Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MANGROVE GUIDEBOOK
FOR SOUTHEAST ASIA
Authored by: Wim Giesen, Stephan Wulffraat, Max Zieren and Liesbeth Scholten
ISBN: 974-7946-85-8
FAO and Wetlands International, 2006
Printed by: Dharmasarn Co., Ltd.
First print: July 2007
ii
FOREWORDS
Large
iii
He Changchui
Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative for
Asia and the Pacific
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
iv
It
is with great pleasure that I am writing the foreword for this guide to the
mangroves of Southeast Asia. Its development started in 1991 when a
young Dutch student, Stephan Wulffraat, entered my office in Bogor (Asian
Wetland Bureau Indonesia), inquiring about possibilities for an internship.
I had worked extensively along the coasts and in the mangrove swamps of
West Malaysia and Sumatra and often found it tedious to identify various
plant species associated with these magnificent areas; not so much the true
mangroves which comprise relatively few species but the many species
in the backswamps, the slightly elevated areas and the sandy ridges
associated with this brackish water habitat. For these, no concise field guide
existed. As a Dutch researcher I was used to the fantastic field guides that
can be obtained in almost any bookshop in Europe. For students in
Southeast Asia it is much more difficult to get acquainted with the
tremendous biodiversity around them. There are many more species but
hardly any field guides. They have to scramble through many incomplete
inventories, herbaria and obscure scientific papers. I believe that this dearth
of access to basic knowledge is one of the most significant constraints for
both the public and young scientists in Southeast Asia to develop a true
appreciation of their biologically rich environment. I believe that this also
sustains the limited understanding and awareness of the ecology of
mangroves and their incredible productivity and usefulness for people.
I suggested Stephan to start the development of a field guide to the
mangroves and associated plants species of Indonesia. I did not foresee that
this would become a long process, hampered by lack of funding but carried
on through the enthusiasm and interest of its consecutive authors and the
drawing talents of Wahyu Gumelar, Triana, Iskak Syamsudin and Tilla
Visser. The most significant driving force of it all was Wim Giesen, who
was involved from the start and in the end even took the step to expand the
focus to Southeast Asia. I would like to thank FAO for their support in the
development and publication of this guidebook.
At last, here it is. I am extremely pleased with the end result. I call on
students and nature lovers of Southeast Asia to go out there, study and
appreciate why and how mangroves should be managed and protected,
and to become knowledgeable advocates for their plight. Too many
valuable areas have been lost.
It is time to turn the tide.
Marcel Silvius
Senior Programme Manager
Wetlands International
Wageningen, The Netherlands
v
AUTHORS PREFACE
The aim of this book is to provide those involved with the management and
conservation of mangroves in Southeast Asia with a guidebook for
identifying mangrove plants. At the same time, the book aims to provide a
brief introduction to mangroves in general and Southeast Asias mangroves
in particular. This would then also be of use to students and interested lay
persons. Accordingly, the book has been split into two parts: part one deals
with the mangrove habitat in Southeast Asia, while part two focuses on the
mangrove plants themselves. The core of the book is formed by the blackand-white drawings of mangrove plants, skilfully drawn by Wahyu Gumelar,
Tilla Visser, Iskak Syamsudin and Triana at the Wetlands International
Indonesia Programme office in Bogor, West Java.
Various guidebooks exist for mangroves of Southeast Asia, but all have a
limited geographic scope covering only one country: Malaysia (Watson,
1928), Papua New Guinea (Percival & Womersley, 1975), Indonesia (Kitamura
et al., 1997; Noor et al., 1999) and the Philippines (Aragones et al., 1998). An
even more severe limitation of these guidebooks is that they focus almost
exclusively on so-called true mangrove species i. e. species that occur in the
mangrove habitat only and are not found in other habitats. While this is an
approach that is common world-wide, the disadvantage is that many plant
species found in the mangrove habitat are not dealt with, which can be most
frustrating. Another disadvantage of most existing guidebooks is that they
tend to ignore species other than trees and shrubs. Epiphytes and lianas, for
example, are often ignored entirely even though some may only be found in
mangroves.
Up to now, identifying all plants found in Southeast Asian mangroves was a
daunting task, as comprehensive taxonomic works (or floras) of the region
are bulky (Flora of Java, Tree Flora of Malaya), or both bulky and far from
complete (Flora Malesiana, Flora of Thailand). The region is endowed with
the worlds largest expanse of mangrove that at the same time is also the
worlds most biologically diverse and varied in structure. This unparalleled
natural heritage gives the region a particular responsibility, while providing a
unique opportunity for all those wanting to study and enjoy this wondrous
habitat.
This book represents the first attempt at covering all mangrove plant species
in Southeast Asia, and is likely to be incomplete. The authors would therefore
warmly welcome additional information, especially regarding geographic
coverage and additional species not covered, so that this can be updated in
future editions. Please forward your comments and suggestions to the lead
author, Wim Giesen, at: wim.giesen@mottmac.nl
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the many external experts who kindly gave their
advice and assistance:
Taxonomists & herbaria
The late Dr A.J.G.J. (Doc) Kostermans (Bogor Herbarium), Dra. J.J.
Afriastini (for her kind help identifying specimens in the Bogor
Herbarium), Ms Agustina Arobaya checked our orchid list for occurrence
in Indonesian Papua, Dr Max van Balgooij (Rijksherbarium Leiden) and Dr
E. Hennipman (Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Utrecht, The
Netherlands). We thank the library staff of Bogor Herbarium for their kind
help in locating (often very obscure) literature. Many thanks to the Royal
Botanic Garden, Kew, especially Jim Kay and Trish Long for kindly
providing illustrations of some of the most obscure and difficult to locate
species, John Dransfield for providing contacts, and Jovita Yesilyurt for the
digital image of Schefflera lanceolata the last and most elusive. Lastly, lots
of thanks also to Bogor Herbarium and Rijksherbarium Leiden for
providing access to the herbarium collections and allowing us to make
sketches, which made it possible to complete the illustrations that greatly
enhance the usefulness of this book.
Other specialists
Jim Berdach, who provided us with information on protected mangroves
and total mangrove area in the Philippines; Sim Cheng Hua, Sundari
Ramakrishna and Murugadas Loganathan of Wetlands International
Malaysia Programme for information about Malaysian mangroves; Tony
Sebastian of Aonyx Environmental (Kuching) for information about
mangroves of Brunei; Mam Kosal of Wetlands International Mekong
Programme, Melissa Marschke of IDRC and Alvin Lopez of IUCNs
Mekong Wetlands Programme for information about mangroves of
Cambodia; and last-but-not-least Mette Loyche-Wilkie of FAO for
information about the mangroves of Papua New Guinea and Myanmar.
Production team
We would like to especially thank the staff of Wetlands International
Indonesia Programme who assisted with the production of this volume in
many ways, but especially with the production of the excellent line
drawings. We would like to thank Nyoman Suryadiputra, Yus Rusila Noor,
Wahyu Gumelar, Tilla Visser, Triana, Iskak Syamsudin, Rosie Ounsted,
Endah Nirarita, Cecilia Luttrell, Penina Mampioper and George Sitania.
vii
Wim Giesen
Senior consultant with ARCADIS Euroconsult in the Netherlands
wim.giesen@mottmac.nl
&
Stephan Wulffraat
Senior forester/biologist for WWF, Tarakan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia
nebulosa@indo.net.id
viii
Contents
FOREWORDS _____________________________________________________________ iii
AUTHORS PREFACE ______________________________________________________ vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ____________________________________________________vii
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE MANGROVES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
1
INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________________ 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.2
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.2
4.3
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
6.2
6.2.2
Cambodia ___________________________________________________ 58
6.2.3
Indonesia ___________________________________________________ 59
6.2.4
Malaysia ____________________________________________________ 63
6.2.5
Myanmar ___________________________________________________ 66
ix
6.2.6
6.2.7
Philippines __________________________________________________ 68
6.2.8
Singapore ___________________________________________________ 69
6.2.9
Thailand ____________________________________________________ 69
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
REFERENCES _____________________________________________________________ 79
Annex 1
Annex 2
Annex 3
Annex 4
List of Figures:
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4A
13
Figure 4B
13
Figure 4C
13
Figure 5
18
Figure 6
35
Figure 7
48
Figure 8
50
List of Tables:
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
22
Table 5
30
Table 6
Mangrove products
33
Table 7
36
Table 8
43
Table 9
49
Table 10
57
xi
xii
CHAPTER
1.1
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The term mangrove is used to define both the plants that occur in tidal
forests, and to describe the community itself (Tomlinson, 1986; Wightman,
1989). In this guidebook, mangrove is generally used to refer to the habitat,
and the meaning is usually obvious from the context. Elsewhere, the term
mangal is used by some authors (e.g. MacNae, 1968; Chapman, 1976, 1977;
Ogino & Chihara, 1988) in reference to mangrove vegetation, but its usage
has not met with much support apart from in the Americas, and mangal is
therefore not used in this publication.
Mangroves can be broadly defined as woody vegetation types occurring in
marine and brackish environments. They are generally restricted to the tidal
zone, which is the strip of coast starting from the lowest low water level up
to the highest high water level (spring tide). With a few exceptions, they
occur only in the tropics and sub-tropics, and their closest equivalent in
temperate zones are herbaceous salt marshes. In this publication the term
mangrove is used in its broadest sense, i.e. also including the Nypa
formation and the margins of mangroves. These margins are inundated a
few times a year only, mainly during spring tides or due to storm surges,
and frequently include species from adjacent vegetation types. The latter
may include species from the beach Barringtonia formations, other types of
coastal forests, and from the sand dune Pes-capre formation (van Steenis,
1958; MacNae, 1968; Tomlinson, 1986).
Although mangroves are not as poorly known as many other tropical and
subtropical forest habitats, many myths remain. In a tiny 2-page paper on
Mangrove mythology Jane Snedaker (1997, quoted in Lewis, 2001) proposes a
true or false test with five questions:
a. Mangroves require salt water to develop and grow.
b. Mangroves extend shorelines.
c. Mangroves build up land.
d. The red mangrove (Rhizophora species) are the most valuable
mangroves.
e. Some mangrove forest types are more important than others.
In fact, all five are common myths and all are false! Misconceptions are
common and need to be addressed in order to fully understand and
appreciate these unique ecosystems.
1
1.2
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
Timor
0.03%
Brunei
0.3%
FIGURE 1
Mangrove areas in
Southeast Asia
Vietnam
2.1%
Cambodia
1.3%
Singapore
0.01%
Philippines
2.2%
Thailand
5.0%
PNG
8.7%
Myanmar
8.8%
Indonesia
59.8%
Malaysia
11.7%
Southeast Asias mangroves are the best developed and probably the most
species-diverse in the world (Giesen & Wulffraat, 1998; chapter 2). Fiftytwo Southeast Asian species are found in the mangrove habitat only and
nowhere else; this group of so-called true mangrove species includes 42
trees and shrubs (Annex 1). Saenger et al. (1983) record a world-wide total
of 60 plant species exclusive to the mangrove habitat, and although the lists
are not entirely identical, it is apparent that Southeast Asia has a very
significant share of true mangrove species.
1.3
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1 www.mobot.org
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
2 http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/global_map.htm~main
CHAPTER
2.1
MANGROVE FLORA
Southeast Asias mangroves are the best developed and most speciesdiverse in the world (Giesen & Wulffraat, 1998). A total of 268 plant species
have been recorded in Southeast Asian mangrove vegetation, including 129
trees and shrubs, 50 terrestrial herbs (including 27 grasses and grass-like
plants), 28 climbers, 28 epiphytes, 24 ferns, seven palms, one pandan and
one cycad (Annex 1; Figure 2). Of these 268 species, 52 are found in the
mangrove habitat only, and this group of so-called true mangrove species
includes 42 trees and shrubs (Annex 1).
FIGURE 2
Species group/lifeform diversity
Palms
9 (3%)
Herbs
23 (9%)
Trees
129 (49%)
Ferns
24 (9%)
Grasses
27 (10%)
Climbers
28 (10%)
Epiphytes
28 (10%)
Note that trees include shrubs; palms include palm-like pandans and cycads;
herbs are non-grass-like terrestrial herbs; grasses include grass-like sedges and
bulrushes; and epiphytes do not include epiphytic ferns.
TABLE 1
Species group diversity
25 *
Gymnosperms
Monocotyledons
1
55
0
73
5
0
42
Dicotyledons
totals
187
268
110
218
80
127
The largest plant families recorded in Southeast Asian mangroves are the:
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) or legumes (22 species),
Cyperaceae or sedges (17 species),
Rhizophoraceae usually regarded as the family of mangrove trees,
many with stilt roots and other adaptations (12 species), although nonmangrove species also exist (e.g. the Southeast Asian Carallia brachiata),
Orchidaceae or orchids (11 species),
Asclepiadaceae or Milk Weed family in the mangrove habitat
consisting mainly of climbers and epiphytes, all with characteristic white
latex (10 species),
Polypodiaceae or Polypody fern family one of the main fern families
world-wide (10 species),
Poaceae or true grasses (9 species),
Arecaceae or palms (7 species),
Rubiaceae the coffee family; in the mangrove habitat consisting mainly
of trees and shrubs (7 species),
Combretaceae or Terminalia family (6 species),
Euphorbiaceae or Spurge family, with many species containing a toxic
white latex (6 species),
Loranthaceae or Mistletoe family, consisting entirely of parasitic
epiphytes (6 species),
Avicenniaceae, another family of true mangrove trees, characterised by
pneumatophores, i.e. roots that emerge, peg-like, from the mangrove soil
(5 species), an
Sonneratiaceae, another family consisting predominantly of mangrove
tree species (5 species).
Some of these most common families abound in species with a very wide
geographic range (e.g. Cyperaceae and Poaceae) and consist largely of
ubiquitous weed species.
3 Saenger
et al. (1983)s list of true mangroves (60 worldwide) is not the same as our number of true
mangroves (52 in Southeast Asia). The reason for this difference is that there are 11 species in Southeast
Asia that are exclusive to mangroves (and therefore true mangrove species), but are not recorded in
Saengers list.
Table 2 gives the distribution of all true mangrove species (i.e. species
found in the mangrove habitat only) in Southeast Asia. At least 48 of the 52
species listed occur in Indonesia, which is the more biodiverse of the
Southeast Asian countries, followed in this respect by Malaysia, with 42
species. This supports the claim by Giesen and Wulffraat (1998) that
Indonesias mangroves are the most biodiverse in the world. Least diverse
are Timor-Leste and Brunei Dar es Salaam (Figure 3), which is not
surprising given the relatively small size of their territories.
