Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2006
Recommended Citation
Smith, James P. Jr, "Plants & Civilization; An Introduction to the Interrelationships of Plants and People" (2006). Botanical Studies. 2.
http://digitalcommons.humboldt.edu/botany_jps/2
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PLANTS
&
CIVILIZATION
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
INTERRELATIONSHIPS
OF PLANTS & PEOPLE
By
James P. Smith, Jr.
Professor Emeritus of Botany
Department of Biological Sciences
Humboldt State University
Arcata, California
December 2006
[Minor Revisions: February 2017
Copyright MMVI
by
James Payne Smith, Jr.
Department of Biological Sciences
Humboldt State University
Arcata, California 95521
[707] 826-4802
jps2@humboldt.edu
Acknowledgments
I extend my sincere thanks to a number of students through the years who have pointed
out errors of various sorts and who have suggested changes in the text that have led to
improvements. I am particularly indebted to Ian Hammon-Hogan for his very thorough list
of corrections and inconsistencies in format. Any that remain are, of course, my fault.
Previous Editions:
1971
1988
1989
1991
1992
1993
1995
1997
1998
1999
2000
2002
2003
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.01 Introduction to the Discipline
1.02 A Review of Some Basic Terminology
1.03 The Name of Plants
1.04 A Chronicle of Economic Botany
1.05 Twenty-five Families of Economic Importance
1.06 Superlatives from the Plant Kingdom
Economic botany includes any area "... where plant “... which concern the mutual relationship between
science impinges on the economic life of man.... [It] plants and traditional peoples.” (Cotton, 1996)
is the simple study and description of economic plants,
their culture, products, preparation, uses, “... the study of the interactions of plants and people,
occurrences, and distribution.” (Fosberg, 1948) including the influence of plants on human culture....
The field of study that analyzes the results of
“... emphasizes the uses of plants, their potential for indigenous manipulation of plant materials together
incorporation into another (usually Western) culture, with the cultural context in which the plants are used.”
and that their benefactors have indirect contact with (Balick & Cox, 1996)
the plants through their by-products. In the botanical
tradition ethnobotany is subsidiary to economic “The scientific study of the traditional classification
botany....” (Ford, 1978) and uses of plants in different human societies.”
(Encarta World English Dictionary, 1999)
“... usually concerns such subjects as the production,
distribution and consumption of plants useful to
people... [It] is ... a subdivision of ethnobotany that RELATED FIELDS OF STUDY
is involved when money becomes an important
consideration.” About a century ago, fields of study that had once
(Heiser, 1985) been subsumed under “botany” were carved out as
separate disciplines and given their own names,
“...the study of plants either useful or harmful to particularly those aspects of botany that had applied,
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practical applications. Unfortunately, what remained ' There are a number of useful fungi and algae.
as “botany” then seemed very esoteric and remote
from our everyday life. Just how many economically important plants are
there? Surprisingly, there are few estimates that have
Because these fields deal with useful plants, they may been published. The following is based on a recent
be seen as portions of the broader designation compilation (Wiersema & León, 1999).
“Economic Botany.” The second edition of the
"Random House Dictionary of the English Language" Food (human) 1,049
offers the following definitions for related fields of Food (additives) 382
study: Food (animal: fodder) 269
Food (animal: fForage) 466
agriculture: the science, art, or occupation Bee Plants (honey) 134
concerned with cultivating land, raising crops, and Medicinal 738
feeding, breeding, and raising livestock; farming Psychoactive (recreational) 39
Gene sources 614
agronomy: the science of soil management and the Industrial 1,583
production of field crops Fuels 145
Agroforestry 52
forestry: the science of planting and taking care of Shade and shelter 188
trees and forests Toxic (vertebrates) 1,293
Toxic (pesticides) 28
horticulture: the cultivation of a garden, orchard, or Ornamentals 4,332
nursery; the cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables, Weeds 1,570
or ornamental plants
Total 12,882
HOW MANY USEFUL PLANTS?
HOW ARE THEY USED ?
A good starting point might be to look at the number
of described species in each of the major groups of Several uses come immediately to mind, such as
plants and other organisms. In the older literature, plants used for food, fiber for clothing, wood for
algae and fungi were considered plants. construction, and a number of our medicines. But,
there are many other uses that are perhaps less
Plants: obvious. Here is a much more comprehensive
Mosses/liverworts 16,500 summary:
Fern relatives 1,300
Ferns 10,000 Sources of Nourishment
Gymnosperms 529
Flowering plants (dicots) 170,000 ' Directly as food
Flowering plants (monocots) 50,000 ' Fats and oils in cooking
Subtotal 248,329 ' Flavorings (sugars, herbs, spices)
Others: Beverages
Algae 26,900
Fungi 47,000 ' Caffeinated beverages
Bacteria 4,800 ' Alcoholic beverages
Viruses 1,000 ' Fruit drinks
Protozoa 30,800 ' Herbal teas
Insects 751,000
Animals (all other) 281,000
Total 1,390,829
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Food for Our Domesticated Animals Preserve/Transmit Our Heritage
' Paints and ink ' Many plants are grown and used locally, and never
' Photography enter into international trade.
' Gardening
' Sports (baseball and cricket bats) ' The vast majority of our economically important
' Golf balls plants are flowering plants, probably because of
' Musical instruments their number and relative commonness.
-3-
' Micro-organisms, especially bacteria and yeast, in his mouth for him to grit his teeth on, uphill, and
play critical roles even though we often fail to brings the ends of these things aft over his back, after
observe their presence or activities. buckling another one around his neck to hold his head
up, and hitching another thing on a thing that goes
' The search for plants and our desire to control their over his shoulders to keep his head up when he is
production and sale have been the cause of great climbing a hill, and then takes the slack of the thing
feats of exploration, political intrigue, and wars. which I mentioned a while ago, and fetches it aft and
makes it fast to the thing that pulls the wagon, and
' The planting, tending, and processing of crops have hands the other things up to the driver to steer with.
been among our major preoccupations and we I have never buckled up a horse myself, but I do not
have employed or have been willing to enslave think we do it that way.”
millions of our fellow humans to perform these
tasks. Botany has an extensive vocabulary, much of it
necessary because we do not have sufficiently
' While the plant kingdom is the source of a accurate terms in ordinary English to describe what
seemingly endless array of products, we appear to we observe. Much of this terminology is concerned
be especially interested in starch, protein, sugar, with the details of classification, structure, and
alcohol, and alkaloids. functioning of the plant body and it is of interest only
to a specialist in these areas. I have attempted in the
' The process of "trial and error" has been critical in summary below to review of some basic terms with
discovering what is edible, toxic, medicinal, and special reference to economic plants. While it may
psychoactive. appear at times to be exhausting, it is by no any
means exhaustive.
' The knowledge of indigenous peoples has often
been an invaluable source of information about
plant uses or it may be pure malarkey. The trick is GROWTH FORM
to distinguish the two.
The following terms describe the general appearance
' We have long believed (incorrectly and or habit of plants. Most plants will fit comfortably into
dangerously) that the general appearance of a one of these categories, although some are clearly
plant provides us with clues as to its use, especially intermediate.
its curative powers.
arborescent: tree-like, as in the bananas and palms
' Several of the most important families of
economically useful plants are easily recognized herbs: plants with non-woody aerial stems that
and have been well-known for millennia. typically die back to the ground each year
' Usefulness is a concept found in humans, pre- herbaceous: having the features of an herb, a plant
humans, and perhaps a few other animals. Some with soft, usually featureless stems, with little
plants may never be useful to us. They are simply development of bark or wood
there.
lianas: woody plants with elongate, flexible, non-self-
supporting stems
1.2 ! SOME BASIC shrubs: woody plants with more than one principal
stem
TERMINOLOGY
trees: woody plant with a single main stem or trunk;
some plants that we commonly call trees, such as the
banana, are arborescent
“It is a very sad thing that nowadays there is so little
useless information.” (Oscar Wilde) vines: non-woody plant with elongate, flexible, non-
self-supporting stems
'''''
woody: although not clearly differentiated from the
Every field of endeavor has its own specialized herbaceous plant, a woody plant generally has a much
vocabulary. Technical terms are required for exactness more substantial stem system with well-developed
and brevity. Consider the following set of directions on bark and wood; the stem often has clearly identifiable
how to harness a horse in Mark Twain’s “A Tramp surface features, such as leaf scars, bud scale scars,
Abroad,” in which he avoids the use of technical and air pores (lenticels).
terms.
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of the plant.
ROOTS
The leaf blade may be undivided (simple) or divided
Roots, generally speaking, comprise the sub-terranean into separate parts (compound). Each segment of a
portion of a plant. It is convenient to recognize four compound leaf blade is a leaflet. We often confuse
basic kinds of roots: leaves and leaflets, as in the children's poem about
poison oak and ivy, "Leaves of three -- let it be!"
fibrous roots: many plants, particularly grasses, Those three "leaves" are the leaflets of a single
have a number of roots of about the same size, compound leaf.
forming a dense complicated network. No single root
is obviously larger than the others. Except for their A reduced leaf anywhere on a plant is often called a
use in broom and brush making, fibrous roots are of bract.
little direct economic importance to us.
-5-
ovules: the immature seeds squash familes have three.
placenta: the region or line where the ovules are septum: an interior wall that divides the fruit into two
borne. Fruits of the grass family and the bean family or more chambers (locules)
have one, the mustard family have two, the lily and
At maturity, fruits are either dehiscent (opening by drupe: fruit with outer skin, pulpy flesh, and one hard
means of sutures, pores, or caps) or indehiscent (not seed
opening by sutures, etc.), the seeds being released by berry: fruit with outer skin and a fleshy interior
the rotting of the pericarp. pepo: a type of berry with leathery rind as outer layer
of fruit wall
FRUIT TYPES pome: fruit surrounded by fleshy stem tissue at
maturity
The classification of fruit types is an unholy mess. The hesperidium: fruit with sections lined with juicy
following scheme is a conservative one that is widely bladders
used in general botany textbooks. You will note that
two major subsets are recognized. True fruits are False fruits (derived from a single flower):
those derived from a single flower, in which the ovary
has a single carpel or two or more of them that are accessory: seed-like fruits on surface of rounded,
fused to one another. False fruits have been given expanded stem
that name because they are made up of true fruits aggregate: formed from numerous dry or fleshy
arranged in such a way that the whole structure individual fruits
appears to be a single fruit. Conjure up the image of hip: fruit vase-like, containing several seed-like fruits
a raspberry or a strawberry. Each of the small, juicy (achenes)
parts of a raspberry is a true fruit; each of the little
seed-like structures embedded on the surface of the False fruits (derived from a flower cluster):
strawberry is a true fruit. These are common
examples of false fruits derived from the separate multiple:derived from fusion of fruits of many
carpels of a single flower. In other words, it I placed separate flowers
five strawberries or five raspberries in front of you, syconium: vase-like fruit with flowers lining interior
each would have come from a different flower. There wall
are also false fruits that result from the fusion of fruits
from separate flowers. Examples include the
pineapple, breadfruit, and fig. More about them when SEEDS
we get to tropical and subtropical fruits.
Most plants reproduce by means of structures called
seeds. Flowering plants, conifers, ferns, and fern
AN OUTLINE OF FRUIT TYPES relatives are collectively known as “seed plants”
because they possess them. Mosses, fungi, and algae
True fruits (dry when mature): do not. A seed is a mature ovule. It consists of (1) an
embryonic plant, (2) stored nutritive material that will
1-seeded; not splitting open at maturity: tide the plant over until it can germinate and mature
to the stage where it can photosynthesize, and (3) an
achene: fruit wall and seed separate outer protective layer known as the seed coat. It is
caryopsis (grain): fruit wall and seed fused sometimes thin and papery; sometimes hard and
nut: outer fruit wall hard bony.
schizocarp: fruit separates into series of intact
segments Seeds tend to be higher in proteins, fats, and oils than
the vegetative parts of the plant. These are often of
2- to many-seeded; splitting at maturity: great economic importance.
capsule: a "pod" that opens by slits, pores, or an Sometimes a seed is more or less covered by a papery
apical lid to fleshy tissue called an aril, as in ackee (a tropical
silique: splits lengthwise to reveal central, papery fruit) and mace (a spice).
partition
legume: 1-chambered, splitting along two seams
(sutures) POLLINATION AND REPRODUCTION
follicle: 1-chambered, splitting along only one seam
(suture)
-6-
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to forming flowers, fruits, and seeds and they may also
a stigma. It is not synonymous with fertilization, the reproduce asexually by forming rhizomes, bulbs, etc.
union of egg and sperm in plants and animals that We purposefully keep some plants that are perfectly
reproduce sexually. Pollen grains may be transferred capable of sexual reproduction in a vegetative state.
within the same flower (self-pollination) or from one For instance, we frustrate the poor pineapple by
flower to another (cross-pollination). Many species keeping the required pollinators away from them.
of plants have evolved temporal, structural, or
physiological mechanisms to insure self-pollination or One final complication. You might well assume that if
cross-pollination. In addition, we have imposed you see fruits on a plant that they must be the result
artificial conditions in many of our economically of sexual reproduction. After all, a fruit is the ripened
important plants to make certain that pollination does ovary of a flower. However, in plants such as the
not occur or that it comes about in very precisely navel orange and the banana, fruit formation is
controlled ways. For instance, we remove the tassels initiated by the act of pollination. No union of gametes
from maize plants to prevent self-pollination. We may occurred and no seeds were formed. Parthenocarpy
also exclude pollinators from particular areas. is the condition of fruits developing without seeds. Not
all seedless fruits are parthenocarpic. Some of the
Pollen tubes, carrying sperm cells, will grow through seedless grapes are entirely fertile. They lack seeds
the style and into the locules of the ovary. Eventually because of a failure of their embryos to develop.
they will penetrate the immature seed (ovule),
discharge the male gametes, one of which will fuse Of course, you might suspect that something kinky
with the egg nucleus to form a fertilized egg or might be going on in seedless fruits. But, if there are
zygote. In the flowering plants, another male gamete seeds in that fruit, then fertilization must have
will fuse with other nuclei within the ovule to initiate occurred ... right? Wrong! To muddy the waters even
the formation of endosperm, a protective and further, some plants have seeds that develop from an
nutritive tissue. Much or all of the endosperm may be unfertilized egg or even from vegetative cells.
used by the developing embryo. It may also be
present in mature seeds, in which case we may
consume it. Some kinds of endosperm are starchy; CHROMOSOME NUMBERS AND SETS
others have high oil content.
