Sweet Potato - Major Pests and Deseases

Sweetpotato:
Major Pests,
Diseases, and
Nutritional
Disorders
T. Ames, N.E.J.M. Smit, A.R. Braun,
J.N. OSullivan, and L.G. Skoglund
ISBN 92-9060-187-6
Sweetpotato: Major
Pests, Diseases, and
Nutritional Disorders
International Potato Center (CIP)
The International Potato Center (CIP) is a

scientific, nonprofit institution dedicated to the
increased and more sustainable use of potato,
sweetpotato, and other roots and tubers in the
developing world, and to the improved
management of agricultural resources in the
Andes and other mountain areas. CIP is part
of the global agricultural research network
known as the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
Page
CGIAR
International Potato Center

Apartado 1558
Lima 12, Peru
ISBN 92-9060-187-6
Press run: 1000
Printed in Lima, Peru
August, 1997
Cover: Photo of chlorotic spots with and without purple margins induced
by SPFMV (taken by S. Fuentes).
T. Ames, N.E.J.M. Smit, A.R. Braun, J.N. OSullivan, and L.G. Skoglund.
1996. Sweetpotato: Major Pests, Diseases, and Nutritional Disorders.
International Potato Center (CIP). Lima, Peru. 152 p.
1. Sweetpotato Insect pests. 2. Sweetpotato Diseases.
3. Sweetpotato Nutritional disorders. 4. Sweetpotato Integrated management. I. International Potato Center.
Foreword
vii
Acknowledgments
viii
Introduction
Insect Pests of Sweetpotato and

Their Management
Storage Root Feeders

Sweetpotato Weevils (Cylas spp.)
West Indian Sweetpotato Weevil (Euscepes
postfasciatus)
Rough Sweetpotato Weevil (Blosyrus sp.)
Clearwing Moth (Synanthedon spp.)
Peloropus Weevil (Peloropus batatae)
White Grubs
4
4
10
12
14
14
15
Stemborers and Feeders

Clearwing Moth (Synanthedon spp.)
Sweetpotato Stemborer (Omphisia anastomasalis)
Striped Sweetpotato Weevil (Alcidodes dentipes and
A. erroneus)
16
16
18
Minor Stemborers and Feeders

Peloropus Weevil (Peloropus batatae)
Sweetpotato Bug (Physomerus grossipes)
Long-Horned Beetle
25
25
26
26
Foliage Feeders
Sweetpotato Butterfly (Acraea acerata)
Tortoiseshell Beetles (Aspidomorpha spp. and others)
Sweetpotato Hornworm (Agrius convolvuli)
Armyworms (Spodoptera eridania, S. exigua, S. litura)
28
28
30
34
36
iii
22
24
Page
Leaf Folders (Brachmia convolvuli, Herpetogramma

hipponalis, and others)
Strobiderus Beetle (Strobiderus aequatorialis)
Rough Weevil (Blosyrus sp.)
40
43
43
43
Minor Leaf Feeders

44
Grasshoppers and Locusts (Zonocerous variegatus,
the variegated grasshopper and Attractomorpha
psitticina, the slant-faced grasshopper,
and others)
44
Virus Transmitters
Aphids (Aphis gossypii and others)
Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci)
46
46
48
Mites
Erinose caused by Eriophyid mites, Aceria sp.
Eriophyes gastrotrichus
50
50
50
Natural Enemies
Earwigs
Spiders
Pheidole and Other Predacious Ants
Beetles
Flies and Parasitic Wasps
Viruses
Fungal Pathogens (Metarrhizium anisopliae and
Beauveria bassiana)
52
53
53
54
56
58
61
Diseases and Pathogens of Sweetpotato and Their Management
Viral Diseases
Sweetpotato Feathery Mottle Virus (SPFMV)
(Aphid-transmitted potyvirus)
iv
62
65
66
66
Sweetpotato Sunken Vein Virus (SPSVV)

(Whitefly-transmitted closterovirus)
Sweetpotato Virus Disease (SPVD)
Sweetpotato Mild Mottle Virus (SPMMV)
(Whitefly-transmitted potyvirus)
Page
68
69
70
71
Other Viral Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
72
Bacterial Stem and Root Rot (Erwinia chrysanthemi)72
Bacterial Wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
74
Soil Rot (Streptomyces ipomoea)
76
Foliar and Stem Diseases Caused
by Fungi
Leaf and Stem Scab (Elsinoe batatas, Sphaceloma
batatas)
Alternariosis, Anthracnose, Blight (Alternaria bataticola)
Phomopsis Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta Leaf Spot)
(Phomopsis ipomoea-batatas
(Phyllosticta batatas))
Minor Leaf Spot Fungi
Chlorotic Leaf Distortion (Fusarium lateritium)
Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. batatas)
Violet Root Rot (Helicobasidium mompa)
Sclerotial Blight and Circular Spot (Sclerotium rolfsii)
Black Rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata)
78
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
Storage Root and Postharvest

Diseases
96
Foot Rot (Plenodomus destruens)
96
Java Black Rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Diplodia
gossypina))
98
Charcoal Rot (Macrophomina phaseolina)
100
Soft Rot (Rhizopus stolonifer, Mucor sp.)
102
Foreword
Diseases Caused by Nematodes

Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne spp.)
Brown Ring (Ditylenchus destructor, D. dipsaci)
Reniform Nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis)
Lesion Nematode (Pratylenchus spp.)
104
104
106
108
110
Page
This field guide presents information on common pests,

diseases and nutritional disorders of sweetpotato. It is
intended primarily as a tool for correct identification of
these problems and ailments, as an essential first step
in their control.
Disorders of Unknown Origin

Fasciation
112
112
Nutritional Disorders and Their

Management
115
The principal entries in the guide are accompanied

by photographs or illustrations, and pinpoint where specific
problems occur. Additional information is provided on
symptoms and recommended control practices, with
emphasis on integrated crop management.
Causes of Nutritional Disorders

Diagnosing Nutritional Disorders
Correcting Nutritional Disorders
Nutrient Requirements of Sweetpotato
Nitrogen Deficiency
Phosphorus Deficiency
Potassium Deficiency
Magnesium Deficiency
Boron Deficiency
Iron Deficiency
Acid Soils and Aluminum Toxicity
Salinity
116
117
118
120
122
124
130
132
134
136
138
140
Literature Consulted
142
About the Authors
146
Photo Credits
147
Index
148
vi
We believe that researchers, extension agents, students and farmers alike will find this guide useful, as
it can assist them in controlling pests and diseases while
safeguarding the natural environment needed for sustainable agriculture.
Wanda Collins
Deputy Director General for Research
International Potato Center
vii
Acknowledgments
Introduction
The information on nutritional disorders of sweetpotato

presented in this field guide was derived from a research
project of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR). The author of the section on nutritional
disorders, J.N. OSullivan, is a member of the project based
at the University of Queensland, Australia.
The purpose of this field guide is to aid researchers

and extensionists throughout the world in the identification
of common pests, diseases, and nutritional disorders of
sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas). This guide is based on
the authors experiences with the crop in various regions
of the world since 1990.
We would like to thank virologist Richard W. Gibson

of the Natural Resources Institute for contributing to the
section on virus diseases.
In contrast to most other major staple food crops,

sweetpotato is able to produce a comparatively high yield
under relatively adverse conditions; however, a number
of pests, diseases, and nutritional disorders affect the
crop. Among the pest and disease constraints, sweetpotato
weevils (Cylas spp.) and virus diseases probably contribute
the most to yield losses, although leaf-feeding insects,
such as the sweetpotato butterfly (Acraea acerata), can
cause significant losses during outbreaks. Nutritional
disorders can cause slight to complete yield loss, and
are the main factor limiting most unfertilized crops. They
may also reduce tolerance of pests and diseases.
The basis for successful management of sweetpotato
pests, diseases, and nutritional disorders is integrated crop
management. This implies prevention of insect infestation
and infection by pathogens through the use of adequate
cultural practices, and the conservation of natural enemies.
Adequate cultural practices include the selection of healthy
planting material from well-adapted varieties, rotation, good
field sanitation, and maintenance of soil fertility. Conservation of natural enemies involves avoidance of pesticide
use, enhancement of natural enemy action through favorable
cultivation practices, and the introduction of natural enemies
if necessary.
viii
Insect Pests of Sweetpotato

and Their Management
Integrated crop management for sweetpotato is covered comprehensively in the Farmer Field School Guide
for Sweetpotato Integrated Crop Management. This publication can be obtained from the CIP Regional Office for
East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific or from CIP
headquarters in Lima.1 Nutritional disorders are covered
comprehensively in the publication Nutritional Disorders
of Sweet Potato,2 available from the Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research.
The photographs in this publication were assembled
from the collections of the authors and their colleagues,
and are acknowledged as such.
Many insect species attack sweetpotato and the importance of different species varies between agroecological
zones. Within a zone, the importance of a species depends
on the season; many insect pests are a problem mainly
in dry periods.
In this guide, we divide pest species into three groups
according to whether the damage is caused to leaves,
stems, or roots. Defoliation reduces yield depending on
the severity of infestation and the growth stage of the
sweetpotato crop in which it occurs. In some areas,
sweetpotato is grown for its foliage and leaf feeders can
be a problem. In addition to feeding, certain insects, such
as aphids and whiteflies, transmit viruses. Extensive stem
damage can result in wilting or even in death of the plant.
Damage to the vascular system caused by insect feeding
and tunneling and pathogen invasion of the injured tissue
can reduce the size and number of storage roots. Damage
to storage roots, the plant part generally consumed by
humans, is of two kinds. External damage results in a
loss of quality. Although roots with external damage may
bring a lower market price or be unsaleable, they can
often still be consumed in the farm household. Internal
damage often causes complete loss.
1 To order copies of the
Farmer Field School Guide for Sweetpotato Integrated

Crop Management, contact the CIP-ESEAP Regional Office, Fax: 62-251-316264;
email: cip-bogor@cgnet.com or CIP headquarters, Fax: 51-1-435-1570; email:
cip@cgnet.com .
2 Nutritional Disorders of Sweet Potato is available from the Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), GPO Box 1571, Canberra 2601,
Australia, Fax: 61-6-2170501, email: aciar@aciar.gov.au .
Storage Root Feeders

Sweetpotato Weevils
Cylas spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Description. Three species of the genus Cylas are
pests of sweetpotato; they are commonly called sweetpotato
weevils. All three speciesCylas formicarius, C. puncticollis,
and C. brunneusare found in Africa. C. formicarius is
present in Asia and in parts of the Caribbean. The elongated
ant-like adults of the three species can be distinguished
from each other.
Cylas puncticollis is the easiest to distinguish because
the adult is all black and larger than the other two (Fig.
1). C. formicarius has a bluish black abdomen and a reddish
brown thorax. C. brunneus adults are small and not uniform
in coloring. The most common type can easily be confused
with C. formicarius.
In all species, the eggs are shiny and round (Fig. 2).
The legless larvae (Fig. 3) are white and curved, and the
pupae are white (Fig. 4).
Damage. Damage symptoms are similar for all three
species. Adult sweetpotato weevils feed on the epidermis
of vines and leaves. Adults also feed on the external surfaces
of storage roots, causing round feeding punctures, which
can be distinguished from oviposition sites by their greater
depth and the absence of a fecal plug (Fig. 5). The developing
larvae of the weevil tunnel in the vines and storage roots,
causing significant damage. Frass is deposited in the
tunnels. In response to damage, storage roots produce
toxic terpenes, which render storage roots inedible even
at low concentrations and low levels of physical damage.
Feeding inside the vines causes malformation, thickening,
and cracking of the affected vine (Fig. 6).
Distribution and importance. Cylas weevils

are serious pests of sweetpotato worldwide, especially
in drier agroecological zones. They are often the most
significant sweetpotato pest.
Distribution. C. formicarius is an important pest
in India and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the United States,
and the Caribbean. In Africa, it has been found only in
Natal, South Africa, and at one location in coastal Kenya.
C. puncticollis and C. brunneus are confined to Africa.
Biology. All sweetpotato weevil species have a
similar life history. The adult female lays eggs singly in
cavities excavated in vines or in storage roots, preferring
the latter. The egg cavity is sealed with a protective, gray
fecal plug. The developing larvae tunnel in the vine or
storage root. Pupation takes place within the larval tunnels.
A few days after eclosion, the adult emerges from the
vine or storage root. Because the female weevil cannot
dig, she finds storage roots in which to lay her eggs by
entering through soil cracks. Alternate hosts of sweetpotato
weevils are Ipomoea spp. weeds.
Adults of all species may be conveniently sexed by
the shape of the distal antennal segment, which is filiform
(thread-like, cylindrical) in males and club-like in females.
The males have larger eye facets than the females.
At optimal temperatures of 2730C, C. formicarius
completes development (from egg to egg) in about
33 days. Adult longevity is 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 months and
females lay between 100 and 250 eggs in this period.
At suboptimal temperatures, development takes longer.
6
At 27C, C. puncticollis has a total development time

