Diss. ETH No.

13555

Yucatec

Mayan Medicinal

Ethnobotany, Biological

Plants:

Evaluation

and

Phytochemical Study

of

Crossopetalum gaumeri

A dissertation submitted to the

SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ZURICH

For the

degree

of

Doctor of Natural Sciences

Presented

by

ANITA SABINE ANKLI

Eidg. dipl. Apothekerin

born June 25, 1967

Zullwil/Meltingen (SO)

Accepted

on

the recommendation of

Prof. Dr. 0.

Sticher, examiner

Prof. Dr. M. Heinrich, co-examiner

Dr. J. Heilmann, co-examiner

Zrich 2000

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgements
I wish to express my sincerest thanks to the

Sticher, my supervisor, for giving

Prof. Dr. Otto

ethnobotanical-phytochemical project
facilities

extraordinary working

grateful

am

most

me

into the

field of

fascinating

Heilmann for

the

helping

patience

opportunity

to

to

and midwives made it

the

family of

introduction in the
to Miriam and
me

study

in their

in Mexico.

healing

providing
problems.

Special

thanks go to Dr.

as a

referee.

and Xcocmil for their

and for

plants

sessions and ceremonies.

the

knowledge

Many

of the healers

to carry out this thesis.

me

to

Mayan

Gregoria

and for

stay

in their

home, for the delicious food and for the

cosmovision. I would like to express my warmest thank

Chan Uc for their courage to

passing

good

time

together.

or

Marciana Poot Kauil for

and for her

for

discussions and

the usage of the medicinal

me

mistakes I made due to cultural differences

making

encouraging

Chikindzonot, Ekpedz

on

for

for the

repeated questions. Only

possible

group,

Heinrich, my co-supervisor, for introducing

Chan Uc for the uncountable discussions

research

Don Abundio Chan Kauil and Dona Claudia Uc Cahun for their

hospitality, allowing

protecting

my

the chance to carry out

for the open door to discuss

support this thesis

teaching

in

his

me

with the structure elucidation of the isolated

me

participate

answering

thanks for

as

the field

the healers and midwives of

openness and

well

in

ethnobotany,

during

compounds and accepting

as

to Prof. Dr. Michael

for the valuable support

Jrg

following people:

it easier to

help

helping

come

to collect

me as a

any

sleep

house, thus

I also like to thank Cresencio

topic. (I

lack of

in my

like to

apologize

understanding).

Maya-Spanish

translator and friend and

in contact with the healers and midwives of

plants

in the forest and in

for the

Ekpedz

hardly passable regions.

am

Acknowledgement

grateful

to her father Don Silvestre Poot Poot and her mother for their

not

tales.

Ingrid Olmsted for

Dr.

excursions
am

on

de

the

Carlos

Dr. Mario

and for the invitations to several botanical

the Peninsula of Yucatan. For the

Trejo,

Sousa,

biologists

of the botanical identification

help

and co-workers of the

CICY, especially

to

Paulino Sima and Dr. Rafael Duran. I also like to thank the
of the MEXU

specialists

botanists and

and who

support in the CICY (Centro de

botanical

Yucatan)

very much indebted to the

Jorge

happiness

the social roles and taboos.

yet,

Investigacin Cientifica

mystic

children of Chikindzonot who filled my house with great

followed,

beliefs and

Mayan

and the introduction in the actual

hospitality

Dr. Oswaldo

(Herbario

Tellez,

Nacional de Mexico, Mexico

Dr. Rafael

Dr. Jose-Luis

Lira,

D.F.):

Villasenor,

Dr. Fernando Chan and Dr. M. Martinez Gordilla.

Dr.

for

Tuz and Dona Aurora

Ignacio

supporting

Gisel

and

the

Vargas,

hospitality

project

and

inviting

(INI,
me

Instituto Nacional
to the

meetings

Indigenista, Valladolid)

of the healers.

Roxana Chavarrfa and Don Julio Chavarrfa for their

in

Mrida and Valladolid and for

telling

me

friendship

stories about the

Mexican way of life.

Dr. Barbara Pfeiler

Viesca

(UNAM,

linguistical
homes. I

and

am

(Universidad Autnoma

Universidad Nacional Autnoma de

anthropological

grateful

on

Mrida)

and Dr. Carlos

Mexico, Mexico

D.

F.)

for the

discussions and the invitations in their wonderful

to Dr. Ramon

their fruitful discussions

of the world.

de Yucatan,

Maya

Arzpalo (UNAM)

culture and for their

and Jolanda

hospitality

Arzaplo

in the

for

biggest city

Acknowledgement

(INI, Mrida)
to

(INI,

Dr. Carlos Zolla

for their advice to find

accept and respect

Dr.

Prof.

me as a

Dr.

Daniel

productive discussions

Dr. Arturo

good place

for

Zass for

of

sending

(University

the valuable

in the

me

performing

search

interpretation

on

Dr.

Liu

Hongmei

discussions about
of KB cell

and

Dr.

chromatography

cytotoxicity

of

plant

chemical

literature search

phytochemistry

on

plants

equipment

to

dry

for the

plants.

I also wish to thank Dr.

compounds and
mass

Dr. Walter

spectra.

for their support and

stimulating

and Micheal Wasescha for the determination

extracts and pure

Dr. Barbara Frei Haller for the

time).

of NMR spectra and for the

problems.

Jimmy Orjala

that

Michigan-Dearborn)

of

Amrein, Oswaldo Greter and Rolf Hflinger for recording

and Dr. Gonzalo Solis

and for their friendliness

study

about medicinal and non-medicinal

and fruitful discussions about NMR

Engelberg

Argueta

broken-Spanish speaking person (at

Moerman

teaching

Dr. Oliver Zerbe for

untiring

Baltisberger (ETH)

Matthias

plants,

D.F.),

Mexico

compounds. My
ethnobotanical

encouraging

and for her excellent

warm

pioneer

work in

thanks go to

discussions, the

ethnobotany

in

our

group.

Prof. Dr. Horst

Rimpler

for the

good co-operation

(Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg).

especially

of the

Freiburg-Zrich group

would like to thank Dr.

Peter

Bork, Dr. Bilkis Heneka and Dr. Elke Beha.

Dr.

Lutz Wolfram, Dr.

Peter

Bauerfeind

(University Hospital, Zurich),

Claudia Weiss, PD. Dr. Reto Brun, Ccile Schmid

(Swiss Tropical Institute,

Basel), Regina Bruggisser (University, Basel), Jrg Gertsch (ETH)

Helmut Wiedenfeld
would

like to thank

determining protein

(University, Bonn)
Dr.

for

testing

extracts of different

Christoph Schachtele

kinase

activity (Klinik

fr

Dr.

and Dr.

and Dr.

plants.

Frank Totzke for

Tumorbiologie, Freiburg).

am

Acknowledgement

grateful

to

hypothesis

David

all my

Prof.

Dr.

Schaub

Marcus

(University, Zurich)

for

proposing

the

about the effect of cardenolides in this treatment for snake bites.

McLaughlin

and Anna Jen for the

correction of this thesis.

and staff at the Institute of Pharmaceutical

colleagues

Zurich for the

Engl.sh

great time

we

had

together, especially

Sciences, ETH

I like to thank my

laboratory

colleagues (17L80).

all my friends who visited

me

in my home in Yucatan and those who

supported

my ideas and dreams.

Last

not

but

least

Granados for their

to overcome various

Financial

express my deepest thank to my parents and Julian

private support

and

problems during

patienc3,

Swiss Agency of Development

Swiss

Barth Fonds of ETH, Zurich

which gave

was

obtained from:

Cooperation (SDC),

of Natural Sciences

me

this PhD-thesis.

support during the work of this thesis

Academy

critically

(SANW),

Berne

Zurich

great motivation

Contents

Abbreviations

Summary

Resumen

Zusammenfassung

Part I Medicinal Ethnobotany

12

1 Introduction
1.1

Goal and

2 Yucatan and the

16

objectives

17

Mayas

17

2.1

Background

2.1.1

Geology

2.1.2

Ancient

2.1.3

From the

2.1.4

The Yucatec

2.1.5

Manuscripts

2.1.6

Medicinal ethnobotany of Yucatan

30

2.2

Methods in the field

33

2.3

Abbreviations mentioned in the

2.4

Plant list

41

2.5

Informants

60

2.6

Gardens of medicinal plants

61

2.7

Selection of

17

and fauna

18

Maya history

3 Publication I: Medical

Healer's

Spanish conquest

on

Maya

medicinal

plant species for

plant

their

and selection

37

list

biological evaluations

indigenous

62

Maya:

quantitative criterion

Maya medicinal plants

medicinal plants:

28

plants

of the Yucatec

consensus as a

21

23

Maya today

Ethnobotany

4 Publication II: Yucatec

to the Caste War

63

versus non-

characterization
97

Part II Plant Evaluation

5 Publication III: Yucatec

Mayan

Evaluation based

medicinal
on

plants:

indigenous

134

uses

6 Additional results

160

6.1

Antimicrobial

6.2

Comparison of disk method and TLC

6.3

Protein kinase

6.4

Other activities

6.5

Crossopetalum gaumeri-

activity

160
161

method

activity; Method and results

162
167

the

plant species for

the

phytochemical study

Part III Phytochemistry

7 Celastraceae

family

of

168

Crossopetalum

and the genus

gaumeri

Crossopetalum

170

7.1

Botanical taxonomy

170

7.1.1

Crossopetalum gaumeri

171

7.2

Phytochemistry

7.2.1

Terpenoids (terpenes, isoprenoids)

172

7.2.2

Alkaloids

176

7.2.3

Flavonoids and other

7.3

Phytochemistry

7.4

Biosynthesis of terpenoids (terpenes, isoprenoids)

177

7.5

Chemosystematic

180

7.6

Biological

7.7

Popular medicinal

7.7.1

Yucatec

7.7.2

Medicinal

7.7.3

Global medicinal

of the Celastraceae

of

172

phenolic compounds

176

Crossopetalum species

176

and

phylogenetic relationships

activities among the Celastraceae

185

use

Maya medicinal

use

of C gaumeri

application of other Crossopetalum species

use

182

of Celastraceae

species

185
186
186

8 Methods

188

(isolation procedure)
layer chromatography (TLC)

188

8.1

Thin

8.2

Vacuum

8.3

Middle pressure

8.4

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

189

8.5

Open column chromatography

189

8.6

Liquid-liquid partition (LLP)

189

liquid chromatography (VLC)

liquid chromatography (MPLC)

Nuclear

9.2

Mass

9.3

UV spectroscopy

9.4

Optical

9.5

Acidic

magnetic

188

190

9 Methods of structure elucidation

9.1

188

resonance

spectroscopy (NMR)

191
193

spectrometry (MS)

194

(UV)

rotation

194

hydrolysis

194

195

10 Plant extraction
10.1

Small scale plant extraction

195

10.2

Large

extraction

195

10.3

Fractionation of the methanol extract

196

10.4

Fractionation of the dichloromethane extract

197

scale

plant

11 Structure elucidation of the isolated

compounds

200

11.1

Cardenolides

200

11.2

Ourateacatechin

213

11.3

Triterpenes

219

11.3.1

Pristimerin

219

11.3.2

Friedelane-3-on-29-ol

221

11.3.3

2,3,7-Trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-norfriedelane-29-oic acid

methylester

224

11.3.4

Celastrol

228

11.4

3,15-Dihydroxy-18-norabieta-3,8,11,13-tetraene

231

12

Biological activities of isolated compounds

233

12.1

Cytotoxicity

233

12.2

Other activities

235

13 Biomedicine,

way to

of C.

explain

gaumeri

the medicinal

use

236

13.1

Gastrointestinal problems

236

13.2

Snakebites

237

13.2.1

C.

13.2.2

What have the cardenolides to do with snake bites ?

14 Publication IV:

gaumeri used in the

Cytotoxic

treatment for snake bites

238
240

cardenolides and antibacterial

terpenoids from Crossopetalum gaumeri

243

15 Conclusion

261

References

264

List of

278

publications

List of poster

Oral

presentations

presentations

Curriculum Vitae

278

279
280

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

(dichloromethane-methanol 2:1)

non-polar

extract

AT

bites and

stings of

[a]D

specific optical

polar

ethanol extract

ATCC

American type cultures collection

CDCI3

deuterated chloroform

CHCI3

chloroform

CH2CI2

dichloromethane

chemical shift

doublet

dd

double doublet

2D

two-dimensional

DEPT

distortionless enhancement

DER

dermatological conditions

DQF-COSY

double quantum filter correlation

EI-MS

electron

ESI

electronspray ionization

eV

electron Volt

EYE

illnesses of the eyes

FAB-MS

fast atom bombardment-mass spectrometry

FEM

women's medicine

Gl

gastrointestinal disorders

H20

water

HMBC

heteronuclear

multiple

HSQC

heteronuclear

single quantum correlation

HPLC

high performance liquid chromatography

extract

venomous

animals

rotation

(1-butanol)

by polarization

transfer

spectroscopy

impact-mass spectrometry

bond correlation

Abbreviations

Hz

Hertz

'Cgo

50 % inhibition concentration

INADEQUATE

incredible natural abundance double

quantum transfer

experiment
J

coupling

KB cell line

human

multiplet

MeOD

deuterated methanol

MeOH

methanol

MIC

minimum inhibition concentration

MHz

Megahertz

MS

mass

MPLC

medium pressure

m/z

mass

Mr

relative

n-BuOH

1-butanol

NCI

National Cancer Institute

NF-kB

nuclear factor kB

NMR

nuclear

3-NOBA

3-nitrobenzyl

NOE

nuclear Overhauser effect

OTH

other

PK

protein

PFE

illnesses associated with

ppm

parts per million

quartet

RES

respiratory illnesses

ROESY

rotating frame Overhauser

Rf

retention factor

constant

nasopharyngeal

carcinoma cell line

spectrometry

to

charge

liquid chromatography

ratio

(MS)

mass

magnetic

resonance

alcohol

uses

kinase

pain and fever

enhancement

(TLC analysis)

spectroscopy

RP

reversed

RT

room

singulet

Si

gel

silica

phase

temperature

gel

sp.

species

spp.

species (plural)

ssp.

subspecies

triplet

TLC

thin

TOCSY

total correlation spectroscopy

UR

urological problems

UV

ultraviolet spectroscopy

VLC

vacuum

layer chromatography

liquid chromatography

Summary

Summary

The

use

of medicinal

Also

Maya.

medicinal

today,

plants

plants played

important

an

role in the lives of the Ancient

than 450 years after the conquest of the New World,

more

essential part of the medical system of the lowland

are an

Maya

of

Yucatan.

18 months of field work in three Yucatec

During

information about medicinal

treatment

360 medicinal

plants

Gastrointestinal

single-

and 1828

quantitative approach,

the most

most

important medical problems,

fever

(13 %), respiratory

of

(3 %).

eye disorders

illnesses

opinion

have

compared

taste

are

plays

an

medicinal

role. In

plants ought

dermatological

followed

(11 %),

important

plant

addition, they

Plant

species

animals

were

general,

were

evaluated.

(19 %)

illnesses associated with

(8 %),

were

study,

extracts

were

used

the

pain and/or

other

(5

uses

(5 %), urological problems (4 %)

interviewed about ten

and

plants

that in their

plants

The results showed that odor and

ones.

illnesses

opposite

are

classified

as

were

48 medicinal

or

cold and the

plants

were

plants.
evaluated in several

tested for their antibacterial

tested in further

hot

humoral classification. Color, form and

criteria in the selection of medicinal

and

(gram-negative

and

anti-inflammatory (NF-kB) activity.

bioassays

against gastrointestinal

antiparasitic (Giardia duodenalis)

conditions

'"women's medicine"

gram-positive bacteria), cytotoxic (KB cells)

In

by

region

plant characterization. Also humoral classification

to have the

In the second part of the

All

reports could be documented. In

illnesses of this

with those of the medicinal

important

bioassays.

use

of 40 healers and midwives,

medicinal value. The characteristics of these non-medicinal

essential criteria for

texture are also

(Mexico)

To better understand the selection criteria for medicinal

12 healers and midwives

were

and

venomous

plants,

no

knowledge

frequent

problems (32 %)

%), bites and stings

the

on

communities

the concepts of disease and methods of

plants,

collected. Based

were

Mayan

based

on

problems

their

indigenous

were

and additional antibacterial

uses.

evaluated

for

(Helicobacter pylori

Summary

and

Campylobacter jejuni) activity.

were

also tested for their

traditionally

falciparum)

was

anti-fungal

against pain

plants

and the

and local

one

type II diabetes

dopamine D2 receptor

use

test was

isolated.

new

The roots of this

(pristimerin,
in different

plant

highly cytotoxic cardenolides

new

celastrol and

bioassays.

and remarkable

bioassays.

on

compounds

KB cells. In

substantiate the

were

some

indigenous

should be used with caution due to its

positive
one

and the known ourateacatechin

uses

new

Three

diterpene

known

of the

triterpenes

also isolated and examined

Pristimerin and celastrol showed

cytotoxicity against

the basis of the

From the methanol extract

pentacyclic triterpene.

friedelane-3-on-29-ol)

was

chosen due to their oral

were

The dichloromethane extract afforded

type and

were

of the herbal remedies.

against diarrhea and snake bites, and

known and four

abietane

use

were

plant species -Crossopetalum gaumeri (Celastraceae)-

results obtained in the above mentioned

plant

plants

for the taxa used in the group "women's medicine". Different activities

third step,

isolated

For the

activity (Plasmodium

examined. Plants used in the treatment of

investigated phytochemically.

were

(Candida albicans).

and fever the antimalarial

evaluated that substantiate the traditional

In

of the group used for skin conditions

effects

a-amylase inhibitory effect

tested for

applied

used

The

high

antibacterial

activity

respects, the activities of the

of C.

gaumeri. However,

the

high cytotoxicity.

Resumen

Resumen

El

uso

plantas mdicinales

de las

representaba parte importante

450 ahos de la

conocimiento

del sistema medicinal. An

las

conquista,

por las sociedades

mdicinales

plantas

mdico-farmacolgico

mayas

hoy

son

una

de las sociedades mayas

en

prehispanicas

dia, despus de

parte esencial del

la Peninsula de

en

Yucatan.

trabaj

Se

sobre el

durante 18

uso

de las

conceptualizacion

trs comunidades mayas, colectando informacion

meses en

plantas mdicinales, tratamiento de las enfermedades y la

de lo que

denomina enfermedad. Basado

se

de 40 curanderos y comadronas
mdicinales

1828

usos

se

el conocimiento

en

documentaron 360 especies de plantas

Usando

mdicinales.

clasificaron las enfermedades ms frecuentes

de la

un

criterio

region

en

cuantitativo

que

se

trabaj.

problemas gastrointestinales (32 %) y las enfermedades de la piel (19 %)

principales problemas
relacionadas

%),

vsta
es

(3 %).

mujeres (8 %),

se

es

Las respuestas

se

les

(5 %), mordedura

otras indicationes

el criterio que

se usa

no, se encuest a 12 curanderos y

especies

acerca

de las

plantas

no

picadura

y enfermedades de la

para decidir si

una

planta
se

les

mdicinales. Basandose

en

comadronas,
no

los cuales

sobre el criterio de seleccin para dichas

pregunt

los

son

(13 %), problemas respiratorios (11

fiebre

pidio que seleccionasen 10 especies de plantas

dichas

Los

encuentran las enfermedades

(5 %), problemas urologicos (4 %)

venenoso

Para entender cul

medicinal

Seguidamente

problemas de dolor y/o

con

medicina de las

de animales

de salud.

se

mdicinales

se

compararon

plantas.
las

con

obtenidas para las plantas mdicinales. Los resultados muestran que el sabor y el
olor

son

caracteristicas

para

las

seleccin de

una

planta

(fro

para la seleccin de las

plantas mdicinales.

En

general

frias y calientes y este criterio

se

considra

clasifican

en

humoral de

las

seleccin de gran

caliente)

plantas. Color,
significado para

son

Las

tambin otro criterio de importancia

caracteristicas humorales

medicinal.

forma y textura
la seleccin de

son

una

las enfermedades
en

se

la clasificacion

tambin criteriorios de

planta

medicinal.

Resumen

La

segunda parte del trabaj consisti

bioensayos. Todas los

usando diferentes

la evaluacin de 48 especies de

en

plantas,

plantas fuero evaluados

extractos de

con

bioensayos antibacteriales (Bacterias gram-positivas/negativas), citotixicidad

indigenas,

gastrointestinales,

se

actividad

probaron

y antibacteriales

plantas clasificadas

en

Plantas que

bioensayos.

usando otros

duodenalis)

(NF-kB). Adems,

y efecto antiinflamatorio

(Celulas KB)

contra usando

se

testaron los

se

contra enfermedades

usan

bioensayos antiparasitales {Giardia

{Helicobacter pylori, Campylobacter jejuni ).

el grupo de enfermedades de la

antifungicida {Candida albicans).

Las

clasificadas
Se

hiperglucemia.
corresponden
En

la

tercera

como

los

encontraron

usos

indigenas

tal y

como

se

plantas clasificadas

en

que

se

Las rai'ces de esta

como

abitandipertenos y

se

encontaron nuevos

se

aislaron trs terpenos ya conocidos

y fueron testados usando los

Pristimerina y el Celastrol

Desde

una

mdicinales
una

especie

planta

son

plantas.

de

muestran una gran

amplia perspectiva
aqui estudiadas,

se

dada

antidiarrico y

test

en

que

metanol,

se

encontraron

asi

como

extracto con

se

tambin el

diclorometanol,
Asi mismo,

Celastrol und Friedelane-3-on-

anteriormente mencionados. La

capacidad antibacterial

puede decir,

su

uso

pentacicloterpenos.

(Pristimerin,

bioensayos

que

bioensayo

con

partir del
nuevos

Las

fitoquimicamente la especie

lo confirman los resultados del

Ourateacatequina.

contra

plantas,

las

en

glucsidos cardacos, altamente citotxicos;

conocido compuesto

29-oI)

activas

clasificaron las

analis

se

dicha actividad. Del extracto obtenido de la

cuatro nuevos

a-Amylase

testaron usando el test

respuestas

parte del estudio

Crossopetalum gaumeri.
antiviperino,

Diabetes II

Las

fueron testadas contra

piel,

antifebriles, fueron testadas contra malaria, usando Plasmodium falciparum

plantas

usos

que el

uso

de

y citotxica.

las

plantas

alta citotoxicidad, debe recomendarse de

forma cautelosa.

Zusammenfassung

Zusammenfassung

Der Gebrauch

wichtige
sind

Medizinalpflanzen spielte

von

Rolle. Auch

Whrend

von

Leben der alten

eine

ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des Gesundheitswesens der

Yukatan.

Feldaufenthaltes

18-monatigen ethnobotanischen

eines

Maya

heute, nach ber 450 Jahren der Eroberung der Neuen Welt,

Medizinalpflanzen

Tiefland-Maya

im

yukatekischen Maya-Drfern (Mexiko)

wurden

in

drei

Informationen ber Medizinal

pflanzen, Krankheitskonzepte und Behandlungsmethoden gesammelt. Auf das

Wissen

von

40 Heilem und Hebammen basierend konnten 360

wurden

Auswertung

die

Erkrankungen

hufigsten

Gastrointestinale Beschwerden

(32 %)

und

und/oder

Fieber

dieser

von

(13 %), respiratorischen

Probleme

(4 %)

Verstndnis der Auswahlkriterien

Beschwerden

befragt.

Die

die humorale

Einteilung spielt

Krankheiten in heiss und kalt

erhalten die

eine

zur

Gifttieren

12 Heiler und

Meinung

nach keinen medizinischen

Eigenschaften dieser Nicht-medizinalpflanzen

wichtige Parameter

%),

Medizinalpflanzen wurden

denjenigen der Medizinalpflanzen verglichen.

und Geschmack

von

(11

Zum besseren

Hebammen ber zehn Pflanzen, welche ihrer

Wert haben,

die

Augenkrankheiten (3 %).

und

von

waren

Krankheiten verbunden mit

Frauenmedizin" (8 %), andere Indikationen (5 %), Bisse und Stiche

(5 %), urologische

eruiert.

Region

Hauterkrankungen (19 %)

wichtigsten medizinischen Probleme, gefolgt

Schmerz

quantitativen

dokumentiert werden. In einer

Anwendungen

und 1828 einzelne

Medizinalpflanzen

Die Resultate

Charakterisierung

wichtige Rolle.

eingeteilt

Im

wurden mit

zeigten, dass Geruch

der Pflanzen sind. Auch

allgemeinen werden die

und die verwendeten

Medizinalpflanzen

entgegengesetzte humorale Bezeichnung. Farbe, Form und Textur

sind bei der Auswahl

von

Medizinalpflanzen

ebenfalls bedeutende Kriterien.

Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit, wurden 48 Pflanzenarten in verschiedenen

Testsystemen

biologischen

evaluiert. Alle Pflanzenextrakte wurden auf antibakterielle

(gram

negative und gram-positive Bakterien), zytotoxische (KB Zellen) und entzndungs

hemmende

(NF-kB) Wirkung

untersucht. Zustzlich wurden sie

bezglich der

Zusammenfassung

indigenen Anwendung
gastrointestinale

Beschwerden

(Giardia duodenalis)

Campylobacter jejuni)
wurden

Frauenmedizin

antiparasitre

Gruppe Hauterkrankungen

Test

die

wurde

traditionelle

wurde fr die Pflanzen, die gegen

zur

Behandlung

von

fr

Spezies,

die

verwendet.

Es

im

die

Gebiet

der

resultierten verschiedene

Verwendung der pflanzlichen Heilmittel

phytochemisch

positiven Resultate

Anwendung

Schlangenbisse

gegen Diarrhe und

genannten Testsystemen ausgewhlt.

in den oben

bekannte

Ourateacatechin

Cardenolide

sowie

Untersuchung

des Dichlormethanextraktes fhrte

einem neuen

das

pentazyklischen Triterpen.

zu

einem

isoliert
neuen

Zustzlich wurden drei bekannte

biologischen Testsystemen geprft.

traditionelle

Zytotoxizitt

Hinsicht

Pristimerin

belegen die Aktivitten der isolierten

Verwendung,
mit Vorsicht

doch

eingesetzt

sollte

die

Die

Abietanditerpen

Pflanze

auf

und

in den

und Celastrol

zeigten starke antibakterielle Wirkung sowie beachtliche Zytotoxizitt

mancher

zytotoxische

werden.

Terpene (Pristimerin, Celastrol und Friedelan-3-on-29-ol) isoliert,

verschiedenen

gaumeri

untersucht. Die Wurzeln dieser Pflanze wurden

Aus dem Methanolextrakt konnten ein bekanntes und vier neue, sehr

In

Diabetes II

Studie, wurde eine Pflanzenart -Crossopetalum

auf Grund der oralen und lokalen

zu

Die

knnen.

(Celastraceae)-

und

pylori,

(Helicobacter

(Candida albicans) getestet.

ermittelt. Pflanzen

eingesetzt werden,

Im dritten Teil der

sowie der

auf

a-Amylase Test auf antihyperglykmische Wirkung geprft und

Wirkungen, welche
begrnden

wurden

antibakterielle

(Plasmodium falciparum)

D2 Dopamin-Rezeptor

der

zustzliche

angewendet werden,

wurden in einem

eingesetzt werden,

antifungale Wirkung

Antimalaria-Aktivitt
Fieber

und

Testsystemen geprft. Pflanzen, die gegen

Aktivitt untersucht. Pflanzen der

auf

ferner

in weiteren

in KB Zellen.

Substanzen

Grund

die

der starken

werden.

Part I

Medicinal Ethnobotany

Introduction

Introduction

of this

The main

goal

medicinal

plants

of the Yucatec

diseases

on

of the

important plant species

most

indigenous

Additionally,

uses.

phytochemically

and

the

isolated

methods and the concepts of

healing

further purposes of the field

were

stage, the

of three communities and their botanical

Maya

understanding

identification. The

is the detailed documentation of the

interdisciplinary study

of 18 months. In the second

study

were

evaluated in various

one

of

the

compounds

species
were

bioassays

based

investigated

was

in

examined

different

bioassays.

plants

Medicinal

Maya (Mexico).

are an

An

important

impressive

element of the medical system of the Yucatec

number of healers and midwives

medicine, which has been developed

supported by documentary

Spaniards
the

ceremonies for

one

manuscripts

written

(Arzaplo Marin, 1995; Diego

of ceremonies

protecting milpas

to the time of the Ancient

hundreds of years. Some

evidence in old

in the 16th century

performance

over

addressing
are

the

examples of

Maya (Diego

de

rain-god
cultural

use

historic records survived from this it is of

of medicinal

the medical

plants

plants by

not

12

Maya.

the

Maya

1992).

de Landa,

heritages which

Maya,

which

or

Also

go back

were a

important

particular

Another

and their scientific identification. There

on

by

uses are

are

highly

to the them.

interest to

important point

study

for

the

studying

system of the Yucatec Maya is the lack of modern studies of medicinal

studies about medicinal

based

the modern

plant

to ask for rain and the

advanced civilization. Herbal remedies must have been very

no

empirical

the

Landa, 1992). The Yucatec Maya

group of the direct descendents of the Ancient

Since

apply

secondary

scientifically

plants

sources

identified.

are

several

interesting

books and

of Yucatan. However, their information is often

with data documented at earlier times

or

with

plants

Introduction

Ethnobotany

is

interdisciplinary specialty,

an

interrelationships, which
such

studies

plant-human

in different aspects of the lives of human

occurs

beings,

medicine, nutrition, and ecology. It also includes various fields such

as

ethnology, botany, medicine, linguistics

must go back to the

plants

which

beginning

and

about useful

pharmacy. Knowledge

of human existence. Humans

as

had to

certainly

differentiate between plants without any use, plants from which they could obtain
nourishment

or

stimulation, plants which could alleviate ailments

or

even

cure

sicknesses, plants with psychoactive properties, and plants which could be used
kill

(Schultes

and Siri

von

ethnobotany is

Medical

Reis, 1995).

plants.

for the

products

impact

of

One of the

and thus to

plants

of medical

rescue

documented medicinal
used in

study

are

health

of the

of

care.

The WHO

preparations that
WHO

closely

are:

(1)

are

To

is

further aim in this field of

allied with

ethnobotany

important

ethnopharmacology,
physiological

for the

(World
in

is to document the

cultural

less

Health

biological

safety

heritage.

Organization)

developed

primary

test

study.

however

and clinical

standardized and stable

strengthen research

on

quantification

are

most

of

rely

efficacy

plants used

almost

frequently

in

primary

exclusively

and to

safety

and

on

need for

develop galenical

(Farnsworth, 1980).

the

of

systems and their detailed

needs. Thus, there is

care

and

of medicinal

has estimated that about 80 %

countries

health

uses

The

plants

efficacy

and

plants concerning safety

of these

the documentation of the medicinal

usages determines which

high importance

people living

study

an

plant

traditional medicine for their

the

drugs

culture. Their evaluation in

and

human health.

use on

objectives

of

topic.

indigenous people interpret

include the examination of the

necessarily

plant

several ways to examine this

concerns

new

is

ethnobotany"

The term "medical

it does not

of

development

use

subsequent bioassays. The discovery of natural

and their evaluation in

plants

goal

Another

are

to the way

anthropological approach

treat their useful

which studies the

interdisciplinary science,

an

medicinal plants among cultures. There

One is the

to

The

efficacy

goals of

of herbal

13

Introduction

(2)

medicines.

and promote the rational

strengthen

To

of herbal medicines

use

(WHO, 1993).

of medicinal

phytochemical study

The

approach

led to the

is

of the best

examples

paralyzing

effect of the

purpurea,

(from

curare

plant

in South America. One

muscle-relaxant in

medicine.

which

the cardiac
of the

isolated from Artemisia

against

are

The

currently

annua

used in

are

is of

against

species

to the

great health

total of 119 pure

of

the

as

most

medicines is artemisinin,

which has been used in

of resistance

development

risk in

tropical

areas.

compounds, isolated

of

plants,

test

systems

but

can

also

plants

species

of

help

not

tropical

flowering plants

is

an

the isolation of

only

from

Farnsworth

plants which

to find

potent

immense

plant

source

chemical structures that

activities. Until

now

only

small part of this

anthropological approach

and selective

compounds particularly

diseases. The

of medicinal

the selection criteria for medicinal

study

drugs.

of

safety

There is

in the field of

world with about 250,000

of chemical

display

resource

and their

compounds

is essential for the

vast array of unusual

14

dropsy and

to treat

digoxin,

and

promising

great interest due

biological

infections and

things,

foxglove {Digitalis

is

England

as a

used in medicine.

cancer,

other

tribes

fever and malaria for two thousand years.

considerable need to obtain new, active

The

some

among

The

used in the treatment of chronic heart

(Asteraceae),

phytochemical investigation

efficacy

Menispermaceae).

example

glycosides, digitoxin

the known remedies and the

examination in
and

drug

(1985) mentioned

et al.

Another

was

species

traditional Chinese medicine

This antimalarial

ethnobotanical

used in modem medicine. One

arrow-poison

as an

One of the most recent and

insufficiency.

an

on

component of this plant extract, tubocurarine, is used

modern

important compounds

drugs

based

Chondrodendron spp.,

extract is used

Scrophulariaceae)

epilepsy. Today

of several

development

plants

has been

compounds

variety

of

with

biological

explored.

ethnobotany investigates, among

plants

and the classification

system

Introduction

of

plants

are

used among

reflected in the

indigenous people.

following questions. Why

criteria for medicinal

plant

plants

Are non-medicinal

selection? How do

Several studies have

especially

(Foster, 1988; Ingham, 1970). Some

Latin America
to

as

the "basic

(Tedlock, 1987).

explain plant

non-medicinal

plants

plants. Thus,

the

Yucatec

system

culture.

Maya medicinal plants

concerning

taste and smell

categorization

are

as

too narrow

important parameters

plants (Brett, 1992; Heinrich, 1989).

no

study

ones

and

that focused
on

of the non-medicinal

and illnesses

of traditional medicine in

Others criticized the hot-cold system

with medicinal

of

the

concept and its role

classifying plants

for

selection criteria. Furthermore it

classification

the hot-cold

cognitive principle"

there has been

study

are

the differences between

choices and showed that taste and odor

knowledge,

indigenous

are

authors mentioned the hot-cold

for the characterization of medicinal

author's

medicinal? What

study

indigenous people classify plants?

systematically investigated

of humoral medicine

plant

field of

key

plants?

medical systems

indigenous

is

also classified? What

medicinal and non-medicinal

in

Some aspects of this

Hence,

in

perception

plants

helps

one

comparison
as

well

the ways

as

of

on

the

our

comparison

people perceive

could shed

us

To the

new

of

such

light

on

to better understand the

studies focused

with the

on

non-medicinal

the

ones

the hot-cold concept.

15

Introduction

objectives

Goal and

1.1

The

goal

plants

of the studies

of the Yucatec

medicinal

in this thesis

presented

Maya;

to

study

to evaluate the most

plants;

phytochemically study

species

one

to document the medicinal

was

perception

their

important species

and classification of the

in different

and to examine the isolated

bioassays;

to

for

compounds

biological activity.

Specific Objectives
To understand the
and

Mayan healing practice,

the medicinal

prevention;

combination with other

dosage

plants,

and the

plants
the

knowledge

plants,

medicinal

about the

and

how

preparation of

popular plant

of the remedies and side effects

To obtain

the illnesses, their cause,

history

of

as

well

name, the

as

the remedies, the

plant part used,

the

their classification.

becoming

they diagnose

symptoms

healer, the way they select

illnesses

and

perform healing

ceremonies.

important medicinal plants

To evaluate

indigenous
To select

To

study

medicinal

bioassays based

on

the

use.

plant

which is used

against

the most

important health

phytochemical investigation.

for

problem

in different

plant species phytochemically using bioactivity-guided

isolate pure

compounds,

to

identify

the chemical nature of the

examine their

activity and cytotoxicity

indigenous

of this

use

as

well

as

isolation and

compounds,

to

to correlate them with the

plant.

To return the documented data and the results of this thesis to the informants of
the
as

study region
well

as to

who have

16

an

and the

people

and

the libraries of Mrida

interest in this

subject.

this

project

that the thesis is accessible to

people

organizations
so

which

supported

Medicinal

Yucatan and the

2.1

Mayas

Background

2.1.1

The

Ethnobotany

and fauna

Geology

Maya territory occupies

and is divided into

the northwestern half of the Central American Isthmus

and lowlands. The

highlands

contrast of rainfall due to the

tropical climate,

proximity of

two coasts, the

and the varied relief result in

considerable differences in the two environments.

The Yucatan Peninsula consists of the Mexican states of Yucatan,

Quintana Roo,

well

as

Jungle and Marquez

as

de

Belize and the Peten

small portions of the states of Chiapas

Comillas)

and Tabasco

Campeche,

(the

(Balancan region),

Lacandon

the north of

region of Guatemala. The Maya Mountains constitute the

southeastern limit of the Peninsula, and the mountains to the north of Chiapas form
the southwestern limits. The Mexican part of the Peninsula is formed
limestone

platform

with altitudes of less than 350

porous limestone the rainwater sinks

underground
cenotes

reservoirs in

(open sinkholes,

always been the

main

great

sources

are

of

above

immediately below

caves.

which

sea

by

porous

level. Due to the

the surface, where it forms

Due to the absence of surface streams the

connected to the

drinking

water-bearing bed)

water for the inhabitants. Rivers

have

only

exist in the extreme southwest and southeast.

The Yucatan Peninsula maintains

of vascular
are

plants,

endemic taxa

elements of the

2,300 species

which build the flora of the Mexican part of the Peninsula, 168

(7.3 %) (Dren

neighboring

areas

and the southeast of Mexico

Estrada-Loera

very characteristic flora. Of the

(1991)

et

al., 1998). The vegetation shows floristic

such

as

the Antillean

region, Central America,

(Standley, 1930; Rzedowski, 1988). According

the most important floristic elements

are

to

those of Central

America, however the endemic species and the floristic similarities with the Antilles
are

of

special interest (Standley, 1930).

17

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

only

Not

the

and human

geological and floristic aspect, but also by its physiographic feature

inhabitants, the Yucatan Peninsula is sharply differentiated from the

rest of Mexico.

Most of the Peninsula shows

in

summer),

however

a narrow

More information of the

publication

of

Aw climate

(hot

northern coastal

with

geographical,

long dry period, rainy

season

strip is of BS type (dry and hot).

floristic and climatic conditions is

provided,

in

I.

2.1.2 Ancient

Origins

an

Maya history

agriculture

12,000 years ago human population subsisted by various forms of hunting and

gathering.

In Mesoamerica,

shift toward

plant

and animal domestication occurred

9,000 years ago. In the Fertile Crescent of the Near East it happened 10,000 years
ago and in Southeast Asia 7,000 years ago

complexity

was a

consequence of the adoption of

The Preclassic Period

By

(Lewin, 1999).
agriculture.

farming

life

was

established in most parts of Meso

america, including the Maya world. Before 1,000 B.C.,

sharp

contrast and status,

The

in the

500 B.C.

some

and other

and

highlands,

early Maya

a new

the Gulf Coast: the Olmec centers. The

marked with centralized

monumental architecture and

mostly

were

sculpture. Although

communities

were

beginning

made from exotic

sharper differences

18

society

society stood

political power

some

was

out for the

reflected in

parts of the Maya world,

raw

were

simple villages. After

small and

to reflect a new

development. Jewelry

material indicated increasing

in wealth and social status. Decorated

reflected the emergence of powerful permanent leader, chiefs

1997).

kind of

tied into the economic networks of the Olmec world.

communities in the lowlands

goods

political

(2,000 B.C.-A.D. 250)

about 1,500 B.C. settled

emerging along

Social and

or

prosperity,

public buildings

kings (Henderson,

xv r???

Figure

2.1.

Landscape

Figure

of the Yucatan Peninsula with Uxmal

2.2. Cenote

(natural sinkhole)

19

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Especially during

(A.D. 250-1000)

Civilization

Maya

The Classic

the

Early

Classic

the concentration of the

period,

economic power in the hands of elite grew. Several regions

political

experienced

and

intensified

population growth with well-developed hierarchies of communities. Many cities

enjoyed

building. Relationships with distant societies intensified. Nobles

boom in

and

acquired greater political

architecture,

period

priests
was a

in the aristocratic as well

devoted to astronomical and

as

in every field:

sphere generally.

crafts, writing and in the intellectual

arts,

Interchanges took place

among

religious authority. Specialist multiplied

sphere

in the intellectual

astrological investigations.

The Classic

throughout the Maya world (Henderson,

time of cultural florescence

1997).

Transformation. In the ninth century,

well

external

as

expansion.
universal

This

collapse

pressures

of all facets of the

operated

deep

decline in the cultural

1997). By

the

once

was

conceptualized

Maya civilization,
over

unusual aspect of the transformation

of

involving internal

processes,

strains

disrupted long-standing patterns of growth

episode, which

series of processes that

new

now

as

that most

development

sudden and

regions

extraordinary and

went

through

at about the same time

middle of the tenth century

and

appears to have been

several centuries. An

was

as

stage

(Henderson,

quite every southern city

was

an

abandoned ruin. The state institutions declined with consequent transformations of

aristocratic economies. In most

regions, village and household life

much-simplified political and economic systems. The

generally continued
although

The Postclassic

was

the tenth

cities in northern Yucatan

century (Chichn Itz, Uxmal),

a

few

places

as

external

(Henderson, 1997).

Maya (A.D. 1000-1525)

Postclassic

period long-distance exchange increased

and

agriculture

less central to economic systems. Political systems shifted away from

exclusive focus

20

during

process of decline may have begun in

pressures intensified

During the

to flourish

went on, but in

on

one

person

as

the

ruler,

to

new,

more

a near-

flexible forms of

Medicinal

organization that involved

religion

reduced

were

much broader distribution of power. The

but ritual

maintained

central

place

Ethnobotany

public roles of
domestic life

in

(Henderson, 1997).

The Lowlands. When Chichn Itz fell into decline

center, Mayapn,

disintegrated

The

into different

(West

Canul

and Cocom

2.1.3

important political center, replaced

provinces

at least a

of

political

and economic

Mayapn's sphere

it. The

provinces

Yucatan), Cupul (eastcentral Yucatan),

in Yucatan: for

Tutul Xiu

(Mam)

(Sotuta) (Henderson, 1997).

From the

Spanish conquest

to the Caste War

Spanish conquest (16th-17th centuries)

In 1517 and 1518 two

slaves

year.

Spanish expeditions

in search of

Spaniards conquered

It took another 20 years to conquer the

Montejo (about 1546)

about 1697, vast

areas

and Alvarado
of

northern Yucatan remained

The colonial

was

territory and

Maya provinces of

numerous

regime

(about 1525)

firmly established

was

respectively. However,

until

jungle between the mountains of Guatemala and

unconquered.

regime

Spanish

slavery

new

the Aztecs, situated in the center of Mexico, in

Yucatan. In Yucatan and Guatemala the colonial

Under

gold,

started from Cuba. In 1519 Hernn Corts landed in Veracruz from

were

where the

with

century before the arrival of the

At that time, several families controlled the

Spaniards.
example

an

as

law the Indians were considered

outlawed. As well

as

subjects of

being slaughtered during

the

Spanish

the

Conquest itself,

Indians also fell victim to viral and other infections transmitted by the

crown

and
the

Spaniards,

which decimated the population. The increase of the power of the Catholic Church
and the

suppression

of ancient beliefs

including those of Canek (Yucatan)

rebellion at Cancuc in 1713.

in

Fray Diego

provoked

rebellions among the

Mayas,

1671, Chiapas (1692), and the Tzeltal

de Landa ordered

an

auto-da-f during

21

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

which Indians

tortured and executed and hundreds of idols and

were

twenty Mayan codices (books)

Only four codices

rescued and

are

of the pre-conquest
known

and have 12-56 pages

astrology,

today.

(9-25

ceremonies and

(Baudez

Maya

All of them

of

(bark

could be

of Ficus

(Germany)

mythology,

mentions

content of the Codex

Madrid

or

Cortesianus, in the Museo de Americas of Madrid, refers principally

prophecy

with the

following themes: hunting, agriculture,

rain. The Codex Paris can be found in the

sp.)

The Codex Dresden conserved in the

Dresden

Gods. The

hieroglyphs

made of amate

than

1990).

and Picasso,

culture written in

are

cm).

12-20

Landesbibliothek

Schsische

burnt

were

more

Bibliothque

cloth and rituals

Trothe

to

asking

for

Nacional de Paris contains

sequences of ceremonies and rites. Codex Grolier is conserved in the Instituto

Nacional de

After

Antropologia

(Franch, 1992).

independence

The Mexican
After

Historia

priest Miguel Hidalgo initiated the call for independence from Spain.

long struggle,

by Yucatan, Chiapas

Mexico declared

independence

immediately

in 1821, followed

and Gutemala. In 1841 Yucatan declared

independence from

Mexico.

Caste War

During

(1847-1904)

the second half of the 19th

violent conflict between the

the government,
armed

saw

beginning

Europeans regrouped

States. Hence, the

Puerto),

22

and

was

shaken

by

Europeans. The Indians, heavily taxed by

being

taken from them. The

Maya,

by English settlers in Belize, regained 90 % of their lands. At this time the

because of the

that

Maya

their ancestral lands

Mayas inexplicably withdrew

The

century the Yucatan Peninsula

where

promised

Maya

to their

of the

went

home,

plant

their

milpa.

rainy

with the

were

villages. It is said that the Mayas

season, thus

help of military force

had to

of Mexico and the United

driven back to Chan Santa Cruz

they founded the cult of

them

they

the

(now Felipe

Carrillo

Talking Cross. Inspired by the oracle

victory, they resisted vigorously for

several years. In 1904, the

Medicinal

part of the Peninsula (Quintana Roo) converted to Mexican national

eastern

territory. After 1920,

production

the chicle

Royen),

and chicle gum,

{Manilkara zapota

L. Van

macrophylla King)

in the forest of Quintana Roo attracted

as

well

as

the export of

parts of the country. The rebelling Maya had their

the entry to strangers. In 1936, this
as a

Maya

more

languages

was

people

from different

and did not

accepted by

permit

the Government

Maya today

three

than

Mexico. The

are

languages

people speak

million

and dialects, which

languages

different

Maya region

product

mahagony {Swietenia

territory

own

its main

as

zone.

2.1.4 The Yucatec

Today

Ethnobotany

are

spoken
are

divided into ten

in Guatemala,

classified into the

of the

one

twenty-six Mayan

large groups.

just

few

ones

Most of these
are

spoken

in

following groups (Castaheda, 1988;

Coe, 1975): (1) Huastec, Chicomuceltec, (2) Choi, Chontal, Chorti, Mopan, (3)
Tzeltal, Tzozil,

Tojolabal,

(4)

Chuj,

(5)

Jacaltec,

Kanjobal,

(6)

Solomec,

Motozintlec, (7) Mam, Tec, Aguatecpec, Ixil, (8) Quiche, Rabinalachi, Uspantec,

Cakchiquel, Tzutuhil, (9) Kekchi, Pocomchi, Pocoman, (10)

Yucatec

(dialects:

Lacandon, Itza)

(1.1 million)

On the Peninsula one-third of the population

their mother

speakers (Olivera

et

al., 1982). Bilingual programs at schools have always had the

assimilation and resulted in

seems

to have come under attack because of

Americas

autonomous

a move

movements

(Burns, 1998). Land problems

Two insurrections,
are

as

decline in the relative number of the native

goal of

and

Maya

tongue (Wilhelmy, 1990). Even though the Maya population increased

since 1950 this group has suffered

Mexico

have Yucatec

one

in Guatemala

evidence of the multitude of

towards learning

of

ideological changes

but this

in the

Maya

that still

area are

and

one

in

goal

in education in

indigenous people throughout

(1963-1993)

problems

Spanish,

the

still not resolved.

Chiapas (1994-...)

persist.

23

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Figure

2.3.

Groups

of

Chikindzonot, Ekpedz, Xcocmil

According
in the

(place

Mayan languages (Coe, 1975)

the

to oral tradition Chikindzonot

of forced

labor)

and Xcocmil

were

abandoned

war

in Thiosuco,

a common

and the

Maya

picture

baptismal font

daily

villages

are

villages

found

neighboring villages
and

repopulated

at

still tell stories about the outbreak of

the recovery and

rebuilding
Ekpedz,

of the
this is

in Yucatan. The walls of the catholic churches

ornamented with

life. For

was

stable encomienda

churches dominate Chikindzonot and

culture with Christian and

every part of

24

in most

during the Caste War

nearby village, and

villages afterwards. Oversized

sinkhole)

west of the cenote;

known. Chikindzonot and the

was

around 1915. The inhabitants of the

of

(=

area

14th century. However, until the end of the 16th century

Ekpedz

the

study

indigenous figures. This kind of fusion

Spanish

elements

can

be

seen

in

practically

example, the inhabitants of Yucatan celebrate

two

Ethnobotany

Medicinal

baptisms,

Christian

the fianc

gives

of his future wife. As

family

to the

wedding celebration in

official

church

the

is

an

engagement gift, which

opposed

wears

this, the bride

to

at the

wedding dress of

white

Maya

of the Ancient

heritage

1990). Chocolate (formerly cacao)

de Landa,

(Diego

and hekmetz, which is

one

European style. The architecture of the houses made of planks, branches and

palm

leaves looks the

getting

houses is
marrow

more

work of the

women

The most

using three

500 years ago. However, the

popular. Food

consists

pigs,

mainly

are

and cows, introduced

corn

tortillas, and

by

the

Spaniards,

fireplace

(millstone), formerly used

or

motor-operated

or

for the

mill.

dining-table for the

the

to turn the corn into

Today

plastic

bowls

common

dedicate their time to the work in the

cattle. For

sowing

used and has

corn

in the

undergone only

originally hardened by

the

one

whole

family.

and Villa

Rojas,

development

seems to

1990

digging stick,

prehistoric

since
a

steel

ceremonies. The modern

(Asia)

hand

as

well

principally
breeding
a

of

choul, is

times: the

point,

are

the

villages. Baseball,

be the national sport of the Yucatec

[orig. 1934]).

ethnopharmacopoea of

mostly of plants species, which originated

ones are

wood

tip. Bullfights

incantations and prayers used for the treatment of

numerous

or

called

The fusion of the Mayan culture with aspects of the Christian faith
in the

The metate

the culture of bees and the

traditional

for the

herbs to enrich meals

central part of the feasts celebrated in honor of the Saint of the

Maya (Redfield

always built

working place

grinding

fire, has been replaced by

introduced from the United States,

kept. The

are

utensils in the kitchen. Men

milpa,

milpa,

domestic

flour, has been replaced by

the metate is used for

are

or

which is

preparation of medicine. Gourds and bowls made of clay

metal and

stone

products, beans,

hunted in the forest

in the kitchen is the

as

building of

in the house and the extensive home

generally takes place

important site

of

stones. A small table and chairs are used as

women, to make

as

as

and chili. To enrich the meal, animals

animals like chicken,

garden.

same

on

are

also present

patients
the

or

Mayas

in the

consist

the Peninsula. But also introduced

used, for instance Mentha spp. (Europe), Aloe spp. (Africa), Citrus fruits

and

are

important medicinal plants.

25

Figure

2.4. Houses,

Figure

new

style and

old

style (poles, palm-leaf thatch)

2 5. House interior, kitchen

26

Figure

2.6. H-men

(shaman) performing

santiguar

Figure

2 7

Curandera

(healer)

preparing herbal medicine

27

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Since about 1990,

Valladolid,

daily

live

two

tarred street connects the three villages with Peto and

nearby

(telephone

Electricity

towns.

1995).

since

An

and

thereupon TV changed the rhythm of

increasing number of young people finish

secondary school in Chikindzonot and look for

particularly

in the cities

job outside

of Valladolid, Mrida and Cancun.

influence of the outside forces has been enormous, the Yucatec

large

2.1.5

Manuscripts

provided by

are

on

played

medicinal

Maya

though

Maya

still retain

plants

in Ancient

important part

an

Balam, whereas the others

by Spaniards (Gubler, 1997).

(ritual of

the

and prayers for the treatment of disease

Mayan illnesses

was

Conventionally they

are

are

closely associated

the sacred books of the

generally

found. Three of the Books

therapy

recorded. They reflect the concept

with

religion.

by Joan Camul (Arzaplo, 1987).

named after their greatest

medicinal

are

incantations

written in the 18th century. The main author is

two pages were written

The Books of Chilam Balam

were

spokesman/interpreter)

and illustrate medicine to be

unique Mayan work

unknown,

culture. Evidence of this

the Ritual de los Bacabes and Libros de Chilam

written

are

In the Ritual de los Bacabes

This

Maya

old books and documents with medicinal characters. Two of them

by indigenous writers, namely

of

the

Even

number of ancient traditions.

Medicinal plants
is

villages,

the

Maya of Yucatan and

prophet Chilam {Balam: Jaguar, priest).

named after the towns in which

namely, Ixil, Kaua,

they

were

and Nah include information

and mention several remedies

against

on

variety of illnesses

(Gubler, 1997).
After the auto-da-f in 1558,

Maya of

Diego de

Landa wrote a

Yucatan. In the Relacion de las

Relaciones de Yucatan

of the life of the

de Yucatan

(1565)

(1580-1585), he explicitly mentioned that

specialists for curing illnesses. He listed

28

cosas

history

some

medicinal

the

and the

Maya had

plants and celebrated

Medicinal

the

Ethnobotany

beauty of the flora of Yucatan. His words indicate little confidence

indigenous people (Diego

de Landa, 1990 and

"There is in this land

and

properties,
knowledge

1992).

great quantity of medicinal plants of various

if there

were

any

are

of them, it would be most useful and effective. There is

asked for

employ them
matter of

and

as

account of their

an

they

other than that

possessed

who

here

person

disease to which the native Indians do not

they

are

cold

or

antidotes.

are

On

apply

the

hot, and

they

that

are

no

give

can

none

accustomed to

them. However,

they apply

But when

plants.

properties, they

to obtain the effect for which

fact, there

in

as

many of great virtue for every sort of illness

the

there

hand

other

are

those

which

are

poisonous and deadly" (Roys, 1976).

