Seleo atual.

Pernambuco

Absidia repens, Acarella pernambucensis, Acarellina psidii, Achlya crenulata, Achlya

glomerata, Achlya heteromorpha, Achlya lobata, Achorella gastrolobii, Aciesia
xylopiae, Acladium ellipticum, Acladium multisporum, Acleistomyces
rionegrensis, Acleistomyces zollerniae, Acremonium alternatum, Acremonium
bonordenii, Acrospeira sp., Acrothecium caulium, Actinomucor elegans, Actinopeltis
philodendri, Actinoteichus maranhensis, Actinoteichus pernambucensis, Actinotexis
mirabilis, Actinothyrium ingae, Ainsworthia xanthoxyli, Aithaloderma
clavatisporum, Allescheriella incognita, Alternaria alternata, Alternaria dianthicola, Alternaria
porri, Alternaria sp., Amansia multifica, Antennariella bahiensis, Antennariella
perseae, Antennellopsis formosum, Anthostomella ananassicola, Antrodia albida, Aphanopeltis
bauhiniae, Aphanopeltis hughesii, Aphanostigme mayteni, Aphanostigme solani, Aplanes
braunii, Appendiculella sp., Arachnopeziza alba, Arachnopeziza platoniae, Arcyria
carnea, Arcyria cinerea, Arcyria corymbosa, Arcyria denudata, Arcyria insignis, Arcyria
oerstedtii, Arthonia anisolocularis, Arthonia plurilocularia, Arthonia sp., Arthrobotryum
formosum, Asbolisia citrina, Asbolisia
didymopanacis, Asbolisia sp., Asbolisiaceae gen.indet., Asbolisiomyces ingae, Aschersonia
turbinata, Ascobolus notata, Ascochyta metulispora, Ascochyta philodendri, Ascochyta
sacchari, Ascolibertia malpighii, Ascomycota indet., Ascotricha guamensis, Aspergillus
allahabadii, Aspergillus allocotus, Aspergillus awamori var. hominis, Aspergillus
brunneoviolaceus, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus
carneus, Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus effusus var. furcatus, Aspergillus elegans, Aspergillus
fasciculatus, Aspergillus flavofurcatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
gracilis var. sartoryi, Aspergillus heteromorphus, Aspergillus japonicus, Aspergillus
meleagrinum, Aspergillus nidulans var. latus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus niveus, Aspergillus
ochraceopetaliformis, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus proliferans, Aspergillus
repens var. ramosus, Aspergillus sclerotiorum, Aspergillus sulphureus, Aspergillus
sydowii, Aspergillus tamarii, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus terreus var. boedijnii, Aspergillus
ustus, Aspergillus variecolor var. major, Aspergillus versicolor, Aspergillus sp., Aspilaima
platoniae, Asteridiella amoena, Asteridiella cordiae-salicifoliae, Asteridiella costi, Asteridiella
cupaniae, Asteridiella glabra var. major, Asteridiella hymenaeicola, Asteridiella
leeicola, Asteridiella melastomacearum, Asteridiella tremae, Asteridiella valdiviensis, Asterina
acanthopoda, Asterina punctiformis var. fimbriata, Asterina solanicoloidesvar. atypica, Asterina
vagans, Asterina sp., Asterinaceae gen.indet., Asterinella dissiliens, Asterinella
protiicola, Asterinema glabratae, Asterinopeltis pulcherrima, Asteritea roureae, Asterolibertia
pogonophorae, Asteromella pyricola, Asterostomula bauhiniae, Asterostomula
premnae, Astiothyrium hymenaeae, Astragoxyphium hibisci, Astrothelium
ochrothelioides, Athelia rolfsii, Atichia glomerulosa, Atichia lopesii, Atichia
pernambucensis, Atichia sp., Atractina hymenaeae, Atractina triseptata, Auerswaldia
nectrioides, Auerswaldiella ocoteae, Aulaxina minuta, Aulaxina uniseptata, Aulographella
anthurii, Aulographum tropicale, Aureobasidium pullulans, Auricularia auricula, Auricularia
cornea, Bacidia sublecanorina, Bacillopeltis paypayrolae, Badhamia affinis, Bahusandhika
caligans, Balansiopsis guareae, Balladyna deightonii, Balladyna leonensis, Bartalinia
begoniae, Bartalinia bombacicola, Batistinula gallesiae, Beltrania rhombica, Beltraniopsis
esenbeckiae, Berkleasmium sansevieriae, Biophomopsis crotonis, Bonaria
lithocarpi var. major, Botryosphaeria festucae, Botryosphaeria juglandis, Botrytis
pyramidalis, Brachysporiella cordiae, Brachysporium syagri, Brevilegnia
megasperma, Brevilegnia subclavata, Briosia platoniae, Byrrha portio-vaginalis, Byssoloma
chlorinum, Byssoloma tricholomum, Byssonectria fimeti, Calenia aggregata, Calolepis
congesta, Calonectria erysiphoides, Calonectria leuchorrhodina, Calonectria
rubropunctata, Caloplaca murorum, Calothyriolum ocoteae, Camptomeris verruculosa, Candida
albicans, Candida biliaria, Candida brumptii, Candida brumptii var. aethanolica, Candida
claussenii, Candida curvata, Candida genitalis, Candida glabrata, Candida
guilliermondii, Candida humicola, Candida intermedia, Candida intestinalis, Candida
krusei, Candida lobata, Candida melinii, Candida mesenterica, Candida mycoderma, Candida
parapsilosis, Candida parapsilosis var. intermedia, Candida pelliculosa, Candida
pseudotropicalis, Candida reukaufii, Candida robusta, Candida rugosa, Candida
solani, Candida stellatoidea, Candida tropicalis, Candida tropicalis var. lambica, Candida
zeylanoides, Candida sp., Capitorostrum
asteridiellae, Capnodiaceae gen.indet., Capnodium sp., Capnopyxis citricola, Capronia
mansonii, Carnia tabebuiae, Catabotrys deciduus, Catenata antillarum, Catenulaster
anacardiicola, Catinopeltis recifensis, Catinopeltis sp., Caulerpa arguesoides, Cephaleuros
mycoides, Cephaleuros sp., Cephalosporiopsis asterinicola, Cephalosporium
acremonium, Ceramotellopsis maiae, Ceramothyrium aurantii, Ceramothyrium
boedijnii, Ceramothyrium citricola, Ceramothyrium cordiae, Ceramothyrium
europaeum, Ceramothyrium europaeum var. myrciae, Ceramothyrium
griseolum, Ceramothyrium gustaviae, Ceramothyrium paiveae, Ceramothyrium
philodendri, Ceramothyrium sp., Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa, Ceratocystis fimbriata, Ceratocystis
paradoxa, Ceratosporella bicornis, Cercospora capparidicola, Cercospora
crotonophila var. aciculispora, Cercospora genipae, Cercospora melochiae, Cercospora
musaevar. paradisiaca, Cercospora paradisiaca, Cercospora riofranciscana, Cercospora
urenae, Cercospora zinniae, Cerotelium fici, Chaetasbolisia falcata, Chaetasbolisia
falcata var. minuta, Chaetasbolisia microglobulosa, Chaetendophragmiopsis
pulchra, Chaetomium funicola, Chaetomium globosum, Chaetomium
spinosum, Chaetomonodorus brosimi, Chaetosphaeronema
recifense, Chaetothyriaceaegen.indet., Chaetothyrina musarum, Chaetothyrium
bauhiniae, Chaetothyrium guaraniticum, Chaetothyrium mangiferae, Chaetothyrium
psidii, Chaetothyrium sp., Chalara aurea, Chalara
strobilina, Chlorococcaceae gen.indet., Chroodiscus coccineus, Ciferriotheca
brosimi, Ciferrioxyphium giganteum, Ciferrioxyphium mangiferae, Ciferriusia
psychotriae, Circinella minor, Circinella simplex, Cirsosia moquileae, Cirsosia
splendida, Cladonia macilenta, Cladonia subtenuis, Cladonia verticillata, Cladorrhinum
maiae, Cladosporium amphitrichum, Cladosporium harknessii, Cladosporium
herbarum, Cladosporium herbarum forma fimicola, Cladosporium sp., Clasterosporium domus-
aliena, Clastoderma debaryanum, Clavicorona javanica, Clypeolinopsis
caruaruensis, Clypeoseptoria intricata, Coccidioides roseum, Coccomyces coronatus, Cocconia
xylopiae, Cochliobolus geniculatus, Cochliobolus lunatus, Cochliobolus
miyabeanus, Cochliobolus nodulosus, Coenogonium sp., Coleophoma
mangiferae, Colletotrichum dematium, Colletotrichum sp., Comatricha longa, Comatricha
nigra, Comatricha pulchella, Conidiocarpus sp., Conidioxyphium
costaricense var. minus, Coniothyrium bergii, Coniothyrium fuegianum, Coniothyrium
leguminum, Coniothyrium pallidofuscum, Coniothyrium sp., Coprinus sp., Cordyceps
exasperata, Cornularia nectandrae, Crandallia anthurii, Craterellus orinocensis, Craterium
leucocephalum, Cribraria aurantiaca, Cribraria intricata, Cribraria languescens, Cribraria
microcarpa, Cribraria minutissima, Cribraria splendens, Cribraria tenella, Cribraria
violacea, Cryptococcus albidus, Cryptococcus diffluens, Cryptococcus
laurentii, Cryptophialoidea manifesta, Cunninghamella elegans, Curvularia indica, Curvularia
lunata var. aeria, Cyclotheca batistae, Cyrta licaniae, Dactylaria constricta, Daedalea
steroides, Dasyspora gregaria, Datronia caperata, Debaryomyces vini, Deightoniella
torulosa, Dematiaceae gen.indet., Dendrophoma australasica, Dendryphiella
lycopersicifolia, Dendryphion sp., Dennisiomyces glabrescentipes, Deslandesia
paulensis, Dictydium cancellatum, Dictyopanus pusillus, Dictyopeltis applanata, Dictyopeltis
costi, Dictyopteris justii, Dictyostomiopelta manihoticola, Dictyothyrium brunneum, Dictyothyrium
fimbriatum, Dictyothyrium lucumae, Dictyothyrium ocoteae, Dictyothyrium paulliniae, Dictyuchus
achlyoides, Diderma hemisphaericum, Didymaria acervulicola, Didymella cocoicola, Didymella
truncata, Didymium clavus, Didymium difforme, Didymium iridis, Didymium minus, Didymium
nigripes, Didymobotryum hymenaearum, Didymopsora solani-argentei, Didymosphaeria
coffeicola, Didymosphaeria empetri, Didymosphaeria futilis, Didymosphaeria gregaria, Dimerina
andirae, Dimerina mindanaensis, Dimerina patouillardii, Dimerium leonense, Dimerium
leptosporum, Dimerium minutum, Dimerium oblongum, Dimerium pulveraceum, Dimerium
venturioides, Dinemasporium coffeanum, Diplacella mararyensis, Diplocarpon
hymenaeae, Diplocarponella schoepfiae, Diplodia inquinans, Diplodia punctipetiola, Diplodia
sparsa, Diplodina passerinii, Diploidium gallesiae, Discella
strobilina var. microsporum, Discosiella acrocomia-maculiformis, Discosiella
vochysia, Dothideales indet., Dothiorella urae, Drechslera gigantea, Dyplolabia
afzelii, Echidnodella lucumae, Echidnodes cocos, Echinoplaca epiphylla, Echinostelium
minutum, Ectosticta popowiae, Elachopeltis bauhiniae, Elachopeltis esenbeckiae, Ellisiellina
biciliata var. solani, Ellisiodothis inquinans, Ellisiopsis gallesiae, Elsino opuntiicola, Emericella
nidulans, Emericella quadrilineata, Emericella unguis, Emericella variecolor, Emmonsia
brasiliensis, Enchnoa bombacifoliae, Endogone lignicola, Endomycopsis
clamitans, Endomycopsis interdigitalis, Endomycopsis mali, Endomycopsis
mali var. faecalis, Epidermophyton floccosum, Epistigme nidulans, Eremotheca
ceibae, Eremotheca coffeana, Eremotheca crenulata, Eremotheca sellowiana, Euceramia
palmicola, Euceramia palmicola var. macrasca, Eudarluca caricis, Eupenicillium
brefeldianum, Eupenicillium javanicum, Eupenicillium levitum, Eurotium amstelodami, Farrowia
seminuda, Fennellia flavipes, Ferrarisia apiahyna, Ferrarisia capparidis, Ferrarisia
philippina, Fraserula australiensis var. melloae, Fuligo cinerea, Fuligo septica, Fulvia
fulva, Fumago vagans, Fusarium chlamydosporum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium
poae, Fusarium sp., Fusicladium fasciculatum, Galactomyces geotrichum, Geotrichum
menbranogenes, Gerronema subchrysophyllum, Gibbera syagri, Gibberella fujikuroi, Gibberella
subglutinans, Gibellulopsis piscis, Gilmania xylopiae, Gliocladium citrinum, Gloeotrochila
anthuriicola, Glomerella cingulata, Glomerella graminicola, Gloniella opegraphoides, Gnomonia
alniella, Gnomoniella tubaeformis var. minor, Gonatobotryum apiculatum, Gongronella
lacrispora, Guignardia circumscissa, Guignardia excentrica var. major, Guignardia
philoprina, Guignardia scabiosae, Gyalectidium filicinum, Gyalectidium sp., Gymnoxyphium
splendidum, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Hanseniaspora valbyensis, Hansfordiellopsis
lichenicola, Hansfordiopeltis cupaniae, Hansfordiopeltis erythroxyli, Haplothecium
caulicola, Harknessia globosa, Harknessia insueta, Helicobasidium
brebissonii, Helminthosporium acuum, Helminthosporium bambusae, Helminthosporium
cesatii, Helminthosporium decorum, Helminthosporium
dorycarpum var. amazoniae, Helminthosporium glabroides, Helminthosporium
melioloides, Helminthosporium ocoteae, Helminthosporium
xylopifolii, Helminthosporium sp., Hemitrichia serpula, Hemitrichia stipitata, Hendersonia
graminicola, Hendersonia sambuci, Heptaster hughesii, Heptaster macroradiata, Heptaster
regnellianae, Heteroconium tetracoilum, Hexagona apiaria, Hormisciella atra, Humicola
brevis, Humicola grisea, Hyalocapnias amorimii, Hyalopus keratoplasticum, Hyalopus
onychophilus, Hyalopus recifei, Hyalopus serrae, Hyalopus spinosus, Hyalopus
tumefaciens, Hyalopus violaceus, Hygrophorus pernambucensis, Hymenella
cerealis, Hymeniopeltis erythroxyli, Hymenochaete caxangaensis, Hypnea
musciformis, Hypocrea bromeliicola, Hypolyssus montagnei, Hypomyces aurantius, Hypomyces
chrysospermus, Hypoxylon bombacinum, Hypoxylon confluens, Hypoxylon puiggarii, Hypoxylon
truncatum, Hysterium insidens, Hysterostomella tetracerae var. microspora, Hysterostomina
bromeliae, Irenopsis bergrenii var. quadriseptata, Irenopsis capparidicola, Irenopsis
capparidicola var. opposita, Irenopsis coronata, Irenopsis cynophallophorae, Irenopsis
lagerstroemiae, Irenopsis masakensis var. major, Irenopsis omphaleae, Irenopsis sp., Isoachlya
intermedia, Johansonia brasiliensis, Kalmusia astronii, Kalmusia breicleri, Kalmusia
breidleri, Khuskia oryzae, Kloeckera faecalis, Kloeckera jensenii, Kmetiopsis
hymenaeae, Koordersiella cordiae, Koordersiella goianensis, Lacellina
graminicola, Lactocollybia angiosperamarum, Laeviomeliola psidii, Laevopyxis
krameri, Lamproderma arcyrionema, Lamproderma sauteri, Lamproderma
scintillans, Lasiobolus aurantiaca, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Leberidia
didymopanacis, Lecanora brunnea, Lecanora subfusca, Lembopodia conspicua, Lembosia
ampulluligera, Lembosia asclepiadis, Lembosia byrsonimae, Lembosia curassavicae, Lembosia
hymenaeae, Lembosia miconiicola, Lembosia ocoteae, Lembosia patouillardii, Lembosia
rolfsii, Lembosia warszewicziae, Lembosiellina pernambucensis, Lembosiellina
recifensis, Lepiota minuta, Leprieurinella ingae, Leptosphaeria musarum, Leptosphaeria
promontorii, Leptosphaeria sp., Leptosphaerulina trifolii, Leptothyrella cordae, Leptothyrium
anthuriae, Leptothyrium anthurii, Leptothyrium cupaniae, Leptothyrium
hymenaeicola, Leptothyrium lasiacicola, Leptothyrium myrtacicola, Leptothyrium
phylodendri, Leptothyrium protiicola, Leptothyrium roureae, Leptothyrium
saccoglottidis, Leptothyrium sp., Leucostoma persoonii, Limacinia melioloides, Limacinula
butleri, Limacinula musicola, Limacinula zantedeschiae, Lopadium applanatum, Lopadium
didymopanacis, Lopadium flammeum, Lopadium fuscum, Lopadium paudalhense, Lycogala
epidendrum, Lycogala exiguum, Lyromma nectandrae, Macbridella sansevieriae, Macrophoma
coffeae var. macrospora, Macrophoma hederaceae, Manginella annonae, Marasmiellus
nigripes, Marasmius cladophyllus, Marasmius coccineatus, Mariannaea elegans, Marssonina
artocarpi, Marthamyces emarginatus, Masoniella grisea, Masoniella tertia, Maublancia
uleana, Mazosia dispersa, Mazosia melanophthalma, Mazosia
paupercula var. macrospora, Mazosia phyllosema, Mazosia praemorsa, Mazosia
praemorsa var. macrocarpa, Mazosia rotula, Megaloxyphium ophidioglossum, Megaster
curvicornis, Megaster longicornis, Melanconiaceae gen.indet., Melanconium
eschweilerae, Melanomphalia universitaria, Melasmia myrciae, Meliola andina, Meliola
bifida, Meliola brachyodonta, Meliola burseracearum, Meliola buxicola, Meliola
calatheicola var. minor, Meliola camaragibeicola, Meliola caseariae-guianensis, Meliola
cassiifolii, Meliola caxangaensis, Meliola cochlospermifolii, Meliola
crescentiae var. major, Meliola cupaniicola, Meliola decidua, Meliola fagarae, Meliola
furcata, Meliola goianensis, Meliola hexaseptata, Meliola indica var. careyae, Meliola
jacaratiae, Meliola kisubiensis var. neeae, Meliola lanceolata-setosa var. crassospora, Meliola
melanochylae, Meliola papillosae, Meliola parreirae, Meliola paulliniana, Meliola
paulliniifolii, Meliola pradosiae, Meliola protii, Meliola protii var. minor, Meliola
pycnostachidis, Meliola ranganathii, Meliola remireae, Meliola rigida, Meliola sclerolobii, Meliola
talisiana, Meliola toddaliicola var. indica, Meliola trichostroma, Meliola
trichostroma var. macrospora, Meliola usteriae, Meliola
weigeltii var. fraxinifoliae, Meliola sp., Meliolaceae gen.indet., Melomastia
clypeata var. multiseptata, Memnoniella echinata, Mesophelliopsis
pernambucensis, Metasphaeria albescens, Metasphaeria lasiacidis, Metasphaeria
petrakii, Microascus trigonosporus, Microcallis ceibae, Microcyclus coccolobae, Microdiplodia
melaspora, Microdiplodia paupercula, Micromucor
ramannianus, Micropeltaceae gen.indet., Micropeltella
discreta, Micropeltidaceae gen.indet., Micropeltidium astroniifolium, Micropeltidium
cassiicola, Micropeltidium coccolobicola, Micropeltidium combretianum, Micropeltidium
costi, Micropeltidium crotonis, Micropeltidium cupaniae, Micropeltidium
cupaniicola, Micropeltidium dignotae, Micropeltidium ditosum, Micropeltidium
gustaviae, Micropeltidium mouririae, Micropeltidium pereskiae, Micropeltidium
roureae, Micropeltis allophyllifolii, Micropeltis anibae, Micropeltis asclepiadis, Micropeltis
aspidospermae, Micropeltis brosimi, Micropeltis byrsonimicola, Micropeltis
camaragibensis, Micropeltis caseariae, Micropeltis caseariae, Micropeltis cassiae-
torae, Micropeltis cassiae, Micropeltis cassiicola, Micropeltis clusiae-majoris, Micropeltis
clusiae, Micropeltis connareana, Micropeltis cupaniicola, Micropeltis cupaniorum, Micropeltis
erythroxylana, Micropeltis eschweilerae, Micropeltis eschweilericola, Micropeltis
eschweilerifolii, Micropeltis exserta, Micropeltis gravataensis, Micropeltis guareae, Micropeltis
gustaviae, Micropeltis hansfordii, Micropeltis heptaphyllica, Micropeltis heterospora, Micropeltis
hexaspora, Micropeltis hirtellae-hexandrae, Micropeltis hirtellaeana, Micropeltis
jaboatonensis, Micropeltis lecythisii, Micropeltis luffaeicola, Micropeltis myrtacearum, Micropeltis
ocoteae, Micropeltis paulliniae, Micropeltis pithecellobii, Micropeltis pithecellobiicola, Micropeltis
pogonophorae, Micropeltis pogonophoreana, Micropeltis pseudo-ostiolata, Micropeltis
psychotriae, Micropeltis roupalicola, Micropeltis sapindicola, Micropeltis
sapotaceicola, Micropeltis schomburgkianae, Micropeltis selecta, Micropeltis
thyrsodiicola, Micropeltis zeyherae, Micropeltis sp., Microporellus dealbatus, Microsporum
gypseum, Microthyriaceae gen.indet., Microthyriella anthurii, Microthyriella