Cambodia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Myanmar
PNG
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Acanthus ebracteatus
Acanthus ilicifolius
Acanthus volubilis
Acrostichum aureum
Acrostichum speciosum
Aegialitis annulata
Aegialitis rotundifolia
Aegiceras corniculatum
Aegiceras floridum
Amyema anisomeres
Amyema gravis
Amyema mackayense
Avicennia alba
Avicennia eucalyptifolia
Avicennia lanata
Avicennia marina
Avicennia officinalis
Brownlowia argentata
Brownlowia tersa
Bruguiera cylindrica
Bruguiera exaristata
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera hainesii
Bruguiera parviflora
Bruguiera sexangula
Camptostemon philippinense
7
+
+
+
+
Viet Nam
Brunei
TABLE 2
Timor-Leste
This diversity appears to not only hold for angiosperms, but seems to be
true for other (plant) taxons. Tanaka and Chihara (1988), for instance, in
their study of macroalgae in eastern Indonesian mangroves, state that It
may be concluded that the Indonesian mangrove area is one of the most
important distributional centres of macroalgae associated with mangroves
in the world. Other interesting accounts of mangrove-associated algae and
their diversity in the Southeast Asian region are given by Johnson (1979)
and Chihara & Tanaka (1988).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
?+
species in Southeast
Asia
True mangrove
+
+
30
+
+
+
+
25
34
48
42
40
38
34
48
33 33 34 34
24 25
10
0
i
r s
e
a
a
st une am a nd ore di ma ine NG ysia e si
e
o
l
P
N
p
r
i
n
n
a o
-L B e t
a ga mb ya ipp
al
or
M I nd
Vi Th Sin Ca M hil
im
P
20
+
+
42
38 40
31
Viet Nam
50
40
Timor-Leste
Thailand
60
FIGURE 3
Singapore
Myanmar
PNG
Malaysia
Camptostemon schultzii
Ceriops decandra
Ceriops tagal
Excoecaria agallocha
Heritiera fomes
Heritiera globosa
Heritiera litoralis
Kandelia candel
Lumnitzera littorea
Lumnitzera racemosa
Nypa fruticans
Osbornia octodonta
Oberonia rhizophoreti
Pemphis acidula
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora mucronata
Rhizophora stylosa
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Sonneratia alba
Sonneratia apetala
Sonneratia caseolaris
Sonneratia griffithii
Sonneratia ovata
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus moluccensis
Xylocarpus rumphii
Indonesia
Brunei
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Philippines
Cambodia
+
+
+
+
+
33
33
24
31
2.2
Group
TABLE 3
Species
Group
Species
Aegiceras floridum
Ferns
Ctenopteris moultoni
Mangrove (associate)
Avicennia eucaltyptifolia
Davallia parvula
species endemic to
Avicennia lanata
Elaphoglossum amblyphyllum
Southeast Asia
Azima sarmentosa
Loxogramma involuta
Barringtonia conoidea
Pachypleura angustata
Blumeodendron tokbrae
Photinopteris speciosa
Camptostemon philippinense
Platycerium coronarium
Croton heterocarpus
Selliguea heterocarpa
Fagraea crenulata
Gluta velutina
Epiphytes
Amyema anisomeres
Heritiera globosa
Amyema gravis
Ilex cymosa
Bulbophyllum xylocarpi
Ilex maingayi
Cymbidium finlaysonianum
Ixora timoriensis
Dendrobium aloefolium
Ochthocharis bornensis
Dendrobium pachyphyllum
Podocarpus polystachyus
Dendrobium subulatum
Quassia harmandiana
Oberonia laeta
Rapanea porteriana
Oberonia rhizophoreti
Scolopia macrophylla
Pachycentria constricta
Serianthes grandiflora
Rhododendron brookeanum
Sindora siamensis
Schefflera lanceolata
Symplocos celastrifolia
Palms
Calamus erinaceus
Schefflera ridleyi
Climbers
Calycopteris floribunda
Combretum tetralophum
Derris scandens
Corypha saribus
Licuala spinosa
Oncosperma tigillarium
Combretum trifoliatum
4 Interestingly, Kandelia
candel is found as far north as Japan, and is a common species in Hong Kong,
being the most common Rhizophoraceae in the Mai Po marshes.
10
CHAPTER
THE MANGROVE
HABITAT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
3.1
Van Steenis view that mangroves are very interesting, but not the place
you would go to on a picnic, is pretty much the way these habitats are seen
today. Mangroves are not easy environments to work in, but they can be
very rewarding. Their structure is generally straightforward and simple,
11
and the number of species is limited. However, the species that do occur
may be very abundant, and as long-term studies show, they are often
highly productive. Fortunately for the average lay person, many protected
mangrove areas have now been made at least partially accessible by the
construction of walkways, which help overcome at least some of the
physical discomfort. For an overview of some of the main protected
mangrove areas, see chapter 5.
3.2
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
12
FIGURE 4A
Example of mangrove
zonation in Cilacap, south
coast of Java, Indonesia
FIGURE 4B
Schematic cross-section of
a small mangrove island
near Kimbe, West New
Britain province, Papua
New Guinea
Soil substrates mainly clay, with the exception of a limestone rock in the center of the island.
Ae. - Aegiceras corniculatum
MHWL - Mean High Water level; MLWL - Mean Low Water level
FIGURE 4C
Schematic cross-section of
a coastal area on Bintan
Island, Riau province,
Indonesia
Substrates of frontal area consist of coarse sands, while inland it is mixed with loam & clay.
B.c. - Bruguiera cylindrica
Climatic conditions
The impact of climatic conditions and mangrove vegetation is not yet fully
understood. Exceptions aside, mangroves are known to occur in areas
where the average annual temperature is at or above approximately 18C
(Chapman, 1976a; 1977), or that has absolute temperatures above 15C
(Puff, 2001). Climatic conditions further affect mangroves, especially by
influencing the salinity of the landward fringing (back- or hind-)
mangroves, and by weather influence upon stream and river discharges,
and affecting silt deposition along the coast. Weather conditions also affect
coastal accretion or erosion, which is dealt with briefly below.
Salinity
Salinity affects mangrove composition, as various species deal with the
salinity problem in different ways. Some simply do not grow in waters
that are too saline and are found in brackish zones only. Many species are
able to selectively prevent salt absorption at the root, although this requires
a good deal of expended energy. Others are able to excrete salt from their
(leaf) tissues and may be covered with fine salt crystals. Aegiceras
corniculatum, for example, has salt-excretion glands located on the leaf
surface and stalk, which may be whitish and covered with salt.
Some species have a very wide range of tolerance, such as Sonneratia
caseolaris, which may be found in pure seawater or along tidal rivers where
salinity is almost that of freshwater (i.e. <0.1% seawater)6. The species even
thrives in a freshwater pond in the Bogor Botanic Gardens in Java! Species,
such as Bruguiera species, are generally found only where salinities are low.
MacNae (1968), for example, gives 2 percent seawater as the optimum for
Bruguiera parviflora and 1.0-2.5 percent for Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Some
mangrove species require high salinities, and Rhizophora mucronata, for
instance, requires a minimum of 1.2 percent seawater for its growth, while
Aegiceras corniculatum requires 2.0-4.0 percent seawater for optimal growth
(Chapman, 1976a). Seasonality of freshwater reaching the coastal zone also
affects the mangrove habitat, as in some areas salinities can fluctuate wildly
according to the seasonality of rainfall in the interior.
Some plants are avoided by herbivores because of their ability to
accumulate salt. Up to 11 percent dry weight of the grass Xerochloa imberbis,
for example, may consist of salt, and it is therefore shunned by cattle.
Eroding versus accreting coastlines
Mangrove pioneers are found where sediments accumulate, and usually
assist in the stabilisation of coastal sediments, though probably not very
actively contributing to the accumulation of sediments (van Steenis, 1957).
Mangroves occur on coastlines that are stable, rising or falling. On a rising
coastline they form a fringe zone only, while on a stable coast, their extent
6 Average seawater salinity is equivalent to about 3.4 % salt content (i.e. 34 grams/litre); 0.1 % seawateris
14
Tides
Mangrove vegetation zones are clearly linked with tides, and various
authors report of a good correlation with either tidal amplitude or
frequency of flooding (Watson, 1928; de Haan, 1931; van Steenis, 1958;
Chapman, 1976a). In Southeast Asia, areas that are flooded during all high
tides tend to be dominated by Avicennia alba, A. marina or Sonneratia alba,
while areas that are flooded by most high tides are dominated by
Rhizophora species. Mangroves flooded by normal high tides are dominated
by Bruguiera species, with Xylocarpus granatum on the landward fringe.
Areas inundated by spring tides only, i.e. for only a few days per month,
are dominated by Bruguiera sexangula, Heritiera species and Lumnitzera
littorea. Boundaries of vegetation zones therefore often coincide with tidal
isohyets (contours). For instance, the seaward facing zone is usually located
between the lowest low water level and the mean low water level, above
which the second zone often begins (for example, see Figures 4b & 4c).
3.3
Structure
Mangroves in Southeast Asia may range from 1-2 metre tall Avicennia alba
or Avicenia marina stands on the seaward side of accreting shores, to 30-40
metre tall stands of mixed Bruguiera-Rhizophora mangrove forest. On more
exposed but not eroding coastlines one may find Sonneratia alba and
Avicennia alba, and along waters of lower salinity (e.g. in estuaries) Nypa
fruticans, Cerbera odollam and Sonneratia caseolaris are common. Apart from
saplings, undergrowth is often scarce but certainly not absent, and species
such as sea holly Acanthus ilicifolius and mangrove fern, Acrostichum aureum
may be common along banks of creeks and in disturbed areas.
In clear tidal creeks of Peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Thailand, western
Indonesia and Papua New Guinea one may find the ornamental aroid
Cryptocoryne ciliata, while Najas species and Ruppia maritima have been
recorded in small mangrove pools. Climbers are relatively common,
especially on the landward fringes of mangroves. Epiphytes, such as
orchids, ferns and mistletoes are common in older, well-developed
mangroves, but may be scarce or absent in younger mangrove stands such
as regenerating, logged-over forests.
Mangroves typically display zonation, and when viewed from the air or
from an observation tower the bands of different vegetation types can
easily be discerned. The cause of this zonation has been attributed to
salinity, elevation and exposure to wave action. The general consensus,
however, is that these patterns are determined by a combination of these
factors, but that tidal inundation is the dominating factor (e.g. Watson,
1928; Kint, 1934; van Steenis, 1958; Chapman, 1976a; Aksornkoae, 1993).
Mangroves are dynamic habitats, with rapid changes (e.g. local die-off)
followed by rapid regrowth (Jimnez & Lugo, 1985). Changes may be either
16
cyclic (Jimnez & Lugo, 1985) or successional (Carter, 1959; Chapman, 1976,
1977), but whatever process may be occurring, the net result is the
formation of distinct zones or bands of different vegetation types. Rapid
colonisation of newly formed mudflats is a common process along
expanding coastlines, such as in the estuaries of large rivers.
Five main mangrove zones
In their simplest form, Southeast Asian mangroves generally occur in five
zones:
one on the highly exposed seaward side that is inundated during all
high tides;
one on less dynamic, exposed, seaward sides, inundated by all high
tides;
a central, well-developed mangrove inundated by normal high
tides;
a landward/freshwater-influenced zone (the back-, hind- or rearmangrove) inundated by spring tides, and
a zone occurring along brackish to almost fresh streams and/or
occasionally inundated by exceptionally high tides.
Hong (2000) recognises a combination of salinity and tidal regime (see
Figure 5), which nicely illustrates the interaction between these two factors.
However, such combined systems seem to have only a local relevance, as
there is much variation throughout the region, and for the sake of
simplicity the five zone system recognised by Watson (1928), van Steenis
(1958), Chapman (1975) and Aksornkoae (1993) is probably the best point
of departure. These zones are described in some detail below, while Table 4
provides a list of species recorded in these zones per country this is not
exhaustive, but based on a number of key references only.
Zone 1) - highly exposed mangrove, occurring on the seaward side of
mangrove belts and inundated by all high tides. According to Watson
(1928), van Steenis (1958) and Aksornkoae (1993), this type of habitat is
devoid of all species except for Rhizophora mucronata, and even this species
requires that its crown remains above water. This zone is not always
present.
Zone 2) - exposed mangrove, occurring on the seaward side of mangrove
belts and inundated by medium high tides. According to van Steenis
(1958), this is the zone of the Sonneratias and Avicennias, and most
commonly Sonneratia alba and Avicennia alba co-dominate in this deeply
inundated coastal zone. With some minor variation, this observation is
supported by most authors reporting on Southeast Asian mangroves, and
similar observations have been made by Watson (1928) in Peninsular
Malaysia, Percival and Womersley (1975) in Papua New Guinea (where
Avicennia marina replaces A. alba as the most common Avicennia in this
habitat), Aragones et al. (1998) in the Philippines and Hong (2000) in Viet
Nam. Often one of the two genera may dominate. Komiyama et al. (1988),
17
FIGURE 5
Mangrove
Nam: relationship
with inundation and
salinity
communities in Viet
On the mud flat inundated by tides at the level of 2.5-3.0m was
Avicennia officinalis and Ceriops decandra. Other species
found are Xylocarpus moluccensis, Ceriops tagal and
Lumnitzera littoralis.
Brackish to freshwater
Source: adapted from Hong (2000), who developed this system based on Can Gio
mangroves in Viet Nams Mekong Delta. MLWL = Mean Low Water Level.
3.4
MANGROVE FAUNA
Mangroves provide food, shelter and a home for many animal species,
which in some ways are not markedly different from terrestrial
environments, and in other ways are totally different.
Molluscs
Molluscs are abundant in Southeast Asias mangroves and Budiman (1985),
for instance, has described a total of 91 species from one site in Ceram (in
the Moluccas, Indonesia) alone. This included 33 species that normally
occur on a reef flat, but also visit adjacent mangroves. Some of these 91
species occur as infauna (in the soil), others are ground dwellers, while the
remainder occur on the vegetation. The latter consist of sessile (mainly
bivalves) and mobile species, some of which migrate up and down with the
tidal movement (Chen, 1982). Other sites may not be quite as rich as the
Ceram site: Giesen et al. (1991) recorded 74 mollusc species in mangroves of
South Sulawesi (Indonesia), while Budiman (1988) found 40 species in
Halmahera (Moluccas, Indonesia). A large proportion of the mollusc fauna
found in mangroves may be confined to this habitat; 24 out of the 40
species found at Halmahera by Budiman (1988), for instance, are specific
mangrove species.
Some of the most common gastropod species include the telescope snail
Telescopium telescopium, mudcreeper Terebralia palustris, zoned horn shell
Batillaria zonalis and the obtuse horn shell Cerithidea obtusa. Common
mangrove bivalves include the toothless lucina Anodontia edentula, sunset
siliqua Siliqua radiata and the gaudy asaphis Asaphis deflorata (Tucker Abott,
1991).
