Barnet & Hunter Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi

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CONTENTS
Introduction Major Groupings of Imperfect Fungi and Their Importance in the Biosphere Cytological and Morphological Features of Imperfect Fungi Factors Affecting Growth and Sporulation of Imperfect Fungi References Cited ix
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PART I. PHYSIOLOGY ISOLATION CULTURE MEDIA MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES PHYSIOLOGY: NUTRITION AND ENVIRONMENT USE OF IMPERFECT FUNGI TO ILLUSTRATE BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES PART II. TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION THE SACCARDO SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION FAMILIES OF MONILIALES KEY TO GENERA MUCORALES MONILIALES HELICOSPORES NOT HELICOSPORES MONILIACEAE DEMATIACEAE TUBERCULARIACEAE STILBACEAE SPHAEROPSIDALES MELANCONIALES MYCELIA STERILIA SIMPLIFIED KEY TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA THE HUGHES-TUBAKI-BARRON SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
1 1 2 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 17 25 26 28 33 34 35 40
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ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA ARTHROSPORAE MERISTEM ARTHROSPORAE ALEURIOSPORAE ANNELLOSPORAE BLASTOSPORAE BOTRYOBLASTOSPORAE POROSPORAE SYMPODULOSPORAE PHIALOSPORAE DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA REFERENCES GLOSSARY INDEX TO GENERA
41 44 44 45 48 48 5051 52 55 59 198 212 216
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INTRODUCTION
The Deuteromycetes or Fungi lmperfecti (former taxonomic designations) are an anomalous, heterogeneous assemblage of asexual ascomycetes and basidiomycetes which no longer have formal taxonomic status. These fungi were traditionally considered as lesser fungi because they lacked the perfect stagesexual reproduction. The absence of asci (ascomycetes) and basidia (basidiomycetes) prevented their assignment to a natural taxon and necessitated .artificial non-sexual characteristics to describe and classify them. This genetic inability of many imperfects to reproduce sexually is considered a primitive condition and in contemporary mycology presents a taxonomic quandary. Alexopoulus et al, 1996, provide excellent scientific rationale for excluding imperfect fungi from contemporary fungal systematics, and discuss considerations needed to develop logical and valid taxonomic approaches to determine their phylogeny (1). Consequently, the taxons which previously were recognized as taxonomically valid for the deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi), are used in this book only to facilitate their identification. The imperfects are important eucaryotic microorganisms (possessing nuclei and organelles) which affect humans and most other life forms in a myriad of ways. The need to determine their identities is paramount in research, industry, medicine, plant pathology and in many other disciplines. Imperfect fungi are identified according to their conidial or non-sexual states. Nevertheless, many imperfects possess sexual structures of known ascomycetes or basidiomycetes, whereas others produce no conidia and/or sexual structures. Roper, 1966, described a parasexual cycle in which genetic recombination can occur in hyphae (16). This observation suggests that some fungi may never have possessed sexual structures or required sexual reproduction for genetic exchange. However, while there is little data which substantiates that pansexuality occurs under natural conditions today, it could have occurred during the origin and evolution of these fungi. When sexual structures are associated with the conidial state, a valid taxonomic status can be ascribed. However, this often does not occur, and for practical purposes is not important. Although the scientific name of the sexual state constitutes a valid taxonomic designation, the imperfect name is retained for practicality and for conventional use. Therefore, to identify the imperfect fungi, it is necessary to know their conidial morphologies regardless of whether the sexual state is also present in culture or in nature. The deuteromycetes constitute an important group of fungi which require continued study despite their obscure and confounding systematic relationships both to themselves and to other fungi. Barron, 1968 (2), Hunter and Barnett, 1973 (10), Hunter tf al., 1978 (11), and Alexopoulus et al. (1) provide additional information on many aspects of the morphology, sporulation, growth, ecology and economic importance of imperfect fungi. Scanning electron and light photomicrographs are provided on several of the following pages. They show conidia, conidiophores, and hyphal structures found on many different kinds of imperfect fungi. Compare them with like illustrations in the book to better understand how these structures are important in identifying imperfect fungi.
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MAJOR GROUPINGS OF I M P E R F E C T FUNGI AND T H E I R IMPORTANCE I N T H E B I O S P H E R E

The imperfect fungi or deuteromycetes have been classified according to principles established by Saccardo in Sylloge fungorum (17). While this taxonomic system is no longer valid, it is still the best way to learn the mycology that is necessary for identifying the imperfect fungi. It is also the primary means used in this book to identify imperfect fungi. The scientific names of imperfect fungi are still used, albeit, only in a non-taxonomic sense, and as a necessity to know their practical importance in the biosphere. The Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System (conidial ontogeny) has also been used as a way of classifying and identifying these fungi (2, 9, 18). Details pertaining to this system are provided on pages 40-44 and related identification keys are found on pages 44-57. The use of conidial and conidiophore ontogeny for identifying deuteromycetes should be used by individuals who are well versed in mycology. The shape, pigmentation, and septation of conidia are important characteristics in the Saccardo System but reduced to secondary importance in the Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System. To better understand the Saccardo System, common and economically-important imperfect fungi of the four form orders will be presented. Following the Saccardoan System, the species of the form orders can be separated into four distinct groups of fungi. This provides a basis from which to begin a search (appropriate key) for the identity of an unknown fungus. The form orders are as follows: (I) Moniliales Conidiophores and conidia occurring free and distributed over the mycelium. Conidiophores may be separate, in clusters, or in tightly-packed groups. Illustrative examples and accompanying descriptions of many of the diverse genera in this group are provided from pages 68 through 161; (2) Sphaeropsidales Conidiophores and conidia contained within asexual fruiting bodies called pycnidia. See pages 162 through 187 for descriptions and illustrations of pycnidia-producing fungi. (3) Melanconiales - Conidia typically produced under natural conditions in an acervulus, an open saucer-shaped fruiting body. In culture, conidiophores may be single or in compact groups similar to sporodochia of the Mormiaies. These fungi can be found on pages 188 through 194; (4) Mycelia Sterilia - Species in this form order are genetically incapable of producing conidia or any kind of reproductive cells. Sclerotia or other survival structures occur in the mycelium. Descriptions and illustrations of the three species depicted in this book are provided on pages 196 and 197.
Conidiophores ot Paecilomyces sp. with typical flaskshaped phialides and catenulate conidia. X
Conidia of Trichoderma sp. emerging from apices ot the conidiophores.
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Two of the spomlating form orders, Moniliales and Sphaeropsidales can be separated into several form families. Characteristics are predicated upon such artificial features as color, shape, and consistency of the pycnidium in the Sphaeropsidales, or color of the conidia and presence of synnemata or sporodochia in the Moniliales. The form family taxon is not used in Mycelia Sterilia and only one form family exists in the Melanconiales. There are at least 1,400 form genera of imperfect fungi and several thousand species. The most common in nature and the most economically important are found in the form order Moniliales. Some are pathogens of plants, animals and humans, some produce toxins, while others are important in the production of antibiotics and other chemicals. In the Saccardo System, it is the color and morphology of the conidia which are used to separate form genera into sections. For example, one-celled hyaline (devoid of any color) conidia are called hyalospores; colored, one-celled conidia are phaeospores; didymospores are two-celled; and transversely septate conidia with three or more cells are phragmospores. Add hyalo to phragmospore (hyalophragmospore) and it is a hyaline, transversely septate conidium; cylindricallyspiraled, one to several cell formations are helicospores, regardless of the presence or absence of color. Problems encountered when using the Saccardo system are variations in type of fruiting body (acervulus, sporodochium, and pycnidium), conidium color and conidium morphology. These structures can vary on different media and in their response to varying environmental conditions. Consequently, what is described in the keys may differ slightly to significantly when the fungus in question is grown on different media or when it is incubated at different temperatures. Nevertheless, time and experience will negate these factors. Therefore, because of its simplicity and practicality, the Saccardo System is still the best way for students and others to study and identify imperfect fungi.
SACCARDOAN FORM ORDERS

FORM ORDER MONILIALES
Most species of deuteromycetes reside in this form order and are grouped into four form families (see page 7). This is the only form order in which form families are described in this book. Form families Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae have species which are delimited by one or more of the following
Conidia In basipetal chains radiating from the apex of an Aspergillus sp. conidiophore.
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characteristics: conidial septation; conidiophore appearance and branching; conidial morphology; true and pseudomycelium (some imperfects are yeasts without true hyphae); the manner in which the conidia are produced; presence of chlamydospores and morphology; conidia produced in chains or in a head; presence or absence of mucilage; conidial number and arrangement at apex of the conidiophore; conidia produced on conidiophore or mycelium; and exogenous or endogenous production of conidia. Refer to page 68 through page 145 for numerous examples of the Moniliaceae and the Dematiaceae. Note that imperfects in this form order with hyaline conidia are members of the Moniliaceae; those with pigmented conidia and/or conidiophores reside in form family Dematiaceae. The reason that the fungi of these two form families are discussed together is because the only difference between the species is the color of their conidia and conidiophores. This seemingly obvious color difference is at times difficult to determine in culture and under the microscope. However, careful use of the microscope, diligence and experience in identifying these and other fungi, will in time allow orje to make accurate determinations of pigmentation, along with many other pertinent fungal characteristics. Many of the more common fungi are found in the form families Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae. Species of Aspergillus (page 95), Penicillium (page 95), Alternaria (page 132) and Stemphylium (page 132) are routinely isolated from the air and numerous other substrates. These genera and several other species of the Moniliaceae are discussed here. Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic pathogen of humans and other animals and is responsible for the human disease aspergillosis, a pulmonary disorder. Penicillium chrysogenum and closely related species are the sources of penicillin, an important antibacterial antibiotic, which has saved countless humans from death and serious illness for many decades. Other species of Penicillium are responsible for the contamination of food and clothing. Gl'tocladium spp. (page 93) are similar to the penicillia, but differ at maturity by having the spore mass encompassed by mucilage. One species, G. roseum is a good example where identification is confusing because it produces two different conidial types, one being the Gliocladium type and the other that of Veriicillium albo-atrum (page 92). Fortunately, this is unusual, but warns one to not always consider fungal cultures contaminated when two distinct conidial types occur in the same culture. Verticillium albo-atrum is a destructive plant pathogen that causes a wilt of some economically-important plants. Monilia (page 73) cinerea var. americana, the pathogen of brown rot of peach and other fruits, is often found as a contaminant of microbial cultures. Geotrichum candidum (page 68) is the causative agent of geotrichosis, a human disease which can occur orally, in the intestine and as a pulmonary disease. Species of the genus Candida (page 71) are common in the Moniliaceae. Note that this fungus is not always filamentous, but can possess yeast-like cells. An important species C. albicans, is an opportunistic human pathogen causing oral and vaginal diseases and may become systemic. This filamentous yeast can be differentiated from other Candida spp. by the production of S to 12 pm spherical chlamydospores on corn meal agar.
One-celled Gliocladium sp. conidia in mucilaginous masses on penicillate branches of conidiophores.
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Many species having pigmented conidia and/or conidiophores, reside in the form family Dematiaceae. Many of these species are also common and/or economically-important fungi. Stachybotrys (page 89), a soilborne saprotroph, has pigmented single-celled conidia and conidiophores that slime down to form glistening beads. Cladosporium (page 107) is prevalent in the air, and some species are plant or human pathogens. This fungus has a highly branched conidiophore and one-or two-celled conidia that occur in chains. Since all conidia of one species are not always of the same cell number or size, purity of a culture cannot be determined by this means. Aureobasidium (page 71) is a filamentous yeast, hyaline when young, becoming dark with age. Aureobasidium is often confused with species of Candida, but pigmentation appears in its hyphae which is not found in Candida. One species, A. pullalans is saprotrophic, but can become an opportunistic pathogen of plants. This same fungus is also known to be a major agent in the deterioration of painted surfaces. Many species of Helminthosporium (page 125) are well known to plant pathologists as pathogens of grasses. These fungi produce dark cylindrical conidia, which are multiseptate and usually have rounded ends. The conidia of Bipolaris (page 127) and Dreschlera (page 123) are nearly identical to those of Helminthosporium but differ in the mode of conidial formation. The ends of the conidia vary only slightly making the differentiation of species between Bipolaris, Dreschlera and Helminthosporium difficult. Illustrations along with the keys are most helpful in correctly identifying species of these three genera. The most commonly encountered fungus in the Dematiaceae is Alternar'ta (page 133), which produces large muriform conidia, often borne acropetally in chains. Isolates of this fungus are readily recovered from air, soil, decaying vegetation and from diseased potatoes and tomatoes. Imperfect species which have conidiophores united in columns or clusters reside in the form family Stilbaceae (pages 152 - 161). These multiple fused conidiophores are called synnemata or coremia and tend to be more plentiful in aging cultures. The conidia are produced on the upper portions of the synnemata. Some isolates of the Stilbaceae do not form synnemata on all media making identification most difficult. Isaria spp. (page 157) are frequently isolated from soil and grow profusely on most mycological agar media. One species, Pesotum ulmi, is well known to plant pathologists because it is the imperfect form of the fungal pathogen that causes Dutch elm disease. The synnemata of P. ulmi are tall and have a rounded mass of light-colored conidia embedded in mucilage. The presence of sporodochia in the mycelium distinguishes form family Tuberculariaceae from the other three form families of form order Moniliales. Refer to pages 146 - 151 and observe the many different types of sporodochial fungi. A sporodochium is a cushioned-shaped structure made up of closely grouped conidiophores. Definitive identification of sporodochial-producing fungi is often difficult because the structures often vary with cultural conditions. Some, but not all species of Fusarium (page 131), produce sporodochia. Species of Fusarium. are pathogens of humans, insects, plants and are
Catenulate conidia conidiophore.
of
Penicillium sp.
on
phialides of a
Arthrospores of Geotrlchum sp.
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abundant in the air and soil. It is easy to identify isolates to genus because of their characteristic bananashaped conidia. However the tremendous variability in conidial size, microconidia and macroconidia, make them difficult to speciate. Species in the genus Epicoccum (page 151) are frequently isolated from soil and decaying wood. This fungus has dark sporodochia, from which compact or loose conidiophorcs give rise to dark, globose dictyospores (conidium has both oblique and transverse septa).
FORM ORDER SPHAEROPSIDALES

There are four form families in this form order and all of the species have well defined asexual fruiting bodies i.e. pycnidia (page 162 through 187), Pycnidia are easily seen at low magnifications with a compound or stereo-microscope. They have conidia which are either endogenously produced (inside the pycnidium), or that differ from most other imperfect fungi and are exogenously produced. According to Saccardo, the form families are differentiated as follows. Sphaeropsidaceae - dark pycnidia, leathery to carbonaceous, which may or may not be produced on a stroma, usually having a circular opening; Zythiaceae - physical characteristics as in form order Sphaeropsidaceae, but the pycnidia are brightcolored and waxy; Leptostromataceae - upper half of pycnidium fully developed, rather than in the basal portion; Excipulaceae - Pycnidia are cupped or saucer-shaped. In this book, we do not separate pycnidia producing fungi using the four form families, although we may use a particular characteristic from a given form family as part of the key composition. Many members of the form order Sphaeropsidales are saprotrophic, although some are plant pathogens and others infect insects and other fungi. Among the more common form genera are Phoma, (page 163), Phyllosticta (page 163), Sphaeropsis (page 177), Coniothyrium (page 177) and Septoria (page 183). Many of the species of these five genera are pathogens of plant stems and leaves. Problems in identifying these fungi are obvious when comparing Phoma and Phyllosticta. Their pycnidia and conidia are so similar that distinctions are at best arbitrary. Both have dark, erumpent pycnidia enclosing short conidiophores that produce hyaline, non-septate conidia. Sphaeropsis is another form genus which is similar to Phoma. Septoria (page 183) is a form genus with approximately 1,000 species, most being plant pathogens. Many of the species names come from their hosts. Obviously, using the host to name the fungal species leads to confusion, the proliferation of species, and questionable scientific designations. The pycnidia of Septoria are dark, globose, ostiolate, erumpent; they enclose short conidiophores bearing long, thin scolecospores. Therefore, the dark pycnidia are round, have an opening, and break out through the surface of the substratum and produce endogenous narrow-elongate conidia.
Germinating parium.
cralamydospores
of
Cylindrocladlum
sco-
Bristle-covered pycnidia of Chaetomella s p .
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FORM ORDER MELANCONIALES

Species in this form order are recognized by a saucer-shaped fruiting body, the acervulus (page 188 through 195). There is only one form family, Melanconiaceae. Two common form genera are Gloeosporium (page 189) and Colletotrichum (page 189). They are both very similar in appearance, except that the latter has prominent dark setae associated with the conidiophores. The many species of the two genera have conidia which are hyaline, one-celled, and ovoid to oblong. Under certain cultural conditions, however, the setae of Colletotrichum fail to form, thereby making it impossible to distinguish between the two genera. Glomerella, an ascomycete, is the teleomorph of both form genera which indicates that, because of their similar anamorphic states, they should really be in one genus. Another common genus is Pestalotia, which produces multiseptate conidia with pointed ends and apical appendages (page 193). Species can be either pathogenic or saprotrophic. Careful scrutiny will show that species of Cylindrosporium (page 193) are difficult to differentiate from species of Gloeosporium. Similar appearing species of different genera present problems even to those who are familiar with the fungi.
FORM ORDER MYCELIA STERILIA

Species placed here have no known anamorphic or teleomorphic states. They do however, produce somatic sporodochium-like bodies, chlamydospores, sclerotia or bulbils. These diversified fungi are grouped into approximately 20 genera and because of their heterogeneity there are no form families. No asexual or sexual structures are found in these fungi, and therefore they are identified solely by mycelial characteristics. Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium (page 197) are two common form genera, both containing plant pathogenic species. Clamp connections on their hyphae provide evidence to basidiomycetous affinities. Papulospora, another frequently encountered member of this form order produces bulbils (shown on page 197) which are sclerotium-like and serve in survival and reproduction. Species of Papulospora are saprotrophs of decaying vegetation and are pathogenic to storage structures of some plants. The imperfect fungi include a diverse array of fungi which occupy every conceivable ecosystem within the Biosphere. There are aquatic and terrestrial species; some are saprotrophic, and some are pathogenic to humans, animals, plants, microorganisms and to even other fungi. Their many spore and somatic types have led to dispersal and invasion of may environments resulting in the evolution of this highly diverse group of fungi.
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CYTOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL F E A T U R E S OF IMPERFECT FUNGI

The eucaryotic cellular structure, composition and ultrastructure of the imperfect fungi (DeuterOmycetes) have been thoroughly investigated using light and electron microscopy (4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12). Cells of imperfect fungi, like most fungi, are arranged in filaments or threads called hyphae. One filament of the hyphae is a hypha, and all hyphae of one fungus constitutes the mycelium. Fungal hyphal cells vary in size, color and in their extracellular matrix, when present. However, since hyphae among different kinds of fungi are more alike than different, they usually cannot be used as a differentiating character. The cells of a hypha are separated from one another by crosswalls called septa. Imperfect fungi have one, two or more nuclei in their septate hyphal cells and can possess mitochondria, endoplasmic reticuli with ribosomes, microtubules, Golgi bodies, vacuoles, glycogen and lipid. Woronin bodies and Spitzenkorpers (8), which are unique structures involved in apical hyphal growth may also be present. Often, mitochondria and Golgi bodies are found to be closely associated in the cytoplasm. This ultrastructural feature has been seen only in imperfect fungi and ascomycetes. Consequently, this association suggests a relationship unique to these fungi that differentiates them from other fungi and other life forms (13). Therefore, they have cells, organelles and inclusions similar to, yet different in some respects, from protists, metaphytans and metazoans. The asexual spores of deuteromycetes, the conidia, contain similar organelles and inclusions. Under light microscopy however, the cytoplasm of the typical imperfect fungus appears translucent and granular and lacking discernible nuclei, organelles or other inclusions. The hyphae and conidia of Verticillium albo-atrum and V. nigrescens are representative of imperfect fungi since they are uninucleate and possess most of the aforementioned intracellular structures within their plasma membranes (3). Newhouse et al. found these typical organelles, along with mycoviruses in the hyphal cells of Cryphonectria parasitica (14). The majority of fungal viruses do not appear to have any deleterious affect upon fungi, but some can debilitate their hosts and cause changes in colony morphology, growth rate and pigmentation. This can result in an infected fungal isolate having a cultural appearance far different from other fungi of the same species. This is an important consideration in fungal identification. Light microscopy of fungal cells reveals little cytological detail; however, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) show with clarity the organelles, some inclusions, and nuclei within the fungal cell. Alexopoulus et al. provide excellent information on fungal ultrastructure and cellular relationships of many and diverse fungi (1). Under light microscopy, the nuclei and organelles of the imperfects are minute and difficult to observe without killing the cells and applying one or more cytological stains. Consequently, intracellular characteristics of the cell(s) are of no value for identification. There is one notable feature of the hyphae that is easily seen with the light microscope and enables differentiation of an imperfect fungus from a typical phycomycete. This structure is the septum which separates individual hyphal cells. All imperfect fungi have septa, unlike most phycomycetes which are coenocytic (lack septa and are multinucleate). Ascomycetous and basidiomycetous fungi also possess septa. Within the septum there may be one or several pores which provide cytoplasmic continuity between cells. The pores are easily observed via TEM but not with light microscopy. Transmission electron micrographs demonstrate that nuclei and various organelles can traverse the pores thus moving from cell to cell. Woronin bodies or septal pore plugs are known to block pores, especially in hyphal cells that are old or damaged. Imperfect fungi with known ascomycetous teleomorphs usually have simple septa, whereas basidiomycetous teleomorphs have much more elaborate and complex dolipore septa. External to the plasma membrane of the hyphal cell is the cell wall. This is apparent by light microscopy and by TEM. This of course is a major difference between metazoans and most protists which lack cell walls. Metaphytans also possess cell walls, but the chemical composition of the xvl
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microbibrils is different. The imperfect fungal cell wall, in conjunction with microtubules and microfilaments that comprise the cytoskeleton, preserve the cytoplasmic integrity of cells and also determines the shape of the hyphal cell. Hyphal cells of Sclerotium rolfsii possess an actin cytoskeleton (15). Cell growth of the filamentous fungi occurs almost exclusively at the hyphal tip. Transmission electron micrographs of the hyphal apex by Grove, 1978 (6), and Grove and Bracker, 1970 (7), show apical vesicles which are spherical and membrane bound. The apical vesicles contain the necessary elements for plasma membrane extension and cell wall synthesis. More recent studies by Wessels in 1986 (19) and 1988 (20) provide evidence that the hyphal tip is elastic but ultimately becomes rigid with age. Hyphae are the microscopic somatic structures of fungi which are embedded in various organic, substrates or in soils. It is the hyphae that absorb nutrients required for growth and reproduction. The organization and size of the mycelium is predicated upon substrate availability and nutrient status. While additional structures are not usually formed by growing hyphae, some fungi form discrete microscopic and/or macroscopic somatic and reproductive structures. Hyphae of some fungi can develop two dlifferent kinds of fungal tissues (plectenchyma). These tissues develop from the apical growth of the hyphae. Prosenchyma tissue are evident by their loosely woven organization in which the hyphae are still mostly discernible. When the hyphae are not discernible and the cells become plant-like, the tissue is pseudoparenchyma. Many resistant and reproductive structures develop from the two types of plectenchymous tissue. One type of somatic tissue structure is the rhizomorph which results from the thickening of the hyphae. Sclerotia (page 97) and microsclerotia are other structures in which the hyphae lose their typical thread-like appearance and become a mass of cells which are resistant to various adverse conditions. Another somatic structure, the stroma, is formed as a mass of fungal cells that usually supports various types of reproductive structures. Rhizomorphs, sclerotia, microsclerotia and stroma are important structures in determining the type and, in some few instances, the identity of an unknown fungus. The more identifiable structures (mainly reproductive, but also somatic) that can be determined for an unknown fungus, the easier it will be to identify. The conidial cells, their conidiophores, acervuli, pycnidia, sporodochia, synnemata and chlamydospores are other cellular structures of imperfect fungi which are easily discernible with the light microscope, and are routinely used in identification. These structures are illustrated and discussed throughout this book. Complete familiarity with these structures will facilitate use of the keys for identifying unknown imperfect fungi.
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FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND SPORULATION OF I M P E R F E C T FUNGI

The imperfect fungi are adapted to live under diverse environmental and nutritional conditions. Conidia of some species often survive for years in a cold or dry environment and germinate upon exposure to favorable conditions. The conditions that favor or inhibit growth and sporulation of a given fungus are correlated with its habitat. For example, Bispora, which obtains its nutrients from decaying wood, is limited in growth only by temperature and moisture, whereas, other fungi have more precise requirements, such as for living tissue or preformed vitamins. In fact, the dissemination of plant pathogenic conidia is often limited to the growing season of the host plant, and the production of conidia at that time. This and other types of adaptation have led to the survival of the deuteromycetes that exist today. Several types of fungal responses to nutrition and environment are presented.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature and moisture are universal factors that affect all organisms and must be favorable for them to survive, grow and reproduce. The cardinal temperatures i.e. minimum, optimum, and maximum, are used to describe the range at which individual imperfect fungi can grow. The exact ranges are influenced by other factors. There is a great variation among the responses to temperature of the imperfect fungi; however, they all produce some growth at mesophilic temperatures. When growing unknown, fungi it is best to select a temperature between 20 and 30 degrees Centigrade for their initial incubation.
MOISTURE
Imperfect fungi are capable of growing in liquid nutrient solutions provided that sufficient oxygen is present. However, many deuteromycetes can grow in the absence of liquid water. Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum are plant pathogens which cause rots of plant parts and obtain moisture from the decomposing plant cells. Species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, and Aureobasidium are common decomposing agents of cloth, paper, leather, wood and even painted surfaces where there is no free moisture. Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. proliferate in stored grains when the moisture content is greater than 14%. Another Aspergillus sp., A, glaucas and its close relatives are well known for their ability to grow under conditions of severe physiological drought. In contrast there are the many imperfect species that cannot grow without liquid water or a saturated atmosphere. Spores of most deuteromycetes require moisture for germination.
LIGHT
Imperfect fungi respond to light (radiation) in a myriad of ways, but are not photosynthetic. Like all fungi they are incapable of reducing C0 2 to carbohydrate via radiation. Nevertheless, phototropic growth of conidiophores has been amply demonstrated for Aspergillus giganteus, A. clavatus, Penicillium claviforme and numerous other fungi. When cultures receive unilateral illumination, the conidiophores grow toward the white light, irrespective of the position of the culture. Certain frequencies of radiation are also known to enhance or be necessary for the induction of sexual structures of imperfects having known teleomorphic states. Radiation also may affect the chemical composition of media thereby promoting growth patterns different from those that would occur when the media were stored in the dark.
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Radiation has the greatest impact on sporulation of imperfect fungi. Sporulation of imperfects is either induced (i.e., light is necessary) or enhanced by exposure to different wavelengths of radiation. Ultraviolet, near ultraviolet, blue (most common), a wide band of blue-green-yellow and far red all affect fungal sporulation, albeit, quite differently. The red band is seldom effective for inducing sporulation. White light may be as effective as any given color if the intensity is nearly equal. The intensity of white light necessary for sporulation by Epicoccum nigrum varied inversely with duration of exposure. An exposure of mycelial cultures on agar to sunlight (7,000 ft. candles) for 15 minutes induced the production of about as many conidia as a single exposure of 24 hours at 50 ft candles or 6 hours at 100 ft. candles. Spores were produced only in the zone of young hyphae at the time of exposure. It is well known that ultraviolet radiation is inhibitory, yet there are few^ concrete examples of inhibition of imperfect fungi by visible light. Remember, when growing imperfects which do not sporulate in culture, the absence of light or too little of it, may be an important factor. In general, expose fungal cultures to alternating periods of light and dark to induce sporulation.
HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION (pH)

Most fungi grow optimally when the substrate is slightly acid between pH 5.0 and 6.0. However, they will generally achieve fair to good growth over a much wider range, from about pH 3.0 to 8.0. Certain species are able to tolerate even greater ranges: Aspergillus niger, pH 2.8 to 8.8; A. oryzae, 1 . 6 to 9.3; PenicilUum italicum, 1 . 9 to 9.3; Fusarium oxysporum, 1 . 8 to 11.1; Botrytis cinerea, 2.8 to 7.4; and Rhizoctonia solani, 2.5 to 8.5. When fungi are growing on most culture media, they alter the pH of the substrate. The extent of the pH change depends on the composition of the substrate as well as on the genetics of the imperfect fungus.
CARBON AND NITROGEN SOURCES

The requirement of fungi for carbon is greater than any other nutrient, however a source of nitrogen must also provided. The ubiquitous nature of most deuteromycetes indicates that they possess the genetic determinants (synthesis of enzymes) to utilize carbon from many different sources; among these, cellulose is the most abundant utilizable source. Seldom does a fungus in nature encounter a pure carbon source, but rather will preferentially select from what is available. To determine the ability of specific fungi to utilize single carbon sources, experiments in the laboratory must be conducted under controlled conditions, using a medium that is complete for all nutrients except carbon. Imperfect fungi respond to different carbon sources, and their preferred source is usually associated with the niche they occupy in the ecosystem. Growth on glucose, fructose and mannose are approximately the same for all fungi. Most natural media have more than one carbon source from which a fungus can obtain carbon requirements for growth and reproduction. In nature, organic materials provide the nitrogen needed for growth; however, most fungi can use sources of inorganic nitrogen as well. Most imperfect fungi utilize nitrate, ammonium and amino acids as sources of nitrogen. Growth on inorganic nitrogen is often less than on a mixture of amino acids or on a complex organic nitrogen source. If one merely desires to cultivate deuteromycetes on a laboratory medium, yeast extract or casein hydrolysate is excellent. To study the relative rate of utilization of nitrogen sources, one should use single amino acids, such as asparagine, aspartic acid or glutamic acid.
VITAMINS
Most imperfect fungi are capable of synthesizing required vitamins from living or non-living substrates. Some imperfects, however, are deficient and cannot synthesize certain vitamins. Such deficiencies can be determined only by cultivation in suitable synthetic media with and without added vitamins. When imperfects are vitamin-deficient, it is usually thiamine that they are unable to synthesize. A deficiency may be single or multiple, complete or partial. Most species of Aspergillus synthesize all
XIX
FREEDOM PALESTINE
required vitamins. Botrytis cinerea, species of Penicillium, Cylindrocladium scoparium, Gliocladium roseum and other imperfect fungi are also able to synthesize their vitamin requirements. The pycnidial producer, Dendrophoma obscurans, must have a preformed source of thiamine as do some species of the dermatophyte genus, Trichophyton. Biotin is needed for Diplodia macrospora and for Stachybotrys atra.
INORGANIC SALTS AND MICROELEMENTS

Natural organic compounds often furnish all of the inorganic salts necessary for growth. However, if one needs to culture imperfects on synthetic or semi-synthetic media, it is necessary to add certain compounds. Monobasic potassium phosphate (KH 2 P0 4 ) and magnesium sulfate (MgS0 4 ) will supply potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulfur. The microelements Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu and Ca are frequently added to synthetic media to supply additional inorganic elements needed for optimal fungal growth.
ISOLATION, CULTURE MEDIA, MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES, AND PHYSIOLOGY

Information on these topics can be found on pages 1-3.
xx
FREEDOM PALESTINE
REFERENCES CITED
1. Alexopoulus, C. J., C, W. Mims and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 2. Barron, G. L. 1968. The Genera of Hyphomycetes from Soil. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. 3. Buckley, P. M., T. D. Wyllie and J. E. DeVay. 1969. Fine structure of conidia and conidium formation in Verticillium albo-atrum and V. nigrescens. Mycologia61: 240-250. 4. Farley, J. F., R. A. Jersild and D. J. Niederpruem. 1975. Origin and ultrastructure of the intra-hyphal hyphae in Trichophyton terrestre and T. rubrum. Arch. Microbiol. 43: 117-144. 5. Griffiths, D. A. 1973. Fine structure of the chlamydospore wall in Fusarium oxysporum. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 6 1 : 1-7. 6. Grove, S. N. 1978. The cytology of hyphal tip growth, In: The Filamentous Fungi, (Vol. 3). Smith, J. E. and D. R. Barry, Eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 7. Grove, S. N. and C. E. Bracken 1970. Protoplasmic organization of hyphal tips among fungi: Vesicles and Spitzenkorpers. J. Bacterio], 104: 989-1009. 8. Howard, R. J. 1981. Ultrastructural analysis of hyphal tip growth in fungi: Spitzenkorper, cytoskeleton and endomembranes after freeze substitution. J. Cell Sci. 48: 89-103. 9. Hughes, S. J. 1953. Conidiophores, conidia and classification. Can. J. Bot. 3 1 : 577-659. 10. Hunter, B. B. and H. L. Bamett. 1973. Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti), In: Handbook of Microbiology: (Vol. 1), Organismic Microbiology. Laskin, A. I. and H. A. Lechevalier, Eds. CRC Press, Cleveland, OH. 11. Hunter, B. B. and H. L. Bamett and T. P. Buckelew. 1978. Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti), In: Handbook of Microbiology: (Vol. 2), Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, and Viruses. Laskin, A. I. and H. A. Lechevalier, Eds. CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL. 12. Mims, C. W. 1991. Using electron microscopy to study plant pathogenic fungi. Mycologia 83:1-19. 13. Newhouse, J. R H. C. Hoch and W. L. MacDonald. 1983. The ultrastructure of Endothia parasitica. Comparison of a virulent with a hypovirulent isolate. Can. J. Bot. 6 1 : 389-399. 14. Newhouse, J. R., W. L. MacDonald and H. C. Hoch. 1990. Virus-like particles in hyphae and conidia of European hypovirulent (dsRNA-containing) strains of Cryphonectria parasitica. Can. J. Bot. 68:90-101. 15. Roberson, R. W. 1992. The actin cytoskeleton in hyphal cells of Sclerotium rolfsii. Mycologia 84: 41-51. 16. Roper, J. A. 1966. The parasexual cycle, In The Fungi, (Vol. 2). Ainsworth, G. C. and A. S. Sussman, Eds. Academic Press, New York.
XXI
FREEDOM PALESTINE
PARTI
PHYSIOLOGY
ISOLATION
Many different techniques for the isolation of fungi in pure culture have been described (246, 390). One should select and try first a method that is simple and easy, using a general purpose medium. Many species, especialJy common .saprophytic hyphomycetes, sporulate readily in a moist chamber on pieces of wood, leaves, or other plant pans. Conidia may be lifted from the sporulating conidiophores by touching with a small bit of agar on the tip of a needle, while looking through a stereoscopic microscope. This simple method often results in a high percentage of cultures free of contamination. It can also be used to obtain conidia from oozing acervuli or pycnidia. Species growing in habitats with an abundance of bacteria may require the use of dilution plates or antibiotic agar (219). A water agar substrate may even be useful, but a rose bengal streptomycin agar has been recommended (390). A highly specialized medium containing antibiotics was used for isolation of Vertirtcladiella procera from diseased pine roots (428). The use of geranium leaves placed on the soil surface has been recommended for recovering species of Cylindrocladium from soil (310). Botrytis cinerea and other soft rot fungi can be obtained easily in pure culture by passage through apples or other fruits. Pathogenic fungi within plant tissue often require surface sterilization with 10% chlorox for 2 minutes before plating the material on agar (246). The common method of obtaining the oak wilt fungus from diseased trees was stripping bark from twigs, dipping in 95% alcohol, and flaming (445). Wood chips were then plated on agar. The necrotrophic mycoparasites, such as Gliociadium roseum and species of Trichuderma, do not require a special medium for isolation. However, the biotrophic mycoparasites are a highly specialized group in regard to nutrition, are usually isolated with a host species, and are best maintained as twomem be red cultures. Nematode trapping fungi may often be obtained by placing a bit of horse manure or soil rich in humus on an agar plate. Nematodes are usually abundant after a few days and the trapping fungi, if present, should appear a few days later. Transfers from pure cultures of these species to the plates with nematodes will assure the formation of the characteristic loops, rings, or nets. Common species belong to the genera Arthrobutrys, Dactylella, Monacrosporium, or close relatives (106).
Conidia of Bispora sp. Note the formation of a new conidium at the apex of the con i d i a l chain. 1
A synnematous fungus (Briosia sp.) growing from decayed vegetation.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
2 PHYSIOLOGY
CULTURE MEDIA
A satisfactory general culture medium must contain all of the nutrients required by the fungus: utilizable carbon and nitrogen sources, certain salts and microelements, and water. Some species are favored by added vitamins or growth factors. Many plant parts or products contain these nutrients but not always in quantities optimum for growth or sporulation. A potato-dextrose (glucose) agar medium has been the favorite of many plant pathologists for many years. Other natural media have been developed and used by mycologists for specific fungi. A list of one hundred media is given in the Mycological Guidebook (390). The authors prefer a general medium containing 5 to 10 g glucose, I to 2 g yeast extract, and 1000 ml water. Addition of agar and changes in concentrations may be made as desired. This medium is easy to make, and the pH need not be adjusted. The use of a synthetic medium, in which each nutrient and its concentration is known and can be altered as desired, is preferred in critical studies of fungus physiology. Such media can be duplicated exactly, and the effects of each nutrient can be measured. One satisfactory synthetic medium contains glucose (5 to 10 g), KN0 3 . asparagine or glutamic acid (1 to 2 g), KH 2 P0 4 (1.0 g), MgS0 4 (0.5 g), microelements (Fe, Mn, Zn) (trace), and distilled water (1000 ml). Vitamins thiamine (100 /jg). biotin (5 fig), and pyridoxinc (JOO/ig) may be added routinely for the deficient species (259). This liquid medium may be used in flasks, or agar may be added for tube or plate culture, Five species of biotrophic mycoparasites require the new growth factor mycotrophein, which is a naturally occurring product in most filamentous ascomycetes and imperfects. It may be obtained in crude form by extracting from the mycelium with hot water (10, 12, 48, 138, 220,469).
MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES

The choice of a method for keeping viable cultures over a long period of time depends on the period of time they are to be maintained and the convenience of the method (259). Frequent transfer of mycelium from a culture to a fresh agar slant in test tubes is satisfactory for short periods. Long term maintenance of viable mycelium can be accomplished using screw-cap test tubes. Allow mycelium to grow until it reaches the edge of the agar slant, then screw the caps down tightly and store at about 5 UC. Transfer cultures after 6 to 12 mo. The use of screw cap tubes has the additional advantage of excluding mites. Many eonidia remain viable for months when collected and stored dry at low temperatures, or simply frozen. Mycelium of some fungi may be cultured on bits of wood or other plant tissue and stored dry-
Fruiting structures of Cylindrocladium parvum growing in culture.
Conidial heads of Aspergillus niger.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
PHYSIOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGY: NUTRITION AND ENVIRONMENT

See references 141, 157, 162, and 259 for textbooks on fungus physiology. The same nutrients that favor vegetative growth are also generally favorable to sporulation, but often in different concentrations or ratios. A low concentration of available carbon usually favors sporulation. Sporulation by species pycnidia is often delayed until growth reaches a maximum. Among the common carbon sources, glucose, fructose, mannose, and maltose are utilized most readify; xylose and sucrose intermediately; whereas lactose and sorbose are often poorly utilized or not at all. The table lists as examples the relative amount of vegetative growth of selected species on several sugars (3 = good to excellent; 2 = fair; 1 = poor; 0 = not utilized) (218). Alternaria solani Aspergillus niger Colletotrichum lindemuthianum Cordana pauciseptata Dendrophoma obscurans Helminthosporium sativum Penicillium expansum Rhizoctonia solani Thielaviopsis basicola Choanephora cucurbitarum A = days B = glucose, fructose, mannose C = galactose D = sorbose A B 14 3 7 3 14 3 14 3 14 3 7 3 4 3 5 3 7 3 3 3 E = xylose F = maltose G = sucrose H = lactose C 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 D 1 2 0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 E 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 3 0 I F 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 G 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 0 H 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 0 0
well Temperature is a universal factor affecting all physiological processes in fungi, most of which grow w within a range of 25 to 30 C, but there is much variation. The approximate cardinal temperatures are given below for selected species (218). Aspergillus fumigatus Botrytis cierea Diplodia zeae Epicoccum nigrum Helminthosporium sativum Humicola grisea v. thermoides Rhizoctonia solani Trichothecium roseum Verticillium albo-atrum Minimum <20 0 10 < 5 < 5 24 2 <10 5 Optimum 35 20 30 25 25-30 38-46 25-30 30 25 Maximum 50 30 35 35 35 56 35 35 35
Visible white light may affect imperfect fungi in different ways. Some species show a decided positive phototropism of the conidiophores (e.g., Aspergillus giganteus, A. clavatus, and Penicillium claviforme). The conidiophores grow directly toward the source of light, regardless of the position of the culture (259). Sporulation of a number of species of imperfects is either induced (light is essential) or favored (increased) by exposure of the mycelium to radiation. In general, only the mycelium that is young at the time of exposure responds to radiation. Different species respond to different wave lengths, blue being the most effective range for most fungi. Some species that respond to exposure to white light or to specific wave lenghths are: Botrytis cinerea (uv), Cylindrocladium citri (blue to far red), Cyllndrocladium spp. (uv, near uv, blue), Dendrophoma obscurans (blue), some isolates of Epicoccum nigrum (uv), Helminthosporium vagans (near uv), and Trichoderma lignorum (blue). The intensity of white light required to induce sporulation by one isolate of Epicoccus nigrum varied inversely with the duration (430). Note that a long exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation is lethal to fungus mycelium.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
4 PHYSIOLOGY
USE OF IMPERFECT FUNGI TO ILLUSTRATE BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Certain species work well in demonstrating the effects of nutritional and environmental factors on growth and sporulation. A few demonstrations that can be easily performed in the classroom, together with the species used, are suggested below. Effects of white light on production of conidia: Trichoderma Ugnorum, Epicoccum nigrum (390). Inoculate plates of general purpose agar at the center with conidia or mycelium. Place some cultures incontinuous light, some in alternate light and darkness, and some in total darkness at 20 to 25 C. Examine after 4 to 6 days. E. nigrum may also be used to demonstrate an inverse intensity-duration relationship required for sporulation (i.e., long exposures at low intensity compared with short exposures at high light intensity (429). Try a range from 5 to 1000 footcandles. Positive phototropism of conidiophores: Aspergillus clavatus. Inoculate several plates of general purpose medium with conidia. Place some cultures beneath continuous light, some with single directional light, and some in total darkness. Wrap some in light-tight paper or foil, and cut one or two small windows. Examine after 4 or 5 days. Effect of color (wave length) of light on fruiting: Dendrophoma obscurans (32). Place cultures of this fungus under white light, under blue, yellow, green, and red filters, and in darkness. Examine after 7 days. Natural products may replace the light requirement for production of pycnidia: Dendrophoma obscurans. Use a synthetic agar medium with thiamine. Place on some plates autoclaved strawberry leaflets on the surface of the agar. Incubate cultures in alternate light (50 footcandles or more) and darkness for a few days, and examine for pycnidia. Special light requirements for production of conidia: Choanephora cucurbitarum (11). Use plates of glucose-asparagine agar plus thiamine. Petri dishes with loose-fitting lids will allow adequate aeration. Place cultures under the following conditions: continuous light; continuous darkness; 2 days light 12 hours darkness; 2 days darkness 12 hours light. Examine for conidia in 3-day-old cultures. Need for adequate aeration for production of conidia: Choanephora cucurbitarum. This can be done simultaneously with the light requirement demonstration. Provide adequate aeration of some of the cultures by using loose-fitting lids, and prevent exchange of gases in other cultures by taping dishes closed (II). Incubate in alternate light and darkness. Sugar concentration affects growth of mycelium and production of conidia: Helminthosporium sativum, Choanephora cucurbitarum, or Mektnconium JuKgenium (or other species sporulating readily). Use a glucose-yeast extract medium, with glucose concentrations of 1, 5, 20, and 5 g/liter. Sugar concentration affects size of conidia: Helminthosporium victoriae (or some other species of this genus) (110). Prepare the same medium as above, and measure the length of conidia formed at the different concentrations. Thiamine deficiency: Dendrophoma obscurans or Choanephora cucurbitarum (11). Use a liquid glucose-asparagine medium (see section on media above) in small flasks (25-ml to 250-ml flasks are satisfactory). To half of the medium add thiamine at the rate of 1 0 0 //g/liter. Observe growth daily. If an accurate measure of growth is desired, the mycelium can be collected on a cloth or filter paper, dried and weighed. Biotin deficiency: Diplodia macrospora (259). Repeat above procedure, except use biotin at the rate of 5 ^g/liter. Multiple deficiency for thiamine and biotin: Arthrobotrys musiformis. Use the same basal medium as above; add vitamins singly and in combination, using basal medium as control. Pyridoxine deficiency: Graphium sp. (9). Use the same basal medium as above, adding pyridoxine at the rate of 1 0 0 /ig/liter.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
PHYSIOLOGY
Destruction of pyridoxineby Ijght(9): Graphiumsp. Preparea medium containing pyridoxine (liquid or agar). Store part of the medium under continuous bright light, and the remaining medium under total darkness for 10 to 14 days, Inoculate both media, and observe growth, Trapping and consuming small nematodes (106). Arthrobotrys spp. Use of a glucose-yeast extract medium is suggested. Nematodes can be obtained easily by placing a bit of horse manure on agar plates. After a few days use a stereoscope to check for the presence of Arthrobotrys. If none is present, use pure culture of fungus to inoculate cultures of the nematodes. Observe after a few days for rings, nets, or other traps and for trapped nematodes. Necrotrophic mycoparatism: Trichoderma lignorum, Gtiochdium roseum (10, 13). Prepare 3- to 5-day-old cultures of several common fungi. Inoculate these cultures at the edge of the mycelium with one of the above suggested species. Observe daily for the parasite overgrowing the host colony, and examine microscopically for destroyed host cells.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
PART II
TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION

THE SACCARDO SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
The Saccardo System has long been in use for the classification of imperfect fungi. The primary basis of this system is the morphology of the sporulating structures as they are known in nature, as well as the morphology and pigmentation of conidia and conidiophores. In artificial culture, some species of imperfects fail to form typical fruiting structures (e.g., acervuli. sporodochia. and synnemaia). Although an alternate system of classification may be more convenient for mycologists who have studied the different methods of conidium development, the authors recommend that others use the illustrations and key based on the Saccardo System. Moniliaceac and Dcmatiaceae, the two largest families, are presented according to the Hughes-Tubaki-Barron System of Classification beginning on page 41.
ORDERS INCLUDED
Conidia! Phycomycetes. Mycelium typically coenocytic; septa absent or infrequent; conidia (sporangioles) present; typical large, muUispored sporangia may also be present in some genera. This group is included here because of similarity to some genera of the imperfect fungi. MUCORALES Mostly saprophytic, but some species parasitic on plants or other fungi. Fungi Imperfeeii. Mycelium (if present) typically septate with frequent septa; conidia normally present except in a few genera. Classification and identification are based on the conidial state, although the perfect state is often known and sometimes also present. 8
Fruiting heads of Verticlciadielia procera.
Synnemata and conidia of the Dutch elm fungus, Pesotum ulmi.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION
SPHAEROPSIDALES Conidia produced in well defined asexual fruit bodies, pycnidia. MELANCONIALES Conidia typically produced in acervuli under natural conditions; in culture conidiophores may be single or in compact groups, resembling sporodochia of the Moniliales. MONILIALES Conidia produced directly on the mycelium, on separate conidiogenous cells, or on distinct conidiophores that may be separate, in clusters, or in tightly packed groups. This is the largest and most common order. MYCELIA STERILIA No conidia produced. Usually sclerotia or other structures are formed for survival. This group does not include those fungi that do not sporulate because of unfavorable nutritional or environmental conditions.
28
33
34
FAMILIES OF MONILIALES
TUBERCULARIACEAE Condiophores typically compacted into a rounded or flat sporodochium, often not well developed in artificial culture. Some species of Melanconiales produce structures resembling sporodochia in culture. STILBACEAE Condiophores typically compacted into synnemata, which may be more abundant in aging cultures. Single conidiophores may also be present in some cultures or may be the only conidial state present. Such cultures may be identified in one of the following families. MONILIACEAE AND DEMATIACEAE Conidiophores mostly single and separate or produced in loose clusters. These two families are considered together because the only described difference is the hyaline conidia of the former and the pigmented (dark) conidia or conidiophores of the latter. Conidia are considered pigmented if the walls appear dark either separate or in mass. Only within this order (Moniliales) are families used in the identification of genera. In the Saccardo System orders and families may be broken into sections as follows: Amerosporae, conidia 1-celled; Didymosporae, conidia 2-celled; Phragmosporae, conidia with transverse septa only; Dictyopsorae, conidia with both transverse and oblique septations; Scolecosporae, conidia filiform; Staurosporae, conidia stellate or branched; Helicosporae, conidia typically coiled. The prefixes Hyalo- and Phaeo- are sometimes added to each section name to indicate hyaline or darkly pigmented conidia, respectively. r 1 0 , 17 26 25
FREEDOM PALESTINE
KEY TO GENERA
Note that there is a separate key for each order.
MUCORALES
la Conidia (sporangioles) globose, borne singly on apex of conidiophores (sporangiophores) or branches lb Conidia (sporangioles) globose to elongate, borne in clusters or in heads 2a Special spore-bearing branches (sporocladia) bearing conidia only on one side (upper or lower) 2b Sporocladia not present 3a Sporocladia borne on coiled or recurved branches 3b Sporocladia not on coiled or recurved branches 4a Sporocladia on coiled branches; conidia short ellipsoid 4b Sporocladia in umbels on recurved branches; conidia obovoid 4c Sporocladia arising from loosely spiraled branches; conidia globose to subglobose 5a Conidia borne only on upper (inner) side of sporocladium 5b Conidia borne only on lower (outer) side of sporocladium 6a Conidiophore simple, bearing a few lateral or apical sporocladia 6b Conidiophore simple, bearing a whorl of sporocladia on an apical disc 6c Conidiophore long, branched, bearing lateral, dome-shaped sporocladia Coemansia Martensella Kickxella Linderina Spirodactylon Martensiomyces Spiromyces Mortierella 60 2 3 7 4 5 64 64 66 6 62 64 64 64 8 12 9 10 Syncephalis Syncephalastrum Piptocephalis Dimargaris
8
7a Conidia produced in rows, or sporangioles in chains, often breaking up into rows of spores 7b Conidia not in rows (chainlike); sporangioles do not break up into rows of spores 8a Conidiophores nonseptate, simple or branched; conidia radiating apex 8b Conidiophores septate, distinctly branched 9a Conidiophores simple, with basal rhizoids 9b Conidiophores usually branched; rhizoids absent 10a Conidiophore branches dichotomous, all fertile 10b Conidiophore branches verticillate, all fertile
62 66 62 62
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MUCORALES
10c Conidiophore branches irregular, some with sterile tips 1 la Fertile branches enlarged, bearing a head of cylindrical conidia 1 lb Fertile branches repeatedly branched; conidia not in compact heads 12a Conidiophores with lateral or terminal branches 12b Conidiophores simple 13a Spore-bearing head compound; conidia ellipsoid, usually colored 13b Spore-bearing head compound; conidia hyaline, reniform to ellipsoid 13c Spore-bearing head simple; conidia hyaline, globose to subglobose 14a Conidia not produced in slime, dry (4b Conidia produced in slime drop in a head J 5a Conidia borne on enlarged globose apex 15b Conidia borne on cylindrical upper portion of conidiophore Helicocephalum Rhopalomyces Mycotypha Choanephora Radiomycea Cunninghamella Dispira Tieghemiomyces
11 66 62 13 14 66 64 60 15 60 60 60
MONILIALES
la Conidia more or less coiled or spirally curved, hyaline or dark (parts of Moniliaceae, Dematiaceae and Tuberculariaceae) lb Conidia not coiled 2 10
HELICOSPORES
2a Conidiophores forming a sporodochium 2b Conidiophores single or in loose clusters 3a Conidial coil flat; sporodochium stalked 3b Conidial coil in a loose spiral; sporodochium not stalked 4a Conidial coil more or less flattened 4b Conidial coil spiral 5a Conidia thick in proportion to length 5b Conidia slender 6a Conidia hyaline or dark, with transverse septa only 6b Conidia dark, with transverse and oblique septa C_7a /Parasitic on higher plants 7b Saprophytic on wood or bark 8a Conidiophores hyaline, short Xenosporium Helkomina Helicotna Helicomyces Everhartia Hobsonia 3 4 150 150 5 9 6 8 7 136 136 136 136
FREEDOM PALESTINE
10 KEY TO GENERA
8b Conidiophores pigmented, pale or dark, tall 9a Conidia borne singly 9b Conidia catenulate
Helicosporium Helicoon Helicodendron
136 136 136
NOT HEUCOSPORES
10a Both conidia and conidiophores (if present) hyaline or brightly colored; conidiophores single or in loose clusters Moniliaceae 10b Either conidia or comdiophores (or both) with distinct dark pigment; comdiophores single or in loose clusters Dematiaceae 10c Conidiospores compacted into sporodochia lOd Conidiophores typically united into synnemata Tuberculariaceae Stilbaceae 11 105 202 225
MONILIACEAE
11a Conidia typically 1-celled, globose to several times longer than wide 1! b Conidia typically 2-cellcd, mostly ovoid to cylindrical 11 c Conidia typically 3- or more-celled, shape variable 12a Conidiophores absent or like the mycelium, or reduced to phialidcs or peglike denticles 12b Conidiophores distinct, although sometimes short V 13a Pathogenic to humans 13b Saprophytic or parasitic, mostly soil or on plant parts 12 62 74 13 19 14 15
14a Filamentous in cultures at 25C, with large chlamydospores.. Blastomyces, Histoplasma 80, 82 I4b Both filamentous and yeastlike cells at 25 C, without large chlamydospores 15a Conidia (arthrospores) segment from branches of conidiophores, rounded 15c Conidia not arthrospores, not formed by segmentation 16a Setae absent 16b Setae present, mostly circinate, unbranched 16c Setae present, branched, circinate or wavy 17a Mycelium with clamp connections 17b Mycelium without clamp connections 18a Conidia produced on sterigmata and forcibly discharged Sporobolomyces Candida Circinotrichum Gyrothrix Itersonilia Candida 70 68 68 16 17 90 90 70 18 70 70
Chrysosporium
15b Conidia (arthrospores) formed by segmentation of hyphae, rod-shaped Geotrichum ,
18b Conidia borne on sides of mycelium or formed by budding, not forcibly discharged
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONIUALES 11
19a Conidial state of powdery mildew; conidia catenulate 19b Conidial state of powdery mildew; conidia not catenulate 19c Not conidial state of powdery mildew , 20a Conidia distinct in shape from apical cells of conidiophore 20b Conidia (arthrospores) gradually become rounded from apical cells of conidiophore 20c Conidia (blastospores) globose to ellipsoid, similar to apical cells of conidiophore 20d Conidia (blastospores) elongate, slender, much like cells of conidiophore
Oidium Ovulariopsis
68 70 20 21
Wallemia Monilia Tilletiopsis
92 72 12 22 38 23 29 24 26
21a Conidiophores (or phialides) typically simple or with few branches; phialides, if present, not tightly clustered into heads 21b Conidiophores mostly branched; phialides, if present, clustered into groups or heads 22a Conidia catenulate 22b Conidia not catenulate 23a Conidia endogenous; phialides prominent, simple 23b Conidia exogenous; conidiophores simple or branched 24a Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) present, rounded, usually single 24b Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) in short chains of truncate cells, breaking up 24c Dark aleuriospores rarely formed 25a Dark setae present 25b Dark setae absent 26a Conidia blastospores or botryoblastospores 26b Conidia otherwise 27a Conidia in chains on slender conidiophores 27b Conidia on enlarged apex and nodes of conidiophores 28a Conidia phialospores; phialides simple 28b Conidia arthropsores, nearly globose with a flat base 28c Conidia arthrospores, rod-shaped 29a Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells short or indefinite 29b Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells distinct; fertile portion rachislikc Hyalodendron Gonatorrhodiella Monocillium Basipetospora Oidiodendron Chrysosporium Tritirachium, Beauveria Chaetochalara Chalara Chalaropsis Ihielaviopsis
90 92 25 90 90 27 28 72 78 86 70 68 68 100 30 31 37
29c Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells distinct, fertile portion not rachislike 30a Conidiophores not inflated or only slightly so 30b Conidiophores or fertile cells distinctly inflated at middle or apex
FREEDOM PALESTINE
12
K E Y TO GENERA
31a Conidia curved; aquatic on dead leaves 31 b Conidia globose to ovoid; not aquatic 32a Conidia sympodulospores 32b Conidia aleuriospores 32c Conidia blastospores or phialospores; single 33a Conidia blastospores, on long denticles, dry 33b Conidia phialospores, in moist heads 34a Conidiophores clustered 34b Conidiophores single, separate 35a Conidiophores single, simple, forked at apex 35b Conidiophores usually have branches arising from an enlarged cell 35c Conidiophores with variable short lateral branches 36a Conidiophores branched verticillately
Lunulospora
138 32 34 35 33
Otpitrichum
74 36
Ovularia Sporothrix Glomerularia Umbelopsis Staphylotrichum Vertkillium
104 98 86 86 80 92 188 94 78 76 76 76 76 80 39 41 94 40
36b Conidiophores in acervuli in nature; in culture, conidiophores separate or in poorly formed groups Gloeosporium 36c Conidiophores simple or with few branches, never in acervuli 37a Fertile cells globose; conidiophores short, stout 37b Fertile cells globose, single, apical; conidiophores slender 37c Fertile cells globose, apical and intercalary 37d Fertile cells somewhat elongated; conidia borne on short denticles 37e Fertile cells somewhat elongated; conidia borne on long pegs or branches 37f Cephalosporium Phymaiotrkhum Oedocephalum Gonatobotrys Rhinotrichum Acladium
Fertile cells elongated, cylindrical, enlarged branches of conidiophorc; conidia on short denticles Chromelosporium
38a Conidia in more or less compact heads; conidiophores simple 38b Conidia not in compact heads; conidiophores simple or branched near the apex 39a Conidia in dry heads 39b Conidia held in heads of slime 40a Simple diverging sterile arms subtending heads 40b No sterile arms below conidial heads 4!a Conidia in basipetal chains 41 b Conidial chains formed by segmentation of cells or branches of conidiophore Gliocephalotrichum Gliocephalis Aspergillus
94 94 42 44
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MGNIHALES
13
41 c Conidia not catenulate 42a Conidiophores usually separate, not in columns or cushions 42b Conidiophores and conidia in tall aggregates 42c Conidiophores and conidia in slimy cushions 43a Conidia phialospores; phialides divergent, loose 43b Conidia phialospores; phialides upright, brushlike 43c Conidia annelospores 44a Arthrospores barrel-shaped, separated by prominent slender cells 44b Arthrospores rod-shaped to globose, separating cells not prominent 45a Rough-walled aleuriospores (chlamydospores) present 45b Rough-walled aleuriospores absent 46a Aleuriospores 1-celled, with attached hyaline cells 46b Aleuriospores 1 -celled, smooth walled 46c Aleuriospores 1-celled, rough walled, without attached cells 46d Aleuriospores 2-celled; apical cell large, rough, basal cell small, smooth 47a Phialospore state verticillate (like Verticillium) 47b Phialospore state aspergilliform (like Aspergillus) Mycogone Chlamydomyces Stephanoma Botryoderma Sepedonium Metarrhizium Myroihecium Paecihmyces Pemcillium Scopulariopsis Amblyosporium Oidiodendron
45 43 94 146 94 94 98 68 68 46 48 82 86 82 47 82 82 49 57 50 51 Verticillium Calcarisporium 92 102 52 54 53 55 Botryosporium Botrytis Dichobotrys Phymatotrichum Gliocladium 76 76 78 78 92
48a Conidia produced at or near apex of phialides or branches of conidiophores 48b Conidia attached both at apex and side of conidiophore or its branches 49a Larger conidiophores (at least) verticillate 49b Branches of conidiophores irregular, not verticillate 50a Phialospores in mucilaginous clusters 50b Sympodulospores in dry clusters 51a Conidia not aggregated in slime drops 51 b Conidia held in heads by slime drops 52a Conidia abundant, borne on inflated apical cells 52b Conidia single or in small clusters, not on inflated cells 53a Conidiophores tall, with one (or few) central axis and several equal, lateral branches 53b Conidiophores tall, with irregular branches 53c Conidiophores tall, with regular dichotomous branching 53d Conidiophores short, with few branches 54a Conidiophore branches brushlike, similar to Peniciltium
FREEDOM PALESTINE
14 K E Y TO GENERA 54b Conidiophore branches spreading, not brushlike 55a Conidiophore branches loose, conidia present 55b Reproductive structure compacted, globose or pyramidal, bearing globose cells but no true conidia Cristulariella 56a Saprophytic on leaves 56b Saprophytic on wood; conidial state of Hypoxylon 57a Fertile portion of conidiophore (or sporogenous cell) zig-zag rachishke 57b Fertile portion of conidiophore (or cell) not zig-zag, or rachislike 58a Conidiophores simple or verticillately branched 58b Conidiophores irregularly branched 59a Conidiophores bulbous at base; parasitic on insects 59b Conidiophores slender, not bulbous; not parasitic on insects 60a Conidia borne on short denticles 60b Conidia apical on branches, not on denticles 6!a Conidiophores slender, with slender branches from main axis; not dichotomous Botryoderma Calcarisporium Chromelosporium Geniculosporium Beauveria Tritirachium Hansfordia Nodulosporium Trichoderma 92 56 74 98 100 58 60 59 100 100 100 61 86 102 80 63 66 Rhynchosporium 108 64 Genicularia Cylindrocladium Candelabrella 110 108 110 65 Diplosporium Cladobotryum 108 108 67 70 Heliscus 108 68 Genicularia 110 69
61b Conidiophores slender to stout; fertile cells somewhat inflated 62a Conidiophores well developed, branched 62b Conidiophores mostly simple or with few branches 62c Conidiophores none, reduced to cells of stroma 63a Conidia ovoid to oblong 63b Conidia (sympodulospores) obovoid 63c Conidia (phialospores) slender, cylindrical 64a Conidiophore branches restricted to apical region 64b Conidiophore branches not restricted to apical region 65a Conidia in loose moist clusters 65b Conidia in loose tangled chains 66a Apical cell of conidium much larger than basal cell 66b Conidial cells not differing greatly in size 67a Aquatic on submerged leaves 67b Not aquatic 68a Both cells of conidium smooth walled 68b Apical cell of conidium rough walled; basal cell smooth
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MON1LIALES
15
69a Microconidial state, if present, similar to Aspergillus 69b Microconidial state, if present, similar to Verticiltium 70a Conidiophores single, not clustered; mostly saprophytic 70b Conidiophores clustered; parasitic on leaves
Chlamydomyces Mycogone
82 82 71 73 72 108 110 110 110 110 75 76
71a Conidia borne singly on short pegs or denticles at or near apex of comdiophore 71 b Conidia borne successively at pointed apex of comdiophore 72a Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia obovate to oblong 72b Conidiophores short; conidia cylindrical to clavate 73a Conidia cylindrical, often in short chains 73b Conidia ovoid to oblong, not catenulate 74a Conidia long, cylindrical, often bent or curved; aquatic 74b Conidia shorter or not cylindrical; aquatic or not 75a Conidiophores branched near apex; conidia 1 - or few-celled 75b Conidiophores simple; conidia single, apical 76a Conidia 2- to several-celled, phragmosporous, not branched 76b Conidia branched, staurosporous 77a Causing dermatomycoses of man or animals 77b Saprophytic or parasitic on plants 78a Macroconidia clavate, rounded at apex 78b Macroconidia spindle-shaped to ellipsoid 79a Macroconidia typically curved, pointed (canoe-shaped), small conidia usually also present 79b Other than in macroconidia, not canoe-shaped 80a Conidiophores short, mostly simple or with few branches 80b Conidiophores tall, simple or branched 81 a Conidia cylindrical, mostly straight, or slightly curved 81 b Conidia ellipsoid or long attenuated 82a Conidia catenulate; conidiophores clustered 82b Conidia not catenulate (sympodulospores); conidiophores single 82c Conidia not catenulate (phialospores); conidiophores single 83a Conidia ellipsoid, rounded at apex 83b Conidia cylindrical to filiform Septocylindrium Scolecobasidium Cylindrocarpon Fusoma Trichophyton Microsporum Fusarium Flagelhspora Anguillospora Trichothecium Arthrobotrys Dactylaria Ramularia Didymaria
138 140 77 84 78 79 116 116 130 80 81 85 82 83 128 114 130 116 84
FREEDOM PALESTINE
16 KEY TO GENERA
84a Conidium with apical appendage 84b Conidia without appendages 85a Conidiophores mostly simple, seldom branched 85b Conidiophores typically branched 86a Parasitic on grasses 86b Saprophytic or parasitic on nematodes 87a Middle cell of conidium greatly enlarged 87b Middle cell only slightly or not at all enlarged 88a Conidia ovoid to clavate to cylindrical 88b Conidia fusiform to cylindrical 89a Branches of conidiophore (phialides) verticillate 89b Conidiophores terminating in penicilliate branches 90a True staurosporous conidia formed
Spermospora Cercosporella
128 128 86 95
Pyricularia
128 87
Monacrosporium
118 88
Dactylaria Dactylella Dactylium Cylindrocladium
110 128 130 108 91 74 142 92 93 94
90b No true conidia known; "conidial" branches forming a well defined globose or conical structure, similar to a loosly formed sclerotium Cristulariella 91 a Conidiophores reduced, not evident 91b Conidiophores distinct, well formed, length variable 92a Conidial branches not greatly divergent 92b Conidial branches widely divergent 93a Conidial branches typically 2-pronged 93b Conidial branches typically 3-pronged 94a Central cell of conidium much enlarged 94b Central cell of conidium not enlarged 95a Conidia pyriform or clavate, with 3 slender branches 95b Conidia with central globose cell and 4 to 5 slender branches 95c Conidia with 3 to 4 broad cells in main axis and 2 to 4 slender appendages 96a Conidial appendages attenuated, pointed 96b Conidial appendages not distinctly attenuated 97a Conidia borne on phialides or phialide-Iike branches of the conidiophore 97b Conidia borne otherwise 98a Conidium with elongated axis and 2 lateral branches arising side by side 98b Conidium with 4 divergent branches arising near base of conidium Alatospora Lemonniera Ingoldia CuHcidospora Clavariopsis Actinospora Dicranidion Tridentaria Thallospora
138 140 95 97 140 140 96 138 140 98 99 142 138
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONILIALES
17
99a Conidial branches formed one at a time 99b Conidial branches formed simultaneously 100a Conidial branches 4 or more 100b Conidial branches 3 or less 101a Main axis of conidium broader than branches 101b Main axis of conidium about the same width as branches 102a Number of branches variable mostly arising from one side of main axis 102b Conidial branches dendroid, not limited to one side of main axis 103a Conidial branches arising from different levels 103b Conidial branches arising from base of central axis 104a Conidial branches arising from near apex of main axis 104b Two conidial branches arising about midway of slender axis Tetracladium
100 103 101 104 140 102 138 140 138 138 142 140
Varicosporium Dendrospora Tricladiutn Triscelophorus Articulospora Tetrachaetum
DEMATIACEAE
105a 105b 105c 105d Conidia typically 1-celled Conidia typically 2-celled Conidia typically 3- or more-ceiled phragmospores Conidia typically 3- or more-celleddictyospores 106 145 156 184 107 122 Aureobasidium Torula Papularia 70 74 82 108
106a Conidiophores absent or, if present, often poorly developed, consisting of 1 to few cells 106b Conidiophores mostly tall and well developed, cells distinct from conidia, simple or branched 107a Blastospores borne directly on sides of mycelium, budding freely 107b Dark globose cells of the mycelium breaking up to form 1- to several-celled segments; conidiophorelike structures may also be present 107c Conidia appearing as blastospores, not budding, broadly ovoid to lenticular, with a hyaline slit on one side 107d Conidia other than blastospores, not normally budding; conidiophore cells usually distinct but short 108a Conidiophores extending slightly in length; conidia formed as meristem arthrospores 108b Conidia other than arthrospores 109a Conidia formed as aleuriospores 109b Conidia formed as phialospores, sympodulospores, or annellospores 110a Conidia globose
Wailemia
92 109 110 114 Ill
FREEDOM PALESTINE
18
KEY TO GENERA
I !0b Conidia ellipsoid or pointed at apex II la Conidia black and shiny, borne singly, apically on a special flat hyaline cell
112
Nigrospora Humicola Gilmaniella Botryothchwn Echinobotryum
82 84 84 84 84 113
11 lb Conidia apical, brown, not on a flat special cell 11 lc Conidiophore reduced to one cell; conidia single, with a hyaline germ pore on one side
11 Id Conidia single on short branch; no germ pore evident; dark setae present 112a Conidia rough-walled, pointed at apex 112b Conidia smooth-walled, ellipsoid 113a Conidiophores short, hyaline, repeatedly branched II 3b Conidiophore branches few; conidia borne on slender stalks 113c Conidiophore branches few; conidia sessile; germ slit evident on one side
Wardomyces Asteromyces Mammaria Idriella Fusicladium Spilocaea phialospores
84 84 84 102 112 106 115 90 90 116
I I4a Conidiophores separate; sympodulospores hyaline, somewhat curved 114b Conidiophores compacted into stromalike layers; sympodulospores dark, pointed at apex 114c 1 115a U5b 115c 116a Conidiophores compacted into stromalike layer; annellospores dark, pointed at apex 1 4 d Conidia formed as
Conidia slightly curved, narrowly ellipsoid; simple curved setae present.. Circinotrichum Conidia slightly curved, narrowly ellipsoid; branched, curved setae present... Gyrothrix Conidia ovoid to rod-shaped; no setae present Conidia with slender appendage at each end; conidiophore branched Menispora Codinae appendage Monilochaetes
88 88 117 86 118
116b Conidia with slender appendage at each end; conidiophore unbranched 1 117a 1 6 c Conidia without
Conidia ovoid, hyaline to dark, often in chains, not in heads
117b Conidia mostly ovoid, in small slimy heads, not catenulate
1 1 7 c Conidia rod-shaped, with blunt ends, little or no slime, often present in long chains 1 1 9 118a Phialides often with enlarged base with flaring collar; conidia hyaline Phialophora Chloridium Gliomastix chlamydospores dark chlamydospores present present Chalaropsis Thielaviopsis 88 88 86 120 121 90 92
118b Phialides slender, collar not noticeably flared; conidia hyaline 118c 1 1 1 Phialides slender, collar not flaring; conidia dark 1 9 9 b a No Dark
120a Chlamydospores nearly globose, mostly single 120b Chlamydospores formed in a row, breaking up into single cells
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MON1LIALES
19
121a Dark, simple, pointed setae present 121b No setae present
Chaetochalara Chalara
90 90 123 130 124 125 100 104 104 126 127 128
122a Conidia, sympodulospores, formed on new growing points on conidiophores 122b Conidia formed in other ways, not sympodulospores 123a Conidiophores simple 123b Conidiophores branched 124a Apex of conidiophores enlarged, rounded, bearing numerous hyaline conidia on short sporogenous cells Basidiobotrys I24b Conidiophores pointed at apex; conidia hyaline, ovoid, attached at tip and sides of conidiophores Rhinocladiella 124c Conidia obconic, pointed at apex, dark 125a Conidiophore branches or phialides borne on side of conidiophore 125b Branches of conidiophore confined to area near apex 125c Branches of conidiophores irregular 126a Branches in whorls; conidia somewhat curved 126b Conidia in unbranched chains, rod-shaped Mid. Branches loosely arranged; conidia dark, without slime 127b Conidiophores repeatedly branched; branches compact; conidia hyaline in slime heads I27c Conidiophores repeatedly branched near apex; conidia not borne in slime heads , , 128a Conidia borne on somewhat enlarged branch tips 128b Conidia borne on elongated fertile portion of conidiophore branches 129a Conidiophores with main axis and numerous lateral branches; conidia dark... Conoplea
129b Main axis of conidiophore not evident; conidia hyaline, symmetric 129c Main axis of conidiophores not evident; conidia dark, asymmetric Geniculosporium Virgaria
Beltrania
Selenosporella Sympodiella Periconiella Verticicladiella Verticicladium Nodulosporium
102 104 104 104 104 100 129 102

100 100 131 136 132 133
130a Conidia blastospores or appearing to be produced as such 130b Other than in conidia, not blastospores 13la Conidia hyaline
13Jb Conidia dark 132a Dark special cells (falcs) bearing sporogenous cells 132b Without dark falcs on conidiophores 133a Dark pointed setae present 133b Without dark setae Zygosporium Haplographium
72 80 134 135
FREEDOM PALESTINE
20
KEY TO GENERA
134a Conidiophore with enlarged rounded apical cell 134b Conidiophores with slender apical cells 135a Conidia borne on apical inflated cells 135b Conidia borne on inflated cells at apex and intercalary cells of conidiophores 135c Conidia borne in acropetal chains of variable size and with scars 136a Conidia (phialophores) borne at apex of conidiophores 136b Conidia not phialospores 137a Conidiophores simple, unbranched 137b Conidiophores branched 138a Conidia in moist (slimy) heads 138b Conidia in dry chains; apex of conidiophores not enlarged 138c Conidia in dry chains; apex of conidiophores enlarged, rounded 139a Branches of conidiophores lateral; conidiophores with sterile apex 139b Conidiophore branches clustered at or near apex, without sterile apex 140a Conidia ovoid; phialides dark 140b Conidia oblong, cylindrical; phialides hyaline 141a Conidiophores hyaline; few conidia large, dark, lemon-shaped 14Tb Conidiophores dark; other than in conidia 142a Conidia rod-shaped, elongate with blunt ends, catenulate 142b Conidia elongate fusoid, ends pointed 142c Conidia ovoid, not catenulate 143a Conidia formed as meristem arthrospores; conidiophores with thick dark septa 143b Conidia and conidiophores not as above 144a Conidia annellospores, conidia in slime heads 144b Conidia aleuriospores; conidiophores simple with two dark conidia at apex 144c Conidia aleuriospores; conidiophores irregularly branched 145a Conidia catenulate 145b Conidia not catenulate 146a Conidiophores simple, tall, segmenting into rod-shaped arthrospores 146b Conidia formed in acropetalous unbranched chains (blastospores) 146c Conidia formed in branched chains, single-celled conidia also present (blasto spores) 146d Conidia formed as rows of dark chlamydospores (aleuriospores)
Lacellinopsis Lacellina Periconia Gonatobotryutn Cladosporium
78 78 74 78 106 137 143 138 139
Stachybotrys Memnoniella Aspergillus
88 88 94 140 141
Gonytrichum Chaetopsina Phialomyces
98 96 94 142 96 96 92 74 144 98 80 80 146 147
Phialocephala Thysanophora Stachylidium Arthrinium
Leptographium Microclavia Staphylotrichum
Ampuliferina Bispora Cladosporium Trichocladium
106 106 106 118
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MON1LIALES
21
146e 147a
Conidia formed as lateral branches through pores (porospores) Conidiophores clustered on surface or breaking out from stroma
Diplococcium
114 148 153
I47b Other than in conidiophores, mostly single 148a Conidiophores wavy, in loose clusters on surface of leaves 148b Conidiophores not wavy, arising from within leaf 149a Conidia on stroma, with apical, rounded cells Asperisporium Polythrincium
112 149 112 150 151 152
149b Conidia on stroma, apical cell pointed 150a Conidiophores very short, on flat stroma
150b Conidiophores tall 151a Conidia annellospores Spilocaea Fusicladium Passalora Scolecotrichum
106 112 112 112 154 155
151b Conidia sympodulospores 152a Conidiophores branched 152b Conidiophores unbranched } 53a Conidiophores simple 153b Conidiophores branched 154a Conidiophores short, stout, composed usually of 1 or 2 cells 154b Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia clustered at apex 154c 155a Conidiophores tall, slender; conidia formed from lateral pores Branches restricted to apical area where radiating sporogenous cells form
Scolecobasidium Cordana Spadicoides
114 112 114
Pseudobotrytis Chaeiopsis Balanium
106 96 106
155b Several lateral branches of conidiophores end in sterile apical point 155c 156a Conidiophore branches short, irregular, on short conidiophore Conidia endogenous; conidiophore with a single swollen, terminal phialide
Sporoschisma
130 157 158 159
156b Conidia exogenous; other than in conidiophores 157a Conidiophores typically branched
157b Conidiophores typically simple, rarely branched 158a Conidial chains basipetal, conidia not truly end to end Fusariella Septonema Cladosporiella
130 116 92 160
158b Conidia] chains acropetal, conidia truly end to end 159a Conidia slender, much longer than wide i 59b 160a Conidia much broader, usually length not 3 to 4 times width Conidia with very thick wall, formed by expansion of apical conidiophore cells
Murogenella
114
FREEDOM PALESTINE
22
KEY TO GENERA
160b Conidia formed distinct from conidiophore cells 161a Conidiophores clustered or fascicled 161b Conidiophorcs single, separate 162a Conidiophores in tall fascicles 162b Conidiophores in small, compact cushion-shaped structures 162c Conidiophores clustered at base; upper portion divergent 163a Conidiophores short, bearing annellospores 163b Conidiophores tall, showing sympodial growth 164a Conidia dark, oblong 164b Conidia long, slender, hyaline 165a Conidiophores short, consisting of 1 to few cells, or absent 165b Conidiophores tall, typically consisting of several cells I66a Conidia of two kinds, dark phragmospores, and lighter scolecospores 166b Dark phragmospores only 167a Conidia in acropetalous chains 167b Conidia not in chains 168a Conidia botryoblastospores 168b Conidia annellospores I68c Conidia aleuriospores 169a Conidia much longer than broad 169b Conidia not much longer than broad 170a Conidia long-cylindrical, separating cell at tip of conidiophore evident Camposporium Pseudotorula Dwayabeeja Cephaliophora Deightoniella Heterosporium Cercospora Stigmina Phragmocephala Cercosporidium
161 162 165 118 122 163 120 164 122 128 166 172 167 168 116 116 116 118 169 170 171 116 118 118 118 132 173 174 114
170b Conidia somewhat broader at middle, apical cell attenuated or hooked; no separating cell Ceratophorum 170c Conidia long, broadest at middle, narrowed toward each end; no separating cell Clasiei'o.sporium 171a Conidia rounded, nearly globose (may appear as a chain of chlamydospores) I7Ib Conidia broadly ellipsoid, phragmospores and dictyospores may be present Trichocladium Pithoniyces
172a Conidiophores determinate, not elongating with successive conidial formation 172b Conidiophorcs indeterminate, elongating after each successive conidial formation 173a Conidia produced through pores at sides of conidiophores Spadicoidcs
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONILIALES 23
173b Conidia apical, single, several-celled, parasitic on leaves 173c Conidia apical, several-celled, saprophytic 173d Conidia apical, 3- to 5-celled, saprophytic 174a Conidiophores proliferating at apex, leaving annulate scars 174b Conidiophores elongating sympodially 175a Conidia narrowed or pointed at apex 175b Conidia mostly ovoid with rounded apex 176a Conidia with 1 to 4 slender hyaline appendages 176b Conidia without appendages 177a Conidia in apical clusters or heads 177b Conidia not confined to apex of conidiophore 178a Conidia borne on slender pedicels 178b Conidia not borne on slender pedicels 179a Conidia hyaline 179b Conidia dark 180a Conidia borne on short hyaline projection through apex of conidiophore '.
Corynespora Sporidesmium Endophragmia
120 120 118 175 176
Annellophora Endophragmia Pleiochaeta
118 118 128 177 178 181
Brachysporium
126 179
Pleurothecium
126 180
Cacumisporium Pleurographium
124 126 182 183
180b Conidia borne near apex but not on special cell of conidiophore 181a Conidia distinctly narrowed at both ends 181b Conidia straight or only slightly narrowed, ends rounded 182a Conidia porospores, borne in whorls on cells of straight, simple conidiophores 182b Conidia sympodulospores 183a Conidia catenulate 183b Conidia not catenulate, usually 4-celled, bent by enlargement of one of middle cells 183c Conidia not catenulate, several-celled, straight or slightly curved
Helminthosporium Nakataea Dendryphion Curvulana
124 128 124 122 122,126 185 186
Drechslera, Bipolaris
184a Conidia catenulate 184b Conidia not catenulate 185a Conidial development basipetal 185b Conidial development acropetal 186a Conidium with large swollen apical cell 186b Apical cell of conidium not distinctly swollen Coniosporium Alternaria Acrospeira
134 132 132 187
FREEDOM PALESTINE
24 KEY TO GENERA
187a Conidiophores well developed, usually longer than conidia 187b Conidiophores poorly developed or none 188a Conidia apical, single 188b Conidia appearing apical and lateral due to growth of conidiophore 189a Conidia sharply attenuated at apex I89b Conidia somewhat narrower or not at apex 190a Conidia subglobose, ovoid, or broadly ellipsoid Stemphylium Sirosporium Dictyoarthrmium Ulocladium Alternaria
188 192 189 192 132 190 132 134 134 132 134 193 194 Stigmella Pithomyces Epicoccum Berkleasmium 134 132 150 134 196 197 Dictyosponum Ceratosporella Speiropsis 144 144 142 198 199 Triposporium Diplodadiella 144 142 200 Tetrapha Tripospermum Hirudinaria Ceratosporium 142 142 144 144
190b Conidia elongate, straight to flexuous 191a Conidia with 4 cells, cross-shaped
191 b Conidia several celled, not cross-shaped, broadly elliptical, ends rounded 191c I92a Conidia several-celled, narrowly elliptical, ends pointed Conidiophores single, not clustered
Dactylosporium
192b Conidiophores clustered, often into a loose sporodochiumlike structure 193a On living leaves, parasitic 193b Saprophytic in soil or humus 194a Conidia globose to subglobose 194b Conidia very large, oblong to obovoid 195a Branches of conidium upright, parallel, or slightly divergent 195b Branches of conidium upright or lateral, widely divergent 196a Conidial branches connected 196b Conidial branches separate; conidia catenulate or produced successively 196c Conidial branches separate; conidia apical, single 1 9 7 'a Conidiophores present, distinct, length variable 197b Conidiophores absent or reduced to short pegs 198a Conidia (aleuriospores) apical, single 198b Conidia (sympodulospores) apical on new sympodial growing points 199a Conidia with 2 to 3 straight or curved upright horns 199b Conidia with 3 to 4 basal cells, each attenuated above 199c Conidia with 4 to 5 divergent arms at wide angles
200a Parasitic on leaves 200b Saprophytic, mostly on wood 201a
Conidiophores united into sporodochia (Tuberculanaceae). Sporodochia may be poorly formed in culture; some species may be similar in appearance to Melanconiales
202
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONIL1ALES
25
201b Conidiophores united into synnemata (Stilbaceae); free conidiophores often also present
225
TUBERCULARIACEAE
202a Conidia I-celled, hyaline or dark 202b Conidia 2-ceIIed, dark 202c Conidia typically more than 2-celled, hyaline or dark 203a Conidia hyaline or brightly colored 203b Conidia or sporodochia with dark pigment 204a Sporodochia stromalike, spreading, on developing grain 204b Sporodochia cushion-shaped to discoid, not on grain 205a Sporodochia with prominent setae or sterile hairs 205b Sporodochia without setae or sterile hairs 206a Sporodochia developing in rust pustules on plants 206b Sporodochia superficial, not in rust pustules 207a Conidia catenulate or in pillarlike masses 207b Conidia not catenulate or in pillarlike structures 208a Conidia hyaline or yellowish in mass 208b Conidia usually greenish in mass 209a Conidiophores and conidia in tall columnar aggregates 209b Conidiophores and conidia in slimy masses or loose columns 210a Sporodochia discoid, flattened 210b Sporodochia cushion-shaped to hemispherical 21 la Conidiophores verticillately branched 21 lb Conidiophore branching irregular 212a On wood or bark 212b On leaves 2 J 3a On scale insects 213b Not on scale insects 214a Sporodochia erumpent from leaves 214b Sporodochia superficial on bark or wood 215a Conidia hyaline or brightly colored Hadrotrichum Strumella Tubercularia Illosporium Aegerita Dendrodochium Metarrhizium Myrothecium Hymenella Sphaerosporium Tuberculina Myrothecium Sphacelia Pucciniopsis 203 148 215 204 213 148 205 146 206 148 207 208 210 146 209 94 146 146 211 146 212 146 146 150 214 146 146 216
FREEDOM PALESTINE
26 K E Y TO GENERA
215b Conidia with dark pigment 216a Conidia large, cylindrical to ellipsoid; yellowish in mass 216b Conidia slender, hyaline in mass 217a Macroconidia canoe-shaped; I-celled conidia also may be present 217b Conidia curved but not canoe-shaped 218a Conidia branched or lobed 2I8b Conidia not branched or lobed 219a Conidia with short, compact upright branches 219b Conidia 4-lobed, cross-shaped 220a Conidia (dictyospores) muriform 220b Conidia (phragmospores) 3- to several-celled 221a Conidia globose to subglobose 221 b Conidia broadly cylindrical to ovoid, very large 222a Sporodochia without setae 222b Sporodochia with dark setae 223a Conidiophores arising from special enlarged cells 223b Conidiophores not arising from special enlarged cells Excipularia Camptomeris Bactrodesmium Epicoccum Berkleasmium Cheiromyces Spegazzinia Fusarium Ramulispora Bactridium
218 148 217 130 148 219 220 150 150 221 223 150 134 223 148 150 150
STILBACEAE 225a Not parasitic (or saprophytic) on insects or spiders 225b Parasitic (and probably saprophytic) on insects or spiders 226a Conidia 1 -celled 226b Conidia 2- or more-celled 227a Conidia hyaline 227b Conidia dark 228a Comdiogenous portion of synnemata located or near apex in more or less globose head 228b Conidiogenous portion of synnemata elongate to cylindrical 229a Head composed of loosely arranged conidiogenous hyphae 229b Head composed of compact conidiogenous hyphae 226 243 227 236 228 233 229 232 230 231
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONILIALES 27
230a Head with numerous radiating sterile hyphae 230b Radiating sterile hyphae not present 231a Stalks of synnemata hyaline 231b Stalks of synnemata dark 232a Synnema with tall, central seta 232b Central seta absent '.
Heterocephalum Tharoopama Stilbum
152 156 152
Graphium, Peso turn 152 Menisporopsis Harpographium 152 , 156 234 235 Endocalyx 152
233a Conidiogenous portion of synnemata confined to compact apical region 233b Conidiogenous region cylindrical 234a Synnemata funnel-shaped with narrow base 234b Synnema slender, uniform, with globose head 235a Sterile hairs or setae present among conidiophores 235b Sterile hairs not present 236a Conidia 2-celled 236b Conidia 3- or more-celled 237a Synnemata and conidia hyaline 237b Synnemata and conidia dark 238a Conidiogenous portion of synnema only at or near apex 238b Conidiogenous portion of synnema longer, cylindrical 239a Conidial portion in compact, more or less globose heads 239b Conidial portion with loose conidiophores, not so compact 240a Conidia with cross walls only (phragmosphores) 240b Conidia with both cross and oblique walls (dictyospores) 241a Conidial branches at apex, short; conidia pointed at apex 241 b Conidiophores in a loose fascicle, not branched; conidia pointed at apex Arthrobotryum Sclerographium Acarocybe hariopsis Didymostilbe Didymobotryum
Briosia . 152 Trichurus Doratomyees 156 154 237 238 154 156 239 242 240 241 154 158 158 154 154 154 154 158 160 244
241c Conidiophores compact at base, diverging near apex, conidia rounded at ends Dendrographium 242a Conidia hyaline 242b Conidia dark, borne singly at apex of conidiophore 242c Conidia dark, borne on sympodial conidiophore 243a Phialides in globose or wedge-shaped heads 243b Phialides not in definite heads Arthrosporium Podosporium Spiropes Gibellula
FREEDOM PALESTINE
28
KEY TO GENERA
244a Phialides short, in compact layer 244b Phialides usually large, not in compact layer 245a Synnemata cylindrical; phialides obtuse at apex 245b Synnemata clavate; phialides pointed at apex 245c Synnemata cylindrical to attenuated; phialides pointed 246a Phialides elongate, slender; conidia covered with slime 246b Phialides not elongate; conidia dry 247a Phialides enlarged at base; conidia not in heads 247b Phialides not enlarged at base; conidia in heads Isaria Hirsutella Synnematium Hymenostilbe Insecticola Akanthomyces
245 246 158 158 158 247 156 160 160
SPHAEROPSIDALES
la Conidia globose to oblong or ellipsoid, not filiform lb Conidia filiform, at least several times longer than wide, I- to several-celled (scolecosporous) 2a Conidia 1 -celled 2b Conidia typically 2-cclled 2c Conidia typically 3- to several-celled 3a Conidia hyaline, or sometimes brightly pigmented in mass 3b Conidia with dark pigment, evident at least in mass 4a Pycnidia complete, or with well developed base 4b Pycnidia not complete, with only the upper portion well developed 5a Pycnidia separate, not in stromata 5b Pycnidia in stromata, frequently evident only by pycnidial cavities 6a Pycnidia mostly ovoid; parasitic on powdery mildews 6b Pycnidia with long beak or neck; not parasitic on powdery mildews 6c Pycnidial beak short or absent; not parasitic on powdery mildews 7a Pycnidial walls dark 7b Pycnidial wall hyaline or light colored 8a Pycnidia] wall composed of long parallel hyphae Hyalopycnis Sphaeronaema Ampelomyces 2 62 3 45 52 4 40 5 37 6 29 166 7 9 168 8 168 168 10 18 11
8b Pycnidial wall composed of short, angled pseudoparenchymetous cells .. Eleutheromyces 9a Pycnidia breaking open irregularly, without a distinct ostiole 9b Pycnidia opening by distinct ostioles 10a Pycnidia with dark setae
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SPHAEROPSIDALES 10b Pycnidia without dark setae
29 12
I la Conidia with a slender appendage at each end II b Conidia without appendages I2a Pycnidia superficial, on surface of substratum 12b Pycnidia at least partially within substratum 13a Pycnidia soft, leathery, subglobose, not on subiculum 13b Pycnidia hard, irregular, on subiculum 14a Pycnidia large, resembling sclerotia; conidia ellipsoid 14b Pycnidia not resembling sclerotia; conidia ovoid to ellipsoid 15a Pycnidia fleshy, bright colored when fresh 15b Pycnidia hard, dark 16a Pycnidia subcortical, on woody twigs 16b Pycnidia subepidermal, on fleshy tissue or leaves 17a Pycnidia discoid, dehiscing radiately 17b Pycnidia globose, opening at apex 18a Pycnidia on subiculum of radiating hyphae 18b Pycnidia not on subiculum ,
Dinemasporium A merosporium
172 172 13 14
Cannula Chaetophoma Sclerotiopsis
172 164 166 15
Hainesia
174 16
Dothichiza
172 17
Sporonema Plenodomus Asteromella
172 162 164 19
19a Conidia of 2 kinds: short-ovoid and long-curved or bent 19b Conidia all of one kind 20a Conidia typically lunate 20b Conidia ovoid; dark dictyosporous chlamydosphores present
Phomopsis
164 20
Seienophoma Peyronellaea
162 164 21 22
20c Conidia globose to ellipsoid, straight or slightly curved; without dictyosporous chlamydospores 21 a Conidiophores branched 21 b Conidiophores simple Eleutheromycella Dendrophoma
23 168 162 24 25 Neottiospora 166 174 26 27
22a Conidia with apical appendages 22b Conidia without appendages 23a Conidia with hyaline membraneous appendages 23b Conidia without appendages 24a Conidial appendage apical, obconical 24b Conidial appendage slender, turned back 25a Pycnidia superficial on natural substratum 25b Pycnidia embedded in natural substratum
Anthasthoopa
FREEDOM PALESTINE
30
K E Y TO GENERA
26a Pycnidia tapering below into a short stalk 26b Pycnidia not tapering at base 27a Conidia longer than 15 microns 27b Conidia 15 microns or shorter 28a Setae present on pycnidia 28b No setae present on pycnidia 29a Conidia having one or more apical appendages 29b Conidia without appendages 30a Conidia with an apical and a basal appendage 30b Conidia with short branched appendages at both ends 31a Stromata superficial, soft, brightly colored 31b Stromata subepidermal or subcortical, dark 32a Conidia fusoid, ends pointed 32b Conidia not fusoid, ends rounded 33a Conidiophores tall, slender, septate 33b Conidiophores short, seldom septate 34a Conidia borne apically only on conidiophores *
Rhizosphaera Aposphaeria Macrophoma
164 162 164 28
Pyrenochaeta Phyllosticta, Phoma
162 162 30 3J
Shanoria Dilophospora Aschersonia
172 166 174 32
Fusicoccum
170 33 34 35
Rabenhorstia Pleurostromella Dothiorella
170 170 166 36
34b Conidia borne apically and laterally on conidiophore 35a Conidia ovoid to broadly ellipsoid; pycnidial cavaties globose 35b Conidia narrow, ovoid to filiform; pycnidial cavities irregular 36a Conidia mostly filiform, bent or curved 36b Conidia short, curved 36c Conidia short, not curved 37a Pycnidia shield-shaped, with or without ostiole 37b Pycnidia flat, opening wide at maturity 38a Pycnidia borne on a short stalk or column 38b Pycnidia without stalk or column 39a Stroma present 39b Stroma absent 40a Pycnidia with prominent dark bristles (setae) 40b Pycnidia without bristles (setae) 41a Pycnidia light colored; conidiophores long, filiform
Cytosporina Cytospora Cytosporella
166 170 170 38 39
Actinopelte Leptothyrium Melasmia Leptostroma Chaetomella
174 174 174 176 176 41
Harknessia
176
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SPHAEROPSIDALES
31
41 b Pycnidia dark; conidiophores short 42a Parasitic on powdery mildews 42b Not parasitic on powdery mildews 43a Stromata embedded in bark or wood 43b Pycnidia not in stromata 44a Conidia large, ovoid to elongate 44b Conidia small, globose to ovoid; without dark chlamydospores 44c Conidia small, ovoid; dark dictyosporous chlamydospores present 45a Conidia hyaline 45b Conidia with distinct dark pigment 46a Pycnidia in rust pustules; parasitic on rusts 46b Not parasitic on rusts 47a Conidia without appendages 47b Conidia with appendages 48a Pycnidia in necrotic spots on leaves, etc 48b Pycnidia not in necrotic spots 49a Pycnidia with distinct beaks 49b Pycnidia without distinct beaks 50a Conidia with an apical awl-shaped unbranched appendage 50b Conidia with 3 to 4 hyaline appendages at one end 51a Pycnidia separate, not in stroma 51 b Pycnidia clustered in stroma 52-d Conidia with transverse septa only (phragmosporous) 52b Conidia dictyosporous or staurosporous 53a Conidia with apical appendages 53b Conidia without appendages 54a Pycnidia flattened; conidia with 1 appendage at each end 54b Pycnidia globose; conidia with 3 to 4 appendages 55a Pycnidia brightly colored with cushionlike stroma 55b Pycnidia brown or black, without stroma 55c Pycnidia dark, in stroma Aristatoma Discosia Bartilinia Aschersonia Rhynchophoma Diplodina Kellermannia Robillarda Diplodia Botryodipiodia Ascochyta Darluca Sphaeropsis Coniothyrium Peyronellaea Haplosporetta Ampelomyces
42 166 43 178 44 176 176 164 46 51 178 47 48 50 178 49 178 178 178 178 180 180 53 59 54 55 182 182 174 56 58 180
56a Pycnidia with dark spines near ostiole; conidia hyaline
FREEDOM PALESTINE
32 KEY TO GENERA
56b Pycnidia without spines; conidia hyaline 56c Pycnidia without spines; conidia dark when mature 57a Conidia single on conidiophores 57b Conidia grouped at apex of conidiophores 58a Conidia dark 58b Conidia hyaline 59a Conidia dictyosporous, globose to ellipsoid 59b Conidia staurosporous 60a Pycnidia within a stroma 60b Pycnidia not in a stroma 61a Conidia typically with 4 equal radiating arms 61b Conidia with 3 to 5 equal arms 62a Pycnidia in dark hard stroma 62b Pycnidia not in stroma, not gelatinous 62c Pycnidia gelatinous or with gelatinous stroma 63a Conidia 1 -celled, bent or curved 63b Conidia several-celled, long, cylindrical, straight 64a Pycnidia clavate or with long beak 64b Pycnidia globose or flattened 65a Conidia hyaline, 1- to 2-celled, filiform-fusoid 65b Conidia dark, several-celled, elongate 66a Pycnidia with distinct ostiolc 66b Pycnidia opening by wide mouth or slit 67a Conidia pigmented, yellow to light brown 67b Conidia hyaline 68a Pycnidia in necrotic spots on leaves, etc 68b Pycnidia not in necrotic spots 69a Pycnidia with setae near ostiole 69b Pycnidia without setae 70a Conidia 1 -celled, bent or curved 70b Conidia several-celled, straight or curved
Stagonospora
180 57
Hendersonula Prosthemium Hendersonia Dothistroma
180 186 184 180 60 61
Dichomera Camarosporium Tetranacrium Prosthemium
186 186 182 186 63 64 72
Cytosporina Dothistroma
166 180 65 66
Sphaerographium Cornularia
184 186 67 70
Phaeoseptoria
184 68 69
Rhabdospora Chaetoseptoria Septoria Phlyctaena
184 184 182 186 71 184
71a Pycnidia flattened, irregular, opening by a slit; conidia not segmenting .. Leptostromella
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SPHAEROPSIDALES 33
71b Pycnidia globose or cupulate, opening by a wide mouth 72a Conidia I-celled; stroma smutlike, on grass 72b Conidia several-celled; stroma not smutlike, on wood or bark 73a Stroma elongate, stalked 73b Stroma rounded to irregular, not stalked 74a Stromal tissue waxy 74b Stromal tissue cartilaginous
Phleospura Ephelis
186 184 73
Chondropudium
186 74
Mkropera Gelatinosporium
182 182
MELANCONIALES
la Conidia 1-celled, short, not filiform lb Conidia 2- to several-celled, not filiform, didymosporous or phragmosporous lc Conidia filiform, 1- to several-celled Id Conidia dictyosporous or staurosporous 2a Conidia with distinct dark pigment 2b Conidia hyaline 3a Conidia produced laterally on conidiophore 3b Conidia produced apically on conidiophore 4a Conidia with apical, hyaline branched appendages 4b Conidia without appendages 5a Dark setae present in acervulus 5b Dark setae absent 6a Conidiophores arising from a stromalike base 6b Stromalike base absent or poorly developed 7a Conidia 2-celled, didymospores 7b Conidia 3- to several-celled, phragmospores 8a Conidia unequally 2-celled, hyaline, without appendages 8b Conidia equally 2-celled, hyaline, with one appendage at each end 8c Conidia typically 2-celled, dark, with basal appendages 9a Conidia hyaline 9b Conidia with distinct dark pigment 10a All cells of conidia dark Coryneum Marssonina Myculeptodiscus Polynema Sepioglueum Sphaceloma Gloeosporium Colletotrichum Pestalozziella Catenophora Melanconium 2 7 12 14 190 3 188 4 188 5 188 6 188 188 8 9 190 190 192 190 10 194
FREEDOM PALESTINE
34 K E Y TO GENERA 10b End cells of conidia hyaline, middle cells dark I la Single beaklike appendages at apex of conidia II b With 2 to 3 appendages at apex of conidia 1 lc Conidia with single apical and basal appendages 12a Saprophytic on wood or bark 12b Parasitic on leaves 13a Conidia becoming septate 13b Conidia remaining 1-celled 14a Conidia dictyosporous; some phragmospores may be present 14b Conidia straurosporous 15a Conidia catenulate 15b Conidia not catenulate 16a Conidia hyaline 16b Conidia with distinct dark pigment Phragmotrichum Steganosporium Entomosporium Asterosporium Cylindrosporium Cryptosporium Monochaetia Pestalotia Seimatosporium Libertella 11 192 192 192 190 13 192 190 15 16 194 194 194 194
MYCELIA STERILIA
la Entire "conidiophore" (except stalk) closely branched, forming a globose or pyramidal reproductive structure, hyaline, dark sclerotia in culture and often on leaves 1 b Conidiophorelike structures absent 2a Sclerotia variable in form, pale to dark brown or black; usually formed on loosely woven, dark hyphae 2b Sclerotia rounded, variable in size, black; mycelium hyaline 2c Dark brown bulbils or small clusters of compact cells present; hyphae becoming dark brown Rhizoctonia Sclerotium Papulospora
Cristulariella
74 2 196 196 196
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SIMPLIFIED K E Y TO SOME SELECTED COMMON GENERA

