (fig. 324), resemble those of the Mosses.

HAPLOPHRACtIUM.
54
;

383

HELICOSPORIUM.
;
;

Btbl. Hooker, Erit. Junrjermannirp, pi. Ekart, <S'////. Jim(/. pi. tijz;. 05 Eudliclier, Gen. Plant. No. 474-3 Gottsclie, Nova Acta, XX. 2G"), pis. 13-20. Reuss. HAPLOPHRAG'MIUM,
; ;

Tertiary beds living in tropical sens on the Jh'itish coast. BiBL. Carpenter. Tntrod. For. 81.

rare

loid or crozier-shaped,

sandy Lituoliue Foraminifer, either nautiwith simple or coinpound aperture and undivided chambers. Recent and fossil. BiBL. Reuss, Sitzum/ffb. Ak. Wien, xliv. 381 Brady, Mic. Jn. li. s. xix. 29. HAPLdSTI'CHE, Reuss. See LixuOLA.
;

IIAUSTO'RIA. term applied to certain short processes springing from the basal fibres of the hyphtie of moidds, while traversing the intercellular passages of the hostplants ; they are often expanded at the ends.
They penetrate the parenchymatous cell-^, and absorb their contents. They may be readily
studied in Ci/stopus. BiBL. Brefekl, Schiinmclpilze Sachs, Bot. 279 (figs.). Beitriif/c
;
;

De

Bary,

PIAPLOT'RICHUM,
Link. cediues

Fig. 312.

genus of 3Iuintermediate
in

(Hyphomycetous
between

Fungi),
structure
tn/tis

Bo-

and

Asperf/illus.

spores are developed a cell capitate terminating the septate erect fertile filaments

The

from

of the The heart present certain pecuharities. primitive bundles are more slender than usual they frequently anastomose, and contain normally a few minute granules of the transverse striae are also often infat In disease the fatty matter is often distinct.
fibres
;
:

HAVERSIAN CANALS. HEART. The muscular

See Bone.

extremely abundant
the
^

strife

are

more

(PI. 38. fig. 14 a), and or less obliterated.

;

(tig.

312).
Ic.

BiBL. Corda,

Nees
Fries,

Sust

Pilze
Ve,/et.

Funn. nl 4

,
.

3^?'*"''^" 'o^''>-

dm.

m.

Magn. 200 chams.

BiBL. KoUiker, Mik. An. ii. Forster, Path. An. Quain, Wedl, Path. Hist. Med. CMr. Tr. 33 Rokitansky, Path. An. HEDR^OPHY'SA, Kt. = sessile Bicos;
; ;

HLIRPAC'TICUS.

HARPIRHYN'CHUS, Meg. A

See Arpacticus.

oeca.

One

genus

HEDWIGTA, Hook. A
ses.

sp.,

Jersey.

(Kent, Infus. 274).

geniis of

Mos-

of Trombidina (Acarina). H. nidulans, in the dilated feather-follicles of the lark and green-finch, (Megnin, Paras. 243, fig.). HAR'TEA, Wright. genus of Alcy-

See Zygodon.

onidiidse.

Polype solitary
; ;

at the base base basal portion of body thickly studded with small star-shaped spicula; base and body of tentacles with long dendritic spicula mouth centi'al, with 2 lips somatic
;

cylindrical, fixed tentacles 8, knobbed at their

;

body

chambers

8.

H.
dark.
T.

elegans.

West

Height

3-4".

White,

br>se

coast of Ireland.

BiBL. E. S. Wright, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1865, 213 (pi.). HARVEST-BUG. Trombidixjm au-

HEIBER'GIA, Grev. genus of Diatomaceae. Char. Fr. compressed, quadrilateral, cellulate, with a punctate surface of the angles, where they probably cohere valves with one longitudinal and several transverse costae, the longitudinal one terminating at each end in a blank space. A. Barbadensis (PI. 52. fig. 4). Barbadoes deposit. BiBL. Grev. Mic. Trans. 1865, v. 100. HELICO'MA, Corda. genus of Dematlei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), with the Berkeley spores curled into a spiral. considers the distinction between Helieoma
:

and
Fries

Helicosporium
includes

Helieoma

scarcely tenable, and Midleri, Corda,

tmnnale.

HASSALLIA, Berk. HASTERIGERI'NA,

scribed

See Sirosiphox.

Thomson.

Defrom

by Brady

as scarcely separable
3, xix. 79).

Globiyerina

(W. Thomson,

Proc. P. S. xxiv.

under Helicosporium. This plant has been found on dead wood in this comitry. BiBii. Corda, Ic. Fung. i. pi. 4. fig. 219; Berkeley and Broome, Ann. N. H. 1851, vii. 98 Fries, Sum. Veget. 500.
genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), growing on decayed wood, nearly related to HeliHelieoma and eoma and Helicotrichum,
Helicosporium are described as having erect fertile filaments, Helicotrichum creeping

534

H. Brady, Mic. Jn.

One of the D'Orb. Miliolidce, growing on one plane, subdiscoidal, and characterized by a cribriform

HAUERI'NA,

liELICOSPO'RIUM, Nees. A

aperture.

M.

cotnjjressa (PI. 23. fig. 8).

Fossil in the

HELICOSTEGIA.
branched filaments
the
;

384

HELMINTIIOSPORIUM.
;

but

Fig. 313.

distinctions are obscui'e, as also those be-

diate margin broad marginal spines in the middle of each cellular interval one or three, in the others two or four umbilical star
;

tween Helicoma and Hehthe first of which should have the sjiirals closed, the latter open. Fries and Berkeley both include Helicotrichiim WM^^ixHelicosporium.
cusporium,
British species
).
:

slightly

angidar; diameter 1-370".

Ber-

muda.
Leeuwenhoeckii, PI. 25. fig. 4. Three other species, with a difierent number of
//.

rays.

The difierent appearances of the markings upon the elevated and depressed portions of the. valves evidently arise from the existence
of the ordinary depressions seen uatui'ally by oblique and direct light. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Berl. Ber. 1844, 262 Greville, 31ic. Tr. 1866, vi. 5 {new sp.). IIELMIN'THOSPO TIIUM, Link.
;

H. puhinatum, Fr. (fig. 313 Forming a blackish

or olive pulvinate stratum over v\Ood, with slender branched filaments, bearHelicosporium pidvinatuni.

Magn. 200 diams.

ing yellowish-green strings of sporidia coiled up into a spiral of about three turns, very fugacious {Ilclicofrichuin pulvinatum, JSees).
If. vegetum, Fr. Widely pulvinate-eft'used, subolivaceous, at length black; fertile filaments erect, stifr, subrdate spores coiled into a ring, .j-septate, greyish green. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. F/.'yvI ii. pt. 2.
;

genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), growing on rotten wood &c., of which numerous species are found in Britain. Tulasne regards this genus as consisting of stylosporous forms of Splueriacei. Currey refers to this genus Corda's Dacfglium (Dendryphium) fianosum. The mycelium is often somewhat gelatinous or indistinct on it
;

335

A7m. N. H. 1850, Fries, Sj/d. Myc. iii. 353

; ;

vi.
;

434 vii. !)8 Sum. Veg. 500

;

arise (often aggregated) erect, rigid, septate filaments (Jjbres), on the summits of which stand large, often club-shaped sejDtale spores.
liritish species
//.
:

ser. ii. pis. Corda, Sturm, DeutscU. Flora., 15 & 10 Nees, Xova Acta, ix. 246, pi. 5. % 15 Syst. Miicol. QS, fig. 09. 'HELICOSTE'GIA. An order of Fora;

macrocarpum, Greville {Cn/pf. Fl.

fig. 1).

pi.

148.

H. subulatum, Nees {Xova Acta.

fig.

ix. pi. 5.

minifera, according to U'Orbigny's system, comprising those coiled spirally on a single axis. This feature, however, is common to several genera which have distinct characters of structure and habit, and has ceased to be

13).

H. Clavariarmn, Desmazieres {Ann. Sc, Nat. 2 ser. ii. pi. 2. fig. 2).
H.
pi.

vehitinum,
fig. 2).

Link (Grev.

Crypt.

Fl.

148.

regarded as tvpical.

of Holotrichous Infusoria = ^?/ss?</ with the pharynx hooked at the end. II. oblonga in 1. 1-125". salt water (Kent, Infiis. 501). HELlCOT'IlICnUM, Nees. See Heli;

IIELICOS'TOMA, Cohn. A genus

H. fusisporium, Berk. {Br. Flora, part 2. 336).

vol. ii.

namtm, Nees {Nora Acta,

ix.

pi.

5.

fig.

13

B;

Syste7n.

fig.

65).
vi.

H. H.
H.
fig.

simjAex, Kunze (Nees, /. c. fig. 11). Tilice, Fr. (Berkeley, Ann. N. H.

cosporium.

IlELIOPEL'TA, Ehr. genus of Diatomacese. valves cirCltar. Frustules single (?) cular, with imperfect radiating septa, the alternate intermediate portions of the valve being depressed; markings absent in the centre, but as many large submarginal are rays, and apertures (?) present as there numerous erect opposite submarginal spines on each side. The spines coimect the pairs
;

pi. 13. fig. 18).

foUiculatum, Corda (7c. Funq.

\\.

i.

pi.

180). H. ohovatitm, Berk. {Ann. N. II. on old wet planks. fig. 19)
;

pi.

13,

//. delicatulum, Berk. (/. c. on fig. 20) stems of Umbellifera3. //. Smithii, Berk, and Broome {Ann. N, II.
;

1851,
II.

vii. pi. 5. fig. 5).

H. turhinatum, Berk, and

Iiousselia7ium,
ser. xii.

Br.

(I.

c. fig.

6).

Mojitagne {^Ann.

Sc.

of

Frustules with six septa and rays,threeof the intervals raised and coarsely cellular, the alternate ones impri'sscd with fine decussating linos. the limb of the ra//. metii.

young

frustules.

Nat. 3

300).

stktitiim, Berk, and Br. {Ann. N. II. 1854, xiii. pi. 15. fig. 10)! BiBL. Berkeley, Br. Fl. iii. pt. 2, 33(5 ;

H.

Fries,

Syst.

iii.

354, and

Sam.

J'eyet.

5C0

IlELMINTITOSTACIIYS.
Ann.

385

HEMP.
side being open, the others closed stricted at the sides. H. antarcttcus (PI. 25. fig. 3).
;

(1849); Ciirrov. Qu. Mic. Jn. v. 115: Tulasne, >SV\ Nat.'A ser. v. lUO.

not con-

HELM INTHOS'TACII YS,

geuiis

Kaulf A

of

guished

Ophioglussaceous Ferus, distinby the complex spikes bearing

BiBL. Ehrenberg,
Greville, Ann. N. 18(35, 20, 52, 101.

licrl.

IL

xvi.

Bet: 1S44, 109 5 id. Mic. Tr.

; ;

crested sporanges.

HEMIDIN'IUM,
Fig. 314.

Stein.A

genus

of

Fig. 315.

Infusoria: free, flagellum a fringe of cilia in a groove extensingle II. nading halfway round the body. freshwater. (Kent, Infus. sufum, yellow
Cilio-flagellate
; ;

442.)

HEMIDIS'CUS,
Diatomacese.
C7ta)\ Fr.

Wall.

A
;

genus

of

free

valves arcuate, with a

areolation

median marginal inf eiior nodule

hexagonal, radiate.
//.

cuneiformis.

From

Salpcs,

Bay of
liii.

Bengal and Indian Ocean. BiBL. \Vallich, Mic. Tr. 18G0,

(%.).
Helminthostachys zeylanica.
314. Fragment of a spiie with sporanges. Magnified 10 diains. Pig. 31.5. portion stUl more magnified (20 diams.).
Fiij.

42

IIEMILEI'A, Berk. A genus

of

Ure-

(Hypodermons Fungi), characterized by the meniscoid spores, which are smooth

dineas

HELVEL'LA,
Helvellacei.

L.

The typical

genus of
country,

Several species occur in this among.st which II. lacunosa and are esculent.
Outl.
:

H.
;

crispa

HELYELLA CEI.^A

BiBL. Fr. Syst. Myc. vol. ii. 13 358 Hooker, 8yn. 447.

Berk.

mycetous Fungi, comprised

family of Ascoin Discomycetes,

approaching the Hymenomycetes in outward form, but distinguished at once by their See Ascomycetes, IIelfructification.

within, but strongly granulated without. H. vastatri.v, the Coffee-fungus, is extremely destructive to the CoHee-plants, forming orange-brown spots upon the leaves. One or two other Rubiacese are attacked by a distinct species. In germination, a form of Feniciliium has often been developed, but this is probably accidental. BiBL. Berk. & Br., Jn. Zinn. Soc. xiv. 93 ; Dyer, Qn. 3Iic. Jn. 1880, xx. 119 (fiR's.) ; Abbay, Jn. Linn. Soc. xvii. 176; Ward, 3Jic. Jn. xxii. (fiofs.). HEMIOXI'Tl'S, Linn. genus of

TEULA, Spathulaeia, Leotium, Stictei, Peopolis.

anterior pair of wings of the Heteropterous division of the

Grammitideaj (Polypodiaceous Ferns), with a very elegant reticulated arrangement of

the
sori.
;

HEMELYT'RA.The

Eight species
398.)

exotic.

(Hooker,

Si/n.

ML

Hemiptera.

See Insects.
of

HEMEPtO'BIUS, [Linn. A genus

HEMIOPH'RYA. A

genus

of Acine-

tina (Kent, Inf.).

Neuropterous Insects. Hemerobhis (^Chrysojjd) peria, one of the lace-winged flies, has very thin, transparent,

IIEMIP'TEPtA.An order of Insects. HEMIP'TYCIiUS, Ehr. See Arach.

NOIDISCXIS.

and beautifully netted iridescent wings, in

PIEMITE'LIA; Presl. A genus

thpeous Ferns.
Berl.

which the

circulation can be well observed; the wings also exhibit well the tracheae in The larva feeds upon Aphides. the veins.

Exotic.

HEMIZOS 'TER, Ehr. (Ehrenberg,

HEMP. The ordinary name of the
Ak. 1844, 199).

of Cya(Hook. Syn. 27.)

Ber.
fibre

BiBL.

Westwood,
iv.

Intr.

Bowerbank,
genus of Dia-

Entom. May.

HEMIAU'LUS, Ehr.A

tomacese. Char. Frustules single, compressed, subquadrate, with two tubular processes on each side^ the ends of those (the shorter) on one

of Cannahis saliva, consisting of the liberfibres of this plant (PI. 28.''fig. 6). It is applied to some other substances used for the same purposes, e. ff. Manilla hemp (the See Textiee eibhes fibre of Musa) &c.

and LiBEK,

2c

HENDERSONIA.
IIENDERSO'NIA,
chi^s,

38G

HEPATICJE,

Berkeley {SporocaCorda, in part). genus of Spliaeronetnei (Stylosporous Fungi), interesting as having furnished one of the earliest discovered examples of two forms of fructification, leading to the aholitionof the distinction

BrBL. Berkeley, and Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. iv. 4-3 Hooker's Jn. of Bot. iii. 319 Fries, Sum. Veg. 41G Tulasne, Ann.
; ; ;

Sc. Kaf.

ser. v.

115.

between Coniomycetous and Ascomycetous Fungi (CONIOMYCETES). Berkeley has seen two conditions of spores in H. mvtabilis, and states that Fries informs him of
Fig. 316.

HEPAT'IO.E.An order of Muscales (Cryptogamous Plants), consisting of plants

of small size, varying much in structure, inhabiting damp spots on the ground, rocks, or trees, or floating on water. The vegetative structure of the lowest forms consists simply of a patch of gi-een membrane, spreading over the groimd, composed of a single {Anthoceros l<evis) or double {Sp/iarocarjms terrestris) layer of cells containing chorophj-ll. In Mar'chantia (see Marchaxtia) there is an advance the frond not only exhibits more definitely characterized lobes, but also a considerable thiclmess, and a complexity of internal
;

Hendersonia.
Spores on the perithecimn.

it possesses an epidermis mvesting both surfaces, and containing stomata on the upper (see Stojiata). The lower epidermis is also provided with numerous radical hairs (see Hairs and Spiral Structures). Fimhriaria (fig. 318) and

structure, since

Magnified 200 diams.

the ohservation of asci and septate naked spores (sti/loxpores) conjointly in Hendersonia Several British species have been Si/rinc/ce. described. They form dark spots or patches on the stems of herbs or twigs of trees, the dark matrix having a iJerithecium excavated in it, lined by a gelatinous stratum, on which stand stalked fusiform septate spores (fig.

Fig. 317.

Fig. 318.

31G).

H. ehqans, Berk.
N.
11.

(PI. 27. fig. 11)

{Ann.
Fig. 317.

Fimbriaria fragrans.

1840,

vi. pi. 11. fig. 9).

On the culms
Broome
(/.

Lobe of a frond.

Nat. size.

of reeds.
//.

macrospora, Berk, and

v.

c.

Fig. 318. Section of frond, showing two antheridia. Magnified 40 diams.

immersed

2nd

sei".

373).

On dead
and Br.

twigs of Phic).
(/.

ladelphus. IL arcus, Berk,

twipfs.

(/.

On Box
c.)

H.

mutah'b's, Berk,

and Br.

On
On

dead twigs of Plane.

II. poh/cj/sfis, //.

Berk, and Br.

(/.

c.)

dead twigs of Birch.

macropus, Berk, and Br.
Care.v.
(/.

c.)

On
Sc.

dead leaves of

H. hjphoideanim, Desmazieres (Ann.

Kelt. 2) ser.xi. 344).

On dead

stems of Typha,

&c.
If. Stephcnsii,

H.

ser. viii. Oo).

Berk, and Br. {Ann. N. On dead stems of Ptcris

{Iloolcers Jn. But. iv.

aquilino.

II
43).

fihriscta,

Berk.

On

birch planks.

Lnntdaria (fig. 319), &c., likewise possess In Ricciu the frond thick cellular fronds. also presents a reticulated upper face provided with stomata but the form of the entire frond is usually elongated and bifurcated, and a slight groove runs along the middle line, almost like a mid-nerve. This central line exhibits a diftereuce in the internal cellular structure, since it is composed of elongated cells, while the surrounding gr^en substance is composed of spherical cells, sucli as constitute the entire ma,'S enclosed between the upper and lower epidermis of the frond of Marchantia. Ihe grooA e on the upper face (of liiccia) con-esponds to a rib on the lower face, from which arise most of the radical filaments.
;
.

HEPATIC^.
;

387

HEPATIC^.

while thev ave scattered indiscriminately over the lower face of Marchantia and from this line also arise the little bodies resemIf bling minute leaves, called amphi(/astria. we suppose the frond of liiccia elongated and the mid-nerve more strongly marked, we have the likeness of Bhfttia LyeUi (tig. while ifthis latter were notched 62, p. 100) down to the rib at intervals along each side, we should have the stem with two parallel
;

or on confervoid branches set out from the stem. The gemmcB oi Marchantia poly morpha are

produced in elegant membranous cups, with a toothed margin, growing on the upper surface of the frond, especially in very damp and imperfectly lighted situations they are little cellular nodules at first attached by a stalk, and at a certain period fall off and grow up into a new frond. (See Makchan;

rows of

leaves, as in the Jungermanniese.

TIA.)

Fig. 319.

Fig. 320.

Fig. 321.

A
The
line

frond ia

Lunularia vulgaris. fruit. Nat. size.

of insertion

of

the leaves

is

Fig. 020. Fig. 321.

seldom exactly parallel with the axis of the In plant, and very rarely at right angles. most cases it is more or less oblique, and
in reverse direction at the two sides of the stem, so that the lines of insertion of two succeeding leaves would meet, if prolonged across the stem, in the

Eadula complauata.
Plagiocliila,

undulata.

Magn. 5 diams. Magu. 5 diams.

The

spores are produced in sporanges or

the obliquity

is

imbricated, either each a little of the leaf covers with its lower edge leaf below it, or each leaf overlaps a little In the first of the base of the leaf above it. case, the leaves are called succubous (tig. 320), in the second inciibous (fig. 321). The leaves vary much in form, and are often deeply toothed or bilobed, and form exceedingly elegant objects under the microscope. The leaves are accompanied in many cases, chiefly in the Jungermannieae, by stipulelike leaflets, called amphi(jastria, situated at the imderside of the stem. These plants are reproduced by dust-like grains called spores, by minute cellular nodules called (/emmce, and by innovations, i. e. new lobes growing out from the margins of the old fi'onds, or buds the axils of leaveS;
:

formofa V (fig. 320). The leaves are very frequently and they overlap in two ways

which is preceded by special anatomical and physiological phenomena demonstrating the existence of distinct sexes in these plants. The organs which represent the anthers of flowering those which plants are called antheridia represent the ovules, and produce the sporecapsules, the formation of
;

archcyonia or pisfi/lidia. antheridia are small globular or oval bodies, more or less stalked, which in the JungermaunieEe are composed of a double layer of cells forming a membranous sac, which, when ripe, bursts and dischargta numerous minute globular cellules, each of which again bursts and discharges an excases, are called

The

tremely small filament, which moves about These actively in water (figs. 322 & 324). organs mostly occur in the same situations as the archegonia and in some of the frondose forms, such as Anthoceros, Hiccia, Fimbriaria (fig. 318), &c., they are imbedded in the substance of the frond in
;
;

others, as in Marchantia, they are immersed in the upper part of special male stalked

2c2

HEPATIC^.

388

HEPATIC-E.

receptacles (see Mabchantia) ; iu fhe leafy forms they are free in the axils of the leaves (fig. 323).

increased by cell-division into a globular cellidar mass, which acquires various forms The in the different genera and families. epigone enlarges for a long time with the

Fig. 322.

Fig. 323.

growing capsule, completely enclosing it but after a time the latter bursts (fig. 328)
;

Fig. 328.

Fig. 324.

HaplomitriuDi Hookeri.

Young sporange

enclosed in the epigone.

Magnified 20 diameters.

Haplomilrium Hookeri.
Fig. 322. Axillary antheridia. INIagn. 30 diams. Fig. 323. Fragment of wall of antheridia; the reniform loose cells belong to the inner layer. Magn. SOU

through the top of the epu/one, which thus forms a kind of sheath rouud the base of the sporange or its stalk, and is called the vaginule. as to

diams.
Fig. 324. Bpermatozoids

from ditto. Magn. 200 diams.

Fio-.

The epigone may tear irregularly, so form an irregidar vagmide or cah/x, or

Fig-.

325.

327.

regularly, so as to present a circle of teeth ; or it maj' be slit horizontally in a circle, and

it carried up by the sporange, which thus surmounts as a hood or cah/ptra. This epigone is sometimes surrounded by another envelope called the j^'^i'tgone. This originates at a later period and in a diflferent

half of
it

way,

since it gradually springs up as a circular sheath around the base of the epigone,

and by continued growth comes to surround it as a kind of cup, like the corolla of a flower (fig. 320). In Marchantia, only one archegone is found in each perigone the perigones of Jungermannieae always enclose
;

Marchantia polymorpha.
Archegonia
in yarious stages.

Magnified 100 diameters.

several, but only one is developed into a sporange. In some kinds, as Sarcoscgphits, there are always several archegones in a

or i^^^tilUclia are likewise developed in various places, indicated liereafter in th(3 tabular view of tlie lauiilies. They consist of a kind of tlask-sliaped cellular case (figs. 320 to 327), enclosinir at first a single cell {e^nhryonnl cell), which subsequently grows into a sporange, apparently after one or more of tlie spiral filaments of the antherids have come in contact with it, hy passing into the neck of the fiask-shaped sac {epiyone). The emhr^-onid cell becomes

The archegonia

perigone, and two or three produce spoSometimes the archegones, with or ranges. without perigones, are solitary more frequently they are in groups. Whether solitary or grouped, thej' may have a further envelope composed of slightly modified leaves, free or confiuent together these are the perich<^tial leaves, and constitute the
: :

perichcete.

When both pericha-ie and perigone exist, it is easy to determine which is which; but when only one exists, the history of development alone gives the key j the

HEPATIC.^.
periclioete is

389

HEPATIC^.
Fig. 329. Fig. 330,

always developed before the aivbegones it encloses, while the perigone, as already stated, grows up round the archegone during its development into a sporange, being absent at the time of the first a])pearance of that organ. In fig. 320 the base of the pedicel is seen to rise out of a toothed vaginule cah/x or epigone), which is enclosed in a tubular perigone, outside of which are two bilobed pericha^tial leaves. The sponuige developed from the embryonal cell of the archegone varies much in its perfect condition. In Jungermanniese it is mostly an oval body borne on the extremity of a delicate thread-like stalk springing out of the vaginule (fig. 320). The oval body splits down from the summit, when
(

Fig. 331.

more

ripe, into four valves, which spread open or less in the form of a cross (figs. 320-1 ). or bursts irregularly. The cells of

X ig. 330. More advanced sporange, emerged

Fig. 331.

lunularia vulgaris. Fig. 329. Section of a receptacle, unripe.

&om the

the valves

exhibit

A burst

very

elegant

spiral-

of anthers (see Spiral Strttctfees). This kind of sporange discharges minute spores (see Spores) and elaters, slender tubular cells containing a spiral filament (PI. 40.
38), both forming very interestiug microscopic objects. In the diftereut fi'ondose forms the sporanges present very varied conditions. The archegones of A>iTHOCEEOS send up a filifig.

fibrous structure, like that of the

waUs

epigone. sporange. Magnified 20 diameters.

Fi>. 332

Fig.

form sporange, which

contains a columella

is

(fig.

two-valved and In 24, p. 58).

Targioxia and some others the capsule is almost sessile, and bursts irregularly. In RicciA, where the archegones are imbedded in the frond, the sporange is a sessile globose body, with the calyptra adherent, never bursting regularly, but emitting the spores by decay. In SpHiEROCARPUs, also, the
calyptra is permanent as a cellular sac, inside of which the sporange ripens into an indehiscent globular body, emitting the

Grimaldia barbifrons.
Fig. 332. Fertile plant. Magn. 2 diams. Fig. 333. Section of the receptacle, with an abortive archegone on the left side, and a half-ripe sporange still enclosed in the epigone on the right. Magn. 20 diams.

Fiff.

334.

Fig. 335.

In Marchantia, Fegatella, Lunularia, Grimaldia, &c., the archegones are produced on fleshy receptacles elevated upon stalks, and the sporanges are formed on the underside of these
spores only

by decay.

receptacles (fig. 219. p. 317, figs. 3-30, 33.3, The 335), which are of varied forms, &c. sporanges on these either bui'st by valves (fig. 331), or by circumscissile dehiscence throw off" a lid, as in Fimhriaria (fig. 335). The frondose forms do not all produce elaters, and have not all the spii'al fibres in The exceptions tbe cells of their walls. are the Ricciese and the elaters of Antho;

Fimhriaria tenella.
Fig. 334.

EeceptacleB^with closed epigones.

Magn

10 diams.

the epigone closed, the other with the teeth of the epigone open, showing 20 diams. the bursting sporange. Magn.
Fig. 335.

Two perigones, one with

elaters are

ceros are rudimentary.

In Marchantia the

highly developed (PI. 40. figs. 36, 37), also the spiral tissue of tbe valves

HEPATIC^E,
of
tlie

390

herp}=:tium.

capsules

(PL

40.

fig.

35).

Taegionia

has branched elaters.

The spores mostly have a double coat, but not always (e. g. Marchantia) they germinate by protruding a pouch-like process,
;

which becomes

new

a filament, from which the fronds or leafy stems arise. The peculiarities of the different groups above referred to will be better understood after reading the following characters.

Pellie^. Vegetative portion a leaf-like frond, mostly with an evident mid-nerve, from %vhich arises the sporanges, consisting of capsules, usually bursting by four valves, more or less elevated on a thread-like stalk. without a columella; spores acSporange companied by elaters. B. "S^egetation foliaceous, stem distinct.
i. e.

leaves and

Synopsis of the Families.

A. Vegetation frondose, confounded.

i.e.

leaf and

stem

ANTHOCFEOTEiE.

The

Vegetative por-

tion consists of a minute green membranous or slightly fleshy body growing on damp ground, not exhibiting any distinct midnerve it is at once known by its peculiar fruits or sporanges, consisting of slender
:

JuxftERMAN^STE^T:. Vegetative portion a thread-like stem clothed with green membranous leaves more or less overlapping at their bases. Sporanges springing from the end of the stem, raised on more or less evident stalks, bursting by four valves and spreading in the form of a cross; spores with elaters, which often adhere to the valves of the sporange. The leafy stem of

Jungermanniefe is generally readily distinguishable from that of the Mosses by the

springing up irregularh^ of the frond, which forms little sheaths (rrt//^n^//^s) around their These stalk-like fruits burst when bases. ripe, splitting down the middle from the tip, and display a central bristle-like column (columeUa), to which adhere the minute hair-like bodies (rudimentary elatersj which are mingled with the spores.

stalk-lilie

bodies

from the upper surface

of insertion of the leaves, which produces a peculiar flattened arrangement. BiBL. Hooker, Br. Jungermannife, 181G; Bischoff; Xova Acta, xvii'. 909, pis. 67-71, 1835; EntivicM. d. Lehermoose, Bot. Zeit. xi. 113, Ann. So. Nat. 3 ser. xx. 57; Lin-

mode

Ann.

denberg, Sgnops. Hepatic. 1814 Greenland, Sc. Nat. 4 ser. i. 5 Hofmeister, Vergl. Uniers. iib. Kryptog. 1851 Gottsche, Bot.
; ; ;

]\L\E CHANTIES.
is

The vegetative portion

here also a succulent leaf-like expansion, mostly exhibiting a more or less lobed
form, and without any conspicuous midnerves in the lobes. The fruits are more complicated structures than those of AnthoFrom notches in the Inbed frond ceroteae. arise slender stalks terminating at the top in an expanded structure {i-eceptctcle), repombliiig in some cases a conical cap, in others a star with a number of thick rays The spores like the spokes of a wheel, &c. are formed in membranous sacs attached on the imder surface of the cap or star-like body, and they are occompfnn'ed hi/ elaters of considerable size exhibiting highly developed spiral bands. JThe sporanges have no columella, and burst at the tip with more or less regular tooth-like valves. Rict'iEiE. Vegetative portion an exceedingly delicate cellular leaf-like structure, more or less lobed, with an evident midThe sporanges are eitlier imbedded nerve. in the substance of the frond, or only elevated on a very short stalk, and surrounded by a membranous sheath derived from the upper surface of the frond. The sporanges have rw columella and no elaters.

Mortier, Hepat. Europ. 1874; Camngton, Hepat. 1876; Gall. Leitgeb, Leherm. 1879 Husnot, Hep.
Zeit.,

Suppl. vi. 1858;

Du

1881.
sil

HERCOTHE'CA, Ehr.A genus

'

of fos-

Diatomaceae. //. ma^nmillaris (PI. 18. fig. 31), the only British species; diameter 1-810". Bermuda. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Ber. d. Berl. Ak. 1844,

262

Kiitzing,

<S),.

Ah). 27.

Xicolet. genus of Oribatea (Acarina). Cephalothorax without tarsi with ribs, soldered to the abdomen one claw. In moss. (Murray, Ec. Ent. 221, Michael, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, 192.) figs.

IIERMAN'NIA,

A
;

genus of Jungermanniefe (leafy Ilepaticfe), distinguished by the incubous biL bed leaves not being folded together, and by tlie obtusely threeangled perigone.

HERPE'TIUM, Nees.A

Two

Brit, species

H. reptans{Lepiduzia, Dumortier). Leaves

squarish, acutely two- or four-toothed at

the end.
reptans,

"Woods and shady places. Jung, Hook. Br. Jung. pi. 75. //. trilohutum {Ma^tigobrgum, Nees). Leaves ovate, three-toothed at the summit. ISIoist alpiue spots. J. triluhatum, Hook.
Br. Jung.
pi.

70.

HERPETOMONAS.
BiBL.
liclit'i',

391

HETEROSTOMELLA.

Hooker, Br. Jung.

riant, uos. 472-'J
iiu's.
;

I.

c.

Eud-

Oen
pi.
i.

Ekart, Syn.

Jum/.

liEKPJ-yrO'MONAS, Kt. A geuu3 of

or

^1,

'2'2.

which can only have entered by vacuola formed on tbe surface. Found in both fresh and salt water, and
in lish-maceratious,

Flagellate Ini'usoria. Char. Iree, elongate

vermicular,

18 a)

highly llexible

iiagelluin single.

H. ovata=Bodo graudis, E. (PI. among freshwater plants. //. granulosa. Body globular,
;

30. fig.

surface

H. intiscce, in the intestine of H. Lewisi (PI. 53. fig. 18),

;

the house-fly. in the blood of Indian rats perhaps also in the blood of the lield-mouse and mole; 1. 1-1500". (Kent, Infus. 245 ; Lewis, Qu. Mic. Jn.

granular; marine; length 1-2300".

H.

angusta.

Body

lanceolate, .slightly

1870.)

sigmoid; freshwater; length 1-980". Other species. BiBL. Dujardiu, ////(W. 297; Kent, iw/ws. 290.

HETEROCORDY'LE, Allm.A
;

genus

HETERONE'MA, Duj. A

genus

of

of llydroid Zoophj-tes, fam. Atractylidas. H. Conyheurei. Ou old shells marine. Ireland.

BiBL. Allman, Ann. N. H. 59 Hiucks, Brit. Zooph. 107.

:

1864, xiv.

ilETERODES'jlUS, Brady.A genus

;

Flagellate Infusoria, of the family Euglenia. Char. Form variable, oblong, irregularly expanded posteriorly ; with a slender flagelliform filament, and a thicker trailing, retracting filament tegument obliquely stri;

ated.

of recent Ostracode Entomostraca, family subglobose, with the hinges Cypridinida; of the valves developed into large processes at the dorsal angles. H. Adamsii. Sea of Japan. BiBL. Bradv, Zool. Trans, v. p. 387.

Differs

of a tegument, and from

from Heteromita in the presence Anisonema in the

Filaments

tegument being contractile. H. marina (PL 31. fig. 17).

HETEKU1)1C'TY0X, Grev. A
;

genus

of Biatomaceas. disk with Char. Fr. free, disciform radiate or scattered puncta in the middle a ring of large intra-margiual portion, and
cell ides.

longer than the body; length 1-4300". BiBL. Dujardin, Infus. 370; Kent, Inf. 430. Archer. genus of freshwater Rhizopoda. 2 species. BiBL. Ai-cher, Qu. Mie. Jn. 1869, Lx. 267

HETEROTHRYS,

Rylandsianum and Barbadoes deposit.

//.

H.

HET'EROPUS, Newp. A
Acaviua.

genus

of

splendidmn.
iii.

H.
66
(fig.).

ventricosus occurs in the nests of

rettisa,

An-

BiBL. Grev. Mic. Tr. 1863,

Cilio-flagellate Infusoria
;

IIETEROMAS'TIX, Clk. A

thophora

a Euylena with two oral fringe of cilia. trailing; and an anterior II. pruteiformis, in fresh water. (JamesClark, Mein. Bost. Soc. N. H. 1868 Kent,
;

genus of corresponding to anterior flagella, one

upon the larvae. Mm'ray, Ec, (Newport, Linn. Tr. 1850

living
;

Ent. 290,
discoidal

HETEROSTEGI'NA, D'Orb.A
Nummuline
Foraminifer,

figs.)

flat,

with

Infus. 403.)

"HETERO'MITA, Duj.A

whorls rapidly increasing in breadth and reticulated by the primary and secondary septa of the narrow carved chambers and

genus of Fla-

gellate Infusoria. Char. Body globular, ovoid, or oblong, with two filaments arising from the same more delicate, and with point in front one, an imdulatory motion, causing' progression ;

Living in tiie Eastern Archipelago fossil in the Tertiary beds, especially forming one stratum in the island of Malta. BiBL. Carpenter, Intr. For. 288 Jones,
their rectangular partitions.
;

Geol.

Maq.

ii.

151.

the other thicker, and floating freely behind, or adhering here and there to the its contraction slide, so as to produce by sudden motion backwards.

Distinguished from Anisonema and Ileteronema by the absence of a tegument, shown bv the glutinous appearance of the body, the facility with which it adheres to other becomes drawn out, and the objects and
of presence iaterually

certaiu

corpuscles

HETE'ROSTOMEL'LA, Reuss. One of the Textularian Foraminifera, in which the chambers are at first set on alternately, but not neatly, on either side of a straight axis, and afterwards, gro"wing in a single row, as in Bigenerina, not only open terminally, instead of laterally, but have a tubular, and even a lipped, aperture, such as we see in Fossil in Uvigerina. Shell often prickly. the Chalk of Europe and America.

HETEROTEICHUS.
;

392

HIMANTOPIIORUS.

BiBL. Eeuss, Sitz. Ak. Wien, Hi. Parker and Joues, Ann. N. II. ser. 4. ix. 208. HETEROT'RICHUS, Dounadieu. A genus of Acariua, faui. Ganiasea. II. i7tcequarmatus. Hairs jointed, longer

which springing from the top-shaped frond, The dark olive-green is about an inch high.
thong-li]<e II. lorea is common on roclfy The receptacle is pierced by sea-shores. numerous pores leading to immersed con-

tlian

the body. BiBL. Diiiiuadieu, Jn. de VAnat. 1876 (Mn. Mic. Jn. 1877, xvii. 28;5, fig.).

HP]WAR DIA, 1100]^. = Adiantum, pt.

HEXAM'ITA, Duj.Agenus

of Flagel-

late lufiis^oria.
C/uir. Body ohlong, rounded in front, constricted and bifid or indented behind four flagelliform filaments arising separately from the anterior margin, the two posterior lobes being prolonged into flexuous fila;

resembling those of Fucus, containing either jiavietal spore-sacs or antheriThe centre dia, the plants being ditecious. of the receptacle is filled with mucous matter traversed by jointed filaments. The antheridial sacs of IIi)n(tnfhcdia are double, and contain spermatozuids of fiattened ovoid
ceptacles

or spherical forms, with an orange granule and two cilia, like those of Pycnojyhycus

and

Ilalidrys.
;
;

ments.
//.

nndulosa (PI. 31.

;

fig.

20).

Oblong,

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ah/. 20, pi. 2 ]J Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xvi. 54 Greville, Ah/. Brit. pi. 3 Engl. Bot. pi. 569.

with three or four longitudinal rows of nomotion vacillating length 1-1800". dules In decomposing marsh-water.
;

HIMANTID'IUM, Ehr.A

genus

of

H.

injiida

in

decomposing

infusion.^.

Diatomaceae, cohort Eunotiese. Char. Frustules resembling those of notia, connected by their sides into a

Eufila-

Fusiform, prolonged into a bilid tail length 1-2100". In the intestines and peritoneal cavity of the Batrachia
II. intrsthialis.
;

ment

strife

transverse,

parallel.

Fresh-

water.
Iviitzing describes thii'teen species, some Smith admits eight of wliich are fossil British species, one doubtful.
;

and Tritons.
BiBL,
Bujardin,
hifits.

296

Kent, Inf.

Zanardini. genus of Nulliporous Corallinacea? (Florideous AlgjB), containing one British species, H. sanr/uinca, Kiitz. common, in the form of a bright or dark red membranous crvist, at first circular, afterwards spreading irregularly over smooth stones and pebbles. Frond about 1-20" thick in the middle, thinner toward the edges, and composed of
:

lilLDENBRAND'TIA,

II. /yectinale {Frax/ilaria pect., Ralfs) (PI.

rowed

Frustules in side view nar36). at the curved and rounded ends ; one side slightly raised and flat, the other slightly excavated or flat; striae evident;
16. fig.

length" 1-180".

minute globose
horizontal
;

cells,

partly vertical, partly

indentations (fig. 3(5 h) = II. undulatum, Sm. Ralfs remarks a difference of form between the newly-forujing and the parent frustules, the lateral margins of the former in fronl:

/3.

Convex margin undulate

or with

two

not stony. It has immersed conceptacles, pierced by a pore (fig. 250, p. 327), containing tetrasiwres and paraphyses. One species occurs in alpine streams. BiBi.. Harvey, Mar. Ah/. 110, pi. 14 C Kiitz". rhyc. Gen. rin/c. Brit. pl."2rj0 pi. 78* fig. 5; Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah/', iii. 408. Ill LUM. This name is appHed to the svnface of attachment of the funiculus of seeds, which is seen as a kind of scar, more
it is
;
;

view being rounded

//. arcus.

(fig.

36 c).

Fr. rectangular ; valves lineararcuate, ends roundi'd, subrecurved ; striae evident length 1-300 to 1-132". BiBL. Ehrenberg, Berl. Ber. 1840 Kiit; ;

zino:, Bacill. 3(5

N.H.
ii.

xii.

107,

xiii.

Ralfs, Ann. Sp. Ah/. 8 459;" Smith, Br. Uiat.

;

10.

llI3rANT0PH'0RUS,Fabricius.A genus of Infusoria, of the fi^mily Euplota. Char. Head not distinct from the body; hooks numerous neither styles nor teeth
;

it coincides or organic base of the seed, sometimes, where a raplie exists, it is near tlie micropvle. (See Ovule.)

or less distinct. with the clialaza

Sometimes

present.

III.MAKTITA'LIA, Eyngbye. A gonus

of Fucacea) (Fucoid Algiie), remarka])le for the peculiar forms of the frond and receptacle, the latter consisting of a repeatedly forked strap-sliaped cord from 2 to 10' long,

Long curved hooks, almost in pairs, form a broad band on the ventral surface, and are the organs of locomotion also a row of cilia extending from the mouth a considerable distance backwards.
;

II.
fig.

Charon (PI. 31. fig. 18, under view ; 19, side view). Body hyaline, plane,

IIIPPAEOIIIA.
elliptical, anterior end truncate ; cilia small.

398

HOLOPHRYA.
(Hincks, Poly-

somewhat obliquely
IkhiIvS

Ctenostomatous Polyzoa.
zoa, 548.)

sleuder and Len-tli 1-180". ^farine. loUiT. BiBL. Elirenberg, Infus. p. 37o. IIIPPAK'CHIA, Fabr. genus of

Lepiiloptertuis Insects. Vliar. ^Vings more or less rounded, middle longitudinal nerve of fore wings giving

IlIPPURIC ACID.This acid occurs in small quantity in human urine, especially more largely^ in that after a vegetable diet of the horse and other herbivora, as the ox, the goat, the sheep, the hare, &c. also in that of some reptiles.
; ;

antennfe with an elongate, compressed and curved club head small.

off posteriorly four nerves
;
;

in

H. Janira, the meadow brown butterfly, which the wings are brown, and the

anterior pair exhibit a blackish-brown round spot with a white eye or centre, is common in meadows. The paler scales of the anterior wangs (PI. 1. fig. 9) were formerly used as

It is readily soluble in boiling water and alcohol less so in cold water and in ether. It crystallizes in prisms or needles (PI. 11. fig. 18), belonging to the right rhombic prismatic system, some of which bear resemblance to those of the ammonio-phosphate of magnesia, from which it is readily distinguished by^ its solubility in potash or hot water. It is sometimes obtained under
;

Test-objects. BiBL. Westwood, Introd. and Br. ButterJfics.

the same circumstances as benzoic acid, from

which
ether,
its

it

differs in its greater solubility in

HIPPOCRE'PIA.An order of Polyzoa.

Distinguished by the crescentic or horseshoe-shape of the tentacular disk, and the Freshwater. presence of an epistome.
SynojJsis of the Families.

in the thickness and solidity of prisms, those of benzoic acid being thin and plate-like. Its crystals are beautifully analytic; which property is deficient in those of benzoic acid. It may best be procured from cow's urine, by boiling with slaked lime for some time,

and

Cristatellidje.
PLTJjiATELLiDiE.
unjointed.

Polype-mass Polype-mass

floating.

rooted,

Paludicellidfe, containing the single genus PahidiceJla, is usually placed here but it properly belongs to the lufun;

The family

and supersaturating with muriatic acid and it may be puritied by repeating the process and usina" animal charcoal. HIRNE'OLA, Fi\ genus of Tremellini (Hymeuomycetous Fungi), consisting of
filtering
;

gelatinous cup-shaped Fungi, horny when dry, and clothed externally with short vel-

dibulata, as the tentacular disk

is

circidar

and entire, and the epistome absent. See Polyzoa and Urnatella. HIPPOCREPI'XA, Parker. A Lituoline Foraminifer, characterized by the horseshoe-shape of the aperture, due to the prelina.

The hymenium is without by which it is distinguished from Exidia, to which the species were formerly^ referred. The Jews' Ear {II. auricida Juda) is still sold by Herbalists as a remedy for affections of the throat,
vety
bristles.

papilhe, a character

sence of a tongue-like process, as in VulvuH. indivisa, from the Gulf of St.

the supposed virtues clearly depending on the doctrine of signatures. One or two
species are extremely common in tropical countries; and used as an article of food in China.

Lawrence, is carrot-shaped. BiBL. Parker, in Dawson, Canad. Nat.

1870.

HIPPOTH'OA, Lamx. genus of Infundibulate Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Eucratiidae (Scrupariidas). Distinguished by the confervoid, branched, creeping and adherent polyzoary, the branches arising from the sides of the elliptical cells, frequently anastomosing, and the cells in one row. Cells contiguous, orifices II. catemdaria. On shells in deep water. oval. H. divaricata. Cells remote, orifices round.
BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zorph. 291 Gosse, Mar. Zool. 12 Hincks, Polyzoa, 256. HIPPUPtA'KLi, Busk.A genus of
; :

BiBL. Fr. Summa, 340; Berk, Ontl. 289, HISTOLOGICAL ANALYSIS, See

Introduction,

p. xlii.

HISTOLOGY,
;

or

theory of the structure of

HiSTroLOGY, is the aniiiial and vege-

table tissues in relation to their development but the term is often applied to the of tissues. microscopic structure HIS'TRIO. genus of Ilypotrichous Infusoria (Kent, Inf.).

IIOLOPH'RYA, Ehr. genus of Holotrichous Infusoria, of the family Euchelia.

Cltar.
cilia,

Body

covered

with

vibratile

oblong-ovate, cylindrical or globular,

HOLOSTICIIA.
rounded or truncate in front
teeth
; ;

394

HOPLOPHOEA.
ii.

no lips nor arranged in longitudinal rows. Ehrenberg admits six freshwater species
cilia
;

Smith, Br. Diat.

Alff.
i.

80; Eabenhorst, Fl.

160.

to these Dujardin,

who

HOM'OPUS, Furst.A

genus of Hypo-

places this genus in

the family Paramecia, adds one marine. H. ovum, E. (PI. 31. fig. 22). Body ovate, internal subcylindrical, ends subtruncate substance green length 1-570 to 1-210". H. hrunnea, D. (PI. 31. fig. 21). Body
; :

H. elephantis, found on pidte (Acarina). the dried skin of an elephant, the hypopial nymph of Acarus dumesticus, Megnin.

(Fiirstenberg,

Kriitzmilhen,
(fig.)
;

222

Miu-rav,

Ec. Ent. 253

HOOF.

Megnin, Paras, l-il .) The hoofs of animals consist of

brown

becoming globular when distended with food, and then changing in

;

cylindrical,

the same structure as horn.

HOOKE'RIA, Smith.A genus of Hypnoid Mosses.

colour; length 1-120". The eucysting-process has been observed in two of the species.

Two
rocks.

species,

on moist

banks and wet

p.

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf.

Inf.
iv.
;

314

Dujardin,
is

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

493

Cohn,
;

Bieh.

und

Koll. Zeitschr.

HOP.

415. Thehop plant {Humuhis Liipidus)

Kent, Inf. 498. genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria (Kent, Inf.). IIOLOTHURID'EA (Sea-slugs). family of Echiuodermata, of the order Pedi-

HOLOS'TICHA. A

Stein, Inf.

remarkable for the glands containing the resinous secretion imparting the aromatic odour. These occur on the lower face of the leaf, upon the calyx, and above all, on the scales of the fruit and the seed-coat.

cellata.

Interesting to the niicroscopist, from the presence of curious calcareous plates, &c. existing in the integument.

They have been examined by Meyen and others, mostly recently by Personne. They
are little stalked cups (PI. 2S. fig. 14) composed of a single layer of cellidar tissue, concave above at first ; but as the secretion increases in quantity, the cuticle becomes detached in a plate from the upper surface, except at the rim of the cup, and is pushed up so as finally to form a convex papilla on

HOLO'THYRUS, Gerv. A
Gamasea

See ECHINODKRMATA.

genus

of

(Acariua). II. coccinella is nearly as large as a ladybird (Coccinella), and is found in the Isle of

Erance. Blbl. Gervais, Walckenaer'' s Apth-es, iii. IIOMALOCOC'CUS, Kutz. genus of Coufervoid Algpe, consisting of cells united

the top, like the nut projecting from an The secretion appears to be acorn-cup. formed in the cells, and poured out beneath
the cuticular pellicle, which
is

marked with

into flat oblong irregular corpuscles, enclosed in a spherical gelatinous sheath. H. Ilassallii green, size of a pea or nut ; in stagnant pools. (Eabeuli. Fl. Alg. 09.) genus of IlOMffiOCLA'DIA, Ag.
;

lines corresponding to the side-walls of the Solution of potash and alcohol clean cells.

Diatomacese. Char. Frustules those of Nitzschia, arranged in tufts within gelatinous tubes, which form a filiform, usually branched Marine. frond. H. Martiana, Ktz. {II. am/lica, Ralfs) of frond h, part (t, portion (PI. 19. fig. lo of a filament containing two frustules; c, front view of single frustules, with endoclu'ome d, side view of empty frustules).
:
;

awaj" the resinous secretion, and render the When the fresh glands are structure clear. placed in water, they swell, and finally burst, the cuticidar lid usually separating by a circumscissile dehiscence. The hop is subject to a peculiar mildew,

a minute fungus, for which see Ekysiphe

{Sphcerotheca).
zen, 38, pi. 5. figs. 17-21 ; Sc. N. 4 ser. i. 299, pi. 17.

BiBL. Meyen, Secretions- Organe d. PJlanPersonne, Ann,

Frond simple or dichotomously divided,

rugose
entire plant 1 to 2" high. Erond linear, simple, tufts Il.fiUfonnis. containing three or four frustules.
;

HOPLITOPIl'RYA, St. genus of Ilolotrichous Infusoria. Char. Ovate or elongate, mouthless, with a ventral anterior band or one or more hooks. Internal parasites. Seven species in tlie intestine of Lumbrici, Plunarice, &c.
:

Il.sifinioidea. Frond linear, simple ; frustules sigmoid. Rabenhorst describes 8 European species. BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacillar. 110, and Sp. Ah/. 97; Ralfs, Ann. ^\ II. 1845, xvi. 109;

(Kent,

of Oribatoa (Acarina). Char. Body and general habit those of G alumna, but no wing-like appendages to

HOPLC)ri]'ORA, Koch. A genus

/?(/:

571.)

IIORMIDIUM.
;

305

HORN.

articuthe psoudo-thorax cephalotliorax laicd to the abdomen, ibldiug upon the

bodv.

Two
roots.

species

on decaying

fii--wood

and
;

H. transvermlis there is an especial tendency Five to a grouping of the cells in fours. species have been described ; 1 and 3 are known as British.
Breb. Filaments simple ; cell-contents ovoid or subspherical Breb. A)ui. Sc. Nat. lamellar freshwater. 3ser. i. ph 1. tig. 1. IL transversalis, Breb. (figs. 336, 3.37). Filaments simple cells ovoid or fusiform, transverse contents granular ; freshwater. Breb. I. c. fig. 2. Thwaites. Filaments H. ramosa, branched cells oval or spherical contents In a pool to which salt water radiated. had access. Harvey, Phyc. Brit. pi. 213. BiBL. Brebisson, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. i.;
JI. Dtutahilii^,
cells
; ;
; ;
;

BiBL. GeiTais, iralclrnaer's Aplcrcs, lu. Murray, Claparede, Zeit. wiss. Zool. xviii. Ec. Eni. 2i>2; Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880,177.
;

HOliMID'lUM. The group of species of Ulothriv gTO\A-iug upou moist earth. Aresch. genus of
Confervoid Algffi, close to Ulothrix with the tilaments jointed, usually simple, but cells with sometimes emitting ramules thick, often lamellar walls propagation by macro- and micro-gonidia. i'resh and salt water. (Habenh. Fl. Ah/, iii. 361.) HORMOS'PORA, Breb. A genus of PalmeUaceae (Confervoid Algse), A,Aith a frond
; ; ;

HOKMIS'CIA,

Harvev,
Brit.
fig.
;

Fig. 336.

Fig. 337.

horns of animals are of three kinds, those composed of bone, those consisting of epidermic formations, and those in which both are present. The former,

B HORN. The

pi.

Mar. Aly. 235, pi. 27 B, Phyc. 213 Niigeli, Einzell. Aly. 7, pi. 3. Rabenhorst, Fl. Aly. iii. 48.
JJr.
;

Hormospora

transversalis.
cells

Fragments of gelatinous filaments, with the grouped in fours.

Magnified 350 diameters.

called antlers, agree in minute structure with bone, and therefore require no special notice. The horn of the rhinoceros may be taken to represent the structure It consists of an aggreof the second kind. gation of horny fibres, each of which is made up of a series of concentric laj'ers. These layers are composed of cells tangentially flat-

properly

consisting of simple or branched gelatinous confervoid cords enclosing rows of oval or

spherical
cells
;

they are found floating

among

Confervas or other aquatic plants, and appear to the naked eye lilie greenish These plants do not appear to filaments. consist of septate fliamentous tubes like the ConfervEe, but of rows of individual cells imbedded in a filifurm gelatinous tube in its nature to the (fig. 336), analogous gelatinous coat investing the linear rows of The cells multiply cells of Hyalotheca, &c. by transverse division, the rows thus becoming elongated; these cells contain green contents arranged in a granular, lamellar, Brebisson describes obor radiating form. scurely another mode of increase, in which " endochrome becomes concentrated and the

organized into vesicles or zoospores. The corpuscles then become larger; and the filament becoming as it were dislocated, the corpuscles group themselves in several rows, " and without regular form (fig. 337). In

tened, and sometimes containing pigment. The cells may be separated by macerating the horn in solution of potash. Cracks filled with air are frequently visible between the laj'ers. The centres around which the laminas are arranged probably correspond to The horn of the papillas of the cutis. bufl'alo agrees essentially in structure with that of the rhinoceros. The third kind of horn is exemplified by that of the cow. In its centre is a process of bone, surrounding and extending beyond which is the proper horn, consisting of concentric layers, in the natural state composed of flattened, irregular, angular, nucleated cells (PI. 22. fig. 29 o), which assume their primitive forms under the action of potash (6) ; some of them contain pigment (d). Between the laminte, cracks containing air are also met with (/"). Sections of horn maile at various angles to the axis, form very beautifid polarizing objects the gorgeous colours seen in those of rhinoceros's horn cannot be excelled, nor can drawings represent them faithfuUv (PL .30. The horn of the bufthlo figs. 37, 38).
;

HORNBLENDE.
also forms an interesting object of the kind.

396

HYDATIN^A,
view
;

same
;

short, fi'ustules subconcatenate, in front

;

Owen, Brande's

BiBL. Bonders, Mulder^s Phys. Chem. Diet., art. Cornua. HORNBLENDE. See Rocks.

HOR'NEUA, Lam.A
Polyzoa,

genus of Cyclo(Hiucks,

stoniatons

2 species.

subquadrate rectangular length 1-1360". BiBL. Kiitzing, Pacillar. 125 Sp. Alg. 115 Rabenhorst, Fl. Ah;, i. 306. HYALOSPIIE'NIA. A genus of Rhizopoda (Bronn, Klass. kc, pi. i. fig. 18). HYALOTHE'CA, Ehr. genus of
; ;

Poh/zoa, 407.)

HORSE-LEECH. See H^mopis. HUXLEY'A, CI. & Lachm. Agenus

TJlina.

Desmidiaceae. Char. Cells united into

of
cylindrical filament,

which
;

is

Hypotriclious Infusoria, of the family ErT\\'o species //. snlcafa. Jiody greatly
:

by a gelatinous sheath

cells

an elongated, surrounded in front view

compressed

cuticle with oblique furrows. Bergen. II. crassa. Body scarcely compi'cssed, as thick as broad, thickest bt'hind ; almost
cuticle

margins grooved rim surrounding one end, and forming a bidentate projection end -slew orbicular. The filaments are not twisted, and are
;

slightly constricted, so as to give the a crenate appearance ; or having a

smooth

BiBL. Clap.

Inf. 290. HUXLP]Y'A,Dyster. A genus of Cheilostomatous Polvzoa.

(Hincks, Pohr.. 2d.)

& Lachmann,
H.
Ehr.
Icevis

length 1-1250".

Bergen.

frayilis,

Tenby.

HYALODIS'CUS,
Kiitz. in part.

= Cyclotella,
;

always of the same apparent breadth. Sporangia orbicular, smooth. H. dissiliens (PI. 14. fig. 1, front view of Filament fragile, filament; 2, end view). margins crenate breadth of filament 1-1300
;

H.

Iccvis

H. suhtilis, Bail., with pat agon. extremely tine dots, is used as a test-object. BiBL. Ehreubcrg, Perl. Per. 1845, 78 & 155 Kiitzino-, Sp. Alq. 20. genus of HYALOM'MA, Koch. Ixodes, (Acarina), wdth the eyes clear, disThree or four species, tinct and conical. Spain. occurring in the Caucasus and Murray, Ec. Ent, 196, (Koch, Uehers.
;
;

= Cyl.

= CycloteMa

The transparent sheath of this to 1-800". beautiful object is so delicate as to be easily

overlooked. Sporangia (fig. 314) situated within the connecting tube.

Il.-patagonica

Not uncommon
II.

in clear

boggy

pools.
;

mucosa. Filament scarcely fragile joints not constricted, surrounded at one end by a miimte furrowed rim, forming in the front view a bidentate projection breadth of filament 1-1250 to 1-1100". The fm-rowed rim of each cell is on the
;

same

side as that of the contiguous cell.

figs.)

ITYALOP'TERUS, Koch. genus of AphidfE. DilFering from Aplns chiefly in the shortness of the tail and nectaries, and the oval, often linear form of the body. Six found on the plum, the reed, the species moss-rose, the columbine, iiilene injjata,
:

BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Desmid. p. 51. HYDATl'NA, Ehr. A genus of Rotathe family Ilydatinsea. Char. Eyes absent jaws two, teeth numerous, free foot forked.
toria, of
; ;

and Eriophorum,
Soc.
ii.

(Buckton, Aphides,

Pay

lOi).)

sevta (PI. 43. fig. 37 fig. 38, teeth). conical, hyaline margin of rotatory organ ciliated foot robust ; aquatic ; length 1-48 to 1-30".
;

H. Body

HYALOSI'RA,

Kiitz. A genus of Dia-

tomacea3. Char. Frustules compound, rectangular, tabular with alternate vitta;, interrupted in the middle, and connected with those of the opposite side by fine lines loAvcrmost frustule attached by a stipes which is affixed Marine. to one angle. The fine lines at the end of the vittte The forked appearance. give the latter a frustules are often partly separated, so as to be connected with each other by one angle
;
;

This animal forms a favourable subject for the examination of the typical structure of the Rotatoria, and is that which Ehrenberff used as the basis of his investigations

upon

organization. brachydacti/Ia. Segments of foot short body suddenly narrowed at the base of the foot; aquatic; length 1-144". BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. 412 Colin,
II.
; ;

tlieir

Sieh.
toria.

HYDATIN^'A. A
;

Si'

Koll

Zeitschr.

vii'.

family

of

Rota-

onlycliis.

^ Four species, probably forms of Tetracyp

.

II. rectamjula

(PI.

17.

fig.

1).

Stipes

Char. Neither carapace nor enveloping sheath present rotatory organ multiple, or more than bipartite. 18 genera.

HYDNOGLCEA.
Eyes absent,
"No teeth Teeth present.

397

HYDRA.

Eiiferoplea.

Jaws with numerous teeth

Hudafina.
Pleuroirocha.

Eyes Eye

with a single tooth present,

single,

Eye

frontal
cervieal.
styliforra

Furcularia.

Foot

Monocerca.

The characteristic forms of the body can only be judged of when fully extended in search of prey for wlien the animals are touched, shaken, or in any way disturbed, the body assumes very variable forms, becoming rounded, ovoid, &c. The structure of the body of Hydra has
;

forked. Frontal cilia, no hooks nor

styles

been
Notommata.

much
it

investigated and discussed.

By

some

Frontal

cilia,

styles present...
fins.

St/ncha-ta.

hooks Foot absent with cirrhi or Eyes two.

;

Smiridium.
Fulijurthra.

Eyes

Foot

frontal. forkeil

Diglena.
Triarthra,
Eiiffidu.^.

styliform.

cirrhi Without cirrhi Eyes cervical

With

has been regarded as consisting of three layers an internal and external coat, The and an intermediate muscular layer. true structure, however, has been pointed out by Ecker. This author regards the animal as consisting of sarcode or protoplasm, and neither furnished with an outer nor an inner

coat.

The

Dislemiiia.

transparent, gelatinous, sarcodic

;

Eyes three. Eyes not stalked, Eyes cervical

substance forms the entire mass of the body and tentacles on the surface it is frequently
irregularly rounded or nodular, or exhibits spiral or other raised lines (PI. 41. fig 23 6) ;

Two eyes frontal, one cervical Two frontal eyes stalked, one cer.

TriopMhalmus.
Eosphora.
Otoglena.

vical not stalked

and
If

it

contains numerous vacuoles within.

glasses,

Eyes more than three

group

in a sinp;le

Eyes more than three

in

two groups

Cycloglena. Theorus.

Hydra be crushed between

BiBL. Ehrenberg-, Infus. p. 410. HYDNOCtLCE'A, Berk. & Ourr. genus of Tremelloid Fungi. H. c/elatinosa occurs in this country occasionally on very rotten pine wood. (Berk. & Br. Ann. N,

H. 1871,

vol.

vii.

429.)

Linn. (Freshwater Polype). genus of Hydroid Zoophytes, of the family Hydridte. Char. Locomotive, single, naked, gelatinous, subcylindrical, but very contractile and variable in form the mouth surrounded by a single row of filiform tentacles. Propagation by the formation of gemmce, and ova upon or within the substance of the body of the animal.

HY'BRA,

portions of the sarcode will be separated, and assume a globular form, closely resembling that of cells ; the vacuoles will also become greatly distended, just as occurs in the substance of the Infusoria and these separated portions will often continue conTwo of them are tracting like an Amoeha. represented in PI. 41. fig. 29 ; in a, a rather small vacuole is present, whilst in h this is very large. Now in the latter instance the globule, as regards structure, forms a true cell, consisting of a closed sac, with liquid
;

contents-.

Physiologically speaking,

how-

ever, it does not correspond to a cell, the entire substance representing cell-contents aroimd which a cell-wall has never been

Hydra

viridis

(PL 41.

fig.

21, adhering to

the radicles of duck-weed {Lemna)).

;

Body

number of these vacuoles exist naturally, diffused throughout the substance of the body. The protoplasts of the inner
formed.
ingfestedbv

leaf-green, cylindrical or insen.-ibly narrowed towards the base tentacles 6 to 10, shorter than the body, naiTowest at their origin.

Common
H.

in

ponds and

still

waters.

Body orange-brown, yelvidyaris. lowish or red, cylindrical tentacles 7 to 12,

;

as long as or longer than the body, tapering to the free ends.

In weedy ponds and waters common.

;

slowly

running

H.

attenuata.
;

attenuated below

Body pale olive-green, tentacles pale, consider;

In ponds rare. ably longer than the body. H. fusca (oligaetis). Body brown or greyish, lower half suddenly attenuated tentacles 6 to 8, several times longer than the body. Still waters ; rare.
;

and solid particles are as in Amoeba. The intermediate stratum, whicli is not organically distinct, contains imbedded in it a number of very minute green or otherwise coloured granules these are of a rounded form, and present a double outline, as if composed of In the uninjured Hydra they exist cells. in the intervacuolar substance, thus giving the tissue an elegantly reticular appearance. They appear to consist of chlorophyll they are insoluble in they become potash coloured purplish red-brown by iodine and sulphuric acid, after ti'eatment with potash ; and the green-granules of Hydra vulyaris are rendered bluish green by sulpliuric acid, in the same manner as the chlorophyll
surfiice are ciliated,

them

HYDRA.
of leaves.

398

]
sidered doubtful
vestigation.

HYDEA.
and requiring further
in-

The colour of Hydra has been

Laurent states ditferently accounted for. tliat he succeeded in colouring them blue,
white, and red, by feeding them with inwhilst Hancock digo, chalk, and carmine, has shown that the colouring is much affected by exposure to light those not

In addition to these stinging organs, we have found other very minute capsules (fig. 22 c), containing a filament, curved even when emitted, the nature of

which

is

obscure.

exposed to light, from living under stones, &c., having the natural colour, whilst those exposed to the light became bleached. It is generally admitted, however, that the colour depends upon or is modified by the nature of the food but exact experiments
;

kind of organ is said to have been also in the sm-face of the body, consisting of ovate capsules or bodies, from which a stout and short filament projects; these appear to resemble the organs of adhesion of the Acalephpe.

A third

met with

are

wanting to decide the question. Towards

low.

the inner surface of the body, the granules are brownish or blackish. Imbedded in the superficial portions of the substance of the Hydra are certain curious bodies, termed the stinging organs or nemaThese are best tocysts (PI. 41. fig. 23 rt). seen upon the tentacles they consist of
;

The body and tentacles of Hydra are holThe prey, which consists of Entomostraca, small Annulata &c., when caught by one or more of the tentacles extended for
the purpose, is slowly brought to the mouth, and forced into the cavity of the body, in

truncate, firm capsule (PI. 41. of comparatively considerable thickness, as indicated by its marked double Within the capsule is contained outline. a very long and slender filament, at the base of which are four minute spines. In the undisturbed state of the Hydra, the filament with the spines is coiled up in the
oval,
fig.

an

which it is digested, certain portions he'mg taken up by the amoeboid bodies the undigested portions are evacuated through the mouth. The posterior part of the body is
;

22

h)

more or

less dilated into a flattened disk,

which, by its suctorial power, enables the animal to attach itself to various bodies Hancock has seen excrementitious matter
;

capsule (fig. '22 a); but when the animal is touched, pressed, or heated, the filament with the spines flies out with extraordinary rapidity, so that we have not been able to determine exactly how the spines are arranged within the capsule. Most probably the spines, while within the capsule, are directed forwards and in close contact, and then, in assuming their recurved position, they are the means of projecting the filament forwards. capsule, containing an unexpanded filament and spines enclosed within a detached globule of sarcode, is represented in fig. 22 (/. When these capsules are heated with a solution of nitrate of silver, a portion of the silver is reduced to the metallic state. This action is a property of formic acid hence,when it isconsidered that these organs closely resemble in structure those of the

passing through the body at this part. The cavities of the tentacles sometimes exhibit a kind of circulation and those of both the tentacles and the body are lined with cilia.
;

The extraordinary power which Hydra

possesses of reproducing lost parts is truly wonderful. Thus, if the body be cut into two or more, even into forty parts, each portion continues to live, and develops a If the section be made perfect new animal. lengthwise, so as to divide the body all but the end, the two portions become resoldered and form a perfect being ; if the pieces be

Acalephre,which possess an urticatiug power

like stinging-nettles,- arising from the presence of formic acid, and that in Hydra

these filaments are driven into and wound the prey, it may appear probable that tlu'V secrete and contain formic acid. IJut, as many other su1)stances reduce salts of silver, and as the sarcode, from which it is perhaps impossible to separate these bodies, may produce this eflect, the point must be con-

kept asunder, each becomes a Hydra, the possessing but one posterior end if the section be made from the tail towards the head, the two bodies will be perfected and If a remain attached to the one head. tentacle be cut off, a new animal is formed from it. When one end of the body of a Hydra is introduced into the body of another, the two unite and form one. The head cut off one may be engrafted upon the body of another which wants one. And when tiie body is turned inside out, the outer surface, which has thus become the

two

inner, will perform the ordinary digestive functions, and the auiiual will continue to live, Tlie ordinary mode of reproduction of

a minute swelling is by gemmation forms upon some part of the surface of the body this enlarges, and gi-aduaUy assumes

Hydra
;

riVDrvA.

399

HYDRACHNA.

the form of the parent, while remaining Sometimes several of these attached to it. are formed upon a single individual at the

same time, and so, remaining adherent, tliev irive the animal a branched appearance
(Pf. 41.
fig.

Parker recommends osmic acid in the examination of the minute sfructure of Hydra and hardening in bichromate of
;

ammonia
BiBL.
xxiii.
;

for sections.

Leeuwenhoock,
;

Phil.

Tr.
;

1703,

21).

At

certain seasons of the year, as at the

end of summer or in the autumn, reproduction takes place by the formation of spermatozoa and ova. The spermatozoa are lormed n-itliiu spermatic capsules. These arise as minute conical tubercles a little beneath the base of the tentacles, one on each side and the spermatozoa are (PI. 41. fig. 24 a) liberated from them by bursting. The spermatozoa resemble those of the Mammalia, except that the tails are undulate. The ova are furnished with a thick coat, and are formed in the substance of the loAver part of the body (fig. 24 6). They subsequently sepai'ate from the body, and appear to be capable of spontaneous motion; but whether from the presence of cilia or not, is undecided. The ovisac then becomes ruptured, and the new animal escapes (fig. 25).
;

Trembley, Polyp, d'eau douce. Laurent, Rech. s. VHydre Corda, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. viii. ScliaefFer, D. Armpoh/p. ; Erdl, 3Iiiller's Archiv, 1841 Ecker, Sieh. and Kiill. Zeitsch. i. Johnston, Br. Zooph.
;

Thomson, Todd^s Cycl. An. and Phys. iv. 17 Hancock, Ami. N. H. 1850, v. 281 ; Allman, Micr. Journ. 1854 Hincks, Br.
; ;

Hydne are very common. The best method of procuring them is to collect a number of water-plants from any clear pool or slow stream, and bring them home in an indiarubber bag (sponge-bag). On placing the
a glass jar (confectioner's jar) containing water, they will be found at the end of some hours with the tentacles fully extended in search of prey,
plants subsequently in
are easily recognized. They usually adhere to the sides of the glass, oV to the stems or undersides of the leaves of

Zooph. 309 Kleinenberg, Hi/dra., 1872 ; Allman, Qu. M. Jn. 1874, xiv. 1; T. Parker, Pr. Roy. Soc. 1880, 61. HYDRACH'NA, Mlill. genus of Acarina, family Ilydrachnea. Char. Palpi tolerably long, thii-d joint longest, the fourth and fifth terminated each by a claw mandibles ensiform rostrum long, scarcely shorter than the palpi body rounded eyes distant vulva concealed by a plate or shield. When young, these little water-spiders have three legs only, and in this state have formed another genus, Achlysia. Several
;

H. glohula, Herm. (PI. 6. fig. 29). Body subovate two pairs of eyes at a moderate distance apart, reniform, dark red ; slriu covered \vith minute
;

species H. cruenta, Miill.

puucta.

The rostrum
base
left),
(fig.

when they

is broad and cuiTed at the 29 c, the lower part directed to the cleft above, so as to form a kind of

the plants but sometimes they are seen suspended from the surface of the water by the sucker, which is protruded just above
;

channelled sheath, containing the anterior

become partly dry. number of small Entomostraca should be added to the water, as the Hydra are very voracious. Some of the species of Hydra are occasionally covered with minute parasitic Infusoria, viz, Kero7ia polyporum (PI. 50. fig. 13),
it so as to

which is found upon H. vulgaris and fusca, and Trichodina ^fedieiiliis (PI. 31. fig. 16), which occurs upon //. vidyaris and vin'dis.
an interesting sight to see these running up and down the tentacles and surface of the body of the polypes, when we recollect that their surface is covered with the stinging These lice are not, however, found organs. in any numbers upon perfectly healthy poly})es, impurity of the water and an unstate being generally denoted healthy by
It is

narrower portions of the two mandibles (b). Tlie palpi (c, upper organ) are inserted upon the sides of the base of the rostrum and curved downwards the first joint is very broad, the second much curved, the third long, and flattened on one side and rounded on the other the foiu'th joint is short, and terminated by a short and thick claw the fifth also forms a claw, but the two claws do not form a chela, their curves being parallel. Of the legs (fiff. 29 a), the three posterior
; ; ;

pairs are ciliated for swimming, and the posterior are much longer than the anterior ; the coxfe are flattened and form two groups on each side between the two posterior coxne is the orifice of the reproductive
;

organs the tarsi all have two claws, and are obliquely truncated and concave at the
;

end

(fig.

29

e).

their presence.

Tlie eggs are reddish-brown and deposited upon the stems of water-plants ; the

nymphse

HYDRACHXEA.

400

HYDrtOCYTIOr.
;

are found attached to aquatic insects (fig. 29 f), as Nepa,Dyti><cus, &c. H. geographica. Body spherical, black, with spots and yellow points ; palpi red, acute legs shorter than the body, black, but red at the ends. H. concharum. Inhabits the pallial cavity of the Naiades.
;

hyaline
slia'litly

foot

narrowed into the form of a

tail
;

forked

freshwater

length

1-190".

Probably a young and imperfectly exa-

mined Phitodina.

Found

in Egypt.

BiBL. Duges, An.

vais,

Sc. Nat.

ser.i.

Ger-

Tf^alckenaers Arachn. iii. ; Koch, Deutschl. Cnistac. Muri'ay, Ec. Ent. I-jZ.

'NE (Water-spiders). family of Acariua. with the last joint unguiculate or Paipi spinous two or four distinct ocelli coxfe broad, legs generally ciliated, natatory, the
; ;

H YDRACH

HY'DRIDiE. family of Zoophytes, order Hydroida. It contains the single genus Hydra. IIYDROCHARIDA'CE.E. familyof Mouocotyledonous Flowering Plants gi-owing in water, interesting to the microscopist, as affording very favourable opportunities of viewing the circulation or rotation of the cell-contents. The leaves of VaUisneria

BiBL. Ehrenberg,

Tnfiis. p. 483.

posterior longest, tarsi

with two claws. The characters of the genera must be See sought under the individual heads.
V. Bened.

an Italian plant, which is readily in jars of water indoors, are vei-y frethe leaves quently used for this purpose
spiralis,

grown

AREENUEXJS,ATAX,DlPLODONTUS,EYLAiS, Hydeachna, and Limnochakes.

and sepals of Anacharis Alsinasini7n, si's oith American plant, now naturalized in streams
in

HYDRACTIN'IA,
tiuiidse.

A genus

of Hydroid Polypi, of the family Ilydracincrnsting polypes claviform, tentacles in a single whorl at the base of a conical proboscis. H. echinata. Polypidom rough with serrated spines, whitish fleecy. On univalve shells tenanted by the hermit crab.
;

many parts of Britain, also show the circulation well. The extremities of the roots of Ui/drocharis morsus-rancc, a plant comThe circulation consists of the movement of a layer of colourless

Char. Polypidom

mon, floating on tlie surface, in broad permanent ditches, are likewise adapted for the
purpose.
tioAving

protoplasm over the inner surface of the

walls of the cells. Where, as in the leaves of VaUisneria and Anacharis, the cells contain green globules of chlorophyll, these mostly adhere to the circulating mass, and are carried rouiid with it. The phenomenon may be observed in iminjured young leaves simply immersed in water by focusing carebut in VaUisneria it is seen more fully clearly in slices taken carefully parallel to the surface of the leaf. The circidation lasts a long time in these separate fragments if they are kept wet. Sometimes it is arrested by the preparation in such cases the application of a gentle heat often causes it to recommence. It may be observed with a power of 200 diameters but a higher is
; ;
;

BiTiL. Hincks, Brit. Zooph. p. 19.

HYDEALLMAN'IA, liincks. A
Hydroid Zoophytes, fam.

genus

of

Sertulariidas.

H. faJcata= Elvmularia fate. Johnst. BiBL. Ilincks, Brit. Zonph. p. 273. HYDRAN'THEA, Ilincks A genus of
Hydroid Polypi,
JI. foliacea.
fimi. AtractylidiB.
;

margaritacea, white

on

Flustra

BiBL. Hincks, Ann. N. and Br. Zooph. 99.

11. 18G.3, xi.

45

HYDKIA'NUM, Rab. A
;

genus of Pal-

mellaceous Algae. Char. Cells resembling those of Charaendochrome cium, but open at the ends contracted, ultimately becoming resolved
into 2-4-8 zoogouidia.
fig. 5).

requisite for

minute investigation.
Koch,

(See

Rotation.)

H.
;

ovale (PI. 52.

HYDROCTIOREUTES,
rachna, pt.

Ilgd-

12 species
Algae.

freshwater

adherent to other

BiBL. Babenhorst, Fl. Alq. iii. p. 87. HY'PRIAS, Elir. A genus of Rotatoiia,
of the fauiily Philodiufea. neither proboscis Char. Eyes absent on the foot ; present, nor horn-like processes rotatory organs two, placed at the ends of two antvrior processes of the body.
;

IIYDKOCO'LEUM, Klitz. A genus of Oscillatoriaceae (Confervoid Algaj), corresponding to aquatic species of Chthonohlanttis.

II.

helreticnm (P\. 52.

fig. 0).

species. BiBL. Kiitzing, Plu/c. Gen. horst, Fl. Ah/, ii. p. 149.

11

European

196

Raben-

JI. cornigera (I'l. 4o. fig. o9_).

Body

ovate,

IIYI)R0CY'T1UM, Al. Braun. genus of unicellular Algne, separated from that author's Charucium on account of the whole

IIYDRODICTYON.

401

IIYDRODICTYON.
:

contents becoming at once broken up into active gouidia, not by successive subdiviGreen. Found upon sions (PI. o. tig. 1). stones or tilanientous Confervas iu fresh water, and consisting of elliptical sacs or

has shown to consist of several lamellaj

1.

extremely thin, finely punctate layer, coagulated and detached from the cell-wall

An

by the action of

aeids

dial utricle of the cell.

lat/inous layer, thicker
utricle,

2.

this is the primorThe outer muci-

acuminate above and below, about 1-500" long and l-li^OO" thick. 2 species. BiBL. Al. Braun, Alg, UniceU., Leips. 1855, 24.
cells,

than the primordial but thinner than the next or third

;

HY'DRODIC'TY'ON, Roth. A genus of

Siphouacese (Coufervoid Algae), containing one species, //. utricukifum, found iu freshwater pools in the midland and southern The froud or coenocounties of England.

bium

consists of a gi'eeu open network of filaments attaining a length of 4 to ()'' when full-grown (tig. 338), composed of a vast number of cylindrical tubes Fig. 338. (cells) with rounded ends, adherent together at their

extremities, the points of junction corresponding to the knots or intersections of the

network.
cells attain a

The

indi^idual

length of 4'" or more. The organization of this plant and its development are exceedingly curious; and it has lately been the subject of very careful investigation by Al. Braun and The cells formuig others. the links of the net have a remarkably thick cellulose

When separated from the first layer, the outer surface appears rough and wavy and it is connected with the third layer by mucilaginous cords it contains indistinctly defined colourless granules. 3. The inner mucilaginous layer, the thickest of the three, is rough on the outside and waved on the inside from the projection of granules imbedded in it this is the only green layer, appearing of a homogeneous green colour (like the spiral bands of Spiroyyra) when the cells are in their prime, besides which it contains innumerable green granules, sometimes in rows, more frequently uniformly scattered. This layer likewise contains starch-corpuscles, such as occur commonly in the green substance of the Oonfervoids, causing the cell-contents to exhibit a vast number of brilliant points. In imperfect cells the green layer sometimes appears in patches, not completely investing the surface of the outer mucilaginous layer this
layer.
; ;

is also

common

in

young

cells.

The

fluid

coat when full-grown, which exhibits several layers, especially when treated with sidphuric acid (PI. 47. tig. 24/). Hydrodictyon utriculatum. Weaksulphm-ic acid does not cuticular A complete frond affect the outer ornet, about rta T ! j_ 11 ii of the largest layer, while it swells the inner layers, and throAvstheni size, into waves, especially the innermost the subsequent addition of iodine colours the inner layers blue, but not the cuticle. Strong sulphuric acid acts diffeit detaches the cuticle at many rently so points, while the inner layers contract,
1
; :

and watery. The reproduction of the fronds of Hydrodictyon is efi'ected by the conversion of the contents of the individual cells into complete new sets like the parent, which lets them free by dissolution. The following is
a brief history of this remarkable process. is the solution of the starchlayer becomes more opaque lighter spots appear on the inner part of the mucilaginous layer, excavated in its substance and surrounded by the

in the cavity of the cell is clear

The first stage the grams

;

that the cuticle appears blo-v\Ti up in vesicles the inner layers gradually soften and disThese last changes are similar to solve. what takes place at the dissolution of the and Cohn cell when the contents escape states that the membranes give the bluish reaction with iodine alone when thus partially decomposed by natural causes. Immediately lining the wall is a mucila; ;

chlorophyll-globules, which separate*^ from each other, forming dark boundary lines round the light spots. The bright- green then gives place to a browner tinge. The light spots already observed (the centres of the nascent gonidia), exerting an attraction as it were on the chlorophyll-globules, become severally enveloped in a layer of them, and then separate from each other, so as to appear like dark spots with an intervening reticulation of bright lines. The dark spots
(gonidia) are now polygonal, mostly sixThe sided, about the 1-2500" iu diameter. parent-cell membrane next begins to soften
;

ginous layer (PL 47.

tig. 24jjJ,

which Braun

and swell up the gonidia, thus acquiring more space, become rounded, and soon pre2ji

HYDRODICTYON.

402

HYDROIDA.
;

sent a slight tremulous oscillatoiy nioveThe cuticle of the parent cell then mt'ut. cracks, allowing the inner softened layers to swell out; the gonidia commence an active trembling and jerking motion, not, however, moving far from one spot after a
;

Areschoug, Linrupa, xvi. 127, pi. 5 (1842) ; Ilassall, AhfcB, 225, pi. 58 Braun, Ver/ihiy. (Hay Soc. '185.3) A/y. UniceU. Sp. Nov. 1855, 55 Cohn, Nova Acta, xxiii. 207, pi. 19; Pringsheim, ^-/. i?er. 1800; Qu. M.
' ;

Jn. 1802, 54, 104.

time they again come to rest, and become united at certain points of their circumference the green granules become fused into a homogeneous mass, and the rudiment of the first starch-granule soon appears, while the gonidia grow out into a tubular form, acquire a cellulose membrane, and collectively form a new net, which becomes free by the total solution of the pa;

HYDROGAS'TEUM,
DirrM.

Desv.

Botby-

HYDROI'DA. The
Polypes (Zoophytes).

order of Hydroid

this Order usually conaggregate hydriform individuals contained in cells or cups, springing from a
sist

The members of
of

Tliese gonidia appear to possess rent cell. four short cilia their motion lasts about occur in half an hour from 7000 to_ 20,000 one cell and thej' are distinguished by Braun as macro(/on{clia. Other gonidia of smaller size and longer shape, which he calls microyrmidia, are furnished with four long cilia and a red parietal spot. These
;
; :

have a

From 30,000 to different history. 100,000 appear in the parent cell, their de-

velopment presenting the same characters as that of the macrof/onidia up to the time when the motion begins. Then the microunlike the net-forming VKtcror/onidia, leave their parietal positions with a whirling motion, and move through the entire cavity of the parent cell, until at length the membrane of the latter bulges out in one or more places and bursts, and the microgonidia leave the cavity in a swarm. According to Colin, they are at first enclosed in a thin mucilaginous pellicle protruded before them, like the swarming However, they spores of Pediastrum. escape, become free, and swim about for a
(jonidia,

oviparous. Many new used for the component may well be mentioned here but we prefer the old ones. One of the forms of non-sexual reproduction is the zooid. Zooids ditler from organs in that the zooid is an individual organism, which may or may not be capable of individual existence. community of zooids in imion with one another constitutes the hydrosnme. Zooids are of two kinds in one, destined for the nutrition of the community, the assemblage is called the trophosome;t\\e oihex gives origin to the generative elements ova and spermatozoa and the entire association of these generative zooids is the yonosome. The trophosome is composed of the hydranih and the liydruphyton. The hydranth or polypite contains the digestive sac ; the hydrophyton or ccenosarc is the common basis -by which the general com;

branched gemmiparous and names have been structures, which

filiform

polypidom

propagation

long time, and are sujiposed to conjugate. At length thej' come to rest, acquire an outer coat, sink to the bottom, and remain there heaped in green masses, like cells of Protococcus, for a long period, forming
resting-spores.

is kept together. The hydrorhha the adherent base. The ultimate zooid, which generates either the ova or the spermatozoa, is the yonojjhore. The spo?-osac is the gonophore without the umbrella. The yonozoid is the sexual zooid, whether

munity
is

fixed or detached and fitted for locomotive life ; this is also known as a medusiform gonophore, or planoblast. The ytmaxyium, or (/onothcca, is an external receptacle in

growth of the JTi/drodidyon-nei by the above process is wonderful the component cells of the net increase, under favourable circumstances, to 600 times In tlieir original length in a few weeks. cultivated specimens, the whole history, from the origin of a net to the production
;

The

rapidity of the

which the gonophore See Zoophytes.

Ilincks divides the orders
:

is

formed.

(Pascoe.)

Order into 3 subJohnst.),

in

1.

Athccata

(Tubularina,

which true
Clavidas.

thecse are absent.

Fam.

Clavatellida).

of a

new

one, passes over in

tliree or

four
is

Jlydractiuiidfe.

weel\s.

The

original size of the cells

I'odocorynidje.
Ijavida^..

jMyriothelidas. Eudeiidiiidie.

about 1-2500"; in the fully developed condition they are about 1 to 4" long. PiBL. Vauchcr, Confcrves, ^2, pi. 9 ;

Atiactylidie.
TubulariidiT}.

Coi'vui'l-e.

Stauridiida).

Penuariidaj.

IlYDKOMETrvID.E.
2.

403

HYDRURUS.
stereorea,

in (Sertularina, Johnst.), the Ilydroida are furuished with Faiu. thocae.

Thecaphom
:

H.

Tode.

Fleecy

filaments

wliich

Campamiliiviidre.
Campaniiliiiid;i3.

Coppiniid.*B.

simple, very long, fugacious, white; peridioles spherical, yellow, subsequently black. Common on dung after much rain, H. mnrina, Fr. Filaments scattered,
short, simple, persistent, white peridiolus yellow, subsequently opaque. On rats' dung. i^Mucor fulviis, Sowerbv, pi.' 400. fig. 4.) BiBL.' Berkeley, Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2.
;

Haleciida\
Sertulariidic.

Leptoscyphidse.
liafoeidiB.

Phimulariida3.

Trichvdridte.

331
Gi/mnochroa (Ilydrina, Johnst.). Polypidom* absent; locomotive. Fain. 1. Hy3.

Fries,

Syst Glycol,

iii.

314,

Smn.

Fey.

87.

IIYDROSE'RA, Wall.A genus of Diatomacete.

C7iar.

diidfB.

The polypidoms
form
are very

of the Ilydroid Polypi

Frustules quadrate, areolar, united

;

interest iiiij microscopic objects.

They

sea-weeds, on often shells, rocks, &c., the forms being 41. elegantly branched and feathery (PI. and the species can be figs. 4, il, lo, 1()) identified from the polypidoms. They may
;

common among

into a filament, with internal septa hoop smooth, compressed or triangular in front view, areolar, the constricted angles with a

small appendage on one side. Marine. //. compressa. Valves oblong. East Ind'es. //. triquef.ra (PL 51. fig. 40). Valves

be monnted, after being well-washed in distilled or rain-water, in balsam or glj^The animals are very irritable and cerine. contractile, and can only be observed after the removal of the bodies to which they are attached to an aquarium or jar containing
sea-water.

East Indies. triangular. H. tricoronata. Zealand.

New

BiBL. Wallich, Qii. M. J. 1858, vi. 251 ; Stolterforth, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, 424. HYDRO'tJS, Linn. A genus of Coleoptei'ous Insects, of the family Hydrophilidfe. H. picens is one of the largest aquatic British beetles. have selected the head to illustrate the structure and arrangement

BiBL. Joliuston, Br. Zoopk. 5 Gosse, Zool. 1, 18 Allmau, Ann. N. II. 18G3, i and Ann. N. H. xi. 1 Hincks, Br. Zooph. 1877, xix. 148, 1878, i. 239 1880, vi. 277 (Barenfs Sea) Mereschowski, ibid. 1878, 251 ii. Korotneft", ibid. 1878, ii. 351 Thompson, ih. 1870, iii. 97 Pascoe, Zool.
;

We

Mar.

of the trophi, &c. in the Coleoptera (see The perfect insect is about I5" in length. The fuU-groAvn larva is about 3"

Insects).
it

long;

filiform branchial

Class. 1880.

has no lateral branchiae, but two appendages at the end of

HYDROMET'RID.F;. A family of Hemipterous (Heteropterous) Insects, the species of which are found skimming the surThe under parts of face of pools or rivers. the body and legs are covered with fine hau-s, which prevent them from becoming wetted. The eggs of Ilydrometra are elliptical

the body.

BiBL. Westwood, Introduc.

Consid. gen.
Beetles.
s.
I.

Insectes

Dumeril, Stephens, Br.

;

and elegantly sculptured.

ii.

HYDRU'RUS, Ag. genus of Palmellaceaj (Confervoid Algfe), which seems to form a link between these and the UlVACE.'E. The frond consists of a branched,
feathery,

BiBL. Westwood, Infroditction,

407.

HYDROMOKI'NA, Ehr.A
Infusoria.

family of

which it consists, Polytoma and Spondyhimorum, appear to be Monads, or species of Algaj, undergoing

very gelatinous expansion, the branches set with minute processes or ra^ melli (PI. 7. fig. Sa) in the gelatinous substance are imbedded minute cells AA-ith
;

The two genera

of

homogeneous green contents, most set in the ramelli, more scattered

closely in the

division.

HYDR()PH'ORA, Tode. A genus of Mucorini (Pliycomycetous Fungi). 3Ioulds growing on the dung of animals, distinguished by the indurated persistent peridiole and the conglobated spores. Two species
are described as British.

See these genera. BiBL. Ehrenb. Ber. d. Berl. Akad. 1848. Y1)R( )PH 'ILUS, Geoff'. See IlYDEOf s.

older part of the frond (PI. 7. fig. 8b). II. Di<cliizelii, Ag., grows to a length of from 1 to 6", and from 2 to 4'" in diameter, attached to stones in mountain-brooks and rivers the recent frond is of brownish olive in mass, green when dried. When fresh it has a very offensive smell. Reproduction by active gonidia.
;

Hassall,

BiBL. iTarvev, Br. Ah/. (1 ed.) 180; ^%. 302, pi. 77. "fig. 3; Kiitziug,

2d2

HYGHOCEOCIS.
Tab. PJujc. Ah/,
iii.

404

H13IEN0MYCETES.
in the

pi.

34. fig. 3

Rabenliorst, Fl.

cases,

49.

even

HYGKOCEO'CIS, Ag. supposed genus of filamentous Coufervse; apparently

Fungi.
consisting of the flocculent mycelium of II. arscnica occurs in sulutiuus of
ar.senious acid.

however, the hymenium is perfectly column. The younger stages

BiBL. Kiitzing, *S);. Alg. 148; Eabenhorst, Fl. Al(j. ii. 8 (fig.) ; Marchand, Compt. rend. 1878.

IIYME'NIUM. The term applied to the layer of cellular tissue upon which are seated the hasidia of the higher Fungi. The name is also applied to the fructifving
stratum in such Ascophorous fungi as Ilelvella, Morchclla, Pcziza, &c.

of development of some Plymenomycetes do not exhibit aU these characters, since the receptacle is at first enclosed in a saclike body arising from the myceliima, so that the external appearance is similar to that of one of the Gasteromycetes (as in very young mushrooms) ; this sac finally bursts, to allow of the expansion of the
receptacle. The cellular structure of this family is simple, in spite of the varied outward

HYMENO'MONAS,

Stein.A genus of

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Free, -svith a crenate, flexible carapace; flagella two; no eye-spot; lateral yellow-brown pigment bands present. H. roseola; length 1-850''; freshwater.

(Kent, Inf. 407.)

HYMENOMYCE'TES.A tribe

of

Ba-

forms the whole mass, from the filamentous myceluDn up to the sudoriferous membrane or hymenium, is made up of interwoven branched cellular filaments or hyphae, of great tenuity. In the Tremellini these filaments are imbedded or dissolved into an amorphous waxy or gelatinous substance in other cases they form a dry corky structure but the consistence is generally fleshy. In a few cases among the Agaricini and Polyporei, vesicrdar or elongated branched
;
.

sidiomycetous Fungi, characterized by the peculiar mode of arrangement of the spores, which are borne in groups of four on the exposed surface of a more or less membra-

hyphee of considerable size are met Avith,

containing a milliy juice (in the
Afi. deliciosus, Sec.).
gills

of

nous or sometimes gelatinous layer called

the hymenium.
ceptacle,

The

fruit,

called the re-

In extremely in form. most of the Tremellini it is an irregular jelty-like or waxy expansion, borne however on a roundish support in Tremella; in the Clavati it forms a club-shaped, mostly
varies

spores are short ternunal branches of roundish or elongated cells, called basidia, clothing the free surface of the hymenial structure (see BasidioSPORES). They may be seen in thin cross sections cutting the laminae of the Agarics or the tubes of the Polyporei at right angles, requiring a high power for their

The

observation.

Four spores

are formed on

branched, fleshy or leathery stalk-like body (called the hymenophore), which is clothed at its ends by the sporiferous membrane or hymenium, forming a smooth layer. In the Auricidati and Ilyduei the receptacle
is

each basidium, from which they fall otf when mature. The Agarics exhibit on the hymenium, among the basidia, pecidiar projecting vesicles filled with opaque fluid {polutricles, linaria, Corda cystidia, Leveille
; ;

either

an expanded,

irregular, crust-like,

membranous

or leathery mass, or has the

form of a club, a funnel, or of a hat or cap,

the sporiferous membrane clothing either the upper or under surface as a warty, spiny, or comb-like stratum. In Polyporei and Agaricini the receptacle is a discoid (olten laminated), bell-shaped or dish-formed, fleshy body, more or less coloured and tuberculated on the upper side, frequently borne on a columnar stalk ins 'I'ted on the under side, while the sporiferous layer, or hymenial structure, presents itself as a conspicuous layer on the under side, consisting of a number of paper-lil<e
la in el he, or vertical tubes, prickles, or pits, closely packed, on the lateral surfaces of

Berkeley), which some have called anthers, but which appear to be parciphi/ses that is, undeveloped or abortive (bare) basidia.

spores are mostly exceedingly minute, of various forms and colours, and consisting of simple cellules. Tulasue has recently shown that the TremeUini produce spermain Tremella, tia, as well as basidiospores and other genera, thej' arise from distinct in branches of the hymenial filaments Dacrymyces they are produced in germination from some of the detached basidiospores lying upon the mycelium (see TuE;
;

The

MELLixi).

which

are

borne

the

spores

in

many^

The structure of these Fungi must be investigated in all stages of development, since vei"y great changes of size and form take place at diflereut epochs, simply

IIYMENOPIIYLLE^,
textures.
Si/nopsis of the Families.

405

IIYMENOPIIYLLE^.
with the

from expansion or solution of the cellular

a cup-shaped indusium continuous leaf (fig. 33i)).

to tlie

Agaricim.

Receptacle like a round or

flat cap, ofteuborne on a stalk. Hymenium forming vertical plates or folds on the under surface.

HymenojdiiiUuyn. Sporanges sessile up summit of a similarly formed column projecting from the margin of the leaf, subelevated, but not exserted beyond the indusium, which is two-valved (tig. 340).
Fig. 339.

PoLYPOEEi.
flat

Receptacle like a round or

cap, disk, cup, or funnel, sometimes stalked, with a porous (formed of tubes) or reticulated hymenium on the under side. Hydxei. Receptacle like a round or
flat cap, cup, or funnel, sometimes stalked, with the hymenium on the under side exhibitinp^ awl-shaped processes or tubercles. AuRicuLARiNi. tubular, Receptacle cup- or funnel-shaped, -with the smooth or papillose hymenium on the under surface. club - shaped, Clavati. Receptacles simple or branched like a shrub, with the hymenium covering the tips and sides of them. TREiiELLiNi. Receptacle vague, or cup-

Fig. 340.

Trichomanes humile.

Hymeuophyllum

biyalve

Fig. .?39. Fragment of a leaf, with sori. Fig. 340. Ditto.

shaped, often gelatinous at first, hardening drying up. Hymenium confounded with the structure of the receptacle, on the basidia upper, imder, or both surfaces terminating the branches of hymenial fila-

Magnified 10 diameters.

by

Loxosoma.

Sporanges stalked, inserted

ments, accompanied sometimes by branches bearing sperm atia. The detached spores often lie imbedded in the gelatinous surface of the hymenium, and sometimes produce spermatia there. The above characters refer to the more typical species, as resupinate forms or an expanded hymenophore occur in each of the divisions.

up to the summit of a subelevated exserted column arising in a similar way within the niargin of the leaf, surrounded by an indusium, somewhat within the margins of the
Fig. 341. Fig. 342.

BiBL. Berkeley, Lindley's Veg. Kingdom-^ Hooker'' s Br. Flora,yo\. ii. pt. 2; Ann. N. H. i. 81, and ix. 1; Leveille, ^7(h. Sc. N. 2 ser.
viii.

321
Sc.

Fries,

Sum. Veg. 267

193.

Tulasne,

Ann.

N. 3

ser. xix.

HYI^IENOPHYL'LE^. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns, distinguished by the

delicacy of the structure of their leaves and the composition of the sori or fruits. The leaves are of the utmost simplicity of organization, consisting ordinarily of a single layer of cellular tissue, traversed by scalarit'orm tubes constituting the veins. There is no distinction of epidermis and parenchyma, nor are there stomata.
Gene)-a.

Fig. 343.

Trichomanes. Sporanges sessile around the base of an exserted filiform column, formed by the prolongation of a vein beyond the margin of the leaf, surrounded by

Hymenophyllum

cih'atum.

Fig. 341. Fragment of a leaf. Magn. 10 diama. Mang. 40 Fig. 342. Sorus with one valve removed

diams.
Fig. 343. SoruB.

Magn. 20 diams.

HYMENOniYLLUM.
fissures
rlete.
;

406

IIYPIIOMYCETES.
Fig. .344.

between the teeth of the leaf, with a truncated entire mouth annulus incom-

Fi?. 345.

HYMENOPHYL'LUM, Smith. Filmy

Ferns. The tj'pical genus of Hymenophyllaceous Ferns, remarkable for their delicate structure and often almost moss-like habit. Two dwarf species are natives of Britain, H. tunhrkhjense and H. Wilsoni. Numerous
tropical species (Hooker, Syn. 50).

HYMENOP'TEPtA. An order of Insects, containing the Bees, &c. IIYPERAM'MINA, Brady. tubular and sandy Foramiuifer, irregular in extension and growth. (Brady, Ann. N. H. 1878, i. 433 Mic. Jn. n. s. xix. 13.) HYPERICUM, Linn. Hinds points out in the leaves of //. Androsa'inum, the

Fig. 344. Cephalotheeimn roseum. Magn. 200 diams. Pig. 345. Vex'ticillium nutans. Magn. 2uO diams.

common

Tutsan, and calijcinum, certain dots containing active motile bodies {M. M. Jn. xix. 2:!3).

HYPEROMYX'A, Corda,
SPORA.

See Cheiro-

licosporitjm), and isolated or connected (tig. 340) in beaded lines (Pemcillium, Aspergillus), or grouped in a stellate
Fig. 346.

HYPH'EOTHBIX,

Kiitz.

genus of

Algae). Char. Fil. simple, jointed, coloured, more or less distinctly sheathed, tranquil fasciculate or densely united into a more or less membranous non-radiate stratum (PL 52.
;

OsciLLATORiACE^ (Confervoid

58 European

species.
;

"water-plants in pools

In sprnigs, coating on rocks, &c.

ii.

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg.

HYPHOMYCE'TES. A

75.

section

of

Fungi composed of microscopic plants, growing as moulds over dead or living organic substances. These are now considered to be conidiiferous conditions of Ascomycetous Fungi but as they are inmicroteresting and often very beautiful account is rescopic objects, the original tained here. The vegetative structure or mycelium creeps over or among the structures infested as a collection of delicate, or septate simple or branched, continuous filamentous cells {flocci), and produces the
;

Btysanus Ciiput-Meduaae. Maguifled liUO diamtters.

form.

In the Isariacei and Stilbacei the

;

spores either on lateral pedicels (from

which

they soon fall off, becoming intermingled with the mycelium), or in heads at the swollen or ramified extremities of usually
erect filaments
(figs.

erect pedicels are composed of a number of conjoined filaments in the other families the pedicels are simple filaments. Some

authors include

among

these plants the

Mucorini (Phycomycetes), regarding the

vesicular envelope of the spores there as a mere veil, not a true cell producing the spores in its interior. This fiimily is of interest from containing so many especifil moulds and mildews, and various parasitical Fungi to which the' diseases of plants, and in some cases of animals, have been
attributed.

344, 345,

.340,

and 347).

These filamentous pedicels in most cases exhibit a contraction just below the point
of origin of the spore, giving theni_ the

same appearance as the pedicels of basidioThe spores are round (PI. 20. fig. Bpores.
PI. 20. figs. 5, 0), 15), oval (fig. ;}47 and spindle-shaped (Fusisi'ORiuii), spiral (He-

Further particulars respecting

IIYTIIOMYCETES.
I'Alt.VSITIC

407

IIYPNOIDE/E.

those will bo found uuder the Families, also

EUKGI.
Fig. 348.

Fig-.

347.

filaments closely packed, coherent, terminating singly in free subgelatiuous spores. Dkmai'iei. IMyceliuni filamentous, spores compound or simple, arising from the apices of erect, solid, corticate, subopac^ue fila-

ments

(fig.

346).

Mycelium filamentous, spores solitary, oi- crowded on articulatod or branched tubidar and pellucid filaments
(figs. 344, 345), soon separating and mingling with the mycelium, or adherent in chained rows.

MucKDiNEs.

Sepedoniei. Mycelium filamentous, spores usually found heaped together resting on the mycelium, and apparently springing out of it directly. The spores are the
principal element in this Order,

which ap-

proaches Coniomycetes.

IIYP'NEA, Lamouroux. A genus of Rhodymeniacefe (Florideous Algje), the only British species of which, H. jnir^mras-

Clonostachys Araucaria.
Fig. 347. Fig. 348.

Magn. 200 diams.

fertile

branch.

Magn. 400 diams.

Fig. 350.

Fig. 349.

a common purplish pink feathered or shrubby sea-weed, the lobes being cylindi-ical, filiform, and cartilaginous, growing from 2" to 6" in height, with the filaments about 1'" in diam. On stones, rocks &c. between
cens, is

tide-marks. The fructification consists of coccidia, tubercles immersed in the ramuli, each containing a mass of small spores and tetrasporcs, immersed in the lesser branches, of separate plants.
;

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 130, pi. 16 D; Fhyc. Brit. pi. 116 ; Enq. Bot. pi. 1243. HYPNOl'DE^. a' family of Pleurocarpous Mosses of large extent. Leaves with the cells prosenchymatoiis, dense or Alar cells at the lax, smooth or papillose. bases of the leaves diverse 1 square, flatfish
: ,

or ventricosely impressed, pellucid or yellowish, or fuscescent; 2, few, vesicular, placed at the very base, of a delicate j^ellow or hyaline 3, obsolete, scarcely any, placed at the very base, fugacious, hyaline, vesicular 4, many, square, in papillose leaves,
;

Ceratocladium microspermum.
Fig. 349. Magnified 200 diams. Fig. 350. Spores, magnified 400 diamfi.

Synopsis of the Families.

or assuming Ilyiuenomycetous forms, composed of filaments closely attached in their whole length; spores simple, attached to simple pedicels arismg in all parts (fig. 349). Stilbacei. Receptacle wart-like or clavate above, stalked below, composed of

IsARiACEi. Eeceptacle clavately branched,

but mostly not very conspicuous. Leaves 0-5-nerved. Nerves binate, diverse 1, divergent from the base, distinct, very callous at the back of the leaf and prominent in the form of a spine fiom the dorsal surface 2, flattened down, scarcely caUously prominent 3, in leaves where the alar cells
: ;

are vesicuhform, the nerves obsolete, indicated by a pair of very short striae,

mostly

inconspicuous.
British Genera.
a.

Internal peristome tvithout interjwsed cilia.

Necket-a, Calyptra dimidiate.

Peristome

HYPNUM.

408

HYPOGiEI.
Frauenfeld. A genus

double, single, or absent, the internal or the external or both being occasionally obsolete. External sixteen equidistant or more or
:

HYPO'DERAS,
of Acarea

(Acarina).

Numerous

species,

less

"with

geminate a longitudinal line, composed of a double layer, arising below the orifice, sometimes split into several irregular arms. Internal similar to the above, or capillary, placed on a more or less exserted memteeth, lanceolate, trabeculate,
:

occurring beneath the skin of birds, often forming little cysts. Giebel, Verh. zool.bot. Gescll. Wien, xiv. 385; Miu-ray, He.

Ent. 228
vi.

(figs.);

Robertson, Jn. Mic. Soc.

201.

HYPODER'RIS,
Ficr.

R. Brown.A genus
351.

brane, conjoined by transverse appendages, very often wholly or partly caucellate. No

interposed

cilia.

PilotrivJium.

Calyptra mitriform.

Pe-

ristome, &c. as in
b.

Neckeea.
ivith

Internal peristo7ne

inteiyosed

cilia.

Hookeria. Calyptra mitriform. Peristome double external teeth lanceolatesubulate, with a more or less broad longitudinal median line, trabeculate internal on a more or less deep keeled membrane,
; ;

subulate, scarcely cilia interposed, hardly

ciliiform

rudimentary
or,

conspicuous,

more

rarely, perfect.

Hypoderris Browuii. Borus with fringed indusium.

Magniiied 25 diameters.

PeriIlypnum. Calyptra dimidiate. stome double. External teeth sixteen, lanceolate, trabeculate, with a more or less broad longitudinal line, more rarely a fissure, with more or less crest-like prominent Internal teeth on a trabeculfe within.

of Dicksonieae (Polypodiaceous Ferasj, with very prettily fringed indusia. Exotic. (Hooker, S'y. 4().) A family of Gasteromy-

HYPOG^'L

grooved reticulated projecting membrane, lanceolate, articulated, grooved, solid or perforated in the middle, or altogether gaping and separating. Cilia one to four, interposed, very often rudimentary.

Fig. 352.

IIYP'NUM, Dill. A large genus of Hypnoide?e (Pleurocarpous Mosses), here

Hydnangium
eandidiim.

including the species referred b}' modern writers to Isothecium, Climacimn, Let:kea, &c. Many of them are extremely common in all woods, growing on trunks of trees, banks, kc. others gTOw in water or in bogs, &c. The distinctions of the species are taken in gi-eat part from the forms &c. of the leaves, which require the use of a microscope for their accurate determination. BiBL. AVilson, Ih-ijol. Br. 3.35 Hooker,
; ;

Basidiospore8 upon the hymenium.

Magnified 400 diameters.

Fig. 353.

Br. Flora, vol. corum.

riacei

ii.

pt. 1

Miiller, Syn.

Mus-

IIYPO'CREA, Fr. A

genus of Sphfe(Ascomycetous Fungi), with a horiHysterangium

clatliroides.

zontal, sessile, or indistinct ileshy, mostly coloured stroma, filiform asci, and simple The species of this genus, like spores. those of Tljipoxj/lon, as given by Fries, are partly r(>ferred to Sphceria by other authors the distinctions will be best explained by taking' all these genera under Sph.^bia.
;

Section of hymeniura with oval bnsidiospores.

Magnified 400 diameters.

cetous Fungi, characterized by their resemblance to the Truffles (Ascomycetes) in

IIYPOLEPIS.
crowing- uuderground, and
bj^ tboiv

409

nYSTERIUM.
The
the leaves are parenchyThe genera exotic, viz. Hypoptcryyium, Cyathocells of

fiesliy

355).

mdehiscent recoptacle,
into
sjJores.

wliicli is

excavated
basidio-

matous and equal

are all

in all parts.

sinuous cavities lined with

which

are

sometimes smooth and

phorum, and HelicophyUum.

sometimes tuberculated (figs. 352, 358). See Pi. 27. ti<r. 8. BiBL. Tulasue, L. R. & C, Fmir/i Hypo1851 Ann. Sc. N. 3 ser. xv. 2G7, gcri, Paris, and A>in. N. H. 1851, vol. viii. 19; Berk.
;

HY'POPUS, Dug. A formerly supposed genus of Acarina, and family Acarea.

; ;

Outl. 292.

genus of Pteridece (Polypodiaceous Ferns), remarkable as varjdng in the condition of the iudusium so as to become uudistinguishable from Polypodium. Seven species, tropical.

HYPOLE'PIS, Bernh. A

Char. Body ellipsoidal, coriaceous palpi absent labium oblong, prolonged in the form of a rostrum, and furnished with two long anterior rigid setae the posterior pairs of legs but little developed. The forms are
;

HYPOMY'CES, TuL A genus of Pyrenomycetes (Ascomycetous Eungi), proposed by Tulasne to include the coloured and spring fi-om species which are parasitic a thick floccose mycelium. Their conidia are often extremely curious, and have been
referred to Sepeclotiiuvi, Asterophora, DacThe species were formerly tyliiim, kc.

(Hoolv-er, Stin. 129.)

numerous, and are found as parasites upon both animals and plants, as Arvicola (the field-mouse), Bonibus (the humble-bee), Musca (fly), some Myriapoda, and even upon other Acarina; also upon ferns, &c.
Dujardiu supposed that they were young forms of Gamasus Claparede that they were the males of certain Acarea while
; ;

included in Hypocrea. BiBL. De Bary, Bot. Zeit. 1859, 385, 393 Tul. Carp. iii. 38. HYPOPTERYGIA'CE^. family of Pleurocarpous Mosses with a peculiar arrangement of the leaves, which are placed in two opposite straight rows united on the upper side of the stem, with a third median row of smaller stipuliform leaves on the
;

Megnin decides that they are the nymphs of Acari (TyroyJyp/ius, Sec). They have no mouth nor digestive organs but are furnished with posterior ventral suckers. PL 6. fig. 15 represents a Nyjiopus miiscarum, which we found upon a house-fly
;

(J^Tusca clomestica).

BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Ned. 2 ser. i. 20, 37 Gervais, Walckenaer's Arachn. iii, 265 Dujardin, Ajin. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xii. 243 & 259 Claparede, Zeitschr. wiss, Zool. 186S, xviii. 445; Mmray, Ec. Ent. 231;
ii.
;
; ;

Megnin, Paras. 146.

HYPOTHECIUM. The

term applied

Fig. 354.

Fig. 355.

to the layer of cellular tissue, on which are attached the thecoe or spore-sacs of the fruits of the Lichens. Fries. genus of Sphaeriacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), distin-

HYPOX'YLON,

sessile stroma, separate and from the matrix (see Sph^^ria). The Hypoxyla of BuUiard with an erect stroma belong to Xylaria. HYSTE'RTUM, Tode. A genus of Phacidiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), distinguished by the elliptical or elongated peri-

guished by a
distinct

Fig. 356.

Fiff.

357.

Hystejiiim degenerans.

Hypopterygium.
Fig. 354. Natural size. leafy branch. Fig. 355.

Fig. 356. Natural size. Fig. 357. Perithecium.

Magnified 10 diameters.

Magnified 5 diams.

thecia

(figs.

356, 357), bursting

slit.

by a sim-

bearing a resemblance to the intermediate leaves in Selagindla (figs. 354,

under

side,

ple longitudinal

The

species are nu-

merous, growing upon (usually dead) bark,

ICHNEUMON IDiE.

410

ILLOSPOrJUM.
Dujardin, Schultze, Mtill. Archiv, 185-3, 241.
;

II. rusteins and leaves of various plants. ffosmn has been placed by some authors among liichens (as Oder/rapha macularis,
cpij^hei/a,

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. 386

Inf.
;

It is common ou smooth livhuj branches of oak and beech. H. jmlicfire, II. Ituhi, H. Pini, and H. culmi(/enu7n, the gvass-IIysteriimi and H.-foliicolium, growing on leaves of hawthorn, ivy, The species with or oak, are common.

ICIiTII YDTUM, Ehr.A doubtfulgenus

;

Eug.

I3ot.).

of Rotatoria, of the family Ichthydina. Clutr, Ej'es absent body without dorsal hairs ; pediform tail forked locomotion eftected by cilia placed upon the ventral
;

surface.

septate spores

359) form the genus Ilysteroyraphimn, Corda.

(fig.

Dujardin places this genus among his symmetrical Infusoria.

I.podura (PL

31.

tig.

23).

Body

linear-

Fig. 358.

Fig. 359.

oblong, often slightly constricted near the anterior turgid and sometimes trilobate end foot short freshwater; length 1-140". BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. p. .j88.
; ;

ICIITIIYOPHTHI'RI US, Fouquet. A

Char.

S'enus of Holotrichous Infusoria.

Subglobose

with

an

anterior

suctorial

disk, including converging setie. Somewhat like Pantotrichnm.

I. muUlfiliis

(PI. 53. fig. 19).

;

Parasitic

Fig. 358.

Hysteriumfoliicolium^Hederae. containing eipht spores, magnified 100 diameters; with loose spores, maguifled
200 diameters.

Anascus

on the trout, the loach, &c. forming milky spots on the tins, giUs &c.; length 1-150".
(Kent, Inf 530.)
dibulate

Fig. 359.

Hysterium elongatum.
400 diameters.

Spores.

Magnified

IDMO'NEA, Lamx.A

genus of InfunCj'clostomatous Polyzoa, of tiie

BiBL. Berk. Ilooh. Br. Fl. vol. ii. pt. 2. 293; Ann. N. H. 1851, vii, 185; Fries, Sum. Veyet. 3G8 Greville, Sc. Crypt. Ft. 129 & 167. pis. 24, 26, 72, 87, 88,
;

family Tubuliporidffi. Distinguished by the erect dichotomously divided zoary and the tubular cells, on one side only, in transverse rows, divided
;

into

two

sets

by a median longitudinal

line.

I.

I. atlantica.

ICHNEUMON'IDyE. A family
menopterous Insects.
interesting

of

Hy-

The

ovipositor
object.

microscopic
ii.

an (Westis

to a point innermost tubes, considerably

;

Branches roundish, tapering cells four in each row, the

wood,

ICIITIIYDI'NA, Ehr. A family of RoChar.

Insects,

protruded. Height 4-10". On zoophytes. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 278 Busk,
;

140.)

Br. Mus. Cat., Foss. Pol. Cray {Pal

Ilincks, Pohjz. 450.

Soc.)

tatoria.

carapace rotatory organ sinnot lobed nor divided at gle, continuous, the margin. The rotatory organ is in the form of a in Ichcircle in Ptyyura and Glenophora
;
;

No

I'DUNA,

CI.

& Lachm.A

genus of In-

fusoria, fam. Ervilina.

thydium and C/ice/onotus it is long, baud-like, and placed upon the ventral surface.

The family

is

thus divided:

Char. Those of Ervilina with a carapace, the valves quite separate. I. sulcata. Right valve with four raised left valve plane and longitudinal ribs smooth. Northern sea. Length 1-180". BiBL. Clap, and Lachm. Infus. p. 283.
;

Eyes absent, Kc) hairs present, Tail-like foot simple and truncate... Tli/gura.
forked
Ichthydium.
Dasydytes. Chatonotus. Sacculus.

Having

bristly hairs. Tail simple, truncate

Tail forked

I'DYA, V\i\\v^YL= Ca)ithocanq>ttis, pt., Baird. I. furcatu=C. f. (lrady, Copcp., Pay Soc. ii. 171 ). ILIOl'SYL'LUS, Br. & Rob. genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. /. coriaceuSf in sea-miid. (Brady, Copep.

Eye

single, frontal

ii.

Ej'estwo, frontal

Glenophora.

143.)

ILLICITOI.
Stilbacei

See Wintekeje.

ChcctoDujardin places Ivhfhydimn and no/wA' among the lufiisuria; and Ityyura

among

his MelicertLua.

genus of (Ilyphomycetous Fungi), mo.stly rose-red gelatinous bodies growing upon

ILLOSPORIUM, Mart. A

ILLUMINATION.

411

INFLAMMATION.

Lichens, described as consisting of irregular spores, at tirst involved in a globule of mucus, and aftenvards glued together in

simple mealy patches (tlieso plants seem very obscure). Four species are described
as British
/,
:

roseum, Fr. (Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl. pi. 51) I. carneum, Fr. (Corda, Ic. Fuihj. iii.
.

INAC'TIS, Kiitz. genus of Oscillatoriacete (Confervoid Algae), Char. Filaments slieathed, indistinctly jointed, parallel, sometimes dichotomous, densely aggregatiid, and forming a pulvinato hemisplierical frond, springing from a substratum of Protococcus-like cells.
In pools, on other Alga3 on rocks, Sec. 3 species, with several varieties, BiBL. Kiitzing, Phyc, 77 Rabenhorst,
;

I.

coralhnum, Rob. (Desmaz. Exsicc, no.

(Cord.
/.

lool).
I. cocct)ieum, Fr.
c. fig.

Fl. Alq.
3).

ii.

159.

INDIA-RUBBER,

or

Caoutchouc

BiBL. Oj). cit. and Berk. Br. Flora, ii. Ann. N. II. 18-50, v. 460 Fries, pt. 2, 328 Sum. Veg. 482 Syst. Mi/c. iii. 259. ILLUMINATION. This has been
;

alluded to in the Introduction (p. xxviii), and in the articles Angular

specially

APERTUKE, DiATOMACEiE, POLARIZATION, But several papers and Test-objects.

have been published in recent years, describing new and ingenious methods of illuminating the finer and more difficult obwe can only refer. jects, to which BiBL, Higgins, Qu. Alic. Jn. x. 150; Abbe, M. M. Jn. xiii. 77 Smith, ib. 88
; ;

This substance occurs naturally in globules suspended in the milky juices of many plants, especially of the Orders Euphorbiaand Apocynacea? the ceae, Urticacete, form of the globules is varied. In PI. 48, 23 is represented part of a milk- vessel of fig. Euphorbia antiquorian with fine caoutchouc When such milky juices are evaglobides. porated, the globules become blended into a uniform elastic mass, the India-rubber. Solution of caoutchouc is sometimes used as a cement for closing glass cells but its
;
;

AVeuham,
279
xvi.
;

156, & Entfl. Mechanic, 1877, Whittell, ib. xiv. 109 ; Bramhall, ib.
ib.
;

chief importance in this respect depends on its forming a constituent of marine glue (see

Cements).

102

Osborne,
;

ib.

xvii.

179
;

Mooreib.

house, ib. xviii. 29 01 Edmunds, ib. Mic. Soc. 1878, 45,

;

Woodward,
78

xviii.

xviii.

Schulze, Jn.

INDICATOR, QUEKETT'S.Is a small steel moveable hand placed j ust above the diaphragm of the eye-piece, so as to point to nearly the centre of the field.
INDIGO. This well-known vegetable substance is chiefly obtained from plants of the genera Indigofera and Isatis, and Polygonum tinctorium, but may be found in many
others. It has also been found in human urine, of which it is probably a normal consti-

G. O. Sara (=Krithe, -^ genus of Ostracoda (EntoB., 0., & R.)' mostraca), of the family Cytheridae. Lower antennae 4-, upper 5-jointed, with the

ILYOBA'TES,

last three j oints

short and stout

;

first

two

eyes wanting. pairs of feet three-jointed 3 species. Recent in Norway, Britain,

tuent.

Bay

of Biscay.

Fossil, Tertiary

and PostRobertson,

Its best marked character is that of subliming in flattened prisms and plates

tertiary,

BiBL.

England. Brady, Crossky

&

(PI. 10. fig. 14).

Post-Tertiari/

Enfom. 1874, 184, ILYOCRYP'TUS, G, O, Sars,A genus

Indigo is sometimes used as a colouringmatter for injections, and is also very useful for colouring

the internal cavities of

gi-anules
;

of Macrotrichidse (Eutomostraca). 1 species,

Infusoria
also
for

which swallow the

Germany, Sweden. BiBL, Norman and Brady, Mo7i. Brit. Entom., Nat. H. Tr. North, vol. i. 17.
Britain, Russia,

IMPERFORA'TA, division of the Foraminifera, characterized by the absence of pseudopodial pores or tubules in the ehell, which is either membranous (family Gromidse), porcellaneous (fam. Miliolidae), or arenaceous (fam. Lituolidse). (See FottASlINIFERA.) Inirod. For. 02. BiBL. Carpenter,

rendering visible ciliary motion The (see Introduction, p. xxxvi), &c. simplest mode of employing it is to rub it from a water-colour cake of indigo very gently with a little water. The Infusoria require to be left in the coloured mixture some time and it is well to remove them into clean water for examination. Indigo-carmine forms the basis of some
;

excellent staining solutions.

BiBL, See Chemistry.

INFLAMMATION. The phenomena of

INFLAMMATION".

412

INFLAMMATION.

inflammation are best studied in one of the lower animals, as in the web of the frog's foot, the mesentery of the frog, the tail of the tadpole, or of the larva of the water-

and to the sides of the vessels, and become so closely packed that their outlines can
Increased adscarcely be distinguished. hesiveness of the red corpuscles has long been regarded as characteristic of inflammatory blood, by virtue of which they exhibit a greater tendency to cohere in rolls than in health. The diminution in the rapidity of the circulation, and the accumulation of the blood-corpuscles in the vessels, is followed by the complete stagnation of the current, constituting the condition long known as
injlam matory
2.
stasis.

newt

{Triton), the process being excited by the application of a hot needle, a solution of common salt, ammonia, dilute spirit, or
volatile oil.

The
lows
1.
:

principal

phenomena

are

as fol-

Changes in the blood-vessels and circu-

lation.
2. Exttdation of liquor sanguinis and migration of white blood-corjmscles ; and 3. Alterations in the nutrition of the in-

earned
1.

tissue.
first

The

eilect

of irritation of the

mesentery (mere exposure to the air being sufficient for the purpose) is to cause dilatation of the arteries, and subsequently tliat
of the veins. The dilatation of the arteries at once, and is not preceded by It gradually increases for contraction. about twelve hours, and is associated at the

commences

of the process with an acceleration in the flow of blood this, however, is soon followed by a considerable These alterations in the rapiretardation. dity of the blood-flow, however, cannot be owing to the increase in the calibre of the

commencement

of the inflammatory process consists in the exudation of liquor sanguinis and the migration of the colourless blood-corpuscles. The migration of the colourless bloodcorpuscles (leucocytes) through the walls of the blood-vessels was first described by Addison in 1842. This observer stated that in inflammation, these corpuscles adhered to the walls of the vessels and passed through them into the surrounding tissues. In 184G Waller more fully described the Both these observers same phenomenon. concluded that the escaped corpuscles

Another constituent

vessels,

which remain throughout

dilated.

became pus-corpuscles. Cohnheim in 1867 brought the subject forward and to him we owe most of our present knowledge
;

The retardation of the circulation usually commences somewhat suddenly, and is first The rapidity of observable in the veins.
the current
vessels
;

respecting

it.

The migration may be observed

in the

varies,

however, in different

mesentery of a frog which has been previously paralyzed by the subcutaneous injection of cm-are. The colourless blood-corpuscles which accumulate in large numbers, especially in

some (both arteries and veins) it may be more rapid, in others very slow, and either oscillating to and fro, or even completely stagnant. These differences may
in

occur in contiguous vessels. The capillaries and small arteries often present at the same time numerous irregular bulgings and contractions.

the veins, remain almost stationary against the walls of the vessel, the blood-current

As the circulation becomes slower, the white blood-corpuscles (leucocytes) accuTheir natural tenmulate in the veins.
dency to adhere to the sides of the vessels
increased, so that they may nearly fill the tube. At the same time they exhibit active movements, by means of which they penetrate the walls of the vessels and pass into The absolute the surroimding tissues. number of white blood-corpuscles may also be increased o^^^ng to the irritation of the structures in the vicinity of the
is

them, although with much Those immediately diminished velocity. adjacent to the wall gradually sink into it, and pass through it, between the epithelial In doiug cells, into the surrounding tissue. so they may be observed in the various
passing by
stages of
their passage.

At

first

small

button-shaped elevations are seen springing These from the outer wall of the vessel. gradually increase until they assume the form of pear-shaped bodies, which still adhere by their small ends to the vascular
Ultimately the small pedicle of protoplasm bv which they are attached gives
wall.

lymphatic

inflamed tissue. The red corpuscles also accumulate in the They adhere to one another capillaries.

the passage is complete, the corvessel. puscle remaining free outside the The corpuscles having escaped from the vessels into the surrounding tissues, coutiuue

way and

IXFLAM:NLiTION.
to exhibit active movements.

413

INFLAMMATION.

They may

multiply by diAisiou, and thus rapidly increase in numbiT: this will be again referred
to

when spealving of pus. Not only is there a migration

of colour-

less blood-corpuscles

in iniiammatiou, but the red corpuscles also pass through the walls of the blood-vessels, though in less
;

considerable numbers and their transit is mainly through the walls of the capillaries. This passage of the red corpuscles takes
it

flammatory process consists of an alteration in the nutrition of the inflamed tissue. The nutritive changes, although they may differ according to the structure of the part, are all characterized by an increase in the nutritive activity of the cellular elements. The nature of these nutritive changes has for the most part been ascertained by the investigation of tissues in the lower anificially

mals, in which inflammation has been artiinduced. In man the study of the
is
difficult,

place in simple mechanical congestion and may be observed in the web of a frog in which congestion has been artificially induced by ligature of the femoral vein. Associated with the passage of the bloodcorpuscles through the walls of the vessels, is an exudation of the liquor sanguinis. The exuded liquor sanguinis, which constitutes the well-known inflammatory effusion, differs from the liquid which transudes as the result of simple mechanical congestion, inasmuch as it usually contains
;

primary tissues

owing

to the

fact that the process can rarely be observed in its earher stages. The alteration in

nutrition, as already stated, is characterized by an exaltation of the nutritive functions of the cellular elements of the tissues in-

a larger proportion of albumen and fibrine, a proportion which increases with the intenIt also contains sity of the inflammation. an excess of phosphates and carbonates. The most characteristic feature of inflammatory eftusion is the large number of cellstructures W'hich it contains. These are in no case generated spontaneously in the eflused Most of them are migrated bloodliquid. corpuscles and others are derived from the proliferating elements of the original tissue. The quantity and nature of the eflusion will thus vary with the particular tissue inflamed, and with the severity of the inflammatory process. In non-vascular tissues, as cai'tilage and the cornea, exudation can only occur to a small extent from the neighbouring vessels, and hence the effusion is small in quantity. In dense organs, as the liver and kidney, owing to the compactness of the structure, a large amount of eftusion
;

volved in the inflammatory process. This is evidenced by an increase in the activity of those elements which normally exhibit active movements, as the amoeboid cells of connective tissue and of the cornea. Cells which, under normal circumstances, undergo no alterations in form, and exhibit no active movements, become active, sending out processes and undergoing various alterations in shape. This increase in the activity,

and variation in the form of the cells is in most cases followed by enlargement and division of their nuclei and protoplasm, and thus by the formation of new cells.

The increased activity of the cellular elements varies considerably in different tissues, and even in the elements of the
same tissue. Some cells exhibit active movements, and form new cells, much more Those tissues, for readily than others. example, which naturally maintain themselves by the multiplication of their elements, as the epithelial tissues, become
active veiy readily in inflammation, slight of irritation being sufficient to cause in them rapid cell-proliferation. This is seen in inflammation of mucous membranes, and of the epidermis. In tisdegi-ees
sues, on the other hand, whose elements normally exhibit no tendency to multipli-

is

impossible

and what there

is, is

so in-

The effusion is most abundant, in the urine. and constitutes an important visible constituent of the inflammatory process, in inflammation of those organs which possess a lax structure and in which the vessels are but little supported, as the lungs, and in tissues which present a free surface, as mucous and serous membranes. 3. The remaining constituent of the in-

termingled with the structural elements of the organ, that it does not appear as an In the kidney, it independent material. escapes into the urinary tubes and so appears

cation, as

corhmon connective
;

tissue, carti-

lage, and bone, active changes are the cells are less readily induced

much much

more

facility.

and multiply with fai* less Lastly, in the higher tissues the stability of the elements reaches its maxistable,

in nerve-cells no increase of Different cells in activity can be induced. the same tissue exhibit also different degrees In common connective tissue of stability. and the cornea, for example, the amoeboid

mum, and

INFLAMMATION.
cells are

414

INFUSORIA.
; ;

the least stable, and are the first Pos.sibly the age of the cells may innuence tbeir tendency to become active, the newer being less stable than the older elements. In all cases, however, the rapidity and extent of the proliferation are in direct proportion to the intensity of the inflammation. The earliest nutritive change is thus one of cell-proliferation the subsesequent ones are characterized either by impairment of nutrition and the degeneration and death of the newly formed elements, or by the develojtraent of these into a permanent tissue. The more intense the inflammation the greater is the rapidity of the cell-proliferation, tlie more abortive are the young cells, and the less is their tendency to form a permanent tissue. In connective tissues these changes in the cells are necessarily accompanied by changes in The latter are the intercellular substance. for the most part characterized by softening. In common connective tissue the fibres in the first place become succulent and less
to multiply.
;

Gluge, Atlas Path. An. Lister, Ifif., Trans. 1859; Oohnheim, Virehncs ArcMv, xl. 1, and Entziindung, 1878 Strieker, Qu. M. J. x. 242: Cornil and Ilauvier, Hist. Path.; In flam., Holme's Sgst.
riiil.
;

An.

Cell. Path.; Genvhd.lS7S;i}veei\,Path. INFUXDIBULA'TA. An order of Po(See Polyzga.) lyzoa. INFUSO'RIA. class of Protozoa. Char. Microscopic animals not furnished

Surg.

I.

and Append.; Virchow,

Rin'dfleisch.Pff//;.

with either vessels or nerves, but exhibiting internal spherical cavities; motion effected by means of cilia, or variable processes formed of the substance of the bodj^, true absent. (Body composed of prole^s being teine compounds ; soluble in solution of
potash.)

Eveiy one who has examined with a microscope a drop of water containing animal or vegetable matter which has been set aside for a time, or a drop from any pool or ditch, must have observed numerous minute
beings in active motion, i-esembling some of those fio-ured in Pis. 30, .31, & 32 these are Infusoria, or the animalcules of infusions. Perhaps no question has been more discussed than that of the structure of the In;

and ultimately they are completely destroyed in cartilage the matrix softens in bone the lime-salts are and liquefies removed, the lamella) disappear, and the osseous structure becomes converted into Hence the destructive medullary tissue. effect of the inflammatory process. Those retrograde cells which undergo fatty degeneration, are known as exudation
distinct,
;
;

corpuscles (PI. 38.

fig. 7).

of emisfrant

The inflammatory exudation, consisting cells, which often undergo fis-

eiparous multiphcation, of the proper cells of the inflamed tissue, which undergo increase of size and numbers, and of the fibri-

nated hquor sanguinis,

may undergo
:

reso-

lvfi<m, organization, suppu7-ation,iiiid organi-

zation after snjypuration Resolution, by distribution of the emigrant cells over a wider area, and their return into the lymphatics, and by a process of fatty degeneration of the cellular elements.

Organization, by the timely development of blood-vessels, and the conversion of the exudation into fibrillar connective tissue. the 1'lie cells whicli are not devoted to formation of blood-vessels, grow spindleshaped, and are so closely packed that they It give rise to a new variety of tissue. forms cylindiioal or slightly flattened bundles

which

intcrliice.

See Pus. AVorks on ^Tedicine; Tjcbert, raihoL; \\'i^d\, I'atk. Jlist.; Imstev,
Suppuration.
J>rr.L.

Finis. I'atk.

Ehrenberg regarded them as being highly organized, and furnished with distinct organs like the higher animals whilst some more recent authors consider them as representing simply a nucleated cell. Unfortunately the facts are not accordant with either of these views, and the question must be considered as still sub judiec. The more or less flexible body of the Infusoria is usually covered with vibratile cilia, which appear to spring from a cuticle. They are sometimes collected in a circle around an opening or mouth, which leads to a gullet terminating in the soft sarcode of the centre of the body. This central portion of the granular and otherwise structureless sarcode is surrounded by a denser or cortical layer, which underlies also the cuticle. In the cortical layer are the vacuoles and the nucleus and nucleolus whilst in the inner mass are the spaces which are produced by the ingestion of food and water, and which have been termed stomachs, whence the fornier name, the Polggastriea. There is a rotatory movement of the soft sarcode surrounding these digestive spaces, which causes them to change their positions before The animalcule moves they disappear. some of its cilia voluntarily others appear to be in constant movement, and they are
fusoria.
; ;
;

INFUSORIA.

415

INFUSORIA.

the principal locomotive and ingestive orThe diversity of shape and structure pjins. and it is very great amongst the Infusoria is therefore necessary to consider the details of the different p;u'ts composing them sepa;

which it is continuous interIt is almost nally. homogeneous but an indelinite and irregular reticulation and
^
;

sarcode, with

fibrillation

may

be observed in

rately
sist

and

in order.

Tlie bodies of Infusoria conof sarcode, of which the outer layer possesses usually considerably more consistence than the internal portion. Cohn demonstrated the presence of this pi^Uicular layer in Paramecium by the addition of alcohol, and noticed that the softer tissues remained united to it by a process in one place only, whei'e the short gullet, which is also lined by a continuation of the external tissue, dips down and merges into them. This hard transparent pellicle or cuticle is
Intef/itmeiif.

and especially in the Vorticellae, close to the insertion of the peduncle, with whose contractile fibre it is continuous. Tho fibrils and the so-called muscles of the peduncle are composed of sarcode, which has no definite structure, and which is here and there faintly granular but they possess the power of contracting more or less. Besides these, there are the minute granule-looking cells immediately under the
;

many species,

(which haye already been noticed), the contractile vesicles or spaces with their ramifications, the nucleus and nucleolus,
pellicle

and sometimes chlorophyll-gi-auules.

When

elastic,

but

its

contractiUty

is

doubted

and

it often becomes visible when the Infusoria are kept in a small quantity of water upon a slide, the globules of sarcode which escape from rupture of the body carrying it before

them. It is frequently beautifully marked with minute depressions (PI. 32. fig. 1), regularly arranged, and from each of which a cilium arises. This cuticle must be regarded as a secretion from the outer or cortical layer of the sarcode and it is by no means
;

the brightly coloured pigmentspots, the so-called eyes, appear to be produced in this layer and the whole of the cilia are continuations of it. Wright has observed amoeboid movements in this layer. The portion of the body which is surrounded by and more or less continuous with the corpresent,
;

tical layer,
is softer

and which is subject to rotation, and often contains granules and

improbable that Leydig's assertion that it arises from a layer of extremely dehcate and small cells will turn out to be con-ect.
Infusoria ha^^e a carapace or lorica, some soft and in others very hai'd ; the relation of the hard carapace to the pellicular layer is not, however, very distinctly known. The carapace is often not adherent to the body of the Infusoria, but forms a kind of sheath for the protection of the soft tissues ; or it may form one or two valves which are more or less completely soldered together. These tests are thicker and less elastic than the cuticle and the peduncles which supand which poi*t many species of Infusoria, in some instances are hollow and contain a contractile sarcode by which they are secreted, belong to the same kind of structures. Beneath the pellicular layer, the

The mouth corpuscles resembling fat-cells. and gullet open into this central sarcode; and the anus, when it exists, leads from

Many

which

is

in

Numerous digestive vacuoles are observed in this watery sarcode, which often presents the appearance of being faintly divided by films and fibres of less difiluent
it.

protoplasm.
existence of the outermost coat or demonstrated by the phenomenon of ecdysis, which occurs in certain species. But this does not exist in all cases ; for in some Infusoria the body adlieres readily to the glass of the slide on which it is viewed under the microscope, and is torn into
pellicle is

The

fragments in the endeavour to free

xip itself.

The

cortical layer of

some

substance of the body frequently appears thicker, although no distinct layer can be
separated; and it is doubtful whether the markings are situated in the outer coat, or whether the latter derives them from being moulded upon the inner coat, to which

duces trichocj'sts or thread-cells. These are fusiform, colourless, and transparent bodies, 1-2500" in length, aiTanged on the outside of the body and perpendicularly to it. Irritation of the surface causes them to be transformed into long filaments and
;

species pro-

they are more or less like the thread-cells of the Polypes: but they are developed within the cortical layer, and not as cells on
its surface.

they may properly belong. This cortical layer (parenchyma of Claparede and Lachmann), as it is called, is firmer than the central and more difHuent

Minute amylaceous

blue with iodine, have been Strinnbidium.

crystalloids, coloured observed in

"^

Locomotive organs.

No distinct muscular

INFUSORIA.

416

TNFUSOEIA.

structure can be detected in the Infusoria, but a contractile power is possessed by the general substance of the body. In Vorticella (PI. 32. figs. 21 a & 20) and some others, the contractile substance is prolonged through the hoUow pedicle, thus forming a spurious

Nervous system. Xone has been discoIn the naked Infusoria, the sense of touch is difiUsed throughout the substance of the body. In others, it is particularly
vered.

muscular baud.

The other directly or indirectly locomotive organs are thus distinguished. 1, cilia: these are the most common, and form the fine, short, very transparent, hair-like filaIn ments projecting from the surface. some they entirely cover the surface, whilst in others they are arranged in one or more rows round the mouth or upon the ventral sm-face, &c., as described under the genera.

developed in the snout-like appendages of the body, and in the longer cilia, sette, &c. The Infusoria are probably all sensible to and many of them exhibit, near the light anterior part of the body, one or more coloured (mostly red) specks, which have been regarded as eyes; but they contain no distinguishable cornea, nor lens, nor are they connected with any appreciable substance comparable to nervous matter. The pigment-spot is composed of a collection of minute and highly refracting
;

During life they are seen actively vibrating and in some their motion appears constant
whilst in others
vals, apparently will. They are
it is

interrupted at inter-

under the influence of a most distinctly seen when

the Infusoria are dried (see Cilia). 2, flagelliform filaments (PI. 31. fig. 59), which are long anterior cilia, the ends alone being

Lieberkiihn's " watchglass-like organ." This is a very minute, transparent, colourless and hard part of the cortical layer, which has its convex side towards the pigment-spot and the concave towards the head ; but it is not dependent on the presence of the pigment, for some species

granules,

and in some species

it is

associ-

ated with

vibratory and movable in all directions there are usually one or two only. 3, retracting ciha or filaments (PI. 30. fig. 12, 18 a PI. 31. fig. 17) these are single, long, flexuous, and directed backwards they frequently become adherent to the slide, and produce a sudden, backward motion of the animal. 4, setge or bristles (PI. 31. fig. 53) these are rigid, filiform, straight, and movable, but not vibratile, and are sometimes can provided with a bulb at the base they be slowly raised or depressed, and serve for 5, styles support, walking, or climbing.
;
:

which have no pigment-spot, and Similar specks occur in the same situation in the spores of many Algfe moreover the eye-specks are most distinct in those genera which are doubtful Infusoria. Hence
possess
it

vice versa.

it may be denied that they represent eyes ; yet they bear considerable resemblance to the eyes of the Rotatoria and some Annelida so that their true nature must be considered doubtful.
;

(PI.

32.

fig.

17) are thick, straight, very

;

movable setaj, without bulbs, sometimes having setiform branches they neither rotate nor vibrate. 6, uncini or hooks (PI. 50. sometimes fig. 13) are short, thick, curved,
cleft setfe, serving for prehension, climbing,

On attentively examiDigestive system. ning Infusoria under a high power (1-4 to 1-8), a number of rounded spots are generally visible in the substance of the body they are sometimes filled with a whitish at others they contain granular matter Desmidiacese, Diatomacepe, or other AlgiB
;
;

or bodies existing in the surrounding water.

These have been called gastric vesicles,

spaces, vacuoles, or sacculi. visible from their contents,

cells,

or creeping, and are bidbous and usually very thick at the base. The long straight cirri of Halteria (PI. 50. fix. 12), by which the saltation of these
;

They

are only

and no

mem-

Infusoria is produced, probably come under the fifth series but the foot of such genera as Dysteria (ErviUa, Duj.) (PI. 30. fig. 52), which is used for locomotion, and also as a of the contractile peduncle, is the homologue sai'code in the hollow peduncle of VorticeUa. The flageUum of a marine Ceratium which

brane can be distinguished in them. If a little indigo or carmine be added to the water containing the Infusoria, these cavities will soon become filled and will be rendered very distinct in the Plates they are represented as fiUed with these pigments.
;

was observed by Claparede, suddenly disapIt repeared during a rapid contraction. tracted into a spherical cavity, which was
_

placed close to

its

point of insertion.

On attentively watching them, they wiU appear to move around the body of the animalcule, sometimes two of them appearing to become fused into each other, or the contents of one to pass into another. Finally, the pigment will be seen to escape at some

INFUSORIA.

417

INFUSOKIA.

part of the surface of the body, when the spots will vanish. Different views have been entertained in regard to the nature of these spots or cavities. By the older observers, they were regarded as interiial cavities into which

of the body. According to the later observations of Lachmann, the cavity of the body of the Infusoria represents a large digestive cavity, as in Hydra, the contents constituting chyme, and there is a distinct mouth and anus.

water was admitted with any particles accidentally suspended in it, fonniug a means of bringing a greater extent of surface of the substance of the animalcule into contact with the water, and thus aiding in
resjnration.

Ehrenberg regarded them as dilated caeca, or portions of an alimentary canal (PL 31. whilst Dujardiu considered them fig. 88 a) vacuoles arising in the same manner as those found in sarcode from whatever source derived; others have viewed them as cells floating loosely within the body. Most observers deny tliat they are portions of an alimentary' canal, and that such canal exists, but adopt the opinion that they are cavities irregularly formed in the substance of the body by the introduction of the foreign matters, which are urged through it by its contractions, or moved onwards by its circulation. They are certainly not cells otherwise they could not so readily admit particles of colouring-matter, &c., nor could their contents become fused together, as is sometimes seen to occur. Thej^ do not appear to be simply vacuoles filled in the ordinary manner by the surrounding liquid, because the pigment is accumulated in them in greater proportion than it exists in the In many Infusoria, the particles liquid. are admitted at a definite orifice, representing a mouth this is round or oval, sometimes situated at the anterior end of the body, sometimes more posteriorly or even at the commencement of the posterior third of the body and it is generally indicated by a circle, fringe, or some other definite arrangement of the cilia, which bring the particles towards it. Sometimes a distinct ossophagus lined with cilia leads to the internal subThe course which stance, or to the sacculi.
; ;

The question then must remain whether there is a distinct alimentary canal, the walls of which are invisible on account of their extreme delicacy, or whether the particles drawn in by the cilia are urged at random through the substance of the body. The fact that distinct walls cannot be detected, is of no great weight in opposition to the former view, because the radiate contractile vesicles of Parainecium exhibit no walls, and are quite invisible when conand the excretory vessels of Din tracted stoma, although having distinct walls, are seen to contract and then to vanish com;

pletel}'

(Van Benedeu).
easily ascertained

ment that some

by experiInfusoria will imbibe bisulphuret of mercury as readily as indigo or other matters, and thus would appear to be entirely deprived of any selecting power governed by a sense of taste; but some kinds would seem to have a sense of taste Coleps, for instance, greedily devom-s the
:

It

may be

substance
their ova,

of crushed Entumostraca and becoming greatly deformed in the

operation.

The vacuoles
frequently
dried.
ver}^

or digestive cavities are distinct when the ani-

malcules are dead, and especiall}^ when If the animalcules be fed with colouring-matter, on drying them, the vactioles thus rendered distinct wUl be found to contain the pigment, which is in favour of Dujardin's view. Surrounding the mouth in some Infu-

Prorodon, Chilodon, and CJdamidodun, is a horny cylinder of rod-like bodies called teeth (PI. 30. tigs. 27 a, h, 29 ; PL 31. figs. 40, 45, 72) they do not appear
soria, as Nassula,
:

any triturating power and their In some Intrue signification, is unknown.

to exert
;

the particles (apparently in gastric cavities) take is usually irregular, but sometimes tolerably definite, down one side of the body and up the opposite. The manner in which the undigested particles are evacuated is also an unsettled question for whilst
;

fusoria an oesophagus is also present, as in VorticeUa, Carchesium, Epistylis, Oxytricha,

&c., consisting of a mostly funnel-shaped tube, often lined with cilia.

scribed

coloured gastric juice has been deby Ehrenberg as existing in the

Ehrenberg and, more recently, Lachmann admit either the existence of a distinct excretory orifice, or evacuation by the mouth, other authors assert that these particles may be evacuated at any part of the surface

The colour, however, has been accounted for by Siebold as produced by refraction and the presence of aggregations of pigment-granules, mistaken for gasThis explanation we believe tric cavities.
gastric cavities.

2e

IKFUSOEIA.

418

INFUSORIA.

to be inadmissible; and in some instances, at least (PL 30. fig. 19), the reddish-violet colour is real, and arises from the presence of solution of the colouring-matter of Oscillutorice, which is often different by reflected and transmitted light. The particles of solid matter forming the food of the Infusoria, are usually drawn to the oral orifice by tlie action of the cilia. The manner in which Actinophnjs takes its food is described under that head but, from Lachmann's observations, the rays of Aci;

from the contractile vesicles, not penetrating the internal sarcode of the body. Another kind of circulation takes place in some of the larger Infusoria. This is a rotation of the mass of the internal substance of the body. It has been observed in Parnniecium, but only in those specimens having green coi-puscles imbedded in the outer coat. When almost any of the Infusoria are allowed to remain upon a slide until most of the water has evaporated, roimded and
arising

netu

ai'e

In

many

hollow suctorial organs. of the organisms included among

somewhat highly retractive globules become evident at their margins (PI.

fig.

will
32.

the Infusoria, the food-particles are ingested at any parts of the entire surface, or at certain parts only, no mouth being present.

On closely watching Circtilaf.ing si/stetn. almost any of the Infusoria, minute, mostly rounded, clear spots are seen in the substance of the body, disappearing and reappearing at pretty regular intervals. These
are the contractile vesicles they are of varable size, but about that of the gastric The nature of their contents, cavities. which is a colourless liquid, is doubtful. Dujardin regards it as consisting of water, and as existing in vacuoles similar to the vacuoles or gastric cavities ; whilst Siebold and others find here a kind of rudimentary circulation of a nutritive fluid, comparable In certain to the circulation of the blood.
;

these consist of the semifluid gelatinous sarcode forming the interior of the body, and they possess a remarkable tendency to the formation of vacuoles or cavities within them, which apparently become filled with tbe surrounding water. This fact is perhaps the strongest in favour of the formation of the gastric cavities and contractile vesicles within the body of the living animals in the same manner as sup;

2 a)

posed by Dujardin

which, however,

is

opposed, in the case of the contractile vesicles, by their tolerably constantly uniform
position, and especially their remarkable form (as in the stellate vesicles of Paramecium itc, PI. 31. tig. 56), and the manner in which the contents in tlie latter instance are propelled from one to the other, or from

Infusoria, as Pararnecimn (PI. 31. fig. 56), this phenomenon is observed to take place between a central rounded and several

the radiate to the rounded vesicles. Nucleus. In tlie substance of the bodies of most of the Infusoria may be perceived a

elongated and radiating cavities, and the are seen to be propelled from the former into the latter, and vice
liquid contents
versa.

solid

granidar-looking body, of variable form, mostlv rounded, elonsrate, or curved PL 31. figs.^37, 56; PL 32. (PI. 30. tig."5o
;

These contractile or pulsating vesicles or spaces, as they are called, never contain foreign particles they are tolerably constant in position in the same species of Infusoria and they do not rotate nor move
; ;

(PL 32. fig. 25), which those who regard the Infusoria as
fig.

26), sometimes branched

consisting of simple cells consider a true nucleus, whilst Ehrenberg regarded it as a

testis.

all of which facts like the gastric cavities are opposed to the notion of identity with The contracting vesicles of the latter.
;

some

species open externally through a canal and in others a long internal vessel is continuous with them. They are found in
;

some Algaj, as Volvox, Chlamidomonas, Gonivm, Si/ncrypta, as in Dinuhnjon and Eiic/lena, wbich would negative their relation
to

an animal circulation.

Kent, however,

considers the presence or absence of the contractile vesicle a ready means of distinguishing unicellular animal from vegeLieberkiihn and Lachtable organisms. mann describe distinct vascular branches

Nucleolus. This is usually a small body, in or upon the nucleus, and with a high refractive power. Propagation and reproduction. The Infusoria increase in numbers by the following methods: 1. Fission or self-divLsion. This occurs in (o) the perfect form of the animalcule, and (h) after it has become encysted. 2. Gemmation or budding. 3. Conjugation. 1. Fission or self-division. {a.) Spontaneous division is either longitudinal (PL 32. In both, the fig. 37) or transverse (fig. 3S).

nucleus undergoes division, as well ns the In the longitudinal division the probody. cess commences at one end of the body,

INFUSORIA.
from which the
or
di:>api3ear
;

419

INFUSORIA.

cilia usually are retracted

perceived, which afterwards becomes deeper, until the is completely cleft; the two halves body then acquire cilia, and assume the functions of perfect animals. In the transverse division, a median constriction appears tirst, followed by perfect separation, as in the last. During these processes of division, the animals sometimes continue their movements as usual ; at others this is more or less interfered with. In Vorticella (PI. 32. fig. 21 a), in which the process of longitudinal division may be conveniently watched on account of the comparative fixure of the animals by a pedicel, when the division is nearl}' completed a ring of ciUa is formed near the attached end of the body, by the movements of which the new Forticella is separated from the parent. The process is completed in about an hour. Claparede and Lachmann state that the first process in the spontaneous di\ision of Vorticella is the development of a fresh mouth-circle of cilia and a second contractile vesicle then a partial division occurs, which is followed by fission of the nucleus and final separation of the two animalcules. (b.) Fission as part of an encysting process. Many of the Infusoria are observed to alter their form at certain periods, become rounded, lose or retract their cilia (PI. 32. fig. 27), and to secrete aU over their surface gelatinous matter, forming a coat or cyst enclosing them. While thus encysted, the substance cf the body becomes divided, and gives origin to a number of germs, which are discharged by the bursting of the cyst
;

notch

is

first

plication by fission, the encysting of ova of the separate Trichoda, and the subsequent escape of a diffcn-ntly sliaped creature, which became gradually developed into a

form
2.

like Asjndisca.

Gemmation

is

not a general proces in

the Infusoria.

It is well seen in P'orticella

The buds arise from near (PI. 32. fig. 2G). the posterior end of the body, and, when fully developed, Hberate themselves by the formation of a posterior ring of cUia, aa above mentioned. 3. Conjugation, Balbiani supposed that male and female organs existed in many Infusoria, the former being represented by the nucleolus, which resolved itself into spermatozoa the latter by the nucleus, which after sexual conjugation became converted

into ova.

Later researches, however, show

that the conjugation is an ordinary fusion of the structures of two individuals without sexual relations. In the conjugating condition, the animalcules often closelyresenible those undergoing division. Thus Paramecium aureUa multiplies to a great extent by self-fission, but only to a definite extent, for sooner or later they conjugate. They assemble upon certain parts of the containing vessel, and soon become coupled in They are closely adherent to each pairs. other, with their similar extremities turned in the same direction and their mouths While thus conjugated, closely applied. they continue moving with agility in the
liquid, turning
;

round and round upon their

(PI. 32. fig. 34). They do not then resemble the parent, but are gradually developed, during ordinary growth, into its form. In some cases the progeny or brood become individually encysted within the parent it cyst appears, however, that they are not discharged in this condition, but escape first from their own cyst and then from the parent, in which they leave their own exuviae. Stein thinks that it was such broods that Ehrenberg mistook for the results of the increase by diffluence. In Trichoda lynceus the encysting process appears subservient to a kind of metamorphosis of the individual, the animalcule which emerges from the cyst having characters in many respects different fmrn the Trichoda, but no multiplication is effected either by subdivision or gemmation. The late Jules Haime described this multi;

axes but those which, like Stentor, are attached by a footstalk remain almost motionless. The conjugation lasts for five It is also stated that or six days. reproduction is etfected by the breaking up of the nucleus into fragments which subsequently become developed into the parental form. The metamorphosis of the Infusoria has been noticed above but there is another method by which the individual is preserved for a time, the encysting process
;

icithout fission.

Many

Infusoria at certain

times undergo an encysting process, which apparently serves as a provision under circumstances which do not permit the continuance of their ordinary vital activity. The movements of the Infusoria diminish in vivacity, and the cilia are either lost or retracted ; the surface of the body pours out a secretion which hardens around it and the animalcule lives on and rotates within its cyst until the time for its escape
arrives.

2e2

INFUSOEIA.

420
;

INFUSORIA.

Some Infusoria live in very briny water and some can exist at a temperature of 120 Falir.; but their numbers diminish -with the cold of winter, although a few can exist
frozen in ice. Hardy as they are as a class, it is therefore very remarkable to witness the succession and disappearance of ditierent genera during a comparatively short time in infusions and natural waters. When we consider that Diffusion, ^-c. the multiplication of the Infusoria by division takes places according to a geometrical progression, also that they need only become encysted to produce swarms of germs,

when

phosphate, nitrate, and oxalate of ammonia (really, the more recently so-called Pasteur's and this author was inclined to liquid) believe that some of these salts become decomposed in the presence of the organic matters, yielding nitrogen to the Infusoria he also states that oxalate of ammonia disappears entirely under these circumstances. The following are the most common Infusoria found in natural waters or infusions of vegetable or animal matters
;

AmpMleptus fasciola. Budo saltans.

socialis.

Monas

guttula.

tertno.

can ea-ily understand their rapid prowhen also they will pagation in liquids resist a degree of cold =8 F., and an elevated temperature of 2t)0 F., or even desiccation, without destruction, and when their minute size is added, we can readily understand their almost universal diffusion. As we have stated, a drop of water can scarcely be found which does not contain
;

we

Oxytricha iieUioneUa,

Chilvdon cucullulus. CJiilomonas parameciiim.

Paramecium
colpoda.

aurelia,

chrysalis.

Chlamidomonas pulvisculns.

milium.

Polytoma

tivella.

Coleps liirtus.

some

Infusoria.

Many

of

them

wall only

Colpoda cxcidlus. Cyclidium ylaucoma. Euplotes cliaron.

Stylonichiapusf.idata. mytihis. Trachdins lamella.

sweet water, whilst others are found only in decomposing and even putrid water containing clecomposing anilive in fresh or

Glaucoma

scintillans.

Tricltoda pura. TricJiodina grandinella.

Leitcophrys carnium.
I'yriformis.

others, in salt or brackish Those existing in fresh water may water. be collected in ordinary wide - mouthed

mal

and

Monas

vegetable

substances;

crepusculum.

Uvella ylaucoma. Vorticclla convallaria.

again, are only

met with

yliscens.

microstoma.
are phosphorescent, luminous property to sea:

Some of the Infusoria

and impart a

drop of which may be removed any individual one by the dipping-tube perceptible to the eye may be withdrawn by the same means. Their natural movebottles, a
;

ments are best watched

in

the live-box

but these movements greatly interfere with the observance of the contractile vesicles and general minute structure, which is best
are simply confined beand cover, in a small good plan for arrestquantity of water. ing their motions is that of warming the slide containing thorn over a caudle or lamp for a short time. Many Infusoria live only

seen

when they

tween the

slide

in particular kinds of infusions, just as certain plants live only upon particular kir.ds

of soil and these infusions should be prepared by adding cold fresh water to the vegetable or animal subtances (the water being in considerable excess), and allowing the mixture to remain for a time. Even in
;

water. This has been distinctly observed Proroccntrnm in the following species micans; Peridinium michaelis, P. micans, P. fusus, p. furca, and P. acuminatum, SynchcBta haltica, and a doubtful species of Stent or. Slender needle-like crystals of sulphate of lime have been observed affixed to the bodies of the Infusoria, probably derived from the water in which they live. The Infusoria are difficult of preservation. Some of them will exhibit their characters when dried, the cilia and vacimles remaining very distinct, as also the striae upon the integument. Others are but little changed by a concentrated solution of chloSoluride of calcium, or dilute glycerine. tion of chromic acid or of bichloride of mer-

many powerful poisons, as of vomica, Cevadilla, &c., they will not be found absent; and Dujardin noticed thattheirdevelopment was greatly promoted by the addition of certain salts to the solutious, as phosphate and carbonate of soda,
infu.-ions of

Nux

cury will answer with some of them, although they are rendered somewhat opaque by these reagents, which is sometimes an advantage where they are naturally very Osmic acid has been found transparent. very useful in killing them so instantaneously, that the cilia remain as in the living state. A saturated solution of
iodine in iodide of potassium acts like o^rmic

INFUSORIA.
acid.

421

INFUSORIA,
;

The

juice of the

common

horse-shoe

geranium is a very old agent for elFecting the same purpose (Kent). The various colouring- matters eosine, haematoxyhue,

dant with observation but unfortunately this author so altered the names proposed

serve to distinaniUne, picrocarmine, kc. guish the nuclei &c. The chemical properties of the sarcode or protoplasm of the lower animals and plants, are very important to be noted. For

by Ehrenberg, raking up old and long-forgotten names, which are moreover often doubtfully identical with those for which they are substituted, and sometimes using similar names for totally different genera and species that great confusion was produced, and the two systems are not recon-

although proteine matter exists in both, yet in the vegetable forms this is in very small proportion, and tlie motile power is correspondingly feeble. Solution of potash or ammonia dissolves the proteine matter, and as the animal organisms are almost entirely compos.'d of this, their bodies vanish; while in the case of vegetable organisms, the preponderating cellulose matters remain, the

cilable.

organism apparently undergoing no change. Probably if this test were applied to the Flagellate forms, few would be left among the Infusoria and it should be used in all
;

cases.

The systematic arrangement

soria
is

of the Infu-

an unsettled state. The characgenera and species laid down by Ehrenberg were mostly founded upon analoThose gies rather than upon observation. proposed by Dujardin were far more accorin ters of the

system of Claparede and Lacha great improvement upon the former ones and this has been strengthened and improved by those of Stein and Kent. The standard work of the latter is replete with laborious research and contains descriptions and figures of all the species. In descriptions of genera and species the anterior part of the body is that near which the eye-specks are situated, and which is directed forwards ; the surface towards which the eye-specks are nearest forms the back or dorsal surface. narrowing of the body posteriorly, so as to give rise to a prolongaand an anterior prolontion, forms a tail gation of the dorsal surface is described as a forehead or upper lip, according to its
later

The

mann was

situation.

According to the system of Claparede and Lachmann, the Infusoria are arranged as follows
NT^ florroiiMvn
rx

nonageiium
One or more
a
11

fiagella

/ Cilia or brlstlcs 111 the adult no suckers 1 Ho cilia in the adult suckers present < Cilia also i present j^^ ^j^^ ^
; ;
'.

Order I. CiLIATA. Order II SucroRiA. Order III. Cilio-plaGELLATA, Order IV. Flagellata.

Order
'Mouth and anus
in a

I.

Ciliata.
1.

common
(
i

fossa.
cilia

Mouth and

oeso-

phagus open

in

repose, the latter ciliated, neither dilatable

Mouth and anus not in a common fossa. J

Buccal spiral trope
laeo-"]

Buccal
2v '

Buccal spiral deiiotrope than the f ^? ''^'','' locomotive organs buccal oilia L Crawling locomotion /Body bell-shaped, several rows of
1
I

Fam. VorticelUna.

2.

3. 4.
5.

Fam. Fam.

TJrocentrina.

Oxytrichina.

buccal cilia

Fam. Tintinnodea.
Fam. Sursarina. Fam. Colpodea. Fam. Di/sterma, Fam. Trachelina, Fam. Colepina. Fam. Halterina.

Cilia all over

<

Mouth and
phagus very
table
;

oesoC dilaBody entirely or

I '
I

rAfoot
mostly ciliated
{
[

Buccal spiral f Buccal cilia strongest forming one-! turn only ... (.No buccal spiral

6.
7.

]Vo f^^t

oesopha.

gus not ciliated

^Body glabrous, one row of cilia around the

(A mouth

"

j ^'o

carapace carapace

8.
;

9.

10.

Order

II. Suctoria, or

Acinetina.
/A peduncle
1.
<

Not forming
fSuckers simple
...

a
i

No

sheath...

branched colony. orancnea coiony.

\
ij-sneatn

^o
Tvr

peduncle { ^-^^^

fFree

2.
_

3
4.

#ucker8 not on a

jApeduncle
-[jfo

Genna Podophrya. Genua Sphcerophrua. ^^^^^ Trichopkria. Genus ^a./a.

peduncle

b.
6.
7.

Gunm

Solenophrya.

proboscis or tube."
!,Sucker8 branched Suckers on a long retractile tube

Forming branched colonies

8.

Genus Dendrosoma. Genus Dendrocotnefet. Genus Ophryodendron.

INFUSORIA.
Order

422

INJECTION.
Peridinina.
1.

III. Cilio-flagellata.
f

two portions of the carapace equal in length

The {The two

Carapace with prolongations I Carapace without appendages r Borders of the notcli turned up and
< t

2.

Genns Ceratium. Genua Peridinium.

portions unequal

lamelliform

3. i.
5.

JSo grooTe.

Cilia

-.,.

on the anterior margin

Borders not turned up

Genns Dhiophysis. Genus Amphidinium. Genus Prorocentrum.

Kent arranges the

Infusoria thus

fla-

man, M. M.

J.

xiv.

171

Hackel,
;

Jen.

* Flagellata. t Ingestion by all the surface. A rudimentary Order 1. Trypanosomata. gellum, and an undulating membrane.

Zeitschr. 1873, vii.

516

{rnorjjhol.)

ibid.

561

{mw

Order Order

2.

Rhizoflagellata.

flagellum and lo-

bate pseudopodia.

3. Padiuflagellafa. flagellum and radiate pseudopodia. Order 4. Flaqellata Pamtomata. Flagella the

only motile organs,

ft Ingestive area anterior. Order .5. Choano-Jlagellata.
collar,

flagelliim

and a

Butschli, Arch. mikr. An. 1873, and Zeitschr. tciss. 2,qoI. 1878, xxx. 205; Simroth, Sch. Arch. 1876, xii. 51 {locom. appar.) Gruber, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 1879, xxxiii. 439 {Jn. Mic. S. 1880, 282); Cartes, C'o77ip. rend. 1880, xc. 77 {glycoqenesis in) Dallinger, Jn. Micr. Soc. 1880, iii. ].

marine)

ttt

INFUSORIAL EARTH. The

INJECTION. The
art

fossil

di.stinct
6.

mouth.
Eusiomata.

Order Order
** CiLIATA.

Flageltata

flagellum

deposits of Diatomacese were formerly so

called.

only.
7.

Cilio-Jlagellaia.

A flagellum

and

cilia.

of

filling

the

Order
Order

1.

Holotricka.

Cilia all over the body,

uniform.
2. Heterotricha. Cilia general, but the oral larger. Order 3. Feri/richa. Cilia forming a spiral or circular wreath. Order 4. Sypotrocha. Cilia Tentral.

and other minute tubular organs of animals with coloured substances, by which their relative size, arrangement, and relation to the surrounding parts may be made mavessels
nifest.

**

Tentaculifera
Order Order
1.

(Acinetina.) Suctoria.

2.

Actinaria.

The substances used for injections consist of powders, mostly insoluble, mixed with some liquid which holds them in suspension or solution and while in this state they are driven into the vessels by a syringe
;

of

Kent defines 79 families, and 359 genera which our space will only allow a sketch
; ;

under the respective heads. BiBL. Mliller, Animalc. infusoria, 1786 PiKhr. Infusionsth. Dujardin, Infus. neau, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. iii., v., ix. Stein, Focke, Isis, 1836, and Physiolog. Infus. Studien Meyen, MilUer^s Archiv, 1839 Pritchard, Infusoria R. Jones, Ann. N. H. Erdl, MiiUer's Archiv, 1841 1839, iii. Griffith, An7i. N. H. 184-3, xii. Siebold, Cohn, Sieh. n. Koll. Zeitschr. Vergl. Anaf. iii. 260; Kolliker, Sith. u. Koll. Zeitschr. i. 198 Claparede and Lachmann, Etudes, Geneve, 18G8 Engelmanu, Infus. 1862
;

some similar contrivance. shall first give a sketch of the apparatus requisite, and the method of making the liquids for injecting the tissues of the Vertebrata, before treating of the process itself. Two or three syringes are requiSyringe. site, of various sizes, adapted to the volume of injection to be thrown into the vessels, or the size of the animal or part to be injected. In general, one holding 6 drms. or 1 oz.,
or

We

and another holding about 2 oz. will be found the most useful. Each syringe must be provided with two rings at the upper
part next the handle, so that it may be The syringes when firmly and easily held. in use should be surrounded by a roll or two of flannel fastened with string, to preand the flannel vent their rapid cooling
;

Jules

Haime, Ann.

Set.

Nat.

s.

3.

t.

xix.

Clark, Boston Mnn. N. H. 1866; Balbiani, Se.vual Org. of Infus., Q. M. J. 1862, 176, 285 Ann. N. 11. 1858, i. 4,35 Perty, Die kleinsten Lebensformen {neio

109;

should be kept as dry as possible during the

process.

genera and species), 1852 Cienkowski, Qu. Mic. Jn. V. 96 Lieberkiihn, Ann. N. II.
; ;

1856, xviii. 319; Carter, ibid, xviii. 115; Gosse, Jn. Mic. S. 1857 Ray Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. Diesinjr, Prothelm. 1865; Engehnann, Gegenbaur''s Morph. Jahrb. 1876 Fromental, Microzoaires, 1876 All;

Sometimes a much smaller syringe, called an oyster-syringe, is useful for injecting very small and soft animals.

The plug of the piston is adapted to the tube of the syringe by two pieces of washleather, the method of replacing which must be learnt at the time the s^Tinge is bought,

INJECTION.
for it is difficult of description.

423

INJECTION.
fresh.

Tlie plug

be clear and
obtain this

Those who cannot

must work air-tight in the tube, which may be proved by depressing the handle as far as
the sypossible, then closing the nozzle of ringe with one finger, withdrawing the handle to its fullest extent, and letting it home. If go, when it should fly entirely
this does not take place, the plug

must be

re-leathered.

of the syringe should be transverse lines should be scratched upon it with the end of a file, or in some other way, so that when its descending movement is so slow as not to be felt by the hand, it may be indicated to the

The handle
;

graduated

i.

e.

eye.
syi'inges, and in fact all the mechaniapparatus requisite for injection, may be purchased of Mr. Neeves, Regent Square, or of Mr. Ferguson, Smithfield. The syringe must accurately fit the stopcocks and pipes. These must be of various Injectitig-pipes. sizes, to suit those of the vessels into which they are to be introduced; they are furnished

The

cal

prepare its equivalent by dissolving 1 part of glue in 8 or 10 parts of water with the aid of heat. The principal liquid injections used may be arranged according to their colours. In regard to the proportions of the colouringmatter to that of the size, it must be remarked that these vary as used by different injectors; and that, in general, when the vessels to be injected are very minute, and the objects are to be viewed by transmitted light, the size should be thinner, and the proportion of pigment less, than under the When the injection opposite conditions. is directed to be strained, this must be done through a piece of new flannel wrung out of hot water, or through a "tammy sieve," which is more convenient. In preparing the injections, great care must be taken that the jars are perfectly clean, and that no old injection remains adherent to them.

may

with two short transverse arms, by which

they

may be tied to

pipes which are up unless thoroughly cleansed after use to remove any obstruction.a very fine " broach"needle made of watch-spring is required, and may be procured of Mr. Ferguson as above. One or two of these are useStopcocks. ful in stopping the injection from returning, when the sjiinge is removed, or force ceases
;

The smallest made, easily become stopped

the vessel.

The colouring-matters, whether dry or dissolved, should be added to the size previously warmed in the water- bath, or the tin and the whole vessel mentioned above should be stirred until thoroughly incorpoWhen trituration is spoken of, it rated. must be understood that the rubbing in a mortar should be continued for a long time,
;

until the substance is reduced to the finest possible state of powder.

two pairs of small tenaculum forceps must be at hand these are noticed in the Ixteoduction, p. xxv.
;

to be applied to it. One or Forceps.

Harting recommends pi'eparing a stronger than that mentioned above, containing 1 part of glue to 4 of water, and that the chemical substances be dissolved in the additional water requisite before being added to the size, which would seem to be preferable but we have found the method recommended to answer every purpose, and
size
;

Jars or other vessels for holding the in-

These may consist of confectioners' jam-pots, or may be made of tin. The former have the advantage of retaining the
jection.

has the advantage of greater simplicity. Med Injection. This is best made with vermilion (bisulphuret of mercury), which before use should be carefully examined as
it

heat for a considerable time. When in use, the jars must be placed in a water-bath, or in a tin vessel containing water, and placed over a stove. These must be made of Stirring-rods.

from minute colourless crysby viewing it by reflected light, when they are easily detected. When the vessels to be injected are very minute,
to its purity
talline particles,

the vermilion
i.

is

wood.

Size. The colouring-matters used for the coarser injections are mostly insoluble powders. These are usually mixed with

e.

ti'itm'ated

in

best previously levigated, a mortar with a small

some form of solution of gelatine, which holds them in suspension better than
size or

water.

The
size,

size

mostly used

is

Yoimg's patent
It should

quantity of water, the whole beino' afterwards thrown into a large amount ot water, and allowed to settle for a few seconds, so that the coarser particles still left may subside the upper portions of the liquid, containing the tiner parts of the powder, are then poured off and allowed to settle, the
;

and

it is

sold in the shops.

supernatant water being again poured

off,

INJECTION.

'

424

INJECTION.

and either allowed to dry slowly, or mixed while moist with the size.

The ordinary proportions

tion are
:

for this injec-

Vermilion 1^ oz., Size 1 Ih., or Vermilion 164 grs., Size 4 oz.

Stir the colouring-matter well

with the

potash in the smallest possible quantity of water, and mix it with the size. 143 grains of carbonate of soda may be substituted for the above amount of carbonate of potash. white injection (very inferior) may also be made with carbonate of lime, by taking

of

warmed

size,

then

strai)i.

Fused chloride of calcium

Carbonate of potash
Size

Other red colouring-matters have been used, but they cannot be recommended. Among them may be mentioned tbe basic chromate of lead, prepared by boiling the neutral chromate with caustic or carbonate of potash the biniodide of mercury, formed by decomposing bichloride of mercury with iodide of potassium in atomic proportions and the oxysulphuret of antimony. Yellow Injection. This is prepared with the chromate of lead (chrome-yeUow), as
:

Ill grs. 167 grs.

oz.

286

follows

carbonate of soda may be substituted for the carbonate of potash. Blue Injection. In whatever manner prepared, this cannot be in general recommended for blue pigments reflect so little light, that the injections made with them appear almost black. The only one worthy of mention is prussian blue suspended in oxalic acid, which may be prepared with
grs. of

Take of
Acetate of lead

Bichromate of potash
Size

880 grs. 152 grs.

8oz.

Prussian blue Oxalic acid Size

73 73 4

grs. grs.
oz.,

Dissolve the lead-salt in the warm size, then add the finely powdered bichromate of
potash.

the oxalic acid being first finely triturated in a mortar, the prussian blue and a little water afterwards added, and the whole then thoroughly mixed with the previously

warmed

size.

prepared, some of the chromic acid remains free, and is wasted, which may be obviated by preparing the chromate of

As thus

lead with the chromate of potash in the proportions of

Acetate of lead

Chromate of potash
Size

(neutral)

190 grs. 100 grs. 4 oz. 196 76 41 4

General method.V<\xe-a. the part for injection has been selected, the first proceeding is to fix the pipe in some vessel; and the larger this is, the more easily will the be inserted and fixed. When the vessel pipe has been isolated, if it has been cut across, the pipe should be introduced at its end,
far as possible, and a piece of not too thin silk thread passed beneath and tied around it, enclosing of covirse the nozzle of the pipe the ends of the silk should then be wound romid the arms of the pipe and again tied, so that the pipe may remain If the vessel be firmly fixed in the vessel. not divided, a longitudinal slit should be made in it for tlie introduction of the pipe, the thread being passed round it by a curved needle, the eye of which carries the thread. As soon as the pipe has been fixed in the vessel, all other vessels commimicating with it should be tied round with silk thread or closed in some other way, that the injection may not escape sometimes it is requisite to enclose a part of the tissue itself in the ligature in other instances their closure may be effected by fusion of the tissue at the spot from which the injection might, escape, by the application of a red-hot iron.

pushed up as

or

Acetate of lead Bichromate of potash Carbonate of potash

Size

grs.
grs.

grs. oz.

Thiersch iised chromate of potash and

nitrate of lead.

The chromate of lead prepared from the bichromate of potash alone has the deepest colour, and is that generally used. White Injection. The best white injection is made with carbonate of lead, thus

take of

Acetate of lead

Carbonate of potash
Size

190 83
4

grs.

grs. oz.

size

Dissolve the acetate of lead in the warm and filter dissolve the carbonate of
;

INJECTION.
The organ
or part to be injected
;

[
is

425

INJECTION.

then

immersed in warm water, iu order that it may become heated throughout and if it be large aud of considerable thickness, this may take some time and fresh warm water must be added at intervals to keep it at the same temperature, which should be about If as great as can be borne by the hand. the water be too hot, the vessels and tissues will be rendered brittle, and the whole will be spoiled. Moreover the part shoidd not be kept longer in the water than is absolutely While the requisite, fur the same reason. tissue is becoming heated in the water, the
;

the jar, fi*esh warm water added to the preparation, and the whole process recom-

menced
If,

as at

first.

during the process, there should be an

;

escape of the injection from any part, this

need not cause alarm if slight should it, however, be considerable, it must be stopped by one of the means pointed out above of the vessel and sm*perhaps by the orifice

ronnding parts being grasped by the tenaculum-forceps, and the whole included in a If the preparation be small, notligature.
liquid, a very

if

injection should be prepared, or be heated previously prepared, and kept constantly stirred ; the stopcocks should also be immersed iu hot water. As soon as all is ready, the stopcock turned open, is fixed to the syringe, aud some hot water is drawn into and expelled from the syringe two or three times, so that
it

withstanding a considerable escape of the good injection may often be made. As soon as the injection is completed, a ligature should be placed around the vessel
into

which the pipe

;

is

inserted,

beyond

its

nozzle

the pipe is next removed, and the preparation should be immersed iu clean cold water, and kept in it for an hour or

properly heated. It is next filled with the injection, taking special care that no air be allowed to enter, to avoid which it must be filled, emptied, and refilled several times, the nozzle being kept beneath the surface of the injection. The syringe is then taken iu the hand, a little of the injection being forced out at the nozzle of the stopcock, which is next loosely inserted and some of the injection into the pipe being urged into it by depressing the handle, the pipe is filled, and the nozzle introduced into it. Very gentle pressure is then made upon the piston, so that the injection may be driven into the vessels and this must be continued until the piston ceases to be felt to move, or is seen not to enter the syringe further, by watching the graduations on its When this is found to be the case, handle. firmer pressure must be made and the effect But practice can alone guide as to noticed. the time at which the pressure should cease, or when as much injection has been forced Some into the preparation as is required. judgment may be made from the colour assumed by the preparation or, the stopcock being turned oft, and the syringe separated from it, the preparation may be examined with a low power, while laid upon a

may become

two at least. It may then be withdrawn and sections made of it with a knife, razor, or some other instrument.
Large pieces of injected preparations are best preserved in a stoppered bottle containing dilute spirit of wine (1 spirit to 2 See also Preserwater, or equal parts).
vation.

When two

or

more

sets of vessels are to

be injected, the process should be continued uninterruptedly until completed; i. e. as soon as the injection of one set has been completed, auother pipe should be at once inserted into one of the other set, and so on.

Or what is better, if possible, the pipes for the two or three sets should be introduced and fixed at once, before the process is commenced.

As regards the period after death at which the injection should be commenced, this varies with the kind of organ or tissue if it be delicate, the sooner the better whilst if the vessels be comparatively large, by some little delay the tissue becomes somewhat
: ;

and more yielding. a tissue has been successfully injected, the vessels appear plump aud well filled by reflected light. But if they are not
softer

When

large glass plate.

During the continuance of the process, the preparation, the injection, and the pipes must be kept at the original temperature and should any part be found to become cool, the stopcock must be turned off, the syringe separated, the injection retui-ned to
;

the preparation has its value; for it will perhaps well display the relative positions of the capillaries to -the surrounding tissues when viewed by transmitted light often even better than when the injection has been what is termed successful. In fact,
so,

when

the vessels are well

filled, little

more

can be seen iu general than the relative situation of the vessels to each other.

INJECTION.
The

426

INJECTION.

choice of the kind of injection is not a matter of much importance, except as regards the facility with which the vessels The arteries are in general filled are filled. with red injection, the veins with yellow, and the ducts (as the urinary tubules) with white. The chromate of lead is perhaps the finest injection and runs best, except that made with prussian blue and oxalic acid, which does not reflect enough light where the vessels are to be viewed by reflected light, although when these are very

Toldt has injected the lymphatics on this and he introduces a granular pigment (aniline) precipitated by water from its

system

alcoholic solution into the blood. The perfect injection of an organ or an entire animal of considerable size is a tedious and fatiguing process. have therefore contrived a very simple piece of

We

minute and can be conveniently viewed by transmitted light it may be preferred. It may be remarked that, if it be required to use a yellow (the chromate) injection and a white (the carbonate of lead) for two sets of vessels in one preparation, the chromic acid in the former must previously be completely neutralized otherwise it will render the white (carbonate of lead) yellow. This may, however, be avoided by substituting the carbonate of lime for that of lead. As microscopic objects, nothing can exceed the beauty of injected preparations; and to be seen in theii' greatest perfection they should be dried, moistened with oil of turpentine, and mounted in Canada balsam. At the same time it must not be forgotten
;

apparatus, which any one can prepare for himself, and which 'effects the object by mechanical means. It consists of a rectangular piece of board, 2' long and 10" wide, to one end of which is fastened an inclined Fig. 360.

dried and preserved in this manarrangement of the vessels is more or less distorted, those lying in different planes being brought into the same,
that,

when

by two props, as inclined portion is pierced with three holes, one placed above the other, into either of which the syringe
piece of
suppoii;ed

wood

shown

in fig. 360.

The

ner, the real

may

be placed
;

the

uppermost being used

and

so on.
3.3,

In Plate 39. figs.

34, and 35, we have

given representations of three

viewed by reflected light, tig. 33 being taken from the liver of a cat, in which injection made with vermilion was thrown into the portal vein, and that with chromate of lead into the hepatic vein tig. 34 is a portion of the lung of a toad injected with vermilion and tig. 35 is a portion of the kidney of a pig, the arteries and Malpighian tufts (Kidney) being tilled with the red (vermilion) injection, and the urinary tubules with the white (carbonate of lead).
;
;

injections

Self-injection occupies an important posiThe vastion amongst the various modes. cular system of the frog may be injected by inserting a pointed glass tube tilled with the coloured injecting fluid into the vena The fluid passes into the heart, and cava. is distributed through the system by the The biliary vessels force of the heart itself.

The lower part of the syringe is supported upon a semiannular piece of wood, fastened to the upper end of an upright rod, which slides in a hollow cylinder fixed at its base to a small rectangular piece of wood and by means of a horizontal wooden screw, the rod may be made to support the syringe at any height The handle of the syringe is let required. into a groove in a stout wooden rod connected by means of two catgut strings with a smaller rod, to the middle of which is fastened a string plajdng over a pulley, and at the end of which is a hook for supporting Aveights, the catgut strings passing tlirough longitudinal slits in the inclined piece of
through them.
;

for the larger, the lowermost for the smaller syringe and these holes are of such size as freely to admit the syringe covered with flannel, but not- to allow the rings to pass

wood.
In use, the part to be injected is placed a dish of some kind containing warm water, supported at a suitable height beneath the end of the syringe by blocks of wood. The syringe is then tilled with injection,
in
i

of living animals have been injected by means of colouring-matter introduced into the jugular veins.

passed through the proper aperture in the

INJECTION.
inclined board,

427

INJECTION.
is

and

fitted to the pipe,

the

light.

and stopcock being turned off. The rod are next adjusted, and, a suitable strings weight being added, the stopcock is very slowly turned on, and the effect watched. If the handle of the syringe does not move, more weight must be added, the stopcock always being turned oft' when this is about to be done.
great advantage of this apparatus is, that it sets at liberty the hands, so that an escape of injection may be arrested, or fresh

Fine gelatine is usually employed, dissolved in water over a water-bath, the colouring-matter already in solution being then added, and the mass introduced into a Woulfe's bottle, which must be immersed in a warm water-bath. The injection takes long to do; and the warmth must

and

be kept up.

The colouring matters

usually

employed are prussian blue and carmine

the latter not in a state of complete solution, but partly precipitated by the addition of a little weak acid from its alkaline soluThiersch, whose transparent injections are wonderful, uses a transparent yeltion.

warm

water added, without interruption of the process. Other automatic methods have been prowhich is posed, as that of Kutherford,
this
:

large jar of water is attached to a to any pulley, so that it can be elevated long elastic tube with a stopcock height. is connected with the interior of the iar, near its bottom, so that the water may flow out when required. The other end of this

low, and gi'een, the former from chromate of potash and nitrate of lead, and the latter from a mixture of this with blue. Beale, in order to avoid the injecting of warm fluids, uses colouring-matter, water, glyceafterrine, and traces of hydrochloric acid wards the injected mass is placed in absolute
;

alcohol.

tube transmits the water into a large Woulfe's bottle having three apertures. The water flows in by one aperture, through a glass tube which passes to the bottom The air is thereby forced of the bottle. through the other two apertures, one communicating with a mercm-ial manometer for indicating the pressure, the other transmitto a ting the air through an elastic tube second Woulfe's bottle containing the injecThis bottle has two apertures. The tion. air is forced upon the surface of the liquid, and a glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the bottle, transmits the injection to an elastic tube joined to a glass or metal nozzle placed in the vessel. Any number of Woulfe's bottles may be added, so that different injections can be thrown in at the same time. The pressure can be regulated with the greatest nicety. When it is not required to fill the capillasmaller arteries or veins, ries, but only the the colouring-matters need not be prepared by double decomposition, and the following substances may be used
:

Carter's 60 grainsinjection carmine in 120 of pure dissolve

is
:

carmine

made thus

grains of Liq. Ammon. fort., and filter if necessary; mix with this 1^ oz. of hot solution of gelatine (1 to 6 of water) ; mix another h, oz. of the gelatine solution with 86 minims of glacial acetic acid, and drop this little by little into the solution of carmine, stirring briskly the whole time. Dry, or harden in solution of chromic acid ; cut with a sharp razor, and mount in Canada

balsam. Beale's fine blue injection

is

made with
1 oz. 1 oz.
1 dr.

Glycerine
Spirit of

Wine
.

Eerrocyanide of potassium .... 12 gr.

Tinct. or sol. of perchlor. iron
.

Water

oz.

Red. Size 1 Yellow. Size

lb.,

vermilion 2 oz.

yellow 2^ oz. (orpiment) or chrome-yellow Size 1 lb., flake-white 3^ oz. Size 1 lb., fine blue smalt 6 oz. jilue.

1 lb., King's

TTMc

Black.

Size 1

lb.,

lamp-black 1

oz.

transparent soluInjections tions are now largely used, the objects being

made with

Dissolve the ferrocyanide in 1 oz. of the water and the glycerine, and the iron in another oz. Mix gradually, adding the iron Then add the spirit to the ferrocyanide. and the rest of the water. For very fine injections, the mixture may be diluted with 3 oz. of glycerine, and half the quantity of ferrocyanide and iron used. The ferridcyanide of potassium is often used, forming Turnbull's blue, which is is brighter and less liable to fade. This made with ferridcyanide of potassium 10 grs., sulphate of iron 5 grs., glycerine 2 oz., water 1 oz., and alcohol 1 drachm. Numerous other fine injections are described

viewed with high powers, by transmitted

by Beale and Frey,

INJECTION.
The

428

INOMERIA.

tissues of the Invertebrata are so that the ordiuary syringes and pipes can rarely be used for injectiug them, and recourse must be had to a finer and lighter form of apparatus. This may consist of a In using it, fine trochar, with a needle. the small vessel through which the injection is to be thrown, is held with forceps against the end of the trochar, and punctured with the needle. The trochar is next directed into the puncture, and the needle withdrawn. The small nozzle of a syringe is then introduced into the ujjper end of the trochar, form proand the injection thrown in. posed by Harting consists of a common glass pipette of moderate width, and of a caoutchouc tube the smaller end of which is fastened by means of thread to the broader end of a tine, curved, glass nozzle. In using this apparatus, the pipette is first filled with the injection, and its lower portion introduced into the broader end of the caoutchouc tube, which, from its conical form, it
soft,

have not space to give a list of injected preparations; they are all very beautiful, but we can only notice a few of the most interesting. For practice in the art of injecting, we may recommend the kidney of a sheep or pig, one system of vessels being alone filled with red or yellow

We

accurately closes. Different liquids for injection are also usually requisite and many have been i-ecommended. Among these may be mentioned: I, indigo, triturated with oil and diluted with oil of turpentine 2, oil-paints diluted with oil of turpentine 3, infusion of logwood {HcBmatoAijloii) 4, solution of
;

carmine in

size or in

ammonia

and

5, solu-

and this should be the arterial. Afterwards, in another kidney, the urinary tvibules may be injected first, with white injection, and sub^-;equently the arteries with red or yellow. portion of the small intestiue, exhibiting the general capillaries, with the plexuses of the villi, forms a beautiful object as prepared from the rabbit, the rat, &c. Among other preparations the liver of various may be mentioned the animals, as the cat, the rabbit, &c. lungs of the cat, rabbit, &c., in which the those also of capillaries are very minute reptiles, as the frog, triton, boa, and other snakes, in which they are coarser, but very beautifully arranged the lungs of birds ; the kidneys of the frog and triton the web of the frog's foot the cOiary processes and choroid coat of the eye the gills of the eel and other fishes the lungs of kittens, kc. which have not breathed, the air-cells being injected from the trachea the skin of the frog, and especially of the triton, cfcc. BiBL. Tulk and Henfrey, A7i. Mnnip. ; Quekett, on Inject; Robin, Microscope
injection
;

tion of alkanet in turpentine. considerable escape of the injection is often unavoidable in these cases, and must

Goadbv, in Wvthes's Microscopist;' Beale, Hotv ^-c; Rutherford, Hist. 1876; Moseley, Q. Mic. Jw. 1871, 389, Inject. Insects) ri-ev, Mikr. 1881.

therefore not be heeded.

Some injectors simply introduce the inor lacunae, jection into the dorsal vessel whence it is propelled to all parts of the Thus Agassiz body by the circulation. says that if the indigo injection (1) be introduced in this way into insects, it is seen
to circulate almost instantaneously in every

INODER'MA, Kiitz. genus of Palmellacese (Confervoid Algae). Char. Cells oblong, usually in longitudinal rows, loosely vmited by a soft jelly ;
thallus gelatinous,

membranous, irregularly

expanded.
/. lanieUosum.

On submersed wood and

part of the body, and on subsequently opening the insect all parts of the body are believe that found to be coloured. Blanchard also adopts this method. Probably the best injections for this purpose would consist of alkanet and turpentine. either in the Injections may be preserved dry or wet state. For the former, sections should be made, thoroughly dried upon oil of turslides, then moistened with balsam. For prepentine, and mounted in servation in the wet state they must be mounted in cells while immersed in dilute or in chloride spirit, Goadby's B. solution, of zinc (see Pbesebvation).

stones, everywhere.

We

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. iii. p. 37. INOME'RIA, Kiitz. A genus of Oscillatoriaceae (Confervoid Algfe) -u-ith calcareously hardened incrusting fronds, growing on stones in fresh water. Fronds compused

of vertical, parallel,

whip-shaped filaments, with the sheaths obscure, connected together, and decomposed into very slender fibrils above. Kutzing supposes his /. Roemoriana to be synonvTuous with Hassall's
Lithonevia crusldceiim.

BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 343,

Ic. Phys.

ii.
;

pi.

83

Hassall, Alcf(Z, 26(3, benhorst, Fl. Alg. ii. 223.

;

pi.

65. fig.

Ra-

INOSITE.
I'NOSITE. Or muscle-sugar,
is

429

INSECTS.

a colour-

less crystalline substance, occurring- in tlie muscular tissue of the heart, in tlie liver, the lun^'-, kidneys, and brain ; and in plants,

that upon their degree of development, form, and general structure the characters of the families, genera, and species are mainly founded.

in grape-juice,

wine,

and

haricot-beans.

The

crystals form rhombohedra, and are soluble in water, but not in alcohol or ether.

INSECTS.
Char. antennjE

class of invertebrate arti-

culate animals.

Head
;

distinct,

furnished with two

;

three pairs of legs organs consisting of trachetB skeleton composed of chitine.

respiratory

cutaneous

Insects are distinguished from the Arachnida by the head being distinct from the thorax, and the presence of antennae and from the Crustacea by the respiratory organs
;

consisting of trachese. The body consists usually of thirteen segments or somites one for the head, three for the thorax, and nine for the abdomen,

The head (fig. 361 a) consists of an upper anterior portion (PI. 33. fig. 1 d), the clypeus, and an upper posterior portion (fig. 1 b), the epicranium or vertex, which are sometimes separated by a suture a posterior portion or occiput (fig. 2 which the head is ), by articulated with the prothorax and a posterior inferior portion (fig. 3 n), the gula. The eyes are situated upon the upper, anterior, or lateral parts of the head, and are of two kinds, simple and compound. The simple, called ocelli or stemmata (PI. 35. fig. 2 ; PI. 33. fig. 24 h), are usually from one to three in number, but sometimes are
;

the legs being attached to the second, third,

and fourth segments.

The cutaneous skeleton or integument of insects probably consists of three layers an

outer epidermic, an intermediate pigment, and an internal fibrous layer but consisting as it does of chitine, it is very imperfectly resolvable into its elementary components. The epidermic layer often presents a distinct
;

numerous in larvae they appear like shining smooth specks (PI. 33. fig. 4), and usually form a triangle behind or between the compound eyes. They consist of an arched, round, or elliptical cornea, behind which is a conical or cylindrical lens, which is surrounded by a layer of pigment of various colours, resembling a choroid membrane, and is in connexion with a filament of the
;

optic nerve.
(fig. 361 h) are or kidney - shaped 3 c), situated upon the c, upper and outer part of the head, and are sometimes so large (as in the Diptera, Libellula, &c.) as almost or quite to touch each other in front. They may be regarded as composed of numerous simple eyes closely aggregated their cornese vary in thickness, are but slightly arched, quadrangular or

The two compound eyes

round

cellular aspect (PI. 35. fig. 30 a), sometimes the cells appearing as if flattened and overlapping (PL 35. fig. 30 c) and their free

large, usually (PI. 33. figs. 1

margins fringed with minute hairs (fig. 30 6). In other instances the epidermis appears uniform and structureless. In its deeper
portion the epidermis is often strongly coloured by a resinous pigment, which is removable by prolonged maceration in solution of potash or in oil of turpentine. Beneath these imperfectly separable layers, is another representing probably the cutis, and consisting mostly of numerous secondary layers made up of fibres, running ^^arallel or
interlacing, and leaving fissures and tubes between them, sometimes presenting a stel-

hexagonal in form, and in immediate contact laterally. Hence the compound cornea, when viewed from before or behind, presents the appearance of a membrane with

these fibres may be separated by maceration in caustic potash. The outer surface of the integument of insects is usually furnished with processes of various kinds, as tubercles, hairs, spines, The scales, &c. (.see Haies and Scales). inner surface also gives oft" processes, which form a kind of internal skeleton, serving for the attachment of muscles, &c. In sketching the various parts of which the skeleton is composed, it must be understood that they are not always equally distinct, and
late appeai'ance
:

numerous beautifuUv regular six- or foursided facets (PI. 33. figs. 5 a, b). The facets are very variable in number but often many thousands are present. They are occasionally broader in fiont than behind, and are sometimes doubly conve.x (as in the Lepidoptera), at others concavo-convex (in Libelhda, PI. 33. fig. 6 c); but usually the surfaces are parallel. The cornea possesses a
;

laminated structure. Behind each cornea is a transparent cone (PI. 33. fig. 6 *), representing a crystalline lens, the apex of which is imbedded in a transparent rod or pyramid lauiiuated in structure, corresponding to a vitreous humour ; and this is probably continuous with

INSECTS.

430

INSECTS.

n branch of the optic nerve. The length of the lens is variable, in the Diptera being very short, whilst in the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera it is five or six times as long

as broad, and in Libellula it even exceeds this length. The compound cone, consisting of the lens and vitreous humour, is sur-

rounded by a sheath of pigment, forming a

Fig. 361.

9\

Diagram showing the principal parts of the cutaneous skeleton of a grasshopper. a the head, with the eyes b and the antennae c; d, the thorax, consisting of e the prothorai, to which the first pair attached; g, the mesothorai, to which the first pair of wings h, and the second pair of legs t are attached ; of legsyare k, the metathorai, to which the second pair of wings U and the third pair of legs m are attached; n, abdomen m, femur o, tibia with its spines, and p tarsus with its claws.
; ;

choroid membrane (PI. 33. numerous tracheae ramity

;

fig.

6r), in

which

this extends over

the front of the base of the cone, leaving, however, a small pupillary space or pupil, which is separated from the back of the cornea by au anterior chamber. The atitennce are noticed under Antenna. The trophi or organs of the mouth vary in structure in the different orders, but the following form the typical parts an upper central single piece, the labrum, or upper 33. figs. \e,^e, 22 a), forming the lip (PI. upper biiuudary of the mouth, and articulower lated at its base with the clypeua.
:

the submentum (fig. 3 m) at others this is consolidated with the occiput fig.2!). The most anterior portion is the ligula (figs. 2, 3 i), which is frequently notched or lobed, and is sometimes furnished with two lateral
;
(

portions called paraglossae (fig. 2*). Between the ligula and the mentum or submentum are the palpigers, one on each side (fig. 2 i) ; these are sometimes united, and to them the labial palpi (figs. 2, 3 k) are attached. Below the labrum are the mandibles, one on

called single piece, forming its lower margin, the labium or lower lip (PI. 33. fig. 2 /, /, ??). This consists of several parts the most
:

/), posterior is the mentum (fig. articulated posteriorly with the gula (fig.3?j).

which

is

Sometimes an intermediate portion occurs

forming two strong curved jaws, furnished with powerful teeth (figs. 3/, 22 b); these are the proper organs of manducation. Below the mandibles are two other lateral organs, the maxilhe (figs. 1, 2, 3^; fig. 22 c).; they are usually less firm than the mandibles, and serve to hold and convey the food to the back of the mouth. Each maxilla is furnished with a
each
side,

and

frequently

INSECTS.
jointed palp

431

INSECTS.

(figs. 1, 2, 3 /*), and sometimes with an appendage called the galea or helmet (fig. 22 *), and an inner cm-ved and acute portion termed the lacinia or blade In some insects there is a di(fig. 22 1). stinct soft and projecting organ, forming the

floor of the moutli,

tongue
(fig.

(fig. 23) is

the lingua or proper the tongue of the cricket a favourite and beautiful micro-

22 d)

scopic object. These structures are best examined in the Coleoptera or Orthoptera, in which most of In the other orders these parts are distinct. they are altered in structure to adapt them to the nature of their food. Thus in the Lepidoptera, the labrum and mandibles are reduced to three minute triangular plates the maxillcTS are elongated to form the antlia (Antlia), at the base of which a pair of minute palpi are often to be detected. The labium is small, triangular, and furnished with a pair of large palpi clothed with long hairs or scales, and serving for the defence of the antlia.
;

attached to the central piece or mesothorax (//), the posterior wings to the metathorax In the Diptera, the wings are attached {k). to the mesothorax, and the halteres to the metathorax. Various other subdivisions have been made of these parts, but they are too numerous to mention here. It may be remarked, however, that the epimera are the pieces to which the basal joints of the legs are directly attached that the under part of the thorax or pectus is sometimes furnished with an elongated acuminate appendage, the sternum and that the scutellum or shield is a piece existing at the upper and back part of the mesonotum, and extending between the wings.
;

The

kffs (usually called feet) are

placed

on the underside of the body, and are joined to its segments at an articular cavity existing between the sternum and the epimeron,
called the acetabulum. Each leg usually consists of five parts. The fu'st is the hip or coxa (PI. 35. fig. 9 r/) but sometimes
;

In the Hemiptera (PI. 33. figs. 26, 27), the labrum is short and pointed, and overlaps the root of the rostrum the mandibles and maxillce are transformed into slender
;

there is a small very moveable piece between the epimeron and the coxa (PI. 3o. 9,
fig.

between / and g), called the trochantin this, however, is generally absent or consolidated with the coxa. The second joint
;

lancet-like organs (the maxillary palpi being obsolete), enclosed within the equally elongated horny and jointed rostrum or labium,

the labial palpi also being obsolete. In the Diptera (PI. 33. figs. 29, 30), the five upper organs, together with the internal tongue, are elongated into lancet-like organs, the maxillary palpi being attached to the base of the maxillte. These six organs are enclosed in a fleshy thickened piece, the labium, often terminated by two large lobes

the trochanter (PI. 35. fig. 9 k) it is mostlv small, and annular. The third is the PI. 34. figs. 4, thigh''or femur (fig. 361 m 5, 7 d), the thickest and usually the largest
is
;
;

joint of the leg.

tibia (fig.

Next comes
o
;

the fourth, the

361

PI. 34. figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 c),

which

is thinner, usually compressed, and frequently furnished with spines, spurs, or other appendages, especially at its end in the ant the tibiae have each a beautiful
;

which

In many species, suckers. however, some of these lancet-like organs This kind of mouth is termed are obsolete.
act

as

a proboscis.

These varieties are further noticed under the heads of the genera selected for illustration.

The last portion is the pectinate process. foot or tarsus (fig. 361 p PI. 34. figs. 6,7 a), which consists of several joints arranged in a row. The number of these joints varies in different insects ; sometimes it is different in the anterior and posterior pairs of legs
; ;

they

The
is

are, however, most commonlv five. last joint of the tarsus is usually fur-

This consists of three rings or pieces, each of which supports a pair of legs (fig. 361 e, g,
the
thorax.
k).

Behind the head

The first ring is called the prothorax the second the mesothorax (g), and the Each of these third the metathorax (k). rings consists of a dorsal and a sternal piece the dorsal half-rings are called the pronotum, mesonotum, and metanotum the ventral or sternal the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasteraum. In the fourwinged insects, the anterior wings are
(e),
;
;

nished with appendages, in the form of hooks or claws, mostly two, and frequently Someserrated, especially near the base. times also it has two or three delicate membranous or fleshy cushions, called pulvilli (PI. 34. figs. 7 & 8). these are more or less covered with hairs, which are sometimes terminated by little disks (fig. 9), and by which it is supposed that the insects are enabled to ascend or adhere to polished surfaces in opposition to gravity. In other insects elegant brush-like appendages are
;

INSECTS.
met

432

INSECTS.
base,

witli in the same situation. Disks of the same kind but larger, and peculiarlyarranged hairs, sometimes occur upon the upper joints of the tarsus (PI. 34. fig. 6, Dy-

the
j i

and membranous towards the

363)
;

summit
elytra.

(tig.

At

others, all the

Apis). The structure of the legs of insects in the larval state (PI. 34. figs. 32, 33) ditfers considerably from that of the imago as de;

Tiscus

and

tig.

a,

membranous, and Hymenoptera and Neiiroptcru.

these are called hemwings are thin, transparent, as in the

scribed above.

The

iciiH/s

are

dry,

membranous, and

transparent organs, consisting of two layers, which are couiiuent at the margins, and are folds of the integument. Between them

nm

canals, or nervures,

commonly
;

called veins, nerves,

which are more or less numerous and ramified and upon their arrangement
the distinguishing characters of the genera &c. are sometimes founded (Wings). The veins are formed by two wide horny halfcanals in the upper and under plates, of which the wings consist. The main veins arise from the point of attachment of the wings to the thorax, and gradually diminisli in diameter vmtil they reach the extremity of the wings. The veins convey the circulating liquid, and contain each a tracheal branch, which communicates with the Each nervure contrachete of the thorax. and the blood circulates tains a trachea around it. In iiight they are said to be distended and the wings kept expanded, by In some air from the interior of the body. kinds of wings the circulating currents are not confined to narrow channels as in the veins, but traverse a large part of the breadth of the wings (Coccinella). but in Most insects have four wings some the males only are furnished with these appendages. In the Diptera,the posterior pair of wings are rudimentary, being replaced by two little club-shaped bodies, called the In this order halteres, poisers, or balancers. also, and in some insects belonging to other orders, a pair of small and rounded membranous or scaly appendages are attached to the back of the base of the first pair of wings, called in the former the squamae
;

In the Lepidoptera, they are covered with beautiful feathers or Scales. There are also other modifications of the wings of certain insects, adapting them for In the Orthoptera the.se special functions. modifications are the agents producing the well-knowm chirping sounds, as in the male In the common cricket and grasshopper. house-cricket, Acheta domestica, each of the upper wings or elytra exhibits a clear space near the centre (PI. 34. fig. 10 a), traversed by a single vein only, or at least by a very few veins. This space has received the name of the drum or tympanum Bounding it externally is a large dark longitudinal vein, provided with three or four elevated longitudinal ridges. Immediately in front f the tympanum, near the base of the elytra, is a transverse horny ridge, tapering outwards and furnished with numerous short transverse ridges or teeth, and forming a kind of file or bow (PI. 34. fig. 10 b). When the two elytra are rubbed across each other, the bow being drawn across the ridges gives
.
(.

halterum, and in others, alulae or winglets. In some insects, as in the beetles (Coleothe anterior pair of wings are hard,
!)tera), lorny,

and opaque, forming wing-covers or from the presence of a (tig. 302), horny layer and the lower wings, which

Elytra
are

usually

larger,

are

folded

beneath them,

when

at rest.

together In others, the

posterior wings disappear, and the elytra Sometimes coalesce at their inner margins.

the peculiar sound, the intensity of increased by the tympanum acting as a sounding-board. The apparatus of the grasshopper is essentially of the same strucIt must be stated, however, that vature. rious other explanations of the origin of the stridulating noise produced by these insects have been given. Thus by some authors the two bows are stated to work across each other, whilst by others the legs are supposed to act against the bow. This subject possesses interest for future observation. In other insects, there is a peculiar mechanism for uniting the anterior and posterior wings of each side, so that they may be kept steady and may act in unison during tiight. In the I^epidoptera, the moths only are provided with a minute hook arising from the base of the costal nerve of the lower wing, and inserted into a socket near the base of the main nerve, on the underside of the upper wing. In the Hymenoptera, there are many such hooks arranged along p.irt of the costal nerve at the anterior and upper margin of the second pair of wings (PI. 34. When the wings are expanded, tig. 13). these attach themselves to a little fold on the posterior margin of the anterior wing
rise to

which

is

the anterior wings are horny or leathery at

(tig,

li n),

along which they play freely

IXSECTS.

433

INSECTS.

^lien the wings are in motion, sliding to and ti'o like the rings on the rod of a windowCurtain. These hooks are somewhat twisted towards their free end, recurved and sometimes notched at the point. They vary in number in different genera and even in the sexes. In the Hemiptera the Avhole margin of part of the anterior wing is hooked over a corresponding recurved part of the posterior, so as to produce the same effect. The halteres of the Diptera and the elytra of beetles present in certain parts a multitude of vesicular projections of the external membrane and a nervous lilament passes to each. Hicks considers them to be organs of smelling. The abdomen (fig. .361 w) forms the third and terminal portion of the body of insects. It usually consists of nine or ten rings or
;

5, a dilated portion, forming a large intestine or colon; behind which is a short rectum. The structure and length of the parts of the alimentary canal vary generally according to the nature of the food, although this is not always the casein regard to the latter. The alimentary canal is covered by an outer homogeueousperitoneal layer beneath which is a muscular coat, consisting of lon-

terminating in

joints, tlie posterior of

which, however, are sometimes so concealed, so small or so fused with the others, that they appear to be
absent.

The

last

segment of the abdomen

of

many

with

insects in the females, is furnished five or six valves or setse, some of

form stings, saws, or borers, according to the function they perform as weapons of defence, or to cut through the tissues of plants or animals, so that the eggs may be deposited in them. The saws are well-known interesting objects. See ChalciDiD^, Cynipid^, and Stings. The abdomen contains the principal part of the alimentary canal and its appendages, with the organs of reproduction. The alimentary canal varies in length in different insects, and even in the same insect It at various periods of its development. 1 The oesoconsists of the following parts phagus (PI. 3.5. fig. 2 6), a muscular organ extending through the thorax it is sometimes dilated to form a crop or iugluvies, as in the Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera and this occasionally forms a lateral sac, connected with the oesophagus by a narrower portion only, and called a sucking Next follows the muscular 2. stomach. stomach, proventriculus or gizzard (fig. 2 c), which is distinguished by the frequently
:

which

Internally gitudinal and transverse fibres. lined by a homogeneous epithelial layer, Beconsisting, in part at least, of chitine. tween the latter and the muscular coat, at the middle of the alimentary canal, is a layer of cells, which probably perform a glandular function. The large intestine or colon of most insects in the imago state contains from four to six peculiar organs of doubtful nature, arranged in pairs, either transversely or longitudinally. These consist of transparent rounded, oval, or elongated tubercles, projecting inside the colon, sometimes with a horny ring at the base, and traversed by tufts of tracheoe. These organs are most numerous iu the Lepidoptera. They are never found in insects in the larva- or pupait is

state.

In most insects, salivary glands are present as one, two, or rarely three pairs of colourless sacs or tubes of very variable form and
length, sometimes scarcely extending beyond the prothorax, at others accompanying the alimentary canal into the abdomen. They consist of an outer homogeneous envelope, lined with colourless nucleated cells, and frequently have one or more distinct ducts, sometimes containing a spiral fibre they terminate near the mouth, iu some insects the ducts previously expanding into a reser;

voir.
its

distinct liver is not present in insects, function being performed by the glandular In cells in the walls of the true stomach.

many

insects, csecal

appendages

arise

from

great development of its lining membrane into plates, teeth, or hooks of horny tissue (PL 34. fig. 1) these serve to triturate the food, and have long been known as beautiful
;

microscopic objects. .3. This is succeeded by a long cylindrical true stomach or ventriculus (d), in which digestion takes place. 4. Behind this is a longer or shorter small
intestine (PI. 35.
fig. 2,

between d and /),

the latter, and also contain cells which secrete a biliary liquid. In some insects the small intestine is furnished with glandular appendages in the form of tubular caeca, probably representinga pancreas. Intimately connected with the digestive and assimilative process is a curious organ called the fatty body. This attains its maximvmi of development towards the end of the larval period of existence. It consists of a number of fat- cells imbedded in a reticular or lamellar tissue (PI. 3-5. fig. 28), composed

2f

INSECTS.

434

INSECTS.

of a number of somewhat angular lobes connected by narrow processes having interspaces between them. These are originally formed from rounded nucleated cells, which have given oil" anastomosing processes (fig. It is traversed by a number of slender 29). tracheae, and occupies the interspaces of the various abdominal organs. Each lobe consists of an outer structureless membrane, enclosing the fatty matter imbedded in an

nished with a glandular apparatus which secretes the poison of the Sting. Spinning oryans. large number of those

insects
sis

amorphous or granular substance. It appears to form a reservoir of noiu'ishment for the insect during the pupa-state. In most insects are found several slender
and elongated, mostly simple, tubularglands, opening by simple or united ducts into that end of the true stomach corresponding to
the pylorus (PI. 35. fig. 2 e). Their free ends are either cfecal or imite with each other. They are often very long, and much convoluted around the intestines, sometimes

perfect metamorphoare furnished in the larval state with with the secretion of which spinning organs, many larvae, before entering the pupa-state, weave a cocoon or enclose a cavity in which to pass their period of rest, while'others use this secretion for agglutinating foreign bodies to serve the same purpose. The

which undergo

presenting a varicose appearance, and diThese are the lated near their termination.

Malpighian vessels and they probably perform the function of a kidney, uric acid They are having been found in them. usually yellowish or brownish, and consist of a homogeneous outer coat lined with Some authors, however, epithelial cells.
;

glands secreting the silk consist of two long, tubular caeca (PI. 34. fig. 16), which in a more or less coiled state occupy the sides of the bod}', and terminate anteriorly in two narrow excretory ducts, dilated to form a reservoir, and the common orifice of which opens outside the mouth on a short tubercle beneath the labium. The caterpillar is able to compress the silken threads by the contraction of an angle formed by the two capillary tubes at their point of union, and is thus enabled to suspend itself by the threads. The material of the silk is always colourless, and derives the colour which it presents in certain instances from a varnish secreted in the reservoirs, and issuing along with the
former.

consider that the renal organ is represented by one or more long vessels convoluted upon the colon and opening close to the and we have foimd in the cateranus fox moth, Lasiocampa ruhi, pillar of the numerous long convoluted tubes, of a
;

The heart in insects exists as a long contractile dorsal vessel, constricted at intervals. This terminates posteriorly in a blind end,
and
is narrower in front. The posterior portion performs the functions of a heart, whilst the anterior represents an aorta, and conveys the blood from the heart to the body. From the mouth of the aorta the blood passes without any vascular walls, in regular currents taking all directions, and running into the antennae, the extremities, the wings, and other appendages, returning as a venous current. The blood finally forms two principal lateral currents directed towards the end of the abdomen, and, accumulating in the neighbourhood of the heart, is brought by its diastole through the lateral valvular tissues existing in it, whence it is again driven through the aorta as before. The walls of the dorsal vessel consist of longitudinal and transverse fibres, surrounded externally by a very delicate The cavity of the heart is peritoneal layer. lined by another delicate membrane, which in the constricted parts forms internal valvular projections, whereby the dorsal vessel is divided into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of these cardiac

milk-white colour, filled with octahedra and prisms of oxalate of lime these terminated in the rectum close to the anus by
;

very slender ducts, whilst at the upper ends, which reached to about the anterior third of the body, they were coiled upon themselves, or united with each other.

Other glandular or secreting organs also occur in insects. Thus organs corresponding to thecutaneous glands of theVertebrata
are often met with as rounded glandular cysts diffused beneath the integument, and called glandulfe odoriferse they open at the junction of the segments of the body, or at the joints of the legs, by very short ducts, and pour out a strongly-smelling secretion. Spauldiug describes in the mentum of the bee, a spiral duct connected with certain glands situated in the thorax. In other insects, similar organs are concealed at the and pour out posterior end of the body, their secretion near the anus. Among the Hymenoptera, the females are often fur;

chambers is fui-nished at its front end, right and left, with a fissure which can be closed

INSECTS.
The

435

INSECTS,

internally by a valvular membranous Ibid. cardiac chambers contract in regular succession from behind forwards, and thus, with the aid of the valvular apparatus, which prevents the lateral exit of the blood, proThis is nopel this liquid into the aorta.

Want of space compels us to limit the notice of the reproductive organs to the description of PI. 34. figs, 18 & 19. Many insects undergo complete metamorfull development. On first leaving the egg, they assume a more or less worm-like form, known as the larva, caterpillar, or maggot. The next stage is that in which they usually neither move nor take food, when they form the nympha, pupa, or chrysalis. This state is succeeded by that of the perfect insect or imago. In other insects, however, among the Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Nem-optera, the metamorphosis is incomplete, the body, legs, and antennae of the larva being nearly similar in form to those of the imago, but the wings are wanting. In some insects, also, of the above orders, the pupa continues to be active, differing only from the lai-va in itslarger size, and in having acquired rudimentary wings (PI. 35. figs. 15, 17, 21), In some insects the only change consists in ecdysis, without material alteration in

phosis, between the period at which they are hatched and that at which they attain their

thing more than a continuation of the most anterior heart-chamber, and runs as a simple narrow tube beneath the back of the thorax, where it terminates either in a single aperture, or divides into several shoi't branches, which also terminate suddenly in open orifices.

The number

of chambers varies

but

very frequently there are eight. In the antennae, legs, and other appendages of the body of insects, the arterial and venous currents may be seen running together, whilst in the wings the currents are
distinct.

Minute capillaries have been detected very generally diffused. The blood of insects usually consists of a colom'less liquid containing rounded or oval, colourless, nucleated corpuscles (PL 49. fig. 33) but sometimes it is yellowish or green;

ish,

red. respiration of insects is efifected by of Trachea, two or more large trunks of which usually traverse the body

and rarely

structure.

Parthenogenesis

occurs;

and

The means

some

larvae reproduce.

which run and communicating with the air by numerous short tubes, connected at or near the sides of the body with orifices termed Spiracles or stigmata. Of those insects which live in water, some have stigmatic orifices which are brought into relation with the air at the surface of the water
longitudinally giving off branches
,

in all directions,

Uxcunination, ^c. The external parts and organs of insects are usually examined as opaque objects, the animals being held in the stage-forceps. This method, however, is
often very unsatisfactory and the best 'is to press them as much as possible between two slides, without crushing, and to fasten
;

whilst others in the larval state respire the air mixed with the water in which they live, this process being facilitated by the presence of external branchiae, or processes of the integument in the form of leaves, plates, or hairs, through which nimierous tracheae

the slides together with india-rubber bands or fine strhig, so that the parts may dry in the compressed form. When subsequently soaked in oil of turpentine, and mounted in
balsam, they will become much more transparent and distinct. By prolonged maceration in turpentine, the whole of the pigment may be removed, which causes the structure to be seen very distinctly. When the organs are very hard and thick, they may be softened by boiling water, or solution of potash, before being pressed between the slides.
cate,

ramify in every direction. The nervous system of insects consists essentially of a series o f ganglia arranged in pairs, one for each segment of the body, and situated between the alimentary canal and the under surface of the body. The ganglia of each pair are mostly united with each other, but sometimes distinct, and are connected with those adjacent by longitudinal
cords. The uppermost pair of ventral ganglia are connected by two lateral cords surround-

The internal organs, which are very delimust be brought to view by dissection

under water, the insects being fixed by pins stuck into the leaded cork (Introduction,
p. xxvii).

The smaller and more delicate insects, aquatic larvae, &c. "are best preserved in solution of chloride of calcium or glycerine,
mounted
in suitable glass cells.

ing the oesophagus with a large cephalic ganFrom the ganglia branches glion or brain. are distributed to all parts of the body. sympathetic system of nerves is also present.

preserve insects for the future examination of the internal structure, they should be kept in solution of chloride of zinc; but

To

2f2

INSECTS.
wten very
in
spii'it

436

INSECTS,
;

soft and fragile, they may be kept and water.

and maxillary
(fig.

metamorphosis complete

362).

Insects

thus
Ord.

are

divided into

eleven orders,

Ord.

1. Coleoptera (Beetles). Wings four, anterior hard, coriaceous or horny (elytra), covering the posterior, which are mem-

Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, Crickets, Wings four, the upper coriaceous, veiny, the inferior membranous, longitumouth serving dinally plaited like a fan
&c.).
;

2.

for

manducation, with strong mandibles maxillae furnished with a cylindrical hel;

branous and transversely folded mouth formed for manducation, furnished with mandibles, maxillae, and palpi, both labial
;

met
Ord.

metamorphosis incomplete,

four, all

Fig. 362.

Hemiptera (Bugs, &c.). Wings membranous, or the anterior ones coriaceous at the base, and thicker; mouth with a jointed rostrum (labium), ensheathing setae (mandibles and maxillae) palpi none metamorphosis with few ex3.
; ;

ceptions incomplete

(tig.

363).

Ord.

(Lace-wings, Dragonfour, membranous, generally pellucid, reticulated, naked, very often equal mouth not suctorial, but mostly made for manducation mandibles in some obsolete females never furnished with a sting, and but rarely with a borer or exserted oviduct metamorphoflies,

4.

Neuropi era

&c.).

Wings
;

sis
(fig.

mostly incomplete, in some complete

364).
5.

Ord.
Cerambyx
Nat.
sedilis.

Lepidoptera
;

(Butterflies,

size.

four, membranous, covered coloured scales mouth furnished

Wings

Moths). with with

an involute,
Fig. 363.

spiral tongue,

composed of

Fig. 364,

BeduTins tuberoulatus.
Nat.
size.

Libellula depress*.

Nat. size.

INSECTS.
the elongiited maxillas complete (fig. 365).
;

437

INSECTS,

metamorphosis

drant of a circle, longitudinally folded like a fan. Females apterous, vermiform, without legs. Metamorphosis complicated mandibles two, narrow, somewhat curved palpi two, biarticulate, far apart, inserted beneath the head (larvte, pupae, and females living parasitically in Hyme;

nopterous insects). Ord. 9. Suctoria or Siphonaptera (Fleas). complete ; Wingless metamorphosis mouth suctorial rostrum composed of two serrated laminae and a thin suctorial seta, included in a jointed two-valved sheath. Ord. 10. Anoplura or Parasitica (Lice, PI. absent not under35.
;
;

figs.

3-8).

Wings
;

Danais Pleiippe.
Nat.
size.

going metamorphosis parasitic (eyes two, simple, sometimes none). Ord. 11. Thysanura. Wings absent; not undergoing metamorphosis not parasitic ; mouth furnished with mandibles and
;

Ord.

Hi/menoptera (Bees, Wasps, &c.). Wings four, membranous, posterior ones maxillae smaller, and with fewer veins elongate, generally slender, sheathing the
;

6.

maxillae eyes simple, in two groups abdomen mostly terminated by setae or a

;

bifid tail.

BiBL. Newport,
Phys.
art. Insects
;
;

Todd's Ci/cl
;

An. and

Kirby and Spence, Intr. Entom. Ne-\vman, Burmeister, Entom. StrausInsects Siebold, Veryl. Anat. Durckheim, Cons. gen. s. VAnat. d. Anim.
; ;

articid.

Westwood,
;

Introd.

id. Butterflies

of Great Britain Stephens, Brit. Beetles, and Br. Entom. Spry and Shuckard, Br, Coleopt. Kirby, Man. Aimm Curtis, Br. Entom. Panzer, Deutsch. Insekt. Walker,
; ;
;

Insecta Brit.
vii.
;

Fabre, Ann. Sc.

Nat

ser. 4.

Ganin, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 1869 ; Kowalevsky, Mem. VAcad. St. Petersh. xvi. 1871 Douglas and Scott, Hemip. Heter., Bay Sac. Schultze, Q. M. Jn. 1808 LanLyonet, Ann. dois, Schidtze's Archiv, 1867 &'c. Nat. ser. 2. t. v. Ratzeburg, ForstInsekt. 1844 Lacaze-Duthiers, A7m. Sc.
; ; ; ;
;

Tenthredo nassata.
Jlagnified 2 diameters.

Nat.

ser. 3. t. xix.
;

Ordnung.

Weismann,

Gerstaecker, Klass. nnd Herold, Dipter.

;

labium abdomen of the females almost always terminated by an ovipositor or a sting; metamorphosis complete (fig. 366). Ord. 7. Diptera (Flies). Wings two, with alulets at the base twohalteres; mouth suctorial; labium not furnished with palpi,
;
;

Schmetterl. ; Metschnikow, Zeit. wiss. Zool. B. xvi. ; Leydig, Hist. ; Gegenbauer, Vergl. Anat. 1878 ; Scudder, Tr. Smith. Inst. ; Hicks, J. Linn. Soc. i. 136; id. Linn. Tr. xxii. 141, xxiii. 189; T. West, Linn. Tr.
xxii.

393

Packard,
;

Mem. Acad.

Hepworth, Q. Mic.
;

Jn. ii. 158 {Peabody) Entomol.

prolonged into a proboscis or sheath, and enclosing setse variable in number maxillary palpi two, at the base of the pro;

boscis

metamorphosis complete.
;

Ord.

8. Strepsiptera or Rhipiptera. Males with fom- wings anterior wings two small moveable corpuscles posterior wings large, membranous, in the form of a qua;

Fischer, Orthopt. Charpentier, Orthopt. Wolff, Riechorg. Biene 8fC. 1875 ; Europ. Watney, Jn. M. Soc. 18^7, xvii. 213 Frey, Lepidopt. Schweiz, 1880 Koppen, Injurious Brehni, Insect. 1881, Insects, Russia, 1880
;
;

1500
te?^.
;

figs.

Newman, Br. Moths and Butfigs.

;

Wilson, Larv(S of Br. Lepid.,

Lowne, Phd.

Tr. 1878, 577, eyes; Minot,

INSILELLA.

438

INTESTINES.

Arch. Phys. 1876, trachece ; Adolpli, InsehtFlilgd, If^SO Spauldiug, Amer. Nat. 1881, XV. 113 {Jn. M. Soc. 1881, 442) Dritl, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 1876, xxvii., brain;
;

serve as Receptacles for Secretions, as in the case of the glands of the Aui-antiacea3 and the 280) (see also
(fi^.

Glands),

M'Lachlan,
macese.

INSILEL'LA, Ehr.A genus

JEnc. Brit. 1882, xiii. 141.

The turpentine-canals of the Coniferae. milk-vessels of plants appear to be formed

sometimes in intercellular canals, sometimes
out of cells (Laticiferous Tlssue). BiBL. "Works on Structural Botany.

of Diato-

C/iar. Frustiiles single, fusiform,

turgid ring (hoop ?) a terete Biddulvalves, which are equal phia. Marine. I. africana. Frustules with four constrictions, broader and subglobose in the middle, diminishing in size towards the acuminate
;

with a interposed between the

INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE
we make
fine

of

When

Plaxts, or Secondary Cell-deposits.

sections of

ends no markings visible by ordinary illumination on the coast of length 1-530

;

Africa.

BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ah. 1845, 357;

Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 32.

INTERCELLULAR Passages, Spaces,

kinds of cellular structure, as for instance of the horny albumen of the seeds of Palms (Arecn, PI. 47. fig. 21) or other plants, of the coUenchymatous tissue beneath the epidermis of the Chenopodiacese &c., of the substnnce of cartilaginous Algae, of many woods, &c., we find an appearance of intervals between the lines bounding the com-

many

&c. OF PX/ANTS. Where the cells of vegetable tissue are of any but six- or twehesided forms, interspaces must exist between them. These are especially evident in parenchyma formed of rounded cells, where

ponent cells, which intervals are filled up with apparently homogeneous substance. Thus seen and no further investigated, the interposed matter was formerly described as intercellular substance, a peculiar form of
vegetable organization and some went so far as to imagine that cells originated free
;

Fig. 368.

in this, and subsequently became glued together and fixed by the sohdification of the

whole (linger aud"Eodlicher).

The application of dilute sulphuric acid to preparations of this kind, with iodine, generally shows clearly that the supposed intercellular substance consists of secondary deposits Rereally inside the cells (PI. 47. fig. 22). cent observations go to prove that the
Vertical section of half a leaf of a Potamogeton, with air-8paces I.

