1 INTRODUCTION: SETTING THE SCENE

GENERAL IMPORTANCE
Wild edible fungi (WEF1) have been collected and consumed by people for thousands of years. The archaeological record reveals edible species associated with people living 13 000 years ago in Chile (Rojas and Mansur, 1995) but it is in China where the eating of wild fungi is first reliably noted, several hundred years before the birth of Christ (Aaronson, 2000). Edible fungi were collected from forests in ancient Greek and Roman times and highly valued, though more by high-ranking people than by peasants (Buller, 1914). Caesars mushroom (Amanita caesarea) is a reminder of an ancient tradition that still exists in many parts of Italy, embracing a diversity of edible species dominated today by truffles (Tuber spp.) and porcini (Boletus edulis). China features prominently in the early and later historical record of wild edible fungi. The Chinese have for centuries valued many species, not only for nutrition and taste but also for their healing properties. These values and traditions are as strong today as they were centuries ago and are confirmed by the huge range of wild fungi collected from forests and fields and marketed widely (Wang, 1987) (Plate 8). China is also the leading exporter of cultivated mushrooms. It is less well known that countries such as Mexico (Plate 7) and Turkey, and major areas of central and southern Africa (Plate 6), also have a long and notable tradition of wild edible fungi. The list of countries where wild fungi are reported to be consumed and provide income to rural people is impressive (Annex 1). The threat posed by poisonous and lethal species is often overstated. Incidents of poisoning and deaths are few and far between compared to the regular and safe consumption of edible species, but publicity and cultural attitudes continue to fuel an intrinsic fear of wild fungi in some societies. This is more commonly found in developed countries and has undoubtedly led to general beliefs that global use of wild edible fungi is small-scale and restricted to key areas. As this publication conclusively shows, this is simply not true (Table 1). The use of wild edible fungi is both extensive and intensive, though patterns of use do vary (Annex 1). Wild edible fungi add flavour to bland staple foods but they are also valuable foods in their own right. Local names for termite mushrooms (Termitomyces) (Plate 6) reflect local beliefs that they are a fair substitute for meat, a belief that is confirmed by nutritional analyses. Not all wild edible fungi have such a high protein content but they are of comparable nutritional value to many vegetables. In addition to making substantial contri-butions to the diets of poor people in developing countries, they are an important source of income. Wild edible fungi are sold in many local markets and commercial harvesting has provided new sources of income for many rural people. The demand for specialist wild mushrooms from Europe and Japan continues to earn significant amounts for countries such as Bhutan, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea and Pakistan. Wild fungi also have medicinal properties, some of which are found in edible species (Table 1). Wild useful fungi therefore contribute towards diet, income and human health. Many species also play a vital ecological role through the symbiotic relationships known as

mycorrhizas that they form with trees. Truffles and other valuable wild edible fungi depend on trees for their growth and cannot be cultivated artificially. The mycorrhizas enable trees to grow in nutrient-poor soils. The trees of the miombo woodland of central and southern Africa and the woodland itself would not exist without their fungal partners. The importance of wild edible fungi continues to grow for more fundamental reasons. Logging bans in several countries has renewed interest in non-wood forest products (NWFP) as an alternative source of income and jobs for people previously employed in forestry. Wild edible fungi have played an important role in providing new sources of income in China and the United States of America. Further information is given in Chapters 3 and 4. To summarize, wild edible fungi are important for three main reasons: as a source of food (plus health benefits); as a source of income; to maintain the health of forests. TABLE 1 Numbers of species of wild edible and medicinal fungi CATEGORY 1. Edible only 2. Edible and medicinal 3. Food only 4. Food and medicinal 5. Medicinal only 6. Other uses (none of above) TOTAL wild useful species ALL edible only (1+2) ALL food (3+4) ALL medicinal (2+4+5) NO. OF SPECIES PERCENTAGE TOTAL 1 009 88 820 249 133 29 2 327 1 097 1 069 470 43 4 35 11 6 1

Note: Compiled from more than 200 different sources from 110 countries, but excludes a detailed review of species from developed countries. Varieties and subspecies are counted separately. The categories food and edible are mutually exclusive. To distinguish clearly between use and properties of a species: substantial numbers of edible species lack confirmed use as food. BOX 1 Wild edible fungi and mushrooms Fungi are a distinct group of organisms which include species with large and visible

fruiting bodies (macrofungi). The best known examples of macrofungi are the mushrooms. They have a cap and a stalk and are frequently seen in fields and forests. Most are simply inedible but there are notable examples that can be eaten. The number of poisonous species is relatively small while those that are fatal belong to a tiny minority. The most familiar edible mushrooms are those that are cultivated and sold fresh and tinned in shops. Macrofungi have many different shapes and appearances. Boletes have pores rather than gills on the underside of the cap; truffles grow underground and do not have a stalk and a cap (Plate 1). Huitlacoche is a Mexican food produced when maize cobs are infected by a fungus. This is clearly not a mushroom. Wild edible fungus (fungi is the plural form, usually pronounced with a hard g) is used to distinguish their origin and the fact that they include a variety of forms that include infected maize cobs, stomach fungi, boletes, bracket fungi and, of course, mushrooms. Many other publications (e.g. Hall et al., 1998a) refer to wild mushrooms, defining this broadly to include the different shapes and appearances. It is interesting to compare terms used in other languages. In Italy wild fungi are referred to as funghi comestible; there is no equivalent of mushroom in Italian. In Spanish hongo comestible and hongo silvestre are used. Seta is similar in meaning to mushroom but it does not imply that a particular species is edible. In Malawi, bowadescribes an edible fungus in the Chewa language, a term that has in essence the same meaning as wild edible fungus.

TRADITIONS AND HISTORY OF USE

Ethnomycology is the study of people and fungi and is a recent area of academic interest. It traces its roots to a landmark publication entitled Mushrooms, Russia and history (Wasson and Wasson, 1957). This privately published and discursive opus contains a wealth of useful information on the culture and history of wild fungi. Although ethnomycology began with a clear interest in wild edible fungi, later developments saw a strong emphasis on hallucinogenic mushrooms and their cultural significance (Schultes, 1940; Wasson, 1968). While this continues to be an area of understandable intrigue, the spotlight has turned back to wild edible fungi. During the last twenty to thirty years researchers have substantially increased our knowledge of local traditions in Africa, Asia and Mesoamerica (Mexico, Guatemala). An early distinction was made between mycophilia and mycophobia: In mycophilic societies or cultures, fungi are esteemed and there is a strong and long tradition of popular use. Mycophobic cultures have a minor regard for fungi and they are often actively feared (Wasson and Wasson, 1957). The British colonial record in Africa contains little information about the local use of wild edible fungi, despite the fact that people throughout southern Africa have eaten them for centuries (Morris, 1994; Piearce, 1985). The history of use of wild edible fungi is well recorded for China, although much information is still in Chinese (Plate 3). China is an example of a mycophilic country while Britain is usually classified as mycophobic. These distinctions are becoming less clear, however, and although there is still a weak tradition of collecting in northern Europe in general, more people gather from the wild than before. Some of this is for commercial reasons (Dyke and Newton, 1999) but immigrants from mycophilic countries have also changed attitudes.

There is an expanding group of people who now collect wild edible fungi in the United States, for example. Traditions vary within countries: the central and northern regions of Italy are strongly mycophilic, but the tradition of collecting and consuming wild edible fungi is less strong in the south. Catalonia in Spain has a markedly greater interest in wild edible fungi compared to other regions. Variable traditions also exist in the United Republic of Tanzania (Hrknen, Saarimki and Mwasumbi, 1994). Finland represents a particularly interesting meeting of traditions. The historical influence of Swedish culture did little to enthuse local interest in the west but, in the east, Karelian people who came from the Russian Federation to live in Finland brought a much stronger tradition and liking for wild edible fungi (Hrknen, 1998). Russians are noted for their general (though not universal) love of wild edible fungi, as witnessed by large-scale movement of people to forests at the weekend (Filipov, 1998). The Estonians have a saying that describes the Russian passion: Where there is a mushroom coming up, there is always a Russian waiting for it. In Finnish Karelia they used to say Shouting like Russians in [a] mushroom forest2. The Latin American tradition is almost wholly restricted to Mexico (see review by Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989). It extends south to Guatemala and briefly into Honduras (House, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi in Honduras) but then abruptly ends, despite the widespread occurrence of pine forests and other trees with edible mycorrhizal fungi. There is little evidence of strong traditions in South America, although studies of native people in Amazonia (Prance, 1984) revealed regular consumption and management of wild edible fungi (though all saprobic). A little-known study from Papua New Guinea (Sillitoe, 1995) reveals a wealth of information on wild edible fungi that hints at wider use in other countries. Local people reject some species that are edible. Boletes are not eaten in parts of the United Republic of Tanzania as a general rule (Hrknen, 2002). An Italian priest living in Guatemala found that local people were ignoring Boletus edulis, despite their general liking of wild edible fungi. With his encouragement they were able to enjoy a species they had previously ignored (Flores, 2002, personal communication: Guatemala edible fungi). It is not clear whether people in Europe would readily eat Phallus impudicus, however, despite its widespread popularity in China (Plate 9) and some cultures are instinctively fearful of Amanita species. This genus contains deadly poisonous as well as flavoursome species (Plate 7). BOX 2 A developing country perspective Most of the information on the biology and ecology of edible macrofungi is based on research carried out in developed countries. The literature is heavily weighted towards perceptions of value and usefulness of wild edible fungi found in the North. Here there is a strong emphasis on valuable types such as true truffles (Tuber spp.), chanterelles and various boletes of which Boletus edulis is the best known. There is much less knowledge, for example, about the many species of Lactarius or Russula eaten in Africa, from a biological, social or economic perspective. Income from wild edible fungi is an important source of revenue for rural

communities, especially in developing countries. In central southern Africa, WEF are a significant source of nutrition; so too in rural parts of China, India and Mexico. In Europe, WEF are a specialist food, a gourmet item to be savoured infrequently a reflection of the high prices demanded for prized species. This can mean good incomes for the less well-off in rural parts of Spain and Italy, but the overall importance of WEF to such societies, and indeed the potential for increased local incomes, is small compared to local use and markets in the developing world. The publication concentrates on improving knowledge about wild edible fungi in developing countries, though research and published information from the North has not been ignored. The experiences in the Pacific northwest of North America have been widely quoted following an expansion of activities on NWFP generally as traditional forestry industries declined and rural communities sought new sources of income. Finland has long promoted a wider use of wild edible fungi as the country emerged from times of economic difficulty, while the demand for matsutake (Tricholoma spp.) in Japan has been of major significance for developing countries such as China, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea and even Bhutan. These examples offer wider insights on a number of different aspects of wild edible fungi, from management of natural resources to collection practices. A comprehensive review of WEF use in the South and in the North is, however, beyond the scope of the current publication. That is not to say that the collection of truffles in Italy or France, or nscalos (Lactarius deliciosus) in Spain, are without economic importance to local people (de Romn, 2002, personal communication: Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production), but again these are of lesser significance as a source of income compared with comparable activities in many developing countries.

PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLICATION

This publication presents information on the importance of wild edible fungi to people. It includes details of species collected and sold, but there is a particular emphasis on social and economic aspects in an attempt to show how wild edible fungi might contribute to rural livelihoods. There is a wealth of information on the biology and general characteristics of macrofungi but this is only discussed in detail where it is relevant to either people or the use of natural resources. A broader aim of the publication is to increase awareness of wild edible fungi and to emphasize the ecological link between key species of wild edible fungi and forests. Suggestions are made on how to manage wild edible fungi in a sustainable manner, taking into account the multiple use of forests and other forest users. There is a strong emphasis on developing countries (the South) in many of the discussions, particularly when reviewing how to improve the benefits of wild edible fungi and their sustainable production. Information is also drawn from case studies and experiences with wild edible fungi in developed countries (the North). The reasons for concentrating on developing countries are explained in more detail in Box 2. The publication is divided into five chapters and includes a comprehensive series of tables and annexes. The reader is pointed towards primary and other sources of information,

bearing in mind that personal communications with the authors have been an important means of learning more about wild edible fungi. Original publications are often difficult to obtain and general sources such as the excellent literature reviews by Rammeloo and Walleyn (1993) and Walleyn and Rammeloo (1994) are recommended for Africa south of the Sahara. There is a need to undertake similar reviews for other regions of the world, thus increasing awareness of a surprising breadth of published information and stimulating interest in new lines of research. The characteristics of wild edible fungi are briefly described in Chapter 2 and include key facts on biology, ecology, edibility and cultivation. The emphasis is on general information and few technical details are presented. Major genera are described in outline. Latin names are mostly used throughout the book since there are few common names for wild edible fungi that easily transfer from one country or language to another. The exceptions include matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake but also T. magnivelare and other species), chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) and porcini (Boletus edulis). Management issues are explored in Chapter 3, and this includes a review of collectors and the relationship between harvesting and forest management. This section examines some of the broader issues concerning multiple use of forests, productivity of wild edible fungi and access to collecting sites. Chapter 4 continues the discussions begun in the previous chapter but pays particular attention to people and how wild edible fungi are traded, their importance to diet and nutrition. Trade data, marketing and commercialization are explored, with a final section that briefly summarizes the use of wild edible fungi by region and country. The final chapter moves from the present to the future. Chapter 5 examines possibilities for future initiatives with an emphasis on practical steps that could be taken to increase benefits to rural people while sustaining production of wild edible fungi and achieving sound forest management. The publication describes known constraints to the sustainable use of wild edible fungi. A forest manager in western China despaired of getting local collectors to adopt less destructive harvesting practices for a prized edible fungus known as matsutake(Winkler, 2002). Such constraints, it is suggested, can be overcome and changes effected, but only if actions are based on a sound knowledge of what people do and why.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Information has been gathered on activities in 85 predominantly, but not exclusively, developing countries (see Box 2). The published and accessible information has varied hugely in terms of emphasis (Table 2), detail and accuracy and has demanded careful examination. There are many mycological publications, for example, that list species as being edible but do not elaborate on their local use. General accounts of NWFP talk about mushrooms without specifying which types. Over 800 papers, books, newspaper articles, personal communications, Web sites and miscellaneous other sources of information were consulted. Information on wild edible fungi is spread across many different disciplines (Table 2). Each discipline represents a different set of interests but also with some overlap. This is the first time that a broad review of wild edible fungi has been attempted and there is undoubtedly still much to learn, particularly from the Russian and Chinese literature. Information about wild edible fungi in the Russian

Federation was only available because of a translation made by Dr Seona Anderson of a key text (Vasileva, 1978). TABLE 2 Disciplines and areas of activity containing information on wild useful fungi DISCIPLINE OR TOPIC Mycology, including mycorrhizas NOTES The study of fungi (mycology) includes molecular biology, biochemistry and more traditional topics such as ecology and taxonomy. Published information generally has little detail about the use of fungi by people, particularly the social and economic aspects. Mycorrhizal studies have a combined interest in fungi and plants. Edible ectomycorrhizal fungi have only recently emerged as a subdiscipline within a much larger area of study. Field guides contain descriptions of species and photographs and are used mostly for identification purposes. The majority of guides are published in the North and therefore have a limited use in developing countries. A few guides are specifically for edible fungi. Natural history publications have provided some information on uses of WEF by people, though this group is often ignored or dealt with fleetingly. There is an extensive literature on cultivated mushrooms. Regular meetings are held which have strong commercial support. There has been recent interest (e.g. Mshigeni and Chang, 2000) in the introduction of small-scale production units to developing countries and a small but growing literature on managing natural areas for production of matsutakeand truffles (Federation-Francaise-des-Trufficulteurs, 2001).

Field biology and natural history

Cultivation of mushrooms

Ethnomycology Ethnomycology is a relatively young area of investigation. Topics include the cultural, ceremonial and medicinal uses of fungi by people. Ethnomycology was originally dominated by the study of hallucinogenic mushrooms and their cultural significance and little attention has been paid to the uses of WEF by people. Nutrition, The literature on nutritional value is surprisingly large though analytical human health, approaches vary and comparison of results is difficult. Most analyses food security have involved cultivated mushroom species with only a few wild edible species included. There has been a huge expansion of scientific research on cultivated, medicinal mushrooms, mushrooms as dietary supplements and nutriceuticals, but this is of limited relevance to development initiatives. There are few studies that have considered wild edible fungi in the context of food security, though this angle deserves closer attention. Markets and trade Data on volumes and values of wild edible fungi collected are weak, patchy and often unreliable. Global estimates of trade are open to interpretation and unreliable sources may acquire a spurious credibility by repeat references. Although caution is needed when reviewing marketing data there has been more accurate documentation in recent years.

Wood and Wild edible fungi appear regularly in NWFP studies but individual non-wood species are often not mentioned (if ever identified). Specific and forest products detailed interest has grown as the result of activities in the Pacific northwest of the United States and Canada and elsewhere. General NWFP studies are often a disappointing source of information on wild edible fungi.
1

See Box 1 for a discussion of terminology used in this book. Information provided by Marja Hrknen.

2 CHARACTERISTICS: BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY, USES, CULTIVATION

Mycology is the study of fungi and mycologists are the people who carry out these studies. New research methods have substantially increased knowledge about the fundamental nature of fungi. Much of this research has focused on fungi that cause plant diseases. Research on edible fungi has concentrated on a small group of species that are commercially cultivated. Wild edible fungi have, until recently, been relatively ignored by science, though amateur mycologists often documented species they found in field studies, mostly in Europe or countries in which Europeans have settled. There has always, however, been a keen interest in a small group of valuable wild edible fungi that cannot be cultivated. These include the truffles (Tuber spp.), matsutake (Tricholoma spp.) and porcini or cpes (Boletus edulis). Their biology and ecology have been studied in some detail a marked contrast to the many other wild edible fungi used around the world. The consequence of this neglect is that wild edible species used in developing countries are poorly known. Some information is available from studies of close relatives in temperate regions. Russula and Lactarius occur around the world, for example, and knowledge of species in Europe can be applied with some caution and caveats to African species. The main problem is naming and recognizing species. Genera and species concepts were originally based on the narrower range of diversity found in temperate regions and these may require fundamental reappraisal as tropical species become better known. This chapter provides a brief introduction to the larger fungi (macrofungi), with special reference to those that are edible. The use of specialist terms has been avoided where simpler alternatives are available. Field guides contain useful glossaries and there are an increasing number of Web sites that help in understanding technical terms (Chapter 6). The Dictionary of the fungi is a regularly updated text with details about all fungal genera and other information on mycology (Kirk et al., 2001).

WHAT ARE FUNGI?

Fungi are a distinct group of organisms more closely related to animals than plants. At present fungi are divided into three separate and distinct kingdoms based on an expanded

knowledge of their biochemistry and genetic makeup established especially over the last 30 or so years. It is wrong and misleading to refer to fungi as plants without chlorophyll (FAO, 1998a). Despite fundamental differences, fungi are often classified as plants. Understanding the taxonomic status of fungi has little apparent significance to people collecting and selling wild edible fungi, but it is of critical importance in establishing a sound and robust classification system. This ensures that when two people use the same species name they know that they are referring to the same (edible) fungus. The classification of fungi with plants has inadvertent practical consequences. It is not always clear whether ethnobotanical studies include wild fungi, as is the case with a study from Turkey (Ertrug, 2000). Ethnomycology is the correct term that indicates fungi are involved. On a similar track, flora refers only to plants. The equivalent term for fungi is mycota. These fungal terms may be unfamiliar but their use helps to identify published information on wild edible fungi clearly that may otherwise be ignored or missed. Structure and feeding Fungi come in many shapes, sizes and colours (Plate 1). Macrofungus (plural: macrofungi) is a general category used for species that have a visible (to the unaided eye) structure that produces spores, such as a mushroom or truffle. These visible structures are generically referred to as fruiting bodies. Fungi consist of fine threads known as hyphae, which together form a mycelium, as in the mould growing on a piece of fruit or bread. The cap of a mushroom or a bracket fungus also consists of hyphae, densely packed together to form the fruiting body. Specialized hyphae produce spores that are dispersed in a number of ways. They can be viewed en masse by placing the cap of a mushroom on a piece of white paper and covering it with a glass (Plate 3). The colour, form and way in which spores develop help to identify the fungus. Wild edible fungi are often referred to generically as wild edible mushrooms. This can be confusing for a number of reasons: edible species have different forms, some with gills and some with pores, some with stems and some without (Plate 1). This book prefers the broader term wild edible fungi to reflect the diversity of forms and also to distinguish them clearly from cultivated mushrooms (Box 1). How fungi feed Fungi are dependent on dead and living material for their growth. They obtain their nutrients in three basic ways: SAPROBIC3 growing on dead organic matter; SYMBIOTIC growing in association with other organisms; PATHOGENIC or PARASITIC causing harm to another organism. The majority of wild edible fungi species are symbiotic and form mycorrhizas with trees (see below). Saprobic edible fungi are also collected from the wild but they are best known and most widely valued in their cultivated forms. Plant pathogenic fungi cause diseases of plants

and a small number of these microfungi are eaten in the form of infected host material (Plate 2). The different modes of feeding are shown in Plate 2 and described briefly below. Saprobic fungi Fungi colonize rotting wood and organic matter found in soil. Many species cannot be seen with the naked eye (microfungi) but there are (edible) macrofungi that fruit on fallen logs and bracket fungi that grow from dead or dying parts of standing trees. Agaricus arvensis is a commonly collected wild edible species that occurs in pastures and grassy areas. Edible species of Favolus are collected from dead wood inside tropical rain forests. The wild edible fungi used by the Yanomam Indians in Brazil are all saprobic and occurred in slash and burn areas where rotting wood was present (Prance, 1984). In the wild, the volume and value of saprobic species used as food are small by comparison with the symbiotic edible fungi, though more edible saprobic species are collected. Their overall value is much higher because they are widely cultivated: a recent figure of US$18 billion was quoted for the annual, global trade in cultivated, saprobic species (Chang, 1999; see also Table 19). Saprobic species need a constant supply of suitable organic matter to sustain production in the wild and this can be a limiting factor in production. Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushroom cultivation in one area of China is threatened by the supply of suitable tree branches from nearby forests (Pauli, 1998). Saprobic macrofungi are also highly valued for their medicinal properties. Most are cultivated, though Ganoderma spp. (Plate 9) are also collected from the wild. The list of symbiotic macrofungi with medicinal properties is a short one, though there is some indication that they have been studied less because they cannot be cultivated (Reshetnikov, Wasser and Tan, 2001). Symbiotic fungi The most common form of symbiosis associated with wild edible fungi is that known as a mycorrhiza (Plate 2). Many plants depend on these fungus-root associations for healthy growth. A special type known as an ectomycorrhiza (ECM) is found on trees growing in the Taiga in the Russian Federation and the rain forest of Borneo and includes legume trees as well as conifers (Table 3). Ectomycorrhiza are typically formed by macrofungi and they include many of the key edible species that are collected in the wild, such as chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) and Amanita species. The mycorrhiza helps the tree to grow in nutrient-poor soils, such as the miombo woodland of central and southern Africa (Campbell, 1996). A sheath of hyphae wraps around the root. They penetrate the root structure but not the actual root cells themselves, forming a living contact between the fungus and the tree. The fungus helps the tree gather water from a wider catchment and delivers nutrients from the soil that the tree cannot access. The tree provides the fungus with essential carbohydrates. Termitomyces contains important wild edible species. These fungi only grow in association with termites and their nests and are dependent on the organic matter brought by the insects from their feeding on trees. Although Termitomyces are saprobic, they are symbiotic with termites. Twenty edible species of Termitomyces have been recorded from Africa and

Asia (Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994). They are regularly collected and also sold (Plate 6). T. titanicus is the worlds largest edible fungus, although other species are much smaller. Rural people have long associated the appearance of edible fungi with particular trees and have incorporated this in local names. In southern Africa, chimsuku and kamsuku both describe Lactarius spp. that grow under masuku trees (Piearce, 1981). Some edible ectomycorrhizal fungi produce their fruiting bodies underground. The best known examples are the truffles (Tuber spp.: Plate 4). Over 400 species of edible ECM have been recorded (Wang, Buchanan and Hall, 2002). There are also many ectomycorrhizal fungi which produce fruiting bodies that are not edible or are poisonous. The production of fruiting bodies depends on a complex set of factors and in some years production can be negligible. In Botswana, 14 tonnes of Terfezia pfeilii, one of the desert truffles, were bought from one small community in one season; the next year only four fruiting bodies were located over a much larger area (Taylor, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi eaten and traded in Botswana and Namibia). The lack of certainty of harvests from one year to the next makes it difficult to plan commercial exploitation and some attempts have been made to overcome this by cultivating key mycorrhizal species such as Tricholoma matsutake (Hall et al., 1998). Trees are successfully infected with truffles (Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998) and managed under controlled conditions in Italy (Plate 4) and elsewhere, but the time, effort and money required are only justified assuming a good knowledge of the ecology of the fungus concerned for the most valuable edible mycorrhizal species. Tree species can form mycorrhizas with more than one fungus, and a fungus may associate with more than one tree. Some ECM are native to a region: in Madagascar an edible Russula grows on exotic eucalyptus (Buyck, 2001). Other edible ECM have been introduced and Boletus edulis is now found throughout southern Africa following the establishment of pine plantations. ECM have been most intensively studied in the past on temperate tree species but there have also been steady advances on tropical ECM in Africa (Thoen, 1993; Verbecken and Buyck, 2002). Lichens are self-supporting associations between fungi and an alga or cyanobacterium and are the final example of a symbiosis that has edible properties. A lichen is a biological and not a systematic group (Kirk et al., 2001) and several valuable species are eaten by people in Europe, Asia and North America and used for other economic purposes. They are not included in this book. Further information is available from a number of sources (e.g. Richardson, 1991; Marles et al., 2000). TABLE 3 Plant families with edible ectomycorrhizal fungi FAMILY Betulaceae Casuarinaceae Cupressaceae EXAMPLES Betula (birches) Casuarina Cupressus

Caesalpinioideae Afzelia, Brachystegia, Isoberlinia, Julbernardia

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea, Dipterocarpus, Monotes

Euphorbiaceae Fagaceae Legumes Myrtaceae Pinaceae Papilionoideae Nyctaginaceae

Uapaca Castanea (chestnut), Castanopsis, Fagus (northern beech), Nothofagus(southern beech), Quercus (oak) Acacia Eucalyptus Pinus (pines), Picea (spruces), Abies (firs), Larix (larches) Pericopsis Neea

For details of ectomycorrhizas on tropical trees, see Alexander and Hogberg (1986). Plant pathogens and parasitic fungi In several countries people eat plant material infected with plant pathogenic fungi. Maize cobs infected with the smut fungus Ustilago maydis are consumed in large quantities in Mexico, both fresh and canned. They are known locally as huitlacoche or cuitlacoche(Villanueva, 1997). U. maydis is a microfungus: it does not form a visible fruiting body and the only signs of its presence are a mass of dark spores (Plate 1). The cobs appear to become sweeter as the result of fungus attack (Sommer, 1995), and similar changes have been noted for the edible rust fungus Cronartium conigenum on pines in Mexico. Other examples include: Ustilago esculenta on wild rice; Sporisorium cruenta on sorghum in China (Guozhong, 2002, personal communication: Eating Sporisorium cruenta in China); winged bean infected by Synchytrium psophocarpi in Indonesia (Rifai, 1989). Hypomyces lactifluorum is a parasite macrofungus that grows on other macrofungi (boletes). It is eaten from Canada through to Guatemala and completes the range of ecological niches occupied by wild edible fungi.

IDENTIFICATION
Local and scientific names Local names have been well documented in Mexico (Guzmn, 1997), China (Mao, 2000) and can be checked online for Malawi (www.malawifungi.org)4 against the equivalent scientific names. Each of these countries has a rich lexicon of names and terms (Figure 1), a sign of the importance of wild edible fungi to rural people. Some local names have been adopted more widely, particularly for valuable edible fungi. Boletus edulis is commonly referred to by its French (cpe) or Italian name (porcino plural porcini), and Tricholoma matsutake by its Japanese name of matsutake. The system of scientific names aims to remove doubt about the fungus being described. A person with Cantharellus cibarius in Nepal knows they have the same fungus as someone in Mozambique, assuming both have been accurately identified. The scientific name or binomial has two parts. The first name is the genus (Cantharellus) followed by the species name (cibarius). Named varieties exist for some species but their scientific validity is often uncertain.

Local names for edible fungi are based on shape, taste and other properties that are distinctive or important to people. The lichen (Umbilicaria esculenta) and an edible fungus (Auricularia auricula-judae) have similar common names in Hunan Yan-er (ear of a rock) andMu-er (ear of wood) respectively. This identifies where they grow and can be collected. Mycologists are sometimes wary of local classifications because they are based on scientifically unreliable characters (Hrknen, 2002). Local names provide important clues to the uses and importance of edible fungi to people and there is much to be gained from their study. Local names allow researchers to learn about collecting practices, to analyse markets and to talk with forest managers and others who lack formal training in science and are unfamiliar with genera and species names. Examples of ethnographic studies involving wild useful fungi are listed in Table 13. Guidelines for conducting such studies are available from a number of different sources (e.g. Alexiades, 1996). Local and scientific classifi-cations serve two different groups of people and neither is infallible. Edible species of Boletus are not eaten in parts of the United Republic of Tanzania, for example (Hrknen, 2002), reflecting local custom rather than scientific fact. Field guides often disagree on which species are edible, either because they are cautious about recommending species that require pre-cooking or because the authors are unaware of local customs in different parts of the world. What is clear, however, is that there are many poorly described species sold and collected for personal use in developing countries. The rate of discovery is directly related to funding for projects and the ability to draw upon mycological expertise from different countries. Work in the United Republic of Tanzania (Hrknen, Codjia and Yorou, 1995), Mozambique and Malawi (Boa et al., 2000), Burundi (Buyck, 1994b) and Benin (De Kesel, Saarimki and Mwasumbi, 2002) emphasizes the richness of the tropical, edible mycota and how much remains to be done. In the absence of such mycological expertise local names can provide useful information, particularly if dried specimens are available for later examination. An accurately identified specimen with a scientific name for that species ensures that any new knowledge can be reliably used. A scientific name is the most useful way of finding out whether a species is edible or poisonous, or if it has medicinal or other useful properties. An importer does not need to know if the pied de mouton from Bulgaria is Hydnum repandum since the genus contains only edible species, but an Italian buyer will pay less for the ordinary Tuber sinosum from China compared with other more valuable species. In this instance a scientific name reliably and uniquely describes the fungus in question, for which information can be gleaned from the literature. FIGURE 1 Naming the parts of a mushroom

This example is based on a fruiting body of an Amanita. Other genera lack a volva (the sac that encloses the expanding fruiting body) and the ring may be absent. The English name is in bold; Spanish in capitals followed by popular names from Ajusco and Topilejo in Mexico. Source: adapted from Reygadas, Zamoni-Martinez and Cifuentes, 1995. Using the current or correct scientific name for a fungus The scientific names for fungi are constantly changing an indication of how much there is still to discover about the diversity of species. New names are proposed and generic boundaries adjusted, both as the result of new discoveries and a revision of the relationships between species. When a new species is proposed it is judged against guidelines and rules drawn up and regularly revised by scientists. The correct publication of a new name does not mean that scientists agree on its taxonomic status. The boundaries between genera and species are open to different interpretations and that is why there are preferred rather than correct scientific names for fungi. These changes and uncertainties have important practical consequences for people using wild edible fungi. People have to be aware that a species was previously known by a different name or synonym when searching for information: Termitomyces albuminosus was once known as Collybia albuminosa. Other changes are less

dramatic. Lentinus edodes, or shiitake now has the preferred name of Lentinula edodes. The older non-preferred name is still regularly used in publications. Opinions are still divided as to whether Coriolus species with medicinal properties should be renamed Trametes. Auricularia auricula-judae, the preferred name, appears variously as Hirneola auricula-judae and Auricularia auricula. Table 4 lists the preferred names of wild edible fungi that are still commonly referred to by other names. Common spelling mistakes also appear in publications; even minor differences can cast doubt on the identity of a fungus. The Dictionary of the fungi is a standard reference that is regularly revised to list all genera of fungi (Kirk et al. 2001). Index Fungorum, an Internet resource, allows users to check the preferred or non-preferred status for species names and to find synonyms (www.indexfungorum.org). This is of considerable practical benefit, although Index Fungorum lacks the backing required to answer fully queries about which scientific name to use for wild edible fungi. This practical need has still to be addressed by the scientific community. TABLE 4 Preferred (current or correct) names of economically important wild fungi AS PUBLISHED Armillariella mellea Auricularia auricula Xerocomus badius Boletus granulatus Boletus luteus PREFERRED NAME Armillaria mellea Auricularia auriculajudae Boletus badius Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus

Calvatia gigantea, Lycoperdon Langermannia gigantea gigantea Collybia albuminosa Coriolus hirsutus Coriolus versicolor Dendropolyporus umbellatus Fomitopsis officinalis Grifola umbellatus Hericium erinaceum + Hirneola auricula-judae Hydnum imbricatus Hypsizygus ulmarium Termitomyces albuminosus Trametes hirsuta Trametes versicolor Polyporus umbellatus Laricifomes officinalis Polyporus umbellatus Hericium erinaceus Auricularia auriculajudae Sarcodon imbricatus Lyophyllum ulmarium

Lentinus edodes Lepiota procera Lepiota rhacodes Panus rudis

Lentinula edodes Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Lentinus strigosus

Pleurotus Pleurotus cornucopiae var.citrinopileatus citrinopileatus Pleurotus ferulae Pleurotus olearius Pleurotus opuntiae Pleurotus porrigens Pleurotus tuber-regium Poria cocos; Wolfiporia cocos Rozites caperata + Sparassis radicata Strobilomyces costatispora Termitomyces eurrhizus + Tricholoma gambosa Tricholoma lobayensis; T. lobayense Verpa bohemica Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae Omphalotus olearius Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurocybella porrigens Lentinus tuberregium Wolfiporia extensa Rozites caperatus Sparassis crispa Afroboletus costatisporus Termitomyces eurhizus Calocybe gambosa Macrocybe lobayensis Ptychoverpa bohemica

See www.indexfungorum.org for further advice and information. + indicates a common misspelling. Identifying species The genera of wild edible fungi found in tropical and subtropical climates are broadly similar to those found in the mycota of temperate regions (Lincoff, 2002). The species diversity is, however, much greater in developing countries and care must be taken when comparing specimens with the narrower range of species illustrated in the many field guides published in Europe and North America. Edible fungi occur in two major taxonomic groups. The basidiomycetes contain the mushrooms, bracket fungi and boletes (Plate 1); the ascomycetes include truffles (Plate 4) and morels (Plate 9). There is no simple test for determining edibility. The scientific literature is the best objective source of advice, but local practices and preferences can also

reveal useful information. Empirical evidence is the ultimate indication of whether or not a species is edible. The classical method for identifying a macrofungus involves a microscopic examination of tissues, spores and sporing structures. This will at least ensure that the genus is identified. Identification of the lesser known tropical species may also require examination of reference collections (Plate 3). Useful visual clues can be obtained from photographs in field guides and there are increasing numbers of Web sites with photographs and written descriptions of species (Chapter 6). Information on Mexican NWFP provided by the Secretara de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (2002) on the Internet includes wild edible fungi and is an excellent example of an online guide that could be developed for other regions (see www.semarnat.gob.mx). Expert identifications can be costly, although paying for an identification does provide a guarantee of getting a response to a query (Meijer, 2001). Preserving specimens is always useful and at its simplest provides a local reference for comparing specimens. Most macrofungi are easily preserved by drying (Halling, 1996). There are special drying racks for fungi (Plate 3), but these can also be locally improvised, adopting methods used for drying fruits and other food produce. Dried specimens can, if necessary, be sent at a later date for scientific identification and should be accompanied by field notes and/or colour photographs. Molecular tools are commonly used to identify plant pathogenic fungi and have also been applied to truffle species in order to detect which species are used in prepared foods. The practical application of these tools for identifying and characterizing edible macrofungi has still to be explored. Sources of technical advice and support are discussed in Chapter 6.

MAJOR GROUPS OF WILD FUNGI

There are more than 200 genera of macrofungi which contain species of use to people, mostly because of their edible properties. A clear distinction is made in this book between those recorded as simply edible and those that are actually eaten (food). To include all edible species as food would greatly overstate the number of species consumed by people around the world. Wild fungi with medicinal properties are also valued by rural people in several countries, though this is of secondary importance. The major genera of wild edible fungi are described in Table 5, with brief notes on medicinal species. The genera of wild edible fungi can be divided into two categories: those containing species that are widely consumed and often exported in significant quantities, such asBoletus and Cantharellus; and those with species that are eaten widely, usually in small amounts, and rarely if ever traded beyond national boundaries. Annex 1 summarizes the general importance of wild edible fungi by country while Annexes 2 and 4 list individual species. Medicinal mushrooms Medicinal mushrooms are attracting greater scientific and commercial interest, prompted by a renewed awareness of the use of such material in traditional Chinese medicine (Table 17). The International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms began publication in 1999 and is an

important source of information for this expanding field of research (Wasser and Weis, 1999b). See Chapter 4 for further discussions about the health benefits of medicinal mushrooms. TABLE 5 Important genera of wild fungi with notes on uses and trade Information obtained mostly from developing countries. See www.wildusefulfungi.org for more details of individual records for species and countries. Food signifies confirmed use of species; edible is a noted property without confirmed consumption. The total number of edible species is the sum of the two. Use refers to country of origin and not countries of export. Medicinal (med.) is a noted property and does not confirm use of species for health reasons. Edible species may have medicinal properties and therefore the total number of species in bold may be less than the sum of individual uses. See Lincoff (2002) for distribution of major groups of edible fungi around the world. GENUS NO. OF SPECIESUSE AND PROPERTIES COUNTRY USE AND GENERAL NOTES

Agaricus

60 Edible species reported from 29 countries, as food in 13 (under-reported, though note possible confusion between wild food 43 and cultivated sources). edible 17 med. 6 Agaricus species are regularly collected from the wild but only cultivated forms are exported. Some species are poisonous. A. bisporus is the mostly commonly cultivated edible fungus. The medicinal A. blazei is exported from Brazil to Japan and cultivated and sold in China.