In general, all living plant cells contain nuclei with a
Sexual reproduction, which involves the union of egg specific number of chromosomes. Their number, which
and sperm nuclei, is not the only mechanism available varies from 1 to 1000+, appearance, and behavior
to plants. Many species, including some of our most provide important information in determining the
important economic ones, reproduce asexually or classification and evolutionary history of plants. When
vegetatively. The essential part that must be used for you see a chromosome number cited in a text, that
vegetative propagation is stem tissue. Cuttings, slips, count is based upon an examination of nuclei taken
and grafts all consist of a section of stem, with at least either from vegetative cells or from reproductive cells.
one bud. Recall that a bud is a much condensed side In most higher plants, the nucleus in each cell of root,
shoot that will produce a lateral stem with its own stem, or leaf tissue typically contains two complete
leaves, flowers, or both. We are able to propagate the sets of chromosomes. The total number of paired
Irish potato by planting its "eyes" because they are chromosomes in each of these vegetative cells is
buds. If we were to plant a portion of the skin or variously referred to as its somatic or sporophytic
starchy interior of the potato, it would not grow into a chromosome number. On the other hand, the
new plant. specialized sex cells, the egg and sperm nuclei,
typically contain only one complete set of
chromosomes. When we make reference to their
In nature, the various kinds of modified stems number of chromosomes, we are talking about the
(rhizomes, stolons, bulbs, corms, and tubers) serve as gametic chromosome number of a plant. If the
means of vegetative reproduction, in addition to being number appears in terms of 2n, as in "2n = 14," it is
storage organs for the plants. When rhizomes or a somatic chromosome number. If it appears in terms
stolons break apart, each segment is capable of of n, as in "n = 4," it is a gametic chromosome
growing into a new adult plant. Keep this in mind number.
when you gleefully attack some weed that bears
rhizomes or stolons. Each part that gets left behind or One complete set of chromosomes is called a
dropped somewhere in the yard can become a new genome. It is often referred to by a letter, as in the
plant. The central or lateral buds can also develop into "B" genome of wheat or the "A" genome of the
independent daughter plants. banana. A nucleus with a single genome is said to be
haploid; a nucleus with two genomes is said to be
The products of asexual reproduction will be diploid. Another situation, fairly common in plants,
genetically identical to the parent plants. The but rare in animals, is that of having more than two
particular combination of characteristics (food value, complete sets of chromosomes present in a nucleus.
fiber content, oil content, taste, color, medicinal This condition is called polyploidy and plants in which
properties, etc.) will be faithfully reproduced, it occurs are called polyploids. Many of our most
generation after generation. Therefore, it is not important economic plants are polyploids. It may be
surprising to learn that many of our most important a triploid with three sets of chromosomes, a
crops are vegetatively propagated. We do not plant tetraploid with four sets, a pentaploid with five
the seeds of potatoes, bananas, sugar cane, or sets, a hexaploid with six sets, etc. Plants with an
pineapple to get a new crop. All are the products of even number of chromosome sets are more common
asexual reproduction. In fact, a few of our crop plants than those with an odd number. Whereas "n" and "2n"
have not flowered or set seed in hundreds or even are used to tell the gametic and sporophytic
thousands of years. We maintain them in a strictly chromosome numbers, respectively, x is used to tell
vegetative state. the number of chromosome sets (genomes) present in
a plant. For example, if a plant is a triploid, it is 3x.
I should also point out that we are not talking about When you read that the common breadwheat is 6x =
an "either/or" situation. Many plants, under natural 42, the author is telling you that the nuclei contain six
conditions or in cultivation, may reproduce sexually by
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genomes or sets, totaling 42 chromosomes. Each Pre-Columbian: pertaining to New World cultures
basic set (genome) is composed of seven and artifacts before the arrival of Columbus in 1492
chromosomes (x = 7).
Here are the somatic chromosome numbers (2n) for UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
a series of economic plants:
I believe that the United States is the only country left
Banana: 3x = 33 -- or at least the only one of any size -- that does not
Coffee: 2x = 22; 4x = 44 use the metric system for measuring length, weight,
Coca: 4x = 24 area, and volume. The "English system" is just as
Cotton: 2x = 26; 4x = 52 accurate as the metric system, but it is more difficult
Marijuana: 2x = 20 to understand and to use. A pint of a dry material is
Wheat: 2x = 14; 4x = 28; 6x = 42 not the same volume as one pint of a liquid. We
Rice: 2x = 24 express weight using three different systems -- troy,
apothecaries, or avoirdupois -- depending on what we
are weighing. etc.
A FEW GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS
Here are a few useful equivalencies:
The following terms are frequently encountered in the 1 millimeter = 0.04 inches
literature of economic botany: 1 centimeter = 0.39 inches
1 meter = 1.09 yards
Old World: the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1 hectare = 2.47 acres
1 gram = 0.035 ounces
New World: the continents of North, Central, and 1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds
South America 1 metric ton = 1.10 short ton
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
Oceania: the islands of the central and south Pacific.
i. e. Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, and Three quick and dirty approximations:
New Zealand 1 gram = weight of 1 regular paperclip
1 milligram = weight of 1 grain of salt
tropics: the regions lying between the Tropic of 1 mm = thickness of 1 dime
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (from 23.5E north
latitude to 23.5E south latitude) And, your thought for the day is, "If God had wanted
us to use the metric system, He would have given us
subtropics: bordering on the tropics; nearly tropical ten fingers!"
CE: Current Era “There should be some things we don’t name, just so
we can sit around all day and wonder what they are.”
Iron Age: a cultural period in Old World human (George Carlin)
prehistory characterized by the use of iron in tools and
weapons '''''
MYA: million years ago, as in 125 MYA Plants often have two names -- a common name used
by most of us in everyday circumstances when we
Neolithic: "New Stone Age," the final portion of the need to make reference to a plant growing in the yard
Stone Age characterized by the use of polished stone or something that we might wish to purchase at the
implements and when farming and domestication market. They also have scientific names or Latin
became prevalent; it began about 10,000 BCE in the names, as they are sometimes called, used by
Middle East botanists, agronomists, and by the "serious" amateur,
etc. In this course, I will be using both common
Paleolithic: "Old Stone Age," the cultural period, names and scientific names. You will not be
characterized by relatively crude chipped stone tools, required to learn the scientific names of any
that began about 2-3 million years ago and that lasted plants and you may use acceptable common
until the retreat of the glaciers about 12,000 years names on the examinations. Many of you will,
ago however, begin using the scientific names more and
more as the term goes along.
-8-
are compelling.
COMMON NAMES
' There is a single, universally recognized name for
ADVANTAGES. It would be foolish for me to maintain each plant. Because they are used by botanists all
that common names have no value. They are the only over the world, scientific names facilitate the free
names known to most of us. These names are often transfer of ideas and information. Consider the
simple, easy to remember, descriptive, colorful, difficulties that would arise if the botanists in the
pleasing to the ear, and easy to pronounce. Given this United States, England, Germany, Russia, China,
impressive list of advantages, why do we not simply etc. each had their own independent set of names
use common names for plants and be done with it? for the plants of their countries.
DISADVANTAGES. There are several reasons why ' The same scientific name may not be used for
botanists and other scientists do not use common more than one kind of plant. Once it has been
names: published, that name cannot be used again for
any other plant.
' A plant may have more than one common name.
The broad-leaved plantain, a common lawn weed, ' Scientific names are given according to an
has almost fifty other common names in English "International Code of Botanical Nomenclature."
alone. In California and Oregon, one of our These regulations are reviewed at International
common trees is called bay, bay leaf, California Botanical Congresses.
bay, myrtle, myrtlewood, pepperwood, and
Oregon myrtle. ' Inherent in our system of scientific names is the
concept of evolutionary or genetic relationship.
' The same common name may be used for more When we name the white potato, eggplant, and
than one plant. Laurel is a common name applied black nightshade Solanum tuberosum, Solanum
to trees in five different plant families. We all melongena, and Solanum nigrum, respectively,
know what corn is. You may be surprised to learn we are indicating that these three plants belong to
that in other English-speaking countries, their the same genus, Solanum, and that they are
corn is what we call wheat. related to one another. Because there is a set of
botanical features associated with the name, it
' Many common names are confusing. A pineapple has predictive value. If you know a plant belongs
is not a kind of pine, nor is it an apple. Kentucky to the genus Quercus, the true oaks, you can
bluegrass is not blue, nor is it native to Kentucky. predict all kinds of things about it. You can bet
Names such as "welcome home husband, no good money that it will be a tree or shrub with
matter how drunk ye be," "kiss me over the leaves of a certain shape, and that it will have the
garden gate," "spotted arsemart," and "ramping familiar acorn as its fruit type.
fumitory" certainly make it difficult to maintain
that common names have brevity and clarity of DISADVANTAGES. There are some difficulties with
meaning. scientific names.
' Because there are no universally accepted rules ' They can be difficult to pronounce, especially if
for giving common names to plants, we cannot you did not learn to divide words into syllables
say that one is the correct common name. There early on in your education. You might note,
are certainly instances in which this becomes however, that such familiar and easily pronounced
critical. If you pay $1000 for an ornamental tree common names as aster, rhododendron,
at a nursery or take a particular herbal remedy, magnolia, chrysanthemum, petunia, and begonia
you want to be very sure of what you are getting. are also the first part of the scientific names of
these plants. My own experience in teaching
' Common names do not provide an indication of undergraduates to use scientific names is that
close relationship among the plants that share the once you can get past the psychological barrier
name. Sour-grass, arrow-grass, blue-eyed grass, that these are terribly long words that only those
grass (marijuana), and China-grass are not kinds who have had a strong background in Latin and
of grasses, nor are they related to one another. Greek can pronounce, then you will become much
more comfortable with them and begin using them
' Probably the most serious difficulty is that most rather easily.
plants do not have common names. We have used
only a small portion of the half million or so kinds ' One of the most frustrating features of scientific
of plants to the extent that common names have names, especially for someone who is just
been applied to them. This is a problem for learning about them, is that they are changed
authors of field guides, for consultants who write from time to time. Just when you have learned
environmental impact statements, and for staff the scientific names for a particular group of
members in various state and federal agencies plants, someone will publish a new revision of the
who must prepare material for general group and you discover that some of the names
consumption. Authors have attempted to have been changed. These changes come about
compensate for this lack of common names by for several reasons. As new information about the
inventing them, usually by translating the anatomy, chemistry, and genetics of plants
scientific name into English. The advantage of becomes known, it may cause botanists to rethink
"Milo Baker's cryptantha" over Cryptantha the evolutionary relationships among the plants
milobakeri is not immediately apparent to me. being studied. These changes may require us to
revise the scientific names to reflect the new level
of information now available to us. Sometimes
SCIENTIFIC NAMES names are changed, not for biological reasons, but
because someone studying a group may discover
ADVANTAGES. Although scientific names may cause that the name given to a particular plant has to be
you some discomfort, their advantages to the botanist rejected because it violated some provision of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
-9-
Both of these examples point out one of the often a lengthy series of descriptive words, typically in
important operating principles in plant Latin, as in "Convolvulus argentateus foliis ovatis
classification. As new information becomes divisis basi truncatis: laciniis intermediis duplo
available and as errors are discovered, we make longioribus." These phrase names or polynomials
adjustments and corrections. What appears to be became increasingly awkward because the discovery
a fine scheme of classification today may be of a new kind of plant required that the existing
modified drastically or even discarded completely polynomial be slightly modified so that it could be
at some point in the future. distinguished from the older one.