Magnified 200 diameters.

there exist of course,

angular intercomThe municating intercellular passat/es. stomata of Lea'vtis always communicate with such intercellular passages, larger in the lower part of the parenchyma of leaves.
Intei'cellular

spaces are lacunae of larger

supposed intercellular substance, a matter secreted or otherwise produced between the cells' of a tissue, is of very rare occurrence, even if existing at all. Probably the appearance is produced by modification of the cell-wall. See Epiderjiis, Secondary deposits. Wood, and Albumen. BiBL. Mohl, the BiBL. of Cell-membrane Unger, An. u. Phys. Pfl. 1846, 18 Mulder and Harting, Phys. Chem. Hartig, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. v. Wigand, Intercdl.
;

Sub.it.

size, definite or indefinite in form, bounded by a number of cells of less capacity than

18-jO

76

the space itself. These are especially large and abundant, as air-receptacles, in aquatic plants, both in the stems and leaves, as in the Nymphtcaceae, Naiadacese (fig. 368),

xxiii. 337, Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, Berlin, 1852, Bentley, Bot. ; Henfrey-Masters, Elem.
;

18-50;

Cohu, Linna-a,

Course.

INTESTINES.The
:

intestines

consist

and Hydrocharidacea;, Sec, but also common in most Monocotyledonous plants, such
as

JuncacejB (PI. 47. fig. 18), Araceae, Grasses, &c. Intercellular spaces and canals likewise

of three coats an outer, peritoneal, or serous membrane, an inner or mucous membrane, and an intermediate muscidar coat. The connective tissue of the mucous membrane is often indistinctly fibrous, especially its inner portions, where it forms the basement membrane it contains scat;

INTESTINES.

439
is

INTESTINES.

tered, roundish, elongate nuclei, -without Between the proper mucous elastic tissue.

a question whether these goblet-cells are modified epithelium-cells, or represent peculiar morphological elements.

membrane and the submucous

tissue,

is

situated alayer of lono-itudinaland transverse unstriped muscular tibres, frequently, however, indistinct in man.

The surface of the small intestines is covered with V1X.LI, which are absent in the large intestines and in every villus one or
;

Fig. 369.

two spaces are found, constituting the origin

of the lacteals.

The elements of the muscular coat are unstriped muscular fibres, consisting of pale, homogeneous, fusiform, flattened cells, with The fibres frean elongated nucleus.
quently
present

knotty

expansions,

and

sometimes zigzag
tines consist of
;
:

flexuosities.

The glandular organs

of small Brunner'sthe the racemose or

intes-

glands Lieberkiihn's follicles or the tubular glands Peyer's, the aggregate or agminate glands and the solitary glands or follicles. Brimner's glands are situated in the submucous tissue of the duodenum, extending about as far as the orifice of the choledic If a portion of the intestine be kept duct. stretched, or distended with air, and the muscular coat be dissected off", they are seen
; ;

as

yellowish, fiattened, roimdish-angular bodies, mostly about 1-50 to 1-25" in size, the short ducts of which pass through the mucous membrane. They secrete an alka-

line

mucous
(fig.

liquid.

Lieberkiihn's

glands

or the tubular follicles, 370), are distributed throughout

Fig. 370.

Magnified 60 diameters. Perpendicular section of the wall of the lower part of the ileum of the calf: a, villi 6, Lieberkiihn's glands, c, muscular layer of the mucous membrane d, follicle of a Peyer's gland; e, subjacent portions of the submucous tissue /, ciroiilar musciilar fibres g, longitudinal
; ; ; ;

ditto.

The epithelium of the intestines consists of a single layer of cyUndrical cells, containing a transparent oval nucleus, with one or two nuclei, and granular tnatter. In the small intestines, the free border of the epithelium-cells presents a broad seam with delicate longitudinal stria?, forming the so-called pore-canals. Besides the ordinary cylindrical or columnar cells are certain cup-, or goblet-shaped cells, the open mouths of which are directed towards the It cavity of the intestine (PI. 53. fig. 20).

Magnified 60 diameters.
Lieberkiihn's follicles, from the pig
:

a,

basement

m.embrane and eijithelium

b,

cavity.

the small intestines, extending through the substance of the mucous menibrane. They are very numerous, straight, narrow, slightly dilated at the ends, and rarely bifurcate.

INTESTINES.

440

INTESTINES.
solitary glands

They vary in length from 1-60 to 1-84", and consist of a delicate basement membrane, lined -with epithelium.
Peyer's glands are rounded or elongated flattened aggregations of glands, appearing
Fig. 371.

The

agree

in

structure

with the individual follicles of Peyer's Their free surface is usually conglands. vex, and covered with villi (fig. 372).

The glandular organs

tary ture
follicles.

tines are Lieberkiihn's glands

of the large intesand the soli-

The

Lieberkiihn's glands agree in struc-

with those of the small intestines, except that they are larger and broader in

proportion to the greater thickness of the

mucous membrane.
also differ

The

from those of the small

Fig. 373.

solitary follicles intestine

Magnified 10 diameters. Portion of a Peyer's gland, human a, follicles surrounded by the orifices of Lieberkuhn's glands b, villi
:

c,

scattered Lieberkiihu's glands.

side of the intestine as They are most slightly depressed spots. numerous in the ileum, but are sometimes found in the lower part of the jejunum, or

upon the inner

even

its

upper part and the duodenum.

They

are usually twenty, thirty, or

more

in

number.
to li".

They vary in length from 1-25 Each consists of an aggregation of

'i <i

closed and rounded follicles, from 1-70 to

IM^^
Solitary gland, covered with
villi,

Magnified 45 diameters.
Solitary follicle from the colon of a child a, tubular glands; b, muscular coat of the mucous membrane ; c, submucous tissue d, transverse muscular fibres e, peritoneum f, depression in mucous membrane over the
: ; ; ;

follicle g.

in their larger size, and in the circumstance that each of the minute elevations of the

mucous
from the jejunum.

membrane

produced

by them

1-12" in diameter, partly seated in the mucous membrane itself, partly in the subnuicous tissue. The follicles are surrounded by a ring of Lieberkiihn's glands, which, with villi, also occupy the intervening porEach foltion of the mucous membrane. of licle consists of a tolerably iirmcoat areolar tissue, with scatindistinctly tibrous tered nuclei, enclosing a grey soft substance consisting of innumerable nuclei and to 1-1500" in diameter, cells, from l-;5000 with a few granules of fat. The follicles are surrounded by a vascular network, which sends oil" branches to their interior.

exhibits a rounded or elongated opening, leading to a depression in the mucous membrane over the follicle (fig. 373). Tliis,

however, has no communication with the

follicle.

Tlie investigation of the stnicture of the intestines is a matter of some

The epithelium must be examined in a The glands are perfectly fresh state. most readily seen in portions hardened by
absolute alcohol or cJiromic acid
;

difficulty.

whilst

some have recommended

sections

boiling with acetic

acid (80 per cent.), then drying and

making

with a V^ilentin's knife. The muscular elements are rendered most distinct by maceration with dilute nitric acid
(20 per cent;).

INULINE.
The
capillaries of tlie intestines are

441

ISARIA.

very

injected ; hut great care is required in securing the vascular branches, to prevent the escape of the injection. Two thick layers of ganglionic nervous masses are distinguislmble in the intestines. One is situated in the submucous tissue, the other between the circular and longitutliual

beautiful

when

of iodine. It has a pale yellow tint. It is used as but little altering the appearances

muscular fibres. The former is a fiat layer with a few ganglia projecting towards the

An artificial substitute may be made with 1 oz. of white of n^^, 30 grs. of salt, 8 oz. of water, enough tincture of iodine to colour, and 2 or 3 drops of carbolic acid, the whole to be well shaken and filtered. IRID^E'A, Bory. A genus of Cryptonemiacepe (Florideous Algae), containing one

of delicate objects.

mucous membrane and penetrating among the follicles; the latter is more irregular, and presents nodulated ganglionic masses. The ganglia give ofi" and are traversed by nerves that form a plexus, some joining the
ganglionic layers, others uniting with the mesenteric nerves. The nerves are nonmedullated.

common British species, I. edulis, a dull-red, obovate, leaf-shaped sea-weed of fleshy-cartilaginous texture, 4-18" long, the central substance composed of longitudinal, the cortical of closely-packed moniliform perpendicular filaments. Fructification sj307-es
:

in spherical

masses

[favellidia),

imbedded

in

BiBL. Kiilliker, Mikr. Anat. Strieker's Hist. ; Frey, Hist., (^;

Verson,
the full
to

the frond in wide patches near the extremity tetraspores in dense band-like im;

literature.

IN'ULIXE. A

substance

allied

starch, occurring in solution in the cellcontents of plants, especially the Compoit is sitae, as the Dahlia, dandelion, &c. coloured yellow by iodine. It forms crystalloids or sphaerocrystals resembling those in PI. 39. fig. 11; "^and they exhibit the In a black cross with polarized light. section of a tuber of the Jerusalem artichoke, macerated in spirit, they will be foimd in the cells, and may be mounted in
;

mersed sori. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. AUj. 160, pi. 19 A Phjc. Brit. pi. 97; Greville, Alg. Brit. pi. 17; Eng. Bot. pi. 1.307. IPtlDES'CENCE. See Intkoduction, p. XXXV. IRIS. See Eye, p. 311. ISARIA, Hill. A genus of Isaeiacei
;

(reputed Hyphomycetous Fungi), growing upon dead insects, fungi, or twigs or leaves of plants. I. farinosn, Fries, grows to a height of 1-2" on dead pupte, spiders' nests, &c. /. arachiwphila, Ditton, intricata, Fr.,
puherula, Berk., and Friesii, Montague, are also British, /. citrina (figs. 374, 375) is a
Fig. 374.

glycerine.

BiBL. Gmelin, Cliemie, vii.; Prautl, /;///, 1870; Dragendorfi; Material. 8fc., 1870;
often useful for dyeing and rendering very transparent objects more distinct, and for its producing with some vegetable and animal tissues and substances colours by which
is

Sachs, Bot. 1874. IODINE. Solution of iodine

they

may be distinguished. The general results of its action are enumerated in the
;

Isaria citrina.

Introdlx'tion and special remarks are made under the heads of the tissues.
aqueous solution of iodine is the best but a solution in spirit is for general use

Plants on a fungus.

Natural

size.

An

much stronger. A very be made by dissolving

strong solution may iodine in a solution this may be used of iodide of potassium for dveing tissues, but not for the detection of cellulose, as the precipitated iodine gives a bluish tinge to the structure. Solutions of iodine in chloride of zinc, and of iodide of zinc are valuable reagents for cellulose.
;

small species, growing gregariously on vegetable substances. Tulasne has recently published an interesting paper on Isaria, showing that at any rate some of the forms referred to this genus are conidiiferous fruits of certain Sphcerice in particular that Is. crassa (farinosa, Fr.)

is

See Schultze's Test. Iodized serum is made of amniotic fluid of strong tincture (calf) and a small quantity

This plant is a form of Spha-ria inHitaris. found most frequently on the larvas of Bo77ihyx Buhi; and the first sign of its growth is the formation of a mildew, between the rings of the abdomen, very much resembling a Botrytis. Subsequently the body of the larva, quite filled up and rigid with mycelial

ISAKIACEI.

442

ISOETES.
material consists of

growth, bears the claviform receptacles of

Isaria and at a still later period, some of the larvse hear the claviform receptacles and
;

ISINGLASS.This

Fig. 375.

finely-divided shreads of the swimmingbladder of species of Sturgeon, and conmisequently exhibits structure under the with croscope, consisting of a fibrous tissue here and there fragments of blood-vessels

&c.

It is sophisticated

with cut gelatine,

which is structureless and moreover becomes more translucent when soaked in water, while isinglass becomes opaque and white.
BiBL.

ISOCniLI'NA, Jones. An oblong equivalved Ostracode, belonging to the Leperdirocks tiadce, and found only in the Silurian of Canada, Russia, and Bohemia. BiBL. R. Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. i. 248; Schmidt, Mem. Acad, St. Petersh. xxi. 2,

liassall, Adidterations, .309.

ISOETES. A
Isaria citrina.

genus of Psiloteee (Lycothe

single plant,

showing the

fruit.

Magn. 20 diams.

the conceptacles, containing asci, ofSphceria miUtaris. The spores (or conidia) of the Bofri/tis-form and of the Isaria-iovm. are
capable of germination. BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. vi.pt. 2. 464; Ami. N. U. i. 2o9, vi. 132, pi. 12. fig. 12, 1850, V. 464; Fries, Su7nma Veget. 464; 12. Moutagne, Ann. So. Nat. 2 s^r. v. pi. Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. viii. 35. fig. 3
;

only podiacete). /. lacustris, Quillwort, British species, occiu's in mountain-lakes. Isoetes is very remarkable in its mode of

growth.

The woody substance of the stem, like that of the Lycopodiacefe generally, is a it is solid central body, without a pith surrounded by a thick parenchymatous rind, which makes up the greater part of the mass of the corm the woodj^ mass itself
; ;

is

ISARIA'CEI. family of Hyphoniycetous Fungi, growing on decaying animal substances or larger Fungi, characterized by a cellular receptacle formed of filaments approximated together and conjoined throughout their whole length, each filament terminating in a spore. Recent observations throw doubt on the independence of this family, which perhaps consists simply of conidiiferous forms of other genera.
British Genera.
Isaria. Receptacle clavately branched, formed of densely interwoven coalescent fila-

cylindrical above, and somewhat hemithe convexity downward, spherical below, and it has a layer of cambium not only over the growing apex, but over the convexity

of the sides and lower surface. Every year a new portion of wood is added to the upper end, and also to the outer angle of the convex lower mass. The roots are produced in cycles of tens, sometimes one,

sometimes two
oldest root
is

them out, and up to predecessors, and push The rind is renewed every year the side. by the cambium layer and tiie latter, in its
;

in a year in each cycle the the inmost but the succeeding cycles appear in the middle of their
; ;

ments, or cellularly fleshy. Spores borne on on all sides. simple sporophores arising Ant.hina. Receptacle clavately branched, formed of parallel filaments, loosely interwoven or free, feathery or villous at the summit only, where they form the simple
sporophores. Ceratium. Receptacle somewhat^ hornconsistence, shaped, of a mucilaginous which are sursprinkled with filaments

growth to increase the size of the corm, by degrees covers up and encloses the remains
of the earlier roots (as the woody layers of Dicotyledonous trees overgrow broken

branches, bury
into

them, and convert them

The leaves are of knots). delicate organization, and contain four longitudinal air-canals, with septa at intervals, and one vascular bundle they are expanded
imbedded
;

mounted by naked
I'SIAS. mostraca.

and contain the immersed sporanges. DeCandolle says the epidermis has
at the base,

spores.
in
i.

genus of Copepodous Entodavijjes,

I.

British
62.)

seas.

(Brady, Copepoda,

Bay

Soc.

The sporanges are of two kinds, stomata. and or rather bear two kinds of spores there appears to be a periodicity in their development. The fronds of I. lucmtris are
;

ISOETES.
discoverable

443

ISOETES.

in the interior of the bud twelve months before they became fully

developed

the sterile originate in spring

earlier part of the summer, the fertile in the autumn, wliile stunted fertile If a leaves appear even in the winter.

and the

ranges) heing rendered tubercular from the protrusion of the wall by the underlying bodies. The wall of tlie capsule is membranous and has no regular dehiscence, the
Fig. 377. Fig. 378.

vigorous leafy plant be examined,

Fig. 376.

it

will be

Fig. 379.

Isoetes setacea.
Fig. 377.

Base of a detached

fertile leaf,

seen in face.

Magn.

.5

diams.

Fig. 378. Vertical section, from back to front of ditto. Magn. 10 diams.
Fig. 379. Horizontal section, oosporange with spores. Magn. 10 diams.

macro-

spores escaping in front.

Isoetes setacea.

by decay

of the

membrane

Natural

size.

found to have a few sterile leaves outside, then a circle of leaves with oosporanges, next a circle of anthero-sporanges, and in
the centre of the bud sterile leaves closing the annual cycle. The sporanges are somewhat plano-convex longish-oval cases, with transverse processes forming imperfect septa, dividing them into several chambers (hg. The cases are sheathed by a mem378). branous expansion of the base of the leaf (fig. 377), to which they are adherent by the back (fig. 378) the septa arise opposite the point of attachment at the back, and, spreading out, join the front wall. The ditiereut contents of the sporanges are evident before they open, those with the small spores (antJierosporanges) having a smooth face, those with large spores {oospo;

The sinalle?- s/jo?ts resemble pollen-grains; they are usually of the shape of quarters of a globe, more rarely tetrahedral, with an outer coat presenting ridges at the angles, and an inner which is a rounded sac. The outer coat is finely dotted in /. laeustris. The large spores are at first of a tetrahedral form with rounded angles, but when ripe they become globular. The delicate inmost layer is enclosed in a thick exospore composed of three layers: the innermost of moderate thickness, brown colour, and glassy three consistence, exhibiting strife and strong ridges converging to a point at the angle where the spore meets its three sister the next coat is thinnish, and of spores the granular character and yellow colour outermost is a clear and gelatinous layer the outer two follow all the markings of the glassy coat, and are especially thick over the three ridpres.

ISOETES,
The
first

444

IXODES.

contents of the microspores are at

BiBL. BischofF, Crypt. Gewdch. lihizoc.)

merely granular protoplasm. About a month after they are scattered from the sporange, the protoplasm of the cell becomes
divided into two or four portions, which form cells, in each of which again are developed two vesicles, each producing a filament coiled up spirally. The spores swell, the daughter cells burst, and the lenticidar the latter then open and vesicles escape emit the spiral filaments, which are found to be covered with cilia on the anterior turns of the spiral, by means of which they move actively through the water. They are the spermutozoids.
;

81); Mettenius, Beitr. z. Bot. Heidelberg, 1850 ; Hofmeister, ^/V*. sc/(,5. Ges. d. Wiss.iv. 123 Braun, Flora, 1847, 33; Carruthers, Led. Roy. Inst. 1869 Henfrev-Masters, J5o^. 1878.
;
;

Nuremberg, 1828,70; Mohl, Verm. Tubingen, 1845, 122 Miiller, Hot. 297, 1848 {Ann. N. H. 2 ser.
;

Schrift.,
Zeit. viii.

iSOT'RICHA, Hein. Agenus of Holotrichous Infusoria= 0;9/m with a ventral In the rumen of ruminants. mouth.
(Kent, Inf. 497.)

ISTII'MIA,

Ag.A

genus

of

Diato-

The macrospores when they escape from the sporange, contain only protoplasm with oU-giobules. In the course of a few weeks, the internal cavity of the spore begins to exhibit a development of cellular tissue, by
it is subsequently filled up; this is the prothaUiuni. At the same time, the internal coat increases in thiclmess, and ex-

which

macese, fam. Biddulphiacete. Char. Frustules depressed or subcylindrical, rhomboidal or trapezoidal in front view, angles more or less produced frustules coherent by the angles, basal frustule stipitate ; surface of valves and hoop appearing reticular or cellular. Marine. Two British species. The depressions upon the valves and hoop are so large as to produce a distinct
;

increase in size of the prothallium causes the spore-coat to burst at the apex where the three ridges meet, so that three triangular vahes turn On this back, exposing the prothallium. are developed the archegonia, the first on the apex in the central point where the three points of the spore-coat meet. If this is not fertilized, others are produced around The archegonium is of much the same it. character essentially, as that of the rest of
hibits several layers.

The

by ordinary

reticular or cellular appearance illumination.

when viewed

/. obliquata {nervosa, K.). V. with linear thickenings, giving them a coarsely reticular or veined appearance.

I. enervis (PI. 17. fig. 2). Valves uniformly covered with depressions. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 209 KUtz. BacUl. 137, and Sp. Ah/. 135 Ralfs, Ann. N. U. 1813,
; ;

xii.

270

Rabenh. Alg.

i.

309.

ITCH-INSECT. See Sarcoptes. IVORY. This substance, which consists

the higher Cryptogamous Plants, consisting of a papilla with a central canal leading to The four rows of cells the embryo-sac. forming the neck of the archegone separate, and a germ-cell is formed in the embryoThis is fertilized by the entrance of a sac. spermatozoid into the embryo-sac. In the development of the embryo in the which graspore, it forms a cellular body, dually displaces the cellular tissue originally The first leaf and roots are filling this up. developed while the rudiment is still within the spore-coat, in opposite directions, and
horizontally (right and left) in relation to The young plant the apex of the spore. somewhat resembles a germinating JNIonocotyledon.

of the tusks of the elephant, possesses the minute structure of the ivory of teeth. IVORY, Vegetable. This substance, consisting of the albumen of the seeds of

a Monocotyledonous tree, Phijtelephas macrocarpa, is composed of cellular tissue, with the walls so thickened by horny secondary deposits that the cavities of the cells are The pores of the sealmost obliterated. condary deposits, however, remain uncovered throughout all the thickening, and thus are converted into tubes or canals running to meet each other from the small reIn maining cavities of contiguous cells. PI. 47, fig. 23 h represents a section mounted in Canada balsam, which has in part penetrated into the cavities the remaining ca;

The woodv structure of the stem

of Isoetes

consists of spiral-fibrous cells, usually annular or reticulated, but sometimes really spiral. Carruthers has explained the resemblance of the method of the growth of Isoetes and that of the gigantic Lepidodendron of the Carboniferous deposits.

and pore-canals are filled with air and thus appear black {a). IXO'DEA. A family of Arachnida, of the order Acarina. Contains the genera Ixodes and Argas.
vities

IXO'DES,

Latr.

A genus of Arachnida,
and family Ixodea.

of the order Acarina,

JAMESONIA.
rostrum;

446'

JUNGERMANNIEvE.

Char. Palpi canaliculate, slieatliing tlie mandibles three -jointed, basat external and joint internal, the second joint labium long, the third short, denticulate covered with reflexed teeth body very exwith a tensile, furnished near the rostruur
; ;

or purplish when fresh, on small Alg?e between tide-marks. The filaments are articulated, dichotomously branched, and impregnated with a calcareous deposit. The of fruit consists lu-u-shaped ceramidia, formed out of the end joints of the branches, a dichotomous continuation of which is reby a pair of minute divergent
;

dorsal horny shield; legs with two claws and a caruncle. These animals form part of those which are popularly known as ticks. They are com-

presented the latter has a horns on the ceramidium pore at the apex, and contains a tuft of erect
British species linear tetraspores. Joints of principal branches J. ruhens. Harvey, Phyc. Brit. pi. 252. cylindrical. J. corniculata. Joints of principal branches
:

monly found
wood,
briers,

in dense woods, upon brushkc, from which they get upon

animals, as dogs, oxen, horses, &c., burying the rostrum deeply in the skin and sucking the blood, so as to become distended to ten times their original size. They are also

found upon reptiles, bii'ds, and occasionally attack man. Haller points out two foramina at the hinder margin of the last joint of the first and pair of legs, covered with a membrane, with otoliths, forming an auditory apparatus. The species are very numerous, and have been arranged in several genera by some
authors.
species
:

obconical and compressed, I. c. pi. 2.34. BiBL. Harvey, I. c, and Mar. Alg. 107, pi. 13 D.

JAT'ROPHA. JONESIA, G.

See Cassava.
S.

marine Ostracode.

Brady, 1865. See Bythocythere.

JONESIEL'LA, Brady.A
British
species
;

genus of
dredgings.

Copepodous Entomostraca.

Two

in

The

following are the commonest

(Brady, Copep., Ray Soc. ii. 38.) JULUS, Linn. genus of Chilopodous Myiiapoda. J. terrestris and a few other

I. ricinvs, the dog-tick. Body oval, in the gorged condition becoming globular and blackish violet legs and appendages brown. Pale yellowish red; head I. reduvws.
;

species are often found in gardens.

JUNGERMANNIA,

Bill. A genus of

Jungermannieas (Hepaticse). Fructification

Perichaetial lea^t-es free or united terminal. only at the base, like or unlike the stemleaves. Perigone membranous, tubular, plaited-denticulate at the apex, the mouth three- or six-cleft. Vaginule membranous, included or rarely exserted. Capsule fourvalved, splitting to the base. Amphigastria present or absent. This is the largest genus of the Junger-

and legs black.

I.

pictus.

Found upon sheep. Back white, with brown

;

spots;

Found

(plmnbetiSfDag.) (PI. 6. figs. 19Oval, leaden grey, without spots. 22). Found upon dogs. /. plumbeus, Leach. Shield heart-shaped, rostrum, palpi, and legs slightly rugose leaden colour pale ferruginous body of a length 1-4". Found upon and in the nests
I. Z/uffesii
; ; ;

creuulate posteriorly; legs brown. upon deer also upon mosses.

mannieaB

bank-swallow (Hirundo riparia). BiBL. Gervais, Walck. Aptb-es, iii. 234 Hermann, Mem. Apter. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. ii. Leach, Linn. Tr. xi. Koch,
of the
; : ;

among the commonest species are J. bicusjndata, L., J. albicans, L., J. barbata, J. setacea, &c., found on wet bogs, banks, rocks, &c. BiBL. Hooker, Br. Jungerm., Br. Flor.
;

i.

Nees

Uehers.

Denny, Atin.
;

JV.

H.

184-3,

xii.

Gene, ibid. 1846, xviii. 160; Macalister, Qu. M. J. 1871, 166 MuiTav, J?c. Entom. ; Megnin, 121 Haller, Zool. Anz. 1881, 165 {Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, 449).
;

&c. Ekart, Synops. Jungerm. ; Esenbeck, Europ. Lebermoose ; Gottsche, Lindenberg, and Nees, Synojis. Hepatic, Hamburg, 1844-47 ; Stephani, Junqerm. ( Germ. ) 1 879. JUNGERMANNl'E^. family of Hepaticse, distinguished by possessing a distinct stem, bearing leaves, often with
pt. 1. 112,
;

V.

genus of Gram( ne mitideae (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Andes. (Hooker, Syn. Fil. .369.) species JANIA, Lamouroux. A genus of Coral;

JAMESO'NL^, Hk. A

stipule-like bodies called amphigastria (fig.

linacese (Florideous Algae), calcareous filamentous bodies, occurring in tufts, pale red

380), with terminal archegones, and sporanges bursting by four valves (figs. 320 and 321), destitute of a columella, containthe spores. ing elaters mixed with The British genera may be grouped as
follows:

JUNIPERUS.
Fig. 380.

446

KIDNEY.
K.

J. Ag. genus of Cryptonemiacese (Florideous Algee), fleshy membranous sea-weeds of red colour, with

KALLYME'NIA,

ribless leaf-like fronds, having three strata of cellular tissue the central filamentous,

the intermediate of large round cells, the cortical of minute cells in vertical rows.
Fructification of spores half
:

spherical masses (favellidia)

immersed in the frond, and tetraspores, which are tetrahedrally subdivided, and occur scattered. The two British species, K. reniformis and Dubyi, are both
BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ah/. 150, pi. 19 B 123 Bnyl. Bot. pi. 2116. pi. 13.
; ;

Phyc. Brit.
Jungermannia
albicans.

Stem with succubous

lateral

leaves

and aniphigaBtria, and a

unopened perigone.
Magnified 10 diameters.

1.

(tlieir bases covered by tbe tips of those below). * Leaves complicate, two-lobed. t Ampliigastria Lejeunia, present Phracimicoma, FruUania, Madotheca, Ptilidmm.

Leaves incubous

genus of Marattiaceous Ferns, with curious roundish sori, formed of radiately coherent sporanges, opening by a slit at the top (fig. 381).
I

KAULFUSSIA, Blume.-

Fig. 381.

KauTfusBia.

spec,
)
.

Assam (Hooker,
Mfill,

&'yn.

sorus.

444

KERO'NA,
Char.

Ehr. A

Magn.25 diams. genus of Inalso

fusoria, of the family Oxytrichina.

Body covered with cilia, hooks

tt Amphigastria absent. Radula. ** Leaves not complicate, two-lobed. Trochocolea, t Amphigastria present Sendtnera, Schisma, Herpetium, Cahj:

poyeia.

present, but no styles. K. polyporum, Stylonichia polyporurn, Body whitish, depressed, (PI. 50. fig. 13). elliptico-reniform, with a row of longer cilia in front below the mouth j length 1-144", Parasitic upon Hydra.

2.

tt Amphigastria wanting. Physiotium. Leaves succubous (the bases covering the tips of those below).
*

Amphigastria

Saccof/i/na, present CheiJoscyphus, Lophocolea, SphaynocceAJlicularia, tis, Junyennannia,

:

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 368; Duj. Inf. 422; Claparede et Lachm. Infus. 69, 101. KERO'NIA. family of Infusoria (Duj.), nearly corresponding to the Oxytrichina of Ehr.

**

Amphigastria

absent:

Dujardin's family comprises Oxytricha, and Kerona.

Halteria,

Playiochila,

Sarcoscyphus, Gymnomitrium, JfajilomiSee the genera. trium.

genus of Conipresenting some interesting characters in the Wood, the Pollen, and the development of the Ovules. JUTE. The liher of Corchorus capsularis,

JUNIP'ERUS, L.A

kidney consists of its enveloping m6mbrane and the secreting parenchpna.

KIDNEY. The
The membrane

is

fers,

called the capsule.

It is

a firm fibrous coat, composed of con-

densed connective tissue, and is continuous with that constituting the matrix of the kidney, in the meshes of which are the

Willdenow, an East-Indian plant belonging

to the family of the Tiliaceas, so many of which furnish fibrous substances, such as the hast used for matting, which is the liber Jute has a very long, of the lime-tree.

glossy fibre, and into this country.

is

PI. 28.

very largely imported 3 represents fig.

the single liber-tibres (see

FiBEOUS Struci.

tures and Liber).

BiBL. Hooker, Jn. Bot.
25, 1849.

At uriniferous tubes and blood-vessels. the notch of the kidney, or the hilum, this fibrous capsule is continuous with the outer coat of the pelvis of the kidney, and also with the sheaths of the blood-vessels. The parenchyma, in a transverse section, appears to the naked eye to consist of two parts the inner or medullary substance, and The medullary subthe outer or cortical. stance is composed of 8-15 isolated conical

KIDNEY.

447

KIDNEY.

masses or pyramids, converging towards the hilum, and "their apices forming the papillic whilst the cortical substance constitutes the outer part of the organ, and fills up the inMicroterstices between the pyramids. also scopically examined, the cortical part becomes'resolved into as many segments as there are pyramids hence the kidneys may be regarded as composed of a certain nimiber of intimately connected lobnles. Both the cortical and the tubular substance consist principally of the minary tubules. These commence in each segment or lobule by very numerous orifices on the surface of the pa*pilla3, and pass through the pyramids,
; ;

finally
sules.

becoming again tortuous and enlarged before terminating in the Malpighian cap383.

Fig. 382.

ected,

Papilla of the kidney of a pig with the tubules inshowing their origins upon the svirface. Magnified 10 diameters.

running straight and nearly parallel with each other (fig. 383 k). During this course they undergo repeated dichotomous subdivision (fig. 383 /), the branches being given off at a very acute angle, and at first with considerable diminution in size and sometimes they divide into three or four branches, so that ultimately a larger bundle of tubes proceeds from them, producing the increased breadth of the p>i-amids towards the exte;

rior.

Towards the base of the pyramids, the parallel tubules become more loosely connected by the interposition of bundles of arteries and veins (which run
straight),

and they diverge in all an undulating course.

direetions, pui'suing

On reaching the cortex, the tubules branch ofi'and increase in diameter, becoming also very tortuous then they turn back, diminishing in breadth, and run parallel with their first course, but in the opposite direction. They then form a curve, the loop of Henle, and run upwards again,
;

Perpendicular section of the injected kidney of a rabthrough part of a pyramid. On the left the course of the vessels, on the right that of the tubules is shown. a, interlobular arteries, with their Malpighian tufts b, and vasa efferentia c <?, capillaries of the cortical portion; e, vasa efferentia of the outermost tufts, passing to the surface of the kidney f, vasa efferentia of the innermost tufts, running into the straight aTterina, g, g, g ; h, capillaries of the pyramids, arising from the latter ; i, a sti-aight vein commencing at the papilla k, origin of a urinary tubule at a papilla; I, o, branches of the same; m, coiled portion in the cortex; n, the same at the surface of the kidney ; p, connexion with the Malpighian capsules. Magnified 30 diameters.
bit
; ; ;

The urinary tubules are cylindrical, and usually consist of a basement membrane

KIDNEY.
(fig.

448

KIDNEY.

d.

with pavement epithelium, is very transWithin it is a parent, but firm and elastic. single laj^er of nucleated polygonal epithelial cells (fig. 384 d, e). These, when immersed
b) lined

384

The b.asement membrane

tuft

The basement membrane surrounding the (fig. 384 a) is somewhat thicker than
;
;

in water, lose their polygonal form, become rounded, and appear to fill up the tubules entirely they often also burst; and then the tubules appear to contain nothing more than a finely granular mass with nuclei.
;

elsewhere and the epithelium lining it is continued over the free surface of the tuft but this is denied by Bowman. The Malpighian tufts consist of close convolutions of fine vessels derived from branches of the renal

These changes are found

to

have taken place

The latter enter the kidney between artery. the pyramids, and continue to divide until arriving at the cortical substance, where they give off" a number of long branches, mostly running towards the convex surface of the kidney, between the lobules, hence called interlobular arteries. From these, short (mostly lateral) branches are given off", each of which terminates in a Malpighian

Each forming its afferent vessel. afferent vessel, on entering the Malpighian body, divides into 5-8 branches, each of
tuft,

Fig. 385.

1. A Malpighian body A, with the urinary tubule B C, a, Capsule of the Malpighian body, continuous with 6, the b;i8ement membrane of the tubule c, epithelium of the Malpighian body d, that of the tubule ; afferent vessel; g, effee, detached epithelial cells; /, rent vessel; k, Malpighian tuft. 2. Three epithelial cells from coiled tubules, one of them containing globules of fat. Magnified 300 diameters.

human,

is not fresh. spontaneously if the kidney But the structure of the tubules varies. Thus, in some parts of the convoluted in a tubules, the nuclei ajipear imbedded while pulpy mass or a granular epithelium
;

From
artery;
(?,

human
;

kidney,
vessels;
e,

a,

end of an interlobular

epithelium the papillae the

ab-ont.

in others, clear epithelial cells exist, and In are larger than in the straight tubules. the tubuli of the medullary portion, the is columnar; and in the tubuli of

6, aft'erent

efferent vessels

e, naked Malpighian tuft; tufts enclosed in their capsules ;

f, ui'inary tubules arising from them. Magnified 45 diameters.

which becomes subdivided

capillaries;

basement

membrane

is

as terminal dilatations of the tubules, ench

The Malpighian bodies may be regarded

containing a round plexus of vessels, forming the Malpighian tuft.

into a tuft of these are variously convoluted and interwoven, ultimately uniting in a single vessel, the efferent vessel. The afferent and efferent vessels are usually situated near each other, and opposite the origin of the urinary tubule.

KIDNEY.
The
arising-

449

KIDNEY.

efForent

from the

ghian
veins,

tiifts,

in import termiuate in the capillary network situated in the cortical substance and the pyramids. This network closely surrounds the coiled tubules on all sides, and forms a connected the kidney, the meshes plexus throughout but near of which are" roundish-angular the pvramids the afferent vessels are larger, and dill'er from the rest in their straighter course and more sparing ramitication. The veins of the kidney commence on the surface of the organ and at the apices of the papillfe by small branches connected with the plexus"; these by their union form the larger larger ones, which accompany
;

wliich, altliouu-h capillaries of the Malpiare rather small arteries than and partly in structure,
vessels,

the fibrous capsid(>, and which is connected by numerous deheato processes with the inner stroma. The pehis of the kidney with the calyces and the ureter consist of an outer hbroin, a

muscular, and a mucous coat. The fibrous coat is composed of ordinary connective tissue, mixed with elastic tissue. The mucous coat is thin, and not furIts epithenished with glands or papillas. lium (tig. 387 b) is laminated, and remarkFig. 387,
yt.
y^

arteries.

Bowman

compares the solitary efferent

vessels of the Malpighian bodies to the portal system of the hver, both serving to convey

blood between twc capillary systems

and

so these efferent vessels collectively form the portal system of the kidney.

The interstices between the vessels, nerves, and tubules of the kidney are occupied by a stroma of connective tissue (hg. 386 c), conFig. 386.

3%
''-f

Epithelium of the pelvis of the kidney

human.

A. Isolated cells: o, small, 6, large pavement-epithelial cells; c, the same containing the granules; d, cy-

lindrical

and conical

inteimediate forms.

cells from the deeperlayers; B. Cells in silu.

e,

Magnified 350 diameters.

able for the variable form and size of ita

elements (fig. 387 a), the deeper cells being roundish and small, tho.se in the middle cylindrical or conical, and the uppermost
polygonal, and somewhat flatcells frequently contain two nuclei, and bright rounded granules with dark margins. Lymphatics accompany the blood-vessels at the hilum, and pass between the groups and the of tortuous tubules in the cortex nerves penetrate the kidney with the vestheir course. sels, and present ganglia in In the Mammalia generally the structure of the kidneys agrees essentially with that

roundish,

tened.

The

Transverse section of the cortical urinary tubules; a, divided tubules, with the epi( helium rec, 6, the same, containing the epithelium ; stroma of connective tissue d, space corresponding to a Malpighian body. Magnified 250 diameters.

human,

moved

and which is much taining elongated nuclei, in the medullary than in the At the surface this frecortical portion. becomes condensed to form a very

more abundant
qiiently distinct

membrane, but

loosely adherent to

of man. In the lower Vertebrata

they

exhibit

2g

KIDNEY.
differences,

450

KIEKBYA.

which

relate principally to the

:

the form, which in birds, fishes, and reptiles is considerably more elongated, and frequently flattened 2, the lobulation, which in the human adult

following particulars

1,

loaded with fatty globules, producing the well-knowai granular appearance. And in certain cases, the kidneys become "waxy," the Malpighian corpuscles and intertubnlar spaces, sometimes the tubules also, being

kidney

is

indistinct,

although marked in

that of other Vertebrata the separate lobules are very distinct, sometimes being connected only by the branches of the ureter 3, the Malpighiau tufts, which in birds, reptiles, and fishes consist of a
tlie foetus,

whilst

in

with amjdaceous corpuscles. In examining the structure of the kidney, sections must be made with a Valentin's The arrangement of the vessels may knife. be shown by injection; and the injected
filled

single convoluted vessel, and which in some (naked reptiles) are larger, in others (osseous

than in man, whilst in birds the sheep) thej'- have been found inserted into the sides of the tubules and 4, in the structure and arrangement of the urinary tubules these are uniform in size in fishes, furnished with ciliated epithelium in the reptiles and fishes, and pi'eseut varieties in regard to the convolution, branching, and termination in the ureter. Renal organs have been noticed in the
fishes) smaller

(also

Mollusca, Arachnida, and Insecta. The epithelial cells of the urinary tubules are not unfi'equenlly found to contain the

preparations are very beautiful, and form general favourites. The Malpighian bodies are readily filled, the injection being thrown into the artery and they are easily recognized by their resemblance to little apples upon the branches of a tree (PI. 39. fig. 35). The injection should be red. If the injection be coarse, it will burst through tlie capillaries of the tufts, and partly fill the tubides as in fig. 383 ^j; but if it be fine, it will fill the venous plexus. The urinaiy tubules should be injected from the ureter, white (lead) injection being used; and considerable force is required to make a good
;

ordinary urinary -deposits, which are more often still met with in the cavities of the tubides. Many of these are probably, however,

formed

after

death

(see

Ueinaey

deposits). Among the morbid changes of the Idduey, passing over cancer, tubercle, variations in the degree of vascularity, the presence of calculi, and the ordinary products of inflammation, may be mentioned the occurrence of cysts. These are met wdth of various The walls size and in variable number. of the cysts do not differ in structure from those of the tubules, except in being thickened; they have been accounted for as arising from dilatation of the tubules or
capsules, in consequence of obstruction to the escape of the urine, distention of the epithelial cells of the tubules, and degeneration of their nuclei,

mut be very gradually apFrey recommends the cold ferridcyanide injection, or carmine with glycerine or gum. The tubules can be well examined by boiling pieces of the kidney with very dilute sulphuric acid, or in alcohol mixed with muriatic acid or by digestion in cold coninjection, but this
plied.
;

Malpighian

The first is probably cells. the general cause, and certainly an occasional one, the Malpighiau tufls having been found within the enlarged cysts after Sometimes the cysts are those of injection. JEchinucocci. In Blight's kidney the tubules are found de^u'ived of tlicir epithelium, the cells filled with albuminous, fibrinous, or fatty matter, and the fibrous tissue in the advanced stage both increased,
forming colloid

acid, the pieces being subsequently macerated in water, to remove the acid. The kidneys of the smaller and lower animals are be;)t injected from the heart. The usual staining pi'ocesses are very useful. BiBL. Kolliker, Mik. An. ii. Bowman, Phil. Tr. 1842; Johnson, Todd's Cyclop. art. JRtn\ Toynbee,' J/(?rZ. Clii. Tr. xxx. Forster, Tath. Anat. Frerichs, Brightsche Nierenkranh. Gairdner, Edinb. M. Jn. viii. Todd and Bowman, Phys. Anat. ; Henle, Ahh. Geselh. Wiss. 'OoUin. x. ; Ludwig, Strieker's Ilandh. i. 489; Riudtieisch. Path. 1878, 434; Gross, Structure Mic. du Rein, Strasbourg, 1868 Frev, Mikr. 1881, and Tlistol. 1876, 554. small bivalved KIRK'BYA, Jones. Entomostracau, of the I^eperditiada? family,
;

centrated muriatic

and nearly

allied to Beijrichia.

The

valves

becomiug undistinguishable in some parts, whilst in others the cells and tubules are

ridged longitudinally and concentrically, often reticulated superficially, and impressed with a subcentrnl pit. Fossil in tln^ Palaeozoic rocks, from the Silurian to the Permian, and often very abundant. BiiiL. R. Jones, Tr.Ti/nesideNat. Club,iv. 134 Ann. N. H. ser. 4, iii. 223.
;

KNIFE.

451

LAFOEA.

KNIFE, VALENTIN'S.
tion, p. xxvi.

Introduc-

KONDYEOS'TOMA,

Diij. A geuiis of

Lifusoria, of the family Bursurina.

Char. Body elongated, cylindrical or fusiform, slightly arcuate, the ends obtuse and depressed, with a very large mouth margined with stout cilia, and situated latesurface obliquely rally at the anterior end strinted and ciliated.
;

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. 403; Huxley, Mic. Leydig, Siehold mid KiHl. Zeit. 18.52 Ukedem, Ann. Set. N. 3 st5r. 1851 j Cubitt, 31. Mic. Jn. 1872-73. LACRYMA'RIA, Bory.A genus of
Jn. 1852
;

Infusoria, of the family Traclielina, Clap, et

Lach.
Char. Body rounded behind, not ciliated; with a long and slender neck, which is dilated at the end, and furnished with a ciliated mouth and a lip, but no teeth (= Trachelocerca without a tail).

K. jMfcm (PL

31. fig.

31

fig.

32, slightly

compressed). BiBL. Duj. Infus.

Inf. 244.

51G; Clap, et Lacli.

ter-

L. proteus, syn. L.
turgid,
strise
;

olor.

"KR A USE'S

CORPUSCLES.The

colourless,

with
;

neck very long

doubtful

oblong, oblique freshwater length

delicate
;
:

Body

minal bulbs of the nervous plexus and interlacing nerve-tibres of tlie conjunctiva. They consist of a connective-tissue sheath with nuclei, au internal bulb of finely granular dull-shining material, within which is a pale terminal fibre with a somewhat thickened end. BiBL. Krause, U. term. Korper, 1868; Strieker, Geu-ebe, ii. 123.

1-140".

Two

colourless and

without

species

one (Z. gutta)

;

strise

the

other

(L. rugosa) containing gi'een matter, with the body wrinkled. Claparede describes two other species.

KKITHE,B., C., and R.

L.

See Ilyobates.

genus of Phaci(Ascomycetous Fungi), growing upon L. Ptarmicce, Desm., grows living leaves. upon the leaves of AchiUea Ptarmica. BiBL. Berk. Ann. N. H. i. 208, pi. 7.
diacei
fig.

LABREL'LA, Fr. A

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. 309; Duj. Inf. 468; hf. Kent, Inf. 51 7. LACTA'RIUS. A genus' of Hymenomycetous Fungi, distinguished from Agaricus by the inner substance of the gills (trama) being vesicidar instead of filamenClap, et Lach.
;

juice;

Most of the species abound in milky and several of them are esculent. Amongst the most approved is L. deliciusus,
tous.
its

remarkable for
milk.

bright orange-coloured

group of extinct Amphibia. Transverse sections of the teeth of the species of this group are beautiful microscopic objects.

LABYRINTHODON'TA.A

Fries,

Stimma

J^eq.

422.

acrid species, however, as L. jnperitus, are largely consumed in Russia, having first in general been preserved in salt and vinegar. The milk is contained in pecidiar vessels, similar to the laticiferous vessels of Phanerogams. See Laticife-

Some

LABYRIN'THULA, Cieukow. a
nus or group of Protozoa.

BiBL. Owen, Odontography.

rous Tissue.

geof

Composed

BiBL. Fr. Epia: 333; Berk. Outl. 203; Cooke, Handb. 206; Corda, Jc, fasc. 4,
pi.

microscopic, thin, reticular, colourless, rigid filaments, on which fusiform bodies glide very slowly in various directions the filaments arise from imbedded globular red or yellow masses. Two species, on submerged posts; Odessa. BiBL. Oienkowski, Arch. mik. An. iii. 274.
;

10. fig. 1.30.

LACTATES.
lime (PL 11.
20).
fig.

See the bases lactate of

19), lactate of zinc (fig.

LACTEALS.

See Villi.
of

L.-EMAR'CtUS, Kroyer. a genus

LACE-BARK. See Thymeleace^. LACINULARIA, Oken. a genus of

Rotatoria, of the family Floscularifea. Char. Eyes two (when young); urceolior gelatinous sheaths aggregated into a spherical mas,-<
;

Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma, and family Cecropidae. L. muricatus. Found upon the sun-fish (Orfhagoriscus mo/a). Length of female 1";

male much smaller.

of Lafoeidae, of the suborder Thecaphora (or Hydroida with true calycles). Char. Stem a simple creeping tubular fibre, or erect and composed of many tubes

rotatory organs with

;

two

LAFO'EA, Lamx: A genus

BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entovios.

p.

293.

lobes.

Urceoli gelatinous, yellowish rotatory organ veiy broad, in the form of a horseshoe ; fr. wat.
socialis (PI. .50. fig. 15).
;

L.

length 1-36".

aggregated together, rooted bv a filiform 2g 2

LAFOEID.E.
;

4.52

LAOMEDEA.

stolon hydrothecae tubular, sessile, or with a short pedicel without an operculum

; ;

polypites
boscis.

cylindiical,

with a conical promifi. Ph. Jn. 1858.

There are

five British species.

Blbl. llincks, Brit. Zmpli. p. 198. LAFOE'ID.E. suborder of Hydi-oida. See Lafoi^a.

LAGY'NIS,

LAGY'NUS,

Schultze, = 'M/7??/^j7<a pt. Quenn. genus of Holo-

LAGE'NA, Walker & Jacob. unilocular (rarely bilocular) In^aline Foraminifer, of the Nodosarine g-roup, generally flaskThe shell may be subglobular, shaped. oval, oblong, or fusiform round, compressed, or angular in section vaiiously
;

Free, flask-shaped, with an oral cu-cle of longer cilia neck ringed. L. eleyans, freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 520.) LAMES'A'RLi, Lamx. genus of La;

trichous Infusoria.

ornamented with ribs, network, tubercles, and spines open at one or both ends, with or without a neck, and often with the tube turned inwards (Entosolenian). Recent and fossil all over the world. Layena Icecis (PL 23. f. 22) is a typical and very common form. L. {Entosolenia) f/Iobosa (f. 2.3), with
;

common
late.

the neck-tube introverted, is another very L. striata (f. 24) is an variety.

mjuariaceee (Fucoid Algse), with large, flat, stipitate fronds, several species of which are common on rocky shores, attached to rocks and stones. L. saccluirina has a ribandshaped frond, growing from 2 to 12 feet L. cliyitata has a broad frond, 1 to long. 5 feet long, cut into a variable number of segments. The internal structure presents three layers, the outermost forming a kind of epidermis. The sporanyes (spores of authors) contain ciliated zoospores which reproduce the plant. They are little elon-

elongato-apiculate variety, delicately costuL. semistriata (f. 25) is L. globosa with short basal ribs. L. sqiiamo-fa (f -IQ) was so called because the early microscopes showed the pitted reticulation as raised L. scaJariformis (f. 27) has a bold scales.

The last is hexagonal mesh ornament. recent, and the others are both fossil and
recent.

gated sacs, nestling between epidermal cells of peculiar structure, standing perpendicularly upon the central stibstance of the frond. In L. saccharina the presence of the sporanges is denoted by a longitudinal brown mark in the centre of the frund in L. diyitata they occur in flat patches on the extremities of the digitations. The zoo;

BiBL. Carpenter,
Jones, Phil.

Introcl.

156

Parker

&

Mon.
soria,

LAGENEL'LA, Ehr.A
fam. Cryptomouadina.

Cracj

Foram.

Tr. civ. 345; P., J. 28.

&

Brady,

spores are little olive-coloui-ed bodies, with an anterior and posterior cilium. Thuret has seen them germinate.

genus of Infu-

L. euchlora (PI. 31. figs. 35 & 36) has a carapace with a beak or neck like that of a bottle, and a red eye-spot; freshwater; lenirth 1-1150"; probabty an Alga-spore. BiBL. Ehr. Lif. 45; l)uj. Inf. 3.33.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Aly. 29, pi. 4; Phyc. Br. pi. 192, 22.3, 241 Greville, Aly. Brit. t. 5 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xiv. 240, Henfrev-Masters, Bot. pi. 30. figs. 1-4
; ;
;

LAMINARLi'CE.E.A
Olive-coloured

family of Fu-

coidese.

weeds,

whose

LAGENIP'ORA, Hincks. A genus of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, fam. Porinidie. i. socialis, on shells of the scallop [Pecten ma.rimus) Hastings. (Hincks, Pulyz. 235.) LAGENGE'CA, Kt. A genus of Fla;

either forming or covering the

:

inarticulate seasporanges are superficial, indefinite cloud-like patches,

whole sm-face of the frond.

in

Brit, genera * Frond stalked, the stalk ending expanded leaf-like portion.
Alai-ia.

an

Leaf membranous, with a

carti-

gellate Infusoria. Char. Solitary, with a collar, in a protective sheath. L. cuspidata (PI. 53. fig. 21), ambercoloured pond water. (Kent, Inf. 359. )
;

laginous midrib.

LAGE'NOPHKYS,

Stein.A genus of

Laminaria. Leaf simple or cleft, without a midrib. ** Frond simple, leafless. Chorda. Frond cylindrical, hollow, with transverse partitions.

Vorticellina (Infusoria). Char. Capsides not stalked, attached by the side to other bodies ; body suspended

from the narrow

the
tail

orifice.
;

of Cydopsine

L. vayinicula, on 2 other species on

LAMINGSIOP'TES, Megn. genus of Acarina, allied to Sarcoptes. L. yallinarum occurs in the subcutaneous tissueof the (?a^//'(Megniu, Pf/r^.v. 151,fig.).

Gammarus.

(Stein, Infus. 1854.)

LAOMEDE'A, Lamx. g.nus of Hydroid Zoophytes, family Campauulariidse."

LAOPIIOXTE.
CJiar.

453
;

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.
:

the

joint>i

Polypidom rooted, erect, jointed rinued and incrassate; cells alter;

nate, canipanulate, on short pednncles vesicles axillary; embrj'os medusiforni. Six British species dichatoma (ovicell,
:

PI.

4 c), geniculata, f/elafinosa, ob/iqua, F/cminf/ii, and htcerata. Found upon marine
'-V^.

fig.

which are converted into true becoming free on the surface these contain numerous asci when mature; but the spores have not been observed. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 324 Ann. N. H. 2 ser. ix. 386, pi. 12. fig. 44 Fries, Sum. Veg. 406 Greville, Sc. Crypt. Fl. pi.
cial cells of

perithecia,

Alga?, stones,

kc, between tide-marks.

; ;

191.

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 101 Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. :24 Hincks, Br. Zooph. LAOPHON'TE, Philippi. A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. Eight species, in dredgings. (Brady, Copep., Bay Soe. ii. 70.) LAR, Gosse. geuus of Hydroid Zoo-

Presl. genus of Aspi(Polypodiaceous Ferns), now consolidated with Nephrodium.

LASTRiEA,

diese

LATEX. The

name

phytes.

Char. Bodies fusiform, sessile, with two tentacula springing from the base of a bilobate proboscis, developed on a creeping and

anastomosing stolon. Lar saheUarum. The polypites bear a close resemblance to the human figure. BiBL. Gosse, Linn. Tr. xxii. 113, tab. xx. Hincks, Br. Zooph. 36. LAREL'LA, Ehr. genus of Rotifera, fam. Brachionea. Char. Body with equal setre and three long fine hairs on each side of mouth ; two frontal eyes length 1-190 to 1-280". BiBL. 'Piitchard, Infns. 712. In animals which pass LARVx-E.
;

watery which float globules of caoutchouc, or analogous gum-resinous matter, of variable size, of occasionally mixed with starch-granules 48. peculiar forms, as in Euphorbia (PI. According to Sachs andHanstein fig. 23). it is a fluid which contains matters of a which directly nutritive character and others
are excrementitious in their nature. Trecul, on the other hand, appears to consider that the latex is the residue of the sap after elaboration by the cells. See Laticiferous

culiar juices, becoming milky when ex* posed to air, contained in the milk-vessels,' or laticiferous canals of plants, especially abundant in Euphorbiacese, Papaveraceae, It appears to consist of a Cichoracese, &c. fluid, with albumen in solution, in

applied to the pe-

TISSUE.

throug-h certain marked stages of development, or undergo metamorphosis, as it is called, the condition in the first of these stages is called the larval state, and the animal itself is called a larva. The aquatic larvae of several insects are well-known microscopic favourites on account of their transparence, which allows the action of the dorsal vessels, with the circulation of the nutritive liquid, to be seen, and their curious respiratory organs. few of the more common aquatic larvse and their parts are represented in PI. 35. 29 these are noticed figs. 1, 14-17, 19-22, more in detail imder their respective heads. The aquatic larvae of some Amphibia are admirable objects for exhibiting the circulation of the blood, the deAelopment of tissues, &c.. as those of the frog (tadpoles) and of the Triton. LASIOB'OTRYS,Ktz. genus of Peri-

BiBL. Schultz, Vaisseanx laticiferes d. Plantes, 1841 Mohl, Bot. Zeit. 1843 ; Ann. N. H. xiii. 441.
;

LATHONU'RA, Lilljeborg. genus of Cladocerous Entomostraca. CJiar. Carapace obovate, not produced, ventral margin furnished with peculiar flattened spear-shaped plates attached to the edge. I Irish species. BiBL. Norman & Brady, Monogr., Nat.
Hist. Tr. Northumb.

LATHR^A. A

genus of Orobancha-

ceous Flowering Plants. L. squamaria, a remarkable plant, found here and there in beech-woods in England, has been the subject of much research as regards embiyoSee Ovule. logy, by Schacht and others. LATICIFEROUS TISSUE, ducts, ca-

nals, or VESSELS. These names are applied to the tubular and often ramified canals in which the milky juice or latex of many The naplants is contained (tigs. 388, 389).
ture, or rather the origin, of these canals is

sporacei (Ascomycetous Fungi). L. Lonicerce grows on the living leaves and stems of various kinds of Honeysuckle, forming little heaps seated on a tuft of radiating filaments. The so-called peridioles appear to be sclerotioid bodies, the superfi-

a matter of dispute. The ducts present themselves in various forms, especially in the rind and pith of the Apocynacese,
still

Asclepiadacefe, Moraceae, Urtieaceae, Papaveraceae, Cucurbitace8e,Euphorbiaceae,Aroi-

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.

454

LAURENCIA.

dese, &c. Simple unbrauclied milk-vessels occur in tlae pith of the elder.

bringing the uninjured sepal of Convolvulus or a leaf of Chelidonhon under the microscope (placing it in oil is advantageous in the latter case), the branched latex-ducts may be made out, and a flowing movement of the particles may be seen occasionally. But this has been shown to depend upon a disturbance of the equilibriimi by external
causes, such as pressure and heat, and may be produced at will in any direction by

They have

Schacht regards them all as liber-cells. also been considered intercellular passages, originally devoid of a proper coat, but subsequently acquiring one of variable thickness, derived apparently from the secretion which they contain yet the pre;

sence of transverse partitions would invalidate

Fig. 388.

Fig. 389.

making an
flows. canals

incision, towards which the juice Trecul thinks that the laticiferous communicate freely with the pitted ducts and other vascular elements, and take a share in a kind of circulation, wherein they play the part of venous reser\oirs but his views do not appear to us well founded. Bjbl. Schleiden, Prmcip. of Bot. 1849
;

Unger, An. und Pliys. 184(3,54; Schacht, Monat. Berlin Akad. 1856; Flora, 1857, 89; Meyen, Secretionsorgane, 1837, 63 Trecul,
;

Ann.

So.

AW.4 ser. vii. 290;

;

Hanstein, Milch;
;

saftgefdsse,

1864 Dippel, Milchs. 1865 Vogel, Jahr. wiss. Bot. v. 31 Sachs, Bot.

88

LAURENCIA, Lamx. A genus of Laurenciacefe (Florideous Algse), containing several British species, mostly conimou, of yellowish-green, purple, or pink colour, the fronds pinnately braucbed, of solid parenThe ceramidia are chymatous structure.

Fig. 388. Laticiferous canals from tlie root of Dandelion. Magn. 100 diams. Fig. 389. Laticiferous tissue extracted from Chelidoniutn majus, Magn. 100 diams.

Fig. 390.

this view.

Unger, however, imagines that, while some are formed in this way, they are mistly developed out of confluent rows of and Trecul is cells, like the dotted ducts
;

of opinion that they are ordinarily formed in this way. Dippel considers that they replace the clathrate cells of other plants. Canals bounded by a defined coat of cellular tissue, forming intercellular canals or ducts of very definite cliaracter, occur in the ConlferK, tlie Guttiferae, Auacardiacese, &c. These will be spoken of under Secreting

Organs of Plants.
Canals containing a milky juice occur in

some of the Fungi, as in the fleshy substance of some Agarics, Zactarius, Sec. It was declared some years ago by Schultz
that a regular circulation of tlie latex takes place through the ramified laticiferous ducts. This was chiefly supported on observations of movements of the latex which may be made on tolerably transparent parts of By living plants containing these ducts.

Laureucia dasyphylla.

Eamnli containing

tetraspores.

Magnifled 50 diameters.

borne on the smaller branches, as are also the antheridia the tetraspores are imbedded The ceramidia in the ramuli (fig. 390). contain tufts of pear-shaped spores; the
;

LAURENCIACE^E.
tetraspores are tetralieclrally divided.

455

LEAVES.

The

autlieridia ave thus described (in L. tenuis-

nemacone (Fucoid Algoe), consisting of globose or lobulated lleshyor horny structures,

sima) by Thuret
similar to those

on the smaller branches,

on other indi\ luted plates of cellular tissue, of irregular form, bordered by a line of roundish cells,
containing generally a yellow liquid. Hyaline cells containing antlierozoids are imon these plates, clothing planted vertically both surfaces. The antheridium has a sort of pedicel formed of an ovoid cell, which also bears a dichotoraous hair, like those common over the branches of this plant. The autherozoids are elongated-ovoid, a
little

which bear the ceramidia iduals, occur grej-ish convo-

growing upon rocks, either solid, or, by the solution of the internal filamentous subTlie fronds are stance, ultimately hollow. composed of masses of dichotomous filaments radiating from a point ; in the olivecoloured tufted species cohering laterally, and forming the soft, fine coat of the lobes. The sporanges are simple oval sacs attached to the ends of branches of the radiating filaments, between which they nestle ; or multilocular, consisting of short septate filaments occurring in similar situations, which are said by Thuret to be more common ; and
the two kinds have not been met with

about 3-5000".
obsei'ved
species.

constricted at one extremity, length Derbes and Solier have

them on L.

pinnatijida

and other
12

BiBL.
;

Plarvey, Mar. Ah/.

;

97, pi.

5o Grev. Ahj. Br. 108, pi. 14 Derbes and Solier, Ann. Sc. Kat. 3 ser. xiv. 276, pi. 37 Thuret, ib. xvi. 65, pi. 7,
Phi/c. Brif. pi.
;

lb. ser. 4. iii.

19.

LAURENClA'CE.E.A family of
rideae.

Flo-

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 48, pi. 10 C Enql. Bot. pi. 1596 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 237, pi, 26. figs. 5-12. LEAVES. The microscopic structure of leaves presents a wonderful variety of conditions, from the most simple up to very complex. Instances of the former are seen in the Mosses, JuNGERMANNiE^,aud other
;
;

together.

Rose-red or purple sea-weeds with

a cylindrical or compres.-ed, rarely flat, lior conneal", narrow, areolated, inarticulate,

stricted

Flo werless plants, lular plate exists.

where merely a simple

cel-

In the simpler leaves of

and chambered, branching frond

:

of polygonal cells. Fructification 1, conceptacles {ceramidia) external, ovate, furnished with a terminal pore, and containing a tuft of pear-shaped spores 2, te-

Fig. 391.

composed

trasporcs immersed in the branches and ramidi, scattered without order through the surface cells ; 3, anfkeridia.

British genera Bonnemaisonia. Frond solid, filiform, rose-red, much branched; branchesmargined with subulate distichous cilia.
:

Laiirencia. Frond solid, cylindrical or flattened, purplish or yellowish, pinnatifid, ramuli blunt.

Chrysimenia. Frond hoUow, filled with mucus, neither constricted nor chambered. Chylocladia. Brancheshollow, with mucus,
constricted at intervals. fossil Entomostracan LEA'IA, Jones. Bivalve, of unknown alliance, probably a

Vertical section pf a leaf of a Melon.

P. S, subjacent close parenJ/, infra-stomatal air-space; L, intercellular space; F. v, flbro-vascular bundle (rib or vein ) P. i, inferior lax parenchyma; S. i, inferior epidermis; P, hairs ; ST, stoma.
;

E. S, superior epidermis

Phyllopod.

Valves oblong; marked with

chyma;

two obliquely transverse, divergent ridges, concentric lines of growth, and intermediate Known in the Coal-measures reticulation.
of Britain
Geol.

Magnified 100 diameters.

and America.
i^oss. Estlierite,

BiBL. Jones,

1862, 115

May.

vii.

219.

LEATHE'SIA, Gr^iy. A genus of Mvrio-

LEANGIUM,

Lk.

See Dideema.

Ferns, such as Hymenophylltjm, we have a cellular plate traversed by vascular ribs. In Sphagnum (among the Mosses) the simple leaves have cells containing a spiral

LECANOEA.
fibre.

45G

LEIBLEINIA.
;

In the more complete forms "we dis-

tinguisli an epidermis, above and below, often difleriug in character on the two faces

Bot. pi. 245, &c.

(see

Epideemis and Stomata), together

ii. Engl. pt. 1. 177 Leighton, Lich. 240. tribe of Lichenacei, LECIDEI'NEL containing the genera LecideayOdontotrema,
;

BiBL. Hook. Br. FI.

with the diachyma or intervening celhilar mass, which varies in its characters in different plants, and is traversed by the tibrovascular ribs or veins.

The epidermis ex-

hibits Gl.\xi)S, Hairs, &c., in diiferent conditions and forms, which cannot be enumerated again here, many of the most inter-

and Schizoxylon. BiBL. Leighton, Lich. El. 240. LECYTH'EA, L^v. See Uredinet. LEECH.^Two species of the genus Hirudo, which belongs to the class Aunulata, are used for medicinal purposes, viz. //. mediemalis, in

esting forms being mentioned under the above heads. For observing the structure of leaves, when consisting of more than a simple cellular plate, horizontal and vertical sections are required. The latter are easily made with a sharp razor in thick and firm leaves ; but with delicate kinds it is necessary to split a soft cork, to place the leaf carefully between the pieces, and then to

both together, placing the fragments in water and picking out the pieces of the leaf with a needle. Many small simple leaves make good objects by drying, soaking the in turpentine, and mounting in balsam same may be done with petals, sepals, kc. Tlie leaves of many water-plants, such as of Tallisneria, Anacharis, CeratopJnfUum, Hottonia, (fcc, are very favourable for the obslice
;

which the ventral surface is greenish, with black spots and H. officinalis, in which these spots are absent. The structure of the mouth of the species of Hirudo is curious. The mouth is triangular (PI. 22. fig. 25), and placed in the middle of the anterior sucker. Each of its three sides is furnished with a semicircular jaw, of cartilaginous consistence (fig. 26, from above), upon side view fig. 27, view the convex margin of which are placed a large number of partly calcareous teeth 26 b) arranged in a row. The teeth (fig. (fig. 28, a side view, h view from above) are flattened, somewhat triangular, and excavated at the base, so as to exhibit two short prongs (d). They are placed transversely upon the jaws, which are moved by
;

servation of the rotation of the cell-sap (see Rotation). They are of very simple cellular structure, having no epidermis, stomata, or fibro-vascular ribs. Leaves also afford a large field for interesting study to the microscopist, in the examination of the colouring-matters and secretions in the cells, especially during the autumnal changes, of the 'development, &c., and moreover in the investigation of the which so frequently attack parasitic Fungi them both in the living and the decaying
state.

powerful muscles, and thus produce the well-known wounds. And this cross direction of the teeth
is probably the cause of the troublesome bleeding accompanying the bite of a leech, in consequence of the amount of laceration necessarily connected

with

it.

species of Hirudo have ten minute eyes, arranged in the form of a horseshoe at the upper part of the anterior sucker. The ova of leeches are deposited in a kind

The

of cocoon, composed of triangular

fibres,

LECAN'ORA, Ach. A

branched and interwoven so as to somewhat resemble a sponge, as which one of them

genus of Le-

was formerly
;

described.

canorei (Lichenaceous Lichens), the species growing chiefly on rocks, stones, and earth. Thalluscrustaceous, granular,rarely radiate paraphyses distinct ; apothecia lecanorine thecsB either eight-spored or polysporous ;
; ;

BiBL. Brightwell, Ann. N. H. 1842, ix. 11 Brandt and Ratzeburg, Mcdiz. Zool. ii. ; Johnson, Medicinal Beech Moquin-Tandon, Monog. Hirndinees Savigny, Ee.tcript. de
; ;

rEf/gpte,x\i.

spores simple.

BiBL. Hook. Br. Flor. ii. pt. 1 Engl. Bot. Lkh. 1879. pi. 940; Leighton, LECID'EA, Ach. A genus of Lecideinei (Lichenaceous Lichens), containing numerous British species. Tlie apothecia have a border of the same colour as the disk. Growing chiefly on rocks, sometimes on L. geor/rapliica, growing on subalpine bark. recks, is a rejnai'kable species.
;

Audouinand Milne-Edwards, Ann. jSc. Nat. 182.3, 27-oO R. Jones, Otdl. of An. Kingdom Gervais and Van Bencden, Zool. Med. Schultze, Zeits. iciss. Zool. xii.
; ; ;
;

18G2; Leuckart, Memch. Parasit. ;Gratiolet, An7i. Sci. Ned. iv. 17 Lankester, Qu. 31.
;

Jn. 1880, XX. .307.

rine plants, placed

LEIBLEl'NIA, Endl. A genus of maamong the i>tocarpaceae by Eudlicher, and among Oscillatoriacese (Confervoid Algae) by Kiitzing, who includes

LEIOSOMA.
under
it

457

LEMON.

many

other authors.

of the species of Cahthrix of Endlicher cites only C. con-

not British. fvrvicola, Ag., and another It is a minute, glaucous, tufted plant, formed of short, rigid, erect, subulate iilaments, and is common, epiphytic on marine filamentous Alg.ie. BiBL. ]<:ndl. Gen. Plant. Supp. iii. No. 69 Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 276; Harvey, Phyc. Br. 223, pi. 2(3 C. LEIOSO'MA, Koch. genus of Oribatea has the cephalothorax with plates, the tarsi with three heterodactyl claws two species. (Murray, Ec. Entom. 216, tig.)
;

Britain, L. toruhsa, Ag., and L.fluviatilis. They always grow in clear runniug streams. Thwaites has made some interesting obser-

vations on the development of these plants. Fig. 394.

Lemania

torulosa.

LEJEUX'IA, Libert. geiius of Juiigermanniepe (Ilepaticte), containing several rare British species, found in suhalpine disL. serpi/Uifolia, hamatifolia, minut issima, and cahiptnfuUa. The last is one of the smallest of the British Jungermanfor the peculiar nicae, and is remarkable form of its leaves, which resemble the calyptra of a moss (figs. 392, 393).
tricts, viz.

Section of frond, showing the tufts of fertile filaments.

Magn. 50 diams.

See CoMPSOGON. BiBL. Hassall, Alg. 68, pi. 7 Kiitz. Phyc. Thwaites, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. i. gen. 271 460 Wartmann, A7iat. d. Lemania., 1854 ; Sirodot, Lemaliabenhorst, Alg. iii. 410 neac. 1875 (23 pis.).
;

LEMBA'DIUM,

Perty.

genus of

Fig. 392.

Fig. 393.

Holotrichous Infusoria.
Char. Body oval, flat, with a broad deep buccal fossa, having an undulate membriine on one side. L. bullinum ; marsh water. BiBL. Claparede et Lachm. Inf. 251

Kent, Inf. 536.

LEM'BUS, Cohn. A

genus of Holo-

trichous Infusoria.

Free, elongate, mouth ventral; a triangular ventral undulating membrane. Four species ; marine. (Kent, Inf. 547.) LEM'NA, L. Duckweed. genus of

Lejennia ealyptrifolia.
Fig. 392.

Fig. 393.

Stem with calyptriform leaves, an immatnre plant (on the right), and a burst sporange. Magn. diams. A leaf of ditto. Magn. 25 diams.
.5

aquatic Monocotjdedonous plants, remarkable for their simplicity of structure, the vegetative system being replaced by a minute leaf -like floating stem, with dependent rootlets, furnished with a well-developed sheath The lobes of the (pileorhiza) at the end.

62

BiBL. Hook. Br. Jung. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1, 127.

;

pis.

42, 43, 51,

ofConfervoiOlive-coloured freshwater Algae, filamentous, inarticulate, of cartilagineo-coriaceous substance, and compound cellular texture. The /"ro??f7s branched, hollow, bearing within at irregular distances whorls of wart-like bodies consisting of tufted, simfilaments ple or branched, necklace-shaped from the inner wall of the (fig. 394), arising tubular frond, and finally breaking up into
dese.
elliptical spores.

LEMANI'E.E. A family

stem bear two monoecious imperfect flowers, and also propagate by bulbils formed in
the
in the side of the lobes the bidbils formed in autumn sink when the parent dies,, and rise again in spring. Spiral vessels occur abundantly in L.
slits
;

young

pohjrhiza

they are sparingly present in

the

rest.

British genus

Lemnnin.
family.

Two

Character the same as of the species have been found in

BiBL. Hook, and Arnott, Brit. Flor. ; Schleiden, Bot. 229; Weddell {Wolffia), Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. 12, 155. LEMON, EssEXTiAi. oil or. This is sometimes used in the microscopic examination of pollen and other structures, which are placed in it to render them more trans-

LExXTICELS.

458

LEPISMA.
mac-

parent, being less disagreeable and less volatile than oil of turpentine. Glycerine may often be substituted. LENTICELS. Structures found upon the surface of young stems, especially of most of the Dicotyledonous shrubs and trees. They first appear on the yearling shoot as little specks, of a different colour from the rest of the epidermis. Towards the winter, or in early spring, the epidermis which splits transversely over the lenticels,

various marine fishes, as the salmon, kerel, sole, brUl, turbot, &c.

L. pedoraUs (PI. 19. fig. 23). BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entvmost.

bivalve

LEPERDITIA, Rouault. An
codous on the
;
; ;

become then

slightly projecting papillae, frequently divided into lips, as it were, by a median furrow. The surface of the papilla and it is of corky character is now brown
;

Entomostracau, smooth straight bean-shaped dorsal, convex on the ventral smaUer in front than behind ; margin right valve overlapping the left along the ventral edge each valve bearing a pitted and radiate muscle-spot and an
;
;

273. extinct probably Ostrap.

oculai'
left

tubercle.
is

The

dorsal region of the

valve

swollen in

some

species.

for

some

little

distance inwards.

As

the

branch grows, the lenticels become drawn out laterally, so as to appear like cross strife. They are subsequently lost sight of by the bark splitting through them, as in the apple or beech, or by the bark peeling
off"

Fossil only. 30 Silurian species, 6 Devonian, and -14 Carboniferous, with many varieties. BiBL. Jones, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xvii. 81 ; 5 ser. ix. 168 M. Mic. Jn. iv. 184. LEPIDOCYR'TUS, Latr. genus of
;

(plane).

Microscopic examination of sections shows that they are mere hypertrophal productions from the epiphloeum, or suberous hnjer of the BARK, and have no connexion with the liber or cambium. DeCandolle imagined they were root-buds, where adventitious roots might arise under favourable circumstances but this was an error. Du
;

is one of the insects which the so-called Podura-&cales. The first segment of the thorax is as long as the two next, and projects so as to cover the neck and part of the head. It is found under

Thysanura. L. curvicollis
yield

stones or old wood.

See Poduba.

LEPIDOPTERA. An order of Insects,

consisting of butterflies and moths. Lepidopterous insects present several points of interest to the microscopic observer ; among these may be mentioned especially the proboscis or ANTLiA,the hook

Petit Thouars thought they were breathingthe stomata of the epiderpores, replacing mis; but they are not pores; and many trees, such as the Conifers, Roses, Euonymus europceus, &c., have none.

BiBL. DeCand. Ann. Sc. Nat. 1826, vii, Mohl, Vennischt. Schrift. 229, 2.33 Meyer, Linncea, vii. 447; Unger, Flora, 1836, ii. 677 St. Pierre, Compt. Rend. 1855 Ann. N. H. 2 ser. xvi. 273. LEPADEL'LA, Bory. A genus of Ro5;
;
;

connecting the wings (Insects, p. 432), the wings themselves, and the beautiful scales covering them (Scales of Insects, Testobjects). Their larvje or caterpillars are favourable subjects for the examination of the internal structure the trachere with their spiracles, the fatty body, the alimentary canal, the spinning organs, the curious

tatoria, of the family Euchlanidota.

legs, &c.

Char. Eyes absent

foot forked.

Three

species.

LEPISMA, Linn. A genus of Thysanurous Insects, family Lepismenae.

Char. Body elongated, flattened; antennae setaceous, with numerous very short joints ; palpi four, lono- abdomen terminated by three long filaments jointed near their ends. L. saccharina (PI. 35. fig. 18). Body
;

L. emarffinata (PI. 43. fig. 43). Carapace depressed, oval, anterior portion broad, emarginate at each end. Freshwater} length of carapace 1-570". Teeth of L. ovalis, PI. 43. fig. 44. 457. BiBL. Ehr. Infi(s.
p.

LEPEOPHTHI'RUS,Nordm.A genus

of Crustacea, of the order Siphonostoma,

silveiy-grey, not spotted, covered scales ; caudal filaments speckled

;

with with

and family Caligidoe. C/iar. Fourth pair of legs slender, not branched, formed for walking thorax with
;

frontal plates joints destitute of .sucking-disks on the under surSix British species, found upon face.
;

only two distinct

reddish brown antennae about two-thirds the length of the body. This active little insect, which runs but does not jump, is found (in the country) upon the slielves of cupboards where sweets and other eatables are kept, in window-

LEPRALIA.

459

LEPTOTHRIX.
Thallus
;

Its Its habits are nocturnal. cracks, &c. beautiful silvery scales are used as Tkst-

ceous Lichens.
cortical
;

with a distinct
;

OBJECTS (PI. 1. Hg. 6). There are many other species, the scales of which probably exhibit the same structiu'e.

granida gonima nioniliforni spores eight, apothecia lecanoriue multilocular, rarely simple. Species numelayer,

rous.

On mossy

trunks, walls.

BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer's Apteres, iii. 450 Lubbock, Liim. Trans. LEPRA'LIA, Jolinst. A genus of Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, family Membranipop.
;

BiBL. Leighton, Lich. Flor. 25, LEPTO'MOXAS, Kt. A genus of FlaFree, narrowly fusiform, gellate Infusoria. fiageUum single.
L.
Biltschlii, in

the intestine of Trilohus

(Escharidfe, Hincks). C/iar. Polypidom adnate, crustaceous, formed of a layer of juxtaposed urceolate cells, closed iu front, and spreading circularly.

ridffi

gracilis.

LEPTOS'CYPliUS, AUman. A genua

polj^ea reproduction

(Kent, Inf. 243.)

of Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Capsules ovato-conic;

cylindrical, proboscis conical by free medusiform bodies.
;

The very numerous

species

form white,

yellow, or reddish crusts upon rocks, shells, and sea-weeds. Avicularia and vibracula preseut in some, but absent in others. Mouth of cells sometimes with spiues. L. variolosa (PI. 41. fig. 17). Cells

L. tenuis, on Laminaria Stromness. BiBL. AUman, A7in. N. H. 1864 Hincks, Br. Hifd. Zooph. p. 196. LEPTOSTPtO'MA, Fr. genus of
;

oblong,

depressed,
;

punctured

orifice

roughish, interstices semioval or roundish,

Sphaeronemei(StylosporousFungi), probably consisting only of the younger stylosporous

states of species of Hysterium or PhaciDiusi. Several species are recoi-ded as British, some common, occurring on the stems and leaves of sedges, rushes, Pteris,

margin

mon

On stones and shells, complain. varieties occur with the lower lip

notched, or with a tooth. L. nnicomis. Cells ovate, scaly, with a short obtuse process or knob above the orifice, wliich is roundish, with a distinct notch in the upper margin common. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 300 Busk, Mar. Polyz. Hincks, Pohjz. 297.
; ;
;

LEPTbCLI^X'M, M.-Edw. A genus of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family Botryllidte. Distinguished by the thin, sessile, incrusting mass of variable form, the numerous systems, the six-rayed branchial orifice, and the anal orifices opening into a common more or less branched cloaca. Six British species: mactdosum,asperum, aureum,geIatinosum, Listerianum, and punctatum, found upon the roots of Laminaria and other marine algae the two former
;

&c., forming small round flat spots, from which the upper part of the perithecium splits off, leaving a little margined scar, in which are seated the stvlospores. BiBL. Berk. Br. i^/. 'ii.pt. 2. 297 Ann. N. H. i. 257, vi. 365 Tulasne, Ann. N.
;

II. 2 ser. viii. 114.

LEPTOTHRICH'E.E.A
the Oscillatoriaceae.
adnate,
for

subfamily of Filaments very fine,

; ;

movement slow
layers.

sheathed, indistinctly articidate solitary or fasciculate

;

the most part in broad and diffused

ii.

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Ft. Alg. nus of Oscillatoriaceae.

stones,

LEPTOTHRIX, Kutz. A supposed geFound on damp among wet plants, and in foul water
;

&

73.

common.
i.

16; Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 32 Mem. sur les Ascicl. comp.

BiBL. Forbes and Hanley, Br. Mollusca, M.-Edwards,

;

Archer, = GoNATOZYGON, De Barv, 1856. LEPTODIS'CUS,"Hertwig.A genus of

LEPTOC YSTINE'MA,

very probably consisting of the mycelial filaments of mildew Fungi. The filaments are very slender, simple, continuous or obscurely jointed. L. ochracea, K. (Oscillatoria ochracea, Grev.) is an obscure production, forming

yellowish-brown flocculent masses,

in

common

marine Flagellate Infusoria. L. medusoides, diam. \" Messina.

;

(Ivent,

Itifus. 400.)

"LEPTOGIDllIM, Nyl.A genus

pools. L. buccalis and L. insectoruin, Ch. Robin, probably belong to some Fungus.

boggy

of

BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 262

pi.

CoUemacei (Byssaceous Lichens). L. dendriscwn, on mossy trees on high moimtains.

(Leighton, Lich. Ft. 13.)

61.

fig.

Roliin,
;

Veget.

Tab. Phi/c. i. Parasit.

LEPTO'GIUM.A

genus of CoUema-

ed. 345, 355 Senckenb. 1857, 139 1868.

2nd

Mettenheimer, Mus. Moggridge, Jn. 31. S.

LEPTOTIIYPtlUM.

460

LEUCOPHRYS.
L^sually accompanied

LEPTOTHYTJUM,

Kiitz.

A genus of
;

gelatinous matters.

Spliperonemei (Stylosporous Fungi). L. juf/Iandis, Lib., L, friujarife, and L. ribis have been found in Britain they are probably stylosporous forms of Ascomycetes. BiBL. Fries, Siwi. F<?<7. 371, 423; Berkeley, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. v. 371 ; Tulasue,

Ann.

Sc. JVdt.

ser. v.

115.

LEPTOTRICHA'CE.E.A

by tyrosine, it crystallizes in minute spheres, which frequently imite and form radiating clusters, which often present a yellow tinge and a concentric lamination. It is soluble in water, less so in alcohol. The alkaline pancreatic juice transforms albumen into leucine and tyi'osine. It also occurs in the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Insecta.
BiBL.
Frev,
;

family

of

operculate Acrocarpous Mosses, brauching by innovations, or with the fertile summits several times divided. Leaves lanceolate or awl-shaped, often canaliculate-concave, with a nerve, mostly flattened or terete cells pvosenchymatous, often mingled with parenchymatous, lax or firmish, empty, not unfrequently thickened at the apex, then Capsule ovate or cylindrical, somesquare. times naked, sometimes erect, often strumulose at the base operculum conical or subulate. Differing from Dicranacese in the absence of alar cells to the leaves. Brit,
; ;

Path. Hist. 14 ii. 1868.

Hist. 49 Voit, Kdll.

Rindfleisch,
Sieb. Zeitsch.

8,-

LEUCO'BRYUM, Hampe.A genus

;

of

Bryacese, Acrocarpous Mosses,but exhibiting also lateral fruit-stalls. Capsule, lid, and peristome as in Dicranuin but the leaves whitish, spongy, and composed of two layers of cellular tissue, the nerve indistinct.

L. (jlaucum. &c.

On

moist heaths, woods,

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Br. 82. LEU'COCYTES. These are the colourless corpuscles of the blood,

gen.

LEU'CODON,
Brachyodus,
Can^njloste-

Ivmph, &c. Schwajgr.-^A genus of

Auf/stramm,

lium, Leptotrichuin, Seliqeria.

LEPTO'TPJCHUM; Hampe.a

genus

of Acrocarpous operculate Mosses, including certain Didt/modGnta and Trichostoma of

Pleurocarpous Mosses. Chnr. Capsides oval, erect, pedicel short, outer teeth IG, bifid or calyptra large perforated, not hygroscopic shoots simple ;
;
:

other authors.

LEPTOTRICPIUM, Corda. A genus of not Sepedouei (Hyphomycetous Fungi)

;

leaves plicato-stiiate, nerveless. L. sciuroides, trunks of trees and walls, frequent L. Lagitrns., rare. (AVilson, Brijol.
;

British.

LEPTUS, Lam.

See Trombidium.

L. autumnalis (^Trombidium autumnale), the harvest-bug. LERN^EA. genus of Poecilopoda (Crustacea). L. branchiaJis, on the gills of the cod. (Baird, Br. Entom. 344.)

LEU'COPHRYS, Ehr. A genus of the family Bursarina (Ciliated Infusoria.) Ch.ar. No sheath body truncated in front buccal cirii surrounding tlie obliquely truncation anus at the posterior extremity
;
; ;

Br. 313.)

no watch-glass organ

no rows of

cilia in

the interior of the biiccal fossa.

LERNEOXE'MA, Edwards. A

genus

Ehrenberg describes eight species ; they are found in salt and fresh water, both sweet
and putrescent.
L. patida (PI. 31.
tral
fig.

of Siphonostoma (Crustacea). Char. Body long, slender, nan-owed anteriorly in the form of a neck, terminated by a swollen head, with two or three simple, CTU'ved, horn-like appendages abdomen of inconsiderable length, simple oviferous tubes long and slender. Two British species L. sprafta (PI. 19. 2 inches and L. encrasicholi. fig. 24), length Both found upon the sprat. BiBL, Baird, Brit. Entomostraca, 339. LESKEA, Iledw. genus of Mosses.
;

38, a dorsal, b ven;

surface).

hyaline or
tulous.

Body ovato-campanidate, white, turgid mouth large, paLength

Freshwater and marine.

The alimentary canal, 1-288 to 1-90". with the sacculi, according to Ehrenberg's view, is represented in fig. 31 n. L. spat h II In (Spathidium hyalimnn, D.)
(PI.

31.

figs.

75,

70).

Body

lanceolate,

See

Hypnum.

or caseous oxide, is a normal constituent of the lungs, spleen, pancreas, the saHvary glands, &c., and is produced during the putrefaction of albuminous and

LEUCINE,

compressed, whitish, membranous, obliquely truncated and dilated in front; freshwater. Length 1-144". Dujardin denies the existence of the anterior row of cilia. very doubtful form. PI. 31. fig. 37 represents L. striata, D., which is one of the Upalina.

LIBELLULID.'E.
;

4G1
;

LIBER.
;

BiBL. Ehrenb. Inf. 311 Duj. Inf. 453 184; Clap, et Lachm. Infus. 1808. LIBELLULID.E. family of Insects, It contains of the order Neuroptera. several common but beautiful insects, some
Stein, Inf.

65 Westwood, Introd, Packard, Amer. Natur. v. 1871 Oustalet, Ann. Sc. Nat.
;
;

xii.

Selys-Longchamps,
;

vlf'j/i.

Lihell.d'

Eupis.;

rope Charpentier, Libell. Eur op. 48 Lenderfeld, JVinr/s of, 1881.

of whicli are p,)pularly

flies

known

as

Dragon-

and horse-sting-ers, although they are The great interest connected harmless. with theui relates to the structure of the larvoe and pupas, whicli live in water, and are furnished with brauchite, either internal or external, situated at the end of the Exteruil branchiae are seen in body.

They consist of (PI. 35. fig. 17). three membranous plates (PI. 35. fig. 2 f/), In traversed by innumerable tracheae. JEschna, Lihellula, and Calepteryx the branchiae are internal and situated within the rectum (PI. 35. fig. 20, rectum of yEschna). In this last genus the brauchiie are in the form of plates, which are nuAf/i-ion

merous, semicircular, longitudinal, imbricated, and arranged alternately in six reguThe laminae lar and symmetrical columns. consist of a network of fine tracheae, communicating with those of the body and situated beneath the mucous membrane. The end of the abdomen is furnished with five movable valvular pieces (PL 35. fig. 29), three of which are larger than the others, and the uppermost of which is notched at the end. These pieces, by their contraction, it is expel the water from the rectum renewed and the expulsive force effects the locomotion as well as the respiration of the insect. The labium of ^schna also possesses aremarkable structure, forming an elongated,
;

(Phloeni).The term liber-cells applied to the very long prosenchymatous cells, occurring isolated or in bundles at the outside of the cambiumlayer of Dicotyledons, and often in the pith and the ribs of the leaves to the cells of similar form and character occurring in the outer part of the tibro-vascular bundles of Monocotyledons, andinthebranchesof those containing no spiral structures also to the fibi'ous cells of the same kind found in the husks of many fruits, as the cocoa-nut they are constantly ringed with sieve-cells or No exact Une of demarcation can -tubes. be drawn between liber-cells and wood-ceUs, since the shorter of th 3 former pass into the latter. As a rule they are much thickened by secondary deposits (PI. 47. fig. 27j but these deposits are tougher than those of the wood-cells; and while they have pores, these are never bordered with a rim. Liber-cells are not uufrequently found branched (Rhiand some of the zophoracese, Gnetmn) branched forms are supposed to originate
or -fibres
is
; ; ; ; ;

LIBER

by the confluence of originally distinct cells, after the manner of milk-vessels. The layers of thickening on the walls of
liber-cells frequently exhibit a spiral striation, especially after treatment with acids

somewhat spatulate, mask-like appendage, which completely closes the mouth when unemployed (PI. 50. fig. 16). In the other
genera the sti-ucture is very similar. In Libelhda six biserial rectal columns are also present but there are no papillae on them and the caudal appendage is pointed and not notched (PI. 35. fig. 22). In Caleptenjx the rectal brauchite are more simple, consisting of three plates attached only by the
; ;

Mohl has pointed (PI. 28. figs. 2, 3, 25). out the peculiar characters of certain structures associated with liber in the bark of Dicotyledons and in the vascular bundles of Monocotyledons. These are the vasa propria, and are described under Vascular
Bundles. The importance
textile fiibrics has

of liber as a material for

been spoken of under Fibrous Structures, and examples cited

;

figures of various kinds of liber-fibre are given in Plate 28.

In Dicotyledonous stems the fiber-fibres

are usually placed in large bundles opposite the fibro-vascular bundles of the wood, as in Urtica, Viscum, Clematis, Quercus, sometimes in smaU irregular groups, &c. as in Vinca and Linum in other cases they stand in single rows, alternating with
; ;

end, and resembling in structure the external plates of Agrion the ocelli are distinct and the external caudal aperture consists of The three channelled and keeled pieces. spiracles of these larvae and pupte are more or less concealed in the interspace between the proto- and mesothorax they are transverse, bilabiate, and furnished with a mus\

parench^nna or vasa projyria (Cupressinece and Ta.rinece), while in many plants they
are irregularly scattered, as in Bhizophora, Cinchona, Nerium, &c. Isolated liber-cells occur in the pith of young shoots, and may

culo-membranous valve. Bjcbl. Dufour, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1852,

syii.

LIBER.

462

LICHENOPOEA,

bo readily seen in the long woody radicles developed from the seeds of the Rliizophoand in the bark and rese (PI. 48. fig. 31) pericarp of Gnetum, isolated branched liber-libres occur scattered throughout the whole mass. In many Dicotyledons the thick-walled
;

liber-cells are

formed only in the first year, the subsequent formation in this region consisting of new layers of vasa propria and parenchymatous cells {Betula alba and Fagus sylvatica). In Viburnu^n Lantana the thick-walled liber is entirely

wanting. In the Monocotyledons they occur associated with short wood-cells in the fibroTascular bundles but they form alone the fibrous bundles often intermixed with and prolonged from the ends of these, occui-ring especially in the outer part of the stem of herbaceous Monocotyledons, such as Lihes and Grasses, and in the fleshy cortical layer
;

The fibre from the boiling with nitric acid. Cocoa-nut husk occurs in bundles (fig. 4) when isolated or boiled with acid, the walls are found thin, with wide, open, spiral streaks the ends are (slits in the secondary layers) blunt (fig. 5 a, b). The fibre of hemp {Cannabis saliva) somewhat resembles flax, but is coarser and becomes swollen up and brittle, readily breaking across, when boiled with nitric acid (fig. 6) no spiral streaks. The liber-fibres from the bundles of Miisa textilis are fine and tough, and not much (fig. 7) altered by boiling. Those of Bcehmeria nivea (fig. 25) are coarse, rough on the outside they swell up and exhibit marked spiral slits when boiled ^Yith acid, and also distinct lamination of the thick wall (fig. 25 c). Boehmeria Piiya (fig. 26) closely resembles the former but the spiral striation is not very evident, and the wall sphts readil_y in the
; ;
;

of rhizomes, as in Sparganiwn, kc. In both families they occur with the spiral vessels and wood-cells in the ribs or veins of leaves (as in Phormium tenax), bracts, spathes of Palms, &c. Liber-cells are generally drawn out very gradually to a point at each end sometimes they are very long Schleiden states he has Sometimes they exhiseen them 5" or 6". bit expansions at particular points, as in the Apocynaceae. The branched forms in Rhizophorea?, Gnetum, &c. are usually much shorter than the simple fibres, and their form is often very irregular (PI. 48. The diameter varies a great deal fig. 31).
;

longitudinal direction (fig. 20 c). The spiral striation is well seen in fig. 30 of PI. 48, which represents the end of a liber-fibre from

Tinea minor after boihng with nitric acid. The liber-bimdles of bark are sometimes set free as loose stringy fibres by the decay of the outer parts of the bark, as in the vine. In some plants they take a Clematis, &c.
course, anastomosing laterally so as to form connected reticulated sheets over the

wavy

cambium

in the

Lime

{Tilia) these sheets

some plants and we should scarcely venture to say that the microscopic appearance of a liber-fibre would suffice for the determii^ation of the material of any (vegetable) textile fabric, beyond the distinction of cotton (or vegetable hair) from linen or other
in
;

be detached by maceration, and they form bast, the material used for matting, In the Thymeleace.^ (lace-bark &c. trees) the annual layers of liber can be detached from each other, and form sheets of fibrous tissue, sometimes firm and tough, sometimes almost as delicate as muslin. BiBL. Mohl, Bot. Zeit. xiii. 873 Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, 208; Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 s(5r. viii. 104 Hachs, Bot. 121 Henf rey-Masters, i?oi!. See also under Laticifeeous Tissue.

may

LICEA, Schrad. A genus of Myxomy-'

liber

but reagents

affect

them

differently.

presented by many kinds of fibre under the microscope, in the state in which they occur in commerce and after

The appearance

cetes, growing on damp rotten wood, in garden frames, &c., with the peridia elongate, grouped together, of only one layer, and containing few or no filaments among

treatment with acids, is shown in PI. 28. 25 & 20. The figures are taken figs. 2-7, from very characteristic exiim])l('S but mnny modifications occur in subordinate qiiaiitity. Flax (Linnm tisitatissimvm) (fig. 2) has the walls much thickened, with distinct pores
:

Four species are described as which L. fragifonnis, Nees, is not uncommon on wet very rotten wood,
the spores. British, of

exhibits a very oblique close striation after boihug with nitric acid. Jute, the liber of Corchorus capsnlaris, has thinner walls, with constrictions at intervals and blunter ends out here on (fig. 3) ; no spiral streaks come
it

moss, &c.; the groups of peridia just before maturity somewhat resembling a strawberrv, afterwards brownish. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 321 Ann. N. H. 2 ser. v. 307 Greville, Sc. Crypt. Fl. Sum. Fries, Syst. Mycol. iii. 195 pi. 328
;
; :

Veg. 458.

LICHENOP'ORA, Def. A

genus

of

LICHENS.
Cyclo<toniatou3 Pnh'zoa
Jolinst.).

4G3

LICHENS.
two
classes.

(Tubulipora, pt., Eoiir species; on niaiiiie zooand shells. (Hincks, Pohjzoa, phytes, stones,

these

The

parasitic

Lichens,

47L)

LICHENS.A

such as Abrothallus, being destitute of a free thallus and of green gonidia, are undistinguishable from Fungi by any definite
character.

class of Thallophytes or

cellular plants standing

between the Algae

Fig. 305.

The Lichens are almost universally either dry incrusting bodies, growing upon bark
of trees, stones, earth, &c., as a pulverulent, or rough and horny, or laminated and mostly wrinkled and curled crust (fig. 397) or as horny or leathery, foliaceous or shrubby, ragged or bristling patches (fig.. 395 & 39*3), seldom rising much from the surface which they overgrow ; of grey, greyish green, brown, yellowish, or even reddish colour, and with a dead, pulverulent, and opaque surface. Some, however, are parasitic on other Lichens, as AbrotJialliis, or upon li\ing leaves, as Strigula. They derive their nourishment from the air and are usually recognized by their dry crustaceous habit, and the presence of gonidia. In the simplest kind of Lichens, the thallus consists of microscopic branched filaments (liyphce^, penetrating among the superficial layers of the cells of the bark or
; ;

Sphajrophoron coralloides. Thallua with apothecia Nat. size.

.

and the Fungi, exhibiting in the rarious genera relations sometimes approaching very
Fig. 396.
Fi<r.

epidermis upon which the plants grow. These filaments usually present globidar cells here and there arising from them,
filled with green matter, which are capable of reproducing the plant when detached they are called gonidia, and are regarded as analogous to the huds of the Fowering plants and the cellular gemmce of the higher Cryptogams. The gonidia consist either of
;

397.

simple cells containing green gi'auidar matter (PI. 37. fig. 6^), or of clusters or strings of green granules, when they are
called

gramda gonima (PI. 3.5. fig. 13). Sometimes these granules form spherical concretions upon the thallus, and are called The gonidia have been stated cephalodia.
to produce zoospores while these again are declared to be granules in molecular motion.
;

In the simple forms here alluded to, the gonidia are not sufficiently numerous to give a coloured tinge to the structure as seen by the naked eye in some even the filaments make no show, while in others they form whitish patches {Opegraplia, Verrucaria). In the forms rather more developed we find
;

Fig. 396. Borrera ciliaris.

If at. size.

Thallus with apothecia.

Thallua with
lirellse.

Fig. 397.

Opegrapha
size.

atra.

Nat.

Fig. 398. Section of

thalamium.

Magn.

150 diamg.

closely to the one,

sometimes to the other of

a layer of globular epidermal cells, with whitish contents, closely coherent together, " " cortical constituting a layer covering tlie to which the filamentous upper surface, structure or hypothallus then forms the " medullary layer.'' The crustaceous lands overgi'owing stones have this filamentous

LICHENS.
medullary layer very
solid
;

4G4
is

LICHENS.

and

in

some of

lowest filaments are seen growing out all round the borders, in the direction in which the plant is extending, the upper filaments with the gonidia and the cortical layer by degrees overgrowing these lowest filaments, which in the meantime have extended further out. Some of the crustaceous Lichens grow out in more or less regular lobes at their borders, and thence lead to the pseudo-foliaceous forms, of which the common Parmelia {F/ii/scia) parietina, the yellow Lichen so abundant on walls, and Borrera ciliaris, common on branches of trees (fig. 396), may serve as examples. The thin paper-like thallus of the former
its

them

formed of a felted mass of filaments, likesolid, but branched and divaricated. The solidity of these filaments arises from the obliteration of the cell-cavity by secondary layers on its walls, giving the filaments a horny texture. In the outer loose layer are found scattered groups of gonidia. In
wise
Stereocaulon denudation the
solid

branches are

and formed exclusively of parallel filaments, as is the case also with those ox Hamalina scopulorum. In Evernia vulpina there is a solid axis formed of parallel ti laments enclosed in a layer of interlaced fibres, between which and the horuv coat, which is either solid or very obscurely cellular, gonidia are here and there to be observed.

exhibits /oM/- distinct regions (PL 37. fig. 2) 1, on the upper face a layer of thick cells,

firmly connected together, coloured yellow at the sui'face (upper cortical or epidermal
2, a layer like the preceding, but white, forming the inferior surface of the thallus (loicer cortical or epidermal layer) 3, beneath the upper cortical layer lie the gonidia and 4, under these he the vxedullary filaments forming the central substance, at the upper part of which He the gonidia These are inarising from these filaments.

layer)

In many Lichens, when exposed to excess of moisture, the proper fructification is not developed, and the gonidial structure is produced so abundantly as to burst through the superficial cortical layer and become naked, giving a mealy appearance to the thallus. Lichens reproduced by gonidia commonly grow at first into a pulverulent stratum by the multiplication of the cells, giving rise to the forms which were at one time thought distinct genera, such as Lepraria.

terlaced

From

and imprison air between them. the lower face arise laminae or fibrous
(rJiizincs),

serving as cramps by which the plant attaches itself to the surface on which it grows. In Peltiyera canina there is no inferior epidermal or cortical layer, the filamentous medullary structure forming the irregidar veined surface, prolonged here and there into pseudo-radical In Endocarpon and other fronds processes. of solid textm-e, the medullary layer is formed of slender linear cells, closely packed, with few air-passages. The species of Cladonia exhibit a structure of the thallus intermediate between that of the foliaceous kind just referred to and the shrubby sort. In the foliaceous expansion resting on the ground, of C. pyxidata, for example, we detect the upper epidermis, next the gonidial layer, which again rests on the closelyIn felted filamentous medullary substance. the branches of C. rangiferina, as in a great number of its congeners, there is no wellThe branches are tubes, defin( d epidermis. vacant in the centre, formed of a cartilaginous structure, in which only two zones can be distinguished, the inner and more solid of which is composed of almost simple, parallel, solid filaments intimately glued together by mucous substance the outer zone
processes, like roots
;

The gonidia have been stated to produce motile zoospores; but these are now considered molecular granules. The fronds of Vollema are remarkable foi their gelatinous texture, and approach the Nostochacese (Algaj) in the simphcity of their structure thus, the thallus of C. cheileum consists of branched and coloiuless filaments or tubes imbedded in an abundance of mucilage in Cjacohecefolium, there exist in addition very numerous granula gonima,
;
;

arranged in long beaded lines 13), some being larger than others, the whole mixed uith the continuous filaments and imbedded in mucus.
all

almost

(PL

37.

fig.

Both

species have long, wdiitish, branched, filamentous pseudo-radical processes. Putting aside the gonidia or gemmulecells of the thallus, the reproductive organs of the lichens are of three kinds: 1, the

apofhecia, which, according to their forms, receive diflereut names, and are all characterized by producing the sacs (thecce) con-

taining spores; 2, the spermogonia, which some regard as antheiidia, and which produce extremely minute cylindrical bodies {spermatia) growing at the ends of short pedicels, from which they are ultimately detached, like the spores of many P'ungi
j

LICHENS.
and, 3, pycnidia, in which are sti/lospores like those of Fungi.

465

LICHENS.

developed

The commonest form of the apothccia is that of sessile or stalked disks or cushions, flat, convex, or hollowed into a cup (fig. 396) in other cases they are linear these open forms characterize the formerly-called While in the Gymnocarpous Lichens. Angiocarpous genera the apothecia or rather perithecia are closed globular receptacles or conceptacles, analogous to those of the Sphceri(B among the Fungi, and opening at the summit to discharge the spores (fig. 39o). The apothecium may he composed of two parts the tludamium or hymeninm, and the
; ;

broad. length and about 1-4000" in eacii theca, and they are coat. separately enveloped in a mucilaginous The spores are largest in the genus Pertusdria. Those of P. communis are visible to the naked eye and observed in water soon after emission from the thecse, they are not
1-1."jOO" in

There are eight

less

broad.

than 7-1000" to 8-1000" long by 5-1000" Their simple cavity is filled with
semitrausparent
matter, usually

excipulum.

The excipulum, when

present,

sometimes forms a cup-like envelope derived from the thallus, and of the same colour (thaUine), or it may differ in colour and texture, in which case it is termed proper. Or it may entirely or partly surround the thalamium and theca?, and then forms the
represented by the body of the apothecium, open or the layer of its cells immediately closed; and lining the bottom of the cup, shield, or conceptacle is sometimes called the hypothecium, which bears the thec(S and the paraphyses (fig. 398) the latter are filiform or clavate cells (PI. 37. figs. 6 & 12), probably abortive thecse, among which they are intermingled both these and the thecse stand perpendicularly upon the hypotheciuni, being surrounded by a gelatinous substance the gelatina hymenea. The thecce (PI. 37. figs. 6 & 12) are usually ovoid or elongated cells with thick walls, containing the spores the thecse are shorter than the and the paraphyses surrounding them
; ;

The with oil-globules of various sizes. and epispore is very broad, transparent, formed of several lamellae these also are coated with mucus. The genus Par^nelia (Physcia) offers both simple and bilocular Of the former, P. purietina gives spores. an example, though in some cases a transverse partition is formed, and this is the normal state in P. stellaris (PI. 37. figs. 6 & In Ptltigera (PI. 37. fig. 11) the spores 7). In Collema and other genera are elongated.
;

granular

the spores are divided into fom- chambers

peritheciiim.

The

t/iahitiio>i is

by three transverse

septa.
.

In several species of Lecanora, Lecidea, Urceolaria, &c., a more complex form of

spore exists, longitudinal together with transverse septa dividing the cavity into Those of Urceoseveral series of chambers. laria (PL 37. fig. 17) have eight or ten compartments those of Lecidea urceolata, Thelotrema lepadina, Umbilicaria pushdata (PL 37. fig. 18), and other Lichens, called
;

muriform spores, have a much larger number of

little cavities, distinct nucleus.

each containing a

whole are usually glued firmly together by

their contiguous lateral surfaces. The spores consist of two layers, an epispore and an endospore the former are tinged blue with tincture of iodine, and present
;

The emission of the ripe spores takes place in the same way as in the Pezizce, Hehellcp, Sph(eri<e, and many other Fungi If a portion of the of the same kind. thallus, moistened, is placed in a common
the apothecia turned toward about eight or ten hours the surface of the glass opposite each apothecium will be found covered with patches of
phial, with one side, in

many points of difference in different genera and species. In Verrucaria muralis they are ellipsoid, colourless, perfectly smooth
and semitrausparent, containing gi-anular matter while in V. epidermidis and ato;

maria they are bilocular bodies, representing a pair of obovoid cells adherent by their
In their earlier stages of dethick ends. velopment they appear solid subsequently four nuclei or oily globules are seen in them, each occupying a spherical cavity. The membrane of the spore then becomes thinner, and finally its two cavities coalesce into When ripe, these spores are about one.
;

easily perceptible by their colour, these having been projected from the apoIf placed on a moist thecia with force. surface, and a slip of glass laid over them, the latter will become covered with them and Tulasne states that in the same way they are projected to a distance of more tlian half an inch from the theciferous layer, the spores being emitted continuously for a long time. The experiment may be tried either in winter or summer, and has been made with success on several common species of Parmelia, Lecanora, Peltiyera, Collema, Borrera ciliaris, Verrucaria muralis,

spores,

2h

LICHEXS.
Emlocaiyon hepaticnm, Pertusaria,
laria,

466

LICHENS.

Urceo-

Opegrapha, &c.
;

number

is generally set down as the normal of spores in each theca but this is not universal here any more than in the

Eight

Ascomycetous Fungi

some

species of -EVi-

docarpon, Parmelia, &c. have polysporous thecffi containing a considerable number, "while there ai'e often less than eight. Spermogonia. The Lichens exhibit another

lution of caustic potash produces in the thallus of some Lichens a persistent yellow colour, which in others changes to a red or if no reaction takes place, solution of chloride of lime produces a red or yellow colour. These reactions must be observed in sections. The long-known resemblance of the gonidia of Lichens to numerous forms of
;

form of reproductive organs, which are liable to be confounded with Sphcrronemei and other Fungi growiug on the Lichens, or with parasitical Lichens in similar positions. They form black or brown points, usually near the margins of the thallus (PI. 37. fig. 1), and have been found in Borrera, Parmelia, Sticta, Cludonia, CoUema,
Opegrapha, Sphcerophoron, Lichina, Endokc, and seem to be universal. The spermogonia are hollow pustules (PI. 37. figs. 3 & 13) tilled with lilaments (spermacarpon,
tophorcs, PL 37. tig. 3) producing extremely minute bacilliform corpuscles (usually spermatia). They are immersed in the sub-

the lower Algae, and the similarity of the thecEe of Lichens to the asci of Ascomycetous Fungi, has of late years given rise to the theory (Schwendener's) that the the gonidia of Lichens are really Algte
;

Lichens being Ascomycetous Fungi, living and growing upon them as parasites. The Algse which, according to this view, form
the gonidia, are usually species of Palmella, Protococcus, Kostoc, &c., rarely of Confervaceae and when free, continue to grow and reproduce, still retaining the Algaform. But when the germinating spores of Lichens come into contact with them, the hyphse sm-round the cells, enveloping them, and on further growth a perfect Lichen is formed. This question cannot at present be considei'ed as settled for while, according to Bornet, the hyplije never produce gonidia, according to Miiller this occurrence most positively does take place. On the whole, it appears that Schwendener's ingenious Lichen-theory will have to be considered one of the modern natural-history romances. The Lichens are divided into four families
;
; :

stance of the thallus (PI. 37.

little

figs.

&

13),

and are perceptible externally only by a

projection, if at all;
are free

and

in rare cases they borne above the thallus (some

Their Cktdonice, Cetraria, Gyalectce, &c.). ordinary form is globular, ellipsoidal, or

oblong, sometimes sinuous. either a simple undivided cavity (PI. 37. figs. 13 16), or are multilocular, divided in different ways into a variable number of separate chambers or narrow
in-egularly

They have

&

Byssacei. -Thallus byssaceous or

filamentous, the granula line sheath.

finely

gonima

in a thai-

cavities,

communicating with a common

orifice, the ostiole or jwre of the apparatus. This structure bears a close relation to that usual in the Coniomycetous Fungi Cgtispora,

CoLLEMACEi. Thallus gelatinous. Myrangiacei. Thalamium with

lar cavities, cavities.

cellu-

and superimposed theciferous

Septoria, &c., and bears testimony to the close connexion between the Lichens and Fungi.
are regarded as analogous to the spermatozoids in the antheridia of the

The spermatia

LiCHENACEi. Thallus not gelatinous ; variable in colour and form, either filamentous, foliaceous, squamous, or crustaceous ;
gonidial layer usually distinct. BiBL. Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 S(5r. xvii., & Compt. rend. 1851 Montague, Diet, d'hist. nat. 1846; Itzigsohn, Bot. Zeit. viii. & ix.; Flotow, Flora and Bot. Zeit.; Lindsay, Pop.
;

higher Cryptogams. Vycnidia and Stghspores. Pi/C7u'dia are dark-coloured conceptacles, found on Lecidea and Scutnla, resembling ihe perithecia of the Sphceria>, sessile on the thallus, and containing simple filaments (basidia), bearing isolated spores on their apices (sfi/lo,sp(rt<). The so-called spermogonia and pycnidia appear to be in some cases parasitic Fungi. Chemical reagents are useful in the discrimination of Lichens. Thus, iodine solution will tinge the mature spores or the

Lichens Famnitzin and Boranetzky, Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. o, viii. Leightou, Brit. Lich, Flora Nylander, Ilenfrey-Masters, Bot. Lichenogr. Europ., &, Flora, 1879 (Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, 31o, colow) Reess, Monatsb. Bcrl. Al: 1871 Bornet, An. Sc. N. 1873, xvii.;
; ; ; ; ; ;

Scliwcndener, Aligeli's
Jn. Mic. Soc,
xiii.,

zciss.

Bot. 1860, '02,

the

gidatina

hymcnea

of

some Lichens

blue, or

'G8, Scyilgent.gp. Flecht. Gonid.,

red without a preparatory blue tinge.

So-

xiv

{all

1869; Archer, papers on

LICHINA.

467

LIGAMENTS.

Schio. Lich.-theoni fromimS <ol873); Vines, Qit. Mie. Jn. ]"878, xviii. 144, 4:38, later papers on the same Thwaites, Atin. N. H.
;

LIEBERKUHN. Intkod., p. xxi. LIGAMENTS and Tendons.With the

exception of the elastic ligaments, which are noticed under that head, the structure of ligaments and tendons is essentially the same. They consist of fibrillar connective tissue, with a small quantity of elastic

1877, XX. 38G; Frank, Krust. Flecht., Cohn's

Beit. ii. 123; Stalil, Entw. d. Flecht. 1878: Minks, Flora, 1878, Grevillea, 1879, vii. Miil89, & Grenz. zxl\ Fl. & Pihe, 1881 viii. 427, & Grevillea, ler, Ann. N. H. 1881, X. 87 (Phillips) Crombie, Grevillea, vii. 143 Cooke, ibid', vii. 102, 117. LICHI'NA, Ag. A genus of Collemaceous Licheus, allied to Collema and
; ; ;

Ephebe
cluded

in many respects, formerly inamong the Algae on account of their

growing on the sea-shore (near high-water mark), "but having the thallus of a lichen and bearing true apothecia and spennogonia.

The globose apothecia occur at the ends of the branches of the thallus in L. j)yi/mcea the spermogonia occur underneath the apothecia, in L. conjinis at the apices of the branches and often on the apothecia. The to adhere spores, 8, simple, appear generally to the walls of the thecse, which break up.
;

Spermatia oblong. BiBL. Greville, Alff. Brit. ton, Br. Lich. Fl. 11.

pi.

Leigh-

LICMO'PHORA, Ag.A

genus of Dia-

tomacese. Char. Frustules in front view cuneate, elongate, radiating in a fan-shaped manner from a branched stipes side ^iew (valves) convex, inflected at the larger end and furnished with transverse strise (rows of dots).
;

Magnified 60 diameters. Transverse section of the tendon of the tibialis postihuman a, secondary bundles b, larger nuclear fibres c, interstitial areolar tissue.
cus
; : ; ;

Fig. 400.

Marine. L. Jlahellata, S. {radians, K.) (PL 17.

3).

fig.

The
in
all,

five species (one other British, Sm., Kiitz.) are doubtfullv distinct.
i.

BiBL. Br. JDiat. and Sp. Ah/. 113.

85; Kiitz. Bacill. 123,

LICNO'PHORA, CL A
;

genus of Perii

trichous Infusoria resembling Trichodina, but the anterior portion obliquely flattened, Two species, on and partly involute.

Doris, marine Flanarice, Szc. 651 Clap. Ann. Sc. K. 1867,

;

(Kent, Inf.
viii.)

LIEBERKUH'NIA,
;

CI.

& Lachm. A

genus of Reticularian Rhizopoda. Oviform, with very thin test nucleus and contractile vesicle unknown; vacuoles present pseudopodia very long and reticular, branching from a single stem, which is coated with an
;

extension of the filmy sarcode covering the

surface.
1 species
;

fresh water

at

Berlin,

Magnified 20 diameters.
6,

sea-water at Tenby. BiBL. Clap. & Lachm. Etudes, 465 dall, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1880, 141.

Sid-

TransTerse section of a tendon of a calf: a, secondary, c, nuclear fibres, obliquely divided ; tertiary bundles
;

d, interstitial areolar tissue.

2h2

LIGAMENTS.
tissue.

468

LIGAMENTS.

The

fibres or fibrillai of tlie

connec-

very minute, longitudinal, parallel, closely connected, and pursue a or undulatory course. Their union straight into bundles is sometimes very indistinct, and only to be shown by drying transverse sections and afterwards treating them with In other instances the bundles alkalies.
are
easily

tive

tissue are

The elastic tissue of tendons exists as slender nuclear fibres, sometimes forming rows of narrow spindle-shaped cells connected by slender processes, at others uniform libres, or isolated spindle-shaped cells. These are placed at regular distances apart, between the bundles of areolar tissue. AVhen tendons are in contact with bones,
they frequently contain cartilage-cells, either isolated or arranged in rows (hg. 401, c) ;
these sometimes undergo ossitication. The aponeuroses, uiscia3, and tendinous

recognizable,

of

polygonal,

rounded or elongated form (fig. 400), and connected by loose interstitial areolar tissue.

Fig. 401.

\
^

'^'A

"

--^

\-^

vv:A

%^1^

'^x'^'\>

^\nW

\-

\\;>%^W'^\
.

J
\

I
,-(*

A
..b

ilagnifled 300 diameters.

Portion of the tendo AchiUis attached to the o5 calcis human A, bone with lacunae U, tendon with llbrilla; and cartilage-cells c.
; :

a,

medullary and

fat-cells 6

sheaths consist of the same elements, but in various proportions and differently arranged according to their functions, some-

Fig. 402.

times the areolar

libres being predominant, the structure agreeing with that of teiuhm, whilst at others the elastic tissue is greatly developed (fig. 403). Some of these tissues also contain cartilage-cells. The intervertebral ligaments consist of tissue fibro-cartilage, surrounded by osseous the centre is soit and containing concentric
;

#
Magnified 350 diameters.
Cartilage-cells from the membranous ligament surrounding the popliteua muscle': (7, cell with one nucleus; 6, cell witli two nuclei c, cell containing one, d,, two secondary. cells, the contents of both of which are more consistent.
:

cartilage-corpuscles

(fig.

101, p. 135).

LIGNINE

LIME

Elastic fibres from the inner part of the fascia lata,

Magnilled 450 diameterg. human densely interwoven and forming an elastic membrane.
;

BiBL. KoUiker, Mih. An. gem. An. Donders, Mulder Frey, Hist 240.
;

i.

Heule, All-

s Plnjs.

Chem.

LIGTsINE.
cellulose is

modified condition of obtained from old wood-cells,

a component of otolithes, in which it exists either as granules or minute prisms, often with six sides and trilateral summits. From
river-

and called by this name. It difters in its leactions from pure cellulose, being coloured vellow by sulphuric acid and iodine but after boiling in nitric acid and washing, tincture of iodine and water give it a blue
;

in irregular fig. 6), all of

dles.

and spring-water it is usually deposited and imperfect forms (PI. 13. which consist of grouped neeSometimes it assumes the rhombohe-

fig.

When

dral form, as in the shell of the oyster (PI. 45. 10) and frequently in chemical solutions. treated with a dilute acid, after having

See SECO^DARY Deposits. LIMBOKIE^. A family of AngiocarLichens characterized pous or closed-fruited closed in by a carboby rounded apothecia naceous special perithecium, finally bursting in various ways, containing a somewhat,
colour.

been thoroughly washed in a watch-glass, it is dissolved with effervescence from the

escape of carbonic acid gas. During the solution it first becomes more transparent, exhibiting the internal crystalline structure, and frequently a concentric or nuclear ap-

waxv

LIME, SALTS 6V.

Carbonate of lime.

nucleus, which grows hard. British genera Pyreiiothea, Strir/ula.

:

This substance is well

known
shell,

as forming chalk, marble, &c., andas as bone, occurring in hard animal structures,

&c.

in the

It is not unfrequently met with form of granules as a component of

various animal secretions, as the urine, &c. In this liquid, it sometimes, but rarely, also occurs in little spheres or disks, consisting This we of groups of radiating needles. first found to be the case in human urine but it was subsequently (PI. 13. fig. 8) detected in that of herbivorous animals, as the cow and the horse (PI. 1;3. fig. 7), in
;

which

its

occurrence

is

common.

It is also

When pearance, which finally disappears. derived from animal secretions, it leaves undissolved an organic cast of the original, provided the acid be not too strong, or its action too long continued. If the number and size of the minute bodies be relatively very small in proportion to the amount of water, on adding the acid, effervescence will not occur, the water holding in solution the carbonic acid evolved. The presence of the lime may be tested in the ordinary way, by the addition of oxalate of ammonia, when the precipitate is insoluble in acetic acid, or by adding dilute sulphm-ic acid, when crystalline needles of the sulphate of lime (PI. 10. fig. IG) are formed. The spheres or disks naturally occurring

LIME.

470

LIMNIAS.
Some
of the of the

in the urine, are closely imitated by those formed in urine to which chloride of calcium has beeu added, and which has been subsequently kept for some time. Lactate of lime may be obtained by acting upon carbonate of lime with lactic acid. It is soluble in water and alcohol. The mi-

in potash or water.

crystals resemble those

compound ammoniophosphate of magnesia, from which they may be distinguished by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, which causes the for-

croscopic crystals consist of tufts of delicate radiating needles (PI. 11. fig. 19).

mation of needles of sulphate of lime. Sulphate of lime. Well known as forming gypsum, alabaster, selenite, &c. It rarely
or never occurs in the crystalline foi-m in animal or vegetable products. When rapidly formed in chemical testing, the crystals consist of minute needles or prisms (PL 10. when more slowly formed, these fig. 16) are larger and mixed with rhombic plates. The crystals are but little soluble in water, and not in acetic or the dilute mineral acids. They are sometimes formd in bottles con;

Oxalate of Ji7ne. This salt exists in solution in the contents of many vegetable cells combined with a proteine compound it is also probably a normal constituent of the human blood in small quantity, combined
;

and dissolved as
In the

in vegetables.

very frequently deposited in a crystalline form, constituting Raphjdes. From human blood it has been obtained in crystals by treating the alcoholic extract with acetic acid. It is very commonly met with in the crystalline form in various secretions of animals, as the urine, the mucus of the gall-bladder, that of the surface of the pregnant uterus, the liquid of the allantois, the contents of the Malpighian vessels and the so-called true renal vessels of insects, cysts, &c. Its most characteristic form is the square
flattened octahedron (PL 13. fig. 9) but it also occurs in tbe form of the square prism terminated by quadrilateral pja-amids, of fine needles, and in that of a flattened body with an ellipsoidal outline, frequently constricted so as to resemble a dumbbell, or variously excavated at parts of the surface (PL 13.
;

cells of plants it is

taining spirit in which marine animals have been preserved. Medicinal precipitated sulphur is very commonly adulterated with sulphate of lime.

The microscope

at once enables the crystals of the salt to be recognized. Urate of lime. See Ueates.

See E APHIDES and Ubinaby Deposits. BiBL. That of Chemistry, aximal.

LIMNAC'TIS, Ktz. A genus

lariacese, Cliar.

of Eivu-

Confervoid Algse. Filaments pseudo-ramose, subfasL, ciculate, sheath more or less distinct. parvula Lincolnshire. BiBL. Eabenh. Fl. Alg. ii. 210.
;

LIMNADEL'LA,
Phyllopodous
theria.

Girard. A

bivalve

Entomostracon,

near

Es-

figs.

11

&

12). It

may be obtained

artificially

BiBL.
vii.

13. fig. 13), by dissolving artificial oxalate of lime in dilute some of the nitric acid and evaporating forms thus obtained resemble those of carin
;

most of these forms (PL

34

LIMNA'DIA, Brougn. An

Girard, Proc. Phil. Ac. i. 184, Grube, Wiegm. Arch. 1865, 73.

&

aquatic bi-

bonate of lime.

When

obtained by mixing

oxalate of ammonia with soluble salts of lime, as chloride of calcium, kc, the crystals are generally peculiar ( PL 13. fig. 14), although sometimes the regular octahedra are obtained. It is insoluble in hot and cold water, acetic acid and ammonia, but is soluble in dilute mineral acids without efi'ervescence.

valved Phyllopod, with thin oval valves, enclosing an elongated body, having a short and a natatory pair of antennfe, oral apparatus, twenty-two or more pairs of branchial
lamellfe,

and a bifid tail. BiBL. Brongniart, Mem. Mus. Hist. Kat. vi. pi. 13 Desmarest, Crust. 378 MilneEdwards, Hist. Nat. Crust, pi. 3o. f. 7;
; ;

Baird,

Zool. Proc.

1849, 86,

pi.
pi.

11.

f.

Phosphate of lime. This salt is most frequently deposited from animal liquids in an amorphous or granular state. It may be obtained in the crystalline form by mixing a solution of phosphate of soda with chloride The crystals are mostly thin of calcium.

rhombic plates (PL

They

are

soluble

10. fig. 17). in acetic

and dilute

mineral acids -R-ithout eflervescence, but not

8; Lereboullet, Ann. Sc. Kat. Zoo/. 5, v. 283, pi. 12. LIMNE'TIS, Lov4n. An aquatic bivalved Phyllopod, related to Limnadia and Esther ia. BiBL. Lov^n, K. V. Ak. Hand!. 1845, 203; Baird, Zool. Proc. 1862; Grube, Wiegm. Arch. I860, 7L LIMNIAS, Schrank. genus of Eotatoria, of the family Floscularisea. Char. Eyes (when young) two, red ; ur-

Grube, Wiegm. Arch. 1865, 61,

LIMNICYTIIERE.
;

471

LINGULINA.
Leach.

ceoli or sheaths single rotatory organ with two lobes. Teeth forming a row in each jaw. L. ceratophylU (PI. 43. lig. 45). Urceolus

LIMNO'RIA,

A genus

of

ma-

rine Crustacea, Order Isopoda, Asellota.

and family

at

first

wliitish,

subsequently

becoming

or blackish, smooth, or in consequence of its viscidity covered with foreign bodies. Freshwater; length 1-24 to 1-18", BiBL. I'^hr. Infm. 401. LlMNlCYTfiE'RE, Brady.An Ostracode, allied to Cythere, the antenniB having seta3 instead of spines, and the valves being hiu, and spinous or tubercled. BiBL. G. S. Bradv, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 419. LIMNOCH'ARES, Latr. genus of

brown

L. terebrans (PI. 36. fig. 27) ia of interest on account of the great ravages which it

commits

in submerged timber, as the piles of piers, flood-gates, docks, &c., which it perforates in every direction. Head large, rounded ; antennae four, of nearly equal

Hydrachnea (Acarina).
C. aqiiatica

the

only water-spiders

(holosericea) (PI. 6. fig. 27), It differs from other species.

by

its

walking instead of

swimming.

two, lateral, black, composed body elongato-subcylindrical, thorax with seven joints, legs seven pairs, formed for walking abdomen six-jointed, the last joint large, suborbicular, and with two styles length about 1-6". It contracts into a ball when disturbed. BiBL. Leach, Linn. Tr. xi. 370 Coldstream, Edin. New Phil. Jn. 1834 Dalyell,
length
;

ej^es

of about seven ocelli

Body very soft and often spontaneously variable in form epidermis covered with little conical granules (?) no hairs upon the body, and but few upon the legs ; eyes at; ;

Wonders of Creation,

Duj. genus of Rotatoria, of the familv Hydatiuaea, E. (Furculariua,

LIXDIA,
Cltar.

i.

Duj.).

tached to a lanceolate scaly piece (d), and surrounded by hairs; rostrum partly concealed beneath the skin, the anterior exserted half (b) cylindrical and accompanied by the palps, the last joint of which is very slender and obtuse by pressure the broader base of the rostrum is made to protrude (/); tarsi (c) thickened at the end, with large claws ; coxEe of foiu* posterior pairs of legs longer than the others, which is contrary to what occurs in Hydrachna, Ata.v, &c. ; coxae of the two anterior pairs of legs closely approximate, as are also those of the two but the two groups are posterior pairs (e)
; ;

Body

oblong, almost vermiform,

;

with transverse folds, rounded in front, but no rotatory organ, cilia, or eye tail-like foot with two conical and short segments or toes jaws very complicated (and im;

perfectly described). L. toridosa (PI. 43. length 1-75".

fig.

40).

Freshwater

BiEL. Duj. Infus. KijU. Zeit. 1858, 286

653;
;

Cohn,

Sieb.

8^

Pritch. Inftis.

LIjS'DSzEA, Dryander. genus of Lindsaveae (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Exotic

(fig.

404).

widely separated. Larvae with six legs, a large head-like rostrum, with two large palps and two black lateral anterior eyes, fixing themselves on the head of Gerris lacustris they subsequently detach themselves, faU into the water, and pass their nymph-stage under submersed stones, the perfect animal makingits appearance at the end of fifteen days. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. i. 159 Gervais, Walckenaer's Arachn. 208
; ; ;

Koch, Dents. Crustac.

LIMXODIO'TYON,

Kiitz.

genus of

Protococcaceae. Char. Cells angular from mutual pressure, forming membranous layers, in a

parenchymatous form;
gonidia. L. R(merianum
pools.

multiplication
52.
iii.

by A
in

Lindsoea.

pinnule.

Magn.

10 diams.

(PI.

fig.

14),

LINGULl'NA, D'Orb. A
chostegian Foraminifer,

hyaline

sti-

BiBL. Rabenh.

FL

Alg.

61.

difi'eiing

&om No-

LINGULINOPSIS.
dosan'u in being laterally compressed having a slit-like aperture. BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. 163.

472

LITOSIPHON.
of Dia-

and

LIRADIS'CUS, Grev. A genus

tomacete.

LINGULINOPSIS,
;

Pveuss. This

may

be defined as a Luk/uUuu having its early chambers coiled or a MarginHlina much compressed and opening with a rift. BiBL. Reuss, K. bo/nn. Ges. Wiss. 18G0. LINOP'ODES, Koch. A genus of Trombidiua (Acarina); with the legs 6-jointed, the anterior pair very long and slender. Three species among moss red or orange, (Murrav, Ec. Ent. \-12 Hermann, Apter.) Ll'NUM, L. See Flax.
;

3 species; Barbadoes deposit. L. badensis (PI. 62. fig. 13). BiBL. Greville, 7V. Mie. Soc. 1865.

Bar-

Two speof Acarina, allied to Sarcoptes. cies, on field-mice, rabbits, and the ferret, the partridge, &c. The maxilte form two flexible claspers, for clinging to the hairs.
(Pagenstecher,
Zeits. wiss. Zool.
xi.

LISTROPH'ORUS, Pagenst A

genus

156;

of IIolotrichous Infusoria, fam. Trachelina. Char. Resembles Nassula, but the frontal
1 species. region jn-olonged. BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. p. C27,

LIOSl'PHON, Ehr. A genus

Murrav, Boon. Ent. 324.) LIT'IHC ACID. See Ueic Acid. LITIIOOYS'TIS, Allm. A genus
Coralliiiaceffi

of

LIOSTEPHA'NIA, Ehr. A

genus of
;

(Floiideous Algas), consisting of a single species, L. AUmanni, Hass., which has been found as an epiphyte, forming minute white dots upon Chrysimenia clavcllosa. The minute dots consist of one or more fan-shaped fronds composed of square
Tlie plant is colourless, brittle, and effervesces in acid. The fan-shaped frond somewhat resembles in structure imperfect or segmental fronds of CoLEOCH^^iTE.
cells.

Melosireoe (Diatomaceae). Char. Frustules single, orbicular disk smooth, but with a crown of rays round a

smooth space

3 species Barbadoes. L. rotida (PI. 51. fig. 17). BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. p. 813. LIOTHE'UM, Nit'zsch. A genus
; ;

BiBL. Harvev, Mar. Phyc. Brit. pi. 166.

of

AI</. Ill, pi.

14

LITHODES'MIUM, Ehr. A
Marine.

doubtful

Anoplura, family Liotheidee. Char. Antennse clavate or capitate maxmouth with strong illary palpi conspicuous mandibles tart-i with two claws. Antenna} four-jointed mandibles with
;
; ; ;

genus of Diatomaceffi.

two

teeth; maxillary palpi long, filiform, twofour-jointed ; labis-l palpi very short,

L. tmdulatum (PL 17. fig. 4 a, front view side view). Surface without markings, very pellucid, two of the sides undulate, the third plane and with two marginal notches angles obtuse length of joints 1-480". BiBL. Ehr. Abh. d. Berl. Akad. 1840;
;

J,

jointed.

Kiitz. Bacill. p. 136,

The genus has been subdivided into seven subgenera. The species are very numerous,
parasitic

LITHOFELLINIC ACID.Is
kinds of goat in Persia
ttc.

and Sp. Alg.

p. 133.

a com-

and are

upon

birds.

ponent of certain concretions called bezoars, found in the alimentary canal of Aarious
It is ciTstalline, insoluble in water, readily

L. {Meiiopon) 2)aUidum (PL 36. fig. 7). and Elongate, of a pale straw-colour, shining smooth head slightly sinuate on each side, with a dark pitchy spot before each eye. Length 1-24 to 1-16". Common on the domestic fowl. Other species on the par;

so in hot alcohol, but little in ether. The perfect crystals form six-sided prisms

with truncated ends

but

when somewhat

tridge, pheasant,

and quail. BiBL. Dennv, Monoqr. Anoplur. p. 204. genus of LIPAROGY'RA, Ehr.

rapidly deposited from an alcoholic solution, they are modified as represented in PL 11. With Pettenkofer's test they are fig. 14.

turned red.

MelosirefB (Diatomaceaj). Char. Frustules simple, cylindrical, each band or having an internal spiral filiform
crest. BiiiL. Pritchard, Infiis. p. 823.

LITIIOG'RAPHA, NyL A genus of Graphidei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. Thallus crustaceous or evanescent
;

LIPEU'RUS, Nitzsch. subgenus of are found on the rhilopterm. The species the fowl, and the turkey. pigeon, the goose, BiBL. Macalister, Qu. Micr. Jn. 1871, 103 MurraV; Ec. Eid. 381; Meguiu; Faras.
;

apothecia lirella^form, black, tumid epithecium rimi form, margins thick, convex;
;

hypolhecium black, thick, entire; spores 8 or numerous, simple or 1 -septate.

7 British species. Rare. BiBL. Leinhton, Brif. Lich. Flor.

88.

genus of Punctariaceie (Fucoid Algae), with fronds

LITOSIPHON, Harv. A

p. ,303,

LITUOLA.
composed

473

LIVER.
Pilulma, Carpenter, quite spherical,
fissure-like

of cartilaginous filiform imbraiK-hfd filaments, at iirrt solid, al'teiwards tubular, composed of several rows of cells
;

recent.

with a
very

mouth,

is

composed of

epijiliYtic on Chorda filmn {L. ptmllus) and Alaria [L. Laiuinaricc), the former 2 to (>" The spuranges long, the latter 1-4 to 1-2". occur either solitary or aggregated, scattered on the surface of the filaments, which in L. pusillus are clothed with pellucid hairs, in L. Laniinarice smooth. BiBL. Ilarv. Mar. AUj. p. 43, pi. 8 1) Thuret. Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. iii. p. 14. LITU'OLA, Lamarck. protean Foraminiferal genus, abundaut both recent and
;

sand and points of spicules. Asfrorhiza, Sandahl, relatively large, has a

fine

coarse, iri-egularly stellate, test of loosely

aggregated sand, with pseudopodial apertures

among

the granules, chiefiy at the

ends of the digitate radii, llhadammina, Sars, arenaceous, with a cement containing
ferric

phosphate,

is

tubular,

forked,

or

radiate, usually trifid, with a central cavity; openings at the radial ends.

The Lituolida with fine-grained and smooth

tests are best typified by Trochanimina and its subgenus lVehhi)ni (D'Orb., restricted).

fossil;

characterized by the test being coarsely with Httle or no calcareous cement. The shell may be unilocidar (Pro-

arenaceous,

These range from simple, attached, tent-like,

single or multiple tests ( W. hemispharica, W. irref/idaris, &c ),to the tubular and spiral Troch.incerta(F\. 23. fig. 14) and therotalioid T. s<p(amata et injlata. The rotalioid and fusuline Endothryce and the nummulitoid

labyrinthic from secondary gxowths. Some with a single aperture and imdivided chambers, and some which are labyrinthic and cribriform, belong to Reuss's Ilaplophragmimn and Haplostiche (straight). When the aperture is of a horse-shoe shape and subvalvate, we have the allied Hlppoorpina, Parker. PI. 23. tig. 18 is an irre-

If compound, its teonina?, Williamson). shape may be loosely moniliform (^Reoplucr, or Montfort), whether straight, coiled, or attached (the latter irregular, fi-ee feature chai'acterizing Placopsilina, D'Orb.). Or the chambers may be close-set and OAerlapping, and have either a straight, coiled, or crozier-like contour, imitating various forms of other Foraminifei'a, such as Ortkocerina, Nudosaria ,Flabe.Uina, Crist ellaria, SpiroUna, Pofalia, Nonionina, Glohigei'ina, Orbidina, &c, Further, the chambers may communicate by a simple central aperture, or by a cribriform septal plate and they may be either simply hollow, or
;

Involufina, all fossil, belong to the same category. Valvulina, one of the Textulamid^e, sometimes finely, sometimes coarsely arenaceous, is, in this character, allied to the Lituolines and Trochamnrines ; and among its several modifications some link it with LHuola and others with Trochammina. Tetraf axis has an alternation oi four, and Valvulina (PL 23. fig. 20) of ^7j?ee chambers. The Lituolida are represented in every existing sea, and in every geological formation as far back as the Carboniferous. BiBL. Carp. Introd. 140 Bescr. Cat. 3Iic.
;

April 1870, 4 Parker, Jones, and Brady, Phil. Tr. civ. 406; Monogr. Crag For.^Pal. Soc. 25 Brady, Mon. Carl. For., Pal. Soc. 1876 Qu. Mic. Jn. n. s. xxi.
Soc.
;
;

LIVER. The
;

glandular

organ which

LITUO'LIDA, Carp. = Lituolid^ and Besides the AsTROEHiziD.^, p. 332. coarse-grained genus Lituola (with its sub-

gularly nautiloid, labyrinthic form (Litiiola difformis) very common in the Chalk. Bill. Carpenter, Introd. p. 143.

secretes the bile.

On examining the surface or a transverse section of the liver with the naked eye, it
usually

presents

mottled

appearance,

divisions), there are several closely related

numerous spots of a dark or light red colour being surrounded by a margin of a These spots corpaler or darker colour.
respond to the lobules of the
liver.

forms which differ chiefly in the degrees of smoothness and compactness with w^hich the constituent sand-gi'ains, and sometimes spicula, are set and cemented.
Botellina, Carpenter, is a long, roughly segmented tube of sand and spicules, with ill-defined terminal aperture. Saccammhia, Sars, is spherical and smooth, either single or in twos or threes united by a narrow This is found fossil in the stolon-tube.

lobules are rounded or polygonal, and about 1-2 to 1'" in diameter (fig. 405). Between the lobules run branches of the vena portae, forming the interlobular veins (coloured red in PI. 39. fig. 33) these throughout their course send off numerous smaller branches into the substance of the
;

The

lobules, which terminate in the capillary plexus of the lobules.

Lower Carboniferous

strata,

as

well

as

The branches of the vena poilaj

are accom-

LIVER.
Fig. 405,

474

LIVER.
Fig 406.

Magnified about 4 diameters.

Section of the liver of a pig through a branch of the vena portce, w ith accompanying branches of the hepatic artery and duct. On the right are seen two branches of the vena portse giving ofi the interlobular veins.

Magnified about 3 diameters. Portion of the liver of a pig, nith divided branches of the vena cava the lobules are visible upon the divided surfaces: a, large vein, no orifices of t lie intralobular veins being visible fi, branches of the same, with distinct orifices of the intralobular veins, and the bases of the lobules seen through their walls.
; ;

panied by branches of the hepatic duct and

ramilications of the hepatic artery, the whole

The branches of the biliary ducts accompany those of the vena portse as far as the interlobular spaces, where they again branch off, forming a network of extremely slender tubes or biliarv capillaries, which surround The individually the liver-cells (fig. 408).
biliary ducts consist of an outer coat of

being surrounded by connective tissue prolonged from Glisson's capsule. Hence, in a section of the uninjected liver, those branches of the vena portge and of the vena cava which ai-e visible to the naked eye are readily distinguishable from each other by the orifices of the former collapsing, whilst those of the latter are kept open by their close contact with the
lobules.

connective tissue, the bundles of fibres of

Fig. 407.

In the centre of each lobiile arises a branch of the vena cava, by the imion of numerous smaller branches
(coloured yellow in PI. 39. fig. 33), their origin in the cathese pillary plexus of the lobule central branches form the intralobu-

which take

lar veins.

The capillaries of the lobules form a close and elegant plexus between the branches of the inter- and intralobular veins, the rest of the lobules being filled up with the secreting
cells.

Magnified 35 diameters.
Section of a portion of the liver of a rabbit, showing the entire course of one of the intralobular veins, the roots only of the others

LIVER.
which are

475

LIVEE.
remains, in the meshes of which the

difficultly separable, and an inThe former is most ternal epithelial layer. distinct in the larger branches, being almost absent in the terminal interlobular ducts it contains numerous nuclei and nuclear
;

clei,

liver-cells are placed.

fibres.

ducts

are

Kolatschewslij' states that the biledirectly continuous Tvith the

The branches of the hepatic artery are distributed to the portal vessels, the hepatic ducts, Glisson's capsule with its prolongations, and the peritoneal coat. They are often elegantly tortuous.
the more common morbid states of the liver may be mentioned: that called cirrhosis, in which the connective tissue is

cavity of the liver-cells.

Fig. 408.

The epithelium

Among

llagnifled 200 diameters. Biliary capillarieB from the liver of the rabbit: a, biliary capillaries; 6, liver-cells; c, bile-ducts ; <i, capillary blood-vessel.

of the larger ducts is cylindrical, that of In the the smaller of the pavement kind.

hepatic ducts, the outer coat contains scatThe ducts also tered muscular fibre-cells. contain small mucus-glands. The secreting cells of the lobules fill up the interspaces between the blood-vessels. They are very transparent, of a roimded or polygonal form,

excessively developed and mixed with a large number of fibro-plastic corpuscles, producing an atrophied state of the epithelial structure ; the amyloid degeneration, which commences between the inter- and intra-lobular portions, in the branches of the hepatic artery an increase in the amount of fatty matter in the cells (fig. 160, page 238) and the presence in these also of granules of cholepyrrine, rarely with crystals of cholesterine and bilifulvine. The examination of the arrangement of the blood-vessels is best made in a liver which has been injected with two kinds of injection, as yellow (chromate of lead) and red (vermilion), or red and white (carbonate of lead) the yellow or white being injected into the hepatic vein. As the injection is being proceeded with, the surface of the liver should be examined with a lens to ascertain whether the intralobular veins are
; ;

about 1-1000" in diameter, containing one or two nuclei, with a very fine reticulum

and a number of gi'anules, and a few small globules of fat (fig. 160, page 238). Kupffer describes star-cells existing within the liver-ceUs, after staining with chloride of gold. The division of the substance of the liver into lobules is rather apparent than real, being effected by the peculiar arrangement of the vessels, the lobules having no true coat or envelope. The connective prolongation of Glisson's capsule which accompanies the vena portae

and

its branches becomes less and less in quantity as the branches become smaller, and is apparently lost in the interlobular

spaces.

It

is

much more abundant

in

animals, as the pig, than in man, rendering the lobular arrangement much more distinct. But, after washing away the livercells with a hair-pencil, from a thin section, a very dehcate network, consisting of a

well filled, and the injection has reached the capillaries ; the red injection should then be thrown into the portal vein until it is filled. The general vascular arrangement is best observed in an injection in which the capillaries themselves are not filled, but only the smaller portal and hepatic branches. To examine the ducts as to their course and termination, the portal vein should If this be not done, previously be injected. the injection easily bursts through the walls of the terminal ducts, and escapes into the intralobular plexus and thus the appearance of a plexus of vessels prolonged from the terminal ducts is produced. The fine ferridcyanide cold injection should be used. The structure of the hepatic cells is easily seen on scraping the surface of a section of the liver, and placing the portion thus obtained between two pieces of glass as usual. The minute structure of the liver is best seen in sections of portions which have
;

been hardened in chromic acid or spirit, and stained with logwood. In these, the
cut orifices of the biliary capillaries are sometimes seen, between the liver-cells.

homogeneous membrane with minute nu-

LLAVEA.
The general arrangement
cells
is

476

LOPHOPUS.

of tbe secreting

observed in sections

made with

Valentin's knife.

In many animals, as fishes, the loading of the cells of the liver with fat, which in man represents the morbid state of fatty degeneration, is normal, and renders it a matter of some difficulty to distinguish clearly the outlines of the cells, which are
also very delicate. BiBL.' Kiernan, P/h7. Tr.

LO'PHIUM, Fr. A genus of Pyrenomycetes (Ascomycetous Fungi), remarkably distinguished by the form of the perithecia resembling a bivalve shell with the valves in situ (tigs. 411 & 412). The nucleus contained within the carbonaceous
Fig. 411. Fig. 412. Fig. 413.

1833; KoUiker,

Anatii.; H. Jones, Phil. Tr. 1846, and 1840; Guillot, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1848; Leidy, Sill. Jn. 1848 Beale, Liver, & Hoiv Hering, Stn'cker^s Gewehel. i. 429 Kolatschewsky, Sch. Arch. 1877, xiii. 415 Frev,
Mil-.
; ; ; ;

LophiuMi mytiliauiii.
Fig. 411.
Fig. 412. Fig. 413.

Hist. 540.

LLA'VEA, Lagas. A genus of Pteridese

species
;

perithecium, seen sidewise.

The same, seen endwise.

One (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Mexico. (Hooker, Syn. Fil. 144.)

A perithecium cut
Magn.
2.5

open.

LOASA'CE.E.A family of
plants,

diama.

Dicotyledo-

with stinging hairs upon the epidermis. Loasa, Bartonia, and Blumenhachia are often to be obtained in nous Flowering
gardens.

perithecium consists of erect asci mixed wdth paraphyses, containing minute spores, and soon falling away into a powder. L.

LOCUST-BEANS.The

seeds of Cera-

tonia siliqua are so called. LOFTU'SIA, H. B. Brady.

A large fusi-

form arenaceous Foraminit'er, consisting of

a spiral lamina, secondary oblique longitudinal septa, and tertiary vertical divisions, making the internal structm-e labyrinthic. In texture similar to the higher Trochcnnrnincp, Loftusia stands high amongst the arenaceous forms, corresponding with Alveolina in the Porcellaneous, and Fusidina in AYilld.A genus of Pterideae (Polypodiaceous Ferns). L. Spicant, often called Blechnnjn boreale,
the Hyaline group. Fossil in Persia. BiBL. Brady, Phil. Trans. 1869, 751.

mytiUnum, Pers. (figs. 411-13), occurs on the bark or naked wood of fir trees. L. datum, Carm., also occm's on fir wood. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 280 Fries, Siimma Veg. 401 GreSt/st. 31yc. ii. 633
; ; ;

LOPHOCO'LEA, Nees.A genus of Jungermannieee (Hepaticte), including J. hidentata, L., and J. heterophylla, Schrad., growing in moist situations, at the roots of
trees, &c.

ville, Sc. Cnipt. Fl. pi. 177.

BiBL. Hook. Brit. Junyerm. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 122. LOPHOxMONAS, Stein.

pis. 30,

31
of

genus

LOMA'RIA,
British.

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Free, ovate, spherical or fusiform, with an anteiior tuft of long slender
flagella.

is

Many

other

foreign

species.

(Hooker,

PteriDiffers from dese (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Pteris in the sori occupying the sinus ; exotic (fig. 410). (Hook, 'Syn. 128),

LONCH'I'TIS, PresL a genus of

St/n. 174.)

Two

species

intestines

of Blatta, &e. of

(Kent, Inf. 321.)

LOPHOPPI'ORUS, Br.A genus

L. indynis.
Copep..,

Copepodous Entomostraca.
ham. (Biady,
In marine dredgings, DurBai/ Sue. i. 121.) LOPHOPO'DIUM, Ktz.-A doubtful

Fig. 410.

genus of Oscillatoriaceas, allied to Amphithri.c. 6 spec, on submerged stones and

posts.

BiBL. Babenh. Fl. Fur. Aly. LOPH'OPUS, Dutuortier.

ii.

231.

genus of

Lonchitis pubesccnR.

A pinnule with Maguifled 10 diani8.

sori.

freshwater Polyzoa, of the order Hippocrepia, and family Plumatellida?. Char. Polypidom sacciform, hyaline, gelatin lus, with a disk serving for attachment
;

LORICA.
orifices
;

477

LUNGS.

ova elliptical, with a scattered but no spiues. BiBL. Allman, Fresh. Poli/zoa (Hai/ Soc), 83 Johnston, rit. Zooph. 391. LORI'OA. See Carapace.
riiiii',
;

LOXSO'MA, Brown. genus of HymenophylleiB (Polypodiaceous P'erns), distinguished by the projecting colunm bearing the sporangia (tigs. 414^ 415, 410j.
Fig. 414.
Fig. 415.

LOUSE. SeePEDicuLUSandANOPLtTRA. LOVEXEL'LA, Hincks.A genus of

Campanuliiriidaj (Ilydroid Zoophytes). Char. Stems simple or slig-htly branching, rooted by a throad-like stolon capsules turbinate, elongate, operculum of distinct
;

segments proboscis large and prominent. L. dausa, iu dredgiugs, Torbay. BiBL. Hincks, ]3rit. Hyd. Zooph. 117
;
.

LOXOCEPH'ALUS, Eberh. A
Char.
Free,

genus

of holotriehous Infusoria.

ovate-oblong,

constricted

towards the
setfe

at

with one or more short the constriction, and one or more

front,

caudal

setje.

Freshwater, with decaying vegetation. (Kent, Inf. 488.) LOXOCON'CHA, "Sars. marine Os-

Two species.

Fig. 416.

tracode, allied to Cythere, with long setiferous antennte, and strong subrhomboidal valves, which have toothed hinges and often a pitted surfixce. Common in the British and other seas, and fossil iu the Tertiary

and post-Tertiary

strata.

BiBL. Bradv, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 432. LOXO'DES, Ehr. A genus of hypotrichous Infusoria, family Trachelina. Char. Body curved, with a longitudinal row of transparent vesicles, each of which contains a highly refracting body, and with a more or less arborescent distribution of the digestive canal. L. rostrum, Ehr., Pekcida rostrum, Duj. freshwater. (PI. 31. fig. 39); L. bursar ia (PI. 31. fig. 41) is a Paramecium. L. cuculluhis and L. dentatus belong
to Chilodon.

Loxsoma Cunuinghamii.
Pig. 414.

Fig. 415.

A pinnule with marginal sori. Magn.5 A sorus opened. Magn. 2.5 diams.

diams.

Fig. 416. Columella with sporanges.

Magn. 50 diams.

i. auricula is common in the summer in the seas of England and Norway. It can be kept for some time in an aquarium, and from the small size of many indiMedusje.
viduals,
is

New Zealand (Hooker, Si/n. 56). LUCERNARIA, Fabricius. A genus

of

Duj. Inf. 449; Clap'arede et Lach. Inf. 339. LOXOPIIYL'LUM, Duj. "genus of holotriehous Infusoria, fam. Trachelina. Char. Body flat and leaf-like; contractile anterior near the anus vesicle
Stein, Inf.
;

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 323;

a very interesting object for the

microscope.

BiBL. M. -Edwards & Hainie, Coraill. iii. 457; Agassiz, Sea-side Stud., 1871, 46;
Keferstein, Zeit. f.
iviss.

Zool. xii.

posterior,

part of the
species.
chelius,

bodv sometimes produced.

i./aso/a (PL 30. fig. 10). They belong to the genera Amphileptus and TraEhr. BiBL. Duj
.

genus of setigerous Aunulata. L. ten^estris, the earthworm. Ray Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1864 & 1865 Lockhart Clarke, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1857, 344 (nervous system) Rolleston, Forms of An.
;
;

LUMBRI'CUS.A

Infii.^.
;

487

Claparede et

Life.

Lachmann, jyifus.' 360 Kent, Inf. 527. A genus of LOXOSO'-AiA, Keferst.

LUNGS. The
Under
tliis

internal respiratory sacs

also the

of animals.

Like PediPolyzoa, fam. Pedicellinidse. 3 species, ce/lim, but united in colonies. on marine annelida. (Hincks, Polyz. 572.)

head we shall notice

larynx, trachea,

and bronchi. Larynx. The cartilages of the larynx do

LUNGS.
not
all possess

478

LUNGS.
The membrane is
elastic tissue of the

The thyroid and

the same minute structure. cricoid cartilages consist of hyaline cartilage, the basis being homogeneous, and containing disseminated cartilageof the corpuscles are corpuscles. The walls The basis often becomes usually thick.

tudinal bundles.

mucous

greatly

developed,

forming a distinct internal layer of principally longitudinal anastomosing fibres. The epithelium is ciHated, and consists
of several layers. The deepest layers are composed of roundish cells with distinct nuclei, those succeeding being elongated, while those next the surface are still longer, greatly nai-rowed at the base, and with oval Those of the last row are covered nuclei.

and both corpuscles and basis incrusted with calcareous salts, or completely Their perichondrium is firm, and ossified. is composed of connective tissue, with fine elastic fibres, vessels, and nerves. The epiglottis (PL 49. fig. 40) and the
fibrous,

wdth vibratile

cilia (fig.

418).

of fibroappendices of the arytenoid consist and the corpuscles are frequently cartilage
;

The smaller bronchi differ in structure somewhat from

the larger.
tilage

Fig. 418.

more

up by secondary deposit. The mucous membrane, as also the sub-

or less filled

Thus, the car-

mucous

tissue of the larynx, consists of connective tissue with networks of fine at the surface it becomes elastic fibres
;

more homogeneous, but does not form a It separable basement layer or membrane. contains a number of small racemose glands, the vesicles of which are lined with pavement, the ducts with cylindrical epithelium. Its surface is covered with ciliated epithelium, agreeing in structm-e with that of
the trachea. Trachea and larger hronehi. The incomthese tubes are plete cartilaginous rings of surrounded and connected together by a

forms angular plates distributed throughout their circumference, while the elastic and connectivetissue coats become thinner, and the transverse muscular fibres smaller and less
closely placed.
Air-cells. The terminal bronchi open into a group

iirm, elastic, fibrous their perichondrium,

membrane, forming which also covers the

of air-cells partly fused together, forming common the lobules, alcavities veoli, or infundibula. These are separated from each other by connective tissue

mixed

with

muscular

fibres, containing, in

Fig. 417.

adult Isolated epithelial animals, black pigment in ceflsfrom the surface the form of granules, some- of the trachea hu
;

V<^rA^y-

1^1

times also crystals. They are best seen in the lungs

of

man.

Magnified 350 diameters.

-'mii

wm"
in sUu; human, a, Epithelial cells of the trachea longitudinal elastic flbrea b, homogeneous outer (baseof the mucous membrane; c, deep layers ment) layer of round cells d, intermediate layers ; e, outer ciliated
; ;

young animals. The walls of the pulmonary air-cells consist of a fibrous, and an epithelial layer. The former is composed of a basis of homogeneous connective tissue, with numerous elastic fibres, vessels and nerves. The elastic fibres surround the air-cells in the form of elegant wavy bundles and separate fibres, which anastomose and constitute a dense network, most obvious at
those parts Avhere several cells are in conwhile in other parts tact with each other the areolar element supporting the numerous capillaries predominates, and the elastic elements are more sparing and slender. The epithelium is of the pavement kind, not ciliated, consisting of rounded or polygonal nucleated cells, about ^jyVsj" in diameter. The smaller or primary lobules are ag;
.

cells.

Magn. 350 diameters.

posterior part of the tubes as a somewhat thinner layer. The cartilage is of the true At the posterior part of the tubes is kind. a layer of unstriated muscular fibres, most of w^hich form transverse, but a few longi-

gi'egated to form larger secondary lobule- the lobules of descriptive anatomists, and

LUNGS.
Fig. 419.

479

LUNGS.

matous lungs may also be best shown by this method.

Fig. 421.

*.J^
l^^-r^^V^

Two pulmonary lobules a a, with the air-cells 6 b, and the terminations of the bronchi c c from an infant newly born. Magnified 25 diameters.
;

the outlioes of wliich in adults are also principally mapped out by lines of pigment.
.>\:n^

Fig. 420.
Air-cells of a human lung, a, epithelium; 6, fibrous portion, where the walls of several air-cells are confluent c, thinner walls of several air-cells.
;

Magnified 350 diameters.

Fig. 422.

Outer surface of the lung of a cow, the air-cells of which are injected with wax: a, a, a, air-cells; b, b,
boundaries of the (primary) lobules. Magnified 30 diameters.

The lobular structure of tlie lungs is best shown in the lungs of festal animals inor bronchi. jected from the trachea The capillaries of the lungs are extremely

minute and very difficult to inject fully; and the finest injection is required for the
purpose.
often be well seen in thin sections of the inflated and dried of emphyseorgans. The altered structure

The

capillaries

may

Capillaries of the human lung. Magnified 60 diameters.

The epithelium

is

best seen in sections of

LUNULARIA.

480

LYCOPODIACE.E.
size of

a luug wliich has been injected from the trachea with a very weak solution of nitrate of silver; or in well-washed sections treated

wood, &c. from the

is

L. cpidench-um (fig. 422*) varies a pea to that of a nut,

solitary,

globular

when

with very dilute acetic acid; solution of

growing

in groups,

logwood is useful for staining. The lymphatics invest the subpleural lobules in the form of a plexus, and dip inwards to join the deep-seated tubes which accompany the bi'onchi and large vessels to
the root of the lung. In the lower vertebrate animals, the structure of the hmgs is much simplar than Thus in the Triton each in the higher. forms a simple tubular sac, whilst in the frog and toad (PI. 39. hg. 34) each lung may be compared to a single lobule of a lung of the Mammalia, having a cavity in the centre, with which comparatively few large cells extending into the periphery

parietinum is do not exceed 1-20" in diameter. Bibl. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 307 Ann. N. H. 2 ser. v. 365 Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl. col. iii. 79; Summ. pi. 38; Fries, Syst. My
; :

deformed when and of a red colour. L. bluish black, and the peridia

Veq. 448.

LYCOPER'DON, Mich. genus of Trichogastres(GasteromycetousFungi). The

species are

commonly known

as puff-balls,

from the

absorbed, leaving the spores free, mixed with a few threads, and discharged like a puff of smoke. The structure of the hymenium is noticed
fig.

cellular matter being

The capillaries are also much two animals last larger, especially in the
communicate.
mentioned. BiBL. Kcilliker, Mik. An. ii. Stannius, 1860 ; Vergl. An. ; Waters, Human Lung.,
;

under Gasteromycetes; see also PI. 27. 6. The ignited mass of spores and threads forms an anaesthetic. This order of LYCOPODIA'CE.^.

Verson

and Schulze,
;

Strieker's
;

Hist.

i.

Luschka, ^4?*Williams, Tvdd's Cycl. An. chiv mik. Anat. v. 1 Frey, Hist., and the
Bibl.

LUNULA'PJA, Michel.A

genus

of

Flowerless Plants, Avhich derives its name from the Lycopodia or Club-mosses, is difficult to characterize in The bifurcating branched general terms. stem, rooting at each fork by a slender thread-like adventitious root, and the ordinarily small overlapping leaves, distiugiush but most of the species of Zycopodium

Cormophytous

Marchantiea}, growing on the ground in shady places, having the perigones spreadthe receptacle ing like rays from the top of

there is considerable variation from this habit in the Psilotece, especially in Isoetes, and the nature of the fructification is the

which is (Hgs. 319, p. 387, 329-331, p. 389), a mere peduncle, so that an approach is made to the character of the Jungermanniese.
See Hepaticje.

Lyonly mark generally applicable. which are found in copodiaceaj bear spores small dehiscent cases at the bases of the
Fig. 423.
Fig. 424.

The

LYCOG'ALA, Mich.A genus

consisting of

mycetes, bodies, verrucose on the outside, composed

Fio-.

of Myxosomewhat globtdar

422*.

Lycogala epidendrum.

Katural

size.

Lycopodium ayanum.
Fig. 423. Scale of spike with axillary sporange view. Fig. 424. The same seen from the ontside.
;

side

Filament and spores of the same.

M:asn. 200 diams.

Magnified 20 diameters.

on rotten capillitium and spores, growing

of a double papery peridium,

containing

leaves (figs. 423, 426, face or imbedded in

&
it
;

427), on the upper and these fertile

LYCOrODlACE.^.

481

LYCOPODIACE.E.

leaves are either scattered all along- the stem, or collected into spikes resembling, on Fig. 425.

a small scale, elongated Pine-cones (figs. 425, 435). The plants of the genus Lycopodium proper, exhibit both these conditions but
;

YiK. 420.

Fig. 427.

Selaginella apoda.
Fig. 426. Scale with oosporange. Magn. 20 diams. Fig. 427. Scale with poUen-sporange. Magn. 20 dianis.

in all these the spores are small and In SelagincUa, to rous and alike.

numewhich

Lycop odium complanatum.

One

third the natural size.

metallic lustre), now so much grown in Wardian cases (fig. 428), the capsular leaves are in spikes, which are found forming one arm of a bifurcation of the stem, while the other continues the vegetative growth ; and in the spikes we find the capsules on the

belong the elegant creeping Club-mosses, with flattened leafy stems (often with a

Fig. 428.

lowest scales (oosporant/es) producing only fjur spores (macro

spores, figs. 426, 429), of much larger size

than

tho.se

(micro-

spores) contained in large number in the other spore-cases {pol~ len-sporanges, figs. 427, 430). In Lyco-

podium and
;

Selaginella

the sporanges have but one cavity in Tmesipferis the sporanges

are two-ceUed, and in Psilotnm three-celled. In Isoetes (fig. 376, p. 443), where all the leaves are seated on a tuberous stem, and

most of them

fertile,

the sporanges containing spores of each kind

are many-celled,

and

immersed
Selaginella

in the sub-

cemua.

Half natural size.

stance of the base9 of the leaves.

LYCOPODIACE^.
Fig. 429.
Fiff.

482

LYCOPODIACE^.

430.

Selagiaella cernua.

Half natural

size.

Fig. 429. Oosporange with four large spores. 20 diams. burst, containing Fig, 430. Pollen-sporange
epores.

Magn.
small

Magn. 20 diams.

The anatomical structure of the stem of the Lycopodiese is not very complex. There is an outer thickish riud, composed of cellular tissue and on cutting across a stem, the ends of isolated tibro-vascular bundles are sometimes seen traversing this; these isolated bundles are merely a portion of those forming a kind of cord running up the centre of the stem, whence they have been seen sent off to supply the leaves. The fibro-vascular bundles are composed of spiral-fibrous ducts siuTOunded by elongated
;

Fig. 431.

Fio-.

482.

Fig. 433.
,,e*i*SJ3e,

LYCOrODIACE.E.

^83

LyCOPODlACE.E.

cellular tissue (see Tissues, vegetable), which in lar^e woodj stems become ligniThe roots have fied by secondaiT depo.^its.

connected with the central cord of the stem. The structure of the little-developed tuberous stem of Isoetes is very different, and exhibits a remarkable mode of growth, forming annual layers of woody structure (see
also a central tibro-vas'jular cord,

ISOF.TES). The leaves are of very simple structure ; but their arrangement exhibits many curious In Psilotum, one of the peculiarities. simplest forms, where they are mere minute scales on a widely bifurcated stem, they are alternate in some Lycapodia they are When the opposite, in others whorled. leaves are in whorls, they vary in number, not only in different species, but often in the same species in different localities, or even in the same plant thus, the arrangement is often different on the main stem and ou the branches. When the leaves are opposite, those forming the pairs sometimes differ both in
;
:

truded, likewise bursts subsequently and discharges extremely minute eel's, in each of which is developed an actively moving spiral spermatozoid, like those of the Ferns. This breaks out and swims about rapidly in the water when seen beneath the microscope. The large macrospore exhibits no external change for a period varying from a few weeks to a few months but a section shows that a process of cell-formation has
;

commenced

in its interior,

which

results in

the production of a kind of disk of cellular tissue in the upper part, beneath that portion of the outer spore-coat which exhibits the three converging ridges produced by the pre-sure of the four spores in the

parent sac during their development. At this period the spore appears to have three coats an outer, tough, coloured coat, a second coat lining this, and a third which lines the second over the great cavity of the spore, but at the upper part invests the inside of the newly-formed disk of cellular tissue, which thus lies between the second and third coats. This disk of tissue is a

dimensions and form in Lijcopodlum cumplanattim (hg. 434), the pairs of opposite
;

leaves cross alternately at right angles, so as to form four rows up the stem ; in two (opposite) rows the leaves are alike and flattened laterally of the other two rows, one consists of leaves like the two just described, but flattened against the stem ; and the fourth row (opposite the third) of In other cases, minute scale-like bodies. as in Selayinella apoda (flg. 436), the corresponding leaves of the pairs are unequal, and are so an-anged that the smaller lie
;

two contiguous vertical rows, on the In most of the Lycopofront of the stem. diaceae the leaves are simple and almost sessile but in Tmesipferis they have a blade developed into two lobes and borne on a long stalk and in Psilotum the short scalelike leaf is also divided into two lobes and
in
; ;

supported on a petiole. The leaves Iscetes are different (see IsoiJXEs).

its upper surface are of archeyonia of very cell of the substance simple structure. of the prothalliinn, taking on the function of an emhryo-sac, develops a free cell {embryoand the cells between cell) in its interior this and the surface become modified and part, so as to leave an intercellular canal between the contiguous angles of four adjoining cells, leading down to the embryothe four cells growing up from the cell, surface so as to form a kind of perforated cellular papilla, something like that of the archegone of the Ferns. At a certain stage of this development, the outer coat of the spore bursts at the converging ridges, and the angular flaps resulting turn back and expose the prothallium ou the upper surface. One (sometimes two, but as an irregulaiity) of the embryo-cells is then fertilized by the

prothallium; developed a

and on

number

of

The reproduction of the Lyeopodiacete is In Lycopodiian the spores not uniform. are alike, producing monoecious prothallia ;
Selayinella and Isoetes, as above of spore exist, viz. microspores and macrospores. It is found that
wliile

spiral spermatozoids produced by the microspores, if these exist at the right stage of

in

stated,

two kinds

when both kinds

results

of spore are sown, the germination are totally The former small dust-like spores distinct. burst their outer coat alter a time and the of
their
;

the development in the vicinity. After this, the embryonal cell undergoes multiplication, flrst growing down as a cellular fllament which breaks through into the The lower end great cavity of the spore. lying there then increases until it acquii-es the form of a cellular nodule, which breaks out above and exhibits on its free portion the flrst adventitious root and the flrst pair
of leaves.

delicate

inner

membrane, which

The rootlet makes its waj- downsoil

;

is

pro-

waids into the

and the leaves are

2i2

LYCOPODIE.E.

484

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
palmate,
lobed,

and separate, disi^laying two terminal buds between them, whence the first bifurcation of the stem proceeds.
Thismodeofreproductionallies the family very closely to the double-spored JMarsileaceas, and separates them from the Ferns
is

gradually elevated on a thread-like stalk,

gate,

or

pinnate

leaves,

having the sessile sporanges in double rows on the teeth of the pinnules (fig. 437), each
Fig. 437.

which these plants

And by recent possess. authors, the Lj^copodiacese are separated from the Selaginacese, on account of the
isosporous fructification of the one, and the heterosporous fructification of the otlier. The order Lycopodiacete is divided into

and Equisetaceat), in which the protliallium formed outside the spores, after the gernaination of the single and kind of spore only

Lygodium
Portion of a
leaf,

retieulatum.

with

fertile pinnules.

Nat.

size.

two

families, in accordance

with the struc-

tui-e

of the sporanges

having a hood-like special indusium

438,439). 16 sp. tropical.
;

ffia'S.

Fmnilies.

(Hook, Syn, 437.)

Fig. 439.

Lycopodie^. Sporanges
celled, celled.

simple,

one-

Fij?.

438.

PsiLOTE^. Sporanges compound, manyBiBL. Hofmeister, Verc/l. Unters. 1851, De Bary, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. ix. 30, An7t. N. H. 3 ser. iii. 189; Faukhauser,
111;

1873; Strasburger, Bot. Zeit. Sachs, Bot. 474. See also Isof;tes. LYCOPODIE'^E. family of Lycopodiaceous plants, distinguished by their simple one-celled sporanges. The existing kinds are all herbs, mostly creeping over the ground but some of the fossil kinds, met with especially in the Coal-measures, were Genera: large trees, the Lepidodendra. Lycopodium. Sporanges all of one kind, containing numerous small spores resem-

Bot. Zeit.

1873

Lygoclium retieulatum.
Fig. 43S. Tooth of a pinnule with overlapping indusia. Magn. 2U diams. Fig. 439. The same, with the indusia removed to show

bling pollen-grains.

the sporanges.

Magn. 20 diams.

Sporanges of two kinds, the greater part resembling those of LycopoSeUir/inella.

one, situated at the base of the spikes, larger, often four-lobed, and containing only four large spores.
;

dium

LYCOPO'DIUM, Linn. A

genus of Ly-

This has been sufficiently chacopodieae. racterized under the head of Lycop(>diace8e. There are more than half-a-dozen British

This consists of the lymphatic or absorbent vessels, and the lymphatic glands. The lymphatic capillaries commence in the various tissues and organs, as fine networks or irregular lacunoe. The lacunse are connected by canals and clefts, and form a
h'mph-canalicular system. The Ivmphatics of the intestines the lacteals, commence as

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

mostly alpine plants but L. inirndatmn occurs on bogs in all parts of Britain. BiBL. Hook, Br. Ft. JBabinglon, Bi-. See also Bot. Francis, Br. Ferns^ 8ic.
species,
;

cseca.

In structure the lymphatics resemble the

veins, but the walls are thinner in proportion to their calibre they are also furnished with valves, formed by folds of the inner and epithelial coats. Tlie Ivmpliatic capillaries are larger tlian
;

LYCOPODIACEiE.

LY'GEUM,
naceaj
;

Linn.

genus of Grami-

L. spartum

is

Esparto-grass.

LYGO'DIUM, Swarlz. Agenus of Schizasaceie (Polypodiaccous Ferns), consisting of beautifid climbing plants, with conju-

the blood-capillaries. At the surface of the serous membranes, the lymphatics are cun-

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
;

485

LYNGBYA.

nected with small openings left between the epithelial cells, called stomata so that the serous cavities and the lymphatic system are The lymphatics in directly continuous. their onward course unite, passing through the lymphatic glands, forming longer vesultimately terminating by two trunks, is the longest and called the thoracic duct, and which terminate in the angle formed by the internal jugular and subclavian veins on each side. The lymphatic or conglobate glands consist of a capsule, composed of connective
sels,

difficult matter. Partial injections may be obtained by injecting the prussian-blue lictuid into an aperture made in the different tissues or organs. The structure of the glands is made out, in ordinary sections well washed to remove the lymph-corpuscles. See on these matters, Rutherford's
little

one of which

with scattered tine elastic fibres, and The in animals unstriated muscular fibres. substance of the glands consists of a cortical
tissue

Practical Histology.' or liquid contained in the ordinary lymphatics agrees essentially with the chyle, except that the molecular base is absent ; the white corpuscles forming the characteristic microscopic elements. These are described at p. 101. Lymphatics in Amphibia, The structure and arrangement of the larger lymphatics

'

The lymph,

and a medullary portion. The cortical portion, which

glands forms a layer about thickness, exhibits a coarsely granular appearance, visible externally through the This arises from the presence of a capsule. large number of septa or trabeculje prolonged from the capsule into the substance of the organ, and dividing it into alveoli these are about 1-96 to 1-36" in diameter, and of a rounded or polygonal form they are more distinct in animals than in man. The septa consist of connective tissue with a
;
;

in the larger 1-0 to 1-4" in

differ in the Amphibia. They do not form cyhndrical tubes, but lacunae, which occupy the interspaces between the different organs, the surface turned towards the interior of a cavity being covered with a single layer of tessellated epithehum. These cavities or sacs communicate with each other by means of microscopic openings. As there are no contractile tissues in the walls of the sacs

special contractile organs acting rhythmically, or lymph-hearts, are superadded.

few

tine elastic fibres,

and numerous

delicate

very visible one in the frog is close to the sacrum, and pnmps the lymph into the sciatic vein another propels it into the
;

spindle-shaped bodies, often anastomosing

at their ends.

The contents of the alveoli are greyish white, pulpy, traversed by capillary bloodvessels, and by numerous delicate hbres, with spindle-shaped and stellate cells resembling those found in the septa, but forming a lacunar or spongy adenoid tissue. The soft substance consists of free nuclei and rounded cells, resembling those foimd in the chyle and lymph. In the medullary portion, the retiform
tissue is very fine, closely filled

jugular. They are chietiy composed of transversely striated short muscular laminae. BiBL, Kolliker, Mik. Anat. ii. Todd &
;

Bowman, Phi/s. An.

Zool. xi., xii.,xiii.

ii.

Lane, Todd's CycL;

;

Teichmann, D. Saugad., 1862

Wien. Akacl. 1852-18/)5
;

Briicke, Sitz.
iviss.

His, Zeits.

Recklinghausen, Stnclcer''s i.; E. Klein, Lxjmph. Si/st., 1873; Sapliej,An.Si-Pht/s. d.vaiss. lymi?h., 1876; Frey,
Hist,

Hist. 1876,
_

and

the

lit.

Oscillatoriacese (Confervoid Algas), related to Culo-

LYNG'BYA, Ag. A genus of

with lymph-

corpuscles, and connected with a plexus of lymphatics, ending in the efferent vessels. The afferent vessels penetrate the capsule, pass through the septa between the alveoli, and open into their lacuuc-e, which are not

lined

with epithelium.

From

these,

the

lymphatics of the medullary plexus arise, to terminate in the eiferent vessels. The course of the lymph is from the afferent vessels into the capsular network, thence into the cortical and the medullary from these into the network of sinuses lymphatics of the hilus, and finally into the
;

thrix and OsciUatoria, distinguished from the former by its stratiffed habit, from the latter by the long flexile but not oscillating filaments. It contains both freshwater and marine species. L. muralis (PI. 8. fig. 10) grows in damp places and in water. The specific characters are not satisfactory; but we have found what we take to be L. siagnina, Kiitz. Tab. Phyc. i. pi. 87. fig. 5, and L. concinnata, KiiJ:z. I. e. pi. 89. fig. 5, in fresh water. L. speciosa, Cannichaelii,

and ferruqinea, marine

in Engl. Bot.

species, are figured

efferent lymphatic vessels.

The

Supp. Nos. 2926-27 a and h. These plants appear to break up into lenticular gonidia but their reproduction, like
;

injection of the lymphatics is a very

that of OsciUatoria,

is

very obscure.

LYSIGONIUM.

486

MACROSPORIUM.
ser. xiy.,
;

Braxton Hicks has stated that L. muralis, a Sc/nz'iffo?imm, and a Prasiola are all different stages of the same organism, and has noticed the segmentation of their gouidia
into Palmelloid cells. BiBL. Hassall, Brit.
59, 60, 72; p. 22o, pi. 26 E.
pis.

xvii.

BiBL. Doyere, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 and xviii. Dujardin, ibid. x.

MACROCY'PRIS, Brady. An

Ostra-

Fr.

Ajg.

p.

219,
;

Tub. Phi/c. Alg. ii. 135

i.
;

pi.

Harvey, Brit. Mar. Alg. Kiitz'. Sjkc. Alq. p. 279 86-90; Rabenh. Fl. Eur.

B. Hicks, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1861.

code, aUied to Bairdia, among the Cypridce, with long, smooth, pointed valves, and characterized by short setae on the upper antennae and rudimentary postabdominal rami. in the North Sea (M. Living mimia, Baird); fossil in the Chalk (J/,
siliqua,

LYSIGO'NIUM.

SeeMELOsiBA.

Jones).

BiBL. G.

S.

M.

]\rACERATION. The

soaking of ob-

MACROGONIDIA. name applied to the larger form of ciliated zoospore found in many Confervoid Algte, associated with a form much smaller, distinguished as MicROGO>;iDiA. See Zoospores and HyDEODICTYON.

Brady, Limi. Tr. xxvi. 391.

jects in various menstrua, for the purpose of causing decomposition and solution of

MACROSPORES,
See Spores.

or

MEGASPORES.

portions of structure which are more readily attacked, is an operation frequently had recourse to in the anatomy both of animals and plants. In addition to water, cold and hot, a number of stronger agents are often

employed, chiefly oxidizing substances, such as Nitric Acid, the same combined with
chlorate of potash, &c. Ammonio-oxide of copper dissolves delicate cellidose rapidly, and does not so soon attack woody fibre,

MAC'ROSPO'RIUM, Fr. supposed genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Eungij, growing upon decaying vegetable matters, corresponding to Sejjtosporimu , Corda, and Hebnisporium, Duby. Several species are M. Cheirnnthi, Fr., is common on British.
wallflowers and stocks M. BrassiccB, Berk., on cabbage-leaves M. sarcinula, on gourds; and M. concinnum, on rotting decorticated willow twigs. We have found one species
;

&c.

See Tissues.
Latr.

MACHI'LIS,
Char.
;

See Petbobitjs.

MACROBIOTUS,
ages out palps

Schuhze. A genus

among

the

Oidium

of the vine-fungus.

of Tardigrada (Arachnida), family Arctisca.

Fig. 440.

Head not furnished with appendmouth terminated by a sucker, withskin soft, with irregular ruga3. Hufelandxi (PI. 50. fig. 8). Body
;

M.

cylindrical, colourless ; head front, with minute coloured

rounded

in
;

eye-spots sucker, pharyngeal tube, and styles well developed oesophageal bulb supported by a sohd frame- work of jointed pieces; legs equal claws two, bifid, the poi'it of each
; ;

aorain

bifid

movement

tolerably
;

quick

sFze 1-85 to 1-35".

The most common species found upon mosses growing on walls, stones, at the foot
of trees, &c. M. Oberhduseri. Dark brown colour distributed unsymmetrically in spots, and
;

Macrosporium bulbotrichmn.
Magnified 200 diams.

forming five longitudinal bands no eyeone simple, terminal, spots claws three, the two and forming a short filament others hooked, the interior one double or

Tulasne shows that they are conidiiferous forms of a Sphseriaceous genus. The spores of different species of Macrosporium were a
very prominent feature in the organisms observed in deposits from the air at Calcutta.

the posterior simple movement very active length 1-100 to 1-85".

bifid,
; ;

M. M.

ursellus.

Claws

three,

none
bifid.

fila-

mentous.
Dujardinii.

Claws two,

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 339 Ann. N. II. i. 261, pi. 8. fig. 10, vi. 435, pi. 12. fig. 21 Sgd. Fries, Sinnma Veget. 501 Mgcol. iii. 274 Corda, Ic. Fung. i. 175, 176, 188 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Xat. 4 ser.
;
; ; ;

MACROTHRTX.
V.

487

MAIZE.
in the contents of the vesiculae semiThe forms e and /are rare. Fig. 2

109; Cunningham, Mic. Exam, of Air,

found
nales.
a, b,

MAC'KOTHRIX, Baird. A genus of Eutomostraca, of the order Cladocera and family Da]]hniade. Char. Five pairs of legs beak directed forwards; superior antennae of considerable size, one-jointed, and pendnlous from the beak inferior antennre two-branched, posterior branch four-, anterior three-jdiuted, and with a ver}- long tilament arising from the end of the first joint a black spot at the root of the superior antenuiB.
;
;

C'tlcutta, 1873.

the so-called penniform groups of crystals (prisms) occasionally found in urine. Fig. 3 represents the stellate form, occasionally found in urine; sometimes the minute and imperfectly formed crystals of fig. 4 are met with
represents
crystals, or rather
in the

same liquid. The crystals belong to the rhombic system. The prismatic crystals were formerly regarded as consisting of a neutral, and the
;

M.

laticornis

(PI.

19.

tig.

2o).

Shell

oval, smooth, anterior ciliated eve areolar.

;

margin

strongly

Found in ponds. M. rose us. Eve without an

superior antennfe longer and than in the above Probably a variety of the in Scotland.

areola

feathery of a bibasic salt but the composition of the two is the same, and the variation in form depends upon the conditions under which they are produced. The prismatic forms may be prepared by allowing urine to decompose spontaneously,
or by diluting this secretion with water and gi'adually stirring-in very dilute solution of ammonia in small quantities at a time the
;

more slender
last,

Found

&

MADOTHE'CA, Bumortier (Jungermnnnia, L.). genus of ,lun-

BiBL. Baird, r. Enfom. 10-3; Norman Brady, Mail., Nat. Hist. Tr. Nortlmmb.
Yi^. 441.

penniform crystals by adding excess of solution of ammonia to very dilute solutions of the phosphate of ammonia and sulphate of magnesia and the feathery forms by adding
;

excess of

ammonia

to urine.

The

prismatic

germanniei'B (Hepaticse), containing two British species : one, M. platyphylla (fig. 441), common on walls, rocks, and trees the other, M. Ice;

crystals form a beautiful polarizing object. Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt). When crystallized upon a slide from an aqueous
solution, the prisms of this salt, mounted in balsam, form an interesting polarizing object; they are also analytic. Borate of magnesia fused into a bead

found on alpine The sporange is borne on a short stalk, globose, and bursts by four convex valves, from
tigata, rocks.

before the blowpipe is a beautiful object (Sorby). Urate of magnesia. See Ueic Acid. BiBL. That of CHEinsTRY, and Phil. Mag. 1852, iii. 378.

which

the

elaters

are

MAG'NETITE.
surement.

See Rocks.

The globose quite free. persistent epigone is seen in the fio-ure inside the Madothecaplatyphylla. 1 J Magn. o diams.
,

MAGNIFYING POWER.
;

See

Mea-

two-hpped penaone.
BiBL. Eudl. ^Gen. Plant. Siqjpl. i. 1.341 Hooker, Br. Fl. ii. 125, Brit, jimgermann. Ekart, Synops. pis. 35, 40, and Supp. pi. 3 Jimqerm. 52, pi. 3. tig. 24, pi. 0. fig. 44.
;

MAGOSPHtERA, Haeckel. genus of Catallacta (Protista) according to Kent, a Flagellate Infusorian.

BiBL. Haeckel, Jenai.
Inf. 323.
Zeit.

1870
of

Kent,

"MAHOGANY. The wood

various

MAGNESIA,

Salts of.

Ammonio-phosphate of magnesia or triple phosphate. This salt is frequently met with an animal secretions which have undergone The most decomposition, also in calculi. common forms are prismatic, and figured in the group a, b, PI. 13. fig. 1 but their vaThose of the above rieties are endless. group are frequent in decomposing urine, Those in group c are blood, fteces, &c. Those of group d are occasional in urine.
;

species of Stvietehia (Nat. Ord. Cedrelaceas). Cross sections of this well-known wood form good objects for showing the structure of with low power.

Wood

Indian, corn, Zea Mays, L. One of the family of Grasses producing The seeds, or rather seeds used as corn.
caryopses, are remarkably firm, being of a horny texture in the outer part of the substance, while the central mass is more or less brittle and soft. The solidity of tho

MAIZE.

MALLOMONAS.

488

MARCH AN TIA.

grain results from the outer cells of the albumen being densely filled with starchgrains (PI. 40. fig. 3), which, by pressure, assume a parenchymatous form and cohere together firmly. In the centre they are loosely packed in the cells, and then are of rounded forms (figs. 5 & 6). Figs. 1 to 4 represent successive stages of development of the starch-grains in the protoplasmic mass originally filling the cells, but finally

habit, but more resembling the OphioglossaceEe in their sporanges, which are destitute

of an annulus, and often so fused together as to form a midtilocidar sac. Gen.

:

Anf/iopfo'is. Caps, very close together, opening by a lateral slit.

Marattia.

Capsules
slits.

concrete,

opening

by

internal

Dancea.
cal pores.

Caps, concrete, opening by apiraised

almost wholly displaced.

See Starch.

MALLO'MONAS,
Char.

Perty. A genus of
with

Kaidfussia. Caps, concrete, in circular masses, openings internal.

Ciho-flagellate Infusoria.

Body oval,

elliptic or discoid,

or greenish contents; surface covered with long non-vibratile hairs ; a single long anterior llagellum.

brown

genus of Marchantiefe (Hepaticfe), Liverworts. The

MARBLE. See Rocks. MARCHAN'TIA, Micheli.A

most common species

2 species marsh-water. BiBL. Pertv, Inf. 170 Kent, Inf. 464. MALPIGHIAN BODIES. See Kidney. MANDIOC or MANIHOT. See Cassava.
; ;

is M. j)olynior])hn. It is a little plant, not uncommon upon the earth of damp shady courtyards, the borders

One of the most delicate of vegetable fibres used for textile

liber of the fibrovascular bundles of Musa te.vtilis, a kind of
fabrics, yielded

MANILLA HEMP.
by the

of springs, &c., extending itself in brightgreen thin lamellae of irregular lobed outline, attached to the soil by radical hairs arising on the lower surface. The frond presents

an upper and lower epidermis, with an intermediate parenchyma and the lobes are traversed by a kind of midrib. The
;

banana common in the Philippine Islands It is manufactured into (PI. 28. fig. 7). "Manilla handkerchiefs" and "Manilla
scarfs,"

consisting of

delicate

muslin.

upper surface is marked by raised lines which cross each other very regularly, leaving between them lozenge-shaped spaces (fig. 444), in the centre of each of which
Fig. 444.

These are often erroneously stated to be

made
apple.

of the fibre of

some kind of PineSee Textile Substances.

i.

MARANTACE^. A family of
les-niois plants, species of

BiBL. Hool-er's Journ. Bot. 1849,

28.

cotyledonous Flowering plants, to belong the true West-Indian arrow-root plants (see Arrow-Root), and the Tous-

Monowhich

Canna.

These

substances consist of the starch (PI. 46. tubefigs. 18, 25, & 26) obtained from the rous rhizomes of the plants (see Starch).

MARATTIA,
Fig. 442.

Swartz.The

typical ge-

Fiff.

443.
Marehantia polymorpha.

Lobe of a

frond.

Magnifled 10 diameters.
Marattia.
Fig. 442. Side -^-iow of a sorua. with the Fig. 443. Inclusium

sorus removed.

Magnifled 12 diams.

occursa stoma, leading to an intercellular space in the parenchyma. The stomata of Marchantia are circular, and consist of sixteen cells, an-anged so as to form four rino-s, one upon another, each ring being composed
of four cells
;

they

mis of Mavattiaceous Ferns. Tropical 442 & 443). Hook, Syn. 440.

may

(figs.

by comparing them with a chimney com-

be best explained

MARATTIA 'CE^.An order of Ferns,

in general approaching the Polypodiacese

posed of four courses of bricks, each consisting of four bricks laid together to enclose a square. The parenchyma is of

composed

MARCIIANTIA.

489

MARCIIANTIA.

several layers of cells, which contain much The inferior epidermis is chlorophyll. clothed with radical hairs, whicli exhibit a

remarkable spiral inarldug, arising from the of a --spirally deposited secondary

f)rojection aver in the interior of the tube. The fi'onds do not readily develop spoto ranges in shady places; but when exposed the" light, they are produced at the ends of the ribs, at the base of the terminal notches

ultimately acquiring the form of an expanded cap. In the male receptacles it has a sinuate margin (tig.44o) and in the female the border is developed into eight or nine thick cylindrical lobes (fig. 446). The male receptacle is concave above, with papillae consisting of the mouths of
;

flask- shaped

cavities,

in

each of which
(fig.

is

formed an antheridium

447).

These

Fig. 447.

Fig. 445.

Marcliantia polymorpha.
Mareliiintia polymorpha.

Plant with antheridial receptacles (male).

Nat. size.

Section through an antheridial receptacle, showing flask-shaped cavities containing the antheridia. Magnified 25 diameters.

of the lobes.

The male structures are produced on different plants from the female but both are borne on peculiar stalked reThe first appearance of one of ceptacles. these receptacles is as a little green papilla surrounded by reddish scales, at the end of one of the principal ribs. As it enlarges, it pushes its way through the scales and the rib on which it is borne elongates to form a pedicel, on which it is raised up perpendicularly above the surface of the frond,
; ;

antheridia are oval cellular bodies lodged in the expansion of the cavity, with a long neck projecting upward through the mouth The cells of the flask-shaped excavation. of the interior of the lower part of the antheridia produce spermatozoids (PI. 40. fig. The lower surface of the receptacle is 32).

clothed with
hairs.

membranous
receptacles
Fig. 448.

processes
are

and

The female

somewhat

Fig. 446.

Marcliantia polymorpha.

Plant with

fertile receptacles (female).

A sporangial receptacle

Marchantia polymorpha. seen from below.

Magnified 5 diameters.

Nat.

size.

MARCHANTIA.
;

490

MARCHANTIA.
(fig,

convex above and on the under surface of the base of each lobe are found delicate membranous processes with toothed marThe membranes of each two adjoingins. ing lobes form a perichcetium (fig. 448) alternating with the lobes, concealing between them the archeyonia, which are attached by their bases, and have their mouths pointing downwards. The archegones of
Fig. 448'

but 448*), enclose it, remammg open however at the summit this is the perigoniu^n. In its young stages the sporange is a mere oval mass of polygonal cells but a distinction may soon be detected between a cortical or peripheral The cells of layer and the internal mass. the former remain firmly united into a membrane forming the wall of the sporange.
ring surrounding it ultimately rising up so
as

to

These

cells

grow so as to assume an elongated

exhibit internally a spiral-fibrous secondary deposit (PI. 40. fig. 35), analogous to that of the cells of the anthers of Flowering plants. The cells of

form, and

when mature

Marchuntia polymorpha.
Archegonia in yarious
stages.

Magnified 100 diameters.

Marchantia are flask-shaped sacs with a long slender neck (fig. 448*), containing
in their cavity a
cell

the internal mass present at an early period the appearance of a large number of filaments radiating from the centre of the sporange to the wall. These soon become free from each other and it may then be perceived that some are of very slender diameter, and others three or four times as thick. The slender ones are developed at once into the long elaters (PI. 40. fig. .36) characteristic of this genus, containing a double spiral fibre, the two fibres, however, coalescing into one at the ends (fig. 37). The thicker filaments become subdivided by
;

(germ-cell),

which

after fertilization becomes developed into an oval cellular body, the young sporan(/ium. In the course of the development of this, it

cross partitions, and break up into squarish free cells, which are the parent cells of the spores, four of which are produced in each
(PI. 47. figs. 10-13).

The

spores of
;

M. po-

soon fills the cavity of the archegone, which then begins to grow with it, and subseit the quently forms a loose sac around finally ruptured at the point, so ejnffonium

lymorpha have but a single coat and their contents are bright yellow when mature. When they germinate, the contents are converted into chlorophyll and the groAvth
;

commences by the production of a tubular

process from one side of the spore.
Fig. 450.

as to exhibit four or five teeth or valves,

which become recurved

(fig.

449).

Mean-

Fig. 449.

Marchantia pol3nnorpha. Vertical section of Fig;. 448, showing sporanges in situ, bursting to discharge the spores and elaters. Magnified 10 diameters.

collection of

gemmae

in their involucre.

Magnified 25 diameters.

while another envelope grows up around the epigone, appearing at first as a mere

It lias been mentioned that M. polymorpha does not fruit freelv in the shade. Under

MARCHANTIE.E.

491

MARSILEACEyE.
from

these circumstances it produces gemmce, consisting of little, compressed, oblong masses of cells, of green colour, capable of reproducing the plant. These are found, when mature, in elegant cup-like structures, with toothed borders, sessile on the

or in groups (PI. 11.

tals differ

The crysfig. 16 a). tliose of stearic acid, which

form lanceolate single or aggregated plates

fig. 16). Margarine crystallizes from a hot alcoholic solution in fine needles, mostly grouped or branched, sometimes surrounding globules of oleine, or forming bulb-like aggregations of needles (PI. 11. fig. 15). It is sometimes found crvstallized within the cells of fatty

(PI. 11.

upper face of the frond (tigs. 446, 450). The cup seems to be formed by a develop-

ment
raised

of the superior

up and

tinally bursts

epidermis, which is and spreads

out, laying bare the gemmae, the internal parenchyma.

produced from

tissue

(I>1.

11. fig. 15 a)
is

consist at first of a single vides so as to present an upper

;

The gemmae cell, which diand a lower

Margaric acid
ture
of

now

regarded as a mix

palmitic and stearic acids, and a combination of these acids

the upper multiplies until it (stalk-) cell The becomes a cellular mass (fig. 451).
Fig. 451.

with glycerine. BiBL. That of Chemistry. MARGIN ULI'N A, D'Orb.- -A Nodosarine

Foraminifer,
or
spiral

curved

elongate, equi lateral, in its earlier portion ;

;

chambers globular or compressed orifice Kodosaria raphanus rounded, marginal. becomes Marginuline with an eccentric
aperture (PI. 23. figs. 30-32); and, by gradual modifications, Marginulina passes into Cristellaria, with which ^\'illiamson unites it.

Common
Marchantia poljrmorpha.

in existing seas

and

fossil

from

the Trias upwards.

A Tertical

section of the same, with nascent gemmsB. Magnified 50 diameters.

BiBL. Williamson, i?ec. For am. Z^; MorBr. Foss. 37 Parker & Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. xii. 432; Carpenter, Intr. For.
ris,
;

development of this structure presents much analogy to that of the sori of the Ferns with their iudusia and sporanges. The Marchantice also increase by innovations, or lobes of the frond becoming detached from those on which they originate. These plants form most interesting objects

genus of Marsileagrowing in mud, by a creeping rhizome, from which arise erect filiform leaf-stalks, supporting a comcete (Flowerless Plants),

MARSIL'EA, L. A

pound fom'-lobed blade

perpendicular and
in these

at the bases of the

leaf-stalks arise also stalked capsules, chambered in the interior, being divided by one

of microscopic investigation, in all parts of their structure. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 105 Engl Bot. pi. 110; Mirbelj Mem. Acad. Paris, xiii. 337, 375 Niigeli, Linna-a, xvi. 1842 ; Henfrey, Dev. of Spores ^r., Linn. Tr. xx.
; ;

many

horizontal septa

chambers are found sacs (sporanges) containing the spores. This plant agrees in all essential respects with Pilulaeia. See

Mahsileace^.

MARSILEA'CE/E.Afamily of Flowerless plants

11; Thuret, Antheridies, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xvi. 72, pi. 12 Gottsche, Bot. Zeit. 1858, Swppl. Strassburger, Jahr. wiss. Bot. vii. 409 Sachs, Bot. 354. A family of LiverMarworts or Hepaticae. Brit. Genera chantia, Fef/ateUa, Behouillia, Lunularia. See Hepatic.^.
103,
pi.
; ; ;

possessing a slight leafy stem

MARCHANTrE^.

composed of a small number of plants, of minute dimensions, but of gi'eat interest in a physiological point of view. They are all aquatics, some growing in the mud in and
around ponds, others floating on the surface
of stagnant waters.
arising

They

The former general ingredient of the fatty

matters of both the animal and vegetable kingdom, when crystallized from hot alcohol,

MARG ARIC ACID and MARGARINE.

spore-fi-uits or sporocarps, seated

from the stem.

bear distinct on a stalk These contain spoall

forms minute needles, either isolated

ranges or spore-sacs, differently arranged in the different genera, but agreeing in this respect, that they ccntain spores of two kinds, macrospores and microsporus, aualo-

MARSIPELLA,

492

MASTOGONIA,
hyaline process, on freshwater

gous to the two kinds of spore in Lycopodiacese, bat differing in their mode of development. Pilularia (jlohuJifera is the only British
representative of this ftimil}'. BiBL. Hofmeister, Venjl. Writers. 21 & 22 Henfrey, Tr. Br. Assoc.
;

ending in a produced sheathed and jointed

Algae.

M.

(sruc,inosa (PI, 52. fig. 10).

ii.

103,

BiBL. Rabenhorst, Alg. Phyc. Oentr. 232.

Diatomacefe.
tides, the

225

Kiitz.

pis.

1851

Ann. N. H. 2
natsh.

ser. ix.

447

Hanstein,

Mo;

MASTOGLO'IA, Thwaites. A

genus of

Ak. Berlin, 1864, Ann. N. Sachs, o(^.444(tij?.).

H. 1864

MARSIPEL'LA, Norm. A delicate are;

Distinguished by the Navicula-\\kQ frushoops of which are furnished with

loculi,

naceous Foramiuifer, related to Astrorhiza. (Norman, Ann. N. H. 5. i. 281 Brady, Qu. Mic. Jn. xix. 17.) MARY'NA, Griiher. A genus of HoloBodies cup-shaped, trichous Infusoria. with a funnel-shaped cleft neck terminal on the ends of a branched zoary. M. socialis, marine (Kent, Inf. 520.). MASTIGAMCE'BA, Schulze. genus
:

immersed in a^mammillate frond. Five British species, marine and freshValves

;

water.

M. lanceolata (PI. 51. fig. 26). lanceolate, elliptical, ends acute 8-30 in brackish water.
;

loculi

M.

Danseii z= Uickicia Danseii, Thw. BrsL. Smith, ^/-i^. Diat. ii. 63; Thwaites,
i.

Ann. N. H. 1848,

171.

MASTOGO'NIA,Ehr. A doubtful genus

;

of Flagellate Infusoria.

Char. Amojba-like, changeable, creeping, an anterior flaemitting pseudopodia, with M. freshwater. Four species gellum.
;

of fossil Biatomaceae. Char. Frustules single valves dissimilar, angular, mammiform, orbicidar at the base, free from umbilical processes, not cellular,

aspera (PI. 53.

M ASTIGOB 'RYUM.

fig.

22).

(Kent, Inf. 221.) See Herpetium.

MASTIGOCER'CA, Ehr. A

genus of

angles radiating. The (eight) species are interesting from the structure of the two valves of the frustules differing. Thus in one, M. Crux (PI, 18. fig. 23 a) the angles and rays are four in one valve, but seven in the other ; in

Rotatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Eye single and cervical ; tail-like foot styliform; carapace prismatic, with a dorsal crest. M. carinata (PI. 43. fig. 46, side view). Foot as long as the body freshwater entire
; ;

Fig. 452.

length 1-72". BiBL. Ehrenberg,

MASTIGOC'LADUS, Cohn. A
Char.

Infiis. p. 460.

genus

of Confervoid Algse, allied to Sirosiphon.

Filaments

moniliform,

dichoto-

mously ramose, without sheaths. Secondary branches with cylindrical cells, among which are some elliptical foi-ms a fleshy,
;

spongy
springs.

layer.
fig.

M.^laminosus (PL 52.

9),
ii.

in

warm
Fig. 453.

284. BiBL. Rabenh. FL Eur. Air,, MASTIGONE'MA, Schwabe. A genus

Fig. 454.

of Rivulariacese. Char. Filaments tufted, articulated, elonsheathed apex of the gate, with thin ends, sheath open. M. }}lana, an Irish and Scot;

tish species.

M ASTIGOPII'ORA,
pt.

BiBL. Rabenh. Fl. Eur.

(Hincks, Volyz. 278).

Air,,

ii.

226.

Matonia peetinata.
Fig. 452. Part of a fertile pinna. Fig. 453.
Fig. 454.

Hincks,= iep-a//a
of

MASTIGO'TliRIX, Kiitz. A genus

Rivulariaceae.

Char. Filament single, bent, fiagelliforra,

Magn. 3 diams. Indusium opened at the side, showing theca in situ. Magn. 2.5 diams. The same with the theose removed. Magn.
25 diams.

MATONIA.

493

MEASUREMENT.

M. actt7iopti/chus (PI. 18. fig. 23 b) the angles and rays are nine in one valve, and thirteen in the other, and so on. Diameter from 1-1600 to 1-300".
M.
he.va<iona (PI. 18.

%.

25).

BiBL. Ehrenb. Bet: Bed. Akad. 1844;

Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 25.

MATO'NLl, R. Brown. A genus

M.
pectinata
Si/n. 45.)
(figs.

of

The same result may be obtained with the aid of the camera lucida, by placing the microscope horizontally, and its axis at a distance from the table equal to the distance between the focus of the eyepiece and the stage the breadth of the image of a division is then measured as before and this is the best and most certain method.
;
;

Cvathese (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

452-454)

Exotic.

(Hook,
_

MAUliAN'D YA. A genus of Scrophula-

most important point in relation to this subject is that the joint of the microscope shall be furnished with a stop or pin
(Introduction,

riacese (Dicotyledons), the testa of the seed of which is composed of cells with spiral-

may
all

p. xv), by which the body be placed horizontally at once, so that objects which are drawn under the

fibrous deposits, foradng an elegant microscopic object.

MEASUREMENT and
we

Measures. In
method

same object-glass and eyepiece may be magnified to the same extent, the degree being determined by the second of the
above methods. The obvious use of being acquainted with the magnifying power of a microscope is that objects under examination may be viewed by the same power as that with which figures of them have been made, so
that the
structure or appearance of the objects in the two cases may be compared. In the above estimation of the magnifying

this article

shall consider the

of measuring the magnifjang power of a microscope, of ascertaining the dimensions of objects, and shall give a sketch of the standard measures in which the dimensions of objects are expressed.

Measurement of the magnifying power of

a microscope. The apparent size which an object appears to possess under a microscope will vary according to the power of the object-glass and of the eye-piece used, and the length of the body of the microscope and it is a good plan to determine the measurements once for all in the case of the various object-glasses and eye-pieces, keeping them wi-itten upon a card, so that
;

power, one dimension only is taken into accoimt, viz. the breadth or diameter; and this is the ordinary manner in which the

magnifying power is stated objects are then said to be magnified so many dia;

meters, or so
is efi'ected

many

times linear.

they may be readily accessible. The apparatus requisite consists of a glass micrometer-slide graduated into thousandths of an inch, each tenth division being marked by a longer line or two separate slides, one graduated into thousandths, the other into hundredths of an inch and an
; ;

Measurement of the size of objects. This with the aid of a slide micrometer passed through two slits in the eyepiece above the stop, and at the focus of the upper

ivory scale, graduated into inches, tenths, and hundredths. The simplest method is that by double sight, as it is called. The micrometer-slide is placed upon the stage, the lines brought into focus, and the image of one of the interspaces, as seen upon the stage with the open eye not used in looking through the

microscope, is measured with compasses. By then dividing the measure of the image of the space by the known measure of the unmagnitied space, the quotient is the required magnifying power. Thus, if the space on the micrometer-scale is equal to the 1-lOOth of an inch, and the image of the magnified space corresponds to S-lOths of an inch, the space is magnified 50 times
:

The breadth of the spaces between the lines must be such as to give an even and minute fraction of an inch. The value of the spaces will vary with the power of the object-glass and eyepiece so that it must be determined in each case, and recorded. For measuring small objects, the breadth of the spaces in the eyepiecemicrometer may be such that twenty of them correspond to 1-lOOOth of an inch in the stage-micrometer slide, so that the value of each division wiU be the l-20,000th part of an inch. It is seldom that we have to measure objects so small as this but the small size is of great advantage, because in most cases it will happen that the margins of the objects will coincide exactly with some of the lines, whereby the chance of error in computation will be avoided. For larger objects, the spaces of the eyepiecemicrometer may be coarser. The method of measuring scarcely requires
glass of the eyepiece.
;

^lEASUREMEXT.

494

MEASUREMENT.
in

further explanation. Supposing, however, that the divisions of the stage-micrometer 1-lOOOth of an inch, and are equal to those of the eyepiece-micrometer equal to l-20,000th of an inch (i. e. twenty of them cover one space in the former), an object brought into focus and covering five of the spaces of the eyepiece-micrometer, will be l-4000th of an' inch in diameter and so "When the objects for other dimensions.
;

drawn should always be expressed

bers near the figures.

num-

Measures. The measures in which the dimensions of objects are expressed should consist of parts of an English inch, and not of a line. On the continent, fractions of a millimetre, or of a Paris, or Prussian line are
used.

are large, the compasses and the ivory scale wiU suffice for their measurement but
;

When fractions of a millimetre are adopted, this is usually denoted by the addition of """ to the figure or figures. The following data wiU be found useful in reducing the foreign to tlie English measures
:

sometimes this may be conveniently done under a low power, for the 1-lOOths of an inch are not very clearly discernible to all
eyes.

millimetre 0'0393707 English inch ; or rather less than l-2oth of an English

inch.

In measuring objects, they must be covered with thin glass, and not immersed in

too

much

liquid.

matter of great diSiculty, under divihigh powers, to adjust accurately the sions of the eyepiece-micrometer to those of the stage-micrometer, or to the margins
It is a

centimetre = 0"393707 Eng. inch ; or rather more than l-3i'd Eng. inch. Paris line 0-088815 Eng. inch ; or rather more than 1-11 th Eng. inch, to which vulgar fraction it is nearest. To convert a foreign into the English measure, the former must be multiplied by

of objects, by means of the movable stage a very ingenious apparatus has been contrived by Jackson to overcome the diffiIt consists of a little brass frame, culty. in which the eyepiece-micrometer slides from side to side, the motion being communicated by the end of a screw working the slide, and resisted at against one e"nd of the other by a spring and as the magiiiwith which the divisions of i'ying power are viewed is the
;

its

unit-value; thus, Q-2b^^ (millimetre) X 0-0303707=0-G0984267o Engl. inch. But in most cases a few decimal places only need be observed. In this way, however, w-e get a rather long sum, which may be avoided by the use of the following Table.

Table for conversion of foreign into English measures.

eyepiece-micrometer
is

small, the adjustment ratelv effected.

easily
is

and accu;

and very minute investigations and measurements may be taken with it and with Jackson's eyepiece-micrometer to l-100,000th of an inch. Other micrometers, as the "cobwebbut as they are micrometer," are made
;

Hartnack's diagonal scale

very useful

shall pass very expensive, we Some authors express the measurement of of a ruled scale appended objects by means to the figures or plates of them, the scale of a stage-micrometer consisting of divisions of known value traced off" under the same or somepower as the objects themselves; times the divisions are ruled over the figures. These methods are very objectionable, because the size of the objects cannot be

them

over.

ascertained without measuring with comwhich is almost as passes and calculation, bad as the size being omitted altogether. Whenever figures of objects are given,

the magnifying power with which they are

MEDULLA.

495

MEDULLARY RAYS.

fraction to be converted into parts of an Eno-litih inch luiL-t be broken up into its

decimal parts, and each valued separately from the Table; thus, to convert 0-75""" into a fraction of an Eu'^lish inch

It affords the medulla epinalis of animals. excellent sections of regular parenchymatous tissues, as in the elder and in the tall annual stems of many of the larger perenIt sometimes benial herbaceous plants.

0.7mm

_ O-Oo""" = 0.75mm _

0-0275-j9o 0-00 1968.53

(by tbe Table).

comes curiously chambered as it grows older, as in the walnut and the jasmine
;

0-02952803 Eng. inch.

requires

very frequently, however, it decays after a time, leaving the centi-e of the stem hollow;
this

same hollow condition occurs

The only circumstance which

tistular stems,

attention iii the use of this Table is the in the position of the decimal point. Thus, above measure of O-ro'""^ which, when broken up, makes O"?'"'" and O-Oo"""*, if the had been 7-0, the value in first value
(0-7)

such as tbose of the UmbelUferse, from the pith being torn up by The Monorapid expansion of the wood. cotyledons do not generally possess a defithe cellular mass, in which the nite pitli
;

early in

isolated

Fibeo-vascular Bundles

are

Eng. inch would have been, according to 275595 Eng. inch but this is the Table, 10 times too much, or = 7 whole millimetres hence the shifting of the decimal To express the mode of point, and so on.
;

imbedded, answers to a diffused pith, or rather to the pith and medullary rays colIt may be seen well in sections lectively. of the flowering stem of lilies (fig. 456 M).
Fig. 456.

in proceeding by rule, the decimal point the fraction of an English inch given by the Table should be shifted to the left, and as manj- ciphers added as there are decimal places in the foreign measure. Harting introduced a new measure, the = 0000a9 in., called .j^t__th of a millimetre This a micromillimetre, expressed by /x. and its multiples are often used in foreign works. The /x is nearly equal to the tsW

But we agTee with of an English inch. Frey, that its use possesses no advantage. Throughout this work the foot and inch
their fractional parts are expressed for brevity by placing respectively one or two acute accents on their right side thus, one foot is denoted 'bv '1', one inch by 1", and ^ ' of an inch bv 1 10". .j^^th

Horizontal section of the Howering stem of a

lily.

and

M, medulla

F, fibro- vascular bundles. Magnified 5 diameters.

MEDUL'LA

OF

Plants.
tlie

The

more definite medulla occurs in the stem and leaves of the rushes and sedges, where
also the cells are often elegant radiating leaving large air-canals between them (PI. 47. fig. 18). The pith of a Dicotyledonous stem loses itself gi-adually in

name

formerly applied to
(fig.

pith of Dicotyledons

forms,

455 Mj, from a supposed analogy with

Fio'.

455.

the terminal bud, where it is confounded with the nascent wood and cortical layers. In this stage its cells possess an active \-italitv, which, however, is soon lost.

ME'DUL'LARY RAYS. The

processes

of cellular tissue extending outwards from the pith, between the fibro-vascular bundles of a Dicotyledonous stem in the fir.^t year
of gi-owth (fig. 455 RM), together with additional interpose'd rays formed between the older in each succeeding annual layer The tissue of of wood (fig. 457, 1, 2, 3, 4). these rays generally becomes much com-

Horizontal section of a yearling shoot of a Dicotyledon. M.iQedulla; RM, medullary rays T, medullary sheath. Magnified 25 diameters.
;

pressed durino: gi'owth but their size and the degree of development differ much in
;

IMEDULLARY SHEATH.

496

MELANCONIEI.

different cases. In radial sections of Dicotyledonous wood they often appear distinctly to the naked eye, from the direction of their cells being different from that of the woody
fibre,

and therefore

reflecting light

dif-

Fig. 457.

yellowish and grouped in radiant clusters when old; freshwater; length of individuals 1-36"; of the clusters 1-6". The ova remain some time attached to the parent by a cord. M. velata, Gosse. BiBL. Ehr. Lifus. 396; Gosse,

Ann. N. H. 1851,

viii.

198

Pritch.

Infus.

MEGALOTROCH/E'A, Ehr.a
family of Rotatoria. Char. Neither envelope nor carapace present rotatory organ simple, notched or sinuous at the margin. Three genera
;

Eyes none Eyes present Eye one Eyes two

Cyphonautes.

Microcodon.
JJegalotrocha.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus.

Section of a four years' old shoot of the Cork oak. M, pith medullary rays of successive years ; P. C, liber layers ; S, cork layers. Magnifled 20 diameters.
;

1, 2, 3, 4,

of Trombidiua (Acariua). Char. Palpi long, fi-ee, with a claw ;

;

MEGAM'ERUS, Duges. a genus

p.

394.

ferently this causes the "silver grain" as it is called of oak panels, &c. ; in tangential sections of the trunk, the ends of the medvdlary rays usually appear as short, more
;

mandibles forcipate; body constricted; distant legs ambulatoiy femora, especially of the fourth pair, "very large, seventh joint short.
coxse^

Several

species.

or less regidar, narrow streaks.

MED'ULLAR Y SHEATH.The earliest

layer of fibro-vascular tissue developed in a Dicotyledonous stem, consists ordinarily of the foundation spiral vessels, these forming of the wood-bundles (fig. 4oo T). As the latter stand in a circle round the pith, their internal vascular layers of course form collectively a continuous cylindrical envelope this is called the medullaiy to the pith It is absent in some Dicotylesheath. donous stems, for example in the Oroban;

shady places, and move rapidly. M. celer (PL 6. tig. 33 a, labium b, Minute; abdomen oblong; the sides palp). narrowed posteriorly, covered with hairs, and with three terminal set; labium bifid mandibles with a movable, elongated, pointed * and curved claw.. PI. 6. fig. 33 c, mandible of M. roseus. BiBL. Duges, Anyi. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. ii. 50 Gervais, Walck. Arachn. iii. 169 Lurray,
: ;

They

live

in

damp

Ent. 115.

chacese.

MEDU'S^E. See Acaleph^. MEE'SIA, Hedw.A genus of Bartramioid Mosses one species, M. uliginosa
;

Hincks, Lepralia pt. (Hincks, Pohjz. 171.) MEGU'RA, Buckt. genus of Aphidse. Black, eyes red on Vicia septum. (Buckton, Aphid., Bay Sue. i. 188.)

MEGAP'ORA,
;

Bnjiim

trichodes)
lonr/iseta,

another. 31.

certainly doubtful.
,

British

MEESIA'OKE. AtribeofBartramioid
Mosses, containing two genera, of which there are but few British representatives.

See Meesia and Paludella.

MEGALOT'ROCHA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Megalotrocha^a. Char. Eyes two, red, sometimes disappearing with age. Rotatory organ two-lobed or horse-shoeshaped teeth in rows. M. albo-flavicans, E. (PI. 44. fig. 1). Colourless and unattached when young,
;

MELAMPSO'RA, Cast genus of Uredinei (Coniomycetous Fungi), distinguished by producing two distinct kinds of The spores summer and winter spores. species are very common on the willow, birch, poplar, &c., forming yellow or orange spots upon the leaves. (Cooke, Handh. 522 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. N. 4. ii. 94.)

of Stylosporous Fungi, distinguislied from SphiTcronemei by the perithecium being obsolete or altogether wanting. The spores, which vary much in the different genera, are ultimately protruded in the form of

MELANCONI EL A provisional family

MELANCONIUM.
tendrils or otlier-svise.

497

MELOPHILA.
s^r. v.

They

are all

mere

E^veiU^, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3

276

forms of Sphaoriacei.

MELA^CO'NIUM, supposed genus of Melauconiei^(Stylosporous I uugi ), so called from forming a kind of black rust Several on branches of trees, reeds, &c. The species have been found in Britain.
(Didi/i}wsj)orium birch. Fries also Cnjptosporium vulgare here. places These plants are forms of Sphaeriacei. See

Lk. A

Summa

Fries,

MELASPTLEA, Nyl. A genus

noid
; ;

Veg. 423.

of Gra-

phidei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. Apothecia black, superficial, artho-

Five

commonest

is

M.

bicolor

ekvatum, Br.

Fl.),

on twigs of

COXIOMYCETES.

spores 1-septate paraphyses distinct. (Leighton, Lich. Flora, 436.) MELICER'TA, Schrank. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Floscularitea. Char. i3odies each iu an isolated tubular carapace or urceolus rotatory organ fomlobed ; eyes two, at least when young.
species.

Ann. N. H.
p.

BiBL. Berk. Brit. Flor. ii. pt. 2. p. 357 vi. p. 438 Fries, Summa Veg. 508 ; Tulasue, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 4. ser. v.
;

M.

ringens (PI. 44.

fig.

3
;

fig. 4,
fig.

animal
jaws).

removed from the sheath

6,

p. 109.

MEL'ANINE. The black or brown pigment met with in the choroid and uvea in the rete mucosum of man, especially the
;

Carapace conical or cylindrical, brownish, composed of numerous rounded or discoidal

less.

bodies agglutinated together body colourLength of carapace 1-36 to 1-24". Frequently found attached to water;

negro, and animals

a)id in the

in hair, feathers, &c.;

plants, especially

blood in malaria. These pigments are derived from htematine and hsemoglobine, and exist usually in the

BiBL.
iii.

3Iicr. Jn.

62

Fotamogeton crispus. Ehr. Infus. 404; Williamson, 1852 Gosse, Tr, Mic. Sac. 1851, Bedwell, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, 176
;

form of very mmute granules.

They

are

Ann. N. H. 1881,

insoluble in watey, alcohol, ether, and acids: but are sometimes soluble in alkalies The lungs and or solution of chlorine. bronchial glands often contain a black pigment, which is unacted upon by these reagents, and is derived from carbonaceous matter admitted through the respiratory Hist, 167 (Rindfleisch, Path. organs. Hoppe-Sevler, Ati. Chim. 240.)
;

448. MELI'OLA, Fr. A genus of Ascouiyceviii.

tous Fungi, belonging to the division Peiisporiacei.

All the species are exotic, occurring on various leaves, and distinguished by their

highly developed mycelium and large septate

sporidia,

M. variegatus (fig. poplars, &c. 54, p. 92) is sold in the market at Bath under the name of Red Truffle, but it has none of the fine flavour of the real Truffle.
Lombardy

Hypogaeous Gasteromycetous Fungi. Two species occur in this coimtry, under beech,

MELANOGAS'TER, Cd. A

genus of

BiBL. Leveille, Ann. Sc. Nat, 1846, v. 266 Mont. Cuba Crypt. 327. MELOBE'SIA, Lam.A genus of CoralNine British species, on rocks and linaceae. other Algae (Harvey, Mar. Algce, 107). The capsules (ceramidia) form little blimt cones, scattered over the crusts, and containing
;

tufted tetraspores as in Corallina. MELOLON'THA, Fabr. (Cock-chafer).

of Coleopterous Insects, family Melolonthidae. The structure of M, vidgaris, the common cock-chafer, has been elaborately studied and described.

M. ambiguus
assafcBtida.

is

very

fetid,

smelling like
.

A genus

Outl.

MELANOTHE'CA, Fee.A genus of Pyrenodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. Thallus scarcely any; apothecia verrucaroid, numerous, confluent hjTnenia
;

BiBL. Tul. Fung. Hyp. t. 2. f 293 Cooke, Handh. 356.

;

4,

Berk.

BiBL. Suckow, Naturg. d. Maikdfers Straus-Diirckheim, An. comp. d. Insect,

Westwood,
Latr.).

Introd.

scarcely distinct perithecium black spores Two British species^ 8, variously divided. on trees. (Leighton, Lich. Flora, 498.)
;

MELOPHTLA,

genus

Nitzsch {Melophagm, of Dipterous Insects,

supposed genus Sphaeronemei (Coniomycetous Fungi), but apparently only a stylosporous form of M. acerina occurs on the Rhytisjl\. leaves of the sycamore, forming black spots, sometimes as much as 1-2" in diameter. BiBL. Berk. Ann, N, H. 2 ser. v. 456
of
;

MELAS'MIA,

L^v.

family Hipj:)oboscidce. Char. Head posteriorly received iu an excavation of the thorax wiugs and halteres
;

absent; last joint of the tarsus largest. M. ovinus, the sheep-tick (PI. 35. fig. 23).

Common upon sheep.

oval, resembling

in an eye-Uke cavity of the

Antennae small, sunk head eyes small,

;

two groups of

ocelli

setae

2k

MELOSIRA.
three, enclosed

498

MEMBRANES.
striae

in two sheath-like, hairy, iinjoiuted organs (labial palpi), resembling otherwise those of Pulex, and arising from the sides of a triangular labium.

punctate (ordin. ilium.), no breadth 1-850 to 1-5C0".

nor keel

Legs

robust tarsi with two stout serrated claws, each having at its base a blunt process ; accompanying the claw is an elegant feathery tarsal brush and on the under side of the last tarsal joint is a bilobed pectinate organ.
; ;

(^Orthosira Dickiei, Thw.) (PI. 17. fig. 15: a, front view; b, side view). Filaments short, frustules nearly colourless,

M.

Uiclxiei

ends flat, no striae nor keel (ord. ilium.), valves thickened so as to render the cavity of the frustules rounded breadth 1-1500 to 1-1200".
;

BiBL. Lyonnet, Anat.

;

et

les

mctamor.

The remarkable sporangia formed

species (PI.
10.
fig.

Gurlt, Magaz.f. d. rfesam. Tliier. 1843, ix. Westwood, Introd. Curtis, Br. Entom. 142 Dufour, An7i. Sc. Nat. 1845, iii. ; Leuckart, Fvrtpfanz. der Pupiparen.

in this 0) are noticed under

DlATOMACE^, **
;

p. 249.

Freshwater.

A genus of Diatomaceag.

MELOSI'RA, Ag.

{GalUonella,mir.).

Char. Frustules cylindrical, discoidal or subspherical, united into jointed filaments. Hoops often very broad, to adapt themselves to the breadth of the new frustules.

In some species a narrow projecting ridge or keel encircles the valves near their ends. Valves covered with dots, which are mostly
very minute and invisible under ordinary illumination in the side view they sometimes have a radiate arrangement. In some species the margins of the ends of the frustvdes (side view) have coarse and distinct
;

M. {Orthosira) varians (PI. 17. fig. 6, front view a, side view). Frustules colourless, ends sHghtly convex and striated at the margin (ord. ilium.), keel absent; breadth 1-1500 to 1-1200". The end view of the frustules resembles that of Cychtella. Formation of sporangia shown in PL 10. 8 o 6, sporangial frustule. fig. 31. arenaria. Ends of frustules flat and striated at the margin (ord. ilium.), the striae appearing also in the front view; keel absent frustules broader than long; breadth 1-660 to 1-260".
; ;

M.
Thw.

cremdata, Kg. (Aulacosira crenulata^

;

M. orichalcea,

Ralfs) (PI. 10.

fig.

7 a,

radiating

striae.

This genus has been subdivided by Ehrenberg and Kiitzing into Lymjonmrn, in which the keel is present and Gallionella Again, by (proper), in which this is absent. Thwaites into Aidacosira, in which the
:

forming sporangia; h, c, sporangial frusDiffers from the last in its less tules).
diameter, and the frustules being two or three times as long as broad; breadth 1-1400".

BiBL.
ibid.

Kiitz.
ISf.

Bacill.

frustules are cylindrical, surrounded transversely by two furrows, with rounded (convex) ends, but no line for division Orthosira, in which the frustules are exactly cylindrical
;

Ralfs, An7i.

11. 1843, xii.

;

1848,

i.

168
ii.

Rabenh. Aly.
ix.

Sp. AJg. 27; 346; Thwaites, Br. Biat. ii. 54 Smith, 37 O'Meara, Q. Mic. Jn.
52,
;
;

150.

(with

flat ends),

exhibiting the transverse

;

and with spherical or subspherical internal cavities and Melosira (proper), in which the frustules are convex at the ends, and have the central line of
line of division,

Aphidae. M. salicis. Black, legs orange, antennae 7-jointed; on the willow. (Buckton,
Aiihid.,

MELOXAN'THUS, Buckt. A
Bay
Soc.
ii.

genus of

21.)

MEMBRANES,
are said to

division.

Undulating. These be simple membranous bands,

Numerous
*

British species.
;

Marine.

(PI. 17. fig. 5 a a frustule more magnified). Prepared frustules colourless, distinct keel pn sent valves without markings imder ordinary illumination; breadth 1-1500 to 1-1200". This common species forms long, slightly curved chains, and, on account of the great breadth of the frustules, shows well the various stages of subdivision. The filaments
h,
;

M. nummnhides, Kg.

one margin only of which is attached, the other being free and exhibiting an undulatory motion. They are allied to and

answer the same purpose

as cilia. They are described as occurring upon the spermatozoa of salamanders and tritons as
;

forming longitudinal processes in the watervessels of some Anellida, as the Turbellaria; also as existing in some Infusoria, as TrichoSome authors dina, and some Rotatoria.

are

sometimes

stipitate.

M. Borreri, Grev. Prepared frustules dark brown, ends rounded, entire surface

have regarded them as consisting of rows of or a spiral fibre, and not membranes. They are most easily examined in the spermatozoa of the triton, in which we believe
cilia

MEMBRANIPORA.

499

MERfDION.

the appearance of an undulating membrane arises* from the existence of a tibre coiled
tlie spermatozoa, and uudulating throughout its length (PI. 60. fig. 17). This opinion is b.ased upon the circumstance that if the coiled fibre be detached from the

around

genus of Grammi(Polypodiaceous Ferns). 10 sp. tropical. (Hook., ^yn. 390.) MENISCOS'TOMUM, Kt. A genus of Holotrichous Infusoria. Like Paraniociutny but mouth lateral, lunate Avith a ^abratile
_

MENIS'CIUM.A
;

tidete

proper tilament of a spermatozoon or spermatozoid, no margins of the (lacerated) membrane can be detected other than that
visible at first,

the coiled

fibre".

and which really represents This, however, is an in-

wat. (Kent, Inf. 539.) MENIS'PORA, Pers. genus'of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), one species of which, M. lucida, Corda, is recorded as
1 sp.
;

membrane.

fr.

teresting subject for further investigation. Siebold, who has paid most attention to it, remarks that Trypanosoma Grubii, a supposed entozoon found in the blood of frogs

growing on decayed wood. BrBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. vii. 101 Corda, Ic. i. pi. 4. fig. 223. MENOID'IUM, Perty. genus of
British,
;

and fishes, is not an independent animal, but simply an undulating membrane swim-

ming

freely.

BiBL. Siebold, Sieb. und Soil. Zeitschr. Bd. ii. 356, and the Bihl. therein. See Mucous and Serous Membranes.

Johnst. A genus of marinePolyzoa, family Membraniporid.^.

MEMBRANIP'ORA,

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Small, crescentic, thicker on the outer margin, colourless, or greenish. M. pellucidum, fi'eshwater movement jerking and revolving, 1-670 to 1-430". BiBL. Perty, Lehensf. 174. Nitzsch. subgenus of
;

with the head semilunar or trapezoidal, but witliout a deep

(Anoplura);
lateral sinuosity.

LiOTHEUM

MENOPON,

Several British species; usually fcniud incrusting sea-weeds,

stones.

The

species infest poultry,

more

rarely shells

and

M.inlosa (PL 41. fig. 18). Orifices of the cells with one long hair, and several spinous
teeth.

MEREN'CHYMA.A name applied by some authors to the form of vegetable cellular tissue where the cells are of circular,
ellipsoidal, or irregularly

the partridge, quail, &c.

MEMBR AIsIPOREL'LA, Blainv., =iepraKa,

family of Cheilostomatous Infundibulate Polyzoa. Distinguished by the expanded, incrusting, stony polypidom, and the horizontal quiucuncial cells. Genera
:

Verv common.

rounded outline;

ordinarily

known

MEMBRAXIPOR'ID.E.A

pt.