of about 32 days, whereas C. brunneus takes 44 days.
Adults of the first species live an average of 100 days,
whereas the latter dies after about 2 months. C. puncticollis
females lay 90140 eggs in their lifetime, whereas C.
brunneus females lay 80115.
Control. When sweetpotato weevil populations are
high, no single control method provides adequate protection. The integration of different techniques, with
emphasis on the prevention of infestation, provides
sustainable protection.
Cultural control. Cultural practices have proved
to be effective against the sweetpotato weevil and should
be the main basis of control. Cultural practices include:
Use of uninfested planting material, especially vine tips.
Crop rotation.
Removal of volunteer plants and crop debris
(sanitation).
Flooding the field for 24 hours after completing a
harvest.
Timely planting and prompt harvesting to avoid a dry
period.
Removal of alternate, wild hosts.
Planting away from weevil-infested fields.
Hilling-up of soil around the base of plants and filling
in of soil cracks.
Applying sufficient irrigation to prevent or reduce soil
cracking.
Treatment of planting material. Dipping planting

material in a solution of Beauveria bassiana or in an insecticide (such as carbofuran or diazinon) for 30 minutes
prior to planting (Fig. 7) can control sweetpotato weevils
for the first few months of the growing season.
Less-susceptible varieties. Varieties with immunity or a high level of resistance are not available.
Some varieties have low to moderate levels of resistance.
Others escape weevil damage because their storage roots
are produced deep in the soil or because they mature
quickly and can be harvested early.
Sex pheromones. The species-specific pheromones
of all three Cylas species that are released by female
weevils and attract males have been identified. Pheromone
lures for C. formicarius are commercially available. Pheromone traps are used as monitoring, training, and management tools. Many effective traps have been designed
by farmers using locally available materials (Fig. 8). Traps
are so sensitive that their failure to catch weevils is a
good indication that the pest is not present.
Microbial control
control. Promising biological control
agents for sweetpotato weevils appear to be the fungi
B. bassiana and Metarrhizium anisopliae and the nematodes Heterorhabditis spp. and Steinernema spp.The fungi
attack and kill adult weevils, whereas the nematodes kill
the larvae.
Predators. Ants, spiders, carabids, and earwigs are
important generalist predators that attack weevils.They
are described more fully in the section on "Natural Enemies."
8
West Indian Sweetpotato Weevil

Euscepes postfasciatus
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Description. Adult weevils are reddish brown
to blackish gray, and are covered with short, stiff, erect
bristles and scales (Fig. 9). Eggs are grayish yellow to
yellow. Larvae are white. Pupae are whitish and sedentary.
Distribution. E. postfasciatus is widespread in the
Caribbean and South America, and is usually present in
sweetpotato fields and storage.
Damage. Adults feed on sweetpotato stems and
storage roots, and emerge by chewing exit holes (Fig.
10). Larvae feed deep in the plant tissues. Internally,
flesh and stem tissues are severely damaged. Affected
roots are not edible by humans or animals.
Control. Integrated pest management includes

removal of infested sweetpotato vines and storage
roots from the field after harvest, removal of alternate
hosts, and use of uninfested planting material. Biological
control with B. bassiana and the use of early-maturing
varieties also reduces damage.
10
10
11
Rough Sweetpotato Weevil

Blosyrus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Description and biology. Adult weevils are
blackish or brownish and the surface of the elytra is ridged
(Fig. 11). This makes them look like a lump of soil. Larvae
are whitish and C-shaped. Adult weevils lay eggs underneath fallen leaves (Fig. 12). The larvae develop in the
soil and pupate there. Adult weevils are found on the
ground underneath foliage during the day.
Damage. Adult weevils feed on foliage, but the larvae
cause greater damage. While feeding under the soil surface,
they gouge shallow channels on the enlarging storage
roots (Fig. 13). These "grooves" reduce marketability. When
extensively damaged, the skin of the storage root has
to be thickly peeled before eating, because the flesh discolors
just under the grooves.
11
12
Distribution and importance. This weevil is

a common pest of sweetpotato in East Africa, and causes
serious problems in some localities.
Control. Some of the cultural control measures used
to control Cylas should be effective in reducing incidence
of this pest, especially rotation and sanitation. The possibility of biological control is under investigation.
13
12
13
Clearwing Moth
Synanthedon spp. (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)
The larvae can tunnel through the vine into the storage
roots. Usually, only the tip of the storage root is affected.
This pest is discussed in detail in the section on "Stemborers and Feeders."
Peloropus Weevil
Peloropus batatae
White Grubs
White grubs, the larvae of various species of scarabid
beetles, live in the soil. In the larval stage, they are large
and fleshy with swollen abdomens, well-developed head
capsules, and large jaws and thoracic legs (Fig. 14). They
usually adopt a C-shaped position. When they feed, white
grubs gouge out broad, shallow depressions in sweetpotato roots. Most species attack a wide range of host
plants. Control is not usually necessary. Handpicking of
exposed grubs during land preparation and weeding is
useful. Light trapping can be used to control white grubs
when they become a chronic problem in a localized area.
The larvae of the Peloropus weevil can tunnel down the

vines to the storage roots. This species is discussed in
the section on "Minor Stemborers and Feeders."
14
14
15
Stemborers and Feeders

Clearwing Moth
Synanthedon spp.(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)
Description and biology. Adults lay batches of
70100 yellowish eggs on vines and leaf stalks. The larvae
burrow into the vines soon after they hatch and tunnel
downward. They are whitish, with transparent skin and
a brown head capsule. They can grow up to 2.5 cm long.
Pupation occurs in the main stem just above ground level
and the grayish brown pupal case (Fig. 15) can be seen
protruding from the swollen stem. The adult moth has
distinctive transparent wings (Fig. 16).
15
Damage. The larvae burrow into the vines and sometimes into the storage roots. The vine base is characteristically swollen and traversed with feeding galleries.
With heavy infestation, the vine breaks off easily at the
base.
Distribution and importance. Three closely
related species of Synanthedon are regularly found in sweetpotato, but they are prominent pests only in some localities in East Africa.
Control. Frequent earthing-up around the plant base
reduces the incidence of this pest. Other cultural control
measures, such as those practiced for sweetpotato weevil
species, also help to control clearwing moths.
16
16
17
Sweetpotato Stemborer
Omphisia anastomasalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Description and biology. Most eggs are laid
individually along the underside of the leaves, along the
leaf margins. Some are laid on the stem. The egg, larval,
and pupal stages last an average of 5565 days. There
are six larval instars. A newly emerged larva has a brown
head and a reddish or pinkish body. After a few days,
it turns creamy with black markings. Full-grown larvae
are 30 mm long (Fig. 17). Infested plants usually have
a pile of brownish frass around their base. Before pupating,
the larva makes an exit hole that is covered with the
epidermis of the stem. Pupation lasts about two weeks
and takes place in a web-covered cocoon within the
tunnel (Fig. 18). The adults emerge by breaking through
the dry papery covering of the exit hole. They live 5
10 days and the females lay an average of 150300 eggs.
The moths are 15 mm long and have reddish brown heads
and bodies, and light brown wings (Fig. 19).
17
Damage. The larva bores into the main stem shortly

after hatching and sometimes penetrates the neck of the
storage root. Larval feeding results in enlargement and
lignification of the stems at the base of the plant and
in the formation of hollow cavities filled with frass. Plants
may wilt and die. Attack during the early stages of plant
growth may inhibit the formation of storage roots.
18
18
19
Distribution and importance. The stemborer

is one of the most destructive pests of sweetpotato in
trop-ical and subtropical Asia and the Pacific. It is widespread
in the Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Taiwan, Hawaii, and Vietnam, where it is a severe pest
in the central region of the country. It also occurs in China,
Japan, Cambodia, Laos, Burma (Myanmar), and Thailand.
Infestation during the establishment phase of the crop
can result in yield losses of 3050% or more.
Control. Using planting material infested with
stemborer eggs or planting a new field next to an infested
one are often the main means of disseminating this pest.
Treatment of planting material and crop rotation are valuable
means of control. Hilling-up, often practiced to reduce
damage from sweetpotato weevil, also contributes to the
containment of a stemborer infestation. Hilling-up is effective when the holes, made to provide the adults with
a means of exiting the stems, are covered with soil. Earwigs
and ants may attack the larvae developing within
sweetpotato vines. Sources of resistance have been
identified by the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taiwan.
20
19
21
Striped Sweetpotato Weevil

Alcidodes dentipes and A. erroneus
Description and biology. Adult A. dentipes
is about 1.4 cm long and has conspicuous white stripes
longitu-dinally along the elytra (Fig. 20). Adult A.erroneus
is bigger than the former, and is brownish black with
an irregular yellowish patch on each elytron. Larvae of
both species are white, with an orange-brown head capsule,
and are C-shaped. Larvae and pupae (Fig. 21) are found
inside the sweetpotato vine, most often at the base. The
adults eat their way out of the vine. The life cycle is
very similar to that of sweetpotato weevils. Larvae and
pupae also resemble those of immature Cylas weevils,
but the Alcidodes later instars are much bigger.
20
Damage. The larvae bore into the vines and sometimes

into the storage roots. The vine base swells up. Adult
weevils girdle the vines, causing wilting.
Distribution and importance. Alcidodes spp.
are minor pests throughout most of East and Central Africa.
Control. Control is not usually required. Frequent
earthing-up around the plant base reduces the incidence
of this pest. Other cultural control measures, such as the
ones practiced for sweetpotato weevil species, also help
to control Alcidodes spp.
21
22
23
Sweetpotato Weevils
Minor Stemborers and Feeders
Cylas spp. larvae can do considerable damage to

sweetpotato vine bases by tunneling. In East Africa, this
damage can prevent a crop from establishing. This species
is discussed in greater detail in the section on "Storage
Root Feeders."
Peloropus Weevil
Peloropus batatae (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae)
This reddish brown, compact, 34 mm weevil has
been found inside stems and storage roots at some
locations in East and Central Africa. The last instar of the
white larva is longer than one would expect considering
the small size of the adult. The larva makes long tunnels
in the stem and can go down to the storage root via
the storage root "neck." Pupae and adults are found at
the end of the tunnels. The life cycle is long compared
with that of other sweetpotato weevils2 months or
more. Because the larva enters via the storage root neck,
storage roots that seem undamaged on the outside could
be inedible because of several tunnels on the inside.
Control is not usually required.
24
25
Sweetpotato Bug
Physomerus grossipes (Hemiptera: Coreidae)
Description and biology. The sweetpotato bug
lays groups of eggs on the undersides of leaves or on
the stem. The mother bug guards her eggs (Fig. 22A,B)
and the young gregarious nymphs (Fig. 23). The egg stage
lasts about 15 days. There are 5 nymphal stages and
total development takes about 85 days for males and
88 days for females. The adult is 20 mm long.
Damage. The nymphs and adults pierce the stems
and petioles of the sweetpotato and suck the plant sap,
thus causing wilting and stunting.
Distribution and importance. The sweetpotato
bug is found in Southeast Asia, where it is a minor pest.
22A
22B
Control. Large numbers of bugs are usually found

feeding together, making handpicking of the bugs or removal of the infested plants a feasible means of control.
Long-Horned Beetle
A species of long-horned beetle (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae) has been found to attack stem bases in
some localities in East Africa. The larvae are large, with
big heads, and they are found inside the stem base. They
cause severe swelling. Control is seldom necessary.
26
23
27
Foliage Feeders
Sweetpotato Butterfly
Acraea acerata (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)
Description and biology. Pale yellow eggs (Fig.
24) are laid in batches of 100400 on both surfaces of
the leaves. The caterpillars are greenish black and covered
with branching spines. These larvae are concentrated in
a protective webbing during the first 2 weeks after hatching. They then become solitary and hide from the
sunlight on the ground during the day (Fig. 25). The pupae
are yellowish and hang singly on the underside of leaves
or on another support. The attractive adult butterfly has
orange wings with brown margins (Fig. 26). The life cycle
takes 2750 days depending on temperature.
24
Damage. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. Young

caterpillars feed on the upper leaf surface, whereas older
larvae eat the whole leaf except for the primary midribs.
Complete defoliation may result from severe attacks (Fig. 27).
25
Distribution and importance. The sweetpotato

butterfly is a pest in East and Central Africa. It is an important
production constraint in some localities. Outbreaks are
sporadic and seasonal and usually occur at the beginning
of the dry season.
26
Control. Sweetpotato fields should be observed for