anthuriifolii, Microthyriella caseariae, Microthyriella cassiae, Microthyriella
erythroxylana, Microthyriella guareae, Microthyriella inaequalis, Microthyriella
molliuscula, Microthyriella palicoureae, Microthyriella paulliniae, Microthyriella
pogonophorae, Microthyriella venturosa, Microthyrina sansevierae, Microthyriolum
calatheae, Microthyrium pithecolobii, Microxiphium sp., Microxyphiella commixta, Microxyphiella
pernambucensis, Microxyphiella sp., Microxyphiopsis byrsonimae, Microxyphiopsis
psidii, Microxyphium aciculare, Microxyphium aciculiforme, Microxyphium
americanum, Microxyphium artocarpi, Microxyphium atmosphaericum, Microxyphium
brasiliense, Microxyphium byrsonimae, Microxyphium coffeanum, Microxyphium
columnatum, Microxyphium footii, Microxyphium furcatum, Microxyphium
jambosae, Microxyphium lafoense, Microxyphium lafoensiae, Microxyphium
leptospermi, Microxyphium philippinense, Microxyphium unedonis, Moeszia
pernambucensis, Monilia humicola, Monocillium exsolum, Monodorus
hendersonianum, Morenoella apeibae, Morenoella cestri var. alternata, Morenoella
killianii, Morenoella phillipsii, Morenoella vitalii, Morenoella vitalii var. macrocarpa, Morfea
helianthemi, Morfea miconiae var. major, Mortierella alpina, Mortierella ambigua, Mortierella
debilis, Mortierella longicollis, Mortierella microspora, Mortierella
oligospora var. minima, Mortierella parvispora, Mortierella polycephala, Mortierella
spinosa, Mortierella subtilissima, Mortierella sp., Mucor bacilliformis, Mucor circinelloides, Mucor
racemosus, Mucor silvaticus, Mucor sp., Mycena citricolor, Mycociferria protii, Mycosphaerella
clidemiae, Mycosphaerella didymopanacis, Mycosphaerella isariphora, Mycosphaerella
miconiae, Mycosphaerella punctiformis, Mycosphaerella roureae, Mycosphaerella
schoenoprasi, Mycosphaerella spigeliae, Mycosphaerella
tocoyenae, Mycosphaerella sp., Mycotribulus mirabilis, Myiocopron smilaciscaule, Mysia
combreti, Mysia microspora, Myxosporium bellulum, Myxothyriopsis astroniifolium, Naothyrsium
splendidum, Nascimentoa pseudoendogena, Nectria arenula, Nectria augustoi, Nectria
cinnabarina, Nectria puberula, Nectria puberula var. microspora, Nectria
radicicola, Neocosmospora vasinfecta, Neophoma graminella, Neosartorya
fischeri, Neostomella mimosae, Neostomella splendida, Neurospora sitophila, Neurospora
tetrasperma, Nigrospora aerophila, Nigrospora sacchari, Oedemium fungicola, Oidiodendron
griseum, Opegrapha filicina, Ophiobolus coffeae, Ophiociliomyces bauhiniae, Ophiociliomyces
brasiliana, Ophiociliomyces richeriae, Ophiociliomyces xylopiae, Ophiostoma
stenoceras, Orthobellus leguminosarum, Oswaldoa coccolobifoliae, Oswaldoa
paypayrolae, Paecilomyces carneus, Paecilomyces cremeorosei, Paecilomyces
marquandii, Paecilomyces variotii, Paecilomyces sp., Palawaniella brosimi, Palawaniella
nectandrae, Panus crinitus, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Paranectria affinis, Parapeltella
anthuriana, Parapeltella bauhiniae, Parapeltella caseariae, Parapeltella erythroxyli, Parapeltella
lecythidis, Parapeltella ourateae, Parapeltella pogonophoricola, Parasterina
brachystoma, Parasterina cynophallophorae, Parasterina
cynophallophorae var. longispora, Parasterina hansfordii, Parasterina hypophylla, Parasterina
jaboticabae, Parasterina laxiuscula, Parasterina leeae, Parasterina melastomatis-
candidi, Parasterina melastomatis, Parasterina miconiae, Parasterina puttemansii, Parasterina
rhodomyrtae, Parasterina tonduzii, Parasterina transiens, Parasterinopsis
caesalpiniae, Parastigmatellina secunda, Parmelia
conspersa var. isidiata, Parodiopsidaceae gen.indet., Parodiopsis brasiliensis, Parodiopsis
orbignyae, Paropodia intermedia, Paropodia intermedia var. setosa, Paryphydria
cupaniae, Paxillus guttatus, Peltasteraceae gen.indet., Peltasterella
camaragibeana, Peltasterella lembosiicola, Peltasterella ocoteae, Peltasteropsis
discreta, Peltasteropsis discretum, Peltasteropsis minutum, Peltasteropsis
moquileae, Peltosphaeria canadensis, Penicillium brevicompactum, Penicillium
capsulatum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium duclauxii, Penicillium
funiculosum, Penicillium glabrum, Penicillium griseofulvum, Penicillium humuli, Penicillium
islandicum, Penicillium janczewskii, Penicillium janthinellum, Penicillium
namyslowskii, Penicillium novae-zeelandiae, Penicillium oxalicum, Penicillium
puberulum, Penicillium purpurogenum, Penicillium roseopurpureum, Penicillium
rugulosum, Penicillium sclerotiorum, Penicillium simplicissimum, Penicillium
sublateritium, Penicillium variabile, Penicillium vinaceum, Penicillium
waksmanii, Penicillium sp., Peresia annonae, Perichaena chrysosperma, Perichaena
corticalis, Perichaena depressa, Periconia byssoides, Periconia echinochloae, Periconia
laxa, Periconia minutissima, Periconia sidae, Periconiella
saccharicola, Periconiella sp., Pestalotiopsis acrocomiorum, Pestalotiopsis
angusta, Pestalotiopsis capparidicola, Pestalotiopsis coperniciae, Pestalotiopsis
mangiferae, Pestalotiopsis palmarum, Pestalotiopsis
versicolor, Pestalotiopsis sp., Phaeochaetia amomicola var. minispora, Phaeochaetia
clavatispora var. setoseptata, Phaeochaetia clavispora var. gardeniae, Phaeochaetia
psidii, Phaeochorella ciliata, Phaeodimeriella asterinarum, Phaeodimeriella
mangiferae, Phaeodimeriella parvula, Phaeodimeriella plumbea, Phaeophragmeriella
cirsosiae, Phaeoramularia fusimaculans, Phaeosaccardinula artocarpi, Phaeosaccardinula
caucasica, Phaeosaccardinula caucasica var. artocarpi, Phaeosaccardinula
citrina, Phaeosaccardinula guajavae, Phaeosaccardinula
guajavae var. citrina, Phaeosaccardinula pipericola, Phaeosaccardinula
vera, Phaeosaccardinula sp., Phaeosaccardinulaceae gen.indet., Phaeoseptoria sp., Phaeosph
aeria eustomoides, Phaeosphaeria sacchari, Phaeostigme pulveraceum, Phaeothyriolum
connari, Phaeoxyphiella morototoni, Phaeoxyphiella walteri, Phaeoxyphiella sp., Phaeoxyphium
sorghi, Phialetea aerospora, Phialophora alba, Phialophora melinii, Phialophora
verrucosa, Philonectria carpinensis, Philonectria meliolaceicola, Pholiota foetans, Phoma
acuta, Phoma gentianae, Phoma humicola, Phoma onagracearum, Phoma
rhypidicola, Phomachora eucalypti, Phomatospora anacardiicola, Phomatospora
annonae, Phomatospora opuntiae, Phomopsis bertholletiana, Phomopsis elliptica, Phomopsis
pustulata, Phomopsis rhizophorae, Phragmopeltheca caseariicola, Phragmopeltheca
psidii, Phragmopeltheca psychotriae, Phragmoxyphium bromeliae, Phragmoxyphium
didymopanacis, Phragmoxyphium psychotriae, Phycopeltissp., Phycopsis dennisii, Phycopsis
nascimentoi, Phyllachora chloridicola, Phyllachora coccolobae, Phyllachora
goyazensis, Phyllachora graminis, Phyllachora myrciae-rostratae, Phyllachora
nectandricola, Phyllachora puncta, Phyllachora rikatliensis, Phyllachora tropicalis, Phyllachora
truncatispora, Phyllachora sp., Phyllophiale alba, Phyllosticta begoniae, Phyllosticta
briosiana, Phyllosticta comoliae, Phyllosticta confertissima, Phyllosticta couraliae, Phyllosticta
eschweilerae, Phyllosticta guajavae, Phyllosticta hispida, Phyllosticta nerii, Phyllosticta
ravenalae, Phyllosticta spigeliae, Phyllosticta sp., Phyllostictina hymenaeae, Physalospora
mangiferae, Physalospora nerii, Physalospora rhizophorae, Physalospora
sesbaniae, Physalosporopsis rhizophoricola, Physarum auriscalpium, Physarum
bogoriense, Physarum cinereum, Physarum compressum, Physarum didermoides, Physarum
leucophaeum, Physarum melleum, Physarum nucleatum, Physarum nutans, Physarum
polycephalum, Physarum pusillum, Physarum roseum, Physarum serpula, Physarum
tenerum, Physarum viride, Phytophthora sp., Pichia sp., Piggotia aegiphilae, Pilidium
acerinum, Piricauda nodosa, Piricauda paraguayensis var. echinulata, Pithomyces
chartarum, Pithomyces sacchari, Platypeltella sp., Plectopycnis coccolobae, Pleiostomellina
pernambucensis, Plenodomus mollerianus, Plenotrichella anacardii, Plenotrichella
perseae, Pleospora sp., Pleurophragmium guareicola, Pleurotus ostreatoroseus, Pleurotus
ostreatus, Pochonia humicola, Pocockiella variegata, Podosporium consors, Podosporium
eugeniae, Podosporium insipidum, Podosporiumsp., Podoxyphium ampullaceum, Podoxyphium
azevedoi, Podoxyphium citricola, Podoxyphium didymopanacis, Podoxyphium
mayteni, Podoxyphium spongiosum, Podoxyphium yuccae, Polyclypeolum
eschweilerae, Polyclypeolum maiae, Polycyclinopsis solani, Polynema asclepiadis, Polyporus
dermoporus, Polyporus spathulatus, Polystomellina didymopanacis, Polythrinciella
bombacifolia, Porina applanata, Porina conica, Porina cupreola, Porina
cupreola var. ciliata, Porina epiphylla, Porina kamerunensis, Porina rufula, Porina
verruculosa, Poropeltis davillae, Porostigme caulicola, Porphyrellus festivus, Preussia
indica, Prillieuxina cylindrotheca, Protococcaceae gen.indet., Protopeltis
malpighiacearum, Protostegiomyces lembosiae, Protoventuria
pernambucensis, Pseudallescheria boydii, Pseudocercospora abelmoschi, Pseudocochliobolus
pallescens, Pseudocoprinus brasilianus, Pseudographis piptadeniae, Pseudonectria
ornata, Pseudotracylla dentata, Psorotheciopsis paudalhensis, Psorotheciopsis
premneella, Puccinia anthephorae, Puccinia arechavaletae, Puccinia cenchri, Puccinia cyperi-
tagetiformis, Puccinia esclavensis var. panicophila, Puccinia graminis, Puccinia
heterospora, Puccinia leonotidicola, Puccinia psidii, Pucciniopsis caricae, Pycnidiopeltis
smilacina var. hymenaeae, Pycnociliospora belluciae, Pycnociliospora
caesalpiniifolii, Pycnociliospora crescentiae, Pycnociliospora
crescentiaevar. microcarpa, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Pycnothyriella discreta, Pyrenochaeta
collabens, Pyrenopeziza spondiadicola, Pyricularia sansevieriae, Pyricularia
whetzelii, Pyriomyces protii, Pythium debaryanum, Pythium rostratum, Raciborskiella
prasina, Raciborskiella zollerniae, Ramichloridium apiculatum, Ramularia serratula, Ramularia
solani, Redaellia elegans, Resendea crataevae, Rhabdospora bogenhardiae, Rhinotrichum
bicolor, Rhizopus cohnii, Rhizopus stolonifer, Rhodothallus caseariifolium, Rhodotorula
flava, Rhodotorula glutinis, Rhodotorula graminis, Rhodotorula minuta, Rhodotorula
pallida, Rhodotorula rubra, Rhodotorula sp., Rhombostilbella crus-pavonis, Rhynchomeliola
licaniae, Rhynchomeliola pulchella, Rhytidhysteron rufulum, Robillarda palmicola, Ruthia
perseae, Saccardomyces lembosiicola, Saccharomyces bailii, Saccharomyces
exiguus, Saccharomyces florentinus, Saprolegnia bernardensis, Saprolegnia
floccosa, Saprolegnia litoralis, Sarcinella tandonii, Sarcinomyces
inkin, Sargassum sp., Schizopeltis coutareae, Schizophyllum commune, Schizothyra
minuta, Schizothyra sp., Schizothyrium sp., Scolecobonaria lithocarpi, Scolecopeltella
psychotriae, Scolecopeltidium anthurii, Scolecopeltidium cabraliae, Scolecopeltidium
campomanesiae, Scolecopeltidium caseariae, Scolecopeltidium caseariicola, Scolecopeltidium
cassiae, Scolecopeltidium chamissoanae, Scolecopeltidium colorata, Scolecopeltidium
connaraceifolii, Scolecopeltidium connari, Scolecopeltidium cordiae, Scolecopeltidium
crotoni, Scolecopeltidium cupaniae, Scolecopeltidium cupaniicola, Scolecopeltidium
daphnopsidis, Scolecopeltidium delitescentis, Scolecopeltidium erythroxyli, Scolecopeltidium
eschweilerae, Scolecopeltidium guttulata, Scolecopeltidium imbeanum, Scolecopeltidium
imbei, Scolecopeltidium ingicola, Scolecopeltidium lantanae, Scolecopeltidium
nectandrae, Scolecopeltidium paypayrolae, Scolecopeltidium pedunculatum, Scolecopeltidium
perae, Scolecopeltidium philodendricola, Scolecopeltidium pithecellobiifolii, Scolecopeltidium
praeclarum, Scolecopeltidium protiicola, Scolecopeltidium racemosae, Scolecopeltidium
sacoglottidis, Scolecopeltidium sapindi, Scolecopeltidium serjaniae, Scolecopeltidium
smilacis, Scolecopeltidium swartziae, Scolecopeltidium swartzianum, Scolecopeltidium
tabernaemontanae, Scolecopeltidium thiloae, Scolecopeltidium thiloicola, Scolecopeltidium
xylopiae var. crassum, Scolecopeltis mouririae, Scolecoxyphium cirrhosum, Scolecoxyphium
fraseri, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Scorias sp., Scutopeltis clethrae, Selenosporella
acicularis, Septobasidium pilosum, Septonema hormiscium, Septonema
hormiscium var. angustius, Septonema longisporum, Septonema secedens, Septonema
smilacinum, Septonema trichomeriicola, Septonema sp., Septoria ananasicola, Septoria
fructigena, Septoria sapotae, Septoria spigeliae, Septosporium brasiliense, Septothyrella
bactridis, Septothyrella pernambucensis, Sesquicillium candelabrum, Setella
buchenaviae, Setella citricola, Setomyces belluciae, Setomyces crescentiae, Setomyces
giganteae, Setomyces minutus, Setomyces orchideae, Setopeltis
perseae, Setopsis sp., Singera esenbeckiae, Sirodothis couepiae, Siropeltis jatrophae, Skenia
bombacis, Skoteinospora coccolobae, Sordaria fimicola, Sorosporium cryptum, Spegazzinia
tessarthra, Spegazziniella bauhiniicola, Spegazziniella costi, Spegazziniella
erythroxylana, Spegazziniella erythroxylicola, Spegazziniella fimbriata, Spegazziniella
gustaviae, Spegazziniella ocoteae, Spegazziniella picramniae, Spegazziniella
pogonophorae, Spegazziniella pogonophoreana, Sphaeriaceaegen.indet., Sphaerodothis
gramineae, Sphaerodothis viticifolia, Sphaerognomonia elaeidicola, Sphaeronaema
pernambucense, Sphaerophragmium sorghi, Sphaeropsidaceae gen.indet., Spilomyces
gramineae, Spilomyces swartziae, Spinomyces genipae, Spiropes capensis, Spiropes
dialii, Spiropes dorycarpus, Spiropes penicillium, Sporidesmium
bakeri var. sacchari, Sporidesmium melloae, Sporidesmium uvariicola, Sporobolomyces
roseus, Sporocybomyces pulcher, Sporormia sp., Sporoschisma mirabile, Sporoschisma
stilboideum, Stachybotrys alternans, Stagonospora allantella, Stagonospora
montagnei, Stellopeltis cupaniae, Stellopeltis philodendricola, Stellopeltis
philodendricola var. compacta, Stellopeltis vismiae, Stemonitis axifera, Stemonitis
brasiliensis, Stemonitis flavogenita, Stemonitis fusca, Stemonitis nigrescens, Stemonitis
smithii, Stemonitis splendens, Stemonitopsis typhoides, Stemphylium albo-atrum, Stemphylium
botryosum var. majus, Stephosia protii, Stereum australe, Stereum sanguinolentum, Stereum
spathulatum, Steyaertia couepiae, Stigmatodothis caseariae, Stigmatopeltis
clethrae, Stilbum sp., Stomiopeltella coccolobicola, Stomiopeltella imbeana, Stomiopeltis
batistae, Stomiopeltis myrciae, Stomiopeltis pinastri, Stomiopeltis suttoniae, Strickeria
deflectens, Strigula concreta, Strigula elegans, Strigula elegans var. antillarum, Strigula
hymenaeicola, Strigula maculata, Strigula melanobapha, Strigula nemathora, Strigula
orchyzospora, Strigula schizospora, Strigula subtilissima, Strigula sp., Stromatopycnis
rosetum, Strongylothallus scutatus, Stropharia coronilla, Sydowiellina cabraliae, Sydowiellina
cordiae, Sydowiellina lecythidicola, Sydowiellina paulliniae, Sydowiellina
philodendri, Sydowiellina pogonophorae, Sydowiellina protiana, Sydowiellina
swartziae, Syncephalastrum fuliginosum, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Talaromyces
trachyspermus, Tapellaria epiphylla, Tegoa tabebuiae, Teichosporina
hemisphaerica, Telemeniella elaeidicola, Thermomyces lanuginosus, Thielavia
basicola, Thielaviopsis basicola, Thyridium vestitum, Thyriostroma clethrae, Tilachlidiopsis
piptadeniae, Torula herbarum, Torula sp., Torulopsis aeria, Torulopsis candida, Torulopsis
colliculosa, Torulopsis dattila, Torulopsis ernobii, Torulopsis famata, Torulopsis
globosa, Torulopsis gropengiesseri, Torulopsis holmii, Torulopsis inconspicua, Torulopsis lactis-
condensi, Torulopsis molischiana, Torulopsis pinus, Torulopsis sake, Torulopsis
stellata, Torulopsis versatilis, Trentepohlia sp., Trichamelia eugeniae, Trichaptum
biforme, Tricharia sp., Trichasterina myrtaceicola, Trichocicinnus ugandensis, Trichoderma
glaucum, Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma koningii, Trichoderma sp., Trichomerium
abhorrentis var. coffeae, Trichomerium coffeicola, Trichomerium crotonis, Trichomerium
didymopanacis, Trichomerium guajavae, Trichomerium jambosae, Trichomerium
mangifericola, Trichomerium ornatum, Trichomerium sp., Trichopeltospora
pipericola, Trichopeltospora
pipericola var. elongata, Trichopeltospora sp., Trichopeltulaceae gen.indet., Trichophyton
mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton
verrucosum, Trichophyton sp., Trichosia pernambucensis, Trichosphaeropsis
crescentiae, Trichosporon appendiculare, Trichosporon arenicola, Trichosporon
capitatum, Trichosporon cutaneum, Trichosporon figueirae, Trichosporon
margaritiferum, Trichosporon pullulans, Trichosporonsp., Trichothecium roseum, Trichothelium
annulatum, Trichothelium epiphyllum var. ciliata, Trichothyriomyces notata, Trichothyrium
asterophorum, Trichothyrium asterophorum var. singulatum, Trichothyrium
caruaruensis, Trichothyrium modestum, Tripospermum fructigenum, Tripospermum
gardneri, Tripospermum pes-gallinae, Tripospermum pes-
gallinae var. jambosae, Tripospermum roupalae, Tripospermum sp., Triposporium
elegans, Triposporium sp., Truncatella bella, Tubeufia asclepiadis, Tubifera bombarda, Tubifera
ferruginosa, Tubifera microsperma, Tulostoma heroica, Tulostoma manica, Tulostoma
recifensis, Umbelopsis vinacea, Uredo hymenaeae, Uromyces manihoticola, Uromyces
setariae-italicae, Venturia minutissima, Verlandea roupalae, Verticillium lateritium, Viegasia
costaricensis, Vitalia averrhoae, Vitalia cecropiae, Vitalia diospyricola, Vitalia
jaboatonensis, Vitalia multisetulata, Vitalia phormiicola, Vitalia setofasciculata, Vizella
appendiculosa, Vizella crescentiae, Vizella gomphispora, Vizella gustaviae, Vizella
pogonophorae, Vizella psychotriae, Vizella splendida, Vizella sp., Volvaria oswaldoi, Volvaria
speciosa, Volvariella cnemidophora, Vonarxia anacardii, Waldemaria pernambucensis, Wardina
moquileae, Wardinella jaboatonensis, Xylaria acerata, Xylaria apiculata, Xylaria
cordovensiformiae, Xylaria exalbida, Xylaria feejeensis, Xylaria paulistana, Xylaria
reperta, Xylosphaera fastigiata, Xylosphaera multiplex, Xylosphaera regalis, Yamamotoa
gurapensis, Zeta viticifolii, Zygosporium gibbum, Zygosporium masonii.