(Hiucks, Polyz.).

MERIDTON,

parenchyma. Leibl.A genus of Diato-

as lax

Memhranipora,

Cells open in front, with

macese. Char. Frustules (in front view) wedgeshaped, united laterally so as to form segments of circles or spiral bands. Fr. wat. Frustules in side view obovate, and furnished with coarse transverse strias visible

raised margins. Cells closed in front, Lepralia.

under ordinary illumination, which extend

polyinto the front view.

pidom spreading
Mar.
Folyz.
;

circularly.

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph.

Gosse, Mar.

Busk, Cat. Zool. ii. 16

;

Hincks,

Poli/z. 127.

MEXI'PEA, Eamx. A

dibulate

genus of InfunCheilostomatous Polyzoa, family

Cellulariadpe. Char. Cells oblong, tapering downwards, not perforate behind, with one or two sessile birds'-heads in front below the orifice. Two

Kiitzing distinguishes Meridian, in wliich the frustules form a spiral (helical) band, from Eumeridion, in which they form a convolute band. Meridian circulare, Ag. (PI. 17. fig. 7 Frustules in a, front view b, side view). side view simply obovate, forming a spiral (helical) band or filament length of frustules 1-600 to 1-375".
: ;
,

British species. M. ternata {Celhdaria ternata, Johnst.). Cells elongated, gi'eatly tapeiing downwards, .3 in each internode, with a stalked operculum protecting the orifice operculum expanded, entii-e, two spines on the upper margin anterior birds'-head single.
; ;

16. fig. 28, filament fiattened, and frustules (front view) separated by drying a, convolute filament Frustliles in side view conb, side view). stricted near the broad end, attenuate towards the narrow end, and attached to a hemispherical stipes or cushion.
;

Meridian conMrictum, Kg. (PI.

BiBL.
Ralfs,

Kiitz.

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooiyh. Cut. 20 Hiucks, Puhjz. 36.

;

'6\jo;

Busk,

Ann. N.
ii.

Br. Uiat.

41, Sp. Aly. 10: 1843, xii. 457 Smith, Rabenh, A/y. i. 295.
I.
;

Bacill.

2k2

MEKISMOP^DIA.
:MERISM0P^E'DIA, Meyen.-A

500

MESODIXnBI.

genus

:MES0CAR'PUS, Hassall {Sjyhcerocarjms,

Kutz.). genus of Zygnemaceae (Confervoid Algae), with evenly distributed cellcontents, producing in conjugation a cross branch, in which is formed a round spore. It often happens that all the successive members of a long series of cells conjugate with another similar series, so as to produce a ladder-like body, the "roimds" of which are formed of the transverse processes (traThe only kind of reprohecidce, KUtz.). duction yet observed is that by the spores formed in the transverse branch from the conjoined contents of two cells; but it is possible that zoospores and encysted conditions of these occur, as in Spirogyba and MouGEOTiA. The stellate encysted bodies found in most of the allied plants have been seen in M. scalaris by Thwaites. Thwaites also observed a division of the contents of the spore into four parts, such as occurs in

of Confervoid Algfe, consisting of minute cells, arranged in fours and multiples, formSeveral ing a quadrate layer or plate. species are described but their relation to Goniitm is obscure. Sarcina is placed in
;

this genus by Rabenhorst forms a cube. See Saecixa (Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg. ii. 56.)

hut

Sarcina

and Gonium.
genus
of

MERIZOMY'RIA, Ktz.A

Rivulariacefe.

Char. Filaments moniliform, upper cells

subulate, basal cells contained in a mucous matrix, and constituting an amorphous thallus. Freshwater. EiBL. Rabenh. Fl. Alg. iii. 224. genus of Entozoa. MERMIS, Duj.

niyrescens resembles Gordius, but differs from it principally in the Aulva of the female being transverse and situated near

M.

the anterior end of the body, whilst in Go?-dius this is placed at the posterior end.

ffiDOGONrE^.

Eggs
It

black.
is

M.
round.

scalaris,

Hass.

(fig.

138,

p.

204).

found in the newly dug-up damp

gardens, and in the intestines
I~)uj.

Sterile filaments 1-1800 xo

1-1440" in dia-

eai-th of

of

meter, 6 times as long

Hass.
pi. 42.

sporanges oval or
Sterile

insects.

BrBL.

Ann.

Sc.

Nat. 2

ser.

xviii.

M.

depressus,
;

Hass.

filaments

129, and Helminthes, 294; Siebold, Ent. Zcit. 1842, 146; Meissner, Sieb. and Koll. Zeitschrift, 1853. M'EROT'RICHA, Mer. genus of FlaFree, oblong, green flagellate Infusoria. gelliun single, ventral; with anterior trichocysts. 1 sp., freshwater. (Kent,//?/. 249.) MERU'LIUS, Hall. Dry-rot. genus of

1-2880 to 1-2400" in diam., 6 to 8 times as long spores globose or elliptical. Hass.

pi.

44.

fig. 1.

M.
same

intricatus, Hassall, is apparently the as M. scalaris; all the other forms

Hymenomycetes (Basidiomycetous Fungi), distinguished by the veiny or sinuously plicate folds of the hymenium, these folds
not being distinct from the flesh of the or serrated pores. pileus, and forming angular M. lachrymans is the dry-rot fungus. The

be brought under M. depressus. BiBL. Hassa.U, Alg. 166, pis. 41-45; Tab. Phyc. v. Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 435 Thwaites, Ann. {Splicer ocar pus), pis. 5-7 N. H. xvii. 262.

mav

MESOCE'XA, Ehr.--A
of

doubtful genus
to

Diatomacete,

according

Ehrenberg

and Kiitzing.

composed of filaments creeping in the substance of the infected wood, disorganizing and feeding on this as it decays. The mass is at first white and cottony, forming an effused pileus from 1 to 8" broad

mycelium

is

The bodies refen'ed to this title consist of single siliceous rings, oval or angular frameworks, without a centre, and mostly with external and sometimes internal spines arising from

them man)^ are fossil. Whether they are spicula of Echinoder;

subsequently ferruginous or deep orange. The in-egular folds finally discharge a watery liquid, whence the name.
efficacious remedies against diyCorrot are creasote and carbolic acid. rosive sublimate, though at first efficacious,

mata or not, remains to be decided. meter from 1-750 to 1-400".

Dia-

The most

seems to
found
ynans.

lose its virtue after a time.

MESO'CHRA, Boeck. A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca, close to Canthocamptiis. 2 species Cupep. ii. 62.)
;

M. octogona, Ehr., PI. 25. fig. 1. BiBi.. Ehrenberg, Ber. Bert Ak. Kiitzing, Bacill. 139, Sp. Alg. 142.

1840

Several species of the genus have been in England in addition to J/, lachryii.

brackish water. (Brady,

EiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.

erby, Fungi,
pi.

pt. 2,

129

Sow-

113,

genus of MESODINTUM,_ Stein. Peritrichous Infusoria. Free, ovate, snoutlike in front, with a ring of setose cilia.

MESOGLOIA,
2
species; fi-esliwater Inf. (535.)

501

METOPIDIA.

and marine.

(Ivent,

"MESOGLO'IA, Ag. A genus

;

of Clior-

or yellowish frond, 6" high, is common on rocKs and stones between tide-marks. M. virescens, a smaller species, is not uncommon.

(Fucoid Algae), with filiform, much-branched, gelatinous fronds the axis of the filaments composed of interlacing
dariaceas

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 47, pi. 10 B ; Phyc. Brit. pis. .31 & 83 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 237, pi. 27.
;

longitudinal cells, with gelatinous interposed matter the periphery of radiating, dichotomous, coloured filaments. The fructification consists of unilocular and multilocular sporanges; the former are ovate sacs (fig. ^8) occurring attached to the ramuli of
;

MESOT^'RIUM, Nag. Probably identical

with Palmoglcca,
109.)

(Archer, Qu. Mic,

Jn.

iv. n. s.

One of the B. & carapace tumid and cordate ; upper antennae long and setose. Lakes and rivers of England, Ireland, and Holland.

METACYTRIS,
:

Ci/therid(e

Fig. 458.

4, vi.

BrBL. Bradv and Robertson, Ann. N. H. 19 ix. 51.

;

METACYS'TIS, Cohn. genus of Holotrichous Infusoria. Char. Free, ovate or elongate, ringed, vesicular behind.
M.
algse.

METAMORPHOSES of Tissues.The

tnmcata, among decaying (Kent, Inf. 511.)

marine

degenerations of the tissues, characterized by an alteration in their quality and impairment of function. They are divided into

metamorphoses and infiltrations. The metamorphoses are characterized by the direct change of the albuminoid constituents of a
Mesogloia vermicularis. Peripheral ramiili, unilocular sporanges and the filaments upon which the jointed sporanges arise.
Magnified 50 diameters.

new material, which is usually followed by the destruction of the histological elements, and the softening of the intercellular substance. They include fatty,
tissue into a

the latter are produced by ramifications of other ramuli siu-rounding them (fig. 458). Both kinds produce ciliated zoospores, which germinate. M. vermicularis (figs. 458, 459), an olive-gi-een the periphery
;

mucoid, and colloid degeneration. BiBL. Green, Path, and Morh. Anat. METEORITES.In transparent sections
of small fragments of meteorites, many mineral substances may be recognized here and there but the microscope and even polarized light fail to distinguish the kinds of crystals. It is best to examine the bruised debris and minute crystals may be sorted out, and removed for microscopic examination. BiBL. Maskelyne, Proc. Roxj. Soc. 1870.
;

METOPI'DES, Quenn. Like Metopus, but with two or more posterior setfe. M,
contorta, freshwater.

METOPIDIA, Ehr. A

(Kent, Inf.

-582.)

genus of Rota;

toria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Eyes two, red, frontal foot forked j carapace depressed or prismatic; anterior and upper part of head naked or uncinate ;

no hood.
eyes.
Mesogloia vermicularis. Portion of a filament.
Magnified 10 diameters.

= Lepadella with two frontal Lorica closed beneath.

M. triptera (PI. 44. fig. 7). Carapace ovate, accurately trilateral, crested on the back. Freshwater ; length 1-288 to 1-144".
Four other
species.

METOPUS.
BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 477
;

502

MICROCOLEUS.
;

Gosse,

Ann. N.

Mic. Soc. 1861

;

H.

1851,

Yiii.

201.

METO'PUS, Clap, et Lach. genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria, fam. Bursarina. Char. Buccal fossa oblique and elongate, anterior part of the body prolonged anterior cilia stronger than those of the rest of the surface. M. sujmoides (PI. 52. tig. 11). BiBL. Claparede et Lach. Inf. 254.
;

Dixon, Mic. Jn. 1859 Archer, Pritchard's Infus., & Mic. Journ. 1862 Bailey, Smith. Contr. Rabenh. Aty.
; ;

iii.

187.

MICROCLA'DIA, Grev. genus of Ceramiacese (Florideous Algae), containing one rare British species, M. r/landidosa (Pi.
4. fig. 7),

METRID'IA, Boeck.A genus

(Brady, t'opejwda,
i.

filiform,

with a dichotomously branched, compressed frond 1 to' 2" high, of

of Oo-

pepodous Entomostraca.
rine.
lieae

M.armata, ma79.)

a bright rose colour. Its fructification consists of (1) roundish, sessile involucrated
favelliB

with

METZGE'RIA, Raddi. A genus of Pelcomprehending Jumjermanmafurcata, L., and J!7J?<iesc?.s,Schrank, growing on trunks of trees, rocks, &c. in
(Hepaticse),

sjmres,

and (2) tetraspores

(tetrahedrally arranged) ramules.

imbedded

in the

very moist places. The fronds of both are linear-dichotomous,membranous and ribbed. M.fiircata is smooth above, hairy beneath M. puhescens hairv on both sides and larger. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 131 Br. Jimgerm. pis. 65, 50, &: 73 Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Supp. 1. 1338; Hofmeister, Vergl.
;

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ah/. 160, pi. 22 B; Phyc. Br. pi. 29 Grev. Alg. Br. t. xix. MICROCOCCUS. A genus of Schizomycetes, distinguished by the minute or;

ganisms being globular instead of linear. The species have been divided into 3 groups.
:

The chromogenous as M. prodiffiosus, which is blood-red, and frequently occurs

on Fungi, cooked provisions, red milk, &c.
(see

Untersitch. 10, pi. 4.

mineral substance, which is often erroneously called talc in the shops, was formerly used for covering mounted objects, but is now replaced by thin glass.
It is, however, occasionally useful in applying a red heat to objects, as Diatomaceiie, &c., where it is required not to change the It often contains position of the object.

MICA.

This

Blood on Bread)

M.

hdeus, cyaneus,

crystalline and crystalloidal inorganic mineral substances, as metallic oxides, &c., of interesting appearance. Thin plates of mica are used also in bringing out colours in objects with polarized
light.

aurani iacus, on cooked potatoes and haitl white of egg; and M. chlorimis on Bgo^, The zymcgenous, producing various kinds of fermentation, as 31. crepuscidum 3Ionas c, Ehr.; M. urea, in Torida-fovm, 2-8, in urine, converting the urea into carbonate of ammonia, and decomposing hippuric acid. And the pathogenous, by some considered globular Bacviolacetts {e\\\-^i\c^\) ,

teria,

producing contagious diseases

as 31.

vaccinas, in vaccine and variolous matter; 31. diphiheriticiis, oval, in twos or more,

sometimes in colonies
s^>o?-o??,

See

MICRASTE'RIAS, Ag. A

Polar ization, and Rocks.

genus
of

3t. septicus {3Iicro-

Desmidiacese (Coni'ervoid Algfe).

Cell single, lenticular, deeply Char. divided into two-lobed segments lobes inciso-dentate (rarely only bidentate), and generally radiating. Sporangia spherical, with stout spines
;

Klebs), in the tissues and vessels in pyaemia and septiciemia 31. homhycis, in the intestines of silkworms and others, very doubtful, in the blood and sputum of
;

(PI. 14. tig. 12).

British species (Ralfs). denticulata (PI. 14. fig. 11, undergoing Cell cirdivision fig. 12, sporangium). cular, surface smooth segments five-lobed ;

Numerous

M.

measles, in scarlet fever, typhus, glanders, and syphilis. CoUariiim, Lk., seems, at least as regards some species, to be identical. BiBL. Biill. Soc. hnp. dAi/ric. 2 S(5r. vii. 727; Comptes rcvdns, 1852, 119; Cohn, Beit. i. 109, and ii. 148; Magnin, Bacteries; Hallier, Phytopath. MICROCO'DON, Ehr, genus of Rotatoria, belonging to the family Megalotro-

lobes dichotoniously divided, ultimate subdivisions truncato-emarginate, with roundetl angles. Length 1-113". Common. M. rotata (PI. 14. fig. 13). Cell circular, smooth segments five-lobed lobes dichotomously incised, ultimate subdivisions bidentate. Length 1-91". Common. BiBL. Ralfs, Br. Dcsmtd. 08; Lobb, Tr.
;

cha5a.

Char. Eye single no carapace foot styliform. Jaws two, each with a single tooth.
; ;

3T. clavvx (PI. 44. fig. 8). Body companulate, foot equalling or exceeding the body in length. Fr. wat. Length 1-288 to 1-216'"'. BiBL. Ehr. Infas. p. 395.

MICROCO'LEUS,

Besmaz,

(Chthono-

MICROCYSTIS.
blasfu.-i,

503

MICROTIIECA.

Kiitz?).

A gemi9t)f OscillatoriacefB

(Coiifervoid Alg ), with frond.s I'oriuingstrata on moist gTouiid, patlis, imul, &c. These phints may be described as bundles of Os(//A//o;vrt-fiLiments enclosed in a com-

which is simple oi' dichotomously branched, and forms twisted interwoven masses. The structure of the filaments appears to bo identical witli that occurring in OscillaTORiA, described under that head the fila^n'lalinous sheath,

mon

irregularly

MICROTI ALO' A, Kiitz. genus of PalmelLicea; (Confervoid Alga;), consisting of microscopic gelatinous patches, floating in water, crowded with minute green gonidia. M. Ichthyohlabe (quite distinct from ClaTHROCYSTis) occurs in IMtain and Hassall's Sorospora virescetis belongs here. Pro;

bably a Chhrococcus. BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Alfl. 207; Tab. Phyc. Rabenh. Aly. pis. 6, 7 ; Ilassall, Alg'. 326
;

iii.

60.
pt.

ments

oscillate

the

mode

of origin of the
;

enclosing sheath is obscure but it would appear to be formed of the gelatinous halfdissolved outer membranes of the enclosed filaments. No formation of spores or gonidia has been described. M. repens, Harv. (PI. 8. tig. 9a, the open end of a sheath),

MICROM'ETER.
p. xxviii,

MICRO'MEGA, Ag., = Schizonema

and Measurement.

See Introduction,

MICROBE Pt A, Lev. A genus of Sphjs-

ronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), of which one species is described as British, M. dru-

pacearum {Cenanyium
Spha>ria

on damp paths, kc, its M. aiiguiformis, are branched Harv., occurs on the mud of brackish pools; its sheaths are said to be simple. 31. gracilis, Hrissall, said to be found in similar situations, has no character attached
is

very sheaths

common

Cerasi, junior, Fr., dubia, Pers.), growing on dead branches of the cherry-tree. It forms whitish tubercles which split the bark transversely, composed of somewhat cylindrical

conceptacles,

conjoined at the base, the

ostiole projecting; the linear

white mealy
spores are apex.

to

it.
;

BiBL. Harvev, Mar. AUj. 227, pi. 26 D Plu/c. Br. pl.24ij; Hassall, ^/(7. 260, pi. 70;
Kiitz. Tab. Fhyc.
i.

yellowish and curved at

the
IT.
s(5r.

JMICROCYSTIS, Kiitz. A genus

pis.

54-58.
of

2
V.

ser. V.
;

BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. 380 Leveille, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 283 r. Flora, ii. pt. 2, 211.
;

Palmellaceffi (Confervoid Algae),

composed

mCROP'ORA,
pt.
pt.

Gray,= Membranipora
Ilincks,

of crowded minute spherical cells, enclosed in a common envelope, forming- solid families. M. protoc/enita (PL 3. fig. 12), bluish green, in long-kept water. BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Alfj. 208; Tub. Phyc.
pis. 8,

MICROPOREL'L A,

(Hiucks, Polyz. 173.)

= Lepralia
See Ovum.

MI'CROPYLE (of Animals). MICROSCOPE.The first

(Hincks, Poh/z. 204.)

Section of

MICROGLE'NA, Ehr. A
;

Rabenh. Alg.

ii.

51.

genus of In-

the Introduction consists of remarks upon the microscope and microscopic apparatus.

truncated in front, with a single flagelliform filament one or two red eye-spots present. Freshwater. Probablv the spores of Algae. M. punkifera (PL 31. fig. 43a). Body yellow, ovate, subconical, attenuate posteriorly, two red eye-spots accompanied by a blackish frontal spot length 1-620". M. monadina (PL 31. fig. 436). Body ovate, equally rounded at both ends, bright green eye-spot red and single ; length 1-1150 to 1-020". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 25 Kent, Inf. 403.
; ; ; ;

fusoria, family Monadina, E. Char. Tail absent body

MICRO-SPECTROSCOPE.

See Spec-

troscope.

MICROS'PORA, Thuret,= Conferva pt. MI'CROSPORES. The small kind of

spores produced

by Lycopodiacete and Marmegasporea

sileacese in contradistinction to

or macrospores. When sown, they produce sperm-cells and spermatozoids.

MICROTHAM'NION,
of Chaetophoracese.

Niig.

genus

Char. Filaments

much

branched, rigid,

jointed, narrow; joints longer than broad, slightly tumid. Propagation by zoogonidia.

Freshwater. BiBL. Rabenh. Alg.

iii.

MICROGONID'IA.

See Macrogoxidia.

MICROGRO'MIA, Hert. A

genus of

ism of doubtfid nature.

MICROTIIE'C A,"Ehr. A marine organ-

365.

ReticiUarian Rhizopoda. The pseudopodia of different individuals unite, so as to pre duce colonies. (Her twig, Arch. mile. An.
X. Slippi. 1.)

It consists of yellow, flattened, rectangular (side view) bodies, with four equidistant spines projecting from each end; the colour arises from the contents no
;

mCROZYMES.
transverse line

504

MILLOX'S TEST.
Cornu^spira by its segmental See M. obesa junior, Schultze, 1. Hai-erixa and Fabul.\ki.\

of division; entire length

differs fi'om

1-216".

stricture.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 164. MI'CROZYMES, B(5chanip.The term applied to the minute particles or organisms producing fermentations, especially the Most of these bodies are pathogenous. considered to be forms or spores of Schizomycetes, referable to the genera Bacterium, Bacillus, and Micrococcus. Being very minute, they are with difficult}- separated from the other constituents of the liquids in -which they occur; and the process adopted by Chauveau and Sanderson to isolate and prove the action of the vaccine Tlie microzymes may be pointed out. vaccine matter was placed in a very small test-tube, a Httle water gently added. The
layer of leucocytes AA-hich subside first, was separated, and on vaccination found to be inactive. The remaining liquid was allowed to stand, when the soluble albuminous constituents diffused into the water, but the solution was innocuous ; the zymome-layer

PL

23. fig. are closely allied genera. Fossil in all formations from the Trias upwards ; and common in existing seas, chiefly in shallow water (M. seminulum,

PL

23.

fig. 5).

BiBL. Williamson, ^^'c.Jbr. 78; Schultze, Org. Polyth. 67; Parker, Tr. Mic. Sac, n. s. vi. 53 Parker & Jones, Ann. N. If. 2, xix. 299; Cai-penter, Introcl. For.
;

74.

MILK. This

liquid consists of a solu-

tion of caseine

and certain salts, holding in suspension minute glubules of fatty matter

(butter). The fluid portion possesses no microscopic The globules are very numepeculiarities. rous, round, and vary in size from mere molecules to 1-3000 or 1-2O0O" in diameter.

was however found BiBL. Bechamp,

;

Each is surrounded by a pellicle or coat of caseine, which prevents the globules from If a portion of a fusing into each other.
drop of milk be placed upon a slide, and the thin glass cover be moved to and fro, the coat of caseine will be ruptured, the globules of oil will become confluent, and shreds of the coats will be visible. If acetic acid be added, the coats will be acted upon, and the confluence also produced. The same effect occurs naturally in sour milk hence in this the globules are often much larger than the
;

to be active. Coinp. rend. 1S68, Qu.

Mic. Jn. 1868, 274 Sanderson, Priv}i CounIlallier, Phijfopafhol. Hep. 1869, 232 1868; Roberts, Q. M. Jn. 1877, xvii. 307; Mic. Jn. 1878, xviii. 170. Klein, Qu. MIELICHHOFE'RIA, Ilornsch.A genus of Bryaceous Mosses, containing one British species, il/.MV/f/, sometimes referred
cil
;

to Weissia

(fig.

81, p. 121).

MILI'OLA, Lamarck.

An extensive ge:

nus of Imperforate (Porcellaneous) Foraminifera, in which the chambers grow alternately on two or more sides of the long if on two sides, axis of the suboval shell they iorm Biloculina (B. rinc/ens, PI. 23. fig. 3) and Sj)iroloculina(Sp.planulata, PL 23. f. 7), many and thin in the latter, few and thick in the former if on three sides, they form
;

above dimensions, and irregular in form, frequently becoming elongated and united in twos, so as to bear some resemblance to
the young state of a fungus. The milk first secreted after parturition, called the colostrum, differs considerably from the normal liquid. The fatty globules contained in it vary greatly iu size, often

Triloculina (Tr. triyonula,

1*1.

23.

fig. 4).

Ir-

regular development of the edges of the chambers gives rise to the many Quinqueloculine varieties {Quinqueloculina seminuhnn,

PL

23.

fig.

5;

(}.

Brunpiiarfii,

fig.

0)

2)

being \evj large, and existing within isolated or aggregated epithelial cells, some of them resembling exudation-corpuscles. Peddie's paper on the human milk in relation to medical practice, is well worthy of perusal.

from three to eight cliambers being visible on one side, and from two to six on the
other.
is

Uniloculina

U. inclica,

PL 23. fig.

BiBL. Kcilliker, Mik. An. ii. Donu^, Cours de Micros. "Wagner, Hand. d. Physiol, art. Milch Peddle, Ed. Mn. Jn. 1840,
; ;

and Chemistry.

possibly a young or arrested MilioJa. Cruciloculina has a cross-slit opening, whilst the others have usually a crescentic aperture, owing to the presence of a tongue (homologue of the septum); but it may bo

MILK- VESSELS.
TISSUE.

See Laticifeeous
or

MILLON'S TEST,
Tliis is

TEST-LiQrro.

a strongly acid (nitric and nitrous) solution of proto- and peruitrate of mercury,

round and produced. In its young or Adelosine stage, Miliola

made by

dissolving metallic
nitric acid,

weight of strong

mercury in its with the aid of

MILNESIUM.
hoat.
stances, gently boiled in it. The followinp: substances
:

505

MNI0IDE.15.

It gives a red colour to certain sub-

and

tissues are

absorption-bands seen in the spectrum, even when they are much coloured by the oxides of iron, manganese, or
racteristic
viz. didymium, erbium, uranium, chromium, copper, manganese, and In one method the substance is jargonia.

coloured red by the test albumen, caseine, chondriue, crystalline, epidermis, feathers, legumine, fibrine, gelatine, gluteu, horn, proteine, silk, wool. when pure, are not coThe follo^viug, loured cellulose, chitine, cotton, gum (ara:

nickel, cobalt,

ble), linen

and starch.

BiBL. Millon, Coinpt. Rend. 1849, or Chem. Gaz. 1849, vii. 87. genus of MILNE'SIUM, Doyere. Arachnida, of the order Tardigrada (Oolo-

fused with borax or microcosmic salt, so as to give a clear bead, and the spectrum is examined by means of the spectrum eyeIn the other method, the saturated piece. borax bead is kept hot over the lamp, so that crystals may be deposited in it. Many kinds of crystals may be thus distinguished.

poda). Char.
parts

See Spectroscope and Rocks. BiBL. Sorbv, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 182.

Head with two very short palpiform appendages at its anterior and lateral
;

MIRROR "OF Introduction, p.

SCEMMERING.
xxii.

See

mouth terminated by a sucker

;

sur-

skin rounded by palps furrowed legs four pairs

;

soft,
;

transversely rings of the body

divided into two segments.

M. tardiyradum (PI. 50. fig. 9). Mouth surrounded by six minute unequal palpi,
svmmetrically arranged, diminishing in size from the upper to the lower part; head

MISCHOCOC'CUS, Nag. genus of Palmellaceae. Char. Thallus gelatinous, branched the terminal cells of the branchlets in pairs or
;

fours.

M.

In boggy pools.
confervicola (PI. 52.
fig.

12).

rounded
tracted
;

the mouth is reeye-spots tolerably large and grain front

when

nular; pharyngeal tube

much

dilated, styles

very small, bulb elongated and pyriform, without an internal framework body transboth ends, especially parent, attenuated at the posterior skin pale brownish yellow
;

BiBL. Rabenht. Fl. Alt/. Eur. iii. p. 54. MISTLETOE. See Viscum. MITES. The animals usually included under this term are species of Acarina. MITOPH'ORA,Perty. A genus of CihoFlagellate Infusoria. Free, ovate, with a lateral row of parallel stout cilia, and a long

terminal flagellum. (Perty, Lehens. 15.3.)

M,

duhia, fi-eshwater.

three anterior pairs of legs nearly equal, the

foiu'th very short,

resembling two tubercles,

;

with scarcely a trace of annulif orm division claws four, two terminal, and in the form of elongated filaments hooked at the end, and each supported on a distinct tubercle two inferior and internal, the anterior divided
;

tribe of Mnioide^ (Mosses), of Bryoid habit, but with firm, rigid, and usually undulated leaves, mostly increasing in size toward the top of the stem. British genera Cinclidium, Geor:

MNIA'CE^. A

gia.,

Mnium, and Timmia.

into three strongly curved hooks, the posterior into two hooks or terminal filaments of the fourth pair longer than those of the Movement active. first three. Length 1-50 to 1-40".
;

BiBL. Dovere, Ann.

Sc.

Nat.

genus of Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, fam. VesiculariidaB. Char. Zoary confervoid, jointed, and branched cells ovate, opposite, with a basal with eight tentacles and a joint; animals
;

MIMOSEL'LA, Hincks. A

MNIADELPHA'CE.E. family of Pleurocarpous Mosses, with the leaves arranged in four or more series, and composed of parenchymatous cells, mostly equally hexagonal and Mnioid, very smooth, pellucid, destitute of a distinct primordial utricle, the lowest decurrent on tlie stem at the base, larger, spongy, lax, mostly beautifully darkBrit, genus: tinged, never single, slender.
I)altonia. Calyptra mitre-shaped, bellshaped, elegantly fringed at the base. Peristome double [Neckeroid) outer, sixteen narrow, subulate, trabeculate teeth, reflexed
:

gizzard.

M. gracilis. Branches erect, arising from a creeping fibre. On sea-weeds. BiBL. Hincks, Polyz. 555. MINERALOGY, application of the
MICROSCOPE
TO.

when moistened;

inner, an equal number of similar cilia, alternating with the teeth, devoid of a basilar membrane.

The following substances

mav

or blowpipe beads,

bo recognized in transparent minerals by means of the cha-

MNIOI'DEvE. family of operculate Mosses, ordinarily of acrocarpous habit, but sometimes pleurocarpous, with broadl}' oval, spathulate, oval or lanceolate, flattish leaves,

MNIUM.

506

MOLECULAR MOTION.

having a very prominent, thick dorsal nerve. The base of the leaves composed of somewhat parallelogrammic cells, rounded-hexagonal or with equal walls towards the apex, very full of chlorophyll, or with the primordial utricle mostly very conspicuous, or much thickened, firm, rarely papillose. This
family
CE.^i;

is

divided into two tribes

Dili.

Mnia-

and Polytrichace^.

MNI'UM,

MOIST CHAMBER. Introduced by Recklinghausen, improved by Schultze and others it enables the object under microscopic examination to be placed in a space saturated with moisture, and to be examined without or with the inten-ention of thin Also it enables an immersion-lens to glass. remain with its water in contact with thin glass over an object in any liquid for a con;

genus of Mniaceous

Mosses, of acrocarpous and pleurocarpous habit, including many Brya of the British Flora. Among the commonest is M. hornu7n = Bnium hornum, L.

siderable time. The simplest form is that of a large glass ring cemented to a broad a thin and flexible caoutchouc glass plate membrane is tixed to the ring and to the
;

MOCHA

STONES.

The

object-glass

by

india-rubber

rings.

The

varieties

of

chalcedony known under this name contain a number of bodies (mineral dendrites) which have been mistaken for plants. Compare Agate, Silica, and Flint. BiBL. K. Miiller, Ann. N. H. 1843, xi.
41o.

growing-slide mostly answers the same purSee Frey, ^3Iik. 63; Rutherford, pose. Hist. 150 Dalhnger and Drysdale, M. M.
;

Jn.

MOLECULAR MOTION. When

A

xi.

97.

ex-

MOH'RIA, Swartz. A
tlmrifraga
(fig.

genus of Schizae;

aceous Ferns.

M.

4G0)

Cape.

(Hook.

Syn. 436.)"

tremely minute particles of any substance immersed in water or other liquid are examined under the microscope, they are seen to be in a state of vivid motion. little gamboge or Indian-ink mixed with water will exhibit the phenomenon distinctly enough. The minute particles or molecules are seen to move irregularly, to the right
left, backwards and forwards, as if repelled by each other, until the attraction of gTavitation ultimately overcomes the force upon which their motion depends, when they sink to the surface of the slide. This applies to the molecules of those substances which are heavier than water. In the case of those which are lighter than water, or the liquid in which they are immersed, the molecules ultimately become adherent to the tliin glass covering the slide.
"

and

IMohria thurifraga.

This motion
this is

is in
it

no

pinnule with Bporangea. Magnified 25 diameters.

way

connected with

evaporation, for

MOI'NA,
adse.

Baird.

takes place equally completely prevented, just as

traca, order Cladocera,

gnus of Entomosand family Daphni;

Char.
piece,

Head

rounded and obtuse

supe-

rior antennas of considerable length, of

one

and arising from the front of the head inferior antennae large, near the middle one fleshy at the base, and two-branched, branch three-jointed, the other four-jointed ; Freshwater. legs five pairs. M. rectirostris (PL 19. fig. 21). Cararounded pace almost straight or but slightly behind. M. brachiata or hranchiata. Carapace greatly rounded behind. BiBL. Baird, Br. Entmnns. 100; Grobben, Entw., Jn. Mic. Soc. iii. 77.
;

any effect upon it. Heat is the only agent which affects it this causes the motion to become more rapid. Hence it might be attributed to the various impulses which
;

it is not. Neither light, electricity, netism nor chemical reagents exert

when when mag-

each particle receives fi'om the radiant heat emitted by those adjacent. Or, as it takes place when the temperature is uniform, may it not arise from the physical repulsion of
the molecules, uninterfered with by gravihence free to move ? The effect of heat would then be explicable, because this increases the natural repiilsion of the particles of matter, as in the cou version of water into vapour.
tation,

Molecidar motion plays a part in some

MOLGULA.
common phenomena.
;

507

MONADINA.

Tlius, it

prevents

turbid water from becomino- rapidly clear by repose by its agency also the disaggregated particles of animal or vegetable matter are diHiised throughout the mass of the liquid. The microscopist sliould become acquainted with the appearance of particles in

with in the integument or mantle of some mollusca are curious. BiBL. Siebold, Vcrc/l. An. and the copious BiBL. Vogt, Zool. Briefe Adams, Recent Mollusca Forbes and Hanley, Br.
;
;

Mollusca

Woodward,

Shells

Jones,

An.
; ;

Kinr/dom,

molecular motion, as
error
;

it

might give

rise to

and

it

often occurs in animal and

its
;

and Cycl. of An. and Phys. Huxley, Comp. Anat., and Enyl. Cyclop. Turton, Br. Deshayes, Hist. Nat. Moll.
;

vegetable cells. Thus particles under influence might be mistaken for monads

or

of

Shells, by Gray ; Jeilreys, Br. all species, mar. and frw.)

;

Conch,

(figs,

miglit be regarded particles as merely exhibiting this molecular motion. Two circumstances appear most favourable for its production and continuance, in
cilia

moved by

Rimmer, Br.

Id.

and freshwater

Shells.

MONACTI'NUS,
midiaceoe

Braun. Distinguished from Pediastrum by the

:

= Monactinium,
cells

Bail.A genus of Des-

addition to the augmentation of temperature, viz. a very iinely divided state of the matter, and the specific gravity of the matter and the liquid in which it is suspended being as nearly as possible coincident. BiBL. Brown, On Active Molecules {privateh/ pn'nfed) Duj. Ohserv. au Mic; Grifiith, Med. Gaz. 1843 Delsaulx, M. Mic. Jn. xviii. 1; Hartley, ib. 8j Jevons, Qu. Jn. Sc. 1878, 167 Orel, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1879, 656. MOL'GULA, Forbes. genus of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family Ascidiad^^. Two British species M. oculatn, adherent, bluish or purple, mottled with orange, 2-^" in diameter and M. tuhulosa, free, in sand. BiBL. That of the familv. MOL'GUS, Duj ., Bdella pt. 2 species on marine sands. (Dujardin, VInstitut, 1842,
; ;

marginal
Species
fig.

M.

having
octonariiis
:

one

horn

only.

eight, central none.

M.

marginal cells duodenorius (PI. 36.

twelve, central
1853, 14
;

28):

marginal

cells

three,

BiBL. Bailey, Smith. Contr. Rnbenh, Alg. iii. 71.

family of Infusoria, accoi'diug to Ehreuberg's system, but consisting of a heterogeneous group of imperfectly

MONADLNA. A
examined

bodies.
;

Char. Carapace absent no expansions locomotive organs consisting of one or more flagelliform filaments or cilia at the anterior part of the body. Ehreuberg distinguishes nine genera
; :

A. Tail none.
a.

No
a. a.

lips.

Swimming.

310; Gervais,

MOLLUSCA. Every

^^^^. 1.58.)

No

portion

of

the
j3.

eye-spot. Single

1.

Monas.
Uvella.

Grouped
Eye-spot present.
Single. * I'lagelliform filaments

2.

structures of the Mollusca offers objects of The motion interest to the microscopist. of the cilia, the structure of the lining membrane of the viscera, the spermatozoa, the ovular growth and the nature of the

one or two
**
Fiagellifiirm filaments

3.

Microfflena.
Chloraster.

sensory organs can be easily investigated.

four or five *** riagclliform filaments

4.

Remarks upon

certain interesting structures

b.

numerous Grouped
Rolling
b. Lips present

5.
6.
7. 8.

Fhaceloinonat.

Glenomorum.
Doxococeus. Chilomonas. Bodo.

occurring in the Mollusca will be found

under Tongue, Shell, Snails (Water-), Mussel, Oyster, and Ovusi. The calcareous concretions, crystals, and spicula met

B. Tail present

9.

Duj ardin divides

them thus

MONADINA.
A
A
f

single flagelliform

filament
^^

-;;~ f ti t f moving throuehout its whole length arising irom the anterior l.i_i j t ui the ^ 'thicker and rigid at ti base, moveable ,^i- .t <.!, J *' extremity of the body
i

1.

Monas.
Ci/cUdium. Chilomonas.
Cerconiona.^.

'

at the

end

2. 3.

second filament.

( I

arising obliquely lateral

from behind an anterior prolongation

_

4 Ainphimonas.
5.

equal filaments terminating the curved angles of the anterior end Four equal filaments in front, and two thicker ones behind A second filament arising from the same spot as the flagelliform filament, but thicker, trailing and retracting ^A filament and vibratile cilia
J

Two

posterior

6.
7.

Trepomonas. Hexamita.
Seferomifa. Trichomonas.

8.

9.
10.

Groups always free, revolving Groups originally fixed at the end of a branched polypidom or

stalk

11.

UccVa. Anthophysa.

MONADS.
Dujardin's characters are
:

508

MONOCOTYLEDONS.
The Gymnomonera do not
fissiparous divi-

animalcules

Lepomonera,

without an integ-ument, consisting of a glutinous, apparently homogeneous substance, susceptible of becoming agglutinated to other bodies, and so drawn out and altered
in

pass into a quiescent or resting condition, and do not surround themselves with a
covering, and propagate
sion.

by

ments

form, with one or more flagelliform filaas locomotive organs, and sometimes
1
;

pass into a resting stage, and surround themselves with a covering for the purposes of reproduction

The Lepomonera

lateral or tail-like appendages.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus.

DaUinger,

M. M.

Jn.

xiii.

Duj. Infus. 270 185 ; Cienkowsld,

;

Schnitzels Arch. xii. 227. are species of

MONADS

Monas, or other

Monadina.

MONAS, Miill. A genus of Infusoria, of the family Monadina. M. Dailingerii. Ovate, pointed, no nucleus nor contractile vesicle; length 1-4000". In fish- (cod) macerations. Propagation by transverse fission and by spores after conand encystment. The germs of jugation these monads survive a temperatme which destroys the adidts. M. vhwsa, E. Ovate, uniformly rounded at each end, of a red-wine colour, motion slow and tremulous. Length 1-12,000 to 1-6000". Foimd upon the sides of glass vessels in which decaying vegetable matter has been kept, on the side next the light. M. lens, D. (PI. 31. fig. 44 a). Body
;

breaking up into spore-like bodies, which, on escaping, resemble the parent form. BiBL. Cienkowski, Schultse's Arch. 1865, i. 203 Haeckel, Zeit. loiss. Zool. 1865, xv. 360 Gejier. Morph. Jenai. Zeit. 1868, iv. ; Wright, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869.
;
;

MONOCER'CA, Bory.A
Char.

genus of Ro-

tatoria, of the family Hydatinsea.

Eye

red, single, cervical; foot-like

simply styliform. Gosse mentions a second eye situated in the breast of one species. Ehrenberg describes three species, to which Gosse adds two. M. rattus, E. (PI. 44. fig. 9). Body ovateoblong forehead truncate, unarmed foot styliform, as long as the body. Aquatic.
;

tail

Length 1-120".
BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 1851, 199.
classes of
4:'2-2;

Gosse, Ann. N.

H.

MONOCOTYLE'DONS.
Fiff.

One

of

the

Angiospermous Flowering Plants,

461.

rounded or discoidal and tubercular. Breadth 1-5200 to 1-1800". One of the most common organisms in animal and vegetable infusions. We have found one common in animal infusions (PL 31. fig. 44 b), perhaps the same as the but it possesses usually two filaabove ments on the left side is one without filaments, but with the body drawn out from
;
:

adhesion to the

slide.

altemiata, D. (PL 31. fig. 44 c). Body ovoid, narrowed at the ends, nodular, unfilament arising from the anterior equal narrowed portion. Ijcngth 1-1 GOO". Very abundant in fetid films floating on water
;

M.

containing decaying freshwater Algse.

M.

jyi-odif/wsa, see

Micrococcus.
;

Several other species many probably consisting of the zoospores of Algfe, or the swarm-germs of other Infusoria. BiBL. Ehr. I7ifus. S; Duj. Infus. 279; Kent, Inf. 232.

Reduced view of a stem of a Palm, showinjj the perpendicular and horizontal section, in which the fibrovascular bundles i\V are seen isolated in the medullary
parenchyma.

MONE'RA, Haeckel. A
;

so called from the structure of the

embryo

gi-oup of Pro-

of all organisms, tista, forming the simplest the protoplasm or sarcode constituting the

whole structureless body nuclei and cellmembranes are never developed. The Monera are subdivided into Gymnomonera and

contained in the seed, which in a lar^ce number ot cases is of microscopic dimensions, and always requires the use of the simple for its dissection. Some of the microscope families placed under this head have usually an acotyledonous embryo, as Orchidaceas
;

MONOGRAMMA.
but these possess
tlie

609

MONSTRILLA.
Norman and Brady, Mon. Nat.
Northumb.
;

character of the class

BiBL.
Hist. Tr.

in all other respects. Auioug- the most important of their other characters is the iso-

lated condition of the fibro-vasciilar bundles forming the woody structures (see Tissues,

MONOSTE'GIA, D'Orb. MONOTHALA'MIA, Schidtze. Instituted as an order;

but one-chambered Foraminifera are found in most of the chief families, and therefore cannot constitute a separate group. Thus
Proteonina, Squamidina, Cornuspira (PI. 23. Vniloculina (PI. 23. fig. 3), Trofig. 13),

vegetable).

This character, mostly very

evident both in perpendicular and horizontal sections of the stems, is illustrated by 401. figs. -loG &

MOXOGRAM'MA, Schk. genus of Grammitideae, consisting of small grass- or

rush-like plants, the simplest in structure of all the Ferns. Several species, tropical.

chammina (PL

23. fig.

14),

Saccammina,

Astrorhiza,Laffena (PI. 23. figs. 22-27), Ovu.lites, Orbulina (PI. 24. fig. 1), and SpirilUna (PI. 24. fig. 5) are either usually or constantly
unilocular.

(Hooker,

MOXOL'ABIS, Ehr. A

Si/>iops.

374.)

genus of Rota;

family Philodinaea. Char. Eyes two, frontal tail-like foot with two toes horns absent.
toria, of the
;

MONOSTRO'xMA, Thuret.A genus of Ulvaceae (Confervoid AlgsB), of which M.

buHosum (U/va bullosa, Roth) is the type, distinguished from Ulua by consisting only of a single layer of cells, and these being roundish (mostly grouped in fours), imbedded in an apparently homogeneous geThis (PI. 9. fig. 1 a). reproduced by zoospores formed from the cell-contents, and discharged by
plant
is

Two
M.

-Body slender, no cervical process nor respiratory tube teeth two in each jaw freshwater. Length 1-240 to 1-144". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 497. MONOR'MIA, Berkeley. A genus of Nostochacese (Confervoid Algte), with a
;

species. gracilis (PI. 44. fig. 10).

latinous

membrane

convoluted frond, enclosing a single moniliform filament differing from Nostoc in the convoluted frond being devoid of the common membranous pellicle. Moin infricata nonnia occurs gelatinous masses, about as large as a walnut, of a reddish-brown colour, floating in slightly brackish ditches. When the spermatic cells are quite mature, the definite outline of the linear frond is almost lost, and there is little to distinguish the plant from Trichormus, except the peculiar convolutions of the the frond then also moniliform filament assumes a greenish tint. BiBL. Berk., Glean, of Br. Alqce, t. 18 ;
definite, linear,
;
:

bursting of the cell-wall (fig. 1 b, c). They have four cilia. Currey has described, under the name of M. roseum, a plant which we think scarcely referable here, but rather to Microcystis. BiBL. Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 225, pi. 21. iigs. 1-4 id. Mem. Soc. Scient. de Cherbonrq, ii. 1, 1854.
;

MONOSTY'LA, Ehr. A
Char.

genus of Rota;

toria, of the

family Euchlanidota.
single, cervical
;
:

Eye

tail-like foot

simply styhfoi-m

Four species other, Gosse.

carapace depressed.

three,

Ehreuberg and one

;

M.
pace
cleft

quadridentata (PI. 44. fig. 11). Carayellowish, fore part of head deeply in fom- horns; freshwater. Length

Ralfs,

Ann. N. H.

ser, 2. vol. v. pf. 8. fig. 1

t.

1-120".

IlassaU, Algce, i. Nostoc intriccdum, Meneghini, 75. fig. 11. Anahcsna intricata, Kiitz., Tab. Phyc, i. t. 94. fiff. 1 Rabenhor.st, Ahj. ii. 183. ''MOXOSI'GA, Kt. genus of ChoanoflageHate Infusoria. Char. Bodies naked, solitary, sessile or
;
:

Harvey, Phyc. Br.

2-56

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 459; Gosse, ^nn.

1851,
viii.

N.H.

200.

stalked, with a single tiagellum, and an anterior funnel-shaped collar composed of sarcode. Nine species, freshwater and marine 1. 1-5000 to 1-2.500". (Kent, Infus. 329.) MOXOSPI'LUS, Sars. genus of
;

MONOTOS'PORA, Corda. genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), of which one species has been found in England, growing on dead bark of the yew. M. meBerk, and Br. Filaments erect, galospora,
simple, straight, nearly equal, articulated. Spores tei-minal, obovate, even, -00133 to

0014"
doubt.

long.

Frie^ regards this genus with

Lynceidfe (Entomostraca). Char. Carapace of series of superimposed head depressed no compound valves
; ;

ser. xiii.

BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 462, pi. 15. fig. 11 Fries, Sum.
;

Veg. 497.

MONSTRIL'LA,
Copepodous

eye.

Dana. Entomostraca.

A
M.

genus

of

Any/ica;

MONTAGNITES.
Wevmouth. (Lubbock, Ann. N.
XX. 401
;

610

MOSSES.

IT.

1857,
of

Brady, Cop.

iii.

MONTAGNI'TES,

37.) Fr.

genus

Hepaticse by the vegetative structure and In one group alone by the sporanges. {Ilypopferyc/iece) is the stem clothed with
leaves,

Agaricini (llymenomycetous Fungi), distinguished by the dry gills which project after the universal volva breaks off from the edge of the pileus. One species occurs in the south of France and Algeria, another in Texas, and a third
in dry sandy soil; extremely interesting as connecting the Hymenomycetes with the Gasteromycetes. BiBL. Fr. JSp. 241 ; FL Alg. t. 21. f. 2.
in Siberia,

accompanied by amphigastria
:

(sti-

pule-like leallets), in 'the manner of the foliaceous Hepaticse (fig. 35o, and p. 409) here the sporauge is a stalked

body, with a deciduous lid, and Hke those of the Mosses and this Jungenerally
;

urn-shaped

MONU'RA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Eyes two, frontal foot simply sty;

is erect, and not procumbent as in Jungermannia itself. In all other Mosses the leaves clothing the stem are arranged in a spiral order around

germannia-like leafy stem

liform.

Carapace
species. duk'is (PI.

somewhat compressed
44.

and open beneath.

the stem, so as to give the vegetative structure a very characteristic On the aspect. other hand, the AndraBacese, which have a valvate capsule, have spirally-arranged
leaves.

Two

Carapace ovate, obliquely truncate and acute behind

fig.

M.

12).

eyes distant. Length of carapace 1-280". BiBL. Ehr. In/us. 474. MOOR'EA, J. & Kirkby. fossil Osti'acode, known by its suboval depressed

The stem of the Mosses is a slender thread-like wiry structure, wholly composed of cellular tissue, without vessels but the external layer has an epidermoid character, while the central portion is com;

posed of elongated cells. In one section of the Mosses this stem terminates in a

Found valves, with raised margins. Silurian and Carboniferous rocks.

BiBL. Jones ~ 225

in
iii.

&

Holl,

Ann.

N".

H.

and these are called Acrocarpous Mosses; in others the sporanges spring from
range,
lateral branches, and the terminal bud of the stem elongates the stem year after year;

spo-

4,

MORCIIEL'LA, Dill A genus

mycetous Fungi, distinguished by
tate receptacle, wliich
pitted.
is

Fig. 462.

of Ascoits

stipi-

deeply folded and

Four species occur in this country, amongst which M. crassipes is the giant of the genus. The species are esculent, and largely imThey are very abimdant in some ported. They parts of India, especially in Kashmir.
often occur on cinder walks and burnt S(iil. BiBL. Grev. Cn/pt. Fl. tab. 68, 89; Berk. Outl. t. 21. f. 5 Cooke, Handb. 655.
;

these latter are called Pleiirocarpotis Mosses. In some of the genera the sporanges are borne terminally on short special

branches, as iii Sp/uu/num, Mielichhoferia, part of Fisddens, Guemhi'lia fontinaloides these are (tig. 289, p. 366)
;

termed Cladocarpous.

The

leaves are

of simple

MORPHIA. See Alkaloids, p. MORPHO, Fabr. A genus of

Lepidopterous Insects.

31.

structure, usually composed of a single layer of cells, the

Exotic

forms of which are used as characters by systematic Mus-

M. Mendaus.

The

scales

from the wings

of this beautiful insect are sometimes used as Test-Objects. MORTIEREL'LA. genus of Mucedines, with branched threads like a candelabrum, on the underside of which sporangia are produced zygospores have also Moulds of great elegance. been found.

They are either all cologists. alike in a leaf, and tilled with chlorophyll, and in these cases may be either jMrenchymatoKS
(PI. 47. fig. 19) or prosenchy-

Ephomprum
serratum.
Leaf.

Magn. 6o diamg.

matoiis
soi'ts

(PL 47. fig. 20). In other cases two of cells occur arranged in a peculiar
some, smaller, containing chlorophyll,

way

Martensella, an allied genus, has pectinate (Coemaus, liidl. Ac. Bclfiii[. xv. sporangia.

544

Bary

.fe

Worouiu,

Beit.

Brefeld,

iv.

form a kind of network, the meshes of which are occupied by large nncoloured cells (see Sphagnum and Leucohryum).

"mosses, MUSCACE.E. This

flowerless plants
is

The margins
;

of the leaves are frequently

order of distinguished from the

st>rrated

ally

and the upper surface is occasionpapillose, or covered with rough points.

MOSSES.
Many
of

511

MOSSES.

nervules,

them have one or more distinct composed of elongated cells, often

leaf.

not reaching the apex of the

The leaves
of the
;

oftvn differ on different parts

stem and we hence have radical, &n^ perichcetial or involucral leaves, the last ordinarily f n-ming a kind of rosette,
cauline,

with the perigone of the Hepaticse). The perigonial leaves either overlap and cover-in the reproductive organs, or they are keeled at the base and turned liack above, so as to expose the organs of reproduction (PoLYtriciium). The Mosses have no roots, their function
Fig. 465. Fig. 466.

in the midst of wliich the reproductive organs are produced. Schistostega exhihits two forms of stems, with two kinds of foliaceous structure tlie stems which terminate in a sporange have leaves only at the upper rows part, and these arranged in eight standing crosswise on the stem, like ordi:

nary leaves the barren stems have two rows of leaflets arranged in one plane on the
;

stem, like the leaflets of a compound leaf (such as that of the Acacias) of Flowering The stem-leaves of many genera plants.
exhibit wing-like structures, hair-like appendages, i)V peculiar forms of curvature
(figs.

Barbula chloronotus.
of 463. Fig. 465. Cross-section Fie. 466. Cross-section of 464.

Fig

Magn. 50 diams. Magn. 50 diams.

or rhizoids, being performed by root-hairs usually brown.

"242-246,
Fig.

Fissidens)

others,

like

4G3

The young reproductive organs_ consist of antheridia, and archcgonia or pistillidia, which are found either together (fig. 467),
Fi?. 467,
Fig. 468.

Bryum
Fig. 468.

nutans.

Fig. 467. Inflorescence of antheridia

and arohegonia. Magn. 25 diams. Spermatozoids from antheridia. Magn. 600

diams., the cilia omitted.

Fig. 463.

Barbula L-hloronotus. Leaf with Cfllular filaments at the tip. Magn.

or on different parts of the same plant, or on diflerent individuals of the same species.

30 diams. filaments crowded on the Fig. 464. Leaf with cellular midrib, with an awn-like prolongation. Magn. 20 diams.

Fig. 469.

certain Barhulce (figs. 40.3-466), have collections of cellular filaments on the upperside.

The outer leaves surrounding the reproductive organs are called perichcetiaJ, and sometimes 'they form the only envelopes sometimes, however, a few small leaves, the above, form difiering very much from the immediate envelopes of the archegones and these pen(/omal leaves, forming the the reproducperigone, are developed after tive organs themselves (as is the case also
; ;

MniuBi

arcticiun,

Antheridial inflorescence. Magnified 25 diameters.

To

applied.

these structures the term inflorescence is The antheridia occur either with the archegones in one perigone (fig. 467) or

MOSSES.

512

MOSSES.
(fig.

in the axils of the upper leaves of the stem, which terminates in a perigoue containing

its cell

moves rapidly

468, and PL 40. fig. 33), and in the water under the mi-

or they have a special perigone 469), either on the same plant, or on a different one fi-om that which bears the archegones. The antheridia are globular, oval (fig. 467), or elongate membranous sacs composed of cellular tissue, red or

archegones
(fig.

The anthecroscope (see Antheridia). ridia are generally accompanied by cellular filaments which have received the name of
parapht/ses (fig. 23, p. 57); no physiological office is attributed to these ; but "the antheridia are the male organs. The ai-chegone of the Mosses (figs. 30, 31 (p. 71), 467), like that of the Hepaticee

Fig. 470.

Fig. 471.

(excepting Anthoceros), is a flask- shaped case, the epigone, containing an emhi-yoncd cell at the bottom of its cavity. This embryonal cell becomes gradually developed by cell-division into a conical "body elevated on a stalk, which at length tears away the walls of the flask-shaped epigone by a circular fissure, and carries the upper part upwards as a hood, while the lower part remains as a kind of collar round the base of the stalk (figs. 470-472) the latter is termed the the capvaginula (fig. 473) like portion carried upwards on the sporauge is called the calyptra (figs. 470-472). The sporanye, elevated more or less by the
cellular
;

Fig. 474.

Fig. 475.

Fig. 472.

Fig. 473.

Fig. 474. Tayloria serrata.

2.5

Dimidiate calyptra.

diams.

Magn.
young Magn.

Fig. 475. Fig. 470. Cosoinodon pulvinatus.

Funaria

Section of hj-grometrica. capsule, showing the columella.

the
Fig. 471.

calyiitra,

Capsule enclosfd in with the Yaginule below.

is

50 diams.

Magn.

10 diams.

Orthotrichum Hutchinsii. Capsule covered by the calyptra, with the vaginule below.

Magn.

10 diams.

Fig. 472. Ditto. Calyptra, Magn. 25 diams. Fig. 47l>. O. Btramineum. Vaginule. Magn. 25 diams.

when ripe, filled with minute cells) which escape by the bursting of the apex of the sac and these cells exhibit a fiore coiled in their interior, which circulates
yellow
;

stalk (seta or peduncle), gradually converted by internal changes into a hollow urn-like case, usually -n^th a stalk-Hke column (columella) running up its centre (figs. 50, 475), the space between the central column and the side walls beits

development of

rapidly, even before the expidsion from the antheridium, and after a time breaks out of

coming filled with free spores, which are minute cells with a double coat, the outer of which exhibits elegant markings (see Si'OBEs). In some cases this hollow case
does not burst natiu'ally, but the spores

MOSSES.

513

MOSSES.

escape by its decay (Astomtjm, fig. 50). In the ANDn^BACK-E (%. 11, p. 41) the sporange bursts by vertical slits, so as to
Fig. 476. Fig. 477.

sporange, so that the upper part falls off like a lid (operculum, fig. 479). The sporange of the Mosses exhibits a

very complex anatomical structure, which we have not space to enter into veiy minutely
:

it

will

suffice

to

state

that the

lower part next the peduncle is sometimes enlarged into a thickened mass, called the apophysis sometimes the peduncle is verylong, sometimes very short (P/mscunz, fig. 478), so that the sporange is hidden in the
;

finally, the mouth may either perichsete exhibit a smooth edge (fig. 479), or a single
;

Fig. 480.

n iriOt ),'; j ,-i^!t! nciciS

Fig.

47ti.

Cosetnodon pulrinatus.
stome.

Fragment

of

peri-

Magn.
flavipes.

100 diams.

Fig. 477.

Barbula

Fragment of peristome. Magn. 100 diams.

^UX
Cinclidium arcticum Part of double peristome, the inner processes united
into a plaited

be divided into valves, as in the Jungerjnanniese, and there is no column in the sporange here but the valves do not separate at their suuimits, and the character of the leafy stem at once distinguishes these
;

membrane

in the centre.

Magnified 100 diameters.

(figs. 476, 477) or double (figs. 483, 484) fringe of very variously constructed teeth, which are of great service in discriminating the genera. When the mouth of the sporange is naked, the Mosses are called ffym-

Fig. 478.

nostomous,
.single

when furnished with only a of teeth huploperistomous. When a double peristome exi.^ts, the outer consists of teeth, the inner of processes or cilia both {Bryiim). The teeth (fig. 483) or of sometimes arise directly from the mouth of the sporange, sometimes are seated on a basal membrane, sometimes connected torow
,

Fig. 478. Phasciun serratum. SeFsile sporange enclosed

by few leaves. Fig. 479. Pottia truncata.

the sporange.

Magn. 1.5 diams. Operculum separating from Magn. 10 diams.

Mosses from the Hepatica?. The ordinary course, however, in the Mosi^es is the fonnation of a horizontal
slit

ner r the top of the

gether irregularly (Funabia, fig. 259, p. 342), or by regular bars (Guembklia, fig. 291, p. 366), or the whole of the inner circle may be conjoined entirely (Buxbaumia, or at the tips (fig. 480) into fig. 93, p. 126) a membrane, or by a number of cross bars into an open trellis (fig. 484). The outer rows of teeth are continuations of the inner layers of tissue of the sporange (fig. 481) ;

2l

MOSSES.

514

MOSSES.
The
top of the columella ex-

where an inner circle occurs they are continuations of the spore-sac ; the outer waU of the sporange is, as it were, continued by the operculum. Ordinarily these do not separate directly from each other when the lid falls off, since one or several layers of
forming a ring {annulus, lig. 482) round the mouth, split out from between the sporange and its lid, and cause the latter
elastic cells,

columella.

pands into a kind of pseudo-operculum in Polytrichum. In Phascacese the columella

is

to fall

off.

spores are developed in a distinct wall spore-sac, which has one layer next the of the capsule, and an inner layer next the
Fijr.

The

481.

Fig. 482.

absorbed. Allusion has been made to the sexual imIn port of the antheridia and archegonia. the reproduction of the Mosses the spores produce a confervoid filament or protonejna, from the sides of which the young plants with stem and leaves shoot and on these the antheridia and archegonia are formed. From the embryo-ceU of the fertilized archegonium arises the sporogonium, in which the spores are formed. The Mosses exhibit a variety of forms of
;

The lower part vegetative multiplication. of the stem often sends out horizontal branches, which root and produce buds
(fig.

485) from which arise

,

new leafy stems

Fig. 485.

Fig. 483.

faaciculare. Section of margin of sporange, with a tooth of the peristome. Magn. lOU diams. Fig. 482. Bryum CEespiticium, annulus. Magn. ICO diams. Fig. 483. Orthotriehum diaphanum. Portion of double peristome, the outer composed of teeth, the inner of cilia. Magn. 50 diams.

Fig. 481.

Racomitrium

Polytrichum undiilatum. Creeping filaments with innovations.

Magnified 5 diameters.

and

Fig. 484,

in this way, patches of moss frequently increase to a great size. They also produce confervoid filaments, which exhibit tuberous thickenings, a form of gemma' (figs. 488, 480), which may be detached from each other like bulbils, so as to propagate the plants without any sexual

reproductive organs. The protoplasm of these confervoid

fila-

also foi'nis Amoeboid bodies, and gonidia or ciliated zoospores (Flicks). or minute cellular tubercles,

ments

Gemm^

Neckera antipyretica. peristome, the inner composed of teeth united cross bars, forming a trellis. by Magnified 100 diameters.

DonWe

capable of development into new plants, are likewise met with in other situations, as in the axils of leaves, on the surface, the margins (fig. 490), or at the tips (figs. 486, 487) of the leaves or the' stems (fig. 401): these are formed of only a few cells at tlie time they fall off, and illustrate well the

MOSSES.
Fig. 486.

515

MOSSES.

Fig. 487.

is fii-st divided into two suborders according to the habit of growth ACROCARPI. Mosses with the fruitstalk terminating the stem, or short special branches (Cladocarpi). PLEUROCARPI. Mosses with the fruitstalk produced only from lateral buds.

cacefe

Si/nojJsis

of the Families.

ACROCARPI.
* Schistocarpi.
jfissures.

Cajjsule loithout a lid (opei-culmn), opening by longitudinal

ANDHjEACEiE.
four valves.

Capsule
Caps^ile

splitting

into

**
Orthotrichum phyllanthum. Leaves with gemmae at the tips.
Magnified 25 diameters.

Cleistocarpi.

without

lid,

hurstiiig open irregularly.

Bruchiace^.
tion)

Cells of the leaf (areola-

parenchymatous, looser at the base,

of

independence of the individual celh forming the organs of these plants, where, under peculiar circumstances, a single cell of the tissue may be developed so as to lay the foimdation of a new plant. In the following arrangement of the Mosses we follow Miiller. The order MusFig. 488.

not papiDose, dense. Phascace^. Areolation

the

leaf

parenchymatous, dense,
phyll,

filled

with chloroof

more or less papillose. Epheiieee^. Areolation

the

leaf

parenchymatous, everywhere
lose.

lax,

not papil-

Fig. 490.

Fis:.

491.

Hedwigia ciliata. Creeping filaments with tuber-like gemmae. Fig. 488, magnified 50 diameters. Fig. 489, magnified 20 diameters.

Fig. 490. Orthotrichum Lyellii. Leaves with ginal gemmse. Magn. .50 diams.

mar-

Fig. 491.

Aulacomnium undulatum. Gemmae in. tl e place of the capsule. Magn. 20 diams.

2l2

MOSSES.
***
Stegocai*pl.

51-6

MOSSES.

Capsule bursting hy a lid. Distichophylla. Leaves arranged in two

straight rows.
a.

chymatous, very often intermixed with parenchymatous cells (rarely scabrously pa-

leaves regularly vertical.

.

and ventricose, or

pillose), alar basilar cells ordinarily

flat

crowded

and

much more

SCHISTO STE GE^

6.

Leaves regularly subvertical.

Dbepanophylle^.
c.

loosely reticulated than the upper cells. LEPjOTEiCHACEiE. Cells of the leaf rhombic at the base, rectangular or both mixed further up, smooth, without proper
alar cells.
b.

Leaves horizontal.

DiSTiCHiACE^.

Areolation of the leaves

;

Leaves papillose.

pareuchymatous, minute

leaves

wilhout

Bartramioide,^.
parenchymatous,

Cells

of

the leaves

appendicular laminte. FissiDENTE.E. Areolatiou of the leaves

leaves produced into appendicular laminae at the back and point.

parenchvmatous

ordinarily nodulose or scabrous with papillse at the transversal sides, never opaque.

square,

Polystichophylla. three or more rows.

a.

Leaves arranged in
straight

alternating

Leaves exhibiting narrow green cells, forming a culation between larger diaphanous cells.

reti-

Leucobbyace^. Leaves composed of several layers of columufir, empty, parenchymatous cells; the 'intercellular' green cells three- to four-angled, interposed between the empty cells in a single curved
row.

PoTTioiDE.E. Cells of the leaves parenchymatous, square, ordinarily covered on all sides with papillte above the base, but smooth and pellucid at the ba?e. DiPHYSCiACE.E. Leaves of two kinds; the cauline with the cells densely hexagonally parenchymatous, abounding with chlorophyll, the pericha3tial leaves with the cells destitute of chlorophyll and more
loosely reticulated.

PLEUROGARPI.
Distichophylla.

Leaves

Leaves composed of a single stratum of empty prosenchymatous cells, with intercellular green cells interposed between all the empty cells. Cladocarpous,
branches fasciculate.
6.

Sphagnace^.

arranged

in

tivo opposite rotes.

Phyllogoniace^.
Tristichophylla.

Leaves arranged in three rotes, appearing like three, erect,

Leaves without
a.
\.

'

intercellular

'

cells,

of two forms.

Leaves not papillose.

Hypopterygiace^e.

Cells of the leaf

Loosely areolated.

everywhere prosenchymatous, equal.

ruNARioiDE.^:.

Areolation of the leaf

parenchymatous,
rophyll.

lax, containing

much

chlo-

Polystichophylla. Leaves arranged in four or more rotes.

DiscELiACE.E.

Areolation of the leaves

of

Mniadelphace^.
Hypnoide^.

Cells

of

the

leaf

rhomboid-prosenchymatous, destitute chlorophyll, empty, fusce.scent.

parenchymatous, Mnioid.
Cells of the leaf prosen-

Areolation of the leaf hexagonal ov polygonal, very minute, darkcoloured, destitute of chlorophyll.
2.

BuxBAUMiACE^.

Densely areolated.

chymatous, rhombic or rounded. BiBL. Hooker, Taylor, and Wilson, Bryol. Brit. Bruch and Schimper, Bryol. Eur. ; Schimper, Cor. Bryol. JExr. 18o5; Flora,
;

Areolation of the leaf in parallelograms at the base, round-hexagonally parenchvmatous towards the apex
;

Mniotde^.

very full of chlorophyll, or more frequently thickened (very rarely papillose). Bryace^. Areolation of the leaf prosen-

BriUniversa Miiller, Syn. Mvsc. frond.; Dillenius, His. 3/?/5c. ;" LanziusBeninga, Nova Acta, xxii. 555 llofmeister,
;

1856, (381

Hedwig, Theoria generat.

;

del, Bryol.

Ber. Siichs. Gesell Vcrgl: Unters. 1837 Wiss. 1854 Flora, 1855, 4.-14; Valentine, Linn. Tr. xviii. 409; HicliS, Linn. Tr. xxiii.
; ;

chymatous, ordinarily rhomboidal, abounding with chlorophyll.

18G2, 5G7; Braithwaite,

Myc.
spec.
;

Scot.

DiCBANACEiE.

Cells of the leaf prosen-

if/o"sf>s; Stevenson, Tripp, Br. Mosses, Jigs, of Hervey, Amertcan Sea-mosses, iSSl

1879

MOTH, CLOTHES.
Sachs, Bot.
187i>.

517

MOUTH.
&c.
is

359; Janczewsky, Bot.

Zeit.

of cheese,

Aspergillus glaucus;
;

MO'JII,

MOTHEK
developed.

CLOTHES. See Tinea. CELL, or Parent cell,

interior of
is

term coimiu)nly applied to the cell which a new generation of

the in the
cells

more common blue or green various nioidd is Penicillium glaucum species of Oidium and Erysiphe are known as the mildews of the Hop, Vine, Rose, &c. The mildew of wheat is Puccinia.
another
still

graminis.

MOTHER-OF-PEARL. See MOUGEO'TL\. A genus of

eejB

Shell. Zyguema(Confervoid Algae), distinguished by

MOUNTING. See Preservation. MOUSE, HAIR OF (PI. 1. fig. 3 PI.

;

29.

figs. 27,

28).

See

Hair of Animals and

mucous membrane of

the conjugation of the filaments taking place without the formation of transverse processes, the conjugating filaments being geThere is stih obscurity as niculately bent. to the mode of reprodnction of the plants of this genus. According to Vaucher, a spore is formed iu one of the conjugating cells, without transfer of contents, and this, germinating in situ, breaks out from the paHassali says the plants are rerent cell.
this has been confirmed by "Kiitzing, who, together with the formation of Itzigsohn", has observed small rounded resting-spores iu the joints, Avhich underwent segmentation and deveultimate loped a number of smaller cells, the All this fate of which was not observed. tends to prove that the reproduction agrees with that of Spirociyra, where we have

Test-objects.

MOUTH. The

the mouth, which becomes continuous with the skin at the lips, is furnished with very numerous conical or filamentous papiUse resembling those of the skin, sometimes simple, at others branched, and a number
of

mucous

glands.

produced by zoospores

pavement kind, consisting of several layers of delicate cells ; these are roundish in the deeper, flattened and polygonal in the superficial layers.
Fig. 492.

Its epithelium is of the

large conjugation-spores, sometimes germinating hi situ, producing iu some cases new filaments, in others zoospores 2. zoo1.
;

from the conspores produced immediately tents; and 3. what appeared to be encysted forms of these (see Spirogyea).

M. genufexa, Ag.
cells

(fig.

139, p. 205).
in

The
in

are

about

1-72U"

diameter
;

major, Hass.), and about three or four times as long iu smaller specimens (J/, gemijiexa, Hass., M. (/racilis, Kiitz.) the diameter is about 1-200", the six times as great. le.igth of the cells five or In fig. 139 the lowest filament does not belong to the genus; but the method of iu the one conjugation of Mougeoiia is seen above. AI. l(svis, Archer, is an Irish form. BiBL. \^aucher, Conf. creau douce, 79, Kutz. Sj). pi. 8; HassaU, Alg. 171, pi. 40; 1-3 and 36; Alg. 43; Tah. Fhyc. v. pis. Rabenh. Itzigsohn, ^oi!. Zeit. xi. 081, 1853; Ah/, iii. 255 Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1867.
large

specimens

{M.

MOULDS

and

MILDEWS.

These

Epithelial cells of the

mucous membrane of the human

;

mouth

o, large, 6,

smaller cells

c,

one with two nuclei.

names are generally applied

indifferently to

Magnified 350 diameters.

a multitude of Hyphomycetous,_ Phycomycetous and Coniomycetous Fungi but some of the more common ones are especially mould distinguished. Thus ordinary blue
; ' '

The glands, distinguished, according to their situation, as the labial, the buccal, and the palatal glands, are rounded, about 1-36

MOUTH.

518

MUCEDINES.

to 1-6" in size, and open by short excretory ducts into the mouth. They consist of glandular lobules enveloped in areolar tissue with elastic fibres, the whole being surrounded by a firmer portion or capsule, and a branched duct. The lobules are composed of a number of convoluted canals or lobular

The ducts of the lobules have a coat of connective tissue, with networks of fine elastic fibres, and a single layer of cylindrical
epithelial cells.

Fig. 49 o.

Fig. 493.

Two
gland,

glandular vesicles of a
a,
c,

human racemose mucous

b,

basement-membrane;

view

the same in surface view.

epithelium, side

Magnified 100 diameters.

The mucous
tains,
cells,

in

liquid of the mouth conaddition to detached epithelial

of minute moving molecules. We have figured these among the Test-Objects

very transparent corpuscles, about 1-2000 to 1-1500" in diameter, consisting of a delicate cell-wall, a nucleus, with a

number
(PI.
k
)

1. fig. 5).

They

are called

mucous or
:

>^

KoUiker regards them salivary corpuscles. as a form of exudation corpuscles and this
for they may occur in the secretion of any mucous surface, and have no special connexion ^^ ith the salivary we have found them in m3'riad3 glands in the urine. The secretion of the mouth frequently contains very slender filaments of a fungus
is

view

probably correct

Human
c,

cavity, of the

racemose mucous gland from the floor of the mouth, a, areolar coat; 6, excretory duct
;

glandular cseca

d,

lobular ducts.

Magnified 50 diameters.

ducts, with

glandular

vesicles,

simple or compound caeca or each consisting of a

Fig. 494.

(Leptothbix), with
of Vibrio.

species oi

Monas and

BiBL. Kolliker, Mih. An. ii. ; Sebastian, JRech. An. s. I. gland, labial. Webb, Qu. Jn. Med. Sci. 1857; Ward, Todd's Ci/cl. An.&e. ; Klein in St/'icker, Hist. i. family of
;

MUCEDTNES. A

Hyphomycetous Fungi, forming

or decaying animal or vegetable substances, and contributing to their decomposition, characterized by a flocculent mycelium
tate,

moulds and mildews upon living

Diagram of two lobular duets of a mucous

6,

lobular branch

c,

glandular vesicles in situ

gland, a, common duct ; d, the same separated,

;

and the ducts unfolded.

Magnified 100 diameters.

basement membrane and a single layer of

angular epitheHal cells. The latter separate very readily and then the caeca appear filled with a granular mass.
;

bearing erect, continuous or sepsimple or branched, tubular pellucid filaments, terminating in single spores or strings of spores, which soon separate from each other, and lie among the filaments of the mycelium. This tribe includes a number of the most

MUCEDINES.

519

MUCEDINES.
**

interestiug of the microscopic fuugi, noted for their destructive influence upon organic bodies which they attacls:. The species of
Botn/tir^,

Spores septate.

Brachydadium.
septate, nioniliform

Oldin m,

Szc.

spread with won-

Pedicels branched above, branches and branchlets

;

ramifying cells, and carrying decomposition and decay into all the soft structures. They are most abundantly developed in a close, damp atmosphere. The mycelia of other kinds, as of Penicillium, growing in liquids containing organic matter, or upon decaying vegetable substances, produce remarkable chemical decompositions, causing a fermentation of the medium in which they
exist.

derful rapidity as mildews over the herbaceous parts of vegetables and moist vegetable substances generally; in the former situations their spores enter the stomata, their mycelia among the subjacent

forming a sporiferous

capitulum

spores

ti'ansversely septate. TricJiothcciuin. Pedicels

tufts,

interwoven in the central erect, fertile spores acrogenous, didymous, free, commonly loosely heaped together. Pedicels simple, conCephaloihecium. tinuous, bearing a terminal head of didymous
;

spores.

B. Erect filaments {pedicels) terminating in

strings of spores.

* Spores
Penicillitim.

simple.

See Penicillium and Ferjlentation.

Synopsis of British and nearly allied Genera.

Pedicels erect, septate, penibranches and above cillatelj^ branched branchlets septate; strings of spores attached to the tips of the branches. Sporotrichum. Pedicels erect, simple or
;

A. Fertile filaments

(pedicels) simple or branched, terminating in single spores or a very short row.

slightly branched, septate and articulate, articulations remote, inflated spores simple, usually found collected in heaps among the
;

filaments.

*
Sotrytis.

Spores simple.
Pedicels
erect,

septate,
;

branches and branchlets septate spores solitary, on the tips of the branchlets, which are either racemose, umbellate,

branched

Pedicels erect, septate, with Briarea. terminal moniliform chains of spores, crowded into a head. Gonatorrhodon. Pedicels erect, septate, with chains of spores in a terminal head and in whorls at the joints.

cymose
pitate.

{Pvlyactis), paniculate,

verticillate

(Acrostalagmus), spicate (Haplaria) or ca-

** Spores

septate.

Peronospora.

Like

Boti^ytis,

but the

pedicels without septa; often producing resting-spores. Verticillium. Pedicels erect, septate, with whorled branches terminating in a solitary spore or a short row of spores.

Pedicels shoi't, subulate, Acremonium. branches from a hoiizontal filament, bearing

single

Pedicels erect, septate, JDendrypMum. unbranched ; strings of spores attached in a bunch to the apex spores septate. Pedicels Dactylium. erect, septate, branched above strings of septate spores attached singly or in pairs to the apices of the branches.
; ;

smooth

C.

spores.

Zyyodesmus.

Like the

last,

but with

echiiiulate spores.

Fertile filaments {pedicels) inflated at tips or at various points in their length, with projecting points or warts

the

Pedicels simple, short, erect, Oidium. clavate, septate, bearing usually one, sometimes two more or less oval spores. Fusidium. Pedicels very short, pulviuate. Spores elongate, fusiform.

on the

inflations, bearing

* Simple

spores.

Menispora. Pedicels erect, septate, bearing fusiform or cylindrical spores, at lirst joined in bundles. Pedicels erect, geniculate, Sceptroviyces.
verticillately

branched branches short, race;

Pedicels continuous, erect, Aspergillus. simple filaments, inflated into a little head at the summit, bearing moniliform chains of spores, crowded into a capitulum. Pedicels erect, septate, Bhinotrichum. sometimes sparingly branched, the apices clavate, cellular, bearing scattered points

mose

spores in grape-like bunches.

supporting simple spores.

MUCOR.

620

MUCOR.

short lateral Pedicels, Tiqndaspora. branches from a creeping filament, terminating in cellular heads beset with simple spores on the areolfe. Rhopalomyces. Pedicels erect, not septate,

comes cut of!" by a septum. Its contents become di\ided into a large number of spores and the septum at the base becomes meanwhile pushed up or protruded into the
;

terminating in cellular heads, with simple spores on the areohe.

Stachj/lidvcm.

centre of the vesicle so as to form a kind of " After a time core," called the coJumeUa. the vesicle {peridiole) bursts and discharges

whorlecl-branched above
culate and articulate
;

Pedicels erect, articulated, branchlets geni;

Fig. 496.

spores subpedicellate,

accumulated

in

little

capituhform

heads

inserted at the tips of the branches. Pedicels erect, septate, Gonatuhotrys. with joints swollen at intervals, the swollen joints bearing globular heaps of spores on

short spines spirally arranged. Acmosjmrium. Pedicels erect, septate, branched above; branches and branchlets forming a cyme, thickened at the apex, and furnished with globular capitules covered all over with points spores simple, attached on the points of the capitules. Pedicels erect, septate, IlaplotricJmm. terminating above in a continuous, simple,
;

Fig. 497.

head spores simple. Pedicels erect, septate, umbellately branched at the summit; spores simple, accumidated at the tips of the branches. Botryosporium, Pedicels erect, septate, with short spine-like branchlets above, spirally arranged, and ternunating in four or five short points, which support globular heads of spores.
solitary, sporiferous
;

Actinocladium.

Mueor Mu^edo.
{Ascophora foim.) Fig. 496. Nat. size, growing on a leaf. Fig. 4^7. Single fertile filaments, with the columella collapsed, and fallen like a cap over the end. Magn. 50 diams.
its

** Spores

septate.

Arthrobotrys. Pedicels simple, septate, with joints swollen at intervals, the swollen joints clothed with spines bearing didymous
spores, heaps.

which

are

collected into globular

Some of the species are mere conditions of perfect Fungi, as Hypoaylon and Chiviceps. In several genera, sexual union like that
in

spores the pressure of the turgid columella apparently hastens the bursting. The dehiscence takes place either by a circular slit just above the base of the columella, leaving this alone, surrounded by a narrow collar (Mucor), or the ragged peridiole bursts above and disappears by solution, and the columella collapses upon "the pedicel
;

(Phycomycetous Fungi), forming a common

or other paste, decaying fruits, character vegetable matters. I'lie general that of an interwoven mass of horiis zontal branched filaments, sending down little root-hke ramules, and pushing up which erect, not septate, fertile filaments, branch at the base in a stoloniferous mantufts. ner, and thus form loosely grouped At the sunnnit of the erect filaments, a wliich soon beglobular vesicle is formed,

MU 'COR, Micheli. A genus of Mucorini

Tuber and Peziza takes place.

mould on

The membrane of (Ascop/iorci, fig. 497). the peiidiole of M. 31ucedo, and perhaps of other species, is clothed with minute spines. The erect filament is sometimes simple, sometimes branched. It has been conjectured, though on what grounds is imcert'ain, that the columella mav become converted into a second peridiole, Iby being shut off by a septum which is converted into a new columella. It has been imagined that Achlya is only an aquatic form of Mucor; and this seems not iruprobable however, the expe;

MUCOR.
riments

621

MUCORINI.

we liave made on this point have hitherto given uepitivo results. The species of 3/hco/- described by authors m-e prettv numerous; but we think considerable allowance for variation should always
Rhizopus, Ehr.
stolouiferous.

filaments branched, the short patent branches each terminating in a globose peridiole A mildew of spores obhng, elliptical. onions. Berk. Jlort. Jn. iii. 97. figs. 1-5.
;

be made in this genus.

Ann. N. H.

Mucor when

seems very doubtful whether Hydrophora should be separated from Mucor. Conjugation takes place in one or two species.

distinctly

It

BiBL. Berk. Br. Flora, ii. pt. 2. 332; vi. 433 Kort. Jn. iii. 91 Fries, Summa Vec). 487 Syst. Myc. iii. 318 Fre;
; ;
;

M.

* Fertile filaments simple. Mucedo, L. (tigs. 496, 497).

Myce-

Mycologie, heft i. 4, 18-50 V. Tieghem, Ann. 6'c. N. 1875, i. 5 Brefeld, Flora, 1873. MUCORI'NL family of microscopic Pkycomycetous Fungi, constituting the moulds, &c. common on most decaying
z.
;

senius, Beitr.

lium byssoid, peridiole and spores globose,

at first white, ultimately blackish. (This includes Ascophora Mucedo, Tode.) Extremely common. Sowerbv, Funfp', pi. 378. Fl. pi. 2G9. fig. 6 Greville (Ascophora) ,Cri/pt. M. caninus, Pers. Mycelium byssoid, peridiole globose, ultimately yellow or ferruginous spores globose or elliptic. Very common on excrement of dogs and cats in wet weather. Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl. pi. 305. 31. fusiger, Lk. Mycelium byssoid. Peri; ;

vegetable and animal substances, consisting of a filamentous mycelium, forming flocks and clouds in or on decaying matters, bear-

ing vesicles, on erect pedicels or sessile, filled with minute sporules, discharged by the rupture of the vesicles {peridioles). These plants correspond among the thecasporous Fungi to the Mucedines among the

M. clavatus, Lk. Mycelium byssoid. Clavate apices of the fertile filaments simply spores penetrating the globose peridiole globose, at first white, then browni, at possibly length black. On rotten pears only a state of M. Mucedo or the following.
; ;

diole globose, ultimately black spores spinOn decaying fungi. dle-shaped.

;

The acrosporous or free-spored orders. peridiole consists of the terminal cell of an erect filament, enlarged like the head on a At first the pin, into a globular vesicle. cavity of this vesicle communicates with that of the pedicel but a septum is soon formed in some genera this septum is flat, in others projecting into the interior of the
; ;

peridiole like the

M. amethysteus. Mycelium thick, white, closely interwoven. Peridiole at first white, then pale yellow, then crystalline and pure violet, finally violet-black or brownish ;
spores globose, filled with globose sporiFertile filament 1-40" high. dioles (?). On rotten pears with the foregoing. M. delicatuhis, Berk. Mycelium forming a thin velvety stratum. Very minute fertile filaments short peridioles globose, pale
;
;

"punt" of a bottle, forming a hemispherical or cylindrical columella. While this columella rises in the peridiole, the latter becomes filled with spores, forming thus a polysporous sporauge ; and it bursts to let them escape. The manner of bursting of the sporange and the form of the central column vaiy
much, and
afford generic characters.
:

Thel-

yellow

spores globose.

On

rotting gourds.

a remarkable pecidiarity each filament terminates in a sporange containing a great number of spores, while at its base it gives origin to whorls of branches, the terminal cells of which remain sterile.
actis presents

M.

succosus,

Berk.

Mycelium forming

length olive columella minute. On dead shoots of Aucuba. Berk. Ann. N. H. vi.
;

small, pulvinate, yellow, spongy masses. Peridiole very minute, globose, yellow, at

15. pi. 12. fig.

Fertile Jilamenis branched. ramosus, BuU. Mycelium Avoolly. Peridioles gloFertile filaments racemose. bose, yellow, then bluish-grey or reddish-

**

M.

Two

exhibits conjugation of its Syzygites^ branches, like that of the Zygnemacefe. Some observations of De Bary tend to show that the genus Furotium only j-epresents certain conditions of Aspergillus. In some cases the lower threads are enormously developed, Avhere, from excessive moisture, the fruit cannot be produced.

different forms of fruit occasionally occur in the same thread, as in Ascophora

elegans.

brown.
fig.

On

rotting fungi.

Builiard, pi. 480.

3.

Synopsis of British Genei-a.

M.

suhtihssi7nus, Berk.

Mycelium creepFertile

slender. ing, filaments exceedingly

Phycomyces. Peridiole pear-shaped, separated from the apex of the erect pedicel

MUCOUS CORPUSCLES.

522

MUSCA.

by au even joint; opening by an umbilicus.

Spores oblong, very lai'ge. Filaments caespitose, tubular, continuous, and shining. Hydropliora. Peridiole subgiobose, membranous, dehiscent, at first crystalline, aqueous, then turbid, and at length indurated, persistent. Columella absent; spores simple, conglobated. Mucor. Peridiole subgiobose, separating like a cap (leaving an annular fragment attached) from the erect, simple, continuous pedicel, or bursting irregularly columella cj^linch'ical or ovate, spores simple.
;

are to a certain extent also characteristic,

especially those of the uppermost layer and a knowledge of the peculiar structure
;

in individual cases is of use in determining the source of morbid mucous products mixed

with epithelial cells. See the special articles.

MUCRONEL'LA,
Zoary incrusting
;

cells

Peridioles globose, with a columella, at the points of doubly verticillate branches from an erect pedicd.
(?) Acrostalacpnics.

semicircular orifice, Several species ; on rocks, shells, and seaweeds. (Hincks, Polyz. 360.) MUCUS. Natural mucus contains no essential morphological elements. As ordinarily met with, it often, however, exhibits

l\mc\B, = Lepralia pt. with a rounded or and an anterior tooth.

some epithelial cells, mucous corpuscles, and numerous granules and the peculiar
;

Pilobolus. Peridiole globular, separating like a cap from the short stalk composed of

mucous matter has a

appearance,

striated or

fibi-ous

attached on a unicellular ramicolumella conical spores very numerous, free in the peridiole. Filaments erect, simple, very Syzygites. much branched above, branches and branchlets di- or trichotomous, fertile branches forcipate, bearing pairs of opposite internal clavate branches, which subsequently coaa single
cell,

fied

mycelium

mostly produced artificially. The abnormal elements are principally those of inflammation. BiBL. See Chemirthy, Animal. MUD. The organisms found in mud are

very numerous they consist principally of Diatomacese and other minute Algae. The surface of mud is often covered with yellowish or greenish layers, composed almost
;

lesce.

MUCOUS CORPUSCLES. See Mouth. MUCOUS MEMBRANES. Those incavities of the body which open externally, as the alimentary canal, bladder, &c., are bounded by what may be

The most entirely of these organisms. beautiful and most numerous forms of Uia-

ternal canals

and

regarded as internal prolongations of the

skin, called mucous membranes. They consist of four layers
:

1,

an inner-

most or

epithelial layer, corresponding to

;

mud of sea- water, or that of tidal rivers. On exposing a bottle of mud and water to the light, they will rise to the surface of the mud, some adhering to the side of the bottle next the light, and can then be "easily separated. The surface of freshwater-mud frequently appears of a blood-red colour, from the presence of
tomacefB are found in the

the cutaneous epidermis

structureless basement

2,

a subjacent

Tuhifex rivuloruin.

membrane, which is not always separable and demonstrable or

present 3, a layer of variable thickness, consisting of connective and elastic tissue, well supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, often containing numerous small glands, frequently furnished with conical or filiform processes tei'med papillse or villi, and sometimes traversed by muscular fibres. These three layers form the proper mucous membrane and are supported by, 4, an outermost submucous laj^er or coat, composed of the same elements as the last, but much more lax in structure, and frequently con; ;

MUREXTDE.
RATE
OP.

See Ammonia, ptjrpu-

MURIATE OF AMMONIA.

See

Am-

monia, HVDROCItLORATE OF. MU'RIFORM. The term applied to flattened six-sided cells placed one above the other in one or more rows, like bricks

in a wall.

MU'SA, Tournef. A genus of Musacese (Monocotyledonous Flowering Plants), comThe prising the Bananas and Plantains. libro-vascular bundles of Musa aft'ord examples of spiral vessels with numerous
spiral fibres

(see

Spiral
fig.

Structures).
See Fibrous

taining fatty tissue.

The mucous membranes are usually very vascular; and injected preparations of them are very beautiful, and to some extent characteristic.

Mvsa hemp

textilis affords

the fibre called Manilla

7).

(see PI. 28.

Structures.

MUS'CA,

Linn.

genus of Dipterous
all

Insects, of the family Muscidse.

The

size

and form of the

epithelial cells

Among

the well-known species,

of

MUSCACE^.
wliich have been foimed into

523

MUSCLE.
which
is

new

genera,

bassiana,
dijfusa,

we may mention

Miisca domestica, L.,

;

common

house-fly.

Third joint of antennie thrice the length of the second style plumose, eyes reddish brown, front of head white, the rest black thorax blackish grey witli four longitudinal
;

perhaps too near Botrytis few of the spores placed on the back of a liealthy silkworm are sufficient to impregnate the whole body. It takes its name from the resemblance of the diseased caterpillar to a pecuhar kind

Grev.

of pastile.

black bands, abdomen blackish bi'own above, with blackish elongated spots, pale yellowish brown beneath. M. carnaria, L. (Sarcophac/a, Meigen), the flesh-fly. Antennae feathery head golden-yellow in front, eyes reddish thorax grey, with black longitudinal lines; abdomen black, with four square white spots on each segment all the body strewed with black hairs. Viviparous, 1-2" long. M. C(ssar, L. (Lucilia, Donov.). No spots, abdomen green, with a metallic lustre. jM. vomitoria, L. (Callip/ioi-a, Donov.),
;
:

BiBL. Balsamo, Gaz. de Milan, 1835; Bibl. If. xxix. 183o; Robin, Veg. Par. 5G0; Guerin, Seric. 1849, 1850, 1851. Muscular tissue forms the greater portion of the flesh of animals. It occurs in two principal forms one of

MUSCLE.
is

which

unstriped

termed organic, unstriated, or muscle the other, voluntary,

;

striated, or striped muscle.

Unstriated muscle. This consists of more or less elongated, somewhat spindle-shaped, narrow fibres (p. 74, fig. 35), having the import of cells, and hence often called fibrecells
;

bluebottle or blow-fly. Head yeUowish, golden or white, eyes brown thorax black abdomen shining blue with black stripes and long black hairs.
;

they are, however,

solid.

Each con-

tains an elongated nucleus, brought to ligh? by acetic acid, and exhibiting a reticulai; appearance. The fibres are of variably

The
ova or

larvae are

known

as gentles.

The

larvae are deposited

upon animal or

vegetable substances, mostly in a state of decay, upon which they live. Several parts of the species of Musca are of general microscopic interest, as the

29) with its two fleshy f)roboscis kept expanded by a beautiful and obes (c), elastic framework of modified tracheae; the setae or lancets (b), which are modified maxilla}, sometimes rudimentary, with theii* the remarkable anpalpi (a) at the base
(PI.
3.3. fig.
; ;

length (from about 1-580 to 1-2-50"), and 1-5000 to 1-3500" in diameter. They ofte, and appear longitudinally fibrous within the cell -wall is transversely wrinkledv They sometimes exist singly in the midst of connective tissue at others they are united into rounded or flattened bundles, and surrounded by an imperfect kind of sarcolemma, composed of connective tissue
; ;

with

elastic fibres.

Eig. 498.

tennae (PI. 33. fig. 20) ; the elegant tarsus (PL 34. tig. 7 a), with its terminal spine, and the pulvilli (figs. 7, 8 & 9) and claws rudimentary wings or halteres (Insects,
;

p.

432).

pumilionis {Chlorops, Meig.) deposits its eggs in the j'oung wheat-grain,

Musca

which
larvae.

is

consumed and destroyed by the

Many other members of allied femilies of Diptera, commonly known also as flies, are of microscopic interest, on account of their oral setas or lancet-hke organs.
BiBL. Westwood, Infr.; Macquart, Ins.
Dipt. Meigen, Syst. ziceifli'ig. Insect. ; Keller, Sufiblk, Mn. Mic. Jn. i. 331 ; Stuhenjliege
; ;

Lowne, on the Bloiv-Jly. MUSCA'CE^. See Mosses.

pig, after

Unstriated muscular fibres from the CB=iophagus of a treatment with dilute nitric acid.

Magnified 10 diameters.

MUSCARDINE.
worms,
matter
altered,
is

disease in silkin wliich the whole of the sebaceous

exhausted, and the blood greatly by a species of mould, Botrytis

They occur most abundantly in the hollow viscera, as the stomach, the intestines the bladder, and the uterus but they also exist in other situations, as the spleen.
;

MUSCLE.

524

MUSCLE.

trachea and bronclii, tlie dartos, the arteries, veins, and lymphatics, the prostate gland, fallopian tubes, urethra, villi of the small intestines, the skin, iris, and beneath the
lung-pleura. See. Striated muscle.
is

The primitive bundles are from about 1-1000 te 1-200" in diameter, and of a rounded or polygonal form (fig. .500). Their
surfaces are

Tlie structure of striated

verse

strife,

marked by a number of transwhich forms the most charac-

more complex than that of unstriated

muscular

tissue. It consists of a number of very slender fibres, called fibrillfe, connected into bundles, termed primitive bundles or fasciculi, each of which is enclosed in a sheath or sarcolemma. The primitive bundles are again united into secondary and

appearance of the tissue. They also exhibit irregular longitudinal stria?, which are the indications of the component fibrillae
teristic

(PL

22.

tig.

35).

Fig. 501.

tertiary bundles, the whole being bound together by a mass of connective and elastic tissue surrounding each of them, and formThis arrangement is ing the perimysium. best seen in a transverse section (fig. 499).

Fig. 499.

acid:

Portion of a primitive bundle treated with acetic a, sarcolemma; b, single nucleus; c, twin nuclei surrounded by granules of fat.

Magnified 450 diameters.

TranBTerse section of a portion of the sterno-cleidomastoideus: c, outer perimysium; b, inner perimyBium ; c, primitive and secondary muscular bundles.

The sheath or sarcolemma, when separated from the muscular substance b}' treatment with water, acetic acid, and alkalies, in which it is insoluble, forius a structureless, transparent and smooth membrane. It is perhaps most easily seen in the muscle of tishes by simple dissection (PI. 50. fig. 18). On its inner side are numerous spindleshaped or lenticular nuclei (fig. 501). The ultimate or primitive fibrillge in man are about 1-20,000" in diameter, and each exhibits numerous regidarly alternating light and dark portions (PL '22. fig. 3G b); the i-elative po.sitions of the two may, however, be made to change by altering the focus but the dark bands are more highly The ends of the refractive than the white. fibrillae are distinguishable in transverse sections of the primitive biuidles; and their lateral margins are perfectly straight. Difierent views have been taken of the structure of the fibrillar, and, in fact, of the general structure of muscle. Thus the ultimate fibrilloe have been described as moniliform or beaded (PL 22. fig. 36 c) ; this ap;

Magnified 50 diameters.

v
i:

Transverse section of the muscular fibres or primitive bundles of the human gastrocnemius a, sarcoh'mma
:

and interstitial connective tissue and intermediate substance.

b,

section of flbrillse

arises fi-om an optical pearance, however, illusion, connected either with imperfection in the object-glasses used, viewing the object in too much liquid, or the use of too low an object-glass, and too high an eye-

Magnified 350 diameters.

piece.

MUSCLE.
when

625

MUSCLE.

It often happens, especially has been kept in spirit, that it separates transversely iutt) a number of llat disks (fig. 502) hence' it has been viewed as cousistiug of
;

niusele

these disks. Again, as under certain conditions

separates longitudinally into fibrill;u and transversely into disks, it has been supposed to consist of primitive par' ticles or sarcous eleit

Fig. 502.

it when the object was properly arranged and examined. On examining the fibrilla? under a very high power, each white band is seen to be divided by a faint dark line, Krause's line or membrane, which is regarded as a transverse partition, the compartments being occupied by the true muscular substance ; and it is through this line, that the fibrils

observed

ments united end to end as well as laterally. We admit the existence

of the primitive
fibrilliB

'

as origmal components of muscle, though there

can be
the

little

doubt that

are not homogeneous, and of uniform constitution either chemical or physical.

fibrillfe

On
it is
,.

them

carefully examining at different foci,

seen that those pori?

tions of isolated fabriis

CI

which appear dark when

the margins of the ^ n
are

magnified
ters,

^ .^. , ^, a primitive bundle, 350 diame-

jiartly

separated

best in focus, are more highly refractive than the intermediate portions, as showm by the gi-eater luminosity they acquire on altering the focus of the object-glass; and that this focal effect does not arise from a lenticular form of the parts is evident from the straight condition of the margins of the Hence these more highly refractive fibrils. musparts probably constitute the proper cular substance, connected in the direction of their length by a different kind of substance, which becomes brittle under the action of spirit, whilst the former does not for the line of separation into the disks occurs through the less highly refractive And that these compound fibrils portions. naturally exist, is shown by their being dis;

fibrils

into disks, side view. B,

separate into the disks (PI. 22. fig. 30 d) or, often the same part appears bounded at each end by a transverse dark line (fig. 36 b), or both parts are traversed mesially by a ti'ansverse dark line. In some instances we have noticed a very delicate constriction, which woidd account for these appearances but the explanation of this we have failed to discover. The dark portions of the various fibriUaa of the primitive bundles being opposite to each other, gives rise to the coarser dark striae seen under a low power. But it often happens that by pressure or manipulation this natural relation is destroyed, the direction of the strise is altered, and sometimes those of one bundle are made to alternate with those of the next. Hence arises an appearance of transverse or spiral fibres
; ;

the same, rather more magnifled, end view.

(PI. 22. fig. 35) in muscle.

but none such really exist

Muscle consists chemically of a proteine

compound called syntonine, resembling fibrine in many of its properties. By pressing muscles a liquid is obtained, containing some
peculiar organic substances. The unstriated and the striated muscular

have the same chemical composition. In regard to the development of muscle, it appears that muscular fibre proceeds from cells which elongate, each becoming fusiform, and at the same time increasing enormously in thickness; the nucleus also infibres

creases, and the cell-contents to form the muscle.

become striated

tinguishable in a primitive the use of reagents, or even of mechanical

bundle without

means.
It has

always been supposed that the

;

ulti-

mate fibrils are composed of cells arranged end to end and the appearance represented in PI. 22. fig. 36 a, w^iich is sometimes met
with, might countenance this notion. But whenever it is seen, there is imperfect definition, from the presence of too much liquid, for we have never or some other cause
;

The muscles are very vascular. The smaller branches of the vessels mostly run parallel to the primitive bimdles in the perimysium, and anastomose by transverse or oblique branches. The bundles of transversely striated muscular fibres in many of the lower animal.^, and in the heart of man, are found to branch This may be well and form networks. observed in the muscles of the tongue of the frog. Schjifer points out that the dark bands of the muscular fibrils of certain insects, as Dytiscus maryinalis, are traversed by nume-

MUSCLE.
cle-rods

626

MUSCLE.
or less

rous very slender parallel longitudinal mus-

These extend at either end into the adjacent white bands,

(Pl._22.
fig.
e).

36

apparently absent, and contain yellowish or

brown pigment-granules, with more

small

terminating in knotted ends;

running hand.

transversely

forming a row, across each white

numerous globules of fat (PI. 38. fig. 14 a), and sometimes a large number of nuclei or
cells.

muscular fibres are examined by polarized light, the sarcous elements are seen to be anisotropous or doubly refractive, while the intermediate substance is isotropous.

When

They are also well supplied with nerves these mostly (always, Beale) terminate in a plexus of looped branches (fig. 503).
;

Fig. 603.

Muscular fibres with ner-ve-ends from IJacerta viridit, A. Seen in profile: P P, the terminal nerve expansion or plate SS, its support or base, consisting of a granular mass with nuclei. B. The same, seen in a perfectly
;

fresh muscular fibre.

\MmMM:m

:-A

The interfascicular connective tissue

sometimes increased
in
;

is

also

amount, and fatty tissues developed in it or the muscular substance is partially absorbed, and the sarcocontracting gives the bundles a moniliform appearance (PL 38. fig. 14 6). In tetanus, the fibres become varicose and often ruptured, and the strife closer. The muscular tissue of the lower Vertebrata and some of the Invertebrata agrees
essentially in structure

lemma

with that of man

Termination of the branches of a nerve in a portion of the omohyoideus muscle, treated with caustic soda a, meshes of the terminal x'lexus ; 6, loops c, muscular
:

fibres.

but the sarcolemma is often much thicker, the fibrillse larger, and the nuclei contained within the substance of the bundles, and

Magnified 350 diameters.

In the Lisects and Reptiles the nerves terminate in granular nucleated swellings, spread over the muscular bundles; their sheaths becoming continuous with the sarcolemma, the nerve-fibres branching off in various directions.

sometimes arranged in regular linear series. The margins of the bundles are also sometimes uneven, and rounded at regular intervals (PI. 22. fig. 36), giving the appearance of their being surrounded by fibres.

In

many

of the lower

members

of the In-

Muscle undergoes important changes in Wounds are filled up with connecIn atrophy and tive or tendinous tissue. fatty dcg(Mieration, the bundles become smaller, Mjfter, more readily broken up, the transverse striae and fibrillpe indistinct, or
disease.

vertebrata, although the substance of the body is voluntarily contractile, no trace of fibres or bundles can be detected. The so-called muscle-corpuscles are placed in the interior of the fibre in the muscles of the heart and they are to be met with in Amphibia, Fishes, and Birds in the same
;

position.

MUSHROOMS.

527

MYKIANGIUM.

To obtain the separate fibrillae of striated muscle, the tissue should be ujacorated for about two hours in alcohol. This removes fatty matt*^r, and renders the fibrillaj more
easily separable by dissection with mounted The fibrillfe are very minute; needles. hence a very small portion of the tissue only

The best mustard consi.'^ts of the ground seeds of Sinapis niyra (Crucibut those of iS". alba are largely emferae) ployed. The structure of these grains is very different from those of the substances most
;

MUSTARD.

commonly employed
its

for adulteration,
is

for

example, wheat-fiour, which

known by

should be taken for examination. That of the cod or the slvate, or of reptiles, the ii-og-, is the best for tlie purpose. Or, the bottom of a glass vessel is covered with chlorate of potash, slightly moistened with wat^r, and four parts of nitric acid added. The whole is shaken, and a portion of muscle buried beneath the crystals with a glass rod. In half an hour, the muscle is removed and
fishes,

Inferior samples constarch-granules. tain variable quantities of the husk of the seed, which may be detected by the micro-

generally coloured artiadulterated with white meals, by means of Turmeric, the peculiar colour-cells of which are readily recognizable. See PI. 2. fig. 11 and Hassall, Food and Adulteration, 123.
scope.
is

Mustard

ficially,

especially

when

placed in water, and strongly shaken, when it separates into the fibrillae (Kiihne). The unstriated muscular fibres are best seen in muscle which has been treated with dilute nitric or muriatic acid (1 part acid to 4 water). This renders them more opaque, and often cmiously tortuous or spiral(fig.498). BiBL. Bowman, Todd's Ci/cl. art. Muscle, and Phil. Tr. 1840-41 Lebert, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xiii. lu-ause, Arch. An. u. Phys. h. v. 646, 1868; Moxon, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1866, 2-35; Doyere, Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 2. 1840 Kuhne,
; ; ;

MYCE'LIUM. The vegetative part of the Fungi as distinguished from the fruit. Many fungi in a barren state have been described as genera, Himantia, Ozonium,
Xylostroma. Mushroom-spawn is simply the mycelioid state of Ayaricus campestris. The mycelium sometimes penetrates deeply into wood, rendering it of various colours, as green by Peziza ceruyinosa, red by Corti-

cium

sanyuinenm,

yellow
:

by Hypoxylon

luteum.

Brucke, Arnold, and Strieker, Strieker'' s Hist. vol. i. 1870; Quain's^w. Brucke, Bau d. Muskel, Wiener Denkschr. xv. 79; Heppner, Schultze's Archiv,Y. 1869; Schafer, P/7. Tr.
;

MYCOIDEA.A
nity,
allied to

MYCETOZO'A.

BiBL. Berk. Outl. 39 Crypt. Bot. 262. See Myxomycetes. genus of doubtful
afli-

V.

163, 429, 1873

Beale, Hoto

^-c.

1880

'Nasse,Qi/erffestr.Musk. 1882;FYej,Hist.S0l.

MUSHROOMS.
MUSSEL.

The See Agaricus. species of Mollusca

;

as mussels are of interest to the microscopist, on account of their ali-

commonly known

mentai'v canal containing Diatomacete

the

Chroolepus; propagated by zoospores, also by sexual imion, like Pythimn and some other Saprolegnife. 1 sp. on the leaves of Camellia, in India {Linn. Tr. 2nd a. i. 301, figs.). genus of MYCOP'ORUM, Plot. Lichenaceous Lichens. 3 sp., rare (Leighton, Lich. Flo. 437). MYELOPLAX'ES. See Bone, p. 111.
;

same applies also to other marine and freshwater Mollusca, as well as other animals living upon these minute Algse.
If it be required to obtain the valves only, the entire animal may be dissolved in hot nitric acid, and the residue washed as usual in preparing the Diatomaceae. The gills of the common marine mussel, Mrjtilus edulis, are well adapted for the examination of the cilia and ciliary motion. Mussels also frequently contain the nurses and larvae ( Cercarice) of Dhtoma and other

MY'LIT'TA, Fr. genus apparently of Tuberacei (Ascomycetous Fungi). Mylitta australis, the native bread of the Australians, has not been found with perfect fruit but the structure is apparently that of Tuberacei. The other species are doubtful,
;

and perhaps mere root-tubercules. BiBL. Cd. Ic. Berk. Ann. N. H. 18.39, 326. MYOBIA, Hevd. See Acarus, p. 5. MY^OCOP'TES, Clap.A genus of AcaM. muscidinus, on the body of the rina.
;

mouse (Claparede,
TrjiORS.

Zeit.

iriss.

Zool.

18

Trematoda,

One of the Acarina, Hydrachna concharum,

is

Murrav, Fc. Ent. 325: Megniu, 156). MYO'MATA and MYXO'MATA.

See

found in the

pnllial cavity or

beneath the

outer lamella of the branchial plates of the Naiadeae (Unio, Sec). BiBL. Dickie, Ann. N. H. 1848, i. 322 ; Vo?t, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 .ser. xii.

genus of Myriangiacei (Lichens). 31. Dururi on ash and elm, rare. (Leighton,
Lich. Fl. 37).

MYRIAN'GIUM,

Mont, and Berk.

MYRIAPODA.
Char.
legs

528

MYRIONEMA.
cylindrical or flattened,

MYRIAP'ODA. A class of Ai-thropoda.

Wiugs none one
; ;

Body usually long,

pair of antennae

numerous thorax not separated from the abdomen. These animals are commonly known as
centipedes, millipedes, or hundred-legs.

and consisting of numerous rings, joints, or somites. Head distinct, and the jointed legs, with a single claw, arranged on each side of the body throughout its length. A few of them are broad, short, and flattened,

Fig. 504.

lulus terrestris.

Magnified 4 diameters.

somewhat resembling wood-lice.

Behind

specimens shoidd be
sors,

slit

the antennse are laterally placed the eyes, which in some are absent; they usually consist of a group of ocelli. The structure of the trophi varies in the different genera. The labruui is small, and usually consolidated with the cephalic plate.

and the viscera removed

up with

the
;

fine scis-

iuteo-u-

ment being gently compressed, and

above.
Tr. 1841
;

driecf as

The mandibles

(PI. 35. figs. 25,

26

6) are

often large and powerful, somewhat resembling those of the spiders, and, like them, traversed by a canal, through which the duct of a poison-gland passes. The maxillae are smaller, softer, and furnished with two
palpi.

BiBL. Newport, Linn. Tr. xix. id. Phil. Gervais, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. vii. Leach, Linn. Tr. xi. Jones, Todd's Ci/cl. An. iii. Fabre, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. 1855, iii. ; Packard, Amer. Natural, iv. Cope, Tr. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1870 Lubbock, Linn. Tr. 1867; Nicholson, Zool. 310 Pascoe, Zool. 90 Latzel, Mi/r. 1880.
; ; ; ;
;

The labium

(PI. So. fig.

20

a)

is

often deeply cleft, its anterior and inner margin elegantly toothed and to it are
;

genus of Myrionemacete (Fucoid Algse), consisting of minute epiphytic plants, forming patches of
short, erect, simple, jointed filaments, springing from a thin expanded layer of decumbent cohering filaments. They are described as bearing oblong " spores " but these are probably sporanyes producing zoospores, and it is probable that they are accompanied by
;

MYRIONE'MA, Grev.A

In (tig. 26 c). palpi and mandibles are absent, the labium forming a kind of sheath
attached
tiie

labial palpi

some the

labial

or suctorial rostrum. The internal structm-e resembles that of the larvae of insects. The sexes are separate. The embryo, on escaping from the ovum, has but few legs, sometimes three pairs, at others none, the

number being augmented each time the skin is cast the same applies to the ocelli. The Myriapoda live in dark places, be;

septate sporanges, as in Elachistea. M. strangulans. Patches convex, confluent ; erect filaments clavate spores ou the decumbent filaments; forms brown dots upon Ulva, or little rings round Entero;

morphae. M. Ledancherii.

Circular;

erect

fila-

neath the bark of

stones, &c.

trees,

under dead leaves,

ments

filaments
;

cylindrical, spores ou the decumbent in patches 1-12 to 1-4" in dia;

They form verj' interesting objects when properly prepared and moimted. The small
slightly compressed between in that position, subsequently macerated in oil of turpentine, and mounted in balsam, become very transpa-

ones,

when

two

glasses, dried

meter on decaying fronds of Bhodymenia and Ulva. M. punctiforme. Patches globose; filaments tapering to the base spores
very narrow, fixed near the bases of the erect
;

filaments

on Ceramia and
obscure.

Chi/locladia.

and show the structure beautifully the nervous ganglia and cords are often very distinctly seen in these specimens without
rent,
;

M. clavatum;
Hook. ^r.i^/.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Akj. 51 Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl. pi. 300; Harv. Phyc. Br. pi. 41 A
;

dissection.

The abdomen

of

the

longer

ii.

pt. 1. 391."

MYRIONEMACEiE.
MYRIOXEMA'OE.E.A family
coide;^.

629

MYXOMYCETES.
Ilaeckel. A genus of
shapeless

of FuOlive-coloured sea-weeds, with a tuber-shaped or crustaceous spreading froiitl,

_

MYXAS'TllUM,
Monera.
Char.

simple

protoplasm

sometimes minute and parasitical. Ovoid and iilamentous multilocular uiiiloculiU",

sporanges attached to the superficial ments, and concealed among them. Leathesia. Frond tuber-shapad.
tila-

Frond crustaceous. Ralfsia. Frond parasitical, consisting EU'whlstea. of a tubercular base bearing pencilled erect
filaments.

body without vacuoles, which protrudes simple or ramifying and anastomosing processes. Reproduction by radial fission. The encapsuled resting body divides into a groat number of germs, whose longitudinal axis is radially directed towards the centre of the globular cyst. Each separate germ surrounds
itself

with a siliceous covering. The

Miirionema. Frond parasitical, forming a flat base, bearing cushion tufts of decumbent fllaments. MY^RIOTHE'LA, Sars. genus of Hydroid Zoophytes.

germs issuing from these spore-coverings at once assume the form of the full-grown
organism.

M. radians, Lanzerote, Canaries. BiBL. Haeckel, Monog. of Monera Mic. Jn. ix. n. s. p. 342).

{Qii,.

^Char. Polj-pes

soUtary, cylindrical, ter-

MYXODIC'TYUM,

Haeckel.A genus

minating in a conical pro*boscis, springing from an adherent chitinous base; tentacles

small, capitate, covering the greater portion of the body ; gonophoves clustering round the base of the polypes, and containing M. Phryriia, on stones. fixed sporosacs. BiBL. Sars, Zool. Seise in Lofoten Gosse,
;

of Monera. Simple protoplasm bodies without vacuoles ; pseudopodia ramifying, ana-

stomosing, and forming a net. Reproduction probably by division, each individual

producing

new

colonies.

M,

sociale.

Bay
ix.

of Algesiras.

BiBL. Haeckel, Monera

n.
s.

( Qu. Mic. Jn.

Mar.

Zool.

19

Hincks, Ht/d. Zooph. 75.

MY'RIOTRICH'IA, Harv. ^enus of Ectocarpaceas (Fucoid Algae), consisting of minute epiphytic plants, forming tufts of Filacapillary filaments on larger Algfe. ments simple jointed tubes, set all over with
minute, simple, spore-hke ramules, which again are clothed with very slender, long, jointed filaments. Fructification composed of oval unilocular sjwranges on the sides of the main axis, producing zoospores pro;

M YXOQAS'TRES = Myxomycetes. M YXOM YCE 'TES.A family of minute

arise sac-like dehiscent sporangia or

339).

Fungi, of cm'ious and interesting structure, characterized by their development from a mucilaginous filamentous matrix, out of

which

peridia, emitting a very remarkable, often reticulated, filamentous structure, bearing

the spores.

The Myxomycetes grow upon bark

trees,

of

bably also multilocular sporanges exist. M. daviformis. Main filament with quadrifarious ramules, increasing in length upwards fronds 1-2" long, forming tufts on
;

decayed wood, or on leaves (especially imder certain atmospheric conditions), or on the ground and their evanescent mycelium
;

Chorda lomeniaria.
M.jiliformis. often flexuous,

Main
set

filaments very long,

irregular intervals

at

with oblong clusters of minute papilliform ramules; 1" or more long; on Chorda lonientaria

and Aspei-ococais
i.

echinatus.
0-3;

BiBL. Harv. PJiyc. Br.; Mar. Aly.

of diflluent mucilaginous protoplasmic filaments of varied form and colom'. In proportion as these acquire consistence, there is formed a crust common to the whole mass, divided within into chambers, or a number of individuals appear separate from it and associated on a common thalIn the first case a single peridium is lus.
consists

Hook. Jn. Bot.

Stilbacei

300.

MY^ROTHE'CIUM, Tode.A
M.

genus of

(Hyphomycetous Fungi). roridum, Tode, occurs on decayed It has no peridium, but plants, fungi, &c. consists of minute subcylindrical spores seated on a thin base, the whole forming a subgelatinous mass, wliich is exactly analogous to the fructifying mass of Phalloidei. BiBL. Berk. Br. FL ii. pt. 2. .323 ; Fries, Stim. Veg. 448 Cooke, Handb. 559.
;

formed, which may be regarded as a common peridium if we consider the inner cells as partial peridia soldered together, while in the second case each individual has its own peridium. This peridium, sessile or stalked, is composed of one or more membranous, papery, or crustaceous coats; in some cases where there are two coats, tho outer is crustaceous and persistent, or it is extremely thin and membranous, and breaks up into deciduous scales. In the outer waU 2m

MYXOMYCETES.
of

530

MYXOMYCETES.
Filaments densely
inelastic.

some peridia, calcareous crj-stalloids are Tlie mode of dehiscence varies. found. fSonietimes an irregular opening is formed
at tlie

part very fugacious.

terwoven,
**

Stemomtf-i.

Primary mucilage con-

summit, as iu Physarum sometimes tlie peridium opens like a little box, as in Craterium (tig. 145, p. 213) sometimes the
; ;

upper half

falls

oiF,
;

base, as in Arcyria be very delicate, and break

little

leaving a cup-shaped or the membrane may

up

entirely into

scales,

which

fall

oiF

and leave the

its spores naked, as in SteThe capillitium or sporiferous monitis. structiu-e is formed of filaments, simple or branched, free and loose, or anastomosing so as to form a network (fig. 147, p. 214);

capxlUtium with

necting several distinct ]jeridia. Filaments conjoined into a network, adnate or innate. Cribraria. Peridium simple, membraFUamenta nous, the upper part falling olf. adherent in the interior, at length exjianding into a free network above. Peridium simple, subgloDictydium. bose very delicately membranous, bursting indeterminately, leaving the filaments (innate) forming a cage-like latticed capUlitium. Stemonitis. Peridium simple, globose or
;

iu Trichia these have spiral markings, and resemble the elaters of Hepaticne (PI. 40. The filaments are often elastic, fig. 39). and when the peridium bursts they rise from the bottom of it, forming a coloured,
erect

cylindi-ical, delicately membranous, finally evanescent. Filaments forming a determinate capillitium, attached to a bristle-hke central columella, and forming a network

around

it.

many

In drooping plume (Arcyria). species there is a stalk, columeUa or

or

styJidium, in the centre of the capillitium. The spores appear to be produced upon

these filaments by grooving out from them in the manner of basidiospores. They are formed in vast numbers, and lie, when complete, on the branches and in the interstices of the capillitium.

Diachfcu. Peridium simple, ovate-oblong, membranous, detached in fragments, leaving' a radiately reticulate capillitium, with a floccose gi'umous pulverident axis. Enerthoiema. Peridium simple, globose, membranous, at length evanescent, laying bare a conical columella with a cup at the summit, bearing beneath ascending en-

twined
***

filanients.

In germination, each spore liberates its entire protoplasm, which exhibits amoeboid movements, and protrudes pseudopodia, which anastomose as in Gromia. In some instances, these amoeboid bodies acquire cilia, resembling Monads. They then conjugate, finally forming a sporangium, in which the capillitium with its very numerous spores are produced. Some authors regard these organisms as animal, but this opinion seems to rest upon partiiJ views. Synopsis of British Genera,

Physabei. Primary mucilage spread-

ing widely, passing into many peridia. Filaments adnate, strnight, vague. Spores black. Craterium. Peridium simple, varied, papery, persistent, closed b}* a Hd, which
finally
falls
ofi".

Capillitium

somewhat

chambered, foi-mcd of crowded filaments,

at length erect.

Physarum.

Peridium

simple,

variable,

naked, membranous, bm-sting irregularly. Capillitium floccose; filaments at first joined

into a net or forked.

Teichiacei. Primary mucilage conjoining several distinct peridia. Filaments of tlie capillitium free, entwined, elastic, or almost absent.

Didymiiim. Peridium double ; the outer bark-like, breaking up into little furfuraceous scales or mealy down, the irmer membranous, bursting irregularly; vague, adnate to the peridium.
filaments

Uidcrma.
like,

Peridium double

Peridium subpersistent, membranous, bmsting irregularly. Spores in heaps, with scarcely any filaments. Peridium persistent, memPericha'tia.
Licea.

distinct,

brittle, dehiscent,

very

delicately

membranous,
I.

outer crustthe inner evanescent

;

filaments vague, adnate to the base.

****

^TH ALINE

Primaiy mucilage
indeterminate, by regidar

branous, bursting by a circumscissile Fila iients few, free.

Trichia.

slit.

producing one peridium. Peridium Spumaria.

crustaceous, divided

Peridium

simple,

persistent,

into cells

bursting irregularly at the summit. Eilaments densely interwoven, elastic. Arcyria. Peridium simple, membranous, splitting all round at the base, the upper

ascending folds, and finally falling awa3\

No

inlernal filanients.

Aifh(dium.
gile, falling

Peridium indeterminate, fraaway, covered with a floccose

MYXORMIA.
bark externally,
of
filaments
layers.
ct'lltilar

531

NAIDINA.
;

internall}^

conjoined

into

by means membranous

the circumference the raniulea are composed of jointed dichotomous filaments having a whorled arrangement, surrounded

Reticidana.

Peridium

indeterminate,

simple, nalced, fugacious, bursting iiregureticulated adlaily, laying- bare branched,

nate filaments.
Li/cogala.

The .spores arebi)rne gelatinous matter. branches of the filaments of the ramules, the fertile ramules being swollen in the middle.
bj'

on

Peridium detemiinate, com-

posed of a double membrane, membranous, somewhat warty, persistent, bursting at tlie summit. Fihimeiits adnate on all sides of

BiBL. ll^Y\ey,Mar. Alg. 152, pi. 201); Ph/c. Br. pi. 38; Greville, Ahj. Br. pi. IG. NAIDI'NA. family of Setigera (An-

nulata).

BiBL. Schmitz, Lhtn-cpa, xvi. 188 De Bary, Die Mt/cefozoa, 18G4; Plofmeister, P/ii/s. Bot. ii. 2\)o Cienkowsky, Jahr. trhs. Hot. iii. 325, 400 Kent, InK'klO ; Sachs, Bot. 26o Cooke, Myxomyc. 1877. MYXOR'MIA, Berk, and Br.A genus of Coniomycetes, containing one species, M. atroL-iridis, forming minute cu}>like be dies, on dead leaves of grass. It is allied to Excipida, but differs in its concatenate spores being connected by a slender thread, which spores frequently breaks off with them
;
;

the peridium.

Char. Worm-like, annulate or segmented,

soft leg-like appendages segments furnished with partially retractile
;

without suckers or

bristles or seta3, excepting the first three or four ; head distinct from the body.

plants, or

Freshwater animals, living among aquatic burrowing iu mud. Sexes distinct; propagation by ova and spontaneous trans;

very gelatinous. BiBL. Berk, and Br., Ann. N. H. 2 V. 457 Cooke, Hamlb. 459.
;

ser.

of genus_ Dematiei (H\^homycetous Fungi), growing on rotten wood, paper, &c. Three British
species
:

MYXOT'RICHUM, Kze. A.
M.
ccesitim,

Fr.

31.

chartarum,

Kze.
little

and M. dejlexum, Berk.

tufts

They form
sending off

or

downy

balls,

The spores described as occm-riug collected in masses about the base of the threads. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 335 Ann.
radiatius:

branched filaments.

The bristles are moved by verse division. muscles, and answer the purpose of legs they are situated on the upper or under surface of the body, mostly in rows. The Naidina are remarkable for the singular process of non-sexual multiplication which they present before attaining sexu d bud is thrown out between maturity. two rings near the middle of the boJy, and is developed into a fresh individual moreover the parent body separates at this point, and becomes two individuals and prior to the detachment of the bud, others are formed from the same segment. Four anterior segments Nais, Miill.

are

N. H. i. 2G0, pi. 8. fig. 9 Fries, Sum. Vey. 502 Church, Ann. Syst. Mye. iii. 348 N. H. 1862. MY'ZUS,Passerini. Agenusof Aphidfe. on the cheiTy-tree, peach Four species and nectarine, red-currant and gooseberry. (Buckton, Ajihides, i. 173.)
; ;

without upper bristles. N. Scotica. Cylindrical, ends obtuse, the anterior smooth and cylindrical, the portion behind it with a double row of thin tufts of prickles, shorter than the diameter of the body; mouth and anus terminal; no pro-

N.

NACCA'RIA,Endl. genus of Ciyptonemiacese (Plorideous Algae), containing one

rare
fig.

head snakewith a produced lower lip eyes two upper bristles subulate, lower forked or The lower hooked; length about Ih," bristles with a globular swelling below the middle segments SO-OO head with 4 dark
;

boscis; length 1". N. serpentina. Cylindrical

like,

transverse band?.

British

species,

N.

Wiijghii (Pi.

4.

N. prohoscidca.
front
;

Cylindrical, flattened iu

18), usually thrown up from deep water. Its rose-coloiu-ed frond is 6 to 12" high, and consists of a branched filiform expansion,

the central axis being about as thick as a crow-quill, the branchlets quadrifarif)usly alternate and clothed with ranmles about 1-12" lung. The cells of the main axis and branches of the frond are large and empty
in the centre, small

four segments divided by a stricture from the body, the first or head being prolonged into 'a filiform proboscis ; two eyes; upper bristles simple, lower forked length 1-2"; on the roots of aquatic
first
;

plants. Cliatogaster,

Baer.
bristles.

All

the

segraents
froi.t
;

without upper
C.

and closely packed

at

vennicidaris.

Truncate in
2

no

NAILS.
eyes; mouth terminal;
setaa bifid;

582

NAILS.

length

among- Lemna, in ditches, and in the respiratory chamber of the Lymnjeida}. See TuBiFKX. BiBL, Schmidt, Miiller's ArcJiiv, 1846, 406; Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. xv. 319; Johnston, Cat. non-;)arasit. Worms Doyere, 3Ie?)i. Linn. Soc. Norniandti, x. Claparede,
; ; ;

1"

modified epidermic formations, are imbedded posteiiorly and laterally in depressions, or are covtn-ed at these parts by a fold of the skin. The posterior depression (fig. 505 J) is much deeper than the lateival depressions
(fig.

506
1),

c).

The
505

Rcch. 1861.

NAILS.

These organs, which consist of

e

The

nail itself consists of the root (fig, the body (k), and the free end (/).

root extends over that part of the matrix furnished with the ridges, and is

Fi?. 505.

.//-

Longitudinal section through the middle of the nail and its matrix, a, matrix and cutis of the back and point of the finger; 6, rete muco^um of the point of the finger; c, that of the nail d, tliat of the bottom of the rootfold e, the same of the back of the finger f, epidermis of the point of the finger ; g, its origin beneath the margin of the nail h, eindermis of the back of the finger; i, its termination at the upper surface of the root of the nail; Ic, body, I, root, m, free end of the proper nail.
; ; ; ;

Magnified 8 diameters.

either entirely lodged in the posterior depression of the cutis, or the crescentic portion of it is exposed. The body of the nail is imcovered except at the sides, which are overlapped by the lateral folds oi the skin. The portion of the cutis (fig. 506 a) to which the under sm'face of the nail, except that of the anterior free portion, is attached the matrix or bed is covered with ridges (fig. 506 a) extending from the posterior part or root of the nail to the convex margin of the white crescentic portion called

ridges (fig. 507 o), which occupy con'esponding furrows in the mucous layer. In minute structure the soft layer resembles that of the cutaneous rete, except in

the lunale, where they become larger and higher, forming plates which run to the end of the matrix. The margins of the ridges and plates are covered with short papillfe. The anterior portion of the matrix of the
nail is very vascular. Tlie under surface of the root and body of the nail is covered with depressions and ridges to adapt itself to those of the matrix. Two layers are distinguishable in the
nails an under soft layer (figs. 505 r/, 506 r, 507 B), corresponding to and directly continuous with the rete mucosum of tlie skin, and the upper horny layer forming the true The lower nail (figs. 506/, 505 k, 507 C).

the deeper layer of cells being elongated and arranged perpendicularly (fig. 507 h). The horny portion, or proper nail, consists of epidermic cells, flattened and aggregated into plates or lamiufB (fig. 507 C). In the natural state, these cells are undistinguishable, except at the root and the under surface, where the nail is in contact with the mucous layer the remainder merely exhibiting shorter or longer dark lines, representing the flattened nuclei, or indicating the existence of the laminae. But if a section of nail be treated with solution of caustic potash or soda, the nucleated cells swell up, and resume their proper form and

appearance. Tlie blood-vessels of the bed of the nail form a coarse plexus in the coriuni of the
matrix, from which loops are given off to the papillit! and the proper bed of the nail has a mucli finer plexus and loops ascending to the ridges.
;

Numerous moduUatcd

nerve-fibres lie in

surface of the latter

is

furnished witli small

the subcutaneous tissue of the nail-bed, and

NAI1>S.

51)3

NASSULA.

TraiisTorse section of tlie nail and its n.atnx a, matrix- witli its rirlges (Mack); 6, cutis of the lateral folfl c. r.te n.ucosiun oi tlu- .-ame; </, rete mucosum of the nail with its ridges (white) ; e, enidermic layer of cutaicous <-. ipiatimic lajerol uitaiicous told;/, proper .ub.tance of the nail, with short teeth on its under suifaee.
:

Magnified

8 diameters.

lose their
surface.

medullary sheath at the level of the corium, and theu run vertically to the

Fig. 607,

5*.

Laminae of a nail after boiling with solution of caustic soda or potash. A, side view. H, surface view, a, cellmembranes ; 6, nuclei seen from above ; e, the same in
side view.

Magnified

.350

diameters.

BiBL. KoUiker, Mik. An.

ii.

and the Bill.

Hist.

a
Transverse section of the body of the nail. A, cutis of the matrix. B, rete mucosum of the nail.. C, epidermis of the same, or proper nail, a, plates of the rnatrix 6. i>lates of the rete mucosum of the nail c, ridges of the proper substance of the nail d, deeper perpendicular cells of the rete mucosum of the nail e, upper flattened cells of the same /, nuclei of the ceUs of the proper nail.
; ; ; ; ;

therein

Biesiadecki,
Miill.

Striclxer''s

NAIS,

See NAioiNA.

NANNOPUS,

Brady,A genus
(Brady,

of Cope.

podous Entomostraca.

NAR'COTINE. See Alkaloids, p. 31 NAS'SULA, Ehr. A genus of Holo-

Cn^). ii.)

trichous Infusoria, of the family Trachelina. Char. Body covered with cilia arranged
in longitudinal rows; mouth surrounded by a cone of rod-like teeth ; no proboscis nor
ear-like processes. The gastric sacculi of those animals fre-

Magnified 250 diameters.

The cutaneous epidermis (fig. 506 e) extends for a certain distance into the lateral and posterior depressions of the skin, covers the anterior portion of the root, the posterior part of the body, and the lateral marin a fine layer gins of the nails, terminating which, however, is nowhere directly continuous with the substance of the nail.

quently contain a coloured liquid, derived

from the solution of partly digested

torice,

Oscilla-

N. elegans

(PI,

31.

fig,

45;

h,

teeth).

Length 1-144
N. aurea

to 1-120".

(PI. 31. fig. 4G),

Length 1-120".

NAUPLIUS.
It is questionable
diliereiit

534

NECTRIA.
oblong, slightlv constricted in the middle;
;

how

far this genus is

tic

from Chilodon.
]<]hr.

Infus. 8:;S ; Stein, Inf. 248 ; C.ihn, Qii. M. Jn. 1859 5 Clap, et Lachm. Etudes Kent, Inf. 494. NAU'PLIUS. See Critstacea, p. 216.

BiBL.
;

Ends marine length 'l-(JOO to 1-300". sometimes broadly rounded, and the constriction

very deep.

'

N. vhnmhoides.
late; colourless

Valves rhomboid-lanceo-

NAVICELLyE. See Gregarina, p.36o. NAVIC'ULA, Bory. A genus of Diato-

and not striated by ordin.

Striae

ilium.;

85
fig.

in

freshwater; length 1-350". 1-1000" (Sm.).

mace?e. Char. Frustules single, free; valves oblong, lanceolate or elliptical, (sometimes with the ends narrowed and produced, rarely constricted in the middle, furnished with a longitudinal line or keel, and a nodule in the middle and at each end; surface of valves covered with dots arranged in transverse or slightly radiating rows, producing an appearance of lines, altliough both dots and lines are often invisible by ordinary
illumination.

N.

a)])p/iirh)/7ichns(P\. 50. fig. 19, side view

22, front

view of conjugating

frustules).

linear, or nearly so, suddenly contracted near the produced and obtuse ends ; freshwater; length 1-500 to 1-250",

Valves

N. affinis. Valves elliptical, contracted and linear towards the rounded ends fresh;

water.
cill.

BiBL. Smith, Br. Biat. i. 4G Kiitz, Ba91, and Sp. A/ff. 69 Grev., n. sp., 31ic. Tr. 18<d6, 84 & 126; O'Meara, pec. forms, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, xii. 283 Kabenh. Aly. i.
; ; ;

Valves usually symmetrical, and the keel but in two species the keel is sigmoid and the valves inequilateral. Sometimes the keel is double. There is mostly a little space between the rows of dots

169.

median

NEBA'LIA, Leach. A genus

of Phyllo-

(PI. 15. hg. 8), so that these readily exhibit transverse lines or strias by unilateral oblique

podous Entomostraca. Char. Antennse two pairs, large and ramiform eyes two, stalked legs twelve pairs, eight branchial and four natatory carapace
; ;

large, enclosing head,

thorax, and part of

but sometimes they are pretty uniformly distributed, as in many of the species belonging to the tirst section of Fleui-olight
;

abdomen. N. bipes
;

(PI. 19. fig. 28),

Marine
;

body

sigma. Species or forms very numerous Kiitzing describes 170, some of them, however, be;

yellowish length 3-8". BiBL, Baird, Br. Entom. 36 Clans, Sieb. Sf Kdll. Zeits. 1872, 323 ; An. N. H. 1879, iv, 418.

longing to IHnnuhiria, Pleuromyma, and other genera. Ilabenhorst notices 237 species. Many may have been derived from a frustule of a Schizonema or CoUetoneinn

noid Mosses.

NECKE'RAj Hedwig.A genus of Hyp-

which

had escaped from its gelatinous envelope The formation of sporangial frustules has been noticed by us in Navicula amphirhynclms, and they are contained in a siliceous sporangial sheath or case. The process is sufficiently illustrated by the figures (PI. 50, figs. 19-24): fig. 19, side view of the parent frustule; fig. 20, front view of conjugating frustules, with young sporangial sheath 21, empty mature sheath fig. fig. 22, crushed empty sheath and jmrent frustides in situ fig. 23, sheath, one parent frustule
! ; ; ;

Elegant little perennial plants, growing on trunks of trees and shady rocks, having stems pinnately branched, bearing complanate leaves arranged in eight rows (fig. 484). N. crispa, Dill., found in mountainous districts, is a large moss, with stems 4 or 6" long or more, growing horizontally from a creeping rhizome, NECTRIA, Fries. A gemis of Sphferiacei

(Ascomycetous Fungi), distinguished from true Sphcerice by the free, membranous,

frustule in front view fig. 24, sporangial frustule in side view. N. cuspidata (PI. 15. fig. 6, side view; Valves lanfig. 7, front view ; a, hoo])).
;

and sporangial

ceolate,

somewhat rhomboid, acuminate

no
striae

freshwater; length 1-350 to 1-200".

slightlv iridescent,

Valves
ellip-

bv
"

ord. ilium.

N. didynia

(PI. 15, fig.

t)).

Valves

perithecium, the pale papilla, and the gelatinous pale nucleus expelled in the form of a drop or of white the asci contain eight pellucid flocks The imperfect forms of tliese plants spores. Thus are described as distinct genera. Tubercularia vidyaris, common on bark of dying or dead trunks, and on dead twigs of birch especially, ripens into N. cinnabarina this we have observed and it is probable tiiat other Conioni3Tetous forms will require Nectria to be reduced in like manner.
flaccid, brightly coloured
;

NEMALEON.
liritisli

535

NEPIIROSELlNriS.

includes the Flora

following Sphfrrm ochracinndharina, coccinen,

;

of

the

able from the fusiform spores being furnished with three or four terminal threads.

cca, aurnntiit, i-osella, citrina, Pezizci, sanyuinea, episplucrid, kc. and several new Messrs. Berkeley species are described by

N. caricuni grows upon dead leaves of sedges, bursting from beiieath the epidermis by a circular black orifice, from which an
orange-coloured (sometimes olive-coloured) gelatinous mass of spores escapes in the form of a cirrhus. Diameter of conceptacles

and Hroome. EiUL. Fries, Smn. Broome, Ann. N. H. 2

HancU). 780.

Vecj. 387 ; ser. xiii. 467

Berk. & Cooke's

of

NEMA'LEON,
taining

Tarji-ioni.

A genus

Cryptonemiaie* (Florideous Algae), contwo British species, one, N. muUiJidum, not uncommon on shells and stones near low-water mark. Its frond consists of
a somewhat cartilaginous, simple or once or twice dichotomous cord, 3 to G" high and 1 to 2" in diameter, of a dull purple coloiu-. The cord consists of a dense axis formed of interlaced longitudinal filaments, clothed

about 1-80". BiBL. Desmazieres, Ann. Sc. Nut. 2 ser. xix. 346; Berk. <& Broome, Ann. N. II. 2 ser. xiii. 379.

NE'PA,
Insects.

Linn.

A genus of Ilemipterous

cinerea, the common water-scorpion, of a dirty brown colour, the body broad and flat, with two long terminal respiratory tubes anterior pair of legs stout and greatly elbowed, posterior formed for crawling and

N.

is

with horizontal, dichotomously-branched filaments, moniliform and coloured towards the circumference of the cord. The fruit
consists oi :favelUdia, consisting of globular masses of spores attached singly to the filaments of the periphery, witli a triand collections (PI. 4. fig. 12 c)
;

chogyne

of antheridia, consisting of minute hyaline cells seated on the peripheral filaments, but discharging spermatozoids (PL 4. fig. 12 h). BiBL. Harv. Mar. Alg. 153, pi. 21 B,

PI. 33. fig. 26 represents the trophi. The labium {i) is three-jointed, with two small lobes between the second and third joints the four sette (mandibles and niaxillfe) are furnished with teeth, directed towards the free end (and not as shown in the figure) the lingua or tongue (*) is trifid at the
; ;

not swimming.

apex.

Phyc. Br. pi. 36 Derbes and Solier, Ann. Sci. Nat. 3 ser. xiv. 274, pi. 35 Thuret, ihid 4 s^Tt 111. 21.
:

The lateral tracheae are dilated opposite the thorax to form two internal respiratory sacs. The eo-o-s are oval, and ^^ith seven reflexed filaments at one end.
BiBi,,
teres.

NEMAS'PORA, Fries.A supposed genus of Melanconiei (Couiomycetous Fungi), the species of which present two forms, one bearing minute conidia {Nemaspora), the other spores (Liherfella, Desmaz.), and which probably also will be found to exhibit an asciferoiis form. X. crocea, Pers., is common on beech trees, N. Rosre on roses and lilacs. They are iit first minute gelatinous masses of conidia, coherent into a nuclt'us under
the epidermis, devoid of a perithecium ; the tendi'il spores finally exude as a gelatinous the spores are curved and of an orangecolour. Nemaspora consists really of spermogonous fruits, and Libertella of stylospo;

Westwood,

Intr.

Dufour, Hemipof Nepen-

NEPEX'THES, L.A genus

thaceSB
(see

(Dicotyledonous Plants), in which

the spiral vessels have four parallel fibres

NEPHROCYTIUM, Nag.A
;

Spiral Structures),

genus of

consisting of 4-16 minute reniform green cells, enclosed in an ample 2 species ; in ditches and buggy envelope. (Rab. Fl. Alg. 62; IS'ag. Einzell. pools.

PalmeDacese

Alg. 79.)

NEPHRO'DIUM, Rich. A

genus of

rous fruits of Ascomvcetous genera. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii, pt. 2. 355 Fries, Sum. Veg. 413 Desmaz. An7i. Sc. Nat. 1 s^r. xix. 209. NEMATIIE'CIA. Wart-likecollections of vertical filaments found on the surface of the fronds of the Cryptonemiaceje (Flo; ;

Aspidieae (Polypodiaceous Ferns, fig. 224. p. 320). very large number of species, N. Filix-mas, cosmopolitan. "^Brit. sp. Theltjpteris, Oreopteri^ {montnmmi), rit/i-

dum, cristatum, spinidosimi

CBTnfda.

(dilatatuin),

and

NEPHRO'LEPIS, Schott. A
Aspidiefe (Polypodiaceous Ferns).
cies, tropical.

genus of
7 spe-

ride^).

NEOTTIOS'PORA, Desmaz. genus of Sphferonemei(Stylosporous Fungi), remark-

NEPIIR0'3IIUM, Nyl. A genus of Lichenaceous Lichens. Three species; rare. (Leighton, B. Lich. Fl. 99.) NEPIIROSEL'MIS, Stein. A genus of

(Hooker,

Si/n. 300.)

NERIUM.
Flagellate
Infusoria.

536

NERVES.

Free,

solitary;

fla-

gella two, arising-

from the middle of the

ventral side.

N. oHvitcea,Temiorm; length
(Kent, Inf. 405.) See Stomata, and Liber

1-1000"
(p.

freshwatei-.

in the form of a rounded or flattened, pale, fibrous band, occupying the axis of the tube, and called the axis-cylinder (figs. 509, 2 b, 3 4 5; 510, 1 b)\ this is the essential
c,

a,

NERIUM.
461).

nervous element.
Fig. 509.
/.

The

NERVES

and

NERVOUS CENTRES.
is

usually regarded the nerves, which as consisting of two parts are divided into the cerebro-spinal and the resympathetic; and the nervous centres, presented by the brain and spinal cord, with which must also be placed the ganglia.

nervous system

These parts are composed essentially either of nerve-tubes, nerve-cells, or of both these
elements.

may be arranged in two the meduUated and the non-medulgroups,

The
nei-ve-tibres

lated.

The meduUated nerve-tubes are most numerous in the white portion of the nervous centres and in the nerves. They are slender, in diamsoft, cyhndrical filaments, varving When eter from 1-20,000 to 1-1 iOO". and appaquite recent, they are transparent
but they rently homogeneous (fig. 509, 1), an really consist of three distinct parts a tenacious enveloping membrane or sheath of Schwann liquid, the white substance and a soft, elastic, and probably fibrous band of Remak. axis, the axis-cylinder, or The outer sheath or tubular membrane of the nerve-tubes is a thin structureless
; ;

5-

3 a, 4 ), transparent membrane (fig. 510, 2, containing nuclei. It is very visible and thick in the nerves of the mesentery of the of the torfrog, and in the electrical organs It is furnished with annular conpedo.
strictions at regular intervals.

2.

Within the outer sheath

cylinder or tube

is

hollow

(figs. 509, 5i, 510, 3b, 4 b) substance of Schwann. It is homogeneous and tenacious in perfectly fresh nerves, but soon after death becomes coagua lated, sometimes externally only, giving double outline to the walls of the nervetubes (fig. 510, Ji, 511), or becoming granular

the white

Nerve-fibres. 1 From nerves of the dog and rabbit, in tlie natural state a, fine, b, moderate, c, large fibre. From a frog, after the addition of serum a, drop forced out by pressure b, part of the axial fibre contained in it. 3. From the human spinal marrow, treated with serum a, sheath b, w hite substance with a double outline c, axial fibre. 4. Fibre with double outline, from the human fourth ventricle n, axial fibre. 5. Two isolated axial filires, with a portion of the white substance adherent to the right-hand one.
.

Magnified 350 diameters.

These three structures of nerve are some-

what

externally, and remaining liquid internally. It is also easily altered by pressm-e, sometimes escaping in globides or masses of various forms (myeline), from the ends or the broken sides' of the tubes, at others

The outer difiicult of demonstration. sheath may sometimes be shown by pressing the nerve-tube, which forces out the white substance. Boiling the nerves in absolute alcohol, with the subsequent addition of
caustic alkali, or in acetic acid, when crystals of fat separate from the white substance answer the same purpose. (fig. 510, 1), will

accumulating at intervals in various parts of the tubes, giving them an elegant varicose appearance (fig. 511). It is frequently called the medullary sheath, and those nem-es possessing it are meduUated. The third structure exists within the last,

Strong nitric acid, and afterwards potash, causes the white substance to exude; and the axial fibre being dissolved, the yellow sheath is left empty and very distinct. Solution of corrosive .^sublimate has also been

NEKVES.

537

NERVES.

recommended. The axial band is best seen in nerves treated Avith strong- acetic acid, or cold absolute alcohol, ether, chromic acid,
Fio-.

fractive,

lary substance, which is oily and very reand turns it black.

olO.

Chemically, the sheath and axial band of a proteine compound, and the white substance of a mixture of cerebrine
consist

with leeythine. In the 7ion-meclulIated nerves the

are of three kinds.
fibrils

fibres

The primitive nerve-

very

fine

present the simplest form, and are and thread-like. They are only

powers greater than 500 linear, and may be traced to their junction wath ganglion-cells and thicker nerve-fibres. No internal structure can be distinguished and they become varicose here and there with reagents, such as osmic acid, finally becoming diffluent. They abound in the neighbourhood of the termination of other nerves, for instance, in the retina (see Eye). The second kind of fibres have been called naked axis-cylinders, and are thicker than
visible witli
;

the primitive
Nerve-tubos. 1. From a frog, after boiling with acetic acid and alcohol a, sheath b, axial band c, crystals of fat. 2. Isolated sheath of a frog's nerve boiled with Boda. 3. From the human fourth ventricle, after treatment with soda a, sheath ; 6, white substance exndiiig in drops the axial band has been removed in the preparation. -1. Human, treated with soda : a, sheath; b, white substance ; the axial band not visible. Magnified 350 diameters.
: ; : : :

fibrils.

They

are transparent,

and more or less striated longitudinally, being composed, like the axis-cylinders of medullated neiTCS, of minute longitudinal fibrils. When connected with multipolar
ganglion-ceUs, this fibrillation is often distinct under the action of reagents. They have only been traced for short distances ; and it is evident that they and the primitive fibrils may become covered with a sheath and merge into the medullated type. The thu'd kind consists of a thicker or thinner bundle of primitive nerve-fibrils, according to the kmd of axis-cj'linder present, imited together by a structureless, perfectly transparent, extremely thin nucleated tissue the tubular sheath of the medullated fibres. In the cerebro-spinal nerves, the nervetubes are aggregated into bundles, and surrounded by an envelope of connective tissue, called the neurilemma, in which bloodvessels ramify, thus corresponding with the arrangement of the primitive tibrillas of muscle. Sometimes, towards the terminations of the nerves, the neurilemma appears as a homogeneous membrane with elongated

Fig. 511.

nuclei.

Human
state.

nerve-tubes, showing tubes of various sizes

Branching or division of all the ner\'eexcept the non-medidlated primitive kind, occurs occasionally in and near the nervous centres and in the nerve-trunlis, and
fibres,
;

single, others with a double outline ; some varicose, others with the white substance in a granular

some with a

frequently in the periphery. example of peripheral divison

electric
eel,

The
is

best

in

the
fibre

where one medullated

Magnified 350 diameters.

&c., and staining fluids. Osmic acid solution hinders the coagulation uf the medul-

divides millions of times to supply the subcutaneous fat-like organ. l)ivision into fibres may be seen in sections of the spinal

NERVES.
ammonia.

538

NERVES.
;

cord of the ox treated with carmine and

In the grey, sympathetic, or ganglionic nerves, the fibres of which are sometimes called gelatinous fibres, the nerves are paler than those of most of tlie cerebro-spinal nerves, and they are scattered through

granular and faintly coloured they have a nucleus and nucleolus. They are most numerous in the cineritious or dark portions of the nervous centres, and in the ganglia but they are met with in the trunks and terminal expansion of nerves, as the retina, &c. Some are furnished with a nucleated capsule this is easily seen in the (fig. 513, 2 a) cells of the ganglia, but with difficulty in those of the central organs.
; ;

They are rounded, elongate, pyriform, or angular (fig. 51.3). Some are simple, others are furnished with one, two, or more simple hence they are or branched processes described respectivelv as uui-, bi-, or midtiTheir contents are a soft, tenacious, polar. but fibrillar mass (fig. 51-3, 3), consisting of a clear, homogeneous, proteine basis, and a number of larger and smaller granules, as well as a nucleus and nucleolus. In size they are very variable, from 1-5OU0 to 1-500".
;

From

the

human

sympathetic.

A. Portion of a grey
;

fibre treated with acetic acid: a, fine nerre-tiibes

b,

nuclei of Remak's iibre8. one with a pale process.

B- Three ganglion-globules,

are sometimes colourless, at others yellow, brown, or black and occasionally these are aggregated to form a
;

The granules
mass.

Magnified 350 diameters.

A
the

number

of fine fibres radiating from

numerouslongitudinal non-medidlated fibi'es (Remak's fibres), containing elongated nuclei

(fig.

512).

Net-ve-cells, nerve-corpuscles, or ganglionglobules are masses of fibiillar protoplasm,

nucleus and nucleolus may be seen traversing the cell-substance, which contains granular, yellow, or reddish-brown Chloride of gold renders the pigment. Beale has shown nucleus very distinct. that two processes are given ofl" from the

Fig. 513.

between the
c,

Nerve-cells and fibres from the auditory nerve. 1. Nerve-cell with the origin of a fibre,, from the anastomosis facial and auditory nerve in the meatus auditorius externus of the ox: o, ceil-membrane h, contents pigment; ^.nucleus; p, prolongation of the sheath upon the nerve-tube; y, nerve-tube. 2. Two nerve-cells with tubes from the auditory nerve of the ox: a, sheath with nuclei; 6, protoplasm, fibrillar really c, nucleus; rf, origin of tube, with nucleated sheath; e, tubes, 'i. Separ.ite contents of a nerve-cell with a nucleus and two nucleoli.
; ; ;

Magnified 350 diameters.

iM^RVES.

539

NERVES.

small end of the bell-shaped ganglion -cells of the sympathetic in the frog, and that whilst cue pursues a straight com'se, the
Fig. 514.

other forms a series of coils around It, both lying within a nucleated slieath continuous with that of the ganglion-cpll.
On'ijin
cells,

of Nerve-fibres.

The

ganglion-

whether multipolar or unipolar, are in Some gancontinuity with nerve-fibres. glion-cells are merely nucleated dilatations of the axis-cylinder and others, which are
;

also bipolar, are true ganglion-cells; for the more or less globular cell-mass is continuous
lar matter of the

with the axis-cylinder and with the gTanumedullary matter, but the
tubular sheath of the nerve stops short of the cell. Multipolar ganglion -cells are invariably connected with one meduUated nerve-fibre, which passes off without branching or

diminishing in calibre. Its axis-cylinder is continuous with the fibrillar structure of the protoplasm of the ganglion-cell, and it becomes invested with the medullaiy sheath soon after leaving the cell. The other processes

either

multipolar

cells, or

communicate with adjacent break up after repeated

Cells from the central grey substance of the human Bpiual marrow. Some are connective-tissue cells. Magnified 350 diameters.

branching into a great number of processes, which,however, are clearly continuous with the fibrillar protoplasm of the cell, but are uncovered by any medullary sheath. Their idtimate termination is doubtful but it is
;

inferred that

them become continuous with the axis-cylinders of nerves. So

many

of

Large
fibrillar

cells

from the grey

cortical layer of the

human

cerebellum.

Magnified 350 diameters.

and so fibrous

are the processes under reagents, is the appearance of the ganit is

deficient as glion cell-mass,

of cell-wall.

that it is imagined that the fibrous structure of the axis-cylinders is continuous with that of each other through the cell-substance.

NERVE3.

540

NERVES.

Doubtless many nerve -fibres originate from very small cells imbedded in tlie grey substauce, and which are usually destroyed by the processes of preparation. The ganglia (fig. 516) consist of nervetubes either separate or united into bundles,
intermingled vsdth nerve-cells, from which some of the nerve-tubes arise. The tubes and cells are imbedded in or supported by a stroma of connective tissue, sometimes

septa, rarely but occasionally forming a distinct envelope to the individual cells some;

consists of elongated, triangular, or in short, spindle-shaped nucleated cells corresponding to connective tissue in various

times

it

homogeneous, at others more or less diforming an apparent sheath to the ganglia, and ending in numerous
stinctly fibrous,

stages of development. The finer nerve-fibres are often with difiiculty distinguished fi'om fibres of connective tissue; but the frequent occiu'reuce of nuclei will often serve to distinguish them. The nerves are developed from the ele-. mentary embryonic cells, which at first appear rounded or slightly elongated and

Fig. 516.

Fig. 617.

Fig. 518.

side of a rabbit. Been from behind, after treatment with Fie ."iie. Sixth thoracic sympathetic ganglion of the left each bifurcating; .S'p^sphmehnic branch. *, gansoda r.2. trunk of sympathetic; Jt. c, conmnmicating branches, and smaU branches probably going to vessels ; 5-, ganglion-globules and ganghal hbres. glial'braneh, with large . MacniCed 40 diameters. , ,. ,1 i_ / n of a four-months human io-tus: , nueleus in the pale he. r,17. 1. Ganglion-globules from a spinal ganglion A. Cells from the ciueriin development, from a two-months human ioDtus. process of the cell? 2. Nerye-tubea tious cerebral substance of the same fcctus. ,,^^ o-xt 1 a four-months foetus. 2. Nerve-tubes from a newlyFie 518 1 Two nerre-libres from the ischiatic nerve of 3. Nei-ve-Ubrc from the tail of a tadpole: a, 6, c, as above; born rabbit: a, sheath h, nucleus; c, white substance. at d the fibre has still the embryonic character.
1
?

iir

somewhat flattened. In their further gi-owth

they either retain their primitive shape (fig. lateral pro617), or send out persistent nerve-cells or ganghouso
forming

globules or the processes of adjacent cells unite into nucleated fibres, much resembling those of the sympathetic system, in which the white substance and axial fibre of the
;

cesses,

NEUROGLIA.
sits (fig. 51 8).

541

NIDULARI

VCET.

nerve-tubes are formed as secondary depo-

In atrophy and degeneration of the nervous elementss, the nerve-cells become loaded with fat and pigment, and the walls of the nerve-tubes thiuner, brittle, and the white substance more or less replaced by
granules of fat. The nerve-fibres are very difficult of examination, and require a high power. They mav bo hardened in chromic acid or Miiller's with tlie subsequent liquid. Chloride of gold addition of very dilute acetic acid, briugs to while the medullary light the axial fibre sheath is darlvened br osmic acid.
;

whicli bursts whon mature, in tlie Carpoboli )re or less regular slits, in by a lid or by the Nidulariui by an orifice which enlarges

Fijr.

519.

Fig. 520.

Cyathus vernicosus.
Fig. 519. Fig. 520.

A ripe receptacle.
The same, opened

Nat.

size.

BiBL. KoUiker, Mik. An. 2 Todd, Ci/cl iii. Gerlach, Mik. Stud. Reniak, Monatsb. Acad. Berlin, 1853 Schultze, Sfnict. new., 1868 Lister & Turner, Qu. Mic. Jn. 181j0, 29 Mayer, Strick. Hist. Meynert, ibid. Deitevs,' Gekirn u. Mark d. Mensch., 18(35; Clarke, Phil. Tr.lSGS; Beale, Phil. Tr.lSSO, 1862, 186-3, 1864, Croon. Lecture 1865, Qu. Mic. Jn. n. s. vols. iv. & v., & How; Clelaud, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1870, 126; Darwin, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 110; Schmidt, M. Mic. Jn. 1864, 200; Frej, Hist. 62i; Bevan, If. Mic. Jn.
; ; ; ; ;

vertically.

so that the

mouth becomes turned out

lip

as a

spreading
(fig.

519).

around a cup-shaped cavity The CarpoFig. 521.

boli,

containing only one conceptacle, proj ect

this

with

elasticity

when ripe. The Niducontain many larini

conceptacles lying like eggs in a nest (figs. 519, 520), in Ci/athus

xvi. 105.

NEUROGLIA. A
with

granular connective

and

Crucibidum

(fig.

tissue,

rounding

fine elastic fibres and cells surthe nerve-fibres in the brain and

521) attached by a funi-

spinal cord.

NEUROP'TERA. An order of Insects, containing the Dragonflies (Libellulid^).

The structure culus. of the conceptacles is The enalike in all.

Crucibulum vulgare. conceptacle detached from the receptacle.

See PhorMiuM and Textile substaxces. NEWT. See Triton.

NEW-ZEALAND FLAX.

NICOTirOE, Aud. & Edw.A

velope of each is triple Magnified 12 diama. and they (fig. 522); form a cavity lined by delicate filaments which converge towards the centre, where
Fi-.

genus of
522.

Crustacea, of the order Siphouostoma, and family Ergasilidte. N. astaci (PI. 19. fig. 36, fem.) is found upon the giUs of the lobster. The sides of the body are extended into two remarkable lobes, containing the ovaries and the intestinal canal. (rt) Bibb. Baird, Br. Ent. 300; Van Beneden, Ann. Sc. Nat. S ser. xiii. NIDULARIA'CEL small family of Gasteromycetous Fungi, including the Nidularmi or bird"s-nest-like Fungi, and the one concepCarpoboli, which contain only tacle. They are curious aud very interesting Fungi, growing on the ground among the decaying" sticks, dung, &c., bearing upon flocculent mycelium yellow or dull-coloured The exfruits or receptacles (fig. 519). ternal part of the receptacle consists of a more or less globular or ovate peridium.

Cyathus vernicosus.

nearly ripe receptacle, cut open vertically, showing tlie two halves filled with conceijtaclea.

Magnified 3 diameters.

their extremities are expanded into basidia cro\\aied by four spores (fig. 523), which are cylindrical and almost sessile. The filaments being of very unequal length, the

NIDULARIACEl.

542

NITOPHYLLUM.
NiDULAKiNi.
Peridium with many

basidia are intermingled with them in the cavity of the conceptacle, not forming a definitely marked layer.

**

conceptacles.

Fig. 523.

Crucibulum. Perid. at fii'st globose-capiafterwards crucible-shaped, orifice exposing numerous disk-shaped smooth conceptacles, each with a globular process beneath, prolonged into a long, slender funiculus. Cyathus. Perid. at fii'st obovate or fusiform, closed by a veil, then widely open at the mouth, exposing ten to eighteen disk-shaped thick conceptacles, umbilicate beneath, and attached to the walls of the peridium by a compound peduncle. Nidularia. Perid. sessile, subglobose, concepfinally open without evident veil
tate,
;

Cyatlaus striatus.

Basidia and spores from the fertile layer of a conceptacle.

Magnified 2o0 diameters.

Fig. 524.

Fig. 525.
A\,
\\j
I.

numerous, disk-shaped, nestling in gelatinous mucus, without a funiculus. BiBL. Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. i. 41 Sachs, Bat. Schmitz, Linncea, xvi. 141 Zfit. xiii. 823 Pringsheim, Jahrb. ii. 199 ; Eidam, CoJm. Beit. ii. 221. NIPHOB'OLUS, Kaulf.A genus of Polypodiaceous Ferns, with elegantly articulated veins and numerous naked sori at the under surface with tips of free branchlets woolly tomentum. = Poli/podium pt. (Hook.
tacles
;
; ; ;

A subgenus of PhiLike Docophonis, but the trabecuhe absent or rudimentary. On the blackcock, grouse, and pigeon. NITELLA. See Charace^. NITOPHYL'LUM, Greville. genus of Uelesseriaceas (Fiorideous Algae), containing about half-a-dozen British species,
NIR'MUS, Nitzsch.
lopterus.

Syn. 349).

Cyathua
10 diams.

striatus.

Fig. 524. Vertical section of a

young

receptacle.

Magn.

only two of which are commonly met with. Their fronds are membranaceous, of reticulated

Fig. 52.5. Another, more advanced. Magn. 10 diams. Fig. 526. Another, still more advanced. Magn. 5 diams.

(parenchymatous) structure, mostly

Synopsis of British Genera.

*

Carpoholi. Peridium containing only

Perid. simple, cup-shaped,

one conceptacle.
Atractnhuhis.
sessile, closed at first

rosy red, without ribs, or with irregular ribs towards the base. The membranously expanded frond of N. punctata/n (PL 4. fig. 0), 4 to 12" high, is either regularly dichotomously divided or parted into two or three principal lobes, which have a border of

dichotomous wedge-shaped
riim
lias

lobes.

N.

lace-

by an umbonate

lid.

cent, projected

Conceptacle spindle-shaped, simple, iudehiswhen ripe from the bottom of a peridium. Perid. simple, sessile, roundThelehuhis. mciuth entii'e. Conish, urceolate-inflated
;

the frond 2 to 10" high, much dichotomously divided and marked with flexuous veins, the segments mostly linear, waved or fringed at the margins. FructificatidU consisting of spores, tetraspores, and antheridia. 1. Spores sessile on the fronds, arising from tufted filaments contained in coccidia ; 2. tetraspores, forming distinct -3. scattered spots on the frond antheridia, minute cells standing perpendicularly on the surface of the frt)nd, collected into patches, only distinguishable by the help of the
;

ceptacle

globose,

papilliform,

protruded

from the mouth.

Perid. double, eacli layer Spltaroholus. bursting in a stidlato manner, the internal membrane at length turned inside out, and projecting the globular conceptacle elasticaUy.

microscope.

NITRATE OF POTASH.
;

6^3
;

NOCTILUCA.
upon a
slide

RiBL. Ilarvev, 3Iar. Alg. IIG, pi. 15 B Phiic Br. Greville, Ahj. Br. pi. 12 ; Thuret, Aivi. Sc. Nat. 4 6v. iii. 22. NITRATE OF POTASH. See Potash, Nitrate of. NITRIC ACID is useful as a reag-ent, aud for separating the organic matter of the Diatoiuace; from the siliceous valves. NITZSCiriA. genus of Annulata.

parallel lines, beautifully rided

with a diamond.

breadth, and baud are more numerous aud closer than in those of the preceding. In the 20-band plate, R. Beck determined the distances of the lines to be as follows, in fractions of an
inch.

are of equal the lines in each successive

The bands

BiBL.
1855.

Jolinst.

Non-parasitic

Worms,

Band

NITZSCIITA, Denny
genus of Anoplura.

(Liotheum).A

N Bur)neisteri

mon

is the louse of the swift (^Cypselus apus).

com-

BiBL. Denny, Monogr. Anopl. 230. NITZSCII'IA, Hass.A genus of Diatomaoefe. C7iar. Frustules free, single, compressed, usually elongate, straight, arched, or sigmoid, with a longitudinal, not median, external keel (? ), and one or more longitudinal rows of puncta suture in front view of
;

frustides not median.

The valves have no nodules; we have not been able to satisfy ourselves of the presence of the external keel upon the portions of the valves forming the middle of the side \dew of the frustules are one or two
;

longitudinal rows of slightly elongate dots or puncta (PL 17. fig. 10 d), often visible under ordinary illumin. surface of valves covered with smaller dots, mostly opyjosite
;

(not quincuncial) (fig. 10 d), invisible under ordinary illmniuation. The frustules aud valves are either linear, lanceolate, or of intermediate forms, sometimes constricted or beaked.
a, side view; (PI. 17. fig. 9 freshwater. front A"iew) ; length 1-75" N. hniceolata (PI. 17. tig. 10: a, front view of frustule b, front view of single valve ; c, side view of frustule) length 1-150" ; fig. 10 d exhibits the two kinds of markings as seen with the stops. Marine. N. birostrata, Sm. (PI. 17. fig. 11 a, side view; b, front view); length 1-70"; ma-

N. sigmoidea

b,

rine.

N.

acicidaris

(PI.

17. fig. 13 6); length

fig.

1-.300"; freshwater. N. reversa (PL 17.

12)

brackish

water.

N. tcenia (PL 17. fig. 13 a); length 1-250" brackish water. BiBL. Smith, Br. Diat. 37 HassaU,
; ;

Ah/a,

4.35;

Rabenh. Alg.
of parallel

i.

149.

NOBERT'S LINES
These consist

and

Plates.

bauds or groups of

NODOSARIA.
one.

544

NOSTOC.
of the

At
two.

last

a large individual represents

wliicli

NOUOSINEL'LA, Brady. One

the

Swarm-spores,

become

tailed, ciliated,

process, are

and furnished with the toothformed within the conjugated Noctilucse and escape.
It is phosphorescent, rendering the sea

but under the microscope the luminosity does not appear to be uniform, but dependent upon a number of

luminous by night

Arenaceous Foramiiufera, being a Lituoline Fossil in the Carisomoi-ph of Nodosaria. boniferous and Permian rocks. (Brady, Monogr. Curb. For., Pal. Soc. 1876.) NODULA'RIA =Lsmanca. Supposed to produce poisonous effects. (Beale, HozPf

.^c.

N(EMATE'LIA, Fr. A

281.)

genus of Tre-

repeated flashes ; it is increased and chemical agents.

by physical
Nat, 3
&6r.

mellini

(Hymenomycetous Fungi) distinguished by the presence of a central nucleus

distinguished from the gelatinous surrounding substance. N. encephala is common in subalpine countries on larch raUs, looking like a small brain, as the name implies. BiBL. Fr. Ep. 591; Berk. Outl. 290; Cooke, Handb. 350, NOLEL'LA, Gosse. genus of Infundibulate Ctenostcmatoua Polyzoa, of the

BiBL. Quatrefages, Ann.

xiv.
;
;

Se.

Gosse, Nat. Ramb. Ivrohn, IViegman'nJs Archiv, 1852; Huxley, Mici\ Jn. 1855; Brightwell, Ann. N. H. 1850, vi. 305 Pring, Fhil. Mag. 1849 Cienkowski, Schultzes Archiv, 1871 & 1872 Carus, Man. Zool. Webb, Qu. Mc. Jn. iii. Busch, Qu. Mic. Jn. iii. Alhnan, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 326; Kent, Inf. 397. NOBOSA'lilA, Lamk. subgenus of
;

Hyaline

J'oraminifera.

Shell

elongate,

family Vesiculariidae. Distinguished by the erect, subcylindrical cells, crowded on tubes forming an undefined

straight, rounded, conical or cylindrical, with distinct or close-set chambers, smooth,

incrustiug forniiug a bell.

mat tentacles One species

;
:

eighteen,

ridged, or spiued; orifice terminal, mostly

N.

stipitata.
ii,

produced and round (N. raphanus,

29). &c.,

PI. 23. fig.

BiBL. Gosse, Mar. Zool.

21.

It passes by curvature into Dentalina by eccentricity of aperture into Marginulina &c., and by compression into Liu'

NONIONI'NA, D'Orb.A subgenus

Shell
;

of

Hyaline Foraminifera, subordinate to Pohjstomella.

nantiloid,

usually

syma

gulina and Frondicularia. Found in Carboniferous and Permian rocks abundant in the Trias and Lias, and in many strata of later date living in many seas in rather deep water, BrBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien. 38; Williamson, Fee. For. 14 Morris, Cat. Br.
;

metrical transverse

many chambers, opening with

slit

at the base (^N. crassula, PI.

24. fig. 18). By septal modifications it passes into Polystomella {P. striato-2nmctata, and

Foss. 37
iii.

Parker and Jones, A7m. N. H.

3.

P. crispa, PI. 24. figs. 19, 20). Nonioniiia is 'not known for certain in strata older than the Chalk and the Tertiaries. It still abounds in shallow seas of temperate
latitudes.

Carpenter, For. 101. genus NODOSARrNA, P. & J. of Hyaline Fora(strictly a type species)

478

BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Foss. Vien. 109 Parker & Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. v. 102 Car; ;

minifera.

Its chief

subgroups are Nodosaria

which are one in essential characters of structm-e and mode of growth:

and
Cristellaria,

Glandnlina, Lingulina, Dentalina, Rimnlinaj Vaginulina, Margimdina, Flahellina, Frondicularia, and others are subsidiary forms. No line of division can be drawn between tliese approximate allies; for the straight, the curved, and the spiral lose themselves the amount of curvature and in each other of spii-ality, and the greater or less closeness of the chambers and of the whorls being

NORMANDI'NA, Nyl. A genus of Pyrenodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. ThaUus squamose, squamulte thin, rounded apothecia black, immersed. N, Icetcvirens, green, common on damp earth. BiBL. Leighton, Lich. F'lora, 440.
;

penter, For. 286.

NORMANEL'LA, Brady.A

genus of
dubia,

Copepodous Entomostracea. North Sea. (Brady, Copep. ii.

N.
87.)

The style of ornament, into chiefly longitudinal ribbings, passing is the same throughout spines and tubercles, (see PI. 23. figs. 28 to 39).
varying characters.
iii.

NOSTOC, Vaucher.The typical genus of the Nostochacea), distinguished from the allied genera by the definitely formed hardened pellicle or rind enclosing the fronds, which are composed of a gelatinous substance (fig. 527) in which are imbedded
numerous more or less beaded filaments The filaments are composed of (fig. 528).

BiBL. Parlfer and .Jones, Ann. N. 477 Carpenter, Forajn. 159.

;

II. 3.

NOSTOC.
rows of
the
cells (I'l. 8. fig. 7)

545
I

NOSTOC.

length

by

I'epeated

wliicli iucreaso transverse sub-

damp ground, wet rocks, mosses, and free or attached to stones, in fresh water (PI. 8. fig. 7). They are very numerous, and the following only can be
found on
ifcc,

noticed.

* Frond globose or

sifbr/lobose.

Frond globose, filaments equal, deep teruginous green, densely entangled peri-

Nodoc minutissimum.
1-4'"
;

fronr 1-30 to

derm growing brown.

Nostoc commune. Natural size.

division
(a, c)

here

and there are larger

cells
rest,

which appear brighter than the

resembling the iH^sicu/ar cells of the allied The filaments break up after a genera. time into short fragments, which by cellFig. 528.

N. lichenoides. Fronds from the size of a mustard-seed to that of a pea, aggregated filaments equal, and heaped together loosely entangled, ajruginous or olivaceous periderm pellucid, colourless, firm. ft. ve<icariuin\ larger, soft, wit li a fuscous
;
;

distinct periderm, mucous within, sometimes hollow. N. spji(pj-icum. Frond the size of a pea, firm, blackish seruginous or somewhat olivecoloured, soft within filaments pale green,
;

loosely entangled periderm firm, colourless On stones in or fuscescent, subopaque. mountain rivulets. Meneghini states that,
;

Nostoc caeruleum.
Filaments.

Magnified 200 diameters.

when dried and again moistened, it emits a pleasant odour like violets. Hassall thir.ks it probably an immature form of N.fuliaceum. N. ccerideum. Frond from the size of a pea to that of a sloe, soft and slimy, pale a3ruginous blue filaments unequal, loosely
;

division produce new filaments. The pellicle of the frond bursts, allowing the gelatinous mass to escape, and the filaments to

On mosses iu pellucid, soft. flowing water or very moist places. N. pruniforme. Frond the size of a large
colourless,
soft

entwined, joints oblong-elliptical

periderm

spread abroad in the water these consist of short straight;

round plum, deep seruginous green, very and watery within filaments unequal,
; ;

ish pieces, which move slowly along in the direction of their length after a time they cease
;

to

envelope

move, and a new gelatinous is formed around each

bright aeruginous green, loosely entangled, joints subdepressed, dimidiate periderm leathery, crystalline unattached, iu freshwater pools or rivulets.
;

-**

piece like a transparent sheath.

Frond foliaceous,
JV.

irref/ular, or vesicular.

They soon become enlarged

considerably, and then divide in the direction of the length of the filament (fig. 520), which becomes so disintegrated that the filament forms a spiral, by the increase of which Nostoe through further transverse verrucosum. the mass be- Filaments mulcell-division tiplying comes confused, until the deby 8ul)division. velopment of a greater quan- j^^S'^ms tity. or the gelatmous matter makes the filaments more distinct. The Briti.^h species of this genus are

foliaceum.

Frond

terrestrial,

mem;

filabranous, erect, plaited, olive-green ments slender, copious. On clayey ground constantly moistened bv oozing water. N. comnnme (fig. 527, & PI. 8. tig. 7). Frond terrestrial, gelatinous, subcoriaceous, filaments greenish, irregularly plaited
;

nearly equal, tiexuous, colourless or green, loosely entangled, the joints loosely conjoined, distant or geminate, subspherical, depressed, with a central opaque spot
;

periderm hyaline, srowing brown. Gravelly soils, garden walks, rocks, barren pastures, &c. ; very common iu autumn nnd winter.

2n

NOSTOCHACE^.

546

NOTODELPHYS.
;

Frond bladN. verrucosum, Vaucher. der-shaped, softh' leathery, fuscous-green filaments spiral, densely entangled, joints
;

globose

periderm gelatinous, soft, green On stones in streams. or dirty brown. N. van'effafum, Moore. BiBL. The works above quoted Itzigsohn, JBoi. Zeit.xu.52l (1854); Sachs, Bot. Zeit. xiii. 1 (1855) Thuret, Mhn. Societe de C/ierbomy, 1857, An7i. N. 11. 3 ser. ii. 1; Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 295, and Phijc. gen. 204 Fischer, Nostoc. 1853; Hicks, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1861, ii. 90 De Bary, Regensh. Fl. 1863 Rabenh. Alq. ii. 161.
; ;

Cylindrosporum. Heterocysts terminal sporanges like the last. DolicJiospermiim. Heterocysts interstitial sporanges of unequal length, and without definite arrangement. Aphanizomenon. Heterocysts none (?) sporanges usually simple and of unequal
; ;

length,
single or in pairs
:

family of Confervoid AlgfB, forming gelatinous strata or definitely shaped gelatinous balls or masses, on damp ground or floating at the bottom of water; consisting of minute, nnbvanched,
usually moniliform, microscopic filaments, tranquil or oscillating, imbedded in a mass of muciliiginous or tirmish substance (the amorphous matrix is produced by the fusion of the gelatinous sheaths of the individual filaments finally breaking up. filaments) 1. Cells of the filaments of three kinds: ordinary cells 2. vesicular cells or hetero;

NOSTOOHA'CE^. A

interstitial, Heterocysts ; sporanges as in Trichormns. Exotic genus Trichodesmium. BiBL. Ralfs, Ann. N. H. 2 ser. v. 321 Klitz. Tab. Phyc. i. 91 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Kat. 2 s6r. ii. Meneghini, Mem. Turin Acad. ser. 2. v. 1843 AUman, Mic. Jn. 1855; Eabenb. Alq. ii. 161; M-Nab, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 215 Sachs, Bot. 251.
;
; ;

Spermosira.

NOTA'MIA, Flem. A

lariidfB,

genus of GemelCheilostomatous Polyzoa. Char. Cells placed back to back, facing

:

opposite directions ; tobacco-pipe-shaped bird's-heads above each pair. One species K. bnrsaria (PI. 36. fig. 21). An elegant

microscopic object. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 294; Busk, Cat. Pohjz., Brit. 3Ins., 36; Plincks, Polyz.

usually large and without granular matter, frequently with erect hairs 3. spora7u/ia or spot-angial cells, produced by the enlargement of the ordinary cells, globular, Eeproduction by elfiptical or cylindrical. spores has been observed in Cylindrospermum by Thuret, who finds that the spocysts,
;

koTAS'PIS, Plerm. A genus

of Ori-

batea (Acarina). Cephalothorax with lamellar appendages, tarsi with three homodactyle claws. N. bipilis, common in France. (Murray, Ec. Ent. 217 ; Michael, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1880, 177.)

rcmgial cells produce in their interior one thick-coated spore, which, after a season of rest, germinates and breaks out from the sporange to grow into a new cellular fila-

NO'TEUS, Elir. genus of Kotatoria, of the family Brachionsea. Char. Eyes absent, foot forked ( = eyeless

ment.
Synopsis of British Genera.
Nostoc. Phycoma globose or spreading, gelatinous or coriaceous, containing simple, curved, and entangled, moniliform, colourless or greenish filaments, composed of cells imbedded in a gelatinous matrix; heterocysts globose, interstitial, larger than the

Brachionus). N. quadricornis (PI. 44.

fig.

13). Carapace

suborbicular, depressed, scabrous, areola te, with four spines in front and two behind ;

freshwater length 1-10 to 1-70". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 602; Pritch. Infus. -^ '
;

707.

NOTH'RUS, Koch. A genus of Oribatea (Acarina). Cephalothorax without lamellar appendages, tarsi Avith three heterodactyle claws.

other joints.

Monnrmin. Frond a gelatinous, elongate, curled and convolute sheath, enclosing

a single moniliform filament heterocysts sporangia developed from joints irom the vesicular cells. most distant Trichormns. Heterocysts interstitial and
;

covered with

dirt.

N..^mugcr, violet-brown, N. horridus, in moss.

(Murray, Ec. Ent. 219.)

interstitial

Grammitidero
Several

KOfOCHL^'NA, Brown.A

genus of (Polypodiaceous Ferns), species; tropical. (Hook. Syii.

for the

terminal.

Sporanges at

first

formed from

NO'TOCHORD. The new name

Chorda
dorsalis.

the cells most distant fi'om the heterocysts. Heterocysts interstitial ; Sphcerozyga. sporanges from the nearest cells.

NOTODEL'PHYS, Allm.A
Copepodous Entomostraca.

genus of

NOTODROMAS.
y.
asa'dicola (PI.

547

NUCLEUS.
Fig. 530.

19.

fig.

22) resembles

The exCyclops in general appearance. ternal ovnry is a single organ, lying across the back of the abdomen ; eye single ; marine. 3 other species. BiBL. Allman, Ann. N. H. xx. 1 Baird, Br. Enfom. 2;37 Bradv, Copep. i. 141.
; ;

NOTOD'ROMAS, Lilljeborg.An Ostracode related to Candona, among the Ct/pridce. tennae,

It has long set?e on the lower anand two eyes. Its carapace has a flat ventral surface with limiting ridges and with this portion upwards it floats at the top of sunny pools in Europe and the British Isles (iV." monac/ms, Miiller), and in
;

Kotonec'ta glauoa.

Magnitied 3 diameters.

The hind
oars.

Australia {N.fenesfrala, King). BiBL. BradV, Lijin. Tr. xxvi. 379.

legs are very long, and when stretched out resemble and act as a pair of

NOTOGO'NIA, Perty. A

gemis of Eu-

and generally

chlanidota (Rotatoria). Char. Lorica present, dilated posteriorly, with two pointed processes on each side. Eyes two, red; jaws curred, strong, with two or three teeth caudal setae strong
;

their backs, in a slightly inclined position, on the surface of ponds and ditches. They

The Notonectm swim on

descend with great rapidity. They are very voracious, and live on aquatic larvae, Their mouthbiting also very sharply. organs and limbs aiFord interesting micro-

between Confervcs.
gemis of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatinaja. tailChar. Free eye single, cervical lilre foot with two toes rotatory organ simply ciliated. In some the rotatory organ is extended laterally in an ear- or arm-like form.
;
;

BiBL. Perty, Lehensf. 42. NOTOM'MATA, Eiir.

mon

scopic objects. N. glaiica (the water-boatman)

in pools.

is

com-

NOTOPTEROPH'ORUS,
;

Costa.

Ehrenberg describes twenty-three species, some of which are parasitic, N. petromyzon and parasita living within Volvox glohutor^ and N. Wernecldi within the vesicles of Vaucheria and divides them into the sitbLabidodon, jaws each with a genera Ctenodon, jaws each with single tooth ;
:

genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. Two (Bradv, Copep. i. 141.) species marine. NUBECULA'RIA, Befrance.An Imperforate Foraminifer shell bpaqite, often sandy, protean, parasitic on shells and algae ; chambers straight, scale-hke, or cervicorn with imperfect base; at first spiral; aperture
;
;

Fossil in the oval, produced, often lipped. Trias, Oolite, and Tertiaries; common in shallow waters of warm latitudes (N.rugosa, PI. 23. fig. 21).
xvi.

several teeth.

Kotommata granularis
BracMonus.

is

the male of N.

NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS

Animals.

BiBL. Jones & Parker, Q. 456 Carpenter, Eor. 69.

;

J. Geol.

Soc.

of

Many
adapted

of the species are large and well for the study of the internal
(PI. 44. fig. 14 Body attenuate at
; ; ;

NUCLEUS
Plants.
to the central

See Cell,

The

and NUCLEOLUS of term nucleus is applied in

p. 138.

structure.

botany to two very diflerent things

1-5,

first

N. centrura

jaws and
;

each end, foot teeth). small, and hard cephalic auricles short no lateral -setae freshwater; length 1-36".

424; Duj. Inf. G4G Pritchard, Infus.'GSl Hudson, M\ M. Jn.

BiEL. Ehr. Inf.
;

body of the young ovules of Flowering plants, and secondly to a peculiar structure met with in the interior of The first will be described under the cells. head of Ovule the cell-nucleus and nu;

cleolus are treated of in the article

Vegetable.

Cell,

1875.

IsOTOXEC'TA, L. A
insects.

genus of aquatic

Hemipterous

The insects belonging to this genus have the posterior part, the elytra membranous and the body is more or less boat-shaped.

Few parts of the minute organization of plants are more obscure than the structure and ftmction of nuclei some authors re:

gard them as of the highest physiological importance others consider their import
;

2n2

NUCLEUS.
altogetlier

548

NUCLEUS.
Here the nuclei appear
granular,
or
as

unknown. The nucleus may be observed most easily in the pareuebymatous cells of the herbaceous structures and flowers
of Monocotyledons (PI. 46. fig. 28/>), or in the young cells of the hairs of Flowering plants generally (PI. 47. figs. 8, 9b), or in the embryo-sacs of ovules (PI. 47. tigs. 4-6) in such cases the characters are well defined and luimistakable. It consists of a lenti;

Flowering plants.
first

globular,

lenticular

cular

body formed of more or less granular protoplasm, with one or more well- or illdefined bright points or cavities (nucleoli) in the interior. Wherever it appears throughout the higher plants, it seems to possess the same characters but it ma}' be absent in the cells of many Algse, Lichens, and
;

masses, which become gradually defined in the substance of a collection of protoplasm accumulated at the upper end of the cell This is a spontaneous (PI. 47. tigs. 1-4). isolation of a portion of the protojilasm to become the foundation of a new cell. may compare this with the segmentation of the entire mass of contents of the cells of Confervae in the formation of Zoospobes,

We

which
first

Fungi.
nuclei are found attached to the side of cells, or forming the centre of radiating protoplasmic filaments (PI. 47.
(

)rilinarily

fig. 1))

sometimes, however, the nucleus is suspended in the middle of the cavity of the cell by filamentous processes of protoplasm ; in all such cases it forms a kind of
:

perhaps be regarded as at In cells multiplying by division, a division of existing nuclei has been observed to take place in certain cases, as in the hairs of Traclcscantia (PI. 47. figs. 8 & 9) but in other .similar cases of division no nuclei are observed (PI. 47. tigs. 10 k 11). In Tradcscan/iUfihe oval parent nucleus fills up the end of the growing cell, so that the division of tlie nucleus is almost synonymous

may

free nuclei.

where

centre for the circulation of the protoplasm this exhibits movement (Rotation), find it is itself carried about to a certain extent by the currents. The nucleoli (PI. 47. fig. 8 ) of the.se larger nuclei are apparently usually more or less solid granules of a transparent substance,

with the division of the primordial utricle. But in this case, as in the development oi cells from free nuclei, as indicated in the germinal vesicles, the cell-membrane in expanding draws away from the nucleus,

which remains adherent

to or suspended in connexion with a layer of protoplasm lining the cell-wall and forming its primordial In Spirogyra and Zi/f/nema, a utricle. division of the free suspended nucleus pre-

but sometimes they appear more like minute

cavities.

cedes the division of the large primordial

utricle.

nuclei and nucleoli of the lower plants are exceedingly obscure in a great many cases the so-called nuclei are little different from the nucleoli of the larger forms, occupying to the entire cell-contents the same relation as the nucleoli to large nuclei, for example, in the spores of Lichens In the lower (PI. 37. fig. 7), Fungi, itc.
;

The

Confervoid Algse the nucleus (or nucleolus) appears to be represented by the entire cellcontents (PI. 7), in which one or more wellnucleoli

defined granules often occur, representing in certain stages, however, a larger granule is met with, coloiu'ed by chloroas a nuclevis ; phyll, which some regard this disappears totally at particulnr epochs, and is replaced by starch-granules or oilThe bright-coloured point, or globules. " eye-spot," seen very generally in the Zoo;

Mohl describes a division of nuclei as occurring in Anthoceros and most authors who have written on the development of pollen and spores lay great stress on the influence of the nuclei, which they describe; but the import of nuclei in vegetable cells Some believe is certainly still a problem. they are the universal agents of production of new cells; others that they are not the agents of this in any case, but, when pi-esent, may be divided with the cells. Others imagine "that they are merely the original " mould of protoplasm on which the cellulose membrane of the nascent cell is deposited, and which is left unaltered when
;

expands (the phenomena in Spirogyra Some of those who are opposed to this). deny their influence in cell-development believe them to be the vital centres of the
this
cells in

of Confervoids and Fucoids, represent a nucleolus. Nuclei originate in two ways. The simplest mode is found where they precede freecell formation, as in the development of the germinal vesicles in the embryo-sacs of

SPOEES both

which they

exist.

may

are best seen in very young cells in all cases ; in nascent tissues they almost or

They

As quite fill the cavit\" of the young cells. the cells grow older, their histoiy difl^ers in
dillerent
cases.

Sometimes they

persist

NUMxMULINA.
until the
exist.

5i9'

ODDNTELLA.

decay of the organ in which they This luippens very generally in the

cells of the ilowers, stems, Sec. of

;

Monoco-

threads of sarcode through the denser parts of the shell, which, indeed, in some Polysfomelhe. and Calcarince app;'ar to be secreted

tyledons not unfrequeutly, in stems and leaves they become converted into starch or chlorophvll granules. In other cases they have a more definite purpose for in the vesicles in which are formed the spermatozoiDs of Ferns, Mosses, Hepaticas, Characeoe, Sec, these structures appear to be produced by a metamorphosis of the nuclei. In examining supposed nuclei of plants, especially those of lower cellular organization, tincture of iodine should always be
;

thereby (Supplementary Skeleton). Numniulina is rare in the Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, but very common in the Lower Tertiary strata living in the North, Red, and Australian seas, but small
;

{N. rndiata, PI. 24. fig. 21). BiBL. D' Archiac et Haime, An.foss.
;

Num.

applied, to distinguish starch-granules Sec.

from true nuclei, which are always coloured deep yellow or brownish by that reagent, besides being coagulated, contracted, and thcrebv rendered more distinct. BiBL. R. Brown, Phil. Mag. Dec, 1831 Nageli, Zeit. wiss. Bot. (Ray Soc. 1845 & 1849); Mohl, P/lanzenzelle, 36, 51; Hofmeister, Entsteh. d. Embryo, 1840, 7; Braun,
;

Inde, 1853; Carter, Ann. N. H. ser. 2. xi, 161, ser. 3. viii. 320, 366 Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. ser. 3. v. 106, viii. p. 229 Carpenter, Foram, 202, Microscope, 1858, 510 ; Bradv, Ann. N. 11. ser. 4. xiii. 222. NYCTOTHE'RUS, Leidy. genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria, very near Plagiofoma. 4 species in the intestines of Amphibia and Invertebrata. (Kent, Inf. 579.)
;

NYMPH^EACE.E.
OAT, Amna

See Haibs

(p.

379).

O.
sativa (Nat.

Verjimgting {Ray Soc. 1853, 175); Sachs, Bot. 45; Strassburger, Zp//e/;ij7r/(/, 1880.

nacepe.

Flowering Plants).

GramiOrder form of The

;

NUMMULI'NA,

D'Orb.

A Hyaline Fo-

NUMMULI'TES,Lamk. raminifer of the highest class. Shell lenticular, varying in convexity and in size (from less than -g-g to 2^ inches in diameter), composed of several, overlapping, uniform, whorls of numerous > -shaped chambers in a discoid These are prolonged towards the spire. umbo of each face, thus forming Alar Lobes, either straight (in the Radiatce), or sinuous (Sinuafcs), or inosculating (RetiThe alse are abortive or absent, culattB). and the spire therefore exposed, in Assi/ina and Opercidina, unequal and modified in
(

the starch-corpuscles of the oat is very unlike that of the other common corn-plants they consist of numerous small polygonal in roundish or oval grains grouped together masses (PI. 46. fig. 10). See Starch.

OBE'lAX = Laomedea

pt.

OBISIDA.

See Arachnida.

OBJECT-GLASS, or Objective. See L\TRODucTioN, p. xvi. & Angflar Aperture, p. 47. OCEL'LI. The simple eyes or eye-spots

of the Invertebrata the classes.

they are noticed under

OCHLOCH.ETE, Thwaites.-A

genus

Amphistegina.

The chambers communicate

slit

by a transverse

at

the

base

of

the

septum, with smaller occasional holes. The outer chamber-walls (Spiral Lamina) are thin in the latest, but in the older chambers thickened by successive layers of the

of Chaetophoraceae. O. hystrix, on grasses in freshwater and brackish ditches. OCHROPTERIS, Sm. genus of Pteridefe (Polypodiaceous Ferns). O. jicd-

Over the septa of the median plane (PL 24. fig. 22), and where the alar septa cross and touch, the tubuli being obsolete, the shell becomes translucent (Pillars) at the outer margin (Marginal Cord) also of the whorls the layers of shell become translucent, and are
delicate tubuliferous shell.
;

traversed by radiating and inosculating tubes, continuous with canals passing between the two shell-layers of each septum and with the canals (Interseptal Canals), This in the margin of the inner whorls.

which subdivide into a cluster of eight cells. This genus of ODONTELLA, Ag.

(Hook. Syn. 127.) genus of Gasteromycetous Fungi (section Hypogaei) distinguished by the sterile base of the continuous or cracked peridium the easily divisible byssoid frames and the fruitbearing cavities at first empty, then covered with the rough spores. BiBL. Tul. Fung. Hyp. t. ii. f. 1 Berk. Outl. 292 Cooke, Handb. 355. OCTOSPORES. Sporangia of Fucacese,

lens; Mauritius"^

OCTAVIA'NA, Tul.A

Canal-system carries

spiral

and branching

Dlatomacese is united with Biddxtlphia, Biddulphia (Odontella) aurita undergoing spontaneous division, PI. 19. fig. 9.

ODONTHALIA.

550

CEDOGONIUM.
;

ODONTHA'LIA, Lyngb. A genus of Hhodomelacete (Florideous Algas) coutaining one British species, O. dentuta (PI. 4. fig. 13), which has an irregularly bipinnatitid frond, 3 to 12" long, the main axis and coluur deep lobes 1-4" wide throughout wdne-red, darker when dried. Frond with
;

the bottom of a fixed cylindrical carapace eyes two, frontal, red, disappearing in ad-

vanced age.
O. cnjstallinus (PI. 44. fig. 16). Carapace hyaline, viscid, covered with foreign bodies; freshwater; entire length 1-36". Jaws each with three teeth. BiBL. Ehr. J/if. 392; Prit chard. Inf.; Davis, Mic. Tr. 1866, 14; Hudson, Jn. M. Soc. 1881, 1.

marginal, stalked, ostiolate, ovate ceramidia with spores, lanceolate stichidia, in which are contained two rows of ternate tetraspores,

and antheridia. BiBL. Harv. Alg. 77, pi. 11 A; Phyc. Br. pi. 34 Greville, Aly. Br. pi. 13, Kiitz. Fhijc.
;

generalis, 448.

ODONTIDIUM, Kutz. genus of Diatomacete. Char. Frustules quadrangular, united into an elongated biconvex filament linear in
;

(ECIS'TINA, Ehr. family of Rotatoria (small Melicertcc, probably). Animals single or aggregate, atChar. tached to the bottom of a gelatinous carapace rotatory organ single, with an entire margin.
;

A distinct carapace for

each animal. Carapaces ajjgregated into a sphere...

. .

(Ecistes.

2.

Conochilus.

front view; valves elliptical with transverse

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 391.

continuous

striae.

Freshwater and marine.

Diifers fi-om Denticida in the elongated filament, which sometimes, however, consists of only three or four frustules O. tunjidulum (PI. 17. tig. 14: a, front
!

(EDE'iVnUM, Fr. -A genus of Dematiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi). CE. a<;-7, Corda, consists of dense tufts of brown erect fibres, scarcely branched, and " without true septa. The roundish " spores are sessile upon the
sides of the erect filaments.

view

Valves lanceolate, on each valve six freshwater; length of frustules 1-1720 to 1-570".
;

6,
;

side view).

obtusish

striae

O. tahellaria,Suiith Ehr. (PL 50. tig. 38).

= Staurosira construens,
; ;

pi.

BiBL. Kiitz. BacUl. p. 44 Sp.Alg. p. 12 ; Smith, Brit. Died. ii. 15 Rabenh. Fl. Eur.
Alq.
i.

BiBL. Corda, Sturm's Deutschl. Fl. 6, 9 Fries, Si/si. Mj/c. 344 Berkeley and Broome, Ann. X. H. 2 ser. vi. 466. (EDIPODIUM, Schwagr.A genus of Splachnaceaj (Acrocarpous Mo.sses), sometimes included under Gymnostvmum. (Edi;

116.

ODOXTODIS'CUS, Ehr.A

Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules single, lenticular valves circular, alike, without nodules, covered
;

genus of See Coscikodiscus.

jjodium Grijfitliianum, Schwag., the only species, is remarkable for the peculiarly thickened fruit-stalk, whence the name of the genus is derived.

(EDOGONIACE^. A

family of

fila-

with dots arranged either in radiating rows or in excentrically curved lines, and with Three species; fossil erect marginal teeth. and in guano.
O. eccentricus (PI. 18.
fig.

52).

BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl.Ak. 1844, 73; Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 129; Piitchard, Infus.

mentous Confervoid Algae, remarkable for the filaments growing by a peculiar mode of cell-division, accompanied by circumscissile dehiscence of the parent cell, and by the zoo.spores being formed from the whole contents and bearing a crown of numerous cilia.

ODON'TOPHORE. A new name

Two

for
is

the tongue of the Mollusca; and Radula another.

ODONTOTRE'MA, Nyl.A

genus of

Filaments unbranched. Filaments branched and bearing bristle-cells with a bulbous base. BiBL. See the genera.
(EDOGO'NIUM,Link.(P;-o/i/e;-,Leclerc,
Veaiculifera, Hass.). genus of Qidogoniaceaa (Confervoid Algae). Some QlLdoyc-

genera CEdoyonium. Bulbochate.

:

Lecideinei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Tliallus indistinct. Char. Apothecia black, thelotremoideo-lecideine or gymnotremoid, naked, at first closed, then dehiscing with a denticulato-ruptured proper margin. O. loiifjias, Nyl. Ou old rails. BiBL. Leighton, Lich. Flora, 389. (ECIS'TES, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family QEcistina. Char. Single; rotatory organ single, with an entire margin; body attached to

nia aie among the commonest and most abundant of freshwater Algie, occiu'iing in every pond, ditch, or stream, and quickly

making their appearance in tanks, aquaria, &c. They may generally be recognized at a glance by the dense and uniform green
protoplasm,

sometimes filling the cells, sometimes (after dividing) leaving half of the

(EDOGONIUM,
cell colourless

551

CEDOGONIUM.

aud devoid of chlorophyll above all, by the aimular stride occurring at the euds of 'many of the cells (PI. 9. fig. 7 b, The cells have each a large parietal h). nucleus (fig. 7 a). The large round interstitial sporangial cell (fig. 7^) is also a very
distiuctive character.

solve very quickly in the water. The zoospores are large, somewhat ovate in form, with a transparent region at one end, whence

the numerous

cilia arise.

When

expelled,

The
;

filaments are at-

to stones, plants, &c. by root-like processes and are composed of rows of cylindrical cells, which multiply

tached,

when young,
in

a very curious manner. about to divide, an annular deposit of cellulose occurs around the upper part of the parent cell. Next the wall of the parent cell breaks, by a circumscissile dehiscence, just below the cellulose ring.
interstitially a cell is

When

internal cell elongates aud removes the margins of the circular slits from each other, the upper piece of the parent-cell wall being pushed up as a kind of cap on the elongating

The

While the cell is thus being elongated, primordial utricle becomes divided below the line of dehiscence of the parent cell but both the new portions grow, so that the line of division between the two new cells at length rises above the margin of the lower part of the parent cell. The annidar deposit of gelatinous cellulose has meanwhile become stretched or developed over the space left by the separation of the halves of the parent membrane, forming an outer After the growth of coat to the new cell. the lower cell is finished, the upper one
cell. its
;

they move for a time, and then come to rest, attaching themselves to foreign objects by the ciliated end, acquiring a membrane, sending out root-like processes below {e), and elongating and expanding above into a Sometimes the longish pear-shaped body. zoospores do not completely extricate themselves from the parent cell, and then germinate in this way in situ, the root-like processes remaining engaged in the parent cell. Very often they attach themselves upon the parent filament to germinate. The next stage after germination presents two difTerent classes of phenomena in the one case, as a purely vegetative zoospore, the young plant elongates gradually into a jointed filament by extension and celldivision in the other it is an androspore, and becomes an antheridial filament.
:

begins to elongate, until it attains equal length it remains poor in protoplasm and chlorophyll while growing, but becomes densely tilled when it has attained its full dimensions. The margins or broken ends of the parent-cell wall form the annular striae seen on the filaments (PL 9. fig. 7 b, (/, h) at first there is only one at the top of any takes given cell; but the next dehiscence a place just below this, giving rise to second,
; :

and so on, until many successive rings are produced at one spot.

The zoospores or ciliated gonidia (fig. 7 c) are formed from the entire contents of a
cell,
t'.iey

(Edoyonia produce large resting(oospores or oogonia), which are formed from the entire contents of the uppermost of two cells developed as above described. rupture of the parent-cell wall takes place at the side during the through the development of the spores small orifice thus formed the spore-mass becomes fertilized through the agency of the little globular bodies produced in the autheridia (PL 5. figs. 5, 16, 17). Ultimately the spore, while increasing in size, retracts itself from the walls of its parent cell {oor/oniuiii), and lies free in the cavity, presenting a double coat, the outer of which its contents acquire a is thick and tough red colour as it ripens. The parent cell of the spore mostly acquires a globular or elliptical form, and a red or brown colour, appearing like a kind of nodule on the filament and the ripe spore, of globular elli|Dtical, or depressed spherical form, is mostly of greater diameter than the ordinary cells
spores

The

(PL

5. fig. 21).

The

ripe spore,

which

is

and exhibit a large round nucleus; escape by a circumscissile dehiscence

:

of the wall of the parent cell (6)

;

the

fila-

ment, however, does not generally become quite broken in two the portions remain
attached by a strip of the side-wall forming a kind of hinge and the zoospores are not set free directly, but at first are enclosed in a very delicate and almost imperceptible globular envelope, colorable blue by iodine
;

and sulphuric

acid,

which appears

to dis-

quadruple, escapes by the decomposition or dehiscence of the parent cell, and is covered Each of the with a hyaline membrane. four spores is likewise surrounded by its After a short time has ceU-membrane. elapsed, the hyaline membrane disappears, and the four spores lie still and motionless. Then a change sets in the cell-membrane of each spore bursts by means of an annular Soon slit, and a part separates like a lid. the cell-contents leave the ceU in the form
:

(EDOGONIUM.

552

CEDOGONIUM.
tumiduhtm.

of a zoospore, which moves with the aid of a crown of cilia. Alter a time the motion ceases, the cilia disappear, and one end of the zoospore becomes elongated into a root The little cell like the ordinary zoos]wres. thus fixed becomes di\ided bj a transverse Each spore thus produces four septum.

(E.
in
fillinof

Sporange ovate,
spore

orifice

the

upper

half;

the sporange. 2-ceUed.

not Antheridia mostly

globular,

XX Gynandrospurous.
CE.
sessile

Rothii.

Dwarf male

plant straight,

CEdof/onmm plants.

The antheridial structures of the CEdogonia are either formed in the ordinary filaments (PI. 5. fig. 13), or from dv\ arf filaments produced from the smaller zoospores
In either or androspores (PI. 5. fig. 10). case they consist of one or more very short joints of the filament, formed in the ordinary way, the contents of which divide into two portions. The cells then dehisce and allow the new products to escape, which resemble the vegetative zoospores, but are much smaller. These new bodies, the spermatozoids, make their way through the orifices in the parent cells of the spores and fertilize their contents (PL o. fig. 20). Some of the larger spermatozoids move
like

on the sporange, without a spreading base. Sporange ovate, expanded in the middle orifice in the middle line spores deprssed, filling the inflated part of the
; ;

sporange. GL. depressum. Male plant straight, sessile on the sporange, with a foot and internal 1-celled antheridia. Sporange depressed, orifice in the middle line spores of the form of the spoi-ange. not filling it. CE. Braunii. Male plant curved, with a
;

foot

and
filling

1-celled antheridium.

Sporange

oval, iuflated in the

middle

spore globular,

not

the sporange.

CE. ecliinospermnnt. Male plant almost straight, sessile on the cell below the

until

Amahce, creeping over the oospore, they I'each the canal, into which

sporange, with foot and outer 1-celled antheridium. Sporange oval, orifice in the lower half: spore globular, spinous. Spores oval. t Sporanges opening by a circular
X

they enter. The Qidogonia appear to be sometimes purely monoecious or dioecious, the single filaments including eitlier both antheridial and spore-cells, or only one kind of organ bat the most common condition is intermediate the filaments having some joints converted into sporangial cells, others
;
:

**

lid.

Gynandrosjjorous,

Male curved, sessile on the with foot and outer 1-celled sporangium. Spores oval, filling the broken
CE. ciliafinn.

sporange,

giving birth

to

the androspores,

which

portion of the sporange.

germinate into dwarf antheridial filaments, often sessile on or near the sporanges, which produce spermatozoids. This condition is termed bj' Pringsheim gynandroSj}07'OUS.

tt Sjwranges opening by n
X

lateral orifce.

Ciynandrosporous.

The
species

systematic
is

difficult

arrangement of the on account of the variPrings-

apophysatvm. Male plant curvid, below the sporange, and outer 2ranked antheridium. Sporange oval, orifice
CE.
sessile

in the

ability in the size of the filaments.

heim makes the following arrangement: *

Spores globular. t Sporanges opening by a valvular
rostellatum.
lid.

up

upper half; spore filling the sporange to the cap-like part.

XX Dioecious.

CE.

Sporange

oval,

spore

globular, not filling the sporange, theridia 3- or 4-celled. Monoecious.

An-

tt Sporanges opening by a lateral

\ Monoccions.

orifice.

(E. curvum. Sporanges depressed, orifice

in
filling

the middle line spores completely the sporanges, and of the same form. Antheridia 3- and 4-celled.
;

Male plants more slender than the female anthei'idia monvrowed septa of the parent cells perpendicular to the other cell-septa. Sporange oval, orifice in the upper half, the spore filling it completely to the cap-portion. Filaments ending in seA'eral almost hyaline elongated cells, without a terminal bristle. BiBL. Mohl, Bot. Ze.it. xiii. 689 De Bary, Soc. Sc. Nat. Fribotire/, 1856 Carter, Ann. N. II. 3 ser. i. 29 Ilassall,'^/^. 195 Eraun,
CE.

gomellipariuni.

Alg.; Eabenh. Alg. iii. 347; Juranyi, Pringshei7ns Jahrb. 1873 ; PringsKiitz.

Sp.

OIDIUM.
lieiiii,

553

ONCOBRYSA.

Jahrb.

s^r. V.

262

1 i. De Bary, A7in. Sc. N. 4 Sachs, Bot. 281.

;

OIL.

Oils

of various kinds

are

most

OID'IUM, Link Acrosporium ?ir\A.

(

tru'/nim, Greville

Torula, Corda).

Spoi-o A sup-

abundantly produced by a very large number of plants, and occur to some extent in almost all. For the microscopist, it is convenient to divide them into
essciitial

Erysiphe or some allied plant ; the particulars of its history are given more at length under Vixe-Fungus. Oidi'mn lacfis seems also referable to Torula, or to the mycelium of PENiciLLitTM, O. abort if(icims , O. Lk., is an imperfect state of Cla^iceps albicavs, Robin, the fungus of Aphtha, is probably referable to some other genus when mature, as Achorion should perhaps also be included under Penicillium. The objects described as Oidia consist of delicate horizontal filaments, creeping over leaves, fruits, or decaying vegetable and animal substances (O. lactis at the edges of sour milk, O. albicans in the mouth of the hu;

posed geuus of Mucedines (Hj^phomycetous Fungi), but very probably consisting of imperfect conditions of plants of more complex nature. The Oidia have recently attracted great attention on account of the extraordinary development of the form called Oidiuin Tuckeri on the vines of Europe and the Atlantia islands. This, however, like O. leticoconiion and others, appears to be only the conidiiferous mycelium of an

and

fixed
tions,

oils.

The former

are special secre-

and occur in the cells of the Glands and Glandular Hairs of the epidermis of those parts of plants exposed to the air and Fixed oils are found principally in light.
the cells of tissues stiU physiologically active in the nutrition of the plants, and they appear in many cases to have a close relation with and to form substitutes for starch. Thus fixed oils occur stored up in the cells of the perisperms or of the cotyledons of certain seeds in which little or no starch is produced, as in the Papaveracecs,
Cruciferce, Liniim, the almond, nut, &c. Oil may occur also in the pulp of fruits, as in the olive.

Spores

of Cryptogamic plants and

tlie oil

Polthey

LEN-grains are remarkable for

man subject), forming an interlaced fleecy coat, the horizontal filaments giving origin to numerous erect, usually short, articulated pedicels, the uppermost cells of which (or several of the uppermost) expand into oval bodies (conidia) which become disarticulated, and, falling

exhibit in their mature condition. It appears to serve as an indifferent or inert form of assimilated nutriment. Oil occurs in the cavity of cells in the form of minute drops, which may be distinguished mostly, by the experienced mi-

but it is croscopist, by simple inspection often desirable to prove the nature of the
;

globules, which may be done by removing them with benzole, or, in the case of pollen, by viewing them in spirit of turpentine or
oil

of lemon.

upon the matrix,

germinate and produce new filaments (PI. 26. 8-11 ). figs.

Oiditim leucoconimn, Tuckeri, erysiplioides are white O. aureum,fiilTvm,fructigen%im, and others subsequently become coloured, and these certainly belong to a different
;

categorv.

BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl.

ii.

pt. 2.

349

Ann. N. H.
xiii.
; ;

of Copepodous Entomostraca. O. spiiiiferus marine. (Bradv, Copep., Pai/ Soc. i. 90.) OLEAN'DRA, 'Cav.-A geuus of As6 species j pidieae (Polypodiaceous Ferns). (Hook. Sijn. 302.) tropical. OLTGOCLASE. See Rocks. OLPIDTUM, Braun. Like Chytridium, but without operculum or rootlet, elongated
;

OI'THONA, Baird. A genus

463 Vet/. 494 23, ii. 76 109; Grev., Crj/pt. i^/.pl.73; Puibin, Vcr/et. Par. 2nd ed. 488 and the Bibl. of Vine;

263, vi. 438, 2 ser. vii. 178, Crypt. Bot. 300, 308; Fries, Smn. Fresenius, Beitr. z. Mycol. H. i. Leveille, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. xv.
i.
;

epi- or entophytic, O. simidans, in the living leaves of the dandelion. ( Rabeuhorst, Air/, iii. 282.)
;

into a cylindrical tube

on freshwater Algje

OMPHALOPEL'TA, Ehr.A
O. areolata (PI. 18.
fig.

fossil

genus of Diatomaceoe which agrees with Acti53).

FUNGTTS.

OIKOM'ONAS, Kt. A
late Infusoria.

noptyclins.

genus of FlagelExceedingly minute, ovate,

;

flagellum single

a thread-like process pro-

truded at will from the posterior part of the body, serving for attacliment. Six
species; in infusions, fresh(Kent, Inf. 250).

Bibl. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844, 263; Kiitz. Sp. Aly. 132; Grev. Mic. Tr. 1866,
122.
Kiitz.).

and salt-water.

{Hydrococcus, genus of Palmellacere. Fronds minute, hardish cells in rows, the super;

ONCOBRY'SA, Agardh

ONCOSPHENIA.
ficiiil

554

OOGONIUM.
Fig. 531.

ones crowded, forming a cortical layer. 3 species, brownish-green or purplish on submersed wood and mosses. (Rabenh.
;

Fig. 532.

Alq.

ii.

67.)

ONCOSPHE'NIA, Ehr. A

genus

of

Diatomacese.
O. carpathica. Valves laxly striated, one end turgid, rounded, and straight the other attenuate and uncinate freshwater diam.
;

1-790".

BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Bed. Ak. 1845, 72; Rabenh. Alg. i. 296. Kutz. Sp. Alff. 11
:

(Flowering Plants, Nat. Ord. Liliacefe). The young bulb of the onion offers a very good and cheap subject for the investigation of the development of spiral vessels, to those who do not object to other bulbs will do equally well. its odour In the cells of the base of the bulb occur
;

ONIOX, Allium Cepa

Fig.

5.33.

Fig. 534.

very elegant groups of prismatic crystals

(see

ONOCLEA, Sw.A

Raphides).

genus of Dick-

Sori dorsal, globose, on the veins of changed contracted pinnae of the fertile fronds, and concealed by their revolute margins. 3 species; cold or temperate climates. (Hook. Si/ii. 45.) of ONYCH'IUM, Kaulf. genus Four Pterideae (Polypodiaceous Ferns).
sonieoe (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

species

(Hook. Si/7i. 143.) Stein. A genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria. Like Stylonichia, but the ventral styles linear, and the caudal
;

tropical.

ONYCHODROMUS,
absent.

.^^j^m^
Onygena
corviua.
Fig. 531. Plants on a featht-r. Nat. size. Fig. 532. Single plant with the perithecium dehiscing. Maga. 10 diams. Fig. 533. Portion of the sporiferous layer, with asci.

setae

O.

grandis;

freshwater.

ONYGE'NEl. family of Ascomycetous Fungi, containing a few inconspicuous plants growing upon the feathers of dead The birds, or upon cast-oif hoofs and horns.
flocculent spreading mycelium usually produces on its surface little white stalk-hke

(Kent, Lif. 766.)

Magn. 350 diams.

Fig. 53-1. Asci detached. Magn. 700 diams. Fig. 535. Spores. Mag. 700 diams.

British Genus.

bodies crowned by a globular perithecium. At first erect and thick, these supports become more slender as they elongate, and seem to bend under the weight of the light perithecium (fig. 531). In some species the

Omjgena. Perithecium capitate, at length round the base, and falling off as an imperforate cap. Asci borne at the free ends of filaments forming an entangled mass in the perithecium, finally free and pulveraslit

ceous.

perithecium is sessile. The perithecium is filled with branching filaments, arising from the walls of its internal cavity, interlacing together and bearing at their free extremiglobular cells (asci) containing the spores (figs. 533, 535). At the epoch of maturity the perithecium, originally closed, bursts circularly towards the b.ase, the upper part becoming detached under the form of a more or less regular cap (fig. 632), exposing the spores set free by a solution of the
ties

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 322; Anyt. N. H. vi. 432, 2nd ser. vii. 184; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. i. 367, pi. 17 Greville, Crypt- Fl. pi. 343 Cooke, Hando. 641.
;

OOC AR'DIUM, K(^g., = Inomerin.

OOCYS'TIS, Nag. Agenus
Algae,

of Palmel-

laceous

probably

identical
iii.

with

Nephrocyfimn. BiBL. Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Aly.

OOGO'NIUM. A term

52.

filaments.

to signify the parent cell spore.

sometimes used of a true female

OOLITE,

555

OPERCULINA.

OOLITE, or hoestone, is the substance of oolitic rocks, aud consists of carbonate of lime, partly crystallized, partly granular; the granules usually include organic remains, It consists of two as broken shell, &c. the matrix, is parts, one of which, forming mostly colourless, often crystalline, and exhibits a number of round or oval cavities, each of which contains a nodular granule The nodides are of a corresponding form.
sometimes coloured, rarely hollow, and often exhibit concentric rings like those of calcidi, and indicative of the successive Sometimes a Foramideposition of layers. or nifer, but more often an organic fragment, grain of sand, forms the nucleus of the
grain.

They are microstages of higher animals. scopic, oval or oblong, colourless, covered with vibratile cilia arranged in regular rows. Some contain a nucleus, and exhibit coabut they do not admit colouring-matters, nor have they a mouth. In one form an adhesive suctorial disk has been observed, and in another a hookapparatus, probably serving the same end. They are parasitic vvithiu the bodies, usually the intestinal canal, of earth-worms, frogs, Planari<s, Naides, beneath the gill-plates of Gammarus, &c. O. (Bursuria, F.) ranarum, is figured in
tractile vesicles
;

PL

31.

fig.

47.

BiBL.
vibr.
;

Purkinje and Valentin,

;

De
; ;

Schultze, Turhell.

Stein, Inf.

mot, Cla-

Polished sections of oolite form interesting objects; aud where the nodules are coloured and the matrix colourless, as in oolite from Bristol, in which the former are red, the beauty of the appearance is increased.

See Rocks.
Berk, and Br. A genus of Fungi), (Ascomycetous Pyrenomycetes founded on a minute plant growing upon

Lanparede et Lachmann, Etudes, 373 kester, Qu. M. Jn. 1870, 143; Kent, Inf. 558. OPEG'RAPHA, Ach. genus of Graphidese (Lichenaceous Lichens), gi'owing on bark of trees, stones, &c. Besides their linear lirellce., the fronds bear spermogonia, in O. varia and O. calcarea forming black

OOMY'CES,

O. carneo-allus, of grasses. {Sphceria carneo-alha, Libert) has pale, flesh-coloured, tough receptacles 1-18" high, marked with the ostioles of 3-7 perithecia

the leaves

spots on the surface, communicating with little unilocular cavities lined with short linear sterigmata bearing numerous spermatia. Several species. BiBL. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 147 Tulasne,
;

closely packed within it, bearing resemblance to the eggs of some insects. BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. Nat, Hist.

ser. vii. p. ISo.

is

OOSPORE.A

Nat. 3 ser. xvii. 207 Leighton, Lich. Flora, 395. OPERCUL AREL'LA Hincks, = Campanidaria pt. (Hincks, Hyd. Zooph. 193.) OPERCULA'RIA, Goldfuss. doubtful genus of Vorticellina, now included in
Set.
;
,

Ann.

term used to indicate a

;

Epistylis.

impregnated before germinaand also applied to tion, as in CEdoffoniiwi the larger form of spore in Selagi^jella and IsoETES. OPAL. A siUceous mineral. There are

spore which

O. articnlata, E. Found adherent to Hydropldlus piceus and F)ytiscus maryinalis. PI. 32. fig. 25. O. lerberina, St. Found upon Noterus
crassicornis, a water-beetle.

many
is

varieties,

thin

sections

of

which

present interesting objects for the microscope and microspectroscope. Wood opal
petrified w ith hydrated silica, It exhibits in light and not very hard. Other some places vegetable structure. opals contain the remains of substances which may be of vegetable origin, or of

Other species, on Entomostraca, &c. BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 286 Stein, Lifus.
;

Clapai ede et Lachmann, Etudes, 111; Kent,

Inf. 710.

wood

and

is

OPERCULI'NA, D'Orb.A Nummuline

Shell
spire
flat,

Foraminifer.

discoidal,

many-

minerals which simulate such organisms. BiEE. Dana, Mineral. Slack, 31. Mic. Jn. 1873, 105 Zirkel, Mineral. &c. 112.
;
;

See Agate.

OPALI'NA, Purk. and Val. The animals comprised under this title were forbut later remerly regarded as Infusoria searches tend to show that many are imperfectly developed forms or intermediate
;

and whorls exposed, The shellrapidly increasing in width. structure of O. arabica, Carter, is described at p. 330 (PI. 24. figs. 23-26), Rare in the Chalk, and abundant in many Tertiaiy beds. Large and plentiful in the East-Indian and South seas; common, but small, in the northern seas.
;

chambered

BiBL. Williamson,

Tr. 3Iicr. S.

ii.

159
2.

(" Nonionina''); Carter, Ann. N. 101, 3. viii. 311; Carpenter, Phil.

H.

x.

Tr.lSoQ;

OPHIDOMONAS.
For. 247
3. viii.
;

006

OPHRYDIUM.
typical

Parker and Jones, Ann. N, H.

229.

OPHIOGLOS'SUM, Linn.The

OPHIDOM'ONAS, Ehr. Agenericname

applied to slender, filiform, spiral (helical), Fi'i/v'o-like bodies, of a brown or red colonr, with obtuse ends, and actively moving through the water by means of an anterior
flagelliform
filament.

genus of Ophioglossaceous Ferns, represented by the Adder's-tongue Fern, OphioOther tropical species. c/lossum vulgatum. (Hook. S)/n. 444.) OPHIONEL'LA, Kt. A genus of Peritrichous
Infusoria.

Solitary,
;

elongate,

Ehrenberg places
the family

them among the

Infusoria, in

Cryptomonadina, and admits two species, characterized by the difterence in colour. One was found in fresh, the other in brackish water. Length about 1-570", breadth 1-9000". In some the spire forms >nly half a turn, in others two and a hall' turns. Is it the young state Probably an Alga.
.

pesistome as in Vorticella contained in a soft sheath. O. fte freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 734.)
:

"OPHIOTHE'CA, Curr. A genus of Myxogastrous Fungi, distinguished bv a simple perldium bursting longitudinally
;

of Spirulina ?

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 43, and Ber. Berl. Ak. 1840 Kent, Inf. 244.
;

Hincks. -A genus of Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Stem branching, rooted by a creep-

OPIirOCLES,

capillitium twofold, viz. hyaline articulated threads, to which the spores are attached, and echinulate thicker branched filaments. O. chrt/sosperma occurs on the inner bark of dead trees. Bmu. Curr. Qu. Mic. Jn. ii. 240; Berk. Oxitl. 310 Cook, Hanclb. 402.

OPHRYDI'NA, Ehr. A doubtful family

ing stolon, capsules vase-shaped polypes not retractile body d-^eply constricted a
;
;

of Infusoria, corresponding to Vorticellina

little

below the base of the

tentacles,

which

with a carapace.
Animals grouped in a gelatinous mags ... Ophrydium. 'Body atta'.-hed to the bottom ~. ,. '"'""* i.als J of o the carapa Anim.alsJ pace by a stalk... f^'"
)

surround a conical proboscis. Tentaculoid organs borne on the stem and stolon, highly extensile. Reproduction by fixed sporesacs.

single,

Body

not

( stalked.

"(

Carapace stalked... Coihurnia. Carapace sessile ... Vaginicola.

BiBL. Hincks, Brit. Hifd. Zooph. 230. OPHIOCY'TIUM, Nkg. A genus of

Unicellular Algse. Char. Cells free, single, vermiculate, obtuse at one end, mucronate at the other. O. majus (PI. o. fig. 11), on freshwater
plants.

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 291 Etudes, 03.

Clap, et Lach.

genus of Ixodea Body thin, flat, circular on (Acarina). foreign snakes. (Murrav, Be. Bnt. 203.) OPHIO'DES, Hincks. genus of Hydroid Zoophytes. O mirabilis,onLaminaria &c. (Hincks, Zooph. 230).
;

OPHIO'DES, Murr.A

BiBL. Pabenh.

AI(/.

iii.

66.

OPHRYD'IUM, Ehr. genus of Perltrichous Infusoria,, family Vorticellina. Char. Consists of a colourless, gelatinous, rounded mass, either adherent or free, containing numerous greenish VorticeUa-\\kQ animals imbedded and somewhat rad lately arranged within it freshwater. Lenjjth cif extended bodies 1-100" size of entire mass from that of a pea to that of the fist, and
; ;

even more.
O. versatile the surface
; ;

(PL
fig.

OPHIOGLOSSA'CE^. An

Order of

31. fig. 49, portion near 48, portion expanded by

Ferns, distinguished from all others by the characters both of the vegetative and reproductive structures. Fronds divided into two parts, one fohaceous and sterile, the other fertile, neither being rolled up in the form of a crook. Sporanges destitute of annulus, and split transversely nearly to the
base.

The pressure fig. 50, separate animal). gelatinous mass or envelope has been described as con.isting of separate portions or cells, and again as forming a homogeneous
whole. It somewhat resembles and hrs been mistaken for frog's spawn. The body exhibits annular con.strictions and longitudinal folds, and contains scattered chloropliyll-grannles, and a long, narrow, tortuous narrow elongated distinct nucleus. oesophagus is present. Ehrenberg remarks that at first the indindual bodies are united

Ophioglossuvx.

Sporangia

sessile, in

two

rows, forming a narrow spike, Hehninthosfachys. S])orangia in crested clusters, forming a long loose spike.

BotrycMuin.

Sporangia

sessile, in

two

in

the centre by filaments, which

subse-

rows on the spikes which form a

panicle.

quently disappear.

The animals undergo

OPHRYOCEUriNA.
the
encystiiiji-

557

ORBULINA.

process;

jelly, a'posterior ring iu Vortkella, aud the

when they leave the of cilia is formed, as aiiimids swiui with

near the posterior half, w-ith a cylindrical rod-fascicle. O. niemeccerms freshwater.

;

(Kent, Inf. 749.

llypotrichous

the

tail tirst.

This organism bears some resemblance to CoccocMoris among the Palmellacese, yet it appears decidedly animal. O. EivhorHii, on Anacharis. BiBL. Ehr. In/us. 292 Stein, In f. Claparede et hachmanu, Etudes Kent, Inf. 735.
;
;

OPHRYOCEKCINA,
.

Ehr. A
Clap, et

'family

of ovate Free, frontal, ventral, aud anal styles as in Ojci/2 species j triclui, also with caudal setas. freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 785.) ORBICUEI'NA, Eamk. genus of porcellaneous Foraminifera. Discoidal, equilateral, greatly compressed, very variable
Infusoria.
;

OPISTIIOTRICiriA, Kt. A genus

of In fii soria

See

Th ac heli x a.
Each.

A genus of Acinetina.
;

OPHRYODEN'DRON,

C/iar. Acinetina with the suckers attached to a long retractile proboscis. Six species marine. (). ahitiimim, on Ciunpnnularia. BiBL. Clap, et Each. Etudes^ 381 Kent, Inf. 849.
;

according to age; forming an embracing, very regular spire when young, subsequently growing into a more or less perfect disk, almost uudistinguishable from OrhitoChambers very narrow, curved, and lites. divided throughout their length into numerous minute cavities (chamberlets) by perpendicidar partitions, transverse to the
Orifices very numerous, round, spiral coil. in rows along the septal plane on the outer margin of the shell.

genus of Holotrichous Infusoria, of the family Bursarina.

"OPHRYOGEE NA, Ehr.A

Char. Ovate
;

Living in tropical seas (O. odunca, PI. 23.

;

a fronial eye-spot cilia in longitudinal rows; a watch-glass-shaped vibratile membrane near the muuth. Freshwater. Stein remarks that, on Five species. acetic acid, the treating these animals with cilia became converted into a dense network of curved and geniculate hairs, some as long as the bodv.

fig.

19)

fossil in

the Tertiaries.
1):

BiBL. Carpenter, Phil.

For. 93.

1856, 547;

ORBITOrpES, D'Orb. One of the

line

hya;

Foraminifera, related to
;

NummuUtes
;

and often mistaken

0.atra\V\.

31.

fig.

51).

Body

ovate,
;

eyecompressed, black, acute posteriorly spot black, marginal cilia whitish ; length 1-180". O. acuminata, brown eye-spot red. eve-spot red. O.Jlavicatis, yellowi.-h BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 360; Stein, Inf. 240; Ann. N. H. Diij. Inf. 506; Lieberkiihn, 1866, x\-iii. 319 Claparede et Lachmanu, Etudes, 256 Kent, Inf. 532. OPHRYOSCO'EEX, St. genus of Peritrichous Infusoria. Free, ovate-elonVorticella-Yike peristome gate, with a middle of the back surrounded by a row of
; ; ; ; ;

for it. Eenticular thick or thin smooth, granular, or radiate composed of a median plane of chamberlets arranged cyclically, and of very numerous layers of compressed chamberlets above and below. Fossil only in the Upper Chalk, and
;

Eower and Middle

070.

Tertiaries.
baijer. Ale.

BiBL. Gumbel, Abh.

1868, x.

ORBITOEI'NA. See Patellixa aud POKOSPH^RA. ORBITOLI'TES, Lamarck (Orbulites).

