Myank U.et Al. (1999) From Ethnomycology To Fungal Biotechnology

From Ethnomycology
to Fungal Biotechnology
Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources
for Novel Products
From Ethnomycology
to Fungal Biotechnology
Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources
for Novel Products
Edited by
Jagjit Singh
Osear Faber Heritage Conservation
St. Albans, United Kingdom
and
K. R. Aneja
Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, India
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
From ethnomycology to fungal biotechnology: exploiting fungi from natural resources for
novel products / edited by Jagjit Singh and K. R. Aneja.
p. cm.
Proceedings of the International Conference "From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnol-
ogy: Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Novel Products," held December 15-16,
1997, in Simla, India-Verso t.p.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4613-7182-3 ISBN 978-1-4615-4815-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7
1. Mycology-Congresses. 2. Fungi-Biotechnology-Congresses. 3. Mycorrhizal fungi-
Congresses. 4. Fungi as biological pest control agents-Congresses. 5. Fungi-Therapeutic
use-Congresses. 6. Phytopathogenic fungi-Congresses. 1. Singh, Jagjit, 1912- . II.
Aneja, K. R. III. International Conference on Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology: Ex-
ploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Novel Products (1997: Simla, India)
QK600.3.F76 1999 98-48208
579.5-dc21 CIP
Proceedings of the International Conference "From Ethnomycology to Fongal Biotechnology:

Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Novel Products,"
held December 15-16,1997, in Simla,lndia
ISBN 978-1-4613-7182-3
@1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Kluwer Academic I Plenum Publishers, New York in 1999
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1999
10987654321
A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
AII rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher
To my love for mycology and mycologists
-JS
To my wife and children

-KRA
PREFACE
Fungi playa major role in the sustainability of the biosphere, and mycorrhizal fungi are
essential for the growth of many of our woods and forests. The applications of fungi in
agriculture, industry and biotechnology remain of paramount importance, as does their use
as a source of drugs and to help clean up our environment.
This volume contains key papers from the conference 'From Ethnomycology to Fungal
Biotechnology: Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Novel Products'. This was
the first international scientific conference covering the transfer of traditional remedies and
processes in ethnomycology to modern fungal biotechnology. The conference was held at
Simla, Himachal Pradesh, India from 15 to 16 December 1997.
The key subject areas addressed in the conference were the issues of exploring and
exploiting fungal diversity for novel leads to new antibiotics, enzymes, medicines and a
range of other leads for wood preservation, biological control, agricultural biotechnology
and the uses of fungi in the food industry. The conference programme included key-note
presentations followed by poster sessions and general discussion.
The book is broadly based, covering five main areas: Ethnomycology, Fungal
Biotechnology, Biological Control, Mycorrhizal Fungi and Fungal Pests.
There is no doubt that in the past fungi have played a key role in ethnomycological
remedies and that in the future they will continue to attract the interest of a wide range of
disciplines ranging from environmental conservation, agriculture and the food industry to
wood preservation and aerobiological studies.
We hope that this volume will serve as an inspiration and an aid to students, researchers
and professionals involved in the fields of ethnomycology, fungal biotechnology, biological
control and mycorrhizal fungi studies.
Weare grateful to all the speakers and delegates who contributed to the conference and
Professor Lakbanpal and Dr Lal Singh for the organisation of the domestic arrangements.
Dr Jagjit Singh and Dr K.R. Aneja
Vl1
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincerest appreciation to Ms Sarah Case for her invaluable
and painstaking assistance in the proof-reading, editing and preparation of the manuscripts.
We would also wish to thank our sponsors which include: the Karl Meyer Foundation,
Switzerland; Dr John Palfreyman of University of Abertay Dundee, Scotland; and J0fgen
Bech-Andersen of Hussvamp Laboratoriet, Denmark.
ix
CONTENTS
ETHNOMYCOLOGY
From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology: a Historical Perspective .............................. 1

M.U. Charaya and RS. Mehrotra
Ethnomycology and Folk Remedies: Fact and Fiction............................................................. 11

J. Singh
Some Ethnomycological Studies from Madhya Pradesh, India ............................................... 19

N.S.K. Harsh, B.K. Rai and V.K. Soni
Some Indian Spices and their Antimicrobial Properties ........................................................... 33

D.S. Arora
FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Exploring Mushroom Diversity for Pharmaceutical Utility ..... ................................................ 41

S.S. Saini and N.S. Atri
Fungal Biotechnology for the Development and Improvement ofInsecticidal Fungi............. 51

J.L. Faull
Potential Biotechnological Applications of Thermophilic Moulds .......................................... 57

A. Archana and T. Satyanarayana
Fungal Biotechnology for Effective Cereal Straw Management ............................................. 75

M.U. Charaya
Biotechnology for the Production and Enhancement of Mycoherbicide Potential .................. 91

K.R Aneja
Biotechnological Applications of Thermophilic Fungi in Mushroom Compost L15

Preparation ................................................................................................................... .
R Kumar and K.R Aneja
xi
Effectiveness of Lytic Enzymes in Isolation of Protop lasts from Trichoderma harzianum .... 127
S. Kaur and KG. Mukerji
Timber Preservation: the Potential Use of Natural Products and Processes ............................ 137
J. Palfreyman, N. White and J. Singh
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
A Biocontrol Formulation for Protection of Stored Bamboo from Decay Fungi ..................... 145
N.S.K. Harsh and N.K Kapse
Use of Fungi in the Control of Plant Pathogens ....................................................................... 153

B.K Singh, S. Arora, R.C. Kuhad and K.G. Mukerji
Biological Control of Root-Knot Nematode by Nematode-Destroying Fungi ......................... 163

N. Mittal, G. Saxena and K.G. Mukerji
Rhizosphere Biology of Root-Knot Diseased Abelmoscus esculentus in Relation to its 173

Biocontrol
R. Rawat, A. Pandey, G. Saxena and KG. Mukerji
MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in the Control of Fungal Pathogens ................................. 185

M. Sharma and KG. Mukerji
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in Increasing the Yield of Aromatic Plants...................... 197

R. Kapoor and K.G. Mukerji
Mycorrhizal Root Litter as a Biofertilizer ................................................................................ 205

K.G. Mukerji and M. Bansal
The Application of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Afforestation....... ........ ... ..... 213
M. Kaur and K.G. Mukerji
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: Biofertilizer for the Future ..................................... 225
B.P. Chamola, B. Giri and K.G. Mukerji
Mycorrhizal Allelopathy in Trigonellafoenum graceum ......................................................... 235

R. Gupta and K.G. Mukerji
FUNGAL PESTS
Storage Fungi in Edible Agricultural Commodities ................................................................. 247

A. Pandey and K.G. Mukerji
Seed-borne Mycoflora of Two Under-exploited Legumes: Vigna umbellata and

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus from North-eastern parts ofIndia ............................................ 257
V. Joshi and K.G. Mukerji
xii
Association of Patulin with Market Samples of Dry Fruit Slices of Quinces (Cydonia
oblonga Mill.) from Jammu and Kashmir, India .......................................................... 269
Y.P. Sharma and G. Sumbali
Comparison between Serpula lacrymans found in the Indian Himalayas and Mount Shasta,
California ...................................................................................................................... 279
J. Bech-Andersen
Contributors.. ................ ................................................. ......................................... .................. 287
Index ......................................................................................................................................... 291
xiii
FROM ETHNOMYCOLOGY TO FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY: A mSTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Myank U. Charayal and R.S. Mehrotra2
IMicrobiology Laboratory
Department of Botany
M.M. Postgraduate College
Modinagar-201204
India
2Retd. Professor
Kurukshetra-136 119
India
INTRODUCTION
Some 1.5 million species of fungi are believed to exist allover the world, of which only
about 72,000 (less than 5%) have been described so far (Hawksworth, 1991; Hawksworth et
al., 1995). These display a wide variety of morphological forms ranging from the microscopic
unicellular yeasts to multicellular macroscopic mushrooms. The vegetative structure of a vast
majority of the fungi consists of thin-walled, transparent, branched or unbranched hyphae. In
a number of simple fungi (especially yeasts and chytrids), the vegetative structure consists of
a single, microscopic cell, spherical, ellipsoidal, tubular or irregular in shape. However, the
uniqueness of the fungi lies in (i) their ability to produce a surprisingly large variety of
enzymes (conferring upon them the ability to colonise and degrade a huge variety of
substrates); and (ii) their potential to synthesise an amazing variety of metabolites with the
biological activity. Also, the hyphae present a large surface area through which the fungi can
interchange substances with the environment - absorbing essential materials required for
growth and development from the environment, and excreting the waste products.
The Role of the Fungi in our Society
Technologies based on the degradative or synthetic activities of the fungi have become
an integral part of the human society and, hence, of our commercial set up as well. Current
From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology

Edited by Singh and Aneja, Plenum Press, New York, 1999
commercial products of the fungi include amino acids, antibiotics, alcoholic beverages
(including distilled alcohol), fuel (ethanol, biogas), biopesticides, mycoherbicides, bread,
cheeses, fermented foods, food (mushroom, etc.), single-celled protein, flavours, food
colourants, preservatives, soy sauce, vitamins, organic acids and mycelial paper.
Bioremediation, ensilage, biotransformation and many such processes involve the utilisation
of the fungi. In the emerging 'age of biotechnology' , the fungi are expected to provide a wider
range of useful products and processes for human welfare under the banner of what is called
'fungal biotechnology'. Already, the applications of fungal activities dominate present-day
biotechnology (Moss, 1990).
The Origins of Fungal Biotechnology
According to the Office of Technology Assessment of the United States Congress,

biotechnology comprises "any technique that uses living organisms, or substances from these
organisms, to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop
microorganisms for specific use" (see Balasabramaniam, 1996; Subramanian, 1992).
If the term biotechnology is used in a wider context, it clearly implies that fungal
biotechnology is not an exclusively modem practice; rather its roots may be traced back
thousands of years - "ever since the first toast was proposed over a shell full of wine and the
first loaf ofleavened bread was baked" (Alexopoulos, 1962). In fact, some of the fungi have
been utilised by humans for a variety of purposes since ancient times - as food, for preparing
fermented drinks and leavened bread. Also, they have been put to medical uses and have been
employed in rituals. Such practices were not confined to any particular region of the world,
although different ethnic groups utilised different fungi in their own ways. Even today,
primitive tribes and ethnic peoples utilise plants as well as fungi in their own ways. The study
offungi in folklore and rituals, from prehistoric times to the present day, comprises the science
of 'ethnomycology'. The late Dr. R.G. Wasson of New York, his wife V.P. Wasson and R.
Heim have made significant contributions to the science of ethnomycology (Wasson and
Wasson, 1957; Heim et aI., 1967).
Emergence of the "Science" of Fungal Biotechnology from the "Art" of the

Biotechnologist
Quite obviously, the utilisation of fungi by societies in ancient times was the result of
empirical experiences stretching through generations. Thus, what was practiced by them may
be regarded as the 'art' of the biotechnologist. The ripening of cheese, cultivation of ergot for
medicine, using fungal preparations as prophylactics or cures for many disorders, cultivation
of edible mushrooms and truffies are some of the classical examples of this art. The present
day 'science' of biotechnology is an offshoot of the art of the biotechnologist (Subramanian,
1992). The emergence and blossoming of this offshoot viz. the 'science' of fungal
biotechnology has not been a simple, straightforward affair. It has taken centuries to overcome
the impediments - centuries of careful and critical observations, invention of new tools and
techniques, experimentation with great patience, and logical unbiased analysis of results
obtained. Growth in our knowledge of the structure, physiology, biochemistry and genetics
of the fungi coupled with our capability to manipulate them has led to the emergence of
modem fungal biotechnology.
The Impact of Microscopy
Invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century was fundamental for the
development of mycology. The first illustrations of microfungi - the sporangia of Mucor and
2
the teleutospores of Phragmidium mucronatum - were provided by Robert Hooke (1665). In
1680, Leeuwenhoek also examined some fungi, his most significant mycological observation
being that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in fermented beer (see Chapman, 1931). In the years,
decades and centuries that followed, the number of fungi observed and described increased
exponentially. New species offungi are being described currently at a rate of about 800 per
year (Hawksworth et al., 1995).
Development of Techniques for Culturing the Fungi
Another technical advance that contributed greatly to our understanding of the fungi and
the fungal processes was the development of pure culture techniques (Table 1). The history
of mushroom cultivation bears testimony to this fact. The first efforts at culturing mushrooms
are believed to have taken place in France during the lifetime of Louis XIV (1683-1715)
(Hayes and Nair, 1975). The 'art' was soon practiced in England. Vivid descriptions of
mushroom culture practices prevailing in those times had been provided by Abercrombie: the
descriptions clearly show that mushroom growing was at that time an uncertain business,
obviously due to non-availability of 'pure' spawn (Abercrombie, 1817). In 1890, however,
Constantin developed pure culture of spawn (Constantin and Matruchot, 1894), and in 1905
Duggar was able to obtain pure spawn by culturing a piece of tissue from a mushroom cap.
These developments provided a much needed impetus to the mushroom industry - and not
only to the mushroom industry but also to all the industries based on microbes including the
fungi. It was only by using pure culture techniques that the microorganisms responsible for
many infections, fermentations, nitrogen fixation etc. were isolated and identified: pure
cultures form the backbone of fungal biotechnology.
Germ Theory of Fermentation
A number of practices which we now classify as the applications of fungal biotechnology

have been in use since man's earliest days. Fermentation is one such process. Our ancestors,
since the dawn of civilisation, have been producing wine, beer and bread by using
fermentation, although of course they did not know that certain organisms were behind these
fermentations. Though Leeuwenhoek had, in 1680, observed the budding cells of yeast in beer
(Chapman, 1931), the involvement of living cells in alcoholic fermentation was only
recognised in the year 1837, by three scientists independently (Cagniard-Latour, 1837;
Kutzing, 1837; Schwann, 1837). However, it was Louis Pasteur who was eventually able to
convince the scientific world that a living organism (yeast) is required for the chemical change
that transforms sugar into alcohol, and that different kinds of organisms were responsible for
different kinds of fermentations (Pasteur, 1860). The germ theory of fermentation was thus
established and it became the basis for important industrial developments. Today, a number
of industries involving fungal biotechnology may be referred to as fermentations (anaerobic,
i.e. true, fermentations as well as oxidative fermentations).
Early Attempts at Industrial Exploitation of Fermentation
Strategies for the industrial exploitation of fungal fermentation evolved as a result of the
studies of mould biochemistry of which Carl Wehmer (1858-1935) may be regarded as the
founder; he was the first to demonstrate that the fungi were capable of producing organic
molecules such as oxalic acid, citric acid and fumaric acid from sugars (Wehmer, 1891, 1893).
He worked out a process for manufacturing citric acid from a strain of Citromyces (now
classified as a species of Penicillium). A factory attempted to use the process for
manufacturing citric acid in 1893 but the project was abandoned ten years later; some of the
3
reasons being long fermentation times, high costs and contamination. Perhaps Wehmer was
ahead of his time. An American, J.N. Currie (1917), found that at pH 2.5-3.5, Aspergillus
niger produced citric acid from sugar in significant quantities. He worked out a suitable
medium for citric acid production from sugar using A. niger and by 1923 the process was
adopted commercially. Even today, virtually all commercial citric acid is manufactured by
fermenting sugar using A. niger.
Table 1. Some early technical advances that facilitated the cultivation of fungi.
Scientist! Contribution with Reference

Organisation
A. Micheli (1718) Cultured fungi by inoculating the spores of Aspergillus. Mucor.

Tuber. Poiyporus. Geaster. Lycoperdon. etc.; Micheli (1729)
C. Vittadini (1842) First to solidify media (with gelatin); Vittadini (1942)
O. Brefeld (1872) (i) Extensive use of gelatin for solidifying media

(ii) Dilution plate method for single spore culture; Brefeld (1872)
P. van Tieghem Invented van Tieghem's cell for the microscopical examination of
and G. Ie Monnier (1873) hanging drop cultures; van Tieghem and Le Monnier (1873)
W. Roberts (1874) Use of cottonwool plugs to seal glass vessels containing sterile
infusions; Roberts (1874)
1. Tyndall (1877) Discovered "discontinous sterilisation" (tyndallisation); Tyndall

(1881)
R. Koch (1883) Devised pour plate method; Ainsworth (1976)
F. Hesse (1883) Introduction of agar agar as solidifying agent; Carpenter (1967)
Parisian engineering firm Commercial availability of autoclave; Bulloch (1938)

Wiesnegg (1884)
R.J. Petri (1887) Invented Petri dish; Petri (1887)
Discovery of Penicillin
The studies in mould biochemistry led to the recognition of a number of other fungal
products, and industries based on these came into existence. All this happened at quite a rapid
pace during the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the present century
(Table 2). The discovery and development of Penicillin in particular provided great thrust to
research activities concerning fungi, especially from an industrial point of view. Extensive
details of these are given by Smith and Barry (1975), Bu'Lock et al. (1982), Smith et al.
(1983), Elander and Lowe (1991), Letham (1992) and Vaidya (1995). Most of the world's
Penicillin today is derived from Penicillium chrysogenum (not from Penicillium notatum).
Although hundreds of fungi have been found to show antibiotic activity, very few have found
wider application - cephalosporins (from Cephalosporium acremonium) and griseofulvin (from
Penicillium patulum) being manufactured in large quantities.
4
Table 2. Early developments in the establishment of fungi-based industries.
Product Reference
Gallic acid P. van Tieghem (1867) Described the production of gallic acid
from tannin by Aspergillus niger.
A Calmette (1902) Patented the process of production of
gallic acid using A. niger and put it on
commercial basis.
Gluconic acid M. Molliard (1922) Discovered gluconic acid in the culture
filtrates of Sterigmatocystis nigra (= A.
niger).
J.N. Currie, J.H. Kane and A. Got patent for a fermentation process for
Finlay (1933) the production of gluconic acid.
Itaconic acid K. Kinoshita (1929) First to characterise itaconic acid as a
metabolic product of Aspergillus
itaconicus.
C.T. Calam, A.E. Oxford and H. Demonstrated that Aspergillus terreus
Raistrick (1939) produces itaconic acid.
J.H. Kane, AC. Finlay and P.F. Got patent for the production of itaconic
Amann (1945) acid by fermentation process.
Glycerol L. Pasteur (1858) Observed that small amounts of glycerol
were formed during alcoholic
fermentation of sugar by yeast (S.
cerevisiae).
W. Connstein and K. Ludecke Published details of the German process
(1919) which yielded high amounts of glycerol.
Enzymes J. Takamine (1894) Took out patent for production of enzyme
(See Takamine, 1914) mixtures, mainly diastase.
E.H. Le Mense, I. Gorman, J.M. Demonstrated the production of amylases
van Lanen, A.F. Langlykke (1947) from Aspergillus niger.
Antibiotics A. Fleming (1929) Discovered bacterial inhibitory properties
of a metabolic product of Penicillium
notatum and called it Penicillin.
E.B. Chain, H.W. Florey, A.D. Isolated Penicillin in pure form.
Gardner, N.G. Heatley, M.A.
Jennings, J. Orrewing and A.G.
Sanders (1940)
Advent of Enzyme Technology
Another dimension to the fungal technology was added by the advent of enzyme
technology. Edward Buchner (1897), a German chemist, showed that fermentation can occur
in the presence of not only yeast cells, but in the presence of yeast extracts also. This was a
turning point in the fungal technology because it led to the realisation that the participation of
the entire organism or cell is not absolutely necessary for carrying out a given bioprocess. As
more and more living processes (lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, respiration
etc.) were shown to be the results of sequential action of enzymes, the attempts at isolation,
purification, production and commercial utilisation of enzymes began gathering momentum.
The foundations for the deliberate use of fungal enzymes had already been laid down by
Takamine in 1894 with the production of amylase preparation 'Taka diastase' from Aspergillus
oryzae grown on wheat 'bran (Takamine, 1914). A number of fungal enzymes are now
produced on an industrial scale which include glucose aero-hydrogenase, proteases, pectinases,
5
amylases, lipolases, cellulases etc. (Lambert, 1983; Wainwright, 1992).
The fimgal enzymes have carved out a niche of their own in various industrial processes
like bread-making, malting, whey processing, sucrose conversion, starch conversion, fruit
processing and cheese making. These are also used as supplements for pancreatic lipase, and
for producing soap, lactose-free foods, soft-centred confectionery and so on. The development
of enzyme immobilisation techniques helped in overcoming the limitations in the use of
enzymes (limited availability, instability, high costs etc.). The first commercial application of
immobilised enzyme technology was developed by Tanabe Seiyaku Co. of Japan in 1969 using
immobilised L-amino acylase from Aspergillus oryzae (see Trevan, 1987).
Improvement of Useful Fungi
Quite often, the organisms isolated from the natural environment produce a desired
metabolite in limited amounts, and the fimgi are no exception. Industrial uses of fungi, on the
other hand, demand high productivity. By optimising the culture conditions, it is possible to
get higher yields from a given strain. However, the productivity is ultimately controlled by the
genome and therefore scientists are constantly attempting to obtain fungal strains with better
productivity. An important example of this is provided by penicillin from Penicillium
chrysogenum, a better source. The initial attempts at procuring better resource fungi involved
selection - testing various available strains, selecting the best and thus capitalising upon natural
genetic variation. For example, Mehrotra and Krishna (1966) determined the best producer of
amylase among 875 strains of Aspergillus niger, 14 strains of A. oryzae and 8 strains of A.
flavus. Some other examples of using selection only for strain improvement are provided by
the work of Keay (1971) on Aspergi/lus and Rhizopus for proteases, and that of Fukomoto and
Schichiji (1971) on Coriolus versicolor for laccase.
Inducing Mutations in Fungi for Improving Yields
Mutations contribute to the genetic variability of organisms and each gene has its own
characteristic mutational behaviour. Some genes undergo mutations more frequently than
others, even in the same organism. Quite often, the frequency of natural mutation of a desired
gene is very low resulting in much lower levels of variation. Muller (1927) demonstrated that
mutations could be induced by an external agent. Subsequent discoveries of various physical
and chemical mutagens made it possible to use a combination of mutation, screening and
selection coupled with modification of the parasexual cycle for strain improvement (Queener
and Lively, 1986) and these have yielded good results. For example, the original strain of
Penicillium chrysogenum produced 100 units per ml of penicillin; by comparison, the recently
produced strains by mutation, screening and selection have a titre of 50,000 units per ml. In
fact, in the absence of sexuality, the parasexual cycle provides the basis for 'breeding' a
number of industrially important fungi.
However, one of the major hurdles in the utilisation of the parasexual cycle for strain
improvement has been the esstablishment of the heterokaryon. The problem was overcome
with the development of the technique of protoplast fusion.
Improvement through Protoplast Fusion
The protoplast fusion initiates the parasexual cycle leading to diploidisation, mitotic
recombination and segregation. Efforts began to establish protoplast fusion in a wide variety
of industrial fungi. A number of these were successful; for example, several recombinant
strains of Cephalosporium acremonium with increased cephalosporin formation, good
sporulation and high growth rate were isolated after protoplast fusion (Hamlyn and Ball, 1979;
6
Ferenczy, 1981). Similarly, Chang et al. (1982) fused the protoplasts of two strains of
Penicillium chrysogenum for the development of strains which could synthesise penicillin V
and did not have undesirable morphology. An analysis of what can be achieved using this
technique has been presented by Peberdy (1989).
Impact of Molecular Biology
The rise of molecular biology in recent decades has opened up unlimited possibilities of
commercial exploitation of the fungi and the fungal genome (Upshall, 1986). The discovery
of plasmids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1970 proved to be a shot in the arm (Broach, 1982)
since it facilitated transformation in yeasts; and the latter has virtually become the 'E. coli of
the eukaryotes' - the 2/-1- plasmid forming the basis for a number of specially engineered,
sophisticated vectors.
Efficient transformation systems have already been reported in Acremonium chrysogenum,
Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus awamori, Aspergillus terre us, Mucor
circinalloides, Neurospora crassa, Penicillium chrysogenum, Podospora anserina (Elander
and Lowe, 1991). To facilitate gene isolation, and to build an ordered library as well as a
database for cloned genes, cosmid libraries of Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa are
now available (Turner, 1993).
An overview of the rapid progress achieved in recent years in the field of fungal
biotechnology with the help of genetic engineering may be obtained from the following
account:
(a) In Penicillium chrysogenum and Cephalosporium acremonium (the commercial B-
tactam antibiotic producers), transformations have been used extensively for (i) identifying
cloned genes of antibiotic biosynthetic pathways, and (ii) improving antibiotic yield by
inserting additional copies of such genes. Skatrud et al. (1989) were able to improve the yield
of C. acremonium by inserting additional copies of the expandase/hydrxylase enzyme.
(b) Gutierrez et al. (1991) have been able to construct hybrid pathways for the synthesis
of B-Iactam antibiotics by transferring genes for particular steps from Penicillium chrysogenum
into Cephalosporium acremonium.
(c) The genes encoding a number of useful fungal enzymes have been isolated and
attempts have been made to improve the yields by transformation (Penttila et al., 1991). Huge-
Jensen et al. (1989) have been able to increase the yield oflipases by getting the gene of fungal
lipase from Humicola expressed in Aspergillus oryzae using the a-amylase promoter of the
latter.
(d) The fungi have now been established as potent host organisms for the production of
heterologous proteins (Kalman et al., 1990). A genetically engineered yeast developed at Delta
Biotechnology, U.K. can make haemoglobin (The Good Yeast Guide, National Centre for
Biotechnology Education, Reading University, U.K., 1991). Aspergillus awamori has been
developed as a host for the expression of bovine chymosin (Ward, 1990). Given the
remarkable permissiveness of the fungi for expressing foreign genes, their ability to grow on
low cost media, and inexpensive harvesting of the mycelia, these hold great promise for the
production of a number of useful proteins - mammalian or non-mammalian - including
chymosin, tissue plasinogen activator and interferon (Covert and Cullen, 1992).
FROM ETHNOMYCOLOGY TO FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
The foregoing account presents a picture of what have been the major turning points in
the field of fungal biotechnology. No attempt has been made to discuss the various fields of
application of the fungal biotechnology which include mycoherbicides and mycopesticides,
7
biological control systems, bioremediation, biological bleaching of kraft paper pulp, food
fermentations, biofertilisers, waste management (including that of crop residues),
biotransformation and so on. A number of these have been dealt with in other chapters.
The highly advanced form of fungal biotechnology we have at our command today has
evolved over a long period of time from the 'art of the biotechnologist'. All the modem high
technologies for utilising the fungi, the fungal products and their genomes began with their use
by different human societies solely on the basis of their empirical experiences. Their scientific
exploitation at the organism level, subcellular level and finally at genome level constitute
different steps in the evolution of fungal biotechnology.
As discussed earlier, many primitive tribes and ethnic peoples in many parts of the world
still use a number of fungi in different ways unknown to the developed world (Subramanian,
1992). Many benefits may be derived from the valuable information that rests with them. It
must be our endeavour to document this information and subject it to scientific validation and
utilisation in order to obtain a variety of useful products.
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10
ETHNOMYCOLOGY AND FOLK REMEDIES: FACT AND FICTION
Jagjit Singh
Oscar Faber Heritage Conservation

Marlborough House
Upper Marlborough Road
St Albans
Herts ALl 3UT
U.K.
INTRODUCTION
The History of Medicine
"I have an earache ... "
2000 BC: "Here, eat this root."

AD 1000: "That root is heathen. Here, say this prayer."
AD 1850: "That prayer is superstition. Here, drink this potion."
AD 1940: "That potion is snake oil. Here, swallow this pill."
AD 1985: "That pill is ineffective. Here, take this antibiotic."
AD 2000: "That antibiotic is unnatural. Here, eat this root."
(New Scientist, 6 September 1997)
A comprehensive account on the study of fungi in folklore and rituals, from prehistoric
times to the present day, was given by Wasson (1968). The study of fungi in folklore, fiction
and rituals from prehistoric times to the modem era is called the science of ethnomycology (see
also Charaya and Mehrotra in this volume).
Throughout the history of mankind, fungi have been regarded with fear and fascination;
sometimes revered, sometimes hated, but always considered mysterious. They have been a
source of food since times of antiquity and there are many recipes for cooking fungi in a book
written by one Caelius Apicus in the third Century A.D. (probably the oldest cookery book
written in Europe). However, the artificial cultivation of mushrooms for food does not appear
to have been practised until the 17th Century. The physician and poet Nicander,bom about 150
A.D., wrote (Wasson, 1968):

Edited by Singh and Aneja, Plenum Press, New York, 1999 11
"The rank in smell and those of livid show,
All that at roots of oak and olive grow
Touch not! But those upon the fig tree's rind
Securely pluck. a safe and savory kind."
The physician Galen expressed his view about fungi as follows: "Fungi after being eaten
in large quantities yield cold, clammy, noxious juices as their nourishing qualities; the Boleti
are the most harmless and after them the Amanitae, as for the rest it is far safer to have nothing
to do with them" (Findlay, 1982). Moreover, Dioscorides, the celebrated Greek writer on
medicine, stated that even the good kinds "if partaken of too freely are injurious being
indigestible causing stricture and cholera," and he advised an emetic being taken after meals
where they had been eaten (Findlay, 1982).
The word "fungus" may be derived from "funus", a corpse, and "ago", I make. The best
authenticated and ingenious case of fungal poisoning is that of the emperor Claudius who
succeeded Caligula in A.D .41. Emperor Claudius' 4th wife Agrippina was determined that her
son from a former marriage should succeed as emperor instead of the Emperor's son
Britannicus. She prepared a dish composed of Amanita of the Caesars steeped in juice
extracted from the deadly Amanita phalloides. Claudius died from fungal poisoning and Nero
succeeded him to the throne (Findlay, 1982).
The fungus Fomes officinalis was thought by Dioscorides (first century A.D.) to be a
powerful drug which could relieve almost all complaints. He wrote, "Its properties are styptic
and heat-producing, efficacious against colic and sores, fractured limbs and bruises from
falls .. .It is given in liver complaints, asthma, jaundice, dysentery, kidney diseases and cases
of hysteria.. .In cases of phthisis it is administered in raisin wine, in affections of the spleen
with honey and vinegar. By persons troubled with pains in the stomach and by those who
suffer from acrid eructations the root is chewed and swallowed without any liquid."
For many centuries fungi were regarded as the result of decomposition not the cause. But
it was due to the work of C.H. Pearsoon (1775-1835) and E. Fries (1794-1878) that a n~w era
in our knowledge of fungi began (Findlay, 1982). The sudden appearance of so-called 'fairy
rings' or the luminosity of certain wood-rotting fungi provided the early herbalists, naturalists
and poets with fascinating material with which to write interesting poems and fiction.
The fungus Fomes fomentarius has been used as tinder and its medicinal use in India was
introduced by the Portuguese in Goa (Dymock et al., 1890).
The Mexican Indians seem to regard hallucinogenic plants (and mushrooms) as mediators
with God, not as a god themselves. However, the Nahuma Aztecs called the mushrooms teo-
nanacatl, meaning 'God's flesh'.
In Vedic times Soma was drunk by priests only (Wasson, 1968). Some of their hymns are
of so exalted, even delirious, a tenor that the modem leader was led to exclaim: "This surely
was composed under the influence of a divine inebriant." It takes little perception to sense the
difference in tone between awe-inspired hymns to Soma and the rowdy drinking songs of the
West prompted by alcohol. "In a word, my belief is that Soma is the divine mushroom of
Immortality, and that in the early days of our culture, before we made use of reading and
writing, when the Rgveda was being composed, the prestige of this miraculous mushroom ran
by word of mouth, far and wide throughout Eurasia, well behind the regions where it grew and
was worshipped."
The identity of Soma is Amanita muscaria (Fr. ex L.) Quel., in English, Fly Agaric. The
Fly Agaric has been the sacred element in the Shamanic rites of many tribes of Northern
Siberia. Alcohol was introduced by Russians in the 16th and 17th Centuries, but Fly Agaric
had been their precious possession long before then.
Mushroom intoxication had a quite different effect from alcoholic drunkenness, since the
former put the Kamchatka natives into a peaceful and gentle mood (Erman, 1828-1830).
12
According to Von Maydell (1861-1871) " ...the mushroom produces only a feeling of great
comfort, together with outward signs of happiness, satisfaction and well-being. Thus far the
use of Fly Agaric has not been found to lead to any harmful results, such as impaired health
or reduced mental powers".
Erman (1828-1830) states "There is no doubt... .... about a marvellous increase in physical
strength", which the man praised as still another effect of the mushroom intoxication. "In
harvesting hay," he said '·'1 can do the work of three men from morning to nightfall without any
trouble ifI have eaten a mushroom."
Fungi in Folk Medicine
The ergotism epidemic at the beginning of the eleventh century affected poor people in
many parts of Europe. The disease was also known as the 'Sacred Fire' (ignis sacer) because
a sensation of being burnt was felt by those who contracted it. St. Anthony was believed to
have power over fire and thus in the 12th Century, those who blasphemed against him were
thought liable to meet their deaths through burning.
Ergot was also used as a drug as early as 1582, when it was discovered that preparations
of ergot caused contractions of the muscles of the uterus, thus hastening the birth of a child.
A whole range of alkaloids have been isolated from the ergot and they contain as a basic
constituent lysergic acid, from which LSD25, an extremely potent drug can be prepared.
Wainwright (1989) quotes the following examples of mould therapy which predated
Fleming's original discovery in 1928. A letter of The News Chronicle, for example, quotes
from the Heritage ofthe West by E.W. Martin: "In many Cornish and Devonshire farmhouses
the Good Friday bun was allowed to hang suspended from the grimy beams of the kitchen
ceiling and there were a number of superstitions attended to it. Dominant among them perhaps
was the tradition that the mouldy portions removed from time to time and mixed with water
were suitable as curative agents for any complaints or disease and this pseudo-remedy was
employed to treat both human beings and cattle" (Townend, 1944).
A similar account was given by Dr. A.E.Cliffe, a biochemist from Montreal, Canada:
"It was during a visit through central Europe in 1908 that I came across the fact that almost
every farmhouse followed the practice of keeping a mouldy loaf on one of the beams in the
kitchen. When I asked the reason for this I was told that this was an old custom and that when
any member of the family received an injury such as a cut or bruise, a thin slice from the
outside of the loaf was cut off, mixed into a paste with water and applied to the would with a
bandage. It was assumed that no infection would result from such a cut" (Lechevalier &
Solotorovsky, 1965).
In a similar vein, the following quote appeared in The Daily Express in 1943: "Mrs Eva
Wood of Bungay, Suffolk, is a little scornful of the wonder drug that has been discovered from
mould called penicillin. Her great-grandmother used to collect all the new copper pennies she
could, old copper kettles, smear them with lard and leave them in a damp place. When the
mould had formed she would scrape it off into little boxes and everyone for miles around came
to her for the remedy for what ailed them."
A Mr H. C. Watkinson, Headmaster of Mexborough Grammar School, Yorkshire, recalled
a twentieth-century use of moulds to treat infections as follows: "During my undergraduate
days at Cambridge within the period 1911-1913 I called at the Botany Laboratory to do a little
extra work. We were studying fungi and the activities of the class were centred at that time
on Penicillium glaucum. It was the custom in the class to be provided with a growth of the
fungus whil:h had previously been growth on old scraps of shoeleather. Only a portion of the
growth was used and on the occasion of my calling, the old laboratory attendant was collecting
the stuff left on the students' benches. I was somewhat curious and asked why he was so
13
carefully scraping off the fungus into ajar. He told me that he used it as a salve which had
been used in his family for a very long time. It was used for what he called gatherings. I
presumed by this he meant septic wounds" (Townend, 1944).
The discovery of two sets of fungal fruiting bodies (Basidiomes) strewn on leather straps
of pre-historic man in a Tyrolean glacier in 1990 provided invaluable biological and
anthropological information (Chapela and Lizon, 1993). The dried perforated fruiting bodies
were still held after 5200 years by a knot tied at the end of the strap. This extraordinary
ethnomycological find leads to two hypotheses: (i) Fungal fruiting bodies may be used as a first
aid kit on a string - medicinal spiritual hypothesis; and (ii) The brack fungi may be used as
tinder. Thus in the light of our current anthropological, historical and myco-pharmaceutical
knowledge, the glacier man may have carried fungus for use as tinder or for medicinal
purposes (Dymock et al., 1890).
Table 1. Some examples of ethno-medically important fungi (from J.G. Vaidya & A.S. Rabba
1993).
Name of Fungus Folk Medicines
Field mushroom (Agaricus campestris Linn.: Fr.) Nutritious tonic, used againist tuberculosis, anti-
inflammation and sinusitis.
God's Bread or Little Man's Bread (My/ilta Treatment of renal ailments, diuretic used by South
/epidescens Horan) Indians.
Giant Puffball (Langermannia gigantea [Pers] Used against external swellings as an embrocation,
Rostk.) against haemorrhoids and as a remedy for
convulsions.
Ergot of Rye (C/aviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.) Traditionally used for many of the disorders
Ergot ofBajra (c. microcepha/a (Wallr.) Til.) encountered during pregnancy for uterine and
Grain Smut of Wheat (Usti/ago tritici (Pers) minor arterial contractions.
Rostrup)
Smut of Maize (Usti/ago maydis (DC) Corda)
Yeasts e.g. Magic Roti (Toru/a & Saccharomyces Against fever, blood disorders, dysentery, diarrhoea
spp.) and wound dressing.
Larch quinine fungus (Laricifomes officinalis Against haemorrhoids, water motions, vomiting, etc.
(Vaill.:Fr.) Kotl. & Pouzar
Chaga (Tchaga) fungus (Inonatus obliquus Befungin - trade name, against chronic gastritis and
(Pers.:Fr.) Pilat) ulcers, and early growth of tumours.
Snuff fungus (Daeda/eopsisflavida (Lev.) Roy & Treatment of jaundice.

Mitra)
Umbarache Kan - fruiting body grows on Ficus Against kidney disorders.

religiosa Linn.
Phansomba - produces mango-shaped fruiting Gums, diarrhoea and dysentery.

bodies on Phanas tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus
Rotb.
Tinder fungus (Fomesfomentarius) Cauterisation ofbumt tissues.
Shiitake mushroom (Japan) (Lentinu/a edodes) Lowers cholesterol content of blood.
14
Novel Leads to New Medicines
Fungi are widely used for the production of commercially important products and are
under constant investigation for other potentially useful products (see Figure 1). Fungal
biodiversity has been estimated at some 1.5 million species and less than 0.1 million have been
characterised to date. This clearly shows that there is unrivalled chemical diversity which
could give us novel leads to molecules for the generation of new medicines. The top twenty
selling prescription medicines (see Table 2) are offungal origin.
Table 2. Top twenty selling pharmaceuticals, worldwide, in 1995 (from Langley, 1997).
ComEound Mode of Action Sales $m
Ranitidine H2-antagonist 3914

Omeprazole proton pump inhibitor 2539
Enalapril ACE inhibitor 2220
Nifedipine calcium antagonist 2191
Pravastatin hypolipidaemic 1980
Fluoxetine antidepressant 1790
Simvastatin hypolipidaemic 1615
Lovastatin hypolipidaemic 1345
Acyclovir antiviral 1313
Ciprofioxacin antibiotic 1279
Amoxicillin antibiotic 1176
+clavulanate
Captopril ACE inhibitor 1110
Cyclosporin immunosuppressant 993
Diclofenac NSAI 938
Ceftriaxone antibiotic 909
Famotidine H2-antagonist 850
Methyltestosterone hormone 840
Salbutamol b-2 agonist 825
Fluconazole antifungal 800
lisinopril ACE inhibitor 772
Primary Metabolites
Fungi are very versatile and can use a range of differetice sources of nutrients which are
assimilated into the primary metabolic pathways at differc!mtpoints. There are a number of
commercially important primary metabolites, for example citric acid, ethanol, enzymes, amino
acids and vitamins. Primary metabolites are formed during the active growth of the fungus.
The fungus will take from the natural environment those nutrients which it can utilise as an
energy source to produce materials such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids for continued
growth and biomass production (Isaac, 1997).
Secondary Metabolites
Some commercially important secondary products, including antibiotics (e.g. penicillin

from Penicillium chrysogenum, cephalosporin from Cephalosporium acremonium, griseofulvin
from Penicillium griseofulvum) and alkaloids (Claviceps spp.), are derived from filamentous
fungi and used medicinally (see Table 2 and Figure 2).
Secondary metabolites are not essential for fungal growth but are produced naturally by
15
many fungi. Many of the compounds produced have antifungal and antibacterial activity (e.g.
antibiotics, mycotoxins) and may therefore impart a competitive advantage, acting as weapons
for survival. The compounds have antimicrobial activity and producer organisms may well be
sensitive to these. Most have mechanisms to prevent their own demise from the effects of the
compounds they produce. In most cases the products are formed after active growth and by that
time the mycelium is able to detoxify the compound or prevent entry of the antibiotic through
the cell wall by a change in the permeability of the plasina membrane (Isaac, 1997).
Figure 1. The diversity of fungi used for the production of commercially important products.
Biodiversity
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the total variability oflife on Earth. Biodiversity

is not simply the total number of species; it encompasses the complexity, richness and
abundance of nature at all levels from the genes carried by lcoal populations to the layout of
communities and ecosystems across the landscape.
Human activities in the search for novel leads to compounds for pharmaceutical and other
commercial use are leading to the destruction of biodiversity at an unprecedented rate.
Because of this, some ecologists and conservationists have been heartened as the economic
benefits of biodiversity have started to become apparent in recent decades and the direct
economic value of the natural world has been recognised as a source of a vast range of
products from antibiotics and novel medicines to Brazil nuts, salmon, spices, mushrooms,
mahogany, oils and ecotourist dollars.
Some recent biodiversity initiatives have been set up to manage biodiversity and its
sustainability, for example:
• Global Biodiversity Strategy
• Global Biodiversity: status of the Earth's living resources
• Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainable living
• Global Mean Biodiversity Strategy: a strategy for building conservation into decision-
making
• From Genes to Ecosystem: a research agenda for biodiversity
Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use
Conservation and preservation are the maintenance of some or all components of
16
biological diversity and also includes sustainable use of the components. 'Sustainable use'
means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead
to the long term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the
needs and aspirations of present and future generations (Heywood, 1995).
Figure 2. Screening natural products from fungi.
The global policy-makers tend to behave as though the survival of most non-human
organisms is an amenity, one that future generations of humans can live without. However,
everything that scientists are learning about the Earth's life processes argues against this view
(Baskin, 1997). In the exploration and exploitation of biodiversity, therefore, it is fundamental
to investigate the functional role of biodiversity at all levels, from genes to species,
communities, ecosystems and landscapes.
REFERENCES
Baskin, Y., 1997, The Work afNature: How the Diversity of Life Sustains Us, Island Press, USA.
Chapela, 1. H. and Lizon, P., 1993, Mycologist 7(3): 122.
Dymock, W., Warden, C.J.H. and Hooper, D., (1890), Pharmocographia Indica - A History of the Principal
Drugs of Vegetable Origin, Part III, Education Society Press, Byculla, Bombay, pp. 629-635.
Erman, A., 1833-1848, A Journey Around the World through Northern Asia and Both Oceans in 1828, 1829 and
1830, Berlin 1833-1848, p. 223.
Findlay, W.P.K., 1982, Fungi, Folklore, Fictioni and Fact, The Richmond Publishing Company Ltd., U.K.
Heywood, V.H., 1995, Global Biodiversity Assessment, UNEP, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Isaac, S., 1997, Mycology answers, The Mycologist II(4): 182-183.
Langley, D., 1997, Exploiting the fungi: novel leads to new medicines, The Mycologist 11(4): 165-167.
Lechevalier, H. A. and Solotorovsky, M., 1965, Three Centuries of Microbiology, McGraw Hill, New York, p.
461.
Townend, B. R., 1944, Penicillin in folk medicine, Notes and Queries 186: 158-159.
Vaidya, J.G. and Rabba, A.S., 1993, Fungi in folk medicine, The Mycologist 7(3): 131-133.
Von Maydell, 1861-1871, Journeys and Investigations in the Jakutskaia Oblast ofEastern Siberia in 1861-1871.
Wainwright, M., 1989, Moulds in folk medicine, Folklore 100(ii): 162-166.
Letter to Daily Express, 19 Nov 1943.
Wasson, R.G., 1968, Soma, Divine Mushroom of Immortality, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.
17
SOME ETHNOMYCOLOGICAL STUDIES FROM MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA
N.S.K. Harsh!, B.K. Rai2 and V.K. Soni!
!Forest Pathology Division

Tropical Forest Research Institute
Jabalpur-482 021
Madhyar Pradesh
India
2Plant Pathology Department

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur
Madhyar Pradesh
India
INTRODUCTION
Madhya Pradesh in central India lies between 17°48'N and 26°52'N latitude and 7002'E
and 84°24'E longitude and abounds in biodiversity of flora and fauna due to its rich forest
cover. It has a geographical area of 443,446 sq. lan, of which 30.5% is under forest (Anon.,
1995). It is home to a number of primitive tribes, namely Gond, Bhi1, Baigas, Saharia, Kol,
Abujhamarias, Bharias, Hill Korwa and Kamar (Tiwari, 1994). The ethanobotanical treasure
occurring in the forests of Madhya Pradesh provides sustenance and livelihood to the tribal
communities and rural poor which constitute nearly 23% of the population of the state. The
higher fungi in particular have an important place in the diet and medicines of the tribes, about
which little is known to the so-called civilized world. The present study therefore attempts to
provide an insight into the ethnomycology of this region.
Information about the edible fungi and those sold in markets was gathered from the tribal
peoples as well as from the weekly local markets (bazaars) ofBalaghat, Jabalpur, Jagdalpur,
Mandla, Rajnandgaon and Shahdol districts of Madhya Pradesh. Details about medicinal fungi
were collected through inquiries and personal approaches with the assistance of knowledgeable
tribal medicine men. Fruit bodies of the edible and medicinal fungi were collected from their
natural habitats and brought to the laboratory for detailed taxonomic studies and identification
was done with the aid of standard monographs (Bakshi, 1971; Bondartsev, 1953; Coker and
Couch, 1969; Cunningham, 1942; Ryvarden and Johansen, 1980).

OBSERVATIONS
Table 1 lists the edible fungi used by different tribes of Madhya Pradesh along with the
method of preparation.
An account of the fungi used in folk medicine is presented in Table 2.
Methods of Collection, Drying and Storage
There are no systematic methods of collection for these fungi. Fruit bodies are collected
haphazardly wherever they are encountered in the forest areas. However, the tribals are well
acquainted with the habitat and period of occurrence of the edible and medicinal fungi from
personal experience (Harsh et ai., 1993a,b,c). Whole families including men, women and
children come out to hunt these useful fungi during the rainy season (June-September).
However, the tribal women are particularly active as they have the responsibility of preparing
food for the family while gathering other food, fodder and fuel items for day to day needs
(Harsh et ai., 1996). The collection is taken in cloth bags and bamboo baskets to homes and
markets. Most species have a very short shelflife and cannot be stored for more than one day,
but a few of them like Termitomyces heimii can be dried under the sun or over flames for
longer storage.
For drying during cloudy weather, specially designed bamboo mats are used (Figure 1).
Bamboo sticks 65 in number, each 40 cm long and 4 mm in cross section are horizontally
placed (2 sticks per cm) and tied with a thin wire to form a mat. Four bamboo strips of 35 cm
length and 1 cm breadth are placed at the ends of the mat and two strips of 51 cm length and
1 cm breadth are placed diagonally and tied with a thin wire. This mat is hung over the
'chulha ' (fireplace) some 40-50 cm above the flames. The collected mushrooms are kept on
this mat during cloudy days. The dried mushrooms are used during off-season, but are not seen
to be sold in the markets.
Marketing
Some of the edible fungi were also seen to be sold in the local weekly markets of the tribal
areas (these markets are held on a fixed day during each week where tribals sell their
collections from the forests and in tum buy items like salt, oil, soap, clothes, combs and other
utility goods). A detailed study about their role in the tribal economy was made (Harsh et ai.,
1993b). Table 3 gives an account of estimated quantities of some edible fungi being sold in
weekly markets during a period of approximately three rainy months. About 2.5 tonnes of
Termitomyces heimii alone were estimated to be sold in 15 local markets during the season
(Table 4) fetching a price of about Rs 25000 (Rs 40 = $1). However, if these edible
mushrooms are compared with the cultivated edible button mushroom Agaricus bisporus (sold
at Rs 70-80 per kg fresh or Rs 30-40 per 250 g canned) and with the wild growing Morchella
spp. (sold at Rs 1500 per kg fresh and Rs 3000 per kg dried) which are marketed in the urban
areas of India and the latter exported too, it is evident that the fungi sold in the tribal markets
are sold very cheaply, although in nutrition and taste they are no inferior. Termitomyces heimii
in particular has a resemblance to Morchella spp., as it also grows wild in abundance, can be
dried and packed easily and is rich in nutrition and taste, but the sale value is very low in
comparison to the latter.
The sale of these fungi provides sustenance and livelihood to the tribal poor, particularly
in lean periods when other non-wood forest products like myrobalans, leaves, seeds, flowers
and fruits are not available. Sharma et ai. (1997) estimated that the sale of edible fungi
contributes about 2% to the annual income of a tribal family in the Amarkantak plateau of
Madhya Pradesh. There is considerable potential for boosting the economy through the sale
20
Figure 1. A device used for drying mushrooms by the tribals.
21
N
N
Table 1. Edible fungi used by tribal people of Madhya Pradesh.
Local name Etymology Scientific Method of cooking Habitat description Time of Remarks
name occurrence
Sawan putpura (in Sawan (a Hindu Astraeus Washed and sliced into Found in July-August The fungus is eaten all
Balaghat), puttu (in calendar month) =July- hygrometricus pieces like potato, fried ectomycorrhizal over the sal belt in the
Mandla), putpura (in Aug; putpura, puttu = (Pers.) Morg. in mustard oil with association with roots of forests of Madhya
Shahdol), Band erupting out of ground; spices and salt, eaten Shorea robusta (sal) Pradesh. This is sold in
chatti (in Jagdalpur) band = close; chatti = with chapaties of corn trees in the forests the tribal markets also.
umbrella flour
Dharati ka phool Dharati = earth; ka = of; Ca/valia Fried in mustard oil and In open grasslands, June-July Baiga and Bharia tribes
phool = flower cyathiformis eaten with chapaties of pasture lands and forest eat this fungus.
(Bosc.) Morg. wheat floor
Phutpura Phutpura = erupting out Geastrum Prepared like egg curry In open sandy soil, as July-August Baiga and Bharia tribes
of ground fimbriatum with spices and eaten well as on forest floor use this fungus.
(Fr.) Fischer with rice, also eaten as
boiled eggs
Ghundi Ghundi = nipple Lycoperdon Surface washed, In gardens, fields, June- It fruits soon after start
shaped, button pusillum Pers. scrubbed and cooked as grasslands and freshly September of rains.
a vegetable with worked earth with sandy
potatoes soil
Asharh phutpura (in Asharh (a Hindu Mycenastrum Cooked as egg curry On sal forest floor June-August This is sold in the local
Balaghat), Asharhi calendar month) = corium and eaten with rice village markets.
band chatti (in June-July (Guersent)
Shahdol), puttu or Desvaux
phutpura (in
Jagdalpur)
Bhat pihiri Bhat = cooked rice; Podabrella Cooked in mustard oil Grows gregariously over July-August It has a very short shelf
pihiri = mushroom microcarpa with fried onions and termite mounds life but is sold fresh in
(Berk. & Br.) considered a delicacy the village markets.
Singer
Local name Etymology Scientific Method of cooking Habitat description Time of Remarks
name occurrence
Pihiri, bhoron pihiri Bhoron = early morning Termitomyces Cooked in mustard Emerge gregariously July- Most sought after
heimii oil/groundnut oil with from nderground termite September fungus among tribal and
Natarajan fried onions and spices, fungal combs on open urban people, dominates
a delicacy fields, grasslands, forest local markets.
floor
Phuttu, putu Phuttu, putu = empting Scleroderma Washed fruit bodies, On sandy soil among August- Not very common
out of ground radicans Lloyd boiled and cooked with grasses September
potatoes in curry, eaten
with chapaties made of
wheat and com flour
~
~ Table 2. List of fungi used in folk medicine by the tribals of Madhya Pradesh.
Local name Etymology Scientific name Disease/disorder Method of Habitat Time of Remarks
in which used preparation and occurrence
dose
Sawan putpura, See Table I Astraeus Burns Spore mass See Table 1 See Table 1 Used by Gond
puttu, putpura, hygrometricus (powder) mixed tribes of Madhya
band chatti in mustard oil and Pradesh
applied over the
burnt skin
Phoosh Phoosh = dust, Bovista Wounds Spore mass mixed On sandy August- Used by Baiga
powder blowing apedicellata with mustard oil grasslands September tribes
and applied over
wound surface
Nirghanti Nir = nest; ghanti Cyathus limbatus Eye redness, pain, Peridoles crushed Growing over August Used by Baiga
= bell Tulasne conjunctivitis with clean water dead stored people
or rose petals bamboo
extract, filtered
through clean
cotton and filtrate
is used as eye
drop
Ghundi See Table 1 Lycoperdon Bleeding from Spore powder See Table 1 See Table I Used by Baiga
pusi/lum deep cuts and mixed with people
wounds mustard oil and
applied over
cuts/wounds
Jhirri-pihiri Jhirri = crack, slit, Phallus I. Typhoid Fruit bodies Leaf litter and old August Used by Baigas
net; pihiri = impudicus L.: (known as crushed and bamboo chips
mushroom Pers. motijhara among suspension with
tribes) oldjaggery and
water given to
patients 1 tsp. 3
times a day for 4
days.
dose
2. Labour pains Same preparation

as above given to
ladies to give
relief during
labour pains.
Jarhphorh Jarh = root; phorh Ganoderma 1. Cataract Fruit bodies dried Grows on the July-September Used by Baigas
= rupture, break, lucidum (Leyss.) over flames, roots (causing and Abujmariahs
burst Karst. powdered and root rot in living
mixed with trees) and stumps
coconut oil (5 g of various forest
powder, 25 g oil) trees
as an ointment
which is applied
around the eye
socket twice daily
for 45 days.
2. Asthma Fruit bodies dried

and ground to
powder and
mixed with
county liquor
made from
Madhuca lati/olia
flowers, given as
1 tsp. 3 times
daily for 2-3
months to cure the
disease.
~
~ Local name Etymology Scientific name Disease/disorder Method of Habitat Time of Remarks
dose
3. Hydrocele Fruit bodies

boiled with equal
amounts of
coconut oil,
mustard oil and
linseed oil for
about an hour,
cool filtrate is
applied around
the scrotum 3
times a day for a
month.
Phootdoodh Phoot = to gush, Xy/aria Activation of Dried fruit bodies Grows on the July-September Used by 8aigas
erupt, start; doodh po/ymorpha Pers.: lactation after powdered and roots and stumps and Gonds
= milk Merat. delivery mixed with old of Shorea robusta
jaggery to make trees in the forests
pea sized tablets,
one tablet twice
daily with cow
milk before meals
for 5 days to give
effect
Saja pihiri Saja = Terminalia Microporus I. Ear pain Dried fruit bodies Grows on dead July-September Fruit bodies
tomentosa tree xanthopus ground with water twigs growing on
(8eac.:Fr.) Kunt. and filtered Terminalia
through cotton, tomentosa twigs
filtrate is used as are preferred
ear drops
2. Fever and Dried fruit bodies

vomiting ground with gum
of Shorea robusta
tree and given as
I tsp. with water
3 times daily.
dose
Kala pihiri Kala = black; Daldinia Chronic cough Dried fruit bodies Grows on dead July-September Fruit bodies
pihiri = concentrica and old earthen wood, bark of growing on old
mushroom (Bolt.:Fr.) Ces. & vessel piece trees Butea
de Not powdered monosperma trees
separately, mixed are particularly
in equal amounts used
in honey, given 1
tsp. twice daily.
!:3
~ Table 3. Estimated quantities of some edible fungi sold in the weekly markets of tribal area.
Name of the market Name of fungi
Astraeus hygrometricus Mycenastrum corium Podabrella microcarpa Termitomyces heimii
Bajag (Mandla) +++ ++++ +++ ++++
Dindori (Mandl a) ++ ++ ++ +++
Garhasarai (Mandla) ++ ++ +++ +++
Gorakbpur (Mandla) + +++ ++ +++
Karanjia (Mandla) ++ +++ ++ +++
Niwas (Mandla) + + ++
Kundam (Jabalpur) + +++
Amarkantak (Shahdol) +++ ++++ +++ ++++

- = not marketed; + = Below 25 kg; ++ = 26-50 kg; +++ = 51-75 kg; +++ = Above 75 kg
Table 4. An account of the sale of Termitomyces heimii in some tribal markets of Madhya Pradesh.
Name of the market Approx. quantities (in kg fresh Cost / kg (in Rs) Money earned after sale
weight) marketed during the (in Rs)
season Minimum Maximum
Dhanpunji (Jagdalpur) 240 10 12 2640

Jagdalpur 200 8 12 2000
Kurandi (Jagdalpur) 180 8 10 1620
Pandutala (Balaghat) 200 8 10 1800
Bajag-Chanda (Mandla) 300 8 10 2700
Bichia (Mandla) 140 8 10 1260
Ghotas (Mandla) 180 8 10 1620
Karanjia-Rupa (Mandla) 160 8 10 1440
Medha (Mandla) 120 10 12 1320
Motinala (Mandla) 100 8 10 900
Sijhora (Mandla) 140 6 10 1120
Bodla (Rajnandgaon) 200 8 12 2000
Chilpi (Rajnandgaon) 140 6 10 1120
Mangli (Rajnandgaon) 120 8 10 1080
Amarkantak (Shahdol) 120 8 12 1200
Total 2540 Average Rs 9.96 25620
~
of these fungi if they are popularised among the masses and sold in an organised and
systematic manner along the lines of Morchella spp.
Fruit bodies of some of the wood-decaying fungi are collected in bulk by tribal people
from the forest areas of Bilaspur, Jagdalpur, Mandla, Rajnandgaon and Shahdol districts of
Madhya Pradesh from October to December and dried under the sun. The fungi are purchased
from them by middlemen at a cost ofRs 2-3 per kg (dry weight) and in turn are sold at Rs 20-
22 per kg to export houses of New Delhi, Tuticorin and Calcutta, who sell them at $2-3 per kg.
The purpose for which these fungi are being exported is not fully known although it has been
found that they may be used in making decorative materials. There is a preference for fungi
with white fruit bodies such as Lentinus tigrinus Fr., Lenzites acuta Berk., Lenzites vespacea
(Pers.) Ryv., Microporus xanthopus (Beac.:Fr.) Kunt., Trametes cingulata Berk., T elegans
(Spreng.:Fr.) Fr. and T lactinea Berk.
Medicinal Fungi
Tribal people in remote areas depend upon folk medicines and household remedies to a
great extent. The prevalent practices of indigenous herbal medicines including fungi have
descended from generation to generation and include cures for both simple and complicated
diseases. The information given in Table 2 is confmed to the tribals only and that too to a few
tribal medicine men. The knowledge is usually passed from one generation to another among
the families of tribal medicine men and the danger of its being lost is ever present. There is
a need to explore and use this knowledge in medical science. Generally this information is a
closely guarded secret and the information given here was only obtained through considerable
persuasion and after spending time with the tribals to win their confidence. Our attempt to
document this piece of information must therefore be seen in this context.
One of the fungi listed, Ganoderma lucidum is being investigated for its antitumour
properties in China, Japan and United States of America (Miyajaki and Nishijima, 1981; Lee
et al., 1984; Furusawa et al., 1992). Ganoderma tea has come from China to the U.K. and is
much in demand (Singh, pers. comm.). The fruit bodies of Ganoderma lucidum are being
bought from India by South Koreans for the extraction of certain compounds which are known
to provide youth and vigour to the aged (MukeIji, pers. comm.).
REFERENCES
Anon., 1995, Forestry Statistics India, 1995, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun,
India.
Bakshi, B.K, 1971, Indian Polyporaceae on Trees and Timber, ICAR Publ., New Delhi.
Bondartsev, A.S., 1953, The Polyporaceae of the European USSR & Caucasia, Keter Press, Jerusalem.
Coker, W.C. and Couch, J .N., 1969, The Gasteromycetes ofEastern United States and Canada, J. Cramer, Lehre.
Cunnigham, G .H., 1942, The Gasteromycetes ofA ustralia and New Zealand, Donedin, N.z.
Furusawa, E., Chou, S.C., Furusawa, S., Hirazumi, A. and Dang, Y., 1992, Antitumour activity of Ganoderma
lucidum, an edible mushroom, on intraperitoneally implanted lewis lung carcinoma in synergenic mice,
Phytotherapy Research 6: 300-304.
Harsh, N.S.K., Tiwari, C.K. and Jamaluddin, 1993a, Market potential of wild edible fungi in Madhya Pradesh,
Indian J. Trop. Biodiv.l: 93-98.
Harsh, N.S.K., Rai, B.K. and Ayachi, S.S., 1993b, Forest fungi and tribal economy - a case study in Baiga tribe
of Madhya Pradesh, J. Trop. For. 9: 270-279.
Harsh, N.S.K, Rai, B.K. and Tiwari, D.P., 1993c, Use of Ganoderma lucidum in folk medicine, Indian J Trop.
Biodiv. 1: 324-326.
Harsh, N.S.K., Tiwari, C.K. and Rai, B.K., 1996, Forest fungi in the aid of tribal women of Madhya Pradesh,
Sustainable Forestry 1: 10-15.
Lee, S.S., Chen, F.D., Chang, S.C., Wei, Y.H., Liu, I., Chen, C.F., Wei, R.D., Chen, KY. and Han, P.W., 1984,
In vivo antitumor effect of crude extracts from the mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum, J. Chi. Oncol. Soc.
30
5: 22-28.
Miyazaki, T. and Nishijima, M., 1981, Studies of fungal polysaccharides-XXVII. Structural examination ofa
water-soluble, antitumor polysaccharide of Ganoderma lucidum, Chem. Pharm. Bull. 29: 3611-3616.
Ryvarden, L. and Johansen, I., 1980, A PrelinUnary Polypore Flora ofEast Africa, Fungiflora Oslo, Norway.
Sharma, M.C., Masih, S.K. and Sharma, C.B., 1997, Participation in collection ofNTFP and their share in tribal
economy, J Trop. For. 13: 220-225.
Tiwari, S.K., 1994, Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribals, Vol. /, Rahul Publishing House, Delhi.
31
SOME INDIAN SPICES AND THEIR ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES
Daljit S. Arora
Department of Microbiology
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar-143 005
India
INTRODUCTION
The chemotherapy of infectious diseases has proved to be a continuous struggle. A broad

spectrum of antimicrobial agents are being developed to combat infections but these agents are
rendered ineffective because microorganisms become resistant to these agents. Antimicrobial
agents obtained from indigenous plants are quite effective against these resistant strains.
Among these plants, spices occupy an important position.
Spices are documented in history as far back as 5000 B.c. with Malabar, the western part
of Southern India, considered to have been a spice kingdom in olden times (Marck and
Thornton, 1993). The history of Indian spices dates back to the period before the birth of Jesus
Christ; for instance, pepper and cloves were described in the stories of the Arabian Nights. In
early Egypt, spices were used as aromatic body ointments and pomades. By 600 B.C. onions
and garlic had become popular condiments in Persia, and in 559 to 529 B.C., essential oils
were produced there from coriander and saffron. During the Middle Ages, several kingdoms
of Kerala were interested in the spice trade. Among these kingdoms, Cochin was considered
to be the 'Venice of the East' in view of its commanding position in the spice trade.
The term 'spice' denotes the plant or vegetable product or part used for imparting flavour
and aroma and for seasoning food. Spices affect biological functions and have been
traditionally used for many disorders, for example clove has been used for gum disorders and
garlic for eyesight (Ridley, 1993). They are also known for their antimicrobial properties and
this chapter deals with some of the spices and their antimicrobial properties.
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)
Black pepper ('kali mirch') is the most important spice of India since it earns a
considerable share in the international trade and hence is known as the 'black gold of India'
(Pruthi, 1992).
Extracts of Piper species have insecticidal (Atal et al., 1967; Asprey and Thornton, 1976;