Amanita

83 Edible species reported from 31 countries; as food in 15 (under-reported). food 42 A. caesarea is highly valued in countries such as Mexico, Turkey and Nepal. Few species are traded edible 39 across national borders. There are a notable number of poisonous species. A. phalloides is a major cause of med. 7 deaths around the world from consumption of wild fungi. 13 Edible species reported from 24 countries, as food in 10 (under-reported). food 10 A global genus with a relatively small number of species. Known generically as ear fungi, they are edible 3 distinctive, easily recognized and consumed by forest dwellers in Kalimantan as well as rural communities in med. 4 all continents. Some species have medicinal properties. There is a major trade in cultivated species though few data have been seen. Key species: A. auricula-judae

Auricularia

Boletus

72 Edible species reported from 30 countries; as food in 15 (under-reported) food 39 B. edulis is the best known species, regularly collected and sold and major exports from outside and within edible 33 Europe. There are a some poisonous species but few incidents. Bolete is a general description of a med. 7 macrofungus with a stalk and pores on the underside of the cap. Apprehension exists about eating boletes in east and southern Africa. 42 Edible species reported from 45 countries; as food in 22 (under-reported). food 22 A diverse and cosmopolitan genus containing widespread species such as C. cibarius. Sold in edible 20 markets in many countries, sometimes in functional mixtures of different species. Major quantities are med. 3 collected and exported around the world. No poisonous species. 37 Useful species (mostly medicinal) reported from three countries. edible? 35 The only reason for eating species is for health benefits. Collected intensively in parts of China and med. 9 less so in Nepal. Many species described from Japan, but local use uncertain. Widely valued for its medicinal properties and an important source of income for collectors. Key species: probably C. sinensis and C. militaris 50 Edible species reported from 11 countries; as food in three. food 30 edible 20 med. 10 Widely disregarded in Europe and North America because of concern about poisonous species. Most records of local use are restricted to a few countries e.g. China, Japan, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. No known export trade.

Cantharellus

Cordyceps

Cortinarius

Laccaria

14 Edible species reported from 17 countries; as food in four (under reported) food 9 Regularly collected and eaten, also sold widely in markets. No edible 5 reports of export trade, which is unsurprising given their generally small size and unremarkable taste. Key species is L. med. 4 laccata. 94 Edible species reported from 39 countries; as food in 17 (under reported). food 56 Many different species are regularly collected and eaten. Key species such as L. deliciosus are highly edible 38 esteemed and there is a valuable trade in Europe.

Lactarius

med. 7

Several key species frequently sold in local markets. Little reported export activity despite widespread popularity, perhaps reflecting the diversity of species on offer.

Leccinum

22 Edible species reported from eight countries; as food in two. food 4 edible 9 Widely eaten and collected but little trade beyond national boundaries. Key species L. scabrum. Possible exports from pine plantations in tropics, but poorly understood.

Lentinula

3 Edible species reported from six countries; as food in four. food 2 edible 1 med.1 Lentinula edodes is the key species (= Lentinus edodes). Known as shiitake it is cultivated in many countries and is an important commercial species (nearing 30% cultivated amount). Cultivated shiitake is exported.

Lentinus

28 Edible species reported from 24 countries; as food in eight (under-reported). food 16 Although many different species are collected and used locally only two or three are of any significance. Key edible 12 species probably L. tuber-regium, valued for its medicinal properties. Little or no export trade. med. 5 NO. OF SPECIESUSE AND PROPERTIES COUNTRY USE AND GENERAL NOTES

GENUS

Lycoperdon

22 Edible species reported from 19 countries; as food in seven (under-reported). food 9 There are many records of species being eaten but typically reports are of small-scale collecting and use. edible 10 Only market sales known are in Mexico. Key species areL. pyriforme and L. perlatum. med. 10 13 Edible species reported from 33 countries; as food in nine (under-reported). food 7 M. procera is the key species and most recorded, from around edible 6 15 countries on all major continents. Locally consumed; trade is essentially small-scale and local. med. 1 18 Edible species reported from 28 countries; as food in 10 (under recorded). food 14 Highly valued genus with several species that fruit in abundance in certain years and are a major source of (export) revenue in several countries. Species are not

Macrolepiota

Morchella

edible 4 med. 5 Pleurotus

always eaten in countries where they are collected. Key species M. esculenta.

40 Edible species reported from 35 countries; as food in 19 (under reported). food 22 Key species is P. ostreatus in terms of amounts eaten, predominantly from cultivation. Other species said to edible 18 be more tasty. Species occur widely and are regularly picked though seldom traded from the wild. med. 7 30 Edible and medicinal species reported from 20 countries; as food or medicine in seven. food 15 Many species are regularly used and eaten but of relatively minor importance. Some are cultivated. Only edible 9 one record known, from Nepal, of selling in markets. No international trade is known to occur. med. 12 44 Edible species reported from 18 countries; used as food in seven. food 33 Many records of local use. Regularly sold in markets in Nepal and Mexico and elsewhere. Several major edible 11 species but perhaps R. botrytis is the most commonly collected and used. Some species are poisonous, med. 5 others are reported to have medicinal properties. 128 Edible species reported from 28 countries; as food in 12 (under-reported). food 71 One of the most widespread and commonly eaten genera containing many edible species. Also poisonous edible 54 varieties though most can be eaten after cooking. Regularly sold in markets but species names not med. 25 always recorded. Genus is of tropical origin. Notable species include R. delica and R. virescens. 27 Edible species reported from 25 countries; as food in 10 (under-recorded). food 26 Key species is S. luteus, exported from Chile. S. granulatus is more widely recorded though its use as a edible 1 food is limited. Many other species are regularly collected and eaten and several are sold in Mexican med. 2 markets. 7 Edible species reported from eight countries; as food in four. food 5 edible 2 Desert truffles occur widely in North Africa and parts of Asia. They are said to be important but few details were found concerning trade or market sales.

Polyporus

Ramaria

Russula

Suillus

Terfezia

Termitomyces

27 Edible species reported from 35 countries; as food in 16 (under-reported). food 23 Highly esteemed genus. Many species are widely eaten with often high nutritional value. Collected notably edible 4 throughout Africa. Used widely in Asia but less well documented. Notable species include T. clypeatus, T. med. 3 microporus and T. striatus. Sold in markets and along roadsides, and good source of income. 52 Edible species reported from 30 countries; as food in 11 (under-reported). food 39 The most important species is T. matsutake, in terms of volume collected and financial value. China, both edible 13 Koreas and the Russian Federation are major exporters to Japan. The Pacific northwest of North America, med. 17 Morocco and Mexico export related species, but only in significant quantities from the first. Some species are poisonous if eaten raw; others remain so even after cooking. Ignored or lowly esteemed in several countries prior to export opportunities e.g. Bhutan, Mexico (Oaxaca). 18 Edible species reported from eight countries; as food in four (under-reported). food 8 Contains species of extremely high value and much esteemed in gourmet cooking, but only of very minor edible 10 significance to poor communities in the South. There is some interest from Turkey in management of truffles. Scientific principles have been applied to truffle management and successful schemes initiated in Italy, France, Spain and New Zealand. The false truffles comprise other genera e.g. Tirmania, Rhizopogon, Terfezia. 12 Edible species reported from 27 countries; as food in 7 (under-reported, though note possible confusion between wild food 5 and cultivated origins). edible 7 med. 1 TABLE 6 Fungi with conflicting reports on edibility Key species is V. volvacea. Widely cultivated and sold in local markets but also collected from the wild.

Tricholoma

Tuber (truffles)

Volvariella

BINOMIAL Agaricus arvensis

NOTES Reported mostly as edible and eaten in Mexico; also said to be a gastrointestinal irritant (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977).

Agaricus semotus

Said to be edible from Hong Kong (Chang and Mao, 1995); others say it is poisonous (Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993).

Amanita spissa Several reports indicate this can be eaten (although none state food); an equal number say it is poisonous, e.g. Chang and Mao, 1995. Amanita flavoconia Amanita gemmata Conflicting accounts from Mexico: one report says it is edible, the other that it is poisonous. Reported as edible from Mexico and Costa Rica but implicated in a poisoning case from Guatemala (Logemann et al., 1987).

Boletus calopus Edible in the Russian far east (Vasileva, 1978); said to be poisonous in Slovenia (www.matkurja.com) and by other field guides. Chlorophyllum molybdites Many reports confirm that this is a poisonous species but it is also said to be edible in Mexico (Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989) and Benin (De Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002). Easily confused with Macrolepiota procera, a well known edible species. Eaten in Nigeria (Oso, 1975); other reports suggest it is poisonous in Africa (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994). Edible if eaten in the absence of alcohol; this produces an unpleasant effect if imbibed at the same time, hence remarks that it is potentially poisonous (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). In Finland it is a delicacy (Hrknen, 1998) and it is also widely eaten in the Russian Federation and neighbouring regions. In other countries it is said to be poisonous and can kill when raw (Hall et al., 1998a). The toxic properties are mitigated by suitable preparation prior to eating. Eaten in Mexico (www.semarnat.gob.mx) but also reported as poisonous (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). Widely eaten but also reported as toxic if eaten raw (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). Many reports say it is edible and confirmed as food in Turkey (Caglarirmak, Unal and Otles, 2002) but also reported as poisonous in China (Liu and Yang, 1982). Several reports say it is edible (e.g. Malyi, 1987); others say it is poisonous (Hall et al., 1998a).

Coprinus africanus Coprinus atramentarius Gyromitra esculenta

Gyromitra infula Helvella lacunosa Lactarius piperatus Lactarius torminosus

Lampteromyces A common cause of poisoning in Japan (Hall et al., 1998a) but also has japonicus medicinal properties (Hobbs, 1995). Lenzites elegans Lepiota clypeolaria Morchella esculenta Paxillus involutus Phallus indusiatus Edible in the United Republic of Tanzania (Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993) but maybe poisonous in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994). Edible in Mexico and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China, but also said to be poisonous. Like other morels said to be poisonous if eaten raw (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). Edible and good when cooked. Widely reported as poisonous but said to be edible after suitable cooking and preparation in the Russian far east (Vasileva, 1978). Reported as edible (Bouriquet, 1970) and poisonous (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994): both reports are from Madagascar.

Podaxis pistillaris Ramaria formosa Russula emetica Stropharia coronilla

Reported as edible from India and Pakistan (Batra, 1983). Said to be poisonous in Nigeria (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994); medicinal properties (Hobbs, 1995). Edible in Nepal (Adhikari and Durrieu, 1996) but said to be poisonous in several other countries, including Bulgaria (Iordanov, Vanev and Fakirova, 1978). Undoubtedly poisonous if eaten raw but said to be edible in Mexico (Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo and Dominuez, 2000) and the Russian far east (Vasileva, 1978). Conflicting reports within Mexico: said to be edible (Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989) and poisonous (Aroche et al., 1984).

Suillus placidus Said to be edible (Vasileva, 1978) and poisonous (Chang and Mao, 1995). Tricholoma pessundatum Tricholoma sulphureum Edible in Hong Kong (Chang and Mao, 1995) but T. pessundatum var.montanum reported as poisonous elsewhere (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). All records say it is poisonous apart from an account from India that says it is edible (Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985).

Ceremonial aspects The ceremonial and religious roles played by wild fungi in different cultures are closely associated with hallucinogenic properties. This has attracted much scientific and personal interest, particularly in Mexico (Davis, 1996; Riedlinger, 1990). Globally this use of wild fungi is of minor or no relevance to most countries.

EDIBILITY AND POISONOUS FUNGI

Many macrofungi are not worth eating or are simply inedible. This worthless group of species as defined by their edibility significantly dwarfs the very small number of toxic or poisonous species, of which there are only a very few that can kill. Yet it is also true that this very small group of lethal species has significantly shaped attitudes to eating wild fungi, creating potential barriers to wider marketing in many places. Knowing the scientific name of a fungus provides a good indication of its edibility. In some cases the genus alone will suffice; all knownCantharellus species are edible (though not equally tasty). On the other hand, Amanita contains both exquisite edible and deadly poisonous species. The only reliable guide to edibility is the knowledge that someone has eaten a particular type and survived. Local practices and preferences are therefore another useful source of information. There are conflicting reports in field guides about edibility. Some recommend eating species that others reject as poisonous. People from eastern Finland regard the false morel, Gyromitra esculenta, as a culinary delicacy once it has been carefully pre-cooked. Guides in the United States and elsewhere state emphatically that the fungus is poisonous and should not be eaten. Other examples of conflicting advice are summarized in Table 6. What species are eaten?

Reports of edible and poisonous species are based on named sources. The accuracy of this information lies with these original sources. A total of 1 154 edible and food species have been recorded from 85 countries (Table 1). The species eaten in one country or region often differ from nearby areas and in some cases there are dramatic changes in tradition. The Mesoamerican tradition of eating wild edible fungi continues from Mexico to west Guatemala then is absent from much of Honduras and Nicaragua, even though both contain forest areas that in theory support production of edible fungi. The number of species eaten is sometimes only a fraction of those available. Only 15 of the 284 edible species in Armenia are regularly eaten (Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi in Armenia). In two districts of Turkey, 12 out of a possible 29 edible species were collected and eaten (Yilmaz, Oder and Isiloglu, 1997). The reasons for these different patterns of use are not always clear but there is a trend of less frequent use as people move away from the land. Rural people in Guatemala have a positive yet informed approach to eating wild fungi which people living in cities lack (Lowy, 1974). Educated people living in towns in Malawi lose the strong local traditions that rural communities maintain and even acquire a suspicious attitude towards wild fungi (Lowore and Boa, 2001). In parts of the United Republic of Tanzania boletes are thought to be poisonous (Hrknen, Saarimki and Mwasumbi, 1994a). In Colombia there is no apparent tradition of eating wild fungi in the Andean regions, though they occur widely (Franco-Molano, Aldana-Gomez and Halling, 2000). Tricholoma matsutake was of little local interest in Sichuan, China (Winkler, 2002) prior to Japanese demand that stimulated an export trade in the late 1980s and appears to have prompted wider local consumption. A similar event took place in the Pacific northwest, though with Tricholoma magnivelare (Redhead, 1997). This was collected and eaten by Japanese settlers in the 1930s (Zeller and Togashi, 1934) but at the time this did not arouse much, if any, local interest. Poisonous species A review of poisoning incidents in official and informal publications shows that the frequency of such events and the effect on humans are overall less than that suggested by attendant publicity (Logemann et al., 1987). During the search for information on wild edible fungi, about 170 poisonous species were noted. Most are either related to edible species or confused with them. There are, of course, real dangers in collecting and consuming poisonous fungi, but these should be seen against the wider background of millions of people collecting and eating wild fungi safely on a regular basis. Several popular and highly esteemed edible species are poisonous when raw. Few people eat them in this condition and risks of poisoning are in reality small. Poisonous mushrooms vary in their effects from mild stomach and digestive upsets to more serious problems such as liver damage. The solutions to these potential risks include providing local advice on which species to collect and which ones to avoid (Plate 3) and publicity campaigns that highlight potentially poisonous species on posters. Mr Sabiti Fides, a trader in Malawi, took a more direct route by eating mushrooms in front of his customers (Box 3). In southern Africa roadside sellers only offer safe species (Ryvarden, Piearce and Masuka, 1994) and most market places are a reliable means of obtaining known, edible wild fungi.

Problems can occur with contamination in markets but such incidents are most uncommon (see Table 8). Finland has trained mushroom advisers covering all rural areas (Hrknen, 1998; Hrknen and Jrvinen, 1993). The svamp police based in some town centres in Norway help collectors identify edible species, and there are similar schemes in other countries. Poisonings are associated with a number of events: young children collecting indiscriminately and eating raw mushrooms; immigrants arriving in a new country and wrongly identifying a local species that turns out to be poisonous; food shortages and economic hardship force people to hunt for food; different physiological responses to an edible fungus. Mexicans living in California have eaten Amanita phalloides a poisonous species not found at home thinking it was the edible Volvariella volvacea (Plate 2). The guide for edible mushrooms in Israel is written in Hebrew and Russian (Wasser, 1995), following the arrival of over one million Russians in the 1990s and their strong tradition of collecting wild edible fungi. One Russian was poisoned when he too mistook a poisonous species for an edible species known from his home country (Hazani, Taitelman and Sasha, 1983). Other reports suggest a certain recklessness amongst Russians in choosing which species to collect and eat (Matsuk, 2000). Some people eat Laetiporus sulphureus without any ill-effects while others feel ill. The suggested reason is that physiological responses by people differ but there could also be different strains of the fungus, which differ in chemical composition. Little is known about this particular feature for poisonous or potentially poisonous species. A summary of well-publicized incidents of widespread poisoning is given in Table 7. There has been a spectacular rise in poisonings and deaths in Ukraine in the last decade. Various reasons have been given, including a dramatic economic downturn and the desperate search for food5 or produce to trade in local markets. Regular reports of poisonings in the United States appear in the journal McIlvainea (e.g. Cochran, 1987). These incidents are insignificant by comparison with the thousands of people who collect and consume wild fungi without any reported problems. Millions of other people around the world also regularly eat wild edible fungi without any ill-health effects, and it is important to keep a sense of perspective when reviewing the reported incidents of poisoning. BOX 3 If I eat this bowa it is OK to buy Mr Sabiti Fides, trader from Malawi We asked around for a typical bowa* middleman or wholesaler and met with Sabiti Fides. As it turned out he was not typical at all but really rather exceptional

the KING OF THE BOWA TRADERS. Fides started buying bowa from Machinga and taking them to Zomba for sale in the 1998-99 season. He was trying to think of ways of earning some money to support his family. He observed that at the end of a day on the roadside stall a good deal of bowa remained unsold. He decided to buy them up and take them to Zomba. In order to find customers he would walk around residential areas such as the police training college, the barracks, Chancellor College and also the suburbs such as Mponda Bwino and Chikanda, selling from house to house. At first he found the householders reluctant maybe they are poisonous, maybe they are not good. Patiently he would persuade the buyers (mainly women) to try them tasting some himself in order to demonstrate lack of poison. One might buy. Then the next time others would have observed that the one who bought enjoyed their purchase and they would follow suit. Gradually he would build up his regular customers who eventually would buy without fail. * bowa edible fungus Source: Lowore and Boa, (2001). TABLE 7 Incidents of large-scale poisoning caused by consumption of wild fungi CHINA 196282 NUMBER NUMBER DEAD POISONED 108 444 NOTES Ninghua county, Fujiang province (Liu and Yang, 1982): 88 incidents were reported. Of the 16 poisonous species known to occur, 11 belong to Russula or Amanita. Population of Fujiang in 2000 was 34 million. People bought poisonous mushrooms from a market. Report by Yongkiu county health bureau; viawww.hclinfinet.com. NOTES All children and associated mainly with eating Amanita phalloides. Occurred in Poznan (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977) from an account by Simons (1971). Consumption of Cortinarius orellanus (Lampe and Ammirati, 1990). From a survey of incidents over a ten-year period. Further deaths and poisonings occurred from eatingCortinarius orellanus, Gyromitra esculenta (dead 6; poisoned 132) and principally Amanita phalloides (dead 54; poisoned 553). Lincoff and Mitchel, (1977) based on Grzymala

2001

1 700

Total POLAND 1931

113

2 037

NUMBER NUMBER DEAD POISONED 31 ns

1952 195362

11 64

91 708

(1965). Total 106 799 NOTES Report in the Los Angeles Times, 8 August 1992. Occurred about 350 miles from Moscow. Species of fungi involved not mentioned. From Pravda, 30 May, 2001. This short report says that the incidents occurred mostly in Central Russia. Also from Pravda, 30 May 2001, and again notes that the incidents occurred mostly in Central Russia. Report from the Los Angeles Times, 16 July 2001, says that an unusually high number of deaths were reported by the local authorities in Belgorod, Voronezh and Volgogad Oblasts. They were linked to consumption ofAmanita phalloides but other species may have been involved. Police patrolled forests to discourage collection and checked baskets of collectors. NOTES Report from the Los Angeles Times, 8 August 1992. Species responsible for these incidents were not mentioned. Associated Press, date unknown (www.geocities.com/Yosemite/Trails/7331). As above. As above. RUSSIAN NUMBER NUMBER FEDERATION DEAD POISONED 1992 23 170

1999 2000a 2000b

ns ns ca. 30

2 240 2 470 ca. 300

Total UKRAINE 1992

53

5 180

NUMBER NUMBER DEAD POISONED 40 400

1998 1999 2000 Total

74 42 112 268

ns ns ns 400 (4 000*)

ns not stated. * Sum calculated using an estimated ratio of ten poisoned to each person who dies, to account for those years where people died but the number of people poisoned and who recovered were not stated. Contamination of wild edible fungi The Chernobyl accident in Ukraine in the 1980s prompted investigations of radioactive materials in sources of wild food and particularly wild edible fungi. Broader concerns about the accumulation of heavy metals and pollutants by macrofungi have also been expressed. A study of radiocaesium intake via consumption of wild fungi in the United Kingdom concluded that intake depended more on the species eaten than the weight consumed (Barnett et al., 2001). Mycorrhizal fungi had a significantly greater radioactivity compared

to saprobic or parasitic species. Consumption of wild edible fungi in the United Kingdom is small by comparison with other countries but the study gives a general indication of the potential health risks. One reported case of contamination concerned the accidental mixing of potentially poisonous wild species with wild edible fungi imported by the United States (Gecan and Cichowicz, 1993). Such events are rare, however, and there are no known instances of this causing any damage to human health in Europe.

CULTIVATION OF EDIBLE FUNGI

There are nearly a hundred species of fungi that can be cultivated (Annex 4). All are saprobic. Commercial markets are dominated byAgaricus bisporus, Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus spp. (Table 18) and these account for nearly three quarters of the cultivated mushrooms grown around the world (Chang, 1999). The major cultivated species are grown on a variety of organic substrates, including waste from producing cotton and coffee. The technologies are well established and successful mushroom industries have been established in many countries. There has been a huge increase in production in the last ten years, mostly as a result of increased capacity in China. Reports from Africa (Mshigeni and Chang, 2000), Mexico (Martnez-Carrera et al., 2001) and Amazonia in Brazil (Pauli, 1999) suggest that mushroom cultivation offers economic opportunities as well as nutritional and health benefits. Small-scale cultivation takes place throughout China and could provide a suitable model for technology transfer. The cultivation of the paddy straw fungus (Volvariella volvacea) is integrated with rice production in Viet Nam. Wherever saprobic species are cultivated they require a steady supply of raw materials. The expansion of shiitake production in Qingyuan, China (the mushroom capital of the world) led to a serious depletion of local forests that supplied the wood on which to grow this edible fungus (Pauli, 1998). The number of saprobic species being cultivated is steadily increasing and information and practical advice are readily available (Stamets, 2000). Ectomycorrhizal fungi can also be cultivated. Trees are inoculated with truffle fungus that must then infect the roots and form the ectomycorrhizae. The trees are carefully tended to encourage production of the truffles (Plate 4). Methods for cultivating truffles are constantly being refined and improved (Hall et al., 1998a). PLATE 1 TYPES OF MACROFUNGI Edible fungi come in many shapes and sizes. There are no consistent features (or tests) that distinguish them from poisonous varieties. Examples are from Malawi and photos by Eric Boa, unless stated otherwise.

1.1 Lactarius sp. White fluid appears after breaking the gills. Many species are edible and all are mycorrhizal.

1.2 Amanita loosii, edible. The sac is a distinctive feature of Amanita, a genus that includes poisonous species. (photo: Paul Kirk)

1.3 Common ear fungus,Auricularia auriculajudae.Edible. France. Also widely cultivated

1.4 Ramaria sp. There are a number of similar varieties eaten around the world 1.5 This Afroboletus has a dense network of tiny pores on the underside of the cap.

1.6 Lycoperdon sp., Norway. Puffballs are widespread and eaten regularly, though in relatively small quantities 1.7 Cantharellus sp. The gills continue along part of the stem and the fruiting bodies have a distinctive appearance. PLATE 2 HOW FUNGI GROW: mycorrhizas, saprobes and pathogens Fungi obtain their food symbiotically, as saprobes or parasites (pathogens). There are edible macrofungi in each category. The most valuable wild species are ectomycorrhizal, a form of symbiosis. Ectomycorrhizal roots have a distinct though varied appearance. It is unusual to see them clearly in situ. Many saprobic macrofungi are edible. Few pathogens are eaten. All examples are from Malawi unless stated otherwise. All photos by Eric Boa.

2.1 Ectomycorrhiza. The white covering on the roots indicates the fungal sheath

2.2 This very distinctive yellow ectomycorrhiza is associated with

2.3 These ectomycorrhizas are small and fluffy. Mycelium in the soil can have a

aCantharellus sp.

similar appearance.

2.4 Tracing a fungus back to the host tree is possible when a physical connection to the roots can be seen.

2.5 Agrocybe aegerita, an edible saprobic species growing here on a tree stump in Bologna, Italy. Also cultivated.

2.6 Paddy straw or Volvariella volvacea. Commonly cultivated, it is a saprobic fungus. Indonesia. Edible.

2.7 Maize cob infected byUstilago maydis, Bolivia. Earlier stage infections are eaten as huitlacoche in Mexico. PLATE 3

2.8 Armillaria mellea, a tree pathogen, at the base of a dead laburnum tree. London. Edible

WHICH FUNGI ARE EDIBLE? IDENTIFYING SPECIES

Edible species can be identified using local and scientific knowledge. Neither system is infallible: local practices are based on empirical evidence of edibility, though local beliefs may falsely exclude edible species. A scientific name provides access to published information on properties, but conflicting advice may exist. Used together, local and scientific knowledge are a powerful guide to properties of wild fungi. All photos by Eric Boa unless stated.

3.1 (left) This French pharmacy offers local assistance in identifying edible species

3.2 (right) The second oldest publication on wild edible fungi from China. It includes descriptions of species and would have been a useful reference book. (photo: Warren Priest)

3.3 (left) Paul Kirk documents a field collection from Malawi. Each specimen is given a reference number and described before being dried, and thus preserved for further examination.

3.4 (right) Spore print of Hypholoma fasciculare, a poisonous species. The upper print is after leaving the cap for several hours; the one below for less than an hour. Spore colour helps to distinguish similar genera but not to species.

3.5 (right) Alessandra Zambonelli of the University of Bologna with a unique collection of truffle specimens from around the world. Collections are vital reference sources for identifying fungi and naming new species. 3.6 (left) Dried examples of truffles are carefully labelled and stored in the collection.
3

Saprophyte describes a plant that feeds by external digestion of dead organic matter. All Web pages have been viewed in 2003.

I had never seen people (in central Lviv) not only rummaging in dustbins, but putting valuable scraps of food from them directly into their mouth even in the collapsed societies such as Georgia and Moldova. (Almond, 2002).

3 MANAGEMENT: WILD EDIBLE FUNGI, TREES, FOREST USERS

MULTIPLE USE OF FORESTS: ISSUES AND CONFLICTS
The management of wild edible fungi and their sustainable production must address two key topics: first, forests and their management and second, forest users. Successful management of wild edible fungi balances the impact and effects of collection and harvesting against the wider aims of forest management. These wider aims are determined by the relative importance of different forest uses. Are wild edible fungi more valuable than other NWFP, for example, and how do they compare in financial benefits with wood production? Some forests have a strategic as well as economic importance: they protect water catchments and fragile sloping land; they help to conserve biodiversity. The challenge for planners and policy-makers is to balance the competing demands on forests and provide a framework within which forest managers can operate effectively. For

wild edible fungi this means minimizing the impact of harvesting while allowing collectors fair and equitable access to forests; it means addressing the concerns of biologists who believe that commercial extraction is unsustainable while allowing local enterprises to develop. The sustainable production of wild edible fungi therefore has social, economic and even political dimensions. Forest is used here in the general sense of areas where trees either occur naturally or are planted. The bulk of wild edible fungi harvests in terms of volume and value comes from species that form mycorrhizal associations with trees. Without the mycorrhizas the trees would grow poorly and the ecological integrity of forests around the world would be threatened. The impact of wild edible fungi harvesting should not disturb the mutual dependency of fungus and tree. The biology and ecology of wild edible fungi are therefore important, as is a fundamental knowledge of which species grow with particular trees. There are still many gaps in knowledge concerning edible ectomycorrhizal fungi and tropical tree species. Forestry users include those who obtain wood products and NWFP (of which wild edible fungi are only one example). Forests also provide a range of services, some specific to particular users and others more generally valued. Ecological functions include protection of water catchments, erosion control and conservation of biodiversity. Forests provide social benefits, a place for leisure, sports and enjoying nature. The relationship between harvesting wild edible fungi and other products and services derived from forests needs to be understood and adjustments made to practices and management guidelines. Decisions such as these depend on good data. There is widespread concern about unsustainable forest practices, including harvesting of wild edible fungi. This needs to be carefully examined using available data on yields, amounts harvested and other information about production. These topics are discussed later in this chapter. Management of wild edible fungi has tended to concentrate on their biology and ecology, particularly those of high economic value. There is a considerable literature on truffles, for example (Federation-Franaise-des-Trufficulteurs, 2001), but few studies of edible species ofRussula or Lactarius, many of which are collected and consumed locally in developing countries. Researchers are paying more attention to the complex relationships between biological, social and economic issues, a welcome move towards establishing a sound basis for sustainable production of wild edible fungi. Much has been written, relatively speaking, about matsutake (Box 4). This is an important export from several developing countries and there have been several accounts that examine the commercial harvesting in the wider context of forests and forest users (Winkler, 2002; Yeh, 2000). The Pacific northwest of north America is another area where management issues have been examined in detail (Pilz and Molina, 2002; Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002). These studies are particularly useful in describing collectors and collecting practices and they provide a useful contrast to the few studies carried out for subsistence collections in developing countries (Lowore and Boa, 2001). Concerns have been expressed about declining productivity and disappearance of certain species of macrofungi (Arnolds, 1995). Attention has focused on Europe and one of the identified issues was the impact of increased commercial picking in eastern Europe (Perini, 1998). Conservation of fungi is now an established topic of debate among mycologists. The debate has only just begun and it is important that it addresses the wider social and

economic issues concerning harvesting if progress is to be made in halting the decline of any threatened edible species. The following sections examine access to collecting sites, collectors and the impacts of harvesting. The chapter proceeds to an examination of published data on yields and production before attempting to provide practical advice on managing wild edible fungi for sustainable production. BOX 4 Matsutake and exports to Japan In Japan, Tricholoma matsutake is highly regarded and eating ceremonies are culturally important (Hall et al., 1998a). Originally collected from Japans forests, production declined steeply in the 1980s. The search for new sources identified Americanmatsutake as an acceptable substitute (Tricholoma magnivelare) and it was quickly realized that substantial amounts could be harvested from the Pacific northwest of North America, where local use was minimal. The burgeoning trade with Japan coincided with a downturn in jobs in logging and timber extraction. Export businesses based on T. matsutake have also been established in Sichuan, China (Winkler, 2002; Yeh, 2000), Bhutan (Namgyel, 2000) and notably the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea. Exports of T. magnivelare and other closely related species occur from North Africa, Turkey and Mexico but details are sketchy. The amounts earned by these countries are small compared with Asia and North America. The prices paid by the Japanese vary considerably depending on the available supply each year and the quality of mushrooms when they arrive at market. Matsutake is particularly valuable at an early stage of development and this requires careful searching in the upper humus layers of forests. Some collectors are not so careful: they rake the ground to uncover emerging fruit bodies, damaging the humus layer and affecting future harvests. Matsutake is a mycorrhizal fungus and efforts have been made to manage natural ecosystems in the Republic of Korea and North America in an attempt to maximize production. Annual yields are still heavily influenced by available rainfall and ambient temperature at key times during the year. (See Pilz and Molina (2002) for a general review of activities in North America.)

REGULATING COLLECTION
There are widely differing rules and policies on the collection of wild edible fungi (see also Box 8, Chapter 4). Scandinavia has open access: anyone can pick edible fungi as long as they do not harm property (Saastamoinen, 1999). This policy has been challenged by economic migration from neighbouring countries, no longer part of the former Soviet Union, and the availability of cheap labour for collecting wild edible fungi and wild berries. Similar changes in eastern Europe have created new opportunities for commercial harvesting and led to concern about unsustainable harvests and how to regulate collections.

Controlling collectors is not always easy. After the Second World War the Finnish Government encouraged greater harvesting of wild edible fungi and continues to promote the use of an underutilized resource (Hrknen and Jrvinen, 1993; Salo, 1999). Open access to the countryside is a tenet of life in Sweden and Norway and controlling the collection of wild edible fungi (and other NWFP) would require a fundamental change in national policies. Overharvesting is a commonly expressed concern, both for commercial and subsistence collections. The fear among forest managers and others is that future production of wild edible fungi will decrease. These are genuine concerns but there is a danger of taking draconian steps to regulate collectors without understanding the impact of harvesting, based on an incomplete knowledge of how much is collected and what collectors do. The main impetus for regulating collectors is where commercial harvesting occurs. The introduction of regulatory schemes serves a number of different functions: it attempts (in theory) to limit the amount harvested; it ensures that collectors are aware of best practice (least harmful picking methods); it provides income. In Italy each province regulates who has the right to collect truffles (Tuber spp.). Collectors have to pass a simple test that confirms they are aware of how and where to harvest. Around 30 000 licences (each costing around US$90) were issued in Emilia Romagna in 2001 (Zambonelli, 2002, personal communication: Truffles and collecting porcini in Italy). In Winema National Park, Oregon, the sale of permits provides a substantial income, though this is highly variable (Table 8). In Bhutan, only token amounts are earned from the sale of permits (Namgyel, 2000). Local communities also administer permit schemes to limit access to valuable sites. This system appears to be less successful at reducing conflicts between neighbouring communities and problems have occurred in regulating collection of truffles in Spain (de Romn, 2002, personal communication: Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production). This is a reminder of the need to look closely at the fairness of schemes that unfairly exclude people rather than encourage equitable use of natural resources. Collectors in developing countries frequently collect for subsistence uses and the edible fungi represent an important food resource. In Malawi, forest officers are concerned that allowing people to collect wild edible fungi in protected forest areas will lead to greater extraction of wood products, particularly firewood (Lowore and Boa, 2001). There is no officially registered commercial collecting in Malawi and there have been no attempts to introduce a permit system. The success of regulation schemes depends on who controls or owns forests. It is a relatively straightforward matter to regulate collections of Boletus edulis in commercial pine plantations of South Africa compared to the more complex problems posed by multiple use of native forests in Malawi. The pressure to regulate access to sites comes from various sources, and not all involved in forestry. A strong conservation lobby in the United States has sought to limit commercial harvests (McLain, Christensen and Shannon, 1998).

The expansion of commercial harvesting in Europe has resulted in the introduction of regulations in Poland (Lawrynowicz, 1997); former Yugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro) (Ivancevic, 1997; Zaklina, 1998) and Romania (Pop, 1997). Information about the success of these schemes is sketchy and highlights the general difficulty of monitoring the conditions set by a permit. They often state how much can be collected in a fixed time but it is difficult to check this and collect penalties for transgressions. Logging bans introduced in China (Winkler, 2002), the Philippines (Novellino, 1999), Canada (Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002) and elsewhere have opened up new opportunities for collecting wild edible fungi and prompted concern about overharvesting. In Siberia, the opposite effect has happened: an increase in logging activities by foreign companies has made it more difficult for local people to collect wild edible fungi (de Beer and Zakharenkov, 1999). Successful control depends on modifying regulations that do not work and maintaining a good dialogue with collectors (Pilz and Molina, 2002; see also Vance and Thomas, 1995). A pragmatic approach is needed to protect natural resources while allowing fair and equitable access to collectors. TABLE 8 Sale of permits for collecting matsutake in Winema National Forest, Oregon, 19972002 YEAR PERMITS SOLD VALUE US$ END OF SEASON NOTES 1997 3 733 1998 1 246 1999 901 2000 (512) 2001 not known 2002 >1 200 365 939 138 338 122 350 (61 180) 78 810 >120 000 31 October 7 November 24 October (21 September) 4 November (4 October) Interim data Data incomplete. No information after this date. Biggest crop since 1989

Source: www.fs.fed.us/r6/winema/specialprojects . Commercial permits are valid for picking in the Deschutes, Umpqua, Willamette in addition to Winema National Forest. Only Winema publishes comprehensive accounts of the matsutake season (the "mushroom chronicles").