Aporcellaneous Foraminifer, nearOrbicidina, but distinguished by the chambers being
arranged in concentric circles. Inhabiting tropical seas. O. complanaius (PI. 23. fig. 17) Sorites and Amjjhisonts, Ehr. ; fossil in the Lias, Chalk, and Tertiaries. BiBL. Morris, Brit. Foss. 39 Carpenter, Phil. Tr. 1856, 181 For. 105. ORBULI'NA, D'Orb.- hyahne Fora; ;

stout setEe
cess.

a long posterior style-like pro2 species ; in the rumen aud reticulum of ruminants. (Kent, Inf. 652.) OPISTHIOT'KICHA, Perty. A genus
;

of Infusoria.

Small, .cylindrical or pyriform. Cilia on body fine, those on posterior part 0. tenuis, in bog-pools. large. BiBT.. Pertv, Lebensf. 150. OPIS'THO'DOX, St*ein.A genus of HyChar.

minifer, consisting either of a single spherical chamber, or of a large globular chamber

potrichous Infusoria. Free, ovate, dorsally convex, vcj lically plane, t jlialc ; mouth

enclosing a small Globigerine group of earliercells. Perforations numerous, minute and of two sizes; but single orifice doubtful. O. uni versa CPl. 24. fig. 1). Recent, and fossil as far back as the Lias,

ORGANIZATION.
BiBL. D'Orbigny,
son, See. For.
-For.

558

ORIBATEA.
running through the parenchyma in

Vien.22; WilliamCarpenter, For. 17G

; ;

lines

Alcock, 3Iem. Lit. Phil. Manch. 3. iii. 178 S. Owen, J. Linn. Soc. Zool. ix. 149; Terquem, iJfe'OT. Mefz, 1862, 432; Brady, Qii. Mic. Jn. n. s. xix. 75.

ORGANIZATION AND VASCULA-

but in healing' by what is termed the intention, a substance is present which g'lues the edges of the wound together. This consists of the connective tissue of the
tion
;

RIZATION. Immediate reimion of cut surfaces may take place without any exudafi]"st

Gut surface, infiltrated with blood-corpuscles and serum, and swollen by the imbibition The next stage of the proof the latter. cess is the migration of colourless corpuscles from the dilated vessels in the immediate neighbourhood. They permeate the whole of the cementing medium and the adjacent connective tissue, so that the divided parts are at length united by a continuous layer The next step is the of embryonic tissue. reestabli'shment of the circulation. Thiersch found the cut ends of the vessels a few hours after the injury plugged by a cor-

above, and new vessels are completed. As the cicatrical tissue contracts after its formation out of the embryonal tissue, and as it is fashioned at the deepest part of the wound, first the whole of the raw surface shrinks and compresses the vessels, obliterat ting many and reducing the vascularity of the healing tissues. ORIB'ATA, Latr. genus of Oribatidee, of which there are several species, on stones and plants. Some are common. The position of three species is doubtful,

vessels are to be, a closer aggregation of the cells becomes apparent; a cord or row of cells becomes visible, pointing out the form and direction of the future blood-path. Soon the blood makes its appearance in the axis of the cellular cord, and the cells parted asunder begin to constitute the wall of a new blood-vessel. As each layer of embryonal tissue is formed on the surface, rows of cells aggregate as

which these new

viz.

puscular proliferation and somewhat dilated, but seldom occupied by a blood-clot. Inthis stage with a warm jecting the vessels at sohition of gelatin, and hardening the specimen in alcohol, he found sticking to the
surface of the club-shaped plug of gelatin, endothelial cells, some detached and isolated, Moreover others undergoing proliferation. he found a peculiar configuration of the surface of the plug, in which were the radicles of a very beautifid system of intercellular canals, forming a provisional nuThe last act is the transtrient apparatus. formation of that part of the embryonic tissue which is not employed in the construction of vessels, into fibrous connective Should pus be forined in a wound, tissue. by the second intention occurs (see

Acarus confervce, Schr., freshwater, Oribata decreeping upon Confervse, &c. mersa, Duj., with a cervical eye, upon Hyimum inunclatum and Oribaia marina, a marine species.
; ;

Walch. Apt. iii. 251 511 Duiardin, rinstit. 1842, 316 Koch, Detdschl 'Cntst. Duges, Ann. Sc. Kat. 2. ser. ii. 46 Murray,
;

BiBL. Gervais,
Iris.

Schrank,

Amtrice,
;

Fc^Fnt. 217.

ORIBATEA. A
C7iar.

Body covered by

dark envelope; palpi fusiform, 5-joiflted first joint small, second large, inflated and almost half the length of the entire palpus, palpi hairy outside only mandibles chelate; body often winged no suckers. Genera
;
;

family of Acarina. a hard horny

healing

Pus). Pus is given oft" from the wound, and from its surface young cells force their wav from countless points they are accomtransmitted from panied by a fluid mainly the blood, and very rich in dissolved nj;

elongate, Irregularly quadrilateral, with spinous filaments ; logs of moderate length, thick, tarsi with 3 homodactyle claws. Belba. Abdomen distinct from thorax,

NuthrKs.

Body

rounded, inflated; with 1 claw.

Oribata.
;

legs

long,

geniculate,

buminous matters. 'Sooner or later the cells close up their ranks, and a layer of emintervenes bryonic tissue is formed, which between the parenchyma of the organism on the one hand and "tlie pus on the other. Then this embryonal connective tissue gets
thicker, rises into small globular projections or granulations they produce both skin and Along certain cuticle, and new vessels.
;

appendages claws hairs bristle-shaped. Cepheus. Cephalothorax lamellar

;

Cephalothorax with lamellar tarsi with 3 heterodactyle

;

claws

3, alike.

Notaspis. Cephalothorax lamellar, tectum confounded with it. Leioso7na. Cephalothorax with plates, claws 3, heterodactyle. Like Oribata, but hairs flat and Pelops:

spatula-shaped.

ORNITHOBIUS.
ncrmannia.

559

ORTIIOTRICIIUM.

abdomen

tarsi

Ceplialothorax soldered to with 1 claw.

Eremccus.

Cephalothorax

simple

tarsi

with 3 heterodactyle claws. Damcvus. Cephalothorax

long'er than the body, 1 claw.

afterwards reflexed, arising below the mouth of the capsule. Internal eight or sixteen cilia, simple, hyaline, or rarely resembling the teeth. InVaginule ochra'ceous.
:

ribbed,

legs

Galumna. Abdomen siibglobidar, deof the pseudothorax pressed, margins winged legs of moderate length.
;

without an annulus, pyriform, grooved, rarely glabrous; operculum capitate, conical.

b.

florescence monoecious or dioecious. Capsule

last, Hoplophora. appendages absent tarsi 1-clawed. BiBL. Walclc7iaer' s Apth'cs, 251 Koch, DeufschL Crustac. Duges, Ann. Sc. JVaf. ii. 48 Diifour, Ann. Sc. Nat 1 ser. xxv. 289 Mcolet, Archiv d. Mii^exm, 1855 Michael,
; ;

As

the

but wing-like

Papillcs mostly obsolete, rarely distinct peristome always coloured, purple, red, or orange.
;

Glypliomitrium.

Calyptra campanulate,

M. M. S. 1879, 225, 1880, 32, 177. ORXITHO'BIUS, Denny.A genus

Anoplura.
;

large, totally enclosing the capsule, deeply Peristome of sixteen laciniate, plaited. short, lanceolate, denselj^ trabeculate, entire teeth, with a central line, in pairs, incurved,

of

Like Ninnus, but with 2 horns to the clypeus. O. cygni, on the swan 2
other species.

arising below the orifice, orange-coloured, Inflorescence smooth_ (fig. 283, p. 360).

monoecious.
Brachystelium. Calyptra as in the preceding, entirely or almost covering the capsule, mitre-shaped, with long and repeated

OROBIAS, D'Eichwald. A Nummuline

;

or Fusuline Foraminifer, found in the Carboniferous Limestone of Russia possibly a true Numnmlina. BiBL. D'Eichwald, Leih. Ross. i. 352. ORTHOCERI'XA, D'Orb. Stichostegian Foraminifer, related to Nodosarina

square or triangular in cross section; without orifice terminal, simple or septal furrows pouting. Recent in W. Indies, O. quadrilatera (PI. fossil in the Tertiary, Chalk, 23. fig. 36) Gault, and Oxford Clay. BiBL. Carpenter, For. 166.
;
;

Peristome as in Trichostommn, the teeth more or less split to the base into two arms. Inflorescence monoecious. Guembelia. Calvptra dimidiate, otherwise like the following' (figs. 289-291, p. 366).
laciniations, slightly plaited.

OR'THOCLASE. See Rocks. ORTHODON'TIUM, Schwagr.,= 5;7/?m

Calyptra mitre-shaped, lacismooth, scarcely exceeding the operculum, or shorter. Peristome simple, teeth sixteen, lanceolate, with a median line, trabeculate often, however, fissile, hence very polymorphous, more or less split as far as the middle into two or four teeth, or into two arms down to the base (fig. 288, p. 365).
niate,
;

Giimmia.

pt.

Bryol.

O. qracile, on sandstone rocks. (Wilson, 'Brit. 218.) An order of Insects, containing the grasshoppers, crickets, &c.

Fig. 536. ^
Ii

Fig. 537.

ORTHOPTERA.

tribe of Pottioid Mosses including several British genera.

a.

0RTH0TR1CHACE.E. A

ORTHOSI'RA, Thw.

See Melosira.

lete

Papilla distinct, tvherexdafe, rarely obso; peristome mostly pale, rarely orange-

coloured.

Zygodon. Calyptra dimidiate. Peristome wanting, simple, external or internal, more rarely glabrous, without an annulus.
Orthotrichiim.
plaited.

double.
(sixteen,
fig,

Calyptra campanulate, Peristome absent, simple, or External of thirty-two geminate

fig.

483)

or

bigeminate (eight,

537) teeth, more rarely of sixteen entire, undivided teeth, granular, fleshy or brittle,

Fig. .loO. Orthotrichum pulchellum. Magn. 15 diams. Fig. 537. Orthotrichum pallens. Fragment of peristome. Magn. 50 diams.

mostly pale, rarely orange-coloured, erect.

of Orthotrichaceae (Pottioid Mosses), o-rowing in round tufts, fertile at the summ'it, on

ORTHOT'RICHUM, Hedwig.A genus

OSCILLATOR lA.

560

OSCILLATORL\.
In fresh
a. -vvater,

trees and stones, never on the eaitli. British species miinerous, remarkable for the

or on

damp

earth, &c.

apophyses, sometimes having stomata, and

Stratum eeruginous or blue-green.

emerge when broken across (PI. 8. fig. 8). The young filaments or growing extremities
;

the varied character of the outer peristome, the thirty-two teeth of which are variously so as to appear thirty-two, sixconjoined, or eig-ht. teen, Calyptra mostly covered with hair-like processes (flo-. 472, p. 512). B[BL. ^\'ilson, Bri/ol. Br. 185 Hooker, Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 57 Vejitiiri, 31. M. Jn. 1881,80. OSCILLATO'RIA, Yaiich. A genus of OsL-illatoriacefe (Confervoid Alga?), distingiiislied from the allied forms by the simple, rigid, elastic hlaments, forming a stratum in a common gelatinous matrix. Filaments enclosed singly in tubular cellulose sheaths, open at the ends, from which the fragments
;

O. limosa, Ag. Stratum dtirk green, glossy, svith long rays; filaments green, 1-3300 to 1-3000" in diameter; articulations

shorter than the diameter. At the bottom of ditches and pools. O. tennis, Ag. Stratum dark green, thin, with short rays ; filaments pale green, 1-4200" in diameter ; articulations equalling or half the diameter. In muddy ditches, &c. at first on the bottom, finally fluating. O. muscorum, Ag. Stratum dark ;eruginous-greeu, 3 or 4" in extent, growi)ig over
;

mosses in rapid streams filaments thickish, pale blue-green. O. tiafom, Oarm. Stratum ptile verdigris-green, glaucous, 1 or ly in diameter,,
; -

are continuous and scarcely striated but by degrees transverse strife appear, some-

resting

on an ochraceous substratum filaments hyaline, very slender. On fli.ating

;

times very close together, sometimes disindicating a constriction and final fission in the substance of the filament, which, when old, readily breaks at these The internal structure of the filaplaces. ment is obscure it seems to be composed wholly of protoplasmic substance, the joints not possessing special cellulose coats; but the substance of the filament, although apparently solid, seems sometimes less dense internally, since we have noticed a kind of hour-glass contraction intermediate between the strife after the action of thick
tant,
:

sods in turf-pits. O. (h'corf leans, Grev.

;

Stratum smooth,

glaucous-green, membranous, peeling off" in fiakes filaments pale bluish green, very slender. Damp w'alls, pumps, &c. common.
;

b.

Stratum dull green, inclining

black, or brown.

to

purple,

O.

nigra,

Vauch.

Stratum

blackish

dry), with long radii; filaments pale bluish green, 1-2S00 to 1-3000" in diameter joints equalling or a little shorter than the diameter. Ditches
;

green (bluish black

when

syrup (by endosmose) and after desiccation. rounding-off" of the separated ends of dividing filaments (PI. 8. fig. 8, right-hand figures) seems to depend on some power of expansion of an outer thicker layer of the substance of the filament. The motion of the filaments wiU be described under Oscillatoriaceje. The filaments ultimately break up at the strife into distinct joints, -which may be regarded as No formation of spores has been gonklia. observed. remarkable and unexplained appearance is occasionally observed at the growing ends of the filaments they appear crowned by a wreath of cilia but these

and ponds.

Common.
;

The curious

O. autumnalis, Ag. (PI. 8. fig. 8). Stratum purplish or greenish black filaments pale dirty bluish green, 1-4000 to 1-5000" in diameter; joints shorter than the diameter.

Damp

ground, walls,

iSrc.

Common.

O. contexta, Carm. Stratum glossy black, spreading three feet or more, appearing satiny and striated to the naked eye; fila-

ments pale green, 1-3000" in diameter; articulations largish. On mud

;

common.

apparently

O. ochraeca^ Grev., is probably the as Leptothrix ochracea.

same

processes are rigid and motionless. The species occur on damp ground, on stones, mud, in fresh water, running or stagnant, in springs, and in brackish water a few are truly marine. In the following characters the colour of the strata is given as seen by the naked eye, that of the filaments as seen under the microscope.
;

0.

** Marine, or in brackish Stratum littoralis, Carm.

; ;

witter.
bi-ight an'u-

ginous-green filaments deep green,' thicker than in O. nigra joints one third the diameter. Pools on the sea-shore. See

Symploca.
BiBL.

Harvev, Br. Alg.

;

1st

ed.

161;
;

Mar. Alg. 228

'Phgc. Brit. pis. 105, 251

OSCILLATORIACE^E.
:

561

OSCILLATORIACEJE.

Hassall, Ah/. 244, pis. 70-72 Kiitz. Sp. Ahj. 237; Tab. 'P/ii/c. lid. i. pis. 38-44 ; Rabeuli. Bot. Zeit. Alff. ii. 95 ; Engelmauu, Beweg.

1879.

family of Oonfervoid Algfe, containing organisms of considerable diversity and not well characterized at present, owing to the obscurity of the reproduction. The genus Oscillatoria, with its nearest allies, is composed of subcylindrical filaments of protoplasmic stance, invested by a continuous cellulose sheath or tubular cell-membrane. The internal (solid ?) filament gradually becomes
increases in age, and subsequently breaks across at the transverse lines ; and the fragments readily escape from the sheaths, since no cross walls of cellulose are produced (PI. 8. fig. 8). These kinds exhibit clearly the remarkable motion from which the family takes its name. They

OSCILLATORIA'CE.^. A

external violence will cause the filament to break across at the strijB and the fragments then slide along inside the cellulose sheath, the broken ends a rounded
;

accompanied by an
parable to that of

6). When these fi'figments slide quite out of the sheaths, the latter appear as continuous tubes (PL 8. fig. 8 a), seldom with any cross markings opposite the stria3 of the internal mass. In Lynyhya the division seems to take place in a peculiar manner,

form fig. 8

always assuming

like that of the free extremities

(PL

8.

interstitial gi-owtb

com-

Zygnema.

In a well-

transversely striated as

it

are mostly found upon damp ground, forming wide and irregular strata. Rivuluria and the allied genera have the joints of the filaments more distinct; and the filaments are coherent into definite fronds, on which they stand erect or radiate from a centre (PL 8, The sheaths often become figs. 13, 16). complicated, from the internal multiplication and the persistence of the cellulose sheaths of several generations one within another (see Petaloxema), often gelatinously swollen up, and sometimes decomposed into spiral fibrous sti-uctures (PI. 8. fig. 15 Some of the see Spie.\i. structures).
;

them in syrup or gum-water causes to contract between the strife, or to break up into lenticidar disks. The ultimate fate of all the filaments seems to be a separation into disks or globular gonidia, by bi-eaking across at the strife.
placing

developed filament, every eighth stria is strongest, the intermediate fourths rather lighter, every second one between them paler still, and the intermediates of these only just marked; while in Oscillatoria the strife seem to be gradually less definite towards the growing apex of a filament. The filaments appear solid as ordinarily viewed but the endosmose resulting from
;

them

remaining forms differ considerably from the above, and are imperfectly imderstood. Spindina (PL 7. fig. 15) has the filaments curled spirally; and in the strange plant

In Microcolem (PL 8. fig. 9) and many Rivularice there would appear to be a transverse multiplication like that occurring occasionally in NosTOC, as the filaments' are found lying side by side in gelatinously decomposed outer (parent) sheaths. The filaments of the Itivularice are seated on a large basal cell (PL 8. figs. 13, 16, 18), the nature of which is not understood.

The remarkable spontaneous motion

of

Didymohelix (PL 1. fig. ments occur twined together. These last minute forms generally occur imbedded in a
gelatinous stratum. The structure of

10) two

spiral fila-

presents a considerable In Oscillatoria and variety of conditions. Microcokus the ends of the filaments emerge fi-om their sheaths, the young extremities

many Oscillatoriaceae

the

OsciUatoriacese,

judging from

Oscillatoria,

Microcolem, and

being apparently devoid of this coat their ends wave backwards and forwards, somewhat as the fore part of the bodies of cer;

void of strife, and bave no perceptible cellulose sheath ; when a little older, cross stiise double rows of granides appear, consisting of or dots, and the tubular cellulose coat is evident; finally tbe strife become distinct In this stage, lines (see PL 8,' figs. 8-22).

from that Lynghija, differs importantly The filaments are of ail other Confervoids. not composed of rows of cells, but, in the earliest condition, of a cylindrical thread of protoplasm, coloured gi-eyish, green, brown, The ends of or purple in different cases. the gi'owing filaments are narrower and de-

tain caterpillars are waved on their prolegs with the

when they stand

head reared up. This motion probably depends upon the irregular contraction of difierent parts of the The filaments also emerge protoplasm. from the tubes and break up and the fi'agments then exhibit an oscillating movement like that of a balance, -together with an advance in a longitudinal direction. Lynyhya (PL 8. fig. 10) does not appear to oscillate, at aU events when in long filaments Spirulina and other forms exhibit only a tremu; ;

lous oscillation

Didymohelix probably ac-

2o

OSCILLATORIACE^.

562

OSCILLATORTACEvE.
8. fig. 10).

quires its double-spiral character from the eutwining of origiually distinct filameuts. Leptothriv and the allied genera are very imperfectly known, and are only included here from the absence of indications of closer affinities elsewhere very likely thej'- are mycelial filameuts of Fungi.
;

Lynyhya (PL
gated,

Filaments elon-

distinctly articulated, unbranched, with distinct convoluted cellulose tube, but without a gelatinous matrix (motion creep-

ing

articulations very close. Filaments short, erect, tufted, unbranched, with distinct cellulose coat,
?)
;

Liehleinia.

rocks, or

on damp ground, and among Mosses and other Confervse on rocks, stones, &c. in fresh and salt water, and are allied in some
plants

These

occur

free,

stones,

without an investing jelly. Crenothrix, Chamcesiphon,

but the respects to the Nostochaceje articulations of the filaments of the latter are aU perfect cells with a complete cellulose wall, multiplying by di-vision in the same way as the Confervaceae.
;

Filaments distinctly artiC. Scytonemece. culated, simple or branched, motionless, with distinct articulations and large interstitial

(propagative

?) cells

sheaths

at length softened

and swollen, but with19).

out a

common

gelatinous matrix.
8. fig.

Scytonema (PL
8yno2)sis of British Genera.
csespitose, or

Filaments

A.

Filaments transversely sometimes spirally curled sheathed, or, in the minute forms, without evident sheaths; exhiOscillatoriece.

striated or moniliforai,
;

rarely fasciculate, with a double (lamellar) gelatinous sheath, (mostly) closed at the apex branches continuoiis by lateral growing out of the primary filaments, with a knee-like base.
;

more

biting spontaneous oscillating or creepIncreased by transverse ing motion.

division.

Filaments Didymolielix (PL 1. fig. 10). brown, very slender, continuous, curled spiNo rally and twisted together in pairs. evident sheaths, but a common investing
ielly-

Filameuts branched, more branches of two kinds, primary branches each with a connecting cell at the base, secondary branches without See Tolyconnecting cells; annulated.
or less coherent
;

Desmonema.

8. fig. 20). Filaments in short articulated, simple, lengths, overlapping at their ends within

POTHRIX. Arthronema (PL

distinctly

Oscillatoria

(PI.

8.

fig.

8).

Filaments

the gelatinous sheath.

coloured, continuous, transversely striated, readily breaking across, with a proper cellulose sheath, oscillating ; collected in strata and imbedded in a common gelatinous matrix. Microcoleus (PI. 8. fig. 9). Filaments as in Oscillatoria, but collected into bundles in a common gelatinous dichotomously branched tubular sheath ; filaments oscillating.

Petalonema (PL 8. fig. 21). Filameuts branched, with the outer sheaths of the single joints expanded upwards and outwards into fumiel-shaped bodies, each partly overlapping its successor, forming a common obhquely laniellated and transversely barred
gelatinous cyhnder. Calothrix (PL 8. fig. 22 ).

Filaments very

lated,

Filaments branched, annucontained with their ramifications within a tough, more or less permanent sheath which bursts irregularly. Symploca. Filaments as in Oscillaloria, but erect and tufted, coherent at their bases, bristling above.
Cmnocoleus.

closely articulated, tufted, with branches in apposition for some distance, here and there Sheaths firm, often cohering laterally. darli-coloured.

Filaments free, radiantly Tolypothrix, or fastigiately branched, most distinctly articulated at the bases of the branches ;
branches continuously excurrent, not in apposition sheaths thin, hyaline. Filameuts single, double or Sirosip/toH. triple, within a distinct common sheath, very distinctly articulated; branched by lateral budding, the branches divergent. Schizothrix (PL 8. fig. 17). PMament.^ branched by division sheaths laniellated, thick, rigid, curled, thickened below, finally
; ;

B. Lymibi/ea.

Filaments motionless

(r),

oscillarioid, enclosed in a

very distinct

sheath, tufted, or forming strata, with or witliout an enveloping jelly.

Dasyylcea (PI. 8. fig. 11). Filaments unbranched, sheathed; older sheaths broad,
coalescent outside into an amorphous gelatinous stratum.

longitudinally divided. Syinphyosiphon. Filaments erect or as-

OSCiLLATOKIACE^.

r,G3

OTOGLENA.
;

cending, enclosed inlamellated,hard sheaths, concreted laterally at their bases, involved

in jeUv.

decomposed into very slender filaments forming crustaceous fronds, becoming stony.
Petronema,
Densely
ctespitose,

erect,

Sheath cellular and furnished throughout its leng-th with niunerous branched and anastomosing rootlets (?). Filaments distinctly anmdated, and interrupted here and there by a comiecting cell. Branches in pairs, arising from a protrusion
Rhizonema.
of the filament.

somewhat regularly branched; branches free,

with obtuse rounded apices, and each with a connecting cell at the base. Filaments annulated and growing thicker upwards.
E, Leptotrichece.

Doubtful Oscillatoriacese.

Fischer a,

D. Rivulariece. Filaments distinctly articulated, with an enlarged basal cell, mostly attenuated above, connected into
definite or indefinite fronds
;

Filaments very slender, Leptothrix. neither branched, articulated, concreted, nor sheathed.
Ihjpheothrix,

Filaments unbranched, in-

motionless.

articulate, sheathed, interwoven into a or less compact stratum.

more

Symploca.
Basal cells 13). globose, filaments simple, distinctly articulated, mostly attenuated towards the apex, sheathed, sheaths connate into groups, hard,
Schizosi})hon (PI. 8.
fig.

Filaments unbranched, inar-

ticulate, sheathed, concreted into branches,

dark-coloured, open and expanded above, and overlapping so as to form a succession of ochre^e which have the free borders also disslit up into filaments or fringes pla^dng a spii'al fibrous structm'e in dissolu;

conjoined at their bases; sheath a simple hyaline membrane. OSMIC ACID.An oxide of the metal osmium, obtained from platinum-ores. It is a crystalhne, volatile, poisonous substance, soluble in water, with a powerfully irritating Its aqueous solution is used for odoui".

tion.

Filaments whip-shaped, toruPhysactis. lose at the base, sheathed, sheaths simple, gelatinous, collected into a globose and
solid, or lar frond

hardening and colouring certain animal tissues black or dark blue, as fat-ceUs and globides, the medulla of nerves, more slowly
the gaughon-cells, the connective-tissue corThe ordinary Zoophytes, &c. strength is about 90 grains to a pint. Small pieces of the structures should be
puscles,

subsequently a buUose-vesicuin the globose fronds the filaments radiate from the centre, in the vesicular fronds from the internal or lower surface of the gelatinous matrix, Filaments Amactis (PI. 8. fig. 15),
;

branched, jointed, with thin sheaths, collected into a sohd pulvinate frond, concentrically

immersed in it, fi-om \ hour to 24 hours, then weU-washed in distilled water, and mounted in acetate of potash or Farrant's compound. It is also useful for its remarkable power of killing Infusoria, Rotatoria, &c. so suddenly, that the cilia remain extended,
instead of being retracted and imdistinguishable as with other reagents. (Ranvier, Hist.
techn.
;

zoned by the dichotomous branching Sheaths more or less the filaments. sometimes solidified by carbonate of hme exhibiting a spiral structure in dissolution.
of
;

OSMO'SIS.

Robin, Micr. 220 Frey, Mikr.) See Endosmose.

;

Rwulana (PI. 8. fig. 18). Filaments with an oval basal cell succeeded by one of cylindrical form {manubrium), the remainder short, attenuated in diameter upwards (whipshaped) sheaths sometimes saccate below, open (not fringed) above forming a slippery
; ;

OSMUN'DA, Linn. genus of Osmundaceous Ferns, represented in Britain by Os7nunda regalis (tigs. 222, 223, p. 319), the Royal or Flowering Fern, as it is termed, a large and handsome plant, found in damp situations not common.
:

gelatinous frond.

OSMUNDA'CEyE,An
ranges.
:

order of Poly-

Euactis (PI. 8. fig. 16). Filaments whipshaped, with repeated ochreate sheaths, forming fronds in which they radiate, and by
superposition of successive generations form concentric layers ; sheaths cartilaginous, lamellated, fii-mly united laterally, dilated upwards (funnel-shaped), decomposed into & fiinge at the orifice. Inomeria. Filaments whip-shaped, vertical, parallel ; sheaths obscure, everywhere

podiaceous Ferns, characterized by the broad imperfect annulus on the back of the spo-

Genera Osmunda. Sporangia on metamorphosed

Todea,

pinnules.

Sporangia on imchanged

pin-

nules.

OSTRACO'DA. See Entomosthaca. OTOGLE'NA, Eln-.- A genus of Rotatoria, of

the familv Hvdatintea.

2o 2

OTOLITHS,
;

5G4

OVARY.

cal,

Char, Eyes three one sessile and cervithe two others stalked and i'routal; neither jaws nor teeth present. O. papulosa. Body campanulate, turgid,

the subjacent sti'oma: it consists of interlacing bundles of connective tissue with

few

rough with
1-U6".

papillas;

freshwater;

length

BiBL. Ehr.//^/. 4.53; Pritchard, Inf. 690.

O'TOLITHS. The
talloid particles the internal ear.

crystalline

or crys-

found in the lab^Tinth of

columnar or germ-eijithelium covers the capsule, therefore different from that of the peritoneum, with which it is continuous at the base of the organ. The germ-epithelium here and there lines tubelike inward prolongations (the ovarian
tubes).

A layer of

elagtic fibres.

They are

enclosed in sacs,
;

appearing as white specks and are composed of carbonate of lime, with an organic basis, which is left after the action of dilute

The stroma

(fig.

538

e)

is

composed of

genus of SarO.sfkholasius, on the coptidie (Anoplura). bat other species. (Maddox, M. Mic. Jn. 1871, 144; Murray, Ec. Ent. 317.) OTOS'TOMA, Carter. A genus of Holo;

OTONYS'SUS, Kol.A

nucleated connective tissue, and in it are imbedded the Graafian vesicles (fig. 538 a). They vary greatly in number and size the are generally nearest the surface, and largest project more or less, so as to give it a nodu;

lar
(fig.

aspect.

539).

They are round closed Each possesses two coats

Fig. 539.

sacs
;

the

trichous Lifusoria. Char. Ovoid, mouth

;
;

ear-shaped;

anus

terminal nucleus long contractile vesicles double. Its cysts have been discovered on Nitella, and give exit to monadiform beings approaching the parent shape.
O. Carteri,

Bombay.
II.

BiBL. Carter, Ann. N. Kent, Inf. 500.

1866, xvii. 117;

OVA

OF Animals.

extruded from the body, they are generally termed eggs (Eggs). See OvTJM, OVARY. The organ in which the ova or germs of the future offspring are formed

by the

ovaries.

When

The germs secreted

Graafian vesicle of the pig. a, outer, b, inner layer of the fibroua coat; c, membrana granulosa; d, liquid contained in the vesicle e, proligerous disk f, ovum with the zona pellucida, yolk, and germinal vesicle.
; ;

and temporarily contained.

Magnified 10 diameters.

The ovary
capsule,

and

consists of an outer fibrous a parenchyma or stroma.

Fig. 538.

outer is a fibrous and vascular layer, connected with the stroma by somewhat lax areolar tissne, which consists of two layers the outer composed of ordinary fibrous connective tissue; the inner consisting of young connective tissue, rich in cells, usually fusiform, stellate, or spheroidal, and resembling amoeboid cells. Lining this is the epithelium of the follicle, which covers the whole of the inside of the tunica propria, and forms the membrana r/ranulosa (fig. 539 c). Next the siu'face of the ovary this is thickened and projects inwards, forming the proligerous disk, e the epithelium is stratified and columnar. The ovum is imbedded
: ;

month
h,

Transverse section ol a human ovary at the fifth of xiregnancy. n. Graafian vesicle of the under, of the upper surface; c, peritoneum; rf, tlie tunica albuginea; in the centre are two corpora lutea; e, stroma of the ovary.

in this proligerous disk.

The
tains a
;

cavity of the Cjraafian vesicle con-

hquid resembling the serum of tlie blood and in it are found gi-anules, nuclei, and cells, arising from the disintegration or
the

The

firm, white,

outer coat, or tunica albuginea, is and intimately connected with

membrana

When

granulosa. the vesicle bursts, the ovtim es-

VIPOSITOR.

565

OVULE.

the cells of the prolicapos surrounded by the adjacent part of the gerous dit^k and surface then becomes epithelium the inner wrinkled, and gives oft" fleshy processes which become yellowish, and form the cor;

inner, and it is generally thicker and more developed. The inner is the secundine
tlio

of Mii'bel, the outer the prijnine (figs. 543, 544, 547, S, P). German writers reverse
Fig. 542. Fig. 543.

pora lutea. In those animals in which the amount of stroma present is small in proportion to the size of the vesicles, the ovaries have a race-

End

mose appearance.
In

many

of the lower animals the ovaries

-P

are tubular, the ova lying closely packed within them.

BiBL. Kblliker, Mik. An. ii. Siebold, An. Todd's Cyclop. An. Waldeyer, Strieker's Hist. Balfour, Covtp. Embnjol.
;

Vei-ffl.

Atropous ovules.
of walnut, consisting of a nucleus with a single coat A' ; End, the endostome or micropyle. Fig. 543. Young ovule of Polygonum. F, funiculus; P. primine (of Mirbel); S, secundine; Ex,
Fig. 542.

Young ovule
iV,

1880.

OVIPOS'ITOR.

apof the seed of Flowerplied to the rudiment in the ovary or gering Plants, produced meu during the development of the flower,
fertilized

OVULE

See Insects,

p.

433.

or

OV'ULUM. The name

exostome

End, endostome. Magnified 40 diameters.

;

and afterwards converted into a Seed Dv the development of the Embryo and other secondary structures during the conplete
;

by the pollen-grains when com-

version of the ovary into the fruit. For the of the ovules in ovaries, general conditions reference must be made to botanical worlcs. The ovules make their appearance upon the from placenta as cellular papillfe rising up this first its surface, and are at first simple the main feature of the organ,
;

development,
is

these names, resting on the true order of development. Some term them the integumenUivi, intermim and externmn. The inner is the tegmen, the outer the iesta of Brown. The passage at the apex, leading to the nucleus, is called the microjn/le sometimes the orifice in the outer coat is distinguished from that in the inner coat, and they are termed respectively exostome and endostome While the nucleus and coata (fig. 547). are becoming perfected, one of the cells situated near the apex of the nucleus takes
;

called the ?mcleiis (figs. 540-642).

In
Fig. 544.

Fig. 545.
..yr

Fig. 540.

Fig. 541.

A.e

Atropous ovules.
Fig. 640.
Fig. 541.

Tonng
Toung

ovule of Chelidonium.

n, nucleus

ch, chalaza.

ovule of mistletoe, consisting of a nucleus only.

Sections of atropous ovale of Polygonum. S, secundine; N, nucleus SE, embryosac; F.e, P/, nascent embryo.

P, primine

Magnified 20 diameters.

rare cases this remains naked ; but in most instances one or two coats are produced, arising as circular folds near the base, and over the nucleus gi'adually gi-owing up a small hole or pas(fig. 542), leaving only sage at the apex, leading down to the point When two coats are of the nucleus. formed (fig. 54.3), the inner appears first;

on a peculiar character, becoming more developed than the rest, and often causing the absorption of part, or sometimes the whole, of the tissue of the nucleus it appears at length as a large sac eccupying the centre of the ovule this is the embryo-sac (fig. 544). The base of the ovule is pushed up from the surface of the placenta during its deve;

the outer originates later and grows up over

lopment so as to appear at length supported on a stalk of variable length ; this is

OVUI.E.

566
;

O^njLE.
all

termed the funiculus (figs. 543 F, Ml f) the point of attachment of this stalk to the a scar when body of the ovule (marked by

as to obliterate

the tissue of the nucleus,

and appears

like a simple sac enclosed

by

the ripe seed separates) is called the hihnn. That region of the interior where the lower are confluent with the parts of the coat base of the nucleus, is called the chalaza
(fig.

Fig. 648.

of ovules is much aflected by excessive development of their constituent before the fertiliparts in special dii-ections

546 C).

^,

The form

Fig. 546.
Fig. 549.

C, chalaza

Section of campylotropous ovule of the wallflower. nucleus S, inner coat ; P, outer coat. ; N, Magnified 20 diameters.
;

Magnified 40 diameters.

Fig. 550.

Fig. 551.

zation.

plete

If all parts grow equally, the comovule is erect on the placenta, with its
also the chalaza

hilum and
the
latter,
:

turned towards

micropyle at the opposite free end such an ovule is technically termed

and

its

atropous or oi-thotropotis (figs. 5'41545). Very frequently an excessive gi-owth takes of the coats of the ovule, place at one side so that the chalaza is carried up and directed away from the placenta, the micro;

Magnified 20 diameters.

AmEhitropous ovule of mallow

in difi"erent stages.

time turned down pyle being at the same towards the latter but as the growth is in the coats of the ovule, the hilum remains at the base, near where the micropyle arrives such an ovule is termed anatropous (fig. 116, The hilum is then connected with p. 157). the chalaza by a ridge (a kind of adherent In other cases funiculus) called the raphe. the form becomes altered by the point of the ovule turning down, the entire structure becoming folded or bent upon itself, without disturbance of the relative positions of the hilum and chalaza, while the micropyle as in the anatropous is brought down, Thi.s ovule, to the vicinity of the hilum.
;

Fig. 551. Section,

form is termed camptjlotropous (fig. 546). Other conditions occm* less frequently, among which is the amphitroiwus form (figs. 550 & 551). During these developments the embryosac also undergoes various changes. Sometimes, as in the Orchidaceae, it expands so

the coats in. the Scrophulariacese and other orders it produces peculiar lobes or pouches at various points; in the Santalacea3 itgi-ows out from the summit of the nucleus as a free, naked, tubular process, kc. Tip to this point the ditferences in ovules are such as may be termed secondary ; but a primary distinction now comes into view, connected also with a difference in the external conditions, affording grounds for the division of the Flowering Plants into two great classes. In the Couiferte and Cycadacese the ovules are developed upon open carpels, and consequently the micropyle may receive the pollen-grains immediately, when expelled from the anthers. Plants exhibiting this condition ai'e termed GymNOSPERMS, or naked-seeded. In the Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons the carpels or ovaries, are always closed up into cases surmounted by a stigma, sessile or elevated
;

OVULE,
upon a

5(37

OVULE.

style, and the pollen, falling- upon the stigma, produces there its pollen-tubes, which pass down through what is called the couducting tissue of the style and upper part of the ovary, on to the placentae, whence they make their way to the microPlants exhibiting pyles of the ovules. these conditions are distinguished as AngiosPERMs or covered-seeded. The next phenomena which characterize the development of the ovules of the An-

them, cither constituting or carrying the impregnating matter, Avhich in the case of
the pollen-tube is a liquid, containing fine granules, but exhibiting no trace of active spermatic bodies, except that refractive granules are sometimes seen in active motion in the end of the pollen-tube. Soon after the pollen-tube has reached the point of the embryo-sac, one (rarely two, giving rise to Polyembryony) of the germinal bodies becomes invested by a cel-

giosperms

may

be briefly given as follows.

of the embryo-sac has already been described. Shortly before the opening of the flower, in most cases, this sac is more or less denselj' filled with granular protoplasm, in which a variable number of nuclei may be seen (PI. 47. figs. 1-7). About the time when the pollen-grains are discharged fi'oni the anthers, a number of minute, free, globidar protoplasmic bodies may be discovered in the embryo-sac, usually three (^more rarely one) of these being crowded into the upper end of the embryo-sac and constituting what are called the germinal bodies or masses (PI. 47. fig. 4), Others, which often occur in the embryo-sac, are collected near the bottom of it; generally they are apparently characteristic of particular famih.es only; in some plants they are very large, as in the Crocus. About this time the embryo-sac often exhibits asymmetrical growth, forming pouches or processes, sometimes at the summit, sometimes at the base. "When the pollen-grains fall upon the

The formation

lulose membrane {(/erm-cell), and usually changes from a spherical to an oval form, a transverse septum soon dividing it into two. Most frequently the elongation continues, with a successive formation of septa, until the nascent embryo appears as a rounded or oval cellule suspended at the base of a simple confervoid filament (suspensor) in other cases the formation of the first trans;

verse septum is followed by the expansion two globular cellules connected by a naiTow neck, the upper, almost devoid of contents, constituting the suspensor (Potain Orchis, the upper moffefon, Zannichellia) of the first two cells grows upwards and outwards, as a blind septate confervoid filament, through and beyond the micropyle of the ovule. In Tropceolum and Zea the susinto
;

pensor becomes more complex, by formation

of perpendicular septa. In all cases the end or embryonal cell, at the point of the
suspensor,
filled

which always appears densely with protoplasm, ultimately enlarges,

stigma, they protrude

(see

their

pollen-tubes

pyles of the ovides. Wben they reach the apex of the embryo-sac, they either stop, often swelling a little, or they pass down a short way over its side (PL 47. tig. 5) very rarely two pollen-tubes are found engaged in the micropyle of the same ovule. It is not absolutely known whether the cavities of the pollen-tube and the embryo-sac become actually continuous by absoi-ption of the walls at the point of attachment it is generally believed not, but we feel some doubt on this point. The essential point of the process is the intermixture of the contents of the pollen-tube ^\4th the substance In the higher of the germinal body. Cryptogamia and in the Algae, the impregnation is of a similar nature but there the germ-masses are fertilized by the agency of spermatozoids, which make their way to
; ; ;

PoLLEx), which pass down through the conducting tissue, and enter the micro-

and by segmentation is converted into the embryo (PI. 47. fig. 6). During the early development of the embryo, the embryo-sac is often found more or less densely filled with free cells formed from its protoplasm (ewf?os^?^;-m-cells) These are fi-equently absorbed, and disappear du.

'

ring the growth of the embryo, this ultiwhile in mately filling the embryo-sac other cases they persist and multiply, formIn the ing the ALBUMEN of the seed. Nymphaeaceae these cells remain, forming an inner Endosperm or Albumen, in addition to that formed from the body of the nucleus. In other cases (those of exalbuminous seeds) the embryo not only displaces these internal endosperm-cells, but in the course of its growth causes the absorption of the tissue of the nucleus, and idtimately constitutes the entire seed, enclosed only by the true integuments. The remaining characters are given under Albumen and
;

Embryo,
Tulasne
is

in doubt

whether the germinal

OVULE.

668

OVULE.

vesicles exist before the pollen-tube enters have certainly seen tlie micropyle.

We

them before but we believe they do not possess a cellular coat before impregnation. Observations on the ovule of Santalum album have led us to conclude that they receive the influence of the pollen -^hile in the state of nucleated protoplasmic cor;

the free cell at the base of this (germinal vesicle) then becomes divided into four collateral cells these multiply again and subsequently the cellular body (jiroembri/o) so formed breaks through the base of the
; ;

secondary embryo-sac, and grows down in the substance of the lower part of the nucleus, which is now in a state of semisolu-

puscles, analogous to the unimpregnated spores of Fucus; and this view has since been supported by the later observations of

Schacht, although Hofmeister and Radlkofer maintain that the germinal bodies possess a cell-membrane before impregnation. Li the Gymnospermous Flowering Plants of a (Couiferse, &c.) the ovule, consisting cellular nucleus and a single coat, is placed

The proembryo then separates into tion. four cords, corresponding to its four primary cells and these filaments (suspensors) terminate iu rounded cells, each of which is an embryonal cell; so that there are now four times as many rudimentary embryos Out of all these, as there are corpuscula.
;

upon an open

carpel,

and

its

widely-open

micropyle receives the pollen-grain. the period of impregnation, the embryo-sac is a cavity deeply seated in the tissue of the nucleus it is formed by the coalescence and expansion of several cells (in the Yew
;

At

there are often at

first

three embryo-sacs).

In the embryo-sac a number of free nuclei soon appear, and numerous free (endosperm-) cells are formed. In many of the Abietinese this goes on imtil the spring Ultimately following the impregnation. the embryo-sac is found to have increased to more than twenty times its original size,

with the endosperm-cells applied in layers

its walls, increasing in Then until the cavity is filled up. a certain number of cells (from three to eight in different genera), situated near the micropyle end, but each in the layer next but one to the wall of the embryo- sac,

over the inside of

number

become enlarged, and the cells intervening between these enlarged ones (secondary embryo-sacs) and the wall of the original embryo-sac become divided, by two perpendicular septa standing at right angles, central intercellular pasinto four cells. sage then appears at the contiguous angles of these four cells. These new bodies, which of the Lvclosely resemble the archegonia copoioiACE^, were called corpuscula by

only one ultimately remains and becomes the rest are absorbed In the during the ripening of the seed. latter, the perfect embryo is found Ipng in a mass of alljumen formed of the nucleus its radicle, developed at the point of junction of the suspensor, never becomes very clearly defined at its extremity, but remains organically continuous with the albumen. Other points relating to the development of ovules will be found under PolyejiBRYONY, Seeds, and CELL-formation. The methods of investigating the development of ovules are simple in their nature, but rather difficult in practice. The ordinary plan is to place an ovule between the thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and with a \tiry sharp lancet cut it into two unequal The pieces, in the direction of the axis. larger of the two being then laid on its flat side on the finger (by the aid of a mounted needle), another slice is made so as to leave a section preserving all the central part of the ovule. This adheres either to the finger or the lancet and a di'op of water should be placed on it to free it then it may be transferred to a slide with a very fine cainel'shair pencil. Examined under a low power (a half-inch), it will probably be found to
perfectly developed
; ; ;
;

Brown, who discovered them. Free cells, or perhaps merely protoplasmic masses, are next formed in the secondary
embryo-sacs of the corpuscula, several at the upper, oiie at the lower end. The pollen-tubes now advance, breaking down the
tissue of the nucleus, until their points reach the corpuscula and one then makes its way down the intercellular canal of each, to reach its secondary embryo-sac ;
;

require further dissection, with exceedingly fine needles, under a simple lens: sometimes mere pressure is of service. For the minute details, the quarter and eighth object-glasses will require to be applied. have found ovules which have been kept in when fresh, the cellspirit easier to dissect membranes are excessively delicate. It need scarcely be added that ovules require to be examined in all stages in order to imder-

We

stand their developmental characters; and the student must not be disheartened by the failure of a large proportion of his sections
to ali'ord satisftictorv observations.

OVULITES.

509

OVUM.
(fig.

BiBL. Brown, Ajyp. to King's Voyage, 1820; Linn. Tr. 1833; Mirbel and Sparh, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 s6r. xx. 257 Mohl, Bof. ibid. Zeit. 1847; 1847, 1855; Miiller, Sclileiden, Nova Acta, xix. 29; Ormuh. Bot. Hofmcister, Entsteh. d. Emhnjo, 1849; Unters. hoher. Crypt. 1851; Ahh. K. siichs. Ges. vi. Planstein, Flora, 1857 Tulasue, Aim. Sc. Nat. 3. xii. 21, 4. iv. 65 Schaclit, Beitr. z. An. u. Phys. 1854 Jahrh. loiss. Bot. i. 1857 Bot. Zeit. 1858 Criiger, Bot. Zeit. 1851, 1856; Eadlkofer,
; ; ; ; ;
;

the zona pellucida or chorion

Fig. 552.

562 a),

Entsteh. des Embryo, 1856; Henfi-ey, Linn.

Tr. xxi. 7, xxii. 69
;

Tr. Brit. Asxoc.

1856
i?oi^.

Bentley, Man. Bof.; Henfrey-Masters, Cbalin, Ann. Sc. N. xix. 1874, 1 Sachs, Bot. 558; Stvasshm-gev, Zellcnbiidung, 1880.
;

Human ovum from a Graafian vesicle of moderate a, zona pellucida; ft, vitelline membrane and outer boundary of the yolk ; c, germinal vesicle with the germinal spot. Magnified 250 diameters.
size,

OYULI'TES, Lamarck
large

{Oveolites)
;

.A
re-

which appears
globules
are

elegant one-celled ForaLuiuifer,

either garded by some as a calcareous Alga ovoid, sausage-shaped, or like a drumstick shell porous, with large terminal apertures length 1-25" and more. Fossil abimdant in the Eocene of Grignon, Hauteville, &c., France; rare in the
;

as a white ring. The yolksometimes transparent, or slightly granular; at others they contain one or several vacuoles, and are frequently aggregated into little groups. The yolk, as it approaches maturity, frequently becomes coloured. It is usually whitish or pale yellow in the Mammalia, Reptiles, and

Miocene of San Domingo. BiBL. Parker & Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. v. 292, and 1877, xx. 77. OVUM OF Animals. Several points in regard to the structure of the ovum, and the nature of the changes which it imder-

goes at different periods of

are in doubt

its

development,

and obscurit3^

The first perceptible trace of the ovum a existing within the ovary is formed by very minute gi-anule or globule, not surThis gradually roimded by a cell-wall. enlarges; and when it has attained a certain size, being still very minute, a smaller spheThe rical globule forms in its interior. minute internal globule is th.Q germinal spot; and the external globule is the germinal It appears, however, that in some vesicle.
cases the germinal spot is formed fu-st, and the germinal vesicle subsequently. When these have still further grown, a cell-waU forms separated by a slight interspace

Fishes, bright yellow or reddish in many Birds, and often green, blue, violet, or red in the Invertebrata. In the yolk of the ova of reptiles and fishes, crystalline plates are met with, consisting of an albuminous substance, allied to Htematoidine. Viewing the ovum as a simple cell, the germinal spot represents the nucleolus, the germinal vesicle the nucleus, the vitelline membrane or zona pellucida the ceU-wall, and the yolk the cell-contents. Some authors consider that the vitelline membrane is formed after the chorion. The ovum of man and the mammalia differs from that of the lower animals in its

remarkably small size, which depends upon the extremely small quantity of yolk entering into its composition. The mature ovum of man and mammalia averages about 1-200 to 1-150" in diameter, being rarely 1-100".

around the germinal

vesicle

and this

inter-

Minute space contains a transparent liquid. granules then arise in the liquid, which becomes inspissated ; and subsequently a number of globules of sarcode yoJkglohides this become perceptible in it mass forms the yolk and the surrounding membrane is the vitelline membrane. As
; ;

Another peculiarity consists in their ova, instead of being in immediate contact by means of their chorion or outer envelope with the stroma of the ovary, or loose within the cavity of the latter, as in other animals, being enclosed in distinct larger cells the Graafian vesicles. On the escape of the ovum from the ovary, the phenomena whieh ensue vary according to whether the ovum has been impregnated or not. In both cases the germinal vesicle

the

ovum

buminous layers
fused with the

attains further development, alare deposited upon and

vitelline

membrane, fonning

and spot disappear an interspace, filled with albuminous liquid, occurs between the the ovum yolk and the zona pellucida
;

OVUM.
becomes
coA^ered

'^ro

ovmi.

with

cilia,

and undergoes
;

In the impregnated ova of some animals,

a regular motion of rotation and certain movements and changes in form of the

most fishes and Cephalopods, the segmentation is only

as in certain of the Batrachia,
partial, a portion of the

forms Amoeba-like have been noticed. In the unimpregnated o\um, decay and decomposiprocesses,

yolk-substance, which

yolk remaining as

at

first.

tion subsequently take place. Tlie essential part of the process of impreg-nation consists in the penetration of the yolk by the spermatozoa, and their subsequent solution in it. This takes place either through tlie micropyles or the radiate
canals, or directly into the

lucida

In some of the Mammalia, the zona pelis traversed by very fine radiating
in

lines (canals),

which are best seen immersed in water.

are- often

ova

In the lower Vertebrate animals, the ova covered by new layers, secreted by the ovaries, as in the Batrachia (frog,
&c.),
sent.

naked yolk.

where a thick gelatinous coat

is

is

pre-

In the impreg-uated ovum, the germinal vesicle soon disappears, the chorion becomes thinner, the ovum grows, and the yolk bebut just gins to undergo segmentation before this process commences, one or two globules separate from the substance of the yolk, being apparently pressed out of it,
;

In the osseous Fishes, the vitelline

and occupy the interspace between the yolk these globules subseand the chorion
;

quently dissolve in the liquid. In the process of segmentation, at first a notch or sUght indentation appears on some part of the surface of the yolk; this be-

comes deeper and deeper, so as to encircle the yolk with an annular depression. Soon
the commencement of this, a clear spot appears in the centre of each circumscribed portion of the yolk. The depression becoming deeper, the yolk is divided into two distinct portions. The process is continued in the case of each of these in exactly the same manner, and in that of the segments arising from their subdivision
after
also,

fi'equently elegantly sculptured, and finely and closely punctate from the existence of minute canals traversing its substance. second coat is also present, and sometimes a third or albuminous In many of the Cyprinoidea, this layer. layer is represented by small radiate cylinIn several Fishes, as is so general ders. amongst the Invertebrata, especially Insects (Eggs), the vitelline membrane or chorion exhibits a facetted or sculptured appearance, derived from the impression of the epithelium lining the ovarian passages. In addition to the fine canals traversing the membranes of the ovum, one or more large canals or apertures are frequently met with resembling the micropyles of vegetable ovules, and receiving the same names; these are most distinct in the ova of fishes and

membrane

insects.

each simultaneously acquiring a clear

spot, miiil the yolk appears entirely

com-

The study of ova and their changes is very difficult. The most favourable objects for the purpose exist perhaps in those of the aquatic MoUusca the ova of insects, as the
;

posed of innumerable small bodies having the appearance of nucleated cells. Finally these become very minute, and the yolk acquires much the appearance it had before impregnation. Cells then form in the yolk, as in an ordinary blastema, from without inwards, and froni the spot originally occupied by the germinal vesicle as a centre and from these the tissues of the embryo are formed.
;

large species of Musca, of species of Pule.r, &c. are also easily accessible. Some important results have been obtained with the ova of the frog (frog's spawn)
.

BiBL. Kolliker, iMik. An. ii. Thomson, Cyel. An. art. Ovum Newport, P/tiL Tr. 1851 and 1853 Siebold, Veryl. An. Meissner, Sieb. 4" Kollik. Zeitsch. vii. 208, 272 Leuckart, Midi. Archiv, 1855 Claparede, Bibl. Univ. Geneve, 1855 Ann. N. H.
; ; ;

According to this description, the segmentation is not a process of cell-division or endogenous cell-formation, and the nu-

would correspond to portions of the yolk substance from which the granules and globules of sarcode were absent. Compare p. 140. In unimpregnated ova, segmentation takes and place to a certain extent, but irregailarly incompletely.
clear spots

1856, xvii. Bischoff, Sieh. ^^- Kiill. Zeit. vi. 377 Radlkofer, Befnuhtnnqs. 1857 Beneden & Bessels, M. M. J. 1869, 41 Kupfifer, M. Mic. Jn. 1869, 47 Kowalevski, Mem.
;

St. Petersh. xvi.

1871

Klein,

M. M.

J. vii.

Ho^o 1870; Dalliuger & Drysdale, M. M. Jn. 'xviii. 86; Schafer, Pr. Roy. Soc. no. 168 Kolliker, Entwickel. Balfour, Comp. Emhryol. ; M. Baker, Phys.
1872, 193
;

Beale, Ti:

Mic

Soc. 1867;

(0.307;

Beneden,

/'ffi//",

OVUM.

571

PACHYGNATHUS.

1880; His, Mensckl.Emhri/0,1880; Reichert, Menschl. Frucht. 1873 Girdwoyn, Mai. d. (Eufs (tish), 1880.
;

OVUINI OF Plants.

See Ovule.

OXALATES. See the bases. OXYR'RHIS, Duj.A genus

late

whitish, smooth, slightly depressed, equally rounded at the ends, often somewhat broader head not distinct mouth in the middle Freshwater; ciliated; tail with bristles. length 1-720 to 1-280".
;
;

Infusoria,

belonging
-

to

of Flagelthe family

Thecamonadina.
Char. Body ovoid oblong, rugose, obfront and prolonged into liquely notched in a point several flagelliform filaments (two, Kent) arising laterally from the bottom of the notch. O. marina (PI. 31. fig. 54). Body colour;

0. ffibba E. (PI. 31. fig. 53). Body white, lanceolate, obtuse at each end, ventricose in the middle ; ventral surface flat, with a

double row of setge mouth large, rounded. Freshwater; length 1-240". Other species. According to Haime, Oxytricha is the
;

larva of Aspidisca. BiBL. Ehr. hif.

363;
;

Duj. Inf. 416;

;

less,

line

BiBL. Dujard.7/.347; Pritchard, Inf. 513. OXYT'IMCHA, Bory, Ehr. genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria", of the family Oxy-

subcylindrical, length 1-500".

rounded behind

ma-

Haime, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xix. 109 Clap, Lachm. Maudes, 139 Kent, Inf. 786.

et

trichina.

Char. Closely resembling Stylonychia but the front of the bodv not produced. O. penioneUa, E. (PI. 31. fig. 52). Body
\

OXYTRICHI'NA. family of Hypotrichous Infusoria. Char. Carapace absent; body depressed, with vibratile cilia, setae, or cii-ri, and nonvibratile styles or hooks. Movement crawlAlimentary orifices two, neither tering.
minal.

Genera

OTytricha.
S/ichochieta.

anterior part of the body not prolonged as a neck, furnished with cirri

Marginal

cirri

The anterior part of the body neck- like, and {The covered with cirri
(.Foot-cirri not arranged in rows e ,, Foot-hooks / No dorsal bristles Withtrontal r ^^^^ 1 Dorsal bristles
I

ciT"

Stylonychia. Euplotes. Schizopus.

LNo

foot-hooks

Cumpylopus.
Aspidisca.

-I
Clap, et

Without frontal cirri {TTx-iu

;

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 362

Pritch. Inf. 639 Lachm, Etudes, 168. OXYUR'IS, Rud. See Ascaris. OY'STER {Ostrea).k. genus of Lamel;

Ann. N. H.
467,

2.

v.

465

Fries,

Sum. Veg.

PACHYG'NATHUS,
.

Duges. A genus

libranchiate Mollusca. The giUs of O. edulis, the common oyster, show the ciliary movement ; but it is not so easily seen in this as in the marine mussel. The sheUs of the fry or 'embryo oysters' exhibit the black cross and an imperfect set of coloui'ed rings with polarized light.

of Trombidina (Acarina) Char. Palpi conical, last joint scarcely

forming a claw; mandibles stout, chelate;

naiTowed in front ; coxfe dislegs gxessorial, sixth joint very long, seventli very short; anterior legs longest and stoutest, P. vehitinus (PI, 6. fig. 34), the only species. Foimd in autumn, imder damp stones.

body

entire,

tant

PACHNOC'YBE, Berk. A
Isariacei

Hairs covering the body short, fiat, and curved, giving it a velvety aspect. Body

genus

of

infiated,

narrowed

in front, the

narrowed

(Hyphomycetous Fungi), somewhat confused by authors with Doratomyces, Corda, and Periconia, Xees. These plants have an erect filiform stem, composed of
conjoined filaments, capitulate above, the head being pruinose (not floccident), with crowded simple spores. The pedicels are mostly brownish or blackish, the spores light-coloured ; the entire plants from 1-24 Several species occur on to 1-6" high. rotten wood, stems, &c, BiBL. Berk. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 333 ;

portion with two projecting brownish eyes. Insertions of the legs in two groups, not far distant, or from the median line second in all the sixth joint pair of legs shortest very long, the seventh very short and nar;

row

Tetranychus, Megamerus, and claws two, large rostrum projecting; palpi (a) short, about twice the length of the labium mandibles very large and stout at the base. Movement slow,
(6), as in

Paphignathus

BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat.

Gervais, Walck, Apter.
iii.

2,

ii.

54;

171.

PACHYMA.
PACHY'MA,
Fr.

-^72

PABINA.
Fig. 553.

supposed genus

of Sclerotiacei, but probably a condition of certain roots, the substance being converted It is well known in the into pectic acid. United States imder the name of Tuchahoo. BiBL. Fr. Sijst. Mijc. ii. 242 ; Berk. Int.

Crypt. Bot. 254.

PACHYMATIS'MA, Bowk.A

genus

of marine Sponges.

Distinguished by the fleshy, crust-like, not celliUar nor elastic mass, covered by a thick skin, and perforated by scattered orithe interior beset with siliceous acifices P. Johnstonia. cular and stellate spicula.
f

d
c

(Bowerbank,

Bi-it.

Spong.,

PACHYPHLCEUS,

Tul. A genus

Ray

Soc.)

of

Tuberacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), with a common warty integument opening by a terminal aperture with a distinct base, clavate asci, and spherical sporidia. Three species occur in Great Britain. BiBL. Tul. Funy. Hyp. 130 Berk, and Br. Ann. N. H. xiii. 3o9, xviii. 79 Berk. Outl. 377 Cooke, Hondh. 743. PACHYT'EOCHA, Kent. genus of Like Cotlmrnia, Peiitrichous Infusoria. but \A\\\ a fleshy pad closing the carapace. P. cothurnoides pond-water. (Kent, Inf.
;

729.)

PAODs'IAN

CORPUSCLES.

These

curious organs form terminations or appendages of the spinal nerves in the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the palm of the hand, the sole of the foot, the fingers and toes, in the sympathetic semilmiar ganglia, the mesentery, &c. They are elliptical or pear-shaped, whitish and about 1-25 to 1-6" in diameter. Each consists of from twenty to sixty concentric layers of connective tissue (tig. 553), separated by interspaces, those between the outer layers being considerable, those between the inner being small each is lined with epithelium. They surround a cavity filled with soft, abinidantly nucleated and very easily alterable material, which imdergoes coagulation after death, and into the interior of which the nerve-fibres penetrate. They are filled with a clear serous Uqnid each is also furnished with a stalk, containing a slender nerve-fibre, which passes into the central space, in which it terminates, frequently in two or three branches, each wnth a granular tubercle. The Pacinian corpuscles are met with also on the nerves of many Mammalia, and are very numerous in the skin, the beak.
,

A human Pacinian corptiscle. a. stalk 6, nerre-flbre within it c, outer, rf, inner layers of the sheath e, pale nerve-fibre in the central cavity; /, its termination.
; ; ;

Magnified 350 diameters.

and the tongue of birds. Thev are readily examined in the mesentery of the cat. BiBL. Kolliker, Mile. An. ii. Schultze,
;

Strieker's Hist.

PADI'NA, Adanson. A genus

tyotacecs

of Dic-

the thickness and solidity, from the base to the edges. The back of the frond is covered

The substance is the parenchymatous number of layers of cells diminishing, with

(Fucoid Algaj), containing one species, P. Pavonin (fig. 554), found rarely in summer and autumn on the south coast of England. The fan-shaped or reniform fronds grow in tufts, and are 2 to 5" high, sometimes entire, sometimes cleft (fig. 5.54). are marked with concentric zones. They

PADINA.
by a layer
rest,

573
12

PALMELLA.
Kiitz.

of cells nmch smnllor than the forming a kind of epidermis, which ultimately acquires a thickish cuticular

lieJHvenescence,

Al. Braun, Phyc. gen. pi. 22 Hay Soc, 1853, 79.

;

gory dew).
Fi?. 554.

PALMEL'LA, Lyugbye

A genus of

(lied

snow and
(Con-

l'aliuellace;e

fervoid Alga)), of which the best known example is the common P. crucnta (PI. 7.

Padina Pavonia. Frond, one third natui-al

layer.

size.

3 rt). This plant, very common on damp walls in shaded places, appears at first in the form of rosy gelatinous patches these spread and become confluent until the mass extends sometimes over a great extent of surface, as a tough, gelatinous, irregular mass, of the colour and general appearance of blood when dried up in this state, it forms a horny, somewhat criunbling stratum if placed in water, portions float to the top in pellucid rosy masses of jelly. When placed under the microscope, the frond appears to be composed of a colourless
lig.
;

homogeneous
is

The growing edge

of the frond

rolled backwards (circinate) and fringed. The fructification occurs in linear concentric sori, on the coloured zones of the frond.

The pear-shaped qiore-sncs (tig. oo5) originate from cells of the epidermal layer, which
Fig. 655.

which are imbedded or in pairs (from division), of a beautiful rose-colour (fig. 3, a, b) ; by the application of reagents, these may be shown to possess a proper membranous The contents of the cells appear coat (c).
jelly, in

globular

cells, single

uniformly granular (b, c) and it would appear that, besides increasing by division, the cells also burst and discharge their contents, since patches of minute granules occur
;

imbedded

Vertical section of a frond at a concentric zor.i made in a radial direction, cutting through the sorus of sporesacs and a line of hairs. The indusial layer of cuticle
,

has been removed.

in the jelly (lower figs, of b), probably destined to grow up into the ordinary No zoospores, nor the remarkable cells. phenomena generally that occm' in ProtcH coccus, have yet been observed in this, which appears to be a very distinct genus. The jelly of full-grown fronds (which appears to be derived from the gelatinous softening of the coats of the parent cells of the successive

Ma^ifled 50 diameters.

take on special development, and in the course of their growth push up and finally burst through the loosened cuticular layer which originally clothed them, so that the latter forms a kind of indusium Hke that of
spore-sacs produce each four spores, which separate after their escape from the sac. The zones of the sori alternate n'ith zones composed of tufts of jointed

generations of cells) is often overgrown and discoloured by minute filamentous structures,

it
;

which at first sight seem to belong to but on the application of a higli power are found to consist of a very minute Nostochaceous plant, apparently the Anabaina

the Ferns.

The

subtilissima of Kiitzing, or Ehr. (PL 7. fig. 21), which

we

Vibrio bacillus, find to occur

hairs placed in corresponding lines (fig. 555). Thuret states that he has never found antheridia hitherto, and he believes that Agardh mistook the hairs or paranemata
for

From the examination of specimens of the true "red snow," brought home by Captain Parry, we incline to regard this as a Pahnella, distinct genericaUy from the Profococcus or Hfematococcus phtvialis of
German
writers, with which it is commonly Our specimens consist of a associated.

commonly among the Pahnellaceous

Algae.

them, BiBL. Han^ev, Mar. Alg. 37, pi. 6 C Thyc. Br. pi. 91 Grev. Ahj. Br. pi. 10 Agardh, *S)>. Aly. i. 112; Niigeli, Algemyst. 180, pi. 5 ; Thuret, Ann. Sc. iVV. 4 ser. iii.
; ; ;

tough, colourless, gelatinous substance, containing globidar cells difl'ering only in size (PL 7. fig. .3 d) from those of Palmella cruenta ; and in the jelly occur also abundance

PALMELLACE^.

574

PALMELLACEzE.

of the minute granules or cells, wliicli are the discharged contents of the larger cells. The red cells of the red-snow plant turn green when exposed to light, if kept moist. An exactly similar plant has heen given us
Oliver, from Crag Lough, Northand v^e umberland, in a fresh condition have never been able to detect any moving forms in it. Further particulars are given under Rkd Snow and Water. Several other species of Pahnella are described but most of them are too imperfectly known to allow of definite characters being given P. rosea The forms with is perhaps a good species. a definite frond formerly placed here (P. pi'otuberans, hotryoides, &c.) will be found under Coccocitloris. BiBL. Eng. Bot. pi. 1800 Greville, Alg. Turin Ac. 2. v. pi. 205; Meneghini, Tr. Hassall, Alg. pi. 80 Niigeli, Alg. G6, pi. 6 Rabenht. pi. 4D; Kiitz. 'Sp. Alg. 211; Alg. iii. 32. See also Red Snow, and Pro-

with rather large globular green and red

multiplying by division (PI. 7. fig. 3). Microhaloa. Frond mucoid, floating in water, densely cro\\ded with minute cells, multiplying by di^sision, green or red,
cells,

by Mr.

tt Frond

dejinite.

Cells enclosed in wide Gloeocapsa. gelatinous coats, enclosed in similar wide gelatinous parent coats for several generations
(PI. 7. figs.

&

13).

Eotrydina.

Frond
cells
;

composed of

globose, the peripheiy cohering into a kind of

(PI. 7.

cellular epidermis inner cells free fig. 9). Coccochloris. Frond gelatinous,

globose,
all

containing numerous distinct

(PI. 7. fig. 6).

cells,

free

Frond gelatinous, at first Clathrocgstis. globose, then hollow and broken into a coarse net, crowded with minute cells (PI.
5. fig. 9).

TOCOCCUS.
family of Confervoid Algae, consisting of gelatinous or pulverulent masses, growing on damp surfaces, in fresh water or in the sea composed of globular or elliptical cells, either more or less adherent together into a definite or
;

PALMELLA'OE^.A

Frond very minute, flat, containing cells in families of four, sixteen, and sixty-four (PI. 7. fig. 12). Urococcus. Frond composed of striated gelatinous tubes, formed of the parent cellmembranes in a single row, with solitary or binary cells in the ends (PI. 7. fig. 7).
Meris77iopcedia.
sc^uare,

pseudo-membrane or frond, or loosely aggregated within a definitely or indefinitely formed gelatinous matrix, or loosely coherent in the form of a pulverulent crust. Some authors have imagined that the cells of Coccochloris or Pahnella are attached to filaments included in the gelatinous frond: this seems an error (seePALMELLA). Yellowish or bluish-green, or red, often varying from green to red, and vice versa, Induring the course of development. creased by cell-division into two or four, and by ciliated zoospores. Many exhibit 1. active; 2. quietly vegethree forms: tating by subdivision ; 3. resting form, include here, with a tough membrane. for the sake of convenience, not only the true Palmellacese, where there is a frond composed of a number of cells held together by mucus, but also all those Unicellular Algfe which, from their mode of increase, are found living socially or in masses which
indefinite

Hormospora.

Frond a wide, gelatinous,

simple or branched

sheath, containing a single row of cells in twos or foiu-s (fig-. 33B, p. 395). Tetraspora. Frond gelatino us, foliaceous cells in fours, becoming free as zoospores
;

(PL Hydrurus.

7. fig. 10).

Frond

toughly

gelatinous,

filiform, containing imbedded longitudinal rows of cells (PI. 7. fig. 8).

Pahnodictyon. Frond gelatinous, filiform, branched; branches anastomosing into a net,

consisting of large vesicular cells, ^\ith coloured contents which escape as zoospores.

We

** Cells
in small

single,

numbers

either solitary or united into families (Unicellular

Algae).

Sckizochlamys.

Cells free, globular, green,

aggregated in a jelly, each dividing into 2 or 4 portions, set free by the parent cell breaking into 2 or 4 segments.
ChJorosphcera.

appear like Palmelloid plants.

Synopsis of Genera, immersed in a colourless gelatinous t Frond amorphous.

large free globose cell,

with green contents, ultimately dividing into two cells, each forming a new cell like
the parent, set free by lateral rupture (PI.
5.

Cells

frond.

4).

Pahnella.

Frond a slimy stratum, crowded

Characiunt. minute attached, pyriform, fusiform, or roimded, shortly stipitate sac

PALMELLINA.

-'"'75

PALUJJICELLA.
1.

containing green protoplasm, wliicli by repeated biuar}' division forms a swarm of active 2-ciliated zoospores escaping by a lateral or terminal slit (PI. 5. tig. 2). Apiocystis. simple attached sac with a stout membrane, with green contents, consisting at fii"st of groups of four still gonidia, which subdivide repeatedly, and as the parent sac grows become converted into innumerable active zoospores, which mt)ve in the paient sac and then break out in a

BiBL. Grev. Ann. N. H. 1865, xvi.

PALMICELLA'IUA,
of

Alder. A genus

Escharida3

(Cheilostomatous Polyzoa).

with a palmate or mucrouate process, with an avicularium on

Orifice of the capsules
its

deep water.

inner aspect. Four species marine, (Hincks, Br. Zooph. 378.) PALMITIC ACID is a constituent of most neutral animal and vegetable fats it
; ;

combination with glycerine, forming palmitine. When crystalline it forms

exists in

swarm (PL

Codioium. An attached small, long clavate sac, forming a stipes below, tilled Avith granular green contents, with starch-corpuscles, finally converted at once into numerous globose gonidia, escaping by ruptm-e of the sac (PI. 5. fig. 6). Hydrociftium. An attached minute shortly stalked oblong sac, with green contents, and

5. tig. 6).

pearly scales.

PALMODAC'TYLON, Nag. supposed genus of Unicellular Algae, germinating spores of a Moss ? P. varium consists of a group of radiating
single cells, or short multicellular filaments
;

a parietal starch-corpsule. Contents finally divided into uiunerous 2-ciliated zoospores,

breaking out in a swarm (PL 5. fig. 1). Ophiocyfium. Single or rarely in families composed of a minute cyhndrical cvirved sac, v\-ith a short stipes, jfree or attached green contents scattered, finally forming 8
;

ends rounded; numerous green masses in each cell. The cell-wall bursting in definite In directions, sets free active gonidia. freshwater pools. BiBL. Nageli, EmzeJl. Aly. pi. 2. fig. B ;

Rabenh. Alq.

iii.

43.

gonidia in a row, set free by the circumscissile rupture of the end of the sac (PL 5. fig. 11). A t first a stalked tubular sac, Sciadiiim. with 8 gonidia, which grow fi-om the orifice
in an umbel, finally emitting 2-ciliated zoospores (PL 5. fig. 3). minute parasitic globuC'hytridmm. lar or urceolate rooted sac cell-contents colom'less, finally converted into 2-ciKated

genus of Palmellacese (Confervoid Algse). Frond forming a delicate gelatinous network, comof single or double rows of large vesiposed cular cells, 1-600 to 1-960" in diameter; containing a pair of eUiptical gi-een cellules,
1-3000" in diameter, which ultimately escape as active zoospores. This genus appears identical with Tryjwthallus, Hook, and Harvey, and is nearly related to Hy-

PALMODIC'TYON, Ktz. A

DEURXJS and Tetbaspoea.

P. rufescens, Ktz., doubtfully referred here, is larger it occurs near Aberdeen. BiBL. Kiitz. -j. Aly. 234; Tah. Phyc.
;

zoospores (PL

5. fig. 7).

a coloiu'less globuPythium. lar sac, living the interior of diseased Confervoids, often in groups, the neck perforating the nm-se-plant, emitting active

Parasitic

Bd.

i.

pi.

31

Rabenh. Aly.
Ktz.

iii.

37.

PALMOGLCEA,

See

Cocco-

gonidia (PL

5. fig. 8).
;

CHXORIS. BiBL. Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn, 1864, 124; Rabenh. Aly. iii. 116.

BiBL. Braim, Hejuven., Hay Soc. 1861 Unicell. 1855 Alg. Chytridium, 1856
;
;

PALMOPHYL'LUM, Ktz. A

genus of
1 species,

Kiitz. Sj)ec. Nageli, Eiir^eU. Alyen, 18'49 Aly. and Tah. Phycol. i. ; Cohn, Noca Acta, xxiv. ; Kabenh. Aly. iii. Cooke, Freshicaicr Alyce, 1882.
;

Palmellacese (Confervoid Algae). found in the Adriatic. BiBL. Rabenht. Flor. Eur.
49.

Aly.

iii.

PAL.MELLI'NA, Radlk. A
;

PALUDEL'LA, Ehr. A

genus of Meerepresentative,

doubtful

siaceae,

genus, allied to PahncUa, or probably Fmigi. Thallus fl Occident cells very minute, some smaller and globular, others larger, elliptical In the mud of wells and or elongate. fountains and beneath the epidermis of the scalp
;
!
.

which occurs in Britain, P. squarrosa = Brxjum squarrosum, L. PALUDICEL'LA, Gervais.A genus of

Polyzoa. Char. Polyzoary fixed, filamentous, diffusely and irregularly branched, coriaceous, consisting of a single row of club-shaped cells arranged end to end ; apertures unilateral, tubular, placed near the broad end of

having

only

one

PALME'RIA, Grev.A
Hong Kong.

BiBL. Rabenh. Aly.

iii.

35.

genus of Dia-

tomacese from

PAMPHAGUS.
;

576

PAPER.

each cell tentacular disk circular, with a single row of free tentacles. F. articidala. The only species olivegreen polypes ascidian. Freshwater dia; ; ;

meter of filaments about 1-30 to 1-20". BiBL. Johnston, r. Zooph. 405 Allman, Ann. N. H. xiii. o31, and Pr. Irish Ac. 1843.
;

PAM'PHAGUS,
Rhizopoda
elastic
;

BaUey.

allied to Lieherkuehnia.

genus of P. mu-

covered with a delicate integument. Bailey, Amcr. Jn. Sei. XV. Pritchard, Inf. 551 Claparede et Lachmann, Etudes, 465 Archer, Qti. M. J. 1871, 101.
tabilis is auicebiforni,
;

or part of the gonidia of a family, after conjugation (fig. 13U*, p. 205). The impregnated gonidia soon acquire a stout special coat, and their originally gi-een contents turn red they become free by the solution of the parent-envelope. In germination they turn green again, and by repeated division of their protoplasm, form the new families of sixteen or thirty-two, constituting the perfect plant. Fertilization of the gonidia has also been described as being produced by the action of spermatozoids minute, fusiform, ciliated corpuscles, produced in large numbers by the subdivision of certain of the gonidia. This
;

genus of Volvocinee (Confervoid Algas), which we believe to be synonymous with Eudorina, It exhibits a great variety of forms, some of which have been described under the name of P. Monim.^ others of End.
eUyans. The most characteristic conditions are represented in PI. 5. fig. 10. Pandurina stands midway between Volvox and Stephanosphcera, consisting of an ellipsoidal translucent gelatinous sac, containing imbedded just within its surface, several zonelike rows of green pear-shaped gonidia, whose two cilia penetrate the gelatinous envelope, and, hanging out free, move the

PANDORI'^^A, Bory (PL

5. fig.

10).

De Barv, Bot. Zeit. xvi., Supp. ii. Currey, Q. Mic. Jn. vi. 213 Carter, Ann. N. H. 3 ser. ii. 237 Rabenhorst, Alq. iii. 99 Pringsheim, Monatsb. Berl. Ak. 1869 Sachs, Bot. 258. PANNA'RIA, Del. genus of Placodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Several species.
xxvi. 1
;

seems doubtful. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 53; Duj. Inf 317; Henfrey, Mic. Tr. 2. iv. 49 Fresenius, Mus. Senckenb. ii. 187 Cohn, Nova Acta,
;
;

73

(Leighton,

Licli. Fl.

50.)

PANOPH'RYS,

Duj.

= rRONTONiA pt. A

entire organism by their distinct forms occur one

vibration.

Two

with sixteen, the

other with thirty-two gonidia. Where sixteen occur, there are four zones of four gonidia, while where thirty-two exist they stand in four zones of eight, %vith four at each end(Pl. 5. fig. 10 a and Z). The gonidia have a red spot and a vacuole, like those of Gonium and Volvox. These two forms occur together; and evidently the difference arises simply from an additional binary subdivision of the gonidia in the earlier stages of development from the spore. They are often so numerous as to tinge the water of fresh pools gi'een, like Volvox and Protococcus. They occur of various sizes, from

P. ckri/salis (PI. 31. fig. 55). Marine. BiBL. Duj. Inf. 491; Claparede & Lachm. Etudes, 260. PANTOT'RICHUM, Ehr. genus of
Infusoria.

P. kif/ennla, E. (PI. 31.

;

fig.

58).

ovate, equally rounded at each end, yellowish tegument produced in front in the form of a neck or truncate rostrum ; length 1-1080 to 1-580".

Body

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 247; Dujard. Inf. 388 Clap, et Lachm. Inf. 315. PAPER. A few general observations only can be made under this head. Ordinary paper, as is well known, was generally manufactured from rags of linen or cotton f abi ics,
;

so that

it

consisted of a kind of felt of the

;

1-80" downwards. These forms are multiplied vegetatively by the conversion of each gonidium into a family like the parent, each group acquiring
envelope and becoming free by Two the solution of the parent-envelope. corresponding forms also occur with the above, with the sixteen or thirty-two gonidia closely crowded together, instead of standing at wide intervals in the large
its special

are now largely used. The manipulation to which the material is subjected, together with the effect of frequent washing in the

but in consequence for paper, other substances, such as straw, jute, esparto, the pulped woody fibres of the poplar and pine,
fibres of cotton or flax

of the

immense demand

colourless envelope. The resting-spores are formed out of all

case of rags, affects the characters of the some extent; and the cellulose is in some cases already brought into that state in which iodine colours it blue. The addition of sulphuric acid and iodine colours the fibres of most papers blue ; and care
-

fibres to

PAPER.

.577

PARAaiTES.
;

must be takeu on this accouut to avoid errors from the accidental presence of them \vlien blotting- -paper is used to absorb these reagents when applied to objects on a slide.

common, marine
beaches, &c.

also

fossil
2/-.

The determination

of the nature of the

is

tila-

composed, by tlie aid of the microscope, requires a thorough

ments of which a paper

knowledge of the characters of vegetable The structure of the various fibres fibres. is noticed under the individual heads. Latterly the use of the fibres of the purple bog
melic-grass, Molinea ccerulea, has been introduced. Rice-paper, as it is termed, is a totally different material, consisting of thin layers, cut by a peculiar operation, of the pith of Aralia papyrifera, a Chinese Araliaceous tree this consists of parenchymatous cel:

PARADUXOS'TUMA, Fischer. A genus of Cytheridce (Entomostraca). Valves thin, smooth, elongate, compressed, subovate or subtiiangular mouth simple, tubifbrm five joints in the lower, six in the upper antennte, the last very slender. Marine 13 British species. P. variahile very common, fossil in raised beaches, &c. (Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 456.)
; ; ;

(Brady,

Zm.

in raised xxvi. 377.)

PARAME'CIUM,
; ;

Hill,

Ehr.A genus

lular tissue.

Papyrus, consisting of pressed superposed lamina? of the pith of the Papyrus plant, Papyrus antiquorum, a kind of Sedge, exhibits the lax parenchymatous structure chaiacteristic of similar tissues, as in the Rushes, &c.

of Holotrichous Infusoria, family Colpodina. Char. Body compressed, covered with no eye-spot moutii lateral and withcilia out projecting cirri. Several species, freshwater and marine. P. aurdia (PL 31. figs. 56 and 57). Body cylindrical, ovate-oblong, rounded or obtuse at the ends, with an oblique longitudinal fold extending to the mouth. Length 1-120
to 1-100"
;

in vegetable infusions.

This
curious

common

infusorium shows well the

contractile vesicles. in it the periodical occur-

star-shaped

PAPER, METEORIC, and Aeeophytes.

structure of these substances is the as that of the so-called natural Hanuel

Ehrenberg notices

The
same

(Flanistel). They were formerly regarded as of meteoric origin. They have been obfall from the having been wafted perhaps many miles from their place of formation by whirlwinds and hurricanes. BrBL. Ehr. Abhandl. d. Berl. Akad.

rence of small black crystalline particles at the anterior end. The depressions on the surface of the integument (PI. 32. tig. 1) are tridistinctly seen in the dried animal
;

served in some in.^tances to

air,

chocysts are present. P. chrysalis, E. (^Pleuronem'i crassum, D,

PI. 32.
fig.

37,

undergoing division).

Body

oblong, cylindrical; oral cilia very long.

Length
BiBL.

1-2-10".
Elir.
;

Inf.

1838.

PAP'PUS. The
calyx
of

Stein, Infus.
of

C laparede et Lachmann, Infus.

of FlaFree, ovate or globular,

349; Duj. Inf. 481;

the

free portion It Compositse.

the

265

may

be

PARAISJ 'UNAS, Kt.A genus

gellate Infusoria.

Kent, Inf. 483.

membranous, or hairy. PAPULASTORA, Preuss. A genus of Mucedines (Hyphoniycetous FuugiJ, consisting of a decumbent articulate mycelium sending up erect pedicels bearing a cellular
featherv, spiny,

Four

one tiagellum, a distinct mouth at its basefreshspecies, white, red, or green

;

water.
to

PARAPHY'SES. The name

more or
less delicate-jointed,

(Kent, Inf. 370.)

apphed
hair-like

head, each cell supporting an oblong spore. P. sepedonioides has been found on ricepaste.

filaments Avhich

occur in small numbers

BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2. 4G2 Berk. Crijpf. Bot. 305, fig. 69 b. PAPY'RUS. The pith of the stem of the Papyrus antiquormii (modern papyrus from P. syrtacus), cut into slices, which are laid upon one another and pressed so as to form a compact stratum. Sections display
xiii.
;

around and between the antheridia and archegonia of Mosses and Hepaticse (fig. 23, The same term is p. 57, fig. 327, p. 388).
*

applied to simple tubular, more or less clavate cells, occurring in large numbers among the spore-sacs (asci and thecce) of the Ascomycetous Fungi and the Lichens (fig. 40, p. "78; fig. 398, p. 463; PL 37.
figs. 6, 12).

the parenchymatous tissue more or formed bv pressure.

less

de-

genus of Cypridce (Entomostraca), near Ayluia and

Potamocyyris.

PAPACY 'PRIS,
One

Sars. A

PARAPONTEL'LA, Br. A
(Brady, Copepoda,

genus of
i.

Copepodous Entomofttraca.
marine.

P. brevicornis,

British species, rather

PARASITES. Under

Hay

Soc.

68.)

this

head are in-

2p

PARASITES.

578

PARASITES.

eluded a uumber of microscopic animals and plants infesting other animals and the expense plants, and often nourished at
of their structures or juices.

Man
On
the Skin.

Achorion

and Mammalia.
Schcenleinii

and
the

Almost eveiy
;

Puccinia favus, on the hair and

follicles,

in

animal and plant is subject to parasites, both in the young and the adult state and
in some instances, the parasites are themThe selves infested by other parasites. parasite may live on the surface of the parasitiphore or host, or within its tissues and in the cavities of its organs ; hence the division of parasitic animals into epizoa The commonest parasites and entozoa. either feed upon the deca;y'ing external skin -tissues, or are nourished at the expense

favus. Trichophyton tonsiiranSf on the hair in plica polonica and favus this appears to be a Tonda-like
in
;

In some remarkof the blood and fluids. able instances, as in the cirripeds, the male appears to live parasitically upon the female and in almost every case of parasitism there is a complicated life-cycle, often
;

growth, probably not a mature plant. Tr.? spondoides, Rob., occurs in plica and Tr.? ulcerina, Rob., in the pus of ulcers. Microsporon Audouinii occurs in the hair-follicles in porrigo decalvans M. metdagrophytes. on the beard &c. M. fiirfiir, on the skin of the chest tS:e. in pitja-iasis versicolor. The occurrence of 3Iuco)- mucedo on the skin, and of an Asj^ergillus in the external conduit of the ear, must be regarded as
;
:

accidental.

'

On

tlie

Sarcina
cerevisice

ventricidi in the
(?),

mucous surfaces or in cavities. stomach Torula

;

accompanied by strange adaptations and

degenerations of form, so that often the parasite ultimately resembles but slightly its Of the Animal free and primitive form. Parasites, many are not microscopic, but the following sketch may be useful for The chief portion belong to reference.
:

ditto.

Various

species

of
as

Leptomitus, which must be regarded

The Crustacea, Order Siphonostoma, as Caligus, Cecrops, Lcemargus, Nicotho'e. The Aeachnida, Ord. Acariua, as Sarcoptes,
the itch-insect ; the Ixodea, or ticks
;

imperfect mycelial growths, found in almost all the cavities of the Oidium albibody. cans, the fimgus of aphtha, probably a peculiar condition of PENicii,LirM;'ie/;;'otlirix hiccalis, a filamentous growtli constant between the teeth, probably some allied

mycelium.
Birds.

Gamasea,

on

insects

Tromhidium,

the the

harvest-bug; the Hypoderidee, in birds; The Insects, the Phytoptidse, in galls. especially the Anoplura, as Htsmato^nnus, Pediculus (the louse), and Phthirius Pedi;

Various species of Aspergillus have been found in the kmgs and air-sacs their introduction would appear to be accidental. In the eggs of the common fowl, Dacty;

The Entozoa, cimis ; and TricJiodectes. as Tcenia {Ccenunis, Cysticercus, EchinoDistoma, in the hver; Bilharzia, coccus) in the human blood-vessels, the ova in the lU'iiie in endemic hsematuria and chyluria
; ;

LiuM ooyenum occurs not imfrequeutly, sometimes on the membrane of the yolk,
sometimes on the outer membrane, just beneath the shell. Sporotrichum hrunneunt, Schenk, in the white of eggs, converting it into a brownish gelatinous mass.

the Nematodes, Anyuilhda

coralis,

intest.

and

ster;

and TJocJimius,

in tropical diarrlicea

Iteptiles

and

Fishes.

Sderostoma synfjamiis in poultry, producing the " gapes;" Stromjylns 2}eryrucilis in the
Grouse-disease. Trichomoyuis, &c.

The
;

Infusoria, Oj)alma,

of Tritons, as of Fishes, {Saproleynia) is frequently extremely developed other obscure forms are skin
;

On the Achlya

Psorospermice

in

and the Gregabinida, mammals, and insects

also

enumerated by Robin. The same author

(Pebrine). These are described under the respective

heads.
parasitic on animals chiefly belong to the class of Fungi, and are tolerably numerous ; but many of the forms

describes the Psorospeemi^ as Algfe allied to the Diatomacea; ; but they are pseudonavicidaj of Gregarina.

The Plants

'\

Berkeley has recorded the occurrence in Denbighshire, on the scales of goldfish, of a lichen identical A^dth one wliich is found on
stones in neighbouring streams.
Insects

which have been described are certainlj" not distinct plants. They will be most conveniently emmierated under the heads of
the classes of animals infested.

are subject to the invasion of various parasitic fungi, among the most remarkable of

PAKASITES.

-"'J

PAILMKLIA.

which is the 3Iuscardine of tlio Silk-wurm, BoTRYTis ba^siaiia, which soiUL'limcs occiisions euoruious loss to the silk-cidtivators. This fungus grows in or upon auy part of the silk-worm, Bombi/.v mori, iu its larva, chrysaHs, aud imago forms. It is not fully developed until after the death of the insect but if the spores penetrate the body of a living specimen and this is placed iu a damp and contined atmosphere, the germination
;

Further particulars are given under PotatoFifNGUS {Butrytis infestam) ,\ i^k-Fxjsgvh, and Bligut. The organisms described as Unicellular Alga3, under the names of Chytridium and Pythium, are parasitic on Confer voids.
BiBL. Robin,
Vcyet.
xii.
;

Parasit.

Bseren-

takes place, aud a development of the fungus ensues, which destroys the tissues and organs, finally causing death. It has been developed on many other Lepidoptera which have been inoculated with it and even the larva) of certain Coleoptera take it. It is very common to hud flies iu autumu infested with a f migus, a kind of muscardine of tiies this belongs to the genus Spohendonema its mycehal filaments ramify in the interior of the body, and emerge at the articulations of the segments of the abdomen to bear fruit, killing the fly. A number of so-called genera of Fungi and Alg8e have been described by Eobin and Leidy as occurring in the intestines &c. of insects these appear to us to
; :

Siebold, Wayner\s Hand. d. Pliys.-, Hdunoyev, MuUer''s Arc/t. 1842 Beimett, Bd. Phil. Tr. xv. ; Archer, Qu. Mic. Jii. 1872, 366 Cobbold, Parasites ; Leuckart, Mensch. Parasit. 18S1 ; Murio, Mn. M. Jn. vii. 149 .^laddox, Mic. Tr. 1866 ;
; ;
;

sprung, Ann. N. II.

Beneden, Schmarotzer,\S7Q; Hallier, P%^oKaltenbach, Pflanzcnfeinde pathol. 1868 Giebel, Epizoa {Insects), (Insects), 1872 1874; Bounon, Par. diar. Cochin- China; Gurlt, ^4rc/<. Nataryesch. 1878, 162 ITartig, PJlanzenKr. (Funyi), 1S80; Frank, AVawM. P/l. {Funyi), 1880 Heller, Schmarotzer, 1880 Megnin, Paras. 1880 Ormerod, Injurious Insects, 1881 Cuhn, Paras. Alyce, Beitrage, i. 87 Kiichenmeister, Parasiten, 1881 ; Bollinger, Pilzhranhh. nied. und hah. Thiere, Bot. Centralblatt, ii. 274 (Jn.
; ; j ;
;

be imperfect organisms (see Enterobryus,

Mic. Soc. 1881, 492) Paras. Kunde.

Halher,

Zeitschr.

Aethrojxitus, Leptothrix, CladophySeveral species of Cordyceps infest titm). the larvae of insects, the mycelium destroying them aud gradually completely displacing the internal organs, while the skin retains its shape and dries the fruit subsequently breaks out from the anterior or
;

PAPtEN'CHYMA.
table.

See Tissues, Vege-

Some posterior extremity (see Sph^ria). species of Isaria, described as parasites, gro\\- upon dead insects but these are mere conditions of different species of Cordyceps.
;

The microscopic

PARKE' RI A, Carpenter. large spheroidal Arenaceous Foraminifer, attaining 3 inches and more in diameter, and consisting of a chambered conical centi'epiece (primordial chamber-cone) surrounded by numerous concentric lamellae and their interspaces, traversed aiid connected by radial tubes, all of cauueilated (labyrinthic) structure. Fossil in the Greensand. BiBL, Carpenter, Phil. Trans. 1869, 721.
PARKE'RIA,
PTERIS.

vegetahle parasites

of

Plants
are very numerous, all belonging to the class of Fimgi. Much confusion exists in many works between the true parasites and mere

Hooker,

Cerato-

epiphytes
to

of demarcation. Among the undoubted parasites are all the genera and species of the family Uredinei, together with a large portion of the other genera of Coniomycetes and the Ascomycetous forms to which they mostly belong. Among the Hyphomycetes may especially be cited the genus Peroxospora, P. infestamheiug the

and it draw any line

;

is

sometimes very

difficult

PAR^IE'LIA, Acli. An extensive genus of Parmeliacese, characterized by the spreading, lobed, foUaceous thallus, with orbicular apothecia fixed by a central point
beneath
trees,
;

spores

simple

growing

upon

rocks, stones, walls, &c. The species with bilocular spores form the P. parietina, the yellow genus Physcia.
palings,

wall-Uchen,
of

is

of this family,

one of the commonest plants and furnishes a ready means

observing the structm-e both of the apothecia and the 'spermogonia (PL 37.
figs.
'

form

potato-fimgus. Fusisporium, Oidium, &c. desti'uctive mildews and among the Ascomycetes, the Erysiph^, and espe;

1-3).
;

cially

their

mycelia
ar^'

(commonly formingv>ell-kiio\vn

spurious

Oidid),

pests.

BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 202; Engl. Schaerer, Enum. Lich. Europ. ; pi. 194 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 66, 137 Leighton, Lich, Flora, 114.
Bot.
:

2p2

PAKMELIACE^.
PARMELIA'CE^. A

580

PATELLINA.
Apotheeia circular, peltate, foi-med

family of open-

ciliated.

fruited Lichenaceous Lichens, beaiing sessile shields, tlie borders of which are formed by the surface of the th alius. This family corresponds nearl}' to the series Eamalodei, Phyllodei, and Placodei, of the family Lichenacei in Leigh ton's B}'it. Lich. Flora.
British Genera.

of the thallus, the disk coloured and surrounded by an inflexed thalline margin.

***

Apotheeia open fro7n the frst, thallus mosfl)/ centripetal, veHieal or sarmenL^snei. tose, without any hypothallus
:

Apotheeia atjirst
Peltif/era.

veiled, thallus horizontal

Peltigeri.

foliaceous, cartilagineo-membranous, ascending or spreading, lobed and laciniated, smooth and naked on

Cetraria.

Thallus

Thallus

foliaceous,

or

membranons, spreading,

leathery lobed, with

woolly veins beneath. Apotheeia somewhat circular, adnate on the upper side of the lobules of the thallus, with a border fomied

both sides. Apotheeia circular, obliquely adnate to the margin of the thallus, the lower portion being free (from the thallus) disk coloured, plano-concave, with an in:

by Kephroma. Thallus foliaceous, leathery or membranous, spreading, lobed, naked or

hairy beneath. Apotheeia circular or reniform, adnate on the underside of the lobules of the thallus, vnih a border formed by the
latter.

this.

flexed thalline border. Roecella. Thallus cartilaginous, leathery, rounded or flat, branched or laciniate. Apotheeia circular, adnate to the thaUus, disk coloured, plano-convex, with a thalline border, at length thickened and elevated,

Solorina.

Thallus leathery,
fibrillose

membrana-

below. Apotheciwn suborbicidar, affixed to the upper sm-face of the central lobes of the thallus veil finall}' forming an evanescent margin.
ceous,

veined or

and covering a black powder concealed within the substance of the thallus. Ramalina. Thallus cartilaginous, generally branched and laciniated, somewhat
shrubby, generally bearing powdery wai-ts, Apotheeia cottony and compact within. circxilar, shield-shaped, stalked and peltate, flat, bordered, entirely formed of the substance of the thallus, and mostly of the

^"^

Apotheeia at

first closed, thallus horizontal

Euparuieliacei. Thallus fohaceous, leathery-carSticta. tilaginous, spreading, lobed, free and downy beneath, with little cavities or hollow spots, often containing a powdery substance. Apotheeia beneath formed of the thallus, to which thej'^ are appressed and fixed by a central point, the disk coloured, flat, surrounded by an elevated thalline border. Parmelid. Thallus foliaceous, membranous

same

colour. Cornicularia.

Thallus

cartilaginous,

branched, subcylindrical, fistulose, or nearly sohd and cottony within. Apotheeia cir-

formed of the substance of the

often toothed. Evcrnia. Thallus

cular, tenniual, "obliquely peltate, entirely thallus, at length convex, more or less bordered and

somewhat

crustaceous,

branched and laciniated, angled or compressed, cottony within. Apotheeia circular, shield-shaped, sessile, with the disk concave, coloured, and an inflexed border formed by

or leathery, spreading, lobed and stellated or laciniated, more or less fibrous beneath.

Apotheeia circular, formed by the thallus,

fixed

by

central

point,

disk

concave,

coloured,

with an infiexed

margin

from

the thallus.
ceous.

Thallus luiiform, crustaApotheeia urceolate, somewhat immersed, the thalline border somewhat diUrceolaria.
stinct.

Lecanora.

Thallus crustaceous, spread-

Apotheeia ing, flat, adnate and uniform. circular, thick, sessile and adnate; disk plano-convex, the border thickish, formed of the crust, and of the same colour.
Physcia. Thallus caililaginous, branched and laciniated, the segments free, generally grooved beneath, the margins frequently

the thallus. Thallus somewhat crustaceous, Usnea. rounded branched, generally pendulous, with a central thread. Apotheeia circulai-, terminal on processes of the thallus, peltate, nearly of the same colour, mostly without a raised border, but ciliated at the margins. BiBL. See the genera. PASTE, Eels ix. See AxGUiLLrLA. PATELLI'NA, Will. A genus of Hyaline Foraminifera, of the Ilotaline family. Trochoid, formed of a low cone of subspiral, seraiannular, and annular chambers, divided into chamberlets. Sometimes incrusted with small cells externally, and

i'AVONlNA.

o81

PEDALIOX.

always having llie hollow face cuated or up with superiuiposed chanibeilft.s, forming a columnar chamber-structure.
tilled

1805 it had fallen to 4,000,000. The black spots wliich cover the larv;e are a frequent outward sign of the disease hence the
;

British species, P. corrugata (I'l. 24. abundant in tropical seas ; and tig. 8), rare of larger size in some Cretaceous and Ter:

tiary strata.

BiBL. Williamson,

7?ec,

For.AQ; Carter

{Cvimlites and Orbitolinci), Ann. N. H. 3. viii. 331, 457, 459 ; Carpenter, Introd. For. ' 299.

PAVONI'NA, D'Orb. A

Hyaline Fora;

pehrine, first applied to the plague by It also declares itself iu the Quatrefages. stunted and unequal growth of the worms, in the languor of their movements, in their fastidiousness as regards food, and iu their premature death. The cause of the disease is the presence in the internal economy of the larvie of Gregariaida \ their number is often enormous. They take possession of

name

minifer, compressed and liabelliform chambers concentric, the last widest, with numerous marginal apertures. It is a tlat Bigenerine Textularia. Madagascar, Pacific, and West Indies. BiBL. Brady, Ann. N. H. 4. xix. lOo ; Qu. Mio. Jn. n. s. xix. 68. PAXIL'LUS, Fr. genus of Agariciui

thence In particular, the silk -secreting organs, instead of being filled with the clear viscous liquid of the
the
intestinal

canal,

and

spread

through the rest of the body.

silk, are packed to distention by these corPasteur in 1805 made out the puscles. fact that they might exist in an incipient

(^Hymeuomycetous Fungi) with the margin

of the pileus involute, the gills decurrent,

condition iu the eggs and larvae, although might be impossible to detect them. In the moths, if either egg or larva from
it

auastomosing, and separable from the pileus and without any trama. Paxillus involutus is a very common species and to this the characters of the genus more especially P. inmnoides occurs on sawdust in apply. cellars &c., and is closelv allied to Merulius. BiBL. Fr. Gen. Hym. 8; Berk. Outi.
;

which they come should have been

stricken, the

at all

t.

12. fig. 5:

well-known bodies are formed as secretions from the mantle of

bivalve mollusks, the best being obtained from the Cej'lon pearl-oyster or mussel (Avicula maryaritifera). They occur naturally from the irritation produced by particles of sand accidentally confined betAveen the mantle and the shell and they are produced artificially by wounding the mantle with Their structure pieces of ii-ou wire, &c. agrees with that of the shell of the animal in which they are formed. Sometimes they consist entirely of nacre or pearly matter, arranged iu close concentric layers; at others, the interior exhibits the prismatic sti'ucture of sheU. When acted upon by a dilute mineral acid, the lime-salt is removed from the organic cast of the original, which is left. They are sometimes found fossil.
;

PEARLS. These

Cooke, Handh. 194.

corpuscles infallibly appear, and there is no dilficulty in detecting them. In eradicating the disease, Pasteur, therefore, showed that it was of the greatest importance to secure eggs from healthy moths, since the healthy appearance of the eggs themselves was not sufficient to secure immunity. The larvaj issuing from the

eggs of perfectly healthy moths

selves

may them-

infected thi'ough contact with diseased larvae, or through germs mixed with the dust of the rooms in which the silkworms are fed. BiBL. Pastern", Maladie des vers a sole; Tvvidall, Nature, 1870 Balbiani, Jn. Anat. 18G6, 599 ; Robin, Micr. 948. PECTIN 'LA, Leidy. genus of
;

become

ATEL

order Hippocrepia, freshwater Polyzoa, family PlumatelUdfe. Char. Zoary massive, gelatinous, fixed,
in ii'regidar orifices arranged investing ova lobate areolae upon the free surface
;

lenticular,

with a ring and marginal spines.

Philadelphia.
,

P. niaynlfica.
;

BiBL. Leidy, Proc. Ac. Philadelphia, 1851 AUman, Freshwater Polyzoa, 81.

See Shell. BiBL. Hague and Siebold, Siebold <$ Kdlliker's Zeitschr. viii. 439 & 445 Carpenter,
;

PEDA'LION,

Hudson.A

genus

of

Microscope.

PEB'illNE

is

the

name

of

disease

which for the past twenty years has raged amongst the silkwoi-msin France, In 1853, the weight of cocoons produced in that country was 26,000,000 of kilogrammes iu
;

P. tnirum Rotatoria, family Hydatinfea, has the trochal disk very large, and resembles ' 2'riarthj-a lonyiseta. The males are very inrnal smaU, and deficient in most of the organs freshwater. BiBL. Hudson, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1871, 1872; Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 333; Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 338.
;

PEDIASTRUM.

o82

PELLIA.

PEDIAS'TRUM, Meyen. geuus of Desmidiacefe (Confervoid Algee). Char. Cells aggregated into a usually
circular,

minute disk or flattened

;

star,

and

Char. Legs all scansorial or prehensile; thorax large, not constricted from the abdomen, which has seven segments antenute mouth with a fleshy rostrum. five-jointed
;
;

generally arranged either in a single or in two or more concentric series marginal cells bipartite on the outside. lialfs describes eleven British species. Interstices of the cells usually hyaline, but in P. selcnceum these are greenish. Rraun divided the genera into four subgenera, which include twenty-nine forms more or less worthy of being considered
genera. P. Boryanum (PI. 14. fig. 4S). Cells arranged in one or more circles around one or two central ones ; marginal cells gradually tapering into two long subulate points ; notch narrow. Diameter of outer cells 1-2730 to 1-2200". P. granulatmn (PI. 14. fig. 49). Cells six, granular or punctate on the svu'face ; lobes of marginal cells tapering. Diameter of outer cells 1-18-50". The method of reproduction is noticed under Desmidiace^, p. 244.
Eejuv., Ralls, lir. Desmid. ISO ; Braun, Soc. 1853, pis. 3 & 4; Aly, XJnicell. Gen. Nova, 64; Rabenh. Aly. iii. 09.
Bii3L.

The species are human lice. The colour varies according to that of the skin of the being darker in the pe(jple they inhabit
;

dark

ti-ibes.

Rostrum retractile, concealed beneath the head, furmiug a soft tubular sheath dilated at. the end, where it is furnished with a double row of hooks, and containing a horny tube formed of four setae. P. capitis. Ashy-white, thorax elongated, quadrate, abdiimen ovate, laterally lobed, segments blackish at the margin. Length of male, l-lO" of female, 1-8", P. vestimenti, bodv or clothes' louse
;

(PI.

35.
;

fig.

3).

Dirty white,
;

elongato-

head much produced thorax contracted in front; abdomen with the segments indistinctly indicated. Length about
ovate
1-8".

Pale P. tahescentium, distemper-louse. antennae long head rounded yellow thorax large and quadrate abdomen large, the segments intimately united. Doubtfully
;

Ray.

British.

PEDICELLA'RI.E.
MATA.

See Echinoder-

The extraordinary annoyance stated to have been produced by these vermin, has arisen from the -want of washing and purification of woollen garments.

PL

45.

fig.

from the
figured.

common

3 represents a pedicellaria starfish the stalk is not

;

The bird's-head processes of the Polyzoa (Polyzoa) are analogous organs. PEDICELLI'NA, Sars.a genus of
Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, family Pedicellinidte.

See Phthirius. BiBL. Dennv, Anoplur. Murray, Ec. Ent. 391 Schieidte, Ann. N. H. 1860, xvii. 213; Megnin, Paras. 74: Piaget, Pedicul.
;
;

18b0.

PELARGO'NIUM.
PHIDES, and Hairs.

See Pollen, Ra-

Char. Those of the family. Bodies globose, with a circle of short tentacles, curled inwards and not retractile placed at the ends of erect slender stalks springing from a creeping adherent fibre. 3 species. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 381 Allman,
;
;

PELECTDA,
P. rostrum

(PI.

J)\\].,=Loxodes, CI. & L. Zo.rof?es 31. fig. 39)

Polyzoa,
lyzoa,

PEDICELLINI'D^E. A

Pay <S'oe.,19,note; llincks,iW?/~.564.

family of Pocontaining the single geuus Pedi-

PELL^'A, Lk. genus of Pterideae Many species, (Polypodiaceous Ferns). (Hooker, Syn. 144.) tropical. A genus of Pelliea; (froudose PEL'LIA. P. epiphylla (fig. 550) is not Hepaticae). uncommon in damp shady places, by springs

CELLINA.
of Pediwith the antenntc 3-jointed, the fourth and fifth being fused with tlio third, the head elongate the legs all scansovial
culida);
;

PEDICI'NUS, Gerv. A genus

broad. nin, Paras. 70.)

abdomen

On Quadrumana.

(Mt^g-

Its and wells, where it grows rapidly. pedicels are silvery-white, the capsules pale brown and when the ^alves are fully expanded, the elaters form an elegant tuft The character of the frond in the middle. varies somewhat according to the degree of moisture of the habitat. The forms called
;

of Anoplurous Insects, of the family Pediculida?.

PEDIC'UEUS, L. A genus

considered lonyifolia nnd fiirciycra are now to constitute a distinct species, P. calycina.

BiBL. Hooker, Br. Jung.

pi.

47

Br.

PELLIE.E.
Fig. 55G.

.583

PELON^A.

mit.

Sporange circumscissile. Antheridia on the rib, naked. Fructilication emerging from Metzyeria. the ventral side of the midrib of the frond,
dorsal, situated

Pcrichsete ventricose, at length bipartite. Perigone none. Archegones few. Epigone Sporange persistent, torn at the summit.

four-valved

on the
leaflets.

rib,

Antheridia ventral, placed covered by incumbent dentate

Fructification

Aneura.

emerging from

of the the ventral side, near the Perichaete short, lobed or torn. frond. Perio-one wanting Archegones few. Epigone persistent, torn at the summit. Spoiintheridia immersed range four-valved. in the back of special lobes of the frond. Fructification emerging from the Pellia. dorsal side of the frond. Perichsete short, somewhat cup-shaped, the mouth lacerodentate.
several.
Pellia epiphylla.

by

Perigone wanting. Archegones Epigone membranous, accompanied few sterile archegones, at first, at the

lower part.

Sporange fom-valved.

An-

Magnifled 2 diameters.

Endlicher, Gen. Plant. pt. 1. 130 Nos. 472-5 Ekart, Syn. Jung. G3, Eng. Bot. Siqyp. pi. 2873. pis. 7 & 13 PELLIE'^. tribe of Liverworts or Hepaticfe, nearly allied to the Juugermanniese in the character of the fructification, hut having a lobed thalloid frond, traversed bv a mid nerve, from which the fruit-stalks
Flora,
Svjyp.
ii.
;

i.

theridia immersed in the surface of the frond. Fructification at first immersed Blasia. in the rib of the frond, then emerging fi'om the apex. Peiichgete and perigone wanting.

Epigone

membranous,

with

few

sterile

arise.

archegones, at first, scattered toward the lowest part. Sporange four-valved. Antheridia immersed in the rib of the thallus, more prominent below, and covered by little dentate scales.
Taryionia.
solitary

British Genera.
Blyttia. Fructification emerging fi'om the tlie rib below the apex of the frond, Perichsete 4-5-pnrted ; at length dorsal.

Fructification sessile, inferior,

and terminal to the frond. Perichsete

end of

lobes torn.

Perigone herbaceous, tubular, Archegones eight Epigone persistent, torn at the Antheridia 4-valved. summit. Sporange dorsal, placed on the rib, covered by dentate incumbent leaflets. Fructification from the PetalophyJlum.
the

two-valved, splitting vertically. Perigone Epigone delicate, persistent, inwanting. vesting the sporange until maturity, sometimes evanescent above. Sporange biu'sting

mouth

denticulated.

to twenty.

by an irregular slit, or into fragments. Antheridia immersed in the rib of the frond below, covered by papiUfe.

PELOMYX'A, Greef .A genus of Amoeorganism

bpea (Rhizopoda).

This freshwater

forms large

Perichtete broad, bell-shaped and toothed. Epigone concealed in Perigone wantLug. the perichsete. Sporange bursting into Elaters often branched. iiTegiilar lacinise. Fructification emerging Fossombronia. from the end of the rib below the apex of Perichsete the frond, at length dorsal. obconic bell-shaped, the mouth crenate or dentate. Archegones Perigone wanting. few. Epigone persistent, torn at the sum-

upper

sui-face of the plaited frond.

brown amoeboid masses, with lobose hyaline The ground-substance conpseudopodia. tains nuclei, hyaline homogeneous highly
refractive,

and

delicate rod-like bodies.

It

gives lise to

swarms of minute Amoebae,

into flagellate free-

which become developed

swimming

organisms. BiBL. Greef, Schultse's Mic. Jn. 1874, 97. Qu.

Archiv,

1873

PELON^'A,

Forbes. A genus of Tu-

nicate Mollusca, of the family Pelongeadae.

PELOPS.
Char. Unattached
fices ^^-itll0^lt rays,
;

-"^84

PENICILLIUM.

feet cylindrical

ori-

on two equal approximate

tlie

live buried in

warty eminences at mud.

anterior end.
species^

Two

They

Test deep brown, much P. corrugata. elongated, rudely wrinkled transversely. P. (glabra. Test greenish yellow, smooth, See Tunipilose, shorter than the last.

CATA. BiBL. Forbes and Hanley, Br.

43.

Moll.

i.

Differs (Aearina). from Oribaia in the hau'S on the vertex being flat or spatula-shaped. (Murray, Ec. Ent. 218; Michael, Jn. itfjc/Soc. 1879, 237.) PEI.OPSI'NA, Brady, genus of Arenaceous Foraminifera, one- or many-cham-

PE'LOPS, Koch

bered Willis thick, composed of mud, with a long cliitinous neck. Living, South Seas.
;

(Brady,

PELTIDEA, noto., = Species

Qti.

M.

Jn. 1879.)

of

Pel-

TiGERA and Sticta. PELTID'IUM = Alteutha.

A genus of PELTIG'ERA, Willd. Parmeliaceous Lichens, characterized by a foliaceous, usually leathery thallus, with the suborbicular woolly veins beneath shield-like apothecia arising on the upper
;

PENICIL'LIUM, Link. genus of Mucedines (Hypliomycetous Fungi), of which the species P. f/laueitni is at once one of the most frequent and the most puzzling plants of the class. This fungus is the commonest of the constituents of the greenish or bluish mould formed on decaying vegetable substances of all kinds, especially on semifluid or liquid matters. On the surface of liquids it forms a kind of dense pasty crust, slimy on the lower surface, and coloured and ^^'hen pidverulent (bearing spores) above, the upper fertile layer is examined under the microscope, it is found to consist of pedicels terminating in a repeatedly but shortly bifurcated pencil, each ultimate branch of which bears a moniliform row of The ramification of the pedicels is spores. not distinctly represented in fig. 557 but the appearance of the spores is characteristic and the ramifications of the sporophores are scarcely perceptible in examples growing on dryish substances. The mode of attachment of the spores is shown in figs. 15 and 16 of PI. 26. The mycelium consists of interwoven articulated filaments, most exten,

sides of the lobules.

P. canina, a large Lichen, is extremely common on the ground among moss in

The spores appear whitish, sively ramified. yellowish, gi-eenish, or bluish, according to age under the microscope they appear
:

opaque Avhen mature. So far there is little

history of these plants
;

difli

woods.

or three nearly allied species are separated from this by most authors, but wnth questionable propriety. Three or four others are subalpine.

Two

cully about the

BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 218; Eny. Bot. 2229 Leio-hton, Lich. Flor. 101. PENEROP'LIS, Lamk. genus of Porcellaneous Foraminifera,
;

and if the spores of the above form are sown on a glass slide, kept moist with an organic liquid, they will germinate Fig. 557. and v,imify, and under favom-able circumstances bear
thin peniciUate tufts of spores
at points

Broad, complanate, and ear-shaped (P. jjertusns, PL 23. fig. 11), or narrow, subcyand crosier-like (Spiroluia) (S. lindric,
austriaca,
PI.

the
this

mitrient

which emerge from But liquid. same fructification of

23.

fig.

12)

striated.

The

primordial double chamber

is succeeded by curved chambers in one direction and as sometimes these vary in transverse extent, to even three fourths of a cii'cle, the shell
;

P. f/laticum presents itself invariably under certain circumstances associated with the vinegar-plant and the
yeast-plant, toward tJie close of the ordinary development of these fungi. In common

The aperture is different shapes. single and lobulate in the early chambers cribrate in the narrow, branched in the nautiloid forms {Dendritina) ; and divided into rows of lioles, often tubular, in the
takes
;

with most observers, we find

that the exhaustion of the saccharine matrix of the
Penicillium.

outspread varieties. Living in the Mediterranean and warm seas only fossil in the
;

Tertiaries.

BiBL. Williamson, Rec. For. 45 Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H, 3. v. 179 Car2 Foram. 84. penter, Phil. Tr. 1859,
; ; ;

A fertile plume vinegar-plant is 1 olio wed in with pencils of all cases by the apjiearance spores. of crusts of PenicilliumMagnified 150 mould on the upper surface, diameters. whence it woidd appear that the vinegar-plant was only the mycelium of Fenicillium. It was asserted, moreover,

PENICILLIUM.
many

585
i

rEirEi{.
11.
;

that P. (//(iiicitm yeai-s ago, by Tiirpin, the last term ot' the growth both of the true yeast-phiut {'Tonila Cerevidce) and of have the milk-yeast {Oidium lactis). found the' gelatinous crusts of the vinegarplant to contain structures which represent
is

844; Ann. N.
Greville,

i.

202,

vi.

437, 2.

vii.

102;

loc. cit.

We

Sum. Veyet. Vinegar-Plant.

Fries, ISyst. Myc. iii. 489. See also Yeast

407 and
;

PE'NIUM,
aceiB.

J5reb. A genus of Desmidi-

Toruki aud Oidium, and to grow like them and we have also observed, iu repeated ex;

whitish sour, at tir^t appears clothed with a mealy collection of minute vesicles, repre-

to stand until periments, that beer allowed

Char. Cells single, entire, elongated, straight, and slightly or not at all constricted in the middle. Sporangia round or quadrangular, smooth,

aud senting the ultimate stage of Torida, to subsec^uently this gradually gave place at length covered gelatinous matter, which the whole surface with a tough him, and Hence it fruited as Penicillium glaucum. would appear that the yeast-fungus also a \egetative form of Fenicillium is

not spinous. At each end of the cells is a rounded space containing moving molecules. Several British species (Ralfs).
P.
verse
Brebissonii

(PL

14.

fig.

36).

Cells

smooth, cylindrical, ends rounded, trans-

median baud inconspicuous.

Length

merely developed under pecuhar conditions. This, however, has been actually proved h\ '' Yeast," in Berkeley and Iloffiuan (see of Agriculture'). Black's Encyclopedia More is said on this point imder Vixkc4AB'

1-640 to 1-400".

Common.

Sporangium
;

at first quadrate,

but finally orbicular conjugating cells persistent, or remaining permanently attached to the sporangium. P. inaryaritaceum (PL 14. fig. :\7 , empty
Cells cylindrical or fusiform, with cell). rounded truncate ends, and covered with pearlv granules in longitudinal rows. Length

Plant and Yeast.

" in Paris on the pain de munition,"

of the species has become famous on account of its extremely rapid occurrence

One

where

1-160":

the spores must have undergone a degree of heat equal to that of boiling water. Several species are enumerated and we have given under the separate head of CoREMiUM a form which is merely a conof Penicilliuni, producing a fluent
;

BiBL. Ralfs, Desmid. 148; Archer, Qu, Mic. Jn. 1864, 179, 1867, 183 Hassall, Rabenh. Alg. iii. 119. Alg. PENNAT'ULA, Cuv. (Sea-pen).
, ;

growth

genus of Alcyonaria (Zoophytes). The spicula form interesting microscopic

objects.

compound

pedicel.

P. gJmicum, txrev. Mycelial filaments form a crust-like web, spores green or bluish. GreviUe, .b'c. Crypt. Fl. pi. 58. flg. 1. P. crustaceum, Fries. Extremely com-

mon.
P. candidian, Link. Mycelial filaments woven together, spores white. (Distinct ?) P. sparsum, Grev. Mycelium lax, spores PerSc. Crypt. Fl. pi. 58. flg. 2. white. haps not different from the last. P.

A genus of PENTHALEUS, Koch. Trombidina (Acarina). Somewhat elongate anterior legs rather long and slender femora of hind legs thickened. P.hcematopus. (Koch, Uebers. Murrav, Ec. Ent. 121.) PENTHALO'BES, Uyn:i\,=Meyamerus
;
; ;

ovcdis.

PEPLONYS'SUS,
^

Kol.

genus

of

Mycelium fasciculatum, Sommer. aU fertile, scarcely developed filaments trifid at the apex, spores glaucescent. P. subtile, Berk. Extremely minute, mycelium creeping, fertile filaments erect, simchains of spores few, spores ple or ternate
:

broadly
fig.

elliptical.

Ann. N. H.

\i. pi. 14.

25.
;

P. roseum, Link. Mycelium effused filaments slightly branched, spores rose-colom\ One species (P. curtipes) has been found
fertile

Sarcoptidfe (Acarina). 2 species; yellowon Nycteris and Rkinopoma ish-brown Egypt. (Kolenati, Sitz. Ak. Wien, 1858, 74 Murray, Ec. Ent. 323.) FPER. Black pepper consists of the benies of Piper- nigrum white aud decorticated pepper of the same berries with the outer part of the coats removed. The cellular tissues of the several lamellae of the husk, and of the albumen or body of the seed, are tolerably characteristic (PL 2. fig.
;

PE

in amber.

BiBL. Berk.

hook. Br. Flor.

ii.

pt.

2.

12) and may be known by their appearance under the microscope from the fragments of linseed, mastard, &c. with which peppers are sometimes adulterated. White pepper is fraudulently reduced with flour, which
,

PERACANTHA,
may

586

PERIGLISHRUS.
PERICO'NIA, Tode.A genus
of

he detected by the starch-gi-auules those existing in pepper itself being exceedingly minute particles; the same remark Excesapplies to rice and pea-flour, &c. sive quantities of the hiisli-tissue in black pepper denote that the refuse of the decorticated white peppers has been added. (See also Cayenne.)

De-

matiei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), characterized by a stem composed of fascicidate com-

pacted threads. Head globose spores fixed on the free apices of the threads. It is analogous to Pachnocyhe. Tulasne states that it is merely a conidiiferous form of some Sphcsria, Two species occur in this
;

BiBL.

Food and

PERACAN'TIIA, Baird.A

Pereira, Mat. Medica its Adtdterations, 42.

Plassall,

genus of

Entomostraca, of the order Cladocera, and family Lynceidae. Char. Side view of shell oval, the lower and posterior portion with an acute projection directed backwards and upwards, and, as well as the upper extremity of the anterior margin, beset with strong hooked

country. P. ylaucocephala, Cd. on decayed linen. on dead herbaceous P. calicioides, B. stems. BiBL. Fries, Summa Veg. 1G8 Berk.
; ;
;

& Broome, Ann. N. H. 2. Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. v. 109

565.

v.
;

165

Tulasne,

Cooke, Handb.

PERIDERM. See PERIDER'MIUM,

ITredinei

B.4Iik.

Lk.

genus of
distin-

beak sharp, curved downwards. spines P. tnmcata (PI. 19. fig. ol). Superior an;

(Hypodermous Fungi), guished from ^ciDiUM by the

sac-like

tennae conical

inferior short, the anterior

branch with five setfe, one from first, one from second, and three from last joint posterior branch with three setpe from the last joint only intestine convoluted, with one turn and a half ova two freshwater. BiBL. Baird, Bi-it. Enfoin. 136. PERANE'MA, Duj. A genus of Flagellate Lifusoria, family Eugienia.
; ;

perithecium bursting irregularty, as if by a circumscissile dehiscence. The type of this genus is P. (jFcid.) Pint, found on the leaves and bark of Scotch Firs. The spores are covered with very numerous small tubercles. See Ubedinei. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 374; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 ser. ii. 176, pi. 10
;

Char. Form variable, globular, or inflated it posteriorly and narrowed in front, where becomes prolonged into a long flagelli-

De Bary, Brandjnlze, 1853, 72. PERIDINI'NA. An Order

of Cilio-

flagellate Infusoria (see p. 422). genus of Peridinina

PERIDINTUM. A

form filament;

movement

slow,

uniform,

.31. fig. 59). Body almost globular, more or less drawn out anteriorly, with oblique wrinkles on the surface ;

forwards. P. (/lobulosa (PI.

(Cilio-flagellate Infusoria). Char. Body with a transverse groove, the two portions of -the facetted lorica uearlj-

equal.

freshwater; length 1-1400". BiBL. DujarcL Inf. 353 Pritchard, Inf. 545.
;

Those species with a horn-hke process, are sometimes separated as Ceratlum. P.ftiscum (PI. 31. fig. 11). Brown, not
luminous, carapace ovate, slightly compressed, smooth, acute in front, rounded behind; freshwater; 1. 1-430 to 1-290". P. (C.) tripos (PI. 31. fig. 12). Yellowish, splendidly phosphorescent carapace urceo;

PERANE'MA, Don = SPH^ROPTEBis. PERFORATA, Carpenter. The Division of Foraminifera tliat possess a vitreous or hyaline shell perforated by tubular openings for the exit of pseudopodia. BiBL. Carpenter, Infrod. For am. 149. PERICH.il'NA, Fr. genus of Myxo-

mycetes, consisting of little rounded membranous sacs of brownish or yellowish colour,

broadly concave, mouth with three horns, two very long, frontal, and recm'ved, the third posterior and straight marine length 1-140". See GlenodiSeveral other species.
late,
; ;

generally splitting all round (transversely), and discharging yellow spores and (few) The commonest free and elastic filaments. (P. popidina), yt>ll(n\'ish and about as large
as a mustard-seed, occurs on fallen poplar two others occur in fir-plantations. BiBL. Ikn-kelev, Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 321; Fries, Syst. Myc. 190; Sum. Veget. 459 ; Greville, Crypt. Flora, 252.
trees
;

Niujr.

BiBL. Ehr. Inf 262; Duj. Inf. 374; Allman, Micr. Jn. iii. 24 Clap, et Lach. Etmles, 403 Clark, Ann. N. H. 1865, xvi. 270 Kent, Inf 447. PERIGLISCHRUS, Koch. SeePxEROP;
; ;

TUS.
Tlie species adhere

by the margin of the

body aU round.

PEETGONIMUS.
PERIGON'IMUS, Sars. A
genus

PERISPOEIUM.
of
globular, mit.

naked, collapsing

at

the sum-

AtractylidiV (ITydiMid Zoopliytes). DiiR'vs Iroiu Atractylis in the simple fixed spove-sacs being medusiforni. On other marine zoophytes, shells, &c. Biiii,. St. \\'ri!,'lit, rr. Boy. Sor. Edin.

1S57, 18^58; Ann. N. II. 1801, 1;J0; Alder, Trans. Ti/nes. F. C. v. 230 AUman, Ann.
;

1863,1804; Hincks, Ili/d. Zooph. S9. P]':rtrOLA, Fries.-i'. Ummdosa, Fr., described as a Sclerotioid Fur,o:us, is an obscure, irregular, tleshy body, with a white villous surface, foimd growing on potatoes. It is probably the early form of some unascertained species of fungus. This was characteristic of those forms of potato-rot which were known before the introduction
of
tlie

N.

IT.

Capnodium. Perithecium fleshy, clavate, double (the outer cellular, interior hyaline), mucilaginous, opening by a fringed mouth asci containing about six spores in two rows. Perithecium membranous, Erysiphe. closed at first, afterwards open, supported on a persistent radiating mycelium formed of continuous filaments bifid at their ends. Asci one to eight, paraphyses none spores
;

definite, ovate.

Pcrisporium.

Perithecium

superficial,

at length bursting irregularly.

Asci clubSpores

shaped, not mixed with paraphyses.

PEPtlP'TERA, Ehr.A genus

Peronospora.

numerous, ovate. Chcetomium.

finally

Perithecium

superfcial,

of Dia-

tomaceoe. Char. Frustules single, compressed valves dissimilar, one being simply turgid, the otlier winged or furnished with horns horns sometimes branched and attached to the extreme margin. Fossil. Valves not areolar nor punctate under ordinary illumination. America and Ber;
;

open at the mouth, clothed externally with opaque hairs. Asci clavate, mixed with paraphyses. Spores simple, ovate. Ascotricha. Perithecium thin, at length bursthig, clothed with dark, subpellucid, even, obscurely-jointed hairs. Spores simple,

C(mtained in linear

asci.

Superficial,

at length free or resting thallus, black.

on the investing

muda. P. cMaymdophora (PL 50. fig. 41) P. tracladia (W. 18. fig. 6G) P. capra (PL
; ;

te-

18.

fig.

07).
;

Perithecium seated on Orhicida, Cooke. a distinct mycelium, reticulated. Ostiolum obsolete sporidia subglobose paraphj-ses simple or branched.
; ;

BiBL. Ehrenb. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844, 263

Kiitz. Sp. Alq. 25.

PERISPO'RIUM, Fr.A genus

of Pe-

PEPtlSPIRA, St. A genus

Free, ovate;
;

of Holotri-

risporiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), consisting of minute, globular, free, punctiform sacs,

chous Infusoria.
terior

mouth antowards

oral cilia extending spirally the posterior end.

P.
(Kent,

ovum
//".

PERISPOPJA'CELA
size,

green, 511.)
;

Iloplophryu
famil}; epiph}i;ic

ovum ?
of

waxy walls, seated on an obscure thallus, growing on leaves or stalks; The spores finally biu-sting and collapsing. are produced in large numbers in swollen
with fleshy or
clavate asci
(figs.

558, 559), which are un-

mycetous Fungi, mostly

Ascoand of
floc-

accompanied by paraphyses.
Fio-.

smaU
cose

characterized

commdn

by producing

558.

Fig. 659.

receptacles (mostly) radiating

from

a point, forming patches upon leaves, Sec, in the centre of which are developed somewhat globular perithecia of obscure cellular structure, persistent, bursting at

the summit, filled densely with subgelatinous, scarcely diftluent gelatine sporidia produced in asci, subsequently often eff"used, and mixed with the gelatine simple, free, in the centre of the peritheciuiu. The m}'celia of these plants, bearing conidial structures, have been described as distinct fungi, for example those of Erysiphe as Oidia, &c. See Eeysiphe. Eitiotium probably
;

Pcrisporium disscminatum.
Fig.
flcfi

.358.

A perithecium

in vertical section.

100 diameters. Fig. 559. An ascus detached.

Magni-

Magnified 300 diams.

;

belongs here.
Lasiobotrys.

British

Genera Perithecium fleshy-horny.

:

BiBL. Fries, Sum.

iii.

Veq. 404
vi.

Syst. 3Iyc;

248

Berk. Ann. N. H.

432.

PERISTEPHANIA.

588

PETALOPUS.
PESTALOZ'ZIA, De Not. A genus
of

PEPtlSTEPHA'NIA, Ehr. genus of Diatumaceae, closely allied to Stephanoin having a discus, differing, however, parallel (and non-radiate) arrangement of the granules and also to Sysfephania, Avhifh differs only in having iutramarginal teeth. P. eutycha in deep Atlantic soundings P. lineata in guano. BiBL. Pritchard, Infiis. 824. PERITHE'CIUM. The name applied to the special envelope, mostly of different structure from the rest of the thaUus or the receptacle, enclosing the nucleus of the Angiocarpous Lichens and the Pyreuomycetous Fungi. PERITH'YPtA, Ehr. doubtful genus of Diatomacese. Probably closety allied to 2 species from the Ganges. CoscinodiscKS. BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. 842. PERITIIO'MUS, St. doubtful genus
; ;

(Stylosporous Fungi), with septate spores seated on a long pedicel, and crested at the apex (fig. 711). Three species occur in this country, P. Guepini is sometimes very destructive to Camellias. They

Melanconiei

are beautiful microscopic objects.

See fig, under Stylospoees. BiBL. Berk. Otitl. 324 Cooke, Handb.
;

471.

PETALOxM'OXAS, St.-A
gellate Infusoria.

genus of Fla-

Free, ovate, depressed, Hagellum single, long, mouth at the base of the flageUum. P. abscissa=Cyclidmm ahs., Duj,; other species freshwater, (Stein, Inf. iii, j Kent,
;

Inf. 371.)

of Infusoria.

(Kent, Inf. 759.)

et

PERIZO'NIUM, Cohn

Jan.- A genus

Berk. (Arf/irosiphon, of Oscillatoriacete (Confervoid Alga;), with a remarkable mode of growth. The filaments are branched and
^

PETALONE'MA,

Kiitz.).

A genus

of Diatiimacete. enChar. Frustules navicular, free, circled with thick linear zones, P. Braimu (PI. 51. fig. 42), freshwater. BiBL. Rabenh. Alg. i. 228.

PERO'NIUM, Cohn. A genus of Mona-

dina allied to Ant/tojjhi/sa. It is parasitic on the spores of I'i/idaria, and consists of a delicate, colourless fibre surmounted by a
globular head which resolves into numerous narrow cells of a monadiform character. BiBL. Cohn, Entivick. 158 Pritchard,
;

with an evident terete, gelatinous, The inner duplicate sheath (PI. 8. fig, 21). is thin and follows the filament; the outer presents oblique striae indicating the interposition of lengths of the outer sheaths one inside another, like a series of nested funnels or conical cups. This appearance is produced by the bursting and expansion of each length of the sheath at the apex alone, to make room for the growth of the new cells of the filaments formed at the apex. This structm-e is analogous to that occurring
cylindrical,

Ueococcus, where each parent-cell membrane bursts -at one side only to allow
in

Inf. 501.

&

PERONOS'PORA, Ung.
Smith, M.

See Botrytis,

M.

Jn. x\\. 120.

the new one to emerge, thus at length forming a jointed pedicel. The edges of the funnels of Petcdonema sometimes become de-

genus AViegm. Tunicate MoUusca, family Claveliuidfe.

Cliar. Individuals stalked, roundish,

PEROPHORA,
;

of

composed

The

into curled filamentous processes. filaments of P. alatum are green and

com-

striated,

about 1-3000" in diameter

is
'

the

pressed
lines.

thorax not marked with granular

inner sheath

P. Listeri. Occurs attached to sea-weeds.

yellowish, the outer colourless and 1-400'' in diameter, It forms a brownish stratiun on rocks and stones,

Very transparent, appearing like

28

little

specks
i.

of jelly dotted with orange and brown. BiBL. Forbes and Ilanley, Br. MoU.

BiBL, Berkelev, Gleanings, 23, pi, 7 ; Greville, Crypt. Fl. pi. 222; Hassall, Fr. Ah). 237, ph 68 ; Kiitz. Spec. Aly. 311 ; Tub.
Phyc. ii. '2S Al, Braun, Pejtiren., Rabenh. Ah/, ii", 265, 1853, 178
; ;

of genus Lichenaceous Lichens, having an adnate, uniform tliallus, spreading over bark, rucks, (fcc, and bearing wart-like apothecia, finally
their centre, exhibiting a depressed pore leading to the one or several cells containing the thece. P. communis is very common

PERTUSA'RIA,

DCA
m

Bay

Soc.

PETALOPHYL'LUM,

Wilson, A ge-

nus of PeUieaj (frondosa Ilepaticaj), P. Italfsii is an elegant little Liverwort with

the frond plaited or lamellated in rays fi'om the orisrin of the fruit, BiBL, Enql. Bot. Stipp. pi. 2874.

on

trees.

BiBL. Hook, Br. Fl. ii. pt, 1, 1(J4; Enyl. Bot. pi, 677 Leighton, Lich. Flora, 226.
;

genus Clap, et Lach, Pseudopodia (Rhizopoda). filiform, arising from one point of the sur-

PETAL'OPUS,
Amcebaea

of

PETALOTRICHA.
face, film.

589

PEZIZA.
&c.,

but expanding at the end into a delicate The film and pseudopodia become globular before retraction.
P. diffliiens (PI. 52.
44i>.
fig. 16),

shells,

surface,
(fig.

attached by the whole under which produces jointed radical hairs

661), especially at the thin margins.

Fig. 560.

freshwater.

BiBL. Claparede et Lachniann, Etndes, genus of marine Peritrichous Infusoria. Free, attached to tlie base of a horny carapace by a peduncle anteriorly a ring of ciliated
;

PETALOT'RICHA, K. A

petaloid segments. 627.)

2 species.

(Kent, Inf.

of Flowering petals interesting microscopic objects, in the epidermis, glandular and other hairs, the colour-cells, and the veins composed of spiral vessels. Entire petals of small size and delicate character form good objects when dried and mounted in Canada balsam. Those of the smaller Caiyophyllacese, the ligulate corollas of Composita?, Szc, are well suited for this. The larger kinds are studied by means of

PETALS.The

Plants afford

many

Thallus.

Nat. size.

Fig. 561.

sections, like
fatus.

Leaves.
'Muvv.,= Tefrani/chu.i orisPeyssonelia squamosa. Vertical section of a portion through two warts.

PETROBIA,
sects,

genus of Liof the order Thysauura, and family Lepismenas. P. }nan'ti}nus has a general resemblance to Lepisma saccharina but it exercises a leaping movement. The antennee are longer than the body of the setse at the tail, the middle one is longest. The insect is of a blackish-brown colour, and is covered with scales the legs ai-e yellowish and the caudal setae ringed Avith white the abdomen is furnished Avill gill-like processes. It is foimd upon the rocky- sea-coast. The scales have been used as test-objects. BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer's Apt. iii.
;
;

PETRO'BIUS, Leach. A

Magnified 25 diameters.

The thallus is composed of several rows of compact parenchymatous cells, and bears
on the conceutrically-marlved surface warts

composed of radiating rows of cells, among which occur crucially-divided tetraspores. P. Dubyi is not uncommon on British
to 2" in diameter, roundish ultimately irregularly lobed, and Thuret has observed andull brownish. theridia on distinct plants of P. squamosa, a

shores
at

it is 1

first,

447; Guerin, Iconogr. Ins. pi. and Ami. Sc. Kat. 2 ser. v. 374.

2.

tig.

If;

Mediterranean form they are jointed ments collected into wart-like bodies,
;

fila-

like

of P. Algae). frvticuhsa grows as a frustulose olivebrown crust on limestone rocks (not marine),
Oscillatoriacefe

PETRONE'MA,

Thwaites. A genus

(Confervoid

those containing the tetraspores. BiBL. Harvev, Mar. Ah/. 144, pi. 14 D; P7ii/c. Brit. pi. '71 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat.
;

4
(

the hemispherical masses sheaths are thick and cartilaginous, brown above but colourless at the tips, the proto-

forming

little

PEZI'ZA, Dill. A genus (.f HelveUacei Ascomycetous Fungi), containing nume.

ser. iii. 23, pi. 4.

rous species, a large

number

of Avhich

grow

plasm BiBL. Engl Bot. Supp.

dull green.

PEYER'S GLANDS.
440).

pi.

2959.

See Lctestine.s

(p.

PEYSSONELIA, Dene.A

genus

of

upon dead wood, on the ground, among leaves kc, many brightly coloured. They are at first closed sacs, which burst at the and spread out to form a kind of summit, cup containing asci and paraphyses. Thus they belong to the Discomycetes of some
authors.
Pezizce

C.i-j-ptonemiacese (Florideous Algae), consisting of small plants with a depressed lobed ihallus (fig. 560), growing over stones.

Tulasne has shown that some of the have a secondarv fructification con-

PHACELOMONAS.
si.sling-

590

PIIACOPSIS.
Perithecium cup-shaped, mar-

of sti/lospoies ; these have beeu deOther scribed as species of Dacnjmyces.

Ti/nipanis.

species also produce spermatia

but this was

evanescent gined, open, covered by a thin, Disk fixed in the receptacle (proper veil. stratum), at length dissolved. Asci filiform,
fixed.

Fig. 562.

Fig. 563.

Fig. 564.

** Perithecium (e.rcipidum) at length open, connate roitli the Jloccose receptacle. Nucleus discoid, ascigerous, placed on
the receptacle.
Peziza furfuracea.

Small variety.

Magnified 5 diameters.

Cenangimn. Perithecium

entire, leathery-

long since suspected by

Fries.

(See PI. 27.

;

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 186 Fries, Stimma Veq. 348 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 ser. XX. 167 Currev, Jn. Mic. Sc. v. 124.
;

18.)

horny, opening by a connivent mouth, diAsci stinct from the discigerous stratum. filiform, persistent, expelling the separate
spores -ndth violence.

PHACELOM'ONAS, Ehr.A
Char.
Tail-like
;

*** Perithecium
connivent

doubtfiU

entire, dehiscing

hg closely

slits.

a red mouth teruiinal, trun(eye-) spot present to ten anterior cate, furnished with eight vacuoles long cilia or flagelliform filaments,
process absent;

genus of Infusoria.

Lophium.

Perithecium subsessile, elon-

numerous.
P. pulvisculus. Body oblong, subconical, attenuate posteriorly, bright green: aquain myriads tic length 1-1150". Occm-s

gated, compressed, bursting by a longitudinal Asci erect, fixed, cyhndrical, persistent ; slit. Thallus crussporidia simple, rounded. taceous or imperceptible.
-****

Peritliecium someiohat dimidiate, at length open, nucleus naked.

pools.

GEdogonium. Perhaps zoospores of

;

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 28

PHACIDIA'CELA

Ascomycetous Fungi, mostly the half-decayed woody large numbers on on the ground consistparts of plants, or
;

Pritch. Inf. 494. family of small growing in

Rhgtisma. Perithecium innate, of irregular

form, opening by fi-agments breaking ofl' nucleus placeutiform, into a tiexuous slit Asci erect, fixed paraphyses persistent.
;

stalked.

indurated or ing usually of davlc-coloured or connate, or leathery bodies, solitary seated on a common base, closed at first and containing a soft nucleus; the outer case (penthecmm) subsequently opening a cavity lined with widely, and presenting
asci containing spores. Tlie history of development of these plants for many of them are conis still obscure nected with certain of the Coniomycetes as
;

Phacidium. Peritheciumroundish, simple, bursting with several teeth at the summit nucleus disk-shaped, in some degree perAsci erect, fixed; paraphyses sistent.
;

stalked.
Ilysteriuin.

Perithecium

sessile,

oval or
at first

elongated, with a longitudinal slit nucleus closed, afterwards gaping open

;

linear,
;

somewhat

persistent.

Asci erect,

diHerent staa-es of one and the same plant. describe the genera according to the the new facts existing classifications, noting rehUing to these metamorphic phenomena in the articles on the particular genera.

fixed paraphyses stalked. LahreJla. Perithecium innate, bursting

;

by

We

a longitudinal slit asci sliort, broad and obtuse above, attenuated below, mixed with short flexuose paraphyses; spores few, ovateoblong, occasionally contracted or septate in the middle. PHACIDIUM, Fr. genus of Phaci-

British Genera.

diacei
bij

* Perithecium open,
lid or veil.

marf/inal, closed

(Asconwcetous Fimgi), containing many species growing on dead leaves,

branches, &c.
as P. dentatum,

Some

of
ii,

them

are

common,

on oak-leaves.
pt. 2. 291.

Perithecium patelliform, marcovered with a thin veil conDisk at length fiueiit with the nucleus. the annulate asci breaking out. pulverident,
Patellaria.
o-ined, open,

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.

lichens, parasitic and Lecaiiorce.

PHACOP'SIS, TuL A genus

of Microon the thallus of Evernifc

PHACOTUS.
BiBL. Lindsay, Bnt. Lich. 318 ;
Jn. 18G9, 143.
Qti.

591

rillALINA.
Spores 8
;

Mic.
\

Lecanora.

2-4-locular, colourless,

PHACO'TUS,
tomonadiua.

Pert)'.

A genus of Cryp-

linear, or rod-shaped.

(Lindsay, Qu. Mic.

of iuopercu-

Jn. 1869, 343.)

late

PHASCA'CE^E. A family

Char. Body round, biconvex, with two or fom- filaments. Probably it is one of the
Algfe.

BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. 513.

Acrocarpous (termiiial-fruited) Mosses, uunute, gi-egarious or csespitose, with a simple or branched stem. Leaves oblong, oval, lanceolate or spathulate, concave, with
a thick cylindrical nerve the cells of the leaves parenchymatous, looser at the base, by degrees denser towards the summit,
;

PHA'CUS,

Nitzsch,

Buj. A genus

of

Flagellate Infusoria, family dina. Char. Body flattened and leaf -like, usuan anterior red (eye-) spot, ally gTcen, with

Thecamona-

a single flageUiform filament, and covered with a resisting membranous integument, Freshprolonged posteriorly like a tail. water.

mostly papillose. Capsules mostly obliquely in most apicuiate, with spores larger than Mosses, but not so large as in Arciiidjum. Columella soon vanishing in the smaller
species.

Dujardin distmguishes this genus from of Euglena, by the constancy of the form the body, which varies every moment in
the latter genus. P. pleuronedes (PI. 31.

British Genera.

Body fig. 62). oval, almost circular, green, with slightly

tail-like

marked longitudinal furrows, and a

Acaulon. Plants very dwarf, gregarious. Capsule coutaiued in the closed perichiBte. InCal}^tra mitre-shaped, dimidiate. florescence monoecious (antheridia on a distinct branch at the base of the steiu) or dioecious (autheridia terminal on a distinct
:

or fourth of its length ; prolontration a third length''l-630". P. longicaudus (PI. 31. figs. 3 & 63). Other
species.

plant), bud-like.

BiBL. Duj. Inf. 334; Archer, Qu. Mic.

Jn. 1871, 99
;

PH^OSPO'RE^,
COIDEiE, p. 338.
of

Thuret.

See

Fr-

Phascum. Plants cfespitose. Pericheete Capsule on a longish stalk, and mostly obliquely apicuiate. Calyptra dimiInflorescence monoecious (autheridia diate. terminal in a bud on a distinct lateral branch, or naked and axillary on the fruit-bearing
open.
branch), or dioecious.

PHALANSTE'RIUM,

Cienk. A genus
;

Bodies Choano-Flagellate Infusoria. ovate, flagellum single, with a basal collar imbedded in a simple or branched gelatinous Two species freshwater. (Cienzoary. kowski, Arch. mikr. An. iv. 428 Kent,
; ;

PHASCO'LON, Stem. genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria. Free, plano-convex, broadest in fi'ont; pharynx enclosing a
vorticeUa freshwater (Kent, Inf. 746.) PHAS'CUM, L. genus of Phascacete (Acrocarpous Mosses), which is now subdivided variously by ditferent authors. Wilson separates the earlier Ph. alternifulium only, under the name of Archidiitm "foreign authors fiu'ther distinguish between
rod-fascicle. length 1-288".
; ;

P.

Inf. 361.)

pHAJ.LOIDE'I.A

family of Gastero-

mycetous Fungi, characterized by the protrusion of a large clavate, columnar, stellate body, or globular, hollow, latticed framework, from the summit of the burst peri-

dium.

The basidiospores mast be observed

and form a
deli-

PiL\scuM, Acaulon, Ephkmertjm,

and

AsTOMUJi.

early here, as thej' fall off

quescent mass upon the hymenium when the sporange is mature. The fleshy structiu'e protruded from the dehiscent capsule is composed of spherical ceUs very loosely the peridium, which is very connected tough, is composed of closely packed, very slender, filamentous cells. BiBL. Berkeley, Ann. N. H. iv. 155 Br.
;

Fl. ii. pt. 2. 226 185.

Eossmann, Bot.

Zeit. xi.

PHAPtCID'JA,

Korb. A

genus

of

Micro-lichens found on the apothecia of

Species retained Ph. crispmn, cnsjtidatttm, curvicollum, rectum, hryoides. Ph. cuspidattim is very common on banks, soil. especiallv on a gravelly BiBL." Wilson, Bryol. Br. 32; Hooker, Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 6. PHLALI'NA, Boiy, Ehr. genus of Holotrichous Infuijoria, family Ti-achelina. Char. Body finely ciliated, ha^-ing a kind of neck crowned with large cilia; mouth lateral, below the appendix to the neck freshwater. P. viridis (PI. .".1. fig. 61). Body oval,
:

tiask-shaped, gi-eeu, suddenly naiTowed in

PHIALONEMA.
front and graduallv behind, neck length 1-290".
;

592
short

PHLYCT.ENA.

B. Eyes present. Eyes two, frontal. Foot with horn-lite processes.

P. vei'micularis. White. EiBL. Ehr. Inf. 333 Clap, et Lach. Inf. 304; Kent, Lif.' old. PHIALONE'MA, Stein. A genns of Free, flask-shaped, Flagellate Infusoria. oral aperture everted, with a single lateral P. cyclodomum, surface spirally flagellum. ribbed or striate; freshwater; length 1-500". (Kent, Inf. 373.)
toria, of

Toes two S-oiifer. AcUnurus. Toes three Foot without horn-like proces- Ij^onolabis. ses, but with two toes )

Eyes two,

cerTical

Philodina.

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infns. p. 481. PHILOME'DES, LiUjeborg.A Cypridinad, with suboval valves, notched in front,

PHILODI'NA, Ehr. A

genus of Rota;

the family PhilodiniBa. Char. Eyes two, cervical tail-like foot with horn-like lateral processes. Ehrenberg describes seven species ; freshwater in general structure and appearance
;

Upper Hntennge spined behind, pimctate. natatory G-jointed, longer in the male branch of lower antennae 9-jointed, seconbranch setose in the female, cheliform dary in the male. Eyes small and pale in female, 1 British species, large and red in male.
:

rare.

BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 377

Zool. Sac. 187i, 291.

Pr.

closely resembling Rotifer. ~

P.

erythrophtholma

(PI.

44.

tig.

17).

Colourless, smooth, ej-es round, processes of foot short; length 1-120 to 1-50". P. roseola is reddish, the eyes oval P. collaris has a projecting cervical ring P. citrina has the middle of the body yel; ;

PHILOP'TERUS, Nitzsch.A genus of Anoplurous Insects, of the family Philopteridse.

Char.

Antennae
;

filiform,
;

five-jointed;

lowish P. macrustyla has oblong eyes, and the foot-processes very long in P. megalotrocha the eyes are oval, and the rotatory organs very large and in P. aculeata the body is covered with soft setaceous pro; ; ;

maxillary palpi none mouth with strong toothed mandibles tarsi with two claws. The species are very numerous, and have been arranged in six subgenera Docophorus, Nirmus, Goniocotes, Goniodes, Lipeuras, and Ornifhobius. In some of them there are
:

BiBL.
705.

Ehr. Inf. 498; Pritchard, Inf.

fiimily

two movable oigaus (trabeculae) situated in front of the antennae. P. (Docophorus) communis (PI. 35. fig. 5).
shining, with white head triangular, elongate, anterior trabeculae very portion much produced femora much incraslarge, curved posterior sated and toothed below. Length 1-16".

PHILODIN.E'A, Ehr. A

of

Chestnut- coloured,
;

hairs

Rotatoria. Char. No sheath or carapace rotatory organs two, simple, resembling two wheels when the cilia are in motion. Body usually cylindrical, or somewhat
;

even so as to spindle-shaped, contractile form a ball. In certain states of extension

sometimes appears pointed in front, from the presence of a proboscis in others

it
;

upon the Passeres or Insessores. BiBL. Deunv, Anoplur. Monogr. 02. PHLE'BI.\J Fr. A genus of Hymenomycetous Fungi, intermediate between
Parasitic
.

is' soft

the two truded.

ciliated rotatory organs are pro-

are capable of swimming l^y or of creeping like a leech, the ends of the body being alterThe tail-like foot is often fixed.

The animals

means of the

The hymenium Hydnei and Auricularini. and pinclied up into crest-like :sNTiukles or veins, which do not fi^irm diFour species are found in this stinct pores. country, of which two at least are very
prettv

cilia,

nately furnished with horn-like lateral processes and terminal toes. Ehrenberg distinguishes seven genera
:

when in perfection. Biuj.. Fv.Si/sf. Myc. i. 426 Hass. ii. t. 44; Berk. Outl.
IlaiuJh. 305.

Grev. t. 280; 263; Cooke,

of

PIlLOEM.~The liber-portion fibro-vascular bundles of stems.

the

A. Eye8 absent. a. Proboscis and horn-like lateral process on the foot present and horn-like processes p. Proboscis absent .1. Rotary organ stalked b. Rotary organ not stalked

PHLYCTyE'NA, Desmaz. A genus of Sphajronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), nearly

j.

Callidina.

j.

related to Sepforia, difiering in the absence P. vayabunda has of a proper peritliecium. been found in Britain.

Hydruis. Typhlina

BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H.

2.

PHLYCT^NIA.
xiii.
viii.

593
8.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

460;
16.

Desmazieres, Ann. Sc. Nat.

PHLYCTiE'NIA, Kg, A

genus of Dia-

tomaceae. Char. Frustules those of Naviciila, enclosed in gelatinous globular cells (masses?).

old solar microscopes are examples of the principle of such an aiiungement. Microscopic cameras have been constructed in which the lens is replaced by a fitting

The

Marine. P. minuta. Cells 1-720 to 1-240" in diameter length of frustules 1-1200 to 1-600". P. marUima (Fri(dulia mar., E.). BrBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Al<j. 96 Ehrenberg,
; ;

carrying achromatic object-glasses, with the rod bearing the stage and illuminating apparatus, as in the ordinary stands of com-

Infiis. 232.

'PHLYCTID'ICJM, Br.A genus

of Uni;

concellular Algae, allied to Chytridium sisting of globose or oblong iuoperculate or slightly produced, cells, the orillce simple
either rooted or not gonidia with a single Several species; in freshlong cilimn. water Algse, kc. (Rabenhorst, Fl. Alg.
;

simpler plan for those who possess a compound instrument and a camera, is to remove the lens of the latter and introduce into its place the eyeend (with the eyepiece removed) of the compound body, placed in a horizontal position filling up the crevice all round with Another a piece of black velvet or cloth.

pound microscopes.

method (Wenham's) which dispenses with the camera, is to operate in a room darkened by a shutter having an orifice through which the simlight may be reflected by a
mirror placed outside, and received either directly or condensed by a bull's-eye, on the object lying on the stage of the microscope placed horizontally, with the eyepiece removed a screen placed at a suitable distance from the eye-end of the tube receives
;

iii.

PHLYC'TIS, Wallr.A genus of Pertusariei

278.)

on

trees, frequent.

(Lichenaceous Lichens). 2 species, (Leightou, Lichen Flora,

Fr.

237.)

There are nume(Stylosporous Fungi). rous British species, forming small black or brown pustules upon dead leaves, twigs, kc.
Tulasne regards this genus as formed by
produces the disease called Anthracose on the vine. BiBL. Berk. r. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 285 Ann.
;

PHO'MA,

A genus of Sphaeronemei
Sph^ria.

pycnidiiferous states of

P. uvicola

2G3 2. v. 368, xiii. 459 Fries, Summa Vey. 421 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. V. 115 Cornu, Grevillea, vii. 18. PHO'XOLITE. See Rocks. PHOR^tllDTUM, Kiitz. An obscure
X. H.
vi.
; ; ; ;

genus

of

Oscillatoriaceee,

the

filaments
;

In operating with this screen, the image. the object should be focused on a sheet of card, and then, the light being shut ofl' by coveiing the eye-end of the tube, a prepared paper or collodion plate be substituted exMeans must be actly in the same place. used, by a black cloth or similar contrivance, to shut ofi" all side light between the orifice In of the shutter and the object-glass. this last process, it is possible to obtain pictures with different parts of the object not lying in the same plane, by separate focusing, applying pieces of card suitably cut to shut oft' the image at difierent parts
as required. With very minute objects and high powers, the achromatic condenser is used, as well as the bull's-eye. It is well known that the correction of the objectives for perfect vision is not the

sheathed,

forming a membranous layer

(Rabenhorst, Fl. Aly.

many
115.)

species.

ii.

PHOR'MIUjNI, Forst. p. ienax is the name of the plant yielding New-Zealand

It is a Monocotyledonous Flowering Plant belonging to the order Liliacese. PHOR'ODON, Pass.A genusof Aphidse. Two species on the hop (Aphis hunmli), the sloe, and the plum. (Buckton, Aphides, Rau Soc, i. 165.)

Flax.

PHOSPHORESCENCE
;

and

PHOTODiet.

GENIC STRUCTURES,
3rd edition, 504
jects

see

Mio:

and

the Bibl. therein.

best for photographic purposes. With high powers, as the 1-4" object-glass and upwards, the difference may be neglected, but with lower powers, an adjustment is required. Shadbolt finds it sufiicieut to withdraw the object-glass a little by the fine movement, from the object, and gives the following data for Smith and Beck's object-glass for the 4-10", withdraw the objective 1-1000";
:

obbe photographed by the ordinary methods, especially by the collodion proso as to cess, by arranging the microscope form the optical part of a camera obscura.

PHOTOG'RAPHY.Microscopic
may

for the 2-3", withdraAV it 1|", withdraw it 1-150''.

fers to place

1-200"; for the

Wenham

pre-

a doubly convex lens in the place of the back stop of the object-glass, and advises for the 4-10" and 2-3" object-

2q

PHRAGMICOMA.
glasses a lens of 5" focus of 8" focus.
;

'^94

PHTHIRIUS.

for the I5" a lens

Microscopic photograplisare test ol^tained

with solar light but artificial light has been used, as that from caniphene or gas for low powers, the oxyhydrogen light for high
;

beneath the epidermis, and are chiefly distinguished from PuccixiA by the number of septa which are contained in the spores or pseudo.spores. P. bulhosum is common,

powers,
light.

secure clean preparations, with the object sufficiently flat to allow of being clearly ibcused all over this sets a limit to the utility of the process fm-ther, certain objects in which red and yellow, or yellowish-brown colours exist, do not transmit the hght, or only imperfectly. It will probably be advantageous to bleach many objects, as, for instance, insects and their parts, by long maceration in turpentine, sections of dark-coloTired wood by nitric acid, &c., when they are intended to
; ;

A gi-eat point is to

andMaddox has used the magnesium

forming yellow and brown pulverulent spots on bramble-leaves (see Aefj^ma). BiBL. Berk. (Aregma), Br. Fl ii. pt. 2. 358 Grev. Sc. Crypt. Flor. pi. 15 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4 S(Sr. ii. 180, pi. 9; De Bary, Brandpihe, 1853, 49, pi. 4 Fries, Sum. Teg. 507; Currev. Q. J. Micr. Sc. v. 117. A(tM01'RIC'HA 'CE.E. a family of Coniomycetes, distinguished from Melanconiei by their moniliform chains of spores. See CoxioMYCKTF.a.
;
;

PHR

PHRAGMOT'RICHUM, Kze.A
566.
Fi?. 568.

genus

be photographed. The purely photographic manipulation cannot be given here, but requires the ordiLengthened nary skill in photography. particulars respecting the application of photography to the microscope are contained in the papers referred to below. BiBL. Ilighley, Qn. Mic. Jn. i. 178, 30o, and ii. 158 Shadbolt, Q^(. Mic. Jn. ii. 1G5; AVenham, Mic. Tr. 1855, 2. iii. 1 Rood, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1802, 261 Hessling and Kollmann, Atlas, d. thier. Gewch. 18()2 Maddox, Jn. ibid. 1865, 34 Tr. Mic. Soc. 1863, 9 Lond. Photo. Soc. 1864 Mn. Mic. Jn. 1869, 27 Woodward, ihid. 29, vol. iii. 290; Qu. Mic. Jn. 1870, 380; Brit. Jn. Photo. 1866; Moitessier, Photog. Appliquee, 1860 Reich; ;
; ; ; ;
;

Fig. 567.

Phragmotriehtim

Chailletii.

ardt and Sturenburg, I808, Mon.mik. Phot.; Benecke, Photo(/r. 1869 Hermann, Phot. Gayer, Micro-photor/r. M. M. Jn. xv. 258 Frey, Das Mik. Beale, How Sfc, and the
; ; ;

Fig. 566. Scale of a spruce-flr cone, with pustules. Half nat. size. Fig. 567. pustule, magnified 10 diameters. Fig. 568. Vertical section across a pustule, showing

the chains of sjiores.

Magnified lUO diams.

notices therein.

PHRAGMICOMA,

Dumort.A genus

of Jungermanniefe (Hepaticse), containing one British species, P. Mackaii (Jung.

Mackaii, Hook.), occurring rarely on trees and rocks, especially

Fig. 565.

of Phragmotrichacepe (Stylosporous Fungi). The plants form little tubercles bursting out from beneath the epidermis, and containing filaments arising from a sottish fibrous stroma. The filaments (basidia) are interrupted at intervals with cellular

on limestone. BiBL. Hook. lir. Jung. 53

Sy?i.

fig.

Junq. 59, pi. 9. Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Suppl. i. 472-9.

Ekart,

72

spores (fig. 568), which ultimately separate. P. Chailletii grows upon the scales of the cones of Abies e.vcelsa. Other species grow on the poplar and maple.
Veq.

I'HRAGMID'IUM,
(Arcgma,

genus of Phragmidiuiii bulbosum. Coniomycetous rusts very Isolated basiFungi), forming common on Rosaceous plants. diiim with four septate sjioreH. They appear upon living Mag. lOU diams. leaves, breaking through from
Uredinei
(

A Fr.).

Lk.

BiBL. Fries, Si/st. Mi/c. iii. 4d'2 474 Berk. Crypt. Bot. 327.
;

Sum,
of

PIlTlIlR'irS,

Leach.A

genus

Anophira, family Pediculidae.

formed

Char. Legs of two kinds, anterior pair for walking, pdsteiior pairs for climbing thorax large, not distinctly sepaI'ated from the abdomen.
;

PIIYCOMYCES.
p. itHfiilnalh (redicuhis pubis).

595

niYLLOPirORA.
Miicorini
are

Parasitic

The

moulds growing on

upon mill). Length 1-10 to 1-20". The ova are firmly fastened to the haira tliey are urnby ii gliitiiiou.-i pei-ietion shaped, and furnir^lied witli a lid. ]}iRL. Deuuy, M'>n. Anopl. 8 Leach,
;

organic matter, the mycelium constituting flocks floating in liquids or overgr(.wing damp substances, while the delicate spore-sacs or peridioles are borne

decaying

at the

apices of erect stalk-like

and often

Zool. Mine.

iii.

Go

PHYCOMY'Cf:S, Kze.A genus of Mucoiini Phycomycetous Fungi), of wliifli one species, P. nifens, has beeu found in Britain growing on the walls of oil-cellars It is olive-coloured, disand on grease. tinguished iVom Miicor chietly by the absence of a columella, the pyrilbrm peridiole, and oblong spores; but the entire plants are
(

Mi^gnin, Paras. 7o.

The genus extremely branched filaments. Syzi/f/ites exhibits a remarkable peculiarity. Each spm'e-sac is formed by means of the conjugation of two bianches of the ramified
fructification (see Syzygites). The later researches on the plants of this group seem to indicate that, as in most of

larger and of more solid texture. filaments of P. splendcns, the only other known species, are as thick as a horse-hair, and 3 to 4" high. It is the finest of all the jNFucorini, and was at first confridered an Alga, which it

much
The

the Fungal Orders, much remains to be cleared up concerning the relations of the forms. See on this subject the article Eu-

fertile

genus, according to De Bary's researches, is associated as merely a second form of fructification, with AsperGn>LUS, upon the same mvcelium.

EOTiFM, which

PH YL ACTEL 'LA,

llincks,
series

= Lepralia

strongly resembles on a superficial examination, when dry, from its green shining threads. Van Tieghem attributes to this a fructification like that of Si/ziiyites, with which genus it must idtimately be combined.

pt.

PIIYLLOBET. A

(Tlinck-s, Poli/z. 356.)

of Lichena-

PIIYCOMYOETES. An order ofFungi composed of microscopic plants of very simple organization, the mycelium being a
byssoid or flocculent mass, bearing simple vesicular sporanges (peridiola), filled with The liature of the memminute spores. branous wall of the peridioles is not yet well ascertained in all the genera, some authors describing it as merely a veil, others as a the expansion of the perfect sac formed b}' terminal cell of the filament, which is cerin 3I?icor. According to our tair.ly true own observations, the spores aie formed by free-cell formation in the peridiole, which ultimately bursts to discharge the spores. But the division Antennariei cannot stand AT>Tr:xxAr!iA seems to be merely a form of
;

BiHL. Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 309 Sum. Berk. Ann. N. H. vi. 433 Van Tieghem, ^?!. Sc. Nat 1873, xvii. 202.
;

Veg. 488

ceous Lichens. Char. Thallusfoliaceous, depressed, lobed. BiBL. Leighton, Brit. Lich. Flora, p. 2. PIIYLLOGONIA'CE^. A family of Pleurocarpous Mosses, distinguished bv the peculiar character of the leaves and their The leaves are either inarrangement. serted horizontally or imbricated vertically, clasping, and are composed of very narrow

parenchymatous cells, appearing almost confluent into a homogeneous membrane, auricled at the base, with luinute, parenchymatous, thickened alar cells arranged orbicularly at the auricles, very smootb tbe leaves stand in two opposite rows. This family contains only tbe single small
;

linear

exotic genus Pltyllfxpiniinn.

PHYLLOM'iTUS, Stein. genus of Flagellate Infusoria. Free, ovate flngella two, unequal, united at the basal portion no mouth. P. undulans, freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 299.) PHYLLOPII'ORA, Grev. genus of
; ;

and Piso:myxa and PleveoPYXis are obscure objects of which little is known.

CAPXODirM

Crypt onemiacefe (Florideous Algag), consisting of several species, with a red, rigidly

In the Antennariei the peridioles are sessile on radiating flocci, which sometimes send processes which gi-ow up and surround them, or they are attached to the sides of eiect filaments; these filaments form whitish or gieyish patches, on the leaves of trees and herbs, bearing a close external resemblance to Enjsiphe.

membranous, stalked, leaf-like, often dichotomous thallus, the lobes of which are often proliferous from a few inches to a foot long,
;

gi'owing near low-water mark, or in the sea.

(P. rvhens, PI. 4.

The
minute

fig. 4.) fructificatiou consists of:-

I. favelli-

dia, scattered

over the thallus, containing 2. antlieridia, wart-like spores

;

bodies compcsed of radiating moniliform 2q. 2

PHYLLOPODA.

696

PHYSIOTIUM.
i.

fllameuts foimcl on distinct plants from the spores ; and 3. telraspores, collected into sori either towards the apex of the thallus

Bd.
vev.
fig.

pi.

58; HassaU, Fr. Alg. 262

;

Harpi. 2.

Mar. Alg. 222 Berk. Gleanincfs, 1 Rabeuh. Ah/, ii. 2C6.

;

or on proper lobes.
;

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 142, pi. 18 GreTille, Alg. Brit. Phijc. Brit, pi." 191 15 Derbes and Solier, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3 pi. i^er. xiv. 277, pi. 37 Thuret, ibid. 4s6i: iii. 18. PHYLLOP'ODA. See Extomosteaca.
; ; :

genus of Myxonumerous species mycetes, containing gi-owing on rotten wood, bark, leaves, &c.

PHYSA'RUM,"Pers. A

They

genus of the Aphidaj (Homopterous Hemiptera) species have the fore Aviugs flat on the back, with 1 simple stigmal, and 2 simple oblique
;

PHYLLOXE'RA, Fonsc A

arc nearly related to iJidymium and Didcrnia, but have a sim^ile membranous peridium the filaments are adnate to the peridium; but in some spores they are very few, approaching to the condition of Licea. Some are sessile, others stipitate the clustered forms (P. hyali(fig. 569)
:

discoidal nerves ; the antennae 3-jointed. These insects are notable from the immense damage they do, in the vinicolous countries,

Fig. 571.

Fig. 569.

Fig. 570.

to the

The apterous broods grape-vines. feed upon the roots of the vine, exhausting its juices, producing decay of the leaves, and absence of fruit. In the autumn, the winged sexual forms are produced, which spread the
their eggs in new P. vastatrix (PI. 53. fig. 7) is the vine-pest but other species occur on the The insects may be found by oak, &c. separating the layers of the roots, and examining them with a good lens, when they will be seen in all stages, often surrounded with a zone of eggs. Fatio and BiBL. West wood, Intr. ii.

malady abroad, by laying

places.
;

Physarum bryophilum.
Fig. 569. Plants growing on a Plagiochila.

Magn. 2

diams.
Fig. 570. A peridium burst. Magn. 25 diams. Fig.571. Filaments and spores from the same.

Demole-Ador, Rap. s. I. Phyll. 1875-76; Lichtenstein, Ann. A(/ronom. 1876, ii. 129 Balbiani, Rev. Robin, Micr. 1877, 953 Scient. 1874; Cornu, Phyll. vast, 1878
;
;

100

mams.

Magn.

num and
common.

utrivulatuvi)

are

(24 plates).

PHYMATOP'SIS,

Tul.

Berkeley's geims 'Badhamia.

removed to P. album is
;

genus of

Microlichens parasitic on the apothecia and thallus of Usnefe. BiBL. Lindsay, New-Zealand Lich. and QiC Mic. Jn. 1869, 350, Funqi, 442

PHYSAC'TIS, Kutz.A genus

of Oscil-

latoriaceas

(Confervoid Algae), improperly separated from Rividaria, consisting of freshwater and marine plants, growing on stones &c., at first globose, and afterguards vesicular and lobed by peripheral growth accompanied by gradual decay of the originally solid centre.

included

Under

this

head are

P. (Rivularia) nitida. Deep olive-green, tufted and lobed, gregarious fronds from 1-12 to 1" in diameter. (i2. hidlata, Berk.)
;

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 314 Mat/. and Bot. i. 49 Ann. N. H. vi. 431, 2. xiii. 159 Fries, System. Myc. iii. 127 Sum. Veg. 153 Greville, Cri/pt. Fl. pi. 40. 310; Cooke, Grevillea, 1880; Kent, Pop. Sc. Rev. 1881, and Inf. 470. PHYS'CIA, Nyl.Like Parmelia, but with the spores bilocular; nianv species. PH YSOOMIT'RIUM, Bridel. genus of Funariacea? (Acrocarpous Mosses), including many Gymnostomaoi other authors. Physcomitrium pyrifurnie, J^vid. Gylnnostomnm pyriforme, Hedw. Ph. sphcericam is remarkable as having been found only in one year in one locality in Britain. This species exhibits a pretty structure in
Zool.
; ;

Marine.
P. (Riv.) plicata. Diam. 1-12 to 1-2" in diameter deep green. Marine. P. (Riv.) pisum. Globose, dirty green, 1-12 to 1-2" in diameter. Freshwater. BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 332; Tab. Phyc.
;

a vertical .section of the immature capsule, the mass of sporiferous tissue being suspended freely in the middle by cellular threads.

PHYSIO'TIUM, Nees. A genus of Jungermanuiea)

(Hepaticse),

containing

one

PHYSODICTYON,
species,

507

PILOBOLUS.

P. cochJeariforme,

a large

plaut,

growing iu purple tufts 4 to 6" long, on moors aud among rocks in Ireland and the
Scotch highlands. BiBL. Hook. Brit. Flor. Br. Jim(i. p. G8 Eiu/l. Bof.
:

ii.

pt. 1. p.

119;

pi.

2500

Elcart,

hg. 40 Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Suppl. 1. nos."472-81. PIiYS6DIC 'TYON, Ktz. A genus of Algse, consisting of globular vesicles composed of angular parenchymatous cells containing chlorophyll; diameter 1-12". On P. qraniforme rocks and submerged wood.
Si/?iops. Jintf/. pi. 5.
;

(PI. 3, fig. 14).

PHYSOM'ONAS, Kt.A
Rounded,
; ; ;

(Rabenhorst, Ahj. iii! 312.) genus of Flafree or fixed by obliquely truncate in

;

PICO'BIA, Hall. genus of Trombidina (Acarina). P. Heeri, in the subcutaneous cellular tissue of the woodpecker. Bibl. Megnin, Paras. 248; Haller, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 1877, xxx. PIGGO'TIA, Berk, and Broome. of genus Sphaeronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), or perhaps the conidiiferous form of Dothidea. P. astroidea occurs on the green leaves of the elm, formino- ii-regidar roundish, granulated or wrinkled jet-black patches (sometimes with a yellow border) on the upper surface of the leaf. Perithecia soon confluent, bursting by a lacerated fissure. Bibl. Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2.

gellate Infusoria.

vii.

a slender filament

front tiagella two, unequal diam. 1-3000" freshwater and marine. (Kent, Inf. 263.)

PHYTEL'EPHAS,
neric

R. and

P.The

PIGMENT. See Introduction, p. xxxiv. PIGMENT-CELLS of connective tissue occur in a few isolated spots only in Man
higher Vertebrata, but are widely Amphibia and Fishes, appearing especially in the skin, the serous membranes, and the tunica adventitia of the
distributed

9o, pi. 5. fig. 1.

ge-

and the

name of the Palm table-Ivory nut.

yielding the

Vege-

PHY^TOCRE'NE, Wallich.An Artocarpaceous tree with wood of very remarkable structure. See Wood.

PHYTOP 'TID^. A family of Acarina,

is ill-understood. The member? are found in the buds and gaUs of The galls, which form warts, tuplants. bercles, nail-like growths (fcc. upon the

the nature of which

in gi-acolour. The pigment-cells of connective tissue are characterized by their beautiful usually
nules,
stellate

vessels.

The pigment is deposited which differ in shape and

Man

form and numerous processes.

In

they occur normally in the eye.

The

and produce distortion of the buds, were formerly considered fungi, and placed in the genera Urineum, Phillerium, &c. The Acari are usually elongate, the body transleaves,

pigment -granules in Amphibia are collected in round masses or diffused in the stellate
evident but in form of pigment-cells occurs in the skin of these animals, and is connected with the change in colour which they present. See Mel anine. PILA'CRE, Fr. genus of Trichogascells,

their

movement being

slow.

Spontaneous alteration

versely striated, the legs two anterior pairs, the hinder pairs being replaced by tubercles or long hairs. They were supposed to be the larvae of Tetranychus or other Acaiiua, but theu' eggs are found with them in the galls. They have not been properly ar-

tres

(Gasteromycetous Fimgi). This genus must not be confoimded with 0)iyyena, to which it bears a cei'tain resem-

ranged iu genera and species, being usually referred to the single genus Phytoptus, Duj They are often very transparent and easily
,

overlooked, and sometimes can only be foimd by washing the opened galls, and searching for them in the wash-water. They are commonly met with in the galls of the lime, the vine, the wiUow, the pear, vew, &c., aud are named accordingly P. "tilue (PL o3. fig. 24), P. vitis, &c. BiBL. Dujardin, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1857, iii. lo ; Pagenstecher, Verh. Heidelb. 1859 Frauenfeld, Verh. zool.-hot. G'es. Wien, 186472; Low, ib. 1874; Thomas, Zeitschr. gesammt. Naturw. xxxiii. Kaltenbach, Pflam.feinde Briosi, M. M. Jn. xvii. 181
; ;

One or two of the species are blance. remarkable for the strong permanent odour, resembling that of pigs. Bibl, Berk, and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2.
V. 365, pi. 11.

PILEOLA'RIA, Cast. See Uromyces. PILEORin'ZA. A conical hood on, or

1

shield or guard to, the tips of the roots of See plants, protecting the nascent tissue.

Root.

PILINTA, KUtz.A genus

of Chaetc-

phoraceousAlgfe. Filaments erect, jointed, tufted, rooting, forming a spongy stratum. P. rimosa (PI. 3, fig. 15), on submersed wood marine. (Rabenhorst, Alg. iii. 386.) PILOBO LUS, Tode. A geims of Mu;

(with copious Bibl.) Ormerod, 179 Mui-ray, Ec. Ent. 365.

;

Inj. Ins.

corini

of

little

(Phycomycetous Fungi), consisting moulds growing upon dung bear;

PILOPHOEON.

593

PILrLARIA.
:

ing some resemblance iu their The plants Botrijdium among the Algse. Lave a stolon iferous creeping mycelium, from wlueh arise fertile pedicels, each cut off from the mycelium by a septum; the into the upper part of the pedicel expands shut oft" by a vesicle, which also becomes septum in the vesicle or peridiole, spores are next developed by free-cell formation, and at the same time' the septum becomes
;

structm-e to

of the stem and leaves is simple they are clothed with an epidermis possessing stomata and a cross section both of the stem and the leaves exhibits a central vascular bundle (of spiral vessels) surrounded by a sheath of brownish cells, while in the delicate cellular tissue intervening between the central bundle and the epidermis stands a circle of air-passages separated from each other by simple radiating cellular septa.
;

pushed up into its interior (as in Mucoe) to form a columella, which ultimately causes the vesicular peridiole to split off by a circumscissile dehiscence just above the septum it is thrown off" with elasticity, enof closing the spores. Tlie development has been studied by Colin and P.
;

Fig. 572.

Fig. 573.

crystaUiiius

They hud the germinating spore to produce a creeping unicellular mycelial porwhich soon tion, and next a fruit-pedicel, has the peridiole separated by a septum
Bail.'
;

Pilularia globulifera.
Fig. 572.
.5

consists thus, in its simplest form, this plant of only three cells subsequently it becomes complex by the root-cell or mycelium pro;

h.

vertical section of a spore-fruic.

diameters. Fig .37-3. Transverse section of a spore-fruit. b diameters.

Magn.
Magn.

ducing numerous

stolons.

P. crystallinus

is

black. yellowish at first, the peridiole finally P. roridus, Bolt., a doubtful species, is smaller and more slender than the last, having an elongated filiform stem. Bjbl. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 231 Fries, Sum. Vef/et. 487 Cohn, Kova Acta, xxiii. 492 Bail, Hot, Zeit. xiii. C30 Currey, J. Liim. Sue. Botany, i. 162. PILOPH'ORUN,Tuck. Agenus of ClaP. Jihula, douiei (Liclienaceous Lichens ).
; ;

The
oiiter

spore-fruits are liollow cases with an

coat,

tough cellular

and an inner more

delicate coat dijipiuginat four perpendicular lines, as far as the centre, so as to form

dissepiments dividing the fruit into four chambers (fiffs. 572, 573) ; up the centre of the outer wall of each chamber runs a raised ridge, a kind of placenta, whence arise the

on wet rocks,

rare.

PILOT'PJCHUM,

Leighton, Lich. Fl. 69.) Pal. de Beauv.

some genus of Hypnoid Mosses, including

Fontincdes of authors.

Pilotrichum antipyreticum, C. Mull.= Fontinalis antipyrelica, L. F. squamosa, P. squamosum, C. Miill.

sporanges or thecce (fig. 573). These are pear-shaped sacs composed of a very delicate cellular membrane. Those in the upper part of each chamber contain a number of minute globular bodies (microspores), resembhng pollen-grains, immersed in a gelaThe sacs in the lower part tinous liquid. of the chamber contain only one body or
it

L. P. ciIi(itu7n,C MiiYl.^ Anoecfaiiffiion ciliatum, Brid., var. y. striafum = A. cUiutum, Wilson. P. hcteromaUum, P. d. ^.Daltoniaheie7'otiialla, 11. and T, PILULA'EIA, L. genus of Marsileaceous Plants, containing the only British representative of the order P. glohuUfera

spore (macrospore) of very peculiar firm ; nearly fills the theca, is somewhat oval, and possesses several coats. In the development of the spores the small spores are developed in the usual way, by the formation of parent cells in the
theca,

each subsequently producing four

growing in mud at the edges of or in pools, having a filiform creeping stem, bearing erect filiform pTeen leaves and delicate adventitious roots, and producing shortlystalked globular spore-fruits, about the size The anatomical structure of a pepper-corn.

(fig.

574).

Tliis is

an iuconspicuous plant

In the thecfB which have the single spores. large spore, a number of parent cells are and these become origiually produced divided into four chambers but
;

by septa

then all but one of these decay. This produces four spores; but out of these four, only one attains ]ierfect development, the rest being subsequently dissolved and absorbed to make room for the solitary large The two kinds of spore in Pilularia spore.

PILULARIA.
NBLLA and

r,no

PILULARIA.

correspond to the two forms in SelaqiIsoETE.s, and to the pollen and ovules of the Flowering Plants. They are set free by the dehiscence of the spore-lriiit, and lie at first inib.'dded in the jelly poured

oval form, and have a thick outer gelatinous coat Ci)mpt)sedof prismatic cells standing perpendicularly on an inner glassy coat ; the gelatinous coat is perforated at the

out by the thecse. In this state the small spores resemble pollen-grains, having au outer granular, and an inner delicately membranous coat, the outer coat presenting ridges coi'respouding to the points of contact in the parent cell. When set free, tlie spores soon burst at these ridges, and tlie inner coat is slightly protruded this next bursts and discharges a number of lontienlor cells, from each of

summit byafunnel-sha}3ed opening through which protrudes a pyramidal elevation of the second, glassy coat the last is lined by a
;

delicate internal coat containing protoplasm, Soon after the starch, oil-globules, &c. expulsion of the spore, cell-formation takes

which escapes a ciliated spiral spermatozoid. The mature large spore-s (tig. 575) are of
Fig. 574.

place inside the pyramidal protrusion of the outer coat, from the cell-contents of the The glassy coat next splits at this spoi-e. point into four teeth, and exposes the cellular structure {protliallium), which increases in An size, and acquires a green colour.

archegoniuni

is

next formed on this, conFig. 578.

Fig. 575.

Fig. 576.

Fig. 577.

Pilularia globulifera.
Fig. S"4. Natural size. Fi;;. 57o. An ovule spore. Magnified 25 diameters. Magnified 25 diameters. Figs. 576 & 577. The same in germination. Fig. 578. Germinating spore more advanced. Magnified 10 diameters.

sisting of a cell (embryo-sac) lying in the substance at the apex, with a canal Ijordered by four papillose cells leading to it. spermatozoid fertilizes the free embryo-ceU contained in the archegonium and this be-

comes developed into a new plant within the substance of the prothallium (fig. 577), sending out a leaf on one side and an adventitious root on the other, tangentially to

In this stage the surface of the spore. (fig. 578) the j'oung plant, with the remains of the spore, somewhat resembles a germinating Monocotyledonous seed. Finally, as the young plant increases in size, the remnants of the spore-coat are thrown off. BiBL. Valentine, Linn. Tr. xvii. Hof;

meister, Vergl. Unters.\9>5\,\0Z

Henfrey,
Pilul. ^c.

Ann. N. H.

2. ix.

447 j Hanstein,

PINE-APPLE.
1866, Brauu, Monatsb. Berl. Ak.
Sachs, Bot. 444.

600

PITTED STRUCTURES,

1870;

PINE- APPLE.
,

PINNULAEIA Ehr. A
;

See Bro>ieliace;e. genus of Uia-

frequently occurs in a fossil condition (Pl. 25. figs. 29-33). Bibl. See the articles above cited.

tomacefe, family Naviculacese. C/mr. Frustules single, free, longer than broad front view linear or oblong valves navicular, elliptical, lanceolate, or oblong (side view), with a median line, and a nodule at the centre and at each end surface exhibiting transverse or slightly radiating striae or furrows (costse). This genus diifers from Navictda in the strife not being resolvable into dots. They ai'e mostly distinct under ordinary illuminaIn some of the species tliey are absent tion. in the middle, leaving a transverse clear space or band, resembling in appearance the stauros of Staurmieis. Many species. P. nohilis (PI. 15. fig. 1, side view). Valves linear, dilated in the middle and at the rounded ends strige coarse. Freshwater and fossil; length 1-100 to 1-70". P. viridis (PI. 15. fig. 2, side view). Valves elliptical, somewhat turgid, ends obtuse freshwater length 1-500 to
;
;

Cordni Brgucladimti, Ktz.). PISOM YX' A,Mucorini (Phycomycetous A genus of

Fig. 579.

Pisomyxa racodioides.
Magnified 200 diameters.

Fungi), growing upon leaves. has occm'red in Ceylon on the

species leaves of

A7}wmum.
Bibl. Fries, Swn. Veg. 406 Corda, Ic. Fung. i. pl. 6. fig. 292 Berk, and Broome,
;
;

1-220"; common.
j3.

Linn. Jn. xiv. 139,

t.

x.

f.

54.

Strise parallel, absent

from a transverse

band. P. ohlonga (PI. 15. fig. 8, side view). Valves linear-oblong, ends rounded freshwater and fossil length 1-120" common. P. radiosa (PI. 15. fig. 4, side view fig. o, Valves lanceolate, ends somefront view) what obtuse fi-esh water length 1-500"
; ;

parts of a flower included in the terms ovary, style, and stigma. It is in theory composed of modified leaves or carpels.

PISTIL. The

PISTILLA'RIA, Fr. A

genus of Cla-

variei

(Hymenomycetous Fungi), consisting of small club-shaped heads which are confluent

common.
BiBL. Smith, Br. Died. i. 54, ii. 95 Ehr. Abh. 1840, 20; Donkin, Mic. Jn. 1861, 8; Pritchard, Inf. 899; Kutz. 8p. Alg. 81;
;

with the ste-m. There are about six species indigenous to this country, of which
that on fern-stems
is

Bibl. Fr. Ep. 586; Cooke, Handb. 342.

the most Berk.

common.
Outl.

286;

Q. Micr. Jn. Gregory, Diat. of Ckjde, 7 ii. 28, 98 Griin, Wien. Verh. 18G0, 524
;
;

iii. 209 Pfitzer and O'Meara, Qu. 3Iic. Jn. 1872, 386. PI'NUS, L. A genus of Coniferaj (Gymnospermous Flowering Plants), presenting

Rabenh. Alg.

PISTILLID'lUM=AHcnEGONiuM, the female reproductive organ of the higher Crvptogamia.

PITH.
SeeMEDtTLLA.
obscure

PITHOPH'ORA, Wittr. An
M. M.
Jn. xviii. 40.)

many

interesting points of structure.

is

The

genus of Algse. (Wittrock, Qu. M. Jn. 1877, xvii. 293; Moore, Jn. Bot. 1877;

most familiar example

;

the

Scotch Fir

but a great number of other (P. sylvestris) For species are cultivated in this country. the microscope they yield instructi^ e objects: in the wood (PI. 48. fig. 1), composed of

Plants. The secondary deposits of cellulose which

form the layers of thickening of the walls of vegetable cells are seldom uniform or homogeneous in character. In most, if not in all, cases some special microscopic structure may be distinguished, either by mere inspectiDU or on the application of reagents. These layers, .spoken of more particularly as to their nature under Secondary deposits, may be divided into two classes, com-

PITTED STRUCTURES of

peculiarly pitted cells (see CoNiFERiE) and traversed by turpentine-reservoirs in the Babk, which has a kind of false corli ; in
;

the

development of the Gymnospermous

in the structure of the

Ovules, and
LEN-grains.

Pol-

The wood

of species of the genus Pinus

PITTED STRUCTURES.
prehending pretty accurately
conditions,

601

PITTED STRUCTURES.
;

Spiral deposits, where the seconclary layers assume the the inside of aspect of Hbres applied upon the cell-wall; and Pitted, ov,ns they are often tenned, Porous deposits, where layers are surface of applied over the whole internal the cell, which layers present orifices of different character.s,'leaving- the primary membrane hare, and forming in this way a pit as

namely:

the

all

the varied

viewed from the inside of the

cell.

When

other at their outer extremity and in old tissues, when the primary cell-walls have been absorbed, these coincident pits form tubular canals leading from one cell to It has been observed thattwo (nanother. more pits sometimes become confluent in the later internal deposits, so that the internally simple orifice leads out to several branches corresponding to the original pits on the wall of the cell. In rare cases, simple of epidermal pits occur on the outer walls
cells, as in Ci/cas (PI. 47. fig. 28).

the secondary layers are comparatively thin, and the their presence is often overlooked mistaken for oripits have thus often been fices or jwres (figs. 580, 581) in the primary
;

Pits of the above kinds occm" on the structures called ducts (see Tissues, -stegeFig. 582.

Fig. 583.

Fig. 580.

Fig. 581.

Pitted cells of Elder pith.

Magnified 250 diameters.

membrane but such pores are never originally present the closvire of the pit by the layer of primary membrane may always be demonstrated in young structures and when orifices really do occur in cell-walls, these ai'ise from the absorption of the primary cell-membrane converting the pit into a The best way of demonstrating that pore. young spotted cell- walls are only pitted aud not perforated, is to apply sulphuric acid and iodine for the production of the blue colour in the primary cell-wall. Simple pits, of no great depth, occur on the slightly thickened walls of most perma; ;

nent parenchymatous cells they may be seen in the cells of herbaceous stems, in pith, bark, in the cells of the parenchyma of leaves, &c. (Figs. 580, 581 ; PI. 47. fig. 14.) In most prosenchymatous wood-cells, or liber-cells, aud in the woody cells of the
;

Fig. 582. Pitted duets of Clematig. Magii. 100 diams. Fig. 583. Side wall of a cell of Pine, with bordered
pits.

Magniiied 200 diameters.

stones or shells of fruits and seeds, the pits are far more clearly evident, and become

more and more

distinct (PI. 48. fig. 3), as

the layers of thickeniug increase in number, since, by the successive application of these, the pits are deepened (with the contraction of the cavity of the cell) until they become canals or tubular passages radiating from the central cavity (PI. 47. fig. 23). In these cases it is evidently seen that the pits of adjacent cells and ducts con'espond to each

table), formed of cells applied end to end and confluent (fig. 181, page 271). These large pitted tubes (which occur abundantly in most woods, witli the exception of that of the Coniferas) are sometimes termed bofhrenchi/ma signifying jntted tissue but the character not being exclusively applicable to them, the name is bad.
,
;

In many pitted ducts, and in the pitted wood-cells of many plants, especially of the Coniferae, the pits present a greater degree of complication. The markings on the walls of the wood-cells of most of the Coniferae,
for example, consist of pits surrounded

by a

PITTED STRUCTURES.
broad rim
(fig.

602

PITTED STRUCTURES.
ai'e

583

PI. 48. figs. 1, 4, 5)

tlie

medullary rays,
rim.

generally devoid of the

portion within the rim projec-ts somewliat into the cavity of the cell, and appears like a lenticular body attached on the wall; hence tiie markings were formerly termed the " " glands of Coniferous wood. In reality, however, while the pits themselves resemble ordinary pits, the broad rim, or rather the circular line outside the pit, depend* on a condition of the cell-wa'.l outside the membrane, and is merely the outline of a lenti-

Similar bordered pits occur very generally on the walls of the pitted ducts of Dico-

Fig. 584.

r.iu

pt.

tyledons but as the wood is here of mixed composition, and the ducts adjoin cells as well as other ducts, independently of the medullary rays, we often find a greater variety of conditions on the wall of the same duct, which may have bordered pits when adjoining another duct, and simple pits, or pits with a double outline, when adjoining cells. The pits with a double outline (PL 48. 15 b, ic 20) are of difiereut nature from figs. the bordered pits (PL 48. figs. 13, 14, 15 a, 16, 18), the double outline depending simply on the fact that the later or more internal layers of thickening do not reach the edge of the orifice in the earlier secondary deposits, so that the pit is conical, or rather has sloping edges, the circumference at the primary membrane being rather less than that of the margin next the cell-cavity. peculiar modification of this unequal mode of deposit is seen in company with the true rim or border in many cases (PL 48. figs. 14, 1(3, 18), where the central spot or ongiual pit appears in the middle of a sUt running across .the circle indicating the border this slit indicates the alteration of the shape of the gap in the secondary deposits in the successive layers, and corresponds to the inner margin of the pit, where this has the form of an elongated groove or slit, gi-adually diminishing- to a small round hole
;

towards the primarv cell-membrane (PL 48. 18). Sometimes (PL 48. fig. 18 r, b) the two or more slits formed in this way on
fig.

Section of Pine wood at right angles to the pitted walls, p.f, walls of a pitted cell c.j, cavity of a cell r. in, c. I lenticular cavity between two adjacent pits cells of a medullary ray, the pits have no rim here.
; ;
,

Magnified 400 diameters.

contiguous pits become confluent. The last condition indicates a transition to the more sparing form of the secondary' deposit where it appears as a modification of a spiral fibre or fibres; and the later secondary deposits of pitted ducts do sometimes actually assume

cular cavity existing between two adjacent which is visible cells, the boundary of through the wall on account of the transthe nature of this parency of the latter structure is very evident in sections made at show the borright angles to those which
:

and produce a spiral-!ibruus layer of thickening inside the layers perforated by This is the case in Taxus (PL 48. pits. the Lime (PL 48. fig. 13), and figs. 4), in
this Ibrni,

dered pits in face (fig. 584 PL 48. fig. 1 b). In most of the ConiferaB the wood is exclusively composed of large elongated prosof enchym'atous cells, with bordered pits this character on the side walls (that is, on the walls standing radially or perpendicular the pits, however, which lie to the bark) on parts of the wall adjoining the cells of
;
;

Mezereon (PL 48. fig. 19 b), &c. Ilartig and Mohl have described a peculiar kind of pitted tissue formed of cells, which the former calls Siebrohren, or sievetubes, the latter clathrafe
cells.

They

are

thin-walled cells occurring associated with the prosenchymatous liber-cells of Dicotyledons, and forming part of the vasa j)ropria of Monocotylednns; having their walls mi.rked with large shiUow pits, the mem-

PITTED STRUCTURES.
;

003

PLAGIOCIIILA.
;

Itrane of the pits beinp: ag-iin vovv finely the punctate or reticulated llartig regards as holes. line

without
the

both kinds with

spiral fibres

on

punctuations tlie guidance of microscopic observers, we may furnish a series of examples (in addition to those of the Conifku.^:, PL 48. dilferent kinds of markfiffs. 1, 4, 5), of the cells and ducts. ing- on pitti'd

(PL
J.

internal surface: J)ii/)/<nr Mrzereinn 48. fig. 19), PasserinajViformis, Genista

For

canariensis.

The walls adjacent

;

to

other ducts

next ells pitted, those or devoid of them

pits,

with very distant all the walls with

the lime, horse-chestnut, sycamore, P. cornel, holly, hawthorn, Pruiuis Padus,

fibres
:

A. Forms

wliere

there

is

no spiral-Jihrous

virjiiniana, &c. The last set of

forms

allies

these struc-

secundiin/ deposit.
a. Bordered pits uniformly distributed, without reference to adjacent structures

E!cea(inm acicninata, Clematis Vilalha (PI.

lig.

18).

Jiordered pits fewer on the walls adjoining cells: Acacia lophantha, Sophora
b.

tures to those characterized pecidiarly by the SpiRAL-fibrous Structurks : and, as will be indicated there and under S R( :ond ary DEPOSITS, the smooth layers of thickening, such as those between the pits of Pmas, be made to show a spiral structure by

may

Japotiica.

walls adjoining c. Bordered pits on the wood-cells duets, while the walls adjoining have few or no bordered pits, and those

the action of reagents. For the micro-chemical conditions of these objects, their development and reladeposits Tissues, tions, see Secondary
;

next the medullary rays have pits without a border elder, beechj hazel, poplar, alder,
:

B table. Vegetable and Cei.l, BiBL. Works on Structural Bcjtany, and

;

the Bihl. of

plane, apple, &c.

d.

ducts, but

Bordered pits on the walls adjoining with large pits devoid of a bor:

der where adjoining cells

Spiral structures. OF Plants. The region of the carpel whence ovules arise. Stroma would be a preferable term.

PLACENTA

Cassi/tha (jlahella

(PL

48.

tig.

14),

Bombax pentandruyn (PL 48.

tig. 15).

modification of the last, where the e. bordered pits have the form of slits as wide as the ducts when adjoining ducts, while the walls adjoining cells have large pits Chilinnthiis arboreus without a border
:

17); the vine (in a less striking Urt/nc/ium maritimiim (PL 48. manner). exhibits a <;onditiou approaching this. fig. 21) or clathrate cells, large thin/. Sieve-tubes walled cells with round, oval, or elongated thinner places (pits) on their walls, the membrane of the finely reticulated or
(PI. 48.
fig.

PLACO'DIUM. A genus of Placode! 13 species, on (Lichenaceous Lichens) rocks and Avails. (Leighton, Lick. Fl. K'O.) PLACOPSIL'INA B'OiVignj.Litvolre of irregular growth and attached, belong to this subgenus. BiBL. Carpenter, For. 143. PLA'CUS, C'Ohn. genus of Holosurface trichous Infusoria. Free, ovate
;
,

pit

being

These are found in perforated like a sieve. the liber of Dicotyledons, as in Biynonia, the lime, the vine, elder, pear, &c., and in the central part of the vascular bundles of as Musa, Asparayus, &c.
Monocotyledons,
B.

moveindurated, reticular, mouth inferior ment rotatory length 1-780"; saltwater. (Kent, Inf. 489.) PLAGIACAN'THA, Claparede. genus of Acanthometrina (Rhizopoda). Char. The spicula, which are branched and without a central canal, do not unite in the centre of the body, but on one of the on which sides, so as to form a scaffolding
;

the sarcode rests; pseudopodia elongating either at the ends or sides of the spicula to

Forms where
g.

a spiral-Jibrotis structure
the jjits.

is

which they are attached, and which they unite more or less together.

added after

All the ducts with bordered pits, but the larger ducts with smooth walls, the smaller with a spiral fibre Clematis Vitalba, Uimus campestris, Mortis alba. All the ducts closely pitted, with h. slender fibres between the rows of yjita
:

BiBL. Clap, et Lach. Etudes, 461. PLAGIOCIU'LA, Nees and Montague.

genus of Jungermannieaj (llepaticfe), containing a number of British species, viz. P.

[Ju7i(fermannia,ilook.)aspleni(iides,spinnlosa, undiduta (fig. 321), decipiens, resupinata,

Hakea oUifolia. i. The larger ducts with

pits,

the smaller

umbrosa, planifolia, nemorosa, which, especially P. a-:plenioides (fig. 585), most frequent and finest the are

and

some of

acong

PLAGIODISCUS.

604

PLANARIOLA.
Inf.

plants of the family, its stems gi'owing from 3 to 5" long. Fig. 585. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii.
pt.
1,

BiBL. Duj.
Infus. 235.

504

Clap,

et

Lach.

111

pis. 13,

14

Br. Jung. Ekart, >S>h;

ops. Jung. 6 et seq, pi. 1 Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Supp. 1, No. 473.

PLAGIODIS'CUS,Gr. A gemis of Diatomacese.

Allied to Surirella,
;

PLAGIOTRICHA, Kt A genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria allied to Oxgtncha 2 species; freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 771.) PLAGIOT'ROPIS, O'Meara.A genus of Diatomaceae closely allied to Amphiprora, Ehr. BiBL. O'Meara, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 88. PLANA'RIA, MiilL A genus of Annuloida, of the order Turbellaria, and sub:

but the costae radiating 2 species at the ends. valves reniform Hondu;

ras.

(Grunow, M. M. Jn.

order Planarida. Char. Body soft, flattened, oblong or oval, not jointed, covered with vibratile cilia neither suckers, bristles, nor leg-like
;

xviii. 172, figs.)

appendages present.

PLAGIOG'NATH.1,
Duj.

A genus
;

Some
^it%t^U^|fait.
Diglena, and by the arched
Itif.

parts of the structure of these ani-

of

Rota-

mals have been noticed under

Annul at a

toria containing- species

included by Enrenberg in the genera Notommata,

in speaking of the Turbellaria. The mouth is situated on the under sm-face of the middle of the body, at the end of a retrac-

Distemma

distinguished back and peculiar jaws. BiBL. Duj. Inf. 651; 692. of

proboscis there is no anus leads to a capacious stomach

tile
;

the

mouth
ofl

giving

Pritchard,

PLAGIOGRAM'MA, Grev. A
Diatom acese, family
Fragilarife.

genus

Char. Frustules quadrangular, united into a short fascia; valves with two or more
pervious transverse costre, and moniliform generally interrupted strise. BiBL. Greville, Mic. Tr. 1865, 1866; Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Alg. i. 117 ; Pritchard, Infus. 778.
sti'ong,

dendritically-branched caeca, somewhat as in one joint of a Tcenia (PI. 21. fig. 14). Their motion is continuous and gUding, upon water-plants, or the sides of glass jars. The anterior part of the body exhibits a curved row or a single pair of eyes, and
tiply

sometimes ear-like projections. They mulby division, and the formation of ova,

which

PLAGIOPH'RYS, Clap. genus of Actinophryina (Rhizopoda). Char. No carapace, pseudopodia numerous, arising from one point of the surface of the body. 2 species fi-esh water. P. cy;

are enclosed in a coloured capsule. of the species are very common in and resemble, at first sight, minute pools, P. nigra, which is black, has a leeches. row of marginal anterior eyes, and two

Some

lateral and one mesial projection length about 1-2". P. hrunnea, dusky-brown, with a dark mesial line eyes as above length
; ;
;

lindrica (PI. 52. tig. 17). BiBL. Clap, et Lach. Infus. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1871, 146.

453

Archer,
of

PLAGIOPOGON,
lotrichous Infusoria.

St. A genus

Ho;

Free, oval, longitudiP. cohps nally furrowed, oral setee rigid. (Kent, //. 508.) length 1-300". PLAGIOP' YLA, Stein. genus of Homouth venOvate lotrichous Infusoria. surtral, with an undulating membrane 3 species ; fresh and face with trichocysts. salt water. (Kent, Inf. 538.) PLAGIOT'OMA, Duj. genus of Bursarina (Infusoria ciliata). Parasitic in the intestines and their walls of Vertebrata and luvertebrata, and in the mucus of Mollusca. 7 species. P. lumbrici^ in the earthworm j P, coli, in the human in-

A
;

P. lactea, cream-coloured, tinged with pale reddish brown, truncate in front, Avith two slight lateral auricles eyes two or foiu- length 1-2 to 3-4". P. torva., or black obtu.-e in front, angles grey rounded, centre proj ecting eyes two, with a white halo Of the other length 1-2". species some are marine.
less.
; ; :
;

rather

BiBL. Johnston, Non-parasitical Worms Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xv. and xxi.
; ;

ffirsted. System, d. Plattioiirmer Diesing, Helminth. Daly ell. Powers of Creation, ii. J Schultze, Naturg. TwhelL luxley, Cofnp. An. R. Vaillant, Mn. Mic. Jn. i. 311 Lankester, Pop. Sc. Rev. 1867, vi. 388 ;
;

Moseley, Phil. Trans. 1877,

xvii. lOo.

PLANARI'OLA, Duj. A
P. rubra (PI. 31.
fig.

doubtful ge-

nus of Infusoria.
65).

testine.

Aquatic, in

PLANORBITLINA.
decomposing
1-250".

605

PLATYZO^IA.

vegetable

matter

length

BiBL. Du]. Inf. 568.

of

PLANOKBULl'NA, D'Oib. A
Hyaline
;

genus

Shell spiral, Foramiuifera. coarsely porous, subnautiloid or outspread, often parasitic having from 15 to 200

are plasma-masses without a nucleus, enclosed in an entire or incomplete uiembrane For example, the encapsuled or shell. resting condition of vi\a.nyLepomonera,mimy Siphoncca, and numerous other lower plants, and the so-called non-nucleated cells of

many higher
The

plants

chambers, with single septa and slight rudiments of the canal-system. Aperture sometimes produced and lipped. Complanate (PI. mechterranensis, PI. 24. tig. 10) plano-convex, Truncatulina (T. lobatula,
;

cells or cyta are

and animal tissues. plasma-masses with

:

PI. 24. fig. 9) PI. 24. tig. 6

rotaliiform

{PL Haidingerii,
;

PI. veneta, fig. 12)

or sub-

a nucleus, and are divided into Such are the (xymnocyta, naked cells. naked plasma-masses with a nucleus, but without a membrane or shell for example, the true Amoeba, the naked zoospores of Alga;, the eggs of Siphonophora, and other
;

nautiloid

Planulina). Smooth; limbate (Planulina); or granulate. In all seas fossil in the Carboniferous, Lias, and later formations. BiBL. Carpenter, For. 206 Parker and Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. 379,
;

(AnomaUna

and

animals, the colomiess blood-cells, many nerve-ceUs, &c. Lepocyta, or covered cells. Such are the cells of animals, plants, and tissues with
nuclei

and

cell-walls.

See

Pkotista,
;

PLANTA'GO.
its leaf

and

The common plaiutaiu hairs furnish excellent exam;

Cytode.
BiBL. Hackel, Biol. Studien, H. i. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 331 Hallier, Plastids, 1878.
;

ples of Cyclosis.
p. 431.

See Carpenter, Microscope,

PLATINUM.The

sodio-chloride

of

PLANCJLA'RIA, Defi-ance. noticeable gi'oup of delicate, elongate, flattened Cristellarice, connecting the nautiloid with the margiuuUne varieties, come under this
name. Recent and fossil. BiBL. Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. xii. 215 4. viii. 166. V. 114 (crepidtda^
3.

platinum crystallizes in prisms and plates

polarize light; while the potassiochloride of platinum yields several forms, which do not polarize light. This reaction of the soda-salt has been proposed as a means of distinguishing soda from potash, or detecting minute quantities of the former. BiBL. Andrews, Chem. Gaz. 1852, x. 378, PLATYCE'RIUM, Desv. geims of o Acrosticheee (Polypodiaceous Ferns),

which

Planorhulina

subgenus of subsymmetrical, and with raised margins and septal Recent and fossil. lines (Umbate). BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. For. 207.
;

PLANULI'NA, D'Orb.a
flat,

discoidal,

species

PLASMODIUM.A

PLATYCHE'LIPUS, Br. A
(Bradv, Copep.,
102.)

tropical.

sponge-like

net-

Copepodous
ii.

(Hooker, Syn. 425.) genus of Entomostraca. P. littoralis ;

work, formed by the union of the pseudopodia of amoeboid bodies.

brackish water.

Ray

Soc,

PLAS'TIDS. The simplest living forms,

and the most elementary parts of tissues, consist of (1) small particles and masses of protoplasm without a nucleus or any trace
of structure (our protoplasts, 1856), (2) of similar portions of protoplasm in Avhich a

PLAT YC 'OLA, Kt. Like Vaginicola, but the sheath decumbent, and attached by one side. Freshwater several species.
;

(Kent, Inf.7?A.)

nucleus has been

;

dift'erentia,ted.

The

first

PLATYG'RAPHA, XyLA genus of Graphidei (Lichenaceous Lichens). P.rimata, on ash trees, rare. (Leighton, Lich.
Flor. 388.)

group Hackel terms Cytodes, the second and both are grouped under the head cells
of Plastids.

PLATYS'MA,
Lich. Fl. 93.)

Hoffin.

genus

of

The

cytodes, or the protoplasmic masses

:

-s\dthout a nucleus, are

Ramalodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). 10 species, on rocky mountains &c. (Leighton,

genus of Fla-Ovate, with a decumbent rugose carapace flagellum single length 1-1200" on Lemna. (Kent, Inf. 262.) Br. genus of GleiPLATYZO'MA, cheniaceous Ferns. P. tnicrophyllum, Ausgellate Infusoria.
; ;

GymnocytodtB, or naked cytodes. Such are the freely moving Monera, the nonnucleated Plasmodia of Myxomycetes, and of several other Protista, the amoeboid erms of the Greyariiice proceeding from he pseudo-naviculse, &c. Lepocytodce, or covered cytodes. These

PLATYTHE'CA, St. A

tralia,

(Hook. Syn. 11.)

PLECANIUM.

606

PLEUKOSIGMA.

TLEC A 'XI UM, Reuss. Texfuktrlce with sandy sliell-titsue rome under this lieadiuo:. BiBL. Reus?, Sifziim/sh. Wien, xliv. 38-3. PLEOPEL'TIS, Hu'mb. ;ind BoDpl. An exotic genus of Polypodiefe (Polypodioid Ferns), remarkable for the presence of formed so-called paraphyses in peculiarly the sori, performino- the function of an indusium. These bodies are peltate, or like minute fiat mushrooms or umbrellas exptinded over and sheltering the spurauges
(ligs.

Binr,. Meneg. Nosfoch. 38; KdgeW, Si/d. 124; Rabenh. .-!/,'/. iii 24. PLEURODEB'MIUM, Kiitz. An obiella\

scure genus of DiatoHiacea;, allied to Striamaiine; Africa. BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. A/q. 115.

PLEUROM'ONAS", Perty. A

genus of

extremely delicate, colourless; flagellum single, from the concave side of the body, three times
small,
its

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Reniform,

586, 587).
Fio-.

P. jnrulans; motion jerking; length. stasnant water. (Pertv, Lehenrf. 111.)

586.

PLEURONE'MA, "Duj. A

genus

of

Holotrichous Infusoria, family Colpodina. Char. Body oblong-oval, dejn-essed, with a broad lateral orifice, from \\ liich a bundle of long, curved, floating and contiactile
ciliary filaments issue.

F.'chrysalis, (crassa) D. (PI. 31.

fig.

66).

Freshwater.
:

Other

Fig. 587.

PLEUROPH'RYS, Clap. A genus of Actinophryina (Rhizopoda). Char. Body invested with a sheath incrusted with extraneous siliceous particles. P. sphcerica. Freshwater. BiBL. Clap. etLachm.//w6-. 454; Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 2870.
PLEUROPYX'IS, Cordn. A genus of Mucorini (Phycomycetous Fungi), growing

Bir.L. Duj. Kent, Inf. o42. Inf. 274

species. Infi/s. 473; Clap, et

Lach.

Pleope)tis nuda.
Fig.
58i5.

sorus, seen

from above.

Fig. 588.

Fig. 587. Vertical section of ditto. Magnified 2.5 diameters.

PEEUROCAR'PI. -Mosses
ral fruits.

vrith late-

PEErROCAR'PUS,
of

A genus Braun Zygnemace* (Confervoid ALie)

.-species,

in freshwater pools.

(Rabenh.

Alq.m.

PLEURUCLA'DIA, Braun. A
.

258.)

genus

P. Inof Fucoiden?-, group Plifcosporepe. ciifU-is: freshwater, (llnheuh.. Alg iii. 393.)

PEEUROCOC'CUS,
(

IMeneg.A genua

of Pfflraellacefe Uni cellular Algae). Cells single or collected in gloClt'ir.

Pleuropyxis microsperma.
Magnified 200 diameters.

bular or cubical masses, globular or angular from pre-ssure, with a central nucleus cell-contents cytioderni thick and hyaline;
;

perfectly

Multiplication by Jiltemate fission in opposite direcG(;nidia formed, in special cells. tions. Thev present the greatest similarity to the Several species gonidia of I^ichens. forms of Prof.ococcus ?

homogi'neou*, green or reddish.

upon leaves and stems. This genus is imknown. Bibl' Coida, Icon. Fnnq. pi. 6. fig. 291. PLEUROSIG'MA, Smith. A genus of Diatoma( eoe.
;

Char. P'rustules single, ft-ee, lorger ihau broad front view linear or hnear-laiiceolate; valves navicular, sigmoid, with a longitu-

PLEUROSIGMA.

607

rLEUlU)8IGMA.

dinal line, and a nodule in the centre and at each end. Theniedi.in line and nodides con-ist of an internal tliiekening of the valves; at the corresponding parts the line is best seen in the front view (PI. 1-j. fiy. 16); it is occasionally found in a iractured valve, prothe jecting as a solid highly refractive rod, thinner adjacent portions of the valve being broken aAs ay for brevity, it may be called
; ;

being nearly straight; keel in each half forming two curves; very oblique near the ends; length l-!iO"; marine: striaa 44. The halves of the valves somewhat resemble the blade of a pocket-kuif.'.
P. strigosion
(tig.

29). Linear-lanceolate;
;

ends rather obtuse, sigmoidure t-light keel nearly straight in the middle, curved near the ends; length 1-00"; stria; 45. Marine.
Fig. 40 represents the striie resolved into
dots.

the keel. The valves exhibit spurious strife, arising from the existence of rows of dots, of which we have already treated under DiatomaThe.=?e s'trias and dots are in most CBJE.
to detect, requiring species very difficult the use of oblique light, and the modern

condensers with the stops the principles which should guide in the search for them
;

P. quadrat mn (fig. 34). Rhoiuboidal, acuminate at the ends; sigmoid ui'e evident towards the ends keel curved, nearly median length 1-150" marine strite 45. /'. elonyatum (PL 15. fig. 31, and PL 1. fig. 18). Linear-lanceolate, acuminate sigmoidure slight, uniform keel median length 1-80" marine strife 48.
; ;

have been explained under Axgular aper;

ture
2.30).

the preliminary preparation of the

is

P. rigiduin (fig. 30). Linear-larceolate, obtuse at the ends sigmoidure slight keel
;

valves

also essential

(Diatomace^,

p.

nearly
stri;T3

median;

length

1-70";

marine;

48.

Most of the species are found in salt or brackish water a few in fresh water. They often abound upon the surface of mud. Conjugation or the formation of sporangia has not been observed. The frustules are
;

P. anf/ulatum (PL 15. fig. .33). Rhomboidlanceolate or anguUu-lanceolate sigmoidure evident; keel nearly median; length 1-110";
;

.sometimes foinid enveloped in mucus, and those of one species found within gelatinous tubes.

amorphous have been

which those that have been used as Testobjects will be enumerated. The measurements are mostly those of W. Smith and E. Beck, with which our own have The species are coincided very nearly.
arrarged according to the finene.'-s of the
markings, which coincides with the difficulty witli which they are detected and resolved into dots and the appended figures express the number of strife or rows of dots in 1-1000".
;

Many

species

have been described, of

j

16" represents resolved into dots PL 15. fig. 41 represents the dots very highly magnified and PL 15. fig. 46 exhibits the appearance of hemispherules, which some authors consider to form the true

marine;

stria; 52.

PL

1. fig.

a valve with the

strife

structure. PL 15. fig. 33 a represents a specimen with the endochrome and nucleus.
/3

(fig.

33 6).
33c).

Simply and narrowly lan-

ceolate, ends acute.

(fig.

Ends beaked; abruptly

;

flexed.

Stfice oblique (dots alternate or cuucial, PI. 15. fig. 40).

quin-

P. cestvarii (fig. 35). Lanceolate ends abruptly tapering, short and beak-like; sigmoidure evident keel not median length 1-250" marine strife 54. P. inter meditim (fig. 36). Narrowly linear-lanceolate, acute sigmoidure none,
; ;
; ; ;

P. formosmii (PL 15.

linear,
;

fig.

2o).

Broadly
;

attenuated towards the ends sigkeel oblique moidure evident length 1-60" stria; 36. INlarine. P. decorum (PI. lo. fig. 26). Ehomboidattenuated linear sigmoidure very evi;
;

or merely indicated by a slight inequality in the opposite margins of the valves keel and almost median ; length nearly straight 1-140" ; marine; stripe 55. P. nuhecvla. Ends obtuse /i
:
;

more

lanceolate,

and
(fig.

slightly

shorter;

marine;

strife 55.

dent; keel oblique; length 1-90"; striag 36. Marine. P. speciosmn {fig. 28). Linear-lanceolate sigmoidure resulting from the curvature of one ma: gin of each half of the valve, the opposite margin of each respective half
;

P. delicatnlum linear-lanceolate
nearly central;
strife 64.

32). Very nairowlv sigmoidure evident keel marine; length 1-1.30";

;

ated

P. obscurum near the

(fig.

27).
;

Linear, attenu;

ends

sigmoidure shght

PLEUROSIGMA.

608

PLEUROXUS.
'

principally arising from the curvatui'e of one margin of each half of the valve ; keel

dent; marine; length 1-200":

(?),t;.04. P. prolongatum
;

striae":

long. o

not median, especially near the ends striie 75. rine; length 1-200"
;

ma-

StricB longitudinal

opposite,

PL

transverse (dots 15. figs. 39, 42).

and

23). Very narrowly acuminate, with Hnear beak-like ends sigmoidui-e present in the ends only keel nearly median marine length 1-200 striae long. (?), tr. 65. distortmn (jig. 20). Lanceolate; ends
(fig.

linear-lanceolate,
;

In most of the following species or forms the dots are not ec[uidistaut in the longitudinal and transverse rows.
Linear-lanceolate keel nearly median, sigmoidiire evident marine flexure double length 1-75" striae longitudinal 40, transverse 36. P. balticum (fig. 10). Broadly linear, narrowed at the ends sigmoidure apparent at the ends only and produced principally by the curvature of one margin only keel not median, flexure double marine length 1-80" strise, both sets, 38. Fig. 39, piece
strir/ilis

produced and beak-like sigmoidure evident keel central marine

slightly
;
; ;

P.

(fig. 12).
;

length 1-300"; P. macrum

"

striae:
(tig.
;

long. 65, 22). Very

tr.

75.

narrowly

linear-lanceolate ends produced into long beak-like processes sigmoidure produced by the ends of the beaks only keel median
;
; ;

length 1-100"; marine;

tr.

striae: long.

(?),

85.

BiBL. Hassall, Freshwater Alcjce.^ 435; Smith, Brit. Diatom, i. 61 Kiitzing, Sp. Al(/. and Bacill. Rabenhorst, Aly. i. 230 (46 European species) and the BiBL. of
; ; ;

of valve,
(8.

showing

dots.
;

DlATOMACE^.

Gradually tapering towards the ends

obscure.

PLEUROSTAU'RUM,Rab. = Stauroneis
united into tilaraents. BiBL, Rabenh. Ah/, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 387.
i.

striae

P.

Hippocampus

(tig.

13).

Narrowly

258; O'Meara,

gradually attenuated towards the broad, very obtuse ends sigmoidure marine or evident keel nearly median brackish water length 1-lGO"; stritB long.
lanceolate,
; ; ; ;
:

PLEUROT^E'NIUM,

Nageli. A genus

32,

tr.

40.
(fig.

of Desmidiaceae, consisting of species of Closterium, Docidium, and Penium. BiBL. Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Ala. iii. 140.
Stein. A genus Like StyloHypotrichous Infusoria. nychia.1 but vsathout caudal setae, with larger ventral setfe, and the anal styles in two groups. 3 species freshwater. (Kent,

P. attenuatum

15.

PI. 1.

tig.

17).

PLEUROT'RICHA,

Linear-lanceolate, with obtuse ends; sigmoidure slight ; keel nearl)^ median marine
;

of

and

freshwater;
tr.

length

1-120";

striae:

long. 30,

40. P. lacustre (fig. 18).

;

Linear-lanceolate,
;

Inf. 782.)

ends rather obtuse sigmoidure evident freshwater keel almost median length 1-130" striae, both sets, 48. P. tenuissimmn (tig. 24). Narrowly linear, attenuate towards the ends sigmoidure evident keel nearly central freshwater length 1-180" strise, both sets, 48.
;

P. Spencerii (tig. 17). Linear-lanceolate; keel nearly median sigmoidure evident freshwater ; length 1-200" ; striae long. 55,
; ;
:

PLEUROT'ROCHA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatintea. Char. Eyes none ; a single tooth in each jaw; foot forked Hydatina with unidentate jaws). P. (jihha (PL 44. fig. 18). Body ovateoblong, truncate in front toes small, turgid. Freshwater length 1-216".
(^

BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 418

Gosse, Ann. N.

H. 1851.

viii.

199.

tr.

50.
littorale
(fig.

Lanceolate, ends somewhat prolonged sigmoidure evident keel median freshwater length 1-180" stria) Fig. 42 represents long. 24, tr. 50, the dots upon part of a valve. Linear-lanP. acumiitatum (fig. 14). ceolate, acuminate sigmoidure evident keel median freshwater length 1-150''

P.

19).
;

A genus of PLEUROX'US, Baird. Entomostraca, of the order Cladocera, and

family Lynceidfe. Char. Anterior part of shell prominent above, obliquely truncate below first pair of legs very largo beak shai'p, cur\ed downwards. Freshwater. P. triiioncllus (PL 19. tig. 32). Beak
;

strite

long. 40,

tr.

52.

P.fascioln

(tig.

21).

Linear-lanceolate;
;

long, sharp-pointed, slightly curved downAvards ; inferior antennae' short and slender, anterior branch with four seta^, one from

with linear beak-like ends

sigmoidure evi-

the

first joint,

one from the second, and two

PLOCAMIUM.
;

609

PODISOMA.
;

from the last posterior brunch with three set^, all arising from the last joint. Beak curved upwards at r. unciiiatus. the end 3 sharp spines at anterior inferior inferior antennae as the last. angrle of shell Beak blunt and strong, P. hamaftts. fir.st pair of slightly curved downwards PMale legs with a curved claw at the end.
; ; ;

P. coraUoidcs. Attached at the base only tubes dichotomous, densely tufted, destitute of furrow and keel ; tentacles about 60 ova broad.
:

liiBL.

AUman,
xiii.

X.

11.

1844,

402;

PLU.AIULA'RIA, Lamk. A genus

Parfltt,

Freshio. Pohjz. 92 Ann. 330; Johnston, Br. Zooph. Ann. N. H. 1866, xviii. 171.
;

of

of P. trigonellus. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entomostr. p. 134.

PLOCA'MIUM, Lamouroux. A

Hydroid Zoophytes, family Plumulaiiidic. Char. Polypidom plant-like, rooted, simple, or lateral,

genus

of Delcsseriacese (Florideous Algte), containing one species, P. cuccineum (PI. 4. of our red seafig. 10), the commonest weeds, with a delicate flat feathery thallus, from '2 to 12" high, growing in bushy tufts on rocks or other Algae. The fruit consists 1. coccidia, spherical, stalked or sessile of tubercles, at the sides or in the axils of the ramules, tilled with angular spores 2. an:

branched, feathery cells small, uniusually seated in the axilla of a

; ;

horny spine

egg-vesicles scattered.

Ten

British species. P. cristata.

pinnate; toothed
ribs.

Stem simple, a single tube, pinnae alternate; cells close, rim vesicles gibbous, girt with crested

theridia,

which occur

in inconspicuous flat

Stem a single tube, -waved, P.falcata. branched, branches alternately pinnate ; cells close, shortly tubular, rim entire egg;

patches, composed of short erect cells, upon the surface of distinct plants ; and 3. stichidia, lateral or axillary, simple or branched pods containing a single or double row of linear (transversely parted) tetraspores.

vesicles oval-oblong;

common.

In P. mgriophyllam & P. frutescens, the stem consists of several parallel tubes.

P. pinnuta, Linn.
;

Stem a simple

tube,

BiBL.

Harvey, Mar. Alg. 19;

pi.

Phyc.

Brit. pi. 44; GreV. Alg. Brit.

12; Thuret,
of Infusoria,

Ann. Sc. ser. PLCEO'TIA, Duj.A genus

iii.

Nat. 4

19.

plumose; pinnae alternate, three on each internode cells rather distant, campanulate, vesicles pear-shaped, appressed, rim entire rim toothed.
;

family Thecamouadina. Char. Body diaphanous, with several longitudinal ribs or keels in the middle, and

P. setacea, Ellis. Stem a single tube, pinnate pinuse alternate, one at each joint ; cells very remote, campanujoints ringed
;
;

late,

rim even

a rounded perfectly limpid margin. Two anterior locomotive filaments, one flagellilorm, the other trailii:g and capable of

vesicles elliptical,

smooth

common.
BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 89; Hincks,

Hyd. Zooph.
droida.

i.

294.

arresting the movement of the body. P. vitrea (PI. 31. tig. 67). Marine; length 1-1200". Movement slow. BiBi,. Duj. Infus. 34o.

PLUMULARI'ID.E. A

family of Ily-

PLffiSCO'NIA, B\i\., = Eiiphtes, Ehr. PLUMATEL'LA, Lamk. A genus

Polyzoa,
order

BiBL. Hincks, Hijd. Zooph. i. 279, family of Gasteromycetous Fungi, none of which are found

PODAXIXE'L A
;

of

in Britain

freshwater

Hippocrepia,

allied tribes

they are distinguished from all by a solid column in the centre

family Plumatellida?. Char. Zoary confervoid, branched, tubutentacular disk crelar, branches distinct
;

of the sporange. Many of the species the White Ant.

grow on the

hills

of

scentic ova elliptical, with a marginal ring, but no spines. P. repeiis. Zoary irregularly branched cells subclavate, without a longitudinal furrow or keel tentacles about 60 tentacular membrane dentate ova broad. a. Adherent thrcugho'it. Attached only at the base. /8.
; ; ; ;

BiBL. Montague, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xx. 69; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. iv. 169;
Currev, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 288.

PODISO'MA, Link. A

genus of Uredi-

P. fruticosa.

Irregularly branched,
;

at-

tached at the origin only and destitute of furrow, keeled ova elongated.
;

cells cylindrical,

but

obscui-ely

(Hypodermous Fungi), growing upon the living leaves and branches of species of Juniper the filamentous mycelium creeping beneath the epidermis, and sending up a fleshy, stalk-like, tremelloid body (tig. 589), composed of agglutinated tilaments (fig. 590) terminating in bilocular spores (or two
;

nei

spores adherent together), each of the cells

2k

rODOCORYNE.
having two or four pores,
the internal mination.

GIO

PODOSPIIEXIA.
;

throng-li wliicli

Bac. 62
Aly.
i.

Roper, Mic. Jn.

ii.

284

Rabenht,

membrane

is

protruded in ger-

60.

PODOCYS'TIS,
Uredinei.
Fig. 690,

hiy. = 3Ielampsora. See

Fig. 589.

PODODIS'CUS, Kg.A
tomaceae.
Cliar,

genus ofDia-

with a marginal stalk valves No markings vex. Marine.

;

Frustules single or concatenate, circular, convisible

under
Stalk

ordinary illumination. P. jamaiccnsis (PI. 17.

elongate, weak.

fig.

16).

Diameter 1-840",
;

BiBL. Kiitz. Baeill. 51

netina.

PODOPH'RYA, Ehr.A
Podisoma Juniperi.
Branch of Juniper with clavate fructification Nat. size. protruded from beneath the bark.
Fig.
.589.

Sp. Aly. 26. genus of Aci-

section through a fruit, Fig. 590. Vertical sliowing the fllamenta terminating in bilocular spores. Magnified 50 diameters.

