15

Review Plant Biotechnology, 16(1), 15-25 (1999)

Creative Ecology: Restoration of Native Forests by Native Trees

Akira MiyaWaki
Japanese Centerfor International Studies in Ecology (JISE) and Nagano Nature Conservation Research Institute (NACRI). Japan
(Correspondence, Fex, 81-45-651-7692; E-mai!, miyawaki@jise,or.jp)

Ecological devastation is becoming a serious problem locally to globally, inproportion as people

seek affluent living circumstances. Environmental devastation originated mainly from nature exploita-
tion and construction of cities and industrial institutions with non-biological materials. Humans
have ignored the rules of nature, biodiversity and coexistence.
One of the best measures we can take anywhere, in order to restore ecosystems indigenous to each
region and to maintain global environments, including disaster prevention and C02 absorption, is to
restore native, multi-stratal forests following an ecological method.
Iwould like to refer to the experimental reforestation projects based on ecological studies and their
results at about 550 Iocations throughout Japan and in Southeast Asia, South America, and China. We
have proved that it is possible to restore quasi-natural multi-stratal forest ecosystems in 20 to 30 years
if
we take the ecological method.

1. Introduction measures to restore environments of the earth locally to

globally, with our gaze fixed upon the coming 2lst and
Until recently there were two kinds of tree planting. 22nd centuries [8, 9]
.

One involves monocultures of needle-leaved trees or fast- The green

surface of a multi-stratal forest of the
growing exotic species for the purpose of producing lum- potential natural vegetation is about thirty times as large as
ber. Of course producing lumber is an important business, that of a mono-stratal lawn, which needs periodical
but monocultures of species unsuited to the habitat, soil maintenance. As for absorbing and accumulating C02
and climate will need maintenance, such as weeding and multi-stratal native forests have a much larger capacity
cutting off lower branches, for at least 20 years. Those than do lawns.
conifers and exotic species are generally shallow-rooted When colonies, villages and towns were constructed
and highly vulnerable to strong winds, heavy rain and dry in Japan, our ancestors usually grew forests indigenous to
air [1] What is worse, many pine woods throughout Japan
.
the region around shrines or temples, which are called
are damaged by forest fires and so called pine worms, and Chinju-no-mori. Our method of reforestation "Native
cedars (Cryptomeria japonica) cause pollen allergies which forests by native trees" is based on this traditional
"Chinju-no-mori" and ecology, a new synthetic
many people are suffering from every spring [2] .
Japanese
The other kind of planting is tree planting for beau- science that integrates biocoenoses and environment [1, 2] .

tification. Some examples of this are Japanese gardens, In the 1960s we started determination and sys-
miniature gardens, and bon-sai, dwarf trees, which can be tematization of phylosociological community units
said to be enhanced to the most typical Japanese culture. througll steady ecological field investigations throughout
In the Edo era, the Emperor's domains were covered with Japan. Then we made maps of the actual vegetation of
fine nearly-natural forests, and common people who en- Japan, which can be used as diagnoses of natural en-
vied them began to imitate and enjoy nature in and around vironments, and middle-scaled (1/500,000) potential
their own small houses. They were apparently beautiful natural vegetation maps of Japan, which can be used as
but cost a lot for maintenance. Recently decorative tree- ecological scenerios for restoration of green environments
and fiower-planting campaigns are popular in towns and [10].
cities [3]･ We see
many parks dotted with adult trees We choose the main tree species and their companion
planted on the lawn. These plantings may be good to species from the potential natural vegetation of the area,
delight citizens' eyes. They not only need a lot of main- collect acorns of those species, grow the seedlings in pots
tenance, however, but also are insufficient to protect en- until the root system fully develops, and mix and plant
vironments and prevent disasters [2] .
them closely together following the system of natural
It will be
a third planting method based on ecological forests. This is the way we succeeded in restoring forests at
studies that is indispensable to restore green environments, about 550 Iocations in Japan.
to prevent disasters, and to sustain local to global en- We applied this ecological method to reforestation in
vironments [4-6] Through thorough vegetation-ecological
.
Malaysia in Southeast Asia, in Brazil and Chile in South
field surveys, we grasp the potential natural vegetation of America, and in some parts of China, and found each of
the area. Following the results of field surveys, we carry them successful. We believe that to continue carrying out
out what we call, restoration of "native forests by native reforestation projects based on ecology on a global scale
trees" [7] This reforestation is one of the most solid
.
must be essential for our future wholesome environments.
16