COLLECTORS AND LOCAL PRACTICES

A recent study in Malawi describes what happened when Mr Kenasi Affad went collecting bowa (wild edible fungi) near his home in Machinga. He was accompanied by two researchers working for the Miombo Edible Fungi Project (Lowore and Boa, 2001). We set off at 6.00am, later than the normal time for start-off at 5.00am. Kenasi is equipped with nothing but the clothes he is wearing and a bucket. He is barefoot with no protection from the rain, which today is persistent but not heavy. He cannot afford to let the rain put him off as bowa collection is a rainy season activity and he must be prepared to get

wet. This year the rains are still frequent and heavy which is good for the kunglokwetiti 6 and chipatwe. He sets off on a well trodden path towards the places he knows where he shall find bowa. He has observed the rain for the past day or two, he knows what species are ready at this time, he knows where he went last time and the condition of the crop when he was last there. He uses all this information to decide where to go. These days the end of the season fewbowa are found near to the home unlike early in the season when they are found in abundance. At this time of year the main species found and the one preferred by customers is kunglokwetiti. These are found in rocky places and Kenasi has to be sharp to spot them. They appear here and there underneath droopy tufts of grass. To pick them Kenasi scoops the bowa from its base using his finger and gently lifts it from the earth. He then breaks the bottom part of the stem off and throws it away. He blows some of the remaining earth away and gently places the bowa in the bucket. He continues. Kenasi knows that certain bowa are found near certain tree species and that each year the same type of bowa appear in the same places. He also knows that some species need a few days of rain followed by sunshine before appearing whilst others need prolonged rain. Some take a few days to emerge from a small fruit body to a harvestable bowa, others take a few hours. This is important because then he knows when to go back to the same place to look again for new bowa. Kenasi shows us the path to Naiswe where he will go tomorrow. It will take about 3-4 hours solid walking to reach the place then he can spend one hour collecting the bowa and come back within another two hours. It is normal for a collection trip to last up to six hours. Kenasi aims to fill a whole bucket (about 15 plates) before setting off for home. He always goes alone but may meet other collectors whilst in the forest. Passing on information about the whereabouts of bowa is sometimes done but there is not much point because it is simply a matter of chance one might have missed what others will find. Kenasi will go collecting bowa from between 2 to 5 times a week, depending on the availability of bowa and customers. In the past the eucalyptus were not there but there was indigenous woodland. Bowa were found in abundance just close to the village. Another reason why we have to travel so far these days is the number of people collecting. People simply want money so more and more people think of selling bowa. I can always find bowa, if the weather has been right, but it can take a long time to reach the place and a long time to fill a whole bucket. This short account graphically describes the type of problems that a collector has to cope with. Kenasi knows where to look though he also knows that he has to be lucky to make a good collection. He comments on the loss of native woodland, where the fungi are most abundant, and he says that he must travel further to collect wild edible fungi because now there are more collectors. Kenasi lives close to the forest and is part of a community that depends on the miombo woodland for food, income and shelter. Collectingbowa is an important source of income for him but it is only one way of earning a living from the miombo. Increasing numbers of people have taken the opportunity to collect, as Kenasi observes, because in the area where he lives there is a good selling point on a major road near to the forest.

Kenasi is unusual because the collectors in Malawi are mostly women, as is the case in the United Repubiblic of Tanzania (Hrknen, 2002) and Burundi (Buyck, 1994b). Table 9 describes collectors and their practices in a number of different countries. In China most collectors are men. Both men and women are involved in Mexico, where there is extensive harvesting each year. In Malawi the maximum time taken for collecting wild edible fungi and getting them to market is less than 24 hours. Any longer and the mushrooms for sale deteriorate and are worth much less. Women in Mzimba district in northern Malawi walk up to 1015 km to get to the nearest market in Mzuzu. This limits collecting to a six hour collecting trip (there and back) from their homes (Lowore, Munthali and Boa, 2002). Distances from house to forest to selling points are shorter in Liwonde, near Zomba (Lowore and Boa, 2001) because of the proximity of a main road, a common selling point for wild edible fungi in several African countries (Plate 6). In the Russian Federation and Ukraine whole families go on collecting trips and these appear to be more of a social event than collecting in order to sell. The distances travelled to the best sites can be substantial (Table 9). Immigrants collect wild edible fungi in the Klamath bioregion (northern California), many of southeast Asian origin (Richards and Creasy, 1996), attracted by job opportunities. They soon realize that competition is fierce and that incomes are not guaranteed. There have been some clashes between collectors and a general suspicion of people from southeast Asia, partly because of their poor English and a failure to observe regulations about where to pick. An account by an American picker of matsutake (Moore, 1996) provides a personal account of some of the antagonism that migrant labour may have to overcome successfully overcome in this particular case. Where money is involved in collecting wild edible fungi problems may arise, sometimes fuelled by exaggerated stories of potential earnings. Villages in Sichuan engaged in sustained battles to determine local rights to matsutake sites culminating in the sabotage of water supplies they were without water for 45 days and destruction of a key bridge. One village threatened not only to continue their disruption of life in the rival village but to hide the pieces of the water pipes in the forest so that they could not be repaired (Yeh, 2000). Such conflicts are unusual but when money becomes the main motive for collecting, management of collectors (and access to sites) needs careful adjudication. Most collectors work alongside each other without any obvious problems. This does not mean that they necessarily cooperate in harvesting. In northern Spain, Lactarius deliciosus (nscalos) are sold to buyers from Catalonia, earning small but useful amounts of money. Even close friends refuse to reveal the location of favourite sites (de Romn, 2002, personal communication: Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production). Commercial collection of wild fungi is a recent and small-scale activity in Scotland. Previously there was sporadic and minor picking for personal use. Landowners of the mostly private forest areas involved expressed a number of concerns about the influx of collectors (Dyke and Newton, 1999): unauthorized access by collectors to their land; lost revenue: the owners did not benefit from the collections on their land; they were also unable to earn money from organized fungal forays if the mushrooms had already been picked; damage to resource (wild edible fungi and the forest);

 conflicts with hunting (an important source of revenue for some landowners). A total of 53 percent of collectors interviewed in Scotland did not know who owned the land they collected from. This study is a good example of how to collect information for developing management plans. Collectors come from a wide range of social classes but the overall impression is that the majority are poor rural people who have traditionally lived close to the land and for whom wild edible fungi are a common and often unrecorded source of food (De Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002). TABLE 9 Collecting wild fungi in the United Republic of Tanzania, Mexico, the Russian Federation, Bhutan, Finland, India and China ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA Mainly women and children though men bring them home if they happen upon them. Travel by foot to sites. Open access. No special harvesting methods are used and official regulation of collectors is absent. People go out early to collect because of competition for edible fungi hinting at the importance of selling in local markets. Elderly country people whose families had lived in the same place for several generations knew most about wild fungi. Many more species eaten in miombo areas than hills. Boletes eschewed by all: "even monkeys wont eat them" (monkeys eat B. edulis in Malawi, however). People were well aware of poisonous varieties. Some groups of people will not eat any wild edible fungi. Educated people have forgotten almost everything about wild fungi. A similar diminishing of local tradition can be found in Malawi and Zimbabwe. MEXICO Families and individuals of both sexes. Photos of market places show only women selling. Collectors walk 45 km a day, carrying around 45 kg to be sold in 57 hours. Collections transported up to 55 km; not clear if this is done by traders and/or collectors. Open access to sites. There are government regulations for picking seven major species. All types of macrofungi are collected. Long tradition of wild fungi use. Knowledge lost as people move from rural to urban areas; acceptance of wild fungi may dwindle especially as availability of cultivated species increases. Generally low frequency of poisoning cases. RUSSIAN FEDERATION [SIBERIA] Families. 56 km from boundaries of village or public transport stops. Some drive 4060 km. No restrictions on access to sites, except nature reserves and national parks. Daily harvest could be from 15 to 100 kg per person in good years.

Local traditions, choice of species

ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting

Local traditions, choice of species

ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting

Local traditions, choice of species

Long history of collecting which has intensified with worsening economic situation. More people unable to afford imported food while food distribution within the Russian Federation has declined. Also, reduced employment opportunities in mining and forestry industries. 1825 species are regularly collected; Lactarius deliciosus and Boletus edulis most important. Poisoning incidents not noted separately for this region but see Table 5 for reports from other parts of the Russian Federation. BHUTAN Families. On foot. Some camp out and begin collecting with torches very early in the morning because of competition. Local farmers do not allow farmers from other geogs to visit their area. The National Mushroom Centre has provided training on sustainable harvesting to 1 525 farmers. Concern expressed about damage to matsutake mycelium in soil because of harvesting methods. Little known about tradition of wild edible fungi but thought to be well established. Attention now focused on matsutake which had a low, local value until exports to Japan began. FINLAND No gender or age differences noted. Collectors travel by public and private transport to sites. Open access except peoples back yards. Collection is actively encouraged following inventory which shows that only a small proportion of the wild edible fungus resource is used each year. Official advice provided on best fungi to collect, originally because of famine conditions and later seeking to encourage best use of wild food resources. Western Finland favours different species to Karelians in East, whose tradition of collecting and eating is much stronger. INDIA [MADHYA PRADESH] Whole families involved but women more active. Tribal people well acquainted with habitat and period of fruiting. No restrictions on access to collecting sites are mentioned. Several species are collected. CHINA [YUNNAN] Men are more interested in collecting. People do not go collecting on a regular basis because cultivated species are available throughout the year. Only mountain areas are visited; highest number recounted by one man was 33 edible species. People well aware of poisonous species. CHINA [SICHUAN AND ALLIED AREAS] Not stated. Most concern about declines in matsutake production is for Degen Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in northwest Yunnan. Has the highest extraction rates with clear decline in productivity. This is linked to bad

ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting

Local traditions, choice of species ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting

Local traditions, choice of species

ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting Local traditions, choice of species ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting Local traditions, choice of species ACTIVITY/ISSUE Who collects? Collecting

harvesting techniques (raking). When sold by size encourages damaging harvest methods. No decline in productivity in Litongs Jumba valley where sold by weight. Collectors of Cordyceps sinensis in Litang County are confined to legal grazing grounds or to forests where they have right of access. Outsiders must pay a fee to local community for collecting and clashes have occurred. Collection of other edible species is widespread (Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). Local traditions, choice of species Long tradition of collecting edible and medicinal species. Matsutake not commonly collected before 1988.

Sources: UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA Hrknen, 2002; MEXICO Bandala, Montoya and Chapela, 1997; Montoya-Esquivel et al., 2001 and www.semarnat.gob.mx . RUSSIAN FEDERATION Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000; BHUTAN Namgyel, 2000. FINLAND Hrknen, 1998; Pekkarinen and Maliranta, 1978; INDIA (MADHYA PRADESH) Harsh, Rai and Soni, 1999. CHINA (YUNNAN) Hrknen, 2002; CHINA (SICHUAN and allied areas) Winkler, 2002; Yeh, 2000.

HARVESTING METHODS AND APPROACHES

Harvesting The impact of harvesting wild edible fungi is frequently raised and a recent review provides a helpful summary of key issues that are explored in further detail below (Pilz and Molina, 2002). Collecting wild edible fungi is often compared with picking fruit from a tree. Removing all the fruit does not affect future harvests unless the tree is damaged, but might have an impact on regeneration. This appears to be true for wild edible fungi but with some reservations: removing unopened fruiting bodies prevents dispersal of spores. In some areas of Italy regulations prevent the collection of first flush of some edible species (Zambonelli, 2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting porcini in Italy). (This makes practical sense too, since the early fruiting bodies are often damaged by insects.) Some collectors spread parts of the mushroom cap to encourage dispersal of spores. A study in Switzerland showed that harvesting all the fruiting bodies of 15 species of macrofungi over a ten-year period had no significant effect on production (Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). If soils are compacted or leaf litter layers are disturbed, this can affect production. Indiscriminate digging for truffles, for example, is harmful. Crude raking to reveal young and immature matsutake damages the mycelium present in the upper layers of the soil. (The young fruiting bodies can be sold for a higher price.) This can be avoided by first identifying potential areas of matsutake, then using your hand to locate the tell-tale bumps while generally looking for signs of emerging fruit bodies (Arora, 1999). Most species of edible fungi are picked without causing any damage since their fruiting bodies and edible parts are all above ground. The search for truffles (Tuber spp.) is often undertaken by trained dogs (Plate 4) (Hall et al., 1998a). The traditional use of pigs is now banned in Italy because they are difficult to control and sometimes eat the truffles. Truffle dogs are not used in China and random digging used to locate fruiting bodies will affect future production.

The Swiss study also showed the effect of trampling on the production of one chanterelle species. However, normal yields were restored once the trampling stopped (Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). Trampling is not thought to be a common source of damage. The number of collectors per unit area of forest is usually low and there is no evidence that trampling has affected yields in Malawi, for example. Commercial harvesting does increase the pressure on sites though wild edible fungi usually occur over a wide area and collectors keep apart in their searches. Enhancing productivity The decline in matsutake production in Japan in the 1980s prompted research on how to maximize yields in situ. Some success was achieved, although the increases in production failed to stem the overall decline. In the Republic of Korea methods included watering and vegetation control (Koo and Bilek, 1998). In Finland, soil surface treatments were examined for enhancement of the production ofGyromitra esculenta (Jalkanen and Jalkanen, 1978). These approaches are potentially costly and it is not known how successful they have been in increasing financial returns. An alternative is to manage forests in a way that increases production of wild edible fungi. Attempts have been made in the Pacific northwest of North America to balance the production of wood and wild edible fungi (Weigand, 1998). The conclusions of a study of management of native stands of conifers in the United States and the production of wild edible fungi, including Tricholoma matsutake and chanterelles, are summarized below (Pilz and Molina, 2002): Clear-cut harvesting disrupts the production of most edible ectomycorrhizal fungi for ten or more years. It only recovers once the fungi have re-established on trees that are old enough to provide necessary nutrients. A thinned stand (one where trees are selectively removed to encourage growth of remaining trees and to remove weak specimens) introduces more rain and sunshine and more rapid wetting and drying of the forest floor. Heavy thinning at one site of Douglas fir reduced chanterelle fruiting by 90 percent in the following year. Less frequent thinning might help to maintain fungal productivity but the loss of wood production might outweigh the benefits. Compaction of soil from logging operations reduces productivity while the removal of large branches makes it easier and safer to find wild fungi without necessarily increasing base productivity. The critical issue in enhancing production of wild edible fungi is their economic importance compared to the value of wood production and other forest uses. This is often poorly understood because accurate data are missing on the value of harvests.

MEASURING PRODUCTION
Yields Data from experimental studies in five countries are summarized in Table 10. Comparisons are difficult to make because some studies include all edible species while others measure

the productivity of individual species. Sampling methods also vary, with plot size and total area monitored often too small to draw any major conclusions. The results from Mexico suggest that up to 1 759 kg per ha of wild edible fungi can be produced in a good year. Yields from other countries are usually much lower, around 100 kg per ha and less. Natural fluctuations occur from year to year (Villarreal and Guzmn, 1985; Villarreal and Guzmn, 1986a; 1986b) and without historical data it is difficult to draw any useful conclusions from a single years production. There is a clear need to improve the quality and range of data on yields. Concerns have been expressed about declining yields yet there is also a lack of published data that allow a closer examination of the impact of commercial collecting in Portugal (Baptista-Ferreira, 1997) and the Russian Federation (Kovalenko, 1997), for example. Table 11 summarizes national data on the amounts harvested of mostly commercial species. Total production in any given period will be higher. Data for developing countries are poorly represented and an attempt has been made to estimate the potential production for Tlaxcala state in Mexico, where wild edible fungi are widely collected. Tlaxcala has 83 000 ha of forest of which 65 000 ha are conifers and broadleaves. The remaining area has only broadleaf species. A potential yield of 10 kg per ha per year for all wild edible fungi in the 65 000 ha would provide a potential harvest of 650 tonnes. One of the main, if not principal, limiting factors in how much is harvested and sold is the time taken to collect and bring the fungi to a potential buyer. The important question of how much of the total production is actually harvested in any one year remains largely unanswered, even for commercial species of wild edible fungi. TABLE 10 Yields of wild fungi from different countries COUNTRY DETAILS OF ANNUAL YIELDS AMOUNT SOURCE (KG/HA) 65170 Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000 Chibisov and Demidova, 1998

Russian Federation "Most popular (edible) (central Siberia) mushrooms"

Russian Federation (a) Lactarius torminosus, (b) (Arkhangelsk) "red-headed mushroom" ?Russula sp. Finland(north) Finland All edible mushrooms at Sotkamo (a) 1976 and (b) 1977

(a) 2 14(b) 9

(a) 30(b) Koistinen, 1978 85 Jalkanen and Jalkanen, 1978

Gyromitra esculenta (note 50100 fluctuations; 1973 and 1974 good; 1975 and 1976 poor; 1977 mediocre) 124, 499,143

Estonia(northwest) Average for all edible fungi at three sites, from 1978 to 81 * Estonia(northwest) Average for (a) Suillus variegatus one site and

Kalamees and Silver, 1988

(a) 41(b) Kalamees and 20; 24; Silver, 1988

(b) Lactarius rufus three sites * 405 Mexico All edible species from two sites 85 Lopez, Cruz and Zamora-Martinez, 1992

Mexico(Veracruz)

All edible species, two sites (a) and (b) for 1983 and 1985 respectively (a) Suillus granulatus; (b)Cantharellus cibarius (c) Amanita caesarea; (d) Boletus edulisFor 1983 and 1985 respectively (a) Tricholoma magnivelare; (b)Morchella spp.; (c) Cantharellusspp.

(a) 1 Villarreal and 759; Guzmn, 1985; 234(b) 1986a 747; 180 (a) 246; 75(b) 4; 8(c) nd; 38(d) 150; 9 Villarreal and Guzmn, 1985; 1986a

Mexico(Veracruz)

United States(Pacific northwest)

(a) 3 Pilz and Molina, 15(b) 1 2002 6(c) 2 0

Amounts are fresh weight or presumed to be so. Villarreal and Guzmn data based on extrapolation from two permanent plots of 100 m2 at each site. * Insect damage reduces available harvest of non-L. rufus edible species by around 70 percent. nd no data. TABLE 11 National production of wild edible fungi COUNTRY Belarus Canada Canada China ITEM (WILD EDIBLE FUNGI) "Resources" from 1981 to 1985 Estimated annual export Chanterelles, boletes and morels "exported in a good year" Production of boletes, Lactarius deliciosus and "others" (?wild edible fungi): 1998 Average annual export 192938 Yields in (a) 1988, (b) 1992 and (c) 1996 AMOUNT (TONNES) 53 000 220450 1 000 308 000 SOURCE Malyi, 1987 de Geus, 1995 Wills and Lipsey, 1999 Sun and Xu, 1999 Paal, 1999

Estonia Finland Poland

2 200

(a) 1 050(b) Hrknen, 1998 670(c) 360 Bukowski, 1960 Chibisov and Demidova, 1998 Schlosser and Blatner, 1995

Production of (wild) edible fungi in 3 500 1958

Russian Collected annually by local people 2 040 Federation(Arkhangelsk) in 1930s United States(WA, OR, ID) All wild edible fungi collected for trade: 1992 1 776

Amounts are fresh weight or presumed to be so in the absence of other information. Production data from boreal and cold temperate countries, e.g. Lithuania, were seen too late to be included in this table (Lund, Pajari and Korhonen, 1998). See Chapter 4, section:National and international trade, for related information on the value of wild useful fungi (edible and medicinal). Inventory Concerted efforts have been made to estimate productivity of commercial species of wild edible fungi in North America (Pilz and Molina, 2002). Similar approaches were used in Malawi to monitor production of edible species (Meke in Boa et al., 2000). A total of 250 50 m 2 m plots were assessed at five native (miombo) woodland sites from 1999 to 2002 and initial results are available at www.malawifungi.org. Information collected included the number and weight of fruiting bodies and their proximity to trees (to examine mycorrhizal associations). Fruiting bodies of macrofungi appear over a potentially large area and one recommendation for collecting yield data is to use long, narrow plots, as noted above. This also minimizes trampling damage by field staff. The frequency of observations depends on when particular species appear. Local collectors have proved a helpful source of information in Malawi. More and better data are needed on yields and productivity to assist in drawing up management plans. Further advice on methods for assessing production of NWFP have been published by FAO (2001a). Market surveys provide a guide to general productivity and are a simpler and less costly way of collecting data, provided that significant amounts are sold to the public.

PRACTICAL PLANNING: TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION

The ultimate aim of managing wild edible fungi is to achieve sustainable production. The importance of good quality data has been emphasized and attention drawn to general issues of forest management and forest users. The first steps in formulating a management plan are to describe and then analyse the features of each production system. Table 12 suggests a general approach to adopt with key questions to ask. Finland is a rare example of a country that has actively attempted to manage its wild edible fungi resources. They have actively supported wild edible fungi (together with wild berries) since the Second World War and their widely published experiences provide helpful pointers for other countries. Mexico has also shown a sustained interest in managing wild edible fungi. Coordinated efforts have been made by researchers and local and regional government to understand the importance of wild edible fungi and manage them for the benefit of people and the environment. Much of the information required to begin the management planning process is already available in countries such as China (Mao, 1998) and Turkey (e.g. Gurer, 2002, personal communication: Unpublished data on wild edible fungi for Turkey). The former Soviet Union devoted much effort to investigating wild edible fungi (Paal, 1998), although perhaps more from the viewpoint of the fungi than their social and economic related features. This is a general weakness in many countries and an area where particular efforts are needed to improve knowledge.

Fair and equitable access to forests and forest resources is a critical issue. If people believe they are unfairly excluded they may continue to collect but not observe regulations or pay permits or taxes. People routinely avoid paying official taxes in Italy when harvesting Boletus edulis and truffles (Hall et al., 1998b). Exclusion can also turn to resentment. In northwest Spain in 2001, a truffle site was crudely raked overnight and spoiled for collection because a previous resident of an area was no longer allowed to obtain a collectors permit for his former village (de Romn, 2002, personal communication: Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production). The Scottish Wild Mushroom Code7 provides the following guidelines to collectors of edible and non-edible species: only pick what you will use; wildlife need mushrooms too; do not pick until the cap has opened out, and leave those that are past their best; take care not to damage the main part of the mushroom below the surface and not to damage its surroundings; scatter trimmings discreetly in the same area the mushroom came from; only pick what you know and take a field guide to identify mushrooms where you find them; some mushrooms are poisonous and rare ones should not be picked; please observe special conditions that may apply to nature reserves. Codes of practice are useful but again must be realistic if they are to be adopted. The loss of native forests reduces the potential production of wild edible fungi. Planting exotic trees opens up new possibilities, some of which have already been exploited. Boletus edulis has been introduced to South Africa and a small export trade has been established (Pott, 2002, personal communication: Export of Boletus edulis from South Africa). This fungus is not eaten locally. A eucalypt species from Australia, planted in Madagascar, has formed mycorrhizal associations with a native edible Russula (Buyck, 2001). Similar interactions involving other wild edible fungi have been observed in West Africa (Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002). Planting exotic species does not, therefore, necessarily impoverish the local mycota (Ryvarden, Pierce and Masuka, 1994) and may significantly increase opportunities for collecting WEF, as has happened with the planting of Pinus nigra in northwest Spain and the commercial markets for Lactarius deliciosus that have developed over the last thirty years (de Romn, 2002, personal communication:Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production). New Zealand has seized the opportunity to introduce edible mycorrhizal fungi, and the lack of competing native species of fungi is seen as a positive opportunity in support of commercialization (Hall and Wang, 2002). TABLE 12 Preparing management guidelines for wild edible fungi

TOPIC Ownership of forests

QUESTIONS TO ASK/KEY POINTS Public or private? State/region controlled or under joint management with rural people? As the number of stakeholders increases so the task of resolving who has user rights and how these are moderated becomes more complex. Private owners may be unaware of the value of WEF and this should be carefully explained so that they have realistic expectations about financial returns from potential commercial operations. Commercial or personal? Firstl consider the value of WEF by themselves and then compare this with other forest products and services. Review all WEF species together for preliminary assessments and later look more carefully at the value of different types (which may vary significantly). Personal collections include subsistence and recreational uses (e.g. amateur mycologists, field biologists). Good and reliable data on production and amounts harvested are essential for effective planning. If these data do not exist or are patchy, consult collectors to assess patterns of previous use and consider an inventory based on a system of sample plots.

Relative importance of wild edible fungi

Collectors and their practices

People profiles and harvesting methods. Who are the collectors: are they local or hired labour brought in from other places? Examine the harvesting practices and assess their impact on WEF resources and the forest and trees. Review the need to change practices and how collectors could be encouraged to use less harmful methods. Look carefully at the other features of collector livelihoods so that WEF can be put in wider contexts. Collecting permits and right of access. How are collections of WEF regulated and do the current laws support sustainable use? The key principle is fair and equitable access to forest resources which maintains a healthy balance between use of WEF and other forest uses. Examine current legislation to see whether it is enforceable and reflects current needs of users. The guiding principal is pragmatism: regulations that work.

Legislation and regulations

Production Volume and value. Assess this on a national scale since data will be and financial used to develop government policies. Weak data lead to weak policies value and management of WEF has been hampered by wrong perceptions and knowledge of collecting practices and their importance, particularly to rural communities. BOX 5 Practical inventory: experiences from Malawi An extensive review of inventory studies for NWFP has revealed the poor quality data that often emerge at the end of studies, and highlighted the general paucity of information on productivity (FAO 2001a). This is a critical issue if foresters are to understand the impact of harvesting practices on wild edible fungi and to resolve the competing claims of commercial interests and other groups that have an instinctive suspicion of collectors (which often includes the foresters themselves).

In Malawi, enumerators were hired in to collect data from four major sites. There were few major problems apart from the failure of data collection at one site which was resolved the next year when a local non-governmental organization (NGO) helped. It took at least one season for all concerned to become familiar with protocols and techniques. The rains were poor in the second and third year and productivity consequently low. A good knowledge of local and scientific names of wild edible fungi was a major benefit in interpreting the data. The cost of travelling to the four sites was high; fuel is expensive in Malawi and budgets should be calculated before finalizing the location of plots. There may be little advantage in travelling afar unless these sites are significantly different from those closer at hand. A computer data entry system was created at the very beginning and was invaluable in allowing yield data to be entered swiftly and accurately. It soon became clear if wrong data had been entered or if there were unexplained gaps. The supervisors used this information to suggest improvements in how enumerators collected data and reported the results. Analysis of the data and drawing conclusions have proved more difficult to achieve, partly because the people involved in the work worked far apart and data collection was continued up to the end of the project. It would have been better, in retrospect, to stop data collection earlier and to give a longer period of time (six months) for data analysis. More could be done to provide practical advice on how to take inventories of wild edible fungi. There is a lot of useful information available on NWFP (FAO, 2001a), but there is as yet no simple, practical guide that would encourage more people to measure productivity and show them how to perform simple analyses of the data. PLATE 4 TRUFFLE COLLECTING IN ITALY The collection and cultivation of Tuber spp. is of commercial importance. Truffle photographs are from Urbino, Marche in Italy, and are ofTuber aestivum unless otherwise stated. All photos by Eric Boa.

4.1 Luna uncovers the truffles and awaits a reward. Dogs are easier to handle and cause less damage than pigs

4.2 Pierluigi displays the truffles after digging them up with the long-handled tool. It has a curved blade at the end.

4.3 The clearing is a truffle "orchard", tartufaia (It.) ortruffire (Fr.). Trees are infected artificially with the fungus.

4.4 Marking the test taken by truffle collectors in Bologna to confirm they know how and where to harvest.

4.5 Tuber aestivum, cut open to show distinctive flesh.

4.6 The suppressed vegetation (brule), suggests Tuber aestivum is present.

4.7 Tuber excavatum, largely worthless. Not all truffles are equally prized. Present at the same site as T. aestivum

4.8 Some truffle collectors raise and train their own dogs. Elvisio also sells to other collectors.

4.9 Tuber magnatum for sale as a luxury food, costing around US$35 per jar.

PLATE 5 THE TRADE IN BOLETUS EDULIS These valuable and sought after wild fungi grow around the world yet are not eaten in countries such as Malawi. The trade is dominated by Italians, both at home (factories) and overseas (as traders). Huge volumes are imported from China, eastern Europe and southern Africa. Known in Italian as porcini, they are dried and sold preserved, sometimes in mixtures with other Boletus species and other cultivated mushrooms. All photographs from Borgo Val de Toro, Parma, Italy, unless stated otherwise, and taken by Eric Boa.

5.1 B. edulis: produced in abundance yet not eaten or collected. Pine plantation,

5.2 Fresh porcini being prepared for cooking and preservation in brine, prior to

5.3 Porcini cooked and ready for bottling..

Zomba plateau, Malawi.

being sold.

5.4 Preparing jars of porcini and other mushrooms.

5.5 A range of mushroom products, including chanterelles and paddy straw.

5.6 Dried and preservedporcini on sale.

5.7 Permits are required to collect wild fungi in this valley. Residents and property owners pay less compared to "outsiders".

5.8 Dried porcini from several countries are carefully graded.

5.9 Porcini and other mushrooms in brine, as imported from overseas.

5.10 Other species of Boletus are sometimes mixed with porcini and sold.
6

5.11 Pholiota nameko from China, also sold in mixtures with porcini.

5.12 Young specimens ofporcini in brine.

Cantharellus species.

Available at: www.rbge.org.uk/research/celtica/fungi/sustainability.htm.

Note: Amounts are fresh weight or presumed to be so in the absence of other information. TABLE 19 World production of cultivated mushrooms ITEM World production (tonnes) China production (%) Value world production (US$ billion) Agaricus bisporus (%) Lentinula edodes(shiitake) (%) Pleurotus spp. (%) 56 14 8 7.5 38 10 24 1986 2 182 000 1989/90 3 763 000 1994 4 909 000 54 16 38 17 16 32 25 14 1997 6 202 000 70 22.5 nd nd nd 2001* 7 500 000

* 2001 figures are estimates based on 5 percent annual increase in volume and 5 percent increase in value at 1994 prices. Sources: Chang, 1991; Chang and Miles, 1991. TABLE 20 Value of wild useful fungi collected by country of origin COUNTRY COLLECTION AND EXPORT VALUE US$(MILLIO NS) 1527 SOURCE

Canada

Before tax revenue of 16 companies involved in harvesting, buying or selling all wild edible fungi. Around 6 000 collectors are involved. Range is for bad and good years.

Wills and Lipsey, 1999

China(Sichua (a) Cordyceps annual harvest 1949 to n) mid-1980s.(b) Cordyceps sinensis harvest in Litang China(west Sichuan) Chile Tricholoma matsutake, income for farmers. Salted (salmuerados) and dried (deshidratados) wild edible fungi exported, 1980 1990. Annual value: (a) average (b) range

(a) 520(b) 1.21.8 56

Winkler, 2002

Winkler, 2002

(a) 1.8(b) 1.3 FAO, 1993a 2.8

Mexico(in six Tricholoma magnivelare for export: (a) (a) 1.1(b) 0.6 states) 1996; (b) 1997. Involves 3 000 families. Turkey Terfezia boudieri, Boletus sp., Morchellasp., Cant harellus cibarius for export in (a) 1991 (b) 1999

www.semarnat.gob .mx

(a) 14.4(b) 9.5 Sabra and Walter, 2001

United States Zimbabwe

(a) morels; (b) chanterelles; (a) 5.2 (b) 3.7 Schlosser and (c)matsutake; (d) boletes.Data for 1992. (c) 8(d) 2.3 Blatner, 1995 Boletus edulis for export in one year. Said to involve 2 0005 000 collectors. 1.5 Boa et al., 2000

World trade in cultivated mushrooms There has been a spectacular increase in world production over the last ten years (Table 19). In 1997 shiitake (Lentinula edodes) andPleurotus spp. together exceeded the value of sales of Agaricus bisporus, a mushroom celebrated more for its shape than its taste. An estimate of world production for 2001, based on figures for 1997, puts the global value of cultivated mushrooms at around US$23 billion. This exceeds the value of many other commodities. The trade in wild edible fungi and the business of cultivated mushrooms have both steadily expanded. Packets of wild and cultivated species are sold in shops (Plate 9). Sales of wild edible fungi have risen steadily as the range of commercial species on sale in the United Kingdom has increased. In China, customers have been observed to prefer the wild species, when in season, to the cultivated mushrooms that are available all year round (Priest, 2002, personal communication: Edible and medicinal fungi in China and general information). Cultivated mushrooms are now Chinas biggest vegetable export and there are significant numbers of relatively small-scale producers in countries such as Viet Nam and Indonesia (Gunawan, 2000). Both China and Viet Nam export cultivated mushrooms to Europe (Plate 5). TABLE 21 Matsutake 1: domestic production and imports in tonnes to Japan, 195099 YEAR 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1982 DOMESTIC IMPORTS % DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION AS PROD. IMPORT AND IMPORTS A % OF 1950 6 448 3 569 3 509 1 291 1 974 774 457 484 0 0 0 0 0 0 362* 551 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 53 6 448 3 139 3 509 1 291 1 974 774 819 1 035 49 54 20 31 12 13 16

1984 1986 1988 1989/90 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

180 199 406 199 na na na na na 257 147

1 082 980 1 430 2 210 1 943 3 622 3 515 2 703 3 059 3 248 2 674

86 83 78 92 93 95

1 262 1 179 1 836 2 409 [1 943] [3 622] [3 515] [2 703] [3 059] 3 505 2 821

20 18 28 37

54 44

* first year that imports are noted. na data not available. Domestic production from 1993 to 1997 thought to be around 200 tonnes per year. Source: Data have been collected from various authors. The original source appears to be Japanese trade statistics. Seewww.fintrac.com for data from 1993 to 1997. TABLE 22 Matsutake 2: exports to Japan in tonnes by various countries, 199397 COUNTRY 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 AVERAGE TONNES/YEAR 2 439 1 122 888 FIVE-YEAR VALUE US$ MILLIONS 1 95 270 156

Bhutan* Canada** China* Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic of)* Korea (Republic of)* Mexico**see below Morocco*** Turkey*** United States**

1 279 1 064 383

1 447 1 127 1 760

2 340 1 192 1 141

3 510 541

3 618 615

1 152 1 076

131

139

633

170

249

264 18 61 26 144

169 6 12 4 33

2(26) 22(35) 36(56) 23(42) 9(14) 20 0 51 73 2 47 1 4 164 86 44 172 125 80 284

* Tricholoma matsutake. ** T. magnivelare. *** probably T. caligatum. Includes fresh and chilled. Note: The export tonnage from a Mexican Government database (Martnez-Carrera et al., 2002) is shown in italics and includes data for 1998 (24 tonnes); 1999 (14 tonnes) and 2000 (4 tonnes).

Source: www.fintrac.com. TABLE 23 Matsutake 3: value of exports to Japan by various countries, 199397 COUNTRY 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TOTAL YEN, YEN, YEN, YEN, YEN, YEN, MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION 5 1 840 5 494 4 1 891 5 746 6 928 9 1 506 5 249 4 074 17 2 690 6 631 1 060 16 2 559 6 579 2 794 51 10 486 29 699 17 147 TOTAL US$, MILLION 0.5 95 270 156

Bhutan Canada China

Korea 2 291 (Democratic Peoples Republic of) Korea 2 321 (Republic of) Mexico Morocco Turkey United States Total Grand total(US$, million) 78 117 0 491 12 637 115

2 653 100 340 4 253 17 919 163

6 719 206 6 12 782 18 563 169

3 076 156 368 140 931 15 069 137

3 815 73 449 256 1 153 17 694 161

18 584 613 1 280 412 3 610 81 882

169 6 12 4 33 745 745

US$1 = 110 Yen. Grand total includes several countries that were minor and irregular exporters. Data include fresh and chilled matsutake. Source: www.fintrac.com. TABLE 24 Volume of exports of named wild edible fungi from selected countries (in tonnes) COUNTRY Baltic states (86% Lithuania) India Pakistan Poland South Africa YEAR 1998 annual 1999 1984 annual BOLETUS CHANTERELLES MORELS* EDULIS nd none? none nd 100200 3 500 nd none 9 179 none nd 50-60 79 nd none

Turkey

1989 1990 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

22 730 nd nd nd nd nd 5 186 1 212 3 792 100

11 160 13 18 375 94 15 2 605 631 1 502 20-30

47 nd 152 100 46 104 44 37 2 3 none

Yugoslavia (former now Serbia and Montenegro)

1993 1994 1995 annual

Zimbabwe

nd no data. none no evidence of exports. * dry weight. All other data are assumed to be fresh weight. Sources: Pakistan Economist, 2001; Boa et al., 2000; Gurer, 2002, personal communication: Unpublished trade data on wild edible fungi for Turkey; Kaul, 1993; Kroeger, 1985; Pott, 2002, personal communication: Export of Boletus edulis from South Africa; Sabra and Walter, 2001 PLATE 6 EDIBLE FUNGI IN AFRICA Photos from the United Republic of Tanzania by Marja Hrknen; Harry Evans for Ghana. All others by Eric Boa.

6.1 Roadsides are a common selling point in Malawi. Traders rarely venture beyond markets and collectors must come to them

6.2 Made from dried Uapaca leaves, this basket is used to store dried mushrooms (and leafy vegetables) collected from the forest. Malawi.

if they chose not to sell themselves.

6.4 Cleaning a successful harvest (Termitomyces). United Republic of Tanzania. 6.5 Cooking chanterelles. This mushroom stew is usually eaten with maize or cassava porridge. United Republic of Tanzania.

6.3 A collector returns with a mornings harvest. Malawi.

6.7 Wild edible fungi are also sold dried. United Republic of Tanzania.

6.6 Termitomyces on their

6.8 Carefully excavating Termitomyces in

way to a local market in Ghana. PLATE 7

the United Republic of Tanzania. Compare the size with the species from Ghana.

EDIBLE FUNGI IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN The strong tradition of collecting and eating wild edible fungi extends from Mexico to Guatemala and then appears to stop abruptly. Only one record (shown here) from Bolivia is known. The Caribbean also lacks a tradition of eating wild edible fungi yet, once more, Haitians regularly eat djon djon wherever they migrate. Photos from Guatemala by Roberto Flores; New York by Gene Yetter; mushroom fair, Oaxaca by Fabrice Eduard, seller by Elaine Marshall; Bolivia by Eric Boa.