Let me put your mind at ease. You will not be asked Since we are focusing our attention on plants of
to learn the technical family names of any plants. economic importance, an additional explanation is
needed for the term variety. For reasons that are
obvious, we have developed many different cultivated
strains of a particular crop plant or ornamental. There
COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC are literally thousands of different kinds of rice. There
NAMES are probably hundreds of different kinds of tuberous
begonias. In general parlance, we often call these
varieties. However, for purposes of formal
If we examine the botanical works of the 15th and nomenclature, these variations are considered too
16th centuries, we see that the name of a plant was minor and often too short-lived to warrant giving them
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a scientific name. The variety of botanical
nomenclature is not used in these instances. Instead,
we employ the term cultivar (cultivated variety). It is Geographical Names
abbreviated cv. The "Martha Washington" geranium is
technically known as Pelargonium hortense cv. 'Martha anglicus of or pertaining to England
Washington.' gallicus of or pertaining to France
canadensis of or pertaining to Canada
Many of our economic plants are hybrids that result sinensis of or pertaining to China
from the accidental or purposeful crossing of two
closely related species or cultivars. This can be Growth Form
reflected in the scientific name of the hybrid by arboreus tree
inserting an "x." If the x occurs before the generic repens creeping
name, then the plant is considered the result of a scandens climbing
cross between two plants in different genera, as in X
Triticale, a hybrid between wheat (Triticum) and rye Habitat
(Secale).
arenarius growing in sand
If the x occurs between the generic name and the campestris of the fields
specific epithet, then the plant is the product of a fluviatilis of the rivers
cross between two species in the same genus, as in sativus cultivated
the banana, Musa x paradisiaca. It is result of a cross
between Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana. Structural feature
' The specific epithet should not be capitalized. The esculentus edible
rules allow them to be if they are commemorative, officinalis recognized as medically important
as in Elymus Smithii (a relative, no doubt) or if the somniferum sleep inducing
epithet was once a generic name itself, as in Acer textilis having useful fibers
Negundo, the box-elder. Even in such instances,
however, the rules discourage capitalization.
PRONUNCIATION
' The generic name and specific epithet are
underlined when they appear in handwritten or The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
typed material. They are put in italics or bold-face states that scientific names of plants are to be treated
in printed text. as Latin words, regardless of their origin. A few of the
more scholastically inclined botanists will argue,
' The authority is always capitalized, but it is not therefore, that we ought to pronounce scientific
underlined or otherwise set off from the remainder names according to the strict rules of the sounds of
of the text. vowels and consonants in Latin and that great care
should be taken in accenting the proper syllable. But,
there are several versions of Latin to choose from,
THE ORIGIN OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES each with its own set of rules for pronunciation.
Most of the words that make up scientific names are Most American botanists pronounce the scientific
derived from Latin or Greek, although there is no names of plants as though they were English words.
requirement that they must be. Modern names and Some of us follow the rules in Latin for determining
even nonsensical ones have been used. Many which syllable is accented; most of us do not. Many of
students, however, believe that there must be some us pronounce scientific names the way we were taught
requirement that scientific names be as long and as undergraduates (if any formal discussion occurred)
unpronounceable as possible. This reveals a certain or more commonly we imitate the way our professors
lack of scholarship. Even a rudimentary knowledge of said them when we took their classes. These become
etymology is very helpful in understanding the the familiar and "correct" way to pronounce the
composition of scientific names. The following scientific names of plants.
examples may be helpful.
A Quick and Dirty Guide to Pronunciation
Commemorative Names
' Pronounce each syllable.
Blighia William Bligh, Captain of the Bounty ' Say them as you would in English.
Carnegia Andrew Carnegie, American industrialist ' Put the accent where you think it ought to be.
nuttallii Thomas Nuttall, English botanist ' Try to be consistent.
menziesii Archibald Menzies, surgeon/naturalist
Classical/aboriginal Names
A More Scholarly Approach
Agrostis Greek name for grass
Fagus Latin name for the beech tree The following is an attempt to present a basic guide
mays Indian name for corn or maize to pronouncing vowels, consonants, and diphthongs,
cepa Latin name for the onion together with some of the rules for accenting
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syllables. ' Commemorative names (patronyms) present a
special problem because giving them the proper
' The letters of the Latin alphabet are the same accenting can render the person's name
as ours, except that J, U, and W did not occur unrecognizable. The epithet jamesii is pronounced
in the classical version. "ja-me-se-i," not "james-e-i." Most of us in the
United States ignore this rule.
' Each syllable will contain a vowel or a double
vowel combination (ae, au, ei, oe, or ui). The
latter are called diphthongs. THE CODE FOR CULTIVATED PLANTS
' Pronounce all of the syllables. Ribes is "rî- The naming of cultivated plants is governed by its own
bees," not "rîbs." set of rules, the International Code of Nomenclature
for Cultivated Plants. The following articles are
' Final vowels are long, with the exception of a. pertinent:
If a word ends in two vowels (unless they are
a diphthong), they are sounded separately. Article 1. Cultivated plants are essential to civilization.
The epithet quinquefolia is pronounced "kwin- It is important, therefore, that a precise, stable, and
kwe-fo-li-ah." internationally accepted system should be available for
their naming.
' The diphthongs "ae" and "oe" have the sound
"e," as in the word beat; "au" has the sound of Article 7. Cultivated plants are named at three main
"aw," as in awful; "ei" usually has the sound levels: genus, species, and cultivar (variety).
"i," as in site; "eu" has the sound of "u," as in
neuter; and "ui" has the ui-sound in the word Article 10. The international term "cultivar" denotes an
ruin. assemblage of cultivated plants which is clearly
distinguished by any characters (morphological,
' The "oi" in the ending "-oides" is treated as a physiological, cytological, chemical, or others), and
diphthong by most American botanists and we which, when reproduced (sexually or asexually),
give it the sound that "oi" has in the word oil. This retains its distinguishing characteristics. The term is
habit is considered close to barbaric by English derived from cultivated variety. Note 2. The concept
and Europeans who are much more persnickety of cultivar is essentially different from the concept of
about such matters. Because these two vowels do botanical variety, varietas. The latter... are always in
not form a diphthong, they should be pronounced Latin form and are governed by the Botanical Code.
separately, so that the ending "-oides" has the Note 4. The terms cultivar and variety (in the sense of
sound "-o-e-deez." the cultivated variety) are exact equivalents.
' A single consonant is placed with the following Article 29. A cultivar name, when immediately
vowel, as in "pa-ter." Double consonants are following a botanical or common name, must be
separated, as in "am-mi." If there are two or distinguished clearly from the latter, either by placing
more consonants, the first one is usually put with the abbreviation cv. before the cultivar name, or by
the preceding vowel, as in "an-gli-cus." some typographical device, preferably by enclosing it
within single quotation marks. It should not be printed
' The letters B, d, f, h, l, m, n, p, qu, and z are in italics.
pronounced the same in Latin and English.
' The consonants c and g are soft (that is, have the
sounds of "s" and "j") if they are followed by ae,
e, i, oe, or y. Otherwise, the c is pronounced like
a "k" and the g is also hard, as in "go." The s is
always pronounced as it is in the word "so," not
as a "z." An initial x is pronounced as a "z," not
"ek-z." Xanthium is "zan-thi-um," not "ek-zan-thi-
um."
-12-
Columbus, James Cook, and others was a dramatic
increase in our knowledge of the natural history of our
1.4 ! CHRONICLE OF planet and the exchange of plants and plant products
around the globe. As the sixteenth century came to a
ECONOMIC BOTANY close, newly developed instruments and techniques in
the fields of botany and chemistry formed the basis of
our modern understanding of the plant kingdom. This
was followed by the appearance of a series of
The purpose of this compilation is to identify the dates inventions designed to extract various products from
of various critical discoveries, events, voyages, plants and to process them.
inventions, publications, etc. that relate to
economically important plants. I begin by setting the The nineteenth century saw the refinement of
stage, so to speak, with cosmological considerations -- chemical extraction procedures that allowed us to
the formation of the universe, solar system, and our isolate and purify a number of economically important
planet. The next several entries relate to the materials, especially certain alkaloids with medicinal
appearance of life on the earth, beginning about 4 and psychoactive properties.
billion years ago. The evolution of our immediate
ancestors began about 4 million years ago, with the In the twentieth century, we have witnessed the
first true human beings appearing in Africa growth of giant industries based upon the supplying of
approximately 1.5 million years ago. Our use of plants a long list of plant products to the consumer. It was a
begins at about that point, with such discoveries as little over a hundred years ago that the field of
fire-making, the building of shelters, and the cosmetic genetics was founded with the investigations of
use of dyes. About 150,000 years ago we began Strasburger and von Beneden into the mechanisms of
incorporating flowers into ritual burials; there is some mitosis and meiosis. For the last several decades, we
evidence that 60,000 years ago we started using have developed the techniques needed to control the
various herbs because of their medicinal properties. genetic heritage of many of our most important crops
Farming of cultivated plants began about 16,000 years and to create entirely new ones in our laboratories.
ago; the domestication of various plants and animals Our studies have also shown how dangerous plant
approximately 10,000 years ago. Most of our products such as alcohol, tobacco, and the opiates can
important crop plants were domesticated over the be; how destructive to the natural environment our
next few thousand years. Only a handful of plants conversion of land for the growing of crops can be;
have been domesticated in the last two millennia. and how we have become increasingly dependent
upon a relatively short list of genetically-impoverished
In about A. D. 800, Irish voyagers reached Iceland, plants.
beginning an age of exploration that would last for a
thousand years. Among the many notable
accomplishments of Marco Polo, Christopher
Years Ago:
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800,000 Homo erectus populates temperate zones; makes shelters from branches
420,000 First huts (France); first fishermen (France)
200,000 Homo sapiens ("Thinking Man") evolves
200,000 Artistic hand axes appear
150,000 Neanderthal Man emerges in Paleolithic Europe; ritual burials there and in Far East
127,000 Last glaciation and associated warming period
79,000 Oil-burning lamps made of stone in use
60,000 Earliest evidence of herbal medicine
50,000 Humans first populate Australia
45,000 Music and oral literature developed (Asia)
35,000 Modern humans evolve in Europe
35,000 Oldest written records
35,000 Asian hunters cross Bering Strait
35,000 Cro-Magnons appear; Neanderthals decline
32,000 Flute, first known musical instrument, invented
30,000 Human settlements in Mexico
27,000 Cave art (France); ceramics and sculpture (Czechoslovakia)
27,000 First humans colonize Japan
21,000 Sewing needle invented
18,000 Bow and arrow invented (Europe)
18,000 Laurentide and Scandinavian ice sheets attain their greatest extent
16,000 Mesolithic begins
16,000 Farming of cultivated plants begins
15,000 Ropes invented (France)
13,000 Grinding stones for grain developed (Egypt)
11,000 Pottery developed (Japan)
11,000 Bottle gourd domesticated (Africa ?)
10,000 Dog domesticated (Iraq/Palestine)
10,000 World population reaches 3 million
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5500 Foxtail millet domesticated (Central China)