Crabs
Crabs are particularly abundant in mangroves, and densities of 10-70
individuals per square metres can be found (Macintosh, 1984), especially of
burrowing species of the genera Cleistocoeloma, Macrophthalmus, Metaplax,
Ilyoplax, Sesarma and Uca (Calling- or Fiddler Crabs) (Tweedie & Harrison,
1954; MacNae, 1968; Macintosh, 1984; Wada & Wowor, 1989; Sasekumar et
al., 1989). Special mention should be made of the Mangrove Crab (or
Asiatic Edible Crab), Scylla serrata, which is an important commercial
species and appears confined to this habitat (Delsman, 1927). Many crab
fattening industries in Southeast Asia are based on this species. More than
100 brachyuran mangrove crabs are known from Malaysia, and 76 species
are known from Singapore; in the latter this represents 22 percent of the
total brachyuran fauna for the island state (Tan & Ng, 1994). Indonesias
crab fauna has been studied in less detail, and the records are patchy.
21
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Philippines
PNG
Malaysia
TABLE 4
Indonesia
Cambodia
Avicennia marina
Sonneratia alba
Rhizophora mucronata
+
+
+
Acrostichum aureum
Aegiceras corniculatum
Avicennia marina
Avicennia officinalis
Bruguiera cylindrica
+
+
+
+
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera parviflora
Bruguiera sexangula
Ceriops decandra
Ceriops tagal
+
+
+
+
Derris trifoliata
Excoecaria agallocha
Kandelia candel
+
Lumnitzera littorea
+
Lumnitzera racemosa
+
+
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora mucronata
Sonneratia alba
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus moluccensis
+
+
Aglaia cucullata
Barringtonia acutangula
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Bruguiera sexangula
+
+
Calophyllum inophyllum
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Camptostemon schultzii
Cycas rumphii
+
Clerodendrum inerme
+
+
Dalbergia candenatensis
+
Dolichandrone spathacea
Excoecaria agallocha
Ficus microcarpa
22
+
+
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Philippines
PNG
Malaysia
Indonesia
Cambodia
Flagellaria indica
Gardenia tubifera
+
Glochidion littorale
Heritiera littoralis
+
+
+
+
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Intsia bijuga
Lumnitzera littorea
Lumnitzera racemosa
Melaleuca cajututi
+
+
+
Melastoma malabathricum
+
Myristica hollrungii
+
Nypa fruticans
Pandanus tectorius
Phoenix paludosa
Pluchea indica
+
+
+
+
Rhizophora apiculata
Thespesia populnea
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpus moluccensis
+
+
Acanthus ilicifolius
Barringtonia acutangula
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
+
+
Cerbera manghas
Cerbera odollam
Cryptocoryne cilitata
Derris trifoliata
Dolichandrone spathacea
+
+
Gluta velutina
Nypa fruticans
Oncosperma tigillarium
Sonneratia caseolaris
Stenochlaena palustris
Xylocarpus granatum
Xylocarpys moluccensis
+
+
23
javanicus, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, tapir Tapirus malayanus, flying foxes
Pteropus species (e.g. roosting colony on Pulau Rambut, Jakarta Bay), otters
(Lutra perspicillata and Aonyx cinerea), silvered leaf monkeys Trachypithecus aurata
(commonly known as Presbytis cristata), and proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus
(endemic to Borneo; MacNae, 1968; Payne, Francis & Phillipps, 1985; Melisch et
al., 1993).
None of these are exclusive to mangroves: although it was formerly thought that
proboscis monkey were only found in mangroves (MacNae, 1968), it is now well
known that this species also occurs in Kalimantans (peat-) swamp and riparian
forests (e.g. Payne, Francis & Phillipps, 1985). Long-tailed (or crab-eating)
macaques Macaca fascicularis are common in mangroves throughout their range
(Viet Nam and Burma, to Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan) 7, and are often seen
foraging on the mudflats between mangroves and along creeks at low tide
(Giesen, 1991a, 1991b). Macaca ochreata ochreata (one of the leaf monkeys endemic
to Sulawesi) was observed to be common in mangroves near Malili, in Bone
Nay, South Sulawesi (Giesen et al., 1991).
More rarely, one may also encounter the rare fish-eating cat Felis viverrina,
elephant Elephas maximus, pather Panthera pardus or tiger Panthera tigris.
Curiously, squirrels are rarely seen in mangroves, although Southeast Asia has
an extemely rich squirrel fauna.
Wild elephant are found scattered in small numbers in Southeast Asia,
including in Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia (Peninsular
and Sabah) and Indonesia (Sumatra). Upon occasion they may also be found in
mangroves during dry summer months in Myanmar, for example, elephants
come down from the mountains to the mangroves to drink salt water.8
Tigers are found in small numbers and widely scattered in Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra). Because of their affinity for
water, they do well in wetland areas including mangroves. The Sumatran tiger
Panthera tigris sumatranus occurs in the newly established (2003) Sungai
Sembilang National Park in South Sumatra (Danielsen & Verheugt, 1989), and in
combination with adjacent Berbak National Park in Jambi this area may be the
best bet for survival of this sub-species in Southeast Asia (Frazier, 1992). In
Myanmar, tigers used to be plentiful throughout the country forty years ago, but
now at most 150 remain, and it is unknown how many, if any, use the
dwindling mangroves.
7 The Long-tailed Macaque has apparently recently been introduced to South Sulawesi (Giesen et
1991)
8 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1404_full.html
27
al.,
28
CHAPTER
BENEFITS DERIVED
FROM MANGROVES
Mangroves are highly beneficial, as they yield many valuable products,
while also performing, free-of-cost, many important functions that support
the often dense coastal populations. Economically, they are thus highly
important, be it at local, regional or even national level.
4.1
MANGROVE USES
29
Mangrove use
Number of species
Percentage
110
67
41
25
Food
Ornamental
58
46
22
17
Fuel*
Utensils
31
23
12
9
Fodder
23
Tannin
Oil & wax
15
11
6
4
11
10
4
4
8
8
3
3
Perfume
Glue
8
7
3
3
5
62
2
23
Medicinal
Construction material
TABLE 5
Quantitative list of plant
products in Southeast
Asia
www.jica.or.id/p_Bali2_2.html
10 www.dephut.go.id/informasi/statistik/Stat2002/contents_02.htm
30
production had increased to 3.7 million tons, not including the 320,000 tons
of crustaceans and molluscs (WRI, 2003) 11.
Box 2. Matang fisheries, Malaysia
The Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve is highly important for fisheries, which form the bulk of the income from this area, and
targeted species include prawns, shrimps, seabass, mangrove crabs and cockles. While the forests are exploited by the Perak
State Forestry Department, fisheries resources are exploited by local fishing communities, and MMFR fisheries are essentially
an open-access resource. All fisheries are capture fisheries, although some species, such as sea bass and mangrove crab,
may be reared and fattened before being sold. There are no aquaculture ponds.
Fifteen species of penaeid prawn and 5 species of palaemonid prawns are found in the MMFR, with Parapenaeopsis species
generally preferring the mudflats, and the Penaeus and Metapenaeus species preferring river mouths and creeks. Mean
densities were 7.35 kilogrammes per hectare (4,092 individuals) for rivers and creeks, and 7.19 kilogramme per hectare(2,668
individuals) for mudflats. These areas are important nursery areas for juvenile prawns, which comprise 70-98 percent of the
river, and 40-90 percent of the mudflat populations (Chong, 1994). Common prawns in the MMFR are Penaeus monodon, P.
merguiensis and P. indicus (Khoo, 1991). A total of 117 fish species (of 49 families) have been recorded at MMFR, of whichthe
most abundant are the ambassids (18.0%) and the sciaenids (17.5%). Average biomass in river channels was40.0kilogramme
per hectare, while that of the adjacent mudflats was 30.5 kilogramme per hectare; fish densities were 8,517 and 6,699
individuals per hectare, respectively, for river channels and mudflats. Juvenile fish comprise 85 percent of all individuals, both
in river channels and above mudflats (Sasekumar et al., 1994).
Tourism
Mangrove areas are increasingly becoming important for (eco)tourism,
education and study, especially in areas where they are readily accessible.
In Malaysia, for example, Kuala Selangor Nature Park on the west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia, is a popular destination for nature lovers, birders and
students, especially as it only an hours drive from Kuala Lumpur and has
accessible trails and walkways through the mangroves. Chek Jawa on
Singapore is similarly popular, especially with schools and students, and
has its own home page 12 . Indonesian mangroves are generally less
accessible, but mangrove islands just off the coast of Java (near Jakarta)
such as Pulau Rambut and Pulau Dua, are popular destinations for birders.
In Thailand, mangrove sites such as Yaring Mangrove Education Center at
Pattani, are popular tourist destinations and much used by local schools.
11 www.earthtrends.wri.org (2003)
12 http://habitatnews.nus.edu.sg/news/chekjawa
32
TABLE 6
Mangrove products
Fuel:
Firewood
Charcoal
Alcohol
Construction:
Timber, scaffolds
Heavy construction
Railroad sleepers
Mining pit props
Boat building
Dock pilings
Beams & poles for buildings
Flooring, panelling
Thatch
Matting
Fence posts/water pipes
Chipboards
Glues
Fishing:
Poles for fishing traps
Fishing floats
Fish poisons
Tannings for nets & line
Rope
Anchors
Caulking of boats
Textiles, leather:
Synthetic fibres (e.g. rayon)
Dye for cloth
Tannings
Clothing (skirts)
Agriculture:
Fodder, green manure
Paper Products:
Paper of various kinds
Household items:
Furniture
Decorations
Glue
Hair oil
Perfume
Tool handles
Pillow stuffing
Baskets
Toys
Incense
Ornamental plant
Wax (candles)
Medicines
Insect repellent
Vinegar
Buttons
Charms, decorations
Ceriops spp.
Dolichandrone spathacea, Sonneratia alba
Derris trifoliata, Cerbera floribunda
Rhizophoraceae
Stenochlaena palustris, Hibiscus tiliaceus
Pemphis acidula, Rhizophora apiculata
Atuna racemosa, Osbornia octodonta
Mainly Rhizophoraceae
Excoecaria indica, Peltophorum pterocarpum
Mainly Rhizophora, Lumnitzera spp.
Eleocharis dulcis
33
TABLE 6
Nypa fruticans
Nypa fruticans, Sonneratia spp.
Nypa fruticans
Terminalia catappa seeds
Rhizophora stylosa, Nypa fruticans
Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorrhiza
Stenochlaena palustris, Avicennia, Inocarpus fagifer
Nypa fruticans
Loxogramma involuta
Lates calcarifer, Chanos chanos
Penaeus spp., Scylla serrata
Cockles, mussels, oysters
Mainly migratory Asian Bee Apis dorsata
Mainly waterbirds
Mainly wild boar Sus scrofa
Varanus salvator, Crocodylus porosus (leather, food)
Fejervarya (Rana) cancrivora
Modified from Saenger et al. (1983), including information on individual species from Knox and
Miyabara (1984), Fong (1984) and this publication, along with several new categories.
4.2
MANGROVE FUNCTIONS
Shoreline protection
Mangroves play an important role in protecting shorelines from waves,
winds and storms. The roots of mangrove plants bind and stabilize the
substrate, the plants themselves dissipate wave and current energy, and the
vegetation as a whole can trap sediments (Davies & Claridge, 1993; Othman,
1994). They offer the best protection against tropical storms, storm surges
and tsunamis, and are being replanted in certain areas where they have been
felled in the past (e.g. Bay of Bengal, Mekong Delta of Viet Nam) especially
for this purpose. In Bangladesh, a storm surge in 1970 killed 150,000-300,000
persons, and in June 1985, 40 000 people were drowned (Maltby, 1986). A
study of the 1970 disaster found that about a third of the survivors saved
themselves by clinging to trees. Recognising the role of mangroves, the
government of Bangladesh replanted a total of 25,000 hectares of mangrove
(Maltby, 1986) and is continuing this process at present. One of the few
quantitaive studies on wave attentuation reported by Kogo and Kogo (2004),
found that a 1.5 kilometre-wide belt of 2 metre tall Kandelia candel at Thai
Thuy (northern Viet Nam), reduced a 1.0 metre high wave crest to a benign 5
centimetres. Without the young Kandelia belt these waves would still have
been 75 centimetres tall, and capable of considerable damage.
In October 1999, mangrove forests reduced the impact of a super-cyclone
that struck Orissa on Indias east coast, killing at least 10,000 people and
making 7.5 million homeless. Those human settlements located behind
healthy mangrove stands suffered little, if any, losses. According to a report
34
from India, when the tsunami that originated near Aceh, in Sumatra, struck
Indias southern state of Tamil Nadu on 26 December 2004, areas in
Pichavaram and Muthupet with dense mangroves suffered fewer human
casualties and less damage to property compared to areas without
mangroves (Mangrove Action Project, 4 January 200513). Similar findings are
reported for southern Thailand, where evidence suggests that mangroves
helped reduce the devastation caused by the tsunamis waves (Harakunarak
& Aksornkoae, 2005).
Formerly, sediment binding by mangroves was seen as an active process:
where you have mangroves you would automatically get accretion (e.g.
Steup, 1941), but the consensus now is that mangroves stabilize and bind on
already accreting shores (van Steenis, 1958; Chapman, 1976, 1977). Mangrove
vegetation can also shield structures, crops and coastlines from damage by
strong wind or salt-laden wind.
Support to food web
The role of mangroves in supporting near-shore fisheries is twofold. Firstly,
they play an important role in the life cycles of many fish, shrimp and
mollusc species (MacNae, 1968; Chapman, 1976; Mann, 1982; Davies &
Claridge, 1993; Mastaller, 1997; Figure 6), as these environments provide a
combination of shelter and (via the detritus chain) an abundance of organic
matter: food. Secondly, mangroves are net exporters of organic matter, thus
providing food for organisms that inhabit waters well outside the actual
mangrove (Chapman, 1976; Mann, 1982; Sasekumar, 1992; Mastaller, 1997).
FIGURE 6
Food web and use of
mangroves in Indonesia
Adapted from a poster produced by Asian Wetland Bureau Indonesia Programme (1992)
13 http://www.earthisland.org/map/
35
Carbon sequestration
Mangroves are able to sequester some 1.5 metric tons of carbon per hectare
per year (Ong, 1993; according to Fujimoto, 2004, this may range from 0.221.24 tons per hectares per year), and the upper layers of mangrove
sediments have a high carbon content, with conservative estimates
indicating levels of 10 percent. Conversion of mangroves to fishponds
which invariably involves excavation of about two metres of sediment
will eventually result in a release of about 1,400 tons of carbon from the
sediments alone (Ong, 2002). According to calculations by Ong (2002), the
conversion of two percent of mangroves to aquaculture already means that
the advantage of mangroves as a sink of atmospheric carbon are lost.