2. Method The main tree species from the potential natural

vegetation are generally deep- and straight-rooted and
The tree species must be chosen from the forest com- have been said to be difficult to transplant. We solved the
munities of the region in order to restore multi-stratal problem by planting potted seedlings. We first collect
natural or quasi-natural forests. If the main tree species seeds, that is, acorns. We germinate the secds, move the
are badly chosen, it will be difficult to regenerate native seedlings to pots when two or three leaves have sprouted,
forests which develop as time goes by. In the plant com- and cultivate them until the root groups fill the containers
munities, if the top is authentic, the followers are also real, and seedlings grow 30 to 50 centimeters high. It takes
just like in human society. one-and-a-half years to two years in the temperate climate
For the proper choice of species, we first make a zone where most cities of Japan and the United States are
through field vegetation investigation of the area, espe- located. In the tropical rain forest zone, where Borneo and
cially in shrine and temple forests, old house forests, Brazil lie, it takes only six to eight months to complete the
natural forests remaining on slopes, and substitute vege- growth of the potted seedlings [15].
tation changed by various human impacts. The results of Then we adjust the soil conditions of the planting site.
the investigations obtained in this way are called relev6s, Topsoil is usually washed away both in Japanese urban
which are equivalent to a census of green enviornments [3, areas and on tropical barren land, from shifting cultiva-
4, 11]. tion and forest felling. Therefore it is necesarry to recover
Next, we decide local community units by tablework 20 to 30 centimeter-deep topsoil by mixing the soil of the
comparing relev6s and grouping similar species combina- region and compost from organic materials such as fallen
tions. Then we compare them with community units in- leaves, mowed grass and so on.
vestigated and systematized in other parts of the world and Next we plant potted seedlings of the main tree species
see the species combinations. When we see species combi- from the potential natural vegetation along with compan-
nations, we find high-fidelity species for particular com- ion species according to the system of natural forests.
munities. These species are called character species. We Dense and mixed planting of two or three seedlings per
decide phytosociological units based on the character spe- square meter will be appropriate.
cies. We compare phytosociological units widely from Mulching with organic materials such as rice straw is
natural forests to secondary communities, and decide "as- needed in order to prevent soil eroslon and moisture loss
sociations", basic units of a plant community system, after planting. For two or three years after planting, we
which can be applied to worldwide vegetation science. have to cut or pull weeds and utilize them as mulching
Likewise, we group the units into alliances, orders and material by leaving them around the young trees. In about
classes by species combinations. In this way the hierarchi- three years the trees grow 2to 3meters high, and the crown
cal vegetation community system is decided [7]. covering the forest floor comes to keep the sunlight from
Vegetation maps are drawn so that even non-experts coming in. Consequently very few weeds can grow. This is
in vegetation can understand the vegetation community how nature manages itself through natural selection.
units and their distribution. The present distributions of Three years after planting, the site basically becomes
vegetation communities are drawn onto actual vegetation maintenance free.
maps, which work as vegetation-ecological diagnoses not Dense and mixed planting of community species of
only for pure scientific purposes but also for the purpose indegenous forests will need no watering, insecticides or
of new utilization of land and decisions whether herbicides, with some exceptions. Natural management is
reforestation is needed [12]. the best management [7].
There is another concept of vegetation, i.e, the
potential natural vegetation [13].Without any human im- 3. Experiments and Results
pact, what vegetation could the land hold as the sum total
of natural environments? The potential natural vegetation 3.1 Internal reforestation
indicates the potential capacity of the land, theoretically Since 1973 we have been forming environment pro-
considered, as to what vegetation it can sustain. To decide tection forests around newly built ironworks and power
the potential natural vegetation, we investigate remaining stations in cooperation with farsighted Japanese corpora-
natural vegetation and compare it with various secondary tions such as Nippon Steel Corp.. Tokyo Electric Power
vegetation types from the factors of time and space. We Co.. Kansai Electric Power Co. Honda Engineering Co.,
,
also investigate the soil profile, topography and land Toray Textile Co., Mitsui Estate Co., Mitsubishi Corp.,
utilization and put these together to grasp the potential JUSCO EAON Group, and so on. In the latter half of the
natural vegetation [14]. 1970s municipalities like Kanagawa Pref., Okayama Pref.
,
Potential natural vegetation maps are essential for Nagano Pref., Nara Pref., Yokohama City, Mikawa City,
each ecological study field and are significant as ecological and Nagoya City, as well as the central government in-
diagnoses for restoration of green environments. We cluding the Ministry of Construction, began to ask us to
found it possible to restore native green environments, regenerate native forests with native trees. The planting
multi-stratal forests, by choosing the main species from sites range 3.000 kms from Hokkaido in the north to
the potential natural vegetation of the area and planting Okinawa in the south. As of August 1998, we have re-
them mixed and densely with as many companion species stored native forests at about 550 Iocations, each of which
as possible [8]. is successful (Fig. 2, Color ptatesl, 2, 5-8).
 17