sweetpotato butterfly adults and damage early in the dry
season. Webs containing young caterpillars should be
collected and destroyed weekly. Early planting and
harvesting enable the crop to escape severe attacks. In
case of severe outbreaks, chemical control can be carried
out with carbaryl, pyrethrum, etc.; however, effects on
natural enemies should be considered. Various species
of tachinid, braconid, and ichneumonid parasites attack
the larval stage. Beauveria bassiana infects the sweetpotato butterfly.
28
27
29
Tortoiseshell Beetles
Aspidomorpha spp. and others
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
Description and biology. Eggs are laid on the
underside of the sweetpotato leaves or other
Convolvulaceae in batches cemented to the leaves. The
eggs of some species are concealed in a papery oothecum
(Fig. 28). Larvae are characteristically flattened and spiny.
In some species, the tail is held up over the back (Fig.
29A,B) and the larva may carry excreta and previous cast
skins (Fig. 30). The pupa is less spiny than the larva, and
is fixed inert to the leaf. The adults are broadly oval and
may be bright and patterned (Fig. 31). Larvae, pupae, and
adults are found on both sides of the foliage. Development
from egg to adult takes 3-6 weeks depending on the
species.
28
29A
29B
Damage. Both adults and larvae eat large round holes

in the leaves. Attacks are sometimes sufficiently severe
to completely skeletonize the leaves and peel the stems.
Distribution and importance. Four species of
Aspidomorpha and eight other Chrysomelidae have
been recorded in Kenya on sweetpotato. Several species
occur in Southeast Asia including Cassia circumdata and
C. obtusata, the green tortoiseshells; A. miliaris, the spotted
tortoiseshell; A. elevata, the golden tortoiseshell (Fig. 32A,
B), and A. amabilis, with reddish brown elytra. Tortoiseshell
beetles are widely distributed and often common. Although
their damage is quite conspicuous, they seldom if ever
cause yield losses.
30
31
30
31
Control. Control is rarely warranted. Removal of

convolvulaceous weeds in the surrounding area may reduce
their numbers. Several natural enemies including egg and
larval parasites (Tetrastichus sp., Eulophidae; Chalcidae) and
predators (Stalilia sp., Mantidae) have been reported.
32A
32B
32
33
Sweetpotato Hornworm
Agrius convolvuli (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)
Description and biology. The small, shiny eggs
are laid singly on any part of the plant. The larvae have
a conspicuous posterior "horn." They vary in color from
green to brown and are marked with distinct striped patterns.
The last instar caterpillars reach 9.5 cm in length (Fig. 33).
Hornworms are found mainly on young shoots. The
larval period lasts 34 weeks. Pupation takes place in
the soil and takes 526 days, depending on the temperature. The large, reddish brown pupa (Fig. 34)is
characterized by a prominent proboscis, which is curved
downward. Adults are large, gray hawkmoths with black
lines on the wings. Wingspan is 812 cm.
33
Damage. Yield losses can occur if heavy defoliation

takes place when the crop is young. A large caterpillar
can defoliate a plant and a large population of late instar
larvae can defoliate a field overnight. The larvae feed on
the leaf blades, causing irregular holes, and may eat the
entire blade, leaving only the petiole.
Distribution and importance. A. convolvuli
occurs worldwide. It is not usually a serious pest, although
severe outbreaks have been reported in Vietnam.
Control. Handpicking the larvae from the leaves is
usually sufficient. Plowing the land between crops exposes
the pupae. Light trapping can be used to monitor the
population of adults. When a large increase in adult numbers
occurs, manual removal of small larvae can prevent the
buildup of an outbreak population of the voracious late
instar larvae. Pesticide use disrupts the action of the egg
and larval parasites of the hornworm.
34
34
35
Armyworms
Spodoptera eridania, S. exigua, S. litura
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Description. Adult female moths of S. eridania are
light brown with dark spots on their front wings (Fig.
35). Males are smaller with a black spot or a bar on the
center of the front wings. Larvae in their first stages are
gregarious and black and velvety with lateral yellow lines.
In later stages, larvae are gray to olive green with two
parallel dorsal lines (Fig. 36) and they disperse all over
the plant.
The white eggs of S. exigua are laid in round or oval
clusters and are covered with a layer of a felt-like substance
(Fig. 37). The larvae are initially a grass-green color; they
then become green or dark brown with yellowish stripes
in later instars (Fig. 38). Pupation occurs in the soil and
development from egg to adult takes about 23 days. S.
exigua adults can lay 1000 eggs.
The eggs of S. litura are laid in clusters containing
as many as 350 eggs. These are of variable shape and
size and are covered with felt. The caterpillars hatch
after 35 days and take about 2 weeks to reach the pupal
stage. The larvae (Fig. 39) possess two characteristic black
crescents on the fourth and tenth abdominal segments,
bordered by yellow lateral and dorsal stripes. The larvae
prefer moist sites and may hide in the soil during the
day, attacking plants at night. Pupation occurs in the soil.
Female moths mate several times and produce a sex
pheromone. The male moths are very sensitive to the
pheromone on the fourth day after emergence. The female
adults (Fig. 40) can lay as many as 20003000 eggs.
35
36
37
38
Damage. Early instar larvae feed by scraping and

scarifying the leaf surface. From the third instar on, they
36
37
consume the parenchymal leaf tissue, leaving only the

veins (Fig. 41). The late instars of S. litura are very voracious
and may bore into sweetpotato roots when these are
exposed.
Distribution and importance. Armyworms are
widespread and feed on many host plants. S. litura is
confined to Asia, the Pacific, and Australia.
Control. Weedy hosts should be eliminated. Ipomoea reptans (kankung) and several weeds (Amaranthus
sp., Passiflora foetida, Ageratum sp.) are common alternate
hosts in Asia. Collection of egg clusters or leaves infested
with gregarious young larvae can be an effective means
of control. Spot applications of insecticide or Bacillus
thuringiensis can be made in the early larval stage when
larvae are still gregarious. Formulations of nuclear polyhedrosis viruses are available. The green muscardine
fungus, Nomuraea rileyi, is highly pathogenic to S. litura,
and the virus Borrelinavirus litura can cause mortality
after an incubation period of 47 days. Predatory bugs,
carabid beetles, vespid wasps, and spiders attack the
larvae, and more than 40 species of scelionid, braconid,
ichneumonid, and tachinid parasites are known.
39
40
41
38
39
Leaf Folders
Brachmia convolvuli (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae), Herpetogramma hipponalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and others
Description and biology. The larvae of the black
leaf folder, B. convolvuli (Fig. 42), and the green leaf folder,
H. hipponalis (Fig. 43), feed inside a folded leaf, leaving
the lower epidermis intact. In most cases, only one larva
is found per leaf fold. The black leaf folder lays yellowish
white oval eggs singly on the leaves. The eggs hatch
after 35 days and the five larval instars last 25 days
each. The average total larval period is 11 days. The larva
has prominent bland and white markings on the thorax
and abdomen. The pupal period is 47 days. The female
moth lives an average of 5 days. The green leaf folder
lays eggs in groups on the upper surface of the leaf near
the midrib. The eggs are shiny green, oblong, and covered
with a scale-like gelatinous material. The eggs hatch after
35 days and there are five larval instars. The larva is greenish
yellow with sparse brown setae and a dark brown head
and prothoracic plate. The pupal period lasts 48 days.
The adult is a yellowish brown moth with dark brown markings
on its wings. The female moth lives about 3 days.
42
Damage. The leaf margin is folded once by B. convolvuli. H. hipponalis folds the leaf margin twice and produces some webbing. Leaf folder feeding results in a lacelike appearance of the leaf, with the main leaf veins left
intact.
43
Distribution and importance. Leaf folders are

widespread throughout Asia and Africa.
Control. A high rate of parasitism by braconid wasps
is common. Earwigs and other generalist predators are
also important in maintaining natural control. If natural
40
41
enemy action is not disrupted by pesticide use, control

is rarely needed. The use of uninfested planting material
is an effective means of reducing the incidence of leaf
folders.
The brown leaf folder, Ochyrotica concursa (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae), and the pink-striped leaf folder, Anticrota ornatalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), have been reported in the Philippines. The green larvae of the pyralid leafroller, Tabidia
aculealis, scarify the mesophyll from the inner side of
the rolled leaf. They prefer full-grown leaves and the pupae
are found in leaf cases. Reported in Indonesia, they
occasionally cause serious damage.
Strobiderus Beetle
Strobiderus aequatorialis
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
This is a small, yellowish beetle, 57 mm long ocurring
in East Africa. The adults perforate the leaves and cause
damage similar to that of tortoiseshell beetles. Control
measures are not usually necessary.
Rough Weevil
Blosyrus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
The adults feed on the leaves of sweetpotato in Africa,
but their important pest stage is the larva, which affects
the storage roots (see the section on "Storage Root Feeders").
Sweetpotato Weevils
Cylas spp. (Coleoptera Curculionidae)
The adults feed on the leaves of sweetpotato, but
are much more important as pests of the storage roots
and stems (see the section on "Storage Root Feeders").
42
43
Minor Leaf Feeders

Grasshoppers and Locusts
Zonocerous variegatus
(Orthoptera: Pyrgomoriphidae),
the variegated grasshopper and
Attractomorpha psitticina
(Orthoptera: Acrididae),
the slant-faced grasshopper, and others
In Africa, both adults and nymphs of Z. variegatus can
defoliate sweetpotato (Fig. 44). Outbreaks seldom occur
and control is rarely needed.
An Asian species, the polyphagous slant-faced grasshopper is bright green and characterized by a pointed
conical head and short antennae. It measures 3040 mm
in length.
The female taro grasshopper, Gesonula zonocena
mundata (Orthoptera: Acrididae), is found in Southeast
Asia. It bores through the petiole of the host plant to
lay its eggs. These are covered with a reddish brown
gummy substance. The pale brown to green adult is 30
mm long and has black stripes running from its eyes
to the tips of its wings. The hind legs are black and the
tibia are bluish with white-tipped spines. Taro and water
hyacinth are also hosts.
44
44
45
Virus Transmitters
Aphids
Aphis gossypii and others
(Homoptera: Aphididae)
Description and biology. Aphids are soft-bodied
insects, 12 mm long, yellowish green to black, with or
without wings (Fig. 45). Aphids can multiply asexually,
resulting in fast population buildup. Several generations
occur per year.
Damage. Aphids damage plants by sucking sap from
growing shoots. Symptoms of aphid attack are wrinkling,
cupping, and downward curling of young leaves. During
heavy infestation, plant vigor is greatly reduced.
As aphids feed and move from plant to plant in the
field, they transmit viruses. The most important aphidtransmitted virus is sweetpotato feathery mottle virus.
Winged forms may travel long distances and introduce
viruses into new areas. A. gossypii has a wide host range,
including cotton, cucur-bits, and many legumes.
Distribution and importance. Aphids are cosmopolitan. Their main impact in sweetpotato is as vectors
of virus diseases.
45
Control. Control is rarely necessary. Predators such

as ladybird beetles, lacewings (Chrysoperla sp.), and syrphids naturally reduce aphid populations. In case of heavy
outbreaks, farmers tend to apply insecticides; however,
these should be used with great caution since they reduce
natural enemy populations and can contribute to further
aphid outbreaks.
46
47
Whiteflies
Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
Description and biology. The female of B.
tabaci lays eggs on the undersides of leaves. All the
nymphal stages (Fig. 46) are greenish white, oval in
outline, scale-like, and somewhat spiny. The adult
(Fig. 47) is minute and covered with a white, waxy
bloom. Development of one generation takes 34
weeks.
Damage. High whitefly populations may cause
yellowing and necrosis of infested leaves. The pest is
more important as a transmitter of viruses, especially
sweetpotato mild mottle virus. B. tabaci has a wide host
range, including cotton, tomato, tobacco, and cassava.
46
Distribution and importance. The main impact

of B. tabaci, a cosmopolitan species, on sweetpotato is
as a vector of virus diseases.
Control. Control measures are not usually needed.
Controlling whiteflies is not usually an effective means
of limiting the incidence of the viruses they transmit.
47
48
49
Mites
Erinose caused by Eriophyid mites, Aceria sp.
(Acari: Eriophyidae)
Description. Vines and leaves become excessively
hairy, beginning at the shoot tip (Fig. 48).
Biology. Erinose is present in East Africa and the
United States. The problem is more pronounced at lower
altitudes where the climate is hot and dry. Research suggests
that yields may be reduced.
Control. Control is through selection of mite-free
planting material and good field sanitation. This might
not be effective enough, however, because mite populations can build up rapidly.
48
Eriophyes gastrotrichus (Acari: Eriophyidae)