Char. Suckers simple, capitate, in bundles or on the surface, neither on a trunk nor ramified; body without a shell, pedunculated. Several species, freshwater and

Four

as British species are descrihed

P.

marine; P.fxa (PI. .30. fig. 5, a k b). BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 305; Clap, et Lach. Inf. .381; Kent, Inf. 813; Gegenbaur, Moiph.
Jahrh. 1875.

Juniperi-comimmis, P. Jun-sahince, P.foliicohim (on the leaves of J. communis), and P. fuscum on Pinns halepensis and oxycednis. It has been supposed, but perhaps -without sufficient grounds, that the Podisoma of Savine is a condition of Rastelia cancellata.

PODOSI'RA, Ehr.A genus

macefB.

of Diato-

Cliar. Frustides concatenate, with a lateral stalk; valves circular, punctate, convex. Marine. Stalk attached to the centre of the valves.

PODOCOR'YNE,

Sars.

A
j

Hydroid Zoophytes. 2 species and shells, deep water. BiBL. Sars, Fmin. Lift. Now. i, 4, t. i. AUman, Ami. N. H. 1859, 1864 Ilincks, Hyd. Zooph. 27 Agassiz, Sea-side Studies,
; ;

genus of on stones

P. hormoides (PI. 19. fig. 34). Frustules 2 to 6, depressed-spheroidal, connected by isthmi or stalks hoops obscurely punctate.
;

Diameter 1-650". P. Montaynei (Melosira ylohifera, Ralfs), Frustules usually .2 hoops striate, Diam,
;

1871.

PODOCOPtYN'IDyE. family of Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Polypes sessile, with a single whorl of filiform tentacles around the base of a conical proboscis mouth simple. Gen.
: ;

1-600", P. maculata. Smith, Diat. P. compressa, West, Prifch. Inf. 815. P. I(^ris, Gregorv, Mic. Jn. vii. 85.
Diat.

BiBL. Kiitz. Sjp. Alg. 26; Smith, Br. ii. 53 Rabenh. Ah), i. 37.
;

Podocoryne and Conjnopsis. BiBL,. Hincks, Hyd. Zooph. 27.

PODOCY'ATHUS,Kt. LikePof/op/^T/o,
hut with two kinds of tentacles, prehensile and suctorial. P. diadema, marine, length
1-600",

genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules attached, sessile, wedgeshaped in front view ends indented so as to produce a black line (vitta) in the front view valves convex, obovate, with a lon; ;

PODOSPHE'NIA, Ehr.A

PODOCYS'TIS, Ktz. A genus

;

(Kent, Inf. 827.)

of

Dia-

tomacete, Cohort Surirelleaj. Char. Frustules sessile, cuneate

valves convex, obovate, with a median line, transverse continuous, and intermediate granular
strife.

P. americana, Bailey

(PI.

51.

The only

species

marine

= P.

fi^. 7). adrintica,

'Kiz.= Doryphora elcyans, Roper. BiBL, Bailey, Smith. Contr. 1854

Ktz.

gitudinal median line and transverse strise, but no nodules. Marine. The strife consist of rows of dots, sometimes distinct by ordinaiy illumination, at others not so. P. Ehrenheryii (PI. 17. fig. 17). Frustules truncate at the end in front view ; valves somewhat acute at the ends length 1-240". P. Lynyhypi. Fr. truncate in front view ; valves rounded at the end; length 1-350".
;

rODOSPORIUM.

Gil

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
; ;

Three otlier British species. BiBL. Smith, Br. Diat. i. 82; Kutz. BacilL 119; Rabenhorst, Alff.i. 110. RODOSPORIUM, L^T.,= Mdamj^sora. See Uredixei. PODOS'TOMA, Clap, et Lach. A genus of Amoebasa (Rhizopoda). Char. Bodies amoeboid, with 2 kinds of pseudopodia, one the ordinary, the others
teriuiuitin';- in

203 1870, 1 Beck, Mic. Tr. 1802, 84 ; Lubbock, Thi/snnura, Bai/ >Soc. PODURlilP'PUS, Megn. A genus of
Thysanura, fam. Podurelhc. P. piti/riaaicus body fusiform, black, legs paler producing (Megnin, Paras. 104.) prurigo in horses.
;
;

PLEUROCIllLID'IUM,Steiu. Agenus
of Ilolotrichous Infusoria.

Free, no cara-

pace,

sidjreniforui,

mouth with a narrow

a llapellum.
;

undulating

membrane.

P.filujerum, among aquatic plants. Bi"i!L." Kent, Clap, et Lach. Inf. 441
//;/.

among

Leinnce.

POLARTSCOPE.A

P. striyilatuni, (Kent, Inf. 540.)

term employed to

2-2i.

"PODU'RA, L. A genus of Insects, order Thysauuiu, family Podurellse. The original genus has been greatly subdivided. In its extended signification, the characters consist in tlie thorax being distinct from the abdomen, and in the presence of a forked tail, bent under the abdomen when not in use, and enabling the animals
to

designate a polarizing apparatus, consisting See Introof a polarizer and analyzer. duction, p. XX.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. The phenomena exhibited by microscopic obare jects, when viewed by polarized light, perhaps the most beautiful and interesting
of those connected vvdth the use of the microscope. The extreme brilliancy, trans-

the

move by springing or jumping, whence common name of spring-tails applied to

are of a leaden

them.

They

found in shady

damp

places, as

appearance, and under flower-

parency, and variety of the colours developed cannot be equalled much less can they be represented by illustrations, although the figures in PI. .39 may give some idea of the manner in which they are arranged in
;

and are about pots or stones, in cellars, &:c., 1-20 to 1-10" in length. They may be caught by placing a little flour upon a piece of paper in their haunts.
Fig. 591.

certain objects.

i
I'odura.

The ordinary arrangement of the parts of the polarizing apparatus scarcely needs dethe polarizer being placed bescription, neath the object and the analyzer above it, the polarizer and analyzer usually consisting of two Nicol's prisms, although two platesof tourmaline are sometimes used. Some artificially prepared crystals exert a powerful polarizing action, and may be used either as polarizers or analyzers, or as both among these the salt of Quinine called Herapathite occupies the first place. Others form interesting analyzers, some of which have been noticed under Analytic Crystals

and DiCHROisii.
bodies,

Magnified, about 15 diameters.

Numerous salts and other crystalline which powerfully depolarize the

fig.

The body is covered with scales (PI. 1. 12), which are used as test-objects.
is

already polarized light, and exhibit beautiful

Those of the so-called P. j^^umbea, which

now described
recommended
;

as a Lejnduqirtns, are usually

but the most common Podura is not this species. This, however, is a matter of little importance, because the
scales of several species, belonging to even different genera, are similar both in form

and markings. See Scales

of Ixsects and Testobjects. BiBL. Gervais, Walckenaer^s Apteres, iii. and the Bill. M'Intii-e, Mn. Mic. Jn. i.
;

colours, are mentioned under their respective heads some of these may be enumerated here^as the oxalate of ammonia, of soda, and of chromium and ammonia, the oxalurate of ammonia, the acetate of copper, chlorate of potash, the prismatic form of the ammonio-phosphate of magnesia, the ammonio-phosphate of soda, the sulphates of cadmium and of magnesia, selenite, salicine, fused sautouine, uric acid, &c. Many animal bodies and tissues also possess considerable depolarizing power, and
;

2r

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
form

G12

TOLAEIZATIOX OF LIGHT.

as 'beautiful microscopic objects horse-hair, portions of feathers, sections of quill, of hoof, horn, fish-scales (salmon),

&c.

The influence of vegetable structures on polaiized light has been thoroughly investigated by Mohl, whose interesting accoimt we are able to confirm, and a brief notice of it is desirable here; but the observations apply equally to the more feebly anisotropous tissues of animals. As it is desirable to obtain as much light as possible, a glass prism is prefei-able to the ordinary mirror Nicol's prisms are bettor for illumination than tourmaline or Herapathite for the polaand the latter should rizer and analyzer be as large as possible. Further, the hght emerging from the polarizer should, if
; ;

then applied these organic structures, by comparison, for ascertaining the properties The objects to be exaof other objects. mined should be mounted in a liquid or other substance rendering them as transparent as possible, such as glycerine, Canada balsam, or an essential oil.

"When ordinary globular or cylindrical cellular tissues are viewed by cross sections, their substance is seen to be doubly refractive; for when the prisms cross, the circular sections of the cell-walls appear like rings of bright light on a black ground, but with the ring divided into four quadrants hj dark stripes, as if a black cross lay over it; when

possible, be

condensed by an achromatic of
;

be large aperture or the condensation may etfected by a hemispherical fiint-giass lens, 5 lines in diameter, having its plane face

The obj ctturned towards the object. glasses must be of large angular aperture a power of 4-10" is sufhcient for most objects; but 1-4", and even 1-8" objectsufficient glasses may be made to transmit
;

light.

It is requisite to provide plates of the doubly-refracting substances mica and gypsum, mounted so that they can be inserted between the polarizer and the condenser, and revolved horizontally while so Those of mica are used for de-

the prisms are placed parallel, the parts of the section previously bright appear dark, and vice versa, on a bright field. If a section of polyhedral cellular tissue is viewed in the same way, the appearances are somewhat different, since the cut edges are here straight lines, variously inclined towards the prisms those which are perpendicular to the prisms are invisible, while those standing obliquely are bright in their whole length. In general, cellmembrane acts more powerfully on the light the denser its substance, and soft col;

lenchymatous

placed. tecting

weak

degrees of doubly-refracting

tissues are far less powerfully When doubly-refractive than wood-cells. the cells have the walls much thickened, it is common for the primary cell-membrane to be much more powerfidly refractive than the secondary layers. The influence of cel-

power, being of such thickness as to give a grey field with a white or black object when the prisms cross. The thin laminae,
be provided, from the thinnest possible 'up to 1-20"', should be
of

lulose

not

much

membranes upon polarized light is affected by bleaching them with

and chlorate of potash (Schultze's It has been supposed that the
eifect

nitric acid

which

six

may

reagent).

remarkable

produced by the epidermis

cemented with Canada balsam between For obtaining colours, plates glass plates. of gypsum, similarly mounted, are best. Mohi prefers such as give a red field, and
provides plates of diflerent thickness, giving the reds of the different orders of Newton's
rings. it is easy to ascertain

of Equisetum hyemale is attributable to the but Mohl finds the action silex present
;

greatly weakened by destroying the organic matter by a red heat. But this heating

whether an organic body shows positive or negative colours, by comparing its colour, when seen with a definite posiplate of gvpsum in a certain same tion, with the colour given under the
circumstances by a strip of glass brought into a state of tension by slight bending, or with the colours of a suddenlj'-cooled globule of glass. In this way the author determined that the fibres of a spiral vessel
displayed negative colours, and the laminpc of a starch-corjuiscle positive colours, and

does not remove the power there, nor in the Diatomacese, of which Mohl confirms Bailey's statement, in contradiction to Ehrenberg, that various species of Kavicula, St/nedra, Pknrosif/ma, and Melosira are decidedly doubly refractive.

Very remarkable phenomena are produced when the polarized light is made to pass through plates of mica or selenite. In the first place, thin plates of mica often
allow of the discovery of a doubly-refracting power too feeble to be detected bv the prisms alone the degree of illumination of the object being slightly different from that of the field on which it is viewed. But the

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.

G13

POLLEN.

most important matter is the revelation, by the use of the selenite plates, of the existence of positive and negative characters, like those of positive and negative crj-stals, in the chemically distinct constituents of
vegetable tissues. Let us suppose that between the lower prism and the object is placed a plate of selenite giving a red field the plate is then rotated so that its neutral axes are at an section angle of 45 with the prisms. of a cylindiical vegetable cell will be seen to be divided into four quadrants the two
;

are not so clear. When side views of the surface of cells ai'e obtained, the phenomena are very varied ; but these are best seen in vessels or ducts when the thickening layers are in the form of spiral bands. Tluis, if one of the spiral vessels of Musa is placed
(its spiral somewhat drawn apart) with its long axis perpendicular to one of the prisms, the fibres on the upper side turn to the left, those on the under side towards the right and when the selenite plate is interposed, they exhibit the complementary colours. When the side walls of cells have obscure striation, as in the cells of Conifers, the liber-cells of Apocyneas, kc, the membrane gives evidence of its fibrillar structure by the yellow or blue colour developed with the selenite plate. If fibres of a spiral
;

A
:

alternate quadrants, whose middle lines correspond to the neutral axes of the selenite, are either blue or green, the other two yellow or red if the selenite is then rotated so that its neutral axes are perpendicular to the prisms, the colours will be all lost ; but on continuing the rotation, they reappear in the reverse order what was blue appearing yellow, and vice versa. When the walls are rectilinear, all the ceU-walls perpendicular to one of the prisms will give the colour of the field, all those which run parallel with one of the neutral axes of the selenite plate, or form no great angle with it, will be blue, those parallel with the other axis yellow. It is found that vegetable structures fall into two classes in reference to these colours, in one of which classes all layers lying obliquely in the direction of a right-wound screw are tinged blue and yellow, those oblique in the opposite direction yellow or red in the other class, the colours under the same conditions are just the reverse so that one class are optically positive, the
:

vessel cross at right angles, and they are pressed together, they neutralize one another where they cross when the prisms are used alone, the crossing points are black, the rest of the fibres white when the selenite plate is interposed, the crossing points exhibit the colour of the field, and the uncrossed portions of the fibre are blue or yellow according to position. The vicinity of a round bordered pit, as in the wood-cells of Finns, exhibits a black cross when seen perpendicularly by polarized The black cross and the colours exlight. hibited by starch are well known. Chlorophyll does not seem to act on polarized light, nor the primordial utricle of cells, except a trace when contracted by weak
:

alcohol.

other optically negative. The optically negative are the ordinaiy cell-membranes of the internal organs of plants, whether in their natural condition or cellidose purified by the help of nitric acid and chlorate of potash collenchyma, horny endosperm-cells, the gelatinous ceUs of Algae, &c., all agree in this property. Optically positive colours are given by cellmembranes of periderm and the cuticular The contrast of layers of epidermal cells. the positive and negative colours of the cuticle and other parts of the cell-wall is well seen in the epidermis of Aloe. The
:

The polarization apparatus is exceedingly useful for the detection of ciystals (RaphiDEs) in vegetable tissues, when thej'^ are so small as to be easily overlooked and the larger kinds form beautiful objects with, and often without the selenite plate.
;

Encycl. Metrop. art. on Pol. Light, hy B. Powell; Brewster, Optics; Erlach, Beobacht, iib. organ. Element, bei polar. Licht, Miiller's Archiv, 1847; Valentin, Untersuch. 1801; Lobb, Qu. Mic. Jn. viii. 107; Carpenter,

BiBL.
;

Herschel,

Light

Pereira,

Lec-t.

diversity of colouring under polarized light here corresponds to the diverse behaviour under treatment with iodine after maceration in solution of potash (Secoxdary

deposits).

The longitudinal

sections of all behave

j

POLLEN. This name is applied to the coloured pulverulent substance familiar to every one as occurring scattered in the init is produced terior of full-blown flowers in the anthers, the (usually) stalked clubshaped organs which stand in one or more circles between the floral envelopes and the
;
i

The Microscope Beale, Matthews, Mounting ^-c.

;

How

8fc.

JDavies-

like the cross sections

but the appearances

pistils,

and

is

discharged from them

when

POLLEN.
ripp, in order to fertilize

014

POLLEN.

the ovules. When magnified, the pollen of most flowers appears to consist of granules, of different size and colour in different plants hence the individual particles are called
slightly
;

poUen-c/rains or cjrcmulcs (PI. 40).

nation under a sufficient shows that the simple or typical forms of pollen-grains are single free cells filled with fluid matter: more complex forms occur in many cases, which, however, may

Examimagnifying power

extend into these processes in the mature The outer coat exhibits, as to surpollen. face, ever}' variety of appearance, from smooth, through granular and spiny, to pseudo cellular arising from reticulated ridges in addition to this, the ju'ocesses just alluded to give a very peculiar aspect to many kinds of' pollen. Besides these, we find in all cases markings appearing like
;

he simply characterized as simple pollengrains, permanently coherent into defiriitelyformed groups. The pollen-grain may be examined as to its form and stucture, its contents, and its
development. The forms of simple grains presented in
varied sphe8-10, 22, 23, 25) and elliptical (figs. G, 11, 29) being perhaps those most common but besides these, numerous geometrical forms occur, such as tetrahedral (fig. 14), polygonal (figs. 16, 27, But it must be noted 28), cubic (fig. 19). here that the forms frequently vary according as the pollen is viewed dry or in fluid, since the elliptical and allied forms often expand into a spherical form, when they absorb liquid (figs. 18 & 20 a, h, c). The
dift'erent plants are tolerably

rical

(PI. 40.

figs.

pores, or others like slits (which become furroxvs when dry), or both together, and these in varying niunber iii diflereut cases. The colour of the pollen presents great differences although usually yellow, it may be Avhitish, red {Vcrbascum) blue {Epilobimn cnicjustifoliinn), even black (tulip) this colour resides in the outer coat. The outer coat also exhibits, in the majority of cases, a secretion upon its surface, of a viscid character, usually described as oily, biit apparently consisting of a viscid matter not readily soluble in water, remaining from the dissolved parent cells. It would seem to be the substance which holds together the poUen-grains in those cases where it
; ,
:

consists of waxy masses, readily breaking up into small fragments (Ophrydeous Or-

chids). In the Onagracefe the pollen-grains are loosely connected by slender viscid fila-

explanation of this will be given presently. The external appearance is further greatly influenced by minor peculiarities of form,

such as ridges, spines and processes of different kinds these, however, are referable
;

ments, which appear to be derived from the same source. The more detailed explanation of the character of the pores &c., the projecting processes, and the compound conditions of
pollen will be understood better after a sketch of its development.

to the structure of the outer coat. The ordinary structure of the coats or the cell-wall of the pollen-grain is that of a delicate internal cell-membrane, with an outer, thick and resisting layer, which may be regarded as the Cuticle of the inner or

The anther, in which the pollen is formed, consists in its yoimger stages of a minute, solid, cellular papilla or c_\lnidrical body.
At an earlv period a distinction becomes manifest in its cells a single vertical row, lying in the position of the axis of each pollen-chamber (or loculus), presents a different aspect, from its cells exceeding the surrounding ones in size and these rows undergo a special development to produce the pollen-grains, while the surrounding layers are developed into the tissues forming the coat or wall of the anther, and its mid: ;

proper membrane of the cell. In a few cases the inner membrane alone exists, as in the cylindrical pollen-cells of Zostera and some other aquatic plants. In other cases the outer or cuticular coat presents a
said,

structure, and two, or, it is even three layers may be distinguished in it these, however, seem to be merely a lamination of the outer coat. The conditions in some of the Coniferas are dift'erent from this, and will be alluded to presently.

more complex
;

rib or connective (see Akther). The cells of the primary row multiply by cell-division

The inner membrane

is

exceedingly deli-

cate and homogeneous: in ordinarj- spherical or oval grains it accurately lines the outer coat in some of those forms which present processes of various kinds, kucIi as (linothera, it seems to us that the inner coat does not
;

with the general increase in size of the anther (figs. 592-594), until at length they form relatively large masses of cellular
tissue
filled

composed of large squarish cells with granular contents, well defined as constituting a distinct tissue from the
of

walls

the

pollen-chambers.

new

rOLLEN.
Fig. 592.
CI

G15

POLLEN.

Fig. 59,3.
C.E

CE

CI

CM

manner that the new cells stand in the position of four cannon-balls These piled into a pyramid (tetrahedrally ). new cells are the special parent cells of the and in each of these the entire propollen toplasmic contents secrete a series of layers, which in the ordinary course, by the solution of the primary walls of the special
tions in such a
;

Fig. 595.

Fig. 594.

Fig. 596.

Fig. 597.

CL

Ci

CM

Pollen-grain of the Melon in various stages of development. Magnified 100 diameters.

parent
stitute

cells upon which they were applied, become the walls of free cells, which con-

the

simple

ordinary

pollen-cells.
;

Tertical secfions of a cell of a Tonrg anther of the Melon, showing the gradual separation of the regions. C E, epidermal cells; CI, cells of the wall of the anther; CL. cells lining the loculi CM, cells from which the
;

These subsequently increase in size and their outer laminae assume the characteristic form and appearance while free in the chamber of the anther (figs. 595-697). In referring the peculiarities of many
kinds of pollen to circumstances connected it may be noted in the first place, that the mode of division of the parent cells into quarters often influences the ultimate fonn of the pollen-grain thus, when the division is by two planes at right angles, the original form of the pollengrain will be elongated, and the ripe grain will probably be elliptical, while, when the " division is tetrahedral," the grains may retain the form thus produced, or be slightly modified and become polygonal, or, as is

pollen

is

developed.

with the development,

Magnified 100 diameters.

change then takes place

the contents of each cell secrete a layer of cellulose, which does not adhere to the wall of the parent cell to form a layer of secondary deposit, but lies free against it, so that a new free cell is foiTued -vN-ithin each old one, nearly The walls of the old cell (formtilling it. ing a connected parenchymatous tissue) then dissolve, so that the new cells be:

come
cells,

no longer merely in their parent but in a cavity which is to constitute

free,

more common, they expand more readily than the others into a sphere. But there is
no absolute rule here we find even the tetrahedral and the polar division occur
;

the pollen-chamber or loculus of the anther. These free cells are the parent cells of the

new phenomenon soon pollen of authors. occurs in these. These parent cells divide into four by ordinary cell-division, either by one or by two successive partings by septa at right angles to each other but both perpendicular to an imaginary axis (as when an orange is quartered), or by simultaneously-formed septa which cut
off por-

together among the parent cells of the same In the next place, a compoimd anther. condition of the pollen-grains (PI. 40. figs.
7,

17)

is

readily explicable

by referring

it
;

an arrest of the process of subdivision

to so

that if the walls of the special parent cell do not dissolve, the pollen-grains will be and if the parent left in groups of four cells do not become singly detached in the
;

POLLEN.

616

POLLEX.

antecedent process of solution, tlie grains maj- be still developed in the same order and manner and remain connected in greater or smaller masses or groups, each enclosed in its special parent cell, itself connected w ith a number of others of the same generation by the persistence of the Avails of the cells in which the parent cells were deveThis explains the compound pollen loped. of the Acacias (PI. 40. fig. 25), and, as an excessive form, the waxy pollen-masses which occur in the Orchidacese and AscleIt is sometimes stated that the piadacefe. pollen-grains of these compound forms are merely connected together by the viscid substance remaining from the solution of the parent cells but this would render such cohesions indefinite in character, instead of being regular; at the same time it will be understood that the solution may have advanced so far that the grains merely hold together slighth', and may readily be separated. This is not the case, however, with the majoiity of compound pollen-grains. When pollen-grains do become free, the
;

of the principal types of form of pollen. The slit-like markings are generally accompanied by a peculiar shrinking of the p;)llen when di'y, the coat collapsing at the thin places, so that gi-ains of this kind appear oval or angular, not clearly exhibiting the slits (which then become furbut they swell out and display the 7'otvs) latter clearly when placed in water or dilute acids (PI. 40. figs. 18 & 20). AN'hen the so-called pores exist, they are either like simple pores (PI. 32. fig. 10), or they
;

viscidity of their surface is probably referable to the dissolved parent cells. The metamorphoses of the outer coat or cuticle of the pollen-grain are very remarkable, and not yet at granulations (PI. 40.
all

may be provided with little disk-like pieces or lids, which fall off" and leave them bare when the pollen-tube is formed (figs. 13 & In all cases, however, we believe that 22). the outer coat is extended over the whole surface, and that the slits and dots are merely thinner places moreover, in certain cases (^Leschenaultia, a quatemate pollen) we have seen the thickening layers of the young pollen-grain, inside the parent cell, exhibit iiits (exactly comparable to those of ordinary pitted cells) at the places corresponding to the future pores, and, curiously enough, in some cases at least, the pits of
;

understood

the

11, 12), spines (tigs. 8, 9, 22, 26), reticulations (figs. 13, 23,
figs.

adjacent pollen-cells corresponding, although in the mature expanded compound grains Sometimes the they were far separated. lids are found at the end of short projecting The pollen of processes (PI. 40. fig. 22). GEnothera and allied genera exhibits remarkable conditions, which have been mistakenly The form of the grain is that of described. a depressed sphere with three large equidistant truncated cones projecting pretty nearly in the same plane. The outer coat is thick, except at the ends of the couical masses; and two laminoe are distinguishable The outer coat thins oiF (PI. 40. fig. 14). towards the end of each process. It appears to us that the inner coat or true pollen-membrane does not extend into the processes at all, but is globular, and that a semifluid deposit occupies the space between the inner coat and the outer, in the cavity of the tubular processes. Now, supposing such a deposit to become hai-dened and, after circumscissile fission, pushed oft" as a plate by the advancing pollen-tube, instead of giving way and expanding, we should have the lid occurring in Cncitrbita Pepo
(PI. 40. fig. 22)

27, 28), &c. characterizing mature grains make their appearance in the interval between the solution of the special parent cells and the bursting of the anther, while

the pollen-grains lie free within the latter their production is accompanied by a general growth and expansion of the pollenAVe have observed that the outer grain. coat is often deposited as a very thick layer
;

inside the special parent cell,

and

that,

when

the latter dissohes, the outer coat of the pollen-grain is also in a softened condition, and becomes stretched by the expanding inner coat, finally forming a comparatively thin layer on the ripe grain {e. g. in TraThe mode of origin of the descantia). markings, like those on Spores and on the cuticle oi Helk'bo7-its &c. (see Epideemls), is altogether unknown probably all the cases are referable to one cause. re It has been mentioned that the u
;

and other

cases.

pollen-grain exhibits pores or slits. believe they should rather be regarded as thinner places in the outer membrane. Their number and position varies much, as will be indicated presently on referring to some

We

Is has been stated that the pollen is the

agent of fertilization of the ovules in the When scattered from ^'lowering plants. the anthers, that portion of tlie pollen which falls upon the stigma (and frequently

rOLLEN.
other portions

61^

POLLEN.

fiilling upon nectaries or secreting surfaces) swells slightly, and germinates a,^ it were, sending out a delicate tubular process from one or more of the socalled pores or slits (PI. 40. fig. 30), which processes (the poUen-tnbes) insinuate themselves between the loosely packed cells of

stigma, and, eontirnially elongating, their Avay down the style and along the conducting tissue to the ovules. In the Conifer;^ the pollen-grains fall directly upon the micropyle of the naked Ovule, and send their pollen-tubes into it. The pollentube is produced by the development of the inner or proper coat of the pollen into a tubidar filament. When pollen-grains are placed in dilute sulphuric acid or in syrup (sometimes in water), they absorb liquid, swell, and their contents partly exude from pores kc, either to a slight extent, as a little "hernia," as it were, of the inner membrane, or in large quantity in a wormin the latter case the like, irregular mass coagulation of the suiface often produces a These exuded masses are of pellicular coat. course distinct from the true pollen-tubes produced under natm-al conditions. The fluid contents of the pollen-grains consistof agranular viscid protoplasm, with

the

make

It has been imagined tiiat the form and structure of the pollen-grains might have some relation to the general structure of the plants, and miglit serve as an indication of systematic position and afllnities. J'ut there appears to be no definite relation ; very varied pollen occurs witiiin the limits of the same family, and very similar pollengrains in families widely distant. There appears, however, to be a certain relation within the limits oi yenfrn. It may be perhaps generally .stated that the Monocotyledons have frequently one pore or furrow ; the Grasses often three pores, as is the case with many Dicotyledons, many of which have more, while a large number of the families of the latter division exliibit both

microscopic objects, it to class the f(jrms artificially, or according to structure ; and we give a brief list of the principal varieties
is

pores and

slits.

As

most convenient

arranged under this point of view.

The

pollen-grains of Zostera, ZanicheUia,

;

and other submerged aquatio plants, have no cuticle or outer coat all other known forms possess one or more outer layers.
A. Outer coat without furrows or pores. a. Outer coat granular: Strelitzia Rer/ince, CalJa palustris, Crocus sativus, ^-c.,

minute starch-granules and (apparently) oil-drops, making together what has been called the fovilla, which increases in density
as the pollen ripens. The starch-granules exhibit molecular motion in the pollen-

Asarum europceum, Laurus

nohilis, ^-c,

many
b.
c.

Euphorbiaceae. Outer coat with papillae

Canna inclica.
:

and still more clearly when they escape by rupture. The granular contents of the pollen-cell, which are always rendered opaque by the action of water, are gi-adually
tube,
transferred to the pollen-tube as it elongates. Connected witii this point is the peculiarity exhibited by the pollen of the ConiIn the Abietineas the form of the graferse.

Outer coat with

cell-like reticulations
2.3;,

Huellia formosa (PI. 40. fig. strepens, Tribulus terrestris.

R,
and

In Periploca

(p-feca

(PI. 40. fig. l-o)

Apocynum vcnctum
in

nules

and with bulging ends

curved, and, according to Schacht, a distinct internal ceil exists, attached at one side in the cavity of the ordinary pollen-cell, this internal cell dividing and growdng out as the pollen-tube when the pollen-grain comes upon the o%nile. The pollen of the Cupressinese is spheroidal ;
;

is

very peculiar

elongated,

kind are connected some Luzulce tetrahedrally.

7) grains of this in fours in one plane ;

(fig.

B. Outer coat presenting longitudinal fur-

rows

(or folds).

* One furrow (the form of most Monocotyledons).

a.

but free cellules appear to be formed in the pollen-tubes during the fertilization. These conditions, which are not yet satisfactorily cleared up, indicate a relation to the spermatozoid-producing spores of the Marsileace*, S:c., analogous to that between the Gymnospermous ovules and the ovule-.spore3 of those Ciyptogamic families.

Outer coat finely granular common in Monocotyledons among the Dicotyledons, in Myricu ccrifcra, Maynolia
:
;

yrandijlora, Liriodendron tulipiferunij

b.

Outer coat granular, spiny

alba.

Nymplusa
:

c.

Outer coat with

tvledons.

cell-like reticulations

Hemerocallis fulva, and other Munoco-

POLLEN.
d.

618
:

POLLEN.
in Mori?ida pet'sica this is still more the case] Cucimm satirus. Outer coat with cell-like reticulations many Passiflorere with large lids, P.

Outer coat with irregular reticulations Alstrameria C'urtisiana.

tlie

and

Orchidese are found quaternate grains belonging to this group.

Among

b.

** Outer coat with two furrows

a rare form, occurring iu species of Fontederia and Amaryllis, Tamits commu:

cccrulea (PI. 40. fig. 13), alata,

^-c.

a.

nis

and

elephaniipes, Tigridia
&i'c,

pawb.

**** Four pores. Pores on the equator Pistacia terebinthus, Campanula rotundifolia, ^c.
:

nia, Calycanthus JluriduSj

*** Outer coat with three longitudinal

furrows.
a.

Pores not equatorial Passijlora kermesina, Impatiens Balsamina (PI. 40. fig. 21) {Noli-me-tanyere).
:

Outer coat granular. One of the commonest forms Quercus Rohur, Viola
:

***** More than four pores.

t Distributed
a.

odorata (PI. 40.

h.

regvilarly.
:

tig. 6).
:

Outer coat with short spines

cdbum. Jiayelliformis, Viscum

Cactus

Alnus ylufinosa, Ulmits camjyestris, Collomia linearis, Camthe equator

On

2>amda Specidum.
:

c.

Outer coat with

Statice (PI. 40.
ferse.

cell-like reticulations

b.

All over the

40.
fig.

fig.

29), various Cruci-

gi'ains

Basella alba (PI.

19).

**** Outer coat with more than three

furrows.
a.

a.

tt Scattered irregularly. Outer coat shghtly granular

many

Four very rare

:

as normal, Hoiisfonia

Cedrela odorata; occasionally occurring where three is the normal niimber, as in Solamnn tuberosum.
cccrulea,
b.

Nyctaginepe, Convolvulaceas, Chenopodiacese, Alsineae, Alisma Plantayo ( PI. 40. fig. 10), Plantayo lanccolata, liibes yjiyrum, Cactus Opuntia, Sfc.
b.

some of the Labiata? and Passiflorefe (PI. 40. fig. 20), Ephedra distaSix
:

Outer coat granular and spinv Pepo (with lids, PI. 40'. Malvaceaj (fig. 26).
bita

Cvcur22),

fig.

chya, Heliotropium grandlflorum.

c.

c.

Outer coat with cell-like reticulations

large

number

Ptubiacefe, e. g. 40. fig. 18).

furrows many Sherardia arvensis (PI.

of
:

amiiliibium, pcrsicaria, Cobcea scandens.

Polyyonum

Compound porous forms

occur in some

is related to this pollen of the Pines Victogroup, also that of Nymphd'a Lotus, ria reyia, and other plants, where the furrows or thin places occupy the greater part of the wall, and the outer coat forms only In Thunbcryia alata

The

pieces. (PI. 40. fig. 24 a) a remarkable appearance arises from the furrows running in a curved or spiral direction.

segmental

of the Onagraceai, and in Drimys Winteri, where four grains are conjoined telralieIn the MimosejB groups of eight drally. or sixteen (PI. 40. fig, 25) occur in A-arious forms. In Zesc/ienaultiafor7nosa the grains are quaternate, lying in one plane.

C. Outer coat with pores.

D. Outer coat with both furrows and pores. * Grains rounded or depressed, with three depressions, each with a pore most l)ipsacea3 and Geraniacese
:

Grasses, Sedges, Ttjsingle pore pha anyustifolia, Sparyanium ra:

(sometimes only two occur, PI. 40.

fig.

22).

mosum.
**

Two

Colchicum, and a few pores other Monocotyledons^ also JJrous:

a..

** Three furrows and three pores. Outer coat granular a very common form among Dicotyledons.
:

sonetia.

b.
0.
:

Outer coat spiny

Outer coat with
rare
:

most Compositoe.
;

a.

*** Three pores. Outer coat granular

cell-like reticulations

Dipsacero, Urticaceaj, Onagraceae [here the pores form projecting processes (PI. 40. fig. 14) ;

Syrinya vulyaris, Liyustrum lulgare, Greioia occidcntalis, and other

species.

POLLEN.

619

POLYCYSTINA.
trifjla.

*** Outer coat with more than three Somefurrows, each with a pore.
times abnormally, instead of three, but normally in most of the Boraginaceie and Polygalacea;.

P.

Fins setaceous

freshwater

length 1-1 no". BiBL. Ehrenberg, Infus. p. 440. POLYCLI'NUjNI, Sav. genus of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family Botkyllid^

**** Six to nine furrows, three conLythraceaj, Melataining a pore

:

(p. 115).

stomacea3, Combretacese.

P. aurantmm. Consists of little rounded orange masses, fixed to rocks by a short

***** Three or four furrows, with

or eight papilliB
hens,
^-c.
:

six

and thick peduncle. BiBL. Forbes and Hanley, Br. Moll.

14.

i.

Neurada prommpapillfe

****** Three furrows and three

not in the furrows
pesfris, Sfc.
:

Carolinea cam-

POLYCOC'CUM, Sant. genus of Micro-lichens, parasitic on the prothallus of Stcreocaulon eondensatum. Char. Spores eight, small, bilocular,
brown. BiBL. Lindsav, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 343. POLYCOC'CUS, Kiitz. Probably belongs to Microcystis (Rab., Alg. ii. 55). POLYCO'PE, Sars. bivalved Entomo.stracon of the Cladocopa group. Upper and lower antennae both natatory and seti-

Starch-corpuscles exist in the fovilla of some pollen-grains in the form of very small grains which are stained blue by iodiue. Related compound forms occur in the' Ericacefe and Epacridacete, where the grains
are tetrahedrally an-auged (PL 40. fig. 17). Other aberrant forms occm- in which the single grains are cubic or dodecahedral and in the Cichoracese polyhedral forms of
;

ferousj
first

two
no

pairs of posterior limbs, the

natatorj',
;

complicated character are

27, 28).

common

eyes

(figs. 16,

Mature pollen-grains should be observed drv (as opaque and transparent objects), and in some cases, in oil iu water or glycerine treatment with acids is also useful iu making
; ;

imperforate. Valves circular, tliin, smooth, or ornamented. Marine recent and fossil. BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. xxvi. 470. YS'TINA, Ehr. family of
;

the heart ;

second branchial;
intestine

no

POLYC

out structure.

In observing the develop-

ment

of pollen, it is necessary to

wet the
;

object with a solution of sugar or gum otherwise the appearances are altogether

changed through endosmotic action. BiBL. Nfigeli, Enticick. des Pollens, 1842, and on Cell-formation, liai/ Society, 1846, 1847 Hofmeister, Bot. Zeit. vi. 1848 Gieswald,inni?, XXV. 81; Schacht (Coni1854 Saccardo, ferse), Beitrag z. Bot. Kuovo Giorn. Bot. 1872 Ilassall, An. N. H. 1841 & 1842 (pis.) Smith, M. M. Jn. xvii. 9 (figs.); Edgeworth, Pollm, 1877 (446 M. M. Jn. xviii. 190 Qu. M. Jn. figs.), & 1880, XX. 19; V^^&rmmg, Uansteins Bot. Abh.
; ; ;
; ; ;

Radiolarian Rhizopoda. The animal bodies are contained in shells of various forms (PI. 39. figs. 23-31). These are rounded, conical, oval, radiate, star-shaped &c., often furnished with spines and other processes, and sometimes constricted so as to give them a jointed appearance. The shells are siliceous, everywhere perforated by coarse, rounded or angular foramina and at one end, sometimes at both, is a larger aperture. The animal matter is olive-brown or yellowish. The Polycystina have been foimd on nearly
;

every

ocean-bottom.
at

Ehrenberg

found
;

them

Cuxhaven, and

in the Antarctic

seas ; Bailey in the depths of the Atlantic Miiller in the Mediterranean, and Hiickel in

1873.

the Adriatic; Wallich in the Indian Ocean;

POLY AC'TIS. Separated

flocci.

from Botrytis

and

Wyviile

Thomson,

Carpenter,

and

on account of the dark, quasi-carbonized

POLYAR'THRA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Iljdatinsea. Char. Eye single, cervical ; foot absent ; body with six cirrhi or fins on each side. Jaws each with a single tooth. P. platyptera (PI. 44. fig. 19). Body
ovato-subquadrate, fins ensiform freshwater length 1-190".
;

Jeftreys in the deep-sea soundings of the North Atlantic. The siliceous skeletons or shells accumulated in thick deposits

Gwvn

and during the last geological periods myriads of these exquisite microscopic forms may be obtained from many strata in Sicily,
;

serrate

Greece, Oran, Bermuda, Richmond, Virginia, and Barbadoes. They are rare in the Chalk. BiBL. Ehr. Monatsh. Berl. Ak. 1846,

POLYCYSTIS.

020

POLYNEMA.

1850; Microg. 18.54; Miiller, Thalass. Sf Abh. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1858 Haeckel, Rudiolarien, 1862 Furlong-, Qu. Mic. Jii. i. 18G1-64; Claparede et Lachniann, Inf. 434; Wallich, Tr. Mic. Soc. n, s. xiii. 75 Thomson, Deep Sea, 98. POLYCYS'TIS, Kiitz.-See ClathroIs a Microcystis. CYSTis.
Polycyst.,
; ; ;

on which much interesting iufomiation wiU be found in the works referred to below. BiBL. Meyen, On Impreynation and Poly-

Mem. iii. 1 Brown, Ann. N. H. xiii. 3G8 Mirbel and Spach, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xx. 257 Criiger, JBot. Zcit.
emhryonij, Taylor's Sc.
; ; ;

ix.

57

Gelesnoff",

Ann.

Sc. Nat. 3. xiv. 189,

and the works of Hofmeister

cited

under
to

A Hallier).
GINEI.

Leveille (Urocystis, genus of Ustilagiuei (Hypodevmous Fungi), including several of the P. colckici, P. parulold species of Uredo See Ustilalela, and P. violce are British.

POLYCYS'TIS,

Ovule.

POLYGAS'TIIICA. According
reriberg's

Eh-

POLYE'DPtlUM, Niig. A

genus

of

system, the Infusoria were subdivided into the Polygastrica and the RotaThe so-called Polygastrica now cortoria. respond to the Infusoria; the Rotatoria forming a distinct class.

Unicellular Algae. Char. Cells single, 3-4-8-angular, the Several angles more or less produced. P. longiin freshwater pools. species,

POLYl'DES, Ag. A genus

of Cr^-pto-

nemiaceae (Florideous Algre), containing one British species, P. rotuiidus (PI. 4. fig. 3), having a branched frond 4 to 6"
high, consisting of repeatedly dichotomous,

spinum

(PI. o. fig. 13).

iii.

BiBL. Rabenh. Aly. Mic. Jn. 1871, 96.

61

Archer, Qu.

purplish-brown, solid

fibres,

about 1-20" in

POLYEM'BRYONY.This

term

is

ap-

sometimes plied to a phenomenon occurring regularly, sometimes abnormally in the development of the ovules of Flowering Plants. In the Angiospermous plants it is usual to find several germinal masses in the unfertiembryo-sac (see Ovule); but ordinarily only one of these becomes impregnated and Occasionally, however, more developed. than one commences the course of development into the embryo, as in the Orchidacepe, and more especially in the genus Citrus: in most cases all but one become subsequently obliterated; but in the orange this is not the case, and ripe seeds are met with conWe have taining more than one embryo. met with them in other cases. Another kind of polyembryony occurs in Viscitm has two or three the Santalaceaj. embryo-sacs these may all have their germinal masses fertilized, and the development of the embryos may go on to a certain the lead and the point, until one takes
lized
;

diameter. The fibres present a central layer of longitudinally arranged filamentous cells, and a cortical layer of perpendicular, dichotomous filaments, formed of elliptical cells internally, terminating at the surface in minute moniliform rows. The fructification
consists of: 1. favellce heAvmg spores, contained in superficial wart-like bodies, composed of colourless articulate filaments 2. tetrahedrally divided tefrasjwres, embedded in the peripheral filaments of the cortical layer of the frond. Antheridia have not yet been observed.
;

Brit.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alq. 146 Phyc. Greville, Ah/. ^Brit. pi. 11. pi. 95
; ;

POLYKRIKOS,

But.-chli.

genus of

Holotrichous Infusoria. P. marine. (Kent, Inf. 508.)

of

Schicartzii,

genus Hyaline Foraminifera. luequilateral, oblong or elongate, globose or compressed

(PI. 23,

POLYMORPIli'NA, D'Orb. A
40, P. coiiimunis; 43, P. co7npressa) numerous, alternate in
fig.
;

fig.
;

42, P.

ohlonya
often

fig.

chambers

two rows,

others disappear. In the Gymnospermia (Couiferfe and Cycadacese), as described in the article Ovule, there may be one or more (Taxns) primary embryo-sacs, in which are produced several

sligluly embracing, but always more so on one side than the other ; orifice round, at

the summit of the last chambers, radiate. Sometimes the later chambers have branching, tubular apertm-es (P. Orliynii, PL 23.
fig.

corpnsada, with secondary embryo-sacs; after furtlier, the germinal masses of these,
fertilization, produce suspeusors, which branch at tlieir lower ends, and each pro-

41).
species in
all

Many
JjiBL.

seas

fossil

from the
;

Trias upwards.

Williamson, Pec. For. 70

;

Car-

duces four riidimentary embryos, all but one of them vanishing during tlie ripening of the seeds. Our space only admits of a
brief notice of these interesting

phenomena,

penter, For. 166 Brady, Parker, and Jones, Linn. Tr. xxvii. 107. POLYNE'MA. genus of Jlymenopterous insects. insect is aquatic

The^perfect

rOLYG'XA.
in its habits,,

621
its

POLYPI.

swimming by means
its

of

wings.
liiBL.

It

lays

eggs inside those of

T;*.

Dragonflies.

Lubbock, im.

1863; Metam,

Insect. 37.

flagellate Infusoria.

of ChoanoLike Salpim/wca, but the carapaces united into a branched 7.oi\vj. P. dichotoma, marine. (Kent, Inf. 3G0.) POLYOM'MATUS, Latr. A' genus of Lepidopterous Insects, of the family Lycae-

POLYCE'CA, Kt.A genus

nidfe.

larger groups by the polypidom, which often possesses an elegant plant-like foriu (PL 41. fig. 15). The tubular or cupshaped processes or cavities in which the body of the individual polypes is contained, form the polype-cells or capsules ; they are sometimes furnished with a kind of lid. The structure of the calcareous polypidoms has not been satisfactorily determined. They are usually traversed by vascular caiuxls, and appear in some cases at least to consist of aggregated and fused
spicula.

Char. AntenniB terminated by a contracted knob tarsal claws minute wings

; ;

not tailed.
(thirteen) species are small butterthe upper surface of the wings of a beautiful blue colour, the under side grey or brownish, and with numerous eye-like
flies,

The

The polypes are rarely free, or capable of fixing themselves by a disk at the base of the body, as in Hi/dru, being usually fixed at the bottom of the polype-cells, the polypidoms being attached by a rooting base to some foreign body. Imbedded in the outer
parts of the
soft

spots.

substance of the body,

The

scales

wings of been proposed as test-objects. They are of two kinds one resemblmg in structure the

upon the under surface of the P. arr/iolus and P. argus have

especially the tentacles, are stinging organs (PL 41. fig. 22), resembling in general those

of the Acalephfie.

ordinary scales of insects, the other of a battledore form (PI. 34. figs. 20 & 21). See Scales of Insects and Test-objects.

The species are figured in British Butterjlies.

Westwood's
genus of Poly;

POLY^PHE'MUS,
Cladocerous

Miill.

In many, distinct muscles are present ; but the fibres are not transversely striated, although frequently exhibiting wrinkles. In some polypes, the substance of the body consists entirely of sarcodic substance. In many, both the integument and the substance of the body contain calcareous spicula (PL 41. figs. 7, 27, & 28). The alimentary apparatus consists of a mouth and a simple gastric sac, the fiod being admitted and the undigested portion rejected from the single apertm-e, except in

Entomostraca,

family

phemidiB. Char. Head distinct from the body

ab-

domen

long, slender,

and projecting exter-

nally from the shell.

species.

P. pedicuhis (PL 19. fig. 29). The only Freshwater. BiBL. Baird, Brit. Entomosfr. Ill An, N. H. X^Ti, xix. 119 Clans, Pohjph.lSn. POLYPHRAG'MA, Reuss. large stichostegian Arenaceous LituoJa, with numerous short chambers and cribrate septa. Cretaceous. Fossil Saxony and Bohemia.
; ;

one genus, where the anus is separate. The oral orifice is usually surrounded by a ring
of contractile arms and tentacles,
;

which are

hollow internally, and communicate with the cavity of the abdomen sometimes the
tentacles are distributed over the surface of

BiBL.
I. iv.

Von Reuss,

Geinitz^ s Elbihalyehirye,

group of Zoophytes, comBody prising the Actiuaria and Ilydroida. rounded or cylindrical, with a distinct mouth, surrounded by retractile non-ciliated tentacles or radiating lobes: individuals usually aggregate ; gemmiparous and oviparous.

POLYPI. A

139.

the body. The simple gastric cavity is usually separated from the cavity of the body Avhereby a larger or smaller abdominal cavity is
;

formed, which

The polvpes are usually enveloped in an external (PI. 41. figs. 45, 12, & 14), or supported by an internal axial skeleton (PL 41. tig. 6), called the polypidom. This either horny, leathery, or calcareous. is Most polypes are united into smaller or

usually prolonged futo the hollow arms, and in many polvpes living in colonies passes into the canals traversing tlie interior of the polypidom, so that the abdominal cavities of the individual polypes are all brought into connection by these canals. Sometimes longitudinal partitions run like a mesentery from the outer to the inner surface of the abdominal walls, thus dividing the abdominal cavity into chambers. The bottom of the gastric cavity is provided with one
or

is

more spontaneously

closeable openings,

POLYPI.
by which

622

POLYPODIACE.E.
;

it communicates with the abdominal cavity. Tlie gastric cavity is covered with ciliated epithelium, which is continued

are protruded

through the gastric apertures into the abdominal cavity, and here not only covers the outer surface of the stomach and the septa, but also the inner surface of the abdominal walls, the cavities of the arms, and
the canals of the polypidom. The walls of the stomach are variously coloured, white, yellow, or brown, from the presence of aggregations of pigment-cells (liver cells), which probably perform the function of a liver, as there is no glandular appendage corresponding to a liver present.

gemmation, new colonies are formed. The formation of coral reefs and islands by the skeletons of polypes is well known.

as these polypes increase

by

The new names of the Polype-structures will be found in the Art. Hydeoida, and
Hincks's 'Zoophytes.'

POLYPODIA'CE-'E. An order of Ferns, divided into 13 families by the characters of the sporanges.
Si/no2)sis

of the Families.

* 8ori

tvith

an indusium {except Alsophila).

Sporanges numerous,
sori

Cyathe.^.

on

A peculiar circulation takes place in most polypes, by the to-and-fro motion of a nearly transparent liquid containing minute colourless corpuscles, in the abdominal In the colonial polypes, this circucavity. lation continues through the canals which traverse the polypidoms, from one abdominal cavity to the other. The propagation of the polypes takes
by spontaneous division, which is mostly longitudinal and rare the formation of gemnue or buds, which is very complace
: ;

a raised receptacle, with a somewhat oblique annulus. DiCKS0NiE.i3. Sori globose, on the back or apex of a vein indusium subglobose,
;

length bursting iri'egularly, more frequently cup-shaped, entire or with 2

free,

at

lips.

Hymenophylle.^.

Sori

terminal
;

or

mon, the individuals either separating or

remaining attached and by the formation of ova. Most of the gemmae become deve;

loped into ordinary polype-cells,

nism.

and

so

produce the growth of the compound orga-

But in many polypes, some of them into large cells, of different form from the common polype-cells, constituting the ovarian vesicles, or capsules (PI. 41. figs.

grow

In these, the gemmae, 14 i and IGi). which are developed within them, and
Avhich are often called o^a, gradually become bell- or disk-shaped, and assume the form of Acalephcp. and on escaping from the vesicles, swim about freely, subsequently either becoming directly developed into new polypes, or acquiring sexual organs and producing ova. In other (simple) polypes, distinct spermatic and ovi-sacs occur in the parent animals; either together in the same animal, and external {Hyiira), or separately in different individuals and internal {Actinia,
;

etc.).

The ovum-embryo of the polypes is usually more or less elongate-oval, coated

with
time,
cilia,

receptacle elongate, often filiform, and more or less exserted, clothed with sessile orbicular subpeltate compressed capsules, with a transverse ring opening vertically. Davallieje. SoiT rounded, marginal or submarginal, covered by a reniform or rounded scaly indusium open at the apex, fastened broadly at the base, and open at the sides. LiNDSAYE.'E, Sori in a line at or near the end of the frond, inner valve of indusium membranous, the outer formed of the margin of the frond. Pteride^. Sori marginal, linear or oblong indusium of the same shape as the sorus, formed of an altered and reflexed portion of the frond, opening inwardly. Blechne,^. Sori linear or oblong, dorsal, parallel with the midrib and edge of the segments, not close to the latter indusium shaped like the sorus, superior, opening towards the midrib. AsPLENiE^. Sori attached to the veins, oblique or subparallel to the midrib, linear or oblong. Indusium shaped like the sorus, when single, opening towards the midrib, sometimes double. ScoLOPENDRiE.E. Sori as in Aspleniere, but the indusia arranged in pairs and open
. ;

marginal from the apex of a vein

towards each other.

AspiDiEiE.
Sori
;

axis like

and moves about on its long After a short an infusorium.

dorsal,

subglobose,

it fixes itself to some object, the cilia disappear, and the tentacles of the polype

indusium superior, sliaped rarely elliptical like the sorus, fixed either by the centre or
a sinus.

rOLVrODlE/E.
** Imlnsium absent.

Gi>3

POLYSTOMELLA.

lobes,

PoLYPODiEJE. Sori on the back of the round or rarely oblong, not more

than twice as long as broad. Grammitideje. Sori on the back of the lobes, more than twice as long as broad,
usually linear.

articulated fronds, the joints consisting of a circle of longitudinally arranged cells surrounding a central cell, like the woodbundles of a young Dicotyledonous stem surrounding the pith, so that the ti'ansverse section presents the appearance of a rosette. The number of peripheral cells varies among the 300 different species of this genus, from

AcROSTiCHE-^.

Sori

spread over the

four to

imder surface or rarely both surfaces of the

frond, not contined to the veins.

POLYrODIE'.E. family of Polypodiaceous Ferns; contains the single genus

Poll/podium.

the British forms twenty-five mostly have four and six. In some of the species a kind of rind is formed subsequently, by a growth from the base of the joints
;

analogous to that which occurs in

fructification consists of:

POLYPO'DroM,
Ferns with naked

Linn. A
of

CHOSPERMUM and Callithamnion.

genus
of

BatraThe

1.

ceramidia, urn-

sori,

which there are

shaped or ovate, attached to the sides of

branches, containing numerous pear-shaped spores at the base 2. tetraspores on distinct plants, formed in the swollen central cell of distorted branches (fig. 598) these are gonidia and develop a thallus and 3. antheridia, elongated whitish sacs, collected in great numbers at the summi ts of the branches, accompanied by a dichoto;
; ;

several indigenous representatives, P. vulone of our comgare, the Oak-Fern, being

monest

Exceedingly well adapted species. for examination of the structiu-e of the sori and sporanges in this family.

POLYPOK'EL A

faniily of

Hymeno-

mycetous Fungi, characterized by bearing

basidiospores lining tubes, pores, or pits, on the underside of a stalked or sessile The basidioor disk. jn'leus, or fleshy cap horizontal sections from spores are seen by the undersurface of the pileus. (See Ba-

sidiospores and Hyjiexomycetes.) Bebl. Berk. Fruct. of Fungi, Ann. N. H. i. 81 Lgveille, Ann. Sc. N. 2. viii. 324. POLYSAC'CUM, D. Cd.A genus of Trichogastres (Gasteromycetous Fungi), having a common peridium filled with the spores mixed with threads. peridiola One species only occurs, and very rarely in this country. Abroad they grow on exposed One of the species has been used in sand.
;
;

mous

hair,

and sometimes
into

prolonged

a hair-like

process at the summit. Nageli describes the spermatozoids as consisting of a spiral filament, Thmet states that they are merely hyaline globules, about 1-5000" in diameter, without active motion. The British species are placed

dveing. P. crassipes, p. 349, fig. 200. 'Bibl. Fr. Sgsi. Myc. iii. 54; Berk.
Outl.

two subgenera phonia, where there

in
cells,

or

Polysiphonia.
nigresoens.

304; Sow.

t.

425; Cooke, Handb.

OligosiDistorted ramuH are but imcontaining biddi-d tetraspores.

four or rarely five peripheral

375.

POLYSEL'MIS, Duj. A doubtful genus

of Infusoria, of the family Euglenia. Char, Oblong or variable in form,

and Polys{pJionia,\\h.evQ
are
six

there

with

more. Twenty-six species are de-

Magn. 50 diams.

several anterior flagelliform filaments, and a single red eye-spot. Probably the zoospore of a Confervoid

scribed, many of which are fastigiata, PI. 4. fiff. 20.)

common.

{P;

Alga. P. viridis (PI. 31. fig. 68) resembles a Euglena of an oblong form with the ends rounded one of the filaments is longer than the three or four others which surround its
;

Bibl. Harvey, "Mar. Ahj. 82, pi. 12 A 3. xvi. io, Thuret, Ann. Sc: pi. 6 Nageli, Zeitsch. tviss. Bot. 1846, 207, pis. 6 .fc 7 ; Henfrev-Masters, Bot. 433.

POL YS'TICHUM = Aspidimn pt. POLYSTOMEL'LA, Lamk. A genus of

base.

Freshwater length 1-650''. Bibl. Dujardin, Infus. 370,

;

Hyaline Foramiuifera. Shell free, regular, equilateral, biconvex, sometimes compressed,

otten
dorsally keeled; spire embracing; chambers with a single cavity, straight or arched, meeting at the umbilicus and furnished with transverse pits between the

POLYSIPHO'NIA, Grev.Anextensive
genus of Rhodomelese (Florideous Algas) or Red sea-weeds, with cylindrical, more or less

POLYTIIALAMIA.

624

POLYTRICIIUM.

sutures or over them. Orifices numerous, arranged along the margin of, or forming a triangle at, the upper part of the last chamber.

Polystomella passes into Naniojilna,

24.
f.

through P. striato-punctata (PL

19),

common

in cold seas.

P. crispa (PI. 24. fig. 20) is common in temperate seas. P. eraticulata is of tropical growth. P. macdla (^Faujasina) is unsymmetrical and starved. Many fossil forms. BiBL. D'Orbigny, For. Vien. 121 Wil;

Pohjtrichinn. Calyptra dimidiate, but appearing campauulate on account of a quantity of very close hairs descending from it as a long villous coat otherwise resembling the preceding genus. POLYT'RICHUM, Dill. genus of Poly trichaceous Mosses, variously defined by diflerent authors. In the British'Flora, it includes the forms separated in this work under Cathabinea, which in the 'Bryologia Britannica are divided between Atrichum and
;

'

liamson, Fornm. 39 Morris, Br. Fossils, 40; Parker & Jones, Ann. X. H. 3. v. 103 Carpenter, For. 276.
;

POLYTHALA'MIA.

See

Fokamini-

FERA.

POLYT'OMA, Ehr. A
gellate Infusoria, family

genus of Fla-

Mouadina (Hydro-

OUyotrichum. The species of Pohjtriclnoa comprised in our definition are distributed in the same work under Poyonatum. (those with a ronnd capsule and thirty-two teeth) and Pohjtrichum proper (those with a square or prLsmatic apophysate capsule (tig. 600 ), and usually twice as many
teeth ). P. commune is one of o ur finest Mosses,
Fig. 599.

morina). P. iwella (PL 31. fig. 69, undergoing division), the only species, is oblong or oval, obtuse at the ends, colourless, furnished with two flagelliform filaments it has no cara;

common

on

heaths,

Fresh or decomposing water length 1-2200 to 1-960" size of body when the
pace.
; ;

moors, and mountain tracks, varying somewhat under the different physical conditions.

nearly complete, 1-400". As it increases in size it assumes a wrinkled or mulberry appearance, and this indicates the approaching division into many sections, whence the name.
is

division

The stems are from 6" to 1' long, and the

fruit-stalks

or

3".

The stems are almost of woody texture, the

leaves large and firm. The calyptra is den.sely

PiBL. Ehr. Inf. 24 Schneider, Ann. N. 321 Pritchard, Inf. 136 & 504 Kent, Inf. 301. POLYTRE'MA, Blainville. A protean parasitic Foraminifer of the Rotaline family scale-like, globular, or arborescent, with cancellated structure. P. miniucemn is widely distributed in the Mediterranean and
;

II. 18o4, xiv.

;

covered

Wilson

with hairs. remarks that

other

warm

seas.

BiBL. Carpenter, For. 235; Schultze, Ann. N. H. 3. xii. TViepn. Arch. 1863, 81 409 Carter, ihid. 4. xvii. 185 5. v. 440.
;
;'

POLYTRICIIA'CEyE.
MnioidciB
(operculate

A
;

tribe

of

Mosses of usually

the true structure of the sporauge and columella of Mosses may be most learned from easily the of this study The columella genus. is seen (figs. 601, 603), to be separated from the an spores by imier layer of the sporangial

Polytrichiim

commune.
fruit.
size.

Acrocarpous habit).
Getiera.

membrane. The attached diaphragm

Plants in

Cathnrwen. Calyptra narrowly hoodshaped, subscabrous at the apex, rather hairy within. Peristome simple, composed of thiity-two teeth, arising from a narrow,

to the apices of the teeth of the peristome is

One half natural

membrane, ligulate, memwith many percurrent, reddish, inarticulate iilaments, somewhat

cellular basilar

branous,

white,

the dilated apex of the columella (fig. 603). The peristome (fig. 602) is composed of ligulate obtuse teeth, connected by a m(>mbrane at the base, continuous with the inner These layer of the wall of the capsule.
plants are also exceedingly Avell adapted for the examination of the male inficn-escence and spermatozcids. They are all dicecious and the male plants (lig. 604) are readily
;

Coluincurved, scarcely hygroscopic, firm. mella dilated at the apex into a drum-like

epiphragm. Capsule equal. monoecious or dioecious.

InHorescence

distinguishable by the cup-shaped infiores-

rOLYTRICIIUM.
cence,

625

rOLYZOA.

late sacs constituting tiie aniherklia.

a uuniber of subupavaphyses suvrounding

composed of

scale-like

leaves

and

They require at least an eighth object-glass for examination and the cilia are seen most
;

The

male tlowersof P. commune ^uiuperinum,Sic.

Fig. 600.

it

clearly after drying the object, or treating with tincture of iodine.

Fig. 604.

Fig. 605.

Polytrichum commune. Section of young capsule Capsule with operculum. showing the plaited spoMagnified 10 diameters. " membrane.
rangial

are found everywhere on heaths in spring. The antheridia'may be readily extracted under a simple lens, and, when placed iu vrater

Male inflorescence. One half nat. size.

Poljiirichum commune. Innovation from male

inflorescence.

Magn.

5 diams.

BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Brit.

Tburet,.

p.

205

et seq.

Ann.

Sc.

Nat.

POLYZO'A
Animals,

or

BRYOZOA. A
to

3. xvi. 26, pi. 14.

class of

belonging

the

subkingdom
;

Mollusca. Char. Polypiform, aggregate indi-^-idual bodies microscopic, contained in horny or calcareous cells, often connected by tubular stems, forming a usuallj' branched zoary ; mouth stUTOinided by long, ciliated, uncontractile tentacles
;

but near each other.

water.

mouth and anus separate, Marine and fresh-

Fragment of peristome. Magn. 100 diams.

Polytrichum commune. Columella with section

^ ^^^ apophysis. Magn. 25 diams.

ripe) hurst at the

;

under the compound microscope, soon (if summit and discharge the

these usually escape still spermatozoids enclosed in their parent cells, which when first discharged cohere in a gelatinous mass
;

hut the

ciliated spermatozoids (PI. 40. fig.

They are found everywhere on the seashore, either rooted to, or forming a crust upon submerged rocks, stones, shells, &c. The individual is called a polypide and the aggregate or colony constitutes a coenoicium or polyzoarium ; it is usually of a whitish or brownish colour, of a horny or calcareous textvire, and consists either of cells or cups simply aggregated (PI. 41. figs. 17, 20), or connected by tubular stems, and often- arranged in elegant The plant-like forms (PI. 41. fig. 5 a). stems are divided into compartments by perforated septa (PL 41. fig. 5/), through which thread-like filaments of the sarcode
;

33) escape and

swim

actively in the water.

pass.

2s

POLYZOA.

626

POLYZOA.

Tlie cells are of various forms, mentioned under the genera, and the j are often furnished with bristles or spines. At the orifice of each cell the tentacles and more or less of the body of the animals are protruded. In the marine or Infuudibulate order, the structure of the cell-mouth is used as a characthose in which itis terminal and simple ter,

in the middle of the tentacular disk (PI. 41. fig. 3 c), and is closeable in the Ilippocrepia

by an epiglottis-like hollow valve {ejnstome), which IS absent in the Infundibulata; at the base of this valve is an aperture which perforates the disk to open into the abdominal cavity. The mouth terminates in a pharynx (PI. 41. fig. -l e, /), and oesophag-us (tig. 18, b, d), often of considerable length, which is

(PI. 41. fig. 30) forming the

Cyclostomata

and those in which it is subterminal, curved, and furnished with a movable lid, the
Cheilostomata (PI. 41. fig. 5 b) whilst in the Ctenostomata there is a comb-like circular fringe of bristles connected by a membrane surrounding ths cell-orifice, visible when the body is partly protruded. Most are fixed but CridatcUa is free and locomotive, having a discoid base. Curious appendages are found attached mostly to the cells of the polyzoaries. The first are called bird's-head processes or avi; ;

sometimes succeeded by a strongly muscular Next comes the stomach (figs. gizzard. 5 e, b, 18 f), often very capacious, and with an appendix (fig. 18 e), and finally the
intestine (fig. 18 y), which terminates outside, but close to the disk (fig. oe,c). Thus

cuJaria (PI. 41. fig. 5h*, and fig. 20). They consist of a body (fig. 26 c/), a hingeor lower -jaw-like process (fig. 26 e), and a stalk (/). They are attached by the stalk to the interior of a round hollow process, projecting slightly from the surface of the

the alimentary canal is bent upon itself, the two orifices being very near each other. The alimentary canal consists of three coats an inner rugose, composed of cells with brownish contents, and representing a liver a middle, composed of colourless nucleated cells and an outer, thin, cellular

coat, probably containing

muscvUar

fibres.

The mouth and more

polyzoary

(fig.

26

a).

The body
(fig.

is

by an oblique
surface into

ridge

26 d) on

its

divided inner

or less of the upper portion of the alimentary canal are ciliated. The walls of the cavity of the abdomen, the interior of the disk and of the tentacles aU communicate, and are filled with a clear

two

chambers.

portion is moved up and elevator and depressor muscle (fig. 26 c). During life the motion is constant and it continues long after the death of the animal. These bodies appear analogous to the pedicellaria of the Echinodermata.
;

The lower down by an

liquid, in which irregular particles float, and in which a constant rotatory motion
exists,

produced partly by muscular action, and partly by cilia. This liquid corresponds to a chylaqueous fluid, and performs the chyliferous, sanguiferous, and respiratory functions for there are no distinct respira;

The second kind, called vihracula, consist of a hollow process (fig. 5 cl, b), from which a vibrating filament (fig. 5 d) projects. The interior of the process is filled witli a substance which moves the contractile filament.
The body is usually oblong or elongate. At its anterior end is a ring or disk {luphophore),
tliis

upon which the tentacles are placed

perfect in the Infundibulata, but deficient at one part, or horse-shoe shaped in the Ilippocrepia (PL 41. figs. 3 c & 9). The tentacles are hollow, closed at the end,
is

uncontractile, coated externally with cilia on the sides next each other, and communicate with the cavity of the body through apertures in the disk. In most of the Ilippocrepia, the tentacles are surrounded at the base by a transparent cup dike membrane (cali/x), prolonged somewhat upon each tentacle,

tory organs, nor blood-vessels. The muscular system is well developed, the fibres being transversely striated the principal, or retractors, arising from the bottom of the cells, and being inserted into tlie sides of the oesophagus, so as to exert a retracting action upon the body. There are also parietal muscles, which are in the form of circular bundles running transversely round the cell; they project the polypide. The nervous system consists of an oval ganglion placed between the oral and anal apertures, and giving ott' branches to the and there tentacles, alimentary canal, &c. is stated to be a nervous connexion between all the cells of a zoarium, called the colonial

and mostly dentate

Digestive System.

The mouth margin. situated

is

at the

system. Reproduction. The Polyzoa are propagated by gemmation, and by the agency of sexual organs. Two kinds of gemmation occur. In the first, the gemme are developed externally from the parent cells, and usually near the

rOLYZOA
orifice,

627

PONTIA.
Brit.
Phil.

but often from the

stem

these

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 253; Busk,

gemina3, on attaining" their full dcnelopmont, remain attached to the parent, thus formingthe compound orgauism. In the second, they are formed internally, as buds upon the funiculus, which is a process passing from the testis to the stomach. Afterwards they become free within the abdominal cavity, from wliich they escape at an orifice near the disk, according to Beneden, alThe though this is denied by Allman. latter kind, which are often called ova, have an external hard coat, exliibiting the appearance of a marginal ring, and are often of a dark colour; their development is not

Ma7\ Polyzoa,
18.39;

Mus.
Tr.

Fossil, Pal. Soc.

1837; Dumnrtier and Beneden, Mem. Ac. Brux. IB-jO Hancock, Ann. N. If. 1850, v. AUman, Freshw.
Farre,
; ;

Ray Soc. Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 1 ; Muiler, Wiey. Archiv, 18()0, 311; Huxley, Inrertebr. Smitt, Qn. Mic. Jn. 1871, 155 Muiler, Reich. 8f D, Reymond''s Archil^, 18160; Claparede, Sieb. ^- Kail Zeit 1871, 137; Norman, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1868, 212; Hyatt, Pr. Essex Institute, U. S. A. 1868 ;
Poli/zoa,
; ;

dependent upon impregnation, and they seem to correspond to the winter ova of the Allman proposes the Entomostraca &c.
:

Kdll. Zeit. 1870; Barrois, Hincks, Polyzoa, 1880. POM'PPIOLYX, Gosse. A genus of P. complaRotatoria, family Brachionfea,

Nitsche, Sieb.

S,;

Embryol. 1877

pluiiiita

freshwater.
203.)

(Gosse,

Ann. N, H,
Ai-cher,

185],

viii.

statoblasts for them. The sexual organs, which usually exist together in the same individual cell, consist of a roundish ovary, attached by a short peduncle near the orifice of the cells whilst the testis is a rounded irregular mass attached to the funiculus. The ova, which are first set free in the abdominal cavity, are ciliated and
;

name

POMPHOLYX'OPHRYS,
alolampe,
Clutr.

Greef.

Hy-

genus of freshwater
of

Rhizopoda.

Rhizopod composed

two

distinct

swim

freel}'.

Four modes of reproduction in the Polyzoa have been described, three of them 1. The taking place in an asexual way growth of the whole colony by buds which are external 2. The reproduction by eggs formed by internal buds of the endocyst 3. The production of new polypides and eggs in empty cells (zocecia), by brown bodies which are produced out of the former polypide of the cell by retrogressive
:

sarcode regions, the inner a dense coloured globular sarcode mass, the other colourless, and bearing a number of separate hyaline globular structures these are disposed in a layer around the inner globe, which latter gives ott' slender non-coalescing pseudopodia. BiBL. Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1870, p. 105. PONTEL'LA, Lubb. genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. P. Wollastoni, Weymouth. (Ann. N. H. 2. xx. 406 ; Brady,
;

Cop.

i.

73.)

metamorphosis 4. Sexual reproduction by eggs and spermatozoa. The Polyzoa are divided into two orders:
;

genus of Lepidopterous Insects, of the family Papilionidse. This genus contains some of the commonest butterflies, as P. brassicce, the large cabbage-butterfly P. rapce, the small caljand P. napi. the greenbage-butterfly veiued white butterfly.
; ;

PONTIA, Fabr. A

Order
lateral

I.

Hippocrepia

{Phylactolcemata),

Tentacular disk horse-shoe shaped or bimouth with an epistome j mostly

;

The form and structure of cei'tain scales existing upon the vmder side of the wings of the males are curious ; and the markings
were formerly found
objects.
distinct, that the scales

freshwater.

so difficult to render were used as test-

Order
sent

II.

Infuxdibulata {Gymnolcemata).
epistome ab3 suborders Cells with a simple round
;
:

Disk
;

circular, or nearly so

mostly marine.

Cyclostomata,
orifice.

In the male P. brassic<s the upper surface of the anterior wings is free from spots, whilst in the female there are two black The peculiar scales spots in that situation. are represented in PI. 34. fig. 24 fig. 26 exhibits a portion of. the wing with the
;

Clieilostomata.

with
plate
;

of cells fitted or calcareous with a curved mouth, furnished with

Orifices

thin,

membranous

a moveable

lip.

Cienostomata. circle of setse.

Orifices surrounded

by a

ordinary scales. In P. rapce and P. napi the anterior wings of the males have a single spot upon the upper surface, whilst there are two upon each wing in the females. Tlie peculiar scales bear considerable resemblance in the

2s2

PONTOCYPRIS.
two
tlie

628

PORPHYRIDIUM.

rupee

of F. fig. 23 a, scale portion of wing, showing points of attachment of the two kinds

species (PI. 34,

;

fig.

23

6,

of scales).

Sphagnace;e). Other regular orifices are produced in the walls of the cells of many of the zoospore-producing Confervoe, as Conferva, Cladoplwra, Enteromorpha, &c.
(see

The scales may he separated by gently pressing the nnder surface of the wings against a slide.
See Scales of Insects and Test-objects.

(see PI. 9). The wall of the sporangial cell of Achh/a presents analogous openings and according to Cohn, pores are produced in
;

BiBL. Westwood, Brit. Butterflies. PONTOCY'PRIS, Sars. An Ostracode, near Argillcccia among the Cypriclce, with fragile pod-like yalves, higher in front than no branchial appendage on the behind second pair of jaws upper antennae long and setiferous. 3 British species, rather
; ;

the spore-cells of the spermatozoids.

stices

SpHiEROPLEA to admit The pits and the inter-

common.
BiBL. Brady, Linn. Tr. sxvi. 384. seeds of Poppies {Papaver, L., Nat. Order Papaveraceoe) are elegant opaque objects under a low power, the testa being pitted so as to produce a reticu-

between reticulated fibrous secondary deposits are often changed into true holes in old cells, but this is the result of decay of the primary membrane it takes place very early however, at the contiguous ends of SpiRAi.-fibrous and Pitted cells coalescing to form ducts, changing the
;

POPPY. The

septum formed by the adjoining ends into a kind of or irregularly torn diaphragm. grating, PORPETA, Bail.A genus of Diatomacese, closely allied to Biddulphia. Gulfstream.

lated surface (PI. 39.

PORCELLID'IUM, Glaus. A

fig.

14).

BiBL, Pritchard, 7w/. 350 genus of

i.

Rabenht. ^/^.

315.

Copepoda.
&c.

4 species, among Laminarics, (Brady, Copep., Ray Soc.) POKIF'ERA. See Spongida. POROCYC'LIA, Ehr. genus of Diatomaceae closely allied to Liparogyba. BiBL. Pritchard, Infus. 823, PORODIS'OUS, Grev. genus of Diatomacefe, fam. Melosirse. (Rabenht. Ah/, i. 85 Greville, Mic. Tr. 1863, 63 1865, 46.) PORO'NIA, Fr. genus of Sphferiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), consisting of a corky stroma, which is flat or hollowed out at the top, and studded with the ostiola of the Tlie only British species is not perithecia. uncommon on horse-dung. BiBL. Fr. Si/st. Myc. ii. 330 Berk. Outl.

POR'PHYRA, Ag. genus of Porphyraceae (Florideous Alg.Te), with an expanded, membranous, shortly-stalked frond, composed of a single layer of cells appi-oximated in fours, the contents purple or red.
Fructification consisting of: 1. scattered sori of oval spores 2. octospores immersed in the frond and 3. antheridia, on the same or distinct plants. P. laciniata and vulgaris are common on our coasts.
;
;

Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. Mem. Soc. Cherhourq

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Aly. 261, pi. 25 A 4. iii. 5 Janczewski,

;
.,

xvii. 345.

385; Cooke, Handb. 791; Tul. Carp.

27,
t. iii.

ii.

POROSPH^'RA,
bular
fossils,

common

Steinm. Small gloin the chalk, known

as OrhitoHn(T, formerly referred to Sponges and Foraminifera, now found by Carter and Steinmann to have Hydractinian structure calcareous, with reticular tissue and radiate tubes. (Steinmann, PaJceontoqraphica, 1878,
;

tribe of Florideous_ AlgfB (according to Thuret), of low organization, forming Ulvoid membranous fronds or strata of Confervoid filaments, of a purple or red colour. They are ])laced among the Ulvaceae by most authors, but ditter in the absence of the zoospores and the presence of tetraspores (octospores) and antheridia. They are marine, Porphyra growing on rocks and stones, Banyin "the same, or parasitic upon Zostera, Algae, &c.

PORPIIYRA'CE.E.A

XXV. 120.)

British Genera.

What
head
of

POROUS STRUCTURES

of Plants.

in vegetable

are ordinarily called porous tissues anatomy are described in ac.

Frond plane, membranous, Po}phyra. very thin, of a purple colour, with oval
spores in sori, and tetraspores scattered all over the frond.
(square)

cordance with their real nature under the

Pitted structures.

True pores

do, however, occur in the walls of vegetable cells, from secondary or ultimate changes in their character. They are seen in the cells of the leaves of Leucohryum and Spluiynum

Banyia. Frnnd filiform, tubular, composed of numerous radiating cells in transverse rows, enclosed within a continuous hyaline sheaJi. Palmella cruenta.

PORHPY RIDTUM =

PORRIGO.
rORRI'CxO.
;

629

rOTTIOIDEA.
tribe

See Favus.
of the

POTTIA'CE.^E.- -A
Mosses.

of

Po-tioi

POTAMUCY'PKIS, Brady. One

; ;

valves reniforiu, thick, right Cypridcc larger than left upper antennte with veryshort set; post-abdomiual rami rudimeii1 British species. taiy. BiBL. Brady, Kat. Hist. Tr. North. 8,Durham, iii. 365. POTASH, AND ITS SALTS. Caustic Potash. The strength of the solution may be that of the Liq. Potasste of the Pharmacopoeia. But we prefer a stronger solution made with 1 drachm of the potassa fnsa or stick-potash of the The solushops, and 1 tluid oz. of water. tion should be allowed to settle, and the clear portion poured off into one of the test-bottles (Intr. p. xxvii). Some remarks are made upon the action of potash in the Inte., and others under the heads of the tissues, kc. On treating organic substances with this reagent, tlie cvstic-oxide-like crystals of the carbonate (PI. 10. fig. 2Q) will frequently be formed._ Chromates of Potash. The bichromate is used in the preparation of the chromate of

Pottia.

Synopsis of Genera, Calyptra dimidiate.

;

Peristome

simple or wanting if present, composed of lanceolate articulate teeth, simple or with a

longitudinal line, rugulose and
fleshy.

somewhat

Trichosto7mitn. Calyptra dimidiate. Peristome simple, sixteen teeth, each split to the base into two cilia, or irregularly and therefore into more than two, erect, stifl^ and

not twisted. dimidiate-hoodBarhula. Calyptra shaped. Peristome simple, ciliiform cilia

;

tliirty-two,
pairs"

on a membrane, spUt

solitary or approximated in more or less exserted basilar

lead
well.

for

injection.

Its

The neutral chromate

crystals polarize is also some-

times used for preparing injections.

See

Peepaeation.
This
:

Nitrate of potash, nitre, or saltpetre. it usually crystalsalt is dimorphous lizes in six-sided prisms with dihedral summits, or in other forms belonging to the

into two cilioles behind, very long, articulate-rugulose, twisted to the left, rarely to the right, in one or several Cells of the operculum spires, hygroscopic. and calyptra twisted in the same way. PeriCeratodon. Calyptra dimidiate. stome simple teeth sixteen, connate at the base into a cellular membrane, split into two long, nodosely articuUi.ted dark-coloured arms, paler on each side, densely trabeculated at the lower part. Capsule thick-skinned, shining, nodding, with a somewhat nodose collum annulate. Weissia. Calyptra dimidiate. Peristome simple or wanting if present, composed of sixteen lanceolate or subulate, entire or
; ; ;

right-rhombic prismatic system. But sometimes it assumes the form of obtuse rliombohedra, resembling those of nitrate of soda,

cribrose, equidistant teeth.

and referable

to the

rhombohedric system.

The crystals exhibit very beautifully the phenomena of Analytic Ceystals.

POT'TIA, Ehr. A genus of Pottiaceous Mosses, including some of the Gymnostoma and ire/ssi'tg of Hedwig and others. Wilson
separates as Anacalyptce the species with a peristome (fig. GOO).

POTATO-FUNGUS.

See Boteytis.

POTTIOI'DEyE. family of Acrocarpous operculate Mosses, but sometimes Pleurocarpous by innovating branches. Leaves of varied form, with a terete nerve cells parenchymatous, hexagonal or squarish six-sided, looser at the base, sometimes
;

very lax, more or less pellucid, often exceedingly transparent, large, fragile, rigid, foraminate, bearing on the upper side solitary papiUse or confluent papillte (hence
often truncate and tuberculate at the apex), cells placed in the middle of the cell mostly fuU of chlorophyll, often very small and thickened. Capsule erect, rarely inclined, oval, elliptic or pear-shaped oblong, smooth or striate, the operculum mostlyconical or beaked. This family is divided into three tribes Calympeeace^. Basilar cells of the leaves rigid, hyaline, often very brittle, more or less ample, empty, distinctly fora; :

Fig. 606.

^"^mrnmm
Pottia caespitosa. Fragment of peristome.

?3

Magnified 50 diametera.

minated. PoTTiACEiE.

Basilar cells of the leaves

PRASIOLA.
suft, pellucid, longer,

630

PREPARATION.

mostly empty, rarely contaiuing- a persistent primordial utricle.

Orthotrichace^. Basilar cells of the leaves with only the reiy lowest soft, the upper mostly thickened, rarely pellucid and
normal.

general are sliced with a which must be kept very sharp, and rubbed on a strop frequently while in use, and always before putting away. Fresh
structures in
razor,

PRASI'OLA, Meneg-hini. A genus

of

UlvaceiB (Confervoid Algre), separated from Monostroma by the arrangement of the quadri geminate cells of the frond in lines, with wide intercellular walls from TJlva
;

stems, thick leaves, &c., may be simply held in the fingers thin objects, such as leaves, petals, &c., are best placed in a split cork or piece of carrot, the halves of which are kept together by insertion in the neck of a vial or a test-tube, which at the same time serves as a handle. Sometimes it is
;

by the existence of only a single layer of cells, and from both by the absence(?) of a reproduction by zoospores from Schizoyonium by the frond consisting of expanded The species are included imder plates.
;

advantageous to immerse objects, especially soft or very small ones, in thick mucilage of gum-arabic, and to allow this to dry

Ulva (the

terrestrial forms) in the

Br. Flora

and Harvey's AJgte, ed. 1. They have been carefully examined by Jessen, who finds
the fronds proliferous at the margins the " " of mohe describes as
;

consisting tionless cells formed of the entire contents of the cells of the frond, set free by the solution of the parent cell. The reproduction of this group seems to us to require further iuvestigation. Jessen includes here

spores

tough enough to be cut by the razor ; the slices are freed from gum by immersion in water. Dry objects, such as wood, dried leaves, seeds &c., must be softened by soaking in water before slicing. Small firm objects, such as softer seeds, are mostly sliced when fixed in a bit of white wax or
until
stearine,

which may be done by placing them on the surface of the latter, and stirring them into the substance melted by the application of a hot wire. Most sections of vegetable objects are obscured by
sages, &c.

P. calophylln (PI. 3. fig. 10), crispa,furfuracea, and a form which he names P. last chiefly stipifcita, differing from the in the narrowly wedge-shaped, stipitale character of the frond probably the last three constitute only varieties of one species.
:

air-bubbles engaged in the intercellular pasIn old wood and similar objects
;

immersed in liquid, the air is readily driven out by heat in fresh structures, where
heat
air

may coagulate may be allowed

or dissolve matters, the to dissolve or escape by

BiBL. Jessen, Frasivlte Monoy. 1848 Harvey, Br. Aly. 171 Hassall, Aly. 297, Kiitz. Sj). Aly. 472 Rabenht. pis. 77, 78
;

itself,

Ah/,
for

iii.

308.
of microscopic objects

PREPARATION

examination and preservation. Some remarks on the former point will be found and imder in the Introdxjction, p. xxxii many of the general and special articles, such as Diatomacese, Ovule, &c., directions A few general remarks may are given. still however be made in this place.
;

which requires time, or it may be removed by exhaustion under an air-pump. Sections of wood, &c., which are to be mounted in liquids, should be soaked for some little time in spirit or turpentine, to remove resins, &c. The Section-cutter is
used for slicing such objects but this is not of much use except when large numbers of very perfect sections of the same kind are required for purposes of sale, &c. It need scarcely be said that sections require to be made in various directions in studying objects by these means. Thus stems should be sliced horizontally, and perpendicularly both parallel and at right
;

The parts of bodies or objects are usually separated by the mounted needles under a dissecting microscope, or by means of sections, according to the nature of the views which it is desired to obtain. With regard to the former operation, it need be merely observed that it is generally to be performed under water, in a watch-glass, glass cell, or other convenient holder. The preparation of sections is a more Soft parts of animals comyjlicated process. are best sliced by means of a Valentin's knife but Armor structures, such as horn, may be cut with a sharp razor. Vegetable
:

angles to the medullary rays. A\"hen working with high powers, it is necessary to be on our guard against appearances of striation or fibres which maybe produced by the fine notches in the cutting instrument. The structure of laminated shells, Szc, may often be seen in fragments broken off by the point of a knife. But sections of bone, shell, kc, are best made by sawing off thin pieces with a frame-saw having a

watch-spring blade, grinding them

down

PREPAKATION.

631

PRESERVATION.

upon a Tvater-of-Ayi* or some other stone, and polishing them upon a clean leather hone or strop with putty - powder and water, finally upon a dry hone ahnie.
of very hard subsitances, as agate, &c., are so easily made by jewellers, that a description of the process is scarcely They are cut by means of a necessary. rotating' circular iron plate, its margins being coated with a mixture of oil and dianiond-dust. They are then ground upon

to add gases to the Recklingsurrounding the object. hausen's moist chamber fullils tlie first

whole of organisms, and

fluid

Sections

requirement and Strieker's slide, which is heated b}^ means of the galvanic current, is most useful in producing constant anu)unt3
;

Strieker's gas-chamber, slide, and conducting tubes enable carbonic acid, oxygen, liydrochl )ric acid, or any t)ther gas to be applied to the fluid under examination.

of heat.

its

a plate of metal with emery-powder and water, and polished upon a Hat surtace of pitch with putty-powder and water. In grinding and polishing sections of

hard structures, it is often requisite to cement them to a slide with Canada balsam, heat being applied until the balsam has become so hard as to fix the section

As soon as one side has been polished, the section is removed from the slide, the balsam being rendered soft by heat, the polished side cemented to The the glass, and tlie other side polished. balsam may afterwards be separated from the section by maceration in oil of turpentine, benzole, &c. The more delicate animal tissues require hardening before section. This is usually produced by freezing in the section-cutter or by maceration in chromic-acid mixture (15 grs. of chromic acid to the pint of
firmlv to the slide.
;

substitute for those complicated pieces of apparatus, may be made by procuring a flat strap-shaped piece of metal, to be fixed upen the stage, witli an aperture near one end corresponding with that in the stage. The sUde is placed upon this, and a feeble flame of a spirit-lamp applied to the other end, will serve to produce the gentle heat required to set in motion or continue the amoeboid movements of organisms.

The preparation of many objects requires the process of dyeing or Staining. BiBL. Beale, ffotv Sfc. Carpenter, MiStrieker, Hist. ; croscvpe Frey, Mikr. Gerlach, i6Z. Rutherford, 7/?'s^. Mouchet, Mn. Mic. J. iii. 75 Flemming, ScJmltze's
;

Gronland, Cornu, and Archiv, ix. 123 Rivet, Prep. Micros. {Botanicul), 1871, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 82; L. Clarke, Phil. Tr. 18ol Minot, Mn. M. J. xviii. 97 Meyer, Arch. Mik. An. xiii.; Moseley, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 374, 379; Pritchard, Qu. Mic. Jn.
; ;
;

water, with ^ a pint of methylated spirit), bichromate of potash (180 grs. to the pint),

osmic acid, or Miiller's liquid (composed of 220 grs. of bichromate of potash, 90 grs. of sulphate of soda, and a pint of distilled water). These liquids require to be poured
oft"

and replaced until the

tissue is suffi-

ciently hardened. Great care is required in the interpretation of the appearances presented by minute objects or portions of tissue, as to the intluence of the liquids in which they are immersed ; even water often totally distorts their natural appearance, as in the case of And in animal tissues, the pollen. Sec. liquid of the allautois, blood-serum, or iodized serum or albumen (p. 441), are often useful as con-espouding nearly to the liquid in which they are naturally im-

1872, 380; Ranvier, Hid. tech.; Marsh, Section-cuHing Betz, Schultze\s Archiv, '\x. 101 Qu. Mic. Jn. 1873, 343 ; Gibbs, Hist. 1880. PRESERVATION of microscopic obUnder this head we shall consider jects. the arrangement of microscopic objects for permanent preservation, supposing that they
; ;

have been prepared (Prepaeation) in such manner as to render this possible. Dry objects, or those which exhibit their structural peculiarities in the dry state. These are sometimes mounted alone, at

others

when immersed

in

some preservative

compound.
In the dry and uncovered .state, they are occasionally mounted upon disks of cork, leather, or pasteboard, the surface upon which the object is to be placed being blackened by a coating of very fine lamp-black mixed with warm sfze or gum-water, or by a piece of dull black paper pasted upon it ; the simplest way of making the disks is to paste black paper upon thick soft leather, and cut out the disks with a punch, like gunwads. The object is fastened to the disk with

mersed, and so producino' but httle change.

Besides these methods of preparation, there are those which enable the observer to keep sections or minute plants and animals under continuous examination without becoming dry, to provide a proper and equable or even higher temperatures to parts or the

PEESERVATION.

632

PRESERVATION.

a little solution of marine glvie in naplitlia, or vrith pnm. The disks are sold in the shops. They are usually transfixed Avith a pin, by which they may be fixed in the forceps under the microscope, and may be fastened to the bottom of a box lined with sheet-cork when not in use. The advantage
of this plan
is its

simplicity
is

its

greater dis-

advantage, however,

that the objects are

liable to injury, and become covered with It answers very well for common dust.

tinued heat until the cement becomes perThe object is next fectly hard when cold. placed within the ring, a cover laid on, and heat applied until the cement becomesliquid. Gentle pressure then brings the cement and the margius of the cover into contact and when the cement becomes cold, the cover is firmly fixed to the slide. Another method of fastening the cover to the slide is by the use of electrical cement
;

and balsam (Cements,

1

p.

150) mixed with

but when the objects are of value, they should be mounted in a cell. The cell may be made of a square piece
objects,

seeds,

minute

lichens,

etc.

of card-board or pasteboard, of suitable thickness, with a hole punched in the middle, ffistened to a slide by marine glue or Canada balsam the object being fixed to the slide by a little of either of the above cements, and a thin glass cover cemented to

or 2 parts of tallow. Many dry objects can be well preserved by this Mountiny in Canada Balsajn. is to be done, care must be taken that they are thoroughly dry otherwise they will acquire a milky appearance, from being surrounded by minute drops of water. Some objects in drying curl up or become deformed, although their minute structure may not be essentially changed this may

When

the card-board.

Or the whole may be fast-

first a piece of ened together with black paper upon the middle of the slide, then the perforated square, next the object, and lastly the cover. The square of pasteboard may be replaced by a glass ring, a perforated square of glass, or a piece of sheet gutta-percha. When the objects are minute or very thin, the squnre of pasteboard may be dispensed with, and they may be mounted thus they are to be laid upon a slide, and a cover of thin glass placed upon them a piece of paper larger than the cover, with a portion cut from the middle larger than the object, is then covered Avitli paste, and a minute or two allowed to elapse, that the paper may become thoroughly imbued with it, the superfluous paste being removed with the paste-brush the paper with the pasted side downwards is then laid upon the cover and the adjacent portions of the slide, and gently be accupressed with a cloth, that it may The rately applied to the glass surfaces. whole is then allowed to dry. Tlie principal removal point in this process is the complete of the superfluous paste before the paper is If this be not effected, it will be applied. drawn by capillary attraction between the cover and the slide, and reaching the object,
:

paste

be prevented by confining them between two slides tied together with thread, or held
together by india-rubber rings, sealing-wax applied at the two ends, or by a folded strip If the obof brass with the ends riveted. jects be of tolerable size, they are then soaked in oil of turpentine kept in an ointment-pot covered with a lid, for some hours, or even days, uiitil the air is entirely displaced froni them by the turpentine. The latter will often also remove the colouring-

matter from some objects, as parts of insects, which may or may not be desirable hence the duration of" the process must vary clean slide is then warmed accordingly. over the flame of a spirit-lamp, or upon a stove, and some clear balsam placed in the middle of it, and rendered more liquid by further gentle heat; the object is next carefully removed from the turpentine with fu'ceps, drained and laid upon tlie warm balsam. Some more balsam is then allowed to fall from the warm wire (Balsaji) and when this is well upon the object covered with it, a warmed cover is gently
;

laid

upon its surface. The superfluous balsam then escapes at the sides of the cover; and this sliould be aided by gentle pressure. The slide is next maintained at a gentle heat
upon a

warm

mantelpiece, or a piece of tin-

will spoil

it.

plate, until

objects
sists

very secure method of mounting dry which are not altered by heat, conin laying a ring or square of black

sam

is

when allowed to cool, the balAs soon as this is perfectly hard.

japan upon a slide, the thiclvness of the layer being adapted to that of the object, and applying a pretty strong or long-con-

the case, the superfluous portions are cut away or scraped off witli a kuife, the surfaces of the glasses cleaned from any residue by a cloth wetted with turpentine or benzole, and some sealing-wax varnish applied

PRESERVATION.

633

PRESERVATION.

to the edges of the cover aud the adjacent portions of the slide. The success of the operation depends

mainly npon two circumstances, viz. tlie object having been tlioroughly dried, and the exclusion of air-bubbles. The former constitutes no diilu'iilty, time being all tliat but the latter requires that the is n^quired object shall previously have been tlioroughly moistened with the tnrpeutine, aud that the balsam sliall have been added to the object, when laid in the balsam upon the slide,
;

Gum and Gh/cerine. Objects which cannot be conveniently dried may be mounted in a solution of gum-arabic in glycerine ; tlie manipulations are much the same as with balsam, except that no heat is required.

Moimting

many

Glycerine jelly is often used. The structure of in Liquid. objects is so altered by drying that

they require to be mounted in some preservative liquid.

These,

if

of considerable size,
rings,
i.

must be mounted in glass cells. The cells may consist of ghiss

e.

before so much of the turpentine has evaporated as will allow air to enter any minute The heat applied cavities in the object. should also be gentle ; and if the direct flame of a spirit-lamp be used, its application should be made rather to some portion of the shde near that upon which the object is If placed, than directly beneatli the object. much heat be applied, bubbles of the vapour of the turpentine wiU often disfigure the object for a time; but these will vanish as

the object becomes cool. If air-bubbles have found their way into the object, the slide must he macerated in oil of turpentine until the balsam is dissolved and the object liberated, aud a fresh mount-

ing made. If the object he large, it must be mounted in a cell. glass ring (sold in the shops) of suitable thickness must first be cemented more balsam is to the slide by balsam then added until the cavity is filled, the object next added, and the cover applied. If the object be minute, its removal for maceration in the turpentine is not requisite, and might entail the loss of the object. It must then be laid upon a slide, a drop or two of turpentine added, aud the wliole

portions cut transversely from pieces of glass tubes, of various sizes, according to the dimensions of the objects. In using these, the ring is first warmed in the flame of a held by steel forceps one spirit-lamp, being of the ground surfaces of the riug is then covered with marine glue or balsam previously melted in the same flame the surface of the slide to which the ring is to be cemented is then heated in the flame, and whilst it is hot the stirface of the riug coated with the melted cement is applied to it, and the riug pressed firmh^, so as to displace the superfluous portions. When cold, these are to be removed with the point of a knife; sometimes a little solution of potash, oil of turpentine, or naphtha is required for this
; ;

warmed until no air-bubbles are visible. The cover is then removed, most of the turadded from the pentine drained oft", balsam warmed wire, and the cover applied as before or balsam may be placed upon the slide near the margin of the applied cover and on applying a continued gentle heat it will find its" way under the cover, aud replace the turpentine as it evaporates. If air-bubbles remain in parts of a minute
:

be applied, turpentine object, a cover should added, and the slide held over a lamp until the turpentine boils, aud the bubbles disis then reappear on cooling. The cover most of the turpentine allowed to

purpose. The cell is then complete, excepting the lid or cover, which consists of a circular plate of thin glass, of slightly less diameter than that of tlie outer margin The cell is now to be of the glass ring. filled with the preservative liquid, the object placed in it, and the cover applied, being made to slide over the upper surface of the ring, so as to displace any excess of liquid, and prevent the admission of air-bubbles. If the quantity of liquid first put into the cell be not sufficient, more must be added, until slight excess is present; the superfluous portions may be removed by a piece of blotting-paper, and tlie margin of the cover aud ring very carefully wiped clean with a silk handkerchief, so that the surfaces may be free irom all traces of the preservative liquid. The exposed parts of tlie upper surface of the glass ring, and the adjacent margins of the cover, are then to be coated lightly with one of the liquid cements, by means of a camel's-hair pencil and when the first coat is dry, another must be laid on, so that the edges of the cover and the adjacent parts of
;_

moved,

and the cover evaporate, the balsam added,

re-applied. in the same

Gum dammara may

be used

the glass ring may be firmly cemented together, aud the cell completely closed, to prevent the evaporation of the contained liquid.

manner as Canada balsam.

The important

points in this process are,

PRESERVATION.

634

PRESERVATION.

that the heated cemeut used to fasten the ring to the slide must accurately coat every portion of the two surfaces in apposition, and that the surfaces to which the liquid cement is applied must be perfectly clean and dry, so that the cement may come into contact with the surfaces of the glass. Rings of India-rubber and gutta-percha are very useful instead of glass. When the objects are very large, the rings may be conveniently replaced by cells constructed of slips of glass, arranged so as to constitute four sides of a box, the bottom of the box being formed by the slide, and the top by a plate of thin glass the pieces should be cemented together by marine
:

upon the slide with a camel's-hair pencil, and applying a continued heat until it becomes thoroughly hard when cold. The cements genei'ally used are asphalt solution gold size with which a little finely powdered litharge has been well mixed, immediately applied, as it soon hardens
:

glue.

may be made with marine dropped upon a slide and flattened whilst warm with a piece of wetted glass, the superfluous portions and central portion cut away with a knife. Should the marine glue become loosened from the slide, and if the it may be re-fastened by heat upper surface be not perfectly flat, it may be made so by grinding with emery-powder and water upon a plate of metal or upon a
Smaller
cells

glue, melted,

solution of marine sealing-wax varnish glue in naphtha, or of Canada balsam in benzole or chloroform, or the balsam alone. Allport's hquid marine glue is very useful. If the upper surfiices of the rings or squares formed of these compounds, when thoroughly dry and hard, be not perfectly flat, they may be made so by grinding alone, or with emery and water, upon a piece of metal, The object is then marble, or a stone. placed in, the cell, the preservative liquid added, and the cell closed as above de;

scribed.

The following are the most important preservative liquids and compounds
:

Thicaites's liquid is thus 16 parts of distilled water

prepared

to

add 1 part of

rectified spirit, and a few drops of creosote sufficient to saturate it; stir-in a small c[uantity of prepared chalk, and then filter. With this liquid mix an equal measure of camphor-

stone.

Minute objects may be mounted

in a variety of

in liquid

ways, the choice of which

nature.

will

vary with their

They

are

water, and before using, strain througli fine muslin. Used for preserving freshwater Algje, as having but little action upon the

genei'ally mounted in shallow cells, the sides of which are formed by varnish. The old method consisted in placing

endochrome.
Ralfs's
;

liquid.

Prepared

with bay-salt

and alum, of each a

grain, distilled water

the object upon a slide, adding a drop or two of the preservative liquid, applying the glass cover, adding more of the liquid, or removing excess with blotting-paper, until the space between the slide and cover was accurately filled, then applying to the margin of the cover and the adjacent portions of the slide a coat of some liquid cement, as gold-size, asphalt solution, black japan, &c. Objects thus mounted keep well for a time; but the cement soon apparently runs into the space between the cover and the slide, and the object becomes spoiled. It is often requisite, however, to mount an cbject in this way, which may be lying upon a slide,

perhaps in some peculiar position which it important for it to retain when this is the case, the electrical cement with balsam and tallow should be used; and there is less fear of change, provided spirit be not used as the preservative liquid. ^\'henever it is possible, then, a cell- wall should be previously formed, by laying a ring or square of one of the liquid cements
IS
;

1 oz. dissolve. 'Forms a readily prepared substitute for the former in the preservation of the Algse (Desmidiaceoe). Ilantzsch, quoted by Carpenter, produced a fine preservative medium for minute Algfe composed of 3 parts of alcohol, 2 of distilled water, and 1 of glycerine and the object, laid in a cement-cell, is covered with a drop, and placed under a bell-glass. Alcohol and wnter evaporate, and leave the glycerine: more is added time after time, and the cell is thus filled. Acetate of alumina. 1 part of the salt to 4 parts of distilled water. Topping finds this the best preservative for delicate vegetable colours. Distilled tenter. Very often used for
; ;

preserving Algfe; but perhaps camphorwater would be better.

Camjyhor-icater
distilled
is prepared by digesting water with a lump of camphor.

Spirit and water. Proof-spirit is prepared by mixing 5 nu>asures of rectified spirit

with 3 of

distilled water.

It is

frequently

PRESERVATION.

635

PRESERVATION.

used for preserving animal structures, orDelicate preparations gans, injections, &c. may be kept in a mixture ot" 1 part of of water. spirit with 5, or even 10, parts iJilute spirit sliould never be used as a preserA ative

water 1 oz., arsenious acid 1} grain; dissolve the arstiiiious acid in the water,
1 oz.,

then the gum, without heat, add the glycerine, and incorporate with great care to avoid forming bubbles.
(Jum-ivater (see Cicment.s). The solution should be very thick, so as to flow with It may difficulty from the end of a wire.

when

it

can possibly be avoided,

on account of its action upon the cements. Methylated spirit is very useful, on account of its cheapness and strengtli may be used
;

be used
residue

when

diluted in preserving large specimens

of animal tissue.

Creosote water is prepared by filtering a saturated solution of creosote in rectihed It is of water. spirit, mixed with 20 parts recommended for preserving preparations of muscle, cellular tissue, tendon, cartilage, &c.

balsam, but without heat. The very apt to crack when dry this may be prevented by applying a thick coating of varnisli around its margins. Chloride of calcium (Calcium, chloride of). Objects may be mounted in this solution without closing the cell, by pasting
like
is
;

Arscnious acid. preservative liquid is made of this substance by boiling excess of the acid with water, iilteriug the solution, and adding 2 parts of water. It is a very good preservative of animal tissues. Arseuite of potash, 1 part dissolved in 100 of water has been found usefid for preserving the primitive nerve-tubes.
dilute solution of Corrosive siihliniate. this substance is useful in the case of the

two narrow strips of paper transversely upon

a slide, leaving a greater interval than the breadth of the object the latter is then laid upon the slide, a small quantity of the solution added, and a cover applied. The solution must not touch the paper. The cover may be fLxed to the paper on the slide by
;

blood-corpuscles, nerve, muscular fibre, &c. Salt (^chloride of sodium) and water, 5 gr. to the ounce, was long since recommended for the preservation of tissues, but is not much used, because fungi are apt to grow in
it,

cement with balsam and tallow. however, to close the cell. Chloride of zinc. This is an excellent preservative of animal tissues for microscopic examination. It exerts a slight coagulating action, but this is not sufficient to seriously
tiie electrical

It is best,

which might, however, be prevented by

satm'ating it with camphor by digestion. Corti has found a tolerably concentrated solution the best preservative for the delicate structures and nerve-cells of the internal

Carpenter recommends sea-water, with one tenth part of alcohol and one tenth of glycerine, for preserving the delicate marine
ear.

impair the peculiarities of the objects, and large portions of all structures which may require to be examined should be kept in it. The ordinary strength is 20 grs. of the fused chloride to the 1 oz. of water. lump of camphor should be kept floating upon the surface of the solution in the stock-bottle. Goadhy's solutions. These are of three kinds. The first (A) is made with bay-

organisms. Carbonate of potash.

1 part dissolved in

from 200 to 500

of distilled water, is a

good

preservative of the primitive nerve-tubes. Solution of acetate of potash is also useful. This is the most valuable of Glycerine.

corrosive sublimate 2 grains, boihng water 1 This is too strong for most purquart. poses, and is only to be employed where great astringency is required to give form and support to delicate structures.
oz.,
oz.,

salt (coarse sea-salt)

alum 2

liquids for vegetable preparations, which be closed air-tight or not at pleasure. Dissections covered with a glass may be left in it from day to day, remaining unchanged and always ready for examination. Objects may be mounted in it, as with chloride of calcium. It is one of the most valuable fluids for the preservation and preparation also of animal tissues.
all

may

The second (B) is made with bay-salt 4 oz., alum 2 oz., corrosive sublimate 4 gr., water 2 quarts. This is recommended for general use, and as best adapted for permanent preparations. Mr. Thwaites uses it for marine Algaj but we have found chloride of calcium answer for this purpose, and it is much more secure. Schultze recommends
;

it

for preserving Medusce, Echiiiodermata,

Camphor-water and naphtha and water may

be added.
Glycerine

pound).

Pureand Gum {FarranCs comgum-arabic glycerine

i oz.,

larvse, Entomostraca, Diatomacese, Foraminifera, and Polycystina, both the hard and the soft parts, and advises the use of glycerine afterwards to produce

Annelid

transparence.

When

carbonate

of lime exists in the

PRESERVATION.
:

636

PRESERVATION,

preparations, as in the Mollusca, tlie foltake of baylowing (C) should be used salt 8 oz., corrosive sublimate 2 grains,

If chloride of calcium or glycerine be used as the preservative liquid, when the first coat of liquid c^'ment used to close the cell

water

1 quart. Marine animals require a stronger liquid (D) of this kind, made by adding about 2 oz. more salt to the last. Pacini's modification is made with corrosive sublimate 1 part, chloride of sodium

has become dry, the slide and cover should be washed gently with a sponge and distilled water, then dried with blotting-paper or a silk handkerchief, and the next coat of varnish applied.

2 parts, glycerine 13 parts, and distilled water 113 parts. The mixture should be kept for two months and in use, 1 part should be diluted with 3 parts of water, and
;

The great difficulty is to permanently preserve moist objects; for whatever may be the cement used, watery liquids almost invariably escape in time, altliough the pre-

filtered.

It is

blood-corpuscles,

good for the preservation of and nerves, ganglia,

No

parations

may remain good

cement
is

jjerfect

for some yeiu's. known, which on

morbid

cell-structures.
acid.

iSalici/lic

Edwards found that

saturated solution kept Volvox well.

Deanes compound. This is made with gelatine 1 oz., honey 5 oz., water 5 oz.,
rectified spirit ^ ox.,

The gelatme
soft,

and 6 drops of creosote. soaked in the water until the honey added, the mixture then
is

thoroughly drying retains its hold on the slide. Objects mounted in glycerine keep best but in many instances the structure is This difficulty may entirely destroyed by it. be often overcome, by adding very diluted glycerine to the object at first, replacing it gradually by stronger as the water evapo;

rates, until at last the object

becomes really

and when it has cooled somewhat, the creosote mixed with the spirit added; is filtered through tine flannel. la>;tly, it This is used warm. That preservative liquid should always be chosen which exerts least action upon the structure of the object which it is requnded
boiled,

mounted

in pure glycerine.

to preserve. If drying the object does not destroy its not very peculiar structure, and the object is transparent, the balsam should be used. If the structure be destroyed by the process of drying, and the obj ect be not impaired by endosmosis, the chloride of calcium or

glycerine is best. Other circumstances may render these preservatives desirable thus the minute parts of the moutli of the Acarina are best seen and preserved in balsam, Avhilst the general form of the body is best retained when the animals are immersed in chloride of calcium or glycerine. Objects to be mounted in a preservative liquid should be placed in a watch-glass. If they are alive they maybe placed in water, and as much of this as possible should be off or removed with a pipette or
:

poured

moist objects may also be mounted dammara-solution, by lirst macerating them in weak alcohol, then in stronger, next in oil of cloves, and finally in balsam. Even objects mounted in balsam are not safe for when the balsam becomes really dry, it separates from the slide, and air runs in. Balsam thinned with turpentine, and gradually added, perhaps with the aid of gentle heat, will, however, restore the original condition. 'And the cement around older objects should be varnished occasionally with dilute balsam or dammarabenzole solution. The deeper the cell, the less the chance of the object being spoiled. As soon as objects are mounted, the slides shoidd be labelled with a square or circular piece of paper pasted upon them, the name and other particulars being expressed in The name &c. may also be writing. Avritten upon slides with a diamond but the paper labels should always be used ; otherwise much time will be lost in search-

Many

in

balsam or

blotting-paper, and the preservative liquid the added, and tliis operation repeated that water may be entirely displaced. The liquid cements used to close the cell sliould be applied in several layers, each is being allowed to dry before the next
applied. The preservative liquid must not bo capable of exerting any action upon the cements used in making or closing the cell.

ing for and distinguishing particular objects in the cabinet.

For preserving dried plants from mould and. insects, the old method was to brush them with a solution of a grain or two of corrosive sublimate dissolved in an ounce of spirit. The " Kew inixture " for the same purpose, is made with corrosive sublimate and crystallized carboHc acid, of each I oz., methylated spirit a pint. Perhaps

TRIMITIA.
I of this
use. in
strenpftli
is sufficient

087

rPJMORDIAL UTRICLE.

for freneral

The same may be applied to insects the cabinet, by means of a hair-pencil.

the

Bn-keley points out that carbolic acid alters

the colour of some fungi. RiBL. Treatise upon
(liVTROD.)
1.34
; ;

INIicroscope
iii.

Corti, Sieb.
;

und

Kiill. Zeit.
;

the protoplasm is found lining the cellulose wall before the application of the reiigents. Since the line indicating the boundary of the contents cannot be distinctly seen until the contents have retracted from the cellulose wall, and since the protoplasm is always coagulated by the action of the reagents, it
Fig. 607.
Fig. 608.

Goadby, Amer. J. xiii. 15 DaviesMatthews, Mounting Mohl, Bot. Zeit. xv. 249 Beale, IIoio Carpenter, Microscope Strieker, Hid. Heys and Fray, Mikr. Hepworth, Tr. Mic. Sac. 186-5 Lawrence, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1859, 257; Walmsley, Mn.
;
; ;

CM-...i

Mic.

Jn.

i.

Mouchet, ibid.
Praparat.

iii.

380; Bastian, ibid. i. 94; 7o B.ichmann, Anf. mik.

;

small fossil PRDII'TIA, Ostracode with suboblong valves, impressed with a varialile furrow or pit in the mediodorsal region. Forty species in the Silurian rocks of Britain, Europe, and America. BiBL. Jones & Hall, Ann. N. H. 3. xvi.
.T.

& H. A

415.

PRIMORDIAL UTRICLE.This
cell.

term

indicates a peculiar portion of the contents of the cellulose sac constituting a vegetable

As

the

formations

Fig. 607. Parent celJa of pollen-grains jnst after the separation of the contents into four portions, treated with iodine. CM, the parent cell. P, the protoplasmic portions, each with a nucleus and a well-defined outline at the surface of the primordial utricle. Magnified 250 diameters. Fig. 608. Cells of Protococcus multiplying. The green granular contents are bounded by the definite outline of the primordial utricle the primary and secondary cellulose parent-cell membranes are represented as separated from each other. Magnified 400 diameters.
:

comprehended
a subject of discussion whether the film line on the surface of the contracted contents is a true structure, or_ only a pellicle produced by the coagulation of the surface of the protoplasm, just as a "skin" forms over size, or other similar substances when they dry up in the
is

under this name are of great importance in the development of vegetable cells, a little detail must be entered into in explaining
the subject. If a cell of the pulp of any succulent or cells in sections fruit, a cell of yeast, taken fi-om the delicate nascent tissues of any growing part of plants, are placed in water, the entire contents will soon be seen to retract from the cellulose wall, leaving a
clear space, filled with transparent liquid, between the latter and a sharply detiued line bounding the contracted or coagulated contents (PL 47. figs. 1, 2, 10-12). The addition of tincture of iodine makes the If the parent conditions still more clear.
cells of pollen-grains or spores are treated

forming the well-defined

air.

\'ery

young

cells

often appear tiUed

with a dense protoplasm (young autheridial cells of Cryptogamia, embryo-sacs of many flowering plants, cells about to produce
zoospores in the Confervoids, &c.), which

may produce numerous new

cells

by merely

thus, just before the development of the cellulose wall of the special parent cells (see Pollen), the four portions of the contents of the parent cell contract and separate, and

breaking up into separate portions; and thus the fvmction of the primordial utricle is shared by the entire mass of contents. Young cells of nascent tissues, presenting
this condition at first, acquire the primordial utricle afterwards, the dense

simply by

each portion, containing its own granular stnictures and nucleus, appears bounded by This wella well-defined line (fig. 607). defined line presents in this condition the

membrane or pelappearance of a delicate The licle enclosing the entire contents. action of acids, or spirit, and iodine, reveals
the existence of a similar set of conditions
in all actively vegetating cells ; and in most cases a more or less thick viscous layer of

contents becoming excavated as the cellwall expands, and following this in its growth, so that the originally dense homogeneous mass becomes a hollow sphere with the centre occupied by watery cellsap; in other cases the originally homo-

geneous protoplasm becomes excavated by nimierous water-vesicles, and thus honeycombed, until it forms a mere reticulation of protoplasmic threads upon the wall or
across the cavity. The protoplasmic layer lying upon the wall of the

stretched

miTCHAKDIA.
cell

638

PROSTHEMIUM.
setse.

presents a complex arrangement in cases Braun correctly distinguishes there are three layers in Iliidrodictyon three in Chara, where the intermediate one contains the chlorophyll-granules, and the innermost forms the circulating mass ; a distinct layer is left after the discharge of the zoospores in Clad q)}) or a, Sec. Thus, as explained under the head of CELL-formation, the primordial utricle or formative protoplasmic layer is the active agent in cell-division, and the layer forming the surface of the isolated portions of contents of parent cells produces the new cell-wall in all cases of free-cell formation, whether taking place in parent cells, or, as in the case of the zoospores of Algae, after escape from the latter. Strassburger describes the primordial utricle as being radiately striated, especially when treated with osmic

caudal
1-250".

P. vennina

maiine

length

some

term applied to produced from the germinal vesicle of Flowering Plants, after imthe structure
first

PROEMBRYO.The

pregnation, consisting of the suspensor and the embryonal cell at its extremity. The proembryos of the Gymnosperms are especially

remarkable (see Ovule).

is

The same

often incorrectly applied to the prothallium, the cellular structure first produced in the germination of the spores of the higher Fiowerless Plants.

term

PROROCEN'TRUM, Ehr. A genus

;

of

CiHo-flagellate Infusoria.

Char. No eye-spot carapace smooth, terminating in a point in front; flagellum

single.

P. micans (PI. 31.

greatly compressed
;

figs.

70

&

71), ovate,

acid.

In many of the Algae, some of the individual cells regularly exist for a certain period as masses of protoplasm devoid of a celkilose coat, as, for example, the spores of Fuciis and its allies, and the active zoospores of and these bodies, although Confervoids presenting a well-defined outline, do not appear to have a properly developed membrane on the surface, which merely appears to be denser than the semifluid central porThese bodies withdraw themselves tion. evidently from the definition of a vegetable nevertheless they cell as ordinarily given constitute all the essential living part of a
;
;

length 1-430". BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 44 Ulap. et Lach. Infus. 411: Kent, /??/.' 461.
;

PROR'OD(Ji\, Elir.A genus of Holo-

trichous Infusoria, family Tracheliua. Char. Body covered with vibratile cilia, truncate in front mouth with a cylinder of teeth freshwater. Species numerous. P. teres (PI. 31. fig. 72). Body ovate, terete, white. Length 1-140".
;

Infus. 318
getable.

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 315; Clap, et Lach. Kent, Inf. 491. PROSEN'CHYMA. See Tissues, Ve;

vegetable cell, and indicate most clearly the undoubted fact that the cellulose walls, that is to say all the really solid and permanent portions of vegetable structure, are mere skeleton or shell for the protoplasmic or nitrogenous structures. BiBL.^ jMohl, Bot. Zeit. ii. 273; VermiscMe

Kunze. genus Melauconiei (Coniomycetous Fungi), the branches of trees, formgrowing upon ing circular depressed spots ; the perithecia
of
Fig. 609.

PROSTHE'MIUM,

N. H. xviii. Schrift. 362; Henfrev, Ann. 364; Kfigeli, Zeitsckr. tciss. Bot. 1844 & 1846; Braun, Verji'mg., Bay Soc. 1853, 121 Cohn, Nova Acta, xxii. 605 Pringsbeim, Bild. d. Pflanzenzelle, 1854 Hartig, Bot. Zeit. xiii. 393; Criiger, j'fiw/. 001 Sachs, Bot. 43 Henfrey-Masters, Bot. 495. PRITCHAR'DIA, Raben. A genus of Diatomaceaj, comprising certain species of Nitzschia and Si/nedra. (Rabenht. Aly. i.
; ; ;

Prosthemium betulinum.
Spores and paraphj-ses seen
in a rertical section of fruit.

Magnified 200 diama.

162.)

PROROSCEL'LA,

Kt.

genus
;

of

Ilolotrichous Infusoria.

Elongate-clavate,

compressed, with an apical hook

;

mouth

an undulating membrane between ventral the front and mouth; with one or more

enclose erect articulated filaments bearing radiating tufts of two or three septate spores P. bcfidhunn occurs upon tlie (fig. ()09). bark of the branches of the birch tree. The species are mere forms of Sithceriacei,

PKOTAMCEBA.
EiBL. Berkeley, Urit. Flor,
297.
ii.

639
p.

PROTOCOCCUS.
'1.

pt.

2.

(GlceChrysococcacea ocapea, Merismopaedia, &c.).

PROTAMCE'BA,
Protista.

Haeckel. A genua of

V. PhycochromacejE.2.
j

Oscillarinca (Nosfocha-

simple shapeless protoplasmwitliout vacuoles, with simple pseudopodia, not ramifying nor anastomosing ; reproduction by Ussion.

Char.

body

VI. Fungi.

ceu ,Itivulariacea, &c.). '1. Phycomycetes {SuprolegniecB, Mucorine(P, &c.). 2. Hypodermiee ( LVediTKE, Usiilagince, &c.).
3.

Basidiomycetes

{Hymenomycetes ,

Species.

Protamaha

Giistroniycefes, &c.).
4.
,

priinitii'a.

Proto-

Asconiycetes (Protomycetes, Discomycetes, &c.).

(1.
2.

plasm-body of 0'03-0"05 millim. diameter, continually varying in form, with one or

(3 to 6) peripheral pseudopodia. Processes short, rounded, obtuse, hngershaped, at most as long as the diameter of the central body. Freshwater, near Jena. (Haeckel, Oen. 'Moiyhol. 186G, i. 133.) PROTEA'CE.E. family of Dicotyleseveral

VII. Myxoniycetes (Mycetozoa).

Gymnamcebae
(Aulijioeba, &c.).

Iiepamceb;e (Arcelhi, TJiJJlugia,

VIII. Protoplasta (AmoBboida).-i

3.
(

&c.).

Gregari

ee

(^Gregarina).

IX. Noctilucee

donous plants, mostly from

New

Holland

or the Cape, shrubs or small trees (Banhsia, Grevillea, Haliea, &c.), of remarkably rigid, evergreen habit. The coriaceous leaves are well suited for the study of the epidermal structures and the stomata have interesting
;

KocHlvca. (I. Acyttaria (Monothalamia and Polythalamia). X. Ehizopoda.-i 2. Heliozoa [Acfinosphanwii). 3. Eadiularia (Monocytharia and \ Polycytharia).
I

BiBL. Haeckel, Gen. Morpli.

neren, Jenai. Zeit. 6. iv. I
1
;

Mon. Mo1869

Biol. Studien,

peculiarities (see

mis

is

some
fig.

Stomata). The epiderscurfy with scattered hairs, of which are of curious forms (PI. 28.
often

Wright and Kirby, Qu.

;

3Iic. Jn.

&

1871

Kent, Lif. 44.

29).

PKOTEON'INA, Williamson. simple Ai'enaceous Foraminifer a feeble Lituola of the Haplophragmiujn group.
;

BiBL. Williamson, Foram. 1

For. 309.

Ctii-penter,

old uame applied to Also a certain Infusoria, as Amoeba &c. genus of Amphibia with large blood-corpuscles.

PEOTEUS.An

PROTHAL'LUS or PROTHALLIUM. The structure resulting from the germination of the spores of the Cryptogamia, in which the female, and sometimes the male organs are formed. See Marsileace^,

Lycopodiace^, Equisetace^, and Ferns. PROTISTA, Haeckel. A kingdom of

organic nature supposed to be intermediate

between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and comprising the so-called lowest
forms of
life.
:

ing groups

It
t\.
-<

is

divided into the follow{Frofogenes, Fro-

PROTOCOC'CUS, Ag. genus of Volvocineee (Confervoid Algae), at present very imperfectly known, since without a tolerably complete history of the development of the forms it is impossible to distinguish the true species of Protococcus from the young states of the more complicated Palmellaceee, and even from the germinating gonidia of the Lichens. As we have limited those unicellular it, Protococcus includes Algas which in the aquatic state consist of single zoospore-like bodies, with a more or less evident gelatinous cellulose envelope through which the two cilia protrude. move actively, and are multiplied by They division during the active state. Finally they settle down into a resting-stage ; and they may then increase by vegetation so as to form granular patches. Mostly, however, those which settle down tm-n red and acquire a thick coat, passing through a stage of rest before they germinate again, apparently requiring to be dried up first, "\^'hen
they germinate, they frequently produce many generations of still forms before the active cDiated forms reappear, especially when placed on damp surfaces, and not in water. When placed in favourable circumstances, the resting-forms (even after several years) recommence the course of vegetation, reacquiring the green colour by degrees in the course of several generations of The contents of the red vegetative cells.

Gymnomonera
tamosba, &c.).

I.

Monera.

2.

Lepomonera {Protomonas, Vamj>yreUa,Protomyia,Muxiiatrum,

&c.). (I. Nudiflagellata (Euglena,

rlu/o7iiorui:t,&c.).

Spon-

Cilioflagellata (Peridinium, Ce( ratiuni, &c.). III. Labjrinthulea {Laltyrinthula). IV. Diatomea (Bacillaria).

TT -171 11 < ' II. ^lageUata.^ ^

PROTOCOCCUS.
form appear to
biiles
;

640

PROTOMYCES.
; ;

consist partly of oil-gloin the green form the protoplasmic substance is colom-ed by chlorophyll^ and at a certain stage contains starch.

We

have traced P.

viridis

through
7.

all
fig.

these

stages, as represented in PI.

:

a most elaborate monograph of P. pluvialis by Cohn goes to establish the same conclusion, that the genus Hcematococcus is founded on states of Protococcus. The P. viridis of our figures is undoubtedly C/da-

2 a-g

Fr. Alg. 821 Meneghini, Tr. Turin Ac. 2. V. 1 Cohn, Nova Acta, xxn. 605, Pag Soc. 1853, 514 Von Flotow, Nova Acta, xx. 414 Braun, Verjilngung, Ray Soc. 1853, 206 Nageli, Einzellige Algen Ktitzing, Sp. Tab. P/igc. i. Rabenh. Alg. iii. Alg. 196 56 Cooke, Fr. loai. Algce, 1882. See also
;
; ; ; ; ;

Red Snow.

jardin.

midomonas, synonymous with Disc/mis, DuThis form appears at first sight nearly allied to Euglena; but there are

PROTODER'MA, Ktz.Agenus of Ulvacese (Confervoid Alg.ie). Char. Cells forming a thin membranocrustaceous expansion they are roundish
;

angular.

P. viride (PL

3. 'fig.

18), fresh-

striking differences in the appearance and moyements of the active forms, and the vegetative forms are somewhat different. It may be remarked, however, that the

water; on stones; cells 1-300". BiBL. Ktz. Phyc. Gen. 295: Rabenht,
Alq.
iii.

307.

PROTOG'ENES, HaeckeLA

genus of

Protista.

zoospores of Protococcus viridis, allowed to dry upon a slide, often turn red and look just like small Astasice (PL 7. fig. 2 g). have remarked under Palmella, that the Polar red snow appears to be a Palmella (PL 7. fig. 'id), although this species has been called Protococcus and Hcsmatococcus nivalis and it appears to us that Shuttleworth and others have con-

We

this with Protococcus 2^^uvialis. Hassall's species of HcEinatococcus, nos, 8 to 19, with the exception of H. vulgaris (Chlorococcum) fPl. 7. fig. 1), are probably congeneric with our P. viridis. Our P. viridis makes its appearance com-

founded

Char. A simple shapeless protoplasm body without vacuoles, which protrudes ramifyand anastomosing processes, and reproing duces itself by fission. Protogenes priiuordialis. Body sometimes globular,from 1-2001-25" diameter, sometimes extended and flattened out, with irregular outline, to 1-10" diameter pseudopodia exceedingly numerous, over a thousand, very fine, with very numerous ramifications and anastomoses.
;

Mediterranean. BtBL. Haeckel, Zeitschr. 1865, 360.

Zoophytes,

iciss.

Zool. xv.

PROTOHY'DRA, Greef A
Like
it

genus of
simpler in

Hydra
;

but

monly on damp

earth, sand, kc, forming a

greenish coat of no perceptible thickness; and the zoospores (Chlamidomonas) occur constantly in standing pools in spring and autumn, tinging the surface of the water

has no tentacles. Reproducstructure, as tion by transverse fission nematophores and

pigment-cells present. BiBL. Greef, Sieh. u. Kdll. Zeit. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1870, 297.
i.

1870

bright green, and, as they settle to rest, forming a kind of green scum at the marmatter of gins, constituting the green Cells of resting-form 1-2400" Priestley. P. ^yluvialis colours water red in diameter. it occurs on mountains, in like manner Cells of especially in melted snow-water. resting-form 1-1250 to 1-625" in diameter. Similar colorations, however, are produced by various other organisms (see Water). It may be observed that when the active forms of P. viridis and P. pluvialis divide without coming to rest, they produce forms
;

PROTOM'ONAS, Haeckel.A

genus of

Protista.

Char. simple protoplast, without vacuoles, simple or ramifying pseudopodia. Reproduction by zoospores, which combine into meshes or plasmodia. Protomonas amyli. In decaying Nitella.

(Haeckel, Gen.
Jn. 1869.)

Mmph.

vol.

ii.

23, Qu. Mic.

PROTOM'YCES, Unger.A
Fungi, the
;

genus of

affinities

Ehrenberg's species of Polygastrica. When they acquire a loose cellulose coat before losing their cilia, they represent Gyges at other times they resemble Chlorogonium, Uvella, Polytoma, Manas, Bodo, Sec. BiBL. Ilarvej^, Br. Alg. 1. 180 Ilassall,
; ;

which are imdistinguishable from many of

doubtful placed in but apparently forming a degraded branch of Phycomycetes. They grow in the intercellidar passages of leaves and leaf-stalks.

which are very Ascomycetes by Sachs,

of

According to De Bary, these Fungi consist of ramified filaments creeping between the cells of soft tissues, and swelling up at intervals (apparently where they meet an intercellular space large enough), to form globular

PKOTOMYXA.
:

641

PROTOZOA.
of contracting,

a filanumt with several spores in spores course of di\ isioii appears like a varicose tube it is septate, however; and when the have a glolMilar spores are mature, they double coat; in P. 7uacrosjK>rns the diameter When of the ripe spore is about l-oOOO". advanced in age, the mycelium appears to be wholly converted into spores, which become The existence of these Fungi is renfree. dered more or less evident externally by warty projections of the epidermis, finally Unger describes four species i*. bursting. macrosponts occurring on ^l^</opodium and AmieUca, P. encJnyoms (Galii) occurring on Galiiuii mollugo, P. mkrosporus on Rannnctilus repens, and P. Paridis on Paris quaDo Bary found a species on 3Iedrifolia. and njianfhes, with oval spores 1-800" long 1-1 ."JOO" broad. species {P. conconutaiis) has lately been found on exotic Orchids.
;

jelly-lilce condition, iscapable

expanding, and assimilating. It is common to the animal and vegetable kingdoms. See Cell, Sarcode, and Pkimokdial

UTRICLE.

PROTOSPON'GIA, Kt. A
; ;

genus

of

"

Ovate, imbedOhoano-flagellate Infusoria. ded in a gelatinous matrix Uagellum single. freshwater. P. Hacchelii length 1-3000'
;

(Kent, Inf.

PROTOZO'A.A Subkingdom

.363.)

of

the

Animal Kingdom, characterized by the absence of distinct organs, the form and
simple organization being reduced to those of a cell (Siebold). If the above definition be adopted, it must be remembered that the cell may be represented by the cell-contents only and these we believe to constitute the essential part of a cell (see Edition 18oG_), which is now generally admitted. The Protozoa form the lowest group of the Animal Kingdom. They are mostly minute, and aquatic, consisting of a mass of This is gelatinous protoplasm or sarcode.
;

d. Pftanz. 341 Brandpitze, 15, pis. 1 & 2, and Beifriuie,\. 18G4 Leveille, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3.

BiBL. Unger, Exanthem.

;

D^ Bary,
viii.

374;
Ve(/.

Sum.

Tulasne, ol7.

ibid.

vii.

112; Fries,

PROTOMYX'A,
Protista.

Haeckel. A genus of

C/iar. simple shapeless mass of protoplasm, with vacuoles, which protrudes ramiliet'viug and anastomosing pseudopodia. production by zoospores, forming plasmodia.

Protomy.ra aurantiaca, orano;e-red resting condition globular, with a thick structureless covering. Zoospores pear-shaped, with a strong ilagellum at the pointed end, at first like the zoospores of the Myxo;

moving

usually granular, often containing minute globules of fat, sometimes minute crystalline Sometimes one or more nuclei particles. The body are present, often they are absent. is naked in some, in others it is enveloped in a carapace or shell, which may be simply membranous, calcareous, as in the Foraminifera, or siliceous, as in the Poly cystina and Aca7ithometrce. Movement is eilected by pseudopodia, which are short and stout, or long and slender, processes of the protoplasm, sometimes branching and anastomosing to form meshes or plasmodia by cilia; or by
;

nij-cetes,

afterwards creeping like an Amaha.

flagelhform filaments.
gastric cavity.

There

is

no proper

genus of ^lyxomycetes. P. coprinarius, in the intestines of man, cows &c. amoeboid bodies not uniting. (Cunningham, Qu. Miv. Jn. 1881 Kent, Inf. 472.) PROTOPLASM. Tlie name appHed by
;

food-particles are in the lowest forms entangled and brought to the body by the pseudopodia, as in Amoeba and Actinophrys &c., or ingested from all parts of the surface while in many Infusoria there Contractile is a distinct mouth and anus. vesicles supposed to represent a circulatory apparatus are sometimes, but not always
;

The

Mohl

to the colourless or yellowish,

homo-

nitrogenous constitution, which constitutes the formative substance in the contents of ACgetable cells, in the condition of gelatinous strata, reticulated threads, and nuclear aggregations &c. It is the same substance as that termed by Dujardin in animals Saecode. Protoplasm is the simplest form which organized matter can assume, and which, without any otjier material pecidiarities except a certain softness, transparency,- and

geneous or granular viscid substance, of

present. Reproduction is produced by fission, by conj ugation, or by the breaking-up of the

nucleus.

The Protozoa approach closely the lower and simpler forms of the Vegetable Kingdom and very different views are held as to the characters by which they may be distinguished, and the organisms which belong to the two kingdoms.
;

subsist

character was, that animals ingested organized matter, while plants prepare their food from unolder

An

upon

2t

PSAMMOSPH.ERA.

G42

PSILOTE.E.

organized materials, as carbonic acid and ammonia. The other, that animals absorb oxygen and evolve carbonic acid, while plants evolve oxygen, cannot be applied generally in the case of these microscopic organisms. But certain Protozoa have no

globular,

Char. Shell membranous, ovoid or ovosmooth or striped spirally, with a

issue pseudo-

wide round opening whence

podia.

mouth, and cannot admit food-particles

Ainoehci,

like

nor can organic matters be endosmosed by them. Movement has in late years been shown to be a property of pi'otoplasm, limited where a cell-wall is present, yet it may be said to be universal. Stein and Kent consider the presence of a contracto form a distinctive character existence in Volvox, we think must invalidate tliis view. The chemical property of the protoplasm, that of animals swelling and dissolving in solution of potash or ammonia, Avhile tliat of plants is apparently unaffected, has also been called in aid and this really appears to be the best individual test. Little attention has been paid to this part of the question, so that the older views must remain, until See further experiments have been made. Animal Kingdom, and the heads of the Classes.
tile vesicle
;

(Pritchard, Inftisoria, p. 557.) term applied to bodies appearing in the interior of cells of Algfe, which are obscure in their nature, being either metamorphosed and isolated masses of protoplasm, or parasitic bodies resembling monads. They are apparently connected with the objects called Chytei-

PSEUDOGONIDIA. A

DiUM and Pythium.

(Cienkowski, Princ/s-

heim's Jahrb. Bot.'i. .371.)

but

its

PSEUBOG'RAPHIS, Nyl. genus of Microlichens parasitic on Lecanoras. Char. Spores colourless or becoming
brown, 4-6-locular, sometimes becoming submuriform slightlv blue with iodine. BiBL. Lindsav, Qit. Mic. Jn. 1869, 352.
;

PSEUDOPODIA

are the processes of

for loco-

protoplasm which are protruded from the

bodies of the

Rhizopoda, serving

motion and the prehension of food. PSEUDOS'PORA, Cien. A genus

of

BiEL. Siebold, Verffl.An.i.;^och,Icon. Hist. 1865 ; Gabriel, Gegcnlaur's Morph. Jahrb. 1875 Mereschowski, Hussl. Arch. mik. An. 1878, xvi. Butschli, Brotm's Klass.
; :

Flagellate Infusoria. Body naked, swimming or creeping; flagella two, equal ; no mouth. P. volvocis, on and in Volvox; length 1-12^'^0". (Kent, Inf. 304.)

spores of

^c.

Kent, Inf. 1880, 31.

Schultze.

PS.UIMOS'PH^'RA,
Arenaceous

An

The apparent Uredinei and TremcUini, -^hich and produce the real reproductive germinate spores, which are then called sporiola. PSICHOHOR':\IIUM, Ktz. This genus
consists of species of Confeita, whose filaments are more or less incrusted with oxide of iron or carbonate of hme.

PSEUDOSPORES.

Foraminifer, round, free or attached, made of coarse sand-grains and fine cement common in deep seas. (Brady, Qu. Mic. Jn., new ser. xix. 8.) PSECA'UIUM, Eeuss. A globose or Glanduline Maryinulina. Fossil. BiBL. Eeuss, "-S"//-. Ak. Wien, xliv. 368.
;

PSILO'KIA, Fr. A genus "of Sepedoniei

(Hyphomycetous Fungi), consisting of little compact tufts of twisted filaments, at
covering the fusiform, globose, or oval which arise from the wart-like protuberances on the central filaments, ai:d soon become fi-ee. They are found on dead wood or on reeds. P. nivea, which is common on the bark of beech-trees, is the product of an insect, Adch/es fagi. BiBL. Berk. i?r. J7. ii.'pt."2."353 Ann.
first

Bibb. Rabenh. Fl. Ear. Ah/,

iii.

324.

PSEUDOCALA'^^US, Boeck. A
2
sp.

genus

of marine Copepoda.

(Brady,

Cty;^';}.,

spores,

Hay

Soc.

i.

44.)

PSEUDOCH'LAMYS,
; ;

Clap, et Each. genus of Arcellina (Rhizopoda). P. ni-

and short

carapace brown, pseudopodia broad in ponds. (Claparede et Lachm. Inf. 443.)

lelln

PSEUDOCYC'LOPS,Brady. Agenusof
marineCopepoda. 2sp. (Bradv,^;)^^^ i. 81.) PSEUDOCYTH'ERE, G. O. Sars. One
of the C]iihvrida>\ valves very thin, obliquely quadrangular five joints in upper, seven in lower antenufc, which are long and have
;

N.

II. 2. viii.

17U

family of Lycopodiaceous plants, distinguished by their manycelled sporanges, varj'ing much in habit and external appearance.
Si/nop,sis

PSILOTE.E. A

Fries,

Sum.

Vet/.

405.

long setije no eyes. 1 British species. BiBL. Bradv, Linn. Tr. xxvi. J53.
;

of Genera.

PSEUDODIFFLUGIA,
genus of Arcellina.

Schlum.

Psilotum. Sporanges ses.-ile, three-celled, busting imperfectly into three valves by a

vertical craclc, filled

with mealy spores.

PSILOTE/E.
Tmesipferis.

043

PTEiaUE^E,
of ITy-

Sporanpfes

sessile,

three-

celled, buvsting iiiipovfectlv into two v<alves by a vertical crack, lillcd with nioaly spores. ' Isoetes. Sporani>-es imbedded in the bases of the leaves, and adnate at the back, not

PSILOT'RICIIA, St,A genus

valvate, with sevenil transverse septa containing two kinds of spores (iu distinct spo;

potrichous Infusoria. Bodyoblong, flattened, with 2 rows of long ventral, and a peripheral row of setae, but no styles. P. acuminata, freshwater. (Kent, Inf. (572.) PSILO'TUM, Swartz. {Lycopodium nu-

dum,

rangia).

Fig. 610,

Ij. ). An exotic genus of P.'^iloteaj (Lytrilocular copodiaceoe), remarkable for their 611 ). capsules and minute leaves (fig. PSORO'MA, Nyl. genus of Lichena-

ceous Lichens, with large distinct gonidia. BiBL. Leighton, Lick. Flora, 14'J. genus of PSOROP'TES, Gervais. Arachnida, of the order Acarina, and family Acarea. Char. Body soft, depre.sed, with rigid hairs beneath, and on the legs. Parasitic upon the horse and sheep, and the ox. P. (PL 6. fig. 18), itch-insect of the

equi

horse.

Found upon

upon the body.

tyle,

the scaly crusts formed Mandibles elongate, didac-

each terminated by two teeth; palpi the labium; three-jointed, and adherent to ventral surface covered with parallel unduat the end of the body are lating rugae two fleshy lobes, terminated by a tuft of setae,
;

BiBL. 'Hering, Nov. Act.

Micr. 147 Megnin, Paras. 189.
din,
;

vais, Walclienners Aptcres,

585; Ger266; DujarMurray, Ec. Ent. 307 ;

xviii.
iii.

These bodies were discovered by Miiller, and appear to represent the pseudo-naviculaj of the Greyarinm of fishes. They are microscopic, oval, depressed, or di.scoidal corpuscles, with or without a tail,
Pbilotum iriquftium. Nat. size.

PSOROSPERMI^.

Fig, Gil.

exhibiting no movements, and con.si.stiug of a tolerably firm outer coat, containing one or two oblong contiguous vesicles at that end of the body opposite the tail. They are about 1-2500 to J -2000" in length, and are

contained in immense numbers in minute cysts, in almost every part of the body of fishes, as upon the gills, in the muscles, and

between the coats of the eye, in the swimSometimes they are ming-bladder, &c. imbedded in a ramified sarcodic mass. Diameter of the cysts on the pike 1-50 to
1-25" of the corpuscles, length 1-2000", breadth 1-3500". See Pebrine. BiBL. Muller, Archiv, 1841. 477, 1842, 193; Creplin, ibid. 1842. 61; Dujardin, Helminthes, 643; Leydig, Mi'dl. Archiv, 1851, 221, Mic. Jn. 1853, i, 200; Robin,
;

Ve(jet.

Parasit.

2.

291.

Fragment of a branch of Fsilotum

Magnified 10 diameters.

triqui'trum.

PTERID'E^. A

family of Polypodia-

ceous F.ems.

Genera:

2x2

PTERIDE^.
bose,

644

PTEROPTUS.

Adiontum. Sori marginal, linear or glonumerous and distinct, or couiiuent. Indui^ium shaped liked the sorus, formed of
the reflexed margin of the fronds, witli the capsules beneath.
Ochropteris. Sori marginal, transversely oblong, at the apices of the lobes of the segments. Indusium the same shape as the frond, formed of its retlexed marg-in. LoncJiitis. Sori marginal, in the sinuses of the frond, reuiform or elongated. Indusium shaped like the sorus, membranous, formed of the frond. Hypoh'pis. Sori marginal, in the sinuses of the frond, small, subglobose, uniform. Indusium formed of the reflexed margin,

sium formed of the reflexed margin of the frond, those of the two sides meeting at the
midrib.

Lomaria. Sori linear, continuous, lonand occupying the space between the midrib and the edge. Indusium membranous, formed of the revolute margin of
gitudinal,

the frond.

PTERIS, Linn. genus of Pteridefe (Polypodiaceous Ferns), represented by one indigenous species, Pteris aquilina, the com-

mon Brake Fern numerous tropical species.

;

(Hooker, Syn. 153.)

Fig. 612.

membranous.
CheiUmthes. Sori terminal or nearly so on the veins, at first small, subglobose, after-

wards confluent. Indusium formed from the changed reflexed margin, roimdish, or
confluent, not quite continuous. Casseheera. Sori terminal on the veins, globose or oblong, not reaching beyond the branches of a single vein. Indusium init,

serted within the margin, and separate from shaped like the sorus. Oynjchmm. Sori on a continuous linear of several receptacle, connecting the apices Indusium parallel with the margin veins.

of the segments, linear, opposite, pressed over the sori, the edge nearly or quite reaching the midrib. the Sori linear, Lhivca. occupying whole length of the changed pod-like segments of the upper part of the frond. Indusium the same shape, rolled over and

Pteris,

pinnule with marginal indusiate Magnified 10 diameters.

sori.

PTEROCOM'MA, Buckt. genus of Aphidfe. P. p//os, on willow-twigs. (Buckton, Aj^hida;,

toria, of

concealing them. Cryptofiramma. Sterile and fertile fronds sori usually diflerent, from the same root terminal on the veins, at fii'st sidjglobose, then confluent, the continuous indusium formed of the changed iurolled margin of tlie frond. Pellci-a. Sori intramarginal, terminal on the veins, at fu'st dot-like or decurrent on the veins, then running into a line. Indusium formed of the more or less changed edge of the frond, continuous, sometimes very narrow. Pteris. Sori marginal, linear, continuous, in occupying a slender filiform receptacle Indusium the the axis of the indusium. shape of the sorus, usually membranous, at first covering it, then spreading. Ceratopteris. Sori placed on two or three veins which run longitudinally down the
;

Pay Soc. ii. 142.) PTERODI'NA, Ehr. A genus

of

Rota-

the family Brachionsea. Char. Eyes two, frontal; foot simply At the end of the tail-like foot styliform. is a suctorial disk jaws with the teeth either arranged in a row, or two teeth only in each.
;

Three species; two freshwater, one marine. P. patina (PI. 44. fig. 20). Testula membranous, orbicular, cry.^talline, roughish near the broad margin a depression present between the rotatory lobes. Freshwater; length 1-120". BiBL. Ehreuberg, //?<. 51 0; Pritchard,
;

Inf.lW.

A genus of pTEROP'TI'S, Dufour. Acarina (Arachnida), family Gamasea.

Char. Body depressed last joint of palpi longest ;. legs stout, with short joints. P. vespertilionis (PI. 6. fig. 39). Found
;

frond, and

which are nearly parallel Avilh Induboth the edge and the midrib.

TTERYGIUM.
upon bats. scribed.
;

645

PUOCINIA.
of

Several species have been deiii.

;

PTYXID'IUM, Perty. A genus

chelia.

Eu-

It shoidd

probably be included in
p.

BiBL. Gervais, WalcJcenaer^s Aptbres,

;

Leucophrys.
BiRL. Pritchard, Infusoria,
615.

227 Dufour, Ann. Sc. N. xvi. 98, xxv. 9 Koch, Deutschl. Crustac. Murrav, Ec. Ent,
175.

PUCCIN'IA, Persobn. A genus ofUredinoi (Ilypodermous Fungi), containing numerous parasitical species, growing upon the leaves and other herbaceous parts of the higher plants, forming "mildews," and Avith

genus of Colleniaceous Liclieus. 2 species, ou calcareous rocks. (Leio-liton, Lichen Fl. 12.)
Alosses.

PTERYGIUM, Nyl. -A

A genus of PTERYGO'NIUxAI, Sw. See Neckeea. PTILIDIUM, Nees.A genus of Jun-

Tliese their Uredinous forms, "rusts" &c. Fungi have received considerable attention lately from Tulasno, l)e Bary, and others ;

germanuiete (Ilepaticte), containing one elegant British species, P. ciliare, frequent on heaths and rocks in subalpine districts, but rarelv found in fruit. BiBL. Hooker, Br. Fl. ii. 126; Br. Jung. Co Ekart, Juny. pi. 5. fig. 36. pi. PTILO'TA, Ag. genus of Ceramiacefe (Florideons Algfe), with flat feathery fronds a few inches high of a deep red colour, growing on Laminarm or Fuci, or on rocks
;

and it appears that the genera Uredo and others have no distinct existence, but are preparatory forms of Puccinia and other genera noticed under Uredinei. In the article iEciDiUM w^e have described the
twofold reproductive structures, namely the spermogonia and the perithecia (figs. 6 & 6 a, PL 26. figs. 1-4), producing respectp. 19 ively the spermatia (supposed to have the In office of spermatozoids) and the spores. Puccinia three forms of reproductive organs occur first, spermogonia analogous to those of ALcidium then the forms called Uredines (chiefly of the supposed genus Trichohasis),
; : ;

A
;

The fructification tide-marks. 1. clustered roimdish favell<e consists of:

between

containing spores, terminating the ultimate pinnules, and surrounded by an involucre 2. tetrahedral of subulate ramuli, or naked tetraspores on short pedicels fringing the Antheridia have not been obpinnules. served. F. plumosa (PI. 4. fig. 16).
;

producing globular unilocular bodies, shortly stalked, and with transparent walls, but

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 159, pi. 22 Br. pi. 70 Greville, Aly. Br. pi. 16 38-42. Niigeli, Algensi/stem, pi. 6. figs.
Flnjc.
;

PTYCHOG'RAPHA, Nyl. A genus of Graphidei (Lichenaceous Lichens). 1 sp., on decorticated mountain-ash. (Leighton,
Lich. Fl. 392.)

with yellov/ or orange-coloured contents and lastly the true Puccinice, containing bilocuLar spores borne on short stalks, and The having a dark-brown integument. latter present remarkable phenomena in
;

germination, which may be best observed in those which sprout without becoming detached from the matrix, such as P. graminis, which however rem.aiu quiescent until the spring foUoAving their development,

PTYCIIOS'TOMUM, St. A

genus

of

Free, ovate, unsvmmetrical, mouth ventral. 2 species, in the intestines of Aunulata (Tubifex), and MoUusca {Pahulina). (Kent, Inf. 541.) PTYGU'RA, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Ichthydina. Char. Eyes none; no hairs upon the body tail-like foot cylindrical, simply trun-

Holotrichous Infusoria.

whUe P.

Glecho)n(e,Buxi, Dia}dhi, sinAotliers

cate.

Teeth three in each jaw anus* situated at the end of the tail-like foot. P. melicerta (PL 44. fig. 21). Body terete;

clavate,

with two

turgid in front, hyaline little hook-like horns

;

mouth
cervical

process single and smooth. Freshwater ; length 1-144". Ehrenberg questions whether this is not a young form of another
geniis.

germinate in the same summer. The bilocidar spores have each one pore (analogous to the pores of PoLLEN-grains), from which extends a filamentous process, ultimately giving rise to four short processes, each terminating in a pointed process bearing a sporidium, of more or less curved elliptical form. About the time when these fall off", the filament bearing the four processes becomes divided by septa into four chambers, but then appeal's to die. The sporidia germinate and produce a filament, which, instead of becoming the basis of a mv'celium, reproduces a sporidium smaller than the first. More is said respecting these remarkable organisms under the head of Uredinei. The Puccinice present the following general characters The spermogonia rare, scattered on either face of the infested leaf.
:

BiBL.

Ehrenberg, Inf. 387

Jn. xiv. 165.

Hudson,

Mn. M.

PULEX.

G46

PULEX.
As
there are only the single family

with an immersed, ostiolate peridiole, bearing long cilia at the mouth pale, orange, The Urediuous fruits or blackish in colour. are scattered or grouped in circles, devoid of a proper peridium, but surrounded sometimes by thickish cylindrical paraphyses, very rarely connected below into a mem;

CImr.

and genus in the order, the characters of

the latter are distinctive. Head small (PL 35. fig. 9), compressed, rounded above, truncate in front, in some
species with an inferior pectinate fiinge of blackish-brown teeth ; eyes one on each

brane, forming a kind of ciliated peridium the stylospores are round and mostly spinulose, with three or four equidistant pores. The Puccineous fruits are also scattered or
;

circles, sometimes containing grouped only their proper spores, sometimes with Uredinous spores intermixed, destitute of a

in

proper peridium, but, lilie the Ureclines, having sometimes a false envelope formed of continent paraphyses their spores, forming the chief distinctive character of the
;

round, simple, smooth behind each eye is a cavity or depression, at the bottom anof which the antennse are attached tennfe (figs. 9 a, 12) four-jointed, their form varying in the difR-rent species, the third joint very minute, and forming the cupshaped base of the terminal joint or piece, which in some species is furnished with
side,
; ;

numerous transverse

genus, are biloculai; oblong or globose, rounded-obtuse or acuminate at the apex, smooth or spinulose, the upper locidus with a pore at its summit, the lower with a pore at the upper end of one side (next the septum). These plants occur commonly on the Grasses and many otlier herbaceous plants,

incisions, representing as many distinct joints; in some the antennae extend out of the depres^-ion, and are carried erect.

being yellow or orange

often changing colour during the summer, when the Uredinous spores are ripe, and afterwards blackish when the Puccineous form is matin-e.

The

of those formerly included under this name are now removed to other genera, such as

species are very

numerous

but some

Oral appendages (PI. 35. fig. 9 e) compos:^d 1 of several parts (PL 33. figs. 32 d, 33 d) The uppermost is single, and consists of a thin, flattened seta, coars*4y toothed on the upper surface, and traversed throughout its entire length by a canal, upon the walls of which a very slender trachea runs, and from which very minute canals, terminating at the end of the little teeth, are given ofl". This is the suctorial organ, and perhaps corresponds to the labrum, but is sometimes regarded as the lingua or ligula. 2. (figs.
:
.

32/, 33/)

(See UreUromyces, Triphragmimn, Sec. P. yraininis is common on corn DiNEi.) and other grasses (Mildetv) among the other frequent species are P. Caricis, Polyyonorum, Mentlice, Anemones, Buxi, &c. Robin describes a Pi(cci>u'a, apparently on the authority of Ardsten, a Swedish physician, found upon the human head in Favi^s. From his description it appears to be a true Puechiia, and should hold its place (P. Favi, But Avhat is Ardst.) among the species.
;

Two quadrangular, narrow, and elongated plates, each furnished with longitudinal ribs, and with fine teeth these are the lancets or scalpella, and correspond to the mandibles. 3. (PL 33. fig. 32 y) Two somewhat triangular or leaf-like plates, the 4. ( PL 33. maxillae to which are attached PL 35. fig. 9 d) Two nearly cylinfig. 32 h
;

5. (PI. drical four-jointed maxillary palpi. in 33. fig. 32 Jc fig. 33 Jc) Two labial palpi,
;

occurs together with Achoriun ScJianleimi, the latter presenting itself as a constituent of the cups or crusts, while the Puccinia occurs afterwards on the desquamations of the epidermis. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 303 Ann.

more remarkable,

it

the form of sheaths, four-jointed, thickened at the back and membranous at the margin these palpi arise from near the apex of small membranous 6. (PL 33. fig. 33 /) labium, with the still smaller mentum (PL

33. fig.

33

7n) at its base.

N. H.
77,
l.'W

vi.

439;

ibid.

2.

v. 4G2, xiii.

461;
ii.

Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Knt.

3. vii.

12;

ibid. 4.

182; 309; De liary, Brandpihe, 30 Fries, Sum. Vey, 513; Pvobin, Veyct. Pa rasif. 2. (Jl3; Bagnis, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1878, i. 27. PULEX, Linn. (Flea). A genus of In;

&

Levcille, ibid. 3. viii.

of three segments, each consisting of an upper (PL 35. fig. 9, c), and a lower piece //; from the lower arise the corresponding legs. The two posterior segments of the thoi'ax aroeach furnished with a pair of plates, the hindermost of which is longest, and nearly covers the sides of the first and part of the second abdominal segment (fig. 9, behind /,/) these represent
;

Thorax composed

sects, of the

order Siphonaptera (Suctoria or Aphaniptera), and family Pulicidse.

rudimentary wings.

The

legs are large, especially the hinder

rULEX.

G-J-

PULEX.

The first ones, and adapted for leaping. joint or coxa (//) is very thick; the second or trochanter (/;) is very small ; next come the fomnr (/), the tibia {h), and lastly the five-jointed tarsns (/), which is terniiuated by two curved and denticulate claws, with a lobe or heel at the base. The abdomen of the female has nine distinct rings, the first seven of which are each furnished with a pair of stigmata (), and consist of horny arches with membranous margins. The eighth arch, which has no membranous margin, is strengthened by a horny band furnished with fine hairs, to protect the orifice of the last stigma. The ninth and last segment, called the

head shining, smooth, pectinate fringe absent femora of posterior legs legs pale with hairs inside second joint of the tarsi of the auterittr pair of legs and first joint
; ;
;

of posterior tarsi longest. Tarsal joints, in anrespective order of greatest length

:

4 posterior, 1, 5, 2, 3, 4 have not been able to find (Bouche). a flea with the above relative length of the
terior, 2, 5, 1, 3,

We

joints of the anterior tarsi. P. /('//s, cat's flea (P. canis,

35. fig. 9).
;

Bouche;

PI.

pygidium

(fig.

9x

Pale pitch-brown head naked, shining, smooth, with delicate scattered dots coxa3 and femora almost naked fifth joint of anterior tarsi and first joint of posterior tarsi longest. Tarsal joints:
;

and

PI.

somewhat kidney - shaped

folded on the dorsum, and
five to
tles,

1. fig. 13), is or two - lobed, exhibits twenty-

anterior, 5, 2, 1, 3, 4;
3, 4.

posterior,

1,

2, 5,

twenty-eight stift' and longish brisimplanted in the centre of as many disk-like areoloj, each of which is ornamented with a ring of rectangular or somewhat cuneate rays. The poi-tions of the pygidium between the areolpe are studded with minute spines. The end of the abdomen in the female (PL 3o. fig. 9) is more rounded or ovate than that of the male is somewhat tm-ned (fig. lo), which upwards. In some species the segments of the thorax and abdomen are furnished with a
posterior pectinate fringe.
straight; the stomach cylindrical the small intestine as long as the stomach, and the large intestine short. Four short and broad Malpighian vessels open into the lower orifice of the stomach; and the ducts of tw-o round salivary vesicles unite to a single canal ascending in
;

cams or serraticeps,^e?i of dog and fox PL 35. fig. 10, head.}. Pale {P.felis, Bouche
P.
;

tate behind

head shining, smooth, punclower part of head and prothorax with a pectinate fringe posterior tibiiB much expanded at the end fifth
pitch-brown
; ;

joint of anterior
longest.

and

first

of posterior tarsi
;

Tarsi

anterior, 5, 2, 1, 3, 4

pos-

terior, 1, 5, 2, 3, 4.

P. (jallince, fowl's flea. Pitch-brown, with shining, smooth, elongated head prothorax with a pectinate fringe; first joint of all the tarsi longest. Tarsi anterior and
; :

posterior, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4.

The alimentary canal is short and

P. mnrtis, flea of the marten and dog. Postero-inferior margin of head and prothorax with pectinate fringe tarsi as in P. cams. P. sciuri, flea of the squirrel. Head
;

naked pectinate fringe on prothorax, none upon the abdomen. Tarsi anterior, 1, 6, 2, 3, 4 posterior, 1, 2, o, 3, 4.
;
:

a coiled form on each side of the oesophagus towards the mouth. The eggs of the flea are white, elongated, The larvas have no and viscid outside. legs they are elongated, resembling minute
;

P. erinacei, flea of hedgehog. Head naked, mesothorax with a fringe. Tarsi anterior, 5, 2, 1, 3, 4 posterior, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4. P. iaipce, CuL'tis, flea of mole (PI. 35.
:
;

fig. 24).

wonns, and very

active, coiling themselves into a circle or spiral, and serpentine in The head is scaly, withtheir movements.

P.
;

colmnhfp,

pigeon's
fringe,

with pectinate

out eyes, and supporting two very minute antennae the body has thirteen segments, with small tufts of hairs, and at the end of the last are two little hooks.
;

species are numerous (twenty-five, Gervais) but their characters are not well
;

The

One spades (P. terrestris) is said defined. to exist under brush-wood; and one (P, Boldi) in Boleti.
P. irritans,

human

flea.

Pitch-brown

men antennfe o.f female lying in the depression. P. penetrans {Rhijnchoprion), the chigoe or The females burrow in the skin of jigger. the feet and the ova, undergoing development, enlarge the parent-abdomen to the size of a pea, causing severe inflammation, &c. Rostrum very long. Tropical. P. ve>>peiiilioms, flea of the bat (PL 35. the first seven segments of fig. 11, head) the abdomen with pectinate fringes.
; ;

flea. Prothorax none upon the abdomale erect, those of the

PULLENIA.

648
'

PUSTULirOP.A.
Sporanges scattered, almost

p. pipistrellee. The two first and the seventh segments only with teeth. BiBL. \\'esU\ood, Intr. ii. 489; Bouch^, Act. 1835, xvii. 501 jVov. Duges, Ann. Sc. N. 1832, xxvii. 165 Gervais, Walcke; ;

form, subsolid.
solitary.

PUS, Popularly known as "matter;" one of the products of inflammatory exudation.

362; Denny, A7m. N. H. 1843, xii. 315; Laudois, An. d. HundeFurlmig, it/?. Mic. Jn. 1872, Flohs, ISi-u 263 M^gnin, Paras. 00 ; Tascheuberg, B.
naer's Apt.
iii.
;

Its general properties are too well known Pus consists of an to require description.

Flohe, 1880.

PULLE'NIA,

Parker

& Jones. A

albuminous liquid, containing a number of minute corpuscles in suspension. These consist of molecules and granules composed
of proteine compounds, fat or the earthy phosphates, globules of fat of very various or leusizes, and the proper pus-corpuscles

mi-

nute, globose, glassy, nautiloid Foraminifer, near iilohiyerina ; showing usually 4 or 5 chambers and a transverse slit-like aperture an isomorph of Nonionina. Recent
;

and

fossil.

Pus-corpuscles (PI. 38. fig. 4) are cocytes. in diaspherical, from 1-2500 to 1-3500" meter presenting a granular appearance on
;

BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. For. 184. PUL VINULI'NA, Parker & Jones. One Shell with 7-30 of the typical Rotalid<e. cells dense and delicately tubuliferous, often limbate, sometimes prickly, granulate, and stellate usually biconvex \F. repanda, PI. 24. tig. 16); sometimes outspread, and vermiculate (P. vermicular is, PL 24. fig. 11); septa single, little trace of canal-system septal aperture large, arched or notched
;

face often coarsely perforated. rous species, recent and fossil.

Very nume-

BiBL. Carpenter, For. 310; Parker and Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. 390.

PUNCTA'EIA, GreviUe.A

genus of

Punctariacese (Pucoid Algse), containing three (one doubtful) British species, P. latifolia,plantu(finea, and tcnuiasima, growing on rocks and stones, consisting of membranous, olive or brown, ribless fronds, 4 to 12" 1 to 3" broad, having a shield-like

long,

the surface, and containing a number of larger or smaller granules and a small quantity of liquid. They are undistinguishable from the Avhite corpuscles of the blood, and may be considered as leucocytes. They possess as protoplasmic masses the power of spontaneous movement; and migrate in the tissues. They multiply by division. When treated with acetic acid, they swell up, and the granules become excessively transparent, and ultimately vanish (PI. 38. fig. 5), leaving from one to five, generally two or three, round or oval nuclei, which mostly present a dark margin and light centre, giving them a cupped appearance, indicating a diminution of refractive power The cupped centre is somein the centre. times seen in the nuclei without acetic acid, after the action of water only. In the pus of chronic abscesses, unhealthy ulcers, &c. the corpuscles are often few, de-

organ of attachment at the base.

The

fruc-

tilication consists of sori scattered all over the fronds in minute distinct dots, com-

formed and mixed with numerous granules of proteine, fatty and calcareous matters,
crystals of cholesterine, of
;

the ammonio-

roundish sporanges (producing zoospores) intermixed with paraphyses; these sporanges are called spores in most works. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 41 and Pkijc.

posed

of

phosphate of magnesia, and sometimes monads and vibrios exudation-corpuscles

are occasionally present also. Under this term Pi/oid corpuscles. Lebert describes a modification of pus-corpuscles, consisting of a tolerably transparent envelope, enclosing from eight to ten or

Brit.

GreviUe, Alq. Brit.

PUNCTAlllACEyE.
coideje.

-A

pi. 9.

Root a minute naked

or
flat,

family of Fudisk frond

;

more small globules (PL

38. tig. 0).

Acetic

unbranched, cellular, with ovate sjuiranr/es intermixed with jointed threads in groups on the surface. British Genera
cylindrical,
:

acid does not alter them, or at most only renders them slightly more transparent. The small globules are composed of a profor i\wy are soluble in teiue-compound
;

Frond flat and Pimctaria. Sporanijes scattered or in sori.

Asperococcns.
or lar, either cylindrical ranf/es in dot-like sori.

leaf-like.

potash.

Frond membranous, tubucompressed.

cartilaginous,

Spofili-

Litosiphon.

Frond

BiBL. That of CHKMiSTRy, Animal; and Lebert, Phys. Path. llindileisch, Path. Hist. Green, Morb. Anat. See Inflammation. PUSTULIP'ORA, Blainville. A genus
; ;

PYCNIDIA.

049

PYXICOLA.

of Infundibiilate Cyclostomatous Polyzoa, family Tubulii)oridoe, Char. Zoary erect, cylindrical cells halfimmersed, arranged on all sides ; orifices prominent. Two British species P. proboscidea, and
;

P.

defli'.va.

The

latter

common on
;

shells

from deep water.

Mar.

13iBL. Johnston, Zoo/, ii. 8,

Br. Zooph. 278

Gosse,
the the

PYCNIDIA. A
receptacles

term

applied to
in

enclosing

stt/lospores

series of Lichenacei. Char. Fructification in closed receptacles. BuiL. Leigliton, Lich. Flora, p. 2. That portion of the Ascomycetous and Coniomycetous Fungi standing having a closed, nuclear fruit opposed to the Discomycetes, with open like the Angiocarpous and Gymnofruits, carpous Lichens. Now sunk in Sphteriacei. PYRENOP'SIS, Nyl. Ageuus of Collemaceous Lichens. 8 species on rocks. (Leigliton, Lich. Flora, 14.)

PYRENODEI.A

PYRENOMYCE'TES.

Lichens and Fuxgi.

PYCNOG'ONUM.A

PYRENO'THEA,
genus of PodoLiniborieee

Fries. genus of (Angiocarpous Lichens), con-

somata, Sea Spiders, which are usually placed amongst the Crustacea, but by some authors amongst the Arachnida. They have no special respiratory organs, and only four pairs of legs. They sprawl over seaweed, and hide under stones. There is a pair of chelate mandibles.

taining a number of species separated from Verrucaria, on account of the spores being free in the perithecia and not developed in The bodies taken for spores, howthecEe. ever, are spermatia contained in spermobeing gonia, the sporiferous perithecia

genus of Fucace;B (Fucoid Algfe), containing one British species, P. (Fucus) tubercidatus; removed from Fucus on account of its cylindrical frond, the

PYCNOPHY'CUS, Kutz. A

apparently unknown (see LICHE^^s). BiBL. Leighton, Aug. Lichens, 65; lasne, Ann. Sc. N. 3. xviii. 217.

Tuof

PYRSONE'MA, Leidy. A

genus

compact cellular substance of the receptacles, and the ramified fibrous pseudo-root. The fructifications, formed at the ends of the dichotomous lobes of the frond, are elongate, cylindrical, more or less
and
with

Infusoria. Body fusiform, with a cord-like longitudinal undulating P. vertens, in the intestine of the border. white axit{Termes); length 1-200". (Kent,

Holotrichous

Lnf. 554.)

tuberculated,

numerous pores
spoj-e-

opening from couceptacles containing

sacs and antheridia (together), resembling The spore-sacs in general those of Fucus.

neat acuto'PYRULI'NA, D'Orb. Fossil in the pyriform Pohjmorphina. Chalk, and German Tertiaries. BiBL. D'Oibigny, Mem. Soc. Geol. Fr. iv. 43 Bradv, Parker and Jones, Litui. Tr. '
;

are collected at the bottom of the couceptacles, the antheridia at the upper part.

xxvii. 219.

See Fucrs. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 18 Phijc. Br. 89; Decaisne and Thuret, Ann. Sc. N. 3. iii. 5 Thuret, ibid. xvi. 10. PYGID'lUM. The last segment of the
;
;

PYTIIIUM, Pringsheira. A supposed genus of parasitic Unicellular Algfe, the true nature of which, how^ever, is yet
doubtful. P. cntophyt,um (PI. 5. fig. 8) occurs in this country in diseased cells of Confervoid It consists of minute flask-shaped Algae. bodies, taking the place of the proper cellcontents, finally pushing the neck-like portion through the wall of the cells, outside of which it bursts and discharges active (?) molecules, which Pringsheim regards as P. viGnospermum grows upon gonidia. insects in water, in the manner of Achlya ; and he refers this genus to the family
Saprolegniece.

ahdomen

It exhibits a of certain insects. the curious structure in Pulex (p. G47) same is stated to occur also in Chrysopa, the lace-winged flv, the locust &c. (l)avis, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1879, ii. 252.) PYRAMID'IUM, Bridel. genus of
;

Funariacese (Acrocarpous Mosses), allied to Funaria in habit, but differing in important

points.

Pyramidium tetragomtm, Brid. stomum tetragonum, Schwiigi".

= Gymno-

PYRENID'IUM, Nyl. A

genus of Col;

lemaceous Lichens. Char. Thallus minute, stellato-divided

BiBL. Pringsheim^ Jahrb, iviss. Bot. i. 289; Carter, Ann. N. II. 2. xvii. 101; Henfrey, Tr. Mic. Soc. New Series, vii. 25; Currev, Mic. Jn. v. 211 Rabenht. Alg. iii,
;

apothecia pyrenocarpous, verrucarioid. P. (Leighton, Lich. Fl. actincllum; on chalk.

36.)

276.

PYXICOLA, Kt. A
chous Infusoria;

like Cvthurnia,

genus of Peritribut with

PYXIDICULA.
an operculum.
salt water.

C50

QUININE.

PYXIDICULA, Ehr.A
toraacefe. Chca: Frustiiles

Several species (Kent, Inf. 725.)

fresh

and

genus of Dia;

single, free or sessile valves circular, convex, hoop absent. Numerous species have been described one f r. wat., one marine, the remainder fossil,

may, howe-^-er, be effected by cautiously neutralizing tlie excess of acid in the motherliquor b}' solution of ammonia, taking care not to precipitate the excess of the disulphate of quinine a portion of the liquid containing the crystals is then transferred to a slide,
;

found in America.

Kabenhorst reduces the species to P. major, and a doubtful form, P. Naeyelii. P. major (PI. 25. tig. 1.3). Valves coniDiameter 1-420" cal, regularly punctate.
adriatica,
;

freshwater. P. adriatica.

Fr.

se.-sile

valves nearly

hemispherical, free from markings (ord. ill.). Upon marine Algae. Diam. l-GOO". P. m{)ior=CycIotella operculata. The bodies represented in PI. 2o. fig. 12, found in ilint, have been described as P. (/lobator, Pritch. (not P. globosus, Ehr.) they do not, however, appear to belong to the Diatomacese.
;

the liquid removed with blotting-paper, and the crystals dried in a current of cold air. They are then moimted in Canada balsam rendered thin with ether, heat being avoided. The crystals are of a pale olive-green colour (Pi. 11. fig. 17), and possess a more intense polarizing power than any other known substance. The play of colours presented when they are rolling over each other whilst contained in a watch-glass, forms a very beautiful sight, the colours varying according to the relative positions of the crystals to each other and when the latter cross each other at a right angle, complete blackness is produced. lierapath, who discovered this beautiful salt, has described a method of making
;

Kiitzing places Stephanopy.vis and

thiojyyxis here.

Xan-

crystals of sufficient size to replace tourmalines or Nicol's prisms. The ingredients

as pure disulphate of quinine as can are be obtained, that from Howard and Kent being best strong acetic acid, of sp. gr. 1"042 proof spii-it composed of equal bulks
:

BiBL. Ehr. 1844 & 1845

21
;

Inf. 165, and Per. Perl. Ah. Klitz. Bacill. 51, and Sp. AJfj.

Pritchard,

Inf
'

432.

PYXID'lUM, Kt. Like but solitary. Two species

Inf. asm:)

Opercularia, freshwater ; ; on Entomostraca and Confervse. (Kent,

PYXILLA,
macese.

Grev. A

of rectified spirit of sp. gr. 'SS? and distilled Avater and tincture of iodine, made by dissolving 40 grains of iodine in 1 oz, of
;

genus of Diato1-865, 2.

rectified spu-it.

The

p-"oportion3 are
.

BiBL. Grev. Mic. Trans.

QUARTZ.

QUILL. The quill of feathers possesses considerable polarizing power; the coloured bands, however, are so broad that they are better seen with the naked eye.
See Feathebs, QUININE. See Alkaloids.
lodo-disulp/iafe, sulphate of iodo-quinine, This remarkable salt is preHerapathite. pared by dissolving disulphato of quinine in strong acetic acid, warming the solution, dropping into it an alcoholic solution of iodine carefnily in small quantities at a time, and placing the mixture aside for

Q. See Rocks.

50 grains. Disulphate of quinine. 2 fiuid ounces. Acetic acid 2 fluid ounces. Proof spirit Tincture of iodine .... 60 drops.

The disulphate
iodine

of quinine is dissolved in the acetic acid mixed with the spirit, the solution heated to 130 F., and the tincture of

immediately added in drops, the mixture being constantly agitated. The compound should be prepared in a wide-mouthed Florence flask and the temperature should be maintained for a little time after the addition of the iodine, so that
;

the solution may become perfectly clear, It should and of a dark sherry-colour. then be set aside to crystallize in a room of a imiform temperature of 45 to 50 F.,

tlie crystals separate. in the heated mother-liquor, also in hot alcohol, being again deposited on cooling but they are not soluble in cold

some hours, when

They dissolve
;

and kept from vibration. The latter may be efll'cted by suspending the flask by the neck
witli strong string, attaching this to a hori-

alcohol or ether. They are so easily decomposed and alt<n'ed, that they are with diliiculty mounted. This

zontal cord stretching across the room from one wall to the other or placing the flask on a steady support, lying upon a pillow. The large crystalline plates form upon the
;

QUIXQUELOCULIXA.
surface of

Gol
ia

RALFSIA.
common
in

tlie liquid, where tliey are allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four liours, until they have acquired sufilcieut tliicluiess.

the

European

seas.

Q.

The

fla^k is then carefully removed without shaking, and rested upou a gallipot. circular cover is next fastened by its edge to the end of a glass rod with a little wax or marine glue, and passed beneath oue of the crystalline films, the adherent mother-liquor removed with blotting-paper, and the lilm allowed to dry in a room at a temperature The cover and film are of 45 to oO"F. then placed under a small bell-glass, with a watch-glass containing a few drops of The time required for tincture of iodine. the iodizing may be about three hours at 50 F., or less if the temperature be higher. The tilni is then covered with a solution of Canada balsam in ether, saturated with iodine by warming with a few crystals of

Bronf/marfii (fig. 6), having delicate striaj, is not uncommon in warmer seas. IJiBL. Williamson, Foratn. 85 (Miliolina); Carpenter, Fur, 78,

R.

RACO'DIUM.

See Antennabia, EACOMIT'RIUM = TRiciiosTOMr>r

Miiller. An order of Polycystina, Rhizopoda, including the Acantliometrina, Thalassicollida, and Actia siliceous test or nophryina. They possess sihceous spicules, a central capsule and

pt.

RADIOLA'RIA,

with peculiar yellow cells, and are provided radiating pseudopodia long, protruding, which occasionally form meshes. See the
;

this substance, and allowing it to cool. Other lilms are removed and moimted in

the same manner. Should the films not separate from the original liquid at the end of six hours, this must be heated with a spirit-lamp until the deposited crystals are dissolved, a little spirit and a few drops more tincture of iodine added, and the
liquid again set aside. If the film appear black when removed on the cover, it is crossed by an adherent or

Families and Rhizopoda. BiBL. Haeckel, Badiolarien, 1862 Greef, Arch. mik. An. 1869, 1875. genus of JunRAD'ULA, Dumort. one germanniese (Hepaticfe), containing British species, R. complanata (fig. 613),

Fi^, 613,

interposed crystal, which must be carefully

removed. These crystals are sold ready mounted, and may be purchased at a very small cost. Herapath proposes the production of the crystal of the quinine-salt as a very delicate
testtest for the presence of quinine. liquid is first made with 3 drachms of acetic acid, 1 drachm of rectified spirit, and 6 drops of dilute sulphuric acid. drop of this is placed upon a slide and the alkaloid

Eadula complanata. Leafy shoot with an immature and a burst capsule. Magniiied 5 diameters,

added, and, when it is dissolved, a very minute quantity of tinctm'e of iodine added after a time the salt separates in little
;

common upon

rosettes.

BiBL. Herapath, Phil. Maq. 1852, iii. 161, iv. 186, and 18o3, vi. 171 & 346; Haidinger, ihid. 1853, vi. 284.

QUIXQUELOCULIXA,

D'Orb.

One

the trunks of trees, everywhere, forming orbicular pale-green patches closely appressed to the bark, BiBL. Hook. Br. Jung. pi. 81 Br. Flor. 120 Ekart, Syn. Jung. pi. 4, ii. pt. 1. p. Endlicher, Gen. Plant., Supp. 1, fig, 31 Xo. 472. 13 Leitgeb, Ber. Wien. Ak. 1871.
;

RAD'ULUM. A

genus of Ilydnei (Hy-

having its chambers aggregated on two opposing faces, as in Sjyiroloculina, but with their edges more extended on the one side than on the other, so that only three chambers are apon one side, and fve on the other.
parent

of the modifications of Miliola,

menomycetous Fungi), consisting

of a few teeth or species with irregular compressed rude irregular tubercles. R. orhictdare is not infrequent on fallen branches of birch

and other

Xumerous
fossil.

and

QuinqiielocuHnai occur Q. fendnidum (PI, 23.

recent
fig,

5)

trees, assuming various foiTQS. BiBL. Fr. El. 148; Berk, Outl. 263; Cooke, HnndlK .304, RALF'SIA, Berk. A genus of Myrione-

RAMALINA.

6r,2

RAPHIDES.

macepe (Fucoid Algse), containing one British species, Ji. verrucosa {H. deusta, Berk.),

forming cTark-brown I^ichen-like patches, 1 to 6" in diameter, on rocks between tidemarks. The fronds are at lirst orbicnlar and concentrically zoned they are composed of
;

and Cactacese); they also occur and pith of many woody plants leaves hkewise frequently con(lime, vine) tain them in vast numbers (Aracese, Muin general

in the bark

saceae, Liliacea;, Iridacese,

Polygonaceae)

densely packed, vertical, simple,jointed filaments. The fruit is formed in wart-like patches, and consists of obovate sporanges attached to the bases of vertical filaments. BiBL. Harvey, liar. Ale/. 49. RAMALINA, Ach. genus of Rama-

also sepals (Orchidaceae, Geraniaceae) ; in the rhubarbs, and also in Umbelhferse, they occur extensively in the roots, for instance in the carrot ; and they abound in autumn in the base of the bulbs of the onion and other Liliacete. Raphides are often very readily discovered and clearly seen in tissues,

(Lichenaceous Lichens), containing 13 British species, of shi'ubby habit, mostly growing upon the trunks of trees, bearing orbicular-peltate apothecia, nearly of the same colour as the thallus. R. fraxinea, fastu/iata, and farinacea are common. BJBL. Hook. JBr. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 228; Tulasne, Ann. So. Nat. 3. xvii. 192. tubular RAMULI'NA, R. Jones. branching Il3'aline Foraminifer, swollen here and there into chambers, whence the branches or stolouiferous tubes proceed at varying angles to other such chambers. H.

loidei

by the aid of the polarizing apparatus. The form of the needle-shaped raphides is usually that of a square prism with pyramidal ends. These ordinarily occur lying
parallel in bundles (fig. G14) another common form is that of rectangular or rhombic
;

prisms with oblique or pyramidal ends the smaller of these often present themselves in groups radiating fi-om a centre (fig. 615). Prisms of similar or of six-sided forms, octahedra, rhombs, &c. also occur singly or few together (PI. 48. fig. 28), the larger ones sometimes nearly filling the cavity of
;

aciileata,

D'Orb.,

it.

Iccvis,

and hrachiatn,
;

Jones, are
lifeva,

known from the Chalk

Ii. (/lobu-

Fig. ni4.

Fig. 615.

Brady, has a wide distribution in the

Atlantic and Pacific.

BiBL. Rupert Jones, Proc. Selfad X. F. Club, 1875, n. ser. i. 88 ; Brady, Jn. Mic. Soc. n. ser. xix. 272,

RAPH'IDES.This name was first

plied to the

RA'NA,

Linn.

See Frog.
ap-

The crystals cells. and someare either solitary or grouped times the groups are formed on a peculiar stalked matrix projecting into the cavity of enlarged cells, forming the organs called
contained in vegetable
;

occurring in of many plants; but it is now generally applied to all the crystalline formations

minute needle-shaped crystals great abundance in the tissues

ci/sfoliths.

There are few plants of the higher classes which do not contain raphides they are very abundant in the herbaceous structures of the Monocotyledons generally, and espe:

Fig. (U4. Parenchymatous cells of the stem of Rumour, containing bundles of raphides. Magnified 400 diam^. Fig. 61o. Purenchymatoiis cells of tlie stem of Beta, with groups of raphides (Sphaeraphides). MaguiUed 400 diams.

Liliacially those of tile Aracea3, Musacefe, ceae, &c. ; they also abound in the Polygo-

the

cells

in

which they

lie.

Rhombic

naceee, Cactaceae, Euphorbiacefe, Urticacena,

among the Dicotyledons. They are usually found only in the interior of the cavities of cells, but in some cases they occur in the intercellular cavities, or in the cellwalls. They may occur in almost any but are found most extensively in the
&c.,
part,

of oxalate of lime occur in the parenchjnnatous cells surrounding the vascular bundles in the bracts of Medicago
crystals

stems of herbaceous plants (Monocotyledons

and CTulliver has shown the tri{/onclla crystal in each cell of the testa of the elm. The cells containing the bundles of acicular raphid(>s in the Aracese also contain a viscid sap, which causes them to burst, through eudosmose, when placed in water, and dis;

RAPIIIDES.

653
i

EATTULUS.
;

charge the crystals. Turpiu erroneously described these as organs of a special nature,

under the name of Biforines. of oxaKapliides most frequently consist

lime, especially in the Cactacea;, Poljgonacea^, &c. carbonate of lime seems to stand next in the order of frequency, mostl}' in the form of granules, only recognizable under polarized light witli the crossed uicols then sulphate and phosphate of lime. Their composition may be ascertained by the appropriate tests for these salts. It is sometimes difficult to determine the form accurately, on account of the small size ; it is found advantageous to mount well-cleaned and partly crushed crystals in
late of
; ;

Jn. 186( 1869, 1873: M. M. Jn. x. 2-59, xvui. 143 Lankester, Q. M. J. 1863, 243 Urban, Bot. Zcit. 187.3, 266; Sanio, Monatsh.
;

Bed.

1857; Ilanslein, ihid. 18o9; 1864 Ililgers, Pringsheim's Jahrh. vi. 1867 ; Rosanofi', Bot. Zeit. 1867 ; Solms-Laubach, ib. 1874; Pfitzer, Flora, 1872 Sachs, Bot. 66.
Holzner,
F/o?-rt,
;
:

Ak.

RAPIIIDIOPH'RYS, Archer. A genus

of Rhizopoda. Char. Bodies green, spherical, aggregate, surrounded by a common investuient of cloudy buff-coloured sarcode, containing
slender, hyaline, circular, siliceous spicula. Pseudopodia arising from the sarcode

Canada

bals:im, also to

Aiew them roUing

thin

over in alcohol (Inte.

p. xxxiii).

between the spicula, long, straight, and very they never coalesce. BiBL. Archer, Freslav. lihiz., Qu. Mic. Jn.
;

The pecidiar crystalline structures called cystoUthSj occur most abimdantly in the families of the Urticaceas (including Morepe) and the Acauthacefe. They ordinarily consist of a stalked, clavate, and globose, or irregular linear body, suspended in a greatly enlarged cell, most frequently situated beneath the epidermis of the leaf (PI. 48. but they also occur in deeperfigs. 26, 27)
;

1869, 1871.

RAPHID'IU.V, Ktz.A genus

of Uni-

Their nature and developbeen followed by several observers and they are found to consist of a cellulose matrix with carbonate of lime crystallized in a kind of efflorescence upon the
seated regions.

Cells fusiform or cylindrical, acuminate, straight or slightly curved, with. green cell-contents. The species are those of Ankistrodesmus, Closferiiim, Micrasterias, and Scenedesmus of other authors. Rabenhorst regards our C'losterium Griff. (PI. 14. figs. 57, 58) as H. acicularc. BiBL. Rabenht. Fl. Fur. Alg. iii. 44.
cellular Algae.

ment

liave
;

RAPHIG'NATHUS, Duges.A
;

genus

of Acarina, family Trombidina. Char. Palpi long, with an

indistinct

They appear to originate by a little column of secondary deposit at the upper end of the cell, which increases by successive concentric layers of cellulose
surface.
papilla or

mandibles represented by two short setae inserted upon a fleshy bulb, concealed by a broad labium body entire coxae contiguous legs but little attenuated at the ends, anterior longest, last joint longer than

claw

applied on the lower surface, leaving a short stalk-hke portion which remains uncovered and also free from the crystals which graduhead. ally sprout out from the thickened The crystals may be removed by the action of acid and then the matrix assumes a blue colour with sulphuric acid and iodine. Payen imagined the thicker portion incrusted by
;

the others.
It.

rtiberrimus (PI. 6.

fig.
;

35 a, labium with
h,

mandibles and a palp

mandible).

Body

oval, slightly depressed, smooth,

and

almost free from hairs, rostrum forming a conical process; eyes two, dark red, one on each side at the anterior part of the body ; labium triangular, concave setie accom;

the crystals to be composed of numerous this is cellules, each producing a crystal erroneous. The cystoliths yaxy in form the clavate kinds may be best observed in Ficus elastica (PI. 48. fig. 27) and other of the leaf; species, in vertical sections
:
:

panied by a more slender hair-like process ; palpi large, inflated, clawof the 4th joint very short. Found under stones and on plants.

globular forais are found in Pan'etaria offiin species cinalis (fig. 26) and the Hop of Pilea they are linear or crescentic, and suspended by the convex edge. BiBL. Turpin, Ann. Sc. Xat. 2. vi. o
; ;

Form, that of the preceding with two posterior papillfe. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. Kat. 2. i. 22, ii, 55 Gervais, Walckenaer^s Apter. iii. 172 Murray, Ee. Ent. 114. RAT'TULUS, Lamarck. A genus of
hispidus.
;

R. body
;

velvety,

Dyer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 288 Quekett, Tr. Mic. Sue. new ser. i. 20 Gulliver, Sei. Gossij), 1873; Ann. N. H. 1865; Qu. Mic.
; ;

Rotatoria, of the family Ilydatinaja. Char. Eyes two, frontal tail-like foot simply styliform neither cirri nor fins pre;

sent.

Teeth indistinct. R. lunaris (PL 44. fig. 22).

Eyes distant

REBOUILLIA.
from the anterior margin
;

654

REPTOMONAS.

foot decurved, lunate; freshwater; length 1-288". BiBL, Ehrenberg, Infus. 448 Pritchard, Infusoria, 088. REBOUIL'LIA, Raddi. genus of Marchantieae (llepaticne), founded ou Marchantia hemisphcrrica, Linn., characterized by the conical or tlattened,l5-lobed stalked receptacle ( fig. 610), the perigone being adherent to the lobes of the receptacle on the under side, opening by a slit (fig. 617) ;
;

described as distinct Infusoria, as species of Nearly connected with this continental snow-plant, if not identical, is the

Astada.

Protococciis pi uvialiSjdLtiSiixihQ^ so elaborately

by Colin, which moreover appears to be synonymous with the Uiscercea jmrpurea of

Morren.

The following

is

a description of the red

Fig. 616.

Fig. 617.

snow, brought home by Capt. Parry, from our own observation. It may be noticed as remarkable that, after being kept so many years in a moist state in a stoppered bottle, the structure appears almost unchanged, the
only difierence being the assumption of a gieen colour on the surface of the masses when exposed to light. Frond an indefinite gelatinous mass densely filled with splierical cells, about 1-200" in diameter (PI. 7. fig. cells with a distinct membrane, their 3f/) contents consisting of numerous tolerably equal granules, red or gi'een (see above). Between the large cells lie patches of minute red granules (as in Palmella crnenta, PI. 7. fig. 8 a, b), apparently dischai'ged from the large ceUs. Bauer and Greville both describe this as the mode of propagation of the plant but it is probable that the cells also increase by division when actively ve; ;

Hebouillia hemisphsBrica.

Female

recp]itacles,

with the perigone burst.

Fig. 616, seen from above; Fig. 617, from below.

Magnified 2 diameters.

perichsete none,

and the globose sporange

The antheridia are liursting irregularly. imbedded in sessile, crescent-shaped disks. The fronds are rigid, with a well-marked midrib, green above, purple beneath. It
grows on moist banks, or by the
mountain-streams. BiBL. Hook. Br. FI.
ii.

getating.

side

of

pt.

1.

108

Bis;

BiBL. Brown, Appendi.v to Posses 1st Voyage, 1819; DeCandolle, Bihl. miiv. Geneve, 1824 Hooker, Append, to Parry's Second Voyaye ; Greville, Crypt. Fl. pi. 'I'-M
:

choff, JV^ova Acta, xvii. 1001, pi. 69. fig. 1

Endlich. Gen. Plant. No. 408.

RECEPTACLES FOR SECRETIONS.

See Skceeting

Organs

of Plants.

RED SNOW. The

menon Imown
it is

remarkable phenounder this name has been the

Shuttleworth, Bihl. univ. Geneve, 1840; Morren, Mem. Acad. Bruxelles, xiv. 1841 : PTotow, j\orrt Acta, xx. 11; Cohn, Nova Acta, xxii. (305. R1]NULI'N.\, Blake. Minute subglobular, hollow, calcareous bodies, l-:200" in
diameter, often silicified, entering largely iuio the composition of the Coralline Oolite regarded as probably organic by Sorby, and referred to the Foraminifera by Blake. Blake, (Sorbv, Qa. Geol. Jn. vii. 1851, 1 Jn. Mic. Soc. 1876, 202.) RENULI'TES, Lam. (Penulina, Blainville). broad, reniform modification of Vertebralina, one of the Porcellaneous Foraminifera. IJiJiL. Carpenter, Infrod. For. 74. RE'OPIIAX, Montlort. A simple, uni; ;

subject of very extensive investigation, and well known to be the result of the enormous development of a microscopic organism related to Protococciis or Chlamiare inclined to believe dococcus inridis. that more than one 1'orra is comprehended at present under the name of Protococciis or Ilcematococcus nivalis for our specimens of Arctic red snow, for which we were indebted to the kindness of R. Brown, appear to belong to the same genus as Palmella crucnta, as first indicated by Brown, and

We

confirmed by Sir W. Hooker. Greville's figures of the Scotch plant closely resemble this but the continental plants described by Shuttleworth and others would seem congeni>vic with Protococciis, Chlamidococcus, and Chlamidomonas, since they produce active zoospores, the forms which Shuttleworth
;

serial subspeciesofZiYwo/a, straight or curved,

chahibers often angular or rugged in outline. Abundant in manv seas. (Parker and .Tones, Ann. N. II.\ vi. 340; Brady, Qu.

Mic. Jn.

n.

s.

REPTOMONAS, Kt. A genus of RhizoFlagellate' Infusoria.

xix. 51.)

Creeping

fiagellum

RESERVOIRS.
pinp-le,

655

RIIABDOSTYLA.
;

from the postcropsoiidnpodia ftrising R. cmuiata; in luvv-in fuveutral siirrace.

sions,

and decaying grass

//. l>2;}.)

leiigtli

1-1000".

(Kent,

RESERVOIRS FOR SECRETIONS

See Skceeting Oiiuans of
See Skin.

with coccoliths in the mud of the Adriatic and fossil with the same in tlie chalk of Manitoba and Nebraska. Foimd also in the t)cean-ooze by W. Thomson, and referred

IX Plants.
riaiits.

RETE MUCOSUM.

RETEP'ORA, Lamk.A

genus of In-

fundibulateClieilostomatous Polyzoa, family Escharidai. Char. Zoary leafy, reticular, fragile cells ou one surface only, short, and not promi;

by him to small floating spherules (possibly vegetables) formed by their attached bases, and termed by him Rhahdosphercs. (Schmidt, Sitz. Ak. Wien, Ixii. (iOU, and Ann. iV. I. 4. X. 309 Dawson, Canad. Nat. vii. 256 W. Thomson, The Atthmtic, i. 221.) RHABDONE'MA, Kiitz. A genus of
;

nent.
side

Two

l^ritisli

species

upper warty and very porous. R. Beaniana. Umbilicate, funnel-sLaped, wavy; interspaces unarmed. BiBL. Jolmston, Br. Zvoph. 353 Gosse,
;

li. reticulata.

Wavy and convolute,

Mar.

Zool.

18

Iliucks, Poli/zoa, 388.

genus of Myxomycetes (Gasteromycetous Fungi) characterized by the indeterminate, thin simple peridium, bursting irregularly, with
Bull."

RETICULA'RIA,

Diatomaceas. Char. Frustules tabular, depressed, compound, fixed by a stalk arising from one of the angles, with interrupted vittfe (front view), vitta} capitate valves transversely striate, strias extending into the front view, and forming numerous longitudinal series. Marine upon Algse. Striaj visible under the dark lines or ordinary illumination
; ; ;

vittoe

the branched, shrubby, reticulated capillitium adherent to it. Several species are British they are rather large plants, growing over recently felled timber or on huUow trees, rails, &c., with great rapidity. BiBL. Berk. i?;-. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 308; Fries,
;

correspond to more or less complete frustules connected with internal septa each other by gelatinous cushions (isthmi). Conjugation and the formation of sporangia have been observed.
;

R. arcuatum
(PI. 17.
fig.

i^Striatella

arcuat., Ralfs)

18).

VittBe

rows, isthmi convex.

two marginal Length 1-.300''.

in
.

R.minutum
in

(Tessella catena, Unlk). Vittae

;

Sum.

Vcq.

449

Syst. Mycol.

iii.

83.

RETlCULA'PtlA, Carpenter. Rhizopoda with long slender pseudopodia, which meet and reticulate as in Lieberkuehnia and other FoRAiiiNirEBA. BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. For. 28; Micro:

two marginal rows transverse strite faint Length 1-1200 to 1-9G0". R. adriaticum. Vittse forming four rows (interrupted in the middle, and again between the middle and the margin on each
side) cave.
;

transverse striae distinct

isthmi con-

scope, 47G.

RETINA.

See Eye.

Sars. relatively large Arenaceous Foraminifer, usually triradiate, but sometimes with ftair or even five hollow rays or tubes, and sometimes consisting of only the central chamber elongated on two sides, forming one tube swollen R. abyssornm, Sars, Atin the middle. R. linearis, Brady, West lantic and Pacific
;

RHABUAM'MINA,

to 1-170", BiBL. Kiitzing, Bacill. 126, and Sp. Ahf. 115; Ralfs, Ann. N. H. xi. 455, and xii.

Length 1-480

Smith, Diat. ii. .32 West, Micr. Jn. 1858, 186; Arnott, Micr. Jn. 1858, 91; Rabenht. Alg. i. -305.
; ;

104

RHABDOPLEU'RA, Allraan.A genus

Polyzoa according to Allmau, and of Sars. Zoary tubular,

of

Hydroida according to

Indies and Soutli Atlantic, at great depths. 5 Brady, (Carpenter, Soiree, Mic. Sac. 1870, Jn. Mic. Sc. n. s. xix. 37.)
;

RHABDI'TIS,

Bu].

See Anguillltla.

Reuss. threeor four-angled Orthocerine Foraminifer. BiBL. Reuss, Sitz. Ah. Wien, xliv. 3(37.

RHABDOGONIUM,

RIIABDOLI'TH ES, Schmidt.Minute,

about subcylindrical, calcareous bodies, 1-3000" length, usually consisting of a rod and a terminal circlet of smaller rods (1-25000"), simple or confluent. Abundant

creeping or incrusting, septate, annulate, bodies with an oral disk. It connects the two classes, and presents many features of great interest. Allman considers that its polypary resembles that of the Graptolites. Two species, on shells from deep water. BiBL. Allman, Qu. M. Jn. 1874 Sars, Qu. M. Jn. 1874, 23; Lnnkester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 77; Hincks, Polyz. 577. RHABDOSTY'LA, Kt. A genus of Peritrichous Infusoria. Solitary, like TorfiSeven cclla, but with a rigid, short pedicle. species; salt or fresh water. (Kent, Inf
;

-^

0t;4.)

RHAGADOSTOMA.
RIIAGADOS'TOMA, Koib.A

656

RHIZOCLONIUM.
;

genus

of Micro-lichens parasitic on the thallus of Solorina crocea. Spores 2-4, in lanceolate fugacious thecne, large, simple, becoming 2locular, colourless. (Lindsay, Qu. Mic. Jn. ISm, 344.)

distinct stipes but as this is not always the case, the character is of little or no value.

Marine.

RHAPIIIDOGL(E'A,Klitz.Agenusof
Diatoniaceaj. Char. Frustules navicular, arranged in radiating crowded rows in a globose gelati-

twelve Three British species (Smith) others (Kiitzing'). R. 2)arachxa^{V\. 17. fig. 19). Stipes filiform, dichotomous frustules in front view broadly wedge-shaped, somewhat acute at the base. Length of frustules 1-540 to
;
;

4-480".

nous mass. R. micans

INlarine.

(PI. 19. fig. 11).

;

Rows of frus-

valves linear-lantules irregular, obsolete ceolate, subulate, somewhat acute. Length

1-140".

RHIZAM'MINA, Brady. thread-hke Foraminifer, or chitino-arenaceous branching tube (1-50" diam.), forming a tangled weed-like tuft. R. al(/<Bformis, from 21(50 fathoms near Juan Fernandez. (Brady, Jn.
M.
Soc. n.
s.

Three other

species.
JJa^ill.

Sp. Ah/. 97. RAl'IIIDOMONAS, Stein. geiius of Free, green, tlagellum Flagellate Infusoria. single mouth anterior, with a defined pharynx ; an anterior row of trichocvsts. Ji.
;

BiBL. Kiitzing,

10

id.

At cellular Algae, allied to Chytridium. first unicellular, then bicellular, and with delicate multipartite rootlets ; cells oblong ;
and Nitclla. BiBL. Braun, 3Ionatsh. 1856, 591
benht. Ah/,
iii.

RHIZIDTUM, Braun. A

xix. 39.)

genus of Uni-

se7ne7i

1-500"; marsh-water, among decaying Sphagnum. (Kent, Inf. ;191.) RHAPHONE'IS, Ehr. A genus of Dias.,

= 3Ionas

'Ehvh.;

length

fructiferous cells beneath the apex; zooParasitic in Eughnce spores with a cilium.
;

Ra-

284.

tomacefe. Char. Frustules single, quadrangular, navicular valves without a median aperture
;

(nodule?) Marine.

median sutural

= Doryphora without

line longitudinal. a stalk.

RIIIZ'iNA, Fr.A genus of Helvelloidei (Ascomycetous Fungi), distinguished from Peziza by the bullate hymenium, concave beneath, and furnished with rooting

fibrils.

Eleven species. BiBL. Ehrenberg, Ber. Bcrl. Akad. 1844, 74 Kiitzing, Sp. Alq. 49. RUIN OPS, Hudson.A genus of Rota;

toria.

BiBL. Hudson, -4wi.

1869.

Isai. Hist.

January

RHINOT'RTCHUM, Oorda.A genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), characterized by more or less clavate threads studded with spicules, to which the spores
Several species occur in this very beautiful rose-coloured country. in rabbits' species has lately' been gathered dung. Ncmatozomnn, Desm., difi'ers in bearing necklaces of spores. BiBL. Berk. Outl. 348; Cooke, Handb. 690.
are attached.

Two species have been found in this country, on sandy banks where the heath has been burnt. BiBL. Fr. Syst. Myc. ii. 33 Cui-rey, Linn. Tr. xxiv. 493"; Cooke, Handb. 064. RHIZOCLO'NIUM, Kiitz. genus of Confervaceae (Confervoid Algae), distinguished by the decumbent habit and the short, root-like appendages to the branches. Kiitzing includes here many of our British Conferv; R. riinihirc, C. Filaments simple, diam.
;

1-900", fine bright-green bundles 2 to 3 feet long in streams and rivers common (l)ill;

wyn, pi. .39). R. fortaosjim, Dillw.

RHIPIDODEN'DROX,

Stein. A genus

Bodies ovate, conof Flagellate Infusoria. tained in elongated parallel, granular tubes, forming a branched zoarv. Two species; freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 285.) RIIIPIDOPIl'ORA*, Kiitz. genus of

Filaments simple, diam. 1-800", rigid, curled and twisted, forming large strata; in salt-water pools; abundant (Billwyn, pi. 46). R. arennsmn, Carm. Filaments simple, diam. 1-1000 to 1-1800"; in dirty-green
strata

Diatomaceas. Char. Those of Licmop)1iora, except that the frustules are each furnished with a

sandy sea-shores. R. ohttmanyuliim, Lyngb. (PI. 9. fig. 12). Filaments branched, diam. 1-1400"; palegreen, stratified; sandy sea-shores. FilaR. 7-ipariu)n (Jergensii', Kiitz.). ments branched, diam. 1-1400 to 1-1800", Apparently not distinct from the preceding.
;

RfllZOGLYniUS.
On sandy sea-fliores
Botany,
pi.
;

657

KIIIZOSELENrA.

not uncommon (Engl. 2100). R. implc.rmn, Dillw. Filaments simple, diam. 1-2000"; bri^-ht preen forming large
;

times

strata,

on

mountain-rocks

(Dill.

C.

iin-

In some, the protoplasm absent. contains granules and yellow cells these have been supposed to be parasitic organisms, a rudimentary form of liver, or reproductive organs. The presence of the
;

ple.va, tab. B).

M. arenicolum, Berk. (Kochiamtm, Kz.). Filament 1-2000 to 1-2400"; mountaiurocks (Berkeley, Gleaninqs, pi. 13. fig. 8). BiBL. liarvev, Mar. Alq. 200, pi. 24 F Kutz. Sp. Alff. 385 Tab. 'Phyc. Br. Fl. ii. Rabeulit. pt. 1.354; Uillwyn,J?/-. Confervcs; Ah/, iii. 329.
;

Contractile vesicle in its absence in others,

some Uhizopoda, and

is

entirely opposed to

the view of Stein and Kent, that the presence of a contractile vesicle is a chaunless many of the racter of animality Rhizopoda be referred to the Vegetable Kingdom. The Class is divided into four Orders, thus
; :

KIIIZOG'LYPHUS. See Acartjs, p. 5. RIIIZOMOU'PIIA.The name given by

authors to certain mycelioid expansions with a dark bark, which have been traced to Many of the Polypori and Sphceriacei. forms which occur in mines are remarkable
for their luminosity. BiBL. Berk. Ini. Crifpt. Bot. p. 266. genus of Oscil-

Pseudopodia slender, anastomosing to form meshes. Foramiui-

Reticulaeia.

fera, Lieberk'dhnia,

Labyrinthula, &c.

Radiolaeta.
Thakissicolla.

Pseudopodia radiating.

Actinophryina, Acanthometra, Polycystina,

Lobosa.

RHIZONEMA, Thw.A
from

not anastomosing.

Gregarinida.

Pseudopodia short, A'ariable, Amoebaja, Arcellina. absent Pseudopodia

;

latoriacese (Confervoid Algfe) =Z)ec/yopi, Kiitz. This curious plant (It. inter nqituvi)
its allies by the gelatinous composed of distinct cells and furnished with branched root-like processes, which anastomose freely. The cell-contents are deep blue-green, with occasional yel-

these are often considered a distinct Class of Protozoa.

differs

BiBL. Dujardin, Ann.

Sc, Kat.

i.,

iii.,iv.

.sheath being

Schultze, Polythal., 1834; Carpenter, Phil. Tr. 1856, 1859, 1862 ; Huxley, Invertebrata; Williamson, Tr. Mic. Soc. 1852, 169, and ii.

lowish interstitial cells. BiBL. Thwaites, Enq.Bot. Supp. pi. 2954; Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 321; Tab. Phyc. ii. pi. 40. f. 5. RHIZOPHORA'CE^E. family of Dicotyledonous plants, to which belong the celebrated Mangrove-trees of the tropics. They are remarkable for the general occurrence of a ramified form of liber-ceU (PI. 48.

159 ; Reichert, Ann. N. H. x. 1862, 401 ; Kclliker, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 1849 ; Lieberkiihn, ibid. 1856, 808 Carter, Phizopoda of Enq. Sf India, Ann. N. H. 1865 Tr. Mic. Soc. 1849, 174 Mliller, Milll. Archiv, 1858 ; Focke, Physiol. Stud. 1854; Fvesenius, Beitr. z. mikr. Organ. 224; Miiller, Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 1856; Bailey, ^?e/7C. Journ. Sci. xv.;
; ; ;

fig.

31).

The long woody

radicles

pushed

out by the fruits, while still attached to the parent tree, contain a vast number of these ramified cells with very thick walls. ChytriRHIZOPHYD'IUM, Schenk,

Claparede & Lachmanu, Infus. ; Haeckel, Padiolarien, 1862; Gener. Morphol. Archer, Qu. M. Jn. 1870-78; Hertwig & Lesser,
;

Arch.
;

raih.

An. 1874,
;

x. Suppl.

Schultze,
;

cliiim, sp.

RIIIZOP'ODA.

poda, Ehr. dom Protozoa. Char. Gelatinous, structureless aquatic animals, mostly minute, locomotive organs consisting of variable retractile root-like
processes

Duj., or better, PsmdoClass of the animal subking-

Hertwig, Radiol. {Histol.) 1876 Wallich, M. M. Jn. xiii. 210 Ann. N. IT. 1877, xix. 158 Claus, Zoologie; Leidy, PWshw. Rhiz. N. Amer. 1879 Jn. 3Iic. Soc. 1880, 288; Butschli, Bronn's Klass. ^-c. 1880 {8f the Bibl. therein); Cienkowski,
ibid. X., xi., xiii.
;
;

^pseudopodia

or false legs;

no

mouth.

RHIZOPO'GON, Fries. A genus of Hypogfei (Gasteromycetous Fungi). R, rubescens is found in sandy ground. (PL 27.
fig. 8,

Schultze's Archiv, 1876, Pascoe, Zool. 1880, 6.

xii. (tieio

genera)

The food-particles are drawn into the body by the pseudopodia, as described under Actinophrys. The body is sometimes naked,
at others enclosed in a carapace or external skeleton, which is either chitinous, calcanucleus and a conreous, or siliceous. tractile vesicle are sometimes present, some-

RHIZOSELE'NIA,- Ehr. A

sporophores).

doubtful

genus of Diatomacepe. Char. Frustules elongate, subcylindrical, marked with transverse or spiral lines, ends oblique or conical, and with one or more
long terminal bristles
;

marine and

fossil.

2u

RIIODOMELA.
:

658
i

RHOICOSPHENIA.
cells.

Four i3iitisli species R. styliformis, R. imhricata, li. setUjeray and R. (data. R. (data (PI. 51. lig. 25). R. americana
(PI. 50.

of a single string of pod-like receptacles the ramuli.

'Tetraspores in

(stichidia),

borne by

The
t'^alpa,

fifr. 46). British species were obtained Ascidia, and NoctUiica.

RHOBOSPOR'E.E:.

See Algje.

from

RHODYME'NIA, Grev. A

genus

of

Kiitz. Sj). Ahj. 1858, 94.

BiBL. Ehr. Abh. Berl Ak. 1841, 291; 24; Bdghtwell, Micr. Jn.

Rhodj'meuificese (Florideous Algte), containing seven British species, beautiful,

brightl3'--coloured sea- weeds, growing on rocks or larger Algae, having a flat membranous or somewhat leathery frond, ribless

RHODOM'ELA, Ag-. genus of Rhodomelaceee (Eloiideous Algse), containing

British species, with feathery, inarticulate, branched fronds, the branches composed of concentric layers of oblong, colourless cells, with a cortical layer of minute colom-ed cells. Colour of R. hjco-

and

veinless,

two

toleraljly

common

podioides purplish brown, becoming black height 4 to 18". Colour of R. snbfusca brownish or reddish ; height 4 to 10". The ceramidia are stalked on the ramuli, occurring in summer the stivhidia, with tetrahedral tetraspores, occur in a similar situation in winter ; the antheridia (observed in R. subfusca) also occur in tirfts in the same
; ;

{R. Rahnctta, PL 4. tig. 8'.) Most are not more than 2" high, but R. laciniafa and The coloiu' jjabncda gi'ow to 10" and 18". The coccidia is mostly rose- or blood-red. are formed on the lacerated margins or the The tetraspores tips of lobes of the frond. form cloudy spots along the margin, or are The anscattered, tetrahedrally di\-ided. theridia likewise form patches on the surface of the frond, in R. Palutetta and palmata.

of parenchymatous texture.

position.

BiBL. Harvey, 3Iar. Aly. 78; Tiilasne,

Ann.

miODOlMELA'CE^.A family of Flo-

Sc.

Nat.

4.

iii.

20.

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Aly. 124, pi. 16 A; Thuret, Ann. Sc. Xaf. 4. iii. p. 19, pi. 3. RHODYMENIA'CE.F:. family of Floiideous Algas. Purplish or blood-red sea-weeds, Avith an expanded or iiliform inarticulate frond, composed of polygonal cells occasionally traversed by a librous

Red or brown sea-weeds, rideous Algae. with a leafy or filiform, areolated or articulated frond, composed of polygonal cells. 1. Conceptacles (eeraviidia) Fructification external, ovate or urn-shaped, furnished with a terminal pore, and containing a tuft
:

Superficial cells minute, irregularly packed, or rarely arranged in filamentous

axis.
sei'ies.

cidia), external or

Fracti/icafion: 1. Conceptacles (cochalf-immersed, globose or

of pear-shaped spores 2. antheridia, borne 3. tetrasj>oret> in tufts in similar situations immersed in distorted ramuli or in lanceolate receptacles (sticJiidia), usually in rows.
;
;

hemispherical, imperforate, containing beneath a thick envelope a mass of spores 2. antheridia, affixed to a central column 3. tetracollected in flat patches or sori spores, either dispersed through the whole
; ;

frond,

or

Synojysis of the British Oenera.

patches.
*

collected in indefinite British Genera

:

cloudy

Ochnthalia. Frond flattened, linear, ^\^th an obsolete midrib, pinnatitid, alternately inciso-dentate.

Frond

flat,

expanded, leaf -like, dichoto-

mous
Stenoqramme.
like.

or palmate.

Conceptacles linear,

rib-

Rhodomela.
culate, opaque.

Irond

cylindrical,

inarti_

Tetraspores contained in

Rhodyntenia. Conceptacles hemispherical,

scattered.

pod-like receptacles (stichidia).

Bostrychia.
late,

Frond

cylindrical, inarticu-

** Frond compressed or
filiform,

terete,

linear or

dotted; the surface-cells Tetraspores in terminal pods.

quadrate,
inarti-

much

branched.

Frond cylindrical, Rhytiphlcca. Tetrasj:ores in culate, transversely striate.

pod-like receptacles. Frond cylindrical, articuRolysi}>homa. lated wholly or in part the branches longiin distorted tudinally streaked. Tetraspores ramuli. Frond cylindrical, the stem inar;

Sphcerococcus. Frond linear, compressed, two-edged, distichously branched, with an obscure midrib. Gracilaria. or
flat,

Frond

filiform,
;

irregularly branched cells very large.

compressed, the central

irregularly

Ilypnea.

Frond

filiform,

Dasya.
;

ticulate

the

ramuh

articulated,

composed

branched, traversed bv a fibro-cellular axis. RIK )I(!(,)SPnE'NL\,Grunow. genus of Biatomaeea?, = arcuate Gomphoneina w ith

RHOIKONEIS.

659

EICCIA.

a central iiodulo in the curved side. R. curvata (PI. ry2. iig-. 1')). BiiiL. liabenht. Ahj. i. IVI. RIIOIKONE'IS, Grim. subgenus of

Eri/Duges, genus of Duges). jV.raclmida, of the order iVcariua, and family Trombidina.
thrceus, Latreille (not

RHYNCHOL'OPHUS,

Achnantludiiim, comprising found iu the Nortli Pacific.

two

species^

late

BiBL. Rabouht.

RIIO PALOM Y 'CES,Corda. A genus

Alf/.

i.

109.

of

Mucedines (Ilypliomycetous Fungi), nearly allied to AsPEiiaiLLrs, but having the

Fig. 618. Fig. 619.

Palpi large, free labium penicilmandibles ensiftn-m, very long; body entire cox;e very remote, legs palp-like, i. e. dilated at the end, posterior very long. Species numerous foimd iu woods, under
C7uir.
;

and iu mosses. Ii. citiereus (PL 6. fig. 40 , labium with palp h, tarsus c, plume of labiimi more
leaves,
: ;

magnified; d, mandible). BiBL. D-iges, Ann. Sc. Nat.

Gervais,
124.
TVulokenaer's

2.
iii.

i.

Aradodd.

30; 175
;

'K.och, Deiitsclil. Crust.; ^Iwixiw,

Econ. Ent.

RIIYNCHONE'MA, Ktz. A
Zygnejiaceje (which see). BiBL Rabenht. Akj. iii. 229.
;

genus of

RHYNCHOP'AGON,
toria) =i)/(//e?ia

Two

species.

Werneck (Rotawith a bilobed roitrum (Werneck, Ber. L'crl. Ak.

!

Rhopalomyces

nigra.

1841, 377.)

Fig. 618. Tufts on wood. Nat. size. Fig. 619. Fertile filaments. Magnified 200 diameters.

RriYNCIIOP'ORA, =

Lcin-alia pt.

R.

hispinosa^i L. bisp.

RHYNCHO'PRION.

619), and not in moniliform series. The single spores are borne on minute spines (fig. 619, left-hand head), They are mildews growing over decayed wood, matting, dung,"&c. Two new British by Berkeley and species are described
spores single
(fig.

RHYTIS'MA, Fries. A
diacei
j i

See Pulex. genus of Phaci,

(Ascomycetous Fungi) growing upon

the leaves of trees and shrubs, forming dark patches or spots on the surface, breaking through the epidermis with little scales or
irregular fissures. J?, acerinum is exceedingly common, forming large black spots on the leaves of the sycamore and maple; the thecasporous fruit is perfected (on the di;ad
fallen lea\es j in spring
;

Broome, found growing together. BiBL. Berk, and Broome, Aidi. N. H.

vii. d'6, pi. 5.

2.

RHOPALOSI'PHUM, Koch. A
Sonckm, Alisnia,
JBerheris.

genus

Melasjua

acerina,

of Aphidte.

Six species, on the currant and

Ligustrinn,

goosebeiTV,

which occurs in autumn, appears to be a preparatory form of this plant. R. saliciis common on willow-leaves. BiBL. Berk. Br. FI. ii. pt. 2. 290 Grev. Crypt. Fl. pL 118; Fries, >S'iwi. Vey. .'570; Tulasne, Covipt. Rendus, 1852 {Ann. N. H. 2. viii. 118) Coruu, Comjd. Rend. 1878,

and
ii.

(Buckton, Ajjhidce, Eai/ Sac.

nuin

9.)

RHUBARB. Garden

rhubarb

(Meum

tindulafiaHfiind other species) afibrds, in the of large edible petioles, excellent specimens SpiRAX-tibrous Structures, spiral, annular, and reticidate vessels and ducts these are readily isolated by the help of a needle
:

Grevilka,

vii.

100.

from a fragment of cooked rhubarb placed in water on a slide, and are well seen by and leaves polarized light. The petioL.'S
bundles of acicular roots also contain special receptacles for a characteristic secretion. RHYNCH.E'TA, Zenker. genus of Acinetina. Body ovate, free or attached, Ii. Avith a long anterior suctorial tentacle.
I^Lkewise contain

genus of Phyllodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. Thallus lobate or laciuiate, affixed by fasciculate rliizinte gouidia small yellowgreen spores 1-3-septate. (Leighton, Brit.
;

RICASO'LIA.A

Ra-

Lkh. Flora,
ticte),

112.)

PHiDES.

The

of Riccieaj (Ilepaconsisting of minute green thalloid productions growing upon damp ground or
tloating on water, distinguished from the
allied forms by the capsules being immersed iu the sub.~tance of the frond, dc'stitute of
1

RICCIA,L. Agf-uus

ci/clujnon, freshwater,

on

Ci/cloj)-".

(Kent,

inf. 800,)

perichajte and perigoue, while the archegon(;

2u2

mccL\.

660

RIMULINA.

an permanently encloses the sporange as adherent epigone, bearing a persistent stvleThe antheridia like neck (tigs. 621, 622).
Fig. 620.

out scales below, 1-2 to 2" long, repeatedly segments linear, notched at the ends when placed on damp earth it produces radical hairs, (fig. 621-2). Stagnant water. It. natans, L. Fronds with long reticulated scales below, obcordate, 1-2" long, or with the two lobes again divided scales of the lower surface pm-ple. On stagnant
forked,
; ;

pools.

BrBL. Hook. Br. Fl.

chofl".

ii.

pt. 1.
;

102

Bis-

Nova Ada,
361
;

xvii.

909

Lindenberg,

ibid, xviii.

43
Eiccia fluitans.

Knv, Jahrb.
iii'.

wiss. Bot. v.

Hofmeister, Vergl. Unters. Tr. Mic. Soc. ;

1880,

125.

lower

imbedded sporanges the upper surface.

surface of a frafrment of the frond, vrith three projecting, their orifices being on

Magnified 5 diajneters.

are globose sacs contained in special cavities, the oritices of which, narrowed into a neck, surface project as short processes from the The epigone being adherent to (cuspides). the sporange, the spores appear to lie im-

tribe of Liverworts or consisting of delicate, green, membranous fronds, spreading on the ground or floating on water. The fruits are always sessile on the frond, more or less imbedded in its substance according to the thickness ; the spores are unaccompanied by elaters.

RICCIE'^.A

Hepaticae,

Synojjsis of British Genera.

mediately in the cavity of the former

Fig. 621.

when

Fig. 622.

Archegones dorsal, on a lobed membranous frond, sparingly aggregated. Perichsete obtusely conical or pearshaped perforated at the summit, continuous with the frond. Perigone wanting. Epigone crowned by the deciduous style.
Sj)Iicei-oca>-pus.
;

Sporange at length free, indehiscent. Biccia. Archegones immersed in the frond, scattered, neither emergent nor exposed on the surface imtil burst. Perichajte and perigone lindistinguishable. Epigone
Eiccia fluitans.
Fig. 621. Vertical section through the frond and sporange contained in its svib.^tance. Fig. 622. Sporange, with persistent epigone, extracted from the frond.

crowned by the enlarged,

style,

long, persistent

Magnified 25 diameters.

ripe

they are unaccompanied by elaters, and escape by irregular rupture of the epigone. Several species occiu- in Britam.
;

*
a.

Terrestrial.

Frond without membran(jiauca, L. ous .scales below, fleshy, ovate-oblong, twoto three-lobed, 1-2 to 1" in diameter, the divisions dichotomous, growing in orbicular tufts, surface smoothish, punctate, glaucous On banks. green. II. crystaUimi, L. Differing from the
and lighter colour, and having large cavernous air-cells opening mould. Avidely on the upper siu-face. Damp ** Aqttatic.
last chieily in lai'ger size
11. fluitans,

adherent to the sporange. Sporange bursting iiTegidarly. RICE. This grain is produced by the grass called Oryza sativa. The seed is remarkable for the hard character of the albumen, which is explained at once when we examine a section under the microscope The ceUs are filled (PI. 46. figs. 12 & 13). with very small starch-grains, which are packed so closely that they assume a parenchymatous form and present the appearance of a continuous tissue (as in maize). The cohesion of the starch-gi-anules is the cause of the peculiar grittiness of rice-flom". See

Staech.

PJMULA'PJA, Nyl. genus of Lecideinei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Char. Apothecia black, rounded, depressed in the centre, dehiscing by a subradiate fissure ; spores simple. (Leighton, Lich. Flora. 438.)
RLMULI'NA,
D'Orb.

L.

(fig.

620).

Fronds with-

Nodosaiine

RIND.

CGI

ROCKS.
genus of

Foramiuifer, with oblique chambers, anil a long sHt-like oritice ou the edge of the last chamber. Aclriatic. (Parker, J. & B.,

ROCCEL'LA, Ach.A

Rama-

Ann. N.

11. 8. xvi. 1-).)

is

RIXD.This word

used to denote

_a

structure intermediate between epidennis and bark, a compound structure consisting of several, or many layers of cells and even of distinct forms of tissue, but not presenting the characteristic kinds and arrangement which occur in true Bark.

lodei (Lichenacet)us Lichens)), growing on marine rocks, remarkable as furnishing tho dye called orchil or archil. R. tinctoria, phycopsis, and fusiformis, the British species, grow only in the extreme south of

England. BiBL. Hook. Br. Ft. ii. pt. 1. 225; Engl. Bot. pis. 211, 728; Leighton, Lich. Fl.
73.

KIVULA'RIA, Koth.A genus of

Oscil-

latoriaceie (Confervoid Algae), subdivided by Kiitzing, and restricted to the forms in

is a distinct manubrmm or elongated cell next to the globular basal As thus defined, it contains only a cell. few aquatic species, the rest being trans-

which there

ferred to

Physactis, Euactis and

Roth.
;

allied

genera.

R.
bose,

anffidosa,

Frond

floating, glo-

manubria oblong dirty-green curved, or oblong-ovate and abbreviated filaments torulose at the base, interruptedly articulated at the apex. E/iff. Bot. 968.
;

and

R. Bonjana, Kg.
globose, greenish

brown
;

Frond (PI. 6. tig. 18)_. the size of a ;

;

ROCKS. Rocks are roughly divided, according to their origin, into an eruptive and a sedimentary series. Again, the eruptive rocks may be classed in two great groups, the vitreous and the crystalline the former being in great part structureless, while the latter consist essentially of crystals. microscopic examination of the vitreous rocks, such as Obsidian, pitchstone, pearlite ifcc, shows, however, that rocks of this class are not wholly devoid of structure, since they almost invariably contain large numbers of minute crystals (microliihs) too small to be referred with certainty to any known mineral species, together with more or less sparsely disseminated crystals of lai'ger size. The microliths, moreover,
;

cherry

colourless,

manubria large sheaths veutricose, with plaited constrictions filaarticufila-

are

parallel

frequently disposed in approximately and often tortuous bauds while

;

ments moniliform or interruptedly

late, flagelliform. ^.Jiaccida, smaller, ments flaccid, not interrupted. Doubtful

sometimes, bauds of structureless matter, glass of a slightly ditferent colom* and denThese sity, are seen to traverse the rock.

R. hoinjokles, and R. plana. R.plicata, Harv. Frond densely gregaand rious, compresso-pUcate, often hollow ruptured, dark green filaments spuriously dichotomous, attenuated. BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 336 Tab. Fliyc.
species
:

ii.

Harvey, Br. Alq. 1 ed. 150 Hassall, Alg. 262, pi. 64 ; Eng. Bot. Swpp.
pis. G7,

68

pi.

whorl, and interdigitating orifice commashaped. Recent and fossil. BiBL. Carpenter, For. 196 Parker and Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. 375. genus of ROBERTSO'NIA, Br. Copepodous Entomostraca. R. tenuis, in
: ;

modification of the Bulimine form of Foraminifera with long oblique chambers, 7-10 in the last

ROBERTI'NA, D'Orb. A

2911.

shown in PI. 42. fig. 8, whether consisting only of glass, or whether I'e presented by lines of microliths, are very characteristic of lava-streams, and are indicative of their fusion and flow. Such structures are not always apparent to the naked eye ; and in these cases the microscope -often serves to demonstrate the conditions under which certain rocks have been formed. In the examination of the crystalline rocks, which are essentially built up of crystals, frequently of difterent minerals, and pertaining to various crystallographic
bauds, as

becomes necessary to determine and for this purpose the employment of polarized light affords the best means of discriminating between them; since, in thin sections of
systems,
it

their optical characters;

dredgings.
25.)

(Brady, Copepod.,

Ray

Soc.

ii.

ROBULI'NA, D'Orb. A common form

which the
orifice is trian-

of Cristellaria, in
gular.

tellaria)

BiBL. Williamson, Rec. For. 24 {CrisParker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 2.

;

xix. 289.

fine-oTained rocks, the application of reagents to any particular crj-stal or grain is a matter of some difiiculty. Before entering, however, upon the subject of the crystalline rocks, it may be well to take a glance at a few of the most characteristic features presented by the vitreous series. In the Obsidians, pitchstones, pearlites

ROCKS.
find taehyh'te?, uiioroliths

662

ROCKS.

and other minute

-truftnres are almost always present. Some of tliese are mere opaque hairs or threads, called trichites, stranguly beut and twisted (PI. 42. fig. 8), aud concerning whose niineralogical character nothing definite is kno-wn. Others are fine needles, sometimes with lateral which, as in the

order to determine them with any precision. Before entering, however, upon this method of investigation the student should become familiar with ordinaiy hand specimens of the chief rock-ft)rming minerals, and should acquire some knowledge of the

simple

pitchstone of Corriegills in AiTan (PI. 42. fig. 5), resemble, when highly magnified, the fronds of ferns. These spicular bodies
or belonites have been referred to angite. many of the obsidians and pearlites, the microliths are minnte elongated prisms or cylinders, and their ends often appear to

growths,

which

tests, both physical and chemical, In distinguish the different species. the absence of such elementai-y knowledge,

In

be rounded.

They commonly form dense

streams, their longest axes lying in approxi-

deductions based solely upon microscopic observations are sure to be untrustworthy, if not worthless. The text-books from which this rudimentary instruction may be derived are too numerous to need mention. For the study of the optical properties of minerals the student may advantageously consult the works of Dana, Zirkel, Rosenbusch, von Lasaulx, Fouque, Levy, and other recent contributors to microscopic petrography. In a mei'e sketch of the subject, such as
this

mately uniform directions, except where larger crystals occur; and at these points the streams ai'e deflected and appear to sweep round the obstacles. In some of the obsidians and vitreous basalt-lavas, the crj'stallites

must

necessarily be,

it is

impossible to

exhibit a

more or

less

complex

structure, as in PI. 42. fig. 4, the relation of which can occasionally be traced to perIn the pearlites fectly developed crystals. and in some other glassy rocks, curious little cracks occur, which separate the rock

do more than allude to the microscopic characters of a few of the most typical rocks and in doing so, we may begin with
;

a thin slice of gi-anite (PI. 42. fig. 9). The student doubtless kmows beforehand that he is dealing with a rock composed essentially,

minute spheroids (PI. 42. fig. 7). cracks are seldom continuous all round the form, but thin away in a very chainto

The

of felspar, mica, and

quartz.