la Having characteristics of the Mucorales; coenocytic mycelium and sporangioles that segment or otherwise appear as conidia I b Having septate mycelium and other characteristics of the imperfect fungi 2a Conidiophores (sporangiophores) unbranched except near apex where loose heads of dark spores are borne Choanephora 2b Conidiophores (sporangiophores) unbranched, bearing an apical cluster of elongate sporangioles that break up into 1-celled spores Syncephalastrum 2c Conidiophores (sporangiophores) very slender, dichotomously branched, bearing a cluster of slender sporangioles that segment into short rod-shaped spores.. Piptocephalis 3a Conidiophores distinct although short or reduced to pegs in some genera; conidia typically I-celled, occasionally 2-celled 3b Conidiophores distinct or reduced to pegs; conidia typically and predominately with 2 or more cells 3c Conidiophores indefinite or absent; conidia rod-shaped with truncate ends, formed by fragmentation of the mycelium Geotrichum 3d No true conidiophores or conidia present; reproduction by sclerotia or similar structures 4a Conidiophores contained within a pycnidium 4b Conidiophores compacted into an acervulus or sporodochium in nature, but may be evident as loosely arranged structure in culture 4c Conidiophore stalks compacted into synnemata 4d Conidiophores separate, not tightly clustered in any manner 5a Pycnidia separate, not in a stroma 5b Pycnidia embedded in a stroma 6a Conidia relatively large, with dark pigment 6b Conidia small, hyaline, no pigment present 7a Conidiophores with a few upright branches 7b Conidiophores short, simple, unbranched 8a Pycnidia formed as irregular cavities in a stroma; conidia small 8b Pycnidia rounded, regular; conidia large 9a Conidia held together in moist, slimy masses 35 Dendrophoma Phoma or Phyllosticta Cytospora Dothiorella Sphaeropsis * , 2 3 66 66 62 4 35 68 53 5 9 12 15 6 8 176 7 162 162 170 166 10
FREEDOM PALESTINE
36 SIMPLIFIED K E Y TO SOME S E L E C T E D C O M M O N GENERA
9b Conidia dry, without slime 10a Conidia with dark pigment, more evident in mass 10b Conidia hyaline; dark setae present 10c Conidia hyaline; setae absent I la On leaves, twigs, or fruit; conidia dark, with pointed apex.." II b On wood or bark; conidia hyaline, ovoid 12a Both stalks or synnemata and conidia hyaline 12b Both stalks of synnemata and conidia dark 12c Stalks of synnemata dark; conidia hyaline 13a Conidia held in moist, slimy heads 13b Conidia in dry clusters, not slimy 14a Conidial heads rounded, ovoid to subglobose; parasitic on buds of Azalea or Rhododendron 14b Conidial portion elongated, usually narrowed at apex and base, saprophytic 15a Conidiophores branched or bearing a cluster of branches or phialides near or at the apex Graphium, Pesotum Stilbum Isaria Briosia Doratomyces Melanconium Colletotrichum Gloeosporium Spilocaea Tubercularia
11 190 188 188, 106 146 13 14 152 152 156 152 154 16 26 17 22 18 19 Cladosporium Perkonia Monilia Aspergillus 106 74 72 94 20 98 21 PenicilUum Paecilomyces 94 94 23
15b Conidiophores typically simple or only occasionally branched 16a Conidia remaining together in chains of two or more 16b Conidia not remaining together in chains 17a Conidia acropetal, with youngest at the apex of chain 17b Conidia basipetal, with the youngest at the base of chain 18a Conidia dark, variable in shape, ovoid, lemon-shaped to oblong, mostly 1 -celled, some may be 2- to 3-celled 1 8b Conidia dark, uniformly globose, and 1 -celled 18c Conidia hyaline, uniformly ovoid to short cylindrical 19a Conidiogenous cells (phialides) borne on apex or swollen apex of conidiophores
19b Conidiogenous cells borne on slender branches, not on swollen apex of conidiophore ... 20a Conidiogenous cells bearing annulate scars of previous conidia 20b Annulate scars not present on conidiogenous cells 21 a Conidiogenous cells (phialides) closely arranged in a brushlike head 21 b Conidiogenous cells divergent, not in a close head 22a Conidia in small clusters held together by slime Scopulariopsis
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SIMPLIFIED K E Y TO SOME SELECTED C O M M O N GENERA 37
22b Conidia dry, not held in slime 23a Conidiophore branches verticillate, often 3 or more branches arise from the same level 23b Conidiophore branches irregular, not verticillate 24a Conidia formed successively at apex of conidiophore, which continues to elongate Verticiliium Thchoderma Nociulosporium
24 92 92 100 25 Botrytis 76 80 27 28 Nigrospora Sepedonium Oidium 82 82 68 29 30 31 Beauveria Sporothrix Oedocephalum 100 98 76 32 72 90 33 94 34 88 88 36 43 37
24b Conidia formed in a head on the more or less swollen apex of the conidiophore 25a Apical sporogenous cell of conidiophore or branches slightly enlarged, globose
25b Apical conidiogenous portion and branches distinctly enlarged, cylindrical, or club-shaped Chromelospohum 26a Conidia (chlamydospores, aleuriospores) terminal, single, globose 26b Conidia otherwise 27a Conidia black, shiny, smooth 27b Conidia with yellow pigment, rough-walled 28a Parasitic on plants, conidial states of powdery mildews 28b Not conidial states of powdery mildews 29a Conidiophores indeterminate, apex elongating as new conidia are produced 29b Conidiophores determinate, not elongating as new conidia are produced 30a Conidiogenous portion of conidiophore zig-zag, elongating to appear rachislike
30b Conidiogenous portion of conidiophore limited, not rachislike 31a Conidia produced simultaneously on swollen apex of conidiophore
31b Conidia produced single or successively at apex of conidiophore or phialide 32a Conidia exogenous, ovoid to globose, borne singly or in pairs on a dark hook (falc) of conidiophore Zygosporium 32b Conidia endogenous, rod-shaped, often catenulate; no falcs present Chalara 32c Conidia ovoid to globose, held together in small apical clusters by slime; falcs absent ... 33a Conidiophores or phialides slender, hyaline Cephahsporiwn
33b Conidiophores or phialides slender or somewhat inflated, with some dark pigment 34a Conidiophores tall, slender, uniform in width 34b Conidiophores short or sometimes absent, often somewhat inflated 35a Conidia typically and uniformly 2-celled, seldom with fewer or more cells 35b Conidia typically has more than 3 cells, sometimes variable 36a Conidia hyaline, no pigment in walls Chhridium Phialophora
FREEDOM PALESTINE
38 SIMPLIFIED K E Y TO SOME S E L E C T E D C O M M O N GENERA
36b Conidia with dark pigment in walls 37a Conidiophores compacted into an acervulus in nature 37b Conidiophores separate, not clustered or compacted 38a Conidiophores branched, with a sterile terminal branch and swollen apex; conidia long, cylindrical Cyiindrocladium 38b Conidiophores simple; conidia ovoid or ellipsoid 39a Conidia borne singly, apical on sympodial growing points 39b Conidia produced basipetally in irregular groups, not on sympodial growing points 40a Conidia ellipsoid-elongate, cells equal 40b Conidia ovoid to elongate, apical cell somewhat larger 41a Conidiophores and conidia borne in a typical pycnidium 41b Conidiophores and conidia in an acervulus or a stroma in nature 41c Conidiophores separate or in loose clusters 42a Conidiophores slender, conidia in short acropetalous chains 42b Conidiophores rather stout, zig-zag in appearance; conidia apical, not in chains 43a Conidia spiral or in coil 43b Conidia phragmosporous, with cross but not oblique walls 43c Conidia dictyosporous, with both cross and oblique walls 44a Conidia with slender appendages, at least at apex 44b Conidia without appendages 45a Conidia dark 45b Conidia hyaline 46a Conidia borne in acervuli in bark 46b Conidia not borne in acervuli 47a Conidia in acropetalous chains; some conidia with 1 or 2 cells 47b Conidia single, not in chains 48a Conidiophores with several upright branches 48b Conidiophores simple, without branches 49a Conidia produced through pores on sides of conidiophores 49b Conidia borne apically on new sympodial growing points 50a Conidia straight or slightly curved; cells nearly equal 50b Conidia, with one median cell larger than others Hipolaris Curvuhria Helminthusporium Dendryphiopsis Cladosporium Coryneum Pestalotia Bispora Polyihrincium Helicomyces Trichothecium Dactylaria Arthrobotrys Diplodia Spilocaea Marssonina
41 190 38 108 39 40 108 110 110 180 106 42 106 112 136 44 52 192 45 46 51 194 47 106 48 120 49 124 50 126 122
FREEDOM PALESTINE
SIMPLIFIED K E Y TO SOME SELECTED C O M M O N GENERA 39
51a Conidiophores simple, clustered, dark; conidia long, attenuated 51b Conidiophores hyaline, branched; conidia long, cylindrical
Cercospora Cylindrodadium
128 108 130 128 194 150 53
51c Conidiophores short, simple or branched, hyaline; larger conidia typically canoe-shaped, 1-celled conidia usually present Fusarium 5 Id Conidiophore tall, slender, simple; conidia with pointed apex and rounded base 52a Conidia borne in acervuli in bark 52b Conidia borne typically in small sporodochia 52c Conidia borne on separate conidiophores 53a Conidia attenuate or pointed at apex, often in chains 53b Conidia rounded, borne singly 54a No conidiophores, no conidia formed; sclerotia more or less globose, compact Ahernaria Stemphylium Sclerotium Pyrkularia Steganosporium Epicoccum
132 132 196 196 74
54b No conidiophores, no conidia formed; sclerotia mostly flattened or irregular, often loose Rhizoctonia 54c Large conidiophorelike structures present on leaves; many branches compacted into globose or pointed structures CristularieUa
FREEDOM PALESTINE
THE HUGHES-TUBAKI-BARRON SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

This newer system is based primarily on the development of the conidia and to a lesser extent on the development of the conidiophores. Shape, pigmentation, and septation of conidia are reduced to secondary characteristics. Although this classification, followed by Barron (1968), is not complete for all genera of imperfect fungi, it is well established and accepted by many mycologists and can be applied accurately to most of the Moniliales. The authors do not dispute the validity of the more recent system of classification proposed by the Kananaskis Conference (1971) and followed by Ellis (1971), but do not believe the time has come to shift to that system for the identification of genera by the student. The following key to series, sections, and genera of the two largest families (Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae) is included for the convenience of those who can easily recognize and distinguish the types of conidia. It may not be helpful in identifying those genera in which the mode of conidial formation is unclear or indefinite. In these cases, use of the key based on the Saccardo System is recommended.
40
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE K E Y TO S E R I E S A N D GENERA (Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae)