7.1 Mushroom fair to raise awareness of edible species. Oaxaca, Mexico.

7.2 Local market in Oaxaca, Mexico; wild edible fungi shown on right (?Amanita) and in front of vendor.

7.3 Patzn market, Guatemala. Lactarius deliciosus and L. indigo for sale (hand in basket).

7.4 Roadside vendor, Guatemala, with Lactarius deliciosus and Amanita caliptroderma.

7.5 Gregoria was the only vendor ofkallampa (Quechua name forLeucoagaricus hortensis) in Cochabamba market, Bolivia.

7.6 Haitian communities around the world regularly buy djon djon, a Psathyrella sp. Brooklyn, New York.

7.7 Fresh djon djon are cultivated in Haiti and exported to the United States, Canada and other countries. Brooklyn, New York. PLATE 8 EDIBLE FUNGI IN ASIA

Photos from Bhutan by Alessandra Zambonelli; Viet Nam and Kunming by Maria Chamberlain; southern China by Marja Hrknen, all other China photos by Warren Priest.

8.2 Preparing matsutake for export to Japan from Bhutan. Quality has an important bearing on the prices obtained. 8.1 Matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake) Bhutan. 8.3 Selling chanterelles andRamaria sp. (in hand), Thimpu, Bhutan.

8.4 Cultivating Agaricus bisporus, Pohkara, Nepal. Sponsored by Japanese aid project.

8.5 Collectors basket, northern Viet Nam.

8.6 Huge amounts of wild edible fungi are sold in brine. Chengdu, China.

8.8 Lyophyllum decastes, for sale in Kunming, China. 8.7 Termitomyces are good baby food in Hanyuan county, Sichuan, China.
8

8.9 A collector in southern China.

See www.livelihoods.org for further information and explanations of what is known as the sustainable livelihoods approach. Throughout this chapter livelihoods is used in the broad sense of the means by which people live.
9

Ceremonial, religious and other non-practical uses of wild fungi are of relative minor importance and are not discussed here (see Davis, 1996 and Riedlinger, 1990, for more information).

5 REALIZING THE POTENTIAL: PROSPECTS, ACTIONS, OPPORTUNITIES

KEY FACTS
The major features of wild edible fungi based on this first global assessment are: 2 327 recorded wild useful species; 2 166 are edible and this book has noted 1 069 used as food, with at least 100 other known food species still lacking published evidence; 470 species have medicinal properties, of which 133 are neither eaten or said to be edible; a further 181 species have other properties and used valued by people, e.g. religious, as tinder; they are collected, consumed and sold in over 80 countries worldwide;

 global amount collected each year is several million tonnes with a minimum value of US$2 billion. The major benefits and features of wild edible fungi, as discussed in Chapters 2 and 4, are: they are a valuable source of nutrition, often with associated health benefits; they are an important source of income for communities and national economies; key species are ectomycorrhizal and help to sustain tree growth and healthy forests; they are especially valuable to rural people in developing countries.

GENERAL CONSTRAINTS
Much of the original work on edible fungi has concentrated on the mycological or scientific aspects and, although much still remains to be done, the most significant gaps in information and knowledge concern social and economic aspects of use. Little is known about collectors and collecting practices, for example, or the relative importance of wild edible fungi compared with alternative sources of food or income. Sustainable production of wild edible fungi is not only about how to maximize yields but how to balance this resource with other uses and users of forests. Despite significant gaps in knowledge it is also important to emphasize that significant advances have been made in describing the features of commercial harvesting in different countries. There is a considerable body of published information from the United States and Canada, for example, and Chinese researchers have also provided new insights concerning the use of wild edible fungi that demonstrate their widespread importance. In central, southern and now west Africa, development projects have explored local use of wild edible fungi while national programmes in Mexico and Turkey have sustained local research programmes over a long period of time. Now is an appropriate time to identify the most important topics that need further investigation. The following section discusses research priorities in mycology, diet, fungal ecology (mycorrhizas) and storage how to make better use of annual production. These are key areas where more information is needed. There are many questions about how best to manage wild edible fungi and to achieve sustainable production and this topic is examined in more detail in the subsequent section. Table 25 summarizes the key issues involved and discusses them in relation to commercial harvesting and subsistence uses. Table 25 and Table 12 attempt to develop a practical approach to management that will be of use to forest managers. The two common constraints for exploring the full potential of wild edible fungi are a poor knowledge of current activities and a lack of reliable data.

RESEARCH PRIORITIES: WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

Identification of species

The tropical mycota is poorly known and concern has been expressed by scientists about the incomplete state of taxonomic knowledge (Meijer, 2001). Steady progress has been made in naming new species of macrofungi (e.g. Verbecken et al., 2000; Afyon, 1997) and while there is still much to do there is no obvious evidence that gaps in taxonomic knowledge are limiting the use of wild edible fungi. Local classifications provide a useful guide to edible and not eaten species (these may be poisonous or not). Scientific identifications can help to clarify the edibility of species and further information about the identification of macrofungi is always helpful. The resistance to eating wild fungi is often based on a fear of eating poisonous mushrooms and this does limit the use of edible species and attempts to expand local markets (Lowore and Boa, 2001). Throughout southern Africa Boletus edulis is produced in pine plantations but is not eaten locally. Suitable publicity and reassurance from recognized authorities will help to overcome suspicion but concerted efforts are needed to change deep-seated suspicion of wild fungi. Efforts to promote wild edible fungi locally are best concentrated in areas where they are already eaten. Simple local guides that illustrate useful edible species for a region are more widely needed. Comprehensive field guides are of greatest use but are more costly and complicated to produce. Guides to edible species are not in themselves sufficient: they must be supported by public campaigns that seek to reassure people about which species are safe to eat. The recognized authorities refers to both scientists who can identify macrofungi and local people with similar skills acquired from personal experience of what is safe to eat and with a knowledge of local traditions. Nutritional status The nutritional benefits of wild edible fungi have not been fully explored. The published information is of variable quality and analytical procedures need to be standardized (Breene, 1990). The range of wild species that have been analysed is still small and little is known about variation within species that occur in different countries, e.g. chanterelles and Boletus edulis. Research is needed on species that have greatest market potential and efforts should be made to highlight the nutritional properties and advantages. Many people judge the dietary value of mushrooms with little knowledge of their true properties (see Chapter 2, section on Edibility and poisonous fungi and Chapter 4, section on Nutrition and health benefits for further information). Mycorrhizas The links between wild edible fungi and tree hosts are well known for economically important species such as Boletus edulis and Tuberspp. Cantharellus spp. form mycorrhizae with many tree species in tropical countries. There is an expanding body of information about many other edible fungustree associations but this has not been assembled in the form of a database, for example, that would allow for predictive searches. The search for matsutake in Asia was assisted by a knowledge of its tree hosts (Namgyel, 2000) and this approach would assist in prospecting for other wild edible fungi. Knowledge about the mycorrhizal partners of edible species of Amanita, Lactariusand Russula is steadily increasing (e.g. Verbecken and Buyck, 2002). There are potentially large areas of miombo woodland in Malawi which are not accessible to local collectors working on foot, and a better knowledge of which edible mycorrhizal species grow with which trees would help to identify productive areas. In general terms, a database

of mycorrhizal associations, linking edible species to tree hosts would help planners and forest managers. The database would need to indicate how well the association had been established. Physical links between macrofungi and trees were relatively simple to trace during one short exercise in Malawi (Plate 2) and published work has already confirmed associations. Even statements such as found growing in association with would assist attempts to identify areas where wild edible fungi might occur. Storage Wild edible fungi often have a short period during which they can be eaten. They then either rot or shrivel up. They can be preserved in a variety of ways and used at a later date. Some species are readily dried and the flavour of Boletus edulis is enhanced by this process (Plate 5). Chanterelles have a longer viable period than many other wild edible species and this enhances their marketability. Truffles also store well, but many other edible fungi are highly perishable. In China, edible fungi are commonly preserved in brine and sold in caskets (Plate 8). They are also exported in this form to Italy. The technology for preserving wild edible fungi is simple but may require capital investment. Drying mushrooms is more suited to subsistence users and simple methods used in Malawi dried fungi are stored in natural containers made with dried leaves of Uapaca kirkiana, a native tree have wider applications (Plate 6). Preserving edible fungi in brine also has wider applications and substantially increases the use and value of wild edible fungi in China. The success of this approach depends on having the equipment and raw materials to carry out the preservation process, but it is important to determine first whether edible fungi in brine are acceptable to the intended market. There is no experience of this method in Africa in rural communities, for example, and market research is needed before contemplating preservation in brine on a wide scale. Although some wild fungi are dried in southern Africa (Plate 6), there is scope for expanding this approach. If suitable drying methods are not already used, others could be adapted from other areas of agriculture (e.g. drying seeds). It is important in all these efforts to increase the supply of wild edible fungi that they first concentrate on regions where they are already popular and, second, that any new storage methods are developed jointly with local communities.

EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
The main objective of managing wild edible fungi is to ensure sustainable production. This is achieved by examining their biology, ecology and patterns of use in relation to other uses of forests and the groups of people involved (Chapter 3). Table 12 outlines the key topics that need to be addressed. Table 25 offers a structured approach towards achieving sustainable production of wild edible fungi and forests. The key to success is having a sound knowledge of what people do in the forest and why, and assessing the relative importance and priority of benefits obtained (products and services) and related activities. When planning projects or initiatives specifically on wild edible fungi, the objectives of forest management need to be clearly stated: production forests are managed for different purposes compared to protected forests.

The starting point for any management plan is, however, the wild edible fungi themselves. Reliable data are needed on yields and productivity. Recent advice on NWFP inventory methods suggests how this information might be obtained (FAO, 2001a). Lists of species are needed together with information on their relative importance to local people. Sustainable use of wild edible fungi depends on minimizing the impact of harvesting procedures on the fungus resource and the forest. At the same time, information about other forest uses should be gathered. Some uses of a forest may be incompatible and adjustments to their management might be required. Balancing the needs of forest users in developing countries is often complicated because the pressures on forest resources are great and users have a weak voice in deciding management objectives. User groups must be able to express their needs and feel that their opinions have been taken into account. TABLE 25 Information needs and issues concerning sustainable use of wild edible fungi KEY ISSUES Species: which ones are collected COMMERCIAL COLLECTIONS The range is small and well known. Buyers may require confirmation of species: there are many more tropical species of chanterelles than exist in Europe. Boletus edulis from China has a very different flavour to those from Europe. Hall et al., 2003: general introduction Collectors: who are they These may be local or from outside. Conflicts occur within and between groups depending on the value of species being collected. The importance of income earned by collectors should be established. Hrknen, 1998: ethnic groups in Finland Harvests: how much and impact The lure of high prices may lead to the use of harmful methods (both PERSONAL USE/LOCAL SALES The range of species is much greater though not all are of equal importance. Local names can be helpful in overcoming difficulties in naming species. Note the importance of confirming that edible fungi are actually eaten (food). De Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002: Benin Mostly for subsistence uses though note collecting for a hobby in the North. Subsistence users vary greatly in social and economic characteristics and this will require careful study. McLain, Christensen and Shannon, 1998: USALowore and Boa, 2001: Malawi Harvests are usually small-scale and according to de facto rules

deliberately and unknowingly). Compulsory training exists in the United States and truffle collectors must pass an exam in Italy before being allowed to buy a permit. Ivancevic, 1997: Yugoslavia Regulation: use of permits Permits are sold in several countries but may prove difficult to monitor. Schemes may need modification and a review of experiences in other countries could be helpful. Pilz et al., 1999: wild edible fungi, USA

established by communities. Data are needed to determine the relative value of collections to rural people. Information on this topic is generally weak. Malyi, 1987: Belarus The concerns are less about the amounts collected than the general presence of collectors in protected forests, leading to concerns about damage to forests and increased risk of fires in some places (USA). Villarreal and PerezMoreno, 1989: Mexico

Access: who has rights for collecting

Commercial harvesting often prompts a closer inspection of who owns or has rights of access to sites. State- or community-run forests are more difficult to manage compared to private plantations. Yeh, 2000: matsutake in China

The low intensity use associated with personal collections is rarely an issue compared to general concerns about extraction of NWFP from protected forests and conservation areas. Singh and Rawat, 2000: morels from India Markets in southern Africa are small and by the road and this limits the amounts sold. Local trading is often low-key and relatively straightforward. Lowore and Boa, 2001: Malawi

Trade: who buys and sells

There is a strong imperative for trading systems to develop in a fair and effective manner. Intermediaries are frequently thought to exploit collectors but they also provide credit, a dependable chain for selling and ensure that products get to the market. Namgyel, 2000: Bhutan

Yields and productivity:

The potential threat posed by unsustainable harvests

Yields help to assess the potential for

amounts

must be determined from an accurate knowledge of yields and productivity data over several years. Kujala, 1988: Finland

commercialization in local markets. Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000: Russian Federation Market surveys are a useful method for estimating how much is collected locally. They also help to demonstrate the potential for expanding local sales. Montoya-Esquivel et al., 2001: Mexico; Boa et al., 2000: Malawi

Markets: amounts traded, exports

China has a substantial internal export market with large amounts flowing from forest to major cities. Elsewhere exports are to Europe and North America. An awareness of relative labour costs determines market opportunities. www.fintrac.com: export data from several countries

Forest users: who are they and the relative importance of WEF collections

The collection of high value species may be the main output from a forest and therefore management objectives should be set accordingly. Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2000: Canada

Rapid appraisal methods have greatly increased knowledge of forest users. Careful analysis of wild edible fungi use is needed general reports of forest users may not report such practices. Campbell, 1996: miombo, southern Africa

Forest management: relative importance of wood versus non-wood forest products and specifically wild edible fungi

A careful examination of forestry objectives with an analysis of major products and services is needed to plan effectively for multiple use. Alexander et al., 2002: USA

Low intensity use presents few immediate threats to production forests though a wider knowledge of WEF collecting may alter this current perception. Lund, Pajari and Korhonen, 1998: boreal and cold temperate forests A major concern in tropical countries is the poorly described mycota. Studies are currently hampered by a lack of suitably trained taxonomists. A

Biodiversity: conservation status of wild edible fungi and other plants

Conservation concerns must address the needs of all forest users, including commercial collections. These cause particular concern because of perceived losses and

damage causes. Issues can only be resolved with good and reliable data and a sound understanding of what people do and why. Perini, 1998: Europe

knowledge of ectomycorrhizal associations would help in identifying production of wild edible fungi as happens with Tuber spp. in Europe. Tibiletti and Zambonelli, 1999: Italy

COMMERCIALIZATION AND CULTIVATION

Commercialization There are sometimes unrealistic expectations about money to be earned from exporting wild edible fungi. Much depends on the cost of labour and access to markets. Exports from North America have suffered because harvesting wild edible fungi is cheaper in eastern Europe and transport costs are less. The timing of fruiting seasons will affect the prices that can be achieved. When fruiting seasons overlap in different countries, supplies of common edible species (e.g. chanterelles) will increase and prices will drop. There are yearly fluctuations in production, which are difficult to predict, and fluctuating prices paid for species creates uncertainty and a potentially unstable marketplace. This is not to say that successful export businesses cannot be sustained, but it requires careful planning, the ability to withstand the ebb and flow of the market place and timely delivery of a good quality product. That is why initiatives to expand local markets are a better way to commercialize wild edible fungi. They will still require attention to detail (getting produce to market quickly) but the potential challenges are smaller and more manageable, thus increasing the chances of success. Evidence of this comes from local markets in southern Africa and Mexico that have developed out of local initiatives, often with little or no assistance from governments or development projects. The role of researchers and NGOs in these circumstances is to build on existing trading systems and identify where minor changes might lead to major improvements. The following example illustrates the potential of this simple approach. In Mzimba region in the north of Malawi, women walk long distances in order to meet traders, who buy enthusiastically when the opportunity arises. The strong local demand for wild edible fungi guarantees good market prices yet only a small number of collectors sell their produce directly. More commonly, they sell to the traders who sell in the market at twice the price. Efforts are now being made to encourage more collectors to sell directly and to arrange trading points closer to the collectors homes, thus increasing the amounts they can supply to local markets (Lowore, Munthali and Boa, 2002). BOX 9 Product quality and its importance for trade The roadside sellers of WEF in Malawi are aware that customers will pay more for

species that are fresh and presented in an attractive manner. They clean fruiting bodies and select which ones are placed at the tops of piles on their stalls, but on the whole they spend relatively little time in these actions. The differences in money earned are small. The most important thing is to get the WEF as quickly as they can from forest to stall. As the value of the species increases so too does the increased price that collectors and traders can expect to be paid. The differences in quality between matsutakearriving from China and the Republic of Korea in Japan is immediately apparent to anyone comparing boxes. The specimens from the Republic of Korea are less damaged, neatly displayed and in prime condition, thus satisfying the discerning needs of the Japanese customers who will be prepared to pay top prices. Getting fresh specimens to market is a considerable challenge. The physical appearance of fruiting bodies is obviously important and customer preferences must be observed. Some species discolour if the gills or cap are damaged and they must be handled with care. The buyers have to make sure that fruiting bodies are not infested with insects some collectors try to hide these at the bottom of trays but such tricks rarely go undetected for long. Depending on the soil where the fungi grow, some preliminary cleaning of gills and gaps may be needed to remove particles. Sparassis crispa and other species with honeycomb caps readily accumulate grit, which is difficult to remove. Picking fruiting bodies at the correct stage of development is important. As they mature some species become woody and much less desirable while others, such asCoprinus comatus, quickly dissolve or rot away. The simple consequence for collectors is that inferior specimens are graded lower and are worth less. All things being equal, some provenances of Boletus edulis have different taste characteristics. Knowledgeable buyers in Italy can identify the country of origin by smelling the dried fruiting bodies. This in turn determines the price that the buyers will pay for a particular market. The most spectacular difference in the financial outcomes of product quality is shown by the dramatically different amounts of money earned by the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea on exports of matsutake. Despite exporting only 264 tonnes over five years, compared to 888 tonnes from the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea earned nearly 15 percent more (Tables 22 and 23). Sources: Lowore and Boa (2001), authors observations and Zambonelli (2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting porcini in Italy) Cultivation There are possibilities for expanding the cultivation of edible fungi. Larger-scale methods are unsuited to local communities that lack the money to establish such businesses. Smaller-scale approaches (backyard cultivation) are described in Stamets (2000) and widely used throughout China. These have a greater potential for rural people who cultivate paddy-straw as part of integrated farming systems in Viet Nam, for example.

THE FUTURE FOR WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

The increased interest and importance of NWFP have helped to raise the profile of wild edible fungi worldwide. Well-publicized commercial harvesting in North America since the 1990s and the expansion of exports from eastern Europe and China have raised awareness of wild edible fungi and there is now a substantial and significant trade from developing to developed countries. A growing interest in medicinal mushrooms has attracted commercial interests, though there has always been a strong demand in Asia for Ganoderma and other key species. The expansion in commercial harvesting and international trade has led to widespread concern about overharvesting and damage to fungal resources and to forests. There is a danger of restricting commercial harvesting without examining available data or identifying the need to collect data to answer important questions about impact and sustainability. A recent attempt to restrict collections of matsutake in the United States was rejected following a closer look at this resource and its current pattern of use (Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming, 2002). The concerns regarding subsistence uses in developing countries are more generally about sustainable use of natural resources. The key to developing wild edible fungi as either a local food or source of income is to examine the different aspects of use and harvesting and to learn more about local practices and community needs. There has been much enthusiasm for NWFP-based development, particularly in protected forests. Some caution is needed in assessing the potential benefits of this strategy and three commonly held beliefs require closer investigation (Belcher, 2002): 1. NWFP contribute more than timber to the livelihoods and welfare of people living in or near forests, particularly in hard times. 2. Exploitation causes less damage compared with timber harvesting and is a sounder basis for sustainable forest management. 3. Increased commercial harvests add to the value of (tropical) forests and thereby increases the incentive to maintain them rather than convert them to other land uses. There is better than expected evidence to support the first two points for wild edible fungi while noting the need for more data and better information. It is less clear whether commercial harvests help to protect forests. The mycorrhizal associations of key wild edible fungi do, however, emphasize the unique role they play in maintaining tree health. The global trade in wild edible (ectomycorrhizal) fungi has been estimated at US$2 billion (Hall et al., 2003). The true value, however, includes the value of wild edible fungi to the millions of rural people around the world who gain benefits from eating them (food they would otherwise have to buy or go without) and money from collecting. There are compelling reasons for expecting a brighter future for wild edible fungi: they maintain the health of forests; they are a valuable source of nutrition and income. New initiatives should concentrate on expanded use and benefits in areas that already have a

strong tradition of wild edible fungi. Export opportunities also exist but are inherently more risky. During the preparation of this book information on wild edible and wild useful fungi was stored in a simple database. This has been extensively updated and modified with the assistance of Dr Paul Kirk of CABI Bioscience and can be queried over the Internet (www.wildusefulfungi.org). Summary information on over 2 600 species is available and the original records from over 1 000 references and lists published around the world can be viewed. This new Web site also provides a simple means for checking valid and preferred names of WEF species. PLATE 9 EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL FUNGI IN ASIA All photos by Eric Boa except Cordyceps sinensis photos by Warren Priest.

9.1 Packaging for Phallus impudicus.

9.2 Dried Phallus impudicus.

9.3 Dried morels, bought in Belgium.

9.5 Fresh Hydnum repandum (left note spines, sans gills) andHypsizygus tessulatus for sale in a UK supermarket. 9.4 Dried Cantharellus cibarius for sale in Hungary. 9.6 (Ganoderma, dried, sold for medicinal purposes. Singapore.

9.8 Cleaning chongcao in Kangding, China in preparation for selling.

9.7 Shops advertise chongcao (Cordyceps sinensis) the orange sticks on the left in Xining, China.

Sources of advice and information

6 SOURCES OF ADVICE AND INFORMATION

MYCOLOGICAL EXPERTISE
One of the most common areas where technical advice is sought is in identifying specimens and obtaining a scientific name. There are mycologists in all major countries, both developed and developing, though their experience of macrofungi may be limited to

particular groups. Many mycologists work with microfungi and in other applied areas such as plant pathology. Experts on edible fungi are likely to be most knowledgeable about the cultivated species. Wild edible fungi have not been the focus of concerted research until the last ten or twenty years and professional expertise is subject to the vagaries of short-term funding, particularly when it comes to the study of subsistence uses. Individual researchers maintain a close professional interest in wild edible fungi, though this is often broad-based and not specialized in the identification of species. There are, however, various professional groups with a shared interest in edible fungi which meet on a regular basis. Individual members are dispersed around the world. The best known example is the Edible Ectomycorrhizal Group, which can be contacted via a Web site listed in Table 28. There are a number of institutes based in Europe and North America which have an international outreach and these are listed below. The major herbaria where reference collections of macrofungi are stored are based in developed countries, although efforts are being made to establish collections elsewhere. Mycological expertise in identifying specimens is available in major countries such as Mexico and China. It is not always clear which institute or individual might be able to assist with identifications and the best general advice is to look via general Web sites or Internet search engines. On the wider issues of NWFP, ethnoscience, participatory approaches to development and other disciplines relevant to the use of wild edible fungi, FAO is a good starting point for assistance. Mycological societies exist in many different countries and are a useful starting point for enquiries (see Table 28 for details of Web sites).

FIELD GUIDES TO WILD (EDIBLE) FUNGI

There are many field guides to macrofungi, which include information on edible and poisonous species. They are intended for naturalists and people who go collecting for the occasional mushroom to eat. Detailed field guides contain scientific descriptions of species, expressed in a concise and unambiguous language that is often difficult for the nonspecialist to understand. Shorter pocketbooks are available which rely more on photographs and have only short written descriptions of species. Both types of guide are useful for identifying species but they are mostly written for audiences in developed countries and have, therefore, a limited use in developing countries. There are few books that address the topic of wild edible fungi specifically from a people perspective and most of the relevant information is scattered across a wide range of disciplines (see Table 2 for more information). The best general introduction on wild edible fungi, including helpful details about uses, is a book first published in New Zealand (Hall et al., 1998a). A new edition was published in 2003 (Hallet al., 2003). A dictionary of edible fungi contains lists of species from several developed and developing countries and local names. It is a useful but not essential reference (Chandra, 1989). TABLE 26

Sources of technical advice and information on wild edible fungi ORGANIZATION CONTACT DETAILS NOTES CABI Bioscience Bakeham LaneEghamSurrey TW20 9TYUnited Kingdom Incorporates the International Mycological Institute; herbarium; publications; reference library; taxonomic expertise; broad development experience; databases and Index Fungorum. www.wildusefulfungi.org; www.cabi-bioscience.org Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew The HerbariumSurrey TW9 3ABUnited Kingdom Herbarium; taxonomic expertise in macrofungi; centre for Economic Botany (including edible fungi); reference library. www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/mycolexp.htm National Museum Domein van Belgium BouchotB-1860 MeiseBelgium Crop and Food Research Institute Taxonomic expertise; wild edible fungi; herbarium, international links; publications. www.br.fgov.be PB Technology development. Growing truffles and 470ChristchurchNew other wild edible fungi in managed conditions. Zealand www.crop.cri.nz/psp/em-mushrooms/index.htm TABLE 27 Field guides and Web sites for identifying macrofungi and edible varieties COUNTRY Argentina Benin Bulgaria Burundi China INFORMATION AND SOURCE Gamund and Horak, 1995: macrofungi, pocketbook with colour photos. In Spanish. De Kesel, Codjia and Yorou., 2002: selected photographs, species descriptions. In French. Iordanov, Vanev and Fakirova, 1978: edible and poisonous species, in Bulgarian. Drawings. Buyck, 1994b: annotated guide to edible species In French. Photographs. The most cinorehensive and best illustrated guide is Mao, 2000, a stunning compendium of field mycology with extensive colour photographs. Ying et al., 1988: edible species, in Chinese [not seen].Mao, 1998: Edible species, in Chinese. Ying et al., 1987: medicinal species, in Chinese [not seen]. www.im.ac.cn : has photographs of major economic species. Franco-Molano, Aldana-Gomez and Halling, 2000: guide to macrofungi, photographs. Two excellent guides with good colour photographs and Spanish and English text are available (Mata, 2003; Halling and Mueller, 2003).

Colombia Costa Rica

India Israel Italy

Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985: useful summary of edible species, nutrition data. No photographs or drawings. Wasser, 1995: edible and poisonous species, in Russian and Hebrew [not seen]. Testi, 1999 is a popular guide, one of many published. Edible fungi from Basilicate are described in Tagliavini and Tagliavini, 2001. Both guides have photographs and are in Italian. Imazeki et al., 1988: fungi of Japan, in Japanese but species names in English and many fine photos.

Japan

Korea Park and Lee, 1999: guide to Korean mushrooms. Not seen in Korean. (Republic of) Kyrgyzstan Elchibaev, 1964: edible mushrooms, drawings, in Russian. Lao Peoples http://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.html: mostly Democratic photographs, limited text. Republic Malawi Mexico Poland Russian Federation (far east) Southern Africa www.malawifungi.org: edible species, with photographs, reports and database of local names. Morris, 1987: edible species. Drawings. www.semarnat.gob.mx: edible, poisonous and medicinal species, in Spanish. Text and photographs. www.grzyby.pl : brief guide to commercial species, with photographs, in Polish and English. Vasileva, 1978: edible, poisonous and medicinal species, in Russian, seen only in translation. There are many popular guides to field mushrooms, and the following is a useful and readily available example. It is in Russian and has drawings: Sergeeva, 2000. . Ryvarden, Piearce and Masuka., 1994: describes macrofungi in general, including edible species. Photographs. van -der -Westhuizen and Eicker, 1994: general guide to macrofungi, photographs and species descriptions of most relevance to South Africa. Rodriguez et al. (1999) macrofungi with notes on edibility, colour photos, in Spanish. Hrknen, Niemel and Mwasumbi, 2003.

Spain Tanzania (United Republic of)

Tibet Mao and Jiang, 1992: Economic macrofungi, in Chinese [not seen]. Autonomous Region,China Turkey Uganda Ukraine www.ogm.gov.tr text. edible species, in English. Photographs and short

Katende, Segawa and Birnie, 1999: limited range of edible species, drawings. Zerova and Rozhenko, 1988: edible and poisonous species, in Russian. Drawings. Wasser, 1990: guide to edible and poisonous species of Carpathians. Phillips et al., 1983: edible and poisonous species, excellent photographs.

United Kingdom

United States

Arora, 1986: popular guide to all macrofungi with many photographs.www.mykoweb.com : edible species, photographs, descriptions. Molinaet al., 1993: major edible species in Pacific northwest, photographs. TABLE 28 General Web sites on wild edible fungi and related topics

ADDRESS http://mycology.cornell.edu

COMMENTS Virtual Library on Mycology. Main portal for information on fungi, including useful species. Good starting point for general enquiries. One of the most useful of many commercial sites investigated. Access is free once you have registered. Has reports on mushroom production (cultivated) and has a good global coverage. International Directory of Mycorrhizologists. Links to sites on edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, lists scientists and has many other useful background information. Good general reference point. Essential reference tool. Check species names of all fungi, including

www.mushworld.com

http://.mycorrhiza.ag.utk.edu

www.indexfungorum.org

macrofungi, and also the correct authorities. http://www.plantnames.unimelb.educ.au/Sorting/Mushrooms_Intro.html Multilingual guide to fungus names, including Chinese. Does not have a special emphasis on wild fungi. www.malawifungi.org Wild useful fungi of Malawi with a searchable database of local names and scientific equivalents. Project reports can be downloaded; photographs of many species are available. Economic fungi of China. Many photographs; wayward spellings of scientific names. Excellent site (in Spanish) giving details of major wild edible fungi from Mexico, including full descriptions and photos. Edible fungi of Poland (some text in English). General information on edible and poisonous species of Australia. Contains useful trade data from 1993 97 for mushroom exports to selected countries

www.im.ac.cn

www.semarnat.gob.mx

www.grzyby.pl

http://fungimap.rgb.vic.gov.au

www.fintrac.com

and specifically for matsutake exports to Japan. www.fungi.com Fungi Perfecti, a commercial company specializing in the cultivation of gourmet and medicinal mushrooms. Good general information and many links. Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms. Two international conferences have been held and the site gives information on talks and other matters of general relevance to WEF. The journal of wild mushrooming, published in the United States with articles available online. Presents a very practical approach and analysis of mushroom collecting and although slanted towards the amateur in the United States, it explores universal issues (regulation of collectors) of broader relevance. Information on commercial harvesting in the Pacific northwest of the United States, including detailed accounts from Winema

www.mycopat.slu.se/mycorrhiza/edible/home.phtml

www.mushroomthejournal.com

www.fs.fed.us

National Forest. www.wildusefulfungi.org Country guides Most field guides are based on species found in temperate regions. There is a plethora of such guides from the United States while countries in western Europe are also well served. Key examples are listed in Table 27 but the emphasis is on less well known books from developing countries. Most are out of print and only available from specialist libraries. Guides published in the United States (e.g. Arora, 1986) and Europe (e.g. Phillips et al., 1983) can still be purchased or readily consulted in libraries.

INFORMATION ON MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS

Many edible fungi also have medicinal properties. The International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms began publication in 1999 and contains review articles as well as original contributions. For a general overview see Hobbs (1995). All guides to macrofungi include descriptions of poisonous species. There is a colour atlas devoted to poisonous species though the examples are of species found in developed countries, some of which will also occur in developing countries (Bresinsky and Besl, 1990).

WEB SITES
The Internet is a useful source of information but the quality and accuracy of this information can be difficult to assess. Type the word mushroom or edible fungus into a search engine such as Google (www.google.com ) and a barrage of Web addresses will appear. The sites listed in Table 28 are a starting point for investigations and notes have been provided to indicate how useful they were during the preparation of this book. Most sites listed in Table 28 emphasize fungi first and uses by people second if at all. Table 28 is only a selection of available Web sites that include wild edible fungi. For more detailed searches of reliably published information there is no substitute for thorough literature reviews of journals and other professionally published sources. Table 28 includes examples of country-specific Web sites, and attention is drawn to the excellent information available for Mexico.

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Zhuang, Y. & Wang, Y.S. 1992. Applied research for second nutrition of Gastrodia elata. Quality of Gastrodia elata with trace element Zn. Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China: a bimonthly journal), 11(6): 56.

SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANCE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI BY REGION AND COUNTRY

GROUPS Countries are arranged in six regions. Africa Asia Europe North and Central America [includes Caribbean region] Oceania South America SOURCES OF INFORMATION The country summaries highlight key information on wild edible fungi though details are often sparse, particularly on the broader social and economic contexts of use. Lists of edible species published in the mycological literature are of very limited use unless it is made clear which ones are actually eaten. Two comprehensive reviews on wild fungi in Africa south of the Sahara have been particularly useful: Rammeloo and Walleyn (1993) for edible fungi and Walleyn and Rammeloo (1994) for poisonous and useful fungi. Key references are noted separately. For many countries little or no published information on wild edible fungi was found. There are some clues to suggest that local use does occur but has yet to be described. No details of wild edible fungi use in Rwanda were found yet neighbouring Burundi has regular collecting, sale and consumption. Few details were found for Viet Nam and none for Myanmar yet there are cultural links to China, the country with the strongest tradition of wild edible fungi. Little information is available on Angola though it has large tracts of miombo woodland that are productive in neighbouring countries. TRADE AND EXPORTS Information is often incomplete and widely dispersed and trade data are missing for important exporting countries. Overall, the best information available is at www.fintrac.com but only covers 199397.

FUNGI THAT APPEAR ON STAMPS A comprehensive description of all fungal species (mostly macrofungi) that have appeared on stamps since Romania produced the first examples in 1958 is available (McKenzie, 1997). Most of the 1 400 examples are edible species. Medicinal and poisonous varieties also appear. The list of species appearing on stamps is useful for countries where few other sources of information are available, for example the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea. Small island nations exploit colourful species to increase revenue from stamp sales and the examples used are therefore a poor indication of local importance.

Africa
No information was found on wild edible fungi and other useful species for the following countries: Cape Verde; Chad; Comoros; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Gambia; Liberia; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Sao Tome and Principe; Seychelles; St Helena; Sudan; Togo; Western Sahara Two frequently cited reviews appear as: R+W (Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993) and W+ R (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994). For general information on NWFP in Africa see FAO (2001b). The only information found on fungi as emergency (famine) food concerned refugees from Mozambique who fled to Malawi in the 1980s (Wilson et al., 1989). COUNTRY ALGERIA USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI Has exported matsutake in minor quantities to Japan, most likelyTricholoma caligatum. Desert truffles occur but few details are given (Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983). There are possibly exports to Spain (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). There is limited information that edible species are collected and used locally (FAO, 2001a). Isolated examples of wild edible species are given in R+W. Angola has miombo woodland similar to neighbouring countries where edible species are regularly collected and consumed. Further investigation is required. Recent work reveals an extensive range of species that are consumed locally (De Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002) and a long tradition of eating wild edible fungi. Few are openly sold. R+W lists a few species. Desert truffles are eaten and exported but harvests are very variable (Taylor et al., 1995). R+W lists a few species. A study of ectomycorrhizal fungi (Sanon, Ba and Dexheimer, 1997) confirms that edible species occur, though use as food is not discussed. Many different species occur and are collected and sold each year by rural people (Buyck, 1994b). There are distinct preferences for species among Africans and European expatriates.

ANGOLA

BENIN

BOTSWANA BURKINA FASO BURUNDI

CAMEROON

Several reports and records have appeared and are summarized in R+W. No suggestion of major use of wild edible fungi but commonly collected and eaten. R+W list species from several sources. Forest dwellers appear to make the greatest use of wild fungi though this could reflect more detailed studies of these communities. R+W has little information. A poorly studied country where wider use might be expected.

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC CONGO [REPUBLIC OF]

CONGO, Many publications and much research interest reveal widespread and DEMOCRATIC significant use of wild edible species. Most reports concentrate on the REPUBLIC OF Shaba region (e.g. Degreef, 1992). Information also in R+W. THE(FORMER ZAIRE) COTE DIVOIRE EGYPT R+W list only a few records, but there are suggestions that use of wild edible fungi has been under-recorded and that several species are consumed and traded. Only one short account has been found (Zakhary et al., 1983). No evidence to suggest that wild edible fungi are either abundant or routinely used. Only two short reports are known (Abate, 1999; Tuno, 2001). No evidence to suggest widespread use or importance of wild edible fungi. R+W contains two records gleaned from earlier report which named 23 different types of WEF but using local names for most (Walker, 1931), suggesting common consumption. R+W contains few records. Information from the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana confirms that several species are collected and used (Obodai and Apetorgbor, 2001). W+R has one record. Much wider use is expected and may have escaped detection because collection is essentially local and seasonal. No information on wild edible found though a study of mycorrhizal fungi confirms the presence of edible varieties (Thoen and Ba, 1989). R+W and W+R contain several records but there is no evidence to support widespread collecting or trading. R+W has one record of a termite fungus. No other information available but note the presence of forest tree species (pines) associated with edible mycorrhizal fungi.

ETHIOPIA GABON

GHANA

GUINEA GUINEABISSAU KENYA LESOTHO

LIBYAN ARAB Only one passing reference to desert truffles (Alsheikh and Trappe, JAMAHIRIYA 1983). MADAGASCAR R+W and W+R note several edible species though precise details of collection, consumption and sale are obscure (Bouriquet, 1970). No exports are known. More detailed studies are needed given the clear signs of major activities (Buyck, 2001). MALAWI A small country with a well-established tradition of using wild edible fungi. It has been well studied by comparison with similar countries(R+W; W+R; Morris, 1987; Boa et al., 2000). See alsowww.malawifungi.org .