fundamental survey field survey of actual

phylosociological survey use
vegetation
environmenlal description

identitcation of vegetatlon unrts;

natural vegetation
substitute vegetation

map of actual vegetation

description of survey for potential natural

natural vegetation identification of potential
environment natural vegetation region

map of degree of naturalness

map of potential natural vegetation

selection of planning for preservation of

appropriate species plantlng topsoil
for lanting
basic planning tor basic planning for the creation ot
planting environ mental protection forests

soil survey
soil examination
working plan soil improvement
production of young planning for the creation of
environmental protection forests
procurement of straw
plants or plan of
and manure
acquisition based on ecological scenario if
necessa

reconstruction
implementation preparation of planting area
of topsoil

procurement work
p[anting covering with straw
of young plants dense mix of main tree specles of for mulching and
for planting potential natural vegetation plantation

working plan
2
1- times weeding
1- 2 years
r
l l protectlon of native forest,

after planting l initial growth

l which develops with tlme

l I
l stable gfowih I
L___ __J
Fig. l Flow chart for the restoration and creation of native forests [12] .

Why is it indispensable to plant trees in so many and Shinkansen railways, were destroyed easily, and some
places around the infrastructure? To this question the of them burst into flames. They had cost tens of billions of
Great Hanshin Earthquake on January 17, 1995, gave us a yen and involved the latest techniques. We believed they
definite answer. were the strongest structures, but non-biological materials
We made field investigations right after the earth- showed weakness against such disasters, which hit us once
quake. Structures built of iron and cement, including in some hundred years (Color platc 3).
modern buildings and some parts of elevated highways On the other hand, not a tree of the main component
18

Vaccinio-Pinion pumilae (Alpine

conifer forest zone)

l-

23-31

41-48

49-60
74 85
61-73
97-122

90-96
123-133
134-199
25S-272
273 299
300-320
349-350
478 - 48 l
482 487
488 494
43 1-47 7
r
519-534
535 537
db

Fig. 2 Planting locations of native forests by native trees based on the vegetation ecological scenario as of Oct. 1998. The numbers
represent the planting locations. (place names omitted).

of the potential natural vegetation fell. Where evergreen levelled to the ground. Many of the nearly 6,000 victims
broad-leaved trees from laurel forests were planted in a were crushed to death under their houses. Some houses
line, fire
was stopped. They proved to have a fire preven- had evergreen trees aound them in spite of their shade and
tion function in many places (Color plate 4). falling leaves. These trees stopped the falling roofs and
In the earthquake many houses were destroyed and pillars, and made openings in the rubble. The people living

Photo I Ecological planting around Gobo thermal power plant of Kansai Electric Power Co. on a manmade island in the Pacific
Ocean (July, 1983).
PhQto 2 Same place after 12 years (December, 1995). The trees have now grown much higher.
Photo 3 Disastrous earthquake hit Hanshin District (January 17, 1995).
Photo 4 A fire was stopped by a line of evergreen Oak trees (Quercus glauca), main species from the potential nautrai vegetation.
Photo 5 Planting along Shin-shonan Bypass by primary school students.
Photo 6 1,200 primary sehool children planting seedlings along the Kashihara Bypass (March, 1982).
Photo 7 Same place after 14 years (July, 1996).
Photo 8 20,000 seedlings planted by 2,000 people around the Shirakawa Dam, Nara Prefecture. Prof. H. Sano (right) and Madame
Elisabeth Sano (center), participating in the planting festival (author left) (April, 1996).
Photo 9 The first planting festival at the site in Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. 6,000 seedlings planted by 2000 people (July 15, 1991).
4
Photo 10 Same place after years (January 16, 1995). At present the trees have grown higher.
Photo 11 The first planting festival to regenerate tropical lowland forests near Bel m, Brazilian Amazon (May 18, 1992).
4
Photo 12 Same place after years.
Photo 13 Planting 14 species of seedlings from native tree species including Nothofagus trees in Concepci6n, Chile (May 26, 1992).
4
Photo 14 Same place after years (February 2, 1996).
 19