Escobar, 1972) and medicinal properties (Loder et al., 1969). Black pepper at a concentration
of 1% inhibits the growth of Escherichia coli, Salmonella virchow (Nair et al., 1996), Bacillus
subtilis (Ito and Meixu, 1994) and Clostridium botulinum (Huhtanen, 1980; Ito and Meixu,
1994). Black pepper is recommended as a remedy for cholera. It is also used externally as a
mouthwash in toothache, as an application of inflamed parts and also for pimples and boils.
There are very few reports on Piper nigrum but some work has been done on Piper
hispidum. 4,5-dimethoxy-2,3-(methylenedioxy)-I-allylbenzene, which is a natural isolate of
Piper hispidum, along with three related compounds synthesized from piperonal have been
screened for their antibacterial and antifungal activity. All these compounds inhibit the growth
of Xanthomonas campestris and Xanthomonas cartone at concentrations of 10 to 50 ppm. For
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the dose requirement is above 200 ppm and for Rhizobium
japonicum above 500 ppm (Nair and Burke, 1990). The higher sensitivity of Xanthomonas can
make pepper a potential control agent for the dreaded canker disease caused by Xanthomonas
species on citrus trees. Moreover, all the test compounds are active against fungi, namely
Cladosporium herbarum, Helminthosporium carbonum, Alternaria brassicola, Pyrenochaete
terrestris and Alternaria chrysanthemi (Naire and Burke, 1990).
Capsicum Species
Aqueous and heated extracts of Capsicum species have been found to exhibit varying
degrees of inhibition against Bacillus cereus, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium tetani and
Streptococcus pyogenes. A survey of the Mayan pharmocopoeia revealed that tissues of
Capsicum species are included in a number of herbal remedies for a variety of ailments of
microbial origin (Cichewicz and Thorpe, 1996).
Caraway (Carum carv,)
Caraway ('shiajeera') oil is used to increase the shelflife offood products by assuring
protection from microbial spoilage. It contains carvone and p-cymene as the major
components along with minor quantities of gamma-terpinene, caryophyllene and carvol (Farag
et aI., 1989b).
Few reports are available on the inhibitory potency of caraway oil on bacteria and fungi.
The antibacterial activity of essential oil of caraway has been tested against Gram-negative
bacteria (Pseudomonas jluorescens, Serratia marcescens and E. coli), Gram-positive bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus spp., Sarcina spp. and Bacillus subtilis), acid fast
bacteria (Mycobacterium phlei) and one yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Gram-positive
bacteria were more sensitive to the caraway oil than Gram-negative bacteria. Mycobacterium
phlei and Saccharomyces cerevisiae also show higher sensitivity than Gram-negative bacteria
(Farag et al., 1989a). Caraway oil also exhibits antifungal activity against Aspergillus
parasiticus. At a concentration of 0.8 mg/mI, growth and aflatoxin production are completely
inhibited (Farag et al., 1989a).
Cardamom (Ellettaria cardamomum)
Cardamom ('choti elaichi') is widely consumed as a food spice, employed as a remedy

to stomach ache and for making mouthwash and soaps. According to Husain (1996)
cardamom, along with pepper, ginger, clove, casia, nutmeg and allspice, contributes to 90%
of the total spice trade.
The distillate of n-hexane extract of cardamom seeds have been found to possess active
antimicrobial activity. Around ten major volatile compounds, viz. 1,8-cineole, alpha-terpinyl
acetate, linalol, linalyl acetate, geraniol, limonene, alpha-terpinene, safrole, methyleuginol and
34
euginol, obtained from the active distillate fraction (Abo Khatawa and Kubo, 1987) have been
found to possess variable antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi and yeast (Kubo et al.,
1991). The different bacteria tested were Bacillus subtilis, Brevibacterium ammoniagenes,
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Propionibacterium acnes, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter aerogenes and Proteus vulgaris. It has been observed
that Gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive than Gram-negative bacteria. A similar
observation has been made by Farag et al. (1989b) in a study on the inhibitory effect of some
Egyptian spice essential oils.
In fact, the Gram-negative bacteria are sensitive to only a few phytochemicals.
Propionibacterium acnes is the most sensitive followed by S. mutans. P. acnes causes acne:
the bacterium produces lipase that hydrolyses sebum triglycerides to free fatty acids and causes
inflammation and comedones. Cardamom can provide protection against P. acnes infection.
In fact cardamom is being used as a fragrance in soaps to control acne. Similarly S. mutans
(causative agent of dental caries) can also be eliminated by providing cardamom oil in
mouthcare products.
Antifungal activity in cardamom oil has been reported for Pityrosporum ovale and
Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Kubo et al., 1991). The fungus P. ovale occurs on human skin
and causes pityriasis versicolor which is a mild, chronic, superficial human dermatomycosis,
whereas T. mentagrophytes is a parasite of hair. Hence, cardamom oil may prove to be a
promising antimicrobial agent in skin and hair care products for controlling dermatomycotic
fungi. Its antifungal activity has also been reported against mycotoxigenic moulds such as
Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. ochraceus, Penicillium palulum, P. roque/ortii and P.
citrinum (Badei, 1992).
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
Cinnamon ('dalchini') is a plant of great economic importance and contains significant

amounts of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and trace elements. Its antimicrobial activity has
been detected against a variety of bacteria and fungi. Many workers have found cinnamon,
mustard and clove to be potent spices in checking microbial growth (Anand and Jobar, 1957;
Pruthi, 1980). At 2% concentration cinnamon is active against the food-borne fungi
Trichoderma harzianum, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium culmorum, Aspergillus versicolor,
Cladosporium cladosporoides and Penicillium citrinum (Schmitz et al., 1993). At a
concentration of 1%, it delays acid production by Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus
cerevisiae (Zaika and Kissinger, 1979). It is also effective against Aspergillus niger, Bacillus
cereus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Mycoderma spp.
Vapours from cinnamon have an antibacterial effect on typhoid and paratyphoid bacteria.
Cinnamon oil has antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Salmonella
typhosa and Bacillus dysentriae (George and Pandalai, 1958). During the course of its testing,
the essential oil of cinnamon showed antibacterial activity against Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella
paratyphi (human pathogens); Bacillus anthracis (pathogen of domesticated animals); and
Xanthomonas malvacearum (plant pathogen). It was found to possess inhibitory activity only
against human pathogens and was ineffective against Bacillus anthracis and Xanthomonas
malvacearum (Nigam, 1982). Cinnamon oil is also a potential inhibitor of Penicillium
expansum which is a cause of spoilage of apples. Patulin is not detected in apple juice
containing 0.3% cinnamon oil after incubation with P. expansum for seven days at 25°C (Ryu
and Holt, 1993). In further studies cinnamon water extract alone was found to be ineffective
against fungal activity but in combination with other antifungal chemicals such as sorbic acid
formed an effective antifungal agent (Sebti and Tantaoui, 1994).
35
Clove (Eugenia caryophyllous)
Essential oil of clove (,loung') is used as an analgesic for toothache and when mixed with
zinc oxide it forms a temporary filling for deep cavities (Anon, 1979). Eugenol is the active
principle of cloves and comprises 90 to 95% of the essential oil of clove (Ridley, 1983). At
a concentration of 400,ug/ml or even less, eugenol completely inhibits the growth of
Aspergillus flavus and A. versicolor (Hitokoto et aI., 1980). At 500 ,ug/ml clove oil inhibits
the growth of Aeromonas hydrophila which is a cause of spoilage in non-cured meat (Stecchini
et aI., 1993). It also checks the growth of Lactobacillus planterum but the concentration
required is much higher (4 mg/ml) as observed by Zaika and Kissinger (1979). Clove oil has
also been found to be an effective inhibitor for Trichoderma harzianum, Alternaria alternata,
Fusarium oxysporum, F. culmorum, F. griseocyanus, Mucor circinelloides, Rhizopus
stolonifer, Cladosporium cladosporoides, Penicillium citrinum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Aspergillus niger (Schmitz et aI., 1994; Meena and Sethi, 1994).
Eugenol is a broad spectrum antibacterial agent and is reported to be a more potent
inhibitor for E. coli than ampicillin, cephaloridine, cotrimoxazole and gentamycin. Its
antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus is comparable to the effects of cephalexin,
cotrimoxazole, chlorotetracycline, gentamycin and sulphamethezole (Suresh et aI., 1992).
Micrococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Mycoderma pheli are also
significantly inhibited by clove oil (Farag et aI., 1989b). Clove oil is practically insoluble in
water and must be dispersed in a vehicle before use. Concentrated sugar solution is one such
vehicle. Addition of clove oil at 0.4% v/v to a concentrated sugar solution (63% w/v) results
in a marked germicidal effect against various bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella
pneumoniae and Clostridium perfringens) pathogenic for humans and Candida albicans (Jorge
Briozzo et aI., 1989).
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)
Cumin ('jeera') is considered to act as a preservative controlling microbial spoilage in

food. This preservative activity is due to the presence of cuminaldehyde, p-pinene and
terpinotene. Among the various microorganisms that occur in foods, fungal and yeast cultures
are more sensitive to cumin volatile oil and cuminaldehyde than bacteria. Among Gram-
negative bacteria, E. coli is the most sensitive (Shetty et aI., 1994). The essential oil in cumin
is active against Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysentriae and Vibrio
cholerae (Syed et aI., 1986). Moreover, the concentration required for antimicrobial activity
is very low (800-1200 ppm). It is fungistatic at lower doses but at higher doses is fungicidal
against aflatoxin-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Dubey
et aI., 1991). In a similar study, Farag et al. (1989a) observed that at 0.2 mg/ml cumin oil
produces a highly significant decrease in both mycelium growth and aflatoxin production by
A. parasiticus. In another study Mycoderma sp. is found to be more susceptible to cumin oil
than Aspergillus niger (Meena and Sethi, 1994). Moreover, cumin oil has insect-repellant
properties (Dubey et aI., 1991) and cumin seeds possess anti carcinogenic activity (Arona and
Shivaramakrishna, 1992).
Curcuma (Curcuma amada)
Curcuma, commonly known as mango ginger, has many medicinal properties. Essential
oil of curcuma is active against a wide range of bacteria and fungi, many of which are plant
and human pathogens. Curcuma oil exhibits antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, E.
coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus,
Erwinia carotovora, Pseudomonas solanacearum, Xanthomonas citri and Xanthomonas
36
malvacearum. Antifungal activity has been reported for Aspergillus niger, A. flavus,
Penicillium lilacinum, P. javanicum, Trichoderma viridae, Curvularia oryzae, Pestalotia
lapagericola, Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Banetjee et aI., 1982).
For most of the organisms, the minimum dose required for the formation of the inhibition zone
was 0.1 ml except for a few cases where it was 0.15 ml (E. carotova, Pseudomonas
solanacearum, Penicillium javanicum and Curvularia oryzae) or even 0.2 ml (Klebsiella
aerogenes, Trichoderma viride and Trichophyton mentagrophytes).
Garlic (Allium sativum)
Garlic ('lahsun', 'thorn') has been known to mankind as a flavouring and therapeutic
agent for thousands of years. Much of the garlic produced in Asia is used in unprocessed form
while in developed countries 90% of the garlic crop is processed into 25 different kinds of
flakes, salts and granules. Smaller amounts of garlic are processed to produce garlic juice and
oil (Dalvi and Salunkhe, 1993). The unique pungent odour of garlic is due to the presence of
the chemical diallyl disulphide together with smaller quantities of diallyl trisulphide and diallyl
polysulphide and a little of diethyl disulphide. The antimicrobial activity of garlic has been
well studied and is attributed to 'allicin'. When garlic is macerated its principal sulphur
component 'allin' is broken down by an enzyme known as allinase to a range of flavour
components including allicin (Dalvi and Salunkhe, 1993). Allicin exhibits strong antibacterial
activity. One mg of allicin is equivalent to 15 oxford units of penicillin (Sreenivasa Murthy
et aI., 1983).
Several reports on garlic extract are available which show inhibition of growth of bacteria
as well as of fungi. Fresh garlic extract shows germicidal activity against Bacillus cereus and
B. brevis. For Salmonella typhimurium 4% garlic extract is bacteriostatic while a 5%
concentration is bactericidal (EI-Khateib and Abd-EI-Rehman, 1987). The coagulase activity
of Staphylococcus aureus is inhibited by 5% garlic extract (Fletcher et aI., 1974). At 1%
concentration, growth of Lactobacillus plantarum is inhibited (Karaioannoglou et aI., 1977)
and spores of Clostridium perfringens do not germinate (Mantis et aI., 1979).
Compared with bacteria, the fungi are sensitive to garlic extract at much lower
concentrations. Aspergillus parasiticus is inhibited at 0.23 to 0.4% concentration as observed
by Graham and Graham (1987). A significant antifungal activity of garlic extract has been
observed against the plant pathogenic fungi Colletotrichum gleosporoides and Curvularia sp.
(Prodesimo and Hag, 1976). Ajoene, one of the fractions derived from garlic, inhibits the
growth of Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans at a concentration of less than 20 ,ug/ml
(Yoshida et aI., 1987). Garlic extract exerts its anticandidal effect by oxidising the thiol(L-
cysteine glutathione 2-mercaptoethanol) groups present in essential proteins causing enzyme
inactivation and subsequent inhibition of microbial growth (Ghannosum, 1988). Other
workers have studied the biological activity of CHC 13 extract of Allium sativum in aerosol
therapy (Alkiewicz and Lutonski, 1992) and it has been proved that inhalation treatment by
means of biological standardised concentration from Allium sativum was very effective in
elimination of C. albicans from the respiratory tract in children.
Other bacteria inhibited by garlic extract include food-poisoning bacteria (Sato et aI.,
1990), Proteus, Enterobacter, Klebsiella (Sharma et aI., 1977), S. typhosa, Shigella
paradysentrica (Dold and Knapp, 1948), acid fast bacteria Mycobacterium tubercolosis and
M leprae (Suri, 1951). The active principle allicin is quite effective against M tuberculosis
H 3TRV and M tuberculosis TRC-1193 which are isoniazid-resistant strains (Ratnakar and
Murthy, 1995). Garlic extract retains its antimicrobial activity even on preincubation for 24
hours at 55 to 60°C againstE. coli andS.faecalis (Shashikanth et aI., 1981).
Apart from garlic extract, garlic oil also exhibits antimicrobial activity. Toxin production
by Clostridium botulinum strain A is inhibited by garlic oil (Jacora et aI., 1976). The volatile
37
vapours from garlic oil and leaf extract inhibit the growth of Alternaria sp., Curvularia sp.,
Fusarium sp., Helminthosporium sp. (Singh et ai., 1979) and Rhizoctonia solani (Singh and
Singh, 1980). Essential oil of garlic has been reported to be a potent inhibitor of yeast growth
at a concentration of 25 ppm (Conner and Beachut, 1984).
Mint (Mentha species)
Mentha species possess antispasmodic, chloretic and carminative properties which have
been exploited for their medicinal value. Commonly known as 'pudina', there has been very
little systematic work done on their antimicrobial properties. However, it has been
demonstrated that the differences in chemical composition of essential oils of various species
are responsible for their differential antimicrobial activity. Essential oils from two different
species, namely M arvensis and M longifolia, exhibit strong antibacterial activity. Thirty-six
compounds have been identified in both of these species. Essential oils from both species
show strong antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis. However, the two species differ in
activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa which is sensitive only to M arvensis oil (Mimica-
Dukic et ai., 1993).
According to Mimica-Dukic et ai. (1993), M arvensis did not exhibit any antifungal
activity which is in contrast to some earlier reports. It could be attributed to differences in
chemical composition of essential oil (chemotypes). Although the constituents of essential oils
from Mentha have been shown to possess relatively higher antibacterial activity in comparison
to fungi, M longifolia showed much higher antifungal activity, especially against Candida
albicans (Mimica-Dukic et al., 1993). This may be due to the high content of thymol which
has strong antifungal activity.
Essential oils from other Mentha species have also been reported to possess antibacterial
activity. Mentha piperita shows antibacterial activity against Salmonella enteritidis and
Listeria monocytogenes (Tassou et ai., 1995). Essential oil obtained from two mint species,
M pulegium and M spicata, were extremely bactericidal at high concentrations whereas lower
concentrations caused a dose dependent decrease in bacterial growth rate (Sivropoulau et ai.,
1995).
CONCLUSIONS
The spices, their extracts, oils and other derivatives are useful in various ways. In general,
their volatile components are used for fragrances and as flavour ingredients in foods. They
also act as preservatives. Certain indigenous plants with antimicrobial properties including
spices and their products have come to the rescue of public health. Further exploration of such
plants holds a great potential to meet the requirements of microbiologists to combat the
menace of ever developing resistance of microbes to antibiotics. In India, spices grow
abundantly and play quite a significant role in the country's economy. Spices have
undoubtedly been in use for many years for various ailments but as far as their antimicrobial
properties are concerned, significant systematic work is not generally available except for
garlic. Some of these spices do have potential antimicrobial properties but these need to be
explored fully for various groups of microorganisms, exact component analyses to be made
and the underlying mechanisms understood. Thus, there is the potential for spices not only to
remain important from a culinary point of view but also to become important as antimicrobial
agents.
38
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Miss Harbinder Kaur and Miss Pararnjeet Kaur for their help
in collection and arranging of literature.
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40
EXPLORING MUSHROOM DIVERSITY FOR PHARMACEUTICAL UTILITY
S.S. Saini and N.S. Atri
Botany Department
Punjabi University
Patiala-147 002
India
INTRODUCTION
Mushrooms are an important group of neutriceuticals which are used for an immense
variety of purposes (Chang and Buswell, 1996). Besides their edibility, mushrooms have long
been considered to have medicinal properties. Due to their unique composition, they have
played an important part in folk medicines as therapy for a variety of ailments. As part of the
diet, they are excellent for sufferers of diabetes, obesity, hyperacidity, hypertension,
atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, anaemia and constipation. A large number of mushroom
species including Ganoderma lucidum, Coriolus versicolor, Fomes fometarius, Tremella
fociformis and Lentinus edodes are traditionally used in Chinese folk medicines. Besides the
above, other mushrooms, for example Agrocybe cylindracea, Tricholoma mongolicum,
Inonotus obliquus, 1 hispidus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Collybia dryophila, C. radicata, C.
peronata, Suillus bovinus, Coprinus plicatilis, Hypholoma fasciculare, Leucopaxillus
giganteus and Pholiotina appendiculata, are being explored extensively for their
pharmaceutical utility.
With the signing of the global biodiversity convention at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 on the
conservation of natural resources and our rediscovered interest in traditional systems of
medicines based on the utilization of harmless bioactive substances, the exploration of this
important group of fungi has become all the more important. Scientists are now paying
considerable attention to investigation of the medicinal utility of plants in general but
mushrooms in particular. A large number ofbioactive substances from mushrooms which are
effective against fungi, bacteria and viruses have already been identified.
BIOACTIVE PRODUCTS
There is considerable interest in obtaining new products from natural ecosystems. In

fungi, besides enzymes of biotechnological utility and other products including biocontrol

Edited by Singh and Aueja, Plenum Press, New York, 1999 41
agents, the metabolites of pharmaceutical utility are of great interest for counteracting
common ailments. Besides antibiotics, a large number of substances known as Host Defence
Potentiators (HDPs), Protein bound Polysaccharide or Polysaccharide-Protein Complexes
(PSPCs) have been isolated from mushrooms (Subramanian, 1995). Such bioactive mushroom
metabolites are believed to have the capability to help in the revitalization of our immune
system against a large number of pathogenic and non-pathogenic diseases. They are reported
to serve as biological response modifiers with the capability to activate macrophages and T-
cells, and to produce cytokines, interleukines and tumour necrosis factors. Some such reported
bioactive substances from mushrooms are pleurotin, lepiochlorin, clavicin, sparassol,
triterpenes, ganoderols, armillarin, dictyophorin, cylindan, adenosine, etc. In this account, the
pharmaceutical applications of various bioactive substances derived from mushrooms are
discussed.
Antibacterial Properties
Large numbers of chemical constituents from some mushroom genera (Clitocybe,

Agrocybe, Pleurotus, Psathyrella, Tricholoma, Amanita, Collybia, Coprinus, Agaricus, etc.)
have been reported to possess antibacterial activity. Phenolic and quinoid derivatives from
Agaricus bisporus have been described to be bactericidal (Vogel et aI., 1974). Neubularine
from Clitocybe nebularis has also been reported to be bacteriostatic (Loefgren et aI., 1954).
Hervey and Nair (1979) reported lepiochlorin, an antibacterial antibiotic from Lepiota
cultivated by gardening ant (Cyphomyrmex costatus). Min et al. (1996) reported the antibiotic
activities of watery extract of Amanita pantherina and Lycoperdon perlatum against Gram
negative and Gram positive bacteria respectively.
Bianco et al. (1996) tested the mycelial and cultural filtrates from 25 basidiomycetes for
their antibiotic activity against different bacteria. Filtrate of Pholiotina appendiculata-135A
has been reported to be active against Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus,
Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella typhimurium and Candida albicans. The
filtrates of Albatrellus confluens, Postia styptica and Lycoperdon pyriforma have been reported
to inhibit the growth of Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium. The
extracts of Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Collybia peronata, Suillus bovinus, Coprinus plicatilis,
Cyathus striatus, Hypholoma fasciculare and Leucopaxillus giganteus have been reported to
be active against Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis and that of Polysticus tomentosus against
Salmonella typhimurium. The extracts from Stereum hirsutum, Phellinus torulosus, Tramates
suaveolens, Collybia dryophila (l20A and 120B) and C. radicata are reported to be active only
against Bacillus cereus.
Further investigations on the above fungal taxa could lead to the extraction and
identification of some specific antibiotic substances. Antibacterial antibiotic substances have
also been reported from Clitocybe veneriata (Diatretine - Singer, 1986) and Agrocybe dura
(Agrocybin - Kavanagh et aI., 1950). For more information on the subject reference can be
made to Bianco et al. (1995) wherein the authors have provided a review on antibiotics from
Basidiomycetes.
Antifungal Properties
Mushrooms which are reported to have a pronounced antifungal active principle include
Lentinus edodes, Coprinus comatus and Oudemansiella mucida. Sparassol (orsellinic acid
monomethyl ether) from Sprassis ramosa (Falck, 1923) and Cortinellin from Lentinula edodes
(edible shiitake mushroom) (Herrman, 1962) are important mushroom substances with
significant antifungal properties. Martinkova et aI. (1995) recorded the antifungal activity of
polyketide pigments (Monoascoruberin and Rubropunctatin) from Monoascus purpureus
42
which were effective against some species of yeasts and filamentous fungi. Gamble et al.
(1995) isolated a new pentacyclic triterpenoid compound (Polytolypin) from Polytolypa
hystricis exhibiting antifungal activity. Min et al. (1996) reported antifungal activity of the
extracts obtained from Agaricus subrutilescens and Amanita virosa.
Anticancer Properties
Some mushroom substances, for example Lentinan (a polysaccharide from Lentinus

edodes), Flammulin (a protein from Flammulina velutipes), Proteoglucan (a protein with B-
glucan from Grifolafrondosa), Clavicin (from Clavatia gigantea), Retine (a-keto aldehyde
from Agaricus campestris),Terpenoids (from Ganoderma lucidum), Porocin (from Poria
corticola) etc. are well known to have anti-tumour properties. Pioneers who have contributed
significantly towards our knowledge about the anti-tumour properties of the substances include
Chedd (1967), Ikekawa et al. (1968), Shibata et al. (1968), Ruelius et al. (1968), Nanba (1993)
and King (1993).
Host-mediated anti-tumour polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum, G. tsugae and
G. boninense are some of the most important immunopotentiators currently in use for the
treatment of cancer in Japan and USA. Over 100 terpenoids (Ganoderic acids, Ganoderol,
Lucidemic acids and Lucidone etc.) have been reported from the fruit bodies and mycelium
of G. lucidum (Subramanian, 1995). The anti-tumour effects of G. lucidum are reported to be
mediated by cytokines released from the activated macrophages and T. lymphocytes (Wang
et al. 1997). These cytokines are reported to act synergistically on the inhibition of leukaemic
cell growth.
Hyun et al. (1996) reported a neutral protein-bound polysaccharide fraction (Cylindan)
from Agrocybe cylindracea with marked anti-tumour activity. It is reported to have shown
about 70% tumour inhibition against the solid form of sarcoma 180 when a dose of 30
mg/kglday was intraperitoneally injected into the mice. While conducting immunological
studies with Cylindan, Kim et al. (1997) reported a marked life extension effect in mice against
the ascite form of sarcoma 180 tumour and lewis lung carcinoma at a dose of 50 mg/kglday.
It is also reported to have restored the decreased immune response of the tumour-bearing mice.
Wang et al. (1996a) isolated two lectins (TML-l and TML-2) from Tricholoma
mongolicum. Both these lectins have been reported to possess immunomodulatory and anti-
tumour properties with the capability to inhibit the growth of implanted sarcoma 180 cells by
68.84 % and 92.39% respectively. Wang et al. (1996b) reported a polysaccharide-peptide
complex with immunoenhancing and anti-tumour activities from the mycelial cultures of
Tricholoma mongolicum. It inhibited the growth of sarcoma 180 cells implanted in mice.
Besides the above mushrooms, T matsutake and Pholiota nameko are also receiving the
attention of scientists for their anti-tumour properties. Lim et al. (1996) reported an anti-
tumour active fraction (PK-l, PK-2, PK-3A and PK-3B) from sclerotium of Poria cocas (HH-
1). When assayed against sarcoma 180 mouse with PK-l (100,50 mg/kg), PK-2 (40,20 mg/kg),
PK-3A (4,2 mg/kg) and PK-3B (4 mg/kg), the reported inhibition ratio of each fraction was
79.3%, 90.2%, 85.2%, 90.4%, 81.2%, 73.9% and 75.6%, respectively. The life span
prolongation effect of each fraction was reported to be much better than that of the control
group.
Antiviral Properties
Of the large variety of mushrooms tested against the poliomyelitis virus in mice, some of
them, namely Boletus jrostii, Clavatia gigantea, Cholorophyllum molybdites, Lepiota morgani,
Russula emetica, Paneolus subalteatus, Armillaria mellea, Coprinus micaceus, Agaricus
campestris and A. placomyces have been reported to possess significant potential (Cochran,
43
1978). In Clavatia gigantea, some high molecular weight derivatives are reported to be
effective against poliomyelitis and influenza viruses (Cochran, 1978). Tsunoda et al. (1970)
and Sujuki et al. (1976) reported interferon inducing capability in extract of Lentinus edodes.
In this fungus Eritadenine has been reported to be active against the influenza virus in mice.
Kahlos et al. (1996) reported that the black thin external surface of Inonotus obliquus strains
(AlHINI, AlH3N2' AlEquine 2, BNamagata/16/18) grown in birch showed 100% inhibition
against human influenza viruses A and B and horse influenza virus A. The antiviral activity
of this fungus is thought to be due to Betulin, Lupeol and Mycosterols.
Anti-HIV Properties
The extract of Grifola frondosa has been shown to kill the AIDS virus and is reported to
be capable of enhancing the activity of helper-T cells. The extract of this fungus is reported
to be as effective against HIV as the widely used toxic drug AZT (Nanba, 1993; King, 1993).
Lentinan from Lentinus edodes also possesses the ability to enhance host resistance to a variety
of infections including HIV-l (Subramanian, 1995). Walder (1995) reported the strong anti-
HIV-1 activity of aqueous extracts from Fomitella supina, Phellinus rhabarbarinus,
Trichaptum perrottettii and Trametes cubensis. The active principle is reported to have acted
by the mechanism of direct virion inactivation and by inhibition of synchytium formation. The
unknown active components of these extracts individually or in combination may have
therapeutic relevance. Collins and Tazi (1997) isolated a polysaccharopeptide (PSP) from
Coriolus versicolor which has potential for use against HIV -1 infection. It acts by inhibition
of the interaction between HIV-l group 120 and immobilised CD4 receptor (lC so =150 ,ug/ml),
recombinant HIV-I reverse transcriptase (lC so = 125 ,ug/ml), and glycohydrolase enzyme
associated with viral glycosylation. Such properties, coupled with its high solubility in water,
heat stability and low cytotoxicity, make it a useful compound for controlling HIV infections.
Hypocholestrolemic and Hypolipidemic Effects
Some of the edible mushrooms, for example Lentinus edodes, Agaricus bisporus,
Pleurotus florida, P. ostreatus and Auricularia auricula, are reported to possess the ability to
lower blood cholesterol. Suzuki and Oshima (1976) reported the hypocholestrolemic effects
of Shiitake in man. Bhandari et al. (1991) recommended Pleurotusflorida as the potential
source of active ingredients required for sufferers of high blood cholesterol. Hypolipidemic
properties of Shiitake are reported to be due to Eritadenine (= Lentysine, Lentinacin), 2(R),
3(R)-dihydroxy-4-(9-adenyl)-butyric acid (Chibata et aI., 1969; Rokujo et aI., 1970). In
Auricularia polytricha, an anti-platelet substance (Adenosine) has been reported to have the
capability to inhibit platelet aggregation (Markhija and Bailley, 1981). While working with
rats, Luthra et al. (1991) reported the interference of the mushroom in the mobilization of
lipids. The inclusion of dried Agaricus bisporus sporophores at 5% or 10% level in the diet
of rats has been reported to have resulted in the accumulation of lipids in the liver with
simultaneous decrease in the circulatory lipids, except phospholipids, in plasma. Bobek et al.
(1995) reported the antioxidative effect of Oyster mushroom in hypercholestrolemic rats.
Anti-Diabetic Properties
Edible mushrooms are known for their low calorific value (25 to 30 calories/1 00 g fresh
weight) and low carbohydrate content in comparison to other food items (Rai, 1995). For this
reason they are considered excellent for diabetic patients. Freeze-dried powder containing
mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum has been shown to bring down blood sugar levels in
experimental diabetic rats. Three hypoglycaemic principles, namely Ganoderans A, B and C,
44
are reported to have been isolated from the fruit bodies of G. lucidum, and these have been
characterized as peptidoglycans. Of these Ganoderan-B is considered to be the most important
as far as antidiabetic properties are concerned (Subramanian, 1995).
Blood Building Properties and Immunity
Mushrooms contain vitamins of the B-complex (Crisan and Sands, 1978). Folic acid,
which is a blood building vitamin, is good for persons suffering from anaemia. Ascorbic acid
(Vitamin C), present in edible mushrooms, increases resistance in the human body (Crisan and
Sands, 1978). Along with these, other vitamins (for example pantothenic acid and niacin) and
minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, iron, etc.) add to the vitality and immunity
of the body (Chang and Miles, 1989). Qian et al. (1997) reported a protein-bound
polysaccharide (PSP) from Coriolus versicolor with immunopotentiating effects when
administered at 2 g/kglday to rats. The active principle is reported to have restored the
cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression such as depressed lymphocyte proliferation.
Hepato-protective Properties
Extracts of Ganoderma lucidum have been shown to be hepato-protective. Apart from

liver regeneration, beneficial effects in counteracting hepatic necrosis and hepatitis have been
reported. Ganodosterone from G. lucidum is reported to be a liver protectant with the ability
to stimulate liver function. Similarly Ganoderic acids T, S and R from G. lucidum and
triterpenoids from G. tsugae (Lucidone-A, Lucidenol, Ganoderic-B, Ganoderic Acid C2) are
reported to be hepatoprotective (Subramanian, 1995). Park et al. (l997a,b) suggested that
polysaccharides from the mycelium of G. lucidum serve as promising agents for the inhibition
of hepatic cirrhosis. They further suggested that these polysaccharides could serve as
promising antifibrotic agents because of their capability to lower the collagen content, serum
aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and
total bilirubin in the liver.
Anti-coagulant and Anti-thrombic Properties
An anti-platelet substance (Adenosine) from Auricularia polytricha is known to inhibit

platelet aggregation (atherosclerosis) and prolong bleeding time. The ingestion of this fungus
as food is reported to result in reducing the chances of heart attack (Hammerschmidt, 1980).
Auricularia is said to have been used in folk medicine in Hongkong to thin the blood and
reduce clotting problems in post-partum women (Singer and Harris, 1987).
The oral administration of fructo-oligosaccharide mixture from Lentinus edodes (SK-204)
to rats for ten weeks is reported to have anti-thrombic action (Otsuka et al., 1996) due to the
promotion of fibrinolysis and thrombolysis.
Other Therapeutic and MisceUaneous Applications
Besides the above applications there are many other areas in therapeutics and research
where mushrooms are finding an increasing role. Coatney et al. (1953) reported terpenoids of
Clitocybe illudens to be effective against Plasmodium gallinaceum. Takemoto (1961) reported
insecticidal properties of an amino acid derivative, Tricholomic acid from Tricholoma
muscarum. Aqueous extracts of Pleurotus sajor-caju have been reported to reduce the rates
of nephron deterioration in persons suffering from renal failure (Tam et al., 1986). Grifola
frondosa has been reported to be beneficial for lowering blood pressure, diabetes and
constipation. Fomes officinalis is another fungus which has been listed as a universal remedy
45
for a variety of ailments. Spores and capillitia of Lycoperdon are known to be in use for
stopping bleeding from wounds (Hawksworth et aI., 1995). Wang et al. (l996c) isolated a
hypotensive and vasorelaxing lectin from Tricholoma mongolicum. This lactin on
administration in rats at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight resulted in the reduction of arterial
blood pressure. The hypotensive activity of lectins is reported to be mediated through
vasorelaxation via adenosine A2 receptors and/or nitric oxide production. Inonotus hispidus,
which produces styrylpyrones (hispidin) and derivatives of caffeic acid (hispolon) as pigments,
has been suggested as a valuable source of new drugs (Pilgrim et al., 1997). Two novel
eudesmane type sesquiterpenes, dictyophorines A and B and a known compound teucrenone
isolated from Dictyophora indusiata, have been reported to promote nerve growth fraction
(Kawagishi et aI., 1997). Eleven species of bracket mushrooms belonging to Phellinus (P.
badius, P. chinchonensis, P. durrissimus, P. gilvus, P. linteus, P. merrilli, P. pachyphloes, P.
pectinatus, P. robiniae, P. senex, P. sublinteus and two species of Ganoderma (G. applanatum
and G. lucidum) are reported to be in extensive use as Phanasomba or Phanas alombe by the
Ayurvedic Vedas in the Pune region of India. A paste prepared out of these is applied to gums
for stopping excessive salivation and it has been reported to act as a good styptic (Vaidya,
1991).
MUSHROOM MEDICINES AND PRESCRIPTION
Mushroom bioactive substances are being marketed as medicines by some medical

companies, as a consequence of which some mushroom medicines are now available for the
treatment of common human ailments. PSK, an anticancer drug (Pai et al., 1990) from
Coriolus versicolor is reported to be quite popular for cancer treatment in Japan. Soo (1996)
prescribed four Ganoderma lucidum capsules of 500 mg each three times daily for the
treatment of diabetes, three capsules three times daily for rheumatism, six capsules three times
daily for cancer, one capsule three times daily for five days for treating hypocholestrolemia and
one to two capsules three times daily for general health maintenance, etc. A Hongkong based
private company of Australia (Concord Sunchih Concord International Trading) have marketed
capsules of Ganoderma with recommendations of 1-2 capsules twice daily for general health
maintenance and 3 capsules three times daily for therapeutic purposes. Grifron Pro D-fraction,
a medicinal product of Grifola frondosa has been marketed by Maitake Products, Inc., New
Jersey, U.S.A. A 30 ml bottle marketed by the company is reported to contain 900 mg of pure
Maitake Pro D-fraction having immunopotentiating properties. For general health
maintenance, administration of 5-6 drops of this medicine three times daily and 0.5 mg to 1
mg/kg of body weight for the treatment of suffering persons have been recommended. The
recommended prescriptions are reported to be safe for long term use with remote possibilities
of any ill effects (Rai, 1997).
FUTURE STRATEGIES
The latest research on the pharmaceutical utility of mushrooms has opened up a new field
for mushroom scientists to explore. There is a need to unearth the vast treasure of wild and
cultivated mushrooms for their medicinal properties. Extraction and chemical characterisation
of medicinally important substances from as yet unexplored mushroom germplasm and their
utilization for therapeutic purposes could provide alternative medicines with minimum side
effects for the human population. India, being a vast country with varied climatic conditions
supporting a rich mushroom flora, so far has a poor record of contributions in this area of
research. Except for a few scattered reports little worthwhile research has been done in this
46
direction in India. There is a need to start tapping the mushroom flora for the extraction of
medicinally active products with a view to utilizing this rich resource for human welfare.
CONCLUSIONS
Besides being a healthy food, mushrooms are low calorie neutriceuticals best suited for
persons suffering from cancer, heart ailments, diabetes, high blood pressure, constipation, renal
failure, etc. Due to their unique chemistry and high fibre content mushrooms possess the
ability to revitalise immunity and by doing so can increase the life span of persons consuming
them. The vast treasure of medicinally important mushrooms in the Indian subcontinent needs
exploration for human welfare. There is a requirement to raise awareness of their importance
so that the myth about fungi being only pathogenic and harmful is discredited.
Some of these mushrooms could be cultivated and produced under a controlled
environment. Their production per unit area is enormous when compared with the production
of common food items in our diet. By increasing their production and encouraging the masses
to change their dietary habits, the prevailing stress on conventional food items could be
reduced. Moreover, mushrooms will provide better nutrition and health, thus lessening our
demand for the therapeutic chemicals in use at present for the treatment of different ailments.
Considering their immense utility, it is high time that edible fungi formed a permanent
part of the dietary recommendations by medical practitioners for ailing persons.
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49
FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT
OF INSECTICIDAL FUNGI
J.L. Faull
Biology Department
Birkbeck College
University of London
Malet Street
London WCIE 7HX
U.K.
INTRODUCTION
Insecticidal fungi come from many different genera. The possibility of using them for
control of insect pests was recognised long ago, when in the late 19th Century a natural
epidemic of Muscardine disease of silk worms was identified as having a fungal origin
(Roberts and Hajek, 1992). There were many attempts to use fungal diseases of insects to
control insect pests with little success until comparatively recently when a limited number of
them were successfully commercialised. However, there remains considerable difficulty in
exploiting these species further because of limitations in their biology, notably the rapidity
with which they kill their targets in situations where speed of effect is important. My interests,
and those of the groups at Birkbeck and IACR Rothamsted, are in the conidial fungi belonging
to the genera Verticillium. Metarrhizium. Beauvaria and Tolypocladium. Our objective is that
through collaborative research between the two laboratories we can identify key limits to the
use of these fungi as biological control agents (BCAs).
All of these fungi are Deuteromycetes. They are usually generalist pathogens of a wide
range of insect species. They are easily cultured in the laboratory on simple media and are also
easy to mass-produce commercially. Verticillium lecanii is already available as a commercial
formulation for use in integrated pest management (IPM) programmes in glasshouses
(Lisansky et al. 1991). Beauvaria bassiana is available in the US from Troy, and other fungi
are produced and used on a wide scale in South America, the ex-Soviet Republics, People's
Republic of China and Central European Republics, but registration requirements and high
commercial costs have limited European availability. Only eight different fungi are registered
as products against insects pests in the European and US markets (WWDA, 1997).

EVENTS OF INFECTION
The exact sequence of events that occurs when a pathogenic fungus lands on an insect
cuticle varies with the different insect/fungus pairings, but generally follows a sequence of
spore attachment to the insect cuticle, followed by germination, cuticle penetration (either from
the outside of the insect or from within the insect mouth parts or gut) using enzymes and
physical force, and entry and colonisation of the haemocoel (Hajek and St Leger, 1994) (Figure
1).
c::>
~ -""8::nation~d \ration of cuticle
Spore Ian:, on insect cuticle ~

It I
t .
'/II'i(III j
a 'd'
~',»'
-;.....spo~ colonisation of haemocoel
Figure I. Generalised pattern of insect colonisation by fungi.
During this colonisation phase, the fungus can spread though the haemocoel by the
production of mycelium, blastospores or cell wall-less protoplasts. It is at this stage that there
may be production of fungal secondary metabolites which act as pathogenicity factors that
accelerate the death of the insect (Gillespie and Claydon, 1989; Hajek and St Leger, 1994).
The fungi complete their life cycle by extensively colonising the insect and producing large
numbers of spores on the outside of the near-empty insect cadaver.
THE ROLE OF THE PATHOGENICITY FACTORS IN INSECT PATHOLOGY
A very wide range of secondary metabolites with very different structures has been
reported as being produced by fungi. These include macrocyclic compounds that originate
from many different metabolic pathways, and these can behave as antibiotics,
immunosuppressants or mycotoxins. The role and influence of secondary metabolites in the
interactions between fungi and other organisms has been hotly debated, but their activity as
pathogenicity factors in plant pathology has been accepted. The range of compounds produced
by insect-pathogenic fungi is also diverse, and again seems to have a significance in
pathogenicity, for instance the in vitro production of destruxens from Metarrhizium spp. has
been correlated with toxicosis of mycosed insects (Roberts, 1981; Hajek and St Leger, 1994).
The exact modes of action of these secondary metabolites has yet to be fully elucidated.
52
Some toxins have an effect on the insect immune system, modifYing responses and allowing
for more rapid colonisation of the insect haemocoel. Other structures seem more directly toxic
to the insect. These include peptide toxins like the destruxens (Figure 2).
/ICO---L-prO-L-ne-Me-L-Val-Me-L-Ala-~-Ala
o j
Key: L=Leucine, Pro=Proline, I1e=Isoleucine, Me=Methionine, Val=Valine, Ala=Alanine, B-Ala=B-alanine
Figure 2. The structure of the peptide Destruxen A.
One member of the fungal pathogens of insects worked on extensively by my group is the
genus Tolypocladium, white-sporing filamentous fungi only recently separated from the
Beauvaria group on the basis of differences in conidial apparatus morphology (Bissett, 1983)
(Figure 3). An interesting feature of these fungi is that the spores and conidial apparatus of
Tolypocladium species are hydrophilic and form large spore drops around active phialides.
The fungus had been regularly isolated not only from soil but also from aquatic environments,
suggesting a rather different specialisation to a habitat that many other of the insect-pathogenic
fungi do not happily colonise.
Figure 3. Conidial apparatus of Beauvaria bassiana and Tolypocladium cylindrosporum.
Tolypocladium species have been reported as naturally attacking many different species
of insect including Aedes sierrensis (Soares et aI., 1989) and Drosophila (Bissett, 1983). In
the laboratory it has successfully attacked many different species of insect and it has been able
successfully to parasitise every type of mosquito and midge offered to it (Goettal, 1987).
The biology of infection is similar to many other entomopathogenic fungi, involving the
penetration of the cuticle, followed by haemocoel colonisation and eventually the death of the
insect. Two major groups of secondary metabolites from Tolypocladium species have been
identified in liquid culture filtrate, cyclosporins and efrapeptins. The cyclosporins are cyclic
oligopeptides with immunosuppressant activity in animals and insects. These compounds
contain eleven mostly methylated amino acids that make the compound hydrophobic. This
compound has revolutionised transplantation of organs across histocompatability barriers
because it suppresses antibody formation and cell mediated responses in higher animals.
Efrapeptins are mixtures of peptide antibiotics containing 15 amino acid residues (Figure 4).
They are inhibitors of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and ATPase activity, which
they achieve by binding to the soluble (Fl) part of the ATPase molecule. Unsurprisingly
efrapeptins also inhibit photophosphorylation in the chloroplast by a similar action.
53
Efrapeptin E AC-Pip-Aib-Pip-Iva-Aib-Leu-B-Ala-Gly-Aib-Aib-Pip-Aib-GIy-Leu-Iva-X
Key: Ac=Acetyl, Ala=Alanine, G1y=Glycine, Leu=Leucine, Aib=cx arninoisobutyric acid, B-Ala=B-Alanine,

Iva=Isovaline, Pip=Pipecolic acid.
Figure 4. Structure of the Efrapeptins
The aim of our current work is twofold. Firstly, we need to link some of the effects of
infection of insects by Tolypocladium species with production of the toxin in vivo. Once the
link is proven it is our intention to try to enhance efrapeptin production in terms of speed and
final titre of toxin for some applications, whilst reducing it in others. Table 1 summarises our
strategy for development of Tolypocladium cylindrosporum.
Table 1. Strategy for the development of Tolypoc/adium cylindrosporum.
Pathogenicity strategy
rapin toxin kill colonisation
suitable for rapid knockdown suitable for slow knockdown
biotechnological input improves toxin production biotechnological input represses toxin production -
and speed of kill organism suitable for sensitive environments
Rapid Kill Option: Proof of Toxin Involvement in Pathogenicity
Our approach to proving the link between efrapeptin production and insect mortality has
been to try and demonstrate that the toxin present in spores is capable of causing insect death.
Support for this supposition is provided by our early results from bioassays using third instar
larvae of Aedes albopictus. Results indicate that it is possible to cause 100% mortality of
larvae within 24 hours when using an oral dose of 107 blastospores per ml, a far too rapid
reaction to be explained by colonisation. We are currently taking these studies further and
attempting to show, using isolated fractions of insect mid-gut, whether or not the efrapeptins
can be released from spores without degradation by insect gut enzymes to cause rapid knock-
down effects when given orally.
Work is also continuing at Rothamsted, where Dr Tariq Butt's group is working on the
effects of oral dosing and injection of insects with efrapeptins. Bioassays from this work have
shown that there is significant toxicity of toxin via both routes in Plutella species, Galleria
species and Phaedon species larvae (Butt, pers. comm.).
54
Colonisation Option: Use of To/ypocladium in Biocontrol of Midge Larvae
In many situations it appears that insect colonisation, which takes 36 to 48 hours, is

followed by toxin production and that this process accelerates death. This type of insect attack
may be suitable for situations where speed of kill is not important, but a lack of toxicity is.
Work on a potential practical application of Tolypocladium cylindrosporum as a BCA under
field conditions is being carried out by Paul van Poppelen at Birkbeck. The targets are non-
biting midges that colonise trickling filters in sewage works and which emerge periodically to
cause significant nuisance to local business and residents. The three major species are
Psychodids (Psychoda alternata), Window Midges (Sylvicola cinctus) and Chironomids
(Metriocnemus hygropetricus). At least two of these species have previously been reported
as being susceptible to T. cylindrosporum (Ekbom, 1993) and work carried out at Birkbeck has
confirmed that P. alternata can be targeted. However the speed of action has been confirmed
as being slow (4 to 5 days), appearing to rely on hyphal colonisation of insect larvae rather than
toxin kill. Such a mode of action is desirable in the waste water environment because
processed water is often released into water courses from which drinking water is abstracted
further downstream. If toxin production was involved in the insect control process there would
be difficulty in obtaining permission for its use under field conditions without extensive
toxicological testing of the effluent water.
Another important consideration in the use of T. cylindrosporum in this environment is
that the BCA does not persist for an extended period of time. Experimental work has shown
that T. cylindrosporum spores are capable of survival under the nutritional and physical
conditions that exist in trickling filters, notably their survival within a biofilm. However,
persistent establishment of T. cylindrosporum within a filter is unlikely, and due to avoidance
by P. altemata larvae of psychodid cadavers, horizontal transmission is only likely to occur
under food shortage conditions. Other Nematocera, in particular some of the Chironomid
larvae which are carnivorous, may well be affected through such transmission however. This
is currently under investigation at Birkbeck.
In designing a BCA for P. altemata it is important to understand the details of the life
cycle of the midge and the different larval stages it goes through in the filter bed before
emergence as an adult fly. Long term observations of lifecycle and behavioural aspects of the
larvae have shown that in particular the first three instars are unlikely to be realistic targets, as
they have a life span of two days before transformation under standardized temperatures. The
fourth instar, with a life span of up to 8 days is a more realistic possibility, as infection and
death from T. cylindrosporum infection normally take four to five days. Thus part of the
research at Birkbeck Coflege has been focused upon the identification of this 'window of
opportunity' for the application of T. cylindrosporum, based on detailed consideration of life
cycle and the ecological niche the target operates in, as well as the mode and speed of
operation of the control method.
It is hoped that an understanding of the life cycles and biology of both pests and their
diseases will bring rapid results in the development of new and safe controls for many insect
pests. Such work requires the study of many different aspects and needs input from many
different disciplines. A co-ordinated approach from several different research teams will
provide the most effective and speedy solution to such problems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Dr Tariq Butt and his group for his involvement in these studies.
55
REFERENCES
Bissett, 1., 1983, Notes on Tolypocladium and related genera, Can. J Bot. 61: 1311-1329.
Ekbom, B., 1993, Tolypocladium cylindrosporum Gams (Deuteromycetes, Moniliaceae) as a biological control
agent against the Window Midge Sylvicola cinctus Fabr. (Diptera: Anisopodidae), Biocont. Sci. Technol.
3: 309-313.
Gillespie, AT. and Claydon, N., 1989, The use of entomogenous fungi for pest control and the role of toxins in
pathogenesis, Pesticide Science 27: 203-215.
Goettal, M.S., 1987, Preliminary field trials with the entomopathogenic hyphomycete Tolypocladium
cylindrosporum in Central Alberta, J Am. Mosquito Control Ass. 3: 239-245.
H~ek, A.E. and St Leger, R.J., 1994, Interaction between fungal pathogens and insect hosts, Ann. Rev. Entomol.
39: 293-322.
Lam, T.N.C., Goettal, M. and Soares, G.G. Inr., 1988, Host records for the entomopathogenic hyphomycete
Tolypocladium cylindrosporum, Florida Entomologist 71: 86-89.
Lisansky, S., Robinson, A. and Coombs, J., 1991, Green Growers Guide, CPL Press, U.K.
Roberts, D.W., 1981, Toxins of entomopathogenic fungi, in: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases
1970-1980 (H.D. Burges, ed.), pp. 441-464, Academic Press, New York.
Roberts, D.W. and Hajek, A.E., 1992, Entomopathogenic fungi as bioinsecticides, in: Frontiers in Industrial
Mycology (G.F. Leatham, ed.), pp. 144-159, Chapman & Hall, New York.
Soares, JR., Riba, G.G., Caudal, A. and Vincent, J.J., 1989, Comparative studies of eleven isolates of the fungal
entomopathogen Tolypocladium cylindrosporum and two isolates of Tolypocladium extinguens, J Inv.
Pathol. 46: 115-120.
WWDA, 1997, The World Wide Directory of Agrobiologicals on CDROM, CPL Scientific Press, Newbury,
Berkshire, UK.
56
POTENTIAL BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THERMOPHILIC
MOULDS
A. Archanal and T. Satyanarayana2
ISwami Shraddhanand College

Alipur
Delhi-ll0 036
India
2Department of Microbiology
University of Delhi South Campus
Benito Juarez Road
New Delhi-110 021
India
INTRODUCTION
Temperature is one of the extremely important environmental variables that playa key and
decisive role in the survival, growth, distribution and diversity of microbes on earth. Brock
(1970) stressed that thermophilic microbes are inhabitants of extreme environments where the
temperature rises above the prevailing normal temperature in the area. This temperature
increment could be caused by geothermal heat, microbial thermogenesis of organic rich
materials and solar heating of substrates such as soils, litter and rock.
The biotechnological applications of thermophilic moulds are numerous. Pure culture
studies of thermophilic fungi have provided clear evidence that they possess a battery of
extracellular enzymes capable of hydrolysing polymers such as starch, protein, pectin,
hemicellulose and cellulose. They have also been reported to produce, among others, a number
of antibacterial and antifungal substances, extracellular phenolic compounds and organic acids
(Satyanarayana et aI., 1992). Some thermophilic fungi have already been used in industries
involving food processing and bioconversion of organic materials (Mouchacca, 1990).
Thermophilic moulds offer several advantages for their use in industry. This is mainly due to
their ability to produce thermostable enzymes. Such biocatalysts exhibit a higher degree of
stability in the presence of detergents and aqueous organic solvents and reduced loss of activity
during storage and purification. Mass cultivation of thermophilic fungi precludes to a large
extent contamination problems encountered with mesophiles with concomitant reduction in
investment costs (Brock, 1986). Microbial fermentations carried out at elevated temperatures

using thermophilic moulds reduce the viscosity and surface tension of water which allows
better mixing of the broth. The metabolic activity of microbes results in heat production, but
in the case of thermophilic fermentations the system need not be cooled extensively since
elevated temperatures can be tolerated by thermophilic fungi. Consequently, the
comparatively lower energy requirement makes the bioprocess more cost-effective.
Thermophilic fungi are also potential candidates for water treatment. The advantages they
offer include an enhanced reaction rate and decreased retention time, destruction of pathogenic
microbes that might be present in sewage, lower viscosity so that less energy is required for
mixing, and easier de-watering of the resulting sludge (Zinder, 1986).
Thermophilic microbes are reported to survive and grow at elevated temperatures on
account of rapid resynthesis of essential metabolises, molecular thermo stability and
ultrastructural thermostability. Survival of thermophilic fungi appears to be a consequence of
thermostability and functional permeability of the membranes. Recently, there have been
indications that polyamines could be playing a significant role in growth and differentiation
of these fungi (Singhania et al., 1991; Magan, 1997). Wright et al. (1983) suggested that
growth of the thermophile Talaromyces thermophilus could be partially attributed to its
inability to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids, which in turn are responsible for growth at lower
temperatures.
There has been much work on the occurrence of thermophilic moulds and their role in
decomposition of organic matter, production of enzymes, antibiotics, organic acids, phenolic
compounds, extracellular polysaccharides, lipids and bioconversions (Tansey and Brock, 1978;
Johri, 1980; Johri and Satyanarayana, 1984, 1986; Satyanarayana et al., 1988, 1990, 1992,
McHale and Morrison, 1986; Bunni et aI., 1989). The enzymes elaborated by thermophilic
fungi include thermostable aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases, lipases, proteases and
ribonucleases that show thermostability at temperatures much higher than the growth maxima
of the organism (Satyanarayana et al., 1992). Enzymes of the TCA cycle such as glucose-6-P-
dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and succinic dehydrogenase
are also thermostable in several thermophilic moulds. Most exopolysaccharases of fungal
origin are glycoproteins, and partial removal of the associated carbohydrate renders such
enzymes less heat-stable suggesting an important role for the carbohydrate moiety in
maintenance of conformation structure at high temperatures (Yoshioka et al., 1981). The
natural occurrence ofthermophiles in self-heating piles of organic matter such as hay, wood-
chips and agricultural composts clearly shows their ability to degrade cellulosic substrates.
This has encouraged exploitation of these thermophiles in commercial production of such
hydro lases. A growing concern of microbiologists is to be able to convert agricultural and
urban wastes to cellobiose and glucose, and in tum allow microbial conversion to single cell
protein (Johri, 1980).
PRODUCTION OF THERMOSTABLE ENZYMES
p-Galactosidase
p-galactosidase converts the milk sugar lactose into glucose and galactose, and thereby
enhances the effective sweetness of dairy products. Furthermore, it lowers the content of
lactose in milk formulated for people suffering from lactose-intolerance. Sorensen and Crison
(1974) reported 25 out of 54 thermophilic fungal strains to be producing the enzyme p-
galactosidase, commonly called lactase. Humicola grisea var. thermo idea, Humicola
lanuginosa, Malbranchea pulchella var. sulfurea, Mucor pusillus, M miehei, Sporotrichum
thermophile and Torula thermophila exhibited best growth on semi-solid lactose medium at
58
pH 6.6, and among these Mucor pusillus was the best enzyme producer at 61°C, with good
thermo stability. Another enzyme from Thermomyces lanuginosus was produced in static
culture (Prasad and Maheshwari, 1978b).
Satyanarayana et al.(1985) studied ~-galactosidase production in 13 thermophilic fungi
and found extracellular as well as intracellular activity by Humicola insolens, Malbranchea
pulchella and Talaromyces emersonii while only intracellular activity was seen in Acremonium
alabamensis, Chaetomium thermophile, Humicola lanuginosa and Sporotrichum thermophile.
Hence, thermophilic moulds seem to be a potential source for industrial production of 13-
galactosidase, whose optimum pH range for activity, 4-8, tallies with that of milk of whey,
indicating its suitability for industrial usage. Partial indigestibility and the lower sweetening
value of lactose may be overcome by its hydrolysis by 13-galactosidase into its constituent
monomeric sugars, glucose and galactose (Fisher et al., 1995). Fisher et ai. (1995) purified 13-
galactosidase from Talaromyces lanuginosus, which was identified as a bulky glucoprotein
with a dimeric structure and substantial thermostability.
Phosphatases
The phosphoserine residues in casein can be hydrolysed both by alkaline and acid
phosphatases whereby the phosphate content of food can be reduced. Alkaline phosphatases
find usage in molecular biology. Production of acid phosphatases was reported in
Thermomyces lanuginosus (Crison, 1969). Out of 775 thermophilic fungal isolates studied,
Bilai et al. (1985) found only fifteen to be producing acid phosphatases. No correlation
between the intensity of growth of microbes and the ability to produce acid phosphatases could
be established. Satyanarayana et al. (1985) screened thirteen thermophilic fungi and found that
only two of them, Acremonium alabamensis and Rhizopus rhizopodijormis, secreted acid
phosphatases whereas the other eleven species produced both types of phosphatases. Spent
media from cultures of Thermoascus crustaceus contained significant amounts of acid
phosphatase activity (Arnold et al, 1988).
Chitinases
The biopolymer chitin is found in the cell walls of fungi and in the exoskeletons of marine
invertebrates and arthropods. For its complete hydrolysis, many microbes, plants and animals
have an enzyme system composed of two hydrolytic enzymes: chitinase and chitobiase. In cell
walls of fungi, chitin may be accompanied by chitosan which is deacetylated chitin (Kauss et
aI., 1983). Chitinolytic enzymes have been described from thermophilic fungi, viz.
Talaromyces byssochlamydoides and T. emersonii (Adams and Deploey, 1978), Thermomyces
lanuginosus (Nakaji, 1978), Mucor miehei (Kauss et al., 1983), Talaromyces emersonii
(McCormack et aI., 1991). Chitinase of T. emersonii was inducible and substantially
thermostable (McCormack et al., 1991).
Mannanases
Mannanases are the major components of the hemicellulose fraction of softwoods.

Complete hydrolysis of mannans involves the action of endo-acting mannanases and
mannosidases. Eight thermophilic fungi were examined for mannanase production by Araujo
and Ward (1990) and they found highest enzyme production by Talaromyces
byssochlamydoides and T. emersonii. Cell-free supernatants from Thielavia terrestris were
resolved into four mannanases and a mannosidase which were quite thermostable (Araujo and
Ward, 1990). Such thermostable mannanases show promise as bleaching aids in the paper and
pulp industry (Stalbrand et al., 1993).
59
Xylanases
Xylanases are the most studied enzymes among the hemicellulases since their substrate
xylans constitute the largest proportion of hemic ell uloses in nature. Among the thermophilic
fungi screened by Flannigan and Sellars (1972), Absidia ramosa, A. jumigatus, H lanuginosa,
M pusillus and T aurantiacus actively degraded arabinoxylan. Matsuo et al. (1975) selected
M pulchella var. sulfurea among several xylanase-producing thermophilic moulds and
obtained 93.2% hydrolysis of xylan to xylose. Satyanarayana and Johri (1983) reported a
higher xylanolytic activity for S. thermophile and A. alabamensis among six thermophilic
fungal isolates of paddy straw compost. Maheshwari and Kamalam (1985) observed higher
xylanase yields in shake flasks than in a fermenter. Durand et ai. (1984) demonstrated
production of xylanase and B-xylosidase from Sporotrichum cellulophilum and Thielavia
terrestris using wheat bran as a substrate. Gomes et ai. (1994) characterized a highly
thermostable xylanase of a wild strain of Thermoascus aurantiacus.
Recently Melanocarpus albomyces ZIS-68 was shown to produce a xylanase (Jain, 1995). Haq
and Deckwer (1995) compared xylanase production by two strains of Thermomyces
lanuginosus, both of which were found to be free from cellulase activity, making them suitable
preparations for biobleaching of paper pUlps. Likewise, Dusterhoft et ai. (1997) purified and
characterized two xylanases from Humicola insolens. Submerged fermentation was a better
mode of xylanase production by H lanuginosa and S..thermophile, while T aurantiacus
produced higher titres by solid state fermentation (Grajek, 1987). Purkarthofer et ai. (1993)
studied production of cellulase-free xylanase by T lanuginosus in both submerged and solid
state fermentations. Endoxylanases are known to be induced by their substrate, xylan.
Purkarthofer and Steiner (1995) demonstrated enzyme induction in the case of Thermomyces
lanuginosus.
The complete degradation of branched xylans requires the concerted action of several
hydrolytic enzymes, viz. acetyl xylan esterase, a-glucuronidase, a-arabinofuranosidase and B-
xylanosidase, besides endoxylanase (Biely, 1985). Acetyl esterases from T reesei and S.
commune exerted a synergistic action with endoxylanases in the hydrolysis of acetylated xylan
to produce xylooligomers, xylose and acetic acid (Biely et aI., 1986). Tuohy et ai. (1994)
purified two acetyl xylan esterases from Talaromyces emersonii. Acetyl esterase of T
lanuginosus showed best activity in the acidic range. Trichoderma reesei produced a-
glucuronidase which acts synergistically with endoxylanases and liberates 4-0-
methylglucuronic acid from substituted xylooligomers. a-Arabinofuranosidases hydrolyse non-
reducing arabinofuranosyl residues from furanosidase, arabinans, arabinoxylans and
arabinogalactans. This enzyme has been characterized from A. niger (John et aI., 1979), T
koningii (Wood and McCrae, 1986), T lanuginosus (Purkarthofer et aI., 1993) and T
emersonii (Tuohy et aI., 1994), and it degrades arabinose residues in heteropolymeric
substrates. B-Xylosidases hydrolyse xylobiose to xylose, and normally exhibit no activity
towards xylans and other higher xylooligosaccharides. B-Xylosidase is produced in
appreciable amounts by M lanuginosa (Anand and Vithayathil, 1996) and A. niger (Takenishi
et aI., 1973).
The most important novel biotechnological application ofxylanases is to produce rayon
grade paper pulps, for which a thermostable cellulase-free xylanase preparation is required
(Viikari et aI., 1991). Chemical bleaching of paper pulp is a polluting process, whereas
xylanase aided bleaching results in a decrease in chlorine consumption and improves paper
brightness in an environmentally friendly way (Viikari et aI., 1994). Hemicellulose hydrolysis
in pulps by these hemicellulases increases the extractability of lignin from kraft pulps in the
subsequent bleaching sequences. Other applications of xylanases in the same industry are in
debarking, refining of pulp fibres, preparation of dissolving pulps and bioconversion.
60
Dissolving pulps are used to produce cellulose derivatives such as acetates, cellophanes and
rayons, where hemicellulose contamination leads to colour and haze in the product and also
to poor cellulose derivation (Paice and Jurasek, 1984). Xylanases find numerous applications
in other industries, including clarification of juices and wines, extraction of coffee, plant oils
and starch (Wong and Saddler, 1993), improvement of nutritional properties of silage,
maceration of cell wa11s while processing fruits and vegetables, production offood thickeners,
fuel and chemical feedstocks (Biely, 1991), preparation of cereal-based diets for poultry and
pigs and so on. Besides, xylanase pretreatment of forage crops and other biomass is of great
value in improving the nutritional quality and digestibility of rumen feeds or in facilitating
compo sting (Gilbert and Hazlewood, 1993). The enzymatic digestion of industrial wastes as
an alternative to landfill deposition may also be useful.
Cellulases
Cellulases include endoglucanases (randomly cleaving internal glycosidic bonds in

cellulose, e.g. carboxymethyl cellulose), exoglucanases (removing glucose units from ends of
cellulose chains) and B-glucosidases (integral elements of cellulolytic systems which convert
cellulose to glucose). Chaetomium thermophile var. coprophile, C. thermophile var. dissitum,
Humicola grisea var. thermo idea, H insolens, Myriococcum albomyces, Sporotrichum
thermophile and Torula thermophila were observed to be cellulolytic and they could degrade
filter paper as well as CMC (Fergus, 1969). Malbranchea pulchella var. sulfurea, Stilbella
thermophila and Talaromyces thermophilus could hydrolyse only CMC and not filter paper,
whereas Humicola lanuginosa, H stellata, Mucor miehei, M pusillus and Thermoascus
aurantiacus were unable to utilize any of these cellulose sources (Satyanarayana et aI, 1992).
In contrast, some strains of T aurantiacus (Tong et a1, 1980) and Talaromyces spp. (Jain
et aI., 1979, McHale and Coughlan, 1981) were cellulolytic. Roy et ai. (1990) reported
production of thermostable endocellulase by Myceliophthora thermophile. Growth of
Chaetomium cellulolyticum on many cellulose-rich raw materials indicates the presence of a
broad spectrum of enzymes required for bioconversion of such substrates (Ganju et aI., 1990).
Cellulases and B-glucosidases were detected in this system on further investigation. Tong et
ai. (1980) reported production of B-glucosidase and three cellulases from three-week old
Thermoascus aurantiacus culture.
Nishio et al. (1981) cultivated Talaromyces sp. in solid state on wheat bran and produced
cellulases. Grajek (1987) reported greater production of cellulases in solid state fermentation
(SSF) than in submerged fermentation. Presence of additives such as Tween-80 was shown
to hamper cellulose degradation by S. thermophile (Ramanelli et a1., 1975), which could be due
to its action as a detergent to prevent the adsorption of extracellular cellulase on cellulose. The
cell-associated cellulolytic activity reached a maximum by three days, while extracellular
activity reached a peak by six days in Thielavia terrestris (Breuil et aI., 1986). The spores of
S. thermophile immobilized in agar/polyacrylamide/alginate gels have been shown to grow and
produce cellulases (Singh et a1., 1989). There have been other instances too where
thermophilic fungi such as T emersonii and S. cellulophilum have been immobilized for
cellulase production (Tamada et a1., 1986). Genera11y immobilized systems are seen to exhibit
more cellulase activity than the corresponding free cells. Cellulase production is mostly
induced by the presence of cellulose, cellobiose and other related higher sugars, and is
repressed by the catabolite, glucose. Efforts to develop hyperproducing cellulose mutants by
physical and chemical mutagenesis have resulted in a few cellulose hyperproducers.
Sporotrichum thermophile ATCC 42464 produced two intracellular B-glucosidases that
were mutually very different (Meyer and Canavascini, 1981). Tong et ai. (1980) reported the
occurrence of a highly glycosylated B-glucosidase of Thermoascus aurantiacus which
contributed to its exceptional heat stability. A pair of B-glucosidases, both intracellular,
61
exhibited relatively less thermostability despite being glycosylated in the cellulolytic system
of Humicola grisea var. thermoidea (Peralta et aI., 1990). Filho (1996) obtained a B-
glucosidase from H grisea var. thermoidea grown on wheat bran by solid-state culture. This
enzyme also was a dimer molecule with two identical subunits and good thermotolerance. A
highly thermostable B-glucosidase was purified and characterized from the thermophilic fungus
H grisea var. thermo idea (Peralta et aI., 1997). B-Glucosidase plays a crucial role in the
process of saccharification of cellulose by removing cellobiose by catalysing hydrolysis of B-
glucosidic linkages.
The potential applications of cellulases are in enhancing the tensile strength of high a-
sulfite pulp, recovering agar and the production of sea weed jelly, saccharification of
delignified cellulosic wastes, modifying cereals, improving the solubility of raw-materials in
brewing, digesting excreta in septic tanks, supplementing enzymes in feed for poultry and pigs,
and preparing protoplasts from higher plants and fungi (Satyanarayana et aI., 1992).
Amylases
The production of amylases has been reported from several thermophilic fungi viz.
Rhizomucor pusillus (Sornkuti and Steinberg, 1980; Turchi and Bercker, 1987; Kanlayakrit et
al., 1987), Talaromyces emersonii (Bunni et aI., 1989), Thermomyces lanuginosus (Jensen et
aI., 1988), M sulfurea (Gupta and Gautam, 1995) and T. aurantiacus (Adams, 1992).
Amylases have numerous applications in biotechnological industries, such as in the starch
industry, brewing industry, distilling industry and textile industry. Adams (1992) studied
amylase production with respect to mycelial growth of T. aurantiacus. The a-amylase of T.
lanuginosus was maximally active at slightly acidic conditions and 65°C. Near boiling
temperatures resulted in its progressive and irreversible denaturation. Sadhukhan et al. (1990)
used a synthetic medium for amylase production by Myceliophthora thermophila and
demonstrated beneficial effects of Ca2+ and Mn2+ on amylase biosynthesis. Purified amylase
preparations of various thermophilic fungi, Rhizomucor pusillus (Sornkuti and Steinberg,
1980), Talaromyces emersonii (Bunni et al., 1989), Thermomyces lanuginosus (Jensen et aI.,
1988) and M sulfurea (Gupta and Gautam, 1995) have been described. Jackson and Seidman
(1985) reported production of a-amylase, glucoamylase and a-glucosidase from a thermophilic
mould Humicola grisea (thermoidea), which formed a strong amylolytic system due to the
additive effect of these hydrolysing enzymes, and suggested that this mould has immense
industrial potential. Likewise, another mould Talaromyces emersonii was reported to be a
producer of a-amylase, a-glucosidase and glucoamylase (Bunni et al., 1989; Basawesvara Rao,
1979). Adams (1995) showed extracellular amylase activities of Rhizomucor pusillus and
Humicola lanuginosa at initial stages of mycelial growth. Protoplast fusion in Malbranchea
sulfurea resulted in enhanced extracellular production of a-amylase (Gupta and Gautam,
1995).
Glucoamylase removes glucose molecules from the polymer chain end (exo-acting) and
also forms an important component of the starch hydrolytic system. Campos and Felix (1995)
purified and characterized a glucoamylase from Humicola grisea. There have been reports of
a fungus producing glucoamylase in more than one form. Taylor et a1. (1978) reported two
forms of this enzyme in T. lanuginosus, which had variation in their pH optima for enzyme
action. Thermostable glucoamylases from thermophilic fungi are very often glycoproteins,
such as in the case of R.. pusillus (Kanlayakrit et al., 1987) and T. lanuginosus (Basaveswara
Rao et aI., 1981).
Proteases
The term proteases refers to a complex of protein-degrading enzymes that may include
62
proteinasesand peptidases. Species of A chaetomium, Chaetomium, Humicola, Rhizomucor,
Malbranchea, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Sporotrichum, Torula and Talaromyces are good
producers of acid, neutral and alkaline protease (Garg and 10hri, 1998). Synthesis of many
proteases is governed partially by the type of (and??) concentration of the available nutrients
(Garg and 10hri, 1998). Satyanarayana and 10hri (1983) reported protease production from H
lanuginosa, S. thermophile and T aurantiacus. Acid protease produced from Rhizomucor
miehei was industrially very significant (Escobar and Barnett, 1995). Thakur et aI. (1990)
achieved a high milk clotting activity (50,000 Soxhlet U/g mouldy bran) using Mucor miehei
in SSF. A high ratio of 60: 1 between milk clotting and proteolytic activity for this enzyme was
recorded. Industrial applications of proteases include those in cheese making, detergents and
laundry, tanning industry, baking, brewing, meat tenderization, digestive and preparation
among others.
Lipases
Thermophilic moulds that have been found to produce lipases include M pusillus, M
miehei, H lanuginosa, H grisea var. thermo idea, T thermophilus, T emersonii and A.
alabamensis (Satyanarayana and 10hri, 1981a; Deploey et aI., 1981; Lawson et aI., 1994).
Arima et al. (1972) reported a high lipase production at 45°C in a medium containing olive oil,
whereas lipases were synthesized by H grisea var. thermo idea, M pusillus, T thermophilus
and T crustaceus, in a medium devoid of lipids, though their addition caused an increase in
enzyme production (Ogundero, 1980). Lawson et aI. (1994) investigated the nature of
substrate binding in Humicola lanuginosa lipase through X-ray crystallography and intuitive
modelling. In a recent patent filed by Novo Industry, Denmark, the suitability of Humicola
lipase for the detergent industry was demonstrated.
Invertase
Invertase hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose and hence it is commercially
important for production of high fructose com syrup (HFCS). The ability to produce invertase
was studied in four fungi viz. Humicola hyalothermophila, Chrysosporium thermophilum,
Thermomyces lanuginosus and Malbranchea pulchella var. sulfurea (Kirillova and
Shchepankevich, 1989). Maheshwari et aI. (1983) showed that fungal invertase appeared in
mycelial suspension only when sucrose or raffinose was added to the medium and rapidly
disappeared following its exhaustion. This enzyme was not stable in cell-free extracts and also
the enzyme activity was growth dependent. A similar induction effect of sucrose and raffinose
on invertase secretion was observed by Palanivelu et aI. (1984). Maheshwari and
Balasubramanyam (1988) also reported invertase production by Thermomyces lanuginosus and
Penicillium dupontii, and consequently sucrose degradation.
Trehalase
Trehalose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-a-glucopyranoside) is widely distributed in fungi where

it is stored as a reserve food supply. In fungi, trehalose is associated with carbon reserves,
developmental processes, adaptations to a number of environmental stresses and injuries and
in some cases with signal transduction pathways (Neves et aI., 1994). The occurrence of
trehalose in thermophiles, is thus a clue towards a possible mechanism enabling their survival
and growth at extreme temperatures. In order to be able to utilize the trehalose, the
corresponding enzyme trehalase is needed. Investigation revealed that thermophilic fungi
could indeed produce trehalases. Prasad and Maheshwari (1978a, b) were the first to report
the occurrence of trehalase in Thermomyces lanuginosus. A high molecular weight
63
extracellular trehalase was purified from conidia of Humicola grisea var. thermoidea
(Zimmermann et aI., 1990). Cardello et aI. (1994) purified cytosolic trehala5e from the conidia
of H grisea var. thermoidea which was more thermostable than the other known trehalases.
The partially-purified, thermally stable trehalase from conidia of Humicola grisea was highly
specific for trehalose and was free of potentially interfering activities (Neves et aI., 1994), and
therefore, this was used for the determination of trehalase.
Pectinases
Pectins are heteropolysaccharides that mainly have a structural role in plants and help in
maintaining the cell integrity. Craveri et aI. (1967) described pectinases from Penicillium
dupontii, Humicola stellata, Humicola lanuginosa, Mucor pusillus and Humicola insolens.
Knosel and Resz (1973) investigated thermophilic strains of fungi representing different genera
and species for the production of pectinolytic enzymes. The pectinolytic activities of Thielavia
terrestris, Sporotrichum cellulophilum and Trichoderma reesei were mutually compared,
which revealed moderate thermo stability of these enzymes (Durand et aI., 1984). Tuohy et aI.
(1989) detected pectinolytic activities in solid state cultures of four different strains of
thermophilic fungi, namely C. thermophile, T emersonii CBS 814.70, T emersonii UCG 208
and T aurantiacus, whereas pectin lyase was found only in Chaetomium thermophile.
Due to the synergistic effect of pectinase and cellulase on the hydrolysis of plant cell
biomass Whitehead and Smith (1989) investigated the production of pectinase by
Sporotrichum thermophile in both static and shake flask cultures. Static culture had a higher
yield than shake flask culture. Saccharification of natural substrates with cellulases and
hemicellulases may be accentuated using pectinases, since the enzymatic action of the latter
would permit better access of the former pair of enzymes to their respective substrates (Tuohy
et aI., 1989). Commercial pectinases comprising three main activities, e.g. polygalacturonase,
pectin lyase and pectin methylesterase, are therefore used to reduce the level of pectic
substances in the processing of fruits and juices.
Xylose Isomerase
Thermophilic moulds are known to produce xylanolytic enzymes to utilize xylan (Dubey
and Johri, 1987; Gomes et aI., 1993; Matsuo and Yasui, 1985; Satyanarayana and Johri, 1983),
and to utilize xylose as a carbon source (Reese, 1946; Subramanyam, 1980). Thermostable
xylanases from thermophilic moulds could be employed in the hydrolysis of abundantly
available hemicellulases in agricultural residues, such as cereal straws, into xylose
(Maheshwari and Kamalam, 1985). Banerjee et aI. (1994) reported a thermophilic mould,
Malbranchea pulchella var. sulfurea TMD-8 that produced xylanases extracellularly when
wheat straw or wheat straw hemicellulose was provided in the medium. Its mycelial extracts
contained xylose isomerase, xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase which is an
exceptional property. It has been reported that both pathways for the conversion of xylose to
xylulose mediated by (i) xylose isomerase, and (ii) xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase
occur in thermophilic moulds (Banerjee et aI., 1994), mesophilic filamentous fungi such as
Aspergillus spp., F. oxysporum (Suihko et al., 1983), Gliocladium roseum, Neurospora crassa
(Chiang and Knight, 1960), Penicillium spp., Rhizopus nigrijicans, and in yeasts (Hofer et aI.,
1971 ).
64
Phytase
Thermophilic fungi such as Sporotrichum thermophile are known to produce phytases

