Pistacia vera

:
2012

. 3

1)

. 5

2)

. 8

3)

. 19

4)

. 23

5)

. 27

6)

. 29

7)

. 37

8)

. 40

9)

. 41

10)

. 45

11)

. 56

12)

. 64

13) --

. 73

14)

. 77

15)

. 93

16)

. 105

17) -

. 108

18)

. 130

. 134

. 136

, , ,
.

(FAO, EE .. ).


.

.
...
,
, .

Pistacia vera .

.
(1934) , (1935,1939) ,
(1980) , (1984) , (1998) ,
1998,
.

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.. (
).

,
3

.
,
,
.

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.
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) .

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.


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.

1.

1951
. .
.
.
. . ,

. .
.
. .
.
.
,
.

. 1968
--.
1978
,

.
1993
,
:
.

..

. .

,

. 35011
317706/14-1-1994 ( 18/14-01-94)
17
. () . 1107/1996 (L

.1. ( )

2002 18
, :
,
60
.
2 .

.

4000-4500 -
350 -400 .
1.1

5 5,70 ,
4,80 /.
2009, 7
/ .1 , 6,5 /.
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

4.69 /
4.96 /
5.95 /
7.00 /
4.80 /
5-5.70 /

. 2 .

1.2

,
, 40 .
( /966-7552.07 ) AGROCERT.

AGROLAB.
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,
.
.


,
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40

,
AGROCERT ( .. ).
,
.

,
.

, 2
.

2.

2.1

P.vera ,
.
, ,
-.

4 3 .. ( , IV, 4,7).
,
Pistacia Terebinthus .
, , ,
.
().
Pistacia ( )
(, 981) 2 ..,
.
1 ..
( , , 124).
2 .. : ,
, ,
. , ,

.

,
.
30 .. (, XV, 83, 91).
(1914) 19
. 1856

. .
.
8

() (
1869 ). . .
19 .
.
.
()
.
1951 . . ,
.
,
.
1960
. .
1968
.
,

.
, .
, ,
, , , , , ..
500 1956, 1500
1.
(, ,
), , , , (,
, , ), .

1.

1989-1991

1998

1999

2000

159000

314000

131000

200000

36000

85000

56000

94000

39000

35000

30000

60000

14000

36000

306000

33000

22000

32000

32000

32000

5000

5000

6000

7000

2000

1000

3000

.3 (m.t.)
: FAO Production Yearbook, vol. 54, 2000

1998

16.636

442.369

508.170

1.035

1999

18.263

480.645

545.318

1.257

2001

20.937

555.136

617.521

1.223

2002

20.930

555.507

616.283

1.566

2/3

1/3

.4.
: FAO Production Yearbook, vol. 54, 2000

2.2 ,

(Pistacia vera L.) Anacardiaceae.

Pistacia Zohari (1950-1952) 11.
.

P. Terebinthus L. ( , ) P. Lentiscus L. (,
) P. Mutica F. Et M.,

P. Atlantica Desf. (Med. Cheek List, Flora Europaea).

.
10

 .
, .
.
.
. .
.
.
45-95%, .

-15C 18C .
45-50% .

,
(), ().
.
. P.vera
Pistacia .

. .

.

.

6-10 . , , 10-20
10-20 .
, , ,
.
.

.
.

100 .

. ,
( P. vera) :
11

. 1. Pistacia terebinthus ( )

2-5 ,
. 7-13
, , .1,
.
.
.
600 :
i.

()

ii.

( )

iii.

()

iv.

( )

v.

()

vi.

()

vii.

()

viii.

()

Pistacia terebinthus.(.1).
( )
.
(P. terebinthus).

12

 .
.
.
.
, ,
,
.

. 2. Pistacia palaestina Linn ( )

10 , 20 .
.
,
. (.2)
. ,
, .

.
.

, .
(, , )
. ,
, .

P. Palaestina, .

13

 3. Pistacia lentiscus ( )

Pistacia lentiscus (.3)

, 1-5 , (4-10
) .
.
(Pistacia lentiscus var, chia),
, , ,
.
, ,
.