Description. Infested vines present pocket-like galls
on leaves, petioles, and stems (Fig. 49). Initially, galls are
light green, but they become brown afterwards. Several
mites in every stage of development live together inside
each gall. When heavy infestations occur, leaves become
crinkled and lose their shape.
Biology. Erinose caused by the gall mite is present
in the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.
49
Control. Mite-free planting material should be used

together with good field sanitation and destruction of
weeds that can act as hosts.
50
51
Natural Enemies
The natural enemies of sweetpotato pests have received limited research attention. What little is known
of their biology and ecology relates mostly to generalist
predators, such as ants, and to fungal pathogens of the
sweetpotato weevils.
Generalist predators are often the most important
group of biological control organisms in agricultural systems
because they can switch from one prey type to another.
Their flexible food habits allow them to respond as one
pest re-places another in terms of relative abundance.
Herbivorous species that cause little or no economic damage
play an important ecological role in agricultural systems
by providing food to maintain populations of beneficial
species at levels that can prevent damaging pest outbreaks.
In Asia, where sweetpotato is often grown in rotation
with rice, many of the generalist predators commonly
found in rice fields persist in the sweetpotato crop that
follows (for more information on these, see Shepard et
al. 1987).
52
Earwigs
Earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficuliidae) have a characteristic hind pair of forceps-like pincers that are used for
defense. Adults can live for several months and are most
active at night. They enter stemborer tunnels in search
of larvae. Occasionally they climb the foliage to prey on
leaf folder larvae. They can consume 2030 prey daily.
Spiders
The importance of spiders as predators has been clearly demonstrated for rice, but their role has not been studied
adequately in many other crops and little is known about
their contribution to biological control of sweetpotato
pests.
The lynx spider Oxyopes sp. and the wolf spider Lycosa
sp. are abundant in sweetpotato fields. These do not
spin webs but rather hunt prey directly. Web-spinning
spiders are also common.
53
Pheidole and Other Predacious Ants

Cuban farmers practice augmentation of Pheidole
megacephala (Myrmicinae) and Tetramorium guinensis
(Myrmicinae) to control the sweetpotato weevil, C.
formicarius. Several antsPheidole sp. (Fig. 50),
Iridomyrmex anceps (Dolichoderinae), and Anoplolepis
longipes (Formicinae)have been confirmed as predators
of the sweetpotato weevil in Indonesia. Although their
role as predators of other sweetpotato pests is unknown,
Pheidole ants are known to attack small prey stages such
as eggs and early instar insect larvae.
A number of other ant species are reported from
sweetpotato fields in Indonesia (Tetramorium sp.,
Monomorium sp., Odontoponera transversa, Dolicheroderus thoracicus, Polyrachis sp., Camponotus maculatus,
Diacamma sp., Myrmicaria sp., Leptogenys sp., Pachy-dondyla
sp., and Odontomachus simillimus), Uganda (Myr-micaria
sp.), and Vietnam (Solenopsis geminata and Paratrechina
sp., found in tunnels made by Omphisia anas-tomasalis).
Although these ants have not been confirmed as predators
of sweetpotato pests, the literature contains references
suggesting a predacious behavior for several species. An
example is Myrmicaria sp., often found attack-ing caterpillars
in agricultural fields and dragging them to their nests.
54
50
55
Beetles
Carabids are one of the most important families of
predatory beetles. The majority of carabids in agricultural
systems are ground-dwelling species that feed on other
insects that live or pupate in or on the soil. An example
of a predatory carabid identified from sweetpotato fields
in Indonesia is Pheropsopus sp. A few carabids climb
foliage and can be found within the chambers made by
leaf folders.
The staphylids are another common family of scavengers and generalist predators. Of these, Paederus spp.
(Fig. 51) are common in many crop environments, including
sweetpotato. P. fusciceps occurs in Indonesia.
51
The Coccinellidae, or ladybird beetles, are a large family,

nearly all of which are predacious. Their main prey are
aphids, mealybugs, and scale insects, but they also feed
on insect eggs or on the slow-moving early instars of
some Lepidoptera. Both the larvae (Fig. 52) and the adults
are predacious. Adult females deposit distinctive yellow
cigar-shaped eggs in groups of 530 on plants, mostly
near colonies or groups of prey. Ladybird larvae forage
on the plant and pupate on the foliage.
52
56
57
Flies and Parasitic Wasps

Hover flies (Syrphidae) are brightly colored and frequently visit flowers to feed on pollen and nectar. The
adult flies (Fig. 53) lay their elongated white eggs singly
on plants, often near aphid colonies, which serve as prey
for their white, maggot-like offspring. Syrphid larvae are
active mostly at night and feed mainly on aphids. Syrphids,
cocinellids, and parasitic wasps form a natural enemy
complex that plays an important role in regulating aphid
populations.
Tachinid flies (Fig. 54) mostly attack medium-to-late
instar caterpillars. Some species deposit their eggs directly
on a host. Others lay eggs on the plant close to where
the host is feeding. The eggs are consumed by the host
but remain intact and develop within the hosts body.
Other species lay incubated, fully developed eggs on the
leaves; the newly hatched larvae search for a host and
penetrate its cuticle. Caterpillars parasitized by tachinids
can be recognized by the presence of dark spots on the
cuticle, or by discoloration and deformation. Adult tachinids
visit flowers for nectar and survive for several weeks.
53
The tachinid Zygobothria ciliata is a larval parasite

of the sweetpotato hornworm. Cuphocera varia, a
larviparous species, and Blepharella lateralis are
common parasites of armyworms, and are widespread
throughout Southeast Asia. The larvae of C. varia are
deposited on leaves near the feeding sites of their
hosts and rapidly bore into the side of a host between
the segments. The host caterpillar attempts to dislodge the attached parasite by twisting and turning
violently. B. lateralis lays it eggs on the leaves and
the flies often emerge from the host pupa. Carcelia
kockiana, a highly polyphagous species, parasitizes
armyworms in Indonesia. Carcelia normula parasitizes
the sweetpotato butterfly in Uganda.
58
54
59
The wasp Telenomus spodopterae (Scelionidae) is a

common egg parasite of S. litura. The encyrtids Anastatus
dasyni and Oencyrtus malayensis are egg parasites of
Physomerus grossipes. Development of A. dasyni takes
16 -18 days and the females live for about one month.
As many as 8 adults of O. malayensis emerge from an
egg of P. grossipes. The wasps are able to attack eggs
within one day of emergence, and live for about one
month. The eulophid Tetrastichus sp. has been reported
as a pupal parasite of the green tortoiseshell beetle.
Brachymeria sp., a chalcid, parasitizes the green leaf folder.
Trichogramma minutum (Trichogrammatidae) is an egg parasite of the sweetpotato hornworm. Charops sp.
(Ichneumonidae) has been reported from the sweetpotato
butterfly. The adult is slender with a long, stalked abdomen,
which is flattened laterally. The adult also has a characteristic stalked and barrel-shaped pupal cocoon.
Viruses
Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses are common on armyworms. The larvae become infected by eating virus-contaminated foliage. As infection develops in a larva, it
becomes sluggish and stops feeding. Later the larva turns
whitish and then black and hangs from the foliage by
its prolegs. The fluid oozing from its body contaminates
foliage and continues the disease cycle.
Granulosis viruses attack lepidopteran larvae. Hornworm species are often affected. Host larvae that eat
contaminated foliage move sluggishly and then stop
feeding. After 1-2 weeks, the body becomes constricted,
giving a segmented appearance. Infected larvae turn yellow,
pink, or black and become soft.
Many of the host insects of braconid parasites live

in protected sites such as tunnels, mines, and folded
leaves (Fig. 55), or under webbing. Some examples are
Macrocentrus sp., a parasite of the black leaf folder;
Microbracon cylasovorus and Bassus cylasovorus, parasites of C. formicarius; and Meteorus sp., a parasite of
sweetpotato butterfly larvae.
55
60
61
Fungal Pathogens
Metarrhizium anisopliae and
Beauveria bassiana
Sweetpotato weevils are among the insect species
attacked by M. anisopliae. Spores germinate on the body
of a host insect under conditions of prolonged high humidity. The fungus penetrates the insect and uses its
internal body contents as a substrate for proliferation. When
the host dies, the fungus emerges through joints in the
insect exoskeleton, appearing first as a white growth.
When spores are formed, the fungus turns green. Spores
emerging from the dead host are spread to new hosts
by wind or water.
56
Beauveria bassiana (Fig. 56) attacks stemborers, leaf

folders, and bugs among others, and is a confirmed pathogen of sweetpotato weevils and the sweetpotato butterfly.
Like other fungal diseases, it requires conditions of prolonged high humidity for the air-or waterborne spores
to germinate. The fungus invades the soft tissues and
body fluids of the host and grows out of the body to
sporulate. Affected insects appear to be covered with
a powdery, white substance.
Other pathogens that may play a role in the biological
control of pests in sweetpotato fields include the fungi
Hirsutella spp. and Nomuraea rileyi, and the nematodes
Heterorhabditis spp. and Steinernema spp.
62
63
Diseases and Pathogens of

Sweetpotato
and Their Management
A number of pathogenic organisms affect sweetpotato.
Most appear to be widespread, but damage levels vary.
In this guide, we include viral, fungal, and bacterial
diseases, as well as those caused by nematodes. Each
group of pathogens is covered in a separate section. Pathogenic bacteria, although not very common, are responsible
for important economic losses. They affect vascular tissue
as well as storage and fibrous roots, thus causing vine
wilting and rots. Fungal pathogens are classified according
to the type of disease they cause, such as foliar, stem,
storage root, and postharvest diseases. In general, foliar
and stem diseases are mild and cause little damage, except
for scab, which is a very important disease in Southeast
Asia. These diseases contribute to lower yields by reducing
photosynthetic area and transport of nutrients and products
to the storage roots. In some countries, storage rots do
not cause much damage because sweetpotatoes are
consumed shortly after harvest. Tuber-rot pathogens,
however, are present in the field and can cause significant
losses. Plant parasitic nematodes are included as the cause
of serious damage to storage roots both in the field and
during storage.
Although the symptoms of virus diseases appear in
the foliage, these have been accorded a separate section
because of their importance. Of all the sweetpotato pathogens, viruses appear to contribute the most to yield losses.
65
Viral Diseases
Sweetpotato Feathery Mottle Virus
(SPFMV)
Aphid-transmitted potyvirus
Symptoms. Symptoms of SPFMV on the foliage
of sweetpotato are generally slight or absent. If present,
they appear as faint, irregular chlorotic spots occasionally
bordered by purplish pigment. Chlorosis (feathering) along
midribs (Fig. 57) and faint-to-distinct chlorotic spots with
or without purple margins occur in some cultivars (Fig.
58). Symptom visibility on foliage is influenced by cultivar susceptibility, degree of stress, growth stage, and strain virulence. Increased stress can lead to symptom expression,
whereas rapid growth may result in symptom remission.
Symptoms on storage roots depend on the strain of SPFMV
and the sweetpotato variety. The common strain causes
no symptom on any variety, but the "russet crack" strain
causes external necrotic lesions or internal corking on
certain varieties (Fig. 59). SPFMV can be latent in vines.
57
Biology. SPFMV is transmitted by a wide range of

aphid species in the nonpersistent manner through brief
feeds of only 2030 seconds. Both colonizing species
of aphids and winged aphids of noncolonizing species
may transmit the disease. It is also perpetuated between
cropping cycles in infected cuttings, but the lack of symptoms in the foliage makes it difficult for farmers to select
SPFMV-free cuttings. In Uganda, symptom-free cuttings
were mostly virus-free. SPFMV is found with SPSVV (see
next section) in some countries; the combination results in a
severe disease known as sweetpotato virus disease (SPVD).
58
Distribution and importance. Occurs worldwide.

