Plant Pathogens Principles of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathogens & Principles of
Plant Pathology
Plant Pathogens & Principles of
Plant Pathology
ICAR e-Course
For
B.Sc (Agriculture) and B.Tech (Agriculture)
INDEX
SN Lecture Page No
01. Introduction 5-11
02. Important plant pathogenic organisms- different groups- fungi, bacteria,
fastidious vesicular bacteria, phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas, viruses, viriods, 12-19
algae, protozoa and phanerogamic parasites with examples of diseases
caused by them.
03. General Characters of fungi- Definition of fungus, somatic structures,
types of fungal thalli, fungal tissues, and modifications of thallus, 20-54
reproduction in fungi (asexual and sexual).
04. Nomenclature-Binomial system of nomenclature, rules of nomenclature, 55-56
classification of fungi. Key to divisions and sub-divisions.
05. Division I: Myxomycota, Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes, Order: 57-59
Plasmodiophorales, Division II: Eumycota
06. Subdivision: Mastigomycotina, class: Chytridiomycetes (Chytridiales), 60-74
Oomycetes (Peronosporales).
07. Subdivision: Zygomycotina (Mucorales), 75-77
08. Subdivision: Ascomycotina, class: Hemiascomycetes (Taphrinales),
class: Plectomycetes (Eurotiales), class: Pyrenomycetes (Erysiphales, 78-89
Clavicepitales), class: Loculoascomycetes (Pleosporales),
09. Subdivition: Basidiomycotina, class: Teliomycetes (Uredinales, 90-110
Ustilaginales) class: Hymenomycetes (Aphyllophorales)
10. Subdivition: Deuteromycotina: class: Coelomycetes (Sphaeropsidales), 111-135
class: Hyphomycetes (Hyphomycetales, Agonomycetales).
11. Prokaryotes: classification of prokaryotes according to Bergey’s Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology. General characteristics of bacteria and 136-141
examples of phytopathogenic bacteria, fastidious vesicular bacteria,
phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas.
12. Plant viruses-general characteristics and examples of plant diseases caused 142-151
by viruses.
13. Viroids- general characteristics and examples of diseases caused by viroids. 152-155
14. Definition and objectives of Plant Pathology. History of Plant Pathology. 156-162
15. Terms and concepts in Plant Pathology. Survival and Dispersal of Plant 163-199
Pathogens.
16. Phenomenon of infection – pre-penetration, penetration and post 200-204
penetration.
17. Pathogenesis – Role of enzymes, toxins, growth regulators and 205-211
polysaccharides.
18. Defense mechanism in plants – Structural and Bio-chemical (pre and post-
infection). 212-223
19. Plant disease epidemiology – Meaning and importance, difference between
simple and compound interest diseases – Factors affecting plant 224-234
diseaseepidemics – host, pathogen, environment and time factor.
20. Plant Disease Forcasting – Meaning, advantages, methods in forecasting 235-241
and examples.
21. Remote sensing – Meaning, scope, objectives, advantages. 242-248
22. General principles of plant diseases management – Importance, general
Principles – Avoidance, exclusion, eradication, protection and therapy, 249-252
immunization.
23. Regulatory methods – Plant Quarantine and Inspection – Quarantine Rules 253-273
and Regulations.
24. Cultural methods – Rougeing, eradication of alternate and collateral hosts,
crop rotation, manure and fertilizer management, mixed cropping, 274-294
sanitation, hot weather ploughing, soil amendments, time of sowing, seed
rate and plant density, irrigation and drainage.
25. Biological control and PGPR – Scope and importance – Role and
mechanisms of biological control and PGPR with examples. Plant growth 295-305
promoting rhizobacteria.
26. Physical Methods – Heat treatments, soil solarization, hot water treatment, 306-308
hot air treatment, control by refrigeration and radiation.
27. Chemical methods – study of different groups of fungicides. Methods of 309-344
application of fungicides.
28. Host plant resistance – Importance – disease resistance, tolerance,
susceptibility and disease escape. Horizontal and vertical resistance – 345-354
Method of management of resistance. Immunization – Systemic acquired
resistance.
29. Application of biotechnology in plant disease management –
Importance, production of pathogen free plants through tissue culture 355-358
techniques.
30. Development of disease resistant treansgenic plants through gene 359-365
cloning.
31. Integrated plant disease management (IDM) – Concept, advantages and 366-373
importance.
Plant Pathogens & Principles of Plant Pathology
Lecture 01 - Introduction
Definition and History of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathology
Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science, which deals with the plant diseases. It
is concerned with health and productivity of growing plants. Phytopathology ( Greek Phyton =
plant + pathos - disease, ailments + logos = discourse, knowledge) is the branch of agricultural,
botanical or biological science which deals with the cause, etiology (aetiology), resulting in
losses and management methods of plant diseases.
Plant pathology can also be defined as the study of the nature, cause and prevention of
plant diseases. Plant pathology is related to most of the old and new sciences like biology,
physics, chemistry, physiology, mathematics, genetics, soil science, biochemistry, biotechnology
etc. Plant pathology has the following major objectives.
1. To study biotic (living), mesobiotic and abiotic (non-living and environmental) causes of
diseases or disorders
2. To study the mechanisms of disease development by pathogens
3. To study the plant (host)-pathogen interaction in relation to environment
4. To develop methods of management of plant diseases
Plant diseases
Plant diseases are recognized by the symptoms (external or internal) produced by them or
by sick appearance of the plant. The term plant disease signifies the condition of the plant due to
disease or cause of the disease. Plant disease is mainly defined in terms of the damage caused to
the plant or to its organ. The other definitions for the term disease are:
1. Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation, which
results in some suffering producing symptoms. This definition is accepted by both American
Phytopathological Society and British Mycological Society.
2. Disease is an alteration in one or more of the ordered sequential series of physiological
processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the
continuous irritation from the presence or absence of some factor or agent.
3. A plant is said to be „diseased‟ when there is a harmful deviation from normal
functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).
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4. The disease can also be defined as 'any disturbance brought about by a living entity or
non-living agents or environmental factors which interfere with manufacture, translocation or
utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected plant changes in
appearance with or without much loss in yield than that of a normal healthy plant of the same
variety. In general disease is an interaction among the host, parasite and the environment.
Man became painfully aware of plant diseases in the early times of antiquity. This is
evidenced by the inclusion of blasting and mildew in the Old Testament. Our ancient religious
literature gives informations on plant diseases much before their mention by the Greek
philosopher, Theophrastus. Rigveda, Atharvanaveda (1500-500 B.C.), the Artha Shashtra of
Kautilya (321-186 B.C.), Sushrute Samhita (200-500 A.D.), Vishnu Puran (500 A.D.),
Agnipuran (500-700 A.D.) and Vishnudharmottar (500-700 A.D.) are some of the ancient books
from India where diseases and other enemies of plants are mentioned. In Rigveda, classification
of plant diseases and germ theory of disease were discussed.
The learned men during Vedic period were aware that the diseases are caused by
microbes. The book "Vraksha Ayurveda" written by Surapal in ancient India contained
information on plant diseases. This is the Indian book, which gave first information on plant
diseases. He divided plant diseases into two groups viz., internal and external. Plant diseases like
rust, smut, downy mildew, powdery mildew and blight were mentioned in the Bible.
The Greek Philosopher, Theophrastus (370-286 B.C.) was the first to study and write
about the diseases of trees, cereals and legumes. In his book 'Enquiry into plants' Theophrastus
has recorded his observations, imaginations and experiences but they were not based on any
experiments. He had mentioned that plants of different groups have different diseases, which are
autonomous or spontaneous i.e., no external causes were associated with the plant diseases.
The history in several aspects of plant pathology is given as below.
Mycology
1675 - Dutch worker Anton von Leeuwenhoek developed the first microscope.
1729 - Italian botanist P. A. Micheli proposed fungi comes from spores; father of Mycology.
1755 - French botanist Tillet published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat; discovered
bunt is a disease of wheat.
1807 - French scientist I. B. Prevost showed bunt of wheat is a fungus and showed evidence that
a disease is caused by a microorganism.
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1821 - E. M. Fries published Systema Mycologicum for naming of fungi; he was named as
Linnaeus of Mycology.
1821 - Robertson of England stated that sulphur is effective against peach mildew.
1845 - Irish Potato famine due to Phytophthora infestans caused starvation of million and
immigration of 1.5 million people.
1858 - J. G. Kuhn published first textbook in Plant Pathology – The Diseases of Cultivated
Crops, their Causes and their Control.
1861 -Anton de Bary (Germany) worked out the life cycle of potato late blight and first to prove
experimentally Phytophthora infestans is the cause of potato late blight. He proved that fungi are
causes but not the results of diseases. He is the Father of Modern Plant Pathology.
1865 – Anton de Bary reported heteroecious nature of wheat stem rust.
1869 – England loses coffee production to coffee rust, forced to grow tea.
1874 -Robert Hartig published a book entitled, “Important Diseases of Forest Trees”.
1875-1912 - Brefeld discovered the methods of artificial culture of microorganisms;
he also illustrated the complete life cycles of cereal smut fungi and diseases caused by them.
1877 – M. S. Woronin discovered and named the Club root of Cabbage pathogen as
Plasmodiophora brassicae.
1878 – M. S. Woronin found out the life cycle of potato wart disease.
1878 -Downy mildew of grapevine was introduced into Europe from America. The disease
almost ruined the wine industry.
1881 -H.M. Ward worked out the life cycle of coffee leaf rust. He is called as Father of Tropical
Plant Pathology.
1882 -Robert Hartig published a textbook -Diseases of Trees. He is called as "Father of Forest
Pathology".
1885 -Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet accidentally discovered the Bordeaux mixture for the
control of downy mildew of grapevine.
1885 – A. B. Frank defined and named mycorrhizal associations in plant roots.
1887 -Burgundy mixture was introduced by Mason of France.
1894 -Swedish scientist Eriksson described the phenomenon of physiologic races in cereal rust
fungus, Puccinia graminis.
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1899 – W. A. Orton selected and bred water-melon, cowpea and cotton for resistance to
Fusarium wilt diseases. He is considered as a pioneer worker in the development of disease-
resistant varieties.
1904 – A. F. Blakeslee, American Geneticist founded heterothallism in Rhizopus
1904 – R. H. Biffen was the first to show that resistance to pathogens in plants can be inherited
as a Mendelian character; pioneer in genetics of plant disease resistance.
1912 – H. Burgeff reported that within a cell of a fungus, fusion between dissimilar nuclei can
occur. He called this phenomenon as heterokaryosis.
1917 -E. C. Stakman demonstrated physiologic forms in stem rust of wheat.
1918 -E.J.Butler published book on Fungi and Disease in Plants; he made exhaustive study on
Indian fungi and the diseases caused by them. He is called as the Father of Modern Plant
Pathology in India; He joined as the first Director of Imperial Bureau of Mycology
(Commonwealth Mycological Institute, CMI) now CAB International Mycological Institute in
Kew, England in 1920. He began the journal Review of Applied Mycology; with S.G. Jones he
wrote, 'Plant Pathology' in 1949.
1929 -Sir Alexander Fleming isolated the antibiotic, Penicillin from the fungus, Penicillium
notatum.
1932 – H. N. Hansen and R. E. Smith were the first to demonstrate the origin of physiologic
races through heterokaryosis.
1934 -W. H. Tisdale and I. Williams studied the organic fungicides by discovering alkyl
dithiocarbamates.
1938 – H. N. Hansen found out dual phenomenon in Fungi Imperfecti.
1942 – H. H. Flor developed gene-for-gene hypothesis in flax rust.
1943 – Great Bengal Famine due to Helminthosporium oryzae caused death of 2 million people
in India.
1943 -Dimond, Heuberger and Horsfall discovered the ethylene bis dithiocarbamates.
1945 -J. G. Horsfall explored the mechanism of fungicidal action.
1948 -B. B. Mundkur started Indian Phytopathological Society with its journal Indian
Phytopathology. He has written a book ‘Fungi and Plant Diseases’ in 1949, which is the second,
book in plant pathology in India.
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1951-57 -E. A. Gaümann was one of the first to investigate the physiology of the wilts caused by
Fusarium spp. He put forth the involvement of toxin (toxin theory) in wilt diseases.
1952 -N.F. Jensen suggested blending of different resistant genotypes of similar agronomic
characters in fields of oats to reduce the spread of rust and losses from rust.
1953 -N. E. Borlaug and associates developed multiline cultivars for wheat.
1953 – Pontecorvo and his associates demonstrated parasexualism in fungi.
1956 -J. G. Horsfall published a book entitled "Principles of Fungicidal action"
1957 – E. C. Stakman with J. G. Harrar wrote a book Principles of Plant Pathology.
1963 - J. E. Van der Plank found out vertical and horizontal types of resistance in crop plants.
1966 -van Schmeling and Marshall Kulka were the first to find out systemic fungicides (oxathiin
compounds – carboxin and oxycarboxin).
1970 -S. D. Garrett investigated the management of root diseases and he is the pioneer worker in
the field of biological control. 1972 – G. Rangaswami wrote a book on Diseases of Crop Plants
in India.
Plant Bacteriology
1683 – Anton von Leeuwenhoek first observed bacteria.
1876 -Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch -They proved that anthrax disease of cattle was caused by
specific bacterium.
1876 -Robert Koch of Germany described the theory called "Koch's postulates." He established
the principles of pure culture technique.
1876 -Robert Koch and Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation of diseases and
propose germ theory in relation to the diseases of man and animal.
1882 -American Plant Pathologist -T. J. Burrill first time proved that fire blight of apple and pear
was caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia amylovora).
1901-1920 E.F.Smith of U.S.A gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be incitants of
plant diseases. He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease. He is
also called as "Father of Phytobacteriology". Chilton and his coworkers demonstrated that crown
gall bacterium transforms plant cell to tumour cell by introducing into them a plasmid.
1910 -C. O. Jensen related crown gall of plants to cancer of animals.
1952 -J. Lederberg coined the term plasmid 1952 – S. A. Waksman won Nobel prize for the
discovery of streptomycin.
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1952 – Zinder and J. Lederberg discovered transduction in bacteria 1962 – H. Stolp discovered
bdellovibrios.
1972 – P. B. New and A. Kerr success in biological control of A. radiobacter strain K.
1972 – I. M. Windsor and L. M. Black observed a new kind of phloem inhabiting bacterium
causing clover club leaf disease.
1974 – I. Zanen et al. demonstrated Ti plasmid in Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
1980 – D. W. Dye et al. introduced the pathovar in the taxonomy of plant pathogenic bacteria.
Plant Virology
1886 -Adolf Mayer described a disease of tobacco called mosaikkranheit (tobacco mosaic).
Adolf Mayer demonstrated the sap transmission of Tobacco Mosaic Virus disease.
1892 -Dimitri Ivanowski demonstrated that the causal agent of tobacco mosaic could pass
through bacterial filter.
1895 -E.F. Smith of U.S.A. showed the peach yellows was a contagious disease.
1898 -M.W. Beijerinck -a Dutch microbiologist and founder of virology proved that the virus
inciting tobacco mosaic is not a microorganism. He believed it to be contagium vivum fluidum
(infectious living fluid). He was the first to use the term virus, which is the Latin word for
poison.
1929 -F. O. Holmes provided a tool by which the virus could be measured by showing that the
amount of virus present in a plant sample preparation is proportional to the number of local
lesions produced on appropriate host plant leaves rubbed with the contaminated sap.
1935 -W. M. Stanley proved that viruses can be made as crystals. He got Nobel Prize in 1946.
1936 -F. C. Bawden and, N.W. Pirie (Britain) found that the crystalline nature of the virus
contains nucleic acid and protein.
1939 -Kausche and colleagues first time saw the TMV virus particles with the help of Electron
microscope.
1956 -Gierer and Schramm proved that the nucleic acid fraction of the virus is actually the
infectious agent.
1959 -Munday succeeded in inducing TMV mutations.
1966 -Kassanis discovered the satellite viruses.
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1971 -T. O. Diener discovered viroids, which only consist of nucleic acids. Smaller than viruses,
caused potato spindle tuber disease (250-400 bases long of single-stranded circular molecule of
infectious RNA).
Phytoplasma
1967 – Doi et al and Ishiie et al, the Japanese scientists found that mycoplasmalike organisms
(MLO) could be responsible for the disease of the yellows type. Doi observed that MLO's are
constantly present in phloem while Ishiie observed MLO's temporarily disappeared when the
plants are treated with tetracycline antibodies.
Spiroplasma
1972-Davies et al., observed that a motile, helical wall-less microorganism associated with corn
stunt diseases, which could be cultured and characterized and they named it as spiroplasma.
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Lecture 02
Important plant pathogenic organisms- different groups- fungi, bacteria, fastidious

vesicular bacteria, phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas, viruses, viriods, algae, protozoa and
phanerogamic parasites with examples of diseases caused by them
Plant diseases are classified on the basis of type of pathogenic or non-pathogenic causes
of the disease. The classification is based on the plant pathogenic organisms as follows.
A. Parasites: They include both biotic and mesobiotic agents. The diseases are incited by
parasites under a set of suitable environment. Association of definite pathogen is essential with
each disease.
i. Biotic agents: They are also called as animate causes. They are living organisms.
Biotic agents include
1. Prokaryotes
a. True bacteria or bacteria (Facultative parasites) e.g. Citrus canker.
b. Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB) e.g. Citrus greening, Pierce's disease of grape
c. Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes
i. Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) e.g. Sesame phyllody, egg plant little leaf.
ii. Spiroplasma e.g. Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn
2. Eukaryotes
a. Protists (Unicellular, coenocytic or multicellular with little or no differentiation of cells and
tissues).
i. Fungi e.g. wilt of cotton
ii. Protozoa e.g. heart rot of coconut
iii. Algae e.g. red rust of mango
b. Plants - Parasitic flowering plants or phanerogamic parasites - Broomrape of tobacco.
c. Animals (Multicellular, extensive differentiation of cells and tissues) e.g. Nematodes -Root
knot nematode.
ii. Mesobiotic agents: They include viruses and viroids. They are infectious agents. They can be
crystallized and are considered non-living. But their multiplication in the living plants ensures
that they are living. Hence they are called as mesobiotic agents.
Viruses e.g. yellow mosaic of blackgram
Viroids e.g. spindle tuber of potato
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B. Non-parasites or Abiotic agents: They are also called as non-infectious or physiological

disorders. When no pathogen is found, cultured from or transmitted from a diseased plant, then
the disease is said to be caused by a non-living or environmental factor. These diseases occur
because of disturbances in the plant system by the improper environmental conditions in the air
or soil or by mechanical influences. They are listed below.
i. Too low or too high temperature
ii. Lack or excess of soil moisture
iii. Lack or excess of light
iv. Lack of oxygen
v. Air pollution (Toxic gases in the atmosphere etc.)
vi. Mineral deficiencies or toxicities
vii. Soil acidity or alkalinity
viii. Toxicity of pesticides
ix. Improper agricultural practices.
a. FUNGI
Fungi are eukaryotic, achlorophyllous organisms that may reproduce sexually and
asexually and whose filamentous branched somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell
walls containing chitin or cellulose.
b. BACTERIA
Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular prokaryotes, which lack chlorophyll. These
microorganisms are with a primitive nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane. The bacteria
are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0 μm in size. More than 1,600
bacterial species are known. Majority of them are saprophytes. Several species cause diseases in
human beings and animals. About 200 species of bacteria cause diseases in plants. First report of
plant disease by bacteria was made by T.J. Burrill of the University of Illinois. He showed that
fire blight of apple and pear is caused by a bacterium, Erwinia amylovora. Bacteria have been
defined by Clifton as "extremely minute, rigid essentially unicellular organisms, free of true
chlorophyll and generally devoid of any photosynthetic pigments; most commonly multiplying
asexually by simple transverse fission, the resulting cells being of equal or nearly equal size".
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Fastidious vascular bacteria (Rickettsia-like bacteria – RLB)

Fastidious vascular bacteria are otherwise called Rickettsia - Like bacteria, Rickettsia like
organisms (RLO), or fastidious prokaryotes or rickettsia -like walled bacteria. They are small
bacteria with a cellular ultrastructure of typical gram- negative bacteria. They are very exacting
in their nutritional requirements, refusing to grow on routine bacteriological media. They have a
cell wall unlike MLO and spiroplasma. MLO is restricted to phloem tissues where as RLB are
restricted mostly to xylem or phloem. A common habit for both is the insect body fluid
(haemolymph). Both the groups are dependent on insect vectors for transmission. Non-tissue
restricted RLB have also been observed in plant diseases. They reproduce by binary fission.
Mostly insect vectors transmit them. Nematode (Xiphinema index) also helps in transmission of
RLB (yellow disease of grapevine). Mechanical inoculations (as in Pierce's disease of grapevine,
almond leaf scorch and alfalfa dwarf) or vegetative propagation also reproduce disease
symptoms. They produce phytoalexins, which induce characteristic symptoms of the disease.
They are cultured in artificial media e.g., Pierce's disease of grapevine, almond leaf scorch,
phony disease of peach and plum leaf scald. Xylem restricted RLB can be more successfully
cultured than limited-limited bacteria.
Penicillin is effective against RLB. Sulpha drugs also inhibit them. The RLB can be
divided into three groups.
1 Xylem-limited RLB
2 Phloem-limited RLB and
3 Non-tissue restricted RLB
1. Phloem-limited RLB
Phloem limited bacterium was first recognized by D.Lefleche and J.M.Bowe in 1970.
Twelve phloem-restricted RLB have been identified Examples of phloem limited RLB include
citrus greening, clover club leaf (CCL), white clover disease, clover rugose leaf curl, potato
leaflet stunt, little leaf of Sida cordifolia and stunting of dodder.
a. Symptoms: Stunting, yellowing of young leaves, virescence of floral parts, premature death
of the entire plant.
b. RLB: They are mostly rigid rods and Gram-negative and sensitive to penicillin. The cells
measure 0.2 to 0.5 x 1.0 to 2.0 (0.3 x 1.3 ) μm and are bound by a double membrane or a cell
wall and cytoplasmic membrane. RLB have not been cultured in vitro and Koch's postulates
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proved. Therefore, not much is known about their nature, taxonomy and serological
relationships.
Transmission: Transmission is by leafhoppers, dodder and grafting. Citrus greening is
transmitted by citrus psylla (Psyllina sp.) and by vegetative propagation. Clover clubleaf
multiplies in its vector, Agalliopsis novella. The vector retains infectivity throughout its life
cycle and the RLB is transovarially transmitted.
2. Xylem-limited RLB
Pierce's disease of grapevine, almond leaf scorch, phony disease of peach, wilt of
periwinkle, Sumatra disease of cloves, elm leaf scorch, alfalfa dwarf, plum leaf scald. The RLB
causing phony disease of peach is named as Xylella fastidiosa. Symptoms: Symptoms include
marginal necrosis of leaves, stunting of plants, decline in vigour and reduction in yield.
RLB: In general xylem-limited Gram-negative bacteria have elongated cells of 0.2 to 0.5 into
1.4 μm size (Davis et. al., 1981). The cells usually have well defined cell wall and plasma
membrane. Both are triple layered in structure. The walls are ridged or ripped due to periodic
infolding of the outer membrane of the wall. These width of the ridges is about 45 to 75 nm. The
cell wall ultrastructure is typical of Gram negative bacterial. In culture, the cells of Pierce's
disease of grapevine and almond leaf scorch are non-motile, gram negative, oxidase negative and
catalase positive.
They are susceptible to tetracyclines but not to penicillin. The G+C content of the DNA is
about 53.1 moles per cent.
Transmission
Transmission of RLB takes place mostly through xylem feeding insects. Sap transmission
and transmission through vegetative propagation have been reported. The insect vectors belong
to sharp shooter leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and spittle bug or froghoppers (Cercopidae). Pierce's
disease of grapevine is spread by Homaladisca coagulata, Oncometopia undulata, Cuerna
costalis, Draeculacephala portola, D.minerva, Corneocephala fulgide and Graphocephala
atrapunctata. RLB of Pierce's disease of grapevine is transmitted by the vector in a non-
circulative but persistent manner. There is no incubation period in the body of the vector and
infectivity is lost after moulting. This is because the RLB accumulate only in the salivary
syringes where they appear to attach in a polar orientation. The transmission is accompanied by
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regurgitation of the bacteria into the xylem stream. The RLB are not pathogenic to the vector.
There is no transovarially transfer of RLB.
3. Non-tissue restricted RLB: They are also found in parenchyma and meristematic cells of
yellows of grapevine, chlorosis and Aspermy of wheat, apple proliferation, carrot proliferation
and necrosis of grapevine. A yellow of grapevine is transmitted by a nematode, Xiphinema index.
Not much is known about RLB of these diseases.
PHYTOPLASMA
Phytoplasma lack cell wall and are bounded by a unit membrane. They are pleomorphic.
They lack cell wall. They have fried egg appearance of colony. They are filterable through 450
nm membrane. They have both DNA and RNA. They cannot be grown on artificial media. They
produce symptoms like little leaf, phyllody, spike, yellows, stunting, witches’ broom etc. They
are mostly transmitted by leafhoppers. They are insensitive to penicillin and sensitive to
tetracycline. e.g. phyllody of sesame, little leaf of brinjal.
SPIROPLASMA
Spiroplasma is helical, wall-less prokaryotes requiring cholesterol for growth and cause
diseases in plants, insects and rats. They are insensitive to penicillin and sensitive to erythrocin
and tetracycline. e.g. corn stunt, citrus stubborn.
VIRUS
Viruses are ultramicroscopic, nucleoprotein entities, which are infectious agents and
obligately parasitic pathogens, which are less than 200 mμ in size. They are devoid of enzymes
and depend on the host protein synthesis machinery (ribosomes). They have only one type of
nucleic acid viz., RNA or DNA. Most of the plant virus is having RNA. e.g. TMV. Few viruses
contain DNA. e.g. Cauliflower mosaic virus, banana bunchy top virus, maize streak virus and
sugar beet curly top virus.
VIROIDS
Viroids are small low molecular weight ribonucleic acids that can infect plant cells
replicate themselves and cause disease. They are also called as mini viruses. e.g. Potato spindle
tuber, Chrysanthemum stunt, Coconut Cadang cadang.
ALGAE
Algae are eukaryotic, unicellular or multicellular organisms and mostly occur in aquatic
environments. Many algae thrive as terrestrial or subterranean algae. The size of algae ranges
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from 1.0mm to many centimetres in length. They contain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic.
They reproduce by asexual and sexual processes. The study of algae is called phycology or
algology.
PROTOZOA
Protozoa (trypanosomatid flagellates) belonging to the class Mastigophora, order
Kinetoplastida and family Trypanosomatidae have been known to parasitize plants. Protozoa
attacking plants move by flagella. Protozoa or trypanosomatid flagellates belonging to the class
Mastigophora, order: Kinetoplastida and family Trypanosomatidae have been known to
parasitize plants. The Mastigophora, or flagellates, are characterized by one or more long slender
flagella at some or all stages of their life cycle. The flagella are used for locomotion and food
capture. They are also used as sense organs. The body of the flagellates has a definite long, oval
or spherical form, which is maintained by a thin, flexible membrane cover.
In some groups it may be armoured. Flagellates reproduce by longitudinal fission.
Flagellates apparently cause the phloem necrosis disease of coffee, the heart rot disease of
coconut palm and the Marchitez suppressive (sudden wilt or wither) disease of oil palm,
Marchitez suppressive is one of the important diseases in oil palm. Phytomonas staheli was
described from sieve tubes of coconut and oil palm.
PHANEROGAMIC PARASITES
Phanerogamic parasites are flowering plants or seed plants, which lead a parasitic life on
other living plants. They parasitize a great number of economic plants and cause considerable
loss in yield. The phanerogamic parasites invade stem or root of the host plants. Some of these
parasites possess chlorophyll, which manufacture carbohydrates to a limited extent and depend
on the host for mineral, salts and water.
These are generally called as semi or partial parasites. Some of the parasites, which do
not have chlorophyll, depend entirely on the host plants for their food materials. They are called
holo or total parasites. Nearly 2,500 species of phanerogamic parasites in 11 families have been
recorded throughout the world. Among them Orobanchaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Loranthaceae,
Convolvulaceae and Lauraceae are important.
Classification of plant diseases
There are thousands of diseases, which attack crop plants. Classification can be made
based on several criteria. The various ways of classifying diseases of plants are given below.
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1. Type of infection
a. Localized diseases: These diseases are limited to a definite area of an organ or part(s)
of a plant. e.g. leaf spots and anthracnoses caused by different fungi.
b. Systemic diseases: In these diseases the pathogen spreads from a single infection point
so as to infect all or most of the host tissues. e.g. Downy mildews caused by fungi and mosaics
and leaf curls caused by viruses.
2. Type of perpetuation and spread
a. Soil-borne diseases: The causal agents perpetuate and spread through soil. e.g.
Damping off caused by fungi like Pythium sp. and root rot caused by Rhizoctonia spp.
b. Seed-borne diseases: Seed or seed materials help in the perpetuation and spread of this
disease. The disease causing agents may be internally seed-borne or externally seed-borne e.g.
Loose smut of wheat caused by Ustilago nuda tritici (internally seedborne) and blast of rice
caused by Pyricularia oryzae (externally seed-borne).
c. Air-borne diseases: In these type of diseases the causal agents are spread by wind (air).
e.g. Early leaf spot and late leaf spot of groundnut caused by Cercospora arachidicola and
Phaeoisariopsis personata respectively.
3. Extent of occurrence and geographic distribution
a. Endemic diseases: It is also known as enphytotic disease. When a disease is more or
less constantly occurring year after year in a moderate to severe form in a country or locality
then it is called as an endemic disease. e.g. Wart disease of potato caused by Synchytrium
endobioticum is endemic in Darjeeling, citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv.
citri is endemic in Asia and sorghum rust caused by Puccinia purpurea is endemic in India.
b. Epidemic or epiphytotic diseases: An epidemic or epiphytotic refers to sudden
outbreak of a disease periodically over a widespread area in a devastatingly severe form causing
extensive losses or complete destruction. Epidemic disease may be present constantly in the
locality but assumes a severe form only on occasions. This is because of the occurrence of
favourable environment responsible for the rapid development of the disease. But the pathogen
may be irregular in appearance or there may be lack of sufficient inoculum to cause the disease.
e.g. wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) and powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis var.
tritici), late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans), sugarcane red rot (Physalospora
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tucumanensis), downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola) and rice blast (Pyricularia
oryzae).
c. Sporadic diseases: Sporadic diseases are those, which occur at irregular intervals over
limited areas or locations. They occur in relatively few instances. e.g. Fusarium wilt of cotton
(Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum), grain smut of sorghum (Sporisorium = Sphacelotheca
cruenta) and wheat loose smut (Ustilago nuda tritici).
d. Pandemic diseases: A disease is said to be pandemic when it is prevalent throughout
the country, continent or world involving mass mortality. e.g. Late blight of potato and wheat
stem rust.
4. Multiplication of inoculum
Based on the multiplication of inoculum, diseases are classified as
a. Simple interest disease and
b. Compound interest disease.
a. In simple interest disease (monocyclic epidemics) the disease increase is just like
simple interest in money. Here inoculum comes from a reservoir and hence amount of inoculum
for a given season's crop is fixed. So there is no repetition of the disease cycle within the crop
season. Hence the disease spread will be slow. e.g. Soil inhabiting pathogens like Pythium sp.,
Rhizoctonia sp. and Sclerotium sp.
b. In compound interest disease (polycyclic epidemics) the disease increase is just like
compound interest in money. Inoculum is multiplied several times (every 7 to 15 days for wheat
rust) during crop growth in a season. So the disease spread will be fast. e.g. Wheat stem rust, rice
blast, powdery mildew diseases of different crops.
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Lecture 03
General Characters of fungi - Definition of fungus, somatic structures, types of fungal

thalli, fungal tissues, modifications of thallus, reproduction in fungi (asexual and sexual)
General characters of fungi

Fungi are the eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, and unicellular or multicellular organisms,
which may reproduce by asexual and sexual spores.
1. All are eukaryotic - Possess membrane-bound nuclei (containing chromosomes)
and a range of membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria, vacuoles,
endoplasmic reticulum).
2. Most are filamentous - Composed of individual microscopic filaments called hyphae, which
exhibit apical growth and which branch to form a network of hyphae called a mycelium.
3. Some are unicellular - e.g. yeasts.
4. Protoplasm of a hypha or cell is surrounded by a rigid wall - Composed primarily of chitin and
glucans, although the walls of some species contain cellulose.
5. Many reproduce both sexually and asexually - Both sexual and asexual reproduction often
result in the production of spores.
6. Their nuclei are typically haploid and hyphal compartments are often multinucleate - Although
the oomycota and some yeast possess diploid nuclei.
7. All are achlorophyllous - They lack chlorophyll pigments and are incapable of photosynthesis.
8. All are chemoheterotrophic (chemo-organotrophic) - They utilise pre-existing organic sources
of carbon in their environment and the energy from chemical reactions to synthesize the organic
compounds they require for growth and energy.
9. Possess characteristic range of storage compounds - e.g. trehalose, glycogen, sugar alcohols
and lipids.
10. May be free-living or may form intimate relationships with other organisms i.e. may be free-
living, parasitic or mutualistic (symbiotic).
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Thallus
The body of the fungus is called as 'thallus'.
Eucarpic thallus
The thallus is differentiated into vegetative part, which absorbs nutrients, and a
reproductive part, which forms reproductive structure. Such thalli are called as eucarpic. e.g.
Pythium aphanidermatum.
Holocarpic thallus
The thallus does not show any differentiation on vegetative and reproductive structure.
After a phase of vegetative growth, it gets converted into one or more reproductive structures.
Such thalli are called as 'holocarpic' e.g. yeast, Synchytrium endobioticum
Hyphae
Hyphae is a tubular, transparent filament, usually branched, composed of an outer cell
wall and a cavity (lumen) lined or filled with protoplasm including cytoplasm. Hyphae are
divided into compartments or cells by cross walls called septa and are generally called as septate
(with cross wall) or coenocytic (aseptate -without cross wall). Hyphae of most of the fungi
measure 5-10 μm across.
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Mycelium (pl. Mycelia)

The hyphal mass or network of hyphae constituting the body (thallus) of the fungus is
called as mycelium. The mycelium of parasitic fungi grows on the surface of the host and spread
between the cells and it is called intercellular mycelium. The mycelium of parasitic fungi, which
grows on the surface of the host and penetrates into the host cells and is called intracellular
mycelium. If the mycelium is intercellular, food is absorbed through the host cell walls or
membrane. If the mycelium penetrates into the cells, the hyphal walls come into direct contact
with the host protoplasm. Intercellular hyphae of many fungi, especially of obligate parasites of
plants (fungi causing downy mildews, powdery mildews and rusts) obtain nutrients through
haustoria.
Monokaryotic mycelium (uninucleate)
Mycelium contains single nucleus that usually forms part of haplophase in the life cycle
of fungi.
Dikaryotic mycelium (binucleate)
Mycelium contains pair of nuclei (dikaryon), which denotes the diplophase in the life
cycle of fungi.
Homokaryotic mycelium
The mycelium contains genetically identical nuclei.
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Heterokaryotic mycelium
The mycelium contains nuclei of different genetic constituents.
Multinucleate
The fungal cell contains more than 2 nuclei.
Septa
Transverse septa occur in the thallus of all
filamentous fungi to cut off reproductive cells from
the rest of the hypha, to separate off the damaged
parts or to divide the hypha into regular or irregular
compartments or cells. There are two general types of
septa in fungi viz., primary and adventitious. The
primary septa are formed in association with nuclear
division and are laid down between daughter nuclei. The adventitious septa are formed
independently of nuclear division and are especially associated with changes in the concentration
of the protoplasm as it moves from one part of the hypha to another.
Transverse septa
Septa vary in their construction septa have biological importance in the lifecycle of fungi.
Some are simple whereas others are complex. All types of septa are formed by centripetal growth
from the hyphal wall inward. In some septa, the growth continues until the septum is a solid
plate. In others the septum remains incomplete, leaving a pore in the centre that may often be
plugged or occulted.
Some groups of Basidiomycetes like Auriculariaceae, Tremellaceae, Aphyllophorales,
Agaricales etc (except Ustilaginales and uredinales) have more complex septa. Surrounding the
central pore in the septum is a curved flange of wall material, which is thickened to form a
barrel-shaped or cylindrical structure surrounding the pore. Septa of this type are termed dolipore
septa (L. dolium = a large jar or cask i . e., barrel).
These septa are often overlaid by perforated cap, which is an extension of the
endoplasmic reticulum. This cap is known as parenthosome or pore cap. Despite these apparent
barriers, there is a good cytoplasmic continuity between adjacent cells. The septal pore may vary
in width from 0.1 to 0.2 μm. Dolipore septa are found in both monokaryotic and dikaryotic
mycelia.
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Fungal cell structure

Fungal cells are typically eukaryotic and have distinguished characteristics than that of
bacteria, and algae. The chief components of cell wall appears to be various types of
carbohydrate or their mixtures (upto 80-90%) such as cellulose, pectose, callose etc., cellulose
predominates in the cell wall of mastigomycotina (lower fungi) while in higher fungi chitin is
present. The living protoplast of the fungal cell is enclosed in a cell membrane called as plasma
membrane or plasmalemma. Cytoplasm contains organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, microbodies, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and
microtubules.
The fungal nucleus has nuclear envelope comprising of two typical unit membrane and a
central dense area known as nucleolus, which mainly consist of RNA. In multinucleate hyphae,
the nuclei may be interconnected by the endoplasmic reticulum. Vacuoles present inside the cell
provide turgor needed for cell growth and maintenance of cell shape. Beside the osmotic
function, they also store reserve materials. The chief storage products of fungi are glycogen and
lipid. The apex of the hyphae are usually rich in vesicles and are called as apical vesicular
complex (AVC) which helps in the transportation of products formed by the secretary action of
golgi apparatus to the site where these products are utilized.
Specialized Somatic Structures
Rhizoid
A rhizoid (Gr. rhiza = root + oeides = like) is a
short, root-like filamentous outgrowth of the thallus
generally formed in tufts at the base of small unicellular
thalli or small porophores. Rhizoid serves as anchoring
or attachment organ to the substratum and also as an
organ of absorption of nutrients from substratum.
Rhizoids are short, delicate filaments that contain
protoplasm but no nuclei.
Rhizoids are common in lower fungi like Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes and
Zygomycetes. Some species produce a many-branched rhizomycelium. This is an extensive
rhizoidal system that usually do not contains nuclei, but through which nuclei migrate. e.g.
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Cladochytrium sp. On rhizomycelium numerous

sporangia develop. Such thalli are polycentric, that
is, they form several reproductive centres instead of
a single one where the thallus is termed
monocentric.
Appressorium
Appressorium (p1. appressorium; L. apprimere = to press against) is a simple or lobed
structure of hyphal or germ tube and a pressing organ from which a minute infection peg usually
grow and enter the epidermal cell
of the host. It helps germ tube or
hypha to attach to the surface of
the host or substrates. These
appressoria are formed from germ
tubes of Uredinales (rust fungi),
Erysiphales (powdery mildew
fungi) and other fungi in their
parasitic or saprophytic stages. In addition to giving anchorage, appressoria help the penetrating
hyphae, branches to pierce the host cuticle. In fungi like Colletotrichum falcatum, germ tubes
from conidia and resulting hyphae form appressoria on coming in contact with any hard surface
like soil etc. These appressoria are thought to function as resting structures (chlamydospores)
also.
Haustoria
Haustoria (sing. haustorium; L. haustor = drinker) are special hyphal structures or
outgrowths of somatic hyphae sent into the cell to absorb nutrients. The hyphal branch said to
function as haustorium becomes extremely thin and pointed while piercing the hast cell wall and
expands in the cell cavity to form a wider, simple or branched haustorium. Haustoria may be
knob-like or balloon – like in shape, elongated or branched like a miniature root system.
The hyphae of obligate parasites of plants like downy mildew, powdery mildew or rust fungi late
blight fungus etc ., produce haustoria. Hyphopodia: Hyphopodium (pl. hyphopodia Gr. hyphe =
web + pous = foot) is a small appendage with one or two cells in length on an external hypha and
function as absorbing structures. The terminal cell of hyphopodium is expanded and rounded or
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pointed. Sometimes it produces a haustorium. e.g. Ectophytic fungi (Meliola aesariae) attacking
leaves of green plants.
Aggregations of hyphae and tissues

a. Mycelial strand
Mycelial strands are aggregates of parallel or interwoven undifferentiated hyphae, which
adhere closely and are frequently anastomosed or cemented together. They are relatively loose
(e.g. Sclerotium rolfsii growth on culture medium) compared to rhizomorph. They have no well-
defined apical meristem. Mycelial strand formation is quite common in Basidiomycetes,
Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes. Mycelial strands form the familiar 'spawn' of the cultivated
mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. Mycelial strands are capable of translocating materials in both the
directions. They are believed to afford means by which a fungus can extend an established food
base and colonize a new substratum, by increasing the inoculum potential of the fungus at the
point of colonization.
b. Rhizomorph
Rhizomorph (Gr. rhiza=root + morphe = shape) is the aggregation of highly
differentiated hyphae with a well defined apical meristem, a central core of larger, thin walled,
cells which are often darkly pigmented. These root-like aggregation is found in the honey fungus
or honey agaric Armillariella mellea (=Armillaria mellea). They grow faster than the mycelial
strands. The growing tip of rhizomorph resembles that of a root tip. The fungus may spread
underground from one root system to another by means of rhizomorph.
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c. Fungal tissues
During certain stages of the life cycle of most fungi, the mycelium becomes organized
into loosely or compactly woven tissues. These organized fungal tissues are called plectenchyma
(Gr. plekein = to weave + encyma = infusion i.e., a woven tissue). There are two types of
plectenchyma viz., prosenchyma and pseudoparenchyma. When the tissue is loosely woven and
the hyphae lie parallel to one another it is called prosenchyma (Gr. pros = toward + enchyma =
infusion, i.e., approaching a tissue). These tissues have distinguishable and typical elongated
cells. Pseudoparenchyma (Gr. Pseudo = false) consists of closely packed, more or less
isodiametric or oval cells resembling the parenchyma cells of vascular plants. In this type of
tissues hyphae lose their individuality and are not distinguishable. Cells in prosenchyma are thin-
walled and cells in pseudoparenchyma.
Stroma and sclerotium
Stromata and sclerotia are somatic structures of fungi.
i. Stroma (pl. stromata; Gr. stroma = mattress)
A stroma is a compact, somatic structure or hyphal aggregation similar to a mattress or a
cushion, on which or in which fructifications of fungi are usually formed. They may be of
various shapes and sizes. Hyphal masses like acervuli, sporodochia, pionnotes etc. are the fertile
stromata, which bear sporophores producing spores.
ii. Sclerotium (pl. sclerotia; Gr. skeleros = hard)
A sclerotium is a resting body formed by
aggregation of somatic hyphae into dense, rounded,
flattened, elongated or horn-shaped dark masses.
They are thick-walled resting structures, which
contain food reserves. Sclerotia are hard structures
resistant to unfavourable physical and chemical
conditions. They may remain dormant for longer
periods of time, sometimes for several years and germinate on the return of favourable
conditions. The sclerotia on germination may be myceliogenous and produce directly the
mycelium e.g. Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani and S. cepivorum (white rot of onion).
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They may be sporogenous and bear mass of spores. e.g. Botrytis cinerea. They may also be
carpogenous where in they produce a spore fruit ( ascocarps or basidiocarps) bearing stalk. e.g.
Sclerotinia sp. Claviceps purpurea (ergot of rye). Development of ascocarps is seen in
Sclerotinia, where stalked cups or apothecia, bearing asci, arise from sclerotia. In Claviceps
purpurea, sclerotia germinate and give rise to drumstick like structures called perithecial
stromata, which contain perithecia, flask-shaped cavities within which the asci are formed.
Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhiza (pl. mycorrhizae; Gr. mykes = mushroom + rhiza = root) is the symbiotic
association between higher plant roots and fungal mycelia. Many plants in nature have
mycorrhizal associations. Mycorrhizal plants increase the surface area of the root system for
better absorption of nutrients from soil especially when the soils are deficient in phosphorus.
The nature of association is believed to be symbiotic (mutualism), non-pathogenic or
weakly pathogenic. There are three types of mycorrhizal fungal associations with plant roots.
They are ectotrophic or sheathing or ectomycorrhiza,. endotrophic or endomycorrhiza and
ectendotrophicmycorrhiza.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the characteristics typical of
a species. The fungi reproduce by means of asexual and sexual or parasexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is sometimes called somatic or vegetative and it does not involve union of
nuclei, sex cells or sex organs. The union of two nuclei characterizes sexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In fungi, asexual reproduction is more important for the propagation of species. Asexual
reproduction does not involve union of sex organs (gametangia) or sex cells (gametes) or nuclei.
In fungi the following are the common methods of asexual reproduction.
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1. Fragmentation of mycelium
Mycelial fragments from any part of the thallus may grow into new individuals when
suitable conditions are provided.
2. Fission of unicellular thalli
It is also known as transverse cell division. Reproduction by the method of fission is are
in fungi. Fission is simple splitting of cells into two daughter cells by constriction and the
formation of a cell wall. It is observed in Schizosaccharomyces spp
3. Budding
Budding is the production of a small outgrowth (bud)
from a parent cell. As the bud is formed, the nucleus of the
parent cell divides and one daughter nucleus migrates into the
bud. The bud increases in size, while still attached to the parent
cell and eventually breaks off and forms a new individual. It is
common in yeasts.(Saccharomyces sp. ).
Scanning electron micrograph of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
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4. Production of asexual spores

Reproduction by the production of spores is very common in many fungi.
SPORES
The term 'spore'(Gr. spora=seed, spore) is applied to any small propagative, reproductive
or survival unit, which separates from a hypha or sporogenous cell and can grow independently
into a new individual. Spores may be unicellular or multicellular. Multicellular spores are mostly
with transverse septa and in some genera like Alternaria a spore will have both transverse and
longitudinal septa. Each cell of a multicellular spore may be uninucleate, binucleate or
multinucleate depending on the fungal species. The spores may be in different shapes and sizes.
They may be spherical, oval or ovate, obovate, pyriform, obpyriform, ellipsoid,
cylindrical, oblong, allantoid, filiform or selecoid, falcate or fusion. The spores may be with or
without simple or branched appendages. The spores may be motile or nonmotile. If the spores
are motile they are called planospores (Gr. Planets = wanderer) and non-motile spores are called
aplanospores. Spores may be thin or thick-walled, hyaline or coloured, smooth or with
ornamented walls. The following types of ornamentations are found on the walls.
Asexual spores
The spores produced asexual means are:
a. Sporangiospores
b. Conidia
c. Chlamydospores
a. Sporangiospores
Sporangiospores may be
motile (planospores) or non-
motile spores (aplanospores). In
simpler fungi sporangiospores are
usually motile and are called
zoospores. These spores are
produced in lower fungi, which
inhabit aquatic or moist terrestrial
substrates. sporangiospores are formed in globose or sac-like structure called sporangium (pl.
sporangia; Gr. Spora = seed, spore + angeion = vessel). In the zygomycetes and especially in the
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Mucorales, the non-motile asexual spores called aplanospores are contained in globose sporangia
surrounding a central core or columella. Sporangia are also known in which there is no
columella, or where the spores (aplanospores) are arranged in a row inside a cylindrical sac
termed a Merosporangium (e.g. Syncephalastrum spp. Mucorales).
These aplanospores may be uni or multinucleate and are unicellular, generally smooth-
walled, globose or ellipsoid in shape. When aplanospores mature, they may be surrounded by
mucilage and rain splash or insects usually disperse such spores. When aplanospores are dry then
are dispersed by wind currents. The sporangiospores for sporangium may vary from several
thousands to only one. In some fungi few-spores sporangia are called Sporangiola. Sporangiola
are dispersed as a unit. e.g. Choanephora sp. and Blakeslee sp. in Choanephoraceae of
Mucorales. In holocarpic thalli, the entire thallus (without differentiation of a sporophore)
becomes a sporangium. Its contents cleave into a number of segments which round off and
become zoospores. In eucarpic thalli, a part of the thallus, or special branches from thallus,
function as or produce sporangia.
In terrestrial and plant parasitic forms of lower fungi, the sporangium may function as
spore and no zoospores are formed. In others zoospores are formed within the sporangium itself
or the inner wall of the sporangium may grow out into a short or long tube which swells to form
a vesicle. The contents of the sporangium move into a vesicle and the zoospores are
differentiated. E.g. Pythium aphanidermatum.
Zoospore (Gr. Zoon = animal + spora = seed, spore)
It is an asexually produced spore, which is motile by means of flagellum or flagella.
Zoospore is naked and its covering is only a hyaloplasm membrane. Normally, zoospores are
uninucleate and haploid. Zoospores may be spherical, oval, pyriform, obpyriform, elongate or
reniform in shape. The zoospores are provided with one or two flagella (sing. flagellum, L.
flagellum=whip) for its movement in the surrounding film of water. Flagellum is a hair-or tinsel-
like structure that serves to propel a motile cell.
These flagella may be anterior, posterior or laterally attached to a groove in the body.
There are two types of flagella in zoospores. They are whiplash and tinsel types. The whiplash
flagellum has a long rigid base composed of all the eleven fibrils and a short flexible end formed
of the two central fibrils only. The tinsel flagellum has a rachis, which is covered on all sides
along its centre length with short fibrils. In uniflagellate zoospores the flagellum may be anterior
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or posterior. But in biflagellate zoospores one is whiplash and the other is tinsel type and one
points forward and the other backward. But in Plasmodiophorales fungi flagella are of whiplash
type and unequal.
Zoospores pass through the three phases viz., motility, encasement and germination. The
length of their motility depends on available moisture, temperature and presence of stimulatory
or inhibitory substances in the environment. Later the zoospores become sluggish, spend or cast
their flagella (except in chytridiacious fungi and primary zoospores in Saprolegniales where
flagella are shed but withdrawn into its body become spherical and secrete thin wall around itself
and become encysted. The encysted zoospores germinate. The functions of zoospores include
initiation of new generation and acting as gametes.
b. Conidiospores
Conidiospores or conidia (sing. Conidium) are
asexual reproductive structures borne on special spore
bearing hyphae conidiophores. They are found in many
different groups of fungi, but especially in ascomycotina,
Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina. In
Deuteromycotina conidia are the only means of
reproduction. Conidia may be
borne singly or in chains or in
cluster. They vary from unicellular
(e.g. Colletotrichum), bicellular,
microconidia of Fusarium spp. and
multicellular (Pestalotiopsis,
Cercospora). One-celled spores are
called amerospores, two celled
spores are didymospores and
multicellular spores are called
phragmospores. The multicellular conidia may be divided by the septa in one to three planes. In
Alternaria spp., conidia are with both transverse and longitudinal septa are called dictyospores.
The shape of the conidium may vary. They may be globose, elliptical, ovoid, cylindrical,
branched or spirally coiled or star-shaped (staurospores). The colour of the conidia may be
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hyaline (hyalospore) or coloured (phaeospore) pink, green, or dark. The dark pigments are
probably melanins. The colour of the conidia and conidiophores are important features used in
classification. In the order Entomophthorales (e.g. Basidiobolus, Pilobolus) asexual reproduction
is by means or forcibly discharged uninucleate or multinucleate primary conidia. On germination
primary conidia develops uninucleate or binucleate secondary conidia. In species of Fusarium
one or two-celled microconidia and many-celled macroconidia are common.
Conidia may be formed in acropetal (oldest conidium at the base and the youngest at the
apex) or basipetal (oldest conidium at the apex and youngest at the base) succession. Generally
the term 'conidia'is used for any asexual spores other than sporangia and spores formed directly
by hyphal cells. When the spore is not much differentiated from the cells of the conidiophore in
shape the term oidium is often used for conidia. A distinction between sporangiospores and
conidia is that, before germination of sporangiospores a new wall, eventually continuous with the
germ tube, is laid down within the original spore wall whilst in conidia there is no new wall layer
laid down. Conidiophores are also known as sporophores. They are special hyphae bearing
conidia.
They may be free, simple or branched. They may be distinct from each other or may be
aggregated to form compound sporophores or fruiting bodies such as synnemata, sporodochia,
acervuli and pycnidia. They may be provided with sterigmata or specialized branches on which
they bear conidia. Some conidial spores are inflated at the tips (e.g. Aspergillus); others are
inflated at intervals, forming kneelike structures on which the conidia are grouped
(Gonatobotrys); still others have many branches, which are characteristically arranged, in whorls
(Verticillium) or in sympodium (Monopodium). They are generally produced on the surface of
the host. The sporogenous part of the conidiophore is commonly apical but may be laterally
placed. The apical zone of differentiation of conidiophore may give rise to a single conidium or
more often, to a succession of conidia in chains, false heads.
c. Chlamydospores
Chlamydospore (Gr. Chlamys = mantle + spora = seed, spore) is a thick-walled thallic
conidium that generally function as a resting spore. Terminal or intercalary segments or
mycelium may become packed with food reserves and develop thick walls. The walls may be
colourless or pigmented with dark melanin pigment.
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These structures are known as chlamydospores. e.g. Fusarium, Mucor racemosus, Saprolegnia.
Generally there is no mechanism for detachment and dispersal of chlamydospores. They become
separated from each other by the disintegration of intervening hyphae. They are the important
organs or asexual survival in soil fungi. When chlamydospores are found in between fungal cells
they are called 'intercalary chlamydospores'. Chlamydospores produced at the apex of the hypha
are called 'apical or terminal chlamydospores'.
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction in fungi involves union of two compatible nuclei. The nuclei may be
carried in motile or non-motile gametes, in gametangia or in somatic cells of the thallus.
Phases of sexual reproduction
Three typical phases occur in sequence during the sexual reproduction.
1. Plasmogamy
In plasmogamy (Gr. plasma=a molded object, i.e. a being + gamos = marriage, union)
anastomosis of two cells or gametes and fusion of their protoplasts take place. In the process the
two haploid nuclei of opposite sexes (compatible nuclei) are brought together but eh nuclei will
not fuse.
2. Karyogamy
The fusion of two haploid nuclei brought together as a result of plasmogamy is called
karyogamy (Gr. karyon = nut, nucleus + gamos = marriage). This stage follows immediately
after plasmogamy in many of the lower fungi or may be delayed in higher fungi. In higher fungi
plasmogamy results in a binucleate cell containing one nucleus from each cell. Such a pair of
nuclei is called dikaryon(NL. Di = two + Gr. karyon = nut). These two nuclei may not fuse until
later in the life history of the fungus. Meanwhile, during growth and cell division of the
binucleate cell, the dikaryotic condition may be perpetuated from cell to cell by conjugate
division of the two closely associated nuclei and by the separation of the resulting sister nuclei
with two daughter cells. Nuclear fusion, which eventually takes place in all sexually reproducing
fungi, is followed by meiosis.
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3. Meiosis
Karyogamy results in the formation of a diploid (2n) nucleus. Meiosis (Gr.
meiosis=reduction) reduces the number of chromosomes to haploid and constitutes the third
phase of the sexual reproduction. This nucleus undergoes a reduction division to form two
haploid nuclei each with 'n'chromosomes. A mitotic division follows and four nuclei are formed.
In ascomycetes another nuclear division takes place resulting in the formation eight nuclei. The
nuclei get surrounded by a small amount of cytoplasm and secrete a wall to become spores.
In a true sexual cycle, the above three phases occur in a regular sequence and usually at
specified points. If there is only one free living thallus, haploid or diploid in the life cycle of a
fungus is called haplobiontic (Gr. haplos = single + bios = life). e.g. Oomycetes haploid gamete
and diploid mycelium. If a haploid thallus alternates with a diploid, the life cycle is called
diplobiontic (Gr. diplos = double + bios = life). e.g. Allomyces (water mold Coelomomyces,
mosquito parasite) and in some yeasts.
Organs involved in sexual reproduction
Fungi, which produce morphologically distinguishable male and female sex organs in
each thallus, are called hermaphroditic (Gr. hermes = the messenger of the Gods, symbol of the
male sex + aphrodite = the Goddess of love, symbol of female sex) or monoecious or unisexual
(Gr. monos = single, one + oikos = dwelling, home). A single thallus of a monoecious fungi can
reproduce sexually by itself if it is self-compatible. In a fungus when the female and male organs
are produced on two different thalli it is said to be dioecious or bisexual. (Gr. dis = twice, two +
oikos = home; i.e.; the sexes separated into two different individuals). Normally a single thallus
of a dioecious fungus cannot reproduce sexually by itself as the thallus is either male or female.
The sex organs of fungi are called gametangia (sing. gametangium; Gr. gametes =
husband + angeion = vessel, container). Sex cells are called gametes and the mother cells (sex
organs) are called gametangia. If the gametes and gametangia produced are morphologically
identical or similar they are called as isogametes (Gr. ison = equal) and isogametangia
respectively. When the gametes and gametangia produced differ in size and structure
(morphologically different) they are called heterogametes (Gr. heteros = other, different) and
heterogametangia respectively. In the latter case, the male gametangium is called antheridium
(pl. antheridia; Gr. antheros = flowery + idion, dimin. suffix) and the female gametangium is
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called oogonium (pl. oogonia; Gr. oon = egg + gonos = offspring). The male gamete is known as
antherozoid or sperm and the female as an egg or oosphere.
Methods of sexual reproduction
The following are the five methods, which the fungi employ to bring the compatible
nuclei together for fusion.
1. Planogametic copulation
2.Gametangial contact (Gametangy)
3. Gametangial copulation (Gametangiogamy)
4. Spermatization
5. Somatogamy
1. Planogametic copulation or conjugation
A planogamate is a motile gamete or sex cell. The fusion of two gametes, one or both of which
are motile is called planogametic copulation. This type of sexual reproduction is common in
aquatic fungi. There are three different types of planogametic copulation.
a. Copulation of isogamous
motile gametes
In this type morphologically
similar butcompatible type
of mating type of gametes
unite to form a motile
zygote. e.g. Synchytrium.
b. Copulation in anisogamous motile gametes

It involves union of one larger gamete with another smaller gamete. The resultant zygote is
motile. The zygote resulting from isogamous or anisogamous planogametic copulation forms a
'resting sporangium'. On further development it functions as sporangium by differentiating
zoospores internally.
c. Heterogamous planogametic copulation
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In this type, a non-motile female gamete (oosphere) is fertilized by a motile male gamete. This
results in the formation of oospores, a resistant structure and resting spore. Oospores germinate
and produce mycelium directly.
2. Gametangial contact
In this method the male
gamete (antheridium) and the
female gamete (oogonium)
come in contact and one or
more nuclei from the male
gamete enter the female
gamete, oogonium dissolved
in the intervening wall through
a pore or through a fertilization tube. In no case the gametangia actually fuse or lose their
identify during the sexual act. e.g. Fungi in Peronosporales. Gametangial contact is also common
in some Ascomycotina where antheridia and female organs (archigonia or ascogonia) may or
may not be well defined.
3. Gametangial copulation: This is a process of fusion of entire contents of the two mating
gametangia. There are two types.
a. Mixing of entire protoplasm of male and female gametangia
Two gametangia meet and
their entire contents fuse in
the female gametangium
leading to formation of a
zygote. The zygote forms a
resting sporangium. e.g.
Aquatic fungi
(Chytridiomycetes).
b. Isogamous copulation
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Two morphologically similar gametangial hyphae come in contact, the wall at the point of
contact dissolves and the contents mix in the cell thus formed. This results in the formation of
zygospore. e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus, Phycomyces.
4. Spermatization
Some fungi like rusts bear
numerous minute, non-motile
uninucleate, male cells called
spermatia. (sing. spermatium;
Gr. spermation=little seed)
Spermatia are produced in
spiral receptacles called
spermagonia (sing.
spermagonium; Gr. Sperma
=seed, sperm+ gennao=I give
birth) or pycnia (sing.
pycnium; Gr. pycnos=concentrated). Insects, wind or water to the female gametangium carries
them, which is usually a special receptive hypha (or trichogyne) to which they become attached.
A pore develops at the point of contact and the contents of spermatium pass into the particular
respective hyphae. This results in plasmogamy and initiation of the dikaryotic stage of the cell.
5. Somatogamy
In somatogamy to sex organs are produced and somatic cells function as gametes
somatogamy (Gr. soma = body + gamos = marriage, union) hyphae anastomose and the nuclei of
opposite matting type are brought together in one cell. Somatogamy is common in Ascomycotina
and Basidiomycotina fungi.
Heterokaryosis
The phenomenon of existence of different kinds of nuclei in the same individual is known
as heterokaryosis. (Gr. heteros = other+ karyon=nut, nucleus). The individual which exhibit
heterokaryosis is called heterokaryon or heterokaryotic. It has been demonstrated in numerous
Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti (Davis, 1966). In a heterokaryotic
individual, each nucleus is independent of all other nuclei, but the structure and behaviour of the
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individual appear to be controlled by the kinds of genes it contains and the proportion of each
kind. Heterokaryosis may arise in a fungal thallus in four ways:
1. By the germination of a heterokaryotic spore, which will give rise to a heterokaryotic soma.
2. By the introduction of genetically different nuclei into homokaryon (Gr. homo=same + karyon
= nut, nucleus), a soma in which all nuclei are similar.
3. By mutation, in a multinucleate homokaryon.The mutant nuclei subsequently survive,
multiply and spread among the wild-type nuclei.
4. By fusion of some nuclei in a haploid homokaryon to form diploid nuclei which subsequently
survive, multiply and spread among the haploid nuclei. Thus in some fungi it is possible to have
different kinds of haploid nuclei in the same soma and a mixture of haploid and diploid nuclei. In
most fungal individuals, the haploid and diploid phases of the life cycle are clearly
distinguishable.
Parasexuality or parasexual cycle
Some fungi (Deuteromycetes) do not go through a sexual cycle but derive many of the
benefits of sexuality through parasexuality (Gr. para =beside+sex ). This is a process in which
plasmogamy, karyogamy and haploidization takes place, but not at specified points in the thallus
or the life cycle of an organism. Parasexual cycle is very important in Deuteromycetes where
sexual reproduction does not take place. Some fungi, which reproduce sexually, also exhibit
parasexuality.
Pontecorvo and Roper from the University of Glasgow in Aspergillus nidulans, the
imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans first discovered parasexuality in 1952. Since then it has
been reported in number of fungi in Ascomycotina, Cochliobolus sativus, (imperfect state:
Bipolaris sorokiniana (syn . Helminthosporium sativum) Leptosphaeria maculans etc.),
Basidiomycotina Puccinia graminis, Melampsora lini, Ustilago maydis, U. hordei,
Schizophyllum commune, Coprinus lagopus and Deuteromycotina. Ascochyta imperfecta,
Aspergillus amstelodami, A. fumigatus , A. rugulosus, A. oryzae, A. sojae, A. niger , Fusarium.
oxysporum f.sp. cubense, F. oxysporum f.sp. callistephi, Phymatotrichum omnivorum,
Pyricularia oryzae, Penicillium italicum, Penicillium chrysogenum Verticillium albo-atrum.
The sequence of events in a complete parasexual cycle is as follows.
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1. Formation of heterokaryotic mycelium

2. Fusion between two nuclei
a. Fusion between like nuclei
b. Fusion between unlike nuclei
3. Multiplication of diploid nuclei side by side with the haploid nuclei
4. Occasional mitotic crossing-over during the multiplication of the diploid nuclei
5. Sorting out of diploid nuclei
6. Occasional haploidization of the diploid nuclei
7. Sorting out of new haploid strains
Anastomosis
The important cause for heterokaryosis is anastomosis. Anastomosis involves fusion of
hyphae of some species, movement of one or more nuclei into one or the other of the fused cells,
and the establishment of a compatible heterokaryotic state. A similar nuclear displacement may
occur in adjacent cells of the same hypha by formation of clamp connections through which
nucleus or nuclei from one cell move into another.
Clamp connection
Clamp connection is a mechanism found in Basidiomycetes. It is a bridge-like hyphal
connection characteristic of the secondary mycelium in many Basidiomycetes. In ensure that
sister nuclei arising from conjugate division of the dikaryon become separated into two daughter
cells. Clamp connections are found during nuclear division and supposed to help in
dikaryotization of adjacent cells.
Sexual spores
The sexual spores are formed as a result of fusion between two opposite sex gametes.
They are resting spores, incapable of germination immediately after formation. Sexual spores are
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oospores, zygospores, ascospores and basidiospores desiring their names from the class to which
the fungi belong.
1. Oospores
An oospore (Gr.oon = egg + spora = seed, spore) is a sexually
produced spore, which develops from unequal gametangial copulation or
markedly unequal gametic fusion. It is the characteristic sexually produced
spore of oomycetes. Oospores develop from fertilized oospheres (Gr. oon =
egg + sphaira = sphere). One or more oospheres develop within ‘oogonia’,
which are multinucleate, globose and female gametangia
2. Zygospores
Zygospores (Gr. zygos = yoke + spora = seed, spore) are
sexually produced resting spores or structures formed as a result of
plasmogamy between two gametangia, which are usually equal in
size. They are resting structures. Zygospores are the typical sexually
produced spores of Zygomycetes e.g. Mucorales and
Entomophthorales. Zygospores are often large, thick-walled, warty
structures with large food reserves and are unsuitable for long
distance dispersal.
3. Ascospores
Ascospores (Gr. askos = sac + spora = seed, spore) are the characteristic spores of the
large group of fungi known as Ascomycotina. They are formed as a result of nuclear fusion
immediately followed by meiosis. The four haploid daughter nuclei then divide mitotically to
give eight haploid nuclei around which the ascospores are cut out. In most ascomycetes, the eight
ascospores are contained within a cylindrical sac or ascus from which they are forcible ejected
by a squirting process in which the ascus contents, consisting of ascospores and ascus sap, are
ejected by explosive breakdown of the tip of the turgid ascus whose elastic walls contract.
Ascospores vary greatly in size, shape, colour and wall ornamentation. In size, the range
is from 4-5 x 1μm in small-spored forms such as minute cup fungus, Dasyscyphus to 130 x
45μm in lichen, Pertusaria pertusa, which is a symbiotic association between an ascomycetes and
a green alga. Ascospore shape varies from globose, oval, elliptical, lemon shaped sausage-
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shaped, cylindrical or needle-shaped. Ascospores may be uninucleate or multinucleate,

unicellular or multicellular, divided up by transverse or by transverse and longitudinal septa.
The wall may be thin or thick, hyaline or coloured, smooth or rough, sometimes folded
into reticulate folds and may have a mucilaginous outer layer which may be extended to form
simple or branched appendages. In general, ascospores are resting structures, which survive
adverse conditions. They may have extensive food reserves in the form of lipid and sugars such
as trehalose.
Ascus
Ascus (pl. asci; Gr. askos = sac) is a sac-like
cell generally containing a definite number of
ascospores (typically eight) formed by free cell
formation usually after karyogamy and meiosis. In the
large majority of the Ascomycetes the asci are
elongated, either club-shaped or cylindrical. But
globose, ovoid or rectangular asci are also found.
Ordinarily the ascus represents a single cell in which the ascospores are formed. Asci may be
stalked or sessile, they may arise from a common fascicle and spread out like a fan or they may
arise simply at various levels within the fruiting body.
Development of ascus
Ascus develops from a specialized hypha called, ascogenous hypha, which in turn
develops from an ascogonium. The ascogenous hypha is multinucleate, and its tip is recurved to
form a crozier (Shepherd's crook). Within the ascogenous hypha nuclear division occurs
simultaneously. Two septa at the tip of the crozier cut off a penultimate cell destined to become
an ascus. The terminal cell of the crozier curves round and fuses with the ascogenous hypha
behind the penultimate cell, and this region of the ascogenous hypha may grow on to form a new
crozier in which the same sequence of events is repeated. Repeated proliferation of the tip of the
crozier can result in a cluster of asci. In the ascus initial the two nuclei fuse and the fusion
nucleus undergoes meiosis to form four haploid daughter nuclei.
These nuclei then undergo a mitotic division so that eight haploid nuclei result. During
these nuclear divisions the ascus is elongating and the plane of the division is parallel to the
length of the ascus. Cytoplasm is cleared out around each nuclei to form an ascospore. In some
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forms the eight nuclei divide further so that each ascospore is binucleate. Where the ascospores
are multicellular there are repeated nuclear divisions. In some forms more than eight ascospores
are formed or the eight ascospores may break up into part-spores. Double membranes form a
cylindrical envelope lining the young ascus. The lining layer is termed as ascus vesicle or
ascospore membrane. Between the two layers forming the membrane, the spore wall is secreted,
and the inner membrane forms the plasma membrane of the ascospore.
The forms of asci vary. The ascus with non-explosive ascospore release is often a globose
sac. But in the majority of the Ascomycetes, the ascus is cylindrical and the ascospores are
expelled from the ascus explosively. It is thought that the explosive release follows increased
turgour caused by water uptake. In many cases the asci are surrounded by packing tissue in the
form of paraphyses, pseudoparaphyses and other asci, so that they can expand laterally but are
forced to elongate. In the cup fungi or Discomycetes the elongation of asci raises their tips above
the general level of the hymenium. The ascus tips are often phototropic and when the increased
pressure causes the ascus tip to burst, the spores are shot out in a drop of liquid, the ascus sap. In
this group, a large number of asci may be is charged simultaneously, so that a cloud of
ascospores is visible. This phenomenon is known as puffing. In some Discomycetes (e.g. the
Pezizales) the ascus tip is surrounded by a cap or operculum, which is blown aside or actually
blown off the tip of the ascus by the force of explosion. However, in other Discomycetes (e.g.
the Helotiales) the ascus tip is perforated by a pore and there is no operculum. These two types
of asci are respectively termed operculate and inoperculate and the presence or absence of an
operculum is an important feature of classification.
In a flask-fungi (Pyrenomycetes) the asci are enclosed in a cavity, which opens to the
exterior through a narrow pore, the ostiole. As an ascus ripens, it elongates and takes up a
position inside the ostiole, often gripped in position by a lining layer of hairs, periphyses. In this
case the asci discharge their spores singly and puffing does not happen.
Asci of Pyrenomycetes are never operculate in many groups, the ascus tip has a
distinctive apical apparatus. In many pyrenomycetes, there is an apical ring or annulus when the
ascus explodes, the apical ring is everted and is believed to grip the ascospores as they are
ejected. If the wall of the ascus is single it is called unitunicate and if the wall of the ascus is
double it is called bitunicate. Loculoascomycetes have bitunicate asci. In bitunicate asci there are
two wall layers, which physically separate from each other. The outer layer is termed or
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ectoascus or ectotunica and the inner layer is called the endoascus or endotunica. Both the layers
are made up of microfibrils embedded in an amorphous matrix. The two layers differ only in the
arrangement of microfibrils.
Ascospores of Venturia inaequalis in asci.
4. Basidiospores
Basidiospore (Gr. Basidion = small
base + spora = seed, spore) is a spore borne on
the outside of a basidium, following
karyogamy and meiosis. Basidiospores are
more uniform compared to ascospores.
Typically they are unicellular, but transversely
septate spores are found in certain groups like
Dacrymycetaceae (Reid, 1974) In shape, they
vary from globose, sausage-shaped, fusoid,
almond-shaped (i.e. flattened) and the wall may be smooth or ornamented with spores, ridges or
folds. The colour of basidiospores is an important criterion of classification.
They may be colourless, white, cream, yellowish, brown, pink, purple or black. The spore
colour may be due to coloured substances in the cytoplasm of the spore or in the spore wall. This
explains the change of colour of a mushroom gill from pink when immature, due to cytoplasmic
spore pigments to purple when mature due to wall pigments.
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The spore is attached to the basidium at the tip of a ‘sterigmata’, a curve horn -like prong
projecting from the apex of the basidium. The spore is projected for a short distance from a
basidium. The point at which the spore is attached to the sterigma is ‘hilum’. Hilum is usually
found at the tip of a short conical projection, the ‘hilar appendix’ (Fig.31). The term
ballistospores is used to describe basidiospores, which are violently projected from their
sterigmata. Most basidiospores are ballistospores and in Gasteromycetes basidiospores are not
projected violently.
Basidium (pl. basidia, Gr. basidion = a small base) is a spore bearing structure bearing on
its surface a definite number of basidiospores (typically four) that are usually formed following
karyogamy and meiosis. In contrast with the endogenous spores of the ascus, basidia bear spores
exogenously, usually on projections called ‘sterigmata’. The number of spores per basidium is
typically four, but two spored basidia are quite common. There may be nine spores per basidium
in Phallus impudicus.
Basidia vary in structure and the form of the basidium is an important criterion in
classification. In the toadstools the basidium is a single cylindrical cell, undivided by septa,
typically bearing four basidiospores at its apex. Such basidia are called ‘holobasidia’
In the Uredinales and Ustilaginales the basidium develops from a thick-walled cell
(teliospore or chlamydospore) and is usually divided into four cells by three transverse septa.
Transversely segmented basidia are also found in the Auriculariaceae, but here the basidia do not
arise from resting cells. In the Tremellaceae, the basidia are longitudinally divided into four
cells, while in the Dacrymycetaceae the basidium is unsegmented but forked into two long arms,
to form the tuning type of basidium. Segmented basidia are sometimes termed phragmobasidia
(or heterobasidia).
Development of basidium
The development of basidium is well illustrated in Oudemansiella radicata (Syn.
Collybia radicata) (Fig.30). The basidium arises as a terminal cell of a hypha making up the gill
tissue on the underside of the cap of the fruit body. The basidia are packed together to form a
fertile layer or hymenium. A basidium is at first densely packed with cytoplasm, but soon several
small vacuoles appear. Later, a single large vacuole develops at the base of the basidium and, by
the enlargement of this vacuole, cytoplasm is pushed towards the end of the basidium. A clear
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cap is visible at the tip and it is here that the sterigmata develop. In the fully developed basidium
the spores are full of cytoplasm while the body of the basidium contains only a thin lining of
cytoplasm, surrounding an enlarged vacuole. Young basidia are binucleate, and nuclear fusion
occurs here. The resulting fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis immediately, so that four haploid
daughter nuclei result, and one is distributed to each basidiospore. In some basidia a mitotic
division follows meiosis, so that some basidiospores are binucleate.
Reproductive structures
Fungi reproduce by means of their propagules. In most fungi the propagules are
differentiated as spores. But in some fungi the stromatic aggregations of hyphae like the sclerotia
also perform the function of propagation. The simple or branched spore-bearing hyphae are
known as sporophores, but in some fungi the spores may be formed directly by the hyphal cell
e.g. chlamydospores. In general spore formation starts when the vegetative growth has reached a
certain development.
Types of sporophores
Spore bearing or sporogenous organs (sporophores) develop as special branches from the
vegetative hyphae. There are two types of sporophores viz., simple and compound. The spore
bearing branches usually arise vertically and may be distinctly branched. When these branches
bear sporangia they are called sporangiophores (as in Oomycetes of Mastigomycotina and
Zygomycotina When the spore bearing branches bear conidia they are called conidiophores (as
in Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina). These sporangiophores and conidiophores are called
simple or filamentous sporophores. Aggregation of hyphae from stromatic or semistromatic
structures and grows into compound sporophores. They contain or bear layers of sporogenous
cells and spores and form the fructifications and fruit bodies. e.g. stipes formed by germination
of sclerotia in Ascomycotina and by higher basidiomycotina.
Fructifications and fruit bodies
The sporophores bear fruiting bodies or form fructifications, which may be asexual or
sexual in nature. In lower fungi Plasmodiophoromycetes, Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes and
Zygomycotina) asexual spores are usually enclosed in simple sacs called sporangia or
zoosporangia. In higher fungi (Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) complex aggregates of spore
bearing hyphae are formed and supporting and protective tissues surround it. These complex
structures are called as spore fruits or fructifications (L.fructus = fruit).
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Asexual fructifications
In fungi conidiophores are grouped together to form specialized structures such as
synnemata (sing. synnema) and sporodochia (sing. sporodochium) or produced in fructifications
known as pycnidia (sing. pycnidium) and acervuli (sing. acervulus).
a. Synnema or coremium
Synnema or Coremium (pl. coremia) Consists of a group of conidiophores often united at
the base and part way up the top. Conidia may be formed along the length of the synnema or
only at its apex. The conidiophores comprising a synnema are often branched at the top with the
conidia arising from the conidiogenous cells at the tips of the numerous branches. e.g.
Deuteromycotina (Arthrobotryum sp (Fig), Penicillium claviforme, Doratomyces stemonitis,
Ceratocystis ulmi.
synnema: (pl.
synnemata; syn.
coremium)
compact or fused,
generally upright
conidiophores, with
branches and spores
forming a headlike
cluster
[synnemata of Ophiostoma (Graphium) ulmi]
b. Sporodochium
Sporodochium is a fruiting body in which conidiophores arise from a central cushion-like
aggregation of hyphae. The conidiophores are packed tightly together and are generally shorter
than those composing a synnema. e.g. Epicoccum, Nectria.
sporodochium: (pl. sporodochia)
Superficial, cushion-shaped asexual fruiting body consisting of a cluster of conidiophores
c. Pycnidium
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Pycnidium is a globose or flask-shaped body, which is lined on the inside with