. 4. Pistacia atlantica ( )

20 ,
.
.
.
, ,

14

 . .4

. 5. Pistacia sinensis ( )

15-20 ,
9-13 . . Pistacia sinensis (.5)
.
.
.

6. Pistacia Mexicana ( )

. (18-25).
(.6).

15

. 7. Pistacia inutica ( )

. . , ,
10 . (3-9).
(.7).
. ,
.

. 8. Pistacia vera ( )

(.8). Zohary (1952)
Pistacia 2 = 24
P. Lentiscus L. (n = 12), 2 = 28 P. atlantica Desf. (n = 14) 2 = 30
P. vera L. (n = 15), Jones (1950) P. vera L.
2 = 32 (n = 16).

2.3 P. Vera
16

 , , , ,
6-9 .
,
.
3
6-8 .
,
.
.

.

.
, (
).
Crane Takeda (1979)
,
,
. , (
) 1-5 , (
) 3-7
( ) 5-9 .

.
.

. ,
.
.
, ,
, ,
.

.
.

.
17

 .
,
.
.
, .
, , .
3-5 .
, 3-5
.
, .
(), .

, ,
, .
()

.
.
,
20-95%, .

18

3.

3.1
,
,
,
<< >> 5-9 ( .. 7 ),
, << >> 3-7 ( .. 5 )
, << >> 1-5 ( .. 3 )
.
, , ,
.
,
,
(
), .

, .
(Aschouri).
.

,
. ,
, .
( ),
.
. ,
, , .
22 mm,
11 mm.
, .
, ,
19


, .

,
(12 mm 11 mm)
(19 mm).
.
, .
.
,

. ,
.
, ,
(),
.

22 mm ( ),
(10 mm ).
, .
(
), ,
(50% ..)
.
.
.
.
, .
,
, , ,
.

20

3.2
,
Napoletana, Femminella, Natarola Agostara, Napoletana
(90% )
. Napoletana
,
, , ,
,
.
(. 1. P. terebinthus),
.

<<Kerman>> .

. , .

20% .
,
.
Bronte, Trabonella, Red Aleppo ..
.
, 10
3 5 Kerman.
Bronte
Trabonella ( ) , Red
Aleppo , Kerman ,
o () .
<< Piters >>
Kerman.
( P. atlantica )
.
: Ghazvin , Mondaz
, Owhadi , Ibrahimi , Shasti , Sefideh , Vahedi , Wohadi Imperiale de Damechan.
,
21

 ,
, .
. (
)

.
( 15-20 )
.
.

Keri, Messaria, Aschouri, Olemi, Batturi, Aschouri
O .

22

4.

15 40
. ,

,
. ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
,
,
,
30C.

1968 (20,5C) .
(
)

).
,
,
.
.

.9 .

23



(
7C ) (.9). ,
, ( )
, ,
.
,
. Ayfer
5,5 6,0 C
22 C 28 C (
, 23,7 C, 26,9 C 26,7 C ).
(
),
.
,
.
, , ,
,
. ,
,
, , 600 ,

. .. 600 ,

.
.

24

.10. -(2011)

300 600 .

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,
800 1000 .


.
,
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.

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(
).
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.
.

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25

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26

5.

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50%.
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,
.


.

( ..
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.

,

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27

 ,
,
, ,
.

28

6.

6.1 ) .
, ,

.
,
(P. Palaestina) (P.
terebinthus).
, ( R. atlantica ),
( P. Khinjuk) . (
P. lentiscus ), .
6.2 )

.

(
),
. ,
(.. ),
( ).
,
,
,
.

29

.12 . Pistacia terebinthus .

(.12) ,
, , ,

.
( .. 2 C ) 50%
,
,
. ( ),
, .


. , . .
, ,
,
30

 ( )
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.
6.3 .

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)
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24 ( NaOH ) 1%
6 : 1 3 5
.

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.
2 3
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.
, ,
, .

,
31

 5 .