5500 Peach domesticated (Central China)
5000 Glaciers retreat and Ice Age ends
5000 Maize a major crop in Tehuacan Valley of Mexico
5000 Avocado domesticated (Mexico)
5000 Chicken domesticated (Southern Asia)
5000 Llama and alpaca domesticated (Peru)
4500 Date palm domesticated (India)
4500 Sorghum domesticated (Sudan)
4500 Horse domesticated (Ukraine)
4500 Hunting/gathering and fishing in Japan
4300 Cotton domesticated (Mexico)
4300 Tepary bean domesticated (Mexico)
4004 Year of Creation in the Christian calendar (one estimate)
4000 Bronze Age begins
4000 Grape domesticated (Turkestan); wine making begins
4000 Oil palm domesticated (Sudan)
4000 Silkworm domesticated (China)
3760 Year of Creation in the Hebrew calendar
3641 Year of Creation in the Mayan calendar (10 February)
3500 Wheel invented (Sumeria)
3500 First writing
3500 Olive domesticated (Crete)
3500 Zebu cattle domesticated (Thailand)
3300 Jack bean domesticated (South America)
3300 Coca domesticated (South America)
3000 Cities spread into Nile Valley
3000 Plow invented (Near East)
3000 Accurate stellar calendar invented (Egypt)
3000 Cotton domesticated (India)
3000 Peanut domesticated (Peru)
3000 Donkey domesticated (Palestine)
3000 Two-humped camel domesticated (Iran)
3000 Elephant domesticated (India)
3000 Mule domesticated (Palestine)
3000 Rice under cultivation in China
2800 Hemp rope invented (China)
2800 Major flood covers much of Mesopotamia
2800 Sickle invented (Sumeria)
2800 Emperor Shen Nung publishes “Pen Tsao,” the first herbal
2700 Tea first used in China
2600 Pyramids built in Egypt; cities in the Indus Valley
2600 Egyptian bakers develop more than 50 varieties of bread
2600 Egyptian voyage to Byblos to gather cedar
2500 Cat domesticated (Egypt)
2500 Yak domesticated (Tibet)
2500 Egyptians use papyrus as writing material
2500 Pharaoh Sahure sends fleet to Punt for myrrh
2500 African yam domesticated (West Africa)
2000 Alfalfa domesticated (Iran)
2000 Tea and banana cultivated in India
2000 Apples cultivated in Indus Valley
2000 Figs cultivated in Arabia
2000 Guinea pig domesticated (Peru)
2000 Watermelon cultivated (Africa)
2000 World population reaches 50 million
1750 Code of Hammurabi regulates beer
1700 Rye cultivated in eastern Europe
1680 Egyptians develop leavened bread
1500 Soybean domesticated (Manchuria)
1500 Bronze sickles and scythes used in Europe
1500 African rice domesticated (West Africa)
1495 Queen Hatshepsut sends team to Land of Punt to collect spices
1450 Mesopotamians use seed drill
1400 First alphabet completed
1400 Glass invented
1400 Smelting and forging of iron (Anatolia)
1300 Manioc domesticated (South America)
1300 Sunflower domesticated (North America)
1200 Iron Age begins
1000 Oats domesticated (Central Europe)
1000 Phoenicians terrace hillsides to prevent erosion
1000 Maize with large ears domesticated (Mexico)
1000 Millets domesticated (Korea)
800 Oldest New World pyramids
800 Widespread flood appears to destroy much of Mesopotamia
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700 Founding of Rome
700 Hoe invented (North America)
600 Rise of science in Greece, China, etc.
500 Tea domesticated (Tibet)
500 Cloves domesticated (Indonesia)
500 Selection and breeding of maize in South America
500 Currant domesticated
500 Reindeer domesticated (Central Asia)
500 Bronze sickles and scythes in use in Europe
484 Herodotus sees cotton in India
400 Tobacco domesticated (South America)
400 Hippocrates compiles list of uses for herbs and spices
399 Socrates commits suicide, presumably using poison hemlock (Conium maculatum)
350 Tobacco first used in North America
300 Turkey domesticated (Mexico)
300 Greek farmers rotate crops to main soil fertility
100 Vertical and horizontal waterwheels in use
100 Chinese use dried chrysanthemum flowers as first insecticide
85 Seed-drill plough invented (China)
50 Herodotus publishes "Histories" of his Mediterranean journeys
40 Rotary winnowing machine invented (China)
65 Year's supply of cinnamon used at funeral Poppaea Sabina, Emperor Nero's wife
70 Pliny the Elder publishes 37-volume "Natural History"
78 Dioscorides publishes "De Materia Medica"
100 Sieva bean domesticated (Mexico)
105 T'sai Lun invents first true paper from paper mulberry, hemp, and scrap fibers
190 Galen extracts juices from plants for medicinal uses
200 Potato domesticated (Peru and Bolivia)
301 Theophrastus describes caprification of figs
327 Alexander the Great finds bananas growing in Indus Valley
350 First written Greek reference to wheat
350 First written account of tea processing
410 Alaric the Visigoth demands 3000 lbs. of pepper to ransom Rome
432 Earliest recorded use of tobacco (Mexico)
450 Whisky developed (attributed to St. Patrick)
500 Sweet potato domesticated (Polynesia)
590 Epidemic of ergot poisoning hits France
593 Tea introduced into Japan
644 Windmill for grinding grain invented (Persia)
700 Mayan civilization reaches its zenith
700 Achira (Canna edulis) domesticated (Mexico)
748 First printed newspaper (Peking)
750 Hops first added to beer (Bavaria)
750 Polynesians begin long range ocean voyages
780 Lu Yu publishes "First Tea Classic"
800 Irish voyagers reach Iceland
850 First reference to use of coffee (Kaffe Province of Ethiopia)
857 Ergot poisoning reported in Germany
900 First shipment of spices from East Indies arrives in England
985 Bjarni Herjulfsson lands in Nova Scotia or Newfoundland
941 Ergot fungus kills 40,000 in France
1000 Iroquois form village communities and cultivate maize and beans
1000 Colonization of Oceania complete
1002 Leif Eriksson lands in New World
1096 First Crusade begins
1099 Crusaders plant sugar cane in Holy Land
1148 Returning Crusaders bring sugar to Europe
1150 First European paper factory opens (Spain)
1191 Tea introduced in Japan from China
1212 Tofu introduced from China to Japan
1227 Oldest extant botanical garden founded (Vatican City)
1250 Roger Bacon invents magnifying glass
1253 Linen first made in England
1271 Marco Polo travels through Asia [to 1295]
1300 Arnau de Villanova discovers distillation of wine to brandy
1328 First sawmill constructed
1347 "Black Death" kills one-third of Europe
1350 Shogun of Japan prohibits drinking of tea
1391 First paper mill opens (Nuremberg, Germany)
1400 Coffee domesticated (Arabia)
1400 Sir John Maundiville publishes accounts of his travels and the plants he encountered
1420 Bottom-fermentation of beer invented in Germany
1470 "The Age of Herbals" begins [to 1670]
-16-
1476 Oca domesticated (South America)
1492 Columbus lands in New World, believing it to be India
1492 Jews forbidden to serve as spice dealers
1493 Columbus introduces European grape and sugar cane into New World
1493 Second voyage of Columbus to New World [to 1496]
1493 Columbus founds Isabella, the first European settlement in the New World
1493 Columbus observes Indians using tobacco as medicine
1497 Vasco de Gama sails around Cape of Good Hope (Africa)
1497 Romano Pane describes tobacco and its use by Indians
1498 Third voyage of Columbus [to 1500]
1498 John Cabot explores North America
1499 Amerigo Vespucci makes first written observation of coca use
1500 World population reaches 500 million
1502 Fourth voyage of Columbus to New World [to 1504]
1503 Refinement process for raw sugar developed
1509 Sugar cane first harvested in the New World (Hispaniola)
1510 First Black slaves arrive in the New World (Cuba)
1510 Spanish introduce sunflower to Europe as an oil crop
1511 Portuguese capture Malacca, center of East Indies spice trade
1511 Coffee houses in Mecca closed
1512 Portuguese discover nutmeg trees in Moluccas
1513 Ptolemy's "Geography" recognizes two continents in New World
1513 Juan Ponce de Leon introduces orange and lemon trees in Florida
1514 Pineapple introduced into Europe
1516 Indigo introduced into Europe
1516 Maize first planted in China
1517 Coffee introduced into England
1519 Conquest of Mexico [to 1521]
1519 Ferdinand Magellan sails from Spain in search of Spice Islands
1520 Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates globe [to 1524]
1520 Spanish bring wheat to New World
1520 Hernan Cortes introduces chocolate into Europe
1523 Sugar first grown in Cuba
1523 Anthony Fitzherbert publishes "Book of Husbandry," first English agricultural manual
1525 Paracelsus develops laudanum (opium dissolved in alcohol)
1525 Portuguese introduce chili peppers to India
1529 Sweet orange introduced into Europe
1530 Spinning wheel in general use in Europe
1531 Conquest of Peru [to 1535]
1532 Sugar cane first grown in Brazil
1534 First written description of tomato published (Italy)
1536 Gonzalo de Oviedo publishes "Historia General y Natural de Las Indias"
1540 Francisco de Orellano explores South America
1540 Francisco Basquez de Coronado explores American Southwest and Great Plains
1540 Benzoni describes cacao preparation
1545 Spanish introduce hemp into New World
1551 William Turner publishes “New Herball”
1556 Tobacco cultivation begins in Europe
1556 Spain's Council of the Indies prohibits plant exploration by foreigners
1556 André Thevet introduces tobacco seeds into Europe
1558 Portuguese introduce cassava into Africa
1561 Jean Nicot sends tobacco to Catherine de' Medici
1562 Witchcraft made capital offense in England
1564 John Hawkins introduces sweet potato into England
1565 Oranges introduced into Florida
1565 John Hawkins introduces tobacco from Florida into England
1566 First European seed drill patented
1568 Alexander Nowell, Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, invents bottled beer
1569 Gerhardus Mercator prepares first comprehensive world map
1569 Bernardino de Sahagun publishes "Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espana"
1575 Sir Francis Drake begins circumnavigation of globe [to 1580]
1579 Sir Francis Drake reaches East Indies by sailing around South America
1580 Prospero Alpino establishes that flowering plants have two sexes
1582 Ergot cited as means for quickening childbirth
1583 Andre Caesalpino publishes "De Plantis"
1587 Thousands die from ergot poisoning in German states
1587 Eggplant introduced into England (now seen as a tragic event!)
1589 Elbert de Veer invents hemp mill
1590 Hans & Zacharias Janssen invent compound microscope
1590 Tomato introduced into England
1595 Dutch establish colonies in East Indies
1596 Li Shih-Chen publishes 52-volume “Catalogue of Medicinal Herbs”
1597 John Gerard publishes "Herbal or General Historie of Plantes"
1597 Ergotism found to be caused by infected rye
1600 East India Company founded
1600 Spanish make rum from molasses (Barbados)
-17-
1600 Seeds and unroasted coffee beans smuggled out of the Arabian port of Mocha
1601 The word "coffee" first appears in an English account of William Parry's Persian travels
1602 Oat introduced into the U. S.
1602 Dutch East India Company founded
1604 King James I publishes (anonymously) "Counterblaste to Tobacco"
1610 Tea introduced to Europe by Dutch East India Company
1612 John Rolfe begins tobacco cultivation in Virginia
1615 Coin-operated vending machines for dispensing tobacco leaves appear in English taverns
1615 Chocolate paste from the New World introduced into Europe
1616 Coffee introduced into Europe
1616 Dutch smuggle a coffee tree from Aden to Holland
1616 Schouter and Lemaire discover new route from Europe to Pacific, around Cape Horn
1618 Wheat cultivated in Virginia
1618 David Ramsay and Thomas Wildgoose invent ploughing machine
1619 First Black slaves arrive in Virginia
1619 Burgandy bans the growing of potatoes because they cause leprosy
1620 Pilgrims arrive in Plymouth, Massachusetts
1621 Potato planted in Germany for first time
1621 Potato introduced into North America
1621 European grapes planted on east coast of U. S.
1621 Dutch cut down three-quarters of clove trees in the Moluccas
1621 Jamestown colonists build first American grist mill to process wheat
1623 Dutch establish first commercial brewery
1624 Pope Urban VIII threatens snuff users with excommunication
1630 Lemonade invented
1630 Kikkoman soy sauce invented
1632 Jesuits introduce quinine powder into Spain and Rome
1633 Bananas first sold in London
1635 Jesuits introduce grapes into California
1635 Louis XIII founds Jardin des Plantes in Paris
1635 French restrict tobacco sales to physician's prescription
1636 Tulipmania strikes in the Netherlands
1640 John Parkinson publishes "Theatrum Botanicum"
1641 Dutch sieze Spice Islands from Portuguese
1641 Michael Romanov of Russia forbids sale and use of tobacco
1642 Pope Urban VIII bans tobacco, saying that it causes hallucinations and bad behavior
1642 Abel Tasman reaches New Zealand
1643 Abel Tasman reaches Fiji and New Guinea
1645 Richard Weston publishes first description of crop rotation
1650 First coffee house opens in Oxford, England
1651 Francisco Hernandez publishes "Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus..."
1651 Frederich Wilhelm of Prussia orders cultivation of potatoes
1652 First coffee houses open in London
1653 Nicholas Culpeper publishes "The English Physician, or Herball"
1655 Robert Hook observes structure of cork; first use of "cell"
1656 William Coles publishes “Art of Simpling”
1657 First chocolate shop opens in London
1658 Dutch begin to grow coffee in Ceylon
1658 Dutch oust Portuguese from Ceylon, thereby gaining control over cinnamon
1660 Samuel Pepys notes in his secret diary that he has drunk a "cup of tee...."
1661 Robert Boyle extracts methyl alcohol
1663 Robert Hooke reports microscopic structure of petrified wood
1670 Covent Garden, famous produce market, opens in London
1672 John Josselyn publishes "New England Rarities Discovered," a treatise on herbal cures
1674 Severe outbreak of ergotism in Gatinais, France
1674 "Women's Petition Against Coffee" published
1676 Antoni von Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms ("animacules")
1676 Nehemiah Grew determines that higher plants reproduce sexually
1676 British troops poisoned by jimson weed in Jamestown, Virginia
1676 Compaignie de Limonadiers (lemonade vendors) founded in Paris
1677 London Pharmacopoeia recognizes cinchona, jalap, and ipecacuanha
1682 Nehemiah Grew describes function of stamens and carpels in "Anatomy of Plants"
1683 Antoni von Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria
1686 John Ray develops concept of plant species in "Historia Plantarum"
1688 Dom Pierre Perignon makes champagne
1690 Physick Garden founded in Edinburgh
1692 Witch trials in Salem, Massachusetts
1694 Rudolph Camerarius distinguishes male and female floral parts
1695 Rice introduced (accidentally through shipwreck) into U. S.
1696 Dutch plant coffee trees in Java
1697 Czar Peter of Russia permits open sale and use of tobacco
1701 Jethro Tull invents seed drill
1706 One coffee tree from Java reaches Amsterdam Botanic Garden
1710 British Parliament passes act preserving trees in American colonies for ship’s masts
1712 Cotton Mather publishes 13 letters on natural history and biology
1716 Cotton Mather observes hybridization in maize
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1717 Giovanni Lancisi suggests that malaria transmitted by mosquitos