Tubercula.riaceae and Stilbaceae, as well as some genera in which there is inadequate knowledge of conidial formation, are excluded from this key. Conidia (arthrospores) formed by segmentation of vegetative hyphae or branches of nonmeristcmatic conidiophores; mature conidia usually with truncate ends, ellipsoid or cylindrical . . . (Examples: Geotrichum, Amblyosporium)... Series ARTHROSPORAE
Arthrosporae,
Geotrichum
lb Conidia (arthrospores) developing in basipetal succession by meristemic growth of the special portion of conidiophore, resulting in a gradual change from conidiophore to conidium; conidia usually, but not necessarily, hanging together in chains . . . (Examples: Oidium, Basipetospora) . . . Scries MER1STEM ARTHROSPORAE
Meristem Arthrosporae, Oidium
41
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTFRNATF K H Y TO S C R IP S AND GENFRA
Conidia (aleuriospores) usually single and apical on conidiophore or sporogenous cells, often thick-walled and pigmented but may be hyaline, often not easily deciduous or deciduous by means of a special cell at apex of conidiophore; accessory conidial states often present . . . (Examples: Humicola, Sepedonium, Microsporum) Series ALEURIOSPORAE
10
Aleuriosporae, Nigrospora
Conidia (anncllospores) produced successively on apex of conidiogenous cells or conidiophore which increases slightly in length by pereurrent proliferation through previous conidial scars; successive scars appear as faint anncllations at apex of conidiogenous c e l l . . . (Examples; Spilocaea, Scopulariopsis) ... Series ANNELEOSPORAE
52
Annellosporae, Spilocaea
Conidia (blastospores) developing as buds from simple or branched conidiophores, or directly from vegetative cells or previous conidia, often forming simple or branched acropetalous chains ... (Examples; Aitreobasidiutn, Montlia, Cladosporium) ... Series B L A S T O SPORAE
59
Blastosporae, Monilia
FREEDOM PALESTINE
AlTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA
43
Conidia (blastospores) produced on well differentiated swollen cells which bear many conidia simultaneously, forming clusters or heads, solitary or in simple or branched aeropetalous chains; mature conidia easily deciduous revealing small denticles on sporogenous cells ... (Examples: Oecfotvphalum, Boirviis, Gonuiohoirvs)... Series BOf RYOBLASTO'SPORAE
Botryoblastosporae, Batrytis
Conidia (porospores) developing through pores in outer wall at apex or side of eonidiophore, single or in some genera produced on successive new growing points formed by sympodial proliferation ... (Examples: Helminthosporium, Bipolarts, Stemphvfium) . . . Scries P O R O SPORAE
90
Porosporae, Bipo/an's
Conidia (syrnpodulospores) developing at tips of conidiophores or conidiogenous cells (not from pores in outer wall) and forming successively on new growing tips by sympodial proliferation; increase may be slight but conidia are of different ages; (this key includes some genera placed by some authors in the Porosporae) .. . (Examples: Fusiclactium, Tri! irachium, Ccrcospora) Series S Y M P O D U L O SPORAE
102
Sympodulosporae, Sporothrix
FREEDOM PALESTINE
44 ALTERNATE K E Y TO S E R IE S AND GENERA
ti
Conidia (phialospores) formed successively from open apex of conidiophore or conidiogenous cell (phialide), which ordinarily does not increase in length; conidia often collect in droplet of mucilage or slime at apex or remain attached in basipetal chains; in a few genera the simple conidiophore proliferates percurrently and forms new phialides ... (Examples: Chalara, Phialophora, Verticillium, Aspergillus) .,. Series PHIALOSPORAE.
Phialosporae,
151
Chahra
ARTHROSPORAE
2a Conidiophores poorly developed or none 2b Conidiophores distinct and well developed 3a Conidia truncate at both ends, formed by segmentation of mycelium 3b Conidia rounded with truncate base, formed by segmentation of mycelium 4a Conidiophores simple 4b Conidiophores branched 5a Conidia globose 5b Comdia cylindrical with truncate ends 6a Conidiophores stout, branched only near apex 6b Conidiophores slender with both apical and lateral branches Wallemia Ampulliferina Amblyosporium Oidiodendron Geotrichum Chrysosporium 3 4 68 68 5 6 92 106 68 68
MERISTEM ARTHROSPORAE
7a Parasitic on plants, powdery mildews 7b Saprophytic or weakly parasitic, not powdery mildews 8a Conidia in basipetal chains 8b Older conidia falling off before new one is formed 9a Conidia 1-celled, hyaline 9b Conidia 2-celled, hyaline 9c Conidia dictyosporous, dark Oidium Ovulariopsis Basipetospora Trichothecium Coniosporium 8 9 68 70 70 108 134
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GFNERA 45
ALEURIOSPORAE
10a Conidia long, slender (scolecosporous), I- to several-celled 10b Conidia typically 1- to 2-celled, globose to oblong 10c Conidia typically 3- to several-celled 1 la Conidia hyaline or subhyaline (with slight pigment) lib Conidia with distinct dark pigment 12a Pathogenic to man; macroconidia tuberculate 12b Pathogenic to man; macroconidia smooth 12c Saprophytic or parasitic on plants or fungi 13a Conidia 1-celled, in small groups at apex of forked conidiophores 13b Conidia 1- or 2-celled, not in clusters at apex of conidiophores 14a Conidiogenous cells slender, radiating from swollen cell 14b Conidiogenous cells short, stout; conidia smooth Umbelopsis Botryoderma Glomerularia Histoplasma Blastomyces Anguillospora 140 II 24 12 17 82 80 13 86 14 86 86 15 82 82 16 Mycogone Chlamydomyces 82 82 18 22 Echinobotryum Asteromyces 84 84 19 82 20 21 Endophragmia Trichocladium Balanium Botryotrichum Humkola Stephanoma 118 118 106 84 84 82
I4c Conidiogenous cells slender; conidia rough-walled or with attached smooth cells 15a Conidia with attached small smooth cells 15b Conidia 1-celled, without attached smooth cells 15c Conidia with large apical rough-walled cell and smaller smooth basal cell 16a Basal cell of conidia rounded 16b Basal cell wedge-shaped 17a Conidiophores short, poorly developed, or missing 17b Conidiophores usually well developed 18a Conidia with broad truncate base and pointed apex 18b Conidia ovoid to obclavate with rounded apex 18c Conidia globose to broadly ellipsoid 19a Conidia 1-celled, subglobose, shiny black, situated on a flat hyaline vesicle .. Nigrospora 19b Conidia 2- or more-celled 19c Conidia I-celled, light to dark, not on vesicle 20a Conidiophores tall, slender, simple, dark 20b Conidiophores mostly short, simple hyaline 20c Conidiophores well developed, branched 21a Setae present 21b Setae absent 22a Conidia with small hyaline cells attached Stephanoma Sepedonium
FREEDOM PALESTINE
46
ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES A N D GENERA
22b Conidia without attached hyaline cells 23a Conidiophores short, thick, branched 23b Conidiophores tall, slender, repeatedly branched 23c Conidiophores tall, simple 24a Conidia typically 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) 24b Conidia with cross and oblique septa (dictyosporous 24c Conidia (or propagules) branched (staurosporous) 24d Conidia curved or coiled (helicosporous) 25a Conidia hyaline or subhyaline 25b Conidia with distinct dark pigment 26a Parasitic on plants 26b Causing dermato mycoses of man or 26c Saprophytic or trapping nematodes 27a Macroconidia spindle-shaped or ellipsoid 28a Conidia ellipsoid, with broad enlarged middle cell Microsporum Monacrosporium Fusoma animals Xenosporium Wardomyces Staphylotrichum Microclavia
23 84 80 80 25 34 38 136 26 29 116 27 28 116 118 128 30 , Endophragmia, Phragmocephala Bactrodesmium 32 118 150 31 Trichocladium Pithomyces Murogeneila Camposporium , Ceratophorum Clasterosporium 118 132 114 116 33 118 118 35 36
28b Conidia cylindrical to long and sometimes tapering, with distinctly enlarged middle cell Daciylella 29a Conidia ovoid to ellipsoid to oblong 29b Conidia much longer than wide 30a Conidiophores tall, simple, single or clustered 30b Conidiophores short, poorly developed, clustered 30c Conidiophores usually short, single 31a Conidia mostly 2- to 3-celled; ovoid to clavate 31 b Conidia 3- to several-celled; broadly ellipsoid wall not unusually thick 31c Conidia several-celled, ellipsoid, wall very thick 32a Conidia cylindrical 32b Conidia narrower at ends, especially at apex 33a Apical cell of conidia attenuated, hooked or pointed 33b Apical cell of conidia rounded, not attenuated 34a Conidiophores clustered, sometimes in loose sporodochia 34b Conidiophores single, not clustered
FREEDOM PALESTINE
AlTFRNAi'E K F Y TO S F R IE S AND GENFRA
47
35a 35b 36a 36b 37a 37b 38a 38b 39a 39b 39c 40a 40b
Conidia globose or subglobose Conidia large, elongate to obovoid Apical cell of conidia darker, much enlarged Apical cell of conidia not enlarged, equally pigmented Conidia broadly ellipsoid, most septa transverse Conidia globose to ovoid, most septa oblique Conidia hyaline or subhyaline Conidia with distinct dark pigment Propagule with many branches compacted into a large globoid or conical structure; no true conidia produced Conidia with few branches, symmetrical or nearly so Conidia with few branches distinctly asymmetrical Main axis of conidia distinctly swollen, with large cell Main axis of conidia slender or short, without swollen cell
Epicoccum Berkleasmium Acrospeira
150 134 132 37 132 134 39 49
Pithomyces Stigmella
Cristulariella
74 40 43 41 42
41a Central cell of conidia globose, with 4 slender radiating arms 41 b Main axis of conidia 2-celled, with 3 slender radiating arms 42a Alb 42c 43a 43b 44a 44b 45a 45b 46a 46b 47a Alb 48a 48b 49a 49b 50a Main axis of conidia long, slender Main axis of conidia short; arms widely divergent Main axis of conidia short; arms not widely divergent Not aquatic, parasitic on higher plants Aquatic, in fresh water on decaying leaves Branches of conidia developed one at a time Branches of conidia developed simultaneously Conidia with 3 slender branches on slender main axis Conidia with 3 slender branches on thick main axis Conidia with 2 branches arising from primary axis Conidia with 3 or more branches arising from primary axis Branches of conidia long, tapering to Branches of conidia slender but not tapering to fine point Branches of conidia more or less upright Branches of conidia widely divergent, irregular fine point
Actinospora Clavariopsis Tetrachaetum Triscelophorus Tridentaria Thaltospora
140 140 140 138 140 142 44 45 46
Articulospora Culicidospora
142 140 47 48
fngoldia Tricladium Tetracladium Dendrospora
138 138 140 140 50 51 144
Conidiophores distinct; conidia triangular or with several upright branches Conidiophores reduced to a short peg; conidia with 2 to 3 upright or spreading "horns" Conidia triangular, with 3 short, radiating arms Triposporium
FREEDOM PALESTINE
48
ALTERNATE K E Y TO S E R I E S A N D GFNLRA
50b Conidia with several close upright branches 51a Mostly parasitic on leaves 51b Mostly saprophytic on wood
Dictyosporium Hirudinaria Ceratosporium
144 144 144
ANNELLOSPORAE
52a Conidia typically 1- to 2-celled 52b Conidia mostly 3- to several-celled 53a Conidiophores hyaline 53b Conidiophores dark 54a Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia in moist heads 54b Conidiophores short, simple, not in heads 55a Conidia with 2 or more upright branches 55b Conidia unbranched 56a Mostly parasitic; mycelium within leaves; conidiophores short 56b Saprophytic or with external mycelium; conidiophores short 57a Conidiophores single, arising from epidermal cells 57b Conidiophores clustered, arising through stomata 58a Conidiophore apex with distinct cuplike structures 58b Conidiophore apex with conidial scars or rings, not cuplike Deightonielh Stigmina Endophragmia Annellophora Leptographiwn Spihcaea Ceratosporella Scopulariopsis 53 55 98 54 98 106 144 56 57 58 118 120 118 118
BLASTOSPORAE
59a Conidiophores arising from basal globose mother cells, with thick dark septa, increasing in length only in basal region 59b Conidiophores, if present, not as above 60a Conidia 1-celled 60b Conidia 4-celled, cross-shaped 61a Conidia more or less coiled (helicosporous) 61 b Conidia branched (staurosporous) 61c Conidia neither coiled nor branched 62a Small conidia produced by budding of large conidia 62b Conidia not budding 63a Conidiophores present, distinct 63b Conidiophores absent Helkodendron Helkoon Arthrinium Dictyoarthrinium 60 61 74 134 62 63 66 136 136 64 65
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA 49
64a Conidia hyaline, with slender divergent arms 64b Conidia dark, branches more or less upright 65a Conidia with 3 to 4 upright to spreading branches 65b Conidia with 4 to 5 widely divergent branches
Varicosporium Speiropsis Tetraploa TYipospermum
138 142 142 142 74 67 70
66a "Conidiophores" (propagules) compactly branched, globose to conical, ultimate cells globose, conidialike; no true conidia produced Cristulariella 66b Conidiophores poorly formed or reduced to pegs or short conidiogenous cells 66c Conidiophores distinct, simple or loosely branched 67a Mycelium with clamp connections; conidia forcibly discharged 67b With neither clamp connections nor forcibly discharged conidia 68a Parasitic on grasses; conidia 2-celled, not budding 68b Usually saprophytic; conidia !-celled, budding 69a Mycelium and conidia hyaline 69b Mycelium and conidia with dark pigment 70a Conidia hyaline, 2-celled 70b Conidia hyaline or subhyaline, 1-ceIIed 70c Conidia with distinct dark pigment 71a Conidia borne in acropetalous chains 71 b Conidia not in chains ! Haplographium Candida Aureobasidium Trichothecium Rhynchosporium Itersonilia
70 68 108 69 70 70 108 71 74 72 73 80 72 72 72 72 138 74 75 77
72a Conidiophores dark; conidia in moist heads
72b Conidiophores hyaline; conidia uniform globose to short ellipsoid, in long branched chains Manilla 72c Conidiophores hyaline branched; conidia variable, in short chains 72d Conidiophores subhyaline, conidia elongate, slender 73a Conidiophores dark; conidia ovoid, 2 to 3 on each swollen dark cell 73b Conidiophores hyaline; conidia lunulate, not clustered Hyaiodendron Tilletiopsis Zygosporium Lunulospora
73c Conidiophores hyaline; conidia globose to broad ellipsoid, single, apical on long denticles Olpitrichum 74a Conidia all or mostly 1-celled 74b Conidia mostly 2-celled 74c Conidia 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) 75a Conidia variable, some typically lemon-shaped 75b Conidia uniform, mostly ovoid to ellipsoid 75c Conidia uniformly globose , Cladosporium Papularia
78 106 82 76
FREEDOM PALESTINE
50 ALTERNATE K F Y TO S E R IE S A N D GFNERA
76a Setae present; apex of conidiophore globose 76b Setae present; apex of conidiophore not enlarged 76c Setae absent 11a. Conidiophores branched; conidia variable lib Conidiophores mostly simple; conidia uniformly ellipsoid
LaceHinopsis Lacellina Periconia Cladosporium Bispora
78 78 74 106 106 79 80
78a Conidia borne on special globose cells 78b Conidia not borne on special globose cells 79a Conidia catenulate 79b Conidia not catenulate 80a Conidia catenulate, cylindrical 80b Conidia catenulate, cells strongly rounded 80c Conidia not catenulate Pseudotorula Dwayabeeja Septonema Torula Gonatophragmium
116 116 116 74 122
BOTRYOBLASTOSPORAE
81 a Conidia in simple or branched chains of 2 or more 81b Conidia not catenulate 82a Conidiophores tall, dark; conidia dark 82b Conidiophores variable, hyaline; conidia hyaline 83a Conidia dark, phragmosporous 83b Conidia hyaline, 1-celled 84a Conidiophores short, reduced to 1 or few cells 84b Conidiophores tall, well developed 85a Conidiogenous cells globose or with globose lobes 85b Conidiogenous cells or fertile portion of conidiophore elongated to irregular 86a Conidiophores simple or with few branches 86b Conidiophores with several branches, at least near apex 87a Conidiophores determinate, with a single head of conidia 87b Conidiophores proliferating percurrently, with several clusters of conidia 88a Conidiophore branches many, lateral on main axis 88b Conidiophore branches regularly dichotomous 88c Conidiophore branches irregular 89a Conidiophore branches dichotomous near apex 89b Conidiophore branches irregular Oedocephalum Gonatobotrys Botryosporium Dichobotrys Botrytis Chromelosporium Aciadium Phymotolrichum Gonatobotryum Gonatorrhodiella Cephaliophora 82 83 78 78 116 84 78 85 86 89 87 88 76 76 76 78 76 80 76
FREEDOM PALESTINE
AUERNATL K E Y TO S F R Ifc S A N D GENERA 51
POROSPORAE
90a Conidia with transverse and oblique septa (dictyosporous) 90b Conidia with transverse septa only (phragmosporous) 90c Conidia 2-celled, catenulate 91a Conidia long-beaked, obclavate, or ovoid 91 b Conidia not beaked, globose to broadly ellipsoid 92a Conidiophores elongating sympodially 92b Conidiophores elongating percurrently 93a Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia catenulate 93b Conidiophores tall, branched; conidia not catenulate 93c Conidiophores mostly simple 94a Conidiophores dichotomous near apex; conidia mostly severalcelled 94b Conidiophores not dichotomous near apex 95a Conidia mostly 3-celled 95b Conidia 4- to several-celled Spondylocladiella Dendryphiopsis Torula Dichotomophthora Ulocladium Stemphylium Dendryphion Diplococcium Allernaria 91 93 114 132 92 132 132 124 94 96 120 95 120 120 74 97 98 100 Curvularia 122 99 Drechslera 122 126 148 101 Corynespora, Sporidesmium Helminthosporium Spadicoides 120 124 114
96a Conidia in acropetalous chains, often breaking up into 1- to several-celled fragments 96b Conidia not catenulate 97a Conidiophores indeterminate, extending sympodially 97b Conidiophores determinate 98a Conidia bent by enlargement of one cell 98b Conidia not bent by enlarged cell, straight or slightly curved 99a 99b Mid-cells of conidia larger than end cells; germ tubes originate from any cell
Mid-cells of conidia not distinctly larger than others; germ tubes only from end cells Bipolaris Exosporium
100a Conidiophores clustered; conidia apical 100b Conidiophores single; conidia apical and lateral 100c Conidiophores single; conidia single, apical
101a Conidia several-celled, cylindrical to obclavate 101b Conidia often less than 4-celIed, ellipsoid to obovoid
FREEDOM PALESTINE
52 ALTERNATE K E Y TO S E R I F S AND GENERA
SYMPODULOSPORAE
Note: The key to this section includes some genera described as producing porospores and in which the conidiophores commonly extend by sympodial growth. 102a Conidia coiled, helicosporous I02b Conidia not coiled 103a Conidia thick in proportion to length, not hygroscopic 103b Conidia thin in proportion to length, hygroscopic 104a Parasitic on higher plants; some conidia nearly straight 104b Saprophytic on wood or bark; conidia uniformly coiled 105a Conidiophores and conidia hyaline I05b Conidiophores dark; conidia pale to dark 106a On living plants in nature, principally on leaves, mostly parasitic 106b Closely associated with other fungi, often parasitic on them 106c Saprophytic on various substrata 107a Conidia hyaline or subhyaline 107b Conidia distinctly pigmented, pale brown to dark 108a Conidia predominantly 1-celled 108b Conidia typically 2- to several-celled 109a Conidiophores relatively short, simple I09b Conidiophores tall, repeatedly branched near apex 110a Conidia collecting in moist slimy heads 110b Conidia dry, not in moist heads 11 la Conidia catenulate in acropetalous chains 111b Conidia not catenulate 112a Conidia mostly 2-celled, with some 1-celled 112b Conidia mostly with 3 or more cells 113a Conidia filiform to cylindrical or long ellipsoid 113b Conidia shorter, ovoid to pyriform or short ellipsoid 114a Conidiophores hyaline; conidia with attenuated apical cell 114b Conidiophores hyaline; conidia! cell not attenuated 114c Conidiophores dark; conidial cell not distinctly attenuated 115a Conidia broader near base; cells unequal Spermospora Cercosporetta Cercospora, Cercosporidium Pyricularia Ramularia Septocylindrium Verticicladiella Verticicladium Idriella Helicomina Heiicoma Helicomyces Helicosporium 103 106 105 104 136 136 136 136 107 122 123 108 116 109 Ill 102 110 104 104 112 113 110 128 114 115 128 128 128,122 128
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE K E Y TO S E R I F S A N D GENERA 53
115b Conidia oblong; cells nearly equal
Didymaria
110 104 117 118 121
116a Conidiophores tall, dark, simple below, branched near apex and bearing a number of conidiogenous cells Periconiella 116b Conidiophores and conidiogenous cells not as above ! 17a Conidia mostly 1- to 2-celIed 117b Conidia 3- to several-celled (phragmosporous) 118a Conidia rough-walled, cells equal 118b Conidia smooth, cells unequal I I9a Conidiophores distinctly wavy in appearance \ 19b Conidiophores often irregular but not distinctly wavy 120a Conidiophores usually arise from beneath cutical layer Fusicladiwn Polythrincium Asperisporium
112 119 112 120 112 112 128 128 102 130 92 124 139 125 135 137 126 131 127 128
120b Conidiophores emerging through stomata or from surface of leaves Scolecotrichum, Passalora 121a Conidia with 1 to 4 hyaline appendages on apical cells 121b Conidia without appendages 122a Conidiophores and conidia hyaline; conidia 1-celled 122b Conidiophores and conidia hyaline; conidia 3- to 4-celled, mostly ovoid 122c Conidiophores and conidia dark; conidia long, slender 123a Conidia hyaline to subhyaline (slightly pigmented) J23b Conidia with distinct dark pigment 124a Conidia typically 1-celled 124b Conidia typically 2-celled 124c Conidia 3- to several-celled 125a Conidiophores variously branched, rarely simple 125b Conidiophores typically simple, rarely branched 126a Conidiophores branched only near apex 126b Conidiophore branches lower or lateral on main axis 127a Conidia in moist heads of slime I27b Conidia dry, not in moist heads 128a Conidiophore branches verticillate on main axis 128b Conidiophore branches irregular; conidiogenous cells may be verticillate 129a Conidiophores hyaline; conidia ovoid I29b Conidiophores pigmented; conidia long, slender Tritirachium Selenosporella Verticicladiella Verlicicladium Pleiochaeta Nakataea Calcarisporium Dactylium Cladosporietta
104 104 129 130 100 102
FREEDOM PALESTINE
54 ALTFRNATE K E Y 10 SERIfS AND GFNERA
130a Fertile area of conidiogenous cell slender, not enlarged 130c Fertile area of conidiogenous cell much elongated; not enlarged 13la Conidia catenulate 131b Conidia not catenulate 132a Fertile area of conidiogenous cell slender, rachislike 132b Fertile area of conidiogenous cell not slender or rachislike 133a Base of conidiophore enlarged; mostly on insects 133b Base of conidiophore not enlarged; saprophytic 134a Conidiophores slender, hyaline, single, only slightly enlarged at apex 134b Conidiophores pigmented, single, greatly enlarged at apex 134c Conidiophores hyaline, in clusters 135a Apical cell of conidium equal to or smaller than basal cell, sometimes elongated 135b Apical cell of conidium larger or wider than basal cell, rounded 136a Conidia in loose clusters, on short denticles 136b Conidia in loose clusters, on long pegs 136c Conidia single on sympodial branches of conidiophore 137a Conidia forked, with 2 parallel prongs I37b Conidia not forked 138a Conidiophores short, hyaline; conidia cylindric to clavate 138b Conidiophores tall, hyaline; conidia cylindric to fusoid 138c Conidiophores tall, dark; conidia fusoid
Hamfordia Geniculosporium Sympodiella
98 100 100 104 -132 133 134
130b Fertile area of conidiogenous cell somewhat enlarged, at least at apex .. Nodulosporium
Beauveria Tritirachium Sporothrix Basidiobotrys Ovularia Dactylaria
100 100 98 100 104 110 136
Arihrobotrys Candelabrelta Genicularia Dkranidion
110 110 110 138 138
Dactylaria Dactylella Pleurothecium
110 128 126 106 140 141 147
139a Conidiophores tall, dark, slender, bearing at apex several divergent conidiogenous cells Pseudobotrylis 139b Conidiophores and conidiogenous cells not as above 140a Conidia 1-celled I4()b At least some conidia 2- or more-celled 141a Conidia biconie, tapering toward both ends 141b Conidia otherwise 142a Conidia oblong-elongate I42b Conidia mostly globose or ovoid 143a Conidia symmetric, both sides rounded 143b Conidia asymmetric, one side flat or concave Virgaria Selenosporella Beltrania
104 142 102 143 144 100
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE KEY TO SERIES AND GENERA
55
144a 144b 145a 145b 146a
Conidiophores branched irregularly; conidiogenous cells somewhat enlarged, at least at apex Noduhsporium Conidiophores simple or branched; conidiogenous cells not enlarged at apex Conidiophore branches somewhat spiral, appearing wavy Conidiophores or branches more or less straight, not wavy Conidiophores or conidiogenous cells, short, mostly ] - to 3-celled Conoplea Rhinocladiella
100 145 102 104 147 148
146b Conidiophores tall, well developed 147a 147b 147c 148a Conidia 1- to 2-celled, ovate, oblong or T-shaped Conidia staurosporous, several-celled, Y-shaped, with 2 pointed arms Conidia staurosporous, with 3 or more branches Conidia dictyosporous, some phragmospores present Scolecobasidium Diplocladiella Speiropsis Dactylosporium, Sirosporium
114 142 142 134 149
148b Conidia typically phragmosphorous 149a Conidia often catenulate Heterosporium
122 150
149b Conidia not catenulate 150a 150b Conidia attached by slender pedicels to apex of conidiophores Conidia attached directly to hyaline apex of conidiophores Brachysporium Cacumisporium
126 124
PHIALOSPORAE
151a Normally aquatic, growing on decaying vegetation 151b Not normally aquatic 152a Conidia or branches long, slender Heliscus Flagellospora Lemonniera 152 154 153 108 138 138 155 159 156 157
152b Conidia unbranched 153a Conidia long, slender, unbranched
153b Conidia each with 4 slender arms 154a Conidia typically 2- to several-celled
154b Conidia typically I-celled 155a Conidiophores with dark pigment
155b Conidiophores (or conidiogenous cells) hyaline 156a 156b 156c 157a Conidiophores tall with lateral branches and sterile apex; conidia not catenulate
Chaetopsis
96 130 130
Conidiophores with few branches near apex; conidia catenulate but not end to end Fusariella Conidiophores simple; conidia endogenous in end-to-end chains Sporochisma
Conidiophores repeatedly branched; one sterile branch typically with swollen apex Cylindrodadium
108
FREEDOM PALESTINE
56
ALTERNATF KEY TO SCRIES AND GENERA
157b Conidiophores simple or irregularly branched; without sterile branches 158a Conidia mostly cylindrical, straight, 2- to several-celled 158b Conidia ovoid, 2-celled, not in slime heads 158c Conidia ovoid, 2-celled, in small slime heads 158d Macroconidia typically canoe-shaped, several-celled; microconidia 1-celled Cylindrocarpon Cladobotryum Diplosporium Fusarium
158 130 108 108 130 94 160 161 178 162 163 Menispora Codinaea 88 88 164 167 165 166 Chalaropsis Thielaviopsis Chaetochalara Chalara 90 92 90 90 168 169 Monocilliwn Cephalosporium 86 94 170 172 Monihchaetes Thysanophora 86 96 171 Metarrhizium 94
159a Apex of conidiophore much enlarged, covered with flask-shaped phialides; conidia in dry chains Aspergillus 159b Conidiophores, phialides or conidia otherwise 160a Conidia hyaline or subhyaline 160b Conidia distinctly pigmented, at least in mass 161a Conidia crescent-shaped, typically with hyaline apical appendages 161b Conidia globose, ovoid, oblong, or hooked, without appendages 162a Apical collarette of phialide small, inconspicuous 162b Apical collarette of phialide large, flaring 163a Conidia produced well within phialide (endogenous), mostly rod-shaped 163b Conidia produced at apex of phialide, not rod-shaped 164a Dark aleuriospores (chlamydospores) also present 164b Dark aleuriospores absent 165a Aleuriospores rounded, 1-celled, single or in short chains 165b Aleuriospores cylindrical, breaking up into 1-celled fragments 166a Tall dark setae present 166b Dark setae absent 167a Conidiophores short or mostly reduced to a single phialide 167b Conidiophores well developed, simple or branched 168a Conidia in dry chains, no slime present 168b Conidia in small, moist, slimy heads 169a Conidia dry, not in moist heads 169b Conidia held together in moist slimy heads 170a Conidiophores mostly simple, dark; conidia single or catenulate 170b Conidiophores branched, dark; conidia catenulate 170c Conidiophores branched, hyaline; conidia catenulate 171a Conidia cylindrical, aggregated into dry columns
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE K E Y TO SERIFS AND GENERA 57
171b Conidia globose, ovoid or rod-shaped; conidiophore "brush" compact 1 7 lc Conidia fusiform to lemon-shaped; conidiophore "brush" loose 172a Conidiophores simple or reduced to short, 1-celled phialides 172b Conidiophores variously branched, at least at apex 173a Conidiophores dark; coiled setae absent 173b Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline; coiled setae present, unbranched 173c Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline, with coiled branched setae 174a Conidial masses large, only at apex of conidiophore 174b Conidial masses small, at apex of conidiophore 175a Conidiophores hyaline, apex often enlarged, branches Aspergillus-Iike 175b Conidiophores hyaline, branches Penicillium-like 175c Conidiophores dark, branches Penicillium-like 176a Conidial mass subtended by sterile arms 176b Conidial mass not subtended by sterile arms 177a Conidiophores hyaline, branches (or phialides) verticillate 177b Conidiophores hyaline, branches irregular 177c Conidiophores dark, branches arising at points on main axis 178a Conidiophores mostly reduced to phialides 178b Conidiophores well developed 179a Phialides slender, tapering upward; collarette not evident 179b Phialides cylindrical to inflated; collarette often flaring
Penkillium Paecilomyces
94 94 173 174
Chloridium Circinotrichum Gyroihrix
88 90 90 175 177 176
Gliocladium Phiahcephala Gliocephalotrichum Gliocephahs Verticillium Trichoderma Gonylrichum
92 96 94 94 92 92 98 179 180
Gliomastix Phiahphora
86 88 92 94 181 88 88
180a Upper portion of conidiophores branched; phialides long, slender; conidia dark, in small, moist heads Stachylidium 180b Upper portion of conidiophores branched; conidia dry, dark, lemon-shaped, catenulate Phialomyces 180c Conidiophores unbranched; short thick phialides at base of simple conidiophores 181a Conidia in moist slimy heads, not catenulate 18lb Conidia not in slimy heads, catenulate Stachybotrys Memnoniella
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ALTERNATE K E Y TO SERIFS AND GENERA 57
171b Conidia globose, ovoid or rod-shaped; conidiophore "brush" compact 1 7 lc Conidia fusiform to lemon-shaped; conidiophore "brush" loose 172a Conidiophores simple or reduced to short, 1-celled phialides 172b Conidiophores variously branched, at least at apex 173a Conidiophores dark; coiled setae absent 173b Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline; coiled setae present, unbranched 173c Conidiophores (phialides) hyaline, with coiled branched setae 174a Conidial masses large, only at apex of conidiophore 174b Conidial masses small, at apex of conidiophore 175a Conidiophores hyaline, apex often enlarged, branches Aspergillus-Iike 175b Conidiophores hyaline, branches Penicillium-like 175c Conidiophores dark, branches Penicillium-like 176a Conidial mass subtended by sterile arms 176b Conidial mass not subtended by sterile arms 177a Conidiophores hyaline, branches (or phialides) verticillate 177b Conidiophores hyaline, branches irregular 177c Conidiophores dark, branches arising at points on main axis 178a Conidiophores mostly reduced to phialides 178b Conidiophores well developed 179a Phialides slender, tapering upward; collarette not evident 179b Phialides cylindrical to inflated; collarette often flaring
Penkillium Paecilomyces
94 94 173 174
Chloridium Circinotrichum Gyroihrix
88 90 90 175 177 176
Gliocladium Phiahcephala Gliocephalotrichum Gliocephahs Verticillium Trichoderma Gonylrichum
92 96 94 94 92 92 98 179 180
Gliomastix Phiahphora
86 88 92 94 181 88 88
180a Upper portion of conidiophores branched; phialides long, slender; conidia dark, in small, moist heads Stachylidium 180b Upper portion of conidiophores branched; conidia dry, dark, lemon-shaped, catenulate Phialomyces 180c Conidiophores unbranched; short thick phialides at base of simple conidiophores 181a Conidia in moist slimy heads, not catenulate 18lb Conidia not in slimy heads, catenulate Stachybotrys Memnoniella
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
60
HELICOCEPHALUM Thaxt. Conidiophores upright, long, slender, simple, nonseptate; conidia produced in a spiral, forming a head held in a slime drop, 1-celled, ellipsoid, hyaline or slightly pigmented; saprophytic on dung or decaying wood. Illustration: (A) H. sarcophilum; redrawn from Thaxter (438); (B) H. oiigosporum; original, from material on decayed wood. Other reference (98). RHOPALOMYCES Corda. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores upright, slender, simple; conidia borne on enlarged tip of conidiophore, which is hexagonally aerolate, 1-celled, hyaline, ellipsoid; saprophytic on plant material, or destroying nematode eggs. Illustration: R. strangulatus; redrawn from Thaxter (436). (A) conidiophore and head of conidia; (B) head of conidia enlarged; (C) conidia. References (36). CUNNINGHAMELLA Matr. Mycelium white, extensive in culture, nonseptate; conidiophores (sporangiophores) simple or branched, with enlarged tips bearing heads of conidia (sporangioles); conidia hyaline, 1-celled, globose; common saprophytes in soil. Illustration: C. elegans; original, from pure culture. (A) simple conidiophore and head of conidia; (B) branched conidiophore; (C) detail of tip of conidiophore showing denticles; (D) conidia. References (70, 171). MYCOTVPHA Fenncr. Mycelium at first nonseptate, later becoming septate, hyaline; conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, tall, simple, septate; head of spores cylindrical; conidia (sporangioles) i-celled, borne singly on short denticles; saprophytic. Illustration: M. microspora; original, from culture. (A) group of conidiophores; (B) head of conidia enlarged; (C) conidia. Reference (132). MORTIERELLA Coemans. Mycelium typically appressed to substrate, fine; conidiophores (sporangiophores) hyaline, simple or branched, typically tapering upward; conidia (sporangioles) globose, hyaline, single, apical; typical multispored sporangia present in some species, absent in others; common in soil, saprophytic. Illustration: Mortierella sp; original from culture. Reference (136).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
61
RHOPALOMYCES
MORTIERELLA CUNNINGHAMELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
62 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
SYNCEPHALIS Van Teigh. and Le Monn. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) upright, straight or bent near the apex, with prominent rhizoids at the base; apex enlarged, producing branches, bearing rodlike sporangioles which break up to form short conidia; parasitic on other Mucorales. Illustration: S. pycnosperma. (A) general habit of nearly mature fertile hypha; (B) formation of separate spores; redrawn from Thaxter (440). Other reference (17). PIPTOCEPHAL1S de Bary. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, repeatedly dichotomously branched, tips more or less swollen, deciduous, bearing cylindrical, rodlike sporangioles; sporangioles break up into short conidia at maturity; haustorial parasites on other fungi, principally Mucorales. Illustration: P. virginiana; original, from a culture on Mucor. (A) conidiophore and sporangioles; (B) heads of spores; (C) chains of spores breaking apart; (D) haustorium of parasite in host mycelium. References (22, 256). COEMANSIA Van Tiegh and Le Monn. Mycelium sparse, nonseptate; conidiophores upright, slender, septate, sparingly branched, at intervals bearing sporocladia that produce conidia only on the lower (outer) surface; conidia hyaline, 1-ceIIed, ovoid to fusoid; saprophytic on dung. Illustration: C. erecta; (A) conidiophores; (B) sporocladia and conidia; redrawn from Linder (268). Other reference (22). DIMARGARIS Van Tieghem. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, at first simple, becoming irregularly cymosely or verticillately branched and producing fertile terminal heads; sterile branches absent; conidial heads composed of many sporogenous branchlets, consisting of short chains of cells formed by budding, each cell giving rise to a whorl of 2-spored sporangioles; conidia finally separating, immersed in liquid at maturity, ellipsoid or rod-shaped; parasitic on other Mucorales, producing branched haustoria. Illustration: D. vertkillata; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) upper portion of sporangiophore; (B) enlarged branch apex; (C) branchlet with several 2-spored sporangioles; (D) conidia. TIEGHEMIOMYCES Benjamin. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, septate, simple below, giving rise above to fertile branch systems; branches septate, several repeatedly, irregularly branched, the ends consisting of fertile cells bearing whorls of 2-spored sporangioles; conidia finally separating, smooth subglobose to ovoid, dry at maturity; parasitic on other Mucorales, producing branched haustoria. Illustration: 7 ." caHfornicus; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) habit of sporangiophores; (B) branch of sporangiophore; (C) branchlets with 2-spored sporangioles; (D) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
63
SYNCEPHAUS
PIPTOCEPHALIS
COEMANSIA
TIEGHEMIOMYCES
FREEDOM PALESTINE
RADIOMYOES Embree. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) borne singly or sometimes in pairs near the ends of stolons that terminate in rhizoid systems; conidiophores dark brown, terminating tn primary vesicles bearing radiate stalks and secondary vesicles; conidia borne on tertiary stalks, subglobose to ellipsoid, conidia hyaline, reniform to oblong-ellipsoid; saprophytic. Illustration: R. embreei; (A) apex of conidiophore with conidia! head; (B) single branch of conidial head; (C) single branch void of conidia; (D) conidia; redrawn from Benjamin (24). Other reference (127). MARTENSELLA Cocmans. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores upright, simple, bearing lateral or apical sporocladia; conidia borne on upper surface of sporocladia, hyaline, l-celled; saprophytic. Illustration: M. corticii; (A) conidiophores; (B) sporocladia and conidia; redrawn from Jackson and Dearden (240). Other references (22, 268). KICKXEELA Coemans. Mycelium sparse; conidiophores simple with an apical disk bearing sporocladia; conidia produced on the upper surface of sporocladia, hyaline, I-celled; saprophytic on horse dung. Illustration: K. alahastrina; (A) conidiophore; (B) sporocladium and ctfnidia redrawn from Benjamin (22). Other reference (268). L1NDERINA Rapcr and Fennell. Conidiophores long, septate, branched, bearing several domelike sporocladia with pseudophialides and conidia on the upper surface; conidia hyaline, l-celled, elongated; saprophytic in soil. Illustration: L. pennispora; (A) diagram showing habit of growth; (B) a single sporocladium; redrawn from Raperand Fennell (348). MARTENSIOMYCES Meyer. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect or ascending, becoming irregularly cymosely branched; sporocladia stalked, borne in umbels on recurved branchlets, producing pseudophialides on one side (resembling Coemansid)\ pseud ophialides ellipsoid, each bearing a single conidium (sporangiole); conidia obclavate, hyaline, enveloped in liquid at maturity; saprophytic, from soil. Illustration: M. pterosporus; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) conidiophore; (B) group of sporocladia; (C) sporocladium; (D) conidium. SPIRODACTYEON Benjamin. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect or ascending, septate, giving rise above to coiled, fertile branches; sporocladia borne successively on the lower surface of the coils, septate, with narrowed apices, producing laterally pseudophialides that bear single sporangioles (conidia); conidia short-ellipsoid, not enveloped in liquid at maturity; saprophytic on dung. Illustration: S. aureum; redrawn from Benjamin (22). (A) conidiophore; (B) group of sporocladia; (C) sporocladium bearing conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
65
RADIOMYCES MARTENSELLA
MARTENSIOMYCES
SPIRODACTYLON
FREEDOM PALESTINE
66
SYNCEPHALASTRUM Schroet. Mycelium growing rapidly, abundantly branched; conidiophores (sporangjophores) erect, branched, tips enlarged, bearing a head of rod-shaped sporangioles, each producing a row of nearly spherical conidia; wall of sporangiole dissolving to release conidia; saprophytic. Illustration: S. racemosum; original, from pure culture. (A) conidiophore and head of spores; (B, C) heads of sporangioles and developing conidia, (D-G) stages in formation and release of conidia. References (23, 439). DISPIRA Van Tiegh. Conidiophores (sporangiophores) erect, branched, the sterile branches slender and spiral, fertile branches enlarged, bearing a head of cylindrical sporangioles that produce rows of short conidia, parasitic on other Mucorales and one species on Chaetomium. Illustration: D. cornuta. (A) terminal portion of fertile hypha; (B) portion of fertile head showing conidia; redrawn from Thaxter (438). Other references (26). CHOANEPHORA Currey. Mycelium white, extensive and growing rapidly in culture; conidiophores (sporangiophores) long, enlarged, and branched at the apex, each branch bearing a head of conidia (sporangioles); conidia 1-celled, brown or purplish, ellipsoid; sporangia typical of the Mucorales also formed in culture; parasitic on flowers and fruits, or saprophytic, principally curcurbits. Illustration: C. curcurbitarum; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores; (B, D) portion of head of conidia; (D) conidia. References (136, 172, 335, 474, 475). SPIROMYCES Benjamin. Conidiophores arising from substrate hyphae, forming a loose spiral as they develop upward, septate, each segment giving rise to 2 to 3 short, stout sporocladia, each of which forms a loose cluster of conidia (sporangioles) on terminal globose enlargements on denticles; conidia subglobose to globose; saprophytic. Illustration: S. minuius; redrawn from Benjamin (23). (A) portion of conidiophore; (B) enlarged fertile branches.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
67
I
D ,
D oo o o
SYNCEPHALASTRUM
CHOANEPHORA
SPIROMYCES
tfl
FREEDOM PALESTINE
^ GEOTRICHUM Link. Mycelium white, septate; conidiophores absent; conidia (arthrospores) hyaline, j^ 1-celled, short cylindrical with truncate ends, formed by segmentation of hyphae; mostly saprophytic, common in soil. Some basidiomycetes form conidia in this manner. {?'-. Illustration: (A) G. candidum; original, from agar culture; (B) conidial state of Polyporus adust us; . -V original from culture. Reference (50). OIDIODENDRON Robak. Mycelium hyaline to brown; conidiophores sparsely branched only on upper portion, rebranched irregularly, branches segmenting into rod-shaped or rounded conidia, remaining in chains; conidia (arthrospores) 1-celled, hyaline or subhyaline; saprophytic. IHustration:0. griseum; original, from culture. (A) branched conidiophore; (B) segmenting branch; (C) conidia. Reference (15). AMBLYOSPORIUM Fres. Mycelium pale to yellow-orange; conidiophores erect, septate, lower portion unbranched. bearing a number of irregular branches near or at the apex, from which conidial chains are formed by segmentation; conidia (arthrospores) 1-celled, hyaline or yellow-orange in mass, barrel-shaped, catenulate; saprophytic in soil or often growing on fleshy or woody basidiomycetes. Illustration: A. spongiosum; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) stages in development of conidial branches; (C) conidia. References (313, 332). CHRYSOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores poorly differentiated, much like vegetative hyphae, mostly erect and branching irregularly, hyaline; conidia (aleuriospores or arthrospores) hyaline, 1-celled, globose to pyriform, terminal or intercalary, single or in short chains, usually with a broad basal scar; saprophytic. Carmichael (51) describes conidia as aleuriospores. Illustration: Chrysosporium sp.; original from culture. (A) portions of conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (51).
'
r- OIDIUM Sacc. Mycelium external on host, white; conidiophores upright, simple; upper portion increases in length as conidia are formed; conidia (meristem arthrospores) cylindrical, 1-celled, hyaline, produced in basipetal chains; parasitic on higher plants, producing powdery mildews. See Bisby (35) for relation of Oidium Link., Oidium Sacc. and Acrosporium Nees. Illustration: O. monilioides (Erysiphe graminis); original, from fresh material. (A, B) mycelium with conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. ,. f
FREEDOM PALESTINE
69
GEOTRICHUM
AMBLYOSPORIUM
OIDIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
70
SPOROBOLOMYCES K A u y v e r and van Nicl. Cultures usually pink; reproduction principally by budding (blastospores); some cells producing sterigmata, each bearing an asymmetrical conidium that is discharged forcibly; saprophytic. Illustration: S. salmonieolor; original, from culture. (A) hyphae with conidia produced on sterigmata; (B) budding cells. Reference (45). ITERSONILIA Derx. Mycelium forming clamp connections; aerial hyphae simple, forming a sterigma bearing a single conidium (blastospore); conidia asymmetrical, smooth, hyaline, discharged forcibly; saprophytic or pathogenic on plants. Illustration: /. perlexans; redrawn from Tubaki (446). (A) mycelium with clamp connections; (B) conidia and secondary conidia. BASIPETOSPORA Cole and Kendrick. Conidiophores simple, resembling vegetative hyphae elongating slightly at apex as conidia are formed; conidia (meristem arthrospores) globose, with truncate base, hyaline to pale brown, l-celled in simple basipetal chains; saprophytic; B. rubra is conidial state of Monascus rubra. Illustration: B. rubra; original from culture. (A) stages in development of chain of conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (57). OVULARIOPSIS Pat. and Har. Mycelium and conidiophores as in Oidium; conidia (meristem arthrospores) l-celled, hyaline, pyriform to clavate, single at apex or sometimes in short chains; imperfect state of certain powdery mildews. Illustration: O. erysiphiodes (conidial state of Phyllactinia corulea); redrawn from Salmon (363). (A) conidiophore bearing single conidium; (B) conidia. CANDIDA Berkhout. Mycelium, not extensive; conidia (blastophores) hyaline, l-celled, ovoid to fusoid, forming short chains by budding; produced apically or laterally on mycelium; mostly common saprophytes; C. albicans is described as causing moniliasis of man; frequently considered as a filamentous yeast. Illustration: C. albicans; original, from culture. (A, B) hyphae and conidia; (C) lateral production of conidia; (D) conidia budding. References (17, 59). AHJREOBASIDIUM Viola and Boyer. Mycelium not extensive, hyaline when young, becoming dark with age, black and shiny in old cultures, bearing abundant conidia laterally; conidia (blastospores) subhyaline to dark, l-celled, ovoid, producing other conidia by budding; saprophytic or weakly parasitic; common in soil. Illustration: A. (Pullularla) pullulans; original from culture. (A, B) hyphae and conidia. References (17, 63).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
71
^.o
ITERSONILIA SPOROBOLOMYCES
A
OVULARIOPSIS BAS1PETOSPORA
^F= ^
AUREOBASIDIUM CANDIDA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
TILLETIOPSIS Derx. Colonies restricted, white to cream colored, mycelium fine; conidiophores short or indefinite; conidia (blastospores) 1-celled, hyaline, curved, catenulate, acropetal; common on surface of leaves; saprophytic, but one species parasitic on powdery mildew. Similar to Sporobolomyces in appearance. Illustration: Tilletiopsis sp.; original from culture. Reference (315). HYALODENDRON Diddens. Mycelium white; conidiophores erect, variable in length, simple or branched, bearing one to a few conidia at the apex of the branches; conidia (blastospores) frequently in small clusters, becoming catenulate by acropetalous formation of new conidia, chains often branched, 1-celled, hyaline, variable in shape, ovoid to cylindrical or oblong; saprophytic or parasitic, mostly on wood; mostly imperfect states of species of Ceratocystis. This genus is like Cladosporium except for lack of pigmentation. Illustration: Hyalodendron sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) conidia. References (17, 149). MONILIA Pers. ex Fr. Mycelium white or gray, abundant in culture; conidiophore branched, its cells differing little from the older conidia; conidia (blastospores) pink, gray, or tan in mass, I-celled, short cylindric to rounded, in acropetalous branched chains. Some species are imperfect states of Neuropspora and are common saprophytes; others, whose perfect states are Molinilia (Sclerotmia) spp., cause brown rots of fruits. Illustration: (A) M. (Neurospora) sitophilia; (B) M. americana (Monilinia fructicola); original, from pure culture. ZYGOSPORIUM Mont. Conidiophores erect, main'axis usually simple, brown at base with hyaline or subhyaline apex, bearing special cells (falces), thick-walJed, dark, and reflexed, each bearing 2 short hyaline conidiogenous cells; conidia (blastospores) 1-celled, hyaline, globose to ellipsoid; saprophytic. Illustration: Z. masonii; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores showing falces and conidia; (B) conidia; (C) Z. gibbum; original, from culture. References (188, 462).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND liiUSTRATIONS OP GENERA
73
TILLETIOPSIS
HYALODENDRON
MONILIA
ZYGOSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
TORULA Pers. Conidiophores short, dark, simple, branched or absent; conidia (porospores, blastospores) 1- to several-celled, cells rounded, dark, in acropetalous chains; saprophytic. Barron (17) describes conidia as porospores. Illustration: T. herbarum\ original from culture. Reference (365). OLPITRICHUM Atkinson. Conidiophores stout, simple or irregularly branched in upper portion; method of branching irregular, often as extensions of the denticles; denticles medium to long, at nearly right angles; fertile portions of conidiophore not swollen as in Acladium\ conidia I-celled, hyaline to pale brown, globose or ovoid to ellipsoid, borne singly on the denticles or branches; saprophytic or parasitic on other fungi. Relation to Adadium is not clear but separated here because of loose branching and long "denticles." See Subramanian (409) for his views. Illustration: O. macrosporum; original, from culture. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) phialide state. References (17, 409, 414). PERICON1A Bon. Conidiophores dark, tall, upright, stout, simple, determinate, somewhat enlarged at apex, which bears a loose head of comdia; conidia (blastospores) dark, 1-celled, globose, in dry chains, arising from globose conidiogenous cells; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: Periconia sp.; original from fresh material on dead stem. (A) group of conidiophores; (B) conidiophore enlarged; (C) tip of conidiophores bearing conidia; (D) conidium. References (282, 401). CRISTULARIELLA Hochn. Conidiophore-like structures hyaline, consisting of basal stalk and much branched upper portion that forms a globose or pyramidial head; branches compact and dichotomously or trichotomously rebranched; cells irregular, thick; conidia not produced, although ultimate cells resemble conidia; entire structure disseminated as a propagule; small phialides and microconidia produced in culture, as well as large black sclerotia; causing targetlike spots on living leaves. Niedbalski et al. (314) consider the entire branched structure as a conidium. Illustration: (A-C, E) C. pyramidalis; (D), C. depraedans: original from fresh material on Acer leaves; (E), microconidia from culture. References (352, 464). ARTHRINIUM Kunze ex. Fr. Conidiophore mother cells subspherical; conidiophores simple, mostly hyaline except for thick dark septa, increasing in length near base; conidia (meristem blastospores) dark, 1-celled, broadly fusoid, ovoid, curved to cuspidate, attached on side and apex of conidiophore, often with slight germ slit on one side; saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: (A-C) A. cuspidatum; (A) cluster of conidiophores; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia; (D) A. aphaerospermum, showing basal conidiophore mother cell; redrawn from Ellis (120). References (62, 118, 120, 125).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OP GENERA 75
TORULA
OLPITRICHUM
PERICONIA CRISTULARIELLA Q ARTHRINIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
^
76
S* BOTRVTIS Pers. Conidiophores tall, slender, determinate, hyaline or pigmented, branched irregularly in _. upper portion, apical cells enlarged or rounded, bearing clusters of conidia simultaneously on short Aj&cnticles; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline or gray in mass, [-celled, ovoid; black irregular sclerotia often present; causing "gray mold" on many plants or saprophytic. See Hennebert (167) for recent classification. Illustration: B. cinerea; original from culture. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C, D) upper portion of conidiophore showing enlarged conidiogenous cells; (E) conidia. References { 1 7 , 1 6 7 , 294, 295). OEDOCEPHALUM Preuss. Conidiophores simple, hyaline, enlarged and globose at the apex, bearing a head of dry conidia formed simultaneously; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, 1-celled, globose to ovoid; usually saprophytic on plant materials or in soil. Some species are conidial states of Discomycetes and one species is the conidial state of Fames annosus. Illustration: Oedocephalum sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidophores and conidial heads; (B) enlarged apex of conidiophore void of conidia; (C) conidia. References (17, 427, 448). BOTRYOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores tall, slender, hyaline, composed of elongated axis and numerous, lateral branches of nearly equal length, these branches producing two or more secondary branches that are enlarged at the tips and bear heads of conidia; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid; saprophytic on decaying plant material. Illustration: Botryosporium sp.; original, from decayed leaf in greenhouse. (A) entire conidiophore; (B-F) stages in development of conidiophore branch and production of conidia; (G) conidia. Reference (17). RHINOTRICHUM Corda {Oidium Link). Mycelium often forming a loose or dense substratum; conidiophores erect or suberect, simple or branched; conidium-bearing cells sometimes enlarged; conidia (blastospores) 1-celled, globose to ovoid, hyaline or slightly colored, borne on denticles; saprophytic, mostly on decayed wood. Not Rhinotrkhum Auct. Illustration: R. curtisii; original, drawn from herbarium material; (A. B) mycelium, conidiophores and conidia. References (17, 35, 267, 409, 414). GONATOBOTRYS Corda. Conidiophores erect, sometimes tall, septate, simple or sparingly branched, percurrent with terminal and intercalary, inflated, denticulate cells bearing conidia simultaneously; conidia (botryoblastospores) borne singly on the teeth, 1-celled, hyaline, ovoid to subglobose; saprophytic or parasitic on other fungi. This genus differs from Gonatobotryum in being hyaline throughout, and from Gonatorrhodiella in having conidia not in chains. G. simplex is a mycoparasite. Illustration: G. simplex; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore with clusters of conidia; (B) cluster of conidia; (C) portion of conidiophore void of conidia; (D) conidia. References (17, 469). ACLADIUM Link ex Pers. Conidiophores stout, simple or irregularly branched in upper portion, often extending percurrently, resulting in a row of fertile cells; fertile cells irregular, somewhat inflated (not globose); conidia (blastospores) hyaline to pale brown, 1-celled, globose to ellipsoid, borne singly on short or medium denticles; saprophytic or closely associated with other fungi. Isolates are variable, some producing Aspergilius-Wke heads of microconidia. The relationship to Olphrichum Atkinson and Rhinotrkhum Auct. is not clear. Illustration: A. teneltum; (A) young conidiophore and conidia; (B) chain of fertile cells with prominent denticles; (C) phialide state; original, from culture. Reference (409).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA 77
A RHINOTRICHUM
ACLADIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
78
DICHOBOTRYS Hennebert. Conidiophores tall, slender, dichotomously branched twice or more from upper half, terminal fertile cells somewhat inflated, globose, producing conidia simultaneously, then collapsing, conidia (botryoblastospores) nearly globose, hyaline, 1-celled, nearly sessile or on short denticles. Illustration: D. abundans (conidial state of Trichophaea abundans). (A) upper portion of conidiophore; (B) cluster of conidia; (C) conidia. Original from culture. Reference (167.) PHYMATOTRICHUM Bon. Conidiophores rather short, stout, simple or branched, with inflated or lobed tips, bearing loose heads of dry conidia; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, 1-celled, produced on mats on surface of soil, globose or ovoid; saprophytic or parasitic on soil, causing root rots; large black sclerotia produced in soil; branched setae often present on mycelium. Hennebert (167 394, 432) places this genus in the newly formed genus Phymatotrichopsis. Illustration: P. omnivorum; redrawn from photographs by J. Baniecki. (A) rope of hyphae; (B) mycelium, conidiophores and conidia. Reference (6). GONATOBOTRYUM Sacc. Conidiophores dark, tall, stout, upright, typically simple, septate, forming a head of dry conidia on an inflated terminal cell, proliferating to form successive conidiogenous nodes; conidia (botryoblastospores) dark, 1-celled, ovoid to short cylindrical. G. apiculatum bears conidia in branched chains of several conidia; saprophytic or causing leaf spots of Hamamelis. Illustration: original, from culture. (A) B. appiculatum, conidiophores and conidia; (B) G. fuscum, conidiophore and conidia. References (255, 459). GONATORRHODIELLA Thaxter. Conidiophores stout, upright, hyaline, simple or sparingly branched, septate, with inflated apex and intercalary cells that bear loose dry heads of conidia; conidia (botryoblastospores) hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to ellipsoid, in simple or branched acropetalous chains; frequently associated with Hypoerea, Hypomyces, or Nectria. G highlei is parasitic on TV coccinea varfaginaia, the cause of beech bark disease in New England. Illustration: G highlei; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) apex of branch showing denticles; (C) conidia. Other references (138, 437, 459). LACELLINA Sacc. Setae erect, tall, brown, simple; conidiophores determinate, intermixed with setae, shorter, pale, simple; conidia (blastospores) 1-celled, globose or ovoid, colored, produced at or near the apex in acropetalous chains; saprophytic. Illustration: L. graminkola; (A) habit of setae and conidiophores; (B) tip of seta; (C, D) conidiophores and conidia; redrawn from Subramanian (396). LACELLINOPSIS Subramanian. Setae simple, septate, brown; conidiophores determinate intermixed with setae, with globose fertile apex, becoming cupulate after detachment of conidia; conidia (blastospores) 1-celled, brown, globose, produced acropetally in chains. Illustration: L sacchari: (A) tip of seta; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) mature conidia; redrawn from Subramanian (397).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
79
* .;
GONATORRHODIELLA
LACEUINA
LACELUNOPSIS
FREEDOM PALESTINE
80 DESCRIPTIONS A N D I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA
CHROMELOSPORIUM Corda. Mycelium white to cinnamon, growing rapidly; conidiophores stout, hyaline, erect, main axis unbranched but dichotomously branched near apex, producing several clublike divergent branches that are covered by conidia on slender short denticles; conidia (botryoblastospores) globose, 1-celled, hyaline or nearly so (tan in mass); saprophytic in soil, common in greenhouses. Illustration: C. ollare; (Ostracoderma state of Peziza ostracoderma); original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) fertile branch with conidia. References (17, 168). HAPLOGRAPHIUM Berk, and Broome. Mycelium dark; conidiophores determinate dark, simple, erect, bearing an apical cluster of pale to hyaline short branches, entire apparatus penicillate; conidia (blastospores) terminal, hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong, collecting in slimy heads under moist conditions; saprophytic on wood or soil. Illustration: Haplographium sp.; original, from fresh material on decaying wood. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (Q conidia. Reference (17.) MICROCLAVIA F.S. Stevens. Mycelium superficial; conidiophores simple, determinate, pale, expanded at apex into an obconical or ellipsoid structure, usually composed of 2 cells, apical cell bearing 2 (sometimes 3) large, brown, 1-celled, thick-walled conidia (aleuriospores), subglobose with flattened base, rarely deciduous; overgrowing and probably hyperparasitic on microthyriaceous fungi on leaves. Illustration: M. bispora; redrawn from Deighton (80). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) portion of mycelium. STAPH YLOTRICHUM Meyer and Nicot. Mycelium hyaline to lightly pigmented; conidiophores erect, tall, dark brown but paler above, branched irregularly in upper poriton; conidia (aleuriospores) globose, 1-celled, thick-walled, light brown, apical and single on branches; saprophytic. Illustration: S- coccosporum; original, from culture. References (275, 311). BLASTOMYCES Cost, and Roll. Mycelium white in culture, filamentous at room temperature, yeastlike at 37 C; conidia (aleuriospores) thick-walled, budding cells (blastospores) found in lesions; pathogenic in man, causing blastomycosis. Illustration: H. dermatitidis; (A) hyphae and thick-walled cells (aleuriospores) produced in culture; (B) bud-cells produced in tissue; (C) budding cells on media at 37 C. (A, B) redrawn from DeLamater (86); (C) drawn from a photography by Salvin (364). Other references (59, 129).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
81
CHROMELOSPORIUM
MICROCLAVIA
HAPLOGRAPHIUM
^P <3
<s
STAPHYLOTR1CHUM BLASTOMYCES
FREEDOM PALESTINE
82 DESCRIPTIONS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA STEPHANOMA Wallr. Conidiophores slender, hyaline; conidia (aleuriospores) apical on pedicels, hyaline or brown, main cell large, globose, with several cell-like hyaline swellings; phialospore state may be present, with verticillate conidiophores bearing hyaline, I-celled conidia (Verticillium-like); parasitic on other fungi; may be imperfect state of Hypomyces. The outgrowths on the aleuriospores separate this genus from Sepedonium. S. phaeospora has brown conidia, and is a biotophic mycoparasite. Illustration: S. tetracoccum; (A) hyphae and aleuriospores; (B) conidiophore and phialides; redrawn from Howell (178). References (46, 452). MYCOGONE Link. Conidiophores much like branches of mycelium, simple or branched; conidia (aleuriospores) single, apical, hyaline or brightly colored, 2-celled, the apical cell globose and warted, basal cell smooth; phialospore state may also be present, hyaline, 1-celled Vertitillium-like; parasitic on mushrooms, probably imperfect state of Hypomyces. Illustration: M. perniciosa; (A) conidiophore and phialides; (B) hyphae and aleuriospores; redrawn from Howell (178). Reference (17.) SEPEDONIUM Link. Conidiophores indefinite, not differing much from branches of the mycelium, simple or branched; conidia (aleuriospores) single or in loose cluster, hyaline or bright yellow, globose, 1-celled, tuberculate; parasitic on fleshy fungi; a Verticillium-Yike state is usually also present; imperfect states of Hypomyces. Two species illustrated are similar except for the verticillate conidial state. Illustration: S. ampullosporum\ original, from culture; (A) verticillate conidiophore and conidia; (B) aleuriospores; (C) S. chrysospermum\ original, from culture. References (17, 72). HISTOPLASMA Darling. Cultures similar to Blastomyces but large, thick-walled, tuberculate, spherical aleuriospores formed in culture at room temperature; growth yeastlike, at 37 C; pathogenic in man, causing histoplasmosis. Illustration: H. capsulatum. (A) hyphae and tuberculate conidia; (B) stages in the development of tuberculate aleuriospores; (C) smooth-walled conidia developed below the surface of the agar; redrawn from Howell (178). Other reference (129). CHLAMYDOMYCES Bain. Conidiophores much like mycelium; conidia borne on slender branches; conidia (aleuriospores) 2-celled, with large tuberculate apical cell and small, smooth wedge-shaped basal cell, hyaline or slightly colored; phialospore state also produced, small, hyaline, 1-celled, borne on short phialides on swollen head; parasitic on mushrooms, probably imperfect state of Hypomyces. Compare with Mycogone, NIGROSPORA Zimm. Conidiophores short, mostly simple; conidia (aleuriospores) shiny black, 1-celled, globose, situated on a flattened, hyaline vesicle (cell) at the end of the conidiophore; parasitic on plants or saprophytic. Illustration: J V . sphaerica; original. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) tip of conidophore showing hyaline vesicle; (B, C) from culture. References (17, 180) PAPULARIA Fr. Conidiophores poorly developed in culture, mostly simple, hyaline, short branches of mycelium, conidia (blastophores may appear to be aleuriospores in culture) I-celled, dark, ovoid, broadly lenticular or globose, often with a light band seen in side view; saprophytic. Compare with Arthrinium and see Ellis (120) for synonymy. Illustration: Papularia sp.; original, from culture. References (124, 125).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENtRA
83
STEPHANOMA
LawO
HISTOPLASMA
SEPEDONIUM
N1GR0SP0RA PAPULARIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
84 DESCRIPTIONS A N D I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA
ASTEROMYCES Moreau. Hyphae hyaline to brown; conidiogenous cells sessile or with short stalk, dark, inflated as conidia are formed; conidia (aleuriospores) 1-celled, dark, clustered, borne on long denticles, obclavate to pyriform; saprophytic. IHustration: A. cruciatus; redrawn from Hennebert (164). (A) mycelium with short conidiophores; (B) conidiophores and conidia. Redrawn by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadian Journal of Botany, 40, pp. 1203-1216 (1962). MAMMARIA Cesati. Conidiophores erect or repent, often much like vegetative hyphae, simple or bearing very short branches, pale brown; conidia (aleuriospores) borne directly on aerial hyphae or on conidiophores, 1-celled, dark, ovoid to pointed, truncate at basal scar, with prominent longitudinal germ slit, in groups or clusters; saprophytic. Illustration: M. echinobotryoides; redrawn from Hennebert (17, 166). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) mycelium bearing two types of conidia. HUMICOLA Traaen. Conidiophores, simple or rarely with short branches, dark; conidia (aleuriospores) single, apical, globose or subglobose, brown, 1-celled; some species also produce simple phialides and phialospores in chains; saprophytic. Illustration: H.fuscoatra; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) phialides and chains of small conidia. References (64,471). BOTRYOTRICHUM Sacc. and March. Setae in loose tufts, simple, gray to grown; conidiophores short, irregularly branched, hyaline, bearing a loose cluster of conidia; conidia (aleuriospores) 1-celled, brown, borne singly, globose; saprophytic, frequently in soil. B. piluliferum also produces simple phialides and hyaline, I-celled phialospores, in chains. Illustration; B. piluliferm; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores with aleuriospores; (B) philiades with phailospores; (C) seta. References (75, 95). WARDOMYCES Brooks and Hansford. Conidiophores, hyaline, short, branched repeatedly; conidia (aleuriospores) 1-eelled, brown to black, ovoid to ellipsoid, produced singly at apices of branches; saprophytic. Illustration: W. anomala; original, from culture. (A) mycelium producing conidia; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. References (40, 91, 164, 166). EC HI NOB OTR YUM Corda. Conidiophores consisting of short, branched, undifferentiated hyphae, or nearly absent; conidia (aleuriospores) ovoid or somewhat flask-shaped, tapering to a pointed apex, smooth or rough, formed in clusters at hyphal tips, dark, 1-celled. Illustration: E. atrum; original, from culture. Reference (166). GILMANIELLA Barron. Conidiophores hyaline, short, often stout to inflated, mostly simple; conidia (aleuriospores) apical, single, dark brown or black, 1-celled, globose, with a thick wall, wall smooth or rough, with a prominent germ pore; saprophytic on wood or soil. Illustration: Gilmaniella sp. Original, from decayed wood and from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) stages in development of conidiophore and conidium; (C) mature conidia showing germ pore. Reference (16).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 85
ECHINOBOTRYUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
86
GLOMERULARIA Peck. Conidiophores borne in groups in spots on living leaves, mostly short, hyaline, simple or divided; conidia (aleuriospores) globose, somewhat unequally clustered forming few-spored heads, 1-ceiled, hyaline; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: G. corni; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Cornus canadensis. (A) habit on leaf; (B) conidiophores and conidia. BOTRYODERMA Papendorf and Upadhyay. Mycelium hyaline; conidiophores short, hyaline, variable, sometimes missing; conidiogenous eells subglobose or obpyriform; conidia (aleuriospores) terminal or lateral, sessile or on short sterigmata, I-cclled, broadly ellipsoid to globose, hyaline, smooth, often with prominent scar; saprophytic in soil. Illustration: B. lateritium; redrawn from Papendorf and Upadhyay (321). (A) mycelium and branched conidiophores; (B) conidia. UMBELOPSIS Amos and Barnett. Conidiophores hyaline, often septate, older conidiophores typically with a swollen apex bearing 2 to several long cylindrical branches, each with a single apical conidium; conidia (aleuriospores) I-celled, hyaline, globose; saprophytic in soil. This fungus may prove to be a Mortierella, but because of its similarity to the imperfects it is included here. Illustration: U. versiformis: original, from culture. (A-D) stages in development of conidiophores and conidia. References (2, 17). MONILOCHAETES Halst. Conidiophores dark, erect, slender, usually simple, septate; conidia (phialospores) hyaline or becoming pigmented in age, borne singly at the apex or produced in chains under conditions of high humidity; parasitic. Illustration: M. infuscans; (A, C) conidiophores and conidia on sweet potato; (B, C) conidiophores and conidia produced in culture. (A, B) redrawn from Harter (160). (C, D) redrawn from Taubenhaus (431). MONOCILLIUM Saksena. Conidiophores simple, septate, consisting of a pedicel and a swollen vesicle terminating in a single phialide that bears a long chain of conidia formed basipetally; conidia (phialospores) i-celled, hyaline, ovoid to ellipsoid, smooth; saprophytic, from soil. Illustration: M. indicum; redrawm from Saskena (362). (A) mycelial rope bearing conidiophores; (B) conidiophore and conidia. GLIOMASTIX Gueg. Mycelium hyaline to dark, forming aerial"ropes" in culture; conidiophores mostly reduced to simple phialides, hyaline or dark, slender, tapering toward the apex; conidia (phialospores) dark, 1-celled, globose to ovoid to ellipsoid, formed in basipetal chains without slime or aggregated in slime droplets; saprophytic. Illustration: G. murorum; original, from culture. (A) mycelial rope; (B) conidiophores (phialides); (C) conidia. References (42, 92).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
87
GL10MASTIX MONOCILLIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
88 DESCRIPTIONS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA PHIALOPHORA Medlar. Conidiophores short or reduced to phialides, dark, simple or branched; phialides cylindrical to inflated, often with flaring collarette at apex; conidia (phialospores) subhyaline to dark, 1-celled, globose to ovoid, extruding from phialide in moist heads; parasitic or saprophytic. The genus Margarinomyces is often included under Phialophora, Illustration: (A-C) Phialophora sp.; original, from culture. (A) rope of mycelium with slime heads of conidia; (B) conidophores (phialides); (C) conidia; (D, E) Phialophora sp. (Margarinomyces bubaki); original, from culture. (D) mycelium bearing phialides; (E) conidia. References (47, 312, 461, 140).
CHLORIDIUM Link. (Bisporomyces van Beyma). Conidiophores erect, simple, septate, dark, frequently proliferating at the apex after producing an apical head of conidia, with a distinct collarette at apex; conidia (phialospores) 1-celled, hyaline, frequently in pairs at the end of the conidiophore or held together in small heads by mucus; aleuriospores (where present) 1-celled, terminal; saprophytic, on decaying wood. Illustration: C. chlamydosporis; original, from culture. (A) group of conidiophores with slime heads; (B) conidiophores with slime heads; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia; (D) aleuriospores. References (280,281,318,452). MENISPORA Pers. Setae (if present) straight, bent or coiled; conidiophores dark, simple, or branched; phialides slender, somewhat curved with an inconspicuous collarette; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, I-celled (sometimes septate), borne apically in slimy masses, narrowly fusiform to curved; conidia of some species have a slender hyaline appendage at each end; saprophytic. Illustration: (A) M. cobaltina; original, from herbarium material on dead leaves of Nyssa; conidiophores and conidia; (B) M. ciliate; original, from culture; conidiophore and ciliate conidia. References (174, 215). STACHYBOTRYS Corda. Conidiophores subhyaline to dark, simple, determinate bearing at apex a cluster of thick, short phialides; conidia (phialospores) dark, 1-celled, globose to ovoid, borne in moist heads at the apex of the phialides, not catenulate; saprophytic. Illustration: S. atra; original, from culture isolated from soil. (A) habit sketch; (B, C) conidiophores and clusters of conidia; (D) conidia. References (33, 34, 480). CODINAEA Maire (MENISPORELLA Agnihothrudu). Setae straight or slightly bent, thick-walled, dark, independent or a sterile portion of conidiophore; phialides mostly terminal, straight, sometimes proliferating, forming conspicuous collarettes that are cupulate, or funnel-shaped, flaring; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled (sometimes to 4-celled), with a slender seta at each end; saprophytic on plant material or soil. Illustration: Codinaea sp.; original, from fresh material on over-wintered acorn. (A) conidiophores showing collarette; (B) ciliate conidia. Reference (17). MEMNONIELLA Hohn. Conidiophores dark, simple, bearing at apex a cluster of thick, short phialides; conidia (phialospores) dark, I-cellcd, globose, catenulate; saprophytic; probably closely related to Stachybotrys. Illustration: Memnoniella sp.; drawn from photography by Zuck (480). Reference (34).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENfcRA
89
. -.<>#.*
0O
COOINAEA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
90
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENFRA
CIRCINOTRICHUM Nees ex Persoon. Hyphae subhyaline to brown, bearing setae and phialides; setae simple, erect, verrucose, dark, brown, wider at base and tapering toward apex that is paler and circinate; phialides short, obclavate, hyaline or subhyaline, arising from superficial mycelium; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, (-celled, narrowly ellipsoid, straight or curved, aggregated into apical clusters. Saprophytic on leaves or twigs. Compare with Gyrothrix. Illustration: C. maculiforme; redrawn from Pirozynski (330). (A) seta; (B) phialides and conidia. CYROTHKIX (Corda) Corda. Mycelium subhyaline to brown; setae erect, repeatedly branched, straight or flexuous, pale to brown, broader and darker at the base; arising from the mycelium, obclavate, hyaline; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, narrowly ellipsoid, straight or curved, often aggregated. Compare with Circinotrkhum. Saprophytic on leaves and twigs. Illustration: G. circinata; redrawn from Piro/ynski (330). (A) branched seta; (B) phialides and conidia. CHALARA Corda. Mycelium typically dark; conidiophore typically has some dark pigment but may be hyaline under some cultural conditions, unicellular or basal portion septate, the apical cell (phialide) sometimes tapering upward slightly and producing conidia endogenously; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, cylindrical, somewhat variable in length, often hanging together in chains; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: (A) C. quercina (Ceratocystis fagacearum); original, from pure culture; conidiophores and conidia; (B-D) Chaiara sp.; original, from fresh material on rotted wood; (B) habit of conidiophores; (C) enlarged conidiophore showing deep collarette; (D) chain of conidia. References (17, 169). CHAETOCHALARA Sutton and Pirozynski. Mycelium partly immersed in leaves, emerging through stomata, giving rise directly to brown, simple, pointed setae and to hyaline to brown phialides; phialides cylindrical with swollen rounded base; conidia (phialospores) 1- to 2-celled, hyaline, cylindrical, in chains; saprophytic on leaves. Illustration: C. cladii; redrawn from Sutton and Pirozynski (427). (A) phialides and seta; (B) enlarged phialide; (C) conidia. CHALAROPSIS Peyron. Conidiophores usually pigmented or subhyaline, slender phialides slightly larger near the base and tapering upward; producing conidia endogenously; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, cylindrical, often in chains; aleuriospores present, ovoid, dark, thick-walled, single or in short chains; parasitic or saprophytic; similar to Chaiara except for the production of aleuriospores. Illustration: Chalaropsis sp.; original from pure culture. (A) hyphae producing aleuriospores; (B) conidia and phialide.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