conidiophores. e.g. Septoria ,Phoma, Ascochyta,
Leptosphaeria. Pycnidia may be completely closed
or may have an opening. The opening or mouth of
pycnidium is called ostiole (L. ostiolum = little
door). They may be provided with a small papilla
or with a long neck leading to the opening.
Pycnidia vary greatly in size, shape, colour and
consistency of the pseudoparenchymous wall. The
wall of pycnidium is called peridium (pl. peridia; G. peridion=small leather pouch) and it is
composed of multicellular layer, as fungal tissues. Pycnidia may formed superficially or sunken
in the substratum. They may be formed directly by the loose mycelium or may be definitely
stromatic.
d. Acervulus
Acervulus (pl. acervuli) is a fruiting structure commonly found in the order
Melanconiales (Deuteromycotina). It is typically a flat or saucer-shaped mass of aggregated
hyphae bearing short conidiophores in a compact layer. Intermingled with the conidiophores,
setae (sing. seta; L. seta = bristle) are found. Setae are long, pointed, dark coloured, sterile
structures. In nature acervuli are produced on plant tissues subepidermally or subcuticularly and
becomes erumpent on maturity. e.g. Colletotrichum.
Sorus
Sorus (pl. sori; Gr. Soros = heap) is a little heap of sporangia or spores. It may be naked
or covered by a thin false membrane, as in smuts, or protected by the epidermis as in rust
diseases or white blister or white rust (Albugo spp.). The structures break open at maturity and
release the spores within, in the form of rust, which is characteristic of these diseases.
Sexual fruiting bodies
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a. Pycnium
Pycnium or spermagonium (pl. pycnia; Gr.pycnos = concentrated) is a fruit body, which
is similar to pycnidium and is formed in sexual cycle of rust fungi. Pycnia are produced from
primary uninucleate mycelium growing in the tissues of the host. They may be determinate or
indeterminate in growth and may form in a subcuticular, subepidermal or subcortical fashion.
Pycnia may be flask-shaped,conical, flat and sprawling. The flask-shaped type is more typical,
The mouth of the flask (called ostiole) is lined by a bunch of unbranched, tapering, pointed,
orange coloured hairs called ‘periphyses’ (sing. periphysis; Gr. peri = around + physis = a being,
a growth). Periphyses develop from the upper edge of spermagonial wall, converge toward a
central point and curved upward.
The tips of the periphyses, pushing against the host epidermis from below, rupture it and
protrude above it through the opening they have created. Among the periphyses thinner-walled
and branched hyphae called flexuous hyphae or receptive hyphae are found. The pycnial wall
cells send many closely -packed, elongated, tapering, unbranched uninucleate sporogenous cells
or spermatiophores (Gr. spermation = little seed+ phoreus=bearer) in the cavity. These
spermatiophores give rise to a series of uninucleate spermatia (sing. spermatium Gr.
spermation=little seed) or pycnospores in a basipetal fashion.
Pycnospore is a non-motile, uninucleate, unicellular spore-like male structure that
empties its contents into a receptive female structure during plasmogamy. Pycnospores are
variously regarded as gametes or gametangia. The pycnospores produced in large numbers are
exuded up, out of the pycnial cavity through the ostiole in a droplet of nectar (a thick, sticky,
fragrant, sweet liquid). e.g. pycnium is produced by Puccinia graminis tritici in the alternate
host, barberry (Berberis vulgaris).
b. Aecium
Aecium (pl. Aecia: Gr. aikia = injury) is also formed during sexual cycle. Aecium is a
shallow or deep cup-shaped structure produced in a leaf and located in the lower portion and
break through the lower epidermis. Aecia may be with or without peridium (Fig.38). It is a group
of typically dikaryotic hyphal cells within the parasitized host that give rise to chains of
dikaryotic aeciospores. Larger aeciospores are alternated with small, sterile intercalary cells or
disjunctor.
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In most rust fungi the peripheral cells of the aecial base successively divide and gives rise
to a wall that surrounds the spore chain in the form of a cup. The wall is known as ‘peridium‘. In
a young aecium that has not broken the host epidermis, the peridium surrounds the spore chain
on all sides, forming a complete dome over them. When the aecium matures, the spore chains
push through the roof of the peridium and the aeciospore are released. The torn peridium forms a
lip-like structure around the aecial cup.
c. Ascocarps
Ascocarp (Gr. askos = sac+ karpos =fruit) is a fruiting body that contains asci and
ascospores. Ascomycetes fungi with few exceptions produce ascocarps. They are in various
forms like spherical, flask-shaped, cup-and saucer shaped and pod-shaped. They may be closed
in some, and provided with a narrow wide opening in others. Ascocarps may formed singly or in
groups. They may be superficial, erumpent or deeply embedded in the substratum. The
substratum may be composed entirely of hose tissue, or it may be a hyphal stroma or in which
the ascocarps form. There are four categories
ascocarps.
i. Cleistothecium: Asci are produced in
completely closed ascocarp.
ii. Perithecium: It is more or less closed
ascocarp; but at maturity it is provided with
ostiole through which the ascospores escape.
iii. Apothecium: Ascocarp produce asci in open.
iv. Ascostroma or Pseudothecium: Stromatic ascocarp, which bears asci directly in locules
within the stroma.
i. Cleistothecium: (pl. cleistothecia; Gr. kleistos = closed + theke = case).
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Cleistothecium or cleistocarp is a closed ascocarp and has no ostiole. It is deep brown to

black in colour, more or less spherical and often provided with appendages on its body, which
serve as organs of anchorage and help in dissemination. They may contain one to several asci,
which discharge their spores violently. Each cleistothecium of Sphaerotheca and Podosphaera
contains a single ascus whereas each cleistothecium in Erysiphe, Microsphaera, Uncinula,
Leveillula and Phyllactinia contain several asci. Cleistothecia crack open at maturity by swelling
of the contents. They are found in Eurotiales and Erysiphales (powdery mildews or white
mildews or true mildews. The matured cleistothecia of most Erysiphaceae are provided with
characteristic appendages that vary considerably in length and character, and which together with
the number of asci developed in the cleistothecium, form the basis for differentiation of genera.
Cleistothecial appendages are of four types viz.
Myceloid appendages: Appendages resemble somatic hyphae in flaccidity and indefinite
growth. e.g. Erysiphe, Sphaerotheca and Leveillula.
Appendages are rigid, spear-like with a bulbous base and pointed tip. e.g.Phyllactinia.
Appendages are rigid with curved tips e.g. Uncinula, Pleochaeta.
Appendages are rigid with dichotomously branched tips. e.g. Microsphaera, Podosphaera.
ii. Perithecium
Perithecium (pl. perithecia, Gr. peri = around + theke = a
case) is a flask -shaped ascocarp with a wall of its own. It is
provided with a narrow ostiole and may possess a short or a long
neck through which the asci are released at maturity. The asci are
arranged in a regular manner and are lined the inside wall. The
asci are intermingled with sterile filaments called paraphyses, which help the asci in with sterile
filaments called paraphyses, which help the asci in nutrition and dispersal. The paraphyses,
which are rigid and appear in the ostiole are called periphyses. The perithecia may be borne
singly or in groups.
In Sphaeriales and Hypocreales, the perithecia are borne on or embedded in a mass of
fungal tissue termed the 'perithecial stroma' and these are found in Xylariaceae and by Cordyceps
and Claviceps. In some cases, in addition to the perithecial stroma, a fungus may develop a
stromatic tissue on which or within which asexual spores or conidia develop. e.g. Nectria
cinnabarina (Coral -spot fungus) forms pink conidial stromata. In perithecia, the ascus wall is
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single and is called 'unitunicate'(L. unus=one+tunica =coat, mantle). Perithecia are produced by
fungi in Hypocreales (Hypocrea , Nectria, eratocystis, Podospora, Chaetomium, Xylaria,
Ustulina, Rosellinia, Claviceps and Cordyceps) in Sphaeriales.
iii. Apothecium
Apothecium (pl. Apothecia; Gr. apotheke=store house) is an open ascocarp. It has a broad
opening and is either cup or saucer shaped with asci arranged in a palisade layer within. It is
usually fleshy or leathery in nature. An apothecium consists of three parts viz. hymenium,
hypothecium and excipulum. The hymenium is the layer of asci that lines the surface of hollow
part of the disc, cup or saddle. It is made up of club-shaped or cylindrical asci, usually with many
or few paraphyses among them. These paraphyses may be as long as the asci, longer or
somewhat shorter.
In some apothecia, the tips of paraphyses may be branched and the tips of branches may
unite above the asci and form a layer called the epithecium (pl. epithecia; Gr. epi =upon+ theke
=a case). The 'hypothecium'(pl. hypothecia; Gr. Hypo=under+ theke =a case) is a thin layer of
interwoven hyphae, which is found immediately below the hymenium. The apothecium proper
(i.e., the fleshy part of the ascocarp that supports the hypothecium and hymenium) is called
excipulum (pl. excipula ; N.L. excipulum=receptacle), Excipulum consists of two parts viz., ectal
excipulum and medullary excipulum. Ectal excipulum is the outer layer of the apothecium and
the medullary excipulum is the inner portion. e.g. cup fungi (Pyronema, Ascobolus, Peziza,
Morchella etc) in Pezizales and Sclerotinia, Trichoscyphella etc.) in elotiales.
iv. Pseudothecium
Pseudothecium or ascostroma (pl. ascostromata; Gr. askos = sac + stroma =
mattress, cushion) like perithecium is a flask-shaped ascocarp provided with an ostiole
through which the asci are discharged. In pseudothecium asci
are directly formed in a cavity (locule) within the
stroma. The stroma itself thus forms the wall of the
ascocarp. In pseudothecium the ascus wall is double i.e.
the ascus is bitunicate. The walls are separable. The
outer wall does not stretch readily but ruptures laterally or its apex to allow the
stretching of a inner layer. e.g. Cochliobolus, Pyrenophora, Ophiobolus, Pleospora,
Leptosphaeria of the class Loculoascomycetes.
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d. Basidiocarps
Basidiocarp (Gr. basidion=small base + karps = fruit) is a fruiting body, which bears
basidia and basidiospores. Basidia are borne on the under surface of fruit body. Basidia bear
basidiospores exogenously usually on projections called sterigmata. Basidia are typically formed
in definite layers called hymenium (pl. hymenia; Gr. hymen=membrane). Hymenium is
composed of basidia and large sterile structures called cystidia (sing. cystidium; Gr. kystis
=bladder + -idion = dimin. Suffix). They are highly developed and have compound structure.
Basidiocarps may be thin and crust-like, gelatinous, cartilaginous, papery, fleshy, spongy, corky
or woody. They may vary in size from microscopic to a metre or more in dia. Most fungi in
basidiomycotina except smuts (Ustilaginales) and rusts (Uredinales) form basidiocarps. They
include mushrooms, (Agaricus, Pleurotus, Volvariella), shelf fungi, coral fungi (Clavariaceae)
puff balls (Lycoperdaceae-Lycoperdon sp.) earth stars, (Geastraceae-Geastrum stinkhorns sp.
(Phallales -phallus) and birds-nest fungi. (Nidulariales-Nidula sp.). The main body of the fungus
in each case is the extensive mycelium, which usually goes unnoticed. Basidiocarp may be open
from the beginning, exposing their basidia, or they may open at a later stage, or even remain
closed. In closed basidiocarps the spores are liberated only on the disintegration of the
basidiocarp or with its accidental fracture by external forces (e.g. Lycoperdon).
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Lecture 04
Nomenclature-Binomial system of nomenclature, rules of nomenclature, classification of

fungi. Key to divisions and sub-divisions
Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Nomenclature is the naming of organisms. Both classification and nomenclature are
governed by International code of Botanical Nomenclature, in order to devise stable methods of
naming various taxa, As per binomial nomenclature, genus and species represent the name of an
organism. Binomials when written should be underlined or italicized when printed. First letter of
the genus should be capital and is commonly a noun, while species is often an adjective. An
example for binomial can be cited as:
Kingdom = Fungi
Division = Eumycota
Subdivision = Basidiomycotina
Class = Teliomycetes
Order = Uredinales
Family = Pucciniaceae
Genus = Puccinia
Species = graminis
Classification of Fungi
An outline of classification (G.C. Ainsworth, F.K. Sparrow and A.S. Sussman, The Fungi
Vol. IV-B, 1973)
Key to divisions of Mycota
Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium present. MYXOMYCOTA
Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium absent, Assimilative phase filamentous.
EUMYCOTA
MYXOMYCOTA
Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes
1. Plasmodiophorales Plasmodiophoraceae Plasmodiophora, Spongospora, Polymyxa
Key to sub divisions of Eumycota
Motile cells (zoospores) present, … MASTIGOMYCOTINA Sexual spores
typically oospores Motile cells absent
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Perfect (sexual) state present as

Zygospores… ZYGOMYCOTINA
Ascospores… ASCOMYCOTINA
Basidiospores… BASIDIOMYCOTINA
Perfect (sexual) state not seen … DEUTEROMYCOTINA
Classification of Fungi
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Lecture 05
Division I: Myxomycota, Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes, Order: Plasmodiophorales
Key to divisions of Mycota

Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium present - Myxomycota
Plasmodium or pseudoplasmodium absent,
Assimilative phase filamentous - Eumycota
Myxomycota
1. Plasmodiophorales
Plasmodiophoraceae Plasmodiophora, Spongospora, Polymyxa
Club root of cabbage caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae
Systematic position
Kingdom : Protista (Eukaryote)
Sub-kingdom : Mycota
Division : Myxomycota
Class : Plasmodiophoromycetes
Order : Plasmodiophorales
Family : Plasmodiophoraceae
Genus : Plasmodiophora
Species : P. brassicae
Symptoms
Enlargement of roots, club-shaped roots due to
hyperplasia and hypertrophy, gradual and inconspicuous
stunting, yellowing and wilting of plant.
Pathogen
The thallus is a plasmodium (a naked mass of nucleated
cytoplasm with amoeboid movement), which gives to
zoosporangia or resting spore, which on germination produce
zoospores. Resting spores are spherical with spiny walls.
Zoospores are anteriorly biflagellate, heterokont (unequal in length) and uninucleate, both the
flagella are of whiplash type.
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Life cycle
Infection of the root hairs occurs during the seedling stage. Resting spores, which lie
dormant in the soil upto several years. Germinate and a circular pore is formed on its wall. Al
apically biflagellate zoospore comes out. Each resting spore produces single zoospore. The
zoospore penetrates the root hair and develops into uninucleate primary plasmodium. The
plasmodium cleaves into multinucleate portions. Each portion develops into a zoosporangium
containing 4-8 zoospores. The zoospores are discharged outside the host through pores dissolved
in the host cell wall. The zoospores fuse in pairs to produce zygotes. These zygotes with four
flagella case new infection and produce new plasmodium. This plasmodium penetrates the young
root tissues directly or the older roots and underground stems through wounds. Thus the
plasmodium spreads to cortical cells in cambium by direct penetration. When the plasmodia
establishes in the host cells, they are stimulated to enlarge (hypertrophy) and divide abnormally
(hyperplasia). The cells become larger (5 or more times). The plasmodium develops into large
number of resting spores inside the plant tissues, which are released into soil by disintegration of
clubbed roots.
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Lecture 06
Division II: Eumycota Subdivision: Mastigomycotina, class: Chytridiomycetes

(Chytridiales), Oomycetes (Peronosporales)
General characters
Members of the class Oomycetes are mostly aquatic but some are facultative or obligate
parasites of vascular plants. Majority of them are with filamentous hyaline coenocytic mycelium.
Cell wall contains cellulose. They produce asexual spores called zoospores. Oospore is the
sexual spores.
Class: Oomycetes
Zoospores biflagellate (posterior flagellum whiplash-type; anterior tinsel-type); cell wall
cellulosic.
1. Members of the class comycetes are mostly aquatic but some are facultative or obligate
parasites of vascular plants.
2. They are distinguished by the presence of well-developed holocarpic or eucarpic mycelium or
rhizomycelium and zoospores bearing two flagella, one whiplash type and the other tinsel type.
In some members, Zoospores are not formed and the zoosporangia function as conidia. The cell
wall does not contain chitin, small amounts of cellulose are detected but the principal
components are glucans.
3. In sexual reproduction the union of antheridia and oogonia produces oospores.
Order: Peronosporales
This order includes highly economically important plant pathogens. The members cause
downy mildew and white rust diseases. Hyphae are well developed and aseptate. Cell wall is
composed of glucan-cellulose complex and hydroxyproline. Parasites produce haustoria, which
may be knob-like, elongated or branched and are found within the host cells. Asexual
reproduction is by well-defined sporangia. Sexual reproduction is by means of well-
differentiated sex organs, antheridia (male) and oogonia (female). Oospores germinate directly or
by producing a sporangium.
Families
Pythiaceae
Sporangiophores similar to the vegetative hyphae or if different then of indeterminate
growth. Pythiaceae contains genera like Pythium and Phytophthora
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Albuginaceae
Sporangiophores strikingly different from vegetative hyphae, slender or thick, variously
club-shaped, arranged in a layer, and bear sporangia in chain at the tip. These are obligate
parasites. It contains a single genus, Albugo.
Peronosporaceae
Sporangiophores strikingly different from vegetative hyphae, slender or thick, variously
shaped, and with determine growth; sporangia produced singly or in cluster at the tip of
sporangiophores or their branches; obligate parasites.
Classification of Peronosporaceae
A. Sporophores determinate, hyphae-like short, unbranched or obpyriform, not maturing
synchronously, germinating by zoospores; antheridia always paragynous; oogonial wall thick
and confluent with that of the oospores; oospore germinates by germ tube or a sporophore
terminated by a sporangium. - Sclerophthora
AA. Sporophores determinate, macronemous, stout, 10 or more microns broad, branched or
unbranched, oogonial wall thick and rough or ornamented:
B. Sporophores unbranched, apex swollen and with short sterigmata bearing papillate sporangia
germinating by zoospores; oospores aplerotic.- Basidiophora
BB. Sporophores repeatedly branched in the upper portion, dichotomous; spores mature
synchronously; oogonial wall thick; oospore plerotic; sporangia germinate by zoospores or germ
tube; oospores germinate by a germ tube.- Sclerospora
AAA. Sporophores determinate, narrow, not more than 15 microns broad, usually 8- 10 microns;
oogonial wall unornamented except in Bremiella:
B. Spore wall uniformly thick (non-poroid), germination typically by germ tube. - Peronospora
BB. Spore wall poroid, emerging through an apical pore with or without papilla:
C. Branching of sporophore at right angles, tips or branches blunt.- Plasmopara
CC. Branching at acute angles:
D. Tips of branches acute - Pseudoperonospora
DD. Tips much enlarged and bearing 3-4 peripheral sterigmata; oogonial wall and oospore wall
thin and unornamented.. Bremia DDD. Tips of branches blunt and slightly enlarged; oogonial
wall thick and ornamented.- Bremiella.
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Club root of cabbage, damping off and life cycles of Plasmodiophora, Pythium and
Phytophthora
Club root of cabbage caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae
Enlarged roots appearing like spindles or clubs due to stimulation of root cells to
abnormal enlargement (hypertrophy) and abnormal division (hyperplasia) is called club root.
Systematic position
Scientific categorization of the organisms in a hierarchal series of groups. Based on
characteristics of the spores, spore bearing structures and mycelium. Many fungi were classified
earlier based on the asexual spore and same were reclassified once they produced sexual spore.
Kingdom: Protista (Eukaryote)
Sub-kingdom: Mycota
Division: Myxomycota
Order: Plasmodiophorales
Family: Plasmodiophoraceae
Genus: Plasmodiophora
Species: P. brassicae
Symptoms
Enlargement of roots, club-shaped roots due to hyperplasia and hypertrophy, gradual and
inconspicuous stunting, yellowing and wilting of plant.
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Pathogen
The thallus is a plasmodium (a naked mass of nucleated cytoplasm with amoeboid
movement) which gives to zoosporangia or resting spore, which on germination produce
zoospores. Resting spores are spherical with spiny walls. Zoospores are anteriorly biflagellate,
heterokont (unequal in length) and uninucleate, both the flagella are of whiplash type.
Disease cycle
Infection of the root hairs occurs during the seedling stage. Resting spores, which lie
dormant in the soil upto several years, germinate and a circular pore is formed on its wall. An
apically biflagellate zoospore comes out. Each resting spore produces single zoospore.
The zoospore penetrates the root hair and develops into uninucleate primary plasmodium. The
plasmodium cleaves into multinucleate portions. Each portion develops into a zoosporangium
containing 4-8 zoospores. The zoospores are discharged outside the host through pores dissolved
in the host cell wall. The zoospores fuse in pairs to produce zygotes.
These zygotes with four flagella cause new infection and produce new plasmodium. This
plasmodium penetrates the young root tissues directly or the older roots and underground stems
through wounds. Thus the plasmodium spreads to cortical cells in cambium by direct
penetration. When the plasmodia establishes in the host cells, they are stimulated to enlarge
(hypertrophy) and divide abnormality (hyperplasia). The cells become larger (5 or more times).
The plasmodium develops into large number of resting spores inside the. Plant tissues, which are
released into soil by disintegration of, clubbed roots.
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Damping off of vegetables (tomato, brinjal, chillies, etc.) and tobacco – Pythium
aphanidermatum
Damping off is a special name given to denote wilting of young seedlings in nursery. The
rapid death and collapse of very young seedlings in the seedbed is called damping off.
Systematic position
Sub-kingdom: Mycota
Division: Eumycota
Sub-division: Mastigomycotira
Class: Oomycetes
Family: Pythiaceae
Genus: Pythium
Species: P. aphanidermatum
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Symptoms
It is generally observed two weeks after sowing. Water-soaked lesions appear on the
collar region of seedlings; browning and shriveling of stem tissues at soil level in the collar
region; toppling down of seedlings in the nursery; ultimate death of sick seedling.
Pathogen
It is a facultative parasite and homothallic (both male and female gametes are produced in
the same mycelium. Mycelium is hyaline, coenocytic (von-septate), branched, inter and intra
cellular giving the appearance of a white fluffy cellular mass, does not have haustoria. Cell wall
of this fungus contains cellulose. Sporangium is lobed or irregular; it forms vesicle.
Sporangiophores are undifferentiated and similar to somatic hyphae.
Zoospores are produced in spherical vesicle and liberated after bursting of vesicle. They are
reniform and biflagellate with flagella attached to lateral
side, one pointing upward is tinsel type and the other
pointing downward is whiplash type. Antheridium (male
gametangium) is paragynous, club shaped, terminal or
intercalary and it is applied to the side of the oogonium; the
hyphal branch bearing antheridium may arise either from
oogonial stalk (monoclinous) or from a separate -hypha (diclinous). Oogonium (female
gametangium) is globose, generally develops at the tip of hyphal branch and consists of central
denser zone called ooplasm or oosphere and peripheral lighter zone called periplasm. Oospores
are the sexual spore, which helps to tide over adverse conditions (resting spore). They are
spherical, thick walled with yellowish brown wall and does not fill oogonial cavity called
aplerotic oospore.
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Paragynous arrangement of oogonium and antheridia in Pythium. (Courtesy P.B. Hamm)

(arrows indicate antheridia)
Disease cycle
In the asexual stage, sporangia are borne terminally on sporangiophore. At the time of zoospore
formation, a bubble-like protoplast moves into the vesicle and the zoospores are formed in this
vesicle. When the crowded zoospores start rocking motion and bounce on the wall, the delicate
vesicle bursts like a soap bubble. In the sexual reproduction oogonia and antheridia are produced.
Antheridia get attached to the side of oogonium. On gametangial contact the walls between the
sex organs are dissolved and a short tubular projections called fertilization tube is produced by
the antheridium.
The fertilization tube passes through periplasm and penetrates oosphere. The contents of
the antheridium moves through fertilization tube and evacuated into the oogonial cavity. The
protoplasmic content of oogonium and antheridium mixes (plasmogamy). Plasmogamy is soon
followed by nuclear fusion (karyogamy). The osphere after fertilization develops a thick mass
and it is called oospore.
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Life cycle of Pythium aphanidermatum

Disease cycle
Oospore or encysted zoospore germinates and produce germ tubes or saprophytic
mycelium which come in contact with seed or seedling tissues of host plant and enter by direct
penetration. Pectinolytic enzymes of the fungus dissolve the pectins (holding cells together)
resulting in maceration of tissues. The mycelium grows between and through the cells.
Proteolytic and or cellulolytic enzymes causing complete collapse and disintegration of cell walls
break down the protoplasts of invaded cells. As a result, the infected seeds / young seedlings are
killed and turned into a rotten mass.
Late blight of potato and tomato caused by Phytophthora infestans
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Mastigomycotina
Class : Oomycetes
Order : Peronosporales
Family : Pythiaceae
Genus : Phytophthora
Species : P. infestans
Symptoms
Brown to purplish black water-soaked lesions; enlarge rapidly; lower surface shows
whitish mildew growth, severe defoliation; potato tubers show purplish, slightly sunken lesions
leading to dry rot.
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Late blight of potato on tuber Late blight of tomato
Late blight of potato on leaf

Pathogen
Mycelium is endophytic, coenocytic, hyaline, branched, and inter-cellular. Haustoria club
shaped. Sporangiophores are hyaline, branched, indeterminate, thickwalled, arise through
stomata on leaves or lenticels on tubers. Sporangia are multinucleate, thin-walled, hyaline, and
oval or per shaped with a definite papilla at the apex. Zoospores are reniform, biflagellate
(anterior tinsel and posterior whiplash). Oospores are thick-walled and smooth.
Life cycle
Primary infection is through use of infected tubers. Mycelium spreads into shoots
produced from infected tubers and reaches the aerial parts of the plant. Sporangiophore emerges
through stomata on stem and leaves and produce sporangia, which are spread by rain to wet
potato, leaves or stem and cause disease. Large number of asexual generation in a growing
season kills the foliage rapidly. The zoospores found in the soil germinate, penetrate through
lentils or wounds into the tubers and send intercellular mycelium and haustoria into the cells and
cause infection.
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Life cycles of Sclerospora and Albugo

Downy mildew
Appearance of white downy growth in patches on the lower surface of the leaves and
yellow discolouration correspondingly on the upper surface. Downy mildew fungi are obligate
parasites belonging to the family peronosporaceae of the sub division Mastigomycotina cause
downy mildew disease. They produce sporangia during asexual reproduction and oospores
during sexual reproduction. Sporangiophore branching characters of genera, which cause downy
mildew diseases are given below.
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i. Sporangiophore is club-shaped with a swollen head, over which the sporangia are borne on
minute sterigmata. e.g., Basidiophora.
ii. Sporangiophore is short, stout with many upright branches near the end, bearing the sporangia
at tips. e.g., Sclerospora.
iii. Sporangiophore is branched at right angles and are irregularly spaced. e.g., Plasmopara.
iv. Sporangiophore is dichotomously branched at acute angles and taper to gracefully curved
pointed tips on which sporangia are borne. e.g., Peronospora and Pseudoperonospora.
v. Sporangiophore is dichotomously branched at acute angles and the tips of the branches are
expanded into cup-shaped apophyses with four sterigmata. e.g., Bremia.
Downy mildew of pearlmillet caused by Sclerospora graminicola
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Class . Oomycetes
Family : Peronosporaceae
Genus : Sclerospora
Species : S. graminicola
Symptoms
Pale yellow discolouration of leaves; whitish fungal growth on the lower surface of
leaves; twisting and crinkling of leaves; drying of leaves; infected seedlings when planted die
within 30 days; green ear symptom i.e., transformation of floral parts into green leaf-like
structures.
Symptoms often vary as a result of systemic infection. Leaf symptoms begin as chlorosis
at the base and successively higher leaves show progressively greater chlorosis. Infected
chlorotic leaf areas can support abundant white asexual sporulation on the lower leaf surface.
Severely infected plants are generally stunted and do not produce panicles. Green ear symptoms
result from transformation of floral parts into leafy structures
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Pathogen
It is an obligate parasite. Mycelium is hyaline, coenocytic, intercellular and become
systemic. Haustoria are finger- or button - like. Sporangiophores emerge through stomata, short,
stout, non-septate with upright branches, crowded with sporangia bearing stalks (sterigmata)
with pointed ends at the apex. Sporangia are hyaline, broadly elliptical, thin, smooth walled and
papillate. Each sporangium contains 3 to 23 zoospores, which are irregularly reniform and
biflagellate. Oospores are spherical, thick walled and yellowish brown.
Disease cycle
Soil borne oospores germinate by put forth germ tube and infect the root hairs / coleoptile
of the host seedlings. Inside host tissue, fungus becomes systemic and produces hyaline,
coenocytic, highly branched, strictly intercellular mycelium with finger shaper haustoria.
During dewly nights, hyphae emerge through the stomata and form sporangiophores either singly
or in groups. During such period, downy growth is noticed on the diseased area. A single
sporangium is formed at the tip of the sterigma. The sporangia are deciduous and are carried by
wind. The sporangia germinate by releasing zoospores. Zoospores swim for sometimes, come to
rest, encyst and then germinate by germ tube to form new mycelium. Infected plant parts
produces sporangia over a considerable period of time under humid condition and then necrosis
begins.
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In the sexual stage, the sex organs (antheridia and oogonia) develop in the intercellular
spaces of the host tissues (leaves and malformed floral organs). It is typically oogamous. The
fertilization tube formed by the antheridium carries the male nucleus into the oosphere where the
two nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus. The oosphere develops a warty wall and
becomes the oospore. Oospores have a long period of rest lie in the soil (soil - borne) or on the
seed surface. Oospores are liberated by the disintegration of the host tissue .They germinate and
infect roots of young seedlings, from where the mycelium spreads systemically in the entire
plant.
White rusts or white blisters
White rusts or white blisters are the characteristic pustules fructifications of Albugo in
Albuginaceae on plant surfaces, especially on leaves.e.g.,white rust of Amaranthus caused by
Albugo bliti, white rust of crucifers caused by A. candida and white rust of sweetpotato caused
by A. ipomeae panduranae.
White rust of crucifers - A. candida
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Subdivision : Mastigomycotina
Class : Oomycetes
Family : Albuginaceae
Genus : Albugo
Species : A. candida
Symptoms
The fungus attacks cabbage, cauliflower, mustard, radish and turnip. The disease name is
a misnomer. The pustules formed by white rust resembles the aecial stage of true rust belonging
to the subdivision Basidiomycotina and hence the name. All aerial plant parts viz., leaf, stem and
inflorescence are affected. On the lower surface of leaves it causes white or creamy yellow
pustules of various sizes and shape. They are shiny and 1 to 2 mm in dia. Rarely the infection is
seen on the upper leaf surface. Very often several of them coalesce to form patches.
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They are formed below the epidermis and are unbroken. But with the pressure of sporangia from
below, they rupture the epidermis and appear as powdery masses on the surface of leaves. The
leaves are not distorted. In severe cases, the infection spreads to the stem, which is uniformly
swollen for a length of several centimetres. Lateral buds, which are normally latent, may
proliferate resulting in a bushy growth. Flowers and peduncles are also attacked. Peduncles
become enormously swol1en. Affected flowers show various discolouration and malformation.
The petals become green and stamens turned into leaf-like structures.Some times they may be
changed into thickened club-shaped sterile bodies.
The pistil is hypertrophied into a large conical, thick walled sac or transformed into a
sterile carpillary leaf. The fungal parasite stimulates cell activity leading to an abnormal increase
in cell size (hypertrophy) and abnormal increase in cell division (hyperplasia) and formation of
chlorophyll and starch at place where none is usually seen. Sepals become enlarged to several
times than the normal sepals. Normally seed development is arrested. Pustules may occur on
hypertrophied organ also.
White rust on leaf White rust stag head symptom

Pathogen
It is an obligate parasite. The thallus is eucarpic and mycelial. Mycelium is well
developed, strictly intercellular, hyaline, non-septate (coenocytic) and branched. Haustoria are
knob-like or globular. Sporangiophore is club-shaped, short, erect, non-septate, closely arranged,
unbranched and thick walled. Sporangia are globose or hexagonal (flattened at the sides),
hyaline, smooth, thin walled and produced in basipetal chains (oldest at the top and youngest at
bottom) with isthmus.Sporangia are formed at the tip of the sporangiophores. Antheridia are
clavate or club shaped, multinucleate and paragynous. Oogonia are globose, terminal or
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intercalary. Oospores are reticulate and round. Zoospores are biflagellate and reniform and 4 to 8
per sporangium.
Disease cycle
In the asexual stage, hyphae aggregate at several places under the epidermis.
Sporangiospores are formed as a palisade-like layer. These cut multinucleate sporangia, which
remain, attached to form a chain at the apex. The oldest sporangia lie at the top and youngest at
the base of the chain (called basipetal). The sporangia are separated from each other by a
gelatinuous disc-like structure called disjunctor or isthmus. The disjunctors are dissolved by
water and the sporangia are set free. The numerous sporangia that are produced at the apical end
of sporangiophores push against the epidermis, which bulges out and ultimately breaks.
The areas with broken epidermis and creamy mass of sporangia appear as pustules or
blisters on the leaves. Sporangia germinate by means of germ tube (direct germination) or by
formation of zoospores (indirect germination). Direct germination is not common. Sexual
reproduction occurs when the crop season comes to an end and it is typically oogamous.
The antheridia and oogonia borne terminally on somatic hyphae. Plasmogamy takes place
by gametangial contact, where the male nucleus from antheridium is transferred to oogonium
through the fertilization tube. Karyogamy occurs and a thin membrane develops around the
diploid zygote and a thick warty, tuberculate or roughened epispore. After a resting period, the
oospore germinates and forms a vesicle, which contains 40-60 zoospores. The rupture of the
vesicle wall releases the zoospores. The zoospore germinates by forming a germ tube, which
infects the host plant.
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Lecture 07
Subdivision: Zygomycotina (Mucorales)
General characters of Zygomycotina

Majority of them are saprobic some are coprophilous some are weak parasites attacking
plants. It produces well-developed, branched coenocytic mycelium. Cell wall is composed of
chitin –chitosan. Asexual spores are non-motile and are called sporangiospores. Sexual spores
are zygospores.
Key to the classes of Zygomycotina
Class: Zygomycetes
Saprobic or, if parasitic or predaceous, mycelium immersed in hot tissues
Order: Mucorales
Asexual reproduction is by means of non -motile, but sometimes appendaged, spores or
by sporangioles or conidia. The sporangiospores are formed in sporangia or merosporangia.
Order: Mucorales
Family Genera
1. Mucoraceae Mucor, Rhizopus, Phycomyces, Absidia, Zygorhynchus, Syzgites,
Rhizomucor
2. Choanephoraceae Choanephora, Blakeslea
3. Endogonaceae Endogone
Fruit rot of jack caused by Rhizopus artocarpii, R. nigricans

It is a soft rot; rotting and decaying of fruits or tubers.
Systematic position
Subkingdom: Mycota
Division: Eumycota
Sub-division: Zygomycotina
Class: Zygomycetes
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Rhizopus
Species: R. artocarpi
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Symptoms
It causes soft rot of young fruits and male inflorescens. A large number of the infected
fruits fall off early. In the first stage of attack the fungus appears as a greyish growth with
abundant mycelia, which gradually becomes denser forming a black growth.
Pathogen
Mycelium is non-septate, brown coloured, profusely branched; aerial hyphae bends at
certain points and produce repeatedly branched root - like structure called rhizoids (holdfast) for
anchorage on substratum. The hypha in between two groups or rhizoids is called stolon.
Sporangiophores are short, stiff, brown, unbranched, erect, arise in groups from stolons, almost
opposite to rhizoids, which bear a terminal sporangium; Sporangia are spherical, dark brown or
black and contains sporangiospores; Sporangiospores are round, single celled, non-motile, brown
individually but black in mass; Zygospore are thick walled black and warty; two layered (outer
warty exine and inner intine).
Disease cycle
In the asexual stage, the sporangiospores are produced within the sporangia. The
spherical sporangia are separated from the sporangiop40re by a septum which later bulges and
projects into the former as a dome-shaped structure called columella. The spherical structure
including the columella is called the sporangium. The protoplasm cleaves into numerous
multinucleate segments; each of which secretes a wall and becomes a spore called the
sporangiospore. When the sporangial wall dissolves on maturity, the spores are released. The
aplanospore germinate by forming germ tube and develops into a fluffy well branched white
aerial mycelium.
Sexual reproduction occurs through fusion of morphologically similar gametangia
designated as plus (+) and minus (-) (gametangial copulation) and subsequent production of a
thick walled zygospore. It is heterothallic species and sexual reproduction is effected only when
physiologically different strains are brought together. Two hyphal branches lie parallel to each
other producing a lateral tubular outgrowth called as progametangium. The tips of the pro
gametangia swell and meet each other. A septum is formed in each pro gametangium dividing it
into two, the terminal portion becoming the gametangium and the other portion becoming the
suspensor.
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At the point of contact the walls between the gametangia are dissolved and a single fusion cell
results. Plasmogamy occurs in the fusion cell which develops as a zygospore. Zygospore after a
resting period of about nine months germinate, produce germ tube which functions as
sporangiophore and develops a germ sporangium at its tip. The sporangium is of usual columella
type. The germ sporangia contain all plus (+) or all minus (-) spore or mixture of both. These
spores called germ spores or microspores. They germinates and form fresh mycelium.
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Lecture 08
Subdivision: Ascomycotina, class: Hemiascomycetes (Taphrinales), class: Plectomycetes

(Eurotiales), class: Pyrenomycetes (Erysiphales, Clavicepitales), class: Loculoascomycetes
(Pleosporales)
General characters
Mycelium is well developed branched and septate. Yeast is single celled organism.
Septum has a central pore. Cell wall is made up of chitin. Asexual spores are non-motile conidia.
Sexual spores are ascospores. Ascospores are usually 8 in an ascus. They are produced
endogenously inside the ascus.
Key to the classes of Ascomycotina
Ascocarps and ascogenous hyphae absent, thallus mycelial or yeast-like -
Hemiascomycetes
Ascocarps and ascogenous hyphae present, Thallus mycelial: Asci bitunicate, ascocarp an
ascostroma - Loculoascomycetes
Asci typically unitunicate, if bitunicate, ascocarp as apothecium: Ascocarp a cleistothecium, asci
evanescent and scattered - Plectomycetes
Asci regularly arranged as basal or peripheral layer in the ascocarp
Insect parasites - Laboulbeniomycetes
Not insect parasites, Ascocarp perithecium - Pyrenomycetes
Ascocarp apothecium – Discomycetes
Class: Hemiascomycetes
The class is characterized by the lack of ascocarp, vegetative phase comprising of unicellular
thallus or poorly developed mycelium. It is divided into three orders:
1. Asci developing parthenogenetically from a single cell or directly from a zygote formed by
population of 2 cells - Endomycetales
2. Asci developing from ascogenous cells, forming a palisade like layer - Taphrinales
3. Asci developing in a compound spore sac (synascus), produced singly from thick walled
chlamydospores - Protomycetales
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Order: Endomycetales
Family Genus
Saccharomycetaceae Sacchromyces, Schizosaccharomyces,
Saccharomycodes
Order: Taphrinales
Family: Taphrinaceae Genus: Taphrina
Taphrina deformans - Leaf curl or leaf blister of peach
T. maculans -Leaf spot of turmeric and ginger
Order: Protomycetales
Family: Protomycetaceae Genus: Protomyces Protomyces macrosporus-
Stem gall of coriander
Class: Loculoascomycetes
It comprises the following 5 orders
Myriangiales, Dothideales, Pleosporales (Pseudosphaeriales), Hemisphaeriales
(Microthyriales) and Hysteriales
Order: Myriangiales
Family: Myriangiaceae (Genera: Elsinoe, Myriangium)
Order: Dothideales
Family: 1. Capnodiaceae (Genera: Capnodium, Limacinia)
2. Dothideaceae (Genera: Mycosphaerella, Guignardia)
Order: Pleosporales
Family: Venturiaceae
Superficial mycelium lacking. Pseudothecial immersed or erumpent or developing superficially
on immersed hypostroma or mycelium arising from it.Pseudothecial wall composed of distinct
dark brown cells, ascospores smooth, and bicelled.
e.g., Venturia inaequalis -apple scab;
V. pirina -pear scab
Class: Pyrenomycetes
Order: Meliolales
Family: Meliolaceae ( Genus: Meliola)
Order: Erysiphales
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The fungal species in this order cause plant diseases commonly called as powdery mildews. The
mycelium is usually ectophytic to partially endophytic. Asexual reproduction is by conidia borne
on conidiophores either singly or in basipetal chains. Conidia of powdery mildews germinate at 0
to 100% RH. Their germination at very low RH has been explained due to their very high
osmotic pressure, which makes them able to draw sufficient moisture for germination from dry
air. The ascocarps are provided with characteristic appendages, which in addition to the number
of asci are used in differentiating genera. Many of the powdery mildews are not known to
produce ascocarps or these are produced rarely. In the absence of ascocarps, conidia have been
utilized for classifying these fungi. It has only one family, Erysiphaceae and it has the following
genera.
1. Ascocarps present
A. Mycelium superficial
1. Ascocarp containing one ascus only
a. Perithecial appendages simple, myceloid -Sphaerotheca
b. Perithecial appendages dichotomously branched -Podosphaera
2. Ascocarp containing many asci
a. Perithecial appendages simples, myceloid -Erysiphe
b. Perithecial appendages dichotomously branched -Microsphaera
c. Perithecial appendages coiled at the top -Uncinula
B. Mycelium partially endophytic
Perithecial appendages simple, imperfect state -Oidiopsis, Leveillula
Perithecial appendages coiled at the tip, imperfect state -Oidiopsis –Pleochaeta 1 Perithecial
appendages with basal swellings, imperfect state -Ovulariopsis
II. Ascocarp absent
A. Mycelium superficial
Basal cell of the conidiophore swollen
2. Basal cell of the conidiophore not swollen
a. Conidia borne in chains -Euoidium
b. Conidia borne singly -Pseudoidium
B. Mycelium partly endophytic
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Conidia ovoid, obclavate -Oidiopsis

Conidia pyriform -Ovulariopsis
Order: Clavicipitales
Family: Clavicipitaceae Genus Claviceps
Claviceps
The stromatic structures are quite prominent. The perithecia are deeply immersed in
stroma which develops as an apical head on an erect stalk (stipe) arising from a dark coloured
sclerotium, Perithecia are produced towards the periphery of the stroma. Ascospores are thread
like.
Claviceps microcephala (C. fusiformis) -ergot of pearl millet
C. oryzae -sativae -false smut of rice/
Claviceps purpurea -ergot of rye
C. sorghi (Sphacelia sorghi) -ergot of sorghum
Classification, symptoms and life cycle of powdery mildew – Erysiphe and claviceps
I. Powdery Mildews
Powdery mildew is the appearance of white powdery growth mostly on upper leaf
surfaces on stems, floral parts and fruits leading to premature defoliation. Powdery mildews arc
caused by members in the order Erysiphales in the subdivision Ascomycotina. There are three
types of powdery mildew pathogens have been recognized based on the mycelium and type of
conidia the differences are given below.
S. Description Oidium Oidiopsis Ovulariopsis

No
.
1. Symptoms Mostly on upper surface Mostly on lower Lower or upper surface

of leaves surface of leaves of leaves
2. Mycelium Hyaline, septate Hyaline, septate, Hyaline, septate,

ectophytic endophytic ecto and endophytic
3. Haustoria Present in epidermis only Present in Epidermis Epidermal haustoria
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and spongy cells absent, haustoria in

inner cells
4. Conidiophores Short, single, club shaped, Long, branched, Long, single, septate
non septate, Septate
5. Conidia Cylindrical or barrel Club shaped Club shaped, single

shaped, in chains single celled, celled
6. Examples Grapes - Uncinula Chillies and Muberry Phyllactillia

Necator Pigeonpea - guttata (syn. P.
Blackgram- Erysiphe Leveillula taurica corylea)
po/ygoni (syn. Oidiopsis
Bhendi - Erysiphe taurica)
cichoracearum
Apple - Podosphaera
Eucotricha
Rose - Sphae
rotheca
pannosa var.rosae
Oak - Microsphaera
alphitoides
The powdery mildew fungi produces closed ascocarp called cleistothecium. The genera are
differentiated based on the number of asci in the cleistothecium and type of appendages on it.
They are classified as follows.
I. One ascus in a cleistothecium
i. Myceloid appendages - e.g., Sphaerotheca
ii. Dichotomously branched appendages - e.g., Podosphaera
II. Many asci in a cleistothecium
i. Myceloid appendages - e.g., Erysiphe Leveillula.
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ii. Appendage coiled at the tip (circinoid type) - e.g., Uncinu/a.

iii. Dichotomously branched appendages - e.g., Microsphaera
iv. Appendage with bulbouse base and spear like tip - e.g., Phyllactinia.
Powdery mildew of grapevine - Uncinula necator.
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Subdivision Class : Ascomycotina
Order : Pyrenomycetes
Family : Erysiphales
Genus : Erysiphaceae
Species : Uncinula
Mycota : U .necator
Symptoms
Whitish powdery growth on the upper surface of the leaves and in several cases leaves
dry and fall off. On berries also it produce white coloured fungal growth which leads to
deformation and cracking of berries.
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Powdery mildew symptoms on grape berries (L) and Rachis (cluster stem)
(R)
Primary infections of powdery mildew on grape leaf (Left) and powdery mildew covering
grape leaf surface (Right)
Pathogen
Mycelium is hyaline, septate, branched and ectophytic. Haustoeia are saclike.
Conidiophore is erect, long, hyaline, single celled, simples, club-shaped are barrel shaped,
hyaline, thin walled and are produced in chain. 'Cleistothecium is of circinate type, globose and
brown or black in colour. Asci are ovate and 4 to 8 asci per cleistothecium .Ascospores are 4 to 6
per ascus, single celled, hyaline and oval.
Disease cycle
The fungus survives through hyphae inside the dormant vegetative buds and through
c1eistothecia. The ascospores or the hibernating mycelium in the host buds cause infection and
produce enormous conidia. They spread through wind, germinate on the leaf surface and produce
germ tubes and appresorium and cause infection. Cleistothecia are formed late in the season on
leaves and stem. They are also formed on the fallen leaves. The ascospores in the cleistothecium
are released in the spring by the swelling and rupturing of perithecial wall. Ascospores which fall
on any green surface of the developing vine cause primary infection.
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Powdery mildew of pulses - Erysiphe polygoni

Symptoms
Greyish white powdery growth appears on the upper surface of the leaves, stems, petioles
and pods. Later the growth becomes brown and the leaves turn yellow and drop.
Pathogen
Mycelium is ectophytic, hyaline, septate and branched. Haustoria are bulbous and sac-
like. Conidiophore is simple, erect, hyaline and bear chain of conidia. Conidia are hyaline, thin
walled, single celled and ovate or barrel or cylindrical in shape. Cleistothecia are black, round
with myceloid appendages and each cleistothecium bears 2 to 8 asci. Asci are ovate and contain
3 to 8 ascospores. Ascospores are hyaline, elliptical and single celled.
Powdery mildew of chillies and pigeonpea - Leveillula taurica
Symptoms
Whitish fungal growth on the under surface of the leaf and the corresponding upper
surface show yellow discolouration. Later the disease spreads to entire leaf surface cause
yellowing and defoliation of leaves.
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Pathogen
Mycelium is endophytic, hyaline, septate and branched. Conidiophores emerge through
stomata, single or in groups, branched, septate and bear single conidium at its tip. Conidia are
hyaline, single celled and clavate. Cleistothecia are with myceloid appendages. Asci are
cylindrical and 9 – 20 / cleistothecium. Each ascus contains two ascospores.
Disease cycle
Ascospores from the perennating cleistothecia infect the lower most leaves near the soil
level. The fungus penetrates through stomata. Mycelium sends globular haustoria in to the
mesophyll cells and epidermis. Conidiophores with a conidium at the tip arise vertically from
the plane of mycelial growth. Conidia are wind borne and helps in secondary spread.Later in the
season, black, globose cleistothecia are produced. Asci are cylindrical and 9 – 20 / ascocarp.
Ascospores are hyaline, 8 / ascus and are elliptical.
iv. Powdery mildew of mulberry - Phyllactinia guttata (syn. P.corylea).

Symptoms
White fungal growth on lower surface of leaves and corresponding upper surface shows
yellow discolouration; leaves dry and defoliate.
Pathogen
Mycelium is hyaline, septate and branched. Conidiophores are erect,septate, hyaline and
simple. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, clavate or flame shaped and borne singly on
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conidiophore. Cleistothecia are flat, spherical, black and with bulbous base and pointed spear-
like tip appendages. Asci are clavate. Asci are 10-30 in each cleistothecium. Ascospores are two
per ascus and oval in shape.
Disease cycle
Ascospores from the perennating cleistothecia infect leaves and penetrate through
stomata.mycelium is endophytic and produces conidia which are spread through air.
Cleistothecia help in the survival.
II. Sugary disease / Ergot
Exudation of honey-like sticky fluid from spikelets (conidial stage) and later with
formation of black scletoria, (ergot) is known as sugar disease or ergot.
Sugary disease / ergot of pearlmillet- Claviceps fusiformis (syn. Claviceps microcephala)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Ascomycotina
Class : Pyrenomycetes
Order : Clavicepitales
Family : Clavicepitaceae
Genus : Claviceps
Species : C. fusiformis
Symptoms
Exudation of small droplets of light pinkish or brownish sticky fluid from the spikelets,
trickling down of honey dew secretion; at later stage, black, dark sticky patch may be seen;
transformation of ovary to a hard structure consisting of mycelial mat of fungus called sclerotia.
Pathogen
Mycelium is septate, hyaline and branched. It produces two types of conidia viz.,
macroconidia and microconidia. Macroconidia are hyaline, fusiform, and unicellular and
germinate by producing one to three germ tubes. Microconidia are hyaline, globular, unicellular
and germinate by producing only one germ tube. Sclerotia are dark grey, long and club shaped.
Perithecia are pyriform. The asci are long and hyaline. The ascospores are thread-like, hyaline
and non-septate.
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Disease cycle
The fungus spreads from plant to plant in the conidial stage. The honeydew mixed with
the inoculum (conidia) attracts insects, which help in the dissemination of conidia and spread the
disease in the field. The sclerotia form at the later stage in the diseased earheads. After harvest
when the earheads are thrashed sclerotia are found mixed with seed and reach soil when they
(seed and sclerotia) are sown help the fungus to perpetuate from season to season. They may fall
and remain in the soil or plant debris and germinate during the next season and produce
perithecia containing asci and ascospores. The ascospores, which spread through air, cause
infection of the spike, producing the conidial stage.
Sugary disease / ergot of sorghum - Claviceps sorghi (syn.: Sphacelia sorghi)
Sugary disease / ergot of rye-Claviceps purpurea
Symptoms
Droplets of light pinkish / brownish sticky fluid exudes from the spikelets and honeydew
secretion trickling down from the earhead. Infected spikelets turn black and finally several sticky
patches are seen on the ear. This stage is known as honeydew / sphacelia stage. It may continue
for 20-25 days.Later, infected ovary is transformed into a hard, black structure called sclerotia,
which are projecting out of the spikelet. This stage is called ergot / sclerotial stage.
Pathogen
Conidia are hyaline, single celled, oblong with a constriction in the middle. Sclerotia are
hard, compact, black, cylindrical, straight or curved.
Disease cycle
Sclerotia germinate under favourable condition and produce vertical column of mass of
hyphae called as stromatic stalk or stipe. Pyriform perithecia are arranged in the periphery of the
head of the stipe. Perithecia contain hyaline asci. Ascospores are hyaline, aseptate and filiform.
Ascospores are ejected with force, spread by wind and reach healthy flowers. These spores
germinate on stigma and infection thread reaches the ovary through style. Honeydew stage /
sphacelia stage develops as result of infection. Fungus produces dull brown, septate and
branched mycelium on the ovary. Generative hyphae comprise of conidiophores and conidia are
produced on the surface of the ovary.
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Conidiophores are hyaline, short and simple. Conidia are are mixed with honeydew and ooze
out. Insects attracted by honeydew carry conidia to healthy flowers and results in secondary
infection of new ovaries. Later, ovary has been replaced by sclerotia, which forms horny
structures between the glumes. Sclerotia spread along the seed as a contaminant or it falls on the
ground and survives in the soil.
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Lecture 09
Subdivition: Basidiomycotina, class: Teliomycetes (Uredinales, Ustilaginales) class:

Hymenomycetes (Aphyllophorales)
General character of Basidiomycotina

Basidiomycotina fungi are highly evolved group. Mycelium is septate. Dolipore septum
is present except rusts and smuts. Clamp connections present. Cell wall consists of chitin and
glucans. Sexual spores are basidiospores. They are exogenously produced on basidium.
Key to the classes of Basidiomycotina
Basidiocarp lacking and replaced byTeliospores grouped in sori or scatteredwithin the
host tissues - Teliomycetes
Basidiocarp usually well-developed,Basidia typically organized as a hymenium;Saprobes or
rarely parasites - Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes
Class: Teliomycetes
This class includes many economically important plant pathogens commonly known as
rusts and smuts. Mycelial hyphae septate and the septa are of simple type. Asexual reproduction
is uncommon, through dikaryotic spores of conidial nature produced in rusts. In smut fungi,
haploid sporidia may bud off into daughter cells. Basidiocarps absent. The class is characterized
by thick walled, dikaryotic resting spores commonly called as teliospores in rusts and
chlamydospores in smuts, Karyogamy takes place in this part and therefore, is actually a
probasidium. The resting spores on germination produce promycelium (metabasidium) into
which diploid nucleus moves and after meiosis four haploid nuclei are produced. These
nuclei later, result in the formation of haploid basidiospores. The class is divided into 2 orders:
This class is divided into 2 orders:
Basidia arising from a thick-walled probasidium
1. Basidia becoming septate, bearing 2 to 4 (mostly 4) basidiospores, one at each
septum and one nearly terminal - Uredinales
2. Basidia aseptate or septate, number of basidiospores indefinite – Ustilaginales
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Order Uredinales (The rust fungi)

The members of this order are commonly called as 'rust fungi' due to the characteristic reddish
brown colour of some of their spores. These are obligate parasites and cause great losses to many
cultivated crops. The mycelium is septate without clamp connections. It grows intercellularly,
frequently producing haustoria. In general, these fungi cause local infections in above ground
parts of plants but sometimes these are systemic and may overwinter in roots or other parts. In
recent years, rusts have been grown in tissues and axenic cultures e.g., Puccinia malvacearum,
M. lini.
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The rust in which life cycle is short and completed by only two types of spores (teleutospores
and basidiospores) called microcyclic rust. The rust which has all the five spore stages
(teleutospore, basidiospore, spermatia, pycniospore, aeciospore and uredospore) in its life cycle
called macrocyclic rust. A macrocyclic rust in which uredospores are not formed has been named
as demicyclic rust. The rust fungi that complete their life cycle in one host are termed as
autoecious and those requiring two hosts for the completion of their life cycle are called as
heteroecious. The rust fungi produce upto five types of spores in their life cycle, as given below:
Stage 0: Spermagonia with spermatia and receptive hyphae .
Stage I : Aecia with aeciospores
Stage II: Uredia with uredospores
Stage III: Telia with teleutospores
Stage IV: Basidia with basidiospores
(a) Pycniospores Stage(0)
These are the spores produced in a flask-shaped structure called as pycnium, containing a
palisade of sporogenous cells which produce spores in nectar exuded from the ostiole. Periphyses
and flexuous hyphae (receptive hyphae) are commonly present in pycnia. Pycnia are formed in
the host after it is infected by the basidiospores. Pycniospores are single celled and behave as
spermatia.
(b) Aeciospores Stage (I)
These are single celled dikaryotic spores produced in chains in cup-like structures known
as aecia. The spores are yellow to orange in colour with a hyaline characteristically verrucose
wall.
(c) Uredospores Stage (II)
These are single celled binucleate, pedicellate deciduous spores borne in naked or
paraphysate sori breaking through the host epidermis, commonly called as uredia or uredinia.
Uredospores are brown, echinulate having almost conspicuous germ pores. They behave as
conidia and repeat several cycles in a season and are also called as summer spores.
(d)Teliospores Stage(III)
These are binucleate; pedicellate or sessile; erumpent or embedded in host tissue. They
may be single celled, bicelled or more than 2-celled, with dark brown walls, having one or more
germ pores. They produce basidium and basidiospores upon germination.
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(e) Basidiospores Stage(IV)

They are haploid, unicellular spores borne on sterigma. These arise from cylindrical to
club-shaped 2 to 4 celled basidia. Depending on the reproductive stages present in the life cycle
of rusts, rusts can be termed as 'macrocyclic'(all 5 stages present), 'demicyclic'(uredial stage
absent) or 'microcyclic'(teliospore only as the binucleate spore). Rusts are either homothallic or
heterothallic.
In the former case pycnia, are not necessary and frequently absent. Dikaryotic phase
starts from two cell nuclei at some point in the life cycle. In the case of heterothallic macrocyclic
rusts, basidium bears four basidiospores; two of +type or
two of -type. These basidiospores produce pycnia of + or-type respectively. The pycniospores
behave as spermatia and fuse with the receptive hyphae of the opposite sex. The dikaryotic phase
thus resulted, leads to the development of aecia.
Classification
There are four families in Uredinales
A. Teliospores sessile
1. Teliospores in single, palisade-like layers or solitary, germinating to produce a
septate promycelium; mostly the spores are unicellular - Melampsoraceae
2. Teliospores in waxy crusts of one or two layers, becoming septate during
germination without forming an external promycelium - Coleosporiaceae
3. Teliospores in chains - Cronartianceae
B. Teliospores pedicellate, germinating to form a promycelium, which become
septate; spores uni -or multicellular, free - Pucciniaceae
Family: Pucciniaceae
This is one of the largest family of Uredinales and contains members , which attack a
wide variety of angiosperms, often causing destructive diseases of cereals and legumes. The
teliospores are pedicellate. Teliospores are never present in the form of layers of crusts. They
may be simple (1-celled) or compound (2-or more celled). The uredinia may or may not have
paraphyses. The aecia may be cupulate (cup-like) or hyphoid (naked). The peridium may be
revolute (curved back). Spermagonia may be subcuticular and flattened or subepidermal and
spherical with an ostiole. Both heteroecious and autoecious species are present. The family
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contains more than 85 genera and about 3,000 species of which genera Puccinia and Uromyces
account for 1800 and 600 species, respectively. Other genera in Pucciniaceae are
Gymnosporangium, Phragmidium, Hemileia and Ravenelia.
Classification
Important genera in Pucciniaceae are
I. Teliospores single celled.
1. Telia non-gelatinous.
A. Teliospores walls colourless; uredospores reniform, basidia slender, symmetrical -
Hemileia
B. Teliospore walls coloured, thickened, ornamented or with visible pores. Telia
subepidermal, each pedicel bearing single teliospore
a. Telial pedicel septate - Trachyspora
b. Telial pedicel aseptate; uredia and telia non-peridiate
i. Pycnia subepidermal, globose; teliospore wall thicker above than sides or coloured or smooth -
Uromyces
ii. Pycnia subcuticular, conical; teliospore usually ornamented, globose to ellipsoid.
On Anacardiacea - Pileolaria
2. Telia gelatinous, telial pedicel aseptate; teliospore cells arranged serially, with
pedicel attached to the lower one only. On Cupressaceae - Gymnosporangium
II. Teliospores bicelled, subepidermal, non-gelatinous; uredia and telia non-peridiate; teliospore
with one germ pore/cell.
1 .Teliospores in fascicles - Tranzschelia
2. Teliospores not in fascicles. Pycnia globose, subepidermal; teliospores truly
pedicellate, sometimes >2 celled - Puccinia
III. Teliospores 3 or >3 celled.
A. Teliospore cells arranged as in phragmospores; teliospore wall coloured with 2 or
more germ pores in each cell; pedicel usually long, teliospore without conspicuous outer
hygroscopic layer - Phragmidium
B. Teliospore cells arranged as inverted triangle; teliospore wall with 2 or >2 germ
pore/cell - Nyssopsora
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C. Teliospore cells arranged in a radially discoid head; teliospore pedicels several per
head, fused together, telial head with hygroscopic cysts – Ravenelia
Genus 1
Puccinia: In Puccinia the teliospores are brown and are with mostly 2 cells. They are borne on a
simple pedicel. Telia are at first embedded in the host tissue but sooner or later the epidermis is
ruptured and the spores become free. Spermagonia are subepidermal and spherical with ostiole.
Aecia are cupulate with recurved peridium or maturity. Urediniospores (uredospores) are single
and stalked, with long pedicel. They are often present in the same sori in which later the
teliospores (teleutospores) are formed species are heteroecious.
They mostly parasitize and cause rust diseases in Gramineae and Cyperaceae. It is the
largest genus with about 3000 to 4000 species parasitic on angiospermic plants. The important
plant pathogenic species are as follows:
Uromyces
Uromyces is the second largest rust genus with about 600 species. It is characterized by
the stalked, one celled teliospores on a simple pedicel with a papillum. Uredial, aecial and
spermagonial characters are similar to Puccinia. The species may be heteroecious or autoecious.
The members mostly cause rust disease in leguminous plants. The important species causing pant
diseases are given below.
Fungus Disease
P. arachidis Groundnut rust
P.asparagi Rust of Asparagus

P. chrysanthemi Chrysanthemum rust
P. coronata Crown rust of wheat

P. helianthi Sunflower rust
P. hordei (P. anomala) Barley rust
P. kuehnii & P. erianthi) Sugarcane rust
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P.substriata var. penicillariae Pearlmillet rust

(P. penniseti )
P. sorghi (P. zeae, P. maydis) Sorghum rust
P. recondita (P. triticina) Brown or leaf rust of wheat
P. striiformis (P. glumarum) Yellow or stripe rust of wheat

P. graminis tritici Wheat stem or black rust
P. graminis hordei Barley rust
P. graminis avenae Oat rust
P. graminis secalis Rye rust

P. graminis phleipratensis Timothy rust
P. graminis poae Poa pratensis rust

P. graminis agrostidis Rust on red top and other
Agrostis spp.
P. antirrhini Anirrhinum rust
P. sorghi & P. polyspora, Corn rust
P . carthami Safflower rust
P. cacabata P. allii Onion rust Cotton rust
P. malvacearum Holly hock rust

P. menthae Mint (Piper mentha) rust
P. psidii Guava rust
Fungus Diseases
Uromyces ciceris-arietini -Gram rust
U. dianthi -Carnation rust
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U. fabae -Pea rust, Vicia rust, lentil rust