8
*=h

.,
 21

Table 1 The species list of planted trees for reforestation in Malaysia

No. Species Name Fanrily Name Local Name

1 Shorea atrinervosa Di pterocar paceae Selangan batu hitam

2 Shorea balanocarpoides Di pterocarpaceae Meranti lun
3 Shorea beccariana Dipterocarpaceae Meranti langgai
4 Shorea brunnescens Dipterocarpaceae Selangan batu tinteng
5 Shorea crassa Dipterocarpaceae Selangan batu daun tebal
6 Shorea dasyphylla Dipterocar paceae Meranti batu
7 Shorea domatiosa Di pterocarpaceae Selangan batu lubang idon
8 Shorea gibbosa Dipterocarpaceae Meranti lun gajah
9 Shorea glaucescens Dipterocarpaceae Selangan batu daun nips
10 Shorea laxa Dipterocarpaceae Lun timbul
11 Shorea leprosu!a Di pterocarpaceae Meranti tembaga
12 Shorea macrophylla Di pterocarpaceae Engkabang jantung
13 Shorea macroptera Di pterocar paceae Meranti melantai
14 Shorea maxwelliana Di pterocar paceae Kumus hitam
15 Shorea mecistopteryx Di pterocarpaceae Meranti kawang burung
16 Shorea multlflora Di pterocar paceae L.un jantan
17 Shorea ovata Di pterocar paceae Meranti pitis
18 Sh orea parvlfolia Dipterocar paceae Meranti sarang punai
19 Shorea pauaflora Di pterocarpaceae Nemesu
20 Shorea rubella Di pterocar paceae Meranti laut putih
21 Shorea scaberrima Di pterocarpaceae Meranti paya bersisik
22 Shorea scabrida Di pterocarpaceae Meranti lop
23 Shorea venulosa Di pterocar paceae Meranti tangkai panjang pa
24 Hopea beccariana Di pterocar paceae Merawan/Chengal pasir
25 Hopea bracteata Dipterocar paceae Luis
26 Hopea kerangasensis Dipterocarpaceae Luis kerengas
27 Hopea pentanervia Dipterocar paceae Chengal paya
28 Parashorea parvlfolia Dipterocar paceae Urat mata bukit
29 Parashorea smythiesii Dipterocar paceae Urat mata daun puteh
30 Dryobalanops aromatica Di pterocarpaceae Kapur peringgi
31 Dryobalanops beccarii Dipterocarpaceae Kapur Bukit
32 Dipterocarpus rigidus Dipterocar paceae Keruing utap
33 Dipterocarp!ls steJlatus Di pterocarpaceae Keruing
34 Cotylelobium burckii Di pterocarpaceae Resak durian
35 Cotylelobium malayanum Di pterocar paceae Resak batu
36 Cotylelobium me!ano ylon Dipterocar paceae Resak hitam
37 Upuna borneensis Di pterocar paceae Upun
38 Vatica cuspidata Di pterocarpaceae Resak
39 Vatica mangachapoi Di pterocar paceae Resak
40 Vatica nitens Dipterocar paceae Resak daun panjang
41 Vatica venulosa Dipterocar paceae Resak
42 Dracontomelon dao Anacardiaceae Sengkuang
43 Gluta wallichii Anacardiaceae Rengas
44 Manglfera pajang Anacardiaceae Embang
45 Parishia insignis Anacardiaceae Upi bung
46 Parishia maingayi Anacardiaceae Upi paya
47 Pentaspadon motleyi Anacardiaceae Pelajau
48 Neouvaria acuminatissima Annonaceae Karai
49 Alstonia angustlfolia Apocynaceae Pelai
50 Alstonia angustiloba Apocynaceae Pelai
51 A Istonia scholaris Apocynaceae Pelai lilin

52 Durio carinatus Bombacaceae Durian burong

53 Durio zibethinus Bombacaceae Durian
(continued)
22

Table 1 (continued)