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2 ,
.
, 5 ,
( .. , ,
.).
,
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.
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,
7.000 8.000

( 4.000 ).
10 .
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.
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6.4 .
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.
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3 4
11-15-15, 100 ,
, 40 .
32

.
6.5 .

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3 2 3
, 3 5
80 90 ,
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.

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2 3 ,
.

2 4
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15 20 )
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10 ,
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33

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12 ( )
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.

34

6.8 2 )
2-3
. .13.
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.13 (2011)

4-5
, 11-15-15 150 200
. ( ),
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50
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,

35

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25 ( 5
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36

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37

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38



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39

8.

: 25-35cm,

, .

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.


.

8.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6x6 ( 7x7 ,
: 1:7)

8.2
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1:7 .
,

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40

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41

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42

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44

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4.800

1.192

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143.6

2.010

0.287

2.154

7 -1-7.5

10.3

0.141

0.051

0.133

2.8 -1-2.6

23.0

0.322

0.161

0.230

2 -1-2.6

11.5

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2.8- 1.2

438.4

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4.2-1-4.2
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46

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47

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51

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53

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56

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57

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(
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,
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58

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(1) 20-50 % 75 %,
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59

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60

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61

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62

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30 %,
0,6 % 0,2%.

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63

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12.1

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64

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3 .
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(P.palaestinia) (
P. Vera x P.palaestinia),
.

3-7
( 5)
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65


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66



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67

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15 , 0
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69

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(P.Vera), (P. palaestina)
(P. Terebinthus), ( ),
.

(20-25 )

.
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70

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25%, 25%, 50%

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72

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75

.18. .

76

14.

14.1

Agrobacterium tumefasciens.

, .
,
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Septoria, , ,
Aspergillus spp .
.
14.2
Phytophthora
1952
(Kouyeas 1952). (Ershad 1971, Banihashemi
1995) (Macdonald & . 1992)
(Teviotdale 1995).

( 1973).

77

.18 .

,
, .
,
.

. .18.
.
.
, .

.
.

().
.
,
.
.

78


Phytophthora .
Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan, syn. P. parasitica
Dastur P. citrophthora (Smith & Smith) Leonian.
P. Citricola Sawada
Phytophthora
( 1973) .
P. Citrophthora, P.
Drechsleri Tucker, P. cryptogea Pethybridge & Lafferty, P nicotianae P.
megasperma Drechsler (Banihashemi 1995). P.
nicotianae (Ervin & Ribeiro 1996), P. Capsici Leonian P. Cryptogea (MacDonald
& . 1992).

P. citrophthora P.citricola .

Pistacia vera ( ) P. Terebinthus ( )
, P. vera
, P. Terebinthus P.
nicotianae P. citrophthora P. Citricola Phytophthora sp.
( 1973 ).
,
P. terebinthus ,

. ,
P. citricola,
, ( 1968 ).
P. citricola P. terebinthus
.
Phytophthora
.
.
.
79

 ,
.
, ,
.
.

.
,
. ,
.
.
, . P.
nicotianae

( Kouyeas 1952 ).

1.

.
50-70 cm
.
2.

.
50cm

.
.
.
.
3.

)

80

 , .
450 + 900
+ 6.800 ml , 6-13-100.
,
,
.
.

.
:
1. .
.
( ),
, metham sodium ( Vapam )
.
.
2.
(
).
:
,
2 .
.
.

81

14.3 Septoria

.19 .

Septoria , S. Pistaciae
Desm., S. Pistacina Allescher S. pistaciarum Caracciolo.
, (
Chitzanidis 1956 ). S. pistaciarum S. pistaciae
( Maas k . 1971, Young k Michailides 1989, Michailides 1991 ).
S. pistacina S. pistaciarum S. pistaciae
Apostolides ( 1952 ) P. lentiscus.
S. pistaciae (
Granata k . 1996 ). S. pistaciarum
Pistacia terebinthus, P. atlantica P. chinensis.
P. vera ( Maas k . 1971, Young k Michailides 1989 ).
. S.
Pictacina . .20. Michailides ( 1991 )
S. pistaciae.

