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July 2004
Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Foreword
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
CONTENTS
TABLES AND FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. 7
TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................................................. 12
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 14
BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................. 15
SCOPE ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
AUSTRALIA’S CURRENT QUARANTINE POLICY FOR IMPORTS OF FRESH MANGO FRUIT .............................. 16
ARTHROPODS ............................................................................................................................................. 32
GROUP 1 – FRUIT FLIES.............................................................................................................................. 32
Introduction and spread potential ...................................................................................................... 36
Consequences...................................................................................................................................... 39
Unrestricted risk estimate ................................................................................................................... 40
GROUP 2A – MANGO PULP WEEVIL ............................................................................................................ 40
Introduction and spread potential ...................................................................................................... 41
Consequences...................................................................................................................................... 43
Unrestricted risk estimate ................................................................................................................... 44
GROUP 2B – MANGO SEED WEEVIL............................................................................................................ 44
Introduction and spread potential ...................................................................................................... 45
Consequences...................................................................................................................................... 47
Unrestricted risk estimate ................................................................................................................... 47
GROUP 3A – ARMOURED SCALES .............................................................................................................. 48
Introduction and spread potential ...................................................................................................... 51
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
IMPORT CONDITION 5. PEST FREE PLACES OF PRODUCTION OR PEST FREE PRODUCTION SITES FOR
APPENDIX 1: PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH MANGOES (MANGIFERA INDICA L.) FROM INDIA ......................... 132
APPENDIX 2: POTENTIAL FOR ENTRY, ESTABLISHMENT OR SPREAD AND CONSEQUENCES .................... 237
APPENDIX 3: PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH MANGO (MANGIFERA INDICA L.) FROM THE REPUBLIC OF THE
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
TABLES
TABLE 1 FRESH MANGO PRODUCTION (TONNES) BY STATE IN AUSTRALIA FROM 1990–2001 .................. 22
TABLE 2 MAJOR EXPORT MARKETS FOR AUSTRALIAN MANGOES (QUANTITY AND VALUE) ......................... 23
TABLE 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR MANGO VARIETIES GROWN IN INDIA ............................................... 24
TABLE 4 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES, STATES AND SEASONALITY OF INDIAN MANGOES ................................. 25
TABLE 5 MAJOR MANGO PRODUCTION STATES IN INDIA .............................................................................. 26
TABLE 6 QUARANTINE PESTS FOR MANGOES FROM INDIA ........................................................................... 30
TABLE 7 RESULTS OF THE RISK ASSESSMENTS ........................................................................................... 96
TABLE 8 QUARANTINE PESTS FOR FRESH MANGO FRUIT FROM INDIA ASSESSED TO HAVE UNRESTRICTED
RISK ESTIMATES ABOVE AUSTRALIA’S ALOP ................................................................................ 99
FIGURES
FIGURE 1 MAP OF INDIA ................................................................................................................................. 26
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Prior to 1996, India regularly exported fresh mango fruit to Australia with a mandatory on-
arrival fumigation treatment with ethylene dibromide (EDB) effective against certain
insect pests including fruit flies. Imports of mangoes from India were suspended in 1996 as
a result of the global phase-out in use of EDB on the basis of worker health and safety
concerns. Following the EDB phase-out, India was requested to propose equivalent
measures and provide appropriate efficacy data, which they subsequently provided.
Fresh mangoes are currently imported from Mexico and the Philippines (Guimaras Island)
based on existing quarantine policy developed by Biosecurity Australia. Biosecurity
Australia has considered the importation of fresh mango fruit from India under existing
policy for the importation of fresh mangoes from Mexico and the Philippines (Guimaras
Island).
This document presents a draft revised import policy for fresh mango fruit imports into
Australia from India.
Of the pests associated with fresh mango fruit in India, 32 pests (31 arthropods and one
pathogen) were determined to be quarantine pests for Australia.
Of these pests, 26 arthropods were assessed to have an unrestricted risk estimate above
Australia’s appropriate level of protection (ALOP) and risk management measures have
been proposed to mitigate the risk.
This draft revised import policy proposes that the risks associated with the importation of
fresh mango fruit from India can be reduced to a level acceptable to Australia, based on
Australia’s ALOP by applying a combination of risk management measures and
operational maintenance systems, specifically:
• Option of vapour heat treatment (VHT) or hot water treatment (HWT) for the
management of fruit fly species;
• Designated pest free places of production or production sites for the
management of Sternochetus frigidus (mango pulp weevil) and S. mangiferae
(mango seed weevil) (initially for the areas of Barabanki, Malihabad,
Saharanpur in the Lucknow region, in the State of Uttar Pradesh, the areas of
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Navsari and Valsad in the State of Gujarat and the areas of Devgad, Kudal,
Malvan, Sawantwadi and Vengurla in the State of Maharashtra);
• Inspection and remedial action for other identified quarantine pests such as red-
banded mango caterpillar, mealybugs and scale insects; and
• Supporting operational systems to maintain and verify phytosanitary status.
Biosecurity Australia invites comments on the technical and economic feasibility of the
proposed risk management measures, in particular, comments are welcome on the
appropriateness of the measures and any alternative measures that stakeholders consider to
be equivalent in achieving the identified objectives.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
INTRODUCTION
Biosecurity Australia is responsible for developing quarantine policy for imports of plants,
plant products and other regulated articles, and for liasing with overseas National Plant
Protection Organisations (NPPOs) to determine their requirements for exports of
Australian plants and plant products.
Biosecurity Australia conducted a policy review for mangoes from India with reference to
existing quarantine policies and available measures for the mitigation of phytosanitary
risks posed by the relevant mango pest groups of quarantine concern to Australia.
Imports of mangoes into Australia from India were suspended in 1996 as a result of the
global phase-out in use of EDB on the basis of worker health and safety concerns.
Technically, India still had access for mangoes to Australia, provided equivalent measures
could be found to manage the phytosanitary risks previously addressed by the EDB
fumigation treatment.
Following categorisation of the pests associated with mangoes from India, a PRA was
completed on the quarantine pests for Australia. The likelihood of entry, establishment or
spread and associated potential consequences were assessed to arrive at unrestricted risk
estimates for relevant quarantine pests. Risk management was considered for those pests
with unrestricted risk estimates that were above Australia’s ALOP. Biosecurity Australia
has previously developed quarantine policy for managing quarantine pests associated with
the importation of fresh mangoes from Haiti, Mexico and the Philippines (Guimaras
Island).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
BACKGROUND
Prior to 1996, fresh mangoes were regularly exported from India to Australia under import
conditions requiring mandatory on-arrival fumigation with EDB effective against certain
insect pests including fruit flies and certification that the mangoes were grown in areas free
of the mango weevil, Sternochetus frigidus.
Trade in mangoes was suspended in 1996 due to the global phase-out in use of EDB on the
basis of worker health and safety concerns, and the subsequent withdrawal of EDB as a
post-harvest disinfestation treatment in Australia. Technically, India still had access for
mangoes to Australia, provided equivalent measures could be found to manage the
phytosanitary risks previously addressed by the EDB fumigation treatment. India was
requested to propose equivalent measures and provide appropriate efficacy data, which
they subsequently provided.
In 2000, the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA) of India requested access for Indian mangoes to Australia using vapour heat
treatment (VHT) for the disinfestation of fruit flies. APEDA, in collaboration with the
Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of India (IMOA) has also provided updated pest
lists and reports in 2002 and 2003 on the efficacy of using VHT and hot water treatment
(HWT) for the disinfestation of fruit flies.
In response to the import access request for fresh mango fruit from India, Biosecurity
Australia released a Plant Biosecurity Policy Memorandum (PBPM) 2003/27 on 12
September 2003 advising stakeholders that Biosecurity Australia was considering India’s
request to resume trade in the importation of mangoes as an extension of existing policy.
Biosecurity Australia’s consideration of the resumption of trade will focus on equivalent
measures, as well as any other potential quarantine issues identified that are associated
with Indian mangoes proposed for importation into Australia.
The existing conditions for fresh mangoes cover importation from Haiti, Mexico and the
Philippines (Guimaras Island). Following a preliminary assessment, Biosecurity Australia
considered that the potential quarantine pests associated with mangoes from India do not
pose significantly different risks or require significantly different management measures
than those for which policy already exists. Biosecurity Australia therefore determined to
progress the access request as an extension of existing policy rather than proceed with an
IRA.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
SCOPE
In this draft revised import policy, Biosecurity Australia has considered the pests
associated with fresh mango fruit in India in accordance with ISPM #11 (2004) Pest Risk
Analysis for Quarantine Pests including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living
Modified Organisms.
Mango fruit is defined as fresh, mature fruit of Mangifera indica L. of the family
Anacardiaceae that has been cultivated, harvested, packed and transported to Australia
under commercial conditions from India. The major mango varieties covered in this review
are Alphonso, Banganpalli, Chausa, Dashehari, Kesar, Langra, Mallika, Neelum and
Totapuri.
The existing conditions for mangoes currently cover importation from Haiti, Mexico and
the Philippines (Guimaras Island). All imported consignments of mangoes are subject to
existing condition C6000 ‘General Import requirements for all fruits and vegetables’.
In addition to these general requirements, each country has specific import conditions.
Details of the importation requirements for fresh mango fruit are available on the AQIS
Import Condition database (ICON) at http://www.aqis.gov.au/icon. The specific import
conditions for each exporting country are summarised as follows:
Haiti
“The fruit has been stored for not less than 14 consecutive days at 0°C ± 1°C.”
“Mango seed weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) and Mango fruit weevil (S. frigidus)
have not been recorded in .................................(name of country).”
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
• Mango fruit are to be kept in cold storage, with the flesh temperature of the
fruit at 0ºC ± 1ºC for not less than 14 consecutive days.
Mexico
Fresh mango fruit imports from Mexico are subject to the following pre-shipment
requirements:
• Mangoes are subject to hot water treatment at an approved treatment location
and packing shed.
• Mangoes may only be imported through the airports and seaports of the United
States of America.
• The mangoes shall be exported under certification of the Director-General de
Sanitad Vegetal (DGSV) of Mexico.
• All packing sheds intended to be used for the grading, treatment and packing of
mangoes for Australia will be registered by DGSV.
• Only packing sheds with combined on-site packing and screened treatment
facilities may pack fruit for Australia. All activities within the sheds will be
subject to the supervision of DGSV officers.
• The fruit will be packed and treated prior to export under the supervision of an
authorised DGSV officer. Mangoes shall be treated with a hot water
submersion treatment in accordance with the following schedule:
1. Fruit pulp temperature must be 21°C or above prior to commencing treatment.
2. Fruit must be submerged at least 10 cm below the water surface.
3. Water must circulate constantly and be kept at 46°C throughout the treatment
period, with the following tolerances:
a. During the first five minutes of the treatment – temperatures may fall as low as
45.4°C provided the temperature is at least 46°C at the end of the five-minute
period.
b. For treatments lasting 65 to 70 minutes – temperatures may fall as low as
45.4°C for no more than 10 minutes.
c. For treatments lasting 90 minutes – temperatures may fall as low as 45.4°C for
no more than 15 minutes.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
** the dip time must be extended for an additional 10 minutes if hydrocooling starts immediately
after the hot water immersion treatment.
• All consignments of treated mangoes destined for Australia must be certified
by the United States Authorities as being permitted to enter the USA.
• All consignments of mangoes destined for Australia shall be accompanied by a
Phytosanitary Certificate that has been issued and signed by an authorised
officer of DGSV. The Phytosanitary Certificate shall be endorsed with the
words:
“The product complies with the requirements of the agreement between AQIS and
DGSV concerning the export of mangoes to Australia.”
• The treatment details, packing shed registration numbers, fruit quantity, fruit
varieties, state of origin and van or shipping container door seal numbers are to
be inserted on the Phytosanitary Certificate.
• The fruit must be packed in approved export cartons stamped with a seal 5 x 8
cm or more to identify that the fruit is for Australia with the following
markings:
________________________________
MANGO DE EXPORTACION
A AUSTRALIA
TRATADO, SARH, MEXICO
________________________________
OR
________________________________
MANGO DE EXPORTACION
A AUSTRALIA
TRATADO, SAGAR, MEXICO
________________________________
Fresh mango fruit imports from Mexico are subject to the following requirements on
arrival into Australia:
• The fruit is to be inspected on arrival using a 600 fruit sample per packing shed
making up the consignment.
• The discovery of live quarantine pests in Australia will result in the destruction
or re-export of the shipment and suspension of permission for further imports
from Mexico. Any shipments in transit at the time of the suspension of the
agreement will be destroyed or re-exported on arrival in Australia.
• Quarantine pests of mangoes from Mexico include Anastrepha spp. and
Ceratitis capitata. If quarantine pests are detected on mangoes, AQIS Plant
Programs must be notified immediately.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Australia has a Specific Commodity Understanding (SCU) with the Philippines, which
specifies that fresh mango fruit imported from the Philippines must be from Guimaras
Island only. State quarantine regulations currently prohibit the entry of Philippine mangoes
into the State of Western Australia. This matter is under negotiation between AQIS and the
Department of Agriculture Western Australia.
The current requirements for fresh mango fruit imports includes the following:
AND
“Mangoes have been produced in Guimaras Island which has been subject to annual
surveys and found to be free of mango pulp weevil (MPW; Sternochetus frigidus) and
mango seed weevils (MSW; including S. mangiferae).”
AND either
OR
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Unsealed airfreight containers are permitted for direct shipments between the
Philippines and Australia only.
• The fruit must be packed in cartons that have had any openings either screened
with mesh no greater than 1.6 mm diameter or covered with tape to ensure that
any opening greater than 1.6 mm is closed. In addition, the cartons must be
sealed by BPI with BPI sticker/seal. All cartons must be marked “For
Australia” and labelled with a unique lot number that incorporates the date of
treatment.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Mangoes are grown mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Queensland is the largest
mango growing state, producing over 80% of Australia’s crop (QFVG, 1997). Eighty
percent of the Queensland crop is produced around the areas of Bowen, Home Hill, Ayr
and the Atherton Tableland. The Atherton Tableland (Mareeba) is the second largest
mango growing region, accounting for about 25% of the national annual crop. Mangoes
are also grown locally around the Brisbane suburbs north to Bundaberg/Childers
(Australian Horticulture, 1995).
Mangoes are also grown in the Northern Territory, Western Australia and along the
northern coast of New South Wales. Approximately 15% of the national crop is grown in
the Northern Territory with the main growing areas in Darwin and Katherine. There is also
significant production in Carnarvon and the Kimberley area of Western Australia in
Kununurra.
The four main varieties of mango grown in Australia are Kensington Pride (commonly
known as Bowen Special), R2E2, Keitt and Palmer. The Kensington Pride variety accounts
for almost 80% of production in Queensland. In addition, relatively small numbers of fruit
are produced of other cultivars, such as Kent (originally from Florida) and the Nam Doc
Mai (originally from Thailand). These are grown in north Queensland, the Northern
Territory and Western Australia. Brooks and Haden are two other varieties grown in
Australia on a small scale. Approximately 50% of new plantings in Queensland in the last
five years consist of newer varieties such as Keitt, R2E2, Palmer and Nam Doc Mai
(Holmes, 1997).
Due to the wide geographical distribution of growing regions, combined with the use of
early and late maturing varieties, Australia is able to harvest mangoes for eight months of
the year from September to April. However, approximately 50% of Australian production
occurs in December. Kensington Pride is available from October to January and the R2E2
variety is available from December to January, while Keitt and Palmer varieties are
available from January to late March.
With the industry development that is taking place and the significant plantings of
mangoes over the last decade, Australian production is expected to increase. Fluctuations
in mango production occur between years due to irregular flowering (Australian
Horticulture, 1995). Australian mango production in 1998–99 decreased by 38.5% to
26,372 tonnes compared to 1997–98. Australian mango production in 1999–2000
increased from the previous season, which had been adversely affected by heavy rains and
flooding in Queensland, with the total harvest up by 44% to 38,071 tonnes (ABS, 2001).
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In 1998–99, 15% of the fresh produce was processed and in 1999–2000 it was 23%. The
gross value of Australian mango production for 1998–99 was $66.7M, down $14M from
1997–98. Queensland was the main producing state with 28,233 tonnes or 75% of the
national harvest (ABS, 2002). Mango production figures by state in Australia are presented
in Table 1.
Western Australia has strict quarantine requirements for the interstate movement of
mangoes for pests such as mango seed weevil (MSW, Sternochetus mangiferae), which
has not been reported in the state. WA will only accept mangoes from production areas in
other Australian states that are free of MSW (e.g. Katherine in the Northern Territory). An
eastern state property wishing to export to WA must undergo sampling for two years prior
to the first consignment being permitted to cross the border to demonstrate property
freedom (Cook, 2001). Maintenance of property freedom is accepted on the basis of there
being no MSW infestation within 50 km of the property, and no detection in annual fruit
sampling or consignment sampling (WAQIS, 1999).
Export markets for mangoes are well established, and account for 10% of Australian
production. Due to the high cost of airfreight only a small quantity of fruit is currently
exported to neighbouring South-East Asian countries such as Hong Kong, Singapore and
to Saudi Arabia. Major export markets for Australian mangoes are given in Table 2.
Several countries such as Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)
require mangoes to be free of MSW as a condition of entry into those countries. The
phytosanitary protocol of area freedom for MSW is based on (i) annual surveys involving
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
the cutting of random fruit samples to verify absence of MSW, and (ii) a mandatory 2%
fruit cutting random sample of each export consignment, to demonstrate freedom from
MSW. Currently, only Western Australia has area freedom for MSW. For all other areas
other than the Western Australia growing areas of Carnarvon, Swan, Kununurra and areas
north of Kununurra, a mandatory 2% destructive sample for MSW must be undertaken in
addition to normal inspection for phytosanitary certification.
Exports of Australian mangoes in 1998–99 were 2,735 tonnes, which were well below the
previous two years. In 1999–2000 exports were 3,226 tonnes, an increase by 491 tonnes
against the previous year.
Table 2 Major export markets for Australian mangoes (quantity and value)
In India, mangoes are grown in tropical and subtropical regions from sea level to an
altitude of 1500 m (i.e. from Cape Comorin to Himalayas). However, they are grown
commercially in areas up to 600 m altitude where the temperature rarely goes below 0ºC
(Negi, 2000), and grows best in temperatures around 27ºC.
There are nearly 1,000 cultivars or varieties in India. However only about 30 cultivars are
grown commercially (Anon., 2003). These include Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Bombay
Green and Fazli in north India; Banganpalli, Totapuri, Neelum, Pairi, Suvarnarekha,
Mulgoa, Kalapady and Rumani in south India; Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Fernandin and
Vanraj in western India; and Langra, Fazli, Chausa, Zardalu, Himsagar and Malda in
eastern India (Negi, 2000). Other important mango varieties include Amrapalli, Bangalora,
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Bombay, Gulab Khas, Kishen Bhog, Mallika and Samar Bahist Chausa (Anon., 2003).
Most of the Indian mango cultivars have specific ecogeographical requirements for
optimum growth and fruiting/yield. The general characteristics of major mango varieties
grown in India are summarised in Table 3.
Indian mangoes are cultivated around February/early March, when the cold weather begins
to subside and the danger of destruction through frost disappears. Mango fruits mature in
3–4 months from flowering and the fruit colour changes from dark green to light green on
maturity. The fruits are harvested at the green mature stage in the morning hours. The
Alphonso variety from South India is an early season variety and comes to the market by
mid February. Its season is about two months until April/May. Mangoes grown in Uttar
Pradesh (i.e. Chausa, Dashehari and Langra) enter the market in April and their season
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
lasts until July/August. Harvesting is normally started after a few fruits drop. It comes into
market early in May and remains in market until August/September. The important
commercial varieties, states and seasonality of mangoes in India are summarised in Table
4. Figure 1 shows the location of major mango production states on the map of India.
Variety States Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Alphonso Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Maharashtra
Banganpalli Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu
Chausa Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
Dashehari Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
Kesar Gujarat, Maharashtra
Langra Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal
Neelum Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Suvarnarekha Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra
Totapuri Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Mangoes are mainly grown in the states of Andhra Pradesh (29%), Tamil Nadu (5%),
Karnataka (9%) in the south; Maharashtra (8.15%) and Gujarat (4.2%) in the west; Uttar
Pradesh (19%) in the north and Bihar (16%) in the east (Lal and Reddy, 2002). Other
growing states include Goa, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal, and partially
in Haryana, Orissa and Rajasthan (APEDA, 2000). The total area under mango cultivation
is estimated to be 1,283,030 hectares with an estimated annual production of 10,810,957
metric tonnes (MTs) (Lal and Reddy, 2002). The mango area and production figures for
major Indian states are shown in Table 5.
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India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world, producing over 65% of total world
production (Patil and Patil, 1994). India exports fresh mangoes to over 50 countries (Patil
and Patil, 1994). The major importers of fresh Indian mangoes are Gulf countries such as
the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Yemen. Other countries such as
Bangladesh, the United Kingdom (UK), France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands,
Spain, Israel, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Hong Kong and China, Canada and the
United States are also important markets. UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UK, Bahrain,
Qatar, Bangladesh, Singapore and Malaysia together account for 97.17% in total exports of
fresh mangoes from India (Patil and Patil, 1994). In 1999–2000, exports of fresh Indian
mangoes were 37,109.67 MT (Anon., 2004a), with a value of approximately US$20M (Lal
and Reddy, 2002).
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In accordance with the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measure (ISPM) #11
(2004) Pest Risk Analysis for Quarantine Pests including Analysis of Environmental Risks
and Living Modified organisms, this pest risk analysis (PRA) comprises three interrelated
stages:
• Stage 1: initiation
• Stage 2: risk assessment
• Stage 3: risk management.
A qualitative detailed pest risk assessment was conducted for the quarantine pests
associated with mangoes from India. An outline of the methodology used for this review
is provided in the Biosecurity Australia publication Draft Guidelines for Import Risk
Analysis-September 2001.
STAGE 1: INITIATION
Initiation of this PRA followed the access request in 2000 for mango fruit from India into
Australia using vapour heat treatment (VHT) for the disinfestaion of fruit flies. Prior to
1996, fresh mangoes were regularly exported from India to Australia under an ethylene
dibromide (EDB) treatment and in 1996, trade in mangoes was suspended due to the global
phase-out in use of EDB on the basis of worker health and safety concerns.
The “PRA area” is defined in this PRA as Australia or in the case of regional quarantine
pests the “PRA area” is defined by the state of Australia that has regional freedom from
the pest. The ‘endangered area’ is defined as any area within Australia, where susceptible
hosts are present, and in which ecological factors favour the establishment of a pest that
might be introduced in association with mango fruit from India. The pathway is considered
to be fresh mango fruit, produced under commercial orchard production methods within
India.
Pest categorisation
The process of pest categorisation is to determine which of the pests associated with
mango fruit from India meet the IPPC definition of a quarantine pest i.e. “A pest of
potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there,
or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (FAO, 1996).