(myo-inositol hexaphosphate phosphohydrolase), a special group of acid phosphatases that
hydrolyse phytate to a series of lower phosphate esters ofmyo-inositol and phosphate. Phytic
acid and phytates are common components of plant tissues and hence a major component of
plant-derived foods. About 75% of the total phosphorus in cereals, legumes and seeds
(Common, 1940; de Boland et aI., 1975; Erdman, 1979) exists as phytic acid phosphorus. The
phytate phosphorus accounts for between 60 and 90% of total phosphorus present in seeds of
both monocot and dicot plants. Phytic acid phosphorus, however, remains largely unavailable
to monogastrics such as pigs, poultry and humans as these species are devoid of sufficient,
suitable endogenous phosphatase activity that is capable of liberating the phosphate groups
from the phytate core structure. This results in excretion of unutilised phosphorus, creating
pollution problems in areas of intensive livestock production. The released phosphorus is
transported into rivers and lakes where it may cause eutrophication.
Phytate acts as an antinutritional factor since six reactive groups in this molecule chelate
minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, cobalt and copper very strongly, thus forming
insoluble metal-phytate complexes (Gifford and Clydesdale, 1990). Nwokolo and Bragg
(1977) have shown that the presence of phytate in rapeseed causes zinc, calcium and
magnesium deficiency in chicken. Phytates reduce the digestibility of proteins (Knuckles et
al., 1989) starch and lipids (Nyman and Bjorck, 1989). They are also known to inhibit certain
enzymes such as amylases (Sharma et aI., 1978; Deshpande and Cheryan, 1984), acid
phosphatase (Hayakawa et aI., 1990), tyrosinase (Graf, 1986) and trypsin (Deshpande and
Damodaran, 1989). Hence, treatment of foods and feeds with phytase or phytase producers
could be expected to hydrolyse phytates, and consequently alleviate their antinutritional effects
(Ghosh, 1997). Fungal phytases are known to be mostly extracellular (Howson et aI., 1983).
Ghosh (1997) reported a fast-growing, well sporulating thermophilic fungus Sporotrichum
thermophile to be a good phytase producer. A two-day old culture of S. thermophile started
phytase secretion that reached a peak by eight days, followed by a decline. In this case enzyme
biosynthesis was induced by the presence ofphytic acid or phytate, amounting to a five-fold
enhancement. A very high phytate concentration, however, inhibited phytase production. This
pattern is in accordance with many other mesophilic bacteria and fungi (Howson and Davis,
1983; Tambe et aI., 1994).
A higher enzyme titre was attained in solid state fermentation than in submerged
fermentation, which could be attributed to better nutrient composition of the solid substrate,
closer contact between the fungus and the nutrients, and the solid substrate being more similar
to the natural growth habit of moulds (Ghosh, 1997). The phytase of S. thermophile could be
useful in the removal of phytate from soymilk, where a thermostable enzyme would be needed.
To meet this purpose as well as in pretreatment of animal feed for removal of antinutritional
properties of phytate, a crude enzyme extract may be used. A simpler way could be cultivation
of the organism per se on the animal feed in SSF to bring about in situ phytate reduction. This
would also result in protein enrichment of the animal feed.
UPGRADATION OF ANIMAL FEED AND SINGLE CELL PROTEIN PRODUCTION
The cellulolytic thermophilic moulds offer certain advantages over their mesophilic
counterparts, such as high rates of cellulose breakdown, good sources of protein, activity over
a wider temperature range including higher temperatures, and a higher specific growth rate
(Seal and Eggins, 1976). Chaetomium cellulolyticum (Chahal and Wang, 1978) and
Sporotrichum pulverulentum (Thornke et aI., 1980) have been used to upgrade animal feeds
65
and to produce single cell protein (SCP). Hecht et aI. (1982) reported conversion of cellulose
into fungal cell mass, whereas Klingspohn et al. (1993) utilized potato pulp from potato starch
processing to meet the same purpose.
Acid pretreatment of the substrate appears to be better than alkali pretreatment if the
product is to be used as a ruminant feed in terms of rate and extent of protein production in the
insoluble biomass product. Panment et al' (1978) utilised alkali pretreated sawdust to cultivate
Chaetomium cellulolyticum by solid state fermentation. SCP was produced from various
pretreated wood substrates using C. cellulolyticum (Moo-Young et al" 1978). Feeding trails
suggest that the SCP is nutritious, digestible and non-toxic as an additive in animal feeds.
Ghai et al. (1979) used thermophilic moulds C. cellulolyticum and Actinomucor for producing
SCP on canning industry wastes. Similarly, S. thermophile converted newsprint waste into
protein-rich matter by solid-state fermentation in six days (Zadrazil and Brunnert, 1982). Sen
et al. (1979) accomplished conversion of leafy waste material into a brown-coloured product
with increased N, P and K contents without a foul smell by using Sporotrichum sp. D-14,
Mucor sp. C-16 and Humicola sp. H-37 in 90 days. A two-fold increase in protein content of
sugarbeet pulp in 48 hours was obtained using thermophilic moulds, T. aurantiacus and S.
thermophile being the most efficient (Grajek, 1988). In this case, the protein productivity per
cubic metre working volume of the fermenter was 0.2 kg/h for T. aurantiacus and 0.162 kg/h
for S. thermophile. Sundman et al' (1981) reported decolourisation of kraft bleach plant
effluent by S. pulverulentum. Schiigerl and Rosen (1997) used cellulose and nutrient salts as
well as potato pulp and potato protein liquor as substrates for cultivating Chaetomium
cellulolyticum in batch and repeated-batch operations, of which the latter was a more
productive process for fungal protein production. Employing thermophilic moulds for SCP
production and upgradation of animal feed eliminates the need for heat removal and also
reduces contamination problems, and hence makes the technology more cost-effective and
simplified.
COMPOSTING
Among the biotechnological applications of thermophilic fungi, composting has been in

vogue for the degradation of agroresidues, mushroom production, solid waste management and
for understanding the role of fungi in plant litter ecosystems. Composting is a process
involving conversion of organic residues into lignoprotein complexes (humus) by thermophiles
under optimum moisture and aeration conditions. During this physico-chemical and microbial
conversion, CO2 is evolved and the temperature of the pile may reach 60 to 80°C (Gallardo-
Lara and Nogales, 1987). Though the maximum growth temperature of thermophilic moulds
is around 60°C (Rosenberg, 1975), their spores may survive at higher temperatures (Falcon
et al., 1987). These surviving spores lead to massive fungal growth during the final stage of
compo sting (Straatsma et al., 1989). The effect of these fungi on the growth of mushroom
mycelium has been described at three levels. First, the fungi decrease the concentration of
ammonia in the compost, which otherwise would counteract the growth of the mushroom
mycelium (Ross and Harris, 1983). Second, they immobilise nutrients in a form that
apparently is available to the mushroom mycelium (Fermor and Grant, 1985). And third, they
may have a growth-promoting effect on mushroom mycelium, as has been demonstrated for
Scytalidium thermophilum and for other thermophilic moulds (Straatsma et aI., 1989).
Scytalidium thermophilum is an important fungus in the production of mushroom compost
(Wiegant, 1992). Compost prepared using this fungus had a growth-promoting effect on the
mycelia of the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Wiegant et aI., 1992). However, the
hyphal extension rates were not clearly related to the rate of mushroom biomass accumulation.
The luxuriant growth of thermophilic moulds in the last phase of the compost preparation
66
process (Wiegant, 1992) contributes significantly to the quality of compost (Ross and Harris,
1983; Straatsma et al., 1989, 1994) and also, very importantly, such compost is capable of
supporting selective growth of the button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Straatsma et al.,
1994).
BIOSORPTION OF HEAVY METALS
The existence of heavy metals and/or radionuclides in the environment, whether derived
from natural or anthropological activities, represents a significant environmental hazard. It has
been indicated that a potential practical utilization of thermophiles is in bioleaching, which is
a faster process than a similar leaching process using mesophiles. Fungal biomass of
Talaromyces emersonii was reported to be very useful in biosorptive technology (Bengtsson
et al., 1995). Faurest et al. (1994) demonstrated the role of pH and cations in the enhancement
of heavy metal sorption by fungal mycelial dead biomasses. Similarly Bengtsson et al. (1995)
also showed that binding of uranium to the T emersonii biomass decreases significantly when
the pH is decreased from 5 to 3. Such thermophilic fungi having the capability to take up
heavy metals and radionuclides may be exploited in detoxification of metal-bearing waste-
waters, decontamination of radioactive waste-waters, recovery of metals from ore-processing
solutions and the recovery ofrare metals from sea water (Gadd and White, 1993).
ANTAGONISTIC ATTRIBUTES
The term 'antagonism' refers to any microbial activity that, in some way, adversely affects
another organism(s) growing in association with it. It includes lysis, competition and
antibiosis. While competing under adverse conditions of temperature regimes, thermophilic
moulds are renowned producers of volatile and non-volatile metabolites, lytic enzymes and
antimicrobials (Johri and Satyanarayana, 1984, 1986; Johri et ai., 1985). These volatile
compounds apparently regulate fungal growth in situ through fungistatic action and auto-
inhibition. Rode et al. (1947) reported penicillin production by Malbranchea pulchella var.
sulfurea. Members of the genera Thermoascus and Malbranchea were found capable of
production of6-aminopenicillic acid (6-APA) (Kitano et al., 1975), whereas Mucor pusillus
and M miehei are known to produce extracellular antibiotic peptides namely 'sillurin' and
'miehein' (Somkuti and Greenberg, 1979). Six isolates of Malbranchea emanated sporostatic
volatile metabolites which inhibited spores of A. alabamensis, H lanuginosa, Thermoascus
sp., T indicae and even of itself (Prakash, 1984). Likewise, volatile compounds of C.
thermophile, M pusillus, S. thermophile and T aurantiacus inhibited spore germination of A.
jumigatus, H lanuginosa and T thermophila (Satyanarayana and Johri, 1981 b). Premabai and
Narasimhan (1966) reported production of malbranchin A and B' from M pulchella which
functioned as an antibacterial.
POLYAMINE BIOSYNTHESIS
A wide range of thermophilic fungi can cause spoilage of bagasse, grain, groundnut, hay,
palm, kernels, peat, wood, chips and other agricultural crops (Sharma, 1989). Although
microbial colonisation is essential for the disposal of organic waste in nature, and
horticulturally the same process is utilized in composting for enriching the soil type and for
producing mushroom compost, the biodeterioration of healthy stored grains and wooden
articles is indeed undesirable. A strategic prevention of this biodeterioration could be achieved
67
by inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis (Singhania et aI., 1991). Thermophilic moulds have
been shown to contain polyamines similar to their mesophilic counterparts. These polyamines
playa vital role in cellular growth and differentiation (Rajam and Galston, 1985; Walters,
1987) and provide thermal stability for protein synthesis in thermophiles (Oshima and Senshu,
1985).
Singhania et al. (1991) reported a wide distribution of putrescine, spermidine and
spermine in fifteen thermophilic moulds belonging to zygomycetes, ascomycetes and
deuteromycetes. Besides these, cadaverine and a few unidentified polyamines were also
sporadically found. Temperature and age of the culture had a marked effect on the endogenous
free pool of polyamines in Humicola lanuginosa, and polyamine levels generally declined
below or above the optimum temperature of 45 0e. Hamana and Matsuzaki (1985) also
reported widespread occurrence of putrescine and spermidine in ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
and slime moulds, but they did not report any novel polyamines in any of the fungi. Oshima
and Senshu (1985) recorded that polyamine levels in H lanuginosa were dependent upon
growth temperature and age of the culture.
The inhibitors of polyamines metabolism, particularly ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)
inhibitors, may be used as antifungal agents to prevent diseases caused by some thermophilic
moulds, and as protectants against biodeterioration caused by these moulds.
Difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) effectively inhibited the growth of H lanuginosa. T.
emersonii and M pusillus (Singhania et aI., 1991). Inhibition of several phytopathogenic fungi
has been reported using specific inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis such as DFMO and
cyclohexylamine (Rajam and Galston, 1985; West and Walters, 1989). In contrast, Singhania
et al. (1991) showed that difluoromethylarginine (DFMA) had no effect on mycelial growth
of the fungi tested except M pusillus. In fact, DFMA caused an enhancement in mycelial
growth of H lanuginosa. Therefore, the lack of effectiveness of DFMA suggests the absence
of the arginine decarboxylase (ADC) pathway in these thermophilic fungi, and the specificity
of action ofDFMO on ODe. The main pathway for polyamine biosynthesis is that involving
ornithine decarboxylase.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
Certain thermophilic moulds have been shown to be the sources of useful enzymes such
as glucoamylases, phytases and cellulase-free xylanases. Detailed investigations are needed
in exploring the diversity of thermophilic moulds and on the production and characterization
of these enzymes. The presence of trehalose and trehalase has been reported in Humicola spp.
Since trehalose is known to help in the preservation of enzymes, research efforts in
understanding enzymes involved in biosynthesis of trehalose are worthwhile. It has not yet
been unequivocally established whether only ODC, or ADC in combination with ODC
pathways are present in these moulds for biosynthesis of putrescine. This aspect needs further
attention. An insight into the production of single cell protein on agro- and food processing
industry residues employing these moulds could be useful.
CONCLUSIONS
The biotechnological potential of these moulds is in their ability to degrade organic

residues, produce a number of useful enzymes, polysaccharides and antibiotics, transform
steroids, bind heavy metals such as uranium and in the production of enriched feeds.
68
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Wright, C., Katkewitz, D. and Somberg, E.W., 1983, Eukaryotic thermophily: Role of lipids in the growth of
Talaromyces thermophilus, J. Bacteriol. 156: 493.
Wong, K.K.Y. and Saddler, J.N., 1993, Application ofhemicellulases in food, feed, pulp and paper industries,
in: Hemicellulose and Hemicellulases (M.P. Coughlan and G.P. Hazlewood, eds.), Portland Press, London.
Wood, T.N. and McCrae, S. T., 1986, Studies of two low molecular weight endo-I ,4-B-D-xylanase constitutively
synthesized by the cellulolytic fungus Trichoderma koningii, Carbohydr. Res. 148: 321-330.
Yoshioka, H., Chavanich, S., Nilubol, N. and Hayashida, S., 1981, Production and characterization of
thermostable xylanase from Talaromyces byssochlamydoides YH-50, Agric. Bioi. Chem. 45: 579-586.
Zadrazil, F. and Brunnert, H., 1982, Solid state fermentation oflignocellulose containing plant residues with
Sporotrichum pulverulentum Nov. and Dichomitus squalens (Karst.) Reid., Eur. J. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 16: 45-5\.
Zinunermann, A.l.S., Terenzi, H.F. and Jorge, J.A., 1990, Purification and properties of an extracellular conidial
trehalase from Humicola grisea var. thermoidea, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1036: 41-46.
74
FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR EFFECTIVE CEREAL STRAW MANAGEMENT
Myank U. Charaya
Microbiology Laboratory
M.M. Postgraduate College
Modinagar-201 204
India
INTRODUCTION
Cereal crops, probably the oldest crops grown by man, still retain a dominant position in
world agriculture constituting staple food in most parts of the world. The quantities of
nutrients temporarily immobilised in chaff, straw, stubble and roots probably equal the
nutrients removed in the grain (Pierce, 1978). Considering the latest world agricultural
production records (FAO, 1997), not less than 584 874 x 103 MT of wheat straw and 562 259
x 103 of rice straw were produced in 1996.
The enormous quantities of straw available allow us to put it to a variety of uses
(Staniforth, 1979a,b; Anderson and Anderson, 1980) depending upon our needs and choice:
(a) it may be burnt in the soil itself thereby returning minerals immobilized; (b) it may be
chopped followed by ploughing or composted for adding to soil to improve fertility; (c) it may
be used for feeding animals and for their bedding; (d) it may be used for thatching, packing and
making ropes, and for direct combustion to heat public baths, bread ovens, brick kilns and
domestic water supplies; (e) it may be used for growing microorganisms for Single Cell
Protein, for growing mushrooms and cucumber, for production ofxylitol, methane, biogas and
alcohol; or (f) it may be used for pulp and paper production. Proper well-thought strategies
need to be evolved for effective management of this highly valuable natural resource.
FUNGI AS AGENTS OF STRAW TRANSFORMATION
Straw may be treated in a variety of ways to increase its value. Although mechanical,
physical and chemical treatments form a part of some of the strategies for straw utilisation, it
is the biological degradation of straw which forms the basis of its most important uses - as
livestock feed, for SCP and mushroom growing, for compo sting and for the production of
various chemicals such as methane, biogas and alcohol. Bacon (1979) preferred to use the

term 'straw transformation' for the process, laying emphasis on the fact that various
constituents of straw are transformed into useful products. The fungi are known to play an
important part in this process (Dickinson and Pugh, 1974) and the rise of fungal biotechnology
(Charaya and Mehrotra, 1998) has had a positive impact on our efficiency in managing straw.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH STRAW MANAGEMENT
Like many agricultural wastes, cereal straw consists largely of lignified cell wall material,
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin being the three primary structural components (Charaya,
1985; Hayn et ai., 1993). Though many types of straw exhibit variations in their quantities of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, all cereal straws have cellulose as the predominant
component followed by hemicellulose - cellulose consisting of more than 40% and
hemicellulose more than 20% (Anderson and Anderson, 1980; Charaya, 1985).
A great deal of attention has been paid to the degradation of cellulose and the use of its
degradation products. Cellulose, like starch, is a polymer of D-glucose. It differs from starch,
however, in that cellulose has B(I-4) linkages while starch has a(I-4) linkages. This
difference results in strong hydrogen bonding and gives cellulose its physical strength and
rigidity (Anderson and Anderson, 1980). Not only this, an intimate association exists between
different components. The lignin, together with the hemicellulose, encrusts the cellulose
chains forming a barrier which prevents wetting and access by cellulose-degrading enzymes
(Kirk and Haskin, 1973; Kuhad and Singh, 1993). To utilise the cellulose component or the
hemicellulose, this association first has to be broken. The loosening of this association,
followed by degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and further transformation!
utilisation of the various degradation products constitute the major components of any strategy
aimed at the efficient management of straw. Fungal biotechnology holds immense potential
to help us overcome any impediments in the effective utilisation of this invaluable resource.
CEREAL STRAW AS RUMINANT FEED
Straw has probably been a component of the ruminant diet since the evolution of the
rumen. It is also possible that the rumen evolved to cope with the natural abundance of straw-
type feeding material (Morrison, 1979). The rumen contains a large microbial population
(about 1010 cells/ml). The cellulases produced by these microorganisms hydrolyse cellulose
releasing glucose for use by the ruminant. Since the reduction potential of the rumen is -O.4V
(the O2 concentration at this highly reducing potential being 10.22 M), anaerobic bacteria
dominate the rumen microflora. These bacteria are not known to be efficient in degrading the
lignin components, the major barrier for the effective utilisation of the cellulose component.
Naturally, the issue of increasing the digestibility of straw by the ruminants has been the target
of numerous studies (Harvey and Palmer, 1989; Morrison, 1979; Stewart et ai., 1979).
A number of strategies may be employed for achieving this goal, of which at least two
may involve the intensive use of fungal biotechnology. These are (i) the modification of rumen
microbiota and (ii) delignification of the straw to be used as animal feed.
Modification of the Rumen Microbiota
Of the generally recognised groups of microorganisms, only certain fungi are known to
be capable of degrading lignin within natural environments (Kirk et ai., 1977). One would
naturally be tempted to explore the possibility of introducing lignolytic fungi into the rumen.
The environment of the rumen, however, might not prove to be congenial for such a
76
proposition, the aerobic nature of the lignolytic fungi and the requirement of oxygen for the
process of lignin degradation itself being the major impediments.
The advent of genetic engineering has raised the possibility of incorporating the gene for
lignolytic activity into the rumen microbes. Various laboratories have isolated different cDNA
and genomic sequences coding for ligninase (De Boer et ai., 1987; Tien and Tu, 1987). An
interesting development in this connection is the discovery of an obligately anaerobic fungus,
Neocallimastix frontalis by Orpin in 1975, from the rumen of a sheep. The fungus is a normal
part of the rumen microbiota and appears to play a major role in the breakdown of
lignocelluloses in the rumen (Orpin and Joblin, 1988).
A number of other anaerobic fungi have also been isolated from rumen - Anaeromyces,
Caecomyces, Piromyces and Orpinomyces (Hawksworth et aI., 1995). It might be more
convenient to use these rumen fungi for enhancing the rate of lignin breakdown in the rumen
itself by (i) boosting their population and activity through diet modification; (ii) amplification
of the gene coding for lignolytic activity; and (iii) incorporating in these the ligninase gene
sequence from efficient lignin decomposers like Phanerochaete and Chrysosporium.
Delignification of the Straw
Various physical, chemical and biological methods to improve the digestibility of the
straw have been tried since the mid-nineteenth century. The relative merits and demerits of
these have been succinctly summarised by Staniforth (1979a). The physical treatments have
mainly focussed on increasing the surface area available for enzyme action. However, these
do not break down the lignin bonds in the straw; instead, the fine particles formed as a result
of grinding have the tendency to form a slurry which passes through the rumen more quickly,
shortening the contact time between the feed particles and the rumen micro flora and thereby
decreasing the nutritive value (Anderson and Anderson, 1980).
The various chemical methods to remove lignin are based on (i) solubilising the lignin
using alkali (Han et ai., 1978; Katrib et ai., 1988), ammonia (Morrison, 1988) or hot acid
(Katrib et ai., 1988; Morrison, 1988); (ii) oxidising the lignin component to break it down into
simple compounds using alkaline-H20 (Gould et ai., 1989), peracetic acid (Gharpuray et ai.,
1983), or acidified sodium chlorite (Katrib et ai., 1988). The chemical modification of straw,
however, has not found favour on several counts: (i) it dictates the use of high concentrations
of chemicals and treatment under pressure for better efficiency (Gould et ai., 1989) leading to
lower palatability and a mere 40% increase in digestibility; (ii) it is necessary to wash the
treated straw with huge quantities of water to remove residual acid/alkali leading to a loss of
up to 25% of the organics solubilised during hydrolysis (Israilides et ai., 1978; Gould et ai.,
1989); and (iii) it also leads to higher expenses from drying wet straw and the generation of
large amounts of effluents leading to either heavy environmental pollution or heavy expenses
on waste treatment (Lonsane and Ghildiyal, 1989).
In the midst of debates regarding the feasibility of different physical and chemical
methods for improving the feeding value of straw, a considerable interest has developed during
the last three decades for using biological means for the purpose. It is hoped that a biologically
structured technology with attributes of greater specificity, lower energy requirements and
lower pollution generation might be developed in the near future (Harvey and Palmer, 1989).
Initial attempts with this strategy were not very encouraging, for example, Harley et ai. (1974)
obtained an increase in the in vitro digestibility of barley straw from 46 to 70 using Polystichus
sanguine us plus NaOH while from NaOH alone it was increased to 64.
During the last two decades, however, considerable progress has been made in the
understanding of the mechanism of lignin degradation by the fungi. A number of lignolytic
fungi have been identified, the enzyme ligninase has been characterised and genomic
sequences for the ligninase have been isolated, thereby improving the prospects of
77
delignification of straw through fungal biotechnology.
Of the lignolytic groups of fungi, the white rot basidiomycetes are probably the most
efficient lignin-degraders (Haider and Trojanowski, 1980). Under proper environmental
conditions, these completely degrade all structural components of lignin, with ultimate
formation of CO2 and H 20 (Cowling, 1961). There are several hundred species of white rot
fungi belonging to a variety of fungal families including the Agaricaceae, Hydnaceae,
Corticiaceae, Polyporaceae and Thelephoraceae (Kirk, 1971). Solid state fermentation of
cereal straw using a number of these fungi has been attempted, and a significant increase in
digestibility has been reported by several investigators (Agosin and Odeir, 1985; Neelakantan
and Sondhi, 1989; Zadrazil, 1979). Among the white rot fungi, the species belonging to the
genus Pleurotus are reported to be most efficient (Detroy et al., 1980; Zadrazil, 1979).
However, the white rot fungi remove the cellulose and hemicellulose along with lignin.
As a result, a good proportion of cellulose, which would have been available to the ruminant,
is lost. If this is allowed to happen, the purpose of biological treatment itself is defeated.
Hence, a number of workers are trying to employ different strategies to tackle this problem.
Zadrazil and Brunnert (1980, 1981) and Zadrazil (1985) have tried to work out the cultural
conditions suitable for maximum delignification by white rot fungi with minimum loss of
polysaccharides. It is hoped that this will be achieved by controlling temperature, moisture,
dissolved oxygen, CO2 content in the air phase, incubation period and supplementing with
appropriate nutrients. Another approach is to obtain cellulase-less mutants of white rot fungi
which would degrade lignin using hemicellulose as a sole carbon source leaving cellulose for
the ruminants (Eriksson et al., 1980).
Meanwhile, efforts have been made in screening white rot fungi for selective
delignification, i.e. the ability to remove lignin with lesser removal of cellulose. A number of
preferential lignin degraders have been identified (Blanchette, 1984; Otjen et al., 1987). These
include Phanerochaete chrysosporium, P. rimosa and Ceriporiopsis subvermispora. There
is an urgent need to screen more white rot fungi for preferential delignification. A fast method
for the purpose has already been developed by Nishida et al. (1988). The modem techniques
of genetic engineering may also be used for developing better strains of fungi with the capacity
to degrade lignin preferentially.
CEREAL STRAW AS A SUBSTRATE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FUNGAL

PROTEINS
Due to their rapid growth rate and high (sometimes more than 50%) protein content, fungi
might prove to be an ideal source of protein. Large amounts of fungal protein can be produced
in a small area using cheap waste products. Yaaris (1977) described a procedure adopted for
growing yeasts on straw in Western Australia. Straw is chopped into pieces of 6 to 25 mm
length, acid-sprayed and pressure-cooked at 100,000 kNm-2 for 30 minutes. The hydrolysed
straw (with some of the polysaccharides converted to glucose) is then ammoniated, inoculated
with a suitable yeast and fermented. Yeasts grown on straw can be filtered off and dried; these
may contain up to 50% protein (Worgan, 1974). In addition to the use of Saccharomyces
species, a number of other yeasts have been found useful for the purpose. Candida utilis is one
such yeast, which can grow well on straw hydrolysate (Anderson and Anderson, 1980).
Filamentous fungi have been used for protein production since the 1920s (Thatcher,
1954). The earliest attempts to produce fungal proteins were made in 1920 by Pringsheim and
Lichenstein when they fermented straw with Aspergillus fumigatus for animal feed (Litchfield,
1968). The last three decades have witnessed greater interest in this aspect of fungal
biotechnology. The ability of filamentous fungi to grow at a fast rate, the fibrous nature of the
finished product for easy conversion into textured food, greater retention time in the digestive
78
system, higher protein content, greater digestibility, lesser nucleic acid content, acceptable
mushroom-like odour, ease with which their biomass can be processed and greater penetrating
power (hence suitability for solid state fermentation of lignocellulosic material), place these
fungi in a much more advantageous position than the single-celled yeasts (Chahal, 1982).
Pietersen and Andersen (1976) demonstrated the feasibility of using straw for the
production of mycoprotein by Trichoderma viride while Han et al. (1976) investigated the
possibilities of cultivating Aureobasidium pullulans (Pullularia pullulans) on straw
hydrolysate. In fact, a considerable amount of research has been devoted to growing
Trichoderma spp. on cheap cellulosic waste products (Solomons, 1985). The species of
Trichoderma - T. vir ide, T. lignorum and T. lwningi - are among the very few fungi which can
degrade native cellulose (Berghem and Pettersson, 1973; Eveleigh, 1987). Another approach
is to use T. viride for degrading straw to simple sugars which are then used by yeasts such as
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: the protein content of the mixture so obtained is quite high
(Wainwright, 1992). In the last two decades, another fungus, Chaetomium cellulolyticum, has
drawn the attention of biotechnologists for the production of proteins from lignocelluloses
including cereal straw. The fungus is highly cellulolytic, has high protein productivity on
alkali-treated straw, and can even utilise xylose as well as other hemicellulose sugars. The
suitability of the fungus for SCP production has been aptly projected by Chahal (1982). He
also proposed an integrated plan for the production of food, feed and fuel from lignocelluloses
(including crop residues) using Chaetomium cellulolyticum as the main fermenting agent.
The rate at which a given lignocellulosic substrate is utilised by a fungus is limited by the
type of enzyme it produces. This limitation may be overcome by using mixtures of two or
more fungi which produce different but complementary enzyme systems for more efficient
utilisation of the resource. Experiments to examine the feasibility of such an approach have
met with considerable success for the production of Sporotrichum pulverulentum and
Aspergillus niger on citrus wastes (Wainwright, 1992). Co-cultivation ofAspergillus ellipticus
and A. fomigatus for solid state fermentation of lignocellulosic wastes has also been attempted
by Gupta and Mudamwar (1997).
The new tools of genetic engineering have further brightened the prospects of enhanced
production of microbial proteins using 'engineered' microbes. For example, enhancement of
cellobiose activity in Trichoderma reesei has been achieved through amplification of its
cellobiase gene (Barnett et al., 1991).
ETHANOL FROM STRAW

The use of biomass for manufacturing alcohol dates back to the 1930s and the Second
World War, when many countries converted agricultural products to alcohol for use in
automobiles. Ethanol is an anti-knock fuel and has the power to withstand high compression
ratios. Its use as such or in the form of ethanol-gasoline blends would stretch the available fuel
supplies for meeting energy crises (Mathur, 1985). Due to the rapid rise of crude oil prices in
the 1970s, the research and development of fuel ethanol from biomass received considerable
attention from countries allover the world. There is an urgent need to develop an alternative
fuel. The elimination of lead from gasoline and the use of ethanol as an octane enhancer in
heavy vehicular engines may help reduce air pollution by curtailing CO2 emissions (Nguyen,
1993). In Brazil, neat alcohol (>98%) is used directly, while in North America, ethanol-
gasoline blends are preferred (Saddler, 1993). Incidentally, almost all the transportation
ethanol utilised today is derived from starch or sugar substitutes like com or sugar-cane.
However, excessive diversion of these crops for ethanol production is not desirable. In many
countries like India, it may not be wise to displace sugar-cane and/or tapioca as food crops at
all (Khoshoo, 1984). Hence the conversion of lignocellulosic crop residues like straw holds
79
immense potential as raw materials for the production of ethanol.
Pre-treatment of the Straw
VariOllS physical and chemical barriers greatly inhibit the accessibility of the cellulose and
hemicellulose to the hydrolytic enzymes. Thompson et al. (1991) have shown that the surface
area available to the cellulase enzyme complex was perhaps the most important factor
governing the initial stages of cellulose hydrolysis. A number of reviews have appeared on this
aspect (Chahal and Overend, 1982; Schell et aI., 1991). Different types of pre-treatment
methods are available which may be broadly grouped into three categories - physical, chemical
and biological. The biological methods are based upon delignification through white rot fungi.
We have already discussed this approach in connection with the upgrading of straw as feed for
the ruminants. Of a number of physical and chemical methods (Dunlop et aI., 1976), Saddler
(1993) has found steam pre-treatment to be the preferred method so far since (i) it provides
recovery of most of the lignocellulosic components, (ii) it enhances hydrolysis of the cellulosic
residues, and (iii) steam is the only operating cost.
Fungal biotechnology needs to be developed to achieve the objects of pre-treatment.
Research during the last two decades has revealed that it is possible to disrupt the lignin shield
without removing the lignin from the substrate simply by removing the hemicelluloses
(Converse,1993). Hemicellulolytic activity is widespread among the fungi (Charaya, 1985)
and a number ofhemicellulases produced by fungi have been purified (Viikari et aI., 1993).
Saccharification of Cellulose
The pre-treated straw is subjected to either acid hydrolysis or enzymatic hydrolysis using
cellulases for the conversion oflignocellulose into monomeric sugars. The cellulase-producing
potential of the fungi is the basis of the utilisation of fungal biotechnology for the enzymatic
hydrolysis of cellulose. Also, as compared to the acid hydrolysis process, the bioconversion
processes (using cellulases) promise higher glucose yields and lower levels of degradation by-
products (Nguyen, 1993; Wayman et al., 1979).
Due to their low specific activity or turnover number, large quantities of cellulases are
required for the hydrolysis; these can be produced from the submerged cultures of
Trichoderma reesei (San Martin et al., 1986; Webb et al., 1986). In fact, the cellulolytic fungi
serve as a highly useful resource for the cellulases for various reasons: (i) they can be easily
grown on simple media, (ii) most of them secrete cellulase extracellularly when grown on
cellulose as a source of carbon, and (iii) it is easy to separate the enzyme from the mycelial
mass (Chahal and Overend, 1982). However, although cellulolytic ability has been
demonstrated to exist in quite a large number of fungi, only very few fungi are able to produce
an enzyme system which can degrade native cellulose. Some of these are: Trichoderma reesei,
T. lignorum, T. Iwningi (Berghem and Pettersson, 1973; Wood, 1972; Wood and McCrae,
1972), Sporotrichum pulverulentum (Streamer et aI., 1975), Penicillium jimiculosum (Selby,
1968), Penicillium iriensis (Boretti et aI., 1973), Polyporus adustus (Eriksson, 1975),
Myrothecium verrucaria (Updegraff, 1971), Fusarium solani (Wood, 1972) and Chaetomium
thermophile var. dissitum (Goksoyr et aI., 1975).
Furthermore, the ability of a fungus to degrade cellulosic substrates and to convert the
substrate into its biomass does not mean that its cell-free cellulase system also will have high
hydrolytic potential. Rather, a fungus which is able to convert most of the cellulose substrate
into enzyme protein with high hydrolytic potential must be the most suitable organism for
cellulase production (Chahal and Overend, 1982). On these counts, Trichoderma reesei is
believed to be the most efficient producer of cellulase at present; it can be grown easily in
80
submerged aerobic cultures where, under proper conditions, it excretes the complete complex
of enzymes required for the hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose (Pourquie and Warzywoda,
1993). Considerable attention has been devoted, therefore, to biochemical characterisation,
structure and production of cellulase from Trichoderma reesei (Allen and Roche, 1989;
Coughlan, 1992; Pourquie and Warzywoda, 1993; Warzywoda et al., 1992).
Since the cost of enzymes is quite high, it is advisable to produce the required cellulase
on site instead of purchasing it from suppliers. For this process, hemicellulose-rich sugar
solutions or glucose-rich hydrolysates oflignocelluloses produced on site can be used as these
provide a cheap source of substrate. Incidentally, it has been found that crude water extracts
of steam-exploded straw support good cellulose production by T. reesei (pourquie and
Warzywoda, 1993). It is also worth mentioning that the wild type strains of fungi produce the
cellulase in amounts too low to support an economic industrial process, and hence require
genetic improvement. T. reesei is no exception. Using the well-established strain
improvement programmes involving a succession of mutagenesis and screening for
hyperproduction of cellulases, considerable improvements in the production of celluloses by
T. reesei have been obtained. Durand et al. (1984) isolated a hyperproducing strain T. reesei
CL 847 which was better than all strains isolated since then, although attempts at further
improvement of the strain did not succeed (Pourquie and Warzywoda, 1993).
However, using the tools of genetic engineering, a number of breakthroughs have been
achieved. Barnett et al. (1991) have been able to enhance cellobiase activity by amplification
of the cellobiase gene in T. reesei. Transformation systems and plasmid vectors useful for T.
reesei have been developed (Berges and Barreau, 1991) which have been used to clone and
express an invertase gene from Aspergillus niger in T. reesei. The resultant transformant
strains can use sucrose as a sole carbon source while the wild type strains would not. It is thus
possible now to clone and express other genes coding for polysaccharide hydro lases into T.
reesei. If it is accomplished, the saccharification efficiency of T. reesei might be improved
significantly.
The enzyme solution is mixed with pre-treated straw. The mixture is allowed to react in
hydrolysis reactors which are basically tall cylindrical vessels with mixers. Using 1 tonne of
steam pre-treated straw, 29 kg of hexoses per 100 kg of original wheat straw have been
obtained (Hayes et aI., 1993).
The hydrolysis of cellulose results in a gradual accumulation of sugars which, in turn,
cause end product inhibition of the cellulases, leading to a gradual decrease in the rate of
cellulose hydrolysis with time, as observed by Fan et al. (1987). The Trichoderma enzyme
system is strongly inhibited by glucose and cellobiose at concentrations much lower than 1%
(Grohmann, 1993), while starting concentrations of fermentable sugars higher than 8% are
required for efficient recovery of ethanol (phillips and Humphrey, 1983). A number of
methods have been proposed to overcome this problem. One of these is to use high
concentrations of enzymes by increasing the B-glucosidase and cellulase loadings several-fold
(Ishihara et al., 1991) but this would increase enzyme cost. Another approach which is finding
more favour among biotechnologists is to add fermenting organisms to the saccharification
vessel so that the sugars are taken up for fermentation to ethanol as soon as these are formed.
This would keep the sugar concentrations low so that saccharification might proceed
uninhibited. This approach is called Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
as compared to the usual SHF (Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation). The strengths and
weaknesses of both SHF and SSF have been discussed by Nguyen (1993).
Fermentation of Hydrolysate into Ethanol
The hexoses obtained by the hydrolysis of cellulose are subjected to fermentation. Yeasts
are the most important agents which bring about the fermentation of sugar to alcohol. The
81
genera Saccharomyces and Schizosaccharomyces are the classic sources of industrial yeasts,
while Candida, Kluyveromyces and some other genera of yeasts may also provide strains for
the purpose. The ability to ferment cellobiose to ethanol is found mainly in yeasts belonging
to Brettanomyces, Candida, Debaryomyces, Hansenula and Pichia. Efforts are required to
develop ethanol-tolerant, high-yielding yeasts which are also thermotolerant. The use of
thermotolerant strains would decrease the need for water for cooling fermenters. It is possible
to develop ethanol-tolerant strains of yeasts which can carry out fermentation at 39-40°C
through hybridisation (Seki et al., 1983).
Fermentation of Pentoses to Alcohol
Since hemicelluloses form a sizeable fraction of the straw, an economically viable process
for the production of ethanol from straw must also include the fermentation of pentoses.
Though Fusarium sp. has been in use for ethanol production from pentoses since the 1940s
(Nord and Mull, 1945), it was the identification of a xylose-fermenting yeast, Pachysolen
tannophilus (Schneider et aI., 1981) which stimulated research and development in that
direction. A number of other yeasts have been found to have the ability to ferment xylose.
These include Candida blankii, C. jamata, C. fructus, C. guilliermondii, C. shetae, Clavispora
sp., Kluyveromyces cellobiovorus, K. marxianus, Pachysolen tannophilus, Pichia segobiensis,
P. stipitis and Schizosaccharomyces combe. The non-yeast fungi with xylose fermenting
ability are Aureobasidium pullulans, Fusarium avenaceum, F. chlamydosporum, F.
graminearum, F. lycopersici, F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. tricinetum, Monilia sp., Mucor sp.,
Neurospora crassa and Paecilomyces sp.
The pentose-fermenting yeasts have a lower tolerance to ethanol as compared to that of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Skoog and Hahn-Hagerdal, 1988). Efforts for developing ethanol-
tolerant strains have been reviewed by Esser and Karsch (1984) and Lynd (1989).
The biotechnologies for producing ethanol from hexoses and pentoses are based on
different organisms for the two different groups of monomers. One would naturally wish to
have an ideal organism which can ferment both hexoses and pentoses into ethanol, but none
of the main hexose fermenters (like Saccharomyces cerevisae) can ferment pentoses to ethanol.
Hallbom et al. (1991) have reported the cloning of pentose-fermenting genes into S. cerevisae,
and the prospects of engineering an organism having the ability to produce ethanol from
pentoses as well as hexoses have improved.
MUSHROOM COMPOST FROM STRAW
Agaricus bisporus and Volvariella volvacea are the most generally grown mushrooms
using straw as the main ingredient for cultivation, though Pleurotus ostreatus and P.
cystidiosus, also grown on straw, are gaining popularity (Wainwright, 1992). For cultivating
A. bisporus, traditionally horse manure and/or chicken manure, and wheat straw are pre-treated
by a process called 'composting' before being inoculated with spawn. Composting is a form
of pasteurisation or fermentation specific to mushrooms. The process (i) renders the substrate
mixture unsuitable for the growth of unwanted microorganisms and (ii) modifies the nutritional
status of the substrate such that it becomes particularly favourable for the growth and
development of the mushrooms. Mixed cultures of fungi, actinomycetes and bacteria play an
essential role in natural as well as traditional compo sting systems (Poincelot, 1974). The
microbiology and enzymology of mushroom composts, along with other aspects, have been
discussed by Fermor and Wood (1979) and Hayes and Lim (1979).
Composting is the most critical part of mushroom growing and consists of two phases -
Phase I in the open air; and Phase II which is indoors and temperature-controlled (Wiegant,
82
1992). Nowadays, biotechnologists are exploring the feasibility of using individual fungi or
mixed cultures of fungi for what is called industrial composting (Wainwright, 1992). In this
connection, the widespread use of thermophilic fungi in the near future seems likely ;;ince these
contribute significantly to the quality of the compost (Straatsma et aI., 1989). Straatsma et aI.
(1994) used Scytalidium thermophilum to prepare a compost of invariably high quality that
does not emit ammonia or odour into the environment; moreover, they observed a two-fold
increase in the yield of mushrooms on the compost inoculated with S. thermophilum as
compared to the uninoculated one. Dr. Aneja and his coworkers at Kurukshetra University
(India) have obtained similar results with Torula thermophila and Malbranchea sulfurea
(personal communication). Biotechnological applications of thermophilic moulds in
mushroom compost preparation have been discussed elsewhere in this volume by Dr. R.
Kumar and Dr. K.R. Aneja.
Some bonus benefits also accrue when the straw is utilised for growing mushrooms. The
spent compost after harvesting the mushrooms can be used as a fertiliser for soil conditioning
as well as a good substrate for growing the Pleurotus mushrooms (Change and Li, 1982).
USING STRAW FROM IMPROVING SOIL FERTILITY
The immense utility of cereal straw provides enough grounds for its substantial diversion
from the fields. However, complete diversion of crop residues for industrial or off-farm use
could result in soil deterioration and destruction of soil resources as were observed in North
Africa, the Near East and Korea (Pierce, 1978). Cereal straw, when mature, contains
approximately 0.5% N, 0.6% pps and 15% KP (Gaur, 1992). A substantial fraction of
nutrients immobilised in the straw need to be returned to the soil to maintain soil fertility. The
burning of straw may restore some of the nutrients in the form of ash, but the entire organic
matter is lost; the soil is thus deprived of the benefits of organic matter conditioning. This loss
may be avoided by the addition of well-decomposed compost to the soil- an age-old practice
to restore soil structure. Another method of adding organic matter to the soil is direct
ploughing in of the straw.
Straw Compost for Soil Application
The use of straw (as well as other organic residues) to prepare compost manure has been
practised for a very long time in many parts of the world and has been the subject of
innumerable writings (Acharya, 1940a,b; Fowler, 1930; Gaur, 1992; Howard, 1935; Poincelot,
1974). Composting is basically a microbiological process - the materials undergoing
compo sting are decomposed by the microorganisms to be converted, in about three to six
months, into an amorphous, brown to dark brown humified material called compost. Here
again, fungal biotechnology might be immensely useful in (i) reducing the time for
composting, and (ii) enrichment of the compost. A number of strains of cellulolytic and
lignolytic microorganisms have already been isolated (Bhardwaj and Gaur, 1985; Gaur, 1987).
An attempt to use fungal inoculants as compost accelerators by Gaur and his coworkers at
IAR!, New Delhi has yielded encouraging results. Several types of wastes, chopped to 5 to 6
cm size, were placed in pits. Homogenised cultures of the fungi Trichurus spiralis,
Paecilomyces jusisporus, Trichoderma viride and Aspergillus sp. were added at 300 g per
tonne of material. Rock phosphate was added at 1% and moisture was initially maintained at
100%. Every fortnight, the composting mass was turned upside down. Within 8 to 10 weeks,
a good quality compost was prepared from paddy straw. The compost contained about 1.7%
N and a C:N ratio of 12:3. Earlier in 1980, Yadav and Rao also found that inoculation with
the fungi Trichoderma vir ide, Chaetomium abuanse, Myrothecium roridum, Aspergillus niger
83
and A. terre us (i) accelerated compo sting, (ii) brought down the C:N ratio, and (iii) brought
about an increase in the humic acid content of the composted material (Subba Rao, 1992). The
nutrient content of the compost can also be improved by introducing efficient microbial
inoculants including Aspergillus awamori (Gaur, 1992).
Application of Uncomposted Straw to the Soil
A number of workers in the past have recommended direct ploughing in of crop

residues/straw in soil. According to Sloneker (1976), if properly incorporated into the soil,
crop residues improve soil tillage and water absorption during rains, consequently reducing soil
erosion. Sugars in the residues supply energy for the abundant microbial system that releases
carbon dioxide which accelerates chemical weathering of minerals. The refractory organic
material remaining, i.e. the humus, changes the soil pH, chelates heavy metal ions and affects
the physical conditions and water-holding capacity of the soil. The carbohydrates in such
residues can be used by certain microorganisms for fixing nitrogen (Mortensen, 1963).
Application of uncomposted straw to the soil has been found to be more beneficial to
crops than composts prepared from straw (Dhar, 1968; Kavimandan, 1980) because direct
ploughing produces more nitrogen fixation in the soil (Dhar, 1968). The ploughing in of wheat
straw as such for increasing soil fertility is practised already in Italy (Verona and Lepidi,
(1972). Gaur and Mathur (1979) and Gaur et al. (1980) have also reported significant
favourable effects of ploughing in wheat straw on maize yield and addition of paddy straw and
stubble on wheat and green gram respectively. One of the most important properties of a
manure is its ability to decompose quickly and mix with the soil. This can be achieved
artificially by inoculating the straw, in the field itself, with microorganisms which can quickly
decompose it (Subba Rao, 1982).
A number of studies have been carried out by different workers in the past to study the
fungi which decompose cereal straw in nature as well as the ability of individual fungi to
decompose the straw in vitro (Bowen and Harper, 1989; Broder and Wagner, 1988; Charaya,
1985; Dkhar and Mishra, 1991; Johri and Satyanarayana, 1977; Robinson et aI., 1994; Singh
et aI., 1979). Charaya (1985) found Emericella nidulans, Myrothecium verrucaria, Alternaria
alternata, Penicillium oxalicum, Fusarium semitectum, Cladosporium cladosporioides and
Aspergillus niger to be good decomposers of wheat straw. Aspergillus flavus, Emericella
nidulans, Alternaria alternata, Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus fumigatus and
Cladosporium cladosporioides were efficient decomposers of paddy straw. It is suggested that
these fungi may be used as inoculants for accelerating the rate of decomposition of the straw
in the field itself. Suitable carriers for the cellulose-decomposing organisms to be used as
inoculants have already been developed by Rasal et al. (1987).
Charaya (1985) suggested that the selection of a fungal strain to be used as an inoculant
must be done carefully. Tolerance to the pH and temperature to which it would be exposed,
and the pre-existing competitors or antagonists it would have to deal with, are among the major
factors which would determine the success of the inoculant decomposer.
One problem which the fungal inoculants have to face is that of C:N ratio of the straw.
Straw, on average, contains only 0.5% nitrogen and 40% carbon. When subject to colonisation
by fungi, it has only 0.5 units of nitrogen to satisfY them while 1.2 to 1.6 units are required.
So a deficit of 1.2 to 1.6 units of nitrogen appears in the environment (Alexander, 1977). In
order to utilise straw for direct ploughing, therefore, the problem of nitrogen deficiency must
be tackled. At present there are two alternatives available to us - (i) to treat the straw
beforehand with nitrogenous fertiliser, and (ii) to inoculate with those fungi which have the
potential to decompose the straw even at low nitrogen levels. Efforts to search for such fungi
are being made in this laboratory at Modinagar. Already, Jain (1989) has found that
84
Aspergillus fumigatus could be used as an inoculant to decompose paddy straw without any
amendment. However, if low nitrogen pre-treatment is provided, Cladosporium
cladosporioides may prove to be equally effective.
Another practical problem which farmers might face is that the incorporation of straw into
the soil might have deleterious effects on the crops (Elliott et aI., 1978). Charaya and
coworkers also observed a steep depression in the soil microflora during the first week of
incorporation of fresh wheat straw in the soil (Charaya, 1985). However, such a depression
was not discernible if stored straw was used or if the straw was first allowed to rot for one
week prior to its incorporation into the soil. Thus, if stored straw is incorporated into the soil,
there is little likelihood of any damage to the crop or to the soil microflora. Moreover, in many
parts of the world, including Northern India, the current agricultural practice is to keep the land
unused for many days after wheat has been harvested. Thus, it is quite feasible to plough in
straw some fifteen days in advance of sowing the next crop.
OTHER USES OF STRAW
There are many other fields where fungal biotechnology might be helpful in the better
management of cereal straw. For example, biogas yields from the mycostraw are reported to
be twice that of untreated straw (Baisaria et aI., 1983; Muellar and Troesch, 1986).
Another area is biomechanical pulping (Jurasek and Paice, 1988) and fungal bleaching of
straw. Attempts at developing cellulase-less mutants of lignolytic fungi or searching for
preferential lignin-decomposers have been discussed elsewhere in this article. The use of
immobilised wood-decomposing fungi like Phanerochaete chrysosporium for bleaching has
been advocated (Wainwright, 1992). The development of fungal technology for pulping cereal
straw may help reduce the consumption of wood.
CONCLUSIONS
Cereal straw represents a great resource for the production of food, feed, manure, fuel and
other products. The technology does exist for its conversion into many of these useful
products. Fungal biotechnology needs to be strengthened further not only for yielding a greater
variety of products from cereal straw but also for making the existing biotechnological
processes economically more profitable and competitive.
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90
BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR THE PRODUCTION AND ENHANCEMENT OF
MYCOHERBICIDE POTENTIAL
K.R. Aneja
Kurukshetra-136 119
India
INTRODUCTION
Pest species cause billions of dollars of damage annually, displace native species of plants
and animals, and cause other types of environmental and social damage (Delfosse and
Moorhouse, 1992). There is a worldwide effort to move toward the use of ecologically safe
'environmentally friendly' methods of protecting crops from pests and pathogens (Mehrotra,
Aneja and Aggarwal, 1997; Thompson, 1993). Biological pest-control offers us a tremendous
opportunity to provide agriculture with effective tools for abundant crop production while
minimizing impacts on health and the environment (Panetta, 1992). Biological control with
plant pathogens is an effective, safe, selective and practical means of weed management that
has gained considerable importance (Charudattan, 1990a).
Interest in exploitation of fungal plant pathogens as weed control agents is increasing
partly because this approach offers an exploitable biotechnology and is an effective supplement
to conventional weed control based on chemical and mechanical methods (Charudattan, 1988,
1990a; Hasan, 1988, McWhorter and Chandler, 1982; TeBeest, Yang and Cisar, 1992, Yang
and TeBeest, 1992). The technique of controlling weeds with concerted applications of large
doses of inoculum has been regarded as 'inundative control' or 'bioherbicidal strategy'
(Charudattan, 1988). When the living microorganism applied in the bioherbicidal strategy is
a fungus, the bioherbicide is referred to as a mycoherbicide (Auld and Morin, 1995). Over 100
fungal pathogens have been assessed for potential as mycoherbicides between 1980 and 1990
(Templeton, 1992) and this has resulted in the development of over ten mycoherbicides -
DeVine, Collego, Casst, BioMal, Biochon, Velgo, Luboa, Cercospora rodmanii (ABG 5003),
Alternaria eichhorniae and Colletotrichum orbiculare.
Progress in the development of mycoherbicides is slow due to a wide range of biological,
economic and regulatory constraints (Auld and Morin, 1995). Some of these could be
overcome by the application of recent advances in biotechnology and genetic engineering. The
interaction between a biological control fungus and its target organism is complex and likely

to be under the control of a large number of genes. The recombination of whole genomes,
therefore, rather than the manipulation of single genes, is required for the generation of new
strains (Hocart and Peberdy, 1989).
Protoplast fusion provides a procedure for promoting recombination of whole genomes,
even between incompatible strains. Protoplast fusions with fungi, both intraspecific and
interspecific, have been demonstrated to be feasible with fusants possessing characteristics of
both parents (TeBeest and Templeton, 1985). It is a method used to combine the pathogenicity
of two separate plant pathogenic fungi, a technology recently being used for the development
and improvement of mycoherbicides.
One of the greatest stimulators of research in the rapid commercialization of
mycoherbicides has been the advances in technology associated with the selection, culture and
formulation of fungi in relation to specific targets. To overcome the biological factors - for
example virulence, stability, host-range (specificity), environmental dew requirements,
geographic biotypes of the weeds - that constrain the development of mycoherbicides into
products, genetic manipulation of the fungal pathogens is being practised to enhance
mycoherbicide potential (Auld and Morin, 1995; Charudattan, 1990b; Templeton and Heiny,
1989). It has been predicted that 30 weeds might be controlled by mycoherbicides by the year
2000 (Templeton and Heiny, 1989) and advances in biotechnology may one day be able to
create on request fungal pathogens with the desired characteristics as commercial
mycopesticides (Trujillo, 1992).
This review deals with the history of the use of fungi as biocontrol agents of weeds,
biological weed control strategies, mycoherbicide concept, advantages of mycoherbicides,
characteristics of potential mycoherbicide pathogens, status, development and
commercialization of mycoherbicides, and some anticipated benefits of biotechnology for
improvements of fungi to enhance mycoherbicide potential.
HISTORY OF THE USE OF MYCOHERBICIDES
Fungal diseases are one of the worst threats to cultivated plants. Both the farmer and the
amateur gardener know to their cost that fungal infections can damage and destroy their plants.
It is perhaps surprising, considering awareness of the potential of plant diseases to cause crop
failures (e.g. late blight of potato by Phytophthora infestans, blast of rice by Pyricularia
oryzae, coffee rust by Hemileia vastatrix) for a century or more, that scientists had overlooked
the extent to which wild plants are also vulnerable to fungal infections, thus presenting an
opportunity to tum fungal diseases to the advantage of the farmers as weed killers.
Although plant pathogens as biological weed control agents were suggested as early as
1893 (Wilson, 1969), their utilization for the control of weeds actually only started in the
1970s when Arkansas rice growers posed a question to scientists - why not use weed diseases
as weed killers (Templeton et aI., 1988)? Testing of this approach began in 1969 with the
discovery of a disease affecting curly indigo (northern jointvetch), Aeschynomene virginica
(1.) B.S.P., an important weed of rice and soybean fields of Arkansas, USA. This disease was
caused by a fungal pathogen, later identified as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacco
f. sp. aeschynomene (Smith et aI., 1973a,b; Templeton, 1982; Templeton et aI., 1988). The
causal agent was isolated and evaluated for specificity to the weed host, virulence to kill the
weed in a rice field and reproductive ability in culture media. The Arkansas researchers, in
cooperation with the farmers and Cooperative Extensive Service Personnel, succeeded in
getting the fungus commercialized as Collego for use by Arkansas rice and soybean growers
(Templeton, 1982). This approach of using indigenous fungal pathogens to control weed
populations has been termed the mycoherbicide approach (Templeton et ai., 1979).
U.S. scientists in Florida succeeded in controlling strangler (milk weed) vine (Morrenia
92
odorata Lindl.), a problematic weed of citrus orchards, with the fungus Phytophthora
palmivora (Butler) Butler. This formulation, registered as DeVine in 1981 was marketed by
Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, Illinois (Kenney, 1986). Thus DeVine (R) in 1981 and
Collego(R) in 1982 were the first two mycoherbicides which appeared in the early 1980s on the
U.S. market.
The early work at Florida and Arkansas stimulated a host of other studies on a range of
pathogen-weed associations and led to the isolation of many new strains of fungi from a wide
variety of hosts. Between 1980 and 1990 over 100 fungal pathogens have been assessed for
potential as mycoherbicides (Templeton, 1992) and eight fungal pathogens are registered as
mycoherbicides worldwide (Table 1).
Table 1. Mycoherbicides presently being used all around the world.
Fungal pathogen Weed Mycoherbicide Year of Regn. Reference(s)
Phytophthora Morrenia odorata DEVINE 1981 Ridings (1986),

palmivora (milkweed vine) Ridings et al.
(1976)
Colletotrichum Aeschnomene COLLEGO 1982 Te Beest and

gloeosporioides f. virginica (northern Templeton (1985),
sp. aeschynomene jointvetch) Templeton (1986),
Templeton et al.
(1984)
Alternaria cassiae Cassia obtusifolia CASST 1987 Bannon (1988),

(sickle pod) Charudattan et al.
(1986), Walker
(1983), Walker
and Boyette
(1985)
Colletotrichum Malva pus ilia BIOMAL 1992 Auld and Morin

gloeosporioides f. (round leaf (1995), Makowski
sp. malvae marrow) (1987), Mortensen
(1988)
Chondrostereum Prunus serotina BIOCHON 1997 de long (1997)

purpureum (black cherry)
Colletotrichum Abutilon VELGO Wymore et al.

coccodes theophrasti (1988)
(velvet leaf)
C. gloeosporioides Cuscutta spp. LUBOA 1963 Wang (1990)

f. sp. cuscutae
Cercospora Eichhornia ABG 5003 Charudattan

rodmanii crassipes (water (1984, 1986),
hyacinth) Charudattan et al.
(1985), Conway
(1976), Conway et
al. (1978)
93
BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL STRATEGIES
Biological weed control with fungal plant pathogens is approached from one of two
strategies depending upon the pathogen discovered: the classical strategy (Bruckart and
Dowler, 1986; Templeton, 1982; Watson, 1991) and the mycoherbicide strategy (Charudattan,
1991; TeBeest and Templeton, 1985; Templeton et aI., 1988, 1979).
According to the classical strategy, a fungus is simply introduced or released into a weed
population to establish, in time, an epiphytotic requiring no further manipulation. In a severe
epidemic, the weed is killed or stressed such that its population is reduced to economically
acceptable levels. The pathogens used in this strategy are generally rust and other fungi
capable of self-dissemination through airborne spores. The most significant examples of the
classical strategy are given in Table 2. Sands and Miller (1993) stated there will always be
room for a classical approach to the problem, ending in either a public or private release of a
host-specific, exotic pathogen. The strength of the classical approach is that it can result in
control of a single species of pest, the development costs are low to moderate, and it may have
a long term residue and, consequently, long-term control.
According to the inundative (or mycoherbicidal) strategy usually large doses of inundative
indigenous fungal pathogens are applied to specific weed-infested fields to infect or kill
susceptible weeds (Charudattan, 1988; Daniel et al., 1973; Templeton, 1982, 1986; Templeton
et aI., 1979). Computer simulation has shown that the dynamics of plant-pathogen interactions
of annual weeds can be determined by the properties of the pathogen. Pathogens with high
levels of virulence may exist in nature in low frequencies due to high extinction rates and are
suitable for the mycoherbicide strategy (Yang and TeBeest, 1992). On the other hand,
pathogens with a low level of virulence are frequent, may coexist stably with their host
pathogens with intermediate pathogenicity, and are good candidates for the classical strategy,
maintaining a stable interaction and a high control efficiency. The probability of extinction
of a pathogen increases when pathogenicity is greater than a critical value at the intermediate
range.
A third approach - the manipulated mycoherbicide strategy - has been used by Sands and
Miller (1993). In this strategy, lethal broad host-range pathogens are genetically modified to
permit their safe release. Either they are rendered host-specific or they are given a chemical
dependency that prevents their spread or long-term survival. This genetic-manipulative
approach offers numerous and diverse scenarios for biocontrol of weeds and may open the
door to larger-scale corporate development and perhaps also to larger-scale public
development.
THE MYCOHERBICIDE CONCEPT
In 1973, Daniel and coworkers first introduced the mycoherbicide concept. They
demonstrated that an endemic fungal pathogen might be rendered completely destructive to its
weed host by applying a massive dose of inoculum at a particularly susceptible stage of weed
growth. Since this initial definition of the concept, the term mycoherbicide has been redefined
by Templeton et al. (1986, 1988, 1979), TeBeest and Templeton (1985) and Auld and Morin
(1995). Mycoherbicides are simply plant-pathogenic fungi developed and used in the
inundative strategy to control weeds the way chemical herbicides are used (TeBeest and
Templeton, 1985). They are highly specific disease-inducing fungi which are isolated from
weeds, cultivated in fermentation tanks and sprayed on fields to control biologically a specific
weed without harm to the crop or any non-target species in the environment (Templeton et al.,
1988). Figure 1 depicts a summary of the steps in the development of a fungus as a
mycoherbicide.
94
Table 2. Successful examples ofbiocontrol fungal pathogens used to control weeds using the
'classical strategy'
Fungal pathogen Introduced to Pathogen native to Introduced into Reference( s)

control weed country/continent country/continent
Puccinia Chondrilla juncea Europe Australia, 1971 Adams and Line

chondrillina (skeleton weed) Western USA, (1984), Cullen
1976 (1984), Cullen et
al. (1973), Supkoff
et al. (1998)
Phragmidium Rubus constrictus Europe Chile, 1973 Oehrens (1977),

violaceum and R. ulmifolius Australia, 1984 Oehrens and
(blackberries) Gonzales (1974)
Entyloma Ageratina riparia Jamaica Hawaii, USA, Trujillo (1976,

compositarum (=Eupatorium 1974 1984), Trujillo et
riparium) al.(1988)
(hamakua
pamakani)
Puccinia Carduus nutans Turkey North-eastern Bruckart et al.

carduorum (musk thistle) USA, 1987 (1988), Politis et
al. (1984)
Puccinia abrupta Parthenium Mexico Australia, 1991 Evans (1987),

var. partheniicola hysterophorus Tomley and Evans
(congress grass) (1995)
Phyllactinia sp. Passijlora triparta Southern Hawaii, 1992 Trujillo (1992)

var. triparta Colombia &
(banana poka Ecuador
vine)
Maravalia Cryptostegia Madagascar Australia, 1993 Evans (1993,

cryptostegiae grandijlora I 995a,b),
(Rust) (rubber-vine Evans and
weed) Fleureau (1993),
Evans and Tomley
(1994)
Diabole cubensis, Mimosa pigra South and Central Australia, 1993 Evans (I 995a),
Sphaerulina (giant sensitive America, Mexico Evans et al. (1995)
(Phloeospora) plant)
mimosae-pigrae
Uredo eichhorniae Eichhorniae Brazil S. Africa Morris (1997)

crassipes (water
hyacinth)
ADVANTAGES OF MYCOHERBICIDES
Mycoherbicides have several advantages over conventional chemical pesticides (Auld and
Morin, 1995; Ayers and Paul, 1990). These are: (i) They are cost effective. For example in
developing a new herbicide, an agrochemical company screens up to 13,000 compounds, more
than half of these picked at random. In contrast, the search for mycoherbicides is more
directed towards reducing the costs of development. (ii) They could be used as alternatives to
herbicides when the weed has developed resistance. (iii) They are more selective than most
95
Initiation of field surveys
1
Discovery of a plant disease from local environment
1
Isolation and identification of the pathogen
j Histopathological studies
and disease development
Proving of Koch's postulates )
~
Technology for mass
-,,,,",-
Production of }poresl inoculum for
j
~H""rcity-
Toxicity tests for animal safety
production of inoculum
j Preliminary screening trials for biocontrol

potential in laboratory or green house~
Technology for drying and

formulation of dry spores
j Ecological and epidemiological
studies
~
U~
Small scale field tests on
local experiment station ~
offonnula"""\
1
Performance tests across geographic
areas including on farms in cooperation
with growers (under 10 acres)
RegisteratJn of the product
1 Approved
Whole-field commercial scale operation
1 Approved
Delivered into commercial practice
Figure 1. Protocol for the development of a fungal biocontrol agent into a mycoherbicide.
96
chemicals, making them a better choice to control weeds that are close relatives to the crop that
they infest. (iv) They do not vaporise and are biodegradable, unlike many chemical herbicides
which are persistent in the environment. (v) They do not cause pollution problems and are safe
for humans, animals, and other plants. (vi) Mycoherbicides are the only solutions for some
specific weed species or situations for which no suitable herbicides have been found. For
example, parasitic plants and vine weeds which scramble over crops provide a particularly
difficult target for even the most selective herbicides. (vii) Mycoherbicides may be preferred
to chemical herbicides for aquatic weeds to avoid chemical contamination of water.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POTENTIAL MYCOHERBICIDE PATHOGENS
Weeds, like all plants, may be attacked by a number of diseases but the pathogens that
cause them are not all of equal potential as biological control agents (Templeton, 1982). In a
few cases, these diseases have yielded pathogens which have been developed into commercial
bioherbicides because few plant pathogens are both lethal and specific enough to be effective
weed control agents (Sands et al., 1990).
The characteristics of fungal plant pathogens that make them desirable candidates as
biological control agents have been extensively reviewed by Daniel et al. (1973), Freeman et
al. (1973), Freeman (1977), Templeton et al. (1979, 1986), Charudattan (1990a), Trujillo
(1992), Sands and Miller (1993), and Aneja (1997). Fungal pathogens that could be used as
potential biological control agents of weeds have the following characteristics: (i) the disease-
causing organisms must be host-specific or restricted in host range; (ii) they must be readily
cultured in artificial media and able to provide infective units (e.g. spores) readily in culture;
(iii) they must be capable of aggressive pathogenicity resulting in effective control of the weed;
(iv) they must have high levels of virulence; (v) they must have inefficient natural distribution
mechanisms; (vi) the agent must be efficacious under sufficient different environmental
conditions; (vii) the inoculum must be capable of abundant production using conventional
methods such as liquid fermentation; (viii) the final product (inoculum) formulation must be
stable; (ix) storage (shelf-life), handling and methods of application of formulation must be
compatible with current agricultural application and practices; (x) the biocontrol agent must
be genetically stable; (xi) the agent must cause no pollution and pose no risk to human health;
and (xii) the agent must provide quick, complete and easy weed control.
CURRENT STATUS OF MYCOHERBICIDES
Mycoherbicide research and development over the past three decades has resulted in the
commercialization of several indigenous fungal pathogens for weed control, for example
DeVine, Collego, Casst, BioMal, Biochon, Luboa, Velgo and Cercospora rodmanii (see Table
1). Over thirty are in an advanced stage of development and should be available on the market
for commercial use by the end of this century.
DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF NOTABLE

MYCOHERBICIDES
DeVine™
DeVine™ is a liquid suspension (,wet-pack') consisting of chlamydospores of

Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) Butler (=Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E. Sm. and EH.
97
Sm.) Leonian). It was the first bioherbicide registered in the United States in 1981 for use as
a post-emergent directed spray to control strangler (milkweed) vine (Morrenia odorata Lindl.)
in Florida citrus orchards. It is manufactured and marketed by Abbott Laboratories, North
Chicago, Illinois, USA (Burnett et aI., 1974; Charudattan, 1997; Ridings, 1986; Ridings et aI.,
1976,1977). DeVine™ gives over 90% control of the weed and control lasts for at least two
years after application (Kenney, 1986).
P. citrophthora was isolated from a dying strangler vine by the Department of Plant
Industries, Florida Department of Agriculture in 1973-1974. It was later identified as P.
palmivora (Feichtenberger et aI., 1981, 1984). It controls the weed by causing a root and stem
rot and girdling the stems of infested plants near the soil surface, resulting in the death of
seedlings and older plants. Young seedlings can be killed within one week of inoculation, and
larger vines, which often over-grow mature trees, can be killed within four to six weeks.
Inoculum (chlamydospores or zoospores) incites the disease whether applied to the seedlings
or the soil (TeBeest and Templeton, 1985). The protocol for the development of DeVine™ is
given in Table 3.
Table 3. Steps in the development of DeVine (Phytophthora palmivora) as a

mycoherbicide to control strangler vine (Morrenia odorata).
Steps Year References
Discovery of the disease 1973 Burnett et al. (1974)
Isolation and identification of the pathogen 1973-1974 Burnett et al. (1974)

as Phytophthora citrophthora
Host specificity tests 1973-1976 Ridings et al. (1976)
Efficacy tests by the formulation prepared 1973-1981 Burnett et al. (1974),

by Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL Ridings et al. (1976, 1977),
Woodhead (1981)
Reidentification of the pathogen as 1981-1984 Feichtenbergeretal. (1981,1984)

Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) Butler
Kenney (1986),
Registration of the pathogen as mycoherbicide 1981 Ridings (1986),
DeVine as a liquid suspension (wet pack) Te Beest and Templeton (1985)
consisting of chlamydospores of the fungus
by the USEPA
The production of DeVineTM was discontinued because of the limited market size and the
high cost of registration (Evans, 1995) but it is now back on the market produced and marketed
by Abbott Laboratories. Abbott is selling the product on a 'made-to-order' basis (Charudattan,
1997).
Collego™
CoIlego™, a wettable powder formulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.)