. Sarejanni (1935)
S. Pistacina .

Acrantus vestitus ( Muls k Rey ).

82

 S. pistaciae ,

.

S. pistaciae. ,
, 0,5-1,5 mm,
, ( Chitzanidis 1956 ).
Michailides ( 1991 )
1-4 mm,
.
S. pistacina.
. .
5 mm,
,
,
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
S. pistaciarum.
, 1 mm.
, 2,5 mm
.
,
.

.

83


S. pistacina S. pistaciarum (
Chitzanidis 1956 ). .
, ( Chitzanidis
1956, & 1971 ).
.
.
S. pistaciarum 10C
(- & 1976).

20C 25C (- 1979).
.
.
S. pistaciarum
(- 1979).
. S. pistacina ,
30 S. pistaciarum 10

(Chitzanidis

1956).

.
(- 1989).

. (- 1979).

,
(Chitzanidis 1956). Sarejianni (1935b)
S. pistacina :
. .
- (1979)
S. pistaciarum .

.
-
(Matheron & Call 1997).
84

14.4 Pileolaria terebinthi

.20
( Assawah 1969, Corazza & Avanzato 1985 ), (
Bhardwaj 1995 ) ( Cummins & Ling 1950 ).
Pistacia vera P. terebinthus. P. chinensis,
P. weinmannifolia ( Cummins & Ling 1950 ), P. saporte P. mytica ( Cuyot
1958 ), P. palaestina ( Cuyot 1967 ) ( P. lentiscus ),
Sydow & Sydow 1910.
P. vera 1936 ( Sarejanni 1936 )
P. terebinthus Pantidou & Henderson ( 1969 ).
P. lentiscus

Bornmuller ( 1973 ).

( 1992 ).
. ( 1992 )
1991 95 %
, .
Assawah ( 1969 ) ,
.
( El Hariri 1969, 1992 ).
1981
( , ...).

(
).

.20 (Pileolaria terebinthi)

85


,
, ,
.
.

, .
.
.
.

.
. ,
, , 1 mm
.
, , 3-4 mm

.
.
.
maneb, mancozeb, .
maneb .
14.5
( Camarosporium pistaciae ) .21
&
. ( 1974 ).
. ,
. .
86

 25 50 %.
, , , , , , , ,
.

.

.21 .

. .
.
,
5 mm .

. ,
1-2 mm,
. .
,
.

. ,
, .
87

 ,
.
, ,
.
.
1938
, , ,
Phomopsis sp. ,
& . ( 1974 )
C. pistaciae.
Michailides & Ogawa ( 1986 )

Botryosphaeria dothidea ( Mong : Fr. )
Ces & de Not., ( Dothiorella sp. ). ,
, C.
pistaciae. Michailides & Ogawa ( 1986 ),
.
C. pistaciae .

1. ( ,
) .

( Michailides & . 1997b, 1999 ).

.
2. ( Palumbina guerinii )
,
.

.
88

 .
: ,
.
,
.
iprodione, tebuconazole azoxystrobin (
Michailides & . 1997b, 2001).
.
.
azoxystrobin
.
C. pistaciae
.
2.2. Phomopsis sp., Camarosporium pistaciae
Fusicoccum sp. ( Botryospheria dothidea )
.

Camarosporium

Phomopsis sp.

pistaciae

Fasicoccum sp.
(Botryosphaeria
dothidea)
Fusicoccum sp.

&

1938

.1974

Macrophoma

Macrophoma

Fusicoccum

Fusicoccum

Dothiorella.

Dothiorella

17-27 x 5,5-9

11-32

m.

x 5-11 m.

89

(Botryosphaeria
dothideaa)

hyalophragmiae

phaeophragmiae

phaeophragmiae

Macrophoma

phaeodictiae.

Fusicoccum

B)

Dothiorella

4-12 x 2-5 m
()

90

,
1-2

mm.

91

.



.

,
.



.




.

(Pentatomidae)

(Tinea

pistaciae, syn.