1719 Rem de Reaumer suggests that paper can be made from wood fiber
1720 Coffee introduced into New World
1721 Ergot poisoning prevents Peter the Great's attack on the Ottoman Empire
1724 Paul Dudley describes cross-pollination in maize
1727 Stephen Hales discovers root pressure
1727 Coffee trees planted in Brazil
1728 Vitus Bering sails through Arctic strait, proving Asia and North America not joined
1728 Failure of oat crop in Ireland prompts Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal....”
1730 John Bartram founds first U. S. botanical garden (near Philadelphia)
1733 John Kay invents flying shuttle
1735 French Academy of Sciences sends expedition to South America
1737 Carolus Linnaeus publishes "Genera Plantarum"
1738 Charles Marie de la Condamine sees quinine trees in Ecuador
1739 John Bartram experiments with cross-breeding in flowers
1750 Oat crop failure in Ireland
1741 Elizabeth Pinckney begins indigo cultivation
1743 Charles Marie de la Condamine explores the Amazon
1743 Sir Joseph Banks born in London
1744 Frederich II distributes free potatoes to Prussian peasants
1747 Andreas Marggraf discovers sugar in sugar beets
1750 Brussel sprouts appear as a "sport" (Belgium)
1753 Carolus Linnaeus publishes "Species Plantarum"
1753 Sugar cane first grown in the U. S. (Louisiana)
1753 James Lind discovers that lemon juice cures scurvy
1755 Pierre Poivre smuggles pepper and cinnamon into Mauritius
1756 Joseph Black discovers carbon dioxide
1758 Jedidiah Strutt invents machine to knit hose
1759 Arthur Guinness opens a brewery in Dublin
1760 Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew (England) opens
1761 John Hill notes development of "polypusses" after excessive use of snuff
1763 Josef Kohlreuter discovers pollination
1764 James Hargreaves invents spinning jenny
1765 Date introduced into California
1765 James Baker and John Harmon set up chocolate factory in Massachusetts
1765 Potato now Europe's most widely used food
1765 Lazzaro Spallanzani discovers that food can be preserved in air-tight bottles
1765 James Watt improves steam engine
1766 Louis Antoine de Bougainville begins round-the-world voyage [to 1769]
1767 George Washington plants potato at Mount Vernon
1768 Capt. James Cook begins his first voyage to the South Pacific [to 1771]
1768 Richard Arkwright invents machine to spin cotton
1768 Lazzaro Spallanzani disproves theory of spontaneous generation
1769 Father Junipero Serra plants grapes, olives, oranges, and figs in California
1769 The water frame, for spinning yarn, invented
1769 Baron von Humboldt born in Berlin
1770 Apricot introduced into California
1770 Governor Pierre Poivre smuggles nutmegs from Dutch E. Indies and plants them on Mauritius
1770 Sir Joseph Banks discovers and names Botany Bay in Australia
1771 Joseph Priestley discovers that plants release oxygen
1771 Arkwright opens first spinning factory in England
1771 Faculte de Paris declares potato not only safe to eat, but useful
1772 Second voyage of Capt. James Cook [to 1775]
1772 Daniel Rutherford discovers difference between oxygen and nitrogen
1772 Karl Scheele isolates oxygen
1772 Joseph Priestley ("Father of the soft drink") demonstrates carbonating apparatus
1773 Boston Tea Party
1773 East India Company obtains monopoly on production and sale of opium
1773 Richard Arkwright produces first cloth made entirely of cotton
1773 Tea Act passed by Parliament, allowing East India Co. to export tea to colonies
1774 Andreas Marggraf demonstrates that cane sugar and beet sugar are identical
1775 Frederick the Great prohibits importation of green coffee into Prussia
1775 British Navy replaces French brandy with West Indian rum as its daily grog
1776 Third voyage of Capt. James Cook [to 1779]
1779 Jan Ingenhousz discovers that sunlight essential for oxygen production in leaves
1779 Samuel Crompton invents spinning mule
1780 James Watt develops steam-driven flour mill
1784 Andrew Meikle invents threshing machine
1784 Richard March invents rope-making machine
1784 Karl Scheele discovers citric acid
1785 Cartwright invents power loom
1785 Ransome invents cast iron plow
1785 William Withering publishes "An Account of the Foxglove and Some of Its Medical Uses..."
1785 Louis XVI promotes use of potato in France
1785 Oliver Evans invents automatic grist mill
1786 Sugar beet cultivated in France
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1786 Rice riots in Edo (Tokyo)
1787 Lt. William Bligh sails to Tahiti on H. M. S. Bounty to collect breadfruit seedlings
1787 Calcutta Botanic Garden founded
1788 Sir James Edward Smith founds Linnean Society (London)
1789 Johann W. von Goethe suggests that all plant parts are modified leaves
1789 First cotton factory powered by steam opens (Manchester, England)
1789 Eliza Craig distills bourbon whisky
1789 Antoine Laurent de Jussieu publishes "Genera Plantarum"
1789 Ninety percent of Americans engaged in farming and food production
1790 Pineapples introduced into Sandwich Islands (Hawai'i)
1790 Vatican opens its own tobacco factory
1791 First cotton mill in U. S. (Rhode Island)
1791 Samuel Peel patents India rubber cloth
1792 William Bligh sets out on his second “breadfruit voyage” to Tahiti on H. M. S. Providence
1792 Robert Thomas publishes first “Famer’s Almanack”
1793 Eli Whitney invents cotton gin
1793 Karl Sprengel establishes that some plants wind-pollinated
1793 Franz Achard extracts sugar from sugar beets
1793 Captain William Bligh arrives in St. Vincent with 722 breadfruit seedlings
1795 Hydraulic press invented
1795 F. A. Chalons-sur-Marne develops sterilization and bottling/canning of food
1795 British Navy eliminates scurvy by supplying sailors with lemon juice
1795 King of Spain grants Don Jose Maria Guadalupe de Cuervo license to produce mezcal wine
1796 J. Lowitz prepares pure ethyl alcohol
1796 Edict of Peking forbids importation of opium into China
1796 British take Ceylon from Dutch, thereby gaining control of cinnamon
1797 United States enters world spice trade by importing Sumatra pepper
1798 Machine for making continuous lengths of paper invented
1798 Thomas Malthus publishes “An Essay on the Principle of Population”
1799 Alexander von Humboldt and Aimée Bonpland explore South America [to 1804]
1799 John Ferriar suggests correlation between digitalis and heart disease
1800 Jute domesticated (India)
1800 Humboldt and Bonpland observe curare preparation on Orinoco
1800 Sugar beet introduced into U. S.
1800 Matthew Koops develops vegetable fiber paper
1801 Sugar beet domesticated (Silesia)
1802 Franz Achard designs first sugar beet factory
1802 Soybean introduced into United States
1803 Friedrich Sertürner isolates morphine from crude opium latex
1803 Andrew Duncan isolates cinchonine
1804 A. D. Thaer develops concept of crop rotation
1804 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark begin exploration of western U. S. [to 1806]
1804 World population reaches 1 billion
1805 Leschenault describes preparation of upas tieute, a Javanese dart poison
1805 J.-M. Jacquard invents draw power loom
1806 Benjamin Thompson invents coffee pot with metal sieve
1806 Partial failure of potato crop in Ireland
1807 Baron von Humboldt publishes first of 30 volume treatise on travels in Spanish America
1808 Joseph-Louis Proust identifies glucose, fructose, and sucrose in plant juices
1808 John Stearns demonstrates efficacy of ergot extracts during child birth
1809 Louis Vaquelin isolates atropine
1809 J. B. Lamarck suggests that organs are improved with use and acquired traits are inherited
1809 Nicholas Appert develops heat-bottled foods
1809 Louis Vauquelin identifies nicotianine as active principle in tobacco
1810 J. L. Gay-Lussac discovers that sugar breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide
1810 Philippe de Girard invents hemp and flax spinning machine
1811 Napoleon decrees that sugar beets grown in France and that processing factories be built
1811 Louis Figuier develops bone charcoal filtering technique for sugar purification
1812 Austria passes law allowing for confiscation of contaminated rye
1812 Gottlieb Lorchoff demonstrates that starch breaks down to glucose
1813 Augustin de Candolle coins "taxonomy," for the science of classification of organisms
1813 John Clark invents air and water beds made of India rubber cloth
1813 Humphry Davy publishes "Elements of Agricultural Chemistry"
1814 John Lunan introduces term "grapefruit" in his "Hortus Jamaicensis"
1814 Donkin, Hall, & Gamble introduce first commercially available canned food
1815 J. B. Lamarck, French naturalist, introduces a modern species concept
1817 Robiquet isolates narcotine
1817 P.-J. Pelletier and Magendie isolate emetine
1818 Lane invents harvester/thresher
1818 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou extract a green pigment and call it "chlorophyll"
1818 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou isolate strychnine
1818 British plant tea in India
1818 Johann Siegert formulates Angostura bitters
1819 U. S. government instructs its foreign diplomats to send home seeds of useful plants
1819 François-Louis Cailler produces first commercially available chocolate for eating
1819 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou isolate brucine
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1819 Oersted isolates piperine
1820 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou isolate colchicine
1820 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou isolate quinine
1820 Col. Robert Johnson eats tomato before crowd of 2000 people and lives!
1821 Runge isolates caffeine from coffee
1820 U. S. Pharmacopaeia published
1820 Thomas Hancock invents rubber masticator
1820 P.-J. Pelletier and J. Caventou isolate cinchonine
1822 John Chapman (Johnny Appleseed) plants orchards
1823 Charles Macintosh discovers solubility of rubber in naphtha
1823 Royal Horticultural Society sends David Douglas to collect fruit trees in North America
1824 British Navy distributes Cocoa Issue (1 oz. chocolate block) to sailors
1825 David Douglas explores western United States
1825 Coffee cultivation begins in Hawai'i
1826 Otto Unverdorben develops distilled indigo dye (aniline)
1826 Michael Faraday establishes the empirical formula for Pará rubber
1827 Salicin isolated from willow bark
1827 Heinrich Merck begins commercial production of morphine
1828 Coenrad van Houten develops process for removing fat from cacao beans
1829 Sylvester Graham develops the Graham Cracker
1830 Robert Brown discovers cell nucleus while working on orchids
1831 Robiquet and Colin isolate alizarine red from madder
1832 Charles Darwin begins his voyage on H. M. S. Beagle [to 1835]
1832 Pierre Robiquet isolates codeine
1832 Aeneas Coffey invents the alcohol still
1832 Karl von Reichenbach discovers creosote in coal tar
1833 Avocado introduced into Florida
1833 Payen and Persoz isolate first enzyme
1834 Cyrus McCormick invents reaper
1834 John and Hiram Pitts invent an efficient thresher
1834 Anselme Payen extracts cellulose from wood and gives it its name
1835 Thiboumery isolates thebaine
1836 Asa Gray publishes "Elements of Botany," first American botany textbook
1836 Grain combine invented
1836 Theodor Schwann demonstrates sugar fermentation the result of yeast activity
1836 Charles Cagniard de la Tour observes yeast growth during fermentation
1837 John Deere invents the steel-bladed plow
1838 Schleiden and Schwann develop cell theory
1838 Captain Charles Wilkes leads U. S. Navy expedition to Pacific
1839 Charles Goodyear develops vulcanizied rubber
1839 Opium Wars in China begin [to 1842]
1839 Jan Purkinje coins the term "protoplasm"
1839 John Lawes develops artificial fertilizer
1839 U. S. Congress appropriates $1000 to provide free seed to farmers
1839 Assam tea auctioned off in London
1840 Friedrich Keller makes first all-wood paper
1840 Justus von Liebig establishes that some minerals can limit growth in plants
1840 Jean-Baptise-Joseph Dieudonne shows that plants obtain nitrogen from soil nitrates
1840 J. Schweppes Co. develops tonic water
1840 Grapefruit trees from Spain introduced into Florida
1841 William Hooker becomes first official Director of Kew Botanic Gardens
1842 English develop first chemical fertilizers
1843 Franciscans introduce almond into California
1843 Smoking of opium banned in China
1843 Charles Goodyear patents process for vulcanization of rubber
1844 F. Keller invents wood-pulp paper
1845 E. B. Bigelow invents power loom for carpet manufacture
1845 J. Heilman invents machine for combing cotton
1845 Late blight of potato causes famine in Ireland and Europe [to 1848]
1845 Stephen Perry invents rubber bands from vulcanized rubber
1846 Elias Howe invents sewing machine
1846 Christian Schonbein discovers solubility of cotton cellulose
1846 H. von Mohl describes protoplasm
1846 U. S. repeals Corn Laws, imposing import duties
1846 Figuier and Purmarède invent vegetable-based parchment paper
1846 Charles Hancock invents sponge rubber
1847 Sir William Hooker's Museum of Economic Botany opens to public at Kew Gardens
1847 Herbert reports that crossing of some plants yields fertile offspring, but others sterile
1847 Fry & Sons in England develop chocolate for eating
1848 Heinrich Merck isolates papaverine
1849 David Livingstone begins exploration of Africa [to 1871]
1849 Luther Burbank, developer of Burbank potato, Shasta daisy, etc., born in Massachusetts
1849 Magnus Huss coins the term "alcoholism"
1850 Claude Bernard discovers that curare blocks nerve impulses to muscle tissue
1850 John Heath invents the grain binder
1850 Sorghum introduced into U. S. from Africa
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1850 Marijuana listed in the U. S. Pharmacopeia