In the

Calepino
of the

as some

in the 16th

de MotuI

of

names

specialists

indigenous plants and

who treat them

are

registered.

century, when the Maya medicine

Spanish influence (Roys, 1931).

some

was

diseases

The work

against

cold and

well

written

largely unaffected by

still

The book mentioned for instance:

herb with bad smell, which is used

was

as

haban,

ac

pechuguera (Gubler, 1997;

Arzpalo, 1995).
El Libro del Judio is

one

of the most important studies of the medicinal plants of

Yucatan. The main part of the book

Francisco

Mayoli,

roman

gives

physician

version, which is attributed to Juan

who lived in Valladolid

during

century and who used the pseudonym of Ricardo Ossado and the
Judio". The book contains
few introduced

well

as a

The

original

Barrera

copies

work

list of

indigenous

was

copies

just

one

surname

and medicinal

written in the 16th or 17th

note that this is not

and different versions of

uses

Furthermore it gives information

ones.

probably

Vsquez (1983)

long

the 18th

on

plants

"El
as

diseases.

century. Barrera and

book, but that several

exist.

29

Medicinal

An

Ethnobotany

important

source, which is not

muy seguro para

provechosas de

of 1751 and contains

the remedies
are

preserved

varias dolencias

curar

esta

published,

provincia

de

yerbas

con

Yu[ca]than.

list of medicinal

carries the title Libro de medicinas

It is

muy

copy of

and their

plants

experimentadas

manuscript

old

an

prescriptions.

Some of

and elements. These documents

incorporated European plants

in the Bibliotheca Crescendo Carrillo y

Ancona, Mrida (Gubler,

1997).

unpublished

Another

Relacin de las

source, which can be found in the same

cosas

1710. Different themes

medicinal

indigenous

sus
are

2.1.6

provincia

del YucalPeten written in

discussed and

including

two pages with a list of

plant (Gubler, 1997).

As part of

based

medicinal texts

Medicinal

on

are

mentioned

as

(Gubler, 1997; Edmonson, 1986).

ethnobotany

of Yucatan

Mexican national evaluation,

publications,

is the

nombres de la

Two further books, Cuademo de Teabo and Cdice Perez,

containing

library,

list of medicinal

plants

was

generated

state inventories and student theses. This review includes

3,352 vascular plant species distributed in 1,214 genera and 166 families. Although
the vascular

plant

that it consists of at least 21,600

been

employed

medicinal
states

produce catalogs of regional

compiled

highest percentage of locally documented

Quintana Roo
% of 548

many Mexican institutions have

(99

% of 373

species),

species), Durango (26

species) (Bye etal., 1995; Argueta

Yucatan

% of 255
et

(60

% of 623

with other

30

regions

in Mexico.

state inventories. The

medicinal

plants

are:

species), Veracruz (28

species), and Sonora (18

% of 548

al., 1994).

The flora of the Mexican part of the Yucatan Peninsula

about 2,300 species of vascular

it is estimated

15 % of the Mexican flora has

species. Hence,

for medical purposes. In order to

plants,

with

thoroughly explored,

flora in Mexico has not been

plants

as

mentioned before has

and is therefore not very rich in

Thus, Bye

et al.

(1995) points

comparison

out that

greater

Ethnobotany

Medicinal

of

degree

species richness does

He suggests that the

diversity.

interaction is found in
dense

taxonomic

physician

names.

Millspaugh, Standley

areas

than in

species-

In The

Ethno-Botany of

written in

in

Georg

was

specimens

are

practicing

interested in medicinal

keenly

deposited

dedicated to the

Gaumer,

F.

indigenous people

were

and in their

Maya plant

in the Field Museum of

Maya, Roys (1931)

the

describes remedies, which

are

herbal but also contain animal and mineral materia medica. The texts
and

Maya

English

organized according

the works of

Yucatan and

to illnesses. The medicinal

plants

(1981) reviewed information

also used

Catalogos

(Martinez, 1979)

are

identified based

on

plants

of

popular

secondary

de Nombres

Mayan

names

and the

the information is based

Rojas,

names

sources

Vulgares

on

born in

of

which

study

mentioned above. Others

y Cientificos de Plantas Mexicanas

Maya (Barrera

et

al., 1976). In

plants, their scientific identification, the origin

secondary

about 27 km from the

are

etymological significance

Mrida,

about medicinal

in the Plantas Mdicinales del Estado de

and Nomenclatura Etnobotanica

the latter book, the

publications

collected from several old books like El Judio,

published this information

They

Alfonso Villa

were

Gaumer, Loesener, Millspaugh and Standley.

Mendieta and del Arno

Yucatan.

the

1893. Several botanists

Chicago (Standley, 1930).

History

the

plants by

to the

began

Steyermark

the flora of Yucatan.

Most of these voucher

essentially

and

spent forty-five years in Yucatan,

who

Natural

village

stressful

or

of the Yucatan Peninsula

investigation of

properties attributed

of the

phytochemically interesting plant-human

environmentally marginal

exploration

among them Gaumer,

are

more

regions.

The botanical

and

necessarily indicate higher ethnobotanical

not

are

discussed. Also here,

sources.

of the Chan Kom school in 1927,

took

charge

area

of this thesis. He wrote several books and

about different aspects of the life of the Yucatec

Maya. Together with

31

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Redfield,

an

ethnography

anthropologist
Chan Kom

University of Chicago, he published the

from the

Maya village,

diseases, and their treatment

as

well

as

they included

in which

meaning of

the

one

chapter

(Redfield

nature

on

and Villa

Rojas, 1990 [orig. 1934].

One of the most important works

America

secondary

Until

one

The data here

further

plants

species

study

of the main points of this

plants of

Yucatan and the

point

are

also based

on

study

the Yucatec
was

Maya

on

has been

to document the actual

scientifically identify

the

plant species.

of the thesis. In the most recent work

of Mexico carried out

were

pharmacologically,

toxicologically

studied
177

chemically,

species

and from 69

were

by
280

the Institute Nacional

species

were

studied

listing 2,049

Indigenista (INI)
chemically and

investigated chemically, pharmacologically

species

al., 1994; Argueta and Zolla, 1994).

32

(1981).

pharmacological, toxicological and phytochemial studies of Mexican

plants provided

and

of the Yucatan, which

is the Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle

modern detailed ethnobotanical

of medicinal

The lack of

394

plants

sources.

now no

medicinal

toxicity,

Bahamas to Yucatan of Morton

available. Thus,
use

and

phytochemistry

includes

medicinal

on

active

principles

were

studied

(Aguilar

et

Medicinal

2.2

Methods in the field

Ethnobotanical data

was

to June 1995 and from

during

collected

total of 18 months, from

observations

of the methods used. The author lived with the

and

cooking

in semi-structured or

held

and

questions

lists of

with

and

box of 70

120

omen

and witchcraft

By

means

were

discussed

(Figure 2.8). They

underneath two electric bulbs to maintain

and songs

interviewed

were

were

made with the

the borders of the

collected, pressed and dried in

80 cm, with

2.9). Some interviews, prayers

along

were

non-specialist knowledge

few persons with

the forests and

and

questionnaires

of

interviewed. Excursions

were

were

as one

Maya people and shared with them

interviews.

Only

gardens,

villages. The species

carried out

daily life, healing sessions, ceremonies,

like dreams,

midwives

from each other.

to their home

in

were

structured and semi-structured interviews

topics

concerning medicinal plants

(wooden

use

open-ended

healers

40

independently

specialists

plant

marriages. Subjects

1994

used for the ethnobotanical evaluation

were

(Martin, 1996; Russell, 1988). Participant

many facets of their life: e.g.

February

1996 to October 1996.

September

Qualitative and quantitative methods

the

Ethnobotany

paths

in

field dryer

metal wire-lattice at the bottom and

temperature of about 40 C, Figure

during

ceremonies

were

recorded

on

tape with the permission of the healers. After becoming familiar with the medicinal

plants

portable

herbarium

form of the interviews

were

as

was

well

as

beginning

presented

the data obtained

documented and transferred to

At the

made and

database

in some interviews. The

concerning medicinal plants

(FileMaker

of the field work, the ethnobotanical

Pro

project

).

was

presented

meeting of the healers and midwives of Chikindzonot and Ekpedz. They

asked to participate in the project.
carried out. Later
with the

help of

on

the interviews

young

woman

of

interviews with

Initially,
were

held in

Maya

bilingual specialists

and translated to

in

were

were

Spanish

Ekpedz.

33

Figure

2.8. Questionnaire

Popular

(in English

and

Scientific

name:

Spanish)
Number.

name:

Numero

Collection: Herbano
nombre

Nombre cientifico

popular

Informant, profession:

Picture-

Foto

Family.
Flower:
Floi

Seed, fruit:

Familia

Informador, profesion

Semilla, fruta

Uses:

Collection'

Leaf:

Usos

Recolection

Hoja

Identification

Root:

Identificacion

Raz

Uses

Plant part used:

in

other locations.

Partes utelisadas
Utilizacion diferente que

Description

Preparation:

of the

en

el

lugar

de

investigacion

plant

Preparacion

Description

Doses, application (form,

Habitat

(vegetation type):

time):
Dosis, aplicacion (forma,
de

veqetacion)

tiempo)

Habitat

Effect:

Observations:

Efecto

Observaciones

Side effect, contra

Illustration of the

(tipo

plant:

indication:

Efecto secundano, contraindicacion

Classification-

Dibujode

Clasificacon

Description
(informant):

of the

plant

Description de la planta
(infomador)

la

planta

Importance of

the

plant (informant).

Importance de la planta (infomador)

34

Ethnobotany

Medicinal

The author

participated

(Organizacin

and

de Medicos

Indigenas

get

knowledge

broader

of the

projects

organization OMIMPY

traditionales de la Peninsula de

during their meetings organized by the

to

the

supported

INI

Yucatan)

(Institute Nacional Indigenista).

about the medical system of different

In order

regions

Yucatan, the participating specialists in the meetings of this association

interviewed

presented

and

at the

discussions

secondary

carried out with the

initiated.

were

The

ethnobotanical

school of Chikindzonot and

pupils. They

were

asked to collect

one

at

labelled and covered with

Chikindzonot.

publications I,

was

small excursion

was

medicinal

the CICY

2.9. Field

specimens

(Centro

(Herbario Nacional
the

plant

were

specimens

deposited
were

in the

deposited

plant,

which is

species, dried,

secondary
as

school

described

in

specialists

at

II and III.

Figure

The voucher

Other voucher

plastic,

were

project

used in their homes, and to describe their medicinal effects. These

pressed,

of

de

dryer

were

identified with the

Investigacion Cientifi'ca

help
de

of botanists and

Yucatan),

at the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de

evaluation of 48 species 100

200 g of

Mrida and MEXU

Mexico, D. F.). For

plant material

were

collected. In

35

Medicinal

the

Ethnobotany

cases

part used

The

plant

of the species which

as

part of

material

remedy

was

were

were

of

phytochemical interest,

collected and

Ecologia, Mrida (22. April

February

1996

[No. 686])

kg of

the

plant

collected and dried in the shade.

exported with official permission of the

Secretana de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca

de

1994

Instituto Nacional

[No. 01245]; 12.April 1995 [No. 01105]; 21.

and Secretana de

Agricultura, Ganaderfa

y Desarrollo

Rural, Dirreccin General de Sanidad Vegetal, Mexico (Certificado Fitosanitario

Internacional, 12. May 1995 [No. 24075]; 23. October 1996 [No. 186]).

36

Medicinal

2.3 Abbreviations mentioned in the

Table 2.1. Plant
No

AT

plant

Ethnobotany

list

use

llnesses/conditions
counteract bites and

of

venomous

Enfermedades/condiciones

strings

animals

mordeduras y

picaduras

de

animales venenosas

snake bites

mordedura de vibora

DER

dermatological conditions

enfermedades

inflammation

inflamacion

pimples

granos

abscess

absceso

inflammation of the throat

inflamacion de

dermatologicas

garganta

(mumps)
5

chickenpox

viruella

measles

sarampion

dermatomycosis

hongos

pellagra

pellagra

warts

verrugas

10

psoriasis

psoriasis

11

discoloration of the skin

mal de

12

scabies

sarna

13

infection

infecion

14

burning

quemadura

EYE

illnesses of the eyes

enfermedades oculares

pain

dolor

pimples

granos

complaint

pinto

problemas oftalmologicas

eye

FEM

women's medicine

medicina para
pasmo

mujeres

spasm

problems

infertility

infentilidad

pain of menstruation, disorder

dolor menstural, menstruacion

of menstrual

irregular

of the vagina

cycle

problemas vaginales

childbirth

"to

inflammation of the vagina

inflamacion

prevention of abortion

prevencion del aborto

induccion del

induce" abortion

vomiting

and fever

during

confinement

parto

induccion del aborto

vaginal

vomito and fiebre durante

(jobenal jolol)
gastrointestinales

alumbramiento

Gl

gastrointestinal

diarrhea

diarrea

dysentery

dientena

mal de ojo

mal de ojo

vomiting

vomito

disorders

afecciones

37

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

spasm

pasmo

constipation

constipacion

bad

mal

the stomach

air in

parasites

parasitas

stomachache

dolor de

10

mal viento

mal viento

of the bile

el

aire en

estomago

estomago

11

problems

problemas

12

cirro

OTH

different

dandruff

toothache

pimples

antidote

antidoto

fractures of bone

fracturas de huesos

de la billis

cirro
uses

otros

usos

caspa
dolor dental

in

the mouth

herbes bucal

hemorragia

hemorrhage

vitamin

earache

doloren la oreja

ceremony

ceremonia

10

splitting hair

pelo

PFE

Illnesses associated with

enfermedades asociadas

pain and/or

dolor

deficiency

rheumatism

sweat

fever

deficiencia vitammica

con

orquilla

y/o

con

fiebre

reumatismo

during night, cold body

sudacion nocturna, cuerpo fno

fever

fiebre

headache

dolor de cabeza

insomnia

(lover's grief)

insomnio

trembling

of babies

tetano de bebes

invigorate the muscle

tonifica los musculos

RES

respiratory

problemas respiratorias

catarrh

catarro

bronchitis

bronquitis

(mal

de

amor)

(dolor

de

ombligo)
illnesses

respiratory problems

problemas respiratorias

cough

tos

asthma

asma

UR

urogenital problems

problemas urogenitales

kidney

problemas

diabetes II

diabetes II

anuresis

anuresis

pain of the

trouble

urogenital system

del

nnon

problemas urologicas

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Table 2.2. Plant part used

Abbreviation of

plant

Plant part used

Parte usada de la

planta

part used
aerial

ap

hierba

part

bark

corteza

bu

bulb

bulbo

fl

flower

flor

fr

fruit

fruta

gp

green part

ju

juice (watery)

ba

latex

la

(milky)

hojas

y tall os verdes

agua,

jugo

latex

Iv

leaf

hoja

pu

pulp

pulpa

re

resin

rsina

rh

rhizome

rizoma

ro

root

rai'z

se

seed

semilla

st

stalk

tallo

tr

trunk

tronco

tu

tuber

tuberculo

whole

wh

plant

planta

entera

wo

wood

madera

so

shoot

retoho

Table 2.3.

Application

Abbreviation for mode of

Mode of

application

Modo de

aplicacin

application
conjuntival

con

conjunctival

lOG

local

local

nas

nasal

nasal

ora

oral

oral

pul

pulmonal

pulmonal-

rec

rectal

rectal

spi

spiritual
vaginal

espiritual
vaginal

vag

39

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

Table 2.4.

Preparation

Abbreviation

M:

Mode of

Forma de

preparation

combination with other

plants

combinacin

preparacin

con

otras

bath

bath

baho

dec

decoction

decocto

drops
empl

drops

gotas

emplastrum

emplastrum

inf

infusion

infusion

lini

liniment

liniment

mac

maceration

rnaceracion

oint

ointment

pow

powder

soap

soap

syrup

syrup

pomada
polvo
jabon
jarabe

cer

ceremony

ceremonia

Table 2.5. Plant classification among the

Abbreviation

Mayas

Plant classification

Clasificacin de plantas

Tb

bitter

amargo

Ta

astringent

astringente

Te

sweet

dulce

Ts

spicy

picante

Ti

acid

agrio

Tn

no taste

sin sabor

Sa

aromatic, good smell

Ss
Sb
Sn

strong

smell

bad smell
no

smell

buen olor

olorfuerte, apestoso
mal olor

sin olor

Sf

little smell

poco olor

Hh

hot

caliente

He

cold

frio

HI

lukewarm

tibio

Ho

cool

freso

plantas

name

(528)

americana L.

(312)

(Engelm.

&

(654)

(286)

Annona squamosa L

(261)

(258)

Moc. & Sess

(630, 631)

L.

Annona reticulata L.

Annona purpurea

Annona muricata L.

ANNONACEAE

Spondias purpurea

(618)

indica L.

Mangifera

(409)

graveolens Jacq. (473)

Astronium

PFE4

AT1

Saramuyo, Ts'almuy

Iv

Iv

DER1

GI4 RES4

fr
NI

Poox

Oop,
Anona

Iv

RES4

Iv

Iv

Iv

bu

Iv

bu

bu

Guanbana

PFE6

DER5 6

Abal, Ciruela

PFE3

FEM5

RES3

Mango

DER4

Xts'ulam

(408)

Crinum erubescens Ait.

ANACARDIACEAE

PFE4

Pets'kini, Pets'kinil

(223)

Gl6

PFE4

Bayche'

FEM3 4

Tuk

Cebollina

Iv

Ajo

Iv

PFE5

le

NI

PFE4

Pets'k'im, Pets'k'inil

Henequen

FEM3

Maguey

Iv

ap

UR1

EYE1

Kabalya'axnik,

ap

GI3 4 5, FEM1 2
ro

ora

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

tion

used

Ivfl

Applica-

Part

GI3PFE2

Use

Kabalxa'an, Kambaxa'an

name

Ak'abxiw

Popular

Crinum aff. americanum

(LILIACEAE)

(537)

(463)

indica Mill.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Achyranthes aff.

AMARANTHACEAE

L.

(641, 642, 643)

schoenoprasum

Allium cepa L.

Allium

Lemaire

elephantipes Regel (416)

ALLIACEAE

Yucca

(197)
(Regel)
Agave aff. fourcroydes

Rose

Agave maculata; Syn.: Manfreda maculata

Agave

AGAVACEAE

Ruellia sp.

Syn.:
(115)

R.

(310, 449)

Gray) Urb.;
yucatana Tharp. & Barkley

imbricata Pers.

Ruellia nudiflora

Elytraria

Blechum brownei

(Kunth) (414)

(AANK# voucher)

Plant list

ACANTHACEAE

Plant

2.4

mac

Tn

He

Sb

He

Tb

He

Hh

Sb

Hh

dec, bath

M: empil bath

He Hh Ta

He

sweet

Ta

Ciassification

empl Sa

dec

M: dec syrup

M: bath i

empl

empi

empl

mac

M:

emp

M: inf

dec M: bath

dec bath

bath

Preparation

resp.

No. of

ro

name

(AANK# voucher)

roseus

L.

(095)

(243)

Schott

Aristolochia pentandra Jacq.

(315)

Jacq. (350)

Schott

(506)

(Jacq.)

ssp.

anguicida Jacq. (139)

Aristolochia maxima

Aristolochia

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

(586, 505)
Syngonium podophyllum

Philodendron hederaceum

schlechtendalii

Anthurium schlechtendalii Kunth

ARACEAE

Arg. (441, 446)

gaumeri Hemsl. (324)

amygdalifolia Jacq.

L.

Urechites andrieuxii Muell.

Thevetia

(190 229)

Tabernaemontana

tetraphylla

castillo

Wahk'oh castillo, Guaco

castillo

Wahk'oh castillo, Guaco

pato, Guaco

Wahk'oh-ak', Wahk'oh de

Bobtun

Viperol verde, Viperol

bejuco

Akits, Cojn de perro

Uts'upek'

Kambamuk

Sak-viperol, Viperol rojo

Vicaria

granos

Nikte'ch'om, Flor de mayo

Standley

(271)

en

Cilantro
Anis

Plumeria sp. (472, 562, 628)

ex

G. Don f.

Millsp.

(L.)

(255)

NI

AT1

NI

GH 2

GI7 FEM1 6

GI7 FEM1 5

NI

DER2

FEM1

AT

DER1

DER1 9

ro

ro

ro

wh

ro

re

re

Iv

re

Iv

se

ju-fr

re

ro

Iv

DER8
NI

AT1

se
se

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

vag

ora

ora

ora

ora

tion

ro

Applica-

Part
used

EYE 2

DER7

DER1

FEM2

FEM5 GI1

GI4

NI

UR1

Sak-

Chuyu chajum,
elemuy

Use

UR1 2

name

Elemuy

Popular

Rauvolfia

(519)

Echites yucatanensis

Catharanthus

APOCYNACEAE

Pirnpinellaanisum

(005)

(UMBELLIFERAE)

Coriandrum sativum L

APIACEAE

depressa (Baill.) R. E. Fr.; Syn.:

Guatteria leiophylla (F.D.Sm.) Saff. Ex
Standi. (161)
Sapranthus campechianus (Kunth)
Standley (291, 509)

Malmea

Plant

drops

empl

M:

mac

dec

M: pow dec

M: pow inf

M: dec

fresh empl

M:

drops

drops

drops

M: dec

dec

fresh bath

pow dec

dec

dec

dec

Preparation

Classifica-

Hh Ts Tb

Hh Tb Sa

Sa

Tn Sn

TnSn

Tb He

He

Iv: Tn Sn Sb

Sb

Iv: Tn Ta Sn

Tb

He

Sa Tb

Sa

Te

Tb Ta Ss

tion

11

14

resp.

No. of

name

curassavica

(070)

schlechtendalii

vera

gaumeri Rob.

(052)

(062)

(Willd.)

Bidens sp.

(026)

Millsp.

var.

yucatanensis

(121, 170, 187,

sp.

(494)

Verbesina

(152)

(355)

(Hemsl ) Gray (017)

Blake

(009,

(448)

gigantea Jacq. (288)

Trixis inula Crantz

Tithonia diversifoha

Tagetes

(339)

(382)

Gillis

L.

symphytifoha (Mill.)

hysterophorus

109)
Porophyllum punctatum

Pluchea

Parthenium

Koch

(369, 413)

& H. Rob.

atriphcifolia C.

L.

King

quinqueflora

Montanoa

Millena

odorata R. M.

Wussow, Urb. & Sullivan (135, 153)

Eupatonum odoratum L; Chromolaena

Galea urticifolia

404)

Bidens squarrosa Less.

Keck

mexicana

(COMPOSITAE)

Aloe

Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. ssp.

Ageratum

ASTERACEAE

Aloe

(L.) Burm.f.; Syn..

barbadensis Mill. (065)

Cynanchum

(Decne.)
Standi. & Steyerm. (390)
Matelea vindiflora Woodson; Syn.:
Gonolobus vindiflorus Reom. (022,
192,365,450)
Matelea yucatanensis (Standi ) Woodson
(345)
ASPHODELACEAE (LILIACEAE)

Asclepias

(158)

L.

(AANK# voucher)

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Plant

OTH1

xiw

Iv

Iv

Iv

FEM7
PFE 1
PFE4

RES2

Arnica, Chaksu'um
Fluxion xiw, Xtankas-ak'

Chulkeeh

Iv
ro

ap

OTH

Xuk'ii

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

Iv

Iv

loc

loc

loc

wh

ap

Tempula

FEM5 6

Chalche', Santa Maria

FEM2

OTH4

Xtankas- ak', Xuxtankas

Altamisa

DER2
GS10

Xontolok

nas
ora

ro

UR1 2 3

loc

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

loc

ora

ora

Gl4

Iv

DER2 10

Xka'xikin, Xikinkaax
Tok'aban

Iv

PFE3
GI3

Sahun, Saksahun

Iv

Iv

GI4 8

RES2 5

ap

GI5 8

Ya'axk'an-ak'

Si'isim, Artemisia

Xpasmar

DER1 2 3

RES1

Petk'inki

Sbila
,

PFE6

Ensul, Emtsul

Iv

re

OTH3

Piin-k'ak', Kuyuch-ak',

Xp'okini,

re

UR2 3

Xum-ak'

Emtsul

re

OTH2

Anal, Ik'abal, Polkuts

ora

tion

loc

Applica-

Part
used

ro

Use

DER4

name

Kalakts'u'um

Popular

Classifica-

empl

empl

oint

dec

M: dec inf

fresh dec

bath

drops

M" dec

inn

hot

Ss

Hh

TnSn

12

10

M: bath

26

reso.

No. of

TB

HhHcSaTb

Hh

He

Hh

HI

tion

M: bath

dec

dec inf

dec

oint soap

M: dec

fresh

drops

drops (dec)

drops

empl drops

Preparation

name

(116,

Standi.

crucigerum (L.)

A.

Gentry;

(233)

Pachira

aquatica

Aublet

(437)

(Kunth) Britton & Baker

(497)
Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. (456, 614)

Ceiba aesculifolia

BOMBACACEAE

Bixa orellana L.

BIXACEAE

K'unche', K'uyche', Bonete

Ya'axche'

Pi'im

Ki'wi', Achiote, K'uxub

K'anlol, Tonadora

(004)

Xa'bach

Xache'ma'ax, Xache'xnuuk

Tecoma stans Juss.

Pithecoctenium echinatum

Katche'

Pepino cat, Kat

Xo'k'ab

Schum. (002)
Stizophyllum riparium Sandw. (156)

Syn.:

Pithecoctenium

(135)

(Kunth)

(Kunth) Seem.;
(107, 096)
millspaughiana (L.) Williams

P. edulis DC.

Parmentiera

Syn.:

Parmentiera aculeata

(412)

Godmania aesculifolia

(201, 550)

RES5

Ek'k'ixil, Soski-ak'

NI

NI

AT1

PFE3

PFE7

DER10

EYE1

PFE6

GI9PFE3

UR2

RES2 5

AT1

UR1

UR1 2 3

FEM5 7

DER1 2

Luch. Jicara

Miers.

Cydista diversifolia

DER11
RES2 5

Sak-ak'
Bak chiwoh

(207)

G12DER2 13

OTH5

Soski-ak', Xdunt'-ak'

DER1

DER2

Use

GI1 3

name

Sit'macho, Petak'

Kaxichel

Sahun

Popular

Ceratophytum tetragonolobum (Jacq.)

Sprague & Sandw. (180)
Crescentia cujete Veil. (239)

Arrabidaea floribunda Loes.

Amphilophium paniculatum Kunth var.

molle (Schltdl. & Cham.) (118, 172)
Amphilophium paniculatum Kunth var.
paniculatum (144)

BIGNONIACEAE

196)

Anredera vesicaria C. F. Gaertner

BASELLACEAE

Vaugh (217)

(AANK# voucher)

Wedelia fertilis Mc

Plant

ro

Iv fl

ba

Iv

ju-ba

Iv fr

ro

rofr

ro se ca

Iv

fl fr

Ivfr

Ivf!

pu-fr

Iv

Iv

Lv

Iv

tu

IV

_usecf

Part

ora

loc

loc

con

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

pow inf

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

tion

Applica-

empl

Classifica-

Sa

drops

bath

drops

pow oint

dec

dec

M: pow

M: dec

M: dec

SnTn

Te

Sb

fr:Te

Tn

HcTnSn

tion

empl bath Sn Sb
M: dec

M:

dec

ora

M: bath

bath

M: bath

M:

1: bath

Preparation

11

resp.

No. of

en

name

(AANK# voucher)

(126, 165)

sativus L.

(373)

Bromelia karatas L.

k'uk'

undatus

(L )

Britton &

Sarg. (042)

(284)

Cereus donkelani

Salm-Dyck

Tsaran-ak'

Syn.:

Selenicereus donkelaarii Britton & Rose;

Pitahaya

Nopal, Pak'am

Rose;

Syn.:
(427)
Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck
(313)

Cereus undatus Haw.

Hylocereus

CACTACEAE

Bursera simaruba

BURSERACEAE

(624)

UR4

OTH3 6

RES2

GI2

PFE2 3

FEM4

Ch'u

Tillandsia sp.

Chakah

FEM9

(626)

Ch'u

Tillandsia schiedeana Steud.

FEM4

Ch'u

elongata Scheudel (479)

Tillandsia

FEM4

FEM9

FEM5 OTH6

FEM8

RES1

DER3

GH 268

PFE3 NI

RES1

PFE3 RES2 5

Ch'u

Ch'u

Ch'om, Ch'am, Pinuela

Ch'uk, Cinta

Rbano

Xulk'ini, Sal

Xnema'ax

Beeb, Roble, Xi'mche'

Cirricote, Kop'te'

Xk'uxche'

RES1 2 5

Use

brachycaulos Schltdl. (496)

(625)

name

Amabola bianco, Siklite,

Popular

Tillandsia

f.

Tillandsia balbisiana Schuttes & Schultes

(167)

var.

bracteata Gnseb.

(006)

Aechmea bracteata

BROMELIACEAE

Raphanus

BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)

(053,

(634, 635, 636)

angiospermum Murr.

(021)

Toumefortia volubilis L.

131)

Hehotropium

Ehretia tinifolia L.

Cordia dodecandra A. DC.

BORAGINACEAE

ellipticum (Kunth)
Dugand; Syn.: Bombax ellipticum
Kunth (275)

Pseudobombax

Plant

re

Iv

Iv

pu-lv

Iv

wh

wh

wh

wh

wh

Iv

Iv

tu

ap

ap

Iv ba

ba

Iv ba

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

ora

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

loc

ora

loc

ora

ora

loc

loc

rec

rec

Application

Part
used

mac

empl

empl

bath

drops

mac

mac

mac

M: dec

bath

M: dec

M. dec

bath

dec pow

dec

M. pow

bath dec

empl

M: dec

dec

M: dec

Preparation

Classifica-

Hh

He Tn Sn

He Ss

Hh

Hh Tn Sn

Te Sa

Te

tion

17

15

resp.

No. of

name

glandulosa Greene var.

(Kunth) H. S. Irwin &
Barneby; Syn.: Cassia g. (362)
Senna atomana (L.) H. S. Irwin& Barneby;
Syn.: Cassia atomana L. (273, 337)

gynandra

L.

(493)

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.) Lundell;

Syn.: Myginda gaumeri Loes. ex
Millsp.; Rhacoma g. (038, 128)
Hippocratea excelsa Kunth (174)

Barneby;
(084)

Irwin &

(269)

(646)

CELASTRACEAE

Carica papaya L.

CARICACEAE

Cieome

CAPPARACEAE

Tamarmdus indica L.

Syn.:

(Mill.) H.S.

(P. Miller)

H. Irwin &

Cassia villosa Mill.

Senna villosa

Barneby

Senna uniflora

Senna fruticosa

(Mill.) H. S. Irwin &

Barneby (035)
Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwtn & Barneby
(361)
Senna racemosa (Miller) M. Irwin &
Barneby
Senna sp. (525)

flavicoma

Chamaecrista

Bauhmia herrerae

(Britton & Rose) Standi.

SSteyerm. (124, 148,442)
Caesalpmia gaumeri Greenman (155,
344)

Bauhinia divancata L.

(007)

(AANK# voucher)

CAESALPINIACEAE

Plant

negro

Put

Sak-bo'ob. Xooknom

Viperol

Papaya,

Tamanndo

Saalche', Boxsaal

loc

ora

Iv

loc ori

RES1 2

iv

loc

ora

ora

ro

re

Iv

ju-fr

Iv

GI1

AT1

AT1

NI

GI1

DER2

bath

pow inf

M: dec

empl fresh

drops

dec fresh

Hh Hc

Ta Tb Hc

Tb

20

10

Sf
Tn Sn

NI

10

Iv

NI

Xpahpul

bath

M: bath

Sb Tb

Sa

resp.

No. of

Iv

Iv

NI

Chulul dzu

loc

loc

M- bath

drops

pow lini

dec

bath

bath

dec

Classification

Iv

GH

Mehenbu'ul-xiw

se

loc

con

loc

ora

Preparation

TbSb

Iv

GI3

K'anchik'in-ak'

PFE1

Iv

PFE1 NI

EYE1

Salatxiw, Salat-ik'

Iv

Tu'ha'abin

PFE4

Kitamche'

ro

loc

Iv

ora

Gl3

Ts'ulubtok'

rojo,

ap

used

loc

UR12

Application

Part

GI3

RES14

Use

RES4

vaca

vaca, Pata de vaca

name

Kibix, May

May

Popular

vl

name

(AANK# voucher)

U k'ak' ah ko'lebil,

Commelina elegans Kunth (093, 106)

intgra Kuntze (016)

Luffa

Syn.:
cylindrica Roem. (149)
Momordica charantia L. (268)

Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.;

Cayaponia racemosa Cogn. (431)

Cionosicyos excisus (Griseb.) C. Jeffrey
(387)
Ibervillea millspaughii (Cogn.) C. Jeffrey;
Syn.: Coralocarpus millspaughii Cogn.
(094)
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standi. (383)

CUCURBITACEAE

pinnata Pers.; Syn.:

Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz (439)

Kalancho

Kalancho

Kalancho blossfeldiana Poelln.

(068)

corymbosa (L.) Raf. (046)

CRASSULACEAE

Turbina

(218, 248)
RES2 5 NI

PFE6

DER2

PFE1

Lek

Morax

DER1

K'umkanul

UR3

DER8

Limpion

DER8

DER1

NI

GI11

PFE1

DER12 OTH5

DER1

FEM5

PFE2

DER12

DER2

Kasam

viva

GI6 8

DER7 8 11

EYE2

UR1

G18 5

Use

Takeeyl

Siempre

Belladonna

Bella donna

Xtabentun

Chiwohk'ax, Cancer xiw

Steyerm.

Is, Camote

Ipomoea heterodoxa Standi. &

Chakts'am

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir. (637)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Rhoeo discolor Hance (306)

COMMELINACEAE
Ya'axha'xiw

Almendra

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia catappa L. (326)

name

Epazote, Lukumxiw

Popular

Chenopodium ambrosioides Bert ex

Steud.; Syn.: Teloxys ambrosioides
(L.) W.A. Weber (028)

CHENOPODIACEAE

Plant

Iv

Iv

se

Iv

pu-fr

tu

Iv

Iv

iv

Iv

Iv

ro

Iv

ro

Iv

Iv

ju-fl

ro

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

con

ora

ora

Application

Part
used

bath

dec

empl

fresh

empl

bath

empl

M: emp: oint

empl

M: empi

M: bath

empl bath

bath

empl bath

loc

dec

dec

Preparation
Classifica-

HI Tb Sf

SnSb

Hc

SbTb

Hc

Sb

Ta

cooking: Sa

H h after

tion

17

-4

11

25

resp.

No. of

name

(AANK# voucher)

spiculiflora

rotundifolium Lunan

souzae

Mc

(438)

Syn.: Jatropha

Arg. (138)

374)

Croton lundellii Standi. 8040, 127, 216,

iobatus Muell.

Croton lobatus Forssk.;

Croton humilis L.

(216, 374)

Vaugh (384)

Croton chichenensis Lundell

Cnidoscolus

(cultivated: chayamansa McVaugh)

(037)

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius spp. aconitifolius

Acalypha sp. (432)

Acalypha unibracteata Muell. Arg. (433,
507,581,593)
Astrocasia tremula (Griseb.) Webster
(455, 504)

Acalypha alopecuroides Jacq. (359)

EUPHORBIACEAE

Erythroxyium
379)

(206,

(431, 424)

Diospyros

ERYTHROXYLACEAE

(134)

cuneata Standi.

(213)

anisandra Blake

Hemsl.

Diospyros

EBENACEAE

Dioscorea

DIOSCOREACEAE

(015)

(175)

articulatus L.

Scleria lithosperma L.

Cyperus

CYPERACEAE

Sicydium tamnifolium Cogn. (036, 336)

Plant

NI

P'ixt'onk'ax

de monte

ojo

Kokche'

Cruz

lk-aban
xiw

Xikinch'omak

Xebalam, Butsumukuy,

Chaya

RES1 4

GI3

DER9

DER2 12

PFE1

FEM1 OTH6 7

DER2

Chaya, Chay

NI

NI

Gl3 NI

UR2

de gato

Ch'ilibtux il

GI3

Xmisbil, Mehenmis, Cola

Sak pasmar xiw

DER2

DER1

DER2 12

AT1

RES2 4

RES2 4

Xik'iche'

Sibil

Xkakalche'

Cancer-ak', Wil-ak'

Xoknoon

Tupux

DER1

Saloli-ak', Cbikimu-ik'

Use

EYE1 2 AT1

name

Chakmots-ak', Hoykep,

Popular

Iv

Iv

re

Iv

Iv

re

Iv

Iv

ap

Iv

Iv

Iv

Iv

ap

tu

re

Iv

ro

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

loc

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

ora

con

loc

used

Iv

Application

Part

M:deci nf

M: bath

ipl
em

drops

bath

empl

dec

bath

bath

dec

bath

bath

bath

dec

M: pow inf

dec

drops empi

Preparation

Classifica-

Hc

Hc

Hh

Ss

SnTb

TnSn

Tb

Ss

Hc

Sa

Hc

tion

13

11

resp.

No. of

4^
CD

name

(AANK# voucher)

armourrii

aff.

Euphorbia

Euphorbia

(364)

Desf.

A.

(081)

(419)

(357)

communis

L.

Hyptis

sp.

Hook. f.

(255a)

(475)

(LABIATAE)

verum

LAMIACEAE

lilicium

ILLIACEAE

Zuelania

Millsp.

(168, 209)

(146, 212)

Bntt. &

flexuosum Hemsl.

yucatanensis Standi.

guidoma (Sw.)
(357,522,585)

Xylosma

Samyda

(459)

corymbosa Jacq. (150, 237)

FLACOURTIACEAE

Caseana

Mill.

(353)

Tragia aff. yucatanensis

Ricinus

Phyllanthus glauscecens Schltr. & Cham.

(228,261,526)
Phyllanthus micrandrus Muell. Arg. (088,
117,309,421)
Phyllanthus sp (202)

acuminatus Vahl

Millsp. (297)

Millsp. (219)

Pedilanthus nodiflorus

Pedilanthus itzaeus

Manihot esculenta Crantz

Phyllanthus

(181, 221)

Berger (034)

(225)

Greenman

Wall.

Jatropha gaumeri

curcas

Euphorbia ptercineura

Jatropha

(127)

ocymoides (112)

hirta L.

205.

Millsp. (111, 305)

Euphorbia heterophylla

Euphorbia

(132,

(143, 377, 399)

Croton yucatanensis Lundell

Croton reflexifoiius Kunth

231,289)

Croton peraeruginosus Croizat

Plant
name

Ik-haab

Bot'ox

Xta'ulum, Oregano KaX

Anis estrella

Tamay,

GI3

GI7

FEM1

Iv

fr

ro

Iv

AT1

Puts'ukche', Xchaknif

DER3

ro

Iv

UR2 3

Naranja che'

DER12

PFE3

Xi'mche'

PFE1

Iv

Iv

P'op'ox

Iv

PFE3 4

DER1

GI6

P'ix'tonche'

OTH2 6

Xk'ooch, Higuerilla

DER1

Pets'k'mi, Kambaikiche'

Iv

ro

se

ap

ora

Iv ba

UR1

P'ix'ton-ak'

NI

loc

Iv

NI

DER1 2

Xulimil

loc

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

loc

ora

loc

loc

ora

re

OTH2 3

loc
loc

Nabalche', Nahualte

Iv

ora

loc

ora

wh

DER212

PFE2

ju-st

ap

loc

loc

ora

loc

ora

drops

empl

dec

M: inf bath

M: dec

Sb

syrup dec

Hh

TbSa

SsTb

Hh

Hc

Sb
Hc

re

TiTa

TbTa

HhTb

Hc

Hc

Hc To Ts

tion

Classifica

empl

dec

bath

lini

empl
empl

dec

empl

empl dec

dec

bath

dec

drops

empl

dec bath

dec

drops

dec

empl

drops

drops

drops empl

loc
con

inf

AT1

ro

GI2

re

le

drops

drops

dec

Preparation

loc

loc

Ya'axhalalche'

Yuca,Ts'nm

Pomolche', Pinon

OTH3

re

DER2

RES1 2 4

Much'kok

Siklite'

Iv

re

DER2
DER4 AT1

re

EYE1

re

Iv

DER4 AT1

re

PFE3

loc

tion

used
re

Applica

Part

DER2 OTH3

NI

DER2 OTH3 Ni

Use

Kambalchakah

Xanabmukuy

Hobonk'ak'

Sakchakah, Sibik'

Sakpokche',

Pets'k'uts

Xikinch'omak

Ek'balam, Xikm burro,

Popular

en

arvensis

L.

(071)

L.

(638)

amencana

sp.

(535)

crassifolia Kunth

(426)

Hibiscus esculentus L.

(019)

Abelmoschus esculentus Moench;

(024)

MALVACEAE

Byrsonima

552)

Bunchosia swartziana Gnseb.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Spigelia

LOGANIACEAE

(453)

(358)

Mill.

Gronovia scandens L.

LOASACEAE

Persea

LAURACEAE

Scutellaria aff.

Syn.:

(142, 173,

(Sw.) Briq.; Syn.:

(044)
gaumen Leonard (338)

brownei

Micromena brownei Benth.

Satureja

Murray (110)

(025)

ex

Salvia micrantha Desf.

Juss.

Pezuha de caballo, Unas

coccinea

Salvia

AT1

GI10

DER2 6

Caf chino

GI1

GI3 PFE4 NI

ap

se

se

Iv ba

wh

wh

Iv

PFE1

GI8

Iv

ap

Iv

ap

ro

UR1 2 RES4

GH 4

PFE4

xiw

PFE4

Taman-ka'an

Chi1, Nance

Sipche'

Lombnzero

Laalmuch

On, Aguacate

Orozuz, Balsamo

Poieo

RES1

GI10 Ni

DER12 13

Contrahierba

GI2

Xiax-k'ax, Chi-k'ak',

de caballo, Chaktsits

NI

Iv

ju-lv

chino

FEM5

Iv

FEM6

OTH8

ap

ju-lv

Oregano castillo, Oregano

DER2

se

ap

Oregano

GI2

EYE1

PFE4 OTH2

ap Iv

GI4 9 PFE4

monte

xiw

ro

ro

Iv

ap

loc

loc

ora

spi

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

ora

con

ora

loc

loc spi

ora

ora

ora

loc

tion

used
Iv

Applica

Part

GI4 5 OTH2

GI4 5 9

PFE4

Use

Xkakaltun, Albahaca de

Albahaca

Menta, Balsamo

Toronjil,

Balsamo

Romero

(033, 147)

name

Hierba buena

Popular

(Lour ) Spreng;
Coleus
amboinicus
Lour. (013)
Syn..
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (589)

Plectranthus amboinicus

Origanum vulgare

(405)

(031, 045, 054)

Ocimum micranthum Willd.

Ocimum basilicum L.

Mentha aff. piperita L.

(030)

(029)

Mentha aff. citrata Ehrh.

Mentha aff.

R. Br.

(AANK# voucher)

nepetaefolia (L.)

name

Leonotis

Plant

mac

bath

dec

bath

dec

mac

pow

empl

empl

dec bath

pow

bath

purifie

dec

empl

M- dec syrup

M: dec

dec

mac

drops

oint

drops

inf

drops

dec

fresh

M: dec

dec

M:

M. dec

M: dec

mac

Preparation

Te Ta

Sa He

Sa Te Hc Tb

Ta

Hh

Hc

Hc Sa Ta

SaTaHh

Sa

Sa Te

tion

Classifica

15

14

13

16

23

14

13

resp.

No. of

(AANK# voucher)

(Mo

(366)

annua

L.

(514)

pareira L.

(464, 558)

(008)

ex

(184, 287, 298)

de Wit

(342)

(380)

Mimosa bahamensis Benth.

Benth.

leucocephala (L.)

(481)

cyclocarpum Gnseb. (018)

Willd.

Lysiloma latisiliqua

Leucaena

Enterolobium

Bonpl.

depressus Humb. &

(432, 640)

Desmanthus aff.

Acacia sp.

(039)

angustissima Mill. (378)

Acacia collinsn Saff.

Acacia

MIMOSACEAE

Cissampelos

MENISPERMACEAE

Tnchilia hirta L.

DC.

arboreus

588)

(503)

(301)

(495)

Tnchilia arborea C. DC.

Cedrela odorata L.

MELIACEAE

Martynia

MARTYNIACEAE

Maranta arundmacea L.

MARANTACEAE

Sida aff. rhombifolia L. (442,

Sida acuta Burm. f.

(140, 189,597)

var.

Sess)

(067)

&

L.

Malvaviscus arboreus Cav.

(120, 474)

Hibiscus tubiflorus

rosa-sinensis

sp.

(632, 647)

Hibiscus

Gossypium

(086)

(356)

hirsutum Cav.

Gossypium

Gaya calyptrata

Kunth

permolle Sweet (091)

name

Abutilon

Plant
name

ka'ax

xiw

Ivfl

ro

GI3
GI2 Nl

EYE1

Ch'imay
Salat-ik', Sibik'xiw, Sib-ik",

iv

ba

OTH2
RES4

Tsalam

Sak-katsim, Katsim

ro

Iv

DER1

Pich

GI3 10 NI

iv

ro

Iv

Iv

Waxim

Sik'ink'ax

GI6 DER2

Subinche'

DER12

DER2
AT1

Waxim

GI3

NI

Chobenche'

Peteltun, Oreja de ratn

Iv

NI

Chobenche'
Iv

Iv

tr

rh

9P

OTH6

UR3

GI2 3

GI5 10

ba

Iv

Iv

RES4 5

re

Iv

RES1

GI3 OTH3

young fr

RES

ro

Iv

GI3 DER2

ora

loc

loc

loc

con

ora

loc

loc

loc

nas

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

ora

loc

loc

loc

tion

Iv

Applica

Part
used

OTH3 NI

Use

Cedro

Sarsapanlla

Una de gato, Carnavalia,

Chaak

Pasmar

Chichibe

Bisil-che', Bisil, Holol

Bisil, Xcampana

Tulipan

Chuy-taman

Taman, Algodn gris

Xpupul-ik'

Sakmisbil, Sakpetmis

Popular

dec

dec

empl

dec

empl

dec

bath
dec

drops

dec

dec

pow

bath

M- oath

fresh

dec

ju

dec bath

mac

M: bath

M: dec

M: syrup dec

dec bath

fresh

Preparation

Classif

Sb

ica-

Sn

Hh

Hc

HhHc

HITb

TnSn

Tb

Ss

Hh

HcSn Tn

Te

TnSn

tion

10

13

resp.

No. of

r5

name

(AANK# voucher)

(499)

m.

Britton &

(092)

tinctona

544)

Urban.

(517)

Ximenia

amencana

OLACACEAE

F. D. Sm.

(Berg)

(211)

(274, 512)

Nied

Pimenta

L.

(418)

(154, 249, 407)

psychotnoides

Pisonia acuieata L.

Neea

Boerhaviasp. (471)

NYCTAGINACEAE

Psidium sartonanum

Psidium guajava L.

(023)
(235)

(L ) Merr.; Syn..

officinalis Lmdl.

Pimenta dioica

Eugenia aff. capuli (Schlecht & Cham )

Berg (479)
Eugenia buxifolia (Sw ) Willd. (133)

Calyptranthes millspaughii
Eucalyptus sp (613,629)

MYRTACEAE

(436)

Ardisia aff. escallonioides Schltr. & Cham.

543.

(020)

(539, 541, 542,

MYRSINACEAE

Musa sp

MUSACEAE

Ficus cotinifolia Kunth

(330)

(L ) Gaud. (515)

Dorstenia contrajerva L

Chlorophora

Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol. (041)

Brosimum alicastrum Sw

MORACEAE

leucon

Pitheceliobium mangense.;

Syn.: ChloroRose (163)

(Roxb.)

Benth.

Pitheceliobium dulce

(166)

Havardia albicans Britton & Rose

Pitheceliobium albicans Benth ; Syn.:

Plant

Kopo',
Pltano, Ha'as, Platano

Safr: Hc
Ta Sa HI

bath
bath

loc
loc

Iv
Iv

GH
DER2 6
DER2

Pichi', Guajaba

ro

FEM5

Beeb, Una de gato

GI1 2

so

DER2 13 NI

Xtatsim

Nabche', Tsu'tsup

fr Iv

DER2 12

Chakle'

Pichiche'

ora

ora

loc

loc

Iv: Hh Ta Tb
dec fresh

loc
ora

Iv
fr

GI4

Tabasco

bath

dec

dec

bath

mac

Tb

12

34

14

M. dec
ora

fr

Pimienta de

Hh

FEM2 3 4

Nohochpol,

Tb

Xhilnich', Sakloobche'

bath
loc

Iv

DER2

Chaknii

pow inf
loc

ba Iv

M
ora

Iv

DER12

SaTi

Hh

RES4 5

EYE3

fresh dec

empl

drops

Eucalyptus

loc

ora

ora

1
27

HhSaTb

Iv

RES4 5

re

pow inf dec

Ta

dec

empl

resp.
7

HhHc

SnTb

No. of

Classification

drops

M: pow

bath

Preparation

NI

Xook'num

manzano

GI1

RES4 NI

Xkambalhaw
Alamo

GI7
ora

Iv

NI

Morax
rh

ora

Iv

UR

Xk'oochle', Guarumo
FEM3

ora

re

Iv

loc

ba

RES4 5

DER3

loc

used

Iv

Application

Part

Ox, Ramon

AT1

Xiax-ek'

DER1 7 9

Use

NI

name

Ts'iuche'

Chukum

Popular

m
co

name

(AANK# voucher)

sp.

(241)

(650)

RES2

sagittatum (Humb. & Bonpl.

ex Willd.) Malme; Syn.: Glycine
sagittata Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.

(523)

Desmodium sp.

Schinz & Thell.

Diphysa carthagenensis Jacq. (435)

(367)

canum

Desmodium aff.

Dalea

(128, 137)
carthagenensis var. barbata
(Oerst.) Barneby (125, 151, 178)

Centrosema

Suyk'ak'

Susup, Ts'us'uk

Pak'umpak'

Azfre xiw,

EYE1

Buy-ak'

loc

NI

Canavalia

ATI

G13

loc

empl

bath

Sn Tn
Te

Iv

Nl

M:

empl
Iv
DER1

Iv

drops pow

TbSn

12

Iv

empl

Hc

Hh

Ta

Hh

Tb

resp.

Hc

No. of

Classification

DER2

loc

con

Iv

DER1

Salat-ik'

Aeschynomene fascicularis Cham. &

Schlt. (063)
Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. (513)

ro

M. pow
loc
Iv

Oxo

precatorius

bath
loc

Iv

GI3

Abrus

dec
loc

Iv

DER2

Saklooche'

dec

(345)

ora

bath

Iv

se

ora

dec

fresh

loc

Iv

so

ora

Iv

AT1

PFE3

NI

ju-fr

dec

pow

M: dec

DER2

UR3

FEM3 4 9

Guano, Ka'nal-xa'an
Carmesanta

FEM8

ora

Iv

PFE3 DER2

Elel

Coco

loc

ro

DER2 7

ora

Chiwohk'aak'

U'tsumpek

Chaksaal

(001)

(026)

Swartz

empi

empl

M.

Preparation

(465)

L.

mexicana L.

PAPILIONACEAE

Argemone

PAPAVERACEAE

Sabal sp. (633, 648, 649)

Cocos nucifera L.

PALMAE

Oxalis latifolia Kunth

(352, 612)

carthagenense (Jacq.)

OXALIDACEAE

(245)
Spirantes

Oncidium

FEM3

loc

Iv

DER9

Puts'ubche', Bac chivo:

Lindley (244)
Puts'maskab

loc

bu

DER1

Xkananikte'

f.) Schltn.;

aff. belizensis (Reichb.

integerrimum

Oncidium ascendens

Encyclia
(425)

Catasetum

loc

tion

so

Applica-

Part

used

DER1 13 OTH5

Use

Ch'itku'uk

name

(188, 302)

Popular

Hook.

ORCHIDACEAE

Plant

$5

suffruticosa Mill.

Indigofera

erosus

(L.)

Urban

var.

Coccoloba uvifera L.

(545)

Coccoloba spicata Lundell

(237)
(510)

Hook. & Arn.;

cordatum Mart. & Gal

Antigonon leptopus

POLYGONACEAE

Zea mays L,

(333)
(363, 575)

Syn.:

A.

Mas, Cabello de elote

Uva de

Bob
mar

San Pedro

Atole, Pinole

UR1

OTH3

GI1 4

DER2

RES4 5

UR1 2

NI

DER9

Sut

ruscifoiia

var.

Lasiacis ruscifolia Hitchc. & Chase

(GRAMINEAE)
RES1 4 GI9

POACEAE
Zacate de limon

DER8

Cymbopogon citratus (Nees) Stapf; Syn.:

Andropogon citratus Hort ex DC. (061)

AT1

Colario, Ikiche*
OTH10 NI

DER6

DER12

OTH8

T'eikox

Xpoch

Xik'sots'

RES4

NI

froralocdecbathTe

frlocfresh

Ivlocdrops

IvlocdropsfrlocfreshfroralocdecbathTe

Iv

re

Iv

rofl

froraM:dec

froraM:dec

ivlocorafreshempl

Ivora

IvlocfreshsoapSsIvora

IvlocfreshsoapSs

rorolvIv

Iv

RES1 2 4

Kup, Jicama
GI2

ro

fr

AT1

Xk'ant'uul

Ha'abm

Iv
ro

fr

GI6

Xpica

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

cer

loc

NI

OTH9
Xuul

ora

loc

loc

ora

con

loc

loc

Applica-

ro

ba

PFE3

RES5

Balche'

PFE13 4

Iv

GI2

Sujuxiw

Xoxo-ak'

Iv

se

Part

Gl3

RES5 UR3

EYE2

Use

Xpeheche'

(089, 308)

name

Chakmolonche'

Popular

Piper amalago L (098, 105)

PIPERACEAE

(388)

(246)

icosandra Sims

Rivina humilis L.

Phytolacca

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Juss.

(452)

conaceae

Passiflora foetida L.