Fungi

Eum ycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.

Meredith Blackwell, Rytas Vilgalys, Timothy Y. James, and John W.

Taylor
Phylogeny modified from James et al., 2006a, 2006b; Liu et al., 2006; Seif et al., 2005; Steenkamp et al.,
2006.

Containing group: Eukaryotes

Introduction

The organisms of the fungal lineage include mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels,
molds, and yeasts, as well as many less well-known organisms (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). More
than 70,000 species of fungi have been described; however, some estimates of total numbers
suggest that 1.5 million species may exist (Hawksworth, 1991; Hawksworth et al., 1995).

As the sister group of animals and part of the eukaryotic crown group that radiated about a billion
years ago, the fungi constitute an independent group equal in rank to that of plants and animals.
They share with animals the ability to export hydrolytic enzymes that break down biopolymers,
which can be absorbed for nutrition. Rather than requiring a stomach to accomplish digestion,
fungi live in their own food supply and simply grow into new food as the local environment
becomes nutrient depleted.

Most biologists have seen dense filamentous fungal colonies growing on rich nutrient agar plates,
but in nature the filaments can be much longer and the colonies less dense. When one of the
filaments contacts a food supply, the entire colony mobilizes and reallocates resources to exploit
the new food. Should all food become depleted, sporulation is triggered. Although the fungal
filaments and spores are microscopic, the colony can be very large with individuals of some
species rivaling the mass of the largest animals or plants.

Figure 1: Hyphae of a wood-decaying fungus found growing on the underside of a fallen log. The
metabolically active hyphae have secreted droplets on their surfaces. Copyright M. Blackwell 1996.

Prior to mating in sexual reproduction, individual fungi communicate with other individuals
chemically via pheromones. In every phylum at least one pheromone has been characterized, and
they range from sesquiterpines and derivatives of the carotenoid pathway in chytridiomycetes and
zygomycetes to oligopeptides in ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
Within their varied natural habitats fungi usually are the primary decomposer organisms present.
Many species are free-living saprobes (users of carbon fixed by other organisms) in woody
substrates, soils, leaf litter, dead animals, and animal exudates. The large cavities eaten out of
living trees by wood-decaying fungi provide nest holes for a variety of animals, and extinction of
the ivory billed woodpecker was due in large part to loss, through human activity, of nesting trees
in bottom land hardwoods. In some low nitrogen environments several independent groups of
fungi have adaptations such as nooses and sticky knobs with which to trap and degrade
nematodes and other small animals. A number of references on fungal ecology are available
(Carroll and Wicklow, 1992; Cooke and Whipps, 1993; Dix and Webster, 1995).

However, many other fungi are biotrophs, and in this role a number of successful groups form
symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and
prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae, and leaf and stem endophytes. Although lichens
may seem infrequent in polluted cities, they can form the dominant vegetation in nordic
environments, and there is a better than 80% chance that any plant you find is mycorrhizal. Leaf
and stem endophytes are a more recent discovery, and some of these fungi can protect the plants
they inhabit from herbivory and even influence flowering and other aspects of plant reproductive
biology. Fungi are our most important plant pathogens, and include rusts, smuts, and many
ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Among the other well
known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to
diseases caused by Pneumocystis (a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with supressed
immune systems), Coccidioides (valley fever), Ajellomyces (blastomycosis and histoplasmosis),
and Cryptococcus (cryptococcosis) (Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992).

Figure 2: The fluffy white hyphae of the mycorrhizal fungus Rhizopogon rubescens has enveloped the
smaller roots of a Virginia pine seedling. Note that some of the mycelium extends out into the
surrounding environment. Copyright J. B. Anderson 1996.

Figure 3: Entomophthora, "destroyer of insects", is the agent of a fungual infection that kills flies.
After their death the fungal growth erupts through the fly cuticle, and dispersal by forcible spore
discharge is a source of inoculum for infection of new flies. Copyright G. L. Barron 1996.

Fungal spores may be actively or passively released for dispersal by several effective methods.
The air we breathe is filled with spores of species that are air dispersed. These usually are species
that produce large numbers of spores, and examples include many species pathogenic on
agricultural crops and trees. Other species are adapted for dispersal within or on the surfaces of
animals (particularly arthropods). Some fungi are rain splash or flowing water dispersed. In a few
cases the forcible release of spores is sufficient to serve as the dispersal method as well. The
function of some spores is not primarily for dispersal, but to allow the organisms to survive as
resistant cells during periods when the conditions of the environment are not conducive to growth.

Fungi are vital for their ecosystem functions, some of which we have reviewed in the previous
paragraphs. In addition a number of fungi are used in the processing and flavoring of foods
(baker's and brewer's yeasts, Penicillia in cheese-making) and in production of antibiotics and
organic acids. Other fungi produce secondary metabolites such as aflatoxins that may be potent
toxins and carcinogens in food of birds, fish, humans, and other mammals.

A few species are studied as model organisms that can be used to gain knowledge of basic
processes such as genetics, physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology with results that are
applicable to many organisms (Taylor et al., 1993). Some of the fungi that have been intensively
studied in this way include Saccharomyces cereviseae, Neurospora crassa, and Ustilago maydis.

Most phyla appear to be terrestrial in origin, although all major groups have invaded marine and
freshwater habitats. An exception to this generality is the flagellum-bearing phyla
Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota (collectively referred to as
chytrids), which probably had an aquatic origin. Extant chytrid species also occur in terrestrial
environments as plant pathogenic fungi, soil fungi, and even as anaerobic inhabitants of the guts
of herbivores such as cows (all Neocallimastigomycota).

Characteristics

Fungi are characterized by non-motile bodies (thalli) constructed of apically elongating walled
filaments (hyphae), a life cycle with sexual and asexual reproduction, usually from a common
thallus, haploid thalli resulting from zygotic meiosis, and heterotrophic nutrition. Spindle pole
bodies, not centrioles, usually are associated with the nuclear envelope during cell division. The
characteristic wall components are chitin (beta-1,4-linked homopolymers of N-acetylglucosamine
in microcrystalline state) and glucans primarily alpha-glucans (alpha-1,3- and alpha-1,6- linkages)
(Griffin, 1994).

Figure 4: Portion of a hypha of a zygomycete stained with a blue dye to show the many nuclei
present. Many other fungi have septations that devide the hyphae into compartments that usually
contain one to several nuclei per compartment. Copyright M. Blackwell 1996.
 Figure 5: Transmission electron micrograph showing duplicated spindle pole body of a prophase I
meiotic nucleus of a basidiomycete Exobasidium. Only chytrids among fungi have centrioles and lack
spindle pole bodies. Copyright Beth Richardson 1996.