No .
Species Name Family Name Local Name
54 Dacryodes costata Burseraceae Kedondong
55 Santiria megaphylla Burseraceae Seladah
56 Diospyros sarawakana Ebenaceae Kaya malam
57 Baccaurea angulata Euphorbiaceae Ocong
58 Bacc(rurea bracteata Eu phorbiaceae Tampoi paya
59 Baccaurea lanceolata Euphorbiaceae Tapus/Empaon(u)g
60 Elateriospermum tapos Euphorbiaceae Kelampai/Perah
61 Ca!ophyllum ferrugineum Guttif erae Bintangor
62 Ca!ophyllum macropodum Guttif erae Bintangor daun besar
63 Calophyllum nodosum Guttiferae Bintangor daun halus
64 Ca!ophy!lum sclerophy!lum Guttiferae Bintangor jangkar
65 Garcinia cuspidata Guttiferae Knadis daun kechil
66 Stemonurus scorpioides lcacinaceae Semburuk
67 Eusideroxylon zwagerri Lauraceae Belian
68 Litsea sp. Lauraceae Medang
69 Barringtonia sp. Lecythidaceae Putat
70 Archidendron ellipticum L,eguminosae Petai belalang/kedaung
71 Dialium sp. L.eguminosae Keranji
72 Koompasia malaccensis L･eguminosae Kam pas
73 Sandoricum koetjape Meliaceae Kelampuk
74 Artocarpus integer Moraceae Cempedak
75 Artocarpus rigidus Moraceae Terap
76 Parartocarpus venunosus Moraceae Minggi
77 Engenia castanea Myrtaceae Ubah
78 Engenia chrysantha Myrtaceae Ubah
79 Engenia grandis Myrtaceae Ubah jambu
80 Engenia hoseana Myrtaceae Ubah
81 Engenia lineata Myrtaceae Ubah daun kecil
82 Engenia ochnecarpa Myrtaceae Ubah parit
83 Tristan ia beccarii Myrtaceae Selunsur
84 Whiteodendron mountonianum Myrtaceae Kawi
85 Sarcotheca glauca Oxalidaceae Tulang payong
86 Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae Kasai/Selan
87 Ganua pierrei Sapotaceae Ketiau putih
88 Pa!aquium gutta Sa potaceae Nyatoh riau
89 Scaphium macropodum Sa potaceae Kembang semangkuk
90 Eurycoma Jonglfolia Simaroubaceae Tongkat ali
91 Gonystylus maingayi Thymelaeaceae Ramin batu air

i200
PI=*ti g: 4BO t*ees
1OOO
IOO
EO 800

f Average - 80
GOO
=Q * Maximum o ao Pre5.nt: 2eO trees
I
5
::: 400 t Minimum 1:'
. 40
Area = 220 (m2)

200
Z=
o' zo 2.65 (tnees/m2)
2.15 (treesl'm:)

O O
92/12 93/12 94/12 95/12 96/12 97/12 92/1 2 93/1 2 94/1 2 95/i 2 96/1 2 97/i 2
Year/Month Year/Month

Fig. 3 Growth curve in height on PQ 203 in Bintulu, Sarawak, Fig. 4 Survival rate with passage time on PQ 203 in Bintulu,
Malaysia. Sarawak, Malaysia.
 23

fast, but because of their shallow root systems some of 3.4 Reforestation in China
them fell in the strong wind and received some other Forest devastation is quite serious around the Great
damage. They also made shade over the indegenous species Wall, the more than 2000-year-old structure stretching
like Viro!a, which were growing more slowly. In conclu- 2,600 km, which is called the symbol of the civllization of
sion it is the best and the most secure method to mix and Great China. Several projects have been tried but were not
plant spcecies from the potential natural vegetation fol- necessarily successful.
10wing the system of natural forests, just as we did in Webegan field investigations to understand the
Japan and Southeast Asia. potential natural vegetation around the Great Wall, in
In Concepci6n, Chile, we practiced reforestation by cooperation with the People's Government of Beijing and
mixed, dense planting of 14 species of Nothofagus. AEON Environment Foundation of Japan. collectedWe
Though it was said to be difficult to restore native forests 80,000-1 ,OO0,000 acorns of indegenous species, including
in the area because of dry air in summer and overgrazing, Quercus mongolica, and germinated them to grow see-
we have found that native forests can be restored if we take dlings in pots. On July 4, 1998, the first planting festival
sufficient care for the first several years after planting was held, with the help of I,400 volunteers from Japan
(Color plates 13 and 14). and about I,200 volunteers from China. Chinese people
took the trouble of digging 175,000 60 cm3 holes in the