Passiflora

PASSIFLORACEAE

Piscidia

palmatilobus (D.C.) Clausen (346)

piscipula (L.) Sarg. (123, 320)

Pachyrnzus

Mucuna prunens

(L.) DC; Syn/ Stizolobium prunens (L.) Medic. (518, 549)

Nissoha fructicosa Jacq. (343)

Lonchocarpus punctatus ssp. longistylus

(351)
Lonchocarpus xuul Lundell (177)

(208)

Spreng. (360)

jamaicensis

(379)

Indigofera

(AANK# voucher)

Krukoff

name

Erythnna standleyana

Plant

dec

dnoos

dec

dec

empl

empl

syrup

mac

fresh dec

empl

mac

bath Jim

dec

bath

bath

M: dec

pow

oint

oint

Preparation

TnSn

TnTnSnSn

HhTeIvlocorafreshempl

HhTe

HcSbHcSbTb

lb

Te Hc

Hh Tn Ss

resp.

12

10

No. of

Classification

cn

en

name

(272)

var.

name

AT1

NI

Borreria sp.

(470)

(215, 240)
(270)

Jacq. (199)

C.

longiloba

Hemsl.

(415)
K'ax

Xbakalik'

Randia

(329)

Piha ak', Piha kam

Tschul-keeh

Urban

(113)

Ele'kabi, K'anan

Caf

Haway, Haway-k'ak'
Chimes-kas, Xiax-al'

Haway

Psychotria pubescens Sw. (400)

Psychotria microdon

Morinda yucatanensis Greenman

Hamelia patens

Coffea arabica L.

racemosaL.

Syn.:

Meyer (276, 608)

Chiococca alba Hitchc;

Borreria verticillata G.

Rosa y china

OTH9

PFE3 4

PFE4

DER9 AT1

DER1 2

FEM5

DER2

DER2 12

DER12

ro

fr

Iv

Iv

frlv

Iv

se

Iv

ap

ap

Iv

RES1 4 5

RUBIACEAE

(130)

Rosa chinenesis L.

ROSACEAE

wo

Chintok'
OTH2

ro

Iv

ba

OTH3 NI

NI

Iv

Iv

DER2

fr

DER2

Iv

wh

so

spi

loc

loc

loc

loc

ora

loc

loc

loc

ora

loc

ora

ora

loc

loc

ora

loc

ora

loc

ora

tion

used

flro

Appl ica-

Part

GI1

DER1 4 OTH5

GI12

RES1

DER11

RES1 5

Use

UR1

X-om-ak'

Pujuche'

Xmexmexib

Granada

Tsunya'hi

Tipte'-ak'

Sakitsa', Xtastabin

Ts'its'ilche'

Popular

Krugiodendron ferreum Urban (498, 571,

578, 623)

yucatanensis (500)
Gouania lupuloides Urban (376, 417)

Colubrina greggi S. Watson

RHAMNACEAE

Clematis dioica L. (520)

RANUNCULACEAE

Punica granatum L.

PUNICACEAE

Samolus ebracteatus Kunth

PRIMULACEAE

(032)

A. Reed Sm.

Microgramma nitida (J. Sm.)

(183, 303)

POLYPODIACEAE

S. F. Blake

(372)

Neomillspaughia emarginata
(203)

Rolfe

(AANK# voucher)

Gymnopodium floribundum

Plant

empl

pi

bath

empl bath
fresh

M:

empl

empl bath

inf

pow bath

bath

M: bath

dec

empl

dec

mac

M: bath

M: fresh

M:

dec

bath

dec

Preparation

Classifica

HcSb

Hh

Tb

Tb

Hh

HcTbSn

SbTb

TaTi

Hc Sn Tb

SnTb

Ss

tion

10

12

12

17

resp.

No. of

en
CD

name

(L.)

(236)

(L.)

cominia

mexicanum

(389, 511)

Brandegee

(508)

Swartz

(368)

(Donn. Smith)

Capraria

biflora L.

(097)

SCROPHULARIACEAE

(619)

Pouteria uniloculars

Syn.: Calocarpum
(540, 547)

mammosum

Baehni

Pierre

Pouteria sapota H. E. Moore and Steam;

(108)

Manilkara zapota

(L.) Royen; Syn.: Achras

zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill. (234)
Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni;
Syn.: Lucuma campechiana Kunth

Chrysophyllum
(386)

SAPOTACEAE

L.

(L)

Sapindus saponaria

Allophylos

(099)

(454)

caribaeum Lam.

SAPINDACEAE

Zanthoxylum

Vahl

(055)

racemosus

Ruta chalepensis L.

Pilocarpus

(247, 251)

Jack.

Osbeck

Murraya paniculata (L.)

Citrus sp.

Citrus sinensis

(651)

(252)

Burm. f.

Citrus reticulata Blanco

Citrus lemon

(236, 253)

(Christm.) Swingle

Citrus aurantium L.

(257)

Citrus aurantiifolia

Casimiroa tetrameria Millsp.

(049)

(AANK# voucher)

RUTACEAE

Plant

ju

ora

loc
ora

loc

loc

ro

fl
ro

ap Iv
Iv

Iv

GI7
GI1
RES2 5
GI9 10RES5
PFE4GI1 3 7
PFE2 4

Naranja dulce, China

Cajera
Limonaria

Tamkasche', Siische'
Ruda

Sinanche', Mata de

Chokwil-xiw

Claudiosa, Sak claviosa,

Zapote

GI5 OTH8

NI

NI

se

ro se

GI1

amarillo

fr

G11

Zapote bianco, Sakya'

Mamey

ba

G12

Ya', Zapote, Chicle-zapote

Iv

Iv

ro

NI

GI1 27

NI

Chi'keeh, Caimito silvestre

Sihum

escorpin
DER2

ora

Iv

Gl7

Mandarine

ro

loc

Iv

GI3

Lima

GI10

ora

loc

ora

ora

ora

ora

loc

ora

dec

Pak'aal, Naranja agria

Iv

loc

Iv

fr

ro

GI5

Iv

tion

GI4 7

PFE1 2

Applica

Part
used

ora

RES4 5

NI

G19 RES1

Use

ju

pals,

Limn agna

name

Sihun

Limn

Yuy,

Popular

mac

drops

dec

dec

M: dec

M. pow

pow lini

M:

mac

dec

Hc

HcTa Ti

32

Sa Sn Tn

16

HI

TbTnSn

24

Hc

11

lini dec

Sb

Hh

Hh

13

18

27

SaTb

HhSa

HcSaTbTi

resp.

No. of

mac

drops

Classifica
tion

pow oint

pow

M: dec

M: dec

dec

dec

dec

drops

dec bath

Preparation

en
-vl

name

chinense

(082)

nigrum

L.

speciosa

Triumfetta aff. ulmifolia

(248)

(230)

(347)

Triumfetta semitriloba Jacq.

Luehea

Willd.

aurantiaca Ait.

TILIACEAE

Jacquinia

(371)

Jacq. (176, 553)

THEOPHRASTACEAE

Helicteres baruensis

Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.

(250)

(527)

Solanum sp.

STERCULIACEAE

torvum) (469)
(583)

Solanum sp.

(334, 530)

(spec.

(267, 420)

(090)

Solanum rudepannum Dunal

related to S.

(502)

Lindley (spec, related

Vahl.) (440)

Solanum hirtum Vahl.

Solanum

Hitch.

(136)

(214)

Gentry (447)

Solanum erianthum G. Don f.

to S. hirtum

Solanum candidum

Solanum aff. armentalis J.

Physalis cinerascens (Dunal)

Nicotiana tabacum L.

(458)

(050)

Datura aff. inoxia Miller

Cestrum noctumum L.

Capsicum

Liebm.

Underw.

Jacq. (265)

amorphoides

SOLANACEAE

Alvaradoa

SIMAROUBACEAE

Selaginella longispicata

SELAGINELLACEAE

Jacq. (160, 340)

(AANK# voucher)

Russelia sarmentosa

Plant
name

DER2

morax

Ukuch kax

DER2
FEM5

AT1
GI2

FEM4 5

K'askat
Mul-och

Kambapixoy

OTH9

ora

Iv ba

loc
ora
ro

Iv

spi

spi

fr

OTH11

Tsutup, Suput
Sink'inche'

ora

ba

Xpuh-hi

loc

FEM5

Iv

Pixoy, Nohoch-pixoy

ju-lv

NI

dec

dec

mac

empl

amu

fresh

dec

drops

26
8

HhSa

10

12

Hh Hc Sn Tn

Hh

Hh Sa

Sb

empl
bath

loc
Iv

DER2

DER14

loc

Iv

DER113

empl
loc

Hc

emlp
loc

Tomate, p'ak'

Xsikli-much

Hierba

Putbalam

Xpahhux,

TbSb

Iv

fr

DER2

Papera

M: dec oint

empl
empl

Hc

Hc

Hh Sn Te

fr

loc

Iv

DER2

Xsikli-much

empl

empl

M: dec lini

oint

M: bath

pow emp

bath

resp.

No. of

Classifica
tion

DER13 NI

loc

Iv

NI

bath

pow dec

empl

Preparation

AT1

loc

Iv

DER2 12

K'uts, Tabaco

Xpurusi

loc

loc

ro

Iv

DER2

Chaniko, Chamisa

Iv

DER1

Juan de noche

loc

loc

ora

fr

Iv

ap

loc

tion

used

ap

Applica

Part

PFE6
PFE6

DER2 7 10 NI

UR1

AT1

Use

Habanero

hormigas

Belsinikche', Palo de

Mooch-tut, Flor de piedra

Siik'xiw, Oxletk'ax

Popular

name

caracasana

(282)

(325)

gaumeri

Greenman

(047)

(027,

Cissus trifoliata Lour.

VITACEAE

(043)

Hybanthus thiemei (F. Donn. Sm.) Morton;

Syn.: Indium thiemei F. Donn. Sm.
(266)
Hybanthus yucatanensis Millsp. (533, 534)

VIOLACEAE

Vitex

Gardner

lappulaceae Pers. (430)

(003, 119)

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
521)
Stachytarpheta sp. (536)

Priva

Petrea volubilis Veil.

Zapania scaberrima Juss ex Pers.

(059)
Lippia aff. graveolens Kunth (014, 554,
611)
Lippia stoechadifolia Kunth (010)

Syn.: Phyla
(Juss. ex Pers.) Moldenke;

dulcis Trev.;

scaberrima

Lippia

L.

(048)

(169)

Griseb.

N. E. Br. Ex Britton & Wilson

camara

Aiton

(222)

pyramidata

Lippia alba
(011)

Lantana

ex

Schult.) (193)

acuminata Roxb.

Duranta repens L.

Cornutia

Callicarpa

Gaud,

(Willd.

VERBENACEAE

Urera

URTICACEAE

Turnera diffusa

ex

(AANK# voucher)

TURNERACEAE

Plant
name

loc

ora

ora

fr
Iv

Iv

Iv

NI

DER9

GI4
GI4

PFE3GI4

K'anpokolche'
T de monte

T de limn

Cruz ojo xiw

Sakbakelkam

GI3

AT1

NI

OTH2 PFE4

Iv

ro

ap

Iv

PFE2

xiw

Iv

NI

Malva, Verbena xiw

Ya'axnik

Xpluxion

loc

Iv

PFE1 FEM4

Verbena, Iben-xiw

loc

loc

loc

loc

loc
Iv

AT1 Gi7

Xpak'umpak'

caballo

ora

14

TnSn

empl
bath

Sa

Hc

Ss

29

dec

bath

M: lini

empl

bath

loc
Ivfl

GI3

Yochop'tsimin,

dec
ora

Iv

GI4

T de china

dec

dec

bath

10

SaHc

mac

Hc Hh Sa

HhTn

inf

FEM6DER8GI4

ora

Sn Ta

drops

12

bath

Hh

HcHc

bath

mac

resp.

Sa

No. of

Classification

Hc Tb Sa

mac

drops

dec

Preparation

Oregano

Orozuz

loc

Iv

ora

ora

so

loc

ora

PFE1 3

Iv

Iv

used

RES1

GI9 PFE1 4

RES4

Application

Part

GH 2

Comidade

de

Use

Xolte'xnuk

Xpuk'in, Puk'im

Laal, Ortiga, Pica--pica

monte

Oregano k'ax, Oregano

Popular

en
CD

name

(524, 531)

ex

GI3

Oxo k'ax

(574)

(476)

DER2 3 4

Xiek' in

(563)

Iv

RES4 5
loc

ora

con

Iv
ap

EYE2

Ts'uts'up
Tusik'

loc

fr

(157)

loc

ora

ora

Iv

ro

rh

ba
ora

used
iv

Application

Part

(570)

che'

DER2

Muela

officinale Roscoe
UR2

Zingiber

GI7

G!

Katku'ut

Canela y cuyo

NI

Use

Emojible, (Jengibre)

(370)

name

Tabkanih

Popular

(566)

(256)

Roemer

winteri Forster & Forster f.

ZINGIBERACEAE

Drimys

WINTERACEAE

& Schultes

Bonpl.

(AANK# voucher)

Vitis trifoliata Humb. &

Plant

empl

M: INF

drops

M: bath

M: bath

M: dec

M: pow

po'w inf

mac

Preparation

Hc

Hh Sa Ss

HhSaTb

resp.

Tn Sn

No. of

Classifica-

tion

Medicinal

2.5

Ethnobotany

Informants

Table 2 6

List of healers and midwives

participating the ethnobotanical project

Name

Specialisation

Location

hie>rbatera

Claudia Uc Cahun

Parfera

Abundio Chan Kauil

H-men, hiei'batero

Gregono

H men, hierbatero

Chikindzonot

Florencio Hoi Chan

Hierbatero

Chikindzonot

Juanita Pech Balam

Parfera

Chikindzonot

Maria Pastora Kauil Pech

Hieratera

Chikindzonot

Juventina Kauil Diaz

Parlera

Chikindzonot

Claudia Naidelfia Noh Pech

Parfera

Chikindzonot

Fehpa

Fartera

Chikindzonot

Jose Carlos Chan Kauil

Curandera

Chikindzonot

Vicente de Paul Moo Pat

Hierbatero, sobadoro

Ekpedz

Wilfndo Poot Moo

Herbatero

Regulo

Hierbatero

Cen Uc

Moo Kahun

Chikindzonot

partero

Chikindzonot

Narcisa Poot Poot

Hierbatera

Vicente de Paul Dzib Dzul

Curandero, hierbatero

Juana Paula Moo Dzib

Parfera

Sinla Pat Cocom

Hierbatera

Juan Santos Dzib Moo

Hierbatero

Narcisa Poot Poot

Hierbatera

Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz

Juana Paula Moo Dzib

Parfera

Ekpedz

Valentina Pat Hue

Parfera

Ekpedz

Moo Dzib

Rosa Maria Dzib Kauil

Hierbatera

Gumersindo Cocom Chan

Hierbatero

Antolina Poot Kauil

Parfera

Celiana Moo Pat

Parfera

Justino Dzib Kauil

Hierbatero

H-men

Ekpedz

Andrea Moo Pat

Parfera

Ekpedz

Vicente Zim Poot

Huesero, curandero

Ekpedz

Vicente de Paul Dzib Dzul

Curandero, hierbatero

Vacunda Dzib Dzul

Parfera, curandera

Parfera

Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz
Ekpedz

Curandero

Xcocmil

Eligio

Pat

Carnal,

Felipe Pat Chan

Hierbatero

Justino Dzib Kauil

Hierbatero

Pedro Acantara Pat Cocom

Hierbatero

Juan Santos Dzib Moo

Hierbatero

Porfina Cocom Pech

Jose Jsabel

Rajelia

May

Poot

Poot Poot

Anselmo Chulm Chi

Emihana

Age

60

of the informants

27

96 years

Hierbatera

Xcocmil

Curandero

Thiosuco

Parfera, Hierbatera

Chichimila

Medicinal

2.6 Gardens of medicinal

development of

The

planned

as

plants

medicinal

plants.

For instance, the

the SSA
the

building

as

sign of support of the

successful in

were

gardens,

of two medicinal

de Salud y

Asistencia)

our

close to her home and she

one

was

work

was

created

together,

(and

still

is)

of the botanical
Bidens

garden

run

by

one

in

continuously

plant garden

organization

garden

of the

in the CICY

labeled based

on

the

study region.

in Chikindzonot and

squarrosa;

were

of

the other hand, the

invited to the healer

information of the healers and midwives of the

not

small medicinal

of medicinal

co

in others not.

close to the clinic

Ekpedz,

(Centra de Investigacion Cientifica de Yucatan, Mrida)

vera;

was

use

in Chikindzonot and the other

(Instituto Nacional Indigenista). The species

Aloe

some cases

organizational and political problems. On

translator, influenced by

Species

Ekpedz

in Chikindzonot and

of the clinic of the traditional healers in

cared for due to

INI

also meant

was

These intentions

(Secretana

garden

plant garden

mark of gratitude towards the healers and midwives for their

operation in the project. It

medicinal

Ethnobotany

Ekpedz:

Capraria biflora; Chenopodium ambrosioides;

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius spp. aconitifolius;

Crossopetalum gaumeri; Cymbopogon

citratus; Dorstenia contrajerva; Guazuma ulmifolia; Hamelia patens; Malmea

depressa; Morinda yucatanensis; Ocimum micranthum; Piscidia piscipula; Ruellia

nudiflora; Tecoma stans.

Species

of the botanical

garden

in Mrida:

Aloe vera; Anredera vesicaria; Bursera simaruba;

Cecropia obtusifolia; Citrus

aurantiifolia; Cymbopogon citratus; Hamelia patens; Malmea depressa; Mentha aff.

piperita; Pilocarpus

longispicata;

racemosus; Psidium

guajava; Punica granatum; Selaginella

Tamarindus indica; Tithonia diversifolia.

61

Medicinal

Ethnobotany

2.7 Selection of

Several

plant species

evaluation

were

effects. The selection of the

importance

as a

remedy

numbers of the documented

the healers

consensus

the endemic
occurrence

the lack of
the

of the

use

the

plant

of the species

species

was

based

Maya

on:

of the

biological

study region (the

reports)

on

use

and

preparation

the Yucatan Peninsula

or

the

original

in America

of ethnobotanical literature

The results of the

62

among the Yucatec

concerning

occurrence

species

this

medicinal plants and their

phytochemical and/or pharmacological investigations

analysis

5 and 6.

bioassays. The goal of

screened in various

to better understand the use of the

was

pharmacological

their

plant species for their biological evaluations

and

regarding

pharmacological

the

of the

species

species

evaluations

are

shown in

chapter

Publication I

Medical

Healers'

of

Ankli1, Otto Sticher1

Pharmacy,

Institute of Pharmaceutical

and Michael Heinrich2

Technology (ETH) Zurich,

190, CH-8057 Zrich, Switzerland

Biology,

D-79104

Schnzlestr. 1,

Albert-Ludwigs-University,

Freiburg, Germany

Published in

Economic

Maya:

quantitative criterion

Swiss Federal Institute of

Winterthurerstr.

2)

of the Yucatec

consensus as a

Anita

1) Department

ethnobotany

Botany

53

(1999)

144-160

Publication i

Abstract
There is
used

an

urgent need

medicinally

through

Species

uses.

in the

cited

The

more

were

frequency

analysis

in

order to obtain information

on

effects of

these taxa

was

phytochemical

Key

(Mexico).

divided into nine groups, which

group of

evaluation of

indigenous

of the

uses are

only by

systematically.The study

indigenous

uses,

in

1,549

classify
was

respective

regarded

taxa.

to be of

few informants. In

and

the scientific literature

is the basis for

evaluations of the traditional

traditional medicine,

taxon

species

plants reported

importance

than those cited

pharmacological

Maya

of 320

uses

18 months of fieldwork. The

particularly important species,

evaluated

Words: Yucatec

ethnobotany,

64

and

medical

of

achieved

was

possible biological, pharmacological

on

some

importance

culture. This

indigenous

of the ethnobotanical

frequently

the relative

of usage of the individual

greater ethnobotanical importance

toxicological

on

to others within

Maya communities during

reports documented

indigenous

employed

compared

as

documentation of the current

three Yucatec
indivdual

to obtain information

indigenous

uses.

medicinal

quantitative method,

plants,

Yucatan

Publication I

Etnobotanica medica de los

como

Mayas

Yucatecos:

consenso

de curanderos

criterio cuantitativo

Se considra esencial la documentacion de la importancia relativa que

uso

medicinal tiene,

cultura.

Con este

investigando

el

uso

de 320

mayor frecuencia

evaluar

citadas

los

usos

farmacologicos

realize

especies

numro

especie;

relativa de cada

se

un

se
con

de

asi, las

consideran
menor

indigenas

usos

toxicologicos

indigenas,

usos

indigenas

las de mayor
son

se

evaluaran

en

que

menor

obtuvo informacion sobre

de

las

estudios

se

es

en

importancia

mientras que las

importancia.
efectos

especies, atravs de

fitoqui'micos

clasificaron

que fueron citadas con

importancia,

las de

sistemtica de la literatura cientifica. Este estudio

plantas que

Mayas del Estado de

para determinar la

especies mdicinales

frecuencia
se

estudio etnobotnico de 18 meses,

trs comunidades

en

taxon de

otros taxones dentro de una misma

con

documentaron 1,549

9 grupos. Se utilize el

especies

comparacin

propsito

(Mexico). Se

Yucatan

en

un

Para

biolgicos,

una

revision

la base para la seleccin de

farmacologicos.

65

Publication I

Introduction
In recent years

relative

and others called attention to the lack of information

we

of

importance

the need for

plant (or

medicinal

comparing

the

Antonio B. 1992, cf. Etkin 1994, Moerman

such information is the

appropriate

quantification

the

when

relative

pharmaceutical preparations

of

indigenous

as

medicinal

Accordingly,

this paper is the third in

medicinal

plants (Frei,

Sticher and Heinrich 1998

Oaxaca; Weimann and Heinrich 1997

and

phytochemical

culture and

each

use

and

on

is

which is

similar,

as

used for different

series

(Phillips 1996)

on

Mexican

the Isthmus Sierra

the Nahua of the Sierra de

biological/pharmacological studies (Bork

with

types of

indigenous
Zapotecs,

Zongolica,

of these studies has been the selection of

goal

An additional

on

uses

plants

illnesses.

Veracruz).

A constructive method to obtain

1996).

importance of

such

within

plant)

plants interculturally (Heinrich, Rimpler

of

uses

other useful

the

on

for

plants

1997, Kato et al.

et al.

1996).
Therefore all three of

our

ethnobotanical studies

Methods): (1) Specialists

also

herbalists)
of each

were

interviewed

informant

in medicinal

during

(2)

recorded.

similar

use

methodologies (see

plants (for example, healers, midwives,

14-18 months of fieldwork and the

The

use

of the

plants

use-reports

grouped

is

into 9-10

categories.
principal groups

The

illnesses of the skin

gastrointestinal disorders,

similar in all three studies:

are

(mostly

infections and

subsequent inflammatory reactions),

respiratory disorders, gynecological (and andrological)

conditions. Since there exist

ethnobotanical differences between the three ethnic groups, 5

were

formed, which

used for bites and

illnesses

(Maya

are

only

stings

and

used in

of

one or

poisonous

Zapotec),

and

two of the

animals

culture

6 additional groups

studies, for example, plants

(only Maya), opthalmological

bound

syndromes (Nahua and

Zapotecs).
This

comparative method

chemical and

biological/pharmacological studies,

ethnobotanical
use

66

facilitates the selection of medicinal

importance

category (Heinrich

et

of

particular plant

plants for phyto

and is useful in

determining

in contrast with others in the

the

same

al., 1998). There have been several other approaches

to

Publication I

quantitative

establish

(Berlin

criteria for the relative ethnobotanical

both used

The method of Berlin and Berlin is of

similar

approach,

however

thus recorded and evaluated

Berlin and Berlin 1996:

81-82).

an

they

set of

Their method
method

requires

plants

importance

of

group and is feasible with

Mayan

relevance. Traditional forms of

who still

use

locally

available

system

(Redfield

and Villa R. 1990

and

1994)

and Rasmussen

For

and booklets

are

plant

consequently,

medical

plant

is without

use

medicinal
basis for

plants

in

an

ethnic

seemed to be of

vital

Maya

particular
of Mexico

Their

importance.

part

of their culture

aspects of Mayan ethnobotany have been

nomenclature
a

(Barrera M.,

few reports exist

(1980)

In

addition,

locally

or

some

studied

in lowland

regionally (Cardeha

twofold purpose:

studies

on

on

(1)

to

Lopez

the medicinal

plants

Mayan community

Guatemala,

Argueta

V.

and Alcorn
on

the

topic

plant

1994).

record the

in Mexico, and

Mexican Indian medicinal

in

V. 1985, Pulido S. and

systematically

Maya

Tern

Barrera V. and

theses have been written

in communities of the Yucatec

comparative

also the socio-

specialists

of considerable

doubt

Mayan community

distributed

(30,000,

here is tailored to allow for

illness among the Yucatec

Arnason et al.

example,

thus has

responses

considerable investment in

Serralta P. 1993; cf. Mendita and Arno 198, Morton 1981,

study

and

resources.

resources are

1985), only

Maya.

general population

ethnoecology (Herrera 1994, Humphries 1993,

as

Belize, Comerford (1996)

the Huastec

plant

many

and

F. 1976, Sosa V. et al.

currently used.

treating

We

[orig. 1934], Roys 1931, Standley 1930, Steggerda and

1943). Although

addressed in detail, such

of

medicinal

knowledge

medical

Korsch

input

lower

of Yucatec

study

A detailed

plants employed by

ours.

relevance to

positive

presented

the assessment of the relative cultural, medical and,

economical

special

interviewed the

enormous

personnel. The

research funds and

Our

of

and Berlin 1996, Friedman et al. 1986, Johns, Kokwar and Kimanani 1990,

Phillips 1996).

(1984)

importance

(2)

use

of

to form the

use.

67

Publication I

Background

Yucatan and the Maya

The

peninsula

of Yucatan forms the easternmost part of Mexico which is divided

into three states; Yucatan, Quintana Roo and

politically

parts of Guatemala and Belize

are

also

Campeche.

part of the peninsula

The northern

and have

percentage of Lowland Mayan speakers (Fig. 1). The peninsula is

plateau, made of limestone, with

an

surface rivers exist in the northern part of the

cenotes

sources

are

surface

over

the

(natural

ground).

peninsula.

sink holes formed

The annual rainfall is

by the collapse of

highest

m a s

important

The most

high

enormous

an

average altitude of less than 100

I. No
water

the limestone

in the southeast

(1,300

1,400 mm) and diminishes towards the north and northwest (400 mm). The natural
in the southeast is

vegetation
low

tropical

while in the extreme northeast it is

tropical rainforest,

deciduous forest. Due to the low latitude, the climate is

warm

and in

the southeast, humid.

For

than

more

peninsula

population

(Pfeiler 1995).
Yucatec

millennium the civilizations of the Ancient

Maya flourished

adjoining regions (Koehler 1990). Currently 600,000

and

% of the total

Maya

Even

of the

though

still retain

peninsula,

are mono- or

persons,

bilingual speakers

large

number of ancient traditions and have

Spaniards and

the

surrounding

Yucatec

example

of the

Spanish.

68

conflicts
to

(Orosa

the

are

is known and

D.

36

Maya

are

glottalized

opposed

Maya, is

1991).

mayance

vowels and consonants

glottal stop [']

article, Maya words

(1976).

resulting

Maya language belongs

Macropenutian. Maya

or

national Mexican

culture. The so-called "caste war" of the last century which involved the
one

of

the

the influence of outside forces has been enormous, the

the cultural dominance of the

just

on

(or mayoide) subfamily of

generally pronounced

consonants

are

frequent.

transcribed after Barrera M., Barrera V. and

as

in

In this

Lopez

F.

Publication I

The Communities
This

study

conducted in the communities of Chikindzonot

was

latitude north, 88 29'

degrees west,

and Xcocmil south of the

city

Maya,

Region

1.

Average

annual

precipitation

D. 1991,

mm.

in the

Acacia

area

According

throughout

remain deciduous

pennatula

to Duch

(1988)

the year. The

an

during

(Schlecht.

cyclocarpum

floribundum Rolfe,

(Salvador

F. and

neighboring Ekpedz

high

rate of

speakers

and the

region

is 25.7 C and it has

&

average
the

dry

Griseb,

May

of

high

season.

Guazuma

Mimosa bahamensis Benth.

subtype

20

m.

(980 mm)

as a

50 to 75 % of

include

simaruba

Sarg.,

vitifolium Willd.

ulmifolia Lam.,
Vitex

and

species

tree

Bursera

and

is Aw

is characterized

Typical

Cham.) Benth.,

average annual

to October

of 10

height

an

the climatic

vegetation

Caesalpinia gaumeri Greenman, Cochlospermum

Enterlobium

and the

Tuz, Valladolid, pers. comm.)

hot subhumid climate with rain from

median semideciduous forest with

species

I)

selected because of

were

(Orosa

temperature

little thermal oscillation

the

m a s

of fieldwork

of 1,220

1"(x')(i')g, i.e.,

40

the well known cultural conservatism in this

number of healers known

Figure

of Valladolid in the southeastern part of the state of

Yucatan. These communities

Yucatec

30

(20 20' degrees

ex

Spreng.,

Gymnopodium

gaumeri Greenman

Espejel C.1994).

69

Publication I

The communities of Chikindzonot and

respectively (INEGI 1990). The

Ekpedz

have 1,500 and 800 inhabitants,

municipio of Chikindzonot

whole

inhabitants. 56% of the persons older than 15 yrs.

those older than 5 yrs.

and

squash)

and

on

the

Handicraft articles

on

subsistence

agriculture (mostly maize, beans

production of honey, fruit (watermelon

breeding. Hunting

and cattle

is still

(hammocks

of Valladolid. No detailed

[orig. 1934], is only

Health and

According

and

huipiles

female

anthropological monograph

health

are

as

dehydration)

wounds and other

Bites from poisonous snakes

a

few

infectious eye diseases

problem by

cases

are

inflammatory

(e.g., tsab

promise

frequent. Diabetes

the local health

to alleviate diabetes

maker), who

are

not

community. He

or

are

h-men

only healers

she is the

Midwives and herbateros

is

Villa R.

and thus work

as

and

hueseros.

in younger
are

major
also

are

Crotalus durissus

considered

now

are

as

L.)

an

important

of

knowledgable healer

for

specialists
to ask for

sastun,

given by

in

religious

plants)
in

or

rites and

protection of the milpa

stone used for

generally proficient
are

to suffer

diuretics.

(Maya

in medicinal

Massages

by midwives.

in the markets of Valladolid and

but also

owner

(specialist

healers. Those of the latter group

70

or

perform ceremonies addressing the rain-god

is

surveys it

our

authorities, and informants often claim

The best known group of healers

sobadores

area

have been recorded in recent years. Chronic and

to function

the

by and

skin diseases

cascabel

Mrida

or

of this

respiratory illnesses

plants sold

who

first studied

was

and

from this illness. Most of the medicinal

prayer

Maya

data of the local health authorities and

result thereof,

feared, yet only

health

the

on

sold in the market

gastrointestinal disorders (frequently diarrhea and

problems. Infected

common.

are

27 km to the north.

unpublished

to the

dress)

men.

healing

is apparent that
children

fruits)

and citrus

practiced regularly, especially by younger

available, but the community of Chan Kom, which

1990

third of

one

monolingual speakers of Maya and the remainder

are

The economy is based

bilinguals.

literate and

are

has 2,750

divining.

form another group of

treating

broken bones

another group of healers

the

All these groups of healers make extensive use of

Publication I

medicinal plants. Some groups

largely

these

use

plants

medications, while others, in particular, the h-men, also

as

part of empirical

the

use

plants for ritual

purposes.

An

outpatient clinic

with

nurse

the

run

by

the SSA

(Secretaria

pasante (a medical student in her

provides biomedical

Mayan healers.

help during

or

de Salud y

Asistencia)

his last year of

training) and

health care, but for most conditions

In 1993/1994 the pasante

(a woman)

and staffed

was

people

mestizo

prefer

still

called only

once

to

delivery.

Methods

Ethnomedical

ethnobotanical

and

communities of Chikindzonot and

Specialists

in medicinal

collected

were

Ekpedz from February

September/October 1996, however

here.

data

1994 until

the data from the second stay

plants and/or healers

interviewed. This paper is based

mostly

in

May

the

1995 and

are not

of the different

two

included

regions

were

structured and unstructured interviews with 40

on

healers. Twelve healers aged between 29 and 71, who represent all the groups of

specialists mentioned

above

share of the information

plant materials that

indigenous healers,
and

methods

of

cited

as

medicinal.

and contributed

treatment.

We

thus

obtained
and

descriptions of illnesses and treatments, which

we

During meetings

conducted unstructured interviews

preparation(s), plant parts used, application(s)

as

frequently

presented here. Together with informants

were

we

interviewed

were

on

properties of

of groups of

compiled

plants

use(s),

the

on

the

large

collected

the medicinal

information

we

plants

as

well

into ethnobotanical

data sheets.
Voucher specimens

"Centra de

were

collected and

(MEXU),

the Instituto Nacional

(both Yucatan), the ETH Zurich (ZT)

Freiburg, Germany (collection

identified

deposited

Investigacion Cientifica de Yucatan" (CICY)

Herbarium of Mexico

in

are

by comparison

at the Herbarium of the

Mrida,

in

Indigenista (INI)

the National
in Valladolid

and the Institut fr Pharmazeutische

numbers A. Ankli, AANK1

with authentic

specimens

and in

540).

Biologie

Plants

some cases

were

with the

assistance of specialists at CICY and MEXU.

71

Publication I

of ethnobotanical

Reports

asked to demonstrate the

plants

indigenous

on

the

of each

uses

number of reports of

(in

four

by

informants

which

they currently

plants

biological

most

frequently

The healers

which

into nine classes of

quantified by adding

were

plant. Species

were

gastrointestinal

Abstracts)

cited

were

by five)

effects of the

respective

was

or

as

more

(and

performed

in

for

and

phytochemistry

on

up the

according

then ranked

illnesses

cited in order to obtain data

were

had used.

they

here, A literature search in BIOSIS PREVIEW

pharmacological

and

use or

arranged

selected cases, also in NAPRALERT and Chemical

the

plant.

Plants in these groups which

use.

of the

case

presented

are

were

and for each class the data

use

individual reports

medicinal

documented for each

analyze the data, the plants

In order to

to the

uses were

on

taxa.

Results and discussion

Illness
or

according

"cold"

to the Yucatec

Maya

may be classified

and Villa R. 1990

(Redfield

as

[orig. 1934]). imbalance of

example, caused by consuming something "cold'' when

dysentery (bloody diarrhea)

during

also central

be in

is classified

and after childbirth. After

"hot". This

as

giving birth,

body,

the

person is in

may lead to illness. Diarrhea, for example, is considered to be

while

"hot"

being humorally

for

"hot" state

"cold" illness,

classificatory system

a woman

is

is considered to

"cold" state and therefore is not allowed to eat certain food such

as

pork,

beef and foods which contain much grease. The "hot/cold" classification of the
recorded

Yucatec

Maya

reported

in the sixteenth

was

by

Redfield and Villa R. 1990

people

experience

or

we

worked with.

Illness may be caused by "wind"

microbes

and

72

as

not encompass the entire medical

Many

oral transmission within the

body), witchcraft

or

uses

use are

of

plants

are

based

system

personal

on

family.

(i.e., by bad air

nocturnal birds and bats.

another causative

empirical plant

was

century (Lopez A. and Viesca T. 1984, Villa R. 1981).

Nonetheless, the humoral system does

of the

and

[orig. 1934]

which enters

Younger

agent of disease. When

closely connected.

weak

informants
a

now

person's
refer to

person is treated, ritual

If the illness

requires it,

the healer

Publication

includes

help

and for the

In this paper

Maya.
320

cleansing ceremony (santigua

ritual

permission

we

on

the medicinal

use

to coincide with

(Fig. 2).

are

were

We constructed all

indigenous

categories

smaller

The healer asks God for

use

of plants among the Yucatec

queries concerning

total of 1,549 individual responses to

plant species. These responses

indigenous

limpia).

to cure.

concentrate

We document

or

classifications

grouped

categories of

nine

and most of the lesser

major

(cf.

into

Berlin and Berlin

1996).

combinations in order to accommodate, for

various forms of chronic and acute

"pain"

categories

A few of the

example,

and illnesses associated with

the

rise of

body temperature. One residual group ("other uses") is also included. Yucatec

Maya

healers

(symptoms)
affected

Figure

are

well

of illness. It is

during

no

certain illness

counteract

use

with

the

causes

surprise then that

conditions; EYE

and
=

strings of

analysis of

other uses; RES

venomous

illnesses of the eyes;

gastrointestinal disorders;

PFE

detectable

signs

the groups relate to the organs

the nine groups which

reports (total number of species: 320;

bites

and

(gastrointestinal tract, skin, respiratory system).

2. Quantitative ethnobotanical

indigenous

acquainted

animals; DER

FEM

use

the

reports; AT

dermatological

women's medicines;

illnesses associated with

respiratory illnesses; UR

1549

classify

pain and/or fever;

Gl

OTH

urological problems).

73

Publication I

The

largest number of species and individual use-reports (Fig. 2)

gastrointestinal

This

disorders.

of

group

disorders

illnesses in the studies of the Isthmus Sierra

of the Sierra de

Zongolica (Frei, Sticher

1997)

in terms of the number of

the number of
number of

of

reports and 87

use

taxa

to the Yucatec

according
venomous

the

Maya. It

the Nahua it

Maya

the Yucatec

ojo (evil eye,

no

Yucatec

person, who looks at

during

care

one

Maya

term

child with a

illness.

this

Maya

uses are

large

number

illness is

species

with 476

so

and is dislocated

Highland Chiapas).

drinking

children.

in

(cf.

were

Other

and mal de

called

"strong glance". A drunken person,

an

food

decoction of

reports

born
are

on

Tuesday

various

an

or

illness caused

Friday

cramps and

herbal

or

are

particularly

gastrointestinal symptoms,
vomiting. To

preparations

"organ" reported

patient
are

cure

or

the ill

to show

used. Another

to sit below the umbilicus.

after having carried something heavy the

Berlin and Jara 1993

Treatment consists
a

use

by

Additionally

inadequate

7.

The latter is

signs

It is

are

used).

people

Its

tip'te' (cirro).

person has eaten

navel and in

for each of the 9 groups

who has caused the illness has to embrace the

in another way.

tip'te' palpitates

74

gastrointestinal cramps, vomiting

are

menstruation and

cause

person, the

largest

summarized in Tables 1

are

particularly "green" diarrhea, gastrointestinal

If

the second

are

frequent condition, especially

illnesses, included in this group,

important

largest

animals, especially snakes (4.8% of all use-reports). In the following,

documented. Diarrhea is

her/his

the group with the

used in the treatment of bites from

Gastrointestinal disorders In this group 147

to

terms of

largest number. Of particular importance

plants

are

discussed. The ethnobotanical data

likely

was

Also, respiratory illnesses yield

the third

principal species used by

women

and Nahua

Zapotecs

that these two groups of

noteworthy

is

to

and Heinrich 1998., Weimann and Heinrich

species recorded. Dermatological problems

in all studies mentioned.

prominent

only

use-reports and among the Zapotecs in

species used. Among

group among the Yucatec

second

was

dermatological

obtained for

were

mostly

on a

similar

concept

in

in circular massages around the

tip'te' ak {Microgramma nitida).

Publication I

The three members of the genus Mentha

parts)

(roots

and M. arvensis

and to

lesser

antispasmodics

degree

and

leaves),

(Table 1),

diarrhea

are

discussed further. Manilkara zapota

(mostly bark,

for diarrhea and is best known for

yielding chicle

their structure have been

published (Hegnauer

of

production

publications

the

on

and

pharmacological information relating

reports

1997). No

data

acuminata

few in the Verbenaceae

genus

diterpenoids

(s.l.)

well

as

as

(Glasby 1991). Whether

to the

(shoots)

498).

1990:

of

the

were

While

latex
uses

recently

is

Yucatec

in which

these exert any relevant

(leaves)

{Lippia

alba

>

%; Hegnauer 1973:668) and thus may act

Roots of Dorstenia

contrajerva

chiefly for stomach ache,

uses

of D. drako

are

are

rich

in

no

data

essential

available

on

ojo

is

one

as

of the

(Falk 1992).
from the
effects is

are

Maya

used in

value the

carminatives.

variety of gastrointestinal conditions,

gastrointestinal

cramps. Similar

1977) and may well be

wide

use

for

35

eugenol

and

40

(Terreaux

et al.

Pimenta dioica is
-

45

eugenol

unspecified gastrointestinal problems (List

Hoerhammer

nervous

for mal de

rich in essential oil

pharmacological effects.

its

(with approx.

has

A central

for

reported

known from D. contrajerva

are

methylether),

uses

Mayan

species

are

no

reported from the Istmo Sierra Zapotecs (Frei, Sticher and

are

oil

used for

"air in the stomach" and

Heinrich, 1998). Furanocoumarins

1994), but

of this genus

number

(Weimann

pharmacological

and related

on

is available. The

Callicarpa

were

data

available,

Maya remedy

and flavonoids

triterpenoids

vomiting. Many species

to induce

huge

iridoids could be found

no

no

summarized

The genus

employed

is

but

are

many different cultures for gastrointestinal disorders, the Yucatec

species

is used

polyisoprenes.

latex rich in

indigenous

dysentery.

L. stochadifolia

Lippia alba,

unknown.

fruits)

available to substantiate the

are

associated with green diarrhea and

Instead

precatorius

Abrus

also roots and

use

the genus Aristolochia

on

Callicarpa

diarrhea.

and effective

(Hegnauer 1973:296),

The bark is also known to be rich in tannins

and Heinrich

known

vomiting

for diarrhea and the evil eye in the form of baths and therefore is not

only externally

relevant

widely

1993).

et al.

used to treat

widely

are

(leaves/aerial

M. citrata

piperita,

which

European origin (Haensel

of

M.

an

adequate

depressant effect of the

and

treatment of "air in the stomach".

aqueous

(and

to a lesser

degree of the

75

Publication I

ethanolic)

leaf extract

screening (Surez

applied i.v.

et al.

is used for diarrhea and

(1994),

1997).

Psidium

dysentery.

Farmacopea Mexicana

leaves showed

activity against

recently shown

as

as

guajava (leaves

These

(1997)

Weimann and Heinrich

mentioned in

was

root)

by Aguilar

et al.

also described

uses are

and Giron et al.

(1991).

spasmolytic

antagonist effect of quercetin glycosides (Morales

al.

phenols, especially hydrolyzable

1987). Teloxys

widely

ambrosioides

used Mesoamerican

antidiarrhetic. Ascaridol is

Artemisia ludoviciana ssp.

(Berlin

effects
are

tests

due to

are

the

and Berlin,
a

calciumare

proanthocyanidins (Okuda

(syn.: Chenopodium ambrosioides)

as

on

al., 1994). All plant parts

et

tannins and

species employed

et

is another

anti-emetic, antiparasitic and

well-known monoterpene with

also with undesirable side effects

The leaves

astringents. Pharmacological

E. coli and

hippocratic

and sometimes also

1994, Weimann and Heinrich 1997) which reportedly

rich in

part of

antiparasitic effects, but

(Hegnauer 1964:421).

mexicana

Mesoamerica. The Yucatec

Maya

sesquiterpene lactones, but

no

(leaves)

value this

data

on

has

plant

for

long

tradition

treating vomiting.

anti-emetic effects

are

available

of

use

in

It is rich in

(Bork

et al.

1996, Heinrich 1996). Ruta chalepensis (leaves) is known from many cultures and

widely

used

as

antispasmodic.

It is

prominent

different alkaloids and furanocoumarins, is

side effects

76

(Haensel

et al.

for its content of

a common

large

number of

abortifacient and has

1993, 1994, Heinrich 1989).

severe

-J

Royen

acuminata

Lippia alba (Mill )

Rutaceae

Osbeck

(L )

Citrus

sinensis

Vitaceae

Lour

(L )

Rutaceae

Cissus trifoliata

Malvaceae

Verbenaceae

Compositae

chalepensis

Britton &

var

ex

Rutaceae

Bidens squarrosa Less

Ruta

arboreus

Malvaviscus arboreus Cav

Wilson

Br

Keck

pareira L

(Willd )

au rant i um

Citrus

Cissampelos

mexicana

Menispermaceae

Compositae

Artemisia

ludoviciana Nutt ssp

Myrtaceae

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava L

Merr

Labiatae

(L )

Mentha aff citrata Ehrh

Pimenta dioica

sh

rt, wp

se

Iv,

fr,
pe -fr

se,

Iv, ap

rt, iv

Iv

Iv

rt, fr, Iv

Iv,

rh

rt

ba, rt, fr

Chenopodiaceae Iv, tw,

Verbenaceae

Verbenaceae

Moraceae

W A Weber

Kunth

(L )

(L )

Kunth

Dorstenia contrajerva L

ambrosioides

stoechadifolia

Teloxys

Lippia

Callicarpa

maxima

Anstolochiaceae

Sapotaceae

Manilkara zapota

Jacq

Legummosae

(L )

se, Iv, fl

Aristolochia

ba,
wo

Iv, tw, ap

Abrus precatonus L

Labiatae

Mentha aff piperita L

Plant Part

indet

Family
Name

in

Guayava

Naranja
agna

raton

China, Naranja dulce

C^uz ojo

Ya'xk an-ak'

Ruda

Bisil, Holol

Te de limon

Pak al,

Peteltun, Oreja de

isim

Pichi

Pimienta de Tabasco

Toronjil

Kambalhaw

Si

in

Guaco castillo

Epazote, Apazote

Te de china

Puk

xiw

(listed

Zapote Chiclezapote

Wahk oh ak

Ya

Oxo

Canela y cuyo

Menta, Balsamo

Maya

SPECIES USED FOR GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS

Species

TABLE 1

a,r in

air >n

the stomach

vomiting

the stomach of

dysentery

air in

the stomach of younger children

mal de ojo, green diarrhea

mal de ojo, green diarrhea, vomiting

mal de ojo, mal viento, diarrhea

dysentery

vomiting

younger children

yellow diarrnca,

air in

mal de ojo, green diarrhea

vomiting, diarrhea

diarrhea

air in

vomiting pasma

air in

the stomach

parasites, pasma, vomiting

vomiting

mal de ojo, green diarrhei

pasma*

diarrhea, dysentery,

diarrhea, dysentery
the stomach,

the stomach

the stomach

mal de ojo, green diarrhea

diarrhea, dysentery,

vomiting, parasites
in

decLrvng frequency of use)

Main Uses

order of

10

10

10

10

10

247

043

121

055

140

011

236

008

012

235

023

030

330

025

169
010

11

350

234

001

256

031

AANK

11

11

12

12

12

18

Uses

of

Number Vouche-'

-si
co

granatum

(J

Standley

&

Reed

Rose)

gaumeri

(Loes )LundelI

pasma(r) Often

peel of fruit,

pet =

petals,

re

for

rt

root,
se
=

te'-ak

is

fruits,
tw =

ju-l

twig,

juice of fruits,

shoot,

sh =

ju-fr

usually

air in

the stomach

tip

te
,

the stomach

wo

wood,

wp =

juice of leaves,

m a

427
183

6
6

Iv =

leaves, pe-fr

368

255

053

038
5

257
5

124

123

422

272
6

033

029

370

8
7

230

hot state takes cold

(milky),
plant
latex

whole

la =

person

mal de ojo

the stomach

mal viento, diarrhea

air in

dysentery,

diarrhea, dysentery

air in

dysentery

dysentery

stomach ache

mal de ojo, white

mal de ojo,

cirro

dysentery

stomachache, cramps, pasma

yellow

diarrhea

dysentery

vomiting, parasites

indigestion,

dysentery

associated with stomch ache When

granos

ax

en

Sinanche

Anis

Nema

Viperol negro

Limon

Kibix, Ts'ulubtok

Ha abin

Tip'

seeds,

fr =

xiw

Pitahaya

Pasmar

Granada

Kakalun

Hierbabuena

Gengibre

Mul-och

illnesses and

rt, iv

sc

flowers,

fl =

gastrointestinal

Rutaceae

Apiaceae

Iv

rt

Boraginaceae

Rutaceae

sh

wp

Iv, ap

fr,
Iv

Iv, ju-lv

rt, ap

rh

rt

Celastraceae

Leguminosae

Leguminosae

Polypodiaceae

part, ba^bark,
rh
rhizome,
resin,

aerial

as a cause

ap =

mentioned

drinks he orshe gets ill,

canbaeum Lam

anisum

Zanthoxylum

Pimpmella

Heliotropium angiospermum Murray

Crossopetalum

&

(Chnstm ) Swingle

(Britton
Steyerm

Citrus aurantiifolia

Britton & Rose Cactaceae

Sm

piscipula (L ) Sarg

nitida

Bauhinia herrerae

Piscidia

Sm

Microgramma

Hylocereus undatusjxL )

mdet

Punicaceae

Labiatae

Labiatae

Zingiberaceae

Ocimum micranthum Willd

arvensis

Tihaceae

Punica

Mentha aff

Zingiber

Jacq

officinale Roscoea

Triumfetta semitriloba

Publication I

Dermatological Conditions

In this group 302

Small cuts, infections and other skin

once

plants (150 species

with

health

frequent

Other

problems

with 302

problems

retrochalcone

1990).

no

lactones and is

an

species

for the

(see

effects

Animal Bites and

Stings). Diospyros

were

investigated

(lupeol, betulin, betulinic acid)

genus. D. anisandra has

240

especially

naphtoquinones

and

are

are

both

as a

(Okuda

et

rich in

al.

pharmacological

no

widely

used

hydrolyzable

1987),
data

and
are

D. kaki

distributed in the
The leaves of

for infections

and

study (Heinrich 1992). Species

of both genera

diterpenoids
et al.

plant

data for this taxon

tannins and

thus

only

detail, but O.

topical anti-inflammatory

specific

have

in the treatment of

may

are

seems

some

frequently

The

use

of

to be based on

exerts any
are

specific

anti

used for the

available, species of this

proanthocyanidins

have

were

1995).

inflammatory effect is unknown. Leaves of Psidium sartorianum

conditions. While

de

has been studied in

compounds (Rodriguez-Hahn

intgra (leaves)

is known to

(Hegnauer 1989:403-407).

species

Neither

merits further

bioactive

which

body (Borges

in this genus,

species

the succulent nature of the leaves. Whether the

are

et al.

(Calzado

factor NF-kB,

employed

rich in essential oil; in Salvia spp. neo-clerodane

genus

greater detail by various groups. Triterpenes

in

to be studied

yet

inflammation of the skin.

same

Only

the genus.

responses of the

anisandra is

micranthum and Salvia micrantha

Kalancho

available.

Plants Used to Counteract Venomous

pimples and scabies. Of the approximately

as

treated at

and for infections

of this genus

1997), Crossopetalum gaumeri

cytotoxic

reported

on

readily

species.

warts and scabies.

dressing

transcription

inflammatory

antibacterial and

are

generally

are

winkli),

sak'

wound

as a

effective inhibitor of the

C. et al. 1981, Bork et al.

micranthum

that

chemical information is available

responsible

controls genes

Ocimum

reports)

and

to 150

urticifolia, another remedy for pimples, contains sesquiterpene

Calea

and D. mollis

reports referre

frequent

pimples (saa

are

isolated form another

was

are

use

The rootstock of Anredera vesicaria is used

(Table 2). Practically

use

in all

anti-infective

plant parts
effects.

available to substantiate the claims in the

case

No

of

Samolus ebracteatus.

79

co
o

Lundell

Labiatae

Rubiaceae

see

(Kunth) Cogn

Table 1.

tamnifolium

Abbreviation

Sicydium

Barneby
Cucurbitaceae

Leguminosae

(Mill )

Senna villosa

Irwin &

Punicaceae

Punica granatum L

Phytolaccaceae

Rubiaceae

Myrtaceae

(L )

Sims

Leguminosae

Simaroubaceae

Psidium guajava L

icosandra

yucatanensis Greenman

Phytolacca

Monnda

barbata (Oerst

Liebm

var

amorphoides

carthagenensis
Barneby

Dalea

Alvaradoa

Apocynaceae

Phyllanthus

amygdalifolia Jacq

Euphorbiaceae

micrandrus MeuII

Tabernaemontana

Euphorbiaceae

acuminatus Vahl

Phyllanthus

Arg

Euphorbiaceae

Croton peraeruginosus Croizat

Hamelia patens

Jacq

Orchidaceae

Mey

Catasetum integernmum Hook

(L )
Rubiaceae

Borreria verticillata

Labiatae

Salvia micrantha Vahl

(Bergius)
Myrtaceae

Ebenaceae

Psidium sartonanum

Nied

(Loes )

Ocimum micranthum Willd

Diospyros

gaumeri

anisandra Blake

Crossopetalum

Wussow, Urb & Sullivan

Celastraceae

Compositae

yucatanensis

Crassulaceae

var

Calea urticifolia

Millsp

Kalancho intgra Kuntze

'

Basellaceae

Anredera

Gaertner f

Pnmulaceae

Samolus ebracteatus Kunth

vesicaria

Family
unyaiS

Name

upek'

Chakmotz-ak', Hoyke

Saal, Saalche'

Granada

Pichi', Guayaba

Piha ak'

T'elkox

fr

Azufre-xiw

Belsinikche'

Uts

Xilkin, Kambaikiche'

Xul-im-il

Elelkabil, Kanan

Ek' balam, Xikm burro

Ch itku uk

Haway

Ya'xkax

Pichiche1

Kakaltun

Kakalche', Kanan

Viperol negro

Kaxikin

Bella dona

Kaa'xicheel

Ts

Maya

fr, Iv

la

la.lv

ap

Iv, ap

Iv

Iv, ap

rt.lv

rt

Part

Plant

inflammation

little, red pimples x-onob

nipples

sak wmkli

p'mples

kaaah kolebil

saa

hard, little

measles

pimples

measles

wounds

pimples

itching pimples

warts

the neck

wound, infection, inflammation of

inflammation of the

wounds

036

272

084

235

113

388

125

136
4

190
4

088

357

199

205

inflammation, red pimples,

chukum

pimple

pimples

big pimples

small,
white

188

025
6

276

211
6

x-onob

k'aa'ah ko lebill

pimples

scabies

measles

pimples,

033

134

white spots

itching pimples

siklikmuch'

038

usan

inflammation of the neck

153

196

tumor,

016

inflammation
8

032

AANK

Uses

of

Number Voucher

wounds, inflammation

Main Uses

SPECIES USED FOR DERMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

Species

TABLE 2

Publication I

Illnesses Associated with Pain and/or Fever This category

for chronic

acute

or

pain

appplications

external

above).

see

baths. Pain is

generally

brownei

Satureja

and fever. These ailments

parts, locally known

external

Illnesses associated with fevers

are

generally

treated with

plasters

and

1988).