U. phaseoli typica=(U. appendiculatus) -Bean rust, blackgram rust, Dolichos and
Vigna rust.
U. pisi -Pea rust
Family: Melampsoraceae
Melampsora lini – Linseed rust
M. ricini -Castor rust
Order: Ustilaginales
There are two families in this order.
Family: Ustilaginaceae
The general characters of the family are same as for the order. The family includes all the
smut fungi in which the promycelium is transversely septate into several, usually four, cells with
lateral and terminal sporidia, one or more from each cell. Sometimes there may be only one
sporidium on the septate promycelium. Occasionally, the basidium (promycelium) develops
directly into a mycelium without forming sporidia, as in Ustilago nuda tritici, or both conditions
may be present (Sphacelotheca sorghi). Sometimes two ore more promycelia are produced by
the same spore. Important genera are Ustilago Sphacelotheca, Tolyposporium and
Melanopsichium.
Ustilago
Sori contain 1-celled teliospores, dusty at maturity and are covered by membrane of host
origin. Germination is by means of septate promycelium, which may become infection hyphae or
may produce sporidia laterally near the septa. The sporidia germinate easily in water by
infection. Hyphae or may multiply by budding.
Ustilago nuda tritici -Loose smut of wheat
U. zeae -Common smut of corn (syn. U. maydis)
U. hordei -Covered smut of barley
U. nuda -Loose smut of barley
U. kolleri -Covered smut of oats
U. avenae -Loose smut of oats
U. scitaminea -Whip smut of sugarcane
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Family: Tilletiaceae
The general characters of this family also are same as for the order. However, the family
includes only those smuts in which the promycelium is aseptate with terminal whorl of sporidia.
The teliospores are single or combined into more or less permanent balls usually including sterile
cells. Promycelium is simple, usually nonseptate up to the time of formation of sporidia. Sporidia
are longer than in Ustilaginaceae, produced in clusters at the apex of the promycelium, fusing or
not fusing in pairs, producing similar or dissimilar sporidia or germinating directly into infection
threads. Important genera are Tilletia, Neovossia, Urocystis, Entyloma and Turbicina.
Class Hymenomycetes
This class is characterized by usually well-developed basidiocarp or fruiting bodies.
Basidiocarps are typically gymnocarpic (primordium and mature sporocarp have exposed
hymenium) or semiangiocarpic (partially closed till spores are matured). Basidiospores are
ejected forcibly i.e. these are ballistospores.
Classification
a. Basidia aseptate -Sub-class Holobasidiomycetidae.
b. Basidia septate -Sub-class Phragmobasidiomycetidae
Holobasidiomycetidae
Holobasidiomycetidae is characterized by an undivided, cylindrical to clavate basidium
(i.e. holobasidum), which usually extends into four sterigmata each bearing a basidiospores. The
basidiospores produced in this group are non-repetitive. It contains mushrooms, pore fungi, tooth
fungi, coral fungi, chantarelles, boletes and bracket fungi.
Phragmobasidiomycetidae
The metabasidium of these is completely or incompletely divided into 4 cells by
transverse or longitudinal septa. The basidiocarp is usually gelatinous, waxy or dry. The
probasidia may or may not be persistent. The basidiospores are often repetitive and sterigmata
swollen.
Sub-class Holobasidiomycetidae
Order: Exobasidales
It is a small order consisting of the gall-forming plant parasites, especially of Ericaceae,
Commelinaceae and Theaceae. The order is characterized by the 4-spored basidia, which form a
layer (hymenium) on the leaf surface and lack the well-define basidiocarps. This order has a
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single family, Exobasidiaceae with five genera. The genus, Exobasidium is important.
Exobasidium: The characteristic feature of the genus is that the basidia, which arise between the
epidermal cells of the host, form a more or less continuous hymenium at maturity. The dikaryotic
mycelium is devoid of clamp connections, grows intercellularly and produces haustoria. This
genus has about 50 species. They are parasitic on leaf, short stem and flowers of Dicotyledonous
plants causing hypertrophy and deformation. E. vexans is responsible for blister blight of tea. E.
japonica is responsible for galls of Azalea.
Order: Tulasnellales
Family: Ceratobasidiaceae
Ceratobasidium
Metabasidia much wider than pedicels, basidia abruptly narrowed at pedicels, hyphal
cells binucleate; sclerotia present or absent.
Thanatephorus
Metabasidia little wider than the pedicels, spores ellipsoid with one side flattened, rarely
obpyriform to obovate, hyphal cells multinucleate, sclerotial or sterile mycelia state
(Rhizoctonia) present.
Order: Aphyllophorales/ Polyporales
Family: Corticiaceae: (Genera: Chondrostereum, Peniophora, Athelia, Corticium):
Family: Ganodermataceae (Genus: Ganoderma)
Genus: Ganoderma
The fruit bodies of this genus are either sessile or stipitate, the upper surface of the pileus
being shiny as if varnished due to the presence of an amorphous waxy substance secreted by the
hyphae. The basidiospores are coloured, elliptical, with a wall consisting of two layers, the apex
at first rounded but later truncated.
Order: Agaricales
The order Agaricales is commonly called 'gill fungi', which include mushrooms, (edible),
toadstools (poisonous) and boletes. Mushrooms are mainly terrestrial or lignicolous mostly
growing saprophytically and some enter into mycorrhizal relationship with higher plants. The
chracteristic macroscopic basidiocarp or fruit body is fleshy, generally having a stalk i.e.
stipulate, and has a pileus bearing hymenium-covering lamellae on the underside. The young
basidiocarp may be covered by a universal veil, which becomes broken down by the growth of
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the stipe and pileus but part may remain as volva at the base of the stipe and as fragments on the
upper surface of the mature pileus.
The developing hymenium may be covered by a partial veil, which later becomes a
cortina or an annuals around the mature stipe. The hymenium may consist of cystidia of various
kinds, setae, or hyphidia among the basidia the latter producing unicellular, hyaline or coloured
ballistospores, typically in fours. Mycelium of Agaricales is typically basidiomycetous with
primary, secondary and tertiary mycelia. In few of the Agaricales asexual reproduction takes
place by oidia (Coprinus spp.) and chlamydospores (Volvariella volvacea). Majority of the
members are heterothallic and show either unifactorial or bifactorial heterothallism. The
compatible thalli are brought together either by hyphal fusion or by means of oidia. The
dikaryotic mycelium thus formed ultimately leads to the formation of basidiocarps. The fusion of
the dikaryotic nuclei takes place in the basidium (produced in the gills), which is followed by
reduction division resulting in the formation of generally uninucleate but sometimes-binucleate
basidiospores, which are haploid.
The order Agaricales contains 16 families (Smith, 1973). They are Boletaceae,
Hygrophoraceae, Tricholomataceae, Entolomataceae, Amanitaceae, Pluteaceae, Lepiotaceae,
Agaricaceae Bolbitiaceae, Strophariaceae, Coprinaceae, Cortinariaceae, Paxillaceae,
Gomphidiaceae, Russulaceae and Cantharellaceae.
Family: Tricholomataceae Armillariella, Pleurotus, Marasmius, Clitocybe, Tricholoma, Panus,
Mycena and Omphalotus are the important genera in this family.
Pleurotus: Stripe is generally eccentric and pileus resupinate in some species. They have white
or pigmented range fruiting bodies. They grow on wood, on dead or living hosts. This genus
contains most valuable edible mushroom.
P. sajor -caju Oyster mushroom
P. ostreatus - Oyster mushroom.
Family : Amanitaceae
The characteristic feature of the family is the presence of free gills with bilateral trama
and the presence of both outer and inner veil. The basidiospores are white to creamish in colour.
The members are found on the ground in woods, on termite nests or on wood. Amanita,
Limacella and Termitomyces are the important general in this family. Amanita: The genus is
characterized by free gills and the presence of the annulus and volva on the stripe. Remnant of
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the volva may persist as volva scales on the cap. More than 5 species are known to be
mycorrhizal in habit. Some are more attractive and used in decoration. Some are poisonous and
produce toxins called phallotoxin and amatoxins.
A. virosa - called as 'Destroying angel'; or death angel. Decorative by its pure white basidiocarp;
poisonous
A. caesarea - Called 'caesar's mushroom', yellow and orange capped and used in decoration
A. muscaria - Called 'fly agaric'; yellow or orange or brilliant red capped and used in decoration;
poisonous to flies
A. phalloides - Called 'Depth cap fungus'and it is poisonous.
Family: Pluteaceae
It is characterized by the free gills having bilateral hymenophoral trama, which are
convergent toward the center of the trama, and by the production of dull pink basidiospores. The
genera Volvariella, Pluteus and Chamaeota are included in this family.
Volvariella
The genus Volvariella contains approximately 25 species reported from tropical,
subtropical and temperate regions found growing in shady places on soil and on decaying
organic matter. They appear during the rainy season and are recognized by pink spores, free gills
forming a ring around the stipe or a stipe which bears no annulus but is enclosed at the base by a
cup-shaped persistent 'volva'; The pileus is fleshy, white or pigmented and circular with a central
stipe and is responsible for its name Volvariella. A few of the species such as V. volvacea and V.
diplasia (commonly called the straw, or paddy straw or Chinese mushrooms) are edible.
Family: Agaricaceae
The family Agaricaceae is characterized by the blackish or brown colour of the basidiospores
and the presence of pallid to pink or rosaceous coloured free gills on the pileus.
An annulus is typically present on the stipe. Agaricus, Cystoagaricus and Melanophyllium are
important genera. Agaricus: The characteristic features of the genus are the presence of deep
purplishbrown free gills, and an annulus but no volva, and stalk that readily separates from the
pileus. They are commonly found growing on ground in pastures. These mushrooms are edible
for their delicacy.
A. campestris -Common or Field mushroom; or white button mushroom; edible
A. brunnescens - edible and cultivated mushroom (=A. bisporus)
A. placomyces – poisonous
A. silvaticus – poisonous
Edible mushrooms
Mushroom is a fleshy to tough, edible umberella like sporophores (basidiocarp )of certain
basidiomycetes fungi. The mushroom consists of stipe or stalk, a membranous annular ring
called annulus, cap or pileus arid gills or lamellae (plates). Each gill on cross section shows
closely packed elongated fungal cells called trauma. On both sides of the trauma a sub-
hymenium with spherical cells is formed. Over the sub-hymenial layer a fertile layer with
palisade like cells called hymenium is found. It consists of club shaped basidia, sterigmata
bearing single-celled basidiospores. In the hymenial layer stout sterile structure called cystidia
are also found.
Morphology of Mushroom
Morphology of the edible and cultivated mushroom Agaricus campestris is given below:
Agaricus campestris is a field mushroom growing on all organic matter in the fields. The
mycelium is highly organized and the hyphae are often found to form rhizomorphs, which are
thick strands or rope-like structures. Clamp connections are also formed by the hyphae and
chlamydospores may be produced to resist the adverse conditions. The fruiting body or the
basidiocarp commonly called as mushroom comes out of the soil and it consists of thick stalk
called stipe on which an umbrellashaped pileus(cap) rest.
The stipe is cylindrical in shape, fleshy and usually swollen at the base. Just above the
middle the stipe has a membranous ring known as annulus. This represents the remnants of the
inner veil, which enclosed the lower surface of the pileus in the initial stages of development.
The stipe is constituted by well packed hyphae at the basal portions being loosely placed towards
the center permitting the formation of large air space. The pileus on the under surface exhibits
numerous structures radiating from the stipe. They are called lamellae or gills, which are
slender, pink when young becoming brown later. The lamellae are suspended from the pileus as
thin strips of tissues converging towards the centre with their ends bend towards. The cross-
section of a lamella or gills show the central loosely packed elongated fungal cells known as
trama. On both sides of the trama are found subhymenial layers the cells of which will be
spherical in shape. Over the sub-hymenial layer a layer of palisade-like cells known as hymenial
layer is formed.
The hymenial layer consist of club shaped basidia which have two to four minute sterigmata at
their tip. The sterigmata bear the haploid single celled, ink basidiospores. In the hymenial layer
there are some stout sterile structures known as cystidia (sing. cystidium). The basidiospores
are released forcibly and fall near the base of the stipe and form a pink mass.
Agaricus and Pleurotus
Agaricus
Agaricus spp. are called white button mushroom or European mushroom or button
mushroom. It has two important commercia1Jy cultivated species viz., temperate mushroom or
white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus and hot weather mushrooms, A. bitorquis
A .bisporus
It has stout, cylindrical, fleshy umberella-like pileus and possess annulus. Good crop of
mushroom comes at low temperature of 15 to 25º C. Well decomposed wheat / paddy straw
compost incorporated with nutrients is used as substrate. In a period of 85-100 days, 300-350 kg
of mushroom can be harvested from one ton of compost. It ranks first in the world mushroom
production.
Pleurotus
Pleurotus spp. are called oyster mushroom as it resembles shell of an oyster. The stipe is
eccentric. In India it is called Dhingri. It is a tropical mushroom coming up well between 25-
30°C. The colour may be white or grey or pink depending upon the species. Commonly
cultivated species in India are Pleurotus sajor-caju, P. eous, P.citrinopileatus, P.ostreatus,
P.eryingii etc., It is grown on paddy straw (substrate) in polybags. In a period of 30-45 days, it
yield 1.0 to 1.4 kg per kg of paddy straw.
Symptoms of rust – Life cycle of Puccinia
Rust appears as brown or reddish brown pustules scattered on upper or lower or on both
the surfaces of leaves sometimes on the stem also. The rust diseases are in the order Uredinales
of the subdivision Basidiomycotina. The rust genera viz., Puccinia, Uromyces, Hemileia,
Phragmidium, Gymnosporangium in the family Pucciniaceae and Melampsora, Phakopsora,
Coleosporium and Cronatium in the family Melampsoraceae cause rust disease in crop plants.
There are three types of rusts based on the life cycle. They are,
1. Macrocyclic rust
a. Autoecious rust
b. Heteroecions rust
2. Demicyclic rust
3. Microcyclic rust.
1. Macrocyclic rust: Five spore stages are produced in their life cycle.
a. Autoecious rust: Five spore stages are formed on a single host. e.g., Sunflower rust -
Puccinia helianthi , Pea rust - Uromyces fabae , Linseed rust - Melampsora lini and Castor rust –
M. ricini.
b. Heteroecious rust: Two different hosts (viz., primary host and alternate hosts) are required
for completion of its life cycle. Primary host is the plant where the teliospores are produced.
Alternate host is a plant which is required to complete life cycle without which the pathogen
cannot survive. Uredia and uredospores and telia and teliospores are formed on the primary host.
Pycnia and pycniospores and aecia and aeciospores are formed on the alternate hosts. e.g., Wheat
stem rust – Puccinia graminis var. tritici. For this rust wheat is the primary host and the barberry
is the alternate host.
2. Demicyclic rust: Uredial stage absent and spermagonia may be present or absent. e.g., Cedar
apple rust - Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae
3. Microcyclic rust: Teliospore is the only binucleate spore produced in this rust. It may be with
or without spermagonia e.g., Holly-cock rust-Puccinia malvacearum.
i. Black or stem rust of wheat - Puccinia graminis var. tritici
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Subdivision : Basidiomycotina
Class : Teliomycetes
Order : Uredinales
Family : Pucciniaceae
Genus : Puccinia
Species : P.graminis
Variety : P.g. var.tritici
Symptoms
Oblong, reddish brown pustules (raised blisters) are produced mostly on the stem and
also on leaves in the initial stage. Later they become conspicuous, linear or oblong, dark brown
to black and often merge with one another. Late in the season linear, black telia are formed in the
same uredosori or on a separate place; severe infection causes drying of leaves.
Pathogen
It is a heteroecious rust. Primary host is wheat and the alternate host is barberry. The
pathogen produces five kinds of spores viz., uredospore and teliospores on wheat, basidiospores
from the teliospores found on the infected fallen leaves in the soil, pycniospores and aeciospores
on barberry. The characters of different rust spores are described below.
Uredospores
(urediniospore, repeating spores or summer spores) are brown, binucleate, single celled,
oval, thick walled with echinulations (thin short spines), borne singly on stalks and with four
equatorial germ pores. Teleutospores (Teleutospore, resting spores or winter spores) are two
celled, pedicellate, dark brown or cheshnut brown, thick and smooth walled. They are at the top
rounded and somewhat pointed and thickened apex each cell has a germ pore.
Basidiospores
(Sporidia) are hyaline, haploid; thin walled, single celled and oval. Pycniospores
(spermatia) are hyaline, thin walled, small and spherical. Teliospore has a constricted at the
septum. Aeciospores are yellow, unicellular, thin walled, hexagonal and produced in chains.
Disease cycle
The fungus overwinters as teliospores on infected wheat debris. They germinate and
produce basidia and basidiospores. The basidiospores are ejected forcibly into the air. They are
spread through wind and fall on the upper surface barberry leaf, where they germinate and
penetrate the epidermal cells. It grows intercellularly and in 3-4 days, the mycelium develops
into spermagonia (pycnia), which ruptures the epidermis. The opening of the spermagonia
emerges on the upper surface of the leaf. The spermatia are exuded through the opening called
ostiole and are found embedded in a honey like sticky liquid. Long, flexuous and branched
structures called receptive hyphae from the spermagonium extend beyond the opening. Visiting
insects spread the spermatia to the receptive hypha of other spermagonia. Rain water or dew
running on the plant surface also helps in spreading the spermatia. Spermatization between a
spermagonium of a (+) type when comes in contact with receptive hypha of a (-) type
(compatible) or vice-versa. It leads to aecial primordial (dikaryote) and formation of aecia on the
lower side of the leaf.
The aecia are formed in groups or clusters and called cluster cups and protrude beyond
the surface of the barberry leaf. The aecisopores are produced in chains inside the aecium and are
released. They are carried by wind to wheat plant on which they germinate and infect stem or
leaf sheath or leaf through stomata. The mycelium grows intercellularly and collects below the
epidermis as a mat of mycelium. Many short sporophores and uredospores are produced and they
exert pressure on the epidermis and pushed out as uredosori. Later, the epidermis breaks
irregularly and release 100 thousands of rust coloured uredospores giving a powdery appearance.
Uredospores are carried by wind to several kilometres from the point of their origin and infect
the wheat plant in the presence of dew or film of water.
They germinate and produce germ tubes, enters through stomata, forms mycelium and
leads to formation of uredia in 8-10 days. The uredospores infect wheat plant and produce
uredospores till the plant reaches maturity. When the wheat plant approaches maturity telia
develop on the wheat leaves or stems separately or from the ured33ia. Teliospores from the telia
do not germinate immediately, they overwinter for sometime and do not infect wheat again. In
the teliospores fusion of two nuclei takes place. Teliospore germinate and produce promycelium
and basidiospores and infects only barberry, the alternate host and not wheat.
ii. Rust of pearlmillet - Puccinia substriata var. penicillariae
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Basidiomycotina
Order : Uredinales
Family : Pucciniaceae
Genus : Puccinia
Species : P.substriata
Variety : P.s. penicillariae
Symptoms
The uredosori are round, reddish brown and occur in groups on both the surfaces of
leaves. The teliosori are black and elliptical. Finally the leaves dry.
Pathogen
It is also heteroecious rust. Primary host is pearlmillet and the alternate post is brinjal.
Uredospores are oval, yellowish brown, single celled, sparsely echinulated with four equatorial
germ pores and pedicellate. Teleutospores are pedicellate thick walled, two celled cylindrical or
club-shaped, broad at top and taper towards the base, with single germ pore. Basidiospores are
single celled. Pycniospores are hyaline and elliptical. Aeciospores are yellowish orange coloured,
polygonal, thin walled, smooth and are formed in chains. Other examples are, rust of groundnut
caused by Puccinia arachidis, rust of sunflower caused by P. helianthi, rust of sorghum caused
by P.purpurea, rust of maize caused by P. sorghi
Rust of black gram / greengram / cowpea / beans /horsegram – Uromyces phaseoli-typica
(syn. U. appendiculatus).
Symptoms
It is an autoecious and macrocylic (long cycle) rust. The uredosori are small, roundish,
open, powdery, brown coloured and are formed in groups. Each sorus is surround by a yellow
halo. Several sori on a leaf cause premature defoliation. The teliosori are fewer in number, dark
brown and linear.
Pathogen
Uredospores are globose, single celled, echinulated, Pedicellate, golden brown with two
equatorial germ pores. Teliospores are single celled, smooth walled, globose, chestnut brown,
pedicellate and with hyaline papilla at the top. Other examples are chickpea rust caused by U.
ciceris-arietini, Pea rust caused by U. fabae and U. pisi, coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix
and cotton tropical rust caused by Phakopsora gossypii.
Symptoms of smuts and life cycle of Ustilago and Neovassia Smut
Smut is a disease caused by the fungi in Ustilaginales of the subdivision Basidiomycotina
that is characterized by the transformation of ovary into black dusty or powdery dark spore mass.
Smut spores are called teleutospores, chlamydospores or ustilospores. Smut fungi are more
dangerous than rust fungi. They are facultative saprophytes. Smut fungi belong to the order
Ustilaginales in the subdivision Basidiomycotina.
The order ustilaginales is divided into two families viz., Ustilaginaceae and Tilletiaceae, on the
basis of the mode of teliospore germination. The family Ustilaginaceae produces a septate
promycelium bearing terminal and lateral basidiospores. Ustilago, Sporisorium, melanopsichium,
Sphacelotheca and Tolyposporium. In Tilletiaceae, the promycelium is a hollow tube, which
bears only terminal basidiospores, are, included in this family Tilletia, Neovossia, Urocystis and
Entyloma are included in Tilletiaceae.
Covered / kernel / short / grain smut of sorghum- Sporisorium sorghi.
(Syn. Sphacelotheca sorghi)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Basidiomycotina
Order : Ustilaginales
Family : Ustilaginaceae
Genus : Sporisorium
Species : S sorghi
Symptoms
The smut sori are oval, long and dully-grey in colour. Most of the grains of an infected
earhead are replaced by the smut sori.
Pathogen
The sorus has a tough wall and a long, hard, central tissue called columellum. The
columellum is made up of host tissues, including, parenchyma and vascular elements. A dense
mass of black to dark-brown, smooth, thick walled, single-celled spores and fills the space
between the columellum and sorus wall.
Disease cycle
The smut spores germinate in water by producing four celled promycelium and a single
sporidium from each cell. They infect the seedling by penetrating through the radicle or
mesocotyl to establish systemic infection that develops along the meristematic tissues. At the
time of flowering the fungal hyphae get converted into spores, replacing the ovary with the soil.
If the diseased earheads are harvested with the healthy ones threshed together, the healthy grains
become contaminated with the smut spores released from bursted sori. The spores remain
dormant on the seed until next season. It is externally seed-borne.
Loose smut of sorghum - Sporisorium cruentum (syn. Sphacelotheca cruenta)
Symptoms
The infected plants are shorter than the healthy plants, produce thinner stalks, more tillers
and earlier flowering (2 weeks earlier) than the healthy plants. All the spikelets of an infected
earhead are malformed and hypertrophied. The sorus replaces the pistil and stamens and is borne
on glumes and pedicel. The infected earhead become loose and appears like a leafy or leathery
structure.
Pathogen
The smut spores are in the form of masses of spores enclosed by thin sorus membrane.
Columellum is longer, bigger and more curved than the columellum of grain smut. The smut
spores are spherical to elliptical, dark brown with a minutely pitted spore wall. It is primarily
spread by infected seeds (externally seed-borne). Disease cycle is as in grain smut.
Long smut of sorghum -Tolyposporium ehrenbergii
Symptoms
Only a few grains are converted into smut sori and are scattered. The sorus is covered by
a whitish membrane and is cylindrical and much longer than those of the other two smuts.
Pathogen
The spores are firmly united into spore balls, which is characteristic of this genus. They
are globose, or angular, brownish green.
Head smut of sorghum -Sporisorium reilianum (syn. Sphacelotheca reiliana)
Symptoms
In the place of a normal inflorescence, a sorus fully covered with a greyish-white
membrane emerges from the boot leaf when it has fully emerged. The fungal wall ruptures,
exposing large mass of black, powdery smut spores. The spores are blown away exposing dark
filaments or fibres. Complete destruction of the earhead is common unlike in other smuts.
Pathogen
The smut spores or chlamydospores are angular to spherical, brown. It is both soil-borne
and seed-borne.
Smut of pearl millet smut- Tolyposporium penicillariae
Symptoms
Florets are transformed into larger green smut sorus. Later sori become dark brown,
break and release black smut spore balls. Only few florets in an earhead in affected.
Pathogen
Smut spores are in compact mass of spore balls. The spores are round and light brown.
Loose smut of wheat - Ustilago nuda tritici
Symptoms
Infected plants are shorter than the healthy plants. Usually infected ears emerge from the
boot leaf, a few days earlier than healthy. All spikelets of an earhead are transfonned into a mass
of black powdery spores. Before emergence the smutted spikelet in covered by a thin silvery
membrane, which breaks while the ear. Emerges
Pathogen
The smut spores or chlamydospores are pale olive-brown, spherical or oval and are with
minute echinulations. It is internally seed-borne and viable in stored seeds for more than 15
years.
Whip smut of sugarcane - Ustilago scitaminea
Symptoms
Production of a long (up to several feet) whip-like structure (modified inflorescences /
stem) from the apex of the infected stalk. In early stage, a thin silvery white membrane covers
the whip and it ruptures exposing dense black dust of smut spores.
Pathogen
The smut spores are light brown, spherical and echinulated.
Lecture 10
Subdivition: Deuteromycotina: class: Coelomycetes (Sphaeropsidales), class:

Hyphomycetes (Hyphomycetales, Agonomycetales)
General characters
Fungi possess branched, septate and multinucleate mycelium. They reproduce through
asexual methods. the most common method of reproduction is by conidia. No sexual spores are
produced. They are called as Fungi Imperfecti.
Classification
Key to Classes of Deuteromycotina
A. True mycelium lacking or not well-developed, soma is made up of yeast (budding) cells with
or without pseudomycelium .. Blastomycetes. AA. Mycelium well-developed, assimilative
budding cells absent ... B, BB
B. Reproduction by conidia borne in pycnidia or acervuli ... Coelomycetes BB. Reproduction
absent i.e. sterile forms or takes place by conidia produced on separate hyphae or aggregations of
hyphae (as synnemata or sporodochia) but not within pycnidia or acervuli ... Hyphomycetes
Class: Coelomycetes
The members are found both in tropical and temperate regions. They are commonly
found in cultivated and uncultivated soils, leaf litter organic debris, fresh water and saline water.
They may found on other fungi and lichens. They are also pathogens of plants, insects and
vertebrates. Coelomycetes is divided into two orders, Melanconiales and Sphaeropsidales. In this
class conidia are produced either in acervuli or pycnidia and accordingly the members have been
grouped into two orders:
1 Conidia produced in acervuli -Melanconiales
2 Conidia produced in pycnidia –Sphaeropsidales
Order: Melanconiales
In Melanconiales the fructifications are acervuli. It contains a single family,
'Melanconiaceae'which is characterized by the production of acervuli. Acervuli may develop
subepidermally or subcuticularly. Conidia may be hyaline to cream, pink, orange or black.
Acervuli develop by simple meristogenous, compound meristogenous or sympogenous methods.
More than 120 genera are included in this family and they cause plant disease known as
anthracnose. The important genera are
1. Colletotrichum
2. Coryneum
3. Cylindrosporium
4. Entomosporium
5. Marssoninia
6. Melanconium
7. Monochaetia
8. Pestalotia
9. Pestalotiopsis
10. Gloeosporium
11. Sphaceloma
12. Didymosporium
13. Septogloeum
Colletotrichum
Acervuli may be subcuticular, epidermal or subepidermal. They may be either separate or
confluent. Conidiophores are hyaline to brown, septate, smooth, branched at the base. Conidia
are hyaline, unicellular, falcate or lunate (sickleshaped) or cylindrical.. Perfect state of the fungus
belongs to Glomerella. The important plant pathogenic species of Colletotrichum are given
below:
C. capsici-Fruit rot and dieback ofchillies, anthracnoseand boll rot of cotton.
C. circinans -Smudge of onion
C. coffeanum -Coffee berry disease
C. falcatum -Red rot of sugarcane
C. gloeosporioidesAnthracnose of citrus andbanana.
C. graminicola Anthracnose of corn and sorghum .
C. lindemuthianum-Anthracnose of cowpea andPhaseolus spp.
C. musae -Anthracnose of banana(Gloeosporium musarum)
C. truncatum -Anthracnose of legumes.
Pestalotia (Pestalozzia)
The genus is characterized by the conidia which are fusiform, straight or slightly curved
and five septate, with four median cells brown and end cells hyaline lacking cytoplasm. There
may be 3-9 apical, cellular, simple or dichotomously branched appendages and one basal
endogenous cellular, simple or branched appendage. The conidiophores are long, branched and
septate. The fructifications are dark brown.
Pestalotiopsis
Pestalotiopsis differ from Pestalotia in the production of 4 septate conidia (5 celled) with
two or more apical appendages and conidiogenous cell with several proliferations. The
fructifications eustromatic and cupulate. Acervuli are subepidermal and are irregularly erumpent
through the epidermis or longitudinal cracks may appear. They are either found on decaying
leaves. Many are important plant pathogens.
P. palmarum -Grey blight of coconut (Pestilential palmarum) and other palms.
P. theae -Grey blight of tea and blight of (Pestalotia theae) mango, palms and cotton.
P. mangiferae -Grey blight of mango (Pestalotia mangiferae)
Order: Sphaeropsidales
In this order the conidia and conidiogenous cells or conidiophores are produced in
pycnidia. Mycelium may be immersed in the substrate or superficial. Conidia are produced in
several ways from phialides, annellides etc. Conidia are solitary, sympodial catenate etc.
Sphaeropsidales is divided into four families based on the colour, shape and texture of the
pycnidia. They are Sphaeropsidaceae ,Nectrioidaceae (Zythiaceae), Leptostromataceae and
Excipulaceae (Discellaceae).
Family : Sphaeropsidaceae
This is a large family consisting of both saprobes and a stroma. These are tough, leathery
to brittle, globose, ostiolate and dark coloured. The spores are hyaline spherical or oval and often
exude from the ostiole in damp weather in a worm like mass or citrus.
Macrophomina
Mycelium superficial or immersed, hyaline to brown, branched, septate, often tree like in
form (dendroid). Pycnidia separate, globose, dark brown, immersed, with one cavity, thick-
walled; wall consisting of an outer layer of darkbrown; thick walled, closely packed polyhedral
cells, becoming hyaline towards the inside. Ostiole central, circular, papillate. Conidiophores
absent. Conidiogenous cells enteroblastic, phialidic, determinate, lageniform to doliform,
hyaline, smooth with aperture and minute collarette, formed from cells lining the pycnidial
cavity.
Conidia (Pycnospores) hyaline, aseptate, obtuse at each end straight cylindrical to fusiform, thin-
walled, smooth with aperture and minute collarette, formed from cells lining the pycnidial cavity.
Conidia (Pycnospores) hyaline, aseptate, obtuse at each end, straight cylindrical to fusiform,
thin-walled, smooth, may be guttulate. Forming mainly sclerotia in cultures, which are black,
smooth, hard, formed of dark-brown thickwalled cells. The genus Macrophomina is monotypic
and contains the only species, M. phaseolina, Macrophomina phaseolina (syn .Rhizoctonia
bataticola). This fungus causes charcoal rot, ashy stem blight, Dry root rot, canker, damping off
and leaf lesions on hosts like sorghum, pearl millet, soybean, groundnut, cotton, Phaseolus spp.,
tomato, potato etc.,
Ascochyta
It is a very large and widely distributed genus containing about 350 species. Most of them
are plant pathogens. Mycelium immersed, branched, septate, hyaline to pale brown. Pycnidia are
amphigenous, separate, globose, brown, immersed, unilocular and thin-walled. Ostiole central,
circular, slightly papillate. Conidiophores are absent. Conidiogenous cells enteroblastic,
phialidic, determinate , discrete, doliform to lageniform, hyaline, smooth, formed from the inner
cells of pycnidial cavity. Conidia hyaline, thin-walled, cylindrical, ovoid, oblong to irregular,
medianly one-septate, continuous or constricted at the septum. Conidia may be guttulate.
The important plant pathogens are as follows:
A. abelmoschi -Leaf, fruit and stem spot of lady's finger.
A. caricae-papayae -Fruit rot of papaya
A. fabae -Leaf and pod spot of broad beans
A. melongenae -Leaf spot of lady's finger
A. phaseolorum -Leaf and pod spot of common bean and other legumes.
A. pisi -Leaf and pod spot of pea.
A. pinodes -Foot rot or blight of pea
A. rabiei -Blight of chickpea
A. sorghi -Leaf spot of sorghum
Septoria
It is a large and cosmopolitan genus with 1000 species, which are parasitic causing leaf
spot diseases in plants. The pycnidia are immersed in the substratum and are either separate or
aggregated and not confluent. They are globose, ostiolate, thin walled and brown. . Conidia are
hyaline, smooth, filiform (scolecospore), continuous or constricted at septa. The perfect states in
Ascomycotina genera are Mycosphaerella and Leptosphaeria.
Septoria apii -Celery leaf blight
S. chrysanthemella -Black leaf spot of sweet potato
S. bataticola -Leaf spot of sweetpotato
S. glycinea -Brown spot of soybean
S. lycopersici -Leaf spot of tomato
S. nodorum -Speckled leaf blotch of wheat
S. thespesiae -Leaf spot of Portia tree
S. tritici -Leaf spot of wheat
Family: Excipulaceae (Discellaceae) (Genera: Excipula, Discula, Dinemosporium,
Sporonema)
Class: Hyphomycetes
Hawksworth et al. (1983) classified Hyphomycetes into four orders, Agonomycetales,
Hyphomycetales, Stilbellales and Tuberculariales. The orders have been separated on the basis of
presence of absence of conidia and the degree of aggregation of the conidiophores into
specialized structures such as synnemata or sporodochia.
Classification of Hyphomycetes
Conidia absent except for chlamydospores - Agonomycetales or Mycelial sterilia Conidia present
Conidiophores are not organized as synnemata or sporodochia- Hyphomycetales (Moniliales)
Conidiophores are organized as synnemata or sporodochia.
a. Synnemata formed - Stilbellales
b. Sporodochia formed – Tuberculariales
Order: Agonomycetales or Mycelia sterilia
1. Leaf parasites and forming sclerotia that are immersed in leaf tissue - Dactuliphora
2. Sclerotia not immersed in leaf tissue, if leaf parasites:
(a) Sclerotia formed of loosely woven hyphae; irregular in shape - Rhizoctonia
(b) Sclerotia formed of compact hyphae; large - Sclerotium
(c) Compact cells arranged in cluster like forms; true sclerotia absent – Populaspora
The fungi included in this order are referred as Mycelia sterilia as they lack even the imperfect
state (spores) and reproduce only by fragmentation of mycelium. They do form sclerotia or
chlamydospores, which help in perpetuation and dissemination of the pathogen. Agonomycetales
may be states of Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes or other Deuteromycetes. It has a single family
Agonomycetaceae containing 42 genera. Aegerita, Arbuscula, Dactuliophora, Papulaspora,
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium are important genera.
Rhizoctonia
The form-genus Rhizoctonia has about 15 species. They are facultative necrotrophs i.e.
they are capable of prolonged existence as saprophyte in the soil. Under suitable conditions they
cause diseases like damping off and root rots. Important characters of this are the formation of
sclerotia of irregular size and shape but of uniform texture brown or black, more or less loosely
packed. The cells of the hyphae are barrel shaped, anastomosing frequently, branching more or
less at right angles, and pale brown to brown in colour. Perfect states of Rhizoctonia are
Ceratobasidium and Thanatephorus (of Basidiomycotina) and Macrophomina (Pycnidial state).
R. bataticola - Dry root rot of pulses, cotton etc. (Pycnidial state: Macrophomina phaseolina)
R. solani - Root rot of cotton. (Perfect state: Thanatephorus cucumeris)
Sclerotium
It is a large genus with about 100 species. They cause important plant diseases. It is
characterized by hard, brown to black, fairly large sclerotia with pseudoparenchymatous rind.
These are produced on sterile, cotton, white mycelium provided with clamp connections. The
perfect states of Sclerotium are Pellicularia (Hymenomycetes of Basidiomycotina) and
Sclerotinia (of Ascomycotina)
Sclerotium cepivorum -White rot of onion
S. oryzae-Stem rot of rice (Perfect state: Magnaporthe salvinii Conidial state: Nakataea
sigmoidea)
S. rolfsii - Root rot of soybean, black pepper groundnut, cotton, cabbage tomato etc. (Perfect
State: Corticium rolfsii(syn.Pellicularia rolfsii)
Order: Hyphomycetales (Moniliales)
This order has important saprobes used in decomposition of organic matters. It has
pathogens on plant, animal and human beings. In this order the conidiogenous cells are produced
on the conidiophores, which may be either micronematous. i.e morphologically similar to
vegetative hyphae or macronematous. i.e. which are morphologically very different from purely
vegetative hyphae but are always mononematous i.e. they are sporodochia. The order is divided
into two families, Moniliaceae and Dematiaceae.
The order is divided into 2 families:
1 Conidia and conidiophores hyaline or brightly coloured -Moniliaceae
2 Conidia or conidiophores or both with distinct dark pigment –Dematiaceae
Form-family 1: Moniliaceae
Most of the members in this family are saprobes in soil, dead organic matter and
foodstuffs. Some are plant, human and animal pathogens whereas some others are predaceous
fungi on nematodes. The members of this form-family are characterized by the production of
free conidiophores or conidiogenous cells from the somatic hyphae and all the structures i.e.
hyphae, conidiophores and conidia are hyaline. A key to important plant pathogenic genera is
given here:
I. Conidia unicellular, globose to cylindrical, conidiophore distinct:
(a) Conidia almost similar to apical cells of conidiophores Monilia
(b) Conidia not as above; borne in chains; dry:
(i) Phialides in heads on simple conidiophores -Aspergillus
(ii) Phialides bush like; upright -Penicillium
(c) Conidia not borne in chains; conidiophores verticillate, phialospores in mucilaginous mass -
Verticillium
(d) Conidiophore branching irregularly or dichotomously; conidia dry, borne on inflated apical
cells -Botrytis
II. Conidia bicelled, ovoid to cylindrical:
(a) Conidiophores reduced to stromal cells - Rhyncosporium
(b) Conidiophoredistinct, rarely branched, in clusters; conidia cylindrical, in short chains -
Ramularia
III. Conidia 3 or more celled:
(a) Conidia usually of 2 types, multiseptate macroconidia canoe shaped; unicellular microconidia
often present -Fusarium
(b) Conidiophores rarely branched, conidia simple, attenuated at the apex - Cercosporella
(c) Conidiophores usually simple; conidia on denticles –Pyricularia Aspergillus and Penicillium
belong here, Imperfect stages of the Erysiphales (powdery mildews) viz. Acrosporium (formerly
known as oidium) is also placed here.
Imperfect stage of Ascomycetes -Neurospora and Monilinia and Botryotinia also belong
here and placed in the form genera Monilia and Botrytis respectively. The genera Verticillium
and Trichoderma are known to have Trichoderma as imperfect states. Pathogens of man and
animals viz., Microsporium (Imperfect state: Arthroderma), Trichophyton (Imperfect state:
Nannizzia), Histoplasma (Imperfect state: Ajellomyces), Geotrichum, Sporothrix, Coccidioides,
Paracoccidioides and Epidermophyton belong to his family. Arthroderma (Microsporium),
Phymatotrichum, Predaceous fungi like Dactylaria, Arthrobotrys and Monacrosporium are also
included in the family Moniliaceae.
Verticillium
The genus is characterized by the production of balls of amerospores on verticillately
arranged phialides. The conidiophores are erect, hyaline or slightly pigmented and simple or
branched. Chlamydospores, aleuriospores and microsclerotia are also produced by some species.
V. albo-atrum -Wilt of cotton, tobacco, cowpea, tomato, brinjal, potato, lucerne. V. dahliae -Wilt
of tobacco and brinjal Form-family 2: Dematiaceae.
This family is characterized by the production of dark-conidia and/or conidiophores.
Conidiophores are simple and not produced in any type of fruiting body. Many members are
saprobic found in soil and on dead organic matters. Others are pathogens of plants. Alternaria ,
Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Cercospora, Curvularia, Drechslera, Helminthosporium and
Pyricularia are important genera in this family.
A key to important genera is given below:
I. Conidia single celled, globose to cylindrical in shape.
(a) Conidia hyaline to sub-hyaline, phialosporous, endogenous; phialides often single;
aleuriospores dark, borne singly or in short chains - Thielaviopsis
(b) Conidia blastospores, dark, borne acropetally in long chains; ovoid to oblong, sometimes >2
celled - Cladosporium
(c) Conidia dark, in short chains:
(i) Mycelium subcuticular, conidia annelospores, acute at apex, sometimes 2-celled - Spilocaea
(ii) Conidia blastospores, dry, borne in apical clusters - Periconia
(d) Conidiophore simple, intertwined; conidia holoblastic, spherical; in ovaries of individual

grains of Gramineae - Ustilaginoidea
II. Conidia usually bicelled, borne singly on conidiophores. Mycelium subepidermal, without
forming stroma, apical cell of conidia narrower than basal cell - Passalora
III. Conidia more than 3 celled, not borne in chains, only transversely septate.
A. Conidiophores in clusters, simple or rarely branched, conidia long cylindrical to filamentous:
(i) Stroma well developed -Cercosporidium
(ii) Stroma not developed -Cercospora
B. Conidiophores packed together, arising from a well-developed stroma. Conidia annellospores,
ellipsoid ovoid -Strigmina
C. Conidiophores single; stroma absent:
1. Conidia porosporous.
(i) Conidia borne apically -Corynespora
(ii) Conidia borne laterally and apically -Helminthosporium
2. Conidia sympodulospores.
(i) Conidia typically bent, middle cell enlarged -Curvularia
(ii) Conidia straight, sometimes curved slightly
(a) Conidial germination by any of its cells -Drechslera
(b) Conidial germination by end cells only -Bipolaris
IV. Conidia several celled, longitudinal as well transverse septa present.
(a) Conidia borne in acropetal chains -Alternaria
(b) Conidia borne singly, apical, sub-globose, obovate or broadly ellipsoid - Stemphylium
Alternaria
It is a polyphagous fungus and occurs most frequently as a saprobe on dead and decaying
organic materials, on or in seeds and is responsible for causing leaf spots of economically
important crop plants. Conidiophores are dark, septate, sometimes inconspicuous, simple or
branched, bearing conidia at the apex. Conidia (Porospores) solitary or more often produced in
acropetal succession to form simple or branched chains, muriform, darkly pigmented, ovate to
obclavate, tapering abruptly or gradually towards the apex, smooth or roughened.
Important plant diseases caused by Alternaria spp. are
Alternaria alternata - Black point disease of wheat grains
A. brassicae - Leaf spot of crucifers

A. brassicola - Leaf and pod spot of Crucifers
A. carthami - Leaf spot of safflower
A. cucumerina - Leaf spot of cucurbit
A. citri - Black rot of oranges, fruit rot of lemons and tangerines, leaf spot of rough lemon and
mandarin.
A. longipes - Brown spot of tobacco
A. macrospora - Leaf spot of cotton
A. padwickii - Stackburn, seedling blight or leaf spot (=Trichoconis padwickii) of rice
A. porri - Purple blotch of onion
A. solani - Early blight of potato and leaf spot of tomato, chillies and tobacco
A. triticina - Leaf blight of wheat
Cercospora: They are weak parasites on dead or drying plant tissues or pathogens of plants or
human beings. This genus is characterized by long, hyaline or pigmented conidia borne in
acropetal succession from a usually simple, sympodially extending, cicatrized (i.e. with
conspicuous scars), pigmented conidiophores which are frequently aggregated in fascicles . The
conidia are filiform and several celled.
Cercospora apii - Leaf spot of celery
C. arachidicola - Early leaf spot of groundnut
C. beticola - Leaf spot of sugar beet
C. coffeicola - Leaf spot of coffee and spinach
C. nicotianae - Frog -eye spot of tobacco
C. kikuchii - Purple stain of soybean
Cercospora musae - Sigatoka leaf spot
C. personata - Late leaf spot of groundnut
Helminthosporium
Colonies effuse, dark and hairy. Mycelium immersed stromata usually present.
Conidiophores often in fascicles, erect, brown to dark brown. Conidia develop laterally, often in
verticils, through pores beneath the septa of the conidiophore while the tip of the conidiophores
continues to grow but growth cases with the formation of terminal conidia. Conidia sub-hyaline
to brown, usually obclavate, pseudoseptate and frequently with a dark brown to black protruding
scar at the base. This genus contains approximately 20 species. Helminthosporium imperfect
state is produced in Pseudocochliobolus belonging to the Dothideales.
List of Helminthosporium transferred to Drechslera
Helminthosporium Drechslera sp. Ascigerous state
sp.
H. carbonum D. zeicola Cochliobolus carbonum
H. gramineum D. graminea (Leaf stripe of Barely) Pyrenophora graminea
H. heveae D. heveae
(Birds eye spot of rubber)
H. maydis D. maydis (Leaf blight of corn) Cochliobolus heterosporus
H. nodulosum D. nodulosus C. nodulosus
H. oryzae D. oryzae (brown leaf spot of rice) C. miyabeanus
H. sacchari D. sacchari
(seedling blight of sugarcane)
H. sativum Bipolaris C. sativum
H. sigmoideum Nakataea sigmoidea Leptosphaeria salvinii
Drechslera
It is characterized by the sympodially extending conidiophore, which produces an
acropetal succession of multiseptate porospores, which are cylindric in shape and germinate from
any or all cells. Conidiophores are indeterminate, extending by sympodial growth. The cells of
conidium are capable of germination. Conidiophores are brown and produce the conidia singly at
the apices. Conidia are cylindrical, multiseptate and dark. Cochliobolus, Pyrenophora, Pleospora
and Trichometasphaeria are imperfect states of Drechslera.
Bipolaris
Bipolaris is characterized by germination of conidia from the end cells only.
Conidiophores brown, producing conidia through an apical pore and forming a new apex by
growth of the sub-terminal region. Conidia fusoid, straight or curved, germinating by one germ
tube from each end cell. Exosporium smooth, rigid and brown. Endosporium hyaline,
amorphous, separating cells of the mature phragmospores. They are pathogenic on members in
grass family. The perfect state is Cochliobolus.
Pyricularia
There are only few species, which are causing important plant diseases. Conidiophores
are more or less erect, simple or rarely branched, septate, hyaline to lightly pigmented, ultimate
cells sympodulae. Conidia borne singly and terminally at the apex of conidiophore with
successive conidia being produced in acropetal succession by sympodial extension of the
sporogenous cell. Abscission of conidia leaves pronounced denticles on the spore-bearing apex.
Conidia ellipsoid or more often pyriform, broader and truncated at the attachment point, tapering
towards the distal end, mostly one septate or two septate, hyaline to lightly pigmented.
Pyricularia oryzae -Blast of rice
P. setariae -Blast of fox-tail millet
P. grisea -Blast of ragi / finger millet
Order: Tuberculariales
The characteristic features of this order is the production of sporodochia (sing.
sporodochium; Gr. spora = seed + dochien = container) in which the spore mass is supported by
a superficial, cushion -like (pulvinate) mass of conidiogenous cells or short conidiophores. The
order contains a single family, Tuberculariaceae that has more than 160 form-genera. Following
genera are important:
I. Conidia unicellular, hyaline to bright coloured.
(a) Sporodochia stromatic, parasitic on grains -Sphacelia
(b) Sporodochia pulvinate, sometimes with prominent, hyaline setae, Conidia in chains, usually
greenish in mass –Myrothecium
II. Conidia multicellular, long slender, setae absent in sporodochia.
(a) Macroconidia canoe shaped -Fusarium
(b)Conidia curved with short side branches –Ramulispora
III. Conidia dictyospores, dark, globose to subglobse.
(a) Sporodochia pulvinate -Epicoccum
(b)Sporodochia convoluted -Cerebella
Fusarium, Tubercularia, Volutella, Epicoccum and Exosporium are important genera.
Fusarium
The macroconidia (phialospores) are produced on conidiophores, which may be solitary
and simple or aggregated (sporodochia) and with complex branching and the ultimate branched
terminating in sporogenous cells. The sporogenous cells. The sporogenous cells are phialides,
sometimes with an apical collarette. In addition to macroconidia in some fusaria another type of
conidia, i.e. microconidia are produced.
Microconidia are non-septate or one-septate, ovoid to short cylindric, gathering in short
chains or more commonly in spore balls. Thick walled chlamydospores are also produced either
terminally or intercalarily on the somatic hyphae. The mycelium, microconidia, macroconidia
and sporodochia are bright in colour. Perfect state of Fusarium is found in Ascomycetes in the
family Hypocreaceae in which the genera, Nectria, Calonectria, Gibberella and Micronectriella
are found. The genus Fusarium contains about 50 species, which are widely distributed in soil
and organic substrates. Some of the species, which are serious plant pathogens are listed below.
F. avenaceum( syn.F. roseum) -Damping off of seedlings, seedling blight, foot and root rot, ear
blight of wheat, barley, oats, corn etc.
F. coeruleum -Dry rot of potato
F. moniliforme -Foot rot of rice
F. oxysporum f.sp. batatae -Wilt of sweet potato
F. oxysporum f.sp. betae -Wilt of beetroot
F. oxysporum f.sp. carthami -Wilt of safflower
F. oxysporum f.sp. cepae -Wilt of onion
F. oxysporum f.sp. ciceris -Wilt of chickpea
F. oxysporum f.sp. conglutinans -Cabbage yellows
F. oxysporum f.sp. coriandri -Wilt of coriander
F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense -Panama disease of banana
F. oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum-Wilt / foot rot of cucumber
F. oxysporum f.sp. cumini -Wilt of cumin
F. oxysporum f.sp. fabae -Wilt of broad bean
F. oxysporum f.sp. glycines -Wilt of soybean
F. oxysporum f.sp. lagenariae-Wilt of bottlegourd
F. oxysporum f.sp. lathyri -Wilt of Lathyrus sativus
F. oxysporum f.sp. lentis -Wilt of lentil

F. oxysporum f.sp. lini -Wilt of linseed
F. o. f.sp. lycopersici -Wilt of tomato
F. o. f. sp. Melongenae -Wilt of brinjal
F. o. f.sp. phaseoli-Dry rot or wilt or Phaseolus vulgaris
F. o. f.sp. pisi-Wilt of pea
F. o. f. sp. psidii - Wilt of guava
F. o. f.sp. sesame - Wilt of sesame
F. o. f.sp. sesbaniae - Wilt of Sesbania aegyptiaca
F. trachephilum - Wilt of cowpea
F. o. f.sp. vasinfectum - Wilt of cotton, banana, citrus, tomato and cucurbits, Damping off of
tomato.
F. semitectum - Storage rot of groundnut
F. solani - Root rot and wilt of legumes, citrus and coffee
F. solani f.sp. aurantifolia - Citrus aurantifolia
F. solani f.sp. batatae - Wilt of sweet potato
F. solani f.sp. coeruleum - Wilt of clusterbeans.
F. solani f.sp. cucurbitae - Wilt of Cucurbita spp
F. solani f.sp. enmartii - Wilt of potato
F. solani f.sp. fabae - Wilt of Vicia faba
F. solani f.sp. phaseoli - Wilt of Phaseolus spp.
F. solani f.sp. piperis - Wilt of black pepper
F. solani f.sp. pisi - Wilt of peas
F. udum - Wilt of pigeonpea
F. udum f.sp. crotalariae - Wilt of sunnhemp
Symptoms
Enlargement of roots, club-shaped roots due to hyperplasia and hypertrophy, gradual and
inconspicuous stunting, yellowing and wilting of plant.
Symptoms of leaf spots, leaf blights, root rots and wilts and disease cycles of Alternaria,
Helminthosporium, Colletotrichum, Pyricularia, Macrophomina and Fusarium
Leaf Spot
In leaf spot a well marked necrotic area of grey, brown, purple or black tissues in green
leaves.
i. Blast of rice - Pyricularia oryzae
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Deuteromycotina
Class : Hyphomycetes
Order : Moniliales
Family : Moniliaceae
Genus : Pyricularia
Species : P. oryzae
Symptoms: Spindle shaped spots on the leaves (leaf-blast); spots are with dark brown margin
and grey centre; spots on the node and neck are black; breaking of neck of earhead (neck blast)
and nodal regions in stem (nodal blast). Grain infection shows brown spots on the seed coat.
Pathogen: Mycelium is septate, branched and hyaline to olivaceous, both inter-and intra-
cellular. Conidiophores emerge through stomata or by rupturing the cuticle, single or grouped (2-
3), 2 to 4 septate, geniculate and olivaceous. Conidia borne sympodially, hyaline to pale olive,
pyriform, three celled with a small basal appendage called hilum.
Disease cycle: The conidia are spread through wind and cause infection. The grasses like
Panicum repens, Digitaria marginata, Echinochloa crusgalil, etc. act as collateral hosts
(alternative hosts) and help in perpetuation of the disease and act as primary source of inoculum.
The conidia from the grasses on the bunds help on initiation of the disease in the nursery or main
field.
ii. Brown spot of rice- Helminthosporium oryzae (syn. Bipolaris oryzae, Drechslera
oryzae; Perfect stage: Cochliobolus miyabeanus)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Family : Dematiaceae
Genus : Helminthosporium
Species : H. oryzae
Symptoms: Oval shaped, dark brown to black spots on the leaves; black spots on the grains.
Pathogen: Mycelium is brown, septate, branched, inter are and intracellular.
Conidiophores are long, septate, darker and geniculate. Conidia are borne singly, 2 to12 are
celled, brown, slightly curved with a bulge in the middle and tapering towards the ends.
Perithecia are globose, dark yellowish brown with ostiolar beak. Asci are cylindrical, slightly
curved and bear 4-6 ascospores. Ascospores are hyaline, long, cylindrical and 6-15 septate
Disease cycle: The fungus overwinters in infected plant parts. The fungus survives on Cynodon
dactylon, Echinochloa colona, Digitaria sanguinalis (collateral hosts) from which the conidia
33spread to rice crop in the nursery. Ascospores from perithecia found on dead straw in heaps,
which also serve as source of infection. In the field wind-borne conidia cause secondary
infection.
iii. Sigatoka leaf spot of banana- Cercospora musae (Perfect stage: Mycosphaerella musicola)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Cercospora
Species : C. musae
Symptoms: Yellowish green streaks are formed on interveinal areas; the streaks enlarge into
cylindrical spots with grey centre, brown margin and each spots surrounded by yellow halo. The
lesions coalesce and leaves dry up.
Pathogen: Mycelium is hyaline, septate and branched. Conidia are elongated, narrow and
multiseptate. Perithecia are dark brown to black and ostiolate. Asci are oblong and clavate.
Ascospores are hyaline, two celled, obtuse to ellipsoid
iv. Early leaf spot of groundnut - Cercospora arachidicola (Perfect stage: Mycosphaerella
arachidis)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Cercospora
Species : C. arachidicola
Symptoms: Spots are irregular or circular, 1 to 10 mm in diameter (bigger), brown; chlorotic
halo around the spots present; lower surface of the spot is light brown; premature shedding of
leaves.
Pathogen: Mycelium is septate, branched, inter and intracellular. Conidiophores are multi
septate, yellowish brown and dense. Conidia are hyaline, obclavate, 3 to 12 septate, fascicles
base rounded and tip sub-acute. Perithecia are black, globose, ostiolate. Asci are cylindrical,
stipitate and bitunicate. Ascospores are two celled, (upper cell larger, slightly curved), hyaline
and 8 in an ascus
v. Late leaf spot of groundnut - Phaeoisariopsis personata
(syn. Cercospora personata; Perfect stage: Mycosphaerella berkeleyii)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Cercospora
Species : C. personata
Symptoms: Spots are smaller (1-6mm), circular and black in colour yellow halo absent;
premature defoliation.
Pathogen: Conidia are olivaceous, obclavate, usually straight or slightly curved, rounded at the
apex, base shortly tapered with a conspicuous hilum, mostly 3 to 4 septate, shorter than C.
arachidicola. Perithercial characters are similar as in C. arachidicola.
vi. Alternaria leaf spot of cotton - Alternaria macrospora
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Alternaria
Species : A. macrospora
Symptoms: Circular to irregular brown leaf spots with concentric rings; spots coalesce resulting
in blight symptom.
Pathogen: Mycelium is dark, septate, branched. Conidiophore is single or in groups, erect,
simple, septate, brown. Conidia are produced singly or in chains of two, obclavate with a narrow
beak (twice the length of the body), reddish brown; or with both horizontal and vertical septa
(muriform conidia)
Leaf Blights
Necrosis of a larger area of leaf lamina including veins is called leaf blight.
i. Early blight of potato and tomato - Alternaria solani

Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Alternaria
Species : A. solani
Symptoms: Circular to irregular, brown spots with concentric rings; spots coalesce leading to
blighting, drying of leaves and defoliation of leaves.
Pathogen: Mycelium is light brown to dark, septate, branched and inter-and intracellular.
Conidiophores are dark coloured, emerge through stomata. Conidia are beaked, muriform, dark
coloured, borne singly or in chains and are with 5 to 10 transverse and a few longitudinal septa
ii. Late blight of potato and tomato - Phytophthora infestans
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Class : Oomycetes
Order : Peronosporoales
Family : Pythiaceae
Genus : Phytophthora
Species : P. infestans
Symptoms: Brown to purplish black water-soaked lesions; enlarge rapidly; lower surface shows
whitish mildew growth, severe defoliation; potato tubers show purplish, slightly sunken lesions
leading to dry rot.
Pathogen: Mycelium is endophytic, coenocytic, hyaline, branched, inter-cellular. Haustoria club
shaped. Sporangiophores are hyaline, branched, indeterminate, thick walled, arise through
stomata on leaves or lenticels on tubers. Sporangia are multinucleate, thin-walled, hyaline, oval
or pear shaped with a definite papilla at the apex. Zoospores are reniform, biflagellate (anterior
tinsel and posterior whiplash). Oospores are thick-walled and smooth.
Disease cycle: Primary infection is through use of infected tubers. Mycelium spreads into shoots
produced from infected tubers and reaches the aerial parts of the plant. Sporangiophore emerges
through stomata on stem and leaves and produce sporangia, which are spread by rain to wet
potato leaves or stems and cause disease. Large number of asexual generation in a growing
season kills the foliage rapidly. The zoospores found in the soil germinate, penetrate through
lentils or wounds into the tubers and send intercellular mycelium and haustoria into the cells and
cause infection.
iii. Northern corn leaf blight of sorghum - Exserohilum turcicum. (syn. Helminthosporium
turcicum; Perfect stage: Trichometasphaeria turcica)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Moniliales
Genus : Exserohilum
Species : E. turcicum
Symptoms: Narrow, elongated spots develop initially, later turns to straw coloured, lesions
with reddish brown margin; matured spots are with several cm long; later coalesce and cause
extensive drying of leaves.
Pathogen: Mycelium is inter or intracellular, multinucleate and septate. Conidiophores emerge
through stomata in clusters, simple, olivaceous, septate and straight or bent. Conidia are long,
spindle shaped, straight or slightly curved and 3-7 septate. Pseudothecia are black and globose.
Asci are clavate and bitunicate. Ascospores are hyaline, fusoid, straight or slightly curved and
four celled.
iv. Grey blight of mango - Pestalotiopsis mangiferae
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Class : Coelomycetes
Order : Moniliales
Family : Melanconiaceae
Genus : Pestalotiopsis
Species : P. mangiferae
Symptoms: Minute brown spots develop at the margin and tip of the leaf initially. They
gradually increase in size and become dark brown. Black dots appear at the centre of the spots
represent the acervuli.
Pathogen: Mycelium is branched, septate and brown. Acervuli are black. Conidiophores are
short, simple or branched, septate, hyaline and smooth. Conidia are five celled, oblong to
clavate, upper two cells are slightly darker than the lowest olivaceous cells. Upper cell has three
setulae.
Grey leaf blight of coconut - Pestalotiopsis palmarum
Symptoms: Minute yellow spots surrounded by greyish margin appear on leaf lets, which
enlarge to become elliptical with greyish white centre, dark brown margin and yellow halo.
Large number of globose / ovoid, black acervuli appear on the upper surface of the spots as black
dots.Many spots coalesce into irregular grey necrotic patches. Complete drying and shrivelling of
leaf blade occur giving a blighted / burnt appearance.
Pathogen: Mycelium is septate, branched, light brown, inter and intra cellular. Fungus produces
acervuli as it’s asexual fruiting body during sporulation. Acervuli are black, cushion shaped, sub
epidermal and break open to expose conidia and black sterile structures called setae.
Conidiophores are hyaline, short, simple and bear a conidium at the tip. Conidia are five celled,
middle three cells are coloured, basal and tip cells are hyaline. Tip cells have 3 -5 slender
elongated appendages.
Root Rot
Root rot is disintegration or decay of part or all of the root system of a plant. Pathogen
belonging to Aphanomyces, Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phymatotrichum,
Thielaviapsis, Macrophomina, Helicorbasidium, Ophiobolus, Armillaria, etc. are reported to
cause root rot disease in various crop plants.
i. Root rot of pulses/ oilseeds/ cotton. - Macrophomina phaseolina (Pycnidial stage) Rhizoctonia
bataticola (Sclerotial stage)
Systematic position: Macrophomina phaseoloina
Sub kingdom : Mycota
Division : Eumycota
Class : Coelomycetes
Order : Sphaeropsidales
Family : Sphaeropsidaceae
Genus : Macrophomina
Species : M .phaseolina
Systematic position: Rhizoctonia bataticola
Sub kingdom : Mycota
Division : Eumycota
Subdivision : Deuteromycotina
Class : Aganomycetes
Order :Aganomycetales
Family : Aganomycetaceae
Genus : Rhizoctonia
Species : R.bataticola
Symptoms: Sudden and complete wilting of plants in patches; rotting of entire root system
except taproot and few laterals; shredding of barks of roots; presence of minute black bodies on
the surface of the infected bark of roots/stem which represents the sclerotia of the pathogen; stem
near the soil level shows large number of black pycnidial bodies.
Pathogen: Mycelium is septate, branched, stout and brown; lateral branches from main hypha
are constricted at the point of origin. Selerotia are dark brown or black, round, mustard-like.
Pycnidia are small, dark brown, globose, ostiolate, found on stem, erumpent, solitary or
gregarious. Pycnidiospore are hyaline, obovoid, single celled and borne on hyaline, cylindrical
conidiophores (phialides).
Disease cycle: It survives as sclerotia in the infected debris in soil. Primary spread is through
seed-borne and soil-borne sclerotia. Secondary spread is through wind-borne pycnidiospores.
Surviving sclerotia or pycnidia in the soil or in the seed initiate the infection. They germinate and
penetrate the host directly. Fungus produces cellulolytic, pectinolytic and other enzymes, which
kill and disintegrates the tissues in advance of penetration, resulting in rotting of tissues. It is a
facultative saprophyte and it lives saprophytically in the dead tissue and produce greyish white,
inter and intracellular, septate, thick walled mycelium, which branches at right angles near the
septum. During asexual reproduction, it produces dark brown, globose pycnidia with an ostiole
on the surface of the stem above ground level. Inner wall of the pycnidium is lined with
pycnidiophore and pycnidiospore.
Pycnidiophores are hyaline, short and rod shaped. Pycnidospores are hyaline, single
celled, oval shaped and thin walled. Pycnidia will act either as secondary inoculum for the spread
with in the field or as primary inoculum for the initiation of the disease after period of survival in
the seed or plant debris. At the end of the growing season the fungus produces spherical, black
and smooth walled sclerotia (resting bodies) on the inner walls of the root bark. At this stage the
roots exhibit bark shredding with numerous sclerotia. Sclerotia survive and initiate new
infection.
Stem Rot
In stem rot the stem tissues show disintegration and decay
i. Stem rot of rice - Sclerotium oryzae (perfect stage: Leptosphaeria salvinii)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Order : Aganomycetales
Family :Aganomycetaceae
Genus : Sclerotium
Species : S. oryza
Symptoms: Initially small, blackish, irregular lesions are observed on the outer leaf sheath near
water line at later growth stages of plant. The lesions enlarge as the disease advance, the fungus
penetrates the inner leaf sheath and finally the leaf sheath rots and sclerotia are formed. Later, the
infection spreads to stem. One or two internodes of the stem rot and collapse. These infected
stems lodge. Small black sclerotia are seen near on the inner side of the culm amidst greyish weft
of mycelium.
Pathogen: Mycelium is hyaline, septate and branched. Sclerotia are spherical, smooth and black.
Perithecia are globose and black. Asci are clavate and short stalked. Ascospores are eight in each
ascus, fusiform, three septate, middle cells larger and dark and the end cells lighter.
Disease cycle: The fungus is found to survive under unfavorable conditions in the selerotial
stage. The sc1etoria germinates from rice stubbles under favorable conditions and is carried from
field to field by irrigation water. The sc1etoria can cause primary infection .
Foot-Rot
In foot rot the basal portion of the stem is infected and shows rotting.
Foot-rot of rice - Fusarium moniliforme (Perfect stage: Gibberella fujikuroi)
Systematic position
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Hyphomycetes
Class : Deuteromycotina
Order : Moniliales
Family : Tuberculariaceae
Genus : Fusarium
Species : F. moniliforme
Symptoms: The most conspicuous and common symptom is the bakanae, an abnormal
elongation of the plants in the nursery of the field. The infected plants are taller than normal
plants, lean lanky and yellowish green. A whitish or pink fungus growth may appear on the
lower portion of the drying plants. The basal portion of the infected plant becomes black and
rotten. The infected seedlings reveal formation of aerial adventitious roots from the nodes above
the ground level. Root system becomes fibrous and bushy. Infected seedlings die in large
numbers in patches. In the transplanted crop the plants are killed before earhead formation or
even if the inflorescence is formed it will be sterile. If the culm is split open brown
discolouration of spongy tissues in nodular region is seen.
Pathogen: Mycelium is hyaline, septate and well branched. Microconidia are hyaline, single
celled or two celled, oval and borne in chains. Microconidia are hyaline, 3-5 septate, sickle -
shaped formed on sporodochia. Chlamydospores are absent Perithecia are dark blue, spherical or
ovate. Asci are cylindrical, piston shaped and 4-6 spored. Ascospores are two celled.
Disease cycle: The diseases in externally seed-borne and the seeds contaminate with the spores
form the primary source of infection. It is also soil-borne (survives for four months as hyphae are
macro conidia). The fungus mycelium and micro conidia infect seedlings at an early stage of
their development. It becomes systemic in the plants infection also takes place through conidia
and mycelium left in the water used for soaking seeds. The funguses in the seedling grow
upward and produce mycelium and conidia and infected plant parts. The fungus infects hosts like
sorghum, maize, sugarcane, Panicum miliaceum and Andropogon sorghum.
Lecture 11
Prokaryotes: classification of prokaryotes according to Bergey’s Manual of Systematic

Bacteriology. General characteristics of bacteria and examples of phytopathogenic
bacteria, fastidious vesicular bacteria, phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas
Phytoplasma
Phytoplasmas are small, unicellular, gram-positive non-motile bacteria like prokaryotes
intermediate between viruses and bacteria. They differ from true bacteria in the absence of cell
wall. Phytoplasma is first observed in the phloem of the mulberry plants infected with
dwarf disease.Highly pleomorphic and their size range from small spherical bodies to large
irregularly tubular to filamentous-branched structures (175 – 250mm). They are bounded by a
triple layer unit lipoprotein membrane of 10 nm thickness without a rigid cell wall ( wall-less
prokaryotes) and lack the ability to synthesis cell wall materials. They have cytoplasm, ribosome
and a strand of nuclear material devoid of nuclear membrane. Both DNA and RNA are present.
They are free living, parasitic and saprophytic and reproduce by budding and binary
fission. They are filterable through bacterial filters and require sterol for their growth. They are
sensitive to antibiotics like tetracycline, chloramphenicol and erythromycin and highly resistant
to penicillin. On artificial media, they form poached egg or fried egg shaped colonies with
central nipple. They are usually transmitted by grafting, dodder and by mechanical means.
Beside this, Leafhoppers, plant hoppers and psyllids act as vectors. The phytoplasma disease are
characterized by yellowing, chlorosis or bronzing of foliage, shortening of internodes, reduction
in leaf size, proliferation of auxillary buds, phyllody and virescence, proliferation of secondary
roots and abnormal fruits and seeds. Flowers from diseased plants are often sterile. Symptoms in
a disease may show few or many of the above symptoms. The important symptoms are:
Little leaf
In little leaf auxillary buds are induced to form very small chlorotic
leaves in clusters giving the plant a bushy appearance.
Little leaf of brinjal
Symptoms
The most characteristic symptoms is the reduction of leaf size,
Both the petiole and lamina are involved in the reduction. The leaves
become almost sessile. The1eaves become thin, soft, glabrous and pale green in colour. The
growth of axillary buds including buds is stimulated and this is accompanied by the shortening of
internodes. The plant presents a characteristic pushy appearance, are absent floral parts whenever
they are found. But they are modified into green structures. As a rule the affected plants are
sterile and do not bear fruits.
Phytoplasma
Ovoid or spherical, 40-300 nm in diameter and lack a rigid cell, wall.
Vector
Jassid- Hishimonas phvcitis.
Phyllody
Floral parts are hypertrophied and transformed into, green leafy structures. This is also
known as phyllody or green flowering.
Phyllody of sesame
Symptoms
The affected plants are stunted. The entire inflorescence is
replaced by a growth consist of green, short, twisted leaves closely
arranged on the stem with very short internodes. The calyx
becomes polysepalous and shows multicostte veination against
gamosepolous nature of healthy flowers. The sepals become leaf-
like and found to remain smaller in six. The corolla become
polypetalous and deep green. The veins of flower parts become
thick and conspicuous. The anthers become green' and contain abnormal pollen grains. The
carpels are transformed into leafy outgrowth which forms a pesudosyncarpotis ovary by their
fusion at the margins. The ovary becomes very enlarged and flattened.
Vector
Leafhopper- Orosius albicinctus.
Grassy shoot
In grassy shoot disease the shoot becomes thinner with narrow and numerous chlorotic
leaves resembling grass plants.
Grassy shoot of sugarcane

Symptoms
The disease is characterized by the production of
numerous lanky tillers with small and narrow leaves, with or
without albinism (white leaf). Shoots grow from diseased setts
remain dwarfed or stunted. Diseased plants exhibit varying
degrees of loss of chlorophyll, ranging from total green to
white; premature and excessive tillering gives a crowded (grass-like) appearance to the clump.
Affected clumps are stunted and exhibit premature proliferation of auxiliary buds. Canes are thin
with short internodes. Canes are not millable.
Phytoplasma
Ovoid, spherical and irregular. 300 to 400 nm in diameter.
Vector
Proutista moesta
Witches’ broom
Witches’ broom is the broom-like erect growth or mass proliferation caused by dense
clustering of branches.
Potato witches broom
Symptoms
The infected plants: Pave spreading type, numerous filamentous colourless stems bearing
small, simple leaves and aerial tubers. Plant growth is, suppressed. Affected plants do not
produce tubers or, it may produce small, size tubers which develop hairy sprouts
Vector
Leaf hopper- Aleurodes dravidanus.
Spike
In spike, leaves are reduced in size and branches become stiff and pointed spike-like
structure.
Sandal spike
Symptoms
Sandal spike is a yellows type disease with witches, broom effect. Two types of
symptoms are produced in this disease.
a. Rosette spike
Internodes are shortened and leaves become very small in size. This results in crowding
of leaves in the leaf bearing, branches. Developing new leaves are further reduced in size. Such
leaves in diseased trees stand out stiffly on the branches like spike. Phylloid flowers are
produced in the trees.
b. Pendulous spike
In this apical growth of branches are continuous without proper thickening leading to
dropping of branches. Dormant buds do not develop or grow and hence no rosette appearance.
Vector
Leafhoppers – Nephotettix virescens.
Yellowing
In yellowing the leaves are yellow and plants are stunted.
Yellow dwarf in rice
Symptoms
The characteristic symptoms are general chlorosis, stunting and excessive tillering. The
chlorotic leaves are pale green or pale yellow. Plants infected early may die prematurely. They
produce very poor panicles or none at all.
Vector
Green leafhopper - Nephotettix cincticeps, N. virescenes and N.nigropictus.
Spiroplasma
Spiroplasmas are helical mollicutes. The first known spiroplasma is com stunt
(Spiroplasma kunkelii) and spiroplasma first cultured in vitro is citrus stubborn (S. citri). These
spiroplasmas infect their respective leafhopper vectors. Spiroplasmas are cells that vary in shape
(pleomorphic). They may be spherical to slightly ovoid (100 to 250 nm in dia), helical filaments
(helical filaments in vitro measure 3000 to 5000 nm in length and 100 to 200 nm in dia) and non-
helical filaments. Unlike phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas can be obtained from their host plants or
their insect vectors and cultured on nutrient media. They require cholesterol for their growth.
They produce fried egg appearance (0.2 mm in dia) on solid media.
They produce mostly helical forms in liquid media. . They multiply by binary fission.
They lack a true cell wall and are bounded by a triple layered membrane. The helical filaments
are motile. They move by a slow undulation of the filament and by a rapid, rotary screw motion
of the helix. There are flagella but intracellular fibrils are present. They are resistant to the
antibiotic penicillin but inhibited by tetracycline. Spiroplasmas in plants are found in phloem
tissues and are spread by leafhoppers.
Symptoms of spiroplasma
Stunt
Stunting of plant with shorter internodes giving the plant a bunchy appearance at the top.
i. Com stunt - Spiroplasma kunkelii
Symptoms
Faint yellowish streaks appear on the youngest
leaves. As the plant matures, leaves first become
yellow, later the leaves turn red to purple. Internodes
are shortened and the plant gives bunchy appearance
at the top. The plants are stunted. Infected plants have
more cobs than healthy plants. But the cobs are
smaller and bear little or no seed. Tassels of infected
plants are usually sterile.
Vector Leafhoppers Dalbulus elimatus, D.maidis, Graminella nigrifrons
Citrus Stubborn Disease
In some Mediterranean countries and in California, stubborn is regarded as the greatest
threat to production of sweet oranges and grapefruit. The trees produce fewer fruits and many of
them are too small and not to be marketable. In California, approximately two million orange,
grapefruit, and tangelo trees are so severely affected that they are practically worthless.
Symptoms
Affected trees show a bunchy upright growth of twigs and branches. Internodes are
shorter. Shoots are found in large numbers. Multiple buds and sprouts are common. Some of the
affected twigs show die back. The bark is thickened and sometimes pin holed. The trees show
stunting and appear flat topped. The leaves show yellowing and blotching, mottling and become
abnormally small.Excessive winter defoliation is common. Affected trees bloom at all seasons,
especially in the winter. Flowers become very small. The infected trees bear only fewer fruits.
Some of the fruits are very small, lopsided, or otherwise deformed. Such fruits have normally
thick rind from the stem end to the fruit equator.Fruits tend to drop prematurely. Many fruits
become mummified. Fruits are usually sour or bitter and have an unpleasant odour and flavour.
Fruits have many poorly developed, discoloured and aborted seeds. In severely infected plants,
the roots die, leading to lethal wilting.
Pathogen
Spiroplasma citri. It is found in the sieve tubes of stubborn – diseased citrus phloem.
Spiroplasma citri was the first mycoplasma like organism of a plant disease to be cultured. In
phloem sieve tubes it is present as spherical, ovoid or elongated forms and occasionally as helical
filaments. In liquid cultures, it appears primarily as motile helical filaments. The pathogen is
Gram-positive.The pathogen is insensitive to penicillin but is highly sensitive to tetracycline and
less to amphotericin, neomycin and digitonin. The pathogen has a sharp optimum temperature
for growth at about 30 to 32ºC
Host-range
S. citri attacks Citrus spp.,Madagascar periwinkle, lettuce, black mustard, horse radish,
cabbage, water melon, cherry, peach, onion, leek and pear.
Transmission
Citrus stubborn disease is transmitted by leafhoppers belonging to at least six species in
three genera (Circulifer, Macrosteles and Scaphytopius.).
Lecture 12
Plant viruses-general characteristics and examples of plant diseases caused by viruses
Virus is a submicroscopic, transmissible, intercellular, obligate parasite and consists of

nucleic acid (either RNA or DNA), which is typically surrounded by a protein coat. They are less
than 200 millimicron and cannot be grown in artificial media and require living host cell for
multiplication. They have both living and nonliving properties. Living characters include their
ability to cause disease, reproduce, mutate and have genetic materials. Non-living characters are
the lack of cellular structure; enzymatic activities, respiratory activities and they can be
crystallized by physical means. Nearly half of the plant virus may be of elongated (rigid rod
/flexuous threads) and spherical (isometric / polyhedral) and the remaining are cylindrical
bacillus like rods in shape and small enough pass through bacterial filters but too small to be
seen under light microscope.
1. Rigid rod: (E.g.) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and Tobacco rattle Virus (TRV)
2. Flexuous rod: (E.g.) Potato Virus X (PVX), Bean Common Mosaic Virus (BCMV).
3. Filamentous rod: (E.g.) Tenuiviruses likes Rice Grassy Stunt (RGSV) and Rice Stripe Virus
(RSV).
4. Isometric: (E.g.) Rice Tungro Spherical Virus (RTSV), Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV),
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV).
5. Bacilliform: (E.g.) Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus (RTBV), Banana streak virus (BSV) and
Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus (CCSV).
Protein forms a protective coat (capsid) around the nucleic acid in a virus. Plant viruses have
only one kind of protein. Individual protein subunits are called as capsomers. Protein subunits
are spirally arranged in elongated viruses and packed on the side of polyhedral particles of
spherical viruses. Proteins provide the basis for serological differentiation of viruses and other
strains. Like all proteins, viral protein is made up of amino acids. Sequence of amino acids
within a protein is detected by the sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid.
Nucleic acid may be of RNA / DNA and never both. Most of the plant viruses have RNA. But
some plant viruses have DNA (e.g. Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), Rice tungro bacilliform
virus, Bean golden mosaic virus and Banana bunchy top virus). Nucleic acid (RNA / DNA) may
be either single stranded (ss) or double stranded (ds) .Viral nucleic acids are quite small (1 – 3 x
106dalton) when compared to bacteria (1.5 x 109dalton). Nucleic acid may be present as a single
continuous strand (monopartite) in one particle or it may be present as two (Bipartite) or more
pieces (multipartite) in the same or different particles made up of same protein subunit. Bi- or
multipartite viruses are called as split genome viruses. All types of particles with different
segments of the genome must be present in the plant for the successful infection. Nucleic acid
and protein coat makes up 5 – 40% and 60 – 95% of the virus respectively.
Elongated viruses have less quantities of nucleic acid while the spherical viruses contain
more nucleic acid.Some ssDNA viruses appear as twin particles as a result of partial fusion
together of two of isometric particles and they are called as geminiviruses (E.g. Maize streak
virus, Bean golden mosaic virus and Beet curly top virus). Some group of viruses has outer lipid
envelop around the protein coat (E.g. Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus).
Multiplication of virus is different from fungi and bacteria. First step in the multiplication is the
separation of nucleic acid from the protein coat in the host cell by the enzymes of host cell.
Nucleic acid itself involve in the synthesis of new nucleic acid and protein coat by utilizing the
amina acids, ribosome and transfer RNA of the host. Once the new nucleic acids and proteins
subunits are formed, the nucleic acid arranges the protein subunit around it to form the complete
virus particle or virons. Transmission of viruses is through vegetative propagation (E.g.
Banana bunchy top virus and Indian cassava mosaic virus), seeds (E.g. Bean common mosaic
virus), pollen (E.g. Prunus necrotic ringspot virus), sap (E.g. Cucumber mosaic virus, Potato
virus X and Tobacco mosaic virus) and by vecto
Vector
Vector is an organism that carries and transmits a pathogen (inoculum) to a plant. Vectors
may be insect, nematodes, fungi, etc.
Symptoms
Symptoms like chlorosis, mosaic, streak, vein clearing, vein banding, leaf crinkle, leaf
curl, enation, necrosis, dwarfing, rosette, bunchy top, twisting etc. are produced in crop plants.
Symptoms of viral diseases
Chlorosis
Yellowing of normally green tissues due to chlorophyll destruction or failure of
chlorophyll formation is known as chlorosis.
i. Infections chlorosis of banana - Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)

Symptoms
Severe mosaic symptoms in young growth showing broadly streaked chlorotic or
yellowish green bands (from margin to midrib) and patches or chlorotic mottling distributed in
patches over the leaf lamina; leaves are narrow and smaller than normal and the infected plants
are dwarf; rolling of leaf margins twisting and bunching of leaves at the crown and a rigid
erectness in newly emerged leaves.
Vector
Aphids - Aphis gossypii and A. maidis
Mosaic
Intermingling patches of green and light green or pale green or yellowish colour on the
leaves is known as mosaic.
Mottling and streaking of banana leaves and flowers due to cucumber mosaic virus
Tobacco mosaic-Tobacco mosaic Virus (TMV) / Nicotiana Virus 1

Symptoms
Leaves develop characteristic light and dark green
pattern on the lamina. Dark green areas are usually
associated with the veins, which later develop into
irregular crumpled swellings / blisters due to more rapid
growth. Dark brown necrotic spots develop under hot
weather (mosaic burn).
Virus
Rod shaped ss RNA.
Transmission
Sap, farm equipments and by contact.
Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CAMV) on
cowpea
Symptoms
Chlorosis, dark green and light green patches
alternated on leaves; distortion of leaves.
Vector
Aphids - Aphis gossypii, A.craccivora, Myzus persicae.
Cassava mosaic virus on cassava (Tapioca)
Symptoms
Mosaic mottling on leaves; chlorosis of leaves;
distortion of leaves; twisting of leaves; stunting of plants
and tuber splitting.
Vector
White fly - Bemisia tabaci
Yellow mosaic of greengram and blackgram caused Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus
(MYMV)
Symptoms
Small yellow patches or spots intermingled
with green patches on the leaves initially, later entire
leaf changes yellow in colour, in severe infections
discolouration of pods and seeds to yellow.
Vector
Whitefly - Bemisia tabaci
Sterility mosaic of pigeonpea - Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus

Symptoms
Intermingling of light green and dark green patches
in the leaves, reduction in leaf size; small leaves clustering
near the tip of the plants, shortening of internodes,
stimulation of auxillary buds giving a bushy appearance.
No flower and pod formation leading to sterility of affected
plant. Plants remain green till harvest.
Sterility mosaic disease symptoms, mild (left) to severe (right), on pigeonpea leaves caused
by Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus
Vector
Eriophyid mite - Aceria cajani
Stripe
Stripe is characterized by elongataed or areas of pale green to yellow or white, of
indefinite length, on leaves with parallel venation or on stems.
i. Barley stripe mosaic - Barley stripe mosaic virus
Symptoms
Light green stripes on the leaves and stunting of plants.
Streak
Development of chlorotic streaks on leaves.
Maize streak - Maize Streak Virus
Symptoms
Elongated chlorotic stripes appear on one side of mid rib near its base, which later
become necrotic. Plants are stunted and produce small ear
heads.
Virus
Isometric with ss DNA geminate particles and monopartite
genome.
Vector
Leaf hopper -Peregrinus maidis
Vein clearing
Yellowing of veins or clearing of the tissues in or immediately adjacent to the veins is
called vein clearing.
i. Vein clearing or yellow vein mosaic of bhendi - Bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus
(BYVMV)
Symptoms
Initially light yellow streaks along with the smaller
veins, later all the veins become yellow giving yellow
network of veins. Chlorosis of interveinal areas, reduction in
size of leaves and small and fibrous fruits.
Virus
Isometric with ssDNA geminate particles and bipartite genome.
Vector
Whitefly Bemisia tabaci
Vein banding
The tissues along the veins are dark green than the tissues between the veins is called
vein banding.
i. Potato vein banding - Potato vein banding virus.
Symptoms
Veins only remain green and interveinal areas become bleached to yellow. Newly
emerged leaves are smaller and show crinkling, rolling upward to form cap like structures and
distortion. Affected plants are stunted and leaves are brittle.
Virus
Filamentous particle with 1 or 2 ss RNA
Vector
Myzus persicae (Aphid).
Leaf crinkle
In leaf crinkle the surface of leaves is not uniform and is with undulations.The leaves are
thick and brittle and remain green till harvest.
i. Leaf crinkle of blackgram - urdbean leaf crinkle virus (ULCV)

Symptoms
Crinkling and curling of leaves, stunted and bushy plants and malformed inflorescence
with sterile flowers.
Virus
Isometric with ssDNA, geminate particles and bipartite genome.
Vector
Leaf curl
In leaf curl the leaves curl from the margins backward bringing the centre of the lamina
upward.
i. Tomato and tobacco leaf curl - Tobacco leaf curl virus. (TLCV)
Symptoms
Leaves curled, twisted and puckered, leafy outgrowth called enations can be seen on the
under surface of leaves, thickening and greening of veins in the leaf and calyx, mottling and vein
clearing, stunted plant growth, inflorescence greatly condensed and complete or partial sterility.
Vector
ii. Black gram leaf curl- Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV)
Symptoms
Lateral veins show chlorosis near the leaf margin and the lamina curl downwards slowly.
Infected leaves are brittle and sometimes vein necrosis present on the under surface of the leaves,
which extends up to the petiole. Plants may produce few small and malformed pods
Virus
Spherical with negative ss RNA and are enveloped with a lipid membrane.
Vector
Thrips-Thrips tobaci, Frankliniella schultzii
Enation
Enations are leaf-like outgrowth from the veins on the under surface of the leaves
diseased by different viruses.
Tomato and tobacco leaf curl-Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (TLCV)
Symptoms
Leaves become warty, rough, puckered with downward
curling. Leafy outgrowth like structure is noticed on the veins in
the lower surface of the leaves.
Virus
Isometric with ss DNA geminate particles and
monopartite genome.
Vector
Bemisia tabaci (white fly)
Tobacco and tomato leaf curl - Tobacco leaf curl virus (TLCV)
Necrosis
Necrosis (death of cells) of tissues in the growing shoots due to virus infection.
i. Bud necrosis of groundnut - Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV).
Symptoms
Young leaves show chlorotic spots or mottling and necrosis of terminal buds which
spreads downwards and covers the entire plant or part of the plant; reduction in leaflet size;
distortion of lamina and shoe-string formation stunting and bushy appearance of plants.
Virus
Spherical with negative ss RNA and are enveloped with a lipid
Vector
Thrips - Frankliniella schultzei, Thrips tabaci etc.
Dwarfing
A decrease in overall size without alteration of the proportions between parts of the plant
is known as dwarfing.
i, Rice dwarf - Rice dwarf virus.