Palumbina

guerinii)

(Pentatomidae)

(Palumbina
guerinii)

5-37 C,

6-36 C,

25C

30 C

27-30
C

.6 Phomopsis sp., Camarosporium pistaciae Fusicoccum sp. (

Botryospheria dothidea ) .

92

15.

15.1

. ()
().
, .
.

15.2

.
.
.22
.

.
Macrolenes dentipes
Lachnaea .
.
M.dentipes
Pseudocoeloides rubricus, ,
, .

Pistacia. .

93

.22 Macrolenes dentipes ,

.23. Lachnaea

Chrysomelidae.
. 3.5-11 mm .
. ,
, , .
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
94

15.3

Archips rosanus (L. 1758)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
: Cacoesia rosana L.,
Archips laevigana Den. Et Schiff.,
Archips variana Fab.,
Archips oxyacanthana Hb.,
Archips acerana Hb.,
Archips hewittana Busck.

.23. (1935), .
.

.23 .

95


, ,
20 .

. Rosaceae.

. Pistacia P. vera.

:



.
.

.
.
. A.rosanus
.

: Habrobracon sp.
(Braconidae) Omorgus sp. Pimpla maculator (Ichneumonidae).

Teleiodesdecorella (Haworth 1812)

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)
: Tinea decorella Haworth,
Gelechia Humerallis Zeller,
Teleia humeralis Zeller
96

Telfusa Humeralis Zeller

Adrosteia Humeralis Zeller
Anacampsis lyellela Humphreys & Westwood,
Lita incetella Duponchel,
GGelechia scabra Staninger,
15.4 Carpatolechia dumitrescui Capuse.
, ,
Archips rosanus (.25) .
,
.
.

.25. Archips rosanus

Sattler (1982)
, , ,
.
. Abies,
Quercus, Rhus, Cornus, Phillyrea Pistacia. O Goergiou (1977)
P. terebinthus & .(1994) P.vera
. Sattler (1982) .
Quercus sp.

97

 .
:

. .
,
A. rosanus.
.

.
. Lhomme
(1946) Balachowsky (1966) .
.
15.5 Thaumetopoea solitaria Freyer 1838
( Lepidoptera :Thaumetopoeidae )

.26. Thaumetopoea solitaria

(.26)
Anacardiaceae.
Pistacia ( Halperin 1983 ).
. .

, T. pityocampa.
.
.

98

. ,
.
,
.
60 .
. . T. solitaria
.

15.6


.
(Palumbina guerinii) (Eurytoma plotnicovi)

.
( Lachnaea )
diazinon.

().
.
15.7
Agonoscena spp.
Pistacia,
Agonoscena, .
.
.24.
Agonoscena
Pistacia, : A. succinct ( Haeger 1856 ), A. targioni (Lichtenstein 1974), A. cisti
(Puton 1882), A. menozzii (Laing 1928),
A. cisti (Hodkinson & Hollis 1981) A. pistaciae Burckhard & Lauterer 1989
(Hodkinson & Hollis 1981, Burckhard & Lauterer 1989).
Agonoscena
,
. A. succinta,
(Hodkinson & Hollis 1981)
Ruta. A. pistaciae A.
targioni (Burkhardt & Lauterer 1989).

99

 A. pistaciae P.vera, (Lauterer &

. 1998 ), A. targioni P. lentiscus ( Ayutantis & .1953 ) P.
vera ( & . 1996), A. cisti P. vera ( &
1998, Souliotis & Tsourgianni 2000) P.lentiscus (Burckhardt
1987, Lauterer & . 1998). Georgiou (1977) P. vera
A. menozii (=A.cisti).

(Davatchi 1958, Boselli 1929-1931),
(Mohammed & Sheet 1989, Mart & .1995).

, , (
, ...) ( & .1996,
& . 1997).

15.8 Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer 1989

(Homoptera : Psyllidae)
.
,
.

. ,
.
,
, .

.27

100

 A.pistaciae , , , , ,
, . , ,
.
: P. vera, P. terebinthus, P. atlantica, P.
mutica, P. palestina.
.