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The quarantine pests of mango fruit from India have been determined through
consideration of relevant information on the pest status of mango fruit from India provided
by APEDA, in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of India
(IMOA) and available information on the status of these pests in Australia (present or
absent, present but with restricted/limited distribution and under official control, present on
the pathway (mango fruit), potential for entry, establishment or spread and associated
consequences). These criteria are used to categorise and subsequently identify the
quarantine pests of mango fruit from India to Australia. Pests that do not meet the
definition of a quarantine pest are not considered further.
Appendix 1 lists the pests associated with mango fruit from India and their presence or
absence in Australia and whether the pest occurs on the pathway (mango fruit) under
consideration in this risk analysis.
Pests comprising 476 arthropods, 19 nematodes, 62 fungi, 5 bacteria, one virus and one
alga were identified as being possibly associated with mango production in India
(Appendix 1).
A number of pests listed in Appendix 1 are considered to be present in Australia but absent
from Western Australia (based on the evidence provided to Biosecurity Australia by the
Department of Agriculture Western Australia). Many of the pests associated with fresh
mangoes in India occur in Australia or are not present on the import pathway. These pests
a were not considered further in the risk assessment.
Of the 564 pests considered, 394 pests (358 arthropods, 7 nematodes, 28 fungi and 1 virus)
were either not present in Australia, or if present under official control and hence
considered further. Of these 394 pests that were considered further, 45 pests (42
arthropods and 3 fungi) were considered to be associated with the fresh mango fruit
pathway (Appendix 1).
Appendix 2 lists each pest absent from Australia (or part (s) of Australia) and with
potential for entry (considered to be associated with the fresh mango fruit pathway),
according to (a) its potential to establish or spread in Australia, and (b) its potential for
consequences. Categorisation of potential for establishment or spread and potential for
consequences was expressed using the terms ‘feasible’/’not feasible’ and ‘significant’/’not
significant’, respectively.
Of the 45 pests (42 arthropods and 3 fungi) associated with fresh mango fruit in India, 32
pests (31 arthropods and one pathogen) were assessed as having ‘feasible’ potential for
entry, establishment or spread in the PRA area and ‘significant’ potential for associated
consequences. These pests were considered to satisfy the IPPC criteria for a quarantine
pest (Appendix 2).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
A detailed pest risk assessment (PRA) was conducted for these 32 pests that were
categorised as quarantine pests to determine an unrestricted risk estimate for each pest.
Four sooty mould causing fungi (Capnodium mangiferae, Capnodium ramosum, Meliola
mangiferae and Tripospermum myrti) were identified as being on the pathway but are not
considered further for risk assessment as they are weak pathogens or secondary invaders
and are normally considered to be a cosmetic or aesthetic problem (Nameth et al., 2003).
For further comments refer to Appendix 1.
Thirty two pests of mango fruit from India are considered to satisfy the IPPC criteria for a
quarantine pest and therefore require detailed risk assessment. These pests are listed in
Table 6. Six of the 32 quarantine pests listed in Table 6 have been assessed in the previous
import policy for mangoes from the Philippines (Guimaras Island), as indicated in the
footnote. All 32 quarantine pests have been categorised in this draft revised import policy
according to their status in Australia, presence on the pathway and potential for entry,
establishment or spread in the PRA area and associated consequences.
ARTHROPODA
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
The next section of the document comprises the detailed risk assessment for the 32
identified quarantine pests for mango fruit from India.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
A detailed risk assessment is presented here for each of the quarantine pests identified
through the process of pest categorisation. The risk assessment involved the estimation of
the level of unrestricted risk posed by each quarantine pest on mangoes from India by
combining likelihood estimates for entry, establishment and spread with the estimate of
associated potential consequences. The unrestricted risk estimates were then compared
with Australia’s appropriate level of protection (ALOP) to determine which quarantine
pests presented an unacceptable level of risk requiring the further consideration of risk
mitigation options.
Likelihood estimates for entry, establishment and spread and estimates of associated
potential consequences are supported by relevant biological information. . Where pests
shared similar biological characteristics, risk assessments were based on grouping of such
pests (e.g. fruit flies). The proposed risk management measures were also developed for
these groups.
In the context of the scope of this document, the risk assessments were conducted on the
basis of standard cultivation, harvesting and packing activities involved in the commercial
production of mango fruit i.e. in-field hygiene and management of pests (e.g. orchard
control program), cleaning and hygiene during packing, and commercial quality control
activities.
The groups are: fruit flies (7 species), weevils (2 species), armoured scales (5 species), soft
scales (3 species), mealybugs (8 species), plant bugs (2 species), lepidopterans (4 species)
and one pathogen.
ARTHROPODS
Fruit flies are serious pests of a wide variety of fruits and vegetables and have the potential
to be of major economic importance. The fruit flies [Diptera: Tephritidae] examined in this
pest risk analysis are:
• Bactrocera caryeae (Kapoor) – Fruit fly
• Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) – Guava fruit fly
• Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) – Melon fly
• Bactrocera diversa (Coquillett) – Three striped fruit fly
• Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) – Oriental fruit fly
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Bactrocera diversa: Dacus diversus Coquillett; Dacus citronellae Kapoor & Katiyar,
Dacus quadrifidus Hendel.
Bactrocera dorsalis: Dacus dorsalis Hendel, 1912; Bactrocera conformis Doleschall, 1858
(preocc.); Bactrocera ferrugineus (Fabricius); Chaetodacus dorsalis (Hendel);
Chaetodacus ferrugineus (Fabricius); Chaetodacus ferrugineus dorsalis (Hendel);
Chaetodacus ferrugineus okinawanus Shiraki, 1933; Dacus ferrugineus Fabricius; Dacus
ferrugineus dorsalis Fabricius; Dacus ferrugineus var. dorsalis Fabricius; Dacus
ferrugineus okinawanus (Shiraki); Musca ferruginea Fabricius (preocc.); Musca
ferruginea Fabricius, 1794; Strumeta dorsalis (Hendel); Chaetodacus ferrugineus
(Fabricius); Strumeta ferrugineus (Fabricius).
Bactrocera tau: Dacus tau Walker; Bactrocera hageni (Hendel); Bactrocera (Zeugodacus)
tau (Walker); Dacus hageni (de Meijere); Chaetodacus tau (Walker); Dacus caudatus var.
nubilus (Hendel); Dacus nubilus (Hendel); Dasyneura tau (Walker); Zeugodacus nubilus
(Hendel).
Host(s):
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Hosts include: Carica papaya (papaya, pawpaw) (Tsuruta et al., 1997); Citrullus lanatus
(wild melon), Cucumis melo (melon) (Allwood et al., 1999); Cucurbita maxima (giant
pumpkin) (Tsuruta et al., 1997); Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin, squash), Lycopersicon
esculentum (tomato) (Allwood et al., 1999); Mangifera indica (mango) (CAB
International, 2003); Manilkara zapota (sapodilla), Phaseolus vulgaris (bean), Psidium
guajava (guava); Trichosanthes cucumerina (snake gourd) (Tsuruta et al., 1997); Vigna
unguiculata (cowpea) (Allwood et al., 1999).
Bactrocera dorsalis: B. dorsalis is a very serious pest of a wide variety of fruits and
vegetables (CAB International, 2003). Due to the confusion between B. dorsalis and
related species in the Oriental fruit fly species complex (some 52 species that are found in
the Oriental region, and a further 16 species native to Australasia), there are very few
published host records which definitely refer to true B. dorsalis (CAB International, 2003).
No host plant survey has yet been carried out to show which hosts are of particular
importance within the Asian range of true B. dorsalis.
Recorded commercial hosts are: Aegle marmelos (bael fruit), Anacardium occidentale
(cashew), Annona reticulata (bullock’s heart), Annona squamosa (sugar apple), Areca
catechu (betelnut palm), Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Artocarpus heterophyllus
(jackfruit), Capsicum annuum (bell pepper), Chrysophyllum cainito (caimito), Citrus
maxima (pummelo), Citrus reticulata (mandarin orange), Coffea arabica (arabica coffee),
Cucumis melo (melon), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Dimocarpus longan (longan), Ficus
racemosa (cluster fig), Litchi chinensis (lychee), Malus pumila (apple), Mangifera foetida
(bachang mango), Mangifera indica (mango), Manilkara zapota (sapodilla), Mimusops
elengi (Asian bulletwood), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd), Muntingia calabura
(Jamaica cherry), Musa sp. (banana), Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan), Persea americana
(avocado), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Prunus avium (gean), Prunus cerasus (sour
cherry), Prunus domestica (plum, prune), Prunus mume (Japanese apricot), Prunus persica
(peach), Psidium guajava (guava), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Pyrus communis
(pear), Syzygium aqueum (water apple), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Syzygium cumini
(jambolan), Syzygium jambos (rose apple), Syzygium malaccense (Malay apple), Syzygium
samarangense (wax apple), Terminalia catappa (Indian almond), Ziziphus jujuba (jujube);
Ziziphus mauritiana (Chinese date) (Allwood et al., 1999; Tsuruta et al., 1997).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Bactrocera tau: B. tau appears to show a preference for attacking the fruits of
Cucurbitaceae, but it has also been reared from the fruits of several other plant families
(CAB International, 2003). Due to the recent separation of previously confused species,
the host data given below were taken from a recently published host catalogue that was
largely based on a 1990s survey carried out in Thailand and Malaysia (Allwood et al.,
1999).
Hosts include: Cucumis melo (melon), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Cucurbita maxima
(giant pumpkin), Luffa acutangula (angled luffa), Momordica charantia (balsam apple)
(CAB International, 2003); Mangifera indica (mango) (Peña and Mohyuddin, 1997).
Bactrocera zonata: Primary hosts are: Mangifera indica (mango), Prunus persica (peach),
Psidium guajava (guava) (CAB International, 2003). Other hosts include: Aegle marmelos
(bael tree), Annona squamosa (sugar apple), Careya arborea (slow match tree), Carica
papaya (papaya, pawpaw), Citrus sp., Cydonia oblonga (quince), Ficus carica (fig),
Grewia asiatica (phalsa), Luffa sp. (loofah), Malus pumila (apple), Momordica charantia
(balsam pear), Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm), Punica granatum (pomegranate),
Terminalia catappa (Indian almond) (CAB International, 2003).
Plant part(s) affected: Fruit (Peña and Mohyuddin, 1997; Srivastava, 1997).
Distribution:
Bactrocera caryeae: India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (IIE, 1994a), Maharashtra (Carroll et
al., 2002)); Sri Lanka (IIE, 1994a).
Bactrocera diversa: China, Sri Lanka, Thailand (CAB International, 2003); India (DPP,
2001).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Bactrocera dorsalis: True B. dorsalis is restricted to mainland Asia (except the peninsula
of southern Thailand and West Malaysia), as well as Taiwan and its adventive population
in Hawaii (Drew and Hancock, 1994). CAB International (2003) also includes California
and Florida, USA, in the distribution because the fly is repeatedly trapped there in small
numbers. This species is a serious pest of a wide range of fruit crops in Taiwan, southern
Japan, China and in the northern areas of the Indian subcontinent (CAB International,
2003).
In Asia, B. dorsalis is recorded from Bangladesh (IIE, 1994b); Bhutan, Cambodia, China
(Drew and Hancock, 1994); Guam (Waterhouse, 1993); Laos, Myanmar (Drew and
Hancock, 1994); Nauru (Waterhouse, 1993); Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United
States (Hawaii) and Vietnam (Drew and Hancock, 1994).
Bactrocera zonata: Bangladesh, Egypt, India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal), Iran, Laos, Mauritius, Myanmar,
Oman, Pakistan, Réunion, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United Arab Emirates,
Vietnam (CAB International, 2003).
NOTE: The listed fruit fly species are recognised as significant pests of mangoes in India.
Due to the recognised universal importance of Bactrocera dorsalis, it was used as the basis
for the risk assessment and development of proposed risk management measures for all
fruit fly species identified.
Probability of importation
The likelihood that fruit flies will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh mangoes
from India: High.
• B. dorsalis is known to be associated with the mango fruit pathway. This
species infests mango fruits in the entire Asian-Pacific region (Srivastava,
1997). The dark puncture caused by the oviposition of an adult B. dorsalis fly is
not very conspicuous as its colour blends with the dark green colour of the fruit
(Srivastava, 1997). However, it is very clearly visible in some yellow and pale
brown mango varieties.
• Eggs are laid below the skin of the fruit (CAB International, 2003). Upon
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
hatching, the larvae (maggots) feed on the pulp of the fruit for a few days. This
feeding damage causes a brown rotten patch to appear on the fruit surface and
the mesocarp becomes dirty brown.
• Fruit fly larvae can survive in picked fruit and are likely to be present in fruit
that is packed for export. As fruit fly eggs are laid internally, infested fruit are
not likely to be detected during sorting, packing and inspection procedures.
Inspection procedures carried out in the packing station are concerned primarily
with quality standards of fruit with regard to blemishes, bruising or damage to
the skin. Although all fruit are visually inspected, the procedures are not
specifically directed at the detection of internal pests that may be feeding under
the surface of the fruit.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse would not
remove the eggs or larvae from under the fruit surface.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that fruit flies will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: High.
• It is likely that fruit fly larvae of this spp. would survive storage and
transportation due to their ability to tolerate cold temperatures and the
availability of an ample food supply.
• The pests are likely to survive storage and transportation as adult females of
Bactrocera dorsalis are known to hibernate during the winter in India
(Srivastava, 1997). Adults of B. dorsalis occur throughout the year and live for
1-3 months depending on temperature (up to 12 months in cool conditions)
(Christenson and Foote, 1960).
• Fruit infested with eggs and larvae are likely be distributed throughout
Australia for retail sale. Adults, larvae and eggs are likely to be associated with
infested waste.
• Although damaged fruit are likely to be detected and removed from
consignments due to quality concerns, fruit flies have the capacity to complete
their development in discarded fruit and transfer to suitable hosts.
• Eggs can develop into larvae within stored fruit, at the point of sale or after
purchase by consumers.
• Larvae can develop into adult flies, which are strong flyers (Fletcher, 1989) and
able to move directly from fruit into the environment to find a suitable host.
Many Bactrocera spp. can fly 50-100 km (Fletcher, 1989).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
The likelihood that fruit flies will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh mangoes from
India and be distributed in a viable state to the endangered area: High.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that fruit flies will establish based on a comparative assessment of factors
in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to survive
and propagate: High.
• For pests to establish and spread, a threshold limit must be reached. This
threshold limit is the smallest number of pests capable of establishing a colony.
One infested fruit is likely to contain many fruit fly larvae (e.g. clutch sizes of
3-30 eggs have been recorded for B. dorsalis (Fletcher, 1989)).
• Surviving female flies must be successful in locating suitable mating partners
and fruiting hosts to lay eggs. The mating behaviour of B. dorsalis requires that
males gather to form aggregations or leks (Shelly and Kaneshiro, 1991).
Females fly to such male aggregations to increase their chances of mating.
However, there will be a limited number of males available to form a lek,
therefore reducing the probability of a successful mating. Shelly (2001)
reported that B. dorsalis females were observed more frequently at larger leks
(of 18 males or more). There is a likelihood of many suitable hosts for fruit fly
species around the vicinity of the port of entry and other suburban areas around
Australia. B. carambolae and B. papayae are members of the B. dorsalis
complex of fruit flies (CAB International, 2003), and would have similar
mating behaviour to B. dorsalis.
• There have previously been exotic fruit fly incursions in Australia of species
from the Bactrocera dorsalis complex, which have been eradicated. B. papayae
was detected around Cairns, northern Queensland in 1995. It was eradicated
from Queensland by implementing an eradication programme using male
annihilation and protein bait spraying (SPC, 2002). This example demonstrates
that fruit fly species from the B. dorsalis complex can establish in Australia.
• Adults may live for many months and in laboratory studies, the potential
fecundity of females of B. dorsalis was well over 1000 eggs (Fletcher, 1989).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of spread
The likelihood that fruit flies will spread based on a comparative assessment of those
factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of the
geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• Fruit flies possess many characteristics that facilitate successful colonisation.
These include their high reproductive rate, longevity of adult flies, broad
environmental tolerances and host range of both commercial and wild species
which are widespread in Australia.
• The incidence of B. papayae in northern Australia in 1995 is indicative of the
ability of introduced fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis complex to
spread. Initially, the infested area covered 4,500 km² (Allwood, 1995), and was
centred around Cairns. The declared pest quarantine area later expanded to
78,000 km² of north Queensland, including urban areas, farms, rivers, coastline
and a large part of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (Cantrell et al., 2002).
B. dorsalis and other Bactrocera spp. would have a similar capacity to spread
in Australia due to their close biological relationship to B. papayae and their
wide host range.
The overall likelihood that fruit flies will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that area
and subsequently spread within Australia: High.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health D ⎯ Fruit flies can cause direct harm to a wide range of plant hosts and are
estimated to have consequences of minor significance at the national level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ Fruit flies introduced into a new environment will compete for
the environment resources with native species. They are estimated to have consequences that
are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance
at the local level.
Indirect consequences
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Eradication, control E ⎯ A control program would add considerably to the cost of production of
etc. the host fruit, costing between $200-900 per ha depending on the variety of
fruit produced and the time of harvest (Anon., 1991). In 1995, the B. papayae
(papaya fruit fly) eradication programme using male annihilation and protein
bait spraying cost AU$35 million (SPC, 2002). Fruit flies are estimated to
have significant consequences at the national level and highly significant
consequences at the regional level.
Domestic trade D ⎯ The presence of fruit flies in commercial production areas will have a
significant effect at the regional level due to any resulting interstate trade
restrictions on a wide range of commodities.
International trade D ⎯ Fruit flies are regarded as the most destructive horticultural pests in the
world. While they can cause considerable yield losses in orchards and
suburban backyards, the major consequence facing Australian horticultural
industries is the negative effect they have on gaining and maintaining export
markets. For example, when the papaya fruit fly outbreak occurred in north
Queensland, Australia experienced trade effects that affected the whole
country. In the first two months of the papaya fruit fly eradication campaign,
about $600,000 worth of exports were interrupted by Australian trade
partners (Cantrell et al., 2002). Within a week of the papaya fruit fly
outbreak being declared, Japan ceased imports of mangoes at a cost of about
$570,000, New Zealand interrupted its $30,000 banana trade and the
Solomon Islands completely stopped importing fruit and vegetables from
Queensland (Cantrell et al., 2002). Fruit flies are estimated to have
consequences of minor significance at the national level.
Environment A ⎯ Pesticides required to control fruit flies are estimated to have
consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of
minor significance at the local level.
The mango pulp weevil (MPW) causes serious economic damage to mangoes in north-east
India (Srivastava, 1997). All Mangifera indica varieties and wild Mangifera species are
susceptible to MPW. In Indonesia, infestation may range from 30-80% or higher (CAB
International, 2003). The occurrence of many infested fruits considerably reduces the value
of the product. The pulp weevil [Coleoptera: Curculionidae] examined in this pest risk
analysis is:
• Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) – Mango pulp weevil.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of importation
The likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will arrive in Australia with the importation of
fresh mangoes from India: High.
• S. frigidus lays eggs on mango fruits with a minimum diameter of 6 cm (De and
Pande, 1988). The newly hatched larva tunnels directly through the fruit pulp.
The larvae form a chamber adjacent to the kernel from which they tunnel into
the pulp. Pupation takes place in a brown cocoon, constructed of frass, within
these chambers. The weevils leave the ripe fruit through a hole in the peel.
Before they emerge, the fruit shows no outward sign of infestation (CAB
International, 2003).
• This pest is likely to survive storage and transportation. Reproductively
immature adult weevils overwinter inside seeds or other protective places from
May until February in India (De and Pande, 1988). Around 58.5% of adults
hibernate in seeds (Srivastava, 1997). Adults found in fruits usually survive and
may assist in the dispersal of the pest (CAB International, 2003).
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will be distributed as a result of the processing,
sale or disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin, seed).
• If adults and larvae were to survive storage and transport, they may enter the
environment in two ways: eggs may be discarded with mango skin, or adults
found in fruit may fly directly to a suitable host plant. Srivastava (1997) states
that although adults possess well-developed wings, they are very poor flyers
and can fly only 50-90 cm in a horizontal direction.
• Up to 30-50% of newly hatched larvae die if they come in contact with gum
laden tissues while they tunnel through the fruit pulp (CAB International,
2003). Up to 20% of the larvae die when the fruits are harvested, because they
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
are unable to complete their development. Dry conditions affect young adults
adversely (CAB International, 2003).
The likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: Moderate.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will establish based on a comparative assessment
of factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest
to survive and propagate: High.
• The host range of S. frigidus is limited and is only known to include Mangifera
foetida, M. indica and M. sylvatica (CAB International, 2003).
• Sternochetus species (e.g. S. mangiferae) is already established in tropical and
subtropical parts of eastern Australia.
• Females lay about 75-180 eggs in 3 weeks, and if deprived of suitable fruits for
5 months, egg production drops to 3 eggs per day (De and Pande, 1988). The
female dies soon after oviposition (CAB International, 2003).
• MPW leave the ripe fruit through a hole in the mango peel. After 6 weeks, they
are fully mature and are able to mate (CAB International, 2003). Adults mate
repeatedly (Kalshoven and Laan, 1981).
• Srivastava (1997) reported that the duration of one complete life cycle varied
from 34-35 days. In Indonesia, development from egg to adult takes 5-7 weeks
(Kalshoven and Laan, 1981). The weevil has only one generation during the
fruit season (Kalshoven and Laan, 1981).
Probability of spread
The likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will spread based on a comparative assessment of
those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of
the geographical distribution of the pest: Moderate.
• Tropical or subtropical environments of Australia would be suitable for the
spread of S. frigidus because other Sternochetus species are recorded from
these environments.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
• Adults found in the fruits usually survive and may assist in the dispersal of the
pest.
• Although adults possess well-developed wings, they are very poor flyers and
are only capable of flying 50-90 cm in a horizontal direction (Srivastava, 1997).
• Very few natural enemies are known (CAB International, 2003).
The overall likelihood that Sternochetus frigidus will enter Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that
area and subsequently spread within Australia: Low.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Sternochetus frigidus (mango pulp weevil, MPW) can cause significant
direct harm to mango production at the district level. MPW is estimated to
have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and
of minor significance at the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known direct consequences of this pest on other aspects of
the environment the environment. S. frigidus is estimated to have consequences that are
unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at
the local level.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ A control program would have to be implemented in infested orchards
etc. to reduce fruit damage and yield losses and this would increase production
costs. Imported mango fruit from countries where S. frigidus occurs is
subjected to a quarantine treatment.
Domestic trade C ⎯ The presence of mango pulp weevil in commercial production areas
may have a significant effect at the district level due to any resulting
interstate trade restrictions. MPW is estimated to have consequences which
are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance
at the regional level.
International trade D ⎯ Mango pulp weevil is regarded as a destructive pest of mango in
growing areas. Infestation does not cause increased fruit shedding
(Kalshoven and Laan, 1981). However, the occurrence of many infested
fruits considerably reduces the value of the product. In Indonesia, infestation
of 30-80% has been reported (CAB International, 2003). MPW has a limited
host range and is therefore unlikely to have a significant effect on
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
The mango seed weevil (MSW) is one of the most serious and important pests of mango.