Control. Aphid control is not economically feasible.
The main controls are avoidance of use of diseased plants
for cutting material, sanitation, and use of resistant varieties.
59
66
67
Sweetpotato Sunken Vein Virus

(SPSVV)
Whitefly-transmitted closterovirus
Symptoms. The symptoms reported for SPSVV vary
geographically; in East Africa, the disease may cause stunting and color change in leaves (reddening or yellowing
usually) depending on the variety. Elsewhere, symptoms
include mild vein yellowing, some sunken seconday veins
on adaxial leaf surfaces, and swollen veins on abaxial
surfaces. The disease may also cause no symptoms.
Sweetpotato Virus Disease (SPVD)

Symptoms. Diseased plants become severely
stunted and the leaves become small and narrow (straplike),
often with a distorted edge. Puckering, vein-clearing, and
mottling may occur. The mottling is often pale so that
the whole plant may appear chlorotic.
Biology. This disease seems to be caused by a
synergistic combination of SPFMV and SPSVV; it is unclear
whether other virus combinations are involved.
Biology. SPSVV is transmitted by the whitefly B.

tabaci in the semipersistent manner, needing feeds of
several hours to acquire or transmit efficiently. It may
also be perpetuated through cropping cycles via infected
cut-tings. SPSVV is generally identified in combination with
SPFMV, causing the severe disease SPVD (see next section).
Distribution and importance. SPVD is common

in Africa, where it is the main virus disease of sweetpotato
in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, and Uganda. It causes virtually
total yield loss in affected plants. It may be identical to
a severe disease reported in the Americas. SPVD has
also been reported in Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Kenya, the
United States, and Taiwan.
Distribution and importance. By itself, SPSVV

may cause only small yield losses, but combined infection
with SPFMV causes SPVD, a severe disease associated
with almost complete loss of yield. SPSVV occurs in Kenya,
Uganda, and Nigeria, and has been reported in Asia, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, and the United States.
Control. The main controls are avoidance of diseased

plants as sources of planting material and use of resistant
varieties. Farmers usually avoid diseased planting material
because symptoms are so severe.
Control. The main controls are avoidance of diseased

plants as sources of planting material and use of resistant
varieties.
68
69
Other Viral Diseases

Sweetpotato Mild Mottle Virus
(SPMMV)
Whitefly-transmitted potyvirus
Symptoms. The predominant symptoms associated
with SPMMV are leaf mottling and stunting (Fig. 60). Vein
clearing and distortion may also occur. None of these
symptoms is easily diagnosed in the field and the virus
can be latent.
Biology. SPMMV is transmitted nonpersistently by
the whitefly B. tabaci. It is also carried in infected cuttings.
There is some evidence that SPMMV forms a complex
with SPFMV, but this is unclear.
Other viruses have been identified through serological

identification techniques, such as sweetpotato latent virus
(SPLV), reported in Taiwan, Japan, Kenya, China, and Israel;
sweetpotato chlorotic fleck virus (SPCFV), present in southeast Africa, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, Japan, and
Central and South America; sweetpotato caulimo-like virus
(SPCV), found in Puerto Rico, Madeira, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Kenya; sweetpotato
ring spot virus (SPRSV), reported in Papua New Guinea
and Kenya; and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), found only
in Israel, Kenya, and the United States. Sweetpotato chlorotic
stunt virus (SPCSV) (Fig. 61) is found in Kenya and the
Caribbean.
Distribution. It has been identified in Kenya, Uganda,

Tanzania, and Indonesia, but yield effects are unknown.
Control. Some sweetpotato varieties appear to be
immune and others are tolerant. Sanitation and selection by
farmers of symptomless planting material also help achieve
control.
61
60
70
71
Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial Stem and Root Rot
Erwinia chrysanthemi
Symptoms. Aerial symptoms are water-soaked
brown to black lesions on stems and petioles. One or
two branches may wilt, and eventually the entire plant
collapses (Fig. 62). Localized lesions on fibrous roots may
also be present. On fleshy roots, localized lesions
with black margins can be observed on the surface,
but more frequently the rotting is internal, with no evidence
outside (Fig. 63).
62
Biology. The pathogen has several other hosts in

warm, humid areas of the world, where it remains in
the soil on plant debris and weeds. Infection occurs through
wounds.
Distribution and importance. This disease is
found worldwide. Losses can be economically important.
Control. Cuttings for transplanting should be taken
above the soil line. Using less-susceptible cultivars and
taking care to avoid wounding can reduce disease incidence.
63
72
73
Bacterial Wilt
Pseudomonas solanacearum
Symptoms. Infected stands usually contain some
wilted plants (Fig. 64A). The disease starts at the base
of the stem as yellowish water-soaked lesions that soon
turn brown. The vascular bundles of affected stems and
sprouts are discolored (Fig. 64B). In storage roots, vascular
discoloration is also present, but mainly longitudinal brown
streaks appear as well as brown water-soaked lesions
on the surface (Fig. 64C). Slightly affected fleshy roots,
when stored, can rot completely and develop a distinctive
odor (Fig. 64D).
Biology. The bacterium is soil-borne, but it is usually
carried with the propagative material. Once the soil is
infested, the bacterium can persist from one to three
years. Dissemination in the field can also occur via irrigation
water.
Distribution and importance. The disease is
important in some areas of southern China when susceptible varieties are grown.
64
Control. The use of less-susceptible varieties and

disease-free planting material reduces disease incidence.
When the bacterium is already present in the soil, flooding
and crop rotation with graminaceous hosts are recommended.
74
75
Soil Rot
Streptomyces ipomoea
Symptoms. The first indication of the disease is
an extensive chlorosis and bronzing of the foliage as a
consequence of the destruction of fibrous roots (Fig. 65).
On storage roots, besides dark brown necrotic lesions,
we frequently find cracks radiating from the center and
malformations such as dumbbell-shaped roots (Fig. 66).
Biology. Soil rot causes more damage in dry alkaline
soils. The pathogen can survive in soil for long periods.
Distribution and importance. This disease reduces yield and can be destructive in some areas of the
United States and Japan.
65
Control. Planting material should come from areas

where the disease is not present. Maintaining soil moisture
helps reduce disease incidence. Using sulfur to reduce
soil pH is another alternative, but large amounts of this
element are required.
66
76
77
Foliar and Stem Diseases

Caused by Fungi
Leaf and Stem Scab
Elsinoe batatas, Sphaceloma batatas
Symptoms. Brown to tan raised corky lesions, with
purple to brown centers, appear along the stems (Fig.
67). Coalescing tiny lesions cover the leaf veins, thus making
them shrink and causing the leaves to curl (Fig. 68).
important in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific Islands,
where the pathogen causes serious losses from poor formation of fleshy roots. The disease is also present in
Brazil.
67
Little is known about the biology of the pathogen.

Humid weather, however, favors the disease.
Control. Good levels of varietal resistance are available. Pathogen-free planting material of the most resistant
varieties and good sanitation practices should be used.
The resistance of native and introduced material is being
evaluated in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
68
78
79
Alternariosis, Anthracnose, Blight

Alternaria bataticola
Symptoms. Brown lesions with a typical bulls-eye
appearance of concentric rings occur on leaves, especially
older leaves. Black lesions appear on petioles and stems
(Fig. 69). Bases and middle sections are more affected
than the vine terminals. Death of vines can occur. The
ground under affected vines is often carpeted with blackened leaf debris (Fig. 70).
Biology. Disease and lesion size increase with altitude. High relative humidity or free water is necessary
for infection and sporulation. The fungus survives in debris,
and the spores are spread through infected planting material,
wind, splashing rain, and water.
Although Alternaria spp. can be found infecting
sweetpotato in all agroecological zones, the form known
as alternariosis or anthracnose occurs at mid to high elevations.
69
Distribution and importance. Published information and experience point to Alternaria blight as the
most important fungal disease in East Africa and Brazil.
Control. Susceptibility to the pathogen varies among
varieties. Pathogen-free planting material of the more resistant varieties and good sanitation practices will help
control the disease.
70
80
81
Phomopsis Leaf Spot

(Phyllosticta Leaf Spot)
Phomopsis ipomoea-batatas
(Phyllosticta batatas)
Symptoms. Whitish to tan to brown lesions, usually
less than 10 mm in diameter, form on the upper and
lower surfaces of leaves. The lesions usually have a dark
brown or purple margin (Fig. 71). Pycnidia are visible in
the center of the lesions (Fig. 72).
Biology. The fungus survives in debris and is not
known to have other hosts. Spores spread through infected planting material, wind, splashing water, and possibly
insects.
71

widespread and occurs in all agroecological zones. It is
not known to depress yield, but it can reduce the quality
of vines for planting material and fodder.
Control. No control measures are known. Control
is not normally necessary.
72
82
83
Minor Leaf Spot Fungi

Other fungi cause leaf spots and can be identified
by inspecting spores with a microscope. These fungi
are Alternaria spp., Cercospora sp. (Fig. 73), Septoria
sp., Ascochyta sp., Curvularia sp., Colletotrichum sp.,
and Pestalotia batatae.
Control. No control measures are known. Control
is not usually needed.
73
84
85
Chlorotic Leaf Distortion

Fusarium lateritium
Symptoms. The first noticeable sign or symptom
is a white, waxy (crusty) mucilaginous layer, which contains
mycelium and sporodochia, that covers newly expanded
leaves (Fig. 74). Microscopic observation reveals it on apical
meristems and axillary buds. As the leaves age, the waxy
covering spreads along the leaf margin and eventually
disappears. In some cultivars and environments, leaves
become chlorotic. Occasionally, leaves become distorted
and plants are stunted (Fig. 75).
Biology. The pathogen may be present on the entire
surface of the aerial part of the plant and it can be transmitted
through true seed. It cannot be eliminated by surface
disinfection of the seed. Symptoms are more severe in
hot, dry weather. There is a long latent period (36 weeks)
from infection to symptom expression.
74
Distribution and importance. The disease has

been found in Peru, a few areas of East and Central Africa
primarily at low altitudes where it is hot and dryand
in the United States. It is not known to cause economic
damage in its less-virulent form. When stunting and distortion
occur, losses should be expected.
Control. Pathogen-free planting material is essential.
Varietal differences in susceptibility are observed. Use
vegetative planting material from plants free of symptoms.
Do not harvest true seed from diseased plants, especially
if the seed is to be shipped to areas where chlorotic
leaf distortion is not present. No chemical control is known.
75
86
87
Fusarium Wilt
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. batatas
Symptoms. The first indication of this disease
is a dullness and yellowing of the leaves, followed by
wilting and death of the vine. Affected vines show the
vascular discoloration typical of this disease (Fig. 76).
Biology. The fungus is soil-borne and specific to
sweetpotato and a few close relatives, and barley and
flue-cured tobacco. It can survive in the soil and in debris
for several years. Though tip cuttings are usually pathogenfree, roots and cuttings from the base of the vine can
be infected. Movement of infested soil on tools and by
animals can lead to outbreaks in new areas. The disease
occurs under a variety of environmental conditions. Yield
reduction depends on the stage of plant growth when
disease occurs.
found in most areas where sweetpotato is grown and
is more important in temperate areas than in the tropics.
Control. Good sanitation will help reduce the impact
of the disease and limit its spread. Some varietal resistance
has been observed, and breeding programs in some countries have released resistant varieties.
88
76
89
Violet Root Rot

Helicobasidium mompa
Symptoms. Affected plants become chlorotic and
may defoliate. Fibrous roots rot and become covered with
thick whitish threads of mycelium that soon become pink
and finally violet (Fig. 77). Storage roots start rotting apically
and then they completely decay and are covered by the
same mycelial mat as the fibrous roots. At the same time,
flat black sclerotia are formed. This violet mat of coarse
mycelium and sclerotia may be found on the ground in
places where plants have rotted. Rotted storage roots
have a characteristic smell of alcohol.
Biology. The fungus has a wide host range besides
sweetpotato. It can survive in the soil for at least 4 years
as mycelium or as sclerotia. Infected transplants and irrigation
water can disseminate the fungus. Temperature is not
a limiting factor for disease development, but considerable
moisture in the soil favors the disease.
present in several areas of Asia and the Americas. It can
cause serious losses in Asia.
Control. Planting material should come from healthy
plants. Early maturing varieties can escape the disease.
Rotation with cereals can also help prevent the disease.
90
77
91
Sclerotial Blight and Circular Spot

Sclerotium rolfsii
Symptoms. Sclerotial blight and circular spot are
two diseases caused by the same pathogen.
Blight symptoms start in both seedbeds and newly
planted stands. Shoots emerging from the mother root
suddenly collapse and die. Affected shoots are easily
pulled and separated from the rest of the plant. A mat
of white mycelium and numerous round brown sclerotia
resembling rapeseed are found at the base of affected
plants (Fig. 78). Circular spots are observed only in fleshy
roots. Symmetric brown sunken lesions that sometimes
show crackings are present (Fig. 79).
78
Biology. The fungus attacks several plant species.