Exceptions to this characterization of fungi are well known, and include the following: Most species
of chytrids have cells with a single, smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum at some stage in the life
cycle, and centrioles are associated with nuclear division. The life cycles of almost all flagellated
fungi are poorly studied. The thalli of Chytridiomycota have been thought to be haploid, but recent
population genetic data support diploidy for one species (Morehouse et al. 2003; Morgan et al.
2007). Most members of Blastocladiomycota appear to have sporic meiosis and, therefore, an
alternation between haploid and diploid generations. Certain members of Mucoromycotina,
Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota may lack hyphal growth during part or all of their life cycles, and,
instead, produce budding yeast cells. Most fungal species with yeast growth forms contain only
minute amounts of chitin in the walls of the yeast cells. A few species of Ascomycota
(Ophiostomataceae) have cellulose in their walls, and certain members of Blastocladiomycota and
Entomophthoromycotina lack walls during part of their life cycle (Alexopoulos et al., 1996).

Fossil Record

Based on the available fossil record, fungi are presumed to have been present in Late Proterozoic
(900-570 mya). Terrestrial forms of purported ascomycetes are reported in associations with
microarthropods in the Silurian Period (438-408 mya) (Sherwood-Pike and Gray, 1985). Fossil
hyphae in association with wood decay and fossil chytrids and Glomales-Endogonales
representatives associated with plants of the Rhynie Chert are reported from the Devonian Period
(408-360 mya) (Hass et al., 1994; Remy et al., 1994a, 1994b; Taylor et al., 1994a, 1995b).
Fungal fossil diversity increased throughout the Paleozoic Era (Taylor et al., 1994b) with all
modern classes reported in the Pennsylvanian Epoch (320-286 mya).

A first attempt to match molecular data on fungal phylogeny to the geological record shows
general agreement, but does point out some conflicts between the two types of data (Berbee and
Taylor 1993).

Biogeography

Wherever adequate moisture, temperature, and organic substrates are available, fungi are
present. Although we normally think of fungi as growing in warm, moist forests, many species
occur in habitats that are cold, periodically arid, or otherwise seemingly inhospitable. It is
important to recognize that optimum conditions for growth and reproduction vary widely with
fungal species. Diversity of most groups of fungi tends to increase in tropical regions, but detailed
studies are only in their infancy (Isaac et al., 1993).

Although many saprobic and plant pathogenic species with low substrate specificity and effective
dispersal systems have broad distributions, gene flow appears to be restricted in many fungi. For
these species large bodies of water such as the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans create barriers to gene
exchange. Some distributions are limited by substrate availability, and dramatic examples come
from parasites of Gondowanan plants; one of these is the Southern Hemisphere distribution of the
ascomycete Cyttaria, corresponding with part of the distribution of its host plant Nothofagus. The
fossil record shows that fungi were present in Antarctica, as is the case for other organisms with
Gondwanan distributions. Arthropod associates also may show distributions throughout part or all
of a host range, and some fungal species (ex. wood wasp associates) occur outside the range of
the associated arthropod.

Notable Fungi

The largest known basidioma (mushroom or fruiting body) was that of a Rigidioporus
ulmarius (Agaricomycetes), hidden-away in a shady corner of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, Richmond, Surrey, England. This fruiting body was mentioned in the Guinness Book
of World Records (Matthews, 1994). At the beginning of every New Year the Annual
Mensuration Ceremony of the fruiting body took place, and on 19 January 1996 it had
increased to 170 cm maximum length (up from 159 in 1995) and 146 cm maximum width
(up from 140 in 1995). It also grew 4 cm taller from the soil level, measuring 54 cm. The
weight of the fruiting body was estimated to be 284 kg (625 pounds)! Amid rumors of its
destruction, Dr. Brian M. Spooner, Head of Mycology, Royal Botanic Gardens, has brought
us up to date on the fate of the record specimen. Unfortunately, the basidioma began to
rot at the edges a few years ago, likely because the hyphal body of the fungus digested
away its elm root substrate, reminding us that a fungus needs a good dispersal system to
escape the substrate that eventually inevitably is destroyed. In the life of the fruiting body
many trillions of spores must have been produced, and some of these surely fell on an
appropiate substrate to establish a new infection. The final insult to the fruiting body
came from a fox that burrowed under one side and caused it to collapse.

Figure 6: The largest basidioma world record holder Rigidioporus ulmarius at Kew when it
was still intact. The mushroom is shown in its largest dimension (170 cm or over 5 1/2 feet).
Copyright D. Pegler 1996.

Other large basidiomata are those of a Canadian puffball almost 9 feet in circumference
(over 48 pounds) and a basidiocarp of the sulfur mushroom in England (100 pounds). A
previous Guinness Book of World Records record-sized fruiting body of Bridgeoporus
nobilissimus, an endangered species of the Pacific Northwest of the United States, is over
160 kg (300 pounds) and may have regained the title of largest with the demise of the
Kew specimen. This polypore also may do itself in because its great weight is likely to
eventually cause it to fall as the mycelium depletes its food source, often the noble fir
tree.

Reproductive structures clearly can be very large, but what about the body of the fungus,
which often is hidden from view within the substrate? One fungus body constructed of
tubular filaments (hyphae) was brought to our attention when molecular techniques were
used to show that it was extensive (37 acres and an estimated blue whale equivalent size
of 110 tons). The Michigan fungus clone (Armillaria bulbosa, Agaricomycetes) grew in tree
roots and soil. This report drew attention to an even larger fungal clone of Armillaria
ostoyae, reported earlier in the state of Washington, which covered over 1,500 acres.
Each clone began from the germination of a single spore over a thousand years ago.
Although they probably have fragmented and are no longer continuous bodies, such
organisms give us cause to think about what constitutes an individual.
 Penicillium chrysogenum (Ascomycota) is known for its production of the antibiotic
penicillin. Although other antibiotics are produced by a variety of organisms, penicillin was
the first to be developed. In the spring of 1996 a long dried out culture of the original
isolate prepared by its discoverer, Sir Alexander Fleming in the late 1920s, was auctioned
by Sotheby's of London and sold to a pharmaceutical company for 23,000 pounds. This
price is insignificant when one considers the worth of this fungus, not only in sales of
penicillin, but in terms of illnesses cured and lives saved. In the past a simple scratch or
blister sometimes could result in a fatal infection such as the blister that resulted in the
death of John Calvin Coolidge (1918-1924), the son of a U. S. president. However, misuse
of penicillin and other antibiotics has resulted in selection of resistant microorganisms,
and the threat of untreatable bacterial infections and diseases (for
example Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and tuberculosis and syphilis) is still
present in our homes and recreation areas.
Fungal spores fill the air we breathe. On many days in some localities the number of
fungal spores in the air far exceeds the pollen grains. Fungal spores also cause allergies;
however, unlike seasonal pollen production, some fungi can produce spores all year long.
The largest number of fungal spores ever sampled was over 5.5 million per cubic foot in
Wales (Matthews, 1994).
Basidiomycetes have always attracted a lot of attention because some of them have large
basidiocarps, but the realization that all fungi are important in ecosystem function has
drawn more attention to microscopic forms as well. For example a report on the secret
sex life of a yeast-like ascomycete human pathogen, Coccidioides immitis, made a
headline of the New York Times (6 February 1996, p. B7). This fungus causes Valley Fever
and is endemic in parts of the southwestern United States. Although no one has been able
to observe sexual reproduction in this species, molecular studies show genetic diversity
that is best explained by occurrence of sexual reproduction in the life cycle.
Another yeast-like ascomycete reported in the Dallas Morning News (28 August 1995, p.
8D) lives in the gut of cigar beetles and is essential to the beetle's health. Without the gut
fungi to detoxify the plant material of toxins, the beetles would be poisoned. Keep on the
lookout for other reports of fascinating fungal feats.

Discussion of Phylogenetic Relationships

The kingdom Fungi is a diverse clade of heterotrophic organisms that shares some characters with
animals such as chitinous structures, storage of glycogen, and mitochondrial codon UGA encoding
tryptophan. Both animals and fungi have spores or gametes with a single smooth, posteriorly
inserted flagellum, but only species of the basal chytrid phyla have retained this primitive
character (Barr, 1992; Cavalier-Smith, 1987, 1995). Fungi, animals, and other heterotrophic
protist-like organisms such as choanoflagellates and Mesomycetozoea are now considered part of
the larger group termed opisthokonts (Cavalier-Smith, 1987) in reference to the posterior
flagellum.

The branch uniting the fungi and animals is well-supported based on a number of molecular
phylogenetic datasets, including the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (Wainwright et al.,
1993; Bruns et al. 1993), unique and shared sequence insertions in proteins such as elongation
factor 1 (Baldauf and Palmer, 1993), entire mitochondrial genomes (Lang et al., 2002), and
concatenated protein-coding genes (Steenkamp et al., 2006).

Prior classification systems of Fungi based primarily on morphology are in need of updating to
more accurately reflect phylogenetic relationships as determined by molecular systematics.
Molecular characters have been essential for phylogenetic analysis in cases when morphological
characters are convergent, reduced, or missing among the taxa considered. This is especially true
of species that never reproduce sexually, because characters of sexual reproduction traditionally
have been the basis for classification of Fungi. Use of molecular characters allows asexual fungi to
be placed among their closest relatives.

Previous classifications placed early-diverging fungal groups (non-Ascomycota or Basidiomycota)

into two phyla: Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota. Numerous phylogenetic studies now suggest
that neither is monophyletic, and the latest classification scheme includes six phyla and an
additional four unplaced subphyla (Hibbett et al., 2007). At present, because of the ancient
divergence times between the fungal phyla, the exact phylogenetic relationships are ambiguous.
Chytrids appear to be a paraphyletic group at the base of the fungal phylogeny and merely fungal
lineages which have retained the character of flagellated spores. Three phyla of flagellated fungi
are proposed (Blastocladiomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Neocallimastigomycota; Hibbett et al.,
2007) and two chytrid genera Olpidium and Rozella, are of uncertain phylogenetic position (James
et al., 2006a, 2006b). These genera are interesting because they are both highly reduced
endoparasites (living inside the host cell) whose entire thallus consists of only a spherical body
absorbing nutrients from the host material that surrounds it. Rozella appears in an isolated
position in the fungal phylogeny as the very earliest lineage to diverge from the rest of the fungi
(James et al., 2006a, 2006b). In contrast, Olpidium brassicae appears to have diverged after the
majority of chytrids and is more closely related to some zygomycete fungi (James et al., 2006a,
2006b).

Figure 7: The endoparasitic chytrid Rozella allomycis inside the hyphae of another chytrid Allomyces.
Thick spiny spores of the parasite are seen inside some cells while zoospores are produced in other
cells. Timothy Y. James

Fungi with non-septate or irregularly septate hyphae and thick-walled spores were traditionally
placed in the phylum Zygomycota. However, evidence for a monophyletic Zygomycota is lacking
(Seif et al., 2005), and the deconstruction of the Zygomycota into four unordered subphyla
(Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, Zoopagomycotina) has been
proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007). The separation of the superficially similar arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi (that lack septa in hyphae but also lack zygospores) into the phylum Glomeromycota has
been previously proposed (Schler et al., 2001). Whether this phylum is more closely related to
the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota lineage or to other zygomycete lineages is controversial
(Redecker et al., 2006).

Evidence from shared morphological characters such as regularly septate hyphae and a dikaryotic
stage (two separate and different nuclei in a single hyphal segment) in the life cycle usually has
been interpreted as support for a close relationship between Basidiomycota and Ascomycota.
Numerous phylogenetic studies such as SSU rDNA (Berbee and Taylor, 1992), RNA polymerase
genes (Liu et al., 2006), and mitochondrial genome sequencing (Seif et al., 2005) provide strong
support for this relationship. A subkingdom termed Dikarya is proposed (Hibbett et al., 2007),
creating a division between a highly speciose subkingdom (Dikarya) and the remaining early
diverging lineages whose relationships are not precisely known.

Fungal classification is far from static, and even which organisms are actually members of Fungi is
changing. For example, the group trichomycetes describes gut inhabitants of arthropods that
share similarities with zygomycetes. Molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that two of
the four orders of trichomycetes are actually members of the Mesomycetozoea protist group
(Benny and ODonnell, 2000; Cafaro, 2005). Other organisms that were previously considered to
be Fungi because of their heterotrophic, mold-like growth forms are now classified as
stramenopiles (Oomycota, Hyphochytriomycota, and Labyrinthulomycota) or slime molds
(Myxomycota, Plasmodiomycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota) (Bhattacharya et al., 1992;
Leipe et al., 1994; Van der Auwera et al., 1995). More interesting for mycologists are the findings
that some species previously considered protozoa are actually Fungi. For example, the
species Hyaloraphidium curvatum was assumed to be a green alga that had adopted a
heterotrophic lifecycle concomitantly with losing its chloroplast. It is now known to be a chytrid
fungus related to Monoblephariomycetes but lacking a flagellated stage (Ustinova et al., 2000).
Other examples include the parasitic organisms presumed to be protozoa, such as the cockroach
parasite Nepridiophaga (Wylezich et al., 2004) and the Daphnia parasite Polycarum (Johnson et
 al., 2006) recently demonstrated to be members of the fungal kingdom based on SSU rDNA
phylogenies.

The most revolutionary addition to the fungal lineage has occurred with phylogenetic evidence
indicating the protist group microsporidia is closely related to Fungipossibly derived from
zygomycetes (Keeling, 2003) or sister to the genus Rozella on the earliest branch in the fungal
kingdom (James et al., 2006a). Microsporidia are highly specialized intracellular parasites
(primarily of animals) that lack mitochondria but have chitin and trehalose in their spores (similar
to Fungi). All molecular studies have shown that microsporidia evolve at an extremely accelerated
rate of evolution, making their placement in the Tree of Life difficult. The relationship with fungi is
supported by many single and multiple gene phylogenies (e.g., Liu et al., 2006), but an exact
placement within the fungi has not received strong support (Keeling and Fast, 2002).

More recently the nuclearid amoebae have been demonstrated to be a sister group to the Fungi
with strong support (Steenkamp et al., 2006). This finding is significant because Nuclearialacks a
cell wall and has phagotrophic nutrition in which the food source (such as a bacterium or algal cell)
is engulfed wholly, unlike fungi and microsporidia which utilize absorptive nutrition. Further
sampling of basal fungal lineages will be needed to determine whether a Nuclearia-like organism
was the cenancestor (most recent common ancestor) of Fungi.

Other Names for Fungi

Mycota
Eumycota

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Information on the Internet

Popular Sites

MykoWeb. WWW pages devoted to the science of mycology and the hobby of
mushrooming.
Mycological Society of San Francisco. North America's largest local amateur mycological
association.
Mushroom Observer. The purpose of this site is to record observations about mushrooms,
help people identify mushrooms they aren't familiar with, and expand the community
around the scientific exploration of mushrooms (mycology).
The Fungal Jungal. To further educate people about fungi, edible and otherwise, To
encourage sustainable and responsible mushroom harvest, and preserve mushroom
habitat.
Tom Volk's Fungi.
Dave Fischer's North American Mushroom Basics.
MushroomExpert.Com.
Forest Fungi.
Pilze, Pilze, Pilze. In deutsch.
Westflischen Pilzbriefe. In deutsch.
Micologi Associati. Nell'italiano.

Directories, Databases & Collections

The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology. A well indexed entrance to almost all mycology and
fungal biology resources on the Internet.
Mycology.Net. An internet site containing information about diversity of fungi.
Mycorrhiza Information Exchange.
Mycology Online. A WWW resource of clinically significant mycological information.
Yahoo Mycology.
Mycologists Online. World-wide directory for mycology and lichenology.
Fungal Databases. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research
Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA.
The Fifth Kingdom online. A mycological encyclopedia.
Mycological and Lichenological Collection Catalogs. UCMP Berkeley.
University of Alberta Microfungus Collection & Herbarium (UAMH).
University of Michigan Fungus Collection.
Mycological Herbarium. The Natural History Museums and Botanical Garden, University of
Oslo.
Herbarium Mycologicum. National Botanic Garden of Belgium.
Index Fungorum. Names of fungi.
Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS). Fungal Biodiversity Center - Utrecht, The
Netherlands.
Fungal Genetics Stock Center.
Canadian Collection of Fungal Cultures.

Images

Treasures from the Kingdom of Fungi. Taylor Lockwood's mushroom photography.

 Fungi Images on the Net.
Fungi, Moulds and Lichens. BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK).
George Barron's Website on Mushrooms and other Fungi.
Eileen's Mushroom Mania.
Nathan's Fungi Page.
Pamela's Mushrooms.