All mango cultivars are susceptible to MSW attack but no external symptoms of attack are
readily visible on infested fruits, apart from the brown hardened secretion remaining
attached to them at the sites of oviposition (CAB International, 2003). The seed weevil
[Coleoptera: Curculionidae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
• *Sternochetus mangiferae (Fabricius, 1775) – Mango seed weevil.
Plant part(s) affected: Fruit/pod, seed (CAB International, 2003); leaf, shoot
(CABI/EPPO, 1997).
* This species is a quarantine pest for the State of Western Australia due to its absence from this State.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of importation
The likelihood that Sternochetus mangiferae will arrive in Australia with the importation
of fresh mangoes from India: High.
• Females of S. mangiferae lay eggs singly on the skin of immature to ripe fruit
or sometimes on the stems; most eggs are laid on the sinus of the fruit (Shukla
et al., 1985). The adult female carves out a cavity on the fruit surface and
deposits an egg, which is immediately covered by a brown exudate produced by
the wound (Follett, 2002). Infested fruits are difficult to detect since usually no
damage is visible externally (Kalshoven and Laan, 1981).
• After hatching, the larvae burrow through the flesh and into the seed. As fruit
and seed develop, the tunnel and seed entry are completely obliterated so that in
time it is impossible to distinguish infested from non-infested seeds unless they
are cut open (Balock and Kozuma, 1964). Complete larval development usually
occurs within the maturing seed, but also very occasionally within the flesh
(Hansen et al., 1989). Larvae feed within the seed and pupate in the seed cavity
(Follett, 2002). The majority of infested seeds have one or two weevils, but
seeds containing 5 or more have been
• Adult weevils can live for more than two years when provided with fresh
mangoes and water (Follett, 2002).
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that S. mangiferae will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: High.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin, seed).
• This pest may enter the environment in two ways: eggs may be discarded with
mango skin, or larvae may be discarded with seed. Upon maturation, the adults
rapidly move out of the seeds and seek hiding places by crawling rather than
flying (Shukla and Tandon, 1985).
The likelihood that Sternochetus mangiferae will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: High.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
outlined in the Biosecurity Australia publication Guidelines for Import Risk Analysis,
September 2001.
Probability of establishment
Probability of spread
The overall likelihood that Sternochetus mangiferae will enter Australia as a result of trade
in fresh mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in
that area and subsequently spread within Australia: Moderate.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Consequences
Consideration of the direct and indirect consequences of mango seed weevil: Low.
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Sternochetus mangiferae (mango seed weevil, MSW) can cause
significant direct harm to mango production at the district level. MSW is
estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the
national level and of minor significance at the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known direct consequences of this pest on other aspects of
the environment the environment. S. mangiferae is estimated to have consequences that are
unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at
the local level.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ A control program would have to be implemented in infested orchards
etc. to reduce fruit damage and yield losses and this would increase production
costs. Imported mango fruit from countries where S. mangiferae occurs can
be subjected to a quarantine treatment.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of mango seed weevil in commercial production areas
may have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate
trade restrictions. MSW is estimated to have consequences which are
unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at
the district level.
International trade C ⎯ Mango seed weevil is regarded as a destructive pest of mango in
growing areas. No external symptoms of attack by seed weevil are readily
visible on infested fruits and yields are not significantly affected, since the
larvae usually feed entirely within the stone, very rarely in the pulp of the
fruit. Probably its greatest significance as a pest is to reduce the germination
capacity of seeds greatly and to interfere with the export of fruit, because of
quarantine restrictions imposed by importing countries. In India, all cultivars
are susceptible and levels of infestation vary between 48-87% (Bagle and
Prasad, 1985). MSW is estimated to have consequences which are unlikely to
be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the regional
level.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
mango seed weevil on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have
significant consequences for the environment.
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Armoured or hard scales damage the host plant by sucking the plant sap through their
stylets. They do not produce honeydew, but their feeding can blemish fruit or cause leaf
drop (Smith et al., 1997). They can inject toxins into plant tissues and high populations can
reduce plant vigour or cause the death of trees (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975; Smith et
al., 1997). The armoured scales [Hemiptera: Diaspididae] examined in this pest risk
analysis are:
• *Abgrallaspis cyanophylli (Signoret, 1869) – Cyanophyllum scale
• *Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, 1833 – Oleander scale
• *Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock, 1881) – Camellia scale; greedy scale
• *Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman, 1869) – Mussel scale
• *Lepidosaphes gloverii (Packard, 1869) – Glover’s scale.
*These species are quarantine pests for the State of Western Australia due to their absence from this State.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Lepidosaphes beckii: Coccus beckii Newman, 1869; Aspidiotus citricola Packard, 1869;
Coccus anguinis Boisduval; Mytilaspis flavescens Targioni Tozzetti; Mytilaspis citricola
(Packard); Mytilaspis citricola tasmaniae Maskell; Mytilaspis tasmaniae (Maskell);
Mytilaspis beckii (Newman); Mytilaspis (Lepidosaphes) beckii (Newman); Lepidosaphes
citricola (Packard); Lepidosaphes (Mytilaspis) beckii (Newman); Mytilaspis anguineus
(Boisduval); Mytilococcus piniformis; Mytilococcus beckii (Newman); Cornuaspis beckii
(Newman); Parlatoria beckii (Newman).
Host(s):
Aspidiotus nerii: A. nerii is a highly polyphagous insect that has been recorded on
hundreds of host species in over 100 plant families (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975). Its
many hosts include agricultural crops, palms, cut flowers and woody ornamentals (but not
conifers) (CAB International, 2003).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Hemiberlesia rapax: H. rapax is primarily found on the leaves and bark of woody
ornamentals representing over 117 genera (Davidson and Miller, 1990). Dekle (1976)
listed 92 hosts for this species.
Hosts include: Actinidia chinensis (Chinese gooseberry), Actinidia deliciosa (kiwi fruit),
Beilschmiedia tarairi, Carya illinoensis (pecan), Olea europaea subsp. europaea (olive),
Vaccinium sp. (blueberry) (CAB International, 2003); Mangifera indica (mango) (Butani,
1993).
Lepidosaphes beckii: Agave sisalana (sisal agave), Elaeagnus sp. (oleaster), Mangifera
indica (mango), Musa sp. (banana) (CAB International, 2003); Citrus aurantifolia (lime),
Citrus limon (lemon), Citrus maxima (pummelo, shaddock), Citrus × paradisi (grapefruit),
Citrus reticulata (mandarin orange, tangerine), Citrus sinensis (sweet orange), Hibiscus sp.
(Williams and Watson, 1988).
Lepidosaphes gloverii: L. gloverii attacks all citrus cultivars. According to Davidson and
Miller (1990), the host range of L. gloverii covers 8 plant families and 19 genera. Hosts
include: Alocasia macrorrhizos (giant taro), Carissa sp. (CAB International, 2003); Citrus
aurantifolia (lime), Citrus aurantium (sour orange), Citrus limon (lemon), Citrus maxima
(pummelo, shaddock), Citrus reticulata (mandarin orange, tangerine), Citrus sinensis
(sweet orange) (Williams and Watson, 1988); Codiaeum variegatum (croton), Erythrina
spp. (coral tree), Euonymus sp. (spindle tree), Fortunella sp. (kumquat), Mangifera indica
(mango), Poncirus sp. (bitter orange, trifoliate orange) (CAB International, 2003).
Plant part(s) affected: For the listed armoured scales, the plant parts affected include
leaves, stem and fruit (CAB International, 2003; Srivastava, 1997).
Distribution:
Abgrallaspis cyanophylli: Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia (Tahiti) (Williams and
Watson, 1988); Georgia, India (Tamil Nadu) (CAB International, 2003); Kiribati, New
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Western Samoa (Williams and
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Watson, 1988). This species has also been recorded in Australia (New South Wales,
Queensland, Tasmania), but not in Western Australia (AICN, 2004).
Aspidiotus nerii: A. nerii has a worldwide distribution (DeBach and Rosen, 1991). In Asia,
A. nerii is recorded from China (CAB International, 2003); India (Butani, 1993); Iran,
Israel, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Turkey (CAB International, 2003).
This species has also been recorded in Australia (New South Wales, Queensland,
Tasmania), but not in Western Australia (CAB International, 2003). For a full distribution
listing, refer to CAB International (2003).
Probability of importation
The likelihood that armoured scales will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh
mangoes from India: High.
• Armoured scale species are frequently reported in mango orchards in India
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
(DPP, 2001; Srivastava, 1997), and they are associated with mango fruit.
• First instar nymphs (or crawlers) are incapable of further movement once they
have settled and commenced feeding (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975), as
crawlers lose their legs at the first moult. Subsequent instars are sessile (CAB
International, 2003).
• Armoured scales construct an external protective covering or ‘scale’, that
protects them against physical and chemical aggressions (Foldi, 1990). Without
this scale cover, the adult insect would die from desiccation.
• Armoured scales are likely to be difficult to remove during fruit cleaning,
sorting and packing, especially at low population levels due to this scale cover.
• Inspection procedures carried out in the packing station are concerned primarily
with quality standards of fruit with regard to blemishes, bruising or damage to
the skin. Although all fruit are visually inspected, the procedures are not
specifically directed at the detection of small arthropod pests present on the
fruit surface.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse will not
completely remove all pests from the fruit surface. While armoured scales may
be affected by the washing solution, they are unlikely to be destroyed by it. The
physical properties of the scale cover (i.e. hardness and impermeability, provide
an effective barrier against contact toxicants (Foldi, 1990)).
• Armoured scales are likely to survive storage and transportation. L. beckii may
over-winter in the egg stage (CAB International, 2003).
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that armoured scales will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
• Adults and crawlers are likely to survive storage and transport and be
associated with infested waste. Armoured scales may enter the environment in
several ways: adults may be discarded with fruit, first instar nymphs (crawlers)
may be discarded with waste carton and liners, or crawlers can be blown by
wind currents or carried by other vectors (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975), from
mangoes at the point of sale or after purchase by consumers. Long-range
dispersal would require movement of adults and nymphs with infested host
material (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975). Shorter-range dispersal would occur
readily through the random movement of crawlers with wind currents, or
biological or mechanical vectors.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin).
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• Because armoured scales are polyphagous and all life stages survive in the
environment for some time, they could be transferred to a susceptible host.
• Dispersal of first-instar nymphs or crawlers is accomplished mainly by active
wandering and wind (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975). Birds, insects and other
animals, including humans may act as vectors (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975).
Subsequent instars are sessile. Adult males short-lived, winged and capable of
weak flight (CAB International, 2003). They lack functional mouthparts and
cannot feed. Longevity of this stage generally is limited to a few hours
(Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975).
The likelihood that armoured scales will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: Moderate.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that armoured scales will establish based on a comparative assessment of
factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to
survive and propagate: High.
• Armoured scales are polyphagous and host plants are common in Australia (e.g.
citrus and mango), particularly in the warmer subtropical and tropical regions
of Australia.
• Existing control programs (e.g. broad spectrum pesticide applications) may be
effective to control armoured scales on some hosts, but may not be effective on
hosts where specific integrated pest management programs are used.
• Reproduction can be either sexual or parthenogenetic (without fertilisation)
(CAB International, 2003). Adult females of A. nerii lay eggs under their scale
armour. Eggs hatch as crawlers (first instar nymphs), and leave the scale
armour when conditions are suitable (CAB International, 2003).
• Armoured scales have a moderate reproductive rate (e.g. A. nerii females
average a total of around 100-150 eggs per female (CAB International, 2003),
while each L. gloverii female lays about 200 eggs during her lifespan (CAB
International, 2003)). Armoured scales have 2-6 generations per year,
depending on the species and climatic conditions (i.e. temperature (Beardsley
and Gonzalez, 1975)). For example, on citrus in Queensland, L. beckii has 5-6
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
generations per year, compared to 2-4 generations per year in New South Wales
(Smith et al., 1997). The life cycle from egg to adult on citrus can take 6-8
weeks for L. beckii and L. gloverii (Smith et al., 1997).
• Adult males are short-lived, winged and capable of weak flight (CAB
International, 2003). They lack functional mouthparts and cannot feed.
Longevity of this stage generally is limited to a few hours (Beardsley and
Gonzalez, 1975).
Probability of spread
The likelihood that armoured scales will spread based on a comparative assessment of
those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of
the geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• Once second and then subsequent generations of armoured scales are
established on commercial, susceptible household and wild host plants, they are
likely to persist indefinitely and to spread progressively over time. This spread
would be assisted by wind dispersal, vectors and by the movement of infested
plant material (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975). It is very unlikely that
armoured scales would be contained by management practices or by regulation.
• Crawlers may be moved within and between plantations by the movement of
infested plant material, vectors and wind (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975).
The overall likelihood that armoured scales will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that area
and subsequently spread within Australia: Moderate.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Armoured scales can cause direct harm to a wide range of host plants,
affecting fruit quality and the whole plant health. These armoured scale
species are highly polyphagous and host plants are common in Australia (e.g.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
citrus, mango). Armoured scales are estimated to have consequences that are
unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at
the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ Armoured scales introduced into a new environment will compete for
the environment resources with native species. They are estimated to have consequences that
are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance
at the local level.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ Programs to minimise the impact of these pests on host plants are likely
etc. to be costly and include pesticide applications and crop monitoring. Existing
control programs (e.g. broad spectrum pesticide applications) may be
effective to control armoured scales on some hosts, but may not be effective
on hosts where specific integrated pest management programs are used.
Armoured scales are estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the district level.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of these pests in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restrictions on a wide range of commodities. These restrictions may lead to a
loss of markets, which in turn would be likely to require industry adjustment.
International trade C ⎯ The presence of these pests in commercial production areas of a range
of export commodities (e.g. citrus, mango) may have a significant effect at
the district level due to any limitations to access to overseas markets where
these pests are absent.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
these pests on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have significant
consequences for the environment.
Soft scales damage host plants by sucking nutrients from plant parts, and excreting large
amounts of sugary honeydew onto fruit and leaves (Smith et al., 1997). The main
economic damage caused by soft scales is from the downgrading of fruit quality because
of sooty mould fungus growing on the honeydew (Smith et al., 1997). Heavy infestations
can reduce tree vigour and rates of photosynthesis.
The soft scales [Hemiptera: Coccidae] examined in this pest risk analysis are:
• Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, 1896 – Soft scale
• *Coccus longulus (Douglas, 1887) – Long soft scale
*This species is a quarantine pest for the State of Western Australia due to its absence from this State.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Host(s):
Hosts include: Acacia spp. (wattle), Annona spp. (custard apple), Arachis hypogaea
(peanut), Areca catechu (betel palm, betelnut), Artocarpus spp. (breadfruit), Averrhoa
carambola (carambola, starfruit), Bougainvillea sp., Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Camellia
sp., Carica papaya (papaya, pawpaw), Casuarina equisetifolia (beach she-oak), Citrus
spp., Cocos nucifera (coconut), Codiaeum variegatum (garden croton), Coffea spp.
(coffee), Colocasia esculenta (taro), Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin, squash), Delonix regia
(peacock-flower), Ficus spp. (fig), Glycine max (soybean), Grevillea robusta (silky oak),
Gossypium herbaceum (Arabian cotton), Hibiscus spp., Inocarpus fagifer (Tahiti chestnut),
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Hosts include: Ananas sp. (pineapple), Artocarpus spp. (breadfruit), Bixa orellana
(annatto), Blighia sapida (akee), Carica papaya (papaya, pawpaw), Cinnamomum spp.
(camphor, cinnamon), Citrus spp., Cocos nucifera (coconut), Codiaeum variegatum
(garden croton), Eucalyptus sp. (eucalypt, gum tree), Ficus spp. (fig), Hibiscus sp., Ixora
coccinea (jungle geranium), Malpighia glabra (acerola), Mangifera indica (mango),
Persea americana (avocado), Pometia pinnata (Pacific lychee), Psidium guajava (guava),
Psychotria sp. (wild coffee), Schefflera sp., Strelitzia sp. (bird-of-paradise), Terminalia
spp. (tropical almond), Thevetia peruviana (lucky nut), Vanilla sp. (Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
Plant part(s) affected: For the listed soft scales, the plant parts affected include leaves
and fruit (Smith et al., 1997; Peña and Mohyuddin, 1997; USDA, 2001).
Distribution:
Ceroplastes actiniformis: Brazil, Egypt, India (Bihar, Goa, West Bengal), Indonesia (Java,
Sumatra), Israel, Spain (Canary Islands), Sri Lanka (Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
Coccus longulus: C. longulus is distributed in Asia, Europe, Africa, North, Central and
South America and Oceania regions. In Asia, C. longulus is recorded from China
(Taiwan), Cyprus, Egypt, Guam, India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu),
Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka and Thailand
(Ben-Dov et al., 2001). This species has also been recorded in Australia (New South
Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia), but not in Western Australia
(Ben-Dov et al., 2001). For a full distribution listing, see Ben-Dov et al. (2001).
Milviscutulus mangiferae: Antigua and Barbuda, Bangladesh, Brazil, China (Hong Kong,
Taiwan), Colombia, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Fiji, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, India (Bihar, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal), Indonesia, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Martinique,
Mauritius, Mexico, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Puerto Rico, Réunion, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Tanzania (Zanzibar), Thailand, Tonga, United States (Florida, Hawaii, Texas), United
States Virgin Islands, Venezuela, Vietnam, Western Samoa (Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of importation
The likelihood that soft scales will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh
mangoes from India: High.
• Soft scale species are frequently reported in mango orchards in India (DPP,
2001), and they are associated with mango fruit.
• Soft scales are usually sessile (i.e. the complete life cycle of the adult male or
female takes place at the settling site of the first instar nymph or crawler (Ben-
Dov, 1997)). However, the majority of species possess functional legs in all
instars and consequently several species exhibit considerable mobility between
various organs of the host plant in the course of their annual development (Ben-
Dov, 1997).
• Most species of coccids are individually minute and inconspicuous but are
often easily discovered when congregated in masses or when covered with the
waxy matter excreted from their bodies (Srivastava, 1997).
• Soft scales are likely to be difficult to remove during fruit cleaning, sorting and
packing, especially at low population levels.
• Inspection procedures carried out in the packing station are concerned primarily
with quality standards of fruit with regard to blemishes, bruising or damage to
the skin. Although all fruit are visually inspected, the procedures are not
specifically directed at the detection of small arthropod pests present on the
fruit surface.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse will not
totally remove all pests from the fruit surface. While soft scales may be
affected by the washing solution, they are unlikely to be destroyed by it. This is
particularly true of those adult females or nymphs that are protected by hard,
waxy secretions. However, soft scales secrete very little wax compared to
armoured scales (Mau and Kessing, 1992).
• Soft scales are likely to survive storage and transportation.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that soft scales will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
• Adults and crawlers are likely to survive storage and transport and be
associated with infested waste. Soft scales may enter the environment in several
ways: adults may be discarded with fruit, first instar nymphs (crawlers) may be
discarded with waste carton and liners, crawlers can be blown by wind currents
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
The likelihood that soft scales will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh mango
fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: Moderate.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that soft scales will establish based on a comparative assessment of factors
in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to survive
and propagate: High.
• Soft scales are highly polyphagous and host plants are common in Australia
(e.g. citrus and mango), particularly in the warmer subtropical and tropical
regions of Australia.
• Existing control programs (e.g. broad spectrum pesticide applications) may be
effective to control soft scales on some hosts, but may not be effective on hosts
where specific integrated pest management programs are used.
• Soft scales have a high reproductive rate (e.g. on citrus in Israel, Ceroplastes
floridensis produced 52-1329 eggs per female in the spring generation (Podoler
et al., 1981)). Coccus longulus has 4-6 generations per year on citrus (Smith et
al., 1997).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of spread
The likelihood that soft scales will spread based on a comparative assessment of those
factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of the
geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• Coccus longulus has 4-6 generations per year on citrus (Smith et al., 1997).
Once second and then subsequent generations of soft scales are established on
commercial, susceptible household and wild host plants, they are likely to
persist indefinitely and to spread progressively over time. This spread would be
assisted by wind dispersal, vectors and by the movement of plant material
(Greathead, 1997). It is very unlikely that soft scales would be contained by
management practices or by regulation.
• Gravid females and crawlers may be moved within and between plantations by
birds, human clothing and in the hair of mammals (Greathead, 1997). Crawlers
can be dispersed by wind currents over considerable distances (Greathead,
1997).
The overall likelihood that soft scales will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that area
and subsequently spread within Australia: Moderate.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Soft scales can cause direct harm to a wide range of plant hosts,
affecting fruit quality and whole plant health. Fruit quality can be reduced by
the presence of secondary sooty mould. These soft scale species are highly
polyphagous and host plants are common in Australia (e.g. citrus, mango).
Soft scales are estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
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GROUP 3C – MEALYBUGS
Mealybugs injure the host plant by sucking sap through their tubular stylets, and excreting
large amounts of sugary honeydew onto fruit and leaves. Heavy infestations may damage
plants directly, while indirect damage may result from the ability of some mealybugs to
vector plant viruses. Sooty mould fungus growth on the honeydew can render the fruit
unmarketable and reduce the photosynthetic efficiency of leaves and cause leaf drop (CAB
International, 2003). Many mealybug species pose particularly serious problems to
agriculture when introduced into new areas of the world where their natural enemies are
not present (Miller et al., 2002).
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The mealybugs [Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] examined in this pest risk analysis are:
• *Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) – Striped mealybug
• Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) – Coconut mealybug
• Planococcus ficus (Signoret) – Grapevine mealybug
• Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell) – Coffee mealybug
• *Planococcus minor (Maskell) – Pacific mealybug
• Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) – Downey snowline mealybug
• Rastrococcus invadens Williams – Mealybug
• Rastrococcus spinosus (Robinson) – Philippine mango mealybug.
Planococcus ficus: Dactylopius ficus Signoret, 1875; Dactylopius vitis Signoret, 1875;
Dactylopius subterraneus Hempel, 1901; Pseudococcus ficus (Signoret); Pseudococcus
vitis (Signoret); Coccus vitis Niedielski; Pseudococcus vitis Leonardi, 1920; Pseudococcus
citrioides Ferris, 1922; Pseudococcus vitis Bodenheimer, 1924; Coccus vitis Borchsenius,
1949; Planococcus citrioides (Ferris); Planococcus vitis (Signoret); Pseudococcus
praetermissus Ezzat, 1962 (nomen nudum).
*These species are quarantine pests for the State of Western Australia due to their absence from this State.
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Host(s):
Ferrisia virgata: F. virgata is one of the most highly polyphagous mealybugs known,
attacking plant species belonging to some 160 genera in over 70 families (Ben-Dov et al.,
2001; CAB International, 2003). Many of the host species belong to the Leguminosae and
Euphorbiaceae families. Among the hosts of economic importance are: Anacardium
occidentale (cashew), Ananas comosus (pineapple), Annona cherimola (custard apple),
Brassica oleracea (cauliflower), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Citrus spp., Coffea spp.
(coffee), Corchorus sp. (jute), Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm), Glycine max
(soybean), Gossypium sp. (cotton), Litchi chinensis (lychee), Lycopersicon esculentum
(tomato), Mangifera indica (mango), Manihot esculenta (cassava, tapioca), Musa ×
paradisiaca (banana), Persea americana (avocado), Piper nigrum (black pepper), Psidium
guajava (guava), Solanum melongena (aubergine, eggplant), Theobroma cacao (cocoa)
and Vitis vinifera (wine grape) (CAB International, 2003).