It is soil-borne and survives for long periods as sclerotia.
Moisture and organic matter in the soil favor attack.
common in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
Losses are not usually serious.
Control. Disease incidence can be reduced by avoiding growing sweetpotato in infected soils and using disease-free planting material. The use of good sanitation
and less-susceptible cultivars also helps to reduce the
disease.
79
92
93
Black Rot
Ceratocystis fimbriata
Symptoms. Dark to black sunken cankers in the
lower part of the stem are the most distinctive symptom.
In severe infections, yellowing, wilting, and plant death
can occur. Affected storage roots develop black to gray
sunken areas (Fig. 80) on which black spine-like structures
of the fungus can be seen protruding from the surface
of roots. A smell of alcohol resembling that of fermenting
sugar is frequent.
Biology. The use of infected cuttings for planting
perpetuates the disease. Transmission occurs through
wounds made by sweetpotato weevils (such as Cylas spp.),
wireworms, crickets, and mice. The fungus is a soil inhabitant that can remain 12 years in crop debris. Moisture
does not affect disease development.
80

particularly important in Southeast Asia and Oceania where
it reduces yield and quality of fleshy roots.
Control. Cuttings for transplants should come from
pathogen-free planting material. In places where it is difficult
to find healthy mother plants, cuttings should be made
2 cm above the soil line to avoid infected portions of
the plant. Rotate with nonhost plants for at least 2 years
and use good sanitation practices. Cure during the 5 days
following harvest at 3035C and 8590% relative humidity.
94
95
Storage Root and

Postharvest Diseases
Foot Rot
Plenodomus destruens
Symptoms. Brown lesions form on the stem at
or below the soil line. Wilting and death occur in severe
cases. Black pycnidia can be seen (Fig. 81). A canker extends down the stem and affects the proximal end of
the storage root (Fig. 82). This decay is dark brown, firm,
and dry.
81
Biology. The fungus does not survive well in the

soil except in infected roots and stems. It is spread by
infected cuttings, especially those from the base of the
vine, and by contact with spores from infected roots in
storage. Other hosts include members of the
Convolvulaceae. Diseased roots should not be stored.
found in Peru, Brazil, and Argentina. Storage damage can
reduce marketability.
Control. Sanitation and the use of healthy vine tips
for planting are the best means of control in the field.
82
96
97
Java Black Rot

Lasiodiplodia theobromae
(Diplodia gossypina)
Symptoms. This rot is firm and moist initially,
but storage roots soon become totally blackened and
mummified. Rot starts at either or both ends of the storage
root and is initially brown, before turning black. Eruptive
black stromatic masses that bear pycnidia are a diagnostic
feature (Fig. 83).
Biology. Java black rot is spread by infested soil,
infected storage roots, and contaminated storage boxes,
baskets, or tools. Infection occurs via wounds, especially
the cut stem end. Though the pathogen can infect stems,
it grows very little and is seldom a problem. Yields can
be reduced in the field or through storage losses.
83

distributed worldwide. It is one of the most important
storage diseases of sweetpotato.
Control. Timely harvesting can reduce losses.
Good sanitation and care in handling to reduce
wounding are important.
98
99
Charcoal Rot
Macrophomina phaseolina
Symptoms. This disease is found only on fleshy
roots during storage. The fungus does not attack other
plant parts. Infection starts on the surface of the root
and progresses through the vascular ring toward the pith.
Three distinct zones are found in a cross section of
an infected root: an unblemished periderm, an inner zone
about 6 mm wide of reddish brown tissue where a crusty
layer of sclerotia is found, and the inner part of the root
with light tan tissue. Sometimes the center of the pith
splits and the entire root becomes mummified (Fig. 84).
84
Biology. The fungus is distributed worldwide and

attacks several plant species. It is soil-borne and can survive
saprophytically on plant debris or freely as sclerotia.
found in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Losses
are seldom serious.
Control. No control measures are known.
100
101
Soft Rot
(Rhizopus stolonifer, Mucor sp.)
Symptoms. Soft rotting occurs after harvest. Storage
roots become soft, wet, and stringy, often starting at one
end. A strong alcohol-like odor is produced. These fungi
are commonly seen sporulating on the surface of rotting
storage roots (Fig. 85).
Biology. The disease is spread by infested soil or
air-borne spores that enter wounds. Optimum relative humidity and temperature for progress of infection and disease vary by variety, but are usually high. Soft rot can
destroy harvested roots in 48 hours if they are left
unprotected under sunlight.
85

found worldwide in sweetpotato and other crops. It attacks
the fleshy organs of plants that are rich in sugar or starch.
Control. Washing storage roots is especially conducive to rot. Care in handling and proper curing can reduce
disease incidence. So far, no resistance has been found,
but some varieties rot faster than others because they
are more susceptible. Curing is accomplished by storing
after harvest at 2932C and 95100% relative humidity
for 57 days with adequate ventilation (at least 8 cubic
feet of air per ton per day). Subsequent storage is best
at around 13C and 95% relative humidity.
102
103
Diseases Caused by
Nematodes
Root-Knot Nematode
Meloidogyne spp.
Symptoms. Affected plants become stunted, foliage
turns yellow and flagging, and flower production is abnormal. On fibrous roots, round to spindle-shaped
swellings (galls) are produced together with egg masses
on the surface (Fig. 86). Large portions of the root system
can become necrotic. The storage roots of some varieties
react with longitudinal cracking (Fig. 87), whereas in others,
blister-like protuberances emerge through the epidermis
(Fig. 88).
86
Biology. Meloidogyne spp. are distributed worldwide

on several hosts, such as potato and tomato. These nematodes survive in the soil as egg masses and in plant debris
as infective juveniles. They can be transported by irrigation
water and disseminated through infested propagating
material.
Distribution and importance. This root-knot
nematode is one of the most destructive on sweetpotato
because of its wide distribution and damage caused to
storage roots.
Control. Resistance, crop rotation (such as with rice
in Asia), and selected nematode-free planting material
can help to control this disease. In East Africa, nematodes
are rarely associated with sweetpotato and no control
measures are needed.
104
88
87
105
Brown Ring
Ditylenchus destructor, D. dipsaci
Symptoms. Fleshy roots, some time after they are
stored, show symptoms as depressed areas (Fig. 89). In
cross sections, initial infections appear as necrotic isles
of brown tissue scattered throughout the flesh. In
advanced stages, the pulp becomes completely blackened,
slightly soft, and corky (Fig. 90). These nematodes affect
fleshy roots only during storage. No symptoms have been
found in the field.
Biology. The two species of Ditylenchus are distributed worldwide and have a vast host range. They are
migratory endoparasites.
89
Distribution and importance. On some occasions, storage losses can be serious.

Control. No control measures are known.
90
106
107
Reniform Nematode
Rotylenchulus reniformis
Symptoms. Symptoms are not distinctive and can
be confused with those caused by other nematodes. Affected plants are stunted because of destruction of fibrous
roots. Foliage becomes chlorotic and transitorily wilted.
Fleshy roots, when attacked early, develop cracks that
enlarge as the roots grow. In mature roots, deep suberized
cracks are the most noticeable symptom (Fig. 91).
Biology. This nematode can survive in dry soil and
live and infect roots under dry conditions.
Distribution and importance. The nematode
mainly occurs in western and northern Africa, India, the
Caribbean islands, the United States, and some Pacific
islands. Crop yield and quality can be affected.
91
Control. Rotation with nonhost crops is recommended to reduce the soil population of the nematode.
108
109
Lesion Nematode
Pratylenchus spp.
Symptoms. Affected plants are stunted because
of a reduced feeder root system. On fibrous roots, lesion
nematodes produce small, brown necrotic lesions. Affected fleshy roots also show blackish brown lesions that
are often invaded by saprophytic fungi and bacteria (Fig.
92).
Biology. Different species of these nematodes are
found worldwide parasitizing several plant species. They
are migratory endoparasites and leave the roots when
the lesions they produce are parasitized by secondary
organisms. Damage is more severe in sandy soils with
high temperature.
92
Distribution and importance. Although it is

dis-tributed worldwide, this nematode has caused significant losses only in Japan.
Control. Organic amendments such as manure increase the natural enemies of the nematode in the soil
and reduce its population. The use of resistant varieties
is also recommended.
110
111
Disorders of Unknown Origin

Fasciation
Cause unknown
Symptoms. Vines become very broad and flattened
fasciated (Fig. 93). This symptom becomes more pronounced toward the shoot tip.
Biology. Plants have been known to exhibit spontaneous remission of symptoms. It has been suggested
that this is a physiological disorder or that it is caused
by a bacterium of the Rhodococcus genus.
Distribution and importance. Fasciation is found
throughout the world wherever sweetpotato is grown.
It is not known whether yields are affected.
Control. No control is known.
93
112
113
Nutritional Disorders and

Their Management
Plant nutrients are chemical elements that are essential
to plant tissue. For healthy growth, plants require an adequate supply of each of these elements. The most abundant elements in plantscarbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
are obtained from the air and water. The others are referred
to as mineral nutrients, and are supplied by the mineral
and organic components of the soil. They are divided
into two groups, according to their abundance in plants.
The macronutrientsnitrogen (N), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S)
comprise from 1 g to 60 g per kg of dry plant material.
The micronutrients, including iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo),
make up 0.1100 mg per kg of dry weight.
A deficiency of any particular nutrient results in reduced
growth rate and yield. It can only be corrected by increasing
the supply of that nutrient; therefore, accurate diagnosis
of nutritional disorders is essential for efficient corrective
treatment. Supplying a nutrient in excess of crop requirements is costly and of no benefit.
Many mineral nutrients (such as boron, manganese,
and copper) are toxic to plants if present at high concentrations. Other elements, which are not essential
nutrients, may also cause toxicity, such as aluminum, in
acid soils, and sodium.
115
Causes of Nutritional Disorders

Supply of a mineral nutrient to a plant is influenced by
its total abundance in the soil,
the proportion of the total in an available form at
any time, and
the plants ability to capture it.
Usually only a small proportion of the total nutrient
is available for uptake. Availability may be affected by
soil pHat high pH (alkaline soil), the solubility of many
micronutrients is greatly reduced, and the crop may
experience deficiencies such as iron, zinc, or manganese.
At low pH (acid soil), the solubility of macronutrients,
particularly phosphorus, is reduced, while that of aluminum
and manganese may be increased to toxic levels. Disorders
such as aluminum toxicity, which inhibits root development, reduce the plants ability to capture nutrients and
water, and may induce symptoms of secondary disorders
such as magnesium deficiency or water stress. It is important
to recognize the primary agent in such cases.
Deficiencies of macronutrients, particularly nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, are often associated with
a fertility decline following sequential cropping. They are
taken up in such large quantities that the soils reserves
become depleted. High cropping intensity increases dependence on external supplies of these nutrients. In lowintensity agriculture, supplies may be replenished by
fallow periods, which allow time for weathering of
mineral particles;
redistribution of nutrients into the crops root zone
from below; and
accumulation in plant material of nutrients, which
become available to the crop when it decomposes
or is burned.
116
Burning fallow makes nutrients immediately available

to the following crop, but they are easily lost by rain leaching and some, particularly N and S, are lost into the
atmosphere. Burning decreases the soils ability to continue
supplying nutrients, as there is less organic material to
decompose.
Deficiencies of micronutrients are usually associated
with low natural abundance in the soil, or unfavorable
soil conditions that cause insolubility of these nutrients.
Correction of a micronutrient deficiency usually requires
only a few kg per ha, and may be effective for a number
of years. Such inputs are likely to be cost-effective, even
when the application of nitrogen or phosphorus fertilizers
is not.
Diagnosing Nutritional Disorders

Plants respond to a deficiency of any nutrient first
by decreasing growth rate. Specific symptoms, which may
allow the deficient nutrient to be identified, usually occur
only at relatively severe levels of deficiency. Nevertheless,
such symptoms are often the first thing to alert the grower
that there is a problem, and they are very useful for diagnosis. Chemical analysis of the plant tissue provides
a second diagnostic tool, which can be quite valuable
when available.
If a soil is deficient in several nutrients, the plant usually
shows symptoms of the deficiency that is most limiting
to growth. If that nutrient is supplied, growth rate will
increase until it is limited by the next most scarce nutrient,
and a new set of symptoms may develop. It is difficult
to establish from plant symptoms or tissue composition
which nutrients are deficient other than the most limiting
one. Soil tests may provide some guidance, but they must
be calibrated for the crop and soil type at each location.
117
If a nutrient deficiency is suspected, the best way

to confirm it is by observing a positive response to fertilizer
containing that nutrient, and preferably no other (for example, urea, containing N, is preferred to ammonium sulfate, containing N and S, for confirming N deficiency).
When testing a fertilizer response, it is important to have
a control area for comparison, such as an area treated
in exactly the same manner, except for the omission of
the nutrient being tested.
Correcting Nutritional Disorders