Guatemalan
available

Mayan
Maya
large

use.

aureus

the

and

species

Zanthoxylum

Ocimum

claims goes

basilicum is

introduced into

1991),

caribaeum

use

in

or

case

Bursera simaruba

treated with

(Tomas B., Husein

(roots)

in

no

is

pharmacological

relevant

of

68

data

are

screening

to evaluate the

possible

known among the Yucatec

widely

(Hegnauer

the scope of this

species

benzyl

1990:

isochinolin alkaloids,
Since the

449-455).

evaluation

an

plant

of the

study.

rich in essential oil

indigenous medical systems

of toothache, and there is

are

but

are

cleaning ceremonies,

well known

phytochemically

have been studied

(0.5

of the Americas

1.5

%)

(Heinrich

antibacterial effects would be of relevance for the Yucatec

(Heinrich 1989,

information

some

List and Hoerhammer

exclusively employed externally

in essential oils,

(Khalid 1983),

but

species

200

ritual

beyond

effects of the essential oil

is rich

et al.

used and therefore it is not

in

numerous

1992). Analgesic

for

inhibitory activity against

pyogenes

in detail. Characteristic

employed externally

Maya

Streptococcus

coumarins and unusual amides

indigenous

remedy

among many other

uses

found in taxa from this genus

leaf extract showed

approximately

pharmacologcially

lignans,

Ruta

rheumatism, headache, and "mal viento". Many species of this

to

genus with

are

ethanolic

plants (Caceres

as a cure

and/or

is

on

flavones

The

Staphylococcus

(e.g.

is used in the

{Sw.) Benth.; leaves]

diverse range of

used

America, the Caribbean and Mexico (Heinrich 1992). Essential

in Central

Gil

is

applications.

and other external

Micromeria brownei

are

3)

treated with

commonly

are

an

[syn.:

methylated

oil and

that

reports)

as

form of baths for headaches and has

peoples

use

Table

known to be rich in essential oils

species

aerial

chalepensis, leaves,
headache,

of

204 with

plants (112 species

rather diverse and includes

(see

are

Triterpenes, lignans

probably

of

no

and

for fever

on

1977).

(baths).

procyanidies

relevance to the

use

antibacterial

are

Leaves of

The genus

also found

discussed here. Its

81

Publication I

for fever is known from other parts of Mexico and

external

use

partially

based

Respiratory
locally

Illnesses The

used for

described

cough,

in

polysaccharides

species in this group (87 with

bronchitis and "asthma"

longlasting wheezing,

as

phytotherapy

Helv.

the aromatic smell of the leaves, resin and bark

on

many
are

8). Only Cymbopogon

(usually employed

as a

lundellii

Simpol

as

useful

citratus

spasmolytic).

therapies

(leaves)

1994).

Other

no

these taxa

essential

medicinal taxa

Rosa chinensis

oils

or

In
in

(Ph.

esters.

are

et

Croton

(leaves) and

have moderate antibiotic effects, but

Mayan

claims. No chemical data

indigenous claims, but

species {Croton lundellii, Euphorbia ptercineura) might have

82

ik'.

tus

anti-inflammatory effects (Kuhnt

available that would substantiate the

phorbole

called

for the first two conditions

important Mayan

(leaves). Some species might

because of the presence of

are

The genus Ehretia is rich in rosmarinic acid,

data to further substantiate the

are

reports)

use

The latter illness is

winds
in

(Heinrich 1989).

is known to be rich in essential oil

(leaves), Euphorbia ptercineura (latex),

Turnera diffusa
there are

et al.

by

caused

which has antiviral, antihistamine release and

al. 1995,

(Table 4).

European countries plants rich

regarded

177

to be

seems

severe

on

some

side effects,

CD
co

Morton

Burseraceae

Bursera simaruba

Abbreviation

see

Table 1.

piscipula (L.) Sarg.

Cornutia pyramidata L.
Murraya paniculata Jacq.

Piscidia

Pseudobombax ellipticum

Gossypium

Rutaceae

hlrsutum L..

(Kunth) Dugand

Laal, Ortiga

Fluxion' xiw

Beek, Roble

Juan de noche

Sipche'

Kiwi, K'uxub, Achiote

Chakah

Limonaria

Xolte' xnuk

Iv

fl, tw

Verbenaceae

Amabola, Xk'unche'

Oregano de monte
Mayvaca, Pata de vaca
Limn pais
Chuy taman, Algodon
Ha' abin

Iv, ba

Iv, fr, fl

Iv, ju-fr

Iv, fl

Rosa

Xmuch kok

la
Iv

Beeb, Roble

ba, Iv

asthma

of

275

123
048

5
5

4
4

ik'_
bronchitis
asthma

asthma, bronchitis

fever, asthma

cough,

asthma, cough,

257
5

bronchitis

cough, asthma,
cough, asthma:

099

086

193

007
5

asthma, cough, bronchitis

tus

130

cough
cough,

034

021

061

040

AANK

Uses

bronchitis

cough

325

Number Voucher

021
266

142

050
4

asthma, cough

cough,

asthma, cough, catarrh

Main Uses

body:

asthma: tus ik', bronchitis,

sh

Rutaceae

rheumatism

cold

Kok-ch

Name

toothache

fever

fever with

k'il kab

233

headache, mal de ojo, fever

042

body:

cold

fever, trembling of babies

fever with

Zacate de limn

Maya

Leguminosae

Bombacaceae

Malvaceae

Leguminosae

(Christm.) Swingle

Citrus aurantiifolia

Schultes)

Bauhinia divahcata L.

ex

Turneraceae

(Willd.

Turnera diffusa

Berger
Rosaceae

A.

Rosa chinensis L.

Euphorbia ptercineura

Ehretia tinifolia L.

Boraginaceae
Euphorbiaceae

Iv

Gramineae

Part

Plant

Iv

Standley
Cymbopogon citratus (Nees) Stapf

071
7

k'il kab

368
8

headache, toothache

ma! viento, fever rheumatism

Sinanche'
Albahaca

055
8

headache, trembling

Ruda

AANK

044

Uses

of

Number Voucher

Main Uses

headache

Poleo

Maya

Name

SPECIES USED FOR RESPIRATORY ILLNESSES

Euphorbiaceae

TABLE 4.

Urticaceae

Croton lundellii

Griseb.

ap

Iv, ba

Family

caracasana

re

ap, tw

sh

Iv,

ap

Species

Urera

Violaceae

Boraginaceae

Donn.

Ehretia tinifolia L.

(F.

Solanaceae

Cestrum nocturnum L.

thiemei

Malpighiaceae

Bunchosia swartziana Griseb.

Hybanthus

Bixaceae

Blxa orellana L.

(L.) Sarg.

Labiatae

Ocimum basilicum L.

Sm.)

Iv, ap
rt, Iv

Rutaceae
Rutaceae

Iv, ap

Labiatae

Satureja brownei (Sw.) Briq.

Ruta chalepensis L.
Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam.

Part

Family

Species
Plant

TABLE 3. SPECIES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF ILLNESSES ASSOCIATED WITH PAIN OR FEVER

Publication I

Uses Table 5 shows the most

Gynecological
74

species

with

129

use

frequently mentioned species

out of

the

most

reports. Plants used during delivery

are

prominent group in this category. As described above the categorization into "hot"

regarded

as

symphytifolia)

cold

are

and

illness

of the

culturally important. Infertility

and "cold" illness and remedies is

consequently

"hot"

is considered

prescribed. Infertility

an

women

(e.g.

remedies

is

Pluchea

important problem by the

healers.
Bark and leaves of Guazuma ulmifolia
of the best known

one

Among

uses.

induced colonic secretion

are

were

is

the

remedy

remedy

remedy

uses.

According

therapeutic

to the Yucatec
an

is drunk when it has cooled down. While

plants

and

on

biologically

Heinrich and Hunkler

No data

are

1994),

no

active

1995).

for

"irregular

Maya the preparation

therapeutic

data

caffeoylquinic

on

acids

the
are

desired,
uses

reported

use

for

the

biological
available

information validates the traditional

available which support the

No

Maya. Pluchea

abortive effect is

some

cholera

on

and Heinrich

up the womb",

effect. If

other

Heinrich, 1998).

and

has to be drunk while it is still hot. For the other

effects of the

(Scholz,

is essential for the

"warm

no

among the Isthmus

claims of the Yucatec

therapeutic
to

practically

for diarrhea and also for

Sticher

reported (Hoer, Rimpler

mostly used

of childbirth. It is

and antisecretoric effects

common

are

menstruation" and uterine spasms.

of the

remedy

(Frei,

fever

and

available to validate the

symphytifolia (leaves)

as a

vaginal hemorrhages (Heinrich 1989),

Polymeric proanthocyanidins

data

pain

in the two communities and has

plants

Zapotecs for diarrhea

Sierra

used to relieve the

the Lowland Mixe it is used

in the uterus and

pain

are

Mayan

relieving pain

of

Pisonia aculeata.

Plants Used to Counteract Venomous Animal Bites and Stings In this group 44

species

with 76

topically

on

use

reports

the wound caused

treatment of snake bites

taxa.

were

by

requires

Crossopetalum gaumeri

snake
16

or

plants

scorpion. Many persons

species,

is the most

group. All informants report that

84

documented. Most of the

but

no

are

applied

state that the

informant listed that many

frequently mentioned species

immediately after the bite of

snake

one

in this

should

Publication I

chew
as a

piece of

decoction.

reported
chinoid

drug.

The

Triterpenes

pigments

1989:223).

Urological

are

the celastroids

reported

which

Problems In Table 7, 44

k'aluix

is

most

plants may

species

with 66

frequently, yet

act as

generally explained

popular

the most

was

substantiate the

"the

as

treatment of

indigenous claims

Remedies In this group 39

and

disturbing, long lasting spots

are

use

used and

wound dressings. No

are

available.

reports

it does not

are

summarized.

represent

specific

patient

can't pass the urine". Also

Maya consider plants

plants

to be

act as diuretics. Malmea

"kidney trouble"

among the Yucatec

A. et

al.1996). No data

the surface of the eye

(buy)

heterophylla Desf.

No

plant

stands out

mentioned three times each,

two times. In the

are

frequently

drops prepared from the leaf-sap of various

as

than the others: Ocimum basilicum L, Chamaechsta

are

to

available.

applied topically.

and Desmanthus spp.

are

(Hegnauer

reports referred to 27 species. Inflammations

on

treated with herbal remedies. Often

important

use

phenylpropanoids (Jimenez

Eye

are

are

recently investigated phytochemically in detail for the first time and

revealed the presence of

plants

family

diuretics, the Yucatec Maya term for the

effective in the treatment of the latter illness if the

depressa

are

of these species

one

included in this group is "diabetes". The Yucatec

frequently

are

effects

cytotoxic

Anredera vesicaria and Urechitis andrieuxii

condition. Many of the

Maya

type

derived from friedelanes. These

are

to have antibacterial and

"Kidney trouble" is mentioned

amd friedelan

lupan

of the oleanan,

antivenomous effects of any

on

illness

powder drug is also applied externally and/or orally

in the Celastraceae and also in the genus. Characteristic for the

compounds

data

the

case

used for the treatment. No attempts

glandulosa

Euphorbia

of 0. basilicum the
were

particularly

more

Greene

hirta L. and E.

mucilaginous seeds

made to validate the

indigenous

uses.

85

Co
CD

The induction

or

Flacourtiaceae

Apocynaceae

Table 1.

Urechites andrieuxii Muell. Arg.

see

Basellaceae

Celastraceae

Abbreviation

Tabasco

en

granos

pixoy

and of the

Botox, Tamay

Anis

Kamba

Wahk'oh ak'

dosage (high, low)

Anredera vesicaria_Gaertner f.

Lundell

pool,

Pimienta de

Nukuch

Chalche'

Beeb, Una de gato

pixoy

Name

Nohoch

Maya

having
a

child, pasmo

rt, Iv

rt

rt, iv

Plant Part

Viperol bejuco

Kaa'xiche'el

Viperol negro

Maya

Name

snakebite, inflammation

snakebite, wound

snakebite

Main Uses

375

255

248

350

023

009

154

250

AANK

12

Uses

of

466

196

038

AANK

Number Voucher

dark blood,

12

Uses

of

Number Voucher

preparation (hot, cold); "pain during menstruation,

desire of

childbirth

problems of menstruation, pasmo

childbirth, abortion

child, pasmo0, abortion

having a
pain, colic, problems of menstruation, pasmo,
bath of vagina

desire of

childbirth, abortion

childbirth, abortion*

Main Uses

SPECIES USED FOR INJURIES CAUSED BY VENOMOUS ANIMALS

the

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.)

TABLE 6.

on

Family

Table 1.

it

se

ba

it

Iv, fr

sh

ba, iv

Part

Plant

Species

see

prevention of abortion depends

infertility. Abbreviation

Britton &

Apiaceae

Plmpinella anisum L.
Zuelanla guidonia (Sw.)
Millsp.

Aristolochiaceae

Ulmaceae

Jacq.

indet.

Aristolochia maxima

Pimenta dioica

symphytifolia (Mill.)
(L.) Merr.

Nyctaginaceae
Compositae
Myrtaceae

Gillis

Sterculiaceae

Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.

Pisonia aculeata L.

Pluchea

Family

Species

TABLE 5. WOMEN'S MEDICINES

Abbreviation

see

King

& H. Rob.

Seemann

R. M.

(Kunth)

Table 1.

Parmentiera aculeata

Cecropia

(L.)

obtusifolia Bertol.

Bauhinia divaricata L.

Chromolaena odorata

Bignoniaceae

Moraceae

Leguminosae

Compositae

Annonaceae

R. E. Fries

Malmea

depressa (Billon)

Family

Species

rt

rt

rt, fr

Iv,

Iv,

rt

rt

Part

Plant

Kat

Mayvaca
K'oochle',

Tok'aban

kindney

k'alwix

diabetes, urine does not pass:

trouble

does not pass: k'alwix

diabetes, kidney trouble, urine

stones

diuretic, kidney trouble, kidney

Main Uses

Guarumbo diabetes

Name

Elemuy

Maya

TABLE 7. SPECIES USED FOR UROLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Uses

of

135

041

007

339

161

AANK

Number Voucher

Publication I

Other Uses The

are

uses

very diverse. But

No attempt

was

plants stand

two

possible

most cases it is not

Piper amalago (6

only

reports)

use

made

to

is

to

therapeutic claims.
hair

tips.

rootstock of
like

hard gypsum

In

importance.

fight dandruff and split

as

reports)

use

the therapeutic value. The

for broken bones

is used

Anredera vesicaria

some

to evaluate the

popularly used

ascertain

of

being

out as

meaningful

or

with 80

(53 species

summarized in this group

plaster

bandage.

Conclusion

This

study clearly

for the Yucatec

resource

pharmaceuticals

of less

are

other Yucatec

Mayan

in the Yucatec

Maya

Most of the

species

importance

these studies

importance of

(van

exists

der

we
a

have

on

assistant

we

study

on

taxa. In

as

compared

our

these forms of treatment

as

useful medicinals

and the Caribbean, but

subsequent analysis

to

contrary

the relative

The

culturally important plant products (e.g. dyes).

It is

by

with the

single researcher,

of

field
we

respectively. (Frei, Sticher and

1997). These

importance

help of

Zapotecs and Nahua,

with the

previous studies

the intracultural

to

Maya.

Heinrich 1998, Weimann and Heinrich

on

studied

in the medical system of the Yucatec

particular species

translator. In

Such

popular.

Geest, Reynolds and Harden 1996).

documented 3,600 and 800 individual use-reports,

information

important natural

presented data that allow the evaluation of

interviews conducted
or

area

study have been reported

recorded in this

method also is useful for other

based

in the

regions of Central America, Mexico

in other

are an

increasingly

becoming

are

communities. No detailed

area

still

Maya of Chikindzonot, Ekpedz and Xcocmil. However,

pharmaceuticals

biomedical

plants

demonstrates that medicinal

reports yield relevant

use

specific plant

as

compared

to other

the three ethnobotanical studies conducted with

similar methodology will be compared.

The

quantitative data have

to

be

ethnobotanical information. Garden

medical system of the Yucatec

Many informants

88

also

seen

plants

in
are

comparison

generally

to

more

other

types of

important in the

Maya than plants collected outside the community.

proudly show (newly) introduced

taxa

(esp. Mentha spp.,

Publication I

also Citrus spp.,

of medicinal

Lippia alba). Consequently,

plants

medicinal

plant garden

two of the three communities. Other

of

importance

plant

is

being

humoral

indigenous

system

properties of plants; Heinrich n.d). Such

or

with

to the cultural

of

classification

systems based

discussion goes

use

cooperation

built up in

types of information relating

be drawn from the

can

indigenous system (the

in order to foment the

plants

in the

organoleptic

on

scope of

beyond the

this paper.

Based
are

the

by Bye (1993:707)

estimates

on

medicinally. The

used
most

important

which

then

toxicologically and phytochemically

indigenous
relevance

uses

of medicinal

for such

contrajerva, Diospyros anisandra,

Studies

on some

of these

plants

An earlier version of this paper

was

presented

at the

Imperial College, London

for

be

can

studies

pharmacologically,

studied

will

which

example,

also

indigenous claims

Anredera

consequently under
on

help

revalue the

to

to be

seem

Guazuma ulmifolia and

focusing

at the

Society

and the International

for

are

symposium

species of the Mexican flora

here contributes to the selection of

plants. Plants

studies are,

5000

in order to evaluate the

These

Soejarto 1996).

and

(Robineau

or

presented

method

ones,

15 %

of

particular

vesicaria, Dorstenia

Zanthoxylum

caribaeum.

way.

plants used in gastrointestinal medicine

"Plants for Food and Medicine",

July

6, 1996,

joint meeting of the Society for Economic Botany

Ethnopharmacology.

Acknowledgments
This research would not have been

possible

without the collaboration of the

healers, midwives and other inhabitants of the communities

the traditional

MEXU

was

institution.

keepers of this knowledge.

performed

Particularly

Sirna and J.C.

Tejn

MEXU. This research

(Freiburg),
Valladolid)

and to the
and Dr.

numerous

would like to thank Dra. I.

of CICY
owes

help

as

well

as

worked in, who

specialists of this

Olmsted, J. Granados, P.

0. Tellez, R. Lira and Dr. M. Sousa of

lot to the continued support of Prof. H.

of Dra.

B.

Baltisberger (Zrich).

are

The botanical identification at CICY and

in collaboration with the

we

we

Pfeiler
We

are

(UADY, Mrida),
very

grateful

Rimpler

Dr. Tuz

(INI,

to Dr. John Plant

89

Publication I

(Freiburg)
Agency

for

for

critically revising the manuscript. Financial support by SDC (Swiss

(Swiss Academy of

Cooperation, Berne, Switzerland)

and

Development
Natural

Sciences)

is

and the SANW

gratefully acknowledged.

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spasmolytic properties

(Mexico, D.F.)

25: 17-21.

Morton, J. F. 1981. Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America, Bahamas

Yucatan. C. Thomas,

of

to

Springfield (IL).

Okuda, T., Y. Takashi, T. Hatano, K. Yazaki, Y.lkegami, and T.Shingu. 1987.

Guavins A, C and D from Psidium

guajava. Chemical and Pharmaceutical

Bulletin 35: 443-446.

Orosa

Daz, J. 1991. Historia de Yucatan. 22a reimpresin. Ediciones de la

Universidad Autnoma de Yucatan. Mrida.

Pfeiler, B. 1995. Zur Prosodie des Spanischen in Yucatan, Mexiko. Pages 119134 in Klaus Zimmermann, ed.

Lenguas

en

Hispanoamrica.

contacto en

Vervuert, Frankfurt.

Pharmacopoea Helveticae 8. 1997. Eidgenssisches Departement des Innern,

Eidgenssische
Phillips,

O.L.

knowledge,

Drucksachen- und Materialzentrale. Bern.

1996.
in

Some

M.N.

quantitative methods for analyzing ethnobotanical

Alexiades,

Selected

Guidelines

Research. A Field Manual. Advances in Economic Botany

for

Ethnobotanical

(New York)

10: 171-

197.
Pulido

Salas, Ma. T. and L. Serralta Peraza. 1993. Lista anotada de las Plantas

mdicinales de

Investigaciones
Redfield,

uso

actual

en

el estado de Quintana Roo, Mexico. Centra de

de Quintana Roo. Chetumal

R. and A. Villa

Rojas.

1990

(Mexico).

[orig. 1934].

Chan Kom: A

Maya Village.

Waveland Press, Inc., Illinois.

Robineau, L. and D.D. Soejarto. 1996. Tramil: A research project

medicinal

plant

Elisabetsky

resources

and S.

A.

of the Caribbean.

Laird. Medicinal Resources of the

Columbia Universtiy Press, New York.

94

Pages 317-325

in M.J.

Tropical

on

the

Balick, E.
Forests.

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B.

Rodriguez-Hahn, L.,

of

Phytochemistry

Romero

Phytochemistry
R.L.

and

from American Salvia

diterpenoids

Roys,

Esqivel

Crdenas. 1995.

J.

in J.T.

species

Medicinal

Neo-clerodane

Amason, R. Mata and J.T.

Plants.

Advances

Recent

in

29: 311-332

1931.

The

Ethno-Botany

of

the

Maya.The

Tulane

University

of

Louisiana, New Orleans, LA.

Espejel Carvajal.

Salvador Flores, J. and L.

peninsula de
Autnoma de

Etnoflora

1994.

Tipos

de

vegetaticion

Fasiculo

Yucatanense,

3.

Universidad

Yucatan, Mrida.

Scholz, E., M.Heinrich and D. Hunkler. 1994. Caffeoylquinic acids and

biological

activities of Pluchea

Simpol, L.R.,
glucosides

H.

and

Standley,

some

Planta Medica 60:360-364.

R. Kasai and K. Yamasaki. 1994. Nitrile

the

histamine

from

inhibitor

Ehretia

36:91-95.

Flores, V. Rico-Gray, R. Lira and J.J. Ortiz. 1985. Lista

sinonimia

Recursos Bioticos

Acid,

rosmarinic

J. Salvador

floristica

symphytifolia.

Otsuka, K. Ohtani,

philippinensis. Phytochemistry
Sosa, V.,

de la

Maya.

Instituto

Nacional

de

(INIREB), Xalapa (Mexico). Etnoflora

Investigaciones sobre
Yucatenense fas. 1

J.L. 1930. Flora of Yucatan. Field Museum of Natural

History, Chicago,

Publication No. 279, Botanical Series Vol. 3 No. 3.

Steggerda,

M. and B. Korsch. 1943. Remedies for diseases

Indian herb- doctors. Bulletin of the

Suarez, A., G.

History

prescribed by Maya

of Medicine 13: 54-82.

Ulate and J.F. Ciccio. 1997. Cardiovascular effects of ethanolic

and aqueous extracts of Pimenta dioica in

Ethnopharmacology

Sprague-Dawley

rats. Journal of

55: 104-111.

Teran, S. and C.H. Rasmussen.1994. La milpa de los Mayas. Universidad de

Yucatan. Mrida.

Terreaux, C, M. Maillard, H. Stoeckli- Evans, M.P. Gupta, K.R, Downum,

J.M.E.

Quirke

and

K.

Hostettmann. 1995.

furanocoumarin from Dorstenia

Structure

revision

of

contrajerva. Phytochemistry 39:645-647.

95

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Tomas

Barberan, F.A., S.Z. Husein and M.l. Gil. (1988) The distribution of

methylated

flavones in the Lamiaceae. Chemical

Systematics

and

Ecology

16:43-46.
van

der

Geest, S,, S. R. Reynolds and A. Harden. 1996. The anthropology of

pharmaceuticals:

biographical approach.

Annual

Review of

Anthropology

25:153-178.
Villa

Rojas,

A. 1981.

Terapeutica tradicional

de Yucatan. Anales de

y medicina moderna entre los

Mayas

Antropologa (Mexico, D.F.) 18(2):13-28.

Weimann, C. and M. Heinrich. 1997. Indigenous medicinal plants in Mexico: The

example of the Nahua (Sierra de Zonglicia). Botanica Acta

96

110: 62-72.

Publication II

Yucatec

Maya medicinal plants

versus

nonmedicinal

plants: Indigenous characterization and selection

Anita

1) Department

of

Ankli1,

Otto

Sticher1

Pharmacy, Swiss

and Michael

Federal Institute of

Heinrich1,2

Technology (ETH) Zurich,

Winterthurerstr. 190, CH-8057 Zrich, Switzerland

2) On

leave from: Institut fr Pharmazeutische

Schnzlestr. 1, D-79104

Biologie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt,

Freiburg, Germany,

Fax.:+49-761-203-2803

Published in
Human

Ecology

27

(1999)

557-580

Publication II

Abstract

Medicinal

are

an

the flavor and aroma of

taxon has no

potential

The

individual

plants

of the

species

An

(to smell good)

plants

or

are

astringent,

and the

conducted

over a

is to better understand

taste indicates that the

or

are more

while

considered bitter,

often considered

similar percentage of

spicy, acidic,

or

bad

secondary plant products (natural products) prominent

specifically

addressed in this paper. It shows that

indigenous concepts

used to

distinguish

an

in

understanding

medicinal from nonmedicinal

has considerable heuristic value.

KEY WORDS:

Indigenous knowledge;

traditional medicine;

medicinal

plants; nonmedicinal plants;

ethnobotany; plant selection criteria; taste; smell; hot-cold

classification; Yucatec Maya; Yucatan (Mexico).

98

perceived by

group of selection criteria

important

plants

it is

relationship between the ethnobotanical data obtained for the

smelling.

is

plants.

as

was

Mayan communities,

plants. The absence of smell

medicinal and nonmedicinal

species

study, which

medical value. Medicinal

to be sweet or aromatic

each

aim of this

of 18 months in three Yucatec

the selection criteria for medicinal

are

of the environment

important part

indigenous groups. The

Mexican

period

plants

Publication II

Desde

el

punto de vista de los grupos indigenas Mexicanos, las plantas

mdicinales

son

desarrollan. El

objetivo

medicinal. El

Mayas

de este estudio

indigena Maya

criterios que el grupo

como

parte relevante del

una

trabajo

Yucatecas. Cuando

plantas no-medicinales

se

olor indica

son

un

potencial

se

de amargo,

compararon las

estos

el entendimiento del

meses

plantas

una

planta

una

como

caso

acido y

con

como

de las

olor

se

los

planta

trs comunidades

en

mdicinales contra las

son un

medicinal. Asi, la ausencia de sabor

valor medicinal. Se encontre que las

siendo para el

picante,

en

Yucateco utiiiza para seleccionar

realize durante 18

consideradas frecuentemente

astringentes,

centra

donde

encontre que las caracteristicas de sabor y olor

criterio para la seleccion de

o

se

se

natural

entorno

plantas

mdicinales

dulces, aromticas (con olor agradable) 6

plantas

no-medicinales las caracteristicas

agradable

los aspectos que

constituyen el

criterio de seleccin.
Se analiza de

manera

especi'fica

relacin

entre

los datos etnobotnicos

obtenidos para cada

planta

sto,

de mostrar que el entendimiento de los conceptos

con

el

usados para
es

de

un

objetivo

distinguir

las

y los

la

productos

especies

de

naturales secundarios de las mismas;

plantas

indigenas

mdicinales de las no-medicinales

considerable valor heristico.

99

Publication II

Introduction

Impressive
are

collections of documented

(for

available

plants

the Americas see, for

used in

indigenous

example, Aguilar

medical

systems

al., 1994; Argueta V.,

et

1994; Heinrich, 1996; Moerman, 1998; Morton, 1981), but the ethnobotanical study
of medicinal

plants

for the

of

use

plants

and

or

its

uses

in

Moerman

On the other hand,

the most

(1996),

theoretically

Ellen and Fukui

explored

(Balick

in detail

been

generally

(Brett and

more

information

in

interested
Western

and Cox, 1996; Robineau

noteworthy exceptions

are

the work of Etkin

(1990).

informed ethnobotanical studies have made

1996), cognitive anthropology, ethnoscience (Berlin 1992),

plants (Foster, 1994).

major

ethnoecology (Alcorn, 1984; Bale, 1994;

as

of humoral classification of such

illnesses and

and the process and rationale

ethnobotanical

and Johns

contributions to related fields such

study

of

health care1

primary

Soejarto, 1996). Among

(e.g. 1994),

descriptive,

medicine has not been

practical application

the

biomedicine

as

remained

Researchers in the field have

Heinrich, 1998).
towards

largely

has

disparate phenomena

Foster's

context of this paper. Some authors have

study

like

particularly

is

and the

food, types of
relevant in the

systematically explored

the hot-cold

concept and its role in indigenous medicine and diet (Foster, 1994), but little
information is available

of

as

plants

botanically

(cf. Messer, 1991).

this system

system

on

too narrow to

hitherto little

explored

Also,

explain plant

medicine based

as

on

identified
we

use

species

have

(Brett

recently

and

(Brett

seems to

Such

approaches

Fitoterapia,

100

characterizing

are

Economic

medicinal

exemplified by many

Botany

of the articles

and Pharmaceutical

important,

but

are

particularly important

has been shown in ethnobotanical

plants

published

Biology (formerly

be

and Heinrich, 1998 and references

therein; Crellin and Philpott, 1997). That taste and smell

criteria for

criticized the hot-cold

Heinrich, 1998). The selection

their taste and smell

in many cultures

and their classification in

in

journals such

as

the Journal of

International Journal of

Ethnopharmacology,

Pharmacology).

Publication II

studies with the Tzeltal and Mixe

did not,

however, look

of medicinal
cultural

versus

for

reasons

at the differences in the

nonmedicinal

selecting

which allow the selection of

knowledge,

plants,

plant

them in the house

Heinrich, 1997)

are

as

medicinal

new

and the management of

(e.g. by growing
area;

(Brett, 1998; Heinrich, 1998).

people's

the

Those two studies

taste and smell

specific

focus of this paper. The

medicinal one, the cultural processes

plants,

the forms of transmission of this

culturally important plants

yard

sparing

or

perceptions

in the environment

plant during

pertinent topics for ethnobotanical

the

cleaning

research

of

an

on

medicinal

relevant

example,

plants.
The

plants

since

they

of the Yucatan

Maya

have

are an

integral

strongly

among the

Maya

of considerable

peninsula (Mexico)
and

important part

particularly

of their

indigenous

culture and since

resisted outside influences. Traditional treatments for illness

of the Yucatan

importance.

peninsula,
Detailed

and Villa R.,

knowledge (Redfield

(Barrera

et

who still

studies

use

locally

available

of their medical

Tern and Rasmussen,

al., 1976; Sosa

et

al., 1985)

are

plant,

ethnobotany,

1994)

available.

and

Only

reports address currently used medicinal plants (cf. references cited in Ankli

1999).

In this paper

between

medicinal

we

and

nonmedicinal

information of the Yucatec

variations in medicinal

(Ankli

et

the Yucatec

analyze

Mayan

as

The

well

as

criteria for

wealth

plant
a

et

few

el.,

distinguishing

of ethnobotanical

the intra- and intercultural

has been described and

analyzed

before

al., 1999; Heinrich tal., 1998). In this paper, the hot-cold classification

and the classification system based

plants.

healers

plant knowledge

Mayan2

are

system and

and of many aspects of their

1990)

including ethnoecology (Herrera O, 1994;

nomenclature

are

Unless stated otherwise the term "Yucatec

communities south of Valladolid

make reference to the Yucatec

May a"

(see Background),

Maya

in

general,

on

is used

since

we use

taste and smell among Yucatec

throughout

no common

the term

Maya

are

this paper to refer to the inhabitants of three

denominator exists for these three communities. If

we

Maya of the Yucatan peninsula.

101

Publication II

examined

discover

to

nonmedicinal

how

the

Maya distinguish

between

medicinal

and

plants.

The Study Area

and the people

Yucatan and the Maya

The land of the lowland

contains

which

the

Maya

stretches

over

altitude

surface rivers

barely

run

water sources are

limestone surface

(1,300

reaches 400

through

the

warm

Yucatec

plateau;

its

above

level

sea

(Hernandez, 1985).

No

part of the peninsula; the

(natural sinkholes formed by

ground).

most

Maya vowels and

collapse

the

adjoining

to the

to 400 mm.

sea

warm

make the

Mayance (or Mayoide) subfamily

consonants are

persons,

or

36 % of the total

generally pronounced

transcribed after Barrera et al.

was

boring Ekpedz

consonants

are

as

In this article,

Maya

of
in

frequent.

population of the peninsula,

bilingual speakers of Maya (Pfeiler, 1995).

study

of the

in the extreme northeast low

glottal stop ['] is used, and glottalized

Currently 600,000
mono- or

important

The annual rainfall is greatest in the southeast

tropical rainforest, and

Maya language belongs

Spanish.

of Yucatan,

and humid.

Macropenutian.

102

limestone

enormous

deciduous forest. The latitude and the

tropical

This

an

1,400 mm) and diminishes towards the north and northwest

The southeast portion is

climate

ms

the northern

cenotes

over

peninsula

part of Mexico and the northern parts of

easternmost

Guatemala and Belize. The peninsula is

highest

most of the

words

are

are

(1991).

conducted, in the communities of Chikindzonot and the neigh

and Xcocmil, south of the

city of Valladolid

in the southeastern

part

Publication II

of the state of Yucatan.

to October

May

(Duch, 1988).
with

an

The

vegetation

during

and the whole

six percent of the

five years

are

dry

the

of Chikindzonot and

1990)

(980 mm)

average height of 10

deciduous

annual

precipitation 1,220

average annual
from

Average

20

m.

on

as a

(Salvador

and

15 years of age

subsistence

of

are

Maya,

1. Place of field

specialists
protection

in

The communities

literate and
the

rest

(Fig.1). Fifty-

third of those

over

being bilingual.

The

and

squash)

and

on

cattle.

study.

group of healers

religious

for the

species remain

inhabitants, respectively (INEGI,

agriculture (maize, beans,

Fig.

the year

median semideciduous forest

of Chikindzonot has 2,750 inhabitants

raising of honey, citrus fruits, watermelons and

important

throughout

Espejel, 1994).

the

The most

is 25.7 C and the

hot, subhumid climate that has rain

have 1,500 and 800

over

area

Some 50 % to 75 % of the

monolingual speakers

economy is based

is characterized

municipio

people

It is

mm.

the

and little temperature variation

season

Ekpedz

temperature in

are

rites and who

milpa (com field)

or

h-men, who

perform
the

are

not

ceremonies

community. He

only

asking
or

healers but also

the rain

she is the

god

owner

for

of

103

Publication II

sastun,

the navel
form

stone used for

string)

divining.

and herbalists

another group who

Massages

given by

are

{ts'a

are

{ah-k'ax

Midwives

tuch ahal: person who cuts

gives

medicinal

plants)

treating

broken

bones.

ts'ak xiw: person who

generally proficient

another group of healers

in

the

midwives3. While all these groups of healers make extensive

plants,

some

largely

them

use

as

others, in particular, the h-men, also

No detailed
the

of Chan

Villa R.

the

use

(1990)

is

only

Kom, which

use

and

of medicinal

part of phytotherapeutic preparations while

anthropological monograph

community

{yet)-

masseur

on

was

plants
the

for ritual purposes.

Maya

of this

area

first studied in the 1930s

is available, but

by

Redfield and

27 km to the north.

Methods

Ethnomedical and ethnobotanical data

May

1995

and

in

Chikindzonot and

collected from

were

September/October 1996, mainly

The information

Ekpedz.

was

in

1994 until

February
the

two

villages of

from structured and

gathered

unstructured interviews with 40 traditional healers and midwives. Twelve healers

aged

40

information
and all

71

years

presented

here. Ten of these

actively practice

healing

their

and most of them also work

setters

(3). Generally,

and six

women.

Together

The

104

Maya

art. All twelve consider themselves

h-men

we

(2),

masseurs

collected voucher

During meetings

unstructured interviews

as

on

terms for the various groups of

of groups of

the medicinal

empirical

and contributed much of the

between 40 and 50 years of age,

were

the midwives also work

with informants,

of medicinal taxa.

frequently

interviewed

were

healers

midwives

as masseurs.

specimens

are

(4)

Six healers

or

are men

we

conducted

and methods of treatment.

descriptive.

bone

and additional material

indigenous healers,

plants

generally

(5),

herbalists,

We

Publication II

thus

information

obtained

and

application(s)

treatments, which

compiled

of ethnobotanical

Reports

of the

properties
were

species,

and the

application,
species,

arranged

into

mentioned

by

the data

et

To

data

the

then ranked

the

data, the

or

ah, 1999; Heinrich

the individual

et

and

species

were

application techniques

al., 1998). For each group,

reports

to the number of

according

preparation

classification of the

reports for

use

had

ones

their

were

they

which

or

indigenous

symptoms

on

quantified, adding up

were

on

The healers

plant.

plant part(s) used,

the

on

plus

et

currently using

were

based

(Ankli

of illnesses and

descriptions

as

documented for each

analyze

groups

the healers

were

plant. They

nine

they

uses,

recorded. To

were

well

as

into ethnobotanical data sheets.

information

Maya

use(s), preparation(s), plant parts used,

plants

uses were

asked to indicate which taxa

used. For each

the

on

the

on

uses

reports of

use

of each

(see

Ankli

ai, 1999).

distinguish

considered

compared

between medicinal and nonmedicinal

by

single

informant

them to those

communities,

individual

use.

Therefore, they

key investigator.
of each taxon.
National

generally

had

Herbarium

of

were

were

no

tasted

by

in Valladolid,

considered

to

select

useful

as

plants of

the

of

10

not

maximum

medical value. The healers

were

opinion

were

(MEXU),

they

the informant, the translator, and the

on

the taste and smell

collected and
the

Investigacion Cientifica de Yucatan (CICY)

Indigenista (INI)

medicinal and

be

unfamilier with the taste and smell of taxa

specimens
Mexico

to

plants

smell, the humoral, and other properties of the

The healer then gave his

Voucher

healer)

person

asked

were

opinion

next asked about the taste and

taxa. The informants

same

looked at

we

the documentation of medicinal

healers

ethnobotanical taxa that in their

did not

the

plants

having completed

medicine. After

(generally

plants

in

are

Herbarium

of

properties

deposited
the

at the

Centra

de

Mrida, the Instituto Nacional

Yucatan, the ETH Zurich (ZT), and the Institut fr

105

Publication II

Pharmazeutische

Biologie

540). They

identified

were

specialists

The selection of medicinal

The

to the next

of them

was a

taught by

were

why

reasons

plant

on

smelling plants

useful

of other healers

reasoning
has

certain taste

and that it

was

or

reasons

useful

for their

plants

Some
the

likely

seems

and

plants

Woodson

that

the

they

or

To facilitate the

main
and

body

can

106

of the paper if

be found, for

The

was

the

example,

on

English

was

not in the

the voucher

to used

obtained

against

used for

skin
The

illness

an

trembling

and, implicitly the

about

through dreaming
plants

flower of Matelea

in treatment.
a

certain illness

or

yucatanensis (Standi.)
a

single

of babies.

part of the

flower is used
Because of its

cactus

species (following Morton, 1981) have

tables) along with their botanical

specimens.

good-

that

also transmitted to them,

showed similarities to

terms for

relatives. In

The informants did not recall

plants

fetus", the aerial

one

medicine because it

was

resembles the navel. Therefore,

the text, common

possible (but

plant

the effect of these

the navel of the babies and for

reading of

etc.

was a

Most

plant.

reported
ones

be

to

and the blood.

body

plant

characteristics

they

by elderly

or

bitter-tasting

the

learned both what

organ.

spines, which "hold back

aromatic,

plants'

selected because

(Asclepiadaceae)

against pain of

or

subsequently testing

body

that

always

Other information

use.

were

diseased

stomach ache,

strengthening

not

was

bitter, astringent
on

some

from

on

certain

traditional healer

smell property but often that the

whether the information

but it

to

used

{h-men)

healer

plants,

against

plants

and sweet

problems,

and in

considered

was

knowledge passed

deciding why they

to

medicinal

the initial interviews

were

key

experienced

an

specimens

at CICY and MEXU.

medicine. For many informants, the traditional

generation

numbers A. Ankli 1

plants

gave various

informants

with authentic

by comparison

with the assistance of

cases

Freiburg, Germany (collection

in

names.

Indigenous

pitaya4

been added in the

names were

recorded

Publication II

[Hylocereus

(L.)

undatus

Britton & Rose,

abortion. The fruit of Godmania

Cactaceae]

aesculifolia

the

by

the work

on

Redford and Villa

humoral concepts would be

informants

medicinal

use.

important

mentioned hot

never

or

and to

of

causes

Plants

an

are

for

expel

commonly considered

classified

as

bitter

are

(n=10; 71%).

to be aromatic

There is

Frequently
referring

the informant refer to

in

"hot"

following

or

discussion

are

becoming

about

important

important
smell

no

therefore based

on

clear

are

are

plants

characteristic of the
taxa with

venomous

and

animals,

generally

are

criterion in this group

(40%)
and

(64%)

between the thermal and humoral

"cold'1 item without it

plants

properties

(n=14 answers)

considered to have

distinguishing

Sweet

strong odor (65% of all

an

the healers6.

reports in the

For skin conditions, bitter

(55 %).

methodological problem

to. The data in the

are

Smell is not

by

use

Another

mentioned

frequently

1). Women's medicine

mentioned

the

explaining

65 % of all

taste

have

for its

reason

in

Additionally,

certain illness.

plants. Our

would be used to treat,

Plants for the treatment of bites of

properties).

especially snakes,

(Table I).

they typically

in this group is that

ascribed smell

treating

as

that

first made reference to the

remedy

frequently

were

concerning

to be sweet

anticipated

had

plant

properties they

treating respiratory illnesses;

illnesses"

of

properties

plant's property.

not chosen at random for

"respiratory

plants

concepts5

illness, thermal

clearly preferred
group

on

we

in the selection of medicinal

cold

When asked about these

and then volunteered data

(Bignoniaceae)

speed up labor

Rojas (1990),

disease and its humoral characteristics, which this

or

preventing

placenta.

Based

Standi.

(Kunth)

resembles the umbilical cord and is therefore used to

used for

are

astringent (33 %),

properties of

immediately

(57%)

taste

or no

(n

species

which of the two

illness.

or an

types they

systematic inquiries into the meaning of the

were

terms of

the infoimant.
6

Water of the cenotes is considered to be cold. Cool water should not be drunk

also be observed with cold winds

cause

coming

from the North

(Maya;

cascac

ik). On

or

used for

washing

or

the other hand, the hot

bathing.
sun

Caution must

is feared

as a

of illness.

107

Publication II

(47%)

and aromatic

divided into three

aromatic

any,

(52%)

or

or

or a

of

bitter taste

(35%).

are

sought

indigenous

uses

according

are

interesting

on

group is

classify

dysentery, it

Pain and fever

generally is

minimal smell, if

mostly

treated

plants

as

hot

is clear that it

or

call for cold

disorders.

gastrointestinal

with aromatic

winds, cloudy skies,

venomous

Roughly

remedies that

by

rain

require

animals

during

the

rainy

Inflammation is considered

distinguished

hot illness;

illnesses, the classification of the plants is

to be hot and 47% cold.

cold

(96 %).

are

pimples

particularly

at

On the other

is considered to be

vomiting

caused

are

Consequently,

reddening
are

responses).

looks, for example,

Inflammatory

temperature elevation and thus require remedies that

The main groups of skin conditions

one

season.

localized

to

half of all reports in this

Diarrhea and

hot remedies.

produce

are

% of all

(74 %).

Dysentery

call for hot remedies.

or

in the various groups of

(88

ones

cold, respectively. But if

requires

vomiting

two illnesses are cold and

108

only

vomiting,

system (Table II). Disorders specific

to the humoral

hot illness because of the blood in the feces.

of

are

the classification of the

on

the other hand,

the taxa

hand diarrhea and

bites

those that have

were

whereas the

(33%) plants,

bitter

treated with remedies considered to be hot

Pain and fever,

cold

or

For

Diarrhea

preferred.

are

illnesses

vomiting.

diarrhea and

(65%),

dysentery

gastrointestinal

bad-smelling plants (43%).

were

group

The various

ones

aromatic

for

plants

Responses

women

(58%)

bitter

astringent (50%),

popular type

(67%)

preferred.

are

subgroups: dysentery,

plants (61%)

treated with
most

taxa

by

these

skin diseases and

of the

skin

and

cold.

inflammation and
cold

one.

not clear-cut: 53% of the

For

pimples.

respiratory

plants

are

said

by

venomous

71

21

17

65

25

13

Sweet

(%)

25

14

^0^

6
_

24
14

52

4
23

40

55

65

20

21
17

(1)

15

43

56
7
27

16
20

16

17
6
6
24

15

88
7

"tot

smelling
11

Bad-

Strongsmelling

Smell (%)

67

26

14

47

61

33

26

65

24

17

23

56

73

"tot

use:

Odorless

Group of

Aromatic

and

Acid

by Sensory Characteristics

Spicy

of the eyes

25

57

15

26

15

Tasteless

Figures with shaded background: >30 %, >3 responses.

Urological problems ^ tot 1 I other uses n ^ 2; conditions

animals

Bites

illnesses

25

Pain and fever

Respiratory

29

Women's medicine

conditions

19
33

64

50

17

29

ent

Astring

58

33

Diarrhea

Vomiting
Dermatological

35

42

Bitter

Dysentery

disorders

Gastrointestinal

Group of use"

Taste

Table I. Classification of Medicinal Plants

Publication II

Table II. Hot-Cold Classification of Medicinal Plants in the

Groups

of Uses3

Group

of usea

Hot

Cold

(%)

(%)

/7tot

65

45

101

96

27

67

33

18

77

23

56

Gastrointestinal disorders

Dysentery
Diarrhea

Vomiting
Dermatological

conditions

29

71

35

Infection

96

24

Pimples

82

18

11

Women's medicine

88

12

25

Pain and fever

26

74

23

53

47

19

100

13

illnesses

Respiratory
Bites by venomous
a

Figures

animals

with shaded

individual

reports;

use

of the eyes; other

background: >70'o of the total number of

two responses:

Urological problems; conditions

uses.

Differences between medicinal and nonmedicinal

healers

Individual

nonmedicinal

plants. Practically

of the nonmedicinal

plants,

personally

did not

they

asked

were

differences

all medicinal

plants

without

plant

are

trees and

showy

flowers and

to be discussed

described and tasted the leaves. Since the

groups

(Fig.

respect
of

and kii
2 and

(taste) (Barrera

3).

names

of

plants that

There is

to taste and smell

et

as a

properties (%2

rather

good-tasting fruit, for example.

Maya clearly distinguish

al., 1991), the

significant

are

nonmedicinal, the informants in

cases

(smell)

named folk taxa. For 28 %

herbs, and they usually

selecting

bok

and

medicinal

use.

When

are

between

the informants did not know the

Most of the nonmedicinal taxa

inconspicuous plants,

about

plants

answers were

most

between

recorded in two

difference between the two groups with

56, 99.9% CI of

%2

is 20 with 5

degrees

freedom).

Smell
smell
such

was

properties,
as

of adrue

110

generally

described

the informants

the smell of

{Cyperus

as

additionally compared

person, of

articulatus L,

being good, bad,

lemon,

or

honey,

absent. In

or

the odor with

or

the

Cyperaceae). According

explaining
common

the

ones,

strong, aromatic smell

to the

Maya,

strong

60

n169

Responses

on

Medicinal Taxa
50

100

Responses

on

Non-Medicinal Taxa

^
40

30

CE

20

10

Aromatic

Odorless

Strong

Quality

smell

of Smell

2. Smell of medicinal and nonmedicinal

Fig.

Bad smell

plants

of the Yucatec

Maya.

50

166

Responses

on

Medicinal Taxa

45

40

100

Responses

on

Non-Medicinal Taxa1

35

30

25

20

15

10

IWM
o

*-

itter

Astringent

Sweet

Quality

Fig.

Tasteless

Spicy

Acid

of Taste

3. Taste of medicinal and nonmedicinal

plants of

the Yucatec

Maya.

Publication II

pleasant

can

smell

by being unusually strong.

be

and smell of
were

such

"strong"

The ways in which the

used in the

were

the

by

stated
as

plant

or

distinguished

but it is

unpleasant,

smell

analysis (i.e.,

Maya [Table III], including

Maya

accepted

somewhat

characterize taste

the criteria

ambiguous categories

nonmedicinal ones, 200 responses

responses for

humorally

Nonmedicinal

plants

Medicinal

strong smell (Fig.

characteristic of

hot

were

were more

plants,

practically

and there is

For the 69

recorded

often

medicinal

(Figs.

reported

difference in the

good

odor

plant

was

astringent
acid

or

sweet, but there

(Fig. 3).

It is

nonmedicinal

noteworthy

plants

and

are no

seems

It is worth

to be of

no

repeating that,

characterized
medicinal
contradicts

as

sign

no

medicinal

smell

(Fig. 2)

often aromatic

or no

taste

(good smell),

of responses about bad

cases as

or

for medicinal use, whereas the

potential

of medicinal

medicinal value.

plants

were

reported

to be

and

qualities bitter, spicy,

plants, respectively,
a

rather

large segment

to

be

of the

bitter.

for the

Maya,

it is not the

bitter. There is

and of nonmedicinal

plants

no

that

case

plants.

that medicinal

plants

are

difference in the percentages of

are

considered to be

reports in other ethnobotanical studies that bitterness is

(e.g.,

This

surrounding

direct relevance to the selection of medicinal

unusually

two

that the informants considered 44 % and 42% of the

characteristic of many medicinal plants

112

are more

no

differences in the

characteristic is therefore attributed to

flora but

to have

just

3).

mentioned in 50 % of the

and thus is

larger percentage

2 and

frequencies

absence of smell indicates that the taxon has

With respect to taste,

and

concerning sensory perception

the other hand,

on

no

2).

properties

total of 335 responses about taste and smell

and 222 about the humoral classification for 329 medicinal taxa.

(Fig. 3).

they

as

smell).

for bad

We have documented

we

from other groups of

Heinrich et al.,

1992).

bitter. This
a

particular

:-cold

pu

Taste

k'a

Caliente

Frio

chok

bok

sis

Mal olor

Buen olor

tu'

bok

Olor tuerie, apestoso

chee ol

kl'

Spicy

Agrio

pah

smell

Cold

Hot

Bad smell

Strong

sme

English

Aromatic, good

Acid

Sweet

Pi cant e

pap

Astringent

Bitter

Dulce

Amargo
Astringente

Spanish

ch'uhuk

suts'

Maya

Table III. Qualities of Medicinal and Nonmedicinal Plants of the Lowland

Example

contrajerva L.
Swingle

Citrus aurantiifolia

Dorstenia

guajava L.
Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam.
Psidium

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.) Standi,

guajava L.
Pachyrhizus erosus Urb. var. palma
Piper amalago L.
Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle

Psidium

Maya

Publication II

properties of

The humoral

plants

the

informants sometimes did not

were

also elucidated in the interviews. The

between thermal and humoral

clearly distinguish

characteristics. Questions about the humoral properties of

informants, who proceeded

to some of the

remedy (i.

e., hot

cold

or

extraction).

criteria for

plant,

Frequently,

as a

generally

Mayan

one

name

illness).

plant

{Sabal sp.),

women's medicine,

nearly

the

to be used must have the

little

comes as no

surprise that

humorally (Table IV).

considered to be

(red;

preparing

This does not refer to the selection

not classified

chak sal

and the other

humorally hot,

species

are

nonmedicinal

because of the

hot

no sense

the humoral connotations of hot

but to its classification. It therefore

nonmedicinal plants
cases was a

plant made

to describ the process of

and cold describes the illness. The medicinal

opposite property (i.e., cold for

humorally

hot:

because the healer

are

two

{Senna sp.)

since red is considered

pimples),

all of which

one

only

In

was

told to

use

this

hot.

Table IV. Hot-Cold Classification of Medicinal and Nonmedicinal

Plants of the Lowland

Mayas

Responses

Responses

on

medicinal taxa
Classification

taxa

ntot (%)

Hot

104(46.8)

Cold

101

Lukewarm

ntot

(45.5)
12(5.4)
5 (2.2)

Cool

on

nonmedicinal

__

Perception and chemical constituents of the plants

The documented sensory
were

further

perceptions of the medicinal and nonmedicinal plants

analyzed using published information

constituents of the

understanding of

the

species.

With this

the

the

known

better

indigenous perception of

plant's

we

taste or odor and the chemical constituents. Tables V and VI show all the

114

chemical

intend to reach

analysis,

relationship between

on

plants

Publication II

with three

constituents.
are

(To

listed in the

Taste. It

reports

or more

smell

on taste or

facilitate the

of the text, the

reading

and the known

properties

plant

(groups of)

families and the authors

tables).

comes as

surprise

no

polyphenols (hydrolyzable

species

tannins and/or

of the

disinfecting properties

that

considered to be

The

proanthocyanidins).
makes

polyphenols

plausible

astringent

their

contain
and

astringent

for infections

use

like diarrhea and skin disease.

Bitter-tasting plants
groups of

various

are

Other

Callicarpa

is

in

one

many

in

(Ankli

polyisoprenes,

Compositae,

corymbosa).
relevant

et

such

as

Calea

(s.l.)

Crossopetalum gaumeri

information

no

For soap tree

and the

sesquiterpene

urticifolia.

in which

has

found in many

no

The

genus

bitter iridoids

and flavonoids

bitter

taste

are

due

to

are

is available

responsible

on

compounds,

which

for the bitter taste

{Sapindus saponaria) saponins

or

may

{Casearia

flavonoids

are

the

compounds.

glycoproteins

or

{Pachyrhizus erosus)

the flavonoid

pepper

{Piper amalago)

are

pepper

{Piper nigrum).

of Citrus

phenols

quassinoid

neo-

ah, submitted). Naseberry {Manilkara zapota) has latex rich

but

The yam bean tuber

to

terpenes, like the

diterpenoids, triterpenoids,

the bitter taste. Alkaloids

produce

quassin,

are

{Alvaradoa amorphoides),

have been found. Instead, bitter

cardenolides

or

of the few in the Verbenaceae

known from this genus.