Sacco f. sp. aeschynomene, was registered in 1982 for the selective control of northern
jointvetch (Aeschynomene virginica (L) B.S.P.), a leguminous weed whose black seeds
contaminate harvests of rice and soybeans in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi, USA
98
(Daniel et aI., 1973; Templeton, 1982, 1986). The pathogen ega was isolated from the weed
by United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and University of Arkansas scientists
(Smith et aI., 1973a,b; Templeton, 1982). The Upjohn Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan,
USA developed the production protocols and formulations ofCollego™. Collego™ was the
first commercially available herbicide for use on an annual weed in annual crops in the United
States (Bowers, 1986; Templeton, 1982). The steps for the development ofCollego™ as a
mycoherbicide to control northern jointvetch are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Steps in the development of Collego (Colletotriehum gloeosporioides f. sp.

aesehynomene) as a mycoherbicide to control northernjointvetch (Aesehynomene
virginiea).
Discovery of the disease 1969 Daniel (1972), Daniel et al. (1973)
Isolation and identification of the pathogen 1970 Daniel et al. (1 973)
Host specificity tests 1970-1973 Daniel (1972), Daniel et al. (1973)
Production of spores for field tests 1973 Daniel et al. (1973)
Efficacy tests in grower field 1973-1981 Smith, Jr. (1978,1986),

Templeton et al. (1981)
Toxicity tests for animal safety 1975 Beasley et al. (1975)
Technology for drying and formulation of 1976 Bowers (1982, 1986), Churchill
dry spores (1982), Templeton et al. (1981)
Histopathological studies and disease 1978 TeBeest et al. (1978)

development mechanism
Successful use of dried spore formulations 1982 Quimby and Walker (1982)
on a commercial scale by TUCO division of
the Upjohn Company
Registration of the product COLLEGO by the 1982 Bowers (1986), Smith Jr. (1986),
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Te Beest and Templeton (1985),
as a wettable powder formulation of dried Templeton et al. (1984)
spores
Approval of the Benlate resistant -mutated 1987 Templeton et al. (1988)

strain of the pathogen from EPA
Collego™ consists of 15% living spores and 85% inert ingredients (w/w) which are
rehydrated and resuspended in a sugar solution before being mixed with water in an
applicator's spray tank. It is applied post-emergence, aerially or with land-based sprayers.
Within a week or two after application the vetch plants begin to show lesions that gradually
encircle the stem. Most of the plants die within five weeks. Collego has provided consistently
high levels of weed control (92% on average over 10 years of experimental and commercial
use [TeBeest and Templeton, 1985; Templeton, 1986]).
Collego fimgus (i.e. ega) is sensitive to Benlate fimgicide which is used for the control of
rice blast. To overcome the reduction in the efficacy of Collego due to Benlate in short season
99
varieties where both pesticides may need to be applied within a short span, an improved strain
of the fungus, tolerant to Benlate, has been developed by mutation which has all the other
desirable traits of the parent strain. This new strain produced excellent weed control in plots
sprayed immediately before and immediately after Benlate application. Approval for the
Benlate-resistant strain was obtained from EPA in 1987 (Templeton et aI., 1988). Growers
have taken enthusiastically to Collego and the fungus has reduced the input of pesticides by
nearly 500 000 litres since its introduction (Ayres and Paul, 1990).
The production of Collego was discontinued but Encore Technologies, Minnesota (USA)
were successful at getting this bioherbicide back on the market for the 1997 growing season
(TeBeest, 1997).
Casst(R)
Sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L.) (Caesalpinaceae, Leguminosae), an annual, non-

nodulating legume, is an exotic weed that is difficult to control using conventional weed
control practices. It is a problem in agronomic crops, especially soybean (Glycine max), peanut
(Arachis hypogea) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in the south-eastern United States. It is
the fifth most troublesome weed and sixth most common weed in the southern region of the
United States (Charudattan et aI., 1986).
In 1982, Alternaria cassiae Jurair and Khan, a foliar blight pathogen discovered from
Pakistan (Jurair and Khan, 1960) was isolated and identified from seeds and diseased seedlings
of sicklepod collected in Mississippi, USA (Walker, 1982). Subsequently, the pathogen was
discovered to be naturally occurring in Florida and North Carolina. Walker and Riley (1982)
reported A. cassiae to be a safe and effective mycoherbicide candidate for sicklepod. It has a
narrow host range and is capable of controlling three economically important leguminous
weeds - sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia), coffee-senna (Cassia occidentalis) and showy
crotalaria (Crotalaria spectabilis) in soybean and peanuts (Boyette, 1988; Walker, 1983;
Walker and Boyette, 1985).
Standardized preparations of conidia for field trials were provided by Abbott Laboratories,
Chicago, Illinois and the USA Southern Weed Science Laboratory, Stoneville, Mississippi.
An inoculum level of 1 x 106 conidia per ml of spray was used. The spray mixture consisted
of conidia of A. cassiae in 0.02 to 0.04% (v/v) of aqueous surfactant sterox and the spray
volume used was 935 litres of water per hectare. A. cassiae provided 95% (one application)
and 100% (two applications) control in the first year and 95 and 97% control in the second
years, in comparison. The toxaphene (chlorinated camphene, 67 to 69% chlorine), an
insecticide used to control sicklepod (but presently banned as a pesticide) treatments yielded
78% (one application) and 100% control (two applications) in the first year, indicating the
better performance of the fungus than the chemical control (Charudattan, 1990b, Charudattan
et aI., 1986).
Casst(R), a wettable powder formulation of dried spores of A. cassiae, has been developed
by Mycogen Corporation, Santiago, California for commercial use (Bannon, 1988; Bannon and
Hudson, 1988). Protocol for the development of Casst(R) as a mycoherbicide is given in Table
5.
BioMal™
BioMaI™, a formulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz) Sacco f. sp. malvae,

is a post-emergent mycoherbicide to control round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla Sm.= M
rotundifolia) in wheat, lentil and flax in Canada (Makowski and Morrison, 1989; Mortensen,
1988). It gives over 90% control of the weed. BioMal is the first bioherbicide registered in
Canada. It has been developed by Philom Bios, a Biotechnology Company based in
100
Saskatchewan, Canada in collaboration with Agriculture Canada (Makowski and Mortensen,
1992). The fungal pathogen was originally isolated from diseased round-leaved mallow tissues
in 1982 by scientists at the Agriculture Canada Research Station, Regina, Saskatchewan
(Makowski, 1987; Mortensen, 1988). Under controlled environmental conditions, M pusilla
was effectively controlled with c.g. m. at a concentration of 2 x 106 sporeS/mI, with a minimum
of20 hours of dew or repetitive dew periods of 16 hours, at temperatures below 30°C, and at
all growth stages (Makowski, 1987). In field trials, excellent control of round-leaved mallow
was obtained when the fungus was applied as a spore suspension in wheat and lentil at a
concentration of 60 x 106 spores/m2 in 150 lIha water volume under favourable conditions
(Mortensen and Makowski, 1990). Moisture, a 12 to 15 hour dew period following
application, a temperature around 20°C and an overcast sky following application of the spray
are the most important factors responsible for successful control under natural conditions
(Makowski and Mortensen, 1990). BioMal™ is marketed in Western Canada by Dow Elanco
Canada Inc. (Leggett and Gleddie, 1995).
Table 5. Steps in the development of Casst (Alternaria cassiae) as a mycoherbicide for the
biological control of three weeds - sicklepod, showy crotolaria and coffee senna - in
agricultural fields.
Discovery of the pathogen from Pakistan 1960 Jurair and Khan (1960)
Reisolation & identification of the pathogen from 1977-1981 Walker (1982)

Mississippi, USA
Evaluation of the pathogen for biocontrol potential 1982 Walker (1982)

in greenhouse and small field plots Walker and Riley (1982)
Host specificity tests 1982 Walker (1982, 1983)
Preparation of the inoculum for field tests by 1982 Charudattan et al. (1986)
Abbott Lab., North Chicago, Illinois (Code No.
5005)
Preparation of the inoculum by USDA-ARS, 1983 Charudattan et al. (1986)

Southern Weed Science Lab, Stoneville,
Mississippi
Evaluation of the pathogen as a myco-herbicide in 1982 Walker (1982)

soybeans and peanuts Walker and Boyette (1985)
Bannon et al. (1988)
Development of A. cassiae product for field 1986 Anonymous (1986)

testing under EUP
Evaluation of A. cassiae as a mycoherbicide for 1986 Charudattan et al. (1986)

sicklepod in field tests by 5005 formulation
provided by Abbott Lab
Commercial formulation of mycoherbicide by 1988 Bannon (1988),

Mycogen Corporation San Diego, California, as Bannon and Hudson (1988)
wettable powder formulation of dried spores
101
Biochon
Biochon is a recently developed mycoherbicide based on the basidiomycetous fungus

Chondrostereum purpureum (Pers. ex Fr.) Pouzar to control black cherry (Prunus serotina
Erhr., Rosaceae) in the Netherlands. It is marketed by Koppert Biological Systems,
Netherlands (de Jong, 1997).
Prunus serotina was introduced from North America into the Netherlands to improve the
understorey offorests and to ameliorate forest soil by its litter (Bakkar, 1963). It attained the
status of a noxious weed in coniferous forests because of competition with newly planted forest
trees and the natural vegetation in the understorey of forests (Scheepens and Hoogerbrugge,
1990).
C. purpureum is a native facultative parasite of P. serotina and several other deciduous
tree species causing silver leaf disease. The fungus was isolated by inverting parts of fresh
basidiocarps over malt extract plates and allowing the basidiospores to fall on the agar for
several hours and then transferring mycelial mats to new malt agar plates. For inoculation
experiments, 2-3 week old mycelial cultures on malt agar, or 2-3 week old liquid cultures
grown in malt extract aerated with magnetic stirrers, were used (de Jong et ai., 1982). In field
experiments conducted at the Centre for Agro Biological Research (CABO), Wageningen, the
Netherlands between 1980 and 1986, 90% control was achieved when stumps were treated
with agar cultures or suspensions of fragmented mycelium of C. purpureum in both spring and
autumn seasons. The lowest dose found to be effective was 20 fJ,g mycelial dry weight/stump
(de Jong et ai., 1982; Scheepens and Hoogerbrugge, 1990; Scheepens and Van Zon, 1982).
Various adjuvants (e.g. glycerine, transfilm, soybean and com oil) had no effect on C.
purpureum growth, thus these adjuvants may be tested for their role in modifying the efficacy
of the bioherbicide (Prasad, 1993).
Lubao
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz., a fungal pathogen isolated from dodder (Cuscuta

chinensis and Cuscuta australis) on soybean in Jinan, Shandong Province (China) in 1963 was
developed as a mycoherbicide called' Lubao No. I'. This formulation showed good potential
and has been used since its discovery in 1963 to control this parasitic weed on soybeans in the
People's Republic of China (Liu and Zhu, 1980). However, there was a decline in the use of
Lubao No.1 because of serious limitations such as loss of virulence, a requirement for high
humidity in treated fields, limited shelf life and technical problems associated with
fermentation and commercialization (Li, 1985). A granular mixture form of Lubao No.1 is
being produced in two County Factories in the Ningxia Autonomous Region, China (Wang,
1990).
A selected strain of the pathogen, C. gloeosporioides f. sp. cuscutae, that gave better
control than Lubao No.1 was developed as Lubao No.2. Virulence of the pathogen has been
positively correlated with spore size. Spore concentrations of 2 x 107 spores/ml are applied
with a hand sprayer until run-off occurs. For best results spraying is done at 16:00 to 17:00
hours on days when humidity is high, usually in late July to early August (Templeton and
Heiny, 1989). Although Lubao was the first mycoherbicide developed in the world, it is still
the only known fungal formulation used to control weeds in China.
Velgo(R)
Velgo is a formulation of Colletotrichum coccodes (WaJlr.) Hughes for the control of

velvet leaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medik., Malvaceae), a vigorous terrestrial weed in com and
soybeans in the USA and southern Ontario, Canada. The fungus killed 46% of the plants when
102
the fonnulation was applied at a rate of 1 x 109 spores m o2 at the two- to three-leaf stage. Lack
of complete control of the weed is due to premature shedding of infected leaves and regrowth of
new leaves (Wymore et aI., 1987). The adjuvant effect of thidiazuron (N-phenyl N-1,2,3-
thiadiazol-5-ylurea), which promotes defoliation and retards plant regrowth, in improving the
effectiveness of C. coccodes was observed and might be used to control A. theophrasti
(Hodgson et aI., 1988).
Cercospora rodmanii as a Mycoherhicide for Waterhyacinth
Cercospora rodmanii Conway has been developed as a mycoherbicide to control

waterhyacinth in Florida, USA (Freeman and Charudattan, 1984). Waterhyacinth, Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) Solms, a native of South America, now occurs worldwide mainly in tropical
and sub-tropical regions. It is a major threat to waterways wherever it occurs, blocking
irrigation canals and impeding hydroelectric schemes (Center et aI., 1990; Evans, 1987; Pieterse
and Murphy, 1990). It has been called the world's worst aquatic weed and ranked the second
most serious weed (Aneja, 1996).
C. rodmani;. was first isolated in 1973 from diseased waterhyacinth plants found in the
Rodman reservoir, Florida, USA (Conway, 1976a) and subsequently from Kurukshetra, India
(Aneja and Srinivas, 1990). The pathogen is host-specific and safe for use. It is grown for three
weeks on potato-dextrose broth containing 5% yeast extract, blended and applied at the rate of
1.1 g net weightlm2 . Following inoculation ofthe plants grown in buckets, disease stress caused
a significant reduction in the net rate of leaf production (Conway, 1976a, b; Conway and
Freeman, 1977; Conway et aI., 1978a,b; Freeman and Charudattan, 1984). Effective control of
the weed is obtained when C. rodmanii is used with multiple applications of inoculum early in
the growing season or under conditions favouring low to moderate host rates, including
combining with sublethal rates of chemical herbicides or insect biocontrol agents (Charudattan,
1986; Charudattan et aI., 1985).
The use of C. rodmanii as a biological control agent of waterhyacinth was patented by the
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida (Conway et aI., 1978a). The University signed an
agreement with Abbott Laboratories, USA to produce a commercial product of the fungus.
Subsequently, Abbott Laboratories was licenced to develop the fungus as a microbial herbicide
for commercial use. Abbott developed wettable powder fonnulations of the fungus (ABG-
5003) and obtained au' S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Experimental Use Permit
(EOP) to evaluate it as a microbial herbicide (Freeman and Charudattan, 1984). The protocol
for the development of C. rodmanii as a biocontrol agent of waterhyacinth is given in Table 6.
Colletotrichum orbiculare as a Mycoherhicide to ControlXanthium spinosum
Xanthium spinosum L. (Asteraceae), Bathurst burr, spiny cockleburr or spiny clotburr, an

annual, native to south America, is widespread as a weed especially in temperate regions. It has
been recorded in 34 countries as a weed in 13 crops (Holm et aI., 1977). In Australia, Bathurst
burr is an exotic weed and has been regarded as a major weed since the early 1850s (Hocking
and Liddle, 1986). It is principally a weed of grazing land and a wool contaminant and
occasionally a problematic weed of horticulture and irrigated summer crops in Australia (Auld
et aI., 1988, 1990a, 1992).
Colletotrichum orbiculare (Berk. and Mont.) v. Arx (=Gloeosporium orbiculare (Berk.
and Mont.) is known as a pathogen of the Cucurbitaceae (Sutton, 1980). The pathogen was
isolated from X spinosum in 1984 from southeastern Australia (Nikandrow et al., 1990).
Controlled environment studies (Auld et aI., 1988; McRae and Auld, 1988) and field
experiments (Auld et aI., 1990a,b) have demonstrated that C. orbiculare is a potential
103
mycoherbicide for the control of Bathurst burr (Klein and Auld, 1995a). Auld et al. (1988,
1990a) and McRae and Auld (1988) demonstrated successful control of the weed with this
fungus under controlled environmental conditions using 106 spores/ml and in the field with 107
spores/ml (Auld et aI., 1990b). At concentrations of 107 spores/ml, the fungus killed six-week
old plants within 14 days. The fungus showed considerable potential as a control agent
provided inoculations were made in the late afternoon or evening and provided a period of dew
occurs following inoculation (Auld et aI., 1988; McRae and Auld, 1988). In the absence of
dew, vegetable oil suspension emulsions containing C. orbiculare conidia gave significantly
better anthracnose development on Bathurst burr than aqueous suspension; in other words, the
use of vegetable oil emulsions reduced the dependence on dew for infection (Auld, 1993).
Table 6. Steps in the development of Cercospora rodmanii as a biocontrol agent of

waterhyacinth.
Discovery of the disease from the Rodman 1973 Conway et al. (1974)
Reservoir, Florida, USA
Identification and description of the pathogen 1975 Conway (I 976a)

Conway and Cullen (1978)
Preliminary greenhouse and field test of 1973-1976 Conway et al. (1979)
efficacy (conducted in small lake in
Fish Prairie)
Host range testing in the green house and 1973-1977 Conway and Freeman (1977)
the field
Advanced field studies in Florida and 1973-1976 Addor (1977), Conway (1976b),
Louisiana Conway and Freeman (1976)
Freeman et al. (1981,1982)
A Cercospora rodmanii use patent obtained 1978 Conway et al. (l978a)

(Patented by University of Florida)
Industrial production of C. rodmanii as 1978 Charudattan (1991),

wettable powder formulation, ABG-5003 Charudattan et al. (1985),
(Abbott Lab.) Conway et al. (l978b),
Freeman and Charudattan (1984)
An EPA Experimental use permit obtained 1979 Freeman and Charudattan (1984)
Successful large-scale aerial application of 1980 Theriot (1980, 1982)

Abbott formulation
EUP studies continued 1980 Freeman and Charudattan (1984)
Registration cancelled by Abbott Lab. due to 1984 Charudattan (I 991 )

the following reasons:
-Lack of acceptable level of efficacy
-Technical difficulties in production and
marketing of commercially acceptable
formulation
-Competition from chemical herbicides
-Unprofitable market
104
Vegetable (Canola and soybean) and mineral (Caltex summer oil and Ampool A) oils
improved mycoherbicide activity in comparison with spores applied in water only (Klein et aI.,
1995). Better control of the weed was obtained when the mycoherbicide was applied to young,
actively growing plants during long dew periods in spring or early summer (Klein and Auld,
1995a). Higher spore dose rates were associated with increased plant kill (Klein and Auld,
1995b). Moreover, wounding could increase the efficacy of C. orbiculare as a mycoherbicide
for Bathurst burr, if the formulation was applied immediately after injury (Klein and Auld,
1996). Protocol for the development of C. orbiculare as a mycoherbicide for the control of X
spinosum is given in Table 7.
Table 7. Steps in the development of Colletotrichum orbiculare as a mycoherbicide for

Bathurst burr or spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum L.) in Australia.
Discovery of the disease in eastern Australia 1984 Nikandrow et al. (1990)
Isolation and identification of the pathogen 1984 Nikandrow et al. (1990)
Production of spores on solid media and 1987 Auld et al. (1988)

submerged culture
Testing of potential of Colletotrichum orbiculare 1987-1989 Auld et al. (1988),

as a mycoherbicide under controlled McRae and Auld (1988)
environmental conditions
Efficacy test in fields 1988-1989 Auld et al. (I 990a,b )
Study of effect of environmental factors on disease 1988-1990 Auld et al. (l990a,b),

development McRae and Auld (1988)
Dried preparation of spores of the pathogen in 1991 Klein et al. (1995)

Kaolin (hydrated aluminium silicate) by Sandoz
Agro, Switzerland for field testing
Evaluation of oil suspension emulsions with 1991-1993 Auld (1993), Klein et al. (1995)
mycoherbicide under controlled environmental
conditions and in the fields
Assessment of influence of spore dose and water 1991-1993 Klein and Auld (1995a)
volume on the efficacy of myco herbicide in field
trials
Effect of wounding on mycoherbicide's efficacy 1992-1993 Klein and Auld (1996)
Alternaria eichhorniae as a Biocontrol Agent of Waterhyacinth
Alternaria eichhorniae Nag Raj and Ponnappa was first described in 1970 from Bangalore
and Assam, India, as the causal agent of a leaf-spot disease of waterhyacinth and was suggested
as a suitable biocontrol agent of this weed (Nag Raj and Ponnappa, 1970). It causes discrete
or blotchy necrotic leaf spots with dark centres and brownish black margins, often with a thin
yellow halo surrounding the spots resulting in severe leaf blights. This disease of
waterhyacinth is not widespread in the world, restricted to India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand
and Egypt (Aneja, 1996; Charudattan, 1984, 1990c; Gopal, 1987; Shabana et aI., 1995a,b).
105
Shabana et ai. (1 995a) have described A. eichhorniae as an effective and safe bioherbicide
candidate in Egypt. Pellet and powder formulations of the fungus were tested in greenhouse
trials. Two months after four sequential applications of the formulation supplemented with
a hydrophilic polyacrylamide, disease severity on fungus-treated plants increased by 93% and
the biomass (fresh weight) decreased by 89% compared to the control, thus showing its ability
to curtail waterhyacinth growth in the greenhouse (Shabana et al., 1995b).
A. eichhorniae is a potential mycoherbicide for the control of waterhyacinth in India. It
has a narrow host range. Under experimental conditions, complete death of the laminae
resulted two months after inoculation of the laminae in cemented tanks (Aneja, 1992).
Inoculum of the pathogen for experimental studies was prepared on waterhyacinth dextrose
agar medium at 25°C for 10 days as 25°C was the best temperature for sporulation.
ANTICIPATED BENEFITS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TO MYCOHERBICIDE

DEVELOPMENT
Mycoherbicides have still not realized their potential, mainly owing to an array of
constraints, biological (e.g. host variability and host range, resistance mechanisms and
interaction with other microorganisms), environmental (e.g. temperature and dew
requirement), technological (e.g. mass production and formulation), commercial (e.g. market
potential, customer demand, cost of production) and regulatory (Auld and Morin, 1995;
Charudattan, 1990b; Evans 1995a; Leggett and Gleddie, 1995; Templeton and Heiny, 1989).
But with the application of recent advances in biotechnology, mycoherbicide development will
gain momentum and these will play an increasingly significant role in agricultural ecosystems.
Virulent fungal pathogens with broad host ranges offer the most commercial potential, if these
can be tailored to suit particular crop systems (Evans, 1995b). Charudattan (1 990b) suggested
that in order to advance in the area of mycoherbicide development, genetic improvement of
microbial herbicide should be achieved for: (i) increased virulence for improved efficacy; (ii)
phytotoxin production for improved efficacy and host specificity; (iii) modification for the host
range or increased or decreased host specificity; and (iv) resistance to chemical pesticides to
enable integration of the microbial agent with chemical pesticides.
The feasibility of improving bioherbicide candidates through genetic manipulation has
received considerable attention in recent years (Auld and Morin, 1995; Charudattan, 1985;
Greaves et al., 1989; Kenney, 1986, Templeton, 1990; Templeton and Heiny, 1989; Turgeon
and Yoder, 1985; Yoder et aI., 1989). For example, genetic alteration of the Collego fungus
by treatment with methane sulphonate resulted in Benomyl resistance in spores of the fungus
(TeBeest, 1984); in other words, development ofa new and improved Collego with pesticide
resistance. Thus Collego could be used with Benomyl for the control of blast of rice caused
by Pyricularia oryzae or for control of soybean anthracnose disease (Smith, 1986).
The genetic manipulation of broad host range fungal pathogens to restrict their host range
and limit survival has been attempted (Miller et al., 1989a,b; Sands and Miller, 1993a,b; Sands
et aI., 1990). Genetic improvement to restrain broad host-range is genetically possible in
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) deBary, Phymatotrichopsis omnivorous Hennebert, Rhizoctonia
solani Kuhn, and Sclerotium rolfsii Sacco For example, three classes of induced mutants of
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a highly virulent and aggressive pathogen of several weeds, were
obtained which meet criteria for delimitation, i.e. auxotrophic mutants (primidine auxotrophs)
that only attack plants when applied concomitantly with an exogenous source of required
nutrient; mutants unable to form sclerotia; and mutants with reduced virulence and/or host
ranges (Sands et aI., 1990).
The use of recombinant DNA technology, in contrast to mutagenesis technique, may offer
a much more precise and directed approach of altering the DNA of a pathogen to enhance
106
effectiveness and modify host specificity of pathogens (Auld and Morin, 1995; Sands and
Miller, 1993b; Templeton and Heiny, 1989). A successful mating in culture and plant tissues
has been reported by TeBeest et al. (1992) between Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp.
aeschynomene and strains of the same fungus, i.e. Cg. infecting .winged waterprimrose
(Ludwigia decurrens Walt.) and peacon (Carya illinoensis (Wangenh.) C. Koch.).
Genetic characterisation using RAPD technology has been used to identify various isolates
and species in the genus Colletotrichum for the purpose of assessing species relatedness and
for correlation with isolate pathogenicity and phytotoxin production. Genetic transformation
of biocontrol agents with a cutinase gene derived from Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and
Fusarium solani to improve pathogen penetration is under investigation. Transformants have
been obtained by protoplast fusion with BioMal, a mycoherbicide used to control round-leaved
mallow in Canada (Boyetchko and Bailey, 1997).
CONCLUSIONS
Farmers and consumers, both concerned about the potential health and environmental
consequences of chemical applications, are in search of alternatives. To meet the demand for
alternatives to chemical control of weeds, microbial control has emerged as a possible option.
The goal of biological weed control is the use of mainly host specific arthropods and pathogens
to reduce the population density of a weed to below its economic or ecological injury level
(Schroeder, 1995). It is perhaps surprising, considering the age-old awareness of the potential
of plant diseases to cause crop failures, that only recently fungi have been seriously evaluated
as a means of controlling weeds. Of the various types of disease-causing microorganisms such
as fungi, bacteria, viruses and mycoplasmas, fungi may be preferred as potential biocontrol
agents of weeds because they possess most of the desirable characteristics which an agent
should have. To control a weed, before it becomes obnoxious, work should be initiated using
all three biocontrol strategies, i.e. classical, mycoherbicidal and manipulated mycoherbicidal,
simultaneously. Much research is currently underway worldwide to determine the extent to
which mycoherbicides may be employed to control weeds.
Commercial mycoherbicides first appeared on the market in the USA in the early 1980s
with the release of the product DeVine (a formulation of Phytophthora palmivora) in 1981 to
control milkweed vine in Florida citrus orchards, and in the next year the release of the product
Collego (a formulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides £ sp. aeschynomene), to control
northern jointvetch, a leguminous weed in rice. This early work at Arkansas and Florida
stimulated a host of other studies on a range of pathogen-weed associations. Progress made
in recent years to explore fungi as biocontrol agents of weeds in the developed countries of the
world like the USA, Canada, Australia, UK and the Netherlands has resulted in the production
and commercial use of eight mycoherbicides, i.e. DeVine, Collego, Casst, Velgo, Cercospora
rodmanii (in USA), BioMal (in Canada), Biochon (in Netherlands) and Lubao (in China).
There are several others which are in an advanced stage of development such as
Colletotrichum orbiculare for controllingXanthium spinosum (Bathurst burr) in Australia and
Alternaria eichhorniae for controlling waterhyacinth in Egypt and India.
The pace of development in the area of commercialisation of mycoherbicides is still slow
because of an array of biological, economic and regulatory constraints. To overcome
biological constraints - such as virulence, stability, producing sufficient concentration of spores
to be economically viable, host range, environmental conditions, dew requirements of the
pathogens and geographic biotypes of the weeds - the use offungal biotechnotogy by genetic
manipUlation of fungal pathogens through protoplast fusion, improvement of the fermenters,
spraying techniques and modification of the carriers to the inoculum is being currently pursued
in order to enhance the development of mycoherbicides into products. Advances in
107
biotechnology may one day be able to create on request fungal pathogens with desirable
characteristics as commercial mycoherbicides.
In spite of the better potential of fungi to control obnoxious weeds in the tropical climate
than in temperate countries, researchers in the Indian subcontinent are still in the pioneering
stages of using fungi as biocontrol agents of weeds. The single greatest constraint to the
development of mycoherbicides is adequate field explorations for suitable new mycoherbicide
candidates. Considering the rich biodiversity, and good prospects for discovering and
developing biocontrol agents for many types of weeds, progress made in this area in the
developing countries has been almost nil. It seems the major constraint is the lack of available
of funds. For example, for the development of a potential biocontrol agent into a
mycoherbicide, the first step is its identification. Scientists in developing countries do not have
enough funds to pay for authentic identification and unless the identification is confirmed, it
is not possible to go ahead with publication and further evaluation for efficacy and
development and commercialisation of the agent. Moreover, private enterprises in developing
countries are unwilling to give assistance for any research project unless they are guaranteed
one hundred per cent economic returns on their investment.
FUTURE STRATEGIES
The strategies discussed earlier demonstrate that the future development of

mycoherbicides is dependent on fundamental knowledge of biological interactions at the
organism and ecosystem level. Intensive and long term research is needed for finding out and
understanding the unique biology of specific biocontrol agents, target combinations,
environmental impact and their potential in the management of a weed. The future of
mycoherbicides appears to be promising, if proper and immediate attention is paid, especially
in the developing countries, to the following:
1. Conducting systematic field surveys for the identification of the major endemic diseases
of the major weeds;
2. Isolation and establishment of stable cultures of the causal organisms;
3. Selection of pathogens, particularly those which are highly pathogenic;
4. Developing methods for mass production of stable inoculum;
5. Understanding the disease cycle and the weed patho-system;
6. Understanding the genetics of the pathogen or molecular basis of the disease that may
eventually help in selecting and establishing pathogens with greater virulence ('super
pathogens') or may even assist to increase virulence through hybridisation, parasexuality
or genetic manipulation, i.e. through the application of biotechnology on a wider scale.
To appreciate fully the value of mycoherbicides the farmers must be taught the limitations
and benefits of the new technologies prior to or during market launch of any new biological
product. Awareness campaigns, aimed at both potential sponsors as well as the farmers and
public in general should be initiated to stress the menace posed by obnoxious weeds and the
environmental pollution caused by the poisonous chemicals used for controlling the pests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to my students - Dr. Raj Kumar, Mr. Shahalam and Mrs. Shailja Kaushal for
assistance in the preparation of the manuscript. My special thanks to the UK Department for
International Development (DFID) for providing financial assistance for the RNRRS Research
108
Project (1996-99).
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114
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THERMOPIDILIC FUNGI IN
MUSHROOM COMPOST PREPARATION
Raj Kumar and K.R. Aneja
Kurukshetra-136 119
India
INTRODUCTION
Fungi once thought of as killing or damaging organisms are utilised by man in many ways
and their uses are expanding rapidly. The Egyptians and Romans prized mushrooms and there
are records of their being eaten in China between 25 BC and AD 220 (Wang, 1985). The use
of large fungi or mushrooms as food is quite commonplace, and has traditionally been
associated with meats. In Malawi they are regarded as a meat analogue (Morris, 1984). This
view was also held by Francis Bacon who, in his Sylva Sylvarum of 1927 described
mushrooms as yielding 'so delicious a meat'. But more recently filamentous fungi have found
their way in the industrial development of various kinds of mycoprotein and/or to supplement
various substrates. The development of 'Quom', a mycoprotein produced from Fusarium
graminearum, is a success story and now festoons the shelves of British supermarkets (Trinci,
1992).
During the last fifteen years several researchers have tried to utilise the filamentous fungi,
particularly thermophilic strains, for the development of environmentally-friendly compost that
does not emit odours into the environment. With the expansion of suburban populations
encroaching upon formerly rural areas, more people are being exposed to mushroom compost
preparation facilities. Recently the general public has been unwilling to tolerate odours from
substrate preparation and these odours are becoming a serious problem for composting
operations (Beyer et al., 1997). Presently the mushroom composting process is mostly based
on Sinden's work, who cut phase I down to about a week (exclusive of the collecting and
wetting of horse manure) followed by a short phase II of about six days in trays or tunnels
(Sinden and Hauser, 1953). This is well known as a short method of composting and is used
by most of the mushroom growers in Europe, and developing countries like India and China
are also nurturing their mushroom industry with the short method of composting.
Mushroom compost production is based on a mixture of biological, chemical, physical
and ecological parameters which are not exactly defined. Traditionally compost is produced

from wheat straw, straw-bedded horse manure, chicken manure and gypsum. After mixing and
moistening these ingredients for about 2 to 3 days, the mixture is subjected to the phase I
compo sting process. The mixed ingredients are stacked in windrows in the open air for an
uncontrolled self-heating process for up to one week. During self-heating, temperatures in the
windrows range from ambient to 80°C and ammonia and foul-smelling compounds are
emitted, causing environmental problems. Phase II is essentially an aerobic process carried out
by maintaining the compost temperature at 45°C for 6 days in shallow layers in mushroom
houses or tunnels. This is preceded by pasteurisation for 8 hours at 70°C to prevent outbreak
of pests and moulds during phase II (Straatsma et aI., 1995b). The biotechnological application
of thermophilic fungi in compo sting stems from (i) their ability to hydrolyse plant polymers,
thereby hastening the process of decomposition, (ii) their role in the production of nutritionally
rich compost to increase the quality and yield of mushrooms, and (iii) their suitability as agents
of experimental systems for genetic manipulation for use in recombinant DNA technology.
In this paper, bioconversion, ecology of thermophilic fungi in mushroom compost, indoor
phase II compo sting and growth promotion of Agaricus bisporus (= A. brunnescens) by
thermophilic fungi are reviewed and the prospects for future study are identified.
BIOCONVERSION
The most important basic material for the production of compost is various kinds of straw,
for example wheat, rye, barley and oat. However, wheat and rye are preferred because they are
firmer and give better texture (Gerrits, 1985). The main function of straw is to provide a
reservoir of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which is utilised by the mushroom mycelium
as the carbon source during its growth. During compo sting a great deal of organic matter is
broken down. Readily accessible compounds are degraded first and recalcitrant materials such
as inorganic compounds, cellulose, lignin (Waksman and Nissen, 1932) and biomass (Derikx
et aI., 1990) accumulate. Cellulose is a linear molecule composed of repeating cellobiose units
held together by 13-glycosidic linkages. Lignin is a complex phenylpropanoid polymer that
surrounds and strengthens the cellulose-hemicellulose framework (I<ringstad and Lindstrom,
1984). It is believed that hemicellulose acts as a molecular bonding agent between the
cellulose and lignin fractions (Torrie, 1991). The optimal temperature of 50°C for the
mineralization rate during phase I coincides with cellulase production by bacteria and fungi
(Gilbert and Hazelwood, 1993). Cellulases are mixtures of several enzymes that act in concert
to hydrolyse crystalline cellulose to its monomeric component glucose.
The exact mechanism of cellulose hydrolysis is not known (Duff and Murray, 1996),
although a number of possible models have been proposed. The classic and perhaps simplest
one is presented in Figure 1. The mechanism of cellulose hydrolysis is envisioned as an initial
attack by endocellulases that cleave intemal13-1 ,4 linkages in amorphous sections of cellulose.
Exocellulases (CBH I and CBH II in Trichoderma) then cleave cellobiose units from the non-
reducing ends of the cellulose chain. Finally 13-g1ucosidase converts cellobiose to glucose
monomers (Goyal, Ghosh and Eveleigh, 1991; Walker and Wilson, 1991). These enzymes act
in a synergistic or co-operative manner.
In general, compo sting is considered to be an aerobic process (Finstein and Morris, 1975)
suggesting high biological activity. The oxygen consumption rates of compost during phase
I increase logarithmically with temperature from 20 to 70°C (Schulze, 1962). Derikx et al.
(1990) observed a sharp decline in the oxygen consumption rates above 60 °C, demonstrating
the inhibitory effect of elevated temperatures on biological activity. They also observed that
mineralization dropped to zero at 70°C and the oxygen consumption rate decreased to 25% of
its original value. High biological activity is characterised by the production of stench,
hydrogen sulfide, methane thiol, dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl trisulfide. Anaerobic
116
conditions at elevated temperatures favour the formation of carbon disulfide and dimethyl
disulfide indicating their non-biological formation which cause much of the environmental
problem. Their formation can be decreased to 75% if phase I is performed in tunnels because
of the aerobic environment provided by the forced ventilation (Derikx et aI., 1991).
j
Amorphous Cellulose
Endoglucanase (EG, endo-l,4-P -D-glucanohydrolase)

Cleaves internal f3 -1,4 linkages
Linear cellulose molecules with

reducing and non-reducing ends
Endoglucanase
acts at random
Exoglucanase
(CBR 1,4 -13 -D - glucan cellobiohydrolase)
acts at non-reducing ends
Cellodextrins+Glucose
Exoglucanase
( p -1,4-D-glucan-4-glucanohydrolase)
Cellobiose + Glucose
113-glUCOSidase
Glucose monomers
Figure 1. Scheme of breakdown of cellulose in lignocellulosic materials [Based on Chahal and Overend
(1982) and Duff and Murray (1996)].
During the composting process, thermophilic/thermotolerant fungi show a whole spectrum

of physiological behaviour with regard to their ability to decompose plant polymers, Evidently
some quite complex interspecific relationships exist in this respect (Chang, 1967). Some can
hydrolyse cellulose present in the straw viz. Chaetomium thermophile, Humicola insolens,
Aspergillus fumigatus and Torula thermophila (Flannigan and Sellars, 1972). A few fungi
such as Talaromyces thermophilus may be weakly lignolytic (Tansey et aI., 1977). Sharma
(1991) found no lignin degradation during phase I and phase II, however, he reported a
decrease in the lignin content of the spent compost. Bonnen, Anton and Orth (1994)
convincingly demonstrated the ability of A. bisporus to produce lignin-degrading peroxidases.
In contrast, Iiyama, Stone and Macauley (1994) reported a relative increase in the lignin
content of compost during compo sting and cultivation of mushrooms. They found that the
structure of the lignin was altered rather than degraded, Till (1962) showed that good yields
of mushrooms can be obtained on autoclaved straw supplemented with organic nitrogen.
Extensive degradation of straw is not a prerequisite for a high yield of mushrooms. Tunnel
phase I compost produces the same amount of mushrooms as traditional outdoor compost that
has been degraded much more intensively (Straatsma et aI., 1995b).
117
ECOLOGY OF THERMOPHILIC FUNGI IN MUSHROOM COMPOST
It has been clearly demonstrated that the rise in temperature and the decomposition of
composting plant materials is brought about by thermophilic microorganisms including fungi.
Successions of fungi in wheat straw compost have been studied by Chang and Hudson (1967).
Their results are probably typical for any compost. Thermophilic microorganisms in compost
have received extensive study (Fermor, Randle and Smith, 1985). An overview of the
thermophilic fungi found in mushroom compost and their temperature optima are presented
in Table 1. The course offungal succession may be partially explained by the ecophysiological
data available (Aneja, 1988; Chapman, 1974; Evans, 1971; Fergus and Amelung, 1971;
Rosenberg, 1975, 1978; Satyanarayana et ai., 1992).
It is well established that the ability to use complex carbon sources and the ability to thrive
at high temperatures are the two most important characteristics of the successful colonisers of
composts. On wheat straw composts Rhizomucor pusillus disappears early in the succession
and seems to be a primary sugar fungus. Thermomyces lanuginosus persists as a secondary
sugar fungus in mutualistic relationships with some of the true cellulose decomposers of
composts (Chang, 1967; Deacon, 1985; Hedger and Hudson, 1974). Chaetomium thermophile,
Malbranchea sulfurea and Scytalidium thermophilum (=T thermophila) grow fast and are
cellulolytic. The latter is reported to be the climax species in composts (Straatsma and
Samson, 1993). The only time that fungi are not active in the compost is during the peak-
heating phase during outdoor composting. The maximum temperature phase kills off all fungi
in the centre and allows recolonization as the temperature falls to below each fungus's upper
temperature limit for growth (Chang and Hudson, 1967). In general one might suspect that the
higher the maximum temperature for growth the more rapid the recolonization. From the data
of Cooney and Emerson (1964), Kumar (1996), Rosenberg (1975), Singh and Sandhu (1982)
and Tansey and Brock (1972), there are only a few degrees difference in the upper temperature
limits of the various thermophiles: all lie between 55 and 60°C.
Willenborg and Hindorf (1985) studied the fungal flora in mushroom culture substrate
from the beginning of composting to the final stage of mushroom picking. They observed that
60.7% of the total flora were thermophilic fungi. Eighteen thermophilic fungi including 2
basidiomycetes and 1 sterile form from phase I and phase II composts were isolated and these
represented most of the known thermophilic taxa (Table 1). Most species that colonised/
appeared in the earlier stages disappeared after phase II composting. Fungi recovered from the
compost at the end of phase II were exclusively T thermophila, H insolens and C.
thermophile. However, the population density of T thermophila was very high, with 1042
CFU g-l (Kumar, 1996).
INDOOR PHASE II COMPOSTING
In practice two phases of composting are distinguished. Phase I is performed in the open
or under a roof where the ingredients are stacked in long heaps. A transverse section of a
compost pile is given in Figure 2. The material heats up and is turned several times.
Processing of phase I in tunnels is presently under investigation and its acceptability is debated
(Gerrits et ai., 1995; Straatsma et ai., 1995a). Phase II composting is essentially performed in
tunnels or mushroom houses which allow satisfactory control of environmental conditions, viz.
temperature and air supply. The tunnels are used for large scale operations. Before filling the
'young compost' (any substrate prior to phase II) in tunnels, it is subjected to phase I (see
Figure 3) to soften the straw which allows an optimal amount of compost to be filled into the
cropping rooms. This is also essential for high biological efficiency (BE) of the substrate
118
Table 1. Thermophilic and thermotolerant fungi found in mushroom compost" and their
optimum temperature for growth.
Fungi Optimum temperature Reference(s)b

("C)
Tbermopbilic
Chaetomium thermophile"· 50 La Touche, 1950
Corynascus thermophilus4 45 Sigler et aI., 1998
Hormographiella aspergillata7 NR
Humicola insolens· 40-45 Cooney & Emerson, 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
Malbranchea sulfurea'·· 45 Cooney & Emerson, 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
Myriococcum albomyces· 37-42 Cooney & Emerson, 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
M thermophilum7 NR
Rhizomucor miehei2•• 35-45 Cooney & Emerson 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
R. pusillus'·s,. 35-45 Cooney & Emerson, 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
Scytalidium thermophilum'·3.S .• 45 Cooney & Emerson, 1964
(= Torula thermophila)
Stilbella thermophild· s.• 50 Rosenberg, 1975
Talaromyces emersoni,..·7 40-45 Rosenberg, 1975
T thermophilus l•• 45-50 Rosenberg, 1975
Thermoascus aurantiacus·· 7 40-45 Cooney & Emerson, 1964
T aurantiacus var. levispora7 NR
T crustaceus7 40 Stolk,1965
Thermomyces lanuginosus'·3.s.• 45-50 Rosenberg, 1975
Thielavia terrestris7 45 i\nonymous, 1992
Chaetomium Sp.7 NR
Tbermotolerant
Absidia corymbifera'·· 45 Kumar, 1996
Aspergillus jitmigatus'·3.S.6 40 Cooney & Emerson 1964;
Rosenberg, 1975
Coprinus cinereus7 26-37 i\nonymous, 1992
Emericella nidulans6.7 35-37 Anonymous, 1992
Paecilomyces variotii' 23 i\nonymous, 1992
adata from: I. Chang, 1967; 2. Eicker, 1977; 3. Fergus, 1964; 4. Fergus and Sinden, 1969; 5. Hays, 1969;
6. Kumar, 1996; 7.Straatsma et aI., 1994a.
breference(s) for optimum temperature data; NR = Not reported.
(Gerrits et al., 1994). BE is the per cent fresh weight of mushrooms produced from a given dry
weight of compost ingredients; it is an indication of the efficiency underlying the
bioconversion process that transforms straw and supplements into mushrooms (Leonard and
Volk, 1992).
Young compost is filled in tunnels and pasteurised at 70°C for 8 hours before processing
at 45°C for 5 to 6 days. The dimension ofa typical tunnel is 100 m 2 to fill compost at 2 m
height or 1 tm-2 (Van Lier et al., 1994). For inoculating the compost with a thermophilic
isolate, the compost is cooled to 40°C and inoculated at filling in the second tunnel.
Ventilative heat management is applied to the compost in the tunnel to keep the temperature
within the range of 45 to 50°C. Typically, the total circulation is 200 m 3 rl h- 1 and ventilation
with fresh ambient air is about 20 m 3 rl h- 1 (Van Lier et aI., 1994). For oxidation of the
119
substrate only 2 m 3 rl h-I would be required, therefore most of the ventilation air is used to
remove excess water to control temperature and not to supply oxygen. The loss of water and
high process temperature is important for a good quality compost. Air circulation rates below
100 m 3 rl h-I result in lower water loss from the substrate, thus making it vulnerable to
desiccation especially in the bottom section of the tunnel (Van Lier et aI., 1994). Processing
of the compost is continued until volatile NH3 is undetectable « 10 ppm). After processing
the compost is cooled and inoculated with A. bisporus spawn.
lOOcm
~-----------. - \ - - - - - 2-5 cm dry portion

(Aerobic zone)
~\---\---- 5-10 cm outer portion.

Temp. 40-50°C
(Semi aerobic zone)
130cm
- t - - - - - t - + - - Beyond 10 em middle portion.
Temp. 50-65°C
(Limited aerobic zone)
~-~t-----\----+-+-- Central portion. Temp. 80°C

(Anaerobic zone)
+ - - - - - - - 1 3 0 c m _ _ _ _ _ _ _-+
Figure 2. A transverse section of compost pile (Modified from Chahal et aI., 1976).
The processing of compost has been rationalised during the last two decades. In general,
tunnel processing is advantageous for bulk treatment of compost because it is cost effective;
secondarily it provides the opportunity to clean the exhaust air of ammonia and stench.
Ammonia can easily be removed by acid washing and stench caused by sulphur-containing
organics may be removed by biofiltration or sodium hypochlorite washing (Op den Camp et
aI.,1992). .
GROWTH PROMOTION OF AGARICUS BISPORUS BY THERMOPHIILIC FUNGI
In the last decade a new driving force has entered into the field of compo sting which is
associated with the growth promotion of A. bisporus mycelium by thermophilic fungi, in
particular S. thermophilum (Straatsma et aI., 1995a). The inoculation of thermophilic fungi
has shown that compost colonisation by selected isolates is successful and that microbial
manipulation of phase II composting is feasible (Kumar, 1996; Straatsma et aI., 1994b).
The radial growth rate of mushroom mycelium never exceeds 3 mm per day (Last,
Hollings and Stone, 1974). Unfortunately a growth-promoting effect of S. thermophilum on
the mycelium of A. bisporus is not found on agar media (Renard and Cailleux, 1973). The
high hyphal extension rates of A. bisporus on compost in the presence of thermophilic fungi
may have an ecological significance: it may be able to grow as fast as possible, thereby
colonising as much substrate as possible. Once the substrate has been occupied, the mushroom
mycelium seems to be able to prevent occupation by other microorganisms, either by
consuming them (Fermor and Grant, 1985; Fermor and Wood, 1981) or by excretion of carbon
120
monoxide (Stoller, 1978), which effectively inhibits growth of most competing organisms but
inhibits the growth of the mushroom mycelium itself only partly (Derikx et aI., 1990).
Composted mixture of wheat straw + wheat bran +

chicken manure + gypsum
1
Mixing and moistening the ingredients
1
Mixture is left for a short period to start self heating
I PHASE -I I [Uncontrolled self1

heating for 1 to 2 weeks in the open air
1
IPHASE -II I "YOTC=PO<C
'Young compost' is filled in tunnels and pasteurised at 70°C
with steam for 6-8 h
1
The contents of the tunnel are emptied in a bin
for loosening and mixing
1
The compost is transported over a conveyor belt and
filled again in the container
j ~
/
~
rompost is inoculated at
filling with millet grains
. / fullv colonised by
a thermophilic isolate(s)
Processed at 45"C for 6 days or till the ammonia

is undetectable «10 ppm)
1
Compost ready for spawning
Figure 3. Protocol for the environmentally controlled production of compost inoculated with thermophilic
iso late( s).
Our studies of the effect of thermophilic fungi on the mycelial extension rate of A.
bisporus when inoculated in sterilised compost singly and in combinations (Table 2) have
indicated that thermophilic fungi, in particular T thermophila (Kurukshetra isolate, IMl No.
361370) and M sulfurea (Kurukshetra isolate, IMl No. 361367), provide a trigger for enhanced
growth of A. bisporus acting by an unknown mechanism. Therefore, combinations of fungal
inocula are better than inoculating the compost with a single fungus. Our studies substantiated
the results of Overstijns (1995) who reported that the addition of phase II compost, which
contains all necessary thermophilic microorganisms, seemed to be better than an inoculum of
a pure culture of S. thermophilum. Ross and Harris (1983) suspected that a viable but dormant
121
biomass should be present to fill an otherwise biological vacuum. This prevents colonisation
by unwanted competitors.
Table 2. Growth rates of A. bisporus on sterilised compost inoculated with different

thermophilic fungi singly and in combinations.
Species Mycelial extension rate

(Kr,mm1day),
Control 6. Ie
Chaetomium thermophile 6.3d
Malbranchea sulfurea 7.tb
Thermomyces lanuginosus 5.4g
Torula thermophila 6.6c
C. thermophile + M sulfurea 7.lb
C. thermophile + T. lanuginosus 6.0e
C. thermophile + T. thermophila 6.6c
M sulfurea + T. lanuginosus 5.8f
M sulfurea + T. thermophila 7.7a
T. lanuginosus + T. thermophila 6.0e
C. thermophile + M sulfurea +
T. lanuginosus + T. thermophila 6.5c
CY= 1.5%
'Treatments receiving the same letter are not significantly different (DMRT; P < 0.05).
Wiegant et al. (1992) suggested that CO2 produced by S. thermophilum at 0.4 to 0.5% CO2
(v/v) explained the growth-promoting effect. Heterotrophic CO 2 fixation in primary
metabolism of A. bisporus is well known (Bachofen and Rast, 1968; Le Roux and Couvy,
1972) and established mycelia could maintain growth by the production of their own
respiratory CO2• Straatsma et al. (1995a) interpreted that CO2 level influences the duration of
the adaptation period rather than the extension rate. They showed that at optimal CO2 level
the mycelial extension rate of A. bisporus on compost fully grown with S. thermophilum was
twice that of A. bisporus on compost without S. thermophilum. Therefore, the effects of
thermophilic fungi and CO2 seemed to be distinct.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Since conventional composting is coupled with emission of ammonia and annoying

odours, the search for environmentally-friendly composting techniques is of great interest.
Indoor composting research is now being targeted towards the microbial manipulation of phase
II compo~t. Thermophilic fungi are believed to contribute significantly to the quality of
compost. Thermophilic fungi in phase II compost are believed to contribute to a good crop of
mushrooms in the following ways: (a) by decreasing the concentration of ammonia in the
compost which would otherwise counteract the growth of the mushroom mycelium; (b) by
immobilising nutrients in a form apparently available to the mushroom mycelium; and (c)
possibly by having a growth-promoting effect on the mushroom mycelium, as has been
demonstrated for S. thermophilum and several other thermophilic fungi (Wiegant, 1992).
However, mechanisms behind the growth stimulation of A. bisporus by these fungi remain
unresolved. It is advisable to perform phase I as a natural semi-controlled composting process
122
for a good crop yield of mushrooms (Overstijns, 1995).
However, because of the growing concern about the environmental impact of production
of compost and pressure of environmentalists, it will be necessary to reduce the length of phase
I. By using tunnels it is now already possible to drop phase I outdoors completely (Gerrits et
aI., 1995). There are prospects of using spent compost for bioremediation purposes (Buswell,
1994) and as an organic soil stabiliser (Gerrits, 1994). Further research on indoor phase I
compo sting and biodegradation of lignocellulosics is needed. Although A. bisporus is capable
of degrading the lignin in compost, the specific components of the enzyme system utilised by
this fungus during the biodegradation of lignin are not known with certainty. Bonnen et aI.
(1994) found that the activities of laccase and of manganese peroxidase of A. bisporus in
compost are related to the degradation of compost lignin.
What is presently needed in the mushroom industry is to render the compost preparation
procedure more rational and controllable by identifYing the important factors that affect yield
and quality. It is hoped that recombinant DNA technologies may provide an impetus to the
study of enzymes involved in bioconversion and carbon metabolism. Recently, the cellulase
and laccase genes of A. bisporus have been cloned (Perry et aI., 1993; Wood and Thurston,
1991) and Schaap et al. (1994) cloned some housekeeping genes of carbon metabolism. Our
knowledge of mechanisms underlying straw and compost degradation before cropping will be
increased rapidly if in situ microscopic studies in straw and compost can be performed using
gene probes for S. thermophilum including other thermophilic fungi and A. bisporus. Such
work requires a multidisciplinary approach with input from disciplines such as mycology,
mushroom science, molecular biology, biotechnology and biochemistry.
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126
EFFECTIVENESS OF LYTIC ENZYMES IN ISOLATION OF PROTOPLASTS
FROM TRICHODERMA HARZ/ANUM
s. Kaur and K.G. Mukerji

Applied Mycology Laboratory
University of Delhi
Delhi-ll0 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Research into the biological control of plant diseases has arisen from a need to reduce
dependence on chemical pesticides whose misuse in many crop systems has led to negative
effects on the environment and health. Moreover, the use of chemical pesticides and
fungicides is a relatively short term measure. On the other hand biological control of plant
diseases offers an answer to many persistent problems in agriculture including problems of
resource limitation, non-sustainable agricultural systems and over-reliance on pesticides (Cook
and Baker, 1983). Bioprotectants provide unique opportunities for crop protection because
they grow and proliferate and can colonize and protect newly formed plant parts to which they
were not initially applied (Harman, 1990).
Despite these advantages, beneficial microbes are rarely used in the field to control plant
diseases primarily because biocontrol agents have been both less effective and more variable
than competitive chemical pesticides. A principal reason for this is the poor growth of
bioprotectants. Competitive micro flora that rapidly colonize planted seeds may inhibit the
bioprotectant so that biocontrol fails (Harman, 1990; Harman et aI., 1989; Hubbard et aI.,
1983). Ifbiocontrol is to become an important component of integrated disease management
(IDM) systems, it must be as effective and reliable as competitive chemical pesticides.
Biocontrol agents must therefore be manipulated and improved for their effective use in the
control of plant diseases (Mukerji and Garg, 1988a,b; Mukerji et aI., 1992).
Among the wide variety of strain improvement techniques, protoplast fusion seems to be
an efficient way of inducing genetic recombination in fungi which have no sexual cycle. The
prerequisite of protoplast fusion is to obtain maximum yield which in totality is capable of
retaining the ability to regenerate. There are a number of factors which influence the
protoplast yield, of which the lytic enzyme system in the incubation mixture is of prime
importance. The factors present in the lytic enzyme system may enhance or reduce the
protoplast yield.

This chapter deals with the biocontrol of plant diseases and improvement of biocontrol
agents. Emphasis has been given on protoplast fusion in the improvement of biocontrol
agents.
BIOCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES
Biocontrol can be defined as a reduction in the pathogen inoculum or its disease-

producing capacity by the action of one or more organisms accomplished naturally or through
manipulation of the environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more
antagonists (Cook and Baker, 1983). Basic aspects of strain selection, efficient production
of biomass, formulation, storage ability and method of application are some of the main
obstacles to the use ofbiocontrol agents (Kumar et al., 1997). Further, the potential for genetic
manipulation of fungi to create genetically superior strains that can perform better than wild
types has been extensively investigated (Lumsden and Lewis, 1989; Upadhyay et al.,1996,
1997,1998 a,b,c).
Biocontrol Agents
Biocontrol agents are microorganisms with the potential to interfere with the growth or
survival of plant pathogens and thereby contribute to biological control. Potential agents for
biocontrol activity are rhizosphere competent fungi and bacteria, which in addition to their
antagonistic activity are capable of inducing the growth response either by controlling minor
pathogens or by producing growth stimulating factors ( Chet et al., 1993). The environmental
impact of biocontrol agents is assumed to be less significant than that of agrochemicals and
their usage is presumed to reduce the consumption of chemical pesticides which causes serious
ecological problems.
Among the large number of microorganisms used as biocontrol agents, Trichoderma
harzianum is regarded as a particularly potent biocontrol agent. It shows antagonistic
properties against a wide range of pathogens, for example species of Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium,
Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Verticillium, Pythium, Phytophthora etc. Trichoderma spp. are
also known for their ability to secrete a number of distinct enzymes capable of degrading the
cell walls of other fungi.
Mechanism of Action
Biocontrol agents may utilize several modes of action, namely competition,

mycoparasitism and antagonism. All of these mechanisms may operate independently or
together and their activities can result in the suppression of plant pathogens (Singh and Faull,
1988).
Biocontrol agents compete well for nutrition and space with pathogens. Competition is
an injurious effect of one organism on another because of the utilisation or removal of some
resources of the environment, thereby determining the growth and infection of soil-borne plant
pathogens in competition with other microorganisms. They parasitize plant pathogenic fungi
which cover a multitude of different interactions including minor and major morphological
disturbances, the overgrowth of hyphae of one fungus by another, penetration and direct
parasitism by the formation of haustoria and lysis of one hypha by another (Singh and Faull,
1988). The production of volatile or non-volatile compounds by biocontrol agents has a direct
impact on pathogenic microorganisms resulting in the denaturation of cell contents before they
come in contact with the mycelium of the antagonist.
128
METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF BIOCONTROL AGENT
Biocontrol agents must be manipulated and improved in order to be effectively used for
control of plant diseases. Only some of the characteristics of the biocontrol agent may be
considered to be beneficial in growth promotion and lor biocontrol, so that its performance has
to be improved before it is commercially used in agriculture (Baker, 1989). Greater tolerance
to environmental stress may increase the effectiveness of an organism and extend its useful
range to new crop situations (Wilson and Pusey, 1985). The biocontrol ability of an organism
can be improved either by altering the environment to make it more conducive to the particular
biocontrol strain than to the competitive micro flora, or by modifying the genetics of the
organism to produce superior strains, or both.
The prime strategy for improvement is by genetic manipulation ofbiocontrol agents which
can enhance their biocontrol activity and expand their spectrum. There are a number of
methods available for this purpose including mutation and protoplast fusion. Ultraviolet
radiation-induced mutants of Trichoderma spp. were found to be resistant to benomyl and were
also effective as biocontrol agents against Rhizoctonia so/ani, Sclerotium rolfsii and
S.cepivorum (Abd-EI Moity et aI., 1982; Papavizas, 1987). These mutants also helped to
increase the level of rhizosphere competence (Baker, 1991) and yield of antibiotics (Howell
and Sipanovic, 1983).
The biocontrol ability is under the control of a large number of genes, hence the use of
mutagenesis treatment is not always desirable. Therefore, the introduction of superior
characters may be best achieved by crossing of strains with appropriate characters (Hocart and
Peberdy, 1989). Genetic recombination is a more powerful technique for developing effective
biocontrol strains than mutation and selection. Protoplast fusion provides a means for
recombination of whole genomes even between incompatible strains.· The successful
application of the technique of protoplast fusion has great potential in genetic recombination
of species in which sexual and parasexual mechanisms are not present or are difficult to
exploit.
PROTOPLAST FUSION IN IMPROVEMENT OF BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Although protoplast fusion has been reported in a large number of fungal species there are
few studies related to the fungal biocontrol agents. Recently a few strains with improved
biocontrol performance have been generated by protoplast fusion technology. Protoplast
fusion has been used to improve the biocontrol ability of T harzianum (Harman 1991; Harman
et aI., 1989; Lalithakumari et al.,1996; Pe'er and Chet, 1990; Sivan and Harman, 1991; Stasz
et ai., 1988). Recombinant progeny derived from protoplast fusion proved to be more efficient
than either of the parents and a strain 1295-22, a fusant progeny, exhibited better biocontrol
activity and more effectively colonized the rhizosphere of several crops (Harman et aI., 1989;
Sivan and Harman, 1991; Stasz et aI., 1988). Much emphasis is being given to Trichoderma
spp. as they possess useful traits for production of cellulolytic enzymes and biocontrol activity.
It may be possible with protoplast fusion to combine these beneficial traits into a single
superior strain.
Protoplast fusion in tum depends on a high yield of viable protoplasts in the shortest
possible time. There are a number of factors which influence the protoplast yield, for example
the nature of lytic enzyme, osmotic stabilizers, physiological status of an organism, cultural
conditions, pretreatment method, pH, buffer, temperature and time of protopiasting. Of these,
lytic enzyme is of prime importance because factors present in lytic enzyme may affect the
protoplast yield.
129
EFFECT OF LYTIC ENZYME ON PROTOPLAST YIELD
The arrangement of cell wall components has a marked effect on the efficiency of lytic
enzymes used for protoplast isolation from various species. In most cases the enzymes used
for protoplast isolation are commercially available or are obtained from the microorganisms.
A number of commercial enzymes, for example Cellulase CP, Driselase, ~-glucuronidase,
Glusulase, Novozym 234, Zymolyase and Sulphatase, have been used to isolate protoplasts
from yeasts and filamentous fungi (Peberdy 1985). Most of them are crude or partially purified
preparations with multiple activities, the main component being chitinase, ex & ~-glucanase
and protease.
Although commercial enzymes are readily available and convenient to use, many workers
have found that lytic enzymes produced from microorganisms are more effective in obtaining
protoplasts. These mycolytic enzymes are prepared by growing a suitable microorganism on
purified fungal cell walls as the sole carbon source, or they are derived from autolytic cultures
of the specific fungus (Lynch et ai., 1985; Peberdy, 1985; Reyes et ai., 1984). A number of
inducible substrates such as cellulose, chitin and laminarin have also been used to promote the
synthesis of lytic enzyme complexes (Hocart and Peberdy, 1989). A wide range of
microorganisms have been used to produce enzymes capable of totally or partially digesting
the cell walls of fungi, including species of Streptomyces, Micromonospora (Villanueava and
Garcia-Acha, 1971), Penicillium purpurogenum (Musilkova et ai., 1969) and Trichoderma spp.
(Ogawa et ai., 1987). The lytic enzyme obtained from different species of Trichoderma, for
example T harzianum (Kitamato et ai., 1988; Kumari and Panda, 1992), T viride (Ogawa et
ai., 1989; Znidarsic et ai., 1992) and T reesei (Oberma et ai., 1990) are used in protoplast
isolation.
The analysis of various enzyme activities present in the lytic enzyme throws light on their
contribution to wall lysis and protoplast formation. High levels of ~-1 ,3-glucanase, endo ~-
1,3-glucanase, endo ~-1 ,4-glucanase, chitinase and protease were present in lytic enzyme
preparation from T harzianum (Kumari and Panda, 1992) and T reesei (Znidarsic et ai.,
1992).
ISOLATION OF PROTOPLASTS
The protoplasts of T harzianum were isolated by incubating the young mycelium in the
incubation mixture containing 50 Ilg/ml of crude extract of lytic enzyme, 0.15M Na-phosphate
buffer, pH 5.8, 0.6M (NH4)2S04 (as osmotic stabilizer). It was incubated at 30°C with gentle
shaking at 125 rpm. After 4 hours of contact with lytic enzyme, the protoplasts were obtained
by centrifugation. Pure protoplasts were isolated from a mixture of protoplasts and cell wall
debris by density-gradient centrifugation and were collected from the interphase of two
solutions, i.e. 0.6M (NH4)2S04 and 0.6M sucrose. The pure protoplasts were washed and
stored in 0.6M (NH4)2S04 at 0-4°C.
When the crude extract of lytic enzymes prepared from different isolates of Trichoderma
and mixture of commercial enzymes were studied for maximum generation of protoplasts, it
was observed that a maximum number of protop lasts was obtained with crude extract oflytic
enzyme from 15 days old culture filtrate of T harzianum DU/MS/l 070 followed by T
hamatum and T harzianum 2895, whereas the minimum number of pro top lasts was obtained
by using crude extract of lytic enzyme from T pseudokoningii. The mixture of commercial
enzymes also yielded a very low number of protoplasts (see Table 1). The application of crude
extract of lytic enzyme from Trichoderma isolates alone are found to be suitable for effective
protoplast isolation.
130
Table 1. Effect of crude extract of lytic enzymes prepared from 5, 10 and 15 days old
culture filtrate of Trichoderma strains and mixture of commercial enzymes on protoplast
yield.
Source of Lytic Enzyme Protoplast Yield x 107 (mean ± S.D.)
T. harzianum 2895 A 3.322 ± 0.107
B 4.203 ± 0.167
C 4.667 ± 0.211
T. harzianum DUIMSIl070 A 4.138 ± 0.042
B 4.614 ± 0.158
C 5.125 ± 0.104
T. hamatum A 4.139 ± 0.098
B 4.628 ± 0.169
C 4.718 ± 0.240
T. koningii A 1.281 ± 0.138
B 1.305 ± 0.099
C 1.442 ± 0.119
T. pseudokoningii A 1.142 ± 0.091
B 1.218 ± 0.035
C 1.339 ± 0.049
T. reesei A 3.550 ± 0.233
B 3.694 ± 0.059
C 4.125 ± 0.086
T. viride A 3.177 ± 0.125
B 3.611 ±0.151
C 4.162±0.113
Mixture of Commercial Enzymes* 1.946 ± 0.151
Crude extract oflytic enzyme prepared from 5 days old culture filtrate (A), 10 days old culture filtrate (B) and
15 days old culture filtrate (C).
* Mixture of commercial enzymes containing B-glucuronidase (200 Ilg/ml), Driselase (I mg/ml) and Chitinase
(10 Ilg/ml).
The lytic enzymes from culture filtrates of different isolates of Trichoderma and
commercial enzymes were assayed for different enzymes viz., carboxymethyl cellulase
(CMCase), filter paper activity (FPA), a-glucanase, xylanase, chitinase and proteinase and total
protein. It is evident from data presented in Table 2 that the total protein increased with the
age of culture. Similarly, high levels of CMCase, FPA and xylanase activities were associated
with crude extract of lytic enzyme from different isolates of Trichoderma, whereas high levels
of glucanase were detected in crude extract of lytic enzyme from 10 days old culture filtrate
and maximum proteinase activity was detected in lytic enzymes prepared from 5 days old
131
culture filtrate. The highest proteinase activity in 5 days old culture filtrate resulted in reduced
protoplast yield, as it may have caused bursting of protoplasts and removal of proteinase from
lytic enzyme resulting in increase in protoplast yield (Kitamato et ai., 1988). The increase in
cellulase (CMCase and FPA), xylanase activity and decrease in proteinase activity with the age
of culture resulted in effective digestion of cell walls.
Table 2. Comparison of enzyme activities in crude extract of lytic enzymes from Trichoderma
isolates and mixture of commercial enzymes.
Source ofLytic Total FPA CMCasea - Xylanase Chitinase Proteinase

Enzyme Protein IU/ml IU/ml glucanase IU/ml lU/ml IU/ml
mglml IU/ml
T harzianum A 2.40 0.195 0.220 0.220 0.180 1.66 0.96

DU/MS/1070 B 2.56 0.235 0.270 0.230 0.320 1.33 0.69
C 2.80 0.247 0.365 0.215 0.440 1.46 0.66
T harzianum A 2.73 0.189 0.315 0.175 0.255 2.33 0.87
2895 B 2.77 0.197 0.385 0.285 0.355 1.73 0.70
C 3.27 0.226 0.470 0.270 0.390 1.93 0.55
T hamatum A 2.48 0.206 0.375 0.275 0.280 1.73 1.26
B 2.56 0.252 0.480 0.305 0.355 2.19 1.25
C 2.85 0.267 0.495 0.300 0.600 1.19 1.08
T koningii A 2.75 0.217 0.350 0.255 0.335 1.33 1.24
B 3.17 0.242 0.470 0.295 0.350 2.53 0.85
C 3.88 0.261 0.480 0.255 0.480 3.07 0.80
T pseudokoningii A 2.40 0.157 0.315 0.230 0.415 1.73 1.24
B 2.53 0.199 0.455 0.485 0.605 1.79 1.08
C 3.00 0.206 0.425 0.370 0.665 2.19 0.79
T reesei A 2.22 0.182 0.275 0.205 0.375 1.73 1.66
B 2.48 0.215 0.330 0.315 0.565 2.06 0.87
C 2.98 0.217 0.360 0.240 0.580 2.27 0.78
T viride A 3.50 0.150 0.315 0.185 0.500 3.13 1.09
B 3.53 0.160 0.325 0.250 0.485 1.39 1.08
C 3.80 0.185 0.330 0.185 0.550 1.93 0.63
Mixture of Commercial 4.75 0.550 0.450 0.395 0.900 3.20 2.77
Enzymes·
A,B,C, • - Same as in Table I.
CONCLUSIONS
Biological control of plant pathogens has been considered as a potential control strategy.
However, because of practical constraints there are only a few successful field applications of
antagonists used as biocontrol agents. Owing to the potential adverse effects of chemical
pesticides and fungicides on the health of people and the environment there is a need for
integrated control of plant pathogens. The use of biocontrol strategies offers several
advantages over chemical control of plant diseases. In practical terms, biological control will
not immediately nor totally replace chemicals but the judicious use ofbiocontrol agents with
limited use of chemical pesticides can significantly enhance the quality of the environment and
132
agricultural productivity. Genetic manipulation ofbiocontrol agents for improved ability to
control various diseases and improved compatibility with chemical fungicides may reduce the
use of chemical pesticides and fungicides.
Although protoplasts have been isolated from a large number of fungi there are very few
reports of improved biocontrol strains with enhanced performance. Effective protoplast fusion
depends on a high yield of protoplasts. The use of protoplast fusion to overcome
incompatibility barriers allows characteristics from even distantly related isolates to be
combined. Inter-species hybridization would seem to be a worthwhile approach to strain
improvement in Trichoderma. Increased cellulolytic and mycolytic activities could enhance
the effectiveness of the organism for biocontrol purposes.
FUTURE STRATEGIES
It has been visualised that the next decade will see widespread exploitation of genetic
engineering, especially genetic manipulation and hybridization, in the improvement of
biocontrol agents. Genetic alteration of the pathogen or potential microbial biocontrol agent
may be possible in the near future. As the basis of biocontrol interactions becomes better
understood, breeding programmes to improve strains will become more common. Experience
with pesticides and fungicides has clearly shown how adaptable pest and pathogen populations
can be. It is not unlikely, therefore, that with the increasing use ofbiocontrol organisms, even
in an integrated approach, there will be a continual need to update the strains in use as the
pathogen populations change to meet the challenge. Investigation of new technologies is
required to develop biocontrol agents with improved performance. The biocontrol agents
should be economically feasible and environmentally safe.
Protoplast fusion will undoubtedly play an important role in the exploitation ofbiocontrol
fungi. Effective protoplast fusion depends on the high yield of protoplasts. Owing to the
diversity of the cell walls of different organisms, the effective conditions of protoplasting
should be standardized for each and every organism.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The senior author is thankful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. The
authors are also thankful to Prof. J.P. Tiwari, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada for
providing commercial enzymes.
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135
TIMBER PRESERVATION: THE POTENTIAL USE OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
AND PROCESSES
John W. Palfreyman', Nia A. White' and Jagjit Singh2
'Dry Rot Research Group

School of Molecular and Life Sciences
University of Abertay Dundee
Dundee DDl lHG
U.K.
20scar Faber Applied Research

Marlborough House
Upper Marlborough Road
St. Albans ALl 3UT
U.K.
INTRODUCTION
Timber represents a rich source of potential nutrients for a wide variety of macro-
organisms (e.g. insects and marine borers) and micro-organisms (notably fungi and bacteria).
Timber is susceptible to these agents during both production and in-service use, though
degradation by them is not always inevitable and is usually associated with misuse or
inappropriate use. However when timber is to be used in some types of environment, notably
where relatively high levels of moisture are available, protective systems are necessary to
prevent decay. Currently such systems often rely on the use of chemical treatments but
alternative strategies are under development at a number of centres and these come under the
headings of environmental control, biological control and the use of natural products as wood
preservatives. This chapter will explore each of these systems in the context of the control of
the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, a wood decay basidiomycete which causes severe
damage to wooden elements of buildings in temperate areas and whose natural home appears
to be the Himalayan foothills. Discussion of these natural processes and products will be
preceded by a description of the current wood preservation scenario and of the pressures which
are bringing about change in the associated industry.