.
. ,
.
, ,

. ,
, , .
A. pistaciae 4-5 .

15.9
A. Pistaciae : , Psyllophagus spp.
Metaphycus spp. Chrysopidae
Coccinellidae. . Souliotis &
Tsourgianni (2000) Chrysoea Steph., Anthocoris nemoralis F.,
Psyllaephagus pistaciae Ferriere Coccinellidae.

(Palumbina guerinii)
(Eurytoma plotnikovi) .

(cypermethrine
.) . .

,
. ,
diazinon triflumuron,
.
triflumuron .
,
.

101

15.10 Idiocerus stali Fieber 1824

( Hemiptera : Jassidae )
: Idiocerus pistaciae Anagnos
.

.28 .

. .28.
( 1935 )
Idiocerus pistaciae Anagnos.
I. Stali.
.26 .

.
0,1-0,5 mm.
.
.
. ( 1935 ) Davatchi ( 1958 )
.

, ,
( Davatchi 1958 ), ( Talhouk 1969 ), ( Gentry 1965,
Schneider 1958 ), ( Georgiou 1977 ), ( Gerini 1971, Mart &
. 1995 ).

102


Pistacia vera P. mutica P.
khinjuk ( Davatchi 1958 ).

.29 .

(1935) Davatchi (1958).
Davatchi:
.

Pistacia Eleagnus angustifolius, Prunus armeniaca ..

(Davatchi 1958).
.
(Davatchi 1958).
.
. 70 (Davatchi
1958). .
.
Davatchi . . ,

Jassidae. .
.

. ,
.
.

103


(Plumbina guerinii)
(Eurytoma plotnikovi) .

, diazinon.
.

104

16.

, .

150 . 25
. ,
,
( )
( )
( ).
,
, ,
. ,
,

( ). ,
. 5 50 %
.
, ,
(, .)
(, .)
.
, ,
( ),
,
, .

. (70 % )
,
( ). ,

105

 ,
7m x 7m. ,

.30 .

.30
(
) << >> ,
, ,
,
.
, .
, ,
,
.
() , ,
.27,
.
. ,
, 10 %
,

(, ,
.). , ,
,
.
106

 ,
.
,

.31 .

.
, .

, .

107

17. -
,
,
.
.

.
.

17.1
,
,

. ,
,
, .
, ,
, ,
.

. ,
.
.

(
Michailides & Teviotdale 1994, Doster & Michailides 2002 ).
( 2 % )
, ,
,
,
( Pearson
108

1996 ). ,
, ,
,
,
,

.
Doster (2001)
: )

, ) )
.

. , ,
. ,

.

.

,
(
Doster & Michailides 2003 ).

, ,
, ,
(Doster & Michailides 1995 ).
(
5% ) ,
.

, ,
,
109


. ,
, ,
( Pearson & . 1994 ).
, ,
, ( Pearson &
Slaughter 1996 ).
,

, .

( Doster & Michailides 2002 ).

17.2
Pistacia,
( P.vera L. ),
( ) ,
,
, .
(
).
( ),
( ), ,
( ) . ,
,
.
,
,
.
. (
),
,
110

 . ,

.
. ,
, .
( 1987 )
, .
.
, , ,
.
. ,
.

.
ethephon . Torabi ( 1980 )
ethephon ,

Fandoghi. , Crane & synergy. ( 1982 ), ethephon
kerman, , ,

, .

17.3
,
(
) .
.
,
.

111

 32. ().
-.(2011).

.32,
500 800 .

. , 38 %
. 2,65
, .
, ,
.

33. . - (2011).

112

 (.33)
65 C 8 .30. ,
2-3 3-4 .

5-6 %.
8-10%.

40:100.

,
, ,
, .

.
2 6
,
,
, .
, .
7 % ,
, 40%.

.34 .( .)

113

 .
,
,
.
( )

,
() .
28% .
38%.

. .34
.

.


,
.

114

 35. .( -)

(Aktas and Polat, 2007). ,
,
.
peroxidation .
,
(Kashani Nejad et al., 2007). ,

.
.

.