But

racteristic

manner. There is no nucleus, and the phenomenon appears to be solely due to shrinkage upon cooUng. The streams of microliths which often traverse these
pass without interruption

be more than one species of felspar present, and the mica may also be of various kinds. To determine the character of the felspars, he must study their angles
there

may

roclfs,

through

of extraction between accurately crossed Nicol's pri,sms ; and to do this, it is necessary to employ a microscope with a pro-

this pearlitic structure.

Spherules are sometimes plentifully developed in A^itreous rocks, and result in many cases from ciystallization around a point or along a line (axiolites) of limited extent. PI. 42. fig. 6 shows parts of two spherules, in an obsidian from the Lipari Isles, which have partially coalesced and in some speci;

perly di-\ided, rotating stage, which can be centred correctly for any object-glass which may be used, so that a minute speck in the preparation can be made to revolve immediately beneath the point of intersection of tv.o crossed spider-lines set within the eyeI

whether the

in continuous strings. In the felspars and other minerals occurring in certain lavas, enclosures of vitreous matter are sometimes visible. These are small portions of the glassy magma which have been entrapped by the crystals during their formation. PI. 42. fig. 2 shows glass lacunae of this kind enclosed within a felspar crystal in one of the lavas of Etna, The crystalline eruptive rocks consist, ns already stated, of crystals or crystalline grains of various minerals, and it is necessary to study their optical characters in

mens they ma}' be found united

in most cases, ascertain felspars crystallize in the monoclinic or in the triclinic system by obpiece.

He

can,

serving the character of the twinning in The nronoclinic felspars polarized light. are usually twinned on what is known as the Carlsbad type, and show only two difwhile ferently coloured halves or lamellae the triclinic felspars are striated by nume;

rou.s twin-lamella?,

which polarize in different alternating colours; unless, of cour.se, in either case, the plane of section coincides
with the plane of composition of the twin-

/. e. the direction in which the In the plates appear to be stuck together. moni^clinic felspars, the maximum extiuc-

lamellae,

ROCKS.
tioii

"'<'-i

ROCKS.

in the triclinic system the maximum extinction does not coincide with, or stand at riglit angles to the homologous edge

between crossed Nicols either coincides with the edge formed by the union of the basal plane and the clinopinakoid, or else lies at rio-ht angles to this edge while
;

formed by the basal plane and the brachypinakoid, but occurs in some azimuth on
one or the other side of those directions, the angle being determined by rotating the
stage upon
facilitate

rized hght. For this purpose twn or nionstrongly converging lenses are placed above the polarizer, and are brouglit just benoath the wide-angle half- or preparation. quavter-mch object-glass should be used in conjunction with an eyepiece-fitting without lenses, surmounted by an analyzer ; or arrangement introduced by better, the

which the preparation

the

lies.

To

recognition of the precise azimutli in which the axes of elasticity lie, an axially-cut plate of quartz, having a thickness of 1-G", is inserted between the object-glass and the analyzer, and the Nicols should be so adjusted that a uniformly violet light pervades the field.

Street, Tottenham in either case, the Nicols being accurately crossed. To determine the positive or negative character of the crystal, a quarter-undulation plate, or a quartz-wedge,

Swift,

of

University
;

Court Road

should be employed; but the manner of using it and the phenomena observed under these conditions must be looked for in books specially devoted to such questions. Again, in a thin section of granite, the
observer will also notice the presence of more or less quartz. Tliis will appear coloiu'less and limpid bv ordinary trans-

crystallographic edge being made to coincide with one of the spider-lines, the section is then turned, imtil a tint is established which exactly corresponds vritli the tint visible in the field of the microscope wlien the preparation is removed. Similar

known

mitted illumination, but in plane-polarized

will exhibit strong colours ; and in it will, if of suitable thickness, show a more or less perfect interference-cross. The rotatory polarization of

light

it

convergent light

determinations

may

also

be

effected

by

stauroscopic methods, which are described in the worlvs already cited. Tliese means of ascertaining the position of the axes of elasticity, are of course applicable to anj^ minerals which are translucent when cut in sufficiently thin slices. Tables of the angles of extinction in the different minerals will be found in various works on mineralogy. Reverting to our section of granite, we may notice that there is perhaps more than one kind of mica present. One is probably of a more or less deep-brown colour, and the plane of the section may be either parallel with the basal planes of the crystals, thus affording six-sided forms, or it may cut through the crystals at some angle to the basal plane. In the latter case it will be found, that by rapidly rotating the polarizing prism, the analyzer being removed, a marked change of colour or tint
occurs, while, if the mica be colourless, there wiU merely be a slight change in the intensity of the light transmitted under similar conditions. The brown, or in hand specimens often black, mica is commonly Biotite, the colourless mica, Muscovite but there are many other species of mica, and in order to know which species is present, it may be needful to have recourse to blowpipe analysis or to an examination of cleavage plates, or of sections coincident with the basal plane, in convergent pola;

quartz cannot be observed in ordinary microscopic rock-sections, which are far too thin to permit this phenomenon.

high powers,

Quartz, when examined under moderately is usually seen to contain

lacunaj partially or wholly filled with fluid,

which is very commonly, but not always, water. In the partially filled cavities, bubbles of course exist, the size of which in relation to the size of their containing cavities represents the condensation which the liquid has rmdergone since its imprisonment. On the application of heat the bubbles contract. The cavities vary greatly in form those shown in PL 42. fig. 1 are imusually large. The bubbles in these lacunae sometimes exhibit spontaneous motion when
;

high powers are emploj'ed.

PI. 42. fig 10. represents part of a section of Syenite. In this rock, hornblende is one of the essential constituents. In one of the patches of hornblende there figured, the characteristic cleavages are shown, intersecting at an angle of about 125. These

cleavage-planes run parallel with the faces of the oblique rhoanbic prism. In augite, the corres~ponding cleavage-planes intersect approximately at right angles. Hornblende may also usually be distinguished from augite by its dichroism, which becomes evident when the lower Nicol is rotated, the analyzer being removed. Augite shows, as

EOCKS.
a

GC4

EOCKS.

rule, no dichroism. Augite is a common constituent of Basalt and other rocks of a basic cliaracter. Fig. 18 shows a section of a crystal of augite cut transversely to the principal axis. Li fig. 14 are shown the very peculiar forms of hornblende, which occur in some phonolites, and which from their frayed-out ends can sometimes hardly

Nepheline partly filled with dusty matter. Nepheline is sometimes met with in bascilts this drawing is made from a phouolite. The phonolites are rocks which essentially con;

tain nepheline. The green crystals in the drawing are microliths of hornblende.

be recognized as more hornblende

dioi ite
;

triclinic
differs

In fig. 15 some shown, occurring in a the character of the twinning in the felspar is shown in this drawing.
crystals.
is

The rocks Diabase and Gabbro may be regarded as varieties or special conditions of basalt. The latter rock contains diallage instead of augite but these two mineral species ai-e now regarded by some mineralo;

It is in the

nature of the felspar that diorite

from syenite. The original syenite of Pliny, from Syene in Egypt, contains
quartz.

gists as identical. The rocks termed Norite and Hj'persthenite, contain the rhombic forms of pyroxene,

Many

exclude from
quartz

petrologists, however, now syenite those rocks in which

is present. The quartzless syenites are closely related to minette (PI. 42. kg. 11) in which magnesian mica takes the place of hornblende. The crystals of mica constitute the chief features of the rock. The matrix in which they lie is a finely crystalline mixIn the drawing, ture of felspar and mica. the central crystal of mica is cut trans,

versely to the basal plane the line stri;e representing the direction of cleavage or the characteristic platy structure of mica. crystal of magnetite is also shown in this drawing. It is a section through an octohedron. Among the minerals which crystallize in the cubic system, Haiiyne and Noseaii are often met with in volcanic rocks. In PI. 42. fig. 14 some crystals of Noseau are shown ; like all cubic minerals, they exert no influence upon polarized light. Haiiyne and Noseau exhibit structiu'al pecu:

and enstatite. Fig. lu is section of trachyte and shows crystals of sanidine and oligoclase,the former a monoclinic, the latter a triclinic felspai-. In the centre is a crystal of sphene or titanite, which although not a very common rock-forming mineral, nevertheless occurs both in plutonic and volcanic rocks. now come to rocks of a diti'erent class to those just described. These are kuo-svn as jnetamorpJuc and they are regarded by some as the result of the alteration of sedimentary rocks by high temperatures existing at great depths beneath the surface of the earth, or by the contact or proximitj' of Others regard them in eruptive rocks. many cases as the residt of crystallization from solution, and not by fusion, set up in sedimentary rocks subsequent to their depohyjiersthene,

drawn from a

We

sition.

cesses

Whatever may have been the proby wdiich they have arrived at their

liarities

when examined under high powers, which cannot be described or figured in this

present condition, we find that they consist of minerals which, in the main, are identical with those which are met with in eruptive rocks thus, gneiss for example, is ideutic-al
:

short article. Fig. 16 represents a crystal of Olivine in a Saxon basalt. Olivine is a common constituent of basalt, and some modern petrographers exclude from basalt any rock from which olivine is absent thus many of the rocks which in England have always been regarded as basalts, would under this new arrangement be classed with Olivine being a rhombic the andesites. mineral, has its axes of elasticity coincident
:

with granite so far as its mineralogical constitution is concerned but the crystals and crystalline grains which compose the rock, are arranged in more or less definite layers of different mineral character, an arrangement termed foliation. Mica-schist (PI. 42. fig. 20) is another example of a metamorphic rock, and consists essentially of rudely alternating layers or films of mica and quartz. Chlorite-, talc-, schorl-, and horn;

its crystallographic axes. Fig. 17 the represents a section of basalt from Giant's Causeway, as seen by polarized light under an amphfication of 77 diameters. The black patch in this drawang indicates magnetite or titaniferuus iron, both of which minerals are commonly more or less plenPI. 42. tig. 15 tiful constituents of basalt. shows a transverse section of a crystal of

with

blende-schists are rocks of similar structure,

and contain respectively the minerals which their, names imply, together with quartz, and at times felspars, garnets, &c., while staurolite, chiastolite, kc. are met with in certain argillaceous rocks which have also been subjected to alteration. Quartzite again is an .altered sandstone, and the bedded hjillefiiutas of Scandinavia (PI. 42.

ROC lis.
fig.

665

ROCKS.
matter in these rocks carbonate of lime.
is

12) are usually regarded as altered which are identical in miuural cous^tilu'iou aud structure with the rocks liuowu as t'elstoue, wliich coosist of a luicro-crystaUine admixture of felspar and quartz, and in which the boundaries of the component grains are uot always clearly This hazy defined under the microscope. ill-detined granular structure is spoken of while there is as a crypto-crystalliue one ako another condition of matter having the
fel;<patliic .saiidstoues,
;

interstitial

usually
PI.

crystalline
fi;,'.

42.

24

is

an example of a

crystalline, sac-

charoid

same chemical composition in

which merely a nebidous, granidar, or faintly-marked tibrous structm-e distinguishes it from vitreous substances, its optical character being similar This is known as microto that of glass. felsitic matter. The four drawings which constitute the lower row in Plate 42 represent sedimentary rocks, or those which have resulted from the disintegration of preexisting laud, the
degi-aded ruaterials having been transported rivers aud deposited in the sea or in lakes. Sandstones, shales and slates, and limestones, may be regarded as the principal t^pes of these sedimentary deposits. PI. 42. 21 represents a section of millstone grit

It limestone, statuary marble. wholly of crystalline grains of calcite. The twinning of the separate crysi3 tals, parallel to a rhombohedral face, reju-esented as it is seen by polarized light. It is impossible in this article to cite further examples. Volcanic ejectamenta, which both in their loose and consolidated states, oiler problems of great interest to the geologist, must pass unnoticed ; but, before
consists

closing this article, it may be worth while to make a few remarks on the relative merits of thick and thin microscopic sections of rocks. In the first place thick sections are easier to prepare ; but in most cases they are of little or no use to the student, since the optical properties of the different minerals cannot as a rule be properly studied from such feebly translucent preparations.

by

fig.

The rock as seen under polarized light. consists essentially of fragments of quartz with some fragments of felspar, bound toThe fraggether by a ferruginous cement. ments have probably resulted from the the mica, disintegi-ation of granitic rocks,
form rather than its specific held longer in suspengravity, having been distances in sion, and transported to greater the old seas in which these materials were PI. 42. fig. 22 represents a piece deposited. of Cambrian slate from the Penrhyn quarThe appearance is that ries in N. AVales. Nicols. The presented between crossed

The rotatory polarization of quartz cau of course only be observed in thick sections taken at right angles to the optical axis ; and dichroism, when barely perceptible in certain thin slices, becomes well marked in thicker ones; but apart from these advantages which thick sections thick unpossess, they have others. mounted section can be submitted to the action of chemical reagents, and in many cases may be subsequently washed,

owing

to its

general elongation of the constituent particles in the direction of cleavage, is the result of further demonstrated by pressure, which is the frequent distortion of the fossils met with in these old deposits. Microliths are
present whicb have been developed subsequently to the deposition of the rock. Similar microliths in other Palaeozoic slates have been referred by Kalkowsky to andaPL 42. fig. 2-3 of alumina. lu,~ite, a silicate shows the small spheroidal grains which occur in the Great Oolite of Lincolnshire. They are concentric deposits of carbonate of lime, which often, as in the largest spheroid in the figure, have a foraminifer as a nucleus in some cases the accretions have taken place aroui.d a grain of sand. The
also
;

thinner, and finally mounted, while much useful information may be thus gained. Little objection can also be raised to thick sections of vitreous rocks, when they happen to be very transparent, since the crystals which theycontain may then be studied in their integrity ; whereas in thinner sections we can merely examine slices of them. Furthermore, in the preparation of very thin sections there is always the danger either of stripping out the larger crystals, or of

ground

ultimately wasting labour by grinding away the whole of tlie preparation. Thick sections are best examined by reflected light,

when many important

points are often diswhich would never be noticed if cerned,_ transmitted fight only were employed. As a rule, however, it is scarcely possible to prepare too thin a_ section of a rock, nor to over-estimate the value of the thinnest preparations which can be procured; since a few finishing touches may often permit the recognition of structure which would otherwise pass unnoticed. Most of the lapidaries in this country spoil their sections

ROOKS.
through uot

666

ROOTS.

risldnp: tlieir loss or diminutiou of size bv those finisliing strokes which render a, preparation useful or -worthless. The best sections I have yet seen are those prepared by Ciittel, of New Compton Street, Soho. Good rock-sections may also be procured on the continent, notably from Yoigt and Hochgesang of Vienna, Marchand Machines of Paris, and Fuess of Berlin. for the preparation of roelc-sections are made by Cotton and Johnson of Grafton

ralogy and Petrology, by Phillips, Sorby, Allport, Bonney, Ward," Davis, Daintree, and others, will be found in the Qu, Jn. Geol. Soc, others in the Jn. Mic. Soc, Tr. Roy. Soc. Ed., the R. Irish Academy, the Roy. Irish Geol. Soc, Xeues Jahrh. f.
Mineral., Zeitsch. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., Bull. d. I. Soc Mineral, d. France, &c. RCESTE'LIA, Rebent. genus of Ure-

A
;

How &c.' Microscopes suitable for this branch of study, are made by Watson, of 4 Pall Mall, and Swift, of University Street, Tottenham Court Road.
*

Street, Soho, Fuess of BerHn, and others. Mucli may, however, be done simply with a flat cast-iron plate and emery, while a file and hone will suffice for the preparation of some of the softer rocks. Chapters on this branch of microscopical work wiU be found The Study of Rocks,' and in Beale's in
'

(Coniumycetous Fungi), closely related to iEciDiuji, and presenting sfmilar spermogonia and perithecia the chains of
spores of the Rastelice, however, present a peculiarity, having a sterile joint, forming an isthmus of variable length, between each spore the peridium bursts irregularly ; or (in R. cancellata) the teeth cohere more or less for a time, so as to form a kind of Tliis genus includes ^cidium corlattice. nutmn, laceratum, and cancellatum of older authors, growing respectively on the leaves of the moimtain-ash, hawthorn, and pear.

dinei

The student

of petrology should,

how-

See y^EciDiuM and Uuedikei.

ever, study the great features presented by rock-masses, and learn to recognize the

ROOTS.

The structure of roots presents

;

large crystals, with which Nature and the mineral-dealer can provide him, before he commits himself to microscopic investigation.
ralien

important modifications but these are less In all cases striking than those in stems.

BiBL. Zirkel, Mtkr. Beschaff. d. Mineund Gesteine, 1873 id. Mikr. Zitsamid. mensetzwng d. BascdUjesteine, 1870
; ;

Microscopical Petrography, U. S. Oeoloy. Explor. ofthe)th pnrollel, 1876; VogelRosenbusch, sang, Die KrystaUiten, 1875 Mikrosliop. I'hysiograpliie, 1877 (coloured and the Bihl. Mohl, Basalte mid plates), Phonolithe Sdchsens, 1873; Poussin and Renard, Caract. mineral. S^'c. des roches Plutonnienyics de la Belyique ct de TArdenne
; ;

they have a fibro-vascular axis enveloped in a more or less thick cortical parenchyma, covered when yoimg by a delicate epidermis devoid of stomata (epiblema), when old by an epidermal tissue of corky nature. The roots of the vascidar Cryptogamia are all adventitious and their structure consists merely gf a central fibro-vascuLir axis, surrounded by a cellular cortex and an epidermis provided with root-hairs of a
;

187G ; Boiicky, Petrograph. Frangaise, Stud. Basaltgesteinen Bohmens, 1874 ; id.

PJionolifJigesteine

Bohmens, 1873;

id.

Me;

laphyrgest. 1870; id. Elemeide c/icin.-mikrosk. Mineral- und Gesteinanalyse, 1877 (the last 4 works are in the Archiv d. Na-

Landosdtirchforschung turtvissenschaftl. Bohinrn); Credner, Pefrograj>Jii-tc/ie Geologic e d. 1870) Geologic., Lasaulx, {Element Pctrographie, 1875 Geikie, Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of the Basin of the Firth of Forth, Tr. R. Soc. Ed. 1879 FouqutI an'd Levy, Mineralogie Micrographique, Roches
; ; ;

v.

eruptives Fram^., coloured plates

and

Bibl.,

1879; Sorby, Anniversary Addresses to Geol. Soc. Land., 1878-70; Rutlev, The Study of Rocks, 1879; Geikie, Text-Book, 1882. Numerous papers on Microscopic Mine-

yellowish colom'. Dicotyledons produce an axial root, which is a direct prolongation of the stem downwards and both this and the adventitious roots frequently developed on the stem have the peculiar imlimited fibro-vascular structure found in the stems of this class, and may become woody and increase by annual The axial layers lilce the ascending axis. root of Dicotyledons, being a direct continuation of the stem, displays a circular group of fibro-vascular bundles as in the ascending axis but these mostly converge at the point of junction of .stem and root (collar), so tliat tlie central axis of the parenchyma, the pith, is lisualty absent, the medullary rays remaining as in the stem. Externally, uirain, there is a difference, since the liber-bundles vanish and the cambiumregion passes at once into the cortical parenchyma, here colourless and succulent, and tliis is clothed by a less prominent peri;

'

ROOTS.
derm
tlian the

667

ROOTS,

stem.

The

roots of Dico-

tyledons increase in diameter by animal layers of wood formed in the lihro-vaseular bundles; these, however, aro much less regular in their arrangement than those of the stem on account of the tortuous course of tlie roots hence, while the wood of the roots is often useful for ornamental purposes, it is comparatively valueless for carpenters' uses. The branches of the axial root are originally gTowths from the apex of the root thrown oft to the sides as it were, and their woody axis is derived from a division of that of the main I'oot. Tlie radical of a
;

parenchyma, continuous with the inner part of tliat of the parent stem and a kind of conical hood of rather dense cellular tissue enveloping the end of the root. As the root grows it pushes the hood forward,
;

which breaks down the cellular tissue before When it, and finally appears externally.
presents

the epidermis is ruptured in tliis way, it a circular free edge standing up slightly like a coUar around the base of the free part of the root this is called the coleorhiza by some authors. The conical hood upon the apex of the root, called the
:

germinating Dicotyledon has its pileorhiza, and grows, in the same way as that of the Monocotyledons, by development of cells just behind the apex. Young roots are covered by a delicate epidermis and the
;

ferent cases

or less persistent in difin aquatic plants it becomes greatly developed, as may be seen in the
pileorhiza, is
;

more

duckweed (Lenmd), where

it

forms a long

cells of this are

abundantly produced into

;

hairs (fibrillfe) in many plants, especially in those growing on light soils these fibrils are deciduous, the delicate epidermis, which is always destitute of stomata, being gradually converted into a corky layer. Adventitious roots are very common in Dicotj'ledous, especially the herbaceous perennial kinds, and they alone can exist on plants raised from cuttings &c. of stems. The roots originate much in the same way as those of the Monocotyledons, appearing first as cellular cones in the region adjacent to the cambium -layer, with which the fibrovascular structure soon becomes confluent. They break through the rind with a coleorhiza, and protected by a pileorhiza, just as
in

sheath, appearing as if slipped over the end of the rootlet. The focus of development of the root is within the pileorhiza, which is pushed forward by the continued development of cells just behind the apex. The pileorhiza may be compared to a land of shield or guard to the tip of the root, protecting the nascent tissue, by the expansion of which it is pushed forwards, itself always possessing a certain solidity, which enables it to penetrate between the particles of the
soil.

Monocotyledons but when once formed, they appear to branch in the same manner as the axial root, and not by the formation
;

of secondary adventitious roots. The radicle of a monocotyledonous embryo but if a section is made is never developed of the lower part of the embryo, we find one or more little conical bodies imbedded in the parenchyma these are the nascent adventitious roots, which soon appear externally, breaking their way through the
; ;

The anatomy may, howsuperficial tissue. ever, be more easily studied by tracing the development of the adventitious roots on
flags, and other The roots originate in plants of this class. the region where the fibro-vascular bundles of the stem terminate, (and frequently form a fibrous plexus). They are first wholly a cellular, and consist of three parts woody axis Avhicli soon becomes continuous with tlie fibro-vascular plexus ; a cortical

the rhizomes of rushes,

The centre of the root of a Monocotyledon is occupied by prosenchymatous tissue with a circle of vessels around it, the whole enclosed by regular parenchyma, sometimes by liber-cells and covered by an epidermis. The ring of vessels spreads out into a kind of rosette at the base, and anastomoses with the extremities of the fibro-vascidar bundles of the stem in the fibrous region. Secondary adventitious roots are formed in the same way in the roots, originating immediately upon the vascular ring and breakingThe through the cortical parenchyma. woody adventitious roots of arborescent ]Monocotyledons differ only in the greater development of the fibro-vascular strucand they emerge from the stem tures; (palms) in the form of thick conical shoots. In the thickened adventitious roots of asparagus, which perform the function of tubers, the parenchyma is greatly developed. In the tuberous roots of Orchids the central
axis becomes ii-regularly expanded into parenchymatous tissue, driving the vessels out nearly to the periphery, so that the characteristic structure is greatly disThe aerial roots of the epiphytic guised.

woody

Orchids have the growing extremities clothed by several layers of a parenchy-

ROTALIA.

6G8

ROTATION.
many
water-plants, such as Vallis-

matous tissue, in which the cells are charactei'ized by delicate open spiral-fibrous
secondary
iioots
la^er.-?.

curs in
neria,

grow by cell-development only near

the apex; and interstitial expansion soon Old roots of Dicotyledons present ceases. a dense heart-wood like the trunks, the passage of fluid taking place through the outer layers. When the older parts of roots are exposed to the air by removal of soil, they acquire a thick corky periderm. The general structure of the root of Conifers is like that of Dicotyledons. BiBL. Henfrey-Masters, Bot. Nageli and
;

Hydrocharis, Anacharis, Sfraf.iofes, Sayittaria, Potamoyeton,Ceratuphyllum, Sec, where it is seen best in the more delicate foliaceous structm'es, such as young leaves,
rootlets. stipules, or sepals, or in the young It has also been observed in the fruit-stalks

Leitgeb, Nliy., Whs. Bot. 1867 Hofmeister, Murphul. d. Gewi'h. 1865 Tieghem, Ann. Sc. N. 5. xiii. Sachs, Bot. 165 Olivier, Sac. teff. 1882 (50 pis.).
;
; ;

of Blasia pusilla and some other Ilepaticie. In the Chaeace^ the wall of the cells is lined with chlorophyll-granules, leaving two oblique or spiral striae bare (fig. 125, p. 162) these sti-ise indicate the boundaries of the ascending and descending currents (marked The moviaig substance is a visby arrows) cid semifluid layer, lying within the chloro;
.

phyll-layer, and

itself

sniTOunding

the

ROTA'LIA, Lamarck

(restricted).

shell ammoniform, typical Foraminifer ; neat, finely porous, unequally biconvex with 1-3-40 chambers, double septa, and canal-system ; limbate and often granulate.
;

watery cell-sap occupying the centre of the cell. This layer, forming a kind of gelatinous sac, moves in a spii-al com-se up one side of the cell and down the other, the motion
being rendered very evident by chlorophylland other gi-anules imbedded in it these appear to be carried along passively by the stream, the larger slowly, the smaller with In Vallisneria, Anacharis, greater rapidity. &c. the chlorophyll-granules and the nucleus are imbedded in and moved with the
;

Species numerous, both fossil and recent (B. Beccarii, PL 24. figs. 13, 14). BiBL. Carpenter, For. 212; Micr. 545; Parker & Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. 387. PtOTALI'NA, Carpenter {Eotalbue) . subfamily of Globigerinida. See Foea;

MIXIFEBA.
Parker & BiBL. Carpenter, For. 198 Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. 378, and Qu. J. G. S. xxxviii. 103. ROTATION or CYCLOSIS.This terra is usually employed in botanical works to denote peculiar flowing movements of the contents of vegetable cells and it is useful to retain the word for all cases of the kind, in order to avoid confusion of these phenomena with the general circulation of the sap. The term " circulation of the cell-sap " is, however, often used instead of rotation, and especially in reference to the cases where it exhibits numerous distinct currents. The rotation presents itself in two types, namely (1 ) a rotatory movement of a layer of protoplasm investing the entire internal and surface of the cell, as in Chaba, &c. (2) a radiating movement of the pi'otoplasm in slender currents, from the nucleus out over the remainder of the cell, with a return flow towards the nucleus; but as the nucleus itself shifts in the latter type as in the former, tlie two kinds are scarcely definitely
;

flowing protoplasm. If long cells of Chara are bent or tied round by a ligatm-e, the circulation is not stopped, but takes place independently in each half. If a cell of Chara is cut across, the protoplasm of the current flowing towards the cut surface escapes at once, but that of the current flowing away, goes on to the end of the then flows towards cell, turns round, and and out from the wound. The size of the stream seems to be in inverse proportion to the length of the cell, decreasing as the latter acquires its I'uU development. The rapidity of the current varies according to the age of the plant and the activity of its vegetation. It is most Artirapid in hot weather and in sunshine. ficial elevation of temperature in the water in which the plant grows, up to a certain a heat above point, hastens the movement; 80 Fahr., however, retards it for a time. temperature of 112 Fahr. kills the plant, Darkness as also does a cold of about 20.

distinguisluible ; they may, however, be spoken of separately. The rotation in Chara and Xitella has been long known ; a .similar movement oc-

appears merely to exert eflect through its influence on the activity of the vegetation. Keeping Chara in water exhausted of air does not stop the rotation until the plant Most chemical reagents seem to exert dies.

no special action only lime-water appears solution of to stop it in a few moments. hastens tlie sugar, or gum, or milk greatly
;

ROTATION.
rotation in
jihisni
is

669

ROTATORIA.
cause
of the

Vallisnerut, &o that the proto-

The

motion

is

evidently

but the primordial utricle finally dissolves, and the movement ceases, rassing: an electric current through the cell stops the current for a time but it recovers itself, just as occurs after any mechanical interference. If several cells are injured by cutting- or pricking, the whole rotation stops in young plants, but it
in
; ;

moTod on

waves

related to the

in the uninjured gradually returns as before Pressure inteiTupts or stops the mocells. tion for a time only when removed, the but actual current is gradually restored injuiy to the cell stops it for ever. The rotation which takes place between the external surface of the green layer and the outer cell-membrane in Closterium and other Desaiidiace^ appears to be of the same kind as the above.
; ;

movements exhibited by free protoplasmic bodies, such as Zoospores, Sprumatozoids, the free filaments of OsciLLATOniA, &c. It has been well compared with the movements of the body of Amoeba, which bear considerable resemblance to some kinds of the reticular I'otaThe relation existing here is further tion. borne out by the fact of pulsating vacuoles
existing in Volvox, Gonium, &c., j ust like those in the Infusoria. The actual rotation or movement in a definite direction is the result of the confining cell-wall on the contracting and ex-

panding protoplasm.

It

is

produced in

Algoe clurmg cell-growth.

The

circidation in reticular currents, first

observed by Brown in the hairs of the stamens of Tmclescantia, appears to exist far more extensively, if it be not even a uniIt has been observed versal phenomenon. in the Coufervoideae, Fucoide;^, Floridese, Lichens, Fungi, Hepaticas, Equisetacese, in the most Lycopodiaceo9, and Ferns, and varied families of Flowering plants. It is seen most easily in young tissues, especially such as can be prepared readilj^ without much mechanical injury for example, in of the hairs, cells of the pulp of fruits, cells germen of Onagi-aceae, of the labellum of Orchids, &c. It generally exhibits the folIn the middle or at one lowing characters side of the cell occurs a large heap of pronucleus toplasm, in which is imbedded the from this protoplasm more or less slender filaments run out over the cavity of the cell,
;
:

The rotation in CJiara may be observed by simply placing portions of the plant on a slide in water. The unincrusted species are of course most favourable but the growing
;

points of the others are tolerably transparent. In Viillisneria, detached fragments of leaves, or even horizontal sections of the in A7iacharis, entire leaf, may be used leaves or sepals may be detached and ol> served. Hairs are frequently more or less covered with a viscid secretion, which retains air-bubbles about them in such cases, it is often useful to dip them for an instant in alcohol, and then place them in water. BiBL. Varley, Tr. Soc. Arts, xlviii. Mic. Trans. Slack, Tr. Soc. Arts, xlix. Du;

trochet, Compt. Bend. 1837, 775

rel, ibid. Ak. viii.
; ;

Becque784 Unger, Sitziingsber. Wien. 32 Moh], Bot. Zeit. iv. 73 Ann.

;

N. n. xviii, 1 Hofmeister, Venj. Unters. 73 Osborne, Mic. Jn. iii. 64 Branson,

;
;
;

and as these contain numerous fine granules, a flowing movement which takes place becomes evident by the change of place of the shows that granules. Attentive examination these flow out from the central mass and
return to it, and, moreover, that the currents change their form and direction, and, nucleus itself moves. This lastly, that the rotation cannot be observed in very young cells when the cavity is densely filled with but Hofmeister states that he
;

ibid.

iii.

260;

Weuham,
i.
;

Hid.

iii.

frey,

3, 419; Reichert, Ann. N. H. 1867, xix. 10 Beale, How ^-c. 4th edit. 165 Carpenter, Microscoi^e Henfrey; ;

Ann. N. H.

250; Hen-

Masters, Bot. 551.

ROTATO'RIA

or

ROTIF'ERA.

A
;

protoplasm has seen the entire primordial utricle rotate in the special parent cell of the spore of I'hascmn cuspidatum. As the young cells increase in size, vacuoles are formed in the with watery sap and these protopla,sm,filled
;

Class of the Animal Kjngdom. Char. Microscopic, transparent animals, in fresh or in salt water legs absent living anterior portion of the body furnished with one or more retractile, often lobed disks,
;

upon which
cilia,

are

placed

motion presenting the appearance of one or more revolving wheels alimentary canal usually distinct, with a dental apparatus, and two orifices; reproduction
in
;

when

usually vibratile

enlarging and becoming confluent, leave the protoplasm in the form of a reticulated mass.

by

ova.

a firm and usually smooth skin or integument, sometimes pre-

Body covered with

ROTATORIA.
;

670

ROTATORIA.
of two knee-shaped portion the posterior
to
]iieces (PI. 43. fig.

sentiug indicatious of segments often more or less enclosed in a carapace (Carapace), which is either secreted by the skin, by the aHmentary canal, or by a special secreting In some species the skin is furorgan. uislied with cilia, hairs, or rigid bristles. In most, there is a tail-like process at the posterior end of the body called the footlike tail, tail-like foot, or false foot ; this is jointed, and can often be contracted and extended like a telescope it does not form a direct prolongation of the end of the body, bnt arises from and is situated upon the ventral aspect. It is often terminated by a suctorial disk, or a pair of claw- or toe-like
;

sist

24),

of

which

nmscles are attached, whilst the anterior, which passes inwards at a right or obtuse angle to tlie former, ends in a single point or in several teeth (fig. 26). In the other,
the jaws have the form of stirrups (fig. 17), with their bases turned towards each other,

upon which two or more teeth are placed. A third single or compound intermediate piece forms a support (figs. 24, 26), upon which the food acted upon by the jaws is triturated. In some species the jaws and teeth are very complex in their arrangement. The alimentary canal is usually short and Its walls straight, but sometimes curved.
are very thick, and lined with ciliated epithelium. The stomach forms a distinct this is sucexpansion (PI. 4^3. fig. 27 c) ceeded by an intestine, the termination of which corresponds to a cloaca, receiving the expelled contents of the reproductive organs
;

processes.

Distinct longitudinal and circular muscular bands are present and they sometimes present transverse striae. The rotatory disks or wheel-organs vary greatly in structure, the varieties forming characters of the families and genera. Their margin is usually furnished with one or two rows of vibratile cilia; sometimes these are replaced by bundles of non;

contractile elongate cilia (PL 43. fig. 32), or the I'otatory organ is divided into tentacle-like processes, upon which cilia are

and so-called water- vessel system, and opening at the base of the foot. In some Rotatoria a second expansion or stomach is situated below the upper one. The walls of the stomach and intestines
frequently contain brown or yellow cells, representing a liver and at the commencement of the stomach are two or more crecal
;

placed (PI. 44. fig. 25). The rotatory disk is tlie principal organ of motion, by means of the cilia of which the animals swim through the water; some of the Rotatoria, however, move in a leechlilce manner, by alternately fixing the toelike processes and the anterior end of the bod3% which in some forms a kind of proboscis (PI. 43.
fig. 1).
is

The nervous system

In
sent,

not well known.

It appears to consist of a ganglion and of branches given off iu various directions.

many

of the Rotatoria, eyes are pre-

mostly red. These appear to have a cornea and a lens. They sometimes disappear iu the adult animals and as their number, position, &c. are used as characters, when absent in the adults, they nuist be looked for iu the young or the ova, either within the carapace or adherent to the body. Behind the mouth AlimenUiri/ apparatits,
;

sometimes a distiuct conical pharynx, but nearly always a rounded muscular gizzard containing the jaws and teeth. In the pharynx are occasionally seen two undulais

ting lines, presenting a lliekeriug appearance, the indications of cilia or undulating memThe jaws are constructed mostly branes. after two forms. In one of these they con-

appendages, probably corresponding to a pancreas (PL 44. fig. 14). In the male Rotatoria, the alimentary canal is entirely absent. Vascular sydem. Distinct blood-vessels are apparently not present in the Rotatoria but on each side of the body, in most of them, runs a narrow straight or waxy baud, containing a slender vessel (PL 43. fig. 18 a; PL 44. fig. 14 b). Anteriorly, these vessels give oft'branches, the terminations of which are not well known. By some they are said to open into the abdominal cavity, by others to terminate as casca. Attached to the walls of these lateral tubes, or situated within them, are pear-shaped or oval corpuscles 18 a PL 44. fig. 14 c), which (PL_ 4^3. fig. exhibit a fiickering appearance from the action of cilia connected with them, and which open into the cavity of the abdomen. I'osterioily, the tubes terminate in an actively contractile sac, which opens into the In regard to their fimction, these cloaca. tubes have been variously viewed as watervessels, testes, and kidneys. I'^lueuberg considered them as connected anteriorly with a certain projecting organ (PL 44. fig. 14 a),

;_

ROTATORLi.
43.

^71

RUCKERIA.
Zygotrocha
.

situated usually in the cervical region (PI. > PI. 44. fig-. 17), denominated the lig.
;

Divided into two parts. Carapace absent Carapace present

Philodinasa. Erachionsea.

by a
(tig.

calcar or respiratory tube, and terminated retractile tuft of nou-vibratile cilia

5 a). ever, with

They have no

relation,

how-

this, Avhich corresponds to an antenna. Huxley proved that they are part of a water-system. Beneath the inteo-ument of the Rotatoria, a kind of irregular circulation, varying with the motions of the body, or a simple molecidar movement of minute granules, has been noticed. These granules are probably situated in the abdominal cavity in which also sarcodic globules, sometimes free, at others connected by filaments, have been observed. The Rotatoria are propaReproduction. gated by means of sexual organs, and are The female organs consist of unisexual. one or two longer or shorter ovarian sacs or ovaries, situated towards the posterior end of the body in the abdominal cavity, the oviduct terminating in the cloaca, or at a The ova are of an oval distinct A-ulva.
;

See Albebtina. They are found wherever water exist% provided it be not in a state of putrefaction, thus iu pools, on moist earth, mosses, in gutters, &c., and even in the cells of mosses

and alga). BiBL. Ehr. Inf. Dujard. Inf. Siebold, Verf/l. An. Dalrvmple, 'Phil. Tr. 1849, 331 j Huxley, Mio: Trans. 1852, i. 1 Williamson, Micr. Jn. i. 1 Cohn, Siebold mid Kdllikers Zeitsch. vii. 431 Gosse, Tr. Micr. Soc. iii. id. Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 198 (several new genera and species) and 185G, xviii. 333; Pritchard, //". Schmarda, Ncne Rotatoria, 1861 Mecznikow, Sieh. und KoU. Zts. 1865; Qu.Mic. Jn. 1666, 34 & 240; Claparede, An. N. II. 1868, i. 309 Schloch, 1869 M. M. In. vi. Riiderthiere, Cubitt, 168, viii. 5; Hudson, M. M. Jn. xiii. 45;
; ;

Pascoe, Zool.

ROT'IPER, Cuv.
boscis

A genus of Rotatoria,

of the family Philodinjea.

foiTu,

and

and are sometimes smooth externally The -s^-inter-ova are larger and darker than those hatched during the summer, and the outer coat is thick and hairy The winter-ova which reor tubercular.
soft.

Char. Eyes two, situated upon the profoot furnished with lateral hornlike processes, and with t\\o terminal toes, giving its end a bifm-cate appearance; freshwater.
;

so long attached to the posterior part of the body are probably gemmie they sometimes remain adherent to the cloaca for a time, and in a few instances they are hatched Avithin the ovary. The testis is situated at the posterior part of the body, and consists of a wedgeshaped body, with a muscular duct opening
;

main

R.

vul(/aris (PI. 44. fig. 23).

Body

fusi-

externally. Many of the Rotatoria are remarkably and some of them are tenacious of life stated to have revived after having been kept dr}' for several years. Perfect desiccation destroys the Rotifers, but they wiU last a long time with a very slight amount of moisture. The families of the Rotatoria are thus
;

distinguished
Ciliated

margin of rotatory disk simple or continuous. Margin entii'e. Solotrocha.

Carapace absent Carapace present

form, white, gradually attenuated towards the foot length 1-48 to 1-24". J This is one of the commonest of the Rotatoria, and has long been linown as a favourite microscopic object under the popular name of the wheel-animalcule. The anterior and upper part of the body terminates in a proboscis, ciliated at the end, and upon which the eyes are placed the two rounded lobes of the rotatory organ are placed laterally. Behind, and at the root of the proboscis, is the calcar. In R. citrinus, the middle of the body is yellowish, the horns of the foot long, and the eyes round. In R. macrurus, the body is suddenly narrowed into a long foot. lli R. tardus the body is gradually attenuated, but somewhat deeply constricted into segments.
;

Iclithydina. Qiciatina (?)

BiBL. Ehr. Lifus. 484

Greuacher,

Pritchard, Inf.

Margin undulate or excised. Carajiace absent Carapace present

Schizotrocha.

M. Mic. Jn. 1870, 44. ROTIF'ERA, See Rotatoeia.

Megalotrochsea.
Floscularieea
.

RUBEFACTIOX
Water.
The pericarp
possesses

of

AVatek.

See

Rotatory disk divided or multiple. Divided into several parts. Polyifocha. Hydatincea. Carapace absent TiuchlauJdota. Carapace present

RUCKE'RIA. A genus of
HAUiS

Computitce. of an inter-

esting structui'e.

RUELLIA.
BiBL. Decaisne, Ann. 251 Ann. N. H. vi. 257.
;

072

SALICOENARIA.
genus of Rotathe family Ichthydina.
;
;

Sc.

Nat.

2. xii.

SAC'CULUS, Gosse.A
toria, of

RUEL'LIA.
plants.

A genus of Acaiitliaceous
See Blight.

testa of the seed of JRnellia formosa exhibits a peculiar kind of Haxr, *(P1. 28. %. 21).

The

RUST

OF Plants.

RUTILA'RIA, Gr. genus of Diatomacese. Frustules compressed, forming a short filament valves elliptical, elevated at the angles, with a central nodule, terminating in two short processes margin spinous. 3 species in the Barbadoes deposit. (Cireville, Tr. Mic. Soc. 186G, 124.) RYE. The grain of Secak cereale. See
; ; ;

Eye single, frontal body free fi-om and mthout a foot rotatory organ a simple wreath alimentary canal very large set far forward, jaws apparently consisting of two delicate unequal lateral pieces, and
hairs,
;

Char.

a slender central portion, very evanescent

;

Starch.
Gr. & Ralfs. genus of Diatomacete. Frustules simple, diskareolar valves with two opposite shaped, smooth raJ^s, dilated at their base, not R. hiradiata, Barbai-eaching the centre. does deposit. (Greville, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1861,

RYLAND'SIA,
;

eggs attached behind after deposition. *S'. viridis. Length 1-150" freshwater. BiBL. Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 198. SADLE'RIA, Kaulf genus of Blechneae (Polypodiaceous Ferns). Two species; arborescent; Sandwich Islands. (Hooker, Syn. Fil. 187.) SAGENEL'LA, Brady. simple, branchmg, Arenaceous Foraminifer, attached to NuUipores, a network forming with its anastomosing branches (1-200" to 1-65" in diameter). Admiralty Islands. Jn. Mic. Sci. n. s. xix. (Brady, Qu. 41.) SAGO. Farinas obtained from a variety

67.)

RYTIPHLCE'A, Ag.-A genus of Rhodomelaceae (Florideous Algse), containing fovu" British species, mostly common, having pinnately branched, filifoi'm or compressed
fronds, transversely striate and reticulated the articulate axis is composed of a circle of
;

of tropical plants are known by this name'; but the true East-Indian sagoes are extracted from the central part of the trunks of Palm-trees belonging to the genus Sayns, natives of the Moluccas. In PI. 46. fig. 23, is figured the starch of a sago obtained' from the Museum at Kew; but it is un-

large elongated tubular cells surrounding a central cell, the whole enclosed by a kind of rind of several layers of small coloured cells. Colour mostlv dull red or brown. Fronds from 2" to 4" or 6" high. Cemmidia scattered on the ramules of some plants ; antheridia tufted in the same situations on others ; and tetrahedral tetraspores occur imbedded in a double row in
stichidia, borne on distinct plants. truidcs (PI. 4. fig. 11).
;

whether this is the produce of a Sayus; its grains resemble those of some East-Indian Arrow-roots (PI. 46. fig. 18). See Starch. SAGRI'NA, D'Orb. (Sagraixa, Reuss). See UviGERINA.
certain

SAL A 'CIA,
Char.

Lamx.

genus of La-

foeidse, Hydi-oid

Zoophytes.
Cells cylindrical,

Stem erect, composed of aggregated

R.

trinas-

tubes, branching, rooted.

sessile,

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alrj. 80 Grev. AJg. Br. Derbes and Solier, Ann. Se. Nat. 3. xvi. 275 ; Thuret, ibid. 4. iii. 20.
;

without operculum, aduate fur the greater part of their length, on all sides of stem and branches in regular longitudinal rows. Ovicells scattered on the stem and branches. Polypes long, cylindrical, with
a conical proboscis.
'S'.

S.

abietina.

Deep water oft" Northumber-

land coast.

SACCAM'MINA, Sars. See SACOOG'YNA. A genus

Littjolida. of Junger-

(Hincks, ^yr/. Zoojih. 211.) SALICINE. The alkaloid of the willow

so-called
circular crystals of this fig. 9) form a beautiful

mannieae (Ilepaticoe) founded on Jumjermminia viiicidosa of Linnteus ; it is remarkable on account of the subteiTaneous fleshy perianth, in which character and in habit it is allied to Cab/jw(/eia. It is found
mosses, especially in alpine districts. BiBL. Hook. Rr.Fl. ii. pt. 1. 121; Br. Junr/. pi. GO Ekart, Syn. Jun/f. pi. 1. fig. 6; Eudlicher, Gen. PL Supp. 1. iNo. 472-23.

and poplar.

The

substance (PI. 39.

polarizing object.

The

obtained bv fusion.

largest crystals are

among

SALICURNA'RIA, Cuv.-A genus of Chcilostomatous Polyzoa. Char. Surface divided into rliomboidal or hexagonal spaces by ridges sarn.undiug the cells avicularia
:

disposed irregularly.

SALICORNARIID.E.
S. farcimifioides.

673

SAND.

On

old shells, &c. from

deep water, not uncommon. BiBL. Johnston, JBr. Zocph. 355; Busk, Cat. Mar. Polyz., Brit. Mas., 16; Heller,
Verhandl. zool.-bot. Gesellsch. 104. 1867, 85 Hincks, Pohiz.
;

SALTS. See Crystals. SAL'VIA, L. An extensive genus

of

Wieti,

svii.

Flowering plants, of the Nat. Ord. Labiat;, including common sage, and many species cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
microscopist glandular liairs, containing the essential oils, and the spiralfibrous structures foimd in the hairs of the pericarp (PL 28. fig. 23) and the hairs of the stigma.

family of Infundibulate Cheilostomatous Polvzoa. Char. Polvpidom erect, branched, jointed; branches cylindrical, dichotomous, with the One genus cells on all sides.

SALICORNARI'IDyE.

A
:

They

are interesting

to

the

both on account of the

Salicoknaria. SALIVA and SALIVARY GLANDS. These organs, consisting of the parotid, the submaxillaiT, and the sublingual glands,

SALVIN'IA, Mich. A genus

The

of

Mar-

sileacese,

growing floating on the surface of stagnant water (not British).

fructification resembles tliat of 3Iar-

in structure with the raceagree essentially mose mucous glands (Mouth), of which thev may be regarded as aggregations. Their 'ducts consist of connective tissue, with numerous very dense networks of elas"Wharton's duct contains untic tissue.
fibres. striped muscular The salivary corpuscles are page 518.

and Pihdaria, except that the antlieridia and sporangia are contained in separate sacs, and also attached to a sort of
silea

central cellular stroma. The pro thallium of Salvinia produces several archegonia.

See

Marsileace^ and Pilularia.

noticed at

SALMON-DISEASE.

of Rotatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Eyes single, cervical foot forked and carapace closed on the ventral surface, furnished with spines or horns at the ends.
; ;

SALPI'NA, Ehr. A genus

See Achlya.

Brain-sand, or the acervulus cerebri, is found in the pineal gland and Fig. 623. the choroid plexus, sometimes also in the pia mater, the arachnoid membrane, and the walls of the ventricles.

SAND, Brain-.

Freshwater.

The carapace resembles a three-sided box with convex sides, flat and closed
beneath, and often scabrous. S. redunca (PI. 44. fig. 24). Carapace with two curved horns in front upon the ventral end with three surface, smooth, posterior,

It consists of single, or aggregated and no-

horns; dorsum cleft, gaping. Length of carapace 1-216 to 1-144". Five other species. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 469 Pritchard, Infus. genus of SALPIN'GIA, Coppin. Cheilostomatous Polyzoa, of the family
;

rounded, dark bodies,l-2500 to 1-200" in diameter, sometimes clubalso forming shaped, cylindrical, or It is reticular masses.
dular,

composed principally carbonate and of phosphate of lime, and,

like other concretions, leaves an organic cast of the original form, after the salts have been lute acid.

Brain-sand from the

pineal gland, in bundles of areolar tissue.

Magn. 350 diams.

Eucratiidse. Char. Erect, branched

orifice lateral.

cells

elongate,
;

removed by a

di-

with spines and trumpet-shaped processes

One

species

filamentous fuci ; rare. BiBL. Coppin, Ann. N. H. 1848, ii. 273. SALPINGCE'CA, J. Clark. genus of Choano-Flagellate Infusoria. Single, in a fixed sessile or stalked, ovate or flaskS. HassallU.

On

BiBL. KoUiker, Mikr. Anat. ii. This often SAND, Sea-.

contaiua

interesting microscopic objects, a,s Foraminifera, spicules of sponges, minute shells of the Mollusca or their fragments, portions of the skeleton of the Echinodermata, &c.

marine and shaped carapace. 29 species, freshwater attached to Algse, shells, &c. Fresh53. fig. 25). <S'. amphoridium (PI. water, on Conferva! &c. length 1-3350".
; :

The various bodies may be separated from the washed and dried sand with a
mounted
bristle.

The sand

or

powder which

may

be

(J. Clark,

Mem.

Bost. Soc.

i.

1668

Kent,

Jnf. 340.)

separated by pressing or shaking newly imported sponges, and which is sometimes

2x

SANDSTONE.

674

SAROOBE.

called spouge-sand, is very rich in the above organic bodies, especially the Foraininifera.

SANDSTONE.

See Rocks.
to the

SAN'IDINE. See Rocks. SAP. A name vaguely applied

watery juices contained in living plants. Sap tiowing from wounds may contain various organized substances, such as starchgranules, chlorophyll-globules, protoplasm, and also raphides but it cannot be said to have any proper microscopic characters.
;

lung, and the pus of pulmonary abscess, the blood, the urine, the ffeces, and in the stomach of the rabbit. According to Ferrier, it is normal or constantly present in the blood of man and animals ; and may be readdy obtained by keeping blood in tubes, stopped with wool, for a week or ten days, at a temperature of 100.

We

have never found

it,

except in the

contents of the stomach.

SAPROLEG'NIA. SARACENA'RIA,

See Achlya.

Defrance. A

short,

Robin and Rabenhorst place Sarcina in but its cubical the genus Merismopcedia form and the absence of chlorophyll at once
;

thicli,

triangular modification of Cristellaria.

separate

it.

Recent and fossil. (Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. xii. 217.)

SAR'CINA,

Goodsir.

A curious organ-

ism, formerly placed among the Palniellacete from considerations relating to its structure, but which, from its habitat and the general characters, is now referred to Schizomycetous Fimgi. Sarcina venfnculi found in (PI. 7. fig. 5 a and b) is sometimes great abundance in the vomited contents of the stomach of the human subject, also in the stomach after death, where no disorder had appeared during life. It consists of minute, cubical, oblong, or even irregular masses, of considerable consistence, com-

Surff. Jn. Obs. 184-5 NaRobin, Veg. Parasit. 331 geli, Eitiz. Alg. 2 Rossniann, Flora, 1857, 641 ; Stephens, Ann. N. H. 2. xx. 514 ; Ferrier, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, xii. 163 ; Lorstofer, Wien. Jahrb.

BiBL. Goodsu', Ed. Med. and

;

1842, 430

An. and Path.

;

1872.

SARCOCH'ITUM, Hass.A

genus of

Infundibulate Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Alcyonidiidse. Char. Incrusting, covered with perforate prominences in which the cells are im-

mersed; ova scattered singly throughout.

One

species

S. ]}olyoum.

On

Ftieus serratus.
vii.

posed of four, eight, sixteen, sixty-four or more, squarish cells contained in a tough of transparent frond, apparently composed The the ceU-membranes of these cells. cells are always most closely connected in
groups of foiu-, which stand a little more apart from each other in the secondary these again have a groups of sixteen stronger line of demarcation between them
;

BiBL. Hassall, Ann. N, H. 1851,

referred to Alcyonidium.
to the gelatinous,

484;

SARCODE. A termappUed byDujardin

homogeneous, diaphanous

when they

are collected into tertiarv groups The size of sixty-four (PL 7. fig. 5 a, b). of the primary cells, or nuclei of Robin we find their appears to vary slightly diameter about 1-16,000"; they have a a colour slight brownish tint, which imparts Iodine colours the to the whole mass. alcohol contracts them a fronds brown Nitric acid does not dissolve tliem, little. even when heat is applied. Alkalies cause the fronds to break up into their constituent components. The plant appears to increase by the division of the contents of its ultimate cells into four and the formation of a new membrane around each portion, the or groups remaining attached a longer shorter time according to circumstances. Berkeley has in vain tried to get it to germinate in sugar and water. It is stated to have been found also in the
; ;

proteine substance occurring abundantly in very j'oung animals, the larvae of insects, embryos of the Vertebrata, worms, zooit is synonymous with protophytes, &c. plasm. It constitutes the whole of some It of the lower animals, as the Aincehce. may be readily studied when exuding from aroiuid the body of the intestinal parenchymatous worms, as Disfovia, Ci/sticercus, of the Infusoria, Tce^tiia, &c., or almost any
;

placed alive in water between two plates of In the course of a short time, the glass. bodies of the animals are seen to be bordered

with a row of projecting diaphanous globules (PI. 32. fig. 2 a), frequently more or less pressed together, which after a time become separated and float in the liquid, espeSpherical cavities cially it it be shaken. or vacuoles are soon perceptible in tliese globules of sarcode (PI. 32. fig. 2b), the nature 'if which is readily determined by comparing the refraction of the light at their circumference with that at the cu'cimiference of the globules themselves for on elevating the object-glass, the centre of the
;

SARCONYSSUS.
tlie fi-lobules

675

SARCOSCYPIIUS.
;

vacuoles becomes darker, and the centre of becomes brighter whilst on approximating the object-glass, the reverse The spontaneously produced takes place. cavities continue to enlarge and increase in numbers, until some of the globules appear perforated in all directions. Ultimately the globules become so altered by the action of the water, that they form a thin granular or wrinkled layer, resembling
;

coagidated albumen. The protoplasm of vegetable cells corresponds to the sarcode of animal structures.

In

certain cells it exists in

two forms

as

regards density, the outer portion being firmer than |tlie inner; or it .may become In many of the lower entirely liquid.

organisms, and probably most cells in their youngest state, it is glutinous, and in the former, permanently remains so. ^^'hen existing in cells and the lowest
animals, it appears to constitute the essential part of their structm-e, and is capable of performing all the functions carried on by the tissues of the higher or more perIt also appears that the fect organisms. cell-theory, in so far as it attributes the is principal importance to the cell-wall, founded upon error the cell-wall merely forming a protection to the sarcode or primordial utricle of plants, and the sarcode, or protoplast as it might be called, of animals, enabling them to carry on their essential functions uninterrupted by surrounding influences (1st Ed. 1856).

BiBL. Dujardin, Infus.

Ixodea, with

genus of the terminal joint of the 4 species on bats. palpi rounded or oval (Kolenati, Siiz. Ah. Wien, 1860, 576 Murray, Ec. Ent. 195.)
;

SARCONYS'SUS, Kol.A

p. 36.

Body soft, white, oval-oblong or rounded ventral surface witli transverse and unduladorsal surface with marginal ting ruga3 irregidarly concentric rugaj, the central space with numerous short and conical papillie and stouter but short protuberances or spines arising from an annidar base at the sides and upon the surface of the body Head smaU, someare also scattered setse. what narrowed in front mandibles toothed. Anterior two pairs of legs separated from the posterior by a considerable interval legs short, the anterior two pairs with acetabula or adhesion-disks and tive-jointed, the posterior three-jointed, the last joint terminated by a long seta and without acetabula. Length of female 1-100 to 1-75". The females burrow in the skin, in which the oval eggs, 1-120" in length, are laid; these are hatched in about ten days, and the yormg have only six legs. Male only about half the size of the female, and with acetabula to the hindermost pair of legs. The irritation produced by these mites and their ova is the cause of the itch. They shoidd be searched for at the end of one of the red streaks or burrows, which are often visible to the naked eye the ova are They frequently present in the pustides. are most easily found by examining the skin with a power of fifty to seventy diameters, attached to a firm but moveable arm, and with the aid of a good bull's-eye condenser. The entii'e animals may be preserved in glycerine or solution of chloride of calcium the parts of the mouth should be dried and
; ; ;

mounted

in

Canada balsam.

SARCOPSILLUS, Westw. genus of One species, on the fowl. Aphauiptera. (Westwood, /. Mn.Mag. 1875, xi. 246.)
SARCOP'TERUS,Nitzsch. Asubgeuus

Other varieties or species occur upon animals, as the dromedary, the chamois, the
dog, sheep, rabbit, kc,

legs,

of Sarcoptes. In the two anterior pau-s of the suckers are replaced by claws, and S'. in the posterior bv hairs. nidulans, in birds. (Murrav, Ec Ent. 314.) SARCOP'TES, Latr. genus of Arach-

Bourguignon, Traite de la Gale Monthly Journ. 1852, Ix.) Gervais, Walckenaer^s Insect., Apt. iii. 2G8, and Ann. Sc. Nat. xv. 9 Hering, Kriitzmilhen d. Thieve, Nov. Act. xviii. 573 Duges, A)in. Sc. Nat. 2. iii. 245 Fiirstenberg, Kratzmilhen Murray, Ec. Ent. 291; Meg(abstract in Ed.
;

BiBL.

niu. Paras. 158.

nida, of the order Acarina, and family Acarea. It is, by some authors, considered a family, divided into several genera, as Sarcop-

SARCOS'CYPHUS, Corda. Agenus

Jinigermanniese
(

of

Hepaticpe)

S'.

Ehrharti

being
tes,

Symhistes, Sarcopterus, Myobia, Otoand Dernyssus, Ltstrop/iortcs, Myocojiies,

Dialeichus.

(Jif/iy. enianjinata, Ehrh.) is a remai'kable species, of dark purple, almost black colour, growing frequently in wet places, on rocks

(Acarus scabiei, PI. the itch-insect of man.

S. scabiei

6. tig.

16)

of mountainous districts. BiBL. Hook. Brit. Flur.

Brit. Juny.
pi.

ii.

pt. 2. p.

]14;

27; Ekart,

2x2

Synops. Jung.
,

SAEGASSUM,
pi. 7. fig.

676

SCALES.
commonly supposed to possess no They are easily seen, however, in a

56,

and

pi. 13. fig.

i.

113; Endliclier,

eel is
scales.

Gen. riant. Supp.

Fig. 624.

nos. 474-1.

Fig. 625.

.^^^sK^fflrr^,

Sarcoecyplius Ehiharti.

and perigoue opened, stowing the young sporange emerging from the epigone. Magnified
Fig. 624. Perithoete

25 diameters.

show ing the Fig. 625. Perichiete and perigone opened, ba>e of the seta surrounded by the epigone. Magmlied 10 diameters.

cete

(Fucoid Algae), gulf-weeds, known from the allied sea-weeds by its stalked

SAP.GAS'SUM, Ag. A gemis

of Fuca-

The receptacles are globular air-vessels. small, linear, and mostly clustered at the base of branches, and pierced by numerous pores leading to conceptacles, containing spore-sacs and clusters of autheridia (see

dried piece of the skin, mouutt'd in balsam, covered by the skin with its pigment-cells (PI. 22. fig. 19), the whole forming a very beautifid object. In many of the common cycloid fishes, as the roach, dace, &c., the scales projects posteriorly from the sm-face, carrying before them the thinner and closely applied outer layer of the cutaneous sac, whilst the anterior portion of the sac extends into or is formed bj' the under portion of the cutis. In these fishes also, the portion of the cutis situated beneath the posterior projecting portion of the scales contains a large number of very thin and minute crystals, to which the silvery lustre of the skin is owing, and which often exhibit very beautifully the colours of thin plates. The signification of the various parts of structure of the scales has not been satisfactorily determined hence we must confine our remai-ks to simply pointing out the structural peculiarities. Most scales consist of two portions, an under, composed of numerous layers made up of very fine fibres taking various directions, and best seen by scraping away the upper portion of the scale after maceration The upper in dilute acid (PI. 22. fig. 11 a). portion consists of concentric plates, the margins of which give rise to the concentric lines so frequentlv seen in the scales
;

FUCACE^).
BiBL. Harvey, Brit. Mar. Alg.
pi. 1

(PL
p.

22. tigs. 6, 10, 22, 23, &c.).

These lines

14,

SCALAEIFOEM VESSELS.

Greville, Alg. Brit. pi.

1.

See

Spiral Strtjctubfs. SCALES OF Fishes. These bodies were formerly regarded as epidermic ft)rma-

to the nails, &c. of the animals, which later observations have shown not to be the case. Each scale is contained in a distinct sac of the skin or cutis, covered externally with
tions,

correspond to the margins of the layers, and often present a nodular or crenate appearance (fig. 116); and towards the middle of the scales they are frequently interrupted and irregularly curved (fig. lie). The substance of the upper portion appears to be
structureless.

analogous

higher

In a transverse section,

the projecting

margins of the laminae belonging to the upper portion of the scale are seen as so

its

pigment-layer and epidermis.

The

cutis

many

itself consists of interlacing fibres of areolar

tissue

with formative
is

cells.

The

piiiment-

composed of elegant pigment-cells with long prt)cesses. Immediately above

layer

teeth (PI. 22. fig. 12.) INIany scales also exhibit radiating lines (PL 22. fig. 23), corresponding to furrows in the upper portion of the scales; these are sometimes closed above, so as to form tubes, and have been regarded as nutritive

the upper surface of the scales lies a very fine membrane, distinct from the cutis, in which the impressions of the irregularities of surface existing upon the scales are
visible.

canals.

In some fishes, as the eel, the scales do not project beyond the surface hence the
;

Near the centre of some scales, as those of the perch, are numerous rounded corpuscles or solid bodies, imbedded in the substance of the upper portion of the scales
(PL
22. figs.

6a &

7).

portion of the

same

At the posterior scales are often seen

SCALES.
spine-like

r.77

SCALES.
scales presenting the characthose belonging to fishes of diforders in this system have been
:

processes

(figs.

&

9),

-with

shown that
teristics of

augidtir bodies, resembling the last in appearance, arranged in rows at their

rouuded or

ferent

bases

(tig. 8).

The scales of the eel appeal* to be principally composed of similar bodies, ditt'ering only in form, and arranged in concentric rows (PI. -22. figs. 20 & 20 a). They are solid, impregnated throughont with calcareous matter, which is left after incinerating the scales, retaining the original form of the bodies (fig. 21). In the scales of some fishes, particularly those of extinct genera aiid species, lacuufe and canaliculi resembling those of bone (PI. 22. fig. 1 c), with Haversian canals, are met with. vitreous or enamel-like layer, having the structure of dentine, is also met with in the form of an external coating. The structure of the spines or spine-like scales of the skate is curious. The larger of them consist of a button-like base, surmounted by a sharp process (PI. 22. fig. 3). The outer and lower part of the base is opaque-white, and consists of an imperfectly fibrous tissue with large areolfe (fig. 87j. The spine is hollow, the cavity being continuous with that of a rouuded body, partly immersed in the white substance (PI. 22. The cavity is filled with a pulp, fig. 3 a). consisting of lax areolar tissue with minute cells; whilst its walls are composed of a hard substance traversed by branched canals resembling those of dentine (fig. 4). The substance of the smaller spines (fig. 2) exhibits the same dentine us structure

found upon tlio same fish. The arrangement was as follows Scales enamoUed.

Ord. 1. Ganoid fishes. Those the skin of which is regulai'ly covered with angular thick scales, composed internally of bone, Most of the and externally of enamel. species are fossil, the sturgeon and bony pike being recent. Ord. 2. Placoid fishes. Skin covered iiTegularly with large or small plates or points of enamel. Includes all the cartilaginous as fi.she3 of Cuvier, except the sturgeon examples may be mentioned the sharks and rays. Many are fossil. Scales not enamelled. Ord. 3. Ctenoid fishes. Scales horny or bony, serrated or spinous at the posterior margin. Contains the perch and many other
;

existing species, but

few

fossil.

Scales smooth, Ord. 4. Cycloid fishes. horny or bony, entire at the posterior maras the salmon, herring, roach, and gin most of our edible and freshv^^ater fishes. Most of the fossil fishes belong to the first two orders, and most of the recent to the third and fourth. BiBL. Agassiz, Ann. So. Kat. 2. xiv. Mandl, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xi., xii., xiii. & xiv. ; Reade, Ann. N. H. 1838, ii. 191 Muller,
;

(fig. 5).

PI. 22.

fig.

tudinal
fishes,

row

middle of

10 represents one of a longiof scales extending along the the side of the body of most

Wiegm. Archiv, 1843, 298; Vogt, Zooloq. Briefe, ii. ^^^ilUamson, P/;//. Tr. 1849,435, & 1851 Salbey, Struct, and Growth of Scales of Fish, Ann. N. H. 1870, v. G7. SCALES OF Insects. The fine dust which adheres so readily to the fingers on
;

and traversed by a tube (a), formerly supposed to give exit to the mucous secretion of the surface, which view has lately been thrown into doubt. The tubes are visible to the naked eye, and produce the
lateral line, as it is called. The scales of fishes contain a large

number

handling a butterfly or moth consists of a of microscopic flattened bodies,

called scales or feathers, upon which the beautiful coloiu-s and opacity of the wings

amount

of inorganic matter, composed principally of phosphate of lime, but mixed with the carbonate. The organic basis consists of a cartilaginous substance. Some years since, Agassiz founded a classification of fishes upon the structure of the scales, having found that with difiTerences in the scales other great and important distinctions were in harmony. The system has been found of eminent service to the geologist: although later researches have

depend, the membranous wing itself being transparent and colourless. These scales have always been favourite microscopic objects, both on account of the beauty and variety of their forms, and the curious markings found upon them. The manner in which they are attached is be,st

examined in the wing of a butterfly. Each has a narrow portion at its base, forming a ' The stalks are implanted pedicle or stalk. and short tubes or cups (PI. 34. into small 23 b), denominated the squamuliferous fig. tubes, the orifices of which are directed
backwards.

ment

Around the points of attachof the cups to the wings, the surface

SCALES.

078

SCALES.
striae,

exhibits a number of irregularly radiating rugae or folds of the upper membrane of the wing (PI. 34. fig. 26). The cups are arranged in more or less regular transverse rows. Each scale is composed of two superficial laminje, enclosing a central lamina of structureless membrane, the surface of which is

In addition to the longitudinal

on

most

scales, especially

when examined by

highly polished.

The

scales are variable in form, both in

different insects aiul in different parts of the same insect, being oval, obloug, cordate, obcordate, or cuneate, &c. (Pis. 1 -M)

&

sometimes they

are

filiform

or capillary

Their free end is rounded, (Pi. 34. fig. 27). truncate, toothed, or terminated by a number of hair-like processes ; and they are arranged like the tiles of a roof, overlapping
26). interesting markings seen upon the scales vary considerably in different insects. The most common, as seen by transmitted
(fig.

each other

The

light, are longitudinal, simple, continuous, parallel or slightly radiating dark strife or lines (PI. 1. figs. 6, 7, 8, 9 a). These are met with upon the scales of nearly all butterLi some inflies and many other insects.

unilateral oblique light, are seen a number of minute transverse strife (PI. 1. figs. 7 & 9 ). These are neither indications of ridges nor depressions, but arise from the existence of a number of pigment-granules situated between the two layers of the scale ; and the appearance of striae has the same origin as that in the case of the valves of the DiatoThis point is best examined in maceae. brown or other dark-coloured scales. If perfectly direct light be transmitted through one of these scales, the transverse striae vanish, their place being occupied by the distinct and isolated granules of pigment the scale should also be (PI. 1. fig. 9 b) immersed in balsam or hquid, to diminish the effects of the refraction arising from the On inequalities of the surface of the scale. then transmitting unilateral oblique light through the scale, the appearance of trans;

verse

striae

may

be easily produced.

sects the striae are not simple and continuous, but are made up of rows of smaller

twos or threes meeting at an angle 28 b, 30 & 31). In others they are composed of a mmiber of bead-like dots,
striae in

(PL

34. figs.

colours of the scales of insects arise partly from iridescence, partly from the presence of pigment ; in general, the brilhant colours depending upon tlie former, and the more sombre hues upon the latter. The darkness of the longitudinal striae is caused by refraction for scales containing no pig;

The

ment appear
light,

perfectly

or are interrupted, still preserving their general longitudinal direction (PI. 34. fig. 24) or they are slightly undulate or irregular, and give off" short lateral branches (figs. 23 a
;

although the

strife

white by reflected may be very dark.

In others, again, they present dila29). tations in certain parts of their course (figs. 20 & 21). These longitudinal striae consist of elevations or ridges upon the sm-face, probably representing folds of the upper layer or

&

Upon certain scales, other irregular, more or less transverse cm-ved striae exist (PI. 34, 3 & 22) thes'e appear to consist of figs. wrinklings or folds of the under membrane of the scale. In examining the scales of insects, they should be viewed both in the dry state, and immersed in water, or oil of turpentine;
;

and both by transmitted and

membrane

of the scale. They often project slightly from the free end of the scale (PI. and when moistened, 34. figs. 3 & 22)
;

bubbles of air may not unfrequently be found imprisoned between the surface of the scale and the cover, which, being confined between two of the ridges, assume an
oblong form. They sometimes contain air, which may be displaced by liquid (PI. 34. have never been able to defig. 21).

We

tect trachea} in these folds or in

the scales.

minute conical point or spine sometimes

occurs in each of the dilatations when present (fig. 20 a). In the scales of Podura (PI. 1. fig. 12), the striao consist of longitudinal rows of minute vs^edge-shaped bodies.

the insects are pressed against the slide to remove the scales, a number of globides of oil adhere simultaneously to the slide and when the cover is applied, the scales often become partially or entirely covered with the oOy matter, producing an appearance as if the upper layer of the scale were removed, and rendering the markings so pale and indistinct as to be apparently absent. The appearance of transvei'se striae is best produced by turning the mirror to one side, so as to reflect unilateral light. brief notice of some interesting insects in respect to the structm-e of. their scales is given under the individual heads, as CuR;

When

reflected light.

Morpho, Poduba, PoLYOMMATUS, PONTIA, TlNBA, &C.

cuLio, Lepisjia,

SCALES.

679

SCHTSTOSTEGE^.

See also Test-objects. BiBL. West wood, Intr. ^-c, and Brit. Butterflies; Descliamps, Ann. Sc. Nat. '2. iii. Ill Diij. Ohs. au Micros. Ratzeburg,
; ;

long as or longer than the body, toes shorter than the foot; freshwater, length 1-72". BiBL. Ehr. Infus. 439 Prit. Inf. 6SG.
;

SCENEDES'AlUS, Meyen.A'genus

of

Siebold, VergleicJi. Anat. Pigott aud M'Intire, M. M. J. 1870, IV. o31 ; /6."1871, V. 3; Watson, ih. ii. 73
;
;

Die

Forst-Insekten

Desmidiacea?. Char. Cells fusiform or oblong, arranged side by side in a single row of from two to

&

314; Anthony,
;

ib.

1872,
;
;

vii.

&

250

M. M. Jn. iii. 1 Maddox, M. M. J. V. 33 Woodward, ih. v. 149 Beck, Qu. 31. Jn. 1864, 2 Mn. Mic. Jn. iv. 2-52 Wonfor, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1868, 80 Slack, Mn. Mic. Jn.
M'Intire,
; ; ;

rows

forming two alternating division oblique ; terminal cells often lunate, or with a bristle at each end.
ten, after division
;

Several species (Ralfs).

S. quadricaucla (PI. 14. fig. 50).

Cells

Pigott and Beaumont, Proc. Roy. Sac. 1873, 222; Wenliam, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1874, 75; Woodward, ih. xv. 2">3. SCALES OF Plants. Under the head of Hairs, mention has been made of scales (lepidesj occurring on the epidermis of
vii.

48

generally four, oblong, rounded at the ends, in a single row, terminal cells with a bristle at each end. Common length of cells 1-1120". S. ohliqims (PI. 14. fig. 51.) Cells elliptico-fusiform, after division aiTanged in two
;

They consist of flat, usually more plants. or less circular plates of cellular tissue, the
cells

distinct
S.
_

cells lunate.

presenting
centre,
;

a radiated

an'angemeut
ordi-

and generally oblique rows, end Length 1-1670". ohtusus (PL 14. figs. 53 & 54, just after

from the

by which they are

the margins are usually narily attached toothed or fringed more or less regularly by the prolongation of the free ends of the cells. They are closely related to stellate hairs, such as those of ivy, of Deutzia (PI. 28. and may be regarded as figs. 26*, 27), &c., more highly developed forms of these. They are particularly remarkable on the epidermis of certain plants which exhibit a Mud of
scm'fy surface, for example the Eleagnaceae (fig. 626), the Bromeliaceas, some the Rhododeudra, aud lower surface of the leaves
of

Cells three to eight, ovate or oblong, all alike, arranged in one row, or after division alternately in two rows. Common length 1-2330 to 1-1960". BiBL. Ralfs, Brit. Besmid. p. 189. SCEPTRONE'IS, Ehr. genus of Diatomaceae. Frustules those of Syiiedra, but the valves cuneiform. Several species, marine and fossil. (Ehrenberg, Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844,264; Grunow, 31. M. Jn. xviii.
division).
;

169.)
Fig. 626.

SClIlS'MA. genus of Jungermannieas (Hepaticae), founded on a rare British form, *S'. {Jung.) juniperina, /3. europaa, found among rocks on the mountains of Scotland,
It grows 3 to-6" high, Ireland, and Wales. and is rarely found in fruit. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 124, Br.

mauy

ferns

they must

distinguished in the last case from the ramenta of the stems, which are '''.\r'^%\ attached by the base, and scale of the epidermis of Hippophae rhamnot by a central pedicle.

be

ff?f^

^^

Jung. pi. 4 Ekart, Sgn. Jung. pi. 8. fig. 62 Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Suppl. 1. No. 472.
;

17.

BiBL.

See

HAIBSand

Epidermis.

^4^-fle, go diams.

SCAPHID'IODON, Stein. A genus of Hvpotrichous Infusoria. Free, convex above, flattened and ciliated below, pointed behind navimouth with a cylinder of teeth. cula; marine; length 1-240". (Kent, 7/.
;

family of operculate Acrocarpous(terminal-fiauted) Mosses of gregarious habit. Stem naked below, foliaceous in two manners above sometimes frond-like or fern-like, composed of leaves
;

SCHISTOSTE'GE^. A

<S'.

attached vertically and connected at the base, with dense areolations consisting of

750.)

genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatinaia. Char. Eye single, cervical, rotatory organ armed with a hooked bristle in front; foot
forked, very long, adapted for leaping. Lateral processes of jaws bifurcate, so as to present two teeth each. Foot as S. lonyicaudum (PL 44. fig. 27).

SCARID'IUM, Ehr. A

prosenchymatous pellucid or sometimes with small leaves, green cells like those of other Mosses, horizontal and All the leaves arranged quincuncially.
;

rhomboidal

flat. Capsule without an annulus, very minute, globular-oval, with a very small convex operculum (figs. 627-

nerveless and

630).

British genus

ScHiSTOSTEGA.

Calyptra cylindrically

SCmSTOSTEGE.E.
bell-shaped.
similar.

6S0

SCHIZOCIILAMYS.

Inflorescence dioecious, plants

The only
little

species of this genns, the elegant Sch. osmuiidacea, Web. and Mohr (JSch.

luminous appearance seems to arise from the condensation and reflection of the little daylight admitted, by the pellucid convex
cellules of the prothallium.

Fig. 627.

SOHIZ.E'A, Smith. genus of Schizaeaceous Ferns, of curious and elegant structure ; several species; exotic (figs. 631,
632).
Fig. 681.

Scliistostega

osmundacea.
Magnified 50 diameters.

Leaves of barren branches.

pennata, Hook, and Taylor), occurs liere and Tlie name was there in Great Britain. derived from what appears to have been an erroneous observation of Hedwig, who described radiating fissures in the operculum,
Fig. 628.

Fig. 632.

Fig. 629.

Fig. 630.

>-^

Schizsea dichotoma.
Fig. 631.

A fertile
A

pinna.

Magnified 5 diameters.
Magnified
2.5

Fig. 632. diameters.

pinnule with sporanges.

SCHIZ.'EA'CEyE.- -An order of Polvpodiaceous Ferns. Char. Sporangia 2-valved, opening down the side, crowned by a complete operculiform Genera ring indusium none.
.

2-4 rows, covering one side of close distichous spikes, w-hich form separate fertile segments at the apex of the fronds.
Schizcea.

Sporangia

sessile, in

Scliistostega

osmundacea.
Magnified 10 diameters.

Fig. 628.
Fig. 629.

plant and fruit.

Open capsule with operculum.

Magnified

50 diameters.
Fig. 630.

Anemia. Sporangia small, very numerous, forming a copiously branched panicle, distinct from the leafy part of the frond. Moliria. Sporangia sessile, on the bark
of the leafy frond, near the edge.
Trochopteris.

mella.

Young capsule opened, showing the coluMagnified 50 diameters.

Sporangia small,

sessile,

Avhich do not exist in living specimens. The germinating confervoid prothallium of this moss was described by Bridel as an alga, under the name of Catoptridium smaragdimim Agardh described it as a Protococcus
;

placed irregularly round the edge on the under side of the slightly contracted lower lob(;s of the leafy frond.

Lijgodhtm.
in
paii-s,

Sporangia solitary, or casually in the axils of large imbricated

clasping involucres, which form spikes, either

in separate pinufc or in lax edge of the leafv ones.

{smarcu/dhvis)
:

and
:

it

was long supposed

to

rows along the

of

be phosphorescent

this appears to be an error iSchistosfega grows on the roofs of sandy caves and similar places; and the

SCHIZOCH'LA]\IYS, Br. A genus

aS".

Palmellacese (Confervoid Algae).

gelati-

SCTITZOGONIUM.

(^81

SCIIIZUMYCETES.

nosa (PI. 3. fig. 16) is found growing upon aquatic plants or floating ii'ee,in little gelatinous masses composed of globular green

1-2000" in diameter, surrounded by a hyaline cell-membrane. The i-emarkable peculiarity in this genus is the splitting of the hyaline membrane into two or four equal pjii-ts by regular, clean dehiscence, the internal cell-mass becoming divided at the same time or remaining imchanged. By frequent repetition of this splitting, the internal cell acquu-ing anew coat each time, the cell becomes surrounded by a number of fragments of the old coats, held together by a gelatinous matter. Zoogonidia produced by the division and subdivision of the cell-contents. Macrocells,

murale {Bangia vehttina, Ktz., olim) Fronds of a single row of cells 633). 1-2400 to 1-2100" in diam. double, 1-1440 to 1-1260" triple, 1-720"; cells half as long as broad, dull gi-een. On damp earth and
S.
(fig.
; ;

walls,
S.

common.

^je/r?'S2<?/8

(HJnteromorphn,
cells,

Ag.).

Frond with a double row of

;

1-1200 to

1-900" in diam. length of cells equal to the breadth bright or pale green collapsed when dry. Marine.
; ;

S. Icetevirens (^Bcmgia, Ilarv.). Frond with a simple row of ceils, 1-1800 to 1-1440" in diam., rigid with a double row, 1-600'
'

bright or yellowish green.

Marine.
is

gonidia and micrngonidia exist. BiBL. Braun, J^erjii)H/u)ig, Hai/ Soc. 18o3 Klitz. Sp. Alg. 891 Kabenh. Alg. iii. 32.

Bangia lacustris, Harv., given doubtful species. BiBL. Kiitz. SiJ. Ah/. 350, Tab. Phyc. ii. pis. 98, 99 Harvey, Brit. Alg. 1. 172, and Marine Alg. 211.
;

as

SCHIZOLO'MA,
Fig. 633.
sai/a, pt.

Gaudichaud,

Liml-

'SCHIZOM'ERIS, Ktz. genus of Ulvaceae (Confervoid Algse). Char. ThaUus capillary, flattened upwards, fixed by a callous base ; growth by celldivision, first in one and then in two direcS. tions, so as to form cell- groups of fours.
Leibleinii

BiBL. Rabenh. Fl. Eur. Alg.

Fungi.

17) ^freshwater. iii. 311. SCHIZOMYCE'TES, Nag.An order of

(PL

3. fig.

These organisms consist of very minute, mostly colourless cells, or filaments, occurring in organic liquids, or upon organic bodies, from which they derive their nourishment, and the decomposition or putrefaction of which they produce by their vegetative growth. They are sometimes globular, at
others cylindrical, more or less distinctly jointed, straight, undulate, or spiral. They were formerly supposed to arise from spontaneous generation; also to be the early forms of Mucedines kc, but their development in this direction has not been traced. Some are motionless, others move by cilia, or internal undulatory motion. In some
cases,

Schizogonium murale. Filaments of frond in variouB stages of development.

Magnified 300 diameters.

which unites them

they secrete a gelatinous material, into rounded masses,

SCHIZOGONIUM,

Kiitz. A genus of

Ulvacefe (Confervoid Algae), nearly related to Prasiola, distinguished by fUiform fronds, which, when young, present only a single row of cells, but subsequently, by collateral subdivision, have two, four, or eight parallel rows. Of the species given by Kiitzing, the following appear to be British
:

constituting the so-called zooglcea-forms. They are all insoluble in potash or ammonia. They are reproduced by transverse division, or by sporangia and spores; i. e. certain of the cells or joints are more persistent, and offer more resistance to outer agencies. They are stated to cause phosphorescence

upon decomposing fish. Tlie knowledge of these organisms is very

SCHIZONEMA.

682

SCHIZOXYLON.
; ;

incomplete, and it appears that mere products of decomposition of higher organized

bedies, and crystalline precipitates and crystalloids of carbonate of lime have been in-

t.

Bibl. Fr. Obs. i. 103 Sow. 1. 183 Grev. 61 Berk. Eng. Fl. v. 130 Cooke, Handb.
; ;

16.

SO HIZOPOREL'L A,
pt.

Hincks,

eluded among them. Some are recognized as the zymotic agents in the production of disease, as Typhus and Typhoid Fever, Splenic Fever, &c. Five genera are admitted Micrococcus, cells Sarcina, cells in cubes globular, indefinite
: ;

Orifice of the cells rounded, inferior margin

Lepralia semicircular or with a notch.

Several species.

SCHIZ'OPUS,
of

(Hincks, Polyzoa, i-il.) Clap, and Lach. genus

Hypotrichous Infusoria. Char. Marginal cirri absent, frontal

cirri

Bactermm,
short
;

cells or joints single or in twos, Spirillum, fibres undulate, short, in;

and uncini

flexible

SjnriUum, fibres

spiral, flexible

Spirochete, fibres helical, long. See the genera, and the Bibl. of those
articles.

1 sp. present, also dorsal styles. S. norvegicus, (PI. 52. fig. 20) ; marine. (Claparede et Lachmann, Inf. 182.) SCHIZOSI'PHON, Kt.Bodies as in Slichofricha, but situated in the ends of a

branched
genus of Dia-

SCHIZONE'MA, Ag. A

zoary.

S.

socialis

freshwater.

(Kent, Lif. 778.)

tomaceae. Char. I'rustules short, straight or sigmoid, resembling those of Navicula, aggregated in longitudinal rows in a fihform, simple or branched, slender and lax gelatinous frond.

SCHIZOSI'PHON, Kiitz. A

genus of

Oscillatoriacefe (Confervoid Algae), containing Cttlothrix scopulorvm, fasciculata, and

Marine.

Sporangia or sporange-like bodies (spermatia) fiUed with frustules, occur within the substance of the sheaths. This form of brood-sporangia, as they might be called, appears to resemble that occurring in the Desmidiacea? (PI. 10. %. 3 A).
species in which the frustules are contained in simple tubes, form the genus Colletonema ; those in which the tubes are enclosed in outer tubes, the genus Micromega (PL 17. fig. 8). Eabenhorst includes all in the genus Schizonema. Species very numerous ; Smith describes

perhaps other species of Harvey's 'Manual.' Another British species has also been described by Caspary, Warrenice (PI. 8. this extends over large surfaces of fig. 13)
<S'.
;

maritime rocks, in dull blackish-green tufts of variable size, from 1-4 to 1-2" in thickness.

branched

The

filaments are fastigiately the basal cell of the branches broader and hemispherical (c) ochreal sheaths obscure (5), frequently exhibiting a spiral-fibrous structure in decay (d, e) apices of the branches much attenuated. Bibl. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 326, Tab. Phi/c. ii.
ei'ect

The

(),

pi.

47 Harvey, Mar^ Alg. 224 Caspary, Ann. N. H. 2. vi. 266, pi. 8 Eabenhorst,
;
;

seventeen as British.

Frond hyawavy, lubricous, bright green, much branched end branches short, numerous, patent, attenuate, and somewhat acute frustules towards the base of the frond remote and scattered, towards the ends crowded, oblong-truncate in front view;
8. Dillwi/nii (PI. 19. fig. 1 2)
.

line, tufted,

SCHIZOTHE'CA, Hincks, = Lepralia pt. Two species. (Hincks, Polyzoa, 283.) SCIH'ZOTHRIX, Kiitz. A" genus of
Oscillatoriaceae (Confervoid Alga3),of which two British species, growing over maritime rocks, have been described.
S. Cresivellii (PI. 8. fig. 17). Tufts 1-2 to 3-4" high, olive-coloured filaments curled, 1-3000" in diameter at the base, 1-12000" at the summit, in twisted bundles, peniciUately
;

Alg.

ii.

232.

valves lanceolate, 1-1020'' in length. Bibl. Kiitzing, Bacill 111, Sp. Ah/. 97 ; Smith, r. Diai. ii. 71 Eabenhorst, Aly. i. 265. SOIIIZONEU'RA, Hartig. genus of
;

corymbose above.
S. Smithii (Coleonema), Thw. Stratum dense, dirtj^ red filaments closely entwined, more or less laterally concreted, 1-9000 to
;

Aphidae. (5 species, including^;)7j/.s lanif/era on the apple, blaclf currant, fir, elm, pliun, &c. (Buckton. Aphid., Ray Soe. iii. 88.) SCIIIZOPIIYL'LUM, Fr. genus of Agaricini, characterized by the gills splitting along the edge and becoming re'\olute. *S'. commtme is one of tbe commonest exotic
;

sheaths lax, multiplithe internal prolonged and exserted. Bibl. Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 320, Tab. Phi/c. ii. Ilarvev, Mar. Alg. 223, pi. 26 B, pi. 40
;

1-8400" in diameter

cat4^,

Ph>/c. Brif. pi. "190.

codt'i

SCHIZOX'YLON, Pers. A genus of Pla;

Fungi, and is rare in tliis country, except introduced accidentally on foreign wood.

(Liehenacoous Licliens). One species on oaks, rare. (Leigh ton, Lich. Flora, 390.)

SCHULTZE'S FILMS.

083

SCLEROTIUM.
xciv. 332, Chevi. Oaz. 1855, xiii.

SCHULTZE'S FILMS. See Silica. SCPIULTZE'S TEST. This was originby Pettcnkofer as a test for but Sclmltze found that it reacted also witli several other substances, and especially the proteiue compounds. In this application it is often of use in discriminating one kind It conof tissue or substance from anotlier. sists in treating the matter with strong sulphuric acid, and tlien adding a little syrup. The characteristic reaction is the producThe best tion of a purplish-red colour. method of proceeding is to wash the substance in question, then to moisten it with a drop of syrup, and finally to add the acid. The tissues and substances aflected by it are muscidar tissue, both striated and unstriated nerve-tubes and cells; the corally proposed
bile
;

Annakn,
372.

SCIA'DIUxAI, Al. Braun. genus of Unicellular Alga). The yovmg plant is attached to foreign bodies, and consists of a cylindrical cell (), in which arc produced eight gonidia the top of the cylinder falling oft" lilco a cap, the gonidia emerge and fiu-m an umbel of similar cylinders (b), the bases of which stick iu the primary cell.
;

Each new cell repeats the process, so as to but the gonidia forui a compound umbel of the third generation (c) are set free, forming the primary cells of new families.
;

S. arhuscula (PL Confervoidea3 &c.

5. fig. 3);

on freshwater Rabeuhorst unites this

puscles of blood, pus, and

;

mucus

epithelial
;

genus with Ophiocytimn. BiBL. Braun, Alff. Unieell. 48; Ciu-rey, Mic. Jn. vi. 212 Rabeuhorst, Alg. iii. 66.
;

and epidermic scales; hairs; feathers; horn whalebone and the cellular portions (cellcontents ?) of Fungi and Algae. Those in which the reaction is not produced are areolar tissue, elastic tissue, gelatine and chondrine, chitine, silk, cellulose, 'gum, starch, and vegetable mucus.
BiBL. Schultze, Liehig's Annalen, 1849, Chem. Gaz. viii. 98. SCHULZE'S TEST.This consists of a solution of chloriodide of zinc, and is used as a test for cellulose, which it colours blue. The original directions given for its preparation are indefinite they are as follows dissolve zinc in muriatic acid, evaporate the solution with excess of zinc until it ac-

including the species with apparently a head and neck. 5 species, found among mosses, on insects, &c. (Murray, Ec. Ent. 144).
;

SCFRUS, Herm.,=5fMapt.

SCLEREN'OHYMA.

See

Tissues,
of the

Vkgetable.

SCLEROCHI'LUS, Sars. One

Cytheridce,
;

with smooth, hard, elongate, lower antennae 5bean-shaped valves jointed upper 6-jointed, with long setse
;

;
;

British species common. (Bradv, Linn, Tr. xxvi. 455.) SCLERODER'MA, P. genus of Trichogastrous Fungi having a firm peridium, which bursts irregularly, containing

eye single.

One

living

large granulated spores separated in masses

quires the consistence of syrup, and dissolve in this enough iodide of potassium to saturate it ; iodine is then added, and the solution diluted with water if necessar3^ Radlkofer recommends zinc to be dissolved in muriatic acid, the solution to be

by Hoccose veins. Four species have been found in this country, one of which when young is substituted for truffles, though withont any of
the fine aroma. BiBL. Fr. Syst. Myc. iii. 46 Berk. Outl. t. 15. f. 4 Cooke, Hanclb. 374.
; ;

evaporated at a temperature but little above that of boiling water, when a liquid of about This is diluted with 2-0 sp. gr. is obtained.

SCLEROT'ICA. See Eye SCLERO'TIUM, Tode. A

tion of fungoid

(p.

310). large collec-

water until
sp. gr.

its sp.

gr. is 1-8

if its original

12 parts by weight of water must be added to 100 parts of the solution. In 100 parts of this liquid. 6 parts by weight of iodide of potassium are to be dissolved at a gentle heat, and the mixture heated with excess of iodine until the latter is no longer
2-0,

was

dissolved,

and violet fumes become percep-

tible over the liquid.

This reagent has the consistence of strong sulphuric acid, and is pale yellowish-brown. It must be kept iu a well-stoppered bottle. BiBL. ^&!iulze,i^/or, 1850, 64.3; Schaclit, Mikroskop. 30 & 197 Radlkofer, Liebi(j''s
;

fungus. They are now all regarded as consisting of the mi/celia of fungi in an imperfect state. The sclerotioid state exists when the mycelium forms hard tubercular masses. Analogous -masses of mycelial structures occur, in a pulpy condition, in in a filamentous conthe Vinegar-plant dition, in those fungi forming large masses of barren bi/ssus, &c. ; in other cases, as in some of the Myxogastres, the structure is
;

structures were formerly gathered together under this name, among others the preparatory form of the Ergot

membranous.

SCOLIOPLEURA.
BiBL. Leveille, Ann.
Berkeley, Hort. Jn. Veg. All.
of Diatoinacese.
Sc.

G84

SEBACEOUS FOLLICLES.
damp
moss,

N.
;

2. xx.

218;

minute, in
leaves Sec.

under decaying
genus
of

iii.

97

Fries, Su7n.

SCOLIOPLEU'EA, Grunow. A

SCYTO'MONAS,
genus
Flagellate
;

Stein. A
Free,

vicula or rinmdaria,

Frustules those of Nawith the median line

Verh.

form S. persistent, flagellum single, no mouth. pusilla freshwater lengthl-1600" (Kent,

Infusoria.
'

ovate,
.

and hoop curved. Wien. BiBL. Grunow, Rahenh. Alq. i. 228.

Inf. 241.)

18G0;

Smith, Tlaresgenus of Scolopendriese (Polypodiaceous Ferns), represented by the indigenous species Sc. vulgare (fig. 221, p. 319). A family of SCOLOPENDRIE'^. Polypodiaceous Ferns ; containing the single genus Scolopendvium. SCRUPA'RIA, Hincks.A genus of S'. clavata, on other Eucratiidfe (Polyzoa).

SCOLOP'EN'DRIUM,

tongue.

genus of Os(Confervoid Algse), especially distinguished by the mode of branching of can only make out with the filaments. certainty one British species of the genus as
cillatoriaceae

"SCYTONE'MA, Berk. A

We

now

restricted, Myochrous (PI. 8. fig. 19), which grows in alpine bogs and rivulets, and is composed of decumbent filaments interwoven into a dark- brown stratum.
<S'.

BiBL. Harvey, Br. Alg.

Alg. 235, pi. 68
;

1.

155

Hassall,

Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 303, Tab.

Polyzoa.

SCRUPOCELLA'RiA, Van

(Hincks, Polyz. 21.)

Phyc.

genus of Chei{Cellularia, Johust., pt.). lostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Cellulariidse.

Beneden
Fig. 634.

Char. Cells with a vibraculum behind, sessile avicularium at the upper and outer angle; orifice spinous. Five species.

and a

S. scniposa.

Common
8.

Cells without an operculum. on Algfe, &c. Cells with a stalked reniform scrupea.
;

operculum. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 3-36 Busk, Ann. jV. H. 1851, vii. 83; Hincks, Polyz.
43.

SCUTELLID'IUM, Claus. A genus of Copepoda. 2 species, on Laminaria. (Brady,

Copep.
ii.

SCUTOVER'TEX, Mich. A
allied

175.)

Oribatidfe (Acarina),

S. sculptiis, brown-black. Soc. 1879, ii. 241 ; 1880, 177.)

genus of Eremaius. (Michael, Jn. Mic.

to

SCU'TULA, Tula-ne. A

genus of Coc-

(Gymnocarpoua Lichens), paracanina. sitic, found upon Peltigera BiBL. Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 118;
cocarpese

Lindsay, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 140. SCYPHID'IA, Duj. A genus of Peritrichous Infusoria, family Vorticellina. Char. Body oblong or campanulate, narrowed at the base, which is very contractile, covered with a reticular integument. S. rugosa (PI. 31. tig. 74). Body with or rugre, not numerous; oblique stripe
freshwater;
species.

length

1-550".

Four other

Gompound sebaceous
upon the surface with a
next figure;
(i,
;

BiBL. Clap.
658.

& Each. //i/.

S.

lobules of the compound gland follicle (root-sheath) /, the hair.

eland, from the nose, opening hair-folliele. a, b, e, as in the e, hair;

116; Kent, Inf.

Magnified 50 diameters.

SCYP'IHUS, Koch. A genus of Trombidina

(Acarina).
diversicolor,

very

GLANDS. These

SEBACEOUS FOLLICLESoR
organs
exist

pretty

SEBACEOUS FOLLICLES.

G85

SEBACEOUS FOLLICLES.

generally in the skin, and secrete a fatty matter. They are mostly seated close to the hair-follicles, into which their ducts usually opeu. They vary in form, some
Fig. 635.

being simple pouches or depressions of the skin, whilst in others the deeper part of the pouch is branched, so as to constitute a true racemose gland. The narrower portion, or it usually duct, is variable in diameter opens into the hair-follicle, rather above its middle, but sometimes upon the surface of the skin itself. Each gland consists of an outer coat of connective tissue, forming more or less thick membrane in proportion to the size of
;

Fig. 638.

Rimple sebaceous follicle, from the nose, a, glandular epithelium, continuous with 6, the rete mucosum c, contents of the gland, consisting of cells containing fat, with free fatty matter.
;

Magniflod

,"0

diameters.

Fig. 636.

ii.'--"?t..'

Development of the sebaceous

months'
foetus,
;

follicles

in
;

a sixe,

a,

hair

b,

inner root-sheath
follicle.

outer

root-sheath

d,

rudimentary

Magnified 250 diameters.

Glandular vesicle of a sebaceous eland, a, epithelium continuous with the glandular cells b, containing lat.
Magnified 250 diameters.

Fig. 637.

Cells rem the glandular vesicles and the sebaceous secretion, a, small nucleated cell, containing but little fat, and resembling an epithelial cell ; b, cells abounding in fat, without evident nuclei; c, cell in which the fat-

globules are becoming confluent; rf, cell containing a single drop of fat e,/., cells from which part of the fat has escaped.
;

a, b,

c, d,

Magnified

.350

diameters.

as above, but in a more advanced stage. Magnified 250 diameters.

SECONDARY DEPOSITS.
tlie

686

SECONDARY DEPOSITS.

from the the cutis, according to the It is lined by layers situation f the gland. of roundish or polygonal, epidermic or epithelial cells, the outermost of which are closely connected, so as to form one or more membranous layers, and contain few or no globules of fat whilst the inner ones are larger, and almost filled with these glogland
;

this is derived either

hair-follicle or

markings of very peculiar characters. As a general rule, the layers present themselves under two different types, according to the extent to which they cover the primary membrane. In one case they are applied as a general layer over the wall, absent merely
at dot-like or slit-like points,

where they

bules.

The development of the sebaceous glands commences at the end of the fourth or in the fifth mouth. The glands at first consist
of solid depressions or outgrowths of the rete mucosum of the skin, or the inner root-sheath of the hairs ; the inner cells

leave the primary wall uncovered, and thus give rise to a pitted condition as seen from the inside of the cell. Successive layers lea^iug the same spots bare, the pits become gradually deeper, and form canals running through the thick cell-wall to the primary

membrane
47.
fig.

(see

Pitted Structures)

(PI.

23).

then become filled with fat, loosened, and are finally evacuated through that part of the immature gland which in its subsequent development forms the duct. BiBL. KoUiker, Mik. An. i. 180 Biesia;

Another curious condition of the secondary deposits has been pointed out by Hartig and Mohl, where large patches or spots upon the cell-wall, especially at its base, are left
bare by the thicker secondary layers, and become coated with a thin layer perforated by minute orifices, as if riddled with holes,
or reticulated ; this is called or dathrate tissue.

decki, Strieker's Hist.

S I T S OB OF Vegetable Cells. The structures known by this name are spoken of under Cells, in a general point of view, and in detail under Pitted and Spiral Structtjees. a few remarks maybe given here, connecting the phenomena included under the last two heads.

ECONDARY DEP

LAYERS

a sieve-tube

In the other case, the secondary deposits more sparing in quantity, and are applied over lines forming a definite pattern upon the primary membrane, in which a spiral course in the direction of the long axis of the cell is more or less evident
are
;

that the original or 2yritnarif cell-wall, the layer of cellulose by which the cell first becomes really constituted as a closed membranous sac, is, so far as our present instruments enable us to judge, devoid of detailed structure it is a homogeneous pellicle. This has a power of extension by interstitial nutrition, which leaves no traces in the perfect membrane, enabling the cell to increase in size. But the increase in solidity is effected by a different process, leaving distinct evidences
:

It is well

known

infinite

modifications of this type occm*,

of

which are treated of under the head Spiral Structures (PI. 48. figs. 7, 9).
In certain
earlier
less

common

cases

we

find the

secondary layers exhibiting the pitted character, while others later-formed produce spiral-fibrous thickening, as in TaxHS, the lime, and other cases (see Pitted Structures, PL 48. figs. 4, 13, 19 i). The last-mentioned cases point to a relation between the spiral-fibrous and the
pitted layers, for in a great
to

of its occurrence, namely by an application of successive thin layers of cellulose membrane, more or less completely all over the inside of the primary membrane, giving the cell-wall a laminated character, either evident in the natural condition, or capable of being demonstrated by the aid of maceration or corrosive applications. No cell which is to form part of a ])erma-

which appears really to exist, number of cases it is possible

distinguish a spiral structure in the layers of pitted cells, or even of cells where the layers of thickening luerelv exhibit the laminated structure without an}"pits or fibrous markings. Thus, in the libercells of the Apocynace* (PI. 48. fig. 30), the thickened walls appear under a low

membranous

remains long without receiving secondary layers upon its walls. In certain
neut
tissut;

power homogeneous, while under higher magnifying-power, and especially bj^ the help of acids, we may detect an evident
though delicate spiral structure. The action of acids reveals a similar. sjiiral arrangement
of the constituent molecules, in the cotton hair (PI. 28. tig. 1), and in most liber-cuUs (figs. 2, 5, 25), in many wood-cells, as of

cases the wall (sxliibits in

its

natural state

merely the laminated htructure, withciut any markings (PI. 47. fig. 24) but in the majority of cases, where the secondary de;

posits are considerable, these layers exhibit

SECONDARY DEPOSITS.
Pinus, &c. sheaths of

iif^T

SECRETING ORGANS.
bony shells, and the less

The membranes forming the many of the Oscillatoriacese

prevails in the stones of fruits, the gritty tissue of pears, &c. ;

(PI. 8. figs. 13 d, e, 15) exhibit a spiralfibrous structure when undergoing dit^solution ; and an analogous condition may be

abundant secondary substance of spiralfibrous tissues appears to be in the same

state.

detected by the help of reagents pretty generally in the cell-walls of the tubular Confervse. AU these phenomena seem to indicate a fundamental identity in secondary layers of all kinds, to which we direct attention under Spiral Structures but it is convenient to keep the Pitted and SpiRAL-tibrous structm-es distinct. The mode of formation of the secondary deposits is not clearly known some imagine them to be precipitated from the cell-sap upon the waUs others, and apparently with more reason, believe that they are attributable to the agency of the primordial utricle, continuing its action after the formation of the primary membrane. Criiger goes so far as to consider the spiral markings, &c. as dependent on tlie RoTATiON-cuiTents of the protoplasm. There can be little doubt of the mistaken character of Trecul's view, which regards the spiral and other fibrous thickenings as folds of the primary wall thrown inwards.
;
:

matous

layers of parencliyare usually rather soft and elastic, and often turn blue with sulphuric acid and iodine alone ; those of the collenchymatous tissue beneath the epidermis of many herbaceous plants, such as the Chenopodiacepe, &c., are abundant in quantity, but of somewhat cartilaginous texture. Those of the larger Algaj, and of the thallus of the larger Lichens, approach to the same
cells

The secondary

condition, while the fleshy and horny albumen of many seeds contains abimdant deposits of analogous character (PI. 47.
figs. 21-2.3) ; in the latter the composition is sometimes of amyloid, approaching starch,

stained blue by iodine alone, and more or The less soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. secondary layer of epidermis and corky layers differs again, being usually more sparing in quantity, but very firm and elastic, and strongly resisting decomposing agents the composition appears to be of that modification of cellulose called sitherine. BiBL. Mohl, Vegetable Cell, 1852, Bot.
;

The secondary deposits appear to be always composed of some modification of cellulose.

i.

Mohl has
thoroughly
;

investigated

this

point

very

and we have followed him over

1847, 97, Tat/lar^s Scientific Memoirs, 2. Schacht, PflanzenzeUe, 1852 Criiger, Boi. Zeit. xiii. 1855, 601 Trecul, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. ii. 273 Wigand, Intercellular-sub-

Zeit.

95

much

The cellulose, howof the gromid. ever, loses its distinctive character with age, either by intilti-ation with foreign matters, or by a slight chemical metamorphosis, so that old secondary layers do not readily become blue when sulphuric acid and iodine are applied but as a general rule the cellulose reaction may be obtained by using a preliminaiy treatment. AU internal structures, such as wood-cells, libercells, stones of fruits, &c., should be boiled in nitric acid, washed, dried, and tincture of iodine applied ; then, if again dried and wetted with water, they turn blue. External structures, such as epidermal c.ells, cork, and the like, require boiling with solution of potash. Secondary deposits present considerable di (Terence in their consistence and degree of
;

stanzj

1850 Mulder, Phys. Chem.

;

Henfi-ey-

Masters, Bot.

SECRETING ORGANS of Plants; Reservoirs or Receptacles for Secretions. The structures falling under this

head have been in part treated of under the heads of Glands and Laticiferous Tissue but there still remain certain organs of analogous character, which could not be properly included under either of the above.
;

The name

development in different cases. In most wood- and liber-cells they are abundant in
quantity, in some cases almost filling up the cavity (Pl. 47. fig. 27) here they are hard, and appear to be in that state of the
;

of receptacle or reservoir for peculiar secretions is ordinarily applied to groups of cells, of variable, but most frequently elongated prismatic form, containing special secretions, either in their cavities or eff'used into theu- intercellular passages, traversing in the form of cords or bundles the parenchymatous or prosenchymatous tissues. They are almost special characteristics of families, and by no means frequent; the Coniferte, the Cycadace9e,the Alomeous Liliacese, the Polygouacese, Compositse, Umbelliferae, Amygdaleous Rosacese,

cellulose-compound which may be distinguished as lignine. The same condition

Leguminosge, &c. afford striking examples. In the Coniferse the tm-pentkie-reservoirs are very remarlcable and to a certain extent
;

SECTIONS.
they render it possible to determine the genus by their arrangement. In Pimis they
consist of bundles of elongated thin-walled cells, running through the wood parallel to the axis of the stem. These thin-wall cells

688

SEEDS.
Maurundya.
Sphenogyna.
Nicotiana. Petimia.

j
'

Hypericum. Datura.
Lychnis.
Stellaria.

Reseda.

Hyoscyamvs.
Setnpervivum. Limnocharis.
Silene (PI. 39. figs. 16, 17). Dianthus (PI. 39.

Sedum.
Saxifraga. Capparis. Elatine. Gesnera.

are densely filled with turpentine ; in some cases the cells of the meduDary ravs are likewise filled with turpentine, and, besides
these, perpendicular intercellular passages ; the latter form of turpentine-canal is chiefly met with in the bark. Turpentine-canals also exist in the leaves of the Coniferse, the scales of the cones, &c.

Lepidium.
^'igella.

Erica.
Anayallis. Orobanche. Linaria.

Begonia. fig. 15). Delphinium. Papaver (PI. 39.

Scrophularia.
fi^.

CMronia.
Oentiana.

14).
(PI. 39,

Antirrhinum. Digitalis

The

reservoirs of the Aloes are bundles

Mesembryanthemum.

fig. 18).

of prismatic cells

lar bundles of the leaves

accompanying the vascuand stems. The

The following are well seen when mounted as transparent objects in Canada balsam.
Parnassia. Drosera.
Orchis.

colouring-matter of the root of rhubarb is contained in cells of imperfect medullary The structure of the balsam-reserrays. voirs of the myrrh tree, &c. has not been

Pyrola,

Saxifraga.

Monotropa.

Rhododendron

Hydrangea,
testa or outer skin

thoroughly studied. The resin- and oilcanals of the Umbellifer^ are of great importance ; but the former, chiefly occurring in the roots, are imperfectly known. The oil-ieservoir of the fruits (vitfes) consists of elongated excavations in the cellular tissue,
filled with oil. Canals containing odoriferous oils occur in some of the Compositas. Besin-canals occur also in the common lime. Gum-canals, consisting of simple or branched intercellular passages with a special coat of small secreting cells, occm- in the leaf-stalks of Cycadacese, the bark of the Amygdaleee, the stems of the Malvaceae, Structm-es of similar nature Cactaceae, &c. contain the milky juices of certain plants, as the Anacardiaceae and these appear to be different from the ordinary Latex vessels. BiBL. Meyen, Secret.-Organe d. Pflanzcn, 1837, 18 Unger, An. und Phys. der Pflcmv. Tieghem, An. Sc. Nat. zen, 1855, 204 1872, xvi.; Sachs, JSoi. 79.
; ;

The
j j

of some of the

latter (also Begonia),

i

when removed from

the seed and viewed with a high power, exThe surface of the seed of Cobcea is mealy with little scales consisting of p^Tiform cells containino- a
hibits elegant pitted cells.
spii-al fibre (PI. 28. fig. 20).

The surface of various seeds, such as Cnllomia and Puellia, and the pericarp of many seed-like fruits, such as that of Salvia and Senecio, present remarkable Hairs. The stones of plums or cherries, the socalled shell of the Cocoa-nut and similar
fruits, exhibit remarkably thick Secondary DEPOSITS. The examination of the structure of ripe seeds is a matter of great importance in

SECTIONS.

See Preparation;
;

and

for Schiefferdecker's section-cutter, Schidtze's

Arch. 1876, xii. 91 a modification. Kiddy, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1877, xvii. 35 and Lewis,
;

Jn. xvii. 300. SEEDS. These are interesting objects for microscopic examination in respect to

M. M.

or by sections, which are most easily made by fixing the softened seed into a piece of wax. Seeds have two coats, the testa and tegmen, or external and internal membrane,
j

botany. The investigation will vaiy much according to circumstances, ^^'here seeds are large, the microscope is only required for the examination of their tissues; but small seeds must be examined by dissection with needles under the simple microscope,

many

difiereut

characteristics.

Among
;

and, according as the seed is or is not albuminous, an albumen enclosing the embiTO, or an embryo of larger size immediately invested by the coats. The characters of the Albumen and Embryo will be foimd under these heads, as also other particulars

first the variety of beautiful markings upon the surface, which render almost all saeds, like the elytra of beetles, interesting opaque objects for obfew striking servation with a low power. forms are represented in Plate 89. figs. 1418 and we give a list of kinds easily to be obtained.

them may be mentioned

under Ovule.
{

Embryos

are either
;

Mono-

cotyledonous or Dicotyledonous sometimes, however, the two cotyledons are soldered together more or less completely. In the
Conifer?e

and

certain genera of Dicotyle-

SEIROSPORA.

689

SEPEDONIEI.
;

donous Angiosperms, as Schizopeta/mn, the cotyledons appear to be four, six, or more but the observations of Duin uuniber chartre show that there exist only- two In bifid, trihd, or multitid cotyledons. other cases, as in Orchis, the embryo remains as a imperfectly developed, and appears mere cellular mass Lu the ripe seed before
;

Jungermannieifi (Henaticae), mostly tropical one species of wliich, Wooddi, {Jung. occurs rarely in tlie mountains "of the S.W. of Ireland (devoiil of fruit). BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 126; Br.
S'. )

germination this is destitute of albumen but in Orohanchc an amorphous embryo is found imbedded in the albumen. BiBL. General icorks on Botany. SEIROS'PORA, Harv. A genus of Ceramiacese (Florideous Algae), containing one crimson rare Griflifhsiana, a little
;

or seed-like fruits of the common groundsel (Senecio vuJyaris) is sparingly clothed with Haibs of a peculiar character. These appear to consist of two semicylindrical cells apphed together by their flat faces, so as to form a kind of tube with a vertical septum.

species,

<S'.

ointed feathery sea-weed, composed of single j articutubes, the joints being traversed by The spores are unknown; lated filaments. but the tctraspnres, which serve to distinguish this plant from the CaUithamnia, occur in terminal beaded strings, being formed out of the ramuli. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 170.

placed in water they expand somewhat, and the contents are expelled from the ends, consisting of an indistinctly spiralfibrous structure, which untwists and expands by the absorption of water, to twice or three times the length of the hairs, in a manner comparable in some degree to the behaviour of the contents of the hairs of Acanthace^. (Leighton, Ann. N. H. vi.
259.)

When

SE'JUS,
Uehers. 92
;

lioc\i,=

Gamams,

pt.

(Koch,

genus of Lycopodiacese, distinguished from Lycojjodimn by the presence of two kinds of habit. spores and the dissimilar This genns includes only one of our
native Club-mosses, *S'. sjnnosus {Lye. selayinoides) but most of the so-called Lycopodia, now so extensively cultivated in Wavdian
;

SELAGINEL'LA, De Beauv. A

Murray, Ec. Ent. 164.)

SEPEDONI'EL family of Hyphomycetous Fungi, consisting of a heterogeneous assemblage of imperfectly known genera-,
and difierently defined, by different authors. Those genera we have included in our list are enumerated in Liudley's ' Vegetable but Fries includes Oidinm and Kingdom
' ;

others.
is,

cases, fern-houses, &c., belong to this diviThe principal partision (fig. 428, p. 481). culars relating to these plants, especially the remarkable history of the reproduction by

character of the family that the plants produce spores lying immediately upon the decumbent filaments of the mycelium, or upon short pedicels.

The general

Genera

Artotrogus.

the spores, are given under

Lycopodiace^.

Entophytic; filaments creep-

the thickness organic substances, in which not suited to the production of distinct colours under the polariscope, may be made to exhibit them by placing a plate of seleFor this purpose, nite beneath the object. the plate is usually kept mounted in Canada See Polarization. balsam. SELIGE'RIA, Br. & Sch. genus of
is

BiBL. See Lycopodiaceje. SELEiSITE. This well-known mineral substance consists of crystallized hydrated Its crystals belong to the sulphate of lime. the colours oblique prismatic system and exhibited by thin laminse, into which they may be easily split, are very beautiful under Polarizing crystals and polarized light.
;

ing, persistent; spores springing from tlie middle of the filaments, simple, at length free,

spinous.

Sepedonium. Filaments woolly, septate, evanescent; spores globose, connate, scabrous, stalked, solitary, at length heaped together. Fusisporium. Spores fusiform or cylindrical, glued together in heaps resting on the gelatinous matrix. Epochnium. Spores heaped, oblong, apiculate, septate, adnate to the matrix, interwoven with the effused, entangled, slender filaments of the mycelium.
Fsilonia. Spores simple, pellucid, not glued together, at fi^st covered by the converging filaments of the mycelium. Monotospora. Epiphytic filaments creeping, evanescent spores globose,
;

Leptotrichaceous Mos-^es, including certain Weissice of authors having the leaves setaceous, and the capsules pvrifoi-m.
;

solitary,

SENBTNE'RA, Woods A

genus

of

terminal, at length free. Asferophorn. I'ilament' creeping, ramuli branched, the fertile termiualing in a

2y

spiral

SEPEUONIUM.

690

SERTULARIID^E.
ii.

coil, composed of about 3 joints, one of which swells into a rough-coated spore.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.

pt.

2.

356; Berk,
;

Zyyodesmus. Filamentscreeping, branched, v^-ith short ramulibeaiing echiuate spores, the pedicels with a lateral indentation looking
like a joint.

genus of Sepedoniei (Hyphomvcetous Fungi), containing two species, growing upon decaying Fungi. S. chrysospenna has golden-yellow The first is spores, S. roseum red ones. common. The species are all forms of
Sphferiacei.

SEPEDO'NIUM, Link. A

and Br. Ann. N. H. 2. v. 379, xiii. 460 Tulasne, Ann. X. H. 2. viii. 117, 4. v. 115. SEPTOSPO'EIUM. See MacrospoHIUM. SERIALA'RIA, Lamarck. A genus of

Vesiculariidse (Polyzoa). *S'. lendiyera, the only British species, is not uncommon on

Fuci, near low-water mark. (Ilincks, Polyz.

515.)
sist

SEROUS MEMBRANES. These

con-

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 350 Fries, Grev. Crypt. Flor. pi. 198. SEPIA, Linn. genus of Cephalopoda. The structure of the dorsal internal shell of
;

Sum. Vey. 497

S. officinalis, the cuttle-fi^h, called the cuttle-

sepiostaire, presents a curious strucIt is oval, flat, convex, horny outside, the interior being calcareous and composed
ture.

bone or

of the same elements, an-anged in the same number of layers as in the Mrcous Membranes. The thickness of the layers, however, is considerably less, the fibrous elements are finer, and the epithelium forms a single layer only of polygonal cells. The communication of the lymphatics with the so-called stomata is noticed at p. 485. BiBL. That of Tissues, Animal.

SERRA'TOR,
p.

of numerous friable, horizontal, calparallel, careous plates, separated by innumerable minute perpendicular flattened columns, with transverse thickenings at pretty regular intervals, producing a striated appearance.

SERTULAREL'LA, Gray. A genus of

orifice

Megnin. 5 (Megnin, Paras. 144).

See

Acarls,

Sertulariidfe (Hydroid Zoophytes). Char. Cells biserial, alternate,

toothed

When mounted

with a and an operculum composed

in balsam,

it

forms an in-

teresting polarizing object.

SEPTONE'MA, Corda. A

genus of ToFig. 640.

of several pieces. -S'. riiyosa (formevlj- Sertuhiria ?., PL 41. figs. 11 12); common upon Flusf.rfe, Fuci, &.c. at low-water mark.

&

rulacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), related to Tom la, and

(Hincks, Br. Hydr. 234.)

di'oid

SERTULA'RIA, Linn. A genus

of

Hy-

connecting this in some meaS. sure with Dendryphium.

spiloma, forming gi-een tufts on old rails, has been found in Guernsey. Several species are recorded as French
Leveille, one forming patches on vine-leaves, the The others on the potato. chains of septate spores soon break up. BiBL. Corda, Ic. i. & ii.

Zoophytes, family Sertidariidaj.

by

Fries,
veille,

Stim.

Vey. 504

Le-

Char. Polypidom plant-like, fixed by its variously branched, the branches formed of a single tube, denticulated or serrated with the cells, and jointed; cells alternate, semialternate, or opposite, biserial, sessile, urceolate, with everted apertures ovarian vesicles scattered. Many of these elegant zoophytes, which would at once be referred to the vegetable kingdom by any casual observer, are commonly found on the sea-coast, either loose or attached to shells, sea-weeds, &c.
base,
;

261

Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. ix. Berkeley and Broome, Ann. N. H. 2. v. 461 Berk. Septonema viride. Lond. J. Bot. iv. t. 12. fig. 5. Magnified 150
;
;

S.jmmila

(PI. 41. figs.

13

&

14).

Cells

SEPTO'RIA, Fr. A
(

opposite, approximate, shortly tubular, the top everted, with an oblique somewhat mucronate aperture vesicles ovate ; common
;

^e-

diameters.

nus of Sphaeronemei Coniomycetous Fungi), but probably in reality consisting of preparatory forms of Sphcerife. They grow
plants, the fusifoim sep" inarticulate thread-like " spores oozing out from a pore in the form of a tendril. <S'. Ulmi and <S'. OxyacanthfP are common;

on Fuci near low-water mark. S. operculata (PL 41. figs. 15 &

16).

Cells

upon the leaves of

tate

or

opposite, inversely conical ; aperture patulous; obliquely truncate, pointed on the outer edge, and with two small lateral teeth vesicles obovate. BiBL. Johnston, Brit. Zoophytes, 61 ; Hincks, Hi/dr. Zooph. 250. famUy of Hy;

SERTULARITD^E. A

numerous other

species

ai'e

recorded.

droid Zoophytes.

SETOSELLA.
Char. Capsules quite sessile on a liovny in scattered egfi-frerm.s contained Solypidomcapsules. British genera eciduous
; :

691

SHELL.
cells still visible.

remains of their formative

plant-like ; stem cells consistinpf of several parallel tubes shallow cups, on opposite sides, alternate,
;

Hakcium. Polypidoni

the shell in dilute nuuiatic acid, an outer layav of this membrane, inseparably adherent in the natural state to the inner surface of the shell, may be detached.
to boiling of potash without undergoing solution, and is insoluble in acetic acid ; but it is coloured by Schultze's test. The substance of the shell consists of numerous masses of secretion, or protoplasts, impregnated with calcareous matter. In soft eggs, these form rounded, loosely adherent masses (PL 45. fig. 12), may easily be detached from the surface of the eg^^, and contain but little calcareous matter; whilst in the perfect egg they are somewhat angular from mutual pressure, and abound in calcareous granules having an imperfectly
in solution

On macerating

one under each joint.

Sertularia. Plant-like
;

The membrane may be heated

stem simply tu-

bular, branched, jointed; cells vase-like, alternate or in pairs, ou opposite sides, with everted rims. Reticularia. Polypidom an investinof network of horny tubes, immersed in a homogeneous horny crust; cells short curved projections of the tubes, with simple round orihces.

Coppinia. Parasitic, massive, hairy cells long, tubular, often curved, arising at irregular distances (generally at the angles of junction) out of a cellular basis, the apertures of the cells or spores of which are often
;

themselves covered in by a lid perforated by a small tubular orifice. Thuiaria. As SerUdaria, but the cells closely pressed to or imbedded in the surface of the stem and branches. Antenmdaria. Simple or branched, jointed, with slender hair-like whorled branchlets cells small cups on the inner side of the branchlets egg-vesicles seated in the angles. Phunidaria. Simple or branched, feathery cells small, usually in the angles formed hy horny spines on the inner side of thebranches;
; ;
;

radiating arrangement (PI. 4o. tig. 13j ; this most easily perceived in the inner portions of the shell. The structure of the shell of the ostrich presents a curious variety. In a section parallel to the surface (PI. 45. fig. 14) the protoplast structm-e is visible, but the calcareous matter is arranged in the form of triangular plates, often fused together, and
is

The perpenleaving angular interspaces. dicular section is represented in PL 45. The former section constitutes an fig. 15.
interesting polarizing object.
Tortoise-shell. This substance is an epidermic formation, structurally resembling horn, in so far as it consists of epidermic cells flattened and united into numeroiis

egg-vesicles scattered. BiBL. Hincks, Hi/dr. Zooph. 233. SETOSEL'LA, Hks. genus of Polyzoa Membrampora pt. aS'. vuhieraia, on very small stones in deep water. (Hincks,

superimposed

plates.

The long-continued

Polyz. 181.)

SHEEP-TICK.

See Melophila.

A species of
is

Trkhodects{sphceroeephalus) also found as a louse upon sheep.

SHELL

OF Animals.

In

action of solution of potash (from twentyfour to fortj-eight hours), and the subsequent addition of water, are necessary to resolve tortoise-shell into its component
cells.

this

article

we

shall notice the various substances comprised under the term shell, in its common

See PI. 45. figs. 1-16. acceptation. As an example of the strucEgg-shell. ture of the egg-shell of birds, we may select the shell of the e<^^ of the coiLmon fowl. This is lined internallj- by a loosely adherent layer of a thin yet firm albuminous membrane, called the membrana putaminis. It consists of a number of very slender In fibres, interlacing in various directions. imperfectly formed or soft eggs, as they are

called, the fibres present thickenings at irregular intervals, resembling, ou the whole, the nuclear fibres of elastic tissue with the

Shells of the Mollusca. The structure of these shells vaiies in the diftereut orders, and a knowledge of the S:c. of the class respective varieties has been used as an aid to the recognition of fossils, and the deteimination of the affinities of the genera, families, &c. In the bivalve Mollusca, two kinds of structure may be distinguished, an outer prismatic or fibrous, and an inner laminated. The outer prismatic portion consists of flattened masses or plates of crowded poly;

gonal prisms, placed sometimes jerpendicularlv, sometimes obliquelv to the surface '2y 2

SHELL.
of the inner layer.

692

SHELL.

These prisms are transparent, and polarize light, possessing a crystalline structure, although their forms are not crystalline but those resulting from Transverse sections of mutual pressure. the prismatic structure exhibit a cellular appoarance (PI. 45. ligs. 4 & 11 a) and a
;

the edges of the folds were the cause of the interference of light producing the colours.
It appears to us, this

somewhat similar appearance is presented by perpendicular sections (figs. 5 and 11 b). The prisms are pretty easily separable in
the lines of mutual contact, and often form several superimposed strata. They frequently contain pigment, either uniformly diffused through their substance, or in granules. They also sometimes appear transversely striated. The inner laminated portion, which sometimes constitutes the entire shell, is either white or presents the brilliant iridescent It is tints of nacre or mother-of-pearl. often called the nacreous portion, or nacre, and when polished forms the mother-ofUnder the microscope peavl of the shops. it exhibits a number of tine lines or grooves, running in various directions, and probably ct)rresponding to the edges or intersections of the strata or laminae of which this porand it is to tion of the shell is composed the interference of light ensuing at the surfaces of these grooves that the iridescent colours are usually owing. In some shells {Terebratulce) there are tubes traversing the substance perpendicuor forming larly (PL 45. hg. 7) or obliquely, branched horizontal channels (fig. 9 a, b) in the latter case they are sometimes con; ;

however, objectionable to view, that the same structure and colour are produced by laminated calcareous and organic matter artificially formed that they are also present after the edges of the
;

must have been ground away, as in sections; and that the colours, in the instance mentioned, might have been those of a thin plate, and some of the colours of iridescent shell are known to be those of thin plates. It may be stated here that Carpenter considers the lines or striae in nacre to be produced by the edges of folds of a single layer of membrane, arranged so as to lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The same author views the shell of the Mollusca as corresponding to the epidermis of the higher animals, calcified. The outer prismatic layers of shell are secreted by the borders or margins of the mantle, whilst the inner laminated portions arise from the outer surface. The growth of shell is not uninterrupted or constant, but
folds

periodical ; hence the laminated arrangement of its constituents. In some portions of the shell of the
oyster, &c., tlie calcareous matter assumes the form of distinct rhomboidal or hexagonal crystals (PI. 45. fig. 10). These appear to be deposited in the inner laminated portion and when detached they leave angular In spaces corresponding to them in form. the tooth of the shell of Mija, groups of
;

nected with rounded cavities (fig. 9 a). In some Gasteropoda, as Cyprcea, the outer portion of the shell consists of three layers of similar prismatic structure, but with the prisms in each layer in alternately The same may be seen contrary directions. in some of the outer layers of oyster-shell, except that the prisms are nearly horizontal But in the Acephala or slightly oblique. the structure corresponds to the
generally,'

inner portion of that of the Cephalophora. Shell consists of an organic basis, in which calcareous matter, principally composed of carbonate of lime, is deposited; and by muriatic acid, the digesting it with dilute latter may be removed, an organic cast of On treating a thin the original being left. in this way, Carpenter found plate of nacre that the iridescent colours remained visible until the membrane was stretched and the vasupposed folds obliterated, when they nished j luuce this author concludes that

radiating prisms are present, forming an elegant microscopic object. The prisms existing in the outer portion of shells have been supposed to represent cells filled v^nth calcareous matter; they have also been regarded as consisting of of epidermic cells, the transaggregations verse striae (in Pinna) corresponding to thickenings of the cell-membranes where the layers come into contact and the folded membrane has been compared to a basement membrane. It is probable, however, that shell should be regarded as a simple secretion from the mantle, and as coiTespoudin structure to egg-shell. SheU of the Crustacea. The hard portion of the integument of the Crustacea, alkided to at p. 215, possesses a laminated structure, corresponding to periods of growth, and giving rise to the appearance of transverse parallel lines in a perpendicular section The substance is traversed (PI. 45. fig. 16).
;

by numerous

straight, or slightly

wavy,

SIAGONTIIEKIUM.

693

SILICA.

very slender tubes (PI. 45. fig. 16), resembling' those of tlentine. The perforated Shell of Ec/iiiioderinafa. structure of the homogreneous basis forming this substance has been already noticed In the spines of Echinus, Cidaris, (p. 274). &c., the calcareous network consists of slender tibres with large areolae at intervals, arranged in a somewhat regular pattern, and

also sometimes perforated. The protoplasm of tlie cells pass s through these perforations,

forming minute

fibres.

Sieve-tubes are found in the liljer of Dicotyledons, and in the fibro-vascular bundles of Endogens. They may be most easily obtained from the stems or leaf-stalka of Cucurhita pepo, Calamus Rofamj, Potamo()ef.on

nutans,

Bi(jnoniu

speciosu,

Vitis

traversing a solid homogeneous substance, which is thus divided into a number of ribs or pillars. The transverse section of these is seen in PL 45. figs. 6 & 6rt. Carpenter regards the c ileareous network as corresponding to the fibrous structure of the cutis of the higher animals, calcified. This view does not, however, account for the intervening substance. The method of procuring sections of shell is noticed under Preparation.

Sachs recommends that their longitudinal sections be treated with sovinifera, &c.

lution of iodine until the cell-contents are rendered brown, and the subsequent addition of sulphuric acid; this dissolves the cellwall and sieve-plates, allowing the slender protoplasmic filaments to be distinctly seen. BiBL. Sachs, Bot. 89 Ilenfrey-Masters, Bot. 4S7; Wilhelm, Bot. Centralblatt, i. 908, Jn. Micr. Soc. 1881, i. 72.
;

SILICA.

This

inorganic

substance

is

BiBL.

Carpenter,

Tr.

Brit. Association,
;

Ann. X. H. 1843, xii. 376 1833 Deshayes, Todd's Bowerbank, Tr. Cycl. An. ^c. iv. 556 Micr. Soc. 1844, i. Lavalle, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. vii. Verql. An. Brewster, Siebold, Phil. Tr. 1814, and Optics, 1853; Wood1844
oc

1847

most abundantly met with in the mineral kingdom, in the form of earth, sand, or distinct crystals.

Gray,

Phil.

Tr.

The

crystals belong to the

rhombohedral system, usually forming sixsided prisms, terminated hj six-sided pyramids. The mineral fornix are noticed under Agate, including chalcedony, and under

ward, Shells Williamson, Qu. Mic. Jn. viii. 35 Carpenter, The Microscope, 1881, 666. SIAGONTHERIUM, Perty. A genus
; ;

Rocks.
especially in spicula and

In the animal kingdom, it is met with the Protozoa, forming the

elegant
siliceous shells

of

Enchelia.

Body
S.

ovate,
tenue,

very minute,
in

so

colourless, with reflexed ciha.

an antero-lateral tuft of
bog-water.

well-known as microscopic objects, and which are noticed under the heads of the
classes, genera, &c.

(Perty, Lif. 150.)

SI'DA, Baird {Daphnia,

anct.).

A genus

of Entomostra'ia, of the order Cladocera, and family Daphuiidge. Char. Anterior branch of inferior antennae

In the vegetable kingdom, silica is a conconstituent of the epidermis of the Graminaceae, the Equisetaceae, and certain Algae, especially the valves of the Diatostant

two-jointed, posterior three-jointed

at its .anterior
;

maceae.

and with a row of spines margin legs six pairs.

S. crystallina (PI. 19. fig. 27). species; freshwater. Daphnella belongs here. BtBL. Baird, Brit. Entom. 107.

The only

SIUEROLI'NA, Lamk. Another name

for

Caxcarina.

(Carpenter,

For.

199,

223.)

SIDY'NUM, Sav. A genus of Tunicate MoUusca, of the family Botryllid^.

Amber or orange. On S. turhinatmn. the underside of shelving rocks. (Forbes and Hanlev, Br. Moll. i. 13.)

Chemically it is distinguished by its insolubihty in boiling nitric acid, and its indestructibility by a red heat. If, as Schultze fir.-t pointed out, some sulphuric acid be added to a mixture of powdered fluor-spar and sand, in a widemouthed flask, with a short tube of moistened blotting-paper in the neck, the fluoride of siJiciimi, which is evolved, is decomposed, and silica is deposited in Alms upon the paper. If these are washed in distilled water, dried, and examined under the microscope, they are found to consist of minute crystalloid "hemispheres of silica, often pointed, and grouped into plates. The finer ones present considerable resemblance to the markings of the finer valves of the Diatomaceae, when so minute as to be only visible by their lenticular foci or their dif-

SIEVE-T LJBES. These are thin-walled,

elongated cells, united end-to-end in rows, the intervening transverse portions, or bases of the cells, forming perforated sieve-like the sides next other sieve-tubes are plates
;

SILK.

694

SIPHONACE^.

fractinu-spectra, whence they were considered to represent and explain the formation of the siliceous structure of the valves, and have heen called Schultze's iilms. The coarser ones have no re.^emblance whatever to the coarser marldugs of the Diatomacese. Their relation to the valves of the Diatomacefe has been referred to under Diato-

bably

exhibit considerable diversity, and are prostill imperfectly known in most of the Codimn and Bryopsis are reprogenei'a. duced by the discharge of the contents of certain cells in the form of numerous small ciliated zoospores. Vauc/ieria is increased

by large
with

elliptical solitary zoospores, covered vibratile cilia ; in Hydrodictyon the

MACKiE. SiUca has but

action upon polarized light; in fact, Scliultze states that the apparent depolarization is due to refraction.
little

The selenite-plate will, however, render it more evident in many instances in which
it is feeble.

BiBL.

Works on Chemistry;

andSchultze,

Verh. Natnrh. Vereins. jy^-eiiss. Rheinlande, XX. 1, Qu. 3Iic. Jn. 1863, iii. SILK. This valuable substance is secreted in Insects, especially the silkworm, by two glandular organs, described under

cell-contents are converted into a multitude of cihated zoospores, which vuiite to form a new net or fi'ond before leaving the parent while in Botrydium the cell-contents cell are said to he discharged in the condition of motionless gonidia but we imagine this In addition to point is not quite certain. the gonidial reproduction, spores have been discovered in Vaucheria, and will probably be found in the rest. In Vaucheria they occm- in special branch-ceUs here, however, accompanied by antheridial cells, which produce spermatozoids, fertilizing the sporan;
;

Insects, Sphining Ovf/ans.

The

fibres of

flattened, solid, cylindrical tolerably highly refractive, and free from structural markings of any kind. Chemicilly, silk consists of a proper silkcylmder, consisting of fibroine and forming the principal part of the fibres, sun-ouuded

which it or somewhat

is

composed are

by

a coat of albumen, upon which is a layer The fibres also contain a small of gelatine. quantity of fat and colouring-matter.

cell. Spores have not yet been observed in the other genera; but it is to be expected that they will be found in them also. More particular details on the very interesting genera of this somewhat heterogeneous family will be found under their respective heads. British genera Codium. Filaments green, branched, closely interwoven into a spongiform frond,

gial

Fibres of silk

may

easily be distinguished

from those of linen or cotton by the application of Millon's or Schultze's test, both of which colour the silk, but neither of them
the linen or cotton.
is

producing biciliated zoospores in sporangial cells borne on the sides of the erect clavate branches marine. Filaments gi'een, free, pinBryopsis. nately branched, .producing two- or fnur;

ciliated zoospores in the extremities of the

The

test for cellulose

branches

equallv applicable to the same pvu-pose.

SIMULTANEOUS BUNDLES.
Vascular Tissue.
Aphida?.

See

genus of CBuckton, Aj)hid. ii.) SIPHONA'CE^. A family of Confervoid Algse, either marine, freshwater, or growing on damp ground characterized by the individual fronds being composed of large branched cells, the contents of which expelled in various forms serve for the reproduction. The fronds mostly have a
;

SIPHOCORY'NE, Buckt. A

marine. Vaucheria. Filaments green, more or less branched, continuous, producing in their apices large solitary zoospores covered
;

with cilia also bearing lateral globose sporangial cells and hook-like antheridial cells or horns; marine or fi-eshwater, and still
;

more commonly on muddy ground, damp

garden- pots, &c.

more or less compound character, either from regular ramification, or b}' a kind of
stoloniferous multiplication at the base of the cells; and in Hiffh-odicfj/on, which seems best placed in this family, the cells are always connected together by their extreIn mities, so as to form a net-like frond. the majority of the genera the cell-contents
are

Frond a spherical green Bofryditim. seated on a ramified filamentous base, the cavity of the whole continuous; the ramified base producing new vesicles, Mulsporanges, by stoloniferous growth. tiplied by the granular contents of the Aesicle discharged by a rupture at the summit.
vesicle

On damp, mostly clayey

gi'ound subject to

floods.

net,

green.

The modes

of reproduction

Frond a green bag-like Ilydrodicfynn. with usually pentngonal open meshes, formed of cylindrical cells connected bv their ends. Reproduced by ciliated zoo-

SIPIIONINA.
spores formed

695

SKIN
Ilist,

in the " link "-cells, uniting

BiBL.
wards,

together and forming a perfect miniature uet before escaping from the parent cell. See also Pvthium.

Baivd, Br. Entomosfr. ; M. -EdNat. Crust, m.; Siebold, Veryl.

Kiitz.

SIPHONI'NA, Reuss. A low form

leading
ber.'^,

SIROC'ROCIS,

Probably

the

of

mycelium of a fungus.
BiBL. Kiitzing, Sp. Alq. p. 153. SIROGO'NIUM, Kiitzing. aS. not<Mle = Mesocarjms notabilis, Hass. ; S. sticticuin =
Spiroffyra {Zi/ynema, Hassall) stictica; S. hreriarticulafiim Spiroqyra curvata.

Planorhulina, having open-mouthed tubes otl" the psondopods from the chani-

and large-necked septal

fossil in

oriiices.

Re-

cent and

the Mediterranean area.

3. xi. 94.)

(Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H.

Aphidae.
plantvS. dce,
i.

SIPHOXOPH'ORA, Koch. A
104.)

genus of

SlROSrPHON,
cillatoriacese

Kiitz. A genus of Os-

Species numerous, on a variety of S. ros(e= Aphis i: (Buckton, ^4/i-

Order of Hythe oceanic Ilydrozoa. (Huxlev, Phil. Tr. 1849.) SIPHONOS'TOMA (Parasita, orPoeciloAn Order of Crustacea. poda). Char. Body often almost entirely enclosed in a buckler, consisting generally of one, sometimes of two pieces mouth suctorial legs formed for walking or prehension, or partly branchiferous and fitted for swimming. Parasitic upon fishes, &c.
dro-medusse
;

SIPHONOPH'ORA. An

(Confervoid Algae), which should perhaps have been placed under the older name of HassalUa, This genus is principally distinguished by the solitary \ branches passing off from the sides of the rather rigid filaments, the branches arising

from longitudinal division and

of interstitial
cells.

lateral

growth

plants are black, and found on wet moors, rocks, &c. Two "S". oceUata species seem to be established

The

12), and S. compacta Leighton places the latter among the Lichens;
(PI. 8.
fig.
;

Tliese animals (PI. 19. figs. 7, 23, 24, 36, and PI. 20. fig. 1), which often present the most extraordinary forms, are found mostly
affixed to the gills of fishes

by means

of

arms, or suckers, arising from or In some, consisting of modified foot-jaws. the cephalothorax is distinct from the abdohooks,

others appear doubtful. BiBL. Hassall, Ah/. 231 Kiitzing, Sp. Alg. 315, and Tab. Phi/c. Leighton, Lich. Fl. 9 Rabenhorst, Alg. ii. 285. The larva of Corethra plumicornis, a dipterous insect, of the family Tipulidee.
; ; ;

SKELETON LARVA.

It is very transparent, internal structure.

and shows well the

ii.

men, and the head is more or less distinct from the thorax whilst in others the body presents more of a worm-like form, is occasionally ringed or segmented, and sometimes exhibits simple or branched lateral lobes or
;

BiBL.

Westwood,

Insects,

515

Prit-

chard, Micr. Illustr. 50.

SKELETONS 'MA,

Grev. A genus

of

Diatomaceae.
S. Barhddense, in the Barbadoes deposit. (Grev. Micr. Tr. 1865, 43.)

antennae are mostly rudimentary. Flattened elytriform dorsal appendages are sometimes present. The rostrum is conical, tubular, and furnished with two setaceous or styliform mandibles. The alimentaiy canal is straight, without a gastric expansion, and its orifices at the two ends of the body. In some, branchial plates form the respiratory organs but in most the same office is performed by the skin. The sexes are distinct, although they are not known in all the species. The males The ova are are smaller than the females. often attached to the lower part of the body of the females, either contained in external ovaries, or simply glued together by the secretion from a special gland, and forming long, cylindrical, straight or convolute approcesses.
;

The

SKIN OB INTEGUMENT OP AnIMALS.

:

Three parts are distinguishable in the skin an outer or cellular, forming the epidermis an inner fibrous, or cutis vera and an internal or subjacent, Imown as the subcutaneous cellular tissue. The two former constitute
; ;

the skin proper. The cutis vera or corium (fig. 641 c) consists of connective and elastic tissue, with
fat-cells, blood-vessels, nerves, and unstriated tnuscular fibres.

absorbents,

The

fibres

of the connective tissue are variously interlaced and united into interwoven bundles, forming a tolerably dense and firm tissue,

with small
laminae.

The

areolae, and sometimes presenting elastic tissue is less abundant

than the connective, and consists of net-

pendages.
legs,

The young animals have but few

swim freely, and frequently resemble the young of Cyclojis.

works of finer or cofirser fibres. The outer surface of the cutis gives off a number of conical processes or papillae

SKIN.

696

SKIN.
most but not
all places

which are frequently bifid, (fig. 641 e), lobed, or arise several from a common base. In many parts of the skin they are arranged in more or less regular rows. In certain papillfe, the connective tissue is often horaogeueous, especially in the median portion, where it forms an oval transparent body (fig. 642 rt), surrounded by a
layer of imperfectly developed elastic tissue, consisting of spindle-shaped cells and fibres taking a horizontal or circular direction, and giving the oval body a transversely striated or laminated appearance. These are called tactile corpuscles, and are most abundant at the ends of the fingers and in

areolae filled in

with

fatty tissue The cutis with a thin

641/). is everywhere covered externally membrane, and this by the epidermis, which is a semitransparent coat, containing neither vessels nor nerves, moulded as it were upon the surface (fig. 648) and filling up the intervals between the pa(fig.

the

lips.

See also Pacinian Corpuscles.

papillae are traversed by the terminal loops of the capillaries (fig. 642 d) and nerves (fig. 642 c). The cutis is continuous beneath with the subcutaneous cellular or properly areolar

The cutaneous

tissue (fig.

641 d), which

is

of a

much more

lax texture than the cutis, presenting large

Fig. 641.

644). The vai'iously arranged lines its outer surface are depressions corresponding to those existing upon the cutis between its rows or groups of papillfe. The epidermis consists entirely of nucleated cells ; and two distinct layers are recognized in it (fig. 643), an inner forming the rete mucosum (fig. 643 c), and an outer or cuticle (fig. 643 6?). The rete mucosum is softer than the cuticle, and is frequently of a brownish colour, from its cells, especially the deepest, containing granules of jjigment. These cells are not all of the same form, those immediately applied to the cutis beinof somewhat elongrated and
pillae (fig.

seen upon

Fig. 642.

l-M
e

../

L.-

,/

<^^'
Perpencliculap spcti'on of the skin of the under surface of the end of the thtimh, throueh three furrows, mucosum; e, cutis Tera </, upper part of subcutaneous tissue; e, papilJse of the cutis; y, fatty sudoriparous glands; A, sudoriparous ducts; t, orifice of the latter. Magnified 20 diameters. Fig. 642. Paitillae from the skin of the under part of the end of the flufjer. o, axial body S, nerve c, its terminai loop d, d, loops of capillary blood-vessels. Magniiled 2.50 diameters.
Fifj. 641.

a, cuticle; 6, rete

tissue

g,

SKIN.

697

SKIN.
Fig. 043.

its surface arranged perpeiulieularly upon The nwxt are somowhat cubi(ti"-. 043 b).

caF;

and their surface often exhibits

or

flat

processes "

polygonal, nuclei tliey have a distinct cell-wall,

;

teeth, forming the so-called The cells of the next rows prickle-cells." and contain one or more are

and

some have hair-like processes. The cells of the cuticle are

flattened,

colourless,

often wrinkled or folded, and of correspond to the pavement epithelium B tween the epithe mucous membranes. dermis and the cutis is situated a basement

membrane, which

is

easily distiuguishable.

In preparing the skin, it maybe hardened acid and alcohol, by a mixture of chromic and stained with picro-carmine. By keepin a digestive liquid, as ing a portion of skiii dilute muriatic acid, the conpepsiue and nective tissue becomes transparent, and exhibits clearly the muscular and elastic fibres. In the examination of the skin, sections must be made with Valentin's knife, and

these treated with acetic acid, solution of The bloodnitric acid, &c. potash, dilute vessels are well seen, as regards general

papillae of the
;

Pei-pendicular section of the skin of the Negro, a, cutis; 6, deepest and most intensely coloured layer of elongated perpendicular cells of the rete mucosum c, upper layer of the rete d, cuticle.
;

Magnified 350 diameters.

Fig. 044.

Under surface of the epidermis of the palm of the hand, cr, ridges corresponding to the furrows between the ridges of the cutis; 6, ridges corresponding to the furrows between the rows of papillae; c, sudoriparous ducts; d, their broad insertions in the epidermis; e, depressions corresponding to the papillae.
Magnified about 20 diameters.

SLATE.
arrangement,
in injected preparations,

698

SNOW.

some

form very beautiful objects. The epidermis is easily separated by maceration.

Fig. 645.

of which, OS thuse of the pulp of the finger,

Several other species are found in moss, fallen leaves, and on the debris left after inundations. In S. expalpis, Koch, there are no palpi. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. N. 2. i. 16 & 34; Clervais, Walckenaer' s Apt. iii. 173; Murray, Ec. Ent. 149. SMIT'TIA, Hincks. genus of Escliaridae (Cheilostomatous Polyzoa),=iey"a^m sp., with the secondary orifice elevated, produced, and channelled in front. 7 species.

upon

(Hincks, Polyzoa, 340.)

SMUT.

See Uredo.

SNAILS,

WATER-. Most microscopic

observers, ever anxious to determine the unknown cau.se of the curious circulation or rotation (Rotation) taking place in certain water-plants, as Vallisneria., Anacharis,
sels,

&c., keep these growing in large glass vesas confectioners' jars, or Vivaria.

These plants, and the sides of the vessels, however very apt to become overgrown and obscured by Coufervoid Algae (as CEclogonium), Palmellaceae, &c., which ma^^ be
are

Per-Hon of the skin of

;

tlie

heel parallel to the siirfnce,

through one entire ridge of the skin and part of two others showing tha arrangement of the papillse in rows corresponding to the ridges of the cutis, a, cuticle between the ridges; h, rete mueosum c, papillae; d, portion of the rete mueosum between papillae arising from a common base e, sudoriparous ducts.
; ;

Magnified 60 diameters.

The integument

of

animals

is

noticed

under the respective heads of the classes. It must be remarked that the terms epidermis and cuticle are generally used synonymously. BiBL. KiJlliker, Mik. An. i., and Geivebelehre Todd and Bowman, Phys. An.;
;

prevented by keeping water-snails in the water, as species of Limttcetis, Physa, ByThe latter are best thinia, Phmorhis, &c. for this purpose (the shell is flat-spiral). If Desmidiaceas, Diatom aceae. Infusoria, &c. are to be preserved, the snails must be carefully excluded, because many of these are consumed by them, and will not live, as the bottom of the vessels soon becomes covered, when snails are kept, with a load of excrement. The chanvcters of the snails are too long to be given here. The gelatinous masses of ova are found adhering to water-plants. See the Bibl. of Mollusca. SNOW. The various forms presented by ice or crystallized water in the form of snow

Meissner, Beifr. z. An. ti. Phys. 1863 Biesiadecki, Strieker's Hist.

;

cl.

Haut,

or Smaridia, Latr. genus of Acarina, family Trombidina. Char. Palpi slender, inserted upon a re-

SLATE. SMARIS,

See Rocks.

constitute beautiful although fugitive microscopic objects. The crystals belong to the rhombohedric or hexagonal system. Several hundreds of

rostrum mandibles sword-shaped body entire, narrow anteriorly coxse stout, distant, the anterior articulated to a fixed eminence upon the body legs palpatorial,
tractile
; ;
; ;

u.sed also as palpi, the anterior longest. S. jMpil/osa (PI. 6. fig. 36; a, mandible).

vermilion-coloured, broader in front, depressed, covered with short cylindrical Fusiform papillfe rounded at the end. scales replace the papilhx; upon the legs, palpi, and rostrum. Found upon the trunks of trees, and in moss.

Body

many of them figured. Among them may be mentioned hexagonal or dodecahedral plates ; hexagonal prisms, single, arranged in a stellate form, or terminated by rectangularly placed plates or secondary groups of needles; The angles of hexagonal pyramids. Sec. these forms frequently constitute secondary centres, around which other similar or disforms are aggregated. By some authors these forms are regarded as skeleton
siuiilar

forms have been observed, and

crystals. See also

Red Snow.

Bibl. Scoresby, ^nf/c Begions; Kamtz,

SODA.
Mefeorolocfie; Glaisher, Mic. J. 1Sj5,

G9f)

SPECTROSCOPE.

iii.

Nauiuanu, Alinerahu/ie. SODA. KoUiker recommends a solution

Ilass. A genus of Pal(Confervoid Algae) not clearly distinguished from Glococapsa and Protomellacete
coccus.
(Ilassall, A/r/cfl, 309.)

SOROS TOR A,

of caustic soda, iu preference to potasli, for the resolution of some of the tissues into their conipt>ueut elements. have been unable to detect any marked dill'ereuce between the action of these two solutions; and the former has the disadvantage of lifting the stopper from the bottle by the crystallization of the carbonate formed, so that it is with diHicalty preserved. PI. 10. fig. 15 represents the crystals of oxalate of soda and fig. 19 those of the nitrate (Urea). SODIUM, Chloride of, or common salt. The crystals of this- salt belong to

We

SOROTHE'EIA,

Kiirb. A genus of Mi-

crolicJiens, parasitic on the thallus of /'///ciis art/ena. Spores 8, 2-locular, brown. (Eindsay, Qn. M. J. 1869, 343.)

SO'RUS. The name applied to the aggregation of sporanges of llie Ferns; sometimes applied also to the groups of spores in the Florideous Alg;e.

SPATHIDTUi^l,
fertile

SPATHUEA'RIA, P. A

Du]. =Leucophn/s pt. genus of Dis-

The most common regiUar system. is the cube terminated b}' quadrangular pyramids or quadrangular pyramidal &c. Schmidt depressions, rectangular tables, endeavours to show that the primaiy form of the crystals is the octahedron, and that the cubes are twin octahedra. The crystals do not polarize light. (Schmidt, Entwurf ein. allg. Untersuch. 90 ; and the Bibl. of
the

form

comycetes (Ascomycetous Fungi), with a head running down the stem on either side. S. Jiavida is one of our prettiest Fungi when in perfection. Bibl. Grev. t. 165; Berk. Outl. t. 21. fig. 7; Cooke, Handb. 661.
uf coloured objects may be effected by means of one or more prisms in connexion with the simple or compound microscope. The prism, or combination of prisms, may be placed, either beneath the achromatic condenser, in the body of the microscope, or in the eyepiece ; and this last arrangement
.SCOPE.

SPECTROSCOPE, or Microspectro
The spectrum-analysis

microscopic

CHE>nSTRY.)

SCE.MMERIXG, Mirror of. Introduction,

p. xxii.

SOLENOPH'RYA,
genus of Acinetina.

CI.

& Each. A
a

is

usually adopted. Sorby and Browning have perfected the microscopic eyepiece.

Char. Sessile and with

roots of

membranous

lorica, tentacles simple, in distinct tufts.

On

which

Above the eye-glass of the eyepiece, is made achromatic and capable of

Lemna.

SO'EIUM, Heib. A genus

(Clap, et Each. Inf. 389.) of Biddul-

focal adjustment for rays of different refrangibility, is placed a tube containing five prisms, two of flint glass interposed between three of cro-wn glass in such manner that the emergent rays which have been separated by the dispersive action of the flint-glass prisms are parallel to the rays which enter the combination. Below the eye-glass, in the place of the ordinary stop, is a diaphragm with a narrow slit, which limits the admission of light. Objects placed on the stage of the microscope, provided they trar.smit a sufficient quantity of light, may then be examined, and their spectra observed. If it is desired to corppare their spectra with any other, provision is made for the formation of a second spectrum, by the insertion of a right-angled prism which covers one half of the above-mentioned slit and reflects upwards the light transmitted through an aperture in the side of the eyepiece. For the production of the ordinary spectrum, light is reflected into this aperture from a smaU mirror carried at the side while for the production of the spectrum of any sub;

phieie (I)iatomacea3). (Rabenh. Ahj. i. ol9.) SOLORI'NA, Ach. genus of Phyllodei (Eichenaceous Eichens). 4 species, in mountainous districts. (Eeighton, Lich. Fl. 106.)

SORAS'TRUM,
midiacese.

Kiitz. A genus of Des-

Char. Frond globular, composed of compressed radiating cuneate cells, bifid at the apex. S. spinosiim (PI. 3. fig. 22), in stagnant
turf-pools. Bibl. Kiitzing, Sp. Aly.
19.5;

Rabenht.

Aly.

iii.

81

Carter,

Ann. N. H. 1869.
See

SORITES,
Orbitolites.

Ehr.

Amphisorus and

free. AreSOROSPH^'RA, Br. naceous Foraminifer, with niunerous subglobidar thin-walled chambers (1-5" diam.), loosely attached, and irregularly crowded.

H.

confusa,

in

the

900-2900 fathoms.
n. s. xix. 9.)

Atlantic and Pacific, (Brady, Qn. Mic. Jn.

SPERMATIA.
fr.tin

700

SPERMATOZOA.
small,
in

stance through which the light reflected the mirror can be transmitted, it is only necessary to place the slide carrying the section or crystalline tihn or the tube containing the solution in the frame adapted to receive it. In either case this second spectrum is seen by the eye of the observer alongside of that produced by the object viewed through the body of the microscope, so that the two can be exactly compared. Some care is requisite in the arrangement and number of the prisms according to the
required. Crookes has devised a modification of this apparatus, in which the prisms and slit can

very
34).

though

and the body rounded, some the body is spiral

al(fig.

In the Invertebrata, a distinct body and terminal filament are present in some while in others each spermatozoon forms a simple filament tapering at the ends (fig. 32). la some instances, the body seems to exist as a short cylinder or rod in others, the
;
;

spermatozoa are represented by simple or cells with radiating processes.

cells,

amount

of dispersive

power

be withdrawn and replaced without removing the eyepiece. The spectroscope is of the utmost value but in microscopic, as in other researches its study is very difficult, and we have no space to enter into its minute details. BiBL. Sorbv, Qi(. Jn. 8c. ii. 198, Proc. Boy. Soc. XV. 433, Mn. Mic. Jn. xiii. 198 (hluod-stains), aad Beales Hoiv, &c. 269 Lockyer, Phil. Trans. 1874, 481, and Spec; ; ; Browning, Sj)ectroscope Schellen, HugSpectroscope ; Proctor, Spectroscope Crookes, M. M. gins, Tr. Mic. Soc. 1865 Jn. 1869, 371 Suffolk, Spectr. Analys. Vierordt, S}^. Anal., quant., 1876 Ward, Jn. M. Soc. 1878, i. -326 {new spectroscojie) ; Mn. M. J. xvi. 277 {me<tsurement) ; Palmer, McMunn, Spectr. in. Med. 1881.

The development of the spermatozoa is not agreed upon. In the higher animals, the protoplasm of the peripheral cells of the seminal canals gxows inwards into fingerlike processes, called spermatoblasts. In each of these, a nucleus is formed, constituting the head of the spermatozoon, the protoplasm at the end of the process growinointo the filament, so that each spermatoblast produces 8 or 10 spermatozoa. According to Kolliker, thej' are developed
witliin the epithelial cells of the tubuli, nuclei or globules arising within these, in each of which a spermatozoon is found

/roscoj)e

coiled

up

(PI.

50.

figs. 35,

36).

In some

animals, the spermatozoa are formed in bundles, the bodies and filaments Iving each other parallel with and opposite (fig. 37). Most spermatozoa exhibit active movements, produced by the action of the tila.

SPERMATIA. The

minute corpuscles
15, 16)

supposed to represent spermatozoids in the

Lichens

(PI. 37. tigs. (PI. 26. figs. 2, 3, 4).

.3,

and Fungi

meut, whence they were formerly considered independent animals but tliese movements are comparable with those of
;

SPERMATOZO'A

of
;

Animals. The

spermatozoa varies in difbut they usually ferent animals (PI. 50) consist of a rounded or oval body or head, to one end of which is appended a moveThis is their form in man able filament. and the Mammalia generally (tigs. (tig. 25), 26-28) the former exhibit an undulating membrane (Gibbes). In Birds, the body is sometimes cylindrical, sometimes spiral or

form of the

the ciliated zoospores of the Algse, or the cihated epithelium of animals; they are increased by the addition of caustic potash. In some animals, tubular sheaths are secreted around the masses of spermatozoa while contained in the seminal apparatus,

and called spermatophores. These, when discharged from the organ, are fixed by tlie male to the posterior end of the body of the female by means of a glutinous secretion. The spermatozoa are the essential fertilizing elements of the liquid in which they are
contained.

outline (figs. 29-31). presenting a zigzag In Reptiles, the body is usually cylindrical

Spermatozoa may be best examined and

preserved by washing them with distilled water, and drying them upon a slide. BiBL. Kolliker, Mik. An. ii. id. Beitr.z. Kcnntn. d. Geschlechts. d. wirb. Thiere
; ;

and straight ^fig. 33), sometimes spiral; they are very large in Amphiuma but in some of theni, the straight or slightly undua lating terminal filament is surrounded by Membrane (fig. 17). spiralfibreor Undulating In some instances, the so-called undulating
;

consists of adherent portions of the formative protoi>lasm. In Fishes, the spermatozoa are usually

membrane

ii. Wagner, Semen id. Physioloyy, WiUis Ilandwort. hy Leuckart, Wdyners d P/iys. i\;. 819 Beneden, An. Conip. ;
;

Czermak,
Todd's
.

Sieb. u. Kiill. Zeit.

;

Ct/cl. iv., art.

;

Owsiannikoftj

Mn. M. Jn.

i.

312; Lankester,

SPEKMATOZUIDS.
Jlisf.

'01

SPH.iiRlA.

Strieker's Qu. Mic. Jn. 1871; St. ({mi^^^ ii. 141, and the liibL; Klein, Hid.;
;

SPIIACELA'RIA, Lyngb. genus of Ectocarpacete (Fucoid Algte), containing a

of species, two of wliich, S. .scoparia cirrhosa, are common. They have joiuted,rigid, distichously branched,feathery filamentous f'londs, of an olive colour, a few inches high, and are especially characterized by the sphacelcs formed at. the ends of the branches. They multiply by zoospores produced in unilocular or plurilocular sporangia. The propagula are produced on the lateral branches, and are connected by a cell which may produce several of them. Each consists of a pedicel of three rays and of a multicellular pair. The rays and pedicel produce when they come into contact with those of another Alga, short shields like a prothallus, of which the peripheral cells

Jolniston,

Einer, Pkt/s. Med. Ges. Wiiiizhurc/, vi. 93 M. Mic. Jn. xvi. 61 {Amphinma).

number
and
S.

.SPERMATOZO'IDS,

ZO'IDS. The terms applied to the structures produced in tlie antheridia of the Cryptogamia, regarded as analogous to the spermatozoa of animals, and as the agents of
In the Marfertilization of the germ-cell. sileacefe, Lycopodiacese, Equisetacea?, Ferns (PI. 40. figr34), Mosses (fig. 33), Hepatica?
(fig. 32), and Characea? (tig. 31), they are ciliated spirally-coiled filaments, exhibiting

or

ANTHERO-

Tery active spontaneous motion. In the Fucoid Algae, they are globular cells bearing two unequal cilia moving actively. In the Floridefe they are minute globular cells (PI. 4. tig. 12 rt),and neither cilia nor movement have been demonstrated. In the Lichens

may

and Fungi the spermatia

27.
fig.

(PI. 26. fig. 4; PI.

15) appear to represent the spemiatozoids of the other classes, and they seem to be devoid of spontaneous movement. The details respecting these bodies
fig.

23; PI. 37.

SPH^E'RIA, HaU. A genus of Pyrenomycetes (Ascomycetous Fungi), now somewhat reduced from its ancient limits, but
containing a vast number of species, it is impossible to treat satisfactorily within our limits. The forms vary chiefly in regard to the perithecia, which are sometimes only covered by a veil, and hence appear superficial on the matrix, while in other cases they are imbedded in the matrix
still

produce new plants. Bjbl. Hijrvey, Mar. Alg. 55; Janczewski, Mem. Soc. Kat. de Cherbourg, xvi. 337.

are given under their respective classes.

which

BiBL. Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xiv. 214, xvi. o Schacht, Sperm, ivi Pflanz. 1864, &- Qu. Mic. Jn. IBGo. SPERMOGO'IsIA. The supposed an-

and

theridial

structures

figs. 2, 13,

15) and

of Lichens (PL 37. Fungi (PI. 26. figs. 1

and

4).

SPERMOSI'RA,

Nostochacese, known containing two British species from the other genera by the disk-shaped or lenticular cells but the filaments are liable to be mistaken for a Nostoc in the
; ;

Kiitzing. A genus of growing in salt marshes,

Fig. 646.

Sphceria quaternata.
Thi-ee groups gi-owing

young

state.

on a piece of beech wood. Magnified 20 diameters.

Spermosirn litorea, Kiitz. (PI. 3. fig. 20). Filaments 1-3600" thick, straightish, a;rugiuous
ordii ary cells confluent, very short ; sporangial cells at first green, depressed;

spheroidal, 1-3000" in diameter, granular, fuscous when mature vesicular cells transversely elliptical, not wider than the ordinary cells. lu muddy bracldsh ditches. P'ilaments aS'. Harvey ana, Thwaites.
;

only evident externally by black papilla, which is permanent, becoming indurated, and opening by a pore to discharge the spores in a fine powder. Many of the immersed kinds are only evident externally as minute black points or dots upon the snrface of the leaf, stem, ike.
(PI. 26. fig. 25),

the

which they
epidermis.

infest

much curved

nearly as long as broad sporangial cells exactly spherical, almost twice the diameter of the ordinary cells vesicular cells subquadiate, rather longer than wide, about as wide as the ordinary In muddy brackish ditches. cells.
;

cells

when mature, breaking out from beneath

BiBL. Harvey, Brit. Alc/a-, 233, and Phijc. Rabenhorst, Kiitzing, Tab. Phyc. i. Alg. ii. It50.
Brit.
;

sometimes numbers, distinct oi' confluent. quaternafa (fig. 646) is an example of the occurience of fi-ee perithecia grouped together, mostly in fours being decumbent, their ostioles are collected together, and they perforate the bark by a little black rugged tubercle.
<S'.
;

others are exposed freely the Sometimes they are solitary, associated in small or ]ar<^e
;

SPH.ERIA.
This
is

702

SPH.ERIACEI.

common
(figs.

ven/em

647, 648)

S. elongata (figs.

conon beech trees. is an analogous form. 655-657 ) affords an example

<S'.

of those species which are at first immei'sed and adnate, and finally biu'st forth and

become nearly

free.

Fig. 647.

Sphreria convergens.

Magnified 20 diameters.

Fig. 649.

Broome also describe the existence of the perithecia of Sphc^ria inquinmis and the conceptacles of Stilbospora jnacrosperma on the same stroma (PI. 26. figs. 25-28). It is stated by Tuhisne that the spermatia of the cytisporous forms may be conteuiporaneous with the stylospores orbasidiospores, but they always precede the ascospores in their development ; hence there is ground for supposing that they represent the spermatozoids of the higher Cryptogamia. With regard to the relations of the stylospores, it is possible that they are merely modifications of the ascospores ; but it would appear probable that they must be regarded as real gonidial structures, for which it may be desirable to retain Fries's name of conidia, just as that of tetraspores is retained among the Florideous Algte. Attention should be directed here to the
complete correspondence between the series of forms of these genera and those of the

Spliaeria verrucosa.

Magnified 20 diameters.

Uredinei, where, as in Puccinia, we spernwyonium (cytispore), the uredo (stylosporous fruit), and the perfect
have the
fruit, (perithecium).

See also Comomy"-

For species now separated from this genus see Claviceps, Hypoxylon, Xylaria, Hypoceea, and Necteia. Certain points of great interest have lately been ascertained respecting this genus and its allies, which are mentioned under the heads of the family and other genera, namely the coincidence and evident connexion between true species of Sphceria and various Coniomycetous Fungi for just as Melasmia is a precursory foim of Dothiden, Tubercu;

CETES.

Currey has published some extensive observations on the spores of the Splicerim. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 232 Ann.
;

N. H. i. 205, vi. 360, Hook. Jn. Bot. iii. 319

2. v.
;

374,

vii.

186

Fries,

Sum.

Vcc/et,

lar ia of

Nectria, &c., Cytispora, Septorta,

388, Syst. Mycol. ii. 319; Tulasne, Ann. So. iV. 3. XV. 375 (Ann. N. H. 2. viii. 117), 4. V. 108, viii. 35 5 Currey, Mic. Jn. 1855, iii. 263, Linn. Tr. xxii. 257. A family of Ascomycetous Fungi, containing a vast number of

SPH^RIACEL

and other forms precede S^j/Ksria, and many distinct stylusporous forms are associated,
usually described as belonging to distinct genera, such as fiHi/boftpora, Sjwrocadus, Thus these plants seem to Sphcerojjsis, &c.

produce three kinds of reproductive organs, as is now known to be the case with the Uredinei, viz. (1) a form analogous to the spermogonia of the Lichens (in Sp/ieeria (2) an represented by Cytispora, Szc.)
:

parasitic plants, mostly of minute dimensions, growing upon leaves, stems, bark, wood, &c., and sometimes on the bodies of insects. The essential distinctive character lies in the globular, ovate, or flask-shaped conceptacle or perithecium., containing asci,

which ultimately opens by a pore at its summit to discharge the spores. These
perithecia occur either solitary or in groups on an indistinct matrix, growing out from the epidermis of leaves, &c. {Sphariu) or they are immersed in a tuberculnr stroma
;

ascophorous fruit, the perithecium of the and (3) a stylosporous fruit, true Spharia representing the genera 8tilhof2>ora, Sporocadiis, &c. S. Lahurui has been found by Tulasne to
;

{Nectria), while in the larger forms the stroma becomes developed into an erect

exhibit all these stages, namely perithecia containing asci surrounding a cytispore, with other conceptacles on the same stroma resembling the perithecia, but lined with Berkeley and fitylospores instead of asci.

clavate or bushy structure, of fleshy or horny consistency, the perithecia being imbedded in the superficial layer of this, and opening by pores on tlie surface. Much remains to be done in reference to the history of this family, not merely on accoimt

SPH.ERIAOEI.

703

SPILERIACEI.
;

of the polyme>rphous characters of the ascophorous forms, but from tlie circumstance tliat it has recently been shown, as was suspected before, that there is a rehitiouship existing between them and the supposed genera of Coniomycetoiis Fungi of similar habit. The.'se last are in fact mostly forms of Sphferiaceous Fungi, as is indicated under the heads Coxiomycetes, AscomyCETES, DOTHIDEA, SpH^RIA, CytISPORA, Septoria. Our treatment of this family
is very imperfect, the knowledge of them being contined to few persons, and much of

or ses.sile, margined peritliecia in tlie disk, superficial; ostioleseven sliglitly prominent.

asci filiform

*** Stroma horizontal. Stroma distinct from the Hifpocrea. raatri.x, tubercular; perithecia immersed;
;

spores simple or uniseptate.

Hypoxylon.
matrix, at
veil
;

Stroma

first

distinct from the covered with a floccose

;

mealy perithecia black asci linearclavate; spores subseptate, expelled in a cloud of black powder.
Fig. 653.
Fig. 654.

it

lying scattered in fi-agments.

:

British

genera

* Stfoma

erect.

Claviceps.

Stroma simple,

clfivate

peri-

thecia superficial, in a distinct layer at the summit of the clavate stroma ; asci tubular
;

spores very long, multiseptate. Stroma simple or branched; X;/!aria. perithecia spread all over, often wanting at the summit, olack ; asci eight-spored spores
;

uniseptate.
Fiff.

650.

Fig. 651.

c':^^'

So ot
Ml'

,oaa

Xylaria grammica.
Pig. 658. Natural size Fig. 654. Horizontal section.

Magnified 5 diameters.

Fig. 652.

Biatrype. the matrix, not distinct perithecia deepseated, produced into a long neck, and frequently a beak spores simple and pel;

Stroma partly formed from

lucid.
Xylaria guianensis.
Fig. 6.50. A stroma. Nat. size. Fig. 6.51. Vertical section of the same. Nat. size. Fig. 652. Section of a perithecium. Magnified 10 diameters.

Dothidea.

Perithecia
;

uudistinguishable

from the stroma asci collected into a globose nucleus with a neck above, leadino- to an ostiolate papilla.
**** Stroma loantiny
soid,

Thamnomyces. Stroma branched, shrubby, perithecia formed from tlie stroma, more or less naked asci tubular
or stalk-like
;
;

the perthecia often seated on a tuberculous, crusiaceous, bys;

macular mycelium.

spores simple, ovate.

** Stroma
Poronia.

hetxoeen ei-ect

and

horizontal.

flaccid,

Sti'oma cup-shaped, stipitate

Perithecia free, membranous, brightly coloured, with a pale asci papilla, nucleus pale eight-spored spores pellucid.
Nectria.
; ;

SPILEROBOLUS.

'04

SPH^RONEMA.

Oomyces. Peritliecia erect, several coutaioed in a shiiiiug- sac, free towards the upper part ostiole punctiform asci linear spore iiliform, very long. Splueria. Peritliecia black, papilla covered by a veil or by the matrix, soujetimes beaked, asci usually indurated, ostiolate, black eig-ht-spored spores usually septate, discharged as a powder.
;
;

.sporange, containing spores without elaters, Clowned by a curious Uttle styliform process.
ture.

The spores are discharged by irregular rupThe walls of the sporange are com-

posed of simple parenchymatous cells, without spiral-fibrous layers. While the sporange is ripening, the perichsete enlarges
into a loose, obconical, green
sac,

membranous

through the thin walls of which the

is

globular sporange
Fig. 657.

visible (fig. 658).

Fig. 658.
Fig. 655.

Fio-.

656.
6ph:erocarpu3 terrestris.

frond with periebsetes containing sporanges; one cut open. Magnified 10 diameters.

Siilioeria

elongata.

size. Fig. 6-'i5. Eiumpent lines of perithecia. Nat. 20 Fig. 666. Portion of one in end view. Magnified

diameters.
Fig. 657. Asci

RiBL. Hook. B): Flor. ii. pt. 1. 103 BisNova Acta, xiii. 150 Lindeuberg, ib. xviii. 406 Fitt, Huoker's J,i. Bot. 1847, vi.
;

cliofl".

and paraphysea from a perithecium.

287.

Magnified 200 diameters.

SPILEROCOC'CUS, Stackh. A
of

of Kididavini (Gasteromycetous Fungi), conof several layers, the sisting of a peridium inner one of which is suddenly reversed, and discharges the globose sporangia. BiBL. Tul. Fimq. Hyp. t. 21. f. 11 Berk. Oiifl. tab. 21. f. 2 Cooke, Handh. 412.
; ;

SPIT^.ROB'OLUS, Tode. A genus

genus Rhodymeniaceai (Florideous Algfe), con-

taining one British species, S. coronopifolms (PL 44. fig. 14), having a flat, linear, 'distichously branched frond of crimson colour and cartilaginous texture, of fan-like outhne; parenchymatous, with an internal denser rib and cortical layer; 6 to 12" long. The

SPHyEROCAR'PUS,
CAItPTJS.

Kiitz.

= Staubo-

SPH.EROCARTUS, Mich. A

genus

S. terrestris (fig. ofRiccieffi (Hepaticae). 658) is a minute Liverwort growing on the in clover- fields. ground, especially, it is said, The ironds are from 1-4 to 1-2" long, palish

upper branches have their margins set with minute tooth-like processes, about 1-24" long, in some of which the spherical conceptacles are imbedded. BiBL. Harv. Mar. Ahj. 128; Greville,
Alq. Br.

the lower green, very thin and membranous, surface adhering to the ground by radical The middle part of the upper .surface hairs.

bears a quantity of fruits, which consist at of urchegonia and anthcridia, like tho.se of other Liverworts, surrounded by a cu])like open pei-icha;te (?), which gradually grows up over the fertilized archegonium and closes at the lop, so as to form a pyriform sac, presenting an oriliceat thesunmiit. The archegonium ripens into a globular
first

roundish, sublobate, hyaline P'oraminifev, near Glohibut of denser structure, and folded (jerina, somewhat like a Miliola. Recent and fossil. S. anstriaca (PI. 24. fig. 4). BiBL. Carpenter, Introd. For. 185. SPIlyEROM'PIIALE. A genus of Trypetheliene (Angiocarpous Lichens), rehited to J^erriiraria.

SPH^ROIBI'NA, D'Orb. A

pi. 15.

nearly
of

SPHtERONE'MA,

Fr.

genus

S]iha'ronemei (Stylosporous Fungi), characterized chiefly by the spores wliich emeige from the pore becoming glued together into

SPH^RONEMEI.

'05

SPILEROPHORON.

a firm globule. The species, which grow upon the surface of decaying plants, are probably onl)' forms belonging to Sphajriaceous
genera.

ficially

Hendersonia. Conceptacle fleshy, superinnate or immersed, perforated by a ostiole pore, opening irregularly or ostiolate, more or less produced ; spores globose, cylindrical, or discoid.

BiBL. Berk. Bi: Fl ii. pt. 2. 281 Ann. N. H. vi. 363, lb. 2. v. 371 Fries, Sum. Veget.
;

400.

mersed,

SPFL'EK0NE:ME'I. A family of minute Stylosporous Fungi, growing on bark, or more or less dry stems or leaves, chai'acterized by the couceptacle ordinarily bursting by a pore or ostiole, or a Ud, to extrude, in most cases, a gelatinous ball of filaments mixed with spores. From recent observations it appears that the genera do not conbut are forms sist of independent species, which occur in combination with Ascomycetous forms to complete the whole development of an individual, the Sphajrouemeous genera constituting the stylosporous or couidial fruits of Sphaeriacei, &c., corresponding perhaps to the tetraspores found in the Florideous Algee, which also

Septoria. Conceptacle hom^y, innate-imrounded, ostiole simple ; spores

cylindrical, septate.

Vermicidaria. Conceptacle
pressed, bursting irregularly
linear.
;

bristly,

de-

spores minute,
;

Neottiospora. Conceptacles immersed short spores appeudaged at one end with hyaline threads. ProstJiemium. Conceptacle horny, immerostiole simple; spores transversely filaseptate, verticillate at the apex of their

sed,

ments. Asteroma,
slightly
fibrils.

Conceptacle prominent, close,

seated on

more

small, subconfluent, or less distinct radiating

very

Sph^ria). (see possess proper spores British genera ConiuthyrhiDi. Conceptacle free, membranous, opening by an irregular pore at the summit spores globular. Leptostroma. Conceptacle innate, subumbouate in the centre, dimidiate, at length falling off, leaving a very thin disk.
:

Angiopoma. Conceptacles free, membranous, somewhat horny, cup-shaped, dehiscing by a cu'cular mouth, provided with a fugacious epiphragm spores affixed at the base, stalked, septate. Discosia. Conceptacles innate, somewhat carbonaceous, at length coUapsed and plicate, ostiole perforated ; spores fusiform, produced at both ends into a thread-like point.
;

Phoma. Conceptacle
innate,
;

ostiolate, very thin, immersed, roimded, with a simple

pore spores oblong, simple. Lepfothyrium. Conceptacle operculate, innate, shield-shaped, not radiate-fibrous spores spindle-shaped, simple. Actinuthyrium. Conceptacle operculate, innate, shield-shaped, radiate-fibrous spores spindle-shaped, simple. Microthecium. Conceptacle indehiscent, membranous, immersed, endophytic spores simple. Cryptosporium. Conceptacle membranous, opening u'regularly at the summit spores spindle-shaped, simple. Sphceronema. Conceptacle homy, innatesuperficial, more or less produced into a
: ;

Piggotia. Conceptacles very irregulai', thin, obsolete beneath, confluent into a rugulose patch, bursting by an irregular crack
;

spores

on short

stalks,

largish,

obovate,

somewhat

constricted towards the base.

Phlyctana. Conceptacle spurious, formed by the blackened epidermis; spores fusiform, cuspidate, septate, emerging accompanied by a gelatinous mass. Glceosporium. Couceptacle absent spores covered only by the cuticle, which separates
;
;

spores

longish, elliptical, simple, exuding a gelatinous tendril. Dilophosphora. Conceptacle immersed in

;

stalked,

a spurious stroma, covered, perforated by a pore spores cylindrical, continuous, crowded at both ends with radiating filiform
appendages.
Splueropsis. Couceptacle spherical, immersed, subinuate, astomous, at length (by the separation of the epidermis) bursting by circumscissUe dehiscence or irregularly.

neck, ostiole sunple spores oblong, simple. Acrospermum. Conceptacle leathery externally, fleshy within, elougate-clavate, ostiole simple spores stick-shaped, simple. Diplodia. Conceptacle horny, innate-superficial or immersed, perforated by a pore or irregularly opened or ostiolate, ostiole more or less produced spores ovoid or ellipsoid, double, then halved into com;

Spores simple.

SPH^ROPH'ORON,
tilaginous,

Pers.Agenus of
Thal-

Epiconiodei (Lichenaceous Lichens).

internally
solid

lus erect, shi'ubby, externally crustaceo-car-

pressed-ternate semieUipsoid sporules.

and cottony.

2z

SPH^ROPHRYA.

706

SPH.EROPLEA.
From

the peritlieApotliecia terminal, spherical, cium, formed of the thaUus, closed, dehiscing

void at this time of a cellulose coat.

Nucleus globular, internally floccoso-cartilaginous, the discharged (black) sporidia crowded in the circumference.
irregularly. S. coralloicles (fig. 395, p. 463),
f/ile,

two to six minute orifices are preceptible at this time in the partially softened wall of
the parent cell. While these phenomena are occm-ring in some of the cells, a different change takes place in others. The green bands assume a reddisli-yellow colour, their
starcli disappears, and they are gradually converted into myriads of short stick-shaped " swarm " in bodies, which break apart and vast numbers, filling the whole cell, moving

and S.fra-

common on
compactum

sand-rocks,
is rare.

S.

among mosses. The spermoyonia

occur at the ends of the more delicate branchlets of the thaUus. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1, 236 ; LeighTulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. ton, Lich. Fl. 48 xviii. 209.
;

SPH^ROPH'RYA,
genus of Acinetina.
;

Clap, et

Lach. A

Char. Tentacles simple, radiate ; no sheath or peduncle body free. freshwater. S. pusilla, small, spherical
;

actively in all dLrections. The gelatinous coat of some of the vacuoles sometimes remains intact and these then He free in the cavity of the cell, and are often carried about by the rapid motion of the corpuscles. Orifice's are meanwhile formed in these cells also,
;

(Clap, et Lach. Inf. 385.)

SPILEROP'LEA, Ag.A genus of Cou-

fervacete of uncertain position, but probably allied to the Chsetophoracese. It is characterized chiefly by the formation of the The plants consist of simple filaspores. ments, Avith long joints, at first containing

green colouring-matter excavated by large vacuoles, producing a banded appearance (PL 9. fig. 14 a), the contents in the fertile cells finally resolving themselves into numerous spinulose globular spores arranged in
longitudinal rows (6),

which become red

spores of
*S'.

when ripe. The development of the

lina has

cmtiu;

been observed by several authors and Cohn has published an account of the formation of spermatozoids in distinct cells, The filaexercising a fertilizing function. ments, which always terminate in pointed
hair-like ends, present when actively vegetating the excavated or banded appearance of the green contents above noticed the vacuoles separating the bands of a proper,
;

about colourless, mucilaginous coat. to produce spores the regidarity of the bauds vanishes, the vacuoles multiply in number in
the substance of the bands, and the contents with present the appearance of a gveenfroi/i After starch-granules scattered through it. a time a number of green corpuscles, the line of the cell spores, appear in the median these assume a stellate shape, with radiating threads of protoplasm connecting them together they soon appear in pairs, sepai-ated by transverse false septa, formed by the flattened vesicles of the vacuoles. The spores and the gradually become better defined, then the young spores false septa disappear as globular bodies, depresent themselves
;
;.
;

When

through which the stick-shaped bodies (spermatozoids) escape into the water. Their length is about 1-3000". The hinder end now appears somewhat swollen, and they bear two long cilia on the pointed beak in fact resemblmg the mivrogonidia of the other Confervoids. Cohn states he has seen them accumulate aroimd the orifices of the sporecells, enter the cavities of these, and swarm about in the interior, in considerable numbers, at length adhering to the young spores. These restiug-spores then acqiui-e a membrane, and under this a second , which is first smooth, but afterwards at_ presents a spinulose or stellate appearance; the first coat is then thrown oft, and a third, smooth coat appears under the stellate coat, closely These conditions investing the contents. resemble those of the spores of Spirogyba and other Confervoids Spirogyra, however, retains the outer coat until germination. The green contents of the spores ultimately turn red. Their size and number in a cell vary much. Cohn has also observed the gemiinatiou of these spores, which is interesting in several respects. Their ordinary size is from 1-1200 to 1-1500" ; and they present, as above mentioned, two coats, the outer elegantly marked most authors describe it as stellate Kiitzing asserts that it is spirally folded. The real fact is, that it is plaited in the direction of meridians from pole to pole, and thus appears stellate when seen at either pole, marked with lines Avhen seen sideways. The spores do not appear to germinate until the spring following their production. The red contents begin to assume a green colom- from the' surface inwai-ds, divided into two, then into four or eight which break out from the sporeportions,
; ;
;

SPH.EROPSIS.
cell,

707

SPHrEROZYGA,
;

and swim about as

spores,

free biciliated zooof globidar or shortly cylindrical

form, from 1-2280 to 1-1680" long, either bright red or particoloured red and green, the point bearing the cilia, however, always colourless. After a time they become coated with a cellulose membrane, cease to move, and grow into a spindle-shaped body, the ends prolonged into hair-like points. The growth appears to be always in the middle, the hair-Uke points remaining thus the spindle-shape is retained until the length reaches 1-24' or more, and the first septum appears in the middle of the filament, S. annulina (PI. 9. fig. 14) appears to be It is a rare the only well-known form. it Conferva, growing on flooded fields does not seem to have been recorded in
; ;

Cells about as long as 10, side view). broad connecting processes oblique, one on Not each side. Length of cell 1-1430".
fig.

uncommon
S.
side.

excavatum.

in ditches. Cells longer

sessile,

than broad

connecting processes

two on each
;

Length of cell 1-2570". After separation, the cells conjugate sporangia elliptical. Other species. BiBL. Ralfe, Br. Desmid, 65 Rabenht.
;

Aly.

iii.

148.

SPH.EROZO'UM. A

genus of Radio-

larian Rhizopoda. It consists of a spherical group of rounded bodies consisting of sarcode with distinct nuclei, surrounded by a zone of siliceous spicules, the whole being imbedded in a common gelatinous matrix. The centre of the

Britain.

For Sph.

crispa

and

purictalis, see

Ulo;

mass is vacuolated; and the whole often becomes a hoUow sphere. (Huxley, Comp,
Anaf.
;

THEIX. BiBL. Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 362, & Tab. PJtyc. Braun, T'erjiinc/unf/, Ray Soc. 1853, 165; Cohu, Ber. Berlin. Ak. 1855 Ann. Sc.Nat. 4. v. 187 Ann. N. H. 2. viii. 81 CienkowsM, Bot. Zeit. xiii. 777 Eabeuht. Ahj. iii. 318.
; ; ;
;

Carpenter, Microscope.')

SPILEROZ'YGA, Agardh
Bory, Brebisson).

genus of Nostochacese, difleriug from the allied genera only in the sporaugial ceUs being separated by vesicular

{Anabcena,

SPH^^ROPSIS, Lev.A genus of Sphse;

(Stylosporous Fungi), growing apparently only stylosporous forms of Sphseriaceous genera. BiBL. Fries, Sum. Veget. 419 ; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Xat. 4. v. 115. SPH.^ROP'TERIS, Wall. genus of 8. Dicksonieee (Polypodiaceous Ferns). harbata India. (Hooker, Syn. 49.) SPmEROSlRA, Ehr. See Vol vox.

ronemei

upon stems, &c.

cells. As the sporaugial cells are developed from the ordinary cells, and this gi-adually, the vesicular cell will appear at certain epochs to have a sporangial cell on one side and an ordinary cell on the other but this arises merely from the fact that the sporangial cells are developed singly and successively, first one on one side of the vesicidar cell and then one on the other,
;

SPH^ROTHE'CA. A genus of

Sphjs-

liacei

(Ascomycetous Fmigi), closely allied to Erysiphe. S. pannosa is common on the leaves and fruits of a rose ; S. Castaynei, on the leaves of hops &c. (Cooke, Handb, 645
;

on, to whatever number of adjacent sporangial cells there may be developed on either side of the vesicular cell and those nearest the latter will therefore always be the largest, until the whole have acquired tlie full size. Ralfs describes seven British
;

and so

species.

Tulasne, Carp.

i.

SPH^EROT'ILUS. A genus of Crypto-

208.)

* Filaments

moniliform; sporangia elonyated,

not turyid.

coccese, consisting of cells an-anged in rows, connected by mucus, forming a flocculent, S. natayu variouslj- divided floating layer.
(PI. 3. fig. 21), brownish, in organic liquids said to purify the water. BiBL. Rabenht. Alg, ii. 8 ; Eyferth, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, 97. Corda. genus of
:

S. Carmichaelii.

exti-emities

quadrate
8. fig.

Filaments with tapering ordinary joints distinct, subsporaugial cells oblong vesicular
;

cells spherical.

Ralfs, Ann. N. H.
;

SPH^ROZOS'MA,

Desmidiacese. Char. Filamentous;

gile, their

filaments

flat,

fra-

component coUs closely united by means of minute (glandular) processes, and deeply divided on each side into two
seg'ments. S. vertebrattmi (PI. 14.
fig. 9,

front

view

Br. pi. 113 Mar. ; Alyce, 2. ed. pi. 27. fig. D. Belonia toridosa, Carmichael Sphcerozyga compacta, Kxxiz. Anabcena marina, Brebisson Cylindrospernium Carmichaelii, Kiitz. Sp. Aly. 294, Tab. Phye. i. pi. 99. Var. tenuissima, with very slender filaments. Forming a tender, very thin stratiun of a dark or bluish-gi-een colom*, on the damp soil of salt-marshes flooded at spring 2z 2
;

Harvev,

P/ujc.

2. v. pi.

SPHAGNACE^.
tides,

708
i

SPHAGNACE^.

more rarely iu brackish ditclies, or upon decaying marine Alga?, The best distinctive marks of this species are, the subacute extremities, combined with the short filament and littoral habit.
S. Jacohi.

in bogs &c., distinguished especially

Filaments elongated, their ends

usually' attenuated ; ordinary cells subspherical; vesicular cells spherical; sporangia! cells oblong or cj-lindrical. Ralfs, I. c. pi. 8.

by the of branching, the structm-e of the leaves, sporanges, and antheridia, and by the absence of roots, except in the early stages of growth. The stem of the Sphayna is composed of three layers of cells, a cortical, a medullary, and an intermediate prosenchymatous layer,

mode

which

finally

becomes somewhat woody.

8; Eny.Bot. 2826. fig. 2. Forming thick, bluish-green, gelatinous masses, fii'om which Freshthe filaments issue in long rays.
fig.

water. S. eladica (PI. 8. fig. 3). Dissepiments conspicuous ordinary cells quadrate vesicular cells eUiptic sporangial cells cjdiu;

drical, trmicate.

Ealfs,
;

axis is indefinite in its gro'wth ; the lateral axes, steiile or fertile, are annual. The secondary axes are fascicidate and being pendent or recurved upon the stem, they fulfil in some measm-e the function of roots. The leaves are remarkable for their cellular sti'ucture, being composed of
;

The primary

I.

c.

pi.

8.

fig.

9.

two kinds

of

cells

namely,

narrow and

Cylindrospenmim

elonfjatum,

Kiitz.

Tub.

Phi/c. i. pi. 99. fig. 3. Forming a tender stratum, of a deep bluish colour", in bogs.

** Filaments moniliform; sporam/ia

turyicl,

much broader than

;

the ordinary

cells.

elongated cells filled with chlorophyll, conjoined into a kind of network, the meshes of which are occupied by large hyaline cells. The hyaline cells contain, in all but one exotic species, a spiral or annular secondary deposit (PI. 48. fig. 25) characteristic of

Filaments elonS. Broomeij Thwaites. gated ordinary cells suborbicular vesicular cells barrel-shaped or elliptic sporangial
;

catenate. Ralfs, /. c. pi. 7. fig. 10. Forming a firmish bluish- or yellowish-green stratimi in brackish ditches.
cells elliptic,
*S'.

These large cells also become opened by regidar circular pores at a certain stage of growth. The inflorescence is monoecious or dithis family.

oecious.

Berkeleyana,

Thwaites.

Ordinary
;

The antheridia are produced singly in the axils of perigonial leaves at the clubtips of short branches. They are
shaped
pedicellate

cells spherical or slightly compressed cular cells spheroidal, compressed, as

vesi-

and roundish,
;

like those of the

broad

Liverworts

as the large, turgid-elliptic, sporangial cells. In brackish Ralfs, I. c, pi. 8. fig. 11. ditches. <S'. Mooreana, Ralfs. Ordinary cells subvesicular cells barrel-shaped, spherical;

they produce biciliated spermatozoids. The archegonia are found about four together, sessile, in a tuft of perichajtial leaves occupying the axis of a fascicle
of

much narrower than

the large,

elliptical sporangial cells. Lish species. fig. 12.

An

Ralfs,
;

broadly
/.

c. pi. 8.

***
S.

Dissepiments obscure
broad.

cells

longer than

branches, the receptacle subsequently elongating into a peduncle, bearing a globtdar capsule, entirely surrounded by the The cah-ptra is ruptured near the calyptra. middle, the lower part persistent and continuous with the fleshy vaginule, within which the capsule. is seated on a bulb-like
pedicel
:

peristome none
oft'
;

operculum

flattish,

Filaments leptos2)erma (Kiitzing). elongated, not constricted at the dissepi-

thrown wanting

ments

ordinary cells longer than broad, confluent vesicular cells elliptic sporan; ;

gial cells linear.

Ralfs,

/.

c.

pi.

8. fig.

13.

Cylindrosjjermuni leptospermum, Kiitzing, Tab. Phyc. i. pi. 99. fig. 2. Forming large

with elasticity. Spore-sac columella short, not reaching the mouth of the capsule. Spores apparently of two kinds, some enclosed four together in parent cells, others smaller, sixteen in one the former fertile, the latter parent cell
:

sterile,

occming either together or

in

di-

shapeless gelatinous masses in

waters, varying from deep green to yellowish green, or, when the filaments are comparatively

still

stinct capsules.

The

spores in germinating

produce a Marchantioid body, very dillerent

from the confervoid mass of ordinary mosses.

British Genus.

few, nearly colourless. Distinguished espe" confluent cially by the ordinary cells with obscure dissepiments." family of Clado-

SPHAGNA'CE^.A

cai-pous Mosses, of pecidiar habit,

growing

Sphaymim, Dill. Character that of the order. Nine species occiu- in Britain, some common on every bog, distinguished by

sphagnoc(t:tis.

700

SPINAL CORD.

their brilliant yellow-f^reon colour and the wet, spongy character of the beds they form.

The

leaves are very interesting microscopic

(Lichenaceous Lichens), with little stalkexcipula and scarcely distinguishable thallus, growing on leaves or Fertumrim,
like

objects.

Rotatoria are sometimes found in the cells of the leaves. Also upon or within the same, the cm-ious parasitic Rhizopod Chlamijdopi/xis lahi/riufhidoides. This, in the resting-stage, consists of a laminated thickwalled cellulose red or green cell. As the organism grows, it bursts the cell-wall, and the protoplasm issues in the form of numerous very slender radiating filaments, along which glide minute fusiform bluishgreen amoeboid bodies. It seems to bear analogy with the Myxomycetes. BiBL. Wilson, Bryol. Br. 14; Schimper, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. i. 31.3 Braithwaite, Mosses Archer, Qu. M. Jn. 1875, xv. 107 {ChlaHusnot, Sphay. Europ. 1882. mydopi/.vis)

(Leighton, Lich. Fl. 38.) SPICULA (plural of spierdum). In some of the lower Invertebrata, firmness is given to the body by a kind of internal and external skeleton consisting of a number of

of

curiously shaped microscopic bodies, many which are of a needle-like form, often

containing a cavity, and denominated spicula. They are met with in endless variety of form in sponges (see Spongida) (PI. 45, the lettered objects), where they usually consist of silex, some being of carbonate of lime. They also occur as anchors &c. in the

genus of Jungermannieae (Hepaticfe), containing one species, (Junff.) Sphagni, an elegant little
(S".

SPHAGXOCCE'TIS, Nees.A

Echinodermata (PI. 45. figs. 1 h, i, k, I, and 19 a, b, c), the Foraminifera (PI. 23. fig. 24), and in some of the Zoophytes {Alcyonimn) and Mollusca (Doris), in these instances
being calcareous. There can scarcely be doubt that s})icula are homologous with the elements of shell but little or nothing is known of their
;

plant gTOwing over Sphagnum and other mosses on bogs ; attaching itself by long radicles, numerous on the under side of the procumbent, nearly simple stem. The gem-

miferous branches only have amphigastria. BiBL. Hook. i?r. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 113; Br.
Juni]. pi. 33,

development. They form very interesting microscopic objects, on account of their remarkable forms. To prepare them, the animal substance

Junq.

pi. G.

SPHEXE. See Rocks. SPHENEL'LA, Kiitz.A genus of

tomacese.

and Suppl. pi. 2 figs. 43 & 48.

Ekart, Syn.

Dia-

This genus appears to consist of the detached frustules of Gomphonema. Klitzing describes seven species. S. vulgaris (PI. 19.
fig.

which they are contained should be boiled with nitric acid if they are composed of silex, and with dilute solution of potash if they consist of lime-salts. They may be preserved by mounting in Canada balsam. They are commonly met with iu seamud, and as fossils in some rocks.
in

SPIDERS. See Abachniba. SPILOCiEA, Fr.A genus of Torulacei

S. Pomi occurs (Coniomycetous Fungi). upon apples, in contiguous effused patches, from which the epidermis separates in frag-

19).
j

BiBL. Kiitz. Bacill. 83, Sp. Alg. 62 Rabenht. Alg. i. 282.

SPHENODE'RIA, Schlum. A doubtful

genus of Arcellina (Rhizopoda). It is allied to Euglyphe and Trinema. BiBL. Pritchard, Infusoria, p. 557. SPHEN0:M'0NAS, stein. genus of Free, surface hard Flagellate Infusoria. a tubidar flagella two, one long, one short

a
;

ments, exposing the simple globular spores, adherent to each other and to the matrix. Probably only a state of Cladosporinm. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 360 Fries,
;

Sum.
j

Veqet. 482,

SPILONE'MA,
lemaceous Lichens.
Cliar.

Fries.A genus of Col-

pharynx.
Inf. 438.)

Two species

freshwater.

(Kent,

"SPHENOSI'RA, Ehr., KUtz. genus of freshwater Diatomacepe. Diatomace.^, p. 244. S. catena (PL 17. fig. 26).
BiBL. Klitzing, Sp. Alg. 68 Fl. Eur. Alq. i. p. 293.
;

culose, granula
strata.

ThaUus filiform, branched, frutigonima large, in transverse

Apothecia lecideine, lenticular. Spermatia shortly cylindrical. 3 species, on rocks. (Leighton, Lich. Flora, 10.)
spinal cord of that part of the central nervous system which extends downwards from the medidla oblongata, occupying much of the vertebral canal, and terminating in a conical extremity at the level of the first lumbar

SPINAL CORD.-The
is

Rabenht.

man

SPHIXCTOCYS'TIS, Hass.,=CYMATOPLEUEA, Sm.

SPHINCTRI'NA.A

genus of Calyciei

SPINES.

710

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.

vertebra. The cord is composed of white substance, grey substance, and blood-vessels
(PI. 52. fig. 7).

The white substance

ternal,

()

is

mostly ex-

and forms the antero-lateral and

Insects and Arachnida. The respiratoiy tubes of these animals have no communication with the mouth, but terminate externally in orifices situated upon the surface of the thorax or abdomen. These are mostly

posterior longitudinal columns, besides the transverse anterior commissure at the end of the anterior longitudinal fissui-e. It is composed of nerve-fibres of large and medium size, of connective tissue, and blood-vessels.

The grey substance

shape

(c) is internal,

and

in

transverse section of the cord presents a

which may be roughly compared with that of the letter H. On either side there is an anterior and posterior horn or cornu; and the median line of the letter is represented by a soft grey commissm'e perforated by a canal, which is central and lined with epithelium, SuiToimded on all sides by the white substance, the anterior and posterior spinal nerves reach their respective cornua

rounded or elliptical (PI. 35. figs. 3, 7, 8, and 9 a), sometimes in the form of small clefts, and are often furnished with a kind of moveable valve, or bounded by a thickened rim sometimes a sieve-like sti'ucture (PI. 34. fig. 34) prevents the admission of foreign bodies, or they are surrounded by hairs or scales effecting the same purpose.
;

They

are

often situated

at

the lateral

and upper portions of the abdomen, at the posterior, lateral, and upper part of the
thorax, &c.

See
genera.

Arachnida, Insects,

and

the

SPIRAL STRUCTURES of Plants.

by crossing at different angles along two lines on either side of the ge-

neral direction of the nerves of the white substance. The grey substance contains a large number of very fine nerve-fibres, which are united in a plexiform manner with nerveor ganglion-cells most of these fibres pass
;

the most elegant of the microscopic objects fm-nished by the Vegetable Kingdom are the various forms of the secondary deposits upon the walls of cells, vessels, and

Among

ducts, Sec, which present the appearance of fibres coiled into perfect spirals, or of spiral fibres either with the coils detached and

outwards and become spinal nerves, belonging then to the white substance or to distinct nerves. There is moreover granular matter with highly refractive globules, and extremely small nucleated cells surrounding the nerve-fibres and ganglion-cells. Much connective tissue exists in the neighbourhood of the central canal and in the posterior cornu. The examination of the spinal cord and the brain is so difficult and not likely to be the subject of general investigation, that we must refer to the Bibl. for further details.

forming rings, or with the coils more or less connected by cross pieces, producing a reticulated structure. Under the head of Secondary Deposits it is stated that tliis spiral-fibrous deposit may be taken as the character of a group of structm-es to be contrasted with those structures described as Pitted and that the essential distinction in the nature of these two groups lies in the greater extent to which the primary wall is covered in the pitted structures. This is not quite absolute in reference to all spiral-fibrous structures, as in the true unrollable spiral vessels and similar organs the coils of the spiral fibres are often closely in contact, although not adherent to each other. It has been stated that the various fonns of the open spiral, annular, and reticulated deposits are modifications of the simple close spiral but this must be understood only in a moi-phological sense, since there is no actual change of condition ensuing with age, as has been assumed by some authors, the fibrous layers
;

BiBL, Todd's Ci/cl. An. ^- Phys. Lockhart Strieker's Clarke, Phil. Tr. 1858, 1868 Hist. ii. Frey, Hist., and the Bihl. SPINES OF Animals. These are properly stout rigid and pointed processes of the integument, formed externally by the epidermis, and internally of a portion of the but the cutis or corresponding structure temi is frequently ajiplii'd to stout rigid and puintf d processes of the epidermis only. See Hairs, and the notices of the structure of the integument under the heads of the various classes. SPIRACLES or Stiumata of animals. ^The external orifices of the tracheaj of
;

being always originally deposited on the primary wall in the form and pattern which they ultimately possess. There appears to be no j-eal opening of the s]^irals or breaking up into rings, in consequence of the expansion of the primary wall to which

they are attached,

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.

711

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.

It will be convenient, in the first place, to speak of the distinct well-marked structures ordinarily known as spiral cells and
vessels, occurring

of the higher tain other forms found in special organs, and to reserve to the end some points relating to the ultimate constitution of the Spiral secondary membranes of cells. structures are usually divided into true
spiral, annular, reticulated,

in tlie stems, leaves, &c. plants, before describing cer-

the internal organs they can only be observed in sections, or when extracted by maceration in delicate vessels and petals they may often be observed tlirough the
:

transparent epidermis.
fibre
is

The

coiled spiral

mostly elastic enough to bear this stretching open like a wire S]iring case the primary wall is torn between the coils, and its ragged edges moy sometimes be detected. The uncoiled fibres are often
;

and scalariform organs. Spiral cells and vessels are perhaps the most generally difHised of the forms. The name spiral vessel is given to elongated cyhndrical cells tapering to a point at both ends, with a spiral-fibrous deposit lining the primary wall (fig. 669, and PI. 48. figs. 8, 11, The spiral fibre may be either single, 12). or as is most common, double (fig. 659)
;

seen

still

similar leaf

unbroken when a hyacinth or is broken across and the pieces

gently drawn apart. Ami ulur vessels closely resemble the preceding, except that the fibrous deposits are in the form of detached they are the rarest forms rings (fig. 661) they are especially remarkable in the Equi; ;

setacese.

Fig. 659.

Fiff.

660.

The reticulated, again, have irregular spiral coils or rings connected more or less by perpendicular or oblique bars PI. 48. fig. 9) into a network. (fig. 662, and These two modifications are usually of larger diameter than the true spiral vessel, and the reticulated larger (also of later origin in the organs) than the annular. However, mixed forms occur not uncommonly, partly
annular, partly spiral or reticulated (fig. 663). They are found in similar situations, but generally do not extend into the more delicate orgaiis.

lated vessels
tiful

may

forms and

Spiral, annular, and reticube prepared in most beaularge size from portions of

the leaf-stalk of rhubarb, of the stem of the garden-balsam, the melon, &c.
Fig. 661.

Fig. 662.

Fig-.

663.

Fig. 659. Fragments of spiral vessels from the Melon. Magnified 200 diameters. of a section of the base Fig. 660. Magnified diagram of a leaf-stalk arising from a Dicotyledonous fhoot, showing the position of the spii'al vessels in the leafstalk and neit the pith of the shoot, the spiral fibres being uncoiled and a little drawn out.

number

of fibres

may

run parallel {Mu-

Nepent/ies, Zingiheracece, Marantacece). These spiral vessels occur as the first vascusa,

lar

formation outside the pith (Medullary in almost all the Dicotyledons as the first vascular forma(fig. 660), and tion in the vascular bundles of the stems of

Sheath)

Monocotyledons also of all other vascular bundles, forming the ribs or veins of pe&c. In tioles, leaves, bracts, sepals, petals,

Fragment of an annular vessel from the Magnified 200 diameters. vessel from the Melon. Magnified 200 diameters. Fig. 663. Fragment of a spiral and annular vessel from the Melon. Magnified 200 diameters.
Fig. 661.

Melon.

Fig. 662. Portion of a reticulated

Spii'al

and other vessels are usually simple

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.
at first (brauclied spiral vessels

712

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.

do occur,

more rarely), but ordinarily unite together hj a kind of fusion. The conical extremities and overlap to a certain extent (fig. 659) thus the articulation is more or less oblique. This fusion is much more evident and complicated in roots, rhizomes, and abbreviated stems than in stems with developed inter;

types sometimes occurs in the same cell, 'this is the case in the ducts of the Lime, Mezereon, and other plants (PI. 48. figs. 4,
13,

&

19).

nodes.
rally

The elementary
shorter
;

Besides the generally diffiised spiral and other vessels and ducts above described, cells, properly so called (that is, such as never become elongated very greatly in one
particular direction), belonging to particular organs and plants, present the same kind of The ducts and vessels, indeed, mai'kings. in many cases are formed of vei-y short cellidar elements ; but these may be distin-

cells are

then gene-

much

and the vessels formed

from them branch out in various directions through the tissue. This is very well seen
of many herbaceous plants, such as the dandelion, chicory, &c., and at the point of origin of the vascular bundles
in the roots

of adventitious roots generally. The above-mentioned confluent spiral vessels pass insensibly into the duds, which are similar confluent rows of cells forming parts of the sohd wood of stems, composed of cells with flat ends applied together. They may resemble in their markings the preceding forms, but in their varied conditions form a series leading towards the Pitted Ducts. The scalariform vessels or ducts (fig. 664, and PI. 48. fig. 10), so called from the ladder-like markings, are a very regular form of the reticulated type this re-

guished from proper cellular tissue characterized by spiral secondary deposits. Under this head may be cited first certain wood-

gularity appearing to depend, however, upon the relation between the markings of the adjacent organs. In the Pitted DucTSwe find the pits only opposite to other pits, therefore on the .sides adj acentto other ducts or to cells in the scalariform ducts a spiral-fibrous deposit Fig. 664. is conjoined into a net;

In the Cactacefe, the prosenchymatous tissue of the stem presents remarkable spiral and annular cells, in which the fibre becomes so much thickened that it 2>rojects like a riband set with its edge against the cell-wall (PI. 48. fig. 7). The wood of the Mistletoe (figs. 665,666) also exhibits spiralfibrous cells that of the Yew (Taxus) is composed of true spiral-fibrous cells and others with bordered Pits and an internal In spiral fibre in addition (PI. 48. fig. 4). the stems of the Leguminosae, parenchymatous portions occur in the midst of the wood, the cells of which exhibit spiral fibres {Ulex, Sjxivtiuvi). The cellular tissue near the surface of the roots of the epiphytic Orcliids (PI. 48. fig. 6) affords another example, as also some of the subepidermal cells of the leaves "(fig. 667). The layers of
cells.
:

work by

vertical fibres

Fig. 665.

Fig. 666.

Fig. 667.

placed opposite the intercellular passages or the meeting angles of or cells contiguous ducts, leaving regular
slit-lilie

spaces opposite

the cavities of the adjacent cells. This form is characespecially teristic of the Ferns but it occurs also com;

Fig. 665. Annular-fibrous cell from the stem of Mistletoe.

monly in the Dicotyledons in a less regular form, passing quite in- Fragments of scalariform
into Pitted vessels from a Fern. DtrCT.S, as in the wood Magnified 200 diameters, of Eryngium marithnum

Fig. 666. Cell intermediate between reticulated and pitted, from the Mistletoe. Magnified 200 diameters. Fig. 667. Spiral-fibrous cell from the leaf of an Orchid. 200 diameters. Magnified

Magnified 200 diameters.

sensibly

(PL 48.' fig. 21). The scalariform vessels of Ferns are often slightly luirollable.
It is

tures^

also, that a

mentioned under 1*itted Struccombination of the two

lining the Anthers of Floweringplants are characterized by most varied patterns of spiral markings (PI. 40. figs. 1-5) ; in these cells, moreover, we sometimes see the connexion between the fibrous and homogeneous deposits well illustrated, as the cells may have one or more sides marjved with .spiral fibres, while the remainder of
cells

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.
tlie

713

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.

wall

is

similar structure, generally with perfect spiral fibres, occiu's in the walls of the sporanges oiJungermannia, Marchaniia (PI. 40.
fig.

covered -with a continuous layer.

allowing the spiral fibre to extend itself (PI. 28. figs. 21, 22 i, c). Sulpliuric acid and iodine give the swollen gum-like envelope a
purplish
tint.

35),

aud other Liverworts.

With

these

are nearly connected the structures called

Elatebs, which are found mixed with the These are tuspores in the same plants.
bular cells containing a single
elastic spiral
_

Another and less distinctly marked spiral arrangement of the substance of the cellwalls occurs in the form of cracks or gaps
in certain of the

or

double

deposits,

fibre (PI. 40. figs. 36-38), exactlj^ analogous to the spiral vessel in Elaters of similar nature occur structure. even among the Fungi, as in the sporange

layers of the secondary ruiming more or less round the streaks cell, appearing like ireegular spiral these are sometimes present in the earlier
;

secondary layers and not in the later, so " the are covered in that the " cracks

by

of

ters

The ela(PI. 40. figs. 39, 40). of the Equisetaceae (fig. 205, p. 300) are of different character, consisting of four
Teichia
short filaments -ith clavate ends, attached at one side of the spore and originally coiled round it, ultimately unrolling with

They appear to be formed by elasticity. the deposition of a spiral-fibrous layer oh the wall of the parent cell of the spore, within which the true (single) spore-menbrane is formed, unadherent and when the spore is ripe, the spiral-fibrous layer splits up and starts away from the inner coat. An elegant spiral and annular fibrous structure is also met with in the large cells of the leaves of the Sphagnace^ (PI. 48. fig. 25) this is exactly analogous to the similar deSpiral layers posits in the higher plants. are found, less distinctly, in the radical hairs growing from the lower surface of the frond of Marchantia. Nageli regards them as folds of an inner layer of membrane but they appear to be regular secon; ; ;

and converted into canals in the subThese occur in the stance of the cell-wall. wood-cells of Heniandia smiora, in the prosenchymatous cells of the vascular bundles of Caryota urens, Phoenix, Metroxyhn, and probably in other cases. Something similar may be detected in the wood-cells of Pintis (PI. 48. fig. 1), especially after treatment
latter

In liber-cells a. with boiling nitric acid. spiral texture is far more generally evident. In Vinca, for instance (PI. 48. fig. 30), and
other Apocynaceous plants, a delicate spiral striation of the wall is evident in its natural
beautifully regular in its arrangea similar appearance may often be detected in the walls of thickened hairs, especially when acids are applied, as in Cotton (PL 28. fig. 1 J), particularly in gunsometimes with intermecotton (fig. 1 c) and diate slits, as in Urtica (fig. 8), &c.
state,

ment

by boiling with

nitric acid, a

dary deposits.
Lastly, the hairs and sirnilar epidermal appendages sometimes exhibit spiral-fibrous An unroUable spiral fibre is deposits.
beautifully ai'ranged in the cells fonning the mealy coating of the seed of Cohcea scandens (PI. 28. fig. 20). The seeds of many of the Acanthaceas (figs. 21 & 24), CoUomia the pericarp of some of the Labiatae (fig. 22),

may be secondary layers of the liber-cells of very many plants, as of Flax (fig. 2 b, c), Coir 25 h, c), &c. (fig. 5 a, h), Boehmeria (fig. All these spiral structures belong to the
fibrous structure

spiraldetected in the

minute

secondary deposits of the cells they are mostly distinguishable fi'om those previously described by being thinner places or lines of being lines of deposit. left hare, instead "We have observed a somewhat similar
;
'

23) and Compositas (Sexecio) bear tubular hairs, consisting of cells with a spiral or annular fibre in their interior (see H.-aRs The structure of the hairs of of Plants). CoUomia, Ruellia, &c. has been much dis(fig.
it seems very simple they appear to consist of a short tubular cell, upon the wall of which a closely coiled elastic during the spiral-fibrous layer is deposited ripening of the seed the primary membrane undergoes a metamoi-phosis into a substance

spiral streaking of the walls of Hydrodictyon, depending on slits in certain of the laminse.

cussed, but

of the genera of Oscillatoriacese, as Ainactis (PI. 8. fig. 15 b) and Schizosiphon 1-3 (?, e), also present a spiral-fibrous de(fig. composition of their cellulose coats when old and we have seen a spiral marking on the wall of Cladophora, as described by Mitscherlich. Agaitlh has stated that he detected a complicated spiral-fibrous structure in the cell-wall of Confervae, extending,
;

Some

related to amyloid (or bassorine ?), which softens and swells up when placed in water,

and he cell to another regards this as a proof of the spiral sti-ucf ure of primary cell-membrane generally and
however, from one
;
;

SPIRAL STRUCTURES.
spiral-fibrous structure in the

714

SPIRILLUM.

says he has likewise detected an analogous

primary cellwall of the structures of the Phauerogamia.

Cell. Vegetah. 1852; Criiger, Bof. Zeit. xii. 57, 833, xiii. 601 ; Casparv, Bot. Zeit. xi.

801

The

delicate striatiou of the

membranes of

Tr^cul, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. ; Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, 1852 Bot.

;
; ;

ii.

273

Zeit. viii.

the Coufervfe and slightly thickened liberor pareuchyma-cells of many Flowering plants form a desirable object of investigation for those accustomed to the delicate observation of the markings of the valves of the Diatomaceae. The use of reagents, such as nitric acid and solution of potash, boiling, maceration, and other means must be employed for this purpose, controlled always by a careful observation of the structm-es in their natural state and in diffeIt is not imrent stages of development. possible that all secondary deposits may prove, as Mej-en assumed, to have a fibrous constitution, and true memhi-ane to be conOne set of fined to the primary walls. layers, however, seems always to resist the

697 Ungei", Linncea, xv. 385 Spencer, Linn. Tr, xxv. 405 Hofmeister, Handh. Bot.
;

i.

doubtful genus of marine Infusoria, of the family Arcellina. Char. Shell siliceous, porous, forming a S'. flat spiral. Shell microscopic, vivipara.
hyaline, smooth, containing

SPIRILLI'NA, Ehr. A

Sachs, Bot. 22.

numerous em-

(EhrenAk. 1841, 402, 422.) SPIRILLI'NA, Ehr., Rupt. Jones. A genus of Rotaline Foraminifera, near Pulvibryo
berg, Ahh. Berl.
nulina.

shells.

Foimd

in

America.

Char. Shell hyaline, consisting of a single elongated chamber, coiled into a flat close orifice simple, as wide as the tube. spiral Two recent British species, *S'. perforata
;

endeavour

to

namely those

of seeds. to the mode of the formation of spiral secondary deposits, little is certainly known. Criiger attributes them to spiral circulation

bumen
As

resolve them into fibrils, of the horny and fleshy Al-

24. fig. 5), and margaritifera fossil (Jurassic and Tertiary).

(PL

also

some

penter, For. 180

;

BiBL. "Williamson, Bee. For. 91; CarParker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 4. iv. 386 ix. 221.
;

SPIRIL'LUM, Ehr. A genus of Schizomycetous Fungi.

Char. Consisting of a colourless, tortuous
or cylindrical spiral filament.

of the secreting protoplasm over the cellwall in the position of the future fibres but this is a somewhat speculative notion. Others have asserted that they are formed by gradual collocation of visible granules
;
;

this is certainly an error. AVe have observed the gradual formation of the spiral band in the elater of Marchantia, where it is at first a faint spiral trace with indistinct edges as it grows thicker, the edges become more and more defined and it is produced originally in the exact position and pattern
;

These very minute organisms, found in and decomposing liquids, are very interesting objects on account of the remarkable character of their corkscrew-like movements. They multiply by transverse
infusions
division, separating into two portions while in motion. They .are jointed or septate, but the joints are not always easy of detection.

which it subsequently retains. The actively moving spiral filaments or Spermatozoids of the Ferns, Mosses, Characese, &c. have nothing in common, except the spiral form, with the structures described in this article they belong to the protoplasmic structures or cell-contents, as is also the case with the spirally-arranged green contents of Spirogyra while this
; ;

are insoluble in boiling potash. Their structure is best examined when they are preserved in a dry state. They are apparently related to the Oscillatoriaceous Algae, but are very different from Spirulina, with

They

which thej' have been compared. Sjnrillum hryozoon consists of the spermatozoids
of Mosses.

article refers exclusively to cellulose struc-

tures belonging to the cell-wall. See also Cell, Vegetable Secondary

;

Like the other Schizomycetes, they produce decomposition in organic liquids. species of ISpirochceta is supposed to be the cause of relapsing fever, and occurs also in
certain purulent discharges. Filament *S'. tenue (PI. 7. fig. .17/). spiral sliglitly tortuous, indistinctly jointed of three or four turns movement active ;
; ;

DEPOSITS

Pitted structures

and Tis-

sues, Vegetable. BiBL. (Jeneral works on Vegetable AnaSchleiden, Ann. N. H. vi. 35, 18-39 Ann. N. H. E. Quekett, Tr. Mic. Soc. i. 1 XV. 495 Mohl, Verm. Sckrift. 285, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xvi. 242 Ve(/. Cell, 14 Agardh,

tomy

length 1-1000" diam. 1-12,000". S. undula (PI. 17. fig." 17^). Filament very tortuous, jointed spiral of oue or one and a half turns length 1-1500"; diam.
; ;
;

SPIROCH-ETA.

715

SPIROGYRA.

1-120,000". Perty describes a red and a black variety. Filaments S. rolutam (PI. 7. fij?. 23). ^f,.
s'eiy

spiral lines presenting bright points at intervals along their course (PI. 9. tigs. 17, 26, 27). The green lines consist of bands of proto-

tortuous,

cilium at each end

distinctly jointed, \ritli a spiral of three, four, or

;

plasm coloured by chlorophyll. The bright points are in some stages composed of
globules of similar substance but generally they are occupied by starch-granules imbedded in the protoplasm smaller starchgranules also occur at certain stages remarkable throughout the green band.
; ;

more turns;
S.

leng-th

1-1400" diam. 1-14,000".

;
;

(S/nroc/iceta jdicafilix, Ehr.) Filament very long, flexible (PI. 7. fig. 22).
plicatile
coils

numerous

movement undulating

length 1-180"; diam. 1-12,000". BiBL. Ehr. //. 84; Dujard. Inf. 223; Rabenht. Ah/. ii."72.

SPIROCH^ETA,
SjnriUitm pUcatUe.

Ehr.

SPJROCHO'NA, genus of Peritrichous Infusoria, family VorticelUna. S. f/emntipara (PI. 32. fig. 3o) is found upon the branchial plates of Gammanis pulex, where also its remarkable Aoinetaform
(fig.

Stein. A
S.

plicatilis

lenticular nucleus is also present, suspended in the centre of the cell by threads of

proto-

36) occurs.

"with upon the feathery the terminal joints of the post-abdominal legs of Gammarus.
S. ScJieidenii is

met

setae arising fi-om S.

tintmnabulum, on Trifon-\&\'\Sd. BiBL. Stein, Inf. Clap, et Lachm. Inf. 132: Kent, InfmO.
;

S. fiilmis, fusoria, in

SPIRODIS'CUS, Ehr. Under the name Ehrenberg places among the In-

The attractive appearance of the Spirogyrce and the easily observed phenomenon of conjugation have caused much attention to be paid to this genus ; and maiiy points of their history have been determined. The
cells composing the filaments all multiply simultaneously when the plant is growing, each becoming twice its length and divided into two. It has been certainly observed by Braun and Priugsheim that the division is preceded a division of the nucleus. by

plasm running out to the primordial utricle lying against the cell-wall. Sometimes this nucleus is placed with its faces towards the side wall {S. tiitida, PI. 9. fig. 26) sometimes it appears to be placed with its faces looking up and down, as it presents the appearance of a narrow ellipse when seen sideways (S. pelbtcida, PI. 9. fig. 27). The laminated structure of the cell-walls is also curious, but will be better imderstood after a sketch of the mode of development.
;

the family Vibrionia, a brownish organism, consisting of a short discoidal or much-flattened helical spiral, 1-1200" in diameter, and found in Siberia. It exhibited a slow movement. Ehrenberg's figure gTeatly resembles that in PI. 40. fig. 34 (the upper two), without the cilia, and magnified 200 instead of 400 diameters. (Ehr. Infus.
86.)

From

this interstitial

mode

of

growth

it is

SPIROGY'RA
(fig.

068). genus of Zygnemacese Algte), (Confervoid mostly very elegant, Fig. 668.
part)

A(^Zyomma,

Agardh

in

evident that the walls of the cells of plants actively vegetating must soon become composed of a number of layers belonging to distinct generations of cells.

we have an

Thus, supposing

and all very interesting on account of their

structure and modes of development. They are green filaments,
floating imattached in standing fresh water. The}' consist of jointed tubes that is, rows of

original cell a, this encloses its progeny, two cells or kb; and when these divide again and come to enclose respectc and V- & d, the cell ively a^

&

stretched to four times its original length, still encloses the whole. The laminte belonging to the respective generations do not
ceration we may cause the outer membranes to soften and dissolve, and set free the younger cells intact. The older membranes seem to have become thinner by stretching, or by solution, midway between their septa, since on maceration we ma}' often see them give way in the middle, and the young cells slip out from them, leaving them as short hyaline tubes with a diaphragm in the middle. The ends of the cells of some species present a curious appearance, which might

parent

a,

become very intimately blended

for

by ma-

cylindi'ical cells,

some-

times of considerable size, in the interior of cowhich the gr

louring-matter is arranged in one or more
spiral
lines running roimd the walls, these

Sinrogyra communis.

Fragments of two fllamonts conjugating. MagniUed 200 diameters.

SPIROGYRA.
''

716

SPIROGYRA.

be compared to the " punt of a bottle, produced by a circnhtr fold thrown in from the cross septum. It is attributed to the excessive growth of the membrane of the young ceUs, confined in space by the outer
(jyra are

pareut-membrane. The filaments of Spiroconsequently very instructive in

reference to vegetative cell-formation. In some cases the half-dissolved parent-cell membranes form a delicate but welldefined gelatinous coat on the tube (PI. 9.
fig.

nous coats, the outer of which is of delicate texture and separated by an interval from the next, which is brownish and of fu'm texture. The inmost coat or true The spore-membrane, is again delicate. spores appear to rest through the winter after they are formed, and to germinate in spring, in which process the middle coat of the spore splits at one end, longitudinally, opening by two valves to allow the
inner to gi-ow forth, which bursts through the outermost sac, in the form of a tube (PL 9. fig. 19) which soon acquires the characteristic appearance of the parent The contents of the spore are brown plants. and homogeneous during the stage of rest
(fig.

27

s).

Tlie reproduction of this genus exhibits, besides the proper conjugation, other phenomena, the import of which is not yet fully

determined. The conjugation itself has been observed by almost every microseopist. It consists essentially in the production of papillary elevations on the contiguous walls of the cells of two filaments lying side by side, the growth of these papillae until they come into contact, and their coalescence so as to form a canal of communication between the two cells (fig. 668 PI. 9. fig. 18). TMien this is accomplished, the contents of one of the cells (the contents of both having meanwliile lost their characteristic arrangement on the cell-walls) pass thi'ough the cross tube into the other cell, when the contents of both become blended and form an eUipitical free body (PI. 9. fig. 18), which
;

21)

in

germination they become green

again, and arrange themselves iu the spiral bands (fig. 22), which become more distinct as the cell elongates. Certain other occurrences take place in the cell-contents of the Spirogyrce, the relation of which to the reproduction is not so clear as the above. In filaments in an unhealthy condition, about to decay, such as are often seen when a collection of them is placed in a jar of water to keep for examination, it is not uncommon to see the green contents gradually lose their spiral arrangement and break up into a number of globular

portions

(PL

9. fig.

28)

we have sometimes

acquires cellulose integuments and becomes a spore or zyr/ospore, lying free in the parent cell. This process is accompanied by the death of the parent filaments, conjugation often taking place in the majority of the cells the spores are sometimes set free by decay of the parent cell-wall but very often the latter remains undissolved until the germination of the spore (PI. 9. fig. 19). modification of this mode of conjugation (PI. 3. fig. 24), occurs in some cases appa:

observed these rolling over slowly in the In one case we have observed the cell. contents converted into sixteen distinctly organized biciliated zoospores (PL 9. fig. 20), differing only from tlie ordinary zoospores of the Confer\-oids in the almost total absence of colour. They were somewhat crowded iu the cell, and moved lazily about in it, the cilia It is still more vibrating. common to observe the contents of decayed
filaments convei-ted into encysted globules

for it has rently as an abnormal process been observed ( Braun) taking place in species which conjugate as above. It occurs in single filaments in which two contiguous cells produce papill.ie at the adjoining ends, growing towards each other and coalescing, the contents of one of the cells thus passuig into the next cell of the same filament.
;

(PL 9. figs. 24, 25), which appear to be a kind of resting-form of the zoospores. These globules, which have a tough spiniilose coat, have been observed by Pringsheim as produced from the contents both of
ordinaiy cells, and abnormally ? from the contents of a large spore (PL 9. fig. 23) the latter case might give colour to the idea that this was a sporange, had not its germination been observed. Pringsheim has furtlier noticed that actively moving zoospores are produced from the small encj^sted bodies perhaps these may fulfil an antheridial function. Carter has observed in the cells of Spiroyi/ra the bodies constituting the
: ;

Braun
in

calls this

contradistinction

"chain-like" conjugation, "

to
tlie

" ladder-like

conjugation above described. As the two forms occur associated, Kiitzing's genus Rhynclio7iema and others fomided upon this
are of doubtful value. The ripe spore or
elliptical

zygospore forms an
in three

body enclosed

membra-

genus PytJmim, and apparently coonected

SPIROGYRA.
PYTunjM). The species

717

SPIRORBIS.
9. fig. 27). Filaments joints four or six times as bands lax and slender fertile cells

witli the zoospore-like bodies just described

(see

S. pellucida

(PL
;

1-840" in diam.
long ventricose
; ;

of

Spirof/i/ra

have

been

p-eatly multiplied by author.*. The peculiar fold projecting from the septum appears to us to depend upon age and activity of growth and the length of the joints depends greatly on the stage of growth, as they continually divide into two equal parts.
;

spores globose (Ilass. pi. 2.5). S. rimdaris. Filaments 1-2040" in diam. joints three or four times as long; spiral
<S'.