Research Labs & Projects

Deep Hypha. NSF-funded Research Coordination Network (RCN) that is focused on

developing robust phylogenetic hypotheses for the deep branches within Kingdom Fungi
and enhanced research and educational tools in fungal systematics.
AFTOL: Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life. Collaborative research in fungal phylogenetics.
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Agricultural Research Service. United States
Department of Agriculture. Beltsville, Maryland, USA.
Forest Mycology and Mycorrhiza Research Team. Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corvallis,
OR, USA.
Cornell Center for Fungal Biology (CCFB).
IUCN SSC Fungi Specialist Group Website.
Mycology at Louisiana State University. Meredith Blackwell's lab.
Bruns Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Ecology and evolution of fungi.
Spatafora Lab. Oregon State University. Systematics and evolutionary biology of fungi.
Taylor Lab. University of California at Berkeley. Evolutionary relationships of fungi,
concentrating on the fungi that cause human disease.
Thorn Lab. University of Western Ontario. Fungal ecology and systematics.
Vilgalys Lab. Duke University. Natural history of fungi, including all aspects of their
evolutionary biology, population genetics, and systematics.
MycoSite. University of Oslo, Norway.
University of Georgia Mycology.
University of Tennessee Mycology Lab.
Fungal Mitochondrial Genome Project (FMGP). B. Franz Lang, Universit de Montral.
Fungimap Australia. A collaborative project between professional and amateur mycologists
and naturalists to gather information about the distribution of fungi throughout Australia.
The Fungi of New Zealand. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research.
MycoKey. Thomas Lsse & Jens H. Petersen, University of Aarhus.
Comparative Studies on the Macrofungi of China and Eastern North America. Qiuxin Wu &
Gregory M. Mueller, The Field Museum, Chicago.
Survey of Northern Illinois and Indiana Fungi. John F. Murphy & Gregory M. Mueller. The
Field Museum, Chicago.
Macrofungi of Costa Rica. Roy E. Halling & Gregory M. Mueller.
The Fungi of Kenya.
Malawi Fungi.
Moulds. Isolation, Cultivation, Identification. David Malloch, Department of Botany,
University of Toronto.

Professional Societies

The International Mycological Association. A group that represents mycologists and fungal
biologists throughout the world.
British Mycological Society.
Mycological Society of America.
Asociacin Latinoamericana de Micologa.
Australasian Mycological Society.
The International Society for Mushroom Science. To further the cultivation of edible
(including medicinal) macrofungi.

Title Illustrations
 Scientific Name Chytridium (Chytridiomycota)
Comments Individual growing on a single pine pollen grain. Successive photos show zoospore release from the
sporangium, and the arrow points to a flagellum.
Copyright 1996 H. Whisler, M. Fuller

Scientific Name Pilobolus crystallinus (Mucoromycotina)

Comments Black sporangium atop swollen sporangiophore. Shortly, the swollen subsporangial vesicle will burst to send
the sporangium flying. Herbivores eat the sporangium, and the enclosed mitospores germinate in the dung. The
bright yellow carotenoid pigment enables the sporangium to orient to light (phototropism). If you look closely,
you can see masses of nematodes on the vesicle; probably herbivore pathogens hoping to hitch a ride.
Specimen Condition Live Specimen
Copyright 1996 Meredith Blackwell

Scientific Name Coprinus comatus

Location North Fork John Day Ranger District, Umatilla National Forest, northeastern Oregon, United States
Comments Closed fruiting bodies
Specimen Condition Live Specimen
Source #0808028
Source Collection Bugwood Network/Forestry Images
Image Use
This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License - Version 3.0.
Copyright Dave Powell, USDA Forest Service

Scientific Name Sarcoscypha coccinea

Location Archidona, Mlaga, Andaluca, Spain
Comments Fruiting body of the scarlet cup fungus. Hundreds of millions of meiospores (ascospores) are discharged from
this cup, usually in puffs that produce visible clouds of spores.
Specimen Condition Live Specimen
Source Sarcoscypha Coccinea
Source Collection Flickr
Image Use
This media file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License - Version
2.0.
Copyright 2002 Coqui

About This Page

Many thanks to Soren Rosendahl and Atul Batra for scanning photos and David Maddison and Atul Batra for
page design advice.
 Meredith Blackwell
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

Rytas Vilgalys
Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

Timothy Y. James
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

John W. Taylor
University of California, Berkeley, California, USA

Correspondence regarding this page should be directed to Meredith Blackwell at mblackwell@lsu.edu

Page copyright 2012 Meredith Blackwell, Rytas Vilgalys, Timothy Y. James, and John W. Taylor

All Rights Reserved.

First online 04 July 1996

Content changed 30 January 2012

Citing thi s page:

Blackwell, Meredith, Rytas Vilgalys, Timothy Y. James, and John W. Taylor. 2012. Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms,
sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.. Version 30 January
2012.http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377/2012.01.30 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

View previous versions of this page

FUNGI AND THE CARBON CYCLE

Barron, G. L. 2003. Predatory fungi, wood decay, and

the carbon cycle. Biodiversity, Volume 4: 3-9.
**** Click here for fast track to illustrations
**** See also War of the Microworlds - How do I kill thee?
Let me count the ways. Apologies to EBB.

Abstract: Predatory fungi attack nematodes and other

microorganisms using a remarkable array of trapping
devices to attract, capture, kill, and digest nematodes
for food. The novelty of these relationships, however,
has deflected attention from a more fundamental role
played by these fungi in the ecosystem. The primary
function of predatory fungi appears to be that of wood
decay and hence they are cellulolytic or ligno-
cellulolytic fungi that attack other organisms as sources
of nitrogen to supplement a primarily carbohydrate
(woody) diet. The Carbon to Nitrogen ratio (C:N) of
wood is extremely high and nitrogen is the limiting
factor for growth. For decay fungi, predation of
nematodes or other organisms adds extra protein
(nitrogen) to the system and reduces the C:N to
manageable proportions. More importantly, nematode
predation, although dramatic, is perhaps of less
importance than the ability of wood decay fungi to
attack bacteria and perhaps other life forms as nutrient
supplements. By definition, therefore, many (most?)
wood decay fungi, are not saprobes (i.e. live on dead
organic material) but are facultative parasites (saprobes
that can also parasitize living organisms for part of
their life in which the predatory parasitic phase runs
parallel to the saprophytic wood decay phase and both
are essential to success. Based on their roles in building
up woody material through mycorrhizal associations,
and destroying it through biological decay, it is not
surprising that the biomass of fungi in forest soils
reaches 90% of the total and exceeds all other micro-
and meso-organisms combined. Based on the
respiration of their massive amounts of hyphal material,
fungi are the driving force in the biological component
of the terrestrial Carbon Cycle.
________________________________________________

Predatory Fungi

Predatory fungi capture, kill, and digest other microorganisms such as

nematodes (Phylum Nematoda) for food. Nematodes are tiny, non-
segmented animals that are protected by a transparent cuticle. They are
elongate, taper at both ends, and mostly measure from 100-1000 microns.
They are also known as roundworms or eelworms but are not related to
the true segmented worms (Phylum Annelida). Nematodes can be
parasitic on plants, animals, or fungi. The majority, however, are free
living and feed on bacteria, fungus spores, etc. for sustenance. In active
soils the number of nematodes can reach twenty million per square metre.

Predatory fungi have developed an astonishing array of trapping devices

to capture nematodes as a food source. Species of the asexual
fungus Arthrobotrys(Hyphomycetes, Deuteromycota) are probably the
most common and certainly the best known predators of nematodes and
have been the topic of many scientific and popular articles. The strategy
for capture is fairly straightforward. Branching hyphae of the fungus
ramify through soil, compost, dung, rotting wood, or wherever nematodes
abound. Traps are initiated in response to a trap-inducing compound
released by the nematodes themselves and are formed at intervals along
the length of the hyphae. The trapping system is analogous to a fishing
line with hooks at intervals.

In species of Arthrobotrys, traps take many forms but the best known are
adhesive (sticky) knobs, adhesive nets (click here and click here), or
rings (click here). The most sophisticated trap is a constricting ring
composed of three cells. When the nematode sticks its head or tail in a
ring, the physical contact triggers the ring and the cells expand rapidly
inwards crushing the victim (click here and click here), which is then
penetrated and digested within hours. Fungal enzymes break down the
body contents of the nematode and the nutrients are translocated
elsewhere within the hyphal system for growth or to produce
conidiophores and conidia (asexual spores,click here and click
here). Spores are carried off by wind, water, mites, insects or whatever
and start the predatory cycle again at a new location. It has been shown
that trapping devices produce a chemical lure that is attractive to
nematodes and this bait attracts the victims to the site of their
destruction. Much of the earlier work on this group of fungi has been
reviewed in detail (Barron 1977).

For many years these dramatic and fascinating methods for capture of
nematodes by predatory fungi distracted observers from the true
significance of this unique relationship. We had occasion however, to do a
detailed study on another genus of the asexual, predatory fungi
called Nematoctonus and this work gave exciting clues to a much more
fundamental relationship.

Nematoctonus is unique amongst predators in possessing clamp

connections (click here) scattered along the hyphae (Drechsler 1941) and
uses distinctive, hour-glass-shaped, adhesive cells to capture the
nematodes (click here). Clamp connections are specialized features of
certain hyphae that indicate unequivocally that the fungus is a species of
the Basidiomycota (mushroom group). Thus, Nematoctonus, classified in
the Hyphomycetes of the Deuteromycota, is closely related to
mushrooms. It is also well established that species of the Basidiomycota
are the most capable degraders of woody stuff (Hudson, 1972). Most
significantly, the fungal nematode predator belonging to the
genus Nematoctonus, produces both cellulases and lignases, the principal
enzymes used by wood decay fungi! Interestingly, and equally significant,
in our earlier studies we tested eighteen species of Arthrobotrys and found
all of them produced cellulases and some were potent producers of this
enzyme (click here). Cellulose and lignin are the stuff of plants, never
animals, and at first thought production of cellulases and lignases seems
odd for animal predators such as Arthrobotrys and Nematoctonus.

Carnivorous Mushrooms

It was our practice at Guelph to isolate predatory fungi from parasitized

nematodes and grow them in pure cultures on nutrient agar in Petri dishes.
Amongst these, we recovered isolates of several Nematoctonus species.
To our surprise and delight, one of our Nematoctonus isolates produced a
mushroom (Basidiomycota) in the Petri dish (click here). This mushroom,
although small, had fully developed gills, the basidia were fully formed
and the basidiospores were discharged actively from the gills. The
mushroom was identified by David Malloch (University of Toronto) as a
species of Hohenbuehelia, a close relative of Oyster
Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus).

To establish the proof of parasitism, we discharged the basidiospores onto

nematode cultures in Petri dishes. In the presence of nematodes the
basidiospores germinated to produce hour-glass-shaped, adhesive knobs
typical of Nematoctonus (click here). The spores adhered to the
nematodes cuticle by means of these adhesive knobs then the fungus
penetrated and killed the host. We had confirmed the connection
between Nematoctonus (asexual state) and Hohenbuehelia (sexual state)
and discovered the first carnivorous mushroom (Barron and Dierkes
1977).

In our paper on these observations, we suggested that nematodes trapped

by the fungus hyphae are merely dietary supplements and that lignin and
cellulose may be the main energy sources. The implication is that the
mushroom fungus Hohenbuehelia (with a conidial
state called Nematoctonus) is primarily a wood-rotting fungus that has
learned the trick of capturing nematodes as a nutritional supplement, and
the predatory habit that has attracted so much attention over the years is a
secondary capability.
Wood Decay and Nitrogen Availability

In natural habitats, population densities are high with severe competition

for available nutrients. In many habitats nitrogen is in such short supply
that it is the limiting factor to growth. Most organisms cannot grow and
multiply successfully unless they can obtain a continuing source of
useable nitrogen for the production of all the nuclei acids, proteins,
enzymes and other compounds essential to growth. Nitrogen compounds
are not just lying around in the habitat or at least not for long. Most of the
organic nitrogen in the natural world is already tied up in other living
things and, if the need is desperate, then living things are the obvious
available source. Freshly dead stuff is OK too, but getting access is a bit
of a dogfight with stiff competition from a myriad of opportunistic
microorganisms. Exploitation of recently-dead, organic remains also
favours organisms with mobility and this excludes the predatory fungi.
Thus, in response to their nitrogen requirements, wood decay fungi, such
as Hohenbuehelia, have evolved unique methods to satisfy their
nutritional demands and capture animals as nutritional sources. Why
wood decay fungi? Why nematodes?

The Earth is covered with a mantle of organic debris from generations

past. The vast bulk of this is from dead, herbaceous or woody plants. The
persistent fractions of woody debris are mostly carbohydrates, composed
of cellulose and lignified cellulose. The latter is a hard, recalcitrant
compound that is very difficult to degrade. But as noted earlier fungi,
particularly Basidiomycota, are adept at rotting wood (click here).

We are well aware that in our own nutrition for a healthy diet, we need the
proper balance of protein (N) and carbohydrate (C). This is no less true
for other organisms, and a proper balance of C to N is essential for
successful growth of all living things. This is often expressed as the ratio
of C to N or C:N. Although the ratio varies a lot amongst organisms, most
require a C:N ranging around 30:1 for good growth.

There is very little nitrogen available in wood and, therefore, the C:N in
wood is very high. It can be 300:1 to 1000:1 or even higher. In theory,
because of these extremely low nitrogen levels, it does not seem possible
for saprobic fungi to decay wood! There are many theories as to how
fungi manage to rot wood and I do not have space to evaluate these at this
time. Suffice to repeat that:

1. Nitrogen is essential to fungal growth and in wood it is the limiting

factor.
2. Nitrogen is not freely available in either dead wood or forest soils.

3. The bulk of fixed nitrogen in forest habitats is bound up in living tissue.

This leads to the general hypothesis that to satisfy their nitrogen

requirement it is necessary for wood decay fungi to obtain nitrogen
compounds directly from other life forms and that the predatory capability
of wood decay fungi has evolved in response to this biological
imperative. The predation of nematodes
byHohenbuehelia/Nematoctonus is considered a specific example of this
phenomenon.

As a corollary, it might be mentioned that once fungi have found a way to

capture and kill nematodes some might take the easy road, give up the cut
and thrust of competition for woody debris and restrict their interest
strictly to nematodes with associated loss of cellulolytic and lignolytic
enzymes. We have found that some predatory fungi produce much less
cellulase than others (unpublished results). Such fungi would eventually
become specialized predators with nematodes as the onlynutritional
source and eventually lose cellulase capability.

Other Carnivorous Mushrooms

The discovery of a carnivorous mushroom and the hypothesis proposed

above prompted two directions for further study. First, if a supplementary
source of nitrogen is essential for the biodegradation of wood by fungi,
then what other wood decay fungi use living nitrogen sources to satisfy
this requirement? Second, what alternative living organisms can be
utilized as nutrient sources?

There are about 25 species of Hohenbuehelia. We isolated or obtained

cultures of a number of these (Thorn and Barron 1984) and found all of
them captured nematodes in the same way as the
original Hohenbuehelia isolate (N90). It is probable that all species
of Hohenbuehelia capture nematodes using adhesive knobs and that any
species thought to be a Hohenbuehelia that doesnt capture nematodes is
not a Hohenbuehelia! Speculative statements like this can now be tested
using molecular methods. Some Hohenbuehelia species were originally
described in the closely related genus Pleurotus, a common wood decay
mushroom with about 50 known species. We tested five species
of Pleurotus, and found that they also exploited nematodes as a nutrient
source but in a remarkably different fashion (Barron and Thorn 1987).

Pleurotus ostreatus, better known as the Oyster Mushroom (click here),

produces tiny appendages on the vegetative hyphae and these secrete
droplets of a potent toxin (click here). This toxin paralyses nematodes in
seconds but does not kill them. The paralyzed victims are located by
specialized directional hyphae, the cuticle is penetrated, and the contents
digested (click here). All five species of Pleurotus tested captured and
killed nematodes in this way. The toxin, to which we gave the trivial
name ostreatin, was potent enough that white worms (Phylum Annelida)
several mm long were eventually inactivated and died when given free
rein to wander around on a culture of Pleurotus. Also, and remarkably,
culture mites wandering around colonies of Pleurotus are either repelled
or killed (unreported observation). It is noteworthy that the toxin is
apparently not produced in the fruitbodies of Pleurotus, so mycophiles
can relax!

The sticky knobs of Hohenbuehelia are nematode specific and these fungi
are, apparently, restricted to this source of biological nitrogen. Pleurotus,
on the other hand, with its non-specific toxin, has a much wider range of
potential victims to attack. The host limits for Pleurotus have never been
fully established. Toxin droplets can be instrumental, not only in
supplying a nitrogen source to Pleurotus, but can also function as
antifeedents that discourage grazing and help protect Pleurotushyphae
from fungus-feeding microfauna such as mites, springtails, water bears, as
well as fungal-feeding nematodes. It is tempting to suggest that the
predatory habit might have originated as a defence response by fungi
against grazing microfauna. It was found that secretory appendages
similar to those of Pleurotus are produced on hyphae of the lawn
mushroom Conocybe lactea (click here). These apparently function to
repel attacks by fungal feeding nematodes and although the nematodes
can be killed by the toxin, Conocybe shows no interest in utilizing their
bodies as a food source (Hutchison et al. 1995).

Bacteria as a Source of Nitrogen for Wood Decay Fungi

If nematodes are a nutritional supplement for wood decay fungi such

as Hohenbuehelia and Pleurotus, we might ask what alternative
organisms can serve this purpose?