Nipaecoccus nipae: N. nipae has an extensive host range, attacking over 80 genera of
plants belonging to 43 families including Annonaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae and Palmae
(Ben-Dov et al., 2001). It is recorded feeding on a wide range of economically important
plants, mostly fruit crops and ornamentals, and include: Ananas comosus (pineapple),
Annona muricata (soursop), Annona reticulata (bullock’s heart), Carica papaya (papaya,
pawpaw), Citrus sp., Cocos nucifera (coconut), Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm), Ficus
spp. (fig), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa sp. (banana), Persea americana (avocado),
Psidium guajava (guava), Theobroma cacao (cocoa) (CAB International, 2003). N. nipae
seems to prefer palms, such as species of Areca, Cocos, Kentia, Kentiopsis and Sabal
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
(CAB International, 2003). In temperate regions in Europe and North America, N. nipae
often attacks ornamental palms grown under glass.
Planococcus ficus: Bambusa sp. (bamboo), Cydonia oblonga (quince), Dahlia sp.,
Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. cinerea (sickle bush), Ficus benjamini (Benjamin-tree),
Ficus carica (fig), Fraxinus sp. (ash), Juglans sp. (walnut), Malus domestica (apple),
Malus pumila (paradise apple), Mangifera indica (mango), Morus sp. (mulberry), Nerium
oleander (oleander), Persea americana (avocado), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm),
Platanus orientalis (Oriental plane), Prosopis farcta, Punica granatum (pomegranate),
Salix sp. (willow), Styrax officinalis (storax), Tephrosia purpurea (purple tephrosia),
Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Vitis vinifera (wine grape), Ziziphus spina-christi (Christ’s
thorn) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; CAB International, 2003).
Planococcus lilacinus: The host range of P. lilacinus is extremely wide, attacking over 65
genera of plants within 35 families including Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Fabaceae, Leguminosae and Rutaceae (Ben-Dov et al., 2001). Comprehensive lists of
alternative host plants may be found in Williams (1982), Cox (1989) and Ben-Dov et al.
(2001). P. lilacinus attacks Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Psidium guajava (guava), Coffea
spp. (coffee), Mangifera indica (mango) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001), and other tropical and
sub-tropical fruits and shade trees (IIE, 1995b).
Planococcus minor: P. minor has a wide host range, attacking over 180 genera of plants
belonging to 64 families including Mangifera indica (mango) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
robusta, Psidium guajava (guava), Syzygium aqueum (water apple), Tabernaemontana sp.
(Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
Plant part(s) affected: For the listed mealybug species, the plant parts affected include
leaves and fruit (Bentley et al., 2003; CAB International, 2003; Peña and Mohyuddin,
1997; Srivastava, 1997; USDA, 2001).
Distribution:
Ferrisia virgata: F. virgata has spread to all zoogeographical regions, mainly in the
tropics, but often extends well into the temperate regions (CAB International, 2003). It is
widely distributed in Africa, Asia, North, Central and South America and Oceania regions.
Early geographical records of F. virgata need to be verified due to confusion with F.
malvastra (Ben-Dov, 1994).
In Asia, F. virgata is recorded from Bangladesh, British Indian Ocean Territory, Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Guangdong, Hong Kong, Taiwan) (CAB International,
2003); India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tripura (CAB
International, 2003); Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal (Ben-Dov et al., 2001)), Indonesia, Japan, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
United Arab Emirates, Vietnam and Yemen (CAB International, 2003). This species has
also been recorded in Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland), but not in Western
Australia (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; CAB International, 2003). For a full distribution listing,
refer to Ben-Dov et al. (2001) and CAB International (2003).
Nipaecoccus nipae: N. nipae is found in Asia, Africa, Europe, North, Central and South
America and Oceania (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; CIE, 1966). There is a tentative record of N.
nipae in Australia (Williams, 1985). However, Ben-Dov et al. (2001) does not list this
species as being present in Australia. In northern and central Europe, N. nipae is found in
glasshouses, particularly in botanical gardens, and does not appear to occur in the open. It
is therefore recorded as occasionally present in this region.
In Asia, N. nipae is recorded from Bangladesh, China, Georgia (CAB International, 2003);
India (Bihar, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal) (CIE, 1966), Korea, Republic of, Pakistan,
Thailand, Turkey and Vietnam (CAB International, 2003). For a full distribution listing,
refer to Ben-Dov et al. (2001) and CAB International (2003).
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Planococcus minor: American Samoa, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia (New
South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia), Bangladesh, Bermuda,
Brazil, British Indian Ocean Territory, China (Taiwan), Colombia, Cook Islands, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Ecuador (Galapagos Islands), Fiji, French Polynesia (Austral
Islands, Society Islands), Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras,
India (Karnataka), Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, Sumatra), Jamaica, Japan, Kiribati,
Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius (Rodriques Island), Mexico, Myanmar, New Caledonia,
Niue, Papua New Guinea, Philippines (Luzon), Saint Lucia, Seychelles, Singapore,
Solomon Islands, Suriname, Thailand, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, United States Virgin
Islands, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Western Samoa (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; CAB International,
2003).
This species is present in Bangladesh, India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal), Indonesia,
Kenya, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania (Zanzibar) (Williams, 1989); China (Hong Kong)
(Ben-Dov et al., 2001); Malawi (Luhanga and Gwinner, 1993).
Rastrococcus invadens: Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, China (Hong Kong), Congo, Gabon,
Ghana, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Togo,
Vietnam (Ben-Dov et al., 2001); Congo Democratic Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, India
(Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal), Nigeria, Sierra Leone (CABI/EPPO, 1998).
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NOTE: The listed mealybug species are recognised as significant pests of mangoes in
India. Due to the recognised importance of Rastrococcus iceryoides, it was used as the
basis for the risk assessment and development of proposed risk management measures for
all mealybug species identified.
Probability of importation
The likelihood that mealybugs will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh
mangoes from India: High.
• Mealybugs are known to be associated with mango fruit in India (Srivastava,
1997). Later instar nymphs and adult females of Rastrococcus iceryoides
usually feed on the tender terminal shoots, inflorescences and fruits, while first
instar nymphs feed on the underside of leaves (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970). In
severe infestations, all the tender shoots, inflorescences and fruits of mango are
infested by different stages of the pest (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970).
• Mealybugs have limited mobility, are small (0.5-4 mm) and often
inconspicuous, but may be present in significant populations on fruit.
• Mealybugs are likely to be present on the surface of the fruit, and are likely to
be difficult to remove during cleaning, sorting and packing especially at low
population levels.
• Inspection procedures carried out in the packing station are concerned primarily
with quality standards of fruit with regard to blemishes, bruising or damage to
the skin. Although all fruit are visually inspected, the procedures are not
specifically directed at the detection of small arthropod pests present on the
fruit surface.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse may not
totally remove all pests from the fruit surface. While mealybugs may be
affected by the washing solution, they are unlikely to be destroyed by it. This is
particularly true of those adult females or nymphs that are protected by waxy
cocoons or coating/covering.
• The pests are likely to survive storage and transportation as adult females of R.
iceryoides are known to hibernate during the winter in India (Rawat and
Jakhmola, 1970). Mated adult females of R. iceryoides can live for 13-23 days
and unmated females can live for up to 80 days, while adult males live for only
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1-2 days (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970). There is a high likelihood that viable
mealybugs present on the fruit would remain viable on arrival in Australia.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that mealybugs will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
• The pests are likely to survive storage and transportation as adult females of R.
iceryoides are known to hibernate during the winter in India (Rawat and
Jakhmola, 1970). Mated adult females of R. iceryoides can live for 13-23 days
and unmated females can live for up to 80 days, while adult males live for only
1-2 days (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970). There is a high likelihood that viable
mealybugs present on the fruit would remain viable on arrival in Australia.
• Adults and nymphs are likely to be associated with infested waste. Mealybugs
can enter the environment in three ways: adults can be associated with
discarded mango skin, first instar nymphs (crawlers) may be discarded with
waste carton and liners, or crawlers can be blown by wind currents (Ben-Dov,
1994) or carried by other vectors, from mangoes at the point of sale or after
purchase by consumers. Long-range dispersal would require movement of
adults and nymphs on infested plant material (CAB International, 2003).
Shorter-range dispersal would occur readily through the random movement of
crawlers with wind currents, or biological or mechanical vectors (CAB
International, 2003). Because all stages of mealybugs survive in the
environment for some time, they could be transferred to a susceptible host
because they are highly polyphagous.
• Adult female mealybugs would need to be carried onto hosts by vectors such as
people or animals. Adult males of R. iceryoides are winged but fragile and
short-lived and do not persist for more than 1-2 days (Rawat and Jakhmola,
1970). The first-instar is the main means of dispersal, by active crawling and
passive dispersal by wind and animal agencies (CAB International, 2003).
The likelihood that mealybugs will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh mango
fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: Moderate.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that mealybugs will establish based on a comparative assessment of factors
in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to survive
and propagate: High.
• Mealybugs are highly polyphagous and host plants are common in Australia
(e.g. citrus, mango and pineapple), particularly in the warmer subtropical and
tropical regions of Australia.
• Mealybugs have a high reproductive rate. The reproductive strategy, and thus
persistence, of these pests is based largely on the longevity and fecundity of the
adult female, the mobility of the short-lived adult male and the ability of the
crawlers to disperse via crawling, vectors or wind and locate new hosts. For
example, R. iceryoides is known to reproduce sexually, and mating must occur
for viable eggs to be produced (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970). On mango,
fecundity of R. iceryoides ranged from 450-585 eggs per female (Rawat and
Jakhmola, 1970).
• Unmated females of R. iceryoides live for up to 80 days while mated females
can live for 13-23 days (Rawat and Jakhmola, 1970). Adult males live for only
1-2 days and start copulation soon after their emergence (Rawat and Jakhmola,
1970). The first instar nymphs or ‘crawlers’ disperse by active crawling and
passive dispersal by wind and animal agencies to suitable feeding sites on new
or host plants (CAB International, 2003). Nymphs are active during the first
instar stage and can travel some distance to a new plant before their mobility
becomes limited for the remaining nymphal instars.
• Although mealybugs imported with fruit are likely to be at non-mobile stages,
they can be transported to suitable hosts by ants.
• Many mealybugs are considered invasive and have been introduced into new
areas and established (Miller et al., 2002). These mealybug species have shown
that they have the ability to establish after being introduced into new
environments. For example, P. lilacinus is native to the Afrotropical region
(Miller et al., 2002) and is now established in the Palaearctic, Malaysian,
Oriental, Australasian and Neotropical regions (CAB International, 2003).
Probability of spread
The likelihood that mealybugs will spread based on a comparative assessment of those
factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of the
geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• R. iceryoides is capable of completing 6-9 generations on mango (Rawat and
Jakhmola, 1970). Once second and then subsequent generations of mealybugs
are established on commercial, susceptible household and wild host plants,
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
The overall likelihood that mealybugs will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that area
and subsequently spread within Australia: Moderate.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Mealybugs can cause direct harm to a wide range of plant hosts (CAB
International, 2003). Fruit quality can be reduced by the presence of
secondary sooty mould. Mealybug are highly polyphagous and host plants
are common in Australia (e.g. citrus, mango, pineapple). Mealybugs are
estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the
national level and of minor significance at the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ Mealybugs introduced into a new environment will compete for
the environment resources with native species. They are estimated to have consequences that
are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance
at the local level.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ Programs to minimise the impact of these pests on host plants are likely
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etc. to be costly and include pesticide applications and crop monitoring. Existing
control programs can be effective for some hosts (e.g. broad spectrum
pesticide applications) but not all hosts (e.g. where specific integrated pest
management programs are used). Insecticides do not generally provide
adequate control of R. iceryoides owing to the waxy coating on the mealybug
(CAB International, 2003). Mealybugs are estimated to have consequences
that are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor
significance at the district level.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of these pests in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restrictions on a wide range of commodities. These restrictions can lead to a
loss of markets, which in turn would be likely to require industry adjustment.
International trade C ⎯ The presence of these mealybugs in commercial production areas of a
wide range of commodities (e.g. citrus, mango, pineapple) could have a
significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to access to overseas
markets where these pests are absent. These pests are all associated with
citrus. Australia exports citrus fruit worth $40-60 million to the USA from
the Riverland-Sunraysia-Riverina (R-S-R) area. Extension of this area has
also been negotiated for the USA market. Consideration for export of citrus
from areas in Queensland and New South Wales to the USA market is also
underway.
Ferrisia virgata has been reported in the USA (Ben-Dov et al., 2001) and
therefore will not be likely to affect citrus trade with the USA if they became
established in Australia.
Planococcus lilacinus and Rastrococcus iceryoides, however, do not occur in
the continental USA (Miller et al., 2002) and, if it became established in the
R-S-R and other possible export areas in Australia, would complicate citrus
trade with the USA and might result in the reintroduction of fumigation for
unidentifiable mealybugs or the necessity for pest survey to verify freedom
from mealybugs in the export citrus orchards.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
these pests on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have significant
consequences for the environment.
Plant bugs injure a wide range of plants, from vegetables to trees. They damage the host
plant by sucking nutrients from plant parts using their stylets (Hori, 2000). This causes
injury to plant tissues, and can result in lesions at the feeding point, as well as tissue
malformations when they feed on young growing tissues (e.g. young fruits) (Hori, 2000).
During the feeding process, they may also transmit plant disease organisms, which
increases their damage potential. The plant bugs [Hemiptera: Lygaeidae, Pyrrhocoridae]
examined in this pest risk analysis are:
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Host(s):
Distribution:
Spilostethus pandurus: Cyprus, France, India (Delhi, Rajasthan), Iran, Israel, Italy,
Lebanon, Morocco (CAB International, 2003); Egypt, Iraq, Libya, Pakistan, Ethiopia,
Somalia, Sudan (Gentry, 1965)
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of importation
The likelihood that plant bugs will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh
mangoes from India: Very low.
• Both species are known to be associated with mango fruit in India (DPP, 2001).
However, Dysdercus koenigii is regarded as an important and damaging pest of
cotton rather than mango (Schaefer and Ahmad, 2000), while Spilostethus
pandurus feeds preferentially on members of the Asclepiadaceae such as
Calotropis (Sweet, 2000). S. pandurus sucks sap from the flower, fruits, the
epidermis of tender branches, shoot and leaves of broad bean and jamon
branches (Bhattacherjee, 1959), and had a devastating effect on the number of
fruit developing.
• D. koenigii lays eggs in soil litter (Kamble, 1971) or eggs are scattered on the
substrate (Ahmad and Mohammad, 1983), while females of S. pandurus lay
eggs in one or more clusters underneath fallen leaves or flowers (Sweet, 2000).
• Adults of D. koenigii are 11-15.5 mm in length; adults of S. pandurus are 12
mm. Both are large and easily visible.
• The adults fly away from fruit when disturbed.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse would
remove all pests from the fruit surface.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that plant bugs will be distributed as a result of the processing, sale or
disposal of fresh mangoes from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
• Adults and nymphs are likely to be associated with infested waste. Plant bugs
are likely to enter the environment in two ways: nymphs may be discarded with
mango skin, mature into adults and fly to a suitable host plant, or adults can fly
directly to suitable hosts.
The likelihood that plant bugs will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh mango
fruit, and be distributed to the endangered area: Very low.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that plant bugs will establish based on a comparative assessment of factors
in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to survive
and propagate: Moderate.
• Plant bugs can infest a moderate range of plants that include citrus, cotton,
lychee, mango, peach and sugarcane (DPP, 2001; Sweet, 2000). Plant bugs are
likely to survive and find suitable hosts, especially in the warmer subtropical
and tropical regions of Australia.
• Bhattacherjee (1959) reported that 50 to 60 eggs are laid per S. pandurus
female, with as many as 90 laid in one or more clusters underneath fallen leaves
or flowers. Thangavelu (1979) recorded 45 to 90 eggs with an exceptional case
of 130. Higher oviposition levels of 75-232 with an average of 150 has been
reported when S. pandurus is fed on Calotropis seeds (Mukhopadhyay, 1983).
• At temperature lower than 60°F there was no copulation or oviposition by S.
pandurus (Thangavelu, 1979).
• Average longevity of S. pandurus adults in captivity was 24-32 days in the
summer and 24-48 days in the winter (Bhattacherjee, 1959). Kugelberg (1973)
found the adults to live for about 3 months and some individuals survived for 7
months. These differences may be attributed to different geographic
populations or ecotypes.
• In southern India under warmer conditions, there are 6-7 overlapping
generations for S. pandurus (Thangavelu, 1979).
Probability of spread
The likelihood that plant bugs will spread based on a comparative assessment of those
factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of the
geographical distribution of the pest: Moderate.
• S. pandurus is capable of completing 6-7 overlapping generations in the
warmer conditions found in southern India (Thangavelu, 1979). Once second
and then subsequent generations of plant bugs are established on commercial,
susceptible household and wild host plants, plant bugs are likely to persist
indefinitely and to spread progressively over time. This spread would be
assisted by the movement of plant material and adult flight. It is very unlikely
that plant bugs would be contained by management practices or by regulation.
• Eggs and instars of D. koenigii are probably the most chemical-sensitive stages,
against which the least amount of pesticides might be used (Schaefer and
Ahmad, 2000). Several natural plant products have been tested for sterilising or
growth-inhibiting effects, but their potential is still being investigated. There
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
are only a few reports of biological control, such as a spider, reduviid bug and
predaceous pyrrhocorid Antilochus coquebertii, preying on D. koenigii, a
helminth occasionally parasitising females, and a mite Hemipteroseius indicus
reducing populations of this red cotton bug (Schaefer and Ahmad, 2000).
• Bhattacherjee (1959) recommends the removal and destruction of reservoir
plant species, like Calotropis (milkweed) and Vernonia, and the use of long-
lasting contact insecticide to protect the crop plant from S. pandurus.
Insecticides such as methyl-parathion, methyl-demeton, phosphamidon,
dimethoate, malathion, carbaryl, endosulfan, chlordane, BHS, endrin and
toxaphene are effective against S. pandurus (Sweet, 2000).
The overall likelihood that plant bugs will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mangoes from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that area
and subsequently spread within Australia: Very low.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Plant bugs can cause direct harm to a moderate range of plant hosts. D.
koenigii can damage cotton by introducing fungi (Schaefer and Ahmad,
2000). Plant bugs are estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the regional
level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ Plant bugs introduced into a new environment will compete for
the environment resources with native species. They are estimated to have consequences that
are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance
at the local level.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control C ⎯ Programs to minimise the impact of these pests on host plants are likely
etc. to be costly and include pesticide applications and crop monitoring. A variety
of insecticides are effective against S. pandurus. However, the potential of
natural plant products in sterilising or inhibiting the growth of D. koenigii is
still being investigated. There are only a few reports of biological control of
D. koenigii. Plant bugs are estimated to have consequences that are unlikely
to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the district
level.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of these pests in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restrictions on a wide range of commodities. These restrictions can lead to a
loss of markets, which in turn would be likely to require industry adjustment.
International trade C ⎯ The presence of these pests in commercial production areas of a wide
range of commodities (e.g. cotton, mango) is likely to have a significant
effect at the regional level due to any limitations to access to overseas
markets where these pests are absent.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
these pests on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have significant
consequences for the environment.
The red-banded mango caterpillar (RBMC) is recorded as a pest of mango fruit in India. It
has been described as a major pest in the Orissa region (Butani, 1979) and has previously
caused considerable damage to mango fruit in the Andhra Pradesh region (Zaheruddeen
and Sujatha, 1993). Larvae bore into both young and more mature fruits and feed on the
fruit pulp; later instar larvae feed on the seed (CAB International, 2003). The caterpillar
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
• Deanolis sublimbalis Snellen – Red-banded mango caterpillar.
Host(s): Cyperus rotundus (nut grass, purple nut sedge), Mangifera indica (mango),
Mangifera odorata (kuwini) (CAB International, 2003).
Plant part(s) affected: Fruit (Srivastava, 1997; Zaheruddeen and Sujatha, 1993); seed
(CAB International, 2003).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of importation
The likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will arrive in Australia with the importation of
fresh mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• D. sublimbalis is known to be associated with the mango fruit pathway (CAB
International, 2003). Eggs are laid in masses on the fruit apex and hatch in 3-4
days (Golez, 1991). Young larvae attack tender fruit at an early stage and start
boring at the distal end of the fruit (Srivastava, 1997). Larvae bore into both
young and more mature fruits and produce a small dot at the point of entry
(CAB International, 2003). The affected part heals up and a ring like a pale
brown patch is formed (CAB International, 2003; Srivastava, 1997). Larvae
begin by feeding on the fruit pulp and form a network of tunnels; later instar
larvae feed on the seed (CAB International, 2003). Up to eleven larvae have
been found in a single fruit (CAB International, 2003).
• An external sign of infestation is the presence of a liquid exudate from the
mouth of a tunnel chewed by the caterpillar through the skin (QDPIF, 2004).
The exudate trickles down to the tip of the fruit and accumulates. Although
almost clear when fresh, the liquid quickly darkens and shows up as a dark
streak on the skin leading to a dark spot, often about 1 cm in diameter, at the
fruit tip (QDPIF, 2004). Early signs of infestation may not be as easily seen and
could include small darkened boreholes on the fruit caused by entering larvae
(QDPIF, 2004).
• Damaged fruits may be secondarily attacked by fruit flies and various decaying
microorganisms. They fall from the tree prematurely even if apparently ripe
(Peña and Mohyuddin, 1997).
• Infested fruit can be detected by the presence of a dark brown ring and
caterpillar frass at the entry point (CAB International, 2003).
• Inspection procedures carried out in the packing station are concerned primarily
with quality standards of fruit with regard to blemishes, bruising or damage to
the skin. Although all fruit are visually inspected, the procedures are not
specifically directed at the detection of internal pests that may be feeding under
the surface of the fruit.
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse would not
remove the larvae from under the fruit surface.
• It is likely that RBMC larvae would survive storage and transportation due to
the availability of an ample food supply. Larvae take about two weeks to fully
develop and mature larvae pupate inside the fruit (CAB International, 2003).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will be distributed to the endangered area as a
result of the processing, sale or disposal of mango fruit from India: High.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin, seed).
• Although damaged fruit are likely to be detected and removed from
consignments due to quality concerns, RBMC larvae have the capacity to
complete their development in discarded fruit and transfer to suitable hosts.
• Larvae take about 14-20 days to complete their development (Peña and
Mohyuddin, 1997). Mature larvae can pupate inside the stored fruit, at the point
of sale or after purchase by consumers.
• If adults and larvae were to survive storage and transport, they may enter the
environment in two ways: larvae may be discarded with mango fruit, or adults
may fly directly to a suitable host plant.
The likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit from India, and be distributed to the endangered area: Moderate.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will establish based on a comparative assessment
of factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest
to survive and propagate: High.
• The host range of RBMC is limited and is only known to include Cyperus
rotundus, Mangifera indica and M. odorata (CAB International, 2003).