TOPOGRAPHY

CLIMATE
= Natural vegetation
e.g. evergreen Quercus forests
SOIL

Human impact

Substitute vegetation,
finally bare land

c 20 cm topsoil added
Young seedlings of
=
main tree species of
P.N.V.
= Mixed dense piantation

Young forests of shade-

Annual herb oomm. tolerant trees

ca 5- 10 years
Perennial herb comm.

ca 40 years

Shrubby comm. ca 20 - 30 years

ca IOO years

Forest of shade-intolerant
traes [summergreen)

ca 200 years

Forests of tolerant Forests of tolerant

(everg raen) trees (evergreen) trees

Climax forests Quasi-native forests

with rich soll fauna
= Dauergesellschaften

Classical Succession theory New succession theory

Fig. 5 Comparison between our new succession theory and classical theory (Laurel forest area in Japan) [14].
24

TOPOGRAPHY Several hundred years for reforestation is too long for

us, however, because we live in a world where industry and
Tropical rainforest
urbanization are developing very rapidly. We tried eco-
CLIMATE C> Meranti forests
SOIL logical reforestation by recovering topsoil and planting
ex.
seedlings in pots with fully developed root systems directly
Human impacts
(cutting, shifting cultivation) from the terminal vegetation in succession, that is, the
Substitute vegetation potential natural vegetation. It is proved here that multi-
finally bare land stratal quasi-natural forests can be built in 15-20 years in
Japan and 40-50 years in Southeast Asia by ecological
cm topsoil added reforestation based on the system of natural forests.
Young seedlings
of main tree species
Among 550 Iocations of our planting throughout Japan we
of PNV.
don't see a single failure. We
succeeded in restoration of
Densely mi,,ed native forests from in cold-temperate zone to in tropical
plantation forest zone.
550 Iocations is far from enough when we consider the
Annual herb comm. Tolerant-tree
Ageratum conyzoides- whole 380,000 km2 Iand of Japan, much more on a global
young forests
Crassoce phalum scale. We all should set to restoration and recreation of
crepidioldcs cornm
.
global environments in every place in the world by the
ecotechnological method. We can start at once, following
ca. 2-10 years the rules of biocoenoses. Farsighted top managers of ad-
ministrations, corporations, and communities can be
Perennial herb comm.
Ischaemum-Melastoma general directors. Scientists write ecological scenarios for
comm. environment restoration. Citizens are the main characters
on the stage. All the people on the earth share the work in
ca. l0-15 years a sweat for the sound future of human beings.
Ecology was originally viewed as a science of discov-
Shrubby cornm.
Dillenia scrub ery and played the role of critic when environmental pol-
lution occurred in the 1970s. Now ecology should be
ca. 15-jO years ca, 40-50 years creative in order to restore environments and build better

Intolerant
living conditions. We
expect all scientists in the world to
see our results positively and to begin to help make new
tree forest
Macaranga-Ficus comm.
affluent circumstances for the future in their
own area. We
hope to struggle together for creative ecology.
ca. 200 300 years?
s?
Acknowledgements
Tolerant forests
Tropical rainforests
Talerant forests
Tropical rainforests
I had learned the concept of the potential natural
vegetation for two and a half years since 1958, from Prof.
with Meranti, etc. with Meranti, etc.
Reinhold Ttixen, the then Director of Bundesamstalt fur
Climax fore5ts Quasi-natural forests Vegetationskartierung in then West Germany. After com-
Dauergesell5chafi with ric,h soil fauna
ing back to Japan I began vegetation field investigations
Classical succession New succession with the knowhow in the 1970s when the Japanese
theory theorv.
economy rapidly grew. Since then many farsighted inter-
national and domestic corporations, Ministries including
Fig. 6 Comparison between our new succession theory and
the Ministry of Education, governers and mayors of local
classical theory (Case in Bintulu. Sarawak. Malaysia).
public bodies, and so many citizens have been working
I
with us. would like to express my gratitude to every one
rocky surface with no topsoil, and we could plant seedlings of them.
with the view to an international green wall of native
forests. This project is a three-year program, and 390,000
References
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Environ. Technol. Yokohama Natl, Univ, 19: 73-107.
Sci.

4. Discussion and Conclusion

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Science Chinjuno-mori (native forests with native trees in
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 25

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