1850 Milo or Kaffir-corn introduced into U. S.
1850 Delicious red apple found in Iowa
1850 American Vegetarian Society founded
1850 William Alcott, a cousin of Louisa May, opens America’s first health food store (Boston)
1851 Robert Fortune brings 2000 tea plants and 17,000 seeds out of China
1852 E. W. Bull develops Concord grape, a cross between European and catawba grapes
1852 Nelson Goodyear and Charles Macintosh develop vulcanite and ebonite (hard rubber)
1853 Alexander Wood and Charles Pravaz invent the hypodermic syringe
1853 George Crum develops the potato chip
1853 Concord grape exhibited by Massachusetts Horticultural Society
1854 John Polson develops corn flour
1856 John Dauglish develops aerated bread
1856 Ghirardelli's California Chocolate Manufactory established
1856 Louis Pasteur discovers process now called pasteurization
1856 Second Opium War; Britain and France defeat Manchu armies [to 1860]
1856 N. Pringsheim observes entrance of sperm into ovum
1857 Louis Pasteur publishes "Mémoire sur la Fermentation Appelee Lactique"
1857 Count Agoston Harszthy de Moksa establishes California wine industry in the Valley of the Moon
1858 Remak and Virchow develop theory that cells arise from divisions of pre-existing cells
1858 Hyman Lipman invents the pencil with attached eraser
1858 Mace and nutmeg crops planted on Grenada
1858 J. Schweppes patents quinine tonic water
1858 Treaty of Tientsin legalizes importation of opium into China
1858 Charles Darwin reads paper on plant and animal domestication before Linnean Society
1859 Charles Darwin publishes "The Origin of Species..."
1859 Franz Knop and Julius von Sachs establish that plants can grow in nutrient solutions
1859 Karl von Scherzer isolates cocaine from coca leaves
1860 Richard Spruce and Robert Cross send cinchona seeds from S. America to England
1860 Louis Pasteur publishes "Mémoire sur la Fermentation Alcoolique"
1860 Frederich Walton invents linoleum
1860 Charles Baudelaire publishes “Les Paradis Artificiels...”
1860 Richard Spruce ships plants and seeds of Cinchona from Ecuador to London
1861 Louis Pasteur publishes "Mémoire sur les Corpuscles Organisés Qui Existent dans l'Atmosphere"
1862 Julius von Sachs establishes that starch a product of photosynthesis
1862 Ebenezer Stevens invents the bread-making machine
1862 John Leighton invents the rubber stamp
1862 U. S. Congress passes Morrill Land-Grant Act
1862 U. S. Congress prohibits distillation of alcohol without a license
1862 U. S. Navy abolishes rum ration for its sailors
1862 United States Department of Agriculture established
1863 Root louse (Phylloxera vasatrix) attacks European vineyards
1863 Emperor Louis Napoleon asks Pasteur to study maladies of wine
1863 Pasteur discovers that heat kills bacteria
1864 Pasteur shows that organism causing fermentation not spontaneously generated
1864 Jobst and Hesse isolate physostigmine from calabar bean (Physostigma venenosum)
1865 Gregor Mendel publishes "Experiments in Plant Hybridization"
1865 David Livingstone publishes "Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi..."
1865 Adolphus Busch and Eberhard Anheuser open a brewery in St. Louis, Missouri
1866 Richard and George Cadbury sell pure cocoa in Britain
1866 Louis Pasteur publishes “Etudes sur le Vin”
1867 Atropine shown to block effects of vagal nerve stimulation
1867 Britain introduces tea into Ceylon
1868 Charles Darwin publishes "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication"
1869 Schneider discovers navel orange in Brazil
1869 Digitoxin isolated from foxglove plant
1869 Charles Fleishmann founds yeast-production industry in USA
1869 Thomas Welch pasteurizes Concord grape juice to make unfermented sacramental wine
1870 Thomas Adams develops chicle-based chewing gum
1870 Friederich Miescher discovers DNA
1870 MacIntosh apple propagated
1870 Ground wood paper pulp first made (Germany)
1872 Ebers Papyrus (1500 B. C.) discovered in Thebes
1872 Pará rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) domesticated (South America)
1872 Carl Ekman develops the sulphite processing of wood pulp
1872 Luther Burbank develops the Burbank potato
1873 Othman Zeidler develops DDT
1873 Don Cenobia Sauza distillery exports first tequila to U. S.
1873 Asa T. Soule of Rochester, NY invents hop bitters, the most successful patent medicine
1874 Mennonites introduce Turkey red wheat into U. S.
1875 Pilocarpine isolated from jaborandi leaf
1875 Eugen Langen invents the sugar cube
1875 Richard Joshua Reynolds founds tobacco company in Winston, North Carolina
1875 Luther Burbank estalishes experimental garden in Santa Rosa, California
1875 Bing chery developed in Oregon
1875 Ferdinand Tiemann patents process for synthetic vanilla
-22-
1875 Machine invented that strips corn kernels from cobs
1875 Henry Wickham delivers Pará rubber seeds from Brazil to Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew
1876 Charles Darwin publishes "The effects of Cross and Self-fertilisation ... "
1876 Henry J. Heinz develops catsup
1876 M. D. Peter develops milk chocolate
1876 Henry Wickam smuggles seeds of Pará rubber out of Brazil
1876 John Henry Kellogg develops flake cereal, to curb sex drive
1876 Eduard Strasburger describes mitosis in plants
1876 Lydia Estes Pinkham patents "Mrs. Lydia E. Pinkham's Vegetable Compound"
1876 Charles E. Hires promotes "Hires Rootbeer Household Extract"
1876 Thomas Johnstone Lipton opens his first tea shop
1876 Phylloxera destroys more than 1 million acres of France's vineyards
1877 Wilhelm Pfeffer discovers osmosis
1877 John Harvey Kellogg develops a cereal he calls "Granula"
1878 Caleb Chase & James Sanborn form company specializing in coffee and tea
1879 John Appleby invents grain binder
1879 P.-M.-A. Millardet develops Bordeaux mixture to protect grapes against fungi
1879 Constantine Fahlberg and Ira Remsen invent saccharin
1879 Thomas Edison successfully tests carbonized bamboo filament in incandescent light bulb
1880 Sugar beets raised commercially for first time in U. S.
1880 Rodolfe Lindt invents conching machine used to process cacao beans
1880 Canned fruits become commercially available
1881 James Logan develops loganberry, a raspberry and blackberry hybrid
1882 A. P. De Candolle publishes "L'Origine des Plantes Cultivees"
1882 Albert King discovers that mosquitos transmit malaria
1883 Edouard J. L.-M. von Beneden discovers meiosis
1883 French develop rayon, first synthetic fiber
1883 James Buchanan Duke begins making machine-manufactured cigarettes
1884 William S. Halsted discovers anesthetic property of cocaine
1884 Carl Dahl invents sulfate (Kraft) pulp
1885 Karl Benz invents first gas-powered automobile
1885 John S. Pemberton markets Coca Cola
1886 R. S. Lazenby develops Dr. Pepper
1886 Hires Root Beer marketed
1887 Nagai isolates ephedrine from mahuang (Ephedra sinica)
1887 U. S. Congress passes Hatch Act, providing funds for agricultural research
1888 John Boyd Dunlop invents pneumatic tire for bi- and tricycles
1888 Heinrich von Waldeyer-Hartz discovers chromosomes and coins term for them
1888 Angus Campbell invents cotton picker
1889 Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler invents gasoline-powered automobile
1889 James Buchanan Duke founds American Tobacco Company
1889 United States Department of Agriculture founded
1890 Peanut butter invented
1891 W. Rimpan describes spontaneous fertile wheat x rye hybrids
1892 Asa Chandler founds Coca-Cola Co.
1893 Henry Perky develops Shredded Wheat
1893 Charles Post develops Postum, a coffee substitute
1893 Thomas Lipton takes out a trademark on his tea
1893 O. Hesse develops heroin from morphine and acetic anhydride
1894 W. A. Burpee introduces “iceberg” lettuce
1895 John Harshberger coins the term "ethnobotany"
1895 John and Will Kellogg develop wheat flake cereal
1896 Arthur Heffter isolates mescaline from peyote cactus
1896 Pineapple introduced into Hawai'i
1896 George Washington Carver begins his studies of products made from peanuts
1897 Ronald Ross identifies protozoan as cause of malaria
1897 Felix Hoffmann of Bayer synthesizes stable form of acetysalicylic acid
1898 Richard Willstatter determines structure of atropine and cocaine
1898 M. W. Deijerinck discovers that tobacco mosaic disease caused by virus
1898 Bayer introduces heroin as a cough suppressant
1899 Hermann Dreser and Felix Hoffmann develop aspirin
1899 Mexican boll weevil enters U. S.
1900 United Fruit Company founded
1900 Spinal anesthetic using cocaine developed
1900 Beitter isolates alkaloids from khat
1900 Milton Hershey opens factory to produce chocolate bars
1900 H. de Vries, C. E. Correns, and E. Tschermak von Seysenegg rediscover Mendel's work
1900 David Barrows awarded first doctorate in ethnobotany
1900 David Wesson markets first edible cottonseed oil
1901 Hugo De Vries coins term "mutation"
1901 Gerrit Grijns discovers that berberi caused by nutrient-poor, polished rice
1901 Ludwig Roselius develops 97% caffeine-free coffee
1901 Satori Kato develops soluble instant coffee
1902 Rotenone isolated
1902 U. S. bans use of coca leaf extracts in Coca Cola
1902 James Dole founds Hawaiian Pineapple Co.
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1902 Caleb Bradham founds Pepsi Cola Co.
1903 Walter Sutton shows that chromosomes carry hereditary material
1903 Christian Gray and Thomas Sloper invent cross-ply rubber tire
1903 Ludwig Roselius introduces Sanka Coffee
1904 Postum Co. introduces "Elijah's Manna," later to be called "Post Toasties"
1905 A. E. Douglass develops technique of dating tree rings
1905 Heinrich Braun introduces novocaine into clinical use
1905 Vick's Magic Croup Salve introduced
1905 Ludwig Roselius develops decaffination process
1906 U. S. Congress passes Pure Food and Drug Act
1906 William Bateson coins "genetics" for new science
1906 Gerrit Grijns suggests beriberi caused by nutrient deficiency in rice
1906 William Keith Kellogg (brother of J. H. Kellogg) founds W. K. Kellogg
1907 American Spice Trade Association founded
1907 President Theodore Roosevelt declares Maxwell House coffee “good to the last drop”
1908 C. W. Post develops "Post Toasties"
1908 Melita Bentz invents once-through coffee brewing filter using linen towel
1908 MSG (monosodium glutamate) isolated from seaweed
1908 Jacques Brandeneberger, a Swiss chemist, invents cellophane
1909 U. S. prohibits importation of opium
1909 U. S. Bureau of Soils declares soil an indestructible
1909 Pictet and Gams synthesize papaverine
1909 Wilhelm Johannsen coins "gene," "genotype," and "phenotype"
1909 Aaron Levene discovers RNA
1909 Karl Hofmann makes synthetic rubber from butadiene
1909 Sir Thomas Lipton begins blending and packaging of tea leaves
1909 George Washington develops soluble coffee powder
1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan discovers specific genes occur on specific chromosomes
1910 Harvey Firestone invents non-skid tire
1911 A. H. Sturtevant produces first chromosome map
1911 U. S. Supreme Court dissolves American Tobacco Co.
1911 Procter Gamble introduce "Crisco," the first solid vegetable shortening
1911 Henry Ginaca invents the pineapple processing machine
1911 Polish chemist Casimir Funk discovers “vitamines,” a rice hull extract, that cures berberi
1912 J. Suzuki, T. Shimamura, and S. Ohdake extract anti-beriberi substance from rice hulls
1912 Casimir Funk coins the term "vitamin"
1913 Richard Willstatter determines structure of chlorophyll
1914 U. S. Congress passes Harrison Narcotic Act
1914 U. S. Congress passes Smith-Lever Act, establishing agricultural extension service
1915 Absinthe with wormwood banned
1916 Quaker Oats develops instant oatmeal
1917 Donald Jones develops double-cross hybrid maize
1917 Clarence Birdseye develops freezing techniques for preserving foods
1918 Rabe synthesizes quinine
1918 First use of airplane in crop dusting
1920 Alcohol use in U. S. prohibited by 18th Amendment to Constitution
1920 K. Spiro and A. Stoll extract ergotamine
1920 Joseph Krieger invents the tea bag
1920 Rudolf Boysen develops the boysenberry (blackberry x raspberry x loganberry)
1920 George Washington Carver testifies before U. S. Congress on uses for the peanut
1921 Thomas Hunt Morgan develops chromosome theory of heredity
1921 "Nobilized" form of sugar cane produced (Java)
1921 E. M. East and G. M. Shull produce hybrid maize
1922 First U. S. soybean refinery opens (Illinois)
1924 "Wheaties" introduced into U. S. market
1925 W. K. Kellogg develops Rice Crispies
1925 Robert Robinson synthesizes morphine
1925 Automatic potato-peeling machine invented
1926 N. I. Vavilov publishes "Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants"
1926 Henry Wallace founds Pioneer Hi-bred International
1926 Maize hybrid seed becomes available
1926 H. J. Mueller discovers that X-rays induce genetic mutations
1926 I. G. Farben invents Buna S (synthetic rubber)
1926 Ergot poisoning in U. S. S. R.
1927 John and Mack Rust perfect the mechanical cotton picker
1927 World population reaches 2 billion
1927 Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Harvey Firestone found Edison Botanic Research Foundation
1928 Sir Alexander Fleming discovers that Penicillium spores kill certain bacteria
1928 Albert Szent-Györgyi isolates Vitamin C from paprika pepper
1928 Josef Stalin orders collectivization of Soviet farms
1928 Windaus reports chemical structure of digitoxin
1929 A. Harden and H. von Euler-Chelpin win Nobel Prize for work on sugar fermentation
1929 E. Murphy and W. Chapman invent foam rubber
1929 Wonder Bread (Continental Bakery) introduces sliced bread
1929 American Maize Products develops first genetically modified maize
1929 General Foods develops Minute Rice
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1929 R. T. French develops instant mashed potatoes