To test for nematode predation using Pleurotus, we place a square cm

from a pure culture of the fungus onto a water agar plate (very low
nutrient) and the hyphae then grow thinly over and through the clear agar.
Fifty or so washed nematodes are added to this culture and allowed to
wander around until eventually they are paralysed, killed and digested by
the fungus as described above. In this experiment the nematodes are
washed, but not sterile, and they carry along with them bacteria that are
present in our stock nematode cultures. As the nematodes move across the
agar, some bacteria are dislodged, or are defecated, and eventually form
small microcolonies (100-300 microns diam) scattered over the surface of
the water agar (click here). Remarkably, we observed that
the Pleurotus attacked, destroyed, and consumed the microcolonies of
bacteria in the same way as if they were nematodes . From hyphae in the
vicinity of a bacterial colony, very fine directional hyphae originated de
novo and grew towards the bacterial colonies (click here) and (click here).

These hyphae then penetrate the microcolony (click here), form

specialized feeding cells inside, secrete lytic and other enzymes that kill
and degrade the bacteria(click here), and the fungus then absorbs the
nutrients. Most importantly (as with nematodes) the fungus does not
proliferate in the vicinity of the kill but translocates the nutrients back
out through the directional hyphae to the hyphal grid for further growth
and/or reproduction elsewhere. In the end, the bacterial colony has
completely disappeared and the only evidence of its existence is a clump
of empty, absorption cells that define the previous size and shape of the
colony (click here). The predatory capability against bacteria has since
been demonstrated for a number of wood decay fungi (Thorn and Tsuneda
1993).

Nematophagous fungi were originally thought to be strictly asexual with

no sexual state known. In our work, we discovered the sexual state
of Nematoctonus is the mushroom Hohenbuehelia (Basidiomycota). An
exciting breakthrough by Pfister (1994) and more recently by others has
discovered that several Arthrobotrys species have a sexual state in the cup
fungus Orbilia (Ascomycota). Orbilia belongs to an entirely different
group of fungi than Hohenbuehelia and is also commonly associated with
wood decay. This is an interesting example of convergent evolution. It is
presumed that the same biological forces that have resulted in wood-decay
mushrooms developing predatory capabilities are also operative in wood
decay sac fungi developing similar predatory capabilities but, of course,
with different trapping devices for capturing nematodes. The comments
made about the biology of Hohenbuehelia/Nematoctonus, therefore, hold
equally for Orbilia/Arthrobotrys.

Stephanocysts are two-celled, hemispherical bumps produced on the

hyphae of some species of Hyphoderma (click here). Hyphoderma is
related to the bracket fungi and belongs to a group of common, wood
decay fungi in which the fruitbodies are flat (=resupinate) and often look
like paint blotches on twigs, branches or logs. Tzean and Liou (1993)
showed that stephanocysts were in fact trapping devices to capture
nematodes (click here). There are about 85 species described
in Hyphoderma and not all produce stephanocysts. As
with Hohenbuehelia, I suspect that those that dont produce stephanocysts
are not in the same genus as those that do! We will have to see if the type
species of Hyphoderma has stephanocysts or not before we resolve this
problem. However, the importance of this contribution is the extension of
nematode capture to another major group of wood decay fungi.

The results from our studies and those of others with wood decay fungi
(mushrooms, bracket fungi etc) and litter fungi (including the commercial
mushroom, Agaricus brunnescens, showed that a large percentage could
attack and digest bacterial colonies in the same way as Pleurotus (Barron
1988). In the case of Pleurotusthis involves the following sequence of
events:

1. The production of specialized secretory appendages.

2. The synthesis and secretion of droplets of a potent nematode toxin.

3. The initiation of fine directional hyphae to locate and penetrate the

host.

4. The digestion of the contents of the nematode by absorptive hyphae.

5. The translocation of the absorbed nutrient back out through the

directional hypha to the fungal grid with no proliferation of hyphae at the
site of the kill".

All of our studies were carried out in vitro on water agar (almost no
nutrient), and I suggest that the results reflect the reality in the natural
habitat. In my opinion, the complex sequence of events required to utilize
nematodes or bacterial colonies is too sophisticated to be explained as
cultural artifacts.

The conclusion, therefore, is that many of the fungi involved in decay that
we have referred to as saprobes (or saprophytes) have a Jekyll and Hyde
existence and, as well as being apparently innocuous saprobes, they also
have the faculty of becoming aggressive predators of a variety of other
microscopic life forms including nematodes, bacteria, pollen grains,
yeasts etc. A fungus that is basically a saprophyte but has a parasitic phase
in its life cycle is referred to as a facultative parasite. In the case of plant
parasites this process is usually sequential, where a saprophytic phase is
followed by a parasitic phase or vice versa. In the case of predatory wood
decay fungi, however, the saprophytic phase and parasitic phase run
concurrently and the two phases are parallel rather than sequential. There
is also evidence to show that wood decay fungi can attack other wood
decay fungi (= mycoparasitism) and this may eventually prove to be an
important alternative for some species. Much of the background literature
in this critical area, by a number of individuals and research groups, has
been reviewed previously (Barron 1992).

Fungi possess a battery of enzymes that make them well suited to

breaking down plant debris of all types. As well, the fungus hypha has the
power of intrusive growth. When a hypha reaches a lignified wall it
produces a narrow peg and, by using osmotic forces of growth, this peg
penetrates the toughest walls with cell after cell succumbing to the fungus
attack. Softening up the surface of the wall with enzyme activity often
facilitates penetration. By virtue of their enzymatic versatility and
intrusive penetration, fungi are wood destroyers par excellence.

The Role of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria deserve special mention as they are the primary

catalysts for much of what we are discussing. Slowly but inexorably the
nitrogen levels in forests are built up through eons of time to fuel the
system, maintain the nitrogen balance, and spur biological activity.
Nematodes eat bacteria and the predatory fungi capture the nematodes. It
makes sense to cut out the middle man and go directly to the bacteria.
Taking this one step further it would be a useful attribute to go to the
mother lode and attack the nitrogen-fixing bacteria directly and we found
this to be true for some fungi (Hutchison and Barron 1996). Whether all
of these are plausible hypotheses or flights of speculative fancy remains to
be determined.

Fungi and the Carbon Cycle

So! What about the Carbon Cycle? Ecological studies have found that, in
forest soils, the biomass of fungi is 90% of the total and outweighs the
biomass (= living stuff) of all other microorganisms and mesoorganisms
combined. ( Microorganisms include fungi, bacteria, nematodes, protozoa,
rotifers, algae and all organisms that need a microscope to observe and
identify. Mesoorganisms (= mesofauna) are small to very small but are
still big enough to see with the unaided eye and include springtails, mites,
worms, small insects and insect larvae). This massive fungal component is
based largely on the role of fungi in two major biological systems: 1. As
decay organisms of plant debris. 2. As mycorrhizal partners with trees and
other plants.

The biodegradation of cellulose and lignified cellulose reaches staggering

levels and is responsible for the return of hundreds of billions of tons of
C02 annually to the atmosphere and is a major biological component of
the terrestrial Carbon Cycle (Hudson 1962). Fungi are the major players
in this process through biodegradation of cellulose by decay fungi and
synthesis of cellulose by virtue of their role in mycorrhizal associations.
As far as mycorrhizal fungi are concerned, each forest tree is associated
with hundreds of thousands of kilometres of fungal hyphae (estimates of 2
km per cc, see Read, 1992). Therefore, the photosynthetic process in the
leaves of the trees, that forms the basis for all the organic carbon
compounds that constitute the tree, is mediated through fungi as suppliers
of almost all the essential minerals and water. When we consider the
amount of active fungal hyphae utilized in the biodegradation of all the
woody debris and add the enormous amount of mycorrhizal hyphae
associated with each tree, it is no longer surprising that the biomass of
fungi is 90% of the total living organic material in forest soils.

The forest tree obtains almost all the water and minerals required through
extensive networks of hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are
particularly adept at obtaining low mobility phosphorus ions. They either
grow to the source ions or alternatively they utilize difficult sources of
phosphorus such as rock phosphate. As with decay fungi, nitrogen is also
in short supply. Attacking living animals could kill two birds with one
stone!

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (Hymenomycetes, Basidiomycota) are those fungi

that produce a hyphal sheath around the outside (= ecto) of roots of forest
trees and supply their essential nutrients. Most ectomycorrhizal fungi are
mushrooms and, therefore, closely related to many of the wood decay
fungi that are also mushrooms (Hymenomycetes, Basidiomycota). It is not
unreasonable to suggest, therefore, that mycorrhizal fungi may be as
versatile as wood decay fungi and employ similar or novel methods to
access limiting nutrients. It was shown by Zhao and Guo (1989) that a
number of mycorrhizal fungi were capable of attacking the plant parasitic
fungus Rhizoctonia solani (a facultative parasite that attacks the roots of
many plants). In their discussion, they suggested that this ability
(mycoparasitism) allowed mycorrhizal fungi to protect the tree from
attack by opportunistic parasitic fungi such as Rhizoctonia. This is a very
plausible hypothesis but, in the light of the present discussion, there is an
alternative explanation i.e. that mycorrhizal fungi can attack other fungi as
nutrient sources including perhaps even other mycorrhizal fungi. Both
these explanations could be valid and a specific mycorrhizal fungus could
not only eliminate the competition of other mycorrhizal fungi but also
utilize the nutrients that become available from this conquest. If 90% of
the living organic material (=biomass) in forest soils is fungi, this would
surely be the largest pool of nitrogen and phosphorus available and afford
the best solution to any nutritional limitation. It was shown recently that
mycorrhizal fungi can kill and consume a species of springtail
(Collembola). Along with the earlier work of Zhao and Guo (1989), this is
another indicator of predatory potential by mycorrhizal fungi.
It has been demonstrated that many mycorrhizal fungi secrete external
proteases. This recalls the unexpected production of cellulases by
nematophagous fungi. Why would mycorrhizal fungi produce proteases?
The argument that these mycorrhizal proteases break down free proteins
in soil for utilization by the tree symbiont is plausible. Simple proteins
that become available through death, however, are rapidly depleted by a
host of microorganisms and competition here is very tough. The ability of
mycorrhizal fungi, however, to break down complex, difficult proteins,
unavailable to most other microorganisms, is still a reasonable
consideration. On the other hand, proteases are also essential components
in the enzymatic arsenal of any potential predator or parasite of other
organisms, and this might well be a role in e mycorrhizal fungi. Any
mycorrhizal fungus that is a facultative parasite (as are their wood decay
relatives) certainly has the edge in obtaining useable forms of nitrogen
and phosphorus in a nutrient limiting environment. Whatever the truth,
there remains much to do in untangling the many complex ecological
relationships amongst fungi and the other life forms that abound in forest
soils.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Barron, G. L. 1977. The Nematode-Destroying Fungi. Canadian Biological

Publications. Guelph, Ontario.

Barron, G. L. 1992. Lignolytic and cellulolytic fungi as parasites and predators. In

The Fungal Community. pp311-p326. (Eds. George C. Carroll and Donald T.

Wicklow). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.

Barron, G. L. 1988. Microcolonies of bacteria as a nutrient source for lignicolous

and other fungi. Canadian Journal of Botany 66: 2505-2510.

Barron. G. L. and Dierkes, Y. 1977. Nematophagous fungi: Hohenbuehelia the

perfect state of Nematoctonus. Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 3054-3062.

Barron, G. L. and Thorn R.G. 1987. Destruction of nematodes by species

of Pleurotus. Canadian Journal of Botany 65: 774-778.

Drechsler, C. 1941. Some Hyphomycetes parasitic on free-living terricolous

nematodes. Phytopathology 31:773-802.

Hudson, H. J. 1972. Fungal Saprophytism. Institute of Biologys Studies in Biology

No. 32. Edward Arnold, London.

Hutchison, L. J. , Madzia, S. E. and Barron, G. L. 1995. The presence and

antifeedent function of toxin-producing secretory cells on hyphae of the lawn-
inhabiting agaric Conocybe lactea. Canadian Journal of Botany 74: 431-434.
 Hutchison, L.J. and G.L. Barron. 1996. Parasitism of algae by lignicolous
Basidiomycota and other fungi. Canadian Journal of Botany 75: 1006-1011.

Pfister, D. H. 1994. Orbilia fimicola, a nematophagous discomycete and

its Arthrobotrys anamorph. Mycologia 86: 451-453.

Read, D. J. 1992. The mycorrhizal mycelium. In Mycorrhizal Functioning. pp.

102-133. (Ed. M.F. Allen) Chapman and Hall, New York.

Thorn, R. G. and Barron, G. L. 1984. Carnivorous mushrooms. Science 224:76-78.

Thorn, R.G. and Tsuneda, A. 1993. Interactions between Pleurotus species,

nematodes and bacteria on agar and in wood. Transactions of the Mycological
Society of Japan 34: 449-464.

Tzean, S.S. and Liou, J.Y. 1993. Nematophagous resupinate basidiomycetous

fungi. Phytopathology 83:1015-1020.

Zhao Z.P. and Guo, X. Z. 1989. Study on hyphal hyperparasitic relationships

between Rhizoctonia solani and ectomycorrhizal fungi. Acta Microbiologica Sinica
29: 170-173. <="" body="" width="1" height="1">

Species Index (click

for SLIME MOULD INDEX or HOME PAGE)

NEW SERIES WAR IN THE

click here for

MICROWORLD FUNGI v THE REST

B Ca Co D-F G-H I-L M-
O P R-S T-Z
NOTA BENE: check out 'UPGRADED
2009' pages *** = not bad! **** = rare, different,
interesting, or particularly good