MAURITIUS MOROCCO

A few records exist (R+W; W+R; Peerally, 1979) but no details are available. Macrofungi are well-described and a range of edible species occur (Malencon and Bertault, 1975). Their significance to local people is not well known. It is a small-scale exporter of mushrooms (sic) to Japan, including a matsutake relative (Tricholoma caligatum see Kytovuori, 1989).

MOZAMBIQUE A country rich in edible species. These are routinely collected, consumed and sold internally but details are sketchy (Uaciquete, Dai and Motta, 1996; Boa et al., 2000). Further study is required. There are also suggestions of B. edulis exports to Italy via companies based in South Africa (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). NAMIBIA A few isolated records (R+W and W+R). No major use of wild edible species is indicated but there are regular exports of desert truffles (Taylor, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi eaten and traded in Botswana and Namibia). Useful macrofungi occur in the Namib desert (Jacobson 1996). Brief lists of edible species are noted, mostly in connection with the Yoruba people (R+W and W+R). Several others reports exist (e.g. Oso, 1975) but they often repeat details published previously. No records in R+W or W+R but information from Burundi (Buyck, 1994b) is relevant. Accounts of ectomycorrhizal species confirm that edible species are present (Thoen and Ba, 1989) but little is known about their use by local people (Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002). Only one passing reference (to Termitomyces) was found (Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994). Mende women collect and sell edible fungi in Segbwema and presumably this occurs in other local markets (Down, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi Sierra Leone). Further study is required. No information was found and there is no indication of widespread or regular use (R+W). Much mycological information but details on local non-European preferences and practices are only slowly being revealed (Shackleton et al., 2002). See R+W and W+R for further discussions. Termitomyces collected and sold in KwaZulu (van der Westhuizen and Eicker, 1994). There are regular exports of Boletus edulis from pine plantations (Marais, 2002, personal communication: Collecting B. edulis in South Africa) which began in the 1970s (Pott, 2002, personal communication: Export of B. edulis from South Africa). Few details available about local use. Irregular exports of boletes in small quantities to Europe during the 1990s have occurred and appear to still take place (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). R+W and W+R list many species. Good descriptions available of a wide range of edible fungi that are regularly collected, consumed and sold locally. Different species eaten in Miombo woodland and

NIGERIA

RWANDA SENEGAL

SIERRA LEONE

SOMALIA SOUTH AFRICA

SWAZILAND

TANZANIA [UNITED REPUBLIC

OF]

mountainous areas. An excellent and well illustrated guide to wild mushrooms has been published (Hrknen, Niemel and Mwasumbi, 2003). Only one short report on desert truffle was found (Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983). A minor and irregular exporter of mushrooms, possibly to Spain (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). R+W contains only a few records. A wider and stronger tradition is indicated (see Katende et al., 1999). Information from Burundi is relevant (Buyck, 1994b). Widespread, common and significant use of wild edible species has been well described (e.g. (Pegler and Piearce, 1980; Piearce, 1981). R+W and W+R summarize records. Wild edible fungi are commonly collected, sold and consumed. Boletus edulis is exported to Europe (Boa et al., 2000). See also Ryvarden, Piearce and Masuka (1994) and W+R. Local traditions have been investigated in some detail only in the last 10 to 15 years and are less well described compared to Malawi and Zambia. Further attention is warranted.

TUNISIA

UGANDA

ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWE

Asia
No information was found on wild edible fungi and other useful species for the following countries or regions: Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Brunei; Cambodia; Cyprus; Gaza Strip; Georgia; Kazakhstan; Maldives; Oman; Qatar; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Timor-Leste; United Arab Emirates; Uzbekistan;West Bank; Yemen The proximity of Azerbaijan and Georgia to countries with a known tradition of wild edible fungi (e.g. Armenia and Turkey) suggests a wider use of wild edible fungi than has been reported. Anecdotal information indicates that Kazakhstan has little or no tradition of wild edible fungi. The use of wild edible fungi in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan is expected but has yet to be confirmed. So too for Cambodia: there is a tradition among tribal people in the region of using wild edible fungi (Hosaka, 2002, personal communication: Laos edible fungi) See Plates 8 and 9. COUNTRY AFGHANISTAN ARMENIA USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI A few wild edible species are described (Batra, 1983). Morels are exported (Sabra and Walter, 2001). A range of available edible species are collected, consumed and traded locally. Exports have not been reported (Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi in Armenia). Small-scale use by Chakma people in Hill Tracts has been noted (Siddiqi, 1998). A small-scale exporter of matsutake to Japan but important to the local economy. Wild edible species are regularly sold in markets though species and amounts are not known (Namgyel, 2000).

BANGLADESH BHUTAN

CHINA

The leading producer, user and exporter of wild edible fungi in the world with a long and notable tradition of using medicinal species. There are significant exports of matsutake to Japan though harvesting practices are causing concern for sustainable production in some areas (Winkler, 2000). Truffles and Boletus edulis exported more recently in significant quantities to Europe (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). General lists of species in regular use have been published outside China (e.g. Hall et al., 1998a) but should be consulted together with an expanding Chinese Literature. See Mao and Jiang, 1992 for Tibet Autonomous Region; Ying et al., 1987; Ying et al., 1988. Zhongguo Shiyongjun [Edible Fungi of China] regularly publishes information but in Chinese. Few accounts of fungi sold in markets have been published (Chamberlain, 1996) though this is a widespread and important activity. For medicinal species generally see Hobbs (1995). The best guide and source of information on field mycology and species of WEF is Mao, 2000).

HONG KONG Chang and Mao (1995) is a comprehensive account of macrofungi and SPECIAL their useful characteristics (in Chinese). This has a wider relevance to ADMINISTRATIVE China. REGION, CHINA INDIA Lists of edible species from the extensive mycological records are difficult to interpret and social and economic aspects are poorly studied. For general information see Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985. Studies of local use include: Harsh, Rai and Ayachi, 1993; Harsh, Rai and Soni, 1999; Adhikary et al., 1999. Morels are collected for export in Himalayan regions (FAO, 1993b) and are of economic importance. Further studies are needed, particularly in hill areas where tribal people live, e.g. Tripura and Mizoram. Very little information has been published though there is clear evidence of widespread use and market selling (Burkhill, 1935; Heyne, 1927; Rifai, 1989). There is much interest in cultivating fungi (e.g. Gunawan, 2000) and these are widely available. The extensive literature on NWFP has few details of wild edible fungi though local sources in Kalimantan (Leluyani, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi of Kalimantan) listed over ten different types regularly collected and consumed in forest areas, mostly saprobic species. Canned Scleroderma spp. are sold (Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002). Published records of agarics and boletes are available atwww.mycena.sfsu.edu and include several common edible species. Truffles occur but their significance to local people is not known (Saremi, Ammarellou and Mohammadi, 2002). Other edible and medicinal species have been recorded (see Niemel and Uotila, 1977; Isiloglu and Watling, 1992) in the mycological literature. Only one passing reference [to desert truffles] is known (Al-Naama, Ewaze and Nema, 1988). The recent arrival of many Russians has introduced a strongly

INDONESIA

IRAN

IRAQ ISRAEL

mycophilic influence (Wasser, 1995), though there is still little available information on how collection and consumption of wild edible fungi has changed. Previously there was only limited interest in a few key species. JAPAN It has a notable and significant tradition of collecting, consuming and selling wild useful fungi (e.g. Kawagoe, 1924; Stamets, 2000). There is an extensive literature on macrofungi (e.g. Imazeki et al., 1988) and research on wild edible species, particularly matsutake. Japan is a major importer of matsutake and related species from around the world. Several species are consumed locally (Cavalcaselle, 1997; Sabra and Walter, 2001). There is undoubtedly a strong local tradition of collecting and consuming wild edible fungi but information is scarce. There are significant exports of matsutake to Japan (www.fintrac.com). It has a strong local tradition of using wild edible fungi and is a major exporter of matsutake to Japan. For further information, see Kim and Kim (1990). Only one account with a passing reference to desert truffles is known (Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983). A comprehensive list of edible species has been published (Elchibaev, 1964) which suggests widespread if not necessarily significant use of wild species. A list of edible species with photos is available athttp://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.html . NWFP studies include references to wild edible fungi (Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). Local use is widespread (Hosaka, 2002, personal communication: Laos edible fungi) but poorly described. Further studies are needed to reveal more details about the use of wild edible fungi by hill people generally in the region. Several species are locally collected though apparently use is small scale and may not be widespread (Sabra and Walter, 2001). Termite fungi are regularly collected and sold (Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994). Mycological reports from Sarawak (Chin, 1988; Chin, 1998) hint at regular use of wild edible species, confirmed by anecdotal accounts (Jones, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi use in Sarawak). No information was found but similar traditions to neighbouring countries (e.g. China) are expected. Termite fungi are recorded in the mycological literature (Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994) and are undoubtedly eaten, but no other details have been found. However, similar patterns of use are expected in the hill regions based on traditions in neighbouring countries. Widespread collection, sale and consumption occur (e.g. Adhikari and Adhikari, 1996), with most activity in the hill regions. Only limited information was found. Morels are collected and exported (FAO, 1993b). Mycological reports do not describe local practices or

JORDAN KOREA [DEMOCRATIC PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF] KOREA [REPUBLIC OF] KUWAIT KYRGYZSTAN

LAO PEOPLES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

LEBANON MALAYSIA

MONGOLIA MYANMAR

NEPAL PAKISTAN

preferences for species (Batra, 1983; Syed-Riaz and Mahmood-Khan, 1999). PHILIPPINES A comprehensive mycological paper (Mendoza, 1938) lists over 50 species, many with local names and suggesting widespread use. This information is not included in the annexes. Forest dwellers in Palawan also eat wild edible fungi (Novellino, 1999). Limited information on desert truffles (Tirmania) only was found (Bokhary and Parvez, 1993). A significant importer and user of edible fungi though mostly, it is suspected, of the cultivated species (Jones and Lim, 1990). A strong cultural influence from the Chinese tradition is expected. Local collections occur but limited information was found (Gunatilleke, Gunatilleke and Abeygunawardena, 1993). Termite fungi occur and are presumably eaten (Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994). Similar tradition to mainland China though information not actively gathered. Long tradition of mycological research on the higher fungi (see Chen, 1987). There is a notable tradition of collection, selling and consumption but only one detailed report was found (Jones, Whalley and Hywel-Jones, 1994). There is a strong but perhaps still relatively small export industry to Europe, based predominantly on the collection of wild edible fungi (Gurer, 2002, personal communication: Unpublished trade data on wild edible fungi in Turkey). Mycological reports suggest widespread use and significance (e.g. Afyon, 1997; Kasik and Ozturk, 1995). See alsowww.ogm.gov.tr/ and Sabra and Walter (2001). Has exported mushrooms to Germany, most probably wild edible species (www.fintrac.com ). There are clear indications of widespread local use and collecting in the upland areas (Chamberlain, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi in Viet Nam) but this is poorly documented. NWFP investigations frequently mention wild edible fungi (e.g. Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). Paddy straw (Volvariella spp.) occurs naturally in lowland areas and is also cultivated. Other cultivated species such as shiitake and ear fungi (Auricularia spp.) are sold fresh and dried in markets in Ho Chi Minh city.

SAUDI ARABIA SINGAPORE

SRI LANKA

TAIWAN PROVINCE OF CHINA THAILAND

TURKEY

TURKMENISTAN VIET NAM

Europe
The macrofungi of Europe, as defined by the present boundaries of the European Union and contiguous countries, are well known and described. Finland has the most comprehensive literature on collection and use of edible fungi and has paid particular attention to their importance for people. Information on edible fungi from Liechtenstein, Malta and Iceland was not found. Countries fall in to two broad groups: first, nations with weak economies, usually with a significant local tradition of using wild edible fungi and some which also export; second,

wealthier countries that import but may not have a strong tradition of collecting. Romania is an example of the first group and the Netherlands an example of the second. (The Netherlands is the largest global exporter of button mushrooms Agaricus bisporus and third exporter after China and the United States of all cultivated species.) The easing of economic and political barriers in the early 1990s has stimulated exports from former Soviet countries, Balkan states and Yugoslavia specifically (Perini, 1998). Within the richer countries of Europe collecting wild edible fungi is mostly for small-scale personal use and is of minor economic importance to the collectors, though there is a growing individual interest in collecting truffles and porcini in Italy (Zambonelli, 2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting porcini in Italy). See Plates 3 and 4. For accounts of wild edible fungi collected from boreal and cold temperate forests see Lund, Pajari and Korhonen (1998). COUNTRY ALBANIA USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI It has exported limited quantities of edible fungi to Italy, probably Boletus edulis (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy) and a few other types, but there is no regular trade. Wild edible species are described briefly (Malyi, 1987) but without details of local practices. Also exports wild species in small quantities to Italy (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy) and other unspecified countries (Ollikainen, 1998).

BELARUS

BOSNIA AND Exports mushrooms, including Boletus edulis to Italy (Borghi, 2002, HERZEGOVINA personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). No other information or reports have been seen. BULGARIA Major exporter of wild mushrooms. Edible and poisonous species have been described in the mycological literature (Iordanov, Vanev and Fakirova, 1978) though local traditions are not well known. A minor exporter to neighbouring Germany, assumed to be mostly from the wild. Local collecting and consumption was regulated some time ago (Pilt, 1951) and appear to be mostly for internal consumption (Sisak, 1998). Exporter but activities disrupted by civil strife. Exact details are unclear but see comments for Serbia and Montenegro. Known to have a strong tradition of local use and research on wild edible fungi (Kalamees and Silver, 1988). Production data indicate it is a minor exporter (Paal and Saastamoinen, 1998), at least from 1993 to 1997 (www.fintract.org ). Traditions vary from the mycophilic east, influenced by its proximity to the Russian Federation, to the less enthusiastic west, taking its influences from Sweden (Hrknen, 1998). There has been official encouragement to collect edible fungi since the Second World War and discussions and research on inventory and long-term yield studies (Rautavaara, 1947; Koistinen, 1978); access to lands (Saastamoinen, 1999); local mushroom advisors (Mildh, 1978; Hrknen, 1988).

CZECH REPUBLIC

CROATIA ESTONIA

FINLAND

GREECE

Commonly collected and used in rural areas from forests (Diamandis, 1997). Few are sold in farmers markets though there have been increases in commercial picking which are causing concern (Diamandis, 2002). Have been eaten since ancient times (Hettula, 1989). Exports and has a local tradition of collection and consumption, but few published details are available apart from lists of species (Grunert and Grunert, 1995). Extensive imports of Boletus edulis (porcini) from a wide range of countries, extending to China (over 60% of imports according to Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy) and southern Africa. See (Hall et al., 1998b) for general information on porcini. Recently, an inferior Tuber from China has been imported (Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera, 1998a; Zang and Pu, 1992). See Buller (1914) for historical perspective. In the past the collection of wild edible fungi was important to the livelihoods of many people in the northern regions. While there is still a strong interest in collecting and eating, particularly porcini and truffles, their economic importance to local people has declined. Still, there is a strong commercial interest in both groups of fungi with demand outstripping local supply (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). Italy has an impressive mycological tradition but there is a paucity of information on local traditions and uses of WEF by people. Relatively minor exporter at least from 1993 to 1997 (www.fintrac.com). It has a similar local tradition of use compared to Estonia and Lithuania (Vilkriste, 1998). For selected list of edible species see Urbonas, Kalamees and Lukin (1974). Major exporter to Germany over the period 1993 to 1997 but in variable quantities (www.fintrac.com). Around 190 edible species are listed by Butkus et al. (1987). Further information available in Rutkauskas (1998). Regular exporter, including Boletus edulis to Italy (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy) and with a suggested strong tradition of local use (BauerPetrovska et al., 2001). Minor exports of Boletus edulis to Italy (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). Likely to have a similar tradition of collecting and use to the Russian Federation. Europes leading exporter of mushrooms and a major source of revenue. It is said to be a the pioneer in protecting wild edible fungi with legislation introduced in 1983 (Lawrynowicz, 1997). Also has a strong local tradition in the poorer regions (Snowarski, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi in Poland). For general information see www. grzyby.pl and Kalinowski (1998). Major exporter of wild edible fungi (Pop, 1997), with Boletus edulis sent to Italy on a regular basis (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy). A strong and lengthy tradition of collecting and consuming wild edible

HUNGARY

ITALY

LATVIA

LITHUANIA

MACEDONIA [THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF] MOLDOVA

POLAND

ROMANIA

RUSSIAN

FEDERATION

fungi exists (Wasson and Wasson, 1957). Precise details of current use are difficult to find though there is an impressive mycological literature and history of research on species (e.g. Dudka and Wasser, 1987; Vasileva, 1978; Wasser, 1990). It is the second most important country or region for wild edible fungi after China in terms of amounts collected but trails in value of exports though these have occurred for many years (Paal, 1998). There is a certain fearlessness in picking fungi as indicated by regular poisoning and even deaths (Chibisov and Demidova, 1998; Evans, 1996). Concern has been expressed about rampant exports in hundreds of tons, with St Petersburg a much exploited region (Kovalenko, 1997).

SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO [FORMER YUGOSLAVIA]

Exports of Boletus edulis to Italy began in the 1970s (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi in Italy) and regularly ever since. Exports increased significantly in the 1990s, of B. edulis and other species, with significant rises in the numbers of people earning a living from commercial activities (Ivancevic, 1997). In sharp contrast, there are weak local traditions of use (Zaklina, 1998). Unconfirmed reports of widespread collecting are similar to traditions in neighbouring countries, for example Poland. Moderate amounts are exported, including Boletus edulis to Italy. It has a notable though not necessarily strong local tradition (www.matkurja.com). Sharply differing traditions of local use with the strongest existing among the mushroom-loving Catalans and also Basque people. Their interests drive much of the internal trade in WEF. There is an important trade in Lactarius deliciosus (nscalos) from northwest Spain (Castilla y Leon) to Catalonia while truffles are of increasing importance to local people in the Pyrenees (de Romn, 2002, personal communication: Trade in nscalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production). For a comprehensive account of wild edible fungi see Martnez, Oria de Rueda and Martnez (1997). Spanish traders visit Portugal for commercial activities while French collectors cross over to Spain for truffles. See also (Wasson and Wasson (1957) for historical information on local traditions. Possesses significant resources that are highly valued by local people (Zerova and Wasser, 1972; Zhang, 1999). There has been much concern expressed about contamination by radioactive materials following the Chernobyl accident but this is overshadowed by the dramatic rise in deaths from eating poisonous species (Vachuska and Vachuska, 2000), events linked to a weak economy and a desperate search for food (Almond, 2002).

SLOVAKIA SLOVENIA

SPAIN (AND ANDORRA)

UKRAINE

Collections in the following countries are essentially for occasional individual use. General comments concern exports and imports, depending on available information. COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

BELGIUM AND Exports species but details vague. Scientists have made major LUXEMBOURG contributions to African Mycology (Rammeloo, 1994). DENMARK FRANCE Small-scale and infrequent local collections only (Plum, 1998). Major importer and exporter (sometimes from third party countries e.g. Portugal, Spain). At one time exported large quantities of truffles to Italy (Ainsworth, 1976). There is a strong tradition of collecting and eating WEF in the south (e.g. Gascony, Provence) but published information on local traditions has not been found Major importer of wild edible fungi, e.g. chanterelles. Major exporter but mostly (only?) cultivated species to the United Kingdom (www.fintrac.com ). Common edible species such as chanterelles and boletes are collected for personal use. Local traditions are weak (Martins et al., 2002) and this has been exploited by traders from Spain and France who have created a flourishing and uncontrolled commercial business (Baptista-Ferreira, 1997): hundreds of tonnes of Boletus edulis and related species are exported. Chanterelles and other common edible species are sold but there is no strong tradition of collecting. There is an increased interest in cultivating truffles.

GERMANY IRELAND

NETHERLANDS Europes leading exporter of mushrooms, mostly cultivated species. NORWAY PORTUGAL

SWEDEN

SWITZERLAND There is fierce competition by collectors for local resources (see Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). Some information on imports of wild edible fungi is presented in Wills and Lipsey (1999). UNITED KINGDOM Major importer of mushrooms, particularly from Ireland (see www.fintrac.com). Small-scale commercialization of wild edible fungi has begun and there is a useful study of collectors and the developing trade (Dyke and Newton, 1999). Concerns about overpicking and damage caused by collectors has led to the introduction of local regulations at several sites in southern England (e.g. New Forest, Epping Forest).

North and Central America

See Plate 7. No information was found on wild edible fungi and other useful species for the following countries: Antigua and Barbuda; Antilles, Netherlands; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Bermuda; British Virgin Islands; Cayman Islands; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; Monserrat; Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago; United States Virgin Islands COUNTRY CANADA USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI Exports to Japan and to Europe. Several publications described the expansion in collection and trade of wild edible fungi, principally from British Colombia (the Pacific northwest) (see Redhead, 1997; Tedder, Mitchell

and Farran, 2000). Some United States publications include Canada in their discussions (Pilz and Molina, 2002). First nation people have collected and used for many years (Marles et al., 2000). COSTA RICA Studies on the diversity of macrofungi are well advanced, though without any clear emphasis on edible species (Mata-Hidalgo, 1999). Lists of edible and poisonous species (Saenz, Lizano and Nassar, 1983) confirm weak local traditions. There is little or no apparent tradition of using wild edible fungi (Minter, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi in Chile, Cuba and Argentina). Exports to Germany but irregular and small scale. Intensive agriculture and deforestation suggests few collections are made though note strong tradition in nearby Guatemala.

CUBA EL SALVADOR

GUATEMALA Strong tradition in the Western Highlands (Flores, 2002, personal communication: Guatemala edible fungi; Flores, Bran and Honrubia, 2002; de Leon, 2002). An account of poisoning (Logemann et al., 1987) points to the wider significance of wild edible fungi though again mainly in the western highlands. Local edible species have been documented (Sommerkamp and Guzmn, 1990) and historical accounts of use exist (e.g. Lowy, 1971). HAITI Haitian expatriates regularly buy djon djon, a Psathyrella species (NievesRivera, 2001), which is cultivated only in Haiti (Yetter, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi from Haiti; for sale in Brooklyn; link to eatingPsathyrella in Africa) and exported around the world. Local details of production are sketchy. A few other wild edible fungi are collected and some information is available in Alphonse, 1981, but this reveals few details.

HONDURAS Extensive areas of natural pine forest are associated with good wild edible fungi. There is a tradition in the west, close to the border with Guatemala, where around three or four species are sold in local markets (House, 2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungi in Honduras). JAMAICA Minor and irregular exports of mushrooms to Germany (www.fintrac.com) but details are sketchy. There is no obvious tradition of wild edible fungi in the Caribbean with the major known exception of Haiti. One of the most important countries for use and significance of collections to local people. It is unusual in the extent to which this has been described by local scientists (see Villarreal and Perez-Moreno (1989) for a good summary). For good online access to key information see SEMARNAT (2002). Small-scale exports of selected species. Wild fungi also play a strong cultural role (Riedlinger, 1990). There is a vigorous body of researchers working on wild edible fungi and regular publications that are now turning their attention to key social and economic issues. Major exporter to Japan of matsutake but also a notable importer from a wide range of places. Has a rich literature and tradition in mycological sciences and is the academic home of ethnomycology (see Schultes 1940; Riedlinger 1990). The tradition of local use and collections is much less than that suggested by the vast scientific canon. That which does exist owes much to the cultural background of immigrants from Europe and Japan (less is known about the influence of Chinese immigrants; see also notes above on Haiti). However, there are also significant accounts by native Americans

MEXICO

UNITED STATES

(e.g. Keewaydinoquay, 1998). Most recent interest has centred on the export-driven collections and subsequent huge expansion of commercial activities and trade centering around the Pacific northwest. This trade has been stimulated by a decline in forestry jobs and the demand for matsutake in Japan. There is an extensive literature on this topic (see Pilz and Molina, 2002 for a comprehensive review).

Oceania
No information was found on wild edible fungi and other useful species for these countries: Cook Islands; French Polynesia; Guam; Kiribati; Marshall Islands; Micronesia; Nauru; New Caledonia; Niue; Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; Samoa; American Samoa, Solomon Islands; Tonga; Vanuatu COUNTRY FIJI NEW ZEALAND USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI A brief account (Markham, 1998) describes a weak tradition of collecting from the wild. Most notable for the successful research and development efforts in cultivating Tuber spp. (see Hall et al. (1998a) for general information). Once exported relatively large amounts of Auricularia to China (Colenso, 188485). An informative ethnomycological study of one group of highland people hints at a more widespread importance (Sillitoe, 1995). An account of wild edible fungi used by the Gadsup people also lists many species used locally (Shaw, 1984), including Amanitas and Russulas, but the original sources of this information (Heim, 1964) has not been seen.

AUSTRALIA There is useful account of aboriginal use (Kalotas, 1997).

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

South America
There are few comprehensive accounts of wild edible fungi for the region but note two papers that present useful information: first, Paran in Brazil (Meijer, 2001) and, second, the Mercosur region comprising Argentina, Chile and Uruguay (Deschamps, 2002). See Plate 7. No information was found for these countries: French Guiana; Guyana; Paraguay; Suriname; Venezuela COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

ARGENTINA Morels are collected and sold locally, and there are commercial collections ofSuillus luteus near Bariloche (Gamund, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungi collected in Argentina). Cyttaria species are eaten in the south (Minter, Cannon and Peredo, 1987). A recent overview of

wild edible fungi in the Mercosur regions has been published (Deschamps, 2002). BOLIVIA No information found on local use. An Indian lady was selling Leucoagaricus hortensis in Cochabamba market in March 2001 and suggests that some collection occurs (personal observation). The vendor was the only person offering wild fungi for sale (and in quantities of less than a kilogram). A country with a rich mycological tradition in science but weak tradition in use of wild edible fungi. Ethnomycological studies in Amazonia (Prance, 1984) reveals small-scale but important use that hints at wider collections for other forest dwellers in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela. Despite significant Italian migration to Rio Grande do Sul there is no reported collections, even though pines are widely planted (Schifino-Wittmann, 2002, personal communication: Eating fungi in south Brazil). The influence of a large ethnic Japanese population is also curiously muted though Agaricus blazei, a medicinal species, was apparently first discovered by someone of Japanese descent. The fungus is exported to Japan. The small-scale use of wild edible fungi among Europeans is commented on by Meijer (2001). Suillus luteus is exported from forest plantations (see FAO, 1998a). There is a local Indian tradition [Mapuche] of eating Cyttaria, a curious golf-ball like fungus parasitic on Nothofagus (Minter, Cannon and Peredo,1987). A comprehensive list of fungi eaten locally is available (FAO, 1998b) and earlier information provides details of harvesting operations in Region VII (FAO, 1993a). A recent guide to macrofungi (Franco-Molano, Aldana-Gomez and Halling, 2000) includes edible species but has no information on local practices in the Andean region. Irregular and small-scale exporter of pine boletes, principally if not wholly to the United States (Rojas and Mansur, 1995). Suillus luteus is the principal species involved (Hedger, 1986). A preliminary list of wild edible fungi does not have details of local practices (Remotti and Colan, 1990). An ethnoscientific study suggests widespread collections by rural people (Franquemont et al., 1990). A recent overview of wild edible fungi has been published (Deschamps, 2002). This lists several species that are traded (see Annex 2).

BRAZIL

CHILE

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

URUGUAY

ANNEX 2 COUNTRY RECORDS OF WILD USEFUL FUNGI (EDIBLE, MEDICINAL AND OTHER USES)
This list includes over 2 800 records from 85 countries and was prepared from a preliminary database record of published information. Information from the Republic of Korea, Japan and Taiwan Province of China is not included and records from European countries are limited (Box 2). The mycological literature is extensive in many developed countries but often there is no clear indication of which species are eaten as food. The United States and Canada records are from the Pacific northwest region or from reports on first nation people (aboriginals). Australia records are for aboriginal use only. Unnamed species are excluded unless there is no other named species for that genus from a particular country. Thus Agaricus sp. is not included if Agaricus campestris has been recorded. Only uses of practical or economic importance have been included; ceremonial or religious uses are omitted. Square brackets e.g. [edible], indicate uncertainty about the use in the source of the information. Taxonomists use various ways to qualify a species names: cf. and aff. indicate that the specimen examined was close to the species name given (e.g. Amanita aff. rubescens) but they are not 100 percent certain. The letters s.l. mean sensu lato or in the broad sense. A complete list of all species and countries can be searched at www.wildusefulfungi.org. This contains all details about recorded uses and properties and includes Japan and Russia (Sergeeva, 2000) and a comprehensive list of wild edible fungi from China (Mao, 2000). This searchable database currently holds over 6 000 records from 108 countries and provides valid names of species. AFGHANISTAN1. Batra, 1983; 2. Sabra and Walter, 2001 Morchella Podaxis pistillaris Tirmania nivea Tirmania pinoyi Tricholoma nauseosum Macrolepiota procera Termitomyces sp. edible (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible edible

ALGERIA1. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983; 2. Kytovuori, 1989

ANGOLARammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

ARGENTINA1. Deschamps, 2002; 2. Gamund and Horak, 1995 Cyttaria hariotii Morchella elata Morchella intermedia Phlebopus bruchii Suillus luteus Agaricus bisporus Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvaticus Armillaria mellea Calocybe gambosa Cantharellus cibarius Lactarius deliciosus Lepista nuda Lepista personata Macrolepiota excoriata Macrolepiota procera Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus ostreatus Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus AUSTRALIAKalotas, 1997 Battarrea stevenii Boletus sp. Choiromyces aboriginum Cyttaria gunnii Fistulina hepatica Montagnites candollei Mycoclelandia bulundari Phellinus rimosus Phellorinia herculeana Phellorinia strobilina Pisolithus tinctorius Podaxis pistillaris Polyporus eucalyptorum Polyporus mylittae not known edible food food food not known food, medicinal medicinal other dye not known food, medicinal other cosmetic food, tinder food food (2) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (2) food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food

ARMENIANanaguylan, 2002, personal communication

Pycnoporus sanguineus Secotium sp. BELARUSMalyi, 1987 Armillaria mellea Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Gyromitra esculenta Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius necator Lactarius torminosus Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum scabrum Morchella esculenta Suillus luteus Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma portentosum Xerocomus subtomentosus

medicinal medicinal edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible

BENIN1. Antonin and Fraiture, 1998; 2. De Groote, 2002; 3. De Kesel, 2002, personal communication; 4. De Kesel Codjia and Yorou, 2002; 5. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994;6.Yorou and De Kesel, 2002; 7. Yorou et al., 2002 Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bulbillosus Agaricus goossensiae Agaricus volvatulus Agrocybe howeana Amanita aff. rubescens Amanita craseoderma Amanita crassiconus Amanita loosii Amanita masasiensis Amanita strobilaceovolvata Amanita subviscosa Amanita xanthogala Auricularia cornea Boletus pseudoloosii Boletus sp. Calvatia subtomentosa Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus floridulus food (6) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (3) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (6) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (4)

Cantharellus platyphyllus Chlorophyllum cf. molybdites Clitocybe s.l. sp. Clitocybula sp. Craterellus beninensis Craterellus cornucopioides Daldinia concentrica Gerronema sp. Gymnopus luxurians Hebeloma termitaria Inocybe gbadjii Inocybe squamata Lactarius baliophaeus Lactarius densifolius Lactarius edulis Lactarius flammans Lactarius gymnocarpoides Lactarius latifolius Lactarius luteopus Lactarius pseudogymnocarpus Lactarius pumilus Lactarius saponaceous Lactarius species 1 Lactarius species 7 Lactarius tenellus Lactarius volemoides Lentinus sp. Lentinus tuber-regium Lentinus velutinus Lentinus squarrosulus Lepista dinahouna Lepista sp. Leucoagaricus bresadolae Leucoagaricus sp. nov.? Leucoagaricus sp. Lycoperdon sp. Macrocybe lobayensis Marasmius becolacongoli

food (4) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (3) medicinal (3) food (3) food (6) food (4) food (3) food (6) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (3) food (4) food (6) food (3) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (3) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (2) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (3)

Marasmius heinemannianus Marasmius heinemannianus Marasmius spp. Nothopanus hygrophanus Octaviania ivoryana Phlebopus sudanicus Pleurotus cystidiosus Pleurotus djamor Pleurotus sp. Polyporus sp. Psathyrella sp. Psathyrella tuberculata Rubinoboletus roseo-albus Russula aff. virescens Russula cellulata var. nigra Russula cellulata Russula compressa Russula congoana Russula grisea Russula meleagris Russula oleifera Russula pseudopurpurea Russula testacea Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces fulginosus Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces medius Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces schimperi Termitomyces striatus Tylopilus sp. Volvariella earlei Volvariella volvacea BHUTAN Namgyel, 2000 Albatrellus sp.

edible (1) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (3) food (3) medicinal (5) food (2) food (4) food (3) food (3) food (4) food (4) food (6) food (4) food 7 food (4) food (4) food (6) food (6) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (4) food (3) food (4) food (4) [edible]

Calocera viscosa Cantharellus cibarius Coprinus sp. Gomphus floccosus Hygrophorus russula Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius piperatus Lycoperdon pyriforme Lyophyllum fumosum Ramaria sp. Suillus pictus Tricholoma matsutake Leucoagaricus hortensis Morchella conica Terfezia boudieri Terfezia pfeilii Agaricus blazei Auricularia fuscosuccinea Collybia pseudocalopus Collybia subpruinosa Favolus brasiliensis Favolus brunneolus Favolus striatulus Favolus tesselatus Gloeoporus conchoides Gymnopilus earlei Gymnopilus hispidellus Hydnopolyporus palmatus Lactocollybia aequatorialis Lentinus crinitus Lentinus glabratus Lentinus strigosus Lentinus velutinus Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps Neoclitocybe byssiseda

[edible] edible [edible] edible [edible] [edible] edible edible [edible] [edible] [edible] food food edible (1) edible (1) food (2) medicinal (2) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1)

BOLIVIA Boa, 2001, personal communication BOTSWANA1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Taylor et al., 1995

BRAZIL1. Prance, 1984; 2. www.agaricus.net

Pholiota bicolor Pleurotus concavus Polyporus aquosus Polyporus indigenus Polyporus sapurema Polyporus stipitarius Polyporus tricholoma Pycnoporus sanguineus Trametes cubensis Trametes ochracea Trichaptum trichomallum Agaricus arvensis Agaricus aurantius Agaricus bulbosus Agaricus campestris Agaricus comptulus Agaricus maculatus Agaricus pseudoaurantiacus Agaricus silvaticus Albatrellus confluens Albatrellus ovinus Amanita argentea Amanita caesarea Amanita fulva Amanita pustulata Amanita rubens Amanita rubescens Amanita spissa Amanita vaginata Amanitopsis vaginata Amanitopsis vaginata var. alba Amanitopsis vaginata var. plumbea Amanitopsis vaginata var. umbrinolutea Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae Boletus aereus Boletus bulbosus

food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) [edible] not known not known [edible] not known not known not known [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] not known not known edible [not eaten] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] edible not known [edible] not known

BULGARIA Iordanov, Vanev and Fakirova, 1978

Boletus caudicinus Boletus communis Boletus crassus Boletus cyanescens Boletus edulis Boletus elegans Boletus erythropus Boletus esculentus Boletus leucophaeus Boletus luridus Boletus miniatoporus Boletus purpureus Boletus regius Boletus rhodoxanthus Boletus rufus Boletus scaber Boletus subtomentosus Boletus sulphureus Boletus tuberosus Boletus versipellis Bovista gigantea Bovista nigrescens Calocybe gambosa Calvatia caelata Calvatia maxima Calvatia utriformis Camarophyllus pratensis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus clavatus Cantharellus infundibuliformis Cantharellus tubiformis Chroogomphus rutilus Clavaria formosa Clavaria pallida Clavaria pistillaris Clavariadelphus pistillaris Clitocybe geotropa Clitocybe gibba

not known not known not known not known edible [edible] [edible] not known not known [edible] not known not known [edible] not known not known [edible] [edible] not known not known not known not known not known edible [edible] not known [edible] [edible] edible not known [edible] edible [edible] not known not known not known edible [edible] [edible]

Clitocybe infundibuliformis Clitocybe laccata Clitocybe maxima Clitocybe nebularis Clitocybe odora Clitocybe olearia Clitocybe phosphorea Clitocybe viridis Clitopilus prunulus Collybia badia Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Coprinus porcelanus Cortinarius praestans Craterellus clavatus Craterellus cornucopioides Dentinum repandum Fistulina buglossoides Fistulina hepatica Flammulina velutipes Gomphidius glutinosus Gomphidius viscidus Gomphus clavatus Gyromitra esculenta Gyroporus castaneus Gyroporus cyanescens Helvella crispa Helvella lacunosa Helvella mitra Helvella monacella Helvella nivea Helvella sulcata Hydnum repandum Hygrocybe punicea Hygrophorus eburneus Hygrophorus puniceus Hygrophorus russula Ixocomus bovinus

[edible] not known not known edible edible not known not known not known [edible] not known [edible] edible not known [edible] not known edible not known not known edible [edible] edible not known edible [edible] [edible] [edible] edible edible not known not known not known not known edible [edible] [edible] not known [edible] not known