4.3
Over the past 10-15 years, numerous economic and valuation studies have
been carried out on mangrove ecosystems, both in Southeast Asia and
beyond (e.g. Ruitenbeek, 1992; Spaninks & van Beukering, 1997; Gammage,
1997; Satharathai, 1997; Bann, 1998; Khalil, 1999, Pearce et al., 2002;
PEMSEA, 2004). These consistently show that these systems are highly
valuable assets, and of prime importance to coastal communities and local
and regional economies. Fisheries are often the most valuable extracted
products, followed by timber products (see Table 7), but mangrove services
(e.g. coastal protection or biodiversity value) may be worth many times
this. A total economic valuation study in Indonesia (Moosa et al., 1996), for
example, shows that the archipelagos mangroves and their biodiversity
was worth more than US$350 billion, or US$110,000 per hectare if all
benefits are included.
TABLE 7
Economic value of various
mangrove products
Product
Country
Penaeid shrimp
Various
13-756
Mud crabs
Fish
Various
Various
Molluscs
Fish & shrimp
Various
Thailand
Malaysia
Malaysia
Forestry products
Wood products
Malaysia
Malaysia
Indonesia
Thailand
References:
Kg/ha.year
Value (US$/ha.yr)
Year
Ref.
91-5,292
1999
13-64
257-900
39-352
475-713
1999
1999
1
1
500-979
140-274
30-2,000
1999
1978
1
2
2,772
750
1979
1982
4
5
225
1982
1984
5
6
10-20
4,000
1978
1991
2
3
16,000-50,000
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ong, 1984b
36
Indonesia
A landmark economic study carried out in Bintuni Bay, in Indonesias
Papua province by Ruitenbeek (1992) showed that traditional uses of the
300,000 hectare mangrove area by the 3,000 local inhabitants of the bay
were valued at US$10 million per year. At the same time, fisheries were
valued at US$35 million per year, and selective mangrove cutting shemes
were calculated to be valued at US$20 million per year. Selective cutting of
25 percent of the mangrove appeared to be the optimal strategy, under the
likely scenario of 5-year delayed linkages between economics and environment.
Other scenarios were found to be less optimal, and the economic benefits of
limited selective cutting was found to be greater than the clear cutting
option, and the option of more extensive cutting (Ruitenbeek, 1992).
Malaysia
The Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve in Malaysia (see 4.1) is of considerable
economic importance to Perak State, and the area is a major supplier of
seafood to the local and international market. Revenues from forestry were
US$6-9 million annually in the early 1980s (MCF, 1987), and totalled more
than US$ 12 million by the late 1990s. In 1979 the value of the prawn and
cockle industries in the area was estimated to be at least US$30 million
(Ong, 1982). By 1994, the prawn industry alone valued at US$48 million
(Sasekumar et al., 1994), and the fishing industry of the area is estimated to
be valued at more than US$60 million annually. The total value of the
forestry and fisheries alone means that the Matang mangroves are valued
at an impressive US$1,800 per hectare, per year. Elsewhere, one square
kilometre of mangrove forest was calculated to be capable of sustainably
producing 38 tonnes of fish per year, and providing nursery grounds for an
added 48 tonnes of fish and shrimp that mature elsewhere each year14.
Thailand
Studies by Sathirathai (1997) and summarised by the Regional Task Force
on Economic Valuation15 indicate that the total economic value (TEV) of
Thai mangroves was in the range of US$520-667 per hectare per year. This
calculation included a host of direct uses (timber, fuelwood, wood/animal
products), offshore fisheries, coastal protection and carbon sequestration.
However, it does not include non use values such as biodiversity, and
uniqueness to culture and heritage.
Viet Nam
Studies on mangroves in Qunag Ninh, Nam Dinh, Cuu Long and Ca Mau
by Nguyen Ngoc Binh and Huynh Minh Hong (summarised by the
Regional Task Force on Economic Valuation13) indicate that the total
economic value of Vietnamese mangroves was in the range of US$315-1,085
per hectare per year, averaging at US$721 per hectare per year. At the
lower end of the scale was Qunag Ninh, where environmental services
14 http://home.alltel.net/bsundquist1/fi7.html#A
15
http://www.unepscs.org/Documents/RTF-E1/RTF-E.1-6%20Extracts.pdf
37
were regarded as zero, as they did not need to mitigate typhoons, and there
was no ecotourism. At the upper end of the scale was Nam Dinh in the Red
River estuary, where fisheries accounted for two-thirds of mangrove value,
but where environmental services and ecotourism were also significant.
The valuation study did not include carbon sequestration, nor did it
include non use values such as biodiversity, and uniqueness to culture and
heritage.
Malacca Straits
A recent valuation study on coastal and marine resources in the Malacca
Straits, between Malaysia and Indonesia (PEMSEA, 2004) shows that the
TEV of mangrove resources in this area is US$3.25 billion, with a net
market value of US$582 million. Of this TEV, US$1.1 billion is attributable
to fisheries alone. In Indonesia, Malacca Strait mangroves had a direct use
value of US$734 million, of which 80 percent for fisheries, 12.4 percent for
charcoal and poles, 6.1 percent for tourism, 1.2 percent for traditional uses
and 0.3 percent for wildlife (PEMSEA, 2004).
38
CHAPTER
THE STATE OF
SOUTHEAST ASIAN
MANGROVES
5.1
All over the world mangrove resources are increasingly being lost due to
unsustainable utilization and habitat conversion (Snedaker, 1984; Fiseler et
al., 1990; Groombridge, 1992; Aksornkoae, 1993, Thurairaja, 1994; Mastaller,
1997), and on the whole, Southeast Asia is no exception. Around 1980, the
total mangrove area in Southeast Asia totalled 6.8 million hectares (Table
8), which is about 34-42 percent of the worlds total (see 1.2). By 1990,
however, this had dropped to under 5.7 million hectares, representing a
decrease of about 15 percent or more than 110,000 hectares per year.
Between 1990-2000 the annual loss had decreased to 79,000 hectares, but as
the total area had also decreased there was still a 13.8 percent decline in
mangrove area during this decade.
Brunei Darussalam
Bruneis mangrove area has remained relatively constant since about 1980,
having declined from about 18,000 to about 16,000 hectares in 2000 (Table
8), although WCMC report a remaining area of only 7,000 hectares in 1990
(see Table 8). Much of this mangrove area is located around Brunei Bay,
and significant amounts are included in the countrys protected area
system (Scott, 1989).
Cambodia
Cambodias mangroves dropped from 83,000 hectares in 1980, to less than
60,000 hectares by about 1990 (Fisheries Department Cambodia, 2001),
having suffered tremendous deterioration over recent decades. Reliable
figures later than 1990 are absent, other than a WRM (2000) website report
stating that the government admitted that the total area had deteriorated to
about 16,000 hectares. Most (75%) of the remaining mangrove area is found
in Koh Kong Province, along with with 13,500 hectares in Sihanoukville,
and 7,900 hectares in Kampot and Kep City (Smith, 2001).
39
Indonesia
Southeast Asias largest mangrove area occurs in Indonesia, where just
under 60 percent of the regions mangroves are located (Table 8). This
extended over 4.25 million hectares in 1980, but had been reduced to under
3 million hectares by 2000, with losses of more than 90 percent in some
regions (e.g. Java; see 5.2). Giesen (1993) calculated a total mangrove area of
2.49 million hectares remaining by the late 1980s, based on a combination of
RePPProT (1985-1989) mapping data, satellite imagery (Sumatra and South
Sulawesi) and data on area converted to brackish water fishponds. The 2.5
million hectares figure is now more generally used in Indonesia (e.g.
Soegiarto, 2004), although figures ranging between 3-4.5 million hectares
are also in use.
By most calculations, more than half (55%) occurs in Papua province, with
a further 19 percent in Sumatra and 16 percent in Indonesian Borneo
(Kalimantan). Indonesian data, however, are fraught with inaccuracies, and
there are two major sources of error. Firstly, there are very few actual
calculations of mangrove area, and more often than not, outdated
references are quoted again and again16 (e.g. Burbridge & Koesoebiono,
1980; Burbridge, 1982). Secondly, estimates for the Papuan region vary
widely, from 0.97 to 2.94 million hectares (Min. of Forestry & FAO, 1990),
mainly because of a lack of reliable data (little ground truthing, few maps
or cloud-free remote sensing imagery).
Malaysia
Malaysia is next in terms of mangrove area, harbouring about 11.7 percent
of Southeast Asias mangroves. This extended over almost 670,000 hectares
in 1980, but had been reduced to about 570,000 hectares by 2000.
Mangroves primarily occur in Sabah (57%), Sarawak (26%) and the west
coast of peninsular Malaysia (17%). Of these, 440,400 hectares are reserve
forests. About 20 percent of the total mangrove area has been lost to
various development activities in the last two decades. The most significant
losses have been in Peninsular Malaysia, where large areas have been
converted for agriculture, coastal road development and housing estates.
Myanmar
About 8.8 percent of Southeast Asias mangroves are located in Myanmar,
of which 46 percent is located in Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Division, 37
percent in Tanintahryi Division and 17 percent in Rakhine State. The total
area was about 530,000 hectares in 1980, but this had dropped to 425,000
hectares by 2000 (Table 8), or perhaps as low as 382,032ha17. Prawn and fish
ponds are only just being constructed since about 2000 (Maung, 2003).
Myanmars mangroves are reportedly some of the most degraded or
destroyed mangrove systems in the Indo-Pacific18.
16 www.reefbase.org
17 http://www.mangroveweb.net/html/country.htm
18 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1404_full.html
40
41
made the assessment of mangrove areas more accurate, and also allowed
the inclusion of smaller areas in the overall calculation. Secondly, Thailand
has invested in large-scale reforestation programmes in abandoned shrimp
pond areas and other degraded sites since the late 1990s. The net effect has
been that by 2000, the total mangrove area was determined to be 244,161
hectares (RFD Forestry Statistics 2002). As a result, Thailand is the only
Southeast Asian country that has witnesed an increase in mangrove area
during the past decade, although total areas are still well below what was
present in the 1960s.
Thailand presently has just under five percent of Southeast Asias
mangroves, covering large areas along the western peninsula coast and also
along the eastern peninsula coast, in the Chao Phraya delta and along the
south-eastern coast. The best developed mangrove forest in Thailand
occurs on the west coast of the peninsula in Ranong, Phang Nga, Krabi,
Trang and Satun. Mangroves in the inner and western part of the gulf of
Thailand are mainly converted into shrimp farms, while the remaining
mangroves are largely composed of small sized trees.
Timor-Leste
Timor-Lestes mangroves extend over just 3,000 hectares, and are found
mainly on the north coast of the island, where the sea is calmer, especially
near Metinaro, Tibar and Maubara. Along the south coast mangroves are
not found beyond the mouths of streams and adjacent swampy areas 23.
Viet Nam
Viet Nam has about 2.1 percent of Southeast Asias mangroves (just over
100,000 hectares in 2000), and the largest area of remaining mangroves is
around Ca Mau Point at the southern tip of Viet Nam, with smaller areas in
the Mekong delta region (together 66 percent of remaining mangroves), in
south central Viet Nam around Cam Ranh Bay, and in northern Viet Nam
in the Red River delta area (13%) and in Quang Ninh Province (15%). The
central coast of Viet Nam (2%) is largely free of mangroves because of the
exposed coastline, absence of major river deltas, and low tidal fluctuations
in this area. Far more extensive stands of mangroves once occurred, with
408,500 hectares being recorded in 1945 and 290,000 hectares in 1953 (Hong,
2003). The extensive military use of defoliants and napalm during the Viet
Nam War (1962-1972) destroyed a major part of mangrove forests,
especially in southern Viet Nam, but these are recovering under active
reforestation programmes24.
23 http://www.uc.pt/timor/florafauna.html
24 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1402_full.html
42
TABLE 8
Changes in mangrove area
17100
1992
18300
17300
16300
0.33
-100
-100
7000 1990
16300
Cambodia
72835
1997
83000
74600
63700
1.30
-840
-1090
60000 1989
16000
Indonesia
3493110
1988
4254000
3530700
2930000
59.79
-72330
2496000
Malaysia
587269
1995
669000
620500
572100
11.67
-4850
-4840
630000 1985
572100
Myanmar
452492
1996
531000
480000
432300
8.82
-5100
-4770
517500 1982
382186
464000
1993
525000
492000
425000
8.67
-3300
-6700
200000 1970
425000
Philippines
127610
1990
206500
123400
109700
2.23
-8310
-1370
232100 1987
109700
500
1990
2700
500
500
0.01
-220
244161
2000
285500
180559
244161
4.98
-10500
6360
3035
2000
4100
3600
3035
0.06
-50
-57
252500
1983
227000
165000
104000
2.12
-6200
-6100
6806100
5688159
4900796
100
-111800
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Total
5714612
1980-19901990-2000
ha
year
optimistic
Brunei Darussalam
Thailand
2000
WCMC figures
year
Singapore
1990
(ha/yr)
ha
1980-2000
1980
Least
Annual change
1990s
500
196400 1987
167582
3035
370000 1987
-78737 6413000
104000
4292403
Recent reliable figures. Brunei Darussalam: Spalding et al. (1997); Cambodia: Department of Forestry and Wildlife (1998); Indonesia, Malaysia and
Myanmar: FAO (2003); Papua New Guinea: Saunders (1993); Philippines: Melana (1994); Singapore: Chan & Corlett (1999); Thailand: Thailand RFD
Statistics 2002; Timor-Leste: www.ci.uc.pt/Timor/florafauna.html; Viet Nam: Hong & San (1993).
Least optimistic figures. Brunei: Zamorra (1992); Cambodia: WRM (2000), Myanmar, Singapore: Mackinnon (1997); Indonesia: Spalding et al. (1997);
Malaysia: Chan et al. (1993) ; Philippines: White & de Leon (1996); Viet Nam: ADB (2000).
WCMC figures: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/data/coral_mangrove/marine.maps.main.html
43
5.2
CAUSES OF DECLINE
25
This did not include the Marubeni concession in Bintuni Bay, Papua, which was more than 250,000
hectares, but has been cancelled since then.
45
www.mangroveweb.net/html/country.htm
28 http://www.mangroveweb.net/html/country.htm
46
Thailand
Some areas of mangrove forest have been reclaimed for urban development
and agriculture, but the main driving force behind the decline of the
countrys mangroves has been aquaculture (Aksornkoae, 1993). According
to Wattayakorn (1998), conversion to aquaculture accounted for 64 percent
of mangrove loss between 1960-1990, while coastal development
(urbanisation, industrial expansion, infrastructure, ports and habours)
accounted for 24 percent. Thailands mangroves have been heavily exploited
for shrimp farming since 1975 (see 5.3), and especially during 1985-1990
(Aksornkoae, 1993). Most of the remaining mangroves (143,961 ha) are
under concessions designated for charcoal production, and at present they
are controlled by 40 mangrove mangement units. Large areas of mangrove
have been logged for charcoal production, to supply the domestic market
and markets in Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong (Spalding et al.
