Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Magic Mushrooms
In Some
Third World Countries
BY
John W. Allen and Jochen Gartz
2
First Printing November 1977. Revised February
2009.
COPYRIGHT NOVEMBER 1997 by JOHN W. ALLEN.
PSILLY PUBLICATIONS, SEATTLE, WASHINGTON.
ISBN:#158214028-6
3
SOME RECENT NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON
THE OCCURRENCE AND USE OF ENTHEOGENIC
FUNGI IN THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES.
I: The Symbiosis of Entheogenic fungi, Illicit
Drug Use, and Tourist Influence on Third World
Indigenous Peoples.
INTRODUCTION
The casual use of entheogenic fungi for
ludible purposes first gained public
recognition through research initiated by
Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert and numerous
undergraduate students at Harvard University
in the early 1960's (Weil, 1963; Leary, 1968).
Within ten years, psilocybin mushroom use had
spread from México (Ott, 1975; Pollock, 1977-
1978; Weil 1973, 1975-1976) to Australia
(Stocks, 1963; McCarthy, 1971; Southcott,
1974), and then from Bali (Schultes and
Hofmann, 1980 [1973]) to Hawaii (Pollock,
1974). Twelve years after the Wasson’s had
reported on the rediscovery of the ceremonial
use of sacred mushrooms in México (see Life
4
magazine, May 13, 1957), widespread
recreational use of psilocybian fungi became
popular in the mainland United States;
eventually gaining widespread use throughout
the Pacific Northwest (including British
Colombia, Canada) and in several Southeastern
states of America (Pollock, 1976, Weil, 1977;
0tt, 1978; Singer, 1978). In Canada, the
recreational use of entheogenic mushrooms,
particularly that of (Psilocybe semilanceata
[Fr.:Secr.] Kumm.), known locally as the
‘liberty cap,’ was reported from British
Colombia by Heim et al. (1966).
Public awareness that psilocybian fungi
occurred in British Columbia and other
Canadian territories soon became common
knowledge to members of the drug sub-culture
(Oakenbough, 1975; Padmore, 1980). By the
late 1960's, entheogenic mushroom awareness
invaded the British Isles (Young et al., 1982;
Harries and Evans, 1981; Peden et al., 1982),
spreading to Scandinavia (Christiansen et al.,
1981, 1984; Ohenoja et al., 1987), and finally
other European countries (Gartz, 1993).
Psilocybian fungi also gained a large
following in the early 1970's throughout many
countries in Indonesia, South Asia, and
Southeast Asia. Such use is now widespread
amongst tourist populations in several third
world countries.
5
6 OCCURRENCE AND USE
MESOAMERICA
Early reports by several noted authorities
in the field of ethnomycology revealed that
the sale of "magic mushrooms" whether sold
separately or in food items, is common amongst
certain groups of indigenous peoples living in
third world countries. Singer (1958, 1978)
first reported that native inhabitants of
Mesoamerica (Mexicans) were debasing the
mushroom rites of the Mazateca Indians of
Oaxaca, México, especially in and around
PART II.
The ethnomycological distribution, use,
and users of entheogenic fungi in
Indonesia, South Asia, and Southeast
Asia.
The widespread illicit use of naturally
occurring entheogenic plants by tourists is
common in third world countries. Native
participation in the promotion of these
natural plant products to tourists is also
common and is a direct result of tourist
influence and native financial gains.
Bali
Schultes and Hofmann (1980 [1973]) first
reported that entheogenic mushrooms were being
served to tourists at festivals and
celebrations on Bali Island. Copelandia
cyanescens (Berk. Et Br.) Sacc., were the
first psychoactive fungi identified from Bali
by French mycologist, Roger Heim. Later,
Schultes and Hofmann (1973) also described
them from Bali. In the spring of 1978, an
ephemeral magazine published an article titled
"King Wong: Mushrooms in Bali (Head magazine,
January, 1978). A photograph of P. cubensis
accompanied this article. It should be noted
that P. cubensis has not been identified from
Bali. It is possible that P. cubensis may
occur there naturally since it is known of in
similar environments throughout the region.
But as of 2009, no one has yet identified it
from Bali.
Borneo
An anthropology student at the East-Asian
studies program at the University of Hawaii
informed the senior author of this paper,
"friends of his working who were working with
him in Borneo were consuming psychoactive
fungi from manure." The anthropology student
described the fungi as resembling specimens of
"blue meanies" similar to ones collected in
Australia. Most likely the fungi belong to
the genus Copelandia.
Samoa
In Samoa, only one variety of entheogenic
fungi, C. cyanescens, has been identified. It
is also possible that the very similar
Copelandia tropicalis (Ola'h) Singer and Weeks
grows here and elsewhere. The recreational
use of Copelandia cyanescens among the younger
generation of Samoans in and around the
capital city of Apia is common.
Thailand
Several species of entheogenic fungi have
been identified from Thailand. They include:
P. cubensis, P. subcubensis, P. samuiensis,
and at least three varieties of Copelandia
species (Allen and Merlin, 1992a; Guzmán et
al., 1993). It is also possible that other
species may occur in Thailand that have not
yet been botanically identified. During the
past ten years, the senior author has found
several new varieties of psilocybian fungi.
Mushroom Festivals
European hippies, German immigrants, and
foreign travelers, all from various origins,
who enjoy the many resort areas in Thailand,
frequently travel through India, Nepal,
Indonesia, and Bali. Many of these foreign
travelers often lubibly consume "magic
mushroom" omelettes. Koh Pha-Ngan (population
6,000) is a tiny island situated 12 km north
of Koh Samui. Each month during the full
moon, a mushroom festival is celebrated.