Ixocomus elegans Ixocomus luteus Krombholzia aurantiaca Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria amethystina Laccaria laccata Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius pergamenus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius torminosus Lactarius vellereus Lactarius volemus Laetiporus sulphureus Langermannia gigantea Lasiosphaera gigantea Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum scabrum Lepista nuda Lepista personata Limacium eburneum Lycoperdon caelatum Lycoperdon echinatum Lycoperdon gemmatum Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmius alliaceus Marasmius caryophylleus Marasmius oreades Marasmius scorodonius Morchella conica Morchella esculenta Morchella esculenta var. vulgaris Morchella rimosipes Nevrophyllum clavatum Phallus crispus Phlegmacium praestans

not known not known not known [edible] edible edible edible not known edible [edible] edible edible [edible] edible not known [edible] edible [edible] edible not known [edible] not known edible edible edible edible edible not known edible edible [edible] [edible] edible not known not known not known not known not known

Pholiota caperata Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus ostreatus f. salignus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pluteus cervinus Polyporus confluens Polyporus ovinus Polyporus squamosus Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Ptychoverpa bohemica Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flava Ramaria mairei Rhodopaxillus personatus Rhodophyllus sinuatus Rozites caperatus Russula alutacea Russula cyanoxantha Russula emetica Russula olivacea Russula vesca Russula virescens Russula xerampelina Sarcodon imbricatus Scleroderma citrinum Scleroderma vulgare Scutiger confluens Scutiger ovinus Suillus bovinus Suillus granulatus Suillus grevillei Suillus luteus Tricholoma columbetta Tricholoma equestre Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma georgii

not known edible [edible] [edible] edible not known not known edible [edible] edible edible edible [edible] [edible] not known not known edible edible edible [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] edible edible [edible] not known not known [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] edible not known not known edible not known

Pleurotus ostreatus var. columbinus [edible]

Tricholoma personatum Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma russula Tricholoma rutilans Tricholoma terreum Tricholoma tigrinum Tricholomopsis rutilans Verpa conica Verpa digitaliformis Xerocomus badius Xerocomus chrysenteron Xerocomus subtomentosus Coprinus Phlebopus sudanicus Afroboletus luteolus Amanita loosii Amanita rubescens C. cibarius var. defibulatus Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus cyanescens Cantharellus cyanoxanthus Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus platyphyllus Cantharellus pseudocibarius Cantharellus ruber C. rufopunctatus var. ochraceus Cantharellus splendens Cantharellus symoensii Clavaria albiramea Collybia aurea Lactarius edulis Lactarius inversus Lactarius kabansus Lentinus tuber-regium Macrocybe spectabilis Phlebopus colossus

not known edible not known not known [edible] not known [edible] [edible] not known [edible] edible edible edible edible edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (1) edible (1) [edible] (2)

BURKINA FASO Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

BURUNDI1. Buyck, 1994b; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994

Pleurotus cystidiosus Russula cellulata Russula phaeocephala Suillus luteus Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces striatus Termitomyces titanicus Cantharellus pseudocibarius Lepiota discipes Marasmius hungo Mycena aschi Mycena bipindiensis Termitomyces striatus

edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (1)

CAMEROON1. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 2. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

CANADA1. Marles et al., 2000; 2. Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002; 3.www.for.gov.bc.ca Actinogyra muehlenbergii Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvaticus Amanita muscaria Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus formosus Cantharellus infundibuliformis Cantharellus subalbidus Cetraria islandica Cladina stellaris Craterellus cornucopioides Evernia mesomorpha Fomes fomentarius Fomitopsis pinicola Gyromitra esculenta Hericium abietis Hericium erinaceus Hydnum repandum food, medicinal (1) food (3) edible (2) medicinal (1) food (3) edible (2) food (3) food (3) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) medicinal (1) food (1) food (3) medicinal (1) other tinder (1) medicinal, tinder (1) [edible] (3) food (3) [edible] (3) edible (2)

Hypomyces lactifluorum Inonotus obliquus Ischnoderma resinosum Laccaria laccata Lactarius deliciosus Laetiporus sulphureus Langermannia gigantea Lepista nuda Lycoperdon perlatum Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmius oreades Morchella elata Parmelia sulcata Pleurocybella porrigens Pleurotus ostreatus Polyozellus multiplex Ptychoverpa bohemica Russula xerampelina Sparassis crispa Suillus cavipes Trametes suaveolens Tricholoma caligatum Tricholoma magnivelare Usnea hirta

food (3) medicinal (1) medicinal (1) edible (2) food (3) edible (2) food (3) food (3) food (3) edible (2) food (3) food (3) medicinal (1) edible (2) food (3) edible (2) food (3) edible (2) edible (2) food (3) medicinal, tinder (1) food (3) edible (2) medicinal (1)

Myriosclerotinia caricis-ampullaceae medicinal (1)

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus subedulis Collybia attenuata Ganoderma curtisii Lentinus araucariae Lentinus brunneofloccosus Lignosus sacer Macrolepiota africana Phlebopus sudanicus Polyporus rhizomorphus Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces schimperi edible (1) edible (2) medicinal (2) edible (1) edible (1) medicinal (2) edible (1) edible (1) other string (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1)

Volvariella volvacea Xylaria papyrifera

edible (1) medicinal (2)

CHILE1. FAO, 1998b; 2. Minter, Cannon and Peredo, 1987; 3. SchmedaHirschmann et al., 1999a Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia polytricha Boletus loyo Clitocybe nebularis Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Cyttaria berteroi Cyttaria darwinii Cyttaria espinosae Cyttaria hariotii Cyttaria hookeri Cyttaria johowii Fistulina hepatica Flammulina velutipes Gyromitra antartica Gyromitra esculenta Lactarius deliciosus Macrolepiota procera Morchella conica Pholiota edulis Ramaria subaurantiaca Suillus luteus Volvariella speciosa food (1) edible (1) edible (1) food (1) food (1) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (3) food (2) food (2) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (3) edible (1) food (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible, medicinal (1) edible (1) food (1) food (1) edible (1)

CHINA1. Birks, 1991; 2. Cao, 1991; 3. Chamberlain, 1996; 4. Dong and Shen, 1993; 5.Gong and Peng, 1993; 6. Hall et al., 1998a; 7. Hrknen, 2002; 8. He, 1991; 9. Huang, 1989; 10. Li, 1994; 11. Liu, 1990; 12. Liu and Yang, 1982; 13. Guozhong, 2002, personal communication; 14. Zang, 1984; 15. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 16. Tu, 1987; 17. Winkler, 2002; 18. www.zeri.org; 19. Xiang and Han, 1987; 20. Yang, 1990;21. Yang, 1992; 22. Yang and Yang, 1992; 23. Zang, 1988b; 24. Zang and Petersen, 1990; 25. Zang and Pu, 1992; 26. Zang and Yang, 1991; 27. Zang, 1988a; 28. Zhuang, 1993; 29. Zhuang and Wang, 1992 Agaricus arvensis Agaricus augustus Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bitorquis edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6)

Agaricus blazei Agaricus campestris Agaricus gennadii Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola Agrocybe cylindracea Agrocybe salicacicola Albatrellus confluens Aleuria aurantia Amanita caesarea Amanita fulva Amanita rubescens Amanita vaginata Armillaria mellea Armillaria tabescens Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia polytricha Bankera fuligineoalba Boletellus russellii Boletinus pinetorum Boletus aereus Boletus citrifragrans Boletus edulis Boletus speciosus Boletus violaceofuscus Calocybe gambosa Calvatia caelata Calvatia lilacina Cantharellus cibarius Catathelasma ventricosum Chroogomphus rutilus Clavaria purpurea Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe geotropa Clitocybe nebularis Clitopilus prunulus Collybia radicata Coprinus atramentarius

edible (5) edible (6) edible (23) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (26) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (12) edible (6) edible (6) [edible] (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (18) edible (6) edible (12) edible (6) edible (14) edible (17) edible (6) edible (6) edible (18) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (14) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (12) edible (6)

Coprinus cinereus Coprinus comatus Coprinus micaceus Cordyceps militaris Cordyceps sinensis Cortinarius claricolor var. turmalis Cortinarius collinitus Cortinarius elatior Cortinarius praestans Cortinarius purpurascens Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus Craterellus cornucopioides Cryptoporus volvatus Dictyophora echinovolvata Endophallus yunnanensis Fistulina hepatica Flammulina velutipes Fomes fomentarius Ganoderma applanatum Ganoderma lucidum Ganoderma sinense Ganoderma tsugae Gastrodia elata Grifola frondosa Hericium clathroides Hericium coralloides Hericium erinaceum Hericium ramosum Hydnum repandum Hygrophorus arbustivus Hygrophorus russula Hypsizygus marmoreus Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria laccata Laccocephalum mylittae Lactarius akahatsu Lactarius camphoratus Lactarius deliciosus

edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (5) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) food (3) edible (12) medicinal (14) edible (6) edible (24) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (18) medicinal (11) edible (6) medicinal (18) edible (6) edible (29) edible (6) edible (6) edible (14) edible (14) edible (14) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (22) edible (6) food (3) edible (6) edible (6) edible (4) edible (6)

Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius quietus Lactarius sanguifluus Lactarius subindigo Lactarius volemus Laetiporus sulphureus Langermannia gigantea Laricifomes officinalis Leccinum scabrum Lentinula edodes Lentinus javanicus Lentinus sajor-caju Lepista caespitosa Lepista irina Lepista luscina Lepista nuda Lepista personata Lepista sordida Leucopaxillus giganteus Lobaria sp. Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lyophyllum decastes Lyophyllum sykosporum Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmius androsaceus Marasmius oreades Morchella conica var. rigida Morchella crassipes Morchella deliciosa Morchella elata Morchella esculenta M. esculenta var. rotunda M. esculenta var. umbrina M. esculenta var. vulgaris Neolentinus adhaerens Neolentinus lepideus

edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) food (7) edible (6) edible (14) edible (11) edible (6) edible (6) edible (14) edible (14) edible (16) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) food (7) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (18) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (14) edible (6)

Omphalia lapidescens Oudemansiella mucida Paecilomyces sinensis Panellus serotinus Phaeolepiota aurea Phallus fragrans Phallus impudicus Phellinus baumii Pholiota adiposa Pholiota aurivella Pholiota nameko Pholiota squarrosa Pleurotus abalonus Pleurotus citrinopileatus Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae Pleurotus floridanus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus sapidus Polyozellus multiplex Polyporus cristatus Polyporus squamosus Polyporus tubaeformis Polyporus umbellatus Polystictus unicolor Psathyrella candolleana Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Ptychoverpa bohemica Ramalina sp. Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flavobrunnescens Ramaria obtusissima Ramaria stricta Rhizopogon piceus Rhizopogon rubescens Rhodophyllus clypeatus Rhodophyllus crassipes

medicinal (18) edible (6) medicinal (10) edible (6) edible (6) edible (14) edible (6) medicinal (7) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) food (3) edible (18) edible (20) edible (6) edible (14) edible (14) edible (21) not edible (12) edible (6) medicinal (7) edible (6) medicinal (18) edible (6) edible (14) edible (8) food (7) edible (6) edible (12) edible (6) food, medicinal (3) edible (9) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6)

Rozites caperatus Russula alutacea Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Russula depallens Russula pectinata Russula rubra Russula vesca Russula virescens Sarcodon aspratus Sarcodon imbricatus Schizophyllum commune Scleroderma sp. Shiraia bambusicola Sparassis crispa Sporisorium cruentum Suillus bovinus Suillus granulatus Suillus grevillei Suillus luteus Termitomyces albuminosus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces cylindricus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces microcarpus Thamnolia vermicularis Thelephora ganbajun Thelephora vialis Trametes robiniophila Trametes sanguinea Trametes versicolor Tremella aurantia Tremella foliacea Tremella fuciformis Tremella lutescens Tremella mesenterica Tricholoma bakamatsutake

edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) not known (12) not known (12) edible (12) edible (6) edible (12) edible (6) edible (14) edible (6) medicinal (12) medicinal (18) edible (6) food (13) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (27) edible (6) edible (15) edible (15) edible (20) edible (15) [food] (3) food (3) not edible (12) edible (28) medicinal (18) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) [medicinal] (3) edible (14) edible (6) edible (17)

Tricholoma caligatum Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma magnivelare Tricholoma matsutake Tricholoma mongolicum Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma quercicola Tricholoma saponaceum Tricholoma sejunctum Tricholoma terreum Tuber aestivum Tuber brumale Tuber indicum Tuber melanosporum Tuber rufum Tuber sinosum Tyromyces sulphureus Umbilicaria esculenta Usnea sp. Volvariella bombycina Volvariella esculenta Volvariella volvacea Wolfiporia extensa Wynnella silvicola

edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (17) edible (11) edible (6) edible (17) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (25) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (18) edible (6) medicinal (1) edible (6) edible (19) edible (6) edible (6) edible (2)

CONGO [DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE] 1. Degreef et al., 1997; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus erythrotrichus Agaricus goossensiae Agaricus nivescens Agaricus volvatulus Amanita aurea Amanita goosensiae Amanita loosii Amanita robusta Amanita zambiana Amanitopsis pudica Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia delicata edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (4) edible (3) edible (3)

Auricularia polytricha Auricularia tenuis Bondarzewia berkeleyi Camarophyllus subpratensis Cantharellus cibarius C. cibarius var. defibulatus C. cibarius var. latifolius Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus cyanoxanthus Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus incarnatus Cantharellus luteopunctatus Cantharellus miniatescens Cantharellus platyphyllus Cantharellus pseudofriesii Cantharellus ruber Cantharellus rufopunctatus Cantharellus symoensii Clavaria albiramea Collybia piperata Cookeina sulcipes Corditubera bovonei Cotylidia aurantiaca Craterellus aureus C. cornucopioides var. cornucopioides C. cornucopioides var. parvisporus Cymatoderma elegans subsp. infundibuliforme Goossensia cibarioides Gymnopilus sp. Hypholoma wambensis Lactarius angustus Lactarius congolensis Lactarius edulis Lactarius inversus Lactarius kabansus Lactarius latifolius Lactarius pelliculatus f. pallidus

edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (4) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (4) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3)

Lactarius pseudovolemus Lactarius sesemotani Lentinus citrinus Lentinus sajor-caju Lentinus squarrulosus Lentinus tuber-regium Lentinus velutinus Lenzites elegans Lepiota henningsii Leucoagaricus bisporus Leucocoprinus discoideus Macrolepiota africana M. gracilenta var. goossensiae Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota prominens Macrolepiota zeyheri Marasmius arborescens Marasmius buzungolo Marasmius crinis-equi Marasmius grandisetulosus Marasmius piperodora Nothopanus hygrophanus Oudemansiella canarii Peziza vesiculosa Phallus indusiatus Phlebopus colossus Pleurotus djamor Pluteus cervinus var. ealaensis Psathyrella spadicea Pseudocraterellus laeticolor Pycnoporus sanguineus Ramaria ochracea Russula atrovirens Russula cellulata Russula cyclosperma Russula diffusa var. diffusa Russula hiemisilvae Russula pseudostriatoviridis

edible (1) edible (3) edible (4) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (4) medicinal, [poisonous] (4) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (4) edible (3) other jewelry (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (3) edible (4) edible (3) medicinal (4) [edible] (4) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) medicinal (4) edible (4) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3)

Russula roseoalba Russula roseostriata Russula sese Russula sesenagula Russula striatoviridis Schizophyllum commune Scleroderma bovonei Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces entolomoides Termitomyces globulus Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces mammiformis Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces schimperi Termitomyces striatus T. striatus var. aurantiacus Termitomyces titanicus Trogia infundibuliformis Volvariella bombycina Volvariella parvispora Xerocomus pallidosporus Armillaria distans Chlorophyllum molybdites Collybia anombe Collybia oronga Leucocoprinus gandour Phlebopus sudanicus Agaricus silvaticus Amanita caesarea Amanita gemmata Amanita inaurata Amanita muscaria Amanita rubescens Amanita vaginata

edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (2) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (3) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible hallucinogen, poisonous edible edible

CONGO [REPUBLIC OF THE] Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

COSTA RICA Saenz, Lizano and Nassar, 1983

Armillaria mellea Armillaria tabescens Aspropaxillus lepistoides Cantharellus cibarius Collybia distorta Collybia dryophila Collybia familia Collybia platyphylla Coprinus comatus Cortinarius purpurascens Craterellus cornucopioides Fistulina hepatica Helvella lacunosa Hericium erinaceus Hydnum umbilicatum Hygrophorus penarius Laccaria amethystina Laccaria laccata Lacrymaria velutina Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius indigo Lactarius mitissimus Lactarius vellereus Lepista nuda Leucopaxillus giganteus Lyophyllum aggregatum Macrolepiota gracilenta Macrolepiota procera Marasmius oreades Melanoleuca grammopodia Morchella esculenta Morchella esculenta var. rotunda Mycena pura Panaeolus cyanescens Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus salignus Pluteus cervinus Psilocybe aztecorum

edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible hallucinogen edible edible edible hallucinogen

Psilocybe cubensis Psilocybe mexicana Rhodophyllus aprilis Russula atropurpurea Russula chamaeleontina Russula cyanoxantha Russula erythropus Russula lepida Russula minutula Russula viscida Volvariella bakeri Volvariella bombycina Volvariella speciosa Xerula radicata

hallucinogen hallucinogen edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible

COTE DIVOIRE1. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002; 2. Locquin, 1954; 3. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 4. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993 Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Hygrophoropsis mangenotii Russula sp. Termitomyces striatus EGYPT Zakhary et al., 1983 Agaricus campestris Agaricus rodmani Collybia sp. ETHIOPIATuno, 2001 Lentinus sp. Schizophyllum commune FIJI Markham, 1998 Auricularia sp. food GABON1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994. Note: another 15+ types are listed in Walker, 1931 by local name only Cantharellus sp. Daldinia sp. Lentinus tuber-regium Polyporus rhizomorphus Pycnoporus sp. edible (1) medicinal (2) edible (1) other string (2) medicinal (2) edible edible edible edible edible edible (4) edible (2) food (1) edible (3)

GHANA1. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002; 2. Obodai and Apetorgbor, 2001; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus campestris edible (3)

Agaricus goossensiae Auricularia sp. Calvatia excipuliformis Cantharellus floridulus Coprinus micaceus Daldinia concentrica Ganoderma lucidum Lentinus tuber-regium Macrolepiota procera Mycena flavescens Phlebopus colossus Pluteus subcervinus Psathyrella sp. Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces sp. Volvariella volvacea Agaricus arvensis Agaricus campestris Amanita caesarea Boletus spp. Cantharellus cibarius Coprinus sp. Lactarius deliciosus Macrolepiota sp. Pleurotus ostreatus Ramaria sp. Agaricus campestris Agrocybe aegerita Amanita caesarea Amanita calyptroderma Amanita hemibapha Amanita rubescens Armillaria mellea Auricularia delicata Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius

edible (3) edible, medicinal (2) medicinal (2) food (1) edible (2) medicinal (2) medicinal (2) medicinal (2) edible (3) edible (2) [edible] (4) edible (2) edible (2) edible, medicinal (2) edible (2) edible (3) food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food

GREECE Diamandis, 2002, personal communication

GUATEMALA Flores, 2002, personal communication

Cantharellus ignicolor Cantharellus odoratus Catathelasma ventricosum Clavulina cinerea Cortinarius praestans Helvella crispa Helvella lacunosa Hydnum repandum Hygrophorus russula Hypomyces lactifluorum Laccaria amethystea Laccaria bicolor Laccaria laccata Lactarius corrugis Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius indigo Lactarius rubrilacteus Lactarius salmonicolor Morchella esculenta Pleurotus sp. Ramaria araiospora Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flava Russula delica Schizophyllum commune Tremella reticulata Tricholoma flavovirens Trogia sp. Lepiota grassei

food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food edible

GUINEAWalleyn and Rammeloo, 1994

GUYANA Simmons, Henkel and Bas, 2002 Amanita perphaea Agaricus abruptibulbus Agaricus arvensis Agaricus bisporus Agaricus campestris Agaricus comtulus edible edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal Edible HONG KONG SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE REGION, CHINA Chang and Mao, 1995

Agaricus micromegethus Agaricus placomyces Agaricus purpurellus Agaricus rubellus Agaricus semotus Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola Agrocybe cylindracea Agrocybe dura Agrocybe farinacea Agrocybe paludosa Agrocybe pediades Agrocybe praecox Amanita rubescens Amanita vaginata Amanita virgineoides Amauroderma nigrum Amauroderma rude Armillaria mellea Astraeus hygrometricus Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia delicata Auricularia fuscosuccinea Auricularia polytricha Boletus emodensis Boletus griseus Boletus speciosus Bovista plumbea Bovistella sinensis Calocera cornea Calocera viscosa Calocybe leucocephala Calvatia caelata Calvatia craniiformis Calvatia cyathiformis Calvatia lilacina Camarophyllus virgineus Cantharellus cinereus

Edible [edible] [edible] Edible [edible] Edible Edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal Edible Edible Edible edible, medicinal Edible [edible] Edible Medicinal Medicinal edible, medicinal Medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal Edible edible, medicinal Edible Edible [edible] edible, medicinal Medicinal Edible Edible Edible Medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal Edible Edible

Cantharellus cinnabarinus Cerrena unicolor Clavaria vermicularis Clavicorona pyxidata Clavulina cristata Clavulinopsis helvola Clavulinopsis miyabeana Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe fragrans Clitopilus prunulus Collybia acervata Collybia butyracea Collybia confluens Collybia dryophila Coprinus comatus Coprinus micaceus Coprinus plicatilis Coprinus radians Coprinus sterquilinus Craterellus aureus Craterellus cornucopioides Crepidotus applanatus Crepidotus mollis Cyathus stercoreus Cystoderma amianthinum Cystoderma terrei Dacrymyces palmatus Dacryopinax spathularia Dictyophora duplicata D. indusiata f. lutea Dictyophora multicolor Flammulina velutipes Fomes fomentarius Fomitopsis ulmaria Ganoderma applanatum Ganoderma capense Ganoderma lobatum Ganoderma lucidum

Edible Medicinal Edible Edible Edible Edible Edible Edible [edible], medicinal Edible [edible] [edible] Edible [edible] [edible], medicinal [edible], medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal Edible Edible Edible Edible Medicinal Edible Edible Edible Edible edible, medicinal Edible [medicinal] Edible Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal

Ganoderma sinense Ganoderma tenue Ganoderma tropicum Ganoderma tsugae Geastrum triplex Gomphus clavatus Grifola frondosa Gyrodon lividus Gyroporus castaneus Hericium erinaceus Hexagonia apiaria Hirschioporus abietinum Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceum Hohenbuehelia petaloides Hygrocybe cantharellus Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Hygrophorus eburneus Hypsizygus marmoreus Ischnoderma resinosum Kobayasia nipponica Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria amethystea Laccaria laccata Lacrymaria velutina Lactarius akahatsu Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius hygrophoroides Lactarius volemus Langermannia gigantea Lanopila nipponica Lentinellus cochleatus Lentinula edodes Lentinus sajor-caju Lentinus strigosus Lentinus tigrinus Lepiota aspera Lepiota clypeolaria

Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Medicinal Edible edible, medicinal Edible [edible] edible, medicinal Medicinal Medicinal medicinal edible edible edible edible edible medicinal edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible edible [edible]

Lepiota ventriosospora Lepista nuda Lepista sordida Leucoagaricus pudicus Leucocoprinus cepaestipes Limacella glioderma Lycoperdon asperum Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pusillum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lycoperdon spadiceum Lyophyllum fumosum Lyophyllum ulmarium Lysurus mokusin Macrocybe lobayensis Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmiellus ramealis Marasmius cohaerens Marasmius crinis-equi Marasmius maximus Marasmius oreades Marasmius personatus Marasmius purpureostriatus Megacollybia platyphylla Melanoleuca alboflavida Melanoleuca melaleuca Mycena pura Neolentinus lepideus Ossicaulis lignatilis Oudemansiella mucida Panellus serotinus Panellus stipticus Phallus impudicus Phallus rubicundus Phallus tenuis Phellinus conchatus Phellinus igniarius

edible edible edible [edible] [edible], medicinal edible medicinal edible, medicinal medicinal edible, medicinal medicinal edible edible medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible [medicinal] edible, medicinal [medicinal] medicinal medicinal medicinal

Pholiota flammans Pholiota highlandensis Pholiota nameko Phylloporus rhodoxanthus Pisolithus tinctorius Pleurocybella porrigens Pleurotus citrinopileatus Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus corticatus Pleurotus cystidiosus Pleurotus flexilis Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus rhodophyllus Pleurotus spodoleucus Pluteus leoninus Pluteus pellitus Pluteus tricuspidatus Polyporus alveolaris Polyporus arcularius Polyporus elegans Polyporus umbellatus Psathyrella candolleana Psathyrella piluliformis Psathyrella rugocephala Pulveroboletus ravenelii Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Pycnoporus coccineus Ramaria apiculata Rhizopogon rubescens Russula aeruginea Russula crustosa Russula delica Russula emetica Russula foetens Russula lilacea Russula sanguinea Russula senecis

edible, medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible edible edible edible medicinal edible, medicinal medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible edible [edible], medicinal medicinal medicinal edible edible edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal [medicinal] [medicinal] edible, medicinal edible, medicinal [medicinal]

Russula vesca Russula virescens Sarcoscypha coccinea Schizophyllum commune Scleroderma bovista Scleroderma citrinum Scleroderma flavidum Scleroderma polyrhizum Scleroderma verrucosum Strobilomyces confusus Strobilomyces strobilaceus Stropharia coronilla Stropharia rugosoannulata Stropharia semiglobata Suillus americanus Suillus brevipes Suillus granulatus Suillus lactifluus Suillus subluteus Suillus tomentosus Termitomyces albuminosus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces microcarpus Trametes albida Trametes hirsuta Trametes orientalis Trametes pubescens Trametes versicolor Tremella fuciformis Tricholoma imbricatum Tricholoma pessundatum Tricholoma rutilans Tylopilus ballouii Volvariella bombycina Volvariella speciosa V. speciosa var. gloiocephala Volvariella volvacea Wolfiporia extensa

edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal [medicinal] medicinal edible, medicinal medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible edible edible, medicinal edible edible medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible, medicinal edible edible [edible] edible edible, medicinal edible [edible] edible, medicinal edible, medicinal

Xerocomus chrysenteron Xeromphalina campanella Xerula radicata Xylaria polymorpha

edible edible edible medicinal

INDIA1. Birks, 1991; 2. Boruah et al., 1996; 3. Singh and Rawat, 2000; 4. Harsh, Tiwari and Rai, 1996; 5. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 6. Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985; 7.Richardson, 1991; 8. Sarkar, Chakraborty and Bhattacharjee, 1988; 9. Sharda, Kaushal and Negi, 1997; 10. Sharma and Doshi, 1996 Agaricus campestris Amanita vaginata Astraeus hygrometricus Auricularia delicata Boletus edulis Bovista apedicellata Bovista gigantea Calocybe indica Calvatia cyathiformis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus floccosus Cetrariastrum sp. Clavaria aurea Clitocybe sp. Collybia sp. Coprinus acuminatus Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Cyathus limbatus Daldinia concentrica Entoloma microcarpum Evernia prunastri Ganoderma lucidum Geastrum fimbriatum Geastrum triplex Geopora sp. Helvella sp. Lactarius deterrimus Lactarius princeps Langermannia gigantea Lentinula edodes edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (2) medicinal (4) edible (6) edible (8) edible (4) edible (6) edible (2) other spice (7) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) medicinal (4) medicinal (4) edible (6) other perfume (7) medicinal (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6)

Lentinus sajor-caju Lentinus subnudus Lepiota mastoidea Limacella sp. Lycoperdon pusillum Lycoperdon pyriforme Macrocybe gigantea Macrocybe lobayensis Macrolepiota procera Marasmius sp. Microporus xanthopus Morchella angusticeps Morchella esculenta Mycenastrum corium Parmotrema sp. Peltigera canina Phallus impudicus Phellorinia inquinans Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus fossulatus Pleurotus ostreatus Podabrella microcarpa Podaxis pistillaris Podoscypha nitidula R. flavobrunnescens var. aurea R. flavobrunnescens var. formosoides R. flavobrunnescens var. typica Ramaria obtusissima Ramaria sandaracina Ramaria sanguinea Ramaria subbotrytis Russula delica Russula densifolia Schizophyllum commune Scleroderma radicans Scleroderma verrucosum Sparassis crispa Termitomyces albuminosus

edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (4) edible (6) edible (6) edible (8) edible (6) edible (8) medicinal (4) edible (3) edible (3) edible (4) other spice (7) medicinal (1) medicinal (4) edible (10) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (4) edible (6) edible (6) food (9) [edible] (9) food (9) food (9) [edible] (9) food (6) food (9) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6) edible (4) edible (6) edible (6) edible (6)

Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces radicatus Termitomyces striatus Tricholoma sulphureum Tuber sp. Volvariella diplasia Volvariella terastria Volvariella volvacea Xylaria polymorpha Auricularia auricula-judae Clitocybe hypocalamus Marasmius sp. Polyporus grammocephalus Russula sp. Scleroderma sp. Termitomyces albuminosus Terfezia claveryi Tirmania nivea Tirmania pinoyi ISRAELWasser, 1995 Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae Suillus granulatus Volvariella speciosa Agaricus campestris Boletus aestivalis Boletus erythropus Cantharellus cibarius Entoloma clypeatum Lactarius deliciosus Lepista nuda Lyophyllum decastes Pleurotus eryngii

edible (5) edible (8) edible (4) edible (8) edible (5) edible (5) food (6) edible (6) edible (8) edible (6) edible (8) medicinal (4) food, medicinal (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) edible (1) food (2) food (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible edible edible food (2) food (2) edible (1) food (2) edible (1) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2)

INDONESIA1. Burkhill, 1935; 2. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002

IRAQ1. Al-Naama, Ewaze and Nema, 1988; 2. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983

JORDAN1. Ereifej and Al-Raddad, 2000; 2. Sabra and Walter, 2001

KENYA1. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 2. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 3. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus campestris Coprinus sterquilinus Engleromyces goetzei Langermannia wahlbergii Lignosus sacer Macrolepiota dolichaula Phlebopus sudanicus Podaxis pistillaris Psilocybe merdaria Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces striatus Tricholoma matsutake KUWAITAlsheikh and Trappe, 1983 Tirmania nivea Tirmania pinoyi KYRGYZSTANElchibaev, 1964 Armillaria mellea Bovista plumbea Calvatia caelata Cantharellus cibarius Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Flammulina velutipes Gyromitra esculenta Lactarius deliciosus Laetiporus sulphureus Leccinum scabra Lepista nuda Lycoperdon gemmatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Macrolepiota excoriata Morchella conica Morchella intermedia Paxillus atrotomentosus edible edible edible edible edible [edible] edible [edible] edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food, medicinal edible (2) edible (3) medicinal (3) other dye (3) medicinal (3) edible (2) [hallucinogen] (3) other dye (3) hallucinogen, poisonous (3) edible (2) edible (1) edible

KOREA [DEMOCRATIC PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF] Wang, Hall and Evans, 1997

Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus ostreatus Polyporus squamosus Ptychoverpa bohemica Ramaria flava Russula aeruginea Russula delica Russula nitida Russula olivascens Russula rosacea Russula sardonia Sarcodon imbricatus Scleroderma citrinum Tricholoma portentosum

edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible [edible] edible

LAO PEOPLES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC1. Hosaka, 2002, personal communication; 2.http//giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.html Amanita hemibapha Amanita vaginata Amanita virgineoides Armillaria sp. Cantharellus luteocomus Collybia acervata Coprinus disseminatus Ganoderma lucidum Hygrocybe cantharellus Hygrocybe conica Hygrocybe punicea Laccaria amethystea Laccaria laccata Lactarius volemus Leccinum extremiorientale Lentinus strigosus Lyophyllum sp. Macrolepiota procera Oudemansiella sp. Pycnoporus coccineus Ramaria Russula Russula densifolia food (1) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [medicinal] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) food (1) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [other] (2) medicinal (1) food (1) [edible] (2)

Russula virescens Schizophyllum commune Suillus granulatus Termitomyces Trametes versicolor Termitomyces

[edible] (2) food (1) [edible] (2) food (1) [medicinal] (2) edible

LESOTHORammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYAAlsheikh and Trappe, 1983 Tirmania nivea Tirmania pinoyi edible edible

MADAGASCAR1. Bouriquet, 1970; 2. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Richardson, 1991; 5. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvicola Amanita hovae Amanita robusta Amanita vaginata Anthurus pentulus Armillaria heimii Armillariella elegans Asero sp. Auricularia auricula-judae Boletus bouriqueti Boletus colossus Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus cyanoxanthus Cantharellus eucalyptorum Cantharellus madagascariensis Chlorophyllum madagascariense Chlorophyllum molybdites Clathrus madagascariensis Clavaria miniata Collybia tamatavae Cortinarius largus Cyathus stercoreus Galiella javanica Ganoderma lucidum Geastrum fimbriatum edible (5) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) food (2) [edible] (1) edible (3) edible (3) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) edible (3) edible (5) [edible] (1) medicinal (5) [edible] (1) [edible] (1)

Inocybe Inocybe tulearensis Laccaria edulis Lactarius rubroviolascens Lentinus berteri Lentinus tuber-regium Lenzites palisoti Lepiota aspera Lepiota imerinensis Lepiota madagascariensis Lepiota madirokelensis Lepiota rabarijanonae Lepiota roseoalba Leucocoprinus badhamii Leucocoprinus imerinensis Leucocoprinus nanianae Leucocoprinus tanetensis Lycoperdon endotephrum Lysurus periphragmoides Macrocybe spectabilis Macrolepiota excoriata M. excoriata var. rubescens Macrolepiota procera M. procera var. vezo Microporus sanguineus Morchella intermedia Mutinus bambusinus Phaeolus manihotis Phallus armeniacus Phallus impudicus Phlebopus colossus Pleurotus dactylophorus Podaxon termitophilus Polyporus croceoleucus Polystictus sp. Ramaria stricta Roccella sp. Russula cyanoxantha

[edible] (1) [edible] (5) edible (3) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) edible (3); medicinal (5) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (5) [edible] (5) [edible] (1) edible (3) edible (5) edible (3) edible (5) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (5) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) [edible] (1) other dye (4) [edible] (1)

Russula madagassensis Schizophyllum commune Strobilomyces Strobilomyces coturnix Suillus granulatus Terfezia decaryi Tricholoma scabrum Volvariella esculenta Volvariella volvacea Xerocomus chrysenteron Xerocomus versicolor

edible (5) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (5) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (3) [edible] (1) edible (3)

MALAWI1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994; see also www.malawifungi.org Afroboletus costatisporus Afroboletus luteolus Agaricus bingensis Agaricus campestris Agaricus croceolutescens Agaricus endoxanthus Amanita bingensis Amanita calopus Amanita flammeola Amanita fulva Amanita goosensiae Amanita hemibapha Amanita muscaria Amanita praeclara Amanita rhodophylla Amanita robusta Amanita rubescens Amanita vaginata Amanita zambiana Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia delicata Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus longisporus Cantharellus tenuis Clavaria albiramea edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) hallucinogen, poisonous, (2) [edible], insecticidal (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1)

Collybia confluens Collybia dryophila Coprinus disseminatus Cymatoderma dendriticum Gyroporus castaneus Inocybe Lactarius gymnocarpus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius vellereus Lentinus cladopus Lentinus squarrulosus Lepista caffrorum Macrocybe lobayensis Macrolepiota dolichaula Macrolepiota procera Micropsalliota brunneosperma Perenniporia mundula Phlebopus colossus Phlebopus sudanicus Polyporus brasiliensis Polyporus moluccensis Psathyrella atroumbonata Psathyrella candolleana Pulveroboletus aberrans Pycnoporus sanguineus Rubinoboletus luteopurpureus Russula afronigricans Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Russula ochroleuca Russula rosea Russula schizoderma Schizophyllum commune Stereopsis hiscens Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus

edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) medicinal (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1)

Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces schimperi Termitomyces striatus Termitomyces titanicus Trogia infundibuliformis Tubosaeta brunneosetosa Vascellum pratense Volvariella volvacea Xerocomus pallidosporus Xerocomus soyeri Xerula radicata

edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1)

MALAYSIA1. Burkhill, 1935; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994 Termitomyces albuminosus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces entolomoides Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces striatus food (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

MAURITIUS1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Coprinus castaneus Macrocybe spectabilis Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Tricholoma mauritianum Volvariella volvacea edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1)

MEXICO1. Lopez, Cruz and Zamora-Martinez, 1992; 2. Mata, 1987; 3. MontoyaEsquivel, 1998; 4. Montoya-Esquivel et al., 2001; 5. Moreno-Fuentes et al., 1996; 6.Richardson, 1991; 7. Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989; 8. www.semarnat.gob.mx; 9.Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo and Dominguez, 2000; 10. Zamora-Martinez, Reygadas and Cifuentes, 1994 Agaricus arvensis Agaricus augustus Agaricus bisporus var. albidus Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus food (8) food (8) edible (7) edible (7)

Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus campestris Agaricus comtulus Agaricus essettei Agaricus fuscofibrillosus Agaricus impudicus Agaricus placomyces Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola A. squamuliferus var. caroli Agaricus subperonatus Agaricus subrutilescens Agrocybe vervacti Albatrellus ovinus Aleuria aurantia Amanita caesarea A. caesarea f. sp. americana Amanita calyptratoides Amanita calyptroderma Amanita ceciliae Amanita crocea Amanita flavivolva Amanita flavoconia Amanita flavorubescens Amanita fulva Amanita gemmata Amanita inaurata Amanita muscaria Amanita rubescens Amanita tuza Amanita umbonata Amanita vaginata Arachnion album Armillaria luteovirens Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae Armillaria tabescens Auricularia auricula-judae

food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (10) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (7) edible (7) edible (10) food (8) food (8) [edible], medicinal, insecticidal (8) food (8) edible (3) food (8) edible (10) food (8) medicinal, insecticidal (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (8)