Spiral band single. S. tenuissima. Vegetating filaments 1-3000" in diam. ; joints four or live times as long as broad spiral band open ; spore oblong;

bands four, broad, dense (Hass. pi. 27). curvatum (Sirogonimn stictituni and breviarticulatum, Kiitz.). Filaments 1-720" in diam, joints four or five times as long bands three or four, slender; conjugation dii'ect, without a cross branch, approaching Mougeotia. (Hass, pi. 26. figs. 1, 2.) BiBL. Hassall, Alg. 135 Kiitzing, Sj).
; ;

elUptical (Hassall, pi. 32. figs. 9, 10). S. Ivmiata. Filaments about 1-1000" in diam. ; joints six or eight times as long ;
spiral lax, spores oblong-elliptical (Hass. pi. 31. fig. 394). Fila*S. injlata (S. (/astroides, Kiitz.). ments 1-1680" in diam. joints four or five times as long turns of spiral about five ;
; ;

Aig. 437, Tab. Phyc. v, Pringsh. Flora, XXXV. 465, Ann. N. H. 2. xi. 210; Brauu, Soc. ; Vaucher, Conferves, Verjiingimg, Hay 37 ; Agardh, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. vi." 197
; ;

Rabenh. Ah/, iii. 232 Carter, Ann. N. II. 1880, vi. 207 Petit, Srnrog. of Paris,
;

1881.

fertile

cells

ventricose

spores

oblong-

SPIROLI'NA, -Restricted. The

like

Lamk. (Spirulina, Ehr.).

eUiptical (Hass. pi. 32. figs. 6, 7). 1-1440 <S'. commttnis (fig. 668). Filaments to 1-2000" in diam. ; joints two or three

times as long
S.

turns of spiral four, broad ; spores elliptical (Hass. pi. 28. figs. .5, 0).
9.
;

17). Filaments quinina (PL fig. 1-600" in diam. joints once and a half or twice as long tiu-ns of spiral broad and dense spores elliptical (Hass. pi. 28. fig. 2).
; ;

long, narrow, croziermodifications of Peneroplis (P. (Sp.) austriaca, PL 23. fig. 12) come under this title. Fossil and recent. BiBL, D'Orb. For. Foss. Vien. 137 Carpenter, Phil. Tr. 1859, 10 Parker, Jones, and Brady, Ann. N. H. 3. xv. 230.
; ;

A subSPIROLOCULI'NA, D'Orb, genus of Miliola, among the Porcellaneous

Clucr. Shell regular, equilateral, compressed, oblong, oval, or elongated ; chambers concentric on two opposing faces, in the

Foraminifera,

Varies in the length of the joints, which are sometimes twice to seven times as long.
Spiral bands two. decimina. Filaments 1-720" in diam. joints two to fom- times as long; spiral bands lax, crossing so as to present the (Hass. pi. 23. appearance of the letter
S.
;

same

plane, not embracing, all apparent and orijice single, situated alternately at the two ends of the longitudinal axis, simple or with a tooth, frequently prolonged into a tube.

with simple cavities

figs. 3, 4).

Filaments 1-1320 to 1-1200" iu diam.; joints ten times as long; bands

S. elongata.

Sp. planalata (PL 23. species, recent and fossil.

fig.

7).

Many

lax (Berkeley, Gleanings, 12,

fig. 2).

Spiral bands numerous.

S.

BiBL. D'Orb. Ann. Sc. Nat. vii. 298; Williamson, Rec. For. 82 Carpenter, For. 77 Parker, Jones, and Brady, Ann. N. H.
;

4. viii.

248.

nitida
'

(PL
;

1-360' in diam. as long bauds fom-, dense, closely veiled spores elliptical (Hass. pi. 22. figs. 1, 2). S. maxima. Filaments 1-200 to 1-300" in diam. joints equal, once and a half or twice as long bands lax spores globular
; ; ; ;
:

Filaments 26). oints twice or three times j

9.
fig.

SPIROM'OXAS, Perty.A
Flagellate Infusoria.

genus

of

Char.
or

Body leaf-like, compressed, rounded

and loUed
spirally
;

at both ends,

with one

two
S.

flagella.

(Hass. pk. 18, 19).

S. bellis. Filaments 1-400"; joints equal or twice as long ; bands two or three, lax var. /3, spirals condensed spores roimded; (Hass. pi. 24).
;

vohibilis=Cycliditim distortum, Duj. describes other species, (Pertj'-, Lebensf. 171 Kent, Inf. 297.)

Kent

SPIROPLEC'TA, Ein-. See Textulaeia. SPIROR'BIS, Daudin, Lamk,A genus

of AnniUata, order Setigera,

The

elegant

little

milk-white

flat

spiral

SPIROSTOMUM.
shells of S. naittiloides
fig.

718

SPLACHNACE^.
308,
;

{communis)

(PI. 36.

xvi.

29) are frequently met with upon Fitcus sen-atus, &c. The animal has six pinnate branchial filaments and a pedunculate operculum. SPIROSTOMUM, Ehr. genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria, family Bursarina. Char. Body ciliated all over, oblong or cylindrical and elongated, or flat ; mouth teeth nor a tremulous spiral, with neither

XXIV.

rioideas

family of Funa(Acrocarpous operculated Mosses), of broad and densely tufted habit, mostly found upon dung, with a very much branched, loosely-leaved stem (fig. 669). Inflorescence

SPLACHN A'CE^.A

2. viii. 205; Cohn Rabenht. Alg. ii. 90.

Nova Acta,

lamina anus posterior fi'eshwater. S. amhiguiim (PL 81. figs. 77. 78). Body
; ;

hermaphrodite, dioecious, rarel}' monoecious. Antheridial flower a capituliform, terminal bud. Antlieridia large, club-shaped, rather
Pig. 669. Fig. 670,

cylindrical and elongated, colomless, obtuse in front, truncate behind, prolonged

anteriorly
S. teres.

beyond and above the mouth

length 1-12".

Body lineai'-fusif orm ;

Inf.

length 1-60' '.

;

BiBL.

Ehi-.

332

Dujard. Inf. 514

Clap, et Lach. Inf. 231.

SPmOT^'NIA,

Breb. A

genus

of

Desmidiaceee. Char. Cells single, elongated, cylindiical or fusiform, straight, entire, not constricted
;

endochrome

spiral.

Division oblique.

endochrome is spiral becoming uniform.

S.

In one species the at first, subsequently

14. fig. 59).
;

condensata

(PI.

Endolength
Splachnum vasculosum.
Fig. 669. Nat. size. Fig. 670. Eipe capsule open, dried, shrivelled. Magnified 20 diameters.

chrome forming a single broad band

1-208''
;

at first forming several spiral threads, afterwards uniform length 1-240".

S. ohscnra.
;

common. Endochrome

and the apophysis

BiBL. Ralfs, Desmid. 178 Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1867, 186 Rabenhorst, Alg. iii.
;
;

145.

Fig. 671.

Fig. 672.

Fig. 673,

of Oscillatoriaceffi (Confervoid Algse), consisting of minute spirally coiled geeen filaments immersed in a colom-less gelatinous matrix,

SPIRULI'NA, Link.A genus

and having an

oscillating

motion

forming

extensive strata in lakes, brackish water, &c. The intimate structure and development of these curious organisms are not yet well understood; they are supposed to increase by the filaments breaking across in some the filament appears continuous; in others it has striaj, like the Oscillator ics,
:

appearing beaded
*S'.

when badly
7.
fig;.

defined.

Jennei-i
strise,

with

Filaments 1-6000" in diameter, usually of

(PI.

16).

eight or ten coils, forming a thin teruginous stratum. Filaoscillarioides (PI. 7. fig. 15). S'.

Splachnum vasculosum.
Fig. 671. Calyptra. Magnified 20 diameters. Fig. 672. Young capsule and apophysis. Magnified

ments not striated

lax.

coils

1-7200" in diam.

Among
;

Oscillatorice in stagnant pools.

its

20 diameters. Fig. 673. Vertical section of an unopened capsule spongy apophysis. Magnified 20 diameters.

mth

BiBL. Kiitzing, Sji. Alg. 236; Hassall, Alg. Til, pi. 75 Harvey, Mar. Alg. 229, Phyc. Br. pi. 105 ; Ralfs, Ann. N.H. pi. 27
;

cm'ved,
late.

Archegonia narrow, long-apicuPeristome,

if

present,

of regulaily

SPLACHNAOEaE.
lanceolate, neither obtuse

719

SPLEEN.

nor trabeculate,

twin, nifescent, rather fleshy teetli. Cokimella ordinarily projecting (fig. 670). Cap.<ule on an apophysis (fig. 673), mostly furnished with stomates.
British Genera.

reflexed, appressed to the capside or tortuInfloously bent down; very hygroscopic. resceuce monoecious. Columella mostly free, exserted from the ripe capsule, flattish-

apiculate.

CEdipodium. Calyptra soft, longish-narrow, split almost to the summit, obtuse, somewhat lacerated at the base. Capsule
subglobose, loosely reticulated, soft, with a very long collum arising from a gradually thickened fruit-stalk, the mouth naked. Columella dilated at the apex. Inflorescence monoecious.
Tetraplodon. Calypti-a smalUsh, hoodshaped, split to the middle, operculate,
delicate.
di'ical.

Calyptra inflatedly conical, one side, constricted at the base and torn or erose. Peristome arising at the orifice of the capsule. Teeth thirtytwo, connate, in eight bigeminate or sixteen geminate teeth, lanceolate, smooth, transversely articulate, connivent into a depressed cone when moist, subincurved when dry. Inflorescence perfect or monoecious. Columella included or exserted, flatfish.
erect,
slit

Dissodon.

at

Capsule apoph^^sate, oval-cylinApophysis obconical, obovate, or

Splachmim, Calyptra conical, rather small, entire or slit here and there at the base. Peiistome of sixteen teeth, composed of a double row of cells, lanceolate, largish,
yellowish, approximated in pairs and to some extent conglutinated, when dry reflexed and appressed to the capsule, when moist erect and incurved at the apex. Inflorescence

Peristome of sixteen double teeth in fours, lanceolate, formed of two rows of cells, connate in pairs at the base, refiexed when diy, erect and incurved when moist, much shorter than the capsule. Autheridial
flower sessile in the axil of a leaf, or terminal on a little special branch, in a capituliform bud.
Tayloria.
erect, split at

subovate. the apex.

ColumeUa

scarcely

dilated

at

ColumeUa

SPLACHNUM,

diojcious, rarely monoecious. ordinarily emerging, capitate. Linn. genus of

Calyptra inflatedly conical, one side, constricted at the

Splachnaceae (see above). >S'. aonjyullaceum is not uncommon on the dung of animals on bogs, is a very handsome moss, with purple or red capsules. S. vascidosum (figs. 6G9-

aroimd the margin. Peristome arising below the orifice of the capbase, lacerated
sule, of sixteen or thirtj^-two teeth ; teeth single, approximated in pairs or coherent,

673)

is less

common, occurring only

mountain

in high

SPLEEN. This
spleen
is

districts.

organ appears to occur

often very long

involuted,

when moist incurved and when diy (in the ripe capsule)
;

The

exclusively in the Vertebrata, but is not found in the Leptocardia and Myxiuoids.

covered externally by the

Fig. 676.

Fig. 674.

Fig. 675.

Fig. 674. Natural arrangement.

size.

Portion from the middle of the spleen of an oi, washed

showing the bands and their

trabeculse.

Fig. 675. Peculiar fibres

350 diameters.
Fig. 676.

from the pulp of the human spleen, belonging to the microscopic

in a cell.

Magnified

One of the same enclosed

Magnified 350 diameters.

SPLEEN.

720

SPLEEN.

peritoneum, except at the hilus, where the vessels are connected with it. Beneath the peritoneal tunic is a thin,
semitransparent, firm, fibrous coat, which at the hilus accompanies the vessels, and forms sheaths around them. The spleen is traversed hy fibrous bands
or trabeculse
(fig.

674),

which

arise

from

the inner surface of the fibrous coat and from the outer surface of the vascular sheaths, and, being- connected with each other, form a number of irregular meshes or areolae, in which are situated the splenic In reptiles corpuscles and the spleen-pulp. they form stellate expansions, their connective tissue this

corpuscles;

becoming infiltrated with lymphand the connective tissue in modified form occupies all the inter-

spaces of the proper parenchyma of the organ. The fibrous coat and the trabeculse consist of ordinary connective tissue, with mostly parallel fibres, traversed by networks of fine elastic fibres, which become continuous with the coats of the veins. In certain animals, as the dog, cat, pig, &e,, the fibrous coats and trabeculse contain also unstriped muscidar fibres. These do not occur in man, unless they are represented in the microFig. 677.

scopic trabeculse by pecidiar wavy fibres, about 1-500" in length, with lateral or stalked nuclei (fig. 67o). Some of these are found enclosed in cells (fig. 676), from which they become liberated by the action of water. The splenic or Malpighian corpuscles (fig. 677) are white rounded bodies, imbedded in the spleen-pulp, and attached to the smallest arteries. They vary in size from 1-120 to 1-36", and cannot always be detected. They are either placed upon the sides of the arterial branch, or situated in the angles of their bifurcation. The splenic corpuscles consist of an enveloping membrane (fig. 678 a) composed of connective tissue with fine reticular elastic fibres, and derived from the arterial sheath. They are traversed by capillaries and filled with a tenacious grey parenchyma. The parenchyma consists of cells 1-3000" in diameter, containing one or two nuclei, and free nuclei (fig. 104, p. 138). Sometimes the cells contain globules of fat or bloodcorpuscles ; and occasionally free blood-corWhen the splenic puscles are met with.

corpuscles

undergo amyloid degeneration, they produce the so-called sago-spleen. "The splenic pulp forms a soft reddish
Fig. 678.

Pig. 677. Portion of a smaO artery bodies. Magnifii'd 10 diameters.

from the spleen of a dog, with one of the branches covered

b,

witli

Malpighian
wall of the

Fig. 678. Malpighian corpuscle from the spleen of an ox. , wall of the corpuscle; artery upon which it is situated ; d, its sheath. Magnified 150 diameters^

contents;

e,

SPOLVERINA.
mai^s,

721

SPONGIDA.

and consists of three elements

scopic trabecule, fibres, or bands, parenchyor ma-cells, and the smaller blood-vessels of cells and an intercellular substance. The trabecuhv agree in structm'e ^^ ith the larger ones. The tibres or bands are the terminations of the sheaths of the vessels they are
;

micro

indistinctly fibrous,
tissue.

and

free

from

elastic

parenchjona-cells resemble those in the splenic corpuscles. Blood-corpuscles are found enclosed in cells, from one to twenty in each, or surrounded by a transparent substance, their contents exhibiting vai'ious changes in colour and consistence.

The

The

arteries tenninate in elegant

tufts or peuicilli,

becoming continuous with

a meshwoi-k of capillaries. The blood-corpuscles from the blood of the splenic vein frequently contain crystals of hsematoidine. In the examination of the spleen, the trabeculse aie best seen after washing away the pulp with water, the splenic corpuscles by tearing the spleen or boiling it, either in the pig or ox. The cells containing bloodcoi-puscles must be searched for in the pulp unacted upon by water. The muscular fibres are most evident in the smaller trabeculse,
especially after treatment A\'ith dilute nitric acid (one part to five parts of water).

BiBL. Koliiker, Mik, An. ii. and Todd's An., art. Spleen Gray, A, Cooper^s Prize Essay Saunders, Goodsir^sAnn.ofAn. 1851, i. Huxley, Qii. Mic. Jn. ii. 1854 Frey, Mikros. Miiller, Strieker's Hist, and
C'ljcl.
; ; ;

the Bibl. therein.

SPOLVERI'NA, Mass. genus of ilicro-hchens, parasitic on the thallus and prothallus of various crustaceous lichens. Char. Spores 1-2, large, globose-ovoid, (Lindsay, simple, colourless, or yellowish.
Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 344.)
(

of Radio-flagellate Infusoria, with a siliceous perforated carapace. 2 species; marine, (Kent, Inf. 229.) SPON'GIDA or PORIF'ERA. Class of Protozoa. Char. Form variable fixed by a kind of root at the base, or incrusting ; consisting of a soft gelatinous sarcodic mass, mostly supported by an internal skeleton, composed of reticularly anastomosing horny fibres, in or among which are usually imbedded siliceous or calcareous spicida ; or sometimes the spicula alone form the skeleton. The horny fibres forming the skeleton of sponges, which may be well seen in any common sponge, are cylindrical, and variously united, so as to form a coarse network with roundish or angular microscopic meshes, In addition to these generally diftused meshes or intervals, large (to the naked eye) rounded apertures or oscula are scattered over the surface of most sponges, leading into sinuous canals permeating their substance in every direction and between these are other smaller apertures, just visible to the naked eye, also the orifices of canals, which traverse the substance and communicate with the oscular canals. In the Hving sponge, this skeleton is covered with a glairy or gelatinous, colourless, amorphous substance, resembling that of which Amoebce are composed; the proportion being variable in the different This substance appears to be genera. composed of minute masses, those on the smfaces being furnished ^vith a long and slender flagellum, or forming collared monads ; and during life, by means of these, water entering by the smaller apertures, and reaching the oscular channels, is expelled from the oscula in ciu-rents, which

genus of Dematiei Ilyphomycetous Fungi), analogous to Arthrobotryum, characterized by the erect filaments, with whorled multiseptate (Mart., Fl. erl. 354 spores (PI. 27. fig. 15j. Link, Spec. 79 Hotixaann, Fl. germ. ii.
;
;

SPONDYLOCLA'DIUM.A

rendered visible by sprinkling a powdered charcoal over them. Hence Clark and Kent refer the Sponges to the Choano-flagellate order of the Infu-

may be

little finely

soria.

pi. 13.)

SPONDYLOM'ORUM, Ehr. A
S.

genus

common Sponges appear under the microscope and when treated with sulphuric acid, they are seen to consist of two parts, an outer tubular portion,
The
fibres of the

to be solid

of Volvocinese.

Ccenobium globose, quaternarium. compoj^ed of 8-12-10 cuneata green cells, each with a long cilium, and a dorsal red eye-spot, enclosed in a colourless gelatinous envelope (PI. 3. fig. 23). In ditches. (Pertv, ie6e?2.s/'. 177; Rabenht. ^/y. iii. 98.)

which is contracted in length by the acid, and an inner cylindrical thread, which usually becomes elegantly wavy or spiral, frequently protruding from the cavity of the outer portion in broken fibres, and resembling PI. 28.
fig. 22. spicula are of various forms (PI. 46, lettered figui'es), and either scattered through

The

SPONGASTERIS'CUS, Hckl.A genus

3a

SPONGIDA.

722

SPONGOCYCLIA,
;

the substance or arranged in bundles forming spurious fibres; sometimes projecting more or less from the surface (PI. 45. fig. 8). In some sponges they are absent, and in one genus tliey are replaced by gravel. The calcareous spicula exert a much more

an oval body and a filament thej' occur in minute cells, also difiused through the substance.

The germs are ciliated. Sponges are probably nourished by en-

powerful action upon polarized hght than the siliceous spicula. In some sponges, an external membrane is present and this has been observed to exhibit a reticular or cellular appearance, from the presence of fine reticular fibres.
;

closing Algae &c. in their substance in the same manner as Amabce. This has been seen to take place in the young animals

developed from the winter-ova. According to the skeleton, the sponges are divided into three Orders My.vospongi(Sy in which it is absent (Halisarca); Fihro:

sponr/ice, in

Sponges are mostly marine, rarely freshwater. In the natiu'al state they often possess lively colours, which appear in some instances to arise from the presence of granules of colouring matter, probably chlorophyll, in others from iridescence. They
usually grow in groups upon rocks, shells, zoophytes, sea-weeds, &c. Sponges appear to be propagated in four by gemmation, from the interior of ways the canals by the formation of ciliated gem:

and

siliceous ; calcareous. Thread-cells have been found in the genus Reniera and Eimer states that he has even distinguished in some siliceous forms something like connective tissue and fusiit is

which

horny or
it is

Calcispouffice, in

which

form muscular fibres. BiBL. Johnston, Br. Sponges Bowerbank, B)\ Spong., Ray Soc. 1866; Huxley, Comp.
;

mules (swarm-spores) by the formation of true sexual ova and by the production of
;
;

Anaf.; 3&viQS,-(M?ivk, Amer.'Jn.of Sci.\S71 Lieberkiihn, Gray, Pr. Roy. Soc. 1867 Miiller's Archiv, 1856, Ann. N. H. 1868, ii. 236; Thomson, Phil. Tr. imQ,nn^ Deep-sea
;

bodies analogous to " winter-ova." The ciliated gemmules, which are not of general occurrence, are yellowish, oval, narrowed at one end, and covered, except at this part, by vibratile cilia. They are mostly formed in spring, and after swimming about for a time, become fixed to some
suitable spot

Drechjing
xxii.

Ellers, Sieh.uiid Kdll. Zeit. 1871,

;

and undergo development. Of the other reproductive bodies, one

kind consists of roimdish or ovate masses containing spicula and resembling the
parent in structure, either lying loose in its substance, or adherent to the horny fibres, and escaping at its death and solution, to
acquire maturity. The " winter-ova "
are round or ovoid seed-like bodies, with a fumiel-shaped depression on the surface communicating with the interior. At first these lie in a ca^ity formed by condensed surrounding substance ; subsequently a membrane presenting a hexagonal reticular structure is formed aroimd tht-m, upon which a crust of spicula is

540; Eimer, Sehultze's Arch. 1872; Leidy, Amer. Nat. 1870 Agassiz, Bull. Harvard Coll. 1869 Miklucho-Maklay, Mem. Acad. Petersboiirg, 1870 Schmidt, Spongienfauna Allan. Geb. 1870 Spong. Kiiste Algier, Spong. d. Adriat. Meer. CarAnn. N. H. 1878, ii. 157 ib. 1879, iii. ter, 284, 343 ib. 1879, iv. 374 ; Gosse, Mar. Zool. i. Haeckel, Kalkschivihnine, 187 S Vosmaer, Broun, Klass. Sfc, 1882 Kent, Inf. 143. SPONGIL'LA, Lam. A genus of freshwater sponges. Two British species, S. fluviatilis and S. laciistris. Found attached to stones, old woodwork, &c. in still or slowly running waters gi'een See Spongida. or grey. SPONGIOLES.Many works on vege; ;
;

afterwards deposited. When expelled from the body of the parent, they are motionless; they then swell up, burst, and the mimite These exhibit locomotive germs escape. Amacba-Mke processes, and take on an inde-

table physiology still retain the old error that the extremities of roots are devoid of epidermis, and that the tissue then presents an open spongy character, whence the name of spongioles applied to the absorbing apices of roots. So tar is this from being a correct account of the conditions, that, in reality, not only is the surface completely invested with a continuous epidermis, but the growing point and principal absorbing surface is found a little above the absolute extremity,

pendent

Hie.

true ova are oval, and scattered through the general substance they have a distinct outer membrane, with a germinal The spermatozoa have vesicle and spot.
;

The

which is pushed forward b}' growth (fig. 679). See Roots.

interstitial

SPONGOCYC'LIA; Hckl genus of Radio-flagellate Infusoria. Several species ; marine. (Kent, Inf. 228.)

SPONGOMONAS.
Fig. 679.

728

SPORENDONEMA.

the whole will be found dried, and the surface of the wall or glass lightly covered in a semicircle, at about 1-2 to 1" from the of whitish fly's abdomen, with a cloud

The whitish fleshy sub.stance is powder. found on examination to consist of a vast

of short erect filaments growing out from the interior of the fly's body, between the rings these filaments contain large oil-globules, often arranged in a row and their having been mistaken for spores gave origin to the name Sporendonema applied to this fungus. Cohn has described
; ;

number

growth somewhat minutely, and changed the generic name to Empusa, or rather Empusina, the first of these names being alits

He correctly states that the vertical filaments terminate in the abdomen in a continuous, often branched tube, and consist therefore of a single tubuready occupied.
lar cell.

The upper
off

free end,
;

however, be-

comes cut
of the rootlet of an Orchjs. Longitudinal section
C, C, Cellular tissue
is still

(cambium)

in

which development

going on. FP, Fibro-vascular bundles gradually becoming organized from above downwards. Magnified .500 diameters.

by a septum and the terminal cell acquires a campanulate form and a darkish colour when ripe, it is thrown off with elasticity and a number of these form
;

SPONGOM'ONAS, Stein.A
Flagellate lufiisoria.
flagella two, equal
;

Ovate immersed in a
species
;

geuus of or rounded
;

gelati-

the white cloud above mentioned. Cohn endeavom-ed in vain to make them germinate and nothing like them was found in the cavity of the abdomen of numerous flies in which the filaments were traced in their earlier stages. From our own obser;

nous envelope.

Four

freshwater.

vations,

we

rather incline to regard

;

them

as

(Kent, Inf. 286.)

SPORAN'GIUM and SPOR'OCARP.

is

applied to the structure immediately enclosing the spores The different forms of the Cn-ptogamia. and conditions are described under the Abortive spoclasses of Flowerless plants. sometimes borne on the rangia in Ferns, are called spopedicel of the true sporangia, Sporocarp or spore-fruit is the rangiastra. name given to the capsules or similar organs which contain the sporanges of the Mar-

The term sporangium

peridioles or spore-cases, comparable perhaps to that of Piloholus or they may be stylospores, like some of those of the Uredinei,
after a stage of rest produce an intermediate mycelial structure, and then give birth to the ripe spores.

which

The most remarkable point about this flyfimgus (to which, however, Cohn does not allude) is the circumstance that, when the body of the fly with the rings of fungi
freshly developed is placed in water, Achlya proJifera is almost always, if not always,

Pilulabia). A supDesm. of Sepedoniei (more properly posed genus

sileaceae (see

SPOREXDONE'MA,

produced, and apparently from the filaments which in the air produce the bell-shaped deciduous body above described. find

We

It is a very belonging to Saproleguese). common occurrence in autumn to find the windowhouse-fly, dead, adhering to walls,

fixed by its probo.scis, panes, &c., firmly and with its legs spread out, thus differing from dead flies in general, which have the

In about twenty-four contracted. hom's after death, a kind of fleshy substance of a white colour, is found in the form of a of the rings, ring projecting between each of the abdomen and in a day or two after,
legs
;

the Achilla with its ciliated zoospores, and later with its globidar .sporanges filled with spores, apparently representing an aquatic form of the Sporendonema or Empiisina. Cienkow.ski has recently confirmed the view that Achlya is an aquatic form of the present plant, but Braun denies this he states that he has found a second species of Empiisina on the common gnat (Cukx pipiens). Sporendonema Casei, Desm., is referable
;

to

TOKULA.

3a2

SPORES.
;

724

SPORES.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 350 Fries, Myc. iii. p. 435, Sum. Veg. 594 Variii. Colin, Nova Acta, ley, Tr. Mic. Soc. XXV. 299 Berk, and Broome, Ann. JV. H. 2. V. 4G0 Oieukowski, Bot. Zeit. xiii. 801 Brauu, Aly. Unicell. 105. SPORES, Spobules, Sporidia, SporiSyst.
;
; ; ; ;

A number of nearly connected terms which

are applied to the various organs which either really or apparently represent, in the Flowerless Plants, the seeds of the Flower-

DioLA, Microspores, Macrospoees^ &c.

In the above cases the spores are always formed in sporanges of various kinds, developed directly from the axis or the leaves by a process of vegetative growth. In the Mosses and Liverworts the spores are mostly of one kind, consisting of a cell with a single or (generally) double coat, like
a pollen-gi-ain. The spores, unlike those above-mentioned, are formed in sporanges which are the product of fertilized archegonia, and more resemble the fruits of Flowering plants. The spores of Mosses germinate by emitting the inner coat as a Ooufervoid filament (fig. 680), which usually branches and gives
origin to

ing classes. The names have been mostly applied with the view of marking slight distinctions between organs supposed to be homologous. Of those placed at the head of this article, the first only should be retained, the second being merely a useless diminutive of it, and the third and fourth being superseded by the more definite nomenclature now applied to the reproductive bodies of the Cryptogamia. It may be desirable perhaps here, if merely for the sake of explaining the exact meaning of words constantly used in this work, to pass in review the various structures comprehended under the general name of
Spore.

numerous

Fig. 680.

stem-buds. The spores of the Liverworts exhibit many modifications in the first stages of germination, as illustrated by the ac-

companying figures
(figs.

the

682-684) Marchantiee

Spores of a moss germinating, Magn. lOO diams.

and other frondose kinds grow

The definition of the word spore itself, as a recommonly used, may be stated thus productive body, thrown ofl^ by a FloAverless
:

plant to reproduce its kind, and containing no embryo at the moment when cast oft' by the parent. It is evident from this how lax
is its

The highest

application. of the Flowerless plants, the

at once into thaUoid fronds (see Mosses and Hepatic^). The systematic position of the Characeie is perhaps still an open question but there can be little doubt of the analogies between these red productive bodies and those of the other Cryptogamia. There is no sporange The here, nor appare-ntly any archegonia. (/lobule (figs. 121 & 122, p. 162) produces
;

Marsileacese and the Lycopodiacese, produce two kinds of spore one destined to produce spermatozoids, the other archegonia and

ultimately embryos growing up into new These are sometimes distinguished plants. as pollen-spores and ovule-spores or oospores the latter are large sacs with complicated outer membranes, the former simple cells with a double coat, like pollen-grains (see
;

PiLULARIA, IsoiiXES, and LYCOPODIACEiE). The Ferns and the Equisetacese produce
only one kind of spore, a simple double coat, the outer of which is generally 232elegantly marked in the former (tigs.
cell

antheridia giving birth to spermatozoids. nucule (fig. 120, p. 161) appears to be a spore (see Chaeace.3e). In the Lichens, only one kind of organ has been termed a spore, namely the reproductive cells formed in the thecB (PI. 37. figs. 6 & 12), which are known to reproduce the plant when thrown oft' by the parent. Two other kinds of body connected with the reproduction occur these, the tjonidia

The

(PI. 37. figs. 2, 3)

and the spermatia

(see

with a

Lichens), have fortunately obtained and

preserved distinctive appellations. spores are simple cells or septate tubes, with a double membrane. In the Alge much confusion still exists, not only between difterent lands of spore,

The

236, p. 321), and split up into elastic filathe latter (tig. 205, ments or elaters In germinating, tliis spore prop. 300). duces a kind of thallus, the prolhallium on which antheridia (figs. 23G-239, p. 321),

but even between spores and sporanges; and this is not easily cleared away, since in
certain cases the organs appear really capable of serving as one or the other, according to circuinstauces ; the true spores are

and archegonia ultimately appear, and an embryo is formed, fertilized, and developed (see Ferns and Equisetace^).

SPOEES.
always simple
coat.
cells

725

SPORES,
we
find true spores in

with a double or

triple

In the Confervoids very many cases, produced generally after

In the Floridefe, the characters of the structures seem pretty clear we find spores 248-250), (p. 327), TETEASPonES (figs. which appear to represent the gouidia of the Lichens, and spermatozoids (see Floridefe). Among the olive-coloured sea- weeds (Fucoids), the Ffcace^e and Dictyotace jproduce spores and spermatozoids but in the majority of the families, only a totally
; ;

some process of fertilization or of Conjugation,

cells
(fig.

Fig. 681

in

special

PI. 9. figs.

668, and IG & 18

;

PI. 10. tigs. 1-5).

But

mode of reproduction is known. plants produce ovate sacs, commonly called spores, and chambered filaments from both are discharged actively moving ciliated cells, corresponding exactly to the Zoospores of the Confervoids. Thm-et redifferent

thus spores produced, while they sometimes germinate

the
into new filaments, also sometimes pro-

"

"'

The

duce numerous bodies

of

connected
tion
in
;

Nodularia sjiuinigera. different kinds, Filaments with sporangial in some cells

gards the oosporanges and trichosporanges

(fig. 458, p. 501), as he called these sacs and filaments respectively, as merely different forms of one kind of structure. But it seems possible that true spores may be discovered, even indeed that the oosporanges may be parent cells sometimes of zoospores and sometimes of spores.

way with

containing quaternate

reproduc
9.

spores.

this is the case

Magn. 200 diams.

Spirogyra (PI.

fig.

also in Closteeium and 23^, perhaps other mstances. Besides the spores proper,

we have also in this the actively moving

family,

ciliated bodies

Zoospores which
di-

are regarded as gonidia

and are fm-ther

Fig. 682.

Fig. 683.

Fig. 684.

Pellia epiphylla.

Preissia commutata.

Blasia pusilla.

Spores of Hepatic germinating.

Magnified 200 diameters.

vided into macrogonidia and microgonidia (Hydeodictyon), the latter of which may perhaps have the function of spermatozoids (see

Sph^roplea andVArcHERiA).

of short filaments, whence they ultimately reproduce the plant these are called spores or sporides, or distinctively
fall oft, to
;

in.the nomenclature.

In the Fungi the greatest confusion exists The Agarics and their congeners produce free naked cells at the tips

Basidiospores (figs. 53-55, p. 92). There is no essential difference between them and the spores produced by the Hyphomycetes, either singly or in rows or capitula (Bo-

SPORES.
;

726

SPOROCmSMA.

TRYTis, figs. 77, 78, p. 116 figs. 685, 686; and PI. 26. figs. 5, 6, 15, 16) at tlie ends of
Fig. 685.

Fig. 686.

to sporidiola is applied apparently nuclei or granular masses occun'ing in the cavities of spores, or to the separate portions of contents of imperfectly septate stylo-

The term

spores.

The sporangia of Diatomacese are times called Auxospores. With regard to the homologies of the above structures, the spermatia are supposed to represent spermatozoids the conidia are
;

some-

Fig. 687

of regarded as corresponding to gonidia Lichens the stylospores are also connected with these through the medium of the
;

phyhnm,

heads of acrogenous spores. Magn. 200 diams. Fig. 687. A head of spores. Magn. 500 diams.

Fig. 685. Mystrosporium Stemi^hylium, Corda (StemFries). Magn. 200 diams. Fig. 686. Stachyobotrya atra. Fertile filament with

tetraspores of the Floridese. In conclusion, a reference may be made to descriptions and figm-es like those given on the (figs. 688, 689) oifree spores resting matrix and among the filaments. Such characters are totally out of date in the

Fig. 688.

Fig. 689.

erect filaments

these again appear to pass almost insensibty into the conidia or reproductive cells produced by tlie brealdng-up of the mycelium, either or in part, wholly into free cells capable of continuing the
;

growth (ToRULA,
fig.

PI. 26. fig. 7,

and Oidium,

and Discomycetous Fungi, are closely

on the other hand, the spennatia (figs. 2, .J, 4), such as occur in some of the Coniomycetous forms of the Pyrenomycetous
8)
:

related, as far as structure goes, to the conidia of Torula &c. and the spores of the Hy-

phomycetes; while the stylospores of the Ukedhstei and Tremellini produce bodies resembling them, and still more like the

Fig. 688. Leptotrichimi glaucum. Free spores among the filaments of the matrix. Magn. 200 diameters.
Fig. 689. Fusarium herbariun. Free spores resting on the matrix. Magn. 200 diameters.

The stylobasidiospores of the Agaricini. spores, another free form of spore, may be regarded probably as compound organs, fornied of a row of cells contained in a it is sm-mised that persistent parent cell they are merely metamorphosed asci (see
:

present state of science, and simply serve as indices of points requiring further investigation.

Sph^rta
figs.

and
;

Stilbospora,

PI.

26.

distinct kind of organ. Lastly, we have the ascospores or thecaspores (fig. 42, p. 78), closely resembling those of the Lichens, of free cells with a double coat, consisting developed free in the cavity of a parent cell or sac. In the British Flora the terms sporiile and sporidiimi are used synonymously in the sense of spore, and are applied to

yet their mode of occurrence woiild lead to the idea that they are a

25-28)

BiBL. See the heads of the classes of Cryptogamic Plants. SPORIDES'MIUM.A genus of Torulacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), growing upon bark, wood, &c. (PI.
27.
fig.

12).

of spores seems to vary in different spe- Sporidesmimn paradoxum. the

cies
;

The character

sometimes they

Spores sessile on the

matrix.

simply sometimes
(fig.

are

septate, celliUar

Magn. 200 diams.

basidiospores, ascospores, stylospores, and to the bodies (found in Cyiispora, Tubercidaria, &c.) called by Tulasne spermatia.

690).

See ToRiTLACEi.

SPOROCHIS'MA,

Berk,

and

Br.

SPOROCHNACE/E.

727

SPUMARIA.
691.

genus of Torulacei ( Ooniomycetous Fungi), contaiuiug one species, S. viirabih', forming a black velyety stratum on rotten beech wood. See Tohulacei.
family of FuOlive-coloured, inarticulate seaweeds, whose unilocular and septate sporanges are attached to external jointed filaments, which are either free or compacted together into kuob-like or warty masses.
coidecie.

Ym.

Fig. 692.

SPOROCHNA'CE.E. A

S)/nopsis of British Genera.

Sporanges altached
issuing
dieae).

from

to pencilled Jihtments the branches ( Arthrocla-

Desmarestia. Frond solid or flat, dichotomously branched. Arthrocladia. i^;-o^7 traversed by a jointed tube, filiform, nodose. Frond filiform, tubular or Stilophora.
solid, branched sporanges arising from necklace-shaped filaments collected in wartlike groups upon the frond.
;

Sporocybe bulbosa.
Pig. 691. Stratum upon a stick. Nat. size. Pig. 692. Two fertile peduncles, crowned with heads of spores. Magnified 100 diameters.

** Sporanges produced in knoh-Jike

BiBL. Berk. Br. Flor. ii. pt. 2. 3-33 Ann. N. H. vi. 433, pi. 13 Fries, Sum. Veget. 467 Syst. My col. iii. 340.
; ;
;

receptacles

coinposed of tchorled Jilameyits compacted together (Sporochnese). Sporochnus. Receptacles lateral, on short peduncles. Carpomitra. Receptacles terminal, at the tips of the branches. SPOROCH'NUS, Ag. genus of Sporochnaceae (Fucoid Algas), containing one British species, S. pedunculatus (PI. 4. tig. 1), having a filiform, solid, cellular main axis (containing a central cord of dense tissue), bearing long slender branches arranged in a somewhat pinnate manner and clothed at intervals with elliptical fertile ramules, consisting of an axis densely covered with whorled horizontal branching filaments bearing ovoid sporanges, and terminating in a deciduous pencil of byssoid filaments. Main stem

The forms referable to this genus, &c. according to the character, include a very heterogeneous assemblage indeed the character which omits the nature of the original attachment of the spores, is worth nothing. Fries has separated a genus TrichospoBiUM, including a number of species with
;

genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), growing on decaying vegetable substances, dung,

SPOROT'RICHUM, Link. A

distinctly acrogenous spores

S.

this includes

6 to 8" long, olive-brown, changing to yellow-green on exposure. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 25, pi. 5 GreviUe, Alg. Br. pi. 6 Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat.

geochroum of the Brit. Flora. The remainder are placed by him among the Sepedoniei, under Sporotnchum and another genus which he calls PhysoThese genera are very obscurely spora. known, much resembling mycelia with detached conidia scattered on them. BiBL. Berk. Br. Flor. ii. pt. 2. 346 Fries, Sum. Veg. 492, 495, 521 Greville, Crypt.
^S".
; ;

nigrum and

Flor.

SPUMA'RIA, Pers.A

pi.

108. figs, 1, 2.

genus of Myxo-

3. xiv.

238.

SPOROC'YBE,
matiei

Fries.A genus of De(Hyphomycetous Fungi), growing

mycetes, the peridia of which are divided internally into chambers by ascending folds, and in S. alba are either sessile and pass above into torn white laminae, or are stipitate and
divided,

on dead sticks, decaying stems, &c., forming Several British usually a blackish stratum. They have a rigid, species are recorded. septate, simple or branched peduncle, endino' with a capitate head clothed with spores
(figs.

and form corniculate peridioles bursting above the latter is probably the The whole plant looks at perfect form.
;

first like

white froth

&c., generally

it groAvs on grasses at a little heiglit from the

;

691,
is

mous with
Tode,

This genus 692). Periconia, Corda.

is

synony-

Periconia,

an obscure form.

ground. BiBL, Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 309 Greville, Crypt. Fl. pi. 267; Sowerby, Fungi
;

SPUMELLA.
(SeticuJaria),
pi.

728

STAINING.

280; Fries, Sum.

Veg,

449.

SPUMEL'LA,

Cienk. A genus

of Fla-

para = Monas rj. and v., Elir. In pond water and infusions. (Kent, Inf. 305.)

Minute, free or pedicied, gellate Infusoria. rounded or ovate, mouthless, with 1 long and 2 short flagella. ^S". guUida and S. vivi-

BiEL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 166, pi. 22 D. A genus of PlacoSQUAMA'RIA, Six species, dei (Lichenaceous Lichens) on calcareous rocks and earth. (Leighton,

DC

Lich. Fl. 157.)

SPU'TUM. We

SQUAMEL'LA, Bory, Ehr. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. foot forked ; Char. Eyes four, frontal
;

omitted to notice under

Expectoration

the occurrence of fibrinous

fi'eshwater. S. ohlonga (PI.

44.

fig.

29).

Carapace

casts of the smaller bronchi and pidmonary air-cells in the expectoration of pneiimouia. They are best seen on mixing the sputa with

depressed, elliptical, or ovate-oblong, hyaline; toes slender, long length 1-216". Toes short and thick. (Ehr. S. hractea.
;

water, forming dichotomous cylinders with rounded enlargements. They consist of fine filaments, and are mostly covered with granule-cells, and are generally met with between the third and the seventh day. Koch's. Bacilhis tuberculosus of phthisis, also deserves special attention.

Inf. 479.)

SQUAMULI'NA,Schultze. An obscure,
ForamiCarprobably Nubecularian. BiBL. Schultze, Org. Polyth. 56;

small, parasitic, scale-like, opaque

nifer,

penter, For. 67.

BiBL. Remak, Diagn. ^c. TJntersuch.; Ed. Mn, Jn. 1847, vii. 350 Gibbes, Lancet, 1882, ii. 183 & 797 Jn. 31. Soc. 1882, ii. 572 SPYRID'IA, Harv. Agenusof Cerami; ;

STACHEI'A, Brady. An adherent Arenaceous Foraminifer, with numerous subdivided chambers, acervuline or in irregular Six fossil species (Carboniferous). layers. (Bradv, Carhonif. Foram., Pal. Soc, 1876,

Fig. 693.

STACHYLIDTUM, Link. A genus of Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), nearly

related to Botrytis, distinguished apparently only by the subpedicellate spores. Fries states that these are developed within a

107.)

fugacious veil (?).

Botryosporium
and
^S".

dif-

fusum, Corda,
authors.

is

included here by most

terrestre,

S. hicolor

having

quaternate sporiferous branches at the upper joints of the erect, simple filaments, grow upon decaying herbaceous plants and rotten
StlOKS

BiBi.. Berk.

Br. Fl.

ii.

pt. 2.

341

Fries,
pi.

Su7n. Veg. 490; Greville,

Crgpt. Flor.

257
Spyridia filamentoaa.

Fragment with a fayella and ramule8. Magnified 25 diameters.

acese (Florideous Algse), containing one British species, *S'. Jilamentosa (fig. 693),

having

dull-red, cylindrical, filiform, frond, consisting of a chambered tube, the articulations of which are short, and the walls of which are composed

much-branched

It arises from a of small angular cells. hroadly expanded disk. The branches are The clothed with setaceous ramules.
favellce are

stalked, gelatinous,

and lobed,

surrounded by a few ramules and contain two or three masses of .spores. The tetraAnspores occur attached to the ramules. ther idia have not yet been observed.

The staining or dyeing STAINING. process was introduced by Gerlacb, after observing in his carmine injections, how differently the elements of the tissues were dyed by the colouring-matter. The general action of the dye is, that the nuclei and the protoplasm of the cells are deeply coloured, while the cell-walls are but little acted upon, and the intercellular substance is hardly at all affected. The cause of this difference in the dyeing effect lies partly in the physical and partly in the chemical condition of the organic matter. If the dye-liquor be too strong, or its action too long continued, the whole tissue
become confusedly coloured, and its elements undistinguishable. The dyes which have been used are very
will

STAINING.
;

729

STAINING.

numerous we will give a sketch of the priucipal and their uses. Among- these are carmine, indigo-carmine,
sulphindigotates, saiiron, aniline eosiue, I'uchsiuo, magenta, logwood, picric acid, ink, and Judson's dyes. grains of Frey recommends that 3 to
blue,

clear fluid is to be kept in stoppered bottles and should any carmine be precipitated, a drop or two of liquor ammonife
;

The

alkaUne

should be added.

Care should be taken

carmine (better carminic acid ?) be dissolved in a few drops of Liq. Ammon., with an ounce of distilled water. To the filtered liquid is added 1 ounce of glycerine, and 2 to 3 drachms of alcohol. This solution may be used alone, diluted with water, or with glycerine. The duration of the maceration will vary according to the kind of tissue and the strength of the dye-liquor in some cases a few minutes are enough, in others 24 hours are required. The pieces of tissue are then washed with water or a very weak acid (an oimce of distilled water with 2 or 8 drops of acetic acid). Fresh tissues, or those hardened by alcohol are best next those previously treated with chromic acid or bichromate of potash. Preparations to be preserved in feebly acidified glycerine require to be less dyed than those to be moimted in balsam. Gerlach used a concentrated solution of carmine in ammonia, and placed the sections of brain and spinal cord, previously hardened by solution of chromic acid, in the carmine solution for ten or fifteen minutes. They were then well washed in water and treated with acetic acid subsequently the water and acid were removed by absolute and the preparations were then alcohol Afterwards mounted in Canada balsam. he found that better results were obtained by using dilute solution of carmine and
; ; ; ;

that the solution and the tissue to be stained have not too alkaline a reaction; otherwise the staining Avill be too intense, and some of the tissue surrounding the protoplasm will be destroyed. The permeating power of the fluid is increased by the addiThis is a most tion of alcohol and water. valuable staining agent, but requires care.

Thiersch
caustic

recommends:

carmine

part,

ammonia

3 parts

the oxalic ; One acid 1 part, distilled water 22 parts. part of the carmine solution is to be mixed with 8 parts of the oxalic acid solution, and 12 parts of absolute alcohol are to be added. Should the solution turn out orange-coloured, more ammonia should be added. solution of carmine in borax is sometimes used 4 parts of borax dissolved in 50 parts of water, to which is added 1 part of carmine. The filtered solution is mixed with 2 volumes of alcohol. This solution answers well in dyeing cartilage.

sol. 1 part, distilled solution is to be filtered ;

water

Frey gives the following Thiersch's blue staining fluid

Oxalic acid

formula

for

1 part, distilled water 22 parts, indigo-carmine as much as the solution wiU take up. Another solution of oxalic acid and water in the same proportion is required; and one volume of the first solution is mixed with two volumes of the last and nine of absolute
alcohol. made as

for instance, two or three drops of the ammoniacal solution to an ounce of water. He advised also maceration in this solution for two or three days. Beale's

ammonia

aniline-blue solution may be follows Soluble aniline blue I grain, distilled water 1 oz., alcohol 2odrops. This fluid is not acted on by acids or alkalies. Magenta colours rapidly, and hence it is very useful but its eftects are not permanent. Eutherford gives the following formulae Crystallized magenta 1 grain, absolute alco:

An

carmine fluid for staining protoplasm

made

as follows

is

hol 100 minims, distilled water 5 oz. This is used for the tissues generally; and the following
is for

Carmine
Strong liquor ammonite
Price's glycerine Distilled water

10 grains.
h

blood-corpuscles
1

Crystalspirit

drachm

lized parts,

magenta
distilled

part,

rectified

50

Alcohol The carmine in small fragments is to be placed in a test-tube and the ammonia

2 oimces. 2 ounces. I ounce.

water 150 parts, glycerine

200

parts.

Very

often nerve does not stain readily

with carmine after hardenino- in a solution This maj^ be obviated bv of chromic acid.
placing the section in absolute alcohol for a short time in order to get rid of the water then it is placed in a solution composed of water 300 to 600 parts, and chloride of palladium 1 part. As soon as a pale strawcolour is seen on the section, it may be
;

added to it. By agitation and heat the carmine is soon dissolved "then the solution is boiled for a few minutes and allowed to cool. After an hour any excess of ammonia will the glycerine and water have escaped may then be added and the whole filtered.
; ;

STAmrxG.

730

STAMENS.
The discrepancies of observation of
and equally dogmatic observers are
instructive.

removed from the solution and washed, and

then placed in a strong solution of carmine and ammonia. very few minutes will

with glycerine and carmine staining solutions.

different

suffice to stain the

axis-cylinders red

and

the medullary matter yeUow {Qii. Mic. Jn. 1872, 160). blue staining agent, useful for treating specimens of the spinal cord, is formed by the reaction of molybdate of ammonia, iron filings, and hydrochloric acid {Qu. Mic. Jn.

In fact in some tissues the gold solution will stain many histological elements (see Klein, Qu. Mic. Jn. and Moseley, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1871, 1872, 21
;

most

68).

1872, 161).

logwood staining

solution,

which con-

sists

of an ounce of satm-ated solution of

logwood and alum mixed with two di'achms

of 75 per cent, alcohol, is useful for the nervous elements {Qu. Mic, Jn. 1873, 87,

The Lens, Jidy 1872). Other staining agents comprise especially the chlorides of gold, potassium and palladium, oxide of uranium, nitrate of sOver, and osmic acid. In these, except perhaps in the last, a secondary decomposition occm-s before the colour is imparted to the and the greatest possible care must therefore be taken to allow for the gxanular or striated condition which such precipitates may assume, and for their collecting in tubes and between tissues. An excellent
tissues
;

&

Nitrate of silver for staining epithelial in capillaries, lymphatics, &c. The solution must be clear and weak, and of 1 part nitrate of silver to 200, 400, or 800 of distilled water. The fresh tissues must be macerated in the solution for one to three minutes, and then in a solution of dilate acetic acid (1 to 2 per cent.) for a minute or two. Then place in glycerine and expose to the light or after removal from the nitrate-of-silver solution the tissue shoidd be washed in distilled water, or in a weak solution of common salt before ex-

cement

f ornuda for staining

is

as follows: Bichromate of ammonia 1 to 2 per cent, solution in water. Place the fresh nerve-substance in it for 15 or 20
days.

ganglion-ceUs especially

Then

dip

it,

after

having made sec-

posure to light. In examining the tendinous centre of the diaphragm of any of the smaller mammalia, the part should be placed in the nitrate-ofsilver solution and brushed over with a camel's hair pencil and then removed and treated as above. Solution of osmic acid may be used as a hardening agent, also as a staining medium. Solution of 1 per cent., and usually of much less, blackens many tissues freely, especially the white substance of Schwann in nerves,

tions, in water 10,000 parts, double chloride of gold and potassium 1 part : wash in

hydrochloric acid 1 or 2 parts in 3000 water. Then dip for ten minutes in the following mixtiue Hydi'ochloric acid 1 part, and 1000 parts of a 60 per cent, solution of alcohol immerse in absolute alcohol, clear ^vith oil of cloves, and put up in Canada or Dammar balsam. Staining with chloride of gold may be conducted as follows, the
:

and fat. It is very useful in investigating the minute anatomy- of the Invertebrata. Many parts of animal tissues may be stained by maceration in a weak solution of acetate of lead, washing in water, and

Chloobject being to stain nerve-fibres ride of gold ^ part, distilled water 100 parts. Place pieces of fresh tissue in this for a few minutes until they become tinged with yellow, then in dilute acetic acid (1 to 2 per cent.), or in concentrated tartaric acid solution for a few (10-15) minutes. Expose to Mount light until a violet colour appears. in glycerine. There is great uncertainty in the results of this process ; but care and overcome most of the difficulties
:

experience

weak hydrosulphuret of ammonia. As usual, the nuclei are rendered very black and distinct, the whole tissue being rendered brown. Vegetable tissues may be stained in the same way as the animal structures. The aniline dyes answer best (Beatty, Mn. Mic, Jn. xiv. 57). BiBL. Beale, How ^c. Strieker's Hist., Intro. Frev, Mikros. Rutherford, Hist. Jackson, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 139; Ehrlicli, Schultz&s Archiv, 1873, xiii. 263; Gibbs, Hist.; Tafani, Jn. M. Soc. 1878, i. 82; Merbel, M71. Mic. Jn. xviii. 242 Sternberg, Jn. M. Se. 1882, ii. 571 (staining Bacteria) Schwartz, Sitz. Be): Wien. Ak. 1867, Iv.
digesting with
;
; ; ; ;

and

produce

magnificent

preparations

071.

ue^'ertheless no results are worth recording which are obtainable by this process alone,

and which are not the same as those

vi-sible

STAMENS.The fertilizing organs producing the POLLEN, surrounding the pistil in perfect Flowering plants, or occurring

STARCH.

731

STARCH.
which sometimes takes
iodine
is

alone in the barren flovcers of the monoeStamens precious and dicvcious genera. sent a great variety of interesting points for examination under a simple microscope with a knv power, in their forms, appendFor the compound microages, pores, itc. scope they aftbrd good material for the study of development of cells in the pollen, the POLLEN-grains themselves, and the spiralfibrous tissue of their anthers.

ann/l<nd,

blue

colour

STARCH or Amylfm. This substance, with the exception of the protoplasm, is the most generally diffltsed of all the products met with in the interior of vegetable cells, and occurs in the form of transparent granules, of varied size and form and in varymg quantity, in all classes of plants but the Fungi. It has been stated that it sometimes
exists in a diffused or formless condition but this seems questionable. All starchgi'ains appear when newly formed as minute spherical bodies, and very many never advance beyond this stage but a consider;

applied to it, and, like starch, is ultimately dissolved and removed to furnish material for de\olopmeut. The structure of the starch-granule has formed the subject of much debate, wliicli, however, seems to have originated rather through considerations relating to the development than from a difficulty in observing the complete objects. Very minute granules,
as above stated, appear as solid globules but when the granules acquire appreciable dimensions, concentric lines may be ob;

when

served,
cases,

more or less distinctly in difterent which lines increase in number with

the increase of size, in many cases, however, soon becoming exceutrical from the preponderating growth of one side of the In freshly extracted granules the granule. original centre usually appears solid or with a minute black point but if the starch is dry, the centre appears hollow, sometimes
;

able proportion of the grains, in all cases where the starch becomes an important and considerable element in the cell-contents, increase in size, and acqmre a more or less
definite form, diverging from the spherical, and often characteristic of the particular

and some starchgrains, as in Irispallida,Jioyentina, &c., have a large cavity. If strong alcohol is applied to fresh grains, the abstraction of water likewise produces a hollow in the central
is

even occupied by air

plant in which the gi'ain is pi'oduced. The grains in a single cell mostly vary very much in size, on account of their different degrees of development but the full-grown characteristic grains of the same species of One of plant agree tolerably well in size. the most remarkable peculiarities of starch is the fact that it assumes a blue colour when iodine is applied to it, which in most cases affords a ready means of detecting its The smallest grains are almost presence. too minute to measure, and even their determination by the application of iodine is sometimes unsatisfactory the largest grains, such as those of Carina and the potato, for example, attain a length of more than 1-400". The starch-granule is a definitely organized structure, although its existence in relation to that of the cell is ti'ansitory. It consists of assimilated food, deposited in a definite form insoluble in the ordinary cellsap, through a process of organization analogous to that by which the development of the cell itself is effected. It is related closely to the ceUuhjse structures of the cellwall through the remarkable secondary layers foimd in the Axbi^men of certain seeds, composed of the substance called
;

and in all these cases, point of growth cracks not unfrequently run out towards the surface. The point in question, the starting-point of growth, solid or hollow as the case may be, is sometimes called the hihtm or the rincleus the former term arose out of the mistaken hypothesis of its being a point of attachment to the cell- wall the latter term is admissible in a general sense as merely indicative of its precedence in age of the general mass of the grain. It is sometimes asserted that this point or nucleus is a pore or fimnel-shaped cavity but this is altogether a mistake, as may be readily proved by gently roasting a few starchgranules of the potato on a slide, and observing how the expanding air blows up the dextrine, into which the starch is changed, in the form of a bubble or bladder. Sometimes small granules occur in the potato with a large cavity and thin walls. The lines seen in the starch -granules are the boundaries of superimposed layers of its substance sometimes these are very di;
:

stinct,

sometimes very faint. Often more distinct lines appear at intervals in the
series of the

same

gi'anule (PI. 40.

and

in these cases

fig. 31) even a thin vacancy, or

;

in the dried granules a stratum of air, seems to exist between the layers. The markings "

have been

described

as

" folds

on the

STARCH.
;

732

STARCH.
when these
sac.

but their dependence on starch-pranules the existence of the concentric layers is beyond doubt. They are seen in the proper relative positions when the g-ranides are rolled over in all directions beneath the
microscope ; their relative numbers and forms correspond to the size and stage of development of the granules in the same plant and other characters connected with the physical structure confirm the conclu;

softened,

expands into a thin

coalesce and the whole Gradual action of

sions from simple inspection.

the acid causes a more uniform expansion, which is usually accompanied by a sudden crack running out from the nucleus into the substance (indicating the abstraction of water ?), followed almost immediately by a collapse of the wall above this crack, and a sudden expansion of the whole into a sac or an irregular gelatinous film. Solution of potash produces much the same effect as
dilute sidphuiic acid.

Starch is not chemically an individual substance, but consists of two independent isomeric substances one of which, granulose, is soluble in saliva, is coloured blue by iodine, and is dissolved by weak solutions of while the other, cellulose, chromic acid which composes from 2 to 4 p. c. only of the grains, is not affected by saliva or iodine, and is soluble in solution of cuprate of ammonia, but not in chromic acid solution. Starch is usually stated to be miaffected by cold icater, and this is generally the case ; but if the granides of Tous-les-mois are crushed before placing them in water, so as to expose the internal substance, the water is sometimes absorbed by the inner layers, and these swell up considerably without the When dry outer layers being affected. stare li-granules are heated gradually upon a assume a yellowish slide, until some of them colour, either the air-bubble above-mentioned appears occasionally with a partial separation of the concentric layers through expansion of the films of air existing between them, while other parts become fused, or
: ;

All the above appearances indicate that the starch-granule is composed of concentric " shells " of a substance of the same nature, but less dense and more rich in water in the
interior layers, firmer, less hydrated, and more resisting in proportion to the distance

from the starting-point of growth or nucleus

;

and, according to

modern views, the

layers are alternately more and less hydrated. With polarized light, moreover, the starchgranule exhibits a black cross, and with a plate of selenite a beautiful coloured system,
especially well seen in large grains like those of the potato or Tous-les-mois. Pure starch is coloured blue by iodine, whether in its natiu'al state or softened by

hot water, the depth of the colour depending on the quantity of iodine where much is added, the colour is almost black. When dilute sulphuric acid has been added previously, the coloiu' is rather purple than
;

by weak

blue, especially the faint tinge given at first solution of iodine. the

When

the general shape remains unchanged, and the strife gradually vanish, becoming melted into a mass, as it were, the starch itself

starch grains are heated di-y, the colour given by iodine changes, proportionately to the violence of the action, from blue to
purple, red-wine colour, and finally brown the starch being converted into dextrine. The best application is the solution of iodine in iodide of potassium ; and this should be used very weak in investigation of starch. Starch-granules occur either isolated (PI. 46. figs. 8 & 21), or in groups (figs. 7, 10, 11) (in the latter case mostly with fiat faces, so as to fit together into round, oval, or similar forms), or packed closely in the parent cell
;

When being converted into dextrine. starch-granides are heated in water to the and boiling-point, they usually soften " " blow up into a large sac, the inner part softening first, and pushing out the more if the sac bursts, the inner siibsuperficial stance sometimes partly escapes in the form Diof cloudy fiocks, but is not dissolved. luted sulphuric acid acts somewhat in the same manner as hot water but if stronger acid is allowed to attack the granules locally or partially by flowing in from one side upon the object, very remarkable appearances present themselves the acid touching
; ;
:

certain parts of the granule first, or acting most quickly on softer portions, causes the softening internal layers to expand and bulge out tlie external layers at particular until the entire gi-ain is points (like hemice)

such numbers that they press upon each other and appear like parenchymatous cells In the actively vege(PI. 46. figs. 3 & 12). tating parts of plants, starch-granules occur A'ery generally imbedded in the green globules called CHLOROPHVi.L-graiuiles, either this is seen especially singly or in groups well in the cells of the Confervacepe, of the Hepaticse, the prothallia of Ferns, in the leaves of aquatic plants, such as Vallisneria,
in
;

STxSJlCH.
in

733

STARCH.
white
lily
;

The free granules occur autumn, &c. more particularly in the colourless oi'gans
of plants
tubers, rhizomes, roots, and the region in the season of rest, in the endosperm of ovules, or the albumex or cotyledons of seeds, &c. The parenchymatously grouped granules are tound in the albmnen of seeds, especially of maize and The compaiison of the istates and of rice. the course of development of the crowded
ill

in the

and Criiger, who

first

cambium

granules of maize throws much light upon the manner in which starch-granules are formed. In the first place, two rival doctrines exist as to the order of development of the parts Most authors assert that of the granule. the granules grow by the superposition of
layers from within outwards, consequently that the outermost layers are the youngest. Other authors, especially Niigeli, comparing the granule to a cell, assert that the layers are formed internally, the older ones expanding to make room for them. There can be no doubt that the first view is corIn the next place a variety of notions rect. have been put forth as to the origin of the starch-granule and its relation to the rest of the contents of the cell, especially the It is curious to note the error chlorophyll. into which earlier observers fell from the want of the guiding thread liu'uished by a knowledge of the function of the protoplastic structures connected with the primordial utricle. The idea that the starchgi'anule sprouted out from the cell-wall coiresponded with the original view of the origin of the septum in cell-division ; while the hypothesis that starch is developed from chlorophyll, and the contraiy notion that starch-granules form the nuclei of chlorophyll-granules, both rest on actual phenomena, in which, however, the chlorophyll

published this view in a decided form, has shown that the large granules, with an excentric hilum, originate in a similar position, and owe the excentricity of their form to the fact of their remaining imbedded at the thicker end in the protoplasmic threads of the primordial utricle, while the small free end is gradually pushed out fm-ther from the nutrient mass. The existence of starchgrauides in chlorophyll-masses is thus clearly enough accounted for, now that we know the chlorophyll-globules to consist of masses of protoplasm coloured green by the presence of an extremely small quantity of a substance acquiring a green colour under the Starch originates in influence of light. vacuoles in this as in any other protoplasm. The gi-oujys of granules are formed through the simultaneous origin of a number, in vacuoles excavated in one large globule of
chlorophyll or colourless protoplasm.
It

We

have traced this in the fronds of the Hepaticse.

remains to speak of the diversities of size of the large and perfect granules in difl'erent plants. glance at Plate 46 will give some idea of these, and an inspection of the individual figures will show how remarkably the characteristic forms may vary in nearly related plants, even genera of the same family, as is the Thus case with the ordinary Cereal grains. in Maize (figs. 1,3,5), where the small grains are, as usual, originally roundish or oval one an(fig. 5*), they gradually press upon other and become polygonal in the cells of the centre of the grain, where they are less densely packed, lemaining wdth obtuse edges and angles (fig. 5), in the cells of the homy outer part of the grain, where they adhere more or less firmly together, forming angular parenchymatous masses (%. 3). The In the grain central cavity is large here.

form and

proper, that is the mere green colouringmatter, bears no important share. The development of the starch-granule is very beautifully illustrated in the gradual ripening of the seeds of Maize and in im;

of Wheat we find delicate, transparent, lenticular granules (fig. 8), the strias faint ; in Barley (fig. 9) they are more irregidarly
discoid,
;

perfect seeds, difl'erent parts of the same gi'aiu often exhibit various stages of growth. The figs. 1 and 3 of PI. 46, show the gi-adual formation of the starch-gi-anules by deposition from the internal smface of vacuoles in the protoplasm filling the cell, exactly in the same way as the primordial utricle secretes cellulose layers upon its outer surFig. 28 shows minute starch-granules originating in the same way in the protoplasm-current connected with the nucleus
face.

with a thickened edge, the striae while in the Oat (fig. 10) the granules are ofvery small size, but of angidar forms and packed together in large numbers, so as to form roundish masses with a smooth surface, w'hich readily break down into their
obscure

components when pressed the separate segments all exhibit their separate black crosses In Rice (fig. 12) we find in polarized light.
;

somewhat
;

similar conditions to

those in

Maize but the granules are much smaUer and more firmly united, whence the gritty

STAURASTEUM.

734

STAUROCAEPUS.
;

character of rice-flour. In the Leguminosse, and the pea (fig. Q b*, p. 28), the gi-auules are oblong, the striae distinct, and the hilum In the Potato the starch-granides radiate. than any of the above (fig. 21) are larger they are numerous and closely packed in the cells (fig. 20) Among the more remarkable forms of starch are the large grains of the CamwB (fig.25), J/"sa(fig.24),and most of the
;
.

end tion, and with short lateral processes view with five or more short, narrow, obtuse rays. Length 1-1176". S. yracile (PI. 14. fig. 30). Segments
rough, elongated on each side into a slender process terminated by minute spines end view biradiate. Length 1-770 to 1-540". BrBL. Ralfs, Desmid. 119 Rabenht. Aly. iii. 109; Archer and Dixon, Qu. Mic. Jn. ib. xvii. 103. viii. 77
;

Some East-Indian Zingiberaceae (fig. 19). Arrow-root (fig. 18) has compoimd grains
of large size (mostly detached in the prepared farina). True West-Indian Arrowroot,

STAURIDIUM,

Duj. A

genus

of

sented in

from Maranta arundinacea, is repre26. Various other kinds are fig.

Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Stems simple or branched, rooted by a creeping filiform stolon polypes borne at the summit of the stems with
;

illustrated

in PI. 46. Dieffenhachia Seguina (Araceae) has remarkable lobed granules. Here maybe mentioned the so-called taimiu

several whorls of capitate tentaciUa in the form of a cross.

S.productum.

On marine algje.

(Hincks,

ordinary stai-ch-grains, but the cellulose is replaced the granulose being unaltered ; by tannin, they are coloured blue-black by iron solution, and are found in wood, seeds, &c.

starch-grains.

These

resemble

Hyd. Zooph.

67.)

STAUROCAR'PUS,

Starch-granules are usually isolated by slicing the tissues in which they exist, and

washing them
observed in

out.

situ,

they are to be either delicate transparent

When

Starch-granules may be preserved for a certain time in glycerine but they are, perhaps, best taken fresh from a store of dry granules, when required for examination. BiBL. Martin, Phil. May. iii. 277 Busk, Mic. Tr. i. 58 Allman, Mic. Jn. ii. 163 Criiger, Bot. Zeit. xii. 41, Mic. Jn. ii. 173 E. Quekett, Ann. N. H. xvii. 193 Caspary, Jahrh. iviss. Botanik, i. 448 Trecul, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. X. Niigeli, StarkeJcd)-ner ^-c. and Sachs, Bot. Sitzunc/sber. bayer. Ak. 1865 58 Henfrey-Masters, Bot. STAURAS'TRUM, Meyen. genus of

structures (as in the Cryptogamia) must be selected, or sections very carefidly made. The cells filled with starch of the potato (PI. 46. fig. 20), &c., may be isolated by mathe structures in water for a day or cerating

spe7-mum, Kiitz.). (Confervoid Algae), growing in boggy freshwater pools distinguished by the remarkable quadrate spore formed in the cross branch produced by conjugation. He speaks Ilassall enumerates six species. of, but does not describe or figure, the spores of S. ccerulescens as filled with zoospores. Thwaites, however, saw the spores of S. yracilis resolved into four portions and possibly these may become converted into zoospores like the spores of Bulbocil/ETE
;
;

Hassall {Staurogenus'of Zygnemacese

two.

or probably they germinate directly, as in

^^&- "''*

Spiroyyra.
S. yracillimus. Fila-

ments 1-4200" to 1-3960" in diam.

spores acutely quadrangidar. S.f/racilis (fig. 694,

and" PI. 9. fig. 16). thicker Filaments than in the last

;

Desniidiacese. Char. Cells

single, constricted

at the

end view angular or circular, with a lobato -radiate margin, or rarely comwith a proct'ss at each end. Spopressed rangia generally spinous and often globose.
middle
;

Many

British species.

Stam-ocarpus gracilis. spores cruciform. iS. ylutinosilS. Fila- Conjugating ttlaiueuts with ^poi-es (zygosiiores). ments 1-1 SOO" to diu.ueters. ] -1560" in diam. blu- Maguidert ish green, lubricous ; spores four-sided, with the angles rounded. 8. cfcrulescens. Filaments about the same size as the last ; spores cruciate, with obtuse

S. ili'jevtum (PI. 14. fig. 26).

Segments
por-

lobes.
S'. quadratus. Filaments 1-2400" in diam. spores between square and globose.
;

smooth, lunate or
tion very short
lobes.
;

elliptical, constricted

end view with inflated

;

awned length 1-830". S. maryavitaceum (PI, 14. figs. 28, 29). Segments rough, tapering at the constric-

Common

S. virescens. in

diam. BiBL.

Filaments 1-3240 to 1-3000" spores cruciate, emarginate.

Alff.

Ilassall,

176

Kiitziug,

Sp.

STAUROGENIA.

735

STENOGRAMME.
Fig. 695.

Tab Phyc. V. pis. 8 & 9; Alg. 437 J Thwaites, Ann. N. H. x\-ii. 262; Ralfs,' Desmid. p. 146 Brauu, J^erjiinc/ung, Bay
;

Soc. 1853, 287.

STAUKOGE'NIA,
Unicelliilar Algre.

Kutz.- -A genus of
cells

Char.

Cubical, the

arrauged in

gi'oups of 4, 8, and 16. Propagation by tran quil gonidia arising from repeated division of the cell-substance. -S'. quadratum (PI. 52.
fig.

In freshwater pools. 21). BiBL. Rabenli. Alq. 'in. 80.

STAURONEIS, Ehr. genus of Diatomacese; including Staiirostiyma and Stauroptera.

Stemonitis ferruginea.

Char. Frustules resembling those of iVavicida, but the median nodule expanded into a transverse band or stauros. Striae resembling those of Naoicula, or intermediate between thosQ oi Navictda and Pinnularia often invisible by ordinary illumination. The species or forms are numerous.
;

Mycelium overgrowing decaying

pine-leaves.

Fig. 696.

S. phoenicentci-on (PI. 15. fig. 43. Valves lanceolate, gradually attenuated towards

the somewhat obtuse ends stam'os reaching the margins of the valves; strife faint. Freshwater; common; length 1-170" S.pidchella (PI. 15. figs. 44,45). Valves oblong, ends obtuse; frustules in front view broadly linear, constricted in the middle, and rounded-truncate at the ends stauros not reaching the sti'iaj distinct
; ; ;

stemonitis ferruginea.

Immature

(fasciculate) peridia arising

from the

mycelium.

tium is penetrated partly or through its whole length by a columella continuous with the peduncle the spores are inter;

spersedin the reticulations of the capiUitium. Capillitium and spores mostly of blackish
colour.
S. fiisca is

margins.

Marine; length 1-70". BiBL. Ehrenb. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1843; Kiitz. Bacill. 104, and Spec. Alg. 89 ; Rabenh. Alg.
i.

There are numerous British species ; common. See Enerthenema

ii.

and DiACH^A.
BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.
pt. 2.

244.

317
;

Ann.

STAUROSPER'MUM,Kiitz.=.STAraoCAEPus, Hassall.

N. H.

STEARIC ACID.The
fatty acid are represented in
of

STEGANOPOREL'LA,Smitt. A genus
Polyzoa

crystals of this PL 11. fig. 16.

pt.

Membi^anipora

(Hincks,

pepodous Entomostraca. Two species, on Laminaria and in dredgings. (Brady, Copep.

ii.

257, vi. 431, 2. v. 366 Greville, Cnjpt. Flor. pi. 170; Fries, Sum. Veg. 455; Syst. Myc. iii, 156. STENHE'LIA, Boeck. genus of Coi.

Polyzoa, 176.)

STEMONI'TIS,

Gled.

32.)

genus

of
_

STENOO'YBE, Nyl.-A

Myxomycetes, consisting of little, somewhat stamen-shaped plants, either separate or on rotten wood, &c. fascicidated, They appear at first in the form of a mucilaginous fiocculent expansion (fig. 695), from which the membranaceous peridia grow up Many of these remain abortive (fig. 696). others are raised upon stalks, ripen, and, on the separation of the fugacious peridium, display themselves somewhat in the form of Di ACH.s;A,but with a bristle-like columella The flat, and no remains of the peridium. cylindi'ical or globose, reticulated capilli;

sitic

genus of paraMicro-lichens fumid on the thallus of

Thelotrenia and Graphis = Sphinctrina, Leightou. (Lindsay, Q. Mic. Jn. 1869, 146.)

STENOGRAM'ME, Ilarv. genus of Rliodymeniacese (Florideous Algse), containing one very rare British plant, S. interrupta, characterized by stalked, flat, fanshaped fronds, more or less divided dichotomously into riband-like lobes, 3-5" high, It is comof a clear pinky-red coloiu'. posed of a centi'al laj^er of large globular cells, with a kind of rind of small cells. The conceptacles form a sort of sorus or dark

STENTOR.
line
fertile

736

STEPHANOSPH^RA.
;

resembling a rib, up tbe centre of each lobe. Tetraspores and antheridia

unknown.
BiBL. Harvej', Marine Alg. 123, pi. 15 D. STENTOR, Oken. A genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria, of the family Bursarina. Char. Body conical or trumpet-shaped, the narrow fi'ee, or sessUe and attached by base, covered with cilia; anterior portion

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 400; Pritchard, Inf. 668 Oubitt, Mn. Mic. Jn. iii. 240. STEPHANODIS'CUS, Ehr.A genus
of Diatomacefe. Char. Frustules discoidal, single valves circular, alike, not areolar (under ordinary illumination), and with a fringe of minute marginal teeth freshwater. has the valves finely raS'. berolinensis diate, with mostly thirty-two teeth, and is S. Niagarce (PL 18. 1-1 LoO" in diameter.
; ;

widened and fringed with a marginal row cilia, with a spiral row of ciha extending from it to the mouth. Freshof longer

water.

These Infusoria are among the largest and the most beautiful of the class. The body is very contractile and liable to variation in form, often becoming ovate, oblong, or globular; the nucleus is moniliform or
Reproduction by oblique fisand by germs arising from the nucleus. The enc^'sting process has been noticed in some of the species. According to Lachmann, in S. Miilleri, jjoli/morphus, and Rwselii, near the plane of
strap-shaped.
sion,

S. sinensis lineatus (fig. 27) Mgijptiacus (fig. 29) S. Bra(fig. 29*). Blbl. Ehrenb. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1845, Ixxii. Rabenht. Alg. i. 36. Klitz, Sp. Al(/. 21 STEPHANOGO'NLl, Ehr.An obscure genus of fossil Diatomacese. Char. Frustules resembling those of ilfastogonia, but with the apices of the valves
fig.

26)

S'.

28) maputrcB
(fig.

S.

the ciliary disk

is

a large contractile vesicle,

truncate, angidar, and spinous. Two species found in Bermuda and North America. S. poh/gona (PI. 18. fig. 30). BiBL. Ehrenb.' ^e;-. Berl. Ak. 1844, 264; Kiitz. Sp. Alq. 26; Pritch. /;//. 814.
of Free, ovate, Cilio-Flagellate Infusoria. with an anterior circle of cilia, and a single S.locellus; freshwater. (Kent, flagellum.
Inf. 466.)

from which a longitudinal

vessel with several dilatations runs to the posterior extremity of the body"; also an annular vessel round the cUiary disk, close under its row of cilia. S. Miilleri (PL 32. fig. 3). Body colourless imless from containing foreign coloured particles, with a fringe of cilia or a ciliated crest extending from the mouth to near the middle of the body nucleus monUiform.
;

STEPHANO'MA=Pandorixa. STEPfLlNOM'ONAS, K. A genus

STEPH'ANOPS, Ehr. A

genus of Ro-

tatoria, of the family Euchlanidota. Char. Eyes two, frontal, foot forked; anterior carapace depressed- or prismatic
;

Length 1-24"
Several other species. Dajardin places this genus in the family Urceolarina. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 261 Stein, Infus.., passim Pritchard, Inf. 581 Clap, et Lach. Inf. 222 Kent, Inf. 588 Laukester, Qu.
; ; ;

tal

body expanded so as to form a fronhood jaws each with a single tooth. S. cirratus (PL 44, fig. 28). Carapace with two posterior spines freshwater;
part of
;

M.

J.

1873

STEPHANOC'EROS, Ehr. A genus of

Rotatoria, of the family Floscularifea. Char. Eyes single rotatory organ di\aded into five tentacle-like lobes, furnished with whorls of vibratile cilia body attached by the base to a cyhudrical hyaline ca; ;

(col.

matter).

length 1-240". !S. muticus has the carapace without spines been posteriorly, and the eyes have not recognized whilst <S'. lamellatm has three
;

posterior spines.

BiBL. Ehr. Inf 478

Pritch. Inf. 600.

Dintomaceed = Fi/xiclicula in part.

STEPHANOPYX'IS, Ein-.-A
STEPHANOSI'RA, Ehr. A

genus of genus of
fila-

rapace.

Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules united into a short

Eichhornii (PI. 44. fig. 25). The only Freshwater; length 1-36". This species. beautiful animal uses the lobes of the rotating organ to catch its prey, in the manner At a (tig. 25) are seen the treof Hydra. mulous bodies, above Avhich is a row of roundish globules, called by Ehrenberg ner*S'.

ment, disk with radiating series of minute puncta and a marginal crown of teeth. Allied to Stephanodisms and Melosira. On
trees.

STEPIL\NOSPIE^'RA, Cohu. A
Volvocinese

(Pritchard, Infus. 823.)

ge-

nus of

vous ganglia.

(Confervoid Algse). S. pluvialis (PL 48. fig. 22) is neai-ly related to Pandorina, consisting of a large hyaline

STEHEOCAULON.

'37

STICTEI.

globe with eiglit biciliatecl green cells, placed at equal distances on the equator.
liiHL,

of willows, walls, &c. (Rabenhorst, Fl. Ahj.

iii.

47.)
D"()rb.

Cohn,

Siff). cV lui/lilc,

Zeitschr. iv.

STICIIOSTE'GIA,

(Rhabooi-

Mic. Jn. vi. ; 77, Ann. X. II. x. 321, pi. 131; Kabenh. Alff. iii. 100; iircher, Qu. Mic. Jn. 18G-J, 110.

STEREOCAU'LON,

Schreb. A genus

of Cladodei (Licheuaceous Lichens). 8, jjdschale, the most distinct species, is abundant on rocks and stones in mountainous

DEA, Schultze). lJ"Orbigny arranged all Foramiuifera having uniserial or linear growth under this head as an Order; but, besides the many straight Nodosarince, there are several rectilinear forms of other genera belonging to dilferent Natural
Orders, as Litiiold, Puvonia, ArticuUna, Sec, STICIIOTRICIIA, Perty. genus of Hypotrichous Infusoria. Elongate, vanarrowed in front; outer anterior riable, cilia very long, in a lateral row ; often contained in a cyUndrical carapace. Several species; salt aud freshwater.

Thallus greyish and rough, apothecia conglomerated, blackish brown spermogonia in little brown heads, near the
districts.
;

apothecia.

Other

species.

BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 237; Tulasue, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 197 Enyl. Bot.
;

pi.

-1^^

STEREONE'MA,
decaying stalks of
Sp. Ah). IGO.)

Leiirhton, Lich. Fl. Kiitz.

Ii9.

supposed

Alga of the family Phasonemere (Kiitzing), stated by Cohn, however, to consist of the

Anthophysa.

(Kiitz.

STE'REUM,
rini

Fr.

genus of Auricula-

775; Perty, Lebensf. 153.) 6f Phyllodei (Lichenaceous Lichens), with a tough foliaceous thallus, growing over rocks and trunks of trees, mostly in mountainous districts. jmlmonaria forms large shaggy fronds of olive-green colour when fresh, (Kent,

STIC'TA, Ach. A genus

l7if.

*S'.

(Ilymenomycetous Fungi), characterby its coriaceous substance, and even hvmeuium without bristles, as in Hymenoized
chctte.

pale-brown
lated
;

when

dry, pitted

and reticu-

The species

Stereum hirsuiutn

are numerous, amongst which is one of our commonest

t.

Fungi. BiBL. Fr. Fp. 548; Berk. Outl. f. 7; Cooke, Handb. 316.

marginal, redbrown. Spermogonia occur scattered on the upper surface, mostly near the ends of the lobes. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 208; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 169, pi. 1

apothecia

mostly

17.

Engl, Bot,
111.

pi,

572; Leightou, Lich. Flor.

of
Ilelyel-

STERIG'MATA. The
Tulasne to
cels of the
figs. 2, 3).

term applied by the filaments forming the pedi-

STICTEI, Fries. A group

lacei

spermatia in the

Funi

(Ascomycetous
Fig. 697.

Fungi),

containing

(PI. 26.

STERROM'ONAS, Kent. A

two

Flagellate Infusoria. the shorter flagella, the longer rigid,

8. formicina, in and vibratile. vegetable infusions, salt and freshwater. (Kent, Inf. 420.) STICIIIDIA. Pod-shaped processes of the fronds of Florideous Algte, containing the tetraspores imbedded in them (fig. 157,

genus of Free, elongate, with

flexible

Fig, 698.

p. 236).

STICHOCIL'E'TA,

CI.

and Lachm.A

fam. Oxygenus of Hypotrichous Infusoria, trichina. Free, elongate, narrowed and with cirri in front, and with styles and marine. setae behind, pedicuUformis Lachm. Inf. (Kent, Inf. lib; CI. &
^S".
\

Stictis versicolor.

152.)

STICHOCOC'CUS, Xiig. A

genus of

Palmellacese, consisting of very minute, obor usulong, thin- walled, green cells, single, bacillaris (PI. 3. <S'. allv arranged in rows.
fig.'

disk, emerged on the surface of wood, hating an irregular border. Fig. 698. Vertical section of the same. Magnified 20 diameters. Fig. 699. Asci and paraphyses from the last. Magni-

Fig. 697.

An open

fied 20U diameters.

25),

on damp decaying wood, especially

several genera of plants,

growing on wood,

3b

STICTINA.

738

STILBACEI.
3. xiv. 223, pi.

brandies of trees, &c., bursting througli from beneath the bark when matiu'e. Stidis

Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat.

liabenh. Aly.
_

18

iii.

375.

697-600) is common on wood the upper surface of the open fruit is white, and at length mealy. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 214 Ann. N. H. vi. ooO; Fries, Sum. Veg. 372. STICTINA, Nyl. genus of Phyllodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Thallus variously
versicolor
;

(Cn/ptomt/ces,Ikv\i.
(figs.

Propolis, Fr.,

^S".

Vcff.)

STIG'MA.The part of the pistil of An-

giospermous Flowering Plants, upon which the pollen rests to produce its pollen-tubes, and where the oi'ifices exist leading to the
It is situated either cavity of the ovary. at or near the summit of the style or its

lobed or laciniato-lobate rhizina3 simple granula gonima of a dark blue-green colour. (Leiohton, Zr7/(.i^/. IDS.) StiCTODIS'CUS, Grev. genus of S. Hardmanianus, in the Diatomacese. (Grev. Mic. Tr, 1865, JNIonterey deposit.
;

branches ; or, when this is absent, it is sessile on the ovary. The surface of the stigma is clothed with papilliform or short tubular from which a tenacious secretion cells, exudes at the period when the ovules are prepared to receive the pollen-tubes. Attached by this adhesive fiuid and often grasped by the papillae the polkm-grains

98.)

STIGEOCLO'NIUM,

Klitz. A genus of

produce theu" tubes, which make their way between the papilhe to descend through
the conducting tissue of the style to the placenta (PI. 40. fig. 30). These papilliform cells in a young state often form favourable subjects for the study of the protoplastic cell-contents, and also of the fiuid colouring-matter. The forms of the stigma are exceedingly varied aud sometimes very elegant; and some of those covered with coloured hairs form beautiful microscopic In the Order Oompositos, its chaobjects. racters are used for the systematic divi=:ion of the numerous genera.
_

Confervoid Algfe, doubtfully referred to Confervacefe, growing mostly in brooks, and composed of delicate branched filaments, drawn out into delicate hyaline attached to stones aud forming points masses of a mucous or lubricous character.
;

cells,

jointed filaments are composed of short possessing bright green contents the entire contents of a cell are converted into a single spore (with four cilia) and discharged (PI. 0. fig. 5) and the cell-wall is so delicate that it generally vanishes at the same time. Many species are described by
; ;

The

STIGM-F'US, Koch.A genus of TromLegs seven-jointed, ce; ;

Kiitzing, formerly regarded as members of the genus Dkapaenaldia, Avhich differs in the number of spores produced in each cell, and in possessing large pi'imary filaments with lateral tuits of dehcate ones, resembling those of Sfit/eoclonium (fig. 179,
p. 271). S. jn-otensiim

bidiua (Acarina).

filaments 1-36

Tufts of (PI. 0. fi^. 5). to 1-60" high, very much

;

branched and elongated primary filaments 1-1800" in diameter, joints equal or three times as long (Drap. condcnsata, Ilassall). Tufts about 1-36" to 1-72" S. tenue.
hig'h; filaments 1-21G0" in diam., torulose; set above with tufts of abbreviated brauchle's
<S'.

phalothorax Avith transverse line no eyes. !S. cruentus, very minute. (Koch, Ucbcrs. Murray, Fc Ent. 124.) STIGMAPH'ORA, Wallich. genus of Diatomaceie. Char. Frustules free, naviculoid valves lanceolate, loculale kiculi with central and marginal puncta marine. India. BiBL. Wallich, Tr. Mic. 8oc. viii. 43; Eabeuht. Ah/, i. 258. STIG'MATA OF Animals. See SmraCLES.

A
;

{Drap.

tenuis, Llass.

Filaments very slender, elotuiatum. 1-2880" in diam.; branches erecto-patent,

often opposite, subramulose, fkagelliform joints three or five limes as long as broad (jJrap. elong. Ilass.).
;

STIGMATIDIUM, Mey.A genus of Graphidei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Apotliecia brownish, punctiform or elongate, immersed, hypothecium colourless, (Leighton, Lich. Flora, 412.)

STKiONE'MA, Ag.

A supposed genus

Filaments highly mucous, S. nanum. very slender, sparingly bninched, branches acuminate, not usually ciliate cells rather broader than long {Drap. nana, Ilass.).
;

of Oscillatoriaceiie, founded up(m wliat has proved to be the thallus of a genus of Lichens. See Ephebe. STILBA'OEI. family of Hyphonwcetous Fungi, growing upon decaying animal or vegetable matter, or oji bark or leathery

]5tbl. Kiitz.
iii.

pis.

1-11;

Sp. Al,/. 352; Tab. P/ii/c. Ilassall, L'r. Ahj. p. 118;

Characterized by a receptacle composed of conjoined filamentous or hexagoual

leaves.

STILBOSrORA.
cells

739

STING.
Fig. 700.

and spores borne singly on the apices of tree tiIanients,t'oi-minj^ a gelatinous mass. Some of the Fungi here included are heterogeneous and iniperfoctly studied; for example, Tiibcrciilurin and Fusariiim are apparently only imperfect states of other Fungi, Avhile the more distinct genera appear to be referable to the family Dematiei.
Si/nopsis

consisting of a nucleus

composed of agglutinated (septate) stylospores (see Sph-'eria). BinL. Berk. Jir.

Flor.
ii.

pt.

2.

356;

An. N. II. vi. 355; Hookers Jn. o/^ J5o<. Stilbospora macrosperma. f''"""P "^ conceptaclca iii. 322; Fries" Sum.,bri'aliini? forth on fracley. o08: Iresenius, m.-nt oNvood; Beitr. S. 31yc. ii. 03 The (UtaLlu-d
;

T'

~Ao

T'

:i

of British Genera.

nat.

8i?:7..

spoi-cs

on

Atractium. Stem firm. Head subglobose spores fusiform, elongated. Mi/rothecium. Receptacle at length marginate. Spores diffluent, oblong, forming a Sat or slightly convex, dark green stratum. Tub&rcularia. Receptacle wart-shaped, of globidar or stalked, fleshy, composed continuous sterile, and thread-like beaded
;

Stilhum. Receptacle stalked at the base? clavate or capitate at the summit, composed of coalescent, densely crowded, parallel filaments ; spores simple, arising singly at the apices of free filaments.

Tulasne, An. So. Nat.

4. V. 109.

f^^^Sf

"""""'^''

STIL'BUM, Tode. A genus

shining

of Stilbacei

(Hyphomycetous Fungi), containing a considerable number of species, forming little

sometimes mildews, brightly on decaying Avood, herbaceous The stalk-like stroma is &c. plants, fungi, sometimes villous, sometimes glabrous and it is rigid, sometimes pellucid and soft formed of conj oined filaments, the free ends
coloured,
;

of which bear the spores in a capitulura, which finally exhibits a gelatinous character.

fertile filaments.

Finally indurated, flocit,

with the spores scattered over falling into powder.

cose,

or

BiBL. Berk. Brit. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 330 Ann. N. H. vi. 432, pi. 12 ih. 2. v. 465 Fries,
;
; ;

Periola. Receptacle cellular, sessile; fertile filaments abbreviated, torulose, mixed with septate lax sterile filaments.

VuhdeUa. Receptacle wart-hke, cellular, compact, with long, rigid bristles; spores on continuous short spindle-shaped, septate, filaments, arising all over the receptacle.

J. Ag. genus of Sporochnacepe (Fucoid Algje), included by some authors among the Dictyotacese. There

Sum. T'er/. 469. STII.OPPl'ORA,

two British species, 8. rhizodes and 'S'. Li/nybyei, characterized by a branched, filiform, at first solid, afterwards tubular frond,
are

Fmarium. Receptacle wart-like, cellular, gelatinous; spores spindle-shaped, simple, somewhat cm-ved, borne on simple filaments and forming arising all over the receptacle,
a discoid stratimi.

lUusporium.

Receptacle

wart-shaped,

subgelatinous, difiiueut; spores simple, pellucid, generally with a hyaline envelope, borne on short filaments.
lular, for
;

Epicoccum. Receptacle wart-shaped, celthe most part seated on an eftused cellular, attached patch spores four-sided, filaments. singly to very short, continuous
in yEgerita. "^Spores irregular, disposed short moniliform threads at the apices of flexuous, branched, radiating, compacted

the former 6 to 24", the latter 2 to 4" long, from a small naked disk. The fructification consists of little wart-like bodies scattered all over the frond, composed of tufts of moniliform filaments, at the bases of which are attached either pyriform uniThulociUar, or tubular septate sporauges. ret states that the specimens of *S'. rhizodes found a certain distance above low-water mark appear mostly to bear septate, those
arising

always under water simple sporauges, and those in an intermediate position exhibit The plants of the first kind are of both. paler colour than those of the second. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Ahj. 39, pi. 7 C
;

peduncles. BiBL. Berkeley, Crypt. Botany, 311.

Greville, Alg. Brit. pi. 6 Nat. 3. xiv. 238, pi. 38.

Thuret, A?in. Se.

supposed genus of Melanconiei (Stylosporous Fungi), of stylospobut apparently only consisting rous fruits of '^Spharice. These grow npon on the w^ood, sticks, &c., breaking forth surface without any distinct perithecium,
_

STILBOS'PORA,

Pers.

STING OF

Insects.

The

well-known

sting of the females or so-called neuters of Insects, as the honey-bee,

H}-menopterous the humble-bee, the hornet, the wasp, &c., appears to the naked eye to be a single needle-like organ but when examined un;

der the microscope,

it is

seen to consist of

STINGS.
cal outer piece or sheath (PI. 34.

740

STINGS.

three pieces a short, stout, cylindrico-coni-

14 a), cleft throughout its length on the under surface and obtuse at the end, within which are partly contained two long elbowed setse or lancets (PL 34. fig. 15, one of them), thickened and furnished with teeth directed backwards near the end of one margin, the other margin sharp and cutting. These setse play within the sheath, being partially protrusile and retractile, as is the sheath itself.
fig.

however, serve a merely defensive purpose, but is used also to paralyze the prey, so that it may be kept in store for future use. The sting represents a modified ovipositor.

BiBL.

Lacaze
Nat.

Duthiers,
xii.
;

Fig. 701.

Aim.
&c.
;

Sc.

3.

xiv.

AVestwood, Intrud.

Sie-

bold, Vergl.

STINGS

An. OF Plants.

These are epidermal

struc-

The poison-apparatus

consists of two glandular elongated sacs, either simple (PI. 34. in the humble fig. 14 e,/), or branched as

tures, consisting of large hairs,

with a bulbous base more or

less

included

in

a cellular

bee, &c., and terminating by one (fig. 14f/) or two ducts, in a muscular reservoir (fig. 14 c), from which an excretory duct runs to the base of the sheath of the sting. The irritation produced by the sting of one of these insects needs no remark. It does not.

bulb, which is broken oft" when the sting is lightly touched (PI. 28. fig. 8). Young stings

coat,'and attenuated upwards. In the sting of the nettle the apex is expanded into a little

stinging hair of Kettlt

,j^

go diams.

Pig. 702.

Fig. 703.

Fig. 704.

Fig. 702. Gastric mueous gland with cylind^r-opitlK^liiim, from the pylorus of a dog. a, principal cavity; tuBu)ar processes arising from it. Magnified <iO diameters. Fig. 703. Gastric peptic gland from the middle of the stomach, a, principal cavity; 6, primary, and c, terminal branches arising from it. Magnified 60 diameters. Fig. 704. Portions of a terminal branch, the upper representing a longitudinal, the lower a transverse section, a, basement membrane; b. large cella in close apposition with it; c, smaller epithelial cells surrounding the cavity.^ Magnified 350 diameters.
6,

STIPA.
exliibit the

741

STOMATA.

Rotatiox.

Stings occur

not

the nettles (Urfica), but in the cultivated Loasacene {Loa/^a, Bartonia, Sec), and of much larpn- size in some exotic Urticacete and Euphorbiacese. See Hairs, page 378. genus of Graminacefe. STI'PA, Linn. The fibres of the culms of -S'. tenacissima are used in the manufacture of paper. The glauds which secrete the gastric juice, or the peptic glands, are

only

ill

two distinct l<inds exist mucus, tlie tubes being

in one, secreting
tu'e

lined with cylindrical epithelium; wliilstin tlie other, wiiich secretes gastric juice, rounded epitlidi <\
cells occur, intervals.

and the walls

expanded at

STOMACH.

Closed follicles resembling the solitary glands of the small intestines are met with in the stomach they are inconstant, how;

ever,

and variable in number. The stomach is lined by cylindrical epi-

tubular, and placed perpendicularly beneath the surface uf the mucous membrane, and extending as deeply as the muscular coat of the stomach. They vary in length from 1-60 to 1-12",
are cylindrical, somewhat narrowed towards the closed end, which is rounded or somewhat inflated. The lower third is wavy or spiral, especially in the glands occupying the some of them also give on a ctecal pylorus
;

thelium.
Bibl. therein
;

BiBL. KoUiker, Mik. An. ii. 1.37, and the Todd and Bowman, Phi/s. An. ^c. Briuton, TodxVs Cycl. An. ^- Phys. Art.
;

Dranch.

The

peptic glands consist of a delicate

basement membrane, lined in the upper third with cylindrical epithelium, the lower portion being tilled with large, pale, polyFig. 705.

Klein, Strieker'' s Hist. i. 1543. (plural of Stoma). The name applied to the structures which constitute the passages of communication, through the Epidermis of plants, from the intercellular passages to the external air. They occur almost exclusively on the green parts of plants, and are usually absent from the epidermis of roots, and the siu'face of all structures growing under water. The lowest classes which present them are the
;

Stomach

STOM'ATA

Liverworts and Mosses, where, however, they are limited to a few kinds, and in the former present a pecidiar organization. In the Ferns they are distributed just as in
the Flowering Plants, where they occur principally upon the leaves (fig. 706), especially upon the lower face, but extend also over the green shoots, the parts of the flower (fig. 200, page 296), and even into the interior of cavities, as on the epidermis of the replum of Cruciferre (wall-

Perpendicular section of the pyloric portion of the stomach of a pig. a, glands b, muscular layer of the proper mucous membrane; c, submucous tissue with the oritices of divided ressels d, transverse muscular layer; e, longitudinal ditto; f, serous coat. Magnified 30 diameters.
;

gonal, finely granular cells, not arranged in a laminated form. In many animals the gastiic glands are of more complicated structure than in man, and

and still more remarkably on the epidermis of seeds (skin of the walnut). In the Liverworts the stomata occur on the fronds and receptacles of certain genera {Marehanlia, Feyatella, &c. &c.). In Marchantia (fig. 447, p. 489), they are somewhat circular orifices in the epidermis, guarded by cells arranged in three or fom* tiers. In the Mosses they are met with on the apophyses or thickened summits of the setas bearing the capsules, as in Funaria (fig. 262, page 343). The structures here resemble those in the higher pkint.j, as is the case also with those on the leaves of Ferns. In the Flowering Plants the perfect stomata appear as roundish or sometimes squarish chasms in the epidermal layer, occurring regularly at the meeting angles or sides of four or more epidermal cells, the
flower),

chasm forming an

orifice leading down to a subepidermal intercellular space, and guar-

STOMATA,
ded a

742

STOJIATA.

little below the upper edge, more deeply, or even at the bottom, by usually two semilunar cells, applied together by their flat faces, but not coherent, their convex surfaces adhering firmly to the sides of the epidermal gap. According as the two stomatal cells Fig. 706. pore-cells or guard cells are distended or coUapsed, their flat faces approacli or retreat from each other, in the latter case leaving a slit-

the upper margin of the orifice, formed by the borders of the sm'rounding epidermal cells, sometimes becomes elevated and even converted into a kind of perforated dome (PI. 48. fig. 2'2) by development of the cuticular This might be layers (see Epideemis). mistaken for the stoma itself. The same cuticular substance is often developed in matiu'e leaves, not only down over the walls of the stomatal passage, but over the guard cells, and thence more or less into contiguous intercellular passages. This maybe observed

like

orifice

leading

from the outer passage into the subepi-

Euphorbia Capid-Mediisa; Hellebortis and viridis, Behda alha, Asphodelus Gashtteus, and Cereus, some Aloees, &c. parini obtained these connected processes of cuticular substance, iu the form of an
,

iu

niijer

dermal space. Somethe times guard

cells

are
in

four

iu

which case they either form two tiers, as upper and lower (Protenumber,
aceae,
e.

isolated coherent piece, by boiling epidermis in nitric acid, which dissolved the adjoining cell-walls these he mistook for peculiar and called them cystomes. Hooker organs,
:

y.

Hake a,

Protca, &C.), or thev li V ' the same hne are

,

Epidermis of the WWto ^''y ^it^^ stomata si (lower

surface).
..^

has described a remarliable form of stomata in the parasitical plant Myzodendron. Iu those plants in which the epidermis becomes infiltrated with siliceous matter, the walls of the stomatal pore and the guard

and
ing

parallel,

HIP lorm-

imAjMaenined 100 diameters.

inner and outer guard cells {Ficns In certain coriaceous leaves the stomata are placed on the sides of pits excavated beneath the surface of the leaves, as in Dasylirion longifolium and Kerium Oleander. considerable difi'erence exists between the appearances presented by vertical sections of the epidermis of leaves made so as In young to pass through the stomata. leaves the guard cells are little (if at all) below the general level of the epidermis and the same is the case with the perfect forms of various herbaceous plants in which the In other leaves are of mtunbranous texture. cases, as iu the Hyacinth, Iris, Narcissus, Equisetum, Sec, the guard cells are found at a very early period quite beneath the layer of epidermal cells, attached as it were under the passage communicating with the The same occurs very frequently in air. the stomata of coriaceous leaves, as in Aloe
elastica).

become imbued with it, and a siliceous skeleton of the structure remains after the organic matter has been removed by
cells

nitric

acid and burning (PI. 48. fig. 29). readily seen in the Equisetacea3, especially E. hyemale, also in the Grasses. The mode of development of the stomata appears to be uncertain. Mohl and other authors assert that the guard cells originate from one of the cells of the subepidermal tissue, which is pushed up into a vacancy formed by the separation of the This cell epidermal cells at certain points. is next divided into two, which become free from each other in the line of the now

This

is

Niigeli and others partition then formed. assert that the guard cells are originally

constituent cells of the

epidermal layer,

which become subsequently displaced downwards (or upwards), and undergo special
development analogous to that just
scribed.

deIn the Iridaceas, Equisetaceoe, and some other plants, the process is more com-

phcated.

(PI. 48. fig. 2-2),Fici(s, Ci/cas, Halcea, Protea, In other instances also in leathery &c.

leaves, the

guard

cells

appear more or
level

less

The stomata are generally largest upon succulent leaves, smallest on hard and leathery kinds their form and nuudjer are
;

elevated ahore the

general

epidermal cells, as in some It is important to cadeiidron, Orevillca, &c. observe that in the cases where the guard cells are sunk in the orifice of the epidermis,

of the species of Leii-

most

varied, both in different plants and on different jiarts of the saine plant. Tliey abound most on the lower face of loaves ; but it has been mentioned that they are not

found on submerged organs, and on floating

STOMATA.

743

STRIATELLA.

Ipavos thoy occur only upon tlio upper face. The larger kinds ure more scattered on a given surface ; the smaller occur closer together: this depends, of course, on the fi^eneral character of the epidermal and sub-

The numbers have been jacent tis,-;ue. estimated upon the surfaces of many leaves, of which a few examples may be given thus a sq[uare inch contains, on the
Uppor
surface.

Lower

surface.

38,500 38,500 Garden Flag ... 11,572 .... 11,572 Ilouse-leek .... 10,710 .... G,U00 Tradescanfia .... 2,000 .... 2,000
.

Carnation

Mi.stletoe

200

200
Striaria attenuata.

IIollv

03,600
13,000 90,000
;

Lilac

Fig. 707. Part of a frond.

One-third of the nat.

siz.

....1(;0,000
.
.

Tine
Laurestinus

Fig. 708.

Fig. 709.

BiBL. Geiieral Works on Struct. Botany Mem. Ac. lioif. France, xii. Gaspariui, Nuove ric. s. strutt. cl. Cistomi, 1844; Hooker, Garreau, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. i. 213 Flora Antarct. i. 291 Biscoe, Mn. Mic. Jn.
Mirbel,
; ; ;

31.; Hohnfeldt, ^o!!. Centralhl. 1880, i., Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. 71 (undergTouucI) ; Prantl, Flora, 1872 Stein, Bot. 103. or Stigmata of Animals. These are minute rounded spaces, left between the epithelial cells of the capillary blood-vessels, lymphatics, and of the serous
viii.
;

STOMATA

membranes.

Great importance has been

striaria attenuata.
Fig. 708. fragment with sori. Magnified 5 dinms. Fig. 709. Section of a fertile branch, with sori. Magnified 25 diameters.

attributed to them, as allowing the escape of the corpuscles and liquid into the sur-

rounding

tissues.

This

may occur when the

vessels are congested and distended; but not in the normal state, for the finest injections do not escape through them. They are best seen in silver-stained preparations. (Frev, Hist, and the Bibl.)

3 to ] 2" high. The branches are attenuated towards each end, and marked with rings
consisting of clusters of simple sporanges (spores) (fig. 708), sometimes accompanied by filaments (fig. 709). BiRL. Harv. Mar. Ahj. 41 Grev. Ahj. 54.

StOMATOP'ORA=ALECTO. STONES OF Feuits, such as

cherries,

plums, Sec, aftbrd excellent materials for sections, showing extreme development of the woody Secondaky deposits of vege-

STRIATEL'LA, Ag.A

genus of Dia-

Schulze.A globular Arenaceous Foramiuifer with a short

STORTHOSPn.E'RA,

blunt spike. German Ocean. (F. E. Schulze, Commiss. wiss. Un.deutsch. J/eere,1875,113.) STRIA'RIA, Grev. genus of Dictyo-

siphonacese (Fucoid Algae), nearly related to Punctariaceas, having a branched, filiform pale olive, tubular frond, ari.sing from a shield-shaped naked disk. The walls of the tube are membranous, and the cavity without septa. >S'. attenimta (fig. 707) grows from

tomaceae. Char. Frustules with a stipes attached to one angle, depressed, tabulate with longitudinal uuint^jrrupted vittje, apparently thickened at each end. Marine. The vittse appear as dark lines no transverse striae are visible under ordinary illumination. *S'. unijnmctata (PI. 17. fig. 20), Frustules in front view quadrangular, often broader than long, lateral margins subulate ; valves narrowly lanceolate stalk elongate, simple,
; ;
;

filiform

thickish. 1-450 to 1-280".

and

Length

of frustules

STRIGULA,
BiBL. Kiitz. Rabenbt. A/(/.
xviii. 171.

744

STYLONICHIA.
(?)
;

7?//.
i.

125
;

Sp.

Ak/. 114;
J.

307

Grimow, M. M.

(%. 50

S. eccetitricum (fig.

50

(f).

It is

STKIG'ULA, Fries.A genus

uncertain whether the so-called inner valves are merely hoops, or tbe valves of imperfectly
separated frustvdes also whether tliey are perforated or not, for neither Ebrenberg nor Kiitzing can be relied on for distinguishing aperforation, as evidenced by their erroneous description of tbe structure of the valves of Piiinularia, Grammatophora, and many other IJiatomacese. Three species are described, occurring in
;

of P^Te-

nodei (Licbenaceous Liebens), containing one Britisb species, S. Bahinc/tonii, growing ou tbe leaves of box and otber evergreens. Tballus subepidermal asci containing eigbt
;

cymbiform
BiBL.

triseptate spores. Leigbton, Lkh. Fl.

498; Berk.
ge-

Enf/. Bot. Supp. pi. 2957. STROMBID'IUiM, CI.

& Lacb. A

nus of Peritricbous Iufasoria,fam. Halterina.

Char.
Avater.

No
(CI.

America and Siberia. upon the outer valves

The

sculpturings

consist of radiating

setse

for
;

swimmers.
Inf. O.-U.)

8 species

leaping, essentially marine and fresbInf.

or excentric curved lines. Bibl. Ebr. Ber. Berl.

& Lacbm.

371

Kent,
of

Mikroff.; Kiitz. Sp.Alff. i. 302.

Id',

Ak. 1845; id. Rahenht. Alg.

STKOMBIDINOP'SIS, Kt. A genus

Heterotricbous

Infusoria. Free, ovate, ciliated ; anterior cilia longer, forming a wreatb of one or more turns. S. (/yrans
;

STYLOB'RYON=Dmoi/7/on pt. STYLOCHO'NA, Kt. Like Sjnrochona,

but with distinct stalks. 2 species on Kehalia and Gammarus. (Kent, Inf. 662.) STYLOCHRY'S'ALIS, Stein.A genus
;

fresbwater; lengtbl-350". (Kent, //(/.614.)

STRONG YLID'IUM,

Sterki. A genus

of Hypotricbous Infusoria. Like Urolepttis piscis, but witli a tbicker twisted bodv, and frontal and anal styles. (Kent, Inf. 779.) genus of STRON'GYLUS, Miill Nematoid Entozoa. Tbe species are very numerous. S. jiergraciUs is tbe cause of tbe S. saju/visiu/n is allied to grouse-disease. Anchylosto7na, inbabits tbe buman small intestine, sucking tbe blood and producing ansemia. (See tbe Bibl. of Entozoa, and

of Flagellate Infusoria. Ovate, pedicled flageUa 2, equal two lateral pigment-bands ; freshwater. *S'. parnsita, on Eudorina ele(Kent, Inf. 405.) gans. STYLO'COLA, De From. genus of Peritricbous Infusoria. Body as in Taginicola, but attached to tbe sheath by numerous fibres. Two species; freshwater. (Kent,
;
;

Inf. 730.)

"STYLONE'THES, Sterki.A genus of Hvpotrichous Infusoria. S. tardus. (Kent,

Inf

Dounon,

STRONTIA OR STRONTIAN. Tbe

Parasites.)

STYLONICHIA, Ebr.A

782.)

genus of Hy-

of tbis eai'tby base crystals of tbe sulpbate are figured in I'l. 10. fig. 18, to contrast witb those of tbe sulpbates of barvta and lime.

RIS, Willden. = 0??(7clea, pt.

STRUTHIOP'TE-

-S'.

(Onoclea)

f/erma?iica, fig. 710.

STRYCHNlNE,or
Strychnia. See Alkaloids,

STYLOBIB'LIUM, Ebr. genus of fossil Diatomacefe. Frustules C/iar.

circular, single,

p. 31.

potricbous Infusoria, fani. Oxvtricbina. Char. Body ciliated, and furnished with styles and hooks. In tins genus, transverse and longitudinal division, gemmation, and tbe encysting process have been observed. S. mgtilus=Kerona mijtilns, D. (PI. 31. figs. 27, 28). Body wliite, hyaline at each end, flat, oblong, slightly constricted in tbe middle, dilated at the obbque fore part fresbwater; length 1-240 to 1-100". S. pustuJata-=Kerona pnsful. B. (PI 31.
;

com-

26). Body white, turbid, oblong, witli a median ventral band of books fr. wat. length 1-144".
fig.
;

valves conin a single Struthiopteris germanica. Portion of a pinna with the row, like tbe leaves of rolled margins coverine the , ., a book, tbe nmer ones gori. with a large median Magnified 40 diameters. aperture (?),tbe outer

pound
,

tiguous,

S. histrio (PI. 31. fig. 29). Body wbite, elliptical-oblong, hoolfs aggregated into an anterior heap ; no setse ; fr. wat. ; length

1-290 to-1220"; probably a variety of

pnstidata. S. lanceolata

>S'.

not being perforated but sculptured. S. c7?/;je2<s (PI. 18. fig. 50 a, />) S.divisum
;

(PI. 31. fig. 30). Body lanceolate, pale green, obtuse at tbe ends; central surface flat ; hooks acervate near

STYLOPLOTES.
;

745

SUDORIPAEOUS GLANDS.
npplication
;

the mouth styles none fr. wat. length 1-140 to l-i'O''. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 870 Stein, Inf. Clapamle et Lachni. 'inf. lo4; Kent,'//?/". 71)0.
; ; ;
;

SUBLIMATION.The

of

this process in tin; detection of arsenic and antimony is alluded to at p. 7.3 but its utility has been further shown in regard to

STYLOPLOTES, Steiu= Sti//oni,hia pt. STYXOSPOR'EL These fuiigi were formerly included in the Coniomycetks; but their external resemblance to the PyrenoMYCi^.TEs, of which they are indeed forms,

makes
name.

it

desirable to give

them

a separate

several other inorganic and organic substances a little of the substance being placed in a cup-like hollow in a piece of platinum-foil, a cover laid on, and heat applied until fusion and sublimation takes phace, when the characteristic crystals are

Stalked

STY'LOSPOEES.
spores
of

Coniomycetous Fungi, usually compound

or septate, then pro-

bably consisting of a row of independent spores connected by an adherent parent

sac

found (Alkaloids). BiBL. Guy, Phann. Jn. 2. viii. & ix. Helwig, D. Mikr. in d. To.cicologie, 1865, 64 microphotographs. SUCCINIC ACID.This acid, which occurs in amber, in all fermented liquids, and in the contents of Udi inococcns-cjsts, is pretty soluble in water, readily in hot but with difficulty in cold alcohol, and but little
;

thus,

structur-

ally, asci ;

times

metamorphosed they are some appendaged

(fig.

The ciystals belong to the oblique prismatic system, and are represented in PL 11. fig. 21. BiBL. That of Chemistry.
in ether.

SUDOEIP'AROUS GLANDS. These

Stylospores of Pestalozzia. Magnified 200 diameters.

above

711) (see

organs secrete the perspiration.

Spores and OoNIOMYCETES).

STY'SA'XUS. A genus of Dematiei (Mucedinous Fungi), characterized by a stem consisting of an aggregation of threads, bearing above at their extremities simple or
necklaces
(tig.

of
p.

346,

spores. 406).

S.

C(qmt-Medus(P.

They are found in most parts of the skin, but in variable numbers in difierent localities. Thus it has been estimated that 417 exist in a square inch of the skin of the back of the hand, 109-3 in an inch of the outside, and 1123 in the inside of the forearm, and 2736 in an inch of the palm of the hand. Each gland consists of a long tube coiled
Fig. 713.

Fig. 712.

Fig. 712. A sudoriparous gland, with its blood-vessels, a, proper gland; 6, duet; e, blood-Tessels of a gland Magnified 35 diametera. a, areolar coat 6, epithelium ; Fig. 713. Portion of the tube foiming a sudoriparous gland from the hand. c, cavity. Magnified 360 diameters.
;

SUDORIPAROUS OLANDS.

74G

SYCAMINA.
ii.
;

into a knot near the closed end, -nliicli is situated in the subcutaneous cellular tissue, and forms the gland proper, and a straight, undulate or spiral duct, which traverses the slan perpendicularly, to terminate upon its surface between the papilte. In the glands of the axilla, the portion of the tube forming the gland proper is branched ; and sometimes the branches ana-

BiBL. Koliiker, Mik. An.

Todd and

Rowm.an,
Hist.
ii.

Thxjs.

An.

J3iesiadecki, Strieker's

238.

stomose.
Fig. 714,

SUGAR. This substance is liable to fraudulent adulterations; and the coarser kinds of brown sugar contain many impurities, such as Acari, fragments of the Starch and flour are used to cane, &c. whiten and give dryness to inferior moist sugar and these may be detected by the microscope (Starch). The crystals of sugar of milk are represented in PI. 10. fig. 12 and those of diabetic sugar in fig. 13. (Ilassall, Food ^c.l2; and the Bibl. of Chemistry.)
;

SURIREL'LA, Turpin.A

genus

of

/
;

Portion of a tube with a muscular coat, from the Bcrotnm. a, connective tissue 6, muscular layer ; e, epithelial cells, filling the tube and containing yellow 350 diameters. granules. Magnified

The

coiled portion or proper gland

is

sur-

rounded and permeated by an elegant plexus of capillaries and some of them are surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue with spindle-shaped cells. The tube of the glands exhibits two forms of structure. In one of these there is an
;

outer coat of indistinctly fibrous connective with elongated nuclei, sharply defined internally by probably a basement membrane, this being lined with one, two, or more layers of polygonal pavement-epithelial cells, mostly containing fat-globules and pigment-granules. In the other form, the fibrillation of the connective coat is tolerably distinct, the
tissue

Diatomacea3. CJiar. Frustules free, single, ovate, elliptical, oblong, cuneate or broadly linear in front view valves with a longitudinal median line or a clear space, the margins winged, and with transverse or slightly radiating canaliculi or tubular striae. It appears that in the valves the margins of the depressions are fused together to form tubular channels open at the ends. S. hifrom (Ehr. 1833 6'. biseriata, Rrdb. and Smith) (PI. 17. fig. 22). Frustules in front view broadly linear, with rounded angles valves elliptic-lanceolate, somewhat obtuse al?e and canaliculi distinct freshwater length 1-180 to 1-9G". S. gemma (PI. 17. Frustules fig. 21). ovate; valves elliptic-ovate canaliculi nar;

row, inequidistant marine leiigth 1-240". S. splendida. Frustules ovato-cuneate, ends rounded valves ovato-lanceolate alfe
; ;

and canaliculi
1-100".

distinct; freshwater; len"-th

Bibl. Smith, Br. Diatom, i. .30 Kiitz. Bac. 59, and S^j. Ala. 34 Rabenht. Ala. i.
; ;

51.

sometimes also with an inner, delicate transverse layer, and both containing nuclear elastic fibres and within
fibres longitudinal,
;

SWARMING.This

this coat is a layer of longitudinal, unstriped

muscular

fibres.

The portion of the ducts traversing the cuticle is spiral. It is by no means an easy matter to obtain the sudoriparous glands in the entire The skin of the palm of the hand or state.

crowding movements of Ihe spores of Conwhile free in the cavity of the parent cell and preparing to break fortli. The spores are hence often called "swarmfervae &c.

plied, from comparison with the swarminoof bees, to the remarkable oscillating

term has been ap-

ing-spores."

See IIydrodictyon.
V. Tieg. A genus of composed of very minute

SYCAMI'NA,
Volvocinea?,

paw of a dog is best for the purpose and before making sections with a Valentin's knife, the structure should be macerated in a mixture of 1 part nitric acid and 2 of water, or in solution of carbonate of
the
\

numbers

spherical, biciliated cells, associated in laro-e to form a mulberry-Iilie revolvino-

mass, the protoplasm being- black or brown,

pota.sh.

sometimes violet or reddish. S. niffrcscens, found at the bottom of ponds and aquaria, forming a dark deposit, and producing the

SYENITE.

747

SYNDENDRIUM.
of
parasitic

the organic m.itter. decomposition of Reproduction by fission, and formation of

(V.Tieirliem, />//. >S(ic. Hot. Fi: 1880. 073; Jn. Mic. Soc. 1881, i. 07.)
resting' spores.

SYNCniT'RIUxM, De By. & Woronin.

genus
to

Unicellular

Alg;e,

allied

Ciiythidium, found

under the

SYMBIOTES = Chorioptes. SYMROLOPH'ORA, Ehr.A

SYENITE.

See Rocks.

epidermis of the loaves of Tara.ractnn and Succisa, and composed of aggregated orangeyellow cells, enclosed in an envelope, formin"- sori.

genus of

Diatomacea?. CJinr. Frustules single, disk-shaped, with incomplete septa radiating from the solid angular centre, and intermediate bundles

BiBL. Rabenht.

A/r/.

iii.

284.

SYNCORY'NE,
Hyd. Zooph.
48.

Ehr. (parti). A genus

of Corynidaj (llydroida).

BiBL. Allman^ Ann.

K H. 1864
A

Hincks,

Marine and fossil. of radiatinir lines. Valves -S'. Trinitafis (PL 25. tig. 0).
with a triangular umbilicus, the transparent margins of which are crenulate, the rest of the disk covered with six bundles of very iine radiating lines. Diameter 1-230". America.
(fisr.

S. acuta (Tl. 18. fig. 54) ; S. micrasterias >S'. peiifas (fig. 5G). 55) JBiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1844, 74;
;

SYNCRYP'TA, Ehr. doubtful genus of Volvocinefe (Confervoid Algfe), composed of organisms consisting of a hyaline spherical gelatinous envelope, enclosing a number of ovate green bodies placed at the periphery, and sending out a pair of free vibratile cilia from the surface of the envelope. Green bodies not attenuated at the posterior exno eye-spot. S. Volvox (PL 7. 14 J), globe 1-576" in diameter, bodies 1-2880" long; freshwater. This object, which we have observed in company with those represented in figs. 14 a, 31 and 32 of the same plate, is most probably a young
tremity
;

Kiitz. Sp. Alq. 131.

SYMPIIYOSI'PHON,
nema
pt.

Kiitz.

fig.

Sci/to-

SYM'PLOCA,

Kiitz.A genus of Oscil-

latoriacefe (Coufervoid Algfe), perhaps not distinct from Symphyosiphon.

genus of Collemei (Collemaceous Lichens), somewhat resemblinsr Lichina, but with open apothecia.
(Leio-hton, Licit. Fl. 13.)

SYNALIS'SA.A

specimen of either

Kent

places

it

among the Flagelliform

;

Volvox or Pandorma. In-

fusoria.

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 00

SYNAP'TA, Eschsch.A
The

SYNCYC'LIA, Ehr.A
C/iar.

Kent, Inf. 413. genus of Diato-

genus of ver-

mace.
Frustules cymbelliform, united in immersed in an amorphous Marine. gelatinous substance. The nodules appear to be the same as those of Cymhella. S. salpa (PL 19. fig. 14). Frustules semiovate, unstriated (ord. ilium.), commonly six together, united into a ring encircidar bands,
;

mifoiTU Echinodermata.
species of Si/iiapfa, which are not British, are of special microscopic interest, on account of the presence in their skin of

remarkable anchor-shaped calcareous spiciUa, the bases of which play in perforated These are situated upon minute paplates.
pillae

of the skin,

and serve

to aid in loco-

motion and adhesion. EiBL. V. d. Hoeven, Zool. i. 150 Vogt, Zool. Briefe, i. 168 Quatrefages, Ann. Sc. N. 2. xvii. 19 Gegenbaur, Verr/l. An. 216
; ;

dochrome bright green.

Frustules two or four quaternaria. together endochrome yellow or reddish length 1-860". BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 233; Ber. Berl. Ak. 1840, 32 Kutzing, Sp. Ahj. 61 Rabenht.
S.
;

Herapath,
toria, of

of Rotathe family Hydatiusea. Char. Eye single, cervical, rotatory organ furnished with styles; foot forked; jaws each with a single tooth. Some of the species are furnished with

SYNCII/E'TA, Ehr. A genus

Qir.

Mic. Jn. 1865,

1.

Ah/,

i.

97.

one or more so-called

crests, which in some appear to correspond to the calcar. S. baltica (PL 44. fig. 20). Body ovate rotatory lobes four ; styles four ; a single median sessile crest; marine; length 1-108".
;

Phosphorescent. Three other species. (Ehr.

Infus. 436.)

SYNDEN'DRIUM, Ehr genus of Diatomaceaj. C'liar. Frustules single, subquadrangnlar, destitute of a median umbilicus valves . unequal, slightly turgid one smooth, the other with numerous spines or little horns branched at the ends, situated upon the median flat portion, the margins being free from them. S. diadema (V\. 18. Frustules fig. 59).

lanceolate

spines five or six, bifurcate or

SYNECIIOCOCCUS.
tufted at the end, as are broad. Breadth
loii":

748

SYNTETHYS,

1-1150".

as the frustules Found in

Peruvian guano. BiBL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ahtd. 1845, 155;

Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 141; Pritchard, Infus. 8GG.

SYNECHOCOC'CUS, Nag. genus of Unicellidar Algae. Char. Cells minute, oblong, single or eonjoined in rows of 2-4; dividing in one direction only; endochrome seruginous or
yellowish. S. (enu/inosus (PI. 3. fig. SH). Common on damp rocks and banks. (Rabenht. Alt/.
ii.

contain fatty tissue, others abound in capiland form fringes where the synovial membrane is attached to the articular carThe latter consist of a basis of tilages. indistinctly fibrous connective tissue, covered by the sj'novial e])ithelium, with a
laries

few

cells,

sometimes isolated cartilageand the capillaries. Attached to their margins are flattened, conical, stalked, smaller appendages (fig. 715), seldom containing blood-vessels, and composed of indistinctly fibrous areolar tissue, with scattered cartilage-cells, and a thick epithelial layer
fat-cells,
;

SYxNE'DEA, Ehr.A genus

macepe.
C/iar.

59.)

of

Diato-

while some of the smaller ones consist almost entirely of epithelial cells or of
areolar tissue.

Frustules prismatic, rectangular, or curved at first attached to a gelatinous, sometimes lobed cushion, subsequently often becoming free; valves linear or lanceolate. The valves usually exhibit a longitudinal line, with a dilated median and two terminal nodules they are also generally covered with transverse striae in some species the median line and appearance of a median nodule correspond to a clear space, free from the transverse striffi.
; ;

Fig. 715.

Species very numerous.

(PL 17. {splendens, K.) Frustules elongated, in front view dilated and truncate at the ends valves gradually attenuated from the midFreshwater comdle to the obtuse ends. mon; length 1-70". Frustules radiate upon the cushion.
S. radians,
fig.

Sm.

23

a, b, c).

S. ftdf/ens (Linnophora fuhj. K.) (PI. 17. fig. 24). Frustules linear valves slightly middle and at the rounded dilated in the ends, arranged in a fan-shaped manner upon
;

tbe branched ]-120".

8. capitata
linear, truncate,

cushion.
(PI.

Marine

length

Frustules 17. fig. 25). ends slightly dilated; valves linear, ends dilated into a triangular head. Freshwater length 1-GO". BiBL. Smith, Br. Diat. i. 69; Kiitz. Sp. Ah/. 40; Rabenht. AI;/. i. 126; Gru;

From he

synoyial

membrane

of a finger-joint.

now, M. M. Jn.

xviii. KJG.

S. frachcaJis is very common toid Entozoa. in the trachea of poultry, producing the Siei/f'/H'/;^/(f',s, 260;

SYN'GAMUS,

Lieb. Agenus of Nema-

A. Two appendages of the synovial ]irocesses. a, areolar tissue in its axis; h, ipithelium of the free margin c, that eontinuons with the epithelium of the processes; d, cartilage-cells. Magnified S.'iO diameters. B. Four ejiithelial cells froiQ the synovial membrane of the Itnec-joiut, one of them with two nuclei. Magnified 350 diameters.
:

bold,

"gapes." (Dujardin, Wiegmann^s Arch. 1835;

Cobbold,

art.

BiBL. Brinton, Todd's Cyd. An. ^- Bhi/s. Serous Membranes Albert, Strieker's
;

Paras?)

Jlisf.

iii.

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES.In minute

structure these resemble serous membranes. Synovial membranes are occasionally furnished with appendages, some of which

SYN'TETHYS, genus of Tunicate Mollusca, of the family Botryllidfe. Cliar. Mass sessile, gelatinous, forming a animal sessile, ha^^ng simple single system
;

Forbes. A

SYNURA.
orifices,

749

TABELI.AEIA.

without rays.

One

species

S, Jle-

phenomenon of conjugation of the branches

to the formation of tho Ehrenbtsrg discovered the conjugation in *S'. megalocarpus many years ago. as a preliminary

bri'ilicus,

BiBL. Gosse, Mar. Zool. ii. 34. SYNU'EA, Ehr.A doubtful genus of Volvocineiio (Coufervoid Algfe), consistiug of a number of oblong corpuscles attached together by their prolonged iiliform posterior extremities to form a globe Hagella two ; no eye-spot. In S. Uvella the corpuscles are yellowish, the tails three times as diameter of globes long as the bodies 1-290". See Vol vox. (Ehi-. //. 6 Kent,
; ;

spores.

The young

filaments are simple, slender, rather rigid, pellucid and straight, soon becoming forked, thickish, wliitish yellow (somewhat olive when dry). The rudiments of the peridioles spring out as papillas from the branches, becoming pear-shaped ;

and when two come into contact, they coliere, and become confluent into a fusiform body.

Inf. 411.)

"SYRINGID'IUM, Ehr.

The contents
genus
of

of the filaments next ascend

Diatomacea}. Char. Frustules single, terete; valves acuminate at one end, two-horned at the other. Marine. S. bicorne (PL 18. fig. 32). Frustules in the oblong, smooth, not striated, turgid middle, one end attenuate, with two slight constrictions, and acuminate, the other subglobose, tursrid, and with two horns. Coast of Africa. 1-370".
S.

and accumulate in the peridiole, at length forming a black globule (sporange?). While this is ripening, the apices grow out into
long simple filaments.
Fig. 716.

Length

Ehr. Ber. Berl. Ah 184.5, 365; Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 32 Pritc-hard, Inf. 866.

pahemon

(PI. 18. fig. 33).

BiBL.

SYRINGOSPH^'RID^,
An
extinct Order
of

Duncan.

Free, consistglobular, sometimes 3" in diameter, of tubes (1-1000 to 1-300 ing of congeries an iuterradial inch), in radial groups, with reticulation of inosculating tubes, some of which appear at the sm-face. Syringo1 species, sphcera, 5 species, and Stuliczkaria, " KaraTriassic (?), N. India, known as
Syzygites megalocarpus.

Rhizopoda.

koram Stones."
BiBL. Duncan, Ann. N. H.
5.
ii.

A branched filament,

exhibiting the conjugation in various stages.

297;

Yarkand Miss. mid; Qu.J.

69.

Geol. S. xxxviii.

Magnified 200 diameters.

SYSTEPHA'NIA,

Ehr.

BiBL. Ehrenb. Verhandl. Naturf. Freund.

genus of

Berlin,

i.

p.

91

Fries, Syst. Mtjc.

iii.

p.

329

Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules circular ; valves alike, areolar, neither radiate nor septate, with a

Berkeley, Ann. Nat. Hist. i. p. 259; Tiegh. Ann. d. Sci. Nat. 1873.
T.

Van

crown

of spines or

an erect membrane on

the outer surface of each valve (not on the margin). Foss^il. 'S'. diadema S. corona (PI. 18. fig. 57)
;

(fig. 58).

species found in Bermuda. Ehr. Ber. Brl. Ak. 1844, 264; Kiitz. Sp. Alq. 126 I'ritchard, Infus. 832.

One other

BiBL.

SYZYGITES,
MYCES).

(Phycomycetous Fungi), containing two species, a kind of mould growing over decaying to Agarics, remarkable among all the class which they belong for the occurrence of the

A genus Ehrenbercr of Mucorini

(see

Phyco-

genus of Diatomaceae. Char. Frustules tabular, attached, at first united into a filament, subsequently cohering only by the angles, with longitudinal vittae interrupted in the middle valves inflated in the middle and at each end, striated freshwater.
; ;

TABELLARIA, Ehr.A

T. focculosa

(PI. 17. fig.

3-5 on each margin.

1-840".
T.
fenestrata.

27 a, h). Septa Length 1-960 to

;

two, opposite.

Length 1-600

Frustules oblong vittae to 1-290",

TACHIDIUS.

750

T^NIA.

Five fossil species. BrBL. Kiitz. <S/j. AUj. 118 Smith, Br. Dial. ii. 44 Pritcliard, Infus. 807.
;

TACinD'IUS, LiUj. A genus

(Brady, Copep.
ii.

above author, consists of four longitudinal vessels (PL 21. fig. 14 h) .-ituated'^ a little above the intestinal tubes, and infinitely

podous Entomostraca.
rine.

of CopeT. brevicornis ; ma10.)

more
are

slender. They traverse the whole length of the body; and between them
fig. 14).

TACHYGO'NIUM, Nag.A
genus of Palmellacete.
36.)

doubtful
iii.

numerous transverse vessels (PL 21. These so-called digestive and vas;

(llabeuh, Alg.

T^EisIA (Tape-worm). A genus of Cestoid Entozoa.

TADPOLE.

See Fbog.

cular canals are now considered as belonging to a water-vessel system the canals unite in the last segment in a receptacle. The male generative organ consists of a slender coiled tube, extending to near the
principal ovigerous canal,

Char. Body elongate, compressed, jointed. Head mostly broader than the very narrowneck, with four suctorial depressions and usually a median, imperforate retractile rostellum, very frequently armed with one or two circles of minute recurved hooks, Genital oriespecially in the young state. fices situated at the margins of the joints or proglottides, either on one side only, or on
;

where

it

is

pre-

ceded by some very small testicular capsules The slender tube termi(PI. 21."'fig. 14 c). nates in a duct (fig. 14 d), which opens into the lateral orifice, or sometimes it projects The externally in the form of a spiculum.
ovary consists of a principal median canal, presenting slight flexuosities, and extending nearly from one end to the other of each It presents ctecal branches on both joint. sides, and opens by a slender oviduct (fig. 14 e) just within the genital orifice.

both margins and on

alterna,te j oints.

The

Tcejiiee,

of

which the common tape-

be taken as the type, are found in vertebrate animals alone, and in these only in the alimentary canal. They are most common in birds, next in mammalia, then in fishes, and lastly in reptiles. The species are very numerous Rudolphi
:

worm may

The ova
in

PL

21.

fig.

are innumerable one is figured 15. They consist of an outer

;

membrane, enclosing a gelatiumis substance containing numerous highly refractive globules. Within this is another
very delicate and transparent membrane, upon a brittle, dark-looking (by transmitted light, but white by reflected light), thick envelope, within which is the yoUi or embryo, according to the state of
closely applied

delicate

enumerated 14G; Dujardin

1.35.

Tcenia solium,the common human English species, varies in breadth from 1-50 to 1-40" at the anterior part, to about 1-3" at the middle and posterior part. At the anterior extremity is situated a central rostellum, which is surrounded by a crown of small 10, recurved hooks, as in PI. 21. figs. 1

/&

development of the ovum. Very frequently the hooks of the young tajnia are seen imbedded in its centre, as shown in the figure.

Behind these are four siictorial depressions, which are not pervious at the bottom. The digestive system is wanting, and the worm absorbs by its surface; but according to Blanchard, it is represented by two tubes or lateral canals (PL 21. fig. 14 ), having between them a transverse canal at the summit of each joint; these extend from the anterior to the posterior end of the body.
In the cephalic portion, directly behind the suckers, there is a kind of lacuna or furrow

The thick biittle coat of the ovum exhibits an appearance of radiating fibres (canals ?)
;

and when broken, the fractures are radiant. When the middle of the outer surface of

the brittle envelope is brought into focus, it presents a tolerabty regular appearance, as
if composed of cells this arises, however, from the extremities of the fibres being
;

broug-ht into focus.

communicating directly with these intestinal tubes and it appears that the nutritive matters respired by means of the suckers into penetrate into this lacuna, and thence the digestive canals. These tubes have distinct walls, and are best seen when the animal has been macerated in water, and is examined by transmitted light, or after having been injected. But this is very doubtful.
;

The filiform spermatozoa are readily found, simply by picking any joint containing ova to pieces with needles.
The young animal, consisting of head and neck only, was formerly considered distinct, aud placed in a genus (Scolex). Among other species may be mentioned
:

mediocanellata, the unarmed tapeworm of the ox ; T. crassicollis, in the cat ; T. echinococcnx, in the dog and wolf; 7'. serrula, in the dog ; aud T. nana, human, in

Tcenia

The

vascular system, according to the

T.ENITIS.

751

TAEGIONIA.

The old genera Cccnwus, Cysticercus, and Eclitnococcus are the larval or nurse-forms of Tcenia.
BiBL. Weinland, on Tape-2vorms Sommer, Geschlechtsorg. v. T. sol. 4' mediocancllata Megnin, Compt. rend. 1870, 8S, Ann. N. IT. 1879, iii. 317; Piutiier, Ban S)-c. 1880; Aloniez, Cestodes, 1881; Stein, ^^;
;

form a sucker, or furnished with unequal, short, palp-like ])rocesses. Eyes two. The oral organs are represented by a tubuliu" rostrum, through the sides of which, from witliout inwards, two calcareous styles or mandibles pass, and serve to wound the animals forming their prey. At the base
of the rostrum is a gizzard with radiating muscidar fibres, iu Macrohiotus enclosing a kind of framework consisting of six parallel
jointed cyhuders.

tcick. u.

Parasitism, mensc/d. Cestoden, 1882. T.ENITIS,Sw. genus of Grammitideie

Pol vpodiaceous Ferns). Five species; tropical. (Hooker, St/n. 300.) TALC. See Mica. TAO'NIA, J. Ag. genus of Dictyotaceas (Algse), containing one rare British
(

species, T. atomaria,

which has a

tiat,

mem-

fan-shaped, deeply cleft frond, 3 to 12" high, of brownish olive colour; marked on both faces, at intervals of 1-4 to 1-2", with concentric wavy lines, formed by rather crowded dark-brown " spores," the interspaces being dotted over with scattered The disk of attachment is covered spores. with woolly hlaments.

branous,

BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Aly. 38; Thuret, Sc. N. 4. iii. 7. TAPHRl'NA. very low form of Ascomycetous Fuugi, formerly included under EbikeUjVI, to which genus E. auremn, on Poplar, and E. clandestijium, on Hawthorn,

The alimentary canal is straight, and furnished with lateral cfecal appendages. The ovary is a simple sac, behind which is situated a seminal vesicle containing spermatozoa, both opening into a cloaca. But few eggs are produced at a time they are either smooth, rugose, or studded with points, and are usually deposited during the ecdysis, the exuviiB serving as a protection to them during the process of hatching. The young resemble the parents. The Tardigrada resemble some of the Rotatoria in reviving after having been kept dried for years.
;

Ann.

are

now

referable.
;

(Tulasne, Ajin.

d.

Sc.

K.

ser. v.

Greville, Crypt. Fl.)

TAPHROCAM'PA, Gosse. genus of Rotatoria, of the family Hydatinsea. Char. Kotatoiy organs absent; body fusiform, annulose, tail forked, gizzard oval. T.annulosa. Freshwater; length 1-110", BiBL. Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 100;
Pritchard, Inf. 602.

Genera Emydium, Maa'ohiotiis, Milnesium {Arctiscon^ doubtful). BiBL. Doyere, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xiv. 2G9, xvii. 193, xviii. 1; Bujardin, x. 185; Vogt, Zool. Briefe, i. 496 Kauftmann, Sieb. und Koll. Zeitschr. iii. 220 Greef, Schidtze's Archiv, i. 101; huhhock, Met am. of Insects.
: ; ;

of Pel(Hepaticse), characterized by the almost sessile globose capsule arising from the end of the midrib of the under face of the frond,
liese

TAPtGIO'NIA, Mich. A genus

which

is

somewhat

fleshy, smooth,

deep-

TAPIOCA. A very

purefecula prepared

green, piu'plish at the edges', and forms large patches on rather moist but exposed banks. The frond has an epidermis on both faces,

from the finer particles of the starch of the Mandioc or Cassava plant (PI. 46. fig. 14).

The starch-gi'anules of tapioca of the shops appear to have imdergone the action of
heat, which Staech.
disguises the characters.

See

TAPtDIG'EADA (Water-bears).An Order of Arachuida. These microscopic animals are found in

stagnant fresh water, amongst water-plants, in patches of wet moss, in the gutters of
houses, &c.

with stomata and intermediate parenchyma the midrib is only apparent beneath, and has radical hairs, with purple scales. The perichjete originates from this rib, on the under smface, rising to the upper side (fig. 717). "When mature, it is globose, of dark purplish colour and firm texture, and marked with a vertical prominent line or keel at
;
:

this line

Body soft, cylindrical or elongate-oval in outline, with four ti-ansverse furrows or indistinct segments, and a fifth anterior, corresponding to a head, short, conical, retractile

segments

and with indications of two or three sometimes dilated at the end to

;

ultimately splits into two valves Hofmeister's observations, how(fig. 718). ever, show that this envelope grows up after the fertilization of the archegone, which is originally naked in its upper half hence it would seem to be a pcriyonc. Several archegones are found half-immersed in the end of the midrib ; and one of these the lower part beis converted into a fruit comes spherical, and the neck forms for a
it
;
;

TAEGIONIA.
Fig. 717.
Fi<?.

752

TEA.

718.

Fig. 719.

Fig. 720.

loug time a filiform point or stj^Ie. This epigone bursts irregularly and vertically. The spherical capsule emerges from it, but is not protrnded beyond the perichaste. The globular capsule bursts irregularly at the summit, and discharges spores and elatera resembling those of Mca-chantia (figs. 723 to 725). The autheridia are imbedded in the midrib, opening on papilhe on the lower face. BiBL. Hook. Brit. Flor. ii. pt. 2. p. 105
;

Corda, Sturiiis Deutschl. Fl. Jungertn. 2G Nees, Lehernioose, iv,

;

pi.

TARTARIC ACID.The

crystals

of

this substance,

which belong to the obhque-

prismatic system, exhibit beautiful colours under the polariscope. concentrated aqueous solution is useful in the chloride-

of-gold staining process.

TAYLO'RIA, Hk. genus of SplachnaceiB (Acrocarpous Mosses). T. serrata (fig. 474, p. 512), on Scotch mountains.
Targionia hypophylla.
Fig. 717.

Lobe of a frond with

fruit.

Magnified 5

diameters.
Pig. 718. Perichsete opened, showing the globular sporange. Magnified 20 diameters. Fig. 719. Vertical section of a very young sporange. Magnified 200 diameters. branched elater. Magnified 200 diameters. Fig. 720.

(Wilson, Bry. Brit. 28: J.) TAX US, L. Tax us haccata is the Yew Its wood tree, belonging to the Coniferae.

(PI. 48. fig. 4), as also that of T. canadensis,

shows the remarkable combination of spiral Its embryofibres with the coniferous pits.
logy
is

Fig. 721.

Fig. 722.

also interesting.

See

Conifee^

and Ovule.

TEA
aftbrded

and 2\ BoJwa, Nat. This important Ord.

(the prepared leaves of Thea viridis Ternstrcemiacea3). article of commerce has

some of the most remarkable examples of systematic i'raud, practised not merely by the vendors in this country, The but by the Chinese manufacturers.
Fig.
72.3.

Fig. 724.

principal adulterations of tea consist of re-

manufactured exhausted tea-leaves, spurious tea made up of the dust of tea and other leaves, together with earthy matter, by the aid of gum, and of spurious tea made of the whole of these leaves of other plants,

Fig. 725.

%>Pigs. 721 & 722. Groups of four spores, not quite ture. Magnified 400 diameters.

being prepared either for black or green tea by facing,' or imparting a colour or bloom with black-lead, indigo, prussian blue, mica, turmeric, &c. The leaves of tea may be distinguished when moistened and spread out, and still more decidedly, even in fragments, by the aid of the microscope, which shows the peculiarities of the epidermis of the upper Other or lower faces, &c. (1*1. 2. fig. 1). leaves fraudulently introduced may be tluis
*

ma-

Fig. 72:). Parent cells of spores and imperfect elaters, from a more advanced fruit. Magnified 100 diameters. Magnified 200 diameters. Fig. 724. The same. Magnified 400 diaPig. 72-5. A single ripe spore.

meters.

separated, and often identified by careful comparison with known lands likely to The spurious tea have been employed. made up of agulutinated rubbish falls to pieces instead of unrolling when infused

TEETH.
kinds

'^->^'

TEETH.
;

with hot water. Tho 'facing' of the various is mostly distinguishable with a common lens, and when tlie tea is infused forms a sediment, the characters of which may be determined by tho microscope and by chemical analysis. BiBL. liassall, J(w7i^-c.,L'G8; Warington, Tr. Chem. Soc. 1851.

The teeth of the Mammalia are inserted in sockets or alveolar cavities

a crown, or that portion which projects beyond the alveolar cavity and the gum the things, or the portions which are inserted into the bony structures and a neck, or narrower intermediate portion. The crown of the tooth contains the pulp-cavity, which is closed above, but prolonged laelow through the
: ; ;

TEETH.

mainly owing the cement, or bony portion (tig. 726 c), which forms an external cov(>rand tho enaing, principally of the fangs mel (fig. 726 a), which covers the crown. The ivon/ or denfitic (figs. 726 d, 727 d) is whitish and of a silky lustre, and, excepting a small portion at the base of the fangs, forms the entire boundary of the cavity of
;

the

teeth.

It consists of a

homogeneous

of the jaws. The teeth consist of

fangs.

In regard to their structure, teeth are in part identical with bone, in part closely allied to it but in respect to their development, they must be regarded as formations of the mucous membrane, as modified papillae. The substance of human teeth consists of three parts the ivory or dentine (fig. 726 d),
;
:

Transverse section of the same; the references as above.

Magnified 5 diameters.

Fig. 726.

matrix enveloping numerous tubes or canaliculi, called the ivory-tubes (tig. 729 a, b). The tubes are very fine, and pursue an undulating course, at first curving, then bifurcating, lateral

throughout gix-ing off" numerous fine communicating branches, which are

(fig.

best seen in a horizontal section

freely.

728),

and ultimately ramifying and anastomosing

They commence at the surface of the pulp-cavity, in the crown following a somewhat radiating direction from its centre (fig. 726), whilst in the fangs their course
is

more

horizontal.

They have

distinct

Fig. 728.

fig.

Transverse section of the ivory-tubes of the fang 729), showing their numerous anastomoses. Magnified 450 diameters.

(a),

Molar
a,

tooth,
6,

human

longitudinal section,
;

enamel

pulp-cavity

c,

cement

d,

ivory,

with

the ivory -tubes.

Magnified 5 diameters.

which

constitutes

the greater

portion

of
is

walls, about equal in thickness to their calibre, although in transverse sections (fig. 730) this thickness is generally exaggerated, on account of their being obliquely divided.

their mass,

and to which their

form

They contain

air in the

dry

state,

which

3c

TEETH.
may

754

TEETH.

be displaced by liquids. By reniuving the inorganic salts iVom a tooth with dilute
Fig. 729.

muriatic acid, and macerating the remaining cartilage with acids or caustic alkalies until it forms a pasty mass, the tubes may be isolated from the basis.
Fig. 730.

<
\s

.^

*^
I

Transverse section of the ivory-tubea. a, closely aggregated; 6, wider apart. Magnified 4-50 diameters.

In sections made from fresh teeth, high powers of the microscope (-500 or 1000
diameters) being used,
recognize,
especially
it is

not difficult to

in the centre of the

Fig. 731.

Tvory-tulies of a fang of a human tooth, or, inner surface of the ivory, witli fiw tubes h, their branches c, their terminations in loops d, granular layer, consisting of small ivory globules at the boundary of the ivory; e, lacunie of bone, one anastomosing with an ivory-tube. Mognilled 50 diameters.
; ; ;

Perpendicular section of the apex of a human incisor tooth. , pulp-cavity 6, ivory c, curve'd contour lines with interglobular spaces; (/.cement; c, enamel, with indications of the course of the tiliris in various directions y, coloured stripes of he enamel.
; ;

Magnified

diameters.

TEETH.

755

TEETH.
and exhibiting a
coarsely
cellular

tooth, the fine, pale, homogeneous processes of the totith-pulp or deiiliue-fibres. These may be stained by carmine. "the ivory not unfrequently exhibits indications of a laminated structure, forming-,

lines,

appearance.
d.irk

On

careful
is

appearance

the seen to result from a

examination,

of irregular spaces filled with air a) iiitevveniiig between certain globules, called ivory-<jlohules, the spaces
(fig.

number

732

Eig. 782.

being termed the interf/hhular sjMces. In the recent tooth, these spaces are filled with the organic basis of the ivory, containing tubes likethe rest of that substance, in which, however, the inorganic matter has not been deposited hence this structure arises from
;

imperfect development. Other, ill-defined iridescent stripes, running parallel to the pulp-cavity, are sometimes seen these correspond to the primary curves of the ivory-tubes. The cement or bone of teeth forms the outer coating of the fangs (figs. 726 & 733, c),
;

Fig. 734.
Portion of tlie ivory, with ivory-globules and interglobular spaces filled with air. Muguified 350 diams.

in longitudinal sections, curved lines more or less parallel to the outline of the crown (fig. 731), appi\aring as rings in transverse sections, and called the contour-lines.

Fig. 733.

Enamel-fibres, isolated by the very slight action of muriatic acid human. Magnified 130 diameters.
;

sometimes cementing them together. It commences as a very thin layer at the part where the enamel ceases, increasing in
thickness towards the ends of the fangs. The cement does not differ from bone in
structure, except in rarely containing HaIn the molar teeth of old versian canals.

persons,
ivory of the fang of a tooth of an old person, a, cavity; b, ivory; c, cement with lacunse e. Haversian canals. Magnified oO diameters.
;

Cement and

however, these are met with The lacunae are frequently 733 e). absent from the "thinner portion of the cement and it sometimes contains tubes like
(fig.
;

731) and the cement the ivory presents one or (fig. 7:29 d) also, more irregular dark patches or bands, often continuous -with the ends of the contour-

Near the enamel

(fig.

those of the ivory. The interlacunar substance is sometimes striated, and exhibits a

laminated structure. The enamel (fig. 72G a) covers the ivory

3c2

TEETH.

756
'

TEETH.

of the ciown of the teeth. It is thickest at the opposing surface, decreasing towards the neck, where it terminates. The cuticula is an extremely resistant investment to the exposed portions of the teeth, and wliich It is disappears when they are mature. separable after the action of muriatic acid, and may be tinted with a solution of nitrate of silver, which causes the appearance of
figures

It is very brittle, and so hard as to light. It consists of numestrike fire with steel.

rous solid fibres or prisms (fig. 734), about l-()000 to 1-5000" breadth, mostly sixsided, more or less wavy, slightly varicose,

These usually and transversely striped. extend throughout the thickness of the enamel, and are placed in a direction generally perpendicular

to

the surfiice of the

The large epithelial cells. enamel has a fibrous aspect, and appears of a bluish-white colour by reflected light, and of a greyish browu by transmitted
like

cover portions of the ivory which they The form of the 'fibres is (figs. 726, 731). best seen by viewing their ends in a transverse section (fig. 735). The prisms do not
Fig. 736.

Fig. 735.

^-iSs,

of a Fig. 735. Sc.rface of the enamel, with the ends of the enamel-fibres, from the tooth diameters.
Fig. 736.
6,
e,

calf.

Magnified 350
;

the same with the papilla

follicle
;

Diagram showing the develojiment of a milk-tooth, and the corresponding permanent tooth, a, furrow d, the same, further c, the same closing, with the commencement of the reserve cavity
; ;

completely formed, with the reserve cavity; y, the reserve cavity receding; closing; tooth-germ h, the alveoli of both capsules formed, the milk-tooth being through the gum ; advanced, the neck of the capsule forming a solid cord.

g,
i,

the same, with a the same further

run exactly parallel with each other, but are arranged in groups or zones, the fibres
cross each other. The fibres are readily isolated before they have become so developed as to be hard, and when

of the enamel.

of which

very slightly acted upon by muriatic acid. It is doublfid if sometimes the ivory-tubes extend into the enamel. Two kinds of dark bands or stripes are The seen traversing the enamel (fig. 731). direction of one of these coincides pretty nearly with that of the fibres, and it arises from the crossing of the zones of fibres,
allowing more or less light to pass through, the bauds being light and dark. The other set (fig. 73l,ff) consists of arched, brownish stripes, indicating the laminated structure

Under the polariscope, a third set becomes visible, arising from the variable inclination of the axes of the fibres to the plane of polarization. The en.imel is often traversed by cracks, mostly running parallel with the fibres, and containing air in dry teeth. The pulp of the teeth is the vasPulp. cular and nervous matrix of the dentine

and the remains of the original tooth-papilla. It contains a few blood-vessels and nerves, being connected with the periosteum and

The princibase of the sockets of the jaw. pal part is made of indistinctly fibrous connective tissue, containing numerous cells; and it appears to be quite cavernous from the breaking up of the terminal capillaries.

TEETIT.
The

)!

teJ':tii.

external layer is formed of Lirge cells of elongated form, provided witli immeroiis processes culled odontoblasts, which are ai-ranged so as to form a kind of colunmar

epithelium.

have no
cesses

cell-wall.

may

are tinely granular, but Three kinds of probe distinguished in these cells

They

closed sacs or capsules. The pulps then beconu! moulded into the form of the future teeth, the bases of the pulps dividing into as many portions as the teeth have fangs and as tho capsules increase at this stage faster than the pulps, a space is left be;

the dentinal, pulp, and lateral processes. The dentinal processes become the beforementioned dentinal fibres of the ivory. Chemically, teeth consist of an organic,
cartilaginous basis, agreeing iu composition with that of bone, and of inorganic matter, consisting principally of phosphate of lime with a sni ill quantity of the carbonate. At tho beginning of the JJiVii/ojjment. third mouth, the margins of the jaw form a slight ridge, which consists of a thickening of the embiyunic connective tissue and epithelium of the mucous membrane of the mouth. The rudiments or germs of the first (milk) teeth are met with in the sixth week of fcetal life, ar.d consist of small papillae,

in which a gelatinous-looking deposited from the wall of the capsule forming the enamel-organ. By some recent authors, however, the existence of the dental grooves is denied. Tlie capsule (fig. 738 a) possesses a connective coat with vessels and nerves and from its base arises the tooth-germ or pulp The pulp consists of an outer (fig. 738 h).

tween them,
is

substance

Fig. 738.

one for each tooth, which become visible iu grooves of the mouth, afterwards forming
Fig. 737.

Capsule of the second incisor tooth of an eight months' foetus, c, enamela, capsule; 6, enamel-pulp d, enamel; f, ivory-cells; h, papilla of tooth or pulp; i, free margin of enamel-organ.

human

membrane;

Magnified 30 diameters.
nine weeks' foetus, a, tongue, turned back 6, right half of the lower lip turned aside the lip cut off: c, outer wall of the gum; ft', left half of d, inner wall of the gum; e,f,g. *, papilla; of the teeth; duct subsequently opens. , fold where the sublingual

Lower jaw

of a

human

Magnified 9 diameters.

The epithelium the alveolar processes. forms the enamel, and the other tissue the Processes from the dentine and cement. sides of these dental grooves are then formed, and, approaching each other, enclose the papillte iu distinct follicles, the margins of which gradually grow over the and uniting, convert them into
papillse,

non-vascular layer of elongated nucleated cells, with filiform processes, in close apposition (fig. 739 rt), covering the surface of the pulp the ivory-membrane (fig. 738y), not distinctly defined internally, but gradually passing into the vascular parenchyma Tlie inner part of the pulp of the pulp. consists of indistinctly fibrous connective

tissue -^ith nuclei, tlie vessels terminating in loops beneath the enamel-membrane
(fig.

739

c).

The enamel-organ
its

(fig. 738 h) covers by inner concave surface the pulp, its out-

TEETH.

758

TEGEOCRANUS.

side being in apposition witli tlie capsule. It forms a spongy tissue, composed of anastomosing stellate cells or reticular areolar tissue; in its inside is the enamel-membrane, consisting of c^lindrical epithelium
(fig.

738

c).
is

The enamel

formed by the direct

Fig. 739.

cal-

sacs, and formed in the wall of the follicles of the milk-teeth. The teeth of animals present numerous interesting varieties, to which we can but Thus, in the Mammalia the briefly refer. enamel is often absent, the cement frequently extends over the crown, the three component structures are folded, the teeth are compound, the ivory contains Haversian canals, and the ivory-tubes enter the enamel. In Eeptiles the teeth are often anchylosed to the jaws. In Fishes the teeth are often solid the ivory is furnished with
;

Haversian canals, sometimes isolated, and each surrounded by a layer of ivory and cement, so that the teeth appear to consist of
aggregations of
little teeth the vessels often branch and anastomose freely the ivory-tubes are often very large or absent,
; ;

the ivory then consisting of a finely granular base with numerous vascular canals, true

cells; 6, their inipendagfs

Surface of the pulp of a newly-born infant, a, ivory(, vascular part of the pulp.
;

enamel appe.aring to be absent. The oral and gastric teeth of the Mollusca (see Tongue), Vermes, and Arthropoda, are composed of chitine, which is sometimes impregnated with lime or silica. The teeth of Echinida are composed essentially of thin leaflets aggregated into a radial lamina and they are composed of elongated
;

Magnified

.300

diameters.

cification of the epithelium, the prisms resulting from the calcification of the long

prisms of carbonate of lime, somewhat curved at their extremities. These lustrous calcareous plates lie between the prisms, and present a fine plexus of anastomosing canaliculi.

cylindrical cells. " Ossification commences by the deposition ofcalcareous matter in the cells of tlieivorymembrnne at the summit of the pulp this is soon folloAved by similar deposition in the cells of the enamel-membrane. By the further formation of new cells and fresh deposition, the structure of the teeth becomes
;

more and more

tissue of the

consolidated, the spongy enamel graduallj' being ab-

It may he said generally that the teeth of the higher Invertebrata are to be regarded as epithelial structures, and that in the lowest Yertebrata they are chiefly composed of peculiarly modified and ossified connective tissue. The method of maMug sections of teeth is described under Peepakation. They should be very thin, and preserved in the

sorbed.

enamel and a considerable portion of the ivory have been formed in the capsules, these become too small to contain the teeth, which tlien rupture them, and continue to grow at the root, until the crown projects above the margin of the jaw. The remainder of the capsule then forms the periosteum of the alveoli, and, by deposition from the side next the tooth, prothe
entii'e

When

dry state. BiBL. Owen, Oclontot/raphi/, and Todd^s Cyd. iv. 864; Goodsir, Ed. Med. and Svn/. Jii. 1839, i. Tomes, Dental Surgcn/, and Phd.
;

Tr. 1849, 1850;

Carol.

Hanover, Verh. Leopold.

Ak. xxv. 2, Mic. Jn. 18.'57, v. 166; Huxley, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1854, 18.>5, 1857; Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1867 Boll, Zahnjndpa, Arch. Mih. An. iv. 1868 Cutler, Den;
;

tal

duces the cement.

Comos, 1867; EoUeston, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872; Waldeyer, StricJicr's Hum. c^- Comp,
Hist.
i.
;

The permanent

the same plan : the three last molars in the remains of the primitive dental groove;
tlie

teeth are formed upon

Tomes, M.
the
lit:

Wliite, M. Jn.

Mn. Mic.
xiii.

Jn.

vii.

2(;3

85

Frey, Hist, and

others in distinct sacs, called reserve

TEGEOC'RANUS, Mich. A new genus

TELOTKOCIIIDIUM.
247; 1S80,
of Oribatea (Michael, Jn. .'^2. 177).
Iiifu.'^oria.
;

TEST-OBJECTS.
;

Mk:

Soc.

1879,

TELOTROCIIIDIUM, Kt. A

Peritiichoiis

pannlate, no tail two aperture iiosterior. T. craterifunne ; freshwater. 643.)

gomis of Free, ovate or camanal ciliary rings

;

(Kent, Inf.
of

TEM'ORA,

Baird. A genus

Copepo-

dous Eutoinostraca, family

l)iaptoniid<ie.

aeration of both fluids for the first is transmitted to the tendril-like tentacula which surround the mouth, whilst the second circulates through tlie beautiful arborescent branchine situated just behind the head. The ibrmer are covered with cilia, the action of which continually renews the water in contact with them, whiLst the latter are The colourless liquid destitute of them. is probably blood, and the red belongs to the

Char. Thorax composed of three joints; lesser antenute two-branched first four pairs of legs each giving otfa twoOn the T. finmarchica. jointed branch. British coasts. (Baird, Br. Entomostr. 227 ;
of fiye,
;

abdomen

water-system. BiBL. Huxley, Comp. An.

Micro.scope.

Carpenter,

TERPSIN'OE, Ehr. A
macese. Char.

genus of Diato-

Brady, Cop.

i.

37.)

TFA^DON.

See Ligaments.

TEXTHRE'DO, Leach. A genus of Hymenopterous Insects, of the family Tenthredinidae (Saw-flies). species of Tenthredo and of the other genera belonging to the family, both of which are very numerous, are interesting on account of the remarkable structure of the ovipositor, which consists of two flattened and curved saw-like plates. These are used to saw the leaves of plants, for the deposition of the eggs. The insects are found upon gooseberrybushes, rose-bushes, the white thorn, the willow, alder, poplar, the plum- and other
fruit-trees,

Frustules tabular, obsoletely stalked, subsequently connected by isthmi, and with transverse, short, interrupted, valves in side view with capitate vittaj
;

lateral inflations.

The

(PL 19. fig. 33, side view; PI. 2o. Frustules very faintly 10, front view). punctate, in front view rectangular oblong; side view equally inflated in the middle and
fig.

T. musica

at the ends, in older specimens constricted in the middle, inflated beyond the middle

towards both ends, the apices produced and

obtuse,

the

nodules separated by septa.

Length 1-180".
T. indica

(Anatdus
;

ind., E.).

BiBL.
Inf. 850.

The

larvse

ai'e

cabbage, turnip, bramble, very destructive to agriculis

&c.

Kiitz. Bacill 128

Ehr. Ahh. Berl Ak. 1841, 402; Sp. Ahj. 119; Pritchard,

tural crops. T. nassdta

(p.

represented in figure 866

437).

BiBL. Westwood, Introductinn., ii. 90. TEREBEL'LA. A genus of Tubicolar Annulata. The animal forms a tube of sand and portions of shell, agglutinated by a secretion. Carpenter remarks that in the respiratoiy organs situated in the part outside the tube the head two liquids may be seen circuone colourless, containing numerous lating: cell-like corpuscles, which can be seen in the smaller and more transparent species to occupy the space intervening between the

"TESSEL'LA, Ehr. genus of Diatomacese. Char. Frustules broadly tabular, not concatenate, with crowded, longitudinal, alternate vittfB, interrupted in the middle; stipes absent (?). Marine. T. interrupta (PI. 19. fig. 3o). Leno-th of frustules 1-580; breadth 1-560 to 1-120".
Found with
Striafella.
;

BiBL. Ehr. 7h/: 202 Kiitz. Bacill. 125; Sp. Alff. 114; Pritchard, Inf. 804. TESTAMGEBIFOR'MIA, Carter. Parasitic, lobular, and wild-growing Forami-

outer sm-face of the alimentary canal and the inner wall of the body, and to pass from this into canals, which often ramify extensively in the respiratory organs, but are never furnished with a returning series while the second is a usually of passages red liquid containing few particles, and enclosed in a system of proper vessels communicating with a central propelling organ. In Terehella a distinct provision is made for the
;

some nearly i inch long. Hulucladnia and Cydt'odictynia with calcareous, Gulf of Ceratestina with chitinous test. Manaar. (H. C. Carter. Ann. N. H. June
nifera,

1880, 446.)

TEST - OBJECTS.

Te.st-objects

are

microscopic objects used to determine the value of object-glasses. We must presume that the reader has perused the remarks upon object-glasses in the Introdl'ction (p. xvi), al.so the article Angular Aperti-re; otherwise the

TEST-OBJECTS.
observations
ligible.

reo

TEST-OBJECTS.

made

here will

be unintel-

in which object-glasses from each other are four viz. their magnifying power their defining power their penetrating power and their correcdiifer
:

The main points

power should be laid aside, as tending to cause confusion, the properties of object-glasses being reducible simply to their defining power and their angular
trating
aperture. In recent times, a new meaning has been assigned to the term penetrating power, viz. that of rendering a certain thickness of

t've adaptations.

The magnifying or separating power scarcely requires notice it must be adapted to the size of the objects likely to come under examination. Usually, several objectglasses are kept, of ditfereut powers ; at all events, if scientific investigations are to be pursued, a power of 400 diameters must be accessible, and this without the use of the
;

an object visible at one time. This depends upon the smallness of the angle of aperture of the object-glass. It seems a
useless innovation.

highest eyepiece. The magnifying power should be ascertained by Measurement, and not by j udging from the focal length. Giood defining power is the most important character of an object-glass and if good in respect to this, the dark boundary lines of the test-objects will appear clear, black, sharp, as if engraved, and quite free from colour. If this is ascertained to be the case, the higher eyepieces should be and it must be observed that put on although the sharpness of the outline is somewhat diminished, all the parts are
; ;

defining power should be tested upon objects mentioned below in connexion with each object-glass, and the angular aperture should be determined by

The

the

difi'erent

measurement (Angular Aperture) for judgment founded upon the examination of

;

the valves of the Diatomacete

fallacious
to

may

be very

an unpractised

observer, on

account of the influence of the obliquity of the light, and of the correcting adjustment. If, however, an opinion is to be formed in this way, the valves should be examined by oblique light thrown from all sides, as with the central stop in the condenser, so that the dots may be viewed fur an objectglass may show the lines very fairly, but the dots very badly. The correcting adjustment is of importance in examining very delicate objects or structures with the high powers ; it should therefore always be present. subjoin a list of a few of the objects which will be foiuid most suitable for the
;

clearl}'

distinguishable as before. In this examination the light shoidd be as direct

as possible.

The power

of displaying the minute or

internal structural peculiarities of objects, or the penetrating power, as it is called, deupon two distinct circumstances the

pends goodness of the defining power, and the magnitude of the angular aperture of the

We

purpose of testing an object-glass. I5 07' 'I-inch ohject-glass. Magnifying

of obliquity of the object-glass: the degree in conlight is also of great importance nexion with the latter. Thus, in examining the scale of a Podura

power 20 diameters.
the pygidium of the flea Test-objects 1. fig. 13 a), in which the general outand the hairs should be distinct; the hair of the mouse (PI. 1. tig. 3). Also, as an opaque object, a piece of an injected
:

(PI. line

12 ff, b,c), the magnifying power (PI. 1. fig. being sufficiently high, if the defining power be good, tlie wedge-shaped bodies will be clearly and sharply displayed by direct light, and whether the angular aperture be large But if we examine a valve of or small. Fkurosiffftia (Tl. 1. figs. 17 & 18) by direct structure will be invisible, light, the minute however small or large the angular aperture may be, or however perfect the defining power but if the light be thrown obliquely, and the aperture be sufficient, the stri;i3 will Thus there are at once become evident. two distinct kinds of penetrating power, one of which is the same as the defining power, the other depending upon a difi'erent cause ; hence the term penetration or pene;

preparation (PI. .39. figs. 33-35). 1-inch or ft-ds object-glass. Magnifying power 60 diameters. Tests: hair of Dcrmestes (PI. 1. fig 1); of the bat (fig. 2) of the mouse (fig. 3) the pygidium of the flea, the outline of the areola being distinguishable under the high eyepiece (120 to 200 diameters), but not the rays. Also an injection, as a piece of
;

lung._

\-inch or -i^Jhs-inch ohject-glass. Magnifying power 100 to 120 diameters. Tests hairs (PI. 1. figs. 1, 2, 3) the disks of deal (fig. 4) the coarser scales of Lepisma (fig. 6 a) the pygidium of the flea
: ;

TEST-OBJECTS,
(fig.

761

TEST-OBJECTS.

13 a, h), the entire structure visible under the high eyepiece a dark scale of iWjim {PI. 1. fig. 12 6).
;

that

was invisible before, that they are naturally led to regard an object-glass as good
There is also some difficulty to an unpractised eye in discriminating between a well-defined margin of an object, and one

which may simply possess tolerably magnifying power.

\-inch oI)ject-ijlass. Magnifying power 220 diameters. the disks of Tests liair of Dermestes
:

deal; the salivary corpuscles (PI. 1. tig. 5), the moviuo; molecules being clearly distintlie smaller scales of Li'pisma guishable the scales of Pudura (PI. 1. fig. 6 b, c) the filaments oi Didi/mo/ielix (fig. 10 a) the pygidium of the Hea, and the scales of Fonfia brassicce (PI. Si. fig. 24).
; ; ; ;

which is ill-defined. This may be overcome by purchasing one or two test-objects from those who mount objects for sale, and first
viewing them under their microscopes; or by examining some of the objects exhibited at the evening, meetings of the learned
societies.

Ifh-inch objed-glass.

Magnifying power
;

420 to 450 diameters

the paler scales of Podura the pygidium of the flea the scales of Pontia the filaments of Didymohelix, brussicfs showing the component fibres the salivary
Tests
:

The objects themselves are also variable, some being much more delicate than others even of the same kind. Moreover objects viewed under immersion-glasses are more
brilliant than

under the dry object-glasses.

in

corpuscles. ^\ih or ^\fh-inch object-glass. Magnifying power GOO to (3o0 diameters. Tests the paler scales of Podura the filaments of Didj/ino/i^lix mounted in balsam ;
: ;

The manner
is

which objects

are

mounted

also of importance; for if they be immersed in too much balsam or covered by too thick

a cover, no object-glass will

however good

it

may

be.

show them well, Hence the ne-

and the primitive

tibrillae

of muscular fibre

(PI. 22. fig. .36 6, rf). a?ul upioards. ,';</*

cessity of purchasing the test-objects, in the case of an inexperienced observer. Any of

Magnifying power

1250

to

2000 diameters.
:

these may be obtained from Norman, Fountain Place, City Road; Wheeler, 48 T(j1-

Tests

the more delicate of the above

obiects, and the finest Nobert's lines. It wiU be observed that we have omitted the tests for angular aperture, which are often now regarded as the true tests of the

lington Road, HoUoway Baker, 244 High Holborn of Smith and Beck, Ross, or Powell ; or Bourgoyne, of Paris, few notes upon the test-objects themselves may not be out of place here.
;

value of an object-glass.

who wash

for

Those, however, an interesting series of difficult

use that of objects in this respect, may Dippel, viz. the valves of Pleurosigma formostim, attenuatum, anyulatum GrainmatoNaviNitzscMa mjmoidea 2)1wra marina N. affinis, Amici's testcula rhomboides Exhibition of 1802, object, that used at the mounted in balsam, the transverse lines Surirella gemma, the longitudinal lines; Frustulia Grammatophora subtilissima
: ;

Hairs of animah (PI. 1. figs. 1-3). These should be mounted in Canada balsam. Many of those represented in PI. 29 might be used

with equal advantage.

Disks of deal (PI.
1. fig. 4),

fonn a good

test-object on account of their freedom from colour, whence the colours from uncorrected chromatic aberration are easily seen

with a bad object-glass.

Salivary globules (PI. 1. fig. 5 a, b, c). Obtained from the saliva. good test-object for those engaged in physiological investithe marginal granules and the gations moving molecules should be very distinct,

and Bailey's Hyalodiscus subtiliss{7nus. Nitzschiatcenia and Berkeleya fraMoUer's or fine objects, gilis are also These Rodig's Test-plates may also be used. consist of a series of the valves of Diatomasaxonica,
ceae,

and moimted on a

We shall now offer a

arranged according to their difficulty, glass plate in balsam.

Scales of insects (PI. 1. figs. 6 , b, c, 12 a, c; PI. 34. fig. 24), These should be mounted dry. The scales of Tinea and many
b,

few

General remarks on the application of of an object-glass. test-objects to the choice itself in this quesgi-eat difficulty presents tion in the case of persons commencing the for on viewing use of the microscope almost object, they will see so much
;

others have nothing to recommend them. Nor do we advise the use of those scales which exhibit the transverse stria? by oblique light, as those oi Morpho (PI. 1. fig. 7), of Hipparchia (fig. 9), Sec, as they are easy
tests

of the

any

even to inferior English object-glasses present day. The long scales of Pontia brassicce, however, are good.

TEST-OBJECTS.
The

762

TP]TRAXYCHUS.

DichmioheUx (PI. 1. fig. 10 a, h, c, d). fiiaments should be mounted in solution

TE'THEA, Lam.

genus of marine

of chloride of calcium, or in

Canada balsam.

It is very difficult to display the component fibres of this beautiful object when in balsam. It also forms a good test of magni-

Sponges. Char, Solid and compact,rounded, covered with a skin without sensible pores inte;
;

rior fleshy, with acicular and late sjDines (PI. 4.5. fig. e).

globulo-subu;

fying power.

Dich/moprium (PI. 1. fig. 11). The longitudinal lines upon the cells require considerable magnifying power. The pyi/idimn of Pulex. An excellent test-object, mounted in as small a quantity of balsam as possible. Dujardin represents
the rays upon the disks as round, like so many beads, wliereas they are wedge-shaped with the bases outwards. The valves of the Diatoniacece. It is a difficult matter to show the lines upon

3Iar. Zool. vii. 370.

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Spong. !->l Gosse, i. Huxley, Ann. N. H. 1851,

;

TETMEM'ORUS,
Desmidiacese. Char. Cells

Ralfs. A genus of

single, simple, elongated, straight, cylindrical or fusiform, constricted in the middle ; segments emarginate at the

ends.

Grammatophoramarinaw\t\\ an object-glass of 110"^ of angular aperture, requiring exbut many of those tremely oblique light mentioned above are far more difficidt. The tdtimate JibrUUc of muscidar jihre Mounted in Hquid. (PI. 22. fig. 36).
;

Sporangia square or round. T. (jranuMus (PI. 14. figs. 33, 34) Cells fusiform both in front and side view, ends colourless and lip-like dots irregular.
.

Length

1-1.30".
fig.

Kolliker
(fig.

them as beaded they have also been represented as in a probably both these inaccuracies arise from im^jerfect adjustment, and from their immersion in too much Their true structiu-e is figured in liquid.
represented
; :

36

c)

35, in conjugation). tapering, ends truncate side view fusiform dots none, or very indistinct (under ord. ilium. Length 1-350". T. Brebissonii. Dots in longitudinal

T. leevis (PI. 14. Cells in front view

;

somewhat

rows. BiBL. Ralfs, Br. Besmid. 145 ; Rabenht. Alq. iii. 139. Mcrasf'^-ios pt.

h, d, e.

TETRACTIN'lUM,Brn. = P(r/m.s!';7

TETRACHAS'TRUM=
TETRACY'CLUS,

Foherfs test-lines. See ISTobert's lines. We have omitted to notice several testas the scales of some insects, a minute globule of mercury, &c., because the former have been so obscurely described that we are unable to comprehend in what and the testthe test-structure consists appearances presented by the latter viewed as an opaque object are inappreciable to one unaccustomed to the use of the microscope, by whom mainly are remarks upon testSee on this matter, objects required. &c. p. 436. Wenham, in Beale's Che^alier's test-object consists of the scales of Pontia hrassicce (PL 34. fig. 24), the being rendered distinct ; this
objects,
;

Ralfs. A genus of

pt.

How

Diatomacefe. Char. Frustule? compound, aggi-egated into a filament, in front view broadly tabular with longitudinal interrupted vittae valves inflated on each side in the middle. Valves with coarse transverse strise. T. Thienemamii, Ehr. (lacustris, Ralfs) (PL 17. fig. 28). Valves rounded or subacute at ends, inflations rounded. T. cmarginatiis. As the last, but valves constricted towards the rounded and subapiculate ends, and the inflations emar;

ginate.

granules

BiBL. Ralfs, Aym. N. H. 1843, xii. 105 Kiitziug, Sp.Alg. 118; Smith, Br. Diat. ii.

is

a test for definition.

37

Rabenht. Alg.

i.

.302.

the scales of Hip2mrchia janira for testing penetratingpower pollen-gTains, the scaly elytra of the diamond-beetle, or bat's hair, for definition. Schacht's test-object consists of the scales of Hipparchia janira (PI. 1. fig. 9r), a test
;

Mohl recommended

TETRAGON'iCEPS,Brady.-A genus of
Copepodous Entomostraca.
in dredgings.

T. vwUcoIata,
ii.

TETRAM'ITUS,Perty. A genus of Fla-

(Bradv, Copep.

65.)

gellate Infusoria. Free, changeable, tapering behind, truncate in front; flagella four.

for

moderate angular aperture and oblique

light. 13iBL.

That of the Inteoduction, and

of

Angular aperture.

Three species in stale water and infusions. (Pertv, Lebensf 170 Kent, Inf. 313.) TETRAN'YCHUS, Duf.-A genus of Trombidina (Acarina). Spinning-mites.
; ;

TETRAl'EDIA.
CJiar.

rm

TEXTULARIA.

short, and conical; mandibles and labium as in liluiphuinatlius palpi chelate; cox;b inserted in two groups on each side, one for the two anterior, the other for tjie two posterior; anterior legs longest, third ^ short and joint (femur) largest ; claws greatly cm-ved, and with rigid bulb-pointed
stout,
; ,

Palpi incumbent upon the rostrum,

between Tetraapora and Monostroma, the fronds of both of which are membi*anous strata formed of a single layer of cells the latter, however, has its constituent cells crowded, while in Tetrnspora the green cellcontents lie scattered, mostly in groups of two or four, in the gelatinous frond. Thuret
;

hairs.

stage

states that the cells possess long cilia in the when they are imbedded in a contin-

Several species and varieties, green. Yellowish ; T. telarius, the red spider. abdomen produced behind a dark yellow On illspot on each side of the back.
;

red and

uous frond (PI. 7. fig. 10). Development by the ciliated cell-contents breaking out as swarming zoospores. Two recorded British species appear to be distinct, growing in
stagnant pools.

conditioned

greenhouse-plants, forming

web.
T. fflaber

(PL

6. fig.

32).

Very minute

Frond gelaT. gelatinosa (PL 7. fig. 10). tinous, soft, of irregular shape and division, pale green; cells 1-10800 to 1-4200" in
diameter (Kiitzing, Tab. Phyc.
T. lubrica.
i.

eyes two, whitish, upon the anterior prominence. Under stones in damp places.
(cnsfotus, Duges) (PI. 6. Legs slender, anterior very long several rows of eves three on each side white points upon the back and margins of the bod}'. Under stones and upon plants. Claparede places Tromhidium antiimuale
T.

p. 28).

htpidum

fig.

35).

green, elongated, mesentery-shaped, lobed and sinuated, lobes often anastomosing cells angulo-globose, 1-3G00" in diameter (Kiitzing, I. c. pi. 30).

Frond

BiBL.
Sc.

Sp. Ah/. 225

Hassall, Ah/. 300, Tab. Phyc. i.

;

pi.
;

78; Kiitzing, Thuret, Ann.

N.

3.

xiv. 248, pi. 21

pi.

Niigeli, Einzell.

in this genus.

Gervais, Wo.lckenaeys Apteres, ii. 165 Dufour, Ann. Sc. N. i. xxv. 279; Koch, Dctitsc/il. Cnistac. Boisduval, nt. Jlorf. 88 Murrav, ^c. Lnt. 97. TETRAJPE'DIA, Reinsch. genus of

BiBL. Duges, Ann.

;

Sc.

N.

2.

i.

24,

&

Alg. 71,
ii.
;

55

Rabenht. Ale/, iii. 38. TETRASPORES. See Spobes. Valvuline TETRATAXTS, Ehr. Foraminifer, with four chambers in a wdiorl. Fossil (Carboniferous). (Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 4. x. 259.)
2
;

TEXTILE FABRICS. The components

;

Unicellular Algfe. Char. Cells compressed, quadrangular or subdivided triangular, equilateral, becoming into quadrate or connate segments or rounded lobes, either by deep vertical or or oblique markings or by wide angular rounded sinuses. (Archer, Qu. Mic. Jn.

under the heads of silk, wool, fibrous and filamentous structures. BiBL. VYiesner, Techn. Mikr. Schlesinger, Mihr. Urdersuch. d. Gespinnffasern,
of these are noticed

1872; Button, M. M. Jn.

vii.

259; Lat-

teaux,

1872, 351.)

TETRAP'LOA,

Berk, and

Br. A genus

Techn. Micr. TEXTULA'RLY, Def ranee (Textilaria, Ehr.). protean genus of hyaline Foramiuifera, having typically a binary series of

Man.

of Tondacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), coma single species, T. arisprising at present tata, a curious little fungus growing upon See Toeulacei. leaves of gi-ass. TETRAP'LODON, Br. and Sch. genus of Splachnacefe (Acrocarpous operculate T. mnioides and angustatus, on Mosses). dung in moimtainous regions. TETRASEL'MIS, Stein. genus of Free, obovate or Flagellate Infusoria. oblong; flagella four; protoplasm green, T. cordiformis, freshwith an eye-spot.

subglobular or subquadrate chambers arranged alternately on two sides of a longitudinal axis, and usually increa.sing in size from the oldest (at apex) to the youngest, with a slit-like apperture in the wall of each chamber ( T. cvneifonnis, PL 23. fig. 47).

The

shell is flattened in one direction in Vuhulina, with oblique chambers and terminal slit, V. gramen (PL 23. fig. 49); in another, in Cuneolina, with transverse chambers and a row of ap^rtural pores in normal
position.

Irregularly alternate

and

biserial

TETRAS'PORA, Link. A gen us of Palmellace8e(Confervoid Algte), nearly related to the Ulvacese; indeed it is very difficult to di-aw any very distinct line of demarcation

water.

(Kent, Inf. 315.)

chambers, passing into a short linear row, with a necked and rimmed aperture, constitute Heterostomella Bigenerina has many uniserial chambers, with a tenninal poutirg mouth {B. agglutinans, PL 23. fig. 50).
;

TILILAMOPORA.
Instead of
tlie

7G4

TIIECAMOKIDINA.
is

the

shell begins

biserial form, frequently with a triserial arrange-

The whole organism

permeated by spicula,

ment of chambers ( l^erneuilina, with contracted aperture Candeina ?, with perforate

;

The or sustained by a fenestrated shell. most common genera are SphcBrozoum, Collosphcera, and Thalassivolla. They are marine, in tropical

septa).

often

The Verueuiliue commencement is succeeded by the usual two alternating

and subtropical

seas.

rows {Gaudri/ina, G. pupoidea, PL 23.fig.48), or by a linear growth with terminal aperture The triserial varieties are some( Tritadi(i). times twisted. If T^idvtdiiia takes on the linear growth, we have Venilina. The early chambers of Textidaria and its
modiiications are not uufrequeutly coiled Textidaria (S}j.) annectens (Spiroplecta). (Pi. 2-j. fig. 52), from the Gault, commenced

BiBL. Huxley, Ann. N. H. 2. viii. 1851, 489; Qu. Mic. Jn. iv. 1856, 72; Miiller, Thalass. Plaeckel, Radiolarien, 1862 Wal; ;

lich,

Ann. N.

II. 1869,

iii.

97.

TllALES'TRlS,
marine.

Claus.

genus
ii.

of

Copepodous Entomostraca.

Ten
Soc.

species,

THAMNO'LIA, Ach. A
;

(Bradv, Copep.,

Pag

120.)

genus of Cla;

dodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). T. vennicularis on mossy earth

(Leighton, Lich. Fl. 74.)

rare.

proceeded biserially, and with uniserial chambers.

spiralh",

ended

THAMNOM'YCES, Ehr. A

genus of

Large

Textiilarice are

translucent;
{^Pleeuniiun).

they
in
all

rarely porous and usually become sandy

seas,

It has Sphagriacei (Ascomycetous Fungi). distinct asci and sporidia. (Berk. Br. Flor. ii. pt. 2. 284; Fries, Su7n. Veq. 382.)

Common

and

fossil

in

all

THAUMAN'TIAS,
by a

Esehscholtz.
?
),

A
;

formations from the Silurian upwards. BiBL. D'Orbigay, For. Fuss. Vien. 24o; Williamson, For. 75 Morris, Cat. Br. Foss,
;

genus of Campanulariidfe. Char. Stem simple (or branched

rooted

Bi-oan, Index Pal. art. Text.; Ehrenberg, Mikrog. Schultze, Org. Polyth. 62 ;
4f3;
;

thread-like stolon ; cells campanulate polypes with a funnel-shaped proboscis; reproduction by free medusiform buds.
T. inconspicua, Forbes.

189; Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. xi. 91 4. ix. 298, x. 189, 196, 259; Brady, Carh. For., Pal. Soc.
Carpenter,

For.

Common

off the

Hebrides.

(Hincks, Hi/d. Zooph. 178.)

THAUMATONK'MA,
of Tiatoniacea3.

Grev. A genus

1876, 130.

THALAMOP'ORA,

Eeuss.

large,

THECA. A

(Grev. Mic. Tr. 1863, 76.) term used very loosely in

subcylindric, zoophytoid Foraminifer, composed of superimposed chambers, with labyrinthic and perforated walls, arranged around, and opening into, a central vertical cavity. Tludamopora exhibits characters of alliance

with

Polgtrema, Carpcnteria, Tinoporus, Ci/mbalopora, and, through the last, with Planorhulina and others of the Rotalina. It is among the Perforata what Ductylopura is among the Imperforata. (Reuss, Geinitz's
Elhthak/ehmie, 1872, 139.)

the descriptions of Cryptogamic plants. In the case of the Lichens and Fungi it is synonymous with Ascus, a sac in which free spores are developed these are called thecaspores or ascospores, in contrast with basiDiosPOEES or stylospores. In the higlier Cryptogamia, as Ferns, &c., it is used in the sense of sporangium.
;

THECAMONADI'NA,
of Infusoria
Astasitea, E.).

Divj. A family

(=Cryptomonadina and some

Huxley. family of Radiolarian Rhizopoda.

THALASSICOL'LIUA,

Char. Composed of structureless cysts, single or aggregate, containing cellular elements and sarcode, giving ofi" radiate pseuwhich sometimes run into each
dopodia, uther and form a network.
l)ut

Nucleus present, no contracting vesicle. Numerous yellow cells occur scattered through them and occasionally a few may be seen suspended within the external gelatinous structure.
;
'

Char. Usually coloured ; covered witli a non-contractile tegument, which is either hard and brittle, or membranous locomotive organs one or more fiagelliform filaments. Many are Algae, or their spores. They are minute, usually green, but some are red ; and they often colour stagnant water from They are mostly existing in vast numbers. recognizable by their rigidity ar.d the uuiformity of their motion.
;

Dujardin subdivided them thus

1.

single

llnf^clliform

ulameiit.
rp
fii niaments.

*^.

-One
/

Body ovoid orj Tegument hard and brittle membranous ( TegunK'nt globular Body depressed or with a tail-like urolongation without a prolongation folia'ceoiis (Two similar filaments
(

Trachelomonas.
Cri/pfo^iioiia/f.

2.

'l

Phttcus (Ktigleini pt., E.) 4. CrumeinUti. 5. Diselmis (Cklamid.omonas, E.).

3. 6. Ploeotia.
7. 8.

o,,

Several filaments

and Body jirismatic or boat-shaped traUing retractile filament) Bodv ovoid or pip-shaiied Body prolonged into a point in front
flogelliform filament,
(

Anisonema.
Ojyrrhis.

TIIELIDIUM.

'65

TJIYRSOPORELLA.

BiBL. Duiiirdin, Infus. 323. TnELID'lUM,-Mass. A geuus of Microliehtnis parasitic on the thallus of Lecauor*.
Char. Spores subfiisiforiu, 2-looTilar, colourless. (Lindsay. Qu. J\Iic. Jn. 18Gil, 340.)

THELOCAR'PON, Nvl. geuus of Pyronodei (Lichenaceous Lichens). Four species. (Leighton, Lich. Fl. 439; Lindsay. Qu. Mic. Jn. 1809, 345.) THELOTREMA, Ach.A genus of Placoidei (Lichenaceous Lichens), containing
two
British species.

Boeck. genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. T. hrunnva, on Laminaria. (Brady, Copep. i. 95.) TIIUIA'RIA, Flem. A genus of Polypi, of the Order Ilydroida, and family Sertiila-

THOREL'IJA,

riid;v.

Char. Those of Sertularia but the colls closely pressed to or imbedded in the stem or branches. Two species T. thuia. Cells ovate-elliptical, acutish ; On shells from deep vessicles pear-shaped.
;

(Lei^hton, Lich. Fl.

water.
T. articulata.

238.)

THEO'RUS, Ehr. A genus of Rotatoria,

Cells ovate, obtuse or trun;

cate, vesicles elliptical

rare.
;

of the family Hydatinaea.

Char. Eyes colourless, more than three, foot forked jaws cervical, in two gi-oups each with a single tooth.
;
;

Toes small, T. vernalis (PL 44. fig. 32). frontal hook absent. Aquatic; length 1-140 to 1-120". Toes long, frontal (or T. uncinaUts. rather cervical) region with hooks fresh;

Gosse, 23; Iliucks, Iii/d. Zooph. THU'JA, L. geuus of tjoniferte (Gymnospermous Plants), to which belongs the arbor vitcc of gardens, Thuja occidentalis ; T. oricntalis is placed by some authors under another genus, Biota. The characters of Coniferous wood, Gymnospermous ovules, &c., may be observed in tliese plants (see

Bibb. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 83

Zool.
ii.

Mar.

water length 1-240". BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 454 Pritchard, Inf. 000. THLIPSU'RA, J. & H.A Cytheroid Ostracode in the Silurian strata. (Jones and HoU, Ann. N. H. 4. iii. 213.) THO'REA, Bory.A genus of Batra;

CoNiFERiE and Ovulk).

lar

subglobuArenaceous Foraminifer (0"5 mm.), with perforate papillfe single and enclosing a smaller chamber or group, and adherent. Atlantic and Pacific. (H. B. Brady, Q. Jn.
;

THURAjM'MINA, Brady. a

chospermese (Confervoid Algte), of which one species (T. ramosisshna) occurs in Britain; its fronds are olive-black, branched filaments, a foot or more long, about as thick
740.

M.

Sc. n.

s.

xix. 45.)

THURIC'OLA, Kt. A genus

of Peritri-

chous Infusoria. Like Vaginicola, but sheath with a closeable valve. Three species; salt

and fresh water. (Kent, /;//. 718.) TH Y'AS, Koch. A genus of Hydrachnea (Acarina). Like Ilyclraclina, but legs formed

for w^alking.

T. venusia.
Frit., fig.)

Murray,

Fc

(Koch,

Uebers.

THYMELEA'CE^. An

order of Di-

cotyledons to which the Spurge-Laurels {Daphne) belong. In D. Lar/etto ( Lagetta lintearia) the fibres of the liber are separated

into

Thorea ramosiasima.
Horiisontal section of a filament (halved). The semicircular denser portion represents the axis, the loose spreading branches the villi. Magnified 25 diameters.

lozenge-shaped meshes, arranged in such beautiful and easily-separable layers, as to have acquired for the plant the name

of the

Lace-Bark Tree.

See Liber.

The as a crow-quill, with a villous siu-face. filaments are composed of radiating branched cells, closely compacted into a kind of solid
axis,

THYRSOPOREL'LA, Giimb. Gumbel

' :

divides the Factyloporidcce (see Dactylopora) into (I.) those with chambers
:

1.

from which proceed lax, radiating raThe muli, forming the villous surface. spores or sporangia! cells arise from these
ramules (fig. 740). BiBL. Kiitz. Phyc. qeneralis, pi. 16, Sp. Alg. 534 Emi. Bot. Supp. No. 2948 Hassail, Alg. 64; Rabenht. Ahj. iii. 418,
; ;

Ilaploporella segmental, annular, or cylindrical (piled rings), with large chambers and simple traversing canals (0 species,
;

recent and Tertiary)

2. IJavtyloporella ; cylindricnl, with large and subsidiary chambers, and branched traversing canals (4 species, Tertiary). (II.) Those without
:

chambers:

3.

Thy rsoporella ;

cylindiical,

TIIYRSOPTERIS.

7G6

THYROID GLAND.
Fig. 745.

Avith simple, swolJeu, traversing canala, and fa.<cicules of smaller tubes (2 species, Ter4. Gi/roporeUa tiary cylindrical, with circular canals (14 species, Triassic and
)
:

Uteria annular, hollow, perforate (1 species. Tertiary). BiBL. Giimbel, Abhandl. k. hayer. AJcad. Wiss. 11. a. xi. 1872, p. 231. THYRSOP'TERIS, Kunze. genus of

Neocomian)

5.

Cyathese (Polypodiaceous Ferns), with globose, marginal sori, collected into a panicle
Fig. 741. Fig. 742.

a,

Glandular vesicles from the thyroid gland of a child. intervening onnective tisbue b, basement memc

brane

c,

epithelium.

Magnified 250 diameters.

vesicles are from 1-600 to 1-240" in diameter, the acini from 1-50 to 1-24' The Strom a is condensed around the lobules, to form a fibrous coat.
lobes.
'.

The

Thyrsoi^teris olegans.
Fig. 741. A fertile pinna. Fig. 742. A pinnule converted into a cup-like Poru3. Magnified 20 diameters.

The stroma consists of ordinary interlacing bundles of connective tissue, with fine elastic fibres, at its outer surface containing fatcells.

distinct
sessile,

from the sterile pinnfe. on a globose receptacle

Capsules indusium
T.

Fiff.

746,

inferior,
eleijans,

cup-shaped, the mouth entire. tropical. (Hooker, Si/71. 15.)

Fig. 744.

Fie. 743.

Thyrsopleris elegnns. with the spoFig. 743. Yertieal section of the same,

ranges removed from the columella. Fig. 744. Side view of a sporange.

Magn. 100 diams.

TH Y^'ROID GLAND.The thyroid gland

one of the vascular gland.-*, or glands without ducts. It consists of rounded, closed, glandular vesicles (tig. 745) surrounded by or imbedded in a fibrous stroma (a), and aggregated into rouiidi.sh, elongate, or somewhat polygonal acini or minute lobules, these being grouped
is

Glandular vesicles with- colloid matter Magnified 50 diameters.

in secondary lobules,

which unite

to

form

The

vesicles consist of a

basement mem-

TllYSANURA.
brane
to b), (fig. 7
liiu>d

767

TINTINXUS.

by a

piuirlt^

layor of

polygonal epithelial cells (c'),aiKl coutaiuing a veliowisb, tenacious, albumim)us liquid.

in the form of the capsule. One Jhitish .-pecies, Tiin/nia austriaca, on rocks iu Scotland.

and M)iium

The capillaries form plexuses surrounding tbe vesicles. In f/oifre, tbe vesicles become greatly enlarged,

TlN'EA,Fabr.

AgenusofLepidopteroua

and continent, so as

to

form cysts

Insects, of the family Tineidaj. The small scales from the underside of the wings of 7'. vestianella, the common

containing colloid matter, with tat-globules and crystals of cholesterine. The same conditions, iu a minor degree, are so frequently met with, that tbej' can scarcely be regarded The epithelium is also often as abnormal. found loose in the vesicles (hg. 740), The minute arteries and capillaries are often
t'oimd varicose.

moth, have been proposed as testobjects; but they can hardly be regarded as such for object-glasses of the present day. The longitudinal lines form the test-strucclothes'
ture.

BiBL.
Pathol.
i.

An.

KiJlliker, ii. :233

Mik. An.
;

ii. 327; Forster, Verson, Strieker's Hist.

BiBL. Westwood, 7?i^ro?.; Stainton, 3/nual of Butterflies. TINOP'OR'US, Carpenter (Ue Montfort). A many-shaped Foraminiferal genus of the Globigerinida globular, subhemisphe-

267.

THYSANU'RA. An
(Spring-tails), to

rical, lenticular, or stellate

areolated, gra-

Order of Insects

which Lepisma, Petrobiiis, Podura, and Lepidocyrtus belong. See InLubbock, Thysanura, ^-c, Ray Murray, Ec. Ent. 401. TlCHOTHE'CiUM, Fv, A genus of Microlichens parasitic on the thallus of many crustaceous and subfoliaceous lichens, BiBL, Liudsav, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1809, .347. TILLE'TIA, Tulasne, A genus of Ustilagiuei (H^']3odermous Fungi), forming the Bunt, a kind of blight of various corn-grains, in which the ears are attacked, and the internal substance of the grains is replaced by a foetid, black powder, consisting of the
Soc.

sects. BiBL.

and often spined (baculate). Commencing as a spiral Rotaline (like Calcariyui), it soon heaps on each face subcyclical layers of quadrangular chambers, with cribrate floors and strong, perforated, radiating septa.
nulate,

1873

The spines consist of ''supplemental skeleton," arising from some of the early septa, with an extension of the "
canal-system."

Gypsina, Carter, is an allied but less elaborate form. Recent, often in great abimdance, as Tinoporus baculatus of the Australian seas and
the Philippines.
^i,

BiBL, Parker and Jones, Ann. N. H. 3. 34 Carpenter, For. 223 Carter, Ann. N. H. 4. iv. 215 5, v. 444,
;

T. Caries ( tlredo Caspores of the fungus, ries, D.C.) attacks wheat and other grain. The interior of the ovaries of the corn is at
fii-st occupied by an interwoven mycelium, from which the globular spores arise on short stalks; as the latter grow, the ears become more or less deformed, the mycelium disappears, and the spores are set free as a pulverulent mass. The spores have a reticulated surface and their pedicel is often found attached (PI. 27. fig, 13). A distinct species is found in wheat in the United States. (See Ustilauinki.) BiBL, Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 375; Tu4. ii. lasne, Ann. Sc. N. 3, vii, 112, pi. o
;

TINTINNOD'EA, family of Pleterotrichous Infusoria, Kent includes in this family, Tintumus, Tintinnidium, Vasieola, and Strombidinoi)sis. TINTINNID'IUM, Kt, genus of

Heterotrichous Infusoria. Like Tintinnus, but contained in a mucilaginous cylindrical Three sheath, adherent to foreign bodies.
species; marine Inf. Oil.)

and freshwater.

(Kent,

101,

TILLI'NA, Gruber, A genus

trichous
Infusoria,

of

Holo-

Free, renitbrm, pharynx curved ; longer ciha round the mouth T. mcujna freshwater, and the pharynx. (Gruber, Zeitsch. iviss. Zool. 1879, Jn. Mic.
;

TINTINNOP'SIS, Stein,A genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria. Like Tiidinnxs, but with two independent rings of anterior cilia. T. beroidea, marine, (Kent, Inf. 617.) TINTIN'NUS, Schrank. genus of Heterotrichous Infusoria, family Tintinnodea. Char. Single body contained in a cylindrical, sessile, bell-shaped carapace, to the bottom of which it is attached by a stalk.

Many
line.

species.

Kent, Inf. 514,) TIM'MIA, Hedw. A genus of Mniaceous Mosses, approaching Polytrichum in habit,
;

Soc.

1880

T. inquilinus (PI. 32. fig. 4). Body line or yellowish carapace cylindrical,
;

hyahya-

Marine; length

1-240''.

TISSUE.
;

68

TISSUES.
Gtncehe,

BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 294 id. Ber. Berl Ak. Ann. JV. K. 1879, iv. Duj. Inf. "561 290; Clap, et Lacli. Inf. 195; Kent, Inf. G03. term apTISSUE, FiBEO-PLASTic. plied by Lebert to imperfectly developed

Leitf. thier.
;

1873

Ranvier, Hist,
;

1840

abnormal connective tissue. The separate elements are often found diffused through normal tissues, or products of inflammatory exudation. They consist of rounded or
oblong cells, froiu 1-2300 to I-KjOO" in diameter, in a more advanced stage becoming fusifonii or angular, and finally forming dihence resembling the elements stinct hbres of embryonic connective tissue (PI. 49. fig. In some instances the development is 42). arrested at one of the early phases, so that the tissue consists almost exclusively of the rounded or the fusiform cells; and in others, the cells enlarge and produce a number of nuclei or secondary cells (PL 38. lig. 10 c). Eibro-plastic tissue or its elements are met with in inflammatory efl'usions upon the serous and synovial membranes (but rarely), in the interstitial effiisions of pneumonia, especially when chronic, in cirrhosis of the
;

1877 Thin, Hist. Schafer, technique Pract. Hist. 1877; Gibbes, Hist. 1880; Klein and Smith, Atlas Hist. ; Ork, Hist. 1881 ; Thierfelder, Atlas path. Hist. 1881 ; Satterthwaite, Hist. 1881 ; Stirling, Hist. 1881.

TISSUES, Vegetable. The

tissues

of which vegetables consist are all composed of cellulose sacs or cells, most of them retaining their primary form, constituting cellular tissue, which makes up the greater mass of plants while others undergo comparatively slight, yet characteristic modifications in form, consistence, and in their mode of union to form other tissues. The tissues may be divided into groups on different principles; but for our purpose a simple arrangement will suffice, based chiefly on the character of the compound tissues, leaving the secondary divisions to be determined by the nature of the compo;

nent

cells.

in the products of suppurating suron the surface of chronic ulcers and non-malignant fungoid vegetations, in the soft yellow vascular tissue occupying the
liver,

tissue, occurring in the growing regions of all plants having stems, is composed of minute cells of variable form,

Cambium

faces,

densely filled with protoplasm, and without

intercellular passages. It is a transitional structure, forming the first stage of all the rest. Parenchyma, or ceUular tissue, is com-

cancelli of ulcerated bones, in certain tu-

mours, &c. BiBL. Lebert, Thys. Path. Wedl, Path. Hist. Riudfleisch, Fbrster, Path. Anat. i. Path. Geioebcl. TISSUES, Animal. The following synanimal optical arrangement of the principal tissues, according to their structure, is intended to facilitate reference to the various articles scattered through the work.
;

posed of cells in which the diameter is not excessive in any one direction, and the walls are comparatively thin. This is divided by authors into many sections, according to the form of the cells, the laxity
of their coherence, &c. The only distinctions worth note are between a. Parenchyma proper, where the cells have polygonal forms. b. Merenchyma, where the cells are round, oval &c. c. Collcnchyma, a form of cellular tissue where the walls are greatly thickened
:

1.

Simple. Blaslemic or protoplastic Barcode.

.

2. Memt)ranoii.s

Basement membrane.
epithelium nerve-cella simple unstriated cartilage
;

tissue

muscular (Fatty
sit
;

fibre.

secondary depo-

With secondary bone. (Without

C

true cartilage. deposit

Connectivetissue; tendon;

5.
6.

Fibrous Fibrmis and cellular

<
l_

ligament; elastic sue muscle.

;

tis-

Pibro-cartilage.

secondary deposit.

Vessels.

B.

Compound.
branes
;

skin

With secondary deposit. Nerve-tubes. (Without Glands mucous and serous memmembrane teeth. synovial
;

softish secondary deposits it occurs beneath the epidermis of many herbaceous plants, in the fi-onds of the larger Algae, of Lichens, &c. Where the secondary d. Sdercnchyma. deposit or thickening is hard, as in the bony cellidar tissue of the shells, stones of fruits, Sic. prosenchyma. Cellular tissue, usually forming the mass of wood and various fibrous structures, where the cells are attenuated to a point at each end, the cells, or
;

with

BiBL. Ucydig, ///s;'. 18-16; Morel, Hist. 18G4 KiJlliker, Ic. Hist. 1805; Briicke, /<'/. Organism. ) 'BeolQ, Simple tissues', Exner,
;

fibres,
.side.

being intercalated and applied side to

Tela conte.vta.

This

name

is

used to

TISSUES.

709

TONGUE.
genus ot Psilotefe

indicate the interwoven tissue formed by the ramified jointed filanieuts of the mycelium of Fungi, and the cottony substance in the interior of the thaUus of many Lichens. I'ibro-vasculartissiieis composed of vessels, ducts, and prosenclnnnatous cells or "fibres" associated in various ways, forming fibrous or fibro-vascular bundles, which either remain distinct or cohere to form masses of

TMESIP'TERIS.A
vertical crack.

(Lycopodiacea^), remarkable for its peculiar habit and bivalvod sporanges bursting by a

See LYCOPODiACEiE.

TOBACCO.The leaves of Tobacco (MTabacnm and other species) may be distinguished from the leaves of the plants commonly used for adulteration by the peculiar structure of the Epidermis with its hairs (PI. 2. fig. 16), and the form of the section of its Fibro-vascular bundles. Paper,
cotiana

wood.
a.

Fibrous bundles, occm'ring in liber, in the outer part of many Monocotyledonous stems, and in the stems of Mosses, consist of cords formed of prosenchycells, which are often of great length. Fibro-vascular bundles, composed of vessels and ducts together with prosenchyma, form the woody fibres of every part (except the bark) of all

which has been sometimes used, is still more readily detected. The epidermis of
the dock-leaf (PI. 2. fig. 17), that of rhubarb (fig. 18), and of colt's-foot (fig. 19), are also characteristic. As in other similar cases, the nature of a foreign ingredient can only be determined by careful comparative investigations, Bibl. Hassall, Food
8fc. ; Prescott, ToAdulterations, 1858. Willdenow. genus of Os-

matous

b.

bacco and

its

plants above the Mosses. Sieve-tubes or Clathrate tissue, foimd in the bark of Dicotyledons and in the vascular bundles of Monocotyledons. Laticiferous tissue and Heservoirs for Secretion, composed either of intercellular passages lined by a proper coat, or of lines of cells fused at their ends, so as to form continuous branched canals ; they occur in the bark, wood, and pith of the Flowering Plants. Epidermal tissue. Composed of cellular tissue, forming a continuous firm layer over the external surface of the higher plants. It is composed usually of a single layer of cells, and presents veiy varied appendages, such as Hairs, Gi.ands, &c., and is perforated by Stojiata. Its outer surface is rendered dense by the deposit of Cuticle.
c.

TO'DEA,
cies.

mundaceous Ferns
Exotic.

(figs.

748-50).

Four spe-

Fig. 748.

Fig. 749.

Fig. 750.

Todea

africana.

Sporanges closed and bursting. Magnified 40 diameters.

TOLYPOTH'RIX,
OsciUatoriacefe

The epidermis

CoBK
;

is replaced, or suberous layer of

on stems, by the

Kiitz. genus of (Coufervoid Algje), appa-

Bark.
;

BiBL, Henfrey-Masters, Bot. Sachs, Bot. V. Tieghem, Bot. 1881; and the Bibl. of the above heads.
Fig. 747.

Hasrently uot very satisfactorily defined. sall describes six species as British, of which T. distorta (PI. 8. fig. 14) is said to be common, adhering to sticks, stems, &c. in stagnant water, forming tufts from 1-2 to 1" in height, dark green when fresh, verdigris- or blue-green when dry ; primary filaments
1-1800 to 1-1440" in diameter; joints about as long as broad. Tolypothrix Dilhoynii Desfnotietna, Eng. Bot. Supp. no. 2958, Bibl. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 312 Tab. Pkyc. ii. pis. 31-33; Hassall, Alg. 240, pis. 68 & 69 ; Rabenh. Aly. ii. 273. TONGUE.We have only space here to
;

notice the beautiful papillae of the tongue. The filiform or conical papillae (fig. 755)
Tmesipteris tannensis.

are whitish, very numerous,

intervals

and occupy the between the umgiform papillae.

3d

TONGUE.
The
papillae

770
at

TONGUE.

of the

mucous membrane

their bases (p, p) are conical, and covered either at the end only, or all over the siu-face with a number of smaller or secondary

of free filiform processes (f). The inner layers of the epithelium agree in structure

with that of the mouth, whilst the outer layers, and especially the epithelium of the
processes, resemble rather the scales of the epidermis, in their hardness, small size, and

an epipapillfe ; the whole being coated by thelial investment (e), terminating in a tuft
Fig. 751.

Fig. 753.

<^-

Fig. 752.

Fig. 754.

the epithelium Fig. 7^l. Fungiform papilla, covered by Magnified 35 diameters. the epithelium Fig. 752. The same, with the vessels;
loops of the simple papilla;
c,

e
e

on one

side,

and with the secondary or simple

papillae p.

represented in outline, a, artery; v, vein; d, capillary capillaries in the simple papillae of the mucous membrane at the base of the fun-

IS diameters. giform papilla. Magnified a human ciroumTallate papilla. A, proper papilla; H, wall; a, epithelium; Fig. 75:3. Perpendicular section of 6 6, nerves of the papilla and wall c, secondary papillse. Magnified 10 diameters. of the human Fig. 754. Follicular gland from the root tongue, a. ejathelium; b, paiiillfp of the mucous membrane c, areolar coat ; e, cavity /, epithelium hning it gg, tolUcles in the thick capsule. Magnified 30 diameters.
;

considerable
alkalies

resistance
acids.

to

the

action

of

and

consist of areolar ber of undulating nuclear fibres, each conwith taining a small artery () and vein {v), intermediate plexus of looped capillaries, and numerous nerve-tubes. The fungiform or clavate papillse (fig. 751) are reddi.sh, distributed over the entire surface of the tongue, and are very numerous Each has at its base a clubat its point. all shaped mucous papiUa, and is covered over with simple or secondary conical pa-

The papillse themselves tissue, with a large num-

without filiform processes. The vessels Cfig. 752) are more numerous, but otherwise resemble those in the filiform papillas.

The circumvallate
(fig.

or lenticular papillae

753) consist of a flattened central papilla (A), surrounded by an elevated wall or ridge {B). The flat surface is furnished with crowded conical secondary papillae (c), the whole being covered with epithelium (a) free from processes. The wall appears as a simple fold of the mucous membrane, and also exhibits beneath its smooth epithelial
coat

numerous rows of simple,

papillte.

conical, se-

piUse {p,p) ftnd a simple epithelial layer (e),

condaiy

In other respects these

TONGUE.

771

TONGUE.
;

papilljB do not differ essentially in structure li'om tlie fungiform.

In some of the papilla) of the tongue, axial bodies are found resembling those in the papillae of the skin. The epithelial processes of the filiform papillne are often covered by a fungus (Lpp-

bedded in the submucous tissue and in the middle of the free surface is the orifice (754 (!) of a conical cavity (e), formed by a
depression of the

mucous membrane.

Each

mycelium closely surrounding them, \\-hilst some of the filaments project from the surface.
Fig. 755.

tothrix), the

gland forms a thick-waUed capsule, surrounded by a fibrous coat (c) contiimous with the deeper portion of the mucous membrane, and lined internally by a prolongation of the mucous membrane with and between papillae and epithelium {b, a) the two are closed capsules or follicles (ff), imbedded in a fibrous and vascular basis. The follicles are from 1-120 to 1-48" in diameter, rounded or somewhat elongate, whitish, composed of a coat of connective
;

tissue

without

elastic fibres,

and wdth

grej'-

ish-white contents consisting of cells I-6OCO to 1-4000" in diameter and free nuclei. In the small portion of tissue constituting one of the papillae of the frog's tongue,

Beale found striped muscular fibres, capillary vessels, pm-ely sensitive nervous fibres forming an expanded terminal plexus at the summit of the papilla, motor nerve-fibres distributed to the muscle, nerve-fibres around the capillary vessels, and a few very fine nerve-fibres ramifying in difterent parts of the papillae. All of these are imbedded
in

and held together by connective

tissue,

forming the body of the papilla, the summit of which is surmounted by a peculiar epithelium-like tissue, perhaps connected with
while
the nerves and belonging to nerve-texture, its sides are covered with ordinary ciliated epithelium. The fur of the tongue, which is usually considered to be composed of epithelium, is stated by Butlin to consist
of

Schizomycetous fungi. BiBL. Todd and Bowman,

Cijcl.

PIii/s.

Ward,

Todd's

An.

8>-

Huxley, Mic. Jn.

;

ii.
;

Phjs.\ Salter, ibid.; 74; Beale, Phil. Tr.

1864, and Hoto i^-c. Hartmann, Miiller's ArcMv, 1863 Klein and Verson, Strieker's
Hist. V. 1

Two human
p, p, papillse
;

Butlin, St. Barth. Hosn. Rep.

loops

e,

filiform papillae, one with epithelium. artery and vein, with the capillary epithelial covering ; J", its processes.
a, v,

1879,

.37.

Magnified 35 diameters.

The glands of the tongue consist of mucous and follicular glands. The mucous glands resemble those of the

OF MOLLUSCA. The tongue, odontophore, or palate of the Mollusca, has long formed an interesting microscopic object on account of the elegant horny or
chitinous teeth situated upon it, in numerous rows and in various patterns The tongue forms a shorter or longer ribbon-like structure, attached behind to the bottom of a sac or sheath, situated on the lower wall of the pharynx. It is supported by a cartilaginous cushion, over which it

TONGUE

mouth (Mouth). The follicular glands

between the

are

most numerous

epiglottis and the circumvallate papillae, and are so superficially situated as to form projections of the mucous mem-

brane. They form lenticular or globular masses, from 1-24 to 1-6" in diameter, im-

works backwards and forwards by muscular

action.

3d2

TONGUE.

772

TONGUE.

It exists in the Gasteropoda, the Pteropoda, and the Cephalopoda. It consists of a central strip or band, called the rachis, and two lateral bands, the

maximus

Fig. 755*.

DQaoMQDOQgQDQDDSaaaOOiJ

to 26,800. The transverse rows more or less cm'ved, whilst the longitudinal rows are quite straight; and the cm-vatm'e arises on each side from the central longitudinal row, the teeth of which are symmetrical whilst in those of the lateral portions of each transverse row, the prominences on the inner side of each tooth being suppressed, those on the outer side are increased, this modification augmenting in degi'ee as we pass fi-om the central line The tongue of the towards the edges.
are usually
;

ftfc^
Tongue of Whelk ; with separate teeth 10 diameters, the teeth 40 diameters.
pleuree.
t-

its

marine Gasteropoda is generally longer, and teeth larger and in manj' instances it
;

Magnified

In the rachis, the teeth often rather overlapping toothed plates, the teeth being straight, while the pleural teeth, or uncini of the lateral bands, are usually curved and more or less serrate.

resemble

Fig. 755**.

extends far beyond the head, which may, indeed, contain but a small part of it. Thus in the common limpet {Patella) the principal part of the tongue is folded up, but perfectly free, in the abdominal cavity, between the intestines and the muscular foot; and in some species its length is twice or even three times as great as that of the entire In a large proportion of cases the animal. tongue exhibits a very marked separation between the central and the lateral portions the teeth of the central band beuig fre-

quently smaU and smooth at their edges, whilst those of the lateral are large and The tongue of Trochus zizyphimis serrated. is one of the most beautiful examples of this form not only the large teeth of the lateral bands, but the delicate leaf-like teeth of the central portion having their edges

Row of teeth

of the tongue of the Periwinkle. Magnified 120 diameters.

the limThey may be easily examined pet {Patella), the whelk [Buccinuni), or in the freshwater snails, Lyimiceus, Planorhis,
Sec.

minutely serrated. yet more complex type is found in the tongue of Haliotis, in which the central band of teeth has nearly straight edges instead of points, with on each
side a lateral band consisting of large teeth shaped like those of the shark, and beyond
this, again,

another lateral band on either

In the tongue of many terrestrial Gasteropoda, as the snaU (Helix) and slug {Limax), the number of plates in each row is veiy considerable, amounting to 180 in the large
whilst in garden-slug (Lwiax tnaximus) many marine Gasteropoda, sucli as the common whelk (Bucciniwi undatum), the tongue has only three plates in each row, one bearing the small central teeth, and the two others the large lateral teeth. Generally speaking, the tongue of the terrestrial Gasis short, and contained within the teropoda nearly globular head; but the closely-set rows of teeth are usually very numerous, frequently more than 100, and in some species as many as 1(50 or 170; so that the
;

side, composed of several rows of smaller teeth. Very curious differences also present

themselves among the diflerent species of the same genus. Thus in Doris jiHosa the central baud is almost entirely wanting, and each lateral band is formed oi a single row
of very large hooked teetji, set obliquelj' ; whilst in JJoris tnberculata the central band is most developed, and contains a number of rows of perpendicidarly conical teeth, like those of a harrow. In Dendronotm, the central and lateral teeth are very finely and beautifully serrated. In Littorina, the periwinkle, the tongue is 2^ inches long, coiled like a watch-spring, and contains about GOO rows of teeth. The tongues may be preserved either in the dry state, or in glycerine or in balsam
.

total

number

of teeth

Helix jwmatia, to 21,000, and in Limax

may mount

up, as in

TONSILS.
many

773

TORULA.

of them in Ihe Latter medium forming beautiful |)olanzing objects.

forms presented; for when actively vegetating in fermenting liquids, it presents the
characters shown in PI. 26. fig. 23, while, while the liquid becomes exhausted, portions of tlie fungus float to the top, and produce a filamentous structure, terminating in cliains of spores, such as are represented in PI. 26. fig. 24, and in fig. 756. The simply beaded form is taken as the type of a genus Cnjptococcus by certain authors, some of whom consider it a Fungus, others
Fig. 756.

The iuipei'feetly cleansed ton"^ies, when stained with Judson's dyes, also form beautiful objects.

Todd's
2. vii.

ikr.L. Carpenter, Microscope; Thomson, Ci/el. An. ^-Phi/s. iv. 1 142 Ann. N. H.
;

8G; Gray, ?6. 2. x. 413 Macdonald, ih. 1868, ii. 236, 1869, iii. 113; Maplestone, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1872, 4.5 Hogg, Ti\ Mic. Soc.
;

1868 Lov^n, (Efversujt Kongl. Vetensh. Ak. Fdrhandl. 1847; Troschel, Gchiss d, Schmcken (36 pis.), 1875 Woodward, Mollusca. TONSILS. Tliese organs may be regarded as consisting of from ten to twenty follicular glands, resembling those found at the root of the tongue, surrounded by a
;

common
The

fibrous coat or capsule. blood-vessels are numerous, formingelegant networks around the follicles. (KcilKlein & Versou, Strieker's liker, Hist, ;

Hist.)

The crystals of this mineral consist principally of silicate of alumina, with the fluorides of aluminium and silicium. Sections of topaz &c. often exhibit microscopic cavities, frequently containing crystals and one or two non-miscible liquids, the latter sometimes including bubbles of gas or vapour.

TOPAZ.

Tonila sacchari (aerial form). Magnified 200 diameters.

Brewster recommended the spherical cavities as the best objects for examining the aberrations of lenses, and as infinitely preferable to globules of mercury. BiBL. Brewster, Edinh. Phil. Tr. x.

The same (Kiitzing especially) an Alga. of form occm* in the Vinegarplant and in both cases Penicillium (flauvarieties
;

&

xvi.

Microscope, 186.

Lankester. doubtful genus of Infusoria. Body rounded, with an anterior funnel-shaped frill of undidating membrane no cilia, vacuoles, or nucleus. Marine, in Bay of Naples. (Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1874, 272.)
;

TORQUATEL'LA,

eum seems invariably to succeed the preceding when kept at a moderate tempera
Thus between all these various forms, together with Oidium lactis, there appears to be a relation, not yet clearly made out, indicating that they probably represent different states of the same plant growing under different conditions of nutriture.

TOR'TULA, Hedw.

See Barbula.

TOR TIL A,

Pers. A genus of Torulacei.

tion and temperature. Further remarks on this head are made imder Yeast and Vi-

The plants ordinarily referred here appear to be somewhat heterogeneous in their nature. In what may be considered the true species,
the chains of spores form Ihe principal bulk of the plants, little or no filamentous myce-

Other forms very generally lium existing. included under this head agree in their characters with Oidium, which itself is a doubtful genus, probably founded on the
conidiiferous states of more perfect kinds. But in T. sacchari (or cerevisice), the Yeastfungus, usually referred here, we find both

negar-plant. growth similar to T. sacchari presents itself sometimes in decomposing urine (PI. 26. fig. 7) from healthy subjects ; and indeed scarcely any decomposing animal or vegetable fluid, in which there exist fermentible elements, remains long free from Torula-like growths, if left exposed to the air (see Fermentation). find it impossible to give definite characters for the species that have been T. herharum is a common enumerated. form gi-owing on decaying stems of plants ;

We

TORULACEI.
it

774

TORULACEI.

forms at

first

erect greenisli tufts,

which

afterwards become bhtckish, ramify and form a black crust, the spores readily sepaT. Spurendonema, a form growing rating. on decaying cheese, represents the Sporendonema casei of Desmazieres. T. Fumago is now separated with other forms under the genus Capnodium. T. alUrnata also is the type of the genus Alternahia. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 359 Ann. N. H. i. 203, vi. 439 2. v. 400, xiii. 400
; ;

merely representing their conidiiferous forms (see Torula). Achoriox, again, seems to be merely the spermogonous form of a PenicilUum. Sporendonema is founded appa(S. muscce, rently on imperfect observation the true characters of which are given under that head, has been renamed Enipusa and
;
;

Fries, Syst.
fig.

Myc.

iii.

Fresenius, Beitr.

z.

499 Sum. Veyet. 505 Myc. Heft ii. 58, pi. 6.

;

55

Corda,

Ic,

Funr/orum.

TORULA'CEI. Afkmily of Coniomycetous Fungi, forming moulds and mildews on decaying vegetable substances, or acting as ferments in decomposing yegetable and animal fluids. They are compound microscopic
Fig. 757.

proper position is among the Saprolegnei; but it would appear to be referable to the Mucorini. Dictyospormm, Speira, and Trimmatostroina appear to consist merely of the spores of some other genera; Gyrocerus cannot be regarded as a perfect form and indeed all the genera require a thorough examination in a fresh state.
its
;

Synopsis of Oenera.
Torula. Spores in beaded chains, simple, readily separating, placed on a short continuous or septate pedicel (PI. 26. figs. 7 &
23).
_

Fig. 759,

Bispora. Resembling the last, but the spores uniseptate. Septonema. Resemblingthe preceding, but having several transverse septa in the
spores.

Alternaria.
Fig. 758.

Resembling the

but with cellular spores connected

filiform isthmus.

preceding, b}^ a

Sporidesmimn. Spores in tufts, straight, subclavate or fusiform, shortly stalked or sessile, transversely septate or cellular. Tctraploa. Spores sessile, quadri septate, coherent in bundles of four, each spore crowned with a bristle. Sporochisma. Filaments erect, simple, external membrane inarticulate, cell-contents at length separating into spores, articulated in fours, emerging.
Fig. 757. Speira toruloides. Fig. 758. G-yrocerus

Fig. 759.

Magnified 200 diameters. ammonis. Magnified 200 diams. Trimniatostroma salicis. Magn. 200 diams.

Coniothecium. Spores without septa, collected in heaps, finally separating more or less into a powder.

Echinobofryum.
"cylindrical or

beaded filaments, simple or

Spores

rounded-apicu-

ramified, the joints of Avhich (all or part) separate from each other to form the spores. There is no definite receptacle liere; the mycelium grows as a cottony web over or in the infected body, or forms clouds or

late, collected in fascicles, attached on simple, erect, anuulated filaments.

Much obscurity prevails respecting the genera included below, and it is indeed doubtful whether any of them Some species are independent productions. of Torv.la, such as T. cerevisicfi (the Yeastflocks in liquids.

fungus), appear intimately connected with certain Ilyphumycetous genera, perhaps

Spiloccea. Spores globose, simple, adhering firmly together and to the matrix, forming spots laid bare by the separation of the epidermis of the .subject infected. Sporcyidonema. Described as composed of erect filaments, containing single rows of S. muscce {Empusa, spores in the interior. Cohn) really consists of short, tufted, erect, simple filaments, terminating in a bellshaped cell (spore or sporange :), thrown off

with

elasticity

when

mature.

TOURMALINE.
Achorion.

775

TRACIIELTNA.

Mycelium somewhat ramose,

articulated, joints terminatin<r iu round, oval, or irregular spores (conidia ?). Speira. Spores connate into concenhic

filaments, fovminpr laminse resembling a horseshoe, tinnlly separating. TriUJ>afossfroinn. Spores more or less curved, multiseptate, chained in beaded rows, finally separating. Gi/rocerus. Spores connate into spirally

afterwards branching freely, the minute branches being distributed to all parts of the body and anastomosing freely. By reflecti'd light they appear white, with a metallic lustre, or slightly iridescent l)y transmitted light the snuiller ones are black, the larger
cles,
;

coiled filaments, finally separating. Dicfi/osporium. Spores tongue-shaped, reticuliirlv cellular (fig. 172, p. 2(10). Sections of the crystals of this mineral, cut pnrallel to the axis, were formerly used as polarizers or analyzers. They are now usually replaced by Nicol's prisms (Introduction, p. xx). Crystals of the quiuiue-salt (Quinine) form cheap substitutes for either. The crystals of tourmaline belong to the rhombohedric system. They consist principally of silica with alumina, containing also boracic acid, magnesia, iron, &c. ; but their composition is not constant. Good tourmalines are transparent, brownish or pinkish ; the colourless ones do not

TOURMALINE.

usually of a violet tint. The tracheoe consist of two coats, between which lies a spiral fibre (PI. 34. fig. 17) in the larger trunks a second external envelope exists. The fibre becomes more slender and indistinct in the smaller tracheal branches, until it finally disappears. The outer membrane appears to arise from the confluence of cells for iu the tracheae of caterpillars and other larvae of insects, the remaining nuclei are visible (PI. 34. fig. 17). The inner coat forms a pavement epithelium. The spiral fibre arises from the splitting up of a homogeneous membrane deposited in the space bounded by the confluent cells of the outer membrane. In many insects the trachefe are furnished
; ;

with dilatations forming

the spiral fibre
is

polarize.

air-sacs, in which absent. AVhen larvae are fed with indigo or carmine, or when the dorsal vessel is injected with colouring-matter, the tracheae become

BiBL.