Absidia - **** SEM of Zygospore and Suspensor

Appendages ...........................................................................................NEW
ADDITION 2009
 Acaulopage tetraceros -
**** .................................................................................. HOW DO I KILL THEE? #
20 NEW SERIES
Acremonium - phialospore type anamorph in
Hyphomycetes................................................................................. UPGRADE
D 2009
Agaricus bitorquis mushrooms pushing up hardtop
Agaricus bitorquis
Agaricus bitorquis spore print
Agaricus haemorrhoidarius
Agaricus placomyces *** nice ring
Agaricus placomyces
Agaricus sp.
Agaricus sylvicola spore print
Agaricus sylvicola *** 'free' gills + micrograph of gill
Agrocybe molesta Cracked -top Agrocybe (Lawn
Mushroom) .............................................................................................................
.....NEW ADDITION 2009
Agrocybe vervacti common lawn mushroom in Southern Ontario
Albugo candida - symptoms on Shepherd's Purse
Albugo candida*** asexual state
Aleuria
aurantia ..................................................................................................................
...............................................UPGRADED 2009
Alternaria alternata *** (young)..
Alternaria alternata
Alternaria alternata # 2
Alternaria
alternata #3..............................................................................................................
........................... ........... UPGRADED 2009
Amanita citrina
Amanita brunnescens ***
Amanita ceciliae *** one of my rare flash shots
Amanita constricta
Amanita francheti
Amanita francheti ***
Amanita flavoconia **** nice colour
Amanita frostiana
Amanita fulva
Amanita fulva # 2
Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria var formosa
Amanita vaginata grey! the true grisette
Amanita virosa *** nice shot by Brian
Shelton............................................................................................................ UPG
RADED 2009
Amanita wellsi *** rarely illustrated
Amoebophilus
simplex ...................................................................................................... HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 12 NEW SERIES
 Amoebophilus simplex*** gametangia of the sexual state
Amoebophilus simplex *** fungus parasitizing amoeba
Anastomosis in Arthrobotrys ****.
Armillaria - rhizomorphs
.............................................................................................................................................
.................................. NEW ADDITION 2009
Armillaria mellea *** luminescent fungus - photo by Lex Kreffer - L eiden
Armillaria spp .............................................................................................................................
......................................... UPGRADED 2009
Armillaria limonea *** NZ species
Arthrobotrys species - see also Drechslerella and Dactylellina
Arthrobotrys conoides *** rare 'view' of forest of
conidiophores..................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Arthrobotrys flagrans **** chlamydospores, SEM
................................................................................................ UPGRADED 2009
Arthrobotrys
oligospora ................................................................................................HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 31 NEW SERIES
Arthrobotrys oligospora
Arthrobotrys oligospora *** hyphal 'system' with anastomoses to form
'power grid'
Arthrobotrys oligospora *** diagram by Rick Hurst
Arthrobotrys spp **** Ron Smith's Cellulose/Azure test for cellulases
Ascobolu entire fruitbody (apothecium)
........................................................................................................................ UP
GRADED 2009
Ascobolus asci
Ascobolus **** young and mature 8-spored asci
Ascobolus sp *** more asci
Ascocoryne sarcoides
ASCOMYCOTA - Questions! Questions! QUESTIONS!
Ascotremella
faginea.................................................................................................................................
.........................................................NEW ADDITION 2009
Ascocoryne sarcoides # 2
.................................................................................................................................
.................UPGRADED 2009
Aspergillus clavatus *** shows clavate vesicle
.................................................................................................... UPGRADED
2009
Aspergillus fumigatus *** uniseriateconidiogenous cells
(phialides).....................................................................UPGRADED 2009
Aspergillus fumigatus #2 **** conidiophores, vesicles, etc.
Aspergillus fumigatus - Christmas Card
Aspergillus niger **** pompon heads plus SEM of
head .............................................................................. UPGRADED 2009
Aspergillus wentii **** conidiophores, conidiogenous cells and
conidia ......................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Aspergillus wentii *** shows biseriate arrangement of conidiogenous
cells from vesicle..
 Aspergillus wentii
Aspergillus - *** shows uniseriate arrangement of conidiogenous cells
................................................................................................. NEW ADDITION
Astraeus hygrometricus
Auricularia auricula
Auriscalpium vulgare good for teeth
...................................................................................................................UPGRA
DED 2009
Baeospora myosura *** spruce cone mushroom
Ballocephala
sphaerospora ****............................................................................. HOW DO I KILL
THEE # 1 NEW SERIES
Ballocephala verrucospora - zygospores
Ballocephala **** early infection (Image copied friom MycoAlbum
CD)
Beauveria bassiana **** sympodial development of conidiogenous
cells......................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Beauveria bassiana **** synnematal development on
Hawkmoth.......................................................................
Beauveria bassiana chinch bug
Beauveria bassiana cicada
Blumeria graminis **** conidia
Blumeria graminis ***
Blumeria graminis **** haustoria inside epidermal cell of blue
grass...................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Boletellus russellii #1
Boletellus russellii #2
Boletus bicolor
Boletus chrysenteroides
Boletus edulis nice hat! Lost it in the woods!
Boletus edulis one of the tastiest
Boletus mirabilis
Boletus ornatipes
Boletus pallidus,
Boletus parasiticus *** parasitic on Scleroderma
Boletus smithii
Boletus subvelutipes
Boletus zelleri
Bondarzewia berkeleyi **** Canadian record size?
Botryosporium longibrachiatum a noteworthy
Hyphomycete....................................................................................................................N
EW ADDITION 2009
Botrytis cinerea *** Grey Mould on geraniums
Botrytis cinerea *** Grey Mould of Strawberries - one of my
favourites
Brachymyces
megasporus ****........................................................................................ HOW
DO I KILL THEE # 23 NEW SERIES
 Bulgaria inquinans **** photo: Brian
Shelton .....................................................................................
............. UPGRADED 2009
Calbovista subsculpta *** photo: Jim Ginns
Calocera cornea
Calocybe fulgens
Calvatia gigantea **** great shot by John Sutton of his daughter with
puffball..............................................UPGRADED 2009
Calvatia cyathiformis
Camarophyllus pratensis
Camarophyllus subviolaceus
Cantharellus cibarius
Cantharellus cinnabarinus
Cantharellus lutescens
Catathelasma
ventricosa *** .........................................................................................................
..................................UPGRADED 2009
Catenaria anguillulae **** photomicrograph of zoosporangia in nematode's
body
Catenaria
anguillulae **** ................................................................................................ HOW DO
I KILL THEE # 16 NEW SERIES
Catenaria anguillulae
Ceratocystis fimbriata *** perithecium
.............................................................................................................................................
...............NEW ADDITION 2009
Chaetomium sp. *** remember when they planted flower seeds in cellophane
strips? NO MORE!..................... UPGRADED 2009
Chalciporus piperatus
Chalciporus piperatus
Chlorencoelia versiformis
Chlorociboria aeruginascens **** blue stain
fungus................................................................................................UPGRADED
2009
Chondromyces apiculatus **** colonial bacterium...
Chondromyces apiculatus
Chondromyces crocatus **** - Myxobacteriales - the bacteria that wanted to
be fungi
Chondromyces crocatus
Chroogomphus rutilus
Chrysomphalina aurantiaca ***
Chrysomphalina chrysophylla
Circinella sp *** ...................................................................................................
........................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Cladosporium
sphaerospermum ****.............................................................................................
............................... UPGRADED 2009
Cladosporium cladosporioides
Clavaria fumosa
Clavaria purpurea
 Clavaria purpurea *** photo: Jim Ginns
Clavaria rosea
Clavaria
vermicularis *** .....................................................................................................
...........................................UPGRADED 2009
Clavaria vermicularis
Clavariadelphus ligula
Clavariadelphus ligula
Clavariadelphus pistillaris
Clavariadelphus sachalinensis **** photo: Jim Ginns
Clavariadelphus truncatus
Clavariadelphus truncatus *** Lost for a while but found once more . So thank
you Jim Ginns.
Clavicorona pyxidata **** shows crowns at branch
tips.................................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Clavicorona pyxidata.
Clavulina amethystina
Clavulina amethystina **** great shot of Amethyst Coral - photo: Tony Gola
Clavulina cristata
Clavulinopsis corniculata
Clavulinopsis
fusiformis*** ..........................................................................................................
................................. UPGRADED 2009
Climacodon septentrionale
Clitopilus prunulus ***
Clonostachys rosea *** Verticillate and penicillate
heads...................................................................................................................... NEW
ADDITION 2009.
Cochliobolus sativus **** good stuff on mycophagy fom Terry
Anderson................................................................................ ...... NEW ADDITION
2009
Cochlonema
verrucosum **** ......................................................................................... HOW DO I
KILL THEE # 6 NEW SERIES
Colletotrichum graminicola *** acervulus type
fruitbody.................................................................................... UPGRADED
2009
Coltricia cinnamomea ***
Coltricia montagnei *** strange one!
Coltricia perennis
Conocybe albipes (also known as Conocybe lactea)
Conocybe albipes -
....................................................................................................HOW DO I KILL
THEE # 33 NEW SERIES
Conocybe albipes *** Dunce Cap
Conocybe albipes **** antifeedent secretory appendages
Conocybe filaris
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus atramentarius
Coprinus comatus
Coprinus disseminatus*** taken with a Praktica SLR camera (circa 1954)
Coprinus disseminatus
Coprinus disseminatus
Coprinus micaceus..
Coprinus plicatilis **** Japanese
Parasol........................................................................................................... UPG
RADED 2009
Coprinus plicatilis *** one of the prettiest of the Ink Caps..
Coprinus quadrifidus
Coprinus quadrifidus ***
Coprinus sp fruiting on dung
Cordyceps
capitata ...................................................................................................
.................................... UPGRADED 2009
Cordyceps militaris *** stromata arising from pupal case of
host .................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Cordyceps militaris *** stromatic head with embedded perithecia
Cortinarius acutis
Cortinarius armillatus
Cortinarius cinnamomeus
Cortinarius magellanicus **** Purple Cort of New Zealand
Cortinarius magellanicus *** album cover for 'CHUG' group
Cortinarius mucosus *** cortina
of Cortinarius....................................................................................................UP
GRADED 2009
Cortinarius mutabilis
Cortinarius phoenicious
Cortinarius pholideus
Cortinarius vanduzerensis
Cortinarius violaceus ***
Cotylidia diaphana *** delicately beautiful, species name means
translucent
Craterellus cornucopioides *** Horn of Plenty
Craterellus fallax
Craterellus tubaeformis note name change!!!! Formerly in Cantherellus
Creopus gelatinosus *** good example of stromatic species in Hypocreales
....................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Crepidotus applanatus
Crinipellis piceae
Crinipellis setipes *** like a hairy Marasmius
Crucibulum laeve 1
Crucibulum laeve 2 **** Common Bird's Nest
Crucibulum laeve 3 All stages in development
of nests................................................................................. UPGRADED
2009
Crucibulum laeve *** photomicrograph of section
(L/S)........................................................................................ UPGRADED
2009
Cubic Rot *** hardwood log degraded by wood rotting fungi
 Cudonia monticola
Cunninghamella echinulata **** spores with calcium oxalate spines
.................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Cunninghamella
echinulata *** .......................................................................................................
............................ "
Curvularia lunata **** photomicrograph of conidiophores and conidia
................................................................ UPGRADED 2009
Cyathus
olla *** ...................................................................................................................
........................................... "
Cyathus stercoreus **** Dung Loving Bird's Nest
.......................................................................................................UPGRADED
2009
Cyathus stercoreus Terrazo effect; just for fun!.
Cyathus
striatus *** .............................................................................................................
...............................................UPGRADED 2009
Cystoderma amianthinum ***
Cystoderma amianthinum 2
Cystoderma fallax
Dacrymyces palmatus 1
Dacrymyces palmatus 2 septate
basidiospores...........................................................................................................
.. UPGRADED 2009
Dacrymyces palmatus 3
Dacrymyces palmatus **** basidial types and tuning fork basidia of
Dacrymyces................................ UPGRADED 2009
Dactylella
passalopaga ...............................................................................................................
........HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 13
Dactylellina
candida ****............................................................................................................
............... HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 22
Dactyllelina candida ****- SEM adhesive
knobs....................................................................................................................................
... NEW ADDITION 2009
Daedaleopsis confragosa *** labyrinthiform pores
.................................................................................................................................
... " " "
Dactylellina
copepodii **** ..................................................................................................................
.......HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 8
Daldinia concentrica *** micrograph of section through
stroma............................................................................................................... N
EW ADDITION 2009
Dasyscyphus sulphureus ***
Dasyscyphus virgineus ***
Dictyophora duplicata
 Dictyostelium discoideum I *** diagram + spores and
myxamoebae.............................................................................................................. NEW
ADDITION 2009
Dictyostelium discoideum II *** sporangia spores and
stalks........................................................................................................................
. " " "
Drechmeria
coniospora .....................................................................................................................
.........HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 26
Drechslerella**** early infection (Image copied from MycoAlbum
CD)
Drechslerella anchonia **** SEM of trapped nematode
Drechslerella
anchonia **** ..................................................................................................................
.. HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 40
Drechslerella anchonia SEM nematode crushed by CR
Drechslerella anchonia *** spores germinating to produce traps
Drechslerella brochopaga *** giant rings
Drechslerellas dactyloides *** interlocking rings
Entoloma
abortivum ................................................................................................................
...........................................UPGRADED 2009
Entoloma hochstetteri **** Blue Entoloma of NZ
Entoloma lividum **** Mushroom poisoning by Andrus Voitk
Entomophthora muscae **** Fly Killer
Entomosporium mespili **** Parasite of Craetagus
Epichloe typhina - stromata, perithecia,
ascospores ............................................................................................... UPGR
ADED 2009
Eurotium ***cleistothecia and
ascospores............................................................................................................................
........................... NEW ADDITION 2009
Eurotium chevalieri *** growing on camera case in
basement .............................................................................. "
ERYSIPHALES VISUAL KEY TO
ERYSIPHALES................................................. UPGRADED 2009
Erysiphe graminis - see Blumeria.
Erysiphe graminis - see Blumeria
Exidia glandulosa
Favolaschia calocera
Flammulina velutipes\
Fomes
fomentarius..............................................................................................................
.............................................. UPGRADED
2009
Fomitopsis
pinicola ...................................................................................................................
...................................... UPGRADED 2009
Fusarium sp microconidia
 Galerina autumnalis *** Deadly
Galerina.................................................................................................................
UPGRADED 2009
Galerina autumnalis
Galiella rufa
Ganoderma/Fomes *** Hats off to
Ganoderma/Fomes............................................................................................. UPGRA
DED 2009
Ganoderma
applanatum *** ......................................................................................................
................................... UPGRADED 2009
Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma
lucidum Ling Chi.......................................................................................
....................................
Gastrocybe lateritia ***..
Geastrum fimbriatum
Geastrum pectinatum
Geastrum
quadrifidum ***......................................................................................................
........................................ UPGRADED 2009
Geastrum sp.
Geastrum saccatum **** Nested Earthstar
Geastrum saccatum
Geastrum triplex **** Collared
Earthstar.............................................................................................................. U
PGRADED 2009
Geastrum triplex **** One of my best
finds ever............................................................................................
"
Geoglossum
difforme **** .....................................................................................................
..................................... UPGRADED 2009
Gloeophyllum sepiarium
Geoglossum difforme. *** Fruitbody (apothecium) of Earth Tongue with
micrograph of squash .......................UPGRADED 2009
Gomphidius
subroseus **** nice!...............................................................................................
.....................................UPGRADED 2009
Gomphus floccosus **** like orange spikes hammered into the ground
Gomphus floccosus - western
.................................................................................................................................
........ UPGRADED 2009
Gomphus
clavatus *** ......................................................................................................................
.............................. UPGRADED 2009
Gymnopilus luteofolius
Gymnopilus spectabilis
Guepiniopsis see Heterotextus alpina
Gymnopus acervatus
 Gymnopus confluens
Gymnopus dryophilus
Gyrodon merulioides
Gyrodon merulioides
Gyroporus cyanescens,
Gyromitra esculenta
Gyromitra infula
Haptocillium species - endoparasite of
nematodes ..................................................... HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 35 NEW
SERIES
Haptocillium sp.1
Haptocillium sp.2
Haptoglossa mirabilis -
..................................................................................................... HOW DO I KILL
THEE? # 19 NEW SERIES
Haptoglossa mirabilis **** TEM of harpoon-shaped projectile of the Gun
Cell
Haptospora
appendiculata .....................................................................HOW DO I KILL
THEE?# 32
Harposporium
anguillulae **** ......................................................................................HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 6 NEW SERIES
Harposporium
spirosporum ..............................................................................................HOW
DO I KILL THEE? # 30 NEW SERIES
Harposporium - spores being consumed by amoebae
Helicocephalum oligosporum **** rare photomicrograph of the conidial coil
HEARTS OF OAK ****** A GOOD STORY
Helicocephalum oligosporum
Helicocephalum
oligosporum **** .............................................................................HOW DO I KILL
THEE? #14 NEW SERIES
Helicodendron tubulosum **** aquatic hyphomycete with interesting
flotation spore dispersal
Helvella coria
Helvella crispa *** White Saddle Fungus
Helvella lacunosa
Helvella leoprina see Otidea
Helvella macropus
Hericium abietis
Hericium americanum ***
Hericium americanum
Heterotextus alpinus
Heterotextus alpinus 2 *** golden droplets
Hohenbuehelia / Nematoctonus **** ....................................................................
............ HOW DO I KILL THEE # 9 NEW SERIES
Hohenbuehelia N90
Hohenbuehelia N90 **** carnivorous mushroom hyphae with captured
nematode
Hohenbuehelia N90 **** FIRST carnivorous mushroom discovered
Hohenbuehelia N90
Hydnellum aurantiacum
Hydnellum caeruleum
Hydnellum concrescens
Hydnellum peckii
Hydnellum peckii *** Bleeding Tooth Fungus (young)
Hydnellum suaveolans or H. caeruleum or whatever?
Hydnum umbilicatum
HYGROCYBE, HYGROPHORUS, CAMAROPHYLLUS
Hygrocybe acutoconica
Hygrocybe cantharellus *** book cover shot for Mushrooms of Eastern
Canada....
Hygrocybe ceracea
Hygrophorus chrysodon
Hygrocybe coccinea
Hygrocybe conica
Hygrophorua eburneus
Hygrophorus erubescens
Hygrocybe flavescens
Hygrophorus fuligineus,
Hygrophorus hypothejus
Hygrocybe laeta
Hygrocybe marginata
Hygrocybe marginata #2
Hygrocybe miniata *** Vermilion Wax
Cap..................................................................................................................UPG
RADED 2009
Hygrocybe miniata **** (Image copied from MycoAlbum CD)
Hygrocybe nitida,
Hygrocybe psittacina *** Green Wax Cap
Hygrocybe punicea
H.ygrocybe virginea
Hygrocybe vitellina
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca *** False
Chanterelle................................................................................................... UPG
RADED 2009
Hygrophoropsis olida *** the 'other' Hygrophoropsis
Hygrophorus agathosomas
H.ygrophorus bakerensis
Hygrophorus russula
Hygrophorus olivaceoalbus
Hygrophorus pratensis see Camarophyllus
Hygrophorus pudorinus
Hygrophorus speciosus,
H.ygrophorus subviolacea
Hymenoscyphus fructigenus
Hymenoscyphus subcarneus
HYPHAE ***
HYPHAE revisited ***
 Hyphal anastomoses **** important! important!! IMPORTANT!!!
Hyphoderma sp *** stephanocysts
Hypholoma dispersum
Hypholoma sublateritium *** Brick-Red Hypholoma
Hypocrea pulvinata*** stromatic Hypocreales attacking Bracket
fungus................................................................................................NEW ADDITION
2009
Hypomyces chrysospermum *** Infected bolete
and micrograph Sepedonium state............................................UPGRADED
2009
Hypomyces hyalina
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces lactifluorum
Hypomyces
luteovirens ***........................................................................................................
........................................................................NEW ADDITION 2009
Hypoxylon fragiforme
Inocybe spp
Ischnoderma resinosum *** Late Fall Bracket - one of the prettier ones
Jekyll/Hyde Hypothesis **** BELIEVE IT!!
Laccaria amethystea
Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalis western species
Laccaria laccata
Laccaria
ochropurpurea *** .............................................................................................................
........................................................... NEW ADDITION 2009
Laccaria tortilis **** tiny mushroom with the big
sporees.................................................................................... UPGRADED
2009
Lachnellula
agassizii *** ...........................................................................................................
.................................... UPGRADED 2009
Lactarius lignyotus
Laetiporus conifericola *** photo: Jim Ginns
Laetiporus sulphureus ** Edible they claim!
Lagenidium (Chlamydomyzium) oviparasiticum -
....................................................... HOW DO I KILL THEE ? # 25 NEW SERIES
Lagenidium oviparasiticum *** zoospores encysted on nematode egg
..................................................................UPGRADED 2009
Lasiosphaeria spermoides - perithecia.
Leccinum atrostipitatum
Leccinum aurantiacum
Leccinum chromapes
Leccinum insigne
Leccinum scabrum
Lemonniera sp - aquatic Hyphomycete
Lentinellus ursinus
Leotia lubrica *** Jelly
Baby.........................................................................................................................
........... UPGRADED 2009
 Leotia viscosa **** Green-Headed Jelly
Baby........................................................................................................... UPGR
ADED 2009
Leotia viscosa
Lepiota atrodisca
Lepiota cristata
Lepiota rhacodes
Lepiota rubrotincta
Lepista irina **** Mushroom poisoning by Andrus Voitk
Lepista nuda
Lepista nuda
Lepista nuda **** -
.......................................................................................................... HOW DO
I KILL THEE # 24 NEW SERIES
Leptonia incana***
Leptonia incana
Leptonia incana 2 *** another green mushroom
Leucoagaricus naucina *** common lawn mushroom in Ontario
Leucocoprinus luteus *** Planter Pot Mushroom Photo: Darrel Izzard
Lichens on a farm
gate *** ..................................................................................................................
............................ UPGRADED 2009
Luminescent hyphae *** Armillaria mellea - photo by Lex Kreffer - L
eiden
Lycoperdon candidum
Lycoperdon curtisii
Lycoperdon nigrescens ***
Lycoperdon perlatum **** Gem-studded Puffball
.........................................................................................................
Lycoperdon perlatum
Lycoperdon pusillum
Lycoperdon pyriforme - rhizomorphs
Lycoperdon pyriforme ***
Macrolepiota rhacodes
Macrotyphula juncea ****
Marasmiellus candidus *** prettier upside down!
Marasmius capillaris *** used a bean bag for this one
Marasmius oreades Fairy Ring Marasmius - very common in
western Canada
Marasmius pulcherripes ***
Marasmius rotula
Medusamyces
lunulosporus ..................................................................................................HOW DO I
KILL THEE # 27 NEW SERIES
Melanotus abietinus
Meria
harposporioides **** .................................................................................................HO
W DO I KILL THEE # 3 NEW SERIES
Microglossum rufum **** better than the one in my book!
Mitrophora semilibera
 Monotropa uniflora *** Indian Pipe or Ghost Plant - not a
fungus ........................................................................ UPGRADED 2009
Morchella elata Black Morel
Morchella
esculenta..................................................................................................................
.......................................... " "
Morchella semilibera *** (Image copied from MycoAlbum CD)
MORELS *** short article on May is the Month for
Morels....................................................................................... UPGRADED
2009
Morganella subincarnata
Mucronella bresadolae
Mucronella pendula *** Icicle
Fungus ...................................................................................................................
.... UPGRADED 2009
Mutinus ravenelii # 1
Mutinus ravenelii # 2
Mutinus ravenelii # 3 **** labelled section through egg stage
Mutinus elegans #1 hatched some 'eggs' in a flower pot!
Mutinus elegans # 2
Mutinus elegans # 3 ****
Mycena amabilissima
Mycena aurantiidisca **** one of the prettiest Mycenas from the West
Mycena
epipterygia *** .......................................................................................................
.............................................UPGRADED 2009
Mycena
galericulata..............................................................................................................
.............................................UPGRADED 2009
Mycena haematopus *** most Mycenas photograph well
..................................................................................... "
Mycena leaiana
Mycena leaiana *** gills
.................................................................................................................................
............. UPGRADED 2009
Mycena rorida **** coated with slime to protect from mushroom flies
Mycena rosella
Mycena strobilinoides
Mycogone cervinus
Mycogone perniciosa *** aleuriospores (conidia)
Myriostoma coliformis **** set up in my garden using 30-year-old herbarium
specimens....................................UPGRADED 2009
Myzocytiopsis **** sexual stages (Image copied from MycoAlbum
CD)
Myzocytiopsis
humicola **** ............................................................................................. HO
W DO I KILL THEE # 2 NEW SERIES
Myzocytiopsis humicola *** death of the nematodes
Myxotrichum *** - example of a Gymnothecium type ascoma in the
Gymnoascaceae of the Ascomycota
 Nectria cinnabarina ***
.................................................................................................................................
............... UPGRADED 2009
Neobulgaria pura l
Neocudoniella albiceps
Neolecta irregularis
Nidula niveo-tomentosa *** pretty bird's nest from the
west.................................................................................. UPGRADED 2009
Nidula niveo-tomentosa
Nolanea murraii **** Yellow Unicorn Mushroom - daffodil-yellow
Nolanea quadrata *** = Entoloma salmoneum - salmon coloured
Nyctalis parasitica
Oedocephalum sp *** Anamorphic (asexual) state of Discomycete
Olpidium
vermicola **** .................................................................................................... HOW
DO I KILL THEE # 5 NEW SERIES
Onnia tomentosa
Otidea auricula = Helvella leporina according to authority Harri Harmaja
(Finnish Museum of Natural History)
Otidea onotica = probably Otidea unicisa according to authority Harri Harmaja
(Finnish Museum of Natural History)
Otidea tuomikoskii according to authority Harri Harmaja (Finnish Museum of
Natural History)
Pachyella clypeata
Panaeolina foenisecii lawn mushroom - Haymaker's Mushroom
Panellus longinquus
Penicillium*** - SEM of conidial head showing metulae, phialides and
phialospores...........................................................................NEW ADDITION 2009
Penicillium cyclopium
Penicillium digitatum on orange
Penicillium italicum
Penicillium sp **** photomicrograph..................................................................
........................................................UPGRADED 2009
Penicillium sp *** with human hair for scale!
Peniophorella
praetermissum ...................................................................................... HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 14 NEW SERIES
Periconia macrospinosa *** pretty for a Hyphomycete
Pestalotiopsis sp *** conidial ballet
Peziza cerea
Peziza domiciliana - apothecial fruitbodies fruiting on concrete basement floor
Peziza sp*** hymenium of asci and
paraphyses ...................................................................................................... UPGRAD
ED 2009
Phaeocollybia californica
Phaeolus schweinitzii
Phaeolus schweinitzii *** Dye Maker's Polypore
Phallus
ravenelii **.............................................................................................................
............................................. UPGRADED 2009
 Pholiota aurivella
Pholiota carbonaria
Pholiota flammans **** nice colour
Pholiota granulosa
Pholiota squarrosa *** most Pholiota species have scaly caps and stalks
Pholiota squarrossoides
PHOTOGRAPHING SLIME MOULDS
Phragmidium mucronata **** teliospore of rose rust from a 100-year-old
herbarium collection
Phycomyces blakesleeanus **** young zygospores with suspensor
appendages ................................................UPGRADED 2009
Phycomyces blakesleeanus
Phylloporus rhodoxanthus
Phylloporus rhodoxanthus - gilled bolete
Phyllotopsis nidulans
Phyllotus porrigen
Physalacria inflata **** an unusual member of the macrofungi
Physalacria inflata #2 *** Bladder Fungus
Physarum polycephalum *** Plasmodium on water agar
Phytophthora infestans *** deciduous sporngia (conidia?)
Pilobolus crystallinus *** hand lens and some herbivore droppings early in
the morning!
Pleurotus dryinus
Pleurotus
ostreatus *** .................................................................................................HOW
DO I KILL THEE? # 34 NEW SERIES
Pleurotus ostreatus **** 100 million spores and hour!
Pleurotus ostreatus **** pretty picture
Pleurotus ostreatus
Pleurotus ostreatus
Pluteus atricapillus
Pluteus atricapillus shows 'free' gills
Pluteus atromarginatus black-edged gills
Pluteus tomentosulus *** white cap with pinkish gills
Pluteus umbrosus
Polyporus squamosus
Polyporus squamosus
Polyporus squamosus
Postia caesia *** blue bracket
PRAKTICA 35 MM SLR circa 1950
Psathyrella delineata
Psathyrella longistriata
Psathyrella velutina
Psathyrella velutina
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum
Ptychoverpa bohemica
Pythium caudatum
Puccinia coronata
Puccinia graminis
Puccinia lagenophorae on Senecio vulgaris (Image from MycoAlbum CD)
 Puccinia - micrograph of aecia and
spermogonia.............................................................................................................
..................................NEW ADDITION 2009
Pycnoporellus alboluteus
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus
Pythium
caudatum ......................................................................................................... HO
W DO I KILL THEE? # 29 NEW SERIES
Ramaria araiospora *** Red Coral Fungus
Ramaria aurea
Ramaria stricta
Ramariopsis crocea
Ramariopsis laeticolor
Ramariopsis kunzei *** White Coral Fungus
Rhizophydium pollonis *** chytrid attacking pine pollen grains as
nutrient source
Rhizopus
stolonifer *** pretty! ..............................................................................................
........................................ UPGRADED 2009
Rhizopus stolonifer -
culture.............................................................................................................................
.................................................NEW ADDITION 2009.
Rhodotus palmatus **** exceptional photo of this species by Greg Thorn
Rhopalomyces
elegans .................................................................................................... HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 28 NEW SERIES
Rhopalomyces elegans parasite of nematode eggs
Rhytisma punctatum
Roseodiscus subcarneus
Rotiferophthora spp **** ..................................................................... H
OW DO I KILL THEE? # 21 NEW SERIES
Rozites caperata
Rotiferophthora **** floating conidiophores
Russula sp Banana slug eating mushroom
Russula claroflava
Russula decolorans *** pretty picture by Andrus Voitk
Saccharomyces cereviseae
Saccharomyces cereviseae **** yeaast on
pizza....................................................................................................... UPGRA
DED 2009-3
Saccobolus **** squash of whole apothecium - all
stages..................................................................................... ....UPGRADED 2009
Saccobolus glaber **** entire apothecium of coprophilous discomycete..
Saccobolus glaber **** young and old asci with
ascospores................................................................................. UPGRADED
2009
Saprolegnia ****
Saprolegnia sp *** oogonia and
oospores.................................................................................................................
UPGRADED 2009
 Saprolegnia sp
Saprolegnia - hyphae
Sarcodon fuscoindicus
Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcodon imbricatus
Sarcoscypha occidentalis **** ( Image copied from MycoAlbum CD)
Sarcoscypha
austriaca *** .........................................................................................................
.....................................UPGRADED 2009
Schizophyllum
commune ***.......................................................................................................................
........................................................ NEW ADDITION
Scleroderma areolatum
Scleroderma
aurantium ..............................................................................................................
......................................UPGRADED 2009
Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum
"
Scutellinia erinacea **** the 'other' common
Scutellinia............................................................................................UPGRADE
D 2009
Scutellinia scutellata eyelash fungus
Sepedonium chrysospermum *** micrograph of yellow aleuriospores
Serpula lacrymans
SLIME MOULD INDEX
Soil Fungi **** Dilution plate from soil (from 1/000th g
soil)................................................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Sordaria fimicola anastomosing hyphae............
Sordaria fimicola *** perithecium with phototeropic
neck.......................................................................................... UPGRADED
2009
Sordaria fimicola asci and
ascospores
UPGRADED 2009
Sordaria fimicola ascospores with halo
Sowerbyella rhenana *** False Orange Peel Fungus
Sphaerobolus stellatus
Spathulariopsis
velutipes...................................................................................................................
................................UPGRADED 2009
Spinellus
fusiger ***
UPGRADED 2009
Spinellus fusiger
Spirogyromyces vermicola **** microscopic
tapeworm.......................... HOW DO I KILL THEE # 4 NEW SERIES
Staphylotrichum
coccosporum **** ..................................................................................................
...............................................................NEW ADDITION 2009.
 Stereum ostrea
Strobilomyces strobilaceus *** Old Man of the Woods, photo: Brian Shelton
Strobilomyces strobilaceus
Strobilurus trullisatus
Stropharia sp **** .....................................................................................
.. HOW DO I KILL THEE #10 NEW SERIES
Stropharia aeruginosa***.
Stropharia ambigua ***
Stropharia hardii
Stropharia hornemannii ***
.................................................................................................................................
............UPGRADED 2009
Stropharia hornemannii
Stropharia semiglobata on moose dung
Stropharia sp. *** akanthocytes
Stylopage
hadra ...................................................................................... HOW DO I KILL
THEE? # 17 NEW SERIES
Suillus aeruginascens
Suillus brevipes
Suillus
cavipes ....................................................................................................................
..................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Suillus granulatus
Suillus
grevillei