However, host plants such as mango (Mangifera indica) are present throughout
tropical and subtropical regions of Australia.
• Since 1990, RBMC has been detected on several Torres Strait Islands. RBMC
is now known to occur at several locations near the northern tip of Cape York
Peninsula, Queensland, after its detection in 2001 (QDPIF, 2004). A control
program and surveys are currently in place to eradicate RBMC from Cape York
Peninsula.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Probability of spread
The likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will spread based on a comparative assessment of
those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of
the geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• Tropical or subtropical areas of Australia would be suitable for the spread of
RBMC because they are recorded from these environments.
• Adult moths are able to fly so are likely to spread to other host plants.
• No successful control methods have been recorded for this species (CAB
International, 2003). However, Golez (1991) reported that cyfluthrin and
deltamethrin were effective in controlling RBMC. Two species of egg
parasitoids (Trichogramma chilonis and T. chilotraeae) and one larval predator
species (Rhychium attrisimum) have been observed attacking immature stages
of RBMC in the Philippines (Golez, 1991).
The overall likelihood that Deanolis sublimbalis will enter Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in
that area and subsequently spread within Australia: Moderate.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Plant life or health C ⎯ Deanolis sublimbalis can cause direct harm to mangoes at the district
level. In tropical parts of Asia, it causes commercial losses in the order of 10-
15% (QDPIF, 2004). RBMC is estimated to have consequences that are
unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor significance at
the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known consequences of this pest on other aspects of the
the environment environment.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control C ⎯ A control program would need to be implemented in infested orchards
etc. to reduce fruit damage and yield losses, thereby increasing production costs.
A quarantine area has been established on Cape York Peninsula and Torres
Strait north of 13°45’S latitude by the Queensland Department of Primary
Industry to restrict the spread of RBMC (QDPIF, 2004). The Coen
Information and Inspection Centre is enforcing controls on mango fruit and
plant movements (QDPIF, 2004). Control of RBMC is difficult and has not
been successfully eradicated anywhere in the world (QDPIF, 2004). RBMC
is estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the
national level and of minor significance at the regional level.
Domestic trade C ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restriction on a wide range of commodities.
International trade C ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial mango production areas is
likely to have a significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to
access to overseas markets where this pest is absent. RBMC is estimated to
have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and
of minor significance at the regional level.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
RBMC on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have significant
consequences for the environment.
The honeydew moth is polyphagous and is often encountered on commercial crops such as
avocado, sorghum, maize, rice and mangoes (CAB International, 2003). It is an important
pest of citrus, grapes, loquats and pomegranates in the Mediterranean area (Balachowsky,
1972). The moth [Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
• Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Millière) – Honeydew moth.
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Host(s): Cryptoblabes gnidiella is polyphagous and able to use almost any plant, but it is
most often encountered on commercial crops (CAB International, 2003).
Hosts include: Allium sativum (garlic) (Swailem and Ismail, 1972); Annona muricata
(soursop) (CAB International, 2003); Azolla anabaena (azolla) (Sasmal and Kelshreshtha,
1978); Azolla pinnata (ferny azolla) (Takara, 1981); Citrus limon (lemon) (Sternlicht,
1979); Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) (Silva and Mexia, 1999); Coffea sp. (coffee) (CAB
International, 2003); Eleusine corana (ragi) (Singh and Singh, 1997); Eriobotrya japonica
(loquat) (Ascher et al., 1983); Ficus sp. (fig) (CAB International, 2003); Gossypium
hirsutum (cotton) (Swailem and Ismail, 1972); Macadamia ternifolia (smooth shell
macadamia nut) (Wysoki, 1986); Malus domestica (apple) (Carter, 1984); Mangifera
indica (mango) (CAB International, 2003); Mespilus sp. (medlar) (CAB International,
2003); Morus alba (mulberry) (CAB International, 2003); Musa sp. (banana) (Jager and
Daneel, 1999); Myrica faya (fayatree, firetree) (Duffy and Gardner, 1994); Oryza sativa
(rice) (Sasmal and Kulshreshtha, 1984); Osmanthus sp. (CAB International, 2003);
Panicum miliacem (millet panic) (Singh and Singh, 1997); Paspalum dilatatum (paspalum)
(Yehuda et al., 1991-1992); Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) (Kishore, 1991);
Pennisetum typhoideus (pearl millet) (Singh and Singh, 1997); Persea americana
(avocado) (Ascher et al., 1983); Phaseolus sp. (bean), Philodendron sp. (CAB
International, 2003); Prunus domestica (plum, prune), Prunus persica (peach), Punica
granatum (pomegranate) (Carter, 1984); Ricinus communis (castor bean), Saccharum
officinarum (sugarcane), Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper tree) (CAB
International, 2003); Solanum melongena (eggplant) (Swailem and Ismail, 1972); Sorghum
vulgare (sorghum) (Singh and Singh, 1995); Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany) (Akanbi,
1973); Tarchardia lacca (Yunus and Ho, 1980); Vaccinium sp. (blueberry) (Molina,
1998); Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (Hashem et al., 1997); Zea mays (maize) (Swailem and
Ismail, 1972).
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Probability of importation
The likelihood that Cryptoblabes gnidiella will arrive in Australia with the importation of
fresh mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• C. gnidiella lays up to 100 eggs on fruit or foliage and these hatch in 4-7 days
(Carter, 1984). On citrus, larvae mainly attack the fruit, but also feed on the
foliage, bark and twigs (Liotta and Mineo, 1964). Larvae are often found in
association with infestations of other pests (e.g. on citrus with the mealybug
Planococcus citri (Carter, 1984)). This moth is attracted to honeydew excreted
by mealybugs (Swirski et al., 1980).
• Routine washing procedures undertaken within the packinghouse may remove
eggs and larvae from the fruit surface.
• However, this pest is likely to survive storage and transportation. C. gnidiella is
known to overwinter in Israeli avocado orchards on fresh or dry fruits
remaining on the trees or on leaves infested with Protopulvinaria pyriformis,
on the weed Paspalum dilatatum and on various other plants (Yehuda et al.,
1991-1992). Overwintering moths emerge during March and April and produce
a first generation that does not cause any damage to the crop. The fifth
generation, flying in October to November, establishes the overwintering
population (Yehuda et al., 1991-1992). On sorghum in India, this pest was
active from the end of March to November and overwintered in the pupal stage
with the onset of cold weather (Singh and Singh, 1995).
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Cryptoblabes gnidiella will be distributed to the endangered area as a
result of the processing, sale or disposal of mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin).
• If adults and larvae were to survive storage and transport, they may enter the
environment in two ways: larvae may be discarded with mango fruit, or adults
may fly directly to a suitable host plant.
The likelihood that Cryptoblabes gnidiella will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit from India, and be distributed to the endangered area: Low.
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Probability of establishment
Probability of spread
The likelihood that Cryptoblabes gnidiella will spread based on a comparative assessment
of those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion
of the geographical distribution of the pest: High.
• C. gnidiella has 3-4 generations a year in southern Europe and up to 5 in North
Africa (Carter, 1984). Singh and Singh (1995) reported 9 generations per year
on sorghum in India. Once second and then subsequent generations of C.
gnidiella are established on commercial, susceptible household and wild host
plants, they are likely to persist indefinitely and to spread progressively over
time. It is very unlikely that C. gnidiella would be contained by management
practices or by regulation.
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• Adult moths are able to fly so are likely to spread to other host plants.
• C. gnidiella larvae are highly susceptible to Bacillus thuringiensis, especially
the first and second instars (CAB International, 2003).
• Studies have been conducted on the use of natural enemies and parasitoids,
chemicals (insecticides and synthetic pyrethroids) and pheromones to control
this pest in orchards and crops (CAB International, 2003).
The overall likelihood that Cryptoblabes gnidiella will enter Australia as a result of trade
in fresh mango fruit from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish
in that area and subsequently spread within Australia: Low.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Cryptoblabes gnidiella is polyphagous and host plants are common in
Australia (e.g. citrus, mango). This species is estimated to have consequences
that are unlikely to be discernible at the national level and of minor
significance at the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known consequences of this pest on other aspects of the
the environment environment.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ Programs to minimise the impact of this pest on host plants are likely to
etc. be costly and include pesticide applications and crop monitoring. A control
program would have to be implemented in infested orchards to reduce fruit
damage and yield losses, thereby increasing production costs. C. gnidiella is
estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at the
national level and of minor significance at the district level.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restriction on a wide range of commodities. These restrictions may lead to a
loss of markets, which in turn would be likely to require industry adjustment.
International trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial mango production areas is
likely to have a significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to
access to overseas markets where this pest is absent.
Environment B ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
the honeydew moth on susceptible crops, this is not considered to have
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Pomegranate fruit borer larvae bore inside the fruit and feed internally (Srivastava, 1997).
The fruit borer [Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
• Deudorix isocrates (Fabricius, 1793) – Pomegranate fruit borer.
Probability of importation
The likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will arrive in Australia with the importation of
fresh mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• D. isocrates lays a single egg on various parts of the shoots and the larva which
hatches out within 7-10 days bores inside the fruit (Srivastava, 1997).
• Infestation by this pest may result in rotting of fruit or premature fruit drop so
infested fruit are unlikely to be packed for export.
• Infested fruit can be detected by the presence of grassy material near the hole
(Srivastava, 1997).
• The presence of the larva on fruit can be easily discerned as the stout-bodied,
long larva is dark brown in colour (Srivastava, 1997).
• Although the signs of insect infestation on fruits can be detected, it is likely that
recently infested fruit would be exported as the larva can remain inside the
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fruit.
• The larvae of the borer in the shipment must survive for at least 15-16 days
before emerging from fruit to pupate upon arrival.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will be distributed to the endangered area as a
result of the processing, sale or disposal of mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin).
• If adults and larvae were to survive storage and transport, they may enter the
environment in two ways: larvae may be discarded with mango fruit, or adults
may fly directly to a suitable host plant.
The likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit from India, and be distributed to the endangered area: Low.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will establish based on a comparative assessment of
factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to
survive and propagate: High.
• D. isocrates is a polyphagous pest and infests fruit of apple, ber, litchi, guava,
loquat, mango, pear, plum, aonla and sapota.
• Adult longevity for males and females is 6.1 and 11.2 days respectively.
• In laboratory studies, the fecundity of females was 31.9±2.21 and 27.3±2.53 in
the first and second generations, respectively on aonla (Singh and Singh, 2001).
• On aonla, the longevity of males and females was 7.8±1.6 and 11.9±1.3 days,
respectively, in the first generation while in the second generation it was
6.8±0.98 and 11.3±0.40 days, respectively (Singh and Singh, 2001).
• Surviving female borers must then be successful in locating suitable mating
partners and fruiting hosts to lay eggs. The total life cycle is completed in 50
days.
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Probability of spread
The likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will spread based on a comparative assessment of
those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of
the geographical distribution of the pest: Moderate.
• Tropical or subtropical environments of Australia would be suitable for the
spread of D. isocrates because other Deudorix species are recorded from these
environments.
• The adult moths are able to fly so are likely to spread to other host plants.
• This pest can be controlled by using biological control (i.e. hymenopteran
wasps as larval parasitoids) and chemical sprays such as phosphamidon,
phenthoate, fenthion, methamidophos and endosulfan (Srivastava, 1997).
The overall likelihood that Deudorix isocrates will enter Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in
that area and subsequently spread within Australia: Low.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Deudorix isocrates can cause direct harm to a wide range of plant
species and is estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the regional
level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known consequences of this pest on other aspects of the
the environment environment.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ A control program would have to be implemented in infested orchards
etc. to reduce fruit damage and yield losses, thereby increasing production costs.
D. isocrates is estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the district level.
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Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restriction on a wide range of commodities.
International trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial mango production areas is
likely to have a significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to
access to overseas markets where this pest is absent.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
this fruit borer on susceptible crops, this is unlikely to affect the
environment.
The larvae of cocoa tussock moth cause serious damage to the young leaves of cacao in the
Philippines, both in nurseries and plantations. When very numerous they can cause total
defoliation, killing or stunting the tree (Sanchez and Laigo, 1968). The larvae also attack
fruits, especially mango, rendering them unsuitable for sale (Fasih et al., 1989). The
tussock moth [Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
• Orgyia postica (Walker, 1855) – Cocoa tussock moth.
Host(s): Amherstia nobilis, Camellia sinensis (tea), Cinchona sp., Cinnamomum sp.
(camphor, cinnamon), Coffea sp. (coffee), Dimocarpus longan (longan), Durio zibethinus
(durian), Erythrina spp. (coral tree), Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen), Glycine max
(soybean), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Lablab purpureus (hyacinth bean), Leucaena
leucocephala (horse tamarind), Litchi chinensis (lychee), Malpighia punicifolia (Barbados
cherry tree), Mangifera indica (mango), Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan), Populus
deltoides (black poplar), Pyrus communis (pear), Ricinus communis (castor bean), Rosa sp.
(rose), Syzygium cumini (jambolan), Tamarix plumosus, Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Vigna
radiata (mung bean), Vitis vinifera (wine grape), Ziziphus jujuba (jujube), Orchidaceae
(orchid) (CAB International, 2003).
Plant part(s) affected: Fruit, leaf, panicle, shoot (Fasih et al., 1989); stalk (Gupta &
Singh, 1986).
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Probability of importation
The likelihood that Orgyia postica will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh
mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• Diapausing egg masses on female cocoons can be found amongst stored fruit
(CAB International, 2003).
• Larvae of O. postica cause large scale defoliation of mango trees and in some
cases the fruits are also attacked and rendered unmarketable, so infested fruit
are unlikely to be packed for export.
• Larvae feed on stalks, skin and pulp of fruits and on new flushes of leaves
(Gupta and Singh, 1986). Damage to fruits is more severe in comparison to
leaves as larvae prefer to feed on the fruits (Gupta and Singh, 1986). Gupta and
Singh (1986) reported that up to 30% of trees in the Behat area of the
Saharanpur district were infested in late June to early July. The fruits, on their
stalk being damaged, drop from the tree prematurely and those left on the tree
with damaged skin and pulp lose their market value (Gupta and Singh, 1986).
• Larvae in the shipment must survive for at least 15-28 days to fully grow and
pupate in a cocoon on either leaves or stems.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Orgyia postica will be distributed to the endangered area as a result of
the processing, sale or disposal of mango fruit from India: Moderate.
• The commodity is likely to be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale.
The intended use of the commodity is human consumption but waste material
would be generated (e.g. mango skin).
• If eggs and larvae were to survive storage and transport, they may enter the
environment through discarded mango fruit.
The likelihood that Orgyia postica will arrive in Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit from India, and be distributed to the endangered area: Low.
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Probability of establishment
The likelihood that Orgyia postica will establish based on a comparative assessment of
factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest to
survive and propagate: Moderate.
• O. postica is a polyphagous pest and infests a wide range of crops (Fasih et al.,
1989). Larvae prefer to feed on fruit .
• Females are flightless and cling to the exterior of their cocoons and call males
to them (Sanchez and Laigo, 1968). Oviposition is generally on the cocoon,
with up to 60% of eggs producing larvae (Sanchez and Laigo, 1968).
• Eggs hatch after about 5-6 days, and the resulting male larvae take 15-26 days
to become fully grown; the larger, female larvae take 15-28 days (Sanchez and
Laigo, 1968). The female and male pupal stages last 4-5 and 6-7 days,
respectively (Sanchez and Laigo, 1968).
Probability of spread
The likelihood that Orgyia postica will spread based on a comparative assessment of those
factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of the
geographical distribution of the pest: Moderate.
• Tropical or subtropical environments of Australia would be suitable for the
spread of O. postica because it is recorded from these environments.
• Female moths are flightless, but males are diurnal and able to fly, so are likely
to spread to other host plants.
• Nuclear polyhedrosis virus in the Philippines has been recorded to cause larval
mortality. Few parasitoids and pathogens are recorded as natural enemies of O.
postica (CAB International, 2003).
The overall likelihood that Orgyia postica will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in that
area and subsequently spread within Australia: Low.
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Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Orgyia postica can cause direct harm to a wide range of plant species
and is estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be discernible at
the national level and of minor significance at the regional level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known consequences of this pest on other aspects of the
the environment environment.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ A control program would have to be implemented in infested orchards
etc. to reduce fruit damage and yield losses, thereby increasing production costs.
O. postica is estimated to have consequences that are unlikely to be
discernible at the national level and of minor significance at the district level.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial production areas is likely to
have a significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restriction on a wide range of commodities.
International trade B ⎯ The presence of this pest in commercial mango production areas is
likely to have a significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to
access to overseas markets where this pest is absent.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional pesticide applications would be required to control
cocoa tussock moth on susceptible crops, this is unlikely to affect the
environment.
FUNGI
Mango scab causes little economic damage if it is effectively controlled with chemicals.
Without chemical control, losses as high as 90% have been observed in one mango orchard
during an investigation in 1996-97 in Darwin, Australia (B.D. Condé, NT Department of
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Primary Industry and Fisheries, Darwin, Australia, unpublished data) (CAB International,
2003). The mango scab [Dothideales: Elsinoaceae] examined in this pest risk analysis is:
*Elsinoë mangiferae Bitancourt & Jenkins.
Probability of importation
The likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will arrive in Australia with the importation of
fresh mango fruit from India: Low.
• The conidia of Elsinoë can only infect young tissue of the leaves, stem, flower,
fruit stalk and young fruit. Fruit is no longer susceptible after it reaches about
half size. Heavily affected fruits fall off the tree (CAB International, 2003).
• Lesions on the fruit of the cultivar Kensington Pride, which remain on the tree,
develop into light-brown scabs or scar tissue, either as small scabs or large,
irregular scar tissue when the lesions coalesce.
• The disease is controlled mostly through fungicide use.
• Due to the visible symptoms of the disease on the mature fruit which remain on
the tree, most infected fruit will be discarded during sorting although some fruit
with minor symptoms may not be observed and be exported.
Probability of distribution
The likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will be distributed as a result of the processing,
sale or disposal of mango fruit from India, to the endangered area: Moderate.
*This species is a quarantine pest for the State of Western Australia due to its absence from this State.
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• The pathogen is likely to survive storage and transportation but may progress to
visible lesions ranging from small black spots to small or large scarred areas
before distribution (CAB International, 2003).
The likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will enter Australia as a result of trade in fresh
mango fruit from India, and be distributed in a viable state to the endangered area: Low.
Probability of establishment
The likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will establish based on a comparative assessment
of factors in the source and destination areas considered pertinent to the ability of the pest
to survive and propagate: Moderate.
• The host range of E. mangiferae is limited to mango.
• Conducive conditions for the establishment of E. mangiferae may occur in
some production areas in Australia during the growing season. E. mangiferae
was recorded in Australia (in Northern Territory and Queensland). Active
lesions, characterised by pale brown growth of the conidiophores and conidia,
have only been found during wet weather (CAB International, 2003).
• Mango imports would generally be counter-seasonal to Australian mango
production.
• The skin of infected fruit is likely to be thrown into backyard compost heaps,
therefore the pathogen may survive and might find mango host nearby,
especially in the warmer subtropical and tropical regions of Australia where
mangoes are grown.
Probability of spread
The likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will spread based on a comparative assessment of
those factors in the area of origin and in Australia considered pertinent to the expansion of
the geographical distribution of the pest: Moderate.
• Tropical or subtropical environments of Australia would be suitable for the
spread of E. mangiferae if mango hosts were available.
• The pathogen requires rain splash and periods of free water to produce conidia
and for the germination of these conidia to produce new infections.
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• Under extremely wet and gusty conditions, but in a sheltered situation, the
disease was observed to spread 4.25 m (CAB International, 2003).
• Sexual stage of the fungus (ascospores) was only rarely found and asexual
conidia were responsible for the bulk of infections (CAB International, 2003).
The overall likelihood that Elsinoë mangiferae will enter Australia as a result of trade in
fresh mango fruit from India, be distributed in a viable state to suitable hosts, establish in
that area and subsequently spread within Australia: Low.
Consequences
Criterion Estimate
Direct consequences
Plant life or health C ⎯ Elsinoë mangiferae is likely to cause significant direct harm to mango
production at the district level.
Any other aspects of A ⎯ There are no known direct consequences of this pest on the natural or
the environment built environment, such as the physical environment or microorganisms but
their introduction into a new environment may lead to competition for
resources with native species. There are no known direct consequences of
this disease on human life, health or welfare.
Indirect consequences
Eradication, control B ⎯ Programs to minimise the impact of this disease on host plants are
etc. likely to be required and incur costs for fungicide sprays and additional crop
monitoring.
Domestic trade B ⎯ The presence of this disease in commercial production areas may have a
significant effect at the local level due to any resulting interstate trade
restrictions on mangoes.
International trade B ⎯ The presence of this disease in commercial production areas of mango
may have a significant effect at the local level due to any limitations to
access to overseas markets where this pest is absent.
Environment A ⎯ Although additional fungicide applications would be required to control
this disease on mango, this is unlikely to affect the environment.
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Table 7 summarises the detailed risk assessments and provides unrestricted risk estimates
for the quarantine pests considered to be associated with fresh mangoes from India.
Table 8 provides the final list of quarantine pests associated with fresh mangoes from India
that have been assessed to have unrestricted risk assessment above Australia’s ALOP, and
therefore require risk management measures. The proposed risk management measures are
described in the following section.
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Probability of Overall
Probability of
Scientific name Common name Entry Establishment Spread entry, Consequences Unrestricted risk
establishment
and spread
ARTHROPODA
Coleoptera [beetles, weevils]
Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) Mango pulp weevil Moderate High Moderate Low Moderate Low
*Sternochetus mangiferae (Fabricius) Mango seed weevil High High Moderate Moderate Low Low
Diptera [flies]
Bactrocera caryeae (Kapoor) Fruit fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) Guava fruit fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) Melon fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera diversa (Coquillett) Three striped fruit fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Oriental fruit fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera tau (Walker) Fruit fly High High High High High High
Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) Peach fruit fly High High High High High High
Hemiptera [aphids, leafhoppers, mealybugs, psyllids, scales, true bugs, whiteflies]
*Abgrallaspis cyanophylli (Signoret) Cyanophyllum scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Aspidiotus nerii Bouché Oleander scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Ceroplastes actiniformis Green Soft scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Coccus longulus (Douglas) Long soft scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
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Probability of Overall
Probability of
Scientific name Common name Entry Establishment Spread entry, Consequences Unrestricted risk
establishment
and spread
Dysdercus koenigii (Fabricius) Red cotton bug Very low Moderate Moderate Very low Low Negligible
*Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) Striped mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock) Greedy scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman) Mussel scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Lepidosaphes gloverii (Packard) Glover’s scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Milviscutulus mangiferae (Green) Mango shield scale Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) Coconut mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Planococcus ficus (Signoret) Grapevine mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell) Coffee mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
*Planococcus minor (Maskell) Pacific mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) Downey snowline Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
mealybug
Rastrococcus invadens Williams Mealybug Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
Rastrococcus spinosus (Robinson) Philippine mango Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
mealybug
Spilostethus pandurus (Scopoli) Indian milkweed bug Very low Moderate Moderate Very low Low Negligible
Lepidoptera [butterflies, moths]
Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Millière) Honeydew moth Low High High Low Low Very low
Deanolis sublimbalis Snellen Red-banded mango Moderate High High Moderate Low Low
caterpillar
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Probability of Overall
Probability of
Scientific name Common name Entry Establishment Spread entry, Consequences Unrestricted risk
establishment
and spread
Deudorix isocrates (Fabricius) Pomegranate fruit Low High Moderate Low Low Very low
borer
Orgyia postica (Walker) Cocoa tussock moth Low Moderate Moderate Low Low Very low
FUNGI
*Elsinoë mangiferae Bitancourt & Mango scab Low Moderate Moderate Low Low Very low
Jenkins
* WA only – this species is a quarantine pest for the State of Western Australia due to its absence from this State.