199729).
Viet Nam
Before 1945, Viet Nam had an estimated 408,500 hectares of mangrove,
which subsequently declined to about 290,000 hectares by 1953. The
mangrove forests of the Mekong Delta especially in Can Gio and the Ca
Mau peninsula were extensively damaged by bombs and defoliants, the
most notorious of which was agent orange30. The major use of herbicides
during the war was from 1966-1970, which resulted in the almost total
destruction of the deltas mangroves a loss of 149,851 hectares of forest
and along with it much of the accompanying biota (Hong, 2003). Even by
the early 1990s, satellite images still showed patterns left by the defoliants
broad swathes of vegetation differing in texture and colour. Since the end
of the conflicts there have been two major developments: fish and shrimp
ponds (see 5.3), and a widespread reforestation drive. By 1999, Viet Nam
had an estimated 155,290 hectares of mangrove, of which 96,876 hectares
were planted in a number of reforestation programmes (Hong, 2003).
5.3
More than 1.2 million hectares of mangrove in Southeast Asia have been
converted to brackish water fishponds (see Table 9), and it is regarded as
probably the greatest single cause of mangrove decline in the region.
Although not all brackish water fishponds have been converted from
mangroves, most have been established in (former) mangrove areas, and in
most countries in Southeast Asia the link is very evident. In the Philippines,
for example, the loss of mangroves from 1970 to 2000 was almost 180,000
hectares, mirroring the 93,000 hectares of brackish water fishponds that
were developed during the same period (Figure 7).
29 http://www.assn.moe.go.th/MANGROVE%20RESOURCE%20MANAGEMENT.htm.
30 Agent Orange was a 50/50 mix of two herbicides, 2,4,-D (2,4, dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and 2,4,5-T
(2,4,5 trichlorophenoxyacetic acid). Of major health concern is the contamination with dioxin.
47
FIGURE 7
Mangrove conversion and
fishpond area in the Philippines
Thousands of ha
350
300
250
200
Mangrove area
Fishpond area
150
100
50
0
70
19
74
19
78
19
82
19
86
19
90
19
00
20
Figures for brackish water fishponds in Southeast Asia have been compiled
(Table 8). Four countries (Thailand, Indonesia, Viet Nam and the
Philippines) have each developed well over 200,000 hectares of brackish
water fishpond, and more than a million hectares of mangrove have been
converted to fishponds over the past three decades alone (Table 8). Other
countries such as Myanmar have only minor fishpond industries, but have
developed plans for similar large-scale development.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, where these ponds are called tambak, a total area of almost
269,000 hectares already existed by 1990 (Directorate General of Fisheries,
1991; see chapter 5). There was a surge in tambak development in the 1990s,
and by 2001 the total area had increased to 438,010 hectares31 (see Figure 8).
Previously, these fishponds were established within mangrove forest and
trees were retained on pond dikes or on islands in the tambak. Later,
however, clear-felling was carried out prior to the construction of a tambak,
leaving these more recent fishponds with a tree cover of almost zero. Many
of these tambak are exploited on an extensive basis, and shrimp fry are
usually obtained from adjacent mangrove areas. In many cases, tambak
development is carried out to obtain land titles to formerly communallyheld areas, or areas of government land.
31
http://www.perikanan-budidaya.gov.id/statistik/tambak/budidaya_tambak.htm
48
TABLE 9
Country
in Southeast Asia
Area of brackish
water fishponds
(in ha)
Year
Reference
190
1995
Cambodia
>800
850
2000
1994
http://www.mangroveweb.
net/html/country.htm
Smith (2001)
http://www.mangroveweb.
net/html/country.htm
Indonesia
438,010
2001
Malaysia
4,700
5,100
1995
2002
Myanmar
2003
2001
Maung (2003)
www.mangroveweb. net/html/country.htm
minor
12,000*
minor?
Philippines
261,402
1993
Singapore
Thailand
minor
253,000
1995
http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/man
groves/book8.html
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
minor
249,394
220,000
?
1998
2000
Brunei Darussalam
TOTAL
www.perikananbudidaya.gov.id/statistik/tambak/budidaya
_tambak.htm
http://www.mangroveweb.
net/html/country.htm
http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/man
groves/book8.html
Tabuchi (2003)
Hong (2003)
1,219,946
In 2001, about 34.0 percent of all tambak were located in Java, while a
further 28.2 percent were located in Sulawesi, 23.4 percent in Sumatra and
10.8 percent in Kalimantan, which has seen the latest surge in this
development. The coastal areas of the northern part of East Kalimantan,
around the estuaries of the Kayan, Sesayap and Sebuku rivers, were until
recently covered with broad expanses of mangroves. Most of these have
however been converted to prawn ponds in the last decade.
The shrimp industry is a highly valuable one, providing the country with
very high revenues. In 1992, for example, exports of shrimp from Indonesia
were valued at US$680 million, of which 65 percent went to Japan, 16
percent to USA and 9 percent to Singapore (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1993).
Shrimp exports increased from 97,228 metric tons in 1989, to 117,847 metric
tons in 199832. A second important product from tambak are milkfish Chanos
chanos, which are very popular in Sulawesi and Java. In the 1970s milkfish
was the principle crop of all tambak (Shang, 1976), but this has been
displaced by shrimp since 1979 (Djajadiredja, 1981). Many ponds for prawn
production were made by simply deepening former milkfish ponds. Prawn
tambak are capital intensive enterprises that need a high energy input, and
32 http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/51/Indonesia.html
49
500000
450000
pond area (ha)
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1990 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Note: the area of tambak in Indonesia almost doubled in the period 1990-2001, in
spite of the financial crisis in Southeast Asia in 1997-98, which led to a temporary
decrease in investments, including in the fishpond sector.
border have been cleared by local communities and Thai businessmen, but
due to the outbreak of shrimp diseases many of these ponds have now been
abandoned.
In Viet Nams Ca Mau Province, in the Mekong Delta, the area of
mangroves declined from over 200,000 hectares in 1962 to 64,572 in 1999,
and according to Tan (2001; cited in Hong, 2004) almost all of this
destruction has been due to the shrimp culture. There are also plans for
further conversion of at least 13,000 hectares in the near future. According
to Benthem et al. (1999), mangrove forests in Ca Mau had declined from
about 200,000 hectares in 1943 to 51,492 hectares in 1995, while shrimp farm
acreage increased from 3,000 hectares in 1984 to 76,036 hectares in 1995.
According to Tabuchi (2003), the acreage of shrimp ponds in Viet Nam
increased from 96,060 hectares in 1990 to 249,394 hectares in 1998.
In Myanmar there has also been extensive conversion (Maung, 2003), but
unlike in Cambodia, Thailand, the Philippines and Viet Nam, this has been
mainly for agriculture and salt production. The shrimp industry in
Malaysia has developed rapidly since the early 1980s, but the country is not
one of the major producers of cultured marine prawn in the world, as the
area under marine prawn culture is about 5,100 hectares (2,627 hectares in
1995). However, the countrys average production (metric tons/ha) is the
third highest in the world, after Taiwan and Thailand, and plans for
intensification and expansion have been drawn up33.
5.4
MANGROVE RESTORATION
51
usually when they are 30-60 centimetres high. Development of special roots
(aerial roots, pneumatophores etc.) starts soon after planting in the field.
Planting should preferably take place in a period when low tides occur
(partly) during daytime and very high tides occur less often (Wulffraat,
1996b).
As a general rule, mangrove seedlings should be planted with 1 metre
spacing, i.e. at a density of 10,000 per hectare. High initial mortality is not
unusual, but survival rates of at least 50 percent should be expected.
Typical forest density of mature mangroves is about 1,000 trees per hectare,
so a 50 percent initial mortality of planted saplings should not lead to an
unusually sparse forest (Lewis & Streever, 2000). Indeed, a round of
thinning may be required in years 5-10 to prevent the establishment
of pole forests, i.e. dense stands of thin, tall trees, as these may be
particularly susceptible to storm damage.
According to Lewis (2001), the cost of mangrove restoration usually varies
from US$225 per hectare to US$216,000 per hectare, depending on the
location and technique used. Lewis recognises three approaches to
restoration: i) planting alone, ii) hydrologic restoration, with or without
planting, and iii) excavation or fill, with or without planting. The first type
is cheap, costing only US$100-200 per hectare, but is often unsuccessful as
hydrological aspects are not appreciated. The second type, when done with
proper planning, can also be inexpensive and have a high rate of success.
The third type is usually expensive and viable in developed countries only.
Indonesia
Mangrove restoration in Indonesia has been carried out for more than 10
years, generally carried out by NGOs and/or by donor aided projects, but
also by the Forestry Department. Areas replanted have been modest, and
during the period 1998-2002, for example, a total area of 7,130 hectares
were replanted34, mainly in West and Central Java, North Sulawesi and
North Sumatra. Almost 3,000 hectares of damaged mangroves have been
rehabilitated in Cilacap on the south coast of Java over the last few years,
funded out of a loan of more than US$45 million for conservation and
development of this lagoonal system (ADB, 1996; Soegiarto, 2004).
Similarly, more than 10,000 hectares of former mangroves have been
replanted and restored on the north coast of West Java (Soegiarto, 2004).
The latter were part of an aid scheme aimed at reducing flood damage in
Jakarta, while at the same time taking local socio-economic conditions into
account. Persons living in the vicinity of the replanted areas are allowed to
catch or culture fish in the broad channels surrounding the rehabilitated
mangroves for their livelihood. Several mangrove replanting projects have
been carried out in Kupang Bay, West Timor, by Japanese organisations
and NGOs since the early 1990s. Rhizophora and Avicennia seedlings were
used in the north coast of West Java rehabilitation programme, whereas
34 www.dephut.go.id/informasi/statistik/Stat2002/contents_02.htm
54
Rhizophora and Bruguiera species were used in the Cilacap mangrove area.
The survival rate of replanting was reported between 60-75 percent.35
Myanmar
In the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) Delta, mangrove forest plantations were
established on a small scale basis from 1980 onwards in the townships of
Laputta, Bogalay and Moulmyingyun. Large scale plantations were
subsequently started in 1990. Plantations established by the Forestry
Department often did not survive, as they were rapidly exploited by local
communities. Community forestry mangrove plantations established in
former mangrove areas appear to do much better. In Laputta Township, for
example, 20 user groups have been formed and by 2003, 3,234 hectares of
mangrove plantation had been established. Similarly, in Bogalay some
1,158 hectares, and in Moulmyingyun some 200 hectares of mangrove
plantation had been established by 2003, bringing the total in Myanmar to
almost 5,000 hectares (Maung, 2003).
Thailand
In Surat Thani, Lewis (2001) describes the restoration of 800 hectares of
abandoned shrimp aquaculture ponds back to mangrove forests, being
implemented by the Royal Forest Department. Calculation show that these
forests can be restored for US$ 200 per hectare for hydrological restoration
only (which according to Lewis may be sufficient), or US$700 per hectare is
these areas are also replanted. Mangrove rstoration projects in Thailand
have also been carried out by the private sector and by NGOs. For example,
a pilot project working with local communities in the Pattani Bay area and
carried out by the Prince of Songkla University and Wetlands International,
replanted over 100 hectares of mangroves in areas degraded by logging for
charcoal or abandoned after being used for intensive shrimp farming.
Besides planting of mangroves, the project provided support for alternative
income-generating initiatives, and helped increase environmental
awareness and community organisation. Bamroongrugsa (2002) reports
that the community forestry programmes in Songkla Lake were not very
effective due to the lack of community participation and inadequate
knowledge of reforestation techniques. Successful trials were carried out
with bagged seedlings and propagules of Rhizophora mucronata and wild
seedlings of Sonneratia caseolaris, which were protected from wave action by
bamboo fencing.
Viet Nam
In Viet Nam, the primary goal of mangrove regeneration has been the
rehabilitation of land devastated during the war (Tabuchi, 2003), although
much of the damage to mangroves was apparently caused in the post-war
period, by unbridled conversion of partly affected areas for aquaculture.
Over a 20-year period (1977-1997), 20,638 hectares of degraded mangrove
were rehabilitated in the Mekong Delta region (Tabuchi, 2003). However, at
35 http://landbase.hq.unu.edu/Workshops/OkinawaMarch2000/Papers/Sogiertopapermar2000.htm
55
the same time much larger areas were converted to brackish water
aquaculture, undoing most of the beneficial effects of mangrove restoration
(see 5.3). Almost 1,000 hectares were also replanted in the mid-1990s in
northern Viet Nam at Tiong Lang, Thai Thuy and Tinh Gio using Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora stylosa and Sonneratia caseolaris
(Kogo & Kogo, 2004).
In the 1990s, about 6,600 hectares of former mangrove areas were restored
in the Ca Mau peninsula, in a replanting programme together with five
State Forestry/Fisheries Enterprises (Benthem et al., 1999). The main
species used in this programme were Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia
caseolaris, although other species were also used in trials, mainly in the
Can Gio Forestry Enterprise. Hong (2004) found in restored areas in Can
Gio (south of Ho Chi Minh City, near the Mekong Delta) that the current
mangrove flora is similar to that of the early 1960s before widespread
destruction with herbicide occurred. However, the individual numbers and
distribution of species has changed significantly.
5.5
56
CHAPTER
IMPORTANT AND
PROTECTED MANGROVE AREAS
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
6.1
TABLE 10
Mangroves in Protected
Areas
Country
Protected Mangroves
(ha)
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
% remaining mangroves
in PA system ##
same, according to
WRI *
7,533
31,100 *
41
48.8
4.7
66
Indonesia
Malaysia
783,400 *
10,900 *
26.7
1.9
33
7
Myanmar
Papua New Guinea
12,500 **
106,300 *
2.9
24.6
0
23
Philippines***
Singapore
347 ***
45
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Total
unknown
0
0
9
25,600 *
0
10.5
0
5
-
1,600 *
43,115 #
959,700
1.5
39
19.6
Sources:
* http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/forests-grasslands-drylands/variable-317.html
** http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1404_full.html
*** Figures for the Philippines are generally lacking ; earthtrends.wri lists protected mangroves as zero,
while WCMC (http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/data/coral_mangrove/marine.maps.main.html)
lists more than 120 marine protected areas but data regarding mangrove cover is totally lacking. The
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for the Philippines also lists at least 13 Protected Areas
with mangroves, but data on mangrove cover is provided for two sites only, Bongsanglay Mangrove
Reserve (164 ha) and Pujada Bay Protected Landscape and Seascape (183 ha) (pers. comm. Jim Berdach,
4 September 2004).
# Tuan et al. (2001)
## Spalding et al. (1997)
57
6.2
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
Bruneis mangroves are found in the estuaries of its four main river
systems: the Temburong, Belait, Tutong and Brunei-Muara. However, the
status of these mangroves remains unclear. Forest reserves are under the
jurisdiction of the Forestry Department, but mangrove outside these areas
are in effect unprotected since the areas are simply classified as State
Land. The Integrated Management Plan for the Coastal Zone of Brunei
recommended that 99 percent of the mangroves be protected. The plan
proposed conversion of only 200 hectare, while 4,141 hectares were to be
protected in national parks and 6,545 hectares were to be maintained for
coastal protection. However, this plan was reportedly never implemented
(in full) and mangrove clearance continues36.