Suillus spraguei
Suillus umbonatus,
Syncephalastrum
racemosum *** .......................................................................................................
...................................UPGRADED 2009
Syncephalastrum racemosum **** merosporangia radiating from apical
vesicle......................................................... UPGRADED 2009
Syncephalastrum racemosum rhizoids
Syncephalis nodosa *** mycoparasite on other
Zygomycota .........................................HOW DO I KILL THEE? # 37 NEW SERIES
Syzygospora mycetophila
Syzygospora mycetophila
Taphrina deformans
Tectella patellaris
Tetracladium sp - aquatic Hyphomycete
Tetracoccosporium paxianum
Tetrapyrgos subdendrophora **** not often illustrated and pretty gill structure
underneath
Thamnidium elegans *** Sporangioles and
sporangiospores......................................................................................... UPGR
ADED 2009
Thaxterogaster porphyreus
 Thecothejus pelletieri **** 32-spores ascus with operculum
.......................................................................................UPGRADED 2009
Thelephora caryophyllea
Thelephora caryophyllea *** Carnation Thelephora
Thelephora palmata
Trametes versicolor **** colourful Turkey Tail always looks good
Tremella foliacea *** Leafy Tremella
Tremella mesenterica
Tremella reticulata
Tremellodendropsis semivestitum
Tremiscus helvelloides
Tremiscus helvelloides **** very nice shot by Jim Ginns
Triacutus subcuticularis -
............................................................................. HOW DO I KILL THEE? #
18 NEW SERIES
Trichaptum biforme colourful brackets some with a purple edge
Trichoglossum hirsutum
Tricholoma
alboviolaceum......................................................................................................................
.............................................................. NEW ADDITION 2009
Tricholoma saponaceum *** Soapy
Tricholoma...........................................................................................................................
.................. NEW ADDITION 2009
Tricholoma myomyces
Tricholoma
portentosum ........................................................................................................................
............................................................... NEW ADDITION 2009
Tricholoma virgatum.
Tricholomopsis
rutilans ................................................................................................................................
........................................................ NEW ADDITION 2009
Trichurus
spiralis .....................................................................................................
............................................ NEW ADDITION 2009
Tricladium sp - aquatic Hyphomycete
Tylopilus felleus *** Bitter
Bolete.......................................................................................................................
................................................. NEW ADDITION 2009
Typhula incarnata *** snow mould (photo Yijun Yang and Tom Hsiang)
Uncinula necator **** powdery mildew of
grapes...................................................................................................................................
......... UPGRADED 2009
Varicosporium elodeae - an aquatic Hyphomycete
Volucrispora sp.*** aquatic
hyphomycete........................................................................................................................
................................. NEW ADDITION 2009
Volutella ciliata *** fruiting on water surface from a colonized submerged fir
leaf
 Venturia inaequalis *** apple scab fungus - symptoms on fruit
................................................................................................................... NEW
ADDITION 2009
Venturia inaequalis *** micrographs of 'perithecium' and Fusicladium conidia
....................................................................................... NEW ADDITION 2009
Xeromphalina campanella ..
Xerula furfuracea ***
Xerula furfuracea
Xylaria hypoxylon *** Candlesnuff or Antler Fungus
Xylaria hypoxylon *** perithecial stromata
Xylaria longipes ***
Xylaria polymorpha Dead Man's
Fingers................................................................................................................ U
PGRADED 2009
Xylobolus frustulatus *** Ceramic
Fungus ..
UPGRADED 2009
Zoopage sp. *** predator on
amobeae .......................................................... HOW DO I KILL THEE #
38 NEW SERIES
Zoophagus
insidians **** ............................................................................. HOW DO I
KILL THEE? # 11 NEW SERIES
Zygorhynchus **** SEM of
Zygospore................................................................................................................
.................................................NEW ADDITION 09