Symptoms
Yellowish white to white specks are seen along the veins of young leaves; on succeeding
leaves specks develop in more numbers and are connected to form continuous streaks along the
veins; plants are extremely stunted with: shol1ned internode and innumerous unproductive tillers
giving a rosette appearance.
Vector
Green leafhoppers - Nephotettix cincticeps.
Rosette
In rosette shortening of internodes with reduction in leaf size is seen. The plants show
stunting with bushy appearance.
i. Groundnut rosette - Groundnut rosette virus (GRV)
Symptoms
Stunting of plants with chlorotic, twisted and
distorted leaflets.
Vector
Aphids- Aphis craccivora
Bunchy top
In bunchy top extreme stunting of the plant with bunching of small, erect and brittle
leaves at the crown of plants is seen.
i. Bunchy top of banana - Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV)
Symptoms
Leaves with broken green, bands parallel to,
veins; small and brittle leaves with short petiole crowding
of small leaves at the crown coupled with stunting of
plants giving a bunchy appearance; the infected plants are
normally 30-60 cm in height; plants do not produce
bunches.
Virus
Isometric with ss DNA geminate particles and monopartite genome.
Vector: Banana aphid- Pentalonia nigronervosa var. typica.
Lecture 13
Viroids - general characteristics and examples of diseases caused by viroids
Viroids area covalently closed circular RNA molecules. Viroids were the first circular
RNAs to be discovered in nature. These are the smallest known infectious agents. Potato spindle
tuber viroid was the first viroid reported, and it is widely prevalent in different potato growing
areas. Citrus exocortis viroid is wide spread in citrus production areas where trifoliate
ornage(Poncirus trifoliate)is used as root stock. Hop stunt viroid has a wide range of hosts.
Mechanism of viroid pathogenesis in plants has been elucidated recently.
Structure of Viroids
Viroids are nucleic acids that exists naturally with no protein coat. They consist of
ribonucleic acid (RNA). These mini viruses are the smallest known causal organisms of
infectious diseases. They are subviral and their size ranges from 246 to 388 nucleotides in length.
The RNA structure of viroids is different from transfer RNA (t RNA), ribosomal RNA(r RNA)
and messenger RNA(m RNA). Viroids are the first circular RNA’s to be discovered in nature.
Important viroids causing diseases
The following are viroids that cause diseases in important crops:
Apple scar skin viroid
Australian grapevine viroid
Avocado sunblotch viroid
Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle viroid
Chrysanthemum stunt viroid
Citrus exocortis viroid
Coconut cadang cadang viroid
Coconut tinangaja viroid
Cucumber pale fruit viroid
Grapevein viroid
Grapevine yellow speckle viroid
Hop latent ciroid
Hop stunt viroid
Potato spindle tuber viroid
Tomato apical stunt viroid
Tomato planta macho viroid
Potato spindle tuber viroid Potato spindle tuber viroid - stiff and
upright growth habit on infected potatoes
Hop Stunt viroid

Cadang Cadang disease
Citrus exocortis viroid Grapevine yellow speckle viroid
Viroid Infection Process and Management

Infection process
The viroid RNA does not code for any genes. Viroid replication and pathogenesis may
depend completely on the enzyme systems of the host. The viroid RNA is dependent upon the
host for its replication as well as intraplant movement. The functions necessary for propagation
of the viroids are derived completely from the host. The viroids are associated with and replicate
in either the nucleus or the choloroplasts of the plants. They are replicated by the host encoded
RNA polymerases. They do not encode proteins. Viroids replicate within the nucleus of infected
cells without a helper virus. Viroids are transported into the plant nucleus and typically potato
spindle tuber viroid (PSTV) possesses a sequence or structural motif for nuclear transport.
Phloem proteins may be involved in systemic transport of viroids in the plants. Phloem protein 2
a dimeric lectin, is the abundant component of phloem exudates of cucumber. This protein
interacts with the viroid RNA and facilitates the systemic movement of hop stunt viroid.
Symptoms
Infection with viroids does not result in obvious macroscopic symptoms. Common
symptoms of viroid diseases include retardation of plant gowth and stunting. Potato plants
infected with the potato spindle tuber viroid are smaller than healthy plants. However, tuber
symptoms are prominent. The diseases tubers are spindle shaped. Citrus trees infected with the
citrus exocortis viroid are stunted. Symptoms of the disease include scaling of the bark below the
graft union. Stunted trees crop well for their size, and the fruit is normal. Stunting is the
important symptom of tomato plants affected by the tomato bunchy top viroid, hop plants
infected by the hop stunt viroid and chrysanthemum plants infected by the chrysanthemum stunt
viroid and the chrysanthemum chlorortic mottle viroid.
Mode of spread
Viroids are highly contagious and mechanically transmitted. They are spread by leaf
contact. Viroids are spread also by contaminated planting and cultivating equipments. They may
be disseminated mostly as a result of cultural operations through contaminated knives, tools and
hands. Some reports indicate that viroids are transmitted by insects. Potato spindle tuber viroid
has been reported to be transmitted by aphids, grass hoppers, flea beetles, tarnished plant bugs,
larvae of Colorado potato and leaf beetle. However, the transmission of viroids by insects is
negligible and mechanical transmission is more important.
Viroid disease management
Because viroids are spread mechanically, disease free planting materials should be used
for planting. Cutting knives and all planting and field equipment should be cleaned scrupulously.
Commercial cultivars with high resistance to the diseases are lacking.
Virusoids (Encapsidated, viroidlike, satellite RNA’s)
Some viruses contain a viroid like satellite RNA in addition to a linear, single stranded
molecule of genomic RNA. Such viroid – like satellite RNA’s are called virusoids. They show
little sequence homology with viroids, but they do show significant homology with the linear
satellite RNA associated with Tobacco ringspot virus. The virusoids in infefcted plants exist
almost solely as circular molecules, either free or encapsidated within virion of the helper virus.
Virusoids do not code for any polypeptides.
Lecture 14
Definition and objectives of Plant Pathology - History of Plant Pathology
Definition and History of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathology
Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science, which deals with the plant diseases. It
is concerned with health and productivity of growing plants. Phytopathology ( Greek Phyton =
plant + pathos - disease, ailments + logos = discourse, knowledge) is the branch of agricultural,
botanical or biological science which deals with the cause, etiology (aetiology), resulting in
losses and management methods of plant diseases.
Plant pathology can also be defined as the study of the nature, cause and prevention of
plant diseases. Plant pathology is related to most of the old and new sciences like biology,
physics, chemistry, physiology, mathematics, genetics, soil science, biochemistry, biotechnology
etc. Plant pathology has the following major objectives.
1. To study biotic (living), mesobiotic and abiotic (non-living and environmental) causes of
diseases or disorders
2. To study the mechanisms of disease development by pathogens
3. To study the plant (host)-pathogen interaction in relation to environment
4. To develop methods of management of plant diseases
Plant diseases
Plant diseases are recognized by the symptoms (external or internal) produced by them or
by sick appearance of the plant. The term plant disease signifies the condition of the plant due to
disease or cause of the disease. Plant disease is mainly defined in terms of the damage caused to
the plant or to its organ. The other definitions for the term disease are:
1. Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation, which
results in some suffering producing symptoms. This definition is accepted by both American
Phytopathological Society and British Mycological Society.
2. Disease is an alteration in one or more of the ordered sequential series of physiological
processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the
continuous irritation from the presence or absence of some factor or agent.
3. A plant is said to be „diseased‟ when there is a harmful deviation from normal
functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).
4. The disease can also be defined as 'any disturbance brought about by a living entity or
non-living agents or environmental factors which interfere with manufacture, translocation or
utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected plant changes in
appearance with or without much loss in yield than that of a normal healthy plant of the same
variety. In general disease is an interaction among the host, parasite and the environment.
Man became painfully aware of plant diseases in the early times of antiquity. This is
evidenced by the inclusion of blasting and mildew in the Old Testament. Our ancient religious
literature gives informations on plant diseases much before their mention by the Greek
philosopher, Theophrastus. Rigveda, Atharvanaveda (1500-500 B.C.), the Artha Shashtra of
Kautilya (321-186 B.C.), Sushrute Samhita (200-500 A.D.), Vishnu Puran (500 A.D.),
Agnipuran (500-700 A.D.) and Vishnudharmottar (500-700 A.D.) are some of the ancient books
from India where diseases and other enemies of plants are mentioned. In Rigveda, classification
of plant diseases and germ theory of disease were discussed.
The learned men during Vedic period were aware that the diseases are caused by
microbes. The book "Vraksha Ayurveda" written by Surapal in ancient India contained
information on plant diseases. This is the Indian book, which gave first information on plant
diseases. He divided plant diseases into two groups viz., internal and external. Plant diseases like
rust, smut, downy mildew, powdery mildew and blight were mentioned in the Bible.
The Greek Philosopher, Theophrastus (370-286 B.C.) was the first to study and write
about the diseases of trees, cereals and legumes. In his book 'Enquiry into plants' Theophrastus
has recorded his observations, imaginations and experiences but they were not based on any
experiments. He had mentioned that plants of different groups have different diseases, which are
autonomous or spontaneous i.e., no external causes were associated with the plant diseases.
The history in several aspects of plant pathology is given as below:
Mycology
1675 - Dutch worker Anton von Leeuwenhoek developed the first microscope.
1729 - Italian botanist P. A. Micheli proposed fungi comes from spores; father of Mycology.
1755 - French botanist Tillet published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat; discovered
bunt is a disease of wheat.
1807 - French scientist I. B. Prevost showed bunt of wheat is a fungus and showed evidence that
a disease is caused by a microorganism.
1821 - E. M. Fries published Systema Mycologicum for naming of fungi; he was named as
Linnaeus of Mycology.
1821 - Robertson of England stated that sulphur is effective against peach mildew.
1845 - Irish Potato famine due to Phytophthora infestans caused starvation of million and
immigration of 1.5 million people.
1858 - J. G. Kuhn published first textbook in Plant Pathology – The Diseases of Cultivated
Crops, their Causes and their Control.
1861 -Anton de Bary (Germany) worked out the life cycle of potato late blight and first to prove
experimentally Phytophthora infestans is the cause of potato late blight. He proved that fungi are
causes but not the results of diseases. He is the Father of Modern Plant Pathology.
1865 – Anton de Bary reported heteroecious nature of wheat stem rust.
1869 – England loses coffee production to coffee rust, forced to grow tea.
1874 -Robert Hartig published a book entitled, “Important Diseases of Forest Trees”.
1875-1912 - Brefeld discovered the methods of artificial culture of microorganisms;
he also illustrated the complete life cycles of cereal smut fungi and diseases caused by them.
1877 – M. S. Woronin discovered and named the Club root of Cabbage pathogen as
Plasmodiophora brassicae.
1878 – M. S. Woronin found out the life cycle of potato wart disease.
1878 -Downy mildew of grapevine was introduced into Europe from America. The disease
almost ruined the wine industry.
1881 -H.M. Ward worked out the life cycle of coffee leaf rust. He is called as Father of Tropical
Plant Pathology.
1882 -Robert Hartig published a textbook -Diseases of Trees. He is called as "Father of Forest
Pathology".
1885 -Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet accidentally discovered the Bordeaux mixture for the
control of downy mildew of grapevine.
1885 – A. B. Frank defined and named mycorrhizal associations in plant roots.
1887 -Burgundy mixture was introduced by Mason of France.
1894 -Swedish scientist Eriksson described the phenomenon of physiologic races in cereal rust
fungus, Puccinia graminis.
1899 – W. A. Orton selected and bred water-melon, cowpea and cotton for resistance to
Fusarium wilt diseases. He is considered as a pioneer worker in the development of disease-
1904 – A. F. Blakeslee, American Geneticist founded heterothallism in Rhizopus
1904 – R. H. Biffen was the first to show that resistance to pathogens in plants can be inherited
as a Mendelian character; pioneer in genetics of plant disease resistance.
1912 – H. Burgeff reported that within a cell of a fungus, fusion between dissimilar nuclei can
occur. He called this phenomenon as heterokaryosis.
1917 -E. C. Stakman demonstrated physiologic forms in stem rust of wheat.
1918 -E.J.Butler published book on Fungi and Disease in Plants; he made exhaustive study on
Indian fungi and the diseases caused by them. He is called as the Father of Modern Plant
Pathology in India; He joined as the first Director of Imperial Bureau of Mycology
(Commonwealth Mycological Institute, CMI) now CAB International Mycological Institute in
Kew, England in 1920. He began the journal Review of Applied Mycology; with S.G. Jones he
wrote, 'Plant Pathology' in 1949.
1929 -Sir Alexander Fleming isolated the antibiotic, Penicillin from the fungus, Penicillium
notatum.
1932 – H. N. Hansen and R. E. Smith were the first to demonstrate the origin of physiologic
races through heterokaryosis.
1934 -W. H. Tisdale and I. Williams studied the organic fungicides by discovering alkyl
dithiocarbamates.
1938 – H. N. Hansen found out dual phenomenon in Fungi Imperfecti.
1942 – H. H. Flor developed gene-for-gene hypothesis in flax rust.
1943 – Great Bengal Famine due to Helminthosporium oryzae caused death of 2 million people
in India.
1943 -Dimond, Heuberger and Horsfall discovered the ethylene bis dithiocarbamates.
1945 -J. G. Horsfall explored the mechanism of fungicidal action.
1948 -B. B. Mundkur started Indian Phytopathological Society with its journal Indian
Phytopathology. He has written a book ‘Fungi and Plant Diseases’ in 1949, which is the second,
book in plant pathology in India.
1951-57 -E. A. Gaümann was one of the first to investigate the physiology of the wilts caused by
Fusarium spp. He put forth the involvement of toxin (toxin theory) in wilt diseases.
1952 -N.F. Jensen suggested blending of different resistant genotypes of similar agronomic
characters in fields of oats to reduce the spread of rust and losses from rust.
1953 -N. E. Borlaug and associates developed multiline cultivars for wheat.
1953 – Pontecorvo and his associates demonstrated parasexualism in fungi.
1956 -J. G. Horsfall published a book entitled "Principles of Fungicidal action"
1957 – E. C. Stakman with J. G. Harrar wrote a book Principles of Plant Pathology.
1963 - J. E. Van der Plank found out vertical and horizontal types of resistance in crop plants.
1966 -van Schmeling and Marshall Kulka were the first to find out systemic fungicides (oxathiin
compounds – carboxin and oxycarboxin).
1970 -S. D. Garrett investigated the management of root diseases and he is the pioneer worker in
the field of biological control. 1972 – G. Rangaswami wrote a book on Diseases of Crop Plants
in India.
Plant Bacteriology
1683 – Anton von Leeuwenhoek first observed bacteria.
1876 -Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch -They proved that anthrax disease of cattle was caused by
specific bacterium.
1876 -Robert Koch of Germany described the theory called "Koch's postulates." He established
the principles of pure culture technique.
1876 -Robert Koch and Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation of diseases and
propose germ theory in relation to the diseases of man and animal.
1882 -American Plant Pathologist -T. J. Burrill first time proved that fire blight of apple and pear
was caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia amylovora).
1901-1920 E.F.Smith of U.S.A gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be incitants of
plant diseases. He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease. He is
also called as "Father of Phytobacteriology". Chilton and his coworkers demonstrated that crown
gall bacterium transforms plant cell to tumour cell by introducing into them a plasmid.
1910 -C. O. Jensen related crown gall of plants to cancer of animals.
1952 -J. Lederberg coined the term plasmid 1952 – S. A. Waksman won Nobel prize for the
discovery of streptomycin.
1952 – Zinder and J. Lederberg discovered transduction in bacteria 1962 – H. Stolp discovered
bdellovibrios.
1972 – P. B. New and A. Kerr success in biological control of A. radiobacter strain K.
1972 – I. M. Windsor and L. M. Black observed a new kind of phloem inhabiting bacterium
causing clover club leaf disease.
1974 – I. Zanen et al. demonstrated Ti plasmid in Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
1980 – D. W. Dye et al. introduced the pathovar in the taxonomy of plant pathogenic bacteria.
Plant Virology
1886 -Adolf Mayer described a disease of tobacco called mosaikkranheit (tobacco mosaic).
Adolf Mayer demonstrated the sap transmission of Tobacco Mosaic Virus disease.
1892 -Dimitri Ivanowski demonstrated that the causal agent of tobacco mosaic could pass
through bacterial filter.
1895 -E.F. Smith of U.S.A. showed the peach yellows was a contagious disease.
1898 -M.W. Beijerinck -a Dutch microbiologist and founder of virology proved that the virus
inciting tobacco mosaic is not a microorganism. He believed it to be contagium vivum fluidum
(infectious living fluid). He was the first to use the term virus, which is the Latin word for
poison.
1929 -F. O. Holmes provided a tool by which the virus could be measured by showing that the
amount of virus present in a plant sample preparation is proportional to the number of local
lesions produced on appropriate host plant leaves rubbed with the contaminated sap.
1935 -W. M. Stanley proved that viruses can be made as crystals. He got Nobel Prize in 1946.
1936 -F. C. Bawden and, N.W. Pirie (Britain) found that the crystalline nature of the virus
contains nucleic acid and protein.
1939 -Kausche and colleagues first time saw the TMV virus particles with the help of Electron
microscope.
1956 -Gierer and Schramm proved that the nucleic acid fraction of the virus is actually the
infectious agent.
1959 -Munday succeeded in inducing TMV mutations.
1966 -Kassanis discovered the satellite viruses.
1971 -T. O. Diener discovered viroids, which only consist of nucleic acids. Smaller than viruses,
caused potato spindle tuber disease (250-400 bases long of single-stranded circular molecule of
infectious RNA).
Phytoplasma
1967 – Doi et al and Ishiie et al, the Japanese scientists found that mycoplasmalike
organisms (MLO) could be responsible for the disease of the yellows type. Doi observed that
MLO's are constantly present in phloem while Ishiie observed MLO's temporarily disappeared
when the plants are treated with tetracycline antibodies.
Spiroplasma
1972-Davies et al., observed that a motile, helical wall-less microorganism associated
with corn stunt diseases, which could be cultured and characterized and they named it as
spiroplasma.
Lecture 15
TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN PLANT PATHOLOGY. SURVIVAL AND DISPERSAL

OF PLANT PATHOGENS
Terms and concepts in plant pathology

Introduction
Plant diseases in the landscape and garden are very important and can be a significant
source of frustration and loss to the gardener. There are about 30,000 diseases of economic
importance. Plant pathology is the study of the biotic and abiotic agents that cause disease in
plants; of the mechanisms by which these causal agents induce disease in pants and of the
methods of preventing or controlling disease and reducing the damage caused.
Plant Diseases in History
Certain diseases have had tremendous impacts on our society. Perhaps foremost among
these is Phytophthora late blight which caused the potato famine (1845) in Ireland. It is
estimated that 1.5 million Irish died from starvation and just as many immigrated to the United
States. Two forest tree diseases which caused great economic losses in America are Dutch elm
disease andchestnut blight. Both were introduced accidentally to the United States and while the
former continues its destruction, the latter completely destroyed valuable trees in the
Appalachians. These examples are prominent because they caused so much damage. In reality,
total crop loss due to plant disease is rare. Most disease loss in the garden is due to endemic
diseases.
Disease Defined
Diseases result from more or less continuous irritation of the plant tissues by a primary
causal agent. Disease is a process that takes time, is physiological in nature, abnormal, and
detrimental. Diseases cause damage by reducing yield and/or quality of plants and/or plant
products.
Types of Plant Diseases
There are two types of plant diseases: those whose primary causal agents are biotic
(infectious), and those that are abiotic (not infectious). The causal agent of infectious diseases is
called the pathogen, and the susceptible plant the suscept. Diseases caused by microorganisms or
microbes, are infectious. Diseases caused by parasitic plants are also infectious. Diseases may
involve more than one causal agent and often involve secondary causal agents.
Noninfectious (Abiotic) Diseases

Examples of abiotic diseases include:
Nutrient Deficiencies -- A lack of essential elements such as iron or zinc may cause plant
foliage to yellow.
Lack of or Excess Soil Moisture -- A plant can become dehydrated during drought periods, and
may suffocate when poor drainage cuts out oxygen around the roots.
Too Low or Too High Temperature -- Plants grown out of their adapted habitat can be injured
or killed by extremes in temperature.
Air Pollution -- Ozone, sulfur dioxide and automobile exhaust fumes can injure plants.
Soil Acidity or Alkalinity -- Adverse soil pH can injure plants
Mechanical Damage - Girdling from roots, nylon twine or wire; injury from construction
Biotic Diseases
Biotic (infectious) diseases occur when a host plant is invaded by a living organism. Most
of these organisms are microbes, and can also be referred to as parasites which attack plants. A
host is a plant which has been invaded by a parasite. A parasite is an organism which obtains its
nutrients from living organisms, often plants. In the process of feeding, the parasite not only
consumes plant tissue, which weakens the host, but also produces toxins, enzymes, and growth
regulating substances which disturb the normal metabolic processes in the plant. In some cases
the parasite actually blocks the movement of food and water in the plant's conducting tissue. Any
of these disorders caused by a parasite will result in a diseased plant. Microbes are the major
biotic pathogens of plants. The four major groups of microbial plant pathogens are fungi,
bacteria, nematodes, and viruses. Less commonly, phytoplasmas (bacteria-like) and viroids
(virus-like) also cause diseases. Parasitic flowering plants are also pathogens.
Much can be learned by studying the pathogens as groups, and a working knowledge of those
groups is needed for an understanding of plant pathology. Knowing how a pathogen obtains
nourishment is important to understanding the disease process and developing control strategies.
Most microbial pathogens are primarily parasites, but some are mainly saprophytes and can
sometimes cause disease. Saprophytes usually feed on non-living organic matter. Most microbial
pathogens have some saprophytic abilities, which are important in survival and in the disease
process. Pathogens with saprophytic ability can be cultured away from their host plant.
Some pathogens can only grow in nature on their live host, (e.g. powdery mildew and rust fungi)
and are called obligate parasites. Obligate parasites feed and reproduce on living plant material.
Conditions Necessary for Disease
In order for disease to occur, three conditions must be met. First it is necessary to have a
susceptible host plant. Each species of plant can be infected by only some pathogens. The plant
must also be in a stage of development susceptible to infection by the disease agent.
The second requirement is the
presence of an active pathogen.
If there is no pathogen present,
there can be no disease. Also,
the pathogen must be in a stage
of development conducive to
infecting or affecting the host
plant. The third condition is an
environment suitable for the
pathogen to cause disease of
the plant. The interaction of
host, pathogen, and
environment can
some times be represented by a
triangle. The "disease triangle" cannot be constructed unless all 3 legs are present
simultaneously. Break any leg of the triangle, and there is no disease. Disease control strategies
can be based on breaking a leg of the triangle.
Plant disease results when the host, pathogen, and an environment favoring interaction
occur together
Diseases Caused by Fungi
A fungus is a multicellular organism made of thread-like material known as mycelium.
Fungi cannot make their own food, so in the process of obtaining food from higher plants, fungi
injure roots, stems, leaves, and fruit. This action causes what we know as plant diseases. Not all
fungi, however, cause disease.
Types of Fungi
There are many types of fungi. Many saprophytic fungi are beneficial to mankind.
Beneficial fungi rot leaves, cause fermentation in the manufacture of alcohol and cheese, and
produce antibiotics used to treat human infections. Yeasts, which are used in fermentation, and
Penicillium, an important antibiotic producer, are fungi. Thousands of species of parasitic or
pathogenic fungi cause plant diseases. Some species attack only one plant; others attack many
different plants. Some plants are susceptible to more than 50 fungal diseases. Fungi are mainly
composed of mycelia. Mycelial threads resemble spider webs in appearance. Bread mold is a
fungus and is typical of the vegetative structures fungi produce.
How Do Fungi Reproduce?
Fungi reproduce by forming spores, sclerotia and mycelial fragments. These fungal parts
provide a means for the fungus to be moved from diseased to healthy plants and for the fungus to
survive from one season to the next.
Spores: Fungus spores can be compared to seed in higher plants. A fungus can produce millions
of spores which are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Each fungus species produces a
spore or group of spores which is different from that of all other species. A fungus can be
identified by the spore it produces, just as an individual can be identified by finger prints. Spores
come in a variety of shapes or colors and can have one cell or be multi-cellular. Some types of
fungi mate and form sexual spores, but most fungi are asexual, and fertilization is not necessary
for reproduction. Some fungal spores are short-lived, and some are resting spores which can last
many years even under adverse conditions.
Sclerotia: The mycelium of some fungi becomes hard and forms reproductive structures known
as sclerotia. These sclerotia or hard bodies will remain dormant in the soil for several years or
until a susceptible crop is planted. Sclerotium rolfsii, which causes crown rot of vegetables, is a
good example of a fungus with this kind of reproduction.
Mycelial Fragments: Some fungi are spread from one area to another by fragments of their
mycelium. This form of reproduction is similar to vegetative reproduction in higher plants.
Rhizoctonia, which causes damping off of seedlings, is spread by mycelial fragments.
Where Are Spores Produced?
In Soil Water: Some fungal-like organisms (Oomycota) produce motile spores with flagella,
known as zoospores, that move from root to root in soil water. Other members of the Oomycota
which form motile spores such as Pythium and Phytophthora thrive in low wet areas and cause
such diseases as root rots and stem rots.
Special Structures: Some fungi produce spores in special structures inside the infected plant
tissue. Numerous spores are produced inside these fruiting bodies, and upon maturity the spores
are discharged on the surface of the diseased plant where they can be carried away by air
currents or splashed into the air by raindrops.
Stalks or Conidiophores: Many fungi produce their asexual spores on exposed stalks known as
conidiophores. Fungi on the surface of the plant tissue form stalk-like structures which produce
numerous spores known as conidia. A conidiophore resembles a small plant with fruit hanging
on it. This type of spore is usually carried away by air currents since it is produced on the surface
of plant tissue.
Penetration of Plant Tissue
In order for infection to occur, the spore must germinate and penetrate the plant tissue. When a
spore germinates on moist tissue, it enters the tissue by direct penetration, through natural
openings such as stomata or lenticels, or via wounds.
Direct Penetration: In direct penetration, the spore forms a germ tube which penetrates using
enzymes and physical pressure. Young, tender leaves, roots, and blooms are more likely to be
invaded by direct penetration. Many foliage infections occur in early spring while the new
growth is tender. Some fungi penetrate only the cuticle layer (outer layer) of leaves or fruit. The
disease
apple scab is a good example of a subcuticular infection. Other fungi such as powdery mildew
penetrate only the epidermal layers.
Penetration through Stomata: Some fungi penetrate through stomata (natural openings). Fungi
which enter through stomata can attack older and tougher leaves. Rust fungi such as cedar apple
rust or bean rust penetrate via stomata.
Penetration Through Wounds: Some fungi enter plant tissue only through wounds. Pruning
wounds make an excellent avenue of penetration. Many fruit rots occur when fungal spores come
in contact with bruised areas.
Factors Necessary for Infection

There are millions of fungus spores in our environment but infection does not occur every
time the spores are deposited on plant tissue. Certain favorable factors are necessary before
infection can occur.
Moisture: In order for most fungus spores to germinate and penetrate plant tissue, free water
must be available on the plant surface. If the leaf is dry, infection will not occur. A dry spring
can reduce disease development for the entire season since the dry weather protects the young
tender tissue from fungus infection. If sufficient moisture is available later in the season, the
foliage may be tough and spores less numerous. Thus, free moisture especially early in the
season favors most diseases.
Temperature: Some crops grow at a temperature below which fungi can infect, but most crops
grow at temperatures most suitable for fungal reproduction. Most fungi grow well at
temperatures between 70o and 90o F and are dormant in winter. Diseases are more common, and
more damaging, in tropical climates than the temperate climates.
Stage of Plant Growth: Fungi infect susceptible plant tissue. Some fungi attack any young,
tender leaves. Others prefer new shoot growth, young feeder roots, or ripe fruit. If the plant
passes through this susceptible stage before spores are available or during unfavorable weather
conditions, then it might escape injury for the entire season.
Disseminating Agents: Fungus spores must be carried from infected to non-infected tissue by
some agent such as wind, insects, man, transplants, or seed. A disease spread by wind or blowing
rain might not reach epidemic proportions during calm, dry periods. The spores of downy
mildew can be spread all the way across the continent by wind currents. Dutch elm disease is
spread from tree to tree by insects.
Duration of Spore Release: Some fungi produce spores during the entire spring or summer, but
others produce only one crop of spores during a short period in early spring. A fungus which
produces spores for only a few days can be more easily controlled since the infection period is
very short and the plant might not be in a susceptible stage of growth when spores are available.
Dispersal of fungal spores frequently occurs daily and corresponds closely to current critical
environmental events that favor infection or pathogen reproduction, e.g., moisture, temperature,
etc.
Diseases caused by Bacteria

Bacteria are minute one-celled microbes closely related to fungi. Plant pathogenic
bacteria do not produce spores. They reproduce by simple cell division. The tiny rod-shaped cells
reproduce very rapidly. Cells may divide every 20 to 30 minutes. At this rate, one cell will give
rise to 17 million cells in 12 hours. This rapid growth rate accounts for the seemingly explosive
nature of bacterial diseases. Large cell numbers confer great bacterial cell surface area for release
of enzymes, toxins, or slime. These bacterial products are responsible for much of the damage
caused by bacterial infection.
How Are Bacteria Spread?
Blowing Rain: Bacteria ooze out of infected tissue and form a mass of sticky material on the
plant surface. Rain drops hit the bacteria and splatter them to new infection sites.
Insects: In the process of pollinating plants, bees crawl through the bacterial ooze and then
deposit the organism in blooms. This is the primary means of spreading fire blight of apple and
pear from tree to tree. Some bacteria live inside insect vectors and are spread from plant to plant.
People: While picking beans or suckering tomatoes, people can come in contact with bacteria
and transfer them from plant to plant on their hands. Never work in the garden when plants are
wet.
Seed: Bacteria can live from year to year inside seeds. When infected seeds are shared between
gardeners, bacterial diseases can spread. This is why seeds grown in a dry western climate are
clean. Avoid saving seeds from your garden unless you are preserving a unique variety.
Diseases caused by Viruses
Viruses are very tiny particles of nucleic acid and protein which can multiply only inside
living cells. Virus particles in the cell disrupt normal cell functions and can affect the production
of chlorophyll and starch. Infected plants may become yellow or be distorted due to
malfunctioning cells. Other symptoms include mottled or puckered leaves, streaks on the leaves
or, in some cases, distorted fruit.
How Are Viruses Spread?
Mechanically: Virus diseases can be spread from plant to plant on tools or hands. Some tobacco
products may contain tobacco mosaic virus. Gardeners who use tobacco should wash their hands
with soap and water, or in milk, before handling plants.
Insects: Insects remove virus particles from infected crop or weed plants when they suck out
plant material. The insect can later inject the virus into another plant nearby or some distance
away.
Seed: A few viruses are seedborne and are spread when infected seeds are planted.
Diseases caused by Nematodes
Nematodes are very tiny, eel-shaped worms which live mainly in the soil. These tiny
worms cannot be seen by the naked eye. Many nematodes feed on plant roots, causing root injury
which interferes with the movement of food and water in the plant. Other nematodes may not
feed on roots. The pine wilt nematode mainly inhabits and feeds in the resin canals of pine stems
and branches. Most nematodes go through several life stages including egg, larva, and adult.
How Do Nematodes Feed?
Nematodes have a spear-like mouth part that works like a hypodermic needle. The
nematode inserts this spear or stylet into the root tissue, injects a chemical substance, and then
withdraws plant material as it feeds. Root feeding sometimes causes root galls. Root knot and
cyst nematodes are examples of root gall forming nematodes. Root feeding by nematodes causes
plant tops to be stunted, yellowed, or wilted.
Where Are Nematodes Found?
Nematodes are found in many garden soils. Nematodes can be brought into the garden in
the roots of transplants. Once garden soil is infested, the nematodes will generally remain there
year after year for the life of the garden since most vegetables make ideal hosts.
Plant disease symptoms and Signs
Symptoms are the plant's expression of being diseased. Examples of symptoms include:
blights, cankers, galls, rots, necrosis, and spots. Symptoms are expressed either locally or
systemically, and they frequently reflect the structural, functional, or physiological systems
disturbed. Diseases that produce few noticeable symptoms are termed "symptomless". Signs are
the physical evidence of the pathogen (primary or secondary, vegetative and/or reproductive
structures). Some examples include: conks, mildew, mycelium, ooze, pycnidia, and rhizomorphs.
Diagnosis of plant disease is based on looking for symptoms and signs.
A dictionary of Plant disease Symptoms and Signs
blight: sudden death of twigs, foliage, and/or flowers.
blotch: large and irregular-shaped spots or blots on leaves, shoots, and stems.
Canker: dead places on bark and cortex of twigs or stems; often discolored and raised or
sunken.
Chlorosis: yellowing of normally green tissue due to reduced chlorophyll content, such tissue is
chlorotic
Conks: fungal fruiting structures formed on rotting woody plants (shelf or bracket fungi).
Damping-off: destruction of seeds in the soil, or seedlings near the soil line, resulting in reduced
stand, or the seedling falling over on the ground
Decline: progressive, gradual weakening and death of a plant or population of plants
Dieback: progressive, gradual weakening and death of individual branches of a plant, often
leading to decline
Distortion: malformed plant tissues
Flagging: the loss of rigidity and drooping of leaves and tender shoots preceding the wilting of a
plant.
Fleck: a minute spot
Galls: abnormal, localized swellings or tumors, on leaf, stem or root tissue
Gum: complex of sugary substances formed by cells in reaction to wounding or infection
gummosis: production of gum by or in a plant tissue
Inoculum: amount of pathogen available for infection
Leaf spot: a self-limiting lesion on a leaf
Lesion: a localized area of discolored, diseased tissue
Malignant: tissue that divides and enlarges autonomously, forming a tumor or gall
Masked symptoms: virus-induced plant symptoms that are normally, but appear when the host
is exposed to certain environmental conditions of light and temperature
Mildew: a plant disease in which the pathogen is seen as a growth on the surface of the host;
e.g., downy mildew, powdery mildew, caused by very different fungi, but both having the name
Mildew.
Mosaic: symptom of certain viral diseases of plants characterized by intermingling patches of
normal green and light green or yellowish colors
Mottle: an irregular pattern of indistinct light and dark green areas
Mummy: a dried shriveled fruit
Mycelium: masses of fungal threads (hyphae) which compose the vegetative body of the fungus
Necrosis: death of tissue

Necrotic: dead or discolored brown to black
Ooze: a mass of bacterial cells usually embedded in a slimy matrix appearing on the diseased
plant surface, often as a droplet; or, a flux, a viscid mass of juices composed of host and parasite
substances occasionally found exuding from a diseased plant
Pycnidia: minute, usually globose and black, fungal asexual fruiting structures formed on plant
surfaces
Rhizomorphs: string-like strands of fungal mycelia sometimes found under bark of trees
Ring spot: a circular area of chlorosis with a green center; a symptom of many virus diseases
Rot: the softening, discoloration, and disintegration of succulent plant tissue as the result of
fungal or bacterial infection
Russet: brownish roughened areas on skin of fruit as a result of cork formation
Rust: a type of disease caused by a specific group of fungi, often producing orange-red "rust"
colored spores.
Scab: a roughened crust-like diseased area on the surface of a plant organ; a disease in which
such areas form
Sclerotia: tough structures produced by fungi for long-term survival.
Scorch: burning of leaf margins as a result of infection or unfavorable environmental conditions
Shot-hole: a symptom in which small diseased fragments of leaves fall off and leave small holes
in their place
Signs: visible evidence of the pathogen; signs are not the same as symptoms
Spots: circular or irregular lesions on above ground tissue
Tip blight: death of shoot tips
Tumor: a malignant overgrowth of tissue
Vein banding: retention of bands of green tissue along the veins while the tissue between veins
has become chlorotic
Vein clearing: destruction of chlorophyll adjacent or in the vein tissue as a result of infection by
a virus or other pathogen
Wilt: loss of rigidity and drooping of plant parts generally caused by insufficient water in the
plant
Witches' broom: broom-like growth or massed proliferation caused by the dense clustering of
branches in woody plants
Yellows: a group of systemic mycooplasma-caused diseases often resulting in wilt, witches
broom, or decline
Controlling Diseases
Control of a disease is basically aimed at suppressing the pathogen by altering one or
more sides of the disease triangle. This requires knowing as much as possible about a disease.
Disease forecasting would be of great value for disease control, but it requires greater knowledge
of the disease situation than is available in most cases. Biological, environmental, cultural and
chemical controls are all useful, but have their limitations. Thus, it is often necessary to integrate
several practices to get good disease control. Plant disease control in the garden is practiced on
the population level as well as on the individual plant level. All production practices have some
influence on the disease situation, and the disease situation often can be changed dramatically
through changes in cultural practices. People are the hardest factors to manipulate in most
disease situations. Disease control is a cost to consider in gardening: financially and ecologically.
The importance of understanding the disease development process becomes obvious
when considering control options. By the time symptoms are expressed, the pathogen (with few
exceptions) is already inside the host plant and is relatively safe. Therefore, control efforts in
most cases must occur before penetration has taken place. The overall principle in effective
disease control is to keep the inoculum density of the pathogen at very low levels. Success in
controlling plant disease will occur when a combination of the following methods of control are
used
Avoidance -- A grower can avoid certain diseases by choice of geographic area or by choice of
planting site in a local area. Diseases can be avoided by planting at a time that does not favor
disease development. Using disease-free planting stock or modifying cultural practices also helps
to avoid disease.
Exclusion -- A grower can inspect planting stock for signs of disease and reject or treat any
which is suspect. Plant quarantines are designed to exclude certain pests from areas that are free
of that pest. Elimination of insect vectors can exclude a disease.
Eradication -- Once a disease is established in an area, eradication is unlikely. However,

significant reduction in disease inoculum can be attained by destroying diseased plants or
alternate hosts, by rotating crops, or by certain soil treatments.
Protection -- Spraying or dusting plants with fungicides or bactericides is done to protect them
from disease. Sometimes modifying the environment or cultural practices may protect the crop.
Control of insect vectors will also protect plants.
Resistance -- Breeding and selection are used to develop resistant crops, and resistance can be
enhanced through proper culture of a crop. Resistance is not immunity. Improper culture of a
resistant variety may negate that resistance. Plants resist pathogens naturally by a variety of
defensive measures, both active and/or passive. Resistance to a specific pathogen is the rule,
while susceptibility is the exception. Disease resistance follows Mendelian genetic principles.
Disease resistance can be either specific or general in nature.
Therapy -- Surgical removal of diseased parts of a plant will sometimes control the disease.
There are a few diseases which can be treated with chemicals or heat to gain a degree of control.
Familiarity with crops and the diseases and insects that affect them is useful in planning control
programs. Some diseases occur every season; others occur sporadically. Some can be controlled
easily by using proper methods; others must be tolerated. Knowing which problem falls into
which category comes with experience.
Controlling Plant Diseases during the Resting Stage
Many plant disease organisms have a dormant or overwintering stage coinciding with
plant dormancy. Where the organism overwinters and how it is disseminated have a considerable
influence on the kind of control developed. The following are practical suggestions for
controlling disease causing microbes at rest.
Organisms Over wintering on Soil Surface
Many organisms survive on old leaves, branches, mummied fruit, and other debris on the
soil surface. Certain control measures are designed specifically to handle surface organisms.
Mulch: Placing a pine needle or leaf mulch beneath shrubs or between the rows in the garden
forms a barrier which prevents organisms from moving from soil to plants. Before a new mulch
is laid, all diseased debris should be removed.
Cultivation: Cultivating under fruit trees destroys old, mummied fruit and prevents the organism
from reproducing and infecting the new crop.
Deep Plowing: When soil is turned four to six inches deep, organisms on the soil surface are
buried so deeply that they cannot come in contact with plants.
Sanitation: Removing all old leaves and stems from beneath trees and shrubs eliminates most of
the disease organisms on the soil surface. Many diseases reproduce in dead tissue on the soil
surface.
Organisms Living in the Soil
Certain organisms live their entire life in the soil, and practically all soil contains
parasitic organisms. Most pathogens can live in the soil from 1 to 4 years in the absence of a
susceptible host. However, a few pathogens can live in the soil for 30 years without feeding.
Crop rotation is a procedure in which non-host crops are used until the pathogenic organisms die
out and susceptible crops can once again be grown. This works very well in areas where
pathogens die within one to four years in the absence of a susceptible host. Some soil organisms
attack only certain crops so these crops should not be grown in the same part of the garden each
year. Resistant varieties are the only solution to soil organisms that can live in the soil for 20 to
30 years without a susceptible host. Wilt-resistant tomatoes are a good example of this kind of
disease control. Always select disease-resistant vegetable varieties. Chemicals can be used to
treat soil in cases where crop rotation is ineffective or when resistant varieties are not available.
Organisms Living in Dead Wood
Several diseases which attack apples, stone fruits, grapes, and many woody landscape
plants live and reproduce in dead wood. Pruning all diseased and dead wood will destroy a major
portion of this inoculum. Less spraying is necessary when this source of infection has been
removed.
Organisms Disseminated by Wind
Many diseases are brought into the garden from great distances by the wind. The only
means of controlling diseases spread in this way is to protect the foliage with chemicals. Since
we do not know when the wind might blow spores into the garden, we should use protective
chemicals on a regular basis. When spores are blown into the garden during dry weather, they do
not germinate and penetrate the tissue, so less fungicide is needed during dry weather. Wind-
blown spores need a wet surface in order to germinate. For this reason, it is best not to water the
garden in late afternoon, allowing the foliage to remain wet during the night. Some spores can
penetrate wet tissue in 12 to 15 hours.
Organisms in Seeds
Organisms can easily live in seed and are often spread from garden to garden in this way.
For this reason, unless a unique garden variety is being preserved, gardeners should not save
seeds from their garden, but should purchase seeds that were produced in parts of the country
where diseases do not occur. Seedborne diseases can also be greatly reduced by using a chemical
seed treatment.
Survival of Plant Pathogen
Any pathogen can cause disease under favourable conditions. The only requisite factor is
that the pathogen must come in contact with the host for the development of the disease.
Pathogen itself or its parts that are capable of causing disease when brought near a host is called
inoculum. Fungal pathogens are diversified, where the vegetative body (hyphae), dormant
mycelium, (embedded in the embryo of seeds or other plant parts), special reproductive
structures (rhizomorphs, sclerotia, chlamydospores), various types of asexual spores (sporangia,
sporangiospores, zoospores, conidia) and sexual spores (oospores, zygospores, resting spores,
ascospores, basidiospores, etc.), serve as inocula. In the case of viruses and plant pathogenic
bacteria, the individuals are acting as inocula, since they do not produce any special type of
infective units like resting spores or endospores, etc. But in the case of Streptomyces sp.
(Actinomycetes), fragments of filaments and spore-like cells serve as inocula. In phanerogamic
parasites, seeds are the potential inocula.
Seeds in the soil survive for longer period. Orobanche seeds survive for about 13 years.
Seeds are abundantly produced for their multiplication, which could attack the host plants. But
dodder is an exception because broken bits of shoot can attack host plant. In any locality a time
lag exists between harvest of a crop and subsequent sowing. Year after year, diseases appear in
the newly sown crops. There should be some link between the previous crop and the subsequent
new crop to revive or continue the life cycle. The existence of the pathogen between the two crop
seasons is the vulnerable period in its life cycle. Hence knowledge of the survival ofthe pathogen
in the off-season is useful for the plant pathologists to device effective control measures.
The establishment of a plant pathogen in a geographical location presupposes its ability
to survive, not only during its parasitic relations with its hosts, but also during off-seasons in
which the hosts are not growing. In temperate zones, plant pathogens must be adapted for
survival overwinters or oversummers, like the powdery mildew pathogen that attacks fall-seeded
wheat. In the Torrid Zone, plant pathogens must be able to survive the dry seasons, during which
susceptible plants are not growing.
These sources of survival of pathogens or the sources for renewal of infection chain can be
grouped as follows:
1. Survival by means of specialized resting structures
2. Survival as saprophytes
3. Survival in vital association with living plants
4. Survival in association with nematodes and fungi
5. Survival in association with insects
6. Survival on agricultural materials
7. Survival on surface water
1. Survival by means of specialized resting structures
Enduring structures of plant pathogens may be as simple as conidia or as complex as
perithecia. Apparently, ascospores or conidia derived from them, serve to carry the pathogen
causing peach-leaf curl (Taphrina deformans) over the winter. Conidia of Alternaria solani, the
pathogen of early blight of potato and tomato, survive for eighteen months in dried diseased
leaves. Specialized thick-walled chlamydospores of Fusarium and other Imperfect fungi, spores
of many smut fungi and the amphiospores, uredospores and teliospores of certain rust fungi also
are important enduring structures. The resting spores of Plasmodiophora brassicae may survive
for ten years in soils infested upon the disintegration of clubbed roots. The oospores of downy-
mildew fungi survive in the soil between growing seasons. In fact, oospcres of the fungus that
causes onion mildew do not germinate until several years after their formation.
Some fungi survive unfavourable seasons in the form of sclerotia. Those produced by the
omnivorous cottony-rot fungus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum,can survive for years in a dry
atmosphere. They decay rapidly, however, in warm moist soil. Cold induced dormancy probably
accounts for their ability to survive winters in temperate zones. Some powdery mildew fungi and
other ascomycetes survive with plant refuse. Parasitic phanerogams survive in the form of seeds
and as eggs, cysts and larvae of parasitic nematodes serve as overseasoning structures.
2. Survival as saprophytes
The ability to live saprophytically enables many plant pathogens to survive in the absence
of growing susceptible plants. Saprophytic survival usually occurs in the soil. Waksman (1971)
distinguished between soil inhabitants soil invaders; the former comprise the basic fungal flora
of the soil, whereas the latter are short-lived exotics. As applied to the root infecting fungi soil
inhabitants are unspecialized parasites with a wide host range that are able to survive-indefinitely
in the soil as saprophytes; soil invaders (root inhabiting fungi) are more specialized parasites that
survive in soils inclose association with their hosts. Most plant pathogenic fungi and bacteria are
soil invaders, but some pathogens, notably Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium debaryanum that
cause seedling blights and root rots, live saprophytically in the soils.
The microbiological balance in the soil markedly affects the survival of saprophytic plant
pathogens there. Apparently, Sanford (1926) was the first to suggests that control of potato scab
by green manuring with grass might be due antagonistic action of saprophytic organisms
flourishing on the green manure. Not only do soil saprophytes antagonize other microorganisms
by toxic but also some such as Trichoderma Iignorum actually parasitize Rhizoctonia solani and
other soil-borne pathogens. Despite antagonism and parasitisim by other organisms, many plant
pathogens survive in the soil as inhabitants or invaders. The special conditions that favour
biological control of plant pathogens in sterilized soil or in culture are nonexistent in field soil, in
which there is a complex microflora and a low concentration of nutrients.
Certain plant pathogens survive between growing seasons as saprophytes in the dead
tissues of susceptible plants. Such organisms are only incidentally associated with the soil, and
live only as long as tissues of susceptible plants are available to supply nutrients. Most plant-
pathogenic bacteria and many specialized parasitic fungi survive in this manner. The apple scab
pathogen (Venturia inaequalis) lives parasitically in leaves and fruits during the growing season,
but becomes saprophytic in fallen leaves. Perithecia form in these leaves during the winter, but
ascospores do not form until spring. Ascospores of certain other ascomycetes mature during the
winter, but are protected from adverse conditions by perithecial walls. Soil inhabitants include
obligate saprophytes and facultative parasites and they are exo - pathogens. Whereas soil
invaders (root inhabitants) include facultative saprophytes and obligate parasites and they are
endopathogens (root infecting fungi).
Plant pathogenic bacteria can saprophytically survive or actively multiply in the
rhizosphere or rhizoplane of healthy host and non-host plants. Erwinia carotovora subsp.
carotovora has been considered to survive in soil. However, some recent studies have shown that
soft rot Envinia cannot persist for a long time in fallow soil. E. carotovora subsp. carotovora
multiplies in the rhizosphere of many cruciferous plant species, where the population can readily
increase from 102 cells/g in fallow soil to 104 to 106 cells/g in soil subjected to the rhizosphere
effect of chinese cabbage. Pseudomonas glumae, the causal agent of bacterial grain rot of rice,
remains on rhizosphere and / or rhizoplane of the rice plant from germination to tillering stage.
Burkholderia solanacearum and species of Agrobacterium are best known with a prolonged soil
phase, which can be regarded as the true soil-borne pathogens.
3. Survival in vital association with living plants
Survival of the plant pathogens in vital association with living plants is grouped into
a. Seed
The pathogen of loose smut of wheat, Ustilago nuda tritici, enters the stigma and style
and infects the young seed, in which it survives as mycelium. The seed-infecting pathogens that
cause loose smut of wheat and loose smut of barley are strikingly different from other smut fungi
that attack cereal crops. Most of the others survive from season to season either in non-
pathogenic association with seed or as spores in the soil. Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, the
causative organism of bean anthracnose, can also infect the seed; unless the seed is killed, the
fungus in newly sprouted bean seedlings initiates new infections. The bacteria that cause bean
blights and bacterial blight of cotton survive the winter in infected seed. In Mexico, the fungus of
late blight of potatoes (Phytophthora infestans) produces oospores but in colder regions of the
world, the fungus overwinters as mycelium in diseased tubers.
Lenticels of potato tubers may carry soft rot Erwinia at the maximum level of 100
cells/lenticel, although the infested tubers do not necessarily develop soft rot in the field.
Examples of the plant pathogenic bacteria that survive in seed/planting materials are given in the
following Table 1.
Table 1. Plant pathogenic bacteria surviving in seeds and planting materials.
SI. Disease Bacteria
No
a. Seed
1. Bacterial canker of tomato Clavibacter michiganensis subsp
michiganensis.
2. Bacterial brown stripe of rice Pseudomonas avenae
3. Bacterial blight of cotton Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
malvacearum
b. Planting material
3. Ring rot of potato Clavibacter michiganensis subsp.
sepedonicus
4. Bacterial wilt of carnation Pseudomonas caryophylli
5. Bacterial wilt of potato and Burkholderia solanacearum
ginger
b. Collateral hosts
Collateral hosts are those, which are susceptible to the plant pathogens of crop plants and
provide adequate facilities for their growth and reproduction of these pathogens. Weeds, which
survive and live during non-cropping season provide for the continuous growth and
multiplication of the pathogen. For example, the fungal pathogen for blast disease of rice,
Pyricularia oryzae can infect the grass weeds like Bracguarua mutica, Dinebra retroflexa,
Leersia hexandra, Panicum repens, etc., and survive during off-season of rice-crop. As soon as a
fresh rice crop is raised, the conidia (inoculum) liberated from the weed host disseminated by
wind infect the fresh rice crop. Thus the weed hosts help to bridge the gap between two rice
crops. Hence the pathogen can be able to line continuously in the vicinity on these hosts inspite
of the non-cropping period intervening between two cropping periods. Intensive cultivation of
particular crop repeatedly and constantly also provides perpetual inoculum. Powdery mildew and
viral diseases of cucurbits are also best examples, where, number of cultivated crops serves as
collateral hosts.
The survival of the plant pathogens on collateral hosts/ alternative hosts which include
the weed hosts also. The collateral/weed hosts which are present in the field and in the bunds
harbour the plant pathogens during cropping season. But the collateral/weed hosts present in the
bunds harbour the plant pathogens during off-season. The pathogens can survive in active
sporulating stage on wild collateral hosts and from their wind or insect to primary inoculum.
Plant pathogenic bacteria may be able to disseminate in the parasitic form on annual and
perennial weeds. For example, the long-term survival of Pseudomonas avenae in Florida is
attributed to the association with a perennial grass, vasey grass (Paspalum urvillei), through
repeated infection of its vegetative growth as well as seed transmission. Bacterial leaf blight of
maize may have its origin in the infected vasey grass distributed in the field. This list of
collateral weed hosts for the plant pathogens is given in the Table below:
Table: Collateral hosts (alternative hosts) of plant pathogens
Collateral hosts
Pathogen Disease Principal host
/ Alternative hosts
1. Fungal diseases
Sclerospora Downy mildew Pearlmillet, Echinochloa sp.,
graminicola Fox-tail, Millet Euchlaena sp.,
Panicum sp.
Peronosclerospora Downy mildew Com Euchlaena sp.,
heterogoni Heteropogon sp.
P. sorghi Sorghum downy Corn, Sorghum Andropogon spp.,
mildew Euchlaena sp.,
Heteropogon contortus,
Panicum trypheron
Erysiphe Cucurbit powdery Cucurbits weeds Many cucurbitaceous
cichoracearum mildew
Rhizoctonia solani Web blight Cowpea Amaranthus spinosus, Aspilia
africana
Bacterial diseases
Xanthomonas Bacterial leaf blight Rice Cyperus spp
oryzae ov oryzae Leersia hexandra
Pseudomonad Red stripe anad top Sugar cane Sorghum halepense
rubrilineans rot S. sudanense
X. axonopodis pv. Bacterial blight Cotton Eriodendron anfructuosum,
malvacearum Jatropha curcas
Lochnera curcas
Thurbaria thespesoides
Virus and Phytoplasma diseases
Cucumber mosaic Mosaic Saffflower Amaranthus blitum, datura
virus metel
Physalis minima
Solanum nigrum
Rice tungro virus Rice tungro Rice Oryza spp,
Echinochloa colona,
E. crusgalli,
Leersia hexandra
Bhendi yellow vein Bhendi yellow vein Bhendi Hibiscus tetraphyllus
mosaic virus mosaic virus
Tomato spotted Ring mosaic Groundnut Bidens pilosa
wilt virus Tagetes sp.
Phytoplasma Datura sp.,
Little leaf BrinjaI
Catharanthus sp.
c. Alternate hosts
The role of alternate hosts is not important as of collateral hosts. However, when a
pathogen has very wide host-range and is tolerant to wide range of weather conditions the
alternate hosts become very, important source of survival of the pathogen. These alternate hosts
are very important for the completion of the Iifecycle of heteroecious rust pathogens. e.g. in
temperate regions the alternate host Berberis vulgaris of Puccinia graminis tritici (black/stem.
rust pathogen on wheat), the barberry bush, grows side by side with the cultivated host, wheat. In
such areas this wild host belonging to a different family is important for survival of the fungus. It
helps in completion of heterogeneous infection chain of the rust fungus. The list of alternate
hosts for important plant pathogenic survival is given in the Table 4.
Table 4. Alternate hosts of plant pathogens
Fungal pathogen Disease Primary host Alternate host
Puccinia graminis Stem rust / Black Wheat Barberis vulgaris
tritici rust
Puccinia recondita Leaf rust / Thalictrum flavum
Brown rust/
Orange rust
Puccinia coronata Crown rust Oat Rhamnus

Puccinia anomala Brown rust Barley Lily
Puccinia dispersa Brown rust Rye Anchusa sp
Puccinia purpurea Rust Sorghum. Oxalis corniculata
Puccinia substriata Rust Pearl- millet Brinjal
var. penicillariae
Puccinia sorghi Leaf rust Maize Oxalis corniculata
Cronartium ribicola Blister rust Currant Pine
Gymnosporangium Cedar rust Cedar Apple
juniperi-virginianae
d. Self sown crops

Self-sown plants, voluntary crops and early sown crops are reservoirs of many plant
pathogens e.g., groundnut rust pathogen, Puccinia arachidis and ring mosaic of groundnut
caused by tomato spotted wilt virus. Self-sown rice plants harbour the pathogen as well as
vector. e,g., rice tungro virus and its vector, Nephotettix virescens.
Perennial crops also playa major role in the survival of the plant pathogens. Pathogens,
which infect perennial plants, can survive in them during low winter temperature and/or during
the hot, dry weather of the summer. They survive in the lesions on perennial host plants, which
may be actively growing or are donnant. Disease like bunchy top of banana survives
continuously in the suckers produced by the mother plants. In citrus canker the bacterium,
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri survives in the cankers formed on the leaves and twigs of the
standing tree. They mostly survive in mild or vigorous active form on hosts, Citrus sp. Other
examples are Erwinia amylovora and Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni.
e. Ratoon Crops
Sometimes ratoon crop also harbour the plant pathogens e.g., sugarcane mosaic.
f. Survival by latent infection
Latent infection refers to the conditions in which the plant pathogens may survive for a
long time in plant tissue without development of visible symptoms. Eg. Pseudomonas syringae
pv. syringae and X axonopodis pv. citri can survive in apparently healthy bark tissues of their
tree hosts. Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of Pierce's disease of grapevine and leaf scorch
disease of various fruits and leaf ornamental trees infect diverse kinds of weeds without
developing visible symptoms. Because these weeds are usually favourable habitats for the vector
insects, latently infected weeds become an important source of the carrier insects.
g. Survival as residents
S.No Disease Bacteria

1. Fire blight of apple and pear Erwinia amylovora
2. Soft rot of chinese cabbage Erwinia carotovora subsp.carotovora
3. Bacterial grain rot of rice Pseudomonas glumae
4. Bacterial blight of soybean Pseudomonas· syringae pv. glycinea
5. Angular leaf spot of cucurbits Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans
6. Bacterial canker of stone fruits Pseudomonas syringae pv.
morsprunorum
7. Bacterial brown spot of bean Pseudomonas. syringae pv. syringae
8. Bacterial speck of tomato Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato
9. Bacterial blight of cotton Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.
malvaceqrum
10. Bacterial blight of cassava Xanthomonas axonapodis pv.manihotis
11. Common blight of bean Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli
Plant pathogenic bacteria have the capacity to grow on the surface of host and non-host plants
utilizing the small amount of nutrients that are secreted on the plant surface. Survival as residents
in the phyllosphere by bacteria is given below:
4. Survival in association with nematodes and fungi
Plant viruses like wheat mosaic, wheat spindle streak virus, lettuce big vein, tobacco
necrosis, tobacco rattle and tobacco ring spot viruses survive with nematodes or fungi found in
the soil between crop seasons. Tobacco ring spot virus is associated with the nematode,
Xiphinema americanum. The fungus, Polymyxa graminis (Barley yellow mosaic, oat yellow
mosaic, wheat soil-borne mosaic, wheat spindle-streak mosaic) and Spongospora subterranea
(potato mop top) carry the viruses internally and transmit.them through their resting spore.
Viruses are retained by nematode vectors for long times (stable). Xiphinema sp. retained viruses
for a considerable Iength of time, while Longidorus spp and Trichodorus spp. retained them for
a much less period of one or two months only.

5. Survival in association with insects
Many insects are carriers of inocula during the growing season and several important
plant pathogens survive between growing seasons within insects. Some bacterial plant pathogens
may survive within the insect body and over winter therein. The com flea beetle, Chaetocnema
pulicaria Melsh carries inside its body, the com wilt pathogen, Xanthomonas stewartii and thus
helps in its overwintering. The cucumber beetles, Diabrotica vitata Fabr. and D.
duodecimpunctata Oliv., which chew the plant parts affected by Erwiniatra cheiphila carry the
pathogen inside their body, where it over winters. In the following seasons the insect passes on
the bacterial pathogen to the host plant.
These insect vectors effectively transmit the bacterial pathogen causing wilt of cucurbits.
It is reported that the bacterial pathogen and the -insect vectors live in a symbiotic relationship,
the insects helping the bacterium with protection from adverse weather conditions and the
bacterium helping the insects with a supply of some digestive enzymes while it is inside the
insect's body. Plant viruses and phytoplasmas multiply within the vectors and can overwinter in
those insects. Semi-persistent viruses are retained in the vectors for periods ranging from hours
to days. Example, citrus tristeza virus is retained in the aphid Toxoptera Citricida. Persistent
viruses retain the viruses from days to week. Most of the hopper borne viruses multiply in their
vectors. Viruses are retained through the moult and the vectors frequently remain viruliferous for
life important. Vectors, which retain the viruses, are given below:
Leaf hopper transmitted viruses
Vector Virus
Leaf hopper Circulifer tenellus Beet curly top virus
Plant hopper Cicadulina mbila Maize streak virus
Green leaf hopper Nephotettix cincticeps Rice dwarf virus
Brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Rice grass stunt virus
Hopper Agallia constricta Wound tumour virus
Transovarial transmission of the virus to the eggs of the vectors occurs and the virus can
multiply within a viruliferous hopper even if the insect is feeding on an inimune host plant. Eggs
carrying viruses may overwinter and provide a source of virus to infect spring crops, even in the
absence of diseased plants. Phytoplasmas attacking plants also multiply in the insects and remain
infective throughout their life period. e.g. Rice dwarf virus (RDV) is transmitted through the
eggs to about 60% of the progeny of the infective female leafhopper, Nephotettix cincticeps.
RDV passes through the eggs to six succeeding generations. Clover club leaf is transmitted
through 21 generations of the leafhopper vector, Agalliopsis novel/a over a span of five years.
6. Survival on agricultural materials
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis has been shown to survive in air-dried
conditions for 7 to 8 months on the surface of wooden stakes and boxes or wires or for 15
months in air-dried tissues of diseased· tomato plants.
7. Survival on surface water
Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora is detected from water from drains, ditches,
streams, rivers and lakes in mountainous upland and arable areas of Scotland and Colorado
throughout the year.
Dispersal of Plant Pathogens
Transport of spores or infectious bodies, acting as inoculum, from one host to another
host at various distances resulting in the spread of disease, is called dissemination, dispersal or
transmission of plant pathogens. It is very important for spread of plant diseases, for continuity
of the life cycle and evolution of the pathogen. The spores of some fungi are expelled forcibly
from the sporophore or sporocarp by a squirting or puffing action that results in successive or
simultaneous discharge of spores up to a centimetre or so above the sporophore.
The seeds of some parasitic plants are also expelled forcibly and may arch over distances
of several metres. These are dispersed mechanically by various means. In bacterial diseases, the
bacterial cells come out on the host surface as ooze or the tissues may be disintegrated so that the
bacterial mass is exposed and then dispersed by various physical and biological agencies.
Insects, mites, phanerogamic parasites nematodes and human beings transmit viral diseases,
which have no such organs.
The knowledge of these methods of dispersal is essential for effective control of plant
diseases because possibilities of preventing dispersal and thereby breaking the infection chain
exist.
The dispersal of infectious plant pathogens occurs through two ways,
I. Autonomous or direct or active dispersal
II. Indirect or passive dispersal

I. Autonomous dispersal
It is also known as active or direct dispersal. In this method the dispersal of plant
pathogens (fungi, bacteria, and viruses) takes place through soil and seed or planting materials
during normal agronomic operations.
1. Soil as means of autonomous dispersal
Soil-borne facultative saprophytes or facultative parasites may survive through soil. The
dispersal may be by movement of the pathogen in the soil or by its growth in soil or by
movement of the soil containing the pathogen. The former is known as dispersal in soil while the
latter is called dispersal by soil.
a. Dispersal in soil
The following are the three stages of dispersal in soil.
i. . Contamination of soil
ii. Growth and spread of the pathogen in soil
iii. Persistence of the pathogen
i. Contamination of soil
Contamination of the soil takes place by gradual spread of the pathogen from an infested
area to a new area or by introduction of contaminated soil, plant debris to a new area or by
introduction of infected seed or planting materials.
ii. Growth and spread of the, pathogen in soil
Once the pathogen has reached the soil it can grow and spread "depending on the
multiplication and spread. Multiplication and spread depends on the characters of the pathogen,
presence of susceptible host and cultural practices. The adaptability of the pathogen to the soil
environment includes saprophytic survival ability. The survival ability of the pathogen is
governed by high growth rate, rapid spore germination, better enzymatic activity, capability to
produce antibiotics and tolerance to antibiotics produced by other soil microorganisms. The
active saprophytic survival of facultative saprophytes and facultative parasites in soil is affected
by soil structure, moisture, organic matter, pH; antagonism etc., Specialized facultative parasites
(or saprophytes) can pass their life in soil in the absence of the hOst plants, but they depend more
on the residues of their host plant. e.g., Armillariel/a mel/ea, Ophiobolus graminis,
Phymatotrichum omnivorumand Fusarium. The non-specialized facultative parasites can pass
their entire life in the soil. e:g., Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp., The soil-borne obligate parasites.
such as Plasmodiophora brassicae, Synchytrium endohioticum requires the presence of active
host.
Ill. Persistence of the pathogen
The pathogens persist in the soil as dormant structures like oospores (Pythium;
Phytophthora, Sclerospora, etc.) chlamydospores (Fusarium) or smut spores (Ustilago) or
sclerotia (Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, etc.)
b. Dispersal by the soil
The pathogen enters the soil, grow and spread in the soil. During the cultural operations
in. the field, soil is moved from one place to the nearby place through the agricultural
implements and irrigation, worker's feet. Propagules of fungi or the dormant structures of fungi
and the plant debris containing the fungal and bacterial pathogens thus spread throughout the
field.
2. Seed and seed materials as the source of autonomous dispersal
The seeds serve as medium for autonomous dispersal of pathogens. Since most of the
cultivated crops are raised from seed the transmission of diseases and transport of pathogens by
seeds has much importance. The dormant structures of the pathogen (e.g., seeds of Cuscuta,
sclerotia of ergot fungus, smut sori, etc.,) are found mixed with seed lots and they are dispersed
as seed contaminant. The bacterial cells or spores of fungi present on the seed coat (such as in
smuts of barley, sorghum, etc.,) are transported to long distances. Dormant mycelium of many
fungi present in the seed is transmitted to long distances.
This type of dispersal is highly erratic. The most important methods of dispersal of
pathogen by the soil are transfer of soil from one place to another along with plant parts or
propagating materials. e.g., transfer of papaya seedlings from a nursery infested with Pythium
aphanidermatum (the cause of stem or foot rot of papaya) C311 introduce the pathogen in new
pits for transplanting the seedlings. Similarly grafts of fruit trees transported with soil around
their roots can transmit pathogens present in the nursery to the orchards. By this method,
pathogens are not only spread from field to the field but also from district to district, State to
State and often from country to country. There are three types of dispersal by seed viz.,
a. Contamination of the seed
b. Extemally seed - bome, and
c. Intemally seed - bome

Contamination of the seed
Seed -borne pathogens move in seed lot as separate contaminants without being in
intimate contact with the viable crop seeds. The seeds of the pathogen or parasite and the host are
getting mixed during harvest of the crop. In many cases, the identity ofthe seeds of the two
entities (host and the parasite) is difficult to separate. e.g., smut of pearl millet (Tolyposporium
penicillariae), ergot of rye and pearlmillet (Claviceps purpurea and C. jusiformis respectively).
Smut soil and ergots mix easily with the seed lots during harvest or threshing. In many smuts
such as Kamal bunt of wheat (Neovossia indica) and bunt of rice (Neovossia horrida) the
infected kernels containing smut sori are mixed with the seed. In leaf smut of rice (En tyloma
oryzae) leaf pieces containing smut sori are mixed with the seed.
Externally seed-borne
Close contact between structure of the pathogen and seeds is established in
diseases like covered smut and loose smut VI Daney, snoll smut ot sorghum, stinking smut of
wheat and bacterial blight of cotton where the pathogen gets lodged in the fomi of donnant
spores or bacteria on the seed coat during growth of the crop or at the time of harvest and
threshing. In many pathogens the externally seed-borne Structures such as smut spores can
persist for many years due to their inherent capaCity for long survival. The spores of Tilletia
caries (stinking smut of wheat) remain viable even after 18 years and those of Ustilago avenae
(oat smut) for 13 years.
Internally seed-borne
The pathogen may penetrate into the ovary and cause infection of the embryo while it is
developing. They become internally seed-borne. Internally seed borne pathogens like Usti/ago
nuda tritici are viable for more than 15 years. Other examples include Helminthosporium oryzae,
Sclerospora graminico/a, etc. The bacterial pathogens include Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
on rice, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae in cucurbits, Xanthomonas campestris pv.
campestris on crucifers, etc.
Mainly man distributes seeds of cultivated crops. Sometimes animals and birds also help
in distribution of crop seeds. Man and animals are the main agencies of dispersal of pathogen
through seed. The pathogens thus mixed with the seed or on the seed are transmitted.
Passive dispersal
Passive dispersal of plant pathogens happens through
I. Animate agents
a. Insects
b. Mites
c. Fungi
d. Nematodes
e. Human beings
f. Farm and wild animals
g. Birds
h. Phanerogamic parasites
II. Inanimate agents
a. Wind
b. Water
1. Animate agents
a. lnsects
Insects carry plant pathogens either externally or internally. Gaiiman (1950) used the
terms epizoic and endozoic respectively for these two types of transmission. The external
transmission of plant pathogens is of special interest in those fungi, which produce their conidia,
oidia and spermatia in sweet or honey secretions having attractive' odours. Some Qfthe well
known diseases of this type are the ergot, the Sc1erotinia brown rot of pear and apple, the honey
dew stage in the 'sugary disease' of sorghum and pearlmillet in parts of India and the pycnial
nectar in the cluster cup stage of rusts. The spermatial oozing at the mouth of spermagonia in the
Ascomycetes attract various types of insects, flies, pollinating bees and wasps which playa dual
role viz., pollination and transmission' of pathogens. The fire blight organism (Erwinia
amylovora) pathogens and citrus canker bacterium, (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. cirri) are also
carried in this manner, the former by flies (bees) and ants and the latter by the leaf miner. The
black leg of potato caused by Erwinia carotovora is disseminated by maggots, wilt of com
caused by X. stewartii, gummosis of sugarcane caused by X vasculorum are the other examples
for bacterial diseases transmitted by insects.
Ingenious transmission of pathogens, of an internal nature (endozoic) is provided by the
Dutch elm disease (Ceratostomella ulmi) and the olive canker (Bacillus savastano i). The former
is transmitted by the elm bark beetles and the latter by the olive fly (Olea . europaea). These
insects, unlike the epizoic group, appear to have a close biologic relationship with the pathogens,
as they have not been reared without the contaminating pathogens.
Insects spread few important plant pathogenic bacteria. The cucumber wilt bacterium,
Erwinia tracheiphila is spread by the striped cucumber beetles (Acalymma vitata) and the
spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica undecimpunctata). When the beetles are feeding on the
diseased plant, the bacterium contaminates the mouthparts and passes into the gut of the insect.
During the winter season, the bacterium overwinters inside the beetle. Thus the beetle helps the
bacteria in two ways, i.e. in their transmission and survival.
Different types of insects spread more than 80 per cent of the viral and phytoplasmal
diseases. The insect, which act as specific carriers in disseminating the diseases, are called insect
vector.
Both aphids (Aphidae) and leafhoppers (Cicadellidae or Jassidae) in the order Homoptera
contain largest number and the most important insect vectors of plant viruses. Certain species of
mealy bugs and scale insects (Coccoidae), whiteflies (Aleurodidae) and treehoppers
(Membracidae) in the same order (Homoptera) also transmit virus diseases. Insect vectors of
plant viruses are few in true bugs (Hemiptera), thrips (Thysanoptera),beetles (Coleoptera) and
grasshoppers (Orthoptera). Aphids, leafhoppers and other groups of Homoptera and true bugs
have piercing and sucking mouthparts. Thrips have rasping and sucking mouthparts. All other
groups of insect vectors have chewing mouthparts and they transmit only very few viruses.
Aphids
Aphids are the most important insect vectors of plant viruses and transmit the great
majority of all stylet - borne viruses. As a rule several aphid species can transmit the same stylet
- borne virus and the same aphid species can transmit several viruses, but in many cases the
vector-virus relationship is quite specific. Aphids generally acquire the stylet-borne virus after
feeding on a diseased plant for only a few seconds (30 seconds or less) and can transmit the virus
after transfer to and feeding on a healthy plant for a similarly short time of a few seconds. The
length of time aphids remain viruliferous after acquisition of a stylet-borne virus varies from a
few minutes to several hours, after which they can no longer transmit the virus. In few cases of
aphid transmission of circulative viruses, aphids cannot transmit the virus immediately but must
wait several hours after the acquisition feeding, but once they start to transmit the virus, they
continue to do so for many days following the removal of the insects from the virus source. In
aphid transmitting stylet-borne viruses, the virus seems to be borne on the tips of the stylets, it is
easily lost through the scouring that occurs during probing of host cells, and it does not persist
through the moult or egg. The examples of aphid transmitted plant viruses are given in the
following Table.
S.No Virus Vector Type of transmission
1. Bean common Mosaic Acyrthosiphon pisum Non persistent
2. Bean yellow mosaic A. pisum Non - persistent
3. Citrus tristeza Toxoptera citricida Non - persistent
4. Pea enation mosaic A. pisum Persistent
5. Beet yellows M. Persicae Semi persistent
Leaf hoppers
Leaf hoppers are phloem feeders and acquire the virus from the phloem region. All leaf
hoppers, transmitted viruses are circulatory. Several of these viruses multiply in the vector
(propagative) and some persists through the moult and are transmitted through the egg stage of
the vector. Most leaf hopper vectors require a feeding period of one to several days before they
become viruliferous, but once they have acquired the virus they may remain viruliferous for the
rest of their lives. Usually there is an incubation period of 1 to 2 weeks between the time a leaf
hopper requires a virus and the time it can transmit it for the first time.
b. Mites
Mites belonging to the families eriophyidae (eriophid mite) and tetranychidae (spider
mite) transmit plant viruses.
c. Fungi
C. Fungi
Some soil - borne fungal plant pathogens transmit plant viruses. Olpidium brassicae,
Ploymyxa graminis, P. betae and Spongospora subterranea are the fungi involved in
transmission of virus disease. The viruses are apparently borne in or on the resting spores and the
zoospores, which upon infection of new host plants introduce the virus and cause symptoms
characteristic of the virus they transmit. All these fungi are pathogens of the host, which carry of
viruses. The zoospores of the fungi are released from the host and the zoospores carry the virus
and transmit it to the susceptible hosts during their infection process. In some cases plant viruses
are carried on the outside of the fungi. Examples are tobacco necrosis virus and cucumber
mosaic virus.
The viruses like lettuce big vein virus are found inside the zoospores. They persist for
years in viable resting sporangia. The types of transmission by fungi can be considered as non-
persistent and persistent transmission. The list of fungi and the virus diseases transmitted by
them are given in the following table.
S.No Fungal vector Disease

1. Olpidium brassicae Lettuce big vein, Lettuce necrosis,
Tobacco stunt, Tobacco necrosis
satellite
2. Synchytrium endobioticum Potato virus
3. Spongospora subterranea Potato mop top
d. Nematodes
Nematodes are soil borne organisms. Some of the nematodes act as agents for
dissemination of pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses. For example, the bacterium
Corynebacterium tritici that causes yellow ear rot of wheat is disseminated by ear cockle
nematode. Similarly, some pathogenic fungi such as, Phytophthora, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, etc.,
are carried on the body of nematodes. Nematodes help these pathogenic fungi to enter into the
host through punctures for their own entry and enter into hosts along with the nematodes. Plant
nematodes play a vital role as vector in transmitting certain virus diseases. Nematode vectors
transmit viruses by feeding on roots of infected plants and then moving on roots of healthy
plants. Larvae as well as adult nematodes can acquire and transmit viruses, but the virus is not
carried through the larval molts or through the eggs. After moulting, the larvae or the resulting
adults must feed on a virus source before they can transmit again. Xiphinema, Longidorus and
Trichodorus transmit both the polyhedral and tubular type of viruses. The important viral
diseases transmitted by nematodes are given below:
Virus group Virus Vector