{Dorstenia contrajerva,

cardenolides

as

bitter-tasting compounds

taxa of the Simaroubaceae

lactones found

such

of Salvia spp.

clerodane-type diterpenes

and bitterness may be attributable to

common,

compounds

andrieuxii).

Urechites

quite

aurantiifolia),

has

pachyrhizin.

responsible

for its

sweet taste

probably attributable

The acid amides of Jamaika black

typical spicy taste,

typical acid-tasting plant

is acid lime

(in

like that of black

leaves and fruit

which contains acidic derivatives of limonoids and acidic

in

115

name

(familyf

H, P

rt

SL

corymbosa Jacq.,

plant

plant

var.

palma,

LEG

Arg., APO

Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle, RUT

Jatropha gaumeri Greenman, EUP
Manilkara zapota (L.) van Royen, SPT
Psidium guajava L, MRT

Acid

Pachyrhizus erosus Urb.

Spicy plant
Piper amalago L., PIP

Sweet

Urechites andrieuxii Muell.

Sapindus saponaria

L. SAP

Salvia micrantha Desf., LAB

FLC

+
+

fr

yucatanensis,

CEL

Iv, fr

EQ(%)

var.

SPT

H, P

TA

DT

AK

Iv

FU

glycoproteins,

flavonoids

Lv.fr

Terpenes (limonoids), organic acids

Saponins, cyanogenic compounds
Polyisoprene

Piper amides, sesquiterpenes

Rt:

Cardenolides

Saponins
Terpenoids, flavonoids
Saponins, flavonoids, lipids

Triterpenoids, flavonoids

(pachyrhizin)

Anthraquinones, triterpenes (quassinoids)

17, 21
9, 11,
3

9
9

14, 9

2
2
2

9,1

12, 25

9
3

5
3

9,2
3

9, 5,

Phloroglucins

9, 23

Cardenolides

20

9, 3
7

9, 8
3

Triterpenes, sugar alcohols

Polyisoprene, fr: sugar

14, 9
9

12

Ref

Other

Healers and the

Polyisoprenes
Triterpenes, sugar alcohols
Lv: triterpenes, steroids, fr: sugars,
phenolic acids

Mayan

Lv, fr

to Yucatec

CM

Properties According

Casearia

Millsp.

van

CEL

Taste and Smell

Callicarpa acuminata Roxb., VRB

CMP

Galea urticifolia

Dorstenia

Manilkara zapota

(L.)
Royen,
contrajerva L., MOR
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm., SMR

plant
Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.) Standi.,

Bitter

Punica granatum L., PUN

Astringent plant
Psidium guajava L, MRT
Manilkara zapota (L.) van Royen, SPT
Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.) Standi.,

Plant

by

Constituents of these Taxa3,

Table V. Medicinal and Nonmedicinal Plants Classified

smelling plant
guajava L., MRT

name

ex

brownei

Britton & Wilson, VRB

(Willd.)

plant without smell

Acalypha unibracteata Muell. Arg.,

Bitter

LEG

EUP

Bad-smelling plant
Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam., RUT
Colubrina greggi var. yucatanensis, RHM
Senna uniflora (P. Miller) H. Irwin & Barneby,

brownei

Satureja
(Micromeria
(Sw.)
Benth), LAB
OcimummicranthumWld., LAB
Strong-smelling plant
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Teloxys
ambrosioides), CHN
Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle, RUT
Piper amalago L., PIP
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm., SMR

Mentha spp., LAB

Lippia

alba N. E. Br.

Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle, RUT

Lippia stoechadifolia Kunth, VRB

Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. mexicana

Keck, CMP

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Teloxys

ambrosioides), CHN
Dorstenia contrajerva L., MOR

Psidium

Aromatic

Plant

TA

Phenolics, cyanogenic compounds sugars

Lignans, unusual amids

Saponins, flavonoids
Anthraquinons, proteins, aromatic
compounds, flavonoids

Terpenes, organic acids

Piper amides
Anthraquinones, triterpenes (quassinoids)

9, 5,

9, 4
9
9

5
3
3

20

9
3

9,

(fr:0.4)

Iv

9
4
flavonoids

Saponins, triterpenes, organic acids,

(-2)
+

21, 8
24, 9
4

9
4

7, 9
5

9, 18

9,23

10

14,9,

Ref.

12

flavonoids

flavonoids

(rosmarinic acid),
Phenolics, iridoid glycosides,

Phenolics

acids

flavonoids

Terpenes (limonoids), organic

Triterpenes, xanthophylls,

Cardenolides

flavonoids

Saponins, triterpenes, organic acids,

Lv, fr

Other

IA

Iv

FU

CM

AK

Phenolics, flavonoids

DT

(-4)

(>1)
(>1)
H)

(fr:0.4)

(-2)

SL

(continued)

EO

Table V.

without

specific

name

ans

AK

CM

flavonoids

Flavonoids, betalain

flavonoids

Mucilage, cyanogenic compounds,

acids

Phenolics, cyanogenic compounds sugars

Mucilage, triterpenes, fatty oil, phenolic

Other

sugars, resin

Triterpenes, cyanogenic compounds,

DT

(continued)

Saponins,

SL

Table V.

EO

TA

9
9
9

3/4
3/3

3/4

4/4

4/4

5/5

Ref:

plant

families follow the code of Weber, W. A.

References:1 Achenbach et al.

Abbreviations of

(1982).
10

11

Vl

!a

(1984).2 Borges del Castillo et al. (1981).3 Chung et al. (1997).4 Delia Casa and Sojo (1967). Glasby (1991). c Gomes et al.
n
Guenther
Hansel
et al. (1993).9 Hegnauer (1962-1996).
Mollonbeck et al.
Lemos et al (1994).
Ji et al. (1991 ).
Lemos et al. (1992).
1997).7
(1949).8
uOkuda
al.
et
1997).
(1987).15 Patitucci et al. (1995).16 Rodn'guez-Hahn et al. (1995).1/ Ruiz-Cancino et al. (1993). Scholz et al. (1994). Schratz (1966).20
Steineggerand Hansel (1992).21 Tanabe et al. (1992).22 Terreaux et al. (1995).23 Tomas et al. (1988).24 Wahab and Selim (1985).

tannins; EO, essential oils; SL, sesquiterpene lactones; DT, diterpenes; AK, alkaloids; CM, coumarins; H: hydrolyzable tannins; P, proanthocyanidins; Bl
benzylisoquinoline alkaloids; 1A, indole alkaloids; FU, furanocumarins; Iv, leaves; fr, fruits; rt, roots.

aTA:

Hylocereus undatus (L.) Britton & Rose, CAC

Sapindus saponaria L, SAP
Microgramma nitida (J. Sm.) A. Reed, PLG

Triumfetta semitriloba Jacq., TIL

EUP

taste

Acalypha alopecuroides Jacq.,

Abutilon permolle Sweet, MLV

smell

Plants

Plant

Publication II

the fruit.

triterpenes. Especially
sugar and

the

All

of essential oils, which

Myrtaceae {Psidium)
families. Two
times

are

species

data

on

(Table V).

and acid

{Teloxys ambrosioides)
because

they

amorphoides,

much

contain

very characteristic taste

group

judgment

informants when
natural

products

as

seems

to

tasting

is

smelling

responsible

Among bad-smelling plants,

the

for

no

unpleasant smell. Scorpion

pork,

feature that

can

to be

puzzling

not

oil.

probably

ludoviciana ssp.
and

to contain

are

all rich in

coumarins, but

group. American wormseed

perception

but their

plant. Accordingly,

"strong

strong and

strong smell. In this

as

seems

strong smell

and Alvaradoa

Piper amalago

culturally interpreted

the

have

remarkably fragrant,

be made

to
no

specific

by

the

group of

odor".

special group
tree

reported

{Citrus aurantiifolia)

the sensory

or

good smell,

is

{Teloxys

wormseed

having

are a

lime

are

of the few in the Verbenaceae

American

and

mentioned several

were

{Artemisia

as

spp.)

are

oil-containing plant

estafiate

essential

the other hand,

on

amounts

available.

are

plants

medicinal

one

oil.

contrajerva

Dorstenia

its essential oil content

strong-smelling

The

also

mentioned several times

are

essential oil

and

spp.,

Ocimum

of the essential

Lippia (Verbenaceae)

essential

in

rich

are

relatively large

contain

(e.g., Mentha, Satureja,

aromatic. This genus is

ambrosioides), Citrus

mexicana)

naseberry (M. zapot)

volatile, odoriferous mixtures of compounds that

of the genus

being

as

plants

typical representatives

are

species

by Maya

whose

no

aromatic

as

insoluble in water. The Labiatae

largely

on

contain little

sour.

mentioned

species

{Psidium guajava)

available

are

consist of di- and

latex, which

fruit of the guava

unripe

rich in fruit acids. No data

are

which is also said to be

Smell.

contains caustic

Jatropha gaumeri

of constituents

{Zanthoxylum caribaeum)

are

is said to smell like

be attributed to the essential oil

amides present in this genus. Senna uniflora is

responsible for

or

particularly prominent

the unusual

for

being

rich

119

plant

undatus

var

arboreus, MLV

MRT

nitida

(J

Sm

MRT

spp

ARS

mexicana

(L ) Merr,

caracasana Griseb

H,P

H,P

TA

-r

fr

EO

SL

to Yucatec

Acoordmg
DT

Mayan
AK

lv

FU

lv

CM

Abbreviations of

plant families follow the

code of Weber, W A

(1982)

cyanogenic

flavonoids

resin

hydrolyzable

ds

14, 9

13, 22

16

9, 15
3

9
3

5
4

19, 9

9, 23

12
7

24, 9

proanthocyn-

resin

tannins, P

Mucilage
Rt galano'actons pheno'ic acids,

sugars,

Terpenes (limonoids), organic acids

Triterpenes, cyanogenic compounds,

lignano

f'avonoids

Anstolochic acid, anstoloiactame,

Triterpenes, xanthophylls,

Caffeoylquinic acd, flavonoids, simple

phenols, phenolic acids

flavonoids

Mucilage, cyanogenic compounds,

coumarins, H

References-see Table V

indo'd

Saponins, triterpenes, organic acids,

Cardenolides

(rosmannic acid),
glycosides, flavonoids

Phenolics

resin

Triterpenes, cyanogenic compounds,

sugars,

14,9
4

Lv.fr

Triterpenes, xanthophylls, flavono'ds

5
4

9
7

10
8

Ref

Mucilage, flavonoids, phenolic acids

Triterpenes, sugar alcohols
Polyisoprenes

flavonoids

Mucilage,

compounds,

organic acids

Flavonoids, betalames

Terpenes (limonoids),

Other

Healers and the Constituents of These Taxa3

sesquiterpene lactones, DT, diterpenes, AK, alkaloids, CM,

idins, Bl, benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, IA, indole alkaloids, FU furanocumanns, Iv, leaves, fr, fruits, rt, roots

aTA tannins, EO, essential oils, SL,

Z1N

URT

MRT

Zingiber officinale Roscoe,

Urera

Pimenta dioica

PLG

(Willd )

CMP

Swingle, RUT
Microgramma nitida (J Sm ) A Reed,

Citrus aurantiifolia

Aristolochia

Keck, CMP

Artemisia ludoviciana ssp

symphytifolia (Mill ) Gills,

Psidium guajava L

Pluchea

Triumfetta semitnloba Jacq TIL

(Sw )

(Teloxys

brownei

MOR

Chenopodium ambrosioides
ambrosioides), CHN

Dorstenia contrajerva L

(Willd )

Reed, PLG

mexicana

Satureja brownei (Micromena

Benth), LAB
Hot plant

Microgramma

Artemisia ludoviciana ssp

Keck, CMP

Psidium guajava L

Standi ,CEL

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes )

Manilkara zapota (L ) van Royen, SPT

Malvaviscus arboreus Cav

CAC

Cold and Hot Plants

Swingle, RUT
(L ) Britton & Rose,

name

Triumfetta semitnloba Jacq TIL

Hylocereus

Plant

Typical Humorally

Citrus aurantiifolia

Cold

Table VI.

Publication 11

in

but

anthraquinones,

according
been

to the

aromatic smell

an

of the

perception

tasteless. The

reportedly

on

said to have

is

Acalypha unibracteata,

Practically

tastes bitter.
some

plants

all

no

an

smell

only exception

are

unpleasant feeling

groups of

astringent compounds).

In other cases,

as

astringent

generally

are

five of 17

smell but

no

species

apparent between

tannins and/or

unable to

alleged
were

hot

or

aromatic

and

such correlation is noticed. Plants

contain essential oil, while, for

were

associated with the

Interestingly,

no

known to contain

products (e.g.,

natural

hydrolysable

contain

classification. We

compounds

also said to be

are

these data, several clear-cut correlations becomes

considered to be aromatic

necessarily

not

which has

in this group

yet

cyanogenic compounds and/or tannins.

contain

and

Hot-cold

to be

plants

indigenous perceptions

described

seems

species

all

flavonoids, and
Based

No essential oil has

plant. Nearly

the

tasting

three

characteristic

prominent

principal investigator.

very rich in essential oil, the "bad" property

when

not

greggi. Since these

from Colubrina

reported

is

identify

described

by

proanthocyanidins.

any

properties

cold

some

example, plants

specific group(s) of
of

plant (Table VI).

informants

as

hot and

by

others cold. Thus, agreement among the informants is much lower for the hot-cold
classification.

Conclusions
The aim of this

study

is to better understand the selection criteria of medicinal

plants used by the lowland Maya. As far

medicinal

and

nonmedicinal

nonmedicinal

plants

indigenous people

exists. Our

used to

considerable heuristic value.

smelling

them

plants

study

nor

as

an

yields culturally defined

the

no

deals

study comparing

specifically

with

understanding of the concepts

species

has

secondary plant products by tasting

and

distinguish medicinal

Sampling

that

any

shows that

know,

we

from nonmedicinal

clues about

species' potential

value and

121

Publication II

helps

them to

distinguish

between used and non-used

in this paper thus sheds

employed

Plants

peninsula.

the Yucatan

not selected at

are

The taste and odor of medicinal

plants

astringent, bitter, aromatic) include,

groups of illnesses
Yucatec

astringent

or

random,

nor are

they

Maya

of

selected

aromatic. It is,

percentage

plant

groups.

characterizes

selection criteria, but

they

are

Therefore,

as

assumption

there

common

in

our

particular sensory property

no

not the central

unifying principle

are

very

important

indigenous Maya

of

unifying concept

study,

as

bitter in the medicinal

Taste and smell

such

classified

that in this

plant.

plant classification. Indeed,

medicinal

classified

This contradicts the

medicinal

remedies

plant

noteworthy

species

of

culture that medicine has to be bitter.

definitively

(e.g.,

Examples

is best used to treat.

are

the other hand,

on

to them

applied

encode, considerable information about the

other cultures

and

Maya

and nonmedicinal

or

and the labels

particular phytomedicine

difference in the

was no

the selection criteria of the

on

abstract criteria, like hot and cold.

purely by

among

light

new

approach

The

plants.

(cf.

does not exist

Worsley, 1997).
In

Yucatec

the

medicinal

that is
serve

being

plant.

identifying

mnemonic aids for

to continue

used

as

These characteristics

medicinal

same

key

can

122

plants

not all

the first criteria for

presumably

are

must show

characterize

interest here is the

in

regular

use.

If

serve

plant

health effect",

"positive

that share

also

as

is
as

certain property

in each

species.

typical groups of natural products

relationship

obtained for the individual taxa and the

prominent

that

are

sensory

purpose.

Because smell and taste

another

plants

medicine, it

interpreted culturally. Therefore,

the

plants, specific

medicinal

like smell, taste, color, form, and texture

properties,
selecting

of

Maya understanding

between the ethnobotanical data

secondary plant products (natural products)

This is not

only

essential for the

recognition

and

Publication II

selection of medicines but

also among Yucatec

problems.
can

The

also

help

1999). Examples

et al.,

species (Ankli

can

Maya, against gastrointestinal

pharmacological

partly be explained by the

conclusions

be

can

drawn

from

Nevertheless, such information is

phytochemical

Acalypha.

fact

The informants consider

one

used

products,

medicinally

interest,

not to

can

so

that

Shifting

plant

given plant

quantification
the

on

be drawn. In future

the two

are

on

the hot-cold

important.

use

Generally,

For

our

for the taste

dichotomy.

or

smell

humoral characteristics

are

smell. A

nor

effects of the

with

as

an

assay for

lead but to

is used for is

certain

identify
the

Mayan culture,

what

Maya,

plants gives

mnemonic aid and

new

this parameter is
an

explanation

of

therapy is already known.

primary, and,

assigned. People

species

it may be of

properties reported by

In Yucatec

informants, it is

species

of

species

{A. unibracteata),

phytochemical studies,

and selection for certain illnesses, when the

what

for

of the relevant groups of

physiological

principle(s)

search for the active

responsible

bitter.

tastes

selecting plants

the focus from the valuable to the "non-valuable"

information
not very

are

specific pharmacological

no

of the two would thus be of interest. Since the

pharmacological (e.g., anti-inflammatory) activity

compounds

polyphenols,

species. Such

is said to have neither taste

definite conclusions

no

widely used,

distributed among

are

of these to be bitter

data in the scientific literature do not allow

natural

compounds (especially astringent

additional criterion for

{A. alopecuroides)

phytochemial comparison

of the

effects of

dermatological

which contain

pharmacological analysis. Examples

and

whereas another
detailed

products,

are

disorders and

the other hand,

on

the
an

which

products characteristic

few classes of

of groups of natural

pharmacological

plants,

effects of these

natural

clear-cut connection exists for

large variety

the

astringent plants,

are

compounds). Bitter-tasting compounds,

a

explain

to

once

who have had

this is known, the

regular

and

more

123

Publication II

Mestizo culture also

intensive contact with

system than informants who have had less

The

here also raises

analysis presented

conceptual questions. Comparative

from other cultures,

rely

heavily

on

this

methodological

and

more

number of

large

the classification

on

from South America,

especially

to

contact.

data

seem

are

by

urgently

taste and smell

needed. Thus, it is

essential that future fieldwork in South America and Mesoamerica not focus
hot-cold system

plants.

It will

systems

over

or

purely

botanical documentation of

on

interesting

be also

to

look at the

changes

time to detect

in the

from the medicinal to the nonmedicinal

definitions of medicinal

plants.

Is

known

pharmacological

distinguishes

used

effects?

Are

multiple ways

medicinal from
medicinal

nonmedicinal will shed

light

plant

by

one

are

classificatory

pharmacological

very few

people

species

these

classified

and

our

used in

widely

effects desired

by

that have

no

or ones

also

thus

about

questions

that is

nonmedicinal one? A better

plants
on

raises serious

medicinal

plants

the informants? What about

of

systems. Changing the perspective

plants

culture and that has been shown to have the

medicinal

indigenous

development

the

on

medicinal?

What

understanding

of the

distinguished

form

the differences between the two groups.

Acknowledgments
We

are

Ekpedz

very

grateful

to the

healers, midwives and the inhabitants of Chikindzonot,

and Xcocmil, Yucatan, for their

hospitality.

This

manuscript

discussions and other

input

has
from

profited

specialists

I. Olmsted, J.

124

of these institutions.

Granados,

P.

much from electronic and

Prof. Dr.

botanical identification at CICY and MEXU

numerous

collaboration, for their friendship and

was

D.

Moerman

performed

Particularly,

we

personal

(Dearborn, Mi).

The

in collaboration with the

would like to thank Dra.

Sim, J.C. Trejo, Dr. R. Durn of CICY

as

well

as

O.

Publication II

Tellez,
owes a

Pfeiler

Dr. R.

Lira, Dr. J. Villaserior and Dr. M. Sousa of MEXU.

lot to the

help

of Dr. B. Frei

(UADY, Mrida),

Dr. Tuz

Baltisberger (Zrich). We

are

(Zrich),

(INI, Valladolid),

very

grateful

Rimpler (Freiburg),

Dr. C. Viesca

to S. Ritt for the

(UNAM)

English

Dra. B.
and Dr.

revision of the

Fang for their help in statistical analysis.

and to R. Fisullo and Y.

manuscript

Prof. H.

This research

support by SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation,

Financial

Berne, Switzerland) and the SANW (Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences) is

gratefully acknowledged.

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Ranarivelo, L. (1997). Chemical composition and analyses of enantiomers of

essentail oils from

Morton, J. F.

Madagascar.

(1981).

Flavour and

Fragrance Journal

Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle

Yucatan. Charles C Thomas,

Springfield,

12: 63-96.

America, Bahamas

to

IL.

Okuda, T., Takashi, Y., Hatano, T., Yazaki, K., Ikegami, Y., and Shingu, T. (1987).
Guavins A, C and D,

complex

tannins from Psidium

guajava. Chemical

and

Pharmaceutical Bulletin 35: 443-446.

Patitucci, M. L, Pinto, A. C. and Cardoso, J. N. (1995). Analysis of crude

and

fractions

of

Brazilian

Polypodiaceae

chromatography-mass spectrometry:

I.

by

extracts

high-resolution

gas

Triterpenes. Phytochemical Analysis

6:

38-44.

Pfeiler, B. (1995). Zur Prosodie des Spanischen in Yucatan, Mexiko. In Zimmer

mann, K.

(ed.). Lenguas

en

contacto en

Hispanoamrica. Vervuert, Frankfurt, pp

119-134.

Redfield, R., and Villa Rojas, A. (1990) (first published 1934). Chan Kom: A Maya

Village.

Waveland Press,

Prospect Heights,

IL.

129

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Robineau,

L., and Soejarto, D.D. (1996). Tramil: A research project

medicinal

plant

resources

of the Caribbean. In

Balick,

M.

the

on

J., Elisabetsky, E., and

Laird, S. A. (eds.), Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forests. Columbia

Universtiy Press,

New

York, pp. 317-325.

Rodriguez-Hahn, L., Esqivel, B.,

diterpenoids

and

from American Salvia

Cardenas, J. (1995). Neo-clerodane

species.

In Arnason, J.T., Mata, R., and

Romero, J.T. (eds.) Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plants. 29. Press, New York,
pp. 311-332.

Ruiz-Cancino, A., Cano, A. E., and Delgado, G. (1993). Sesquiterpene

and flavonoids from Artemisia ludoviciana spp. mexicana.

lactones

Phytochemistry

33:

1113-1115.

Espejel C,

Salvador F, J., and

L.

(1994). Tipos

de

Vegetaticin

de la Peninsula de

la Peninsula de Yucatan. Etnoflora Yucatanense, vol. 3. Universidad Autnoma

de

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Scholz, E., Heinrich, M., and Hunkler, D. (1994). Caffeoylquinic acids and

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Planta Medica 60: 360-364.

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Sosa, V., Salvador F., J., Rico-Gray, V., Lira, R.,
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Investigaciones

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Phytopharmazie,

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Lista

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Tanabe, M., Yasuda, M., Adachi, Y., Ujita, K., and Kano, Y. (1992). Growth of

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and contents of

Japanese

"Kintoki

Journal of

Pharmacognosy 46:

pungents and diterpenes, Japanese.

30-36.

Tern, S., and Rasmussen, C. H, (1994). La Milpa de los Mayas. Universidad de

Yucatn, Mrida.

130

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Terreaux, Gh., Maillard, M.,

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M.

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M.

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Structure

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Tomas B., F. A., Husein, S. Z., and Gil, M. I.

flavones in the Lamiaceae. Chemical

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Systematics

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The distribution of
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Ecology

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Wahab, S. M. A., and Selim, M. A. (1985). Lipids and flavonoids of Sapindus

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Worsley,

A device for
P.

more

effective herbarium curation. Taxon: 3174-88.

(1997). Knowledges. Culture, Counterculture,

Subculture.

Profile

Books, London and New Press, New York, p. 119.

131

Part II

Plant Evaluation

Publication II

Yucatec

Mayan

Evaluation based

medicinal
on

plants:

indigenous

uses

Ankli

Anita3, Heinrich Michael11'5, Bork Peterb, Wolfram Lutzc, Bauerfeind Peter0,

Brun

Retod, ScHMiDCciled,

Weiss

Claudia0, Bruggisser

Regina', GERTSCHJrg1,

Wasescha Michael8, Sticher Ottoa*

of

Department

Applied BioSciences,

Federal Institute of

Institute of Pharmaceutical

Sciences, Swiss

Winterthurerstr. 190, CH-8057

Technology (ETH) Zurich,

Zrich, Switzerland
b Institute of Pharmaceutical

Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University,
79104

Department

Schnzlestr. 1, D-

Freiburg, Germany

of Internal Medicine, Division of

Gastroenterology, University

Hospital Zurich, Rmistr. 100, 8091 Zrich, Switzerland

d

Department

of Medical

Parasitology,

Swiss

Tropical Institute,

Socinstr. 57, CH-

4002 Basel, Switzerland

e

Department

of Infectious and

Tropical Diseases,

London School of

Hygiene

and

Totengsslein 3,

CH-

Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London,

f

Department

of Pharmaceutical

Biology, University

Basel, Switzerland

4051

g current address: Centre for

Pharmacy.

of Basel,

UK

Pharmacognosy

29/39 Brunswick

Sq.,

and

Phytotherapy,

London WC1N 1 AX, UK

Submitted to
Journal of

The School of

Ethnopharmacology

Publication III

Abstract
As part of

an

ethnobotanical field

collected in three Yucatec

the

plants

Three

were

species

employed

evaluated
-

Helicobacter

using

were

Cytotoxic

gastrointestinal

against

D.

plants

KB cells

were

carthagenensis

Plasmodium

medicine" showed relevant

this evaluation,

phytochemically

and

affinity

showed

were

their documented

uses

Casimiroa tetrameria

bacteria

applied

to the

conditions several

Candida

carthagenensis

cases

falciparum.

Giardia

albicans.

gaumeri, Diospyros anisandra,

speciosa,
in

and

activity against

activity against

dermatological

Dalea

None of the six

antihyperglycemic activity.

on

on

plants

assays.

found for C.

and Luehea

the NF-kB test. Oestrum nocturnum,

Based

used for

reflexifolium,

Croton

activity against

of 48 medicinal

disorders showed remarkable

against gram-positive

active

Jatropha gaumeri,

weak

biological

several

pylori. Crossopetalum gaumeri

effects

amorphoides.

samples

piscipula, Jatropha gaumeri,

duodenalis. In the group of

species

bulk

communities. Based

Mayan

Piscidia

to treat

study

of

were

pain

Bauhinia

species

and Alvaradoa

found to be active in
and

fever, showed

divaricata

exhibited

of the group of "women'

D2 dopamine receptor.

plants with strong activities should be further investigated

pharmacologically

in order to better understand their

potential

in the treatment of illnesses.

Maya, ethnopharmacological evaluation,

Keywords:

Yucatec

traditional

medicine,

antibacterial,

anti-inflammatory,

medicinal

plants,

antihyperglycemic,

antiparasitic, D2 receptor binding.

135

Publication III

Introduction

One of the

objectives

numerous

of medical

is the selection

ethnobotany

of

them

for

pharmacological activity (Browneret al., 1988; Etkin, 1994; Famsworth, 1988;

Frei

in

culturally important plant species

al.,

et

For the

be chosen based

bioassays should
et

1978).

Messer,

1998a,

order

on

to

further

evaluation

indigenous

uses

of

evaluate

ethnopharmacopoeias,

(Frei

et

al., 1998b; Heinrich

al., 1992a, b; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1994).

The

knowledge

are

still utilized

Mexico

of medicinal

by

the Yucatec

Forty-eight species

also tested

were

as

inhabitants
an

on

peninsula

the

ethnobotanical

Sept. 1996-Oct. 1996),

documented. The

(Ankli

groups

et al.

of Yucatan,

in three

study

plants

360 medicinal

uses

of the

1999, Heinrich

plants

were

1998).

et al.

chosen and evaluated in bioassays relevant to the

of illnesses:

women's medicines
were

uses were

therapeutical

divided into nine

following groups

their

on

part of the ancient Maya culture and they

1992). During

1994-June 1995;

Mayan villages (Feb.

reports

was a

Mayan

De Landa,

(Roys, 1933,

and 1828

plants

well

gastrointestinal disorders, dermatological conditions,

as

pain

and/or fever. Plants used to treat "diabetes"

(Table 2).

Materials and methods

Plant material
The

plants

were

collected in the

and Xcocmil, Yucatan

(Mexico).

villages

Indigenista (INI)

136

Biologie

by comparison

assistance of

UK).

Herbarium

Investigacion
of

Mexico

specialists

in

were

Cientffica de Yucatan

(MEXU),

the

(ZT)

Ekpedz

deposited

(CICY)

specimens

and in

in

Instituto Nacional
and the Institut fr

Freiburg, Germany (AANK1-654). They

with authentic
at

of Chikindzonot,

specimens

in Valladolid, Yucatan, the ETH Zurich

Pharmazeutische
identified

surroundings

Authenticated voucher

at the Herbarium of the Centro de

Mrida, the National

and

some cases

were

with the

CICY, MEXU and K (Kew, Royal Botanical Garden,

Publication III

preparation

Extract

powdered plant

Shade-dried and

100 ml dichloromethane/methanol 2:1,

The filtered solvents

(20g)

material

the process 2 times

repeating

evaporated under

combined and

were

vacuum

dissolved in 100 ml methanol/water 7: 3 and macerated 2 times

were

water extract

case

to

was

of S.

partitioned

were

aureus

plant material (10 g)

between n-butanol
to obtain the

evaporated

(3

polar

and Y. enterocolitica extract C

was

extracted

ml)

30-50

during

give

the
was

24 h. The

and the

evaporated

most of the methanol was

combined,

butanol fractions
In

36 h.

during

extract A. The residue of the dichloromethane/methanol mixture

non-polar

solvents

maceration with

by

extracted

was

resulting

and water. The

n-

fraction B.

was

used. To get extract C,

with ethanol 96% and twice with ethanol

once

70%.

Bioassays

Antibacterial and

tests

An

used to test

organisms

The

were

antifungal activity

performed by the

(Nutrient

Mueller-Hinton agar
of

overnight

discs

(6

or

malt extract agar

culture of the test

mm

Blanc Discs,

Oxoid)

bacteria/fungi

at

37 C

tetrazolium chloride,

Susceptibility

Fluka).

tests with H.

on

plates

trimethoprim/ml.

(for

albicans)

C.

and

poured

impregnated

were

over

10 ml of

inoculated with 50 til

the agar base.

Paper

with 200 u.g and 600 u.g

sprayed

zones were

jejuni were

with 5% defibrinated

100 ul of

was

fungi).

plant

the inoculated agar. After 16 h incubation for

and C.

amphotericin B/ml,

transferred into 5 ml broth

Medium Oxoid for

The inhibition

pylori

plates supplemented

antibiotics: 2 ug

ug

the

were

was

al., 1988; DIN, 1992).

et

Liquid

organisms

extracts, respectively, and placed

agar

suspension

Broth for bacteria, Sabouraud

listed in Table 1. Antimicrobial

are

technique (Rios

disc diffusion

of strain stock

aliquot (30 ul)

activities

biological

6 ug

thick H.

with

MTT

(methylthiazolyl-

measured in

Wilkins

Chalgren

blood and the

following

carried out

sheep

vancomycin/ml,

mm.

5 ug

on

cefsulodin/ml, and 5

pylori suspension (yield

from

one

agar

137

Publication II

plate, resuspended

then incubated under

were

37 C for

one

controlled

day {C. jejuni),

according

to Nedenskov

jig/ml)

25 ml

of the

plant

or

(600 pig)

extracts

and

were

applied

placed

onto the

the

on

plates.

three to five

days {H. pylon) and the growth

at

was

(1994).

modified minimal medium

Different concentrations

(in

the range from 0.3 to

added to the uninoculated medium

were

A fresh H.

micro-aerophilic

carried out in

was

pylori

culture

conditions in

was

used

ml in

1 % inoculum and

as a

water saturated

(5

atmosphere

at 37 C

rotary shaker (G25; New Brunswick Scientific, New Jersey, USA). The

incubation

density

was

continued for two

of the cultures

were

days

concentration not

allowing

at 175 rpm. After two

photometrically

visible

determined

The MIC value

spectrophotometer, Beckman, UK).

the

saline)

water-saturated, micro-aerophilic atmosphere

pylori

extracts

Erlenmeyer flask).

grown under
in

buffered

regularly.

The MIC determination for H.

200

phosphate

plant

the discs soaked with

plates,
They

in 1 ml PBS:

growth (less

was

than 0.03 in

at

600

defined

optical

the

days

nm

(DU-64

the extract

as

comparison

with 1.2 for

control).

Table 1. Test

organisms for antibacterial

Microorganism

and

antifungal activity

Origin

Clinical

gastrointestia! problems

picture'"
dermatological
conditions

Bacillus

cereus

Campylobacter jejuni
Candida albicans

ATCC 10702

diarrhea

enteritis, diarrhea

mycosis

H29 ATCC
26790

Escherichia coli

ATCC 25922

diarrhea, dysentery

Helicobacter

pylori
aeruginosa
Staphylococcus aureus

ATCC 43504

gastritis, peptic

Pseudomonas

r\ \

Staphylococcus epidermidis

ATCC 12228

Yersinia enterocolitica

03

138

infected wounds

^oy^c

ATCC 25933

Obtained from the Department of

Hospital Zurich
0
(Kayseretal., 1993)
*

\j\j

infected wounds

ulcer

(food
intoxication)

diarrhea

topical

infection

infection

(septicemia)

enterocolitis

Internal Medicine, Division of

Gastroenterology, University

systems

Jacq. (350)
Verbesina gigantea Jacq. (288)
Bidens squarrosa Less. (121)

Anredera vesicaria C.F Gaertner

Parmentiera

Basellaceae

Bignoniaceae

Polygonaceae
Polypodiaceae

Phytolaccaceae

Papilionaceae

Myrtaceae
Nyctaginaceae

Moraceae

Metiaceae

Lamiaceae

Flacourtiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Ebenaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Celastraceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Cactaceae

Bromeliaceae

Boraginaceae

Bombacaceae

(243)

millspaughiana (L.) Williams (135)

Parmentiera aculeata (Kunth) Seem. (096)
Pseudobombax ellipticum (Kunth) Dugand (275)
Ehretia tinifolia L. (021)
Aechmea bracteata var. bracteata Griseb. (167)
Hylocereus undatus (L.) Britton & Rose (427)
Bauhinia divaricata L. (007)
Caesalpinia gaumeri Greenman (155)
Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.) Lundell (038)
Ibervillea millspaughii (Cogn.) C. Jeffrey (094)
Diospyros anisandra Blake (134)
Diospyros cuneata Standi. (341)
Croton reflexifolius Kunth (143)
datropha gaumeri Greenman (419)
Casearia corymbosa Jacq. (150)
Salvia micrantha Desf. (025)
Cedrela mexicana L. (301 )
Brosimum alicastrum Sw. (092)
Dorstenia contrajerva L. (330)
Psidium sarorianum (Berg) Nied. (211 )
Neea psychotrioides F. D. Sm. (274)
Pisonia aculeata L. (154)
Dalea carthagenensis var. barbata (Oerst.) Barneby (125)
Piscidia piscipula (L.) Sarg. (123)
Phytolacca icosandra Sims (388)
Rivina humiiis L. (089)
Neomillspaughia emarginata S. F. Blake (203)
Microgramma nitida (J. Sm.) A. Reed Sm. (183)

(196)

Aristolochia maxima

Aristolochiaceae

Asteraceae

Anthurium schlechtendalii Kunth ssp. schlechtendalii

Araceae

Apocynaceae

test

(Engelm. & Gray) Urb. (115)

depressa (Baill.) R. E. Fr. (161)
Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia Jacq. (190)

Ruellia nudiflora

Malmea

Annonaceae

(AANK# voucher)

Acanthaceae

name

plants studied and chosen

Plant

on

Family

Table 2. Ethnomedical data

of
use

wp

DER, RES
Gl

fr

ap
Iv

DER

DER

iv

Gl, RES

Iv

FEM

Iv

Iv

DER

DER

Iv

rh

Gl, FEM
DER, Gl

Iv

ap
Iv
RES

RES

DER, FEM

iv

rt

Gl, DER
DER, PFE

1-10

1-5

1-5

1-5

1-10

1-5

1-7,15

1-7

1-10

1-12,15

1-5

1-5

1-7,15

1-7,13

1-12

1-5

1-5
Iv

DER

1-5

iv

DER

1-7

1-12

1-7,13

1-10,14

1-12,14

1-7

1-5,13

1-5

1-5

1-5,14

Iv

tu

rt

1-7

1-12

1-5

1-10, 15

1-5,15

1-5

1-7,14

1-7,14

Tested for

DER

DER

Iv

Iv

PFE

Gl, DER

Iv

Iv

Iv

Iv

Iv

Iv,

Iv

tu

Gl, UR
RES, UR, Gl

DER

RES, UR, PFE

RES

UR

UR

Iv,

ap

Gl
DER

Iv

rt

Iv

Iv

ap
rt

part

Plant

RES

Gl, FEM

FEM

DER

UR

UR

Group

Meyer (276)
yucatanensis Greenman (113)
Casimiroa tetrameria Millsp. (049)
Chrysophyllum mexlcanum Brandegee (386)
Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen, Achras zapota L. (234)
Selaginella longispicata Underw. (214)
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm. (136)
Cestrum nocturnum L. (050)
Solanum erianthum G. Don f. (334)
Solanum nigrum L. (267)
Helicteres baruensis Jacq. (176)
Luehea speciosa Wiild. (347)

Morinda

Borreria verticillata G.

1-5

iv
Iv
Iv
Iv

DER
DER
FEM
DER

1-5,15
1-7, 11,

1-5

1-5,13

Iv

1-7

1-5

1-10,13

1-10

1-12

1-7

1-7

DER, PFE

ap
Iv

ba

Gl, PFE
UR, RES
DER

rt

Iv

ap
fr

Gl

Gl, PFE

DER

DER

12

FEM: women's medicines; Gl:

UR:

urological problems (including "diabetes"), DER: dermatological conditions including injuries caused by venomous animals;
gastrointestinal disorders; PFE: illnesses associated with pain and/or fever; RES: respiratory
ba:
aerial
illnesses; ap:
bark; fr: fruits; Iv: leaves; rh: rhizome; rt: root; tu: tuber; wh: whole plant; 1: B. cereus; 2: E. coli; 3: C.
parts;
albicans; 4: KB-cell line; 5: NF-kB; 6: P. aeruginosa, 7: S. epidermidls; 8: H. pylori; 9: C. jejuni; 10: G. duodenalis; 11: S. aureus;
12: Y. enterocolitis; 13: P. falciparum; 14: cx-amylase; 15: D2-receptor binding assay

Tiliaceae

Sterculiaceae

Solanaceae

Simaroubaceae

Selaginellaceae

Sapotaceae

Rutaceae

Rubiaceae

Publication III

Cytotoxicity study using

of the

cytotoxicity

The

CCL 17; human

modifications

(1990).
2.5

extracts

The assay

max.

to the

was

was

was

(Mosmann, 1983).

cells

produced

water.

dye

was

was

dissolved

using

NF-kB

on

IC50

15 ul of

using

dye.

were

bioassay

radioactive

carried out

was

Antimalarial

room

(Nuclear

of the

values

labeled

were

dissolved in

as

Lig/ml

by mixing

determined.

solution of MTT with 5

metabolically

Factor

it

The

mg/ml

in

active

drawn off and the

was

(sodium dodecylsulfate)

temperature, the optical density

in

was

(MRX, Dynex Technologies).

kB)

extracts

assayed

was

oligonucleotide

described in Bork et al.

as

EMSA shift

in

the inhibition of NF-kB

molecular

target.

The

(1996).

activity
activity

chloroquine

sensitive T9-96 clone of P.

was

continuous

culture

supplemented

with 6.9

urg/ml hypoxanthine,

assessed for the

assessed

using

chloroquine resistant

falciparum.

The

of infected A+ human red

mg/ml HEPES,

40

Center) (Fairlamb

et

K1 strain and the

parasites

blood

mg/ml glucose,

ug/ml gentamicin (all Sigma)

London Blood Transfusion

were

inoculum of

were

The medium

reader

plant

Antimalarial

in

an

with

diluted 20 fold

experiments (Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay) using

to

some

of Swanson and Pezzuto

150 ul of 10 % SDS

microplate

Anti-inflammatory activity

binding

(ATCC

carried out with

After incubation at 37 C for 4 h, the

insoluble formazan

nm

Inhibitory activity

was

150 ul. The dried extracts

extracts,

After 24 h of incubation at

measured at 540

the KB cell line

plates (Falcon)

tested. These solutions

For active

PBS

formazan

The test

in 96-well

performed by adding

an

using

added to dilute the solution five fold. Concentration of 50

medium.

quantification

assessed

screening technique

performed

was

1% ethanol

culture

was

nasopharyngeal carcinoma).

according

ethanol. Water

with

plant

104 cells/ml. Total volume

with

KB cell culture

cells

2.33

were

in

maintained

RPMI

1640

mg/ml NaHC03,

and 10% A+

serum

50

(North

al., 1985). Antimalarial IC50 values

the modified in vitro lactate

dehydrogenase

assay

(Makler

et

141

Publication III

al., 1993). Extracts

of

dilution). Fifty jlx!

were

C02

and 3%

suspension

plates

parasitemia

After the incubation

N2.

plates

read at 650

nm.

(final

room

2%).

The 96-

of 1%

atmosphere

an

20 ul of the

0?

parasite

(Flow Incorporated, USA)

temperature (RT) for 15 minutes before adding 20 ul of

(2 mg/ml

and 0.2

mg/ml respectively)

reincubated for 20 min at RT in the dark and

were

All

hematocrit

period,

added to 100 ul of Malstat reagent

was

(3-fold

suspension (predominantly ring form)

solution in RPMI 1640

made 1:1 NBT/PES-mixture

well. The

blood

incubated for 48 h at 37 C in

were

in balanced

and incubated at

freshly

1%

pi of drug

added to 50

well microtiter

tested in concentrations from 1000 to 4.12 u.g /ml

were

compounds

were

tested twice in

to each

subsequently

triplicate.

Giardia duodenalis
G.

duodenalis

medium

trophozoites

cultivated

were

(Keister, 1983) supplemented

The in vitro assay

was

trypanosomes by Raez
1982 from

(isolated

suspension

density of

were

performed
et al.

(1997)

human in

in

Diamondi's

modified

TYI-S-33

with 10 % heat inactivated fetal calf

as

serum.

described for the Alamar Blue assay for

with modifications for G. duodenalis WB strain

Afghanistan). Briefly,

inoculated into 96-well microtiter

200 uJ of

trophozoite

plates (Costar, USA)

105 trophozoites/ml culture medium. The trophozoites

at

were

incubated in the presence of serial 3-fold dilutions of extracts for 72 hours at 37 C.

Wells without

determined

drug served

microscopically

concentration at which
Ten uJ Alamar Blue

no

excitation

calculated

142

by

linear

controls. Minimum
after

70

trophozoite

were

fluorescence determined

Millipore;

as

hours

inhibitory concentration (MIC)

of

with normal

incubation

(the

morphology could

lowest

be

was

drug

observed).

added to each well and after 2 hours of incubation the

using

wavelength

fluorescence

measuring

at 530 nm, emission at 590

interpolation selecting

instrument

nm). IC50

(Cytofluor,

values were

values above and below the 50 % mark.

Publication III

Dopamin D2 receptor binding assay

Two concentrations of extracts

assay. The

dopamine receptor binding

receptor

was

a-Amylase

assessed

(100 ug/ml

according

to

and

affinity

j-tg/ml)

10

were

tested in the

of the extracts to the

dopamine

Berger (1998).

assay

Plant extracts

(1, 3,

mg/ml

in 5 ul

solvent)

mixed with 45 ul of

were

amylase

reagent (ET-G7 PNP 1,0 mmol/l, magnesium chloride 10 mmol/l, sodium chloride
50

mmol/l, cx-glucosidase 25.000U/I, buffer pH 7.0, sodium azide 0.05%) obtained

from

Sigma Diagnostics

recorded at 405

nm versus

and the absorbance

calculated

and incubated at 37 C for 2-10 min. The absorbance

according

was

was

water as a reference. The incubation was continued

exactly

read after

to Pierre et al.

amylase activity

1 and 2 min. The

was

(1976).

Results
All

polar

and

non-polar

extracts of the 48

KB cell culture, B.

against
Extracts

were

additionally

relevance to the
chosen

cause

cereus, E.

indigenous

plants

Gram-positive
known

for

used for

coli, C. Candida and in the NF-kB

of the

are

species (Table 2).

and/or

The

dermatological

(Table 1).

are

test.

of direct

microorganisms

illnesses, and

are

of

The extracts, which showed

listed in Tables 3-7.

of

gram-negative

bacteria

as

gastrointestinal problems,

gastrointestinal

disorders

activity against G. duodenalis

MIC values <100

cytotoxic activity

gastrointestinal problems

and

as causes

species
some

uses

gastrointestinal problems

noteworthy positive activities,

Active

screened for

were

evaluated in selected test systems, which

relevance for these conditions

direct

plants

jig/ml.

with

well
were

2.1

ug/ml,

protozoa (G. duodenalis),

used to determine activities of

(Table 3). Six species

IC50

ug/ml,

values <100

The most active extract

Crossopetalum gaumeri (IC50:

as

MIC: 6.3

was

the

ug/ml),

showed at least

three of them with

non-polar

extract

whereas the

polar

(A) of

extract

143

Publication III

(B)

showed very weak

antiprotozoal activity.

Psidium sartorianum, Piscidia

and the

non-polar

which is considered to

(Eaton

et

ug/ml.

0.7

(.ig/ml) (Fabry

et

tetrameria
H.

(MIC:

jig/ml) followed by

al., 1996; Cellini

3

ug/ml)

extracts of Psidium

non-polar

tested

Several

plants

critical role in the

and

et

were

polar

root extract of J.

extract of G tetrameria

B.

activity

against

gastritis

with

IC50

H.

pylori,

and

peptic

showed the

highest

species (MIC:

same

al, 1996). The non-polar extracts of Casimiroa

Dorstenia

gaumeri

cereus.

weakly

significant activity against

gaumeri

contrajerva weakly
used for

of

piscipula
of the

one

ug/ml)

contrajerva (A

was

active

were

and

B)

against

and the

found to be the most active

Extract A of C.

A and B of P. sartorianum showed weak activities

species

active

pathogenesis

extract of P.

the

weak

polar

sartorianum, Microgramma nitida, Chrysophyilum mexicanum.

against gram-positive

fraction of C.

were

Jatropha gaumeri (MIC:

Other active extracts

pylori.

The

play

extracts of

polar

and

Bidens squarrosa, Casimiroa tetrameria

piscipula,

al, 1991). The non-polar

activity (MIC:

non-polar

fraction of Bauhinia divahcata showed

values between 20 and 90

ulcer

The

inhibited the

against

growth

gram-negative

the

gaumeri

of S.

as

well

as

plant

extracts

this strain. The ethanol

aureus.

bacterium C.

There

jejuni.

was

no

The butanol

and the dichloromethane/methanol extract of Dorstenia

inhibited the

growth

of this strain. None of the tested

gastrointestinal problems

showed

activity against

plant

E. coli and V.

enterocolitica.

Active

plants for dermatological conditions

Selected

plants,

determine the
used

as

anti-inflammatory,

evaluated for

were

documented

cytotoxicity

antibacterial and

of the

inhibitory activity

144

plant extracts,

dermatological conditions,
antifungal

activities

were

(Table 4).

To

KB cell line and the HeLa cell line

(Table 4).

Crossopetalum gaumeri showed

polar

medicines for

fraction

was

down to

cytotoxic

the most potent effect in the NF-kB test with

concentration of 25

to the cell line

during

jig/ml. Already
the

period

at 100

an

jig/ml the

of the test. The

non-

Chrysophyllum

cytotoxicity, (-): 1C50>50 ug/ml); Gl:

zone in [mm]; (-): no activity;

inhibition

KB:

Tetracycline
Ampicillin
Kanamycin
Streptomycin
Chloramphenicol
Ciprofloxacin

0.5

72

70

27

65

51

90

2.1

51

70

ICso
[ug/ml]

MIC

nt

nt

0.7

nt

nt

nt

10

nt

nt

nt

nt

tug/mi]

23

(10 ug)
(100 ug)
19 (40 ug)
19 (50 ug)
22 (25 ug)
20

12

11

600ug
[mm]

pylori

Maya

H.

the Yucatec

8(10 ug)

<1

[mm]

was

8(10ug)

600ug
[mm]

cereus

200 ug

B.

duodenalis, (-): IC50>100 ug/ml; H. pylori: (-): <2 mm; Antibacterial activity
non-polar extract, B: polar extract, C: ethanol extract; nt: not tested.

Giardia

A:

1.1

Ornidazole

41

69.2

8.5

7.8

6.3

[ug/ml]

MIC

G. duodenalis

Metronidazole

mexicanum

Casimiroa tetrameria

nitida

piscipula

Microgramma

Piscidia

Psidium sartorianum

Jatropha gaumeri
Dorstenia contrajerva

0.7

10.2

Crossopetalum gaumeri

IC*
[ug/ml]

Ext.

KB

Bidens squarrosa

name

plant species used for gastrointestinal disorders by

Bauhinia divaricata

Plant

Table 3. Evaluation of

aureus

as

(0.01)
measured

nt

C:1

nt

nt

nt

nt

nt

nt

nt

nt

[mm]

200 ug

S.

Cytotoxicity, {-):
IC

nt: not tested.

of the test; Antimicrobial

KB:

Miconazole

Tetracycline

Chloramphenicol

PDTL

Parthenolide

Podophyllotoxin

Luehea speciosa

was

measured as inhibition

zone

in

>150

100'uM

10 uM

100

150

75

100

25

ug/ml; NF-kB (HeLa cell line), (-):

activity

>50

0.006

14

B
A

10

31

carthagenensis
Alvaradoa amorphoides
A

39

7,8

Morinda yucatanensis

Dalea

Casearia corymbosa
Psidium sartorianum

Croton reflexifolium

Diospyros cuneata
Jatropha gaumeri

14

10.2

Diospyros anisandra

0.7

[mm];

A:

ug/ml;*

(10 ug)

1.5

nt

nt

nt

non-polar

E. coli

(1 ug)

[mm]

600 ug

C. albicans

extract, B: polar extract,

during the period

6(10 ug)

[mm]

600 ug

at 100 ug /ml

(10 ug)

nt

nt

nt

[mm]

cytotoxic

[mm]

[ug/ml]

Maya

600 ug

epidermidis

the Yucatec

[ug/ml]

S.

by

200 ug

NF-kB

conditions

IC50

KB,

Ext.

Crossopetalum gaumeri

name

dermatological

Aechmea bracteata

Plant

Table 4. Evaluation of plant species used for

Publication HI

polar

extracts of

Diospyros anisandra, D.

NF-kB. These effects

probably

fractions of Dalea

non-polar

The

are

remarkable inhibition of NF-kB

The former

one

showed

cuneata and

due to the

at 150

cytotoxic activity

such effect could be detected for L.

on

KB cells

the butanol extract of Aechmea bracteata. The

yucatanensis
polar

active

was

fraction of C.

sartorianum. The
extract

D.

of

S.

against

gaumeri and

was

conditions showed

(IC50;

ug/ml),

31

against

whereas

of

the

active

as

no

epidermidls
was

extract of Morinda

ones were:

as

the

non-

both extracts of P.

the dichloromethane/methanol

by

tested

activity against

well

S.

the former strain

non-polar fruit

corymbosa

inhibited

anisandra at 600 jig

dermatological

ug/ml, respectively.

epidermidls. Other

Casearia

of E. coli

growth

and 100

against gram-positive

E. coli. The most active extract

gram-negative

the extracts.

speciosa elicited

and Luehea

ug/ml

inhibited

speciosa.

Several extracts showed antibacterial effects

and

potent cytotoxicity of

carthagenensis

binding

Jatropha gaumeri

S,

plant species used for

aureus

and P.

aeruginosa.

Antimalaria activities
Plants used

against

fever and/or

falciparum (Table 5).

against

P.

showed

some

antimalaria

activity

pain

were

The

screened in vitro for antimalaria

non-polar

without

extract of Oestrum

exhibiting

overt

activity

nocturnum

cytotoxicity.

D2-receptor binding affinities

Dopamine-agonists
(Steiner, 1997).

are

For the

used in the treatment of the

dopamine D2 receptor binding

the group of "women's medicine"

extracts on the

tested. No

premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

dopamine receptor,

significant activity

were

chosen

assay five

(Table 2).

plant species

The affinities of the

which inhibit the secretion of

could be observed. The

micrantha and Aristolochia maxima showed weak

non-polar

receptor

of

prolactin,

were

extracts of Salvia

affinities.