India
India is a very large country, one
comprised of many different climates, thereby
providing ideal climatic environments for the
growth of several varieties of psychotropic
fungi. It is also probably the largest cattle
pasture in the world. Cows are sacred in
India and are allowed to roam freely across
the land. So far only five species of
psilocybian fungi have been botanically
reported from India. They include: Panaeolus
subbalteatus (Sarbhuy & Daniel, 1981);
Psilocybe semilanceata, reported from Pune,
India (Bhide et al., 1987); C. cyanescens from
Bengal (Bose, 1919-1928, 1920: Butler and
Bisby, 1931) and recently from Madras on the
Southeast coast of India (Gerhardt, 1990).
While the two above mentioned species known by
Europeans living on the West Coast of India,
tourists probably consume them for
recreational purposes. The following two
species are not well known of and most
assumingly not used in India for their
psychoactive effects. Psilocybe atrobrunnea
is reported to occur in Bhubaneshwar, Orissa,
India (Sinha and Padhi, 1978) but contains no
active indoles (Christiansen et al., 1981,
1984). Another species belonging to the
genera Inocybe, Inocybe corydalina (Sathe and
Sasangam, 1977) was just recently identified
as a psilocybin-containing mushroom (Gartz,
1986; Stijve and Kuyper, 1985; Stijve et al.,
1985).
Nepal
Schroeder and Guzmán (1981) reported that
some tourists in Pokhara, Nepal, consumed
entheogenic fungi. The fungi were harvested
from the manure of four legged ruminants
(water buffalo). Schroeder was unable to mail
specimens for herbarium deposit because of
customs regulations. Guzmán macroscopically
identified the Nepalese fungi from photographs
and descriptions provided by Schroeder and
other tourists who had collected and ingested
the fungi while vacationing in Nepal.
According to Guzmán, the fungi were identified
as Psilocybe cubensis and/or Psilocybe
subcubensis. It was not reported whether
tourists or Nepalese natives collected the
fungi specimens. Years later, Guzmán and
Kasuya (2004), reported that one species of
Psilocybe is now recognized from Nepal. The
hallucinogenic species is: Psilocybe
subcubensis Guzmán. The studied showed that
the habitat and distribution of Psilocybe
subcubensis also occurred in manure examined
and harvested from Nepal Royal Chitwan
national park, near Sauraha, south of Rapti
River, in the tropical evergreen forest,
gregarious, on rhinoceros dung and dark
places inside the jungle.
Discussion
Over the past thirty-five years, the use
of entheogenic mushrooms has spread from
México and then across the ocean from one
continent to another. The non-traditional use
of entheogenic mushrooms by western
civilizations as a recreational drug has
become pandemic.
Conclusion
Entheogenic mushrooms are available in
food preparations in many third world
countries. This is a direct result of tourist
influence on third world peoples. Although
REFERENCES
Thomas, K. Agretious; Manimohan, P; Guzmán,
Gastón; Tapia, Fidel; and Florencia Ramirez-
Guillén. 2002. The Genus Psilocybe in Kerala
State, India. Mycotaxon vol. LXXXIII:195-207.
India
Psilocybe aztecorum Heim emend. Guzmán var.
aztecorum (Natarajan & Raman,1983,
1985; Guzmán, 1995)
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer (Natarajan
& Raman, 1983)
Psilocybe gigaspora Natarajan & Raman
(Natarajan & Raman, 1985; Guzmán,
1995)
Psilocybe natarajan (=P. aztecorum var.
Bononi (Guzmán) Guzmán sensu
Natarajan & Raman (Guzmán, 1995)
Psilocybe pseudoaztecorum Natarajan & Raman
India, Bengal
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
India, Bihar
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
India, Bhubaneshwar
Psilocybe atrobrunnea (Lasch.) Gillet
India, Kerala
Psilocybe indica Sathe & Daniel (Sathe &
Daniel, 1980; Guzmán, 1995)
Psilocybe keralensis Thomas et al.
Psilocybe wayanadensis Thomas et al.
India, Madras
Psilocybe pseudoaztecorum Natarajan & Raman
(Natarajan & Raman, 1985; Guzmán,
1995)
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
India, Orissa
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
India, Pune
Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.:Secr.) P. Kumm.
Panaeolus papillionaceus (Fr.:Bull.) Quél
Nepal, Pokhara
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer and/or
Psilocybe subcubensis Guzmán
Philippine Islands
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
Copelandia tropicalis (Ola'h) Weeks & Singer
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
Viet-Nam
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
Kampuchea (Cambodia)
Psilocybe antioquensis Guzmán
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen
Copelandia cambodgeniensis (Ola'h
et Heim) Weeks and Singer
Psilocybe tropicalis (Ola'h) Weeks and
Singer
Thailand
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
Psilocybe subcubensis Guzmán
Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and
Allen
Copelandia cambodgeniensis (Ola'h
et Heim) Weeks and Singer
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
Indonesia
Panaeolus Ater (Lange) Kuehner and Romagnesi
Java
Psilocybe subaeruginascens Höhner var.
subaeruginascens
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
Bali
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
Borneo
Copelandia Sp.
Fiji
Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer
Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer
NOW AVAILABLE
Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific
Northwest
by
John W. Allen
33st Anniversary of Publication July
1976 - July 2009.
Identification guide with 12 Full-Color pics!
35 Black and White Photos.
ISBN 158214-0260X.
CD-ROM
Teonanácatl: A Bibliography of
Entheogenic Fungi
By
ISBN 1582143994