Edited by Singh and Alleja, Plenum Press, New York, 1999 137
BACKGROUND
The susceptibility of wood to decay has been recognised for millennia (e.g. biblical
references to treating Noah's ark internally and externally with pitch). However the durability
of wood, if kept in an appropriate environment, must also have been familiar to ancient peoples
as, for example, Egyptian sycamore coffins have survived intact for over 4000 years. Early
preservative systems depended upon surface coating or soaking to introduce chemicals into
wood and the modem era of preservation may be considered to have developed after the
invention, in 1838 by John Bethell, of the full cell impregnation system for wood treatment.
This system, which uses a combination of pressure and vacuum to load up the wood cell, has
been followed by various empty cell processes, oscillating and alternating pressure systems and
sap displacement. Interestingly diffusion methods, relying on natural movement of chemicals
into wood, are now becoming increasingly popular as they use water-borne active ingredients
whose use may have environmental benefits. However despite many years of research the
actual number of different chemical compounds used in wood preservation is fairly limited (for
example, see Table 1) and there are various economic and social pressures demanding new
ideas in this field.
Table 1. Chemicals licensed for use as wood preservatives in the UK in 1996 (see
'Pesticides 1996').
Acypetacs copper! Acypetacs Creosote Pentachlorophenol

zinc Cyperrnethrin Perrnethrin
Alkyl trimethyl ammonium Dialkyldimethyl ammonium Propiconazole
chloride chloride Sodium 2-phenyphenoxide
Arsenic pentoxide Dichlofluanid Sodium dichromate! fluoride!
Azaconazole Disodium octaborate PCP! tetraborate
Benzalkonium chloride Dodecylamine lactate! salicylate Tebuconazole
Benzothiazole Furrnecyclox Tri(hexylene glycol) biborate
Boric acid GammaHCH Tributyl tin naphthenate! oxide!
Carbendazim Isothiazole Phenyphenol phosphate
Chromium acetate! trioxide [PBC Zinc naphthenate! octoate!
Copper carbonate! hydroxide! Methylene (bis) thiocyanate versatate
naphthenate! oxide! versatate Oxine copper
The use of the term 'chemical' in discussions on wood preservatives can cause ambiguity
since any substance used for preservation can be considered to be a chemical. For the sake of
clarity in this document 'chemical' is taken to mean any substance produced or extracted in
an industrial process and which is not a natural product, i.e. a substance produced biologically.
This definition does not distinguish between toxic and non-toxic compounds, and many natural
products are highly toxic, since it can be assumed that any compound used as a wood
preservative must be either toxic to, or inhibit biological growth of, its target organism(s).
Details of the actual production of treated wood is given in Table 2 and the European system
for defining 'at-risk' timbers, i.e. timber usage 'Hazard Classes', is detailed in Table 3.
Changing trends in preservative usage have seen a decrease in the use of creosote in many
countries with a corresponding increase in LOSP's and water soluble preservatives (e.g.
Yeadon, 1995 for figures for the USA). Preservatives are used in three main ways, as anti-
sapstain treatments to prevent disfigurement of wood prior to its use, as preventative systems
to protect wood used in high hazard situations and as remedial treatments where failure of
wooden components has occurred due to, for example, water ingress into normally dry
environments or leaching of preservative from pretreated wood.
138
Table 2. Estimated wood preservative usage in selected European countries and the US for
1992 for three types of formulation: (i) light organic solvent preservatives (LOSP's), (ii)
creosotes and (iii) water soluble preservatives (UNEP, 1994).
Country Creosote LOSP Water soluble
UK 66000 897000 1237000

Denmark 0 29900 205000
Germany 150000 600000
Sweden 69700 37800 446000
USA 2452000 885000 12000000
Table 3. European Hazard Classes defining 'at risk' timbers.
Hazard Class Situation Risk Moisture Content Conunents
Class 1 above ground insects <20% not subject to wetting

Class 2 above ground insects/fungi >20% occasional wetting
Class 3 above ground insects/fungi >20% frequent wetting
Class 4 ground contact insects/fungi >20% permanent wetting
Class 5 in salt water insects/fungi >20% permanent wetting
marine borers
For many years the search for new wood preservatives was driven by a desire to reduce
cost and improve performance. In the last decade a new driving force has entered the field
which is associated with the need to protect and sustain the environment, though it is probably
true that economics still represents the bottom line (see also Table 4). For some time the
perceived view was that chemical preservatives were not consistent with environmental
protection and, though this view is no longer widely supported, some of the actual chemicals
used in wood preservation are still seen in some areas as unacceptable. Current research aims
to fmd new preservatives of low mammalian toxicity and with better fixation systems to ensure
that preservatives stay in the wood. Alternative strategies which do not involve the use of
chemical preservatives are also being considered more seriously in an effort to respond to
consumer pressures and the increasing legislation involved with preservative use.
Table 4. The pressure for change.
Current wood preservatives are often chemicals of general toxicity

Desire for 'natural', 'sympathetic' systems/ consumer pressure
Availability of research funding, e.g. EU initiatives to developed new processes
Intellectual climate, the development of new ideas in biotechnology
Conunercial and legislative pressures
THE DRY ROT SCENARIO
Decay of timber by the brown rot fungus Serpula lacrymans represents the most serious
wood degradation problem found in buildings in temperate regions of Europe and Australasia
though not, surprisingly, the Americas (Singh, 1994). As detailed elsewhere in this book, S.
lacrymans is not native to Europe and its natural worldwide distribution appears to be limited
to very specific areas ofIndia and the U.S.A. Traditional methods for treating dry rot have
139
centred around removal of infected wood, treatment of surrounding masonry with wood
preservatives and, in many cases, replacement of removed timber with preservative-treated
wood. Much of the strategy was developed in the U.K. at a time when there were large
numbers of war-damaged buildings extant and funds for general maintenance were often
scarce.
In the current economic climate altemative treatment strategies are being sought to reduce
(i) the amount of both damaged and undamaged wood removed from buildings (notably when
the buildings are of cultural significance) and (ii) the amount of additional chemicals,
particularly those of low vapour pressure, introduced into the built environment. In order to
develop effective alternative strategies, a full understanding of S: lacrymans is required. The
biology, physiology and decay ability of the dry rot fungus has been reviewed in Jennings and
Bravery (1991), Singh et al. (1993), Bech-Anderson (1995) and Palfreyman et al. (1995). New
strategies being developed can be grouped under three distinct headings: (i) environmental
control, (ii) biological control, and (iii) use of natural products from plants and other
organisms.
Environmental Control
Environmental control essentially involves analysis of the decay processes, and the
organisms involved, followed by the development of avoidance strategies. Within the context
of environmental control comes the use of agents which render timber toxic, however for the
purposes of this discussion only those processes which rely on control without the addition of
extra agents will be considered.
Despite its ability to destroy wooden components in buildings the dry rot fungus is
peculiarly sensitive to environmental conditions so, for example, it is unable to survive
temperatures even mildly in excess of its optimal growth temperature. In addition the viability
of S. lacrymans is rapidly compromised in the absence of accessible water or in relative
humidities of less than around 90% (e.g. Low et aI., 1997). However, the ability of the
organism to transport water over relatively large distances, by means of its well developed
strand structures, means that apparently non-viable mycelium can be reactivated once
conditions improve if a suitable moisture sink is available.
In addition to a woody resource to provide nutrients, S. lacrymans also requires non-
woody components of the built environment in order to grow optimally (Bech-Anderson, 1989;
Palfreyman et aI., 1996). Low (1998) studied a range of different building materials including
sandstones, granite and lath/plaster (a plaster mix layered on to strips of wood, frequently used
in historic buildings). Lath/plaster was particularly effective at supporting the decay capacity
of S. lacrymans. Organisms grown on some sandstones demonstrate accumulation of metal
ions and which no doubt changes the crystalline structure of the material. Both calcium and
iron are probably utilised by S. lacrymans from such materials, iron to initiate the non-
enzymatic depolymerisation of the cellulose substrate, and calcium to neutralise excessive
oxalic acid production which the organism does not seem to be able to control itself. Many
building components are rich in these two elements and their entrapment, in some way, within
the building matrix would severely limit the ability of S. lacrymans to cause extensive damage.
From this, and other evidence, comes the conclusion that the first line of defence against
dry rot is to ensure that water penetration into wood does not occur. Secondary lines of
defence would relate to minimising the chances of the development of confined damp areas
in buildings by introducing air channels into structures and restricting the contact between
timber elements and masonry components (particularly those that contain calcium and/or iron).
Many of the problems associated with dry rot can be avoided by the introduction of rigorous
maintenance schedules. However, there will undoubtedly be limitations on the usefulness of
the environmental control approach and current studies are designed to define these limits
140
(Palfreyman et aI., 1995; Low et al., 1997).
Finally, recent studies have conftrmed that the natural environment for S. lacrymans is
certain restricted mountainous regions of the world (Bech-Anderson 1995; White et al., 1997).
Additional analysis and deftnition of this biotope is likely to produce further clues for new
environmental control methods.
Biological Control
Various deftnitions for biological control have been proposed. Possible deftnitions from
agriculture which are of signiftcance in wood preservation would be: 'the suppression of a
pest by means of the introduction, propagation and dissemination of the predators, parasites
and diseases which attack it' and 'the directed use of parasitoids, predators and pathogenic
microbes to reduce and regulate pest populations to subeconomic levels' (see also Bruce,
1992). Systems designed to use biocontrol in pretreatment of timber have been evaluated for
many years (Bruce, 1997) and continue to be actively researched. The use of biocontrol for
the remedial treatment of dry rot, and in the prevention of re-occurrence of infections, is less
well understood. Table 5 lists some of the advantages and limitations of biological control
systems.
Table 5. Feature of biological control systems (modifted from Bruce, 1992).
Advantages Limitations
Environmentally acceptable Subject to environmental stress
Specificity - can be well targeted No history of use
Responsive/reactive Insufficient research and development
Score and Palfreyman (1994) and Doi and Yamada (1991) have both demonstrated that
a range of Trichoderma isolates are able, on preinoculation, to prevent subsequent colonisation
of wood by S. lacrymans. The ability to arrest growth once established and effectively to kill
the dry rot fungus in heavily infected wood is less easy to demonstrate (Score et aI., 1998). It
may well be that Trichoderma isolates are only able to operate effectively when used with an
additional control method, for example, environmental control (see Table 6 for their
properties).
Table 6. Properties of Trichoderma spp. used as biological control for the protection of
timber (from Bruce, 1992).
Passive properties Active properties

Nutritionally non-exacting Mycoparasitism
Prolific spore production Soluble metabolites
Fast growth rate Volatile metabolites
Tolerance of environmental change Siderophore production
High chemical tolerance
It seems probable that the ideal control organism could be isolated from the same
ecological niche as the organism controlled, so that it has maximum chance of surviving under
conditions which favour the target. It was not possible to use such organisms for control of
S. lacrymans until recently, since the natural environment of this organism had not been
141
identified (Bech-Anderson, 1995; White et aI., 1997). Now, though, the search for natural
predators for S. lacrymans should be targeted towards the Himalayan foothills and specific
regions of the Rocky Mountains in the USA where S. lacrymans has reliably been identified
as being an indigenous organism.
Use of live fungi to control S. lacrymans may still present difficulties even if suitable
agents can be found. For example Trichoderma spp. are normally prolific sporulators and
spores could cause allergy problems if produced within buildings in confined spaces. However
it may not be necessary to use live control systems since (i) the growth of many basidiomycetes
and the germination of their spores can be inhibited by culture filtrates of specific Trichoderma
species, (ii) volatile substances produced by Trichoderma species can inhibit basidiomycete
growth, (iii) enzymes from control organisms may be able to inhibit growth of wood decay
fungi, and (iv) the production of siderophores by biocontrol agents may be sufficient to inhibit
decay (Srinivasan et al, 1995; Bruce, 1997; Score et aI., 1998).
Use of Natural Products from Plants and Other Organisms
Throughout history mankind has utilised and manipulated natural extracts, notably from
plants and fungi, for benefits ranging from food improvement to pharmaceutical development.
Applications of such materials in the field of wood preservation are more limited due mainly
to the relatively low value of the final product (treated wood) and the ready availability of a
range of inexpensive chemicals. One area which has received considerable attention is the use
of wood extractives, particularly tannins which are a by-product of timber pulping, as
preservatives. Complexes of various flavonoid and hydrolysable tannins with copper ions can
afford protection to timber but unfortunately they are easily leached out. An improvement on
this technology involves the use of tannins to fix boron into timber. This produces a material
which is non-toxic to humans, and other mammals, and is of use in hazard classes 1 to 3 (see
Pizzi, 1997 for review).
The use of natural products to combat dry rot is a new field of research, although Mori et
al. (1997) demonstrated that the bark of Magnolia obovata could inhibit the growth of a range
of wood-destroying fungi including S. lacrymans. Extracts of a range of other plants, e.g
Miconia cannabina (Miles et aI., 1991), Liriodendron tulipifera (Hsu and Chen, 1991),
Cunninghamia lanceolata (Shieh and Sumimoto, 1992) and Acacia mearnsii (Ohara et aI.,
1994) have been shown to be active against fungi including wood-destroying basidiomycetes.
Many of these extracts are well know to indigenous populations as having medicinal properties
resulting in the development, in recent years, of the subject of 'ethnobotany' and the related
'ethnomycology' (Cotton, 1996). Initial studies at the University of Abertay Dundee,
sponsored by the Karl Meyer Foundation (Switzerland), on methanol extracts from a range of
medicinal plants from northern India have not so far produced any useful preservatives.
However, these studies emphasize the need for closer cooperation between those sourcing
potential materials and those who wish to apply them to solve specific problems.
CONCLUSIONS
Wood preservation research is now being targeted towards the definition of novel
solutions in a variety of different areas. With respect to the prevention of dry rot it is probable
that these solutions will (i) be much more organism specific and (ii) relate much more closely
to the microbial physiology of the causative organism. Environmental control will certainly
have an important part to play in dry rot control in the future. The potential for biological
control is less clear, unless more appropriate competitor fungi can be found, and even so its
use is likely to be limited to specific situations. Natural products would seem ideally to
142
complement the use of environmental control, giving additional protection where the continual
monitoring needed for effective environmental control cannot be guaranteed.
Preservation of timber in use is a universal problem in a world where natural resources
are limited. By contrast, dry rot is largely a problem of the developed world and indeed is only
relevant in certain areas of the developed world. However, it seems probable that the solution
to dry rot, or at least a new set of tools to combat S. lacrymans, will be found on the Indian
sub-continent. Closer cooperation between mycologists and other scientists in India, with dry
rot research organisations in Europe and beyond, should allow these solutions and tools to be
identified.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank (i) the Karl Meyer Foundation for a grant which allowed them
to initiate studies on natural products and (ii) Historic Scotland for their participation in a
partnership agreement with the University of Abertay Dundee which funded the environmental
control studies outlined in this chapter.
REFERENCES
Bech-Anderson, 1., 1995, The Dry Rot Fungus and Other Fungi in Houses, Hussvamp Laboratoriet,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Bruce, A., 1992, Biological Control of Wood Decay, IRG Wood Preservation, Doc. No. IRG/WP/1531-92.
Bruce, A., 1997, Biological control of wood decay, in: Forest Products Biotechnology (A. Bruce and J.W.
Palfreyman, eds.), Taylor & Francis, London, U.K.
Cotton, C.M., 1996, Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K.
Doi, S. and Yamada, A., 1991, Antagonistic Effects of Three Isolates of Trichoderma spp. against Serpula
lacrymans in the Soil Treatment Test, IRG Wood Preservation, Doc. No. IRG/WPI1473.
Hsu, C.Y.H. and Chen, C.L., 1991, Antimicrobial activities of aporphine alkaloids from heartwood and
discoloured sapwood of Liriodendron tulipfera, Holzforschung 45: 325-331.
Jennings, D.H. and Bravery, A.F. (eds), 1991, Serpula lacrymans: Fundamental Biology and Control Strategies,
John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K.
Low, G.A., Palfreyman, I.W., White, N.A., Staines, H.I. and Bruce, A., 1997, Preliminary Studies to Assess the
Effects ofAeration and Lowered Humidity on the Decay Capacity, Growth and Survival of the Dry Rot
Fungus Serpula lacrymans, IRG Wood Preservation, Doc. No. IRG/WP/97-\o208.
Low, G.A., 1998, The environmental control of the dry rot organism, Serpula lacrymans, University of Abertay
Dundee, Higher Degree Transfer Report.
Miles, D.H., Meideros, J., Chen, L., Cittawong, Y., Swithenbank, C., Lidert, Z., Payne, A.M. and Hedin, P.A.,
1991, A search for agrochemicals from Peruvian plants, ACS Symposium Series 449: 399-406.
Mori, M., Aoyama, M. and Doi, S., 1997, Antifungal constituents in the bark of Magnolia obovata Thunb., Holz
als Roh-und Wekstoff55: 275-278.
Ohara, S., Suzuki, K. and Ohira, T., 1994, Condensed tannins from Acacia mearnsii and their biological activities,
Mokuzai Gakkaishi 40: 1363-1374.
Palfreyman, J. W., Phillips, A.M. and Staines, H.J., 1996, The effect of calcium ion concentration on the growth
and decay capacity of Serpula lacrymans (Schumacher ex Fr.) Gray and Coniophora puteana (Schumacher
ex Fr.) Karst., Holzforschung 50: 3-8.
Palfreyman, I.W., White, N.A., Buultjens, T.E.J. and Glancy, H., 1995, The impact of current research on the
treatment of infestations by the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, Int. Biodeterioration & Biodegradation
35: 369-395.
Pesticides, 1996, Pesticides Approved under the Control of Pesticides Regulations, 1986, HMSO, London.
Pizzi, A., 1997, Wood! bark extractives as adhesives and preservatives, in: Forest Products Biotechnology (A.
Bruce and J.W. Palfreyman (eds.), Taylor and Francis, London.
Score, A.J. and Palfreyman, I.W., 1994, Biological control of the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans by
Trichoderma species: the effects of complex and synthetic media on interaction and hyphal extension rates,
Int. Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 33: 115-128.
Score, A.J., Bruce, A. and Palfreyman, I.W., 1998, The biological control of Serpula lacrymans: use in the
143
treatment of dry rot infected wood, Holzforschung (in press).
Shieh, J.C. and Sumimoto, M., 1992, Antifungal wood component of Cunninghamia lanceolata, Mokuzai
Gakkaishi 38: 482-489.
Singh, I., 1994, Nature and extent of deterioration in buildings due to fungi, in: Building Mycology (J. Singh, ed.),
E. & F.N. Spon, London, pp 34-53.
Singh, 1., Bech-Andersen, J., Elbome, SA, Singh, S., Walker, B. and Goldie, F., 1993, The search for wild dry
rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans) in the Himalayas, The Mycologist 7(3): 124-131.
Srinivasan, U., Highley, T.L. and Bruce, A., 1995, The role of siderophore production in the biological control
of wood decay fungi by Trichoderma spp., in: Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 9 (A. Bousher, M.
Chandra and R. Edyvean, eds.), Institute of Chemical Engineering, Rugby, pp. 226-230.
UNEP, 1994, Environmental Aspects of Wood Preservation. A Technical Guide, UNEP IEIPAC Technical Report
Series, United Nations Publication.
White, N.A., Low, G.A., Singh, I., Staines, H. and Palfreyman, I.W., 1997, Isolation and environmental study
of 'wild' Serpula lacrymans and Serpula himantioides from the Himalayan forests, Mycol. Res. 101: 580-
584.
Yeadon, E., 1995, Wood Preservation in the U.S.A.: Proceedings of the B. WP.D.A. Convention, B.W.P.D.A.,
U.K., pp. 28-32.
144
A BIOCONTROL FORMULATION FOR PROTECTION OF STORED BAMBOO
FROM DECAY FUNGI
N.S.K. Harsh l and N.K. Kapse2
lForest Pathology Division

Tropical Forest Research Institute
Jabalpur-482 021
Madhya Pradesh
India
2National Agricultural Research Project

Sindewahi-441 222
Chandrapur
M.S.
India
INTRODUCTION
Different species of bamboo constitute the major, and in most cases the only, raw material
for pulp in India, China and other south-east Asian countries (Maheshwari and Satpathy,
1990). They also have a multitude of other uses, for example building material, construction
of huts, fencing material, scaffolding, food, agricultural implements, fishing rods, parquet
manufacture, furniture, oars, water conduits, baskets, mats, screens, toys, stabilizer of soil, and
in plywood and particle board manufacturing.
The pulp and paper industry in India utilizes 53% bamboo, 40% hardwoods and 7% other
materials as raw materials (Anon., 1986). Nearly 62% of bamboo production is used for pulp
manufacture in India. Of a total 1.6 metric tonnes supplied to the pulp and paper industry
annually in India, Madhya Pradesh alone contributes about 20% of the supply. According to
the estimates of the National Commission on Agriculture, the pulp and paper requirement in
India in 2000 A.D. will be approximately 9.369 metric tonnes, of which an estimated 3.645
metric tonnes will be derived from bamboo alone (Tewari, 1992).
We have estimated that a loss of about 26.5% of bamboo by weight occurs during one
year of outside storage due to decay fungi alone. Guha et al. (1958) also reported the loss of
20 to 25% due to microbial decay during one year of storage. The damage is, therefore,
enormous in terms of financial and material loss. Moreover, the decay of bamboo results in
considerable reduction in the yield (reduced by 20%), quality and strength of the pulp (reduced

by 50%), increase in conswnption of bleaching chemicals, bulking problems in digestors, and
loss of material during chipping and screening (Bakshi et aI, 1968; Hatton et aI, 1968). The
protection of bamboo from decay fungi during storage is therefore essential. There are known
preservatives for this purpose but oil-based preservatives have restricted use in pulp-making,
and water-borne preservatives are harmful to users, are short-term, cause pollution hazards and
are ineffective if the decay fungi have already become established.
The alternative, bioprotection, involves two critical points: (i) the biocontrol agent must
be capable of colonizing the substrate (bamboo in this case); and (ii) the biocontrol agent
should not damage the substrate. A successful bioprotectant must also have the following
essential qualities: (i) long-term survival in the substrate, (ii) specific and direct contact with
the target pathogens, (iii) simple and cheap multiplication, packing, distribution and
application, (iv) no health hazards, (v) active under a wide range of environmental conditions,
and (vi) efficient and economical.
FUNGI CAUSING DECAY IN STORED BAMBOO
During the surveys of various depots used for storing bamboo prior to sale, fifteen wood-
decaying fungi were collected and identified, namely Cyathus limbatus Tul., Datronia
caperata, Earliella scabrosa (Pers.) Gilb. & Ryv., Flavodonflavus (Klotz.) Ryv., Ganoderma
lucidum (Leyss.) Karst., Gloeophyllum striatum (Fr.) Murr., Lenzites acuta Berk., Microporus
xanthopus (Beac.: Fr.) Kunt., Polyporus arcularius (Batsch.) Fr., P. grammocephalus Berk.,
P. tenuiculus (Beauv.) Fr., Poria rhizomorpha Bagchee, Schizophyllum commune Fr.,
Trametes cingulata Berk. and Trichaptum byssogenum (Jungh.) Ryv. Of these only two,
Gloeophyllum striatum and Poria rhizomorpha, are brown-rot fungi and rest are white-rot
fungi. Cyathus limbatus is a Gasteromycete while others belong to the order Aphyllophorales
of Hymenomycetes. Schizophyllum commune is a pioneer coloniser decay fungus and was
found to occur frequently in every storage depot of bamboo, whereas Polyporus
grammocephalus was found to cause maximum weight loss in bamboo.
SELECTION OF BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Keeping in view the essential prerequisites of a successful bioprotectant as mentioned

above, Trichoderma species have particular potential for the biological control of
basidiomycetous decay fungi. Species of Trichoderma Pers.: Fr. are ubiquitous, easy to isolate,
grow rapidly on a variety of substrates, affect a wide range of plant pathogens, and are not
pathogenic to host plants. They also act as mycoparasites, compete for nutrition and sites,
produce antibiotics and possess an enzyme system capable of attacking plant pathogens.
Various workers, for example Bergman and Nilsson (1966), Ricard (1976), Bruce and King
(1983) and Bruce et al. (1984) have reported the effectiveness of Trichoderma spp. against the
basidiomycetous decay fungi. In view of the above, thirteen isolates of seven species of
Trichoderma were isolated from bamboo storage depots (stored chips, decayed bamboo, fruit
bodies of decay fungi and soil under the stacks). Preliminary laboratory tests, i.e. preswnptive
tests, bioculture tests, group action tests, well in agar method, filter paper discs and cellophane
paper method, revealed that four species, Trichoderma atroviride Rifai (isolate A 4), T
harzianum Rifai (A 8), T koningii Oud. (A 2) and T pseudokoningii Rifai (A 12), exhibited
antagonistic activity against the test decay fungi. Among these, T pseudokoningii exhibited
the best antagonistic activity followed by T harzianum (A 8) in suppressing the growth of test
decay fungi.
146
LABORATORY TESTS WITH BAMBOO BLOCKS
Agar block and soil block tests conducted in the laboratory exhibited the effectiveness of
T. pseudokoningii (A 12) and T. harzianum (A 8), evident from the comparative weight loss
caused by test decay fungus, Schizophyllum commune, in treated and control bamboo blocks
(Figure 1).
T koningii (A2)
T. longibrachiatum (A4)
.l!J
c::
GI
S T. harzianum (AS)
1"11
I!!
I-
T. pseudokoningii (A12)
Control
5 10 15 20 25 30
Weight loss (%)
Figure 1. Effect of Trichoderma spp. on weight loss caused by Schizophyllum commune in bamboo blocks.
T. pseudokoningii (A 12) was found equally effective when tested against different decay
fungi (see Table 1). The application time of T. pseudokoningii was also worked out and it was
found most effective when introduced at the initial stages, that is soon after felling of the
bamboo (Figure 2). T. pselldokoningii also caused a little weight loss in bamboo blocks which
indicated that it was able to establish and grow in the bamboo blocks. However, unless the
biocontrol agent is established in the bamboo it will not be effective against the decay fungi.
Trichoderma species are known to be cellulolytic, but the comparison of weight loss caused
by test decay fungus (32.78%) and that caused by T pseudokoningii (2.68%) was in favour of
its application in the field. .
Table 1. Effect of Trichoderma pseudokoningii (A 12) on different test fungi in causing decay
in bamboo blocks.
Treatments % weight loss
Inoculated with A 12 + Schizophyllum commune 5.41

Inoculated with A 12 + Polyporus arcularius 13.86
Inoculated with A 12 + Datronia caperata 7.59
Inoculated with S. commune 24.76
Inoculated with P. arcularius 33.33
Inoculated with D. caperata 28.70
Uninoculated control o
147
T1
T2
jT3
e
~T4~~~____________~
T5-t=. :,1
T6~
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Weight loss (%)
Key: n=A12 at start

T2=P. arcularius at start
T3=AI2+P. arcularius at start
T4=P. arcularius after 2 weeks of AI2
T5=P. arcularius after 7 weeks of AI2
T6=Control, no inoculation
Figure 2. Effect of different period of inoculation of test fungus abd Trichoderma (A 12) on decay in bamboo
blocks.
PRELIMINARY FIELD TRIALS
Freshly felled bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees) sticks of similar diameter
(3 cm) and 1 m length were used to make stacks. The sticks were treated prior to this (a) by
dipping the ends into a solution of chemicals (boric acid and borax 1:2), (b) with biological
treatment (spore suspension of A 12) and (c) with water for control. They were then stored
outside for 12 months and observations of weight loss were recorded which revealed that
biological treatment with A 12 provided better protection than the chemical treatment (Figure
3).
Another experiment was conducted when freshly cut bamboo sticks of almost equal
diameter (3 cm) and 40 cm length were inoculated simultaneously with the test decay fungi and
T pseudokoningii at the cut ends and erected in the soil vertically for 12 months. The results
(see Table 2) revealed the effectiveness of T pseudokoningii once again.
PREPARATION OF THE FORMULATION
The formulation of Trichoderma spp. (A 12 and A 8) was prepared in powder form by

growing them sugarcane bagasse, yielding 2 x 109 colony forming units per gram. The powder
was packed in polythene bags and tight sealed for storage at room temperature. The
formulation was found to be viable for more than 2 years at room temperature, which is as high
as 39°C during the summer months. The cost of preparation of the formulation has been
calculated at Rs 175 per kg.
148
Spray with Trichoderma (A12) formulation
.sc:
CD
E Spray with boric acid 1% and borax 2%
a;
e
I-
Control water spray
o 5 10 15 20 25
Weight loss (%)
Figure 3. Effect of biological and chemical treatments on decay in bamboo during storage.
Table 2. Observations on field experiment with bamboo sticks.
Treatment Observations at the end of experiment (mean of 3 replicates)
Tl: Trichoderma pseudokoningii (A 12) Sticks remained sound, a little discolouration in 2 sticks (out
alone at start of9),2 sticks damaged by termites in ends touching the soil
T2: Schizophyllum commune at start Weight loss noticed in all the sticks, fruit bodies observed in
3 sticks, discolouration in all sticks, 2 sticks damaged by
termites
T3: T pseudokoningii + S. commune Discolouration in 2 sticks, 2 sticks had fruit bodies near soil
simultaneously at start surface, 2 sticks damaged by termites, rest unaffected
T4: T pseudokoningii + S. commune + D. Discolouration in 2 sticks, 2 sticks had fruit bodies near soil,
caperata at start 2 sticks had termite damage, rest unaffected
T5: Boric acid 1% + Borax 2% at start Two sticks remained solid, 2 found damaged by termites, rest
had fruit bodies of different fungi
T6: T pseudokoningii alone after 3 weeks All sticks found unaffected, only 2 sticks had termite damage
and again 5 weeks after start at the ends
T7: Control untreated All sticks found discoloured, weight loss in 3 sticks, end
damaged by termites in 3 sticks
FIELD TRIALS
A large scale field trial was conducted at one of the largest bamboo depots of Madhya
Pradesh at Garra depot of Balaghat (21 °19'N and 22°24'N latitude, 79°39'E and 8l o 3'E
longitude).
The biocontrol formulation (O.l gil), chemicals boric acid and borax (lOg + 20 gil) and
chemicals in combination with the biocontrol formulation were sprayed as three treatments on
the stacks prepared from freshly felled bamboo. A suitable control sprayed with water was
also maintained and treatments were replicated three times. Observations of decay to the
149
bamboo were taken after one year which revealed the effectiveness of the formulation (Table
3).
Table 3. Observations on the field trial for the control of decay fungi in stored bamboo.
Treatment Observations after one year of storage
Tl: Treatment with T. pseudokoningii fonnulation Discolouration in a few sticks, 4 sticks showed fruit
bodies of S. commune, avo no. of fruit bodies per
stick < 5
T2: Treatment with boric acid and borax (I :2) Most of the sticks had fruit bodies of S. commune,
av. no. of fruit bodies per stick 10-15
T3: Treatment with T. pseudokoningii fonnulation About 12-15 sticks showed fruit bodies of S.
and boric acid and borax mixture commune, avo no. of fruit bodies per stick 6-10.
T4: Control (untreated) Nearly all sticks showed fruit bodies of S.

commune, avo no. of fruit bodies per stick >20
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE
This technique of preparing a biocontrol formulation with Trichoderma species using

bagasse is new. The development of formulation for biological control of decay caused by
basidiomycetous fungi in stored bamboo has not been reported elsewhere. The cost of
preparation of the formulation is very low and could be further reduced if calculated for large
scale production. Chemical preservatives such as boric acid and borax cost around Rs 180 per
kg.
Commercial preparations of Trichoderma species are available in India for the biological
control of various diseases of agricultural crops such as root rot, seedling rot, damping-off,
collar rot, Fusarium wilt, etc. This technique could therefore also be used for the commercial
preparation of other biocontrol agents (fungi) for wider application. Prepared in this way, the
formulation has the additional advantage of having a sugar base in the form of bagasse powder
which, on spraying with water, provides the initial nutrients for the growth and establishment
of the biocontrol agent in the substrate. Besides, the formulation remains viable for a longer
period in a natural medium at room temperature and provides a greater number of propagules
as compared to those derived from fermenter biomass technology.
REFERENCES
Anon., 1986, Report o/the inter-ministerial group on wood substitution, Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt. ofIndia, New Delhi.
Bakshi, B.K., Guha, S.R.D., Singh, Sujan, Panth, P. and Taneja, K., 1968, Decay in flowered bamboo and its
effect on pulp, Pulp and Paper 22,9: 1-4.
Bergman, O. and Nilsson, T, 1966, On outside storage of pine chips at Lovholmeh's paper mill, Skogshogskolan,
Inst. for Virueslara Uppsatser Nr.R. 53 p. 60.
Bruce, A., Austin, W.J. and King, B., 1984, Control of growth of Lentinus lepideus by volatiles from
Trichoderma, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 82:423.
Bruce, A. and King, B., 1983, Biological control of wood decay by Lentinus lepideus Fr. produced by
Scytalidium and Trichoderma residues, Material und Organismen 18: 171-181.
Guha, S.R.D., Bakshi, B.K. and Thapar, H.S., 1958, The effect offungus attack on bamboo on the preparation
and properties of pulp, J. Sci. Indust. Res. 17C: 72-74.
Hatton, J.V., Smith, R.S. and Rogers, J.H., 1968, Outside chip storage - its effect on pulp quality, Pulp and Paper
150
Mag. Can. 69(15): 33-36.
Maheshwari, S. and Satpathy, K.S., 1990, The efficient utilization of bamboo for pulp and paper marketing, in:
Bamboo: Current Research (I.V.R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C.B. Shastry, eds.), Kerala Forest Research
Institute, India.
Ricard, J.L., 1976, Biological control of decay in standing creosote treated poles, J Inst. Wood Sci. 7(4):6-9.
Tewari, D.N., 1992, A Monograph on Bamboo, International Book Distributors, Book Sellers and Publisher,
Dehradun, India.
151
USE OF FUNGI IN THE CONTROL OF PLANT PATHOGENS
Brajesh Kumar Singhl , Sapna Arora2, R.c. Kuhad l and K.G. MukerW
IDepartment of Microbiology
University of Delhi
South Campus
New Delhi-l 10 021
India
2Enbee Chemicals Ltd.

Bhopal
India
3Department of Botany
University of Delhi
Delhi-l 10 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Indiscriminate and excessive use of chemical pesticides to control plant diseases has
recently received considerable criticism. The past thirty years of chemicalization of agriculture
have led to severe environmental threats to plant, animal and human life around the world.
According to World Health Organisation estimates, approximately one million people are
taken ill every year with pesticide poisoning and up to 20,000 of those die in agony
(Mukhopadhyay, 1997).
Pesticides are necessary at present but are not a long term solution to crop, human and
animal health. Besides their non-target effects and hazardous nature, they are becoming more
expensive and some are losing their effectiveness because of the development of resistant
strains. In recent years, the need to develop disease control measures as alternatives to
chemicals has become the priority of scientists worldwide. Biological control, especially using
fungi against plant pathogens, has gained considerable attention and appears to be promising
as a viable supplement or alternative to chemical control (Cook and Baker, 1983; Lumsden and
Lewis, 1988; Papavizas, 1981, 1985).
According to Baker and Cook (1974) 'biological control is the reduction of inoculum
density or disease-producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state,

by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the
environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists'.
However, the greatest potential for an increased role of biological control in crop disease
management lies not only in commercial biological control agents, but also in exploiting our
ever increasing understanding of the role of various cultural practices on general biological
activities in crop ecosystems (Nigam and Mukerji, 1992). Moreover, the main purpose of
biological control of a plant disease is to suppress the inoculum load of the target pathogen
below the level that potentially causes an economically significant outbreak of disease. A
number of reviews have been carried out on reports dealing with various aspects of biocontrol,
for example Baker and Cook, 1974; Baker and Dickman, 1992; Chet, 1989; Mukerji and Garg,
1988a, b; Mukerji et aI., 1992; Papavizas, 1992; Whipps, 1993. In this chapter we mainly
discuss control of plant pathogens by antagonistic fungi.
FUNGAL BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Fungi represent an excellent reservoir for isolating and demonstrating microbes of

biocontrol ability. Many diverse physiological groups are found in the soil and rhizosphere;
the type and amounts depend largely upon soil type, nature and age of the plant root and
method used for isolation (Rovira, 1965). Some fungal genera routinely isolated from the
rhizosphere and phylloplane of various plants which have been implicated in biocontrol are
listed in Table 1. Most developmental research to date has been done with isolates of
Trichoderma and Gliocladium which are effective against various diseases of many crops in
the greenhouse and field (Chet, 1987; Papavizas, 1985).
MECHANISMS OF BIOCONTROL
The microorganisms used in biological control of plant diseases are termed 'antagonists'.
An antagonist is a microorganism that adversely affects the growth of other microbes growing
in association with it. The microbial antagonism that is seen in biological control of plant
pathogens is broadly based on competition (for nutrients and space), parasitism and
hyperparasitism. These mechanisms may operate together or independently and their activities
can result in suppression of microbial plant pathogens.
Competition
The term 'competition' was defined by Clarke (1965) as the active demand in excess of
the immediate supply of materials or conditions on the part of two or more organisms.
Competition operates in many biological control systems, but it is the least understood,
most complex and perhaps least amenable to quantification of any physical or chemical
characteristic (Baker and Dickman, 1992). Dormant propagules of pathogen in soil need some
exogenous nutrients to germinate and to infect the host. Different components of microflora
in soil compete for such requirements.
Competition of the biocontrol agents with other microorganisms can be triggered by
abiotic factors. Ammonium sulphate solution as suggested by Seaby (1977) improves the
biocontrol of Heterobasidion annosum by Trichoderma viride perhaps by providing
supplemental nitrogen to T. viride, inhibiting antagonistic bacteria and killing some host cells
enabling T. viride to colonise faster.
154
Table 1. Commonly studied antagonist-fungal pathogen systems.
Biocontrol agents Diseases Causal organism References

evaluated
Alternaria Leaf spots and Cercospora, Venturia, Austin et al. (1977) and
blights Alternaria, Windels & Lindow (1985)
Ampelomyces Powdery mildew Sphaerotheca, Blackman & Fokkemma
Podosphaera (1982)
Chaetomium Leaf spots and Venturia Boudreau & Andrew (1987)
blights Cullen et al. (1984)
Coniothryium Root and crown rots Sclerotium Ahmed et al. (1977)
Sclerotinia Huang (1977), Turner &

Tribe (1976)
Acremonium Grey mould Botrytis Janisiewicz (1988)
Athelia Leaf spots and Venturia Windels & Lindow (1985)
blights
Scab Venturia Heya & Andrew (1983)
Aspergillus Anthracnose Colletotrichum Kanapathipillai (1988)
Cladosporium Grey mould Botrytis Bhatt & Vaughan (1960)
Debaryomyces Blue mould Penicillium italicum Chalutz & Wilson (1989)
Grey mould P. digitatum
Fusarium Tree decays Heterobasidion, Mercer (I988)
Cryphonectria,
Chondrostereum
Gliocladium Root rots and crown Rhizoctonia Janisiewicz (1987)
rots Sclerotium Howell (1987)
Fruit rots Sclerotinia Tu (1980)
Tu & Vaartaja (1981)
Laestisaria Damping off Pythium Martin et aI. (1983)
Penicillium Damping off Pythium Lim & Rohrbach (1798)
(non-pathogenic) Fruitlet core rot Penicillium Windels & Kommedahl
(pathogenic) (1978)
Myrothecium Green mould Penicillium Appel et al. (1988)
Gees et al. (1988)
Pythium Damping off Pythium Martin & Hancock (I 987)
Trichoderma Damping off Pythium Blackman & Fokkemma
(1982)
Root rots Rhizoctonia Elad et al. (1984)
Crown rots Sclerotium Hadar et al. (1979)
Vascular wilts Sclerotinia Harman et al. (1980)
Stem blights I Fusarium Lifeshitz et al. (1986)
cankers
Fruit rots Botrytis, Sivan & Chet (1986)
Verticillium Penicillium
Tree decays Rhizopus etc. Tronsmo Ystaas (1980)
Root rots Rhizoctonia Blackman & Fokkemma
Rust Uromyces, (1982)
Puccinia Jager & Velvis (1986)
The nature of competition is fungistatic (inhibitory) and there will be little change in the
inoculum density of the rhizosphere adjacent to foci of infection before and after a competitive
biological control strategy has been applied. Therefore the prospects for efficient application
of fungal competition in biological control are very limited.
155
Mycoparasitism
Mycoparasitism occurs when one fungus exists in intimate association with another from
which it derives some or all of its nutrients while conferring no benefit in return (Lewis et al.,
1989). Based on their mode of parasitism, mycoparasites are separated into two major groups,
biotrophs and necrotrophs (Barnett and Binder, 1973). Biotrophs are usually regarded as those
organisms that are able to obtain nutrients from living cells and are recognised by the fact that
invaded tissues do not die. This type of parasitic relationship is physiologically balanced and
parasites seem to be highly adapted to this mode of life. Biotrophic mycoparasites tend to have
a more restricted host range and produce specialised structures to absorb nutrition.
The necrotrophic or destructive mycoparasites kill the host cell slightly before or after the
invasion and absorb nutrients from the dying or dead host cells. Necrotrophic mycoparasites,
unlike the biotrophic parasites, tend to be more aggressive, have a broad host range and are
relatively unspecialised in their mode of parasitism. The antagonistic activity of necrotrophic
mycoparasites is attributed to the production of antibiotics, toxins or hydrolytic enzymes (Chet
et al., 1997). Mycoparasitism is a commonly observed phenomenon in vitro and in vivo and
its involvement in biological disease control has been reviewed extensively (Ayers and Adams,
1981; Lumsden, 1981; Manocha, 1991; Nigam and Mukerji, 1992; Sharma et al., 1998; Wells,
1988).
The hyphae of Trichoderma have been shown to parasitise many pathogenic fungi, viz.
Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia, Helminthosporium, Fusarium, Verticillium, Venturia,
Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizopus, Botrytis, etc. (Beagle-Restaino and Papavizas, 1985; Chet
et aI., 1981; Kumar, 1993; Wolfehechel and Jensen, 1992). When a mycoparasite is grown
with its host in dual culture, it grows towards the host and a typical branching pattern occurs.
The recognition phenomenon is accomplished by binding of agglutinin (lectin) of the host to
the carbohydrate residues on the cell walls of Trichoderma spp. Hydrolytic enzymes such as
B-l,3-glucanase, cellulase, chitinase and other different combinations of enzymes aid
biocontrol agents in the penetration of the host hypha cell (Baker and Dickman, 1992).
To achieve the desired result from mycoparasitic biocontrol, the physical and nutritional
environment must be favourable for the agents to be active. Many researchers have reported
on the successful biocontrol of important diseases by using mycoparasitic agents in glasshouse
trials (Ayers and Adams, 1981; Sharma et aI., 1998). Whipps et ai. (1989) reported self
maintenance by Coniothyrium minitans against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum disease of lettuce and
celery in glasshouse trials. Although success in the open environment is rare, mycoparasitism
has the potential for eradication of pathogens and remains an attractive strategy in biological
control.
Antibiosis
Baker and Griffin (1995) defined antibiosis as 'inhibition or destruction of an organism

by the metabolic production of another'. The production of inhibitory metabolites such as
toxic molecules, volatiles and lytic enzymes by fungal biocontrol agents has been reported for
many years (Bryan and McGowan, 1945; Dennis and Webster, 1971; Joe, 1998). However,
insufficient evidence exists for their contribution to pathogen suppression and disease
reduction in situ. Gliocladium virens is a common example of the role of antibiotics in
biological control by fungal antagonists. Gliovirin is a diketopiperazine antibiotic which
appears to kill the fungus Pythium ultimum by causing coagulation of its protoplasm (Chet et
aI., 1997). Mycelium of P. ultimum that has been exposed to gliovirin does not grow even
after washing and transferring to fresh medium (Howell, 1982; Howell et al., 1993). Howell
(1991) observed that a combination of G. virens treatment of cotton seed with a reduced level
of the fungicide metalaxyl provided disease suppression equal to that of a full fungicidal
156
treatment. Antifungal, volatile alkyl pyrones produced by Trichoderma harzianum were
inhibitory to a number of fungi in vitro and, when added to a peat soil mixture, they reduced
the incidence of damping off in lettuce caused by Rhizoctonia solani (Chet et aI., 1997).
Ordentlich et ai. (1992) isolated a novel inhibitory substance, 3-2 (hydroxypropyl),4-(2,4-
hexadienyl)2(5H)-furanone, produced by one isolate of T harzianum that was found to
suppress the growth of Fusarium oxysporum and may be involved in biocontrol of Fusarium
wilt. However, the real role of antibiosis in biological control is not fully understood. Even
in cases where antifungal metabolite production by an agent reduces disease, other mechanisms
may also be operating (Baker and Griffin, 1995).
ACHIEVEMENTS
Despite the lack of spectacular achievements in biological control of plant disease on a

commercial scale, initial results from greenhouse trials and laboratory based screening are
encouraging and worthwhile. Many research and review articles reported successful control
of various plant diseases using different antagonists. Fungi in the genus Trichoderma, a
filamentous deuteromycetes, have recently gained considerable recognition as effective
biocontrol agents. Trichoderma spp. are most promising antagonists against a wide range of
plant pathogenic fungi which attack several economically important plants. Some of the
important species established as biocontrol agents are T harzianum, T viride, T polysporum
and T hamatum. They are ubiquitous in distribution, occur in all soils and habitats and
sporulate readily on natural and artificial substances. They are capable of surviving in diverse
climatic conditions and it is advantageous to select the species according to the soil type and
climate. For instance, T hamatum and T pseudokonigii are adapted to excessive soil moisture,
T viride and T polysporum are adapted to low temperature and T harzianum to both cool and
warm climatic regions (Joe, 1998).
Figure 1. Colony of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici overgrown by Trichoderma viride DUIMS/1069.
The first practical use of Trichoderma species was achieved for the control of Armillaria
mellea fungus which causes root-rot of citrus (Nigam, 1997). T harzianum has been
successfully used as a potential agent for controlling several diseases caused by R. so/ani on
bean, tomato, peanut and cucumber (Hadar et aI., 1979; Nigam, 1997; Wells et al., 1972).
Trichoderma can also control wood-rotting, wood infecting fungi (Smith et aI., 1981) and a
variety of soil-borne pathogens of seedlings, mature plants and mushrooms. Weindling (1932)
was the first to report Trichoderma as a mycoparasite of R. so/ani, S. rolfsii, Phytophthora spp.
and Pythium spp.
157
These fungi combat plant pathogens also by antagonism in the form of antibiosis (anti-
fungal metabolites such as trichodermin and viridin) and competition for nutrition and/or
exploitation (Chet et aI., 1997). Some of the commercial products of Trichoderma spp.
available are Antagon, Biocure-F, Bioderma, Dermapak, Funginil, Trichofit and Trichosan in
India and Binab-T, F-stop, Trichodermin and Trichodex in other countries. These species
exhibit several advantages in their use as potent biofungicides. They involve neither plant
parasitism nor post-harvest crop loss. They are non-toxic to animals and humans and can be
applied to soil along with biofertilizers (Joe, 1998).
Figure 2. Colonies of Sporotrichum carthusio-viride inhibiting growth of Aspergillus niger.
Gliocladium roseum parasitises Phomopsis sclerotioides, the causal organism of black

root rot of cucumber. The pathogen is killed by enzymatic activity of G. roseum (Moody and
Gindrant, 1977). G. roseum has successfully controlled Pythium ultimum and R. solani by
producing antibiotics. Some species of Fusarium are mycoparasites to rusts and smuts
(Nigam, 1997). Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, Claviceps purpurea and R. solani were
controlled by Fusarium spp. (Arora and Dwivedi, 1980; Hornok and Weloz, 1983; Prasad and
Sharma, 1964).
LIMITS OF FUNGAL BIOCONTROL AGENTS
During the early years of biological control, following some of the initial exciting
discoveries, it was thought that biological control of plant pathogens might herald the end of
chemical fungicide use. However, this optimism was quickly followed by disappointment as
control failures eventually outnumbered successes (Baker and Cook, 1974). A number of in
vitro experimental successes ofbiocontrol have failed to be reproduced in natural systems.
A number of criteria must be met for the successful development of a commercially viable
biocontrol agent (Scher and Castagno 1986). For example, the product should be (i) in demand
in the market place; (ii) technically feasible; (iii) economically viable; (iv) competitively
attractive; (v) acceptable to environmentalists and regulatory agencies and (vi) compatible with
the company's activities and interests.
Currently, limits to the commercialization of biological control imposed by criteria (i), (ii)
and (vi) have apparently been overcome in many instances (Nelson, 1991). Because most of
the biocontrol products are relatively new to the market place, it is not yet clear whether they
will compete well with chemical fungicides and be acceptable to environmentalists and
regulatory agencies.
Another limitation is acceptance to growers and public awareness of biopesticides.
158
Growers have become so accustomed to chemical pesticides that slow control of disease by
biological agents has not been successful in matching users' high expectations. Education
efforts are needed to inform growers and the general public of the virtues and limitations of
biological control approaches.
FUNGAL BIOCONTROL AGENTS IN INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT

PROGRAMMES
Integrated disease management (IDM) achieves ideal control of plant diseases by

harmonizing techniques in an organized way, by making control practices compatible and by
blending them into a multi-faceted, flexible, evolving system (Kumar and Mukerji, 1997).
Simmon and Sivasithamparam (1989) have reviewed the literature on integration of
antagonists with other biological and chemical pesticides. They suggested "the combination
of fungal bio-control agents is needed for the control of take-all diseases of wheat". It has been
pointed out that since Trichoderma spp. are ubiquitous and dominant in soil, then if treated
with a sublethal dosage of fungicides, they can proliferate easily to produce antibiotics,
compete for nutrients and also sometimes act as mycoparasites. Their role in integrated disease
management may therefore be of practical significance (Kumar and Mukerji, 1997).
Many important pathogens have been successfully controlled by an integrated approach
using biocontrol agents and fungicides. These include control of Rhizoctonia solani on radish,
egg plant and cucumber by T. harzianum in combination with PCNB and chlorothalonil
(Dennis and Webster, 1971; Lewis and Papavizas, 1980), Sclerotium roljsi on bean by T.
harzianum with PCNB (Chet et a!., 1979), Phytophthora capsici on pepper by T. harzianum
with ridonil (Papavizas and Lewis, 1981).
CONCLUSIONS
Although biological control of plant diseases with fungal antagonists cannot dramatically
solve agricultural problems at present, laboratory and greenhouse results are exciting and
encouraging. The initial response of growers towards a commercially available formulation
of Trichoderma spp. has been good, however it may take several years before microbial
biocontrol products are fully accepted by farmers.
To expedite the process for acceptance of biofungicides by growers, several important
considerations must be implemented. Foremost among these is greater co-operation between
industrial and non-industrial scientists. This is essential for the interchange of basic scientific
information on research and development activities. Development of models and methods to
integrate biocontrol agents in IDM programmes is urgently needed. There is also a need to
incorporate new biotechnological tools into existing biological control programmes to improve
mechanism of action and induced host response. These in tum will help in improving
microbial action against the pathogens through the manipulation of both their biology and
genetic constitution.
It is very important to launch awareness programmes among farmers and other users of
pesticides about the benefits and potential of biocontrol agents. Despite the practical
constraints, once the potential of microbial biocontrol agents is realised it should eventually
become possible to overcome the factors impeding its successful development and
commercialization.
159
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Windels, C.E. and Lindow, S.E., 1985, Biological Control on Phylloplane, Amer. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul,
Minnessota pp. 169-178.
Wolfehechel, H. and Jensen, D.F., 1992, Use of Trichoderma harzianum and Gliocladium virens for biological
control of post emergence damping off and root rot of cucumbers caused by Pythium ultimum, J.
Phytopathol. 136 (3): 221-230.
162
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE BY NEMATODE-
DESTROYING FUNGI
Neelima Mittal, Geeta Saxena and K.G. Mukerji

University of Delhi
Delhi-ll0 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Biological control is a broad concept which encompasses a range of control strategies

including cultural practices, host plant resistance and the introduction or encouragement of
antagonistic organisms. Baker and Cook (1974) defined biological control of nematodes as
reduction in nematode damage by organisms antagonistic to nematodes through the regulation
of nematode populations and/or a reduction in the capacity of nematodes to cause damage,
which occurs naturally or is accomplished through the manipulation of the environment or by
the mass introduction of antagonists.
In the past, the use of pesticides has increased rapidly. In some countries, the fumigants
dibromochloropropane and ethylene dibromide, which were the basis of nematode control,
have been removed from the market because of health and environmental problems. With the
increasing cost of testing and registering pesticides, the development of new nematicides has
almost ground to a halt, so that additional non-chemical means of nematode control will have
to be found. Biological control will play an increasing role in practical nematode control in
the future.
All plant-parasitic nematodes spend at least part of their lives in soil, one of the most
complex of habitats. A wide and diverse range offungi which feed on nematodes also occur
in the soil. These fungi are collectively known as nematode-destroying or nematophagous
fungi. These fungi attack living nematodes or their eggs and utilize them as a source of
nutrients. Depending upon the mode of attack, they have been categorised in three groups: (i)
predators which develop special nematode-trapping structures (adhesive or non-adhesive) on
the mycelium by which the nematodes are efficiently captured; (ii) endoparasites which
produce adhesive or non-adhesive spores either to adhere to the surface of the nematodes or
to become ingested by them; and (iii) parasites of root-knot and cyst-nematodes which attack
the eggs or females of these nematodes.

PREDATORS AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS
Nematode-trapping fungi have long been considered as promising biological agents for
the control of nematodes. Some of the early tests in greenhouse conditions tended to
exaggerate their potential (Linford, 1937; Linford et aI., 1938; Linford and Oliveira, 1938;
Linford and Yap, 1938, 1939). Such experiments usually involved adding one fungus to soil
which had been amended with organic matter. Some commercial preparations of nematode-
trapping fungi have been marketed but the products have never been widely used because of
quality control problems and inconsistent performance. Arthrobotryis robusta Duddington,
commercially formulated as Royal 300, reduced populations of Rotylenchus myceliophagus
Goodey and increased yields of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Sing
(Cayrol et aI., 1978) whilst Royal 350, a similar product containing Arthrobotrys superba
Corda, gave adequate control of root-knot nematode on tomato provided it was used in
situations where nematode populations were high (Cayrol, 1983; Cayrol and Frankowski,
1979).
Monacrosporium ellipsosporium was frequently observed associated with Meloidogyne
egg masses in some field soils and in potted cultures of the nematode (Mankau and Wu, 1985).
In a field test using two levels of fungus on wheat grain substrate mixed into transplant holes
for tomato seedlings, the improved plant growth and M incognita reduction obtained at harvest
were in direct relationship to the amounts of fungus used.
ENDOPARASITES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS
The host ranges of only a few endoparasitic fungi have been determined but in general
these fungi were little more specific than those that form traps (Birchfield, 1960; Esser, 1976;
Esser and Ridings, 1973).
Meria coniospora was used in biocontrol experiments because of its strong ability to
attract nematodes (Jansson, 1982) and its known specificity of conidial adhesion to nematodes
(Jansson et aI., 1984; Jansson and Nordbrind-Hertz, 1983). M coniospora significantly
reduced root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp., galling on tomatoes in greenhouse pot trials
(Jansson et aI., 1985). Another endoparasitic fungus Hirsutella sp. has been suggested as a
promising microbe for use in biological control of plant parasitic nematodes (Stiirhan and
Schneider, 1980). Jaffee and Zehr (1982) found Hirsutella rhossiliensis attacking the plant
parasitic nematode Circonemella xenoplax.
The endoparasitic fungi are largely dependent on nematodes for their nutrition and
produce only limited mycelial growth outside the host. Species such as Nematophthora
gynophila and Catenaria auxiliaris (KUhn) Tribe, which are aggressive parasites of some cyst
nematodes in moist environments, are obligate parasites, while many other species grow only
slowly on standard mycological media. Because of the difficulties involved in culturing the
endoparasitic fungi, there have been few attempts to utilise them for nematode control.
Nematode numbers in sterile sand were reduced when conidia of Nematoctonus concurrens
Dreschler and N haptocladus were added (Giuma and Cooke, 1974).
FUNGI PARASITIC IN EGGS AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS
The efficiency and adaptability of Paecilomyces lilacinus in effectively controlling

different pathogenic nematodes has been studied under different climatic and soil
environmental conditions (Cabanillas and Barker, 1989; Candanedo et aI., 1983; Davide and
164
Zorilla, 1983; de Sisler et aI., 1985; Noe and Sasser, 1984; Roman and Rodriguez-Marcano,
1985).
As a potential biocontrol agent, P. lilacinus appears to have a number of advantages.
Most reports indicate that it is a good competitor in most soils, particularly in warmer regions
(Domsch et aI., 1980). Its optimum growth temperature is 26 to 30°C. It readily produces
abundant inoculum in the form oflong chains of conidia. It has been reported to degrade chitin
(Okafor, 1967) and it is also strongly proteolytic (Barout, 1960; Domsch, 1960; Endreeva et
al.,1972).
Paecilomyces lilacinus and P. variotii have been reported to occur in cysts of Globodera
and Heterodera in various geographical locations (Dowsett and Reid, 1977, 1979; Friman et
al., 1985) and the former is known from eggs of Meloidogyne arenaria and M incognita in
North America and Peru (Tzean and Estey, 1979; Veenhuis et aI., 1985). Paecilomyces
lilacinus is typically soil-borne and is considered to be an important egg parasite, at least in
some instances. It is common in the rhizosphere of a number of plants and produces the
antibiotics leucinostatin and lilacin (Samson, 1974). Murao et ai. (1976) have reported
biosynthesis by P. lilacinus of a cell wall lytic enzyme capable of lysing the chitin-containing
walls of Rhodotorula and Sporobolomyces. This enzyme may be involved in enabling P.
lilacinus to colonise nematode eggs whose shells contain chitin (Persson et al., 1985).
P. lilacinus has proved to be an efficient biocontrol agent in its field application in
controlling M incognita and Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Jatala et al. (1979) reported
parasitism of M incognita acrita egg masses by P. lilacinus in Peru. The fungus consistently
infected eggs and occasionally infected females of M incognita acrita. Penetration of mature
Meloidogyne females is generally through the anus or vulva. 80 to 90% of the eggs of the
fungus-inoculated nematodes were found to be destroyed by the fungus. Jatala et al. (1980)
reported that the artificial inoculation by P. lilacinus parasitised the egg masses of M incognita
acrita concluding the potentiality of P. lilacinus to control M incognita on potato under field
conditions. Noe and Sasser (1984) noted significant control of M incognita infected with P.
lilacinus in tomato and okra. Morgan-Jones et ai. (1984) found that P. lilacinus occurred in
significant numbers in eggs of M arenaria.
Cabanillas et al. (1988) observed absence of root galling and giant cell formation in
tomato roots inoculated with nematode eggs infected with P. lilacinus. Ekanayake and
Jayasundara (1994) studied the effect of two nematophagous fungi Paecilomyces lilacinus and
Beauveria bassiana for use as biocontrol agents against Meloidogyne incognita on tomato in
Sri Lanka and compared with carbofuran. Carbofuran and P. lilacinus controlled the root-knot
nematode and increased the growth of plants and B. bassiana was less effective.
ROLE OF SOIL AMENDMENTS IN BIOCONTROL
Organic amendment is the attempt to develop management strategies which do not rely
on nematicides and which promote naturally occurring microorganisms capable of destroying
plant parasitic nematodes at several stages of their life cycle. Addition of organic matter to the
soil stimulates microbial activity as evidenced by increased populations of algae, fungi,
bacteria and other organisms. Proliferation of microorganisms results in increased enzymatic
activities of the amended soil and accumulation of specific end products which may be
nematicidal (Alam et al, 1979; Badra et al., 1979; Johnson, 1974; Mian and Rodriguez-
Kabana, 1982a,b; Mian et al., 1982; Rodriguez-Kabana and Hollis, 1965; Sitaramaiah and
Singh, 1978; Walker, 1971). The magnitude of microbial stimulation and the qualitative
nature of the responding microflora depend on the nature of the organic matter added.
165
Chitin as a Soil Amendment
Chitin amendments to soil are effective for the control of nematodes (Godoy et al., 1983;
Mankau and Das, 1969; Mian et al., 1982; Rodriguez-Kabana et al., 1984; Spiegel et al., 1986,
1987, 1988). Chitin studies have suggested the possibility of selecting materials for soil
amendment that will stimulate development of a specialized microflora antagonistic to
nematodes. A possible amendment is to use nematode components, for example cuticle, egg
shell, gelatinous matrix etc. Addition of these specific compounds to soil would be expected
to stimulate development of microbial species capable of degrading similar compounds present
in the nematode. Use of chitin, a specialised type of organic amendment, offers the advantage
of determining the microbial species that will be present in the amended soil for some time
after the application of the amendments.
Chitin, a polymer of unbranched chains ofB(1-4) linked 2-acetamino-2-deoxy-D-glucose
residues, is the most common polysaccharide in nature whose basic unit is an amino sugar
(Muzzarelli, 1977). Chitin is considered a permanent component of egg shells of plant
parasitic nematodes (Bird and McClure, 1976) and has been detected also in the gelatinous
matrix of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogynejavanica (Spiegel and Cohn, 1985).
Use of chitin for the control of soil-borne pathogens was first suggested by Mitchell and
Alexander (1961). They found that the addition of small quantities of chitin to soil markedly
reduced the severity of root-rot of beans caused by Fusarium solani f. phaseoli and vascular
wilt of radishes caused by F oxysporum f. conglutinans (Mitchell and Alexander, 1961).
Godoy et al. (1983), Mankau and Das (1974), Mian et al. (1982) and Rodriguez-Kabana
et al. (1984) investigated several aspects of chitin treatment against plant-parasitic nematodes
such as nematicidal activity range, soil enzymatic activity, microbial populations developed
in chitin-treated soil and phytotoxicity phenomena. These workers found a reduction in the
number of citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans), root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne
incognita) and soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) in soils treated with chitin. The
action of chitin against nematodes was interpreted by Mian et al (1982) as resulting from the
release of ammoniacal nitrogen into the soil through decomposition of the polymer and by the
simulation of chitinolytic microflora, capable of parasitizing the eggs.
During the microbial breakdown of chitin, several substances are liberated.
Characterization of these products has revealed the presence of N-acetyl glucosamine,
glucosamine, acetic acid and ammonia (Muzzarelli, 1977). Accordingly, a mechanism for the
degradation was postulated. The polymer is probably hydrolysed to yield N-acetyl
glucosamine, which is then converted to acetic acid and glucosamine and the ammonia is
liberated from the latter compound or one of its derivatives (Muzzarelli, 1977).
The effect of chitin amendments on nematodes may last for several months. After
addition of chitin, sufficient time must be given to develop specialized organisms to levels
adequate for effective nematode control. Good control often occurs in the second crop
following harvest of the first (Rodriguez-Kabana et aI., 1987). Numbers of chitinolytic
microorganisms, especially actinomycetes and bacteria, were higher in chitin-amended soil
compared with the control. The workers added an isolate of Paecilomyces lilacinus, which
was chitinolytic, together with chitin to soil infested with M arenaria. The study
demonstrated that the fungus inoculum could increase the effectiveness of the chitin
amendment against the nematode.
BIOCONTROL OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODEMELOIDOGYNE INCOGNITA USING

PAECILOMYCES LILACINUS IN LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM
The efficacy of P. lilacinus alone and in combination with chitin in controlling M
166
incognita in tomato plants was studied. The culture of M incognita was maintained and
multiplied on the roots of Pusa Purple long cultivar of egg-plant plants. A suspension
containing 1000 nematodes per ml was added to each pot. P. lilacinus was grown on potato
dextrose agar for 7 days at 28°±1 °C and a spore suspension was prepared by adding sterile
water to the culture. Ten millilitres of this suspension containing 1.7 x 107 spores per ml were
added to each pot. The experiment was conducted in fumigated soil. In each pot sand and soil
were mixed in the ratio of 2: 1. Urea and superphosphate were also added.
Treatments in sterilized soil consisted of:
1. Control (sterilized soil only)

2. Soil + Nematodes (N)
3. Soil + Nematodes + O.5g Chitin (N+C)
4. Soil + Nematodes + Fungal spore suspension (N+F)
5. Soil + Nematodes + 0.5g Chitin + Fungal spore suspension (N+C+F).
For each treatment there were 12 replicates. Chitin was used in a powdered form and was
properly mixed in the soil before transplanting the plants. A week after planting, the nematode
suspension was added near the roots of the plants by removing the upper layer of soil. After
7 days the spore suspension of the fungus was added near the roots of the plants by removing
rhizospheric soil which was then replaced.
Growth parameters were measured after 30, 60 and 90 days. The growth was assessed in
terms of shoot/root length, fresh weight and dry weight and number of galls per gramme fresh
root weight.
The results show that N+C+F treated plants showed improved plant growth in terms of
height and dry weight (Fig. la-f). The galling was lowest in this treatment. There was
maximum galling in plants inoculated with nematodes only and the plant growth was also
suppressed. Out of the two treatments N+F and N+C, the former was less effective (Fig. 2a-e).
It can be said that in the case ofN+C+F treatment, either P. lilacinus could have increased
the effectiveness of chitin against the nematodes or vice-versa. Chitin serves as the substrate
or food base for selective development of the biocontrol agent in soil (Rodriguez-Kabana et
al.,1987).
The approach to increase the effectiveness of organic amendments by using a fungus or
several fungi antagonistic to nematodes will be of great benefit.
167
90.------------------------. 20~----------------------,
80 18
~ 70 § 16
~ 60 .§, 14
.~ 12
~ 50
] 40
.g 10
] 30 ~ 6
r/J 20 ] 4
10 r/J 2
o o
30 60 90 30 60 90
Day s after inoculation Day s after inoculation

a b
4,-----------------------. 40~----------------------~
3.5 35
§ 3
]: 30
~ 2.5 - 25
.~
2 ~ 20
~L5 ]
15
] ~ 10
r/J 0.5
o +-"....----'-'_+_ o
30 60 90 30 60 90
Days after inoculation Days after inoculation

c d
~ 90 ~----------.
..c:: 80
] 70
8 60
;;;, 50
11 40
2: 30
], 20
'0 10
~ 0
30 60 90 30 60 90
Days after inoculation Days after inoculation

e f
_ N+C
~N
[=:J Control
[]]!]]]]!!)N+F [=:J N+C+F
Figure 1. Effect of various soil amendments on the (a) shoot length, (b) shoot fresh weight, (c) shoot dry weight,
(d) root length, (e) root fresh weight, (f) number of galls per gram root fresh weight in Lycopersicon esculentum.
168
N N+F
N+C N+C+F
EFFECT OF VARIOUS
TREATMENTS ON
CONTROL GALL FORMATIONS
AFTER 90 DAYS
Figure 2. Effect of various treatments on gaU formation after 90 days.
CONCLUSIONS
P. lilacinus has proved to be a very effective biocontrol agent in combination with chitin
in the control of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
N. Mittal is grateful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for providing
financial assistance.
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Spiegel, Y., Chet, I. and Cohn, E., 1987, Use of chitin for controlling plant-parasitic nematodes. II. Mode of
action, Plant and Soil 98 (3): 337.
Spiegel, Y., Chet, I., Cohn, E, Galper, S. and Sharon, E., 1988, Use of chitin for controlling plant-parasitic
nematodes. III. Influence of temperature on nematicidal effect, mineralisation and microbial population
build up, Plant and Soil I 09(2): 251-256.
Stiirhan, D. and Schneider, R., 1980, Hirsutella heteroderae, a new nematode-parasitic fungus, Phytopatholische
Zeitschrifl99: 105-115.
Tzean, S.S. and Estey, RH., 1979, Transmission electron microscopy of fungal nematode-trapping devices, Can.
J. Plant Science 59: 785-795.
Veenhuis, M., Nordbring-Hertz, B. and Harder, W., 1985, Development and fate of electron dense microbodiesin
trap cells of the nematophagous fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 51: 399.
Walker, J. T., 1971, Populations of Pratylenchus penetrans relative to decomposing nitrogenous soil amendments,
J. Nematol. 3: 43-49.
171
RHIZOSPHERE BIOLOGY OF ROOT-KNOT DISEASED ABELMOSCHUS
ESCULENTUS IN RELATION TO ITS BIOCONOTROL
Renuka Rawat, Anjula Pandey, Geeta Saxena and K.G. Mukerji

University of Delhi
Delhi-l 10 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Soil, as a medium for the growth of plants, supports an invisible but nevertheless vital
population of microorganisms. The roots of living plants create a special habitat by virtue of
their exudations and materials sloughed off during root growth (Katznelson et aI., 1948; Lynch
and Whipps, 1990; Rovira, 1969). Root exudates play an important role in the establishment
and maintenance of rhizosphere microflora and microfauna. In exchange, microbial
metabolites also contribute to this unique niche by stimulating or inhibiting associated
microorganisms and plant root growth. The qualitative and quantitative variation in the
microflora of the rhizosphere is directly related to root exudations which in tum depend upon
plant type, age and developmental factors, foliar application and microbial interactions (Bansal
and Mukerji, 1994; Bowen and Rovira, 1992; Curl and Truelove, 1986).
The microbial population of the rhizosphere consists of pathogenic, symbiotic or
saprophytic microbes which affect the growth and development of plants. A multiplicity of
associative and antagonistic interactions amongst these microflora and fauna adds an extra
dimension to the rhizosphere effect (Boosalis and Mankau, 1965; Bowen, 1991; Fravel and
Keinath, 1991). Thus, the rhizosphere as an interface of soil and roots is a hub of microbial
activity and a zone of special interest to plant pathologists. Since Hiltner (1904), extensive
work has been done to elucidate the dynamics of the rhizosphere (Bowen and Rovira, 1992;
Katznelson, 1965; Rovira and Davey, 1974; Starkey, 1958).
A complete knowledge of the ecology of soil-borne pathogens, their survival and
interactions with other microbes in the rhizosphere is imperative to achieving biological
control; it is a fundamental means of enhancing the role of beneficial or antagonistic microbes
in order to reduce the threshold levels of pathogenic microbes, thereby improving plant growth.
From Ethllomycology to Fungal Biotechnology

ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES IN THE RHIZOSPHERE: PATHOGENESIS AND
INTERACTIONS
Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., cause enormous damage to crops, especially

vegetables. Of the fifty species of Meloidogyne known, four are very pathogenic, namely
Meloidogyne incognita, M javanica, M arenaria and M hapla which are highly adaptable to
various agro-ecosystems (Roberts, 1995). Root-knot nematodes, being endoparasites,
complete their entire life cycles in roots or soil. They are therefore influenced by rhizosphere
effects and root exudates play an important role in the activation of quiescent nematode stages
and their chemotactic movement towards the infection site (Bird, 1959; Prot, 1980; Sheperd,
1970).
Pathogenesis
The most preferred sites of nematodes in the root are the elongation zone, young lateral
apices or injured tissue, out of which the former two are major exudation zones (Barker and
Davis, 1996; Rovira, 1973). After entering the roots, Meloidogyne juveniles move through the
cortex both intra- and inter-cellularly and take up position near the vascular tissue or in the
meristematic cells of the root tips inducing specialized nurse systems through hypertrophy and
hyperplasia (Wyss, 1988). Roots and underground parts are the worst affected due to the
formation of galls, the principal symptoms reported for the first time by Berkeley (1855).
Nematode-damaged roots are unable to utilize water and fertilizer and so they waste these
increasingly expensive commodities. This, along with stunted growth, low vigour and reduced
crop yield, is a major factor in limiting agricultural productivity (Sasser and Carter, 1985).
In general, vegetable crops such as okra, tomato, brinjal, etc. are highly susceptible to root-
knot nematodes and suffer maximum damage often with complete loss in yield. According
to Taylor and Sasser (1978) the average total annual yield loss in the world is approximately
5%, with developing countries of the tropics and subtropics experiencing the maximum loss.
In India, an attempt to assess the yield losses in various vegetables has been made by different
workers. The percent yield loss in okra ranged from 6.0 to 90.9% (Bhatti and Singh, 1981;
Gill and Jain, 1995).
Interactions with Wilt and Root Rot Fungi
Fawcett (1931) stated that nature does not work in pure cultures; similarly root-knot
nematodes along with their hosts are not isolated in the ecological system but are strongly
influenced by antagonists and pathogens. Experimental evidence also indicates that root-knot
nematodes share biological interactions with other soil microflora like bacteria, fungi and
viruses.
Under natural field conditions, plants may develop multiple parasitic associations with soil
microflora including fungal-nematode associations. Research on the interaction between soil
fungi and plant parasitic nematodes has progressed greatly from the time that Atkinson (1892)
first observed the interaction between Meloidogyne and Fusarium on cotton leading to wilting.
There are approximately seventy described F. oxysporum forma speciales which are known to
interact with nematodes (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1981). The Meloidogyne and Fusarium
interaction has been extensively studied because of its significance on world crops such as
cotton and tobacco (Milne, 1972; Sasser, 1972). Similar studies have also been conducted on
vegetables such as beans, tomato, eggplant, squash, cabbage and cucumber by different
workers (Bergeson et aI., 1970; Caperton et aI., 1986; Jenkins and Coursen, 1957; Ribeiro and
Ferraz, 1983; Singh et a!., 1981; Smith and Noguera, 1982).
Early observations on nematode-fungal interactions suggested a 'wound facilitation
174
concept', however the relationship between root-knot nematodes and wilt and root rot fungi
is more interesting. The exudates of root-knot infected roots in the rhizosphere is probably the
first stage of synergistic interaction between the two (Mai and Abawi, 1987; Taylor, 1990).
According to an hypothesis put forward by some workers, the interaction between
Meloidogyne and Fusarium is more biological and physiological than physical in nature. It
was further substantiated by studying changes brought about by nematodes in the host.
Meloidogyne juveniles form giant cells and synctia in the host roots which bring about
significant changes in the morphology, anatomy and biochemistry of plants. These giant cells
act as a reservoir of carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, and lipids for the development of the
fungus.
Another kind of fungal-nematode relationship which is important but less clearly defined
is the disease complex formed by root-rot fungi and nematodes. There is enhanced
development of root rot fungi, for example Pythium sp., Rhizoctonia sp., Fusarium solani,
Phytophthora parasitica, Sclerotium rolfsii and Colletotrichum sp., in roots attacked by
nematodes (Khan, 1993). Golden and VanGundy (1975) reported that the galled regions of
tomato roots infected with M incognita were heavily colonized by R. solani indicating its
preference for the latter due to the presence of rich nutrient medium in the infected region. A
similar association was observed by Khan and MUller (1982) on radish roots infected with M
hapla, thereby indicating that modifications in root exudates and host substrate by nematode
activity enhance susceptibility of host plants and infectiveness of pathogenic fungi such as wilt
and root-rot fungi in the rhizosphere (Pitcher, 1965; Powell, 1971a, 1979; Sidhu and Webster,
1977).
Interactions with Antagonists
On the other hand, under natural field conditions nematodes are attacked by a wide variety
of predators and parasites. Predators include fungi, nematodes, insects and mites while
parasites comprise of viruses, protozoa, bacteria and fungi (Mankau, 1981). Soil fungi which
are antagonistic towards nematodes broadly consist of predacious parasites of eggs and cysts
and fungi that produce toxins. Common genera of such fungi are Catenaria, Arthrobotrys,
Dactyllela, Monacrosporium, Dactylaria, Myzocytium, Harposporium, Cylindrocarpon,
Exophiala, Fusarium, Gliocladium, Paecilomyces, Phoma and Torula (Alam, 1990; Barron,
1977). Such associations result in a biological balance manifested by attachment and
penetration by one or more antagonistic fungi in the eggs, juveniles and adult nematodes
(Jansson and Nordbring Hertz, 1980; Stirling, 1989).
The effective antagonists which bring about natural disease control are likely to be found
in the rhizosphere and rhizoplane of the plants growing in disease-suppressive soil and in the
root zones of resistant or escape plants in pathogen-infested areas. Harnessing of these natural
enemies and their successful reports has increased research efforts toward biological control
of plant parasitic nematodes (Davide, 1995; Esser and Sobers, 1964; Jatala, 1986; Kerry, 1987;
Sikora, 1992; Tribe, 1980).
The impetus behind biological control is largely due to recent advances in the use of toxic
pesticides: their harmful effects on humans and beneficial microflora; their residual nature;
contamination of the water table; the time required for development of resistant cultivars and
the economic pressure on land use which limits the use of rotation and other cultural methods.
RHIZOSPHERE BIOLOGY OF A. ESCULENTUS: A CASE STUDY
The present investigation was prompted by an awareness of disease-suppressive soil as a

probable source of antagonists and the need to study the relationship between host, rhizosphere
175
(RS) and non-rhizosphere (NRS) microflora and root-knot nematodes. The study was
conducted in experimental plots located in the Botanical Garden, University of Delhi. Seeds
of okra cultivars Pusa Makhmali (PM) and New Pusa-4 (NP-4) used were procured from the
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi.
The rhizosphere microflora was studied along two broad lines: quantitatively, to determine
the abundance of major groups of soil microflora and qualitatively, to examine the composition
of RS and NRS micro flora. Soil dilution and plating method (Timonin, 1941) using selective
and non-selective media was employed. The interaction between cultivars and root-knot
nematodes was also studied by recording number of galls and fruit yield at regular intervals of
growth period.
An earlier report on rhizosphere microflora of Abelmoschus esculentus was given by Ranga
Rao and Mukerji (1972). They reported on quantitative and qualitative analysis of soil
microflora in the RS and NRS of cv Pusa Sawani. Consistent enhancement in the rhizosphere
microflora from the seedling stage to maturity was observed in comparison to that of NRS
which showed periodic fluctuations.
In the present work, the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere microflora in both the cultivars
followed a nearly parallel trend (Figures lA and lB).
Qualitative analysis of microflora showed the presence of egg-parasitizing and antagonistic
fungi such as Paecilomyces lilacinus, P. variotii, P. jusisporus, Acremonium sp., Gliocladium
sp., Trichoderma sp. and Verticillium sp. in the rhizosphere of cv PM during all stages of plant
growth, whereas Paecilomyces spp. appeared in the rhizosphere of cv NP-4 only during 75-90
days after germination. The presence of antagonists and egg-parasitizing fungi in the
rhizosphere of PM (which is tolerant to root-knot nematode) and their absence in the
rhizosphere ofNP-4 (which is highly susceptible to root-knot nematode attack) is probably due
to the role played by the root exudation of galled and non-galled roots (Mousa, 1991;
Srivastava and Dayal, 1986; Stephan et aI., 1996).
The exudation of galled roots ofNP-4 also stimulated the wilt and rot fungi viz., Fusarium
oxysporum, Rhizoctonia sp., Phoma sp., and Macrophomina sp. Similar results of suppression
of antagonists and stimulation of wilt and rot fungi have been reported by many workers
(Bergeson et aI., 1970; Chalal and Chhabra, 1984; Hirano et aI., 1979). The appearance of wilt
fungi in the rhizosphere of NP-4 coincides with the formation of giant cells by nematodes
ensuring better nutrient availability to the penetrated fungal pathogens, which is in accordance
with the view given by previous workers (Bird, 1972; Wang and Bergeson, 1974; Webster,
1985).
The number of galls observed in NP-4 was negatively correlated to the fruit yield (Figure
2). Cultivar PM showed higher fruit yield as compared to that of cv NP-4. These results
showed that apart from the fact that cv PM has an inherent property to be more tolerant than
NP-4 against root-knot nematode, the rhizosphere microflora played a significant role in
imparting protection to the former cultivar against the pest (Figure 3). The severity of
infection was lowered to an appreciable level as antagonistic microflora and biocontrol agents
such as Paecilomyces lilacinus reduced the population of Meloidogyne Guveniles and eggs)
to a non-threatening level.
The present study also conforms to the already established biocontrol potential of P.
lilacinus. This highly competitive saprophytic fungus, an effective parasite of Meloidogyne
eggs, has been tested the world over with some very positive results (Alam, 1990; Frieire and
Kerry, 1985; Gomes-Cameiro and Cayrol, 1991; Jatala et aI., 1981; Mittal et aI., 1995; Sasser
and Neo, 1995).
Another important aspect of biological control is the bio-environmental management of
indigenous antagonists in the field which involves organic amendments, crop rotation, and
chemical and physical soil treatments designed to increase the population of the antagonists
and reduce the severity of the disease (Abid and Maqbool, 1990; Akhtar and Mahmood, 1994;
176
6'"
A
120,
"0 +--
e
.Qc
100 " ,,
,
, /'
/
LL 0 /
"O:S 80 1
/
-- _.. -- --
0>= ' It..-.. ...... ~
/
co 60 ......
......
~o ......
oV'l 40
o
z
-
"0
o
I-
20
o ~- T ---~---i-- ---T---~l
15 30 45 60 75 90 120
Days after germination
• RS - - ... -- NRS
B
160
"0
e
.Qc
LL 0
"O:S
0>=
co
=>-
'0
oV'l
LL
o
z
40
-
"0
o
I-
20
o - ·--~I- - ----T-----~-T~-----_;_ --1----:
15 30 45 60 75 90 120
Days after germination
• RS ---- NRS
Figure I. Rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere micro flora of A. esculentus. A: Cultivar Pusa Makhmali (PM);
B: Cultivar New Pusa-4 (NP-4).
177
Mankau, 1980, 1981; Nordbring Hertz, 1988; Owino and Mousa-E, 1995; Vincete and Acosta,
1992).
Organic amendments play an important role in biological control, as they activate or
develop microflora whose antagonistic activity augments the effects of chemicals produced
during the decomposition process. The use of oil cakes, green manure, organic manure, crop
residue, plant extracts, chicken litter and chitinous material has been studied for the
management of root knot disease (Muller and Gooch, 1982).
In okra, organic amendments such as azolla, water soluble extracts of oil cakes and Neem
derivatives have been used in controlling root-knot with positive results (Abid et al., 1995;
Khan et aI., 1991; Thakar et al., 1987).
A
250
200
150
100
50
OL-----.---------~~
15 45 75 90
Days after gemination
• Number of gall5l5 plants • Fruit weight in g/5 plants
B
300
250
200
150
100
50
OL-----~---------
15 45 75 90
Days after gemination
• Number of gall5l5 plants • Fruit weight in g/5 plants
Figure 2. Effect of Meloidogyne spp. on the yield of A. esculentus. A: Cultivar Pusa Makhmali (PM).
B: Cultivar New Pusa-4 (NP-4).
178
The observed differences in the qualitative and quantitative rhizosphere microflora of the
two cultivars studied attest to the hypothesis that different genotypes in species (susceptible
and tolerant) differentially influence root exudates which govern the dynamics of the microbial
population in the rhizosphere (Atkinson et al., 1975; Krigsvold et aI., 1982; Rengel, 1991;
Roberts, 1995). Therefore, genetic management of the rhizosphere by introducing resistant
lines shows promising potential which shall have a critical role in controlling the pathogen's
activity and disease induction.
Figure 3. A: Profuse galling in roots of A. esculentus cv NP-4 infected with Meloidogyne spp.
B: Non-galled roots of cv PM.
CONCLUSIONS
In the light of environmental, economic and practical concerns, ensuring restrictions on

nematicide use is essential. Ensuing this, there is increased emphasis on integrated nematode
management (INM) which is the paradigm adopted by all pest control disciplines. INM seeks
to stabilize the population of target nematodes to non-threatening levels by employing direct,
non-chemical cultural and physical methods; encouraging naturally-occurring biocontrol
agents; enhancing the biodiversity inherent in multiple cropping and multiple cultivar
traditional farming systems to increase the available resistance or tolerance to nematodes and
by introducing new resistant lines. INM does not necessarily imply the complete exclusion of
nematicides, which are still quick action control measures, but it signifies a cohesive approach
where a new generation of safe and effective nematicides are used at low rates along with
environmentally-friendly practices in sustainable agricultural systems.
179
FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF
ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES
Some future strategies for implementing a more integrated approach to nematode

management are as follows: (i) detailed study of the rhizosphere biology of other commonly
used cultivars of A. esculentus with relation to root exudation, rhizosphere microflora and root-
knot nematode; (ii) in vitro tests to evaluate the potential of antagonists isolated from naturally
suppressive soils against eggs and juveniles of root-knot nematodes; and (iii) assessment of
the ability of introduced antagonists in competition and establishment in the rhizosphere and
rhizoplane of plants and their efficacy in disease control through greenhouse and micro-plots
experiments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for financial
support.
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183
VESICULAR ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAE IN THE CONTROL OF FUNGAL
PATHOGENS
Mamta Sharma and K.G. Mukerji
University of Delhi
Delhi-l 10 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Roots of higher plants are known to support the growth of complexes of microbes that in
turn can have a profound effect on the growth and survival of the plant. Considerable amounts
of dry matter produced by the plants may be released into the soil in the form of root exudates
and cell sloughage (Bansal and Mukerji, 1994; Barber and Martin, 1976). Symbiotic
mycorrhizal fungi are ubiquitous in occurrence and are known to colonize roots of almost all
plants. Concomitant colonization and infection of roots by mycorrhizal fungi and by pathogens
and other microbes inevitably lead to modification of each other's activity (Linderman,
1985;1989). These interactions are of great importance. Potentially beneficial interactions, if
maintained or enhanced, could potentially result in biological control of pathogens.
Mycorrhizal colonization occurs after seed germination. At this time the zone of
elongation is most extensive and the root has spent the phosphorus reserves of the seed. Root
exudation is greatest in the zone of elongation, where vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM)
colonization is initiated. Carbon losses from the roots are sufficient to sustain the growth
activity of the fungi, that is germination of spores, growth of hyphae, penetration of hyphae
into the root cortex and development of external hyphae that take up phosphorus beyond the
zone of depletion around the root.
Before phosphorus sufficiency is attained, however, the root is at risk to pathogen invasion
because cellular permeability is increased due to phospholipid depletion in membranes and
root exudation is at its maximum (Graham et al., 1981; Ratnayake et aI., 1978). As hyphal
uptake of phosphorus occurs, root phosphorus content increases, membrane permeability is
reduced and more carbon is translocated to the VAM fungi in the roots resulting in less
exudation from the roots. Mycorrhizal-induced decreases in root exudations have been
correlated with reductions in soil-borne diseases (Graham, 1988; Graham and Menge, 1982).
So it is expected that mycorrhizae alter exudation which in turn indirectly alter the activities
of microbes. At this point, the rhizosphere becomes the 'mycorrhizosphere' (Linderman, 1988;

Srivastava et aI., 1996). No longer is the sphere of influence restricted to zones of soil around
roots, it now occurs around hyphae extending from the root surface as well. The'mycosphere'
exerts its own selective influence on microbial activities in the surrounding soil. Therefore
mycorrhizae may be a primary determinant in microbial management and biological control
of soil-borne plant pathogens. Mycorrhizae-mediated effects on host nutrition indirectly
influence these interactions in most cases.
VA mycorrhizae are known to benefit host plants in several ways. They have been shown
to help plants acquire mineral nutrients from the soil, especially immobile elements such as
P, Zn and Cu and mobile ions such as S, Ca, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, CI, Br and N (Mukerji et aI.,
1991, 1996; Tinker, 1984). Mycorrhizae have also been shown to increase water uptake and/or
otherwise alter the plant's physiology to reduce the stress response to soil drought (Safir and
Nelsen, 1985). Mycorrhizal fungi can also reduce the plant's response to other soil stresses
such as high salt levels, toxicities associated with mine spoils or land fills, heavy metals or due
to minor elements, for example manganese toxicity. Some mycorrhizal fungi produce
metabolites which can alter plants' ability to produce roots from cuttings or alter root
regeneration and morphology resulting in increased absorptive surface area and feeder root
longevity (Linderman and Call, 1977). These fungi also improve soil particle aggregation
resulting in soil stability (Sutton and Sheppard, 1976).
V AM FUNGAL INTERACTIONS WITH PLANT PATHOGENS
Reported microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere may involve a variety of bacteria

and fungi with specific functional capabilities that may influence plant growth. This may
include microbes such as strict or facultative anaerobes, extracellular chitinase producers,
phosphate solubilizers, siderophore producers, antibiotic producers, hormone producers,
pathogen suppressors, plant growth promoters, exopathogens, mycorrhiza suppressors etc. The
present paper deals with the interactions of VA mycorrhizal fungi with soil-borne root
pathogens.
Interactions of VAM with Soil-borne Fungal Pathogens
Research on the potential of VAM fungi to limit harm due to pathogens has been largely
restricted to greenhouse studies conducted in sterilized, phosphorus-deficient soils to maximize
plant growth stimulation by VAM fungi. Because the interactions varied with the specific host-
symbiont- pathogen combination, generalizations on the effect ofVAM fungi on disease were
difficult to interpret (Bali, 1991; Bali and Mukerji, 1988, 1991; Mukerji et aI., 1996).
Reduction in disease severity in cotton-Verticillium wilt and citrus-Phytophthora root rot
on VAM formation has been due to the enhanced uptake of phosphorus (Davis and Menge,
1980; Davis et al., 1979). It was found that increased phosphorus nutrition inhibits the release
of zoospores from sporangia. Increases in the level of host resistance in mycorrhizal wheat
to 'take-all disease' were also attributed to improved phosphorus nutrition (Graham and
Menge, 1982). High levels of VAM root colonization in plants grown in phosphorus-deficient
soils or the addition of phosphorus to soils equally suppressed disease severity. Root necrosis
and Fusarium propagule density on mycorrhizal root systems were reduced at all P levels even
if VAM colonization varied from 8% to 65% (Caron et aI., 1986).
Initial inoculum density of pathogens and the symbiont also affects the results of the
experiments (Wallace, 1983). Very high inoculum density of the pathogens may severely stunt
or kill the plants as mycorrhizal fungi are not given an opportunity to colonize roots and
stimulate growth (MacGuidwin et al., 1985). The sequence in which plants are inoculated with
a pathogen relative to the time ofVAM fungal inoculations may also affect the nature of the
186
interactions (Caron et al., 1986; Hussey and Roncadori, 1982). Although pre-inoculation with
VAM fungi gives the desired effect it is an artificial system. In nature both VAM fungi and
pathogens are present in the soil at the time of seed germination, hence both have equal
opportunity to colonize the root system.
The use of varying inoculum densities of V AM fungi has not been considered an
important factor. Very low V AM fungal inoculum densities, i.e. 0.5 to 5.0 spores per gram of
soil, have been shown to produce optimal growth responses and maximum root colonization
levels. Moreover, high levels ofVAM fungal root colonization have not reduced the degree
of root infection by fungal pathogens (Davis and Menge, 1980; Davis et al., 1979; Ross, 1971).
As both V AM fungi and plant pathogens occupy the same root tissue, direct competition
for space has been postulated as a mechanism of pathogen inhibition by V AM fungi (Davis and
Menge, 1980, Linderman, 1985, 1988). The competition between VAM fungi and
Phytophthora parasitica has been studied in citrus using split root systems. On the split root
system the amount of mycorrhiza-colonized root tissue was reduced only when V AM fungus
and P. parasitica were in direct association. However this hypothesis did not receive much
attention because root infection precedes mycorrhizal colonization and many pathogens infect
the root tip where V AM structures do not occur (Garrett, 1970; Harley and Smith, 1983).
Several studies have been conducted using V AM fungus - host plant - fungal pathogens and
a general overview of these is provided in Table 1.
Andrea Torres-Barragan et al. (1996) studied the use of arbuscular mycorrhizae to control
onion white rot under field conditions. They reported that mycorrhizal inoculations delayed
the white rot epidemic by two weeks. Sufficient protection against disease was provided for
11 weeks after transplantation in comparison to non-mycorrhizal plants. Plants inoculated with
mycorrhizae showed an increase in yield of 22%. Calvet et al. (1993) showed the stimulatory
effect of Trichoderma sp. on VAM fungi and subsequent control of Pythium ultimum in
marigold. The interaction between Trichoderma koningii, Fusarium solani and Glomus
mosseae was studied on maize and lettuce, with or without mycorrhiza Glomus mosseae
(McAllister et aI., 1994a,b). He reported a decrease in the populations of both Trichoderma
and Fusarium sp. However F. solani has no effect on mycorrhizal development, whereas G.
mosseae was inhibited in its extramatrical stage by T. koningii. Newsham et aI. (1993)
conducted studies which showed that root pathogens Embellisia spp., Fusarium sascysporum
and Phoma spp. reduced seed production in winter grass Vulpia ciliata. Using analysis of
covariance, the authors showed that the frequency of VAM colonization was a significant
covariate, counteracting the negative effect of pathogens.
VAM in Biocontrol of Shoot and Leaf Diseases
Somewhat different types of results were reported when V AM fungi were studied in
relation to diseases of aerial parts of the plants. Very little work has been done in this aspect
of disease management. Schoenbeck and Dehne (1981) observed that mycorrhizal plants were
more susceptible to diseases in comparison to non-mycorrhizal plants. When young leaves of
cucumber were infected with powdery mildew fungus, the increase in susceptibility of the
shoot was due to enhanced development of pathogens rather than to an increased frequency of
infection. This influence seems to be correlated to nutritional aspects of mycorrhiza, disease
interactions and higher physiological activities in the host plants. Genetically-resistant plants
remained resistant but their susceptibility was modified by symbiosis. A greater number of
chlamydospores of V AM fungi were observed in the rhizosphere of healthy plants than in the
diseased ones (Zaidi and Mukerji, 1983). Larger numbers of arbuscules were formed in the
roots of diseased plants than in the roots of healthy ones.
187
Table 1. Interaction between VAM fungi, and soil and root borne plant pathogens (fungus).
Pathogen Host Effect of mycorrhizal References

plants
(-) Dec. (+) Inc.
Damage Interaction
Aphanomyces euteiches Peas Rosendahl, 1985
Bipolaris sorokiniana Barley Boyetchko and Tewari, 1990
Cylindrocarpon destructans Strawberry Paget, 1975; Traquair, 1995
Cylindrocladium scoparium Yellow Barnard, 1977; Chakravarty and
poplar Unestam, 1987
Fusarium avenaceum Clover Dehne, 1982
F. oxysporum Cucumber Schoenbeck, 1979
F. oxysporum Easter lily + Ames and Linderman, 1978
F. oxysporum Tomato Dehne and Schoenbeck, 1975
F. oxysporum Onion Dehne, 1982
F. oxysporum Tomato Al-Momany and Al-Radded, 1988
F. oxysporum Tomato Ramraj et aI., 1988
F. oxysporum Capsicum Ramraj et aI., 1988
F. oxysporum Asparagus Wacker et aI., 1990
F. oxysporum Tomato Raman and Gnanaguru, 1996
F. oxysporum lycopersici Cucumber Dehne and Schoehbeck, 1979
F. oxysporum lycopersici Tomato + McGraw and Schenck, 1981
F. solani Soybean Zambo lim and Schenck, 1983
Fusarium spp. Tomato Caron et aI., 1986
Gaeumannomyces graminis Wheat Graham and Menge, 1982
Macrophomina phaseolina Soybean No effect Stewart and Pfleger, 1977
Olpidium brassicae Tobacco Schoenbeck and Dehne, 1977
0. brassicae Lettuce Schoenbeck and Schinzer, 1972
Phoma terrestris Onion Becker, 1976
Phytophthora cinnamomi Lawson Bartschi et aI., 1981
pine
P. cinnamomi Avocado + + Davis et aI., 1978
P. cinnamomi Citrus Davis et aI., 1978
P. cinnamomi Alfalfa Davis et aI., 1978
P. drechsleri f.sp. cajani Pigeon pea Bisht et aI., 1985
P. megasperma var. sojae Soybean Ross, 1971
P. palmivora Papaya no Ramirez, 1974
P. parasitica Citrus Schenck and Nicolson, 1977
P. parasitica Citrus + + Davis et aI., 1978
188
P. parasitica Citrus Davis and Menge, 1981
Pyrenochaeta lycopersici Tomato Bochow and Aboushaar, 1990

P. terrestris Onion Becker, 1976
P. terrestris Onion Schoenbeck and Dehne, 1981
Pythium ultimum Soybean Christie et ai., 1978
P. ultimum Cucumber Rosendahl and Rosendahl, 1990

P. ultimum Poinsettia Harley and Wilson, 1959
P. ultimum Soybean No effect Kaye et ai., 1984;
Chou and Schmitthenner, 1974
Rhizoctonia solani Poinsettia
R. solani Cotton Mathre, 1968
R. solani Citrus Menge et ai., 1977
R. solani Kbadge et ai., 1990
Sclerotium rolftii Wheat Harlapur et ai., 1988
S. rolftii Peanut Krishna and Bagyaraj, 1983
Thielaviopsis basicola Tobacco Tosi et ai., 1988
T. basicola Tobacco Giovannetti et ai., 1991
Verticillium dehliae Chrysanthe Pegg and Jouglaekha, 1981
mum
V. dehliae Cotton + + Davis et ai., 1979
V. spp. Alfaalfa Hwang et ai., 1992
Verticillium spp. Tomato Baath and Hayman, 1983
Vigorously growing plants are also more prone to viral diseases. In mycorrhizal plants
this is due to the better availability of nutrients. Schoenbeck and Schinzer (1972) showed
similar effects in the case of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)-infected tobacco plants. A higher
concentration of the virus was observed in mycorrhizal roots at the arbuscular stage of
endophyte development. This indicates that high metabolic activity in host cytoplasm of
arbuscular cells is favourable for the accumulation and multiplication of viral particles
(JabajiHare and Stobbs, 1984).
Nemec and Myhre (1984) showed that the growth of Citrus macrophylla inoculated with
tristeza virus isolate T-3 and citrus urgose virus (CLRV-2) was not reduced by virus infection
in G. etunicatum in low phosphorus soil or phosphorus-amended soil with 210 Ilg P per g soil,
98 days after inoculation. However, in sour orange infected with virus T-3 growth was
significantly reduced in both soils compared with non-viral treatments. Jayaraman and Kumar
(1995) showed in Vigna radiata plants that yellow mosaic virus reduced mycorrhizal formation
and spore production by Gigaspora gilmorei, Acaulospora morrowae, G. Jasciculatum and G.
constrictum.
CONTROL OF WILT DISEASES OF CROP PLANTS USING VAM FUNGI
In this paper we describe studies on the effect of inoculations with VAM fungus Glomus
macrocarpum on the wilt diseases of three test plants, namely cotton, jute and flax. Test
189
pathogens used for the experiment were F. oxysporum f.sp. vas infectum for cotton, F. solani
for jute and F. oxysporum f.sp. lini for flax. The experiment was conducted in fumigated soil.
Soil was amended so that half the pots contained VA mycorrhizal inoculum and the other half
were non-mycorrhizal. The mycorrhizal inoculum had 85 spores of G. macrocarpum per gram
of soil. 109 of soil was used in each pot. Surface sterilized seeds of the test plants, i.e.
Gossypium hirsutum, Corchorus ollitorius and Linum usitatissimum, were sown in all the pots.
Seven days after seed germination half of the mycorrhizal and half of the non-mycorrhizal
seedlings were inoculated with spore suspension of the wilt fungi. 10 ml of spore suspension
were added to the rhizosphere of the plants. Inoculum densities of the wilt pathogens used
were as follows:
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum: 5 x 107 spores mI·)

Fusarium solani: 7.5 x 106 spores mI·)
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini: 6.9 x 106 spores mI·)
Observations in terms of plant height, dry matter, percent VAM colonization and number
of VAM fungal spores in the rhizosphere of the plants were taken at intervals of 15 days. The
following four treatments were given to each of the test plants:
(i) G+F+ Inoculated with both G. macrocarpum and Fusarium sp.

(ii) G+F- Inoculated with G. macrocarpum only
(iii) G-F+ Inoculated with Fusarium only
(iv) GT Uninoculated controls
Inoculations with Glomus macrocarpum resulted in increased plant height and dry matter
content in the test plants (Figure la-f). The dry matter increase was of the order of two to three
times. The plants inoculated with pathogen only (G-F+ treated plants) showed minimum plant
height and dry matter content. However, better plant growth was observed in plants inoculated
with both VAM fungi and pathogens (G+F+ treated plants) as compared with G-F+ treated plants
(i.e. non-mycorrhizal plants inoculated with wilt pathogen). Hence, it is evident that
mycorrhizal colonization of the host plants led to a reduction in the deleterious effect of the
pathogens. Wilt-infested plants were necrotic and had fewer roots in comparison to
mycorrhizal plants. All wilt-infested plants (GF+) showed reduced mycorrhizal colonization.
The percentage of VAM fungal colonization was higher in G+F- treated plants than in G+F+
treated plants. Hence, the number of VAM fungal spores in the rhizosphere of the G+F- treated
plants was greater than that in the rhizosphere of G+F+ treated plants. Maximum yield was
observed in G+P- treated plants followed by G+F+ and GT. Minimum yield was observed in
GF+ treated plants.
Hence, it can be seen from the above studies that colonisation by VAM fungus Glomus
macrocarpum was associated with a reduction in the deleterious effects of wilt pathogens on
plant height, dry matter content and yield in the plant species studied, i.e. cotton, jute and flax.
MECHANISM OF DISEASE CONTROL DUE TO VAM FUNGI
VA mycorrhizal fungi colonize the root system rapidly and compete for nutrients and
water, reducing the quantity available to pathogens and thus restricting pathogenic infection.
The VA mycorrhizal fungi and plant pathogenic fungi inhabit the same plant rhizosphere and
are in direct competition for space and this may be one of the major reasons for disease
resistance of mycorrhizal roots. It is well established that the VAM fungi may act as a
substitute or supplementary strategy for the host plant under situations that are deleterious to
190
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Figure 1 : Effect of soil amendments on the (a) Shoot Length, (b) Shoot Dry Weight, (c) Root Length,
(d) Root Dry Weight, (e) Percent VAM Colonization, (t) Number of VAM Spores in the Rhizosphere, of
the three test plants ie. Cotton (I), Jute (II) and Flax (III).
_ G'F- _ G'PC c::J G-F- c::J G-PC
191
root growth. VAM fungi can compensate for disease and/or counteract toxicities if the plants
are already inoculated with them.
Mycorrhizal plant roots remain functional for a longer period than non-mycorrhizal roots
and are less susceptible to attack by certain type of pathogens. The higher nutritional status
of mycorrhizal plants is known to induce resistance against invasion of roots by soil-borne
pathogens (Linderman and Paulitz, 1990). Higher arginine levels and chitinase activity of
mycorrhizal tissue inhibits development of the pathogen inside the host tissue (Dehne et aI.,
1978). The increased lignification and high phenol content of VA mycorrhizal roots inhibits
the entry of pathogens into the root (Friend, 1981; Grandmaison et al., 1993). High OD phenol
content in the roots of peanut helps in imparting resistance against the root pathogen
Sclerotium rolfsii (Krishna and Bagyaraj, 1983). The presence of cell wall bound phenols in
roots of VA mycorrhizal plants have been reported by Codignola et al. (1989).
Altered microbial equilibrium due to enhanced phosphorus uptake is known to favour
certain saprophytic fungi and inhibit several soil-borne root pathogens, e.g. species of
Fusarium, Alternaria, Rhizotonia etc. (Bali, 1991; Bansal and Mukerji, 1994). VAM fungi
have an extremely wide host range, but plants select certain indigenous endophytes in
preference to others. Different species of mycorrhizal fungi may differ in their ability to
control plant diseases. Therefore, in general it is suggested that initial inoculum with a mixture
of VAM fungi containing species best suited for different stages of plant growth will be more
beneficial than inoculation with a single VAM fungal species (Kumar, 1990). For long term
benefits a suitable host-symbiont combination has to be found out so as to produce desirable
effect of improving plant growth and inducing resistance to pathogens.
CONCLUSIONS
Different species of VA mycorrhizal fungi may differ in their ability to control plant
diseases. For useful results, a suitable host-symbiont combination has to be found so as to
produce the desirable effect of improving plant growth and inducing resistance to pathogens
under given environmental conditions. Since pre-inoculation of plants with VAM fungi has
been found to be effective in controlling the severity of disease (Zambolin and Schenck, 1983),
efforts should be directed to finding out suitable techniques for large-scale inoculum
production which could be commercially exploited. In the biocontrol of diseases with the help
of VAM fungi, the results being host mediated are difficult to predict. But the future looks
promising for commercial exploitation of VAM fungi as potential biofertilizer and biocontrol
agent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the authors (MS) acknowledges financial assistance from CSIR.
REFERENCES
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and pepper, Alexandria J. Agric. Res. 33: 249-261.
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195
VESICULAR ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAE IN INCREASING THE YIELD OF
AROMATIC PLANTS
Rupam Kapoor and K.G. Mukerji

Botany Department
Delhi University
Delhi-ll0 007
India
INTRODUCTION
The mycorrhizae represent one of nature's best gifts to mankind in augmenting yield
increase in plants. The increase in effective nutrient absorbing surface provided by vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizal (YAM) fungi is primarily responsible for the increase in uptake of soil
nutrients by mycorrhizal plants. Because mycorrhizal fungi increase the efficiency of fertilizer
use, they are referred to as 'biofertilizers' and can be substituted for substantial amounts of
some fertilizers (Bansal and Mukerji, 1994).
Recent researchers have amply demonstrated the beneficial role of V AM fungi in plant
growth and health and it appears that they are essential for the survival of plant species in many
ecosystems (Allen, 1991; Read et ai., 1992). Several reports are available on the extent of
mycorrhiza formation and its effect on plant growth and biomass production in different
genotypes (Krishna et al., 1985), varieties (Hall, 1978; O'Bannon et al., 1980) and cultivars
(Tilak and Murthy, 1987; Vierheilig and Ocampo, 1991) of economically important crops and
ornamental plants (Aboul-Nasr, 1996). Many V AM inoculation experiments attempted for
studying the effect on the growth and yield of annual crops showed promising results (Black
and Tinker, 1977; Jakobsen, 1986; Owusu-Bennoah and Mosse, 1979). For certain crops
(citrus, bell pepper) the use of mycorrhizal fungi is already known to be commercially and
economically feasible (Johnson and Menge, 1982; Powell, 1982). However, the role of V AM
fungi in the growth and yield of aromatic plants remains poorly understood which limits the
advances towards their practical applications.
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
Medicinal and aromatic plants occupy an important position in the world today because
of renewed interest in drugs from natural sources. All distinctly aromatic plants contain

essential oils. They occur in some 60 families and are particularly characteristic of Lauraceae,
Myrtaceae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae and Compo sitae.
Essential oils are distinguished from fatty oils by the fact that they evaporate or volatilize
in contact with the-air and possess a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odour. Essential oils
are very complex in their chemical nature. The two principal groups are the terpenes, which
are hydrocarbons (based on an integral number of Cs units, 'isoprenoids') and the oxygenated
and sulphurated oils. The amount of oil varies from an infinitesimal quantity to as much as
I to 2 percent. The oils are secreted in internal glands or in hair like structures: almost any
organ of a plant may be a source of the oil: flowers (rose), fruits (orange), leaves (mint), bark
(cinnamon), root (ginger), wood (cedar), or seeds (umbellifers), and many resinous exudations
as well.
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF ESSENTIAL OILS
The physiological significance of these oils as far as the plant is concerned is not obvious.
They probably represent by-products of metabolisms. The characteristic flavour and aroma
that they impart in air are probably of advantage in attracting insects and other animals which
play a role in pollination or the dispersal of the fruits and seeds. When present in high
concentrations, these odours may serve to repel predators (Swain, 1977). The oils may also
have some antiseptic and bactericidal value. There is some evidence that they may play an
even more vital role as hydrogen donors in oxido-reduction reactions, as potential sources of
energy, or in affecting transpiration and other physiological processes (Loomis and Corteau,
1973).
Essential oils have very varied industrial applications. Because of their odour and high
volatility they are extensively used in the manufacture of perfumes, soaps and other toiletries.
Many are used as flavouring materials or essences for candy and ice-cream, in cooking and for
cordials, liquors and non-alcoholic beverages. Still others have therapeutic, antiseptic, or
antibacterial properties and so are valuable in medicine and dentistry.
In fact, nearly all the essential oils are used for different medicinal purposes. Some of the
oils are used as clearing agents in histological works, as solvents in paint and varnish
industries, as insecticides and deodorants, in the manufacture of various synthetic odours and
flavours, and in such widely diversified products as chewing gum, tobacco, shoe polish, library
paste, printer's ink, toothpaste and fish glue.
ESSENTIAL OIL PRODUCTION
Essential oils are extracted from the plant tissues in various ways depending on the
quantity and stabilitY of the compound. There are three principal methods: distillation,
expression and extraction by solvents. However, there are certain intrinsic factors (genotype
and ontogeny) and extrinsic factors (water and nutrients) that strongly influence oil production
and optimisation.
Intrinsic Factors
The lack of similarity in oil composition between phenotypes grown in the same
environment is a manifestation of genotypic differences. Thus in plants at the same stage of
development (ontogeny) and of the same genotype, extrinsic factors can assume a quantitative
modifying effect which can cause both quantitative and qualitative variation in oil content. It
198
has been reported that the formation of active principle occurs predominantly during periods
of vigorous growth and during times of intensive metabolic process such as when a plant is
flowering or fruiting (Dey and Choudhari, 1981; Pareek et aI., 1982).
An example of change in chemical composition of the essential oil in Coriandrum
sativum during its growth period demonstrates the effect of plant age and metabolism on the
composition of essential oil. Similar compositional changes have been observed with Anethum
graveolens (Homok, 1983).
Extrinsic Factors
The yield of oil obtained from a specific clone can often be influenced by changing
environmental conditions. The most important extrinsic factors affecting essential oil
production are nutrients and water.
Duhan et aI. (1974) observed that date of sowing and nitrogen fertilisation influence the
quality of the oil in Anethum graveolens. Evidence for the positive effect of phosphorus on
oil yield was also obtained by several workers on basil and mints (Gulati, 1976; Rao et aI.,
1983; Singh and Duhan 1984; Singh et aI., 1989).
The magnitude and overall effect of a macronutrient on oil yield is also dependent upon
available water and stage of development. Studies on water requirements and effect of water
on yield of essential oil have indicated that the optimum soil water content for good oil yield
should be 80-90 per cent (Clark and Minary, 1980).
Robert et aI. (1986) reported that mesophytic plants such as Carum carvi, Anethum
graveolens and Ocimum basilicum produce a decreased oil yield under moisture stress. They
require a regulated water supply throughout their growth cycle to maximise oil yield.
VAM ASSOCIATION IN AROMATIC PLANTS
In earlier reports, VAM association has been reported to be absent in medicinal plants and
the possible reasons for its absence were attributed to the presence of various secondary
substances in those plants (Mohan Kumar and Mahadevan, 1984). However, in the recent past,
many medicinal and essential oil-bearing plants have been reported to harbour VA mycorrhizae
in their root systems (Rao et aI., 1989; Gupta et aI., 1990; Srivastava and Basu, 1995).
An investigation was carried out to study the effect of V AM fungal (Glomus
macrocarpum) inoculation on Coriandrum sativum. The fungus established itself completely
within thirty days of inoculation and all the structures characteristic of VAM fungi were
observed (Figure 1). VAM inoculation caused an appreciable increase in growth and biomass,
seed yield and percent essential oil content of seeds (Figure 2). Similar results were obtained
by other workers working on VAM associations in various aromatic plants. VAM inoculated
plants exhibited a two to six times increase in growth and biomass production of aromatic
grasses, namely palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii var. motia), lemongrass (Cymboprogen
wintereanus) (Janardhanan and Khaliq, 1995). Mago (1994) studied the influence of Glomus
fasciculatum on seven cultivated Mentha species. Results indicated that VAM association
enhanced the shoot biomass of all inoculated plants significantly. There was a significant
increase in the essential oil content of the plants.
It was also observed in the case of the mints (Mago 1994) and umbellifers (Kapoor, 1997)
that VAM fungal colonization enhances the quality of the essential oil by increasing the
concentration of the desired constituents.
199
50p,
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Figure ;. VAM colonisation in Coriandrum sativum. A. Germinating chlamydospore. B. Intercellular
arbuscules. C. hyphae with vesicles
200
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Figure 2. Top: Effect ofVAM inoculation on growth of plants. Bottom: Essential oil content of coriander seeds.
Much work has been done by several workers on the fertilizer requirements of essential
oil bearing plants and they concluded that the level of phosphorus in soil affects the quantity
and quality of essential oil. Singh and Duhan (1984) working on Mentha peperita found that
phosphorus application increased the oil yield significantly. Singh and Randhawa (1990)
reported that phosphorous application enhances the quantity and quality of Anethum
graveolens oil. Results on the positive effects of phosphorus were also obtained by several
201
other workers (Gulati, 1976; Singh et al., 1979; Rao et al., 1983; Singh et aI., 1989; Virmani
and Dutta, 1970).
Since essential oils consist of isoprenoid units, its biosynthesis requires acetyl-CoA, ATP
and NADPH. Hence, the biosynthesis of essential oil is dependent on the inorganic
phosphorus content in the plant. The most well known benefit of VAM to the host plant is the
increased absorption of phosphorus (Abbott and Robson, 1984; Gianinazzi and Gianinazzi,
1981). The rate of phosphorus uptake per unit length of root is higher in mycorrhizal plants
(Hale and Sanders, 1982; Sanders, 1975; Smith, 1982; Smith et al., 1986). On soils with low
phosphorus availability only a small fraction of phosphorus occurs in available (solution) form.
Generally, the phosphorus concentration in the soil solution is so low and diffusion so slow
that the kinetics lead to increased plant growth rates and higher amounts of total phosphorus
in both root and shoot tissues. Mycorrhizal roots exploit the soil profile with hyphae extension
beyond the depletion zone surrounding the absorbing root and its root hairs (Clarkson, 1985;
Owusu-Bennoah and Wild, 1979). It was also observed that on external application of
phosphorus the increase in essential oil content was comparable to that due to VAM fungal
colonisation (Kapoor, 1997).
CONCLUSIONS
The use of VAM fungal association with aromatic plants has significant economic
importance due to its ability to support better growth, biomass production and essential oil
yield as a result of enhanced phosphorus uptake, enabling a more rational use of fertilizers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Rupam Kapoor acknowledges CSIR, New Delhi, for financial support.
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Allen, M.F., 1991, The Ecology olMycorrhizae, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bansal, M. and Mukerji, K.G., 1994, Positive correlation between VAM induced changes in root exudation and
Black, R.L.B. and Tinker, P.B., 1977, Interactions between effects of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza and
fertiliser phosphorus on yields of potatoes in the field, Nature 267: 510-511.
Clark, R.I. and Minary, R.C., 1980, The effect of irrigation and nitrogen on the yield and composition of
peppermint oil (Mentha peperita L.), Aust. J. Agric. Res. 31: 489-498.
Clarkson, D.T., 1985, Factors affecting mineral nutrition acquisition by plants, Ann. Rev. Pl. Physiol36: 77-115.
Dey, B.B. and Choudhari, M.A., 1981, Changes in the composition of essential oil of Ocimum sanctum L. during
reproductive development with special reference to the effect of growth regulators, Palai, pp. 12-15.
Duhan, S.P.S., Bhattacharya, A.K. and Gulati, B.C., 1974, Effect of date of sowing and nitrogen on the yield of
seed and quality of oil of Anethum graveolens, Indian J. Pharm. 36: 5-7.
Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. and Gianinazzi, S., 1981, Role of endomycorrhizal fungi in phosphorus cycling in the
ecosystem, in: The Fungal Community: Its Organisation and Role in the Ecosystem (D.T. Nicklow and
G.C. Carrol, eds.), Marcel Dekker Inc. New York.
Gulati, S., 1976, Effect offertilisers on Mentha arvensis, Indian Perfomer 2: 12-18.
Gupta, M.L., Janardhanan, K.K., Chattopadhyay, A and Hussain, A., 1990, Association of Glomus with Plamrosa
and its influence on growth and biomass production, Mycol. Res. 94: 561-563.
Hale, K.A. and Sanders, F .E., 1982, Effect of benomyl on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection of red
202
clover and consequences for phosphorus inflow, J PI. Nutr. 5: 1355-l367.
Hall, R.I., 1978, Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas on two varieties of maize and one of sweet com, NZ J Agric.
Res. 21: 517-519.
Harley, J.L. and Smith, S.E., 1983, Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, Academic Press, New York.
Hornok, L., 1983, Essential oil composition of various stages of plant development in Anethum graveolens, Acta
Hort. 132: 237-239.
Jakobsen, I., 1986, Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza in field grown crops. Mycorrhizal infection and rates of
phosphorus inflow in pea plants, New Phytol. 104: 573-581.
Janardhanan, K.K. and Khaliq, A., 1995, Influence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth and
productivity of German Chamomile in alkaline Usar soil, in: Proceedings of the Third National Conference
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Johnson, G .R. and Menge, J .A., 1982, Mycorrhizae may save fertiliser dollars. Am. Nurseryman 155: 79-87.
Kapoor, R., 1997, VAM in relation to growth and essential oil yield in umbelliferous plants, PhD. Thesis, Delhi
University, India.
Krishna, K.R., Shetty, K.G., Dart, P.J. and Andrews, D.1., 1985, Genotype dependent variation in mycorrhizal
colonisation and response to inoculation of pearl millet, PI. Soil 86: 113-125.
Loomis, W.D. and Corteau, R., 1973, Essential oil biosynthesis, Rec. Adv. Phytochemist 6: 197-203.
Mago, P., 1994, V AM in relation to productivity of certain members of Lamiaceae, PhD. Thesis, Delhi
University, India.
Mohan Kumar, V. and Mahadevan, A., 1984, Do secondary substances inhibit mycorrhizal association? Curro
Sci. 53: 377-378.
O'Bannon, J.H., Evans, D.W. and Peaden, R.N., 1980, Alfalfa varietal response to seven isolates of vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Can. J PI. Sci. 60: 859-863.
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inoculation responses in barley, lucerne and onion, New Phytol. 83: 671-679.
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Pareek, S.K., Maheswari, M.L. and Gupta, R., 1982. Oil content and its composition at different growth stages
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Powell Cl. L., 1982, Mycorrhizal fungi and blueberries: how to introduce them, NZ J Agric. Res. 143: 33-35.
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essential oil content and essential oil yield of bergamot mint (Mentha citrata), Indian Perfurmer 27: 77-79.
Rao, G.V.S., Suresh, c.K., Suresh, N.S., Mallikarjunaiah, R.B. and Bagyaraj, D.J., 1989, Vesicular-arbuscular
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Singh, A. and Randhawa, G.S., 1990, Studies on some agronomic inputs affecting oil content, oil and herb yield
of dill (Anethum graveolens L.), Indian Perfumer 34: 108-114.
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Singh, V.P. and Dunham, S.P.S., 1984, Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisation of Mentha piperita L. in Tarai
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203
MYCORRHIZAL ROOT LITTER AS A BIOFERTILIZER
K.G. Mukerji and Manju Bansal

University of Delhi
Delhi-ll0 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Litter in general is often considered to be a mere aggregation of dead and fallen plant
parts. In the biosphere it is a link between organic and inorganic forms of mineral nutrients.
Litter or the organic matter residue of plants is a natural reservoir of fertilizers which, upon
decomposition, adds substantially to soil fertility. The litter also improves the physical
characteristics of soils, supplies micronutrients in addition to major nutrients and provides
nutrients for soil microbes.
The main plant parts which undergo natural geochemical cycles are leaves, branches and
roots. Root litter, particularly the fine root litter, is often more important than leaf and branch
litter in returning organic material to the plant. Up to 4 to 5 times more material is returned
from fine roots than from leaf or branch litter (Fogel, 1985; Ford and Deans, 1977; Harris et
aI., 1977; Montagnini et aI., 1991; Persson 1980; Vogt et al. 1986). Most of the studies on
decomposition in forest systems have been carried out on leaf and needle litter (Berg, 1984;
Montagnini et aI., 1991; Swift et aI., 1979) whereas little research has been done on root litter
decomposition.
Studies on root litter are of particular interest in natural ecosystems for various reasons
(Persson, 1981). Firstly, root biomass in some systems appears to be much higher in
magnitude and is comparable to the litter formation in above ground systems. Secondly, the
release of nutrients from root litter may be very similar to nutrient release from leaf and branch
litter. Another reason is that the patterns for release or net uptake of nutrients may be very
different when the litter is decomposing inside the soil compared on the soil surface as with
leaf litter.
An understanding of root decomposition is important to agronomists and foresters. The
extension of growth and secondary thickening of roots creates and widens channels within the
soil and these channels can persist even after the disappearance of the roots. Such channels
modify the physical environment of the soil and improve soil aeration, drainage and water
From Etlmomycology to Fungal Biotechnology

holding capacity (Vogt et al., 1991). Decomposing roots also provide energy and nutrients to
support the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that can themselves improve
soil structure. Dead roots can act as reservoirs of infection for soil-borne plant pathogens and
knowledge of conditions which promote the disappearance of residues harbouring these
pathogens is of obvious advantage to plant pathologists. Another aspect which is of practical
interest is knowledge of the withdrawal (immobilization) and release (mineralization) of plant
nutrients during root growth and decay.
The mycorrhiza is a physiological and physical manifestation of a symbiotic association
between fungi and plant roots. Mycorrhizae are the normal nutrient- and water-absorbing
organs of the vast majority of vascular plants (about 90%). The fungi in vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhizae (VAM) form two types of branches: (i) outside the root in soil, i.e. extramatrical
hyphae absorbing nutrients from soil, and (ii) bush-like, highly branched structures, i.e.
arbuscules in cells which absorb nutrition and store it in vesicles, especially phosphorus as
polyphosphate granules.
Mycorrhizae are an integral part of the root system. In forest ecosystems mycorrhizae
have scarcely been studied in relation to fine root productivity and turnover. Studies on
mycorrhizae and fine root production are so scarce that Fogel (1983) proposed that "it is highly
probable that mycorrhiza has not been included in the fine root biomass estimates available,
despite their importance in nutrient absorption". Most studies on the mycorrhizal contribution
to fine root production concern ectomycorrhiza with very little work on VAM (Trappe and
Fogel, 1977).
BIOCHEMISTRY OF ROOT LITTER DEGRADATION
The ability of fine roots to add to soil fertility mainly depends on their chemical
composition, which varies with root diameter both within and between species. Similarly,
nutrient concentration within fine roots varies inversely with root diameter (Goldfarb et aI.,
1990; Vogt et aI., 1991). Increase in concentrations of phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon,
magnesium, sulphur and sodium with decreasing root diameter is known for Pinus sylvestris
(Berg, 1984) and Acer saccharum (Goldfarb et al., 1990). This explains the better capabilities
of fine roots as litter than coarse roots.
Biochemical changes during root litter decomposition follow the same pattern as those
during leaf litter decomposition. For example, in Scots Pine the quantitative organic chemical
composition pattern of roots was similar to that of needles and followed the same
decomposition pattern (Berg, 1984; Berg et al., 1980). The concentrations of sulphuric acid
and lignin were fairly similar in the two plant parts (i.e. roots and needles), the only variation
reported was in the glucan fraction of carbohydrates.
A generalized graph of the degradation of organic chemical components of Scots pine (P.
sylvestris) root litter of2-3 mm diameter is shown in Figure 1 (Berg, 1984). First, a relatively
fast decomposition of soluble compounds took place combined with low leaching. Some of
the cellulose and part of the arabinose were degraded early due to their easily hydrolysed
structures, whereas some other hemicelluloses such as xylans, galactan and mannans did not
decrease at all or showed only a slight decrease during the three year period of study. The
absolute amount of the analytical lignin fraction increased initially due to humification. Thus
concentration oflignin and humification products increased during the whole period and was
related to mass loss.
Changes in organic chemical composition of decomposing roots (2-3 mm diameter)
revealed a pattern similar to that for needles (Berg, 1984; Berg et al., 1982) though there was
very little leaching associated with decomposition of roots « 1%) compared to that of needles.
The total mass loss during fme root litter decomposition could be fairly well described by a
206
first-order kinetic reaction for all diameter classes, with disintegration constant (k) varying
between 0.195 and O. 149 yr.t (Berg, 1984). Sandhu et al. (1990) compared ash free mass in
the case of Leucaena leucocephala and reported that loss of ash free mass was maximum for
fruits followed by roots, with a decreasing order as fruit>root>twigs>leaves.
e Sol
~
CIl
'"
0
....l
Hemicellulose
CIl
CIl
<: Cellulose
::;:
Lignin
2 3
TIME (yr.)
Figure 1. A generalised graph of degradation of organic chemical components of root litter of 2-3 mm
diameter (from Berg et aI., 1984).
THE CONCEPT OF SOIL FERTILITY IN RELATION TO ROOT LITTER
Although there is no generalised concept of the term 'fertility', it is believed that a fertile
soil must supply in reasonable amounts and in suitable balance all the nutrients which plants
take from the soil. The exact nutrient requirement of an individual plant is not known, but the
available forms of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are needed beyond doubt. The fertility
status of soil is reflected in the growth and yield of the plant it is supporting. Both living roots
and decomposing roots enhance the capacity of the soil to produce nutrients through increasing
microbial activity.
The decomposition of litter, besides returning nutrients to the soil, improves soil
properties such as texture, moisture and pH, all of which favour microbial activity directly.
The influence of root litter decomposition on soil properties varies with the type of litter. The
chemical changes occurring in soil during the initiaI stages of litter breakdown consist of
decomposition of soluble carbohydrates, starches, pectins and soluble nitrogenous compounds.
This adds to the nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, organic carbon and organic matter status of
the soil. The role of various fungi in the decomposition of cellulose and pectin has been
reviewed recently by some workers (Buswell, 1991; Markham and Bazin, 1991).
In comparison to structural roots, the fine root turnover is more rapid and contributes more
carbon to organic matter accumulation. Vogt et aI. (1986) reported that evergreen species add
twice as much root material to detritus in comparison to deciduous species growing at the same
latitude. Their results strongly imply that roots contribute more than foliage to soil organic
matter accumulation in evergreen sites.
Very few studies have examined root decomposition in the field. Numerous observations
in the literature would suggest that the litter bag technique underestimates fine root
decomposition (Lyr and Hoffinann, 1967; Santantonio and Hermann, 1985). Estimates of the
proportion oftotal carbon added annually to the soil from root mortality and decay have varied
from 25-36% (McClaugherty et aI., 1982; Vogt et al., 1991),42.2% (Edward and Harris,
1977),59-67% (Vogt et al., 1986),54-81 % (Gholz et aI., 1986) and 78-84% (Fogel, 1983).
However, more data are needed from many sites in order to clearly establish the contribution
of fine root litters to soil fertility.
207
DEGRADATION OF MYCORRHIZAL ROOTS
In general, the contribution of mycorrhizal fine roots to primary production for any
ecosystem may be between 6 to 78% (Fogel, 1983; Fogel and Hunt, 1979). Based on external
morphology of root tips, Alexander and Fairlay (1983) reported 90-97% of the total root tips
to be mycorrhizal. Mycorrhizae account for an additional 8% of tree biomass in young
Douglas fir stands (Gottsche, 1972). The mycorrhizal biomass is larger in Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) than in pine and spruce (Fogel, 1983) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Contribution of mycorrhizae to fine root productivity in different tree species.
Tree Species Location Stand Age Production Mycorrhiza

(22 mm dia) % Total
% Total
Pinus strobus Michigan 35 94 6
Quercus carya Michigan 60 88 12
Pseudotsuga Michigan 30 22 78
menziesii Oregon 50 49 51
Mycorrhizae are believed to make an important contribution to the turnover of fine roots
(Bansal and Mukerji, 1994 a,b; Fogel, 1985; Fogel and Hunt, 1979; Harris et aI., 1977). In an
ecosystem, given large inputs of fine roots and mycorrhiza for decomposition, it is highly
crucial to determine mycorrhizal biomass. Two basic queries about the fate and role of
mycorrhizal and nodular root litter (biological nodules in legumes) in below-ground
ecosystems are as follows: (i) What is the fate of microbes in symbiotic association when fine
roots undergo turnover? (ii) What is the difference in amount of nutrients added to the soil
after the turnover of fine roots associated symbiotically with various microbes in comparison
to roots without it?
Studies on degradation and turnover of endomycorrhizal roots are particularly neglected.
In general, however, endomycorrhizal roots are expected to contribute more to the nutrient
pool of soils as these roots have higher amounts of nitrogen (in legumes) and phosphorus than
their non-mycorrhizal counterparts (Harley and Smith, 1983; Srivastava et aI., 1996).
Degradation of mycorrhizal roots should certainly be different from that of non-
mycorrhizal roots as the rhizosphere chemistry of the former (mycorrhizosphere) is
considerably altered by VAM fungi (Bansal and Mukerji, 1995; Garbaye, 1991; Paulitz and
Lindeman, 1991). Also the qualitative and quantitative composition of root exudates is altered
considerably upon associating with mycorrhizal fungi. Both endo- and ectomycorrhizae are
important in this context. These changes in root exudates are generally expressed in the
microflora of the rhizosphere (Curl and Truelove, 1986).
NUTRIENT STATUS OF LITTER TYPES
The nutrient composition of fine roots varies with plant type (Berg, 1984), root diameter
(Goldfarb et aI., 1990) and soil fertility status (Alstrom et aI., 1988; Satchell, 1974), besides
other plant and soil factors. Large differences are reported in annual production of fine roots
in herbaceous and tree species (Fogel, 1985). For example, fine root production values for
208
lRL : Lellc.:!Hma root litter
TRL : Tr;golrella root litter
L1RL : LCIlc.:aella-.TriglJllella root litter
15 30 45 60 75 90
DAYS AFTER GERM INAnON DAYS AFTER GERMINATION
Figure 2. Effect of different treatments of root Figure 3. Shoot fresh weight of Zea mays treated
litters on shoot length of Zea mays. with different root litters.
15 30 45 60 75 90 15 30 45 60 75 90
DAYS AFTER GERMINAnON DAYS AFTER GERMINAnON
Figure 4. Effect of different treatments of root Figure 5. Influence of root litters on root length
litters on shoot dry weight of Zea mays. ofZeamays.
15 30 45 60 75 90 15 30 45 60 75 90
DAYS AFTER GERMINA nON DAYS AFTER GERNlNAlI(J>j
Figure 6. Root fresh weight of Zea mays as Figure 7. Influence of different root litters on root
affected by different treatments. dry weight.
209
900
~
~
800
700
r~
8lRL
OTRl
.LTRL
:;;
600
.
OJ
iii
~.II
Ul
.....
I-
0
w
m
:3
..~
15 30 45 00 75 9J 15 30 45 00 75 9J
DAYS AFTER GERMNAnON DAYS AFTER GERMINAnON
Figure 8. Soil available phosphorus as influenced Figure 9. Soil available potassium as influenced
by application of different root litters. by application of different root litters.
coniferous trees is in the range of 4.1 to 11.0 Mglha, whereas for herbs it is 1.2 to 4.2 Mglha.
Also the importance of fine root input in contributing forest floor organic matter increases
appreciably with plant age (Vogt et aI., 1983).
Bansal and Mukerji (1994 a,b) compared the efficacy of Leucaena root litter with that of
Trigonella root litter and reported that Leucaena root litter is better in increasing growth of Zea
mays. Litters increase the shoot length and biomass, but decrease root length and biomass.
Thus root litter tends to promote more energy allocation to above-ground plant parts than to
the below-ground ecosystems (Figures 2-7). The growth of Zea mays increased 1.5 to 5-fold
with the application of root litter of mycorrhizal plants.
The root litter has little effect on soil pH or organic carbon but increases the available
phosphorus tremendously (Figures 8 and 9). This increase may be due to rapid release of
phosphorus from iron compounds or calcium phosphate released from root litter after
microbial decomposition (Bansal and Mukerji, 1994 a,b; Vogt et al., 1991). Mycorrhizal roots
have better fertilizing capacity than non-mycorrhizal roots.
CONCLUSIONS
The role ofVAM fungi in fine root biomass dynamics, in fine root litter degradation and
in uptake of nutrients from root litter was studied in Leucaena leucocephala using Zea mays
as a test plant. A total fine root biomass of 42.97 to 88.13 dw m was produced in a young
stand of Leucaena leucocephala, of which 65% was endomycorrhizal. The mycorrhizal fine
root network was found to be an effective biofertilizer contributing a several-fold increase to
the growth of Zea mays. Root litter with VAM association may also serve as an inoculum for
VAM colonisation of maize roots.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the grant received from DBT.
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Sandhu, J., Sinha, M. and Ambasht, R.S., 1990, Nitrogen release from decomposing litter of Leucaena
leucocephala in the dry tropics, Soil Bio!. Biochem, 22: 859-863.
Santantonio, D. and Hermann, R.K., 1985, Standing crop, production and turnover of fme roots on dry, moderate
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Dickinson and GJ.F. Pugh, eds.), pp. 91-103, Academic Press, London, New York.
Srivastava, D., Kapoor, R., Srivastava, S.K. and Mukerji, K.G., 1996, Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza: an
overview, in: Concepts in Mycological Research, (K.G. Mukerji, ed.) pp. 1-39, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Netherlands.
Swift, MJ., Heal, O.W. and Anderson, J.M., 1979, Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, Blackwell, London.
Vogt, K.A., Gorier, C.c., Gower, S.T., Sprugal, D.G. and Vogt, DJ., 1986, Overestimation of net root
211
production: a real or imaginary problem? Ecology, 67: 577-579.
Vogt, K.A., Gorier, C.C., Meier, C.E. and Keyes, M.R, 1983, Organic matter and nutrient dynamics in forest of
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Vogt, K.A., Vogt, OJ. and Bloomfield, J., 1991, Input of organic matter to the soil by tree roots and their
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212
THE APPLICA TION OF VESICULAR ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI IN
AFFORESTATION
M. Kaur and K.O. Mukerji

Delhi University
Delhi-I 10 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Desertification is a natural and dynamic process which claims milIions of hectares ofland
annually. In addition to natural environmental factors such as impoverished soils, extreme
temperatures, erratic rainfall and high wind velocity, anthropogenic activities such as
deforestation, poor agricultural practices, mining, overgrazing and recreational activities create
vast stretches of wastelands. Such areas are characterized by loss of vegetation cover, loss of
soil structure, increase in soil erosion, loss of available nutrients and organic matter, loss of
microbial propagules and lor diminution of microbial activities (Herrera et aI., 1993).
The revegetation of such disturbed ecosystems is a priority and management practices are
being developed for this purpose. These involve the introduction of native plant species (i.e.
reclamation) or exotic species (i.e. rehabilitation). Plants in disturbed habitats of tropical
areas, arid lands, coal mines, oil and mine spoils, oil shale lands etc. face many adverse
conditions such as high soil salinity, low fertility, drought, acid imbalance and nutrient
deficiency.
Although the use of chemical fertilizers accelerates the establishment of vegetational
cover it is not a feasible strategy as it encourages the growth of ruderal weeds and is not very
cost effective. Besides, at present there is considerable resistance to the use of chemical
fertilizers due to their adverse effects on the environment and on soil, plant, animal and human
health.
Therefore, the use of biofertilisers in afforestation programmes is both more beneficial
and more economical. Different kinds of tree seedlings fortified with microbes and symbiotic
organisms like Rhizobium and mycorrhizal fungi can be used in degraded, harsh and poor
plantation sites. There is a large occurrence of mycorrhizae in forest trees and the symbiosis
can be manipulated to enhance productivity in afforestation programmes. The term
'mycorrhiza' describes the association of plant roots with hyphal fungi and is of common
occurrence in angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes and bryophytes (Smith and Read,