147

Publication III

Table 5. Anti-malaria

activity

of

plant species

Maya
Plant

used

against fever

and

pain by

the Yucatec

Ext.

name

Ehretia tinifolia

IC

50

against HB3 (CS)

[ug/ml]

IC

50

against K1 (CR)
[ug/ml]

Caesalpinia gaumeri

Casearia

corymbosa

441.40(2.26)

494.49

(3.07)

Manilkara

zapota

Cestrum nocturnum

172.40(2.80)

283.31

(0.48)

Chloroquine

7.96 ng

(0.03)

193.96 ng

(0.81)

K1:

chloroquine-resistant (CR) strain of Plasmodium falciparum;

chloroquine-sensitive (CS) clone;
(- ): >500 ug/ml; no extract showed cytotoxicity in KB cell line (IC
HB3:

Hypoglycemic
polar

their

ability

splitting

of

to inhibit

poly-

resorption and

to

Hegnauer

148

and

were

a-amylase. The inhibition of the enzyme leads

balance of the value of blood sugar

was

undatus

enzymes, don't

ug/ml

plant species, used against "diabetes"

and disaccharides of food in the colon. It

Bauhinia divaricata

Hylocereus

>50

effects

extracts of five

The

50

occur

comes

tested for

to a reduced
to a

delayed

(Keller and Berger, 1983).

the most potent inhibitor of the enzyme, followed

(Cactaceae) (Table 6). Polyphenols, known

very

freguently

Hegnauer, 1994).

in these genera or families

by

to interfere with

(Hegnauer, 1989;

Publication III

Table 6. Anti-diabetic

plants

tested for

a-amylase

inhibition effect

Extract:

Plant

Ext.

name

Extract:

mg/ml

Extract:

mg/ml

mg/ml

[U/l]

[U/l]

[U/l]

Ruellia nudiflora

435

403

378

Malmea

400

288

79

424

205

93

255

depressa

Parmentiera

millspaughiana

undatus

Hylocereus

Bauhinia divaricata

Negative

control: 620

U/l; control with

methanol: 548 U/l

Other activities

Some extracts showed activities in assays which

indigenous

uses

fractions of

Caesalpinia gaumeri

are

not

directly

related to the

(Table 7). The antibiotic effects of the polar and non-polar

used for

pain of the body and headache

are

particularly noteworthy.

Discussion
The

evaluated in this paper

species

were

selected because of their cultural

importance with the Yucatec Maya and because of their use(s) for specific
syndromes. In this section the relevance of these findings for interpreting the

indigenous

uses

The roots of

and

is discussed.

Crossopetalum gaumeri

topically

to

are

used

prevent inflammation

phytochemical study

of C.

gaumeri

terpenoids, whereas the butanol

the

orally for

after

non-polar

diarrhea and snake bites

snake

bite.

extract consisted of several cardenolides

antibacterial activities, which support the

probably due

to the

as

detailed

fraction showed the presence of

al.; 2000, accepted). The study exhibited that the terpenoids

potent antiprotozoal effect

In

well

as

therapeutical

et

responsible for

value for diarrhea. The

the potent inhibitory

high non-specific cytotoxicity of the

are

(Ankli

activity

on

NF-kB is

extracts.

149

corymbosa (DER, NEU)

s.

was

measured

Table 3-4.

activity

Positive control:

Antibacterial

(Gl)
Diospyros anisandra (DER)
Luehea spinosa (DER)
Piscidia piscipula (Gl)
Verbesina gigantea (RES)

Casimiroa tetrameria

Casearia

as

zone

100

inhibition

in

[mm];
nt: not tested.

[mm]

[mm]

200 ug

600 ug

[mm]

600 ug

[mm]

600 ug

B.

uses

nt

[mm]

200 ug

Mayan

E. coli

to the Yucatec

epidermidis

[ug/ml]

S.

C. albicans

NF-kB

of

directly be correlated

Caesalpinia gaumeri (PFE)

(group

which could not

Ext.

name

biological assays

use)

Plant

Table 7. Activities in the

[mm]

600 ug

cereus

mm

600 ug

Y. enterocolitica

Publication III

The leaves of Piscidia

(especially

disorders

reason

problems.

In

antimycotic

why

were

Rodriguez, 1990).

found

P.

frequently

duodenalis may be
B.

purpurea L.

(Mukherjee
amylase

by

et

was

Roman R. et al.

effects

on

are

and S.

for skin

(labialis).

the antibacterial

be

is shown to have

erythrina L.,

has been

widely investigated

is

used

as

were

are

The

indigenous

significant

al., 1994).

poison (Acevedodirect

no

Its

activity against G.
The leaf extract of

use.

antidiarrheal
was

activity

also found in
a

vivo

in

our a-

previous study

used for diarrhea and the resin is used

therapeutic

activity against

value
B,

esters.

concerning

pimples).

Cytotoxic

(Gupta

et

against

cereus.

(Odebiyi, 1980). Many

described

epidermidis) might

No

fish

et

in the NF-kB assay is of

for the

have

to

cytotoxic phorbol

any kind of

performed.

piscipula

respiratory problems.

mentioned in the literature

problems.

treating gastrointestinal

variety of illnesses like gastrointestinal problems

Psidium sartorianum is employed

or

for

(1992).

shrimp assay

measles

plant

G. duodenalis

plant (Table 7).

reasons

reported

others antimicrobial effects

brine

Jatropha gaumeri

known to have

against

extent

remarkable

The

supports the reported hypoglycemic effects in

medicine for herpes

be based

some

cough.

al., 1998). A possible hypoglycemic activity

test which

The roots of

of the

for

gastrointestinal

P.

activity

for "diabetes" and

one

to

(1991)

piscipula

of this

Bauhinia divaricata is used for

more

medicine for

spasmolytic principles (Delia Loggia

as

use

P.

and

value this

et al.

The determined

relevance to the traditional

but

Maya

species,

as

cramps)

pylori and

study by Caceres

other ethnic groups,

Among

H.

Yucatec

effects. Another

and isoflavones

applied

are

diarrhea and

species against

activities of this

may be

piscipula

diarrhea may

Different

the genus

taxa of the

pharmacological

Jatropha, among

using

the

externally (mostly

for

curcas

L.

al., 1996).
and

The antibacterial activities

pharmacological

partially

are

effects of J.

internally (diarrhea)

use

Euphorbiaceae

be of interest for the antidiarrheal

To evaluate the

as

against measles,

{H. pylori,
therapy

B.

cereus

and the

use

antiviral tests will have to

data for P. sartorianum

are

available, but P.

151

Publication III

L.

guajava

of the

"Ethno-Botany

is mentioned

have

antibacterial

effects, especially against the

Shigella.

enterobacterium
In the

shown to

was

Maya" (Roys,

Casimiroa tetrameria

gastrointestinal problems including

medicine for

as a

[orig. 1931])

1976

it is still used in this way but also for rheumatism and fever. The
as

well

as

the antibacterial activities

relevance for the internal

the traditional

use

(Table 7).

edulis Llave and Lex.

(Cceres

et

NF-kB

Antimicrobial

et

Various

inhibiting
of

activity

promoting

are

explain

activities

activities

used for

probably

is

Diospyros lycioides
of

effects

Diospyros
(Kapadia

of the genus

the

The

The

application

et

Croton

(Li

Desf.

activity

al., 1997)
are

possible

occurrence

were

used

of

might

in

use

was

detected

are

currently

The

rational way.

cytotoxic effects.

al., 1998),

et

leucomelas Poir.

of the resin into the eyes

(Recio

as

et

well

as

in vivo

al., 1995) and

reported.

in the medical system of the

for fever and

pimples

in the mouth

phorbol

have

esters

in

use as an

severe

respiratory

(herpes)
this

and

species

antiviral

drug.

side effects because

cytotoxicity.

leaf

decoction

of Alvaradoa
effects

were

effect in the Simaroubaceae

family

problems. Cytotoxic

Luehea

speciosa

controls genes
Yucatec

152

direct relevance for

available, but when C.

no

species'

may express the medicinal value of the

(Euphorbiaceae)

may be of

dermatological problems.

Maya for dermatological problems but also

problems.

of the

aureus

result of the

illnesses. The resin of C. reflexifolius is used for

The

are

against enterobacteria,

tested

antifungal

species

Yucatec

eye

data

no

effect

al, in preparation).

anti-inflammatory activity
antitumor

pharmacological

No

is of

antifungal activity

anisandra and D. cuneata

antibiotic and the

The

was

The

and S.

pylori

H.

Today

antiprotozoal

al., 1990). The antidiarrheal and antispasmodic effects

investigated (Heneka
Diospyros

use.

against

diarrhea.

Maya

is

an

amorphoides

value this

plant

for

applied externally

found in the KB cell line, which is

due to

the

transcription

common

factor NF-kB, which

inflammatory responses

treating

for skin

quassinoids (Phillipson, 1995).

effective inhibitor of the

responsible for

is

of the

body.

skin diseases and toothache, and

The

apply

Publication III

the medicine in form of

the

of this

use

pharmacological

The

the

traditional

phytochemical

or

of

snake bites and

S.

against

yucatanensis

is also

effect of this

species

antitumor

available,

malaria

by

the

the

antimalarial effect

therapeutical

The

relieve

of

pain

species

(Ahmad

symptoms of PMS

The

negative

and of

available

for fever

though

are

(Awe

et al.

the

applied

indigenous

the

on

in form

drug

was

applied

no

the antiviral

on

concerning

one

of the healer

for children with

plant

M.

1998).

not mentioned

but

uses.

Morinda spp,

& Makinde,

of fractions of this

were never

or

help

night

specifically

for

would be of interest.

data have been found for

pain

are

screening may

lot of

"fulfill the desire for

mentioned

immediate relevance to the

no

are

1991),

induce labor

results of the

no

obtained, but only

investigated

is well

midwives but reports of menstrual

the

confirms

group of "women's medicine" contains

delivery,

knowledge

our

yucatanensis

but many studies

Maya, further testing

Phytochemically

can

published yet.

mentioned malaria. Cestrum nocturnum is

fever and cold bodies. Even

Y. enterocolitica

infected wounds and showed antibacterial

This

are

plants applied

on

To

partially explains

in the treatment of warts. No data

antimalaria activities

or

Several reports

explicitly

are

NF-kB

on

plant.

and Morinda

epidermidls.
employed

the

data have been

(Bromeliaceae)

potency

effect

activity against

of

use

Aechmea bracteata

plasters against

inhibitory

The weak antibacterial

plant.

substantiate

not

plasters.

explicitly by

the

child"

Mayan

documented. A possible

be that the

indigenous

plants

bioassay

(infertility).

healers and

explanation of

specific

is

used to

for PMS

uses.

Conclusion
One

goal

and their

of this evaluation is to better understand the

healing concepts.

of the medicinal

indigenous
the

plants

uses

might

be

more

we

show

some

of Yucatec

are

cannot be

not

important

explained

appropriate.

to

the

in

bioscientific

In other

Maya.

The

Mayan plant

correlations between

and the activities obtained in the selected

currently

bioassays applied

In this paper

use

cases

the

uses

bioassays. Other
manner

because

symbolic aspects

combination

of

detailed

153

Publication IN

documentation of ethnomedical

for

relevance

these

understanding of

the

of

are

uses,

and

uses

bioassays,

which

are

of immediate

great importance and lead

ethnopharmacopoeia

to

better

Maya (and

of the Yucatec

other

indigenous groups).
Evaluations of
studies

are

plants

well

tasks.

important

and TRAMIL

as

as

the

phytochemical

Organizations

like WHO

and further

(World

(Central America; popular pharmacopoeia)

pharmacological

Health

Organization)

encourage the

use

remedies that have been proven to be safe and effective. Herbal medicines

valuable and
health
the

care

use

readily available

for

primary health

care

study

contributes to

strengthen

resource

systems. Hopefully

this

and

of

are a

complementary
and

promote

of traditional medicine.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank all persons who have

especially

helped

in the field

the healers, midwives and the inhabitants of Chikindzonot,

study and

Ekpedz

and

Xcocmil, Yucatan, for their collaboration, for their friendship and hospitality. The
botanical identification at CICY
and MEXU
numerous

(National

{Centro

Herbarium of

specialists

de

Mexico)

of these institutions.

Investigacion Cientffica
was

performed

Particularly

we

de Yucatan

),

in collaboration with the

would like to thank Dra. I.

Olmsted, J. Granados, P. Sirna, J.C. Trejo, Dr. R. Duran of CICY

as

well

as

O.

Tellez, Dr. R. Lira, Dr. J. Villaserior and Dr. M. Sousa of MEXU. This research
owes a

Haller

lot to the

(Zernez),

Financial

help

of Dr. J. Heilmann

Prof, Dr. W. Schaffner

(Zrich),

(Basel)

Dr. J,

Orjala (Davis),

and Prof. Dr. H.

Dr. B. Frei

Rimpler (Freiburg).

support by SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation,

Berne, Switzerland) and the SANW (Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences) is

gratefully acknowledged.

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159

Plant Evaluation

Additional results

6.1

Antimicrobial

activity

were

in

reported

In addition to the antimicrobial tests

publication III,

two further strains

used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the 96 plant extracts, namely

Micrococcus luteus
M. luteus is

patient).

(ATCC 9341)

gram-positive

Mycobacterium

fortuitum

problems (local abscess)

(isolated
belongs

whereas M. fortuitum

coccus

acid fast asporogenous rods. M. fortuitum

gram-negative,

genus

and

causes

Mycobacterium, which

to the

junctions. The

important human infections such

causes

dermatological

less often illnesses of the bones and

or

from

as

tuberculosis and leprosy, is of high interest due to these diseases and the problem
of resistance

against known antibiotics.

The antimicrobial tests

publication

using

III

performed

were

with all extracts mentioned in Table 2 of

the disc diffusion

publication. M. fortuitum is

technique

several weeks. Because of contamination with faster

Table 6.1.
Plant

Activitiy of plant

name

extracts

against

with

interpreted

200 ug

[mm]

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Celastraceae)

Jatropha gaumeri (Euphorbiaceae)

Chloramphenicol
Tetracycline
A:

(Flacourtiaceae)

(Myrtaceae)

1 ug

non-polar extract; B: polar extract;

Medical

160

Microbiology, University

M.

fortuitum''

[mm]
2

3.5
1.5

5 ug

spat|ent material;

of Zurich;

-:

obtained from the Institute of

not active:

same

the results

great caution.

M. luteus

Caesalpinia gaumeri (Caesalpiniaceae)

Psidium sartorianum

the

the cultivation takes

growing bacteria,

Ext.

(Bromeliaceae)

Casearia corymbosa

in

M. luteus and M. fortuitum

(family)

Aechmea bracteata

described

growing bacterium, thus

slow

obtained with M. fortuitum must be

as

Plant Evaluation

The water extracts of the 48

liquid-liquid partition

plants (Table 2, publication III), obtained

between 1-butanol and water,

gram positive and gram-negative bacteria, the

KB-cell

In

cytotoxicity.

sartorianum was active

petalum gaumeri

two

the

cases

water

against S. epidermidls

showed KB cell

also examined

were

fungus

from the

C. albicans

as

against

well

as

for

Psidium

active:

extract

were

and M.

fortuitum, and Crosso

cytotoxicity.

6.2 Comparison of disk method and TLC method

The

non-polar and the polar

disc method but also

quantity

of extract

overnight

culture

organisms used

TLC method.

By

applied directly

onto a TLC

was

poured

(TLC

were

it

over

B. cereus, S.

in

only

tested with the

micropipettes the

same

and 10 ml of the

petri plates; 10x10 cm). The

compared

were

of

not

plate (9x9 cm)

epidermidls and

the TLC method

were

means

was

using

the extracts

using

species

extracts of seven

E. coli. The inhibition

test

zones

of

with those of the disc method

(Table 6.2).

Results: The inhibition

generally larger
The

the

one

was

the

Here the inhibition

non-polar

pronounced
extracts

zone

This

of the

extract

same

polar

were

extracts in the disc method.

(A) of C. gaumeri tested against S.

obtained from the disc method is

larger

than

the differences between the two methods

Generally,

among the

(A).

zones

non-polar

from the TLC method.

were more

of the extracts obtained from the TLC method

than the inhibition

only exception

epidermidls.

zones

extracts

phenomenon

disadvantageous diffusion of the non-polar

(B) and
seems

extracts

(A)

less
to

important among the

be

caused

by the

from the discs into the

polar

agar medium. Furthermore, the contact of the extracts with the agar is limited in the

disc method. As

generally smaller

consequence, the

than the

one

minimized

technique

is

of inhibition in the disk method

was

of the TLC method. In order to compare results

standardized methods and standard

this case, the TLC

zone

positive

preferred

controls should be used. However, in

due to decreased diffusion

problem

and

error.

161

Plant Evaluation

Comparison

Table 6.2.
Plant

of inhibition

zones

obtained from disc

Ext.

name

Caesalpinia gaumeri

(Caesapliniaceae)

corymbosa

1.5

<5

(Flacourtiaceae)
Crossopetalum gaumeri

(Celastraceae)
Dalea

carthaginensis

(Papilionaceae)
Diospyros

anisandra

(Ebenaceae)
Jatropha gaumeri

(Euphorbiaceae)
Psidium sartorianum

(Myrtaceae)
Chloramphenicol
Tetracycline
Quantity

6.3

1 ug

1 jig

Protein kinases

are

differentiation of cells. Based

control of PK activities

Therefore, they
well

as

are

are

162

<

0.5

1.5

15

nt

nt

<

1.5

is

given

in

[mm];

nt

<

<

zone

2.5

not

tested;

not active.

proteins.

With the

proteins, they regulate different physiological

important in the control of growth, division and

on

and lack of

today's knowledge, overexpression

involved in the creation and development of tumors.

and the

respiratory

or

new

drugs

in tumor

therapy,

as

psoriasis and inflammatory processes.

polar (B)

illnesses

illnesses associated with pain

evaluated in

targets for the development of

non-polar (A)

the treatment of

10

in treatment of atherosclerosis,

Method: The

enzymes that transmit phosphate to

are

Thus, they

induced change of conformation in

processes.

Method and results

activity:

(PK)

1.5

of extract tested: 200 ug; the inhibition

Protein kinase

Disc

TLC

Disc

TLC

Disc

t. coli

epidermidis

S.

B. cereus

TLC

Casearia

and TLC method

(RES), dermatological

fever

plants

used in

conditions

(DER),

extracts of 33 medicinal

(PFE)

and women's health

(FEM)

were

high throughput screening with PKs. The catalytic activity of the

Plant Evaluation

enzymes

was

PKs.

human

measured in 96-well microtiter plates with recombinantly produced

By

of 33P-marked

means

measured. The reaction volume used

substrate

was

time

80 minutes at 30 C

was

tested of the

in Table 6.3 refer

extracts with
are

given

(Schachtele

non-polar (A) and polar (B)

only

The

in Table 2 of

publication

50 ul and the incubation

was

and Totzke,

1999).

The concentration

ug/ml.

extracts were 1 and 10

The results

in order to focus

(1 ug/ml)

to the lower concentration

pronounced activity.

into the

phosphate, their incorporation

on

the

plant family and the authors of the species

III. The

following

kinases

were

employed

in the

screening:

CDK4/CyclinD1

TIE-2

CDK2/CyclinE

ErbB2

EGFR Kinase

IGF-R1

Results: The results

compared

are

(publication III).

Of the 66 tested

positive results

on

the PKs

were

FLT-4

with those of the KB cell test and the NF-kB test

plant fractions tested

obtained

with 8 different

specific inhibition of CDK2/CyclinE

extract did not show any

activity

non-polar

extracts

(72 %)

(B) of

extract

and S. micrantha

var.

(91 %)

other PKs. Of these four

bracteata

species

(A) of S. micrantha

hydrophilic

extracts

(B) of

B.

(58 %),

the
a

lipophilic

(A)

of E. tinifolia

was

at 50 ppm. The

H. baruensis

extract

concentration of 100

showed weak KB cell

(93 %),

(A)

of P.

P.

polar

piscipula

pig/ml

cytotoxicity

piscipula

and the

weakly cytotoxic

From these

in the KB cells

were

lipophilic

at 50 ppm. The

verticillata, C. corymbosa and E. tinifolia

against IGF-R1 kinase and PKB, respectively.

extract

same

blocked the PKB and did not show any inhibition of

active in the NF-kB test, down to

extract

kinase. The

in the KB cell test and the NF-kB test. However,

(A) exhibited weak cytotoxic effect

A. bracteata

PK, 66

Extract B of A.

(13 %) (Table 6.3).

vesicaria showed 53 %

the

(AKT)

PKB

plants,

system

were

the

active

non-polar

at 50 ppm.

163

name

amorphoides,

DER

DER

Casearia

kinases

piscipula,

RES

Salvia micrantha, DER, RES, FEM

Psidium sartorianum, RES

Piscidia

-86

-89

-91

-100

-58

-53

-82
-56

-75

-72

-82

-102

-80

Neomillspaughia emarginata,

-53

-93

-97

baruensis, FEM

Helicteres

-56

-98

-80

DER

-99

-84
-82

-87

-92

-80

-69

-89

-83

-63

-65

-96

-83

-67

-63

-51

-86

-57

Ehretia tinifolia, PFE, RES

carthaginensis,

-57

-83

-65

55

54

58

-68

Dalea

-5

-57

-62

-65

-53

68

DER

schlechtendalii,

-55

-101

-71

-86

-70

-97

(AKT)

PKB

-82

-55

TIE-2

Kinase

1GF-R1

-58

CyclinE

CycIinDI

EGFR

% effect

CDK2/

ug/ml

CDK4/

extracts at 1

Ext.

by plant

Croton reflexifolius, DER

corymbosa,

PFE

Caesalpinia gaumeri,

Borreria vert ici I lata, DER

Bauhinia divaricata, RES

FEM

Anthunum schlechtendalii ssp.

Anredera vesicaria, DER

Alvaradoa

USE)

protein

bracteata, DER, FEM

OF

var.

(GROUP

Aechmea bracteata

Plant

Table 6.3. Inhibition of different

-95

-54

-64

-69

-72

-80

FLT-4

Plant Evaluation

Quite
C.

unspecific

PK inhibition

caused

was

by

the

polar

reflexifolius, D. carthaginensis and N. emarginata. They

three to six different PKs. From B. divaricata not

non-polar (A)

only

to

activity and

PK

non-polar

cytotoxicity

of the

determined

as

cytotoxicity

in the KB cell

IC50=

39

most

unspecific

non-polar

The

A.

sartorianum.

Both

additionally strong

activities

extracts

KB

the

in

respect of

species

are

less

the

of A.

amorphoides

search for

new

as

10

111). However, cytotoxicity

as

into

membranes

B:

down

IC50=

can

lipophilic
easily

from A.
P.

PK

Extract A

ug/ml).

14

and

inhibition

cytotoxicity

at 50 ppm.

kinase inhibitors, these four

ones were

non-polar

extracts

that

not

polar

extracts

less active

or

(B)

were

did not show

(A) showed activity

extracts of A.

activity do

in the KB-

amorphoides (publication

necessarily correlate, this may

Explanation of

these

be found in the different methods of the test systems.

produced by

cells, whereas the KB cell

more

was

gaumeri and

recombinant

technology

cell membrane.
than

polar

ones

and

test and the NF-kB test are

with human cell lines. To inhibit PKs located inside the cells, the
have to pass the

activity

obtained

C.

showed

significant

exception of

and PK

enzymes

are

NF-kB

were

due to the differences in the methods used.

The kinases

The

esters.

(Euphorbiaceae)

as

weak KB

specific

the PK tests, it is

any PK inhibition. In contrast, only

phenomena presumably

is

to the inhibition of all PKs tested.

important due

cell and NF-kB tests, with the

ug/ml,

well

and

particularly active, whereas the non-polar

incorporated

well

screening

PK

cytotoxicity (A: IC53=

Comparing the results of

partially be

active

carthaginensis showed

extract of D.

spp. schlechtendalii,

of P. sartorianum exhibited PK inhibition

With

weakly

phorbol

due to

as

but also the

Euphorbiaceae family

reflexifolius

system (IC50= 31 ug/ml)

schlechtendalii

amorphoides,

of C.

was

against

ug/ml.

to a concentration of 150

The

(A)

extract

ug/ml.

cytotoxic

be

to

active

were

extract inhibited the PKB. Furthermore, extract A

have

of B. divaricata,

polar (B),

the

in the KB cell test at 50 ppm. The genus Croton of the

known

(B)

extracts

Non-polar

are

not

performed

compounds

first

extracts are able to pass the

and, therefore,

are

advantageous

to

165

Plant Evaluation

particularly lipophilic

inhibit the PKs. Thus,

extracts showed

positive effect

in the

cell line tests.

by polyphenols

be affected

1993).

of crude extracts, especially in polar ones, is the rate

case

positive results. Highly purified enzyme-based targets and cell membranes

of false
can

in the

problem,

Another

This is most

comparison

likely

non-polar

to

saponins, respectively (O'Neill and Lewis,

and

why

reason

(A)

extracts

higher

an

seems

capacity

target for providing

ineffective

polar

any of the plant products. Compound

Is there

be

more

interesting

useful basis for

The initial idea

treatment of

was

promising

effects. Another

the search for

antioxidants

P.

well

166

as

Their

remedies.

the

not effected

relative

phytotherapy?

high

positive

to

in the

(DER) and

anti-inflammatory potency.

number of active

approach may be

It has to be

ability

by

type of PK would

conditions

results based

samples

a reason

the presence of

on

unspecifically

are

as

for these

pointed out, that polyphenols

popular phytotherapy, however they

drugs.

less

are

important in

inhibit enzymes, to act

as

further effects, may have positive influences in the healing

PK test is too

specific

for

evaluating plant

Also

extracts and for

healing. Therefore, further bioassays

relevant for the

detailed

phytochemical

extracts and

performed.

metabolism) of
plant

in

for their

have to be conducted. In addition,

investigation of the
have to be

(PFE)

may be the false

the mechanism of

use

fever

sartorianum).

Generally, the

explaining
species

new

as

or

this

investigations.

results. The ethnobotanical

important compounds

process.

extracts that inhibit this

(RES), dermatological

screening showed

reason

polyphenols (e.g.

pain

in

specific drug

ethnobotanically pre-evaluated drugs used

illnesses

respiratory

The results of the

as

for further

to screen the

illnesses associated with

well

or

was

link between the results of the PK test and traditional

(B)

Accordingly,

to inhibit PKB.

development. However, tyrosine kinase of the ErbB2 receptor

probably

extracts

showed inhibition in the PK test system.

Most of the crude extracts tested have the

kinase

amount of

subsequent

more

PK tests with isolated

compounds

biopharmaceutical aspect (resorption, distribution,

compounds

must be

incorporated

into

detailed study of the

Plant Evaluation

6.4 Other activities

Casimiroa tetrameria:
Casimiroa tetrameria

Millsp. (Rutaceae), Hylocereus undatus (L.) Britton & Rose

(Cactaceae)

and Bidens squarrosa Less.

Hence, they

were

model

(Greger

reversed

species

the

are

used

against diarrhea.

tested for their antisecretory activity in the USSING chamber

extract of the leaves of

al., 1991). The crude

et

C. tetrameria

Prostaglandine E2-induced CT-secretion significantly. Thus,

this

phytochemical investigations. Among others,

four

chosen for further

was

(Asteraceae)

different

polymethoxyflavone

fractions each

containing

showed

highest antisecretory activity.

the

The

as

the main

compound,

polymethoxyflavone

same

containing fractions showed significant antispasmodic activity when tested

guinea pig ileal smooth muscle (Samuelsson, 1991). (This

isolated

carried out

Ludwigs

by

Bilkis Heneka at the Institute fr Pharmazeutische

Universitt

work

Biologie,

the

on

was

Albert-

Freiburg, Germany).

Malmea depressa:
The root of Malmea

depressa (Baill.) R.E.Fr. [syn.: Guatteria leiophylla (Donn. Sm.)

Saff. Ex. Standi.,- Guatteria

most

gaumeri

important remedy for the

Greenmann

(Fries, 1939)] (Annonaceae)

treatment of diabetes

is the

type II in Yucatan. Based

on

prepared and tested

on

ethnobotanical information,

an

male Whistar rats. The test

medium, dissolved in physiological NaCI-solution,

given orally
waiting
and
M.

to rats after an

7 to 15

days.

aqueous root extract

intraperitoneal injection

In addition, the test

glibenclamide (positive control).

depressa

led to

Hernandez et al.

principle

of M.

investigated

this

promising

(1993)

The

was

was

of 50

mg/kg streptozotozin

performed

application of

was

and

with pure NaCI-solution

the aqueous root extract of

results.

studied the effect of ce-asarone,

depressa. Jimenez-Arellanes
plant. They isolated

five

and Mata

hypolipidemic active

(1996) phytochemically

phenylpropanoids

from the

of the stem bark. It might be possible that also these compounds

CHCI3

are

extract

responsible

167

Plant Evaluation

for the

hypoglycemic

effect of the

since several similar

hypoglycemic activity (Hernandez

found to show

Crossopetalum gaumeri

was

biological investigations.

its

as a

importance

the healers
the

in

use

Yucatec
the oral

use

cytotoxic

decoction

the Yucatec

concerning the plant

against diarrhea,

al., 1996).

phytochemical study

phytochemical study

and

led to this selection:

Maya of the study region

use

and preparation

which is

major health problem among

of the fresh root against snake bites

occurrence

of the

species

on

the Yucatan Peninsula

and antibacterial effects detected in the in-house

the lack of the

the few

following points

et

were

Maya

the endemic
the

The

remedy among

consensus

for the

chosen for the detailed

further

compounds

al., 1993; Sarges

et

Crossopetalum gaumeri -the plant species

6.5

remedy

bioassays

phytochemical investigation of C. gaumeri

phytochemical studies,

which have been carried out with the genus

Crossopetalum
the

importance of

compounds

C.

gaumeri

168

clarify

family

in the search for new, effective

in the field of antibiotics and cancer

was

chosen for the

the antibacterial and

out to

the Celastraceae

the

therapy (Kupchan

phytochemical investigation

et

with the aim

cytotoxic principles. Furthermore, the research

empirical phytotherapy of

C.

gaumeri.

al., 1972b).

isolating

was

carried

Part III

Phytochemistry

of

Crossopetalum

gaumeri

Phytochemistry

Celastraceae

Botanical

7.1

family

Crossopetalum

and the genus

taxonomy

Species:

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.)

Genus:

Crossopetalum

Family:

Celastraceae

Order:

Celastrales

Subclass:

Rosidae

Class:

Rosopsida (former; Dicotyledoneae)

Subdivision:

Magnoliophytina (Angiospermae)

Division:

Spermatophyta

(Frohne

Celastraceae

including

family

with

approximately 1,300 species.

the

this

tropics.

species

are

family, usually glabrous

genera
Salacia

are

Hippocrateaceae encompasses

the

It is

native to

widely

distributed

warmer

with laticifers,

are

family,

94 genera

which is native to

temperate regions. The species of

trees, shrubs and lianas. The chief

Cassine, Celastrus, Crossopetalum, Hippocratea, Maytenus, and

is

Crossopetalum

represented by

36

little trees and shrubs with indeciduous,

distributed in Central America and the

South America,

species,

namely Crossopetalum

which is the most

widely

known, namely C, gaumeri

species

opposite

Antilles, only

one

species of

and C. rhacoma.

in

tropical

leaves.

one

rhacoma Crantz

distributed

Florida. On the Yucatan Peninsula two

170

1998)

(Mabberley, 1996).

The genus
are

Fewer

(Bittersweet family)

and Jensen,

The

Lundell

America.

They

species

is

are

basically

reported

(Gentry 1993).

They

The

from
same

of the genus, is also native to

the genus

Crossopetalum

are

Phytochemistry

7.1.1

C.

Crossopetalum gaumeri

gaumeri

Standi, and

has different synonyms, these include

Myginda gaumeri

wet thickets or thin

level. The

species

is

Loes

forests, mostly

widely

(Figure 7.1).
on

distributed

the Mexican states of Yucatan,

the

area

Figure

as

camba-och-lob

of the place of this

7.1.

The habitat of the

on

study

and

call the

plant is moist,
above

sea

the Yucatan Peninsula, which includes

Campeche and Quintana Roo,

(Standley

gaumeri (Loes.)

limestone, higher than 200

and the northern part of Guatemala. The

recorded

Rhacoma

Mayan

name

of the

as

well

plant

as in

in

Steyermark, 1949). Today

Belize

Yucatan is

the

Maya

in

plant viperol.

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.)

Lundel

171

Phytochemistry

Botanical

description

of C.

"A shrub,

commonly

about

gaumeri (Standley
a

Steyermark, 1949):

and

high, glabrous except

meter

in the inflorescence, the

young branches green, tetragonous, sometimes sparsely hirtellous; leaves

rather stout
cm

petioles

2-5.5

long,

cm

12

mm

long

or

wide, obtuse

shorter, ovate to elliptic

to

or

base, appressed-serrate, often

to the

so, the nerves and vines elevated and very

conspicuous

surfaces, the veins closely reticulate; inflorescences mostly 4

few-many-flowered,

the branches stout, the

pedicels filiform,

flowers, puberulent; flowers densely puberulent

cm

much

stamens very

almost

or

fully

cm

short; style almost

long,

The

family of Celastraceae

family generally
alkaloids

7.2.1

(Brning

contain
and

than 1

mm

mm

and the

Hippocrateaceae

dulcit,

are

discussed

together

due to

The members of Celastraceae

terpenoids, polyisoprenes, polyphenols

and

Wagner, 1978).

Terpenoids (terpenes, isoprenoids)

Euonymus europaea
Europe.

(cardenolides)

L. is the best known

The seeds of

brilliant orange

species

belong

without

triglycosides

exception

of the

cannogenol.

of Celastraceae

(Carotinoids)

of cardiotonic steroids and alkaloids. The cardiac

172

1.5

obovoid, somewhat asymmetric,

chemosystematics (chapter 7.5).

Cardiotonic steroids

and

than the

longer

more

shorter,

of the Celastraceae

Phytochemistry

in

or

both

somewhat narrowed at the base."

7.2

the similarities

none; fruit

long

on

minutely pilose; calyx

or

broad, the lobes short, rounded; petals maroon-red, orbicular,

long;

5-11

acuminate, usually bright green when dried,

coriaceous, lustrous, narrowly long-attenuate

conspicuously

obovate-elliptic,

on

to the cardenolide

species of Euonymus

are

are

family

in Middle

toxic due to the presence

glycosides of

the Celastraceae

type. The different

generally derived

mono-, di- and

from

digitoxigenin

Phytochemistry

Digitoxigenin: R^R^R^H, R3=CH3

Cannogenol: R1=R2=R4=H. R3=CH2OH

Strophanthidin: R1= R4=H, R2=OH, R3=CHO

Antiarigenin: R1= H, R2=R,;=OH, R3=CHO

The aqueous bark extract of

poison

among

strophanthidin
to be

al.

cytotoxic

and

antiarigenin type

and to have

of the

not to decrease

aldehyde
water

(~>

arrow

or

function

were

on

Philippiness

of the

glycosides

as

arrow

from

was

the

shown

position C-10

of the

carboxyl group

et al.

mentioned that

during

et

the

contact with acidic substances must be avoided

type of cardiac glycoside

position C-4/5

used

positive inotropic activity (Habermeier, 1980; Wagner

poison

glaucum Pers. by Kupchan

Cardiac

was

isolated from the bark, which

neutralize the effect of the

oxidation to

An unusual

toxicum Loher

Philippinan indigenous people.

1984). Indigenous people

preparation

on

Lophopetalum

aglycon,

This may be due to the

which is

easily

decarboxylation) (Hansel

was

(1977).

and contain double

poison.

et

autoxidated in

al., 1999).

isolated from seeds of Elaeodendron

The elaeodendrosids show double bonds

binding

sugars like

some

cardenolides of the

family Asclepiadaceae.

0\ ^O

Elaeodendroside

173

Phytochemistry

Thus, cardenolides

from

quinone

are

With the isolation of cardiac

fourth genus is added.

of the

root

bark of

pentacyclic triterpenes. They

methide part of

ring

several

have

A and B. These

of these

compounds. Tingenon

Several

celastroids

showed

family

conjugated lOrt-system

compounds

is another member of the

interesting activity

of the

species

like

are

with

characteristic

are

structural types for the Celastraceae. Pristimerin and celastrol

antibacterial

and

(celastroloid, quinone methide)

orange-red pigments

Celastraceae

(Euonymus, Lophopetalum

(Hegnauer, 1989).

Crossopetalum gaumeri a

Quinone triterpene
The

found in three genera

of the Celastraceae

Elaeondron)

glycosides

were

two

prototypes

quinone triterpenes.

high cytotoxicity

and

activity.

yRi

R^COOCHg

Pristimerin:

Celastol: R,
4

Tingenon: H^

with friedelane and oleanan skeleton

are common

COOH

H, C-21

keto group

Non-quinone triterpene
Triterpenes
as

in many other taxa. Friedelane

isolated from several

species

the characteristic

quinone

activity (Abraham

et

and taraxeran

174

triterpenes

in the Celastraceae

with different oxidation levels

of the Celastraceae. Some of them

methides

like the

are

were

precursors of

maytenon acid with antileukemic

al., 1971). Besides these triterpenes, phytosterines, lupan-

triterpenes

have been isolated from the Celastraceae.

Phytochemistry

Diterpenes
Several

of

and

the

with

an

Maytenon

R1

acid:

R^

abietan skeleton and their derivatives

Celastraceae.

tripdiolid,

wilfordii Hook f.

Friedelane:

COOH

sesquiterpenes

diterpenes

members

triptolid

and

et

known from

Interesting tri-epoxide diterpenes, particularly

with antileukemic activities

(Kupchan

are

were

isolated from

Tripterygium

a!., 1972a). Other characteristic terpenoids

are

sesquiterpenes (dihydroagarofuran) and sesquiterpene-polyalkaloids. Compounds

of both of these structure
effects

(Delle

types

Monache et al.,

Triptolid, R,=

are

described to have insecticidal and

insectifuge

1984).

Dihydroagarofuran

Tripdiolid, R,= OH

175

Phytochemistry

7.2.2 Alkaloids

variety of alkaloids have

A great
were

been found in the Celastraceae but most of them

isolated in very small amounts. Phenylalkylamines

fresh leaves of Catha edulis

isolated

alkaloids

(Vahl)

maytansinoids

and

tetrahydroisochinolin

are

pyrrolizidin, peptid, spermidin,

active

(Cathin

Endl.

were

xanthin and

are

well known from the

norpseudo-ephedrin).

Other

tetrahydrochinolin alkaloids,

macrocyclic alkaloids. The antitumor

isolated for the first time from

Maytenus species

(Kupchan etal., 1972b).

General structure of

maytansinoids

7.2.3

Flavonoids and other

Most of the flavonoids

phenolic compounds

are

particularly ourateacatechines,

kaempferol
are

and

quercetin glycosides. Catechins,

characteristic of Celastraceae.

Proanthocyani-

dines, anthocyanidines and tannins have been confirmed in several Celastraceae.

7.3

Phytochemistry of Crossopetalum species

The genus

Crossopetalum

has not been well

investigated phytochemically.

Crossopetalum tonduzii (Loes.) Lund, sesquiterpenes (Tincusi

from

Crossopetalum uragoga 0. Ktze triterpenes

etal.

1984).

176

et

From

al., 1998) and

have been isolated

(Dommguez

Phytochemistry

7.4

of

Biosynthesis

At present

They

more

than 22,000 natural

in all

occur

terpenoids (terpenes, isoprenoids)

plants, however, they

isoprenoids

or

in the

helpful

but

organisms,
are

chemosystematic.

are

are

Most

dispersing animals,

Terpenoids

are

or as

terpenoids

an

Cyclization

an

is the

oxidative

to have
as

separation of

oxidosqualene.

to

the

oleanyl

shifts with elimination of the H-12 proton

triterpene quinone

involving

the

friedelane to

the

4,5-methyl

Friedelane is

pollinators

or

is

as

and fruit-

higher

in

enzymatically cyclized

to

is built,

methyl groups cholesterol

-amyrin proceeds

(1993) demonstrated

elimination of the

that the

cation. The

baccharenyl and lupenyl cationic

cation.

Finally

series of

one

1,2-hydride

Friedelane triterpenes

biosynthesized by

shift of

supposed

via the chair-

tetracyclic dammarenyl

are

methides. Itokawa et al.

oxidative

are

"secondary"

considered

gives -amyrin.

triterpene group and

hydrid shifts, particularly

(Brieskom, 1987).

and

plant species

attractant for

Abe et al.

subsequent rearrangement leads

intermediates and to the pentacyclic

as

first the

and

plant kingdom. Certain

(Figure 7.2).

proton-initiated cyclization produces

to the oleanen

higher

ecological functions, serving

it

biosynthesis,

pentacyclic triterpenes such

chair-chair conformation of

belong

found in

biosynthetic intermediate for triterpenoids and

intermediate for all steroids

to

were

isoprene moieties. Squalene,

from

biosynthesized

After

are

1998).

apparent role in the basic processes of growth

thought

During phytosterol

cycloartenol.

the

et al.

(Zamponi

allelopathics.

plants oxidosqualene (C30),

steroids.

over

characteristic of

against herbivores and pathogens,

defense

which is

an

known

great variety of them

combinations of them

development. Many

are

randomly distributed

not

metabolites, because they lack

and

isoprenoids

of the

different

methyl

group

to be the precursor of the

(1991) suggested
methyl group

on

methyl
on

natural

biogenetic

position

C-4

route

24 from

give pristimerin-type triterpenes (Figure 7.3).

177

2,3-Oxidosqualene

enzymatic cyclization
1

chair-chair-boat conformation

chair-chair-chair conformation

HO'

Protosteryl

cation

Tetracyclic dammarenyl
Y

Baccherenyl

cation

Lupenyl

cation

Oleanyl

cation

Cycloartenol, C 30

HO

Cholesterol, C27

Figure

7.2.

-3C

Side chain

shortening

Addition of

acetyl-CoA

Biosynthesis

scheme of steroids and

Cardenolides, C23

terpenoids

cation

A
H

O.

HO'

A
Pristimerin

OOH

fK

intermediate stage:

-Amyrin/Friedelin

o.
'^r

CHO

Cangoronine

HO/;,..

CH2OH

Salaspermic

acid

COOH

Friedelane-3-on-29-ol

Maytenoic acid

Figure

7.3.

Proposed biogenetic pathway forcelastroloids

A
COOH

Phytochemistry

Tricyclic diterpenes, particularly

cyclization

of

geranylgeraniol (C20)

Abietan is then built

modified

abietan diterpenes,

by ring

to

built

are

by

an

enzymatic

dicyclic diterpene, namely labdadien.

closure of labdadien to

and

pimaran

subsequently

it is

by methyl shifts (Hanson, 1971) (Figure 7.4).

V.

>

*H

H^
Labdadien

Geranylgeraniol

-4$f!L-_

\ H

Pimaran

Abietan

Figure

7.5

7.4.

Biosynthesis

Chemosystematic

Celastraceae and

scheme of abietan

and

diterpenes

phylogenetic relationships

Hippocrateaceae contain several

common

compounds

like

dulcit, guttapercha, proanthocyanidines, phenolcarbon acids and celastroloids.

The very close chemotaxonomical relations between these two families
other criteria

justify

their fusion,

polyesteralkaloids have
Mabberley (1996)
whereas the

180

or

however,

been found in the

Frohne and Jensen

Hippocrateaceae

are

not

no

as

well

as

sesquiterpene polyesters and

Hippocrateaceae.
(1998) only
mentioned

In recent literature like

the Celastraceae
as

are

listed

separate family. The

Phytochemistry

chemical similarities of the Celastraceae with other families within and

order Celastrales is shown in

Figure
and

The

7.5. Chemical

Figure

relationship

beyond

the

7 5

of the Celastraceae with other families

(Bruning

Wagner, 1978)

phytogeny

varies

of the order Celastrales

according

raphe

not clear. The definition of this order

to different authors. The term Celastrales

Bentham and Hooker

erecta,

is

(1862)

ventralis".

and

They

was

was

first introduced

by

defined, among other characters, by "ovula

included

the

families

Celastraceae,

Stack-

housiaceae, Rhamnaceae and Vitaceae. In the Engler system of Melchior (1964),

other families,

particularly Aquifoliaceae and Icacinaceae,

Celastrales due to
the

classification

some

of

vegetative features. They

Takhtajan (1980).

were

also

were

placed

added

to

in this order in

However, Thome (1983) excluded

Aquifoliaceae and Icacinaceae from Celastrales, placing

them in Theales and

181

Phytochemistry

Cornales, respectively. Savolainen et al. (1994) suggest that the majority of the

they

insufficient. Therefore,

chloroplast genes of

The

order, but form

to this

systematic investigations

with

with

monophyletic group

lineage of Celastrales should

Takhtajan (1980) indicated

(Euphorbia, Mercurialis) comprises

the

Rosaceae

derived from the

with

a common

Saxifragales

and

Caryophyllidae

same

to

group of order and

are

promising pharmacological

impressive number

In recent years,

an

wiifordii Hook f.

(Thunder

God

vine)

of

were

effects

carried out,

Due to in vitro and in vivo antileukemic

phytochemical investigation

was

(1998),

relationships

(Table 7,1).
on

particularly by

Trypterygium
the Takaishi

relatively potent

showed

antitumor

activity (Shamon

et

but

activity of

the alcoholic extract

made and led to the isolation of

diterpenoid triepoxides (Kupchan

triptolide

182

Santalales,

has been used for several illnesses in Chinese folk medicine

(Table 7.2).

AIDS

the

biological activities,

phytochemical studies

plant

found to show

and

mentioned.

group. The

antileukemic

Malus)

Frohne and Jensen

isolated from the Celastraceae exhibited

of them showed

detailed

form

activities among the Celastraceae

Many compounds

Geum,

(Rosa,

Saxifragales. According
listed in the

Biological

sister group of

ancestor for the Celastrales and

are

with Urticales,

Figure 7.5).

Celastrales and Santalales

some

be restricted to

separate lineage. Furthermore, the authors

(Rhamnus) (compare

Rhamnaceae

7.6

results, the

to their

(Euonymus, Salacia. Hippocratea). Together, they

Celastrales

being

are

species of angiosperms. According

mentioned that Euphorbiaceae

the

separate families of the Celastrales

including Hippocrateaceae. The Aquifoliaceae and Icacinaceae do

Celastraceae

belong

19

to

carried out molecular

polyphyletic.

order Celstrales is

not

used

characters

morphological

et al.

1972a).

The evaluation of

non-specific cytotoxicity

and

modest

al., 1997). In other studies the plant species

anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-immunosuppressive and

activity (Shishido

et al. 1994; Morota et al.

was

anti-

1995; Ujita et al., 1993; Chen et

Phytochemistry

al.

is

1992). Salsaspermic
reported

The

to show

maytansinoid

alkaloids

Thpterygium wilfordii

(chapter 7.2.2)

isolated from several

of

some

extensively

as an

to tubulin and leads to arrest of cell division

compound binds

metaphase (antimitotic). Maytansine

studies. Beside

species

high cytotoxicity (KB cells: ED5010"4-10"6 ug/ml). Maytansine

found to have the greatest potency and has been studied

anti-tumor agent. The

in

also isolated from

promising anti-HIV activity.

Celastraceae showed
was

(Figure 7.3)

acid

was

tested in several clinical

positive clinical observations, several

phase

I and II

toxic effects were

reported, particularly neurological and gastrointestinal toxicity, and therefore, the

clinical

study

was

stopped (Smith

maytansinoids

has increased

These carriers

bring

are

the

drug

and

again

Powell, 1984). In

due to

further

(Chari

et

in

to the tumor cells where

concentrated. Thus, the toxic effects

investigated

success

can

recent years the interest in

binding

to mice-antibodies.

they bind

to

receptors and

be avoided. This effect must be

al., 1992).

183

Biological

Celastrus sp and others

Elaedendron

Tnpterygium wilfordii Hook f

sp
umbellata

Maytenus

Maytenus
Glyptopetalum sclerocarpum
Salacia kraussu

celastroloide
elaedendroside

diterpene epoxides
celastroloide

triterpene dimers

sesquiterpenes
celastroloide

celastro1

antileukemic, antitumor

cytotoxic

cytotoxic

antibacterial

antimicrobial

antiviral, antimicrobial

antimalana

immunosuppressive, antiin

insecticidal, antifeedant

psychoactive

sedativ

sesquiterpenes

phenylalkylamines

esteralkaloids

Shirotaetal

Maytenus ebenifolia

dulotol

antitumor

flammatory, antiperoxidation

Takaishietal

Celastrus stephanotufolius Makino

sesquiterpenes

antitumor

Pers

Harv
,

sp

Maytenus

sp

Catha edulis

Celastrus

Celastrus sp

End1

Cassme sp

(Vahl)

Tnpterygium wilfordii Hook

others

Exel1

Laws

Maytenus senegalensis (Lam )

(Hary )

(R Br)

and others

glaucum

Mabb

Kupchanetal

sp and others

et al

1972a

1977

ai

1997

1955

1963

Gonzalez et al

Hofmann e*

et ai

<//j et ai, 1992

1994

1998, E Tahir

al, 1999
et al

et

1992

Sassaetal

Snethetal

Li, 1993

Figueiredo

Sotanaphun

Gonzalez et al

1990

1999

1971, Itokawa et al, 1991

Gonzalez etal ,1996

Kupchan

et al

Abraham et al

Kupchan

1993

1998

1971, Kuo etal

KuoandKuo, 1997

Maytenus

Reiss

1973

Habermeier 1980, Kitanakaetal, 1996

and Kowaiejvski

maytansinoides

toxicum Loher

Bishay

antitumor, antileukemic

Celastrus hindsu Benth

sp

Literature

triterpenes

Euonymus

name

antitumor, anti-AIDS

glycosides

Plant

of Celastraceae

Lophopetalum

cardiac

Responsible
compounds

compounds

cytotoxic

'

activities of

positiv-inotrop, cardiotonic,

Activity

Table 7 1

Phytochemistry

medicinal

Popular

7.7

Yucatec

7.7.1

According

Maya

use

medicinal

to various h-men

use

of C.

(shamans),

gaumeri

Chikindzonot, Ekpedz and Xcocmil (Yucatan)

treatment for snake bites. It is chewed

powdered

root mixed with water is

put

two-cm
as

piece of

possible after the bite. The

soon

on

the wound in the form of

galenic

form of the

plaster.

Diarrhea is

Maya
The

species,

as

Steyermark, 1949).

and

kambaochdob, but

change

history,
against

plant

of the

which in the past

was

no

medicinal

production

produced

orally

species

used

use

According

Indigenista

Standley.

are

Both

against snake

is mentioned

ampoules

use

are

diarrhea.

called camba-och-

(Barrera

et

al., 1991).

viperol,

(oral

was

gaumeri. According
used

orally

of the medicine, under the

as

information from healers,

study region

two other

Arg.

members of the

to oral

antidote

an

name

ingredients, preparation

Urechites andrieuxii Muell.

species

was

and other inhabitants of the Yucatan

to the healers of the

known. These

it

against

is also listed in the Diccionario

from the roots of C.

snake bites. The

could not be obtained

Instituto Nacional

used

is

gaumeri.

to come from the medicine named

name seems

the medicine in the form of

venomous

The

still known but detailed information about

ex

further usage of C.

study region C. gaumeri is named viperol. Formerly

(Standley

lob

like Morinda

plants

plant which is rich in polysaccharide is responsible

decoction of the root, mixed with other

In the

plaster.

Samolus ebracteatus Kunth and Anredera vesicaria C. F.

Gaertner. The rootstock of latter

for the

root is used as a

as

Sometimes the decoction is combined with other medicinal

yucatanensis Greenman,

villages of

healers and midwives of the

viperol,

and

place of

employee

of the

Peninsula).

species named viperol

and Echites

is

are

yucatanensis Millsp.

Apocynaceae family

and

are

also

bites.

185

Phytochemistry

7.7.2 Medicinal

The

application of other Crossopetalum species

Maya, situated

Huastec

Crossopetalum
also for

in

the

uragoga O. Ktze not

burning

eyes,

northeastern

only

hemorrhage

as

use

anti-diarrheal medicine, but

as an

and

part of Mexico,

dermatological

medicine

(Dominguez, 1984; Alcorn, 1984).

4

Crossopetalum parvifolium (Hemsley)

Chiapas,

the Tzotzil of Zinacantan in

Lundell is

Mexico

and for

Two

kidney

kidney

inflammation

and C. lobatum Lundell

against

HeLa cells

medicinal

use

use

186

uses are

rhacoma Crantz

applied

as

diuretic

).
Lund,

cytotoxic activity.

and C. lobatum exhibited

cytotoxic activity

activity

(Gonzalez

are

screened for antimicrobial and

et

a!., 1994). Unfortunately

are

use

of Celastraceae

widespread throughout

at the folk level both for medicinal and

medicinal

Laughlin, 1993).

no

data about local

of these species could be found.

7.7.3 Global medicinal

The Celastraceae

among

namely Crossopetalum tonduzii (Loes.)

were

Both showed antibacterial

1981

dysentery

and

stones and the leaves are

(Morton,

from Panama,

species

(Breedlove

for

Crossopetalum

In the West Indies and Cuba, the roots of

used in the treatment of

applied

listed in Table 7.2.

species

the world and have

agricultural

long history

of

purposes. Some of the

Table 7 2

Medicinal

use

Plant species

of Celastraceae species

(plant part used)' Source

Uses

Location

Hippocratea
Yucatan

cclastroides Kunth

tranquilizer (p),

excelsa Kunth

asthma, bronchitis, cough (i) Ankli

Morton

1981
see

appendix

Yucatan

Maytenus
-

amazonica

antitumoral, (various parts), Chavez

Martius
-

buxifolia

(A. Rich)

laevis Reissek

et al

1998

Stomach ache, diarrhea colds fever, menstrual

hemorrhage (I)

Griseb

Peru

flu, gastrointestinal diseases,

rheumatism

painkiller

Morton

1981
stimulant

rheumatism

d'uretic(b),

senegalensis

(Lamarck) Exell

arrow

poison

Western

Amazonia

Schultes and Rauffauf, 1990

-

Brhamas

Africa,

(b) gastrointestinal problems

fever, yellow fever snake bite (r) Neuwinger,

Tanzania

1996, Gessler 1995

*

Celastrus

angulatus

Max

-scandens

insecticide, Wang
diarrhea,

et al

to

sores

diuretic, laxative

regulate

cancer

China

1997

(I),

menstruation,

cough (r) Still,

New

Jersey

New

Jersey

1998

Euonymus
-

atropurpurea Jacq

laxative

(p), eye bath,

uterine

problems (b)

Still, 1998
-

europaea L

cardiotonic, emetic purgative, insecticide and

vermin,

Cassine matabelica

(Loes)Steedm
*

Bishay

and Kowalewski

skin cancer, diarrhea, stimulant

1973

(r), Bruning,

bilharziosis, dysentery (r), Figueiredo

(Harv )

1998

Tnpterygium sp

Afrca, India

1978

Salacia kraussn
Harv.