Auricularia delicata Auricularia fuscosuccinea Auricularia mesenterica Auricularia polytricha Boletellus ananas Boletellus betula Boletellus russellii Boletinus lakei Boletus aestivalis Boletus atkinsonii Boletus barrowsii Boletus bicoloroides Boletus edulis Boletus erythropus Boletus felleus Boletus frostii Boletus luridiformis Boletus luridus Boletus michoacanus Boletus pinicola Boletus pinophilus Boletus regius Boletus reticulatus Boletus variipes Bovista plumbea var. ovalispora Chalciporus piperatus Calvatia cyathiformis Camarophyllus pratensis Cantharellula umbonata Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus odoratus Cantharellus tubiformis Chlorophyllum molybdites Chroogomphus jamaicensis Chroogomphus rutilus Chroogomphus vinicolor Clavaria vermicularis Clavariadelphus cokeri

edible (7) edible (8) edible (8) edible (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (3) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (10) food (8) edible (3) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (4) edible (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) edible (7) food (7) food (7) food (8) edible (7) food (4) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8)

Clavariadelphus pistillaris Clavariadelphus truncatus Clavariadelphus unicolor Clavicorona pyxidata Clavulina cinerea Clavulina cristata Clavulina rugosa Climacocystis borealis Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe gibba Clitocybe nebularis Clitocybe odora Clitocybe squamulosa Clitocybe suaveolens Clitopilus prunulus Collybia acervata Collybia butyracea Collybia confluens Collybia dryophila Collybia polyphylla Cookeina sulcipes Cookeina tricholoma Coprinus comatus Cortinarius glaucopus Craterellus cornucopioides Craterellus fallax Cronartium conigenum Daldinia concentrica Enteridium lycoperdon Entoloma abortivum Entoloma clypeatum Favolus alveolarius Favolus brasiliensis Flammulina velutipes Fomitopsis pinicola Fuligo septica Ganoderma lobatum Gautieria mexicana

food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (7) edible (10) edible (3) food (7) food, medicinal (8) food (8) edible (8) edible (3) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (4) edible (8) edible (7) edible (7) edible (7) food (4) food (8) food (8) edible (7) medicinal (8) edible (7) food (7) food (4) edible (7) edible (7) food (8) medicinal (8) edible (7) medicinal (8) edible (3)

Geastrum saccatum Geastrum triplex Gomphidius glutinosus Gomphus clavatus Gomphus floccosus Gomphus kauffmanii Gyrodon merulioides Gyromitra infula Gyroporus castaneus Hebeloma fastibile Hebeloma mesophaeum Helvella acetabulum Helvella crispa Helvella elastica Helvella infula Helvella lacunosa Hericium caput-ursi Hericium coralloides Hericium erinaceus Hohenbuehelia petaloides Hydnopolyporus fimbriatus Hydnopolyporus palmatus Hydnum repandum Hygrocybe nigrescens Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Hygrophorus chrysodon Hygrophorus niveus Hygrophorus purpurascens Hygrophorus russula Hypomyces lactifluorum Hypomyces macrosporus Laccaria amethystina Laccaria bicolor Laccaria farinacea Laccaria laccata Laccaria proxima Laccaria scrobiculatus Lactarius carbonicola

medicinal (8) food (8); medicinal (2) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (4) food (4) food (8) food (8) food (4) food (8) edible (7) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (10) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (8) edible (1) edible (3)

Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius indigo Lactarius piperatus Lactarius salmonicolor Lactarius sanguifluus Lactarius scrobiculatus Lactarius subdulcis Lactarius vellereus Lactarius volemus Lactarius yazooensis Laetiporus sulphureus Langermannia gigantea Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum chromapes Leccinum rugosiceps Lentinula boryana Lentinus conchatus Lepiota aspera Lepiota clypeolaria Lepista irina Lepista nuda Lepista personata Lycoperdon candidum Lycoperdon marginatum Lycoperdon oblongisporum Lycoperdon peckii Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lycoperdon rimulatum Lycoperdon umbrinum L. umbrinum var. floccosum Lyophyllum decastes Lyophyllum ovisporum Macrolepiota procera Macropodia macropus Marasmius albogriseus Marasmius oreades Melanoleuca evenosa

food (7) food (7) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (10) edible (7) food (8) food (4) food (8) food, medicinal (8) food (8) edible (7) edible (3) food (7) edible (7) edible (7) edible (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) edible (7) edible (3) edible (7) food (8) food (7) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) food (7) food (4) edible (8) food (8) edible (7) food (8) edible (7)

Melanoleuca grammopodia Melanoleuca melaleuca Merulius incarnatus Morchella angusticeps Morchella conica Morchella costata Morchella crassipes Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Mycena pura Neolentinus lepideus Neolentinus ponderosus Oudemansiella canarii Panus crinitus Paxina acetabulum Peziza badia Pholiota lenta Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus djamor Pleurotus dryinus Pleurotus levis Pleurotus ostreatoroseus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus smithii Pluteus aurantiorugosus Pluteus cervinus Pogonomyces hydnoides Psathyrella spadicea Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Psilocybe zapotecorum Pycnoporus sanguineus Ramalina ecklonii Ramaria aurea Ramaria bonii Ramaria botrytis Ramaria botrytoides Ramaria cystidiophora Ramaria flava

edible (7) edible (7) food (8) edible (10) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (8) food (5) food (8) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (4) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (7) food (7); medicinal (8) edible (7) food (8) food (7) food (8) edible (10) edible (8) edible, hallucinogen (8) medicinal (8) edible (8) food (7) edible (3) food (8) edible (3) edible (3) edible (8)

Ramaria flavobrunnescens Ramaria rosella Ramaria rubiginosa Ramaria rubripermanens Ramaria sanguinea Ramaria stricta Rhizopogon Rhodophyllus clypeatus Roccella Rozites caperatus Russula aciculocystis Russula alutacea Russula brevipes Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Russula densifolia Russula emetica Russula lepida Russula lutea Russula macropoda Russula mariae Russula mexicana Russula nigricans Russula olivacea Russula ornaticeps Russula queletii Russula romagnesiana Russula rubroalba Russula vesca Russula xerampelina Sarcodon imbricatus Sarcoscypha coccinea Sarcosphaera eximia Schizophyllum commune Schizophyllum fasciatum Sparassis crispa Strobilomyces confusus Strobilomyces floccopus

food (7) edible (3) food (8) food (4) edible (3) edible (7) food (8) food (8) other dye (6) food (8) edible (3) food (8) food (7) food (8) food (4) edible (7) edible (9) food (8) food (8) edible (3) food (4) edible (10) food (8) food (8) edible (3) edible (10) food (4) edible (3) edible (7) food (4) food (8) food (8) food (4) edible (7) edible (7) food (8) edible (7) food (8)

Stropharia coronilla Suillus acidus Suillus americanus Suillus brevipes Suillus cavipes Suillus granulatus Suillus hirtellus Suillus luteus Suillus pseudobrevipes Suillus tomentosus Tephrocybe atrata Thelephora paraguayensis Trametes versicolor Tremella concrescens Tremellodendron schweinitzii Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma magnivelare Tricholoma sejunctum Tricholoma ustaloides Tricholoma vaccinum Tylopilus felleus Ustilago maydis Vascellum curtisii Vascellum intermedium Vascellum pratense Vascellum qudenii Volvariella bombycina Volvariella volvacea Xanthoconium separans Xerocomus badius Xerocomus chrysenteron Xerocomus spadiceus Xeromphalina campanella

food (4) edible (7) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) food (4) food (8) edible (10) medicinal (2) medicinal (8) edible (8) edible (8) food (8) food (8) food (8) edible (10) edible (10) food (4) food (7) edible (7) food (8) edible (7), medicinal (8) food, medicinal (8) edible (7) edible (7) edible (7) edible (7) edible (8) edible (8) medicinal (8)

MOZAMBIQUE1. Uaciquete, Dai and Motta, 1996; 2. Wilson, Cammack and Shumba, 1989 Afroboletus luteolus Amanita hemibapha Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae food (1) food (2) food (1) food (2)

Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus longisporus Cantharellus pseudocibarius Cantharellus symoensii Coprinus micaceus Lentinus squarrulosus Leucoagaricus leucothites Micropsalliota brunneosperma Phlebopus colossus Psathyrella candolleana Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces schimperi

food (1) food (2) food (1) food (2) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (2) food (1) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (1) food (1) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2)

MOROCCO1. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983; 2. Kytovuori, 1989; 3. Moreno-Arroyo et al., 2001; 4. Richardson, 1991; 5. FAO, 2001b Agaricus bisporus Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Evernia prunastri Morchella sp. Pleurotus ostreatus Pseudevernia furfuracea Terfezia leonis Tirmania nivea Tricholoma caligatum Tricholoma nauseosum Tuber oligospermum Termitomyces eurhizus edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) other perfume (4) edible (5) edible (5) other perfume (4) edible (5) edible (1) edible (5) edible (2) edible (3) edible

MYANMARPegler and Vanhaecke, 1994 NAMIBIA1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Taylor et al., 1995; 3. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Battarrea stevenii Terfezia pfeilii Termitomyces schimperi medicinal; cosmetic (3) food (2) edible (1)

Termitomyces umkowaanii

edible (1)

NEPAL1. Adhikari, 1999; 2. Adhikari and Durrieu, 1996; 3. Richardson, 1991; 4. Zang and Doi, 1995 Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvicola Agaricus subrufescens Amanita caesarea Amanita chepangiana Amanita hemibapha Amanita vaginata Armillaria mellea Astraeus sp. Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia delicata Auricularia mesenterica Auricularia polytricha Boletus edulis Boletus luridus Boletus vitellinus Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus odoratus Cantharellus subalbidus Cantharellus subcibarius Cantharellus tubiformis Clavaria vermicularis Clavulina cinerea Clavulina cristata Clavulinopsis fusiformis Collybia butyracea Coprinus comatus Cordyceps sinensis Craterellus cornucopioides Crepidotus mollis Evernia prunastri Fibroporia vaillantii Fistulina hepatica Flammulina velutipes Ganoderma applanatum food (1) edible (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) food (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (2) edible (2) food (1) food (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) medicinal (1) edible (1) [edible] (2) other perfume (96) medicinal (2) medicinal (2) edible (1) medicinal (2)

Ganoderma lucidum Geastrum sp. Grifola frondosa Hericium clathroides Hericium coralloides Hericium erinaceus Hericium flagellum Hericium laciniatum Hydnum ranceo-foetidum Hydnum repandum Inonotus hispidus Laccaria amethystina Laccaria laccata Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius volemus Laetiporus sulphureus Lentinula edodes Lycoperdon sp. Macrolepiota procera Marasmius oreades Meripilus giganteus Morchella conica Morchella deliciosa Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Morchella smithiana Morchella esculenta var. vulgaris Pholiota nameko Pleurotus circinatus Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus dryinus Pleurotus nepalensis Pleurotus ostreatus P. ostreatus var. magnificus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pluteus cervinus Polyporus arcularius

[medicinal] (2) edible (2) food (1) edible (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) edible (2) [edible] (1) food (1) medicinal (2) food (1) food (1) food (2) edible (2) edible (2) food (1) food (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) food (2) edible (1) edible (1) [edible] (1) edible (1) [edible] (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (1) food (1) edible (1) food (1) edible (1) edible (1) food (1) food (1)

Polyporus badius Polyporus brumalis Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flava Ramaria formosa Ramaria fuscobrunnea Ramaria obtusissima Rhizopogon luteolus Russula chloroides Russula delica Russula nigricans Russula virescens Scleroderma citrinum Scleroderma texense Secotium himalaicum Termitomyces eurhizus Trametes hirsuta Tremella mesenterica Volvariella volvacea Xerula radicata

edible (1) medicinal (2) edible (2) food (2) food (1) food (2) edible (2) food (1) food (1) edible (2) food (2) edible (2) edible (2) food (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (149) food (1) medicinal (2) edible (2) food (1) food (1)

NIGERIA1. Alofe, Odeyemi and Oke, 1996; 2. Oso, 1975; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agrocybe broadwayi Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae Calvatia cyathiformis Chlorophyllum molybdites Coprinus africanus Lentinus subnudus Lentinus tuber-regium Lentinus velutinus Macrocybe lobayensis food (2) edible (3) food (2) food, medicinal (2) edible (3) food (2) edible (1) food (2); medicinal, cosmetic (4) medicinal (4) food (2)

Panus flavus Phallus aurantiacus Pleurotus squarrosulus Psathyrella atroumbonata Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces globulus Termitomyces mammiformis Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces striatus Volvariella esculenta Volvariella volvacea

medicinal (2) [poisonous], medicinal (4) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2); animal poison (4) food (2) food (2); medicinal (4) food (2) edible (3) food (2) food (2)

PAKISTAN1. Batra, 1983; 2. Gardezi, 1993; 3. FAO, 1993b; 4. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 5. Syed-Riaz and Mahmood-Khan, 1999 Agaricus augustus Agaricus campestris Agaricus placomyces Agaricus rodmani Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola Armillaria mellea Cantharellus cibarius Craterellus cornucopioides Flammulina velutipes Macrolepiota procera Morchella angusticeps Morchella conica Morchella esculenta Podaxis pistillaris Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces radicatus Termitomyces striatus PAPUA NEW GUINEASillitoe, 1995 Armillaria sp. not eaten edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) edible (3) edible (3) edible (3) edible (1) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4)

Auricularia polytricha Boletus erythropus var. novoguineensis Boletus nigroviolaceus Bondarzewia montana Cantharellus Collybia sp. Cortinarius sp. Grifola frondosa Gymnopilus novoguineensis Inocybe sp. Laccaria amethystea Lactarius Lentinula lateritia Lentinus araucariae Lentinus umbrinus Microporus affinis Microporus xanthopus Oudemansiella canarii Phaeomarasmius affinis Phellinus senex Pholiota austrospumosa Phylloporus bellus Pleurotus djamor Polyporus arcularius Polyporus blanchetianus Polyporus tenuiculus Pycnoporus coccineus Pycnoporus sanguineus Ramaria fistulosa Russula amaendum Russula eburneoareolata Russula pseudoamaendum Strobilomyces velutipes Trametes versicolor Trogia sp.

not eaten edible edible edible edible not eaten edible edible not eaten edible edible edible edible edible not eaten edible not eaten edible edible not eaten edible not eaten edible edible edible edible other raw material edible edible edible edible edible edible not eaten edible

PERU1. Diez, 2003, personal communication: Collecting Boletus edulis for commercial purposes in Peru; 2. Remotti and Colan, 1990 Auricularia delicata edible (2)

Auricularia fuscosuccinea Boletus edulis Favolus alveolarius Favolus brasiliensis Lentinus conchatus Pleurotus concavus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus roseopileatus Pluteus cervinus Polyporus arcularius Polyporus sanguineus Schizophyllum brevilamellatum Schizophyllum commune Volvariella bakeri

edible (2) food (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

PHILIPPINES1. Novellino, 1999; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994. See also Mendoza, 1938 records not included Agaricus ?spp. Ganoderma ?spp. Pleurotus ?spp. Polyporus ?spp. Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces striatus POLANDwww.grzyby.pl Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Lactarius deliciosus Leccinum griseum Leccinum scabrum Macrolepiota procera Pleurotus ostreatus Rozites caperatus Russula cyanoxantha Tricholoma equestre Xerocomus badius Xerocomus subtomentosus food food food food food food food food food food food food food food food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

RUNIONRammeloo and Walleyn, 1993 Volvariella volvacea edible RUSSIAN FEDERATION1. Saar, 1991; 2. Vasileva, 1978. Note: This is only for the Russian far east. Agaricus campestris Agaricus placomyces Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola Aleuria aurantia Amanita caesareoides Amanita crocea Amanita muscaria Amanita vaginata Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia polytricha Boletinus asiaticus Boletinus paluster Boletus calopus Boletus edulis Boletus erythropus Boletus luridus Boletus regius B. tomentososquamulosus Bovista plumbea Buchwaldoboletus spectabilis Calocybe gambosa Calvatia excipuliformis Calvatia utriformis Camarophyllus niveus Camarophyllus pratensis Camarophyllus virgineus Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus floccosus Catathelasma ventricosum Chalciporus piperatus Chroogomphus rutilus Clavaria purpurea Clavariadelphus pistillaris edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (2) edible (2) poisonous (2); medicinal (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) edible (2) not edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

Clavariadelphus sachalinensis Clavariadelphus truncatus Clavulina amethystina Clavulina cristata Clitocybe infundibuliformis Clitocybe nebularis Clitocybe odora Clitocybe suaveolens Clitopilus prunulus Collybia contorta Collybia dryophila Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Coprinus micaceus Cortinarius alboviolaceus Cortinarius armeniacus Cortinarius armillatus Cortinarius collinitus Cortinarius glaucopus Cortinarius orichalceus Cortinarius prasinus Craterellus cornucopioides Flammulina velutipes Fomes fomentarius Gomphidius maculatus Gomphidius purpurascens Gomphus clavatus Gyromitra ambigua Gyromitra esculenta Gyromitra infula Gyromitra ussuriensis Helvella crispa Hericium erinaceus Hydnotrya tulasnei Hydnum repandum Hygrocybe cantharellus Hygrocybe coccinea Hygrocybe conica

edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) medicinal (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) not known (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

Hygrocybe laeta Hygrocybe obrussea Hygrocybe psittacina Hygrocybe punicea Hygrocybe unguinosa Hygrophorus agathosmus Hygrophorus camarophyllus Hygrophorus chrysodon Hygrophorus eburneus Hygrophorus erubescens Hygrophorus limacinus Hygrophorus lucorum Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus Hygrophorus pudorinus Hygrophorus russula Inonotus obliquus Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria amethystina Laccaria laccata Lactarius chrysorrheus Lactarius controversus Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius flavidulus Lactarius insulsus Lactarius japonicus Lactarius necator Lactarius piperatus Lactarius pubescens Lactarius pyrogalus Lactarius repraesentaneus Lactarius resimus Lactarius rufus Lactarius scrobiculatus Lactarius torminosus Lactarius trivialis Lactarius uvidus Lactarius vellereus Lactarius volemus

edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) medicinal (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (2) edible (2)

Laetiporus sulphureus Langermannia gigantea Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum chromapes Leccinum extremiorientale Leccinum holopus Leccinum oxydabile Leccinum scabrum Leccinum testaceoscabrum Lepista glaucocana Leucoagaricus leucothites Leucocortinarius bulbiger Limacella illinita Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lyophyllum connatum Lyophyllum decastes Lyophyllum ulmarium Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota puellaris Marasmius oreades Marasmius scorodonius Melanoleuca brevipes Melanoleuca grammopodia Melanoleuca verrucipes Morchella conica Morchella esculenta Otidea onotica Oudemansiella brunneomarginata Oudemansiella mucida Panellus serotinus Paxillus involutus Phaeolepiota aurea Phallus impudicus Phellinus igniarius Pholiota aurivella Pleurotus citrinopileatus Pleurotus ostreatus

edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) [edible] (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not edible (2) medicinal (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

Plicaria badia Pluteus cervinus Pluteus coccineus Polyporus squamosus Porphyrellus atrobrunneus Porphyrellus pseudoscaber Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Psiloboletinus lariceti Ptychoverpa bohemica Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytoides Ramaria flava Ramaria formosa Ramaria invalii Ramaria obtusissima Ramaria pulcherrima Rhizopogon roseolus Rhodophyllus aprilis Rhodophyllus clypeatus Rozites caperatus Russula adusta Russula aeruginea Russula albonigra Russula alutacea Russula aurata Russula consobrina Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Russula emetica Russula flava Russula foetens Russula fragilis Russula olivascens Russula pectinatoides Russula punctata Russula queletii Russula vesca Russula virescens

edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not edible (2) not edible (2) not edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not known (2) edible (2) edible (2)

Russula xerampelina Sarcodon imbricatus Sarcodon lobatus Sarcoscypha coccinea Scutiger ovinus Sparassis crispa Strobilomyces floccopus Stropharia rugosoannulata Suillus abietinus Suillus americanus Suillus bovinus Suillus cavipes Suillus granulatus Suillus grevillei Suillus luteus Suillus pictus Suillus placidus Suillus plorans Suillus subluteus Suillus variegatus Suillus viscidus Tremiscus helvelloides Tricholoma atrosquamosum Tricholoma fulvum Tricholoma orirubens Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma terreum Tricholomopsis decora Tricholomopsis rutilans Tylopilus neofelleus Volvariella speciosa Xerocomus badius Xerocomus chrysenteron Xerocomus rubellus Xerocomus subtomentosus

edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) not edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2)

SAUDI ARABIA1. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983; 2. Bokhary and Parvez, 1993; 3. Kirk et al., 2001 Parmelia austrosinensis Terfezia claveryi Tirmania nivea Afroboletus costatisporus Amanita crassiconus Amanita hemibapha Amanita rubescens Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus pseudofriesii Gyrodon intermedius Lactarius gymnocarpus Phlebopus sudanicus Polyporus Russula foetens Russula pectinata Tubosaeta brunneosetosa Termitomyces striatus SINGAPOREBurkhill, 1935 Termitomyces albuminosus SLOVENIAwww.matkurja.com Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus campestris Amanita caesarea Amanita rubescens Armillaria mellea Astraeus hygrometricus Boletus aestivalis Boletus erythropus Calocybe gambosa Cantharellus cibarius Coprinus comatus Craterellus cornucopioides Leccinum griseum Leccinum scabrum Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible edible edible edible edible not edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food food (3) edible (2) edible (1) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) food (1) [edible] (2) food (1) medicinal (122) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) edible

SENEGAL1. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002; 2. Thoen and Ba, 1989

SIERRA LEONEPegler and Vanhaecke, 1994

Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Morchella esculenta Pleurotus ostreatus Russula cyanoxantha Tricholoma portentosum Xerocomus badius Xerocomus subtomentosus Agaricus amboensis Agaricus campestris Amanita excelsa Amanita foetidissima Amanita muscaria Amanita rubescens Helvella lacunosa Hericium coralloides Lepista caffrorum Macrolepiota rhacodes Psilocybe semilanceata Suillus granulatus Termitomyces striatus

edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible [edible] (2) [edible] (2) hallucinogen, poisonous (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) [edible] (2) hallucinogen (2) [edible] (2) edible (1)

SOMALIARammeloo and Walleyn, 1993

SOUTH AFRICA1. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994

SPAIN1. Cervera and Colinas 1997; 2. Martinez, Oria de Rueda and Martinez, 1997; 3.Martinez, Florit and Colinas (1997) Agaricus arvensis Agrocybe aegerita Amanita caesarea Amanita ponderosa Armillaria mellea Boletus aereus Boletus aestivalus Boletus edulis Boletus pinicola Boletus regius Boletus reticulatus Calocybe gambosa Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus lutescens food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2)

Cantharellus tubaeformis Clitocybe geotropa Clitocybe nebularis Coprinus comatus Craterellus cornucopioides Helvella leucomelaena Helvella monachella Hydnum repandum Hydnum rufescens Hygrophorus eburneus Hygrophorus latitabundus Hygrophorus limacinus Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus Hygrophorus russula Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius sanguifluus Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum lepidum Lepista nuda Lepista personata Leucopaxillus candidus Leucopaxillus lepistoides Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmius oreades Morchella esculenta Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus nebrodensis Pleurotus ostreatus Rhodocybe truncata Russula cyanoxantha Russula virescens Suillus bellinii Suillus bovinus Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus Suillus variegatus Terfezia arenaria

food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (1) food (3) food (2) food (2) food (1) food (2) food (2) food( 2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food( 2) food (2) food (2) food (3) food (2) food( 2) food (3) food (2)

Terfezia claveryi Terfezia leptoderma Tricholoma equestre Tricholoma goniospermum Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma terreum Tuber aestivum Tuber brumale Tuber melanosporum Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces microcarpus

food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (2) edible edible

SRI LANKAPegler and Vanhaecke, 1994

TANZANIA [UNITED REPUBLIC OF]1. Hrknen, Saarimki and Mwasumbi, 1994a; 2.Hrknen, Saarimki and Mwasumbi, 1994b; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus campestris Amanita tanzanica Amanita zambiana Armillaria mellea Auricularia delicata Auricularia fuscosuccinea Auricularia polytricha Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus isabellinus Cantharellus platyphyllus Cantharellus symoensii Coprinus cinereus Entoloma argyropus Hypholoma subviride Kuehneromyces mutabilis Lactarius gymnocarpus Lactarius kabansus Lactarius pelliculatus Lactarius phlebophyllus Lactarius rubroviolascens Lentinus sajor-caju Lentinus tuber-regium Lenzites elegans Leucoagaricus leucothites edible (3) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (3) not eaten (2) edible (3) edible (2) food (2) edible (2) food (2) edible (2) edible (3) edible (3), medicinal (4) edible (3) edible (3)

Leucoagaricus rhodocephalus Lignosus sacer Macrolepiota procera Phellinus sp. Pleurotus djamor Polyporus moluccensis Russula cellulata Russula ciliata Russula compressa Russula congoana Russula heimii Russula hiemisilvae Russula liberiensis Russula phaeocephala Russula sublaevis Russula tanzaniae Suillus granulatus Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces singidensis Volvariella bombycina Volvariella volvacea

edible (4) medicinal (4) edible (3) medicinal (4) edible (2) edible (2) food (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (2) edible (1) edible (2) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (2) edible (2) edible, medicinal (2) food (2) edible (2) food (2) edible (3) edible (3)

THAILAND1. Jones, Whalley and Hywel-Jones, 1994; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 3.Stamets, 2000 Auricularia sp. Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus minor Lentinula edodes Lentinus praerigidus Pleurotus cystidiosus Russula aeruginea Russula delica Russula densifolia Russula foetens Russula heterophylla Russula lepida Russula nigricans food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (3) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1)

Russula sanguinea Russula violeipes Russula virescens Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces globulus Volvariella volvacea TUNISIAAlsheikh and Trappe, 1983 Tirmania nivea TURKEY

food (1) food (1) food (1) food (2) food (2) food (2) food (1) edible

1. Afyon, 1997; 2. Caglarirmak, Unal and Otles, 2002; 3. Demirbas, 2000; 4. Sabra and Walter, 2001; 5. http//www.ogm.gov.tr/; 6. Yilmaz, Oder and Isiloglu, 1997 Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvicola Amanita caesarea Armillaria mellea Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Chroogomphus rutilus Coprinus comatus Cortinarius variecolor Craterellus cornucopioides Fistulina hepatica Helvella lacunosa Hericium coralloides Hydnum repandum Hygrophorus chrysodon Laccaria laccata Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius salmonicolor Lactarius volemus Laetiporus sulphureus Lycoperdon perlatum Macrolepiota procera Morchella conica food (6) edible (3) food (6) edible (3) edible (5) edible (5) food (4) food (4) edible (5) food (1) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) food (1) food (6) edible (5) edible (5) edible (3) food (6) food (2) food (6) edible (5) edible (5) food (6) edible (5) food (6)

Morchella crassipes Morchella deliciosa Morchella elata Morchella esculenta M. esculenta var. rotunda Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus ostreatus Polyporus squamosus Rhizopogon luteolus Rhizopogon roseolus Rhizopogon rubescens Russula delica Sparassis crispa Suillus bovinus Suillus grevillei Suillus luteus Terfezia boudieri Tricholoma populinum Tricholoma terreum Tuber aestivum Tuber borchii Xerocomus badius

edible (1) edible (5) edible (1) food (6) edible (5) edible (5) food (1) food (6) edible (5) edible (5) food (6) edible (5) food (6) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) edible (5) food (4) food (1) edible (5) edible (4) edible (4) edible (5)

UGANDA1. Katende, Segawa and Birnie, 1999; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 3.Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993 Agaricus bingensis Armillaria mellea Lentinus prolifer Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces striatus Tricholoma sp. Agaricus arvensis Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bitorquis edible (3) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (1) edible (3) edible (2) edible (3) [edible] [edible] [edible]

UKRAINEZerova and Rozhenko, 1988

Agaricus campestris Agaricus macrosporus Agaricus placomyces Agaricus silvaticus Amanita caesarea Amanita excelsa Amanita porphyria Amanita rubescens Amanita vaginata Amanita xanthodermus Armillaria mellea Astrosporina asterospora Boletus appendiculatus Boletus aurantiacus Boletus calopus Boletus edulis Boletus elegans Boletus erythropus Boletus impolitus Boletus luridus Boletus regius Boletus rubellus Boletus scaber Boletus subtomentosus Boletus variegatus Calvatia utriformis Cantharellus cibarius Chalciporus piperatus Clitocybe aurantiaca Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe nebularis Clitocybe olearia Clitocybe rivulosa Clitopilus prunulus Collybia butyracea Coprinus comatus Coprinus micaceus Cortinarius crassus

[edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible]

Cortinarius mucosus Cortinarius multiformis Cortinarius varius Entoloma clypeatum Entoloma rhodopolium Flammulina velutipes Gomphidius glutinosus Gyrodon lividus Gyromitra esculenta Gyroporus castaneus Gyroporus cyanescens Hydnum repandum Hygrophorus hypothejus Hypholoma capnoides Hypholoma epixanthum Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria laccata Lactarius acris Lactarius controversus Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius glyciosmus Lactarius helvus Lactarius insulsus Lactarius lignyotus Lactarius necator Lactarius pallidus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius porninsis Lactarius quietus Lactarius repraesentaneus Lactarius resimus Lactarius rufus Lactarius sanguifluus Lactarius scrobiculatus Lactarius semisanguifluus Lactarius subdulcis Lactarius torminosus Lactarius vellereus

[edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible]

Lactarius vietus Lactarius violascens Lactarius volemus Lactarius zonarius Langermannia gigantea Lepiota lilacea Lepista irina Lepista nuda Leucopaxillus giganteus Lycoperdon perlatum Lyophyllum decastes Macrolepiota excoriata Macrolepiota procera Marasmius alliaceus Marasmius oreades Marasmius prasiosmus Marasmius scorodonius Morchella esculenta Paxillus atrotomentosus Paxillus involutus Pholiota squarrosa Pleurotus ostreatus Pluteus cervinus Porphyrellus pseudoscaber Ramaria mairei Rozites caperatus Russula adusta Russula aeruginea Russula alutacea Russula atropurpurea Russula aurata Russula badia Russula brunneoviolacea Russula caerulea Russula claroflava Russula cyanoxantha Russula decolorans Russula delica

[edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible]

Russula emetica Russula farinipes Russula fellea Russula firmula Russula foetens Russula heterophylla Russula integra Russula lepida Russula maculata Russula melliolens Russula mustelina Russula nigricans Russula ochroleuca Russula paludosa Russula pectinata Russula rosea Russula sanguinea Russula sardonia Russula vesca Russula virescens Russula xerampelina Sarcodon imbricatus Scleroderma aurantiacum Scutiger ovinus Sparassis crispa Strobilomyces floccopus Suillus bovinus Suillus cavipes Suillus granulatus Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma imbricatum Tricholoma populinum Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma robustum Tricholoma saponaceum Tricholoma terreum Tricholomopsis rutilans Tuber aestivum

[edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible]

Tylopilus felleus Volvariella bombycina Xerocomus badius Xerocomus chrysenteron Xerocomus parasiticus URUGUAYDeschamps, 2002 Gymnopilus spectabilis Lactarius deliciosus Laetiporus sulphureus Rhizopogon luteolus Rhizopogon roseolus Suillus granulatus Tricholoma sulphureus

[edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] [edible] food food food food food food food

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA1. Birks, 1991; 2. Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977; 3. Singer, 1953; 4. www.mykoweb.com Agaricus arvensis Agaricus augustus Agaricus benesii Agaricus bernardii Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus campestris Agaricus cupreobrunneus Agaricus fuscofibrillosus Agaricus fuscovelatus Agaricus lilaceps Agaricus pattersonae Agaricus perobscurus Agaricus silvicola Agaricus subrutilescens Aleuria aurantia Amanita calyptrata Amanita constricta Amanita pachycolea Amanita vaginata Amanita velosa Armillaria mellea Armillaria ponderosa Battarrea phalloides edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) medicinal (1)

Boletus aereus Boletus appendiculatus Boletus edulis Boletus truncatus Boletus zelleri Bovista pila Bovista plumbea Calvatia craniiformis Calvatia cyathiformis Calvatia utriformis Camarophyllus pratensis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus subalbidus Cantharellus tubiformis Chroogomphus vinicolor Clitopilus prunulus Coprinus comatus Craterellus cornucopioides Entoloma bloxamii

edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) medicinal (1) medicinal (1) medicinal (1) medicinal (1) medicinal (1) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4)

Entoloma madidum Flammulina velutipes Floccularia albolanaripes Geastrum Gomphus clavatus Helvella lacunosa Hericium abietis Hericium erinaceus Hericium ramosum Hydnum repandum Hydnum umbilicatum Hypsizygus tessulatus Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius rubidus Lactarius rubrilacteus

edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) medicinal (1) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) food (3) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4)

Laetiporus sulphureus Leccinum manzanitae Leccinum scabrum Lepista nuda Leucoagaricus leucothites Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Macrolepiota rhacodes Marasmius oreades Morchella deliciosa Morganella subincarnata Pleurotus ostreatus Pluteus cervinus Sarcodon imbricatus Sparassis crispa Suillus brevipes Suillus pungens Suillus tomentosus Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma magnivelare T. pessundatum var. populinum Tulostoma brumale Volvariella speciosa Xerocomus chrysenteron VIET NAMBurkhill, 1935 Amanitina manginiana

edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4); medicinal (1) medicinal (1) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) medicinal (1) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (4) edible (2) medicinal (1) edible (4) edible (4) food

YUGOSLAVIA (NOW SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO)1. Richardson, 1988; 2. Zaklina, 1998 Boletus Cantharellus cibarius Craterellus cornucopioides Evernia prunastri food (2) food (2) food (2) other perfume (1)

ZAMBIA1. Pegler and Piearce, 1980; 2. Piearce, 1981; 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Afroboletus costatisporus Amanita flammeola Amanita zambiana Cantharellus cibarius edible (2) food (1) food (1) food (1)

Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus longisporus Cantharellus miniatescens Cantharellus pseudocibarius Lactarius gymnocarpus Lactarius kabansus Lactarius piperatus Lentinus cladopus Macrolepiota procera Polyporus moluccensis Schizophyllum commune Suillus granulatus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces medius Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces schimperi Termitomyces titanicus Vanderbylia ungulata ZIMBABWEBoa et al., 2000 Amanita aurea Amanita loosii Amanita zambiana Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus miniatescens Cantharellus symoensii Lactarius kabansus Lycoperdon Russula cellulata Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces schimperi

food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) edible (3) food (1) edible (4) food (1) edible (2) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) food (1) medicinal (4) food food food food food food food food food food food food

A GLOBAL LIST OF WILD FUNGI USED AS FOOD, SAID TO BE EDIBLE OR WITH MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
These records are taken from more than 140 sources, including papers, books, websites and other contacts. Full details are held in a database established by the author. The species names are as they appear in the original publication with the exception of obvious spelling mistakes or where the preferred name has changed (Table 5). For mode of nutrition (saprobic, mycorrhizal etc.) see Chang and Mao (1995); Wang, Buchanan and Hall (2002 ) lists edible fungi that are mycorrhizal. The mycological literature does not always make it clear whether an edible fungus is eaten. There must be a clear report to warrant the description of food under the column labelled use. More species are listed at www.wildusefulfungi.org. (m) medicinal properties BINOMIAL Afroboletus costatispora Afroboletus luteolus Agaricus abruptibulbus Agaricus amboensis Agaricus arvensis Agaricus augustus Agaricus benesii Agaricus bernardii Agaricus bingensis Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bisporus var. albidus Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus blazei Agaricus campestris Agaricus comtulus Agaricus croceolutescens Agaricus cupreobrunneus Agaricus endoxanthus Agaricus erythrotrichus Agaricus essettei Agaricus fuscofibrillosus USE edible food edible edible food (m) food edible edible edible food (m) edible edible food edible (m) food (m) food edible edible edible edible food food

Agaricus fuscovelatus Agaricus gennadii Agaricus goossensiae Agaricus impudicus Agaricus lilaceps Agaricus macrosporus Agaricus micromegethus Agaricus nivescens Agaricus pattersonae Agaricus perobscurus Agaricus placomyces BINOMIAL Agaricus rodmani Agaricus rubellus Agaricus silvaticus Agaricus silvicola Agaricus squamuliferus var. caroli Agaricus subedulis Agaricus subperonatus Agaricus subrufescens Agaricus subrutilescens Agrocybe aegerita Agrocybe broadwayi Agrocybe cylindracea Agrocybe farinacea Agrocybe paludosa Agrocybe parasitica Agrocybe pediades Agrocybe salicacicola Agrocybe vervacti Albatrellus confluens Albatrellus ovinus Aleuria aurantia Amanita alliodora Amanita aurea Amanita bingensis

edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible USE edible edible food food food edible food food food food food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible (m) food edible medicinal food edible

Amanita caesarea Amanita caesarea f. sp. americana Amanita caesareoides Amanita calopus Amanita calyptrata Amanita calyptratoides Amanita calyptroderma Amanita ceciliae Amanita chepangiana BINOMIAL Amanita constricta Amanita crocea Amanita flammeola Amanita flavoconia Amanita flavorubescens Amanita fulva Amanita gemmata Amanita goosensiae Amanita hemibapha Amanita hovae Amanita inaurata Amanita loosii Amanita muscaria Amanita pachycolea Amanita perphaea Amanita rhodophylla Amanita robusta Amanita rubescens Amanita tanzanica Amanita tuza Amanita umbonata Amanita vaginata Amanita velosa Amanita virgineoides Amanita zambiana Amanitina manginiana Amanitopsis pudica

food food edible edible edible edible food food edible USE edible food food food edible food edible edible food edible food food medicinal edible food edible edible food edible food food food edible edible food food edible