GYROTHRIX
CHAETOCHALARA
o
CHALARA
CHAIAROPSIS
FREEDOM PALESTINE
THIELAVIOPSIS Wctn. Conidiophores, phialides and phialospores like Chalaropsis: also forming thickwalled aleuriospores that eventually break apart; parasitic or saprophytic; conidial states of species of Ceratocystis. Illustration: T. basicola, original, from culture. (A) phialide and phialospores; (B) chains of aleuriospores; (C) hyphae producing both kinds of spores. GLIOCLADIUM Corda. Conidiophores hyaline, the upper portion bearing penicillate branches, forming a compact "brush" as in Penicillium; conidia (phialospores) hyaline or brightly colored in mass, 1-celled, produced successively apically and collecting in mucilaginous droplets; saprophytic, common in soil. G. roseum also produced a Verticillium state. See VertiriUium figure D. Illustration: G. deliquescens; original, from culture isolated from soil. (A) conidiophores and heads of conidia as seen in dry mount; (B) conidiophores and conidia in water. References {298, 350, 379). ^VERTICILLIUM Nees. Conidiophores slender, branched, at least some of the branches or phialides f^ verticillate, conidia (phialospores) ovoid to ellipsoid, hyaline, 1-celled, borne singly or in small moist ,^>*' clusters apically; vascular parasites causing wilts on higher plants, parasitic on other fungi, or growing , saprophytically. Also see Verticillium states of Gliocladium roseum, Stilbum, Sepedonium, Mycogone, Y Stephanoma, etc. > jC ' s\f Illustration: V. albo-atrum; original, from pure culture. (A) conidiophores growing in moist atmosphere; (B) conidiophore in water mount; (C) conidia; (D) Verticillium state of Gliocladium roseum. References (44,236,237,359). STACHYLIDIUM Link. Conidiophores dark, upright, slender, upper portion branched bearing whorls of phialides; conidia (phialospores) subhyaline to brown, 1-celled, ovoid, small, held in heads by slime; saprophytic on vegetable material. Illustration: Stachylidium sp.; original from culture. (A) branched conidiophore; (B) phialides with heads of conidia. References (125, 193). TRICHODERMA Pers. Conidiophores hyaline, much branched, not verticillate; phialides single or in groups; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid, borne in small terminal clusters; usually easily recognized by its rapid growth and green patches or cushions of conidia; saprophytic on soil or on wood, very common, some species reported as parasites on other fungi. Illustration: T. viride; original, from pure culture. (A, B) large conidiophores showing extensive branching; (C, D) phialides showing production of conidia; (E) conidia. Reference (354).
CLADOSPOR1ELLA Deighton. Mycelium slow-growing, dark in culture, conidiophores simple, length variable, pale olive to pale brown, with distinct conidial scars; conidia (sympodulospores) catenulate, acropetal, variable, long-cylindrical to filiform, 1- to several-celled, pale olive-brown, associated with and possibly parasitic on Cercospora, Illustration: C. cercosporicola; original from culture. WALLEMIA .lohan-Olsen. Colonies small, slow-growing, orange-brown to dark brown; conidiophores closely clustered, simple, with phialidelike lower portion with dark collarette, sometimes proliferating percurrcntly, base often somewhat swollen; conidiogenous cell protruding, cylindrical, becoming septate and fragmenting to form arthrospores; conidia subhyaline to brown in mass, 1-celled, becoming globose. Illustration: W. seba; original from culture. References (17, 276).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of GENFRA
93
FREEDOM PALESTINE
94
PAECILOMYCES Bainer. Conidiophores and branches more divergent than in Penicillium; conidia (phialospores) in dry basipetal chains, 1-celled, ovoid to fusoid, hyaline; saprophytic. Illustration: Paecilomyces sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores with chains of conidia; (B) conidia. References (41, 319). PENICILLIUM Link. Conidiophores arising from the mycelium singly or less often in synnemata, branched near the apex, penicillate, ending in a group of phialides; conidia (phialospores) hyaline or brightly colored in mass, 1-celled, mostly globose or ovoid, in dry basipetal chains. Illustration: Penicillium sp.; original, from culture. (A, B, C) types of conidiophores; (D) branches, phialides, and chains of conidia. References (349). ASPERGILLUS Link. Conidiophores upright, simple, terminating in a globose or clavate swelling, bearing phialides at the apex or radiating from the apex or the entire surface; conidia (phialospores) 1-celled, globose, often variously colored in mass, in dry basipetal chains. Illustration: Aspergillus spp.; original, from culture. (A) habit sketch; (B, C) conidiophores with conidial heads. References (349). PHIALOM YCES Misra and Talbot. Conidiophores tall, slender, hyaline, simple or sparingly branched, a single apical whorl of phialides; conidia (phialospores) 1-celled, dark, lemon-shaped, verrucose, in dry basipetal chains; saprophytic from soil. Illustration: P. macrosporus; redrawn from Misra and Talbot (288). Redrawn by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadian Journal of Botany, 42, pp. 1287-1290 (1964). METARRHIZIUM Sorok. Conidiophores hyaline, branched, forming a sporulating layer; phialides single, in pairs, or in whorls; conidia (phialospores) produced in basipetal chains, compacted into columns, long-ovoid to cylindrical, 1-celled, hyaline or slightly pigmented, olive-green in mass; parasitic on insects, or saprophytic in soil. Compare with Myrothecium. Illustration: M. anisoplae; original, from culture. (A) sporulating fungus on insect larva; (B, C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. References (325). GLIOCEPHALIS Matruchot. This genus is much like Gftocephahtrichum, but without sterile arms. Illustration: Gliocephalis sp.; original, diagrammatic. (A) conidiophore and slime head; (B) phialides and conidia. Reference (128). CEPHALOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophore and phialides slender, mostly simple; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, collecting in a slime drop; saprophytic or parasitic, some species causing vascular wilts of trees. Microconidia of certain species of Fusarium are similar. Illustration: Cephalosporium sp.; (A) conidiophores and conidia in slime heads; (B, C) phialides; (D) conidia; original from culture. References (108, 139, 329). GLIOCEPHALOTRICHUM Ellis and Hesseltine. Conidiophores tall, simple, stout, bearing at the apex a series of primary and secondary branches that terminate in phialides; fertile area subtended by a few long sterile divergent arms; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, oblong-elliptical, in moist heads; saprophytic. Illustration: G. bulbilium; original from culture. (A, B) conidiophores; (C) phialides; (D) conidia. References (17, 111).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
95
GLIOCEPHALOTRICHUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
96
CHAETOPSINA Rambelli. Conidiophores erect, stout, thick-walled, septate, sometimes swollen at the base, tapering upward to a sterile point; branches with phialides arising about the middle or lower portion of conidiophore; phialides in more or less compact layer, inflated below and tapering upward with a long neck; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, oblong-cylindrical, held in a droplet of slime around the axis of the conidiophore; saprophytic. Illustration: C. fulva; original, from culture. (A) habit of conidiophores and spines. (B) enlarged conidiophore showing phialides and sterile tip; (C) enlarged phialides; (D) conidia. Reference (17).
THYSANOPHORA Kendrick. Conidiophores dark brown, single or clustered, bearing one to several penicilli on a single stipe, proliferating sympodially after producing a cluster of phialides, otherwise simple and ascending; 1-celled, subhyaline to pale brown, dry, in basipetal chains, subglobose to elongate fusoid, minutely roughened; saprophytic. Illustration: T. longispora redrawn from Kendrick (248). (A) portion of conidiophore bearing phialides and chains of conidia; (B) conidia. Redrawn by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadian Journal of Botany 39, pp. 817-832 (1961).
CHAETOPSIS Grev. Conidiophores dark, long, main axis slender with long sterile apex, bearing numerous primary side branches and secondary branches (phialides) that elongate and form polyphialides; conidia (phialospores) hyaline or subhyaline, 2-celled, small cylindrical, sticking together in bundles by means of slime; saprophytic on wood and bark. Illustration: C. griseus; (A) group of conidiophores; (B) conidiophore and conidia; redrawn from Hughes (93, 193).
PHIALOCEPHALA Kendrick. Conidiophores dark, mostly solitary, with a single stipe bearing an apical, complex fertile head, composed of 3 or 4 series of branches; apical phialides with conspicuous collarettes; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1-celled, globose to cylindrical, aggregate into a large head in slime. Illustration: P. bactrospora; original, from culture. (A) habit of conidiophores; (B) mycelium with short conidiophores; (C) portion of tall conidiophore; (D) enlarged phialides; (E) conidia. Reference (249).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
97
THYSANOPHORA CHAETOPSINA
CHAETOPSIS
PHIALOCEPHALA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
98
GONYTRICHUM Nees. Conidiophores dark, mostly tall, slender, sometimes terminating in a long, slender sterile tip; phialides borne in groups on short lateral branches along main axis of conidiophore, tapering and often curved; conidia (phialospores) hyaline or subhyaline, ovoid, collecting in small heads; saprophytic. Illustration: S. macrodadium; original, from culture, isolated from soil. (A) conidiophores and conidia, on a dry mount; (B) short simple conidiophores; (C) branch of conidiophore and phialides. Reference (193). LEPTOGRAPHIUM Lagerb and Melin. Conidiophores upright, single or in clusters, branched, the upper portion with penicillate branches; lower portion dark but variable in shade, upper branches hyaline; conidiogenous cells slender; conidia (anellospores) hyaline, ovoid, held together in rather large heads by slime; parasitic on trees or saprophytic. Probably conidial state of Ceratocystis. Illustration: Leptographium sp.; original, from culture. (A) habit of conidiophores; (B) conidiophores bearing conidia; (C) conidiogenous cells showing annellations; (D) conidia. References (77, 148, 369). SPOROTHRlX Hektoen and Perkins. Conidiophores mostly simple, 1-celled or septate, hyaline, bearing a loose cluster of dry conidia at apex; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 1-celled, globose to ovoid, borne on short, prominent denticles; mostly saprophytic. S. schenckii (Sporotrichum schenckii) causes sporotrichosis in humans. Illustration: Sporothrix sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores showing denticles and conidia; (B) conidia. References (17,129). HANSFORDIA Hughes. Conidiophores hyaline or pigmented, erect to repent, branched above repeatedly and irregularly; conidiogenous cells elongated, bearing conidia near the apex on blunt denticles; new growing points arising sympodially; conidia (sympodulospores) 1-celled, hyaline, globose, ovoid or fusoid; saprophytic on leaves. Illustration: Hansfordia sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores bearing conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (187). SCOPULARIOPSIS Bain. Conidiophores mostly branched or producing at the apex a cluster of conidiogenous cells that proliferate percurrently before producing succeeding conidia, leaving annellations at the tip; conidia (annelospores) hyaline or subhyaline, 1-celled, globose with a truncate base, produced in basipetal chains; colonies other than green or blue; saprophytic in soil. Illustration: Scopulariopsis sp.; original, from culture. (A) portion of conidiophore bearing conidia in chains; (B) conidiogenous cells showing annellations; (C) conidia. References (303).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
99
GONYTRICHUM
LEPTOGRAPHIUM
SPOROTHRIX
a 0 Oo
SCOPULARIOPSIS HANSFORD) A
FREEDOM PALESTINE
100 DESCRIPTIONS A N D I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF G E N E R A
NODULOSPORIUM Preuss. Conidiophores erect or suberect, branched, hyaline to pigmented; conidiogenous cells slender or short and thick, attached irregularly or verticillatcly, bearing conidia apically, in succession on new denticles; conidia (sympodulospores) l-celled, hyaline or subhyaline to distinctly pigmented; saprophytic on wood, conidial states of Xylariaceae. Illustration: Nodulosporium spp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia of Hypoxylon . sp.; (B, C) conidiophores and conidia of Hypoxylon atropunctatum. References (242, 357). BEAUVERIA Vuill. Mycelium white or slightly colored with a white fluffy to powdery appearance; conidiophores single, irregularly grouped or in vcrticillatc clusters; in some species inflated at the base, tapering to a slender fertile portion that appears zigzag after several conidia are produced; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, rounded to ovoid, l-celled, dry, borne singly on small denticles; parasitic on insects. Illustration: B. bassiana; original, from culture obtained from dead Nitidulid beetle. (A) infected beetle; (B, C, D) clusters on conidiophores; (E) single conidiophores; (F) conidia. References (21, 274). BASIDIOBOTRYS Hohn. Conidiophores dark to subhyaline, elongate-clavate, simple, with an enlarged globose or clavate apex; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, fusoid, l-celled, produced on tiny denticles on short thick conidiogenous cells that cover the apex of conidiophore; caused sapwood rot of hardwood trees; conidial state of Hypoxylon spp. Jong and Rogers suggest that this fungus should be placed in Xylocladium Syd. Illustration: Basidiohotrys sp. (Conidial stage of Hypoxolon punctulatum); original, from culture isolated from oak wood. (A-C) conidiophores and heads of conidia; (D) conidia; (E) sporogenous cells showing development of conidia. Reference (7, 242, 243). TRITIRACHIUM Limber. Conidiophores upright, long, slender, simple or verticil lately branched, conidiogenous branches tapering to a rachislike, zigzag, fertile portion; conidia (sympodulospores) apical on new growing points, hyaline, l-celled, globose or ovoid, saprophytic. Note similarity to Beauveria. Illustration: T. album; original from culture. Reference (274). VIRGARIA Nees. Conidiophores erect, simple or forked, or scantily upright-branched, septate, dark; conidia (sympodulospores) apical on sympodially formed new growing points, globose or ovoid, asymmetrical, l-celled, dark; saprophytic. Illustration: (A) V. nigra; from herbarium material on bark of Betula; (B) Virgaria sp.; from culture; both original. Reference (404). GENICULOSPORIUM Chesters and Greenhalgh. Conidiophores erect, branched, slender, branches originating from lower portion and giving a subdichotomous appearance, with main axis becoming indistinct; apical region of branches bearing conidia on new sympodial growing points, giving a geniculate appearance; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline to subhyaline, l-celled, ovoid to obovoid with truncate base; imperfect state of Hypoxylon. Illustration: G. serpens; redrawn from Chesters and Greenhalgh (53). (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. Reference (243).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
101
GENICULOSPORIUM VIRGARIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
102
CONOPEEA Pers. ex Mcrat. (Streptothrix Corda). Mycelium dark, growing loosely on decaying vegetation; conidiophores erect, tall, branched, branches spirally coiled (appearing wavy); conidia (sympodulospores) single, apical or lateral, sessile or on short peglike structures, 1-celled, dark; saprophytic. Illustration: Canopied sp.; original, from herbarium material on wood. (A) branched conidiophore; (B) branches with conidia; (C) conidia. 1DRIELLA Nelson and Welhclm. Mycelium hyaline to brown; conidiophores brown, simple, nonseptate, narrowed above, with prominent scars; conidia (sympodulospores) lunate to falcate, with pointed ends, produced in clusters near the apex of the conidiophore; aleuriospores brown, several-celled; believed to be parasitic on strawberry roots. Illustration: /. lunata; drawn from photographs by Nelson and Wilhelm (307). (A) apex of conidiophore bearing conidia; (B) conidiophore with detached conidia; (C) chlamydospore. CALCARISPORIUM Preuss. Conidiophores hyaline, slender, the larger ones verticillately branched, primary branches usually become slender conidiogenous cells; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 1celled, mostly oblong, borne singly on wartlike teeth on apical portions of the conidiophore branches, forming loose cluster; principally parasitic on other fungi. Illustration: (A-C) C. arbwscula; original, from culture. (A) branched conidiophore with clusters of conidia; (B) branches with apical denticles; (C) conidia. (D-F) C. parasiticum; original, from culture. (D) tall conidiophore; (D) conidiogenous cell with cluster of conidia; (F) conidiogenous cell showing blunt denticles. References (8, 1 8 7 , 465, 466). SELENOSPORELLA Arnaud. Conidiophores brown, pale toward the apex, tall, branched, bearing several groups of conidiogenous cells verticillately; conidiogenous cells slender, new growing points formed sympodially; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline or subhyaiine, on short denticles, I-celled, longcylindrical, may be somewhat curved; saprophytic. Similar to Calcarisporium but with dark conidiophore. Description from Ichinoe (221). Illustration: Selenosporella sp.; original, from fresh materials on decayed wood. (A) conidiophore; (B) conidiogenous cell; (C) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
103
IDRIELLA
CONOPLEA
CALCARISPORIUM SELENOSPORELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
104
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRAIIONS OF GFNERA
RHINOCLADIELLA Nannf. Conidiophores simple, or branched in some species, brown, upper sporebearing portion becomes elongated by sympodial growth; conidia (sympodulospores) apical on new growing points, subhyaline to dark, mostly I-celled, ovoid to oblong-ellipsoid, dry; saprophytic; frequently on wood. Illustration: Rhinocladielta sp.; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) habit of conidiophores; (B) conidiophores enlarged; (C) conidia. Reference (17). PERICONIELLA Sacc. Conidiophores dark, upper portion branched, producing conidiogenous cells and conidia apically and on new sympodial growing points; conidia (sympodulospores) 1-celled, dark, ovoid or oblong. Illustration: P. velutina; original, from herbarium material on Brajijum stellatifolium. (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. Reference (122). VERTICICLADIUM Preuss. Conidiophores brown, single or in clusters, branched verticillately above; conidia apical on new sympodial growing points; conidia (sympodulospores) 1-celled, hyaline or subhyaline, not in slime droplets; differs from Verticicladiella in its dry spores. Illustration: V. trijidium; redrawn from Hughes (187). SYMPODIELLA Kendrick. Conidiophores solitary, simple, dark; conidia (sympodulospores) 1-celled, hyaline, in unbranched chains, attached apically and laterally, cylindrical, with blunt ends; saprophytic, on pine needles. Illustration: S. acicola; redrawn from Kendrick (247). OVULARIA Sacc. Conidiophores in clusters, mostly simple; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid or globose, apical on new sympodially formed growing points. See Hughes (210) for synonymy with Ramularia Unger. Illustration: O. avicularis. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia. Original, drawn from herbarium material on Polygonum aviculare. Reference (386). VERTICICLADIELLA Hughes. Conidiophores upright, tall, brown, branched only near apex, penicillate; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to clavate, often curved, apical on sympodially formed new growing points, in slime droplets; parasitic or saprophytic. Compare with Verticicladium and Leptographium. V. procera causes a root rot of white pine. Illustration: V. peniciliaia; redrawn from Kendrick (250). (A) conidiophore with head of moist conidia; (B) portion of conidiophore bearing conidia; (C) conidia. Redrawn by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadial Journal of Botany, 40, pp. 771-779 (1962). BELTRANIA Penzig. Setae brown, simple, pointed; conidiophores simple or less often forked, brown; conidia (sympodulospores) biconic, 1-celled, brown with a paler middle band, borne single on denticles or ovoid separating cells; saprophytic. Sec Pirozynski (331) for descriptions of related genera. Illustration: B. indica; (A, C) conidiophores and conidia; (B) seta. Redrawn from Subramanian (395). Other reference (191).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS A N D ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 105
0
o Q0
0c JO
OVULARIA
BELTRANIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
BISPORA Corda. Mycelium dark; conidiophores dark, short, simple or sparingly branched; conidia (blastophores) dark, oblong to ellipsoid, 2-celled or less often 3-celled, with thick, black septa; produced in acropetalous chains; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: B. punctata; original. (A, E) conidiophores and conidia; (B, C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. (A-D) from fresh material on wood; (E) from culture. AMPULLIFERINA Sutton. Superficial mycelium brown; hyphopodia lateral, brown, with a pore; conidiophores short, simple, tapering at the base; conidia (arthrospores) 2-celled, brown, cylindrical, truncate at both ends, catcnulate, formed by fragmentation; saprophytic on fallen leaves. Illustration: A. persimplex; redrawn from Sutton (421). (A) mycelium with hyphopodia; (B) conidiophore with chain of conidia; (C) conidia. Redrawn by permission of the National Council of Canada from the Canadian Journal of Botany, 47, pp. 609-616 (1969). CLADOSPORIUM Link. Conidiophores tall, dark, upright, branched variously near the apex, clustered or single; conidia (blastophores) dark, 1- or 2-celled, variable in shape and size, ovoid to cylindrical and irregular, some typically lemon-shaped; often in simple or branched acropetalous chains; parasitic on t higher plants or saprophytic. V*i* Illustration: (A) C.fulvum; original, from herbarium material on tomato leaf; (B) C. herbarum; original, from fresh dead plant material. References (17, 90). PSEUDOBOTRYTIS Krzem. and Badura. Conidiophores dark, erect, slender, simple, bearing at the apex a number of slender divergent conidiogenous branches arising from the same level and bearing conidia on somewhat enlarged denticulate tips; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, 1- or 2-celled, ovoid to oblong; saprophytic. Illustration: P. terrestris; (A) redrawn from Subramanian (403); (B, C) redrawn from Morris (299).
^ SPILOCAEA Fr. Mycelium subcuticular on the host, forming a stoma that bears upright conidiophores; P$k$ conidiophores dark, 1-celled, short, simple, markedly annulate near the tip due to the new conidia being pushed out through the apical conidial scars; conidia (annellospores) dark, typically 2-celled, although t S/ >-? 1-cetled conidia may predominate, broadly ovoid to pyriform or angled and pointed, with a truncate base; parasitic on higher plants; conidial states of Venturia. Compare with Fusicladium, Illustration: S. pomi (Fusicladium dendriticum, Venturia inequalis); original. (A) section through stroma; (B) conidiophores and conidia from fresh material on apple leaf. References (17, 205). BALANIIJM Wallroth. Conidiophores solitary or in small groups septate, dark brown, thick, dichotomously branched, terminating in short conidiogenous cells; conidia (aleuriospores) 2-celled, thick-walled, dark brown, smooth, dry, ovoid to pyriform, saprophytic, on decaying wood. Illustration: B. stygium; redrawn from Hughes and Hennebert (214). Redrawn by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadian Journal of Botany, 39, pp. 1505-1508 (1961).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Ol GENERA
107
FREEDOM PALESTINE
108 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of GENERA
CLADOBOTRYUM Corda. Conidiophores erect, hyaline, often arising from aerial mycelium, branching irregularly or verticillately and repeatedly, terminating in groups of phialides that taper toward the apex; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, mostly 2-ceIled (sometimes more), ovoid to oblong, held together in irregular or tangled chains; imperfect state of Hypomyces; saprophytic or parasitic on fleshy fungi. Illustration: Cladobotryum sp.; original from culture. (A) conidiophore; (B) sporogenous cells; (C) conidia. References (17, 58). CYLINDROCLADIUM Morgan. Conidiophores upright, hyaline, regularly and repeatedly dichotomously or trichotomously branched, each terminating in two or three phialides; typically with a slender elongated sterile branch terminating in a globose or ellipsoid swelling; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 2- or several-celled, cylindrical, borne singly but held together in bundles by mucilage; parasitic on roots or saprophytic; small, yellow-brown sclerotia produced. Illustration: C. scoparium; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores; (B) conidiophore with elongated branch and terminal vesicle; (C) conidia. References (37, 39, 302). DIPLOSPORIL'M I.ink. Conidiophores erect, well developed, septate, irregularly branched, ultimate branches (phialides) tapering upward, hyaline; conidia (phialospores) produced successively at the apex and held together in loose clusters, not catenulate, 2-celled, hyaline; saprophytic. Illustration: D. flavum; redrawn from Tubaki (450). (A) conidiophores; (B) phialides; (C) conidia. HELISCUS Sacc. Submerged, aquatic, with branched, septate mycelium; conidiophores simple or sparingly branched, bearing one or more phialides; submerged conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 2-celled, broader at the apex, usually bearing 3 short, apical protuberances; saprophytic, aquatic. Illustration: H. aquaticus; redrawn from Ranzoni (346). RHYNCHOSPORIUM Heinscn. Mycelium subcuticular at first, later developing into a superficial, loose stroma; conidiophores reduced to cells of stroma; conidia (blastospores) hyaline. 2-celled, frequently unequal, and often with a short lateral beak on the apical cell; parasitic, producing leaf spots, chiefly on grasses. Illustration: R. secalis; original, from leaf spot on rye. (A) hyphae from stroma showing conidiogenous cells; (B) conidia. Reference (49). TRICHOTHECIlfM Link. Conidiophores long, slender, simple, septate, bearing conidia apically. singly, or successively by slight growth of conidiophore apex, held together in groups or chains, not end to end; conidia (meristem arthrospores may appear to form as blastospores) hyaline or brightly colored, 2-celled, ovoid or ellipsoid; saprophytic or weakly parasitic. Illustration: T. roseum; original, from culture. (A-D) successive development of conidia. References (227, 254).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of GENERA
1 09
CLADOBOTRYUM
CYIINDROCLADIUM
HEUSCUS
DIPLOSPORIUM
0 <xp d?
c
RHYNCHOSPORIUM
TRICHOTHECIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
110
ARTHROBOTRYS Corda. Conidiophores long, slender, simple, septate, hyaline, slightly enlarged at the apex and spore-bearing regions. New growing points formed sympodially or irregularly, conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, unequally 2-ceIled, ovate-oblong, borne on peglike denticles in loose dry clusters; saprophytic or parasitic on nematodes. Compare with Candelabrella, Illustration: A. oligospore; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores bearing conidia and showing prominent denticles; (B) conidia. References (61,106, 159). CANDELABRELLA Rifai and Cooke. Mycelium hyaline; conidiophores slender, erect, straight, hyaline, tall, terminated by a small candelabrumlike branching system of the conidiophore apex; conidia (sympodulospores) apical and on new sympodial or irregular branches, hyaline, unequally 2-celled, obpyriform to ellipsoid; saprophytic or destroying nematodes. Species formerly placed in Arthroboirys. Illustration: C. musiformis (Arthrobotrys musiformis); original, from culture. (A) conidiophores bearing conidia on elongated denticles; (B) conidia. Reference (355). '^x\ DACTYLARIA Sacc. Conidiophores more or less erect, simple, short, sometimes little differentiated ^ L ,i\ frm t n e mycelium, hyaline, septate, denticulate and sometimes enlarged at the apex; conidia (sympodulo( spores) hyaline, 2- to several-celled, cylindrical or clavate, sometimes longer and single at apex; \ saprophytic or parasitic on nematodes. See Bhatt and Kendrick (31) for synonymy of Diphrhinotrichum. Illustration: Dactylaria sp.; original, from fresh material on decaying wood. (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. References (61, [04). DIDYMARIA Corda. Conidiophores arising from leaf surface in loose groups, simple; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 2-celled, oblong, borne singly; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: D, conferta; original, from herbarium material. (A) conidiophores on surface of leaf; (B) group of conidiophores; (C) conidia. RAMULARIA Sacc. Conidiophores growing out through stomata of host leaves, clustered, short, hyaline or subhyaline, frequently curved or bent, with prominent conidial scars; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, cylindrical, typically 2-celled, but many 1-celled and a few 3-celled, frequently in short chains; parasitic on plants, causing leaf spots, Illustration: R. lulasnea (Mkosphaereliafragahae); original, from herbarium material on strawberry leaf. (A) habit on leaflet; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia. GENICULARIA Rifai and Cooke. Conidiophores erect or ascending, hyaline, branching sympodially; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, unequally 2-celled, with large rounded apical cell, obovoid, formed singly on new extended sympodial branches from below previous conidium; trapping and destroying nematodes or saprophytic. Illustration: G. cystospora; redrawn from Rifai and Cooke (355).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRAFIONS OF GENERA 111
ARTHROBOTRYS
CANDELABRELLA
DIDYMARIA
RAMULARIA
GENICULARIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
11 2
DESCRIPTIONS AND IUUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
PASSALORA Fr. Mycelium internal; conidiophorcs emerging in tufts from stroma, simple or sparingly branched, dark; conidia (sympodulospores) subhyalinc to dark, 2-celled, formed terminally and at apex of sympodial new growing tips; parasitic. Illustration: P. bacilligera. (A) cluster of conidiophores arising from stroma; (C) conidiophores; (CJ conidia; redrawn from Hughes (205). Reference (78).
ASPERISPORIL'M Maubl. Stroma subepidermal in the host, bursting through the epidermis, bearing short, crowded conidiophores; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, rough, 2-celled, produced at apex of sympodially formed new growing tips of conidiophorcs; parasitic. Illustration: A. caricae. (A) section through stroma and cluster of conidiophores; (B) conidia; redrawn from Hughes (205).
SCOLECOTRICHUM Kunzeex Fr. Conidiophores in loose clusters, pigmented, simple, bearing conidia terminally on sympodial new growing points; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, 2-celled, ovoid or oblong, often pointed; parasitic. Similar to and may belong to Cercosporidium. Illustration: S. graminis: original, from herbarium material on leaves of Dactylis. (A) habit of conidiophores on leaf; (B, C) clusters of conidiophores; (D) conidia.
FUSICLADIUM Bon. Mycelium as in Spihcaea; conidiophores dark, short, denticulate with conidial scars, young conidia produced successively at apex of sympodial new growing lips; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, ellipsoid to obpyriform, typically 2-celled, although l-cclled may predominate; parasitic on higher plants. Compare with Spihcaea. Some species are conidial states of Venturia. Illustration: F. pirina (conidial state of Venturia pirina); original, from herbarium material on pear leaf. (A) conidiophores bearing conidia; (B) conidia. References (78, 205).
POLYTHRINCIUM Kunze and Schum. Conidiophores in dense clusters on host leaves, dark, simple, with enlarged basal cell, regularly bent, giving a wavy appearance caused by successive sympodial growth at apex; conidial scars prominent, on same side of conidiophore; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, unequally 2-celled, the apical cell broader and rounded, easily deciduous; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: P. trijolii (conidial state of Cymadothea thfolia); original, from fresh material on white clover leaf. (A) cluster of conidiophores; (B) wavy conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. References (17,199, 475).
CORDANA Preuss. Mycelium dark; conidiophores dark, upright, slender, simple, bearing a small, compact head of conidia; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, 2-celled, ovoid to broadly ellipsoid; saprophytic. Illustration: C pauciseptata; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore with cluster of conidia; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia; (D) enlarged apex of conidiophore showing conidial attachment. References (17, 209).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
POLYTHRINCIUM
CORDANA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
114 DFSCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
SCOIXCOBASID1UM Abbott. Conidiophores (or conidiogenous cells) arising from aerial hyphae or ropes of hyphae, single or in groups, relatively short, sometimes 1-cellcd, irregular in shape; conidia (sympodulospores) olive-brown, I-celled or frequently 2- to 4-celled, ovoid, cylindrical or Y-shaped, produced on prominent denticles at apex of conidiogenous cells; saprophytic. Illustration: Scolecobasidium sp.; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) mycelium and conidiophores; (B) conidiophores with prominent denticles; (C) conidia. References (14, 17). DIPLOCOCCIUM Grove. Mycelium partly superficial; conidiophores erect or ascending, frequently branched, brown; conidia (porospores) mostly 2-celled, short, brown, usually formed in acropetalous chains, developing through minute pores in wall or upper portion of conidiophores; differs from Spadkoides in branched conidiophores and catenulate conidia; saprophytic on wood or bark. Illustration: D. spicatum; redrawn from Ellis (119). (A) branched conidiophore; (B) conidiophores bearing catenulate conidia; (C) conidium. SPADICOIDES Hughes. Conidiophores mostly simple, erect, determinate, brown; conidia (porospores) develop singly through pores in apical or lateral wall or conidiophore, dark, ovoid to ellipsoid I- to 4-celled in different species; saprophytic on decayed wood. Differs from Diplococcium in the simple conidiophores and conidia not in chains. Illustration: (F-F) S. ohovata; (A-D) S. bina; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) conidiophores with attached conidia; (B) portion of simple conidiophore; (C) enlarged apex of conidiophore showing conidial attachment; (D) conidia. Reference (119). MtJROGENEl-LA Goos and Morris. Conidiophores variable in length or absent; conidia (alcuriospores) single, terminal, dark, several-celled, ovoid to elliptical; conidia are murogenous (originating as expansions of the entire conidiophore tip); saprophytic in soil. Illustration: M. terricola; redrawn from Goos and Morris (153). (A) sessile conidia and conidia produced on short conidiophores; (B) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MUROGENELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 16
CEPHALIOPHORA Thaxt. Conidiophore short, with enlarged, rounded apical cell, bearing simultaneously a dense cluster of conidia on all sides; conidia (botryoblastospores) lightly pigmented, usually 4or more-celled, obovoid to elongate, narrower at the base; saprophytic on dung or decaying plant materials. Illustration: C. tropica; redrawn from Thaxter (440). Reference (477). PSEUDOTORULA Subram. Conidiophores dark, simple, torulose, with apical rounded conidiogenous cell; conidia of two types, brown, 4-celled (blastospores) in acropetalous chains, and long, slender, several-celled scolecospores. Illustration: P. heterospora; redrawn from Subramanian (407). (A) conidiophore and phragmospores; (B) both types of conidia; (C) scolecospore. DWAYABEEJA Subram. Much like Pseudoforula but differing in that conidia (blastospores) are not in chains. Illustration: D. sundara; redrawn from Subramanian (407). (A) conidiophore; (B) phragmospores; (C) scolecospores. MICROSPORUM Gruby. Conidiophores slender, simple, determinate, bearing apically a single, large macroconidium; macroconidia (aleuriospores) fusoid. several-eel led, hyaline; microconidia also formed on sides of hyphae; causing dermatomycoses of animals and man. Illustration: M. gypseum; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) development and separation of conidium. References (59, 129). TRICHOPHYTON Malmsten. Microconidia hyaline, small, l-celled, on sides of hyphae; macroconidia (aleuriospores) large, several-celled, thin-walled, hyaline, clavate with rounded apex; causing dermatomycoses in man. Illustration: T. violaceum. (A) microconidia; (B) macroconidia; redrawn from Georg (143). References (129,142, 143, 144). FUSOMA Corda. Conidiophores short, simple, determinate; conidia (aleuriospores) hyaline, severalcelled, fusoid to cylindrical; parasitic on higher plants. Illustration: F. rubricosa; original, from herbarium material of leaves of Catamagrostis scabra. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia. CAMPOSPORIUM Harkn. Conidiophores straight or bent, brown; conidia (aleuriospores) apical, single, cylindrical with rounded ends, pale brown, several-celled, apical cell frequently with I to 3 hyaline, filiform appendages. Illustration: C. antennatum; redrawn from Tubaki (450). (A-C) conidiophores and conidia. References (450, 194, 347). SEPTONEMA Corda. Conidiophores dark, branched; conidia (blastospores) subhyaline to dark brown, typically 3- to several-celled; cylindrical to fusoid, catenulate in acropetal simple chains; saprophytic or parasitic. Illustration: S. secedens; redrawn from Hughes (196). (A, B) conidiophores with catenulate conidia. References {175, 202).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND II LUSTRATIONS OF GLNERA
117
CEPHALIOPHORA PSEUDOTORULA
DWAYABEEJA
FUSOMA
CAMPOSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
118
CERATOPHORUM Sacc. Conidiophores dark, short, simple, determinate; conidia (aleuriospores or blastosporcs) dark, 3- to several-celled, single, fusoid to cylindrical, apical cell hyaline, often curved or hooked; saprophytic. Illustration: C. uncinalum; original, drawn from herbarium material on Hicora leaves. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia. References (17, 184). CLASTEROSPORIUM Schw. Mycelium superficial, bearing hyphopodia; conidiophores dark, short, determinate; conidia (aleuriospores) dark, 3- to several-celled, ovoid to long cylindrical, somewhat narrower at the ends; parasitic on higher plants. Illustration: C. caricinum; original, from herbarium material on leave of Carex. (A, B) conidiophores, hyphopodia and conidia. References (113, 114). MONACROSPORIUM Subr. Conidiophores tall, usually simple, hyaline, slender, determinate; conidia (aleuriospores) single, apical, hyaline, several-celled, usually fusoid with one cell (near middle) larger; compare with Dacty/ella; saprophytic in soil or wood or parasitic on nematodes. Illustration: Monacrosporium sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and conidium; (B-D) stages of development of a conidium; (E) conidium. Reference (60). PHRACiMOCEPHALA Mason and Hughes. Conidiophores pigmented, simple, single, fascicled or in synnemata; conidia (aleuriospores) dark, more than 3-celled, ovoid to pyriform, cells unequally colored; saprophytic on dead plant material. Compare with Endophragmia. Illustration: P. cookei; redrawn from Mason and Hughes (283). (A) clustered conidiophores with attached conidia; (B) conidia. ENDOPHRAGMIA Duvernoy and Maire. Conidiophores simple, brown, mostly single, often proliferating pcrcurrently; conidia (aleuriospores) 2- to several-celled, brown to black, single, apical; saprophytic. Illustration: E. mirabilis; original, from decayed wood. (A) conidiophore bearing apical conidia; (B) apex of conidiophores showing annellations; (C) conidia; (D) E. taxi. References (4, 114, 117). ANNEEEOPHORA Hughes. Conidiophores brown, simple, slender, elongating by successive proliferations through the conidial scars; conidia (anncllospores) brown, mostly 3- to several-celled, obclavate to fusoid; mycelium superficial on leaves. Illustration: A. solani; redrawn from Hughes (192). (A) conidiophores showing annellations; (B) conidia. Reference (117). DEIGHTONIEEEA Hughes. Conidiophores arising from within epidermal cells, short, upper portion distinctly annellated; conidia (anncllospores) dark, 3-celled; parasitic. Illustration: D. anmdinacea. (A) conidiophores arsing from epidermis of host; (B) conidia; redrawn from Hughes (205). Reference (17). TRICHOCEADIUM Har/. Conidiophores short or absent; conidia (aleuriospores) dark, mostly 2- to several-celled, ovoid to ellipsoid to clavate; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: T. catuulense; original. (A) sessile conidia; (B) conidiophores and conidia. References (158,200,211).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
119
TRICHOCLADIUM ANNELLOPHORA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
120
DENDRYPHIOPSIS Hughes. Conidiophores dark, stout, upright, dendritically branched, ultimate branches producing solitary apical conidia; conidia (porospores or blastospores) dark, 4- to several-celled, cylindrical, straight or slightly curved; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: D. atra; original. (A, B) from fresh material on decayed wood; (C) from pure culture isolated from decayed wood. Reference (206). STIGMINA Sacc. Conidiophores dark, rather short, simple, straight or bent, often arising in clusters from stromalike tissue and protruding through stomata of leaves, producing conidia apically and proliferating through previous spore scars, leaving annellate scars; conidia (annellospores) dark, 3- to several-celled, ovoid to ellipsoid; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: 5 " . plantani; original, from h e r b a r i u m material on leaves of Phntanus occidentalis. (A) section of leaf through clusters of conidiophores; (B) conidiophores with developing conidia; (C) conidia. References (118, 199, 304).
DICHOTOMOPHTHORA Mehrlick and Fitzpatrick. Conidiophores brown, branching, dichotomous to subdichotomous, elongated, terminally branched, 4- to 8-lobed, each lobe bearing a single conidium; conidia (porospores or blastospores) dark, ovoid to elongate-ovoid, 1- to 6-celled; parasitic on Portulaca. Illustration: / ) . portulacae; redrawn from Mehrlich and Fitzpatrick (285). (A) conidiophore; (B) enlarged portion of conidiophore and conidia; (C) conidia. SPONDYLOCLADIELLA Linder. Conidiophores dark, single or in small groups, branched; conidiogenous cells short, stubby, single or in groups; conidia (porospores or blastospores) dark, mostly 3-celled, oblong, borne singly, formed through small pores in apex of condiogenous cells; saprophytic, often on hymenomycetes. Illustration: S. botrytioides; redrawn from Linder (265). (A) conidiophores showing short, stubby sporogenous cells; (B) conidia. CORYNESPORA Gussow. Mycelium internal in leaf; conidiophores emerge through leaf epidermis, slightly or conspicuously swollen at apex, simple, single, determinate or in tufts, proliferating terminally through scar of previous conidium; conidia (porospores) terminal, single or sometimes in short chains, brown, several-celled (pseudoseptate), with a thick, colorless exospore and prominent, dark basal scar; parasitic on leaves. Compare with Helminthosporium. Illustration: C. cassiicoia; redrawn from Luttrell (273). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidium. References (119, 468). SPORIDESMIUM Link. Conidiophores simple, determinate, brown; conidia (aleuriospores) severalcelled, apical, single, brown, obclavate to long, fusoid; saprophytic or parasitic. S. sderotivorum is parasitic on sclerotia and has a secondary Selenosporella conidial state. Illustration: (A) S. tropicale; (B) S. folliculatum; redrawn from Luttrell (273); (C) S. sderotivorum, original from culture; (D) Selenosporella state. References (118, 119, 455).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Oh GLNERA
121
DICHOTOMOPHTHORA
SPONDYLOCLAD1ELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
.CLIRVULARIA Boedijn. Conidiophores brown, mostly simple, bearing conidia apically or on new i>Vsympodial growing points; conidia (porospores) dark, end cells lighter, 3- to 5-celled, more or less T .-fusiform, typically bent, with one of the central cells enlarged; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: C. lunata; original, from culture. (A-C) conidiophores and conidia; (D) conidia. References (121, 308, 309, 322, 398).
HETEROSPORIUM Klotzch. Conidiophores dark, simple, conidia (blastospores, sympodulospores) typically 3- to several-celled, cylindrical, wall often echinulate or verrucose, single or in acropetal chains; causing leaf spots or saprophytic. Compare with Caldosporium. Illustration: H. gracile; original, from herbarium material on Iris leaf. (A) clusters of conidiophores; (B) conidia. Reference (238).
CERCOSPORIDIUM Erie. Stroma present; conidiophores densely fasciculate, brown, usually simple; conidia (sympodulospores) single and apical on new sympodial growing points, clavate, cylindrical to obclavate, mostly pale brown, few- to several-celled; conidial scars conspicuous; on living leaves, causing leaf spots. Compare with Fusicladium, Passalora and Cercospora. Illustration: C. personatum; redrawn from Deighton (78). (A) section through stroma; (B) apex of conidiophores; (C) conidia.
DRECHSLERA Ito. Conidiophores brown, mostly simple, producing conidia singly at apex through small pores, continuing growth sympodially from a point below apex and then forming a second spore on new apex; conidia (porospores) dark, several-celled (phragmosporous), cylindrical, germinating from any or all cells; parasitic or saprophytic. Compare with Bipolaris. Formerly included under Helminthosporium. Illustration: (A-C) D. avenaciwn; redrawn from Luttrell (272). (A) conidiophores and conidia on leaf; (B) conidiophore showing scars; (C) germinating conidium; (D) D. maydis, conidia; (E) D. carbonum, conidia. References (96, 273, 372, 373). GONATOPHRAGMIUM Deighton. Conidiophores well developed, brown, bearing conidia on short pegs on swellings or nodules; conidia (sympodulospores) mostly 2- to 4-celled, pale brown, cylindricalclavate; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: G. mori; redrawn from Cejp and Deighton (52). (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPIIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 123
GONATOPHRAGMIU M DRECHSLERA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
HELMINTHOSPORIUM Link ex Fr. Mycelium dark, often in stubstrate; stromata often present; conidiophores single or clustered, tall, erect, brown, simple; conidia (porospores) develop laterally through pores beneath septa while apex of conidiophore is still growing, often appearing in whorls, single, subhyaline to brown, obclavate, phragmosporous, pseudoseptate, with prominent basal scar; parasitic or saprophytic. Shoemaker (372-373) restricts the genus Helminthospohum to lignicolous species and classifies grarainicolous species in Bipolaris and Drechslera, Illustration: H. velutinum (Spondylocladium atrovirons); redrawn from Luttrell (273). (A) conidiophores and conidia arising from stroma; (B) enlarged apex of conidiophore showing pores; (C) conidiophores and conidia from culture; (D) H. solani, original from culture. References (96, 272, 273, 372, 373, 375). CACUMISPORIUM Preuss. Conidiophores dark, upright, septate, simple, bearing an apical head of conidia; conidia (sympodulospores or phialospores) dark, at first hyaline, mostly 4-celled, oblong to fusoid, straight or curved, produced on successively new growing points on hyaline projection of the conidiophore and aggregating in moist head; saprophytic. Conidiophorc apex has been interpreted by some as a phialide. Illustration: Cacumisporium sp.; original, from decayed wood. (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) conidial attachment at apex of conidiophore; (C) enlarged apex of conidiophore with conidia; (D) conidia. References (151, 206). DENDRYPHION Wall. Conidiophores erect, dark, branched variously on upper portion, spore scars prominent; conidia (porospores) several-celled (phragmosporous), dark, catenulate, produced apically through pores in the conidiophores and new sympodial growing points; saprophytic on wood. See Barron (17) and Reisinger (353) for opinions on the genus Dendryphiella. Illustration: Dendryphion sp.; original, from culture obtained from decayed wood. (A) conidia and conidiophores; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
125
HELMINTHOSPORIUM
CACUMISPORIUM
DENDRYPHION
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 26
BIPOLARIS Schoemaker. Conidiophores brown, mostly simple, producing conidia through apical pore, resuming growth sympodially and forming conidia on successive new tips; conidia (porospores) brown, several-celled (phragmosporous), elliptical, straight or curved, germinating by one germ tube at each end; parasitic, chiefly on grasses; perfect stage, where known, Cochliobolus. Formerly included under Helminthosporium. Ellis (124) places this genus in Drechslera. Illustration: B. sorokinianum (B. sativum); (A-C) redrawn from Luttrell (272). (A) conidiophore and conidia on leaf; (B) conidiophore showing scars; (C) germinating conidium; (D) original, from pure culture. References (96, 273, 372). PLEUROPHRAGMIUM Constantin. Stroma sometimes present; conidiophores single or in groups, brown, pale near apex, septate, new growth sympodial; conidia (sympodulospores) pale brown, mostly 3-to 5-celled, phragmosporous, broadly ellipsoid to subclavate with rounded apex; conidial scars, mostly lateral, flat or on raised circles (described by Ellis as borne on denticles); saprophytic on wood or herbaceous stems. Compare with Spiropes. Illustration: Pleurophragmium sp.; original, fresh material on decayed wood. (A) habit of conidiophores; (B) simple conidiophore; (C) enlarged apex of conidiophores showing numerous scars; (D) conidia. Reference (123). PLEUROTHECIUM Hohnel. Conidiophores single or in loose clusters, simple, dark, narrower and paler at apex; new growing points produced sympodially and producing new conidia; fertile area recurved to produce a curved cyme; conidia (sympodulospores) in moist heads, hyaline, typically 4-celled, ellipsoid or slightly curved. Illustration: P. recurvaium; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) habit of conidiophores showing slime heads; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) cluster of conidia on conidiophore. Reference (17, 152).
BRACHYSPORIUM Sacc. Conidiophores brown, pale at apex, erect, solitary or in small clusters, simple, septate; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, ovoid to obovoid, unequally 3- to 4-celled, basal cell and apical cell may be nonpigmented, attached to apical cell of conidiophore by a slender pedicel, part of which remains attached to the fallen conidium; saprophytic on wood and bark. Illustration: (A, B) B. nigrum; (C, D) B. obovatum; all original, from fresh material on decaying wood. References (17, 121, 194).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
m
PLEUROPHRAGMIUM
PLEUROTHECIUM
BRACHYSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
128 DESCRIPTIONS A N D I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GFNERA
NAKATAEA Hara. (VAKRABEEJA Subram.) Conidiophores simple, single, cylindrical, new growth sympodial, with prominent denticulate conidial scars near apex; conidia (sympodulospores) 3- to fewcelled, phragmosporous, fusoid, straight to curved, light brown; parasitic on plants. Illustration: V. sigmoidea; redrawn from Luttrell (272). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) apex of conidiophore. DACTYLELLA Grove. Conidiophores tall, slender, simple, hyaline; conidia (sympodulospores, aleuriospores) hyaline, several-celled, ellipsoid, fusoid to cylindrical, borne singly at apex or in a loose cluster on prominent denticles; saprophytic or parasitic on nematodes. Illustration: (A-C) D. brochopaga; original, from culture. (A-C) conidiophores and conidia; (D) conidiophore and conidium of D. lepiospora; original, from material on decaying wood. References (60, 61). PYRICULARIA Sacc. Conidiophores long, slender, mostly simple; conidia (sympodulospores) obpyriform to nearly ellipsoid, attached at the broader end; hyaline, 2- to 3-celled, parasitic, chiefly on grasses. Illustration: P. grisea; original, from leaf of Setaria. PLEIOCHAETA Hughes. Conidiophores simple; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, mostly 5-celled, cylindrical to ellipsoid, sometimes slightly curved, the middle cell thick-walled and darker, bearing 1 to 4 long, slender, apical, hyaline appendages; parasitic, on plants. Illustration: P. setosa; redrawn from DuPleissis and Truter (107). (A, B) conidiophores and appendaged conidia. SEPTOCYLINDRIUM Bon. Conidiophores hyaline, simple; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, 2- to several-celled; oblong to cylindrical, catenulate; parasitic on higher plants or saprophytic. Compare with Ramularia. Illustration: S. aromaticum; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Acorum calamus. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia. CERCOSPORELLA Sac. Conidiophores hyaline, slender; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline, severalcelled, oblong, cylindrical to filiform, straight or curved; parasitic on higher plants; compare with Cercospora. Illustration: C persica; original, from herbarium material on peach leaf. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (81). .SPERMOSPORA Sprague. Conidiophores hyaline or nearly so, short, grouped; conidia (sympodulof^jspores) hyaline, with distal cell elongated, attenuated, mostly 3- to 4-celled; parasitic on grasses, causing " leaf spots. Compare with Cercospora. Illustration: A. avenae; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidia. References (79, 385, 386). CERCOSPORA Frej^Xonidiophores dark, simple, arising in clusters and bursting out of leaf tissue, , bearing conidia successively on new growing tips; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline or gray, long (^^cylindrical to filiform, several-celled; parasitic on higher plants, commonly causing leaf spots. Illustration: C. apii; original, from prepared slide of section through leaf. (A) cluster of conidiophores; (B) conidia; (C) C. zea-niaydis conidia. References (55, 81, 82, 83, 84).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
129
W4
PYR1CULARIA DACTUEUA NAKATAEA
fl
SEPTOCYLINDRIUM PIEIOCHAETA
CERCOSPORELLA
I
V
CERCOSPORA SPERMOSPORA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
130
.,
FUSARIUM Link. Mycelium extensive and cotton-like in culture, often with some tinge of pink, purple, or yellow in the mycelium on medium; conidiophores variable, slender, and simple, or stout, short, branched irregularly or bearing a whorl of phialides, single or grouped into sporodochia; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, variable, principally of two kinds, often held in small moist heads; macroconidia several-celled, slightly curved or bent at the pointed ends, typically canoe-shaped; microconidia I-celled, ovoid or oblong, borne singly or in chains; some conidia intermediate, 2- or 3-celled, oblong or slightly curved; parasitic on higher plants or saprophytic on decaying plant material. A large and variable genus, sometimes placed in the Tuberculariaceac because some species produce sporodochia. Thick-walled chlamydospores common in some species. Illustration: Fusarium spp.; original, from culture. (A) hyphae with simple conidiophores; (B) variable conidiophores; (C) a loose sporodochium formed by branched conidiophores; (D) conidia. References (370, 444). DACTYLIUM Nees. Conidiophores slender, branched verticillately; conidia (phialospores or sympoduiospores) borne singly or in small clusters on slightly elongating branches, hyaline 3- to 4-celled; saprophytic or parasitic on fleshy fungi; conidial states of Hypomyces. See Barron (17) for a discussion of Dactylium. Compare with Cladobotryum. Illustration: D. dendroides; original from culture. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia enlarged. Reference (258). CYL1NDROCARPON Wollen. Conidiophores erect, slender, hyaline, simple or branched irregularly, ''terminating in slender phialides, phialides usually with conspicuous collarette; conidia (phialospores) mostly 3- to 4-celled but often variable, hyaline, cylindrical, produced successively and aggregating in .j-small fascicles; saprophytic or parasitic. Imperfect states of Necfria. Resembling Fusarium but larger, conidia typically not curved. Illustration: Cylindrocarpon sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores with attached conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (38). FUSARIELLA Sacc. Conidiophores pigmented, typically branched, bearing conidia terminally on slender phialides; conidia (phialospores) dark, 3- to 4-celled, cylindrical, curved, borne in basipetal chains, not end to end, each conidium attached at the side of the conidium below; saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: F. obstipa; drawn from photographs by Pollack (336). (A) conidiophore and developing conidia; (B) chain of conidia. Reference (182). SPOROSCHISMA Berk, and Dr. Conidiophores dark, upright, stout, simple, bearing conidia endogenously; conidia (phialospores) dark, 3- to 4-celled, cylindrical, sometimes in chains; saprophytic on decaying vegetation. Illustration: S. mirabile; original, from culture. Mycelium, conidiophores, and endoconidia. References ((25, 173, 183).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRtPTlONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GtNERA
131
[1 - G % <J *>
FUSARIUM
<CED
c
CYLINDROCARPON
<HD
DACTYLIUM
SPOROSCHISMA
FUSARIEUA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 32
ALTERNARIA Nees. Conidiophores dark, mostly simple; determinate or sympodial, rather short or elongate; conidia (porospores) dark, typically with both cross and longitudinal septa; variously shaped, obclavate to elliptical or ovoid, frequently borne acropetally in apical simple or branched appendage; parasitic or saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: (A-D) Alternaria sp.; (E) A. solani; both original, from culture. (A) conidiophore and chain of conidia; (B) simple conidiophore showing apical pore; (C) proliferating conidium; (D) conidia. References (239, 306, 376). STEMPHYL1UM Wallr. Conidiophores dark, mostly simple with darker terminal swelling, short to " long, bearing a single, terminal conidium, or successive conidia on new growing tips, conidiophore often /(? proliferating through ofd conidial scar; conidia (porospofes) dark, with cross and longitudinal septa, variable in shape, frequently globose, broadly ellipsoid, or ovoid, often constricted at major septum; parasitic or saprophytic. * Illustration: 5 " . sarcinaeforme; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) c o n i d i o p h o r e ; (C) conidiophore proliferating through conidial scar. References (376, 377). ULOCLADIUM Preuss. Conidiophores indeterminate, sympodial, dark, mostly simple, septate; conidia (porospores) dark, dictyosporous, usually without constriction at major septum, borne singly, apical, and on new sympodial growing points; saprophytic. Compare with Alternaria and Stemphylium. Illustration: IJlocladiwn sp.; original, from culture. (A) conidiophores showing development of conidia; (B) conidiophore showing conidial scars; (C) conidia. Reference (376). PITHOMYCES Berkeley and Broome. Conidiophores short, simple, peglike, arising laterally from mycelium, subhyalinc; conidia (aleuriospores) single, apical, mostly several-celled (dictyosporous), mostly broadly elliptical, oblong to pyriform or irregular, commonly vcrrucose or echinulate, usually detached by fracture of wall of conidiophore; saprophytic. Illustration: P. chartarum; original, from culture. (A) mycelium, short conidiophores, and conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (17). ACROSPEIRA Berk, and Br. Conidiophores short, simple, dark, variable, conidia (aleuriospores) apical, single, mostly 3- or 4-celled, cells arranged irregularly, apical cell enlarged, darker; hyaline phialides present, borne singly and producing chains of small, ovoid, hyaline conidia (phialospores). Illustration: A. mirabilis; redrawn from Wiltshire (473). (A) dark dictyospores; (B) phialides and chains of small conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS-A'ND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 1 33
STEMPHYUUM
ALTERNARIA
PITHOMYCES
ULOCLADIUM
ACR05PEIRA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
J 34 DESCRIPTIONS AND MUSI RATIONS Oh GENERA
DICTY0ARTHR1NRIM Hughes. Conidiophores much like Arthrinium (meristematic at base), simple, crowded, straight or curved, subhyaline, with thick, dark septa; conidia (mcristem blastospores) 4-celled; cross-shaped, dark brown, apical and lateral on conidiophore; saprophytic. Illustration: D. quadralum; redrawn from Subramanian (396). (A) conidiophore and conidia; (B) conidia. Reference (198). CONIOSPORIl'M Link. (= SIRODESM1UM deNot) Conidiophores dark, densely clustered, arising from a stroma, bearing terminal chains of conidia; conidia (meristem arthrospores) dark, elongate, septate, sometimes with longitudinal walls, borne in single chains, developing basipetally; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: C. granulosum; original, from herbarium material on decaying wood. (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) habit on wood; (C) chain of conidia. References (204). DACTYLOSPORIUM Harz. Conidiophores dark, simple, paler at the tip, bearing conidia successively on new growing tips; conidia (sympodulospores) brown to subhyaline, ovoid, sometimes inequilateral, with cross and longitudinal or oblique septa; saprophytic. Illustration: D. marcopus; redrawn from Hughes (203). BERKLEASMIUM Zobel. Conidiophores clustered forming a loose sporodochium, dark, short, simple, each bearing a terminal conidium; conidia (aleuriospores) dark, large, containing many cells irregularly arranged (dictysporous), oblong to obovoid; saprophytic on decaying wood. Illustration: B. conkinnum; original, from herbarium material on decayed wood. Reference (293). SIROSPORIUM Bubak and Serebianikov. Mycelium immersed in leaves or superficial; stroma may be present; conidiophores arising from hyphae or cells of stroma, simple or branched, brown, each bearing I to several conidial scars; conidia (sympodulospores) apical, single or successively on new growing tips that develop to side of previous conidium, subhyaline to brown, phragmosporous or dictyosporous, obovate to cylindrical, straight or flexuous; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: S. antenniforme; redrawn from Ellis (118). (A) conidiophore and comdia; (B) mycelium and conidiophore; (C) conidia. STIGMELLA Lev. Conidiophores simple, short, upright, composed of several cells or reduced to a peg; conidia (aleuriospores) dictyosporous, dark, single, apical, globose, elliptical, or cylindrical to obovoid, cells irregular in shape. Illustration: S. crataegi; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Crataegus. (A, B) conidiophores and conidia in section of leaf; (C) conidia. References (113, 199).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OP GENERA 135
DICTYOARTHRINIUM CONIOSPORIUM
DACTYLOSPORIUM
BERKLEASMIUM
SIROSPORIUM
STIGMELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
136 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GFNERA
HELICOSPORIUM Nees. Conidiophores tall, slender, brown, septate, simple or branched, bearing conidia apically or laterally; conidia (sympodulosporcs) hyaline to pigmented, septate, coiled; saprophytic on decaying plant material. Illustration: Ilelicosporium sp.; original, from culture. Mycelium, conidiophores, and conidia. References (30,289,290,453). HFXICOMA Corda. Conidiophores dark, upright, rather stout, septate, mostly simple; conidia (sympodulospores) hyaline or dark, septate, rather tightly curled; saprophytic on wood and bark. Illustration: H. muileri; original, from herbarium material on maple wood, (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. References (30, 289, 290, 453).
HELICOMIINA Olive. Conidiophores dark, slender, elongate, simple or branched, multiseptate; conidia (sympodulospores) dark, typically curved or coiled but with some straight conidia, septate, produced terminally and laterally; parasitic on higher plants. The genus differs from Helicoma in being parasitic and in producing a large number of straight conidia in addition to curved or coiled one. Illustration: //. caperoniae; redrawn from Olive (316). (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. HELICOON Morgan. Conidiophores long, slender, simple or branched, hyaline or dark; bearing conidia terminally or laterally; conidia (biastospores or sympodulospores) hyaline or dark, coiled to form an ovoid or ellipsoid conidium, borne singly; saprophytic on decaying wood. Illustration: (A) H. auratum; redrawn from Linder (264); (B) H, thaxieri; redrawn from Linder (265). Reference (289). XENOSPORIUM Pen/ig. and Sacc. Conidiophores dark, comparatively short and stout, simple or branched, septate; conidia (aleuriospores) dark, tightly coiled, apical, having both transverse and longitudinal septa; saprophytic on decaying plant material. Illustration: X. berke/eyl; redrawn from Linder (264). Mycelium, conidiophores, and conidia. References (85, 290). HELICODENDRON Peyron. Conidiophores hyaline, slender, branched, septate, bearing conidia terminally; conidia (biastospores) subhyaline to brown, coiled to form a large ovoid or ellipsoid spore, smaller, younger spores formed on the sides of the other spores; saprophytic on decaying plant material. Illustration: H. gigantium; redrawn from Glen-Bott (146). Mycelium, conidiophores, and conidia. References (147, 263). HELICOMYCES Link. Conidiophores hyaline, mostly simple, variable in length; conidia (symposulospores) hyaline or subhyaline, septate, conidial filaments thin, hygroscopic, tightly coiled in one plane; saprophytic on decaying wood. Illustration: (A) H. scandens; (B) H. roseus; redrawn from Linder (263). References (221, 289).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
137
XENOSPORIUM
HELICODENDRON HELICOMYCES
FREEDOM PALESTINE
138
FLAGELLOSPORA Ingold. Conidiophores long, slender, septate, branched above, ending in phialides that bear single conidia; conidia (phialospores) hyaline, 1- to several-celled, fiagelliform, slender, curved; saprophytic on submerged decaying leaves. Illustration: F penicillioides; redrawn from Ingold (225). (A) portion of conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidia. TRISCELOPHORUS Ingold. Submerged, aquatic, with branched, septate mycelium; conidiophores simple, slender; conidia single, apical, branched, consisting of (1) an elongated main axis continuous with the conidiophore and (2) elongated branches forming a whorl of 3 slender divergent branches arising from the lower part of the main axis, hyaline; saprophytic on decayng leaves in water. Illustration: T. monosporus; redrawn from Tubaki (449). References (224, 327, 328). LUNULOSPORA Ingold. Conidiophores long, slender, hyaline, branched near the apex, the branches bearing single conidia apically; conidia (blastospores) hyaline, 1-celled, elongate to filiform, bent, typically lunate; saprophytic on submerged leaves. Illustration: L. curvula; redrawn from Ingold (223). (A) conidiophores and conidia; (B) conidia. References (327, 346). LEMONNIERA DeWild. Conidiophores hyaline, slender, branched, ultimate branches bearing a few phialides; conidia apical, hyaline, ultimately septate, with 4 slender, widely divergent arms; saprophytic on submerged, decaying leaves. Illustration: L. aquatica; redrawn from Ingold (223). References (228, 346). VARICOSPORIUM Kegel. No sharp distinction between conidiophores and conidia; conidiophores simple or sparingly branched near the apex, bearing conidia apically; conidium consisting of a main elongated axis with 2 or 3 laterals on one side; each lateral is septate and branched again, hyaline; saprophytic, aquatic or in soil. Illustration: V. elodeae; redrawn from Ingold (223). Reference (449).
TRICLADIUM Ingold. Conidiophores hyaline, long, slender, branched; conidia single, apical, hyaline, several-celled, curved, cylindrical, branched, the two branches usually arising from adjacent cells; saprophytic on submerged decaying leaves. Illustration: T. splendens; redrawn from Ingold (223). Reference (327). DICRANIDION Hark. Conidiophores hyaline, single or in loose masses (sporodochium-like), slender, simple or with a few branches, new growing points produced sympodially; conidia (sympodulospores) 5-celled, produced singly at apex or on new growing points on small denticles; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: D. fragile; original, from decaying wood and from culture. (A) apical portions of conidiophores and immature conidia; (B) portion of conidiophore and mature conidium. Reference (97). INGOLDIA Petersen. Submerged aquatic with septate mycelium; conidia single, apical, hyaline, septate, consisting of a curved, attenuated axis, two attenuated branches, and a single attenuated secondary branch; on submerged rotting leaves. Illustration: I. craginiformis; redrawn from Petersen (327). References (231).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND IlLUSTRATlONS OF GtNERA
139
INGOLDIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
TRIDENTARIA Preuss. Conidiophores hyaline, long, slender, simple, septate, bearing a single conidium apically; conidia hyaline, trifurcate, rarely 2- or 4-pronged, the basal cell obconidcal, septate, prongs septate, tapering upward, slightly divergent; parasitic on nematodes or on soil rhizopods, or saprophytic on decayed wood. Illustration: 77 implicans; original, from culture isolated from decayed wood. (A) conidiophores and conidia showing tightly closed prongs as seen in a dry mount; (B) conidiophores and conidium as seen in water mount; (C) two mature conidia and one very young conidium. References (100, 101). CULICIDOSPORA Petersen. Conidia single, apical, hyaline, elongate-clavate, 5-celled, subapical cell swollen and curved, with 2 straight hyphalike branches on the subapical cell and one on the apical cell; aquatic, on submerged rotting leaves. Illustration: C. gravida; redrawn'from Petersen (328). (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. ACTINOSPORA Ingold. Conidiophore hyaline, slender, septate, upper portion dichotomously branched, forming apical conidia singly; conidi hyaline, branched, the main body globose or ovoid, with 4 or 5 slender, radiating, septate branched; saprophytic on submerged twigs. Illustration: A. megalospora; redrawn from Ingold (226). TETRACHAETUM Ingold. Submerged, aquatic with septate mycelium; conidiophores simple or sparingly branched, slender; conidia single, apical, hyaline, several-celled, consisting of 4 long branches diverging from a common point, with one branch of the conidium (before liberation) continuous with the conidiophore; conidia produced under water, liberated by the breakdown of a special short separating cell. Illustration: T. elegans; redrawn from Ingold (223). Reference (346). DENDROSPORA Ingold. Submerged, aquatic with branched, septate mycelium; conidiophores simple, slender, hyaline; conidia apical, single branched, several-celled, each consisting of one main axis with several secondary and tertiary branches arising irregularly, hyaline; saprophytic, on decaying leaves in water. Illustration: D. erecta; redrawn from Tubaki (449). Reference (87). ANGUILLOSPORA Ingold. Submerged, aquatic, conidiophores hyaline, slender, simple; conidia single, apical, slender, several-celled, hyaline, separating from the conidiophore by the breakdown of a special separating cell at the apex; saprophytic. Illustration: A. longissima; redrawn from Ingold (223). References (228, 327). CLAVARIOPSIS DeWild. Conidiophore long, slender, hyaline, simple; conidia hyaline, apical, single, branched, main axis pyriform, 2-celled, the three branches from the upper cell widely divergent at angles of about 120; saprophytic on submerged decaying leaves. Illustration: C. aquatica; redrawn from Tubaki (449). Reference (223). TETRACLADIUM DeWild. Conidiophores hyaline, slender, septate, simple or branched in upper portion; conidia single, apical, hyaline, branched, the main axis narrowly clavate, finally septate, giving rise to three unequal, divergent, tapering branches; saprophytic on submerged decaying leaves. Illustration: 77 setigerum; redrawn from Tubaki (449). References (223, 346).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of GENLRA
141
TRIDENTARIA
ACTINOSPORA CULICIDOSPORA
ANGUILLOSPORA
A,
CLAVAROPSIS TETRACLADIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
142
ALATOSPORA Ingold. Submerged, aquatic, with branched, septate mycelium; conidiophore simple or branched near the apex bearing a few phialides; conidia branched, consisting of 4 arms diverging from a common point; the conidium consisting essentially of a curved main axis (forming two arms) and 2 laterals inserted about the middle of the main axis, apical on the conidiophores, hyaline; saprophytic, on submerged leaves. Illustration: A. acuminata; redrawn from Tubaki (449).
THAIXOSPORA Olive. No well developed conidiophores present; conidia develop as direct outgrowths from branching hyphae, slender, dichotomously branched, many-celled, hyaline, produced in a white mass inside the ovary of the host; systemic parasitic on higher plants (Veronica peregrina). Illustration: T. aspera. (A, B) conidia; (C, D) conidia developing from hyphae; redrawn from Olive (316).
ARTICUI.OSPORA Ingold. Conidiophores hyaline, slender, upper part sparingly branched; conidia hyaline, apical, branched, septate, slender, the three branches slender and about the same diameter as the main axis; saprophytic on decaying submerged leaves. Illustration: A. inflata; redrawn from Ingold (225). (A) conidiophores bearing conidia; (B) conidium. References (327, 346). DIPLOCLADIELLA Arnaud. Conidiophores erect, producing apical and lateral conidia; conidia (sympodulospores) consisting of two septate, slender, pointed arms radiating from the basal cells; central cells dark, apical, and basal cells hyaline; saprophytic. Illustration: D. scalaroides; redrawn from Tubaki (450). (A) conidiophores with attached conidia; (B) conidia.
TETRAPLOA Berk and Vr. Conidiophores absent; conidia borne directly on mycelium, each consisting of 3 to 4 initial cells, each of which develops into a long, attenuated, septate appendage, smooth or rough. brown; saprophytic. Illustration: (A, B) T. aristita; (C) 7' eliisii; redrawn from Ellis (112).
SPEIROPSIS Tubaki. Conidiophores erect, simple, straight, septate; conidium single, apical, consisting of a basal cell and 3 to 5 somewhat divergent arms, each arm consisting of an acropetalous chain of cells, pale brown. Illustration: S. pedatospora; redrawn from Tubaki (450). TRIPOSPERMUM Speg. Conidiophores absent; conidia (blastospores) subhyaline to dark brown, septate, staurosporous, borne directly on cells of the mycelium and consisting of a stalk and two pairs of divergent, pointed septate arms; branches not formed simultaneously; saprophytic. Illustration: T. myrti; original, from culture. (A) stages in development of a conidium from a hypha; (B) branched conidia. Reference (17, 234).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS A N D ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA 143