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Table 8 Quarantine pests for fresh mango fruit from India assessed to have
unrestricted risk estimates above Australia’s ALOP
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Pest risk management evaluates and selects options for measures to reduce the risk of
entry, establishment or spread of quarantine pests assessed to pose an unacceptable level of
risk to Australia via the importation of commercially produced mangoes from India (i.e.
produced under standard cultivation, harvesting and packing activities).
Biosecurity Australia considers that the risk management measures proposed below are
commensurate with the identified risks and invites comments on their technical and
economic feasibility. In particular, comments are welcome on the appropriateness of the
measures and any alternative measures that stakeholders consider to be equivalent in
achieving the identified objectives Note that Biosecurity Australia regards the measures
listed below to be consistent with, and equivalent to, the measures that are currently in
place for the importation of fresh mangoes from Mexico and the Philippines (Guimaras
Island).
The measures described below will form the basis of the import conditions for fresh
mango fruit from India.
There are 4 categories of measures proposed to mitigate the risks identified in the pest risk
assessment:
1. Pre-export vapour heat treatment (VHT) or hot water treatment (HWT) for the
management of fruit fly species;
2. Designated pest free places of production or production sites for the management of
Sternochetus frigidus (mango pulp weevil) and S. mangiferae (mango seed weevil);
3. Inspection and remedial action for other identified quarantine pests; and
It is important to note that it is only appropriate for the unrestricted risk assessments to
take into account the minimum border procedures used by relevant government agencies
and not those measures approved by such agencies that are intended to mitigate risks
associated with the commodity itself. The minimum procedures include verifying that the
commodity is as described in the shipping documents and identifying external and internal
contaminations of containers and packaging. In order to have least trade restrictive
measures, the starting point for evaluation of the restricted risk management options first
considered the use of a 600-unit inspection in detecting quarantine pests requiring risk
management, and the subsequent remedial actions or treatments that might be applied if a
pest is intercepted.
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The standard AQIS sampling protocol requires inspection of 600 units, for quarantine pests
in systematically selected random samples per homogeneous consignment or lot. The unit
for mango is defined as one mango fruit. Biometrically, if no pests are detected by the
inspection, this sample size achieves a confidence level of 95% that not more than 0.5% of
the units in the consignment are infested/infected. The level of confidence depends on each
fruit in the consignment having about the same likelihood of being affected by a
quarantine pest and the inspection technique being able to reliably detect all quarantine
pests in the sample. If no live quarantine pests are detected in the sample, the consignment
is considered to be free from quarantine pests and would be released from quarantine.
Where a quarantine pest is intercepted in a sample, the remedial actions or treatments may
(depending on the location of the inspection) include:
• withdrawing the consignment from export to Australia;
• re-export of the consignment from Australia;
• destruction of the consignment; or
• treatment of the consignment to ensure that the pest is no longer viable.
It should be emphasised that inspection is not a measure that mitigates the risk of a pest. It
is the remedial actions or treatment that can be taken based on the results of the inspection
that would reduce a pest risk.
[1] Pre-export vapour heat treatment (VHT) or hot water treatment (HWT) for
the management of fruit fly species
In 2000, the APEDA of India proposed the use of VHT for the disinfestation of fruit flies.
APEDA, in collaboration with the IMOA also provided reports in 2002 and 2003 on the
efficacy of using VHT and HWT for the disinfestation of fruit flies.
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Both measures are known to reduce the risk associated with the identified fruit fly species
of quarantine concern to an acceptable level due to the proven efficacy of the treatment.
Biosecurity Australia considers that this measure is appropriate to reduce the risk
associated with fruit flies to very low, which is below Australia’s ALOP.
VHT efficacy trial data for fruit flies in mangoes was provided by India. Eggs and larvae
of Bactrocera dorsalis and B. cucurbitae (the two most heat tolerant species) were killed
when the mango fruit pulp temperature was maintained at 47.5°C for 20 minutes.
Biosecurity Australia accepts the use of VHT to mitigate the risk of fruit fly species of
quarantine concern associated with imported mango fruit from Guimaras Island
(Philippines). Australia also uses VHT to mitigate the risk of fruit flies for the export of
Australian mangoes to Japan.
It has been demonstrated that VHT adequately mitigates the risk posed by fruit fly species
of quarantine concern associated with mango fruit from India to a level that is below
Australia’s ALOP.
Temperature values need to be recorded to standards agreed between the IMOA and
Biosecurity Australia/AQIS and monitored by the IMOA.
The phytosanitary security of the product must be maintained after the vapour heat
treatment to prevent reinfestation by fruit flies. Phytosanitary inspection of the treated fruit
would be conducted by IMOA and the details of the treatment included on the
Phytosanitary Certificate (see measure 4).
India has developed and standardised an alternative heat disinfestation treatment for fruit
fly in mango fruit using hot water and has provided relevant efficacy data to Biosecurity
Australia. Eggs and larvae were killed when mango fruit were submerged in hot water at
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48°C for 60 minutes. This treatment is in commercial use in India and is the protocol
required for the export of Indian mangoes to China since 2003.
Hot water is used as an effective disinfestation treatment for certain fruit fly species in
certain fruits in international trade. Treatment schedules are generally specific to
particular combinations of pest species and commodity. For example, the USDA use
treatment schedule T102-a Hot water dip against Mediterranean fruit fly and Mexican fruit
fly in mangoes at a temperature of 115°F (46.1°C) for 65-110 minutes depending upon the
size (375-900g) and shape (flat, elongated vs rounded varieties) (USDA, 2004). The
literature indicates that the efficacy of the treatment is dependent upon the size and shape
of the mango fruit. Biosecurity Australia accepts this treatment against fruit flies for
mangoes from Mexico.
3. Water would circulate constantly and be kept at 48°C throughout the treatment period,
with the following tolerances:
a) During the first five minutes of the treatment – temperatures may fall as low as
47.4°C provided the temperature is at least 48°C at the end of the five minute
period.
4. The dip time must be extended for an additional 10 minutes if hydrocooling starts
immediately after the hot water immersion treatment.
Hot water treatment would be conducted in India in packinghouse facilities registered with
and audited by IMOA. Temperature values need to be recorded to standards agreed
between IMOA and Biosecurity Australia/AQIS and monitored by IMOA.
The phytosanitary security of the product would be maintained after hot water treatment to
prevent reinfestation by fruit flies. Phytosanitary inspection of the treated fruit would be
conducted by IMOA and the details of the treatment included on the Phytosanitary
Certificate (see measure 4).
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[2] Designated pest free places of production or pest free production sites
for the management of mango pulp and mango seed weevils
Sternochetus frigidus (mango pulp weevil, MPW) and S. mangiferae (mango seed weevil,
MSW) have been assessed to have an unrestricted risk estimate of low and therefore
measures are required to mitigate the risk.
The mango pulp and mango seed weevil enter the developing mango and feed internally
on the seed and/or pulp. As there are no clear visual signs of infestation, visual inspection
alone is not considered to be an appropriate risk management option. If infested fruit was
not detected at inspection, these weevils may enter, establish and spread in Australia.
The APEDA of India proposed the use of designated pest free places of production or pest
free production sites as a risk management measure for these internal feeding weevils and
sent survey data on pest free places of production or pest free production sites in 2003 and
2004. Biosecurity Australia therefore proposes this as a phytosanitary risk management
option for these pests.
The IMOA would be responsible for establishing, maintaining and verifying pest freedom
for MPW and MSW in “Pest free places of production and pest free production sites”, as
defined by the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM), Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), Publication No. 10 Requirements for the establishment of
pest free places of production and pest free production sites.
The IMOA would be responsible for the establishment of production area pest freedom by
verification of pest free places of production or pest free production sites by official
surveys and monitoring. Monitoring would involve field inspections and fruit cutting done
at least once during the growing season and before harvest. These monitoring surveys
would be conducted during each year of mango production for each pest free area before
consignments would be permitted for export to Australia. The results would be submitted
to Biosecurity Australia/AQIS before access can be considered.
The IMOA would maintain production area pest freedom and specify the measures in
place to prevent the introduction of the pest into the place of production or production site
or to destroy previously undetected infestations. The IMOA would advise Biosecurity
Australia/AQIS of the nominated orchards within the designated pest free places of
production/pest free production sites. The IMOA is required to notify Biosecurity
Australia/AQIS of any pest detected during routine monitoring and surveys conducted
during the production season.
Based on the survey data provided by the IMOA, for the 2004 season, designated pest free
areas have been established for the production areas of Barabanki, Malihabad, Saharanpur
in the Lucknow region, Uttar Pradesh, the areas of Navsari and Valsad in Gujarat and the
areas of Devgad, Kudal, Malvan, Sawantwadi and Vengurla in Maharashtra.
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The phytosanitary security of the product from these quarantine pests would be maintained
after harvest and phytosanitary inspection of the harvested fruit would be conducted by
IMOA (see measure 4). A Phytosanitary Certificate confirming that MPW and MSW are
not known to occur in the designated places of production or pest free production sites and
that the product is free from this pest would be issued by the IMOA.
The objective of the proposed measure is to ensure that fruit is sourced from designated
areas or a place of production where the pest is not known to be present nor likely to occur,
thus reducing the risk of the weevils being present in export consignments of mangoes
from India.
Biosecurity Australia considers that this measure, supported by measures 4a, c and e is
appropriate to reduce the risk associated with MPW and MSW to very low, which is below
Australia’s ALOP.
[3] Inspection and remedial action for other identified quarantine pests such
as red-banded mango caterpillar, mealybugs and scale insects
Biosecurity Australia considers that targeted visual inspection for freedom from RBMC,
mealybugs and scale insects is an appropriate risk management measure in view of the
level of risk identified. If infested fruit was not inspected and detected, these pests may
enter, establish and spread. Inspection would need to be completed prior to vapour heat
treatment/hot water treatment.
Larvae of RBMC feed on the mango pulp and seed. Visual inspection is considered to be
an appropriate risk management option as infested fruit can be detected by the presence of
a dark brown ring and caterpillar frass at the entry point on the surface of the mango fruit.
Visual inspection for freedom from mealybugs and scale insects is considered to be an
appropriate risk management option for these pests because they are easily detected on the
surface of mango fruit.
This phytosanitary measure is based on the current risk management measures for
mangoes from the Philippines (Guimaras Island) and Mexico. Biosecurity Australia
considers that this measure is appropriate to reduce the risk associated with RBMC,
mealybugs and scale insects to very low, which is below Australia’s ALOP.
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Biosecurity Australia proposes a system for that purpose which is equivalent to the system
currently in place for the importation of fresh mangoes from Guimaras Island, the
Philippines.
Details of this system, or of an equivalent one, will be determined by agreement with the
IMOA. This is to ensure that requirements are appropriate to the circumstances of India for
fresh mango production and export.
The proposed system of operational procedures for the production and export of fresh
mangoes to Australia from India consists of:
4a. Registration of export orchards;
4b. Registration of packinghouses and auditing of procedures;
4c. Pre-export inspection and remedial action by IMOA;
4d. Packaging and labelling;
4e. Phytosanitary certification by IMOA;
4f. Specific conditions for storage and movement; and
4g. On-arrival phytosanitary inspection and clearance by AQIS.
All mango fruit for export to Australia must be sourced from export orchards and growers
registered with IMOA. Copies of the registration records must be made available to AQIS
if requested. The IMOA is required to register all export orchards prior to commencement
of exports.
All export orchards are expected to produce mango fruit under standard commercial
cultivation, harvesting and packing activities.
The objective of this procedure is to ensure that orchards from which mangoes are sourced
can be identified. This is to allow trace back to individual orchards and growers in the
event of non-compliance. For example, if live pests are intercepted, the ability to identify a
specific orchard/grower allows the investigation and corrective action to be targeted rather
than applying to all possible orchards/growers.
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All packinghouses intending to export mango fruit to Australia need to be registered with
the IMOA.
Vapour heat treatment (VHT)/hot water treatment (HWT) for pre-export disinfestation of
fruit flies is to be done within the registered packinghouses/treatment facilities in India.
AQIS will only approve designated and identified VHT/HWT facilities that are registered
by the IMOA.
The targeted inspection for freedom from RBMC, mealybugs and scale insects would be
carried out within the registered packinghouses.
The objective of this procedure is to ensure that packinghouses at which the VHT/HWT
and inspections are conducted can be identified. This is to allow trace back to individual
packinghouses and orchards/growers in the event of non-compliance.
The IMOA would inspect all consignments in accordance with official procedures for all
visually detectable quarantine pests and trash using sampling rates developed by the
IMOA in consultation with Biosecurity Australia/AQIS.
If actionable mealybugs, scale insects or RBMC are found during these inspections, then
remedial action must be taken as outlined in the ‘Introduction’ to this section.
Records of interceptions made during these inspections (live or dead quarantine pests, and
trash) would be maintained by IMOA and made available to Biosecurity Australia as
requested. This information will assist in future reviews of this import pathway and
consideration of the appropriateness of the phytosanitary measures that have been applied.
The objective of this procedure is to verify the effectiveness of orchard and packing house
controls and to ensure that mango fruit exported to Australia do not contain quarantine
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pests or trash, are clean of any extraneous organic material on the surface of the fruit, and
complies with packing and labelling requirements.
All packages of mangoes for export would be free from contaminated plant material
including trash and weed seeds and would meet Australia’s general import conditions for
fresh fruits and vegetables (C6000 General Requirements for All Fruit and Vegetables,
available at http://www.aqis.gov.au/icon/). Trash refers to soil, splinters, twigs, leaves and
other plant materials but excludes the mango calyx.
Inspected and treated fruits would be required to be packed in new boxes. The fruit should
be packed in boxes that have had any openings either screened with mesh or covered with
tape. Packing material would be synthetic or highly processed if of plant origin. No
unprocessed packing material of plant origin, such as straw, will be allowed. All wood
material used in packaging of mango fruit must comply with the AQIS conditions (e.g.
those in “Cargo containers: Quarantine aspects and procedures” (AQIS, 2003)).
All boxes would be labelled with the orchard registration number and packinghouse
registration number for the purposes of trace back in the event that this is necessary. The
pallets should be securely strapped only after phytosanitary inspection has been carried out
following mandatory post-harvest treatments. Palletised product is to be identified by
attaching a uniquely numbered pallet card to each pallet or part pallet to enable trace back
to registered orchards.
The IMOA would be required to issue a Phytosanitary Certificate for each consignment
upon completion of pre-export treatment and inspection. The objective of this procedure is
to provide formal documentation to AQIS verifying that the relevant measures have been
undertaken offshore. Each Phytosanitary Certificate would contain the following
information:
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Additional declarations
“The mangoes in this consignment have been produced in India in accordance with the
conditions governing entry of fresh mangoes to Australia and inspected and found to be
free of quarantine pests”.
AND
“Mangoes have been produced in [name of area, region and State] which is free of mango
pulp weevil (Sternochetus frigidus) and mango seed weevil (S. mangiferae).”
Distinguishing marks
The orchard registration number, packinghouse registration number, number of boxes per
consignment, and container and seal numbers (as appropriate); to ensure trace back to the
orchard in the event that this is necessary.
Treatments
Details of vapour heat treatment or hot water treatment (i.e. temperature, duration and
packing house/facility number), where relevant, must be included in the treatment section
on the Phytosanitary Certificate.
A consignment is the quantity of mango fruit covered by one Phytosanitary Certificate that
arrives at one port in one shipment. Consignments need to be shipped directly from one
port or city in India to a designated port or city in Australia.
Packed product and packaging is to be protected from pest contamination during and after
packing, during storage and during movement between locations (e.g. packinghouse to
cool storage/depot, to inspection point, to export point).
Product for export to Australia that has been inspected and certified by the IMOA would
be maintained in secure conditions that will prevent mixing with fruit for export to other
destinations.
The objective of this procedure is to ensure that the phytosanitary status of the product is
maintained during storage and movement.
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at the port of entry in Australia prior to release from quarantine. Fruit from each
consignment would be randomly sampled for inspection. Such sampling methodology
would provide 95% confidence that there is not more than 0.5% infestation in a
consignment.
The objective of this procedure is to verify that the required measures have been
undertaken.
Where consignments are found to be non-compliant with import requirements at AQIS on-
arrival inspection due to the presence of live quarantine pests or trash, the importer will be
given the option to treat (if suitable treatments for the pests detected can be applied), re-
export or destroy the consignment.
Uncategorised pests
If an organism that is detected on mango from India that has not been categorised, it will
require assessment to determine its quarantine status and if phytosanitary action is
required. The detection of any significant pests of quarantine concern not already
identified in the analysis may result in the suspension of the trade while a review is
conducted to ensure that the existing measures continue to provide the appropriate level of
phytosanitary protection for Australia.
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The components of the draft import conditions are summarised in dot point format below.
The proposed risk management measure that links with each component is given in
brackets ( ).
Biosecurity Australia considers that the risk management measures identified in the
previous section, upon which these import conditions are based, are commensurate with
the identified risks and invites comments on their technical and economic feasibility. In
particular, comments are welcome on the appropriateness of the measures and associated
import conditions and any alternatives that stakeholders consider to be equivalent in
achieving the identified objectives. Note that Biosecurity Australia regards the import
conditions listed below to be consistent with, and equivalent to, those currently in place for
the importation of fresh mangoes from Mexico and the Philippines (Guimaras Island).
All mango fruit for export to Australia must be sourced from export orchards and growers
registered with IMOA. Copies of the registration records must be made available to AQIS
if requested. The IMOA is required to register all export orchards prior to commencement
of exports.
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All export orchards are expected to produce commercial mango fruit under standard
cultivation (including crop monitoring, integrated pest management, crop hygiene),
harvesting and packing activities.
All packinghouses intending to export mango fruit to Australia must be registered with the
IMOA.
Vapour heat treatment (VHT)/hot water treatment (HWT) for pre-export disinfestation is
to be conducted within the registered packinghouses/treatment facilities in India.
AQIS will only approve designated and identified VHT/HWT facilities that are registered
by IMOA. These facilities must be designed to prevent the entry of fruit flies into areas
where unpacked treated fruit is held. This will include a provision for treated fruit to be
discharged directly into insect proof and secure packing rooms.
The management of the treatment facility will be required to provide details of systems
that are in place to ensure isolation and segregation from other fruit throughout the
treatment, packing, storage and transport stages before exports commence. This will be
audited for compliance with AQIS requirements in the initial export season by AQIS
before exports will be permitted.
After the initial season approval of the registered treatment centres, AQIS will require
IMOA to audit the facilities at the beginning of each season to ensure that they comply
with AQIS requirements before registration is renewed. IMOA would then monitor the
treatment centres on an ongoing basis during their operational season to ensure continued
compliance with AQIS requirements. Reports of audits noting any non-conformities
together with appropriate corrective action will be submitted to AQIS.
• registered treatment facilities are maintained in a condition that will provide efficacy in
treatment programs
• all areas are hygienically maintained (cleaned daily of damaged, blemished, infested
fruit) the premises are maintained to exclude the entry of pests from outside and
between treated and untreated fruit
• all measurement instruments are regularly calibrated and records retained for
verification
• the movement of fruit from the time of arrival at the registered treatment centre through
to the time of export are recorded and
• the security of fruit is maintained at all times that fruit is on the premises.
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Should IMOA officers find that any one of the above requirements are not being
undertaken the registered facility will be suspended until corrective action has been
completed and AQIS agreement to the reinstatement obtained.
The targeted inspection for freedom from RBMC, mealybugs and scale insects is to be
carried out within the registered packinghouses.
Packinghouses will be required to identify the individual orchard with a numbering system
and identify fruit from individual orchards by marking boxes or pallets (i.e. one orchard
per pallet) with the unique orchard number. The list of registered packinghouses must be
kept by IMOA and provided to AQIS if requested, with updates provided if packinghouses
are added or removed from the list.
If vapour heat treatment is adopted by the IMOA for fruit fly disinfestation, the following
procedures must be followed:
Vapour heat treatment must be conducted in India in VHT facilities registered with, and
audited by IMOA, to ensure that they are suitably equipped to carry out the requirements
for VHT stipulated in this document. Mango fruit must be be treated at 47.5°C (pulp core
temperature) for 20 minutes.
Treatment time will be for a minimum of two hours, including the warming and cooling
periods to bring the fruit pulp to temperature. Treatment commences when the pulp core
temperature of all probe-monitored fruit reaches, or is above, the required temperature.
This temperature must be maintained for the required period.
The phytosanitary security of the product must be maintained after the vapour heat
treatment to prevent reinfestation by fruit flies. Phytosanitary inspection of the treated fruit
must be conducted by IMOA and the details of the treatment included on the Phytosanitary
Certificate.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
If hot water treatment is adopted by the IMOA for fruit fly disinfestation, the following
procedures must be followed:
Mangoes must be treated with a hot water submersion treatment of 48°C or above for 60
minutes in accordance with the following schedule:
1. Fruit pulp temperature must be 21°C or above prior to commencing treatment.
2. Fruit must be submerged at least 10 cm below the water surface.
3. Water must circulate constantly and be kept at 48°C throughout the treatment period,
with the following tolerances:
a. During the first five minutes of the treatment – temperatures may fall as low as
45.4°C provided the temperature is at least 46°C at the end of the five minute
period.
b. For treatments lasting 65 to 70 minutes – temperatures may fall as low as 45.4°C
for no more than 10 minutes.
4. The dip time must be extended for an additional 10 minutes if hydrocooling starts
immediately after the hot water immersion treatment.
Hot water treatment must be conducted in India in packinghouse facilities registered with,
and audited by, IMOA. Temperature values need to be recorded to a standard agreed
between IMOA and Biosecurity Australia/AQIS and monitored by IMOA.
The phytosanitary security of the product must be maintained after the hot water treatment
to prevent reinfestation by fruit flies. Phytosanitary inspection of the treated fruit must be
conducted by IMOA and the details of the treatment included on the Phytosanitary
Certificate.
The IMOA is responsible for establishing, maintaining and verifying pest freedom for
MPW and MSW in “Pest free places of production and pest free production sites”, as
defined by the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM), Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), Publication No. 10 Requirements for the establishment of
pest free places of production and pest free production sites.
The IMOA is responsible for the establishment of production area pest freedom by
verification of pest free places of production or pest free production sites by official
surveys and monitoring. Monitoring must involve field inspections and fruit cutting done
at least once during the growing season and before harvest. These monitoring surveys must
be conducted during each year of mango production for each pest free area before
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
consignments will be permitted for export to Australia. The results must be submitted to
Biosecurity Australia/AQIS before access can be considered.