Edited by Singh and Alleja, Plenum Press, New York, 1999 213
1997). Of the various types of mycorrhizal associations, the vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae
(V AM) are the most abundant, with widest host range and geographic ubiquity (Mukerji and
Mandeep, 1997). The roots of most of the world's plants are colonized by VA mycorrhizal
fungi forming a mutualistic symbiosis that can be considered an integral part of the plants.
This symbiosis seems to have ecological and evolutionary significance in the origin and
development of plants on earth.
V AM fungi are obligately biotrophic, belong to the order Glomales of Zygomycotina
(Morton and Benny, 1990; Morton and Bentivenga, 1994) and are often the most abundant
fungi known in soils from all continents (Harley, 1991). The VAM fungi occupy a unique
ecological niche as they extend into both the roots and the surrounding substrate forming
bridges connecting the two, thereby improving both nutrient acquisition by the plants and also
the soil structure (Bethlenfalvay, 1992). There is a flow of inorganic components from the
fungus to the plant and organic components from plant to the fungus (Mukerji and Sharma,
1996; Srivastava et aI., 1996).
THE MORPHOLOGY OF VESICULAR ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAE
The vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza is composed of a two-phase mycelial system, an

internal mycelium within the cortex of the mycorrhizal roots and the external mycelium in the
soil.
The external mycelium surrounding the roots is dimorphic (Mosse, 1959) and consists of
(i) permanent, coarse, thick-walled, generally aseptate runner hyphae and (ii) numerous fine,
thin-walled and highly dichotomously branched absorbing hyphae which form hyphal networks
extending into the soil. There are about 100 cm of absorbing hyphae/root penetration
(Sieverding, 1991), therefore the mycosymbiont can intensively explore a large soil volume
and extract soil resources for transport to the root. The external hyphae may transport nutrients
to the host from a distance of up to 7 cm (Rhodes and Gerdemann, 1975).
The extramatrical hyphae provide the structures capable of colonizing new root tissue
(Friese and Allen, 1991). The thick-walled runner hyphae penetrate the root forming
appresoria at the entry point (Gianinazzi-Pearson et aI., 1991; Giovanetti et aI., 1991, 1994)
which are lens-shaped multinucleate structures, 20-40 fim long (Garriock et aI., 1989).
The intraradical structures formed by VAM are (i) the extracellular hyphae, (ii) the
intracellular hyphae forming coils often found in the outer layers of cortical parenchyma, (iii)
the intracellular hyphae with numerous ramifications, i.e. the arbusules and (iv) the inter- and
intracellular hypertrophied hyphae forming thick-walled, lipid-rich vesicles (Bhandari and
Mukelji, 1993). The arbuscules are the primary structures involved in the bidirectional transfer
of nutrients between the fungal symbiont and host plant (Cox and Tinker, 1976; Scannerini and
Bonfante-Fasolo, 1979).
The partners of the mycorrhizal association influence each other during all levels of
metabolic activity from gene expression to morphogenesis. They exist in a state of cellular and
physiological compatibility during all stages of development, which are: (i) presymbiotic phase
of the VAM fungi, (ii) the contact phase, (iii) the colonization process, and (iv) the
development of the host-fungus interface.
The persistence of mycorrhiza formation through evolution as new plant species appeared
implies that many of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved are common across the
plant kingdom (Gianinazzi-Pearson et aI., 1995). The highly sophisticated morpho-functional
integration between the two symbionts can only be explained by synchronized modifications
in the gene expression of both the partners (Gianinazzi-Pearson and Gianinazzi, 1989).
214
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF VA MYCORRHIZAL SYMBIOSIS
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake in both cultivated and native
species (Smith and Read, 1997). The V A mycorrhizal symbiosis increases the growth rate of
the plants and influences the partitioning of phytomass between the root and shoot. VAM-
inoculated plants are not only large but also usually have an increased concentration of
minerals, especially phosphorus. The extramatrical hyphae ofVAM fungi increase the total
absorptive surface area of the root system and acquire nutrients such as P, NH+, K, Ca, SO/,
Cu and Zn from beyond the depletion zone around the root and consequently enhance the
uptake of nutrients from the soil. The V AM-induced changes in supply of mineral nutrients
from soil also modify the soil fertility, mycorrhizosphere and the aggregation of soil particles
(Varma, 1995). The non-nutritional effects of mycorrhizae such as reducing the severity of
certain plant diseases, modifying water relations and the soil structure are also potentially
important. The benefits of VAM may also extend to alleviation of stresses caused by mineral
excesses.
V AM AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE
Phosphorus Uptake
Phosphorus is a major plant nutrient which is required in relatively large amounts and
which plays a vital role in all biological functions. The various forms of phosphorus present
in soil have very low solubility and the concentration of phosphorus in soluble form is
extremely low in forest soils. The organic and insoluble mineral phosphorus which constitute
the greater part of phosphorus in soil is not available to plants. The uptake of phosphate by
roots is much faster than diffusion of ions to the absorptive surface of the roots and this causes
a phosphate depletion zone to develop around the root.
The inoculation of plants with VAM fungi increases the growth of plants by several-fold
and generally most of the growth enhancement effects observed on root colonization with
V AM fungi are caused by increased P absorption (Bagyaraj and Varma, 1995). The increase
in absorption of phosphorus by VA mycorrhizal plants may be because of (i) increased
physical exploration of the soil; (ii) increased movement of P into fungal hyphae; (iii)
modifications of the root environment; (iv) efficient transfer ofP to plant roots; (v) increased
storage of absorbed P; and (vi) efficient utilization ofP within plants.
The process of phosphate uptake by mycorrhizal fungi consists of three sub-processes,
i.e. (i) absorption of phosphate from soil by VAM fungal hyphae; (ii) the translocation of
phosphate along the hyphae from external to internal (root cortex) mycelia and (iii) the transfer
of phosphate to cortical cells (Barea, 1991).
The plant is able to exploit microhabitats beyond the nutrient-depleted areas (O'Keefe and
Sylvia, 1992). The V AM hyphae also take advantage of their geometry and better distribution
than the roots to acquire phosphate from transitory, localized and diluted sources of
phosphorus. The greater exploration of soil P by V AM fungal hyphae is because (i) they
extend away from roots and can translocate P from as far away as 8 cm; (ii) they exploit
smaller soil pores due to their smaller diameter than roots; (iii) they have a greater unit surface
area of absorption (Jungk and Claasen, 1989).
It has been suggested that mycorrhizal hyphae may have an affinity for absorption of P
(Cress et aI., 1979) and that mycorrhizal roots have a lower threshold ofP concentration for
absorption than non-mycorrhizal roots (Karunaratne et aI., 1986; Lei et al., 1991; Mosse,
1973).
There are quantitative and qualitative changes in root exudation patterns and differences
215
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF VA MYCORRHIZAL SYMBIOSIS
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake in both cultivated and native
species (Smith and Read, 1997). The VA mycorrhizal symbiosis increases the growth rate of
the plants and influences the partitioning ofphytomass between the root and shoot. VAM-
inoculated plants are not only large but also usually have an increased concentration of
minerals, especially phosphorus. The extramatrical hyphae of VAM fungi increase the total
absorptive surface area of the root system and acquire nutrients such as P, NH+, K, Ca, sot,
Cu and Zn from beyond the depletion zone around the root and consequently enhance the
uptake of nutrients from the soil. The VAM-induced changes in supply of mineral nutrients
from soil also modify the soil fertility, mycorrhizosphere and the aggregation of soil particles
(Varma, 1995). The non-nutritional effects of mycorrhizae such as reducmg the severity of
certain plant diseases, modifying water relations and the soil structure are also potentially
important. The benefits of VAM may also extend to alleviation of stresses caused by mineral
excesses.
VAM AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE
Phosphorus Uptake
Phosphorus is a major plant nutrient which is required in relatively large amounts and
which plays a vital role in all biological functions. The various forms of phosphorus present
in soil have very low solubility and the concentration of phosphorus in soluble form is
extremely low in forest soils. The organic and insoluble mineral phosphorus which constitute
the greater part of phosphorus in soil is not available to plants. The uptake of phosphate by
roots is much faster than diffusion of ions to the absorptive surface of the roots and this causes
a phosphate depletion zone to develop around the root.
The inoculation of plants with VAM fungi increases the growth of plants by several-fold
and generally most of the growth enhancement effects observed on root colonization with
VAM fungi are caused by increased P absorption (Bagyaraj and Varma, 1995). The increase
in absorption of phosphorus by VA mycorrhizal plants may be because of (i) increased
physical exploration of the soil; (ii) increased movement of P into fungal hyphae; (iii)
modifications of the root environment; (iv) efficient transfer ofP to plant roots; (v) increased
storage of absorbed P; and (vi) efficient utilization ofP within plants.
The process of phosphate uptake by mycorrhizal fungi consists of three sub-processes,
i.e. (i) absorption of phosphate from soil by VAM fungal hyphae; (ii) the translocation of
phosphate along the hyphae from external to internal (root cortex) mycelia and (iii) the transfer
of phosphate to cortical cells (Barea, 1991).
The plant is able to exploit microhabitats beyond the nutrient-depleted areas (O'Keefe and
Sylvia, 1992). The VAM hyphae also take advantage of their geometry and better distribution
than the roots to acquire phosphate from transitory, localized and diluted sources of
phosphorus. The greater exploration of soil P by VAM fungal hyphae is because (i) they
extend away from roots and can translocate P from as far away as 8 cm; (ii) they exploit
smaller soil pores due to their smaller diameter than roots; (iii) they have a greater unit surface
area of absorption (Jungk and Claasen, 1989).
It has been suggested that mycorrhizal hyphae may have an affinity for absorption ofP
(Cress et aI., 1979) and that mycorrhizal roots have a lower threshold of P concentration for
absorption than non-mycorrhizal roots (Karunaratne et aI., 1986; Lei et aI., 1991; Mosse,
1973).
There are quantitative and qualitative changes in root exudation patterns and differences
216
between the inoculated plants in absorption of anions and cations which cause changes in pH
of the rhizosphere. These may be the indirect mechanisms which explain the effect ofVAM
in increasing the phosphate availability to the plant. The changes induced in the
mycorrhizosphere alter the micro flora which also alters the availability of both organic and
inorganic P to the plants. Mycorrhizal fungi produce phosphatases that allow utilization of
organic phosphorus under the humid tropical conditions (Tarafdar and Marschner, 1994).
Nitrogen Uptake
VAM fungi increase nitrogen uptake in plants. A number of mechanisms are suggested
for this effect, namely (i) improvement of symbiotic N2 fixation; (ii) direct uptake of combined
nitrogen by VAM fungi; (iii) facilitated 'N transfer', a process by which a part of biologically-
fixed nitrogen benefits the non-fixing plants growing nearby; and (iv) enzymatic activities
involved in N metabolism (Barea, 1991).
The mycorrhizal hyphae have the capacity to extract nitrogen and transport it from the soil
to the plant. They contain enzymes that break down organic nitrogen and contain N-reductase
which alters the forms of nitrogen in soil.
The uptake of nitrogen by plants is usually in the form of nitrate which is readily
absorbed. In soils where nitrate is the dominant nitrogen source, VAM fungi have only a
minor influence in acquisition of nitrogen by plants (Johanson et aI., 1992, 1993). In many
natural ecosystems a large fraction of available nitrogen in soil is ammonium not nitrate (Van
Kessel et aI., 1985). Mycorrhizal fungi readily transport NH4+ from soil to plant (Smith and
Smith, 1990) and this may be important where nitrogen is distributed in discrete patches.
Mycorrhizal fungi enhance nitrogen gain in plant communities by increasing the efficiency
of N 2 -fixing organisms. Increases in nodulation status and rate of nitrogen fixation with
mycorrhiza have been reported in legume-Rhizobium symbiosis, in actinorrhizal associations
(Frankia) and also with free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azospirilum and
Azotobacter (Barea, 1991; Barea et aI., 1992; Michelsen and Sprent, 1994). The increased
efficiency oflegume-Rhizobium symbiosis in the presence ofVAM is probably because of the
increased supply of phosphate to the roots and nodules (Barea et aI., 1988; Reinhard et aI.,
1994).
V AM hyphae improve nitrogen transfer in communities, since the network of VAM
mycelia links different plant species growing nearby and helps overlap the pool of available
nutrients for these plants (Barea et aI., 1988; Newman et aI., 1992).
Other Essential Nutrients
The extramatrical hyphae of VAM take up and transport potassium (K) and VAM
colonization affects the concentration and amounts ofK in shoots (Marschner and Dell, 1994).
The external hyphae ofVAM also have a capacity to take up and transport Ca2+ and sot-s
(Tester et aI., 1992).
VA mycorrhizal plants accumulate great quantities of some micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Co)
under conditions of low soil nutrient availability (Faber et aI., 1990; Smith 1980). This higher
absorption is attributed to the uptake and transport by external hyphae due to wider exploration
of soil volume by extended extramatrical hyphae. Tissue concentrations of Cu and Zn are
higher in the presence ofVAM fungi (Fairchild and Miller, 1988; Li et aI., 1991). Mycorrhizal
inoculation may increase Zn and Cu concentration in shoots, roots or both (Gildon and Tinker,
1983; Lambert and Weidensaul, 1991).
Uptake and concentration of manganese (Mn) in plants may not be affected by VAM and
more often it may be lower in VAM plants (Lambert and Weidensaul, 1991) thus contributing
to higher Mn tolerance in plants. There is enhanced iron (Fe) uptake in the presence of
217
mycorrhiza and this may be due to specific Fe chelators. Siderophore activity has been found
to be associated with VAM colonization (Szanizzlo et aI., 1981).
Water Uptake
VAM fungi play a vital role in the water economy of plants. The V AM fungal
colonization may provide a low resistance pathway for radial flow of water across the root
cortex, thereby increasing the hydraulic conductivity of the roots and contributing towards
better uptake of water by plants (Kothari et aI., 1990). The permeability of the cell membrane
to water may also be altered by mycorrhizal colonization through improved phosphorus
nutrition.
Colonization by VAM can improve the drought resistance of plants (Bethlenfalvay et aI.,
1988; Osonubi et aI., 1991; Sylvia and Williams, 1992). YAM-inoculated seedlings are less
susceptible to wilting and transplant shock. Under conditions of drought stress VAM fungi
exert their influence by increasing the transpiration rate and lowering stomatal resistance or
by altering the balance of plant hormones (Auge et aI., 1987a,b; Huang et aI., 1985). The
changes in leaf elasticity (Auge et aI., 1987a), improved leaf water and turgor potential,
increased root length and depth (Ellis et aI., 1985, Kothari et aI., 1990) may also influence
water relations and therefore the drought resistarlce of the plants.
It has been suggested that these changes could be secondary responses to better
phosphorus nutrition (Michelsen and Rosendahl, 1990) or mediated via direct mycorrhizal
effects (Henderson and Davis, 1990). Allen (1996) has suggested that the likely mechanism
of water transport to the host is along the VAM fungal hyphae and since the hyphae
structurally connect the soil to the plant, the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum which may be
broken due to transpiration demands is maintained by the mycorrhizal hyphae.
Soil Structure Stabilization
The extramatrical hyphae of VAM fungi improve soil structure by binding the soil
particles into more stable aggregates (Barea and Jeffries, 1995). This makes VAM fungi
particularly useful for reclamation of sand dunes, eroding soils, desert habitats etc.
The VAM fungi can be manipulated to improve soil aggregation. For this purpose the
following criteria should be taken into consideration (i) VAM fungi should be selected for the
amount of mycelium they produce; (ii) plant traits that favour the development of fungal soil
mycelium should be identified; (iii) appropriate host cultivars should be used to manipulate
the fungal populations (Miller and Jastrow, 1992).
Interactions with Other Soil Microbes
The rhizosphere of the mycorrhizal plants is called the 'mycorrhizosphere'. The altered
root exudation due to mycorrhizal association induces changes in the composition of microbial
communities in the mycorrhizosphere (Bansal and Mukerji, 1994a,b, 1996; Mukerji et aI.,
1998). The interactions that occur between these microbial communities and mycorrhizal
fungi may be competitive or mutualistic. VAM fungi modify the interaction of plants with
pathogens as well as other symbiotic organisms (Fitter and Garbaye, 1994; Paulitz and
Linderman, 1991).
The mycorrhizal fungi enhance nitrogen-fixation by nodule-producing bacteria
(Rhizobium) and interact positively with free-living or associative nitrogen-fixers such as
Azotobacter, Azospirillum (Barea et aI., 1992; Sharma and Mukerji, 1995). There is a
synergistic effect on plant growth on co-inoculation with VAM fungi and PGPR, phosphate-
solubilizing bacteria, etc.
218
The mycorrhizae exert selective pressure on populations of soil microorganisms and affect
the incidence and severity of root diseases caused by major fungal and nematode pathogens
(Linderman, 1988). They can serve as effective biocontrol agents (Jalali and lalali, 1991;
Kaushik and Mukerji, 1996; Mukerji et aI., 1997).
MYCORRHIZAL INOCULATION IN FORESTRY
Mycorrhizal inoculation is useful in forest nurseries and also while transplanting seedlings
to the field. The role of mycorrhiza in improving the quality of planting stock in the nursery
and in obtaining good seedling survival and growth is widely recognized (Jeffries and Dodd,
1991; Mukerji and Dixon, 1992; Varma, 1995). Mycorrhizal colonization of seedling root
systems in the nursery results in vigorous seedling growth and well-nurtured plants. The pre-
inoculation of seedlings is a feasible method for introducing inoculant fungi into the field and
is applicable wherever transplanting is a part of the normal production system. A potential
advantage is that the inoculant fungus is already established in the root system and
consequently it has a competitive advantage over the soil-borne species.
Seedlings of several hardwood species normally have an obligate dependence on VAM
for normal growth. Stunting of Citrus seedlings in fumigated nursery soil can be corrected by
inoculation with VAM fungi (Timmer and Leyden, 1978). Several experiments with forest
trees have confirmed that mycorrhization leads to improved growth of seedlings (Osonubi et
aI., 1991; Sarwar, 1996, Singh, 1997) and plays a role in their successful establishment and
subsequent growth (Mukerji et aI., 1996) (Figure 1).
6 3.5
,---~
i
5 3
~ C) ,
~2.51
~4 .!!!
"C. 0.
41
.t::;
,
~ 2,
':::3 I - i
0 '0 I
:;:: I :;:: 1.5!
C)
'4j 2 .2'
~ ~ 1i
~ ~
0 1 o
0.5 !
0 oi
NR-M NR+M NO-M NO+M NR-M NR+M NO-M NO+M
A B
Figure I. Effect of VAM inoculation on dry weights of 90 days old seedlings of (A) Acacia senegal and
(B) Prosopis cineraria, in nutrient deficient (NO) and nutrient rich (NR) soils.
There has been considerable interest in the use of VAM fungi in the revegetation of
disturbed habitats. Plant establishment on stressed soils is facilitated by VAM due to their
efficient nutrient mobilization mechanism, ability to withstand stressed conditions and
developing resistance towards transplant shock. The use ofVAM fungi has led to successful
afforestation of mining sites (Lumini et aI., 1994; Noyd, 1996). In soils stressed with salinity,
mycorrhizal plants show better growth response with higher tissue concentration of phosphorus
219
and lower concentration of sodium in shoots than the non-mycorrhizal plants (Rozema et aI.,
1986; Pfeiffer and Bloss, 1988).
STRATEGIES FOR USE OF V AM FUNGI
Inoculum Production
Indigenous VAM fungi could be used in reforestation programmes on a large scale but the
only constraint in this area is lack of technology for mass culture of these' fungi. The inability
to culture V AM fungi is a major barrier to development of inoculation techniques. VAM fungi
are obligate symbionts and are maintained and mass-produced on pot cultures using suitable
host plants. Plant-based inoculum formulations include spores and hyphae mixed with a
carrier such as expanded clay or pumice, soil pellets and relatively crude soil spore mixtures.
The production costs are high and there is no quality control for exclusion of pathogens
(Menge et al., 1982). To produce inocula commercially on a large scale, host, substrate and
environment have to be manipulated to produce pot cultures yielding mycorrhizal inoculum
with high inoculum potential, few contaminants, longer shelf life and easy transportation.
Selection of Efficient Fungal Strains
The mycorrhizal fungi that are selected for inoculation in the field should be able to
enhance nutrient uptake by plants and persist in soil. They should be infective, effective, have
high colonization potential and should survive in soil. An efficient inoculant strain should
possess the following characteristics: (i) ability to form extensive, well distributed mycelium
in soil; (ii) ability to form extensive colonization; (iii) efficiency in absorbing nutrients,
especially phosphorus, from the soil solution; (iv) should remain effective for a long time in
transporting nutrients to the plant (Bagyaraj and Varma, 1995; Gaur, 1997).
Initially, the inoculant fungi can be selected under controlled conditions and later they can
be evaluated in the field (Abbott and Robson, 1982; Abbott et aI., 1992).
Management of Indigenous V AM Fungal Populations
The activity of indigenous mycorrhizal fungi can be enhanced by adequate cultural

practices. In order to promote mycorrhizal ability in soil, factors such as erosion, fungi toxins
(e.g. heavy metals, mine wastes, oil) and soil compaction which deplete the fungal spore
populations have to be taken into account. Adequate strategies to conserve and multiply
efficient indigenous strains of VAM fungi have to be developed.
CONCLUSIONS
Mycorrhizal fungi playa crucial role in plant growth and health. Plants colonized with
VAM usually become established on disturbed habitats with relative ease. Thus, V AM fungi
offer an environmentally sound, biological alternative to chemical fertilizers for maintaining
plant quality and productivity in afforestation programmes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank DBT for financial assistance.
220
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224
VESICULAR ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI: BIOFERTILIZER FOR
THE FUTURE
B.P. Chamola, Bhoopander Giri and K.G. Mukerji

University of Delhi
Delhi-110 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Rapid desertification and soil erosion is a problem in the tropics due to adverse soil and
climatic conditions. Marginal lands may also become barren due to deforestation. To prevent
this degradation, marginal lands have to be afforested by overcoming the difficulties due to soil
infertility. Sustainable agriculture and forestry have therefore taken centre stage among
researchers, the public and policy makers. Afforestation or revegetation of these barren lands
through vesicular arbuscular (V A) mycorrhizal technology is an immediate necessity. The
overall goal of forestry research is focused on increasing food, fibre, forage, fuel wood,
fertiliser (root nodule) and timber production.
Maintaining or enhancing the fertility of barren soil is one of the most important
requirements for sustainable agriculture and forestry systems. Increasing soil organic matter
and mineral contents, avoiding pests and pathogens and decreasing erosion are a few other
areas of concern. The present paper emphasises the beneficial aspects, for example factors
which influence colonisation of VA mycorrhizae and application of VAM fungi in agriculture
and afforestation.
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are an integral component of sustainable
agriculture and tropical forestry with mutual dependency between fungus and tree host for
normal functioning and survival with widest host range (Fitter, 1991, Dixon et al., 1997). VA
mycorrhizae are ubiquitous soil inhabitants and are known to exist in extreme terrestrial
environments. Recently much attention has been paid to the use of V AM fungi in
reinstatement of forest and improving soil fertility due to their potential for increasing the
growth, survival and biomass production of plants. VAM fungi are an important
biotechnological tool for balancing soil nutrients and the sustainability of forest ecosystems.
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are extremely widespread in their distribution
(Gerdemann, 1968; Mosse, 1973; Jagpal and Mukerji, 1988). The fungal symbiont consists

of aseptate hyphae belonging to the order Glomales of class Zygomycetes (Morton and Benny,
1990; MukeIji, 1996). VA mycorrhizae are included under endomycorrhiza and are
characterized by specialized structures, i.e. vesicles and arbuscules produced inside the host
tissue (Harley and Smith, 1983) and chlamydospores and azygospores produced in the soil
(Jasper et al., 1989). VAM fungi are found in association with plant roots of arctic, temperate
and tropical regions and are distributed in nearly all the families of angiosperms (Kendrick and
Berch, 1985). They benefit the plants by improving the supply of nutrients especially
phosphorus and other minerals such as zinc, copper, potassium and calcium (Cooper and
Tinker, 1978a,b). The mycelial network of VA mycorrhizal plants enables them to obtain
nutrients from beyond the zones oflow concentration around roots. Exchange of nutrients and
carbohydrates between the host and symbiont takes place through specific structures, the
arbuscules (Bhandari and MukeIji, 1993). VAM fungi also assist plants by improving
absorption of water through the roots (Safir et al., 1971). Due to the potential ofVAM fungi
in increasing the growth and yield of crops, the commercial use of these fungi may be an
alternative to the rising costs of agriculture and fertilizer.
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (V AM) occur in almost all soils. Associations with
V AM are widespread among the plant kingdom, occurring in bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and angiosperms. However, there are a few examples where these fungi may
be absent, namely in eroded soils, fumigated soils or soils disturbed by mining. In the soil
these fungi are present as chlamydospores, zygospores and azygospores. There is more or less
a uniform distribution of all the genera of VAM fungi in both the hemispheres and the spores
have a broad ecological range (Mukerji et aI., 1984). Most vascular plants show VA
mycorrhizal colonization. Both cultivated and non-cultivated soils have been reported to
contain VAM fungal spores. VAM fungal propagules have been isolated from forest, open
woodlands, scrub, savanna, heaths, grasslands, sand dunes, semi-deserts, anthracite and
bituminous coal wastes, (MukeIji et al., 1984, Pfleger et al., 1994).
Families of angiosperms that rarely form vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal associations
include Chenopodiaceae, Brassicaceae, Amaranthaceae, Polygonaceae and Fumariaceae.
Some families are wholly non-mycorrhizal, such as Pinaceae, Betulaceae, Orchidaceae,
Commelinaceae and Urticaceae. The members of the families Amaranthaceae,
Chenopodiaceae and Brassicaceae are often non-mycorrhizal but there are some reports on
occurrence of mycorrhizae in the family Chenopodiaceae and Brassicaceae (Jagpal and
Mukerji, 1988). The occurrence of VAM fungi in five genera of the family Amaranthaceae
in the arid and semi-arid zones are also reported (Jagpal and Mukerji, 1988; Neeraj et al.,
1991).
VA mycorrhizal fungi are influenced by damage to vegetation, soil and natural processes.
But in undisturbed ecosystems of tropical and temperate climates the colonization of new roots
by VAM fungi occurs rapidly due to contact with a pre-existing network of infective hyphae.
The number of spores in soil is correlated with soil factors such as pH, phosporus, potassium,
organic matter and texture. In arid, semi-arid and waste soils, the results of studies conducted
so far indicate that the number ofVAM fungal spores are comparatively lower, and this may
be attributed to sparse vegetation.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE VA MYCORRHIZAL COLONIZATION
A range of factors influence V A mycorrhizal colonization in host roots and these include
226
the following.
Temperature
Temperature has been shown to have a significant influence on the colonization and
sporulation of VAM endophytes in nature. Higher temperature results in greater root
colonization and increased sporulation of VAM fungi which also increases the rate of
photosynthesis, transpiration and translocation of photosynthate in plants. In arid regions
VAM fungi provide nutrition to the plant and are able to tolerate extreme temperatures. At
lower temperatures (15°C) there was reduced production of shoot dry matter, as well as
enhanced nodule production in tripartite associations (Glycine-Bradyrhizobium-Glomus
mosseae). Soil temperature has an influence on all three stages of mycorrhizal development,
i.e. spore germination, hyphal penetration of the root and proliferation within the cortical cells
of the root.
Light
Under shade, VAM colonization, spore production and plant growth was highly reduced.
This may be due to reduced spread of internal hyphae within root tissues and restricted growth
of extramatrical hyphae in the soil (Srivastava et aI., 1996). Day length has been shown to
stimulate development of VA mycorrhizal colonization (Furian and Fortin, 1977; Daft and EI-
Giahmi, 1978). The growth of VAM fungi and plants is reduced by decrease in photon
irradiance (Pearson et aI., 1991).
Air Pollution
Sulphur dioxide (S02)' nitrogen oxide (N02) and ammonia (NH3) are major pollutants of
air. Ammonium sulphate is the most important air pollutant with high NH3 emission. Heijne
et aI. (1994) reported that VAM colonization of Allium montana and Helianthus pilosella was
not affected by increasing ammonium sulphate. They also suggested that colonization by
VAM increases with increased ammonia concentration. The rate of colonization by VAM
remains unchanged with increasing ozone levels. Increased ozone concentration results in an
increase in the frequency of vesicles, hyphal coils and internal mycelium in sugar maple while
there is a decrease in the number of arbuscules (Duckmanton and Wider, 1994).
Soil Characteristics
Removal of surface soil layers mainly by water erosion decreased markedly both the
number of propagules of VAM fungi and the extent of mycorrhiza formation. Nadian (1996)
reported that the pore size of soil affects VAM colonization, and increase in the soil bulk
density due to soil compaction leads to increased mycorrhizal colonization in Trifolium
subterraneum. In contrast, Entry et aI. (1996) reported that soil compaction has no effect on
mycorrhizal colonization in com roots.
Soil moisture and soil pH also influence VAM fungal spore germination. VAM
colonization in roots of Oryzopsis hymenoides is known to stimulate growth and increase
tolerance to extreme conditions such as draught and chilling (Kothari et aI., 1990). Delayed
germination of Glomus caledonium, Gigaspora calospora and Acaulospora laevis at 2.2 MPa
was reported but germination was higher at 1.4 MPa.
227
Rainfall
In the dry season rainfall affects the VA mycorrhizal fungi either directly or indirectly.
Rainfall affects the infectivity of propagules and nutrient availability and limits the overall
quantity of fungi and their colonization in roots (Braungerger et al., 1994).
Chemical Fertilizers
Agro-chemicals are extensively used to control soil- and air-borne fungal pathogens, and
this has an impact on the development of VAM fungi. However, studies on the effect of
different fungicides, both systemic and non-systemic, on VAM colonization do not show a
consistent trend. According to some reports the population dynamics of VAM fungi are
inversely affected more by fungicides than by herbicides, nematicides and insecticides
(Tommerup and Briggs, 1981; Trappe et aI., 1984). Addition of chemical fertilizers has been
found to decrease the level of mycorrhizal colonization in a variety of crops. It is also reported
that some species of VAM fungi, unlike others, are able to colonize roots with large additions
of phosphate (Thompson et ai., 1986). However, Anderson et al. (1987) found that adding
phosphate fertilizers had no effect while Hayman et al. (1975) found a decrease in the level of
mycorrhizal infection.
Crop Rotation
The effects of crop rotation on the density of VAM fungi have also been investigated.
More spores have been found in continuously cropped soils than in soils maintained as clean
fallows (Thompson, 1987). Similarly, greater mycorrhizal colonization was recorded in
continuous crops than in crops grown after a fallow (Black and Tinker, 1979; Thompson,
1987).
BENEFICIAL ASPECTS AND APPLICATION OF V AM FUNGI
V AM in Phosphorus Uptake
Mycorrhizal colonization enhances plant growth by increasing uptake of nutrients by

increasing the absorbing surface area and by mobilizing available nutrient sources (Bolan,
1991). Various forms ofP present in soil have a very low solubility and the concentration of
phosphorus in soluble forms is extremely low, viz. up to 0.5 micromoles/litre in forest soils
and up to 1.5 micromoles/litre in cultivated soils. The organic and insoluble mineral
phosphorus, which constitutes the greater part of the phosphorus in soil, is not available to
plants. Since phosphorus has a very low mobility a zone of extremely low concentration is
formed in the vicinity of the roots. Deficiency of phosphorus leads to a number of symptoms
and inhibits survival of plants. Available reports suggest that VAM colonization increases the
growth of plants significantly by improving P nutrition. Enhanced phosphorus uptake by
Sorghum plants was found when inoculated with VAM fungi.
Literature reports suggest that increased concentration of phosphorus in VA mycorrhizal
plants may be due to (i) increased physical exploration of the soil (Tinker, 1978), (ii) increase
in movement of phosphorus into VAM fungal hyphae (Bolan et aI., 1987), (iii) modified root
environment by VAM fungi (Hoffland et al., 1989), (iv) increased storage of absorbed
phosphorus (Martin et al., 1983), and (v) efficient utilization of phosphorus within the plant
(Lambert et aI., 1979).
Lambert et ai. (1979) also noticed that one maize line grew better when colonized by a
228
mycorrhizal fungus and produced more dry weight at any concentration of phosphorus in plant
tissue than non-mycorrhizal plants. However, Stribley et ai. (1980) found that mycorrhizal
plants produce less dry weight at a given phosphorus concentration in shoots than non-
mycorrhizal plants when soluble phosphate has been added. These results led to the
observation that VA mycorrhizal plants may use more carbon for the growth of photosynthetic
tissue.
V AM in Nitrogen Uptake
Improvement of the nitrogen status of the host is one of the ecologically significant
consequences of mycorrhizal association. VAM fungal hyphae have the ability to extract
nitrogen and transport it from soil to plant due to the increased absorption surface provided by
the mycorrhizal fungi. Nitrogen exists in many forms, namely free nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite,
ammonium ions and organic nitrogen. Ammonium constitutes a significant proportion of the
inorganic nitrogen pool at low pH. Ammonium is less mobile in soil because it is fixed in the
lattice of clay minerals and absorbed to negatively charged clay minerals. V A mycorrhizal
hyphae transport such immobile ammonium to plant roots (Bowen, 1987).
Mycorrhizal association enhances nitrogen gain by increasing nitrogen fixation rates of
the plant-N-fixing bacterial association. VA mycorrhizae make a significant contribution to
the growth of nitrogen-fixing legumes by increasing the uptake of phosphorus by plants
(Mosse, 1973; Rhodes and Gerdemann, 1975). The tripartite symbiosis of the leguminous
plants with rhizobium and VAM fungi aids plant acquisition of two vital elements, i.e. nitrogen
and phosphorus (Hayman, 1982). Dual inoculation of plants with VAM and rhizobia cause
an increase in shoot dry weights and mycorrhizal colonization of roots (Sengupta and
Chaudhri, 1995). Nitrogen fixed by soybeans was transported to maize through VA
mycorrhizae and significantly increased growth and nitrogen status in the maize plants.
V AM in Micronutrients Absorption
Micronutrients are also very important for the proper growth and development of plants.
The micronutrients include copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, cobalt and cadmium.
Mycorrhizal plants are known to accumulate greater amounts of some micronutrients,
especially under conditions oflow soil nutrient availability (Gerdemann, 1975; Smith, 1980;
Faber et aI., 1990). VA mycorrhizal plants showed higher absorption of nutrients, which was
attributed to a wider exploration of the soil volume by the extended extramatricular mycelium
and higher uptake of water (Safir et aI., 1971). A number of workers reported increased zinc
uptake due to mycorrhizal inoculation in several plants such as field bean (Kucey and Janzen,
1987); maize, (Kothari et aI., 1991); pigeonpea (Wellings et aI., 1991); wheat (Thompson,
1990); linseed (Thompson, 1994) and Leucaena sp. (Manjunath and Habte, 1988). VA
mycorrhizal inoculation also increases the uptake of copper (Li et aI., 1991) and zinc and
copper concentration in shoots and roots of the plants (Lambert and Weidensaul, 1991; Sharina
et aI., 1992).
V AM in Biocontrol of Plant Pathogens
Biocontrol of plant pathogens is currently accepted as key practice in sustainable

agricultural systems and forestry, because it is based on the management of natural resources
which develop antagonistic activities against harmful organisms. Many workers suggest that
different microbes present in the rhizosphere reduce survival of soil-borne pathogens (Hwang,
1992). Host plants previously inoculated with the VAM fungi exhibited increased resistance
to several soil-borne root pathogens (Jalali and Jalali, 1991; Shukla et al., 1996; Trotta et aI.,
229
1996). Pyrenochaeta terristris, which causes root disease of onion, showed reduced effects
when these plants were inoculated with VAM fungi. Rice plants inoculated with VAM fungi
showed increased resistance to stem and sheath blight diseases caused by Sclerotium and
Rhizoctonia solani respectively. Besides these, VAM fungi are also known to reduce
nematode and bacterial diseases (Morandi 1996; Garcio-Garrido and Ocampo, 1989).
V AM in Agriculture
India is one of the poorest countries with a population growing at a rate of 1.8% per year,
thus enhancing the demand for food, fuel wood, fodder, fibres, timber and other agricultural
and forest products. During the last five years, efforts have been made to achieve increased
production through the introduction of high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, but these components have been introduced without taking their side effects into
account. Due to intensive use of these components the soil and groundwater become
contaminated with pollutants such as nitrates and phosphates. These pollutants cause the
formation of barren lands after a few years and there are frequent crop losses. Thus, scientists
have begun to use organic fertilizers or traditional agricultural implements which do not harm
the environment and maintain environmental balance.
Deficiency in phosphorus is one of the major factors limiting crop growth in the tropics.
Phosphorus is often present at low concentrations in the soil solution in comparison with other
major nutrients and it diffuses only slowly in the soil environment (Lewis and Quirk 1965;
Lewis and Koide, 1990). Due to high pH of soil the fertilizers applied become unusable
because of chemical reactions. It is estimated that 75% of the phosphorus applied to the crops
is not utilized by plants but is converted to forms unavailable to the plants (Mosse, 1973).
VAM fungi are very beneficial microorganisms under these conditions and are often used
to increase the efficiency of phosphate fertilizers in agriculture. VAM fungi enhance
phosphorus uptake and compensate for the low concentration of phosphate by exploring a large
volume of soil by creating a greater surface area for phosphorous uptake. VAM fungi colonize
tropical forage legumes and grasses growing in both natural and cultivated environments
(Safir, 1986). VAM fungi also play an important role in conservation of soil and are thus
regarded as 'biological fertilizers'. Positive effects of VAM fungi on the growth of
Centrosema, Andropogon, Stylosanthes, Pueraria, Brachiaria and Siratro have been reported
(Crush, 1974; Lopes, 1980; Mossae, 1973).
There are several promising tropical forage species for which effects of mycorrhizal fungi
have been studied. The tropical pastures programme of Centre International de Agricultura
Tropical (CIAT) is screening a range oflegume and grass germplasm for cultivation in well
drained tropical savannahs of South America for the presence of VAM fungi. The soil of this
region is characterized by acidity and infertility and here VA mycorrhizal fungi can play an
important role in nutrient uptake (Safir, 1984; Salinas et ai., 1985). Marginal agricultural soils
can be made more productive by the addition of selective strains of mycorrhizal fungi to the
soils. Several workers have demonstrated that plant species and even cultivars of the same
species can differ in their dependence on mycorrhizae.
Besides agriculture, VAM fungi also give excellent results with ornamentals and
flowering plants. Woody ornamentals like Liquidamber, Ampelopsis etc. give excellent results
when inoculated with VAM fungi (Gianinazzi et ai., 1990). VAM colonization also gives
better performance to other plants like Berberis, Chamaecyparis, Tegetis etc. and vegetable
crops such as Asparagus, Leek and Onion (Gianinazzi et ai., 1986, 1989). Successful
establishment of VAM fungi has been reported in a variety of rooting media comprising sand,
gravel, peat, expanded clay, pumice, perlite, bark, vermiculite or mixtures of these materials
(Menge, 1983; Dehne and Backhaus, 1986).
230
VAM in Afforestation
Approximately 35% of the earth's dry lands are deserts spreading over 100 nations. In
India about 6% of the land biomass has attained desertification in the form of vast expanses
of arid, semi-arid and waste tracts. The adverse and unfavourable soil texture of arid land
results in a net deficit of forest biomass production and creates unproductive barren land areas
(Mukerji et al., 1996; Dixon et al., 1997). In these regions crop yields are very low due to poor
supply of nutrients (Bagyaraj and Verma, 1995). Phosphorus concentration is also very low
in these areas.
Fertilizer expenditure in agriculture and forestry is a major expense to the farmers and
forestry managers. With diminishing reserves of high quality raw materials and with escalating
energy costs there is a need to develop sUstainable agricultural and forestry technologies which
will require low fertilizer inputs. This can also be made more effective by adding efficient
strains of VAM fungi to the soil. VA mycorrhizal fungi are tremendously efficient in
converting infertile soils to fertile soils.
The importance of mycorrhizae in the successful development of severely disturbed lands
was also observed by Allen and Allen (1980). The management and use of V AM fungi is very
effective for afforestation in tropical soils. Our experimental results suggest that the
inoculation of seedlings at the pre-transplanted nursery stage with V AM fungi contributes to
the successful establishment of these seedlings in the field (Mukerji et al., 1996). Fast-growing
leguminous trees such as Sesbania sesban, S. grandifllora and Leucaena lucocepllala show
a three-fold increase in biomass production with higher acid and alkaline phosphate activities
by V AM inoculation (Jagpal and Mukerji, 1991 a,b; Girl, 1997). An increase in total biomass
of Albizia lebbek on V AM colonization was also reported (Kaushik and Kaushik, 1995).
Mukerji et al. (1996) found enhanced growth of inoculated juvenile seedlings of multipurpose
tree species (MPTS) and their successful primary establishment in tropical soil and suggested
that V AM fungi are potential 'biofertilizers' for the development of arid and semi-arid lands.
CONCLUSIONS
VA mycorrhizal colonization affects symbiosis and depends on the interaction between

the mycosymbiont, V AM fungal species, edaphic factors and environment. Inoculation of tree
seedlings with V A mycorrhizal fungal spores increases the growth and primary establishment
of seedlings. The significant increase in biomass and percentage mycorrhizal colonization of
inoculated seedlings strongly suggest the potential uses of VAM fungi. For the improvement
oflarge tracts of arid, semi-arid, waste and barren lands in India, and the sustainable utilization
of forest and agricultural products, these V AM fungi could be used as biofertilizers in the
future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the grant received from DBT.
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Wellings, N.P. and Thompson, J.P., 1991, Effects ofVAM and P fertilizers rate on Zn fertilizers requirements
of linseed, in: Proc. Second Asian Conference on Mycorrhiza (I. Soerianegara, Supriyanto, eds.),
SEAMEO-BIOTROP, Indonesio, pp. 143-152.
234
MYCORRHIZAL ALLELOPATHY IN TRIGONELLA FOENUM GRACEUM
Rajni Gupta and K.G. Mukerji

Delhi University
Delhi-l 00 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Plant root exudates are important as they influence soil nutrient availability both directly
and indirectly through the activity of the microbial biomass (Helal and Sauerbeck, 1984; Jones
et aI., 1994). Hiltner (1904) coined the term 'rhizosphere' to describe the zone of soil
surrounding the roots of legumes in relation to symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. For the
microbial biomass in the rhizosphere however exudates, in addition to secretions, lysates and
gases, released from the plant roots provide an available substrate to support growth (Bowen
and Rovira, 1991).
For several decades agricultural production has come to depend on a wide array of
chemical inputs which have been developed to control a complex of weeds, insects and other
disease-causing organisms. The use of these chemicals is mostly evaluated in terms of their
efficacy in controlling pests, lowering yield losses and increasing output and profitability of
the cropping system. However, there is growing evidence to indicate that the continuous use
of these chemicals threatens the ability of agriculture to sustain production in the future. The
excessive and improper use of synthetic agro-chemicals has created a number of different
problems (Jackson et al., 1984). The emphasis in agriculture has been shifting recently from
an objective of maximising short-term production and profit to a perspective that also
considers the ability of the agricultural system to maintain productive capacity in the long term.
Sustainable agriculture has been defined as agriculture that is simultaneously ecologically
sound, economically viable and socially responsible.
Allelopathy
Molish (1937) coined the term 'allelopathy' to describe biochemical interactions between
all types of plants including microorganisms. He defined allelopathy as any direct or indirect
harmful effect of one plant on another through production of chemical compounds that escape

into the environment.
Recent reviews on allelopathy have indicated several potential applications of allelopathic
plants or the chemicals produced by them in the maintenance of sustainable agriculture.
Natural products play important roles in plant resistance to insects, nematodes and pathogens.
Numerous phytotoxic secondary products have been isolated and identified from higher plants.
Introduction of these compounds into the environment occurs by exudation of volatiles from
living plants, leaching of water and soluble toxins from aerial plant parts or subterranean
tissues or by release of toxins from non-living plant materials.
The exploitation of allelopathic crops and the chemicals they produce has been proposed
as an additional strategy for weed suppression in several agro-ecosystems (Putnam and
Defrank, 1983). Some allelopathic crop plants have already been used experimentally in weed
control (Rice, 1984). Leather (1983) found one of the thirteen genotypes of the cultivated
sunflower to be strongly allelopathic to several weeds. In a five year field study with oats and
sunflowers grown in rotation, the weed density was significantly less than in control plots with
oats only. Putnam and Defrank (1979) tested the residues of several fall and spring planted
crops with high levels of allelochemical production, and their use in weed control has been
well demonstrated (Barnes and Putnam, 1982). The exploitation of crop plants with increased
allelochemical production could limit the need for conventional herbicides for weed
management.
Recently, there has been an increasing demand for natural pesticides for pest management.
These natural pesticides are the secondary metabolites of plants and microorganisms. The
family Meliaceae in particular has yielded the most promising chemicals with dramatic effects
on the feeding, growth and development of insects. A potent insecticide, azadirachtin has been
isolated from the leaves and fruits of the neem tree in India (Azadirachta indica) and from
species of Melia in China (Jacobson, 1988).
Allelopathy is separate from competition, which involves the removal or reduction of
some factors from the environment that are required by other plants sharing the habitat.
Factors which may be reduced include water, minerals, food and light. Muller (1969)
suggested the term 'interference' to refer to the overall influence of one plant or
microorganism on another. Interference would thus encompass both allelopathy and
competition. Evidence indicates that allelopathic compounds come from plants by
volatilization, exudation from roots, leachates, and plants residues by rain or by decomposition
of residues. Their toxic effects on the surrounding plants have been reported as stunting of
growth, inhibition of primary roots, increase of secondary roots, inadequate nutrient
absorption, chlorosis, premature leaf abscission, slow maturation, delay or failure of
reproduction and inhibition of seed germination.
Microorganisms compete with each other for food and essential elements in the soil and
around the rhizosphere (Baker, 1981). Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are widespread
in occurrence and because of their potential for crop improvement have been investigated
extensively (Mukerji, 1995). Most soils contain spores or propagules of VAM fungi which
affect the rhizosphere mycoflora of the plant (Bansal and Mukerji, 1994a,b; Mukerji et aI.,
1997). In the present investigation efforts have been made to study the allelopathic effect of
VAM on the rhizosphere of Trigonella foenum graceum. T. foenum graceum belongs to the
family Leguminaceae and grows as a weed in gardens, fields, pastures and road sides. It is also
a good fodder for animals. It is an annual erect weed, with toothed leaflets, and pale yellow
flowers. Pods are 5-8 cm long, with a long persistent beak. Dried leaves of the plant have a
peculiar odour.
For this purpose, the T. foenum graceum was collected randomly from two different sites:
(i) growing as a weed in the Botanical garden and (ii) growing in association with VAM fungi
(e.g. Glomus macrocarpum) in the flower beds. Association of vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi in the roots of this weed was studied following the method of Philips and
236
Hayman (1970). Percent VAM colonization was calculated using Nicolson's simple formula
(1905).
% colonization = No. of segments colonized with VAM x 100

Total no. of segments observed
The VAM fungal spores from the rhizosphere soil of each plant were isolated by
Gerdemann and Nicolson's (1963) wet sieving and decanting technique (Table 1). Spores
were mounted in lactophenol and identified using standard keys (Hall, 1983; Schenck and
Perez, 1990) (Figure 1). Soil dilution and plate count method (Timonin, 1941) was used for
qualitative and quantitative analysis of the microflora in the rhizosphere (Table 2). For this
purpose 100 g each of soil samples were collected from different sites and dilutions were
prepared with D.W., i.e. 1O-t, 10-2, 10-3 and 10-4. Five replicates were prepared for each
dilution then the plates were incubated at 25 ± 2 C for seven days. After this period the fungi
0
present in the petriplates were identified.
Figure 1. A-B: External hyphae present in the treated Trigonellafoenum graceum plant. C: External hyphae
entering in the root of control Trigonella-foenum graceum plant. D: Spore of Glomus macrocarpum.
From Tables 1 and 2 it is clear that mycoflora in the rhizosphere varied in the treated and
control plants. Trigonella is a good partner for VAM fungi and the control plants were densely
237
associated with V AM fungi as extramatrical hyphae, arbuscules, and about 80 spores in 100
g of rhizosphere soil. By comparison, however, in the Trigonella foenum graceum plants
inoculated with Glomus macrocarpum, the roots had 100% arbuscules, densely present internal
hyphae and about 20 vesicles in 1 cm root portions. Furthermore, the number of spores present
was considerably higher at 450 spores in 100 g of rhizosphere soil. From Table 2 it is clear
that Trichoderma viride was present frequently in the Trigonellafoenum graceum inoculated
with Glomus macrocarpum. Relative abundance increased with increase in the concentration
i.e. 0.10, 0.17, 0.30 and 0.49 at 1 x 10- 1, 1 X 10-2, 1 X 10-3 and 1 x 10-4 concentrations
respectively. In the control plants T. viride was totally absent at the 1 x 10. 1 and 1 x 10-2
concentrations but was present at the 1 x 10.3 and 1 x 10-4 concentrations.
Cephalosporium acremonium was also present in the rhizosphere of the treated plants and
the relative abundance also increased with increase in concentration, i.e. 0.20, 0.25 and 0.35
at 10-2, 10-3 and 10-4 concentrations respectively, whilst it was totally absent in the control
plants. Various species of Penicillium were absent in the treated plants, while they were
frequently present in the control plants. This was also the case with various species of
Aspergillus which was abundantly present in the control plants and absent in the treated plants.
Trichoderma viride and Verticillium alba atrum were frequently present in the rhizosphere
of treated Trigonellafoenum graceum. These species are good biocontrol agents, inhibiting
the growth of other fungi and bacteria. Along with mycorrhizal fungi, plant exudates also
affect the flora of the rhizosphere. Mallik and Zhu (1995) studied the effect of leaf extract of
kalmia with mycorrhizal fungi on the germination of Black Spruce seeds. They also reported
the failure and reduction in mycorrhizal formation by some isolates due to the toxicity of the
extracts affecting mycorrhizal colonization by restricting host fungus contact. Blum (1995)
studied the plant microbe soil system in relation to root exudates. Phenols present in the root
also affect the presence of microflora in the soil.
External hyphae of V AM fungi provide a physical or nutritional substrate for bacteria.
Analysis of the rhizosphere soil ofVAM (Glomusfasciculatum) and non-V AM Tomato plants
(Lycopersicon esculentum) by Bagyaraj and Menge (1978) showed that greater populations of
bacteria and actinomycetes occurred in the mycorrhizosphere, compared with the non-
inoculated control. The microbial effect was clearly time-dependent and dynamic, changing
as the plants developed. McAllister et al. (1995), while studying the interaction between
saprophytic fungi (Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma koningii, Fusarium solani and Glomus
mossae), observed that G. mossae decreased the fungal popUlation through its effect on the
plant. Mycorrhizal association significantly changes the physiology and morphology of roots
and plants in general which in tum causes a new microbial equilibrium to be established.
These changes presumably involve the same type of organisms as were involved in the
rhizosphere before formation of mycorrhizae but quantitative changes occur within these types
as a result of direct metabolic interaction with the mycorrhizal fungal hyphae or spores, or the
indirect effect mediated by the host (Lindermann, 1988).
Microbial Substrates in the Rhizosphere
Rovira et al. (1983) listed five main sources of rhizosphere substrates ranging from
exudates and secretions from intact cells to mucilage of plant origin to lysates from senescing
cells. Microbial growth in the rhizosphere is stimulated by the continual input of readily
assimilable organic substrates from the root. In ecological terms, the substrate from the roots
is the product of photosynthesis and is thus primary productivity and the utilization of these
organic substrates by rhizosphere microorganisms results in secondary productivity. In tum,
these microorganisms can influence the plant as primary producer. Lynch (1990) classified
the four groups of chemical components coming from roots depending on their mode of
arrival.
238
Table 1. Presence of different structure ofVAM fungi in Trigonellafoenum graceum with different treatment.
Treatment Ex. hyphae lnt. hyphae Appressoria Arbuscules Vesicles Number No. of spores per 100 g
formation rhizosphere
Control DP LP A 40% 02 80
Glomus LP DP P 100% 20 450

macrocarpum
A Absent
P Present
DP Densely present
LP Less present
tv
\0
'"
tv
0
"'"
Table 2. Relative abundance and percentage frequency of various fungi present in the rhizosphere of both treated and control plants.
Mycorrhizal Non-mycorrhizal
(Concentration of Rhizos2here Soil) (Concentration of Rhizos2here Soil)
Fungal species 10. 1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10- 1 10-2 10-3 10-4
RA F RA F RA F RA F RA F RA F RA F RA F
Aspergillus jlavus 0 0.08 100 0.07 100 0.09 100 0.09 100
A. niger 0.06 100 0.09 100 0.10 100 0.10 100 0.49 100 0.11 100 0.04 100
A. paradoxsus 0.06 100 0.04 100
A_ sydowii 0.11 100
Alternaria alternata 0.125 100 0.34 100
Cladosporium 0.23 100 0.24 100 0.25 100 0.14 100 0.22 100 0.30 100
herbarum
Cephalosporium 0.20 100 0.25 100 0.35 100

acremonium
Mucor racemosus 0.13 100 0.13 100 0.10 100 0.15 100 0.18 100 0.09 100
Penicillium nigricans 0.13 25 0.03 50 0.04 50
P. funiculosum 0.03 50 0.09 50 0.09 100 0.05 50
Trichoderma viride 0.10 100 0.17 50 0.30 100 0.49 100 0.23 50 0.29 50
Xanthomonas 0.13 100
RA - Relative abundance
F - Percentage frequency
(i) Water soluble exudates, such as sugars, amino acids, organic acids, hormones and
vitamins which leak out from the root without the involvement of metabolic energy.
(ii) Secretions, such as polymeric carbohydrates and enzymes which depend upon metabolic
processes for their release.
(iii) Lysates, released when cells autolyse including cell walls and, with time, whole roots.
(iv) Gases, such as ethylene and carbon dioxide.
These groupings cover all stages of plant growth and development with the balance of
these various processes changing with the age of plant. This can range from the release of
simple sugars during membranae re-organization of the embryo during seed germination (Hale
and Moore, 1979) through to root cortical death in the mature plant followed by whole root
senescence. Addition of microorganisms generally increases the carbon loss. These types of
rhizodeposition have been analysed quantitatively and qualitatively by chemical analytical
techniques (Lee and Gaskins, 1982).
Another aspect of rhizodeposition concerns the involvement of symbiotic root inhabitants
such as rhizobium and mycorrhizae. Legumes benefit from Rhizobium infection by improved
nitrogen nutrition from nitrogen-fixation and the majority of plants benefit from mycorrhizae
by improved mineral nutrition, particularly of phosphorus, and by drought tolerance. In return
the heterotrophs gain organic material from the endorhizosphere. Studies on vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizal infections indicate that conditions which increase permeability of roots
or exudation lead to increased infection (Graham et al., 1981).
Once synthesized, the cost of maintaining VA mycorrhizae in terms of extra carbohydrate
moved to the roots is approximately 6-11 % net fixed carbon (Koch and Johnson, 1984). In
experiments with Vicia faba plants, it was shown that nodulated root systems of V A
mycorrhizal plants fixed more nitrogen than nodulated root systems of non-mycorrhizal plants.
The plants may compensate for the cost of these symbionts by increasing rates of
photosynthesis or by changing morphological characteristics to increase specific leaf area
(Harris et al., 1985). Greater amounts of carbon are transferred to roots with ectomycorrhizae
compared with non-mycorrhizal plants (12-22 % total fixed carbon in Pine) and this is also
partially compensated for by increased rate of photosynthesis (Ried et al., 1983). Such large
inputs of carbon to the roots may seem wasteful but in ecological terms they may enable plants
to grow where they otherwise could not. Photosynthetic compensation can occur and in
situations where lack of nutrients or environmental conditions limit growth, plants may have
excess source potential (Herold, 1980).
Uptake and Translocation of Nutrients by Roots
Rhizosphere microorganisms influence the uptake and translocation of plant nutrients by

the roots. Barber (1966, 1967) found that microbes competed with the roots for phosphate,
resulting in reduced transport to the tops of barley seedlings. Krasilinikov (1958) and Bowen
and Rovira (1966,1968) reported that more phosphate was taken up, incorporated into DNA
phosphate and RNA phosphate and translocated to the tops by non-sterile wheat roots than by
sterile wheat roots. Barber and Martin (1976) found that decreased or increased uptake by non-
sterile roots depends upon age, nutrition and species of plants, the origin of microflora, the
concentrations of phosphate and the duration of the experiment. The rhizosphere microflora
has also been demonstrated to increase the uptake of manganese and potassium by cereal roots
(Barber and Lee, 1974; Williamson and Wyn Jones, 1973). These effects of microorganisms
on root growth, root morphology, root hair development, uptake and translocation of nutrients
to plant tops highlight the importance of the rhizosphere microflora in plant nutrition and the
need for multidisciplinary research.
241
Plant Growth Promotion
Reports from the USSR of large increases in yield from the treatment of seed with
Azotobacter chroococcum led to the assumption that these increases were due to non-symbiotic
nitrogen-fixation in the rhizosphere. By 1958, 10 million hectares were sown with seed treated
either with Azotobacter or Phosphobacteriam. The results were positive in greenhouse crops:
the wheat and tomato responded to seed treatment by flowering earlier and increasing yields
(Rovira, 1963). Elklund (1970) showed that plant growth-promoting compounds, probably
gibberellic acid and indole acetic acid, are produced by a range of bacteria including species
of Azotobacter, Bacillus and Pseudomonas and are responsible for better development.
Schroth and coworkers have demonstrated the widespread nature of plant growth-promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR's) (Kloepper et al., 1980), emergence promoting rhizobacteria and their
effects on seed germination, plant growth and yield (Kloepper et al., 1986). Mycophagous
protozoa, nematodes and microarthropods have been demonstrated to interact with and in some
cases control root pathogens, e.g. Rhizoctonia solani (Curl, 1979) and Gaeumannomyces
graminus (Chakraborty and Warcup, 1983).
In agricultural soil, nutrient availability is a limiting factor for microbial growth and
activity. Consequently, most microorganisms, including pathogenic fungi, exist in a state of
exogenous dormancy of fungistasis (Lockwood, 1977). Propagules of soil-borne fungi that
arise from fungal thalli developing on and in infected plant tissues during pathogenesis, as well
as those propagules released into soil upon decomposition of plant residues, are susceptible
to fungistasis. However fungi stasis suppression can be readily overcome once propagules are
supplied with appropriate organic and inorganic stimuli (Lockwood, 1988).
The stimulants most commonly introduced into the soil environment that alleviate
fungi stasis are components of seed and root exudates released during seed germination and
root development. The majority of host-parasite interactions in soil do not occur without the
release of such stimuli (Curl and Truelove, 1986). Therefore, knowledge of the molecules
involved in the activation of quiescent fungal propagules by seed and root exudates and
understanding of the initiation and control of seed and root infections by soil-borne pathogens
is of prime importance. Inoculation of decomposing roots with Trichoderma viride has been
found to reduce the release of their allelopathic chemicals (Burgosleon et al., 1980). There are
several studies which indicate that the release of allelochemicals from higher plants is
inhibitory to root rot pathogens. Root exudates of some plants favour the establishment of
rhizosphere microorganisms which are antibiotic to the soil-borne pathogens (Jackson 1965).
P-courmaric, syringic and ferulic acids found in the soil of Alnus rubra are inhibitory to Poria
weirii, the root rot pathogen. Such non-host plants which release adequate quantities of
allelochemicals may be exploited as inter-cropping plants for the control of plant diseases.
Most of the allelochemicals involved in the resistance of hosts to pathogens fall in the
category of phytoncides. These are generally divided into two categories: (i) secondary
compounds generally present in the host but which may increase subsequent to infection; and
(ii) phytoalexins, new compounds formed only after infection (Kuc, 1966; Ingham, 1972).
Such compounds render the plants resistant to disease.
Using modem biotechnological techniques the allelochemicals of the resistant varieties
should be incorporated into the susceptible ones through genetic manipulation and this will
certainly decrease the demand for chemical pesticides.
CONCLUSIONS
Formation of mycorrhizae is the rule, not the exception. When the symbiosis is
established, very significant morphological and physiological changes take place in the plant,
242
and significant changes occur in the mycorrhizosphere soil. The microbial composition in the
soil reaches a new equilibrium as a result of the selective pressure induced by mycorrhizae.
For this reason, mycorrhizae should be considered a fundamental component in rhizosphere
studies. Mycorrhizal fungi are present in most soils, but their establishment may be delayed
due to cultural practices or to distribution of scarce inoculum in the soil. Other beneficial
microbes could be added to the inoculum to enhance further the growth and health of plants
due to increased nitrogen fixation, biological control of disease, nutrient acquisition potential
and drought tolerance.
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rhizosphere and their effects on maize, tomato and wheat, Plant and Soil 19: 304-314.
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244
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245
STORAGE FUNGI IN EDIBLE AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES
Anjula Pandey and K.G. Mukerji

University of Delhi
Delhi-110 007
India
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays an important role in the national economy of a country. A great

emphasis on pre-and post-harvest technologies in recent years has gained much attention and
has resulted in a steady increase in agricultural production. However, materials under storage
frequently undergo deterioration due to infestation by various pests and pathogens.
The deterioration of stored materials is a complex process which is influenced by several
biotic and abiotic environmental factors as well as the physico-chemical nature of the plant
produce. The population of microorganisms in storage is greatly influenced by abiotic factors
such as temperature, relative humidity, substrate moisture content and pH. Temperature is an
important factor which controls the rate of metabolism, growth, development and reproduction
of microorganisms; very low temperatures are fatal to them.
Among the major biotic factors in the storage of edible commodities, fungal
contamination appears to be responsible for most of the problems related to quality
deterioration. However, if those conditions which are favourable for fungal growth are
avoided, their proliferation can be controlled and the quality of the stored material maintained.
STORAGE FACTORS
The hot and humid climate of tropical countries provides favourable conditions for the
growth of a wide variety of microorganisms which cause rapid deterioration of materials. The
fungi play an important role in the spoilage of a wide range of economically useful products
(Allsopp and Allsopp, 1983; Eggins and Allsop, 1975; Garg et al., 1993).
High temperature and humidity seem to favour the incidence of basal rot in onion bulbs
(Dwivedi et al., 1995). Chilli fruits stored under humid conditions are attacked by a number
of storage fungi, for example Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, A. candidus, A. niger, A.

sclerotium, Paecilomyces variotii and P. corylophilum which were isolated from most
deteriorated fruits (Prasad, 1997).
Abiotic factors such as temperature, relative humidity and substrate moisture are
responsible for competition of A. jlavus with other storage fungi in different seasons.
Choudhary and Sinha (1993) studied such competition and established a correlation between
these toxigenic isolates with that of aflatoxin fungal incidence: 63% in the monsoon season,
and 52% in winter which corresponded to maximum aflatoxin B J accumulation levels in
monsoon (1360 .uglkg) with a 33% reduction in winter. There exists a direct correlation
between storage mycoflora and toxin contents in the stored material. The major storage fungi
in cashew nut and quince apple (dry fruit slices) are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
Chaetomium and Cladosporium which under humid conditions are responsible for
deterioration and toxin accumulation (Giridhar and Reddy, 1997; Sharma and Sumbali, 1997).
In general more acidic tissues are attacked by fungi while those having a pH above 4.5 are
more commonly infected by bacteria (Desai et aI., 1986).
FUNGAL COLONIZATION AND INVASION UNDER STORAGE
The storage fungi not only remain on the surface of infected tissue but also invade the
outer layers and internal tissues, causing damage in cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables,
oilseeds, dry fruits and nuts, spices and condiments, masticatories and other products.
In the case of cereals, storage fungi may even invade the seed before harvest and cause
embryo damage which subsequently leads to low germination or poor seedling growth (Fields
and King, 1962). In pepper (Piper nigrum) most of these fungi can apparently invade the outer
layer of the fruit before harvest despite its pulpy flesh and heavy skin. Christensen et al.
(1967) suggested that the nature of the pepper fruit might not allow the invasion of storage
fungi before harvest. However, it seems probable that aflatoxin-producing aspergilli can
colonize the fruits during their development. Faulty practices such as incorrect harvesting,
improper drying and storage conditions and poor quality processing may also result in such
contamination in storage (Banerjee et aI., 1993).
The onion is an important bulb crop which is affected by a number of fungal diseases
(Neergaard, 1977; Richardson, 1990; Walker, 1952). Of the important pathogens, Fusarium
oxysporum causes bottom or basal rot under storage (Abawi and Lorbeer, 1971; Dwivedi et aI.,
1995; Mishra and Rath, 1986; Surnnar and Gay, 1984). The 'Black Mould' of onion is yet
another major storage problem associated with heavy colonization by Aspergillus niger. The
growth and sporulation of this fungus is pronounced on the stem plate (?) and in between the
outer scales of the first foliage. Fungal colonization results in wet rot of the bulb (Dwivedi et
aI., 1995).
The causal storage fungus F. oxysporum, responsible for basal rot or soft rot, becomes
associated with the bulbs in the field as a result of direct infection and this continues even
further during storage (Abawi and Lorbeer, 1971). The heavily infected bulbs become
shrivelled and pulpy with basal rot. Cottony fungal growth in the basal and upper parts, rarely
on the outer dry scales, is indicative of the vertical spread of the fungus (Dwivedi et al., 1995).
Several cultivars of Cucurbita maxima and C. moschata have been found to be invaded
by fungi during storage. Among these, Fusarium culmorum, F. solani and Didymella bryoniae
are the major infectants (Hawthorne, 1988). Owing to their high moisture content and tender
nature, vegetables and fruits pose a characteristic post-harvest problem. High moisture content
makes them difficult and expensive to conserve as dry products, and they are metabolically
more active than dry products.
Like any other food crop, vegetables and fruits are prone to microbial spoilage due to
fungi, bacteria, yeast and moulds. The succulent nature of these commodities make them
248
easily invaded by the microorganisms. It is estimated that 30 to 40% of vegetable decay is
caused by soft rot bacteria. The sources of infection are soil in the field, water used for
cleaning, surface contact with equipment and the storage environment. The most common
pathogens causing deterioration of vegetables are fungi such as Alternaria, Botrytis, Diplodia,
Monilia, Phomopsis, Penicillium, Rhizopus and Fusarium, and bacteria such as Erwinia,
Ceratocystis and Pseudomonas. While most of the pathogens can invade only damaged tissue,
a few such as Colletotrichum are able to penetrate the skin of healthy storage tissue.
The injured and uninjured rhizomes of Curcuma longer, the turmeric of commerce, are
known to harbour several rhizome rot fungi which become prominent in monsoons and reach
a minimum in summer months in samples collected from different markets (Kumar and Roy,
1990). Similarly the seed rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale) seriously suffers from storage
rot caused by pathogens such as Fusarium and Rhizoctonia (Beena et al., 1997). The handling
of propagating materials after harvest and storage conditions may prove vital in restricting
losses caused by these fungi.
EFFECT OF FUNGAL GROWTH ON QUALITY
The quality of the seed is the major deciding factor in achieving set production targets
(Neergaard, 1977). Deterioration of stored rice seed under seasonal fluctuations has caused
considerable variation in seed viability, mycoflora and seed moisture levels (Mallick and
Nandi, 1982).
Changes in Nutritional Levels
The biochemical changes leading to seed deterioration due to colonization of storage fungi
led to a decrease in carbohydrate contents in most cases (Ghosh and Nandi, 1986). In wheat,
embryo and endosperm damage due to unfavourable storage conditions was observed by
Gajapathy and Kalyanasundaram (1986). Among the cereals stored in bulk in warehouses
wheat is generally more susceptible to damage by storage fungi than milled rice. In wheat, the
protein constitutes 11.1 % and lipid 1.7% as against 7.6% and 0.3% in polished rice. Brown
rice (hulled) is more resistant to storage fungi than the polished rice.
The selective preference of fungi in cereals under storage for different nutrients such as
lipids, proteins and carbohydrates is responsible for quality deterioration. Qualitatively, the
pattern of occurrence of some fungal species, for example A. flavus, A. nidulans and A. niger
on the peripheral layers and A. glaucus, A. candidus and A. terre us in deeper layers is
indicative of this fact. The penicillia were less commonly occurring: only P. citrinum was
found in contaminated materials. It is possible that in the aleurone layer, the nutrient-rich
membrane, species such as A. flavus are the most successful competitors.
Deo and Gupta (1989) observed biochemical changes associated with loss of
germinability. Pea seeds stored at variable temperatures and relative humidity gradually
showed reduction in total nitrogen, proteins, sugars and non-reducing sugars with passage of
storage period; the reducing sugars however increased in quantity. Similar results were
observed by Roy and Chourasia (1990) in stored seeds of Mucuna pruriens under different
relative humidity conditions. Among the major constituents, proteins, phenols and alkaloids
were greatly influenced by Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium citrinum.
Differential capability of storage moulds for secretion of protein hydrolysing enzymes and
invasion in the seeds showed varying patterns of declined protein levels in Sesamum indicum
and sunflower (Helianthus annuus). These enzymes were responsible for protein breakdown
into oligopeptides which further hydrolyse into free amino acids (Pathak, 1988).
249
Toxins and Mould Contamination
Mould contamination and deterioration of foodstuffs and animal feeds are constantly
occurring phenomena (Christensen, 1957, 1972). Association of storage fungi is usually
accompanied by simultaneous production of highly toxic compounds called mycotoxins which
are lethal to man and animals (Bilgrami, 1983; Christensen and Kaufmann, 1969; Dickens and
Jones, 1965; Goldlatt, 1969). Among the most important fungi causing high mammalian
toxicity, A. flavus and A. parasitic us cause deterioration in many agricultural commodities
(Saxena et aI., 1988, 1989). Various species of Fusarium are known to cause storage damage
and toxigenic effects in seeds of sorghum and many other cereals (Gupta, 1996, 1996a). These
highly toxic compounds, mycotoxins, reduce the value of food and make it unsafe for human
consumption.
There are several reports of mould infestation in cereals, legumes, spices and other edible
products where toxins have been reported in storage (Bilgrami et aI., 1985; Biswas et aI. 1989).
Among the spices, pepper (Piper nigrum) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) are
particularly known for their contamination by the storage fungus A. flavus (Banerjee et aI.,
1993; Christensen, 1967; Flanningan and Hui, 1976). Fennel, largely consumed for chewing
purposes, is not free from toxins such as Aflatoxin B1 which is known to cause carcinogenic
effects on humans (Bilgrami et aI., 1985; Rani and Singh, 1989). The natural occurrence of
patulin in dry fruit slices of quince consumed by local people of Jammu and Kashmir was
reported to be as high as 0.25 to 1.425 mg/kg dry fruit weight (Singh and Sumbali, 1997).
As well as materials for human consumption, animal feeds are also not free from storage
mould contamination. Sastry et aI. (1967) reported on groundnut toxicity in murrah buffaloes
in Andhra Pradesh (India). Oilcakes, which constitute a major part of the animal feed, are
generally contaminated by toxigenic strains of A. flavus and are known to contain very high
levels of aflatoxins (Agarwal et al., 1990; Kumar and Singh, 1989). These aflatoxins not only
cause mortality in cattle but also make their milk unsafe for human consumption (Agarwal et
aI., 1990; Anonymous, 1976).
USE OF ALLELOCHEMICALS IN THE CONTROL OF STORAGE FUNGI
Extracts from a number of higher plants are known to have potent inhibitory effects on
plant pathogenic microorganisms. The 'chemicals' present in many plants contain a spectrum
of secondary metabolites which act as natural inhibitors and protect the plant from microbial
invasions. The importance of these substances as antimicrobial agents and their role as
allelochemicals has been stressed by several workers (Mahadevan, 1970, 1979; Roychoudhury
et aI., 1997; Thapliyal and Nene, 1967; Whittakar and Feeny, 1971).
In view of the fact that disease resistance in some plants is due to the presence of these
chemical substances in host tissue to specific pathogens, several plants have been screened for
control of plant diseases when applied in combination or singly. Some examples of such
plants are Argemone mexicana, Zingiber officinale, Azadirachta indica, Calotropis pro cera,
Ocimum sanctum, 0. basilicum, Allium cepa, A. sativum, Curcuma longa and several spices
and condiments (Amer et aI., 1980; Nanir and Kadu, 1987; Prasad and Simlot, 1982).
In countries such as India, where wide climatic variations and improper conditions in grain
storage management exist, several pests and pathogens are reported to cause extensive damage
in stored agricultural commodities (Mishra, 1985). Annual loss due to spoilage of cereals is
estimated to be 10 to 15 percent of total production (Girish and Goyal, 1986). Decomposers
of food grains such as fungi and bacteria exist on the surface of the grain in dormant form and
only invade under favourable conditions.
The use of chemical controls to combat storage associated problems and microbial
250
spoilage of food grain is now commanding greater attention by research workers and
environmentalists (Bankole, 1996; Castro et aI.,1995; Sholberg and Gaunce, 1996). The
reasons are their high cost, residual and environmental deterioration problems, toxicity in
plants and animals and adverse impacts on ecological balance, as well as their adverse effect
on flavours (Deshpande et aI., 1986; Prakash and Kaurav, 1983; Tyagi et aI., 1986).
The use of allelochemicals as antimicrobial agents is an old concept but it has received
considerable attention in recent years. There are several examples in which plant extracts have
been known to control or reduce the growth of microorganisms. Leaf extracts of Pyrus
communis (at 1:250 dilution) have been found to influence the conidial germination of
Venturia inequalis which causes apple scab disease. Similarly Tripathi et aI. (1978) have
reported an antifungal factor against Helminthosporium oryzae in leaves of Lawsonia inermis.
Crude alcohol extracts of Mimosa hamata have been found to possess an antibacterial property
(Hussain et al., 1979). Several species of Croton, particularly C. lacifers, are known to have
antifungal activity against Cladosporium species (Ramesh et aI., 1995). Croton sparsijlorus,
Azadirachta indica and Lawsonia inermis have been tested for their antiseptic and anti-
microbial activity (Acharya et aI., 1964).
Using this concept, Maraghy (1995) investigated the potential of the spices Chinese cassia
(Cinnamomum aromaticum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and thyme (Jhymus vulgaris) to
control storage mould A. jlavus and to inhibit aflatoxin production in seed during storage when
used separately or in combination. In earlier works, Rao and Ratnasudhakar (1992) used the
rhizome powder of Acorus calamus and leaf powder of Azadirachta indica separately and in
combination (1:2 ratio by w/w). The fungal and bacterial population during the storage of rice
was found to be reduced; moreover, there were no adverse effects on the quality of the cooked
rice nor did it have any undesirable odour.
Information on the usefulness of indigenous plant materials in minimising or controlling
the microflora of stored commodities and consequent effects thereon remains scanty. Several
attempts have been made by various workers to explore such plants which could be exploited
(either as crude extracts or in powdered form) to reduce the incidence of micro flora
contamination on different commodities during storage. Their easy availability, low cost and
non-toxic nature has prompted workers to attempt to discover the ideal source of antifungal
material from nature.
IMPACT OF POST-HARVEST METHODS ON STORAGE OF BULBS AND