ALATOSPORA THALLOSPORA ARTICULOSPORA
DIPLOCLADIELLA
SPEIROPSIS
TRIPOSPERMUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
144
CERATOSPORELLA Hohn. Conidiophores dark, simple, upright, bearing single conidia successively by protrusion of conidiophore through old conidial scars; conidia (annellospores) dark, composed of 2 or more septate branches, each arising separately from a basal cell; saprophytic. Illustration: G stipitata; redrawn from Hughes (201). (A) conidiophores, some with an apical conidium; (B) conidia. Reference (190). DICTYOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores dark, slender, simple or branched, usually short, bearing a single branched conidium apically; sometimes arranged in sporodochia; conidia with several close septate branches arising from different points (branches do not all arise separately from a basal cell); saprophytic. Illustration: (A) D. toruloides; redrawn from Ellis (125); (B) Dictyosporium sp.; original from material on decayed wood. References (73, 190). TRIPOSPORIUM Corda. Conidiophores dark, simple, slender, septate, bearing a single conidium apically; conidia dark, with three septate arms radiating from a central cell; parasitic on leaves, or saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: T. elegans; redrawn from Ellis (125). (A) conidiophores; (B) conidia. HIRUDINARIA Ces. Mycelium mostly superficial, subhyalinc; conidiophores reduced to short lateral swellings on the mycelium, brown; conidia consisting of 2 (less often 3) straight or curved arms (horns) tapering upward, several-celled, dark; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: H. macrocarpa; original, from herbarium material on Crataegus leaves. (A) much reduced conidiophores emanating from the mycelium; (B) conidia. Reference (186). CERATOSPORIUM Schw. Conidiophores consisting of a short cylindrical cell; conidia consisting of 2 or 3 straight or curved arms (horns), tapering upward, several-celled, dark; saprophytic on wood or bark; near Hirudinaria morphologically. Illustration: C. fuscescens; redrawn from Hughes (186). (A) mycelium showing short conidiophores and developing conidia; (B) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
CERATOSPORELLA DICTYOSPORIUM
HIRUDINARIA
TRIPOSPORIUM
CERATOSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 4 6 DESCRIPTIONS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GtNERA
TUBERCULARIA Tode. Sporodochia rather large, light to orange in color, breaking out through the bark; conidiophores hyaline, elongate, repeatedly irregularly branched, and bearing conidia terminally; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to elongate in a dry mass on the surface of the sporodochium; mostly saprophytic on wood. Illustration: T. vulgaris (Conidial state of Neclria cinnabarina); original, from dried material on twigs. (A) sporodochia on twig; (B) section through sporodochium; (C) conidiophores and conidia. HADROTRICHUM Fr. Sporodochia cushion-shaped, dark; conidiophores dark, simple, forming a palisade and arising from a stromalike layer; conidia dark, nearly spherical, 1-celled, borne singly; parasitic on leaves; the genus is often placed in the Dematiaceac. Illustration: IT blasdalei; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Vicia. (A) sporodochia on leaf; (B) side view of sporodochium; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (205). ILLOSPORIUM Mart. Sporodochia cushionlike, light colored; conidiophores hyaline, branched, phialides bearing conidia apically; conidia hyaline, ovoid to oblong, collecting on the surface of the sporodochium in gelatinous material; parasitic or saprophytic on leaves, frequently as a secondary invader. Illustration: /. malifoliorum; original, from dried material on apple leaves. (A, B) sporodochia and masses of conidia; (C) conidiophores and conidia. STRUMELLA Fr. Sporodochia cushionlike, dark; conidiophores dark, branched; conidia dark, 1-celled, ovoid or oblong to irregular; parasitic or saprophytic on wood. Illustration: S. coryneoidea (conidial state of Urnula craterium); original, from herbarium material on oak. (A) sporodochia; (B) conidia. Reference (76). HYMENELLA Fr. Sporodochia somewhat flattened or discoid, light colored; conidiophores hyaline, sparingly to moderately branched, bearing terminal conidia; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong, collecting in a dry mass (not in slime) on sporodochium; saprophytic. Illustration: H. cerealis; original, from herbarium material on wheat straw. (A, B) sporodochia; (C) conidiophores and conidia. SPHAEROSPORIUM Schw. Sporodochia yellowish when fresh, cushion-shaped to hemispherical; conidiophores short, compact, hyaline, bearing apical chains of conidia; conidia I-celled, globose to ovoid, large with prominent scars of attachment, hyaline or yellowish; saprophytic on decayed wood. Illustration: S. lignatile; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A, B) sporodochia on wood; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. DENDRODOCHIUM Bon. Sporodochia cushionlike, light, bursting out of bark; conidiophores hyaline, verticillately branched; conidia hyaline, I-celled, ovoid to oblong, dry in mass; saprophytic on bark. Illustration: D. rubellum var. microsporum; original, from herbarium material on bark of Liriodendron. (A, B) sporodochia on bark; (C) conidiophorc; (D) conidia. MYROTHECIUM Tode. Sporodochia cushionlike, sometimes with marginal hyaline setae; conidiophores subhyaHne to colored, repeatedly branched, bearing conidia terminally; conidia subhyaline to dark, 1-celled, ovoid to elongate, dry in mass, parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: M. roridum; original, from herbarium material on leaf on Viola. (A) sporodochium; (B) conidiophores and conidia. References (133, 337, 338, 339, 454).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
147
TUBERCULARIA HADROTRICHUM <? 0
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o
c
MYROTHECIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
148
TIJBERCUIJNA Sacc. Sporodochia small, breaking out in or near rust pustule; conidiophores hyaline, simple, bearing single conidia terminally; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, globose or ovoid to irregular; parasitic on rusts. Illustration: T. persincia; original, from herbarium material on Euphorbia marginala. (A) section of sporodochia; (B, C) conidiophores and conidia; (D) aeciospore of rust. Reference (179). SPHACELIA Lev. Sporodochium stromalike, spreading; conidiophores hyaline, simple, in a compact palisade; conidia hyaline, small, ovoid, 1-celled, produced in a sugary "honey dew"; parasitic in ovary of grain; conidial state of Claviceps. Illustration: S. segetum (Claviceps purpurea); original, from prepared slide. (A) section through young sclerotium; (B) portion of A, enlarged; (C) palisade of conidiophores and conidia. VOLUTELLA Tode. Sporodochia discoid, with marginal dark setae; conidiophores usually simple, in a compact palisade; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong; parasitic "or saprophytic. Illustration: V. frucii; original, from herbarium material on apple fruit. (A) erumpent sporodochia on apple fruit; (B) conidiophores, conidia and setae. PUCCINIOPSIS Speg. Sporodochia dark, cushion-shaped; conidiophores dark, simple, in a layer, bearing conidia apically on successive new growing tips; conidia dark, typically 2-celled, ovoid to oblong; parasitic. Illustration: P. caricae; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Carica papaya. (A) sporodochia on leaf; (B) section of sporodochia; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (266). RAMULISPORA Miura. Sporodochia small, arising from substomatal stromata and pushing through stomata; conidiophores hyaline, simple or branched, short; conidia hyaline, filiform, septate, with short lateral branches, produced in gelatinous material; superficial sclerotia present; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: R. sorghi; redrawn from Olive et ai (317). Stroma, conidiophores, and conidia in stoma. EXCIPULARIA Sacc. Sporodochia superficial, scattered, dark, with setae; setae simple, dark, septate, pointed; conidiophores short, simple, subhyaline; conidia several-celled, dark brown, fusiform, apical, single; saprophytic. Illustration: K narsapurensis; redrawn from Subramanian (403). (A) sporodochium; (B) conidia; (C) seta. BACTRIDIUM Kunze. Sporodochia cushion-shaped to hemispherical, bright-colored (yellow); conidiophores long, simple or branched, hyaline; conidia apical, single, hyaline or containing yellow pigment, several-celled, very large, cylindrical to long-ellipsoid; saprophytic, on decayed wood. Illustration: B. flava; original, from fresh material on wood. (A) sporodochium; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia. EXOSPORIUM Link ex Schlech. Mycelium immersed, dark; stromata and sporodochia usually present, often well developed; conidiophores usually grouped, erect, brown; conidiophore growing out laterally or obliquely below conidial scar, splitting side wall, then forming new conidium through pore at apex of new growing point; conidia single, pseudoseptate several-celled, with prominent scar; mostly saprophytic. Illustration: E. tiliae; (A) sporodochium; (B) conidiophores and conidia; redrawn from Luttrell (272). Reference (117).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
149
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 50 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
EPICOCCUM Link. Sporodochia dark, more or less cushion-shaped, variable in si?e; conidiophores compact or loose, dark, rather short; conidia dark, several-celled (dictyosporous), globose; mostly saprophytic, or weakly parasitic. Illustration: E. nigrum; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) sporodochia on decayed wood; (B) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (366). SPEGAZZINIA Sacc. Sporodochium small, dark; conidia of two kinds: (1) 4-ccllcd, spiny, borne apically on a long slender conidiophore; (2) 4-celled, smooth, borne on a short conidiophore; saprophytic on vegetable material; both conidiophore and conidia dark. The smooth conidia and sporodochium are apparently lacking in some species. Illustration: S. ornata; redrawn from Bessey (27). Reference (74). CHEJROMYCES Berk, and Curt. Sporodochium dark; cushionlike to hysteroid; conidiophores dark, short, simple or branched; conidia dark, branched into three or more upright arms, which do not all arise from the basal cell; saprophytic on wood. Compare with Dhtyosporium. Illustration: C. stelhtus; (A) hysteroid sporodochia; drawn from photograph by Damon (71); (B) original, from herbarium material on decayed wood. BACTRODESMIl'M Cooke. Conidiophores short, clustered (sometimes into sporodochia), simple or branched, hyaline to pale brown, narrow at base, septate; conidia several-celled, pale to dark brown, apical cells often darker, apical, single; saprophytic. Illustration: Bactrodvsmium sp.; original, from fresh material on decayed wood. (A) habit on wood; (B) conidiophores bearing conidia emerging from a piece of wood; (C) apical portion of conidiophores showing conidial attachments. Reference (114). EVERHARTIA Sacc. and Ellis. Sporodochia somewhat stalked, with an expanded top, dark at the base; conidiophores slender, hyaline, branched; conidia hyaline, apical, septate, flat, curved or bent; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: E. lignatilis; (A) sporodochium; (B) conidiophores and conidia; redrawn from Thaxter (437). References (263, 289). HOBSONIA Berk. Sporodochia wartlike, light colored; conidiophores hyaline, slender; conidia hyaline, many celled, apical, coiled in a loose spiral; saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: //. mirabilis; (A) portion of sporodochium; (B) conidia redrawn from Under (263). Reference (289). CAMPTOMERIS Syd. Sporodochia irregular, dark, poorly developed or lacking in some species;. conidiophores dark, arising from special enlarged cells; conidia dark, 3- or more-celled, elongate, leaf parasites on Mimosa. Illustration: C. leuvaenae. (A) sporodochium from above; (B) vertical section through sporodochium; (C) branch of sporodochium bearing three conidiophores; (D) conidia; redrawn from Bessey (29). Reference (199). AECERITA Pers. Stroma covering scale insects; sporodochia somewhat spherical, somewhat colored, superficial; conidia spherical, 1-celled; on scale insects. Illustration: A. wehberi; original, from herbarium material on citrus leaf (A) stroma covering scale insect on citrus leaf; (B) section through stroma; (C) two sporodochia showing sterile hyphae and conidium-like cells. Reference (131).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
151
EPICOCCUM
SPEGAZZINIA CHEIROMYCES
BACTRODESMIUM
EVERHARTIA
HOBSONIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
152
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of GENERA
HETEROCEPHALUM Thaxt. Synncmata with long, cylindrical stalk composed of a central large strand surrounded by cortical hyphae, fertile head with loose interwoven sterile hyphae and long slender spinelike hyphae surrounding the spore mass; fertile branches thick, terminating in phialides; conidia hyaline, small, ovoid; saprophytic on dung or soil. Illustration: //. auranriacum; (A) young synnema; (B) upper portion of mature synnema; (C) phialides and conidia; redrawn from Thaxter (437). Reference (301). STILBUM Tode ex. Fr. Synnemata hyaline or bright-colored, stipe cylindrical, bearing a head of conidia; conidiophores slender, verticillatefy branched; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, globose to ellipsoid, enveloped in slime, saprophytic, on bark and wood. Single conidiophores resemble Veriicillium. Illustration: Stilbum sp.; original, from culture. (A) synncmata showing spores in head of slime; (B) portion of synnema; (C) single conidiophore; (D) conidia. References (17, 301). MENISPOROPSIS Hughes. Synnema composed of a central emerging seta and an external shorter cortex; phialides, pale brown; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, curved, with a short filiform appendage at each end, produced in slime; saprophytic. Illustration: M. theobromae; redrawn from Hughes (198). (A) synnema with central seta; (B) conidia. Reference (301). ENDOCATYX Berk, and Br. Synnemata expanding upward into a funnel that is filled with conidia; conidia sessile or on short branches of conidiophore, 1-celled, brown, flattened, ovoid or irregular, with a germ slit; on twigs. Illustration: E. thwaitesii; redrawn from Hughes (207). (A) synnemata; (B) conidia. Reference (301). PESOTUM Crane and Schok. Synnemata mostly erect, simple or branched near base, dark brown to black, as in Graphium; single conidiophores hyaline, slender, mostly simple; conidia (sympodulospores) 1-celled, hyaline, borne on short blunt denticles; formerly placed in genus Graphium; recently described as the conidial state of Ceratocystis ulmi. Illustration: P. ulmi (Graphium ulmi); original from culture. Reference (65). GRAPHIUM Corda. Synnemata tall, dark, bearing a rounded, terminal mass of hyaline conidia embedded in slime; simple, hyaline conidiophores also produced in abundance, bearing oblong conidia that reproduce by budding; parasitic, often as vascular pathogens causing wilts of trees, or saprophytic. Some species are imperfect states of Ceratocystis. Mode of conidial development variable in different species. Illustration: Graphium sp.; original, from culture obtained from oak wood. (A) habit of synnemata; (B) synnema and conidial head enlarged; (C) conidiophores and conidia from water mount; (D) short, hyaline conidiophores and conidia similar to Hyalodendron, Reference (301). BRIOSIA Cav. Synnemata dark, cylindrical, spore-bearing head ovoid to sub-globose; conidia dark, 1-celled, in chains, collecting in dry masses; parasitic, commonly causing blight of Azalea and Rhododendron /lower buds. Illustration: B. azalea; original, from dried material. (A) synnemata on blasted Rhododendron flower; (B) two synnemata as seen under low magnification; (C) synnema showing sporulating head; (D) conidia. Reference (301).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND IlLUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
153
GRAPHIUM
BRIOSIA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
154
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GFNERA
DIDYMOSTILBE P. Henn. Synnemata light, stalk cylindrical, with an expanded, ovoid, or rounded spore-bearing head; conidiophores hyaline, branched, short conidiophores produced abundantly in culture, conidia hyaline, 1-cellcd, usually becoming 2-celled, contained in droplets of slime, ovoid to elongate; saprophytic, principally on wood. Illustration: Didymostilbe sp.; original, from culture isolated from stump of Liriodendron lulipifera. (A) synnemata showing heads of conidia embedded in slime; (B) synnema dry; (C) synnema moist; (D) synnema showing conidiophores, from water mount; (E) branched conidiophore from synnema; (F) conidia. Reference (301). ARTHROSPORIUM Sacc. Synnema cylindrical, .subhyaline, with long spore-bearing upper portion; conidiophores diverging, bearing conidia at apex; conidia mostly 4-celled, hyaline to subhyaline, longfusoid to falcate; saprophytic. Illustration: S. compositum; original from herbarium material on dead bark. (A) synnema; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia. Reference (301). PODOSPORIUM Schw. Synnemata erect, clustered, black, cylindrical, with a long, apical fertile portion; conidiophores septate, dark, diverging; conidia several-celled, dark, apical, single. Illustration: P. rigidum; original, from herbarium material on stems of Ampelopsis quinquefolia. (A) habit on stem; (B) synnema; (C) conidiophore and conidia. Reference (301). DENDROGRAPHIUM Massec. Synnema with dark, cylindrical stipe, free ends of hyphae become conidiophores; conidiophores enlarged, radiating, simple or branched; conidia mostly 4-celled, dark, apical, in short acropetalous chains, cylindrical-ovoid; saprophytic. Illustration: D. interseminatum; redrawn from Subramanian (404). (A) synnema with conidia; (B) enlarged apex of synnema with conidiophores bearing catenulate conidia; (C) conidia. Reference (301). DORATOMYCES Corda. Hyphae dark; conidiophores dark, solitary or compacted into synnema with dense, elongated head of conidiogenous cells and chains of conidia, upper part of conidiophores branched penicillately, producing masses of dry spores apically on conidiogenous cells; conidia (annellospores) mostly dark, I-celled, ovoid; saprophytic. Similar to Trichurus but without spines. Illustration: D. stemonitis (Stysanus stemonitis); original, from culture. (A) synnema; (B) separate conidiophores; (C) conidia. Reference (301, 303). ISARIOPSIS Fres. Synnemata dark, coposed of loose conidiophores, bearing conidia at or near the tips; conidia dark or pale, 2- or more-celled, cylindrical to obclavate, often curved; parasitic. Illustration: /. griseola; original, from herbarium matrcrial on bark. (A, B) synnemata; (C) conidia. ARTHROBOTRYDM Ces. Synnemata dark, cylindrical, with a globose sporulating head; conidia hyaline to dark, 3- to 4-celled, produced in slime; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: A. stilboideum; (A) synnemata; (B) conidiophores; (C) conidia; redrawn from Subramanian (405). References (195, 301).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILIUSTRATIONS OF GhNERA
ISARIOPSIS
FREEDOM PALESTINE
1 56
ISARIA Hers. Synnemata light colored, cylindrical to clavate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid, dry, not produced in gelatinous material; saprophytic or parasitic on insects. Some species are imperfect states of Cordyceps. Illustration: /. cretacea; original, from culture. (A) synnemata in culture turning toward source of light; (B) portion of synnema; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (301). THAROOPAMA Subram. Synnemata with well-defined stalk and head, hyphae becoming free to form conidiophores; conidiophores subhyaline to brown, septate, branched 1 to 3 times, with apical hyaline fertile cells; conidia borne on small denticles, 1-celled, hyaline, globose, Illustration: T. trina; redrawn from Subramanian (403). (A) synnema; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. Reference (301). HARPOGRAPHIUM Sacc. Synnemata dark brown, the upper spore-bearing portion capitate to elongate, fibrous, the hyphae with thick stubby tips; conidia hyaline, more or less falcate, 1-celled; saprophytic on bark and wood. Illustration: //. fascicuhtum; original, from herbarium material on bark. (A, B) synnemata; (C) redrawn from Subramanian (405). Reference (301). TRICHURUS Clem, and Shear. Synnemata dark, stalk slender, conidium-bearing portion expanded; long, black, simple, or branched hairs on spines present among the conidiophores; conidia dark, I-celled, ovoid, catenulate; saprophytic. Similar to Doratomyces but with spines. Illustration: T. terrophilus; (A) synnema; (B) portions of synnema showing conidiophores and spines; (C) conidia; (D) sporogenous cells bearing conidia; original, from culture. References (301, 430). DIDYMOBOTRYUM Sacc. Synnema with tall, cylindrical stipe and subglobose head, dark; conidiophores divergent, bearing conidia apically; conidia dark at maturity, 2-celled, oblong or cylindrical; saprophytic. Illustration: D. cookei: original from herbarium material on dead stems. (A) habit of synnemata on wood; (B) synnema; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (301).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILIUSTRATIONS OF GENERA
157
ISARIA
HARPOGRAPHIUM
DIDYMOBOTRYUM TRICHURUS
FREEDOM PALESTINE
158
SCLEROGRAPHIUM Berk. Colonies covering surface of leaflets; synnemata tail, slender, black; conidiophores diverging outward, bearing near the apex small truncate denticles that bear single conidia; conidia several-celled, dictyosporous, brown, dry. Illustration: 5". aterrimum; redrawn from Hughes (197). (A) synnema; (B) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (301). ACAROCYBE Sydow emend. M.B. Ellis. Mycelium superficial, brown; conidiophores erect, brown, branched to form tall, slender synnemalike structures, each with a head; synnema forms as hyphae branch and grows downward, branches closely appressed; head composed of short, thick fertile cells on short branches; conidia 2- to 3-celled, pale brown, obclavate, straight or curved; on living leaves. Illustration: A. hansfordii; redrawn from Ellis (115, 120). (A) portions of synnemata showing unusual form of development; (B) conidiogenous cells; (C) conidia. Reference (301). SPIROPES Cifcrri. Colonies effused, hairy or velvety, pale to brown or black, often overgrowing and apparently parasitic on Meliolineae or other tropical leaf ascomycetes; conidiophores simple, single or clustered into synnemata, pale to dark brown, septate; conidiogenous area simple, sympodular, with numerous conspicuous conidial scars; conidia solitary, 2- to several-celled, variable but often obclavate, pale to dark brown. Illustration: (A) separate conidiophores of 5". capensis; (B) synnema of S. japonicus; redrawn from Ellis (123). AKANTHOMYCES Leb. Synnemata light colored, cylindrical or somewhat attenuated above, composed of compact hyphae; phialides produced as terminal cells of lateral branches in a compact layer, ellipsoid, obovoid or cylindrical, acute at the apex; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, smooth, catenulate; parasitic on insects and spiders. Illustration: A, acuieata; (A) synnemata on dead moth; (B) phialides and conidia; (A) drawn from photograph; (B) redrawn from drawing; both from Mains (278). Reference (301). INSECTICOLA Mains. Synnemata light colored, clavate, stipitate, upper fertile portion compact composed of branching hyphae terminating in phialides that form a compact layer; conidia hyaline, l-cclled, smooth, catenulate; parasitic on insects. Illustration: /. clavate; (A) synnemata on infected cricket; (B) phialides and conidia; (A) drawn from photograph, (B) redrawn from drawing; both from Mains (278). Reference (301). HYMENOSTILBE Petch. Synnemata nearly cylindrical, composed of longitudinal, closely compacted hyphae; phialides in a layer covering the synnema, produced on short, lateral branches, subcylindric to clavate, obtuse or narrowed on short sterigmata; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, smooth, borne singly; parasitic on insects or spiders. Illustration: //. verrucosa; (A) synnemata of fungus on spider; (B) conidiophore branch, phialides, and conidia; (A) drawn from photograph; (B) redrawn from drawing; both from Mains (278). Reference (301).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
159
SCLEROGRAPHIUM
ACAROCYBE
OO
AKANTHOMYCES SPIROPES
HYMENOSTILBE INSECTICOLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
GIBELLULA Cav. Synnemata light to brown, cylindrical, composed of loose, longitudinal hyphae; conidiophores brownish, terminal cell or cells hyaline, apex enlarged, bearing prophialides and phialides that compose a globose or broadly wedge-shaped head; conidia fusoid to ellipsoid, produced successively, single or in short chains; parasitic on spiders; conidial states of Torrubiella. Illustration: G. suffulta; (A) synnemata on mummified spider; (B) portion of synnema showing conidiophores and comdial heads; (C) single conidiophore and conidial head; (D) portion of conidial head; (E) phialides; (F) conidia; redrawn from Speare (381). References (277, 301). HIRSUTELLA Pat. Synnemata, simple or with numerous branches arising nearly at right angles (some species lack synnemata); phialides arising laterally on synnema or from mycelium on host, hyaline, inflated below, abruptly or gradually narrowing to long slender sterigmata; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, oblong to cylindrical, covered with slime; parasitic on insects. Illustration: H. saussurei. (A, B) portions of synnemata; (C) phialides and conidia; redrawn from Speare (382). References (135, 279, 286, 301). SYNNEMATIUM Speare. Synnemata simple or branched, brown when mature; phialides mostly at ends of branches, slender, tapering to a pointed tip; conidia hyaline to pale brown, covered with slime, several spores held together in clusters; sclerotia spherical, becoming brown with thick-walled cells; parasitic on insects. Illustration: S- jonesii; (A) synnema producing sclerotia; (B) synnema producing conidia; (C) sclerotium germinating and producing synnemata; (D) phialide and conidium; (E) cluster of conidia in mucus; (F) sclerotium; redrawn from Speare (382). Reference (279).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S OF GENERA
SYNNEMATIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
162
PHYLLOSTICTA Pers. Pycnidia dark, ostiolate, lenticular to globose, immersed in host tissue, erumpent or with a short beak piercing the epidermis; conidiophores short; conidia small, 1-celled, hyaline, ovoid to elongate; parasitic, producing spots, principally on leaves. Compare with Phoma. Illustration: P. minima; original, from dried material; (A) leaf spot and pycnidia on leaf of maple; (B) section of leaf and pycnidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. Reference (52). /PHOMA Desm. Like Phyllosticta; parasitic, on various plant parts. Both generic names, Phoma and Phyllosticta, occur commonly in the literature but morphologically they are alike. Illustration: (A-C) P. hetae, from culture; (D) P. lingam, from section of host; original; (A) side view of pycnidium; (B) top view of pycnidium; (C) conidia; (D) pycnidium and conidia. Reference (417). PLENODOMUS Preuss. Pycnidia dark, immersed, irregular in shape, opening irregularly at the apex; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, oblong; parasitic. Illustration: P. destruens; original. (A) surface view of erumpent pycnidia on sweet potato stem; (B) section through pycnidium; (C) pycnidia produced in culture; (D) conidia. SELENOPHOMA Marie. Pycnidia brown, globose, immersed, erumpent, ostiolate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, bent or curved, typically lunate or less often boomerang-shaped; parasitic, causing spots on grasses and some other hosts. Illustration: S. linicola. (A, B) pycnidia on flax stem, drawn from photographs; (C) conidia; all redrawn from Vanterpool (457). Reference (386). PYRENOCHAETA de Not. Pycnidia dark, ostiolate, nearly globose, erumpent with a few simple bristles, especially near the ostiole; conidiophores simple or rarely branched; conidia small, 1-celled, hyaline, ovoid to elongate; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: Pyrenochaeta sp.; original, from culture. (A) group of pycnidia; (B) pycnidium; (C) conidiophores and conidia. DENDROPHOMA Sacc. Like Phoma and Phyllosticta but conidiophores are branched. Illustration: D. obscurans; original, from culture. (A, B) pycnidia and exuded masses of conidia; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. APOSPHAERIA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, rounded, with a short papillate ostiole; conidiophores short, 1-celled, conidia hyaline, 1-celled, elongate to globose; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: P. pezizoides original, from herbarium material on Fraxinus wood. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pycnidia; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
163
SELENOPHOMA
i I
FREEDOM PALESTINE
164 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GtNtRA
PEYRONELLAEA Goidanich. Pycnidia brown to black, superficial to partly immersed, rounded, with conspicuous ostiole, single to crowded; conidia 1-celled, hyaline or later becoming subhyaline to dark, ovoid to ellipsoid; chlamydospores many-ceiled, dark, apical or intercalary, with irregular septations; saprophytic or parasitic. Illustration: Peyronellaea sp.; original, from culture. (A) habit of pycnidia in culture; (B) pycnidia; (C) conidia; (D) chlamydospores. References (150, 443). RHIZOSPHAERA Mang. and Har. Pycnidia superficial, somewhat globose, dark, of cellular texture, with ostiole at apex, tapering below to a stalk; conidiophores short, simple; conidia 1-cellcd, hyaline, ovoid, smooth. Illustration: R. pini; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Abies balsamea. (A, B, C) habit of pycnidia on leaf; (D) pyenidium; (E) conidiophores and conidia.
^PHOMOPSIS Sacc. Pycnidia dark, ostiolate, immersed, erumpent, nearly globose; conidiophores simple; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, of two types, ovoid to fusoid (alpha) conidia, and filiform, curved or bent (beta conidia); parasitic, causing spots on various plant parts. Imperfect state of Diaporthe. Illustration: P. (Diaporthe) vexans; original, from egg plant fruit. (A) fruit spot showing pycnidia; (B) pycnidia; (C) alpha conidia; (D) beta conidia; (E) conidiophores. References (340, 342).
ASTEROMELLA Pass, and Thum. Pycnidia dark, small, globose, ostiolate, located in a mass of radiating dark hyphac (subiculum); conidia hyaline; l-cellcd, ovoid to cylindrical; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: A. andrewsii; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Gentiana puberula. (A) leaf spots and habit of fungus; (B) lop view of pycnidia and radiating hyphae; (C) section of pyenidium; (D) conidia.
CHAETOPHOMA Cooke. Pycnidia dark, small, globose to irregular, without ostiole, in dense or loose clusters, seated on an olive-colored subiculum; conidia hyaline, I-celled, very small, ovoid; saprophytic on plant material. Illustration: C. confluens; original, from herbarium material on dead stems of Spartina. (A) habit, showing clusters of pycnidia on stem; (B) group of pycnidia, enlarged; (C) conidia.
- MACROPHOMA Berl. and Vogl. Pycnidia dark, ostiolate, globose, erumpent; conidiophores simple, short or elongate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, over 15 microns long, ovoid to broadly ellipsoid; parasitic; may be a stage in the development of Botryodiplodia or DothiorellaAncludcd here because the name commonly occurs in the literature. Illustration: Macrophoma sp.; original, from dried oak leaves. (A) leaf spot and pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidiophores and immature conidia; (D) mature conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
165
^
C PEYRONELLAEA
00 Oo
E RHIZOSPHAERA
ASTEROMEUA
MACRO PHOMA CHAETOPHOMA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
NEOTTIOSPORA Desm. Pycnidia separate, globose, membranous; dark, innate, ostiolate; conidiophores short, simple, hyaline; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, each with a single appendage; appendage mucoid, evanescent, in the form of an inverted, hollow cone with thin, hyaline walls, formed by the rupture of the outer wall, which later becomes everted and funnellike; saprophytic. Illustration: N. caricina; redrawn from Cunnell (67). (A) section of pycnidium; (B) conidiophores showing developing conidia; (C) conidia with appendages. Reference (413). CYTOSPORINA Sacc. Stroma black, cushion-shaped or tubercular; pycnidia distinct, sunken, arranged more or less in a circle in the stroma, with ostiole; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, filiform, curved or bent; saprophytic on bark. Illustration: C. ludibunda; original, from herbarium material on bark of Prunus serrulata. (A) habit of pycnidia in bark; (B) section through stroma and pycnidia; (C) conidia. SCEEROTIOPSIS Sperg. Pycnidia large, separate, smooth, without a pore, fleshy or membranous; conidiophores erect, simple, filiform; conidia 1-cclled, hyaline, ellipsoid, angular at both ends. Illustration: S. concava; original, from herbarium material on Galas aphylla leaf. (A) habit of pycnidia on leaf; (B) section of pycnidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia.
AMPELOMYCES Ces. (Cicinnoholus Ehrenb.) Pycnidia dark, rounded, clavate or fusoid, developing inside conidiophores of powdery mildew fungi (Erysiphaceae), without ostiole; conidia hyaline or subhyaline to dark, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong; parasitic on Erysiphaceae. Illustration: A. quisqualis; original, from herbarium material on Erysiphe on leaf of Grindelia. (A) hyphae and conidiophores of Erysiphe, some bearing pycnidia of the parasite; (B, C) pycnidia enlarged; (D) conidia. References (270, 356). DILOPHOSPORA Desm. Pycnidia dark, globose, ostiolate, usually stromatic, within plant tissue; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, cylindrical, with short, branched slender appendages at both ends. Illustration: D. alepecuri; original, from herbarium material on Andropogon trachycaulum. (A) habit of pycnidia in leaf; (B) pycnidia in stroma; (C) conidia with appendages. DOTHIORELLA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, globose, grouped in a well-developed stroma; stroma subcortical, breaking out; conidiophores simple, short; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to broadly ellipsoid; parasitic or saprophytic on wood. Illustration: Dothiorella sp.; original, from dried material on oak twigs. (A) habit of pycnidia and stromata; (B) section through stroma; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
I
67
NEOTTIOSPORA CYTOSPORINA
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B SCLEROTIOPSIS
AMPELOMYCES
DILOPHOSPORA
DOTHIORELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
168 DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GF.NFRA
ELEUTHEKOMYCELLA Hohn. Pycnidia single, black, smooth, soft-leathery, with ostiole; conidiophores simple or branched, septate; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, cylindrical-ellipsoid, with a filiform pedicel and a slender, apical appendage; on other fungi. Illustration: E. mycophila; redrawn from Seeler (367). (A) pycnidium embedded in host fungus; (B) cells of pyenidial wall, (C) conidiophores and conidia. SPHAERONAEMA Fr. Pycnidia dark, superficial or crumpent, base spherical, with a long beak; conidiophores simple; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to elongate; chiefly saprophytic. Illustration: S. acerinum; original, from herbarium material on dead braches of Acer. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section showing single pycnidium enlarged; (C) conidiophores, conidia, and sterile hyphae; (D) conidia. HYALOPYCNIS Hohn. Pycnidia superficial, light-colored (shiny white) membranous, with a globose base and a long, subcylindrical neck, fimbriate at the apex; wall of pycnidium and neck composed of parallel hyphae fused laterally; conidiophores long, simple or branched; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, cylindrical or ovoid; on other fungi. Illustration: Hyalopycnis sp.; original, from culture. (A) habit of pycnidia in culture; (B) pycnidium showing parallel hyphae; (C) conidiophore; (D) conidia from pycnidium; (E) conidia borne directly on mycelium. Reference (326). EEEUTHEROMYCES Fuckel em. Seeler. Pycnidia single, superficial, light-colored, soft leathery or gelatinous and translucent when wet, walls and neck composed of small irregular cells; conidiophores hyaline, lining neck as well as base of pycnidium, septate, bearing conidia apically and laterally; eonidium 1-celled, hyaline, ellipsoid, attenuated at apex and at base; on basidiomycetes. Illustration: E. subulatus; redrawn from Seller (367). (A, B) pycnidia; (C) cells of pyenidial wall; (D) conidiophores; (E) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
169
ELEUTHEROMYCELLA
SPHAERONAEMA
ELEUTHEROMYCES HYALOPYCNIS
FREEDOM PALESTINE
170
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OT GENERA
PEEUROSTROMELIA Petr. Pycnidia tufted thickly or hairy, on stroma, with or without ostioles; conidiophores long, simple or branched, septate; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, borne at the apex and on sides at the septa of the conidiophore. Illustration: P. deiitiscens; original, from herbarium material on bark of Primus. (A) habit of pycnidia in bark; (B, C) sections of stroma and pycnidia; (D) conidiophores; (E) conidia. FUSICOCCUM Corda. Pycnidia in spherical or flattened, subepidermal, erumpent, dark stroma, one to several per stroma; opening separately or with a common pore; conidiophores simple, short; conidia hyaline. I-celled, fusoid; parasitic or saprophytic on wood. Illustration: E Uicinum; original, from herbarium material on dead branch of flex opaca. (A) habit of pycnidia; (BJ section through stroma and pyenidium; (CJ conidiophores and conidia; (D) conidia. RABENHORSTIA Fr. Pycnidia borne in black, erumpent, subcortical stroma; stroma nearly globose, wider at base, upper part truncate, often circularly split at the top, divided into several cavities; conidiophores filiform, simple, septate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong; saprophytic on branches. Illustration: R. tiliae; original, from herbarium material on dead branch of Tilia. (AJ habit of pycnidia; (B) section through stroma; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. vtCYTOSPORA Ehrenb. Pycnidia within a superficial or erumpent, tuberculate, globose, stroma; cavities irregular, incompletely separate; conidiophores slender; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, elongate-curved (allantoid); parasitic, or saprophytic on wood. Mostly imperfect states of Vaha. Illustration: C. (Vaha) leucosioma; original, from herbarium material on twigs of Prunus domestica. (A) habit of stromata; (B) section through stroma; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. CYTOSPORELEA Sacc. Pycnidia forming irregular cavities within erumpent, tuberculate stroma; conidiophores slender, simple or branched; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong; parasitic or saprophytic on wood; similar to Cytospora except for shape of conidia. Illustration: C. carnea; original, from herbarium material on dead twigs of Castanet* deniata. (A) habit of stromata; (B) section through stroma; (C) conidiophores and conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Of- GFNLRA
17
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FUSICOCCUM PLEUROSTROMELLA
CYTOSPORA CYTOSPORELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
172
SPORONEMA Desm. Pycnidia subepidermal, slightly membranous, at first closed, later dehiscing radiately, gaping, dark; conidiophores slender, typically branched; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, ovoid to oblong; on leaves. Illustration: S. phacidioides; redrawn from Jones (241). Reference (262). CATINULA Lev. Pycnidia mostly globose-ovoid, dark, superficial, membranous-leathery, rather firm and solid, or somewhat fleshy when wet, nearly smooth, gaping at the top with a large mouthy often brightly colored when fresh; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia 1-celled, subhyaline, globose to oblong. Illustration: C. thujae; original, from herbarium material on Thuja plicata. (A) habit of pycnidia on leaves; (B) pycnidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. AMEROSPORIUM Speg. Pycnidia superficial, subcupulate, opening wide at apex, black, surrounded by long, pointed, black setae; conidiophores crowded, branched; conidia 1-celled, hyaline to subhyaline, without bristles, cylindrical to ellipsoid; saprophytic. Illustration: A. caricum; original, from herbarium material on Carex leaves. (A) habit of pycnidium on leaf; (B) pycnidium; (C) seta; (D) conidiophore; (E) conidia. SHANORIA Subram. and Ramakr. Stromata black, carbonaceous, with one or more locules, lined with conidiophores, at maturity dehiscing by an irregular longitudinal rupture; conidiophores simple, cylindrical or clavate; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, with a filiform subapical appendage at each endIllustration: S. bamhusarum; redrawn from Shanor (368). (A) habit of stromata in leaf; (B) section through stroma and pycnidia; (C) conidiophores and conidia. References (412). DOTHICHIZA Lib. Pycnidia subglobose, smooth, dark, erumpent from bark, somewhat disc-shaped, irregularly dehiscent; conidiophores simple, slender; conidia 1-celled, hyaline, ovoid to cylindrical. Illustration: D. populae; original, from herbarium material on Populus sp. (A) habit of pycnidia on wood; (B) section of pycnidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. DINEMASPORIUM Lev. Pycnidia black, cup-shaped, superficial, with long dark setae; conidiophores rod-shaped, mostly simple; conidia hyaline, I-celled, elongate or allantoid, with a slender appendage at each end; saprophytic. Illustration: Dinemasporium sp.; original, from fresh material on dead grass stem. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) side view of pycnidium; (C) top view of pycnidium, enlarged; (D) seta; (E) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENtRA
173
SPORONEMA
CATINULA "Kf.'.pva:r-:ti
B AMEROSPORIUM
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SHANORIA
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DOTHICHIZA
DINEMASPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
ANTHASTHOOPA Subram. and Ramakr. Pycnidia immersed, with membranous wall, without stroma; conidiophores produced from surface of a cushion-shaped mound of tissue at base of pycnidial cavity; conidia f-celled, hyaline, concave-convex in outline, each with an apical, hyaline, mucoid appendage turned backwards and closely appressed to the concave side of the conidium; saprophytic. Illustration: A. simba; redrawn from Subramanian and Ramakrishnan (410). (A) section through pycnidium; (B) conidia with appendages. HAINESIA Ellis and Sacc. Pycnidia fleshy to gelatinous, bright-colored, globose at first, opening and becoming discoid, erumpent; conidiophores long, slender, branched; conidia hyaline; l-celled, oblong to fusoid or somewhat allantoid; saprophytic. Illustration: H. rubi; original, from herbarium material on leaves of cultivated Rubus. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through open pycnidium; (C) conidiophores and conidia. ASCHERSONIA Mont. Pycnidia in brightly colored, hemispherical or cushion-shaped stromata, somewhat sunken, opening by wide pores or ruptures that join to form irregular cracks; conidiophores slender, branched; conidia hyaline, usually 1-cclled, but sometimes reported as being septate, fusoid; saprophytic or some species parasitic on insects. Illustration: A. aleyrodis; original, from herbarium material on Aleyrodes citri on leaves of citrus. (A) habit of stromata covering insects; (B) section through stroma and pycnidia; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. ACTINOPELTE Sacc. Pycnidia superficial, borne on a stalk or columella, dimidiate, shield-shaped, black, coalescing or scattered, ostiole variable; conidiophores simple; conidia hyaline, less often brownish, I-celled, ovoid, oblong or fusoid; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: A. (I\eptothyrium) dryina; original, from fresh material on leaves of Quercus coccinea. (A) habit of pycnidia in leaf spot; (B) pycnidium, top view; (C) pycnidium, lower surface showing conidiophores and conidia; (D) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (435). MELASMIA Lev. Pycnidia in a broad, black, flattened stroma that is superficial or nearly so, dimidiate; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia hyaline or subhyaline, i-celled, allantoid or fusoid; parasitic on leaves; imperfect state of Rhytisma. Illustration: M. hypophylla; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Gleditsia triacanthos. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pycnidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. LEPTOTHYRIUM Kunze. Pycnidia superficial or erumpent, dimidiate, shield-shaped, dark, with or without ostiole; conidiophores simple; conidia hyaline, l-celled, ovoid, oblong or curved; parasitic on leaves, fruit, etc. Illustration: L. lonicerae; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Lonicera invoiucrata. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) pycnidium breaking open; (D) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
175
C MELASMIA LEPTOTHYRIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
LEPTOSTROMA Fr. Pycnidia black, separate, dimidiate, subsuperficial, flattened to elongate, more or less cleft lengthwise; conidiophores short, simple, 1-celled; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid, elongate or allantoid; parasitic or saprophytic; probably imperfect state of Hysteriaceae. Illustration: L. actaea; original, from herbarium material on Cimicifuga racemosa. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B, C) pycnidia enlarged; (D) section of pycnidium; (E) conidiophores and conidia. CONIOTHYRIUM Sacc. Pycnidia black, globose, separate, erumpent, ostiolate; conidiophores short, simple; conidia small, dark, 1-celled, ovoid or ellipsoid; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: Coniothyrium sp.; original, from fresh material on rose stems and culture obtained from rose. (A) habit, necrotic spot, and pycnidia; (B) pycnidia in culture; (C) conidiophores and conidia. HARKNESSIA Cooke. Pycnidia globose, conical, thin, white, porous-lacerate at the apex, bursting out through the leaf tissue; conidiophores filiform; conidia dark, 1-celled, ellipsoid to ovoid, drawn out into a hyaline pedicel (conidiophore); saprophytic on leaves. Illustration: H. eucalypti; original, from herbarium material on Eucalyptus leaves. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) top and side views of pycnidia enlarged; (C) section through pycnidium; (D) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (422). CHAETOMELIA Fuckel. Pycnidia black, superficial, separate, without ostiole, covered sparsely with dark bristles; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia dark to subhyaline, 1-celled, fusoid to somewhat curved; saprophytic. Illustration: C aira; original, from herbarium material on dead stalks of Sorghum vulgare. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) pycnidium enlarged; (C) bristle; (D) conidiophore and conidia; (E) pycnidium of Chaetomella sp. from culture. Reference (358). SPHAEROPSIS Sacc. Pycnidia black, separate or grouped, globose, erumpent, ostiolate; conidiophores short; conidia large, dark, 1-celled, ovoid, elongate or somewhat irregular; parasitic. Illustration: S. malorum (Physalospora obtusa); original, from herbarium material on apple leaf, fruit, and from culture. (A) pycnidia in leaf spot; (B) section of pycnidium in fruit; (C) conidia from culture.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
177
LEPTOSTROMA CONIOTHYRIUM
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FREEDOM PALESTINE
178
HAPLOSPOREIXA Spcg. Pycnidia clustered in a black, wartlike stroma that bursts out of the bark, papillate; conidiophores simple; conidia large, dark, l-celled, ovoid or oblong; parasitic or saprophytic. The genus may be synonymous with Sphaeropsis, but the latter is described as having no stroma. Illustration: H. longipes; original, from herbarium material on dead limbs of Morus alba. (A) habit of pycnidia and stromata; (B) section through stroma; (C) conidiophores, conidia, and sterile hyphae; (D) conidia. RHYNCHOPHOMA Karst. Pycnidia separate, not on leaves, somewhat globose, beaked, bursting out of substrate (usually bark) or superficial, opening by a large pore; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia 2-celled, hyaline, ovoid-oblong. Illustration: R. raduloides; original, from herbarium material on stems of Ribes hracteosum (A) habit of pyenidium in bark; (B) section of pyenidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia, ASCOCHYTA Lib. Pycnidia dark, globose, separate, immersed in host tissue, ostiolate; conidia hyaline, 2-celled, ovoid to oblong; parasitic, principally causing leaf spots. Much like Phyllosticta but with 2-cclled conidia. Illustration: Ascochyta sp.; original, from fresh and dried material on barly leaf. (A) habit of pycnidia in leaf spot; (B, C) top and side views of pycnidia; (D) conidia. Reference (343). DIPLODINA Westend. Pycnidia black, separate, immersed or erumpent, globose or flattened, ostiolate; conidiophores simple, slender; conidia hyaline, 2-celled, ovoid or ellipsoid; parasitic or saprophytic; similar to Ascochyta but not produced in spots. Illustration: D. macrospora; original, from herbarium material on dead twigs of Cornus. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. DARLUCA Cast. Pycnidia black, spherical, ostiolate, superficial, located in rust sori; conidia hyaline, 2-celled, ellipsoid or fusoid to oblong, tipped with mucous or bristlelike appendages at both ends; parasitic on rust fungi, chiefly on uredia. Illustration: D.filum; original, from dried material of Puccinia on grass leaf. (A, B) habit of pycnidia in uredia; (C) section through uredium of rust showing pycnidia; (D) conidia. KELXERMANNIA Ellis and Everh. Pycnidia black, globose, separate, immersed in host tissue, ostiolate; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, mostly 2-celled, cylindrical with an awl-shaped appendage at the tip; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: K. yuccaegena; original, from herbarium material on Yucca angustifolia. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section of Yucca leaf showing location of pycnidia; (C) section of pyenidium; (D) conidiophores; (E) conidia. ROBILLARDA Sacc. Pycnidia brown to pale, in spots, erumpent to subsuperficial, globose to flattened, with small ostiole; conidia hyaline, 2-celled, cylindrical, with 3 to 4 hyaline setae at one end; parasitic on grasses, causing leaf spots. Illustration: R. phragmites; redrawn from Cunnel (69). (A, B) pycnidia; (C) conidia with appendages. References (305, 385, 386).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF GENCRA
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-DIPLODIA Fr. Pycnidia black, single, globose, immersed, erumpent, ostiolate; conidiophorcs slender, simple; conidia dark, 2-celled, ellipsoid or ovoid; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: D. zeae; original, from herbarium material on dead corn stalk and from culture. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) pyenidium from culture; (D) conidia.
BOTRYODIPLODIA Sacc. Pycnidia black, ostiolate, erumpent, stromatic, confluent; conidiophorcs simple, short; conidia dark and 2-celled at maturity, ovoid to elongate; parasitic or saprophytic on twigs. This genus is much like Macrophoma or Dothiorella, if only immature conidia are present. Illustration: B. acerina; original, from herbarium material on twigs of Acer. (A, B) habit of pycnidia and stromata; (C) section through pyenidium; (D) conidiophorcs; (E) conidia.
HENDERSONULA Spcg. Pycnidia black, stromate, 1 to several per stroma, locules occurring at different levels in stroma; conidiophores long, flexuous; conidia often extruded in cirri; at first 1-celled, hyaline to yellowish, later becoming 3- to 4-celled and dark; parasitic or saprophytic on wood or bark. Illustration: Hendersonula sp.; original, from material from pine bark. (A) stroma bearing pycnidia breaking through bark; (B) section through stroma showing pycnidia; (C) immature conidia; (D) mature conidia.
STAGONOSPORA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, separate, superficial or erumpent, globose, ostiolate; conidiophores short; conidia hyaline, typically 3- to 4-celled, cylindrical to elliptical; parasitic or saprophytic on leaves and stems. Illustration: S. carpathica; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Trifolium repens. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) section through pyenidium; (DJ conidiophores; (EJ conidia. Reference (68).
ARISTATOMA Tehon. Pycnidia brown, globose, erumpent, ostiolate, separate, bearing dark brown setae near the ostiole; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, several-celled, cylindrical; parasitic, causing leaf spots. Illustration: A. oeconimicum; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Vigna sinensis. of pycnidia; (C) section through pyenidium; (D) conidia. Reference (418). (A, B) habit
DOTHISTROMA Hulbray. Stroma dark, elongate, innate, becoming erumpent and swollen, with a stalk extending into the substratum, composed internally of dense, vertical hyphae; locules separate, one to several in the upper part of the stroma; conidiophores simple, slender; conidia several-eel led, hyaline, long-cylindrical to filiform; on pine needles. Illustration: D. pini; original, from herbarium material on needles of Pinus nigra. (A) habit of pycnidia on pine needle; (B) section through stroma and pyenidium; (C) conidia. Reference (216).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
181
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BOTRYODIPLODIA
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STAGONOSPORA
ARISTATOMA
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FREEDOM PALESTINE
DISCOSIA Lib. Pycnidia black, separate, circular, flattened, between the epidermis and cuticle; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, several-celled, allantoid to fusoid, with single appendage at each end; parasitic. Illustration: D. maculicila; original, from herbarium material on Smilex leaves. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) single pyenidium, top view; (C) section of pyenidium; (D) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (163). BARTILINIA Tassi. Pycnidia dark, globose, separate, ostiolate, innate or erumpent; conidiophores short; conidia hyaline, usually 4-cclled, the lower cell tapering, appendages delicate, arising from apical cell, usually 3 or 4; saprophytic. Illustration: B. nolinae; (A) top view of pyenidium; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidia; drawn from photographs from Pollack (336). TETRANACRIUM Hudson and Sutton. Pycnidia immersed, hysteriform; conidiophores erect, simple, hyaline, arising from inner cells of pyenidium; conidia single, apical pale brown, branched, composed of 4 divergent branches, all arising from a globose basal cell; the main upright branch often somewhat longer, the side branches equal, each branch 3- to 5-celled; saprophytic. Illustration: T. gramineum; redrawn from Husdon and Sutton (181). (A) section through pyenidium; (B) conidiophore and developing conidium; (C) conidium. MICROPERA Lev. Pycnidial cavities in yellowish to dark, waxy, erumpent stroma, opening irregularly, with one or more irregular cavities; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia hyaline, septate, elongatefiliform, pointed at the ends; frequently sickle-shaped; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: M. abietina (Dermea balsamea); original, from fresh material on branches of Tsuga canadensis. (A) habit of stromata; (B) section through stroma showing pycnidial cavities; (C) conidiophore and conidia. ^SEPTORIA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, separate, globose, ostiolate, produced in spots, erumpent; conidiophores short; conidia hyaline, narrowly elongate to filiform, several-celled; parasitic, typically causing leaf spots. Illustration:S. apii; original, from dried material on leaves of Apium. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidiophores and conidia. GELATINOSPORIUM Peck. Pycnidia stromatic, arising from a dark hypostroma, splitting open irregularly, tissue cartilaginous; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia hyaline, I- or more-celled, narrowly spindle-shaped, bowlike, both ends pointed; spraophytic on branches. Illustration: G. hetulinum; original, from herbarium material on BetuJa lenta. (A, B) habit of pycnidial stroma; (C) section of stroma; (D) conidiophores and conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
TETRANACRIUM
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SEPTORIA GELATINOSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
184
EPHELIS Fr. Stroma dark, or lighter when young, resembling unopened smut galls; pycnidia erumpent, open cupulate, somewhat gelatinous; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, acicuiar; parasitic on grasses; conidial states of Bahnsia. Illustration: E. (Balansia) horealis; original, from herbarium material on stems of grass. (A) stroma and pycnidia; (B) pycnidia enlarged; (C) conidia. Reference (94).
HENDERSONIA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, separate, globose, ostiolate, immersed, usually erumpent; conidia dark, several-celled, elongate to fusoid; saprophytic or parasitic. Illustration: H. celtifoUa; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Celtis occidentaHs. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pycnidia; (C) conidia.
LEPTOSTROMELLA Sacc. Pycnidia black, elongate, longitudinally cleft, at first covered and at maturity appearing superficial, flattened to depressed; conidiophores simple, short; conidia hyaline, 1- to several-celled, elongate to filiform; saprophytic. Illustration: L. filicina; original, from herbarium material on dead leaf stalks of Dry op ten's spinulosa. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) section through pyenidium; (D) conidiophores and conidia.
PHAEOSEPTORIA Speg. Pycnidia dark, spherical, separate, ostiolate, subepidermal or erumpent; conidiophores simple, short; conidia yellowish to light brown, elongate to filiform, several-celled; parasitic principally on grasses. Illustration: P. festucae var. muhlenbergiae; original, from culture obtained from Muhlenbergia. (A) pyenidium; (B) conidiophores and immature conidia; (C) mature conidia. Reference (384).
SPHAEROGRAPHIUM Sacc. Pycnidia black, separate, base globose, beak conical, spinelike, erumpent; conidiophores branched; conidia hyaline, I- to 2-celled, filiform-fusoid, often curved; saprophytic. Illustration: S. fraxini; original, from herbarium material on twig of Fraxinus. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) single pyenidium; (C) conidiophores and conidia.
RHABDOSPORA Mont. Pycnidia dark, separate, not produced in spots, erumpent, ostiolate; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, narrowly elongate to filiform, several-celled parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration:/?, solidaginis; original, from herbarium material on stem of Solidago canadensis. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) section through pyenidium; (D) conidia.
CHAETOSEPTORIA Tehon. Pycnidia complete, separate, spherical, innate, without clypeus, subicle or stroma, with ostiole, without beak, crowned with setae; conidia long, slender, several-celled, hyaline, parasitic on leaves, in spots. Illustration: C. wellmanii; redrawn from Yerkes (479). (A, B) pycnidia; (C) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
185
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SPHAEROGRAPHIUM
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FREEDOM PALESTINE
PHLYCTAENA Mont, and Desm. Pycnidia dark, separate or sometimes confluent, developing in or under the epidermis or bark, closed or ostiolate, usually with one chamber or divided by irregular folds; conidiophores simple or forked; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, cylindrical or long, spindle-shaped, mostly bent, sickle-shaped; saprophytic. Illustration: P. albocincta; original, from herbarium material on stem of Rhus radkans. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia. PROSTHEMIUM Kunze. Pycnidia separate, covered, later breaking out, carbonaceous, globosedepressed, opening by a pore, dark; conidiophores filiform, hyaline, septate, conidia .several-celled, dark, cylindrical to ellipsoid, stellately joined into few-spored groups, resembling a staurospore. Illustration: P. hetulinum; original, from herbarium material on bark of Betula alba. (A) habit of pycnidia in bark; (B) section of pyenidium; (C) conidia. CHONDROPODIUM Hohnel. Pycnidia stromatic, stalked, columnar, externally black, hard, internally gelatinous, conidiophores simple, conidia hyaline, several-celled, crescent-shaped or sickle-shaped; weakly parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: C. pseudotsugae. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidiophores and conidia; (A, B) drawn from photographs; (C) from drawing. All redrawn from White (470). PHLEOSPORA Wallr. Pycnidia dark, imperfectly formed, globose, innate in tissue, not in distinct spots; conidia hyaline or subhyaline, several-celled, elongate fusoid to filiform; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: P. robinae; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Robiniapseudoacacia. (A) habit of pycnidia; (B) section through pyenidium; (C) conidia. DICHOMERA Cooke. Pycnidia black, grouped on stroma, bursting out of bark, globose, ostiolate; conidiophores simple, conidia dark, globose, ovoid or ellipsoid, several-celled with oblique septa; saprophytic. Illustration: D. prunkola; original, from herbarium material on twigs of Prunus virginiana. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) section of stroma and pycnidia; (D) conidiophores and immature conidia; (E) mature conidia. CAMAROSPORIUM Schulz. Pycnidia black, erumpent, globose, separate, ostiolate, papillate; conidiophores short, simple; conidia dark, ovoid to ellipsoid, with several cross walls and a few longitudinal or oblique walls; saprophytic on twigs. Illustration: C. robinae; original, from herbarium material on dead twigs of Robinia pseudoacacia. (A, B) habit of pycnidia; (C) section of pyenidium; (D) conidiophores and immature conidia; (H) mature conidia. CORNULARIA Sacc. Pycnidia dark, stalked, cylindrical, bulbous at the base, or clavatc, usually in tufts or groups; conidia hyaline to colored, several-celled, fusoid to greatly elongated; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: C. persicae; original, from herbarium material on twig of Prunus. (A, B) pycnidia; (C) conidia.'
FREEDOM PALESTINE
187
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SPHACELOMA de Bary. Acervuli disc-shaped or cushion-shaped, waxy; conidiophores simple, closely grouped or compacted, arising from a stromalike base, sometimes almost appearing as a sporodochium; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid or oblong; parasitic; imperfect states of Elsinoe; similar to Gloeosporium and Colletotrichum. Illustration: S. ampelinmn (Elsinoe ampelina); original, from herbarium material on grape twigs and fruit. (A) habit on twig; (B) portion of acervulus on twig; (C) portion of acervulus on fruit; (D) conidia. GLOEOSPORIUM Desm. and Mont. Acervuli subepidermal erumpent, disc-shaped or cushion-shaped, waxy; conidiophores simple, variable in length; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid to oblong, sometimes curved; parasitic, chiefly on leaves or fruits; mostly conidial states of Glomerella. Illustration: (A-C) G. nervisequum (Gnomonia veneta); (D-F) G. fruiligenum (Glomerella cingulata); original, from fresh material on Platanus leaves and from culture. (A) habit of fungus; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores and conidia; (D) acervuli produced in culture; (E) conidia; (F) conidiophores and conidia in culture. COLLETOTRICHUM Corda. Acervuli disc-shaped or cushion-shaped, waxy, subepidermal, typically with dark, spines or setae at the edge or arr^ong the conidiophores; conidiophores simple, elongate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid or cfofong, to falcate parasitic; imperfect states of Glomerella. This genus differs '-from Gloeosporium in having spines, which may be absent in some cultures. Illustration: C. lindemutheanum; original from prepared slide and from culture. (A) section of acervulus from prepared slide; (B) conidiophores, conidia and setae from culture; (C) conidia; (D) conidia of C. graminicola. CATENOPHORA Luttrell. Acervulus cushion-shaped; conidiophores simple, septate, elongate; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ellipsoid, produced on lateral sterigmata, one per cell of the conidiophore; parasitic. Illustration: C. pruni; (A) section through acervulus; (B) conidiophore producing conidia; (C) conidia; redrawn from Luttrell (271). PESTALOZZIELLA Sacc. and Ellis. Acervuli subcuticular; conidiophores slender, simple or branched; conidia hyaline, 1-celled, ovoid or oblong; with a hyaline branched appendage at the apex; parasitic. Illustration: P. subsessilis; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Geranium caroliniana. (A) habit on leaf; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
189
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PESTALOZZIELLA CATENOPHORA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
190
MELANCONIUM Link. Acervuli subepidermal or subcortical, conic or discoid, black; conidiophores simple; conidia dark, I-celled, ovoid to ellipsoid or oblong; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: M. oblongum; original, from herbarium material on dead twigs of Jugulans cinerea. (A) habit of acervuli; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (419). MYCOLEPTODISCUS Ostazeski. Sclerotia small, round, black; acervuluslike fruiting structure; shieldlike, yellow to brown; stroma a single layer of cells bearing conidia; conidiophores obsolete; conidia hyaline, 2-celIed, allantoid, with a filamentous appendage at each end (absent in some isolates), parasitic on legumes. Illustration: M. (Leptodiscus) lerrestris; (A) spore-bearing upper surface of acervulus; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidia; (A) drawn from unpublished photograph furnished by J.W. Gerdemann; (B, C) drawn from photographs from Gerdemann (145). References (284, 320). MAKSSONINA Magn. Acervuli subepidermal, discoid, pale; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, 2-celled, ovoid to elongate; parasitic, chiefly on leaves. Illustration: M. populi; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Populus. (A) habit on leaf; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores and conidia. SEPTOGLOEUM Sacc. Acervuli subepidermal, erumpent, pale; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, several-celled, oblong to fusoid; parasites on leaves. Illustration: S. profusum; original, from herbarium material on leaves of Ulmus americana. (A, B) habit of acervuli; (C) section through acervulus; (D) conidiophores and conidia. CRYPTOSPORIUM Kunze. Acervuli erumpent, becoming cup-shaped or disc-shaped, stroma brownish; conidiophores simple or branched; conidia hyaline or subhyaline, l-celled, elongate, falcate; parasitic. Illustration: C. pinkoia; (A) section through acervuli; (B) conidiophore and conidia; redrawn from Lindcr (269). LIBERTELLA Desm. Acervulus subcortical, erumpent, yellow to red; conidiophores branched; conidia hyaline, l-celled, filiform; saprophytic. Illustration: L. betulina; original, from herbarium material on bark of Betula lutea. (A) habit of acervuli; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores; (D) conidia held together in matrix; (E) separate conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
191
MELANCONIUM
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SEPTOGLOEUM
CRYPTOSPORIUM
LIBERTELLA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
CYLINDROSPORIUM Unger. Acervuli subepidermal, white or pale, discoid or spread out; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, filiform, straight or curved, l-celled or becoming septate; parasitic on leaves. Illustration: C. padi (Coccomyces hiemalis); original, from dried material on cherry leaves. (A, B) habit of acervuli; (C) section through acervulum; (D) conidiophores and conidia.
MONOCHAET1A Sacc. Acervuli dark, discoid or cushion-shaped, subepidermal; conidiophores slender, simple; conidia dark, several-celled with hyaline, pointed end cells, elongate to fusoid, with a single apical appendage; parasitic. Illustration: M. mali; original, from herbarium material on apple leaf. (A) habit on leaf; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (391). ^^ PESTALOT1A de Not. Acervuli dark, discoid or cushion-shaped, subepidermal; conidiophores short, simple; conidia dark, several-celled, with hyaline, pointed end cells, ellipsoid to fusoid, with two or more hyaline, apical appendages; parasitic; or saprophytic. References (392, 416). n Illustration: P. macrotricha; original, from fresh material on leaves of Rhododendron. (A, B) habit of acervuli; (C) section through acervuli; (D) conidiophores and conidia; (E) conidia. References (392, 415).
POEYNEMA Lev. Mycelium immersed in substratum, hyaline; acervuli typical with little stromatic development; conidiophores arising from cells of stroma, conidia single, apical, cylindrical, obclavate, 2-to 3-celled, brown, with single simple or branched apical appendage and 1 to 3 basal appendages. Illustration: Polynema (Neobarclaya) sp.; redrawn from Sutton (416). (A) section through acervulus; (B) conidia. Reference (420).
SEIMATOSPORIUM Corda. Acervuli typical, first immersed, erumpent; conidiophores cylindrical, slender, with a few apical proliferations; conidia borne single and successively on proliferating new growing points, fusiform to curved, 4- to 6-celled, 2 end cells hyaline, median cells dark, apical appendage single, simple or rarely branched, basal appendage usually simple; on leaves and twigs. Compare with Pestahtia. Illustration: Seimatosporium sp. (Cryptostictis arbuti); redrawn from Sutton (418). (A) portion of acervulus; (B) developing conidium; (C) conidia.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
MONOCHAETIA
POLYNEMA
SEIMATOSPORIUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
194
ENTOMOSPORIUM Lev. Acervulus subcuticular, discoid, dark; conidiophores short, simple; conidia hyaline, 4-celled, cross-shaped, the two lateral cells smaller, all except the basal cell equipped with a slender bristle; parasitic on leaves and fruit. Illustration: E. maculatum (Fabrea maculata); original from herbarium material on leaves of Cydonia. (A) habit on leaf; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidia. CORYNEUM Nees. Acervulus subcutaneous or subcortical, black, cushion-shaped to disc-shaped; conidiophores slender, simple; conidia dark, several-celled, oblong to fusoid; parasitic or saprophytic. Illustration: C. kunzei; original, from fresh material on oak twigs. (A) habit of acervuli on twig; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores and conidia. Reference (425). ASTEROSPORIUM Kunze. Acervuli bursting through bark; conidiophores slender, simple; conidia dark, typically 4-armed, each arm septate, saprophytic. Illustration: A. hoffmanni; redrawn from Archer (3). (A) section through acervulus; (B) conidia. PHRAGMOTRICHUM Kunze ex Fries. Fructifications interpreted as acervuli (sometimes pycnidiumlike), stromatic; conidiophores short, upright, simple; conidia yellow or slightly darker, apical in basipetal chains, phragmosporous or dictyosporous; saprophytic on leaves or twigs. Illustration: P. karstenii; redrawn from Sutton and Pirozynski (428). (A) acervuluslike fruit structure; (B) conidiophores and conidia; (C) conidia. STEGANOSPORlUM Corda. Acei'vuU subcortical, dark, cushion-shaped; conidiophores simple; conidia dark, dictyosporous, ovoid, oblong or pear-shaped; saprophytic on wood. Illustration: S. pyriforme; original, from fresh material on bark of Acer. (A) habit of acervuli; (B) section through acervulus; (C) conidiophores, conidia, and sterile hyphae; (D) conidia. Reference (458).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
-w ^ s ^ ^
CORYNEUM
ENTOMOSPORIUM
ASTEROSPORIUM
STEGANOSPORIUM PHRAGMOTRICHUM
FREEDOM PALESTINE
& , 'tj?X RHIZOCTONIA DC. Mycelium hyaline in some species to dark in others (such as R. solani), the most common species; cells of mycelium usually long, septa of branches usually set off from the main hyphae; asexual fruit bodies and conidia absent; sporodochium-like bodies and chlamydospore-like cells in chains produced in some species; sclerotia light colored and poorly formed in some species or brown or black and well formed in other; parasitic, chiefly on roots or other underground parts of plants. Illustration: R. (Thanatephorus) solarri; original, from culture. (A) small sclerotia and mycelium in tube culture; (B) section of loose sclerotium; (C) cells of mycelium. References (323, 361). SCLEROTIUM Tode. Asexual fruit bodies and conidia lacking; sclerotia brown to black, globose or irregular, compact; mycelium usually light; parasitic, principally on underground parts of plants. Illustration: S. rolfsii; original, from culture. (A) sclerotia in tube culture; (B) portion of section of sclerotium; (C) portions of mycelium showing clamp connections. " *. , (I* . \.u.> v. v> * *-*'' PAP15LOSPORA Preuss. Asexual spores lacking; mycelium light to dark brown, producing compact clusters of small cells or bulbils which are sclerotium-like and serve to reproduce the fungus; saprophytic, or parasitic on storage parts of some plants. Illustration: Papulospora sp.; original, from decaying wood. (A-C) sclerotia produced on mycelium with clamp connections. References (17, 176, 177).
FREEDOM PALESTINE
197
RHIZOCTONIA
H>
SCLEROTIUM
PAPULOSPORA
FREEDOM PALESTINE
REFERENCES
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463. Wang, C.J.K.. and B.C. Sutton. 1982. New and rare lignicolous hyphomycetes. Mycologia 74; 489-500. 464. Waterman, A.M., and R.R Marshall. 1947, A new species of Chstulariella associated with a leaf spot of maple. Mycologia 39: 690-698. 465. Watson, P. 1955. Calcarisporium arhuscula living as an endophyte in apparently healthy spirophores of Russula and Laciarius. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 38:409-414. 466. Watson, P. 1965. Further observations on Calcarisporium arhuscula. Trans. Bril. Mycol. Soc. 48: 9-17. 467. Webster. J. 1956. Conidia of Acrospernntm compressum and A. gramineum. Trans. Bril. Mvcol. Soc. 39: 361-366. 46S. Wei, CI 1950. Notes on Corynespora. Mycol. Papers C.M.I, 34: M 0 . 469. Whaley, J.W., and H.L. Barnett. 1963. Parasitism and nutrition of Gonaioholrvs simplex. Mvcohgia 55: 195-210. 470. White, W.L, 1936. A new species of Chondropodium on Pseudotsuga laxifolia. Mycologia 28: 433-438. 4 7 1 . White, W.L., and M.H. Downing, 1953. Humieola grisea, a soil-inhibiting cellulolytic hyphomycete. Mycologia 4 5 : 951-963. 472. Wilson, E.E. 1949. The pycnidial state of Exosporina fawceitii. Phytopathology 39: 340-346. 473. Wiltshire, S. P. 1938. The original and modem concepts of Slemphvlium. Trans. Brit. Mvcol. Soc. 21:211-239. 474. Wolf, F.A. 1917. A squash disease caused by Choanephora cucurbitarum. J. Agr. Res. 8: 319-328. 475. Wolf, F.A. 1935, Morphology of Polythriniciurn causing sooty blotch of red clover. Mycologia 27: 58-73. 476. Wolf, F.A. 1938. Life histories of two leaf-inhibiting fungi on sycamore, Mycologia 30: 54-63. 477. Wolf, F.A. 1949. Two unusual conidial fungi. Mycologia 41: 561-564. 478. Wolf, F.A.,and R.W. Davison, 1941. Life cycle of Piggotia fraxini, causing leaf disease of ash. Mvcohgia 33: 526-539. 479. Yerkes. D.W, 1956. Chaeioseploria wellmanii in Mexico. Mycologia 48; 738-740. 480. Zuck. R.K, 1946. Isolates between Stachyhotrys and Memnoniella. Mycologia 38: 69-76.
..r '. * ' ; ' !-'.' **'. .. i
FREEDOM PALESTINE
GLOSSARY Definitions and Examples