(Aw), (moisture content),

.

2.
2.1Aw.
(Aw)
, ,
/
.

, /
(Anthony and Fontana, 2000).
(Magan and Aldred, 2007).
115

 .

Aw 0.82 0.70
.
25C, Aw
10 57%, (F.A.O, 2001).

36. . ( - ).

2.2
(4-6%
(w.b.))
.
.
.


(Thompson,2005).
Rafiee et al. (2009)
56-57% 5-6% .

.
FEM (Finite Element Method,
)

.
Aktas and Polat (2007)

40 60C 32 38% (w.b.).
116

 ,
Aw (P < 0.05),
,
.

,
.

.

(= ).
Pahlevan zadeh and Jafarian (2002)
15 35C (
). ,
(adsorption and desorption)

(sorption;).
2.3
,
. ,
,
. , ,

.
, ,
, turbulence.
,
70 .

.
.
,

.
(Kashani Nejad, 2009).
Kashani nejad and Tabil (2009)
(Ohadi ).
, , .
4.0838.40% (w.b.) 55%
.
117

Gazor et al (2005b) 1.5 2.5

m/s, 10%.

, 90C, peroxide
(;) 0.55meq/kg,
.

37. . ( ).

2.4
Kashani nejad et al. (2007)
Ohadi
(Page model) .

.

2.5

. (116-138C)
. ,
. Gazor et al.,
(2003) Kalehghouchi.
, 75C 90C
118

 50%,
.
.
25%.

.
()
.
100C
100C 200C. , ,
,
.
(Yazdanpanah, 2005).

3.

. ,
(Nakhaei Nejad, 2007) :
1) ,
.
2)
3)
4)
5) , 4-6%.

:
3.1

2 3 cm
2 26,5 C (RH)
18%.
.

119

 38. ..

,

, , , , , . ,

, .

.

HACCP (hazard analysis critical control points) .

3.2



.35.

. Midilli and Kucuk (2003a)

(. 38).

120

 39.

40 60 C (200 808
w/m2 ) 1.23 m/ s 6 h.
Ghazanfari et al., (2003)

. 56C, 20C
.
36 h.
21% (wb).
6% wb, 1%
. ,

(Ghazanfari et al., 2003).
,
.
.

.

(Ghazanfari et al., 2003).

121

3.3
.40 8
652C. 3 (Fig. 6 ) .

40. (Kashani Nejad, 2002)

3.4
( 4 - Fig.
8 ) 10 . ()
( ) 45 40C, .

122

 41. (Rostami and Mirdamadiha, 2004)

3.5
( 42)
552C 8 .

42. (KashaniNejad,
2002)

3.6
( 43),

.
80C 5,5 .

123

 43. (Kashani Nejad, 2002)

3.7
70C 5 .

44.

3.8
70C 4 ( 45)

124

 45.

3.9
,
10-12% 2.5-3 hours. ( 46)

46.

4.
Midilli (2001)

. ,
,
50 + 10 C 6 .
28 + 4 C .
29%

125


.
Ghazanfari et al. (2003)

.

.
,
.
55C.
,
, , (case
hardening),

.
.
Gazor et al (2005a)
( 8).

.
( ) .
.
,
.
10 cm. Kashani Nejad et al.
(2002),
.
,
(value) peroxide thiobarbituric acid .

.
; (firmness).

(2.427%)

(3.272%)
.


.
.
.

126



.
. .


.
,
.
.
.
.
Rostami Midamadiha (2004)
(, ,
). 4-6%
1.21mm
1.07mm .

.

47. .
.
.

.
, , 8,5, 15,1 and
38,5 1% , .
4-6%
10-12% (w.b.) .
4-6% (w.b.)
127

 .
,
. .
2 .

() .

, ,
, , ,
,
.
.
(, , )
,
.

,
.
25-30

.
,
, , ,
, , ( .
)
. ,
, ,
,
.
.
( ),
,
.
.
128

 , ,
2 %
. ,

50 55 .
65
75% 4 8 C
.

129

18.