Tobra virus (Tobacco rattle Pea early browning, Paratrichodorous sp.
group virus) Tobacco rattle Trichodorous spp
Nepo virus (Nematode Grapevine chrome virus Xiphinema index
transmitted polyhedral Tobacco Ringspot X. americanum
virus) Tomato ringspot X. americanum
e. Human being
Man is the most important factor responsible for.' short distance and 'long distance
dispersal of plant pathogens. He helps in dissemination unknowingly by his usual agricultural
practices. Human being's role in dissemination of plant pathogens is more direc of plant
pathogens by human beings is known anthropochory. The ways and means by which human
beings help in dispersal are as follows.
i. Transportation of seeds (Seed trade)
Seed trade is one of the different means of dispersal of plant pathogens in which man
plays an important role. The import and export of contaminated seeds without proper precautions
lead to movement of pathogens from one country to another or from one continent to another.
Through this way pathogens of soybean and sugarbeet hither to not prevalent in India got
introduced. Human agencies of individual, official and unofficial have transported new plants
and plant products, the seed, the tubers, the propagating stock and fruits, which carried the plant
pathogens, many times in a latent condition and which ultimately lead to the outbreaks of new
diseases in places, hither to free from them. The diseases which are amenable to such
transmission are mainly those that are carried in or on the propagative parts and seed such as late
blight of potato, the downy mildew of grapevine, citrus canker, chestnut blight, Dutch elm
disease, Fusarium wilt of banana, Katte disease of cardamom and buncilY top of banana. A few
such diseases together with their places of origin and years and introduction are given in Table
below:
Disease Original home Introduced Year of
country introduction
Citrus canker Asia USA 1907
Fireblight of apple USA New Zealand 1919
Powdery mildew of USA Europe 1845

grape vine
Downy mildew of USA France 1878
grapevine
Late blight of potato South America USA 1830
Panama disease of Panama Islands Bonbay 1920
banana
Bunchy top of Sri Lanka South India -
banana
Many of these diseases, not very destructive in their homelands, have brought in ruin and
devastation. The sale of seeds for crops badly affected by a seed-borne pathogen is a common
method of dispersal of destructive pathogens e.g. loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici),
grain smut of sorghum (Sporisorium sorghi), ergot of pearl millet (Claviceps fusiformis) and
Kamal bunt of wheat (Neovossia indica).
ii. Planting diseased seed materials (vegetatively propagated materials)
Planting diseased bulbs, bulbils, corns, tubers, rhizomes, cutting etc. of vegetatively
propagated plants such as potato, sweet potato, cassava, sugarcane, banana, many ornamentals
and fruit trees etc. help in dispersal of pathogens from field to field, orchard to orchard, locality
to locality or from one country to another.
iii. By adopting farming practices
Human beings (men and women) engaged in preparatory cultivation, planting, irrigation,
weeding, pruning etc. help in dispersal of plant pathogens. The fungal spores (oospores,
chlamydospores), dormant structures like sclerotia are carried by worker's clothing, shoes, hand
etc. from field to field. Men or women engaged in intercultivation in tobacco field spread the
dreaded tobacco.
iv. Through clothing
Palm workers engaged in cleaning coconuttrees spread bud rot disease.
v. By use of contaminated implements
Pathogens are transferred from one area to another through implements used in various
cultural operations (weeding, hoeing thinning etc.) in the field. e.g: root rot of pulses and cotton
(Macrophomina phaseo/ina, bacterial angular leaf spot of cucumber (Pseudomonas /achrymans)

and bacterial canker of tomato (Corynebacterium michiganensis). Cutting knives and pruning
knives help in dissemination from one plant to another e.g., Bunchy top of banana.
vi. By use of diseased grafting and budding materials
Grafting and budding between healthy and diseased plants is the most effective method
of distribution of pathogens of horticultural crops (fruit trees, ornamentals etc.) e.g., Careless
selection of stocks and scions in propagation of citrus trees.
f. Farm and wild animals
Farm animals (cattles) while feeding on diseased fodder ingest the viable fungal
propagules (spores or oospores or sclerotia) into their digestive system. Animals which feed on
downy mildew affected pearlmillet or sorghum take the oospores along with the fodder.
Oospores pass out as such in the dung. This dung when used as manure spread in the field and
act as source of inoculum. Smut fungi like grain smut of sorghum, loose smut and head smut of
sorghum are carried from field to field through the alimentary canals of farm animals. Soil
inhabiting fungi especially sclerotia adhere to the hoofs and legs of animals and get transported
to other places. Animals passing through the tobacco fields help in transmission of TMV.
g. Birds
In general, transmission by birds is of minor importance. But this method is important in
dissemination of seeds of flowering parasites and certain. fungi. Many migratory birds, such as
mistle thrush (Turdus viscivorus) in the temperate region and the crows (Crovos
brachyrhynchos) in the tropics, take active part in the transmission of giant mistletoe
(Dendrophthoe spp.) either through external contamination of their beaks and feathers or
internally through the alimentary canals. These birds feeding on the fleshy, sticky and gelatinous
berries of giant mistletoe deposit the seeds on the other trees with the excreta.
Stem segments of dodder (Cuscuta spp.) are carried by birds for buildingtheir' nests. Thus
the phanerogamic parasites are getting transported to new locations. Spores of chestnut blight
fungus, Endothea parasitica are disseminated by not less than 18 species of birds. Internal
transmission of this pathogen is carried out by the birds, which visit such diseased plants and get
contaminated by the spores. Birds are also known to carry the spores of fungi on their, body.
h. Phanerogamic parasites
Plant viruses are transmitted from one plant to another through the bridge formed
between the two plants by the twining stems of the parasitic plant dodder (Cuscuta spp). Dodder
is yellow vine without green leaves. In this way viruses are transmitted between plants belonging
to families widely separated taxonomically. The virus is transmitted in the food stream of the
dodder plant, being acquired from the vascular bundles of the infected plant by the haustoria of
dodder. After translocation through the dodder phloem the virus is introduced in the next plant
by the new dodder haustoria produced in contact with the vascular bundles of the inoculated
plant. Cuscuta californica, C. campestris, C. subinclusa are usually employed for dodder
transmission of viruses and phytoplasmas. C. europaea, C. epilinum and C. lupuliformis are also
employed in transmission of viruses.
2. Inanimate agents
a. Wind
The wind dispersal of plant pathogens is known as anemochory. It is one of the most
common methods of the dispersal of plant pathogens. It is the most dangerous and potent mode
of travel for plant pathogenic fungi. It acts as potent carrier of propagules of fungi, bacteria and
viruses. Usually the fungal pathogens are light in weight and are well adapted to wind dispersal.
Some pathogenic bacteria are carried along with the infected material to short distances by wind.
Damping-off pathogen (Pythium spp.), wart disease pathogen of potato (Synchytrium
endobioticum); root rot pathogens (Sclerotium and Rhizoctonia) and seeds of phanerogamic
parasites witchweed (Striga) are efficiently carried by wind. Viruses and phytoplasmas are not
directly transmitted by wind, but the insect and mite vectors that carry the'viruses move to
different directions and distances depending upon the direction and speed of air.
The adaptations for wind dispersal in fungal pathogens include, production of numerous
spores and conidia, discharge of spores with sufficient force, production of very small and light
spores so that they can move to long distances. The duration and periodicity of sporulation and
discharge are also important factors for wind dispersal. Some fungal pathogens causing powdery
mildews, downy mildews, rusts, smuts, sooty moulds, leaf spots, blast, apple scab etc., produce
large number of very light spores and conidia on the surface of the host. Uredial stages of the
rust fungi travel long distances through air currents and are thus responsible for destructive
epidemics over wide areas.
Wind transmission involves the upward air currents, velocity and the downward
movements of wind. All are equally responsible for the spread of infection and ultimate outbreak
of diseases and have been of special significance in the rust, smut and t>last fungi. Uredospores
of rust fungi have been carried to long distances, both cross-wise and upwards. Christensen
(1942) and Stakman (1946) determined by exposure of Vaseline slides in the upper air through
aeroplane flights, that uredospores and" aeciospores of Puccinia gramminis tritici could be
gathered in a viable condition up to a distance of 4,200 m, above infected fields, Alternaria sp. at
2,400 m. and those of Puccinia tritieina at 3,750 m. The transmission of aecial spores of
Puceinia graminis trWei from several groups of barberry bushes to the wheat crop showed that
these spores traveled successfully over a radius of 3 kms round about these bushes. The blister
rust fungus, Cronartium ribicola, is known to travel to a distance of 500 metres or 3,750 m.
inside a plantation that the range is probably more in the open. Similar observations have been
made in respect of dissemination of chlamydospores ofthe smut fungi.
In long distance dissemination with intervening stages of infection, the retention of
viability of spores is an important factor that determines the extent and severity of epidemics,
over wide areas. The outbreaks of cereal rusts and blast of rice are examples of such
dissemination. Spores differ widely in their ability to survive long distance travel through air.
Uredospores of rusts, chlamydospores or smut fungi and conidia of Alternaria,
Helminthosporium, Pyricularia and others are well adapted for long distance travel in a viable
condition and are known to play a vital role in epidemiology. The conidia of downy mildews,
powdery mildews and the aeciospores and basidiospores of the rust fungi are unable to withstand
such long distance dissemination when they are exposed to desiccation and direct sunshine and
thus are only capable of producing local epiphytotics of limited magnitude.
The bacteria causing fire blight of apple and pear (Erwinia amylovora) produce fine
strands of dried bacterial exudates containing bacteria and these strands may be broken off and
they are transmitted by wind. Bacteria and nematodes present in the soil-may be shown away
along with soil particles. Wind also helps in the dissemination of bacteria, fungal spores and
nematodes by blowing away rain splash droplets containing these pathogens. Wind carries
insects and mites that may contain _ or are smeared with viruses, bacteria or fungal spores to
short or long distances. Wind also causes adjacent plants or plant parts to rub against each other.
The wound created in this manner help the spread by contact of bacteria (citrus canker), fungi,
some viruses (Tobacco mosaic virus) and viroids and possibly of some nematodes.
b. Water
Transmission of plant pathogens by water (hydrochory as called by Gaiimann, 1950) is
not as significant as wind transmission. Although water is less important than air in long-distance
transport of pathogens, water dissemination of pathogens is more efficient, in that the pathogens
land on an already wet surface and can move or germinate immediately. In case of some diseases
the surface flow of water after heavy showers of rains or irrigation water from canals and wells
carries the pathogens to short distances. Soil inhabiting fungi like, Fusarium, Ganoderma,
Macrophomina Phytophthora, Plasmodiophora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia,
Sporisorium, Ustilago, Verticillium etc., in the form of mycelial fragments, spores or sclerotia,
soil-bone bacteria and nematodes carrying viruses are transmitted through the above process.
They are transmitted through rain or irrigation water that moves on the surface or through the
soil.
All bacteria and the spores of many fungi are exuded in a sticky liquid and depend for
their dissemination on rain or (overhead) irrigation water, which either washes them downward
or splashes them in all directions.
Raindrops or drops from overhead irrigation pickup the fungal spores (uredospores of
Hemileia, Puccinia and Uromyces and bacteria (bacterial blight pathogen of rice, Xanthomonas
Olyzae pv. oryzae; bacterial leaf streak pathogen, X oryzae pv. translucens; citrus canker
pathogen, X axonopodis pv. citri; tomato bacterial blight pathogen, Ciavibacter michiganensis
and cotton bacterial blight pathogen, X.axonopodis pv. malvacearum present in the air and wash
them downward where some of them may land on susceptible plants.
Lecture 16
Phenomenon of infection – pre-penetration, penetration and post penetration
The "infection process" can be divided into three phases: pre-entry, entry and
colonisation. It encompasses the germination or multiplication of an infective propagule in or on
a potential host through to the establishment of a parasitic relationship between the pathogen and
the host. The process of infection is influenced by properties of the pathogen, the host and the
external environment. If any of the stages of the infection process is inhibited by any of these
factors, the pathogen will not cause disease in the host.
While some parasites colonise the outside of the plant (ectoparasites), pathogens may
also enter the host plant by penetration, through a natural opening (like a stomatal pore) or via a
wound. The symptoms of the diseases produced by these pathogens result from the disruption of
respiration, photosynthesis, translocation of nutrients, transpiration, and other aspects of growth
and development.
Pre Entry
Before a pathogen can penetrate a host tissue, a spore must germinate and grow on the
surface of the plant. In the case of motile pathogens, they must find the host and negotiate its
surface before entering the host. Some pathogens develop specialised penetration structures, such
as appressoria, while others utilise pre-existing openings in the plant's surface, such as wounds or
stomatal pores. Plant viruses are often transported and introduced into the plant via vectors such
as fungi or insects.
The initial contact between infective propagules of a parasite and a potential host plant is
called inoculation. Pathogens use a variety of stimuli to identify a suitable entry point. Several
fungi use topographical cues on the plant surface to guide them towards a likely stomatal site.
Once the hypha reaches a stoma, volatile compounds escaping from the pore appear to provide a
signal for the formation of a specialised penetration structure, the appressorium. Sugars, amino
acids and minerals secreted by plants at the leaf surface can non-specifically trigger spore
germination or provide nutrition for the pathogen. Some pathogenic spores will not germinate in
the absence of these substances.
Pathogen development is influenced by temperature, moisture, light, aeration, nutrient
availability and pH. The conditions necessary for survival and successful infection differ
between pathogens.
Entry
Pathogens exploit every possible pathway to enter their host, although individual species
of pathogen tend to have a preferred method. Fungal pathogens often use direct penetration of
the plant surface to enter the host. This requires adhesion to the plant surface, followed by the
application of pressure and then enzymatic degradation of the cuticle and cell wall, in order to
overcome the physical barriers presented by the plant's surface. During the degradation of the
cuticle and wall, a succession of genes are switched on and off in the pathogen, so that cutinase,
followed by cellulase, then pectinase and protease are produced, attacking the cuticle, cell wall,
and middle lamella in the order that they are encountered. The pressure needed for the hypha to
penetrate the cell wall is achieved by first firmly attaching the appressorium to the plant surface
with a proteinaceous glue. The cell wall of the apressorium then becomes impregnated with
melanin, making it watertight, and capable of containing the high turgor pressure that builds up
within the appressorium. The point of the appresorium that is in contact with the cuticle is called
the penetration pore, and the wall is thinnest at this point. The increasing turgor pressure causes
the pore to herniate, forming a penetration peg, which applies huge pressure to the host cuticle
and cell wall.
Penetration of host cuticle by a Deuteromycetes entomopathogens

1 = appressorial complex, 2 = penetration peg, 3 = penetration plate
The alternative pathway for pathogen entry is via a pre-existing opening in the plant
surface. This can be a natural opening or a wound. Pathogenic bacteria and nematodes often
enter through stomatal pores when there is a film of moisture on the leaf surface. Fungi can also
penetrate open stomata without the formation of any specialised structures. Some fungi form a
swollen appressorium over the stomatal aperture and a fine penetration hypha enters the airspace
inside the leaf, where it forms a sub-stomatal vesicle, from which infection hyphae emerge and
form haustoria in surrounding cells. Also vulnerable to pathogen invasion are hydathodes,
pores at the leaf margin that are continuous with the xylem. Under particularly humid conditions,
droplets of xylem fluid (guttation droplets) can emerge at the surface of the leaf where they can
be exposed to pathogenic bacteria, which then enter the plant when the droplet retreats back into
the hydathode as the humidity decreases. Lenticels are raised pores that allow gas exchange
across the bark of woody plants. They exclude most pathogens, but some are able to enter the
plant via this route. Some specialised pathogens can also use more unusual openings, such as
nectaries, styles and ectodesmata. Entry through a wound does not require the formation of
specialised structures, and many of the pathogens that utilise wounds to enter the plant are unable
to penetrate the plant surface otherwise. Most plant viruses entrer through wounds, such as those
made by their insect vectors.
Colonisation
A successful infection requires the establishment of a parasitic relationship between the
pathogen and the host, once the host has gained entry to the plant. There are two broad categories
of pathogens are biotrophs (those that establish an infection in living tissue) and necrotrophs
(those that kill cells before colonising them, by secreting toxins that diffuse ahead of the
advancing pathogen). These two kinds of pathogens are also sometimes known as 'sneaks' and
'thugs', because of the tactics they use to acquire nutrients from their hosts. The toxins produced
by necrotrophs can be specific to the host or non-specific. Non-specific toxins are involved in a
broad range of plant-fungus or plant-bacterial interactions, and will therefore not usually
determine the host range of the pathogen producing them. Necrotrophs often enter the plant
through wounds and cause immediate and severe symptoms. An intermediate category of
parasite is the hemibiotrophs, which start off as biotrophs and eventually become necrotrophic,
employing tactics from both classes of pathogen.
Pathogens that colonise the surface of plants, extracting nutrients through haustoria in
epidermal or mesophyll cells are termed ectoparasites. The haustoria are the only structures that
penetrate the host cells. Some parasites colonise the area between the cuticle and the outer wall
of the epidermal cells, penetrating host epidermal and mesophyll cells with haustoria. These are
called sub-cuticular infections. Pathogens can also form colonies deeper in the plant tissues.
These are mesophyll and parenchyma infections, and can be necrotrophic, hemibiotrophicor
biotrophic relationships. Necrotrophs do not produce specialised penetration structures. Instead,
they kill host cells by secreting toxins, then degrade the cell wall and middle lamella, allowing
their hyphae to penetrate the plant cell walls and the cells themselves. In hemibiotrophic
infections, intercellular hyphae can form haustoria in living mesophyll cells, but as the lesion
expands under favourable conditions, those heavily parasitised cells at the inner, older part of the
colony collapse and die. A similar sequence of events can take place in plants infected by
burrowing nematodes. Viruses, mildews and rusts develop specialised biotrophic relationships
with their hosts. Intercellular hyphae of downy mildew colonise host mesophyll cells and form
haustoria. The mildew sporulates and the infected cells eventually die, although necrosis is
delayed and contained, compared to that caused by necrotrophic pathogens. Rust fungi can also
delay senescence in infected cells while they sporulate. Vascular infections usually cause
wilting and discoloration as a result of the physical blockage of infected xylem vessels. True
vascular wilt pathogens colonise the vascular tissue exclusively, although other pathogens can
cause the same symptoms if they infect the vascular system as well as other tissues. There are a
few pathogens that manage to achieve systemic infection of their host. For example, many
viruses can spread to most parts of the plant, although not necessarily all tissues. Some downy
mildews can also systemically infect their host by invading the vascular tissue and growing
throughout the host, causing deformation, rather than necrosis. Finally, there are some pathogens
that complete their entire life cycle within the cells of their host, and may spread from cell to cell
during cytokinesis. These are endobiotic infections.
Disease Physiology
While necrotrophs have little effect on plant physiology, since they kill host cells before
colonising them, biotrophic pathogens become incorporated into and subtly modify various
aspects of host physiology, such as respiration, photosynthesis, translocation, transpiration and
growth and development. The respiration rate of plants invariably increases following infection
by fungi, bacteria or viruses. The higher rate of glucose catabolism causes a measurable increase
in the temperature of infected leaves. An early step in the plant's response to infection is an
oxidative burst, which is manifested as a rapid increase in oxygen consumption, and the release
of reactive oxygen species, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the superoxide anion (O2-).
The oxidative burst is involved in a range of disease resistance and wound repair mechanisms.
LINK to Rapid Active Defense
In resistant plants, the increase in respiration and glucose catabolism is used to produce
defence-related metabolites via the pentose phosphate pathway. In susceptible plants, the extra
energy produced is used by the growing pathogen.
Pathogens also affect photosynthesis, both directly and indirectly. Pathogens that cause
defoliation rob the plant of photosynthetic tissue, while necrotrophs decrease the photosynthetic
rate by damaging chloroplasts and killing cells. Biotrophs affect photosynthesis in varying
degrees, depending on the severity of the infection. A biotrophic infection site becomes a strong
metabolic sink, changing the pattern of nutrient translocation within the plant, and causing net
influx of nutrients into infected leaves to satisfy the demands of the pathogen. The depletion,
diversion and retention of photosynthetic products by the pathogen stunts plant growth, and
further reduced the plant's photosynthetic efficiency. In addition, pathogens affect water relations
in the plants they infect. Biotrophs have little effect on transpiration rate until sporulation
ruptures the cuticle, at which point the plant wilts rapidly. Pathogens that infect the roots directly
affect the plant's ability to absorb water by killing the root system, thus producing secondary
symptoms such as wilting and defoliation. Pathogens of the vascular system similarly affect
water movement by blocking xylem vessels. Growth and development in general are affected
by pathogen infection, as a result of the changes in source-sink patterns in the plant. Many
pathogens disturb the hormone balance in plants by either releasing plant hormones themselves,
or by triggering an increase or a decrease in synthesis or degradation of hormones in the plant.
This can cause a variety of symptoms, such as the formation of adventitious roots, gall
development, and epinasty (the down-turning of petioles).
Lecture 17
PATHOGENESIS – ROLE OF ENZYMES, TOXINS, GROWTH REGULATORS AND

POLYSACCHARIDES
The term pathogenesis means step by step development of a disease and the chain of
events leading to that disease due to a series of changes in the structure and /or function of a
cell/tissue/organ being caused by a microbial, chemical or physical agent. The pathogenesis of a
disease is the mechanism by which an etiological factor causes the disease. The term can also be
used to describe the development of the disease, such as acute, chronic and recurrent. The word
comes from the Greek pathos, "disease", and genesis, "creation".
There are several chemical weapons secreted by pathogens that are utilized as they carry
out their activities. These weapons include enzymes, toxins, growth regulators and
polysaccharides.
Enzymes
Cutinases, cellulases, pectinases and lignases are often secreted by the pathogenic
organism. Fungi, nematodes and bacteria are all known to produce one or more of the above
enzymes in specific pathogen-host combinations. Viruses and viroids are generally not
considered to secrete enzymes, although some viruses may encapsidate an enzyme in their
particle.
Pathogenic organisms either continually secrete enzymes or upon contact with the host
plant. As we mentioned in class on Tuesday, the first surface an organism comes into contact
with is cuticle and the cell wall of the plant. As we also mentioned, the cuticle is comprised of a
complex wax, cutin, which impregnates the cellulose wall. The cell wall is comprised of
cellulose, which makes up the structural framework of the wall, along with the matrix molecules
hemicellulose, glycoproteins, pectin and lignin. Thus, penetration into living parenchymatous
tissues and degradation of middle lamella is due to the action of one or more enzymes which
degrade these chemical substances. Cutinases degrade the cutin on the cuticle layer presoftening
the tissue for mechanical penetration or as a first step in tissue degradation. Studies have shown
that several fungi and at least one bacterial species produce cutinases. Further, evidence
indicates that cutinases are continually produced, albeit in low concentrations, with degradation
products often inducing even higher levels of cutinase secretion. Studies have shown that in
some organisms, cutinase production may be linked to virulence. Pectic substances comprise the
middle lamella and also form an amorphous gel between the cellulose microfibrils in the primary
cell wall. Pectin degrading substances often termed pectinases or pectolytic enzymes include
pectin methyl esterases (PME). polygalacturonases (PG) and pectin lyases or transeliminases.
Pectin methyl esterases remove small groups such as methyl groups (CH3) often altering
solubility and thus affecting the rate of chain splitting by polygalacaturonase and pectin lyase.
Polygalacturonases split chains by adding a molecule of water, while pectin lyases split chains
by removing a water molecule from the linkage. Pectin degrading enzymes are involved in a
wide range of plant diseases particularly in the soft rot diseases (Examples: bacterial soft rot due
to Erwinia carotovora, leaf drop of lettuce and water soft rot of crucifers (Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum) and damping off in various seedlings due to Rhizoctonia solani). Organisms such
as these, as well as, elaborate pectic enzymes lead to tissue maceration. In fact, these enzymes
are sometimes referred to as macerating enzymes.
Cellulases
Cellulose is the major framework molecule of the plant cell wall existing as microfibrils
with matrix molecules (glycoproteins, hemicelluloses, pectins, lignins) filling the spaces
between the microfibrils and cellulose chains. Cellulases have been shown to be produced by
many pathogenic fungi, bacteria and nematodes. Cellulolytic enzymes play a role in softening
and disintegration of cell walls. No doubt cellulolytic enzymes are involved in the invasion and
spread of the pathogen, but also are instrumental in the collapse of cells and tissues. As pointed
out in Agrios text, indirectly cellulolytic enzymes participate indirectly in disease development
by releasing soluble sugars that may be used as nutrients by pathogens and also may be involved
in the release of materials in the vascular system interfering with transport or translocation of
water.
Hemicellulases
Hemicelluloses are complex polysaccharide polymers that link the ends of pectic
compounds to cellulose microfibrils. Since hemicelluloses are such a diverse group of polymers
such as xyloglucans, glucomannans, glactomannans, arabinoglucans, etc., several hemicellulases
have been identified in many plant pathogenic fungi. The mechanism by which they participate
in cell wall breakdown is not clear, nor is it known how they contribute to pathogenesis.
Ligninases
Lignin is a phenylpropanoid which is found in the middle lamella and secondary cell wall
of plants. More than anything else, lignin confers the tough, woody nature to woody tissues.
According to Agrios text, only about 500 species of fungi are capable of decomposing wood.
Most lignin degradation is by basidiomycetes known as white- rot fungi. These fungi produce
ligninases that enable the fungi to utilize lignin.
Toxins as Chemical Weapons of Pathogens
Toxins have been implicated in plant disease as far back as deBary who advanced a theory of
plant disease often termed the “toxin theory”. A primary tenant of the toxin theory is that a toxin
elaborated by a pathogen may produce all of the symptoms of the disease. As more information
was developed the theory was largely discarded. As we will see a little later in this discussion,
the discovery of the toxin victorin, a host specific toxin, revived interest in the toxin theory of
plant disease. Toxins may act directly on living host cells, damaging or even killing the host.
Some toxins are active on a wide range of plant species (non-host-specific) or in some cases, as
with the toxin victorin (host-specific).
Non-Host Specific Toxins
Tabtoxin---Pseudomonas syringae p.v. tabaci
Phaseolotoxin---Pseudomonas syringae p.v. phaseolicola
Tentoxin---Alternaria alternata
Tabtoxin
This is the toxin involved in the “wildfire disease of tobacco”. In this disease, leaves
exhibit necrotic spots surrounded by a yellow halo. Identical symptoms of the disease may be
induced by culture filtrates of the organism or purified toxins with symptoms identical to that of
wildfire of tobacco. Similar effects may also be observed on a relatively wide range of hosts,
thus making the toxin non-host specific. Tabtoxin chemically is a dipeptide composed of the
amino acids threonine and tabtoxinine. In the cell tabtoxin is cleaved releasing the tabtoxinine
moiety which is the active toxin. The inhibition of the enzyme glutamine synthetase is the
primary mode of action of the toxin.
Phaseolotoxin
This is the toxin involved in one of the bacterial bean blights called "halo blight".
Symptoms of the disease incited by the bacterium can be produced by the toxin alone.
Chemically the toxin is a tripeptide of ornithine-alanine-arginine with a phosphosulfinyl group.

Within cells the toxin is enzymatically cleaved releasing phosphosulfinylornithine which is the
toxic moiety. Cellular affects are a result of the inactivation of the enzyme ornithine carbamoyl-
transferase.
Tentoxin
This is the toxin produced by Alternaria alternata. The disease induced by this organism
is primarily a seedling disease in a wide range of plant species. Seedling death results when
greater than one-third of the leaf area become chlorotic, and reduce vigor with less than that
amount of leaf chlorosis. The toxin is a cyclic tripeptide that binds to and inactivates a
chloroplast-coupling factor protein involved in energy transfer and also the inhibition of light
dependent phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP.
Host-Specific Toxins
The idea that toxins play causal roles in plant diseases is attractive and dates back to the
time of deBary. A very good reference on the role of toxins in plant disease is the following:
"Microbial Toxins in Plant Disease" by Harry Wheeler and H. H. Luke published in Annual
Review of Microbiology, Vol 17, 1963. This review gives an excellent account of the discovery
of host-specific toxins. When one reduces the toxin theory to its most elementary form, it can be
stated that all of the symptoms of a given disease result from the direct action of a toxic product
of the pathogen in that disease. Tenents of this theory can be tested by the following criteria:
a) the toxin, applied at concentrations which could be reasonably expected in or around the
diseased plant, produces in a susceptible host all the symptoms characteristic of the disease;
b) the pathogen and the toxin exhibit similar suscept (host) specificity
c) the ability of the pathogen to produce the toxin varies directly with its ability to cause disease
d) a single toxin is involved.
The first toxin isolated that fulfilled the above criteria was that produced by Cochliobolus
(Helminthosporium) victoriae. "Helminthosporium leaf blight of oats appeared in 1945 with the
introduction and widespread use of the oat variety Victoria' and its derivatives which contained
the Vb gene for resistance to the crown rust disease. In the victoria lines, the infects the basal
portions of plants, and as it infects, the fungus elaborates a toxin that is carried to the leaves,
causing a severe leaf blight, and death of the plant. All other oat varieties and other plant species
are either immune or sensitivity to the toxin was proportional to their susceptibility to the
fungus. In addition to the toxin producing external symptoms identical to that induced by the
pathogen, internal biochemical and histochemical induced by the toxin are identical to that
induced by the pathogen.
Chemically, the toxin is a complex chlorinated cyclic pentapeptide. Ultastructural studies
demonstrate the primary target of the toxin is the plasma membrane. Here, it apparently binds to
proteins and in some yet to be determined mechanism alters the metabolism of susceptible cells
T-Toxin
This is another good example of a host-specific toxin. The toxin is produced in common
corn disease "Southern Corn Leaf Blight" incited by the fungus Cochliobolus heterostrophus
formerly known as Helminthosporium maidis. T-toxin is produced by race T of the fungus that
first appeared in the United States in 1968. By 1970, severe losses occured throughout the corn-
belt in corn that carried the Texas male-sterile (Tms) cytoplasm. Corn varieties with normal
cytoplasm were found to be resistant to the fungus and also to the toxin. The toxin, chemically,
is a mixture of linear, long polyketols with 35 to 45 carbon atoms. The toxin specifically affects
mitochondria of susceptible cells where ATP synthesis is inhibited.
Hc-Toxin
One other example of a host-specific toxin in the HC-Toxin produced by the fungus
Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) carbonum which incites a leaf spot disease in corn. The toxin
is specific to only certain maize (corn) lines. The mechanism of action of the toxin is poorly
understood at the present time, although the molecular and biochemical basis for resistance is
well understood
Growth Regulators as Weapons
As you know, plant growth is the result of three factors: cell divisions, cell elongation
and cell differentiation. Plant growth is controlled by a group of naturally occurring compounds
with hormonal action that are often referred to as plant growth regulators, plant growth
hormones, etc. The major groups of plant growth regulators are the auxins, gibberellins, kinins
and ethylene. Plant growth regulators are not unlike any hormone, in that, they act is very small
concentrations, with slight changes in the normal level resulting in profound changes in the
growth pattern of the plant. Pathogens often cause an imbalance in the hormonal system by
causing the infected plant to produce more or less hormone, or in some cases the pathogen itself
elaborates hormone thus changing the hormone level. Some of the commonly observed
symptoms related to effects on plant growth regulation are: stunting, overgrowths, galling, root
branching, adventitious root formation, defoliation, rosetting, leaf epinasty, etc.
Auxins
Auxins are the major growth regulator in plants and are defined as growth regulators
whose major mode of action is cell elongation; they resemble indole-3-acetic acid in their
activity. The naturally occurring auxin is indole acetic acid (IAA). Increased levels of auxin
occur in plants infected with fungi, bacteria, viruses, molicutes and nematodes. Following are a
few important diseases directly related to altered auxin levels:
Corn smut (Ustilago maydis), clubroot of crucifers (Plasmodiophora brassicae), southern
bacterial wilt (Rolstonia solanacearum formerly Pseudomonas solanacearum, crown gall
(Agrobacterium tumefaciens) good examples of diseases where altered auxin levels have been
implicated in disease.
Gibberellins
A century ago, rice farmer in Asia noticed some exceptionally tall seedlings growing in
their paddies. Before these rice seedlings could mature and flower, they grew so tall and spindly
that they toppled over. In Japan, this aberration in growth pattern became known as bakanae
(`foolish seedling disease') disease of rice. In 1926, Kurosawa, a Japanese scientist discovered
that the disease was caused by a fungal pathogen, Gibberella fujikuroi. By the 1930s, Japanese
scientists had determined that fungus produced hyper-elongation of rice stems by secreting a
chemical, which was given the name gibberellin. Gibberellins are normal constituents of green
plants and also produced by several other microorganisms. The best known gibberellin is
gibberellic acid. In the past years, scientists have identified more than 80 different gibberellins,
many of them occurring naturally in plants. Spraying of diseased plants with gibberellin
overcomes some of the symptoms (stunding) caused by several virus- or mollicute-pathogens
indicating that gibberellin involves in disease development.
Ethylene
Ethylene production in infected tissues can be dramatically induced. This induction is
largely dependent on activation of the ethylene biosynthetic pathway in plant tissues. Genes
encoding several key enzymes involved in the ethylene biosynthesis are highly activated at the
transcriptional level. It has not been shown that ethylene is produced directly by plant pathogenic
fungi and bacteria.
Ethylene has been considered as a signal in plant for wounding and senesces responses. Recent
studies show that ethylene together with another signal component jasmonic acid may plays an
essential role in plant defense responses of several pathosystems.
 Induced ethylene production in infected tissues.
 Ethylene induces expression of certain types of PR-genes and some signal components
involved in defense signaling.
 Ethylene insensitive mutants block several PR-gene-expression.
 Ethylene insensitive mutants can be beneficial against some pathogens but deleterious to
resistance against other pathogens in a specific a gene-for-gene manner.
Other chemical weapons include polysaccharides, plant defense suppressors, transporters etc.
Plant viruses and viroids are not known to produce any substances themselves, but they adapt,
induce and manipulate the host metabolism to replicate themselves
Lecture 18
DEFENSE MECHANISM IN PLANTS - STRUCTURAL AND BIO-CHEMICAL (PRE

AND POSTINFECTION)
Introduction
Adjustment is probably, one of the most important virtue of a system that ensures it
survival, be it host or parasite. On planet earth, the green plants (autotrophs) constitute the only
biological system capable of converting solar energy (electro-magnetic radiations) into chemical
energy. Plants as a biological system resist this exploitation, at all levels and by all means.The co
evolution, forced by co-existence with pathogen, has led to development of defence mechanism
in plants.
Thus, resistance against any 'deleterious act' has become a natural and universal response of
plant system. The resistance against parasites/pathogen is the heritable trait of plants by virtue of
which they resist attack by parasites/pathogens or their activities. The defence mechanism(s) has
ensured the survival of plants in spite of living amongst some of the potentiality devastating
pathogens in addition to abiotic stresses. Plants have also developed ability to resist/tolerate
various abiotic stresses.
Pathogenesis and Host Response
Analysis of most of the host parasite relationships reveals that on the pattern of
pathogenesis, the plants on their part, do exhibit defence mechanisms (structural and cnemical)
as soon as challenged by the pathogen. The moment pathogen propagules come in contact with
host surface. the plants due to hereditary characters have several naturally occuring physical and
chemical barriers (preexisting) resisting penetration, and if at all the penetration occurs, the host
reacts by different means resulting in formation of physical and chemical barriers. These two
conditions are discussed in picture below:
Pathogens Host Reaction
Pre-penetration Naturally occurring

and Penetration Pre-existing defence structure
Biochemical defence
Invasion
Colonization
Post infectional
Structural defence
Diseases Biochemical defence
(Symptoms)
Defense Mechanisms: Pre-existing or Passive

A Pre-existing Structural Defenses
The first line of defence in plants is present in its surface. Several characters of the plants
surface function as barriers to penetration which pathogen must breach to enter the host. The
pathogens enter the plant host by penetrating the epidermis along with cuticle and cuticular wax
and number of natural openings existing before the onset of the pathogenesis can obstruct
penetration.
If the pathogen succeeds in penetration; it encounters pre-existing internal structural
barriers. The external and internal structural barriers existing before pathogen attack are also
called Pre-existing defence structures or passive/static or anit-infection structures.
Wax and cuticle
The cuticle covers the epidermal cells of plants and consists of pectin layer, a cutinized
layer and a wax layer. Cutin is composed of fatty acids. Waxes are mixture of long chain
aliphatic compounds which prevent the retention of water on plant surface essential for spore
germination. A negative charge usually develops on leaf surfaces due to fatty acids. This
condition repels air-bone spore / propogules. Only few pathogens are known to dissolve cutin
enzymatically. Examples: Monilinia fructicola penetrates cuticle of cherry leaves but not of
Gingko biloba leaves; the latter contains abundant cutin than the former. F. solani f sp. Pisi
produces the enzyme cutinase production by specific antibodies and inhibitors.
Epidermal layer
Epidermis is the first layer of living host cells that comes in contact with attacking
microbes. The toughness of epidermis is due to the polymers of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin
mineral substances, polymerized organic compounds, suberin etc. Potato tubers resistant to
Pythium debaryanum contain higher fibre. Silicon accumulation in epidemal walls provides
resistance against fungal attack. Suberization of epidermis confers protection against plant
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri because of broad cuticulat lips covering the stomata. A
functional defence mechanism has been observed in some varities (cv-Hope) in which stomato
open late in the day when moisture on leaf surface has dried and the infection tunes have become
non fuctional.
Hydathodes are natural openings on the edges of leaves and serve to excrete excess
water from the interior. They are easy entry pints of bacterial pathogens such as X.capestris pv.
capestis (black rot of cabbage), Similar to hydathodes are the nectarthodes in inflorescence of
many plants. They secrete sugary nectar and this serves as barrier to those organisms that cannot
tolerate this condition and thus, can enter through nectarines. Leaf hairs on leaves and on
nectarines also resist entry of pathogens. High hairlines of leaves and pods in chickpea is
resistant character against Ascpchyta rabei. Groundnut varieties showing resistance to
Cercospora leaf spots have thick epidemis-cum cuticle and compact paslisade layer, few and
smaller stomata and high frequency or trochomes on the abaxial surface of leaf.
Lenticles are opening in outer walls involved in gaseous exchange. They are weak
points in defence unless the cork cells within them are suberized. After suberizatoin and
periderm formation, lenticels are more resistant to invasion by pathogens.
Pre-existing biochemical defence
Plants liberate different chemicals, which interfere with activities of the pathogen and
pathogenesis, thereby preventing or reduce infection. These chemicals and the biochemical
conditions that develop may act either directly through toxic or lytic effect on the invader or
indirectly through stimulating antagonistic plant surface microflora. The compounds pre-existing
in plants as constitutive antibiotics and those, which are formed in response to wounds as
wounds antibiotics.
Release of anti-microbial compounds

Plants while growing and developing release gases as well as organic substances, from
leaves and roots (leaf and root exudates), containing sugars, amino acid, organic acids, enzymes,
glycoside etc. These materials have profound effect on the nature of surrounding environment,
particularly the phyllosphere, rhiizosphere microflora and fauna. Although these substances are
ideal nutrients for microbes and help in germination and growth of several saprophytes and
parasites number of inhibitory substances is also present in these exudates. Theses inhibitory
substances directly affect the microorganism, or encourage certain groups to dominate the
environment and function as antagonists of the pathogen.
Inhibitors present in the plant cells
In many host-parasite interactions, pre-existing toxic substances in the cells form the
basis of resistance. In resistant variety these substances life in abundance while in susceptible
variety they may be less or completely absent. Several phenollic compounds, tannins and some
fatty acid like compounds such as dienes pre-exisitg in high concentrations in cells have been
implicated for the resistance or young tissues to parasitic fungi such as Botrytis. Many such
compounds are potent inhibitors of many hydrolytic enzymes. Several other types of preformed
compounds such as saponins (glycosylaled steroidal or triterpenoid compound) tomatine in
tomato and avenacin in oats, have antifungal membranolytic activity. The fungal pathogens
which lack enzymes (saponinases) that breakdown the saponins are prevented from infecting the
host. Several preformed plant proteins have been reported to act as inhibitors of pathogen
proteinases or of hydrolytic enzymes. Similarly lactins (proteins that bind to certain sugars)
cause lyses and growth inhibition of many fungi. Plants surface cells also contain variable
amounts of hydrolytic enzyymes such as glucanases and chitinases, which may cause breakdown
of pathogen cell wall components.
Lack of essential factors
Recognition factors
The first step in infection process is the cell-to-cell communication between host and
pathogens. Plants of species or varieties may not be infected by pathogen if their surface cells
lack specific recognition factors. If the pathogen does not recognize the plant as one of its hosts it
may not adhere to the host surface or it may not produce infection substances such as enzymes,
or structures (appresoria, haustoria). These recognition molecules are of various types of

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides and glycoproteins.
Host receptors and sites for toxins
In many host parasite interactions the pathogen produces host specific toxins, which are
responsible for symptoms and disease development. The molecules of toxin are supposed to
attach to specific sensitive sites or receptors in the cell. Only the plants that have such sensitive
sites become diseased
Essential nutrients and growth factors
The fact that many facultative saprophytes and most of the obligate parasites are host
specific and sometimes are so specialized that they can grow and reproduce only on certain
varieties of those species suggests that for these pathogens the essential nutrients and growth
factors are available only in these hosts. Absence of these nutrients and stimulus make the other
varieties and species unsuitable hosts.
Defence mechanism: Induced or active
Plants have to face the wide variety of pathogens (enemies) standing at a place. Thus a
strategically designed pre-existing (structural and biochemical) defence mechanism in plants
exists. The real value of this system has not been critically examined. It appears that these pre-
existing defence mechanisms help plants in warding-off most of microbes as nonpathogens. But
it does not seems t be sufficient.
The induced/active defence mechanism in plants may operate at different levels
 Biochemical defence
 Defence at cellular level
 Defences at tissue level
The activation or induction of defence mechanism may be both specific and non-specific type.
Several structural changes are known to be induced by a range of biotic or abiotic elicitors.
These dynamic defence mechanisms prevent further colonization or spread of pathogen. Active
defence in plants involves cellular defences that rely upon preformed surveillance systems are
encoded by resistance genes. The receptor-proteins are strategically located in cell membrane to
detect the pathogen or factor translocated by pathogens. The ability of plant to mount an active
defence response is again under genomic control.
Disease occurs when
1. Pre-exisiting defence mechanism are not enough to check the entry of pathogen
2. A pathogen avoids timely eliciting active defence system in plant tissue or habits active
defence response by secreting metabolic toxins.
Induced structural defence
Induced histological defence
Even after the establishment of infection in plant cells, the host defence system tries to
create barriers for further colonization of tissues. This may be at various levels.
Lignifications
Lignified cell wall provide effective barrier to hyphal penetration. They also act as
impermeable barrier for free movement of nutrient causing starvation of pathogen.
Following are examples.
Radish: Peronospora parasitica, Alternaria japonica
Potato: Phytophtora infestans
Wheat: Septoria nodorum
Cucumber: Cladosporium cucumerium, Colletorichum lagenarium
Carrot: Botrytis cineria
Suberization
In several plants the infected cells are surrounded by suberized cells. Thus, isolating
them from healthy tissue. Corky layer formation is a part of natural healing system of plants. eg.
common scab of potato and rot of sweet potato are good examples.
Abscission layers
It is a gap between host cell layers and devices for dropping –off older leaves and mature
fruits. Plant may use this for defence mechanism also. I.e. To drop-off infected or invaded plant
tissue or parts, along with pathogen. Shot holes in leaves of fruit trees is a common feature
Tyloses
The tyloses are formed by protrusion of xylem parachymatous cell walls, through pits,
into xylem vessels. The size and number of tyloses physically block the vessel. The tyloses are
inductively formed much ahead of infection, thus blocking the spread of pathogen. It suggests
biochemical elicitors and movement of tyloses inducing facto (TIF) up the stem. eg. Sweet
potato: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Batatas.
Gum deposition
The gums and vascular gels quickly accumulate and fill the intercellular spacis or within
the cell surroundings the infection thread and haustoria, which may starve or die.
Mechanism of host resistance

a. Lignification b. Abscission layer formation. C1 & C2 Cork layer formation, d. Tyloses
formation and e. Sheathing of infection threads
Induced cellular defence
The cellular defence structures, ie. Changes in cell walls, have only a limited role in
defence. Following types are commonly observed.
1. Carhohydrate apposition (synthesis of secondary wall and papillae formation)

2. Callose deposition (hyphal sheathing just outside plasma lemma around the haustorium
which delays contact of pathogen (Phytophythora infestans) with host cells.
3. Structural proteins
4. Induced cytoplasmic defence that present last line of host defence and may effective
against slow growing pathogens, weak parasites or some symbiotic relationship.
Induced biochemical changes
The induced biochemical changes in host plants are the last line of host defence. This
may condition a plant or plant tissue from susceptible to resistant to immune status as per their
genetic potential. The role of bio chemical factor in host defence is based on the following four
attributes:
1. The substance is associated with protection against disease at the site where protection
occurs.
2. The substance can be isolated from the host showing protection against the disease.
3. Introduction of isolated substance to the appropriate susceptible host confers protection.
4. The nature of protection so induced resembles that of the natural agents of a resistant
plant.
Toxic substances produced
Rapid production/suitable modifications and/or/ accumulation of chemicals toxic to
pathogen upto effective concentrations is an important component of overall active defence
strategy of plants. Slow production or accumulation or low levels of similar chemicals have
reported in susceptible host plants also.
Role of phenolic compounds
The phenolic compounds, viz., chlorogenic acid caffeic acid and ixidation products of
floretin, hydroquinone hydroxyquionones and phytoalexins are main toxi chemical produced to
inhibit pathogen or its activities. Some of these are performed toxic chemicals while others may
be de novo synthesized or modified to more toxic forms. The enzymes involved in chemical
pathways are present in host cell (pre-existing).
Role of phytoalexins
Most common response of plants to stress, biotic (phytoalexins/insects) or abiotic
(wounding), is the production and accumulation of substrates that can inhibit the growth and
activities of the biotic factors or may help in healing process. Muller and Borger proposed the
concept of phytoalexins in their study on hypersensitive reaction of potato to avirulent
P.infestans strains. Phytoalexins are antibiotics produced in plant pathogens interactions or as
result reposnse to injury or other psychological simulation.
Role of new protein synthesized
Post-infectional changes in host cells involve production and modification of large
number of proteins (structural and enzymatic), which have important role in defence
mechanism. The enzymes are required for various synthetic pathways (normal or modified) for
production of resistance related substances. In addition, phenol-oxidizing enzymes have vital
role. The influence of these changes may be confined to infection site or nearby cells.
Increased synthesis and activity of phenyl ammonia lyase (PAL) has been reported in several
bacterial and vital pathogens in resistant reaction. PAL plays key role in syntheses of phenols,
phytoalexins and lignin. The effectiveness of resistance depends on speed and amount of
synthesized products and their movements to neighboring healthy tissues to create defensive
barriers.
Inactivation of enzymes and toxins
The role played by chemical weapons (toxin and enzymes) of pathogens during
pathogenesis is well established. The necrotrophs and hemihiotrophs employ more of these
substances fro causing those tissue damage as compared to speacialized obligate parasites. The
defence strategy of resistant plants, through activity of phenols, tannins and protein as enzymes
inhibitors, the phenolics are not anti-fungal but make pathogen ineffective by neutralizing their
enzymes. In immature grape fruits catechol-tannin is known to inhibit enzymes produced by
Botrytis cinerea.
Toxins are known to be involved in pathogenesis to various edtents
(pathotoxins/vivotoxins). The resistance to toxins, in host, will be resistance to pathogens. This
can be achieved by detoxification or lack of receptor sites for these toxins
Role of altered biosynethetic pathway
The pose inflectional metabolism of host tissue is altered (stress physiology) to cope with
the advancing activities of pathogen. New enzymes (proteins) are produced in an effort to
synthesize defence related substances. Most of these compounds are formed through Shikmic
acid pathway and modified acetate pathway. Respiration in diseased tissue is invariably
increased; a part of glycolysis is replaced by pentose pathway, which yields four carbon
compounds are formed through Shikmic acid pathway and modified acetate pathway.
Respiration in diseased tissue is invariably increased; a part of glycolysis is replaced by pentose
pathway, which yields four carbon compounds. It is possible that in early stages of infection the
gene regulation of host cell is influenced and some specific genes.
Active defense to pathogens
Induction of host resistance, structural or biochemical seems to be universal I plants.
Active defense responses have been reported against all classes of pathogens (fungi, bacteria,
viruses and nematodes). Active defense response may lead to incompatible host-pathogen
interaction
Summary of induced biochemical defense reactions
1. On entry of the pathogen, a temporary increase in cellular metabolic activities occurs in the
host. Due to stress caused by increased metabolic activity cells die rapidly showing
hypersensitive reaction. Rapid death of cells in correlated with increased degree of resistance in
most diseased systems.
2. When the infected tissue are reaching the nectotic stage, metabolism of neighboring tissues is
also increased and phenolics and other compounds are accumulated. In this process, the
synthesized compounds move from healthy to diseased tissues.
3. The reactions expressed by hypersensitivity form common phenols, phytoalexins, and other
abnormal substances. The oxidized products of phenolics may detoxify the toxins or inactivate
other weapons of the pathogen.
4. When spread of the pathogen is checked, the neighboring healthy tissues with accelerated
metabolic activities try to isolate the damaged parts by forming new tissues and eliminate the
disease/pathogen.
Host defence, pre-existing or induced, is a multi-component strategy where several factors work
together to fashion the final outcome. Figure below represents a case where more than on
factors are responsible to condition resistance in immature grapes berries against Botrytis
cinerea.
Multi component defense mechanism in young grapevine berries against Botrytis cincerea
Systemic acquired resistance

Induced resistance (cross protection) in plants is a phenomenon of significance, which
has not been properly exploited for plant disease management, probably because of our poor
understanding. Induced resistance,, localized or systemic, may be specific. The signal molecule,
that propagates the resistance to distant places are vital in systemic induced resistance. The
resistance is induced in manner comparable to immunization in mammals but the mechanism
differs.
The resistance may be induced due to any of the following:
 Accumulation of PR proteins
 Activation of lignin synthesis
 Enhanced peroxidase actitivity
 Suitable changes in plant metabolism
Principle of induced resistance
Induced resistance is a phenomena where a lead treated with certain chemicals or
inoculated with pathogen’s avirulent strain produce a signal compounds that is transported
systemically throughout the plant and activities its defence mechanism (making the entire plant
resistant to subsequent infection) without its own physical presence at the site. The picture
below explains a hypothetical mode to explain induction of SAR.
Representation of acquired resistance a) Local b) Systemic c) SAR
Lecture 19
Plant disease epidemiology – Meaning and importance, difference between simple and
compound interest diseases – Factors affecting plant disease epidemics – host, pathogen,
environment and time factor
Edpidemiology or epiphytology is the study of the outbreak of disease, its course,

intensity, cause and effects and the various factors governing it. Based on the occurrence and
geographical distribution they are classified as follows:
Endemic or Enphytotic
When a disease is more or less constantly occurring year after year in a moderate to
severe form in a country or locality then it is called as endemic disease. eg: wart disease of
potato (Synchytrium endobioticum) is endemic in Darjeeling, citrus canker (Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv citri)in Asia and sorghum rust (Puccinia purpurea).
Epidemic or Epiphytotic
It is a sudden outbreak of a disease periodically over a widespread area in a devastatingly
severe form causing severe losses or complete destruction. This is constantly present in a locality
but it assumes severe form only on occasions. This is because of the occurrence of favorable
environment responsiblefor the rapid development of disease. eg: wheat stem rust (Puccinia
graminis tritici) and powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis vor tritici), late blight of potato
(phytophthora infestans), red rot of sugar cane( Colletotrichum falcatum), downy mildew of
grapevine( Plasmophora viticola) and rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae).
Certain disease are endemic in one area and become epidemic in another area. Eg:
Citrus canker is endemic in Asia but epidemic in the introduced place, Florida (U.S.A).The
downy mildew of corn is a endemic disease in India but became epidemic in the Philippines.
Pandemic
When an epidemic disease spreads over continents or subcontinents and involves mass
mortality it is considered as pandemic. The outbreak of black stem rust of wheat in India during
1947 is best example for a pandemic disease.
Sporadic
Diseases which occur at irregular intervals over limited areas or locations are called
sporadic. They occur relatively in few instances. Eg: Fusarium wilt of cotton (Fusarium
oxysporum f sp. vasiinfectum) grain smut of sorghum (Sporisorium sorghi ) and loose smut of
wheat (Ustilago nuda).
An epidemic may cause widespread and mass destruction of crop in a short time or may
persist for long periods depending upon the three following factors responsible for the disease:
1. Host
2. Pathogen and
3. Environment
Environment flow chart
HOST
PATHOGEN ENVIRONMENT
Pathogen
A course of epidemic in nature differs with the nature of the host, the pathogen and the
environment. In arecanut the Koleroga fungus, Phytophthora arecae become destructive during
monsoon period (July-Sep) and wanes away with rising temperatures and dry conditions. The
above disease once again become destructive during rainy season. This type of epidemic is
known as seasonal epidemic or annual epidemic. Outbreak of Phytophthora wilt of betelvine
occurs during rainy season in South India. In temperate zone peach leaf curl and apple scab
follow the similar course.
Epidemics caused as a result of introduction of new pathogens in the locality hither to
free from them, appear in two phases viz., destructive phase and innocent phase (due to biologic
equilibrium reached between new comer pathogen and the original inhabitant). The well known
epidemics of late blight of potato in Europe and blast disease of rice in South East Asia, powdery
mildew and downy mildew of grapevine in Europe, leaf rust of coffee in Sri Lanka and
anthracnose of grapevine in India are examples of this category. In the above diseases the
pathogens after taking heavy toll of the crops have settled down.
Factors governing epidemic or essential conditions for an epidemic

A disease is sometimes sporadic and assumes epidemic proportions under special
circumstances. The essential conditions for an epiphytotic or the factors governing epidemics can
be grouped under the three heads.
1. Nature of host
2. Nature of the pathogen and
3. Environment
An epidemic can only result from the cumulative effects of all the three factors
mentioned above, acting simultaneously. Few pathogens are capable of assuming epiphytotic
conditions while others are sporadic. The former group consists of late blight of potato, blast of
rice, downy mildew diseases and rust diseases.
Host Pathogen Environment

Susceptibility of the Introduction of a new Temperature
host pathogen
Aggregation and Presence of aggressive Moisture and
distribution of strain of the pathogen humidity
susceptible hosts
Introduction of new High birth rate of the Rainfall
hosts pathogen
Introduction of Low death rate of the pathogen Light and
new collateral or shade

alternate pathogen
host
Easy and rapid dispersal Wind Wind
of the pathogen Adaptability of the
pathogen
A. Host Factors
1. Susceptibility of the host
Plants have ability to combat disease which manifests itself as susceptibility or resistance.
Plants are predisposed to the attack depending on their nature, environment and stage of growth.
Presence of susceptible varieties in an area may act as one of the causes of epidemic. For
example, late maturing varieties of groundnut are more susceptible to early leaf spot (Cercospora
arachidicola ) and late leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis) than the early maturing varieties. Similarly
late maturing varieties of wheat are susceptible to loose smut (Ustilago nuda tritici) than the
early maturing varieties. Early sown sugarcane varieties of sugarcane are more susceptible to leaf
rust in Deccan canals in Bombay area than the late sown varieties.
Wheat plant becomes susceptible to black rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) at the boot
stage but is resistant when young. Susceptibility of rice plants to blast disease (Pyricularia
oryzae) increases with application of heavy doses of nitrogenous fertilizers. Cottons plants are
susceptible to Fusarium wilt (F.oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum) at soil temperatures of 26 to 28°C,
brinjal to Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae at 20°C. But crop plants are resistant to these
soil-borne diseases at relatively lower or higher temperatures. Under the above conditions, the
pathogen multiplies faster, cause infection and effectively uses its propagules for quick
secondary spread causing epidemic.
2. Aggregation and distribution of susceptible hosts
Abundance of susceptible hosts in an area is one of the major causes of the spread of
epidemics. Continuous cultivation of susceptible variety or varieties in an area, that too in a large
contiguous area help in the build up of inoculum and improve the chances of epidemics. Under
the above conditions the pathogen increases the rate of multiplication of its propagules and
repeats the disease cycles in a short span. Wheat cultivation area in the U.S.A and Canada and
rice cultivation area in East Asian countries are exposed to a greater danger of epidemics by
wheat black rust and rice blast respectively.
Destructive epidemic of early and late leaf spots of groundnut in Bombay area (Gujarat
and Maharashtra States) during 1912-1913 was mainly the result of cultivation of local varieties
in a larger area. Panama wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum ) susceptible table variety,
‘Son’ in banana was responsible for the destructive epidemic in parts of Bombay area (Gujarat
and Maharashtra) during 1936 – 1940 Countrywide cultivation of red rot ( Colletotrichum
falcatum ) susceptible sugarcane varieties (local varieties like Pundya, Khajuria etc.,) practically
made their cultivation impossible in Bombay area.
3. Introduction of new host (s)
Disease proneness in the host is induced by environment and other factors. The host is
liable to vigorous attack and successful infection by the pathogen. A resistant or moderately
resistant variety may become susceptible or highly susceptible. A susceptible variety may
become highly susceptible when conditions favouring proneness are existing and cause severe
damage. Under the above conditions the pathogen multiplies faster, cause infection and produces
more propagules for secondary spread. Introduction of an exotic cotton variety (C4 (Cambodia)
caused outbreak of bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum) and grey
mildew (Septoacylindrium gossypii) in local variety, Deviraj, grown in Maharashtra area in
India.
4. Introduction of new collateral or alternate hosts
Alternate hosts are those plants on which the heteroecious pathogens pass part of their
life cycles. Similarly, collateral hosts are some wild plants in which the pathogen survives when
primary host is not available. Both alternate and collateral hosts are important in building up the
primary inoculum to the next crop. They determine the course and intensity of an epidemic.
Grass hosts (collateral hosts) of Sclerospora sacchari, S. philippinensis (downy
mildews), Pyricularia oryzae ( rice blast), Ustilago scitaminea (sugarcane smut) may produce
abundant inoculum which aid in building up of epidemics. Outbreak of heteroecious blister rust
of pine (Cronartium ribicola ) in Europe and the U.S.A happened due to import or introduction
of Pinus strobus from the USA.
B. Pathogenic Factors
1. Introduction of new pathogen
Some pathogens, epidemic in certain area, may become quite aggressive and outbreak as
epidemic when introduced to new area. For example late blight of potato caused by
Phytophthora infestans was epidemic in South America. This disease became epidemic when the
infected tubers were introduced in Europe (in 1843-45). Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora in North
America is endemic. Fire blight spread to Pacific coast fruit-growing areas of the U.S.A in 1884
and subsequently it reached Canada. It reached New Zealand in 1919 and it appeared in England
in 1957. The mode of introduction had been through fruit boxes. Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix)
is indigenous in Ethiopia, where Coffea arabica is native. The disease spread to Sri Lanka in
1869, India in 1870, Sumatra in 1876, Java in 1878 and the Philippines in 1889. It also spread
from Kenya to the Congo by 1918 and reached the Cameroons. From 1950 onwards, it spread to
the reminder of West Africa.
The mode of long distance transport of H. vastatrix is wind. Spores have been trapped at
up to 1000 m above sea level up to 150 m from infected sites. Dutch elm diseases (Ceratocystis
ulmi) first reported in 1919 in Holland, spread throughout Europe and reached Great Britain in
1927. It was introduced to the eastern United States on elm logs imported from Europe.
2. Presence of aggressive strain of the pathogen
All the strains of a pathogen are not aggressive. Only the aggressive strains are capable of
causing infectious diseases which spread as epidemic. They are characterised by rapid cycle of
infection and causing successful infection in new hosts. Rapid cycle of infection is essential for
successful infection and it happens only by aggressive strain of the pathogen. e.g., Puccinia
graminis tritici (wheat black rust) in India, stripe rust, bunt and loose smut of wheat in the
U.S.A. and Europe. The possibility of outbreak of epidemics increases with the number of
physiologic forms or pathogenic strains of the pathogen present in a locality.
3. High birth rate of the pathogen
Pathogen with high reproductive capacity and capable of rapid dissemination over wide
areas mostly cause epidemics. The fungal members causing powdery mildews, downy mildews,
rusts, blasts, blights etc., produce enormous amount of spores. These spores are easily dispersed
by using water or insects and cause infections to new plants. The high degree of fecundity and
the enormous amounts of inoculum produced by some common plant pathogens are given in
table.
Fecundity rates of plant pathogens
Sl. Pathogen Extent of fecundity
No
Wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis Twenty five trillion uredospores in one
tritici) hectare of wheat crops.
2 Wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis 64,000 million aeciospores from aecial cups
tritici ) in a single barberry bush
3 Cedar rust of apple Two billion teliospores in a single gall.
4. A corn plant infected with downy 225 million sporangia in one night
mildew
5. A. grapevine infected by downy 32,000 sporangia per sq.cm
mildew
6. Bunt of wheat 6 to 12 million smut spores in a single kernel
7. Smut of corn 125,000 billion smut spores in one hectare
8. Chestnut blight 150,000,000 spores in a single spore horn
9. Fomes applanatus 5,460 billion spores in a single fruiting body
4. Low death rate

Epiphytotics may also be caused by low death rate diseases. These diseases are caused by
agents of systemic nature which are protected by plant tissues. As they are protected by plant
tissues the chances of high mortality is reduced to the minimum. In these diseases the chief
source for accumulation of inoculum for epiphytotics is the diseased plant organ used for
vegetative propagation (corms, setts, tubers, etc,). Here the buildup of epidemics is
comparatively low compared to high birth rate diseases. When a particular area is planted and
covered with diseased planting material the chances of occurrence of epiphytotics are very high.
e.g., virus and phytoplasma diseases in crops propagated through vegetative plant parts.
5. Easy and rapid dispersal of the pathogen

The ability of the pathogen to cause epidemic depends both on the high birth rate and
dispersal. The propagules of the pathogen produced should be dispersed for development of an
epidemic. It may happen by external agencies like wind, water, insects, mites and nematodes.
Fungal spores / conidia are minute and light and resistant to adverse conditions. Fungal spores
are mostly disseminated by wind. Bacteria are mostly disseminated by water or insects. Virus
and phytoplasma diseases are mostly transmitted by insects, mites or nematodes. Epidemics are
determined by the velocity of wind, direction of wind, moisture, relative humidity, temperature,
presence and number of vectors and their rate of reproduction.
6. Adaptability of the pathogen
Pathogens have the capacity to adapt to adverse conditions. Fungi produce different types
of spores like oospores, ascospores and smut spores (chlamydospores) which help in tiding over
adverse conditions. Bacteria survive in diseased plant parts. Viruses and phytoplasmas live in
collateral hosts or insect vectors in the absence of the suitable crop hosts.
C. Environmental Factors
The environmental conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, duration
and intensity of light, etc. play very important role in causing epidemics. These are actually the
deciding factors and influence almost all the stages of disease cycle. Favourable environmental
conditions are needed for sporulation, liberation of spores, dissemination of pathogen,
germination, infection and establishment of pathogen in the host.
For example, persistent optimum temperature and moisture are needed for spore
germination and entry of germ tube in the host. Similarly optimum temperature, moisture, light
and specific nutrition is required for the development of the disease and sporulation of pathogen.
Compound interest diseases and simple interest diseases The terms compound interest and
simple interest are for explaining rate of increase of pathogen. These terms were introduced by
Van der Plank in 1963 in the book ‘Plant Diseases-Epidemics and Control’. Based on the mode
of multiplication of pathogen, the diseases are classified of two types:
1. Simple interest diseases
2. Compound interest diseases
1. Simple interest diseases

In simple interest diseases the increase is mathematically analogous to simple interest in
money. There is only one generation of the pathogen in the life of the crop. The primary
inoculum is seed-borne or soil-borne. The secondary infection rarely occurs during the crop
season. That is, the pathogens do not spread from plant to plant in one growing season. Simple
interest diseases are caused by seed-or soil-borne smuts, like loose smut of wheat, covered smut
of barley and soil borne fungi which attack roots, like wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) and root rot
(Rhizoctonia spp.) diseases.
Most of the smuts infect the seedlings, grow along with the growth of the plant and
produce spores in the inflorescence on maturity of the crop. There is no secondary spread from
the smutted heads. These smut diseases are mostly systemic in nature. They do not produce
propagules external to the host during the active season of the crop. Dispersal of propagules of
these fungi is restricted by existing climatic and biotic conditions.
2. Compound interest diseases
In compound interest diseases the rate of increase is mathematically analogous to
compound interest in money. The pathogen produces enormous amount of spores at a very rapid
rate. These spores are disseminated rapidly by wind and infect the other plants. Both the
inoculation and sporulation period are short so that the pathogen spreads from plant to plant
during the same growing season. New crop of spores is produced, disseminated and the cycle is
repeated fast. Thus more generations of the pathogen are produced in the life of a crop. e.g., late
blight of potato, powdery mildews and rust diseases. If we consider wheat stem rust caused by
Puccinia graminis tritici as an example, the fungus produces uredospores in very large numbers
(50,000 to 4,00,000 uredospores per uredosorus).
These spores are spread by wind and infect other plants. Each of the freshly infected
wheat plant produces uredopustules within 5 to 7 days at 24°C. Thus within a week of
appearance of the first pustule in the crop several thousand new pustules are formed which could
repeat the process within a week. If the climatic conditions of about 24°C temperature and
relative humidity remain for only few weeks, the entire crop is severely affected by the disease.
Course of epidemic
The course of epidemic follows two distinct phases viz.,
i. Progressively destructive phase and
ii. the decline phase

i. Progressively destructive phase
Some epidemics develop slowly (tardive) while others develop rapidly. Slow epidemics
(or epiphytotics) usually occur among population caused by systemic pathogens. The pathogen
multiplies slowly following the characters of simple interest disease. They belong to low death
rate category and have less incubation period and sporulation period. However, the rapid
epiphytotics are greatly influenced by environmental factors.
ii. Decline phase
During early stage, an epidemic spreads vigorously causing diseases in new hosts. After
development of a saturation stage it shows a decline by itself. No epidemics may be due to non-
availability of suscepts non-availability of susceptible stages of the crop, unfavourable weather
conditions and reduction in aggressiveness of the pathogens. Generally the hosts are prone to the
disease at a specific developing stage. Once this stage is crossed in a plant it’s proneness to
infections is reduced or completely lost. Under the conditions the epidemic declines. The decline
in the epidemic may also be due to unfavourable weather conditions for disease development. As
a result future spread of the disease will be checked and the epidemic will decline. Wheat crop in
Northern India usually gets the attack of rusts in January to March.
Epidemics develop during these months. Although the plant remains prone to attack
afterwards also, further development of the disease is checked because of rise in temperature
which is favourable for the pathogen. Due to the above mentioned and other causes, the
aggressiveness of the pathogen may be reduced. When all susceptible individuals are destroyed
by the pathogen, it may try to parasitize the remaining resistant individuals of the same species.
In these adverse conditions, the pathogen may lose its power of successful infection, its
reproduction may slow down and the pathogen becomes less aggressive.
Slow and rapid epiphytotics
The form of epidemic is decided by the nature of the pathogen, host and the weather.
Epidemic may develop slowly and is called ‘ tardive’. Epidemic which develops rapidly is called
‘explosive’. In between these intermediate forms of epidemic may occur.
i. Slow epiphytotics
Slow epiphytotics occur among perennial (tree) populations. Infected host survives for
several years before dying. Most of the characters of a simple interest disease are found in slow
epiphytotics. The causal agent is mostly systemic. The pathogen multiplies slowly. Their
movement from plant to plant is much slower. They are low death rate pathogen. In slow
epiphytotics, crop sanitation is the best method. e.g., Swollen shoot of cocoa.
This disease spreads very slowly from tree to tree and still less from one garden to
another garden. For instance, the incidence of 31 % swollen shoot increased to 75 % over a
period of 2.5 years. As stated by Van der Plank (1959) the rate of multiplication of a systemic
disease of trees is about ten fold a year whereas it is 10,000 fold in respect of herbaceous plants
and it is of higher
rates for local lesion pathogens e.g., late blight of potato, wheat stem rust, etc.,
ii. Rapid epiphytotics
Rapid epiphytotics occur among annual crops. It is caused by non-systemic pathogens
with high birth rate. Several generations of the pathogen is produced within a short time. Rapid
epiphytotics are largely governed by environmental factors compared to slow epiphytotics.
Disease increase is rapid and the disease rises to a beak in short time and then show sharp decline
when the weather turns unfavourable or when the host becomes resistant due to maturity or due
to restricted dispersal of propagules of pathogen. e.g.,apple scab. This type of epiphytotic is
controlled by protective spraying or dusting with chemicals.
Lecture 20
Plant Disease Forcasting – Meaning, advantages, methods in forecasting and examples
Disease Forecasting
Forecasting of plant diseases means predicting for the occurrence of plant disease in a
specified area ahead of time, so that suitable control measures can be undertaken in advance to
avoid losses. Disease forecasts are predictions of probable outbreaks or increase in intensity of
disease. It involves well organized team work and expenditure of time, energy and money. It is
used as an aid to the timely application of chemicals. Among the first spray warning services to
be established for growers, were the grapevine downy mildew forecasting schemes in France,
Germany and Italy in the 1920s. Disease forecasting methods are available for the following
plant diseases.
Sl. Plant disease Countries

No
1. Grapevine downy mildew Australia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Romania,
Spain, USSR, Yugoslavia
2. Cucurbit downy mildew U.S.A.
3. Potato late blight Australia, Brazil, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,

Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Peru, U.K, the U.S.S.R.
4. Tobacco blue mould Canada, U.S.A.
5. Apple and pear scab Australia, Canada, Netherlands, New Zealand, U.S.A.
6. Sugarbeet root rot U.S.A
(Aphanomyces sp.)
7. Wheat brown (Leaf) rust U.S.A.
8. Corn bacterial wilt U.S.A
(Erwinia stewartii)
9. Sugarbeet curly top U.S.A.
Information’s needed for disease forecasting

Forecasting diseases is a part of applied epidemiology. Hence, knowledge of
epidemiology (development of disease under the influence of factors associated with the host,
pathogen) is necessary for accurate forecasting. The factors of epidemic and its components
should be known in advance before forecasting is done.
The informations required for forecasting are:
1. Host Factors
a. Prevalence of susceptible varieties in the given locality
b. Response of host at different stages of the growth to the activity of pathogen e.g. Some
diseases are found during seedling stages while others attack grown up plants and
c. Density and distribution of the host in a given locality. Dense populations of susceptible
variety invite quick spread of an epidemic. Growing susceptible varieties in scattered locations
and that too in a limited area are less prone to epiphytotic.
2. Pathogen factors
a. Amount of primary (initial) inoculum in the air, soil or planting material
b. Dispersal of inoculum
c. Spore germination
d. Infection
e. Incubation period
f. Sporulation on the infected host
g. Re-dispersal / Dissemination of spores
h. Perennating stages
i. Inoculum potential and density in the seed, soil and air
3. Environmental factors
a. Temperature
b. Humidity
c. Light intensity
d. Wind velocity
Requirements or conditions for disease forecasting
There are five main requirements which must be satisfied before a useful and successful
disease forecast is made.
1. The disease must cause economically significant damage in terms of yield loss or quality.
Damage assessment is essential to develop strategy for controlling a disease. e.g., Annual
estimation of yield loss caused by barley powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) in England and
Wales had ranged from 6 to 13 %. Potato late blight can cause a yield loss of 28% if the disease
reaches the 75% stage by mid- August. Diseases like apple scab and potato common scab
reduces the quality of the produce lower the value of the harvested crop and cause considerable
financial loss to the growers.
2. Control measures must be available at an economically acceptable cost.
3. The disease must vary each season in the timing of the first infections and its subsequent rate
of progress. If it does not, there is no need for forecasting.
4. The criteria or model used in making a prediction must be based on sound investigational
work carried out in the laboratory and in the field and tested over a number of years to establish
its accuracy and applicability in all the locations where its use is envisaged.
5. Growers must have sufficient man power and equipments to apply control measures when
disease warning is given. Long-term warnings or predictions are more useful than short-term
warning or predictions.
Methods of disease forecasting
Disease forecasting requires field observations on the pathogen characters, collection of
weather data, variety of the crop and certain investigations and their correlations. Usually the
following methods are employed in disease forecasting.
1. Forecasting based on primary inoculums
Presence of primary inoculum, its density and viability are determined in the air, soil or
planting material. Occurrence of viable spores or propagules in the air can be assessed by using
different air trapping devices (spore traps). In the case of soil-borne diseases the primary
inoculum in the soil can be determined by monoculture method.
Presence of loose smut of wheat, ergot of pearlmillet and viral diseases of potato can be
detected in the seed lots at random by different seed testing methods. Seed testing methods can
be used to determine potential disease incidence and enable decision to be made on the need for
chemical seed treatment. The extent of many virus diseases is dependent on the severity of the
preceding winter which affects the size of vector population in the growing season. e.g.,
Sugarbeet yellows virus.
2. Forecasting based on weather conditions

Weather conditions viz.,temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, light, wind velocity etc.,
during the crop season and during the inter crop season are measured. Weather conditions above
the crop and at the soil surface are also recorded.
3. Forecasting based on correlative information
Weather data of several years are collected and correlated with the intensity of the
diseases. The data are compared and then the forecasting of the disease is done. Forecasting
criteria developed from comparisons of disease observation with standard meteorological data
have been provided for diseases like Septoria leaf blotch of wheat, fire blight of apple and barley
powdery mildew.
4. Use of computer for disease forecasting
In some advanced countries forecasting of disease is made by the use of computers. This
system gives the results quickly. One such computer based programmes in the USA is known as
‘Blitecast’ for potato late blight. Examples of well developed forecasting systems are given
below.
a. Early and late leaf spots of groundnut
A technique has been developed for forecasting early and late leaf spots of groundnut in
the U.S.A. When the groundnut foliage remains wet for a period greater than or equal to 10 h and
the minimum temperature is 21°C or higher for two consecutive days or nights, the disease
development is forecasted.
A computer programme has been developed in the USA. This is accurate and is widely
used in the USA. The data on hours for day with relative humidity (RH) of 95% and above and
minimum temperature (T) during the RH observations for the period, for the previous 5 days are
fed to the computer. Calculations are rounded to whole numbers. The T/RH index for each of the
five days is calculated e.g., when hours of the RH 95% equal 10 and the minimum temperature
during the period equals 21.1°C the T/RH index is 2.0 .The T/RH indices for days 4 and 5 are
summed. If the total index exceeds 4 disease is forecasted. If the index is 3 or less no disease is
forecasted.
b. Late blight of potato