Acicular: slender and pointed; needle-shaped. Ephelis, p. 184. Acervulus: an erumpent, open, saucer-shaped fruit body, bearing conidiophores and conidia, characteristic of the Melanconiales. Acropetal: chain of conidia having the youngest conidium at the apex. Monilia, p. 72; Cladosporium, p. 106. Allantoid: conidia somewhat curved. Aleuriospore: see p. 42. Amerospore: a one-celled conidium. Anastomosis: fusion between hyphal branches to form a network. Rhizoctonia, p. 196. Anneilate: conidial scars appearing as rings at apex region of conidiophore or conidiogenous cell due to successive formation of terminal conidia. Scopulariopsis, p. 98; Spilocaea, p. 106. Annellospore: see p. 42. Arthrospores: seep.4\. Attenuated: drawn out, narrowed, more or less to a point. Alternaria, p. 132; Cercospora, p. 128. Ba si petal: successive chain of conidia having the youngest conidium at the base. Oidium, p. 68; Aspergillus, p. 94. Biotrophic: a method by which some parasites obtain nutrients from living host cells. Calcarisporium parasiticum, Gonatobotrys simplex. Blastospore: see p. 42. Botr yob last ospore: see p. 43. Bulbil: a small number of cells aggregated into a sclerotiumlike structure. Papularia, p. 82. Capitate: conidia formed into a more or less rounded head. Aspergillus, p. 94; Botrytis, p. 76. Catenulate: conidia formed in chains of two or more. Monilia, p. 72; Cladosporium, p. 106. Ch lam yd ospore: a thick-walled terminal or intercalary conidium formed from a previous cell. Also see Aleuriospore. Chalaropsis, p. 90; Sepedonium, p. 82. Circinate: recurved. Circinotrichum, p. 90; Gyrothrix, p. 90. Clamp connection: a hyphal outgrowth connecting two adjacent cells of the mycelium, characteristic of certain basidiomycetes. Sclerotium, p. 196. Clavate: club-shaped, broader toward the apex. Coenocytic: nonseptate, with multinucleate hyphae or segments. Collarette: a cup-shaped structure or flaring apex of a phialide. Phialophora, p. 88; Chlohdium, p. 88. Conidiogenous cell: a cell or portion of a conidiophore bearing conidia (a sporogenous cell). Cruciform: arranged in the form of a cross. Dictyoarthrinum, p. 134; Entomosporium, p. 194.
212
FREEDOM PALESTINE
GLOSSARY 213
Cupulate: cup-shaped, deeper than saucer-shaped. Hainesia, p. 174; Dinemasporium, p. 172. Deciduous: referring to conidia falling off naturally., Dehiscent: breaking open at maturity. Dothichiza, p. 172; Sporonema, p. 172. Dendroid: branched, treelike. Trichoderma, p. 92. Denticle: small to medium sized, sharp or blunt, toothlike projection on which conidia are borne. Gonatobotrys, p. 76. Dermatomycosis: a fungus disease restricted to the surface of the skin of man and animals. Determinate: cessation of growth of a conidiophore when a terminal conidium is formed. Microsporum, p. 116; Humkola, p. 84. Dichotomous: forked, branched into two more or less equal arms. Dichobotrys, p. 78. Dictyospore: conidium having both transverse and oblique septa. Ahernaria, p. 132; Steganosporium, p. 194. Didymosporc: a two-celled conidium. Dimidiate: a half structure, or having one part smaller than the other. Actinopehe, p. 174; Lepiostroma, p. 176. Discoid: disc-shaped, flat, and circular. Echinulate: with slight projections, usually pointed, on the surface of conidia or conidiophores. Torula, p. 74; Heterosporium, p. 122. Ellipsoid, Elliptical: a conidium having an outline of an ellipse with rounded ends. Pithomyces, p. 132; Bactridium, p. 148. Endogenous: conidia produced well within a phialide. Chalara, p. 90. Erumpent: breaking out through the surface of the substratum. Coryneum, p. 194; Botryodipiodia, p. I S O . Exogenous: conidia produced on the outside of a conidiogenous cell. Falcate: curved like the blade of a sickle. Falx: a hook-shaped hypha or cell capable of bearing conidia. Zygosporium, p. 72. Fascicle: tight cluster or group. Graphium, p. 152; Doratomyces, p. 154. Filiform: threadlike, very slender. Septoria, p. 182; Cylindrosporium, p. 192. Flexuous: wavy. Polythrincium, p. 112. Fusoid, Fusiform: spindle-shaped. Microsporum, p. 1 1 6 ; Monacrosporium, p. 1 1 8 . Fuscous: brownish-gray, smoky. Geniculate: bent like a knee, often giving a zig-zag appearance. Geniculosporium, p. 100. Globose: nearly spherical. Haustorium: a special absorbing structure formed by some parasitic fungi within cells of the host. Piptocephalis, p. 62. Helicospore: a coiled or spiral-shaped conidium. Helicomyces, p. 136. Hyaline: clear, absence of dark pigment. Hyperparasite: a parasite on another parasitic fungus. (A term used loosely; often, parasitism has not been proved.) See also Mycoparasite. Hyphopodium: a 1- or 2-celled, branchlike structure on epiphytic mycelium of certain fungi.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
214
GLOSSARY
Clasterosporium, p. 118. Hysteriform: elongated, with a median cleft. Leptostroma, p. 176. Indeterminate: growth of conidiophore does not cease with production of a terminal conidium or group of conidia. Gonatobotrys, p. 76; Curvularia, p. 122. Innate: immersed in substratum. Sphaeropsis, p. 176; Cytospora, p. 170. Intercalary: produced between other cells, not terminal. Lenticular: in the form of a double convex lens. Locule: a cavity, usually within a stroma. Dothiorella, p. 166; Cytospora, p. 170. Lunate: crescent-shaped, like a half moon. Lunulospora, p. 138. Macroconidia: large, often multicelled conidia, applied when fungus produces conidia of two distinct sizes. Fusarium, p. 130. Meristem arthrospore: see p. 41. Microconidia: small, usually 1-celled conidia, often applied to spermatia. Muriform: conidia with both an oblique septa and a dictyopore. Alternaria, p. 132; Steganosporium, p. 194. Murogenous: originating as an expansion of the entire conidiophore tip. Murogenella, p. 114. Mycoparasite: a fungus parasitic on another fungus. Gonatobotrys, p. 76; Piptocephalis, p. 62. Necrosis: death of cells; often applied to host of a micoparasite. Obclavate: inversely clavate, widest at base. Oblong: about twice as long as wide, usually with blunt ends. Obovoid: inversely ovoid, narrowest at base. Ostiole: opening or mouth of a pyenidium. Phoma, p. 162. Ovoid: egg-shaped, with narrower end at apex. Papilla: a small rounded projection. Pedicel: a short, slender stalk bearing a conidium. Brachysporium, p. 126. Penicillus: a brush, referring to compactly branched conidiophores. PeniciUium, p. 94; Gliocladium, p. 92. Penicillate: a brushlike cluster of sporogenous cells on a conidiophore as in PeniciUium, p. 94. Percurrent: proliferation of conidiophore or conidiogenous cell in which each successive apex arises through the previous apex. Gonatobotrys, p. 76; Spilocaea, p. 106. , n > ft ^ ; >vr , Phialide: a specialized sporogenous cell producing conidia from an open end in basipetal succession. Chalara, p. 90; Phialocephala, p. 96. Phialospore: see p. 44. Phragmospore: a several-celled conidium with transverse septa only. Bipolaris, p. 126; Dendryphiopsis, p. 120. Pigmented: used to indicate presence of pigment in the cell waifs, not in the internal contents. Polyphialide: a phialide with more than one open end. Porospore: see p. 43. Pseudoparenchyma: isodiametric or oval fungus cells organized into tissues in which the individual hyphae have lost their identity. Sclerotium, p. 196.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
GLOSSARY 215
Pycnidium: a closed or nearly closed asexual fruit body bearing conidiophores and conidia internally, characteristic of the Sphaeropsidales. Pyriform: pear-shaped, narrower at the base. Rachis: central axis of a conidiophore on which conidia are attached alternately. Tritirachiwn, p. 100. , Reniform: kidney-shaped. Sclerotium: a compact resistant mass of hyphae or pseudoparenchyma. Scolecospore: a long slender conidium. Septoria, p. 182; Cylindrosporium, p. 192. Sessile: without a stalk. Tripospermum, p. 142; Aureobasidium, p. 70. Seta: a sterile hypha associated with various fruiting structures. Colletotrichum, p. 188; Gyrothrix, p. 90. Sporangiole: a small sporangium producing one to few spores, characteristic of some Mucorales. (In some genera the 1-celled sporangioles may be called conidia.) Choanephora, p. 66. Sporocladium: a special short branch of a sporangiophore in certain Mucorales in which conidia are borne on one side only. Martensella, p. 64. Sporodochium: a cushion-shaped structure made up of closely grouped conidiophores, characteristic of the Tuberculariaceae. Sporogenous cell: a special cell or branch bearing conidia. Staurospore: a branched or star-shaped conidium. Tridenteria, p. 140; Tripospermum, p. 142. Sterigma: a short, pointed, peglike extension of a cell that supports a conidium, usually considered larger than a denticle. Stipirate: having a stipe or stalk. Cornularia, p. 186. Stroma: a compact mass of hyphae on which or in which conidia or fruit bodies are borne. Botryodiplodia, p. 180; Cytospora, p. 170. Stylospore: an elongated conidium produced in a pycnidium. Phomopsis, p. 164. Subhyaline: conidia generally classified as hyaline, but showing slight pigmentation in mass. Subiculum: a loose crustlike growth on which fruit bodies are produced. Asteromella, p. 164. Sympodulospore: see p. 43. Sympodial: growth or branching of a conidiophore or sporogenous cell arising beneath or behind the previous conidium and pushing it to one side. Curvularia, p. 122; Triiirachium, p. 100. Synnema: a cylindrical compact group of conidiophores, characteristic of the Stilbaceae. Torulose: cylindrical but having swellings at intervals. Truncate: cut off at the end, flat. Scopulariopsis, p. 98; Geotrichum, p. 68. Tube re u late: having wartlike processes. *"'
.-. r*
Verricose: having small rounded processes, appearing as a minutely roughened wall. Ulocladium, p. 132; Periconia, p. 74. Verticillate: having a whorl of three or more branches or sporogenous cells arising at the same level. VerticilHum, p. 92, Vesicle: an inflated cell or portion of conidiophore. Cylindrocladium, p. 108. Whorl: a number of conidia or branches attached at the same level. VerticilHum, p. 92.
FREEDOM PALESTINE
INDEX TO GENERA
Acarocybe, 158 Acladium, 76 Acrospeira, 132 Acrosporium, see Oidium Actinopelte, 174 Actinospora, 140 Aegerita, 150 Akanthomyces, 158 Alatospora, 142 -Alternaria, 132 Amblyosporium, 68 Amerosporium, 172 Ampelomyces, 166 Ampulliferina, 106 Anguillospora, 140 Annellophora, 1 1 8 Anthasthoopa, 174 Aposphaeria, 162 Aristatoma, 180 Arthrinium, 74 Arthrobotrys, 110 Arthrobotryum, 154 Arthrosporium, 154 Articulospora, 142 Aschersonia, 174 -Ascochyta, 1 7 8 -Aspergillus, 94 Asperisporium, 1 1 2 Aster omella, 164 Asteromyces, 84 Asterosporium, 194 Aureobasidium, 70 Bactridium, 148 Bactrodesmium, 150 Balanium, 106 Bartilinia, 182 Basidiobotrys, 100 Basipetospora, 70 Beauveria, 100 Beltrania, 104 Berkleasmium, 134 Bipolaris, 126 Bispora, 106 Bisporomyces, see Chloridium Blastomyces, 80 Botryoderma, 86 - Botryodiplodia, 180 Botryosporium, 76 Botryotrichum, 84 -Botrytis, 76 Brachysporium, 1 2 6 Briosia, 152 Cacumisporium, 124 Calcarisporium, 102 Camarosporium, 1 8 6 Camposporium, 1 1 6 Camptomeris, 1 5 0 Candelabrella, 110 Candida, 70 Catenophora, 188 Catinula, 172 Cephaliophora, 1 1 6 Cephalosporium, 94 Ceratophorum, 118 Ceratosporella, 144 Ceratosporium, 144 -=Cercospora, 128 Cercosporella, 128 Cercosporidium, 122 Chaetochalara, 90 Chaet omella, 176 Chaetophoma, 164 Chaetopsina, 96 Chaetopsis, 96 Chaetoseptoria, 184 Chalara, 90 Chalaropsis, 90 Cheiromyces, 150 Chlamydomyces, 82 Chloridium, 88 Choanephora, 66 Chondropodium, 186 Chromelosporium, 80 Chrysosporium, 68 Cicinnobolus, see Ampelomyces Circinotrichum, 90 Cladobotryum, 1 0 8 Cladosporiella, 92 Cladosporium, 106 Clasterosporium, 1 1 8 Clavariopsis, 140 Codinaea, 88 Coemansia, 62 Colletotrichum, 188 Coniosporium, 134 Coniothyrium, 176 Conoplea, 102 Cordana, 112 Cornularia, 186 Corynespora, 120 Coryneum, 194 Cristulariella, 74 Cryptosporium, 190 Culicidospora, 1 4 0 Cunmnghamella, 60 216 Curvularia, 122 Cylindrocarpon, 1 3 0 Cylindrocladium, 1 0 8 Cylindrosporium, 192 Cytospora, 1 7 0 Cytosporella, 1 7 0 Cytosporina, 166 Dactylaria, 110 Dactylella, 128 Dactylium, 130 Dactylosporium, 134 Darluca, 178 Deightoniella, 1 1 8 Dendrodochium, 146 Dendrographium, 154 Dendrophoma, 162 Dendrospora, 140 Dendryphion, 124 Dendryphiopsis, 120 Dichobotrys, 78 Dichomera, 186 Dichotomophthora, 120 Dicranidion, 1 3 8 Dictyoarthrinium, 134 Dictyosporium, 144 Didymaria, 1 1 0 Didymobotryum, 156 Didymostilbe, 154 Dilophospora, 166 Dimargaris, 62 Dinemasporium, 1 7 2 Diplocladiella, 142 Diplococcium, 1 1 4 -Diplodia, 180 Diplodina, 178 Diplosporium, 108 Discosia, 182 Dispira, 66 Doratomyces, 154 Dothichiza, 172 -Dothiorella, 166 Dothistroma, 180 Drechslera, 122 Dwayabeeja, 1 1 6 Echinobotryum, 84 Eleutheromycella, 168 Eleutheromyces, 1 6 8 Endocalyx, 152 Endophragmia, 118 Entomosporium, 194 Ephelis, 184
FREEDOM PALESTINE
INDEX
217
Epicoccum, 150 Everhartia, 150 fexcipularia, 148 Exosporium, 148 Flagellospora, 138 Fusariella, 130 Fusarium, 130 Fusicladium, 1 1 2 Fusicoccum, 170 Fusoma, 1 1 6 Gelatinosporium, 182 Genicularia, 1 1 0 Geniculosporium, 100 Geotrichum, 68 Gibellula, 160 Gilmaniella, 84 Gliocephalis, 94 Gliocephalotrichum, 94 Gliocladium, 92 Gliomastix, 86 Gloeosporium, 188 Glomerularia, 86 Gonatobotrys, 76 Gonatobotryum, 78 Gonatophragmium, 122 Gonatorrhodiella, 78 Gonytrichum, 98 Graphium, 152 Gyrothrix, 90 Hadrotrichum, 146 Hainesia, 174 Hansfordia, 98 Haplographium, 80 Haplosporella, 178 Harknessia, 176 Harpographium, 156 Helicocephalum, 60 Helicodendron, 136 Helicoma, 136 Helicomina, 136 Helicomyces, 136 Helicoon, 136 Helicosporium, 136 Heliscus, 108 - Helminthosporium, 124 Hendersonia, 184 Hendersonula, 180 Heterocephalum, 152 Heterosporium, 122 Hirsutella, 160 Hirudinaria, 144 Histoplasma, 82 Hobsonia, 150 Humicola, 84 Hyalodendron, 72 Hyalopycnis, 168
Hymenella, 146 Hymenostilbe, 158 Idriella, 102 Illosporium, 146 Ingoldia, 138 Insecticola, 158 lsaria, 156 Isariopsis, 154 Itersonilia, 70 Kellermania, 178 Kickxella, 64 Lacellina, 78 Lacellinopsis, 78 Lemonniera, 138 Leptographium, 98 Leptostroma, 176 Leptostromella, 184 Leptothyrium, 174 Libertella, 190 Linderina, 64 Lunulospora, 138 Macrophoma, 164 Mammaria, 84 -Marssonina, 190 MartehsSlla, 64 ' Martens iomyces, 64 Melanconium, 190 Melasmia, 174 Memnoniella, 88 Menispora, 88 Menisporopsis, 152 Metarrhizium, 94 Microclavia, 80 Micr opera, 182 Microsporum, 1 1 6 Monacrosporium, 1 1 8 "Monilia, 72 Monilochaetes, 86 Monochaetia, 192 Monocillium, 86 Mortierella, 60 Murogenella, 114 Mycogone, 82 Mycoleptodiscus, 190 Mycotypha, 60 Myrothecium, 146 Nakataea, 128 Neottiospora, 166 Nigrospora, 82 Nodulosporium, 100 Oedocephalum, 76 Oidiodendron, 68 Oidium, 68 Olpitrichum, 74 Ovularia, 104
Ovulariopsis, 70 Paecilomyces, 94 Papularia, 82 Papulospora, 196 Passalora, 1 1 2 --Penicillium, 94 Periconia, 74 Periconiella, 104 Pesotum, 152 Pestalotia, 192 Pestalozziella, 188 Peyronellaea, 164 Phaeoseptoria, 184 Phialocephala, 96 Phialomyces, 94 Phialophora, 88 Phleospora, 186 Phlvctaena, 186 "-Phoma, 162 -^Phomopsis, 164 Phragmocephala, 1 1 8 Phragmotrichum, 194 Phyllosticta, 162 Phymatotrichum, 78 Piptocephalis, 62 Pithomyces, 132 Pleiochaeta, 128 Plenodomas, 162 Pleurophragmium, 126 Pleurostromella, 170 Pleurothecium, 126 Podosporium, 154 Polynema, 192 Polythrincium, 112 Prosthemium, 186 Pseud obotrytis, 106 Pseudotorula, 1 1 6 Pucciniopsis, 148 Pyrenochaeta, 162 Pyricularia, 128 Rabenhorstia, 170 Radiomyces, 64 Ramularia, 110' Ramulispora, 148 Rhabdospora, 184 Rhinocladiella, 104 Rhinotrichum, 76 ^Rhizoctonia, 196 Rhizosphaera, 164 Rhopalomyces, 60 Rhynchophoma, 178 Rhynchosporium, 108 Robillarda, 178 Sclerographium, 158 Sclerotiopsis, 166 "Sclerotium, 196 Scolecobasidium, 1 1 4
FREEDOM PALESTINE
218 INDEX
Scolecotrichum, 112 Scopulariopsis, 98 Seimatosporium, 192 Selenophoma, 162 Selenosporella, 102 Sepedonium, 82 Septocylindrium, 128 Septogloeum, 190 Septonema, 116 -Septoria, 182 Shanoria, 172 Sirosporium, 134 Spadicoides, 114 Spegazzinia, 150 Speiropsis, 142 Spermospora, 128 Sphacelia, 148 -Sphaceloma, 188 Sphaerographium, 184 Sphaeronaema, 168 . Sphaeropsis, 176 Sphaerosporium, 146 Spilocaea, 106 Spirodactylon, 64 Spiromyces, 66 Spiropes, 158 Spondyiocladiella, 120 Sporidesmium, 120 Sporobolomyces, 70 Sporonema, 172
Sporoschisma, 130 Sporothrix, 98 Stachybotrys, 88 Stachylidium, 92 Stagonospora, 180 Staphylotrichum, 80 Steganosporium, 194 Stemphylium, 132 Stephanoma, 82 Stigmella, 134 Stigmina, 120 Stilbum, 152 Strumella, 146 Sympodiella, 104 Syncephalastrum, 66 Syncephalis, 62 Synnematium, 160 Tetrachaetum, 140 Tetracladium, 1 4 0 Tetranacrium, 182 Tetrapola, 142 Thallospora, 142 Tharoopama, 156 Thielaviopsis, 92 Thysanophora, 96 Tieghemiomyces, 62 Tilletiopsis, 72 Torula, 74 TrichocladLum, 1 1 8
Trichoderma, 92 Trichophyton, 1 1 6 Trichothecium, 108 Trichurus, 156 Tricladium, 138 Tridentaria, 140 Tripospermum, 142 Triposporium, 144 Triscelophorous, 1 3 8 Tritirachium, 100 Tubercularia, 146 Tuberculina, 1 4 8 Ulocladium, 132 Umbelopsis, 86 Varicosporium, 1 3 8 Verticicladiella, 104 Verticicladium, 104 -Verticillium, 92 Virgaria, 100 Volutella, 1 4 8 Wallemia, 92 Wardomyces, 84 Xenosporium, 136 Zygosporium, 72