(aflatoxins)

.
(), ,
( ), ,
, .

( ..), (, .

. '
(Hepatitis B virus, HBV),
(hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC). HBV

1-DNA

p53.
HBV,
.
.
AFM1- .

24 .
.
AFB1- .
90%
,
2-3 .

(1-2% )
. ,
. .

Aspergillus spp. .
Aspergillus
(Denizel & synergy. 1976a, Mojtahedi &

. 1979, Doster &

Michailides 1994b).
, .
,
.
130

 ,
Aspergillus flavus A. Parasiticus
, .
( . , .. , .. )


. :
) Aspergillus spp.
,
)
,
)

A. Flavus
, ( Sommer &
.

1976).

( Doster & Michailides 1994b ).

A. Flavus A. Parasiticus
, .
,
, .
,

. A. flavus A. parasiticus

.
Amyelois transitella (Thomson
131

& Mehdy 1978). Mahoney & Molyneux (1998),

,
. A. flavus
,

(Denizel & .
1976a).

() .

( Mojtahedi 1979). A.
flavus A. parasiticus

, ...
.
. Sommer (1986)

,
,
,
. A. flavus A. parasiticus

17-42

C.

. A. flavus 4h
50 C 2%0.
( Hussein & . 1986).

.
.
25-35 C ( Pettit 1984 ).
.
A. flavus A.
parasiticus
.
3-4 8-9 %
132

 65%.
.
80%,
13 %( Denizel & . 1976b ).
65 C 8 5-6 %(
1996).
7 %( Ferguson & ,1995).

.
( )
.
.
.
( Pearson & . 1999).
:
1. .
2. , .

133

, .

.

, ..

...
, .



.,

...
.

, ,
. ,

.
,
,
.

,
,
marketing ,
.
134

.
.

135

.
. 1986: ( ) 1940.
, .
. 1986: . 1954. ,
. 1986: . 1953. ,
. 1986: , 1930. ,
Crane J.C. 1974: Hermaphroditism in pistacia. California Agricuiture.
Crane J.C. 1975: Pistachio Nuts by Harvesting. California Agricuiture.
Maugeri A. 1975: La coltura del pistachio e la sue prospettive. Frutticoltura.
. 1970. -.
.
. 1974: . .
. 1974: .
Crane. JC.1974: Pollen Longetivy in Pistacia. California Agriculture.
Crane J. C. 1974. Improved Pistacia-Seed Germination. California Agriculture.
.. 1976: .
.
.. 1977:
pistacia vera. .
. 1975: (
pistacia vera ).
1949: .
. 1986: . , .
. ... :
.
.. 1986: .
Opitz K.W. 1975. The Pistachio nut. University of California.
. 1934: . 1934.
.1977: . 1977.
. 1979:
. .

. 1938. (
Phomopsis sp.) , 3: 550-558.

1971.
1962-1969. (..), 10: 71-124

136

, . 1992. , Pileolaria
tereinthi (DC) Cast. [. Uromyces terebinthi (DC) Winter] . 6
, , 6-8 1992, , .75-76.
:
1996 1999
, . -, . 1971.
Mycosphaerella pistaciarum Chitzanidis.
(..), 10: 228-233
, . , .1977. Camarosporium pistciae
Zachos, Tjavella-klonari & Roubos. (..), 11:
366-373.
, . -, . 1979 .

Macrophoma Sphaeropsis dalmatica.
(..), 12 :59-71
, . - .1979.

. , ( .. ), 12
: 209-216.
, ., -, . , . 1974.
( Pistacia vera L.) Camarosporium pistaciae n.sp.
( .. ), 11 : 57-63.
- , . , .1985.
Eutypa lata ( Pers
: Fr. ) Tul. . 3 , ,
16-18 1985. , . 73.
, .1973. Phytophthora .
( .. ), 10 : 283-292.
, . 1979. ( Pistacia vera L.).
( ..), 12: 147-148.
, . , . 1968.
Phytophthora . ( .. ), 8 : 183-201.
, . 1927. ( Tinea pistaciae Anagn.).
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