RHIZOMATOUS CROPS
The effect of humidity on the development of storage fungi is associated with that of
temperature and it operates indirectly through the moisture content of the material.
In recent years Bartali et aI. (1990) and Sinha et aI. (1991) have made some attempts to
find an ideal storage system for cereals. They compared storage pits lined with polythene and
with the traditional straw layer. The mean temperature of the straw-lined pits was consistently
higher than that of the plastic-lined pits. Results in the straw-lined with respect to A. jlavus
infection, loss of germinability etc. were found to be lower as compared with those of the
plastic-lined pits. Similar experiments were carried out by Sinha et al. (1991) with wheat kept
in ventilated conditions during storage. Moist wheat was protected from damage by
Penicillium species, Aspergillus species and bacteria by ventilation which reduced germination
loss and carbon dioxide production.
While investigating the impact of different storage methods, the development of storage
mycoflora and quality deterioration in rhizomatous and bulbous crops was studied. The study
was conducted in experimental plots in the Botanical Gardens, University of Delhi where
turmeric (Curcuma longa) and garlic (Allium sativum) were grown. On maturity the crops
251
were harvested for the edible rhizomes and bulbs respectively, which were stored after post-
harvest processing.
The turmeric rhizomes were given three treatments: storage in plastic containers (P), in
earthen pots (E) and in cardboard boxes (T). In each treatment, freshly harvested samples (F)
were stored besides commercially available market samples (C). The samples were drawn at
regular intervals and screened for presence of storage fungi. Qualitative and quantitative
assessments of the mycoflora were made using the soil dilution and plate methods (Timonin,
1941) using Czapek Dox medium. Similarly for garlic bulbs, samples stored in well aerated
places with leaf base remains on the bulbs (T) were compared to the controls (C) and the ones
without leaf bases.
Earlier, the storage fungi in rhizomes of Curcuma longa from different sources in Delhi
markets were studied by Kumar and Roy (1990). In the storage of Allium cepa (onion), several
storage pathogens have been reported to cause damage and bulb rot (Bhadraiab and Surya Teja,
1997; Pathak, 1988; Ranjan et ai., 1992; Singh and Saba, 1994).
80
70
iii
·~60
iii
E 50
Cl
Gi 40
a.
it 30
0
iii 20
(5
I- 10
0
60 120 180 240 300
Days after storage (DAS)
CP
• FP • CT
• • • FT CE FE
Figure 1. Isolation of mycoflora from turmeric (Curcuma longa) rhizomes under storage (1: 1000 dilution).
C: commercial (market) samples; F: freshly harvested samples; P: plastic containers; T: cardboard boxes;
E: earthen pots.
The turmeric material stored in earthen pots had maximum storage fungi (represented as
colony forming units, CFU) as compared to the plastic containers. The porous and absorbent
walls of the earthen pots allowed the atmospheric humidity to percolate and influence the
fungal growth to a great extent. In contrast, the plastic containers maintained a constantly low
humidity in the samples, so were least infected. In comparison to the freshly harvested
samples in all treatments, the commercial samples were very highly infected until the end of
the summer. This may be due to the smoother and milled rhizome surface of market samples
that was easily attacked by storage fungi. Moreover, the presence of thick rhizome skin (the
peel) in fresh samples protected them from easy invasion by the fungi. However, during
monsoon the relative humidity allowed the fungal spores present in soil-contaminated
rhizomes to germinate and set more infection in freshly harvested samples as compared to
fresh ones (Figure 1). A similar trend was observed by Kumar and Roy (1990) in turmeric and
252
Wallace et al. (1976) and Singh and Saha (1994) in other stored products.
The garlic bulbs with leaf bases stored in a well aerated place showed a consistently
uniform pattern of occurrence of storage fungi on bulbs as compared to the controls (Figure
2). In general the samples with the leaf bases had low infectivity by storage fungi as compared
to those without them. This confirms the role of leaf bases in the protection of cloveslbulbs
from fungal invasion. The post-harvest practice of leaving the leaf bases intact is widely
followed by the farmers for storing garlic bulbs for long-term uses or for seed purposes.
Initially before storing, turmeric was contaminated by various fungi, for example
Penicillium chrysogenum, P. funiculosum, Gliocladium fimbriatum, Alternaria alternaria,
Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum. However, after one year of storage, a remarkable
increase in contamination was evidenced by the appearance of Aspergillus jlavus, A. nidulans,
A. jUmigatus, Fusarium sporotrichioides, Cephalosporium achrimonium, Alternaria solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina, Cladosporium herbarum and Paecilomyces lilacinus. In garlic a
similar trend was observed, although differences were evident both qualitatively and
quantitatively in the storage mycoflora of turmeric and garlic in different storage conditions.
50
~40
.!
1\1
E30
...GltJl
CL
::>20
IL
0
~10
I-
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Days after storage (DAS)
Figure 2. Isolation of mycoflora from garlic (Allium sativum) bulbs under storage (I: 1000 dilution).
C: control (surface sterilized) samples; T: unsterilized samples.
CONCLUSIONS
Deterioration caused by storage fungi leads to poor quality of stored agricultural

commodities and hance poses a great threat to the national economy. The extent of infection
in different materials, their causal organisms and their effects on human health are critical
issues which demand great concern and therefore this information needs to be well
documented to increase public awareness. Much emphasis needs to be laid on manipulations
of the storage environment to combat this problem through effective pre- and post-harvest
operations. The losses can be minimised by adopting the necessary cultural operations, careful
handling and effective storage management practices. The use of appropriate chemicals at pre-
or post-harvest storage may reduce the loss and increase the storage life. Keeping in view the
importance of some antifungal plants in the control of storage fungi, further research needs to
253
be carried out on these with respect to various groups of edible commodities. This would not
only reduce the financial burden of excessive use of expensive chemical fungicides but the
user-friendly, non-residual, low-cost, renewable nature of these antifungal plant materials
would also contribute to environmental protection.
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256
SEED-BORNE MYCOFLORA OF TWO UNDER-EXPLOITED LEGUMES: VIGNA
UMBELLATA AND PSOPHOCARPUS TETRAGONOLOBUS FROM NORTH-
EASTERN PARTS OF INDIA
Vandana Joshi and K.G. Mukerji

University of Delhi
Delhi-ll0 007
India
INTRODUCTION
About ninety percent of all the food crops grown on earth are propagated through seed
(Neergaard, 1977). Seeds thus playa vital role in the total biological yield. However, fungal
deterioration of crop seed has been an established fact for many years (Christensen, 1957;
Christensen and Kaufmann, 1965). Seeds are known to be colonised by various types of fungi
amongst which many are plant pathogens.
The International Seed Testing Association (lSTA) acknowledges the importance of seed-
borne pathogens and makes efforts to improve planting material through testing and
certification of seed. The 1STA published its first list of seed-borne pathogens in 1958 (Noble
et ai., 1958) as part of its Handbook on Seed Health Testing. The latest edition of this list
(Richardson, 1990) includes approximately 1300 organisms which are pathogenic and known
to be seed-borne. The great majority of them are fungi and seed-borne pathogenic fungi have
been reported on 306 host genera in 96 plant families.
Seed-borne fungi can be grouped into: (i) obligate parasites, (ii) facultative saprophytes
and (iii) facultative parasites. For obligate parasites, parasitism is an essential part of their life-
cycles. Facultative saprophytes normally function as parasites but are able to complete their
life-cycles as saprophytes. Of the facultative parasites, many of the fungal genera are known
to cause considerable damage to seeds of food crops. They exist as saprophytes but have the
ability to survive as parasites. These can be divided into field fungi and storage fungi
(Christensen and Kaufmann, 1969; Singh and Mukerji, 1994). Field fungi contaminate or
colonise the seed in the field during ripening and harvesting operations. Species of Fusarium,
Alternaria, Drechslera, Phoma, Curvularia, Epicoccum, Nigrospora, Stemphylium and
Cladosporium are included under the field fungi. Field fungi usually cause seed rot, damping-
off, blights, discolouration and mycotoxin production that damages the seed. Some

mycotoxins also cause diseases in plants that grow from the infected seeds.
Species of Aspergillus and Penicillium are the important storage fungi which develop on
seeds during storage. These fungi occur individually or together in seeds. Aspergillus species
can occur as major pre-harvest pathogens on seeds of many crop species. The predominant
species of storage fungi are Aspergillus restrictus, A. galucus, A. candidus, A. flavus and A.
ochraceus, and Penicillium brevicompactum, P. cyclopium and P. viridicatum. Other genera
of fungi that invade stored seeds are Absidia, Chaetomium, Mucor, Paecilomyces, Rhizopus
and Scopularia.
Among the seed-borne organisms, fungi cause maximum seed damage, for example seed
abortion, shrunken seeds, seed rot, sclerotisation, seed necrosis, seed discolouration, reduced
germination and reduced vigour. A large number of seed-borne fungi produce toxic
metabolites (mycotoxins) which often kill the embryo. Various studies have been carried out
on the production, structure and biological activities of mycotoxins from seed-borne fungi.
These mycotoxins are non-enzymatic substances of low molecular weight and are responsible
for destructive diseases in many food crops (Upadhyay and Mukerji, 1997).
Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium are some of the common genera which
produce mycotoxins (Bokhary and Naguib, 1983). The reduction in germination of seeds, pre-
and post-emergence death and discolouration of seeds are other undesirable effects of seed-
borne fungi (Abou-heilah, 1984; Ashokhan et aI., 1979; Baird et aI., 1996, Bokhary, 1986;
Handoo and Aulakh, 1979; Shafie and Webster, 1981).
Reddy and Reddy (1990) studied the mycotoxins produced by seed-borne fungi of maize
including species of Aspergillus and Fusarium, Trichothecium roseum, Trichoderma viride,
Myrothecium roridum and Penicillium griseofulvum. The toxigenic potential of individual
fungi varied. Tseng et aI. (1995) made a comparative investigation of mycoflora and
mycotoxins in dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). When the seed-borne fungi were isolated and
characterised, Fusarium and Aspergillus were identified as the most probable mycotoxin-
producing fungi (Gupta, 1996).
EFFECT OF STORAGE AND AGEING
After harvesting, seeds are usually stored for different periods depending upon
consumption and transportation. Seeds in storage are subjected to environmental conditions
different from those in the field. This leads to invasion of the seeds by an entirely different set
of organisms which are also largely responsible for the deterioration of seeds in storage.
Deterioration of stored grains by fungi was first investigated by Duvel (1909) and
Shanahan et aI. (1910). Since then, a substantial amount of work has been done (Christensen,
1951, 1955a,b, 1957, 1962, 1973; Christensen and Drechsler, 1954; Christensen and
Kaufmann, 1965, 1969; Gilman and Barron, 1930; Semeniuk and Barre, 1944). Legume seeds
have been shown to harbour a number of fungi (Siddiqui et aI., 1974; Suryanarayan and
Bhombe, 1961).
One very important factor of storage is the heating which almost always occurs
spontaneously in stored grains and causes grain damage. The biochemical changes taking
place in the seeds subsequent to fungal invasion have been reviewed by Christensen (1957).
According to her, the more obvious alterations were increases in fatty acids and reducing
sugars, and decreases in non-reducing sugars. There is found to be loss in organic matter,
increase in fat acidity and decrease in total nitrogen as a result of mould development (Milner,
et aI., 1947; Semeniuk and Barre, 1944).
Maheshwari and Mathur (1987) studied biochemical changes (protein nitrogen, protein
and reducing and non-reducing sugars) in lobia seeds due to certain Aspergillus species (A.
nidulans and A. terre us) under different temperatures (20, 28 or 36 DC) and relative humidities
258
(75, 85 or 95%) and observed that deterioration was increased at higher temperature and
relative humidity. Infection by A. nidulans was more deleterious than infection by A. terre us.
Khairnar and Bhoknal (1990) studied biodeterioration in pearl millet by eleven seed
moulds on surface-sterilised, unautoclaved and autoclaved seeds. They observed that in
unautoclaved seeds, reduction of protein content was caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Curvularia
lunata and Fusarium moniliforme, whilst it was increased by Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus
nigricans. In autoclaved seeds, most of the fungi expect Pythium sp. and Gibberellafujikuroi
caused protein increases. Maximum starch reduction was caused by C. lunata, A. flavus,
Drechslera tetramera and G. fujikuroi.
Gupta et al. (1993) investigated the effect of A. niger and A. glaucus on seed deterioration
during accelerated ageing. Both fungi reduced germination in rolled paper towel and modified
sand tests. A. niger reduced germination more than A. glaucus. Regina and Tulasi (1992)
investigated biochemical changes in stored caraway seeds due to Aspergillus flavus, A. niger
and Fusarium moniliforme. All three fungi reduced protein, carbohydrates and total oil in the
seeds and increased fatty acids. Nwaiwu et al. (1995) analysed biodeterioration of African
bread fruit (Treculia africana) pods and seeds in south-eastern Nigeria and its control. The
microorganisms associated with biodeterioration of pods were largely A. niger, Rhizopus
stolonifer and Botryodiplodia theobromae (72%). R. stolonifer caused the highest degree of
seed spoilage. High correlations were found between the microorganisms from pods and
seeds. Storage at 5°C and pre-storage treatment with a 15% sodium chloride solution reduced
spoilage from 100 to 0% and from 100 to 5% respectively.
SEED-BORNE PLANT PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS
The incidence and spread of seed-borne diseases have increased in recent years due to the
introduction of new varieties into territories where they are not indigenous and also by growing
the same crop over wide areas to facilitate its handling and harvesting to get maximum yields
per hectare by incentive cropping. An enormous amount of literature is available on seed-
borne fungi and the diseases they cause (Agarwal, 1981; Alcock, 1931; Doyer, 1938; Malone
and Muskett, 1964; Neergaard, 1977, 1979; Neergaard and Saad, 1962; Noble et aI., 1958;
Noble and Richardson, 1968; Richardson 1979, 1990; Sao et aI., 1989 and Suryanarayan
1978). Several investigators isolated and characterised the seed mycoflora in wheat; Orsi et
al. (1994) in durum wheat kernels; Jayaweera et al. (1988) and Ahmad et al. (1989) in paddy;
Moreno-Martinez et al. (1994) in maize and barley; Kanapathipillai and Derris (1988) in
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus; Ramadoss and Sivaprakasan (1989) from two months stored
cowpea seeds; Sinha and Prasad (1989) in fenugreek; Sereme (1991) in seventeen samples of
bambara groundnut; Balardin (1992) in bean seeds; Tseng et al. (1995) in dry bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris); Khamees and Schlosser (1990) from sesame seeds; Zad (1990) from 16 samples of
sunflower; Shah and Jain (1993) in mustard; Basak et al. (1989) in different cultivars of
brinzal; Kumkum et al. (1989) in okra; Hashmi (1989) and Liang (1990) in chilli; Chandi Ram
and Maheshwari (1992) in sponge gourd and bottle gourd; Kowalik (1989) in beetroot; Gowda
et al. (1989) in tobacco; Mercer (1994) in linseed; Patil et al. (1994) in sugar-cane; and Singh
and Saha (1994) in Madhuca longifolia.
Kanapathipillai and Derris (1988) isolated thirty-three fungal species from seeds of
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus using three media: blotter, malt agar and malt agar + sodium
chloride. More fungi were isolated on malt agar and malt agar + NaCl. Soil inoculation tests
on emerging seedlings using 12 selected species indicated that Botryodiplodia theobromae and
Diaporthe phaseolorum were pathogenic to seeds and seedlings of P. tetragonolobus. Disease
symptoms were observed on leaves and stems of young plants inoculated with each of the 12
species. Sereme (1991) isolated fungi from 17 seed samples ofbambara groundnut (Vigna
259
Figure 1. Vigna umbel/ala and Psophocarpus telragonolobus, the under-exploited protein-rich legumes
grown in experimental field. lA: Dwarf variety of P. lelragonolobus (Dwarf mutant);
High yield cultivars of Vigna umbel/ala: IB: RBL-l; and Ie: RBL-6.
260
subterranea). Pathogenicity was confirmed for Macrophomina phaseolina, Botryodiplodia
theobromae, Colletotrichum dematium, Fusarium moniliforme, F. solani, Aspergillus niger
and A. flavus. Balardin et al. (1992) studied the incidence of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum,
Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia solani and storage fungi (Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp.)
in seed samples of Phaseolus vulgaris. Tseng et al. (1995) isolated and characterised seed-
borne fungi in dry seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris. The fungi most frequently isolated were
Alternaria, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Sclerotinia, Gliocladium and
Mucor, from diseased ontario beans. The fungi most frequently isolated from diseased Taiwan
beans were Aspergillus, Penicillium, Eurotium, Rhizopus and Curvularia.
DISEASES OF VIGNA UMBELLATA AND PSOPHOCARPUS TETRAGONOLOBUS
The literature on disease status of crops, particularly seed-borne diseases, is meagre.

Therefore, in view of the importance of storage and seed deterioration fungi, an attempt was
made to study the mycoflora invading seeds of Vigna umbellata, rice-bean (Figures 1B and 1C)
and Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, winged bean (Figure lA).
Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi (syn. Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb.), a native
of South and South-East Asia is an important multi-purpose crop grown for food, fodder, green
manure and cover crop in the north-eastern and north-western hills of India. Its seeds are
usually boiled and eaten with rice. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.)DC., native of Papua
New Guinea, is grown primarily for its immature pods which are cooked like french beans.
The leaves, young sprouts, flowers and fruits are also used as vegetables and in soups and the
plant is confined to humid sub-tropical parts of the north-eastern region. The cultivation of
these minor under-utilized pulse crops is greatly handicapped by a lack of information on
pathological and agronomical aspects.
Winged beans are attacked by Cercospora arantea, C. canescens, C. cruenta and C.
psophocarpi, Corticum solani, Corynespora cassicola, Erysiphe cichoracearum, Meliola
erythrinae, Myrothecium roridum, Oidium sp., Periconia byssoides, Pythium debaryanum,
Sporidesmium bakeri and Synchytrium psophocarpi. Mosaic of Crotalaria hirsuta and yellow
mosaic of Cajanus cajan are viruses that attack winged bean.
Diseases in rice bean are caused by Corticum solani, Myrothecium roridum and
Woroninella umbilicata. In the Philippines, powdery mildew and rust occur sparingly.
Cucumber mosaic virus also attacks the plant. However, relatively speaking, the rice bean is
a pest-free crop and is even comparatively immune to most storage insects.
SEED-BORNE MYCOFLORA OF STORED SEEDS OF PSOPHOCARPUS

TETRAGONOLOBUS AND VIGNA UMBELLATA: A CASE STUDY
The interaction between the seed and its mycoflora is complex. The seed mycoflora varies
with different seeds, its moisture content, temperature, season, method of harvesting, threshing
and storing.
Screening of seed mycoflora associated with Vigna umbellata and Psophocarpus
tetragonolobus was characterised over a period of two years in post-harvest seeds during their
storage at room temperature. The mycoflora associated with these samples has been studied
in relation to fungal succession and its effect on seed viability. Non-surface sterilised (NSS)
seeds were plated in sterilised petriplates (8.5 cm diameter) containing four layers of white
blotter, soaked in sterilized water. These were incubated at 22±2 °C under alternating cycles
of 12 hours of near ultraviolet (NUV) light and darkness for seven days. Different fungi
appearing on seeds were observed under stereobinocular microscope (40x) and compound
261
microscope for identification and confirmation. For the detection of storage fungi, surface
sterilized (SS) seeds with 2% chlorine solution were directly plated in moist chambers.
Identification ofthe fungal species was carried out using monographs by Barnett (1960) and
Singh et al. (1991). Isolations of various seed-borne fungi were made on Czapek-Dox agar
medium.
Seed-borne mycoflora of Vigna umbellata showed the presence of a total of 41 species
belonging to 19 genera in moist chamber plates. The number of fungi recorded in both the
cultivars were more or less equal (34 fungal species belonging to 18 genera in cultivar RBL-l
and 35 fungal species belonging to 16 genera in cultivar RBL-6). However, the composition
of fungi differed between the cultivars. Vaidehi (1997) reported the seed mycoflora of two
maize cultivars.
60
50
G;
~40
::I
c:
;:)30
u.
(.)
5o 20
I-
10
6 12 18 24
Storage period (months)
RBL-1NSS II RBL-1SS RBL-6NSS • RBL-6SS
Figure 2A. Seed mycoflora of Vigna umbellata CY. RBL-J and RBL-6.
The seed mycoflora superficially associated with the seeds of rice bean (cultivars RBL-l
and RBL-6) predominantly consisted of field fungi, namely Aspergillus niger, A. jlavus,
Chaetomium globosum and Rhizopus nigricans. The seed mycoflora of Psophocarpus
tetragonolobus, winged bean (cultivar Dwarf mutant) showed the presence of a total of 38
fungal species belonging to 22 genera and predominantly consisted of A. niger, A. jlavus, A.
nidulans, Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium oxysporum. Dominant, moderately
frequent and rarely frequent fungal species identified in each crop cultivars are given in Table
1. Misra (1989) studied mycoflora of an oilseed plant, Buchanan lanzan by blotter and agar
plate methods and recorded more species of Aspergillus.
The mycoflora gradually increased in quality and quantity from the time of harvest to the
time they were kept in storage. The numbers of fungi isolated in colony-forming units (CFU)
were higher in seeds from kharif crop than those from rabi crop. Seasonal variation was
noticed in the prevalence of different fungi on seed samples due to variation in weather
conditions (Fig. 2A and 2B). Alternaria alternata was predominant in the rabi season and
Curvularia lunata was prevalent in kharif season. Fungal populations increased in post-
harvest seeds reaching a maximum in stored seeds. In general, some fungi (Alternaria
alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium spp. and Mucor spp.) were
262
absent in the latter part of the storage. This has also been reported by earlier workers (Conca
et al., 1996; Hegde and Hiremath, 1987; Jain et aI., 1982; Kumari and Karan, 1981; Mathur,
1954; Pattnaik and Narain, 1994; Purohit and Jamaluddin, 1993 and Vaidehi, 1992). The
increase in population of microorganisms may be due to the sporulation of storage fungi
contaminating through air and dust around the seeds. It is well established that the
deterioration of seeds in storage is due to the associated mycoflora (Gupta and Saxena, 1984).
Succession of fungal species in storage depends on the spectrum of fungi originally
present. The preponderance of certain fungi in stored seed depends on the interspecific fungal
interaction in addition to the conditions prevailing in storage (Vaidehi, 1997). Significant
among them are the moisture content, relative humidity, temperature and duration of storage.
Dutta (1989) studied seasonal variation of mycoflora with Strychnos nux-vomica seeds
under storage and isolated eighteen fungal species. The maximum numbers of fungi were
recorded during August and the minimum in November and this was related to high
temperature and relative humidity. The dominant organisms were Aspergillus flavus and A.
niger.
Lokesh and Hiremath (1993) studied the effect of relative humidity (RR) on seed
mycoflora and nutritive value of red gram (Cajanus cajan). A higher seed moisture content
increased fungal infestation, particularly by Aspergillus spp., of which A. flavus and A. niger
were predominant at higher and lower moisture contents respectively. Higher relative
humidity had a detrimental effect on the nutritive value of the seed. However, the incidence
of Fusarium moniliforme decreased with time and increase in RR values. It is claimed that the
colonisation of field fungi and intermediate flora is simultaneous before the grains are dry
enough for the interface of storage fungi (Pelhate, 1981).
In the surface-sterilized seeds, treatment with chlorine solution reduced the number of
saprophytic fungi (Figures 2A and 2B). Species of Aspergillus and Penicillium, commonly
regarded as strong fungi, occurred with high incidence on unsterilized samples at the time of
seed setting, however, they did not occur frequently on surface-sterilized ones. An increase
in the number of pathogenic fungi was observed in surface-sterilized seeds.
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I- -
104---------------------------------------------------
o-r-----------.-----------,-----------,-----------,
6 12 18 24
Storage period (months)
NSS -_. SS
Figure 2B. Seed mycoflora of Psophocarpus tetragonolobus cv. Dwarfmutant.
263
Table 1: Isolation of mycoflora from seeds of different crop cultivars using blotter method.
Fungal Frequency
Crop Cultivar Dominant Moderately Frequent Rarely Frequent
Rice bean Aspergillus f1avus Rhizopus nigricans Chaetomium apiculata

RBL-l A. niger, A. nidulans Mucor, A. fumigatus Epicoccum nigrum
Chaetomium globosum Penicillium citrinum Macrophomina
P. chrysogenum phaseolina
Fusarium oxysporum Drechslera teframera
Alternaria alternata Stachybotrys afra
Cladosporium herbarum Acremonium indicum
Curvularia lunata Actinomycetes
Rice bean A. niger, A. f1avus A. niveus, A. aeneus, Verticillium albo-atrum

RBL-6 A. nidulans, A. f1avus (yellow strain) A. fumigatus
Chaetomium globosum A. terreus Acremonium indicum
Cladosporium herbarum A. candidus
Rhizopus nigricans A. parasiticus
Drechslera tetramera Penicillium chrysogenum
Penicillium chrysogenum
Macrophomina
phaseolina
Chaetomium
bostrychodes
Winged bean A. niger, A. f1avus Curvularia lunata Verticj[[ium albo-afrum

Dwarf A. nidulans Curvularia pallescens Thelavia sepedonium
Mutant (yellow, grey strain) Phoma lingam Stachybotrys afra
Sterile mycelium Alternaria altern aria Paecilomyces jusisporus
Macrophomina Penicillium citrinum A. sydowii
phaseolina Penicillium chrysogenum F. sporofrichoides
Fusarium A. aeneus, A. terreus Mucor racemosus
oxysporum Chaetomium globosum A. candidus
Rhizopus nigricans
Actinomycetes
Germination in seeds infested with pathogenic fungi viz. Fusarium oxysporum, F solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina and Phoma hibernica was very poor and seeds were covered by
profuse growth of the mycelium concerned. It is quite probable that the location of pathogen
and intensity of seed infection may have a more direct bearing on seed germination and
survival of seedlings than mere presence of pathogen on the seeds. Moreover, failure to
germinate may also be due to unknown physical, physiological or genetic factors. Interactions
with other fungi such as the saprophytes present on the seed surface as well as in the soil may
also have an influence on germination and survival of seedlings. With a few exceptions, the
percentage germination recorded by the blotter method was higher than percentage germination
recorded in soil. There was negative correlation between germination percentage and infection
percentage of seeds. However, surface-sterilized seeds exhibited better seed germination as
compared with untreated seeds in all the experiments. Anwar et al. (1995) reported that high
incidence of storage fungi (Aspergillus, Penicillium and Rhizopus spp.) in soyabean reduced
seed germination potential in vitro.
264
CONCLUSIONS
In recent years, seed-borne diseases have adversely affected worldwide·trading of seeds

as well as research programmes of international research and gerrnplasm centres. Seed health
could be improved by producing seed in areas less affected by seed transmissible diseases, and
by application of certification schemes to prevent the introduction of important pathogens
through seed. Cataloguing of seed-borne pathogens is necessary and particularly to those
pathogens that meet the criteria oflirnited distribution and of potential economic importance.
Information on local pathogenic races/strains of seed-borne pathogens and their infection
capacity to cultivars grown in other countries is also of great importance.
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268
ASSOCIATION OF PATULIN WITH MARKET SAMPLES OF DRY FRUIT SLICES
OF QUINCES (CYDONIA OBLONGA MILL.) FROM JAMMU AND KASHMIR,
INDIA
Yash Pal Sharma and Geeta Sumbali
Department of Biosciences
University of Jammu
Jammu-l 80 004
India
INTRODUCTION
Patulin, also known as expansin, penicidin, leucopin, tercinin, clavacin, claviformin and
clavatin, is a mycotoxin that was first isolated by Chain et al. (1942) and was originally
investigated because of its potential as an antibiotic. All the mycotoxins are, in general,
important environmental pollutants synthesised by moulds as secondary metabolites possessing
low molecular weight, non-antigenic properties and capable of eliciting a toxic response in
man and animals. It is known that most of the antibiotics are in practice mycotoxins, the
difference being one of degree rather than of kind. Although patulin does possess some
desirable antimicrobial properties, it has also been found to be toxic to a wide range of other
biological systems (rats, cats, mice and rabbits), on account of which its use as an antibiotic
was abandoned (Stott and Bullerman, 1975).
Patulin is produced by some toxigenic moulds only under favourable environmental
conditions which include suitable substrate, optimal temperature, water activity (~) and
hydrogen ion concentration. Unfortunately, under current agronomic practices most of these
parameters are met during pre-harvest, storage and processing operations of agricultural
commodities which result in the production of this toxin. Several species of Penicillium and
Aspergillus are known to produce patulin but the most active toxin producing strains belong
to Penicillium expansum, P. chrysogenum, P. roqueforti, P. aurantiogriseum, Eupenicillium
brefeldianum and Aspergillus amstelodami (Steiman et al., 1989). In addition, numerous other
fungi imperfecti, a few mucorales, ascomycetes and basidiomycetes are also reported to
synthesise this molecule.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PATULIN
Patulin, 4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2-C]pyran-2(6H)-one is a lactone of fungal origin with an

empirical formula C7~04 and molecular weight of 154. It is a colourless to white crystalline
compound that melts at 110.5 °C. Patulin is optically inactive and has an ultraviolet absorption
peak at 276nm in alcohol (Katzman et al., 1944). It is soluble in water and polar organic
solvents but is insoluble in petroleum ether. It is unstable in alkaline solution and loses its
biological activity but retains stability in acid (Chain et aI., 1942). Another notable feature
about the chemical stability of patulin is that it is not destroyed by exposure to a temperature
of 80°C for 10-20 minutes (Scott and Sommers, 1968). It is also reported to be resistant to
thermal destruction at a pH range of 3.5-5.5 when heated up to 125°C (Lovett and Peeler,
1973).
Maximum production of patulin occurs at 20-25°C (Roland and Beuchat, 1984b).
Penicillium griseofolvum is recorded to produce maximum patulin at 20-30°C and pH 3.5 with
submerged and aerated conditions by orbital shaking (Sanchis et al., 1992). In the case of P.
expansum, Podgorskar (1993a) reported maximum patulin production at 25°C and pH 6.0 on
Czapek's Dox agar medium containing fructose as a carbon source. Water activity of 0.95 is
also necessary for patulin production (Northolt et aI., 1978).
Another interesting property of patulin is its reactivity with sulphydryl and amino
compounds to form non-toxic adducts. Therefore foodstuffs rich in sulphydryl groups
(cysteine, glutathione etc.) limit or reduce the amount of patulin by reacting with it and thus
inactivating or destroying it (Ashoor and Chu, 1973a,b). Alcoholic fermentation of fruit juices
and wine-making also destroy more than 99% of the patulin (Stinson et al., 1978). Addition
of ascorbic acid and saccharose in the medium has also been reported to reduce patulin
production by P. expansum in pears and apples at 25°C and modified atmosphere of 3%
C0 212.7% O2 • Recently, AI-Garni and AI-Fassi (1987) have reported that in orange fruits
infected with Penicillium digitatum and treated with a combination of heat (50°C for 10
minutes) and 0.2 M rad gamma irradiation, production of patulin was inhibited.
TOXICITY AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PATULIN
Patulin is a molecule with cytostatic, antibiotic and antifungal properties, but its toxicity
precludes its therapeutic use. It is toxic to a wide range of bacteria, fungi and protozoa
(Ciegler et al., 1971). Besides, patulin possesses moderately high toxicity to mice, rats and
chicks (Lovett, 1972). It is regarded as exhibiting mutagenic, neurotoxic and gastrointestinal
effects in laboratory animals (Stott and Bullerman, 1975) and the most important target organs
are the liver, spleen, kidney, skin, nervous system and reproductive system (Figure 1). The
LDso values for mice vary with the route of administration (Mckinnen and Carlton, 1980)
whereas, in rats, the LDso doses are slightly higher (15 to 25 mg/kg). Patulin exhibited
teratogenicity when low levels (1-2 /-lg) were injected into chick embryos (Ciegler et al., 1976).
Malformed feet, ankles, beaks, exencephaly and exopthalmia were the major abnormalities
encountered. Choudhary et al. (1992) studies the effect of patulin on reproduction in pregnant
albino rats and found that its oral administration showed anti-implantational and significant
abortifacient activity.
Evidence for carcinogenicity of patulin came from the study of Dickens and Jones (1961)
who found that localised tumours developed in rats when they were repeatedly injected with
sublethal doses of this toxin. However, in view of the route of entry from contaminated food,
oral administration of patulin, which is a more valid test, did not produce tumours (Osswald
et al., 1978). Patulin is also known to inhibit various enzymes. It is a highly toxic inhibitor
of RNA polymerase (Tashiro et al., 1979). Arafat and Musa (1995) reported that patulin
270
Table 1: Fungal species reported to be patulin producers.
Fungal Genera Species Source

Zygomycetes
Cunningham ella C. bainieri Steiman et al. (1989)
Mortierella M bainieri
Mucor M hiemalis, M racemosus
var. globosus
Basidiomycetes
Trametes T. squalens
Ascomycetes
Byssochlamys B. nivea, B. folva Frisvad and Samson (1991)
Gymnoascus G. reesii Steiman et al. (1989)
Eupenicillium E. brefeldianum
Sporormiella S. minimoides
Deuteromycetes
Aspergillus A. clavatus, A. giganteus Gorst-Allman and Steyn
A. terreus (1979)
A. amstelodami, A. echinulatus Steiman et al. (1989)
A. fomigatus, A. manginii
A. parasiticus, A. repens
A. variecolor, A. versicolor
Penicillium P. digitatum AI-Garni and AI-Fassi
P. patulum, P. roqueforti (1997)
P. expansum, P. variable Gorst-Allman and Steyn
P. claviforme, P. lapidosum (1979)
P. melinii, P. rugulosum
P. equinum, P. divergens
P. griseofulvum, P. leucopus
P. novae-zeelandiae, P. cyclopium
P. chrysogenum
P. aurantiogriseum, P. canescens Steiman et al. (1989)
P. citreonigrum, P. foniculosum
P. corylophilum, P. fellutanum Vismer et al. (1996)
P. coprobium, P. glandicola Frisvad and Samson (1991)
P. viridicatum
Acremonium A. zeae Steiman et al. (1989)
Alternaria A. alternata, A. papaveris
Aschochyta A. imperfecta
Aurobasidium A. pullulans var. pullulans
Botrytis B. allii
Calcarisporium C. arbuscula
Chrysosporium C.pannorum
Cladobotryum C. verticil/atum, C. varium
Cladorrhinum sp.
Colletotrichum C. musae
Curvularia C. lunata
Fusarium F. culmorum, F. oxysporum
F. proliferatum
Oidiodendron O. echinulatum, 0. tenuissimum
Pseudodiplodia sp.
Rhinocladiella R. atrovirens
Scopulariopsis sp.
Sporotherix S. schenckii
Trichoderma T. pseudokoningii, T. po/ysproum
Trichophyton T. mentogrophytes
Paecilomyces P. lilacinus
P. variotii Frisvad and Samson (1991)
271
induced inhibition of protein synthesis in hepatoma tissue culture by inhibition of amino acid
uptake into the cell and their incorporation into the proteins.
DETECTION OF PATULIN IN FOOD PRODUCTS
Analysis for patulin in food products can be accomplished primarily by thin layer gas and
liquid chromatography. This toxin can be extracted from food by using different organic
solvents especially ethyl acetate and ethyl acetate-water mixtures (Pohland and Allen, 1970).
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) are
the most commonly used methods to quantify patulin after extraction (Crosby, 1984). A
review of TLC developing solvents and spray reagents for visualisation have been given by
Scott (1974). The most sensitive reagents which can detect patulin at levels as low as 0.02-0.05
J-lg are ammonia and phenyl hydrazine hydrochloride (Scott and Kennedy, 1973). Other
analytical methods include the use of gas-liquid chromatography, colorimetric methods and
bioassay methods (Stott and Bullerman, 1975). Diphasic dialysis membrane procedure has
also been adopted for detection of patulin (Prieta et aI., 1994a).
NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF PATULIN IN DRY QUINCES (CYDONIA OBLONGA)
Almost all plant products can serve as substrate for fungal growth and subsequent
mycotoxin formation under favourable environmental conditions. Realising the general
importance of patulin as a mycotoxin being produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus and some
other moulds which can occur in fruit products, an investigation was undertaken to elucidate
the association of patulin with market samples of dry fruit slices of quinces from Jammu and
Kashmir state of India.
Quince is an important rosaceous pome fruit cultivated in temperate regions of the Jammu
and Kashmir state ofIndia for its juicy, fragrant, astringent, expectorant and nutritionally rich
fruits. Like most other fruits, quinces have a short shelf-life and perish on account of the
growth of a variety of microorganisms. Therefore, in order to minimise post-harvest wastage,
these fruits are usually sliced and sun-dried to approximately 12% moisture level. These
dehydrated quince slices are cooked or eaten as such and also constitute a major part of the
'Prasad' of the holy shrine ofVaishno Devi (Katra) visited by pilgrims from all over India and
abroad. However, due to the prevailing warm and humid conditions, many storage fungi cause
extensive deterioration including discolouration, production of bad odour, off flavour, loss of
nutritive value, various biochemical changes and production of diverse types of secondary
metabolites (Sharma, 1997). Investigations on the surface mycoflora revealed many fungi
harbouring on the dried slices both in the market (Sumbali and Sharma, 1997) and in storage
(Sharma and Sumbali, 1996). Among the various fungi isolated, species of Aspergillus and
Penicillium were found to be most abundant and fairly tolerant to extreme environments,
growing at water activity levels that preclude most other fungi (Sharma, 1997). These fungal
species are notorious for the production of various types of mycotoxins in general which have
been implicated in eliciting chronic and sub-chronic toxicological effects in humans and
susceptible animals.
Natural contamination of dry quince slices with patulin was analysed by following
standard techniques developed by Stoloff et al. (1971) and 28% of the investigated samples
were found to be positive for this mycotoxin. The amount of patulin detected in these samples
varied from 0.250 mg/kg to 1.425 mg/kg of dry fruit which is far above the maximum
permissible concentration (MPC) of 20-50 J-lg/L fixed by health authorities (Anonymous,
1980) and regulated by countries such as Sweden, Norway and Switzerland (Scott, 1985).
272
Aspergillus terreus isolates recovered from dry quince slices were also screened for patulin
production in vitro following the method of Subramanian (1982) and using phenyl hydrazine
hydrochloride as spray reagent for its detection and confirmation (Scott et aI., 1972). 45% of
the investigated A. terre us isolates were found to be patulin producers and the range varied
from 1.625 mg to 2.3 mglL.
NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF PATULIN IN VARIOUS OTHER FOOD

SUBSTRATES
Substantial data is available worldwide on the natural occurrence of patulin in apple,

orange, pears, banana, guava, tomato, commercial fruit juices, other fruit products, wines,
vegetables, arecanut and pulse products (Table 2). The occurrence of patulin was first reported
by Brian et al. (1956) from apples infected with Penicillium expansum. Wilson and Nuovo
Table 2: Occurrence of patulin in various foods.
Year Place Food Substrate Conc. Range Reference

Q.tgIL / J.lg/kg)
1970 Canada Rotten apple 1000 Harwig et al. (1973)
1971 USA Apple 45000 max. Wilson and Nuovo (1973)
1976-77 USA Apple juice 10-350 Brackett and Marth (1979)
1978 Finland Apple juice 5-72 Lindroth & Niskanen (1978)
1979 Spain Apple and pears 1000-250000 Burdaspa1 & Pinilla (1979)
900-10000
1982 South Africa Cereals & animal Dutton & Westlake (985)
feedstuffs
1982 India Scented supari Neelakanthan et al. (1982)
1982 Grape juice 1-230 Altmayer et al. (1982)
& wines
1982 Italy Fruit juices 5-15 Cavaliaro & Carreri (1982)
1983 Apples and pears Gimeno & Martins (1983)
1984 Apple juice Roland & Beuchat
(1984a,b)
1984 Poland Fruit wines 25-100 Czerwiecki (1985)
1984 Georgia Apple cider 244-3990 Wheeler et at. (1987)
1985 Apple and grape 5-56 Mortimer et al. (1985)
juice
1987 Spain Cereals 75-127 Miguel & Andres (1987)
1988 India Pearl millet 20-60 Girisham & Reddy (1992)
1990 Australia Apple juice 5-629 Watkins et al. (1990)
1992 India Guava Madhukar & Redy (1992)
1992 Apple Taniwaki et al. (1992)
1992 Australia Apple, pear 5-1130 Burda (1992)
& mixed fruits
1993 Grape juice 50000 Benkhemmar et al. (1993)
1994 Apple juice 100 Durakovic et al. (1993)
1994 Spain Apple juice 10-170 Prieta et al. (1994a, b )
1995 Pears and apples Paster et al. (1995)
1996 France Apple cider Herry & Lemetayer (1996)
1996 South Brazil Apple juice 6.4-77 Machinsky & Midio (1996)
1996 India Pulse products 130-800 Neeta Rani & Singh (1996)
1997 Al-Garni and Al-Fassi
(1997)
1997 Lopez-Diaz & Flannigan
(1997)
273
Physical presence
of toxigenic mould
Suitable substrate
(apple & other fruit Favourable temperature
products) (20-25°C)
Favourable relative Suitable water activity

humidity (90-100%) (0.95 aJ
Mycotoxicoses in Birds and Mammals

(teratogenic, neurotoxic, carcinogenic)
I
Target organs ~
Reprodu~
I)
system
/ \"".
~
Nervous
system
Liver Kidney
Skin Spleen
Figure 1. Factors favouring patulin production and its role in mycotoxicoses.
(1973) detected up to 45 mg of patulin per litre of organic apple cider samples that were
obtained from processors where decayed apples were not sorted out prior to processing.
Patulin has also been reported in spontaneously mouldy bread and baked goods (Reiss,
1973). Buchanan et ai. (1974) found patulin in the lesions of pears and stone fruits decayed
by Penicillium expansum. Brackett and Marth (1979) surveyed apple juice from roadside
274
stands in Wisconsin and found 10-350 f.1g of patulin per litre in 23 out ofa total of 40 samples.
Burdaspal and Pinilla (1979) observed patulin levels ranging from 1-250 mg/kg in apples and
pears. Eller et al. (1985) analysed apple powder, moulded strawberry and moulded mandarin
oranges and found 80 mg, 32 f.1g and 10-80 f.1g of patulin per kg respectively. Patulin was also
detected in mixed feeds, fodder beets, soyabean meals, com, barley, wheat, apples and apple
products by Wizniewska and Piskorka-Pliszczynska (1983). They found 17 out of 30 fodder
beet samples and 9 out of20 apple product samples positive for patulin and the contamination
level ranged from 20-6188 f.1g/kg and 60-1500 f.1g/kg respectively in these two commodities.
Czerwiecki (1985) noted 6 out of 71 samples of Polish fruit wines positive for patulin and the
detection level was 25-100 f.1g/L. Burda (1992) analysed as many as 328 apple, pear and
mixed fruit products including jams, sauces, purees, jellies, diced apples and apple pulps from
38 Australian producers and found that 75 out of 258 juice concentrate samples contained
patulin ranging from 5-50 f.1g/L and 73 samples were contaminated with 51-1130 f.1g of patulin
per litre. However, of the 70 other remaining samples, patulin was detected in 18 at levels well
below 50 f.1g. Machinsky and Midio (1996) found an average of 21 % of the total samples of
commercial apple juice from South Brazil to contain patulin in the range of 6.4-77 f.1g/L.
During malting of barley and wheat, Lopez-Diaz and Flannigan (1997) reported patulin in all
samples analysed with the equivalent of 22.4 mg/kg in one sample at 16°C. It is evident that
incidence of patulin contaminated is fairly high worldwide, but the level of contamination is
usually low in substrates other than apple and apple products.
Patulin has also been detected from some food commodities of India where the tropical
climatic conditions are very congenial for both fungal deterioration of food and consequent
contamination with mycotoxins. Neelakanthan et al. (1982) analysed 147 samples of different
arecanut items and found only one sample of scented supari to be contaminated with patulin.
Girisham and Reddy (1988) observed a significant increase in the patulin content of pearl
millet seeds stored at 90-100% relative humidity. Madhukar and Reddy (1992) detected
patulin from Aspergillus terre us infected guava fruits. Recently, Neeta Rani and Singh (1996)
screened 66 samples of pulse products and found seven of them to be positive for patulin (130-
880 f.1g!kg).
Although there is currently no evidence to prove that patulin has the potential to produce
adverse human health effects (Hopkins, 1993; Machinsky and Midio, 1995), the findings in
animals emphasise the need for more research concerning this mycotoxin and its presence in
various other raw fruits and their products.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. S.P. McMormick, National Centre for Agricultural
Utilization Research, USDA, Illinois, USA for generously providing a gift sample of patulin
standard.
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278
COMPARISON BETWEEN SERPULA LACRYMANS FOUND IN THE INDIAN
HIMALAYAS AND MOUNT SHASTA, CALIFORNIA
Jorgen Bech-Andersen
Hussvamp Laboratoriet
Bygstubben 7
DK-2950 Vedbrek
Denmark
INTRODUCTION
True Dry Rot Fungus in Denmark
The true dry rot fungus produces a white to greyish mycelium on wood. The decayed
wood breaks up into a greyish brown cuboidal rot with cross-cracks every 7 cm. The
mycelium may form hyphal strands which connect to sources of moisture and which may
spread over mortar, insulation materials or soil ifliving in the wild. Fruiting bodies are more
than 2 mm thick and are easily separated from the substrate. Size varies from 100 to 1000 cm2•
Brown spores measuring about lOx 8 I-lm are formed on the surface.
A survey of the occurence of dry rot in houses showed that every second block of flats in
Copenhagen built before 1920 was infected (Bech-Andersen, 1985) (Figures 1 and 2). The
timbers infected were mainly of Scotch Pine (Pinus silvestris) and Norway Spruce (Picea
abies).
The infected areas measured from a single square metre to several hundred square metres.
The survey also showed that dry rot always occurs within 1 m from sources of chalk (calcium)
or iron, which are found in building materials such as mortar, bricks, rock wool etc. (Bech-
Andersen, 1987a). The fungus is able to transport water up to 6 m from the source of moisture.
An earlier investigation had already shown that dry rot needs calcium to neutralize its
production of oxalic acid (Bech-Andersen, 1987).
Iron is a component of the enzymes used to oxidize cellulose during the so-called Fenton
reaction (Ritschkoff and Viitanen, 1989). During this process hydrogen peroxide (H20 2) is
produced, which together with iron (Fe2+) releases hydroxyl ions (OR), which in turn breaks
down the cellulose.
The true dry rot fungus was reported to be ocurring naturally on Sweet Chestnut
(Castanea sativa) in Denmark one hundred years ago (Rostrup and Weismann, 1898).
However, an analysis of the specimens still held at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural

Edited by Singh and Aneja, Plennm Press, New York, 1999 279
University in Copenhagen has since proved them to belong to another species, Serpula
himantioides (Bech-Andersen, 1992). There is at presence no evidence for the occurrence of
Serpula lacrymans in the wild in Europe.
Figure 1. A staircase tower in Copenhagen after the stairs have fallen apart due to attack by Serpula lacrymans.
Figure 2. Fruiting bodies of Serpula lacrymans on wooden boards in a cellar in Copenhagen.
Wild Dry Rot in the Himalayas
Fifty years ago Dr K.A. Bagchee from Forest Research Institute (FRI) in Debra Dun, India
found specimens of Serpula lacrymans in the wild at Narkanda, Pulga and Kulu in the foothills
of the Himalayas, about 400 km north of Delhi (Bagchee, 1954). The timber of houses in
Simla infected by Serpula lacrymans originated from the forests around Narkanda. A survey
of the area showed that dry rot occurred on stumps and fallen logs of West Himalayan Spruce
(Picea smithiana), Himalayan Blue Pine (Pinus griffith;;) and Abies pindrow. Fruiting bodies
were seen during the period July to October at an altitude of about 3000 m.
280
In the following decades there were no records of dry rot from the area. However, it
turned out that the scientists involved had turned their research area to another field, viz. leaf
pathogens in nurseries.
Figure 3. Fruiting body and spores (inserted) of Serpula lacrymans found at Narkanda in the Indian
Himalayas in 1992.
Figure 4. Wood with a coarse cuboidal rot due to attack by Serfula lacrymans found at Narkanda in the
Indian Himalayas in 1997.
At the museum in the FRI, Dehra Dun we found ten collections of dry rot from the period
1940 to 1955. Hussvamp Laboratoriet organized expeditions to the area in 1983, 1987 and
1990 without finding the fungus. However in 1992, in company with Jagjit Singh, a single
fruiting body was found at Narkanda (Figures 3 and 4). This might indicate that Serpula
lacrymans is not very common in its natural habitat where competitive species are more
abundant than in houses.
281
Wild Dry Rot in America
In 1936 to 1942 Dr William Bridge Cooke was a ranger at Mt Shasta in California, where
he stayed at Horse Camp Alpine Lodge, at an altitude of 2500 metres from May to October.
During that period he surveyed the trees and fungi of the area. He found among others Serpula
americana (Burt.) W.B. Cooke on White Fir (Abies concolor), Shasta Fir (Abies magnifica var.
shastensis) and Mountain Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). Both Serpula americana and
Merulius vastator were found on Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa). Merulius vastator is an
old synonym of Serpula lacrymans, used together with Serpula americana. Later Cooke used
the name Serpula lacrymans var. himantioides, which is a synonym of Serpula himantioides.
In 1994 representatives from Hussvamp Laboratoriet went to Mt Shasta in search of
Serpula lacrymans var. shastensis and after a week succeeded in finding one infected log
(Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5. Fruiting body of Serpula lacrymans var. shastensis found on Mt Shasta in California in 1994.
Figure 6. Strand mycelium of Serpula lacrymans var. shastensis on decayed log of Abies magnifica var.
shastensis on Mt Shasta. California.
282
Genetic Experiments
Louis Harmsen from the Danish Technological Institute in Copenhagen tried crossing
Danish, Indian and American isolates to establish their relations (Harmsen, 1960). It turned
out that they were all compatible and formed a dicaryotic mycelium with clamp connections.
The American specimens however showed thinner fruiting bodies with more distant folds in
the hymenium. In culture the mycelium was also more gracile than in the other isolates. Based
on these facts Harmsen proposed the new variety Serpula lacrymans var. shastensis.
At the same time Harmsen showed that isolates of Serpula himantioides from Denmark,
India and America were compatible with each other but not with Serpula lacrymans. These
two species are therefore distinct.
Figure 7. Ships sailing from England to India carried 500 tons oflimestone as ballast. The calcium of
limestone is necessary for Serpu/a /acrymans to thrive.
Chemical Analysis
Analysis of soil samples from Narkanda in India and Mt Shasta in the USA showed the
presence of calcium and iron in both places. However building materials such as mortar,
concrete and rockwool have ten times as much of these substances.
Moisture Conditions
The optimal wood moisture content is as low as 20%. In the Himalayas decayed wood was
often found with a moisture content above 100%. The optimal wood moisture content of 20%
corresponds to a wood density of 0.5 in fresh wood. However the wood density of decayed
wood with 100% moisture content was reduced to 0.1. This means that sufficient amounts of
oxygen were available for the fungus despite the high moisture content because the decayed
cellulose had been replaced by water and air.
283
Temperature
The optimal temperature for Serpula lacrymans is about 20°C. Both in the Himalayas and
on Mt Shasta huge masses of snow fall before the frost becomes dominant, thus the
temperature at the growth zone of the fungus is about O°C the whole winter through.
Outdoors in Denmark the ground often freezes before snowfall, the latter often being very
sparse. Dry rot mycelium exposed at ground surface in Denmark died at -10°C, while
mycelium buried at frost-proof depth survived. The temperature in Danish houses is always
above O°C both in cellars and battlements where dry rot is found.
Figure 8. Drawing of a fruiting body of Serpula lacrymans from the publication in which it was first formally
described by Wulfen from Austria in 1781.
Dispersal of Serpula lacrymans
The oldest information about dry rot in Europe comes from England, dating back to the
time of James the First, 1566-1625, but the descriptions are rather uncertain (Coggins, 1980).
After the fire of London in 1616 import of timber from India was initiated. It has turned out
that the British ships carried 500 tons of limestone from Dover as ballast (Figure 7). The
living conditions onboard for dry rot were thus excellent, namely the presence of wood, chalk
and moisture.
The fungus was first validly described as Boletus lacrymans by Wulfen from Austria in
1781 (Figure 8). Later it was also described from Germany under the name Merulius vastator
by Tode (1783).
In 1798 a ship was described from Woolwich which sunk by the weight of one man and
where many brown fruiting bodies hung in festoons from deck to deck (Coggins, 1980).
Persoon described the species again in 1801 as Merulius destruens, probably based on
finds from the Netherlands. In the same publication he also cited a find from Gotha in the
former East Germany.
284
In 1812 James Sowerby reported on how Boletus lacrymans had attacked the ship Queen
Charlotte, which had been launched in 1810 but needed a main repair only two years later
(Coggins, 1980).
The presently used name Serpula lacrymans (Wulf.: Fr.) Schroet. was given by Schroeter
in 1889 from Germany. Patouillard introduced the new combination Gyrophana lacrymans
(Wulf.: Fr.) Pat. in 1897 probably based on finds from Tunisia. In 1912 Falk introduced a new
name Merulius domesticus based on finds from Germany.
The American dry rot from Mt Shasta has probably never reached Europe, but it is
exciting that Serpula lacrymans and Serpula lacrymans var. shastensis have changed so little
that they are able to cross-breed 65 million years after the two continents separated and Europe
and America drifted apart. Future DNA analysis may show the relationship more closely.
REFERENCES
Bagchee, K., 1954, Merulius lacrymans (Wulf.) Fr. in India, Sydowia 8: 80-85.
Bech-Andersen, J., 1985, Basische baustoffe und begrenzte feuchtigkeitsverhliltnisse, Antworten auf die frage
warum der echte hausschwamm nur in hausem vorkommt, Material und Organism en 20(4): 301-309.
Bech-Andersen, J., 1987a, The influence of the dry rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans) in vivo on insulation
materials, Material und Organismen 22(3): 192-202.
Bech-Andersen, J., 1987, Production, function and neutralisation of oxalic acid produced by the dry rot fungus
and other brown rot fungi, IRGIWP 1330: 2-15.
Bech-Andersen, J., 1992, The dry rot fungus and other fungi in houses, part 1, IRGIWP 92-2389: 1-18.
Bech-Andersen, 1., Elbome, S.A. & Bech-Andersen, K., 1995, On the biotope of dry rot (Serpula lacrymans) in
the wild, IRGIWP 95-10123: 116-127.
Bech-Andersen, 1., Elbome, S.A., Goldie, F., Singh, J., Singh, S. & Walker, B., 1993, JEgte hussvamp (Serpula
lacrymans) fundet vildtvoksende i Himalayas skove, Svampe 27: 17-28.
Coggins, C.R., 1980, Decay of Timber in Buildings, Rentokil Ltd., East Grinstead.
Cooke, W.B., 1943, Some basidiomycetes from Mount Shasta, Mycologia 35: 277-293.
Cooke, W.B., 1955, Fungi of Mount Shasta ( 1936-1951), Sydowia 9: 94-215.
Cooke, W.B., 1957, The genera Serpula and Meruliporia, Mycologia 49: 197-225.
Falk, R., 1912, Die Merulius-fliule des bauholzes, Neue untersuchungen tiber unterscheidung, verbreitung,
entstehung und bekampfung des echten hausschwammes, in: Hausschwamniforschungen, Volume 6 (A.
Moller, ed.), pp. 1-405, G. Fischer, Jena.
Harmsen, L., 1960, Taxonomic and cultural studies on brown-spored species of the genus Merulius, Friesia 6:
233-277.
Patouillard, N., 1897, Catalogue Raisonne des Plants Cellulaires de la Tunisie, Fungi, pp. 19-136, Paris.
Persoon, D.C.H., 1801, Synopsis Methodica Fungorum, Henricum Dieterich, Gottingae.
Ritschkoff, A. & Viitanen, H., 1989, Preliminary studies of the decay mechanism of some brown-rot fungi,
IRGIWP 1402.
Rostrup, E. & Weismann, C., 1898, Hussvampen, En Vejledningfor Bygningshaandvrerkere og til brug i Tekniske
Skoler, Det Nordiske Forlag, Kj0benhavn.
Schroeter, J., 1889, Hymenomyceten, in: Kryptog. Fl. Schles., Volume 3 (F. Cohn, ed.), p. 466, Breslau.
Tode, H.I., 1783, Beschreibung des verwiistenden ademschwammes, Merulius vastator, Abhandl. Halle Natur!
Ges. 1: 351.
Wulfen, F.x. von, 1781, in: Miscellanea Austriaca ad Botanicam, Chemiam, et Historiam Naturalem Spectantia,
Volume 2 (N.J. Jacquin, ed.), pp. 98-113, Vindobonae.
285
CONTRIBUTORS
K.R. Aneja 1. Bech-Andersen

Department of Botany Hussvamp Laboratoriet
Kurukshetra University Bygstubben 7
Kurukshetra-136 119 DK-2950 Vedbaek
India Denmark
A. Archana B.P. Chamola

Swami Shraddhanand College Applied Mycology Laboratory
Alipur Department of Botany
Delhi-110 036 University of Delhi
India Delhi-l 10 007
India
Daljit S. Arora
Department of Microbiology
Myank U. Charaya
G.N.D. University
195 Sadar Bazar
Amritsar-143 005
(Above Ideal Book Depot)
India
Meerut Cantt.-250 001
u.P. India
Sapna Arora
Enbee Chemicals Ltd.
Bhopal Dr. 1.L. Faull
India Biology Department
Birkbeck College
N.S. Atri Malet Street
Botany Department London WCIE 7HX
Punjabi University UK
Patiala-14 7 002
India B. Giri
Manju Bansal Department of Botany
Applied Mycology Laboratory University of Delhi
Department of Botany Delhi-l 10 007
University of Delhi India
Delhi-lID 007
India
287
Rajni Gupta R.C. Kuhad
Applied Mycology Laboratory Department of Microbiology
Department of Botany University of Delhi South Campus
University of Delhi New Delhi-lID 021
Delhi-lID 007 India
India
Raj Kumar
Dr N.S.K. Harsh Department of Botany
Tropical Forest Research Institute Kurukshetra University
P.O.: R.F.R.C. Kurukshetra-136 119
MandlaRoad India
PIN 482021
Jabalpur
Madhya Pradesh R.S. Mehrotra
India Retired Professor
Vandana Joshi Kurukshetra University
Applied Mycology Laboratory Kurukshetra-136 119
Department of Botany India
University of Delhi
Delhi-lID 007 Neelima Mittal
India Applied Mycology Laboratory
Rupam Kapoor University of Delhi
Applied Mycology Laboratory Delhi-l 10 007
Department of Botany India
University of Delhi
Delhi-lID 007 Professor K.G. Mukerji
India Applied Mycology Laboratory
N.K. Kapse University of Delhi
National Agricultural Research Project Delhi-lID 007
Sindewahi-441 222 India
Chandrapur
M.S., India
Dr J.W. Palfreyman
Dry Rot Research Group
Ms Mandeep Kaur
University of Abertay Dundee
Bell Street
Dundee DDI IHG
University of Delhi
UK
Delhi-lID 007
India
Anjula Pandey
Dr Sumeet Kaur Applied Mycology Laboratory
Applied Mycology Laboratory Department of Botany
Department of Biology University of Delhi
University of Delhi Delhi-lID 007
Delhi-110 007 India
India
288
B.K. Rai Brajesh Kumar Singh
Plant Pathology Department Department of Microbiology
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa University of Delhi South Campus
Vidyalaya Benito Jaurez Road
Jabalpur New Delhi-l 10 021
Madhyar Pradesh India
India
Dr Jagjit Singh
Renuka Rawat Regional Director
Applied Mycology Laboratory Oscar Faber
Department of Botany Marlborough House
University of Delhi Upper Marlborough Road
Delhi-l 10 007 St Albans Herts ALl 3UT
India UK
Professor S.S. Saini V.K. Soni

Department of Botany Forest Pathology Division
Punjabi University Tropical Forest Research Institute
Patiala-14 7 002 Jabalpur-482 021
India Madhyar Pradesh
India
Dr T. Satyanarayana
Department of Microbiology Dr. Geeta Sumbali
University of Delhi South Campus Department of Biosciences
New Delhi-l 10 021 University of Jammu
India Jammu-l 80004
Jammu and Kashmir
Geeta Saxena India
Department of Botany Dr. N. White
University of Delhi Dry Rot Research Group
Delhi-l 10 007 University of Abertay Dundee
India Bell Street
Dundee DDI IHG
Mamta Sharma UK
University of Delhi
Delhi-l 10 007
India
Yash Pal Sharma

Department of Biosciences
University of Jammu
Jammu-l 80 004
Jammu and Kashmir
India
289
INDEX
Afforestation, 213-225 Biofertilizer, 205--213, 225--235

Air pollution, 227 Biosorption, 67
Allelochemicals, 250--257 Biosphere, vii
Allelopathy,235--247 Biotechnology
America, 282-287 definition, 2
Amylases, 62--63 emergence, 2
Antagonistic attributes, 67,97-115 historical perspective, 1-10
Antibacterial properties of fungi, 42 thermophilic moulds, 57-75, 115--127
Antibiosis, 156--157 mycoherbicide potential, 91-115
Anticancer properties of fungi, 43
Anti-coagulant properties of fungi, 45 Cellulases, 61--62
Anti-diabetic properties of fungi, 45-46 Cellulose, 80--81
Antifungal properties of fungi, 42-43 Chemotherapy, 33-40
Anti-HIY properties of fungi, 45 Chitinases, 59
Anti-thrombic properties of fungi, 45 Competition, 154-155
Antiviral properties of fungi, 44-45 composting, 118-120
ecology, 188
Bamboo decay Composting, 66--67
field trials, 149-150
Bamboo, 145--153 Dispersal, 284-287
Bioactive products, 41 Dry rot, 137-145, 179-187
Biocontrol
agents, 128, 146--148 Endoparasites, 164-165
of bamboo decay, 145--153 Environmental control, 140--141
of dry rot, 141-142 Ethanol, 79-80
fungal, 145--173 Ethnomycology
limits, 158-159 and fungal biotechnology, 7-8
mechanism of action, 128-129, 154-158 historical perspective, 1-13
of midge larvae, 51-57 important fungi, 14
pest control, 91-115 novel leads to new medicines, 15,
of plant diseases, 128 studies, 19
of plant pathogens, 153-163 Madhya Pradesh, 19-33
predators, 164-166
root-knot nematode, 163-173 Fermentation
stored bamboo, 145--153 of hydrolysate into ethanol, 81-82
of timber decay, 137-145 of pentoses to alcohol, 82-83
weed control, 94-95 Fungal attack, 279-287
Bioconversion,I16--117 Fungal biocontrol agents, 145-173, 164-
Biodiversity 165
conservation, 16--17 Fungal biotechnology, 1-11,51-57
definition, 16 Fungal colonisation, 247-248
exploitation, 17 Fungal culturing techniques, 3
exploration, 17 Fungal decay of bamboo, 146
Global Biodiversity Convention, 41 Fungal enzyrnetechnology, 5
291
Fungal folk medicine, 13-14,24-27 Mycoherbicides (cant.)
Fungal germ theory, 3 introduction to, 91-92
Fungal growth, 249-250 Lubao, 103
Fungal molecular biology, 7 Mycoherbicides
Fungal mutation, 6 Vel go, 104-105
Fungal plant pathogens, 153-163 Mycoparasitism, 156
Fungal proteins, 78-79 Mycorrhizal fungi, vii. 185-235
Fungal protoplast fusion, 6
Fungi
Natural products, 142-143
in cereal straw management, 75-91
Nematode-destroying fungi, 163-173
collection, 20
Fungi
drying, 20 Pathogenesis, 174-175
edible, in Madhya Pradesh, 22-23 Pathogenicity, 51-57
industrial exploitation, 3-4 Patulin, 269-279
marketing, 20--21, 28-29 Pectinases, 64
medicinal, 30 Penicillin
storage, 20, 247-249 discovery of, 4
Phosphatases, 59
f3-Galactosidase, 58 Phytase, 65
Genetics, 283-287 Plant pathogens, 153-163
Polyamine biosynthesis, 67-68
Hepato-protective properties of fungi, 45 Primary metabolites, 15
Himalayas, 137-145,279-287 Protoplast, 127-137
Hypocholestrolemic properties of fungi, 44
Hypolipidemic properties of fungi, 44
Rhizomatous crops, 251
Rhizosphere biology, 173-185
Insect infection, 52-57
Root litter, 206--208
Insect pathology, 52-57
Rumen microbiota, 76
Insecticidal fungi, 51-57
Integrated pest management, 159
Invertase, 63 Secondary metabolites, 15
Lipases,63 Seed-borne mycoflora, 257-269
Seed-borne pathogens. 259-266, 269-279
Mannanases, 59 Single cell protein. 65-66
Medicinal plants. 197-205 Soil amendments, 165-166
Medicine Spices
history of, II black pepper, 33
folk, 13,24-27,41-51 Capsicum species, 34
novel leads, 15,41-51 caraway (Carum carvi), 34
mushrooms in, 46 cardamom (Ellettaria cardamomum), 34-
Microbial substrates, 237-247 35
Microscopy, 3 cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), 35-
Moisture conditions, 283-287 36
Mould contamination, 250--251 clove (Eugenia caryophyllus), 36
Mushrooms cumin (Cuminum cyminum), 36
blood-building properties, 45 curcuma (Curcuma amada), 36--37
diversity, 1-10, 11-16, 19-33,41-51 definition, 33
immunity, 45 garlic (Allium sativum)
medicinal, 46 history of, 33-40
pharmaceutical utility, 11-18,41-51 mint (Mentha species)
Mycoherbicides Straw
advantages, 96--98 delignification, 77-78
Biochon, 102 ethanol, 79-80
BioMal,I00--001 fungal proteins, 78-79
Casst, 100 management, 76
Collego, 98-109 pre-treatment, 80
commercialisation, 97-115 ruminant feed, 7p
concept, 94-95 Straw
De Vine, 97-98 soil fertility, 83-84
history of, 92-93 transformation, 75-76
292
Straw (cont.) Toxins, 250-255
uses, 85 Trehalase, 63
Sustainability, vii, 16 True dry rot fungus, 137-145,279--287
Thermophilic fungi, 57-75, 115-127 Wild dry rot, 279--287

Thermophilic moulds, 57-75, 115-127
Thermostable enzymes, 58-65 Xylanases, 60-61
Timber preservation, 137-145,279--287 Xylose isomerase, 64
293

Myank U.et Al. (1999) From Ethnomycology To Fungal Biotechnology

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Myank U.et Al. (1999) From Ethnomycology To Fungal Biotechnology

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From Ethnomycology

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Proceedings of the International Conference "From Ethnomycology to Fongal Biotechnology:

To my wife and children

Dr Jagjit Singh and Dr K.R. Aneja

From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology: a Historical Perspective .............................. 1

Ethnomycology and Folk Remedies: Fact and Fiction............................................................. 11

Some Ethnomycological Studies from Madhya Pradesh, India ............................................... 19

Some Indian Spices and their Antimicrobial Properties ........................................................... 33

Exploring Mushroom Diversity for Pharmaceutical Utility ..... ................................................ 41

Fungal Biotechnology for the Development and Improvement ofInsecticidal Fungi............. 51

Potential Biotechnological Applications of Thermophilic Moulds .......................................... 57

Fungal Biotechnology for Effective Cereal Straw Management ............................................. 75

Biotechnology for the Production and Enhancement of Mycoherbicide Potential .................. 91

Biotechnological Applications of Thermophilic Fungi in Mushroom Compost L15

Use of Fungi in the Control of Plant Pathogens ....................................................................... 153

Biological Control of Root-Knot Nematode by Nematode-Destroying Fungi ......................... 163

Rhizosphere Biology of Root-Knot Diseased Abelmoscus esculentus in Relation to its 173

Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in the Control of Fungal Pathogens ................................. 185

Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in Increasing the Yield of Aromatic Plants...................... 197

Mycorrhizal Root Litter as a Biofertilizer ................................................................................ 205

Mycorrhizal Allelopathy in Trigonellafoenum graceum ......................................................... 235

Storage Fungi in Edible Agricultural Commodities ................................................................. 247

Seed-borne Mycoflora of Two Under-exploited Legumes: Vigna umbellata and

Contributors.. ................ ................................................. ......................................... .................. 287

Index ......................................................................................................................................... 291

Myank U. Charayal and R.S. Mehrotra2

The Role of the Fungi in our Society

From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology

The Origins of Fungal Biotechnology

According to the Office of Technology Assessment of the United States Congress,

Emergence of the "Science" of Fungal Biotechnology from the "Art" of the

The Impact of Microscopy

Development of Techniques for Culturing the Fungi

Germ Theory of Fermentation

A number of practices which we now classify as the applications of fungal biotechnology

Early Attempts at Industrial Exploitation of Fermentation

Scientist! Contribution with Reference

A. Micheli (1718) Cultured fungi by inoculating the spores of Aspergillus. Mucor.

C. Vittadini (1842) First to solidify media (with gelatin); Vittadini (1942)

O. Brefeld (1872) (i) Extensive use of gelatin for solidifying media

1. Tyndall (1877) Discovered "discontinous sterilisation" (tyndallisation); Tyndall

R. Koch (1883) Devised pour plate method; Ainsworth (1976)

F. Hesse (1883) Introduction of agar agar as solidifying agent; Carpenter (1967)

Parisian engineering firm Commercial availability of autoclave; Bulloch (1938)

R.J. Petri (1887) Invented Petri dish; Petri (1887)

Advent of Enzyme Technology

Improvement of Useful Fungi

Inducing Mutations in Fungi for Improving Yields

Improvement through Protoplast Fusion

Impact of Molecular Biology

FROM ETHNOMYCOLOGY TO FUNGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Oscar Faber Heritage Conservation

The History of Medicine

"I have an earache ... "

2000 BC: "Here, eat this root."

From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology

Fungi in Folk Medicine

Name of Fungus Folk Medicines

Snuff fungus (Daeda/eopsisflavida (Lev.) Roy & Treatment of jaundice.

Umbarache Kan - fruiting body grows on Ficus Against kidney disorders.

Phansomba - produces mango-shaped fruiting Gums, diarrhoea and dysentery.

Tinder fungus (Fomesfomentarius) Cauterisation ofbumt tissues.