Barnet & Hunter Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi

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Barnet & Hunter Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi

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FREEDOM PALESTINE

x xvi xviii xxi

41 44 44 45 48 48 5051 52 55 59 198 212 216

MAJOR GROUPINGS OF I M P E R F E C T FUNGI AND T H E I R IMPORTANCE I N T H E B I O S P H E R E

Conidia of Trichoderma sp. emerging from apices ot the conidiophores.

SACCARDOAN FORM ORDERS

One-celled Gliocladium sp. conidia in mucilaginous masses on penicillate branches of conidiophores.

Catenulate conidia conidiophore.

Arthrospores of Geotrlchum sp.

FORM ORDER SPHAEROPSIDALES

Bristle-covered pycnidia of Chaetomella s p .

FORM ORDER MELANCONIALES

FORM ORDER MYCELIA STERILIA

CYTOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL F E A T U R E S OF IMPERFECT FUNGI

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND SPORULATION OF I M P E R F E C T FUNGI

HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION (pH)

CARBON AND NITROGEN SOURCES

INORGANIC SALTS AND MICROELEMENTS

ISOLATION, CULTURE MEDIA, MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES, AND PHYSIOLOGY

A synnematous fungus (Briosia sp.) growing from decayed vegetation.

MAINTENANCE OF STOCK CULTURES

Fruiting structures of Cylindrocladium parvum growing in culture.

Conidial heads of Aspergillus niger.

PHYSIOLOGY: NUTRITION AND ENVIRONMENT

USE OF IMPERFECT FUNGI TO ILLUSTRATE BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION

Fruiting heads of Verticlciadielia procera.

Synnemata and conidia of the Dutch elm fungus, Pesotum ulmi.

TAXONOMY AND IDENTIFICATION

Helicosporium Helicoon Helicodendron

136 136 136

15b Conidia (arthrospores) formed by segmentation of hyphae, rod-shaped Geotrichum ,

Wallemia Monilia Tilletiopsis

Ovularia Sporothrix Glomerularia Umbelopsis Staphylotrichum Vertkillium

45 43 94 146 94 94 98 68 68 46 48 82 86 82 47 82 82 49 57 50 51 Verticillium Calcarisporium 92 102 52 54 53 55 Botryosporium Botrytis Dichobotrys Phymatotrichum Gliocladium 76 76 78 78 92

82 82 71 73 72 108 110 110 110 110 75 76

138 140 77 84 78 79 116 116 130 80 81 85 82 83 128 114 130 116 84

Dactylaria Dactylella Dactylium Cylindrocladium

110 128 130 108 91 74 142 92 93 94

138 140 95 97 140 140 96 138 140 98 99 142 138

Varicosporium Dendrospora Tricladiutn Triscelophorus Articulospora Tetrachaetum

92 109 110 114 Ill

Nigrospora Humicola Gilmaniella Botryothchwn Echinobotryum

Wardomyces Asteromyces Mammaria Idriella Fusicladium Spilocaea phialospores

84 84 84 102 112 106 115 90 90 116

Conidia ovoid, hyaline to dark, often in chains, not in heads

117b Conidia mostly ovoid, in small slimy heads, not catenulate

121a Dark, simple, pointed setae present 121b No setae present

Selenosporella Sympodiella Periconiella Verticicladiella Verticicladium Nodulosporium

102 104 104 104 104 100 129 102

Lacellinopsis Lacellina Periconia Gonatobotryutn Cladosporium

78 78 74 78 106 137 143 138 139

Stachybotrys Memnoniella Aspergillus

Gonytrichum Chaetopsina Phialomyces

98 96 94 142 96 96 92 74 144 98 80 80 146 147

Phialocephala Thysanophora Stachylidium Arthrinium

Leptographium Microclavia Staphylotrichum

Ampuliferina Bispora Cladosporium Trichocladium

106 106 106 118

114 148 153

112 149 112 150 151 152

106 112 112 112 154 155