1930 U. S. Congress passes Plant Patent Act
1930 Postum Co. markets frozen foods
1930 Castetter establishes masters program in ethnobotany at Univ. of New Mexico
1930 Sydney Smith isolates digoxin from Digitalis lanata
1930 Norman Haworth, English chemist, synthesizes Vitamin C
1931 Louis Lewin publishes "Phantastica..."
1931 Indian snakeroot reported as useful in treatment of certain mental disorders
1931 First plant hormone (indole acetic acid) discovered
1931 Wallace Carothers develops Du Prene (later called neoprene), first synthetic rubber
1932 Du Pont markets synthetic rubber
1932 Walter Haworth synthesizes Vitamin C
1932 Germans develop atabrine (quinachrine hydrochloride), a synthetic quinine
1932 Charles King isolates Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) from lemon juice
1933 Prohibition repealed by 20th Amendment to U. S. Constitution
1933 Golden Cross Bantam corn, first widely planted hybrid, introduced
1933 Ernest and Julio Gallo build winery in Modesto, California
1933 Soil Erosion Service established in U. S. Department of Interior
1934 J. P. Lent isolates coumarin from spoiled clover
1934 Wallace Carothers invents nylon, an artificial fiber
1934 Philip White and Roger Gautheret get plant tissue culture to survive
1935 Ergonovine proven effective in obstetrics
1935 Trofim Lysenko's "scientific" views become official Soviet policy
1935 Alcoholics Anonymous founded
1936 Andrei Belozersky isolates pure DNA
1936 Tadeusz Reichstein isolates cortisone
1937 Pierre Givaudon discovers colchicine induces chromosome doubling
1937 U. S. Congress passes Marijuana Tax Act
1937 Michael Sveda and L. F. Audrieth invent the artificial sweetener "Cyclamate"
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi awarded Nobel Prize (Chemistry) for discovery of Vit. C
1938 Arthur Stoll and Albert Hofman synthesize LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
1938 Nestlé Co. develops instant coffee (Switzerland)
1938 Richard Gill discovers that curare made from Chondrodendron tomentosum
1939 Paul Müller of Geigy Pharmaceuticals invents DDT, a powerful insecticide
1939 F. H. Muller relates smoking and lung cancer
1939 Japanese beetles threaten U. S. crops
1940 Automatic hay baler invented
1940 T. D. Lysenko becomes Director of Institute of Genetics in Soviet Union
1940 N. I. Vavilov arrested by Soviet government for being British spy
1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum develop "one-gene, one-enzyme" hypothesis
1941 Stem rust devastates Mexican wheat crop
1942 R. E. Marker synthesizes human sex hormones from Japanese yams
1942 U. S. Congress passes Opium Poppy Control Act
1942 P. H. Mueller of Switzerland describes insecticidal properties of DDT
1943 N. I. Vavilov dies in Soviet labor camp
1943 Albert Hofmann discovers LSD, a powerful hallucinogen
1943 DDT introduced to fight insects in U. S.
1943 Rockefeller Foundation and Mexican government found CIMYTT
1943 U. S. distilleries produce alcohol for synthetic rubber
1944 Robert Woodward and William Doering synthesize quinine
1944 Avery, McCarty, & McLeod identify DNA as molecular basis of heredity
1944 Chiquita banana introduced by United Fruit Co.
1945 2, 4-D introduced for general use
1945 Alton Ochsner relates smoking and lung cancer at Duke Univ. address
1945 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations founded in Rome
1945 Samuel Salmon discovers semi-dwarf wheat variety (NORIN 10)
1945 Univ. of California develops long-season strawberry
1946 Self-rising corn meal first marketed in U. S.
1946 Dutcher isolates d-tubocurarine
1947 Thor Heyerdahl's sails on the raft “Kon Tiki” from Peru to an island near Tahiti
1947 NORIN 10 gene introduced into North American wheat
1947 Karl Link develops Warfarin from an anticoagulant in sweet clover
1948 Cortisone found effective in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
1948 Liberty Hyde Bailey coins the term “cultivar”
1949 Robert Boyer patents vegetable protein fibers derived from soybeans
1950 Barbara McClintock publishes "The Origin and Behavior of Mutable Loci in Maize"
1950 Hoagland and Arnon develop balanced mixture of 11 nutritional salts
1950 Cyclamate introduced
1950 General Mills introduces "Minute Rice"
1950 Richard Doll, British physician, presents first statistical proof linking smoking and lung cancer
1951 Woodward synthesizes cortisone
1951 J. Watson, F. Crick, and M. Wilkins propose DNA structure
1952 Emil Schlitter isolates reserpine from Indian snakeroot
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick publish "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids"
1953 Evarts Graham and Ernest Wydner show that cigarette tars may cause cancer
1954 Woodward synthesizes strychnine
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1954 Nathan Kline develops resperpine (anti-depressant)
1954 Wheat stem rust destroys 75% of Durum wheat crop
1954 Ernest Sears demonstrates that wheat chromosomes can be substituted
1955 Hurricane Janet destroys 75% of Grenada's nutmeg trees (about 40% of world crop)
1955 Severo Ochoa synthesizes RNA
1955 James Schlatter develops aspartame, an artificial sweetener
1956 Sorghum hybrid seed becomes commercially available
1956 Arthur Kornberg synthesizes DNA
1956 Pincus discovers that wild yams will stop ovulation in humans
1956 U. S. Congress passes Narcotic Drug Control Act
1957 Gibberellins (plant growth hormones) isolated
1957 Vinca alkaloids from periwinkle found effective against leukemia
1957 Eli Lilly releases "Darvon," a codeine alternative
1958 Kiwi fruit domesticated
1958 Vinblastine (vinca alkaloid) isolated
1958 U. S. Congress requires enrichment of rice
1958 Sweet 'n Low introduced
1958 Mass of cultured cells gives rise to complete plants
1958 George Beadle and Edward Tatum win Nobel Prize for one gene-one enzyme work
1959 National Seed Storage Laboratory founded at Fort Collins, CO
1959 Society for Economic Botany founded
1959 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture seizes 25% of cranberry crop, fearing weed-killer contamination
1960 Astroturf, an artificial grass, invented
1960 Georges Morel clones cultured cells
1960 FDA approves Enovid for birth control
1960 World population reaches 3 billion
1961 J. A. Wilson and W. M. Ross develop stable cytoplasmic-male-sterile wheat
1961 Melvin Calvin wins Nobel Prize (Chemistry) for work on photosynthesis
1962 James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize (Medicine) for DNA work
1962 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) opens in Philippines
1962 Coby Lorenzen, Jr. invents tomato harvester
1962 Rachel Carson publishes “Silent Spring”
1964 Edwin Mertz develops high-lysine maize
1964 World Health Organization warns of psychological dependence on khat
1964 Mutant opaque-2 gene increases lysine and tryptophan content of maize
1964 IRRI begins "Green Revolution" with new strains of high-yield rice
1964 Surgeon General Luther Terry links cigarette smoking and lung cancer
1965 T. D. Lysenko dismissed as Director of Soviet Institute of Genetics
1965 V. Vasil and A. G. Hildebrant regenerate complete tobacco plant from single cells
1965 Standard Malaysian Rubber grading system comes into use
1965 Tetrahydocannabinols synthesized
1965 U. S. Congress requires warning labels on cigarettes
1965 U. S. Congress passes Drug Abuse Control Amendment
1966 International Rice Research Institute releases IR8 "Miracle Rice"
1966 Michael Sporn and coworkers report highly toxic aflatoxins on peanuts
1966 General Mills introduces flavored protein that tastes like bacon
1967 U. S. D. A. begins tests of irradiating food to kill insects
1967 A. E. Porsild and Charles Arington germinate 10,000 year old lupine seeds
1970 Norman Borlaug receives Nobel Prize (Peace) for development of dwarf wheat
1970 Sanforization of cotton fibers developed
1970 Male sterile strains of maize hit by southern leaf blight
1970 Rust hits Brazilian coffee crops causing $3 billion loss
1970 Barley hybrid seed becomes commercially available
1970 Arber, Smith, and Nathans discover restriction enzymes
1970 “Plants and Man” first taught at Humboldt State College
1971 Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) founded
1971 Canadian Int. Development Agency investigates triticale as food for humans
1971 First Starbucks opens
1972 Wild rice domesticated
1972 Black sigatoka fungus attacks Central American bananas
1972 Use of DDT banned in the U. S.
1973 High lysine strains of sorghum developed
1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen create DNA with sticky ends
1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer recombine and duplicate DNA from two species
1974 Wheat hybrid seed becomes commercially available
1975 Endorphins (naturally occurring morphine-like hormones) discovered
1975 Miller Brewing Company introduces "Lite" beer
1975 Soft drinks now more popular than coffee
1975 World population reaches 4 billion
1975 Schell & Van Montagu find crown gall genes occur in plasmids
1975 Seed Savers Exchange founded
1976 Soft drinks now more popular than milk
1976 HFCS (high fructose corn syrup) developed
1976 Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson found Genentech, first genetic engineering company
1979 Raphael Guzman discovers perennial teosinte (Mexico)
1980 Coca Cola switches from sugar to high fructose corn sweeteners
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1980 U. S. Supreme Court rules that genetically-engineered bacteria may be patented
1981 Castanospermine, useful in HIV treatment, isolated from Moreton Bay chestnut
1981 Whitely & Schnepf find gene in Bacillus thurgensensis that kills insects
1982 Horst Binding and Jonathan Gressel develop protoplast fusion
1983 Barbara McClintock receives Nobel Prize for discovery of "jumping genes"
1983 N. Murai inserts protein from bean plant into a sunflower
1983 NutraSweet, a synthetic sugar substitute, introduced
1983 Functioning bacterial plasmid transferred into plant cell
1983 Murray & Szostak construct first artificial chromosome
1985 T. Fujimara regenerates rice protoplasts
1985 U. S. Board of Patent Appeals rules that plants may be patented
1985 Coca Cola replaces its traditional recipe with a new, sweeter version
1986 Coca Cola pulls “New Coke” from market
1986 U. S. D. A. approves irradiation of fruits and vegetables
1986 U. S. D. A. approves field-testing of genetically altered, high-yield tobacco
1986 World population reaches 5 billion
1987 Genetically-engineered, frost-resistant potatoes field-tested in California
1987 Genetically modified tobacco with herbicide-tolerance, gene field-tested
1988 Carol Rhodes inserts foreign gene into maize
1988 U. S. carries out experiments using robots to pick fruits
1988 Monsanto Corporation field-tests Roundup-resistant tomato
1989 Taxol, from the Pacific yew, found effective in treatment of human breast cancer
1991 U. S. Government declares second-hand smoke a health hazard
1991 Sale of salsa in the U. S. exceeds that of ketsup
1992 One hundred ninety-two countries sign Convention on Biodiversity
1994 Food and Drug Administration approves sale of genetically-engineered "Flavr Savr" tomato
1994 First genetically-engineered food goes on sale in California and Illinois
1994 U. S. Congress passes Dietary Supplement Heath & Education Act
1995 Food and Drug Administration declares nicotine a drug
1995 Monsanto introduces Newleaf potato, genetically engineered to kill potato beetle
1995 Environmental Protection Agency approves marketing of genetically-engineered maize
1997 John Pezzato discovers anti-cancer properties of resveratol in grapes and other fruits
1997 The Liggett Group admits that tobacco is addictive
1997 U. S. District judge rules F. D. A. can regulate tobacco as a drug
1998 Delta & Pine Land Co. & U. S. D. A. patent “terminator gene”
1999 Institute of Medicine calls for clinical trials of medical marijuana
1999 Dupont purchases Pioneer Hi-Bred, world's largest seed corn company
1999 Food and Drug Administration approves use of "Olestra" in processed foods
1999 World population reaches 6 billion
1999 John Losey finds Bt corn pollen toxic to butterflies
1999 Plum pox found for first time in North America
1999 Monsanto releases “terminator seeds”
2000 Human genome decoded
2001 Aventis CropScience is ordered to pay millions in compensation for genetically altered corn
2001 Syngenta and Myriad Genetics decode rice genome
2001 U. S. Supreme Court rules that use of medicinal marijuana violates federal law
2001 Environmental Protection Agency renews authorization for use of genetically modified corn
2002 California Supreme Court ruling protects medicinal use of marijuana
2004 Ninth Circuit Court rules D. E. A. lacks authority to ban foods derived from hemp
2004 Food & Drug Administration bans ephedra – first ban of a dietary supplement
2005 Swiss government allows limited production of absinthe
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extending into the Mediterranean, Europe, Asia, and
North America. Trees or shrubs (rarely vines), often
1.5 ! TWENTY-FIVE with resinous bark. Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 10;
carpels 3 or 5, but only 1 functional. Fruit a drupe.
IMPORTANT FAMILIES Useful plants include Anacardium occidentale, cashew
(food, oil, dye); Mangifera indica, mango (food);
Pistacia vera, pistachio (food); Rhus spp., sumac,
lacquer tree (resins and dyes); Schinopsis spp.,
quebracho (tanning); Schinus spp., peppertree
There are various ways of surveying useful plants. I (beverage, medicine, flavoring); Spondias spp.,
will use the structure found in most textbooks on the golden apple, hog plum, mombin, Spanish plum
subject -- arrange the plants according to how we use (food); Toxicodendron spp., Chinese lacquer tree,
them, as opposed to some botanical scheme. While poison-ivy, poison-oak, and poison-sumac (resins and
this makes good sense, it obscures the fact that some dermatitis-producing).
plant families are economically more important than
others. Which plant families are high in useful plants?