Europe

et

al,

dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, nephritis

insecticide

(r)

stimulant others

1992, Shishido etal

(I) leaf, (r) root, (b) bark, (p)

whole

Mozambique

China

Chen et al

1994

plant

187

Phytochemistry

Methods

(isolation procedure)

layer chromatography (TLC)

8.1

Thin

Thin

layer chromatography (TLC)

was

used to

optimize

MPLC, HPLC and open-column chromatography. The eluents

based

on

eight proposed

the

phases

modified mobile
et

for

special

structure

al., 1988; Wagner et al., 1983). TLC

examinations

of fractions and

was

chromatography, for monitoring chemical

biological activity
phase

was

on

TLC

plates.

further

employed

for

chromatographic

systems

and for

solvent

the

locating

the TLC mobile

good separation,
by reducing

preparative

for

(hydrolysis)

derivation

To enhance

transferred to off-line

and with

types reported in literature (Nyiredy

(two-dimensional TLC),

extracts

optimized

were

PRISMA model

solvent groups of the

for VLC,

phase

the mobile

strength

(Kowalska, 1996).

8.2

Vacuum

Vacuum

liquid chromatography (VLC)

liquid chromatography (VLC)

of the crude extracts. Furthermore

VLC. The columns

Celite 535 and

were

were

applied

dissolved in the

water suction pump

8.3

complex

After

were

(<

used

small fractions

some

under

vacuum.

as

separation procedure

were

All extracts

mobile

phase

a vacuum

and the

adsorbed

were

separation

(Hostettmann

liquid chromatography (MPLC)

et

was

forced

on

by

al., 1998).

application of

was

the VLC

employed

technique.

to

separate the

The column and

slurry-packed under pressure (21 bar, flow speed:

ml),

RP-

separated by

liquid chromatography (MPLC)

packing, the pre-column

little solvent

188

producing

fractions after the

pre-column

initially

to the column in order to avoid obstruction. The fractions

starting

Middle pressure

Medium pressure

dry-packed

was

was

was

injected

removed. The

via

ml/min).

sample (1.2 g), dissolved

sample loop (Hostettmann

et al.,

in a

1998).

Phytochemistry

8.4

High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)

The

semipreparative high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)

one

of the final steps of the isolation

amount of 5 mg for

preparative
and

8.5

particle

Open

one

injection. Further parameters

HPLC 1-100 mg

be

on

to the

quantity

The columns

gel)

reversed

in the

III. For semi

publication

applied, depending

as

the column size

phase (Unger, 1995).

chromatography

column

(m:m).

8.6

can

see

used

applied

were

chromatography

was

applied for

separation

the

fractions and for small fractions. The size of the column

according

or

probe

size of the mobile

The classical open column

complex

procedure. Samples

was

of the

were

phase

sample (sample:stationary phase

slurry packed

material

either with normal

(octadecyl phase) (Mller

was

of

chosen

approx.

1:100)

phase material (silica

and Keese,

1988).

Liquid-liquid partition (LLP)

Liquid-liquid partition
crude extract. The
solvents.

This

was

used tor the first

separation

is based

separation technique

without any loss of material

(Mller

on

separation step of the methanolic

dipole

the

takes

place

and Keese,

interaction
under

mild

properties
conditions

of the

and

1988).

189

Phytochemistry

Methods of structure elucidation

Several

spectroscopic

spectrometric

and

structure determination of natural

UV-

spectroscopy,

together
of

optical

products.

rotation,

instruments

exist for the

The combination of

MS-spectrometry and

process

physical

of

data e.g.

NMR-spectroscopy,

with information of chemical methods is used to determine the structure

compounds.

Isolate

1H NMR

number of carbons and

13C NMR

functional groups

hydrogens

DEPT
Inverse

gated

integrals

weight

M S

molecular

UV

chromophore

Molecular formula; double bond

reliable 13C

equivalent functionalities

HSQC

one-bond correlation

DQF-COSY

vicinal protons

TOCSY

protons in

HMBC

long-range

INADEQUATE

C-C

(C-H)

(CH-CH)

and

geminal protons (CH2)

spin system

correlation

(C-C-C-H), (C-C-H)

coupling

Planar structure

X-Ray

ROESY

[a]D
y

drivt.

Complete

Figure

190

relative/absolute stereochemistry, optical rotation

structure with relative/absolute

stereochemistry

9.1. Scheme of methods for structure elucidation

Phytochemistry

magnetic

Nuclear

9.1

Nuclear

magnetic

resonance

for nuclei that have

nuclei
radio

are

on

applied

method which is

in

the

When

static, homogenous magnetic field, they

surrounding
they

density, the observed

electron

irradiated with the appropriate

are

frequency.

particular

transform

Fourier

NMR

technique

simultaneously by

an

The

(FT-NMR)

spectroscopy

in which all of the nuclei

or

to other nuclei over a

system is monitored

The response of the

time).

NMR

of

used

is

isotope

one

as

the

activated

are

appropriate pulse. The absorbed energy is subsequently

lost to the surroundings

of

brought

Depending

it.

spin quantum number (e.g. 1H, 13C, 15N).

able to absorb energy, when

pulsed

The

are

spectroscopy (NMR)

spectroscopy (NMR) is

nonzero

these types of nuclei

interact with

resonance

resulting emission signal

as

period of

(relaxation time).

time

interferogram (intensity

function

as a

from the excited nuclei is known

the free

as

decay (FID) and the Fourier transformation of this decay yields the NMR

induction

spectrum.

One dimensional

frequency,

The

in which

environment of the

magnetic field. It

methods

NMR
a

nucleus is able to absorb

nucleus and is

particular

expressed

is

million. Functional groups

are

as

energy,

proportional

depends

to the

the chemical shift and

on

strength of

given

in

the
the

parts per

identified by characteristic 1H and 13C chemical shift

values. The number of signals gives information about the number of nuclei of the
molecule

pattern of
effect of

lines

are

investigation.

under
a

signal

is

neighboring

given

as

important. Many signals

nuclei.

coupling

nature of bonds and the

Kalinowski et al.,

By

means

the

Furthermore

The

are

frequency

constants J

(Hz)

multiplicity
split

the

coupling

into several lines due to the

differences
and

and

between

depend

on

such

multiple

the number and

angular relationships of the coupled nuclei (Byrne, 1993;

1984).

of DEPT

(Distortionless

further one-dimensional

Enhancement

experiment,

by Polarisation Transfer),

the number of

hydrogens bonded

to the

191

Phytochemistry

for

signals

CH3

negative signals for CH2

and CH and

gated experiment

The inverse

is used

as a

distinguishes positive

DEPT 135

atoms can be determined.

particular carbon

resonances.

method to

get reliable integrals of

13C spectra. In order to obtain comparable integrals, it is necessary to avoid

building

up of NOEs

reached

by making

can

in the

be avoided

is

on

during pulse

At the moment of
same

can

turn

was

used

for

unit of

symmetrical

dimensional

Two dimensional

the relaxation

by increasing

times

experiment

pulse,

of

none

it is

usually

by

inverse

acquisition,

and

of the carbon

integrals (Sanders

the

to

basic

detecting doubled

compound

NMR

(2D)

back

delay,

and Hunter,

integrals

that nuclei with

so

intensities

gated

of carbons

of the

(ourateacatechin).

methods

NMR

techniques give

more

information

on

the interaction

coupling techniques

the direct connectivities between the atoms and enable the

molecule

INADEQUATE).

to

The

be

determined

homonuclear

(DQF-COSY,
dipolar

internuclear distances. Thus, the relative

determined

long

inverse

The

state.

between nuclei. The homonuclear and heteronuclear scalar

provide

sample;

The different relaxation times, which also leads to unreliable

relaxation

Two

decoupler

delay.

relaxation

Effect)

to zero. This can be achieved

is enhanced and all have the

signals
1988).

during

Overhauser

equal

them all

in which the

gated decoupling
but is off

(Nuclear

HMQC,

TOCSY,

coupling

configuration

techniques

stereochemistry of

HMBC,

give

the substance

can

the
be

(ROESY).

Homonuclear 2D NMR methods

The

DOF-COSY

(Double

experiment

is the standard 2D

vicinal and

geminal protons.

The TOCSY

Filter

Correlation

experiment for homonuclear

spin-system.

SpectroscopY)

shift correlation of

(TOtal Correlation SpectroscopY) experiment

define all protons within

192

Quantum

is

employed

to

Phytochemistry

(Rotating

ROESY

The

frame

Overhauser

nuclear

SpectroscopY)

Effect

experiment helps identifying pairs of protons close enough

to interact

through

space.
*

The INADEQUATE

Experiment)
entire

detects

skeleton

sensitivity,
molecular

(Incredible

signals due

of

therefore

Natural Abundance Double Quantum Transfer

weight (~ 1/5

to

molecule.

high
of

13C,13C coupling.

It is used to trace the

The

shows

experiment

of material

amount

is used

low

extremely

depending

the

on

M/1000 ).

Heteronuclear 2D NMR methods

*

HSQC

The

Quantum

Single

experiment

Correlation)

is

for one-bond heteronuclear chemical shift correlation.

employed

HMBC

The

(Heteronuclear

determining

(Heteronuclear Multiple
connectivities between

Bond

Correlation)

is

method

for

1H and 13C atoms, separated by two

or

three bonds.

9.2

Mass

spectrometry (MS)

Mass spectrometry involves

organic

molecules that

fragment

ions

provide

structure elements of a

Electron

in

generation of positive

or

ions

negative

gas-phase. Subsequent separation

are

from

and detection of

information about the molecular formula and

also

about

compound (Baldwin, 1995).

impact (El) MS: In this standard method, the vaporized

molecules

eV).

are

the

bombarded with electrons emitted from

Due to the energy, electrons

are

ejected

sample

heated filament

with the formation of

(70

positive

ions.

Fast atom bombardment

liquid

with low

(FAB) MS:

The

compound

volatility (3-nitrobenzylalcohol)

is

suspended

and bombarded

in

by

viscous

fast atoms

193

Phytochemistry

(argon

or

xenon)

or

ions. Molecular information

yielded [X+Hj+

ions

[X+Na]+,

or

[X+K]+.
Electronspray ionization (ESI) MS: The involatile sample is injected
flowing liquid

([X+H]+, [X+NHJ/, [X+Na]+; apparatus: Finnigan

chromophore

Spectroscopy normally

nm)

and visible

incident

light,

refers to the absorption

in the

ultraviolet

(200-380

is

optically active, if

is

it is able to

rotation

[ct]D,

change

the direction of the

measurable angle to the

linearly

plane

of the

characteristic property of chiral compounds using the sodium D-

(589.5 nm).

Acidic

In order to

hydrolysis

identify

monosaccharides of sugar chains, acidic

performed. Subsequent analysis of

defined sugar references allowed

194

molecule, the characteristic absorption of

(380-800 nm) light.

polarized light. The specific

9.5

Optical rotation

compound

line

TSQ).

enables the identification and classification of structural elements.

UV-

7000

UV-Spectroscopy (UV)

Due to the electronic structure of

9.4

stream of methanol and ammonium acetate in order to achieve

better ionization

9.3

in

the sugar

identifying

moiety by

hydrolysis

TLC in

was

comparison

the monosaccharides.

with

Phytochemistry

Plant extraction

10

powdered

Air-dried and
in 70 ml
was

petroleum

carried out in

Crossopetalum gaumeri (20 g)

roots of

ether for 4 hrs at

a

namely,

polarity,

plant extraction

scale

Small

10.1

percolator (2.5

petroleum

room

(petroleum ether),

percolation

(CH2C!2),

with

took

(MeOH),

18

respectively. Chromatographic examinations of

similarity of

the

petroleum

the

extracts exhibited NF-kB

activity

the

experiments,

preliminary

and

methanol,

place

the five extracts

43 h

over a

(MeOH-H20)

for

the

of

period,

i.e

(H20),

by TLC showed
extract.

Both

different gram-

against

epidermidls and M. luteus.

process

mixture

and 9 hrs

dichloromethane

the

and antibacterial potency

B. cereus, S.

positive bacteria, namely,

these

ether

increasing

series of solvents of

dichloromethane,

ether,

methanol-water 1:1 and water. The

over

temperature. The subsequent extraction

cm)

30

macerated

were

As

result of

extraction

main

was

accordingly modified. Instead of petroleum ether and dichloromethane, only the

latter

one was

used for the

All five extracts exhibited

based

on

cytotoxic

activities down to

KB cell culture. The extracts showed neither

growth

inhibition of E. coli.

10.2

Large

Powdered

non-polar extraction.

scale

roots

plant

(sieve

successively extracted

in a

concentration of 10 ppm

antifungal activity

nor

any

extraction

mm,

then

mm) of C. gaumeri (2.26

percolator (18

45

cm)

kg)

were

with distilled dichloromethane,

dichloromethane/methanol, methanol, 70% aqueous methanol mixture and deionized water. From time to time the
60

cm).

and

The

CH2CI2

the MeOH

extractions went
indicated

by

the

extraction took

extraction
on

over

drug

was

place
120

for 72 h, each. The

manually stirred

over a

168 h

period.

change

The

in the

period,

with
the

MeOH/H20

polarity of

spatula (I

CHgCL/MeOH
and the

the solvents

H20
was

change in the color of the solvents. By removing the solvents in

195

Phytochemistry

vacuo,

five

extracts

obtained

were

extraction scheme is shown in

and

in

stored

freezer

-20C.

at

The

Figure 10.1.

Roots of

Crossopetalum gaumeri
(2.26 kg)
Percolation at ambient temperature

Evaporation

CH2CI2

CH2CI2/MeOH

94 g

23 g

brown-red

red-orange

Extract:

Quantity:
Color:

Figure

potential

CH2CI2

epidermidis and

M.

of the

CH2CI2,

MeOH and

red-orange

light-brown
v~.

H20

CH2CI2

^s

assessed

extracts were

activity down

extract showed antibacterial

to 1.25

ppm,

activity {B.

cereus, S.

luteus).

crude

separation

of the methanol extract,

phase. Further fractionation

spectrophotometer

and HPLC
detected

in order to

optimize

was

the

226

nm.

carried

done

using VLC, open

column

pure fractions

wavelengths

separation of the compounds. Thus,

by X

was

liquid-liquid partition

chromatography and HPLC. UV-spectra of relatively

196

27 g

Fractionation of the methanol extract

out twice for each

on a

35 g

extract was still active at 2.5 ppm and the water fraction at 5

ppm. Furthermore the

As

H20

KB cell culture. The MeOH extract showed

on

the brown-red

10.3

MeOH/H20

95 g

brown

vacuo

10.1. Extraction scheme

The cytotoxic
based

MeOH

in

The fractions obtained

were

obtained

for the UV-detection

the isolated cardenolides

were

were

collected and combined

Phytochemistry

isolation

detailed

The

publication

For

gel.

in the

preliminary fractionation,
The fractions obtained

VLC. The final

process

Figure

10.2

C18
was

described

correspond

in

to the

dichloromethane extract

the

CH2CI2

were

then

purification steps

were

cartridges (Sep-Pak)

guided by

and

publication.

Fractionation of the

HPLC,

in

IV. The numbers of the isolates in this thesis do not

numbering system

10.4

shown

is

procedure

the antibiotic

extract was

separated by

chromatographed using
carried out with

or

by

liquid-liquid

VLC

on

silica

MPLC and

semi-preparative
partition.

The

activity against S.epidermidis and

RP-

RP18-

isolation

with the

spectroscopy. Detailed fractionation and isolation is shown in the

help of 1H

NMR

flow chart

(Figure 10.3)

and discussed in

publication

IV.

197

Figure

(24 mg),

HPLCRP18
ACN-H20 20:80

Fr. 2

20:80

(250 mg).

6
2.4 mg

ACN-H20
5

15:85

15:85

Fr. 11 (640 mg),

HPLCRP18

39 mg

ACN-HpO

HPLC RP18

Fr. 9

Fr. 13-15 (6.9 g),

Open column chromatography on silica gel
CHCl3-CH3OH-H?0 -> 89:10:1 -> 45:50:5

ACN-H20

20:80

CHCI3 extract
(3g)

1:1

gel
CH3OH step gradient

(72 mg),

>

ACN-H20

Fr. 7

HPLCRP18

(155 mg),

CHCI3

VLC silica

60% aqueous

HPLCRP18

Fr. 5

(22 g)

n-BuOH extract

10.2. Isolation scheme of the methanol extract

130mg

Fr. 9

H20 extract
(17 g)

extract

Liquid-liquid partition
H20-n-BuOH 1:1

CH3OH/H20

(42 g)

Liquid-liquid partition
CH3OH-CHCI3

Methanol extract

Figure

Fr. 3

(34 mg)

10
2.1 mg

9:1

CH3OH

n-hexane

ACN-H20

6:4

mg)

CHCI3

Fr. 24 &25 (147

VLC silica gel

CH3OH-H20

MPLC silica

Fr. 11 & 12

(3.6 g)
gel
n-hexane-EtOAc-CH3OH

Fr. 8 (1.3 g)
VLCRP18

EtOAc

HPLC RP18

Fr.10-15

>

5.3 mg

14 mg

(63 mg)
Liquid-liquid
partition

Fr. 6

10.3. Isolation scheme of the dichloromethane extract

1.8g

Fr. 8

n-hexane

gel

(33 g)

VLC silica

Dichloromethane extract

13(11 mg)
Fr.

RP18

Cartridge Sep-Pak
CH3OH-H20 1:1 -> CH3OH

10:10:5

15:3:0.5

Phytochemistry

11

Structure elucidation

In this

chapter, additional information

publication
natural

IV.

Interesting

isolated

on

compounds

the isolated compounds is discussed in

data of the isolates

are

for each

compared

compounds. The discussion of the isolates follows the numbers

in the isolation

11.1

of the

group of
as

shown

protocols (Figure 10.2 and 10.3).

Cardenolides

Five cardenolides

aglycones

isolated from the methanol extract. Four different types of

were

(securigenin,

hydroxysarmentogenin)

sarmentosigenin,

and

three

different

sarmentogenin,
types

of

sugar

and

19-

moieties

were

identified, namely -6-deoxygulose, -6-deoxyallose and a-allose.

\Q

HO/

V"*tDH

HO

RiO

HOH2C

rilOl

B
OH

Name of the isolated cardiac

glycoside

:bOH

HO

R1

R2

Securigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (2)

CHO

Sarmentosigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (3)

OH

CHO

19-Hydroxy-sarmentogenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (4)

CH2OH

Sarmentogenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1 -^4)--6-deoxyallose] (5)

CH3

Securigenin-3-0-[cc-aIlosyl-(1 -^4)--6-deoxyallose] (6)

CHO

200

R3

Phytochemistry

reaction

Color

detection with
color

planar chromatography (TLC)

showed

glycosides

cardiac

The

on

included

greenish

substitution pattern of the

C-10

on

group

respond

with

blue color

(1 )

to

that

only

(Pauli

reactions

intense

blue

TLC

on

an

intensely

blue

cardenolides. which

and Junior,

depending

colors,

Compound

and the sugar moieties.

genin

resulted in

supports the assumption

color

after

and heated to 110 C for 5-10 minutes. The

vanillin-H2S04 reagent

pattern

methyl

characteristic

on

the

5 with the

spot. This phenomenon

are

not oxidized

on

C-19,

1990).

orange spot; ourateacatechin

(2) greenish spot, fluorescence under UV-366 nm

(3) green-yellow spot, fluorescence under UV-366
(4) green spot, fluorescence under UV-366 nm

nm

(5) blue-green spot, fluorescence under UV-366 nm

(6) brown-greenish spot, fluorescence under UV366

Figure
Mobile
60

F254;

11.1. Thin

layer chromatography (TLC)

phase: ethyl
detection:

nm

of the isolated

compounds

acetate-methanol-water 81:11:8; stationary

sprayed

with

vanillin-H2S04 reagent

5-10 min, evaluation under visible and under UV

light

phase:

1-6.

silica

gel

and heated to 110 C for

366

nm.

201

Phytochemistry

The

vanillin-H2S04 reagent

sugar moiety while fluorescence

1993).

(Pauli,
acid),

aglycone

on

transformation

The

UV 366

is attributed to the

nm

Kedde

with

ring and formation of

(NaOH,

reagent

which has not been used for the detection in this

butenolide

moiety (Stahl

and the sugar

light depends partly

The color reaction under visible

1982).

and Glatz,

reacts with the

on

the

aglycones

dinitrobenzoic

study, takes place

on

the

(Jork

et

al.,

Meisenheimer-complex

occur

1993).

1H

NMR

of the cardenolides

comparison

The cardenolides showed

overlap

complex 1H

NMR spectra due to the excessive

in the 1.0-2.5 ppm chemical shift

The

area.

18.2-18.5, 1.5, H?-21) and 5 5.90-5.94 (s, H-22)

between 5 3.28 and 5 4.74 with

compared

by

compound

the
4

is

at

characterized

by

fields

and

of 2,

3, 6

resonated

chemical shift of H-11

triplet signals

202

for the

an

signals

(r, J

water

9.42). This phenomenon

is

position C-5 of compound 3. The genin of

function

alcohol

(5 3.72-4.42) changed

clearly expressed because of

11.3).

9.41 and

at 5 3.86 and

for H-17 at 5 2.93

at 5 3.31 was

(5

at

C-19,

The two doublets

(s. 9.41-9.97).

and C-19. Further characteristic

peak

C-19 of compound 3 at 5 9.97 is shifted

on

to those of 2 and 5

hydroxyl group

aldehyde function

higher

signals

characteristic

{dd,

methyl group between 51.21-1.29 {d, J- 6.1-

6.7, H-6') each. The aldehyde group

caused

are

at 5 4.91-4.92

ring of the cardenolides. The sugar moieties showed shift ranges

butenolide

downfield

signals

signal

3.71

(each d,

the

were

shifted to

10.8

Hz). The

due to different substituents at C-5

among the five cardiac

6.9-7.1

glycosides

Hz). The signals of H2-21

suppression

always accompanied by

replacing

are

the

are

not

at approx. 4.80 ppm. The MeOD

MeOH

peak

at lower field

(Figure

Phytochemistry

13C NMR comparison of the cardenolides

signals

Two quaternary carbon

in the range

intensities due to different relaxation times. The weaker

to the

assigned

carbonyl carbon C-20 of

correlations the stronger signal

5

C-19

and

indicated

differences

the

in

84.0-84.1)

and also C-1

(5 19.7-33.8)

with the monosaccharides 2, 3 and 4

to lower field due to the

HMBC

COSY and
The

assignment of

O-linkage

the

signals

was

HMBC

to

to C-23. Different substituents on C-

(5 29.1-34.0), C-6 (5 27.7-37,1)

shifted downfield

(C-4!: 72.2-73.7;

of the second sugar

correlations

ring. Due

or

of the

C-6':

C-10

(5

The C-4'

upfield.

comparison

of the disaccharides 5 and 6 in

(5 18.2) signals

and C-6'

higher field

in

13C NMR shifts between the isolated

cardenolides. Thus, the vicinal carbons C-4

(5 37.5-55.1)

signal

butenolide

the

assigned

was

different

of 5 175.7-177.7 showed

14.9-16.4)

shifted

are

moiety (Figure 11.4),

cardenolides

of the cardenolides and their sugar moieties

was

using COSY, TOCSY, HSQC and HMBC measurements, particularly.

verified

With the aid of COSY and TOCSY spectra the saccharides

were

identified

(Figure

11.5, 11.6).

and

Relative

The relative

coupling
verified

A/B

Due

absolute

stereochemistry

constants

and

by comparing

of the

stereochemistry

the

was

elucidated

application of

by

cardenolides

ROESY

the

1H,1H

results

were

experiments,

steric arguments. The

the data with those of the literature.

ring junction:
to

the

configurations

1H,1H
were

ROESY

correlations

suggested for

with the 13C NMR data for

the

between

H-5

and

aglycones (Figure 10.2).

H-19

The

A/B

eis

comparison

C-5, C-1, C-7 and C-9 of all five compounds with those

configuration and also

of several

A/B eis

verified the

geometry of the A/B ring junction

with
as

uzarigenin (A/B

eis

trans

system)

(Drakenberg, 1990; Cheung

al., 1981). The chemical shifts of C-5 of uzarigenin (H-a)

are

in

lower

et

field

203

Phytochemistry

compared
are

to the same carbon atoms in A/B c/s-fused

due to steric

ring system

Figure

compression shifts induced

into the

systems. These differences

in the latter

systems by forcing the

c/s-configuration (Wehrli, 1979).

11.2. ROESY correlations of

compound 6 (600 MHz, MeOD)

B/C ring junction:

The B/C

frans-fusion

was

indicated

by

ROESY spectrum between H-8/H-19

(5, 6)

the

observation

of correlations

in

the

(2, 3, 4, 5), H-11/H-19 (2, 5, 6), H-8/H-11

and the lack of any correlations between H-8/H-9

(Figurel 1.2).

C/D ring junction and H-17 orientation:

The C/D
the

ring junction

C-17 position.

rise to strong

was

which indicated

as

In support of this

synaxial NOE

and H-22 of the free

assigned

eis, with the butenolide ring attached at

configuration,

the protons of

correlations with the proton of

rotating butenolide ring showed

position

of the lactone

ring.

In

H-11

in C-17a

position

approx. 5 42 for C-12

204

is characterized

(Kawaguchi

et

by

an

gave

H-8, H2-21

and

correlations to the

H3-18,

addition, the chemical shift of

C-12 of the aglycones lie in the range of 48.5-50.6 ppm, whereas

ring

H3-18

upfield

shift of approx.

butenolide
8 ppm to

al., 1993). Due to this evidence and in

Phytochemistry

comparison

C-17

orientation

Relative

The

with the 13C and 1H shifts of

Mass

as

eis and

(Drakenberg, 1990).

and H-3 orientation:

detail

stereochemistry of the sugar moieties is described in

in

IV.

spectrometry of the cardenolides

For the cardiac

ionization
presence

hexose
were

verified

stereochemistry of the saccharides

relative

publication

were

digitoxigenin, C/D ring junction

method

of

of

FAB

FAB-MS

technique.

deoxyhexose (2, 3), m/z

(5, 6) (Figure 11.7).

obtained.

hexose

glycosides positive

were

fragment

measured
of

m/z

Instead, peaks

were

[M+Na-sugar]+, [M+K-sugar]\

146

162 substantiates the

For the disaccharides, 5 and 6,

obtained

Based

which

on an

no

the

soft

indicates

the

due

to

molecular

indicated

of

presence

the

peaks

loss

of

ESI-MS the molecular ion of

the disaccharide cardenolides was detected.

205

ce
II

O
*

O
X

CM

DC

-1

O'

o*

\^-

y/o

O
O
CO

O'
>>

v
-

cAY ^O
X

O
X

CJ
X

O
CD

co

in

c/)

X3
O
Cl

E
o
o

"6
rr

co

CD
=3

O)

CD
zs

c
c

o
o

CO

cd
CD

ro
o
CD

160

'

'

11.4. 13C NMR of

T7

r2o

HOH2C

Rt0^3

T7

Figure

20

23

20

23

19

10

'

HO

~^2

H*C

"

'

HO

'

'

14

OH

r~~

-o

8'0

Re

(75.5 MHz)

1~

5'

11' 3

21

11

19

HO

OH

Qr

6'

60

HO<4'

HqC.

\3* 2'

4'

3.

04^*0m^e

1'

1"

OH

1">-""0|'

3 in MeOD

22

120

compounds 4, 5, 6, 2,

fT

HO

HOHoC. 6"

'

12

Ri

40

10

15,4

51

20

TO7

18

ppm

ppm

6'

CD

CO

co

c\T_"

"^v

,_

LO

co

209

1" 1'

4'5

3'

6"

,5"
pi||

of

compound

315

5m 4;;2*h

4T0

3I31'

Figure 11.5.1H 1H DQF-COSY spectrum

5!0

aAjjI

21

6 in MeOD

30

17

*:

<*2

#*-

jj

20

1Mie

15

12,

3S

V.

1 0

-1.5

-1.0

ppm

6"

h3C

entire line: alloside

ppm

HOH?C

18

(600 MHz); dashed line: deoxyalloside;

2'5

\\

co

CAi

CM
C\J

O
CO

Q.

Q.

O
-3t.

o
CD

Uu-

CO

CO

03

CO

-41^-

LO
LO

o
co

O
co

-f

lo

Is

cm

co

CD

CD

-H

T3
13

O
Q.
O

E
=5
u
h>

O
O

CD
Q.
CO

L0

CD
.C

15
C
D_
CD

CD

LO

*WW

**>Wfjmiijipt^

CO

t-

^CnUd*

tor*-

t-

CD

CD

co

CM
CM

211

ro

ro

5'r

Figure

Lo

13

20

I JO

35

4 0

45

b5

70

75

8u

00

lOo

ijj

1/5

^7

27^

Z0

30/

11.7

-s

r.

15

Positive FAB

1&0

zTO

'ilii 'in

spectrum of compound

00

JLjiiLuJl^ ill ] Jii'JiilijL

mass

JJiiAi

)3J

[M+H-deoxyhexosyl-H20]4

>C

lillllLli
/rf.

11
jJliil

4oG

.;

jUI

J.

kLUdll ill

j51

[M+Hl

[M-deoxyhexosyl+K]4

11
llJilLJlklll ,1

4/3

[M+Na]

11

>73

00

/J

E_

11/ Z

0E0

0E6

0E7

5E7

0E7

5E7

0E7

55

0^7
5

5E7

0"

0E7

5E7

0E7

5E7

7
7

CE7

jS7
3

Bbj

5E7

0E7

OES

,_
r

13/

154

90

I 95

|19C>

Phytochemistry

Ourateacatechin

11.2

(Drewes

(-)-4'-0-methyl-epigallocatechin

and

1993),

Mashimbye,

pentahydroxy-4'-methoxy-2,3-c/"s-flavane (Weeratunga

et

3,3',5,5',7-

al., 1985)

OCH,

2 ^

M,:

'%

320

OH

C16Hl607
1

Ourateacatechin

(1)

NMR and the DEPT

experiment

intensity of the aromatic

gated 13C (1H)

NMR

isolated

was

H-2'

as

was

leading
and

(Figure 11.9).

to at least

one

showed

This indicated

pseudo-molecular

peak

some

322.0

the

EI-MS, which
allowed

mass

at m/z 183 and 140 that are

et

composed

with the

C-4

to

C-10

(Figure

at

methylene

one

[M+2H]+,

C16H160T. Furthermore,

fragmentations (Garcia

and

inverse-

in the molecule

type of symmetry

the

spectrum

typical for

al., 1993) (Figure 11.10). The 13C-

INADEQUATE NMR allowed the formulation of the carbon skeleton

CT-C2'-C3'-C4'

double

the methine group

six methine groups,

m/z

at

pair of important fragment peaks

retro-Diels-Alder

(Figure 11.8). The

The combination of these results with the

establishment of the molecular formula

revealed

NMR

phenomena for the quaternary carbon

eight quaternary carbons,

methyl group.
a

observed

In the 1H

experiment verified the double intensity of

at 107.12 ppm and showed the same

151.15 ppm

14 carbons.

detected

{6 6.55)

The 13C

brown-orange amorphous solid.

11.11).

The

help of HMBC experiments, especially

two

C4-C3-C2-

fragments

with the

were

correlation

between H-2 and C-9 and the correlation of H-6 to C-5/8/10 and H-8 to C-6/7/10.

Thus, 4'-0~methyl-epigallocatechin (1)

was

identified. The

stereochemistry

was

213

Phytochemistry

ROESY

by

elucidated

experiments

coupling

and

constants. The intensive

correlation between the protons of H-2 and H-3 indicated

B

ring and the hydroxyl group. This

H-H

which

coupling constant,

(Palazzo

de Mello et al.,

carbon shifts, which

are

was

eis

relationship

confirmed due to the lack of

would

be

consistent

with

trans

NOE
of the

7 Hz vicinal

relationship

The *H and 13C NMR data showed proton and

1996).

in accordance with literature values

(Delle

Monache et al.

1992) (Table 11.1).

1H, 13C

Table 11.1.

NMR data and

ourateacatechin

(1)

in

long-range correlations (HMBC)

MeOD

,3cr,

No.

8 ppm
79 46 d

4.77 br

3.4, 9, 1s, 2-

4.19 br

10

29 03 t

2.74 dd

2.87 dd
157.77

157.42

95.86 d

8
9

157.00

10

100.03

136.45

(16.8, 2.6)
(16.8, 4.4)

2,3, 5,9, 10

5.97 d

(2.2)

5, 8, 10
-

5.93 d

(2.2)

6, 7. 10

2, 3', 4', 27=6'

276'

107.12 d

3',5'

151.15 s

135.94

4'

OMe

60.77 q

Multiplicities

determined

(MeOH,
:

322

6.55

3.79

4!

by DEPT sequences

data of ourateacatechin

Physical

214

96.40 d

eV) m/z

(Jm Hz)

67.24 d

HMBC
correlations

47.3

1H. 5 ppm,

of

(1). Brown-orange amorphous powder: [a]D

1.00, 24 CC); UV Anax (MeOH): 271, 209 nm; positive EI-MS (70

[M+2H]+, 183, 168, 154, 140,33.

cn

ro

Figure

11 8

65

2/6'

5 5

1H NMR spectrum of ourateacatechin

60

_7

(1)

-1

OCH,

in

MeOD

5 0

45

(300 MHz)

4 0

OCH3

35

/A.

3 0

ppm

4a

E
Cl

O
<3

o
CD

"TnT

00

LO
CM

H7
-

CM

7-

O
CO

TD
CD
C

"O

>>

Cl

O
CD

2
c
O

0
0
r-

^*

T^-^-

CD

jr
o

CM

CD

CO
O

C
CD

CC
w.
-

O
CM

rs

co

T3

,-j.

0)

"c
o

D)
CD
CO

CD
>

LO
CO

en

en

CD

h_^

LO

216

o
co

O)

-S

to

t-

CXI

LTt

CN

c*

ID

LT)

un

LO

o
1

X
CM
+

T-J

t-

LO

c
o

CD
CO

CCS
CD
-+-*

CO

o
o

o
"3o
CD

Q.
W

CO
CO

CO

LU
O

CD

217

ro

CO

Figure

130

120

110

276'

spectrum of ourateacatechin (1)

140

11.11. 13C INADEQUATE

150

375'

in

90

30

70

MeOD/pyridine-d5 (125 MHz)

100

10

60

50

40

ppm

Phytochemistry

11.3

Triterpenes

11.3.1

Pristimerin

(20a)-3-Hydroxy-2-oxo-24-nor-f riedelane-1(10),3,5,7-tetraen-carbonacid-(29)methylester (Bruning

and

Wagner, 1978)

464

C30H40O4

Compound
of

mass

showed

7 was found to have the molecular formula

three olefinic
one

(Figure 11.12).

protons (<5 6.35, 6.55 7.03) and

vinyl methyl (5 2.21, C-23) and

Based

compound (ca.

on

root

combination

these data and the isolation of

20% of the

CH2CI2 extract)

bark

of

plants

of

the

Celastraceae

methyl groups,

seven

methoxy group (5 3.66, C-31)

with

suggested the presence of pristimerin (7). Pristimerin

the

spectrometry and 13C NMR experiments including DEPT, The 1H NMR

among them

the

C3H40O4 by

intensive

an

is

remarkable

(Grant

orange

well-known
and

quantity of
color

pigment

Johnson,

in

1957;

Habermeier, 1980). The comparison with the 1D NMR data with those of the
literature

(Gunatilaka

et

al., 1989) confirmed the isolation of pristimerin (7),

quinone-methide triterpene. The 1H and 13C chemical shifts

11.2 and 11.3,

are

listed in Table

respectively.

219

Q.

CL

CM

CM
CM
CO

c>
b

WCD-

co

CM

"\

//

LO
CM

r>-

CO

CO

CM
CM

7?

LO
"-^

CO

CM

CD

"xi-'

1
-OJ

co
CO

CM
CD

-A

'~\

lo
CO

co

"xt

ro

"xf
(X

reg

LO

CO

C0CD

=>-'

o
-CD

CO-

CO

r*-

CM
CM

220

Phytochemistry

Physical data of pristimerin (7). Orange amorphous solid: [a]D

4.67, 24 C); UV Amax (MeOH): 213, 423

179.0

positive EI-MS (70 eV) m/z

nm;

(CHCI3,

464, 267,

253,241,201,27.

11.3.2

Friedelane-3-on-29-ol

D:A-friedooleanan-29-ol-3-one

(Betancor

et

(Itokawa

et

al., 1991), 29-hydroxyfriedelane-3-one

al., 1980), 3-oxofriedelane-29-ol (Patra and Chaudhuri, 1987)

31

Mr

442

C30H50U2

Compound
was

was

The 1H

C30H50O2.

as a

by EI-MS (M+

obtained

carbons

isolated

(Table

white

at m/z

NMR showed

10.2 and

10.3).

442)

seven

The

The molecular formula

amorphous powder.
as

well

methyl

13C NMR and formulated

as

groups

attached

long-range correlations* and led

of

friedelane

quaternary

partial spin systems obtained by COSY

spectra (H-1/H-2, H-1/H-10, H-4/H-23, H-6/H-7, H-18/H-19)

the aid

to

as

to the

were

connected

identification

of the

using
known

triterpene 8 (Figure 11.14).

*Long-range
3/4/5, H-24

correlations of HMBC measurements:

to

12/13/14/18,

C-4/5/6/10, H-25
H-28

to

to

C-8/9/10/11, H-26

C-16/17/18/22,

H-29

to

C-1/2/5, H-23

to C-

C-8/13/14/15, H-27

to C-

H-4 to
to

C-19/20/21/30,

H-30

to

C-

19/20/21/29.

221

Phytochemistry

The

stereochemistry

relevant correlations

was
were

identified
observed:

by

ROESY

experiments.

The

following

H-4/H-10, H3-23/H3-24, H3-24/H-8, H3-25/H-

8, H3-25/H3-26, H3-26/H-18, H,-26/Hr28, H-27/H,-29, (Figure 1113)

Figure

11.13. ROESY correlations of

compound 8 (300 MHz, CDCI3)

Physical data of fnedelane-3-on-29-ol (8).

(CHCI3,

White

amorphous solid

25.2

1.15, 24 C); UV A^dX (MeOH) 212 nm, positive EI-MS (70 eV) m/z

[M*], 301, 273, 258, 246, 231, 216, 205, 188, 177, 163, 149, 83,

222

[a]D

48

442

o
xt

CO

LO

CO

CL

Cl

(/

CD

\\

\v
y

c^

-xt

LO

''

77-7

O
CO

LO
CM

CTO

Vi1

ni

y1

79

co
CM

co
CM

o
co

CD
CM

CD
CM

xt

CO

CD
CM

Ai

CM

7
Kir

\vll

vi?-;
^-

rx.

cm

2:

co
CM

i^.

K
co

CM

CM
*

"

CM
CM

co
CM

CO

?/

\j y.

cm|
en

K-

lo

-T^y-**
oitj-

CD

co

o
o

Phytochemistry

2,3,7-Trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-nor-

11.3.3

friedelane-29-oc

acid

methylester

496

C3cH40O6

The main

problem

in the structure elucidation

signal C-7

identification of the weak

of the

new

compound

was

the

of the quaternary carbon at 147.4 ppm in the

13C NMR. In addition, it did not show any long-range correlation in the HMBC

experiment due

to the absence of the

16). The 1H and 13C

and

E-rings

COSY
was

of

pristimerin (7) and

by ROESY

and 1H NMR data with

could

be

confirmed

friedelane-29-oic acid

224

at

C-5, C-9 and C-14 (Figure 11.

NMR data showed similar chemical shifts

were

experiments (Figure 11.17;

identified

protons

Tables

measurements

similar
as

assigned

as

those of the C, D

with the aid of the HMBC and

11.2 and

11.3). The stereochemistry

(Figure 11.15). Comparing

compound regeol C,

the structure of

the 13C NMR

compound

2,3,7-trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-nor-

methylester (Takaishi

et al.

1997).

Phytochemistry

Figure

11.15. ROESY correlations of

compound

(300 MHz, MeOD)

225

Figure

6:0
'

5:0

'

4'.0

4 29/31

6/1

spectrum of compound 9

in MeOD

'

(H/C: 300/75.5 MHz)

3!0

6/23.

29/19
W

*10/23

,2/23

2/1

10/1

$3/23

3/1

11.16. Part of HMBC

710

'

4/23

$ 5/23

1/23

4/1

5/1

y
..

2.0

29/19

10/11

-r-^

29/21

<>

-180

M 70

-160

ppm

29/30

10/25

-150

8/25$ 8/26
M 40

1-130

-120

-110

ppm

E
CL
CL

co

CM

co

1.

CM

CD
LO

is*

O
O

O
CD

!>
00

"D

_o
CM

C
=3
O
Q.

E
-O

CM

CM
'

CM

"o
E
=3
v
-*j

"CM

CD
CL
CO

x_

CD

PCM

00

O
O
I

CO

"CM
ces
LO

sm-

v*^pn)r\^ ~>~*^^yvwvw*ya/

inf

~W-

""co

CD

227

Phytochemistry

11.3.4

Celastrol

(20a)-3-Hydroxy-2-oxo-24-nor-friedelane-1(10),3,5,7-tetraen~carbonacid

450

^29''38^4

The

comparison

close

similarity between these

difference the
The

of 1H and 13C NMR data with those of

mass

methoxy group (5 3.55, C-31),

C29H3804

stereochemistry

correlations between

relationships of

these

as

well

as

of the

by

ROESY

determined

was

H-18/H3-28, H3-25/H3-26

and

and

confirmed the

H3-26/H-18

was

many genera of the Celastraceae

identified

as

celastrol,

(Gisvold, 1939; Kutney

Physical

(MeOH,

were

pigment

common to

et al. 1981:
was

trans and

Morota et

isolated in

(10): Orange-yellow amporphous powder: [a]D

23.0

1.00, 24 C); UV Amax (MeOH): 213, 423 nm; positive EI-MS (70 eV) m/z.

450,436,253,241,202, 149, 83.

228

The

quantity (2.1 mg).

data of celastrol
c

The

indicated diaxial

al., 1995). In comparison with pristimerin (7) (6 g), Celastrol (10)

very small

group.

experiment.

protons. Therefore ring fusions C/D and D/E

eis, respectively. Compound 10

only

compound 10.

methyl

the absence

The

in

present

at m/z 450

7 showed a

11.3).

11.2 and

which not

spectra exhibited the molecular peak

molecular formula
relative

(Table

two molecules

pristimerin

Phytochemistry

Table 11.2.1H

NMR data of

compounds 7, 8,10

(300 MHz)

in

CDCI3

(300 MHz)

9 in MeOD

(J

in

Hz)

(300 MHz)

10

(500 MHz)

S ppm
1

6.55

1.97 m, 1.69

2.38 dd

7.03 d

2.42 dd

2.25

(6.9)

(3.3, 1.9)
(3.2, 1.9)

1.777

6.86 s

6.50

7.06 d

(7.0)

6.33 d

(7.2)

1.31
7

6.35 d

(7.1)

1.50\
1.42'

8
10
11

12

1.40}

1.53'

1.86,

1.477

2.16,

2.17

1.34J

1.97 dt

1,81,

1.35'

1.82 m,

1.68*

1.81e

1.87:,
(4.1, 14.1)

1.66 dt

1.65"

1.65,

1.56\

2.88 m,

1.59",

1.57

1.32

1.85

1.54

16

1.52,

1.60,

1.91',

1.34-'

1.45'

1.81*.
1.47*

18

1.89
1.59

19

2.42 d

15

21

(15.6)

2.20,

1.62'

1.59 d

1.58'

1.50',

2.47 brd

2.50 d

1.223

1.71

1.75'

1.37'

2.17

22

(7.8)
(15.5),
dd (7.4, 14.7)

1.36'

2.05,

1.395,

2.12 dt

0.97

1.00'

0.96

2.10m

2.57

2.21

23

2.21

24

0.89 d

0.73

0.88

(6.3)

(4.1, 13.8),

0.94

m.

25

1.45

1.44

26

1.26 s

1.04 s

1.37 s

1.26

27

0.53

1.05

0.69

0.59

28

1.09 s

1.22

1.08

1.10

29

3.29 d

3.25 d
30
OCH,

1.17

1.03

3.55 s

1H chemical shifts

1.49

(10.7)
(10.7)

were

Signal multiplicity

was

assigned

1.28

1.15s

3.55

on

the basis of HSQC

not described due to

(2.5),

2.25',

1.43'

1.37

2.14 m,

(4.2, 14.2)

experiments

signal overlap.

229

Phytochemistry

1 able 113
9 in MeOD

13C NMR data of compounds 7, 8 10

(75

Ca

22 3 t

109 0 d

120 5 d

41 5 t

151 7

178 3

143 5

146 9

58 2 d

127 9

1183

42 1

119 9s

127 5 s

133 9 d

41 3 t

182 8 S

135 2 d

1180 d

182 t

147 4

120 1 d

169 9

53 4 d

139 1

42 8

164 6

178 2

146 0

1170

127 3 s

213 2

172 4 s

37 4

40 7

43 0

59 4 d

152 8

165 0

11

33 5 t

35 6 t

12

29 6 t

30 6 t

30 5 t

39 3

45 3

34 2 t

13

39 3

39 9 s

40 0 S

14

44 9

38 2 s

47 2

33 7 t

29 3 t

15

28 5 t

32 7 t

29 6 t

28 7 t

16

36 3 t

35 8 t

37 8 t

36 3 t

17

30 4

18

44 2 d

19
20

30 5

41 8 d

29 7 t

30 8 t
40 3

33 1

30 6 s

45 4 d

44 3 d

31 1

31 9 t

41 7 s

31 Ot
39 9

21

29 8 t

27 8 t

30 9 t

29 5 t

22

34 7 t

39 5 t

36 2 t

34 5 t

23

101 q

68q

140 q

104 q

24

146q

38 3 q

20 7 q

196 q

21 5 q

184 q

20 6 q

187 q

38.2 q

17.9 q

26

21 5 q

27

182 q
31 5 q

32 1 q

74 8 t

30

32 6 q

25 8 q

OCH,

51 4 q

29

Multiplicities

178 6

determined

by

41 6 q

25

28

230

and

10

CDCI3

10

1195 d

in

MHz, <Sppm)

32 1 q

180 7

32 9 q
52 2 q

DEPT sequences

31 5 q

182 2

32 4 q

Phytochemistry

3,15-Dihydroxy-18-norabieta-3,8,11,13-tetraene

11.4

M =302

C19H2603
11

The structure elucidation is described in publication IV. 1H NMR and 13C NMR
shown

Figure

in

experiment.
A/B trans
data

11.18,

The

stereochemistry

configuration

was

keto function

3/4, but

no

1984).

However,

the

due to

an

enol-form

was

11

showed

an

ROESY

protons of C-20,

enol-form

detected in the 13C NMR spectrum

"enolising"

on

by

indicated and confirmed by comparison with literature

reaction, the isolated compound

an

elucidated

Due to the lack of correlation between H-5 and the

(Nakano etal., 1997). Compound

showed

was

are

of the
11

carbonyl

was

position C-7/8.

stabile.

group
The

is

new

on

(Kalinowski
generally

on

et

C-

al.,

slow

triterpene 9 also

In this case, the enol-form

expanded conjugated system (keto group

position

was

favored

C-6).

231

E
Q.

co
w

CD

""^

\J

o
CM

~"^=3~

Q.

CL

h-

CD

CO

| CM

JQ

CM

)
*>-

CO ~^>
O

"7

\ Ie0
J

-____

___

I
1-

___^

L
1

LO

L
o
"3L

1 LO

"xf

232

CL

^IcL

CM

-^

o
"CM

Phytochemistry

activities of isolated

Biological

12

compounds

Cytotoxicity

12.1

Cardiac glycosides

known to be

are

in

KB-cytotoxicity

showed

cytotoxic. The isolated cardenolides (2-6)

range of 0.074-0.199 iimol/ml. Our

comparison indicated that the difference of

significant difference

hydroxyl

in

showed

methyl group
By

sugars moieties, the

(Kitanaka

Cassady

et

proton

(Thunb.)

alata

umol/ml.

comparison of

Sieb,

C-5 and

There is

C-5

no

with

(1980)

the

discussed

Those

active than

more

to

KB-cell

group

C-1

on

with

with C-19

active than the C-19

activities

anti-tumor

of

the

cytotoxicity system

The conclusions about structural

the

are

on

following:

cytotoxicity

with

glycosides

aglycones.
a

hydrogen

cytotoxicity (contradictory

than those with

Compounds

system

substantial difference between

compounds

cytotoxic

in the KB

(NCI).

influence of the C-3 substituent

regard

The

al., 1996).

requirements for cytotoxicity

being slightly

C-

these cardenolides with different numbers of

screened at the National Cancer Institute

some

exhibited

hydroxyl

cardenolides and structure-activity relationships in the KB cell

There is

IV).

genins of these compounds

The

on

the introduction of

cytotoxic activities decreased when the numbers of sugars

Suffness

and

Euonymus

C-19,

on

in the chain resulted in a

activity(publication

cytotoxic

the

of 0.186-1.812

range

instead of C-11.

increase

from

isolated

sugar

cytotoxicity. Furthermore,

increased

group

cardenolides

activity

in KB-cell

one

structure-activity

hydrogens

our

at C-5 retain

hydrogens

while

results,

activity

hydroxyl group
see

but

are

at

above).
notably

less

at C-5.

hydroxyl groups

aldehydes,

to

and

retain

activity but

are

somewhat less

C-19 acid is inactive.

233

Phytochemistry

Substituents, which

are

tolerated without

large changes

in

cytotoxicity,

1-

are

OH, 11a-OH, and 12-OH groups.

C-14 requires

Cardenolides

hydroxy

systems. The activity is

volume of

these

negative

large number

of

cytotoxicity.

lacking therapeutically relevant cytotoxic activity

are

Consequently,

group for maximum

easily reproducible

not

compound

can

used

tested at the NCI, it is apparent that there is little if

compounds

(Cassady

Pristimerin

(7) and

compounds from

tumor cells

of

by

(10)

Schwenk

to

structures.

hydroquinones,

Suffness, 1980).

celastrol

fig/ml). According
quinoid

and

The

which

the

and the

cardenolides

on

any prospect of developing therapeutically useful anti-cancer

this group

vivo

From

therapeutically.

in vivo data

extremely marginal

or

in

and in the range of the toxic dose.

be

not

in

showed

(1962) cytotoxicity
of the

reduction

by

inhibition of

quinoid

glycolysis. Campanelli
to DNA.

be

may

substances

et al.

They suggest

(1980)
a

0.28, 0.72

dependent

the

on

cells

the

in

give hydrogen peroxide,

autoxidation

tingenone (quinone methine)

(IC50

in KB ceil

cytotoxicity

to

destroy

may

studied the

binding

possible mode of cellular

interaction, which may elicit anti-tumor activity. These two propositions show that
mechanism of the

Cytotoxicity
used

of

for the

pristimerin (7)
NF-KB-test.

and celastrol

(10)

was

also noted

Forty minutes after adding pristimerin

changed their morphology. After adding celastrol (10)

was

observed after 60 minutes. Gonzales et al.

pristimerin (7)
the

in HeLa cells

cytotoxicity against

Friedelane-3-on-29-ol

compounds

234

were

is still unclear.

cytotoxic potential of quinone methides

as

0.6

^g/rnl,

the

(7),

same

(1987) reported

HeLa

in

the

the

cells
cells

phenomenon

ID50

value of

and therefore it is similar to the value of

KB cells.

(8)

was

reported

not

cytotoxic

to have

in KB cell

(IC50

>

20

(ig/ml),

but similar

cytotoxicity: 3-oxo-friedelane-29-oic acid (A-

Phytochemistry

549

lung

cells:

carcinoma cells:

ED50

3.7

ug/ml;

ED50

L-1210:

uq/ml)

3.7

EDS0

2.95

and 3-oxo-friedelane-28-oic acid

ug/ml) (Mahato

and Sen,

(KB

1997).

Other activities

12.2

Antibacterial and

antifungal activity:

gram-positive

several

and

coli.

Escherichia

Candida

compounds against fungi.

was

NF-kB

activity. At

albicans
The

results

polar

seen

extracts

concentration of 0.125 jig

negative

strains

(7)

was

none

HeLa

in

1 mm, inhibition
not active

Campylobacter jejuni

IC50

K1

Plasmodium

falciparum

Plasmodium

falciparum T9/96

testing

the

IV.

No

publication

albicans.

compounds

The

cytotoxic

effect of

NF-kB test of the

non-

against

the

following

gram-

IC50

0.41

brucei

MIC

0.12

Trypanosoma

cruzi

MIC

<

MIC

6.3

(epimastigotes)

Giardia duodenalis

pylori

and C.

to the

jejuni

tested)

|jg/ml

ug/ml

jig/ml
ug/ml; IC50

(7) showed good anti-parasitic activity

probably due

ug

ug/ml

0.41
<

(600

zone

(600 ug tested)

Trypanosoma

H.

for

and

parasites (methods: publication III).

or

pylori

activity against

cereus,

aeruginosa

of the isolated

cells.

further tested

Helicobacter

is

against

experiments (chapter 10.1).

Result

phenomenon

in

"positive"

for the

Microorganism

Pristimerin

Bacillus

model

tested

previously mentioned, pristimerin (7) and

in the EMSA shift

Pristimerin

Other activity.

as

summarized

are

probably responsible

was

namely

bacteria,

chosen

was

(10) showed cytotoxic activity

pristimerin (7)

were

Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas

active in the NF-kB assay. As

celastrol

compounds

agains gram-negative bacteria and against C.

detected

activity

The isolated

gram-negative

Staphylococcus epidermidls,

were

in all

2.1 ,ug

anti-parasitic assays. This

unspecific and high

KB cell

cytotoxicity.

The

is very weak.

235

Phytochemistry

Ourateacatechin

(1)

falciparum

activity

but

no

tested

was

against H. pylori, C. jejuni, G. duodenalis and

found. In the protein kinase screening, the catechin

was

did not show any inhibition of the kinases tested

Friedelane-3-on-29-ol

Biomedicine,

13.1

showed

glycoside (2-6) did

The cardiac

13

(8)

Adults

worms.

activity against G. duodenalis.

not show any

the

P.

activity against

popular

of

use

of the major health

are one

children

affected by diarrhea

are

frequently

are

(chapter 6.3).

falciparum.