Pereira,

Polarized
.310.

Liff/tt;

Nau-

mann, Mineraloqie,

TOUS-LES-MOIS. kind of fecula consisting of the starch of species of Canna, remarkable for the large size, great transparency, and
(PI. 46. fig. 25).

numerous striae of the granules The mixture of any of the

kinds of starch Avith Tous-Ies-mois is readily detected by microscopic examiThe granules are excellent subnation. jects for studying the physical characters of starch, iu particular the appearance with See polarized light (PL 39. fig. 40), &c.

common

which some authors believe to from the nutritive liquid circulating between the membranes of the tracheae whilst by others this circulation, or the existence of a space between the tracheal membranes, is denied. BiBL. That of Insects Newport, Phil. Tr. 1836, 529; Platner, Miiller's Archiv,
coloured,
arise
;
;

1844, xxxviii.; Stein, Verr/l. Anat. Insekten; Agassiz, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xv. ; Bassy,
Joly. ibid. xii. Blanchard, Compt. Rend. 1851 Ann. N. II. 1852, ix. 74; DuBend. 1851, Ann. N. H. 1852, four, Compt. ix. 435; Meyer, Siebold S,- Kolliher's Zeitschr. i. 175 Moselev, Pi'oc. Roy. Soc. No. 153.
;
;

ibid.

Staech.

TOXONIDEA, Donkin. A proposed new genus of Diatomaceas, the fi'ustules of which resemble those of Fleurosir/mn, except that the longitudinal line is curved on each side of the median nodule in the same direction, Two species. so as to resemble a bow.
T. Grerioriana (PI. 51. fig. 24).

vol. xxii. 344, 1874 ; Gerstacker, SieboJd S,Kollikers Zeitschr. W. 204, 1874; Landois,
Zeit. iviss. Zool. xvii.

TRACHEA OF Plants. This name was formerly .applied to the unreliable Spiral Vessels of Plants, from their resemblance to the tracheaj of Insects.

BiBL. Donlrin, Micr. Jn. 1858, vi. 12 Rabenht. Ah/, i. 243. TRACHE'A. See Lungs. TRACHE'vE OF Insects, &c.The respiratorv tubes of Insects and Arachnida. PI. 35. fig. 2 h) Traclieffi (PI. 34. fig. 17
;

TRACIIELI'NA. family of Holotrichous Infusoria. Char. Body without regular spiral teeth or foot parenchyma excessively contrac;

tile

are cylindrical tubes containing air. They are broadest at their origin from the spira-

mouth and oesophagus very dilatable. BiBL. Clap. & Lachm. Inf. p. 291.
;

TRACHELIUS.

776

TRAGACANTH.

Synopsis of Genera.
/Anterior part of ^ body with a J conical appen-j terI dage.
I

Body more or less cylin- /Mouth on the summit of the appendage drical, moving by-^ Body

Mouth

rninal.

C
I

turning on axis. \ Mouth at its base flat, swims without turning on axis (f^n io, , /^Body attenuate infront No inter- J '-.:J^^^< Body not attenuate in '"" nal teeth. i front
V

teryn

Phialina.

Trachelophyllum . Enchelys.

No
[

Holophrya,
TJrotricha.

conical

apI

Leaping

cirri

w o <
Month not
terminal.

pendage.

I
'

Internal teeth

-/Body not attenuate in

\

Body attenuate in front Enchelyodon.

front

(Esophageal
teeth present.

No cirri A bundle A row of

.

j '(

Body never much flattened Body much flattened

Prorodon. Nasula.
Chilodon.

No oesophageal
teeth.

of cirri, simulating a foot spherical vesicles, each enclosing a very

Trichopvs.
Lojrodes.

refractive body e b

No
A

lateral

(A branched
1

intestine...
.

Trackelius.

No

vesicles

lamina.
tissue

branched intestine broad marginal lamina of compact

No

Ampkiieptus.
LoxophyllMin.

TRACHE'LirS, Ehrenb. A

geniLs of

Holotrichous Infusoria, fani. Tract elina. Char. Mouth situated at the base of the trunk-like prolongation, alimentary canal apparently branched. No row of spherical yesicles or lateral lamina.
T.

traversed by the light. spores of Algse.

They
;

are probably

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 47

Kent, Inf. 388.

TRACHELOPHYL'LUM, Clap. &Lach. A genus of Trachelina (Holotrichous Infusoria).

ovum (AmiihUei^tus omim,

Duj.), in

bog-water. Trachelius himella (PI. 32. fig. 5) is a Lo.xophyllmn. (Clap. & Lachm. Inf.
345.)

TEACIIELOCER'CA, Ehr. A
2'.

Char. Anteiior part of the body with a prolonged appendage, which has no circlet of cirri body flat, without a lateral marginal lobe. Swims without turning on its axis.
;

genus

Two

species

freshwater.

(Clap.

& Lachm.

of Holotrichous Infusoria =Zof7'?/wr2rt.

Inf 3U6.)

olor=^Laa'ymaria

olor.

TRACHYL'IA, Fr.A

T. m'ridis (PI. 31. fig. 33). Body green; neck as in the last; freshw. ; length 1-120".

lichen.s, parasitic

genus of Microon Pertusarice.

BrBL. Ehr. lif. 341 Clap. Inf. 295; Kent, Inf. 514.
;

& Lachm.

'TRACHELOM'ONAS, Ehr. A

genus
or

of Infusoria, family Ci-yptomonadina. Char. Body enclosed in a spherical

Char. Thallus granular ; apothecia cupuliform, sessile, black. Spores blackish, Three species, on old posts. 1-septate. (Lindsay, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 140 : Leighton, Lich. Fl 470

ovoid hard and brittle envelope, having a small aperture, from which a long flagelliform filament projects eye-spot present. Freshwater. T. vokocina (PL 30. fig. 24 d, empty en;

genus of Commelyuacese (Monocotyledons), commonly cultivated in gardens under the name These plants are celeof Spider-worts.
brated for having served as material for some of the most remarkable observations on the physiological processes of vegetables as the Rotation of the cell-contents, and the multiplication of the cells, so well seen in the hairs of the stamens when young

TRACH'YTE. See Rocks. TRADESCAN'TIA, L. A

Spherical, green, brownish, or red; eye-spot red; length 1-8G5". T. niyricans. Ovate-globose, green, blackish brown or reddish ; eye-spot brownish
velope).

length 1-1780".
T.
cylindrica.
;

bright green

Oblong-subcylindrical eye-spot red length 1-1000".

;

(PI. 47. figs.

vvc.

afi'ord

8 & 9). The stems, petioles, beautiful spiral, annular, and re-

Other

species.

ticulated vessels, kc.

The bodies represented in PI. 30. fig. 24 (h tor/), and which are commonly found in
bog-water, probably belong here, with the genera Chcetoyhnaici), Chcetotyjyhla (tig. 26), and Doxocoeciis (fig. 47). The margins of the red envelope appear as a bright red ring, on account of the greater thickness

TRAG'AOANTH.A gum derived from various .-species of Adrayalns, not con.^isting of a formless exudation, but of partty disorganized collenchymatous tissue which is extruded from the medullary raj's. It is
when
often used for fastening opaque objects, as, dry, its surface is duU, unlike gum-

TREBIUS.
arable.

777

TRICERATIU^r.

have some of the solution which has been kept twelve years in a corked bottle
with a piece of camphor, and
as if freshlv prepai-ed.
it is

We

as

good

TRE'BIUS, Krliyer. genus of Crustacea, order Siphonostoma, family Caligida). Cltar. Head in the form of a large buckler, with the large frontal plates destitule
of sucking-disks
;

form and unilocular, about l-2.')00" long and 1-5000'' in diameter, Spermatia have not been detected. In Dacryimjces the basidia are represented by simple clavate or bifurcate branches at the hymenial surface, these terminating in
points bearing single reuiform spores exIn hibiting three septa (quadrilocular). germination some of these spores produce a long filament from each loculus ; others behave difierently, producing the spermatia of the plant, each loculus sending out a short pointed process bearing a globular cellule exactly resembling the spermatia of Other examples of Dacrijmyees Tremella. bear a different kmd of reproductive bodies, apparently representing conidia. In these the peripheral filaments terminate in a mass of many-j ointed Torula-Wke processes, which ultimately break up into the separate joints,

thorax three-jointed, seg;

ments uncovered legs four pairs, with long plumose hairs, fourth pair slender and twobranched; autennfe small, Hat, and twojointed; second pair of foot- jaws twojointed, and not in the form of a suckingdisk.
T. caudutiis.

the skate.
female.

Found upon the body of Male much smaller than the

;

BiBL. Baird, Entomostraca, 280

son,

Thomp-

TREMATO'DA. An
containing the tiukes.

Ann. N. H. 1847, xx. 248.

order of Entozoa, See Distoma.

(See Dacbymyces.) BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl.

ii,

family of Hymenomycetous Fungi, consisting of polymorphous, often convoluted or lobed, more or

gelatinous masses, growing upon branches or stumps of trees, in crevices of the bark, or on the dead wood. The hymenium extends over the whole of the upper exposed surface, and, from the recent researches of Tulasne, appears to present The gelatinous remarkable characters. substance of these Fungi is composed of ramified filaments, with more or less effused In Tremella a mucilage between them. portion of the filaments terminate at the surface at fu"st in expanded globular cells (PI. 27. figs. 3, 4), which Ijecome divided by vertical septa into fom' somewhat pyriform cells (bastdia) ; fi'om each of these arises a slender filament {stengma\ which terminates in a slender point tipped with a globular spore (^stylospore or basidiospore) Other filaments coming to the surface in like manner ramify extensively, with short
.

TREMELLI'NI. A

pt, 2,

215
;

Ann.

406, pi. 15. fig. 4 Tulasne, Ami. Sc. Nat. S. xix. 193, pis. 10-12. TRENTErOH'LIA, Mart. CJianiran2. xiii.

N. H.

less

si'a

TREPOM'ONAS, Duj.A
gellate Infusoria, family

and Chroolepus

sp.

Char.

Body

genus of FlaMonadina. compressed, thicker and

rounded behind, twisted in front into two narrowed lobes, Avhich are inflexed laterally, and each terminated by a flagelliform filament, which produces a very lively rotatory and jerking motion.
T.
ar/ilis

(PI. 32. fig, 6).

Body

granular,
;

unequal; length 1-1100". In decomposing marsh-water. (Dujardin, Infus. 294 Kent,

Inf. 300.)

TRIAR'THRA, Ehr. A
Char.
;

genus of Rota;

toria, of the

famdy Hydatinsea.

styliform
deutate.

foot simply Eyes two, fi-outal body with lateral cirri or fins, ^lovement jerking. Jaws two; each bi-

divergent branches, finally bearing numerous minute globular bodies (sjjermatia), solitary or in groups of four, which, hke the basidiospores,f all ofl'and rest on the hymenial surface, involved in jelly, but, imlike those, do not germinate. The basidiospores are about 1-.3000" in diameter, the spermatia about 1-12000". In Tremella mesenterica the surface covered with basidiospores assumes a whitish colour, the layers of spermatia and the jelly are orange. In Exidia the production of the basidiospores is similar but the spores are reni;

T. longiseta (PI. 44. fig. 30). Eyes distant, ciiTi and foot nearly three times as long as the body length 1-216",
;

Eyes approximate cirri and foot scarcely twice as long as the body,
;

T. mydacina.'

T. breviseta (Gosse),

Cirri

much

shorter

than the body. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 446 Gosse, Ann. N. H. 1851, viii. 200; Pi-itchard, Infiis. TRICERA'TIUM, Ehr. genus of Diatomacefe. Char. Frustules free valves triangulai", areolar, each angle mostly with a minute
;

tooth or short horn.

TRICHIA.
T.fams
;

778

TEICHINA.

(PI. 17. fig. 29).

Valves plane

or convex, angles obtuse, with horn-like processes areola hexagonal ; marine ; diameter 1-240' '. T. alternans. Angles of valves slightly elevated ; areolfe circular marine. T. striolatumi?). Angles subacute; areolation faint ; brackish water.
;

pvriform, turbinate, or of some analogous form. The elaters (PI. 40. figs. 39 & 40) are interesting objects, and form good tests for the defining-power of the microscope

BrBL. Ehr. Ber. Bed. Ak. 1840 Smith, Br. Diat. i. 26 Kiitz. Baeill. 138, and Sp. Alff. 139 Brightwell, Micr. Jn. 1858, 158; Rabenht. Ah/, i. 315,
; ;

under very high powers. They must be mounted in a verv thin stratum of liquid. EiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 319 Ann. N. H. vi. 432, 2. v. 367 Fries, Syst. Myc. iii. 182 Sum. Veg. 457 Greville, Crxipt. Fl. pis. 266, 281 Henfrey, Linn. Tr. xxi. 221 Currev, Mic. Jn. iii, 15, v. 127.
; ; ;

genus of Myxoniycetes (Gasteromycetous Fungi) gTowiug upon rotten wood '&c., characterized by a
stalked or sessile, simple, membranous peridium, which bursts at the summit, whence the densely interwoven free capillitium expands elasticaUy, carrying with it the spores. The capillitium is composed of tubular fila-

TRICHIA, HaD. A

TPJCHtNA, Owen. A

genus of Ne-

matoid Eutozoa.
T. spiralis (PI. 21. figs. 16,^7, 18), as ordinarily seen, inhabits the human body, forming opaque white specks, visible to the naked eye, in the voluntary muscles. The worms usually exist singly within a cyst situ-

ments

{elaters), containing spiral-fibrous secondary deposits, like the elaters of Marchantia (PL 40. fig. 39). In some species the elaters bear numerous little spinidose

ated between the muscular bundles (fig. 16). of the cyst is a group of fatceUs resembhng those of ordinary tatty tisThe cysts are about 1-50" in length, sue.

At each end

processes.

The genus

is divisible

into

two

In the first {Hemiarci/ria) the groups. dehiscence of the peridium is obscurely circumscissile (fig. 760), the capillitium dense these are always stalked, usually of reddish colour when young. Some species have the
;

elliptical or oval, usually narrowed and slightly produced at the obtuse ends, and consist of numerous structureless laminae, in which are frequently imbedded minute

peridia fasciculate on a compound peduncle In the other (fig. 760), others separate. division ( Goniosjwra) the dehiscence of the

peridium is irregular, the capillitium lax, the peduncle short or absent, the colour at
Fig, 760.

Trichia rubifonnis.

Maguifled 25 diameters.

whitish, changing to yellow, and the In 2\ serpnla and spores rather angular. reticulata the sessile peridia are irregular, flexuous, serpentine or annular bodies in most of the other species the peridia are
first
;

granules consisting of fatty or calcareous matter. The worm is cylindrical, narrowed towards the anterior end, the posterior end being obtuse and rounded. The integument is transversely striated or annular, and exhibits an anterior and a posterior longitudinal muscular band. The mouth (fig. 17 a) is situated at the anterior extremity, from which a small papilla is sometimes protruded. The first part of the alimentary canal is very narrow, and leads to a broader sacculated portion; this behind the commencement of the posterior half of the body terminates in a funnel-shaped expansion (fig. 18 c), the remainder of the canal being narrow and lined with pavement epithelium The manner in which the pos(fig. 18 d). terior end of the alimentary canal terminates is doubtful whether directly continuous with the anal orifice, or free in the abdominal cavity. Luschka describes tliree valves as existing at the posterior end of the body. At the commencement of the funnel-shaped portion of the alimentary canal (fig. 16 ft) are two rounded glandular sacs. The reproductive organs are not well known, .lust below the funnel-shaped portion of the alimentary canal is the ctecal origin of a tubular .sac (figs. 17 & 18 c), containing a dark granular-looking body (fig. 17 d\ fig.

IS e) near its commencement this extends to the posterior end of the worm, where it either terminates in^ the anus or in the
;

TRICHOCEPIIALUS.
abdoiiiinal
aj(

779

TRICHODACTYLUS.

cavity.

Luschlia regards this

the male orj^-aii, and the dark-looking body as the testis; but no spermatozoa have been detected. Some of the cysts and worms are found
in a state of fatty degeneration, with granides or globules of fat, and calcareous

rest of the posterior portion containing the intestine and the reproductive organs. Anus situated at the posterior obtuse end of the

matter. Trichina is admitted to the human body with the food. It exists iu two different In one it is sexually immature; conditions. and it then inhabits the muscles, of the pig or rabbit for instance, in vast numbers, each worm being coiled up in its capsule or cyst. It is incapable of further development under But if a portion of these circumstances. the muscle be eaten by a warm-blooded vertebrate animal and so introduced into the alimentary canal, the immediate development of young TrichincB is the result. The immature worms escape from the cysts, grow larger, develop sexual organs, and produce viviparously a numerous progeny. The young Trichiiice thus produced perforate the waUs of the digestive system, and after working into the muscles become
encysted.
Tt is important that every one should

body. Integument transversely striated, and with a longitudinal band studded with Oviduct termipapilL-B (PI. 21. fig. 20). nating at the point of junction of the two portions of the body ova (fig. 21 ) oblong, covered by a resistant shell, with a short neck at each end. BiBL. That of Entozoa. TRICHOCO'LEA, Nees. genus of JungermanniefB (Hepaticse), containing one
;

British species, T. {Jung.) tvmentella, growing in moist places in the Avest and north of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It is remarkable for the character of the leaves, which are cut up into compound capillary segments, giving the plant a spongy texture.

Colour pale. BiBL. Hook. Brit. Fl.

Jung.
fig.

ii.

pt. 1.

127

Br.
6.

pi.
;

49

Ekart, Si/nops, Jung. Endlicher, Gen. Plant. Supp.

;

.36

pi. 1. no.

472, 15.

TRICHO'DA, Mull. Agenus

chous Infusoria.

ofPIolotri-

know

the appearance of meat infected with this worm, as it produces serious disease, and even death. It is stated that 8 per cent. of the slaughtered American pigs contain

Char. Free, ovate or club-shaped, truncate in front ; mouth anterior, with a lip or vibratile membrane ; cilia very fine, oral
larger. T. pur a,

have been described. BiBL. Owen, Zool. Tr. i. .315: Luschka, SieboM ^- Koll. Zeitschr. iii. 69; Bristowe and Raiuey, Tr. Path. Soc. v. 274; Duj. Jlelminthes, 29.3 Herbst, Ann. Sc. Nat. .3. xvii.; Kobelt, Valentin s Rep. 1841 Leuckart,Pa?-. ; Bakodv, Sieh. ^- Koll. Zeit. 1872, 422 VirchoWj'Qu. Mic. Jn. 1861, 44; Cobbold, and the Bibl. of Entozoa. Parasit. 149
;

Trichince. Three or four other doubtful species

iu oblong attenuate in front putrid infusions, of haj^ &c. length 1-720". T. carnium, in putrid- flesh water. T.pyrum.^ in pond water. T. angvlata, I)uj. (PI. 32. fig. 7), oblong, obliquely and irregularly folded or angular, with one or more superficial vacuoles ; freshwater; length 1-700". BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 306 Duj. Inf. 395.
;

TRICHOCEPH'ALUS,Goeze.Agenus
Nematoid Entozoa. Char. Body elongate, composed of two parts, the anterior longer and capillary, the posterior becoming suddenly broader spiculum of male simple, long, and surrounded by a sheath. ' The species occur in the large intestine, principally the caecum of man and the mammalia. T. dispar (PI. 21. %. 19, the male; fig. 21, the female). Anterior portion of the body, spiral in the male, containing the oesophagus only, or the fii'st moniliform portion of the intestine ;
of
;

Dufour. A genus of Acarea (Acarina). Rostrum short, with minute setae fourth pair of legs longer than the rest, without claws, but terminated by a verj' long seta. T. Osmice. Glabrous, pale red, with two marginal setae on each side legs and pos-

TRICHODACTYLUS,

terior part of the body darker length l-oO' '. T. Osnii(e, on an Osmia ; T. Xylocopce, on
;

another species in hornets' nests. unites the three genera. Hypopus, Trichodactylus, and Homopus into a family, Ilypopidae while Megnin declares them to be the nymphae of Acarea. In all, the hinder pair of legs is rudimen-

Xylocope

Murray

tary, hairs replacing claws. iJiBL. Dufour, Ami. Sc. Nat. 2. xi.

276
2i^Q

Gervais,

Walchcnaer'' s
;

Apteres,

iii.

Murray, Ec, Ent.251

Megnin, Paras. 146.

TRICHODECTES.

780

TRICHOGASTRES.
3.
2.
ii.

TRICHODECTES,

Nitzscb.A genus

papers in the Ann. Sc. Nat.

332,

of riiilopteridse (Anoplura). Char. Antennae filiform, three-jointed; maxillary palpi none or inconspicuous mandibles two-tootbed tarsi with one law.
; ;

202 4. i. 81 Ami. N. Rabenht. Ah/, ii. IGl.

vi.
; ;

II.

xix.

431

TRICHODI'NA, Ehr. A genus

of Peri-

(PL pale bead and tborax ferruginous yelfulvous low bead subquadrate, witb two l^lack spots in front, and a black lateral band on eacb
;
;

T. latus

36. fig. 6).

Abdomen

trichous Infusoria, family Vorticellina. Char. No tail, nor pedicle; cilia absent from the surface of the conical or discoidal body, but forming a frontal crown or a tuft ;
oral orifice not spiral. T. pedicultis ( Ureeolaria stellina, D.) (PI. 31. fig. 16). Body discoidal, the imder and

side

abdomen

oval.

Common
Other

upon dogs, especially puppies.

species, upon cattle, the horse, ass, deer, sheep, cat, &c.

BiBL. Denny, Anoplur. 186; Ec. Ent. 383 Mt^guin, Paras. 80.
;

Murray,

TRICHODER'MA,

Pers.A genus of

Fungi, placed by Fries among the Gasteromycetes. The plants are characterized by a romidish peridium composed of inter-

woven, ramified, septate filaments, evanescent at the summit

;

upper surfaces each with a crown of cilia. Parasitic upon Hydra vulyaris and viridis. Breadth 1-575 to 1-200". On the under sm-face is an annular imdulatory membrane ; and within and at the base of this is a horny ring, with an outer and an inner row of teeth, forming an organ of adhesion. T. mitra. Parasitic upon Planaria torva. T. grandhiella and T. vorax, on Halteiina.
T. tentaculata.

the

spores minute,

Body

discoidal, cilia large,

heaped together, at first conglobated. T. viride, growing on fallen trees, has a white villous peridium, and dusky-green globose

forming a tuft
process present
;

a styliform, tentacle-like diam. 1-290".

The peridia appear as scattered It spots 1-20 to 1-8" or more in diameter. is a conidiiferous state of Hypocrea rtifa. BiBL. Berk, Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 323;'Greville, C^-ypt. Fl. pi. 271 ; Fries, Sum. Vey. 417.
spores.

BiBL. Ehrenberg, Inf. 265; Dujardin, Siebold, Siebold vnd Kdlliker's Inf. 527 Zeitschr. ii. 361 ; Stein, Inf. 174 Claparede & Lachmann, Inf. 128 Ivent, Lif. 647.
; ;

TRICHODES'MIUM, Ehrenb. A genus

A genus
conical
;

TRICHODINOP'SIS,

CI.

audLachm.

of Heterotrichous Infusoria. Free, an anterior oral ring of cilia, and

of microscopic Alga?, apparently belonging to the Nostoehaceae, discovered by Ehrenberg to produce the red colour over large tracts in the Red Sea, and found also in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by Darwin and Hinds, and in the Chinese Sea. No vesicular cells or spermatic cells have been dehence the characters are as yet tected imperfect. Montague has separated the plant of Hinds from Ehrenberg's and Kiitziug characterizes two species in his Sjt. Alf/amm, and figures them in his Tahnlfe but neither the figures nor the Flnjcoloijkxe descriptions indicate any very marked dift'e; ;
;

a posterior suctorial disk. T. paradoxa, in the mucous cavities of Cyclostoma. (Clap. & Eachm. Inf 133 Kent, Inf. 614.)
;

genus of Rhizopoda, family Actinophryina, D.

Char. Body depressed, stalkless setaceous tentacles forming a simple row at the margin of the bodv.
;

TRICHODIS'CUS, Ehr. A

T. sol (PI. 32.

fig":

8).

hyahne or yellowish,

Body suborbicular, tentacles variable;

rences.

T. Ehrenherfjii, Montagne. Blood-red (at bundles widish, length becoming green) confluent tilaments 1-3000" in diameter, Found joints about twice as wide as long. floating in vast strata in the Red Sea by Ehrenberg and Dupont, and in the Yellow
;
;

diameter 1-432 to 1-216". BiBL. Ehr. Inf 304. TRICHOGAS'TER, Sterki. Agenus ol Hypotrichous Infusoria. Free, ovate, ventral surface ciliated, a few larger cilia in front and behind. T. jnlosns, freshwater. Kent. Inf. (Sterki, Zeits. iviss. Zool. 1878
;

764.)

TRICHOGAS 'TRES {Puff-halls). K fa-

Sea (China).
T.
Hinclsii.

Blood-red, with a strong

longish,

odour;

bundles

slender;

joints

twice or thrice as broad as long, transversely granulated. See also on the species, and on the red coloration of the sea by plants, Montague's

mily of Gasteromycetous Fungi, characterized by the contents of the leathery peridium breaking up when mature into a pulverulent mass of spores and filaments, without a central column, the whole being expelled by the bursting of the case .(see GastkuomyCETES). BiBL. Berkley, Ann. N. H.
lasne,
iv.

155; Tu-

Ann.

Sc,

N,

2. xvii. I.

TRIOHOMANES.

781
of

TRICHORMUS.
T. /drsuta; h-eshwatev.

Ilyuiouophyllaceous Ferus, of elegaut aud

delicate uabit.

TRTCirOM'ANES,^ Linn. A genus

cilia.

(Kent, Inf.

409.)

TRICHONYM'PHA,
Fig 762.

Leidy. A genus

Fig. 761.

of Ilolotrichous Infusoria. 7\ Of/i/is, in the intestine of the American white ant. (Leidy, Pi'oc. Ac. Philadvlphia, 1881 ; Kent,
Inf. 533.)

TRIOHOPH'RYA,
genus
of Acinetina.

01.

& Lachm. A

Like PodojjJtrya, but

fixed without a pedicle ; tentacles in scattered bundles; vesicles numerous; nucleus band-like. Two species on the stalk of
;

EinstyHs
(CI.

& TRICHOPH'YTON.
TRIC'HOPUS,

aud on Entomostraca. Lachm. Inf. 386; Kent, //. 811.)

pliccdilis,

See P.vbasites.

Clap.

& Each.A

genua

Trichomanes alatum.
pinnule. Magnified 5 diameters. Pig. 7(52. Section through a sorus, showing the vein prolonged as a columella, and continued out beyond the border. Magnified 25 diameters.
Fig. 761.

of Hypotrichous Infusoria. Char. Body depressed, with a bundle of long ventral cirri near the posterior end of the body a tuft of caudal cilia, and a group of pharjTigeal teeth. T. dysteria marine. (Claparede & Lach;

mann.

Fig. 763.

sjiorange, with horizontal anuulus.

Magnified 100

diameters.

T. hrevisetum Many species ; tropical. (Hooker, Syn. 79.) {radicans), British.

TRICHOM'ONAS, Donne. A

genus of

Flagellate Infusoria. Char. Free, soft, ovate, with

and

anterior one posterior flagella, and a dentate

two

lateral undulating membrane ; no mouth. T. batrachorum, in the intestine of frog

and toad.
tinous,

{Anahcena, Bory, Bre.tc.). genus of Nostochacese (Confervoid Algse), growon wet earth, and rising to the surface of ing lakes, brackish ditches, &c., forming an indeterminate stratimi, at first nearly colourless aud transparent, with the filaments sparingly scattered through the mass; the filaments afterwards increasing rapidly in number, causing the mass to become opaque deep bluish green, and occasionally mottled with brown, especially beneath. Filaments mostly short and moniliform. Cells more or less globular the spermatic cells resembling tlie ordinary cells more in this than in the allied genera. The filaments closely resemble those of Nostoc and some of the floating aquatic species can only be distinguished from that genus by the absence of definite form or size, and of the hardened
bisson, Kiitzing,

TRICHOR'MUS

Inf. 338.)

Montague,

Body glu(PI. 32. fig. 9). nodular, unequal, frec[uently becoming agglutinated to other objects; movement vacillating length 1-2500". Found
T. vcujinalis
;

in

morbid vaginal mucus.

T. limacis (PI. 32.
fig.

10).

Body
its

ovoid,

smooth, pointed at each end; movement

forwards, by length 1-1600".
revolution

from Dolichos])cnnmn aud from Sphterozyya and Cylindrospermiim in the arrangement of its vesicular and spermatic cells, which are in Trichormus separated by ordinary ceUs. In PI. 8. fig. 2, we have represented what appears to be a new
peridenn.
It differs

in the globular shape of its sporangia,

Found

axis ; upon in the intestine of

species. T. Jlo&-aqu<s.
ciu'ved,

Limax
308.

agrestis.
Infiis.

Filaments flexuous or moniliforn\; cells orbicular, vesi-

BiBL. Dujardin,

299; Kent, Bif.

genus
of

TRICHONE'MA, From.A

Free, ovate, CUio-Flagellate Infusoria. variable ; flagellum single; body with short

cular ones larger, terminal aud interstitial. Anor Ralfs, Ann. N. H. 2. v. pi. 8. fig. 2. baina Jl.-aq., Kiitz. S^). Ah/. ; Trichormus incurvatus, AUman, Ann. N. H. xi. 163; HassaU, AUjce, pi. 75. Rising to the surface

TRICHOSPH^RA.

782

TRINACEIA.

of stagnant pools or other still waters, in gelatinous bluish or green masses. T. spiralis. Filaments coiled or spiral vesicular and spermatic cells orbicular.
;

The Tricho' curling even in this genus. stoma grow on the ground and on stones.

TPJCHOTHE'CIUM,
rium, ejusd.).

A genus ofLink (DiplospoMucedines (Hy-

Ralfs,
ralis,

I.

c.

pi. 8. fig.

(?).

Anahaina
;

spi-

phomycetous Fungi), growing upon dead

sticks, herbaceous parts of plants, &c., forming a cajspitose entangled mycelium, from which arise erect fertile filaments, bearing at the summit a few acrogenous, free, didymous From some observations recently spores. published by Hoifmann, and confirmed by Bail, the spores of T. roseum, when they germinate, produce a mycelium whence arise fertile filaments of Verticillium ru" " berrimum, the spores of which they conconsider to be the spermatia of this sequently Several species are British, as T. plant. roseum, obovatuni {IJactylium, Berk.). BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 348 Ann. N. H. vi. 437, pi. 14 Greville, Crgpt. Fl.
:
;

Thompson, Ann. N.
Thompsoni,
Thivaitesii.
;

lum
T,

81 SpirilHassall, Br. Fr. Algce,

II. t.

pi. 75.

Filaments moniliform, ordinary cells globular or nearly so vesicular cells larger, globular when interstitial, ovate when terminal, ciliated; sporangia oval, catenate. Ralfs, I. c. pi. 8. Salt marshes, forming thin, gelafig. 4. tinous dark-green patches, on damp soil or the bottom of ditches, then floating and
flexuous
;

elongate, flexuous; ordinary joints subquadrate vesicular cells barrel-shaped or elliptic, naked ; spermatic cells oval, catenate. Ralfs, /. c, Bluish green, in brackish pi. 8. fig. 5.
;

abounding in spermatic cells. T. oscillarioides. Filaments

pi.

172

Fries,
xii.

Bot. Zeit.

ditches.
T.
rectus.

TRICHY'DRA, Wright.A

Sum. Veg. 492 Hoffmann, 249 Bail, ibid. xiii. 673.

;

genus of
cells

Filaments
I.

bright

green,

straight.

Ralfs,

c.

BiBL. Ralfs, Ann. N. H. Rabenht. Ah/, ii. 293.

of Rotifera.
T.

pi. 8. fig. 6 ; in pools. 2. v. pi. 8;

Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Stem creeping, branched;

TRICHOSPH.E'RA, Semper.A
;

genus

rudimentary, consisting of very short tubular processes at intervals on the creeping stem ; poh-pes cyhndrical, very slender and extensile,

cEquatorialis is spherical,

the rotatory organ consisting of an equatorial zone of cilia found among worms, infusoria, &c. in the rice-field ditches of Zamboanga; diameter 1-36." (Semper, <SVc6. 8i Koll. Zeitschr. 1875, Mn. M. Jn. xiv. 237.) TRICHOSPO'RIUM, Fr. genus of

dica, marine,

with a short conical proboscis. T. puon shells &c. (Hincks, Ili/d.

Zooph. 215.)

TRILOCULI'NA, D'Orb.A

subgenus

Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi), nearly allied to Botrytis, characterized by a ctespitose mycelium, whence arise fertile continuous filaments, bearing solitary, simple,
acrogenous spores.
cliuni

of Miliola, with the chambers aggregated on three opposite faces, embracing, three only apparent. Many species, both recent and fossil.

M.

(Tr.) trigomda (PI. 23. fig. 4). BiBL. Williamson, Bee. Brit. For. 84
;

(Miliolina)

niffrum,

T. Fries

nigrum= SporotriFig. 764.

TRIMAS'TIX, Kt.A genus

Carpenter, For. 78.

of

Fla-

(Syst. Mt/c), Botrytis nigra, Link. BiBL. Fries, Sum. Veg. 492 Grev. Crypt. Fl. pi. 274.
;

Free, ovate, with a lateral membranous border; flagella three, anteone directed forwards, the others rior,
gellate Infusoria.
trailing.

T. marina.

plants
p.

Li salt water with decaying length 1-1400". (Kent, Inf. 312.)

TRICHOS'TOMUM,
Hedw.

genus

of

TRIMxMATOSTRO'MA, Corda (fig. 759, An obscure genus of Toru774).

Pottiaceous Mosses, so called from the hairlike peristome,

resemof

lacei (Coniomycetous Fungi), perhaps founded on the spores of Phragmatotrichum. (Corda, Icon. Fries, Sum. Vea.
;

bling

closely that
(

475.)

Barbula
but

Tortilla),
J'^uJ^'

TRINA'CRIA, Heib. A genus

of Dia-

with

straight twi.sted; in

the teeth instead of

T.

rigidu-

Tnchostomumrigiduh.m. Fragment of the ikti-

tomacese. Char. Frustules with

there

lum, however (fig. 764), stome with filiform teeth, exists a slight Magnified lOO diameters.

three broad, bispined, equal-lengthed processes, margin Danube. pearly, angles naked. BiBL. Rabenht. Alg. i. 317.

TRINEMA.
TRIXE'MA, Duj. A

783

TRITON.

genus of Rliizo-

poda, family Actiuophryina. Char. Carapace menibranous, diaphanous,

elong-ate-ovoia, naiTower iu front, with a large oblique lateral oritice ; expansions two

TRIPOSPO'RIUM, Corda. A genus of Dematiei (liyphomycetous Fungi), characterized by the three-lobed septate spores. T. elegans (fig. 766) has been found in this

or three, tiliform, very slender, as long as the carapace. T. acinus=Difflugia enchelys, E. (PI. 32. In Dujardiu's tigure the fig. 11, after Ehr. expansions are represented as much more
slender.)

Fig. 766.

BiBL. Duj. Inf. 249; Clap.

455.

&

Each. Inf.
pt.

TRIXO'TON,

^iizsQ]i=^Liotheum

TRIOPHTHAL'MUS, Ehr.A

genus of

Rotatoria, of the family Hydatina^a. Char. Eyes three, red, cervical, in a transfoot forked; jaws verse row; singletoothed.
T. dorsalis (PI. 44.
talline, turgid,
fig.

31).

Body

crysTriposporium elegans. Magnified 200 diameters.

foot, which is Length 1-48

suddenly attenuated at the half the length of the bodv.

to

1-36".

(Ehrenberg, Inf.
of

450.)

TRIPHRAG'MIUM, Link.A genus

(Hypodermous FunFicr.

L^redinei

gi), distinguished

by their triT. locular spores (fig. 765). uhnarice ( Uredo tdmarice, Brit. Fl.) grows upon the leaves of

765.

country on bare oak-trunks. Another species, T. Gardneri, forms a blight in the co ffee plantations of Ceylon. BiBL. Berk. Ami. N. H. 2. vii. 98 ; Hortic.
Jn.
iv. 8.

TRITAXTA,
(Reuss,
Sitz.

Reuss.

See Textularia.
xliv. 383.)

Spircea uhnaria, forming orange, subsequently blackish, effused I" patches, bursting from beneath v the epidermis. Tulasne has "ulmarS!* shown that it possesses all three A pedicellate forms of reproductive structure jiagi^-gei 350 of the L'redinei, A'iz. 1. spermodiameters, with spermatia 2. Uredogonia
.

TRITICEL'LA, Dalyell. a genus of Ctenostomatous Polyzoa. Cells moveable no gizzard. Three species. (Hincks, Polyz.
;

Ak. Wien,

542.)

TRI'TON, Laur. (water-newt). A genus

(fig.

of Reptiles. If a male and female T. cristatus

767),

fi-uits, with ellipsoid or globose stylospores ; and 3. perfect fruits, arising either among the stylospores or in special sori, containing each stipitate three-lobed spores (fig. 765), lobe of which is unilocular and exhibits a single pore in its black tubercular outer coat. The last germinate in the spring, and produce from each pore a tubular filament which becomes divided into fom- or five chambers, from three or four of which arise

one of the

common

water-newts, be kept in

single styliform processes (sterigmata), each

bearing a small smooth spherical sporidium. The globular stylospores also germinate (in the first summer), but produce only a longfiliform process, probably the rudiment of a

new mvcelium.

(See Ueedinei.) BiBL. Berk. Br. Ft. ii. pt. 2.368; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. ii. 181, pi. 10; Fries, Sum. Veq. 513 Currev, Micr. Jn. v. 126.
;

a glass jar with healthy water-plants, they will lay their eggs upon them. The larvae are veiy beautiful microscopic objects for showing the circulation in the gills and tail, the chorda dorsalis and the embryonic tissues; they should be kept in a vessel otherwise these separate from the parents
;

will

devour them.

TRIPLO'CERAS, B&=Docidium

sp.

The injected skin of T.pahisfris, the large water-newt, forms a beautiful opaque object, showing the loose capillary network, which

TROCHAMMINA.
skin.

784

TRYPANOSOMA.

contrasts well with the brilliantly mottled

TROCHAM'MINA,
; ;

BiBL. Bell, British Reptiles. Parker and Jones. variable geuiis of Arenaceous Foramini-

two on each side. Length 1-12". Found in ditches amongst plonts and stones. T. autumnale (PI. 6. fig. 38) (Leptus autumn.).

The

very near Lituola shell opaque, sandy, moniliform, serpentine, folded, discoidal, or subnautUoid and rotalioid segmentation mostly obsolete except in the
fera,

known arachnidan insinuates itself into the human skin in autumn, causing troublesome
It is found ou plants and the of corn-fields, and may easily be caught by tying a white pocket-hauclkerchief around the legs, and walking through
irritation.

harvest-bug.

This

well-

smooth

stubble

Very many species or varieties, recent and fossil. The discoidal forms constitute Tr. incerta, PI. 28. Reuss's Ammodiscus.
last.
fig.

stubble-fields.

The young form with

six

14.

legs is most frequent^ met with. T. aurantiacum, on the black \iQ?mAphis.

BiBL. Parker and Jones, Q. J, Geol. Soc, xvi. 304 Ann. N. H. 4. iv. 386 ; Carpenter,
;

Other
T.

species.

For. 141.

TROOHIL'IA, Dnj.A genus

of

Hypo-

{Atoma) parasiticum, on the house-fly. Other species. BiBL. Duges, Ann. Sc. N. 2. i. 36 Ger;

trichous Infusoria, family Ervilina. Char. Body irregularly oval, narrower in front, where there are some ciHa ; carapace

obliquely furrowed, slightly twisted, and terminated behind by a moveable pedicle. T. sigmoides (PI. 32. fig. 13) fig. 12 represents the animal undergoing transverse Two otlier species. division marine. TROMBIDI'NA. family of Acarina. Char. Palpi vAth the last joint obtuse, the last but one unguicidate, the second
; ;

Walck. Apteres, iii. 178 Johnston, Tr. Berwick. Nat. Club, 1847, 221 Koch, Deutschl. Crust. Myriap. i>;c. Murray, Ee. Ent. 128. subTRUNCATULI'NA, D'Orb. genus of Planorhtdina. Shell discoidal, plano-convex, thick or thin, lobular or neat, adherent by the flat face orifice slit-like, slightly apparent above and continued bevais,
;
; :

neath, along tlie line of suture, as far as the second or third chambers.
lohatula

very large legs for walking, with two eyes usually latero-anterior. Principal genera Anystis, Cheyletus, Megamerus, Pachygnathus, Haphignathxis Rhyticholophus, Smaris, Tetranychits, and Tromhidium.
;

claAvs

Man)' recent and fossil species. PI. (Tr.) (PL 24. fig. 9); very common,
;

attached to sea-weeds.
penter,

BiBL. Williamson, Rec. For. 60 CarForam. 207 Parker & Jones, Phil.
;

Trans,

civ. 381.

TROMBIDTUM,
;

Latr. A
;

genus

of

Trombidina (Arachnida).
mandibles unChar. Palpi large, free body turgid, bearing the four guiculate and an anterior narroAv posterior legs, moveable prominence, upon which the eyes, the four anterior legs, and the mouth are situated anterior legs longest legs seven; ;

TRYBLIONEL'LA, Smith. genus of Diatomacese. Char, Frustules free, linear or elliptical in front view valves plane, with parallel
;

transverse (tubular ?) or obsolete alfe.

strife,

and submarginal

jointed.

The species are nimierous, characterized.

T. phalangii (PI.
(J.

and not well

In some a median line is present, in others not. The, alfe are not marginal, as in Surirella, but arise from the surface of the valves, as shown by the diagram of a transverse section in PI. 17. fig. 32.

fig.
;

37).

Body

sub-

T.sctdellum

(PL

17. fig.

30).

Valves

triangular, angles obtuse

;

of a velvety appearance, from the presence of numerous plumose hairs eyes two, placed upon auricular appendages. An external parasite of Phalangium (the
harvest-spider) and insects, at least in its early hexapodous stage. T. eliDtgatum. Crimson eyes approxi;

elliptical, with a median longitudinal line; alae very short ; striae faint ; marine ; length

1-140".
T. gracilis
linear,

(PL 17. fig. 31). Frustules narrowed at the ends valves linear,
; ; ;

mate.

Found under

stones.
fig.

acuminate, strite coarse alje distinct fresh and brackish water length 1-200". Four other species. BiBL. Smith, Brit. Diatom, i. 35; Rabenh.
;

T. cinereum (PI. 6.
phits ciner., l^ug.).

40) (Rhynchoh;

Alg.

i.

347.

Body with brown and

;

TRYPANOSO'MA, Gruby. A

genus
;

greyish-white spots

hairs spathidate

eyes

of Flagellate Infusoria.

Free, compressed

TUBER.
;

785

TUBERCULAKIA.
;

one side thin, undulating, frill-like anteriorly produced into a long ilagellate appendage no nioulh.
;

T.

sa>i(/ id Ill's,

in

frog's

blood,

length
;

interior of which the peridia are developed as these advance, the villous coats gradually vanish, together with the mycelial structure, and the mature peridia appear free, either

1-600"; f. Eberfhi, in the intestines of poultry. (Grubv, Covipt. Rend. 1843 Kent,
Inf. 2l8.^

a little beneath (Tuber cibarium) or upon the surface {T. album) of the soil (see also

Elaphomyces).
See Tuberacei.
family of Ascomyce-

"TUBER, Mich.

TUBERA'CEI.A

tous Fungi, growing underground or upon the siu'face, of more or less round form, and solid, fleshy texture, excavated with sinuous cavities liied by asci containing usually four or eight spores, elegantly reticidated or spinulose (figs. 768-770). The internal
Fig. 768.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 227; Tulasne, Sc. Nat. 2. xvi. o Monog. Fumj. HijAnn, N. H. 2. viii. 19 Lespo(jcBi, 1851 piault, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. ii. 316 ; Vittadini,

Ann.

Lycopocl., Mem. 145. or Tubercitlar jiatter. Tubercle consists of lymphatic corpuscles contained in the meshes of a very delicate reticulum, or a transparent homogeneous The cells vai-j^ in tissue (PL 38. fig. 8). size, and many contain a small distinct In addition to these, there are a nucleus. few larger cells containing two or even three nuclei. The nucleated cells are exceedingly destructible, so that often more fi'ee nuclei than ceUs are visible. In most cases the tubercle appears to consist entirely of closely crowded nuclei or so-called tubercle-corpuscles (PI. 38. fig. 9 a), about 1-5000 to 1-4000" in size, oblong-angular, and unaffected or simply rendered paler by acetic acid (fig. 9 b). Tubercle appears to originate most frequently fi'om the tissue which surrounds the small arteries in every situation, constituting the lymphatic sheaths. The small cells in this situation multiply at separate centres, and thus miliary nodules are produced aroimd the vessel ; and as they gradually de-

Monog.

2\iber.

Monog.

TUBERCLE

Turin{Acad.

2. v.

Choiromyces
Fig. 768.
Fig. 769.

leonis.

peridium. Nat. size. ascus with spores. Magnified 400 diameters. Fig. 770. Vertical section of a peridium.

An

velope, they compress the vessel, and may occlude it. Tubercle invariably imdergoes a retrogressive change this commences in the centi'e of the grauidations, and consists in the atrophy and incomplete fatty metamorphosis of the closely crowded
finally
;

substance either dries and grows hard, or falls into a floccident powder with age. Tuber cibarium is the common truffle. Sections of the marbled internal substance show this to be composed of interlacing branched filaments, forming fleshy convolutions,

cellidar

elements,

termed caseation.

constituting what is The translucent and grey

between which serpentine cavities are alternately excavated branches of the filaments free at the sm-face of the lacunae bear spherical sacs {asci), each containing four globular spores of yellow-brown colour, having an elegantly reticulated outer coat. Wlien the spores germinate, they produce a subterraneous cottony myceUum, which after a time presents villous nodides, in the
;

granulations thus become opaque and yellowish, the yellow tubercle being merely a stage of the grey granulation. The caseous tubercle subsequently softens, or may gradually dry up into a firm cheesy mass, which

becomes ultimately
BiBL.

calcified.

Green, Path. Anat. Rindfleisch, Path. Hist. 1878.

1871,

145;

supposed genus of Stilbacei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), but apparently only preparatory forms of T. vulgaris is a state Sphseriaceous Fungi.
of Nectria (Sphceria) cinnabarina
;'

TUBEROULA 'RIA, Tode. A

it is

ex-

3e

TUBICLAVA.

786

TUBURCINIA.

tremely common in autumn and winter, on dead sticks, damp wooden palings, stumps,
&c., forming scarlet-orange rounded nodules, or irregular fleshy masses, sometimes more or less stipitate, the surface at a certain stage

exhibiting the ends of the filaments terminating in chains of cells breaking up into a pulverulent substance. These cells are probably the couidia of the Nectri<2. TUBICLA'VA, Allman. genus of

Athecate Hydroid Zoophytes.

Char. Stems erect, simple or branched, arising from a creeping stolon ; polypes claviform, with scattered filiform tentacles. Reproduction by means of fixed sporosacs in clusters on the body of the polype, behind the posterior tentacle, or on very short stems developed on the creeping base.

Tubularia. Stem twisted, branched or unbranched tentacles fihf orm in two rows egg-germs or gonophores on short footstalks, clustered at the bases of the lower tentacles. Corymorpha. Partly enclosed; polypidom short, thin, membranous, swollen at the base, which is immersed in the sand polype single, head club-shaped, encircled at the base by long filiform tentacles, and a circle of short ones around the tip. -Ectopleura. With free medusiform sexual
;

buds.

BiBL. Hincks, Hijd. Zooph. 114; Lister, Tr. 1834 Johnston, Br. Zooph. 48 Mummerv, Qu. Micr. Jn. 1853, 28; Wright, Ed. Neto Phil. Jn. 1858, 113; Allman, Ann. N. Hist. July 1859, and July 1864
Phil.
;
;

Van Beneden,

Ttibulmres.

BiBL. Hincks, Hyd. Zooph. 10 Ann. N. K. 3. xi. 9.

Allman,

genus of Rotatoria, fam. Flosculariaea. Char. No eye-spot disk f our-lobed stalk long, contained in a transparent gelatinous sheath. T, najas, jaws with four teeth
; ; ;

TUBICOLA'RIA, Ehr.A

genus of Inf undibulate Cyclostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Tubuliporidae. Three British species some of them common upon shells, sea-weeds, &c.
;

TUBULIP'ORA, Lam.A

PL

41.

fig.

30 represents a species (not

;

British).

on Lemna.
Inf.)
lata,

(Elu'enberg, Infus.

Pritchard,

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 266

Poh/z. 442.

Hincks,

TU'BIFEX, Lamk. A

genus of

Aunu-

TUBULIPOR'ID^. A family of lufun;

order Setigera. Char. Body filiform, attenuated at the two ends, pellucid, with four rows of setae

dibulate Cyclostomatous Polyzoa. Char. Polypidom calcareous, massive, circular, lobed or divided dichotomously
cells long, tubular, with a round, unconstricted orifice. Genera :

dorsal and

two

ventral.

The worms live and burrow in the mud of stagnant pools or the still parts of rivers, giving it a bright-red appearance. When the water or mud is disturbed, the red patches instantly disappear, from the retraction of the animals. Length from 1-5 to 3-4" or more. They are transparent, and show well tbe
alimentarj^ canal, with its peristaltic actions, and the cilia lining it, the blood-vessels and their movements, with the loops bathed in the chylaqiieous liquid, and the coiled water- (respiratory or I'enal) vessels with their cilia.

prominent,

Tubidipora. Wart-like, with a defined base cells suberect, aggregated or in imperfect rows, more or less fi'ee at the end.
;

Diastopora. Incrusting, undefined;

alternate, tubular, horizontal, with a raised circular orifice.
cells

cells

immersed,
;

Idmonea. Divided dichotomously, erect on one side, tubulai-, in transverse rows, divided iiito two sets by a median
longitudinal line.
Piistidipora.

Erect,
all

cylindrical

cells

semi-immersed, on minent.
Alecto.

sides, orifices

pro-

BiBL. Schmidt, MiUlcr''s Archie, 1846, 406; Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xv. 319; Johnston, Ann.N.H. 1845, xvi. 443; Lankester, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1871, 180.

Creeping,
;

adherent,

irregidarly

branched

TUBULA'RIA,

Linn. A

rows, BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 264

cells horizontal, in their ends free.

one or more
;

Gosse,
of

genus

of

Mar.

Zool.

ii.

7.

Hydroid Zoophytes, family Tubulariid^. BiBL. SeeTuBUL^VKIIDJE.

TUBURCIN'IA,

Fries.A

genus

TUBULA'RllD/E. family of Athecate Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Polypes fiask-shaped, with two sets of filiform tentacles, one oral, the other near
the base.

Ustilaginei (Hypodermous Fungi J, occurring in vegetable tissues. T. scabies produces the disease called scab in potatoes T. tricntalis occm-s on leaves of Trientalis Etiropa'a conidia are produced on the miderside of the leaves.
;
;

TUMOURS.

787
;

TUMOURS.

BiBL. Berk. & Br. Ann. N. H. 2. v. 464 Cooke, Handb. 516 ; De Bary & Worouin,
Beit. V. pis. 1-3.

The Pa^nllomata, such as warts, horny growths, polypi, originate from the skin
and mucous membranes, of the tissues of which they may be called exaggerations. The adenomata, or tumours of glands, are

TUMOURS. Non-inflammatory new

elements ot certain tumours and

formations. Under this head we .shall make a few remarks upon some of the more
interestino'

other morbid growths.

new formations of gland tissue. They resemble the racemose glands, and consist of small grouped saccules or tubes filled
with squamous or cylindrical epitheliumcells.

Sarcoma. The tumom's included under name, comprise the fibro-plastic, fibronucleated, recurrent fibroid, and the myeloid. They consist of comioctive tissue, i-etaining more or less the embryonic type and the varieties depend upon the size and form of the cells, and the nature of the intercellular substance. The cells are either round, fusiform, or myeloid larger cells containing many nuclei or secondary cells. The intercellular substance is scanty, homogeneous,
this
;

The carcinomata,
cells

or cancers, consist of

type, without any substance, gTouped together irregularly within the alveoli of a fibrous stroma. There are four varieties scirrhus,

of an

epithelial

intercellular

granular, or fibrillated. Fibrous tumours consist of fidly developed connective tissue. The fibres are sometimes iii-m and dense, at others lax. The cells or coimective-tissue corpuscles are very few in

encephaloid, epithelioma, and colloid. These, although all possessing the same general characters, present certain structural differences which serve to distinguish them. The cells are comparatively large, varying

number, and usually only become

visible

on

the application of acetic acid. They are often minute spindle-shaped, fusiform, or stellate bodies, the latter having processes of varying length, which communicate with those from neighbouring cells. Gummata are new formations, consisting of an incompletely organized granulation tissue. They soon undergo retrogressive changes; hence the growth is idtimately made up of atrophied, degenerated, and
cell products, imbedded in an incompletely fibrillated tissue. Mifxomata consist of a ti'anslucent and succulent connective or mucous tissue, the intercelhdar substance of which yields mucine. They are of a peculiar soft gelatiniform consistence, and of a pale greyish or reddish-white colour'. On scraping the cut surface they yield a tenacious mucilaginous liquid, in which may be seen the cellular elements. The cells are angidar and stellate,

broken-down

considerably in diameter, of a roimded, oblong, or ovate form, usually in no definite order, in the intervals of the fibres (PL 38. figs. 11 & 12), although sometimes in the ineshes formed by the aggregation of the fibres into loose bundles (fig. 17). The interspaces of the cells and fibres are occupied by a pale yellowish or colom'less and the cells are so loosely imbedded liquid in the fibrous basis, that on scraping the surface of a section of a cancer, uiuuerous cells are found in the jiuce thus obtained. The number of fibres present varies according to the stage or development of the In hard or schirrous cancer, they cancer. predominate, the cells being few while in soft, encephaloid, or medullary cancer they are scanty, the cells being very abundant ; globules of fat usually aboimd in the latter forms. Other varieties of cancer have received Thus, when the capillaries special names. are very numerous and distended, extravasated blood being also frequently present, we have fungus hfematodes when the
; ; ;

with long anastomosing prolongations and trabeculse others are isolated, fusiform, oval, or spherical, with one or two nuclei. Lipomata. Fatty tumours resemble adipose tissue, and consist of cells containing
;

grouped into bundles, forming marked areolae, filled with a gelatinous substance, we have colloid or gelatiniform
fibres

are

fat united

by a variable quantity of connec-

tive tissue.

The Enchondromata and Osteomata conand bone respectively and the Lymphomata are new formations consist of cartilage
;

cancer (PI. 38. fig. 18) again, when the cancer cells abound in pigment, we have melanotic cancers. In epithelial caucea*, or epithelioma, the general arrangement of the elements is not strikingly altered, but the papiDae of the skin are hypertrophied, the epithelial cells more numerous than natural, sometimes
;

sisting of lymphatic, or, as it is termed, adenoid tissue.

usually

containing

many

nuclei or secondary cells,

and the

intercellular juioe is

more abundant.

TUNICATA.
The

788

TUNICATA.
and containing numerous muscidar

flattened epitlielial cells are also often

;

only,
fibres.

arranged around the papillae in the form of concentric rings or nests, resembling fibres but the cell-structure is at once rendered e-^ident by the addition of solution of
potash. In regard to cells generally, an insuperable difficulty is met vdih in discovering the exponent of their power, as it might be temied thus the embryonic cells or corpuscles in an early stage are undistinguishable from each other, yet some grow into fibres of connective tissue, others into nerve-tubes, &c. Chemistry lends no aid here, and the difficulty will probably ever remain. In the examination of tumom's and other morbid g:i'owths, sections should be made with a Valentin's knife, the elements beingfirst observed in water, and then in the natm-al fiiud. The sections and elements are best preserved in water.
;

The oral orifice (PI. 18. fig. 10, a), or opening of the usually dilated pharynx or branchial cavity, within wliich is
the branchial apparatus
(6),

placed

mouth. narrow

leads to the This is slit-like, and leads into a oesophagus; to this succeeds an
(/),

expanded stomach

which terminates

in a longish intestine (i), and ends at the

with a haemal curve

base of the cloaca

{{*), which opens externally at the atrial orifice. Within the oral orifice, at the com-

mencement of the branchial

of rudimentary tentacles.

cavity, is a ring

in the pharynx numerous cross bars, ith slit-like openings between them these are ciliated, and copiously supplied with networks of blood-vessels. The slits open
(fig.

The branchial apparatus

10, h) consists of

into the atrial system.

The current excited

BiBL. Paget, Tumours and Surgiccd PorBennett, on Cancer, and Ed. Mn. Jn. vii. & viii. Redfern, ibid. xi. and the Tr. Pathol. Soc, passim Green, Path.
tJioloyy
;

draws the water through the oral orifice into the pharynx, where it traverses the openings, flowing outwards to collect in the cloaca, from which it is exIn some pelled through the atrial orifice.

by the

cilia

Rindfleisch, Path. Gewehel. TUNiCA'TA. class of Animals, belonging to the Invertebrate subkingdom Mol-

Anatomy
lusca.

of the larger Tunicata^ the branchial apparatus is stra]^)-shaped, and traverses the bodj'
obliquely. Tlie heart {h) is a spindle-shaped sac, enclosed in a pericardium (p), and situated near the base of the body, the principal vessels running on the dorsal and ventral surface of the branchial aj^paratus. The current of blood varies in direction, being at

often microscopic ; bodies ; or aggregate ; acephalous ; enclosed in an elastic tunic with two orifices, one oral and branchial, the other anal or cloacal ; a large atrial system, the
single,
social,

Char. Marine

pharynx commimicatiug with

chial slits
;

it

by bran;

respiration branchial, branchife phar}Tigeal ; nervous system a ganglion circidation effected by a tubular heart, with vessels, the current of blood varying in direction hermaplu'odite ; evolution accompanied by metamorphosis, or following the law of alternation of generations (PI. 18.
;

one time expelled from one end of the In those heart, at others from the other. Tuuicata which are connected by a common tube, the blood passes freely from one to
the other.

The nervous system

ganglion
(fig.

consists of a single

10, g), situated

between the
its

two

orifices,

and giving

oft'

principal

figs.

10

&

20).

branches to the branchial sac and the aliIn some an eye is present, mentary canal.
culata,

The
;

smaller Tunicata are

commonly found

aggregate, and investing rocks, stones, and shells some are adherent to seaweeds, &c., a few are free many are common on the
;

resembling the compound eye of the Artiand with a reddish pigment. Moreover an auditory capsule has been

noticed in some genera.

sea-shore.

The
is

liver (/J consists

either of a dark

sac-shaped or elongate, sometimes slightly constricted so as to exhibit a thorax, abdomen, and a posterior portion or The outer coat, test or postabdonien.
tunic, is cartilaginous, leathery, gelatinous, or membranous ; and consists partly of cellulose, often containing calcareous spicula. Within this is another coat, the mantle, usually adhering to the former at the orifices

The body

glandular layer lining the alimentary canal, or of distinct glandular ctieca. The Tunicata are reproduced by gemmation, by sexual organs, and by intermediate
generations.

The testis (/) and ovaiy {o) are usually strap-shaped organs, either adherent to the alimentary canal, or situ.ated in the postethe former has a long rior part of the body
j

TURBELLARIA.

789

TYMrANIS.
;

spermatic duct (d), whicli opens into the clo.ica, into which also the ova or larvfe are discharged, to escape by the posterior orifice. The larvfe often resemble at first tadpoles with three anterior sucker-like organs, by means of which they adhere to foreign bodies to complete their development, the In Appendicutail gradually disappearing. laria the larval form persists through life. The larval caudal appendage lias been shown to have a rod-like body, which has been compared to the chorda dorsalis of Vertebrata. In the large free Tunicata, the intermediate generations are united into longchains, the final product being a sexual individual but into the further structure of these curious beings we have no space
;

no eyes

legs six-jointed.

T.

mutahilis,

very minute, on

damp

earth or moss.

(Koch,

Uebers.; Mm-ray, Fc. Fnt. 120.) TY'PHOID CELLS. In typhoid fever certain special uninuclear cells are formed, which contain more protoplasm and are

larger than lymph-cells, pus-corpuscles, and white blood-corpuscles these assume an Deirregular and often polygonal form. generative changes speedily commence, and the cells break up, mostly by fatty meta;

to enter.

Synopsis of the Families.

* Attached; mantle and

BoTRYLLiDJE.
tems.

test

united only at

morphosis, into oily debris capable of reThe cells are found not only in the intestinal structures, but also in other organs forming medullary masses on the pleural surface, and inside the sarcolemma of muscles. BiBL. Rindfleisch, Path. Geweb. 317. TYM'PANIS, Fr. genus of Phacidiacei (Ascomycetous Fungi), consisting of horny bodies growing on branches of trees, breaking out through the bark. T. conabsorption.
;

the orijices.

spersa

(fig.

771)

grows upon Rosaceous

Bodies united into sys-

Fig. 771.

Bodies distinct, but Clavelinidje. connected by a common root-thread. AsciDiAD^. Bodies unconnected.

** Free

mantle and

test

united throughout.
Tympanis conspersa. more or less mature, bursting through the bark. Magn. 10 diams.

Pelon^ad^.
Salpidje.

Orifices near together. Orifices at opposite ends.

BiBL. M. -Edwards, Ascid. Comp., and 3Iem. de VInstitut, 1842 Forbes and Hanlev, Br. Moll. i. 1; Siebold, VeryLAn. 234; Lister, P/iiV. 7;-. 1834; Huxley, Com2i.An.; Rupert Jones, Todds Cycloj)., Art. Tunicata; Allman, Qu. Mic. Jn. vii. 86 Gegenbaur,
;

collection of perithecia,

trees,

T.

saliyna

on
the

the

privet.

In

Fig. 772.

former the perithecia

are collected in tufts
;

Vergl.

An. Nicholson, Zool. 363. See AppEXDICUI/ABIA, BoXBYLLIDiE,

;

Clavelinid^,
lata.

(fee.

they are first closed, afterwards opening into cups, the disk of

TURBELLA'EIA. An

order of

Annu-

TURBINEL'LA, Schultze. genus of Ichthvdine Rotatoria. BiBL. Schultze, Midler's Archiv, 1853, 241 Pritchard, Inf. 381. TURMERIC. See Curcuma. TUR'RIS, Lesson. genus of Athecate
;

which is occupied by the hymenium, bearing long and broad asci containing numerous spores, and sometimes
1

also

septate
ij.

Stylospores
neou.sly.

SUUulta- through some

T.

Vertical section through apieceoi tneabove.passing of the open

In

sahyna

cup-like perithecia.

Hydroida, family Clavid?e.

Char. Stems short, rooted, bearing the polypes on their summits polypes claviT. form, with scattered filiform tentacles. the Solent, Ilfracombe, kc. ne</leitn, in
;

the

perithecia occur Magnified 20 diameters. only two to four together. Spermoyonia exist (which are oblong or conical bodies) intermixed with the perithecia, perforated

by a terminal pore
;

(re-

(liincks,

TYD.EUS, Koch. A

Hyd.

Z<joph. 13.)

genus of Trombi;

dina (Acarina).

Transverse line present

sembling perithecia of Sphceria) these are lined with delicate branched filaments bearing minute coi-puscles (spermatia), which

TYPHLINA.
when mature
tencbil
(as
in

790

ULVACE^.

escape from the pore in a

Ci/tisjwra) if

moistened or
;

pressed (see also Cenangium). BiBL. Berk. r. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 210 Ann. N. H. 2. vii. 185 Hook. Jn. Bof. iii. 322 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xx. 143, pi. 16. figs. 15, 16 Fries, Sutn. Veg. 399 ; Greyille, Crypt. Fl. pi. 335. TYPH'LINA, Ehr. An imperfectly examined genus of Eotatoria, of the family
; ; ;

U.puncialis. Filaments 1-3000" to 1-2500" in diameter, regularly torulose ; joints two and a half times as long as broad {Lyngb.
jnmct., Hass. pi. 00. fig. 4 ; including perhaps L. virescens and L. vermicularis) U. spedosa. Filaments 1-780" to 1-420" in diameter, curled ; sterile joints half or a
.

PhUodinaja.

T. viridis (Pi.

44.

Found

fig-.

33).

(Ehrenberg, Inf. 483.) TYROG'LYPHUS. See Acarus. TYUO'SINE. This substance is gene-

in

Egypt.

third as long. U. mucosa, Thuret (PI. 9. fig. 6). Pale green or yellowish, slimy ; joints usually as long as broad, sometimes shorter, 1-3000" in diameter. BiBL. Kiitzing, *S^. Alg. 345 ; Tab. Phyc.

rally

associated with leucine. It forms silky-white needles, often in stellate groups, difficultly soluble in water, and enWhen tirely insoluble in alcohol and ether.

found

warmed with sulphuric acid, and perchloride of iron is added, it is rendered violet. The
little white grains found upon anatomical preparations preserved in spirit consist of

tyrosine.

(Hoppe-Seyler, Anah/se Chim,

vej,mst.51.)
U.

Hassall, Ah/. 219; Thuret, Ann. Sc. N. 222, pi. 18 Rabenht. Alg. iii. 365 Cramer, Bof. Zeit. 1871 ; Dodel, PringsheinCs Jahrb. x. 417. UL'VA, Linn. genus of Ulvacese (Confervoid Algae), here taken in the sense of Thuret. The plants are all marine, consisting of broad, green, simple, or lobed, membranous fronds, growing upon rocks and stones. The cells are rounded-angular (PI. 9. figs. 2 & 3), and are at fii-st filled
ii.
;

3. xiv.

with

U'LOTHRIX. genus of Confervacese (Couferyoid Algse), allied to Draparnaklin and Stiyeoclonium. They consist of unbranched filaments, adhering loosely together to form a mucous stratum, growing

amorphous green colouring-matter, which subsequently becomes collected into

masses
(a),

ultimately converted into nu-

merous zoospores. Under the influence of " swarm " and break out light, those soon from the cells by a pore in the outer wall

upon stones &c. in fresh water. The filaments are composed of short hyaline cells (PI. 9. fig. 6), the green contents of which
are at
(a),
first granular, adhering to the waUs then contracted into transverse bands Contractile vesicles have been ob-

(h).

served in the cells of some species. According to recent observations, macrospores with four cilia occur singly or in twos, in certain cells while in others, numerous
;

The emptied cells give a pale (fig. 3 6). colour to the parts of the frond where they are situated. The zoospores appear in two forms, some large and bearing four cilia smaller and pos(fig. 3 c), others much The sessed of only two cilia (fig. 2 b). fronds in which the latter occur are geneThuret has seen rally of a yellower colour. As defined by that botii kinds germinate. author, the British species stand as follows
:

biciliated

microspores are

formed, which
;

new

conjugate and produce resting spores these again give rise to zoospores, from which
filaments arise. U. zoyiuta. Filaments 1-9G0" in diame-

ter, joints

about as long

Hass.
in

pi. 59. figs. 2, 3,

&

{Lynghya

zon.,

6).

U. Lactuca, L. Frond broadly ovate or oblong, 6 to 18" long, and several inches wide. Frond 3' or more long, 18" i3. kdissima. found in the muddy water or more wide at the entrance of harbours {PJiycoseris Myriotrema, Kiitz. Sp. Alg.)= U. orbiculata.
;

U.^jectmalis. Filaments 1-1800" to 1-9G0"

U.

Linza,

L.

Frond

linear-lanceolate,
pi.
;

diameter, joints half or a fourth the length; fertile cells swollen (Hass. pi. 00.
figs.

6 to 24" long, i to 1^" wide. BiBL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 216,

Thuret,
Nat.

1-5).

Mem.

Sue. Cherbourg,
;

ii.

25 B; Ann. Sc.

U. crispa. Filaments very long, 1-600" in diameter, joints half or a third as long {Conferva hico'hr, Enq. Hot. p. 2288).
_

3. xiv.

224,
;

Kiitzing, Algce 316.

Greville, Harvey, pi. 20 Kabenht. Fl. Eur. Alg. i.

U.floccosa. Fiiaments

1-2100" to 1800" in

ULVA'CE/E. A
Algaj.
sisting

family of Confervoid

diameter, joints about as long {Lynghya floccosa, Hass. pi. 60. figs. 1 & 2).

Marino or freshwater Alga?, conof membranous, expanded, saccate

ULVINA.

791

UREDINEJ^.

or tubular, sometimos filiform fronds, comunited posed of spherical or polygonal cells, either single or together firmly into layers,

ence, whilst here it forms a complete circle. One species, U. ImJica (PI. 23. fig. 2). (D'Orb. For. Fos. Vien. 261.)

Reproduced "by roundish spores formed from the whole contents of cells, or by ciliated zoospores formed in twos, fours, or many in each cell.
double.

URATES. See Uric acid, URCEOLA'RIA, Ach. A genus of

Par-

meliacese

(Gymnocarpous Lichens), included under rarmclia by Fries, but agreeing in

rocks. The disk of black, and the border spores are cellular or multi-

Frond plane, simple or lobed, Ulva. formed of a double layer of closely packed cells, producing zoospores.
Enterojnorpha. Frond hollow, simple or branched, of a single layer of closely packed with zoospores. cells, forming a sac or tube
;

almost every particular with Lecanora. U. scritposa, the commonest species, gi'ows

on heaths,
the

walls,

and

apothecia

is

Monostroma. Frond

flat

or saccate, simple

or lacerate-lobed, forming a single layer of cells scattered in a homogeneous membrane ;

crenated. The locular (PI. 37. fig. 17). The si^rmogouia are scattered over the thallus, sometimes in the outer wall of the (thallodal) border of the apothecia ; they are veiy inconspicuous,

with zoospores. Prasiola. Fronds membranous, laceratelobed,

on accoimt of the
ostiole.

light

colour of their

formed of a single layer of cells in mulsimple or compound lines, or in groups Spores formed from the tiples of four. whole contents of the cells, motionless.

lasne,

BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 175 TuAnn. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 172, pi. 4. figs.
; ;

5-14

Schferer,

Enum.

crit.

85.
pt.

URCEOLARIA,

J)ii].= Trichodina

Fronds filiform, dilated ScMzof/onium. here and there into flat ribands, containing two or four rows of cells spores formed from the whole contents, motionless.
;

A genus of

See PKOTODERiiA and Schizomeeis. ULVI'NA. See CRYPTOcocCACEiE. UMBILIC A'EIA, Fee ( Gp-ophora,Ach.).

U. mitra=^T. mitra. URE'A. This substance occm'S normally in the urine of man and the carnivora, in small quantity in that of the herbivora also in the amniotic liquid, and the vitreous and aqueous humours of the eye. Pathologically, it. is found in the blood, dropsical

Phyllodei (Lichenaceous li-

U. jmstulata gi-ows on rocks in chens). various parts of Britain. It is remarkable for the tubercles or hollow papillae occurring on its surface. The apothecia are flat, at first black, at length tuberculate. Sper mogonia also occur in the form of little tubercles containing a nucleus of densely thin black packed sterig-mata, enclosed by a The species in which the disk of the rind. form the apothecia is concentrically plicate occur on proper Gyrcphorce of Ach. they
;

vomited liquids, and doubtfully in the saliva, the bile, and perspiration. When pure, it forms colourless four-sided prisms, sometimes longitudinally striated, and with one or two oblique terminal facets. The crystals are readily soluble in water and alcohol, but not in pure ether. When nitric or oxalic acid is added to a solution of urea, the nitrate or oxalate separates in the crystalline form. The nitrate of urea, when rapidly formed, consists of irregularly aggi'egated scaly cvys,effasions,

momitain-rocks. Several other species, BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 223; Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 207, pi. 5. figs. 5-12 Leighton, Schserer, Enum. crit. 25
; ;

tals (PI. 13. fig.

Lich. Fl. 142.

UMBONEL'LA =LEPnALiApt.
Pob/zoa, 31G).

(Hincks,
sub-

UNILOCULI'NA, D'Orbigny. A

genus of Miliola.
Char. Shell regular, equilateral, globular;

chambers completely embracing, regularly woimd round the axis, one only apparent, this making a complete revolution around the preceding; cavity simple ori/ice single, with a tooth. In the other genera of the family, each
;

18c); when more slowly formed, rhombic or hexagonal plates, or distinct prisms (fig. 18 , b). The crystals of the nitrate of soda (PI. 10. fig. 19) bear some resemblance to those of the lU'ea salt. The crystals of the oxalate of urea somewhat resemble those of the nitrate, the rhombic formbeing evident. BiBL. That of C^HEJiiSTRY, Animal. UREDIN'E/E. The genus Uredo is shown by Tulasne to have no satisfactoiy claim to a distinct existence, since the structures which have represented it appear to be merely a form of tlie reproductive organs common to a number of plants, wliicli, in their most perfect state, represent the genera

chamber occupies only half the circumfer-

Ihiccinia,

Phragmidium,

Uromyces,

Sec.

ITREDINB^.

792

UREDINE^.
Fig. 776.

These constitute the genera of the family

Uredinei. Of the genus Phraf/midimn, P. buJbosuin (Piiceinia ruhi, Schfer.) is a species commonly occurring on the leaves of brambles,

forming reddish, then orange, and finally blackish rusty spots (fig. 773). The first signs of reproductiTC organs appear in the middle of the spots on the upper face of the leaf, consisting of a few minute unilocular cavities {spermoyoma) excavated in the in these leaf, with a little flat ostiole occur ovate s})ermatia (see ^ciFig. 773. dixtm), which are accompanied by a
;

Fig. 775. Separate paraphyses. Fig. 776. Detached pedicels with stylospores.

Magnified 460 diameters.

yellowish
liquid,

mucous

and are expelled with this in the form of drops.

Subsequently
this, fruits

to

the tlredoare deve-

loped, mostly on the lower face of

the leaf, at the back of the sperm ogonia,

or

more

rarelj'

on
Leaf of bramble, " Ureclo ruborum." the nat. size.
with

the upper face, in a circle around them.

Half
" Uredo Vertical section of the sorus of suaveolens,' with immature stylospores. Magnified 460 diameters.

They

are pulvei'u-

leut patches (fig. 773), solitary or a few together ; and a vertical section (fig. 774) shows them to consist of paraphyses (fig. 775), and simple or

branched short filaments bearing globose

stylospores (fig. 776), which soon become detached, and in ripening acquire an echi-

nate

outer

coat

with

numerous

pores.

Fig. 774.

Eipe stylospores of the same, germinating. Magnified 460 diameters.

Vertical section of the

physes and imperfect stylospores,

same Uredo-fruit, with paraMagn. 460 diams.

Fig. 779.

Fig. 780.

When

these germinate, they produce merely a long slightly branched filament. Finally the perfect fruits (spores) appear on the same, or in distinct sori (on the lower fiiee of the leaf) iu the form represented in fig.

Deformed
loped.

styloepores, with the spinuloae coat deveMagnified 460 diameters.

UREDINE.E.
565

793

URIC ACID.
Uromyces.
Pileolaria Uromyces ?, may consist of species

The loculi of these have each (p. 594). three or foui- pores iu the upper part of the side-walls, whence emerge geruiiuation (in spring) short tubular filaments, which soon divide into four cells, from each of which arises a minute " sporidiimi " borne

Type, Uredo Jicartce.

which
of

itself

Puccinia

on a pointed sterigmatous process. Puccinia composiUtrum exhibits very similar phenomena its Uredo-hmt has been described as TJredo suaveohns. Fig. 777 represents a vertical section through an immature sorus of this fig. 778 some of the the stylospores detached and germinating outer spinulose coat is here fully developed, and the tubular filaments are seen emerging from the pores. The spores of the perfect
;
; ;

with spores unilocular by abortion. V. Piicciniei, fleshy, ligulate, or trcmelliform, naked and uniform in the the largest plants of the fruits
;

family.

Podisoma.
nis.

Type, P. jimiperi commu-

Gymnospo7'angium. Type, P. juniperinum. VI. Cronartici, peridiate, biform, ligulate

;

of this genus ditfer from those of or, by abortion, imilocular (see Puccinia). In ^ciDiUM, Cystopus, and some other
fruits

rhragmidium in being bilocular,

perhaps the most highly organized of all the genera. Cronartium. Type, Cr. asclepiadeum, with Uredo vincetoxici ; C. pxeonice, with Ur. piOionicB. Genera cancelled by Tulasne Uredo,
:

genera, spermogonia and styhsporous fruits have been observed, ( Uredo-fruits, Tulasne) in Cronarfimn, spermocionia are unknovra, In Podisoma but the C-^;-efZo-fruit exists. both s^iermogonia and Uredo-ivmts, are unknown in both of these genera the perfect fr'uits are placed on a fleshy columella or
;

Podocystis, Trichobasis, Lecythea, Physonema, Solenodonta. Genera referred to Ustilaginei Usti-

Epitea,

lago, Tilletia, Thecaphora.

Doubtful UsTiJGAGiNEi
lycystis, Testicuhiria.

Protomyces, Po-

ligula.

We subjoin Tulasne's

synopsis of the fa-

mily ; but as his generic characters are too long to transcribe, the typical species only can be cited. I. Albuginei, white or pale yeUow, heterosporous. Cystopus. Type, Uredo Candida. II. ^cidinei, with a peridium, homoeosporous. U. Cceoma. Type, Uredo euonymi;
jnnguis.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. arts, ^cid., Puce, Uredo, 8,-c. Ann, N. H. i. 264, 2. v. 463 Tulasne, Ann. So. Nat. 3. \ii. 12, 4. ii. De Bary, 77 Leveille, ib. 3. viii. 369 Brandpilze, 1853; Fries, Sum. Veg. 509; Uuger, Exanth. Plant. and the Bibl. of
;
;

the Genera.

j^cidimn.

violarum. tussilaginis, Roestelia. Tj^pe, yfi". cancellatum.

^.

Type, ^c. cichoracearum

^.

Peridermium.
III.

Type, Per. pint. Melampsorei, soUd, pulvinate, biform. Melamjisora. Type, Uredo populiwi U. caprcearum. Coleosporkwi. Type, Uredo rhinantha-

URIC ACID URATES, or lithic Uric acid may easily be acid and lithates. procured in small quantities from human urine, by adding a few drops of dilute muriatic acid, and setting the liquid aside for some hours, when it subsides in crystals. In larger quantity it may be obtained by heating the excrement of serpents with excess of dilute solution of potash, until the odoiu' of ammonia has disappeared, and filtering the solution whilst hot into dilute muriatic acid, when it falls in a colourless Or the excrement may be digested, state. without heat, with excess of strong sulphuric acid, the mixture set aside that the impmi-

and

cearum

U. campanidce.
;

IV. Phragmidiacei, pulverulent, biform,

infuscate

centre of the family.

T>-pes,

Phragmidimn.
incrussatiim,

with

Phragmiditmi Uredo ruhorum

;

Puccinia potentillce, witli Uredo potentillarum.

Tri})hragmium.
Puccinia.
7-?;i,

Type,

T. ulmurice.

T}"pe,

Puccinia
;

composita-

with Ur. suaveolens P.graminis,

linearis.

with Ur.

may subside, and subsequently poured gradually into a large quantity of distilled water. It exists also iu the excrement of birds, in the urine of MoUusca and Insecta, and of all the Mammalia, -excepting those which it has also been found in are herbivorous the human blood, of which it is probably a normal constituent in minute quantity, although mostly secreted with the urine as soon as formed.
ties
;

URIC

ACII).

794

URINARY

DEPOSITS.
;

Ill the natural state of solution in the urine, uric acid exists combined with soda and ammonia but it is frequently found as an abnormal deposit in the human mine, and is often precipitated after the secretion
;

has been evacuated, from the occurrence of an acid fermentation. The crystals of the
free acid are

sometimes also met -with in

the urine or excrement of the lower animals, as Insects, &c. Uric acid is but little affected by water, alcohol, acetic or muriatic acid, slowly soluble in solution of ammonia, but readily in solution of potash, from which it is re-precipitated by a dilute acid. The crystals belong to the right-rhombic

covered with thin glass a little dilute muriatic acid is then applied to the edge of the liquid, or a drop of strong acetic acid placed near its edge, so that the vapour may be absorbed by the liquid. The latter soon becomes turbid, from the formation of a precipitate of numerous molecules and granules. If the turbid liquid be watched under the microscope, a minute crystal will presently be seen to form suddenly in some part of the field. The molecules and granules then
tal,

slowly dissolve immediately around the crysleaving this in the middle of a clear The crystal now enlarges, and the space. surrounding molecules gradually disappear, until they at last entu'ely vanish from the

prismatic system. Their various forms are represented in PI. 12. figs. 1-10, and fig. l-'5. Those in fig. 1 are frequently met with as natural deposits from human urine, although most of the same forms, with those in fig. 15, are also found in the artificially precipitated acid.

field.

By

careful inspection, it

may

easily

be seen that the crystal is not formed by the coalescence of the precipitated molecules, but is deposited from a state of solution.

Some

splendidly
lytic

crystals of uric acid polarize light and some of the feathery crystals ;

(PI. 12. fig.

8e) possess considerable ana-

The most common and characteristic form is the rhomb (a), the side view being linear
or rectangular.

When

the urine

is

strongly

acid, the crystals often appear striated from Somethe presence of linear fissures (c,d).

power. The forms of the crystals and ciystalline groups of the urates are represented in PI. 12. figs. 11-14 they are not very characteristic, and the aid of chemistry is requii-ed
;

times they are narrower and more elongate, with a prismatic form (c). They are frequently aggregated, and either fused into

for determining with certainty the composition of the respective crystals. The urate of ammonia may be prepared

twin crystals tufts {h, I, m,

(/,

ff),

or

form

n, oj.

The other forms

aigrettes or are

noticed in the description of the plate. The crystals forming a natural deposit are

almost invariably coloured, from combining with the colouring-matter of the urine sometimes their colour is very brilliant they may also be coloured artifi(fig. 4) from a solution of cially by precipitation &c. purpurate of ammonia (fig. 3), madder, The test for uric acid is the production of the colour of purpurate of ammonia or murexide, whicli may be efiected by dissolving
; ;

by adding ammonia to a boiling mixture of uric acid and water the urate of lime by mixing urate of potash with chloride of calcium the urate ol soda by di.^solving uric acid in solution of soda and the urate
artificially
;
;

magnesia by mixing solutions of sulphate of magnesia and urate of potash. The presence of an excess of lU'ic acid in the blood is the chemical expression of gout it leads to an abnormal precipitation of urates in various parts of the body. In
;

of

the crystals or suspected substance in a small quantity of dilute nitric acid, gently evaporating the solution to dryness, and adding a little ammonia to the residue, or of ammonia, when exposing it to the vapour But the the red colour becomes visible. rhombic form, when present, with the action of potash and dilute acid, Avould be suflicient to distinguish this acid from most substances.

cartilage the cells are the chief depositories of the urates of soda and lime, and they form the centres of the stellate bundles of crystissue is permeated. of cartilage thus affected is very characteristic ; and each cartilage cell is surrounded by radiating tufts of crystals Avliich uearlj' or quite touch the extremities
tals

by whicli the

The appearance

of other groups radiating from neighbouring

cells.

See

Urinary

I)i:posits.
ii.

Bini-. Rindfleisch, Pff^//. Hisf. and that of Ciiemistry, Animal.

270;

The formation of the crystals of uric acid for examinapresents an interesting object tion. drop or two of solution of uric acid in potash is first placed upon a slide and

URINARY DEPOSITS.We shall give

list of the deposits most commonly occurring in the human urine, with the references to the plates in which they are

here a

URINARY DEPOSITS.
represented, and the articles in are described.

705

UROCOCCUS.
jihi/s.
^-c.

which they

Hoppe-Seylcr, Chim.
Versuch.
;

Griifith,

^-c. ; Schmidt, Urinary Deposits

Since the publication of the important paper by Vigla (L'Rvpenaice, 18^9), in

these deposits were fu'st illusti'ated, the use of the microscope has constantly been called in to aid in their In regard to the pathological detection. indications aft'orded by their presence, upon
of

and Med. Oaz. 1843.

which most

URNATEL'LA, Leidy. genus of freshwater Polyzoa. Not yet found in Britain, BiBL. Leidy, Pr. Ac. Philadelphia, v. Sc
vii.
;

and AUman, Polyzoa, 117,

Clap, et

which we cannot that most of the

UR'NULA,

Lach. A genus

of

enter, it

may

be remarked

deposits are formed after

Actinophrnna (Rhizopoda). Char. Slieath membranous and fixed to

other bodies. U. Episfylidis attached to the pedicle of
iilis.

the evacuation of the lu-ine. Uric acid. PI. 12. ligs, 1, '2; and Urates, figs. 11 c, d, e, 13 a, 14 a (Uric acid and

(PI. 52. fig. 15),

Epistijlis j)lica"

Urates).
Oxalate of lime.
PI. 13. figs, 9, 10, 11,

(Clap, et Lach. Inf. 457.) UROCENTRI'NA. family of CiUate

Infusoria.

12 (LniE, Salts of). The concretionary forms of this salt (figs. 11, 12) are more slowly acted upon by reagents than simple
crystals.

BiBL. Clap, et Lach. Irif. 134. UROCEN'TRUiM, Nitzsch.

;

genus of
;

Ammotno-phosphate of mat/nesia. PI. 13. Salts of). figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 (Magnesia, Carbonate of lime. PI. 13. fig. 8 (LoiE,
Salts of).

Cystic

oxide.

PI.

13.

fig.

5 (Cystic

oxide).
PI. 49. fig. 21, espeBlood-corpiiscles. cially the form fig. 21 e (Blood). Mucous coiyuscles. PI. 1. fig. 6 (IVIouth,
p. 518).

Peritrichous Infusoria, family Urocentrina. Char. Free, no pedicle tail awl-sliaped cilia absent from the body, but forming an anterior crown mouth not spiral, U. turbo (PI. 32. fig. 14). Body hyaline, ovate, trilateral, tail one third the length of the body. Freshwater length 1-430 to 1-290". (CI. & Lachm. Inf. 134 ; Kent, Inf.
;

641.)

UROCOCCUS,

Hassall, A genus

of

PI. 38. figs. 4, 5 (Pus). PI. 50. fig. 25 (SpermaSpermatozoa. tozoa). These are found in the urine of the female for several days after intercourse and we have detected them in the uterus more than a fortnight after the same. Sarcina ? PI. 7. fig. 5 (Sarcina).
Pus-corjmsclcs.
;

Pakuellacese (Confervoid Algte), remarkable for the peduncular processes formed by the gelatinous coats of the cells. The cells are invested by a gelatinous coat or membrane (like that of Glceocapsa), which is originally simple ; but new gelatinous layers are successively produced on the immediate surface of the cell-contents and as each new
;

(fig. 557, page 584 and Torula (PI. 26. fig. 7). The spores of Penicilliwn form the so-called

Fungi.

Penicillium

one is formed the preceding layer is ruptured on one side and partially thrown off,
its new layer lying in the preceding layer as in a cup by the repetition of this process the cup-like exuvifc accumulate, packed one within another so as to form a peduncle, the structure of which may be roughly compared to a pile of wooden washing-bowls or tea-cups standing one in When the cell-contents divide another. into two portions, the peduncles bifurcate The sti-ise indicating the (PI. 7. fig, 7). successively shed coats are more or less di-

PI. 26" fig. 15)

the cell with

small organic globules. Casts of the tiibuli uriniferi. The extreme diameter of these is rather less than that of the tubules but they are often much more slender. They are cylindiical, generally wavy, sometimes hollow, at others solid.
;

Some

and are composed of

are very transparent, finely granular, fibrine ; others consist

in

them, entirely of, or contain imbedded renal epithelial cells, with or without glofat either free or within the cells ; bules of they sometimes also contain mucous and

stinct in different species, and probably in different conditions of the same. U. flookerianus is represented in PL 7. fig. 7
:

some pus-corpuscles, with blood-globules ; of the epithelial cells occasionally contain The epithelium of the bladder lithates. with that agrees essentially in structure of the pelvis of the kidney. Bebl. That of Chemistry, Animal]

U. insignis is veiy much larger; U. Allnianni and U. cryptophila are much alike, and neither presents the striae. green species is also described with the synonym (erroneous ?) of Chlorococcum murale, Grev.

Reproduction unknown.

UROCYSTIS.

796

UROTRICHA.

BiBL. Hassall, Mar. Alg. 322, pi. 80; Braun, Verjihujmig {Ray Soc. 1863, 178) ;
Rabenlit. Al{/.
iii.

31.

UROCYS TIS.

UROGLAUCINE.

See Polycystis. This substance,

which was first detected by Heller, may be obtained by evaporating human urine with concentrated nitric acid (PL 13. fig. 20). Its
true nature is unknown but it is probably a product of the decomposition of the colouring-matter of the urine; it has perhaps some relation with indigo.
;

fect fruit, resembling that of Puccinia, but with unilocular spores, imaccompanied by U. Jicarm, L^v. ( Tlredojlparaphyses. carice, Alb. & Schw.) is not uncommon on Rauunculacefe, U. appendiculatus, Lk. {Uredo appendicidosa, Berk.), on various Leguminosse. BiCL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 380, 382 Tulasne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. ii. 145 & 185 Leveille, ib, 3. viii. 370 De Bary, Brand;
;

pike, 33.

IJRONE'MA, Duj.A

genus of Holotri-

BiBL. Heller, Archiv phys. Chemie und Mikr. ; Lehmanu, Phys. Chem. Funke,
;

chous Infusoria.
U. marina (PI. 32. fig. 16). Body coloursemitranspareut, nodular, and with four or five faint longitudinal ribs mouth marine ventral, with a trap-like velum length 1-570".
less,
;

Atlas.

UROGLE'NA, Ehr.A

supposed genus

of Volvocineae (Coufervoid Alg^), consisting of a family of zoospore-like individuals arranged at the periphery of a membranous sphere, as in Vol vox, but said to difter from

that genus in having only one cilium, and a basal prolongation or tail running toward the centre of the sphere. U. volvo.v forms a sphere, 1-95" in diameter, with yellowish bodies 1-1728" long, two lateral colourbands, exclusive of the tail, which is three or four times as long. Inhabiting bog-pools. Kent places it among the Flagellate In-

BiBL. Duj. Inf. 392; Clap. & Lach. Inf. 271 Kent, Inf. 546. URONYCH'IA, Stein. A genus of Oval-oblong, with H;s^otriclious Infusoria. a carapace, truncate in front, with a membranous upper lip, with posterior hooks mouth excavated, with a band-shaped un;
;

61; Kent, /??/. 414.) UROLEP'TUS; Ehr. A genus of Ilypotrichous Infusoria, family Colpodina ii'esh(Ehr. Inf.
;

fusoria.

water. Cha);

Eye-spot absent; no tongue-like

;

process or proboscis a tail present. U. jn-scis (PI. 32. fig. 15 a) Oxyfricha

caudata, Duj. Body terete, subturbinate, gradually narrowed behind into a tail internal granules gi-een; length 1-288 to 1-144". U. lamella (PI. 32. fig. 156). Body de;

dulating membrane. U. transfnqa = Plccsconia sadum, Duj. Salt water," (Stein, Inf. Kent, Inf 797.) UROP'ODA, Latr. genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina and family Gamasea. Char. Palpi and rostrum inferior dorsal shield consisting of a single, broad, circular or oval piece legs nearly equal body frequently with a caducous anal peduncle. U. vegetans (PI. 6. fig. 25j. Sixth joint of legs longest. The peduncle forms a horny filament, secreted from the .amis, and serving to attach the body to Coleopterous insects, of which this animal is the parasite,
;

pressed, hyaline, linear-lanceolate, flat and very slender; length 1-216". Other species. (Ehrenberg, Inf. 358 Kent, Lif. 779.)
;

although
stones.

it

is

sometimes
species,

Four other

found under most of them

2.
ii.

doubtful.

supposed genus of Uredinei (Coniomycetous Fungi), perhaps not properly separated from Puccinia, but distinguished from the ordinary state of that

UROM'YCES, Lk. A

BiBL.

Duges, Ann. Sc. Nat.

29;

Gervais, Walck. Apt. 220.

genus by the unilocular spores of the perfect fruit (see Uredinei and Puccinia). The genus Pileolaria, Cast., does not appear to difter from Tlromycvs in any essential

The ZTyomycetes are rusts ocparticular. curring upon leaves, presenting at least two forms of fructification (spermoyonia have not yet been observed), viz. 1. Urcdo-fruit f, consisting of stylosporos unaccompanied by paraphyses, which have been described as species of Trichohasis, Lev. and 2. the per;

UROSTY'LA, Ehr. genus of Ilypotrichous Infusoria, fam. Oxytrichiua. Char. Body ciliated styles present in a small cleft on the ventral sm'face no hooks. U. yrandis (PI. 32. fig. 17). Semicyliudrical, subclavate, rounded at the ends, in front; freshwater; slightlj' thickened (Elir. Inf 309; length 1-44 to 1-96". CI. & L. Inf 142 Kent, Inf. 797 .j
;

UROT'RICHA,

CI.

& Lachm.A

genus

of Ilolotrichous Infusoria, family Tracheliua. Free, oyate, witli a long posterior saltatory cirrus.

URTICA.

797

USTILAGO.

Two species

freshwater.
Inf. 504c.)

(CI.

& Lachm.
wliicli

Pract.

Inf.SU; Kent,

Obs. on Br. Grasses, 1805; Linger, Fischer v. Waldheim, Exanthem. Plant.

;

URTl'CA, L. A genus

to

the

Ustilat/mci.

stingiug-nettle belongs (see Stings).

of Ramalodei (Lichenaceous Lichens), with a somewhat crustaccous branched tliallus, bearing peltate apothecia, which often have a ciliated U. harhata is common on parkmargin. in pales and old trees, U.florida andplicata
situations, mostly in mountainous Tlie pendulous tibrillous thallus regions. and ciliated apothecia of U. harhata are very characteristic. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 1. 2-30; Leigh-

US'NEA, Aeh. A genus

UStlLA'GO, Fries. A genus

(Hypodermous
Fungi),

of

Usti-

laginei

forming

Fig. 786.

Fig. r87.

similar

ton, Lich. Fl. 75.

USTILAGIN E^E. A

family of

Hypo-

dermous Fungi related to the Uredinei, in generally distinguished by their growing

the interior of the organs (especially the ovaries and anthers) of Flowering I'lants, causing deformity, absorption of the internal tissue, and its replacement by a pulverulent substance cou.sisting of the spores of the Fimgi. In the earlier stages, the infected or organ exhibits either a grumous mass, an interwoven filamentous mycelium, from which acrogeuous spores arise finally the mycelium disappears, and a dark-coloured
;

Fig. 786. Ustilago Carbo, on oats. Nat. size. Fig. 787. Ustilago Carbo, on barley. Nat. size.

(ol'ten

foetid)

entirely of the spores,

powder remains, composed which are simple, or

Fig. 783.

Fig. 781.

Fig. 782.

smuts, infesting the ears of corn and other grasses, the ovaries and anthers of other Flowering Plants, and in some cases the The interior of leaves and stems of plants. the organ infested by them presents at

grows
Fig. 784. Fig. 785.

a grumous-mucous whitish mass, which at the expense of the tissue and juice of the infested organ, and is finally converted into a pidveruleut mass of simple spores, mostly of deep colour, and with a
first

smooth, spiny or reticulated surface. The species growing upon leaves and stems occur on grasses, e. (/. U. lonr/issima (Uredo lonc/issima, Sow.), 17. hj/podytes (Ur.
ki/podi/tes),

and U.

f/randis (or typlioides)

Compound

Thecaphora deformans. spores, entire and broken up.

Magnified 460 diameters.

more

rarely compound (figs. 784, 785), i. e. several coherent within a common coat, at length free (Kgs. 781-783), smooth or unequallv echuiate or reticulated. BiBL. iBerk.i?r. Fl. (art. Uredo) Tulasne,
;

they form linear patches, ultimately containing smooth black spores. The greater number, however, occur in the parts of flowers, especially of gi-asses Ust. Carho (Uredo segetum, Pers.), forming the blight called smut of corn, com-

infesting wheat, oats (fig. 786), barley 787), and other grasses, filling the ears with a black powder of smooth spores,

monly
(fig.

Ann.

Sc. Xat.
;

3.

vii.

5,

ii.

157

De Bary,
CuHis^s

about 1-5000" in diameter in corn, sometimes about twice as large in the varieties
attacking species of Bromus.

Bramlpilze

Bauer

and

Banks,

The smut

of

UTERIA.

798

UVELLA.
muscular
fibres,

maize {U. maidis, fig. 788) has minutely echinate spores, 1-2500" in diameter. It is curious that when U. Antheattacks a dioecious plant, as Lychnis dioica, it causes the abortive stamens to be developed, and then finds its place in the uevs' anthers. Sedges are infested by Ust. urceolarum

oblique unstriated

inter-

woven with imperfectly developed

tissue resembling that in the

areolar

stroma of the

ranmi

ovary.

Three layers of muscular fibres are described, but they are intimately connected. Those in the cervix are principally transverse or circular
;

and immediately beneath

with dark-brown and

oUvacea with olive-colom-ed spores (Uredines, Br. Fl.)

Ust.

the mucous membrane at the mouth of the uterus, the transverse fibres form a
sphincter.

Fig. 788.

The muscular fibres are from 1-600 to 1-400" in length, fusiform, with elongate-oval nuclei, and very difiicidtly separable on account of the large amount of areolar tissue intermingled with them.

Fig. 789.

The epitheliumis simple The mucous ciliated. membrane of the body has
and
no papiUee, but here and there some folds, and contains

numerous tubular or

uterine glands resembling the Lieberkiihn's glands of the intestines, their csecal

ends being simple, bifurcate,

or spiral, and consisting of a basement-membrane with

cylinder-epithelium. In the cervix are situated glandular depressions of the

"

mucous meAbrane, which ^^^l^ZT^^^Z

secrete a transparent tena- after parturition, cioUS mucus ; some of these treated with acetic aeicl. , nuclei a, f , are closed, and torm the y, globules of fat. ovules of Naboth. Magnified The lower third or half 350 diameters, of the canal of the cernx contains papillee covered with ciHated epithelium. During gestation the uterine elements,
-I -I

Vortioii of a spike of Maize infested with Ustilatjo maidis. Some of the lower grains perfect and mature: above these, femah; flower with abortive ovaries. The projeeting bodies are grains which have become deformed by the Ustilago developed within them.

especially the muscular fibres, as also the vessels and probably the nerves, become

Ust. caitJicrarum, growing in the anthers of Caryophyllacese, has violet-coloured spores. Many other species are described by Tulasne, several of which have occurred in Britain. BiBL. Tulasne, Atin. Sc. Nat. 3. vii. 73, 4. ii. 157 Berk. Br. Fl. art. Uredo; Ann. N.
;

enlarged and more numerous, from new formation (fig. 790). All three of the coats of the veins of the pregnant uterus contain muscular fibres. After parturition, many of the muscular fibres imdergo fatty degeneration, and become absorbed (fig. 789). BiBL. Kolliker, Mikr. An. ii. Chrobak,
;

H.

2. V.

463.

StricJcer's Hist.

iii.

UTE'RIA, Mich.
consists of

See Thyrsopouklla.
substance of the uterus
transverse,

UTERUS.The

longitudinal,

and

UVEL'LA, Bory, Ehr. genus of Flagellate Infusoria, fam. Monadina. Bodies without an eye-spot, Char.

in^ELLA.
Fi{?.

799

VALLISNEKIA.

790.

UVICtERI'NA D'Orb.a genus of hyaline Foraminifera, near Poh/morphina, Shell made up of three series of inflated chambers,

alternating irregularly on an elongate spire, often ribbed ; orifice central, round, tubular, and lipped. The triserial alternation passes sometimes into a biserial and even a uniserial

growth

(Sar/rina, restricted).

Um/e-

world-wide in its distribution, and goes back to the Middle Tertiary I'eriod. U. pygmcsa (PI. 23. fig. 8). BiBL. D'Orbigny, Ann. Sc. Nat. vii. 209 Carpenter, For. 169 Parker & Jones, riiil.
rina
is
; ;

Tr. clv. 363.

V.

VAGINIC'OLA, Lamarck.A
a
I

genus

of Peritrichous Infusoria, fani. Vorticellina. Char. Bodies as in VorticeUa, single or in pairs, in a membranous urceolate sessile sheath. V. crystallina (PI. 32. fig. 19) Cofhurma

crystallina.

Sheath

crystalline, urceolate,

straight, internal

Muscular elements from a uterus

at five

tation, a, formative cells ; 6, young, c, fully muscular fibres. Magnified 3o0 diameters,

montha' gesdeveloped

granules green ; length 1-216". Several species, salt and freshwater. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 295 Clap. & Each. Inf. 126. VAGINULI'NA, D'Orb. Stichostegian subgenus of Noclosarina, with oblique
;

chambers.
V. hadenensis, D'Orb. (PI. 23. fig. 35). BiBL. Willia-mson,7<b?-?.21(Z>ento/zV?a) Jones, Parker, aud Brady, Monoyr. For.
Crar/, 63.
;

movmo- by means of two flagelliform filalueuts, aud aggregated into spherical revolving clusters.
JJ.

viresceiis

(PI.

32.

fig.

18).

Bodies
lateral

ovate, rounded at each end, with

two
;

bright green bands. Diameter of clusters fresh1-288", length of bodies 1-2016" water. The life-cycle of a cercomonad. One of the Uvellce has been described by DaUinger

VALKE'RIA, Flem. genus of Infundibidate Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Vesicular iidse. Char. Variou.sly branched cells oval, irregidarly clustered eight tentacles, but
; ;

no gizzard.
V.

cuscnta.
;

Stem with

subverticillate
;

and Drysdale. When mature it multiplies by fission for a period extending over from two to eight days. It then becomes peculiarly

branches cells in clusters or opposite pairs on marine Algae, shells &c.

F.

uva.
;

Stem

creeping,

irregularly

amoeboid

two

.slowly increa.se in size,

individuals coalesce, and become a sUghtly

branched
branched

cells scattered.

distended cyst. The cyst bursts, and incalculable hosts of excessively minute sporides are poured out, as if in a viscid fluid and these are scattered, and densely packed slowly enlarging, acquire flagella. They become active, attain rapidly the parent form, and once more increase by fission. BiBL. Dallinger and Drvsdale, Mn. Mic. Jn. 1873; Ehr. hif. 19;' Duj. Inf, 300;
;

V.jyustulosa. cells clustered, imilateral. ; V. tremella. Cells very small and slender.
;

Dichotomous or alternately

Mar.

BiBL. Johnst. Br. Zooph. 373 Gosse, Zool. ii. 20; Hiucks, Poh/z. 551.

VALLISNETtIA, Mich.An

aquatic

genus of Angiospermous Flowering Plants, belonging to the faniUy Hydrocharidacece. V. sjnralis, a native of the South of Europe, occurring wild also in North America, India,
&c.,
is

Kent, Inf. 406.

commonly grown

in jars for the sake

VALVULINA,

800

VASCULAR BUNDLES.

of observing the Rotation in the leaves. This plant is clicecious and the specimens ordiuarilv found in cidtivatiou are the pistillate forms, which often produce flowers, but the seeds, remaining unfertilized, never the plant increases rapidly, however, ripen by runners, if in a healthy condition. find it thrive well in any situation indoors near a window and not exposed to frost but it attains a far larger size in water kept at a
; ;

The vascidar bundles of petioles 660, page 711), &c., rimninginto leaves to form their ribs, and lying imbedded in parenchyma, resemble the Tmndles which form the rudiments of wood of the stem
trunks.
(tig.

itself.

The bundlesremain

isolated as fibrous

We

cords in the stemsof the herbaceous Monocotyledons, or are only combined into a wood, in the Palms &c., by the lignification of the cells of the parenchyma in which they are

high temperatiu'e, as in Victo)-ia-t&nks in It is necessary, when Botanic Gardens. growing it in jars, not to keep too many or
too large snails in the water, as they destroy the leaves. See Rotation. VALVULI'NA,D'Orb. genus of Arenaceous Foraminifera. Tj^icaUy it has a triserial, three-sided, pyramidal shell, with three chambers in a turn of its spire and a valved or tongued

imbedded

(fig.

461, p. 508).

In the Dicotyledons, the rudimentary bimdles are developed in a circle surrounding the pith (fig. 455, p. 495), and soon unite to form a tube of wood, with an external cambium layer and a true bark and the
j

Fig. 791.

compression disaptrochoid form, which becomes scale-like and flat. If the chambers fail to make a coil, an obliquely semioval shell is produced, with a broad oblique septal plane and a large valve, which bridges over the crescentic aperture with bars. The
aperture. pears in a

The

trifacial

common

noid

triangular form sometimes becomes Bulimiand often takes on a uniserial growth {Clamdina, restricted), either cylindric, triNumerous forms, carinate, or five-angled. recent and fossO. V. austriaca (PI. 23. f. 20).
;

BiBL. Parker & Joues, Ann, N. H. 3. v. 467 Carpenter, Forani. 146 Brady, Carh.
;
;

For., Pal. Soc. 1876, 81.

VAMPYREIi'LA, Hckl. A

doubtful

Body genus of Radiolarian Rhizopoda. red, rounded, without nucleus or contractile and with very slender pseudopodia. vesicle, These animals perforate the cells of Sinroyyra and Gompho}i)na,sm([ feed upon their contents. In the encysted condition, thoy are stated to possess an outer nitrogenous and an inner cellulose coat. BiBL. Haeckel, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1869, 33 ; SchuUzes Arch. 1876, xii. 24. VARI0LA'RL4.,Pers. A spurious genus of Lichens, founded upon imperfect forms

Monocotyledon.
Transverse section of a fibro-Tascular bundle of a the upper end is directed towards tlie centre of the stem. , woody fibres resembling liber iu structure s. V, spii-al vessels; c, cambium (vnsii propria);

Palm
;

d,

ducts

p,

parenchyma

/,

liber

I. c,

laticiferous

canals.

Magnified 150 diameters.

cambium

&c. BiBL. Hook. Br. Fl. rer. En. Crit. 229.

of

Pertusaria

ii.

pt. 1.

172

Scha3-

VASCULAli BUNDLES. This title is

layer is the seat of renewed development of the vascular bimdle in each On such characters of successive year. growth, Schleiden founded a division of the

applied to the fibrous cords which form the ribs, veins, &c. of the leaves, petioles and other appendicular organs of all plants ranking above the Mosses, and which by their confluence and more considerable development constitute the wood of stems and

vascular bundles into classes which are convenient in reference to microscopical investigations,

and affixed tolerably perfect syste-

matic characters to them. In the higher flowerless Plants, viz. Ferns, Eqiusetacese, &c., the vascidar bundles are

composed

chiefly

of

ducts, sui--

VASCULAR BUNDLES.

801

VASCULAR BUNDLES.

rounded by elongated tubular cells, almost devoid of secondary deposits, the whole enclosed by a layer of tolerably firm prosen-

spiral

tyledons, &c., the bmidles consist chiefly of vessels ; in tlie palms, bananas, &c.,

chymatous wood-cells, especially developed

in the Ferns.

In the Ferns, the ducts are

;

mostly of the kind called scalariform (fig. PL 48. lig. 10), in the Equi664, page 712 setacejTQ annular (fig. 061, page 711), in the Lycopodiaceje spiral (fig. 651), p^ge 711
;

the woody fibre extends also into the ribs of the foliaceous organs. In the Dicotyledons, the bundles of the stem appear first as a circle of cords composed of spiral vessels, around the pith, outside

which larger

vessels

and ducts, and

PI. 48. figs. 11 12). They are variously arranged in the diflferent orders, but agree in

&

the mode of development, namely in growing only at the end next the j^unctiun vegetutiouis, iu proportion to the elongation of the stem and the evolution of leaves. Hence Schleiden called them shmilkineotis bundles their various elements ducts, tubular and

subsequently woody fibre or wood-cells are developed, passing into the elongated proseuchymatous liber (fig. 792). The developFig. 792.

proseuchymatous

cells

being

formed

si-

multaneously. In the ^louocotyledons, where the vascidar bundles occur isolated, they originate iu the jmnctum vegetationis, and are developed with the growth of the stem, outwards and upwards into the leaves, and outwards and downwards towards the permanent circumference of the stem, old and new bundles crossing each other in a more or less com-

progressive bundles ; but as no new development occm-s in these in successive seasons, they are further distinguisbed fi-om those of The the' Dicotyledons as definite bundles. sti-uctm-e of the vasculai' bundles of Monocotyledons is very well seen, in difterent characteristic conditions, iu vertical and hoiizontal sections of the stems of the white lily, of the and rushes large grasses,rhizomes of sedges affording well-developed examples iu herbaceous structures of the bamboo (an arborescent grass), of the conunou cane or the of Palms), partridge cane (both species where the bundles are connected by lignified In leaves of bulbous Monoco-

manner (fig. 461, page 508). Here 791) the first trace of the vascular bundle consists of spiral vessels, followed on the outer side by spu'al, anniJai', or reticulated ducts next comes a collection of elongated tubular cells of delicate structure (vasa in-opria), and in the outer part, at first, a cambium region, which is gradually converted into proseuchymatous woody structui-e having the character of LiBEB-cells. In this case, the development is not only gradual from the imnctum vegetationis outward, but the iimer side of each bundle is of the perfected first, and the conversion outer part into wood occupies a whole season of growth. Hence these are entitled
plicated
(fig.
;

Dicotyledon. Transverse section of a fibro-vascular bundle of a the upper end next the centre of the stem. ; m. r, medullary rays w, p, pith ; s. y, spiral vessels wood d, pitted ducts ; c, cambium ; /, liber I. c, laticiferous canals c. e, cellular enTelope of the bark ; e, epidermis. Magnified .50 diameters.

Melon stem
;

ment

of the successive regions is irrogressive

;

fii-st season but here the cambium layer remains capable of renewed activity, and a new layer of wood (and of liber) is added on the outside of the bundle in each successive season hence these bundles are distinguished as indefinite. These may be observed iu sections and yoimg shoots of any common tree (figs. 455 & 4o7, pages 495 & 496).
;

dm-ing the

Infinite variety of modification occm's in the character and aiTangement of the vascular bundles within the limits above laid

down, or very slightly overstepping them. A few remarkable cases may be mentioned here in the Orobanchaceas (parasites) no
;

spiral vessels occur in the vascular bundles forming the wood; in Victoria reyia the isolated bimdles are composed of spiral

vessels without
cells
;

any proseuchymatous wood-

parenchyma.

other peculiarities, influencing moi'e

3f

VASICOLA.
especially the characters of

802

VAUCHERIA.

Wood^ are given Vasculose, the substance of which vessels are formed, is insoluble in hydrochloric and sulphuric acid, and in cojiper solution, but is soluble in
uudev
tiiat

article.

boiling caustic potash.

(See also

Cambium
Sachs,

and Medulla.)
BiBL.
ot.

Henfrev-Masters,

Bot.;

VASIC'OLA,Tatem.AgenusofHeterotrichous Infusoria.

Ovate, pointed behind

the ramifications of the filament) are found very densely filled with green contents, appearing almost black and if these ends are watched early in the morning, a remarkable series of phenomena is observed in them. The ends of the filaments about to produce gonidia are found swollen into a slightly clavate form the green contents of the club separate from the general contents of the filament, leaving a transparent space (fig.
; ;

anterior, surrounded by long cilia; contained in a transparent carapace. V. ciliata ; pond- water. (Tatem, 3Li. Mtc. Ju. i. 117 ; Kent, Inf. Gl-S.)

mouth

703) then, having as it were acquired a definite independence, the isolated mass retui'us so as to fill up the transverse light
;

VAUCHE'RIA,D.C. An important and

to the microscopist a most interesting genus of SiphonacefB (Confervoid Algse), consistiufiof gieen filamentous plants growing in fresh

space, but does not again coalesce with the lower mass of contents. Next, a light space is observed between the surface of the terminal body of contents and the cellulose

and

salt

terized

water and on damp ground, characby the continuity of the cavity

Fig. 793.

Fig. 794.

throughout the branched tubular filament (sometimes several inches long) of which each plant is composed, and by the modes of reproduction, both by gonidia and by spores. VaucJieri(einajhe gathered on damp borders
in every garden, or

li

by the

sides of ditches,
;

where they form

fine silky green tufts

the\'

are very variable in form and size, so that the specific distinctions heretofore laid down appear to be worth httle. The ordinarily occurring species presents itself as a tubular cell of comparatively gigantic dimensions, containing more or less protoplasm, coloured by chlorophyll in the form of minute granules applied upon the wall or occupying more or less of the cavity. The green granules may be seen to lie imbedded in a colourless protoplasm at the inner surface of the cellidose wall and it is curious to observe when the filament is accidentally or intentionally ruptm-ed that the green granules which may escape are contained in
;

A'aucheria Ungeri.
Fig. 793. Fig. 791.

End

of a filament in which a gonidium

illament:.

is

being developed.

Gonidium escaping from the

Magnified 50 diameters.

a mucous investment, which soon rounds itself into a globular body, of size proportionate to the quantitv of green granules extruded these globules sometimes e^en exhibit a sUght rolling movement, but they
;

wall surrounding it and the latter soon gives away at the apex, forming a passage for the escape of the contents. This mass of contents is now clearly recognizable as the it graduallv extri(jonidium or zoospore cates itself from the tube, with a rotatt^rv
; ;

appear ultimately to decay. Such globules sometimes occur inside tlie filaments, when the growth is unhealthy; and Itzigsohn calls
spennatospheres, stating tliat they produce spermatozoids. This, like all this author's observations, requii'es confirmation. If the Frt)/67<e/v-filaments are gathered at a favourable epoch, or if they are cultivated in a vessel of waler well exposed to light, the blmd ends of the filaments (or rather of

motion around its own axis and it exhibits a remarkable elasticity of structure, givingway and altering its form (fig. 794) to sfiueeze tlirough the narrow orifice of es" " pinched in cape. Sometimes it becomes
;

this process into

two independent gonidia

size.
it

them

As soon as it has assumes an elliptical form, increa.ses much in size, and is seen to be covered with inmunerable vibratile cilia (fig. 790); arising from its gelatinous (proof half the usual
perfectly emerged,

toplasmic) coat (these are rendered much more distinct by applying tinctm'e of

VAUCHERIA.
iodine)
:

808

VAUCHERIA.

no cellulose membrane exists at and the <i:oiiidiiuu swims .about actively inth e water, rovolvinf^ on its long
this time
;

of the filaments have a remarkvegetative able tenacity of life ; for if the tube is slightly Fig. 797.

axis.

The

large

number

of cilia existing on

Fig. 798.

Fig. 795.

Fig. 796.

Vauoheria Ungeri.
Pig. 795.

Vaucheria Ungeri.
Fig. 797. G-onidia germinating, diameters.
Fig. 79S.

has escaped.
Pig.
79i5.

End of the filament from wliich the gonidiimi

Majjiiilied

Magnified about 15

50 diameters.

Gonidiuin which has been treated with iodine and dried between two slips of glass, showing the cilia very clearly. Magniiied 110 diameters.

naif parent tube; the left-hand figure, hal'' a divided gonidiuia. Magniiied 25 diameters.

Filament with gonidia germinating in the '' '

this

from
lieve

gonidium distinguish it remarkably all others but we are inclined to bethat there is a nearer relationship than
.

appears at first sight. The green substance at the surface of the gonidium presents a pecidiar granular or globidar appearance; and it appears not far-fetched to regard this body as composed of a densely combined family of ordinary two- or four-ciliated zoospores, such as would be formed by the

swarming-spores of Hydrodictyon if they remained in theii' primitive crowded condition. This, however, is a point requiring further examination. The end of the tube from which the gonidium has escaped appears as a hyaline sac (fig. 795 j, which soon decays down to the point where the contents parted, where a septum, now closing
the tube,
is

injured at any point, the primordial utricle commonly retracts from the wound, and secretes a cellulose layer (Xi its surface, Filaments shutting off" the injured part. are sometimes met with having several living regions of this kind, shooting out into branches, separated from each other by dead, empty lengths of the filament. Besides the vegetative reproduction above described, the Vaucherice are repz'oduced by spores formed by the concurrence of two distinct kinds of reproductive organs. Fila-

ments growing on damp ground ordinarily

exhibit lateral organs of two kinds, associated together, but variously gi-ouped and collected in varying numbers at particular points, apparently according to external The larger kind of organ, or conditions. sporangium, appears first as a pouch-like process, which expands into a short flaskshaped body, stalked or sessile, the neck of which is gradually turned over in the development, until it projects at one side ; the form then somewhat resembling that of a bird's head (or a chemist's glass retort cut off short at the neck, PL o. fig. 12 a, b, s).

developed.

After swimming about for some time, from one to several hours (usually about two), the gonidium falls to the bottom of the vessel, its cilia disappear, and it assumes a spherical form, acquiring very soon a diafter this it soon gerstinct cellulose coat minates by pushing out one or more tubular
;

processes (fig. 797), which grow up into filaments like the parent. Sometimes the gonidium cannot make its escape sometimes half of it escapes and becomes pinched oft, the other half being left behind in these cases, the arrested body, or the remaining portion of the divided one, germinates in
;
:

Near

this,

on the main filament, or on a

or more of the sporangia, is developed another organ, the antheridiuni, at first straight and tubular, but soon curving over into the form of a hook or

common pedicel with one

situ (fig. 798). It should be

mentioned that the contents

without however expanding (PI. 5. 12 A, B, a). The sporangium becomes filled with dense green granular matter, and cut off" by a septum from the main filament,
scroll,
fig.

3f2

VEGETABLE IVORY.
The upper part
wise cut
oft'
;

804

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
large
of

of tlie antheridium is likeby a septimi and when matiu'e it bursts at the apex and discharges biciliated spermatozoids resembling those of Fucus, which enter the simultaneously opened neck of the sporange and fertilize its granular The contents become isolated contents. from the wall, secrete a proper coat, and form a free cell (spore) lying in the sporange,
its

VEGETABLE IvINGDOM.The
number of Natural Orders
Flowering

Angiospermous
subordinate

brown
are

green granular matter gradually becomingTwo coats, at least, (PI. 5. fig. 12 c).

developed ; and the spore idtimately escapes by the decay of the parent filament and sporange. According to Pringsheim, about thi'ee months elapse before germination, in which process the outer spore-coat inner grows out into a splits, and the tube, forming the basis of a new ramification of the Vaucheria-Hlaiiient. In the systematic works on Algology, nimierous species of aquatic and land T^aubut we agree with cherics are described Thiu'et in believing that the characters by which most of the forms are distinguished are imessential, therefore we omit any synE^sen V. racemosa, Ueopsis of them. caisne, appears merely an extreme of the
;

the Plants, characters of their diversities in microscopic structui-e, lead us to depart from the plan on which the Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom is given and carry it into effect hei'e only in reference to the Cryptogamic For the microscopic phenomena in plants. the Phanerogamia described in this work, reference shoidd be made to the articles Embryo, Ovule, Tissues, Wood, &e.

and

Ivingdom
Subk.
1.

VEGETABILIA.

Phanerogamia. Flowering plants.

Division I. Anyiospermia. Class I. Dicotyledons.

Class II.

Most common ti'ees and herbs. Monocotyledons.

Grasses, rushes, most bulbous plants, palms, kc. Division 2. Gymnospermia. Class III. C0NIFEB.aE.
Firs, pines,

yew.

Class IV. CYCADACEiE.

kind of development producing V. yeminata. Thuret proposes the name V. Ungeri, to include allbut V. racemosa; Hassall suppresses the name V. clavata, as indicating a form common to all the species, of which he deWe do not find scribes a large number.

Cycas, Zamia.

Subk.

2.

Cryptogamia.

Flowerless plants.

Division 1. Contiophytes or Acroyens. Class I. Lycopodiales.

Order
Order

1.

Mabstleaceje.

any thing
racters

sufficiently distinctive in the cha-

Pilularia, Pill-wort.
2.

of the

marine

species

cited

by

Lyx-opodiace^.

?5
GC o

Harvey. BiBL. Vaucher, Conferves d'eau douce (Ectosperma) HassaU,^/^. Harvey, Mar. Alf/. 195; Unger, Nova Acta, xiii. 11, I}ie Pflanze im Mom. cler Thicrwcrdiuuj 1843 Decaisne, Ann. Sc. Nat. 2. xvii. 430 Thuret, ilnd. xix. 2G6 Ivarsten, Bot. Zeit. x. 85, xv. 1 Pringsh. Ber. Berl. Ak. 1855 Ann. N. H. 2. XV. 346 Braun, Verjilng. (Ray Soc), NiigeH, Neues AlyenAly. imicelL, 8, 105 Itzigsohn, Bot. Zeit. xi. syst, 175, pi. 4 225 Rabenht. Dippel, Flora, 1856, 481 Aly. iii. 267 Sachs, Bot. 275. VEGETABLE IVORY.This substance
;

Club-mosses.
Class II. Filicales.

o
58

Order
Order

1.

Filicace^.
Equisetace^e.

Ferns.
2.

Horse-tails. Class III. Muscales.

Order

1.

MusCACEiE.

Mosses.

Order 2. Hepatic^. Liverworts and Scale-Mosses. (Order of uncertain place, ChaRACEiE.)

Division 2. JliaUophytes. Class I. Alg.*;.

consists of

called Phytelephas macrocarpa, and is composed of a large round mass of bimy Albi^mex, in which a small embryo is imbedded. Slices of this ivory-hke albumen, placed under the microscope, afford very beautiful examples of vegetable cells with the cavities almost obliterated by Secondary deposits (PI. 47. fig-. 23).

the seeds

of

the

Palm

Order

1.

Florid EiE.
Fucoide^.

lied sea-weeds.

Order

2.

Olive sea-weeds.
(Pha20sporea3.)

Order 3. Confertoideje. Green silk-weeds, slime-weeds, and brittle-\veeds(Diatomaceai).

VEINS.
Class II. Lichens, Class III. Fungi.

806

VERRUCARIA.

Order

1.

Sciiizomycetes.

but greyish red, containing more connective tissue aud fewer elastic fibres aud muscles ; in addition to the transverse, it has longitudinal layers. The outer coat is usually the thickest, agreeing with that of tlie arteries, except that in many veius, especially those
of the abdominal cavity, it contains welldeveloped longitudinal muscular fibres.

Bacterixm, Vibrio.

Order
Order

-2.

Phycomycetes.
IIvpODERMiiE.

-Moulds aud mildews.

3.

Uredineaj, Ustilagineae, smuts, &c.

Order

4. Basidiomycetes. Mushrooms, toad-stools, puff-balls. Order 5. Ascomycetes.

The
^-^'c,

veins of the brain, the bones, retina, contain no muscular fibres. The large veins, near the heart, contain
;

Truffles, morells, &c. Ordin- G. Myxomycetes.

Trichia, JEthalium, Lycogala,

BiBli.
liclier,

Lindley, Veg. Kingdom; Gen. Plant. Fries, Summa

;

EndVeget.

Cowse ; Scan.; Heufrey-Masters, Elem. Sachs, Lehrb. Bot. VEINS OF A^^iJiALS. The walls of the veius are thinner than those of the arteries, which arises principally from the less development of the contractile and elastic elements. The inner coat is less developed, but otherwise ao-rees with that of the arteries in structure. The middle coat is not yellow,

mal Kingdom,

VEINS OF Plants. The name commonly applied to the ramifications of the Vascular bundles, forming the ribs of leaves and similar organs, VENILI'NA, Giimbel. SeeTEXxuLARiA. (Giimbel, Tr. Munich Acad. cl. 2, x. Q^^). VERMES.A subkingdom of the Ani-

transverse striated musciUar fibres. BiBL. Kolliker, Hist. ii. ^hexi\x,Stricker''s Hist. ; Frey, Hist.

VERMICULA'RIA, Fr. a genus of Sphserouemei (Coniomycetous Fungi), but seemingly stylosporous states of Spheeriacei, most of the species being included under
Sphceria
ia.

the British Flora.

Fio-.

799,

on decaying stalks, leaves, or wood. S. relicina, Dematium, cuhnifraga, trichella, and others of the Br. Fl. belong here. Another species, V. atramentaria, is common on decaying potato-stems, forming black velvety This is distinguished from V. patches.

They grow"

Dematium by
istic.

its

straight spores.

The erect

black hairs of the perithecia are character-

Ann. N. H. 2
419.

BiBL. Berk. Br. Flor. ii. pt. 2. 274, &:c., v. 378; Fries, Smn. Veg.

VERMILION, or bisulphuret of mercury, used as a pigment for injecting. It should be in a finely divided state, in which it is best obtained by levigation, and should not exhibit any white crystalline particles when examined as an opaque objeft. VERNEUILI'NA, D'Orb, See Textuis

lama.

VERRUCA'RIA, Pers. genus of Pyrenodei (Lichenaceous Lichens), containing numerous species having a cioistaceous or
cartilagineo-membranous thallus growing upon and adherent to the bark of trees or stones ; named from the wart-like ])rocesses
Longitndiuiil ecouon of the vena cava inferior, near the liver, a, inner coat b, middle coat without muscular fibres ; c, inner layer of the outer coat a, its longitudinal muscles; fi, its transverse areolar elements; d, outer portion of the outer coat, without muscles. Magnified 30 diameters.
;

corresponding to the perithecia, which open by a pore at the surface. The perithecia have a black rind, enclosing either the whole or the upper half of the nucleus.

The spermogonia much resemble the

peri-

VERTEBRALINA.
;

806

VESSELS.

they thecia, only they are mucli smaller occur either scattered among the perithecia, or collected towards the margins of the
thallus.

Leighiow,Lich. Fl. 444 Schferer, Emtm. crit. 213 Tiilasne, Aim. Sc. Nat. 3. xvii. 215, pi. 3, VERTEBEALI'NA, D'Orh. genus of Porcellaneous Foraminifera, near Milioia.
;

Species very mmierous. BiBL. Hook. Br. Ft. ii. pt. 1. 152
;

VESICULARITDJE. family of Infundibulate Ctenostomatous Polyzoa. Char. Polypidom plant-like, horny, tubular cells free, deciduous, the ends flexible
;

and

invertile.

Genera

Serialaria
filiform,

(Amafhia). erect, branched

Shoots slender,
;

cells tubular,

ad-

herent, uniserial and unilateral, rows interrupted by blank intervals tentacles eight.
;

Char. Shell free, regular, greatly compressed, mostly inequilateral, more convex on one side than on the other, suborbicular or elongate spire embracing in the young state only, afterwards straight; chambersin the spire, two or three; orifice a large patulous apertm-e along the septal plane.
;

Shoots branched, jointed cells oval, distinct, uniserial and unilateral eight tentacles, and a gizzard. J'alkeria. Variously branched cells oval, irregularly clustered eight tentacles, no
Vesicularia.
; ;
;

See Articulina and Renulites.

One

recent British species V. striata (PI. 23. fig. 10).

gizzard. Miviosella. Variously branched ; cells ovate, in two rows, opposite, jointed at the base ; eight tentacles and a gizzard. Avcnclla. Filifonn, creeping,
; ;

BiBL. Williamson, Bvc. For. 89

penter, Intrvcl.

Car-

VERTICIL'LIUM, Nees. A

For. 72.

genus of
distin-

nearly simple cells large, solitary, scattered, in one row, slightly contracted at tlie top, curved twenty to twenty-four tentacles, and a small
gizzard. Kolella.

Mucedines (Hyphomycetous Fungi),

guished from Botrrjtis (under which it is included, with

Cells

erect,

subcjdindrieal,

Fig. 800.

by Fries) Acrostalagmns, chiefly by the verticillate arrangement of the spoiifernumber of ous branches. but, species are described from the observations of Iloftmann and Bail on the germination of Tricothecinm, this genus represents only one form of the plants belonging V. niherrito other genera,

crowded on tubes which form an undefined iucrusting mat tentacles eighteen. Bou-erbankia (PI. 18. fig. 19). Matted and creeping, or erect and irregularly
;

cells tubular, densely clustered'; tentacles eight to ten, and a sti'ong gizzard. Farrella. As Bou-erbankia^ but tentacles

branched;

twelve to thirty, and no gizzard.

Branched palmately, one Anguinella. tube springing from another, largely composed of mud animals with twelve tenta;

cles

and no gizzard.
; ;

ficilloidcs,

vtmn, Bonorden {Botrijtis rerOorda, which Hulfmaun regards as identical with v.itic-iiiium Acrostalaf/mus 2)arasifaiis and cylimU-osporum. 200 cimmharimis), having been Magnified , p dinmetcrs. ., c T, raised from the spores ot i ri" " clwthecium rustnim, and its being spores barren (see Trichotiiecium). Berkeley

3Iar. Zool.

BiBL. Johnston, Br. Zooph. 307 Gosse, ii. 19 Hincks, Pohjz. 512.

VES'PA,Linn.- Vcsjm vuhinris, thewasp,

are readily acces-

and V. crahro, the hornet,

sible insects for the

examination of the sting

(Sting).

VESSELS

OF Animals. See Arteries,

and Broome describe and

species.
figs.

figure several
vii.

new

Lymphatic system, and Veins. VESSFJjS of Plants. This name was

BiBL. Ann. N. II. 2. 15-18; Fries, Smn.

101, pi. 7.
(Ilofri/tis),

Vvij,

491.

genns of Infundibulato Ctenostomatous Polyzoa, of the family Vesiculariidic. V. spinosa, the only species, general on marine shells, kc.

VESICULA'RIA, Thomps. A

See also Triciiotuecium.

applied by the enrlier observers to various elongaled (ubidar siriiclures of vegetable tissues, I'rom an id(\a tliat t]u>y corresponded with the vessels uf animals; and the name is still retaini'd. The spiral, aiunilar, &c. vessels are described under Si'Irai, Struc-

tures.

The term

vessel is

now

gent-rally

contrasted with duct, to indicate a single long tubular cell, or row of conlliu'nt eloncells, with spiral (-econdary deposits their walls, in contr-adistiucliun to a canal formed of a row of cells, with pitted

gated

BiBL. Thompson, Zool. Illustr. 98 Johnston, Br. Zooph. 370; Hincks, Pobjz. 512.
;

upon

VIBRIO.

807

VILLI.

secondary deposits, applied end to end and conHuent. The Latioiferous tubes are

V. se7'pen8. Smaller than the last, with tlu'ee or four undulations. In infusions &c.

sometimes called
cetes.

laticiforous or

milk

vessels.

BiBL. Ehr.
bonlit.
iii.

VIB'RIO, Miill. A genus of SckizorayChar. Filiform, more or less distinctly flexible, jointed from imperfect division movement undulatory, like that of a serpent. Theso filamentous bodies are extremely minute their simple structure is best seen
;
;

/??/.

77

Duj. Lif. 216;

tritici.

Ra-

71.

Vibrio /;7V/ri=ANOUiiiLULA

genus of Ctenostomatous Polyzoa. ('ells formed in open enlargements of the creeping stem; tentacles few no gizzard. V. pamla, YGvy minntQ; on Cordylophora
;

VICTOREL'LA, Kent, A

hicustris, in

when thev
V.
hyaline,

are dried.
(PI.
7.
fig.

rvgula
in

19).

Filaments
tortuoiis

BiBL. Hincks,

Kent,

brackish water. Qu. Mic. Jn.

1870,

31;

Polijz. .559.

distinctly jointed,

very
;

when
cilium.
1-1

motion.

Warming

describes

In decomposing infusions
.

a breadth

2000'

V. haciUus (PI. 7. fig. 21). Filaments elongate, hyaline, joints sometimes distinct onlv after drying, flexuous in their slow

motiou; length 1-288"

Fig. 801.

breadth 1-1700".

are minute folds or prolongations of the mucous membrane of the small intestines. They are most numerous in the jejunum and ileum in the former, conical and flattened, sometimes plate-like, cylindi'ical, club-shaped or filiform, while in the latter they are broader and flattened.

VILLI.

These

Fig. 802.

Two villi with their epithelium, from a rabbit: a, epithelium; 6, parenchyma. B ma^mUed .300 djameters. A row of detached epithelial cells: ff, membrane separated bv water. C. magmflcd 3oO diameters. Detached epithelial cells a with, h without the separated membrane e, surface view of some epithelial cells.
:

nifled 3o0 diameters. Fig. 802. >1, magniflcd 75 diameters

^a

Fig. 801. Intestinal villus of a kitten free from epitlieliimi, and after treatment with acetic acid: a, boundary of '"' nuclei ofthe muscular fibres; c/, roundish nuclei in the middle of the villus. ,'o?A^;.- J*''!"*''""'^''' Mae^>

The villi form solid processes of the mucous membrane, consisting of connective tissue without elastic elements, but abound-

blood-vessels,

ing in roundish nuclei; containing also lymphatics, and uustriated

fibres.'

muscular

VINCA.

808

^INE-FUNGUS.
48.
fig.

The villi are exceedingly vascular, and form beautiful microscopic objects when a network of capillaries injected, exhibiting with rounded or elongate meshes
Fio-.

striated liber-fibres (PI.

30).

See

Spikal Stkucturks.
Fig. 804.

803.

Fig. 804.

Two

contracted villi, from a 60 diameters.

eat.

Magnified

VINE-FUNGUS.

The

vine-mildew,
in recent

Oidium Tuckeri, Berk., which has

years caused such extensive destruction, has

formed a subject of investigation for most of the principal mycologists and notwith;

x'uri^r
Fig. 803.

II,

calf, without epitheliiun, and containing each a lacteal vessel after treatment with dilute solution of soda. Magnified 3.50 diameters.
villi
;

Two

from a

of

Each villus contains a lacteal, the origin which commences either in a single ccecal

dilatation, or in a network of branches. Tlie muscular fibres form a thin layer, not very distiuct in man, suvrouuding the
lacteals, and capable of greatl>- contracting or sliorteuing the villi. The epithelial cells are intimatelv connected with each other, but easily detached from the villi, often in groups or rows the free surface is longitudinally striated. When acted upon by water, the cell-membrano at the surface is separated, leaving a clear space between the granular cell-contents and tlii^ former. BiBL. Kiilliker, Mikrosk. Anat. ii. VINCA, L. The generic name of the garden plants called Periwinkles interesting to microscopists on account of their
;

natm'al history is not yet wholly cleared up, many interesting points As it ordinarily have been discovered. appears, it forms a white and very delicate cottony layer upon the leaves, young shoots, and fruit of the vine, soon causing a production of brown spots upon the green structures, and subsequently a hardening and a destruction of the vitality of the surface. Under the microscope, the white substance is seen to be composed of delicate ramified filaments, creeping horizontally over the surface, and, when the phuit is much developed, forming a dense interlacement. The hoiizontal filaments exhibit few septa, these occurring at the points of branching, and they do not penetrate into (he inferior of the epidermal layer here

standing that

its

however, they are found fixed to the epidermis by a more or less develojied organ of attachment, consisting of a disk or lobed expansion, comparable roughly to tlie so-called root of some of the Fucoid Algaj, which adheres firmly to the cuticle, and when removed, lea\es a brownif^h scar betlicre,

and

hind.

The

destructive

eft'ect

of the

Fungus

seems to

arresting the development of th(^ epidermis, by binding its structiu'es together, and excluding the surarise
its

from

VINE-FTTNGUS.

800
'

VINE-FUNGUS.
tlieir interior,

faoe from the iiifluonco of tlie air, since when young biu'ries are invaded, the inter-

spornles' in

with their outer

membrane

nal development proceeds, and the sphacelated epidermis preventing the natural exIn this pansion, the grapes burst and rot. case, species of Botrytis, &c. appear upon the decomposing pulp, as on all siniilai" substances ; and these must be distinguished
fi'om the proper mildew. leaves are allected lo a

finely })unetate ; and in very rare cases this form of fruit was not composed of a single terminal cell, but indipresented cations of cross septa, as it two or more

When

the smnmit of the pedicel were confluent into one sac ; here the pmictuation of the surface was veiy strongly marked.
cells of

full-grown

moderate extent,

the vitality is often only partially affected, causing a laxity of the tissue, and more or less fading of the green colour, without inevitable decay. When the mildew is observed with a low magnifier, its surface exhibits a mealy appearance, arising from minute bead-like or pearly shining bodies of oval form and the application of sufficient power shows that the horizontal filaments bear numerous erect branches or pedicels, consisting of short-jointed filaments (PI. 26. fig. 8), the terminal cells of which (oi* the last two) are elliptical and expanded. These terminal cells are soon matured, and then fall off"; vast numbers of them are produced, and are found lying upon the surface among the
;

Thus far we depend upon our own observations but Mohl, Tulasne, and others describe a still more highly developed fi'uit than that last noticed they have foinid the terminal body, producing sporules,' with a distinct celliilar coat (Pi. 20. fig. 12), from which the sporules are discharged by a terminal dehiscence. Mohl found this body, have very rarely, of spherical form. never seen this cellular coat in the cases we have met with, the coat was certainly only punctate or tubercular probably the structure was not mature, nevertheless the
;
:

We

creeping filaments, where they quickly germinate (PI. 2(3. fig. 9) and produce new The fungus, as ramifications of mycelium.

were distinctly evident. These phenomena, exhibited by the Vinefungus, clearly agree with those exhibited by the Oidia always accompanying certain Erysiph^e, as described under that article and therefore most of the authors who have written on this subject conclude that the Vine-fungus is really an Erysiplie, of which
sporules
;

'

thus desciibed, constitutes the Otdiiim proper and the deciduous terminal cells form But the history of the so-called spores. the development of the mildew does not
;

cease here.

In the

first place,

the detached

'

'

spores

do not always produce a filament as represented in fig. 9; some of them present,

while slill attached, a kind of segmentation of the protoplasmic contents (fig. 10) and detached examples are found filled with
;

the perfect, ascophorous fi-uit has not j^et been discovered. comparison of figure 12, PI, 26, from the Vine-, copied from Mohl, with those of the Wa^-Erysiphe, fig. 14, will show the agreement of structure between the two plants. It remains only to add a few remarks as to the interpretation or nomenclature of the

Mohl, Tulasne, &:c. have denominated the simple spores above described (figs. 8, 9) coiiidia but as we have
different organs.
' '

minute
form.

'

'

sporides

of
'

These minute

spoiniles

elongated-elliptical ' are either

'

stated, the cells are convertible into what may be called sporanyes, producing 'sporules' (or true spores) without alteration of

discharged by a dehiscence of the spore and then germinate, or sometimes (fig. 11), they germinate in situ and send out slender filaments through the walls of the spore. have found also that the large filaments ' produced by the simple large spore (fig. 9) do not always at once form a regular mycelium, but sometimes give rise to slender in a point bearingpedicels, terminating minute solitary corpuscles of about the size and form of the 'sporules' above described, and resembling the spermatid of many of the higher Fungi. In addition to this, we have sometimes ' observed those spores which produce the

'

We

'

structure. their walls become cellular (fig. 12), the sporangial character is more decided ; but as the Erysiphce produce a more perfect sporanye, in which asci are developed, the name of pycnidia is applied

When

This fruit it was which gave rise to them. to the establishment of a supposed distinct genus, by Cesati, under the name of Ampelomyces while Ehreuberg, also regarding it as a distinct plan.t, made it the type of a genus called Cicinobohis, on account of the pecidiar tendril-like extrusion of the 'spoMohl distinguishes it as rules (fig. 12s). the Cici7iobolus-h'mt, which he, like Tidasne, finds constantly associated with other (un;

'

'

VINEGAR.
doubted) Erysiphce
different
is

810

VINEGAE-PLANT.
the organized portion but the mode of origin of this jelly is not yet ascertained. Imbedded in the jelly are cellular structures, polymorphous indeed, but exhibiting transitions which render it impossible to regard them as of distinct origin. In the middle
;

(fig.

14), in very slightly

it

and equally irregidar forms. There can be no doubt Avhatever, that

the cause and not a consequence of the 'murrain;' still there are various curious circumstances connected with it not at all
It is probable that peculiar understood. atmospheric conditions induce predisposing states of the plants but the phenomena
:

are enigmatical we have had it completely covering a vine in a small greenhouse, de:

the fruit one year; and although stroying no precautions were taken (as it was desired to study the disease), no sign of mildew appeared there the next year wliUe on an out-door trellis, a few yards oif, the disease reappeared in a slight form in the second The application of sulphur appears season. to arrest the growth. BiBL. Berkelev, Qardener''s Chron. 1847, Monno. 48 ; Jn. BoH. Soc. vi. 284, ix. 01
all
; ;

tague, Bull. Soc.

Iloi't.

Centr. Agric,

2. v.

Jn.

Soc, ix. 112; Amici, Atti cMF Accad. de' GeorffofiU, xxx., Jn. Hort. Soc. viii. 231 :

the cells of Yeast when coherent, except that they are generally elliptical some of them have short cylindrical joints others short cylindrical portions arising from long tubular filaments, and terminating in elliptical cells, so as to resemble exactly Oidium. The diameter of all these structures is most In the variable, from 1-4000 to 1-8000". upper part, the elongated branched filaments more aboimd, the length of the intemodes and the diameter of the tubes still varying extremely. At the lower, laxer surface^ the ceUiilar structures are accompanied by less of the tough gelatinous matrix. The lamination of the lower growing surface is very
; :

often occiu' innumerable isolated masses of short rows of cells, resembling

portion

curious, but

may

perhaps be accounted for

Savi, ibid. 241

Tulasne, Bot. Zeit.

xxx'^ii.
;

Compt. Bendus,

2o7 Thuemeu, Pihe d.

xi.

Weinstocke, 1878.

VINEGAR, Eels in. See Anguillttla. VINEGAR-PLANT.Under this name is known a remarkable vegetable production formed in fluids rich in sugar, when undergoing fermentation at ordinaiy temperatures

and conversion into vinegar. As ordinarily it forms a tough gelatinous mass floating on the surface of the liquid, its shape (superficially) defined by that of the vessel in which it is contained, extending itself so as to occupy the whole surface even

met with,

by supposing that the inferior growing surface of the mass, which is certainly the mycelium of a fimgus, periodically produces a crop of conidia, which become detached and fall into the body of the liquid on which the mass floats there quickly germinating, they form a new entangled mass of filaments and chaplets of cells, which then acquires its gelatinous consistence, and, buoyed up by the liquid, applies itself against the lower surface of the parent mass, with which it adhei-es, more or less, on account of the gela;

in very large pans,

its depth or thickness age and the amount of ulitriment contained in the liquid. The gelatinous substance decreases in density from above downwards, the lower part being very lax and flocculent, the inferior surface being The in a state of continuous development. general mass, however, displays remarkable

depending on

its

tinous condition. In the upper part of old and thick masses, the layers become inseparable probably in some measure from the pressure of the floating force from below, together witli the condensation arising fi'om the evaporation of the liquid of the jelly at the upper surfiice.

When

a vinegar-plant

is

left

upon the

renders
strip

tenacity, which, together with its lubricity, it difiicult to tear ; but if the lower surfiice is examined, it is found possible to
ofl"

layer

aftei*

thick, to an extent

layer, each a few lines depending on conditions

of growth, the lower, less dense portion being thus distinctly stratified. When portions are placed beneath the microscope, very varied forms of structure are discovered in the interior. The general mass of jelly appears structureless, as if formed by some exudation, or solution of

common " mother "

its

is exhausted, we find it always display, after a certain time, patches of the ordinary fructification of PENICILL,IUM///?<eH?H (fig. 805), as stated by Turpin and others, forming and yellow "mould'' upon the green, blue, surface, and imbedded in the upper strata, in which also heaps of the spores occur; the vinegar sometimes ultimately suffers more or less decomposition, so that the

solution after the saccharine matter

of vineo'ar,

which by

gT0^vth destroys the acidity, appears to be another condition of this same organism. In some cases where we kept an

^'INEGAR-PLA.NT.
exhausted liquid in the dark for some

BU

VITTiE.

exactly resembling the articulations of some of the moniliform structures of the vinegar-

mouths, the acidity

of the

vinegar disappeared, the gelatinous layer becauio

greatly

condensed,
tint,

which readily separate into their All these phenomena component cells. require further investigation, to which longcontiuued and constant observation must be applied in order to ascertain with certainty
plant,

and assumed a
crimson

and

briglit re-

the relation the different objects bear to each other. It is a kind of research occu-

mained as a dull-red

membranous film, a like somewhat smear of blood when

di'ied

upon paper. tlie above observations it woidd

pying much time, and demanding great care and patience, but calculated to repay the trouble far better than the amassing of isolated characters of forms seen at different Furperiods and under special conditions.
ther particulars concerning various points treated in this article will be found mider

From

Penicillium. appear that the vinea ^1^"* ("'"" gar-plant consists ofH'^f'cl.of bearing strings of spores. the mycelium of Peni250 diametera-

the heads

Fermentation, Oidium, Peni-

ciUinm glamum^ vegetating actively and increasing also by crops This opinion is enof conklia or gemmre. tertained by Turpin, Berkeley, and other observers; and the various genera and species founded on the different forms of structm'e occurring in it cannot be entertained among these are Ulcma, Kiitz., and species But the of Hygrocrocis, Leptomitns, ike. moniliform growth is at the same time scarceK distinguishable from the Yeastplant by any satisfactory characters and repeated observations strongly impress us with the idea, that these objects are all the viuegar-plant referable to one species, being the form of vegetative growth taking place at low or ordinary temperatures in highly saccharine liquids, while the true yeast-plant'or Torida is formed in the more rapid fermentation taking place at more Another circumelevated temperatures.
:

Magnified

cillium, ToRULA, and Yeast. BiBL. Turpin, Mem. cle VInstifnf, xvii. 135 Berkeley, Jn. Hort. Soc. iii.91 Lindley'a
; ;

Med. Bot. 17; Fresenius, Beitr. z. Mycol. Heft ii. 77 Slack, Tr. Mic. Soc. I860, 10. VIRGULA'RIA.A genus of Pemiatu;

V. mirabilis is found in British seas, and has a long rod-like support to the short polype-bearing fringes. VIRGULI'NA, D'Orb. subgenus of
lidae (Alcyonaria).

Bulimina, having outdrawn, very delicate, and smooth biserial shells, with extremely fine pores. The regular VirgnUnce are typified b}^ V, squamosa, those of less regular growth by 7^'. Schreihersii. The only variety taking on a sandy condition, becoming delicately rugose or subarenaceous, is V.Hemprichii, common in the Indian seas and in some Tertiary and Cretaceous strata, having

muddy

stance, mentioned under

Penicillium,

is

that we have foimd stale beer-gi'ounds, kept at a rather low temperature, always ultimately acquire a gelatinous crust, on which

dull shells of very variable growth, and presenting passages of form between V. Schreihersii and Bulimina proper. See BoLiviNA and Bulimina. Common, recent and fossil. The extreme subcylindrical modification of Virgtdina is PleurostomeUa, Reuss the
;

bi-uui-serial modification is Bifarina, P.&J.

PeniciUutm-hmt becomes developed. In Connexion with this subject may be mentioned the objects called C'rijptoccoccus blood on bread,*' <jh(tinif>, Fres., and the which appear nearly related to the red-co'^

BiBL. 'Ehrenher'2,Mikro(/.: Parker& Jones, Phd. Tr. civ. 075; Aim.' N. II. 4. ix. 284,
299.

VIS'CUINr, Tjinn.
ceje (Dicotyledons).
T^.

A genus of Loranthato

loured condition of the vinegar-plant abo^e mentioned. These are possibly merely forms of the same plant; indeed we have observed, on some fiom'-paste partially covered with PeniciUium (jlaKciim, small circular patches of a crimson tint, which under the micro-

album is the mistletoe, alluded

under
See

Embryo-sac, Liber, and Ovule.

\TTREOUS HUMOUR
of

or bod v.

Eye.
the valves of the VITT^ internal projections Diatomacese. These are or inflections
of the valves, forming imperfect septa; they appear as dark lines, visible mider ordinary illumination.

scope were found to consist wholly of minute elliptical bodies, generally exhibiting two internal gi-anules or "nuclei," and

vrTT^.

812

YOLVOCINE^.

VITT^
tideae

OF FRUITS,

See Secbeting
of

Organs of Plants. VITTA'RIA, Sm.A genus

;

racterized as plants

Grammi-

variously distributed. The plants consist of minute fleshy papillse (stromata) of cellular structure, the surface of which is clothed with elliptic, oblong, or fusiform
sty lospores, from between which project longjointed hairs (fig. 800) traversing the stroma.

Several (Polypodiaceous Ferns). (Hooker, Srjn. 895.) tropical. species VOLUTELLA, Fr. geuus of Stilbacei (Hyphomycetous Fungi), compiising several species of parasites which have been

composed of a number of bodies permanently-active zoospore-like associated together into families of definite form, in which the members, connected or held together in various ways by cell-mem-

branes, retain their distinct individuality for all physiological purposes of nutrition, growth, reproduction, &c., but represent only one being in relation to the surrounding Protococeiis, however, consists of objects.

only a single

cell.

The best-known and

7.
fig.

most beautiful example

genus
Volvo.v (PI.

of this family is the 24), consisting

Fig. 806.

Volutella buxi.
Maj^iififd 20 diametera.

It may be desirable to give the synonymy of theseplants according to Berkeley and

Broome.
V. ciliata,

Fr. (Psilonia rosea, Br. FL).

on potatoes. ; V. buxi, Berk. & Br. (Fusisporium huxi, Br. Fl.). White; on dry box-leaves (fig.

Whitish or rosy

of a spherical membranous periphery of which, within the membrane, are arranged a large number of zoospore-like bodies (f/oniclt a), ea.ch provided with a pan* of cilia, which pass out through the enveloping membrane, collectively forming a coating aU over the external siirface, and by their vibration causing a rotary motion of the entire globe. The modes of reproduction of the Volvocinea3, both vegetative and by spores, are described under Pandorina, Volvox, and Gonitjm; hence it is unnecessary to dwell on them here. Char. Permanently active zoospore-like bodies, ciliated (except Gyges), surroimded by a gelatinous coat (like Coccochloris) ; solitary or combined in definite groups, with or without a common enveloping membrane. Individuals pyriform, or with the body prosac, at the

when mature

longed posteriorly.
Solitary.

806). V. setosa. Berk. & Br. {Psilonia setosa, Br. Fl^JEffevitaset, Grev.). White, onwood and herbaceous stems.

Without

cilia

Gyges.

Withapairofoilm
Grouped.

{(ChhimiJomoiias.)
1 J

V. hijamithorum. Berk. ScBv.(Psil. h/ac, on hyacinths Br. Fl.). White stipitate grown in water. V. mehtloma, B. & Br. Orange, with black hairs on sedges. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. f.52-3 Ami.
; ; ;

Forming a square

layer, goui-

dia with two cilia

g;,.

Forming a spherical body.

Cilia solitary.

With a " tail Without a " tail."

with special coats
...J
i

"

Urogfenn*.

N. H.
Fmuf.
iii.

2. V.

Cnjpt. Fl. pis. 102

ii.

460, pi. 11. & 208.

fig. fig.

3: Greville, Corda, Ic.

;

Without an eye-8pot,i , '

"^ ,,_

With an eye-spot, gonidia dividing clusters

Cilia two.
into

pi.

13. fig.

107

Fries, Syst.

Myc.

^ SpkcEvosira*.
)

family of_ Confervoid Algte; they were formerly included among the Infusorial animalcules, among which they form one of Ehrenberg's families. The most striking general character of these
of individual objects is their composition elements, which exhibit in their mature and most perfect stage of existence, the characters of the transitory zoospores of the other Confervoids. The Volvocinete may be cha-

VOTA'OOIN'E/E.A

447.

Without an eye-spot... With an eye-spot.

Sgnvra*.

Common

envelope spherical.
)
.

Gonidia numerous, !iii\rolvox.

over the periphery...

Gonidia eight, in a bir'^ j stephunosphar^ ^ i cle at the equator Cominou envelope ellipsoidal, gonidia sixteen
or thirty-two
*
Faiulorina.

Probably stages of development of VOLVOX or Pan-

D OK IN A.

VOLVOX.
See

813

VOLVOX.

SpoNDYLOMonrM aud Sycamiua.

See
tlie

Bii?L.

o-emis of ^'olvocine0e VOLVOX, L. (Confcrvoid Alg;v), of which ouly one spe-

geuera.

rent anterior end bearing a pair of cilia, and contain a reddish-brown eye-spot and

V. ylohator (PL 7. tig. :24), seems satisThis orgauism, occurfactorily established. ring not unconuuonly and often in great
cies,

a contractile vacuole, thus exactly resc^mbling those of Gviiiuui, and indeed the zoospores of Coufer\oids generally. The radiating processes resemble those found in particular

abundance in clear pools on open conmions, &c., appears to the naked eye as a minute pale-green globule gently moving about in the water its dimensions variable, but gene;

Pkotococcus pluvialis, running through the gelatinous coat, and probably

stages of

about 1-50" wheij. full-grown. When placed under a low magnifying power, it is found to be a spherical membranous sac or coenobium, studded all over with green points, the entire body rolling over in the water with a motion which is readily discerned to be caused by innumerable cilia arranged upon the siu-face of the globe. In the interior of the sac are generally seen dense colour globes, in summer mostly of a green sometimes the cavity is (PI. 7. fig. 24)
rally
:

be compared to the radiating filaments proceeding from the nucleus of SpiKOGYBA (PI. 9. fig. 26). There is somewhat more difficulty in deternduiug the nature of the structure in which the gonidia are enclosed. There is a layer of soft consistence of some thickness within the external memthe green gonidia are wholly imbrane bedded in this and their radiating processes and cilia traverse the substance of it. We

may

are inclined to believe that this presents a firm membranous layer again at the internal
surface, looking toward the general cavity The nature of the soft laj'er of the sphere. has beeu the subject of discussion we be;

whoUy

filled

up by a number of membranous
;

sacs exactly resembling the parent but defomied by mutual pressm-e (PI. 7. fig. 25) and inside these are seen smaller green bodies as in the former case. The ccenobium is also flexible, yielding to pressure and recovering its form, and in fuU-growa specimens is generally ruptm'ed at one point, where the internal bodies escape, so that

lieve Busk's

view to be correct, that it is not formed by the collocation of distinct membranous cells, like those of ordinary parenchv^niatous structures, but by the close
juxtaposition of gelatinous envelopes of the individual green bodies, resembling- those of Coccochloris, Gloeocapsa, &c. could never detect a true line of demarcation

We

the number varies; usually, however, the

original number is eight. The application of higher powers is requisite to discover the intimate structure of
Volvo.v, which, by the researches of Williamson aud Busk, most of whose observations we have verified, has beeu pretty The outer envelope conclearly made out. sists oi a layer of cell-membrane, in all of a modification of probability composed cellulose, although Ave have never succeeded in producing more than a faint purple tinge with sidphuric acid and iodine. By the applicatiou of a suflicieut magnifying power, the green corpuscles at the peripheiy are

halfway between neighbouring gonidia an appearance is indeed sometimes pre:

found to consist of zoospore-like bodies (gonidia, PI. 7. fig. 28), which are seated inside
the membranous envelope, each sending out
its

pair of vibratile cilia (figs. 24-30) through The separate orifices in the external coat. same investigation will reveal that the green gonidia have radiating processes ex-

tending from their sides, and running from the ditlerent centres to meet each other in the light interspace, forming thus a kind of delicate network beneath the membrane.

The gonidia

are pyi-iform, have a transpa-

sented in preparations Ivept in chloride of calcium, which nught lead to an error on for the outer membrane is then this point sometimes swollen into papillfe opposite each corpuscle (PI. 7. fig. 30), the furrows between which in certain foci give the appearance of a septum running round each corpuscle (PI. 7. fig. 29). Similar preparations also often show the gonidium contracted and leaving an empty ring round it, separating it from the gelatinous coat, which runs uudistinguishably into those of the neighbouring gonidia. But the strongest fact we have observed is that, by the application of solution of potash, the substance surrounding the gonidia is so entirely dissolved that the oily substance extracted from the green bodies will run freely about beneath the external membrane (apparently confined internally by another film), in sheets extending over considerable segments of the sphere, yet leaving the gonidia and their radiating processes intact, or at least only shrunk and discoloured. If a true cellmembrane existed around each gonidium,
;

VOLVOX.
forming-

814

VORTICELLA.

septa dividing

them, the above

phenomenon could not display itself, since the potash would not so dissolve the structures. The modes of reproduction of Volvox
have recently been entirely elucidated.
certain conditions,

(PL 7. fig. 30). The form with the smooth yellow restiug-spores (PL 7. figs. 26
vations

&

34) represents Ehrenberg's Volvox aureus,

In

some of the gonidia appear larger than the rest, and as if undergoing division (PL 7. fig. 27) it is possible that some of the gonidia, or of such grouped gonidia, escape into the cavity, and there become developed into tlie large green bodies (PI. 7. fig. 24), which are rudimentary
;

and the form with the spines (PL 7. fig. 30) his V. stellatus. The development of the resting-spores of Volvox has been fully described by Cohn, and presents an essential resemblance to the process in Paxdouina and Stephanospilzeea. Some of the gonidia become enclosed in special cyst-like coats'; and their contents are then converted into spermatozoids, which break out and

globes; but Williamson believes these are detached in an earlier stage perhaps both modes of development take place. Forms with the grouped gonidia (PL 7. fig. 29)
:

common

woidd

to represent Ehrenberg's Ehi'enberg's genus Uroglena, again, would seem to be a Volvox either imperfectly developed or decaying. The deep-green bodies (PL 7. fig. 24), seen in the cavity of the spheres, are young Vvlooces, and in an early stage the}' appear

appear

Spharosira.

actively in the interior of the spherical These bodies fertilize envelope. other gonidia, Avhich take on the function of spore-ceUs ; and after their impregnation the latter acquire the firm coats and yellow contents characteristic of the resting-spores. They are set free at first into the common

move

with gi-anular green the green substance divides by segmentation (PL 7. figs. 31, 32) until it forms a gi-oup of gonidia, on each of which a pair of cilia appears , the enclosing membrane expands, and they follow it and remove apart, until they form a perfect Volw.r-sphere, studded with the gonidia. As above mentioned, a second generation is sometimes met with in the parent sphere are uncertain whether (PL 7. fig. 25) to regard the objects represented in PL 7. of Volvox they would fig. 14, as the young seemingly equally represent the genus Pandorina, Syncrypta, or jEitdorina, Ehr.
as spherical cells filled
;

substance

cavity of the spherical envelope. doubt remains as to the natm-e of the it object described as Synura uvella may belong here, or, not improbably, to the genus Uvella (PL 32. fig. 18), which itself may bo no more than a complex form of

Chlamidomonas (PL 7, which doubtless includes also Chlorogonium (PL 30. fig. 31), Crypto(/lena (fig. 35), and Cryyes (PL 50.
or
fig.

Protococcus
2
;

PL

23. fig. 30),

We

Volvox, examined in autumn and early winter, often exhibits either the green bodies with a thick coat (PL 7. fig. 33), or the inner globes are of an orange colour (PL 7. figs. 26 & 34), which appear to be successive stages of de\-elopment of a restinci-spore. When

When a pool contains Volvox, the individuals are generally abundant, and may be readily seen by the naked eye, as pale-gi'ecn globules, in a phial of water held up to the light but they are kept with difficulty, being devoured by Rotatoria, &c. The cilia are best seen by di-^ang and wetting them again, or by applying iodine. Tlie gonidia are a good deal altered by chloride of calcium.
;

fig. 14).

mature, this possesses at least two coats, one immediately siu-roimding the granular contents, another at some distance outside the former, transparent, colourless, and as it were glassy and brittle, breaking with shai"p-angled cracks Avhcn pressed (PL 7. A\'e cannot detect any in34 & figs. termediate substance or layer, which would be required to complete the analogy with the
resting-spore of

Ehr, BiBL. Pritchard, Inf. ; Inf. Williamson, Tr. Phil. Soc. Manchester, vol. ix. Tr. Mic. Soc. 2. i. 45 Busk, ibid. 31 ; Cohn, Ann. Sc. Nat. 4. v. 323 Ann. N. II. 2. xix. 187 Rabenh. Aly. iii. 20 Cooke,
; ;
;

Alf/ce,

1882.

VORTICEL'LA, Linn.
ticellina.

genus

of

Peritrichous Infusoria, of the family VorC/iar.

Body campanulate, with an

;

ante-

rior ring of cilia, stalked rally contractile.

stalk simple, spi-

Spirogyra

as

described

9. fig. 21) ; perhaps it does not exist in either case. Sometimes the outer coat of the enclosed yellow globes is tuberculated or covered with conical ele-

by Pringsheim (PL

These interesting Infusoria are very comin decomposing vegetable infusions, as of hay, portions of dead

monly met with

Their curious metamorphoses flowers, ifcc. and modes of reproduction, are noticed under Infusoria.

VORTICELLINA.

815

WATER
Length of

margin dilated body witliout rings when contracted. Length of bodv -nithout the stalk 1-570 to 1-288". V. microstoma (PI. 32. fig. 2G, body with genimoe). Body ovate, narrowed at the ends, greenish white anterior margin
; ;

V. nchdifera (PI. 32. fig. 21). Body anterior conico-campauulate, colom-less

;

rior margin slightly prominent. body 1-4.30 to 1-240".

Many

other species.

Dujardin unites the genera Carcliesmm and Zootlunnnium to his genus Vurtkella. BiBL. Ehr. Inf. 269; Duj. Inf. 546;

Lachmauu, Ann. N.
ot
;

II.

1857, xix.

Clap,

not dilated, nor bodv ringed when contracted. Length of body 1-2000 to 1-250".
V.

convaUaria,

Body

ovato-couical,

Lach. Inf. Greef, Ann. N. H. 1872, 105, 106, 384, 462 ; AUman, Mn. Mic. Jn. xiv. 178 Kent, Inf. 667. VOllTICELLI'NA. family of Infu;

whitish hyaline, annidate; expanded ante-

soria.

Table of Genera.
Q-ENUS.
/

Peduncle
contractile.

iTSot branched

VorliceUa.

/Each branch having

Carchesium.

I A.

peduncle.

branched.

branched ]^P3tg\--l
(

muscle

Zoothani Ilium.
Epislijlis.

Peduncle not contractile

/
-1

Naked.

'Without a posterior crown

of cilia during" the greater part oilifc.

No
cle.

pedun-l
1

Posterior part of] attached

HH Hi

No
f

body by a disk.
disk

helical funnel in front

No

Spirochona
Scyphidia.

funnel

Gerda.
Ophri/diui.

W o I

No true

sheath, the peduncle lost in a gelatinous mass

[

Sheathed.

^
I-

^i'l'lc^^f

fl!^

I Sheath fixed bv

its

base
.

sheath.

<
I

o >

by gheath f Animal susi^ended freely in the sheath

Sheath fixed

its side.

Cothurnia. Vaqinicola.
ZagenopJiri/s.

With

a i^osterior ciliary crown during the whole of life;

body

free

Trichodina.

BiBL. Clap. & Lach. Inf. 93; Allman, Qu. Mic. Jn. 1872, 393. genus of YORTICLA'VA, Alder. Hydi'oid Zoophytes. Char. Polypes on simple stems, developed at interAals on a creeping filiform stolon tentacles in two dissimilar whorls, the oral short and capitate, the outer longer and filiform reproduction imknown.

volume is composed, since water, existing under different cu-cumstauces, forms one
of the most
objects
;

fertile sources of microscopic but as om* space and plan do not admit of such an enumeration, we must be content to dwell shortly upon two of the most important questions in which the microscope is applied to the examination of

the contents of water.

on stones and corallines. BiBL. Hincks, Hych: Zoopli. 131; Wright,

Qu. Mic. Jn.
iii.

Two species,

n.

s.

50.

\TJLVULI'NA,D'Orb. SeeTEXTULAEiA.

W.
hard wart cona circular group of elongated papillie with their free extremities slightly enlarged and bulbous, their vessels dilated and extending close up to the epithelial covering. This presents its normal threefold division, inasmuch as a thick layer of transition-cells fills up all the interstices between the enlarged papillaj, while the horny lamina invests the group of papilla3 with a common (Rindfleisch, Path. Hist.) covering.
sists of

WART. The common

Ordinary examination of ivater. Here it appears merely necessary to point out that the mode of examining the contents of samples of water, for the pui-pose of ascertaining the extent to which organic beings are contained in them, should be very diiFerent from that pursued by the microscopist who
is

engaged
this

in

collecting specimens.

We

remark in consequence of the gross misrepresentations which have been " made in the " animalcules
respecting water, carried- to theu'most absurd extreme in the so-called " drop " of water shown by

make

WASP.

oxyhydrogen microscopes, where we often see the field covered with larvas of dragonflies, of beetles, of gnats, &c., Entomostraca, and worms of diflerent kinds, not only preceptible without a microscope, but,
in the case of the larva), perhaps really more than an inch long. Less violent exaggerations occur when water which appears

See Vespa.
this

WATER. Under

head we might

form a kind of index referring

to a large proportion of the articles of which this

cloudy

is selected,

allowed to stand for some

WATER.
time,
false results

816

WEISSIA.
;

and the sediment examined. Very must also be obtained when water is exposed to tlie air for any length
of time before examination, since Infusoria

CE^ and CoxFERVACE^ Euglena viridis,

Desmidiace^e form greenish patches at the bottom of water or on plants, as do certain Oscellatoriace^b. 2. Producing a 7-ed colour in fresh water. Astasia hmnatodes, Ehr. species of
See.

The

short time, even in distilled water, when exposed to the atmosphere; and an uncovered water-butt or cistern wiU be foimd a very fertile source of microscopic objects. regard the presence of most of those

and microscopic Algte always appear

in a

D.\piES'iA.

on the

mud in shallow water.

We

species of

organisms which do not sufficiently affect the water to render its impurity discernible by the naked eye, as a matter of little con-

Large niunbers of Entomostraca, certain Ilotatoria and Infusoria, and Oscillatoriaceous Alga3, generally very perceptibly clouding or colouring the water, of course indicate the presence of much decomposing
sequence.

Snow). In salt water, Diselmis Dunalii, Duj.; Trichodesmium. 3. brown cloudy appearance often appears in masses near the source of small springs of water flowing out of blue clay, or in pools on peat-bogs. This mostly consists of peroxide of ii'on but sometimes a

TuBiFEx produces a red colour Red forms of Protococcus (see also Red

organic matter in the water, which, however, reveals itself very clearly in a short time when the water is kept, by a fetid The presence of green Confervoid odoiu'. Algfe is by no means a sure sign of impurity

brown appearance is produced in pools by collections of amorphous granular decaying organic matter, in which occm* great abundance of certain Oscillatorle, l)iATOMACE^,IxFrsoRiA, and Rotatoria. The obscure mycelioid sti'uctm'e called by
similar

Kiitziug

Leptothrix
;

ochracea produces a

properly so called, in water for some will only grow in -sery clear and piu'e water, while many of tliem may be regarded as The presence of agents of purification.
;

yellowish-brown tiut

Didymohelix

also

Diatomaceae gives abrown colour to water. often form a yeUowdsh-browu coat on mud at the bottom of water. Many Rotatoria

Zygnemacese, Diatomacese, and especially the Schizomycetes, is, however, particularly objectionable, as they become very fetid in
decomposition, which generally takes place very soon when they are distm-bed and When large numbers of minute injured. Algae appear in water, discolouring it over extensive sm-faces, the microscope wiU enable us to detect the nature of the object producing the appearance, but will scarcely be requisite to prove the impurity of the water.

when abundant

and the larger Infusoria (Paramecia, &c. ), give water a slightly milky

appearance. The ordinary method of separating the organic bodies from water, is to place it in a conical glass, and allow them to subside. httle spirit or osmic acid shoidd be pre-

viously added fo prevent growth or reproduction. The bodies are then removed

with a
thi'ough
perfect,

pipette,

or separated
is

by

filtration

hwedish paper.
list

The mici'oscope is also of great importance

in detecting the presence of undigested

The above
but

undoubtedly very imusefid hints. such colora-

and

bile-stained particles of food, showing the admixture of sewage with water. Under this head Coloration of iVfiter. we shall refer to those plants and animals

may afford some Microscopists who meet with

tions will naturally

tliey will find f lu tlier information heads of the articles cited.

examine them carefully; under the

which most commonly produce such appearances, premising that the commonest cases of coloration depend upon suspended mineral substances (mud), of tlitterentcolours according to the soils wa^^hed by the water. 1. Producing a general f/recn colour, or a thick film on the surface. Protococcus

BiBL. Macdonald, Soc. Sci, Congress, 1877 Scott, Jn. Mic. Soc. 1877, Mn. M. Jn. xviii. 237 Church, Water, 1877 Fox, Food 4''C. 1881; Cohu, Beit)-, z. Biol, i, 108; Blyth, Food ^r. 1881; Frankland, Water- Analysis.
;

WATER-B1:aRS.

see Tarbigrada.

C/damidonionas, Ehr., Diselmis, Duj. ), very common in the spring and various Nostochaceous Algfe, as Tiuchoemus, (.'oxioPHYTUM, &c. (see NosTocHACKiK many with a bluish tinge); Cj.atiirocv.stis (forming a granular verdigi'is-green layer), MiciiOHALOA, and various other Palmella(
;

WEIJBI'NA, D'Orb;
and
4-35;
fossil.

(Restricted.) A

anhgewnSioi'J'rochainminu ; adherent, singleRecent celled, mouiliform, or alternating.

Parker and Jones, Phil. Tr. civ. & Brady, ilfa?K)(/. Crag For. 25. WEISSIA, Iledwig. genus of Pot.
JiiRL. P.,J.,

WESTWOODIA.

817

WHALEBONE.

tiaceous Mosses, variouslydefined by authors, W. controversa related to Gt/mnosfomum. (W. viridula, Miill.) is common on banks.

cells exhibits

substance between the lines of medullary very fine longitudinal strise, and, in parts, the ends of divided laminae.

Wilson includes Blindia here, and separates W. fuyux and denticulata as Rhabdoiveissia.
(W'ilmn, Bn/ol. Br. 4Q.)
pt.

WESTWOODIA, Dana, = Arpadicus W.nobilis = Arp.nob.jXn.'AY\)iQ. (Bradv,

ii.

Copep.

WILALEBONE.In
of parallel

140.)

On macerating whalebone for twentyfour hours in solution of caustic potash, it becomes soft ; and on aftei-wards digesting it in water, the cortical portion resolves itself into numerous large transparent cells from 1-230 to 1-310" in length, and fi-om
1-500 to 1-330" in breadth (PI. 22. fig. 33). These contain a variable number of granules of pigment, of a deep brown colour,
also

whales the teeth

are rudimentary ; and arising from a depression ill the upper jaw on each side are a

horny plates, many feet which proj ect downwards these known as fins plates, which are technically or blades, constitute whalebone and through them the water containing the animals upon which the whale hves is strained, and the
in length,
:

number

especially

some small globules of fat, which are numerous in those portions near-

food thus obtained. These plates are situated upon a vascidar membrane, folds of which enter a cavity at their base, which is the portion connected with the jaw. Whalebone may be pretty easily divided but into longitudinal laminae and fibres these are oulj^ secondary forms resulting
;

number of cells which whalebone wholly consists. On examining a transverse section of a blade or plate of whalebone with the naked eye, or a lens, two structures are readily an inner porous-looMng distinguishable medullary portion, surrounded by an outer compact or cortical substance. A longitufi'om the aggregation of a

of

est the base of the plate. These cells in the natural whalebone are laterally compressed or flattened and the transverse axes of those surrounding the medullary lines are arranged tangentially to the latter, whilst in the cortical portions these axes are parallel to the surface of the The conplate. centric lines seen in a transverse section arise principally from the pigment-granules within those cells which sui'round the medullary cells becoming arranged in a linear series by the flattening of the cells encloThis may be shown by treatsing them iug a transverse section of whalebone with caustic potash, and then adding water and watching its resolution into cells. As these expand, the interrupted lines are seen also
:

dinal section through the plate exhibits a number of dark lines or stripes, fi-om about

1-100 to 1-150" in diameter, parallel to each other and to the axis of the plate, and corresponding to the pores seen in the transThese stripes, which have verse section. been called whalebone-canals, but which we shall denominate medullary lines, are seen to be sun-oimded by a paler substance. With a higher power {\ inch), the transverse section exhibits in the centre a number of rounded apertures or circles con-espondiug to the pores (PL 22. fig. 31), sui--

were, and to become reof distinct pigmenlThe grauules existing within each cell. lines seen in a longitudinal section arise from the miequal refraction of light by the laminae of compressed cells surrounding the
to

expand as

it

solved into a

number

medullary lines. The medullary cells contain a large quantity of pigment, as do also those compressed cells which immediately surround them in ; the former these grauides are frequently In the common dry whaleaggregated. bone of commerce the medullary cells also contain air, which has been mistaken for fat, and hence the cells denominated fatcells.

rouudedby very tine,

concentric, interrupted

dark lines, whilst towards the cii'cumference these lines run parallel to the surface In the longitudinal section, of the plate. viewed with this power, the medullary lines are seen to consist of a number of cells mostly arranged in single longitudinal series, and, in dried whalebone, having a very dark appearance by transmitted light, from the presence within
(PI. 22. fig. 30),

The air is readily displaced by liquids. Between the compressed ceUs, minute casometimes assuming a

vities containing air,

linear

form, at others representing mere dots, are seen both in the transverse and these are distinlongitudinal sections guished by the displacement of their con;

them
air.

of a large quantity of pigment and These are the medullary cells. The

tents. Hence ordinary whalebone closely resembles hair or horn in its structure and the fibres which are seen projecting from the margin of the blades as found in commerce have a remarkable similarity to hair
;

3g

WHEAT.

818

WOOD.

Chemically, it consists of (PI. 22. fig. 32). a proterue compound, and is therefore coloured by INIillou's and Pettenkofer's testliquids.

medullary rays, which are very numerous in Wintereae, occiuTing both large and small, six or seven in the breadth of 1-12" in a
vertical section at right angles to the rays some of them being thin, composed of one or two parallel layers of cells, extending to a vertical extent of about ten cells, others much larger, ten or twelve cells thick (or

AMialeboue polarizes light like horn. BiBL. Runiev, Phil. Trans. 1787; Bonders, IlidcJer's Phys. Chemie Lehmann, Phys.
;

Cliem.

WHEAT. The stabch of the grain of wheat (Triticinn mlgare and other species and varieties) presents itself in the form of
delicate little fiattish lenticular bodies, very Wheat is characteristic (PL 46, fig. 8). subject to various Blights, -which are re-

broad), and of a vertical extent of eighty or a himdred cells the latter are very evident on the sm-face of the wood when the bark
;

removed. The meduUary rays here traverse all the annual layers of wood, which is not the case in the Ooniferae.
is

ferred to under that head, depending on the groveth of parasitic Fungi, especially

Ann.

TiLLETiA, attacking the

ear,

Pucci>^ia

BiBL. Goeppert, Linncea, xvi. 135 (1842) Sc. Nat. 2. xviii. 317. WOOD. The mode of origin of Avood is
;

attacking the straw, &c. In other cases the ear is found infested with a minute worm

explained in the articles

(Anguilli'la
tenacity of
life.

tritici)

remarkable for

its

WINGS

OF Insects.

The arrangement
;

dulla, Medullary Kays, and Vascular bundles, while the characters of the elementary organs of which wood is composed
are

Cambium, Me-

described

under the heads of Cell

of the veins or nerves of the anterior wings^ of the Hymenoptera is sometimes used to

Fibrous, Pitted, and Spiral Structures and Secondary Deposits. Pe;

form the basis of systematic arrangement and the several veins and interspaces have received distinct names, which may be illus-

culiar composition of the wood in certain classes, families, or genera of plants is also noticed under their special heads, which
will be referred to presently.

by reference to PI. 34. fig. 11, representing the anterior wing of the humblebee (L'otnbtts terrestris) a, costal nerve of wing, c, iimer margin h, hind margin with the fold (k) for the attachment of the hooks d, postcostal nerve e, externo-median;/, anal the nerve between 3 and 10, the trausverso-median h, anterior or outer margin /, the subdiscoidal s, stigma 1, costal cell cell 3, interno2, externo-median median 4, anal 5, radial or marginal 6,
trated
:

In

this article

the principal modifications of the wood, as a whole, occurring in these and certain other cases, are to some extent classified, in order to indicate their relations, and to furnish a guide to microscopists seeking to observe the most remarkable varieties of structure, occurring in this substance. The elements entering into the composition of wood are 1, Fibro-a'ascular
:

first

cubital cell

vi,

m, m, second,

third,

and fourth cubital

cell;
first,

cells; 10, first discoidal

bundles, which in their most complete form contain Spiral and other Vessels, Pitted ducts, Prosenchymatous cellular
tissue with thickened walls {looody Jibre) and in the Monocotyledons, vasa
;

11, second ditto; 12, third ditto; 13,

and 14, second apical cell. See Insects, ivini/s. liiBL. That of Insects Jurine, Kouvelle Methode Shuckard, Tr. Eniom. Soe.
;

propria,

as they are called by Mohl, viz. elongated tubular cells of membranous structure occurring in the centre of the bundles. 2,

i.

Staveley, Miss, Neurafio/t, Linn. Trans. 125 Semper, Sielold c^ KiJUikers ZAtischr. viii. 320. section of the Dico;

Medullary Rays
CHYMA, which
and in

xxiii.

WINTE'UE^. A

in the Dicotyledons, or a generally diftused medullary parenchyma in the Monocotyledons. 3, Woody I'AREN-

tyledonous family Magnoliacete (Dbiwys, Tasmannia), remarkable for the character of the elementary structure of the wood, approaching closelj' to that of the Coniferpe, It consists, as in that family, wholly of pitted prosencliymatous colls without ducts, the cells having two or three rows of bordered pits as in Abaucabia. A distincion exists, however, in the character of the

ditions

is foimd under difterent condifterent quantities in difter-

ent cases.

The GvMNOSPERMS may be considered

above enumeration as agreeiug with the Dicotyledons. Tiie less-generiilly diffused structures connected with Secretion are here let^t out of \\e\\. In classifying the kinds of wood, we may commence with the l^ss perfect forme.
in the

WOOD.
this class the

819
of

WOOD.

In our uative plants Monocotyledons.

stem
is

mostly herbaceous, and the woody structure then occius sim" fibres " in the form of (Jibro-vascular ply
45G, p. 495), the structure of which has been described elsewhere (fig.791, The same kinds of elements are p. 800). arranged in nearly the same way in must of the arborescent plants of this class, such as Palms for example, in the Cocoa-nut Palm, in the common Cane {Calamus), or the various striped solid canes (all Palms) used
bi'mdks,
tig.

(Smila.v), JRuscus, the harder parts of the found attached to imported Sections of silicified fosPine-applos, &c.

stem often
sil

Palm-stems, prepared by the lapidary, can also be obtamed from the dealers in
objects.

In this class we meet with Dicotyledons. a remarkable diversity in the character of the wood, which moreover here exhibits, from the indefinite power of gi'owth of the

Fibro-vascular bundles, a much more

The solid for walking-sticks, &:c. textm'e depends in these upon the

woody
inter-

space between the fibro-vascular bundles being filled up with looody imrenchyma i. e. the general medullary substance, which in such stems as that of the White Lily is soft and spongy, in the Palms &c. becomes solidified by tlie great deposition of secondary layers upon the walls of the cells thus the bundles, at first ''fibres," are bound together into a solid wood. The thick woody walls of the hollow Bamboo cane are constructed on the same plan, being
; ;

extensive and perfect development than in the Monocotyledons. In the articles Medulla (fig. 455, p. 495), Medullary Rays bundles (fig. 457, p. 496), and Vascular (fig. 792, p. 801) are described the conditions of ordinary Dicotyledonous stems in the first year of their growth it is stated in the account of the vascular bundles, that a new layer of wood is developed in the cambium layer in each succeeding season The nature of the ele(fig, 457, p. 496). is illusmentary structures in such cases trated by the accompanying figures from the
;

Maple {Acer campestre,

Fig. 807.

figs.

807

&

808),

highly developed and lignified forms of the structure which is exhibited in a soft and herbaceous condition iu our common
Grasses.
tm'e

Certain Monocotyledons present a strucwhich differs from the above in the appearance presented by transverse secIn the Smilacese, and some of the tions. Dioscoreacese, the fibro-vascular bundles are aiTanged in more definite order in one or two cij'cles but there is no distinction of the pith, medullary rays, and bark here bundles are bound together by looody parenchyma, and there is no cambium-region beneath the rind. The anomalous gTowth exhibited by the stems of other Monocotyledons, such as Draccena, Yucca, See., cannot be regarded as depending on the formation of wood in the proper sense in them, layers of fibrous structure tire formed between the central region of the stem (containing the original vascular bundles) and the rind, which take their origin from the ends of the vascular bimdles at the the rind, and periphery of the stem beneath extend down in a kind of false cambium layer beneath the rind. Interesting objects illustrating the above structures arc furnished by longitudinal and transverse sections of the trunks of large Palms and of the large woody leaf-stalks of
; ;

of Bamboo these, of canes of difterent kinds, canes, the rliizome of Sarsaparilla plants

Traus verse and Tex-tical section of a segment of a shoot of the Maple in the early pai't of the second year of itsage. T. spiral vessels; YP, pitted ducts; F, woody fibre; C, cambium; Pc, cortical parenchyma; F, liber S, corky layer fibres; Pc, cellular envelope of the bark of ditto. Magnified 6U diameters.
;

3g2

WOOD.
Fig. 808.

820

WOOD.
prevails

parenchyma, but greatly thickened prosen-

chyma

the ducts are rather small

but the broader medullary rays are very evident, appearing to the naked eye as "

brown streaks in

longitudinal sections.

The

Transverse section of Maple-wood three years old. The figures 1, 2, 3 indicate the annual rings of wood the rest is bark. ?, medulla; /.spiral vessels; u, ducts f, woody fibre c, cambium ie,medullary parenchyma I, liber. Magnified 40 diameters.
;
;

of wMcli the former represents sections of a shoot at the begining of its second year, when the cambium layer (c) is swelling, the latter a shoot of three years' growth, the portions belonging to each year being indicated by the figm'es. The only difFereuce between the structures developed in each succeeding season is the absence of a layer of spiral vessels (medullary sheath, in the first year) at the point where each year's gi'owth commences. Here, as is seen, the fcody of the wood is composed chiefly of

Chestnut {Castama vesca) differs from this chiefly in wanting the broader medullary In the Elm ( Ubnus campestris) the rays. prosenchyma is interposed between bands of woody parenchyma and wide ducts, which renders the distinction of the annual The Walnut-tree has no layers obscure. woody parenchyma the Apple- and Peartrees have alternate bands of prosenchyma and woody parenchyma these exist, but are narrower, in the Plum and Cherry. In the wood of most of the Ijeguruinosee (Eobmia, JJlex, Genista, Gleditschia, &c.)t]ie woody parenchyma appears in bands of considerable size but the walls of its cells are less thickened than those of the prosenchymatous cells. Woody parenchyma occurs
; ;
;

extensively in Mahogany and Rose-wood, producing a peculiar variation of colour in the wood the large holes are the orifices
;

of the very

wide ducts.

The wood
Willows

of the Vo-plavs (Poptdus), and (Salix), has the prosenchymatous

prosenchymatous cells (wood-cells or woody fibre,/), with a few pitted ducts (v) near the commencement of each annual layer the medullary rays are narrow in this wood. In the Hornbeam [Carpinus Betidus) the
;

The Hazel (Corylus Acelland), and the Alder (Alnus glutinosa), present a peculiarity the wood appears to the naked eye to have broad medullary rays but imder the microscope these rays are found to be portions of the wood devoid of
cells little thickened.
:

wood

is of very similar composition; the wood-cells, however, are more thickened, and the ducts exhibit a spiral marking the annual layers are not very clearly defined in This is the sections under the microscope. case, again, with the excessively hard wood of the Box (Bkxhs semper virens), which is of
;

ducts, intervening between segments with closely-pitted ducts placed at particular The Lime points in the annual rings. {Tilia) and the Horse-chestnut (yEscidus) have wood of soft texture, the prosenchy-

matous
while

analogous composition. The Birch (Betida Other comnlba) has the same structure. mon timber-trees exhibit an additional structui'e in their wood, namely masses of
looody

being only slightly thickened, ducts are large and numerous (these exhibit a spiral band, very evident in the Lime). The wood of the Plane {Phitanus occidentalis) has strongly marked meduUary rays the prosenchymatous cells
tlie
;

cells

them

parenchyma interspersed

in various

are greatly thickened; and mingled with are very numerous ducts, and a small The stem quantity of woody parenchyma. of the Vine ( Vitis viniferd) has likewise

ways among the ordinary prosenchymatous

structure of the wood. very small quantity of this occurs in scattered groups in the

long and broad meduUaiy rays

is

the
cells,

wood
with

composed of prosenchymatous

common Oak

{Quercus pedunctilata) here very large, appearing as open holes to the naked eye in cross secthe larger medullary rays are liketions wise very evident. In the Beech (Fagus sylvatica) there is a small quantity of woody
;

also the ducts are

a spiral-fibrous deposit on their walls, while the cells of the woody parenchyma are devoid of this the ducts are very long, and exhibit every gradation of form, from spiral, reticulated, and scalariform to pitted ducts. The various species of Clematis have strongly
;

marked medullary

r^ys,

and wood chiefly

WOOD.
composed of pitted ducts, as
ill

821

WOOD.

the
Ill

acquires a special peculiarity when it attains a certain age the proseiichymatous cells
;

common many of

is the case also Rose. the above trees, the wood

generally become more solid, year by year, through the filling-up of their cavities by the increasing thickness of the secondary in the lighterdeposits on their walls coloured and .-softer woods, such as the Lime, there is no distinct line of demarcation between the older and younger part of the ti'unk the alburmun or sap-irood and the duramen or Jieart-n-ood but in mnny cases, as in the Ebony (Dwspjjros) Lignum vitfe (Guai'acum), to a less extent in the Elm, Oak, Szc, the duramen assumes a remarkable solidity and a deeper colour, so that after a certain time the colours of the duramen and alburnum are very different. This appears to arise from a chemical alteration of the substance of the secondary deposits of the prosenchymatons cells. great degree of regularity and agreement of structm-e exists between the woods of the Dicotyledons above mentioned. It remains to direct attention to various kinds which depart more or less from the type thus selected. In the various parasitical Dicotyledons, such &.S, Lathrcea Melampyrum, Cuscuta, &c., there is no layer of .spiral vessels con-esponding vdth the medullary sheath ; and in the Mistletoe ( Viseuni) only annular ducts occur in this situation the wood in the
:

extending from one medullary ray to* the The stems of next, and connecting them. some of the Menispermaceae have likewise concentric processes of parenchymatous tis-

large ducts, have bordered pits (PI. 48. while concentric lines of cellular fig. 2) ; tissue appear at intervals in the cross .section, consisting of plates of parenchyma

In the WiNTKEE^, a section of the Magnohaceae, the wood is wholly composed (with the exception of the medullary sheath) of pitted prosenchymatons cells resembling those of Araucaria (PI. 48. fig. 5), without
sue.

any ducts.
In certain families of Dicotyledons a remarkable appearance arises from the arrangement of the bundles in several circles, almost as in the Monocotyledons but this results in a veiy different kind of structure, on account of the unlimited growth of the
;

Dicotyledons. Examples of occur in the ChenopoIn diaceae, Nyctag-inaceae, Piperacefe, &c.

this

cambium

in

kind of

wood

Pisonia, which has been supposed to in the same way, the result is a solid

grow
mass

of wood, composed of prosenchymatons cells and ducts, with isolated perpendicular cords of parenchyma (exactly the reverse of what occurs in the Monocotyledonous stems). The woods of Phytocrene and Nepenthes be further cited as offering remarkable may
peculiarities.

latter is largely

composed of woody parenchyma, the cells of which are punctated, or

possess spiral-fibrous layers (figs. 665, 666, The stem of J/yror?? f/ro also exhibits some remarkable anomalies.

page 712).

In the Bombacese (Bombax, Carolinea, kc.) the mass of structure corresponding to the wood is chiefly composed of membranous parenchymatous cells, with scattered isolated prosenchymatons cells, and

'

large pitted ducts. The wood of Avicentiia is principally composed of large pitted ducts,

It would exceed the space which we can allow to this article to enter into a description of the anomalous Dicotyledonous stems of the tropical lianes or climbing trees, of the Bignoniace(S, 3Ienispermacea;, Malpighithe irregularities of the wood ace(^, Sec. of which depend upon deviations from the normal type arising in the course of the growth of the stems, which, from the observations of Treviranus, Crtiger, and others, appears to be mostly regular when quite Isolation of one or more fibro-vasyoung. cular bundles from the central cylinder of wood, producing distinct centi-es of development, is the most common cause of irregu;

with naiTow mterspaces filled up with small

pitted parenchymatous cells. The wood of theCactacefe

larity.

{MammiUaria,
apparently re-

Melocadus)
ferable to

is

composed of dotted ducts,

cell,

together with a kind of

parenchyma, the walls of which have a remarkably broad spiral-fibrous band

of the Casiiarincs it is composed exhibits a cm-ious structure of long prosenchymatons cells, the walls of which, together with those of the numerous

(PL

48. fig. 7).

the wood

mode of cutting these sections is stated elsewhere. Sections of recent woods are best preserved wet in chloride of calcium. Fossil wood, if silicified, is cut by the lapidary's

The wood of Dicotyledons must be examined by transverse sections, and pei-pendicular sections parallel with and at ri^ht angles to the medullary rays. The same The applies to the wood of Gymnosperms.

WOOD.
wheel
;

822

WOODWARDIA.
;

wood

in the state of coal in like

Bot. 1850

manner (see Preparation, Fossil wood, aud Coal).

Gymnospertns. In this division of the Flowering Plants Ave also meet with two
types of structure
GonifercB.

232;

Hanstein, Pringsheim's Jahrb. i. Sanio, Lvuidpa, 1858; Hartig, Bot. Bot. xvii. Henfi-ey-:\Iasters, Zeitumi, Sachs' Bot. Knv, Ilohkdrper, 1882.
: ;

WOOD'SIA, Brown. A

genus of Dick-

Here

the

wood
;

agi-ees

in general

character of the with that of the

typical Dicotyledons, with certain distinctions namely, althoui^h the medullary sheath of spiral vessels exists, no ducts or vessels occur in the mass of wood external to this, which is of pros-

enchymatous

cells,

wholly composed with bordered

soniefe (Polypodiaceous Ferns), represented by two rave indigenous species, W. Ilvensis indusium Sori globose aiid hi/perhorca. sometimes inferior, cup-shaped or globose, the at the enclosing the sorus, opening top, mouth or margin irregular, iobed or fringed with long hairs (fig. 809). Several tropical species. (Hooker, Syn. 46.)
;

pits, in

Fig. 809.

single (Plate 48. fig. 4) (usually), double, or treble (Araucaria) rows (fig. 5) ; in Ta.rus accompanied in part by a spiral-fibrous band

The particulars of these forms are (fig. 4). given under Coxifer^. It may be mentioned that the " woody parenchyma " of Dicotyledons seems to be represented here by the cords of parenchymatous ceUs in some cases traversing the prosenchyma, ultimately filled with resinous deposits (" cords
of secretion-cells"). The Ci/cadacece.
earliest condition of the stems here appears to resemble that in Coniferse but no annular rings are formed. Concentric layers are produced at intervals,
;

soma and

Wodcl.^ia liyi.crborea. indusiiua with a hair-like fringe.

.iO

Magnified

diameters.

separated by parenchymatous The true mode of origin of these layers. does not appear to be clearly made out.

however,

WOODWAR'DIA,
species;
exotic.

Smith.A genus

Blechnese (Polypodiaceous Ferns).

Fig. 810.

of Several

The wood
matous

is

cells

composed of pitted prosenchy(PI. 48. tig. 20), without vesexcepting in the medullary

sels or ducts,

sheath of spiral vessels.

Some elaborate and interesting researches on the peculiar intimate structure of wood and tissues have been published by Harting, Sanio, Nageli, and Hanstein but we have no space to analyze these long papers
;

here.

For further details on the markings of the ducts, &e., see Pitted and Spiral
STRUCTURES.
BiBL. Lindley, 7nfo'. to Bot. ; DeCandolle, Orgcmographie, i. 161 Meyen, Pflanzenphys. i. 331 Goeppert, Struct. Conifer. 1841, Linncea, xvi., xvii., Ann. Sc. Nat. 2.
;
;

xviii. 1
et seq.,

Brongu. Veyet. Fossiles, 1828, N. 1. xvi. 589; Hooker, Flor. Antarct., Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. v. 193 Gaudichaud, Recherches Anat., and Ann,
;

& 317
Ann.

Sc.

hi
Itl^J

Nat. 3. passim Meneghini, Ricerche sulla Struftura Monoc. Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, 193, Das Baum, 94 Cruger, Bot. Zeit. viii. 99, x. 465 Trdcul, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3.
Sc.
; ; ; ;

Woodwardia.

xviii., xix., xx., 4.

i., ii., iii.

Milde, Beitr.

z.

A fertile

i>innule.

l^Iagnifled

5 diamters.

WOOL.

823

XYLARIA.

OF Animals. See HAin. The wool are coloured by the testliquids of Millou aud Schultze. WRANGE'LIA, Ap-. A peiius of Ceraraiaceiie (Florideous Alga)), differing- from
fibvt\s
(if

WOOL

the scattered tetrathe only Britisli species, has rose-red feathery fronds, an inch high, consistiug of a main filament, about as thick as a bristle, composed of a single row of cells, bearing long, pinnately-arQrtffithmn chietly
iu spores.

W.

miilfiji'hi,

BiBL. Ralfs, Br. Desmid. Ill; Rabenht. iii. 221 Archer, Prifc/iard's In/us. XANTIIIOPYX'IS, Klir.-A genus of fossil Diatomacete, consolidated with PyxiDicuLA. It consisted of those species the margins of the valves of which are furnished witli a dentate membrane, or the surface covered with seto^ or hair-like processes.
Ah/,
;

Bermuda.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg.

BiRL. Ehr. Ber. Berl. ^A.w/. 1844, 2(34; 23 Pritchard, Lifns. 82G.
;

ranged, patent branches, mostly branching in the same way again. At the articulations occur two opposite (or more rarely a whorl of) pinnato-multifid or subdichotomous ramelli 1-1:^ to l-li" long. The fructification consists of: 1, favellce, borne on stalks at the joints, and surrounded b}' a

genus of Urediuei (Flypodermous Fungi), con.sisting of black tufts, found on the leaves of Poterium, containing microscopic, short, curved, usually shortly stipitate filaments, attenuated at each end, composed of a moniliforra row of (five to fifteen) globose cells filled with black granules. These bodies occur associated with TJredo miniata, of which X. carhonarius appears to be the perfect form. Xenodochus is only distinguished from Phragaiidium by the
greater
pi.

XENOD'dCIlUS, Schlecht A

whorl of ramelli;
spores,

and

2,

elliptical

fetra-

secund or tufted, ou opposite, the lower part of the ramelli. In some foreign species antheridia have been observed in similar situations to the tetraBiCL. Harvey, Mar. Alg. 169, pi. 24 D Phyc. Brit. pi. 27 Derbes and Solier, Ann. Sc. Nat. 3. xiv. 273, pi. 35 Thuret, ibid. 4.
;

spores.

number
;

of joints.
;

BiBL.
3.

Schlechtendahl, Li7incea, i. 237, 3 Fries, Sum. Vet/. 505 Berfig.

keley,

Ann. X. H.

i.

263.

iii.

38.

X.
bodies found in and thus called, are probably sporangia of Desmidiace* (PI. 25. figs. 22-28). They have been distributed in genera and species,
useless.

XENOSPHyE'RIA, Trevis. genus of Micro-lichens, parasitic on the thallus of Solorina saccata. Char. Spores 6-8, oblong, 4-6-locular,
brown
sometimes large, irregulai', and muriform. BiBL. Korber, Syst. 326; Lindsay, Qu, Mic. Jn. 1869, 344. XESTOLEBE'RIS, Sars. One of the
;

XANTHID'IA.The

flint,

the description of the characters of which

would be

It is a curious circumstance, that these sporangia should be found in flint, which is of marine origin, considering that tlie Desmidiacete are none of them marine. XANTHIDTUM, Ehr. genus of Des-

with subtriangvdar valves,higher behind than in front, smooth, with distant lower antennoe with 4 joints; papillse upper 6-jointed, with simple setje, and
CyiheridcB,
;

short.

Two

living British species,

com-

mon.
BiBL. Brady, Tr. Linn. Soc. xxvi. 437. XIPHIAS'TER, Murray. A genus of Ixodea (Acariua). Flat, with a long projecting rostrum and long applied palpi X. rostratum, abdomen beaded behind. Old Calabar. (Murray, Ec. Entom. 201,
;

midiacess,
Cliar.

Cells

single,

constricted

in

the

middle

segments compressed,

entire, spi-

nous, with a circidar, usually tuberculated Spines more projection near the centre.
til

an two to each segment.

X. armatum (PL 14. fig. 23; fig. 24, empty cell, showing the projections). Segments broadest at the base
stout, tri- or multi-fid
;

fig.)

XIPHICHI'LUS, Brady. One

Cytheridce, near Parado.vostoma
;

of

the

spines short, length 1-180".

;

with sub-

X. fasciculafum (PI. 14. fig. 25). Segments with from four to six pairs of subulate
conical,

equal, compressed-valves, elongate, pointed, Two living British species, rare. (Brady, Nat. Hist. Tr. North.

thm, aud smooth.

S,-

marginal spines; central projections minute, and not beaded common length
;
;

X YL A'RI A, Schrank. A genus of Sphae369).

Durh.

iii.

1-400".

Sixteen

.species.

(Ascomycetous Fungi), several of which are common ou rotten wood, stumps

riacei

XYLEM.
of trees, &c. fleshy bodies,

824

YEAST.

They
-with

are branclied, horny or often clavate lobes,

j-oung',

whitish and mealy

when

afterwards

brown or

black, with black, homy, immersed perithecia all over the branches, or with the tips barren the perithecia have a black centre composed of asci, each contain;

At first the globules or cells enlarged imtil they had attained a certain size then there no elapsed a short interval, during which change was observable. Next there took
;

ing eight (usually uniseptate) spores. BiBL. Berk. Br. Fl. ii. pt. 2. 234 Fries,
;

Sum.
tissue

Veget. 381.

XY''LEM.

Nageli's name

cellplace a projection of some point of the wall, which first appeared as a little pointlike bud, afterwards becoming larger and size of larger, until at last a new cell, of the the parent cell, was formed. Within three hours a cell was so far developed that a

for the

woody

forming part of the fibro-vascular bundles of stems. It is composed of spiral vessels, woody fibres, pitted ducts, and

wood-parenchyma.

XYXOG'RAPHA, Fr. A
;

genus of Gra-

phidei, Lichenaceous Lichens. Char. Apothecia black, linear, plane, in4 sp., rare. ternally ashy spores 8, simple. (Leighton, Lich. Flora^ 390.)

YEAST(-plant).

and thus an it, independent individual perfectly developed. The rapidity of gTOwth probably varies with the temperature and the nature of the in twenty-four hours, when the process thermometer was at about 78 in the day, sixteen cells were developed from one. After a time the growth slackened finally no further increase took place, undoubted!}' because all was removed from the liquid which could serve for their growth. Growing globules from this experiment are figured in

new one was formed from

This

well-known

PI. 26. fig. 23.

substance, which possesses the remarkable property of resolving sugar in solution into alcohol and carbonic acid, consists of a minute fungus, or rather of a particular condition of development of a certain fungus.

Berkeley and Hoffman went a step further, by contriving to get an atmosphere of air round the drop of sugar and water, and saw the cells of the yeast-fungus as soon as
it

yeast from an actively fermenting liquid is examined with the microscope, it is seen to consist of myriads of minute cells or
vesicles,
fig.

When

reached the air developed into a Peni-

cillinm.

about 1-3000 to 1-2400" (PL 26.

23) in diameter, containing a nucleus and some granules. During the progress of the fermentation, these cells increase in number, by budding, until either the sugar or the nitrogenous matter of the fermenting liquid is exhausted, when the cells, especially those nearest the surface, become elongated, remaining connected end to end, until they reach the surface, where they produce their
fructification.

By the observations of numerous competent investigators, it seems certain that the fermentation of beer, of wine, and in fact all vinous fermentation, is eftected by the growth of this plant and after the evidence brought forward in the articles Fermentation, ToRULA, and Vinegar-plant, there is little doubt that the Vinegar-plant, the
;

The growth of the yeast-plant has been carefully studied by several observers. may describe some observations of our own, which confirm those of Mitscherlich and Some fresh wort, in which fermenothers.

We

tation

had commenced, was obtained from a brewery, and a drop of the liquid, containing yeast-globules, placed upon a slide and covered with a piece of thin glass. After the removal of the extraneous liquid, the upper glass plate was cemented to the lower one the slide was then placed under the microscope, with the l-4th object-glass -and the micrometer eye-piece, in such a manner that several well-formed globules were visible and these were drawn on ruled paper.
;

Oidium lactis, and other supposed distinct plants are but forms of the Yeast-plant. PI. 26. fig. 24 exhibits the condition of the Yeast-plant on the surface of exhausted wort of malt, before the Vinegar -fungus appears fig. 756, page 773, the Torula-iovm. at the margins of the surface of liquids. cannot clearly make out any difference between the 'top yeast' and 'bottom yeast' {Oberhefe and tlnterhefe of the Germans), beyond the difference resulting from more when the or less active development growth is rapid the cells are more spherical and become quickly detached, and the evolution of gas comes up more to the surface ; when the yeast vegetates quietly at the bottom of the liquid, its cells are more do not believe the yeastelongated. cells ever burst to discharge reproductive
;

Wo

We

granules.

various

names,

The globular form is known by as Mycoderma cerevisife,

YEW.
;

825

ZOOSPORES.

Desni., which agrees with Cryptococcm ffhithe globular form in the Vinefi/iis, Kiitz.

Z. imple.ra, marine, on shells, stones, &c.

Ulvina aceti; the gar-plant is Kiitzing's tilamontous form with simple moniliform fruit (fig. 7oG) is Tontln cerevisice, Turpin without fruit, species of Hygrocroch or Lep;

tomitus,

tlie

final

form being

apparently
;

PeniciUhnn

r/laiicitm

(PI. 26. fig. 15).

The Yeast-plant is truly most ubiquitous but so are the conditions for its growth, while its reproductive power is enormous, and its small size renders it liable to be
by imperceptible movements of the air. Asperffilli(s (/laucus is almost as constant in its' favourite nidus, cheese Mticor mucedo on paste, &c. Botrytis vulin damp yaris on dead leaves and stems and all these are certainly not iSrc.
scattered
; ;

BiBL. Gegenbaur, Versvch eines Syst. d. Medusen, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 1856,' 229; Hincks, ITyd. Zooph. 58. ZAUS, Goodsir. A genus of Copepodous Entomostraca. Two species, marine. (Brady, Copep. ii. 153.) ZETES, Koch. A genus of Arachnida, of the order Acarina and family Oribatea. It is consolidated with Galumna.

ZINC The

crystals

of

the lactate, as

deposited from an aqueous solution, are represented in PL 11. fig. 20; they belong to the right-rhombic prismatic system. The chloride of zinc is useful as a preservative of animal tissues. (See PreseevaTION.)
Chtm-iodide of zinc. See Schulze's Test. BiBL. That of Chemistry.

places,

pseudomorphic productions

and

if,

as

we

believe really to be the case, yeast is but the conidial form of PenicUUuin glmmnn, there has been no lack of the spores of the latter in the air, in any situation where we have ever exposed vegetable substances for any length of time to a damp atmosphere.

ZOEA.- -The

larval stage of

some of the

higher Crustacea.

ZONARIA, Harvey
Kiitz.).

(Aylaozom'a, Zanard, genus of Dictyotacese (Fucoid

i^ees has lately observed in yeast, which calls Saccharomyces, that when sown on or some convenient subplaster of Paris, stance, certain cells at length swell and But after the fact that contain

he

sporidia.

Algse), of which the British species, Z. parvula, forms olive-green, membranous, fanshaped fronds, 1" or more in diameter, growing over stones or corallines, to which it attaches itself by whitish fibres on the lower surface. It is scarcely marked with The fructificoncentric lines like Padina.

within the threads sporidia are developed of Chionyphe and in Hemileia, this does not seem of much consequence. The Yeast-fungus is often developed in
ripe

fermentation. grapes, causing -vinous In an article published in Aim. d. Sc. Nat. the globules are regarded by Karsten as merely pathological; but this is contradicted by the facts above mentioned. ' BiBL. Turpin, Mem. de VInstitut, xvii. 93; Lowe, Tr. Edinh. Bot. Soc. 1857;
Bail,

cation occurs in scattered sori on both surand is apparently analogous to that of Padina, but requires further examination, since Thuret has shown that the true Dictyotaceae have peculiar reproductive organs, spores, tetraspores, and antheridia, so that
faces,

they stand between the Fucacete and the

Florideee.

BiBL. Harvey, 3far. Aly. 38,

Thuret, Ann. Sc. Nat.
4.
iii.

pi.

D;

25.

ZONOTRIC'HIA, Ag.=AiNACTis and

Euactis.

Flora, 1857, 417; Berkeley, Crypt. Bot. 242, 299 Karsten, Ann. N. H. 4. xiii. 161 Rees, AlkohoIydhrimyspiJze, 1870 Sachs, Bot. 254; and the BM. of Fermen; ;
;

ZOOGLCEA,

tation.

YEW.

See Taxtjs.

ZO'OID. The more or less completely independent organisms, produced by gemmation or fission, whether these remain attached, or are liberated and set free. (Nicholson, Zool.)

(Rabenht. Aly. ii. 212.) Cohn. See Bacterium.

ZO'OPHYTES,
ZA'MIA,
Liudl.

or

Ccelenterata.

See
also

See CYCADACEiE.

ZAN'CLEA,

Gegenbaur.

A
;

genus

of

Animal Kinc4Dom, Hamann, Organism.

ciliated active

and

Polypi

Corynidse, Hydroid Zoophytes. Char. Stem simple or branched, rooted by a creeping filiform stolon polypes more Tentacles capitate, scator less clavate. tered over the body gonophores borne on the body of the polype and producing free
;

ZO'OSPORES.The name
either

Hydroidpolypen, 1882, given to the

frequently,
after

gemmoe orGoNiDiA produced

more

singly or,

medusiform gemmae.

segmentation, in numbers, out of the contents of oi'dinary or special cells of the Algae, without any previous process of fertilization. These bodies are generally discharged from

ZOOSPORES.
the parent
cell in

826

ZOOSPORES.

Utricles, and
subsequently,

acquire

the state of Primoedial a cellulose coat

produce new plants. They appear usually to be surrounded at the moment of discharge

and

settle

wheu they cease to move, down to germinate and produce

by a

cases (in

a sti'ucture resembling the parent. In some Hydrobictyon normally, in many other Coufervoids abnormally) they become encysted within the parent cell and it appears most probable that the small cysts with dense and often spinulose coats, such as
;

common .sac, composed of which expands and quickly disappears, apparently by solution, setting them
delicate
cellulose,

free

in

PEDiASTRrii, however,

this

enve-

occiu- in Sjnroc/yra (PI. 9. tips. 24, 25) and other genera under certain circumstances, are of similar origin. In the Volvo cine^, zoospore-like bodies form the permanently active individuals of the fomilies.

lope appears to be permanent and to hold the gonidia together in the characteristic group In Hydrobicor family (PL 10. fig. 11). tyon, as de.scribed under that article, their histoiy is different, though the earlier conditions are analogous.
It

has been found

True zoospores occur pretty generally throughout the Confervoid Algse, with the
exception of Oscillatoriacefe, Nostochaceae, and perhaps Diatomacefe, and are described under the heads of the families or genera. brief review may be permitted here. The

different sizes are produced in many Coufervoids: these are called macror/07iidia and mkror/on dia by Braun(see Hydrodictyon) and a different
;

that zoospores of

two very

supposed to be exercised by the latter by some authors, who believe they are
function
is

fertihzing bodies (like Spermatozoids). Zoospores exist in a large proportion of the Algae usually included under the Fucoide^,

largest

form is that produced in the apices of the filaments of Vaucheria (fig. 796) it is ciliated all over, and very unlike that of any other genus. In CEdogonium (PI. 9. k fig. 811) the zoospores are formed fig. 7 c, out of the whole contents of a cell, and have a crown of cilia aroimd the transparent In other Confervaceee, asClado'beak.'
;

but which Thuret separates under the name The Phseosporeae have of Phfeosporeae.
sporangia containing motile zoospores, biciliated like the spermatozoids of the

Mela

nosporeae

This separates Fucoideae). them from the latter. The Phaeosporous families bear organs called Sporaxge.s (usually described in Algological works as
(or

Covferra (&gs. Chpetophoracefe, as in C7ieetnp/tora (fig. 9), Draparyialdia (fig. 180, page 271), Stujeoclonimn (PL 9. fig. .5cc); in Ulvaceae, Viva (PI. 9. figs. 2 6, Zc,d), Enferomorpha (tig. 4 6): in Frotococcus (PI. 7. fig. 2 6), in Achlya, in DesmipJiora

(PI.

9.

figs. 1.3 i,c'),

10

6,

lie);

in

from which are discharged zoospores agreeing in all essential respects with those of the Coufervoids, except that the two cilia are often arranged fore and aft, instead of being both in front. Examples of these are
spores),

Fig. 811.
h

under Ectocarpus, Myrionema, Zoospores CrTLERiA, Lamixaria, i.'cc. have been discovered in Fungi {PcronoDe Bary, and in spora and Cystoptts) by Lichens by Famitzin and if Saprolecjnicp
de.scribed
:

are really aquatic Fungi, their existence is then notorious (PL 27. fig. 27). See Sapro-

legnia. It remains to direct attention to the distinction between Zoospores and Spermatozoids, which are sometimes confused more together. This confusion is rendered imminent by the manner in which i\\e. forms
and
Zoospores of (Edofjonium. a have lost their in 6 germination is more or less advanced.
cilia
;

Mag-

nified .300 diameters.

diacefe (PI. 10. fig. ll), &c., as in all other cases, they are formed either singly from the entire contents, or in small or large the segmentation of the entire number

by

contents, and mostly break out in various ways, as pyriform bodies with tAvo or four cilia on the transparent beak, moving actively for a time, and then germinating to

An exception to tlie parent. occurs in some of the zoospores of (Edogoniuji, which, as the amlrospores, which are deproduce special structures in in many cases veloped spermatozoids. And the zoospores conjugate, before becoming
resembling
this

The essential characpass one into another. ter of a zoospore is, that when separated from the parent, it usually becomes encysted and at once developed into a new individual

encysted (Conjugation).

ZOOTEIRA.

827
;
[

ZYGNE]\rA.

Spermatozoids are transitory structures

when discharged from the parent cell, they oither make their Avav to a germ-cell of a
if despore, fertilize it and disappear, or, barred from this, at once perish without germination. As stated under SpEn:\rATOIn zoiDS, these bodies vary much in form. the higher Cryptogamia they are spiral filaments (PL 40. tigs. 31-4). In the Fucaceae they are minute globular bodies with two

cilia (fore

and
;
:

zoospores

aft) closely resembling some in the Florideae they are globules

of the cells an-anged in twin stellate or lobed masses in each joint (fig. 137, page 204). This stellate appearance arises from the presence of radiating threads, like those from the nucleus of SpiHOCiYUA hence it cannot be well observed in dried specimens. Celldivision with previous division of the stellate masses may be well studied in this genus. Kiitzing separates from this genus all the forms in which the spore is formed in the cross branch produced in conjugation, associating them with Zyyoyonium.
;

We

and those recently described as existing in VArcHEEiA, amoiig the Coufervoids, are also biciliated globules with the cilia fore and aft, while those in Sph^ROPLEiE resemble the microyonklin of this family, having their pair of cilia on the beak
without
cilia
;

prefer to follow Hassall's distribution of the forms, seeing that Zyyoyonium ericetorum is a plant of very different appearance. If the said character is constant, this genus

might be divided into two.

Spores in one of the parent
Z. cruciata (fig. 137, p. 204).
cells.

in

but are smaller.

tifon,

CEcoGOxirM they resemble the zoospores, The latter observation is

&c. being spermatozoids.

in favour of the microgonidia of Hydrodic-

ZOOTEI'RA, Wright.A genus

Char.

of

Ac-

Filaments 1-GOO" in diameter; joints equal or twice as long spores globose (Hassall, /. c. infra,
;

tinoplu-yina (Rhizopoda).

furnished with numerous contractile acuminate rays, elevated on a the rays become thickcontractile pedicel ened towards the point when not fully ex-

Body

tig. 4).

panded. BiBL.
563.

1 Kiitz. /. c. infra, y. pi. 17. Z. Dilhvynii and stellina of Kiitzing appear to be only smaller states of this, as also Ty7id. lutescens, Hassall, and T.anomala, Ralfs. Z. staynalis. Filaments 1-2640" in diapi.
fig.
;

38.

Wright,

Prifchard's

Infusoria,

ZOOTHA^l'NIUM, Ehr. A

meter, joints three or four times as long; spores globose or oblong (Hassall, I. c.
figs. 9, 10). Tynd. ovalis, Hass., is perhaps a larger form of this. Z. insiynis. Filaments 1-1800 to 1-loGO" in diameter, joints twice as long; spores

genus of

pi. 38.

Vorticellina (Peritrichous Infusoria). Char. Body like Vorticella, usually of different shapes, attached to the ends of a branched zoary internal muscle branched
;
"

globose (Hass".
/. c.

and continuous.

Many

s pecies,

salt

and

/. c. pi. 38. figs, 6, V. pi. 17. fig. 1).

Kiitz.

fresh water. Branches Z. arhuscula (PI. 32. fig. 22). of polypidconi racemose-umbellate, bodies

Z. bicornis.
in

Filaments lr440 to 1-200"

; ;

diameter, joints twice as long spores globose (Hass. /. c. pi. 38. fig. 5 Kiitz. /. c.
V. pi. 16. fig. 3).

Freshwater white, stalks very thick. length of polvpidom 1-4" of bodies 1-430' BiBL. Ehr. Infm. 288 Stein, Inf. Clap.
j ; '.
: ;

&
ii.

Lach. Inf. 101 Kent, Inf. 693." genus of Copepoda. ZOS'ENIE, Boeck. Z. typica, in dredgings. (Brady, Copepoda,
;

Spores in the
Z. immersa.

cro.ss

branches.

14.)

ZOS'TERA, L. -Agenusof Monocotyledonous Flowering plants (Nat. Ord. Zosteraceas), gi-owing in sea- water remarkable for the Pollen, of which the grains are represented by tubular filaments destitute of an outer coat and exhibiting Rotation when
;

Filaments 1-1200" in diameter, joints about half as long again; transverse processes very thick, filled by the large and globose spore (Hass. /. c. pi. 39
fig.

3; Kiitz.

/.

c. v. pi.

12. fig. 5).

Filaments conspicua. 1-1080" in diameter, joints

:

Z.

1-1440 to equal or twice

as long transverse' processes long, ventricose in the middle, where they enclose the

fresh.

ZYGNE'MA,
ridea,

Bory, Hassall). A

Agardh,

{Tyndagenus of Zygne-

in part

ovate-globose spore (Hass, /. c. pi. 2: Kiitz. I.e. v. pi. 12. fig. 2).
Z. decussata.

.39. figs. 1

macese (Confervoid Algae), consisting of filamentous plants, with the gi'een contents

Filaments 1-1440" in diameter, joints three times (more rarely fiye times) as long; transverse processes short

^.

ZYGNEMACE^,
and
filled

828
c.

ZYGODESMUS.

by the globose spore (Hass.

G
:

/.

pi. 39. fig.

Kiitz.

/.

c.

\. pi. 11. fig. 4).

Z. Unlfsn. Filaments 1-1920 to 1-1440" in diameter, joints three or four times as long; transverse processes very ranch dilated

Mesocarjms. Filaments simple, with the contents diffiised. Conjugation by transverse processes, from which the filaments become recurved spores in the dilated cross branches.
;

in the middle, containing an elliptical spore, with the long axis at right angles (Hass. Kiitz. /. c. v. pi. 11. I c. pi. 39. figs. 4, 5
;

fig. 2).

Filaments 1-G60" in diaZ. pectinata. meter, joints equal or a little shorter; cellcontents transversely bipartite, more frequently radiato-dentate, pectinate, dull green (Kiitz. L c. v. pi. 14. fig. 4 Em/. Bot. Possibly this is only a state of pi. 1611 ?). Z. cruciata with the spores in the transverse processes if so, the subdivision above indicated cannot stand. BiBL. Ilassall, Ahjce, 160, pis. 38, 39
; ;

Filaments simple, with S/mirocm-pus. the contents diffiised (or rarely in moniliform lines). Conjugation by transverse processes, from which the filaments become recurved spores (or sporauges) square or cruciate, in the dilated cross branches. Movyeotia. Filaments simple, soon bent at intervals, contents mostly diffiised, sometimes in several serpentine lines. Conjugation by the inosculation of the filaments at the convexity of the angles; spores not
;

satisfactorily

known.

{Tyndaridea) Kxitz. {Zygnema and Zygoyonium, in part), Tab. Phyc. v. pis. 11-17, Eabenh. Aly. iii. Sp. Air/, pp. 444, 445 248 Cooke, Alf/cs, 1882.
;
; ;

Thwaifesia, Montagne, resembles Zyynema in its stellate cell-contents ; but the spore formed in one of the parent cells divides into four portions (perhaps not distinct from

ZYGNEMA'CEyE(Pl. 9.figs. 16-28).A

family of Confervoid Algae, consisting of

plants composed of articulated cylindrical filaments, the cells of which often have the contents arranged in elegant patterns.

Zyynema). Craterospermum, nearly resembling Sfaurocarpus and Mouyeotia, but with the spore and the short tube in which it is contained subconstricted in the middle.
Pleurocarpus. Simple filaments, with diffused contents, the conjugation taking place between adjacent cells of the same filaments, by means of a short arcuate tube spore globose, in the tube.
;

The principal mode of reproduction, whence the family takes its name, is by CoxjugaTION, followed by a mixture of the entire contents of the united cells, and their conOther phenomena version into a spore. occur in some instances, such as the production of ciliated zoospores, and small sporelike bodies with a dense spinidose coat but these appearances are not
{asteridia)
;

green

Rhynchonema, Kiitzing, has spiral cellcontents like Spiroyyra, but conjugates like P/eiirocarpus, by an arched tube connecting adjacent cells of the same filament. BiBL. Kiitzing, Spec. Aly., Tabid. Phyc.
;

yet thoroughly understood (see

:

Spieogyea

and Mougeotia). The British Genera are Filaments simple, with the Spiroyyra. in one or more green contents arranged the cell-wall. Conjugaspiral bands upon tion normally by transverse tubidar proof the parent cesses spores formed in one

Braun, Ak/. IJniceU. 60 Eabenh. Alg. iii. 110 Cooke, Alyce, 1882. See also the genera. ZYGOC'EROS, Ehr. genus of Dia;
;

tomacese.

Detached
?

frustules

of

Bid-

DULPHIA
;

BiBL. Ehrenbevg, Abh. Berl Ak. 1839, 131 Kiitzing, Bacill. 138, and Sp. Aly. 139

Rabenh. Alq.

i.

310.

cells (or occasionally in both).

ZYGODAC'TYLA,
Conjugation

Brandt. A genus

Filaments simple, with the Zr/ynema. in two globuLar or green contents arranged
stellate

of Campanuliniflfe (Hydroid Zoophytes). Char. Capsules with an operculum formed

masses in each
;

cell.

by many convergent and acuminate

ments;
polypes
cylindrical,

by transverse processes
one of the parent
branch.
braiiclied,

spores formed in cells, or in tlie cross

segtentacles
free

webbed below; reproduction by

dusiform gemmae.
Z.
vibrina,

me-

arranged gation by transverse processes spores gloor in bose, formed in the cross branches, blind lateral pouches without conjugation.
;

or slightly Zyyoyorthnn. Filamentssimple, with the contents dilTused or in two transverse bands. Conju-

Ilfracombe.

(Ilincks, Brit.

Zooph. 191.)

ZY(K^DES'MUS, Corda. genus of Z. Sepedoni.ei (Hyphomycetous Fungi). fuscus occurs upon bark of fallen branches. Berkeley thinks it-^possibly may be a form

ZYGODON.
of

829

ZYMOMES.

some Thelephoroid Fungus. Currey has shown that Corda's figure (fig. 812) is not
completely
accurate,
since

he finds the

Filaments 1-2160 Z. ericetorum, Kiitz. to 1-1440" in diameter, joints as long or half as long again, cylindrical or torulose (fila-

Fig. 812.

ments sometimes slightly branched). Conjugation rare, apparently mostly 'chain-like,' from one cell to the next in the same filaContents green when growing in ment. water, purple when growing on wet heaths
(Hass.
fig. 1).

pi.

41; Greville, Sc.CrypL Fl.

pi.

261.

Conferva ericetorum, DiUw.

I.

See Zygnema.
BrBi,. Hassall,
c.
;

Greville,

/.

c.

KUt-

Zygodesmus

fuscus.

Magnilied 400 diameters.

points at the apex of the fertile pedicels each crowned by a spore and the normal nimiber of sterigmata is probably four, so that the structure would resemble a basidium of Hymenomycetes. The above figure is after Corda. BiBL. Berk. Crypt. Bot. 298; Currev, Micr. Jn. v. 126. ZYG 'ODON, Hook, and Taylor. A genus of Orthotrichaceous Mosses, deriving its name i'rom the yoking of the teeth in pairs the species are mostly found in mountainous districts and rarely in fruit.
; ;

Tab. Phyc. v. pi. 10; Enq. Bot. pi. 1553 Rabenh. Aly. iii. 251. group of Fungi, in which conjugation takes place, corresponding to the Conjugatas of the -Ugse, as in the Mucoiini &c. (Brefeld, Schimmelzing, Sp.

Aly. 445,
;

ZYGOMYCETES.A

pilze,

1872

V. Tieghem, An.

Sc.

N.

5. xvii.;

Sachs, Bot. 268.)

ZYGOSEL'MIS, Duj. A
Char.

genus of In-

fusoria, of the family Eugleuia.

by two
action.

Form variable ; movement eflected flagelliform filaments, incessantly in

Z.
less,

nehdosa (PI. 32. fig. 28). Body coloursometimes globular, at others variously

ZYGOGO'NIUM,

Kiitz.

genus of

ZygnemaceDe (Confervoid Algae), consisting of filamentous plants, growing on damp groxmd or in water, gTeen or yellowish

expanded so as to become pyiiforni or top-shaped, turbid from the presence of numerous granules. Freshwater; length
1-1100". BiBL. Dujardiu, Inf. 369;
417.

Kent, Inf.

when

when dry. Kiitzing includes here all Hassall's species of Tyndaridea (Zvgxema) which produce the spore in the cross branch.
fresh, purple or bro'^Tiish

The or Auxospore. result of the union of conjugating Algse.

ZY'GOSPORE

ZY'MOMES =MiCROZYMES.

THE END.

PlilNTKD UV

TAYLOR AND

KANCIS, KED LION COURT, FLEET STREET,

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