Nutrient deficiencies are alleviated by increasing the
supply of the deficient nutrient. Applying chemical fertilizers is one way of doing this. Another may be to add
organic material such as animal manure, if it contains
an appropriate balance of the required nutrients. Other
approaches aim to change the soil properties, in order
to increase the availability of nutrients already present,
or to reduce the supply of elements causing toxicity. The
pH of acid soils may be increased by adding lime. Improved drainage may be necessary to reduce denitrification,
to reduce the production of toxic forms of manganese,
or simply to ensure that roots receive enough air to function
well.
on the field, without burning, or by bringing plant material

from another site. If the need for field sanitation requires
removal of crop residues, then these may be composted
and returned later, or used to mulch another crop that
is not at risk from a specific pest or disease.
Where fertilizers and water are readily available and
cheap, growers may aim to maximize crop potential by
eliminating nutritional stress. Where fertilizers are unavailable or expensive, the aim may be to optimize use of
resources in the agroecosystem, in order to obtain an
adequate and sustainable economic return. At whatever
level of operation, it is important to recognize the limitations of the resource base. A traditional cropping system
may become unsustainable through intensification;
however, intensification is frequently paralleled by a shift
from subsistence to cash cropping. At some point in that
progression, the purchase of inputs may become profitable. Growers and their advisers should remain aware of
these options, even if they are not currently cost-effective.
Increasing the organic content of the soil has a number

of beneficial effects. The gradual decomposition of this
material provides a steady supply of available nutrients.
The organic particles may also provide a suitable substrate
for the soils nutrients to be held in an available form.
Organic matter increases the soils ability to resist acidification. It also increases water retention so that soil takes
longer to dry out, and gives the soil an open texture so
that more air can get to the roots, which need oxygen.
Organic matter is increased by leaving crop or fallow residue
118
119
Nutrient Requirements of
Sweetpotato
Sweetpotato is regarded as tolerant of low fertility
because it may give adequate yields on soils where few
other crops do. Tolerance, however, comes at a cost,
and often large increases in yield can result from a modest
increase in nutrient supply. The nutrient requirement of
the crop depends on what yield is considered adequate.
Most of the nutrients taken up by a sweetpotato crop
are removed from the site when the crop is harvested.
The amount of nutrients removed depends on the yield,
and on whether the vines are removed from the field
as well as the roots. Table 1 gives the approximate rates
of nutrient removal for crops yielding 12 t/ha of storage
roots (the global average) and 50 t/ha (a high yield). In
an intensive farming system, those nutrients for which
the soil has limited reserves may be replaced by fertilizers;
in addition to crop removal, nutrient losses through leaching, soil erosion, and fixation will determine the actual
fertilizer requirement. In less intensive systems, the rate
of cropping that is sustainable will depend on the time
required for mobilization of soil reserves or decomposition
of organic material to replenish the nutrient pools in the soil.
In the following sections, we describe briefly the most
common nutritional disorders of sweetpotato.
Table 1. Estimated removal of nutrients from the soil

by sweetpotato crops of 12 t/ha (average) and 50 t/ha
(high), for a situation in which only storage roots are harvested
and both roots and vines are removed.
Nutrient
Nutrient removal1 (kg/ha) by crop with root

yield of:
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfur
Iron
Boron
Manganese
Zinc
Copper
Molybdenum
12 t/ha
Roots
Roots &
alone
vines2
50 t/ha
Roots
Roots &
alone
vines2
26
6
60
3.6
3
1.8
0.060
0.024
0.024
0.036
0.018
0.004
110
25
250
15
12.5
7.5
0.250
0.100
0.100
0.150
0.075
0.015
52
9
90
16
6.5
4.3
0.160
0.074
0.175
0.062
0.037
0.006
215
38
376
65
27
18
0.670
0.310
0.730
0.260
0.155
0.023
1 Concentrations of nutrients in sweetpotato roots and tops vary considerably.
Quantities given are based on representative concentrations from a number

of sources, converted to a fresh weight basis assuming 70% moisture in
storage roots and 86% moisture in vines.
2
A vine to root weight ratio of 0.6 was assumed. Actual ratios may vary
from 0.3 to 1.4.
120
121
Nitrogen Deficiency
Occurrence. Nitrogen deficiency is very common,
especially on sandy soils, soils with little organic matter,
and any soils that have been repeatedly cropped without
replacing nitrogen. Marshy areas are particularly prone,
as waterlogging encourages denitrification by soil bacteria.
Symptoms. Nitrogen-deficient plants grow slowly
and have small, pale green, dull leaves (Fig. 94). In many
cultivars, red pigmentation is increased on the petioles
and veins of young leaves; this may be more visible on
the underside of the leaf. The oldest leaves may die prematurely as their nitrogen is remobilized for new growth.
They usually turn uniformly yellow before wilting and drying
(Fig. 95).
Correction. Nitrogen may be added in the form
of inorganic fertilizers, animal manure, plant compost, or
mulch, or by growing leguminous plants in the field, intercropped or in rotation with sweetpotato.
Various nitrogen-containing fertilizers are available, including urea, ammonium sulfate, calcium nitrate, or combined NPK fertilizers. All supply nitrogen in a form that
is immediately available to plants. The choice should be
made on the basis of cost per kg of nitrogen, and whether
the other elements contained in the preparation, such
as calcium or sulfur, will be beneficial. As nitrogen is easily
lost from the soil by leaching and microbial activity, split
application is preferred, with a smaller dose at planting
and the larger proportion after the crop is well established
(68 weeks), when its roots are more able to intercept it.
122
94
123
Rates of nitrogen fertilizers in excess of crop requirements may reduce yields in sweetpotato by causing vigorous growth of vines at the expense of storage roots.
The optimum level of nitrogen supply varies among cultivars.
Animal manures are a rich source of nitrogen, although
the quantity of manure needed will be much higher than
for chemical fertilizers; it also depends on the ratio of
dung to straw and the moisture content. Plant material
is also beneficial, but it has a lower nitrogen content.
Leguminous plants fix nitrogen from the atmosphere,
which becomes available to the sweetpotato crop when
the legume material breaks down. These plants may be
grown either in rotation with sweetpotato or as an intercrop.
They perform best if crop residue is left on the field or
incorporated into the soil. Alternatively, leafy prunings from
leguminous trees growing on other sites may be applied
as a mulch. The labor required is significant, as quantities
on the order of 2040 t/ha are needed to supply sufficient
nitrogen to maximize yield.
95
124
125
Phosphorus Deficiency
Occurrence. Phosphorus compounds in the soil have
a low solubility, so that only a small proportion of the
soils phosphorus is available to plants. As a result, phosphorus is often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth.
Many plants, including sweetpotato, form a symbiotic association with root-infecting fungi (known as mycorrhizae),
which increase their ability to extract phosphorus from
the soil.
Oxisols, ultisols, and many volcanic ash soils have a
great capacity to bind, or "fix," phosphorus, making it unavailable to plants. On these soils, very high rates of phosphorus fertilizers may be required to maximize the yield
response of the crop. After several years of such applications, however, the binding capacity will become
saturated, and much lower rates are then adequate to
maintain fertility.
96
Symptoms. Phosphorus deficiency can reduce plant

growth considerably without inducing visible symptoms.
Therefore, this disorder is difficult to recognize until it
is quite severe. An experienced grower may note a darker
than normal color, together with poor growth rate.
The first visible symptom in many cultivars is the development of red-brown or purple pigmentation on the
older leaves (Fig. 96). As the oldest leaves begin to die,
yellowing develops unevenly, spreading from diffuse
spots, the tip region, or one half of the blade (Fig. 97).
Bright autumnal colors may develop with yellow and orange
combining with the purple pigment (Fig. 98).
126
97
127
On some cultivars, purple pigmentation may appear

or be increased on the young leaves. Nitrogen deficiency
may produce a similar symptom, but in the case of
phosphorus deficiency, the whole plant is not pale, but
dark green.
Correction. Phosphorus is usually applied as superphosphate (single or triple) or in combined NPK fertilizers. Because it is relatively slow to dissolve and has
low mobility in the soil, it may be applied at planting.
Band or spot application close to the plants is usually
more efficient than broadcasting, especially on phosphorus-fixing soils. Rock phosphate may be an effective source
on acid soils. Liming of acid soils may increase the availability
of native soil phosphorus.
Phosphorus is also contained in animal manures and
plant material. Increasing the organic content of the soil
also increases availability of phosphorus to plants, and
applying plant mulch in conjunction with inorganic phosphorus fertilizer may increase its efficiency. Organic matter
in the soil may also reduce the effects of acidification.
128
98
129
Potassium Deficiency
Occurrence. Potassium deficiency is common on
sandy soils and on leached oxisols and ultisols, whereas
many volcanic ash soils are well supplied with potassium.
Sweetpotato and other root crops remove much more
potassium from the soil than do cereals or pulse crops.
A 15 t/ha sweetpotato crop removes approximately 80
kg/ha of potassium. If the vines are also removed, the
additional loss is 3050 kg/ha. Therefore, it is not surprising
that potassium deficiency is a common problem on soils
that have been continuously cropped without potassium
fertilization.
99
Symptoms. Visible symptoms often appear when

the crop is a few months old, at a time when the developing
storage roots are placing increasing demand on potassium
supplies.
The first signs may appear on mature leaves, which
develop a light green chlorosis between the fine veins
(Fig. 99). The oldest leaves become yellow, particularly
around the margin and in areas between the main veins.
The yellow tissue eventually dies, usually turning dark
brown and brittle.
Correction. Potassium may be supplied in organic
material or as inorganic fertilizer. Plant material can be
applied either as compost or as a surface mulch. It should
be noted that, if a whole region is potassium deficient,
then locally grown plant material will have a low potassium
concentration. Inorganic fertilizers include potassium chloride (muriate of potash) or potassium sulfate, or combined
NPK fertilizers. A split application, at planting and after
46 weeks, is often most effective.
130
131
Magnesium Deficiency
Occurrence. Magnesium deficiency is most likely
to occur on sandy soils and on volcanic soils of high
potassium status, as high concentrations of potassium
tend to inhibit magnesium uptake. In strongly acid soils,
magnesium deficiency may be induced as an effect of
aluminum toxicity.
Symptoms. The crop tends to have a generally pale
color and vines become thin and twining. Older leaves
develop pale green to yellow interveinal chlorosis, in which
the main veins retain a margin of 13 mm of darker green
tissue (Fig. 100). Affected leaves are often slightly wilted
and drooping. Red or purple pigmentation may appear
on the upper surface of older leaves, over interveinal
patches (Fig. 101), or on the lower surface, where the
minor veins may become red. On the oldest leaves, yellow
areas become brown and necrotic, but usually remain
soft. The entire leaf then turns yellow and wilts (Fig.
102).
100
Correction. On acid soils where magnesium deficiency is known to be a problem, dolomitic lime or magnesium oxide (2050 kg/ha Mg) may be incorporated into
the soil. To correct symptoms in an existing crop, magnesium
sulfate (1040 kg/ha Mg, as a band application or foliar
spray) is preferred as it is more rapidly soluble. Kieserite,
a naturally occurring form of magnesium sulfate, is
available in some countries.
101
102
132
133
Boron Deficiency
Occurrence. Sweetpotato seems to be more susceptible to boron deficiency than many other crops. Boron
deficiency of sweetpotato has been observed in diverse
environments, such as on highly weathered ultisols in
the Papua New Guinea highlands, on granitic sands in
northern Australia, and on clayey river flats in Malawi.
Dry or cold conditions, which restrict root development,
seem to exacerbate boron deficiency; recovery may occur
following rains or warmer weather.
103
Symptoms. Boron deficiency affects actively growing

tissue of both the shoot and roots. Young leaves become
small, thickened, and brittle, and often puckered (Fig. 103).
Tips of lobes may curl under and petioles may twist. On
the vines, internode length is reduced in most, but not
all, cultivars. In many cultivars, young leaves also become
pale, either uniformly or with a diffuse interveinal pattern
(Fig. 104). In severe cases, the shoot tip shrivels and dies.
Storage roots are often short and blunt-ended or
spherical, and may split and overgrow, resulting in deformities
(Fig. 105). The cut root exudes less white sap than normal,
and flesh may be mottled or corky in places. The flavor
is less sweet, or even bitter.
104
Correction. Boron deficiency can be controlled by

fertilizing with borax or other borates at around 1 kg/ha
B on sandy soils, to 3 kg/ha B on clay soils. Foliar application
is often recommended for other crops, but appears to
give a poor response in sweetpotato. Boron is not transported within the plant from vines to roots. Although the
tops may appear healthy after foliar spraying, symptoms
persist on the storage roots.
105
134
135
Iron Deficiency
Occurrence. Because iron becomes less soluble
with increasing alkalinity (that is, as pH increases above
7), iron deficiency is a common disorder on calcareous
soils. It may also be induced by overliming or excessive
use of phosphate fertilizers. It may be a secondary symptom
of other disorders that impair root function, including
calcium deficiency and heavy metal toxicities.
Symptoms. Symptoms are conspicuous and distinctive. Young leaves become yellow or almost white,
with green veins sharply contrasting (Fig. 106). In severe
cases, the young leaves become necrotic and the tip and
axillary buds may die (Fig. 107). Diagnosis can be confirmed
by painting a chlorotic leaf with a 1% solution of ferrous
ammonium sulfate, which will cause regreening after
a few days (Fig.108).
106
Correction. Soil application of iron compounds on

alkaline soil is inefficient due to precipitation of the iron.
Burying small pieces of scrap iron, such as nails and tin
cans, in the mound before planting can reduce severity.
Foliar sprays of iron chelate or ferrous ammonium sulfate
solution are recommended for treatment of an iron-deficient
crop.
107
108
136
137
Acid Soils and Aluminum Toxicity