In the USA a forecasting programme has been developed for late blight of potato
(Phytophthora infestans). The initial appearance of late blight is forecasted 7 to 14 days after the
occurrence of 10 consecutive blight favourable days. A day is considered to be blight favourable
when the 5 day average temperature is 25.5°C and the total rainfall for the last 10 days is more
than 3.0 cm. A computerized version (Blitecast) has also been developed in the U.S.A for
forecasting potato late blight. Blitecast is written in Fortran IV. When a farmer desires blight cast
(blitecast) he telephones the blight cast operator and reports the most recently recorded
environmental data. The operator calls for the blight cast programmes in the computer viz.,
typewriter terminal and feeds the new data into the computer. Within a fraction of second the
computer analyses the data and series of a forecast and spray recommendations to the operator
who relays it to the farmer.
The entire operation can be completed during standard three minutes telephone call. The
system makes one of the four recommendations viz., no spray, late blight warning, 7 days spray
schedule or 5 days spray schedule. The last 5 days spray schedule is issued only during severe
blight weather. In West Germany, ‘Phytoprog’ is the programme used. It is based on
measurements of temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. Phytoprog provides a negative
prognose (an indication of when the usual routine spray application should be dispensed with).
c. Blister blight of tea
A system for predicting epidemics of blister blight of tea ( Exobasidium vexans) has been
developed based on the number of spores in the air in the tea plantation and the duration of
surface wetness on the leaves. The duration of sunshine is negatively correlated with the duration
of surface wetness. The following prediction equation has been developed. Y = 1.8324 + 0.8439
X1 + 0.9665 X2 – 0.1031 X3where, X1 = log % infection t2X2 = log % infection t2 – log
infection t1Y = log of the number of spores in the air and t1 – t2 three weeksX3 = mean daily
sunshine for a 7 days period preceding t2
d. Southern corn leaf blight
‘Epimay’ is a system for forecasting Southern corn leaf blight (Bipolaris maydis) based
on conceptual model.
e. Rice blast
In India, forecasting rice blast ( Pyricularia ozyzae) is done by correlative information
method. It is predicted on the basis of minimum night temperature 20 to 26°C in association with
high relative humidity of 90% or above. Computer based forecasting system has also been
developed for rice blast in India.
f. Wheat stem rust
Forecasting wheat stem rust epidemic is done by analysing therain samples which give
precise data for inoculum present in the air. Moreover several wind trajectors are also prepared to
survey the air-borne primary inoculums and its deposition. It has been observed that primary
inoculum comes from South India, to the plains of Central and North India.
g. Brown stripe downy mildew of corn
The forecasting of brown stripe downy mildew of corn (Sclerophthora raysise var. zeae )
which is restricted to India is done on the basis of average rainfall 100 to 200 cm or more
accompanied by low temperature ( 25°C or less). Spore trappingTechniques of acquisition of
biological data for consecutive forecasting models are important. Spore traps have been widely
used in to complete disease with weather conditions. Spore trapping is useful for
understanding epidemiology of a disease and behaviour of the pathogens. This helps in
developing models on dispersal of pathogens or on epidemiology of the disease and to formulate
methods of management. Methodology of spore trapping depends on the following objectives of
the worker.
1. Biology of the pathogen
2. For infection forecasting
3. Spore dispersal gradients
4. Management of the disease
In epidemics of air-borne plant diseases the number of spores of the pathogen landing on the
plant which depends on the number of spores in the atmosphere above the crop is an important
factor for the quantitative sampling of the atmosphere (number of spores per unit volume of
air).For trapping and estimating these studies different types of traps are used. The following
spore traps are usually employed in trapping of fungal spores.
Cylindrical rods or microscopic glass slides: It helps to gather data on the spore arrival in a
locality. In this, the surface of microscopic slide is smeared with grease and made sticky. In the
method, quantitative estimation is not possible as number of spores collected is very low.
1. Hirst’s volumetric spore trap (Hirst 1952)
In this instrument, air is sucked into at a controlled rate and impinged on to a glass slide
moved by a clockwork mechanism past the orifice. It gives continuous count of spores in 24 h.
The number of spores per unit volume of air at any given time can thus be calculated.
2. Rotorod sampler or rotorod spore trap (Sutton and Jones 1976)
It comprises of a ‘U’ shaped rod attached at its mid point to the shaft of a small battery
operated electric motor. In this equipment the surface of the rod is covered with a vaseline strip
of transparent cellophanes to catch spores which can be taken off and mounted on a glass slide.
From the area of the strip and the speed of rotation, the volume of air samples can be calculated.
3. Anderson cascade spore sampler
It is a device where Petri plates with nutrient agar are used to collect the spores.
4. Bourdillon slit sampler
Air is sucked in a chamber by vacuum pump which strikes the rotating Petri dish
containing agar medium. The agar medium retains the spores sucked in the air. Concentration of
viable spores is calculated after counting germinated spores in the medium.
5. Burkard’s 7 day volumetric spore trap
This device records spores in the air drawn by a pump on 7 days basis on a cellophane
strip wrapped on a drum rotating inside a chamber.
6. Jet spore trap
In the above sampling methods, the viability of the spores cannot be determined. To
overcome this, living plants have been used as spore traps. A jet spore trap in which spores are
impacted in an air jet into a column of still air, through which they fall, to settle on leaf segments
exposed at the base of the chamber. In this trap, suitable cultivars of host plants can be employed
to determine number of viable spores.
Lecture 21
Remote sensing – Meaning, scope, objectives, advantages
Remote sensing carries many different connotations to different individuals, ranging from
photography to large satellite platforms. Each day we are provided many frames of remote
sensing information through our eyes, which we use to make visual assessments of an object.
These scenes provide an information source about objects from which we judge certain
characteristics, e.g., size, condition, or change. The local TV weather report uses remote sensing
of clouds to show the passage of storms. Plant pathologists have used remote sensing tools for a
number of years and were among the first to use color infrared photography to assess the
presence of disease in trees. The application of remote sensing via airborne cameras provided an
answer to a question that would not have been possible through ground surveys. In many aspects
we have progressed rapidly to our current state of knowledge about the utility of remote sensing.
The intent of this address is to arouse the interest of individuals in discovering how remote
sensing could be applied to plant pathological problems of today and tomorrow.
Regions of The Spectrum
The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranges from the from short, high energy
wavelengths to the long radio waves. As a receptor, the human eye only measures a relatively
small portion of the spectrum in the visible wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 gtm. Remote sensing
instruments, on the other hand, have utilized wavelengths extending in the microwave region for
a variety of applications. For this discussion, we will confine the wavelengths to the region from
0.4 to 14 /im. The region from 0.4 to 5 /Mm can be represented as the reflected wavelengths.
Reflection is that phenomenon in which an impinging beam of radiation of a particular
wavelength is reflected back away from the object without any change. This can be contrasted to
emittance, which is the emitting of radiant energy at a particular wavelength due to the
temperature of an object. Surfaces at the temperature of the earth (300' K) emit mostly in 10-12
4m waveband, while the sun at 60000K emits in the 0.5 pm region. Both reflectance and
emittance provide information that can be utilized in applying remote sensing to agricultural
problems.
Reflection from Leaves
Reflection from individual leaves is not constant across the wavelengths from 0.4 to 2.5
ym. Leaves have a low reflectance in the visible (0.4-0.7 /m), a high reflectance in the near-
infrared (0.7-1.2 Mm), and a low reflectance in the middle and far infrared (1.2 Mm) wavebands.
This variation in leaf reflectance has allowed for the differentiation of leaves from soil, which
tends to show little variation in reflectance across these wavelengths.
Reflectance from leaves is species dependent and sometimes cultivar dependent. The
primary variation among species is in the visible reflectance and is due to species or leaf age.
Reflectance tends to increase in individual leaves as the leaf matures; however, the changes are
wavelength dependent. These changes are due to changes in intracellular water content and
chlorophyll content. Lesions and reduction in chlorophyll content created by a disease also cause
an increase in reflectance. Water stress by reducing the internal water content increases the
reflectance from an individual leaf. Information gathered from individual leaves provides a basic
set of information about the mechanism of the changes occurring within a plant; however, to be
of practical application it must be extended to a canopy or field level.
Reflection from Canopies and Fields
Composites of leaves or canopies exhibit the same reflective properties of individual
leaves; however, there are a series of variables that now must be considered. Leaf orientation,
i.e., the arrangement of leaves on the stem and orientation to the sun, provides a source of
variation when viewing a canopy compared with an individual leaf. Also, all leaves are not
exposed to the same level of incoming radiant energy and often do not reflect back to the sky due
to distortions in the leaf surface. Leaf surfaces often act as polarizing filters and reflect back to
portions of the sky that are not always detected by viewing the canopy only the vertical direction.
However, the information contained in bidirectional and polarized reflectance has yet to be fully
exploited in the evaluation of canopy response to stress. Leaf fluorescence is another attribute
that has been observed in all plants and can be related to the efficiency of the photosynthetic
process. It is possible that leaf fluorescence could be used to assess the impact of diseases on the
physiological status of the plant. This technique has only been used on individual leaves;
however, it could be extended to canopies through the use of laser-induced fluorescence. This
procedure will have to be adapted to plant canopies but may become a powerful and useful
research tool.
Canopies of plants are grown in fields with varying soil, and soil also has some unique
reflective properties. The variation across wavelengths is less for soil than for leaves; however,
the reflectance changes in response to modifications in the surface. The addition of organic
matter as residue on the surface reduces the reflectance. Soils vary in reflectance due to mineral
composition and weathering of the minerals. However, across the visible and near-infrared
wavelengths the reflectance from soil remains relatively constant within a given soil type.
Changes in water content in the upper 2 mm cause the largest variation in reflectance. Water has
a low reflectance and the addition of a water film around the soil aggregate causes an increased
absorption of the incident radiation. As a soil is wetted there is a darkening in the color, which
lightens as the soil dries. This variation in the reflectance from soils due to changing soil water
adds, complexity to the reflectance from canopies, particularly when there is less than complete
ground cover by the plant, i.e., exposed soils when viewed from above the plant. Since there is a
changing amount of plant material both in the adding of new leaves or the senescence of the
older leaves, there is a continually changing scene to be viewed. This challenge must be faced
and understood if we are to develop the tools that allow us to assess the effect of a disease or any
other stress on the plant.
Instruments available for the measurement of reflected radiation adaptable to remote
sensing range from the portable spectro-radiometer, which measures all wavelengths between 0.4
and 1.1 /tm to radiometers with multiple channels set for discrete wavebands. Instruments with
individual channels mimic the wavebands available on the current satellites. A rapidly emerging
technology that has yet to be applied is the use of multiple waveband video cameras. This system
offers a capability not possible with other radiometers, in that the data are readily available for
viewing without intense signal processing and manipulation. Video camera systems may provide
a practical tool for disease assessment.
Vegetative Indices
To use the information contained in the reflectance across wavelengths, several
vegetative indices have been proposed and evaluated. These indices are based primarily on the
ratio or difference between the reflectance in the near-infrared and red wavelengths. The
approaches range from simple ratios of near-infrared/- red)/(near-infrared + red)] is more
appropriately related to the interception of photosynthetically active radiation. To account for the
soil background the perpendicular vegetative index was developed to account for a changing soil
background due to surface soil water content changes. There have been several other indices
developed to describe how the changing reflective properties change with growth of the plant.
Observed changes in the vegetative index, in particular, the ratio vegetative index and the
normalized vegetative index have shown unique seasonal patterns. The patterns of both indices
show an increase with the developing canopy and a hysteresis effect during senescence because
plant material remains standing in the field, which has different reflective properties than the soil
in the background. Over fields of seemingly uniform conditions there is considerable variation in
the observed signal whether the data are collected with hand-held, boom-mounted, or aircraft-
mounted systems. The variation is typically 10% of the field mean. However, the change in
spatial variability may be one of the methods that could be effectively used to monitor the
changes that occur within fields as a result of disease. Most diseases do not infect a whole field
uniformly and thus could induce a change in the field pattern. Even on a single sample event this
method could provide valuable information given a priori knowledge about the expected level of
field variability.
Emitted Radiation
All objects that have a temperature emit radiation according to Planck's Law. Soil and
plant canopies emit energy, and given the temperatures found on the earth's surface, range in the
10-14 bm waveband. Temperature of a plant canopy can be described by the temperature of
individual leaves, the temperature of foliage, or the temperature of the canopy that includes the
soil. Leaf temperatures that have been measured relative to the ccurrence of Verticillum wilt or
brown rot of soybeans (Phialo- phora gregata Gans) have been measured with attached leaf
thermocouples. Other measurements of Verticillum wilt have been made with infrared
thermometers. Each method has provided a unique relationship of describing the change in leaf
temperature relative to the presence of a disease.
Energy Exchange Processes
Temperatures of the leaf, foliage, or canopy are a result of the energy exchange process.
The observed temperatures are a result of the partitioning between the sensible and latent heat
exchanges and therefore are a balance between the energy impinging on the leaf or foliage and
the water available for evaporation. Simply stated then, a surface with a free water surface will
be as cool as possible given the meteorological conditions while one without water will be the
warmest possible under a given set of conditions. It is this relationship that has allowed foliage
temperature to be effectively used in the estimation of transpiretion from canopies. Also, any
factor that disrupts this water flow to the leaf, e.g., vascular diseases, root diseases, or diseases
that disrupt the stomatal action, will cause the foliage temperature to be higher than that observed
in healthy foliage. We have been successful in using foliage and canopy temperature in
evapotranspiration models for a variety of crops. In well-irrigated crop canopies, the variation
across a field is relatively uniform and the variation increases with increasing soil water deficits.
As with the reflected radiation, the change in field variability may be useful in defining the
characteristics of a given field.
Crop Stress Indices
To improve the efficiency of using foliage temperatures, several crop water stress indices
have been proposed and evaluated since the middle 1970s. These became possible at this time
due to the leaf area index, while the normalized difference [(near-infrared development of the
accurate, portable, hand-held infrared thermo- meter. At first, the comparison was made between
the foliage and air temperature (Tf - Ta), since this form was the integral part of the energy
exchange process. It was found that although the Tf - Ta differences were related to crop yield
induced by water stress, the relationships were site dependent. Further development and study
revealed that other environmental variables were needed to fully interpret foliage temperatures
and develop less site-specific relationships. The primary variables were net radiation, wind
speed, and vapor pressure deficit. These stress indices have been based on the energy exchange
principles between the foliage and the surrounding atmosphere. Any factor that affects the rate of
water movement to the leaf has an impact on the foliage temperature. For example, the addition
of high salt content irrigation even in large amounts causes the foliage temperatures to be
warmer than those plants irrigated with the same volume of salt-free water.
Recent research has identified that plants have biochemical. temperature optima that
define the optima temperature for plant growth. Combining foliage temperature with these
predetermined optima temperatures provides another description of plant stress. It has been
found that plants with maximum growth in a particular environment have the minimum amount
of time outside of this predetermined thermal range. For cotton, this range was deter , mined to
be 23-30 C and for wheat 18-25 C. This range has been defined as the thermal kinetic window
and is based on the biochemical efficiency of a particular plant. The utility of this stress index
has yet to be fully evaluated; however, it offers a method of linking the plant response to an
observed parameter. Eg: foliage temperature.
Other methods that can be used are to calculate the canopy resistance to water vapor
exchange. It is known that many diseases affect the stomatal resistance and the combination
energy balance and observed foliage temperature provide a method of estimating canopy
resistance. These techniques, however, are yet to be applied to any measure of disease. They may
offer the potential of quantifying the degree of stress or level of infection in ways that have not
been possible before.
The instruments available for measuring the foliage temperature range from hand-held
portable units, to fixed, battery-powered systems to airborne or satellite thermal scanners
systems. The coverage is obtained, e.g., NOAA or GOES satellites. Smaller areas are covered
with systems that provide less frequent coverage, e.g., LANDSAT or SPOT. The variation
within a scene of data obtained with an airborne or satellite system will not permit the reliable
detection of the onset of a disease. The handheld or fixed units on the ground may be useful in a
research setting to determine the casual relationships and the development of a monitoring
program where a problem is suspected. Each of these instruments require some training to most
properly collect and interpret the data.
Temporal and Spatial Variation
Both the temporal and spatial attributes of remote sensing techniques detect unique
features about the surface being observed. Satellites that provide repeated coverage of the earth
have allowed assessments to be made of the changes that have occurred over a period of months
or years. The same factors apply when applying remote sensing to the monitoring of agricultural
fields, forests, and native or managed grasslands. The value of repeated coverage has provided
for a unique glimpse at the ecosystem that we are trying to monitor.
Temporal variations can be large because the system to which we are applying may be
changing due to the normal progression of growth. However, we know what patterns to expect
and deviations away from that pattern provide an investigative tool. Likewise, changes in the
spatial patterns may signal a potential problem within a given field or ecosystem. The
interpretation of the temporal and spatial pattern will require some experience but may provide
an indication of a problem not possible before this information was made available.
Integrating Remote Sensing Into Plant Pathology
There are two avenues in which remote sensing information, either reflected or emitted
radiation, can be incorporated into disease monitoring. The two approaches involve either direct
or indirect methods of evaluating the disease occurrence and extent. Given the number of factors
that cause variation in both the reflected and emitted radiation signals it is unlikely that the direct
monitoring method will be useful. Both the indirect and direct methods require a priori
knowledge that a condition may exist.
Given this knowledge then, one may use a direct monitoring program to measure the
extent of a disease. eg: Phytophthora spp. on soyabeans or Fusarium spp on beans, which cause
a reduction in leaf area. The spatial sampling capability provides an assessment not possible with
ground monitoring.
The indirect method would involve interpretation of deviations from the expected case
either in temporal or spatial patterns. For example, an increase in foliage temperature in a field
with an adequate soil water supply would signal a potential problem that could invoke a
monitoring effort. An unexplained change in leaf area or wilting resulting in a change in
reflectance could signal a problem before complete infestation. The utilization of both indirect
and direct methods will require imagination and dedication to the problem by a number of
researchers.
Lecture 22
General principles of plant diseases management – Importance, general Principles –

Avoidance, exclusion, eradication, protection and therapy, immunization
Information on etiology, symptoms, pathogenesis and epidemiology of plant diseases are

intellectually interesting and scientifically justified but most important of all they are useful as
they help in formulation of methods developed for successful management of disease and
thereby increasing the quantity and improving the quality of plant and plant products. Practices
of disease management vary considerably from one disease to another depending upon the type
of pathogen, the host and the biotic and abiotic factors involved. Contrary to management of
human and animal diseases where every individual is attended, the plants are generally treated as
populations and measures used as preventive rather than curative.
Methods for plant diseases control were first classified by Whetzel (1929) into exclusion,
eradication, protection and immunization. Further advances in plant pathology leading to
development of newer methods. Two more principles - avoidance and therapy were created
(NAS, 1968)
Avoidance
It involves avoiding disease by planting at time when, or in areas where inoculums is
absent or ineffective due to environmental conditions. The major aim is to enable the host to
avoid contact with the pathogen or to ensure that the susceptible stage of the plant does not
coincide with favourable conditions for the pathogen. The main practices under avoidance are
choice of geographical area, selection of the field, choice of sowing/ planting time, selection of
seed and planting material, short duration / disease escaping varieties and modification of
agronomic/cultural practices. The potato cultivation at high altitude is relatively free from
viruses; as prevailing environmental conditions do not permit the buildup of vector populations.
Similarly, early planting of potato or wheat, in indo Gangetic plains may escape late blight or
stem rust damage respectively.
Exclusion
It means preventing the inoculums from entering or establishing in a field or area where it
does not exist. Seed certification, crop inspection, eradication of inoculums and / or insect
vectors, and quarantine measures are some of the means of preventing the spread for pathogens.
Eradication
The process of reducing, inactivating, eliminating or destroying inoculums at the source,
either from a region or from an individual plant in which it is already established is termed as
eradication. Eradication involves eliminating the pathogen from infested areas; the magnitude of
the operation involved may vary considerably. On eof the most extensive eradication operations
carried out so far was to get rid of the citrus canker (xanthomonas axonopodis)in the USA during
1927- 35. As many as 4 million citrus trees were cut and burnt at a cost of about 2.5 million
dollars to eradicate the pathogen. The practices invariably employed to achieve eradication of
inoculums include eradication of alternate and / or collateral hosts, crop rotations, field
sanitations, heat or chemical treatments of plant materials or soil, biological control etc.
Protection
The protection of infection courts against the inoculums of many fast spreading infectious
pathogen, brought by wind from neighboring fields or any other distant place of survival.
Principles of avoidance, exclusion and eradication may not be sufficient to prevent the contact of
host with pathogen, thus development of the disease is imminent. Measures are necessary to
protect host plants from invading inoculums. It can be achieved by creating toxic barrier between
the plant surface and the inoculums. Methods employed to achieve such results are chemical
sprays, dusts, modification of environment, and modification of host nutrition.
Host resistance
It utilizes in – built mechanism to resist various activities of pathogen. The infection or
subsequent damage by pathogen can be rendered ineffective through genetic manipulation or by
chemotherapy. The host resistance can also be induced by use of certain biotic and abiotic
factors. The discovery of Mendelian laws of inheritance and developments in plant breeding
techniques have helped in developing crop varieties resistant to specific pathogen or group pf
pathogens. The classical breeding techniques include selection, mutation and hybridization. Use
of biotechnological tools such as tissue culture, genetic engineering and protoplast fusion are
being used to develop resistant cultivars of various economically important crops.
Therapy
It is the treatment of infected host plant, which is attempted in case of economically
important horticulture plants. As a principle of plant disease control, it provides an opportunity to
cure or rejuvenate the diseased host plant by use of physical or chemical agents. The first five of
these principles are mainly preventive (prophylactic) and constitute the major components of
plant disease management. They are applied to the population of plants before infection takes
place. Therapy is a curative procedure and is applied to individuals after infection has taken
place. Under the concept of disease management these principles have been classified into
following five categories:
1. Management of physical environment (cultural control)
2. Management of associated micro biota (biological antagonism)
3. Management of host genes (host resistance)
4. Management with chemicals (Chemical control)
5. Management with therapy (Physical, chemical etc)
The six principles that characterize the modern concept of plant disease management should be
viewed from three stand points
(a) Reduction in the initial inoculums or the rate of disease development.
(b) Management of the pathogen population, the cure or induce defense of the suscept or modify
the environment as it influences disease and
(c) Interruption of dispersal, survival or the course of disease development.
These interactions are originally proposed by Baker (1968) and Roberts and Boothroyd (1972)
and subsequently modified for the readers are illustrated as below:
Integrated disease management

The term Integrated pest management was originally designed for management of insect
pest but it is equally applicable to plant diseases also. IPM is an ecosystem- based strategy that
focuses on long term prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of techniques
such as biological control, habitat manipulation, and modification of cultural practices and use of
Management of pathogen involves the practices directed to exclude, reduce or eradicate
inoculums. Management of the host involves the practices directed to improve plant vigor and
induce resistance through nutrition, introduction of genetic resistance through breeding and
providing need based protection by chemical means. Management of environment involves the
practices that modify the environment which is not favorable to pathogen or disease development
and does not predispose host to attack.
Lecture 23
Regulatory methods – Plant Quarantine and Inspection – Quarantine Rules and

Regulations
Plant Quarantine
The term ‘Quarantine’ means simply forty i.e., 40 days period. This was more commonly
referred to the period of detention for ships arriving from countries subject to epidemic diseases
such as the Bubonic plague, cholera and yellow fever. The crew and the passengers used to be
compelled to remain isolated on board for sufficient period to permit the diseases to develop and
be detected. The purpose of the health authorities was to establish adequate detention period.
Later on, the term ‘Quarantine’ came to be only used for the detention and the practices
connected with it. The term got associated from the human disease field to the animal disease
field and later on adopted to cover protective methods for the exclusion of pests and diseases of
agricultural and horticultural crops.
In strict sense ‘Plant Quarantine’ refers to the holding of plants in isolation until they are
believed to be healthy. Now, broader meaning of the plant quarantine covers all aspects of the
regulation of the movement of living plants, living plant parts/plant products between politically
defined territories or ecologically distinct parts of them. Intermediate quarantine and post entry
quarantine are used respectively to denote the detention of plants in isolation for inspection
during or after arrival at their final destination.
Importance
The entry of a single exotic insect or disease and its establishment in the new
environment continues to cause great, national loss (table ) till such time it is brought under
effective control. In certain cases a country has to spend a few million rupees before success in
controlling the introduced insect pest or disease is achieved.
Losses caused by introduced plant diseases
Disease Host Country Introduced Losses caused

from
Canker Citrus U.S.A Japan $ 13 million; 19.5 million
trees destroyed
Dutch elm Elm U.S.A. Holland $ 25 million -$ 50,000
disease million
Blight Chestnut U.S.A. Eastern Asia $ 100-1000

million
Powdery Grapevine France U.S.A 80% in wine

mildew production
Downy mildew Grapevine France U.S.A $ 50,000 million
Bunchy top Banana India Sri Lanka Rs.4 crores

Wart Potato India Netherlands 2500acres infected
South American Rubber Dutch – Guiana 40,000 trees
leaf blight Brazil destroyed
do -do- North Columbia Brazil 78% trees destroyed
Blue mould Tobacco Europe U.K .$ 50 million
–do --do- Sweden U.K. 1.2 million Kroner
History
The first plant quarantine law was promulgated in Rollen, France in 1860 to suppress and
prevent the spread of common barberry, the alternate host for wheat stem rust. Among other
countries, the first few to establish plant quarantine services were Germany, France, Australia
and the U.S.A. In India, legislative measures against crop pests and diseases was initiated under
the Destructive Insects and pests Act of 1914 (DIP act) and it was passed by Governor General
of India on 3 rd February, 1914. Under this Act, rules governing the import and movement of
plants and plant materials, insects and fungi are framed. The Act provides
 It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the import into India or any
part there of any specific place therein, of any article of class of articles.
 It authorizes the officers of the Customs at every port to operate, as if the rules under the
D.I.P. Act is made under the Sea Customs Act.
1. It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the export from a State of the
transport from one State to another State in India of any plants and plant materials, diseases or
insects likely to cause or infestation. It also authorizes the control of transport and carriage and
gives power to prescribe the nature of documents to accompany such plants and plant materials
and articles.
2. It authorizes the State Governments to make rules for the detention, inspection, disinfection or
destruction of any insect or class of insects or of any article or class of articles, in respect of
which the Central Government have issued notifications. It also authorizes the State governments
for regulating the powers and duties of the officers whom it may appoint on this behalf.
3. It provides penalty for persons who knowingly contravene the rules and regulations issued
under the Act.
4. It also protects the persons from any suit or prosecution or other legal proceedings for
anything done in good faith or intended to be done under the Act. Consequent to Bengal famine
1943, a Central Plant Protection organization was established in 1946 under the then Ministry of
Food and Agriculture. Often a new pest, disease or weed has accidentally entered a country
where it did not exist before and has multiplied, spread and caused enormous damage to the
crops of that country.
For instance powdery mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola), introduced into France
from America, was responsible for the destruction of the vine industry of that country until
hybridization with resistant American stock offered a solution. The blight disease of chestnut
(Endothia parasitica) which was introduced into U.S.A. from Asia in 1904, completely wiped
out chestnut trees. Coffee rust (Hemileia vastarix) which came into India in 1879 from Sri Lanka
is now widespread in all coffee growing areas. Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) of pear and other
pomes which was introduced from England in 1940 is well established in Uttar Pradesh. Late
blight (Phytophthora infestans of potato introduced into India in 1889 from Europe is now
present in many parts of the country. Flag smut (Urocystis tritici) of wheat introduced from
Australia is now well spread in Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Rubber
powdery mildew (Oidium heavea), which was introduced from Malaysia in 1938, is also causing
great concern in Kerala. Black rot of crucifers (Xanthomonas campestris pv.campestris) believed
to have been introduced to India with seeds imported from Holland, and other European
countries after World War II, prevailed for some years on the hills and then spread to the plains
and became established in Indian seed stocks, especially in West Bengal. Among the more
important plant disease introductions, mention may be made of bunchy top virus of banana
introduced from Sri Lanka in 1940 which has since spread widely in Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal
and Assam. The wart disease (Synchytrium endobioticum) of potato was first noticed in
Darjeeling district of West Bengal having been introduced with seed potatoes from Holland. By
1962, the disease spread over nearly 1000 ha and has recently been reported from Nepal also.
The mosaic disease of banana is another introduced disease which is only confined to Gujarat
and Maharashtra states. Recently the apple scab (Venturia inaequalis which was only confined to
small area in Jammu and Kashmir has now appeared in severe form in many locations in
Himachal Pradesh, and is posing a problem to apple industry. The establishment of a plant
quarantine regulation should rest on the following fundamental pre-requisites.
i. The pest/disease under consideration must be one that will offer actual or expected threats to
substantial interests (Agricultural and / or commercial)
ii. The quarantine regulation or degree must represent a measure for which no substitute action
involving less interference with normal activities is available.
Diseases believed to have been introduced into India from foreign countries
Disease Host Date of first Introduction

record from
Leaf rust(Hemileia Coffee 1879 Sri Lanka

vastarix)
Late blight (Phytophthora Potato Tomato 1883 Europe
infestans)
Rust (Puccinia carthami ) Chrysanthemum 1904 Japan or Europe
Flag smut(Urocystis tritici) Wheat 1906 Australia
Downy Grapevine 1910 Europe

mildew(Plasmopara
viticola)
Downy Cucurbits 1910 Sri Lanka
mildew(Pseudoperonospora
cubensis)
Downy mildew(Sclerospora Maize 1912 Java

philippinensis)
Foot rot (Fusarium Rice 1930 South East
moniliforme var. majus) Asia
Leaf spot(Phyllachora Sorghum 1934 South Africa
sorghi )
Powdery mildew(Oidium Rubber 1938 Malaya
heveae)
Black shank (Phytophthora Tobacco 1938 Dutch East
parasitica var. Insides
nicotianae)
Fire blight Pear and pomes 1940 England
other(Erwinia amylovora
Crown-gall and hairy root Apple, Pear 1940 England
(Agrobacterium
tumefaciens A. rhizogenes)
1. Bunchy top Banana 1940 Sri Lanka

2. Canker Apple 1943 Australia(Sphaeropsis malorum)
3. Wart Potato 1953 Netherlands(Synchytrium endobioticum)
Despite every precaution of inspection, certification and treatment, it is not always

possible to guarantee that a consignment is completely free from pathogens. In doubtful cases it
is advisable to subject plants to a period of growth in isolation under strict supervision in the
importing country (post-entry quarantine). The plants are grown at a quarantine station. When
direct importation of plants to a country’s own quarantine station is considered very dangerous,
quarantine during transit from the country of origin (intermediate quarantine) may be required.
The requirements of an intermediate station are similar to those for a post-entry station.
Intermediate quarantine inspection must always be followed by post-entry quarantine after
arrival of the consignment at its final destination. During post-entry or intermediate quarantine
plants must be kept under close supervision, so that any pest or disease which appears may be
immediately detected and grown under optimum conditions, so that symptoms are not marked by
physiological disturbances.
International plant protection convention the first effort towards international agreement
on Plant Protection was made in 1914 under the auspices of the International Institute of
Agriculture in Rome. This was followed by an International Convention of Plant Protection by
over 50 member countries of the Institute in 1919 and certain Agreements regarding the issue
and acceptance of phytosanitary certificates were finalized. The project received a set back due
to Second World War and was later on revived by the FAO. In post-war period International
action in Plant Protection and particularly in plant quarantine was encouraged by FAO with the
establishment in 1951 of the International Plant Protection Convention. This agreement was
constituted with the purpose of securing common and effective action to prevent the introduction
and spread of pests and diseases of plants and plant products as to encourage Governments to
take all steps necessary to implement its prevention (Ling, 1953).
The following regional Plant Protection Organizations are now in operation.

1. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO)
2. The Inter-African Phytosanitary Council (IAPSC)
3. Organismo International Regional de Sanidad Agropecnario (OIRSA)
4. The Plant Protection Committee for, the South East Asia and Pacific region.
5. Comit’e Interamericano de Protection Agricola. (CIPA)
6. The Caribbean Plant Protection Commission (CPPC)
7. The North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO).
Under article 3 of that International Plant Protection Convention, the Plant Protection
Agreement for South East Asia and Pacific Region was sponsored by F.A.O in 1956, and India
became in party to this Agreement in the same year the along with Australia, Sri Lanka, the
U.K., Laos, Netherlands, Indonesia, Portugal and Vietnam. Our Government agreed to adopt
legislative measures specified in the Convention for the purpose of securing common and
effective action to prevent the introduction and spread of pests and diseases of plants and plant
products and to promote measures for their control and also agreed to assume all responsibilities
for the fulfillment within its territories of all requirements under the Convention. It was agreed
that the Government shall make provision for:
a. An official plant protection organization, with the following main functions:
1. The inspection of growing plants, of areas under cultivation and of plants and plant products in
storage and in transportation with the object of reporting the existence, outbreak and spread of
plant diseases and pests and of controlling those pests and diseases.
2. The inspection of consignments of plants and plant products moving in international traffic,
the inspection of consignments of other articles or commodities moving in international traffic
under conditions where they may act incidentally as carriers of pests and diseases of plants and
plant products and the inspection and supervision of storage and transportation facilities of all
kinds involved in international traffic whether of plants and plant products or other commodities,
with the object of preventing the dissemination across national boundaries of pests and diseases
of plants and plant products.
3. The disinfestation or disinfection of consignments of plants and plant products moving in
international traffic, and their containers, storage places, or transportation facilities of all kinds
employed.
4. The issue of certificates relating to phytosanitary condition and origin of consignments of
plants and plant products (Phytosanitary certificates).
b. The distribution of information within the country regarding the pests and diseases of plants
and plant products and the means of their prevention and control
c. Research and investigation in the field of plant protection. A revised text of convention was
approved in 1979. As of December 1980, the number of states party to the convention is 81.
Besides this world-wide convention, other regional agreements and organizations have been
created to safeguard the interests of groups of neighbouring countries with similar plant
protection problems.
Regional action is needed to prevent a pathogen or pest absent from a whole area from
being introduced into any part of the area, as its entry into one territory will endanger
neighbouring countries.
Plant quarantine methods

There are number of plant quarantine methods which are used separately or collectively
to prevent or retard the introduction and establishment of exotic pests and pathogens. The
components of plant quarantine activities are:
1. Complete embargoes
It involves absolute prohibition or exclusion of specified plants and plant products from a
country infected or infested with highly destructive pests or diseases that could be transmitted by
the plant or plant products under consideration and against which no effective plant quarantine
treatment can be applied or is not available for application.
2. Partial embargoes
Partial embargoes, applying when a pest or disease of quarantine importance to an
importing country is known to occur only in well defined area of the exporting country and an
effectively operating internal plant quarantine service exists that is able to contain the pest or
disease within this area.
3. Inspection and treatment at point of origin
It involves the inspection and treatment of a given commodity when it originates from a
country where pest/disease of quarantine importance to importing country is known to occur.
4. Inspection and certification at point of origin
It involves pre-shipment inspection by the importing country in cooperation with
exporting country and certification in accordance with quarantine requirements of importing
country.
5. Inspection at the point of entry
It involves inspection of plant material immediately upon arrival at the prescribed port of
entry and if necessary subject to treatment before the same related.
6. Utilization of post entry plant quarantine facilities
It involves growing of introduced plant propagating material under isolated or confined
conditions.
Plant quarantine organizations in India
The first recorded plant quarantine measure in India dates back to 1906 when perceiving
the danger of introducing the Mexican boll weevil, the Government of India directed that all
cotton imported from the New World should only be admitted to India after fumigation with
carbon disulphide at the port of entry. In India two categories of regulatory measures are in
operation for controlling pests, diseases and weeds. In the first category regulatory measures are
aimed to prevent the introduction of exotic pests and diseases into the country or their spread
from one State or Union Territory to another (Plant Quarantine).
The second pertains to suppression or prevention of spread of pests and diseases in
localized areas within a State or Union Territory. The former derives its authority from the
Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP) Act 1914 of the Central Government and the latter from
Agricultural Pests and Diseases Acts of the various States. The legislative measures against crop
pests and diseases were initiated under the DIP Act of 1914 which was passed by the then
Governor General of India in Council on 3 February 1914. Prior to the establishment of the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage in 1946, under the Ministry of Food and
Agriculture, the various rules and regulations of the DIP Act were enforced by the customs
department. The quarantine regulations are operative through The Destructive Insects and Pests
Act, 1914 (which has been revised 8 times from 1930 to 1956 and amended in 1967 and 1992.
The provisions of the DIP Act are
1. It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the import into India or any part
thereof or any specific place therein of any article or class of articles.
2. It authorizes the officers of the Customs at every port to operate, as if the rules under DIP Act
are made under the Sea Customs Act.
3. It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the export from a State or the
transport from one State to another State in India of any plants and plant material, diseases or
insects, likely to cause infection or infestation. It also authorizes the control of transport and
carriage and gives power to prescribe the nature of documents to accompany such plants and
plant materials and articles.
4. It authorizes the State Governments to make rules for the detention, inspection, disinfection or
destruction of any insect or class of insects or any article or class of articles, in respect of which
the Central Government has issued notification. It also authorizes the State Governments for
regulating the powers and duties of the officers whom it may appoint on its behalf.
5. It provides penalty for persons who knowingly contravene the rules and regulations issued
under the Act.
6. It also protects the personnel from any suit or prosecution or other legal proceedings for
anything done in good faith as intended to be done under this Act.
The quarantine regulations are operative through “The Destructive Insects and Pests Act,
1914 (which has been revised and time from 1930 to 1956 and amended in 1967 and 1992. The
Act also empowers the State Governments to frame suitable rules and issue notifications for
inter-state movement of plant and plant material. Those rules are known as plant quarantine
rules. Under the Act, Central Government frames rules prescribing the seaports, airports and land
frontiers through which plants and specified plant material can enter India, and the manner in
which these can be imported. The DIP Act operates under the National Sea Customs Act and the
points of entry are located within the jurisdiction of State on the advice of Central Government,
the State frames rules for detention, inspection, disinfection and destruction (as against entry) of
material, if required, and delegates powers in this regard to concerned authorities with the
enforcement of rules.
The plant quarantine service is centrally organized and administered through the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage established under the Ministry of
Agriculture (Department of Agriculture and Co-operation) which is headed by the Plant
Protection Adviser to the Government of India and having its headquarters at N.H. IV,
Faridabad, Haryana State. Import regulations When plants are imported the following principles
should be followed. Some plant pathogens and pests are generally distributed in most parts of the
world but others are more or less restricted in their occurrence.
In some cases this limitation is due to such factors as unsuitable environmental conditions
or lack of the required host plant, but in many other cases the absence of a pathogen. Most
countries are aware of the desirability of delaying for as long as possible the arrival of exotic
pathogens and take action to prevent their spread by introducing legislation and setting up
organizations to prevent their entry. Plant quarantine legislation varies from country to country
but in most cases it restricts or prohibits the importation of the pests or pathogens themselves,
plants on which they might be living, soil which might be infested, foodstuffs which might carry
them, and packing materials, particularly those of plant origin. Good legislation is as brief and
clear as possible, at the same time being easy to interpret, gives adequate protection without
interfering more than is essential with trade, and contains only restrictions which are
scientifically justifiable. When plants are imported there are certain principles which, if followed
ensure that as few risks as possible are taken.
1. Import from a country where, for the crop in question, pathogens which are particularly to be
guarded against are absent.
2. Import from a country with an efficient plant quarantine service, so that inspection and
treatment of planting material before despatch will be thorough, thus reducing the likelihood of
contaminated plants being received.
3. Obtain planting material from the safest known source within the selected country.
4. Obtain an official certificate of freedom from pests and diseases from the exporting country.
Treatment of the material in the country of origin may be done; this should be noted on the
certificate.
5. The smaller the amount the less the chance of its carrying infection, and inspection as well as
post-entry quarantine.
6. Inspect material carefully on arrival and treat (dust, spray, fumigate, heat treat) as necessary.
7. Import the safest type of planting material, e.g. seeds are usually safer than vegetative
material, unrooted cuttings than rooted. The use of axenic cultures of meristem tip tissues
(micropropagation) for the international exchange of germplasm material has outstanding
advantages, as such tissues can be expected to be free from latent infections by viruses,
phytoplasmas etc., as well as other pathogens which are more readily detectable by visual means.
8. If other precautions are not thought to be adequate, the consignment for import should be
subject to intermediate or post-entry quarantine. Such quarantine must be carried out at a
properly equipped station with suitably trained staff.
Seed was not originally included in the DIP Act, but because of the changing situation and to
meet the current requirements, the Government of India passed the Plants, Fruits, Seeds
(Regulation of Import into India) Order 1984 which came into effect in June 1985. The
conditions for the import of 17 crops are stipulated in this order. The main features of the order
are:
1. Seed has been brought under the purview of the DIP Act.
2. No consignment can be imported into the country without valid import permit issued by the
Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India.
3. No consignment can be imported without an official phytosanitary certificate issued by the

plant quarantine agency of the exporting country.
4. Post-entry growth of the specified crops at approved locations.
A. Conditions for import
In India, there are general and specific conditions for the import of plants (including
bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, corms, cuttings, buddings, grafts, layers, suckers, roots and flowers) and
plant materials (including plant products such as ginned cotton, unmanufactured tobacco etc.).
General conditions
1. Import permits are essential for :
a. Seeds and fruits for consumption,
b. Seeds and plants for sowing or planting,
c. Soil, earth clay for microbiological, soilmechanics or mineralogical investigations
d. Peat for horticultural purposes
e. Live insects and f. Living fungi in pure culture, including Rhizobium cultures.
2. All plants should be accompanied by Phytosanitary certificate from the
country of origin.
3. All plants on arrival at port, shall be inspected and if necessary fumigated, disinfested or
disinfected by Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India or any other officer
authorized by him on his behalf.
4. Plants and seeds which require post-entry quarantine inspection shall be grown in post-entry
quarantine facilities approved by the Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India.
5. Import of hay or straw or any material of plant origin used for packing is prohibited.
6. Import of soil, earth, compost, sand, plant debris along with plants, fruits and seeds is
prohibited.
Note: Cut flowers, garlands, bouquets, fruits and vegetables weighing less than 2 kg for personal
use may be imported without a permit or phytosanitary certificate, but are subject to inspection.
Special conditions In addition to the general conditions, there are special conditions for certain
notified plants as follows.
1. Prohibition from certain areas

Name of the plant Countries from where prohibited
Cocoa and all species of Sterculiaceae Africa, Sri Lanka, West Indies and
Bombaceae
Coffee beans Africa, South America, Sri Lanka
Rubber South America, West Indies
Sugarcane Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea
Sunflower Argentina, Peru
1. Prohibited for general public: Coconut plants and seeds, coffee plants and seeds, cotton seeds
and unginned cotton, forest tree seed (Castanea, Pinus, Ulmus), groundnut seeds and cuttings,
potato, sugarcane, tobacco seeds and wheat seeds.
2. Plants/seeds which require post entry quarantine: Cocoa, citrus, coconut, groundnut, potato,
sugarcane, sunflower, tobacco and wheat.
3. Additional declarations required for notified plants (see Table below)
Plant/seed Additional declarations for freedom of pests
All species of Allium (onion, garlic, leek, Smut (Urocystis cepulae)

chive, shallot, etc.) .
Cocoa and all species of the family Pod rot (Monilia rorei), Mealy pod
Sterculiaceae and Bombaceae (Trachysphaeria and fructigena), Witches’
broom (Crinipellia perniciosus) Swollen shoot
virus
All species of Citrus (lemon, lime, orange Mal Secco (Deuterophoma tracheiphila)
etc.,)
Coconut seeds and all species of Cocos Lethal yellowing, Cadang, Bronze leaf wilt,
Guam ,Coconut disease, Leaf scorch
Coffee – plants, seeds American leaf spot (Omphali flavida), virus
diseases
Cotton seeds Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.

malvacearum and Glomerella gossypii)
Forest tree seeds (all species Cronartium parasitica, Ceratocystis ulmi, Dothiostroma
ribicola, Endothea pini.
of Pinus, Ulmus, Castanea)
Groundnut seeds (all species i. production of seeds in areas free of Puccinia
of Arachis) arachidis and Sphaceloma arachidis.
ii. Inspection of parent crops in active growing
seasons and certification for freedom from
peanut mottle, peanut stunt, marginal chlorosis
and peanut stripe viruses
Lucerne (all species of Medicago) Bacterial wilt (Corynebacterium
incidiosum)
Potato (all species of Wart (Synchytrium endobioticum) and freedom
Solanum) of parent crop from virus diseases
Rubber (all species of South American leaf blight (Microcyclus ulei,
Hevea) Sphaerostilbe repens)
Sugarcane (all species of Saccharum) Leaf scald (Xanthomonas albineans),
Gummosis (Xanthomonas vasculorum), Sereh,
downy mildew, chlorotic streak and Fiji
disease.
Agencies involved in plant quarantine

The authority to implement the quarantine rules and regulations framed under DIP Act
rests basically with the Directorate of plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, under the Ministry
of Agriculture. This organization handles bulk import and export of seed and planting material
for commerical purpose. Under this organization 9 seaports, 10 airports and 7 land frontiers are
functioning. These are the recognized ports for entries for import of plant and plant material. The
names and places of the ports and stations are as follows.
A. Seaports - Place State / Union territory

1. Bhavnagar - Gujarat
2. Calcutta - West Bengal
3. Chennai - Tamil Nadu
4. Cochin - Kerala
5. Mumbai - Maharashtra
6. Nagapattinam - Tamil Nadu
7. Rameswaram - Tamil Nadu
8. Tuticorin - Tamil Nadu
9. Visakhapatnam - Andhra Pradesh
B. Airports
1. Amritsar - Punjab
2. Calcutta - West Bengal
3. Chennai - Tamil Nadu
4. Hyderabad - Andhra Pradesh
5. Mumbai - Maharashtra
6. New Delhi - New Delhi
7. Patna - Bihar
8. Tiruchirappalli - Tamil Nadu
9. Trivandrum - Kerala
10. Varanasi - Uttar Pradesh
C. Land frontiers
1. Amritsar Railway Station - Punjab
2. Attari Railway Station - Punjab
3. Attari-Wagah Border- Punjab
4. Bangaon Benapol Border - West Bengal
5. Gede Road Railway Station - West Bengal
6. Kalimpong - West Bengal
7. Sukhia Pokhri - West Bengal
The Government of India has also approved three other national institutions to act as
official quarantine agencies, especially for research material.
1. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)

The NBPGR in New Delhi and its regional station at Hyderabad in the agency involved
in processing of germplasm, seed, plant material of agricultural, horticultural, and silvicultural
crops of all the institutions of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) functioning in the
country. It is also responsible for quarantine clearance of seed and plant material received from
International Agricultural Research Centers viz., ICRISAT, ICARDA, CIMMYT, etc. ICRISAT
was established in 1972 at Patancheru (near Hyderabad) to work on improvement of sorghum,
pearlmillet, chickpea, pigeonpea and groundnut. The quarantine clearance of all its exchanges
was handled by Central Plant Protection Training Institute of Directorate of Plant Protection,
Quarantine & Storage, until July 1986. This authority was later passed on to NBPGR in August
1986.
2. Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun, for forestry plants and
3. Botanical Survey of India (BSI) for other plants.
Quarantine inspection, treatment and certification procedures Inspection: Inspection of
plant material is an important part of plant quarantine procedure, and may be done both in the
exporting country, before issue of a health certificate and after arrival to detect any pest or
disease which may have become evident during transit. Publications like manuals, hand books on
individual organisms of quarantine importance are prepared with illustration by each country /
region to help inspectors. The following series published by Commonwealth Mycological
Institute ill be useful for all countries.
1. CMI descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria
2. CMI/AAB descriptions of plant viruses and
3. CMI distribution maps of plant diseases.
The various steps involved in import quarantine clearance of seed and propagating plant
material is outlined below
i. Securitization of import application filed along with attached documents such as phytosanitary
certificate (original), permit (importer’s copy), shipping bill, invoice, packing list and customs
bill of entry etc., to ensure the import is in order and that no prohibited plant material is
imported.
ii. Assessment of inspection fees and registration of application.
iii. Inspection and sampling of the consignment at port warehouses or container terminal.
Sampling of seed usually carried out as per the provisions of ISTA Rules and Regulations.
Whereas in case of bulk import of vegetative planting material such as cuttings/saplings/ bud
woods/bulbs/tubers etc., at least a minimum of 0.1% of propagules are sampled variety and
examined to ensure free from exotic pests or pathogens. In case of quarantine pests suspected,
100 per cent inspection is carried out for critical assessment of the risk.
iv. Detailed laboratory testing
a. Visual inspection: The samples of seed/ propagating plant material is examined with the help
of illuminated magnifier to record live insect infestation, contamination by soil and weed seeds,
nematode galls, sclerotia, smut/bunt balls etc. Sometimes inspections are carried out under U.V.
lamp to facilitate detection of specific seed-borne inspection by characteristic fluorescence.
b. X-Ray test for detecting hidden insect infestation such as bruchids and weevils that bore into
seed.
c. Washing test to detect surface-borne oospores of downy mildew/smut spores/ bunt spores etc.
and nematode cysts. Seed samples of onion, clover and lucerne are soaked for 24 to detect stem
and bulb nematode and also root washings are examined for ectoparasitic nematodes.
d. Incubation tests such as blotter test or agar plate test carried out for detecting seed-borne
pathogens such as fungi. Fluorescent pseudomonas agar used for selective detection of seed-
borne bacteria.
e. Grow-out test coupled with indicator inoculation tests for detecting seedborne viruses and
bacteria. Besides this, special diagnostic tests such as Electron Microscopy (dip method),
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) are used for detection of specific viruses in the
imported seed / planting material pencillnase based DAC-ELISA is widely used for the detection
of virus in imported seed/plant material. The detailed testing procedures for the detection of
seed-borne pathogens are outlined in the seed health testing chapter.
v. Fumigation and treatment techniques
Fumigation is the versatile technique used for eliminating insect infestation. Methyl bromide is
the most commonly employed for controlling insect infestation and readily adopted in quarantine
programmes as the exposure time involved is short and affect all stages of insect pests and high
penetrating power. Two types of fumigation viz., i. atmospheric fumigation under gas-proof
sheets or chambers and ii. vacuum fumigation in vacuum chamber is widely employed. The other
chemical treatments include insecticidal/fungicidal drippings or spraying or seed dressings are

invariably associated with growing under post-entry quarantine conditions. The temperature
treatments such as hot water treatment/ hot air treatment or vapour heat treatment are carried out
to control internally borne infection/infestation and the latter particularly employed to control
fruit fly infestation.
Cold treatments such as refrigeration to control insect infestation in fresh fruits and
vegetables. Of late, irradiation is used to control insect infestation and spoilage of food products
during storage and as well as application of high intensity electronic beams through an
accelerator is under experimentation.
Certification
Phytosanitary or health certificate is a certificate which should accompany a plant or
plant material or seed which is to be moved from one place to another place. This certificate
indicates or certifies that the material under transit is free from pests or diseases. A model
phytosanitary certificate proposed at the Government consultation on the International Plant
Protection convention at Rome in 1976 (Chock, 1977) and approved by
F.A.O. in 1979 is given below.
MODEL PHYTOSANITARY CERTIFICATE
(to be typed or printed in block letters)
Plant Protection OrganizationNo. _______________ of _____________________
To: Plant Protection Organization(s) of
________________________________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF CONSIGNMENT
Name and address of exporter ______________________________Declared
name and address of consignee ______________________Number and
description of packages _________________________Distinguishing marks
________________________________Place of origin
__________________________________________Declared means of
conveyance ______________________________Declared point of entry
_____________________________________Name of produce and quantity
declared ________________________Botanical name of plants
____________________________________
This is to certify that the plants or plant products described above have been
inspected according to appropriate procedures and are considered to be free from
quarantine pests and practically free from injurious pests; and that they are considered
to conform to the current phytosanitary regulations of the importing country.
DISINFESTATION AND/OR DISINFECTION TREATMENT
Date _____________________ Treatment
_________________ Chemical (active ingredient) ____
Duration and temperature _____ Concentration
________________ Additional information _______
Additional declaration:
(Signature)
Note:No financial liability with respect to this certificate shall attach to..... (name of plant
protection organization)... or to any of its officers or representatives.
Domestic Quarantine
Under the DIP Act, the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and storage has the
responsibility to take the necessary steps and regulate the inter-state movement of plants and
plant material in order to prevent the further spread of destructive insects and diseases that have
already entered the country. The sole object of enforcing domestic quarantine is to prevent the
spread of these diseases from infected to non-infected areas. Currently, domestic plant quarantine
exists in four diseases, wart (Synchytrium endobioticum) of potato from 1959, bunchy top (virus)
of banana from 1959, mosaic (virus) of banana from 1961 and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis)
from 1979. Most of the states in India have plant quarantine laws to avoid entry of plant pests
and diseases
1. Bunchy top of banana: The export and the transport from the States of Assam, Kerala,
Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu to any other State of Banana plant or any other plant of the
genus Musa, including sucker, stem, leaf, flower, and any other part thereof which may be used
for propagation, or the materials of banana plant or any other plant of the genus Musa, which are
used for packing and wrapping, excluding the banana fruit is prohibited.
2. Banana mosaic : The export and transport from the States of Maharashtra andGujarat of any
plant of Banana or any other plant of genus Musa including the sucker, stem,flower and any
other part thereof, but excluding leaf and fruit thereof is prohibited; videGovernment of India
notification No.F. 6-10-PPS dated the 11thApril, 1961.
3. Potato wart: The export to potato tubers from the State of West Bengal to any other State or
territory of India is prohibited.
4. Apple scab: The Directorate of Horticulture, Himachal Pradesh worked out a detailed scheme
for the eradication of scab, and also issued a notification No.NIC.20/76 dated 28 December
1978, prohibiting the export of planting material of apple outside the State.
In Tamil Nadu as per Madras pests and Diseases Act of 1919, quarantine regulations are
periodically enforced. e.g., cardamom mosaic prevalent in Anamalai area of Coimbatore District
and is free from Nelliampatti area. Hence the movement of diseased plant material from
Anamalai to Nelliampatti area is prevented.
Limitations
There are many limitations to implementing domestic plant quarantine in India due to the
vastness of the country and the unrestricted movement of plant material from one state to
another. As a result the diseases like bunchy top and mosaic of banana have spread to several
other states. However, the wart disease, golden nematode of potato, and scab of apple are
restricted in the states where they were initially noticed.
Export regulations
In India the plant quarantine measures for exporting plants and material including seeds
have been streamlined and rigid inspections are enforced before the material is allowed to be
landed into the country. At present plant quarantine regulations differ with different countries for
major agricultural commodities that are being exported out of India. The Central Government
has authorized officers of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, ICAR
Research Institutes, National Institutes like Forest Research Institute, Botanical Survey of India,
and the Directorates of Agriculture of all States.
The quarantine authorities have also framed terms and conditions pertaining to
inspection, fumigation or disinfection of the exportable plants and plant material in India
including the following schedule/or fee for inspection and issue of phytosanitary certificate,
and/or fumigation or disinfection in respect of plants, plant material, seeds, and plant products to
issue phytosanitary certificate. All the plants and plant material are subjected to inspection by
officials issuing certificate. Infested materials are given necessary treatment with chemicals and
fumigated if necessary.
The list of plant quarantine and fumigation stations in India is given below.
Punjab
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Hussainiwala, Ferozepur District.
2. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Attari – Wagah Border, near Attari Bus Stand,
Attari, Ferozepur District.
3. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Civil Aerodrome, Rajasansi, Amritsar.
New Delhi
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Palam Airport, New Delhi – 10.
2. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Garden Reach Road, Calcutta–24.
3. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station Sukhiapokri, Darjeeling District.
Gujarat
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Haryana Plot No.75, Behind Yusuf Bagh.
Bhavnagar.
Maharashtra
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Haji Bunder Road, Sewri, Mumbai
Andhra Pradesh
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, The Harbour, Visakhapatnam – 1.
Tamil Nadu
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, 6, Clive Battery, Chennai – 1.
2. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, 335, Beach Road, Tuticorin – 1.
3. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Tiruchirappalli Airport, Tiruchirappalli.
4. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, 110, Railway Feeder Road, Rameswaram.
Kerala
1. Plant Quarantine and Fumigation Station, Willingdon Island, Cochin – 3
Lecture 24
Cultural methods – Rouging, eradication of alternate and collateral hosts, crop rotation,
manure and fertilizer management, mixed cropping, sanitation, hot weather ploughing, soil
amendments, time of sowing, seed rate and plant density, irrigation and drainage
Eradication
Eradication is the elimination of pathogen after it has become established in the area
where host is growing. The following are the important methods followed to prevent the spread
of the disease:
i. eradication of alternate hosts,
ii. eradication of collateral and self sown overwintering hosts
iii. eradication of the affected plants or trees,
iv. eradication of pathogens from infected plant parts by surgery and
v. eradication of culled out plant materials, debris, etc., through different cultural
practices
i. Eradication of alternate hosts
Removal of alternate hosts helps to prevent and check the spread of the disease caused by
heteroecious rust pathogens in the primary hosts. Barberry bush is the alternate host for black
stem rust pathogen Puccinia graminis tritici on wheat where the pathogen survives in the off-
season. Barberry was eradicated in Canada, Denmark, France, Hungary, Norway and in the
U.S.A. by passing stringent laws in each country. The eradication of barberry had two benefits
i.e., it elimination of early spring primary inoculum and prevention of the formation of new
physiologic races of the pathogens. In the U.S.A. white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola)
was controlled by eradication of alternate host, Ribes. In Australia, Europe and the U.S.A. the
apple rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae) is controlled by eradication of alternate host,
cedar.
ii. Eradication of collateral and self sown overwintering hosts
There are many weed hosts or wild species of cultivated plants act as collateral hosts or
volunteer plants of an economic crop which act as reservoirs of pathogens of annual crop.
Reservoir hosts help the pathogen to continue the infection chain. The primary inoculum is
produced on and dispersed from these hosts to the cultivated crop hosts. If these wild or
uneconomic host plants of the pathogen are destroyed, the sources of primary inoculum are
eliminated and chances of initiation of the disease in the crop hosts are reduced. Destruction of
these hosts breaks the life cycle of the pathogen and the infection chain. Reservoir hosts or
indigenous plant species which are not actually involved with the life cycle of the pathogen but
provide additional sites for its persistence and multiplication. In some cases such plant species
act as symptomless carriers, especially for viruses and root pathogens. Regional elimination of
such hosts requires careful attention to roadside areas and other non-agricultural land also.
Crop Disease Pathogen Collateral hosts
a. Fungi Blast Pyricularia Brachiaria mutica
1. Rice oryzae Dinebra retroflexa,
Leersia hexandra,
Panicum repens.
2. Sorghum Ergot Sphacelia Panicum spp.
sorghi
b. Bacteria Bacterial Xanthomonas Cyanodon dactylon, Cyperus
1. Rice leaf blight oryzae pv. rotundus, Leersia hexandra,
oryzae Leersia oryzoides, Panicum
repens, Paspalum dictum.
2. Apple and Fire blight Erwinia Hauthom bushes Crataegus sp.
pear amylovora
3. Cotton Bacterial X. axonopodis Eriodendron anfructuosum,
blight pv.malvacearu Jatropha curcas, Thurbaria
m thespesoides
c. Viruses Rugose Rugose mosaic Physalis spp.
1. Potato mosaic virus
2. Bean Yellow Bean yellow Sweet clover

mosaic mosaic virus
3. Bhendi Yellow Bhendi yellow Hibiscus tetraphyllus
vein vein mosaic
mosaic virus
d.Phytoplasma Little leaf Phytoplasma Catharanthus roseus, Datura sp.
1. Brinjal
Self sown crops / volunteer plants help the pathogen to overwinter / oversummer in the
absence of economic hosts. In Sudan it was enforced through legislation to pull out the cotton
plants to prevent regrowth which facilitate the carryover of the cotton leaf curl virus. Wheat
streak mosaic virus has been effectively controlled by eliminating the volunteer wheat plants that
served as reservoirs for the virus.
iii. Eradication of affected plants or trees
In some threatening plant diseases, it is essential to eradicate the host and the pathogen
from an area. Citrus, canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri) is an example of success of an
eradication programme. This disease was first noticed in Florida citrus trees in 1913. An
eradication campaign was started in 1915. All the citrus nurseries and orchards were inspected
and the infected trees were cut and burnt. The eradication programme continued till 1927 and no
citrus canker was present in that area. Peach yellows and peach rosette were also controlled by
removal and destruction of diseased trees. In Tamil Nadu also there were some eradication
campaigns launched under Destructive Pests and Diseases Act. Eradication programme was set
up to control bud rot of palms and completed with success. At Sathyamangalam eradication of
sandal wood tree affected by spike disease was also made to contain this disease.
iv. Eradication of pathogens from infected plant parts by surgery
Eradication of affected plant parts (tree surgery) are also practiced in certain cases which
reduces the source of primary inoculum. Lesions caused by fire blight bacterium (Erwinia
amylovora) on pear and apple trees are removed during winter months. This not only prevents
further spread in the affected trees but also reduces the amount of inoculum that can spread to
other branches and trees. The cankered areas in the branch or trunk of almond and pear trees
caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata are surgically removed and the trees are saved. Tree surgery is
also practiced in coconut trees affected by stem bleeding disease (Ceratocystis paradoxa), citrus
gummosis (Phytophthora citrophthora), Dendrophthoe spp. on citrus, bud rot of palms
(Phytophthora palmivora) and koleroga of arecanut (P.arecae)
v. Eradication of culled out plant materials, debris etc. through different cultural practices
2. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is essentially a preventive measure and has its effect mainly on the
succeeding crop. Crop rotation is the oldest and cheapest method adopted in agriculture for
eradication of certain types of pathogens from infested soil. Continuous cropping or
monoculturing provides opportunity for perpetuation of pathogenic organisms in the soil when
the same crop is raised year after year in the same field.
The soil-borne pathogens of that crop easily perennate in the soil and increase in their
population. After sometime, the soil becomes so heavily infested that it becomes unfit for
cultivation of the particular crop. Virus diseases of crop plants and their vectors are found to
increase after every crop if a crop is cultivated continuously in a field. On the other hand, when
immune, resistant or non-host crops are grown for a definite duration after a susceptible crop in
the field it is expected that in the absence of nutrition, the pathogen will be starved off and the
population of such pathogens consequently decreases.
It is also possible that different crops release some biochemical substances in their root
exudates which either directly kill the pathogen or encourage development of antagonistic
microorganisms in the soil. In this way, crop rotation is one of the most effective methods of
root disease control. Organisms which are soil inhabitant types remain in soil for a very long
time, even more than five years in the absence of the host. Long-lived spores or the organisms
by themselves, subsist as saprophytes and therefore their presence in soil is long term. Onion
smut (Urocystis cepulae)and club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae)organisms are producing
resistant type of spores while Rhizoctonia, Fusarium and some species of Pythium are those
which could remain in soil as saprophytes for a very long time.
Eradication of such organisms becomes fairly difficult. Soil also harbours soil invaders.
These organisms are not persistent and they can live as long as the host residues serve as
substrate. They perish when they are forced to exist in the soil in competition with soil
inhabitants and disappear gradually in due course. Bean anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum, cabbage black rot bacterium, Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris are
some examples, which live in soil for 1 to 2 years. They can be eliminated from soil by adopting
3 or 4 year rotation with non-host crops. Crop rotation is effective in the control of brown stem
rot of soybean (Cephalosporium gregatum). The disease incidence can be reduced to a great
extent by rotating with corn for 4 to 5 years between two soybean crops.
Crop rotation with sugarcane or paddy is effective in the control of ‘Panama wilt’ of
banana (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense) and crop rotation with paddy or green manures is
effective in the control of red rot of sugarcane (Colletotrichum falcatum). Rotation of cereal
crops like pearlmillet, finger millet or fox-tail millet is recommended for the control of
Macrophomina root rot of pulse crops. Two year crop rotation with lucerne is recommended in
the control of Verticillium wilt of cotton. Many diseases such as Fusarium wilt of pigeonpea
(F. udum), foot rot of betelvine (Phytophthora capsici), bacterial leaf blight of rice
(Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae), bacterial blight of cotton (X.campestris pv. malvacearum)
etc., are controlled by this method. Soybean seed infection by Phomopsis sp. can be reduced by
rotating soybean with maize. Pathogens are reduced or eliminated by following the crop
rotations given in the table.
Table. Effect of crop rotation in reduction / elimination of plant pathogens
Beneficial
Pathogen reduced or eliminated Preceding crop
crop
1.Rice Verticillium dahliae Cotton
2.Pea Gaeiimannomyces graminis Wheat
3.Sudan grass Pseudomonas solanacearum Tomato
3. Fallowing
Fallowing starves the pathogen and helps in reduction of the inoculum by elimination of
the host. Diseases like Macrophomina root rot on different crop plants is controlled by
following this method. Flood fallowing is to a depth of 0.6 to 1.5 m for 4 to 6 months markedly
reduced the Panama wilt pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense inoculum in banana. Soil
inoculum of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae, the causal organism of black shank of
tobacco was destroyed by flooding the field for 3 to 4 months and by raising swamp rice in a 2
year rotation with tobacco-rice crop in Java. Flooding the soil strewn with debris infected by
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum for 4 days reduced the inoculum level and thus the
incidence of disease was only 2.1% as against 69.5% in unflooded fields. Wet fallowing makes
the pathogenic propagule in or on the soil to germinate, spent them, is become susceptible attack
of saprophytes. Example, Sclerotium rolfsii and Verticillium dahliae. The sclerotia or
microsclerotia of these fungi are activated in the absence of root exudates of this host. They
germinate quickly when there is alternate wetting and drying of the soil. When the population of
Pythium myriotylum is not high wet fallowing is successful in reducing the population. Wet
fallowing reduces saprophytic survival of Alternaria solani on crop debris.
4. Application of organic manures
Addition of organic manures like farm yard manure or green manures or oil cakes to the
soil increases the antagonistic microorganisms in the soil. Build up of antagonistic
microorganisms reduces the population of soil borne plant pathogens and the diseases caused by
them. Application of farm yard manure at the rate of 12.5 tonnes/ha reduced the incidence of
Macrophomina root rot of cotton. Application of 5 kg of neem cake/tree three times in a year
reduces the basal stem rot (Ganoderma lucidum) of coconut. In the control of sesame root rot
(Macrophomina phaseolina) application of neem cake at the rate of 150 kg/ha is recommended.
Application of neem cake at the rate of 2 tonnes/ha in two split doses and covering with mud
reduced foot rot disease in betelvine garden.
Soil amendment
It has been proved that the organic amendments rich in carbon and deficient in nitrogen
control the take-all disease (Ophiobolus graminis) of wheat. There is considerable liberation of
CO2 by soil saprophytes which suppresses the pathogenic activity of this fungus .In the process
of survival also, low nitrogen content in the soil reduces the longevity of the fungus.
Phytophthora root rot of avocado is controlled by amending the soils with alfalfa meal- a
material of low C/N ratio. The other diseases are pea root rot Aphanomyces euteichus when
cruciferous plant residues were incorporated into the soil. Alfalfa meal and barley straw
application in the soil reduced the root rot of cotton and sorghum caused by Macrophomina
phaseolina. Black scurf of potato (Rhizoctonia solani) is less in the field where wheat straw was
incorporated.
5. Summer ploughing
Deep ploughing during summer periods buries the inocula of fungi of soil borne nature.
Fungal propagules, sclerotia and different types of spores conidia on plant refuses die when
exposed to sunlight due to the higher temperature prevailing during the summer. Further
infected self sown plants, volunteer hosts plants, weed hosts, regrowths from the plant roots,
alternate hosts and alternative hosts are also destroyed. Here, the spread of the disease is
avoided. Groundnut blight (Corticium rolfsii) is controlled by ploughing the soil to a depth of 20
cm. The inverted plough sole soil buries the sclerotia of the fungi, Claviceps, Sclerotium and
Sclerotinia in association with plant or alone, impedes the discharge of ascospores from
perithecia. Bunt and smut spores of wheat, smut spores of sugarcane and sorghum and
microsclerotia of Verticillium in cotton are buried deep in to the soil by deep ploughing.
6. Crop growing seasons
Rice blast becomes serious when the rice crop is raised from August to September in
Tamil Nadu. Ragi blast becomes serious when sowing is made between June and August.
Similarly yellow mosaic of blackgram/green gram and phyllody of sesame are serious during
kharif season in South India. Incidence of powdery mildews of different crops is found to be
high during rabi when compared to kharif and summer seasons. In bhendi, yellow vein mosaic
incidence is very high during summer. The seasons with high incidence of diseases should be
avoided in the epidemic areas.
a. Adjustment of sowing time
In many diseases the incidence is more severe when the susceptible stage of the plant
growth and favourable conditions for the pathogens coincides. While choosing the time of
sowing it should be taken into consideration that susceptible stage of the crop growth and soil
conditions and other environments favourable for maximum activity of the pathogen does not
fall at the same time. Properly adjusting the sowing dates can give good dividends. Late planted
wheat crops contract less infection than wheat planted on normal dates. Early and late sown
crops have been found to be free from Oodhubathi disease of rice.
Avoiding cool and cloudy days for planting will help to reduce red rot of sugarcane. Late
sowing of winter wheat and barley is considered to be the most effective measures in reducing
take all disease of wheat. Rapeseed sown in mid to late August is more liable to attack by leaf
spot (Alternaria brassicae) than late-sown crops. Pea and gram planted soon after rains when
soil temperature and moisture are at a high level, show high incidence of root rot and blight. As
the soil temperature falls and moisture becomes less (Nov-Dec) these diseases are also reduced.
In areas where these diseases are serious, late sowing helps in saving the crop. Stem rust of
wheat damages the late sown crop more than the early sown crop. Because, time of onset of
disease and ear formation coincides. Sowing from January to April or October to December is
advocated to escape from the attack of neck blast of finger millet. Peas and chickpea sown in
October usually suffer heavily from root rot and wilt (a complex of Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and
Sclerotium). When these crops are sown late, the diseases are not so severe or almost absent.
The groundnut rosette is transmitted by Aphis craccivora.
In Nigeria the population of this vector is low in crops sown in June than in July. The
sowing time is adjusted in cumbu and sorghum in such a way that the flowering stage does not
coincide with the rainy season to avoid the sugary diseases. Early sown crops show decreased
incidence of curly top and yellows on sugarbeet, rosette on groundnut and barley yellow dwarf
on cereals. Delayed sowing on the other hand is beneficial to maize rough dwarf disease.
b. Adjustment of harvesting time
Harvesting of groundnut should not coincide with the rainy days and it helps to avoid
infection by Aspergillus flavus. Freedom of onions and roses grown in rainless seasons from
downy mildew diseases and freedom of beans, chilli and cucurbits from bacterial diseases in
such seasons are the best examples for sowing of crops at correct season to avoid disease
outbreaks. In the case of deciduous fruit trees and grapevines, the season of sprouting, flowering
and fruit set can be advanced or delayed by pruning practices or by treatments to break
dormancy. Advantage can sometimes be taken of this fact to avoid coincidence of all or one of
these phases of host growth with weather periods particularly favourable to specific pathogens
that attack trees in the phases.
7. Growing of seed crops
Coffee can be grown in the western Hemisphere usually free from coffee rust which
causes heavy losses in Eastern Hemisphere. In the case of virus diseases this will be more
useful. By growing seed materials in isolated places where the population of vectors is very low
and the condition is uncongenial for the vectors. Virus free potato tubers to be used as seeds are
grown in cool and windy places in many parts of the world. Under tropical and subtropical
countries, such conditions prevail in the hills at high altitudes. Obtaining seed from disease-free
localities has been very successfully resorted to the elimination of many seed –borne diseases. In
the U.S.A. seed-potatoes are invariably grown in northern snow-clad sections, where viruses are
practically absent and then exported to various other sectors in the south. Similar practice has
been in vogue in India, where seed-potatoes are annually imported in southern states from Simla
hills for control of virus diseases and bacterial ring. In the U.S.A, the seed growing areas have
been shifted to arid pacific regions for crops like cabbage, turnip, beans and peas for obtaining
disease-free seed and indirectly controlling such diseases like black leg and black rot of cabbage
and turnip and anthracnose of beans and peas. Similar practice is obtained in parts of Bombay,
where the foot rot of ginger (Pythium myriotylum) prevalent in the southern parts, is controlled
through the importation of seed-rhizomes from disease-free arid regions of the north, where the
disease is practically non-existent on account of the dry climate, lighter soils and moderate
rainfall.
8. Selection of seeds and seed materials
Seeds and seed materials carry many fungi, bacteria, viruses and phytoplasmas and may
introduce these pathogens into the field, i.e., seeds and seed materials form the primary source of
infection. Seed and seed materials like cuttings, tubers, grafts, setts etc., should be well matured,
disease free, uninjured and have a high germinating capacity. The absence of an initial inoculum
in seeds is definitely helpful in delaying or suppressing the incidence of the disease. It is a
preventive method.
The diseases like foot rot, brown spot, short smut of sorghum, loose smut of wheat,
bacterial blight of rice, bacterial blight of cotton, leaf crinkle of blackgram etc., are transmitted
through seeds. Virus diseases and black ring of potatoes, foot rot of ginger, foot rot of betelvine,
Panama disease of banana, red rot of sugarcane cassava mosaic, bunchy top and virus diseases of
fruit trees are transmitted through tubers, setts, rhizomes, corns, grafts and budwoods. ‘Tuber
indexing’ is a special method to obtain disease free seed materials in potato. It is commonly
practiced by nurseries and seed merchants selling potato seed tubers. Use of seeds in the place of
rhizome/sucker is recommended in the control of ‘katte’ disease of cardamom.
9. Leveling of the field and provision of drainage facilities
Water stagnation in different patches of field favours the fungi like Pythium,
Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia solani, etc., for which proper leveling of the field before sowing or
planting is very essential. Further improving the drainage is necessary in the control of sheath
blight of rice. Provision of drainage channels in orchard crops like citrus, jack, mango etc., in
the garden is necessary before planting. In the control of damping-off diseases of vegetable and
other crops, raising seedling in the raised beds method is followed. Foot rot of ginger (Pythium
myriotylum) is also controlled by following the raised bed system of nursery.
10. Seed rate

Use of higher seed rate in the nursery creates favourable microclimate for the pathogens
causing damping-off in vegetables, tobacco, chillies and forest nurseries. Hence, use of optimum
seed rate should be adhered in such crops.
11. Burning of stubbles and crop residues
Burning of plant wastes, crop residues, stubbles, etc., in the areas selected for raising
nurseries for vegetable crops, tobacco, chillies and forest trees etc. heats the soil and kills the
inoculum of the pathogens present in the top layer of the soil. When nurseries are raised in these
areas incidence of damping off disease is highly reduced. This practice is also followed in pits
made for planting coconut, banana, fruit trees etc., Burning of wheat plant every second or third
year is suggested for eradication of pathogen in the field when Cephalosporium gramineum
infects wheat. Otherwise, debris in the field helps the perpetuation of the pathogen and the
disease. Burning of rice crop residues avoid carryover of sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani); stem
rot (Sclerotium oryzae) of rice and bacterial blight of cotton.
12. Depth of sowing
Depth of sowing greatly influences seed transmission of smuts. Shallow planting in wet
soils protects wheat plants from Urocystis tritici (flag smut) of wheat. Deep planting may cause
delay in the emergence of seedlings, which may be vulnerable to pre-emergence damping off.
Early emergence results in early lignification of tissues which become resistant to attack of soil-
borne pathogens.
13. Spacing
Closer spacing invariably alters the microclimate underneath the canopy of the crop
which may provide favourable environment for development of diseases. Boll rot in cotton is
quite common in crowded crop. Defoliation of plants or skip cropping gives better control
against the boll rot disease. In certain virus diseases like groundnut rosette the incidence is
observed to be less when wider spacing is adopted. Closer spacing favours many air borne
diseases because of high humidity in the crop canopy. Early and late blight of groundnut and
blister blight of tea are more in dense canopy. Early spread of black rot of cabbage takes place in
closer spacing. Crowded stands may reduce some systemic diseases. Cotton wilt caused by
Verticillium albo-atrum will be less in closely planted crop if the fungal inoculum is less in the
soil. Similarly closer spacing of rice reduces rice tungro virus infection particularly when vector
population is less. Avoiding shade and providing wider spacing reduces the incidence of
powdery mildew of tobacco. Late blight of potato and downy mildew of grapevine spread fast in
closer spaced crops. In the case of bud necrosis of groundnut caused by tomato spotted wilt
virus, seeds are sown adopting closer spacing of 15x15cm to compensate the rogued out plants
with regard to plant population and yield. These are examples where dense sowing helps in
disease reduction.
The virus of tomato leaf curl, transmitted by Bemisia tabaci, is less severe in a crowded
planting than in spaced planting. Same is true for cucumber mosaic, transmitted by Aphis
gossypii and groundnut rosette transmitted by Aphis craccivora. The fungal diseases for which
the phenomenon of lower incidence at closer spacing of the crop has been studied most
profitably is the wilt caused by Verticillium albo atrum and V.dahliae in cotton. This is
ascribed to the reduction of effective inoculum per plant in proportion to the increase in the
number of plants per unit area in the densely sown field. The incidence of brown rot
(Cephalosporium gragatum) of soybean is also higher in widely spaced planting than in closer
rows.
14. Method of sowing/planting
In places where water accumulation is a problem to the crop growth sowing of seeds on
the sides or ridges is found effective in reducing the incidence of Sclerotium rolfsii on groundnut
and vegetable crops and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Rhizoctonia solani on vegetable crops and
Phytophthora blight of pigeonpea. High ridging prevents infection of potato tubers, by zoospores
from leaf lesions in late blight diseases. Ridging is disadvantageous in water deficit areas where
it encourages pathogens like Macrophomina phaseolina.
15. High budding
High budding is a practice to avoid infection by gummosis fungus of citrus trees. In low
budded plants the bud point is close proximity to infection centre (the soil), become readily
diseased. High budding is a simple device for lengthening this distance between the bud point
and infected soil. In this method the soil borne pathogens (Phytophthora palmivora and
P.citrophthora) have no chance of reaching the bud point, through which they enter the bark.
Staking of lower most branches arising close to the soil, increases the distance between the fruits
and soil inoculum and removes the chances of brown rot (Phytophthora sp) infection and buck-
eye rot of tomato (P. nicotianae var. parasitica).
16. Avoiding injury