According to Iremonger et al. (1997), 800 hectares of mangrove are
protected in Brunei Darussalam. However, according to Anderson &
Marsden (1984) 7,533 hectares of mangroves in Brunei are located in the
Selirong and Labu Forest Reserve, of which 2,566 hectares is located in the
Selirong Recreational Reserve. Charles (2002) states that the status of
Selirong was altered from forest reserve to conservation reserve to
recreational reserve, and that it is now officially called Pulau Selirong
Forest Recreational Park (pers. comm. Anthony Sebastian, 3 September
2004).
6.2.2
CAMBODIA
58
INDONESIA
This does not include figures for Java, which were not included in the RePPProT study; however, the
total mangrove area in Java is not very significant.
59
60
MALAYSIA
The total area of mangrove forest gazetted in reserves and protected areas
in Malaysia is unclear. Information dating from the mid-1990s suggest that
not more than about 5-10 percent of the countrys mangroves were
incorporated in protected areas43. According to statistics of 1993, there were
5,670 hectares of gazetted mangrove conservation areas in Malaysia. Also,
the Malaysian Cabinet, in late 1996, directed that all mangrove swamps
within 400 metres of the coastline be left intouched to check escalating
erosion.44
According to other reports (Wetlands International - Asia Pacific, 1996),
446,000 hectares of Malaysian mangrove have been gazetted in forest
reserves and protected areas, of which the vast majority is found in forest
reserves in Sabah (316,460 hectares or 71 percent of the total). Sarawak has
much larger mangrove areas than Peninsular Malaysia, but most of this
(131,000 out of 168,000 hectares in 1993) is not protected in forest reserves.
42 http://nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/indonesia/work/art13456.html
43 http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/forests-grasslands-drylands/variable-317.html
44 http://www.wetlands.org/capacity/WW/past/wwvol-2/feature/iss10/feature.htm
63
64
65
to the southeast, this extends over a total area of about 150,000 hectares
(DWNP, 1987), which includes freshwater swamps on the landward side of
the mangrove. The area is important for Storms stork Ciconia stormi, lesser
adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus, proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus, silvered
leaf monkey Trachypithecus aurata and Bornean gibbon Hylobates mulleri.
Pulau Bruit, Sarawak. Extending over an area of 40,000 hectares, this lowlying island has extensive mudflats and mangrove forests on the northern
and western shores. The northern area area of 1,776 hectares around
Tanjong Sirik has been proposed as a national park. A visitor during
migration may record 10,000 waders, 14,000 terns, 500 egrets and 20 lesser
adjutants, although numbers, especially of waders, have fallen recently 49.
Rajang delta, Sarawak. An extensive delta system is located at the mouth of
the Batang Rajang, the largest river in Malaysia. The central delta area is a
complex mangrove and Nypa system, with further accreting mangroves
and extensive mudflats at the northern end of Pulau Bruit. A substantial
part of the Rajang mangroves are clear-felled in rotation for wood-chips.
The three most important parts of the delta are the Matu-Daro and Sibu
Swamp Forests, Pulau Bruit and the Rajang Mangrove Forest.50 The Rajang
Delta is particularly important for herons and egrets, migratory shorebirds
and terns; over 20,000 shorebirds of at least 25 species and 14,000 terns of
seven species utilise the area at certain times. The most abundant
shorebirds are common redshank Tringa totanus, Tereks sandpiper Xenus
cinereus and great sand plover Charadrius leschenaultii. Several uncommon
species such as Swinhoes egret (or Chinese egret) Egretta eulophotes, Asian
dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus and Far-Eastern curlew Numenius
madagascariensis have been reported at Pulau Bruit. Reptiles include the
river monitor Varanus salvator and estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus.
The latter breeds in the delta, but despite the abundance of suitable habitat,
is now rare, presumably because of the harvesting of live hatchlings.
Mammals include proboscis monkey Nasalis larvatus, silvered leaf monkey
Trachypithecus aurata (Presbytis cristata), smooth otter Lutra sumatrana,
leopard cat Felis bengalensis and wild boar Sus barbatus.
6.2.5
MYANMAR
According to Spalding et al. (1997) the largest mangrove areas are in the
Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) Delta, but these were already heavily degraded
in the early 1980s and the best mangroves were thought to occur in the
northern state of Rakhine and in Tanintharyi, near the border with
Thailand in the south. Maung (2003) reports that the most important
mangrove areas in Myanmar still occur in the Irrawaddy Delta, but that
other important mangrove areas also occur in coastal areas of Rakhine State
and Tanintharyi Division.
49 http://www.arbec.com.my/bos/location.htm
50 http://www.arcbc.org.ph/arcbcweb/wetlands/malaysia/mys_rajangdelta.htm
66
Papua New Guinea mangroves are found along extensive lengths of the
countrys coastline. There are several disjunct sections along the north
coast, including adjacent to the mouths of the Sepik and Ramu rivers, and
Dyke Ackland Bay and Ward Hunt Strait. The longest and deepest
stretches of mangroves are found on the south side of the island, especially
at the mouths of the Purari, Kikori, Fly, Northwest, and Otakwa rivers. On
the Pacific (northern) coast of mainland Papua and the smaller islands
(New Britain, New Ireland) many smaller mangroves areas occur on less
exposed coasts. These mangroves, such as found along the northern coast
of West New Britain Province (see Figure 4B), are often rich in plant
species, with several mangrove species that are endemic to the eastern part
of Southeast Asia, such as Cerbera floribunda and Myristica hollrungii.
51 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1404_full.html
67
PHILIPPINES
The Directory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989) lists 63 wetland sites, of which
30 had mangrove habitats with an unspecified area. However, most of this
information is outdated, and given the rate of mangrove conversion since
the 1980s, many of these may no longer exist. According to Spalding et al.
(1997), the largest remaining areas are located to the south of the
archipelago, on Mindanao and Samar, and also on Palawan in the west.
The Philippines has more than 120 marine reserves (see WRI website53),
although it is unknown how extensive mangroves are in this system. The
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for the Philippines lists at
least 13 Protected Areas that include mangrove habitat, but data on
mangrove area is provided for two sites only, Bongsanglay Mangrove
Reserve (164 ha) and Pujada Bay Protected Landscape and Seascape (183
ha; Jim Berdach, pers. comm., 4 September 2004). The Philippines has four
Ramsar Sites, of which two are freshwater and only one includes protected
mangrove habitat, namely Olango Island.
Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuar: The area was declared a Ramsar Site (No.
656) under the Ramsar Convention on 1 July 1994. The total area is 5,800
hectares, and it is located in Cebu at 1016N 12403E; it is also a Shorebird
Network Site. It mainly consists of a low-lying island surrounded by
52 http://www.solutions-site.org/artman/publish/article_44.shtml
53 See
http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/data/coral_mangrove/marine.maps.main.html
68
SINGAPORE
THAILAND
69
57 http://www.arcbc.org.ph/arcbcweb/wetlands/thailand/tha_gultha.htm
70
present at Sriboya Island. Most mangrove areas were forest concession, but
were converted to conservation areas in 2001.
Mu Koh Ang Thong Marine National Park: The area was declared a Ramsar
Site (No. 1184) under the Ramsar Convention on 14 August 2002. The total
area is 10,200 hectares, and it is located in Surathani Province at 937N
9941E. The area consists of a complex of 42 small islands in the Gulf of
Thailand, including sandy beaches, rocky cliffs, coral reefs, and young
mangrove forests.
Pang Nga Bay Marine National Park: Pang Nga was declared a Ramsar Site
(No. 1185) under the Ramsar Convention on 14 August 2002. The total area
is 40,000 hectares, and it is located in Pang Nga Province at 817N 9836E.
The area consists of a shallow bay with 42 islands, comprising shallow
marine waters and intertidal forested wetlands, with at least 28 species of
mangrove; seagrass beds and coral reefs are also present.
6.2.10
TIMOR-LESTE
VIET NAM
Hong (1993, 2003) recognises four mangrove zones in Viet Nam, each with
varying conditions:
i.
ii.
iii. The Central Zone: 14,300 hectares in 1982; 3,000 hectares in 1999. The
coastline along this area is rocky, surrounded by deep sea, and is
influenced by strong wave action. As a result there are no mangroves
along the seashore, although limited areas occur along river banks and
in estuaries of small rivers.
iv. The Coast of Southern Viet Nam: 191,800 hectares in 1982; 102,497
hectares in 1999. Mangroves in this area occur in two main river
systems: the Dong Nai River and the Cuu Long (Mekong) River.
Conditions here are most favourable for mangrove development,
because of higher temperatures, abundant sediments and fresh water,
and the proximity of Indonesia and Malaysia, which have the highest
level of mangrove species diversity.
According to Spalding et al. (1997), the largest areas of mangrove are in the
Mekong Delta and further south on the Ca Mau Peninsula. Tuan et al.
(2001) list 22 existing coastal and marine protected areas in Viet Nam,
which altogether protect 43,115 hectares of mangrove habitat, or according
to them, 39 percent of the remaining mangroves. Some of the most
important sites are described below.
Dat Mui Nature Reserve (also known as Ca Mau cape or Mui Ca Mau) is the
southernmost tip of Viet Nam. The areas mangroves suffered badly during
the war, but have recovered well since then, due to a combination of rapid
accretion of sediments, natural regeneration and rehabilitation. The area is
gazetted as a Nature Reserve since 1983 (or 1986, according to Tuan et al.,
2001), extending over an area of 4,453 hectares.
Hon Mun Marine Protected Area, established in 2001, includes coral reef,
mangroves and seagrass ecosystems. It is located near Nha Trang, Khanh
Hoa province, South Viet Nam, and covers about 12,000 hectares, including
8 islands. There is a population of 5,000 people on the islands living in 7
villages.
The Can Gio mangrove forest was destroyed thoroughly during the war,
but due to rehabilitation efforts it is now one of the countrys best
mangrove areas. The area was recognised as a Nature Reserve in 1990, and
as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve on 21 January 2000. The Managed Nature
Reserve extends over 42,630 hectares and lies in the Mekong Delta, near Ca
Mau.
Xuan Thuy Natural Wetland Reserve: Xuan Thuy was declared a Ramsar Site
(No. 409) under the Ramsar Convention on 20 September 1988. The total
area is 12,000 hectares, and it is located in Nam Ha at 2010N 10620E.
7,686 has has been gazetted as a Strict Nature Reserve since 1995. The area
consists of delta and estuary islands supporting the last significant
remnants of coastal mangrove and mudflat ecosystems in the Red River
Delta; includes land enclosed by sea dikes, with fringing marshes.
72
CHAPTER
MANGROVE
STUDIES: POINTS FOR
BEGINNERS
7.1
IMPORTANT REFERENCES
7.2
rain. Normal cameras will not survive a dip in a saline pool, so waterproof
containers are much recommended. Binoculars are of no use if they also
have to remain in containers, so these should be waterproof, or cheap
enough to run the risk of their being spoiled by moisture and/or fungus.
All gear should preferably fit into a single bag, and a small backpack is
usually handy, as this will free both hands when clambering among
mangrove roots and simultaneously looking at the canopy for flowering
specimens. Remember to bring plenty of drinking water, as mangrove field
trips are usually thirsty affairs. Timing a trip is also important, as high
water levels make boat travel easier, but impede observations of soil,
infauna (animals living in the soil), and root types (important diagnostic
characteristics for mangrove tree species).
Very practical advice for beginners is also provided by the Shorebird Studies
Manual (Howes, 1989), which is still highly useful in spite of its age, and
still commercially available.
7.3
Identification
Compared to studying Indonesian lowland forests, the study of mangrove
vegetation is relatively easy, as the number of species is limited and
flowering is often not very seasonal. This means that there are usually one
or two specimens of each species in fruit and flower, making identification
a simpler task. In addition, the vegetation is not as tall as lowland forest,
and the observer does not need to stare up at a canopy of 40+ metres
height. However, mangrove trees appear very similar in many of their
vegetative characteristics: having leaves that are dark green, elliptic to
obovate, medium-sized, of the laurel type but rather coriaceous and
slightly fleshy.
What the observer should therefore focus on are the differences in bark,
root types (stilts, pneumatophores, aerial roots), stipules, leaf insertion and
flowers/fruit.
People are often inclined to simply browse through the drawings of a
guidebook to find a picture that matches the specimen that they want to
identify. This might work out well for the smaller plant groups and the
moderately large, but highly diverse plant groups (such as the palms and
ferns groups in this book), but often not for the larger or more complicated
groups. An accurate identification can best be obtained by using the
identification keys provided in this book.
These keys were designed in such a way so that the most obvious
vegetative characteristics come out first. This will in most cases enable
people without training in botany identify the species in question.
74
small leaflets, stipules may also consist of small, leafy sheaths that enclose buds of new
leaves.
75
improvised with a box over a low fire, separated by a thin metal sheet.
Oven-dried specimens will last one to several months, depending on the
ambient humidity.
Herbariums treat their specimens with sublimate (Mercuric oxide), which
will allow you to preserve specimens for decades, but this process has its
disadvantages as this chemical is highly toxic. If you need to preserve
specimens but cannot dry the plants (e.g. on a long boat trip), specimens
can be preserved by keeping them in newspaper bound in cardboard, and
keeping them in strong, waterproof, well-sealed plastic bags after
drenching them with methylated spirits (= Schweinfurth method). Kept
wet (in spirits), they will remain in a good condition for many months. The
disadvantages are that methylated spirits may be fairly expensive if many
specimens are to be collected (requires about 1-1.5 litre for a pile of about
25-35 specimens); in addition, spirits are highly inflammable and they
evaporate easily through even the smallest perforation.
7.4
FLORA STUDIES
For studying any kind of vegetation, it is always wise to first obtain good
topographic and thematic maps. General, large-scale maps indicating the
location of mangroves are available in Spalding et al. (1997; now somewhat
outdated), and at the UNEP-WCMC website59. A smaller and less accurate
version of the Southeast Asian part of the latter is appended in Annex 2.
Along with maps, remote sensing images are the most useful tool for
someone wanting to conduct vegetation studies. Remote sensing images, in
their broadest sense, can include photographs taken from the top of a hill
or from the window of an aeroplane. More professional imagery is
provided by commercial aerial photography (available via national
mapping agencies such as BAKOSURTANAL in Indonesia, but this
generally requires security clearances), radar imagery, and satelllite
imagery.
Of the latter, Landsat and SPOT are most commonly available and used.