The IMOA must maintain production area pest freedom and specify the measures in place
to prevent the introduction of the pest into the place of production or production site or to
destroy previously undetected infestations. The IMOA must advise Biosecurity
Australia/AQIS of the nominated orchards within the designated pest free places of
production/pest free production sites. The IMOA must notify Biosecurity Australia/AQIS
of any pest detected during routine monitoring and surveys conducted during the
production season.
For the 2004 season, designated pest free areas have been established for the production
areas of Barabanki, Malihabad, Saharanpur in the Lucknow region, in the State of Uttar
Pradesh.
The phytosanitary security of the product from these quarantine pests must be maintained
after harvest. Phytosanitary inspection of the harvested fruit must be conducted by IMOA.
A Phytosanitary Certificate confirming that MPW and MSW are not known to occur in the
designated places of production or pest free production sites and that the product is free
from this pest would be issued by the IMOA.
The IMOA will inspect all consignments in accordance with official procedures for all
visually detectable quarantine pests and trash using sampling rates developed by the
IMOA in consultation with Biosecurity Australia/AQIS.
The inspection procedures will ensure that fresh mango fruit are free from all pests of
quarantine concern to Australia and are free from any contaminant plant material (leaves,
twigs, seed, etc.) and soil. The targeted inspection will ensure freedom from actionable
mealybugs, scale insects and RBMC. Inspection must be completed in packinghouses that
are registered with, and audited by, IMOA. Consignments that do not comply with the
above requirements will be rejected for export to Australia.
Records of interceptions made during these inspections (live or dead quarantine pests, and
trash) are to be maintained by the IMOA and made available to Biosecurity Australia as
requested. This information will assist in future reviews of this import pathway and
consideration of the appropriateness of the phytosanitary measures that have been applied.
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All packages of mangoes for export must be free from contaminated plant materials
including trash and weed seeds and must meet Australia’s general import conditions for
fresh fruits and vegetables (C6000 General Requirements for All Fruit and Vegetables,
available at http://www.aqis.gov.au/icon/). Trash refers to soil, splinters, twigs, leaves and
other plant materials but excludes the mango calyx.
Inspected and treated fruits will be required to be packed in new boxes. The fruit must be
packed in boxes that have had any openings either screened with mesh or covered with
tape. Packing material would be synthetic or highly processed if of plant origin. No
unprocessed packing material of plant origin, such as straw, will be allowed. All wood
material used in packaging of mango fruit must comply with the AQIS conditions (e.g.
those in “Cargo containers: Quarantine aspects and procedures” (AQIS, 2003)).
All boxes will be labelled with the orchard registration number and packinghouse
registration number for the purposes of trace back in the event that this is necessary. The
pallets should be securely strapped only after phytosanitary inspection has been carried out
following mandatory post-harvest treatments. Palletised product is to be identified by
attaching a uniquely numbered pallet card to each pallet or part pallet to enable trace back
to registered orchards.
The IMOA is required to issue a Phytosanitary Certificate for each consignment upon
completion of pre-export treatment and inspection. Each Phytosanitary Certificate is to
contain the following information:
Additional declarations
“The mangoes in this consignment have been produced in India in accordance with the
conditions governing entry of fresh mangoes to Australia and inspected and found to be
free of quarantine pests”.
AND
“Mangoes have been produced in [name of area, region and State] which is free of mango
pulp weevil (Sternochetus frigidus) and mango seed weevil (S. mangiferae).”
Distinguishing marks
The orchard registration number, packinghouse registration number, number of boxes per
consignment, and container and seal numbers (as appropriate); to ensure trace back to the
orchard in the event that this is necessary.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
A consignment is the quantity of mango fruit covered by one Phytosanitary Certificate that
arrives at one port in one shipment. Consignments need to be either shipped directly from
one port or city in India to a designated port or city in Australia, or if transhipped, sealing
of containers must be maintained.
Treatments
Details of vapour heat treatment or hot water treatment (i.e. temperature, duration and
packing house/facility number), where relevant, must be included in the treatment section
on the Phytosanitary Certificate.
Packed product and packaging is to be protected from pest contamination during and after
packing, during storage and during movement between locations (e.g., packing house to
cool storage/depot, to inspection point, to export point).
Product for export to Australia that has been inspected and certified by the IMOA must be
maintained in secure conditions that will prevent mixing with fruit for export to other
destinations. This can be achieved through segregation of fruit for export to Australia in
separate storage facilities, netting or shrink-wrapping pallets in plastic, or by placing
sealed cartons in the low temperature cold storage before loading into a shipping container.
Alternatively, packed fruit can be directly transferred at the packinghouse into a shipping
container, which is to be sealed and not opened until the container reaches Australia.
On arrival, each consignment must be inspected by AQIS and documentation examined for
consignment verification purposes at the port of entry in Australia prior to release from
quarantine. Sampling methodology would provide 95% confidence that there is not more
than 0.5% infestation in a consignment.
An example of a sampling size for inspection of mangoes is given below. The unit is
defined as a single mango.
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Where consignments are found to be non-compliant with import requirements at AQIS on-
arrival inspection, the importer will be given the option to treat (if suitable treatments for
the pests detected can be applied), re-export or destroy the consignment.
If product continually fails inspection, AQIS reserves the right to suspend the export
program and conduct an audit of the fresh mango risk management systems that are in
place. The program will continue only once Biosecurity/AQIS is satisfied that appropriate
corrective action has been taken.
Uncategorised pests
If an organism that is detected on mango from India has not been categorised, it will
require assessment to determine its quarantine status and if phytosanitary action is
required. The detection of any pests of quarantine concern not already identified in the
analysis may result in the suspension of the trade while a review is conducted to ensure
that the existing measures continue to provide the appropriate level of phytosanitary
protection for Australia.
Biosecurity Australia reserves the right to review the adopted policy at any time after
significant trade has occurred or where there is reason to believe that the phytosanitary
status of the exporting country has changed.
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CONCLUSIONS
The findings of this draft revised import policy are based on a comprehensive analysis of
relevant scientific literature and existing import requirements for fresh mangoes into
Australia.
Biosecurity Australia considers that the import conditions specified will provide an
appropriate level of protection against the pests identified in the risk assessment.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH MANGOES (MANGIFERA INDICA L.) FROM INDIA
Shaded text indicates the species was also considered under the same name or indicated synonym in the Philippines mango IRA.
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Aulacaspis rosae (Bouché, 1833) Mango snow scale; Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, Yes – TAS (Ben- No – bark, root, stem (Ben- No
rosa scale; rose hard Diaspididae 1993) Dov et al., 2001) Dov et al., 2001); leaf
[Syn. = Aspidiotus rosae Bouché; scale; rose scale; (USDA, 2001)
Chermes rosae (Bouché); Diaspis rosae scurfy scale
(Bouché); Aulacaspis (Diaspis) rosae
(Bouché); Diaspis (Aulacaspis) rosae
(Bouché); Anamaspis rosae (Bouché)]
Aulacaspis tubercularis Newstead, 1906 Mango scale; white Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, Yes – QLD Yes – fruit, leaf, twig No
mango scale Diaspididae 1993) (Cunningham, (Cunningham, 1989)
[Syn. = Aulacaspis (Diaspis) tubercularis 1989); WA
Newstead; Aulacaspis cinnamomi (Johnson & Parr,
Newstead; Aulacaspis tubercularis 1999)
(Newstead); Diaspis (Aulacaspis)
cinnamomi mangiferae Newstead;
Aulacaspis cinnamomi mangiferae
(Newstead); Diaspis mangiferae
(Newstead); Diaspis cinnamomi-
mangiferae (Newstead); Diaspis
(Aulacaspis) cinnamomi (Newstead);
Diaspis (Aulacaspis) tubercularis
(Newstead)]
Aulacaspis vitis (Green, 1896) Armoured scale; hard Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, No – (Ben-Dov et No – leaf (DPP, 2001) No
scale Diaspididae 1993) al., 2001)
[Syn. = Chionaspis vitis Green;
Trichomytilus vitis (Green); Phenacaspis
vitis (Green); Poliaspis vitis (Green);
Aulacaspis vitis (Green)]
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Chlorida festiva (Linnaeus, 1758) Stem borer Coleoptera: Yes – (USDA, No No – wood (Carrasco, 1978) No
Cerambycidae 2001)
Chlumetia alternans Moore Shoot borer Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No – (Nielsen et al., No – inflorescence, shoot No
Noctuidae 1996) (USDA, 2001); leaf, stem
(Butani, 1993)
Chlumetia transversa (Walker, 1863) Mango shoot borer; Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) Yes – (Nielsen et No – inflorescence, leaf, No
mango shoot Noctuidae al., 1996) shoot (Srivastava, 1997);
[Syn. = Nachaba transversa Walker; caterpillar; mango tip stem (Butani, 1993)
Chlumetia guttivenris Walker; Ariola borer
corticea Snellen; Chlumetia guangxiensis
Wu & Zhu; Salagena transversa (Walker);
Sholumetia transversa (Walker)]
Chrysocoris patricius (Fabricius) Bug Hemiptera: Yes – (Kishun & No Yes – fruit, inflorescence, Yes
Pentatomidae Chand, 1989) leaf, stem (DPP, 2001)
Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus, Black scale; circular Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, Yes – NSW, NT, Yes – fruit, leaf, stem No
1758) black scale; circular Diaspididae 1993) QLD, TAS (CAB (USDA, 2001)
purple scale; circular International,
[Syn. = Coccus aonidum Linnaeus; scale; citrus black 2003); WA (Woods,
Chrysomphalus ficus Ashmead; scale; Egyptian black 2001)
Aspidiotus aonidum (Linnaeus); scale; Florida red
Aonidiella ficorum Ashmead; Aspidiotus scale; purple scale;
(Chrysomphalus) aonidum (Linnaeus); red spotted scale
Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) ficus
(Ashmead); Aspidiotus ficorum Ashmead;
Aspidiotus ficus (Ashmead);
Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus)]
Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan, Spanish red scale; Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, Yes – QLD (CAB No – leaf (Peña & No
1889) dictyosperm scale; Diaspididae 1993) International, 2003) Mohyuddin, 1997)
palm scale; red citrus
[Syn. = Aspidiotus dictyospermi Morgan; scale; western red
Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) dictyospermi scale
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Dorylus orientalis Westwood, 1835 Oriental army ant; Hymenoptera: Yes – (Menon & No – (Shattuck & No – builds nest in foliage No
brown ant; red ant Formicidae Srivastava, 1976) Barnett, 2001) (Srivastava, 1997)
Drosicha contrahens (Walker) Mango mealybug Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No Yes –fruit, inflorescence, Yes
Margarodidae leaf, stem (DPP, 2001)
Drosicha dalbergiae (Green) Mealybug Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No – (CAB Yes – fruit, inflorescence, Yes
Margarodidae International, 2003) leaf, stem (DPP, 2001)
Drosicha mangiferae Green Giant mealybug; giant Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2000) No – (CAB No – fruit peduncle (Tandon, No
mango mealybug; Margarodidae International, 2003) 1998); inflorescence, shoot
mango mealybug (Srivastava, 1997); leaf,
stem (Butani, 1993)
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Eublemma angulifera Moore Flower feeding Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No – (Nielsen et al., No – inflorescence (Butani, No
caterpillar; small Noctuidae 1996) 1993)
shoot boring
caterpillar
Eublemma silicula Swinhoe Earhead caterpillar; Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No – (Nielsen et al., No – inflorescence (Butani, No
flower feeding Noctuidae 1996) 1993)
caterpillar
Eublemma versicolor Walker Flower webber Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2000) No – (Nielsen et al., No – inflorescence (DPP, No
Noctuidae 1996) 2000)
Eucalymnatus hempeli Costa Lima, 1923 Soft scale Hemiptera: Coccidae Yes – (USDA, No – (Ben-Dov et No No
2001) al., 2001)
Eucalymnatus tessellatus (Signoret, Palm scale; Hemiptera: Coccidae Yes – (Butani, Yes – NSW (Ben- No – leaf (Peña & No
1873) tessellated scale 1993) Dov et al., 2001) Mohyuddin, 1997)
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Lepidosaphes shikohabadensis Dutta, Armoured scale; hard Hemiptera: Yes – (Ben-Dov et No – (Ben-Dov et No – bark, flower, root, No
1990 scale Diaspididae al., 2001) al., 2001) stem, twig (Srivastava,
1997)
Lepidosaphes tapleyi Williams, 1960 Guava long scale; Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, No – (Ben-Dov et No – leaf, stem (USDA, No
oyster scale Diaspididae 1993) al., 2001) 2001)
[Syn. = Insulaspis tapleyi (Williams)]
Lepropus lateralis (Fabricius, 1792) Weevil Coleoptera: Yes – (Zaman & No – (CAB No – leaf, stem (Zaman & No
Curculionidae Maiti, 1994) International, 2003) Maiti, 1994)
[Syn. = Astycus lateralis Fabricius]
Leptocentrus obliquis Walker Tree hopper Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No No – leaf, stem (Butani, No
Membracidae 1993
Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg, 1783) Paddy bug; Asian rice Heteroptera: Alydidae Yes – (CAB Yes – QLD, NT No – leaf, seed (USDA, No
bug; rice bug; rice International, 2003) (AICN, 2004) 2001)
[Syn. = Cimex acutus Thunberg; Cimex earhead bug; rice
angustata Fabricius; Leptocorisa Gandhi bug; rice seed
varicornis (Fabricius); Leptocorisa flavida bug; slender rice bug
Guer.; Gerris varicornis Fabricius]
Leuronota minuta (Crawford) Psyllid Hemiptera: Psyllidae Yes – (Butani, No No No
1993)
Lindingaspis floridana Ferris Armoured scale; hard Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, No No – leaf (Peña & No
scale Diaspididae 1993) Mohyuddin, 1997)
Lindingaspis greeni Armoured scale; hard Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, No No No
scale Diaspididae 1993)
Lindingaspis rossi (Maskell, 1891) Circular black scale; Hemiptera: Yes – (Butani, Yes – ACT, NSW, Yes – fruit, leaf (Charles & No
grey scale; Ross’s Diaspididae 1993) QLD, SA, TAS, Henderson, 2002)
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Orthaga euadrusalis Walker Tent caterpillar; Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No – (Nielsen et al., No – leaf, shoot (Tandon & No
mango leaf webber Pyralidae 1996) Srivastava, 1982)
[Syn. = Orthaga acontialis (Walker)]
Orthaga exvinacea (Hampson, 1891) Mango leaf webber; Lepidoptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) Yes – (Nielsen et No – inflorescence (CAB No
shoot webbing Pyralidae al., 1996) International, 2003); leaf,
[Syn. = Balanotis exvinacea Hampson] caterpillar shoot (DPP, 2000)
Orthaga mangiferae Mishra Leaf webber Lepidoptera: Yes – (Gupta & No – (Nielsen et al., No – leaf (Srivastava, 1997) No
Pyralidae Rai, 1982) 1996)
Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel,. 1889) Merchant grain beetle Coleoptera: Yes – (CAB Yes – ACT, NSW, No – seed/stored product No
Silvanidae International, 2003) NT, QLD, SA, VIC, pest (CAB International,
[Syn. = Silvanus mercator Fauvel; WA (AICN, 2004) 2003)
Silvanus gossypii]
Otinotus oneratus (Walker) Cow bug; tree hopper Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No No – leaf, stem (DPP, 2001) No
Membracidae
[Syn. = Otinotus lignicola]
Oxyrhachis serratus Ahmad & Abrar Bug Hemiptera: Yes – (USDA, No No – leaf, stem (USDA, No
Membracidae 2001) 2001)
Oxyrhachis tarandus (Fabricius) Tree hopper Hemiptera: Yes – (DPP, 2001) No No – leaf, stem (Butani, No
Membracidae 1993)
Pagria sp. Leaf beetle Coleoptera: Yes – (USDA, ? – Genus is No No
Chrysomelidae 2001) present in Australia
(AICN, 2004)
Panonychus ulmi Koch European red spider Acarina: Yes – (CAB Yes – NSW, QLD, No – leaf (CAB International, No
[Syn. =Metatetranychus mali; mite Tetranychidae International, 2003) SA, TAS, VIC (CAB 2003)
Metatetranychus pilosus (Canestrini & International, 2003)
Fanzago); Oligonychus ulmi;
Paratetranychus pilosus occidentalis;
Paratetranychus ulmi; Tetranychus
pilosus; Tetranychus ulmi;
Paratetranychus pilosus (Canestrini &
Fanzago); Metatetranychus ulmi Koch]
Pantachaetothrips sp. Thrips Thysanoptera: Yes – (Patel et al., No – (Mound, No – leaf (Patel et al., 1997) No
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Not in WA (DAWA,
2003)
Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora Bacterial rot Enterobacteriales: Yes – (DPP, 2001) Yes – NSW, NT, No – leaf, root, stem (CAB No
(Jones, 1901) Bergey, Harrison, Breed, Enterobacteriaceae QLD, TAS, VIC, International, 2003)
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Not in WA (DAWA,
2003)
Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. Bark canker; Mitosporic fungi Yes – (Rawal, Yes – NSW, NT, Yes – fruit, inflorescence, No
[anamorph] botrydiplodia rot; 1998) QLD, SA (APPD, leaf, root, seed, stem (CAB
dieback; brown pod 2004); WA (DAWA, International, 2003)
[Syn. = Botryodiplodia ananassae (Sacc.) rot of cocoa; diplodia 2003)
Petr.; Botryosphaeria rhodina (Cooke) pod rot; diplodia
Arx [teleomorph]; Botryodiplodia stem-end rot;
tubericola (Ellis & Everh.) Petr.; gummosis; leaf blight;
Botryodiplodia gossypii Ellis & Barthol.; post-harvest fruit rot;
Botryodiplodia elasticae Petch; stem end rot
Chaetodiplodia grisea Petch; Diplodia
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Not in WA (DAWA,
2003)
Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans Bunchy top; flower Hypocreales: Yes – (Rawal, Yes – NSW (CAB No – inflorescence, leaf, No
Wollenw. & Reinking malformation of Hypocreaceae 1998) International, stem (Varma et al., 1974);
mango; maize 2003); WA (DAWA, shoot (Rawal, 1998)
[Syn. = Cephalosporium sacchari Butler; seedling blight; maize 2003)
Fusarium sacchari var. elongatum; wilt; mango
Fusarium subglutinans Nelson et al.; malformation;
Fusarium sacchari var. subglutinans pineapple eye rot;
(Wollenw. & Reinking) Nirenberg; pineapple fruit rot
Gibberella fujikuroi var. subglutinans pitch pine canker;
Edwards] sugarcane top rot
Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtendahl Mango malformation; Hypocreales: Yes – (Bhatnagar & Yes – NSW, QLD, Yes – fruit (Gafar et al., No
bunchy top Hypocreaceae Beniwal, 1977) SA, VIC, WA (CAB 1979); inflorescence,
[Syn. = Fusarium oxysporum var. International, 2003) panicle, panicle bearing
orthocerus] shoot (Bhatnagar & Beniwal,
1977)
Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. Hypocreales: Yes – (DPP, 2001) Yes – (Sangalang No – (DPP, 2001) No
Hypocreaceae et al., 1995); NSW,
[Syn. = Fusarium pallidoroseum] QLD, SA, TAS
(APPD, 2004); WA
(DAWA, 2003)
Fusarium solani (Martius) Sacc. Dry root rot disease; Hypocreales: Yes – (CAB Yes – NSW, QLD, No – root, stem (CAB No
[anamorph] foot rot of peas and Hypocreaceae International, 2003) SA, TAS, VIC (CAB International, 2003)
beans; localized ring International,
[Syn. = Nectria haematococca (Wollenw.) rot of ginger; seedling 2003); WA (DAWA,
Gerlach [teleomorph]; Fusarium solani wilt dry rot of potato; 2003)
var. martii (Appel & Wollenw.) Wollenw.; seedling wilt; storage
Fusarium solani var. striatum (Sherbakov) rot of yam; sudden
Wollenw.] death syndrome of
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Not in WA (DAWA,
2003)
Penicillium cyclopium Westling Blue mould rot; fruit Mitosporic fungi Yes – (Palejwala et Yes – cosmopolitan Yes – fruit (Palejwala et al., No
rot al., 1989) (CAB International, 1989)
[Syn. = Penicillium aurantiogriseum 2003)
Dierckx; Penicillium aurantiocandidum
Dierckx; Penicillium cyclopium var.
aurantiovirens (Biourge) Fassatiova;
Penicillium brunneoviolaceum Biourge;
Penicillium johanniolii Zaleski; Penicillium
lanoso-coeruleum Thom.; Penicillium
martensii Biourge; Penicillium polonicum
Zaleski; Penicillium puberulum Bainier;
Penicillium verrucosum var. cyclopium
(Westling) Samson, Stolk & Hadlock]
Pestalotiopsis glandicola (Castagne) Grey blight; pestalotia Mitosporic fungi Yes – (Ullasa & Yes – NSW (APPD, Yes – fruit, leaf (DPP, 2001; Yes
Steyaert leaf spot Rawal, 1989) 2004) Ullasa & Rawal, 1989)
Not in WA (DAWA,
2003)
Pestalotiopsis mangiferae (Henn.) Grey leaf spot of Mitosporic fungi Yes – (Verma et Yes – NT Yes – fruit, leaf (Lim & Khoo, No
Steyaert mango; grey blight; al., 1991) (Pitkethley, 1998); 1985)
pestalotia leaf spot WA (DAWA, 2003)
[Syn. = Pestalotia mangiferae P. Henn.;
Pestalotia funerea var. mangiferae]
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#
Sooty mould is the common name applied to several species of fungi that grow on honeydew secretions on plant parts and other surfaces (Laemmlen, 2003). Sucking insects are the
primary cause of sooty mould growth. Sooty moulds are normally considered to be a cosmetic or aesthetic problem (Nameth et al., 2003). They do not infect plants but grow on
surfaces where honeydew deposits accumulate and can indirectly damage the plant by coating the leaves. In extremely severe cases, it is possible for the black sooty growth to
block enough sunlight to interfere with photosynthesis (Nameth et al., 2003). Fruits or vegetables covered with sooty moulds are edible and can be removed with a solution of mild
soap and warm water wash (Laemmlen, 2003).
Acronyms:
ACT – Australian Capital Territory; NSW – New South Wales; NT – Northern Territory; QLD – Queensland; SA – South Australia; TAS – Tasmania; VIC – Victoria; WA –
Western Australia
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Abbas, S.R., Verghese, A. and Fasih, M. (1989). Studies on the mango inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica Grover. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 231:
593-596.
Abou-Awad, B.A. (1981). Bionomics of the mango rust mite Metaculus mangiferae (Attiah) with description of immature stages (Eriophyoidea:
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Anon. (1967). The Mango. Chapter 13 Insecta. Mites and other pests. ICAR.
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Atkinson, T.H., Foltz, J.L., Wilkinson, R.C. and Mizell, R.F. (2000). Feature Creatures. Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) (Insecta: Coleoptera:
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Atwal, A.S. (1976). Agricultural Pests of India and South-East Asia. Delhi, India: Kalyani Publishers, 502 pp.