Amauroderma niger Amauroderma rude Arachnion album Armillaria distans Armillaria luteovirens Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae Armillaria ponderosa Armillaria tabescens Aspropaxillus lepistoides Astraeus hygrometricus Aureobasidium pullulans var. pullulans Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia delicata Auricularia fuscosuccinea Auricularia mesenterica Auricularia polytricha Auricularia tenuis Bankera fuligineoalba Battarea phalloides Battarrea stevenii Bjerkandera fumosa Boletellus ananas Boletellus betula Boletellus emodensis Boletellus russellii Boletinus asiaticus Boletinus lakei Boletinus pinetorum Boletopis leucomelaena Boletus aereus Boletus aestivalis BINOMIAL Boletus appendiculatus Boletus atkinsonii

medicinal medicinal food edible food food (m) food edible food edible edible (m) medicinal food (m) food edible edible (m) edible edible edible medicinal medicinal medicinal food food edible food edible edible edible edible edible food USE edible edible

Boletus barrowsii Boletus bicoloroides Boletus calopus Boletus citrifragrans Boletus edulis Boletus emodensis Boletus erythropus Boletus erythropus var. novoguineensis Boletus felleus Boletus frostii Boletus griseus Boletus loyo Boletus luridiformis Boletus luridus Boletus michoacanus Boletus nigroviolaceus Boletus pinicola Boletus pinophilus Boletus regius Boletus reticulatus Boletus separans Boletus speciosus Boletus truncatus Boletus variipes Boletus violaceofuscus Boletus vitellinus Boletus zelleri Bondarzewia berkeleyii Bondarzewia montana Bovista apedicellata Bovista gigantea Bovista pila Bovista plumbea Bovista plumbea var. ovalispora Bovista pusilla Bovistella sinensis

edible food edible edible food (m) edible food edible edible food edible food edible edible food edible food food edible food edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible medicinal edible medicinal edible (m) food medicinal medicinal

Buchwaldoboletus spectabilis Calocera cornea Calocera viscosa Calocybe gambosa Calocybe indica Calocybe leucocephala Calvatia bovista Calvatia caelata Calvatia craniiformis Calvatia cyathiformis Calvatia excipuliformis Calvatia lilacina Calvatia purpurea Calvatia utriformis Camarophyllus niveus Camarophyllus pratensis Camarophyllus subpratensis Camarophyllus virgineus Cantharellula umbonata BINOMIAL Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus cibarius var. defibulatus Cantharellus cibarius var. latifolius Cantharellus cinereus Cantharellus cinnabarinus Cantharellus congolensis Cantharellus cyanescens Cantharellus cyanoxanthus Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus eucalyptorum Cantharellus floccosus Cantharellus floridulus Cantharellus formosus Cantharellus ignicolor

edible edible edible food (m) edible edible medicinal edible (m) medicinal food edible (m) edible edible edible (m) edible edible edible edible edible USE food (m) edible edible edible edible food edible edible food food edible food edible food

Cantharellus incarnatus Cantharellus infundibuliformis Cantharellus isabellinus Cantharellus longisporus Cantharellus luteocomus Cantharellus luteopunctatus Cantharellus miniatescens Cantharellus minor Cantharellus odoratus Cantharellus platyphyllus Cantharellus pseudocibarius Cantharellus pseudofriesii Cantharellus ruber Cantharellus rufopunctatus Cantharellus rufopunctatus var. ochraceus Cantharellus splendens Cantharellus subalbidus Cantharellus subcibarius Cantharellus symoensii Cantharellus tenuis Cantharellus tubiformis Catathelasma imperiale Catathelasma ventricosum Cerrena unicolor Cetraria islandica Chalciporus piperatus Chlorophyllum madagacariense Chlorophyllum molybdites Choiromyces aboriginum Choiromyces meandriformis Chroogomphus jamaicensis Chroogomphus rutilus Chroogomphus vinicolor Cladina stellaris Cladonia spp. Clavaria albiramea Clavaria aurea

edible edible edible food edible edible food food food edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible food edible food medicinal medicinal edible edible edible food edible food food food food medicinal edible edible

Clavaria coralloides Clavaria purpurea Clavaria vermicularis Clavariadelphus cokeri Clavariadelphus pistillaris Clavariadelphus sachalinensis Clavariadelphus truncatus BINOMIAL Clavariadelphus unicolor Claviceps purpurea Clavicorona pyxidata Clavulina amethystina Clavulina cinerea Clavulina cristata Clavulina rugosa Clavulinopsis fusiformis Clavulinopsis helvola Clavulinopsis miyabeana Climacocystis borealis Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe geotropa Clitocybe gibba Clitocybe hypocalamus Clitocybe infundibuliformis Clitocybe nebularis Clitocybe odora Clitocybe squamulosa Clitocybe suaveolens Clitopilus abortivus Clitopilus prunulus Collybia acervata Collybia anombe Collybia attenuata Collybia aurea Collybia butyracea Collybia confluens Collybia contorta

food edible food food food edible food USE food medicinal food edible food food edible edible edible edible edible food edible food food edible food edible edible food medicinal food edible edible edible edible food food edible

Collybia distorta Collybia dryophila Collybia familia Collybia oronga Collybia piperata Collybia platyphylla Collybia polyphylla Collybia pseudocalopus Collybia radicata Collybia subpruinosa Collybia tamatavae Coltricia cinnamomea Cookeina sulcipes Cookeina tricholoma Coprinus acuminatus Coprinus africanus Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus castaneus Coprinus cinereus Coprinus comatus Coprinus disseminatus Coprinus micaceus Coprinus sterquilinus Corditubera bovonei Cordyceps militaris Cordyceps ophioglossoides Cordyceps sinensis Coriolus consors Cortinarius alboviolaceus Cortinarius armeniacus BINOMIAL Cortinarius armillatus Cortinarius claricolor var. turmalis Cortinarius collinitus Cortinarius elatior

edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible food edible medicinal edible edible edible food edible (m) edible edible edible edible food edible edible medicinal medicinal edible (m) medicinal edible edible USE edible edible edible edible

Cortinarius glaucopus Cortinarius largus Cortinarius orichalceus Cortinarius praestans Cortinarius prasinus Cortinarius pseudosalor Cortinarius purpurascens Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus Cortinarius tenuipes Cortinarius variecolor Cotylidia aurantiaca Craterellus aureus Craterellus cornucopioides C. cornucopioides var. cornucopioides C. cornucopioides var. parvisporus Craterellus fallax Crepidotus applanatus Crepidotus mollis Cronartium conigenum Cryptoderma citrinum Cryptoporus volvatus Cyathus limbatus Cyathus stercoreus Cymatoderma dendriticum C. elegans subsp. infundibuliforme Cystoderma amianthinum Cystoderma terreii Cyttaria darwinii Cyttaria espinosae Cyttaria gunnii Cyttaria hariotii Cyttaria hookeri Dacrymyces palmatus Dacryopinax spathularia Daedaleopsis confragosa var. tricolor

food edible edible food edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible food (m) edible edible food edible edible edible medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible edible edible edible food food food food edible edible edible medicinal

Daldinia concentrica Dictyophora echinovolvata Dictyophora indusiata f. lutea Elaphomyces granulatus Endophyllus yunnanensis Engleromyces goetzii Enteridium lycoperdon Entoloma abortivum Entoloma aprilis Entoloma argyropus Entoloma bloxami Entoloma clypeatum Entoloma crassipes Entoloma madidum Entoloma microcarpum Evernia mesomorpha Favolus alveolarus Favolus brasiliensis BINOMIAL Favolus brunneolus Favolus striatulus Favolus tesselatus Fibroporia vaillantii Fistulina hepatica Flammulina velutipes Floccularia albolanaripes Fomes fomentarius Fomes melanoporus Fomitopsis pinicola Fomitopsis ulmaria Fuligo septica Galiella javanica Ganoderma applanatum Ganoderma capense Ganoderma curtisii Ganoderma lobatum Ganoderma lucidum

medicinal edible edible medicinal edible medicinal edible food edible edible edible food edible edible edible medicinal edible food USE food food food medicinal food (m) food (m) edible medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible (m)

Ganoderma sinense Ganoderma tenue Ganoderma tropicum Ganoderma tsugae Gastrodia elata Gautieria mexicana Geastrum fimbriatum Geastrum hygrometricum Geastrum saccatum Geastrum triplex Geopora sp. Gloeoporus conchoides Gloeostereum incarnatum Gomphidius glutinosus Gomphidius maculatus Gomphidius purpurascens Gomphus clavatus Gomphus floccosus Gomphus kauffmanii Goossensia cibarioides Grifola frondosa Grifola gargal Gymnopilus earlei Gymnopilus hispidellus Gyrodon intermedius Gyrodon lividus Gyrodon merulioides Gyromitra ambigua Gyromitra antartica Gyromitra esculenta Gyromitra infula Gyromitra ussuriensis Gyroporus castaneus Hebeloma fastibile Hebeloma mesophaeum Helvella acetabulum Helvella crispa

medicinal medicinal medicinal edible (m) edible edible edible medicinal medicinal food (m) edible food edible edible edible edible food food food edible edible (m) food food food food edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible food food food food

Helvella elastica Helvella infula Helvella lacunosa Hericium abietis BINOMIAL Hericium caput-ursi Hericium clathroides Hericium coralloides Hericium erinaceus Hericium flagellum Hericium laciniatum Hericium ramosum Heterobasidion annosum Hexagonia apiaria Hirschioporus abietinus Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceus Hohenbuehelia petaloides Hydnopolyporus fimbriatus Hydnopolyporus palmatus Hydnotrya tulasnei Hydnum repandum Hydnum umbilicatum Hygrocybe cantharellus Hygrocybe coccinea Hygrocybe conica Hygrocybe laeta Hygrocybe nigrescens Hygrocybe obrussea Hygrocybe psittacina Hygrocybe punicea Hygrocybe unguinosa Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Hygrophoropsis mangenotii Hygrophorus agathosmus Hygrophorus arbustivus Hygrophorus camarophyllus Hygrophorus chrysodon

food food food food USE edible edible edible food (m) food edible edible medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible edible food edible food edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible food

Hygrophorus eburneus Hygrophorus erubescens Hygrophorus limacinus Hygrophorus lucorum Hygrophorus niveus Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus Hygrophorus penarius Hygrophorus pudorinus Hygrophorus purpurascens Hygrophorus russula Hypholoma sublateritium Hypholoma wambensis Hypomyces lactifluorum Hypomyces macrosporus Hypsizygus marmoreus Hypsizygus tessulatus Ileodictyon cibarium Inocybe sp. Inonotus hispidus Inonotus obliquus Ischnoderma resinosum Kobayasia nipponica Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laccaria amethystea Laccaria amethysteooccidentalis Laccaria amethystina Laccaria bicolor BINOMIAL Laccaria edulis Laccaria farinacea Laccaria laccata Laccaria proxima Laccaria scrobiculatus Laccocephalum mylittae Lacrymaria velutina Lactarius akahatsu Lactarius angustus

edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible food food food edible food edible food food edible edible medicinal medicinal medicinal edible edible food edible food food USE edible edible food food edible edible edible food edible

Lactarius annulatoangustifolius food Lactarius camphoratus Lactarius carbonicola Lactarius chrysorrheus Lactarius congolensis Lactarius controversus Lactarius corruguis Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius deterrimus Lactarius denigricans Lactarius densifolius Lactarius edulis Lactarius flavidulus Lactarius gymnocarpoides Lactarius gymnocarpus Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius heimii Lactarius indigo Lactarius insulsus Lactarius inversus Lactarius japonicus Lactarius kabansus Lactarius laevigatus Lactarius laeticolor Lactarius latifolius Lactarius luteopus Lactarius medusae Lactarius mitissimus Lactarius necator Lactarius pelliculatus Lactarius phlebophyllus Lactarius piperatus Lactarius princeps Lactarius pseudovolemus Lactarius pubescens Lactarius pyrogalus Lactarius quietus edible edible edible edible edible food food edible food food edible edible food food food food food edible edible edible food food edible edible food food edible edible edible food food edible edible edible edible edible

Lactarius pelliculatus f. pallidus edible

Lactarius resimus Lactarius rubidus Lactarius rubrilacteus Lactarius rubroviolascens Lactarius rufus Lactarius salmonicolor Lactarius sanguifluus Lactarius scrobiculatus Lactarius sesemotani Lactarius subdulcis Lactarius subindigo Lactarius tanzanicus BINOMIAL Lactarius torminosus Lactarius trivialis Lactarius vellereus Lactarius volemoides Lactarius volemus Lactarius xerampelinus Lactarius yazooensis Lactocollybia aequatorialis Laetiporus sulphureus Lampteromyces japonicus Langermannia gigantea Lanopila nipponica Lariciformes officianalis Lasiosphaera fenzlii Leccinum aurantiacum Leccinum chromapes Leccinum extremiorientale Leccinum griseum Leccinum manzanitae Leccinum oxydabile Leccinum rugosiceps Leccinum scabrum Leccinum testaceoscabrum

edible edible food edible edible food edible food edible edible food food USE edible edible edible food food (m) food food food food medicinal edible (m) edible edible (m) medicinal food edible edible food edible edible edible food edible

Leccinum versipelle Lentinellus cochleatus Lentinula boryana Lentinula edodes Lentinula lateritia Lentinus araucariae Lentinus brunneofloccosus Lentinus critinus Lentinus cladopus Lentinus conchatus Lentinus crinitus Lentinus glabratus Lentinus javanicus Lentinus praerigidus Lentinus prolifer Lentinus sajor-caju Lentinus squarrulosus Lentinus strigosus Lentinus subnudus Lentinus tigrinus Lentinus tuber-regium Lentinus velutinus Lenzites betulina Lenzites elegans Lepiota aspera Lepiota clypeolaria Lepiota discipes Lepiota grassei Lepiota henningsii Lepiota madirokelensis Lepiota mastoidea Lepiota ventriosospora Lepista caespitosa Lepista caffrorum Lepista glaucocana Lepista irina Lepista luscina

edible edible food food (m) edible edible edible edible edible edible food food edible food edible edible food food edible edible food (m) food (m) medicinal edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible

BINOMIAL Lepista nuda Lepista personata Lepista sordida Leucoagaricus bisporus Leucoagaricus hortensis Leucoagaricus leucothites Leucoagaricus rhodecephalus Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps Leucocoprinus discoideus Leucocoprinus gandour Leucocoprinus imerinensis Leucocoprinus nanianae Leucocoprinus tanetensis Leucocortinarius bulbiger Leucopaxillus giganteus Lignosus sacer Limacella glioderma Limacella illinita Lobaria pulmonaria Lobaria sp. Lycoperdon asperum Lycoperdon candidum Lycoperdon endotephrum Lycoperdon gemmatum Lycoperdon marginatum Lycoperdon oblongisporum Lycoperdon peckii Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pusilum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lycoperdon rimulatum Lycoperdon spadiceum Lycoperdon umbrinum Lycoperdon umbrinum var. floccosum Lyophyllum aggregatum Lyophyllum connatum

USE food (m) food edible edible food food edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible medicinal edible edible medicinal food medicinal edible edible edible edible edible food food (m) edible (m) food (m) edible medicinal food edible edible edible

Lyophyllum decastes Lyophyllum fumosum Lyophyllum ovisporum Lyophyllum shimeji Lyophyllum sykosporum Lyophyllum ulmarium Lysurus mokusin Macrocybe gigantea Macrocybe lobayensis Macrocybe spectabilis Macrolepiota africana Macrolepiota dolichaula Macrolepiota excoriata Macrolepiota excoriata var. rubescens Macrolepiota gracilenta Macrolepiota gracilenta var. goossensiae Macrolepiota procera Macrolepiota prominens Macrolepiota puellaris Macrolepiota rhacodes Macrolepiota zeyheri BINOMIAL Macropodia macropus Marasmius albogriseus Marasmius androsaceus Marasmius arborescens Marasmius buzungolo Marasmius caryophylleus Marasmius crinis-equi Marasmius grandisetulosus Marasmius heinemannianus Marasmius hungo Marasmius maximus Marasmius oreades Marasmius personatus

food (m) edible food edible edible edible medicinal edible food food edible edible food edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible USE food edible medicinal edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible

Macrolepiota procera var. vezo edible

Marasmius piperodora Marasmius purpureostriatus Marasmius scorodonius Melanoleuca alboflavida Melanoleuca brevipes Melanoleuca evenosa Melanoleuca grammopodia Melanoleuca melaleuca Meripilus giganteus Merulius incarnatus Microporus affinis Microporus xanthopus Micropsalliota brunneosperma Morchella angusticeps Morchella conica Morchella conica var. rigida Morchella costata Morchella crassipes Morchella deliciosa Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Morchella esculenta var. rotunda Morchella esculenta var. umbrina Morchella esculenta var. vulgaris Morchella intermedia Morganella subincarnata Mycena aschi Mycena bipindiensis Mycena flavescens Mycena pura Mycenastrum corium Mycoleptodonoides aitchisonii Myriosclerotinia caricisampullacea Neoclitocybe bissiseda Neolentinus adhaerens

edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food food food edible medicinal food edible food edible edible food edible (m) food food (m) edible edible edible edible medicinal edible edible edible food edible edible medicinal food edible

Neolentinus lepideus Neolentinus ponderosus Nothopanus hygrophanus Omphalia lapidescens Onnia tomentosa Ophiglossum engelmannii Ossicaulis lignatilis Otidea onotica Oudemansiella brunneomarginata Oudemansiella canarii Oudemansiella mucida BINOMIAL Pachyma hoelen Paecilomyces sinensis Panellus serotinus Panellus stipticus Panus conchatus Panus crinitus Panus flavus Parmelia austrosinensis Parmelia sulcata Paxillus atrotomentosus Paxillus involutus Paxina acetabulum Peltigera canina Perenniporia mundula Peziza badia Peziza vesiculosa Phaeangium lefebvrei Phaeolepiota aurea Phaeolus schweinitzii Phaeomarasmius affinis Phallus fragrans Phallus impudicus

edible food edible medicinal medicinal medicinal edible edible edible food edible USE edible medicinal edible medicinal edible edible medicinal food medicinal edible edible food medicinal medicinal food edible (m) edible edible medicinal edible edible edible (m)

Oudemansiella venoslamellata edible

Phallus indusiatus Phallus tenuis Phellinus rimosus Phellinus baumii Phellinus conchatus Phellinus igniarius Phellinus nigricans Phellorinia inquinans Phlebopus colossus Phlebopus sudanicus Pholiota adiposa Pholiota aurivella Pholiota austrospumosa Pholiota bicolor Pholiota edulis Pholiota highlandensis Pholiota lenta Pholiota lubrica Pholiota nameko Pholiota squarrosa Phylloporus rhodaxanthus Picoa carthusiana Piptoporus betulinus Pisolithus tinctorius Pleurocybella porrigens Pleurotus abalonus Pleurotus circinatus Pleurotus citrinopileatus Pleurotus concavus Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus cystidiosus Pleurotus djamor Pleurotus dryinus Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae Pleurotus ferulae BINOMIAL

medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal medicinal edible food edible edible edible edible food edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible medicinal medicinal edible edible edible edible food food edible food food food edible edible USE

Pleurotus flexilis Pleurotus floridanus Pleurotus fossulatus Pleurotus levis Pleurotus nepalensis Pleurotus ostreatoroseus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus ostreatus var. magnificus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus rhodophyllus Pleurotus roseopileatus Pleurotus salignus Pleurotus sapidus Pleurotus smithii Pleurotus spodoleucus Pleurotus squarrosulus Plicaria badia Pluteus aurantiorugosus Pluteus cervinus Pluteus coccineus Pluteus leoninus Pluteus pellitus Pluteus subcervinus Pluteus tricuspidatus Podabrella microcarpa Podaxis pistillaris Podoscypha nitidula Pogonomyces hydnoides Polyozellus multiplex Polyporus alveolaris Polyporus aquosus Polyporus arcularius Polyporus badius Polyporus blanchetianus Polyporus brasiliensis Polyporus elegans

edible edible edible food edible edible food (m) edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible food food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible (m) edible food edible medicinal food food edible edible edible medicinal

Pluteus cervinus var. ealaensis edible

Polyporus grammocephalus Polyporus indigenus Polyporus moluccensis Polyporus mylittae Polyporus rugulosus Polyporus sanguineus Polyporus sapurema Polyporus squamosus Polyporus stipitarius Polyporus tenuiculus Polyporus tinosus Polyporus tricholoma Polyporus tubaeformis Polyporus tuberaster Polyporus umbellatus Polystictus unicolor Porphyrellus atrobrunneus Porphyrellus pseudoscaber Psathyrella atroumbonata Psathyrella candolleana Psathyrella coprinoceps Psathryella hymenocephala BINOMIAL Psathyrella pululiformis Psathyrella rugocephla Psathyrella spadicea Pseudocraterellus laeticolor Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Psiloboletinus lariceti Psilocybe spp. Psilocybe zapotecorum Ptychoverpa bohemica Pulveroboletus aberrans Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Pycnoporus coccineus Pycnoporus sanguineus

food food edible food (m) medicinal edible food edible food edible medicinal food medicinal medicinal edible (m) medicinal edible edible food food food food USE edible edible edible edible edible edible medicinal edible food edible edible (m) medicinal food (m)

Ramalina ecklonii Ramaria apiculata Ramaria araiospora Ramaria aurea Ramaria bonii Ramaria botrytis Ramaria botrytoides Ramaria cystidiophora Ramaria fistulosa Ramaria flava Ramaria flavobrunnescens

edible edible food food edible food edible edible edible food food

Ramaria flavobrunnescens var. food aurea Ramaria formosa Ramaria fuscobrunnea Ramaria obtusissima Ramaria ochracea Ramaria pulcherrima Ramaria rosella Ramaria rubiginosa Ramaria rubripermanens Ramaria sanguinea Ramaria stricta Ramaria subaurantiaca Ramaria subbotrytis Rhizopogon luteolus Rhizopogon piceus Rhizopogon roseolus Rhizopogon rubescens Rhodophyllus aprilis Rhodophyllus clypeatus Rhodophyllus crassipes Rigidoporus sanguinolentus Rigidoporus ulmarius Rozites caperatus Rubinoboletus luteopurpureus Russula aciculocystis Russula adusta Russula aeruginea edible food food edible edible edible food food food edible food food edible edible edible edible edible food edible medicinal medicinal food edible edible edible food

Russula afronigricans Russula albonigra Russula alutacea Russula amaendum Russula atropurpurea Russula atrovirens Russula aurata Russula brevipes BINOMIAL Russula cellulata Russula chamaeleontina Russula chloroides Russula ciliata Russula compressa Russula congoana Russula consobrina Russula cyanoxantha Russula cyclosperma Russula delica Russula densifolia Russula diffusa var. diffusa Russula eburneoareolata Russula emetica Russula erythropus Russula flava Russula foetens Russula fragilis Russula heimii Russula heterophylla Russula hiemisilvae Russula lepida Russula liberiensis Russula lutea Russula macropoda Russula madegassensis Russula mariae Russula mexicana

edible edible food edible edible edible edible food USE food edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible food food edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible food edible food edible food edible edible food edible

Russula minutula Russula nigricans Russula nitida Russula ochroleuca Russula olivacea Russula olivascens Russula ornaticeps Russula pectinatoides Russula phaeocephala Russula pseudoamaendum Russula pseudostriatoviridis Russula punctata Russula queletii Russula romagnesiana Russula rosacea Russula rosea Russula roseoalba Russula roseostriata Russula rubra Russula rubroalba Russula sanguinea Russula sardonia Russula schizoderma Russula sese Russula sesenagula Russula striatoviridis Russula sublaevis Russula tanzaniae Russula vesca Russula violeipes Russula virescens BINOMIAL Russula viscida Russula xerampelina Sarcodon aspratus Sarcodon imbricatus Sarcodon lobatus

edible food edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food food (m) USE edible food food food edible

Sarcoscypha coccinea Sarcosphaera eximia Schizophyllum commune Schizophyllum fasciatum Scleroderma bovonei Scleroderma citrinum Scleroderma flavidum Scleroderma radicans Scleroderma texense Scleroderma verrucosum Sclerotium glucanicum Scutiger ovinus Secotium himalaicum Secotium sp. Shiraia bambusicola Sparassis crispa Sphaerothallia esculenta Sporisorium cruentum Stereopsis hiscens Stereum hirsutum Stereum membranaceum Strobilomyces confusus Strobilomyces coturnix Strobilomyces floccopus Strobilomyces velutipes Stropharia coronilla Stropharia rugosoannulata Suillus abietinus Suillus acidus Suillus americanus Suillus bovinus Suillus brevipes Suillus cavipes Suillus granulatus Suillus grevillei Suillus hirtellus

food food food (m) edible edible edible medicinal edible edible edible (m) medicinal edible edible medicinal medicinal food food food edible medicinal medicinal edible edible food edible food edible edible edible food edible food food food edible (m) food

Schizophyllum brevilamellatum edible

Suillus lactifluus Suillus luteus Suillus placidus Suillus plorans Suillus pseudobrevipes Suillus pungens Suillus subluteus Suillus tomentosus Suillus variegatus Suillus viscidus Tephrocybe atrata Terfezia arenaria Terfezia boudieri Terfezia claveryi Terfezia leonis Terfezia pfeilii Termitomyces albuminosus BINOMIAL Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces cylindricus Termitomyces entolomoides Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces fuliginosus Termitomyces globulus Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces mammiformis Termitomyces medius Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces radicatus Termitomyces robustus Termitomyces schimperi Termitomyces singidensis Termitomyces striatus Termitomyces striatus var.aurantiacus Termitomyces titanicus

edible food (m) edible edible food edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible edible food food USE food food edible edible food edible food edible food food food food (m) edible food food food edible edible food

Termitomyces umkowaanii Thelephora ganbajum Thelephora paraguayensis Tirmania africana Tirmania nivea Tirmania pinoyi Trametes albida Trametes cubensis Trametes hirsuta Trametes ochracea Trametes orientalis Trametes pubescens Trametes robiniophila Trametes sanguinea Trametes suaveolens Trametes versicolor Tremella aurantia Tremella concrescens Tremella foliacea Tremella fuciformis Tremella lutescens Tremella mesenterica Tremella reticulata Tremellodendron schweinitzii Tremiscus helvelloides Trichaptum trichomallum Tricholoma atrosquamosum Tricholoma bakamatsutake Tricholoma caligatum Tricholoma equestre Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma fulvum Tricholoma imbricatum Tricholoma japonicum Tricholoma magnivelare

edible food medicinal edible edible edible medicinal food medicinal food medicinal medicinal edible medicinal medicinal edible (m) edible (m) edible edible edible (m) edible edible (m) food edible edible food edible edible food food food edible edible edible food

Tricholoma matsutake Tricholoma mauritianum Tricholoma mongolicum Tricholoma muscarium Tricholoma orirubens BINOMIAL Tricholoma pessundatum Tricholoma pessundatum var. populinum Tricholoma populinum Tricholoma portentosum Tricholoma quercicola Tricholoma saponaceum Tricholoma scabrum Tricholoma sejunctum Tricholoma spectabilis Tricholoma sulphureum Tricholoma terreum Tricholoma ustaloides Tricholoma vaccinum Tricholomopsis decora Tricholomopsis rutilans Trogia infundibuliformis Tuber aestivum Tuber borchii Tuber brumale Tuber californicum Tuber gibbosum Tuber hiemalbum Tuber indicum Tuber magnatum Tuber melanosporum Tuber mesentericum Tuber moschatum Tuber oligospermum Tuber rufum Tuber sinosum Tubosaeta brunneosetosa

food (m) edible edible edible edible USE edible edible food edible edible edible edible food edible food edible edible edible edible edible edible food food edible edible edible edible edible food food edible edible edible edible food edible

Tulostoma brumale Tylopilus ballouii Tylopilus felleus Tyromyces sulphureus Umbilicaria esculenta Umbilicaria muehlenbergii Usnea hirta Ustilago esculenta Ustilago maydis Vanderbylia ungulata Vascellum curtisii Vascellum gudenii Vascellum intermedium Vascellum pratense Verpa conica Volvariella bakeri Volvariella bombycina Volvariella diplasia Volvariella esculenta Volvariella parvispora Volvariella speciosa Volvariella terastria Volvariella volvacea Wolfiporia extensa Wynnella silvicola Xanthoconium separans Xerocomus badius Xerocomus chrysenteron BINOMIAL Xerocomus pallidosporus Xerocomus rubellus Xerocomus soyeri Xerocomus spadiceus Xerocomus subtomentosus Xerocomus versicolor Xeromphalina campanella

medicinal edible food medicinal food (m) food medicinal food (m) food (m) medicinal edible edible food edible edible edible edible edible food edible edible edible food (m) edible (m) edible edible food edible USE edible edible edible edible food edible edible (m)

Xerula radicata Xylaria papyrigera Xylaria polymorpha Xylosma flexuosum

medicinal medicinal medicinal edible

ANNEX 4 EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL FUNGI THAT CAN BE CULTIVATED

This list of 92 names has been prepared from Stamets (2000) and Chang and Mao (1995). The = sign denotes the name as original published and which has since been changed. This list contains only saprobic species and excludes ectomycorrhizal species such as truffles (Tuber spp.) that are managed in natural habitats. BINOMIAL Agaricus arvensis Agaricus augustus Agaricus bisporus Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus blazei Agaricus brunnescens Agaricus campestris Agaricus subrufescens Agrocybe aegerita BINOMIAL Hericium coralloides Hericium erinaceum Hypholoma capnoides Hypholoma sublateritium Hypsizygus marmoreus Hypsizygus tessulatus Inonotus obliquus Kuehneromyces mutabilis Laetiporus sulphureus Laricifomes officinalis(= Fomitopsis officinalis) Lentinula edodes Lentinus strigosus (=Panus rudis) BINOMIAL Paneolus subalteatus Paneolus tropicalis Phallus impudicus Phellinus spp. Pholiota nameko Piptoporus betulinus Piptoporus indigenus Pleurocybella porrigens Pleurotus citrinopileatus Pleurotus cornucopiae Pleurotus cystidiosus Pleurotus djamour

Agrocybe cylindracea Agrocybe molesta Agrocybe praecox Albatrellusspp. Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula-judae Auricularia fuscosuccinea Auricularia polytricha Calvatia gigantea Coprinus comatus Daedalea quercina Dictyophora duplicata Flammulina velutipes Fomes fomentarius Ganoderma applanatum Ganoderma curtisii Ganoderma lucidum

Lentinus tigrinus Lentinus tuber-regium Lepista nuda Lepista sordida Lyophyllum fumosum Lyophyllum ulmarium (=Hypsizygus ulmarium) Macrocybe gigantea (=Tricholoma giganteum) Macrolepiota procera Marasmius oreades Morchella angusticeps

Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus euosmus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus rhodophyllus Pluteus cervinus Polyporus indigenus Polyporus saporema Polyporus umbellatus(= Dendropolyporus umbellatus) Psilocybe cyanescens

Morchella esculenta Neolentinus lepideus(=Lentinus lepidus) Oligoporus spp. Oudemansiella radicata Trametes cinnabarinum Oxyporus nobilissimus Trametes versicolor Panellus serotinus(=Hohenbuehelia serotina) Tremella fuciformis Volvariella bombacyina Volvariella volvacea V. volvacea var. gloiocephala Schizophyllum commune Sparassis crispa Stropharia rugusoannulata

Ganoderma oregonense Ganoderma sinense Ganoderma tenus Ganoderma tsugae Grifola frondosa

ANNEX 5 WILD EDIBLE FUNGI SOLD IN LOCAL MARKETS

The following examples are mostly from developing countries. It is a small selection of the many species that are sold around the world, particularly for China. Popular species such as Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius and Pleurotus ostreatus are sold in many countries and are not listed below. Species sold in Malawi or Mozambique markets are available separately (www.malawifungi.org). There are markets for edible fungi in the United Republic of Tanzania (Hrknen, 1995) and Burundi (Buyck, 1994b) but further information is needed on the species sold. Some market reports list only local names. * indicates species that are also cultivated; it is not always made clear what origin these have in some markets. ARMENIANanaguylan, 2002, personal communication Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvaticus Armillaria mellea Calocybe gambosa Cantharellus cibarius Lactarius deliciosus Lepista nuda Lepista personata Macrolepiota excoriata Macrolepiota procera Pleurotus eryngii

Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus BOLIVIA Boa, 2001, personal communication Leucoagaricus hortensis CHILE Minter, 2002, personal communication Cyttaria espinosae CHINA Chamberlain, 1996; Hrknen, 2000; Priest, 2002, personal communication; Winkler, 2002 Agaricus blazei* Auricularia auricula-judae* Boletus (in the broad sense) Boletus edulis Cordyceps sinensis* Dictyophora indusiata* Flammulina velutipes* Ganoderma lucidum* Hericium erinaceus* Hydnum repandum Lactarius akahatsu Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius subindico Lyophyllum decastes Pleurotus ostreatus * Ramaria stricta Russula spp. Tricholoma matsutake Tricholoma quercicola Umbilicaria esculenta GUATEMALAFlores, 2002, personal communication Hypomyces lactifluorum Ramaria araiospora Tremella reticulata Tricholoma flavovirens INDIAPurkayastha and Chandra, 1985 Coprinus acuminatus Tricholoma sulphureum INDONESIADucousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002 Scleroderma spp.

KUWAITAlsheikh and Trappe, 1983 Tirmania pinoyi LAO PEOPLES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICHosaka, 2002, personal communication Amanita hemibapha Panus rudis Ramaria sp. Russula spp. Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces sp. MADAGASCAR Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002 Cantharellus eucalyptorum MEXICOMontoya-Esquivel, 1998; Villarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989a; www.semarnat.gob.mx Agaricus campestris Agaricus silvaticus Amanita caesarea Amanita caesarea var. americana Amanita fulva Amanita rubescens Amanita tuza Amanita vaginata Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae Armillaria tabescens Boletus bicoloroides Boletus edulis Boletus frostii Boletus pinicola Boletus pinophilus Boletus reticulatus Boletus variipes Calvatia cyathiformis Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus odoratus Cantharellus tubaeformis Chroogomphus jamaicensis Chroogomphus rutilus

Chroogomphus vinicolor Clavariadelphus truncatus Clavicorona pyxidata Clavulina cinerea Clitocybe clavipes Clitocybe gibba Collybia dryophila Cortinarius glaucopus Craterellus cornucopioides Craterellus fallax Entoloma clypeatum Gomphus clavatus Gomphus floccosus Gomphus kauffmanii Gyromitra infula Hebeloma fastibile Hebeloma mesophaeum Helvella acetabula Helvella crispa Helvella elastica Helvella infula Helvella lacunosa Hygrocybe nigrescens Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Hygrophorus chrysodon Hygrophorus niveus Hygrophorus russula Hypomyces lactifluorum Laccaria amethystina Laccaria bicolor Laccaria laccata Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius indigo Lactarius salmonicolor Lactarius yazooensis Laetiporus sulphureus Leccinum aurantiacum Lentinula boryana

Lepista nuda Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriforme Lyophyllum decastes Lyophyllum ovisporum Marasmius oreades Morchella conica Morchella crassipes Morchella elata Morchella esculenta Paxina acetabulum Pholiota lenta Pluteus aurantiorugosus Pluteus cervinus Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flavobrunnescens Ramaria rubiginosa Ramaria rubripermanens Rhodophyllus abortivus (Entoloma abortivum?) Rozites caperatus Russula alutacea Russula brevipes Russula cyanoxantha Russula delica Russula mariae Russula olivacea Russula romagnesiana Russula xerampelina Sarcodon imbricatus Sarcosphaera eximia Sparassis crispa Stropharia coronilla Suillus americanus Suillus brevipes Suillus cavipes Suillus granulatus Suillus luteus

Suillus pseudobrevipes Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma magnivelare Tylopilus felleus Ustilago maydis NEPALAdhikari, 1999; Adhikari and Durrieu, 1996 Cantharellus cibarius Clavulina cinerea Clavulina cristata Craterellus cornucopioides Grifola frondosa Hericium erinaceus* Hericium flagellum* Hydnum repandum Laccaria amethystina Laccaria laccata Laetiporus sulphureus Meripilus giganteus Pluteus cervinus Polyporus arcularius Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flava Ramaria fuscobrunnea Ramaria obtusissima Termitomyces eurhizus SENEGALDucousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002 Gyrodon intermedius Phlebopus sudanicus TAIWAN PROVINCE OF CHINAKawagoe, 1924 Ustilago esculenta TANZANIA [UNITED REPUBLIC OF] Hrknen, Saarimki and Mwasumbi 1994a Lactarius kabansus Lactarius phlebophyllus Russula cellulata Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces singidensis THAILANDJones, Whalley and Hywel-Jones, 1994

Auricularia sp. Cantharellus minor Lentinula edodes* Lentinus praerigidus Russula aeruginea Russula lepida Russula sanguinea Russula violeipes Volvariella volvacea* TURKEYSabra and Walter, 2001 Boletus edulis Cantharellus cibarius Rhizopogon sp. Terfezia boudieri ZAMBIAPegler and Piearce, 1980 Amanita zambiana Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus densifolius Cantharellus longisporus Cantharellus miniatescens Cantharellus pseudocibarius Lactarius kabansus Schizophyllum commune Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces titanicus