Occurrence. Acidity (low soil pH) is very common
on tropical crop land and tends to increase over a period
of cropping if not amended. Acidity causes reduced availability of macronutrients, particularly phosphorus, while
the solubility of aluminum (and manganese in some soils)
may be increased to toxic levels.
Symptoms. Aluminum toxicity is the most common
disorder associated with acid soils. It impairs root growth
(Fig. 109A, no Al added; Fig. 109B, 50 mM Al added),
and the visible symptoms on vines are often secondary
consequences of poor root function. Symptoms of water
stress are common. Uptake of nutrients, particularly calcium
and magnesium, is impaired, and symptoms of calcium or magnesium deficiency may develop. Phosphorus
deficiency may be evident on acid soils as a result of
reduced solubility of phosphate.
109A
Correction. Soil pH is elevated by incorporating

lime or dolomite into the soil. The amount required depends
on the soil type; overcorrection can lead to micronutrient
deficiencies associated with alkalinity. Maintaining high
soil organic matter levels helps to slow acidification and
to detoxify aluminum (see introductory section).
109B
138
139
Salinity
Occurrence. Salinity is usually a problem of irrigated
land in arid to semiarid environments. It arises either by
contamination of the topsoil by saline groundwater or
by accumulation of salts contained in irrigation water. Other
areas, such as coastal plains, may be affected by salinity.
Symptoms. Salt-affected plants may show symptoms of water stress despite adequate moisture in the
soil. Older leaves may develop brown necrotic spots, turn
yellow, and fall off (Fig. 110). In severe cases, the stem
below the tip may shrivel and die.
Correction. If the problem is associated with saline
groundwater, improved drainage is recommended. More
efficient use of irrigation water can slow salination and
prevent groundwater from rising. Often, the most useful
strategy is to select a more salt-tolerant cultivar of
sweetpotato.
140
110
141
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146
About the Authors

Teresa Ames is a pathologist at the International Potato
Center, Apartado 1558, Lima 12, Peru; email:
t.icochea@cgnet.com
Nicole Smit is an integrated pest management specialist
at the International Potato Center, Liaison Office Uganda,
P.O. Box 7878, Kampala, Uganda; email: nsmit@imul.com
Ann Braun is a former integrated pest management
specialist at the International Potato Center, Regional Office
for East and Southeast in Indonesia, and is currently with
the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Apartado
Aero 6713, Cali, Colombia; e-mail: a.braun@cgnet.com
Jane OSullivan is a soil scientist at the University
of Queensland, Brisbane Qkl 4072 Australia; email:
j.osullivan@mailbox.uq.oz.au
Linnea Skoglund is a plant pathologist at the Colorado
State University, Plant Pathology Department, Fort Collins,
CO 80523, USA; e-mail: skoglund@lamar.colostate.edu
147
Photo Credits
C. Asher99; T. Ames 83; F. P.C. Blamey101; A. Braun

14,17-19, 22 A, B, 23, 28, 29A,B, 32 A, B, 38, 39, 42,
43, 51-56; G. Chang73, 75; CIP archives33, 45,47; C.
A. Clark63, 65, 78, 79, 81, 82, 88, 91; A. Dowling106;V.
Duarte62; E. R. French49, 67, 68; S. Fuentes57, 58,
60; E. Guevara86, 89, 90; V. P. Ilaava110; IIBC 1-4,
20; G. W. Lawrence84; W. J. Martin61, 85; J. W. Moyer
59, 66; T. Nishizawa92; J. OSullivan94-98, 100, 102105, 107-109; M. Palacios8-10; M. Shepard 37, 40; L.
G. Skoglund48, 69-72, 93; N. E. J. M. Smit5,6,11-13,
15,16, 21,24-27, 30,31,34, 44, 46; Sweeetpotato cultivation
in China, 76,77; SON87; N. S. Talekar7; H. Van den
Berg50; A. Vera35, 36, 41
Aceria sp., 50
Acid soils, 138
Acraea acerata, 28, 29
Ageratum sp., 38
Agrius convolvuli, 34, 35
Alcidodes
dentipes, 22, 23
erroneus, 22, 23
Aluminum toxicity, 116,138,139
Alternaria bataticola, 80, 81
Alternaria spp., 84
Alternariosis, 80
Amaranthus sp., 38
Anastatus dasyni, 60
Anoplolepis longipes, 54
Anticrota ornatalis, 42
Anthracnose, 80
Aphids, 46, 47
Aphis gossypii, 46, 47
Armyworms, 36-39, 61
Ascochyta sp., 84
Aspidomorpha spp., 30-33
amabilis, 30
elevata, 30, 33
miliaris, 30
Attractomorpha psitticina, 44
Bacillus thuringiensis, 38
Bacterial stem and root rot, 72, 73
Bacterial wilt, 74, 75
Bassus cylasovorus, 60
Beauveria bassiana, 8, 10, 62
Beetles, 56, 57
Bemisia tabaci, 48, 49, 68, 70
Black rot, 94, 95
Blepharella lateralis, 58
Blight, 80
Blosyrus sp., 12, 13, 43
Boron deficiency, 134, 135
Borrelinavirus litura, 38
Brachmia convolvuli, 42, 43
Brachymeria sp., 60
148
149
Brown ring, 106, 107

Camponotus maculatus, 54
Carabids, 56
Carcelia
kockiana, 58
normula, 58
Cassia
circumdata, 30
obtusata, 30
Ceratocystis fimbriata, 94
Cercospora sp., 84
Charops sp., 60
Charcoal rot, 100, 101
Chlorotic leaf distortion, 86, 87
Chrysoperla sp., 46
Circular spot, 92
Clearwing moth, 14,16,17
Cocinellids, 58
Colletotrichum sp., 84
Cucumber mosaic virus, 71
Cuphocera varia, 58
Curvularia sp., 84
Cylas spp., 4-9, 24, 43
brunneus, 4-6, 7, 8
formicarius, 4-6, 8, 54, 60
puncticollis, 4-6, 7, 8
Diacamma sp., 54
Diplodia gossypina, 98
Ditylenchus
destructor, 106
dipsaci, 106
Dolicheroderus thoracicus, 54
Earwigs, 53
Elsinoe batatas, 78
Erinose, 50
Eriophyes gastrotrichus, 50, 51
Erwinia chrysanthemi, 72
Euscepes postfasciatus, 10, 11
Fasciation, 112
Flies, 58, 59
Foot rot, 96, 97
Fungal pathogens, 62
Fusarium lateritium, 86
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.. batatas, 88
150
Fusarium wilt, 88, 89

Gesonula zonocena mundata, 44
Grasshoppers, 44
Helicobasidium mompa, 90
Herpetogramma hipponalis, 40, 41
Heterorhabditis spp., 8, 62
Hirsutella spp., 62
Hover flies, 58
Ipomoea reptans, 38
Iridomyrmex anceps, 54
Iron deficiency, 136, 137
Java black rot, 98, 99
Lacewings, 46
Ladybird beetles, 46, 56, 57
Lasiodiplodia theobromae, 98
Leaf and stem scab, 78, 79
Leaf folders, 40-42, 62
Leptogenys sp., 54
Lesion nematode, 110, 111
Locusts, 44
Long-horned beetle, 26
Lycosa sp., 53
Lynx spider, 53
Macrocentrus sp., 60
Macrophomina phaseolina, 100
Magnesium deficiency, 116, 132, 133
Meloidogyne spp., 104
Metarrhizium anisopliae, 8, 62
Meteorus sp., 60
Microbracon cylasovorus, 60
Mites, 50, 51
Monomorium sp., 54
Mucor sp., 102
Myrmicaria sp., 54
Nitrogen deficiency, 116, 122-125
Nomuraea rileyi, 38, 62
Ochyrotica concursa, 42
Odontomachus simillimus, 54
Odontoponera transversa, 54
Oencyrtus malayensis, 60
Omphisia anastomasalis, 18-21, 54
Oxyopes sp., 53
Pachydondyla sp., 54
Paederus spp., 56, 57
151
Paederus fusciceps, 56
Parasitic wasps, 58, 60
Paratrechina sp., 54
Passiflora foetida, 38
Peloropus batatae, 14, 25
Peloropus weevil, 14, 25
Pestalotia batatae, 84
Pheidole megacephala, 54
Pheidole sp., 54, 55
Pheropsopus sp., 56
Phomopsis ipomoea-batatas, 82
Phomopsis leaf spot, 82, 83
Phosphorus deficiency, 116, 126-129
Phyllosticta batatas, 82
Phyllosticta leaf spot, 82
Physomerus grossipes, 26, 60
Plenodomus destruens, 96
Polyrachis sp., 54
Potassium deficiency, 116, 130, 131
Pratylenchus spp., 110
Pseudomonas solanacearum, 74
Reniform nematode, 108, 109
Rhizopus stolonifer, 102
Rhodococcus, 112
Root-knot nematode, 104, 105
Rotylenchulus reniformis, 108
Rough sweetpotato weevil, 12, 13
Rough weevil, 43
Salinity, 140, 141
Sclerotial blight, 92, 93
Sclerotium rolfsii, 92
Septoria sp., 84
Slant-faced grasshopper, 44
Soft rot, 102, 103
Soil rot, 76, 77
Solenopsis geminata, 54
Sphaceloma batatas, 78
Spiders, 53
Spodoptera
eridania, 36, 37
exigua, 36, 37
litura, 36, 38, 39, 60
Stalilia sp., 32
Steinernema spp., 8, 62
152
Streptomyces ipomoea, 76
Striped sweetpotato weevil, 22, 23
Strobiderus aequatorialis, 43
Strobiderus beetle, 43
Sweetpotato bug, 26, 27
Sweetpotato butterfly, 28, 29, 60, 62
Sweetpotato caulimo-like virus, 71
Sweetpotato chlorotic fleck virus, 71
Sweetpotato chlorotic stunt virus, 71
Sweetpotato feathery mottle virus, 66, 67, 68, 70
Sweetpotato hornworm, 34, 35, 60
Sweetpotato latent virus, 71
Sweetpotato mild mottle virus, 70
Sweetpotato ring spot virus, 71
Sweetpotato stemborer, 18-21
Sweetpotato sunken vein virus, 68
Sweetpotato virus disease, 69
Sweetpotato weevils, 4-9, 24, 43, 62
Synanthedon spp., 14, 16, 17
Syrphids, 46, 58
Tabidia aculealis, 42
Tachinids, 58
Telenomus spodopterae, 60
Tetramorium guinensis, 54
Tetramorium sp., 54
Tetrastichus sp., 32, 60
Tortoiseshell beetles, 30-33
Trichogramma minutum, 60
Variegated grasshopper, 44
Violet root rot, 90, 91
Viruses as natural enemies, 61
Web-spinning spiders, 53
West Indian sweetpotato weevil, 10, 11
White grubs, 15
Whiteflies, 48, 49, 68, 70
Wolfspider, 53
Zonocerous variegatus, 44, 45
Zygobothria ciliata, 58
153
A publication of the
International Potato Center (CIP)
Editing
Bill Hardy
Design and layout
Rubn D. Gutirrez
Nini Fernndez-Concha Bernales
Milton Hidalgo
Printed by
The Communications Unit-CIP
Sweetpotato:
Major Pests,
Diseases, and
Nutritional
Disorders
ISBN 92-9060-187-6

Sweet Potato - Major Pests and Deseases

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Sweetpotato:

International Potato Center (CIP)

The International Potato Center (CIP) is a

International Potato Center

Insect Pests of Sweetpotato and

Storage Root Feeders

Stemborers and Feeders

Minor Stemborers and Feeders

Leaf Folders (Brachmia convolvuli, Herpetogramma

Minor Leaf Feeders

Diseases and Pathogens of Sweetpotato and Their Management

Sweetpotato Sunken Vein Virus (SPSVV)

Other Viral Diseases

Storage Root and Postharvest

Diseases Caused by Nematodes

This field guide presents information on common pests,

Disorders of Unknown Origin

Nutritional Disorders and Their

The principal entries in the guide are accompanied

Causes of Nutritional Disorders

About the Authors

The information on nutritional disorders of sweetpotato

The purpose of this field guide is to aid researchers

We would like to thank virologist Richard W. Gibson

In contrast to most other major staple food crops,

Insect Pests of Sweetpotato

1 To order copies of the

Farmer Field School Guide for Sweetpotato Integrated

Storage Root Feeders

Distribution and importance. Cylas weevils

At 27C, C. puncticollis has a total development time

Treatment of planting material. Dipping planting

West Indian Sweetpotato Weevil

Control. Integrated pest management includes

Rough Sweetpotato Weevil

Distribution and importance. This weevil is

The larvae of the Peloropus weevil can tunnel down the

Stemborers and Feeders

Damage. The larva bores into the main stem shortly

Distribution and importance. The stemborer

Striped Sweetpotato Weevil

Damage. The larvae bore into the vines and sometimes

Minor Stemborers and Feeders

Cylas spp. larvae can do considerable damage to

Control. Large numbers of bugs are usually found

Damage. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. Young

Distribution and importance. The sweetpotato

Control. Sweetpotato fields should be observed for

Damage. Both adults and larvae eat large round holes

Control. Control is rarely warranted. Removal of

Damage. Yield losses can occur if heavy defoliation

Damage. Early instar larvae feed by scraping and

consume the parenchymal leaf tissue, leaving only the

Distribution and importance. Leaf folders are

enemy action is not disrupted by pesticide use, control

Minor Leaf Feeders

Control. Control is rarely necessary. Predators such

Distribution and importance. The main impact

Eriophyes gastrotrichus (Acari: Eriophyidae)

Control. Mite-free planting material should be used

Pheidole and Other Predacious Ants

The Coccinellidae, or ladybird beetles, are a large family,

Flies and Parasitic Wasps