Images are available directly via Landsat or SPOT websites 60 , or via
national agencies such as LAPAN in Indonesia (Indonesian Satellite
Imagery Receiving Centre, Jakarta), the Bangkok Landsat receiving station,
and SPOT headquarters in Toulouse, France. The choice of imagery type
depends on the level of details needed for the survey. The present available
satellite images can be used for a scale as large as 1:25,000 (for vegetation
mapping), but for a larger scale aerial photographs are more suitable.
Usually directly discernible on remote sensing imagery are the different
vegetation zones within the mangrove belt this simplifies the making of a
draft map of a given site.
59 http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http://www.unep-cmc.org/forest/global_map.htm~main
60 www.Landsat.org or
www.SPOT.com
76
A map produced on the basis of remote sensing imagery alone does not tell
us very much, as ground data must be gathered, correlated to the image
characteristics and entered into the legend of the map. Data on the
vegetation requires identifying which species occur where. This involves
elucidating which species occur together (in plant communities), and those
which never occur toegther and may therefore be differentiating species.
The easiest way to do this is to describe vegetation transects in the
mangrove vegetation; basically there are two transect types, namely lineintercept transects, and broad swathe transects. Line-intercept transects are
the simplest: this involves laying out a line of given length (e.g. 100 m) in a
discrete vegetation, and noting which plants (species and number of
individuals) the line intercepts. Broad-swathe line (or belt) transects are
similar, except that the line has a discrete width, of say 5 or 10 metres: all
plants (species and number of individuals) in this broad swathe are then
noted. Line transect data can later be compared with each other, either
visually, or by means of specific computer programmes.
A remotely sensed image is interpreted and a preliminary map is drawn,
based on image characteristics and terrain features, displaying land units
with similar characteristics. After that, an adequate number of field
samples are taken of each land unit, and the ground data is correlated to
the remotely sensed data. Those field samples should not only consist of
vegetation records, but soil samples and observations of other physical
conditions, such as hydrology, as well. This will result in a land-ecological
vegetation map with an integrated legend, clearly displaying the
correlation between vegetation (-communities or -types) and physical
factors. Mangrove vegetation may also be studied by analyzing quadrats,
i.e. estimating the density of certain species in a given (small) area, e.g. a 10
by 10 metre square of vegetation. For obvious reasons, the quadrat method
works best in herbaceous vegetation. These methods are described in detail
by Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974), Chapman (1984) and English et
al. (1994), and in Indonesian language by Kusmana (1997), to name a few
examples.
7.5
FAUNA STUDIES
practical and unsurpassed, certainly for beginners. Part Two of The Ecology of
the Indonesian Seas (Tomascik et al., 1997) provides a good introduction to the
fauna of Indonesian mangroves, with extensive species lists of the main
faunal groups occurring throughout the archipelago.
78
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96
ANNEX
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Brunei
Cambodia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Myanmar
PNG
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Asplenium ma crophyllum
Mangrove
Lifeform
NOTE: Numbers correspond with the species number as this is dealt with in part 2 of the mangrove guide.
FERNS
No.
1
Family
Aspleniac eae
Scientific name
Asplenium nidus
Davalliac eae
Da va llia parvula
5
6
Pa chypleuria a ngusta ta
Grammitidaceae
C tenopteris moultoni
Hymenophyllum holochilum
10 Ly c opodiac eae
11 Nephrolepidac eae
Nephrolepis a cutifolia
12 Po lypodiac eae
Drymoglossum piloselloides
13
Drynaria rigidula
14
15
16
Myrmecophila sinuosa
17
Photinopteris speciosa
18
19
20
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Pyrrosia longifolia
21
Selliguea heterocarpa
22 Pteridaceae
Acrostichum aureum
23
Acrostichum speciosum
24 Vittariac eae
97
+
+
Cambodia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Myanmar
PNG
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
53
54
55 Aizo ac eae
56
No.
Family
Scientific name
Gluta velutina
C erbera floribunda
142
C erbera mangha s
143
C erbera odolla m
Ilex cymosa
145
Ilex ma ingayi
58 Arac eae
59
C ryptocoryne cilia ta
60
La sia spinosa
Polyscia s ma cgillivra yi
75
Schefflera elliptica
76
Schefflera lanceola ta
Schefflera ridleyi
77
+
+
C orypha saribus
Licua la spinosa
135
Nypa frutica ns
136
137
Phoenix pa ludosa
C alotropis gigantea
+
+
78
Dischidia benghalensis
79
80
Dischidia ra fflesia na
103
104
e
c
106
107
Sa rcolobus globosus
Pluchea indica
t (h)
149
Pluchea pteropoda
t (h)
108
Wedelia biflora
c (h)
Avicennia alba
151
152
Avicennia la na ta
153
Avicennia ma rina
98
+
+
134
Oxystelma ca rnosum
133
Hoya pa ra sitica
+
+
t (h)
C aryota urens
132
p(c )
+
+
81
Viet Nam
Brunei
52 Ac anthac eae
HIGHER P LANTS
Timor-Leste
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
?+
+
+
Myanmar
PNG
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Malaysia
Indonesia
Family
Cambodia
No.
Brunei
HIGHER P LANTS
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
Scientific name
154
Ba tis a rgillicola
157 Bo mbaceae
Ca mptostemon philippinense
158
Ca mptostemon schultzii
Cordia cochinchinensis
160
Cordia dichotoma
161
Cordia subcorda ta
Ca ssine viburnifolia
109
164
165
t (h)
t
+
+
Ha locnemum cinereum
62
Salicornia indica
63
110 Combretaceae
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ca lycopteris floribunda
c (t)
c (t)
112
c (t)
167
Lumnitzera littorea
168
Lumnitzera racemosa
169
65
Ipomoea ma xima
67
Ipomoea tuba
Cyca s rumphii
25 Cyperac eae
26
Cyperus ja va nicus
27
Cyperus ma la ccensis
28
29
Cyperus stoloniferous
30
31
32
33
Fimbristylis cymosa
34
Fimbristylis ferruginea
Fimbristylis polytrichoides
36
Fimbristylis sericea
37
Fimbristylis sieberia na
38
Scirpus grossus
39
Scirpus la custris
+
+
35
99
111
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
41
Scirpus ma ritimus
Diospyros ferrea
171
Diospyros ma la ba rica
172
Diospyros ma ritima
Blumeodendron tokbra e
174
175
176
177
Glochidion littora le
178
Ricinus communis
Scolopia macrophylla
Fa graea crenula ta
182
Scaevola tacca da
183 Guttiferae
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
C alophyllum inophyllum
186
Stemonurus a mmui
C assytha filiformis
c (e)
188
Ba rringtonia a siatica
189
Ba rringtonia conoidea
190
Ba rringtonia ra cemosa
116
117
C aesalpinia bonduc
118
C aesalpinia crista
+
+
+
+
192
C ynometra iripa
193
C ynometra ra miflora
119
120
Da lbergia menoeides
194
Derris pinna ta
t (c )
121
+
+
Derris trifolia ta
123
195
196
197
Intsia bijuga
?+
+
122
191
100
+
+
68
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Singapore
Myanmar
Malaysia
Indonesia
Cambodia
Scientific name
40
82 Eric ac eae
Philippines
Family
PNG
No.
Brunei
HIGHER P LANTS
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Singapore
Philippines
PNG
Myanmar
Cambodia
Malaysia
Family
Indonesia
No.
Brunei
HIGHER P LANTS
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
Scientific name
124
198
199
200
Serianthes grandiflora
201
Lophopyxis ma inga yi
Amyema anisomeres
84
85
86 Lo ranthac eae
87
Ma crosolen cochinchinensis
88
Viscum ovalifolium
Pemphis a cidula
Ryssopterys timoriensis
127
204
Thespesia populnea
205 Melastomataceae
Melastoma sa igonense
207
Ochthocharis bornensis
89
Pachycentria constricta
Aglaia cuculla ta
209
210
211
Ficus curtipes
213
Myoporum bontioides
Horsfieldia irya
216
Myristica hollrungii
218
Aegiceras floridum
219
Ardisia elliptica
220
Ra pa nea porteria na
Melaleuca ca juputi
222
Osbornia octodonta
+
+
206
+
(+)
c (t)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Na ja s browniana
70
Na ja s indica
71
Na ja s ma rina
Ola x imbrica ta
t(c )
224
Ximenia a mericana
69 Najadac eae
101
?
+
83 Lo ranthac eae
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Scientific name
91
92
93
Dendrobium a loefolium
94
95
Dendrobium pa chyphyllum
96
97
Dockrillia teretifolium
98
Oberonia iridifolium
99
Oberonia laeta
100
Oberonia rhizophoreti
72 Passiflorac eae
Passiflora foetida
Aegia litis a nnulata
226
+
+
+
?
+
+
+
+
+
h( c) +
Cynodon da ctylon
43
Diplachne fusca
44
Leptochloa neesii
45
46
47
48
Sporolobus virginicus
49
Xerochloa imberbis
50
229
Bruguiera exarista ta
230
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
231
Bruguiera ha inesii
232
Bruguiera pa rviflora
233
234
235
Ceriops ta ga l
Ka ndelia ca ndel
237
Rhizophora a picula ta
238
Rhizophora mucronata
239
Rhizophora stylosa
Ixora timorensis
242
Bruguiera cylindrica
Smythea la ncea ta
+
+
101
241
+
+
+
Ga rdenia tubifera
Zoysia ma trella
+
+
102
e
p
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Singapore
Philippines
PNG
Myanmar
Cambodia
Malaysia
Family
Indonesia
No.
Brunei
HIGHER P LANTS
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Viet Nam
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Singapore
Philippines
PNG
Myanmar
Malaysia
Scientific name
243
Morinda citrifolia
102
Myrmecodia tuberosa
244
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
73 Ruppiac eae
Indonesia
Family
Cambodia
No.
Brunei
HIGHER P LANTS
Lifeform
PART 1: ANNEX 1
Mangrove
Acronychia peduncula ta
246
247
Merope angula ta
Azima sa rmentosa
Allophyllus cobbe
250
253
255
256
257
258
+
+
Heritiera fomes
260
Heritiera globosa
261
262
Kleinhovia hospita
Brownlowia a rgenta ta
265
Brownlowia tersa
Typha a ngustifolia
Clerodendrum inerme
Premna obtusifolia
267
74
268
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
51 Ty phaceae
+
+
266 Verbenaceae
+
+
+
+
+
+
t(h)
+
+
+
+
52 268 126 141 243 221 148 160 155 138 186 99 152
Lifeforms (totals):
Ferns (f)
24
27
23
Epiphytes (e)
28
9
28
Climbe rs (c )
129
268
NOTE: M in mangrove column = true mangrove species; i.e. occurring in mangrove habitat only
103
ANNEX
PART 1: ANNEX 2
The map is provided on the next page, with kind permission from WCMC.
Note that mangroves are indicated in green, coral reefs in red.
104
105
ANNEX
PART 1: ANNEX 3
NOTE: Correct scientific names are given in BOLD, and the number added denotes the species
number as this is dealt with in part 2 of the mangrove guide.
Abildgaardia javanica Steud.; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
Abildgaardia javanica Nees.; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
Abrus abrus W.Wight; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus cyaneus R.Vig.; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus frutex Rumphius; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus maculatus Noronha; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus minor Desv.; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus pauciflorus Desv.; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus precatorius L. 115
Abrus precatorius var. novo-guineensis Zipp. ex Miq.; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus squamulosus E. Mey.; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus tunguensis P. Lima; see Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus wittei Baker f. Glycine a; see Abrus precatorius L.brus L.
Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl 52
Acanthus ilicifolius L. 53
Acanthus neo-guineensis; see Acanthus ilicifolius L.
Acanthus volubilis Wall. 54
Acmella biflora L.; see Wedelia biflora (L.) DC.
Acronychia arborea; see Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Acronychia laurifolia Blume; see Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq.
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 245
Acrophorus parvula Bedd.; see Davallia parvula Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.
Acrostichum aureum Linn 22
Acrostichum aureum var. schmidtii (Christ) C.Chr.; see Acrostichum speciosum Willd.
Acrostichum biforme Sw.; see Platycerium coronarium (Koenig.) Desv.
Acrostichum decurrens (non Desv.) Bl.; see Elaphoglossum amblyphyllum C.R. Bell.
Acrostichum heterophyllum L.; see Drymoglossum piloselloides (Linn.) Presl.
Acrostichum inaequale Willd.; see Acrostichum aureum Linn
Acrostichum lanceolatum Burm.; see Pyrrosia longifolia (Burm.) Morton.
Acrostichum lineare Hassk.; see Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl.
Acrostichum longifolium Burm. f.; see Pyrrosia longifolia (Burm.) Morton.
Acrostichum obliquum Blume; see Acrostichum aureum Linn
Acrostichum obtusifolium (non Willd.) Bl.; see Elaphoglossum amblyphyllum C.R. Bell.
Acrostichum palustre (Burm.f.) C.B. Clarke; see Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd.
Acrostichum rigidum Wall.; see Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl.
Acrostichum scandens (Sw.) Hook.; see Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd.
Acrostichum speciosum Willd. 23
Acrostichum spectabile Zoll.; see Acrostichum aureum Linn
Actegeton sarmentosum Bl.; see Azima sarmentosa (Bl.) B. & H.
Aegialitis annulata R.Br. 225
Aegialites annulata (sic); see Aegialitis annulata R.Br.
Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb. 226
Aegialites annulata var. rotundifolia; see Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb.
106
PART 1: ANNEX 3
PART 1: ANNEX 3
PART 1: ANNEX 3
PART 1: ANNEX 3
PART 1: ANNEX 3
Bruguiera conjugata (non Rhizphora conjuga L.) Merr.; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl. 228
Bruguiera cylindrica (non Bl.) Hance; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera cylindrica (non Rhizophora cylindrica L.) Bl.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera decandra Griff.; see Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou
Bruguiera eriopetala W. & A. ex Arn.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera exaristata Ding Hou 229
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (with one `r); see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. 230
Bruguiera hainessii C.G.Rogers 231
Bruguiera malabarica (non Arn.) F.-Vill.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera malabarica Arn.; see Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl.
Bruguiera oxyphylla Miq.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera parietosa Griff.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) W.& A. ex Griff. 232
Bruguiera rheedii Bl.; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera ritchiei Merr.; see Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) W.& A. ex Griff.
Bruguiera rumphii Bl.; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. 233
Bruguiera sexangularis Spreng.; see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Bruguiera wightii Bl.; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Bruguiera zippelii Bl.; see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Buglossum litoreum Rumph.; see Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Bulbophyllum catenarium Ridl.; see Bulbophyllum xylocarpi J.J.Smith
Bulbophyllum ovalifolium Lindl. sensu lato; see Bulbophyllum xylocarpi J.J.Smith
Bulbophyllum xylocarpi J.J.Smith 91
Bupariti populnea (L.) Rothmaler; see Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa
Butonica rosata Miers.; see Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng.