Badyal, K. and Sumbali, G. (1990). Market diseases of mango. Indian Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology 20(3): 281.
Ben-Dov, Y. (1993). A Systematic Catalogue of the Soft Scale Insects of the World (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) with Data on Geographical
Distribution, Host Plants, Biology and Economic Importance. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Sandhill Crane Press, 536 pp.
Ben-Dov, Y., Miller, D.R. and Gibson, G.A.P. (2001). ScaleNet. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm
Bentley, W.J., Zalom, F.G., Granett, J., Smith, R.J., Varela, L.G. and Purcell, A.H. (2003). UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Grape. UC ANR
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Bhole, S.D., Jadhav, V.S., Dumbre, R.B. and Dalvi, C.S. (1987). Seasonal incidence and chemical control of mango nursery pests in the Konkan
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Bhumannavar, B.S. (1991b). New record of Homona permutata Meyrick (Tortricidae: Lepidoptera) on fruit crops from South Andaman. Entomon
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Bhumannavar, B.S. and Jacob, T.K. (1989). Psoraleococcus nr. multipori (Morrison) on mango on an Andaman island. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin
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Bhumannavar, B.S. and Jacob, T.K. (1990). Tirathaba mundella Walker (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) a new fruit borer of mango in south Andaman
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CABI/EPPO (1997a). Aonidiella citrina (Coquillett). Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Map No. 349 (1st revision). Wallingford, UK: CAB
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CABI/EPPO (1997b). Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner). Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, Map No. 573. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 5 pp.
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Dalvi, C.S. and Dumbre, R.B. (1994). Breeding and seasonal incidence of mango hoppers. Bulletin of Entomology New Delhi 35(1-2): 1-10.
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David, B.V. and Regu, K. (1991). A new record and description of Rachisphora rutherfordi (Quaintance & Baker) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) from
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Dodd, J.C., Prusky, D. and Jeffries, P. (1997). Fruit Diseases. In: Litz, R.E. (ed.). The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses. Wallingford, UK: CAB
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Dubey, O.P., Gour, R.K. and Sharma, S.R. (1981). Occurrence of sugarcane leaf-hopper, Pyrilla perpusilla Walker on mango tree, Mangifera indica L.
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Evenhuis, N.L. (1996). Welcome to the web version of the “Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions”.
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Fasih, M., Srivastava, R.P., Abbas, S.R. and Sharma, S. (1989). Outbreak of Orgyia postica Walker (Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera), a new pest on mango
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Viraktamath, C.A. (1976). Four new species of idiocerine leafhoppers from India with a note on male Balocha astuta (Melichar) (Homoptera:
Cicadellidae: Idiocerinae). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences 10(2): 234-244.
Viraktamath, S. and Viraktamath, C.A. (1985). New species of Busoniomimus and Idioscopus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae: Idiocerinae) breeding on
mango in South India. Entomon 10(4): 305-311.
Wade, N.L. and Morris, S.C. (1982). Causes and control of cantaloupe postharvest wastage in Australia. Plant Disease 66(7): 549-552.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Watson, J.A.L. and Abbey, H.M. (1993). Atlas of Australian Termites. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Division of Entomology, 155 pp.
Williams, D.J. (1985). Australian Mealybugs. London, UK: British Museum (Natural History), 431 pp.
Woods, W. (2001). The distribution of Circular black scale Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus) in Western Australia. Personal communication,
Department of Agriculture, Western Australia.
Zaheruddeen, S.M. and Sujatha, A. (1993). Record of Deanolis albizonalis (Hampson) (Pyralidae: Odontinae) as mango fruit borer in Andhra Pradesh.
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 90(3): 528.
Zaman, Z. and Maiti, B. (1994). Insects and mites infesting seedlings of mango in West Bengal. Environment and Ecology 12(3): 734-736.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
ARTHROPODS
Coleoptera [beetles, weevils]
Sternochetus frigidus Mango pulp Feasible This genus is present in Australia Significant Major economic importance in India Yes
(Fabricius) weevil (AICN, 2004). Susceptible hosts are (DPP, 2001). This species has the
[Coleoptera: Curculionidae] present in Australia (CAB International, potential to cause economic damage if
2003). introduced.
Sternochetus mangiferae Mango seed Feasible S. mangiferae is present in Australia Significant Major economic importance in India Yes
(Fabricius) weevil (New South Wales, Northern Territory, (DPP, 2001).
[Coleoptera: Curculionidae] Queensland) (AICN, 2004), but is under
official control in Western Australia.
Diptera [flies]
Bactrocera caryeae (Kapoor) Fruit fly Feasible Susceptible hosts (e.g. mango) are Significant Primary economic impact would result Yes
[Diptera: Tephritidae] present in Australia. from quarantine restrictions imposed by
important domestic and foreign export
markets, rather than from direct yield
losses from infested fruit.
Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) Guava fruit fly Feasible Moderate host range (Allwood et al., Significant In India, B. correcta is one of the Yes
[Diptera: Tephritidae] 1999; Tsuruta et al., 1997). important fruit borers of guava and can
cause 80% damage (CAB International,
2003).
Bactrocera cucurbitae Melon fly Feasible Wide host range (Weems, 1964). Significant B. cucurbitae is a very serious pest of Yes
(Coquillett) cucurbit crops throughout its native
[Diptera: Tephritidae] range (tropical Asia) and in introduced
areas such as the Hawaiian Islands
(CAB International, 2003). Damage
levels can be anything up to 100% of
unprotected fruit (CAB International,
1
Association of the pest with the mango fruit pathway (see Appendix 1) was considered to be sufficient evidence of feasible potential for entry.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
2003).
Bactrocera diversa Three striped Feasible Susceptible hosts (e.g. mango) are Significant Primary economic impact would result Yes
(Coquillett) fruit fly present in Australia. from quarantine restrictions imposed by
[Diptera: Tephritidae] important domestic and foreign export
markets, rather than from direct yield
losses from infested fruit.
Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Oriental fruit fly Feasible Wide host range (Allwood et al., 1999; Significant Primary economic impact would result Yes
[Diptera: Tephritidae] Tsuruta et al., 1997). Dispersed by from quarantine restrictions imposed by
infected fruit and adult flight (Fletcher, important domestic and foreign export
1989). Strong flyer – adults can fly up to markets, rather than from direct yield
50-100 km (Fletcher, 1989). losses from infested fruit.
Bactrocera tau (Walker) Fruit fly Feasible Susceptible hosts (e.g. mango) are Significant Primary economic impact would result Yes
[Diptera: Tephritidae] present in Australia. from quarantine restrictions imposed by
important domestic and foreign export
markets, rather than from direct yield
losses from infested fruit.
Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) Peach fruit fly Feasible B. zonata is polyphagous (CAB Significant B. zonata is an important fruit fly pest Yes
[Diptera: Tephritidae] International, 2003). Susceptible hosts and causes severe damage to peach,
are present in Australia. guava and mango (CAB International,
2003).
Hemiptera [aphids, leafhoppers, mealybugs, psyllids, scales, true bugs, whiteflies]
Abgrallaspis cyanophylli Cyanophyllum Feasible A. cyanophylli is present in Australia Significant Considered to be a serious pest in Yes
(Signoret) scale (New South Wales, Queensland, Israel, USSR, USA (Florida) (Miller &
[Hemiptera: Diaspididae] Tasmania) (AICN, 2004). Davidson, 1990).
Antestiopsis cruciata Indian coffee bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
(Fabricius) Australia. (DPP, 2001).
[Hemiptera: Pentatomidae]
Aspidiotus nerii Bouché Oleander scale Feasible A. nerii is a highly polyphagous Significant A. nerii is usually only a minor or non- Yes
[Hemiptera: Diaspididae] (Beardsley & Gonzalez, 1975). Its many economic pest on most of its hosts
hosts include agricultural crops, palms, (DeBach & Rosen, 1991). However, it is
cut flowers and woody ornamentals (but particularly important where aesthetic
not conifers) (CAB International, 2003). value of the crop is high, for example in
This species is present in Australia cut flowers and ornamentals (Van
Di h t l 1998)
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Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
(New South Wales, Queensland, Driesche et al., 1998).
Tasmania) (CAB International, 2003). In olive crops, the presence of a single
scale makes a fruit unmarketable.
Economic loss on table olives due to
damage to fruits and reduced oil yield
can be up to 70% (Alexandrakis &
Benassy, 1981; Flint, 1990). Quiroga et
al. (1991) reported that A. nerii was the
most severe pest of jojoba (Simmondsia
chinensis) fruits in northern and central
Chile.
Bagrada hilaris (Burmeister) Painted bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
[Hemiptera: Pentatomidae] Australia. (DPP, 2001). It is a pest of oilseeds and
vegetables in India (Panizzi et al.,
2000).
Ceroplastes actiniformis Soft scale Feasible Other species from this genus are Significant This species can infest a range of host Yes
Green present in Australia (CAB International, plants. Therefore, it has the potential to
[Hemiptera: Coccidae] 2003). Susceptible hosts are present in cause economic damage if introduced.
Australia (Ben-Dov et al., 2001).
Chrysocoris patricius Bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
(Fabricius) Australia. (DPP, 2001). Other species in this
[Hemiptera: Pentatomidae] genus are recorded as minor pests that
attack flowers, shoots and leaves of
host plants (Javahery et al., 2000).
Coccus longulus (Douglas) Long soft scale Feasible C. longulus is highly polyphagous (Ben- Significant This species can infest a wide range of Yes
[Hemiptera: Coccidae] Dov et al., 2001). host plants. Therefore, it has the
potential to cause economic damage if
introduced.
Coptosoma nazirae Atkinson Dwarf shield bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
[Hemiptera: Plataspidae] Australia. (DPP, 2001).
Drosicha contrahens (Walker) Mango mealybug Feasible Susceptible hosts (e.g. mango) are Not significant Limited information on this pest. Minor No
[Hemiptera: Margarodidae] present in Australia. economic importance in India (DPP,
2001).
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Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
Drosicha dalbergiae (Green) Mealybug Feasible Susceptible hosts (e.g. mango) are Not significant Limited information on this pest No
[Hemiptera: Margarodidae] present in Australia. attacking mango. Minor economic
importance in India (DPP, 2001).
Dysdercus koenigii (Fabricius) Red cotton bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Significant D. koenigii is an important pest of cotton Yes
Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae Australia. in India and Pakistan (Schaefer &
Ahmad, 2000).
Pest of plants of economic importance
such as okra, eggplant and hollyhock,
and a minor pest of legumes, pigeon
pea and peanut (Schaefer & Ahmad,
2000).
Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) Striped mealybug Feasible F. virgata is one of the most highly Significant F. virgata is a known vector of cocoa Yes
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] polyphagous mealybugs known (CAB swollen shoot virus (CSSV) in West
International, 2003). Africa and cocoa Trinidad virus (CTV,
This species is present in Australia Diego Martin valley isolate) in Trinidad
(Northern Territory, Queensland) (CAB (Thorold, 1975).
International, 2003). This species is a pest of coffee, cotton,
cashew and kenaf, and is a major pest
of guava (CAB International, 2003).
Halys dentata (Fabricius) Bark bug Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
[Hemiptera: Pentatomidae] Australia. (DPP, 2001).
Hemiberlesia rapax Greedy scale Feasible Wide host range (Davidson & Miller, Significant H. rapax is a major pest of both fruit and Yes
(Comstock) 1990; Dekle, 1976). woody ornamental plants, primarily in
[Hemiptera: Diaspididae] H. rapax is a cosmopolitan species of the tropical and subtropical regions
tropical origin that is present in Australia (CAB International, 2003).
(South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria)
(CAB International, 2003).
Lepidosaphes beckii Mussel scale Feasible L. beckii is present in Australia (New Significant One of the most important and serious Yes
(Newman) South Wales, Northern Territory, citrus pests in the world (Miller &
[Hemiptera: Diaspididae] Queensland, South Australia, Davidson, 1990; Williams & Watson,
Tasmania, Victoria) (Ben-Dov et al., 1988).
2001; CAB International, 2003).
Lepidosaphes gloverii Glover’s scale Feasible L. gloverii is present in Australia (New Significant Due to the introduction of parasitoids to Yes
(P k d) S th W l Q l d Vi t i ) t lL l ii l ti i
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Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
(Packard) South Wales, Queensland, Victoria) control L. gloverii populations in many
[Hemiptera: Diaspididae] (Ben-Dov et al., 2001). countries, it is now of less importance
(CAB International, 2003). However, it
is still occasionally sufficiently serious a
pest to require control (CAB
International, 2003).
Milviscutulus mangiferae Mango shield Feasible Polyphagous host range (Ben-Dov et Significant This species can infest a wide range of Yes
(Green) scale al., 2001) host plants. Therefore, it has the
[Hemiptera: Coccidae] potential to cause economic damage if
introduced.
Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) Coconut Feasible N. nipae is polyphagous and has an Not significant N. nipae is generally of little economic Yes
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] mealybug extensive host range (Ben-Dov et al., importance, but it has become a pest of
2001). avocados and guavas in Hawaii,
Bermuda and Puerto Rico and
ornamental palms (CAB International,
2003).
The damage caused by N. nipae may
result in ornamental plants, fruit, cut
flowers and foliage losing their market
value (CAB International, 2003).
Paralecanium expansum Soft scale Feasible P. expansum is present in Australia Not significant Minor economic importance in India No
(Green) (Queensland) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001). (DPP, 2001).
[Hemiptera: Coccidae]
Planococcus ficus (Signoret) Grapevine Feasible Moderate host range. Susceptible hosts Significant This species can infest a range of host Yes
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] mealybug are present in Australia. plants. Therefore, it has the potential to
cause economic damage if introduced.
Planococcus lilacinus Coffee mealybug Feasible Extremely wide host range (CAB Significant P. lilacinus is a pest of cocoa Yes
(Cockerell) International, 2003). Susceptible hosts throughout the Oriental region and
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] are present in Australia. South Pacific area (CAB International,
2003). It also damages a wide variety of
economically important crops such as
coffee, tamarinds, custard apples,
coconuts, citrus, grapes, guavas and
mangoes (CAB International, 2003).
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
Planococcus minor (Maskell) Pacific mealybug Feasible Wide host range (Ben-Dov et al., 2001). Significant This species can infest a range of host Yes
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] P. minor is present in Australia (New plants. Therefore, it has the potential to
South Wales, Northern Territory, cause economic damage if introduced.
Queensland, South Australia) (Ben-Dov
et al., 2001).
Rastrococcus iceryoides Downey snowline Feasible R. iceryoides is one of the most Significant Major economic importance in India Yes
(Green) mealybug polyphagous species of Rastrococcus, (DPP, 2001).
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] occurring on plants belonging to diverse R. iceryoides causes damage to
botanical families (CAB International, mangoes and citrus in India, as well as
2003). cotton and kapok (CAB International,
2003).
Rastrococcus invadens Mealybug Feasible Wide host range (Ben-Dov et al., 2001). Significant R. invadens does not seem to be of No
Williams great economic importance in India
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae] (CAB International, 2003). In fact, the
species had not been recognised and
was mistaken for R. spinosus, before it
was accidentally introduced into Africa
(Williams, 1986). However, wherever
this mealybug appeared in Africa it
became a pest of prime importance on
mango, sometimes on citrus, and on
many horticultural crops and shade
trees (Agounké et al., 1988; Ivbijaro et
al., 1992).
Rastrococcus spinosus Philippine mango Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Significant Major economic importance in India Yes
(Robinson) mealybug Australia. (DPP, 2001).
[Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae]
Spilostethus pandurus Indian milkweed Feasible Highly polyphagous (Sweet, 2000). Significant Yes
(Scopoli) bug Susceptible hosts are present in
[Hemiptera: Lygaeidae] Australia.
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] often encountered on commercial crops Mediterranean area (CAB International,
(CAB International, 2003). 2003). It is most noted as a pest of
avocados in Israel, of Azolla, sorghum
and rice in India, and sporadically of
maize or other crops in any warm part
of the world (CAB International, 2003).
Losses caused by this pest are not
quantified in the literature, although in
Israel, combined losses of macadamia
nuts as a result of C. gnidiella,
Apomyelois ceratoniae and the tortricid
Cryptophlebia leucotreta amounted to
30% (Wysoki, 1986).
Ctenomeristis ebriola Meyrick Mango caterpillar Feasible Other species from this genus are Not significant Limited information on this pest. No
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] present in Australia (Nielsen et al.,
1996). Susceptible hosts are present in
Australia.
Deanolis sublimbalis Snellen Red-banded Feasible D. sublimbalis is present in Australia Significant D. sublimbalis has been described as a Yes
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] mango caterpillar (Queensland), but is under official major pest in Orissa, India (Butani,
control (QDPIF, 2004). 1979). This species is said to have
caused considerable damage in Andhra
Pradesh, India in recent years
(Zaheruddeen & Sujatha, 1993).
In tropical parts of Asia, it causes
commercial losses in the order of 10-
15% in mango (QDPIF, 2004).
Deudorix isocrates (Fabricius) Pomegranate Feasible Other species from this genus are Significant D. isocrates is a pest of apple, ber, Yes
[Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae] fruit borer present in Australia (Nielsen et al., litchi, guava, loquat, mango, pear, plum,
1996). Susceptible hosts are present in aonla, pomegranate and sapote in India
Australia. (Srivastava, 1997).
Monopis leuconeurella Fruit borer Feasible Other species from this genus are Not significant Limited information on this pest. Old No
(Ragonot) present in Australia (Nielsen et al., record of this pest on mango in India
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] 1996). Susceptible hosts are present in (Ponnuswami, 1971).
Australia.
Orgyia postica (Walker) Oriental tussock Feasible O. postica is a species of forests and Significant In Taiwan, O. postica is a major pest of Yes
th f t t hi h h d t d ll t lti t d i (Ch 1988)
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Scientific name Common Potential for entry1, establishment or spread in Potential for consequences Consider
name the PRA area further?
Feasible/ Comments Significant/ Comments
not feasible not significant
[Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae] moth forest-steppe which has adapted well to cultivated grapevines (Chang, 1988)
orchards and forest plantations (CAB and roses (Wang, 1982).
International, 2003). Larvae cause serious damage to young
Susceptible hosts are present in leaves of cacao in the Philippines, both
Australia. in nurseries and plantations (CAB
International, 2003). When very
numerous they can cause total
defoliation, killing or stunting the tree
(Sanchez & Laigo, 1968).
Thylacoptila paurosema Fruit borer Feasible Other species from this genus are Not significant Limited information on this pest. No
Meyrick present in Australia (Nielsen et al.,
[Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] 1996). Susceptible hosts are present in
Australia.
FUNGI
Elsinoë mangiferae Bitancourt Mango scab Feasible Limited host range. E. mangiferae is Significant Without chemical control, losses as high Yes
& Jenkins recorded in Australia (Northern Territory as 90% have been observed in one
[Dothideales: Elsinoaceae] and Queensland) (CAB International, orchard in Australia (Darwin) (CAB
2003). International, 2003).
Macrophoma mangiferae Leaf blight Feasible Limited host range. Not significant Mainly affects leaves and stems No
Hingorani & Sharma (Okigbo, 2001). Causes post harvest
[Mitosporic fungi] fruit rot in mango fruit (Prasad & Sinha,
1980).
Nectria rigidiuscula Berk. & Witches’ broom Feasible Susceptible hosts are present in Not significant The fungus is mostly a saprophyte living No
Broome [teleomorph] of mango Australia (CAB International, 2003). on dead bark. It may occasionally cause
[Hypocreales: Nectriaceae] fruit decay (CAB International, 2003).
Recorded only once on mango (Prasad
& Sinha, 1979).
Agounké, D., Agricola, U. and Bokonon-Ganta, H.A. (1988). Rastrococcus invadens Williams (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae), a serious exotic pest of
fruit trees and other plants in West Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research 78(4): 695-702;
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Draft Revised Import Policy – Mangoes from India
Alexandrakis, V. and Benassy, C. (1981). Experiment in biological control on olive in Crete using Aphytis melinus De Bach (Hym. Aphelinidae),
parasite of Aspidiotus nerii Bouché (Hom. Diaspididae). Acta Oecologica, Oecologia Applicata 2(1):13-25. (In French).
Allwood, A.L., Chinajariyawong, A., Drew, R.A.I., Hamacek, E.L., Hancock, D.L., Hengsawad, C., Jipanin, J.C., Jirasurat, M., Kong Krong, C.,
Kritsaneepaiboon, S., Leong, C.T.S. and Vijaysegaran, S. (1999). Host plant records for fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in South East Asia.
The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 7: 1-92.
Beardsley, .J.W. Jr and Gonzalez, R.H. (1975). The biology and ecology of armored scales. Annual Review of Entomology 20: 47-73.
Ben-Dov, Y., Miller, D.R. and Gibson, G.A.P. (2001). ScaleNet. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm
Butani, D.K. (1979). Insects and Fruits. Delhi, India: Periodical Expert Book Agency, 415 pp.
CAB International (2003). Crop Protection Compendium (2003 edition). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Chang, C.P. (1988). The investigation on insect and other animal pests on grapevine and their seasonal occurrences in Taiwan. Chinese Journal of
Entomology 8(1): 39-49.
Davidson, J.A. and Miller, D.R. (1990). Ornamental plants. In: Rosen, D. (ed.). Armored Scale Insects. Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control.
World Crop Pests. Volume 4B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 603-632.
DeBach, P. and Rosen, D. (1991). Biological Control by Natural Enemies (second edition) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 440 pp.
Dekle, G.W. (1976). Florida Armored Scale Insects. Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas. Volume 3. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Florida
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Fletcher, B.S. (1989). Life history strategies of tephritid fruit flies. In: Robinson, A.S. and Hooper, G. (eds). Fruit Flies. Their Biology, Natural
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Flint, M.L. (1990). Pests of the Garden and Small Farm. A Grower’s Guide to Using Less Pesticide. Oakland, California, USA; Agriculture and
Natural Resources Publications, University of California, 276 pp.
Ivbijaro, M.F., Udensis, N., Ukwela, U.M. and Anno-Nyako, F.V. (1992). Geographical distribution and host range in Nigeria of the mango mealy bug,
Rastrococcus invadens Williams, a serious exotic pest of horticulture and other crops. Insect Science and its Application 13(3): 411-416.
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Importance. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, pp. 475-503.
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Okigbo, R.N. (2001). Occurrence, pathogenicity and survival of Macrophoma mangiferae in leaves, branches and stems of mango (Mangifera indica
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Prasad, S.S. and Sinha, A.K. (1979). Some new records of fungi on mango. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India, B 49(3): 117-118.
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Wang, C.L. (1982). Insect pests and their injury on rose. Journal of Agricultural Research of China 31(1): 97-101.
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Zaheruddeen, S.M. and Sujatha, A. (1993). Record of Deanolis albizonalis (Hampson) (Pyralidae: Odontinae) as mango fruit borer in Andhra Pradesh.
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“Quarantine pest” – According to the IPPC definition, a quarantine pest is “A pest of potential economic importance
to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially
controlled” (FAO, 1996).
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Algae
Bacteria
Fungi
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Nematoda
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