C,

gaumeri

problems

problems

Maya. Especially

no

explain

way to

Gastrointestinal

Gastrointestinal

P.

medicated

for

problems

(mal

de

diarrhea,

among Yucatec

ojo), flatulence

dysentery,

and

vomiting,

flatulence, cramps, indigestion, stomachache and tip'te' (publication I). The most

frequent pathogenic
bacteria,

organisms,

and

viruses

parasites.

gastrointestinal problems
cholerae

Shigella dysenteriae
lumbricoides
well

as

gaumeri

in

are

the

leads

to

causing

microorganisms

publication

histolytica

death

causes

III. In addition,

due

to

dysentery

Vibrio

dehydration.
and Ascaris

responsible for flatulence, diarrhea, lost of weight

activity of pristimerin (7)

as

an

anti-diarrheal

by pristimerin (7)

treating

ourateacatechin

diarrhea,

(1)

seems to

medicine.

pain,

and
the

of

an

explanation of
growth

understanding

indigestion.

use

be

Also the

is of relevance for

supports

gastrointesinal problems.

236

of

are

as

obstipation.

duodenalis
use

and Entamoeba

(eelworm)

The antibacterial

of C.

Some

often

which

gastrointestinal problems,

cause

listed in Table 1 of

are

cholera,

induces

which

this

The

inhibition
the

as

of

use

G.

indigenous

spasmolytic

species

the

effect

remedy

of
for

Phytochemistry

13.2

Snake

Venomous

bites

snakes

lowland

Maya

family

of

durissus

area.

are

and

feared

{uolpoch)

the

are

snakes

Their

poisons

multi-protein

contain

and

respected

Maya today.

the

among

taxinchan)

bilineatus

Agkistrodon
most

Crotalus

(rattlesnake, tzabcan), Bothrops

(Fer-de-lance,

asper

the

Three snakes of the

Crotalidae,

the

in

common

complexes,

enzymes that support the distribution

the

well

as

venom,

as

of

digestive

enzymes. The toxins of the snakes

can

Figure
by

13.1.

Maya hunterbitten

rattlesnake

(Lee, 1996),

be classified in:

a-toxins

(postsynaptic inhibitory activity): Peptides

with S-S

bridges

%-toxins (neuronal inhibitory activity)

*

-toxins (presynaptic inhibitory activity): Heterogeneous proteins

peptides, similar

toxins which

to

and

oligo

phopholipases

support presynaptic activity: Built of 57-60 amino acids

Na+-chanal-activator: Built of 39-43 amino acids

Hemorrhagines (metallo-proteases): Mr 20,000-100,000

For the three

species

chanal-activator

and

of snakes,

hemorrhagines

structure of the membranes and

phospholipase A2
contraction of the

-toxins

are

discussed here the effects of

are

important.

The

ions. As

destroy

the

result,

Depolarisation leads

to the

heart, skeletal and smooth muscle cells. In addition,

able to

Na+

-toxins destroy

change the permeability of

is able to pass the membranes.

-toxins,

the membranes of muscle cells. As

some

of the

consequence,

237

Phytochemistry

myoglobinuria
of

membranes

the

the

at

C,

A two-cm

this

gaumeri

of

0.16 mg

are

inhibitors

tissues.

around

the

(Teuscher

observed

the

the

plasma.

symptoms

twitches,

mouth,

and

blood

the

Thus,

of death,

case

of

destroy

are

weakness,

shock, and collapse of the

Lindequist, 1994).

in the treatment for snake bites

used

about 0.8-1.6 g

(o

0.5-1

snake bite. A piece of

a venomous

cm). Thus,

(1

8-16 mg

% of

dry

pristimerin (7) 0.16-0.32 mg (0.02 %) of ourateacatechin (1) and 0.08-

(0.01 %)

of cardiac

compounds (8, 9,
amounts and

no

10)

and

glycosides (2-6)
are not

powdered

that the

remedy takes away

venom". From
is

discussed further because they

root mixed with water is used

the

used

studies with the

to

(Houghton

Persimmon
neurotoxic

and

tannin

and

topically.

clear

no

treat

The healers mentioned

answers can

bites.

To

get

be found,

why C.
further

answer,

an

plant and their main principles

out. However some hints about active

in literature

in little

occur

pain, reduces the inflammation and "adsorbs

biomedical perspective

traditionally

pharmacological

consumed. The other isolated

are

strong and relevant activity is expectable.

Also the

gaumeri

the

of fresh root is chewed after

piece

length weights

weight)

In

vomiting.

(metallo-proteases)

the

to

bite, paresthesia

cardiovascular system

13.2.1

and/or

extravasates

and

sweating

syncope,

capillaries

blood

Consequently
ecchymosis

Hemorrhagines

occurs.

must be carried

compounds against snake bites

are

found

Osibogun, 1993; Mors, 1991).

from

Diospyros

haemorrhagic

kaki

L.

f.

(Ebenaceae)

The

results

Consequently the authors recommended the

extract

venoms.

were
as

very

neutralized

promising.

washing agent

in

the emergency treatment of snake bite wounds. The structure of the D. kaki
tannin

was

reported

as

being made up of

Protocatechuic acid from

was

238

Cryptolepis

isolated. It deactivated

venom

catechin and

sinensis Merr.

and

gallocatechin

units.

(Asclepiadaceae)

Phytochemistry

gymnemic acids of the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)

inhibited ATPase.
*

The roots of Aristolochia spp.

deactivate various snake
The

leaves

of

intra-arterial

with

treated

clotting

oral anti-snake-venom

remedy

Brazil.

Features which could

is

Two

to

bind

on

venom

of

possibly

Echis

to be the main

this effect could

as

diuretics

help

isolated

were

from

importance

are

or

to diminish

grouping, Polyphenolic substances

to

inhibit

has the

(Hansel

et

to treat the local and

assigned

necrosis and

to the anti-oxidative

the

in the treatment of snake bites

enzymes.

ability

are

Ourateacatechin

al., 1999). In

expanded

ecchymos.

well

(1),

to inhibit the toxic enzymes of

show

case

anti-edematic

of ourateacatechin,

tumescence after

bite of C.

durissus and B. asper. Furthermore, the treatment of the edema could

avoid

of the

al., 1997).

be of

proteins and

pterocarpans

ingredient

which is manufactured in

by topical application. Generally, catechines

activities and act

cahnatus, which

against the toxic cardiovascular effects of

et

polyphenolic substance, presumably

snake

supposed

prenylated

the acidic nature and/or catechol

known

venom

remedy Especffico Pessoa,

(Hostettmann

venom

the

time

the

of blood.

and shown to be active

Bothrops

are

venoms.

Cabeca-de-negro (negro's head)

north-east

rich in aristolochic acid

Strophanthus hispidus (Apocynaceae) prolonged

taken to clot for blood

causes

(Aristolochiaceae)

help

to

The mechanisms of the catechins

property and the inhibition of enzymes (Hansel

etal., 1999).
When the

plant remedy is

secondary

infections of the bite. This could well be due to

showed

in the form of

plaster

it

probably prevents

pristimerin (7),

which

high antibiotic activity.

Anti-inflammatory activity
active

used

against

isolated from C.

snake

is

property

common

to many

bites. But at the test concentration

gaumeri showed any activity

plants claimed
used

no

to be

compound

in the NF-kB assay.

239

Phytochemistry

13,2.2

What have the cardenolides to do with snake

Cardiotonic steroids and their activity: Cardenolides

inotropic effect

frequency
Ca2"

cardiac muscle

on

are

known for their

by increasing contractility

of heart beat via Na7K+-ATPase inhibition

bites?

and

positive

decreasing

and

the

increasing delivery

to cardiac muscle cells. Cardiotonic steroids have a very narrow

of

therapeutic

window. The emetic dose of cardenolides is approximately 50 % of the lethal

dose. Fatal

poisoning

after oral

ingestion of plants is

rare

due to the bitter taste

and the subsequent vomiting. The resorption rate of ouabain

peroral application

groups). Digitoxin

is less than 5 % due to the substance's

with

one

hydroxyl group

%). The isolated compounds (2-6)

be

supported

and

that their
The

digitoxin.

which

can

be

have two to three

rate most

optimized by increasing
and

likely lie

rate furthermore

resorption

etherification

sugars,

resorption

is resorbed

esterification

the

of

following

list and show

polarity (five hydroxyl

practically completely (100

hydroxyl

groups and it can

between those of ouabain

depends

the sugar moieties,

on

lipophilic character (separation

hydroyl groups).

structure-activity relationships (SAR) of the cardenolides

summarized in the

(g-strophanthin) by

some

on

The

study

on

of
the

the Na7K+-ATPase is

interesting correlations

to the

cytotoxicity (Malcolm, 1991; Thomas 1992) (see chapter 12.1).

SAR of

A lactone function

necessary,

but

(C-17)

and sugar side chains

contribute

considerably

cardenolides. The compounds containing

of all cardiotonic steroids. The addition of

leads to

14

is

decrease in

the

to

6-deoxy
an

extra

(attached

to

C~3)

are

not

selectivity

and

sugars

the most potent

are

sugar unit to

activity

of

monoside

activity.

prerequisite for receptor recognition and high potency (C/D

eis

junction). Trans configuration prevents recognition by Na7Kr-ATPase.

*

5a

(A/B trans)

is

more

active than

Polarity (e.g. OH-groups

on

5 (A/B eis)

C-1, C-5, C-11, C-12) influences the absorption

from the intestine, but not necessarily the activity.

240

Phytochemistry

Cardenolides in the
of root of C.

gaumeri

standard initial

of snake bites: As mentioned before,

therapy

contains
for

dosage

1.0-1.5 mg, afterwards

treating

dosage

insufficiency

described

system

in

and

occurs

due

arrhythmia

Middle

America.

hypovolemic

to

insufficiency

with

digitoxin

of 0.25 mg every 6 h is

and cardiac

Mexico

heart

glycosides.

0.08-0.16 mg cardiac

lies between

prescribed. Thus,

the

therapeutic dosage.

herbal medicine reaches the

Cardiac

approximately

piece

two-cm

and

Bodio, 1996). The cardenolides have

caused

by snake

However

hemorrhagic

shock
on

are

not

of cardiovascular

failure

positive influence

venom

(Junghanss

and

the cardiovascular

system. The stimulation of the Nervus vagus by the cardiac glycosides decreases
the

frequency

of the heart and the

This effect is due

membrane

potential.

inotropic effect
of

to

on

increased

an

As it

an

insufficient

shock. The

positive way. Caffeine

to stimulate the central

or

on

predominance

similar

general

hypothesize that
lead

to

not a

system in
snake

a venomous

glycosides
a

the

also

have

similar

one as

alcohol. These latter agents stabilize the cell

excitatory

of

certainly

are

on

inhibitory pathways

neurons.

the

in the CNS

membranes

in

the

excitatory systems, including

is well known that the cardiac

resulting

Should the cardenolides

inhibitory pathway may be affected first and

predominance

respiration. It

it be that the cardiac

or

stabilizing effect
the

avoid

to

system (CNS) and in particular, the respiration

and restrain the

of the

help

can

the CNS? The mechanism may be

observed with local anesthetics

in

they probably

positive

the circulation

they improve

coffee is given to patients bitten by

nervous

general stimulatory effect

general

and

exert

venom, but influence the cardiovascular

(Falbe and Regitz, 1992). Could

membranes in

heart

also

plant remedy and the cardenolides

specific antidote against snake

a

permeability and thus stabilizes the

KT

known, cardenolides

is well

(AV).

of the atrioventricular conduction

the heart muscle. In consequence,

patient with

hypovolemic

velocity

CNS,

have

one

can

this would also

stimulation

glycosides accumulate strongly

CNS. Indeed, cardenolides often induce side effects in the CNS such

as

of

in the

general

241

Phytochemistry

excitement, xanthochromia and hallucinosis in heart patients. In order to further

test this

hypothesis

in vivo tests should be carried out.

It is of interest that the Yucatec

treatment

of

yucatanensis,
to

contain

snake
both

bites.

242

to the

and

compounds could potentially

use

These

belonging

cardenolides

Maya

two other

are

andrieuxii

Urechites

Apocynaceae.

therefore

important plant species for

The

strengthen

and

Apocynaceae

the

hypothesis

be useful in the treatment of snake bites.

the

Echites

are

that

known
these

Publication IV

Cytotoxic

cardenolides and antibacterial

terpenoids

from

Crossopetalum gaumeri

Anita Ankli3,

Jrg Heilmann3,

Department of Applied BioSciences,

Federal Institute of

Michael Heinrich5 and Otto Sticher1

Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss

Technology (ETH) Zurich,

Winterthurerstr. 190, CH-8057

Zrich, Switzerland
b

Centre for Pharmacognosy and

Brunswick

Phytotherapy,

Sq.,

The School of

London WC1N 1 AX, UK

Accepted

in

Phytochemistry

2000

Pharmacy, 29/39

Publication IV

Abstract
From the methanol extract of the roots of

Crossopetalum gaumeri

four

new

highly

cytotoxic cardenolides, securigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (2), 19-hydroxy-

sarmentogenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (4), sarmentogenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1 ->4)-6-deoxyalloside]

isolated.

were

(5),

securigenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1->4)--6-deoxyalloside] (6)

The dichloromethane extract afforded the

dihydroxy-18-norabieta-3,8,11,13-tetraene (7)

as

well

as

the

new

diterpene 3,15-

new

triterpene 2,3,7-

trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-nor-friedeIane-29-oic
(11).

The

new

terpenoids

lack

cytotoxcity

and the antibacterial

acid

activity

methylester
is moderate

to low.

Keywords
Crossopetalum gaumeri; Celastraceae; cardenolides; triterpenes; diterpene;
cytotoxic activity;

244

antibacterial

activity;

Yucatec

Maya;

traditional medicine.

Publication IV

Introduction

Based

ethnobotanical field

on an

their medicinal

chosen

for

submitted).
the

pulverized

piece

with the Yucatec

Maya

and

phytochemical study (Ankli

of root is chewed after

root is mixed with water and is

evaluation of

an

Crossopetalum gaumeri (Loes.)

the roots of

detailed

plants,

study

Lundell

al., 1999; Ankli

et

person has been bitten

put

on

by

Furthermore, the decoction is used orally for diarrhea. Crossopetalum is

the

Celastraceae with 36

family

Especially

due to the

novel structure

discovery

species

sesquiterpenes (Tincusi

et

&

genus in

(Mabberly, 1987).

maytansinoides

and other

Wagner, 1978).

antibacterial

one

triterpenes

activity of

From C.

have been isolated

five cardiac

(1)

catechin derivative

extracts of the roots of C.

investigated.

not well

al., 1984). This report describes the isolation,

(7-11), and

plaster.

tonduzii

al., 1998) and from C. uragoga used by the Huastec

anti-diarrheal medicine

cytotoxic and

America

snake,

types isolated from Celastraceae, this family is of great interest for

However, the genus Crossopetalum is

as an

tropical

of the antitumor effect of

phytochemical investigation (Bruning

Maya

in

al.,

et

the wound in form of

were

structure

(Dommguez

elucidation,
four

glycosides (2-6),

as

well

et
as

terpenoids

from the methanol and dichloromethane

gaumeri.

Results and discussion

The methanol extract

was

fractionated

using cytotoxicity against

KB cell line

lead. This led to the isolation of the well known ourateacatechin

Mashimbye, 1993)
isolated
after

as

white

spraying

and five cardenolide

amorphous powder

with

vanillin-H2S04

as

glycosides (2-6).

and showed

well

as an

greenish

(1) (Drewes

All cardenolides
to blue

as a

spots

on

&

were

TLC

intense fluorescence under UV 366

nm.

245

Publication IV

-6-deoxygulosyl
-6-deoxygulosyl
-6-deoxygulosyl
a-allosyl-(1-^4)--6-deoxyallosyl
<x-allosyl-(1->4)--6-deoxyallosyl

3
4

5
6

The

1H

spectrum of compound

NMR

ring

butenolactone
5.92

(s, H-22),

as

between 3.99

presence

of

C29H42O10 (see

to

be

CH2OH
CH3

CHO

characteristic

8.2

at S 1.21

of

signals

18.3, 1.5 Hz, H-21a and b) and

indicating

cardenolide with

an

Hz, H-1'), four additional protons

(d,

6.7

Hz, H3-6') pointed

1). 13C

NMR

sorted 29 carbons into two

methyl,

nine

2). FAB-MS spectrum

to the

experiments,
methylene,

13

and

in

[M+H]+.

comparison

securigenin (Kawaguchi
moiety

&

Kopp,

was

and of ROESY and COSY

et

Based
to

pseudomolecular peaks

1992;

Habermeier,

positive HRESI-MS
on

literature data the

on

experiments.

1980).
revealed

In
a

COSY, HSQC, HMBC and

al., 1993; Ferth

performed

at m/z

at m/z 413 and 146 confirmed the

molecular formula

ion at 551.2849

experiments

showed

[M+Na]+. Fragments

proposed

elucidation of the sugar

246

at 5 9.41

(J=

deoxyhexose (Ferth

pseudomoleculare

analysis

signal

CHO

Table

at m/z 573

accordance with the

as

OH

quaternary carbons which is consistent with the molecular formula

Table

[M+H]+and

identified

singlet proton

-linked deoxyhexose (see

methine and five

ROESY

as a

3.46 ppm and

DEPT 135,

including

sugar

well

CHO

showed

5.03, 4.92 (each dd, J

function. A doublet at <5 4.67

aldehyde

551

at 8

et

aglycon

was

al., 1992). Structure

the basis of

coupling

constant

H-2' resonated at 3.60 ppm

as

Publication IV

double doublet

indicating

axial-equatorial

to H-3'

(dd,

and

as

the

8 72.3

of the

exception

unambiguously
the

and 2D NMR

fragment

It

was

(Kopp

described for

HMBC and

that C-2' resonates at <5 68.1 and C-4'

(see

Table

2).

pointing

to

an

as

to

compound

quaternary

carbon at c5

additional substitution with

exhibited

[M+H]+

After extensive 1D

[M+H-deoxyhexosyl]\

canescein from the genus

4 the

was

1967; Makarevich & Kovalev, 1968).

4

1982).

compound

as

positive FAB-MS, showing

genin

replaced by

is

was

to

pseudomolecular peak

compound

two

was

as

in the 1H

protons resonating

hydroxymethyl group.

identified

The sugar rest

2, Thus,

obtained from

C29H44O10,

securigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (2),

10.8) pointing

the

established

was

aldehyde proton

analysis,

& Kubelka,

was

as

In contrast to

(each d,

MS and NMR

described for the first time

the 13C NMR spectrum and the

3.86 and 3.71

of 2

sarmentosigenin-3-0--6-

compound

spectrum of

hydrolysis

as

The molecular formula of

[M+H]+.

was

identified

et al.,

NMR

TLC after

by

positive FAB-MS spectrum

Erysimum (Maslennikova

at m/z 553

an

13C chemical shift assignment for -6-

at 421

analysis compound

deoxyguloside.

and

moiety

these data the sugar

of C-5 which resonated

signal

In accordance the

at m/z 567 and

Hz)

constants of H-4'

spectrum of compound 3 showed close similarities

hydroxyl group.

peak

coupling

8.2

-6-deoxygulose. Consequently, compound

74.0 and downfield shifts of C-4 and C-6

a

on

confirmed

was

in literature must be corrected

The 13C NMR

with the

Based

which

(Table 2). Therefore,

deoxygulose

(J

securigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (2). COSY,

HSQC experiments showed

at

to H-1'

strong NOE between H-1' and H-5', H-4' is in

position.

to authentic
new

relationship

Due to the small

Hz).

3.5

-6-deoxygulose,

as

comparison

identified

axial-axial

and

and H-5' in axial

equatorial
identified

Hz)

3.5 and 1.0

(J

an

As

at 8

result of

19-hydroxysarmentogenin

identified

as

-6-deoxygulose

4 is the hitherto unknown

as

19-hydroxy-

sarmentogenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside.
The 1H and 13C NMR of

compound

two sugar moieties and a C-19

experiments

5 indicated the presence of

methyl group (see

sorted 35 carbons into three

methyl,

Tables 1

ten

cardenolide with

and

methylene,

2).

The DEPT

17 methine and

247

Publication IV

five quaternary carbons. The

positive

ESI-MS spectrum gave

m/z 698. Therefore, the molecular formula of 5

aglycon

the

was

identified

moiety

established

the

as

of

aglycon

The

new

HMBC and

with authentic

moieties
the

new

as

compound

nearly

showed

identical with those of

(see

Table

3).

glycosides
It is

worthy

oxidation status of the C-19

0.164 umol 2

umol

genin
and

6)

were

as

compound

vs.

0.199

in the

2-6 showed

combination of 1D and

ROESY)

and confirmed

compounds. Therefore,

the

same

chemical

compound

2 and

shifts

was

5. Therefore, 6

by

was

and

therefore

identified

was

methyl

jimol 4)

same

IC50 0.104|imol 6).

umol 2

vs.

range.

as

Cytotoxicity

well

5 and 6

as

as

Comparison

umol 3).

of

significant

compounds

(IC50

between

0.075

KB cell

2 and 4

jimol

compounds

difference

hydroxyl group

is not correlated with the

cytotoxicity

group.

Introduction of

0.074

high cytotoxic activity against

of note that the

and different sugar chain revealed

(IC500.164

248

and

securigenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1-4)--6-deoxyalloside].

All isolated cardiac

line

C35H54014

The chemical shifts and connectivities of the sugar

securigenin.

were

as

sarmentogenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1->4)--6-deoxyallosideJ.

correlations in the 1D and 2D NMR spectra

identified

molecular ion at

al., 1992). The identity

et

deduced from

was

experiments (1H,1H COSY, HSQC,

hydrolysis and comparison

TLC

determined

sarmentogenin (Hanada

as

and connectivities of the sugar

2D NMR

was

vs.

(IC50

0.104

with identical

(IC500.164 umol

at C-5 doubled

cytotoxicity

10

ro

9.41

1.5)
1.5)

0.98

18

3.46 dd

3.99

1.21

(3.4)
q(7.2, 1.0)

'

"Assignments

are

confirmed

by COSY, HSQC

and HMBC,

*Multiplicities
are

unclear due to

3.82, 3.70*

(8.8, 2.8)

3.82, 3.70*

3.53 dd

4.05

3.35

(7.7)

d(6.2)
4.74 d

1.29

3.84*

(9.5, 2.6)

1(2.6)
3.28 dd

4.34

(8.1,3.1)

(8.1)
3.37 dd

4.70 d

5.90

4.91 dd

(18.5, 1.5)
(18.5, 1.5)

(6.9)

5.02 dd

9.42

0.98

2.93 t

3.70

overlapping

1.76*, 1.53 brt (11

2.18, 1.70*
2.17, 1.90*

4.42

1.82*

1.84*

1.82*, 1.26*

3.69

4.05t(2.9)
3.54 dd (9.0, 2.7)

3.34

(6.7)

3.85

(9.3, 2.7)

(2.9)
3.27 dd

(7.9)

1.23 d

(3.5)

4.33 t

3.35

(7.9)

(6.1)

dd(6.6)

3.47 d

3.99*

4.67 d

5.91

4.91

(18.3)
d(18.3)

5.02 d

1.07

1.28 d

1.22

4.01

3.46 d

3.98*

3.62

4.67

5.94

4.92

5.03 dd

0.90

2.91

2.19*, 1.90*

2.21*, 1.75*

4.73 d

d(6.7)

(3.8, 1.0)

3.96*

(8.2, 3.3)

(10.8), 3.71 d(10.8)

(18.2 1.5)
dd (18.2 1.5)
d(1.0)
d (8.2)
dd (8.1, 3.4)

3.86 d

0.93

2.93

2.22*, 1.91

(12.1)

(10.4 4.3)

1.68*, 1.56*

3.72 td

1.80*

1.66*

3.96

(18.4, 1.5)
(18.4, 1.5)

(8.1)

3.59 dd

4.70 d

3.60

5.92
s

4.92 dd

(8.2)
dd (8.2, 3.5)

5.03 dd

9.97

0.90

5.92

4.67 d

(18.2

4.92 dd

(18.2

5.03 dd

2.1Z

2"

2.931(7.1)

17

2.18, 1.91

16

2.931(7.1)

1.68*,
2.16*, 1.69*
2.15, 1.90*

2.18e, 1.69

15

1.56 brt

(10.5 4.3)

2.25*, 1.78

1.69 m,

1.75, 1.50

12

td

3.82

3.95*

4.42

1.89*

1.74*

1.72*

2.01*

1.82

1.82

1.80*

1.46*

2.36

1.79

1.78*, 1.70

4.06

1.80*

2.18*,1.82*

1.83*, 1.54

4.01 brs

1.83*, 1.33

2.30brd(13 4), 1.50*

1.82*, 1.66*

1.86*, 1.27*

1.78*, 1.27

(13.7, 10.7)

1.82

1.50 dd

1.88*, 1.66*
2.07, 1.29*

1.76, 1.46

2.37

5
2.11

1.81*, 1.60*

2.09, 1.73*

2.15, 1.73

4.05 brs

4.21 brs

4.06 br

1.88*

1.815

2.25, 1.84*
1.82*,1.74*

2.47 m, 2.24

2.15*, 1.82*

'H NMR data of compounds 2-6 (CD3OD, 8 ppm, J in Hz, 500 MHz; compound 6, 600 MHz )*

Table 1

Table 2

13C NMR data of compounds 2-7,11 (CD3OD, 75.5 MHz, ppm)

Ca

23.5 t

19.7 1

27.5 t

33.8 t

24.9 t

Ca

1 1

34.6 t

109.0 d
151.7

21.5 t

25.5 t

28.0 t

28.3 t

26.9 t

26.0 t

72.8 d

73.6 d

74.4 d

75.9 d

74.4 d

163.1 S

143.5 s

31.6 t

30.4 t

119.0

127.9

32.0 d

46.4 d

119,9

29.1 t

30.6 d

34.0 t

31.4 t

32.0 d

28.8 t

37.1 t

27.7 t

28.1 t

30.1 t

21.1 t

182.8

25.5 1

23.9 t

22.2 t

22.7 t

22.9 t

24.6 t

147.4

41.4 d

40.6 d

41.7 d

41.9 d

42.8 d

124.1 s

74.0

39.1

139.1 s

41.2 d

44.5 d

42.7 d

43.0 d

42.6 d

148.3

40.7 s

10

52.1

55.1

41.1

37.5

53.5 S

10

36.8

152.8 S

11

66.3 d

66.9 d

69.0 d

68.9 d

67.7 d

11

115.7 d

34.2 t

12

48.8 t

48.5 t

50.6 t

50.5 t

50.2 t

12

123.5 d

30.5 t

13

49.6

49.5S

51.1 S

51.0 s

51.0 s

13

129.4 s

40.0 s

14

83.9

83.8

85.8 S

85.6 s

85.3

47.2

15

31.7 t

31.5 t

33.5 t

33.6 t

14

154.6 s

33.1 t

15

75.7

29.6 t

16

26.4 t

26.4 t

27.9 t

27.9

27.8 t

16

30.6 q

37.8 t

17

50.2 d

49.9 d

51.8 d

51.8 d

51.6 d

17

30.7 q

31.1 S

18.5 q

45.4 d

15.9 q

16.0 q

17.6 q

17.5 q

17.3 q

18

19

207.1

209.6 d

66.7 t

24.3 q

208.5 d

19

20

175.7

177.1

20

22.9 q

18

175.7

177.1

177.1

21

31.9 t
41.7

30.9 t

21

73.9 t

73.9 t

75.3 t

75.3 1

75.3 t

22

116.5 d

116.6 d

118.0 d

118.0 d

118.0 d

22

36.2 t

23

176.2

176.0

177.7

177.7

177.6

23

14.0 q

1'

99.1 d

98.5 d

100.0 d

99.9 d

99.8 d

24

2'

68.1 d

68.1 d

69.5 d

72.0 d

72.0 d

25

3'

72.2 d

72.1 d

73.5 d

72.4 d

72.4 d

26

19.6 q

20.6 q

41.6 q

4'

72.3 d

72.2 d

73.7 d

84.1 d

84.0 d

27

5'

68.6 d

68.8 d

69.9 d

69.4 d

69.5 d

28

32.1 q

6'

15.0 q

14.9 q

16.4 q

18.2 q

18.2 q

29

180.7 s

1"

103.5 d

103.5 d

30

32.9 q

2"

72.3 d

72.3 d

31

52.2 q

3"

73.1 d

73.1 d

4"

68.4 d

68.4 d

5"

75.2 d

75.2 d

6"

62.6 1

62.6 t

Multiplicities determined by DEPT sequences.

250

Publication IV

Table 3
of

Cytotoxicity

compounds

KB cell line

standard

(IC50

in

umol)

Compound

IC50

5.938

0.1

0.164

0.015

0.074

0.009

0.199

0.008

0.075

0.004

0.104

0.005

>

66

error

6
4

>45

0.603

0.01

10

1.6

0.14

11

9.476

0.35

podophyllotoxin

0.014

activity against

4
4

using

fractionation of the dichloromethane extract,

Bioactivity-guided

Bacillus

led to the

luteus

against

1-11

cereus,

isolation

and Micrococcus

Staphylococcus epidermidls

of the

antibiotic

diterpene 3,15-dihydroxy~18-norabieta-

new

3,8,11,13-tetraene (7), the three known triterpenes friedelane-3-on-29-ol (8),

pristimerin (9) (Gunatilaka

et al..

Chaudhuri, 1987), and the

1989),

new

celastrol

(10) (Kutney

et

al., 1981; Patra &

triterpene 2,3,7-trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-

tetraene-24-nor-friedelane-29-oic acid methylester (11). Compound 7

as a

pale yellow amorphous powder.

The 13C NMR

three methine and

showing

eight quaternary

pseudomolecular peak

at m/z 301

into four

carbons. The

[M-H]~,

two

the presence of

6/H-7)

and

respectively.
experiment
et

at 8 6.79 and 6.91

1,2,3,4-tetra-substituted

(H-1/H-2) belong

The

(each d,

linkage between

and led to

to

the

norabietan skeleton with

al, 1997a). HSQC, HMBC and ROESY

were

H-12)

ring. Spin systems

CH-CH2-CH2

spin systems

C19H2603.

Spin system

J- 8.3, H-11 and

aromatic

four

in combination with the 13C

TOCSY and COSY spectra revealed three spin systems.

coupling protons

methyl,

positive EI-MS,

NMR spectra allowed the establishment of the molecular formula

1H,1H

isolated

spectrum showed signals of 19

carbons, which could be assigned with DEPT experiments

methylene,

was

and

was

A with

indicated
B

(H-5/H-

CH2-CH2 moiety,

established

by

C-3/C-4 double bond

utilized to

The

clarify

HMBC

(Takaishi

the 1H and 13C

251

Publication IV

NMR

and the

assignments

revealed that

together

we

isolated

only

the enol form 7

11

The molecular formula of

C30H40O6

as

compound 11,

yellow amorphous powder,

obtained from the 13C NMR spectrum and from

MS, showing the molecular peak

revealed the presence of

seven

at m/z 496

methyl,

[M]+.

seven

nm

due to

phenolic ring system.

chemical shifts to those of the C, D and

1989).

For

ring

A and

was

positive

EI-

13C NMR and the DEPT

The

methylene,

two methine and 14

quaternary carbons. The UV spectrum contained absorption maxima

321

NMR data

whereas the tautomeric

established

the data established

absent.

completely

keton is

Taken

3,15-dihydroxy-18-norabieta-3,8,11,13-tetraene (7). 13C

the structure

clearly

stereochemistry.

at 248 and

The 1H and 13C NMR data showed similar

E-ring

of

pristimerin (9) (Gunatilaka

B, long range correlations of

the

et

al.,

proton H-1 with the carbons

C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5, C-6, C-10 and the protons H3-23 with C-1, C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5,
C-6 and C-10

regeol

were

(Takaishi

observed. These data and comparison with literature data of

et

al., 1997b) led

to the identification of

1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-nor-friedelane-29-oic
Confirming
antibacterial

earlier

published

methylester (11).

triterpenoids

activity particularly against S. epidermidls

cytotoxicity against KB

252

data the

acid

cells

(Kutney

et al.

2,3,7-trihydroxy-6-oxo-

and

as

1 0

well

as

showed
a

high

remarkable

1981; Gonzalez et al., 1998). Both

new

Publication IV

7 and 11

terpenoids
low

gaumeri

and

activity

activity

and the antibacterial

of

pristimerin (9)

seems

to be

anti-diarrheal medicine. Due to its

as an

preparations

cytotoxicity

is moderate to

4).

Tables 3 and

(see

The antibacterial

C.

lack

thereof should be used with

explanation

an

of the

cytotoxic potential

C.

use

of

gaumeri

great caution.

Table 4
Antibacterial activities of

compounds

(MIC

7-11

in

umol)

Minimum inhibition concentration

in broth

(MIC)

Compound

B.

S.

cereus

M. luteus

epidermidls

423.84

8
9

8.62

0.54

10

4.44

1.11

4.44

11

129.03

129.03

32.26

chloramphenicol

6.19

12.38

6.19

8.62

Experimental

experimental procedures

General

Optical

rotations

were

UV

Polarimeter.

measured in MeOH

spectra

Perkin Elmer RMUGM

positive

mode

Applying

HRESI-MS

expressed

recorded

spectra

were

resonances

u,m,

Merck)

using

were

were

Kontron-Uvikon
measured

at 70 eV. FAB-MS

measured

on

TSQ 7000

to the cardiac

were

mass

as

CD3OD

or

CDCI3

obtained in the

(40-63

as

matrix.

spectrometer.
2

spectrometers. The

and the residual

internal references. For VLC, silica

and RP-18 material

Hitachi-

and 13C NMR spectra

Bruker AMX-300, DRX-500 and DRX-600

used

on a

930

glycosides only compound

[M+H]+ pseudomolecular peak. 1H

measured in

were

Perkin-Elmer model 241

spectrometer, using 3-nitrobenzylalcohol

(positive mode)

detectable

on a

on

solvent. EI-MS

spectrometer

ZAB 2-SEO

(positive mode)

ESI-MS

were

on a

mass

as

CHCI3

obtained

were

spectrophotometer, using MeOH

or

and

CHCI3

gel (60F254,

40-60

CH3OH

[im, CU Chemie Uetikon

AG)

was

used.

253

Publication IV

MPLC

was

Bchi

cm

packed

column

separations
connected to
connected to
Knauer

using

carried out

Bchi

with

performed

were

chromatography

gel (60HF254,

silica

with

Merck-Hitachi

Merck-Hitachi L-4000 UV detector

pump B-688 and

15

or a

Merck).

j.im,

L-6200

(Spherisorb

S5 ODSII, 250

Spherisorb ODSII,

MeOH extract and

250-20

mm.

80

pump

Waters model 590 pump

16 mm, EOT Chemie

HPLC

intelligent

Pharmacia Biotech Uvicord Sil detector. HPLC columns

3.5

AG,

Waters, 10 |iin

5 |im

for the

from

were

for the

CH2CI2

extract).

Plant material

C.

gaumeri was

villages

collected in the

and Xcocmil, Yucatan, Mexico

at the

deposited

were

Yucatan

(CICY)

Nacional

and

surroundings

(1994-1995).

of Chikindzonot,

Investigacion

in Mrida, the National Herbarium of Mexico

Indigenista (INI)

in

specimens

Authenticated voucher

Herbarium of the Centra de

Ekpedz

Cientifica de

(MEXU),

the Instituto

Valladolid, Yucatan, the ETH Zurich (ZT) and the

Centre for Pharmacognosy and

The School of

Phytotherapy,

Pharmacy, London,

UK.

Extraction and isolation

Air-dried and
with

powdered

CH2CI2, MeOH,

roots of C.

gaumeri (2.26 kg)

70% aqueous MeOH and

H20.

42 g extract and from the methanol extraction 95 g

latter extract

The

(42 g)

polar fraction

butanol fraction

was

was

partitioned
further

between

partitioned

successively extracted

Extraction with

CH2CI2 yielded
aliquot

of the

and 60% aqueous MeOH

(1:1).

were

obtained. An

between n-butanol and

CHCI3

combined with the

was

CHCI3

were

one

and

applied

H20 (1:1).
VLC,

to

yielded

Fractions 13-15
an

254

(6.9

open column

phase

and

18 fractions. Fraction 9

g,

CHCI3-MeOH,

(CHCI3-MeOH, 9:1) yielded compound

9:1 to

chromatography using

increasing

two

amounts of

separate portions, 10 g each. Elution with CHCI3 containing increasing

methanol

as

The

6:4)

silica

were

gel

amounts of aqueous MeOH

60

combined and

(35-70 |m)

subjected

as

(MeOH-H20, 99:1)

in

1.

to

stationary
CHCI3

as

Publication IV

eluent

(100

(83.5:16.5),
RP-18

on

(78:22),

and

combined

hexane-EtOAc-MeOH

(15:3:0.5

MeOH-solubility, compound

Sep-Pak Cartridge
give

were

extract

to

were

after

was

was

eluent to

purification

isolated. Fr 13

separated by

give

mixtures with

combined and

were

mixtures

and 12

(10:10:3)

gel

(30:70)
n-

Based

on

Fraction 3
based

(12:8:1)

was

2-6

employing

fractions.

of fraction 6

RP-VLC

21

silica

phase.

mobile

purified

on a

on

C18

the methanol

proportion

using increasing

amount of

increasing

these, frs 24 and 25 (MeOH-H20,

38 fractions. Of

by

HPLC

eluent to afford

as

MPLC

as

give

over

(30:70)

Frs 11

combined to

compounds

the

fractionated

normal-phase

10:10:5)

to

yielding

increasing polarity
9.

purified by

were

for the subfractions 2, 5 and 7

was

compound

combined and refractionated

hexane-CHCI3
(20:80)

as

(50:50)

phase

with 50% aqueous MeOH

(10:10:1)

7. Fr 8

MeOH in water

9:1)

2CI2

subjected

compound 9,

contained

17 subfractions. The subfractions 2

and 14

mobile

as

contained

TLC control the subfractions

to

(67:33)

11

of the CH

(80:20)

Fraction 8

(15:3:1)

give

for the subfractions 11 and 14

%)

g, 35

to

n-hexane-EtOAc mixtures with

(VLC), using

were

(70:30),

using ACN-H20 (20:80)

aliquot (33

22 frs.

CHCI3)

to 45 %

ACN~H20 (15:85)

and

An

CHCI3

silica VLC

increasing polarity

using

n-hexane and

n-

which afforded 19 frs. Frs 10-15

purified by RP-HPLC (ACN~H20, 9:1)

to

yield

10 and

11.

Detection of cardiac
TLC
As

and

glycosides

hydrolysis

of the cardiac

glycosides

on

plates
mobile

(81:11:8)
(silica gel

phase

was

60

for

TLC

used. For detection

F254)

hydrolysis

Wegschaider (1971)

was

the

cardenolides

vanillin-H2S04

light

366

of the cardiac
with

36% HCl and the TLC

plate

of

was

EtOAc-MeOH-H20

sprayed

on

the TLC

and heated at 110 C for 5-10 min. The evaluation

out under vis and under UV

The TLC

analysis

some

plate

carried

nm.

glycosides

was

realized

modifications. The tank

was

was

plates

exposed

was

following Kartnig

not saturated with

to HCl vapor for 5 min

then dried for 2 hours in the air and 30 min

on a

&

(100 C).

The

heating plate (80 C).

255

Publication IV

Development
and it

was

was

sprayed

carried out with

The

of the

cytotoxicity

in 95 ml EtOH and 5 ml

thymol

with 0.5 g

Cytotoxicity study using

CHCI3-MeOH-H20 (64:36:8)

KB cell

compounds

according

in 96-well
were

to the

was

determined

made

as

an

was

150 uJ. For

(Mosmann, 1983).

dye

was

an

quantification
chloride

dissolved

using

nm

of the

using

the

performed

was

room

microplate

IC50 values,

The test

activity against

doubling

B.

(Liu

was

some

(1990)

the solutions

testing,

(v/v)

1%

15 ul of

an

or

were

less. Total assay

aqueous solution of

mg/ml

with 5

was

CCL

104 cells/ml. Test solutions

PBS

was

metabolically

added

active cells

drawn off and the formazan

(sodium dodecylsulfate)

(MRX, Dynex Technologies).

the

plotted against

was

in water.

measured at

For determination

log

concentration.

duplicates.

cereus

(ATCC 9341)

dilution method

carried out with

temperature, the optical density

at least in

Antibacterial

the

The medium

optical density

activity

M. luteus

(MTT, Fluka)

dye.

reader

Antibacterial

12228),

was

cytotoxicity

150 ul of 10 % SDS

After 24 h of incubation at
540

of

(ATCC

of Swanson & Pezzuto

After incubation at 37 C for 4 h, the

insoluble formazan

phase

H2S04 (cone).

KB cell line

was

stocks in 20% ethanol in water. Before

methylthiazolyltetrazolium

produced

test

inoculum of 2.5

diluted 20 fold and final ethanol concentration

volume

using

screening technique

with

plates (Falcon)

mobile

culture

17; human nasopharyngeal carcinoma). The

modifications

as

(ATCC 10702),

and E. coli
et

S.

(ATCC 25922)

epidermidls (ATCC

were

assessed

using

al., 1999).

Securigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (2)
White

powder (11.1 mg); [a]24

-61.0

(MeOH, d.O);

positive FAB-MS m/z 573 [M+Na]+, 551 [M+H]+,

[M+H-desoxyhexosyl-2H20]+; 1H
MHz, CD3OD) Table 2.

256

NMR

443

UV

Amax (MeOH):

217 nm;

[M+K-deoxyhexosyl]+,

(500 MHz, CD3OD)

369

Table 1; 13C NMR

(75.5

Publication IV

Sarmentosigenin-3-0--6-deoxyguloside (3)
White

powder (9.1 mg); [a]24-

(MeOH,

26.0

2.3);

UV

Amax (MeOH):

[M+H-deoxyhexosyl]+; 1H

positive

FAB-MS m/z 567

[M+H]+,

CD3OD)

Table 1; 13C NMR

(75.5 MHz, CD3OD)

421

NMR

214 nm;

(500 MHz,

Table 2.

19-Hydroxy-sarmentogenin-3-0--6-deoxy-guloside (4)
White

powder (23.4 mg); [a]24

FAB-MS m/z 553

positive

(75.5 MHz, CD3OD) Table

(MeOH,

36.0

1.0);

Amax (MeOH):

UV

214 nm;

[M+Hif; 1H NMR (500 MHz, CD3OD) Table 1; 13C

NMR

2.

Sarmentogenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1 ->4)--6-deoxyallosidel (5)

powder (39 mg); [a]24

White-brown
214 nm;

positive FAB-MS m/z

Table 1 ; 13C NMR

573

(MeOH,

5.2

[M+K-H-hexosyl]+; 1H

(75.5 MHz, CD3OD)

2.3);
NMR

UV

Amax (MeOH):

(500 MHz, CD3OD)

Table 2.

Securigenin-3-0-[a-allosyl-(1 ->4)--6-deoxyalloside] (6)

White-yellow powder (2.4 mg); [a]24
nm;

positive FAB-MS m/z

Table 1 ; 13C NMR

573

(MeOH,

28.7

[M+Na+H-hexosyl]*; 1H

(75.5 MHz, CD3OD)

2.2); UV Amax (MeOH):

NMR

214

(600 MHz, CD3OD)

Table 2.

3,15-Dihydroxy-18-norabieta-3,8,11,13-tetraene (7)
Yellow-brown
nm;

(MeOH,

23.5

2.9);

UV

Amax (MeOH):

273

positive EI-MS m/z 301 [M-H]T, 258, 216, 202, 188, 173, 149, 85, 83, 49; 1H

NMR

17),

powder (6.9 mg); [a]24

(300 MHz, CD3OD) 8:1.04 (3H,

1.58

2.29

dd, J

(1H,
=

(3H,s, H-16),
m,

H-6a),

1.62

2.36

(1H,

(1H,

m,

m,

s,

H-20),

H-6b),

H-1a),

1.93

2.48

9.8, 18.9 Hz, H-7), 2.90 (1H, dd, J

1.53

(1H,

m,

H-1b),

(3H, brs, H-18),

(2H, brd,

1.56

2.23

3.7 Hz,

(3H,
m,

H-5),

2.70

(1H,

(1H,

H-2),

s, H~

7.2, 18.4 Hz, H-7a), 6.79 (1H, d,

8.3, H-11), 6.91 (1H, d, J=8.3, H-12); 13C NMR (75.5 MHz, CD3OD) Table 2.

257

Publication IV

2,3,7-Trihydroxy-6-oxo-1,3,5(10),7-tetraene-24-nor-friedelane-29-oic

acid

methylester (11)
Yellow

powder (5.3 mg); [a]24

3.03);

positive EI-MS m/z 496, 263, 248, 234, 203, 44; 1H

nm;

(1H,

0.69

(3H,

s,

H-27),

1.37

(3H,

s,

H-26),

1.59

(1H,d, J=7.8Hz, H-18),

(MeOH,

45.5

0.96

(1H,

1.43

H-22b),

m,

b),

m, H-21

1.08

(3H,
(1H,

1.45

(1 H, dt, J=4.1,

1.66

321

(300 MHz, CD3OD) cS:

NMR

H-28),

1.15

(3H,

s,

H-30),

H-16b),

1.49

(3H,

s,

H-25),

s,

m,

Amax (MeOH): 284,

UV

Hz, H-12b), 1.71 (1H, dd,

14.1

=7.4, 14.7 Hz, H-19b), 1.82 (1H, m, H-12a), 1.85 (1H, m, H-15b), 1.91 (1H,

H-16a),

(1H, dt,

1.97

22a),

2.16

(1H,

m,

19a),

2.57

(3H,

s,

1a); 13C

4.2, 14.2 Hz, H-11b), 2.12 (1H, dt, J

H-11a),
H-23),

(1H.

2.17

2.88

(1H,

(75.5 MHz, CD3OD)

NMR

m,

m,

H-21a),

H-15a),

(1H, brd,

2.47

3.55

(3H,

4.1, 13.8 Hz, HJ

H-31),

s,

m,

Hz, H-

15.5

6.86

(1H,

s, H-

Table 2.

Acknowledgements
The authors

are

grateful

very

to the

healers, midwives and the inhabitants of

Chikindzonot, Ekpedz and Xcocmil, Yucatan (Mexico) for their collaboration, for
their

friendship and hospitality during the fieldwork.

collaboration with

in

performed

Investigacion

the

Cientifica de Yucatan

(MEXU). Particularly,

we

numerous

as

of

Department

Greter,
for

R.

E. Zass

mass

of

are

as

Dr. O. Tellez, Dr. R. Lira, Dr.

to Prof. Dr.

grateful

the reference substances,

The authors thank Dr. O. Zerbe

are

Chemistry) for

of

(ETH, Department

grateful

of

lot to the

(ETH,

help of

Dr.

Hongmei

KB cell

literature search, O.

Chemistry, MS-service)

to Prof. H. Budzikiewicz

Organic Chemistry) for performing

a

Brigitte Kopp,

for assistance in NMR measurements, M.

(ETH, Department

spectra. We

owes

Centra de

Applied BioSciences) for performing

and Dr. W. Amrein

Institute of

This research

258

strophanolosid.

Applied BioSciences)

Hfliger

recording

Cologne,

and

(ETH, Department

Dr.

assays,

well

Pharmacognosy, University of Vienna for

desglucocheirotoxol

the

would like to thank Dr. I. Olmsted, Mr. J. Granados, Mr. P.

J. Villasehor and Dr. M. Sousa of MEXU. We

Wasescha

specialists of

was

and the National Herbarium of Mexico

(CICY)

Sim, Mr. J.C. Trejo, Dr. R. Durn of CICY

Institute of

The botanical identification

(University

the HRESI-MS

Liu

of

spectra.

(ETH, Department of

Publication IV

Applied BioSciences)

and Dr. J.

Orjala (Agra Quest

Inc. Davis,

USA).

Financial

support by SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Berne,

and the SANW

Switzerland)

(Swiss Academy

Sciences)

of Natural

is

gratefully

acknowledged.

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Ankli, A., Heinrich, M., Bork, P., Wolfram, L., Bauerfeind, P., Brun, R., Schmid, C,
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260

Conclusion

Conclusion

15

Mayan communities, Chikindzonot,

The healers and midwives of the three Yucatec

Ekpedz

and Xcocmil, have

reported

informants

plants. Forty

medicinal

extensive and

an

deeply

rooted

total

of 360

knowledge about

plant species

documented. The

medicinal and 1828 individual-use reports

were

these responses into nine groups of

formed the basis for

indigenous
health

problem

to the

Maya

of the

The

are

classified

were never

first

healers

In

general, the humoral system

The

plant

important

are

study of medicinal plants

in

are

the most

skin

"hot"

mentioned

according

Illnesses
or

"cold". However,
of medicinal

and

its

humoral

to the herbal medicine indicated and its

property.

is

mentioned in the

references to

only

one

of the

color of

or

the

disease

explanatory

plant

models used in this

and dreams about the

healing

selection criteria.

comparison

with non-medicinal

ones

showed that

taste and odor characteristics include considerable information about their

the treatment of illnesses. Aromatic

diarrhea and
non-used

point

vomiting.

plants

and

is that there

was no

between the medicinal

specific critrium

for

better

an

important

difference in the

plants

important

understand

and the

plant

indicated to treat

distinguish

between used and

selection.

Another

interesting

percentage of species classified

and the non-medicinal

the

medicinal

use

pharmacological effects. Some

bioassays

role in

to

in

example,

are, for

help

use

ones.

as

bitter

Thus bitterness is not

plant remedies.

The evaluation of 48
to

plants

Taste and odor further

play

of the

analysis

frequently

problems.

being humorally

an

arrangement of

case

medical system. Also form, texture

potency of

as

spontaneously

made

characteristic, and then referred

by

followed

study region,

of Yucatan

these characteristics

plants.

gastrointestinal problems

The

uses.

uses

as

of

plants

Yucatec

in various

bioassays

had the aim

Maya phytomedicines

and

their

correlations between the activities obtained in the

indigenous plant

use

could be shown. Other

indigenous

uses

261

Conclusion

cannot be

explained

evaluation of these
in their

study

on

efficacy.

and

pharmacological

the results of the

with respect to

plants

safety

of

based

and

activity

However further

is

cytotoxicity

models. The
a

contribution

should be made

investigations

this field.

phytochemical study Crossopetalum gaumeri (Celastraceae)

For the detailed

chosen due to its oral

frequent health problem

against gastrointestinal problems, which

use

in the

study region.

different

bioassays. The polar and

Crossopetalum yielded
Even

though

six

new

the cardenolide

of

development

interest in the

glycosides
new

the human heart and their small

showed
in

good

of

extracts

results

positive
the

of

roots

four cardenolides and two terpenes.

high cytotoxicity, they

showed

anticancer

drugs

therapeutic

are

not of

due to their strong effects

However its oral

on

gaumeri

window. The roots of C.

antiparasitic activity.

antibiotic and

gastrointestinal

nonpolar

compounds,

is the most

addition, it is orally and locally used

In

in the treatment of snake bites. Furthermore, the extracts showed

in

was

remedy

use as a

disorders must be viewed at with caution because of its

high

cytotoxicity.

There is considerable
are

knowledge

established methods for

aim of this ethnobotanical

two areas. The

used

by

study

Yucatec

work between

testing

Mayan

helped

region. Similarly, investigation

262

safety

by indigenous peoples

use

and

efficacy

was

by investigating

to

the

healers and midwives. It is

indigenous people

further step towards the

the

plant

phytochemical study

achieved this

beneficial and that it has

about

of medicinal

forge

activity

hoped

and there

plants.

link between these

of

plants commonly

that this collaborative

and Western researchers has been

to

of the

support the

use

phytochemistry

development

of medicinal

and

activity

of safer and efficient

The

mutually

plants

of these

in the

plants

phytomedicine.

is

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Ankli, A., Heneka, B., Orjala, J., Sticher, O., Heinrich, M., 1996. Plants in the
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Ethnopharmacology:

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Ankli, A., Heilmann, J., Sticher, O., Heinrich, M., 1999. New terpenoids from

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Pharmacognosy;

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of

Europe. Amsterdam, The

Netherlands, 26-30 July.

Heinrich, M., Ankli, A., Frei, B., Weimann, C, Sticher, O., 1999. Arzneipflanzen in
Intra-

Mexiko:

und

Deutsche Gesellschaft fr

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Vergleich ethnnobotanischer

interkultureller

Tropenkologie. Ulm, Germany,

17

Daten.

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presentations

Ankli, A., Sticher, O., Heinrich, M., 1997. Medicinal plants

plants

Yucatec

Maya selection

criteria.

II

versus

Congreso

nonmedicinal

Intemacional

Etnobotnica '97. Mrida, Yucatan, Mexico. 12-17 October.

Ankli, A., Frei, B., Weiss, C, Heinrich, M., Sticher, O., 1997. Feldforschung:
Grenzen

und

Mglichkeiten. Arbeitstagung:

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Ankli, A., 1999. Charakterisierung der Medizinalpflanzen gegenber den Nicht-

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Curriculum Vitae

June 25,

Laufenburg, Switzerland

1967

Born

1974-1979

Primary school,

1979-1983

Secondary school,

1983-1987

Grammar school of Mathematics and Natural Science, Basel

Summer 1987

Language

1987-1992

Study

on

of

Diploma

1993-1994

Stein AG
Rheinfelden

school in Saffron Waiden, UK

Pharmacy

at ETH Zurich

Pharmacy (Eidgenssisches Staatsexamen)

in

Community pharmacist

Kreuz-Apotheke, Winterthur;

school in Cuemavaca, Mexico

Language

1994-1995

PhD

study:

1995-2000

PhD

study

section

in

Ethnobotanical fieldwork in Yucatan, Mexico

under the

supervision of Prof.

Pharmacognosy

and

Dr. 0.

Phytochemistry,

Sticher, at

Institute of

Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich

in

Teaching

practical

Phytochemistry

1996-1999

Part-time

2000

Pharmacognosy

and

I and II

employment

Apotheke,

January

courses

as

community pharmacist in Carmen-

Zurich

Final examination to obtain the

degree of

Doctor of Natural

Sciences, ETH Zurich

280