Injury of plant parts should be avoided in order to check the entry of pathogens. Clipping
of tips of tall rice seedlings favours the entry of bacterial blight pathogen and incidence of the
disease. Hence clipping should be avoided at the time of transplanting of rice. While harvesting
the pods in groundnut, fruits in tree crops and vegetable crops injuries to the fruits pave the way
for the pathogen and causing pod/fruit rot. It also reduces the storage life of fruits and
vegetables. Hence much care should be given to avoid wounds during the harvest time.
17. Altering the soil pH
In certain soil borne diseases adjustment of soil reaction helps in the reduction of
inoculum level of the pathogens. The altered pH of the environment forms a barrier against the
pathogen. A very low pH less than 5.2 is unfavourable to common scab bacterium on potato
(Streptomyces scabies). Thus, use of acid forming fertilizers (like sulphur) and avoiding lime
and calcium ammonium nitrate application are effective in controlling the common scab disease.
On the other hand the club root pathogen of cabbage (Plasmodiophora brassicae) cannot
live and infect when the soil pH is 7.0 or more. Hence liming which increases the soil pH gives
satisfactory control of club root disease. In Punjab, root rot of tobacco (Macrophomina
phaseolina) has been overcome by application of 2.5 to 5.0 tons of lime /ha to the soil.
18. Mixed cropping
Mixed cropping materially helps in checking certain diseases. Blight of pulse crop
(Phyllosticta phaseolina ) has been successfully overcome by growing pulses as a mixed crop
with cereals like sorghum and pearlmillet.
19. Intercropping
Intercropping is also a device in the control of some soil borne diseases. Intercrops
should be properly chosen so that they should not have any common pathogen for e.g.,
Macrophomina phaseolina has got wide host range and hence common host should not be
grown as intercrops. Intercropping with moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) in a cotton field
reduced the root rot (M.phaseolina) incidence.
Due to reduction in the number of host plants there is sufficient spacing between them
and chances of contact between foliage of roots of diseased and healthy plant are greatly
reduced. Therefore, root pathogens are unable to spread from diseased to healthy roots and
spread of foliar pathogens is also reduced to a great extent. Intercropping of sorghum in
pigeonpea field reduced the wilt (F. udum) incidence. The roots of non-host plants may act as a
barrier obstructing the movement of pathogens in soil. They may release toxic substances from
their roots which may suppress the growth of the pathogens attacking the main crop.
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in root exudates of sorghum is toxic to F. udum, the pigeonpea wilt
fungus. Intercropping of sorghum or mothbean in a crop of clusterbean reduced the incidence of
root rot (R.solani) and wilt (F.coeruleum) from 50 to 60% in single crop to 8 to 15% in the
mixed crop.
Intercropping of pigeonpea with gingelly at 1:6 ratio reduced the incidence of phyllody
disease. In Jordan, intercropping tomatoes with cucumber is found to be effective and cheaper in
controlling the whiteflies and lowering the incidence of tomato yellow leaf curl virus. (TYLCV)
Cucumber is planted one month before tomato. Cucumber is known to be a preferred host for
whiteflies and immune to TYLCV. Insecticides are applied when adult whitefly populations are
at high levels, usually two weeks after planting of cucumber and the second one before tomato
planting. Growing of an intercrop of cereals such as corn or sorghum between rows of peach
trees is an effective method in combating Texas root rot (Phymatotrichum omnivorum) infection
in the U.S.A.
20. Barrier cropping
Taller crops can be grown to protect a crop of lesser height from virus vectors. The
insects may land at the taller crops (barrier crops) and the dwarf crop may escape from virus
diseases by those insects. Barrier cropping with 3 rows of maize or sorghum or pearlmillet
around the main crop namely blackgram or greengram is effective in reducing the vector
population and incidence of yellow mosaic. Another best example is growing of 3 rows of kale
or barley as barrier crops in cauliflower seed beds and undersown beet steckling against
cauliflower mosaic and beet yellows diseases respectively. The incoming aphids are thought to
land on the barley or kale and probe briefly, causing them to lose the non-persistently transmitted
virus they are carrying. Maize or sunflower are the other barrier crops considered for these
crops.
21. Decoy crop and trap crop
Decoy crops (hostile crops) are non-host crops sown with the purpose of making soil-
borne pathogens waste their infection potential. This is effected by activating dormant
propagules of fungi, seeds of parasitic plants, etc. in absence of the host. A list of pathogens that
can be decoyed is given in table.
Table. Decoy crops for the reduction of pathogen populations
Host Pathogen Decoy crops
1. Sorghum Striga asiatica Sudan grass
2. Cabbage Plasmodiophora brassicae Rye grass, Papaver rhoeas, Reseda
odorata
3. Potato Spongospora subterranea Datura stramonium
4.Tomato, Orobanche spp. Sunflower, safflower, lucerne,
tobacco chickpea etc.
Trap crops are host crops of the pathogen, sown to attract pathogens but destined to be
harvested or destroyed before they complete their life cycle. Fodder sorghum can be raised as a
trap crop to reduce downy mildew of sorghum.
22. Trenching
Trenching between rows of trees in orchards has been effectively utilized in arresting the
growth and spread of the pathogen in the soil to the neighbouring trees. Ganoderma lucidum
root rot infected citrus trees should be isolated by digging a trench of 30 cm wide and 60 cm to
90 cm deep around the tree at a distance of 2.5 to 3.0 m from the base to prevent the contact of
diseased roots with healthy roots. Thereby the spread of the pathogen to neighbouring tree is
prevented. Similar method is also followed in the control of basal stem rot (Ganoderma lucidum)
of coconut in India.
23. Isolation distances
The distance between seed production and commercial plots has been worked out for
reducing seed borne loose smut of barley and wheat. Barley and wheat crops should be isolated
by at least 50 m from any source of loose smut infection for production of certified seeds in the
U.K.
The number of viruliferous insects reaching a healthy crop from a diseased one decreases
with distance between them so that cultivation of susceptible crops at a distance from each other
delays or reduces the severity of virus diseases. Incidence of lettuce and cucumber mosaic
viruses is about 3% if the new lettuce crop is sown 0.8 km away from an old lettuce field Much
greater incidence of mosaic in sugarbeet fields occurs within 90 metres of a seed crop than in the
fields at a greater distance. Beet mosaic and beet yellows are markedly reduced by isolating beet
fields by 19 to 24 km and 24 to 32 km mites respectively from a large source of infected beets.
24. Yellow sticky traps
Sticky, yellow polythene sheets erected vertically on the windward side of red pepper
fields have been sown to reduce the incidence of potato virus Y (PVY) and cucumber mosaic
virus (CMV) in the crop. The aphids are attracted to the yellow colour and are caught on the
sticky polythene. The control obtained was so successful that the method has become a standard
control procedure in red pepper crops in Israel. Similar traps have also been used to protect
‘seed’ potato crops, against potato leaf roll virus. Yellow sticky traps are in use to attract and kill
the whitefly vectors which spread yellow mosaic of blackgram and greengram and bhendi yellow
vein mosaic.
25. Mulching
Mulching or covering of top soil with organic residues often helps in reducing plant
diseases. Mulches of non-host origin should be used in the field. These mulches are known to
release inhibitory substances in the underlying soil and also promote development of parasites
and predators of nematodes. Reflective surfaces (mulches) laid on the soil around the crop plant,
have been found to be highly effective in controlling aphid vectors. Aluminium strips or grey or
white plastic sheets are used as mulch and it has successfully protected red peppers against
CMV and PVY in Israel and summer squash against watermelon mosaic virus in the Imperial
valley of California. Straw mulches have been successfully used to control the white fly –
transmitted tomato yellow leaf curl virus in tomato crops in Israel. It is believed that the colour
of the straw attracts the whiteflies and they are subsequently killed by the reflective heat. The
disadvantage with straw mulches is that they eventually lose their yellow colour, but prolonged
control may be obtained if straw is replaced by yellow polythene sheets.
26. Irrigation water management
Irrigation to the crop in the field is to wet the soil to the extent that roots easily get water
and nutrients. If excess water is added to soil, it may directly affect activity of pathogens and/or
it may affect disease incidence through the effect on the host. Scab attack on potato tubers is
prevented by maintaining soil moisture near field capacity during tuber formation. Bacterial
flora antagonistic to Streptomyces scabies increases under high moisture conditions. The
charcoal rot pathogen, Macrophomina phaseolina attacks potatoes and cotton when the soil
temperature rises and there is water stress. By irrigating the field, soil temperature is brought
down, stress is removed and the disease is suppressed. When excess irrigation is made the
juvenile stage of plants is lengthened making it susceptible to attack of fungi like Pythium.
Supply of frequent but low quantity of irrigation water is, therefore, recommended for reducing
chances of damping off in nurseries.
Under conditions of excess water, respiration of roots is inhibited and many soluble salts
accumulate in toxic amounts around the roots and base of the stem. This increases disease
proneness of the roots. Irrigation increases guttation. Guttation drops on leaves serve as media
for multiplication and penetration of many pathogens, such as Helminthosporium spp. on cereals
and Xanthomonas campestris on Brassica spp. Cereal rusts usually are more severe when the
crop is grown in wet soil than in relatively drier soils. Vascular wilts appear aggravated soon
after irrigation. These effects are through the host.
Pathogens directly taking advantage of excess water are those that need wet soil for (i)
activation of their resting structures and (ii) for movement of these propagules. Thus, in
presence of excess free water bacterial cells and zoospores of Pythiaceous fungi are dispersed
easily. Therefore, at the plant stage when these pathogens can attack the crop irrigation should
be avoided. Generally, sprinkler irrigation increases diseases by increasing leaf wetness and by
dispersing propagules of the pathogens by water splashes just like rain water. At the same time,
it has some advantages also such as washing off of inoculum from the leaf surface.
Irrigation especially at seed-development stage, may favour seed infection. Irrigation
time and amount of water should be controlled so that the relative humidity is not raised to such
an extent that it becomes conducive for seed infection. Control of seed-borne diseases favoured
by wet climate can be achieved by raising the seed crop in dry areas. Some examples are
anthracnose of bean and cucurbits (Colletotrichum spp.), Ascochyta blight of pea (Ascochyta
spp.) and bacterial blight of legumes. Such crops can be grown in dry areas with the help of
irrigation so that these aerial parts remain dry and do not contact infection. Virus-free potato
seed tubers can be produced more successfully in areas where temperature and moisture
conditions do not favour buildup of populations of the insect vectors.
Sclerotia, smut spores, chlamydospores, oospores and mycelium found in the soil are carried
from one field to another through irrigation and drainage water. Stem rot, sheath blight and
bacterial blight diseases of rice, damping off of vegetables and Macrophomina root rots of many
crops spread mainly through irrigation and drainage water. Hence care should be taken not to
irrigate a healthy field using drainage/irrigation water from a diseased field.
27. Field and plant sanitation
Field and plant sanitation is an important method of disease control through cultural
practices. The inoculum present on field plants in the field may multiply on the plant or in the
soil and in due course of time may be sufficient to nullify or reduce the effect of control
practices. Many pathogens overwinter or oversummer on plant debris during the off-seasons and
become active when the crop is again grown in the field. Hence plants bearing pathogens or
plant debris introducing inoculum into the soil should be removed as early as possible. In most
of the soil borne diseases like wilt and root rot, it has been reported that as long as the dead roots
and other roots and other affected parts are present in the soil, the fungus continue its growth.
When such diseased plant materials are removed, there is quick decline in the population of
pathogens in the soil.
In this manner Fusarium wilt of cotton, pigeonpea and banana, Verticillium wilt of
cotton, root rot of beans, downy mildew of pearlmillet, sorghum, maize and peas, foot rot of
betelvine, bacterial blight of cotton, white rust of crucifers, black spot of rose, powdery mildew
of pea and cereals are reduced. In certain areas the linseed rust fungus (Melampsora lini), the
rice blast and brown spot fungi and the fungus causing early blight of potato also perennate
through dormant stages in diseased crop debris. Destruction of crop debris by burning
immediately after harvest reduces the amount of inocula which survive through debris.
It has been observed that leaf blight disease or rice particularly one caused by
Helminthosporium oryzae is carried over in the stubbles and primary infection is evident in the
self-sown tillers arising from these stubbles. Infection of Sclerotium rolfsii on jute is carried over
in the foot and root regions in the stubbles left over after harvest of the jute plants. Sugarcane
stubbles left over in the field help to carry over red rot fungus Glomerella tucumanensis,
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae causing bacterial leaf blight disease on rice is capable of
surviving for some time in rice stubbles. In many cases, diseased planting materials left in the
field after discarding them, serve as sources of infection as in the case of late blight of potato
where piles or refuses of rejected tubers later become an important source of infection. Left over
plant parts of maize infected with the smut Ustilago zeae constitute an important source of
infection later.
Avoidance of the transfer of inoculum from one field to another by man, machine or
water is one of the ground rules of cultural control. Where soil-borne diseases are concerned,
anything that carries soil is suspect, this includes wheels, boots and water flowing either from
adjacent fields, or through drainage ditches from distant fields. As regards sap-borne viruses,
attention must be paid to disinfection of wheels and of the hands of labourers, as they pass from
one field to another. Where such virus can also be carried on clothing. The work should be
planned so that the labourers do not go from older to younger fields on the same day.
Many pathogens are capable of surviving on implements and materials used in sequential
seasons. Tobacco mosaic virus has been shown to survive on iron stakes used for tomato trellises
and disinfection of such stakes has been recommended. Soil adhering to plastic sheeting may
carry sclerotia and other overseasoning bodies.
28. Roguing
Roguing consists of completely removing or uprooting the diseased plants to prevent
further spread of the disease. This method is widely adopted in the control of virus diseases
spread by insects (cassava mosaic, yellow mosaic of blackgram and greengram, citrus tristeza,
katte disease of cardamom, bunchy top of banana) and basal stem rot of coconut, green ear of
pearlmillet and broomrape (Orobanche) in tobacco. The whip smut of sugarcane (Ustilago
scitaminea) in the canal areas of Bombay in Co.475 variety has been greatly checked by roguing
carried out over wide areas and long period. In Jamaica, a country-wide campaign of destroying
infected plants has succeeded in the control of Panama wilt of banana. Root rot and wilt attached
plants after their death should be as and when noticed in the field uprooted and burnt to check the
inoculum build up in the soil.
29. Management of plant nutrients
The plant nutrients in general when applied in excess may increase or reduce the
resistance in plants to diseases. Increased application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the
incidence of many diseases. Crops fed with heavy doses of nitrogenous was fertilizers grow
robust with foliage and succulent tissue but become highly susceptible to the attack of diseases
like rust powdery mildew, blast, tobacco mosaic and some bacterial diseases .In the case of blast
of rice optimum dose of nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended and it is applied in 3 split doses
viz. 50% as based at transplanting, 25% at tillering and 25% at panicle initiation stage. Late
application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases wheat leaf blotch ( Septoria nodorum) and
powdery mildew ( Erysiphe graminis tritici).
Some diseases are favoured by ammoniacal form of nitrogen while others are favoured
by nitrate form of nitrogen. In general wilts (Fusarium sp.) and root rots (Rhizoctonia spp.) are
favoured by ammoniacal nitrogen while Verticillium wilts and root rots due to Pythium spp. are
favoured by nitrate nitrogen. In rice, blast disease is favoured by ammoniacal nitrogen while
brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzae) is favoured by nitrate nitrogen. In maize Northern corn
leaf blight caused by H. turcicum is favoured by ammoniacal nitrogen while stalk rot ( Diplodia
maydis) is favoured by nitrate nitrogen.
In wheat, sharp eye spot (Rhizoctonia solani) is favoured by ammoniacal nitrogen while
stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) is favoured by nitrate nitrogen. In potato, wilt (Verticillium
albo-atrum) and scab (Streptomyces scabies) are favoured by nitrate nitrogen while ammoniacal
nitrogen increases black scurf ( R. olani) .
Effects of nitrogenous fertilizers on major soil borne diseases have been studied. Their
effect on the disease i.e., whether increased or decreased incidence by nitrogen in different forms
are given in the following table.
Table. Effects of different forms of nitrogen on soil-borne diseases
Pathogen Host Amendment
Diseases increased
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Tomato NO3
lycopersici Sorghum NaNO3 - NH4NO3
F.moniliforme Carnation NO3
F. roseum Bean NH4
F.solani f.sp. phaseoli Wheat (NH4)2SO4
Gaeumannomyces graminis Tabacco NO3
Phytophthora nicotianae Cotton (NH4)2SO4.Ca(NO3)2.KNO3
var. nicotianae Potato NH4 NO3+CaCO3
Verticillium albo-atrum
Streptomyces scabies
Disease decreased
F. oxysporum f.sp.cubense Banana Urea(nitrite)
F.solani f.sp. phaseoli Bean KNO3
Gaeumannomyces graminis Wheat (NH4)2SO4
Phytophthora cinnamomi Avocado KNO3
Sclerotium rolfsii Tomato Ca(NO3)2
S.rolfsii Sugarbeet NH3.(NH4)2SO4.Ca (NO3)2
Repeated application of phosphatic fertilizers delays the onset and lessens the severity of
take-all disease of barley (Gaeiimannomyces graminis). Potassium application reduces the
disease incidence in many crop diseases probably by increasing phenolics synthesis in plants.
Application of potash induces resistance in groundnut against root rot caused by Macrophomina
phaseolina. Calcium application suppresses the lesions due to the R.solani on bean roots. It is
due to formation of calcium pectate, which is less available to action by polygalacturanase (PG)
enzyme than is pectic acid.
Calcium has also been shown to affect Sclerotium rolfsii by neutralizing the oxalic acid
produced by the fungus. Application of molybdenum reduces infection of potato tubers by
Phytophthora infestans and also diminishes incidence of Ascochyta blight on beans and peas.
Manganese reduces late blight of potato, ferric chloride controls rice brown spot and silicon
application reduced rice blast.
30. Time of harvesting
Time of harvesting affects the cleanliness of the seeds. Delayed harvesting of grain crops
in temperate climatic conditions enables the pathogen more time to contaminate the seeds. The
best example is grain mould of sorghum where contamination by species of Fusarium,
Curvularia, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Phoma is seen. Potato tubers harvested when the tops are
green get easily contaminated by the late blight pathogen present on the leaves. Removal of tops
and making them to dry before digging the tubers kills the sporangia and avoids contamination
of tubers harvested later.
31. Avoiding ratoons
Ratooning is a general practice in sugarcane when the incidence of grassy shoot disease
and red rot are very high. Hence ratooning should be avoided.
32. Solar heating

When the soil is covered with white polythene sheets during hot seasons, soil temperature
increases. Increased soil temperature eliminates wilt pathogens like Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
lycopersici and Verticillium dahliae from tomato field. High soil temperature also favours
antagonistic fungi.
Lecture 25
Biological control and PGPR – Scope and importance – Role and mechanisms of biological
control and PGPR with examples. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
Biological control is defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing

activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant stage by one or more organisms
accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or by introduction of
one or more antagonists or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists.
Biological control is but control of plant diseases using living microorganisms. Root rot
disease (Macrophomina phaseolina) is a major disease in pulses, oilseeds, cofton, etc., and the
most common method of control is using fungicides. But the chemical methods are
uneconomical and law effective, as seed treatment with chemical may give protection only in the
early stages of crop growth 2 weeks.
In addition, it is harmful to the beneficial microorganisms in soil and creates residual
problems. So, the biological control can be very efficasy used for the root rot disease
management as the biological agent multiply in soil and offer protection throughout the crop
growth. The four main mechanisms involved in the biocontrol are (i) the biological agent
(antagonist), may parasite the other organism, (ii) antagonist may secrete metabolites
(antibiotics) harmful to the pathogens (Antibiosis) (iii) antagonist may compete with the
pathogens for nutrients or space (Competition) and (iv) may cause death of the parasite by
producing enzymes (Lysis).
Parasitism and Lysis
The biocontrol against parasitizes the pathogen by coiling around the hyphae, e.g.,
Trichoderma viride; various bacteria and fungi secrete hydrolytic about the degradation of cell
wall of pathogens.
e.g. (i) Bacillus sp. causes hyphal lysis of Gaeumanornyces graminis
(ii) The chitnolytic enzymes of Serratia marcescens caused cell wall lysis of Scierotium
rolfsii. (iii) Trichoderma sp. produces chitinases and β-1,3 glucanases which lyses the cell wall
of Rhizoctonia solani.
Antibiosis
The antibiotic compounds secreted by the biocontrol agent suppress the growth of the
pathogen. e.g. Phenazine-l-carboxylic acid produced by P fluorescens plays an important role in
suppressing the take all disease of wheat.
Competition
The biocontrol bacteria and fungi compete for food and essential elements with the
pathogen thereby displacing and suppressing the growth of pathogen.
e.g. (i) the competition for nutrients between Pythium aphanidermatum, P ultimum and
bacteria suppress the damping off disease in cucumbers.
(ii) Fluorescent siderophores (iron chelaters) such as pseudobactinis & pyoverdins
produced by P fluorescons chelates iron available in the soil, thereby depriving the pathogen of
Its Fe requirements.
A. TRICHODERMA VIRIDE
The fungus, Tfichoderma vitide is one such biocontrol agent, mainly used for the control
of root rot diseases of pulses and oil seeds in Tamil Nadu. A mass production technology for
T.viride has been developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Systematic Position
Asexual (conidial) Sexual (sscospore)
Sub division : Deuteromycotina Ascomycotina
Class : Hypomycetes Pyremomycetes
Order : Moniliales Sphaeriales
Family : Moniliaceae Hypocreaceae
Genus : Trichoderma Hypocrea
Isolation of Trichoderms from soil
Trichoderma is isolated from the soil by using Trichoderma selective medium developed
by Elad and Chet (I 983). Collect soil samples from the field, mix well and make it into fine
particles. Soil samples should be collected in root zone at 5-1 5 cm depth and from rhizosphere
wherever possible. Ten gram of soil sample is taken, and suspended in 100 ml of sterile distilled
water and stirred well to get I : IO dilution. Transfer one ml from this to 9 ml of sterile water in a
test tube to get 1: 100 dilution. Make serial dilutions by transferring one ml of suspension to
subsequent tubes to get dilution of 1: 1 0,000. Transfer one ml of the desired soil suspension to
sterile petriplates. Pour 15 ml of melted and cooled Trichoderma selective medium in the same
petriplates. Rotate the plate gently and allow to solidify, incubate at room temperature for 5-7
days and observe for the development of fungal colonies. Trichoderma colonies will be white
initially and turn to green. Count the number of colonies developing in individual plates.
Transfer the individual colonies to potato de)drose agar slants.
Testing Method
Dual Culture Technique
It consists of growing the test organism and the pathogenic organism on the same plate.
This ran be done by the following procedure. Transfer 15-20 ml of melted and cooled PDA to
sterilised petridishes. Allow it to solidify. Transfer 8 mm disc of test organism to one end of the
petriplate. In the opposite end, 8 mm disc of the pathogenic culture is transferred in the same
petriplate (if the antagonistic micro-organism is slow growing it should be plated in the previous
day itself). Incubate the plate at room temperature. Observe the development of inhibition zone.
Observe under microscope where both the test organism and the pathogen come in contact.
Mass Production
Molasses yeast medium (Molasses 30g + yeast 5g + water 1000ml) is prepared in conical
flasks and sterilized at 1.1 kg/CM 2 for 20 minutes. T.viride culture is inoculated by taking a
fungal disc from 10 day old culture and incubated for 10 days. This serves as mother culture.
Molasses yeast medium is prepared in a fermenter and sterilized. Then, the mother culture is
added to the fermenter @ 1.5 litre/50 litres of medium and incubated at room temperature for 10
days. The fungal biomass and broth are mixed with talc powder at 1:2 ratio. The mixture is air
dried and mixed with carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) @ 5g / kg of the product. It is packed in
Polythene covers and used within 4 months.
Quality Control Specifications
1. Fresh product should contain not less than 28 X 10 6 CfU / g
2. After 120 days of storage at room temperature, the population should be 10 x IO 6 cfu / g.
3. Maximum storage period using talc as carrier is 120 days.
4. Size of the carrier (talc) should be 500 microns.
5. Product should be packed in white Polythene bags.
6. Moisture content of the final product should not be more than 20%.
B. Bacillus subtilis
This bacterium is widely used for the control of soil-bome plant pathogens like
Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp. etc. This treatment also
considerably improves the plant growth and yield. Bacillus subtilis is a rod shaped, thermophilic
gram positive, aerobic bacterium. Roots may be formed in chains. It is 5-6 mm in length and 2-3
mm in width. It forms endospores during adverse conditions.
Isolation
One gram of soil sample is mixed with 9 ml sterilized nutrient broth in a test tube. This
has to be kept on a boiling waterbath at 800C for 10 minutes. Then it is kept for incubation at
root temperature for 24-48 hrs. From this serial dilution is prepared upto 10-6 dilution. Dilution
10-5 and 10 -6 are plated In Nutrient Agar and incubated for 24- 48 hrs. B. subtilis colonies will
be rough, opaque with irregular margins.
Staining for Identification
Bacterial smear is prepared with 24 hours old culture, air dried and heat fixed. The slide
is flooeded with crystal violet for 60 seconds and then washed with tap water. Then, the slide is
flooded with Grams iodine mordant for 60 seconds and washed with tap water. It is then the
smear is counterstrained with safranin for seconds, washed with tap water, blot dried and
observed under microscope. Bacillus subtilis appeared violet since it,is gram positive.
Biochemical tests for Identification
The following biochemical tests are carried out for identification.
1. Starch hydrolysis
2. Catalase test
3. Nitrate reduction test
4. Acid and gas production test
Bacillus subtilis is amylase positive catalase positive, nitrate positive, acid positive and gas
negative.
Mass multiplication
Nutrient broth (Peptone 5g, beef extract 3g, sodium chloride 3g in 1 litre of distilled
water, pH7) is prepared and sterilized at 1.1 kg/ CM 2 pressure for 20 minutes. One loopful of B.
subtilis is inoculated and incubated for 24 hours. This serves as mother culture. One litre of
mother culture is transferred to 100 litres of sterilized nutrient broth in a fermenter and the
bacterial growth is harvested after 72 hrs. Then it is mixed with 250 kg of sterilized peat soil
amended with 37 kg Calcium carbonate, dried in shade and packed in Polythene bags. This
product can be stored upto 6 months.
C. Pseudomonas fluorescens
This is another bacterium effectively used in controlling sheath blight and blast of paddy,
wilt diseases of redgram, and banana. Pseudomonas fluorescens is a gram negative, rod shaped
nonspore forming bacteria which may be mono or lopotrichous or non motile. It produces
greenish, fluorescent and water soluble pigment, pyoverdin. The direct influence of
pseudomonas on plant growth is mediated either by release of auxin-like substances or through
improved uptake of nutrients in the environment. The indirect promotion of plant growth is
achieved when fluorescent Pseudomonas decreases or prevents the deleterious influence of
phytopathogens.
lsolation
One gram of rhizosphere soil sample is mixed in 100 ml of sterilewaterto give
1:100dilution. From this serial dilutions upto 10 -7 level are made by repeatedly transferring 1 ml
of 1:I00 dilution to 9 ml sterile water stants 10 -5 , 10 -6 and 10 -7 dilutions are plated in kings B
Agar medium and incubated for 24-48 hours. P ftuorescens appears as smooth, slimy, circular
translucent colonies.
Mass production
P. fluorescens is multiplied in sterilized Kings ‘B’ broth for 48 hours. The pH of the
substrate (Peat soil or talc powder) is adjusted to 7 by adding calcium carbonate @150 g / kg.
The substrate is then sterilized at 1.1 kg/cm 2 pressure for 30 minutes for two successive days.
Four hundred ml of P. fluorescens suspension is added to 1 kg of substrate containing 5 g of
carboxy methyl cellulose and mixed well.The formulation is packed in Polythene covers and can
be stored for one month.
Quality Control
1. Fresh product should contain 2.5 x I 0" cfu / g
2. After 3 months of storage at room temperature, the population should be 8-9 x 10 7 CfU / g.
3. Storage period is 3-4 months
4. Minimum population load for use is 1.0 x I0 8 cfu / g.
5. Product should be packed in white Polythene bags.
6. Moisture content of the product should not be more than 20% in the final product.
7. Population per ml of the broth is 9 ± 2 x 1 0 8 cfu / g.
Methods of Application
Crop: Paddy -blast, sheath blight
1. Seed Treatment
Mix paddy seeds with the formulation at the rate of 10 g per kg of seeds and soak the
seeds in water for ovemight. Decant the excess water and allow to sprout the seeds for 24 hrs and
then sow.
2. Seedling root dipping
Apply 2.5 kg of the formulation to the water stagnated in an area of 25 sq.m. The
seedlings, after pulling out from the nursery can be left in the stagnating water containing the
bacteria. A minimum period of 30 minutes is necessary for soaking the roots and prolonged
soaking will enhance the efficacy.
3. Soil application
Apply the product @ 2.5 kg / ha after 30 days of transplanting (This product should be
mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM / sand and then applied).
4. Foilar application
Spray the product at 0.2% concentration (1 kg/ha) commencing from 45 days after
transplanting at 10 days interval for 3 times depending on disease intensity. If there is no disease
incidence, a single spray is sufficient. Crop: Groundnut, Gingelly, Sunflower, Redgram,
Greengram, Blackgram - root rot and wilt
Seed treatment : 10 g /kg of seeds
Soil application : Apply 2.5 kg/ha. mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM / sand at 30 days
after sowing.
Crop : Banana - Fusarium wilt
Sucker treatment: 10 g/sucker
Capsule application: 50 mg / capsule / sucker.
Apply once in 3 months from 3 months after planting
Soil application: 2.5 kg / ha + 50 kg FYM / sand
Apply once at the time of planting and repeat it once In 3 months.
Plant Products and Antiviral principles in plant disease management

Plant products play an important role in evolving an ecologically sound and
environmentally acceptable disease management system. Plant products have been found to have
fungicidal, bactericidal and antiviral properties. It is well established that about 346 plant
products have fungicidal properties, 92 have bactericidal and 90 have antiviral properties. This
clearly indicates that the plant kingdom is a vast storehouse of chemicals that can check several
plant pathogens. As many of them have more than one type of activity there is a less chance for
development of resistance and moreover, the plant products are saferto non-target organisms.
Neem Products
Among the plant products, the neem derivatives are reported to be effective in controlling
several diseases. The neem tree (Azadirachta indica), popularly called as china berry, crackjack,
Nim, Indian lilac, margosa and paradise tree, contains several active principles in various parts.
The important active principles are Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Nimbidin, Nimbinene, Nimbridic acid
and Azadirone which have anitifungal and insecticidal properties.
(i) Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE)
It is prepared by soaking 5 kg of powdered neem seed kernel (in a gunny bag) in 100
litres of water for 8 hours. The gunny bag is then removed afterthorough shaking. Then, 100 ml
of teepol is mixed thoroughly, before spraying. The quantity of extract required for a liectare is
500 litres,
(ii) Neem oil solution
One hundred nil of teepol is mixed first with 100 litres of waterThen, 3 litres of neem oil
is slowly added to this solution with constant shaking. The milky solution formed is ready for
spray. The spray volume is 500 litres/ha.
(iii) Neem cake extract
Ten kg of powdered neem cake in a gunny bag is soaked in 100 litres of water for 8
hours. The gunny bagis removed after thorough shaking. Then, 100 ml of sticker is added and
mixed well. The quantity of spray fluid required is 500 litres / ha.
(iv) Neem cake
Powdered neem cake is directly applied to the field at the time of last ploughing. The
quantity applied is 150 kg/ha.
Diseases controlled by neem products

(a) Paddy: Tungro (virus) (Vector: Nophotettix virescens)
Neem cake is applied at 150 kg/ha as basal dose. In addition, 3% neem oil or 5% NSKE
@) 500 l/ ha can be sprayed. If one jassid is noticed in a plant. Three sprays have to be given at
15 days interval.
(b) Paddy : Sheath rot (Acrocyfindrium oryzae)
Five per cent NSKE or 3% neem oil can be sprayed @ 500 lit/ ha at the time of grain
emergence.
(c) Paddy: Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) Spraying 5% neem oil is effective
(d) Paddy: Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani)
Application of 150 Kg of neem cake/ha
(e) Groundnut : Rust (Puccinia arachidis)
Application of 3% neem oil @ 500 lit/ha. The first spray should be given immediately on
noticing the symptom and second 15 days later.
(f) Groundnut : Foot rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) Application of 1 % neem oil is effective.
(g) Coconut: Wilt (Ganoderma lucidum)
Application of 5 kg of neem cake/ tree/ year during the rainy season.
(h) Black gram: Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni)
Two sprays with 3% neem oil or 5% NSKE, starting first spray at the initiation of the
disease and second 15 days later are effective.
(i) Black gram: Root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) Application of neem cake @ 150 kg/ha
(j) Black gram: Yeliow mosaic (Virus) Application of 3% neem oil is effective.
(k) Soybean: Root rot (M. phaseolina) Application of neem cake @ 150 kg/ha.
Other Plant Products
In addition to the neem products, products from several other plant species are also found
to be effective in disease management. The leaf extract of tuisi (Ocimum sanctum) is found
effective against Helminthosporium oryzae (paddy brown spot). The leaf and pollen extracts of
vilvam (Aegle marmolos) effectively reduced early blight of tomato (Altenaria solani) and blight
of onion (A. porri). A. solani is also effectively checked by flower extract of periwinkle
(Catheranthus roseus) and bulb extract of garlic (Allium sativum).
Rice discolouration caused by Drechslera oryzae is effectively reduced by leaf extract of

mint (Mentha piperita). The bulb extract of garlic is also effective in reducing leaf blight of
finger millet (H. nodulosum) and blast of paddy (Pyricularia oryzae). The root exudates of
kolinji and rhizome extract of banana are effectively used against Ganoderma lucidum, the
pathogen of Thanjavur wilt of coconut. The seed oil of pinnai (Calophyllum inophyllum) is
effective against Puccinia arachidis causing groundnut rust. Leaf extract of nochi (Vitex
negundo) effectively reduced, Rice Tungro viruses by checking the vector, Nephotettix
virescens.
Anti Viral Principle (AVP)
Plants are also known to contain some compounds which are inhibitory to virus. They are
called Anti-Viral Principles (AVP) or AntiViral Factors (AVF). The leaf extracts of sorghum,
coconut, bougainvillea, Prosopis juliflora and Cyanodon dactylon are known to contain virus
inhibiting principles.
Preparation of AVP extract
Dried coconut or sorghum leaves are cut and powdered. Twenty kg of leaf powder is
mixed with 50 litres of water and heated at 60 0 C for one hour. It is filtered and volume is made
upto 200 litres. This gives 10 per cent extract. Five hundred litres of extract is required to cover
one hectare. The 10 per cent AVP extract is very effective in controlling groundnut ring mosaic
virus (bud necrosis).
Two sprays are to be given at ten and twenty days after sowing. Similarly of percent leaf
extracts of P. juliflora and C. dactylon effectively reduced the tomato spotted wilt virus in
tomato. The leaf extracts are known to contain some proteinaceous substances which induce
virus inhibition in the plants.
PGPR
Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria are bacteria that colonize plant roots, and in doing
so, they promote plant growth and/or reduce disease or insect damage. There has been much
research interest in PGPR and there is now an increasing number of PGPR being commercialized
for crops. Organic growers may have been promoting these bacteria without knowing it. The
addition of compost and compost teas promote existing PGPR and may introduce additional
helpful bacteria to the field. The absence of pesticides and the more complex organic rotations
likely promote existing populations of these beneficial bacteria. However, it is also possible to
inoculate seeds with bacteria that increase the availability of nutrients, including solubilizing
phosphate, potassium , oxidizing sulphur, fixing nitrogen, chelating iron and copper. Phosphorus
(P) frequently limits crop growth in organic production. Nitrogen fixing bacteria are miniature of
urea factories, turning N2 gas from the atmosphere into plant available amines and ammonium
via a specific and unique enzyme they possess called nitrogenase. Although there are many
bacteria in the soil that ‘cycle' nitrogen from organic material, it is only this small group of
specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria that can ‘fix' atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are root symbiotic fungi improving plant stress resistance to abiotic
factors such as phosphorus deficiency or deshydratation.
The fourth major plant nutrient after N, P and K is sulphur (S). Although elemental
sulphur, gypsum and other sulphur bearing mined minerals are approved for organic production,
the sulphur must be transformed (or oxidized) by bacteria into sulphate before it is available for
plants. Special groups of microorganisms can make sulphur more available, and do occur
naturally in most soils.
One of the most common ways that PGPR improve nutrient uptake for plants is by
altering plant hormone levels. This changes root growth and shape by increasing root branching,
root mass, root length, and/or the amount of root hairs. This leads to greater root surface area,
which in turn, helps it to absorb more nutrients.
Disease control
PGPR have attracted much attention in their role in reducing plant diseases. Although the
full potential has not been reached yet, the work to date is very promising and may offer organic
growers some of their first effective control of serious plant diseases. Some PGPR, especially if
they are inoculated on the seed before planting, are able to establish themselves on the crop
roots. They use scarce resources, and thereby prevent or limit the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms. Even if nutrients are not limiting, the establishment of benign or beneficial
organisms on the roots limits the chance that a pathogenic organism that arrives later will find
space to become established. Numerous rhizosphere organisms are capable of producing
compounds that are toxic to pathogens like HCN
Challenges with PGPR
One of the challenges of using PGPR is natural variation. It is difficult to predict how an
organism may respond when placed in the field (compared to the controlled environment of a
laboratory. Another challenge is that PGPR are living organisms. They must be able to be
propagated artificially and produced in a manner to optimize their viability and biological
activity until field application. Like Rhizobia, PGPR bacteria will not live forever in a soil, and
over time growers will need to re-inoculate seeds to bring back populations.
PGPR in Research
Over the years the PGPR (plant growth promoting rhizobacteria) have gained worldwide
importance and acceptance for agricultural benefits. These microorganisms are the potential tools
for sustainable agriculture and the trend for the future. Scientific researchers involve
multidisciplinary approaches to understand adaptation of PGPR to the rhizosphere, mechanisms
of root colonization, effects of plant physiology and growth, biofertilization, induced systemic
resistance, biocontrol of plant pathogens, production of determinants etc. Biodiversity of PGPR
and mechanisms of action for the different groups: diazotrophs, bacilli, pseudomonads,
Trichoderma, AMF, rhizobia, Phosphate solubilising bacteria and fungi, Lignin degrading ,
chitin degrading , cellulose degrading bacteria and fungi are shown. Effects of physical, chemical
and biological factors on root colonization and the proteomics perspective on biocontrol and
plant defense have also shown positive results. Visualization of interactions of pathogens and
biocontrol agents on plant roots using autofluorescent protein makers has provided more
understanding of biocontrol processes with overall positive consequences.
Ways that PGPR promote plant growth
 Increasing nitrogen fixation in legumes
 Promoting free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 Increasing supply of other nutrients, such as phosphorus, sulphur, iron and copper
 Producing plant hormones
 Enhancing other beneficial bacteria or fungi
 Controlling fungal diseases
 Controlling bacterial diseases
 Controlling insect pests
Lecture 26
Physical Methods – Heat treatments, soil solarization, hot water treatment, hot air
treatment, control by refrigeration and radiation
As early as 1832, Sinclair suggested that hot air treatment in an oven might control smuts
of oats and barley. Gardeners in Scotland while treating the bulbs of different ornamental plants
first employed hot water therapy.
The scientific principle involved in heat therapy is that the pathogen present in seed
material is selectively inactivated or eliminated at temperatures that are non lethal to the host
tissues.
Following physical methods are employed for reduction or elimination of primary
inoculums that may be present in seed, soil or planting material.
i. Hot water treatment (HWT)
The seeds are soaked in cold water at 20-300C for 5 hrs to induce the dormant mycelium
to grow. Then the seeds are immersed in hot water at 50-540C for 10 minutes to kill the
mycelium. It is very effectively used to eliminate loose smut of wheat. The setts of sugarcane can
be treated at 500C for 2 hrs to eliminate grassy shoot pathogen. The main drawback in the hot
water treatment is that the seeds may be killed or loose its germinability, if the period of
treatment exceeds the specified time. So this method is replaced by other physical methods like
Hot air and Aerated steam treatment wherein the seeds are exposed only to hot air/aerated steam.
ii. Hot air treatment (HAT)
Sugarcane setts are treated with hot air at 500C for 2 hrs to eliminate mosaic virus.
iii. Aerated steam therapy (AST)
Sugarcane setts are also exposed to aerated steam at 500C for 3 hrs to eliminate mosaic
virus.
iv. Moist hot air treatment (MHAT)
This method is effectively used in sugarcane to eliminate grassy shoot disease. Initially
the setts are exposed to hot air at 540C for 8 hrs, then exposed to aerated steam at 500C for 1 hr
and finally to moist hot air at 540C for 2 hours.
v. Solar heat treatment (SHT)
A simplest treatment has been devised in India to eliminate the pathogen of loose smut of
wheat. Previously the hot water treatment was followed to eliminate loose smut. As the termal
death point of the fungus and the embry are very close. The extensive care should be taken to
avoid killing of the embryo. Luthra in 1953 devised a method to eliminate the deep seated
infection of ustilago nuda. The method is popularly known as solar heat or solar energy
treatment.
Luthras solar energy treatment: The seeds are soaked in cold water for 4 hours in the
forenoon on a bright summer day followed by spreading and drying the seeds in hot sun for four
hours in the afternoon. Then, the seeds are again treated with carboxin or carbendazin at 2g/kg
and stored. This method is highly useful for treating large quantities of the seed lots.
vi. Soil Solarization
Soil solarization is generally used for controlling soil-borne pathogens like Pythium,
Verticillium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium etc. and nematodes in small areas like nurseries. Irrigate the
nursery bed to moisten the soil to a depth of 10cm. Cover the bed after 2 days with thin
transparent polythylene sheets for 4-6 weeks and then irrigate the beds once in a week. The
purpose of irrigation is to increase the thermal sensitivity of resting structures of fungi and to
improve heat conduction.
vii. Steam Sterilization
Steam is passed through perforated pipes at a depth of 15 cm to sterilize the upper layers
of soil. It is mostly practiced under glass house and green house conditions.
viii. Hot air Sterilization
Hot air is also passed through pipelines to sterilize the soils in the nursery areas.
ix. Hot water treatment
It is mainly done in pot culture studies to kill the fungi and nematodes. The pots
containing soil are immersed in boiling water at 980C for 5 minutes or drenching boiling water
@ 20 litres/ Sq.m.
Refrigeration
It is an accepted fact that the low temperature at or slightly above the freezing point
checks the growth and activities of all such pathogens that cause a variety of post harvest
diseases of vegetables and fruits. Therefore most perishable fruits and vegetables should be
transported and stored in refrigerated vehicles and stores. Cool chains refrigerated space from
field to consumer table is becoming very popular. Regular refrigeration is sometimes preceded
by a quick hydro cooling or air cooling to remove the excess heat carried in them from the field
to prevent development of new or latent infections.
Radiation
Electromagnetic radiations such as ultraviolet (UV) light, x rays and y rays as well as
particulate radiations have been studied in relation to management of post harvest diseases of
horticultural crops. Y rays controlled post harvest fungal infections in peaches, straw berries and
tomatoes but doses of radiation required to kill pathogens, were found injurious to host tissues.
Some plant pathogenic fungi sporulate only when they receive light in the ultraviolet range. It
has been possible to control diseases on green house vegetables caused by species of these fungi
by covering or constructing the green house with a special UV absorbing vinyl film that blocks
transmission of light wavelengths below 390 nm.
Lecture 27
Chemical methods – study of different groups of fungicides.

Methods of application of fungicides
Fungicides – definition
The word „fungicide‟ originated from two latin words, viz., „fungus‟ and „caedo‟. The
word „caedo‟ means „to kill.‟ Thus the fungicide is any agency/chemical which has the ability to
kill the fungus. According to this meaning, physical agents like ultra violet light and heat should
also be considered as fungicides. However, in common usage, the meaning is restricted to
chemicals only. Hence, fungicide is a chemical which is capable of killing fungi.
Fungistat
Some chemicals do not kill the fungal pathogens. But they simply arrest the growth of the
fungus temporarily. These chemicals are called fungistat and the phenomenon of temporarily
inhibiting the fungal growth is termed as fungistatis.
Antisporulant
Some other chemicals may inhibit the spore production without affecting the growth of
vegetative hyphas and are called as „Antisporulant‟. Eventhough, the antisporulant and
fungistatic compounds do not kill the fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide
because by common usgage, the fungicide has been defined as a chemical agent which has the
ability to reduce or prevent the damage caused to plants and their products. So, some of the plant
pathologists prefer the term „Fungitoxicant‟ instead of fungicide.
Characters of an ideal fungicide
1. It should have low phytotoxicity
2. It should have lonf shelf life
3. Stability during dilution
4. It should be less toxic to human being, cattle, earth worms , microorganisms etc.
5. It should be a broad spectrum in its action
6. Fungicide preparation should be ready for use
7. It should have compatibility with other agrochemicals
8. It must be cheaper one
9. It should be available in different formulations
10. It should be easily transportable
Classification of Fungicides
Fungicides can be broadly grouped based on their (i) mode of action (ii) general use and
(iii) chemical composition.
I. Based on mode of action
Protectant
As the name suggests, protectant fungicides are prophylactic in their behaviour.Fungicide
which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called a protectant, eg., Zineb,
Sulphur.
Therapeutant
Fungicide which is capable of eradicating a fungus after it has caused infection and there
by curing the plant is called chemotherapeutant. eg. Carboxin, Oxycarboxin antibiotics like
Aureofungin. Usually chemo therapeutant are systemic in their action and affect the deep-seated
infection.
Eradicant
Eradicant are those which remove pathogenic fungi from an infection court (area of the
host around a propagating unit of a fungus in which infection could possibly occur). eg. Organic
mercurials, lime sulphur, dodine etc. These chemicals eradicate the dormant or active pathogen
from the host. They can remain effective on or in the host for some time.
II. Based on general uses
The fungicides can also be classified based on the nature of their use in managing the
diseases.
1. Seed protectants : Eg. Captan, thiram, organomercuries carbendazim, carboxin etc.
2. Soil fungicides (preplant) : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride, Chloropicrin,
Formaldehyde Vapam, etc.,
3. Soil fungicides : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy (for growing plants) chloride, Capton,
PCNB, thiram etc.
4. Foliage and blossom : Eg. Capton, ferbam, zineb, protectants mancozeb, chlorothalonil etc.
5. Fruit protectants : Eg. Captan, maneb, carbendazim, mancozeb etc.
6. Eradicants : Eg. Organomercurials, lime sulphur, etc.
7. Tree wound dressers : Eg. Boreaux paste, chaubattia paste, etc.
8. Antibiotics : Eg. Actidione, Griseofulvin, Streptomycin, Streptocycline, etc.,

9. General purpose spray and dust formulations.
III. Based on Chemical Composition
The chemical available for plant disease control runs into hundreds, however, all are not
equally safe, effective and popular.Major group of fungicides used include salts of toxic metals
and organic acids, organic compounds of sulphur and mercury, quinines and heterocyclic
nitrogenous compounds. Copper, mercury, zinc, tin and nickel are some of the metals used as
base for inorganic and organic fungicides. The non metal substances include, sulphur, chlorine,
phosphorous etc. The fungicides can be broudly grouped as follows and discussed in detail.
Groups of Fungicides – Copper Fungicides, Sulphur Fungicides and Mercury Fungicides
Copper Fungicides
The fungicidal action of copper was mentioned as early as 1807 by Prevost against wheat
bunt disease (Tilletia caries), but its large scale use as a fungicide started in 1885 after the
discovery of Bordeaux mixture by Millardet in France. The mixture of copper sulphate and lime
was effective in controlling downy mildew of grapevine caused by Plasmopara viticola and
later, late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans).
Some other copper sulphate preparations later developed were Borduaux paste, Burgandy
mixture and Cheshnut compound which are all very effectively used in the control of several
plant diseases. In addition some preparations of copper oxy chloride preparations arev also
mused. These are all insoluble copper compounds very successfully used in managing several
leaf diseases and seeding diseases in nursery. Some of the important diseases controlled by
copper fungicides are listed below.
I. Copper sulphate preparations
Boreaux Mixture
In 1882, Millardet in France (Bordeaux University) accidently observed the efficacy of
the copper sulphate against the downy mildew of grapes caused by Plasmopara viticola. When
copper sulphate was mixed with lime suspension, it effectively checked the disease incidence.
The mixture of copper sulphate and lime was named as “Bouillie Bordelaise” (Bordeaux
Mixture). The original formula developed by Millardet contains 5 lbs of CuSO4 + 5lbs of lime +
50 gallons of water. The chemistry of Bordeaux mixture is complex and the suggested reaction
is:
CuSO4 + Ca (OH)2 Cu(OH)2 + CaSO4

The ultimate mixture contains a gelatinous precipitate of copper hydroxide and calcium
sulphate, which is usually sky blue in colour. Cupric hrdroxide is the active principle and is toxic
to fungal spores. In metric system, to prepare one percent Bordeaux mixture the following
procedure is adopted:
One kg of copper sulphate is powdered and dissolved in 50 litres of water. Similarly, 1 kg
of lime is powdered and dissolved in another 50 litres of water. Then copper sulphate solution is
slowly added to lime solution with constant stirring or alternatively, both the solutions may be
poured simultaneously to a third contained and mixed well.
The ratio of copper sulphate to lime solution determines the pH of the mixture. The
mixture prepared in the above said ratio gives neutral or alkaline mixture. If the quality of the
used is inferior, the mixture may become acidic. If the mixture is acidic, it contains free copper
which is highly phytotoxic resulting in scorching of the plants. Therefore, it is highly essential to
test the presence of free copper in the mixture before applied. There are several methods to test
the neutrality of the mixture, which are indicated below:
(i) Field Test: Dip a well polished knife or a sickle in the mixture for few minutes. If reddish
deposit appears on the knife/sickle, it indicates the acidic nature of the mixture.
(ii) Litmus paper test: The colour of blue litmus paper must not change when dipped in the
mixture.
(iii) pH paper test : If the paper is dipped in the mixture, it should show neutral pH.
(iv) Chemical test: Acid a few drops of the mixture into a test tube containing 5 ml of 10%
potassium ferrocyanide. If red precipitate appears, it indicates the acidic nature of the mixture.
If the prepared mixture is in the acidic range, it can be brought to neutral or near alkaline
condition by adding some more lime solution into the mixture. Bordeaux mixture preparation is
cumbersome and the following precautions are needed during preparation and application.
(i) The solution should be prepared in earthen or wooden or plastic vessels. Avoid using metal
containers for the preparation, as it is corrosive to metallic vessels.
(ii) Always copper sulphate solution should be added to the lime solution, reverse the addition
leads to precipitation of copper and resulted suspension is least toxic.
(iii) Bordeaux mixture should be prepared fresh every time before spraying. In case, the mixture
has to be stored for a short time or a day, jaggery can be added at the rate of 100kg/100 litres of
the mixture.
(iv) Bordeaux mixture is sometimes phytotoxic to apples, peaches, rice varieties like IR8 and
maize varieties like Ganga Hybrid 3.
Bordeaux paste
Bordeaux Paste consists of same constituents as that of Bordeaux mixture, but it is in the
form of a paste as the quantity of water used is too little. It is nothing but 10 percent Bordeaux
mixture and is prepared by mixing 1 kg of copper sulphate and 1 kg of lime in 10 litres of water.
The method of mixing solution is similar to that of Bordeaux mixture. It is a wound dresser and
used to protect the wounded portions, cut ends of trees etc., against the infection by fungal
pathogens.
Burgundy mixture
It is prepared in the same way as Bordeaux mixture, except the lime is substituted by
sodium carbonate. So it is called as „Soda Bordeaux‟. It was developed Burgundy
(France) in 1887 by Mason. The usual formula contains 1 kg of copper sulphate and 1 kg of
sodium carbonate in 100 litres of water. It is a good substitute for Bordeaux mixture and used in
copper-sensitive crops.
Cheshunt compound
It is compound usually prepared by mixing 2 parts of copper sulphate and 11 parts of
ammonium carbonate. This formula was suggested by Bewley in the year 1921. The two salts are
well powdered, mixed thoroughly and stored in a air tight container for 24 hours before being
used. The ripened mixture is used by dissolving it in water at the rate of 3 g/litre. The mixture is
dissolved initially in a little hot water and volume is made up with cold water and used for
spraying.
II. Copper carbonate preparation
Chaubattia Paste
Chaubattia paste is another wound dressing fungicide developed by Singh in 1942 at
Government Fruit Research Station, Chaubattia in the Almora district of Uttar Pradesh. It is
usually prepared in glass containers or chinaware pot, by mixing 800g of copper carbonate and
800g of red lead in litre of raw linseed oil or lanolin. This paste is usually applied to pruned parts
of apple, pear and peaches to control several diseases. The paste has the added advantage that it
is not easily washed away by rain water.
III. Copper carbonate preparation
III. Cuprous oxide Fungimar, Perenox, Cuprous oxide is a
Preparation Copper Sandoz, Copper protective fungicide, used
4% dust, Perecot, mainly for seed treatment
Cuproxd, Kirt i copper. and for foilage application
against blight, downy
mildew and rusts.
IV. Copper oxychloride Blitox, Cupramar 50% It is a protective

Preparation. WP, Fytolan, Bilmix 4%, fungicide, controls
Micop D-06, Micop w-50, Phytophthora infestans on
Blue copper 50, Cupravit, potatoes and several leaf
Cobox, Cuprax, Mycop. spot and leaf blight
pathogens in field.
Sulphur fungicides
Use of sulphur in plant disease control is probably the oldest one and can be classified as
inorganic sulphur and organic sulphur. Inorganic sulphur is used in the form of elemental sulphur
or as lime sulphur. Elemental sulphur can be either used as dust or wettable sulphur, later being
more widely used in plant disease control. Sulphur is best known for its effectiveness against
powdery mildew of many plants, but also effective against certain rusts, leaf blights and fruit
diseases.
Sulphur fungicides emit sufficient vapour to prevent the growth of the fungal spores at a
distance from the area of deposition. This is an added advantage in sulphur fungicides as
compared to other fungitoxicants.
Organic compounds of sulphur are now widely used in these days. All these compounds, called
as „carbamate fungicides‟, are derivatives of Dithiocarbamic acid, Dithiocarbamates are broadly
grouped into two, based on the mechanism of action.
Dithiocarbamates
Monoalkyl Dithiocarbamates Dialkyl Dithiocarbamates
Eg. Zineb, Maneb, Eg. Thiram, Ziram,
Mancozeb, Nabam, Vapam Ferbam
List of sulphur fungicides and the important diseases controlled by them are tabulated below:
Trade Name Diseases Controlled
Inorganic Sulphur Sulphur dust Sulphur is a contact and

1. Elemental Sulphur Cosan, Wetsulf, Microsul protective fingicide,
(i) Sulphur dust normally applied as
sprays or as dust. It is
generally used to control
powdery mildews of
fruits, vegetables,
flowers and tobacco.
This is also effective
against apple scab
(Venturia inaequallis)
and rusts of field crops.
2. Lime Sulphur (Calcium It can be prepared by boiling Lime Sulphur is

poly sulphide) 9 Kg or rock lime and 6.75Kg effective against
of sulphur in 225 litres of powdery mildews as a
water. protective fungicide.
Organic Sulphur Hexathane 75% WP, It is used to protect
(Dithiocarbamates) Dithane Z-78, Funjeb, foliage and fruits of a

a. Monoalkyl Lonocol, Parzate C, wide range of crops
dithiocarbamate Du Pant Fungicide A, against diseases such as

1. Zineb (Zinc ethylene Polyram. early and late blight of
bisdithiocarbamate) potato and tomato,
downy mildews and
rusts of cereals, blast of
rice, fruitrot of chilly etc.
2. Maneb (Manganese Dithane M22, Manzate These two are protective

ethylene WP, MEB fungicide used to control
bisdithiocarbamate) many fungal diseases of
field crops, fruits, nuts,
ornamentals and
vegetables, especially
blights of potatoes and
tomatoes, downy
mildews of vines,
anthracnose of
vegetables and rusts of
pulses.
3.Mancozeb (Maneb + Dithane M45, Indofil

Zinc ion) M45, Manzeb.
4. Nabam (DSE) Chembam, Dithane A-40, Nabam is primarily used

(Di Sodium ethylene Dithane D-14, Parzate for foilar application
bisdithiocarbamate) Liquid against leaf spot
pathogens of fruits and
vegetables. Soil
applications were also

reported to have a
systemic action on
Pythium, Flusarium and
Phytophthora. It is also
used to control algae in
paddy fields.
5. Vapam (SMDC) Vapam, VPM, Chemvape, It is a soil fungicide and
(Sodium 4-S Karbation, Vita Fume. nematicide with
methyl dithiocarbamate) fumigant action. It is
also reported to have
insecticidal and
herbicidal properties. It
is effective against
damping off disease of
papaya and vegetables
and wilt of cotton. It is
also effective against
nematode infestation in
citrus, potato and root
knot nematodes in
vegetables.
b. Dialkyl Cuman L. Ziram, Ziride Ziram is a protective
Dithiocarbamate 80 WDP, Hexaazir 80% fungicide for use on fruit
1. Ziram (Zinc dimethyl WP, Corozate, Fukiazsin, and vegetables crops
dithiocarbamate) Karbam white, Milbam, against fungal pathogens
Vancide 51Z, Zerlate, including apple scab. It
Ziram, Ziberk, Zitox 80% is non phytotoxic except
WDP. to zinc sencitive plants.
It is highly effective
against anthracnose of
beans, pulses, tobacco &

tomato, and also against
rusts of beans etc.
2. Ferbam (Ferric Coromat, Febam, Ferberk, Ferbam is mainly used
dimethyl Femate, Fermate D, for the protection of
dithiocarbamate) Fermicide, Hexaferb 75% foliage against fungal
WP, Karbam Black, pathogens of fruits and
Ferradow. vegetables including
Taphrina deformans of
peaches, anthracnose of
citrus, downy mildew of
tobacco and apple scab.
3. Thiram (Tetra methyl Thiride 75 WDP, Thiride It is used for seed
thiram disulphide) 750, Thiram 75% WDP, treatment both as dry
Hexathir, Normerson, powder or as a slurry. It
Panoram 75, Thiram, is a protective fungicide
TMTD, Arasan, Tersan also suitable for
75, Thylate, Pomarsol, application to foilage to
Thiuram. control Botrytis spp. on
lettuces, ornamental, soft
fruits and vegetables,
rust on ornamentals and
Venturia pirina on pears.
It is also effective
against soilborne
pathogens like Pythium,
Rhizoctonia and
Fusarium.
Mercury Fungicides
Mercury fungicides can be grouped as inorganic and organic mercury compounds. Both
the groups are highly fungitoxic and were extensively used as seed treatment chemicals against
seed borne diseases. Ignorance compounds show bactericidal property also. However, due to
their residual toxicity in soil and plants and their extreme toxicity nature to animal and human
beings, the use of mercury fungicides is beings discouraged. In most of the countries, the use of
mercury fungicides is banned and in countries like India, the use of mercury fungicides is
restricted only in seed treatment for certain crops. The list of diseases against which mercury
fungicides used are listed below
Common Name Trade Name Diseases Controlled
I. Inorganic Mercury It is used for treating potato

1. Mercuric chloride Merfusan, Mersil tubers and propagative materials
of other root crops
2. Mercurous chloride Cyclosan, M-C Turf Mercurous chloride is
fungicide. limited to soil application in crop
protection use because
of its phytotoxicity.
These are used mainly for

treatment of seeds and planting
II. Organomercurials Agallol, Aretan, Emisan, materials. These fungicides are
Methoxy ethyl mercury Ceresan wet (India) used for seed treatment by dry,
Chloride wet or slurry method. For seed
Ceresan Dry (India), treatment 1% metallic
Phenyl mercury chloride Ceresol, mercury is applied at 0.25%
Leytosan. concentration
Ceresan (USA)
Ethyl Mercury Chloride
Agrosan GN.
Tolyl mercury acetate
Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds, Quinones and Miscellaneous Fungicides

Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds
Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds are mostly used as foliage and fruits protectants. Some
compounds are very effectively used as seed dressers. Some of the commonly used fungicides
are listed below.
1.Captan (Kittleson‟s Captan 50W, Captan 75 It is a seed dressing fungicide used

Killer) (N-trichloromethyl W, Esso Fungicide 406, to control
thio-4- cyclohexence-1,2- Orthocide 406, Vancide diseases of many fruits,
dicarboximide) 89, Deltan, Merpan, ornamental and vegetable
Hexacap. crops against rots and damping
off.
2. Captafol (Cis-N- Foltaf, Difolaton, Difosan, It is a protective
1,1,2,2-tetra chloro hexane Captaspor, Foleid, fungicide, widly used to
1,2- dicarboximide) Sanspor. control foliage and fruit
diseases of tomatoes,
coffee potato.
3. Glyodin Glyoxaliadine, Glyoxide, It has a narrow specrum of
Glyodin, Glyoxide Dry, activity. As a spray, it controls

Glyodex 30% liquid and apple scab and cherry leaf spot.
70% WP.
4.Folpet (Folpet) [N- Phartan, Acryptan, It is also a protective
(trichloromethyl-thi)] Phaltan, Folpan, fungicide used mainly for
phthalimide Orthophaltan. foliage application against
leaf spots, downy and powdery
mildews of many crops.
Benzene compounds
Many aromatic compounds have important anti-microbial properties and have been
developed as fungicides. Some important benzene compounds commonly used in
plant disease control are listed below.
1. Quintozene (PCNB) Brassicol, Terraclor, It is used for seed and soil

Tritisan 10%, 20%, 40% D treatment. It is effective
and 75% WP, PCNB 75% against Botrytis, Sclerotium,
WP. Rhizoctonia and Sclerotinia
spp.
2. Dichloran Botran 50% WP and 75% It is a protective fungicide
WP, Allisan. and very effective against
Botrytis, Rhizopus and
Sclerotinia spp.
3. Fenaminsosuplh Dexon 5% G and 70% WP It is very specific in
(Sodiumpdimethylamino protecting germinating
benzenediazosulphonate seeds and growing plants
from seeds as well as soil-
borne infection of
Phythium, Aphanomyces
and Phytophthora spp.
4.Dinocap (2,4-dinitro-6- Karathane, Arathane, It is a non-systemic
octyl phenylcrotonate) DNOPC, Mildex, acaricide and control
Crotothane, Crotothane fungicide recommended to
25% WP, control powdery mildews
Crotothane 48% Liq. on various fruits and
ornamentals. It is also used
for seed treatment.
Quinone Fungicides
Quinone areresent naturally in plants and animals and they exhibit anti-microbial activity
and some compounds are successfully developed and used in the plant disease control. Quinones
are very effectively used for seed treatment and two commonly used fungicides are listed below:
1. Chloranil (2,3,5,6- Spergon Chloronil is mainly used as

tetrachlora- a seed protectant against
1,4-benzoquinone) smuts of barely and
sorghum and bunt of wheat.
Dichlone has been used

2. Dichlone (2,3-dichloro- Phygon, Phygon XL WP. widely as seed protectant.
1,4- napthoquinone) This is also used as a
foliage fungicide,
particularly against apple
scab and peach leaf curl.
Organo – Phosphorous It has a specific action
fungicide against Pyricularia oryzae

Ediphenphos (Edifenphos) Hinosan 50% EC and 2% (Rice blast). It is also
(O-ethyl-SS- D. effective against Corticium
diphenyldithiophosphate) sesakii and Cochliobolus
miyabeanus in rice.
Organo Tin compounds

Several other organic compounds containing tin, lead, etc. have been developed and
successfully used in plant disease control. Among them, organo tin compounds are more popular
and effective against many fungal diseases. These compounds also show anti bactericidal
properties. Some of the organo tin compounds commonly used are listed below.
1. Fentin hydroxide Du-Ter WP 20% or 50% It is a non-systemic fungicide

(TPTHTiphenyl WP. Du-Ter Extra-WP, recommended for the control
tin hydroxide) Farmatin 50 WP, Du- of early and late blight of
Terforte WP, Tubotin. potato, leaf spot of sugar beet,
blast of rice and tikka leaf spot
of ground nut.
It is a non systemic fungicide

recommended
2. Fentin acetate Brestan WP 40% and to control Ramularia spp.on
(TPTATriphenyl tin 60% WP. celery and sugar beet
acetate) anthracnose and downy
mildew
It is effective against
Cercospora leaf spot of
3. Fentin Chloride Brestanol 45% WP, sugarbeet and paddy blast

(TPTC- Triphenyl tin Tinmate.
chloride)
Systemic Fungicides and Antibiotics

Systemic Fungicides
Since the late 1960s there has been substantial development in systemic fungicides. Any
compound capable of being freely translocated after penetrating the plant is called systemic. A
systemic fungicide is defined as fungitoxic compound that controls a fungal pathogen remote
from the point of application, and that can be detected and identified. Thus, a systemic fungicide
could eradicate established infection and protect the new parts of the plant.
Several systemic fungicides have been used as seed dressing to eliminate seed infection.
These chemicals, however, have not been very successful in the cases of trees and shrubs. On the
basis of chemical structure, systemic fungicides can be classified as Benzimidazoles,
Thiophanates, Oxathilins and related compounds, pyrimidines, morpholines, organo-phosphorus
compounds and miscellaneous group.
I. Oxathilin and related compounds
Oxathalins were the earliest developed compounds. This group of systemic fungicide is
also called as carboxamides, carboxyluc acid anillides, carboxaanillides or simply as anillides
which are effective only against the fungi belong to Basidiomycotina and Rhizoctonia solani.
Some of the chemicals developed are (i) Carboxin (DMOC: 5,6 - dithydra-2-methyl-1, 4-
oxathin-3-carboxanillide) and (ii) Oxycarboxin (DCMOD- 2,3-dihydro-5-carboxanillido-6-
methyl-1, 4 oxathilin-4, 4, dioxide). The diseases controlled by these chemicals are listed below.
Common Name
Trade Name Diseases Controlled
1. Carboxin (5,6-dinydro- 2- Vitavax 10% D, Vitavax It is systemic fungicide

methyl-1-4-oxanthin-3- 75% WP, used for seed treatment of
carboxanlido) Vitavax 34% liq. cereals against bunts and
Vitaflow. smuts, especially loose smut
of wheat
2. Oxycarboxin (5,6- Plantvax 5G, Plantvax It is a systemic fungicide

dihydro-2-methyl- 1,4- 5% liq. Plantvax 1.5 EC, used for the treatment of
oxathin-3-carboxianilid- 10% dust, 75 WP. rust diseases of cereals,
4,4- dioxide) pulses, ornamentals,
vegetables and coffee
Sicarol. It controls rusts, smuts of

3.Pyracarbolid (2-methyl- many crops and
5,6-dihydro- 4H-Pyran-3- Rhizoctonia solani, but is
carboxylic acid anilide). slightly more effective than
carboxin
II. Benzimidazoles
The chemicals of this group show a very broad spectrum activity against a variety of
fungi. However, they are not effective against bacteria as well as fungi belongs to
Mastigomycotina. Two types of fungicidal derivates of benzimidazoles are known. The first
type of derivates includes fungicides such as thiabendazole and fuberidazole. The fungicidal
moiety of the second type is methyl-2-benzimidazole carbamate (MBC). The fungicides of this
group may be simple MBC such as carbendazim or a complex from such as benomyl, which
transforms into MBC in plant system. Some of the important diseases controlled by these
compounds are shown below:
1.Benomyl (Methyl - 10 Benlate 50 WP, Benomyl. It is a protective and

(butly carbomyl)-2 Bavistin 50 WP, MBC, eradicative fungicide with
benzimidazole carbamate) Dersol, B.Sten 50, Zoom, systemic activity, effective
Tagstin, Agrozim, against a wide range of fungi
2. Carbendazim (MBC) Jkenstin. affecting field crops, fruits and

(Methyl -2- ornamentals.It is very effective
benzimidazole against rice blast, apple scab,
carbamate) powdery mildew of cereals,
rose, curcurbits and apple and
Diseases caused by
Verticillium and Rhizoctonia.
It is also used as pre-and
postharvest sprays of dips for
the control of storage rots of
fruits and vegetables.
Carbendazim is a systemic
fungicide controlling a wide
range of fungal pathogens of
field crops, fruits, ornamentals
and vegetables. It is used as
spray, seedling dip, seed
treatment, soil drench and as
post harvest treatment of
fruits. It is very effective
against wilt diseases
especially, banana wilt. It
controls effectively the
sigatoka leaf spot of banana,
turmeric leaf spot and rust
diseases in many
crops.
3. Thiabendazole (TBZ) Thiabendazole, Mertect, It is a broad spectrum systemic
(2,4-thiazoyl Tecto, Storite. fungicide effectivel against
benzimidazole) many major fungal diseases.
Pathogenic fungal control
includes species of
Botrytis, Ceratocystis,
Cercospora, Colletotrichum,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia,
Sclerotinia, Septoria and
Verticillium. It is also
effective for the post
harvest treatment of fruits
and vegetables to control
storage diseases.
Voronit. It is used for the treatment

of seeds against diseases
4.Fuberidazole (2, (2- caused by Fusarium,
buryl) - benzimidazole). Particularly F.nivale on rye
and F.culmorum of peas
III. Thiophanates
These compounds represent a new group of systemic fungicides based on thiourea. They
are the derivatives of thioallophanic acid. These fungicides contain aromatic nucleus which is
converted into benzimidazole ring for their activity. Hence, thiophanates are often classified
under benzimidazole group and the biological activity of thiophanates resembles of benomyl.
Two compounds are developed under this group are discussed.
1. Thiophanate(1,2 - bis Topsin 50 WP, Cercobin It is a systemic fungicide

(ethyl carbonyl-2- 50 WP, Enovit. with a broad range of
thioureido) benzene) action, effective against
Venturia spp., on apple

and pear crops, powdery
mildews, Botrytis and
Sclerotinia spp. On various
crops.
It is effective against a wide

range of fungal pathogens,
2. Thiophanate - methyl Topsin-M70 WP, including Venturia spp. on
(1,2 bis (3 methoxycarbonyl- Cercobin-M 70 WP, apples and pears,
2-thioureido) Envovit-methyl, Mycosphaerella musicola
benzene.) Mildothane. on bananas, powdery
mildews on apples,
cucurbits, pears and vines,
Pyricularia oryzae on
rice, Botrytis and
Cerospora on various
crops.
IV.Morpholines
Tridemorph (2-6 - dimethyl- Calixin 75 EC, Bardew, It is an eradicant fungicide

4-cyclo - tridecyl Beacon with systemic action, being
morpholine) absorbed through foilage
and roots to give some
protective action. It controls
powdery mildew diseases of
cereals, vegetables and

ornamentals. It is highly
effective against
Mycosphaerella,
Exobasidium
V. Pyrimidines, Pyridines, Piperidines and Imidazole
1. Triadimefon Bayleton, Amiral It is very effective against

(1-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3, powdery mildews and rusts
3-dimethyl-1-(1-2-triazol- of several crops.
1yl) butan-2-one)
It is also very
2. Triadimenol Baytan effective against
(1-(4-Chlorophenoxyl-3, powdery mildews
3-dimethyl-1(1,2,4-triazol-1- and rusts of several
yl) butan-2-ol) crops.
It is highly effective against

3. Bitertanal Baycor rusts and powdery mildew
(B-(1-1-biphenyl-4-yloxy-a- of a variety of crops. It is
(1-1-dimethyl-ethyl-1-H-1,2- also used against Venturia
and Monilinia on fruits and
Cereospora leafspots of
groundnut and banana.
4- triazole-1-ethanol)
Terrazole 30% WP,
Terrazole 95% WP,
Terrazole 25% EC, Koban,

Pansol EG, Pansol 4% DP, It is very effective
Turban WP, Terracoat against
4. Etridiazole Aaterra. Phytophthora and
(5-ethaoxy-3- Pythium spp. and
trichloromethyl, 1,2- seeding diseases of
4-thiadiazole) cotton, groundnut,
vegetables, fruits
and ornamentals
VI. Hydroxy Pyrinidines
1. Ethirimol (5-butyl 2- Milliatem 80 WDP, It is effective against

ethyl amino-4-hydrop-6- Milcurb Super, powdery mildew of cereals
methyl pyrimidine) Milgo and other field crops. It is
also effective against
powdery mildews of
cucumber and ornamentals.
2. Dimethirimol (5-butyl It is very effective against

2-dimethylamino-4- Milcurb powdery mildews of
hydroxy-6-methy chrysanthemum and
pyrimidine) cucurbits.
VII. Furan derivatives It is used as seed or soil

1. Furcarbanil application, It systemically
(2-5-dimethyl-3- controlled bean rust and is
furanilide) being used as a seed
dressing fungicide against

loose smut of wheat and
barley.
bunts, smuts and rusts of
2. Cyclafuramid cereals, coffee rust, blister
(N-cyclohexyl-2,5- blight of tea, smut and red
dimethyl firamide) rot of sugarcane, Fusarium
wilt of tomato, Rhizoctonia
on tomato, potato,
groundnut, rice as well as
Armillaria sp. On rubber.
yellow rust on wheat and
barley (P. striiformis) and
brown rust on barley (P.
VIII.Benzanilide hordei). It is also having
derivative direct fungitoxic activity
1. Mebenil against Sclerotium rolfsli
(2-methyl benzanilide) and Rhizoctonia.
IX. Organo phosphorous compounds
1. Pyrazophos (2-0-0- Afugan, Curamil, WP, It is used to control
Diethylthionophosphoryl) Missile EC. powdery mildews of

-5- methyl-6-carbethoxy cereals, vegetables, fruits
pyrazolo-(1- 5a)pyrimidine) and ornamentals.
2. Iprobenphos (IBP) Kitazin 48% EC, Kitazin It is used to control

(S-benyzl-0-0- 17G, Kitazin 2% D. Pyricularia oryzae and
bisisopropylphosphorothiate) sheath blight of rice.
X. Piperazine Saprol-EG, Fungitex. It is effective against

1.Triforine(N,N-bis-(1- powdery mildew, scab and
foramido-2,2,2- other diseases of fruits and
trichloroethyl- piperazine) rust on ornamentals and
cereals.
XI. Phenol derivative Demonsan 65 WP, Tersan It is also active against