Butonica rumphina Miers; see Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz
Butonica terrestris rubra Rumph.; see Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng.
Cacara litorea Rumph.; see Canavalia maritima Thouars
Cacoucia lucida Hassk.; see Combretum trifoliatum Vent.
Cacoucia trifoliata DC.; see Combretum trifoliatum Vent.
Caesalpinia arborea Zoll. ex Miq.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. 117
Caesalpinia bonducella Flem.; see Caesalpinia crista L.
Caesalpinia crista L. 118
Caesalpinia jayabo Maza.; see Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Caesalpinia laevigata Perr.; see Caesalpinia crista L.
Caesalpinia nuga L.; see Caesalpinia crista L.
Caesalpinia sogerensis Baker; see Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Caju pinnatum O. Kuntze.; see Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Caladium colocasia W. Wight ex saff.; see Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Caladum esculentum (L.) Vent.; see Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Caladium nymphaeifolia Vent.; see Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Caladium violaceum hort. ex Engl.; see Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Calamus aquatilis; see Calamus erinaceus (Becc.) Dransfield
Calamus erinaceus (Becc.) Dransfield 131
Calla gaby Blanco; see Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Callista carnosum; see Dendrobium pachyphyllum (O.K.) Bakh. f.
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Ferolia glaberrima (Hassk.) O. Ktze.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Ferolia scabra (Hassk.) O. Ktze.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Ferreola guineensis Schumach. & Tonn.; see Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh.
Festuca fusca L..; see Diplachne fusca (L.) Beauv.
Feuilleea serianthes Kuntze; see Serianthes grandiflora Bentham.
Feuilleea umbellata (Vahl.) Kuntze; see Cathormion umbellatum (M.Vahl.) Kosterm.
Ficus curtipes Corner 212
Ficus microcarpa L.f. 213
Ficus obtusifolia Roxb.; see Ficus curtipes Corner
Ficus retusiformis H. Lv; see Ficus microcarpa L.f.
Fimbriatylus laevissima Steud.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis albescens Steud.; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
Fimbristylis arvensis Vahl.; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis atollensis St. John; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis ciliolata Steud.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br. 33
Fimbristylis cyrtophylla Miq.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis dasyphylla Miq.; see Fimbristylis sericea R. Br.
Fimbristylis decora Nees & Mey. ex Nees; see Fimbristylis sericea R. Br.
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl 34
Fimbristylis ferruginea (non Vahl.) Decne; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis ferruginea var. foliata Benth.; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis ferruginea var. sieberiana Boeck.; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis glomerata Nees ex Kunth.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis juncea (non R. & S.) Boeck; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
Fimbristylis junciformis var. latifolia (non Clarke) Camus; see Fimbristylis sericea R. Br.Fimbristylis
longispicata (non Steud.) Camus; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis marginata Labill.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis paucispicata F.v.M.; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis polytrichoides (non R.BR.) Ridl.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br. 35
Fimbristylis pycnocephala Hillebr.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis rigida Kunth.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis sericea R. Br. 36
Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br. 37
Fimbristylis spathacea Roth.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Fimbristylis subbulbosa Boeck.; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
Fimbristylis trispicata Steud.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis tristachya R.Br.; see Fimbristylis sieberiana R. Br.
Fimbristylis warburgii K. Sch.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Finlaysonia maritima Backer; see Finlaysonia obovata Wall.
Finlaysonia obovata Wall. 103
Flagellaria indica L. 113
Flagellaria indica var. gracilis Backer; see Flagellaria indica L.
Flagellaria indica var. minor (Bl.) Koord.; see Flagellaria indica L.
Palmijuncus laevis Rumph.; see Flagellaria indica L.
Flagellaria minor Bl.; see Flagellaria indica L.
Flagellaria philippinensis Elmer; see Flagellaria indica L.
Fragarius niger Rumph.; see Melastoma malabathricum var. malabathricum L.
Funis convolutus Rumph.; see Aganope heptaphylla (L.) Polhill
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Humata angustata (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) J.Sm.; see Pachypleuria angustata (Wall. ex Hook. &
Grev.) J. Sm.
Humata parvula (Wall.) Mett.; see Davallia parvula Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.
Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis.; see Lycopodium carinatum Desv.
Hydnophytum amboinense Becc.; see Hydnophytum formicarum Jack
Hydnophytum formicarum Jack 101
Hymenochaeta lacustris (L.) Nakai; see Scirpus lacustris L.
Hymenophyllum holochilum (Bosch) C. Chr. 8
Hymenophyllum smithii Hook; see Hymenophyllum holochilum (Bosch) C. Chr.
Hypserpa latifolia; see Hypserpa polyandra Becc.
Hypserpa monilifera; see Hypserpa polyandra Becc.
Hypserpa polyandra Becc. 129
Hypserpa raapii; see Hypserpa polyandra Becc.
Hypserpa selebica; see Hypserpa polyandra Becc.
Ichthyoctonos litorea Rumph.; see Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell. Arg.
Ilex cymosa Blume 144
Ilex maingayi Hook f. 145
Ilex singaporeana Wall.; see Ilex cymosa Blume
Inga corcondiana DC.; see Cathormion umbellatum (M.Vahl.) Kosterm.
Inga pterocarpa DC.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Inga umbellata (Vahl.) Willd.; see Cathormion umbellatum (M.Vahl.) Kosterm.
Inocarpus edulis J.R. & G. Forst.; see Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosb.
Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosb. 196
Inocarpus fagiferus; see Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosb.
Inodaphnis lanceolata Miq.; see Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosb.
Intsia amboinensis Thouars.; see Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze 197
Intsia madagascariensis Thouars ex DC; see Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Intsia retusa Colebr.; see Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Ipomoea alba L.; see Ipomoea tuba Schlechtend.
Ipomoea biloba Forsk.; see Ipomoea pes-capre (L.) Sweet.
Ipomoea denticulata Choisy; see Ipomoea gracilis R. Br.
Ipomoea gracilis R. Br. 64
Ipomoea grandiflora Hallier f.; see Ipomoea tuba Schlechtend.
Ipomoea macrantha Roem. & Schult.; see Ipomoea tuba Schlechtend.
Ipomoea maritima R.Br.; see Ipomoea pes-capre (L.) Sweet.
Ipomoea maxima (L.f.) Don ex Sweet 65
Ipomoea littoralis Bl.; see Ipomoea gracilis R. Br.
Ipomoea pes-caprae Roth.; see Ipomoea pes-capre (L.) Sweet.
Ipomoea pes-capre (L.) Sweet. 66
Ipomoea sepiaria Koen. ex Roxb.; see Ipomoea maxima (L.f.) Don ex Sweet
Ipomoea subtrilobans Miq.; see Ipomoea maxima (L.f.) Don ex Sweet
Ipomoea tuba Schlechtend. 67
Ipomoea verrucosa Bl.; see Ipomoea maxima (L.f.) Don ex Sweet
Ipomoea violacea L.; see Ipomoea tuba Schlechtend.
Iridorchis iridifolia (Lindl.) Kuntze; see Oberonia iridifolia Lindl.
Iriha cymosa O.K.; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Iriha ferruginea O.K.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Iriha glomerata Nees; see Fimbristylis cymosa R. Br.
Iriha polytrichoides O.K.; see Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.
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Parinarium amboinense Teijsm. & Binn.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium curranii; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium elatum King.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium glaberimmum Hassk.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium hahlii Warb.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium lanceolatum Teijsm.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium laurinum A. Gray.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium macrophyllum T. & B.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium margarata A. Gray; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium mindanaense Perk.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium scabrum Hassk.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Parinarium warburgii Perk. ex Merr.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Paritium tiliaceum (L.) St. Hil.; see Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Paspalum vaginatum Sw. 46
Paspalum distichum sensu Ridley; see Paspalum vaginatum Sw.
Paspalum littorale.; see Paspalum vaginatum Sw.
Passiflora foetida L. 72
Paulinia seriana auct. non L.: Burm F., Rhus cobbe L.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Pedicellia sundaica Pierre; see Mischocarpus sundaicus Blume
Peekeliodendron missionariorum Sleum.; see Merrilliodendron megacarpum (Hemsl.) Sleum.
Peltophorum ferruginea Decne.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Peltophorum ferrugineum (Decne.) Benth.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Peltophorum inerme Nav.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Peltophorum inermis Roxb.; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne 198
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex Heyne; see Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Pemphis acidula J.R. & G. Forst. 202
Pemphis angustifolia Roxb.; see Pemphis acidula J.R. & G. Forst.
Pemphis setosa Blanco; see Pemphis acidula J.R. & G. Forst.
Pentacoelium bontioides Sieb. et Zucc.; see Myoporum bontioides (Siebold & Zucc.) A. Gray
Petaloma alba Blanco; see Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.
Petaloma coccinea Blanco; see Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt.
Petrocarya glaberrima (Hassk.) Miers.; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Petrocarya scabra (Hassk.) Miers..; see Atuna racemosa ssp. racemosa Rafin.
Phaseolus maritimus purguns Aubl.; see Canavalia maritima Thouars
Phlegmariurus carinatus (Desv.) Ching.; see Lycopodium carinatum Desv.
Phoberos macrophylla W. & A.; see Scolopia macrophylla (W. & A.) Clos
Phoberos maritima Miq.; see Scolopia macrophylla (W. & A.) Clos
Phoberos rhinanthera Benn. & Br.; see Scolopia macrophylla (W. & A.) Clos
Phoenix paludosa Roxb. 137
Photinopteris acuminata (Willd.) C.V. Morton; see Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl.
Photinopteris horsfieldii J. Sm.; see Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl.
Photinopteris rigida Bedd.; see Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl.
Photinopteris speciosa (Bl.) Persl. 17
Phragmites communis sensu Ridley; see Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.
Phragmites filiformis; see Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.
Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. 47
Phragmites roxburghii; see Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.
Phyllanthus litoralis [sic] (Bl.) Muell.; see Glochidion littorale Bl.
Phyllitis arborea Rumph.; see Asplenium nidus Linn.
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Scaevola plumieri (non Vahl.) Bl.; see Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Scaevola sericea Vahl.; see Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. 182
Scaevola velutina Presl.; see Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms. 75
Schefflera elliptica var. microphylla Harms. ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Schefflera lanceolata Ridl. 76
Schefflera micrantha (Miq.) Ridley ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Schefflera minimiflora Ridley ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Schefflera musangensis Hend.; see Schefflera ridleyi (King) Viguier
Schefflera nitida Merr. ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Schefflera ridleyi (King) Viguier 77
Schefflera venulosa sensu Ridley ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Schefflera venulosa var. curtisii Ridley ; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Scheffleropsis polyandra (Ridley) Ridley ; see Schefflera ridleyi (King) Viguier
Schmidelia bantamensis Blume; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia cobbe (L.) DC.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia fulvinervis Blume; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia glabra (Roxb.) Steud.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia grossedentata Turcz.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia javensis Blume; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia leptostachya Blume; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia ligustrina Blume ex Teijsm.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia littoralis Blume; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia macrophylla Zipp. ex Span.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia mutabilis Bl.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia obovata A. Gray; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia parviflora Zipp. ex Span.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia racemosa L.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia ternata (Forst. & Forst.) Cambess.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia timoriensis DC.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schmidelia tormentosa Hook.f. Usubis triphylla Burm. f.; see Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.
Schoberia linifolia Nutt. ex Moq.; see Suaeda maritima (L.) Dum.
Schoenoplectus grossus Pallas; see Scirpus grossus Linn
Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.) Pallas.; see Scirpus lacustris L.
Sciandophyllum elliptica Blume; see Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms.
Scirpus aemulans Steud.; see Scirpus grossus Linn
Scirpus arvensis Retz.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Scirpus ferrugineus L.; see Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl
Scirpus grossus Linn 38
Scirpus grossus var. kysoor (non Clarke); see Scirpus grossus Linn
Scirpus kysoor (non Roxb.) Llanos.; see Scirpus grossus Linn
Scirpus lacustris L. 39
Scirpus lacustris (non L.) Merr.; see Scirpus litoralis Schrad.
Scirpus lacustris subsp. validus (Vahl.) T. Koyama; see Scirpus lacustris L.
Scirpus litoralis Schrad. 40
Scirpus littoralis (sic); see Scirpus litoralis Schrad.
Scirpus maritimus L 41
Scirpus maritimus var. aemulans Miq.; see Scirpus grossus Linn
Scirpus nanus (non Poir.) Spreng.; see Eleocharis parvula (R. & S.) Link ex Bluff
Scirpus parvulus R. & S.; see Eleocharis parvula (R. & S.) Link ex Bluff
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Bruneian:
Apung, see Nypa fruticans Wurmb.
Bagu, see Tristellateia australasiae A. Rich.
Bejau, see Tristellateia australasiae A. Rich.
Patakoana, see Croton heterocarpus Mll. Arg.
Pulut-pulut, see Kandelia candel (L.) Druce
Pungsu, see Cassine viburnifolia (Juss.) Ding Hou
Rambai, see Derris scandens (Aubl.) Pittier
Sugang, see Gardenia tubifera Wall
Sulang-sulang, see Gardenia tubifera Wall
Wariemierie, see Croton heterocarpus Mll. Arg.
Cambodian:
Ampea, see Sonneratia griffithii Kurz.
Ampea, see Sonneratia ovata Back.
Ampou-krohom, see Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl.
Ampouthmar, see Sonneratia alba J.E. Smith
Basac kroahom, see Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.
Basac, see Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl.
Basacsor, see Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
Brong, Acrostichum aureum Linn
Brong, see Acrostichum speciosum Willd.
Chark, see Nypa fruticans Wurmb.
Chheu chhor, see Excoecaria agallocha L.
Chompouprey, see Cerbera odollam Gaertn.
Dawm cheungtia, see Cerbera odollam Gaertn.
Dawm trojiekbres, see Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng.
Dawm-beus, see Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Dawm-klai, see Heritiera littoralis Dryand.
Dyerehatt, see Cordia cochinchinensis Gagnep.
Kab-baspreyteukbray, see Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Kann-kai, see Heritiera littoralis Dryand.
Kbagn, see Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.
Kbagnkmao, see Avicennia officinalis L.
Kbagnsor, see Avicennia alba Blume
Khnag n, see Acrostichum speciosum Willd.
Kongkang-slektoch, see Rhizophora apiculata Bl.
Krognungteukbray, see Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Krognyep krohom, see Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt.
Krognyep sor, see Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.
Krognyep-pka-krohom, see Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt.
Krognyep-pkasor, see Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.
Krokos-teukpray, see Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Mouroujsrotorb, see Avicennia alba Blume
Mouroujsrotorb, see Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.
Omlann, see Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl.
Pchek tekbray, see Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng.
Pdao ondawk, see Flagellaria indica L.
Peng, see Phoenix paludosa Roxb.
Pilpicht, see Cerbera odollam Gaertn.
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