1. Choloroneb (1-4-dichloro- SP, Turf storage diseases of fruits.
2,5-dimethoxy fungicide It is highly fungistatic to
benzene) Rhizoctonia spp.,
moderately so to Pythium
spp. and poorly to
Fusarium spp. It is used
as a supplemental seed
treatment for beans and
soyabeans to control
seedling disease
XIII. Other systemic fungicides
1. Metalaxyl (methyl-DLN-(2,6- Apron 35 SD, It is a systemic fungicide

dimethylphenyl-N-)2- Ridomil and highly effective for
methoxyacetyl Ridomil MZ 72 WP specific use as seed dressing
(8% Metalaxyl + 64% against fungal pathogens of
Mancozeb) the order Peronosporales.
Beam, Bim
Alliette 80 WP It is a fungicide with
2. Metalaxyl + Mancozeb systemic and contact action
and effective against
damping-off, root rots, stem
rots, and downy mildew of
grapes and millets.
It is a specific fungicide
used against paddy blast
3. Tricyclazole (5-methyl- fungus, P. oryzae
1,2,4 triazole(3,4b)-
benzothiazole) It is a very specific
Fungicide for Oomycetous
fungi, especially against
4. FosetylAI. Pythium and
(Aluminium - Trisaluminium Phytophthora
Antibiotics
Antibiotic is defined as a chemical substance produced by one micro-organism which is
low concentration can inhibit or even kill other micro-organism. Because of their specificity of
action against plant pathogens, relatively low phytotoxicity, absorption through foliage and
systemic translocation and activity in low concentration, the use of antibiotic is becoming very
popular and very effectively used in managing several plant diseases. They can be grouped as
antibacterial antibiotics and antifungal antibiotics. Most antibiotics are products of several
actinomycetes and a few are from fungi and bacteria.
I. Antibacterial antibiotics
1. Streptomycin sulphate
Streptomycin is an antibacterial, antibiotic produced by streptomyces griseus.
Streptomycin are streptomycin sulphate is sold as Agrimycin,-100, Streptomycin sulphate,
Plantomycin, Streptocycline, Paushamycin, Phytostrip, Agristrep and Embamycin, Agrimycin -
100 contains 15 per cent streptomycin sulphate + 1.5 percent terramycin (Oxy tetracycline).
Agristerp contains 37 percent streptomycin sulphate. Phytomycin contains 20 percent
streptomycin. Streptocycline and paushamycin contains 9 parts f streptomycin and 1 part of
tetracycline hydrochloride.
This group of antibiotics act against a broad range of bacterial pathogens causing blights,
wilt, rots etc. This antibiotic is used at concentrations of 100-500 ppm. Some important diseases
controlled are blight of apple and pear (Erwinia amylovora), Citrus canker (Xanthomonas
campestris p.v. citri), Cotton black arm (X.c. p.v. malvacearum), bacterial leaf spot of tomato
(Pseudomonas solanacearum), wild fire of tobacco (Pseudomonas tabaci) and soft rot of
vegetables (Erwinia carotovora).
In addition, it is used as a dip for potato seed pieces against various bacterial rots and as
an disinfectant in bacterial pathogens of beans, cotton, crucifers, cereals and vegetables.
Although it is an antibacterial antibiotic, it is also effective against some diseases caused by
Oomycetous fungi, especially foot-rot and leaf rot of betelvine caused by Phytophthora
parasitica var. piperina.
2. Tetracyclines
Antibiotics belonging to this group are produced by many species of Streptomyces. This
group includes Terramycin or Oxymicin (Oxytetracycline). All these antibiotics are
bacteriostatic, bactericidal and mycoplasmastatic. These are very effective against seed-borne
bacteria. This group of antibiotic is very effective in managing MLO diseases of a wide range of
crops. These are mostly used as combination products with Streptomycin sulphate in controlling
a wide range of bacterial diseases. Oxytetracyclines are effectively used as soil drench or as root
dip controlling crown gall diseases in rosaceous plants caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
II Antifungal antibiotics
1. Aureofungin
It is a hepataene antibiotic produced in sub-merged culture of Streptoverticillium
cinnamomeum var. terricola. It is absorbed and translocated to other parts of the plants when
applied as spray or given to roots as drench. It is sold as Aurefungin-Sol. Containing 33.3%
Aureofungin and normally sprays at 50-100 ppm. The diseases controlled are citrus gummosis
caused by several species of Phytophthora, powdery mildew of apple caused by Podosphaera
leucotricha and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), groundnut tikka leaf spot, downy mildew,
powdery mildew and anthracnose of grapes, potato early and late blight. As seed treatment it
effectively checked are Diplodia rot of mango, Alternaria rot of tomato, Pythium rot of cucurbits
and Penicillium rot of apples and citrus. As a truck application/root feeding, 2 g of aureofungin-
sol+1g of copper sulphate in 100 ml of water effectively reduce. Thanjavur wilt of coconut.
2. Griseofulvin
This antifungal antibiotic was first discovered to be produced by Penicillium
griseofulvum and now by several species of Penicillium, viz., P.patulum, P.nigricans, P.urticae,
and P.raciborskii. It is commercially available as Griseofulvin, Fulvicin and Grisovin. It is
highly toxic to powdery mildew of beans and roses, downy mildew of cucumber. It is also used
to control Alternaria solani in tomato Sclerotinia fructigena in apple and Botrytis cinerea in
lettuce.
3. Cycloheximide
It is obtained as a by-product in streptomycin manufacture. It is produced by different
species of Streptomyces, including S.griseus and S. nouresi. It is commercially available as
Actidione, Actidione PM, Actidione RZ and Actispray. It is active against a wide range of fungi
and yeast. Its use is limited because it is extremely phytotoxic. It is effective against powdery
mildew of beans (Erysiphe polygoni), Bunt of wheat (Tilletia spp.) brownnot of peach
(Sclerotinia fructicola) and post harvest rots of fruits caused by Rhizopus and Botrytis spp.
4. Blasticdin
It is a product of Streptomyces griseochromogenes and specifically used against blast
disease of rice caused by Pyricularia oryzae. It is commercially sold as Bla-s.
5. Antimycin
It is produced by several species of Streptomyces, especially S. griseus and S.
Kitasawensis. It is effectively used against early blight of tomato, rice blast and seedling blight
of oats. It is commercially sold as Antimycin.
6. Kasugamycin
It is obtained from Streptomyces kasugaensis. It is also very specific antibiotic against
rice blast disease. It is commercially available as Kasumin.
7. Thiolution
It is produced by Streptomyces albus and effectively used to control late blight of potato
and downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables.
8. Endomycin
It is a product of Streptomyces endus and effectively used against leaf rust of wheat and
fruit rot of strawberry (Botrytis cinerea).
9. Bulbiformin
It is produced by a bacterium, Bacillus subtills and is very effectively used against wilt
diseases, particularaly redgram wilt.
10. Nystatin
It is also produced by Streptomyces noursei. It is successfully used against anthracnose
disease of banana and beans. It also checks downy mildew of cucuribits. As a post harvest dip, it
effectively reduces brown rot of peach and anthracnose of banana in stroage rooms. It is
commercially marketed as Mycostain and Fungicidin.
11. Eurocidin
It is a pentaene antibiotic produced by Streptomyces anandii and called as pentaene G-8.
It is effectively used against diseases caused by several species of
Colletotrichum and Helminthosporium.
Methods of allocation of fungicides – Precautions and safety measures while handling
fungicides
Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time
are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an
application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will
prevent the fungus damaging the plant. This is mostly achieved by spray, fog, smoke, aerosol,
mist, dust, or granules applied to the growing plant or by seed or soil treatment.
In addition, some trees and shrubs can be protected by injection of fungicide liquid into
the trunk or by brushing wounds with fungicide paints or slurries. In the case of sprays, mists,
aerosols and fogs, the fungicide is in of droplets of water of another fluid. In the case of smokers,
the solid particles of the fungicide are carried by the air. In the case of dusts and granules, the
fungicide is straightly mixed with an inert carrier, impregnated into it coated on the particles,
which are applied mechanically.
The object of spraying or dusting is to cover the entire susceptible surface of hostwith a
thin covering of a suitable concentration of the fungicide before the pathogen has come into
contact with the host. However, these practices may not effectively eradicate the inoculum
present on the surface of the seeds or deep-seated in the seed. So, the application of chemicals as
seed dressing is highly essential.
In addition, soil harbours several pathogens which cause root diseases in several crop
plants. So treatment of soil with chemicals is also highly useful in reducing the inoculum load
present in the soil. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part
diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly
adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed.
1. Seed treatment
The seed treatment with fungicides is highly essential because a large number of fungal
pathogens are carried on or in the seed. In addition, when the seed is sown, it is also vulnerable
to attack by many common soil-borne pathogens, leading to either seed rot, seeding mortality or
produce diseases at a later stage. Seed treatment is probably the effective and economic method
of disease control and is being advocated as a regular practice in crop protection against soil and
seed-borne pathogens. Seed treatment is therapeutic when it kills pathogens that infect embroys,
cotyledons or endosperms under the seed coat, eradicative when it kills pathogens that
contaminate seed surfaces and protective when it prevents penetration of soilborne pathogens
into the seedling. There are various types of seed treatment and broadly they may be divided into
three categories (a) Mechanical, (b) Chemical and (c) Physical.
A. Mechanical method
Some pathogen when attack the seeds, there may be alteration in size, shape and weight
of seeds by which it is possible to detect the infected seeds and separate them from the healthy
ones. In the case of ergot diseases of cumbu, rye and sorghum, the fungal sclerotia are usually
larger in size and lighter than healthy grains. So by sieving or flotation, the infected grains may
be easily separated. Such mechanical separation eleminates the infected grains may be easily
separated. Such mechanical separation eliminates the infected materials to a larger extent. This
method is also highly useful to separate infected grains in the case of „tundu‟ disease of wheat.
Eg. Removal of ergot in cumbu seeds.
Dissolve 2kg of common salt in 10 litres of water (20% solution). Drop the seeds into the
salt solution and stir well. Remove the ergot affected seeds and sclerotia which float on the
surface. Wash the seeds in fresh water 2 or 3 times to remove the salts on the seeds. Dry the
seeds in shade and use for sowing.
B. Chemical methods
Using fungicides on seed is one of the most efficient and economical methods of
chemical disease control. On the basis of their tenacity and action, the seed dressing chemicals
may be grouped as (i) Seed disinfectant, which disinfect the seed but may not remain active for a
long period after the seed has been sown and (ii) Seed protectants, which disinfect the seed
surface and stick to the seed surface for sometime after the seed has been sown, thus giving
temporary protection to the young seedlings against soil borne fungi. Now, the systemic
fungicides are impregnated into the seeds to eliminate the deep seated infection in the seeds. The
seed dressing chemicals may be applied by (i) Dry treatment (ii) Wet treatment and (iii) Slurry.
(i) Dry Seed Treatment
In this method, the fungicide adheres in a fine from on the surface of the seeds. A
calculated quantity of fungicide is applied and mixed with seed using machinery specially
designed for the purpose. The fungicides may be treated with the seeds of small lots using simple
Rotary seed Dresser (Seed treating drum) or of large seed lots at seed processing plants using
Grain treating machines. Normally in field level, dry seed treatment is carried out in dry rotary
seed treating drums which ensure proper coating of the chemical on the surface of seeds. In
addition, the dry dressing method is also used in pulses, cotton and oil seeds with the
antagonistic fungus like Trichoderma vitide by mixing the formulation at the rate of 4g/kg of the
seed.
Eg. Dry seed treatment in paddy.
Mix a required amount of fungicide with required quantity of seeds in a seed treating
drum or polythene lined gunny bags, so as to provide uniform coating of the fungicide over the
seeds. Treat the seeds atleast 24 hours prior to soaking for sprouting. Any one of the following
chemical may be used for treatment at the rate of 2g/kg : Thiram or Captan or Carboxin or
Tricyclazole.
(ii) Wet seed treatment
This method involves preparing fungicide suspension in water, often at field rates and
then dipping the seeds or seedlings or propagative materials for a specified time. The seeds
cannot be stored and the treatment has to be done before sowing. This treatment is usually
applied for treating vegetatively propagative materials like cuttings, tubers, corms, setts
rhizomes, bulbs etc., which are not amenable to dry or slurry treatment.
a. Seed dip / Seed soaking
For certain crops, seed soaking is essential. Seeds treated by these methods have to be
properly dried after treatment. The fungicide adheres as a thin film over the seed surface which
gives protection against invasion by soil-borne pathogens.
Eg. Seed dip treatment in paddy.
Prepare the fungicidal solution by mixing any of the fungicides viz., carbendazim or
pyroquilon or tricyclazole at the rate of 2g/litre of water and soak the seeds in the solution for 2
hrs. Drain the solution and keep the seeds for sprouting.
Eg. Seed dip treatment in Wheat.
Prepare 0.2% of carboxin (2g/litre of water) and soak the seeds for 6 hours. Drain the
solution and dry the seeds properly before sowing. This effectively eliminates the loose smut
pathogen, Ustilago nuda tritici.
b. Seedling dip / root dip
The seedlings of vegetables and fruits are normally dipped in 0.25% copper oxychloride
or 0.1% carbendazin solution for 5 minutes to protect against seedling blight and rots.
c. Rhizome dip
The rhizomes of cardamom, ginger and turmeric are treated with 0.1% emisan solution
for 20 minutes to eliminate rot causing pathogen present in the soil.
d. Sett dip / Sucker dip
The sets of sugarcane and tapioca are dipped in 0.1% emisan solution for 30 minutes. The
suckers of pine apple may also be treated by this method to protect from soilborne diseases.
(iii) Slurry treatment (Seed pelleting)
In this method, chemical is applied in the form of a thin paste (active material is
dissolved in small quantity of water). The required quantity of the fungicide slurry is mixed with
the specified quantity of the seed so that during the process of treatment slurry gets deposited on
the surface of seeds in the form of a thin paste which later dries up.
Almost all the seed processing units have slurry treaters. In these, slurry treaters, the
requisite quantity of fungicides slurry is mixed with specified quantity of seed before the seed lot
is bagged. The slurry treatment is more efficient than the rotary seed dressers.
Eg. Seed pelleting in ragi.
Mix 2.5g of carbendazim in 40 ml of water and add 0.5g of gum to the fungicidal
solution. Add 2 kg of seeds to this solution and mix thoroughly to ensure a uniform coating of
the fungicide over the seed. Dry the seeds under the shade. Treat the seeds 24 hrs prior to
sowing.
(iv) Special method of seed treatment
Eg. Acid - delinting in cotton
This is follows in cotton to kill the seed-borne fungi and bacteria. The seeds are treated
with concentrated sulphuric acid @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes. The seeds are then
washed 2 or 3 times thoroughly with cold water and shade dried. After drying, they are again
treated with captan or thiram @ 4g/kg before sowing.
II. Soil treatment
It is well known that soil harbours a large number of plant pathogens and the primary
sources of many plant pathogens happens to be in soil where dead organic matter supports active
or dormant stages of pathogens. In addition, seed treatment does not afford sufficient protection
against seedling diseases and a treatment of soil around the seed is necessary to protect them.
Soil treatment is largely curativ in nature as it mainly aims at killing the pathogens in soil and
making the soil „safe‟ for the growth of the plant.
Chemical treatments of the soil is comparatively simple, especially when the soil is
fallow as the chemical is volatile and disappears quickly either by volatilization or
decomposition. Soil treating chemicals should be non-injurious to the plants in the soil adjacent
to the area where treatment has been carried out because there may be standing crop in adjacent
fields. The soil treatment methods involving the use of chemicals are
(i) Soil drenching, (ii) broadcasting, (iii) furrow application, (iv) fumigation and
(v) chemigation.
(i) Soil drenching
This method is followed for followed for controlling damping off and root rot infections
at the ground level. Requisite quantity of fungicide suspension is applied per unit area so that the
fungicide reaches to a depth of atleast 10-15 cm.
Eg. Emisan, PCNB, Carbendazim, Copper fungicides, etc.
(ii) Broadcasting
It is followed in granular fungicides wherein the pellets are broadcasted near the plant.
(iii) Furrow application
It is done specifically in the control of some diseases where the direct application of the
fungicides on the plant surface results in phytotoxic. It is specifically practiced in the control of
powdery mildew of tobacco where the sulphur dust is applied in the furrows.
(iv)Fumigation
Volatile toxicants (fumigants) such as methyl bromide, chloropicrin, formaldehyde and
vapam are the best chemical sterilants for soil to kill fungi and nematodes as they penetrate the
soil efficiently. Fumigations are normally done in nursery areas and in glass houses. The
fumigant is applied to the soil and covered by thin polythene sheets for 5-7 days and removed.
For example, Formaldehyde is applied at 400 ml/100 Sq.m. The treated soil was irrigated and
used 1 or 2 weeks later. Vapam is normally sprinkled on the soil surface and covered. Volatile
liquid fumigants are also injected to a depth of 15-20 cm, using sub-soil injectors.
(v) Chemigation
In this method, the fungicides are directly mixed in the irrigation water. It is normally
adopted using sprinkler or drip irrigation system.
III. Foliar application

A. Spraying
This is the most commonly followed method. Spraying of fungicides is done on leaves,
stems and fruits. Wettable powders are most commonly used for preparing spray solutions. The
most common diluent or carrier is water. The dispersion of the spray is usually achieved by its
passage under pressure through nozzle of the sprayer.
The amount of spray solution required for a hectare will depend on the nature of crops to
be treated. For trees and shrubs more amount of spray solution is required than in the case of
ground crops. Depending on the volume of fluid used for coverage, the sprays are categorised
into high volume, medium volume, low volume, very high volume and ultra low volume.
The different equipments used for spray application are: Foot-operated sprayer, rocking
sprayer, knapsack sprayer, motorised knapsack sprayer (Power sprayer), tractor mounted sprayer,
mist blower and aircraft or helicopter (aerial spray).
B. Dusting
Dusts are applied to all aerial parts of a plant as an alternative to spraying. Dry powders
are used for covering host surface. Generally, dusting is practicable in calm weather and a better
protective action is obtained if the dust is applied when the plant surface is wet with dew or rain
drops. The equipments employed for the dusting operation are: Bellow duster, rotary duster,
motorised knapsack duster and aircraft (aerial application).
IV. Post – harvest application
Fruits and vegetables are largely damaged after harvest by fungi and bacteria. Many
chemicals have been used as spray or dip or fumigation. Post harvest fungicides are most
frequently applied as aqueous suspensions or solutions. Dip application has the advantage of
totally submerging the commodity so that maximum opportunity for penetration to the infection
sites.
Systemic fungicides, particularly thiabendazole, benomyl, carbendazim, metalaxyl,
fosety-AI have been found to be very effective against storage diseases. In addition,
dithiocarbamates and antibiotics are also applied to control the post-harvest diseases. Wrapping
the harvested products with fungicide impregnated wax paper is the latest method available.
VI. Special method of applications

1. Trunk Application / Trunk Injection
It is normally adopted in coconut gardens to control Thanjavur wilt caused by
Ganoderma lucidum. In the infected plant, a downward hole is made to a depth of 3-4” at an
angle of 450C at the height of 3‟ from the ground level with the help of an auger. The solution
containing 2g of Aureofungin soil and 1 g of copper sulphate in 100 ml of water is taken in a
saline bottle and the bottle is tied with the tree. The hose is inserted into the hole and the stopper
is adjusted to allow the solution in drops. After the treatment, the hole is covered with clay.
2. Root Feeding
Root feeding is also adopted for the control of Thanjavur wilt of coconut instead of trunk
application. The root region is exposed; actively growing young root is selected and given a
slanting cut at the tip. The root is inserted into a polythene bag containing 100 ml of the
fungicidal solution. The mouth of the bag is tied tightly with the root.
3. Pseudostem Injection
This method is very effective in controlling the aphid vector (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
of bunchy top of bannana. The banana injector is used for injecting the insecticide.Banana
injector is nothing but an Aspee baby sprayer of 500 ml capacity. In which, the nozzle is
replaced by leurlock system and aspirator needle No. 16. The tip of the needle is closed and two
small holes are made in opposite direction.
It is for free flow of fluid and the lock system prevents the needle from dropping from
the sprayer. One ml of monocrotophos mixed with water at 1:4 ratio is injected into the
pseudostem of 3 months old crop and repeated twice at monthly intervals. The same injector can
also be used to kill the bunchy top infected plants by injecting 2 ml of 2, 4-D (Femoxone) mixed
in water at 1:8 ratio.
4. Corn Injection
It is an effective method used to control Panama will of banana caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Capsule applicator is used for this purpose. It is nothing but an iron
rod of 7 mm thickness to which a handle is attached at one end. The length of the rod is 45 cm
and an iron plate is fixed at a distance of 7 cm from the tip.
The corm is exposed by removing the soil and a hole is made at 45) angle to a depth of 5 cm.
One or two gelatin capsules containing 50-60 mg of carbendazim is pushed in slowly and
covered with soil. Instead of capsule, 3 ml of 2% carbendazim solution can also be injected into
the hole.
5. Paring and Pralinage
It is used to control Fusarium wilt and burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) of
banana. The roots as well as a small portion of corm is removed or chopped off with a sharp
knife and the sucker is dipped in 0.1% carbendazim solution for 5 minutes.
Then, the sucker is dipped in clay slurry and furadan granules are sprinkled over the corm @ 40
g/corm.
Lecture 28
Host plant resistance – Importance – disease resistance, tolerance, susceptibility and

disease escape. Horizontal and vertical resistance – Method of management of resistance.
Immunization – Systemic acquired resistance
Host plant resistance

A physiological deviation from the normal functioning of the organism (i.e., the crop
plant) caused by pathogenic organisms is a disease and may be caused by fungi, bacteria or
viruses. The inherent ability of an organism (i.e., the crop plant) to resist or withstand the
pathogen is called resistance. Disease resistance commonly met with in the plant kingdom
relative in nature, total immunity being too rare. Its hereditary transmission from parent to off-
spring is essentially “Mendalian”, but often polygenic.
The earliest demonstration of the behaviour of “disease-resistance” as a character
transmissible from parent to off-spring in the “Mendelian” fashion was given by Biffen (1905) in
his work on yellow rust of wheat. Since then, intensive work has been done on this aspect which
has proved the value of applying genetical principles in developing disease-resistant varieties of
plants for effective control of diseases.
Resistant varieties can be the simplest, practical, effective and economical method of
plant disease control. The use of resistant varieties cannot only ensure protection against diseases
but also save the time, energy and money spent on other measures of control. In addition to these
advantages, resistant varieties, if evolved, can be the only practical method of control of such
diseases as viruses, phytoplasmas wilts, and rusts etc. in which chemical control is very
expensive and impractical.
In crops of low cash value, chemical and other methods of control are often too expensive
to be applied. In such crops development of varieties resistant to important diseases can be an
acceptable recommendation for the farmer. Pathogenicity is the ability of a pathogen to attack a
host. Pathogenicity includes virulence and aggressiveness. Virulent strains of pathogen cause
much severe symptoms of the disease and they carry the virulence gene that enables it to attack a
particular host genotype.
Virulence is due to the action of one or a few genes. An aggressive strain of a pathogen
causes severe disease on all the host genotypes which they are able to attack and aggressiveness
is polygenically inherited. Host – Pathogen relationship A disease is the result of an interaction
of genes governing resistance in the host with those governing pathogenicity in the pathogen.
The resistance of a crop to a physiological race of the pathogen depends not only on the
genotype of the host for resistance, but also upon the genotype of the pathogen for virulence or
aggressiveness. Flor (1942) proposed the gene-for-gene hypothesis, according to which, for
every gene for resistance in the host, there is a corresponding gene for pathogenicity in the
pathogen.
It means that there are atleast two alleles at a locus controlling resistance/susceptibility in
the host (R-r) and two alleles at a corresponding locus in the pathogen (V-v) controlling
virulence / aggressiveness. Out of the four possible interactions between these alleles, only one
combination leads to the expression of resistance. The demonstration of gene-for-gene
relationship requires genetic studies of both the host and the pathogen.
Pathogen
VI v1 + Pathogen can infect; the host is R1 -+ susceptible r1 + + -
Pathogen cannot infect; the host is resistant
The demonstration of gene-for-gene relationship requires genetic studies of both the host and the
pathogen
Vertical resistance (VR) and horizontal resistance(HR)
Van der Plank (1960) has discussed the whole issue of disease resistance in a different
perspective. He calls the unstable and often complete type of resistance as vertical resistance and
the more stable but somewhat incomplete resistance as horizontal resistance. If resistance to
some races of a pathogen is more than to other races, it is called Vertical resistance. It is also
called Perpendicular resistance, Physiological resistance, seedling resistance, hypersensitivity,
race specific resistance or qualitative resistance. As it is conditioned by one or a few genes, it is
called major gene or monogenic of oligogenic resistance.
Resistance to more than one race of the pathogen or to many or all races of the pathogen
is called Horizontal Resistance. It is non-specific resistance governed by polygenes. It is
severally termed as non-specific, general, polygenic, minor gene, mature plant, adult,
quantitative resistance, partial or field resistance or tolerance. HR causes reduction in the number
and rate of sporulation of the pathogen on the host and slows down the infection rate. HR
includes tolerance slow development of disease, escape and exclusion mechanisms besides
hypersensitive reaction. The difference between vertical resistance and horizontal resistance are
given in table.
Differences between vertical and horizontal diseae resistance * Detectable by analysis of
variance of a suitable experiment
Feature Vertical resistance Horizonal resistance
Pathotype-specificity Race specific Race nonspecific
Nature of gene action Oligogenic Polygenic; rarely oligogenic
Response to pathogen Usually, hypersensitive Resistant response
Phenotypic expression Qualititative Quantitative
Stage of expression Seedling to maturity Expression increases as plant
matures (Adult plant)
Selection and Relatively easy Relatively difficult
evaluation
Risk of „boom and Present (rarely durable) Absent (durable)
burst‟
Suitable for: a. Host Annuals but not Both annuals and perennials All
b.Pathogen perennials Immobile pathogens
pathogen, e.g., Soil
pathogens, but for
mobile air-borne,
pathogens
Need for specific Critical for success None
deployment of resistant with mobile pathogens
varieties
Need for other control Likely Much less likely
measures
Host-pathogen Present Absent
interaction *
Efficiency Highly efficient against Variable, but operates against all
specific races races
Vertical resistance to specific races is generally governed by a single (monogenic) dominant

gene or by a few dominant genes. Some of these genes may be multiple alleles as in leaf rust
gene, Lr2 that accords resistance to Puccinia recondite tritici. In that locus, four genes
designated as Lr2a, Lr2b, Lr2c and Lr2d are present and are tightly linked. Each of these genes
accord resistance to a different spectrum of races and hence can be differentiaited from one
another. Such multiple alleles exist on Sr9 locus of wheat for P.graminis tritici and gene Pi-k in
rice for resistance to Pyriculariva grisea. The tight linkage between the multiple alleles permits
an efficient transfer of all these genes in one attempt.
„Horizontal resistance‟ (HR) reduces the rate of disease spread and is evenly spread
against all races of the pathogen. The low terminal disease severity in HR is assumed to result
from polygenic resistance. Morphological features such as size of stomata, stomatal density per
unit area, hairiness, waxiness and several others influence the degree of resistance expressed.
Partial resistance, dilatory resistance, lasting resistance are some other terms coined for denoting
horizontal resistnce.
The phenomenon of slow rusting manifested as lesser number of pustules per unit leaf
area, smaller size of uredosori and increased latent period in some wheat cultivars is a typical
example of this type of resistance. Although it is preferable to use varieties that have both
vertical and horizontal resistance, most of the resistant varieties carry only one or few (2 or 3 )
major genes of vertical resistance. If varieties are resisitant only to some of the races of pathogen
and if the pathogen is airborne, then new races evolve easily, as happens with cereal rusts, the
powdery mildlew and Phytophthora infestans. Appearance of new races lead to breakdown of
resistance of the popular, ruling genotype. As a result, varieties with vertical resistance need to
be replaced at frequent intervals.
Boom and burst cycle
In varietial improvement programmes, it is easy to incorporate the monogenic vertical
resistance genes. But the success of exploiting the monogenic host resistance invariably does not
last long. Whenever a single gene-based resistant variety is widely adopted, the impact would be
the arrival of new matching pathotypes.
These pathotypes soon build up in population to create epidemics and eventually the variety is
withdrawn. This phenomenon is generally called “ boom and burst”. The avoid the implications
of boom and burst phenomenon, use of durable host resistance is advocated in several crops.
Durable resistance remains effective even though it may be widely grown ovoer a long period of
time, in an environment that favours the disease. For example, oat variety, Red Rust Proof is still
resistant against crown rust even after a hundred years. Wheat varieties, Thatcher and Lee have
withstood stem rust for 55 and 30 years, respectively. Cappelle Desprez expresses at adult stage,
a moderate resistance to yellow rust and this has been maintained for the last 20 years.
Two of the genes like Lr34 for resistance of leaf rust and Sr2 for resistance to stem rust
have been recognized for durability. Wheat cultivars such as HD2189, HP1102, DL153-2,
DL803-3 and DL802-2, which possess Lr34 with other gene combinations have a good degree of
resistance and hae become popular with growers. So far, there is not precise way available to
identify the genetic components that are associated with durable resistance. Nor does
dissociation of genes for virulence totally explain the basis of varietal durability, though it is
likely to be the most plausible reason Boom and burst cycle-a characteristic of vertical resistance
Resistance to virus and virus vectors Resistane to plant pathogenic viruses is generally
oligogenic in nature.
For example, the host pathogen reaction to the barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) is
controlled by detectable single gene. The discovery of Yd2 gene in Ethiopial barley further
confirms that against some of the viral diseases, vertical resistance is very much functional.
Antiobiotics is the most common phemomenon where the host plant metabolites interfere with
the normal life and growth of the insects following feeding activity.
Invariably, the adult body weight, fecundity and various facets of multiplication of the
insects are adversely affected. The number of life cycles completed in a given period of time is
also less. Therefore, in plants that exhibit antibiosis towards crop maturity, there is marked
reduction in the level of pest infestation (virus vector population) and host damage. Mechanism
of disease resistance or Nature of disease resistance Disease resistance is governed by several in-
built mechanisms of the host, plants against infection by the pathogen. They are disease escape,
disease endurance or tolerance and true resistance.
a. Disease escape
It is a prevention mechanism that causes the host to escape pathogenic infection. Early or
late maturity of the crop may prevent physical contact of the pathogen with the host. Mechanical
and anatomical barriers such as thick cuticle, waxy bloom on leaves and stem, stomatal
regulation prevent penetration of spores. Ergot, a fungal disease of inflorescence in cereals
caused by Claviceps purpurea does not affect varieties of wheat and barley in which the flowers
remain closed until pollination occurs. Erect leaves of barley avoid deposition of spores of
Erysiphe graminis tritici in contrast to prostrate leaves. Early maturing varieties of groundnut
escape early leaf spot infection (Cercospora arachidicola) and early varieties of wheat escape
rust and loose smut infection.
A change in planting season has also been successfully employed as a measure of
securing escape, e.g., the leaf rust of sugarcane (Puccinia sacchari) in the canal areas of Bombay
severely affects cane when planted in June, but is of minor importance or absent in crops sown in
October. Disease escape confers pseudo-resistance.
b. Disease endurance
The host after being infected by the pathogen tolerates the infection and suffers less
damage. It does not result in any substantial decrease in yield. This is brought about by influence
of external factors. It is a well-known phenomenon that plants fertilized with phosphatic and
potash manures are more tolerant to disease; this is the case in wheat against rust infection. Rice
crops fertilized by silicates are “resistant” to blast (Pyricularia oryzae) in Japan. Wheat crops
fertilized by potash and phosphatic manures are highly tolerant to mildew and rust
infection. The fertilizers act indirectly to arrest vegetative growth and promote early maturity,
better straw and strengthening tissues to protect the plant which form a bulwark against
pathogenic invasion.
c. True resistance
It is the ability of the host plant to resist or withstand the attack of a pathogen. True
resistance is inheritable and much less subject to environmental influence. It is specific in
character. The basis of resistance may be morphological, functional, structural or protoplasmic.
Functional nature of resistance is determined by opening of the stomata, time of opening of
flowers and time of maturity, rate of cork formation and cambial activity.
Structural characters include the proportion of strengthening tissues, fibre content, nature of
middle lamella, corky layers, number and structure of stomata and lenticels and their sizes.
Protoplasmic factors controlling resistance are related to cell contents and include acids, tannins,
anthocyanins, chemical constituents and their proportion, antibiotic activity and hypersensitivity
present in the plant cells and in addition biological antagonism of the protoplasm of the host and
the pathogen. True resistance, however, is of a specific character and is determined by the
defence equipment and activities of the plant itself against the parasitic invasion and is therefore
not subject to any appreciable modifications by external factors.
Methods of breeding for disease resistance
The methods of breeding varieties resistant to diseases do not differ greatly from those
adopted for other characters. The following methods are used:
1. Introduction,
2. Selection,
3. Hybridization followed by selection,
4. Back cross method,
5. Induced mutagenesis,
6. Development of multilines and
7. Tissue culture techniques
1. Introduction
It is a very simple and inexpensive method. Varieties resistant to a particular disease
elsewhere may be thoroughly tested in the regions in which they are proposed to be introduced.
Their yield performance and disease resistance should be confirmed by large scale cultivation. It
is possible that a variety resistant in one region need not be resistant in another region due to
variation in the physiological race of the pathogen or due to a much different agroclimatic
condition in the new location.
Introductions have served as a useful method of disease control. For example, Ridley
wheat introduced from Australia has been useful as a rust resistant variety. Manila, a rice variety
introduced in Karnataka from the Philippines, has tolerance to blast, bacterial leaf blight and
sheath blight. Intan, a Javanica type rice variety introduced in Karnataka from Indonesia is
highly resistant to blast. Munal, a rice variety introduced in West Bengal from the U.S.A. is
tolerant to blast, bacterial leaf blight and leaf folder (pest). Some of IRRI rice varieties such as
IR 20, IR.24, IR.28, IR.34, IR.36 and IR .50 possess resistance to one or more diseases. Early
varieties of groundnut introduced from U.S.A. have been resistant to laf spot (Cercosora
arachidicola).
Kalyan Sona and Sonalika wheat varieties originated from the segregating materials
introduced from CIMMYT, Mexico and were rust resistant. Introduftions also serve as sources of
resistance in breeding programmes. For example, African pearlmillet (P. americanum)
introductions have been used for developing downy mildew resistant male sterile lines ( Tift 23A
cytoplams) for use in hybrid pearlmillet production. This is an important development in the
hybrid pearlmillet programmes since the original male sterile lines Tift 23A and 23D2A were
extremely susceptible to downy mildew.The introduction of Co.475 variety of sugarcane in
Mumbai has conquered red rot but brought in leaf rust and whip smut to the fore.
2. Selection
This is better method than introduction and has more chances of success in obtaining
disease-resistant plants. The work of selection is carried out either in the naturally infected fields
under field conditions or under artificially inoculated conditions. The resistance in such
individuals will occur in nature by mutation. To ensure the resistant character of a plant, large
population of crop plant may be exposed to the attack of pathogen under artificial conditions and
the non-infected plants may be chosen. Suvarnamodan rice of Kerala is a pure line of ARC.
11775 and is highly tolerant to blast.
Sugandh of Bihar is a selection from Basmati rice of Orissa tolerant to bacterial leaf
blight. Rice varieties Sudha (Bihar), Sabita, Nalini (West Bengal), Patel 85 (Madhya Pradesh),
Janaki(Bihar), Improved White Ponni (Tamil Nadu), Ambika (Maharashtra), are some of rice
selections resistant to one or more diseases. MCU 1 cotton, a selection from Co 4, is resistant to
Kufri Red, a potato selection from Darjeeling Red Round is a disease resistant variety.
3. Hybridization
When selection of resistant varieties is not feasible, resistant varieties may be evolved by
crossing the susceptible popular variety with resistant wild variety where in the resistant gene or
genes transferred into the genetic make up of susceptible variety. Very often the F1 from crosses
may be resistant but carry the other undesirable qualities of the resistant parent. The bad qualities
are removed by several back crossing of F1 with the susceptible parent may ultimately yield a
resistant progeny with good agronomic characteristics.
Under certain circumstances pedigree or bulk method of selection is followed to obtain a

resistant variety. In this method, the crosses are made till F2 population is got. Selections are
made in F2 generation for superior genetic traits including disease resistance. By continued
selfing, selections are made through F3 to F5 or F6 generations and the best variety is selected.
This method is suited for small grains and beans but unsuited to fruits and vegetables.
4. Back cross method
Back cross method is widely used to transfer disease resistance from wild species. Wild
species are rice sources of disease resistance. Interspecific hybridization is made to transfer the
gene or genes for resistance to the cultivated species. Resistance to grassy stunt virus from Oryza
nivara to O.sativa, late blight resistance from Solanum demissum to cultivated potato, rust
resistance from durum to aestivum wheat are some of the examples involving interspecific
hybridization. Depending upon the number of genes governing resistance and the nature of the
gene, whether dominant or recessive, the procedure varies. The number of back crosses to the
cultivated species may be five to six. Once the back cross progeny resemble the cultivated
parent, then they are selfed and segregating progeny screened for disease resistance.
5. Induced mutagenesis
While following mutation breeding for disease resistance, a large number of mutation
progeny should be produced and screened under artificial epiphytotic condition to select resistant
plants. MCU10 cotton, a resistant variety to bacterial blight was evolved in Tamil Nadu by
subjecting seeds of a susceptible variety CO4 to gamma rays followed by rigorous screening and
selection 6. Development of multilines The concept of multilines was first suggested by
Jensen(1952) and developed by Borlaug (1959) for evolving multiline varieties to resist stem rust
in wheat. A multiline variety is a composite of genetically similar lines, except that each line
possesses a different gene for resistance to the pathogen.
Lines that are genetically similar, except for one gene, are called isoline. It is assumed
that gene for resistance in each isoline contributes resistance to a separate physiological race or
group of races. Genes for disease resistance are transferred by backcrossing from donor varieties
to a common disease susceptible, but agronomically superior, recurrent parent. Isolines are
generated differing only in the gene for disease resistance. The isolines are composited to
synthesize a multiline variety. The isolines are maintained for resynthesizing the multiline
whenever needed. A multiline variety is composed of a mixture of resistant and susceptible

genotypes and provides a buffering effect against rapid development of disease. It will provide
resistance or tolerance to a broad spectrum of races of a pathogen. If new races of the pathogen
are identified at a later stage, additional isolines resistant to the newly arisen races may be
constituted and incorporated.
Care should be taken to see that there is uniformity for height, maturity and other features
in the multiline. Though multilines provide stability of yield due to reduction of damage by
pathogens, the limitations of multiline varieties are that the yield level of multiline varieties is
limited to that of the recurrent parent, 4 to 5 years are required to stabilize isogenic lines and the
pathogen may produce new races at a faster rate than the development of a multiline. Multiline
varieties have been developed for resistance to stem rust and stripe rust of wheat and crown rust
of oats. The first multiline variety in wheat, „Miramar 60‟ was developed and released in
Columbia to combat the attack of yellow rust. „Miramar 63‟ and „Miramar 65‟ were resistant to
stem rust and stripe rust. „Yoqui 50‟, „Crew‟ and „Tumult‟ are a few other wheat multilines.
Kalyan sona and Sonalika-based multilines of wheat resistant to different races of rust have been
developed in India.
7. Tissue culture technique
Tissue culture techniques to produce somaclonal variation for disease are developed in
different crops. Somaclonal variations for disease resistance are reported in Zea mays for
Drechslera maydis race T-toxin resistance, in Brassica napus for resistance/tolerance to Phoma
lingam, early and late blight resistance in potato, Pseudomonas and Alternaria resistance in
tobacco, besides smut and rust disease resistance in sugarcane.
Lecture 29
Application of biotechnology in plant disease management – Importance, production of

pathogen free plants through tissue culture techniques
In modern terms “biotechnology‟ is defined as the manipulation, genetic modification

and multiplication of living organisms through novel technologies, such as tissue culture and
genetic engineering, resulting in the production of improved or new organisms and products that
can be used in a variety of ways.
Genetic engineering is the technology by which it is possible to isolate particular gene
from one organism, insert them into the genome of another organism and make them to express
at right time. Cells of plants can be cultured in special nutrient medium and whole plants can be
regenerated from cultured cells. This technique of growing plants in vitro is called “Tissue
culture”.
In calli derived from infected tissues not all cells uniformly carry the pathogen. Only
40% of the single cells mechanically separated from TMV - infected tobacco callus contained the
virus. The two possible reasons for the escape of some cells of a systemically infected callus
from virus infection are -. a) virus replication is unable to keep pace with cell proliferation, and
b) some cells acquire resistance to virus infection through mutagenesis. Cells resistant to virus at
back may even exist in the parent tissue together with susceptible ones. Several disease resistant
plants have been evolved using somoclonal variation. Out of 370 tomato plants regenerated from
calluses six showed resistant to TMV. Similarly, late blilght (Phytophthora infestans) - resistant
potato plants and bacterial blight of rice resistant calli have been evolved.
The pathogen produced secondary metabolites can be used to screen calluses for evolving
disease resistant plants. Toxins will kill the calluses, but the mutant toxin resistant calluses will
survive. The regenerated toxin resistant calluses yielded disease resistant plants. Brown spot
pathogen (Helminthosporium oryzae) produced a host specific toxin for which resistant plants
have been successfully developed. Similariy, Helminthosporium maydlis - toxin resistant maize
plants, Phytophthora infestans - resistant tobacco plants, H. sacchari resistant sugarcane plants
have been evolved. Somaclonal variation refers to the tissue culture derived variation- Plants
regenerated from somatic cells, using tissue culture. are not genetically uniform but display
significant genetic variability. This variability is very high when compared to spontaneous
mutation. Somacional variation has been deryionstrated in a large number of plant species
(wheat, rice, oats, maize, tobacco, potato, sugarcane, brassica, etc.) for various traits such as
resistance to fungal, viral and bacterial diseases. The procedure involves growing of cell cultures
for several cycles on nutrient medium without any selective agent, followed by regeneration of
plants.
The regenerants and their progenies are screened for disease resistance. Embryo rescue
and protoplast fusion techniques are important to obtain hybrids among incompatible species and
introgression of alien genes for disease resistance. In number of cases, useful genetic variability
in the cultivated germplasm for resistance to diseases is either limited or lacking. Under such
situations, wild germsplasm seems to be a reservoir of useful genes for disease resistance. In the
incorporation of alien genes, several crossability barriers are encountered. In many cases, the
hybrid embryo aborts. However, the excised hybrid embryos when cultured on nutrient medium
ran be grown to plantlets. To incorporate alien genes from divergent sources, embryo rescue
appears to be promising.
Tissue culture in conduction with recombinant DNA technology is becoming increasingly
important to insert foreign genes and produce transgenic plants. For successful infection of virus
particles, the coat protein should be removed from viral RNA. If the host is made to synthesize
coat proteins in large amount, naked viral RNA formation will be negligible. The host coat
protein will encapsulate the RNA of the virus and prevent its multiplication. This will result in
reduction and delay in symptom development. Eg. Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the
tobacco mosaic virus coat protein protected the plants against this virus.
The expression of the viral genome in transgenic plants also conferred resistance to virus
infection. These regions include portion of the viral replicas as well as, antisense RNA to coat
protein. Transgenic tobacco plants transformed with a DNA copy of the satellite RNA of
cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) were shown to produce large amounts of satellite RNA following
inoculation with CMV and symptom development was greatly reduced.
Proteins with the ability to inhibit the growth of fungi in vitro are abundantly present in
plants. Constitutive expression of these genes in transgenic plants may render these plants to
fungus resistant. Transgenic tobacco plants constitutively expressing bean chitinase have been
shown to display enhanced resistance to Rhizoctonia solani. Recently, tobacco plants expressing
a ribosome inactivating protein (RIP) from barely showed resistance to R. solani. The RiPs do
not inactivate self ribosomes and show activity towards ribosomes of distantly related species
including those from fungi.
The constitutive expression of the groundnut stilbene synthase gene in transgenic
tobacco plants results in the synthesis of resveratrol (phytoalexin) and the transgenic plants show
resistance to Botrytis cinerea.
Transgenic tobacco plants expressing acetyltransferase which detoxifies the tabtoxin,
show resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci. More recently, chitinase gene from
Manduca sexta, tobacco horn worm, has been cloned into P.fluorescens to increase their
antagonistic potential against R.solani.
Meristem or shoot tip culture
Meristem and shoot tip culture are used to eliminate virus from infected germplasm. It
has long been observed that the rapidly growing meristems of plants are usually free of viruses,
or at least have much lower concentration of viruses than nonmeristem cells. This situation has
been exploited forthe production of virus-free plants by meristem culture. It is commanly used in
cassava, potato, sweet potato and ornamental plants.
“Virus-free” the term has been loosely used in literature. Plants infected with more than
one type of virus and also may carry some unknown viruses. Thus, a plant can be claimed as free
of only those viruses for which specifictests have givenne gative result sowever, the term “virus-
free” is still retained by horticulturists for its commercial value.
Pathogen attack does not always lead to death of the plant. Many viruses may not even
show visible symptoms. However, the presence of viruses in the plants can reduce the yield and
quality of crops. It is well known that the distribution of viruses in plants is uneven. In infected
plants, the apical meristems are generally either free or carry a very low concentration of the
viruses. In the older tissues, the titre of the viruses increases with increasing distance from the
meristem tips.
Five main possibilities have been suggested to explain the mechanisms underlying the
„resistance‟of meristems to viruses.
(i) Exclusion of the viruses from the meristems by lack of suitable vascular or plasmodesmatal
connections.
(ii) Competition for key metabolites by the rapidly dividing meristem cells.
(iii) The production of substances in meristem cells that result in breakdown of the virus.
(iv) Deficiency in some key components of the machinery of virus replication, and
(v) Presence of inhibitors of virus replication.
Factors affecting virus eradication
Factors such as culture medium explant size and culture storage influence the virus
eradication. In addition, heat treatment before or during culture significantly influences the
efficiency of this technique. The physiological stage of the explants also affects virus elimination
by meristem tip culture.
(i) The success in obtaining complete plants can be considerably improved by the choice of the
culture medium. The major features of the culture medium to be considered are its nutrients,
growth regulators and physical mature.
(ii) The size of meristem tip is an important factor governing regeneration capacity of meristems
and to obtain virus free plants. For example, in cassava, meristems exceeding 0.2 mm size
regenerated to plantlets, but those less than 0.2 mm size developed either Gallus or callus with
roots. In general, the larger the meristem, the greater is the number of regenerated plants, but the
numberof virus free plant is inversely proportional to the size of meristem cultured.
(iii) For meristem - tip cultures light incubation has generally proved better than dark incubation.
The optimum light intensity for initiating tip cultures of potato is 100 lux, which should be
increased to 200 lux after 4 weeks. The cultures are generally stored understandard culture room
temperatures (25 ± 2ºC).
(iv) Meristem tips should, preferably be taken from actively growing buds. Tips taken from
terminal buds gave better results than those from axillary buds.
Meristem tip culture to eliminate Cassava Mosaic Virus
Rapidly growing vegetative buds are excised, rinsed with sterile distilled water and then
disinfected by immersing them in mercuric chloride solution (0.1%) for 2-3 minutes. The buds
are then rinsed with several changes of sterile distilled water. Under the microscope, 3-4 leaf
primordia (0.3 to 0.6 mm in size) is removed from the bud with a sterile scalpel. The buds are
then aseptically transferred to Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium in test tubes and incubated at
25 ± 2‟C in light, for 45 days. The plantlets are then removed from the test tubes, washed in tab
water and kept in Hoagland solution for 3-4 days for hardening. The plantlets are transferred to
pots containing peat soil and vermiculite at 3:1 ratio and kept in mist chamber for 5-7 day. The
plants are then transferred to glass house for further study.
Lecture 30
Disease Management by Biotechnological Methods
The use of genetically modified organisms and or modern techniques (genetic

engineering, tissue culture etc.) with biological systems for disease control is known as
biotechnology. Genetic engineering or Genetic manipulation is the deliberate alteration of
the composition of a genome by man. A growth of cells in a laboratory nutrient medium
is known as tissue culture i.e. the technique of growing of plants in vitro. Cells of plants
can be cultured in special nutrient medium and whole plants can be regenerated from
cultured cells. Plant biotechnology is used for rapid clonal propagation of plants. It can
help to produce industrial plant products under tissue culture conditions Biotechnological
methods are employed to control important plant diseases which are not amenable to
control by usual methods.
Genetic engineering
Genetic Engineering is the technology by which a particular gene is isolated from
one organism and inserted into the genome of another organism and made to express at
the right time.
Vectors for transfer of genes
Genetic engineering has been used to manage plant virus diseases. For transfer of
genes to plants vectors are needed in which the gene to be transferred will multiply
several folds. The most effective gene vector developed is the Tumour inducing plasmid
of Agrobacterium tumefaciens from which the Tumor inducing genes have been removed
A.tumefaciens induces tumors (crown galls) through di-plasmid (tumor-inducing) which
is a circular double stranded DNA molecule containing up to 2,00,000 base pairs
organized into several genes.
The Ti-plasmid is transferred from the bacterium into the cell. A specific region
of the plasmid, the T-DNA, is transferred from the plasmid to the nucleus of the plant
cell. It becomes integrated into the plant nuclear genome, and is transcribed. Cauliflower
mosaic virus (CaMV) is the only plant virus with double-stranded DNA genome. As it
has DNA genome, it is used as a possible vector in introducing foreign genes into plant. It
is possible to insert a non-viral gene into CaMV genome and obtain expression of the
gene in the infected plant. The viral promotor regions from CaMV are effective for
obtaining expression of other genes in plant cells. The genes to be expressed is now fused
to a promotor element from CaMV and a gene of A.tumifaciens. They are then introduced
into the plants using A. tumefaciens Ti-DNA transformation.
DNA construction
Messenger RNA is extracted and exposed to an enzyme reverse transcriptase
which synthesizes a complimentary single stranded DNA. The complimentary DNA
(cDNA) is exposed to another enzyme, DNA polymerase, which produces the double
stranded cDNA. The cDNAs are inserted into the plasmids of A. tumefaciens.
Coat-protein expression in transgenic plants
Example: Transgenic tobacco plants expressing coat protein gene protected the
plants against TMV. Transgenic tobacco plants showing resistance to alfalfa mosaic virus
and tobacco rattle virus have also been developed. Transformation using a gene encoding
the viral nucleocapsid protein of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) has yielded
transgenic tobacco plants that are resistant to TSWV. The expression of the viral genome
in transgenic plants gives resistance to virus infection. Transgenic tobacco plants
transformed with a DNA copy of the satellite RNA of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are
shown to produce large amounts or satellite RNA following inoculation with CMV and
symptom development is greatly reduced.
Satellite RNA expression in transgenic plants
Satellite RNAs are associated with several viruses. They are packaged into virus
particles along with the genomic RNAs of the helper virus. They are not part of the viral
genome and have no obvious sequence relationships with the helper virus. The presence
of the satellite RNA suppresses the disease severity in many hosts. Hence transgenic
plants which express satellite RNA have been produced to manage virus diseases. e.g.,
Transgenic plants of tobacco expressed the synthesis of satellite tobacco ring spot virus
and reduce the virus disease incidence. Satellite RNA expressing tobacco plants against
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) and Tobacco aspermy virus have been synthesized.
MIC RNA expression in transgenic plants
A DNA copy is made of one or more sections of the viral genome that include the
initiation codon for proteins vital to virus replication. The DNA copy is inserted in the
host-cell genome, Cells then produce an `antisera RNA' called mic RNA (mRNA-
interfering complementary to 5' end of the gene). The mic RNA hybridizes in vivo with
the viral mRNA blacking translation. The mic RNA is inserted into the plants using the
Ti plasmid of A. tumefaciens. Plants regenerated from the transformed cells will be
resistant to the particular virus. This possibility is also being exploited for the control of
virus diseases.
Use of RFLP markers for cloning resistance genes
Molecular markers viz., isozymes and DNA markers (Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphisms - RFLPs; Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA - RAPD and
others) are being used in several areas relevant to identification of disease resistance
genes. Some of the disease resistance genes using random DNA markers have been
identified.
Disease resistance genes mapped using RFLP markers
Plant Pathogen
Tomato Fusarium oxysporum
Citrus Phytophthora spp.
Detoxification of pathotoxin
Pathogens that produce pathogenesis-related phytotoxins usually also have the
capacity to metabolize i.e. detoxify, these compounds. The search for genes encoding the
enzyme(s) performing the key catabolic step(s) should thus lead to a convenient source of
resistance, which can be engineered into plants to protect them from the effects of the
toxin. A gene encoding a tabtoxin acetyltransferase from the pathogen, Pseudomonas
syringae pv. tabaci which causes wild fire disease of tobacco was isolated and transferred
into tobacco under a strong constitutive promotor. The transgenic plants expressed this
gene and, when treated with either the pathogen or its toxin, did not produce the chlorotic
lesions typical of wild fire disease.
Activation of plant defense mechanism-Phytoalexins
Phytoalexins have long been known to accumulate in certain plants upon infection
by pathogens. The production of phytoalexins is also triggered by mechanical
stimulation, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, stress and a variety of chemical elicitors.
Phytoalexins are part of the localized hypersensitive response at the site of damage or
pathogen ingress, which involves cell trauma and death. The importance of phytoalexins
in the defense response is underscored by experiments and pathogenicity in Nectria
haematococca was correlated to its ability to detoxify the phytoalexin, pisatin, by way of
demethylation. By transferring the demethylase gene from Nectria, Aspergillus nidulans,
a non-pathogen on peas, was rendered insensitive to pisatin.
Defense related genes
a. Single gene defense mechanism
There are some defense proteins which do not require any intermediate step both
for their synthesis and their expression require only few steps and those genes encoding
such proteins are called single gene defense mechanism. Chitinases and glucanases are
those proteins belonging to single gene defense mechanism.
Chitinases and glucanases
Chitinases are abundant proteins found in wide variety of plants. Although the
physiological function of chitinases is not known, there is strong correlative evidence that
they are defense proteins with antifungal activity. Chitin is a major structural component
of cell walls of many fungi. The low constitutive activity of chitinase found in many
plants can be dramatically induced by wounding or by infection of the tissue with fungal
pathogens. Chitinase in concret with ß-1,3-glucanase (capable of degrading glucans
present in fungal cell wall), degrades fungal cell walls and inhibits fungal growth at
hyphal tips and has been shown to associate with hyphal walls in plants.
The chitinase and glucanase enzymes are having direct action against several
fungal pathogens compared to other defense related proteins. Since lytic enzymes are
encoded by single genes, these defense should be high amenable to manipulation by gene
transfer. The first reports of success with this approach was the expression of bean
vacuolar chitinase gene under the control of the strong constitutive gene under the control
of the strong constitutive promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35 S
transcript in tobacco and Brassica napus, which resulted in decreased symptom
development by Rhizoctonia solani, the causative agent of post-emergence damping off.
An endochitinase gene (from genomic tomato DNA library) was introduced into
Brassica napus. var. oleifera. The transgenic Brassica showed enhanced resistance
against several fungal pathogens like Cylindrosporium concentricum, Phoma lingam and
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum under field conditions when compared to non-transgenic plants.

More recently, chitinase gene from Manduca sexta, tobacco horn worm, has been cloned
into P. fluorescens to increase their antagonistic potential against R. solani.
b. Multigenic defense mechanism
Defense responses such as phytoalexin biosynthesis or lignin deposition in the
cell wall require the action of many genes.
Peroxidases
Anionic peroxidases in the cell wall catalyze the production of phenolic radicals
for the oxidative polymerization of lignin from cinnamyl alcohols. In tomato, there is a
marked induction of two linked genes encoding highly anionic peroxidases in an
incompatible interaction with an avirulent form of Verticillium albo-atrum, with only
weak induction in the compatible interaction with a virulent form of this vascular
pathogen. Expression of one of these genes in transgenic tobacco under the control of
either its own promoter or the CaMV 35s promoter resulted in massive increase in
anionic peroxidase activity and these plants apparently showed a significant increase in
resistance to Peronospora parasitica as judged by symptom development and fungal
sporulation.
Activation of defense genes by chemicals
Several classes of compounds have the potential to act as inducers of natural
resistance mechanisms in horticultural crops and chemicals with such indirect modes of
action may offer attractive alternatives or supplement to existing contact/systemic
fungicides in integrated disease management. Increase was found to occur in response to
salicylic acid treatment as well as oligosaccharides and glycoproteins originating from
either fungal cell wall or host cell walls, the so called elicitors. Recently, chitosan seed
treatment has been found to induce defense related genes like chitinase and glucanase in
tomato and consequently the Fusarium crown and root rot diseases were significantly
reduced. Pre-treatment with 2, 6-dichloroisonicotinic acid was highly effective in
significantly reducing both anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) and
rust (caused by Uromyces appendiculatus) diseases in bean plants.
Cell and tissue culture

Tissue culture approach is one of the oldest techniques in the field of molecular
biology and it is applied in several ways for the development of disease resistance
cultivars in agriculture and horticulture.
a. Somaclonal Variation
In the past two decades, several advances have been made in culturing of isolated
plant cells and tissue under controlled conditions in vitro. When plants are regenerated
from cultured cells, they exhibit new phenotypes, sometimes at high frequencies. If these
are heritable and affecting desirable traits, such "somaclonal variation" can be
incorporated into regular breeding programmes.
However, the finding of specific traits by these methods is largely left to chance
and hence inefficient. Rather than relying on this undirected process, selection in vitro
aims to specific traits by subjecting large populations of cultured cells to the action of a
selective agent in the petridish. For purpose of disease resistance, this selection can be
done by fungal pathogens, culture filtrates of pathogens or isolated phytotoxins that are
known to have a role in pathogenesis. The selection will allow only those cells to survive
and proliferate that are resistant to the challenge. Plants regenerated from resistant cells
often display a resistant phenotype when evaluated with either the toxin or the pathogen
itself.
Disease resistant plants from tissue culture
Plant Culture System Selection Resistance to Pathogen
Potato Protoplasts SCV Phytophthora infestans
Alternaria solani
Callus CF Fusarium oxysporum
Tomato Callus Fusaric Fusarium oxysporum
Protoplasts acid
Banana Meristem SCV Fusarium oxysporum
Strawberry Callus SCV Fusarium oxysporum
(SCV- plant regeneration without selection; CF crude culture filtrate)
Although this method has obviously yielded some impressive results, it also has its
drawbacks; viz, i. Many pathogens do not produce pathogenesis specific toxins useful for
selection ii. Culture filtrates are rather artificial and neither pathogens nor plant cells
grown together in vitro behave quite as they would in a natural environment iii. The
selection approach can only detect mutations in plant genes that are expressed at the time
that selection is applied.
In order to be useful, new resistance traits, whether selected or not, must be
heritable sexually or in the case of vegetatively propagated crops must be transmitted
through vegetative propagules. The pathogens produced toxins can be used to screen
calluses (cultured cells) which may regenerate resistant plants. The toxins will kill the
calluses, but the mutant toxin resistant calluses will survive. The toxin-resistant calluses
yield disease resistance plants. Vidhyasekaran obtained brown spot resistant rice plants
using Helminthosporium oryzae toxin. Similarly, H. maydis resistant maize plants, H.
sacchari resistant sugarcane plants and Phytophthora infestans resistant tobacco plants
have been evolved.
b. Anther culture
In this method, the plants are produced directly from microspores (immature
pollen grains). Through anther or microspore culture, one has immediate access to
unique and rare combinations of genes representing the recombination of the genetic
material contributed by the parents of the cross. Through anther culture, followed by
chromosome doubling, such gene combinations can be fixed in their homozygous state as
instant inbreds in a single step. Over the past two decades, anther culture has become
widely accepted as a tool in cultivar development. This technique can be particularly
useful for producing plants with novel combinations of resistance genes for managing
fungal diseases.
c. Protoplasmic fusion
This generates hybrid cells by merging the total cellular components of somatic
cells from which the cell walls have been removed to produce protoplasts. The
incompatibility preventing sexual fertilization between species is thus avoided and viable
hybrids have been created, even between unrelated distance species. Disease resistance
genes have thus been transferred by protoplasts fusion from wild species into potato.
Lecture 31
INTEGRATED PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT (IDM) – CONCEPT,

ADVANTAGES AND IMPORTANCE
Integrated plant disease management can be defined as a decision-based process

involving coordinated use of multiple tactics for optimizing the control of pathogen in an
ecologically and economically. The implications are:
 Simultaneous management of multiple pathogens
 Regular monitoring of pathogen effects, and their natural enemies and antagonists as well
 Use of economic or treatment thresholds when applying chemicals
 Integrated use of multiple, suppressive tactics.
Principles of Plant Disease Control
1. Avoidance—prevents disease by selecting a time of the year or a site where there is no
inoculum or where the environment is not favorable for infection.
2. Exclusion—prevents the introduction of inoculum.
3. Eradication—eliminates, destroy, or inactivate the inoculum.
4. Protection—prevents infection by means of a toxicant or some other barrier to infection.
5. Resistance—utilizes cultivars that are resistant to or tolerant of infection.
6. Therapy—cure plants that are already infected
Factors affecting occurrences
Factors which affect Plant diseases are micro-organisms, including fungi, bacteria,
viruses, mycoplasmas, etc. or may be incited by physiological causes including high or low
temperatures, lack or excess of soil moisture and aeration, deficiency or excess of plant nutrients,
soil acidity or alkalinity, etc. Factors that limit the rate of disease development are the relatively
low amounts of inoculum in the lag stage and the paucity of healthy plants available to the
inoculum in the stationary stage.
The causative agents of disease in green plants number in a tens of thousands and include
almost every form of life. But primary agents of disease may also be inanimate. Thus nonliving
(abiotic) agents of disease include mineral deficiencies and excesses, air pollutants, biologically
produced toxicants, improperly used pesticidal chemicals, and such other environmental factors
as wind, water, temperature, and sunlight. Nonliving things certainly qualify as primary agents of
disease; they continuously irritate plant cells and tissues; they are harmful to the physiological
processes of the plant; and they evoke pathological responses that manifest as the symptoms
characteristic of the several diseases. But the abiotic agents of disease in plants. The abiotic
agents of plant disease are termed noninfectious, and the diseases they cause are termed
noninfectious diseases.
Micro-organisms
The micro-organisms obtain their food either by breaking down dead plant and animal
remains (saprophytes) or by attacking living plants and animals (parasites). In order to obtain
nutrients, the parasitic organisms excrete enzymes or toxins and kill the cells of the tissues of the
host plant, as a result of which either the whole plant or a part of it is damaged or killed, or
considerable disturbance takes place in its normal metabolic processes.
Parasites
One of the factors causing plant diseases is parasites, those living organisms that can
colonize the tissues of their host-plant victims and can be transmitted from plant to plant. These
biotic agents are, therefore, infectious, and the diseases they cause are termed infectious diseases.
The infectious agents of plant diseases are treated in the standard textbooks on plant pathology.
Ability to produce an inoculum
The parasitic pest must produce an inoculum, some structure that is adapted for
transmission to a healthy plant and this can either parasitize the host directly or develop another
structure that can establish a parasitic relationship with the host. For example, inocula for
viruses are the viral particles (virions); for bacteria, the bacterial cells; for fungi, various kinds
of spores or the hyphal threads of mold; for nematodes, eggs or second-stage larvae.
Agents/ Media for transportation of inoculum
The inoculum must be transported from its source to a part of a host plant that can be
infected. This dispersal of inoculum to susceptible tissue is termed inoculation. Agents of
inoculation may be insects (for most viruses and mycoplasmalike organisms and for some
bacteria and fungi), wind (for many fungi), and splashing rain (for many fungi).
Wounds, Natural openings
The parasite must enter the host plant, which it can do (depending on the organism) in
one or more of three ways; through wounds, through natural openings, or by growing directly
through the unbroken protecting surface of the host. Viruses are literally injected into the plant
as the homopterous insect carrier probes and feeds within its host. Bacteria depend on wounds
or natural openings (for example, stomates, hydathodes, and lenticels) for entrance, but many
fungi can penetrate plant parts by growing directly through plant surfaces, exerting enormous
mechanical pressure and possibly softening host surfaces by enzymatic action.
Availability of food
For occurrence of disease one of the factor affecting is, availability of nourishment to
grow within its host. This act of colonizations is termed infection. Certainly the parasite
damages the cytomplasmic memberanes of the host cells, making those membranes freely
permeable to solutes that would nourish the parasite And parasitism certainly results from
enzymatic attacks by the parasite upon carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids inside the host cell.
The breakdown products of such complex molecules would diffuse across the damaged host-
cell membranes and be absorbed by the parasite in the form of sugars, amino acids, and the like.
Air-borne parasites of foliage, flower, and fruit.
Preventive and control measures
A. PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Cultural practices
Cultural practices usually influence the development of disease in plants by affecting the
environment. Such practices are intended to make the atmospheric, edaphic, or biological
surroundings favorable to the crop plant, unfavorable to its parasites. Cultural practices that leads
to disease control have little effect on the climate of a region but can exert significant influence
on the microclimate of the crop plants in a field. Three stages of parasite’s life cycle namely,
Survival between crops, production of inoculum for the primary cycle and inoculation can be
control by following preventive measures.
Survival between Crops
Organisms that survive in the soil can often be controlled by crop rotations with
unsusceptible species. Depending on the system, either of two effects results. Catch crops have
been used to control certain nematodes and other soil-borne pathogens. Soil-borne plant
pathogens can be controlled by biological methods. Plant parasites may be controlled by
antagonistic organisms that can be encouraged to grow luxuriantly by such cultural practices as
green manuring and the use of appropriate soil additives. The soil-invading parasite thus
becomes an amensal in association with its antagonist. Soil-borne plant parasites may also be
killed during their over-seasoning stages by such cultural practices as deep ploughing (as for the
pathogen of southern leaf blight of corn), flooding (as for the cottony-rot pathogen and some
nematodes), and frequent cultivation and fallow (as for the control of weeds that harbor plant
viruses). Plant diseases caused by organisms that survive as parasites within perennial hosts or
within the seed of annual plants may be controlled therapeutically. Therapeutic treatments of
heat and surgery are applicable here; those involving the use of chemicals will be mentioned
later. Removal of cankered limbs (surgery) helps control fire blight of pears, and the hot-water
treatment of cabbage seed controls the bacterial disease known as black rot. Heat therapy is also
used to rid perennial hosts of plant-parasitic nematodes.
Production of Inoculum for the Primary Cycle
Environmental factors (particularly temperature, water, and organic and inorganic
nutrients) significantly affect Inoculum production. Warm temperature usually breaks dormancy
of overseasoning structures; rain may leach growth inhibitors from the soil and permit
germination of resting spores; and special nutrients may stimulate the growth of overseasoning
structures that produce inoculum.
Dispersal of inoculum and inoculation
Cultural practices that exemplify avoidance are sometimes used to prevent effective
dissemination. A second hierarchy of regulatory disease control is plant quarantine, the legally
enforced stoppage of plant pathogens at points of entry into political subdivisions. The Plant
Quarantine Act of the United States governs importation of plant materials into the country and
requires the state govt. to enforce particular measures. Also, states make regulations concerning
the movement of plant materials into them or within them. E.g., Florida imposes quarantine
against the citrus-canker bacterium, which was eliminated from the state earlier by means of
cooperative efforts led by the Florida Department of Agriculture.
Sample inspection
One of the preventive measures to control the diseases is the use of sample inspection
method. Laboratory evaluation of the representative sample drawn by the certification agency for
the determination of germination, moisture content, weed seed content, admixture, purity, seed-
borne pathogens.
B. Control Measures
Chemical Control
The pesticidal chemicals that control plant diseases may be used in very different ways,
depending on the parasite to be controlled and on the circumstances it requires for parasitic
activities. E.g., a water-soluble eradicative spray is applied once to dormant peach trees to rid
them of the overwintering spores of the fungus of peach-leaf curl, whereas relatively insoluble
protective fungicides are applied repeatedly to the green leaves of potato plants to safeguard
them from penetration by the fungus of late blight. Also, systemic fungicidal chemicals may be
used therapeutically.
The oxathiin derivatives that kill the smut fungi that infect embryos are therapeutic, as is
benomyl (which has systemic action against powdery mildews and other leaf infecting fungi).
Volatile fungicides are often useful as soil-fumigating chemicals that have eradicative action.The
chemical control of plant diseases is classified in three categories: seed treatments, soil
treatments, and protective sprays and dusts.
Seed Treatments
Chemical treatments of seed may be effective in controlling plant pathogens in, on, and
around planted seed. Seed treatment is therapeutic when it kills bacteria or fungi that infect
embryos, cotyledons, or endosperms under the seed coat, eradicative when it kills spores of fungi
that contaminate seed surfaces, and protective when it prevents penetration of soil-borne fungi
into seedling stems. Certified seed is usually given treatment necessary for the control of certain
diseases. Seed treatment is of two types; viz., physical and chemical. Physical treatments include
hot-water treatment, solar-heat treatment (loose smut of wheat), and the like. Chemical
treatments include use of fungicides and bactericides. These fungicides are applied to seed by
different methods. In one method, the seed in small lots is treated in simple seed-treaters. The
seed-dip method involves preparing fungicide suspension in water, often at field rates, and then
dipping the seed in it for a specified time.
Some chemicals commonly used to control plant diseases

Chemical and use Relative toxicity
Oral Dermal
Seed treatments (all fungicides)
Chloraneb Low Low
Dichlone Low High
Thiram Moderate High
Carboxin (systemic and therapeutic) Low Low
Soil treatments
Methyl bromideb (general pesticide) Very high Very high
PCNB (fungicide) Low Moderate
SMDC [vapam] (fungicide, nematicide) Moderate Moderate
MIT ["Vorlex"] (fungicide, nematicide) Moderate Moderate
D-D mixture (nematicide) Moderate Low
Plant-protective treatments
Copper compounds (fungicides, bactericides) Moderate Low
Sulfur (fungicide) Low Moderate
Maneb (fungicide) Very low Low
Zineb (fungicide) Very low Low
Captan (fungicide) Very low Very low
Dinocap (fungicide for powdery mildews) Low Low
Streptomycin (bactericidal antibiotic) Very low Low
Cyclohexamideb (fungicidal antibiotic) Very high Very high
Benomyl (protective and therapeutic fungicide) Very low Very low
The oxathiins (carboxin, DMOC) used to kill embryo infecting smuts of cereal grains
have little effect on other organisms, most eradicative and protective chemicals have a wide
range of fungicidal activity; they are effective against most seed-infesting and seedling-blight
fungi. But specific seed-treatment chemicals often work best to control a given disease of a
single crop-plant species. Moreover, the toxicity of chemicals to seeds varies, and farmers should
use only the compounds recommended by the Cooperative Extension Service of their country
and state.
Copper and mercury-containing compounds were first used as seed-treating chemicals.
But copper is toxic to most seeds and seedlings, and mercury has been banned from use in seed
treatments because of the danger it poses to humans and animals. Organic compounds now
widely used as protective and eradicative seed treatments include thiram, chloraneb, dichlone,
dexon, and captan.
Soil Treatments
Soil-borne plant pathogens greatly increase their populations as soils are cropped
continuously, and finally reach such levels that contaminated soils are unfit for crop production.
Chemical treatments of soil that eradicate the plant pathogens therein offer the opportunity of
rapid reclamation of infested soils for agricultural uses. Preplanting chemical treatment of field
soils for the control of nematode-induced diseases, and fumigation of seedbed and greenhouse
soils (with methyl bromide, for example) is commonly practiced to eradicate weeds, insects, and
plant pathogens. Field applications of soil-treatment chemicals for fungus control are usually
restricted to treatments of furrows. Formaldehyde or captan applied is effective against sclerotia-
producing fungi that cause seedling blights, stem rots, and root rots of many field crops. Other
soil-treatment fungicides are vapam and "Vorlex." Soil treatments made at the time of planting
are most effective against parasitic attacks that come early in the growing season.
Protective sprays and dust
Protective fungicides prevent germination, growth, and penetration. In order to use
protective fungicides effectively, the farmer must not only select the right fungicide for the job,
but also apply it in the right amount, at the right times, and in the right way. Too little fungicide
fails to control disease; too much may be toxic to the plants to be protected. The farmer and
applicator, therefore, must always follow use instructions to the letter. Timing of applications is
also critical.
Advantages
Integrated approach integrates preventive and corrective measures to keep pathogen from
causing significant problems, with minimum risk or hazard to human and desirable components
of their environment.
Some of the benefits of an integrated approach are as follows:

 Promotes sound structures and healthy plants
 Promotes the sustainable bio based disease management alternatives.
 Reduces the environmental risk associated with management by encouraging the
adoption of more ecologically benign control tactics
 Reduces the potential for air and ground water contamination
 Protects the non-target species through reduced impact of plant disease management
activities.
 Reduces the need for pesticides and fungicides by using several management methods
 Reduces or eliminates issues related to pesticide residue
 Reduces or eliminates re-entry interval restrictions
 Decreases workers, tenants and public exposure to chemicals
 Alleviates concern of the public about pest & pesticide related practices.
 Maintains or increases the cost-effectiveness of disease management programs
References
1. Introductory Mycology- 1996 C. J. Alexopoulos C. W. Mims and M. Blackwell,

John Wileyand Sons Ltd. N. York.
2. Introduction to Mycology –1990 R. S. Mehrotra and K. R. Aneja, Wiley E. Ltd.

New Delhi
3. A text book of Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses- H. C. Dube, Vikas Publishing

House P Ltd. New Delhi.
4. Plant Pathogens- The Fungi – 1982 R. S. Singh, Oxford and IBH Publishing
Co., New Delhi.
5. Plant pathogens- The Prokaryotes- 1989 R. S. Singh, Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co., New Delhi.
6. Introduction to Plant Viruses – 1987 C. L. Mandahar, Chand and Co., Pvt Ltd.,
New Delhi.
7. Fungicides in Plant disease control – Nene Y L and Thapliyal P N 1993

Oxford & IBM Publishing Co., New Delhi.
8. Hand Book of Systemic Fungicide – Vyas S C 1993 . (Vol. I, II and III) Tata Mc
Graw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi.
9. IPM Systems in Agriculture, Vol.2 – Updyay R. K., Mukerji K. G and Rajak R L

In: Biocontrol in Emerging Biotechnology – 1997 Aditya Books (P) Ltd., New
Delhi.
10. Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology – Singh R. S. 1984. Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
11. Plant Pathology – Agios G.N. 1997 (4th Edition). Academic Press, New
York.
12. Principles of Plant Pathology – Das Gupta M. K. 1999. Allied Publishers,

Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
13. Principles of Plant Pathology – Vidyasekheran P 1993. CBS Publishers &

Distributors, New Delhi.
14. Plant Pathology. Concepts and Laboratory Exercise. Trigiano, R.N.,

Windham, M.T. and Windham. A.S. (eds), 2004. CRC Press, New York.
15. www.ucmpberkeley.edu/fungi
16. www.ictv.org
17. www.bibo.libraray.cornell.edu
18. www.plantdisease.com
19. www.cropprotection.html
20. www.principlesofplantdiseasemanagement.html
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Plant Pathogens & Principles of

Definition and History of Plant Pathology

Important plant pathogenic organisms- different groups- fungi, bacteria, fastidious

B. Non-parasites or Abiotic agents: They are also called as non-infectious or physiological

Fastidious vascular bacteria (Rickettsia-like bacteria – RLB)

General Characters of fungi - Definition of fungus, somatic structures, types of fungal

General characters of fungi

Mycelium (pl. Mycelia)

Fungal cell structure

Cladochytrium sp. On rhizomycelium numerous

Aggregations of hyphae and tissues

Scanning electron micrograph of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

4. Production of asexual spores

b. Copulation in anisogamous motile gametes

c. Heterogamous planogametic copulation

The sequence of events in a complete parasexual cycle is as follows.

1. Formation of heterokaryotic mycelium

shaped, cylindrical or needle-shaped. Ascospores may be uninucleate or multinucleate,

Ascospores of Venturia inaequalis in asci.

[synnemata of Ophiostoma (Graphium) ulmi]

Pycnidium is a globose or flask-shaped body, which is lined on the inside with

Cleistothecium or cleistocarp is a closed ascocarp and has no ostiole. It is deep brown to

Nomenclature-Binomial system of nomenclature, rules of nomenclature, classification of

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Perfect (sexual) state present as

Division I: Myxomycota, Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes, Order: Plasmodiophorales

Key to divisions of Mycota

Division II: Eumycota Subdivision: Mastigomycotina, class: Chytridiomycetes

Paragynous arrangement of oogonium and antheridia in Pythium. (Courtesy P.B. Hamm)

Life cycle of Pythium aphanidermatum

Late blight of potato on tuber Late blight of tomato

Late blight of potato on leaf

Life cycles of Sclerospora and Albugo

White rust on leaf White rust stag head symptom

Subdivision: Zygomycotina (Mucorales)

General characters of Zygomycotina

Fruit rot of jack caused by Rhizopus artocarpii, R. nigricans

Subdivision: Ascomycotina, class: Hemiascomycetes (Taphrinales), class: Plectomycetes

Conidia ovoid, obclavate -Oidiopsis

S. Description Oidium Oidiopsis Ovulariopsis

1. Symptoms Mostly on upper surface Mostly on lower Lower or upper surface

2. Mycelium Hyaline, septate Hyaline, septate, Hyaline, septate,

and spongy cells absent, haustoria in

5. Conidia Cylindrical or barrel Club shaped Club shaped, single

6. Examples Grapes - Uncinula Chillies and Muberry Phyllactillia

ii. Appendage coiled at the tip (circinoid type) - e.g., Uncinu/a.

Powdery mildew of pulses - Erysiphe polygoni

iv. Powdery mildew of mulberry - Phyllactinia guttata (syn. P.corylea).

Subdivition: Basidiomycotina, class: Teliomycetes (Uredinales, Ustilaginales) class:

General character of Basidiomycotina

Order Uredinales (The rust fungi)

(e) Basidiospores Stage(IV)

P. arachidis Groundnut rust

P.asparagi Rust of Asparagus

P. coronata Crown rust of wheat

P. hordei (P. anomala) Barley rust

P. kuehnii & P. erianthi) Sugarcane rust

P.substriata var. penicillariae Pearlmillet rust

P. sorghi (P. zeae, P. maydis) Sorghum rust

P. recondita (P. triticina) Brown or leaf rust of wheat

P. striiformis (P. glumarum) Yellow or stripe rust of wheat

P. graminis avenae Oat rust

P. graminis secalis Rye rust

P. graminis poae Poa pratensis rust