Here is one analysis. Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)
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indehiscent nutlet. Useful plants include Atriplex spp., Hevea spp., Pará rubber (latex); Jatropha spp., physic
saltbush or orach (food); Beta vulgaris, beet, chard, nut (fixed oil, medicine, food); Manihot spp., cassava,
sugar beet (food, flavoring); Chenopodium quinoa, ceara rubber (food and latex); Phyllanthus acidus,
quinua [-oa] (food); Kochia scoparia, summer cypress Otaheite gooseberry (food); Ricinodendron spp.,
(food); Spinacia oleracea, spinach (food). mongongo nut (fixed oils, food); Ricinus communis,
castor bean (fixed oil); Sapium spp., tallow tree
(medicine, fish and arrow poisons, "jumping beans").
Compositae or Asteraceae
(Sunflower Family)
Fagaceae (Oak or Beech Family)
1317 genera and 21,000 species, second only to the
orchid family in number of species. Cosmopolitan. 7 genera and 1050 species. Common in the temperate
Vast majority are herbaceous; some are trees, shrubs, and tropical regions of both the New World and Old
vines, and epiphytes. Individual flowers are small and World. Trees and shrubs. Flowers small,
clustered into conspicuous heads of flowers, as in the inconspicuous, and unisexual. Sepals 4-6; petals 0;
sunflower. Sepals 0; petals 5; stamens 5; carpels 2. stamens 4-many; carpels 3, but only 1 is functional.
Fruit an achene. Useful plants include Arctium lappa, Fruit a nut, often inside a cup-like structure. Useful
gobo (food); Artemisia spp., tarragon, wormwood plants include Castanea spp., chestnut (food);
(flavoring); Carthamus tinctorius, safflower (fixed Chrysolepis spp., chinquapin (wood, food); Fagus
oils); Chrysanthemum spp., chrysanthemum spp., beech (timber); Nothofagus spp., southern
(insecticides); Cichorium spp., endive, chicory (food hemisphere beech (wood); Quercus spp., oaks
and flavoring); Cynara spp., cardoon, artichoke (timber, edible nuts).
(food); Helianthus spp., Jerusalem artichoke,
sunflower (food and oils); Lactuca sativa, lettuce
(food); Parthenium argentatum, guayule (latex); Gramineae or Poaceae (Grass Family)
Scorzonera hispanica, black oyster plant (food,
beverage); Tanacetum vulgare, tansy (medicine); 650-900 genera and 10,000 species. Cosmopolitan;
Tragopogon porrifolius, oyster plant or salsify (food). the most commonly encountered of the flowering
plants. Herbs (rarely shrubby or tree-like in the
bamboos). Flowers greatly reduced and inconspicuous,
Cruciferae or Brassicaceae (Mustard Family) arranged in units called spikelets. Sepals 2-3 (scale-
like); petals 0; stamens 3; carpels 3, only 1 of which
390 genera and 3000 species. Common in the cooler is functional. Fruit typically a caryopsis (grain). Useful
regions of the northern hemisphere (rare in the plants include Agrostis spp., redtop (pastures, lawns,
tropics). Mostly herbs (a few somewhat woody). Many golf courses); Arundinaria spp., cane (construction);
contain oil of mustard that imparts a characteristic Arundo donax, reed (reeds for clarinets and organs,
flavor and aroma. Sepals 4; petals 4; stamens 6 (2 fishing poles); Avena spp., oats (food and forage);
shorter than the other 4); carpels 2. Fruit a silique. Bambusa spp., bamboo (food and building materials);
Useful plants include Armoracia rusticana, horseradish Bromus spp. (pastures); Coix lacryma-jobi, Job's tears
(flavoring); Brassica spp., broccoli, Brussel sprouts, (food and ornamental jewelry); Cymbopogon spp.,
cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi, mustard, lemon grass and citronella (flavorings); Dactylis
rutabaga, turnip (food); Camelina sativa, false flax glomerata, orchard grass (pastures); Dendrocalamus
(fiber); Crambe spp. (food, fixed oil); Isatis tinctoria, spp., giant bamboo (food, construction); Echinochloa
woad (dye); Nasturtium officinale, water cress (food); spp., barnyard grass and millets (food); Eleusine
Raphanus sativus, radish (food). coracana, ragi or African millet (food); Hordeum spp.,
barley (food and beverage); Oryza sativa, rice (food);
Panicum miliaceum, proso millet (food); Pennisetum
Cucurbitaceae (Squash or Gourd Family) glaucum, pearl millet (food); Phleum pratense,
timothy (pastures); Phyllostachys spp. fish-pole
121 genera and 735 species. Common in warmer bamboo (food, construction); Saccharum officinarum,
regions of both the Old and New World. Mostly tendril- sugar cane (food, flavoring); Secale spp., rye (food
bearing, coarse, herbaceous vines. Flowers typically and beverages); Setaria spp., millets (food); Sorghum
unisexual. Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 5; carpels 3. bicolor, sorghum and broomcorn (silage, traditional
Fruit a pepo. Useful plants include Benincasa hispida, brooms); Triticum spp., wheat (food); Chrysopogon
wax gourd (food); Citrullus spp., bitter apple, citron zizanioides, vetiver or kush-kush (essential oil); Zea
melon, watermelon (food); Cucumis spp., cucumber, mays, maize or corn (food and industrial); Zizania
gherkin, melon (food); Cucurbita spp., cushaw, gourd, palustris (wild rice).
pumpkin, squash (food); Ecballium elaterium,
squirting cucumber (medicine); Lagenaria siceraria,
bottle gourd or calabash gourd (utensils, food, Labiatae or Lamiaceae (Mint Family)
medicine); Luffa aegyptiaca, vegetable sponge (fiber);
Sechium edule, chayote (food); Trichosanthes spp., 224 genera and 5400 species. Cosmopolitan; chiefly
snake gourds (food). Mediterranean. Herbs (rarely shrubs or trees), often
with 4-sided stems and opposite leaves. Plants often
pleasantly aromatic because of essential oils. Sepals
Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family) 5; petals 5; stamens 2 or 4; carpels 2. Fruit a 4-lobed
nutlet. Useful plants include Hyssopus officinalis,
326 genera and 7750 species. Widespread, especially hyssop (essential oil, medicine); Hyptis suaveolens,
in tropical Africa and tropical America. Shrubs, trees, wild spikenard (beverage); Lavandula spp., lavender
and herbs (often resembling cacti and confused with (essential oils); Majorana hortensis, sweet marjoram
them). Plants often with a milky sap that is toxic. (flavoring); Marrubium vulgare, hoarhound
Flowers unisexual. Sepals 0 or 5; petals 0 or 5; (flavoring); Melissa officinalis, balm (essential oil,
stamens 1, 5, or many; carpels 3. Fruit a schizocarp. medicine); Mentha spp., peppermint, spearmint
Useful plants include Aleurites spp., candlenut tree, (essential oils, flavorings); Monarda spp., Oswego tea,
tung oil tree (fixed oils); Cnidoscolus spp. (food, horsemint (essential oil, flavoring, medicine); Nepeta
latex); Croton spp., croton (medicine, fish poison); cataria, catnip (flavoring); Ocimum basilicum, basil
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(flavoring); Origanum spp., wild marjoram, oregano amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceae), century plant family
(flavoring); Perilla frutescens, perilla (essential oil); (Agavaceae), and as many as 40 other segregate
Rosmarinus officinalis, rosemary (essential oil, families. Cosmopolitan. Mostly perennial herbs (often
medicine); Salvia officinalis, sage (flavoring); Satureja with bulbs, rhizomes, or corms), sometimes quite
spp., savory (flavoring); Stachys spp., betony (food, large in the century plants and their relatives. Sepals
medicine); Thymus vulgaris, thyme (flavoring). 3; petals 3; stamens 6; carpels 3. Fruit a capsule or
berry. Useful plants include Agave spp., agave,
century plant, henequen, istle, maguey, sisal (fiber,
Lauraceae (Laurel Family) fermented and distilled beverages); Allium spp.,
chives, garlic, leek, onion, shallot (food, flavoring);
45 genera and 2200 species. Tropical and subtropical. Aloë vera, aloe (medicinal); Asparagus officinalis,
Trees and shrubs. Sepals 3; petals 3; stamens 12; asparagus (food); Camassia spp., camas (food);
carpels 3. Fruit a berry. Useful plants include Chlorogalum pomeridianum, California soaproot (fish
Cinnamomum spp., camphor, cassia, cinnamon poison); Colchicum autumnale, autumn crocus
(flavoring, medicinal); Laurus nobilis, bay or sweet (mitotic poison); Cordyline terminalis, ti (fiber);
bay (flavoring); Lindera benzoin, spice bush Dracaena spp., dragon's blood (dyes, medicinal);
(flavoring, beverage); Persea americana, avocado or Furcraea spp., cabuya, Mauritius hemp (fiber);
alligator pear (food); Sassafras albidum, sassafras Hyacinthus orientalis, hyacinth (essential oil);
(flavoring); Umbellularia californica, California bay Phormium tenax, New Zealand hemp (fiber);
(flavoring). Sansevieria spp., bowstring hemp (fiber); Scilla spp.,
squill (medicine, poison); Smilax spp., sarsaparilla
(flavoring); Urginea maritima, squill (rat poison);
Leguminosae or Fabaceae Yucca spp., yucca (fiber).
(Legume, Bean or Pulse Family)
657 genera and 16,400 species; probably the third Malvaceae (Mallow or Cotton Family)
largest family of flowering plants. Cosmopolitan.
Trees, shrubs, herbs, and vines. Plants often with 121 genera and 1550 species. Cosmopolitan,
symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Sepals 5; petals 5; especially well-represented in the New World tropics.
stamens 10-many; carpels 1. Fruit a legume. Useful Herbs and shrubs (rarely small trees). Plants often
plants include Acacia spp., acacia, wattle, gum arabic with branched hairs and mucilaginous sap. Sepals 3-5;
(dye, gum); Arachis hypogaea, peanut or goober petals 5; stamens many; carpels 5-many. Fruit a
(food, industrial uses for oils); Astragalus gummifer, capsule or berry. Useful plants include Abelomoschus
gum tragacanth (gum); Cajanus cajan, cajan pea esculentus, okra or gumbo (food); Abutilon spp.,
(food); Canavallia ensiformis, jack bean or horse bean (fiber, food, medicine); Gossypium spp., cotton (fiber,
(food); Cassia spp., senna (dye); Ceratonia siliqua, oil); Hibiscus spp., hibiscus, kenaf, Deccan hemp,
carob or St. John's bread (food); Cicer arietinum, roselle (food, oil, fiber, wood, medicine); Malva spp.,
chickpea (food); Copaifera spp. copal (resin); mallow (food, medicine, beverage); Sida spp.,
Dalbergia spp., rosewood (cabinetry); Cyamopsis Queensland hemp (fiber, medicine); Thespesia spp.
spp., guar, cluster bean (food, gum); Derris spp., (fiber, wood); Urena lobata, aramina (fiber).
derris root (fish poison); Dipteryx spp., tonka bean
(flavoring); Glycine max, soybean (food and industrial
uses); Glycyrrhiza glabra, licorice (flavoring); Moraceae (Mulberry or Fig Family)
Gymnocladus dioica, Kentucky coffee bean (coffee
substitute); Haematoxylon spp., logwood (dye); 48 genera and 1200 species. Mostly tropical. Trees
Indigofera spp., indigo (dye); Lablab purpureus, and shrubs (rarely herbs). Plants often with a milky
hyacinth bean (food); Lathyrus spp., sweet pea sap. Individual flowers unisexual, small, and borne in
(essential oil, food); Lens culinaris, lentil (food); heads, on flattened disk-like structures on inside a
Lonchocarpus spp., cube (fish poison); Lupinus spp., vase-like structure (the syconium of the fig). Sepals
lupine (food, coffee substitute); Mucuna spp., velvet 4; petals 0; stamens 4; carpels 2. Fruit an achene,
bean (food, medicine, fish poison); Myroxylon spp., nut, drupe, or false (as in the breadfruit and Osage
balsam of Tolu (resin); Pachyrrhizus spp., jicama, yam orange). Useful plants include Antiaris toxicaria, upas
bean (food); Parkia spp., locust bean (food); (arrow and dart poisons); Artocarpus spp., breadfruit,
Phaseolus spp., bean, common bean, lima bean jackfruit (food); Brosimum spp., breadnut or cow tree
(food); Physostigma venenosum, Calabar bean (ordeal (timber, food, fiber, latex); Broussonetia papyrifera,
poison); Piscidia piscipula, fish poison tree (fish paper mulberry (fiber); Castilla elastica, Panama
poison); Pisum sativum, pea or garden pea (food); rubber (latex); Ficus spp., Assam rubber, fig, Banyan
Pithecellobium saman, saman or rain tree (food, tree, strangler fig (food, latex); Maclura pomifera,
wood); Pongamia pinnata, pongam (essential oil, Osage orange, bois-d'arc (timber, dye); Morus spp.,
medicine); Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, winged bean mulberry (food for us and silkworms).
(food); Pterocarpus spp., barwood or rosewood
(wood); Robinia pseudoacacia, black locust (wood);
Sesbania exaltata, Colorado river hemp (fiber); Musaceae (Banana Family)
Sophora secundiflora, mescal bean (narcotic);
Tamarindus indica, tamarind (beverage); Tephrosia 2 genera and 42 species. Native to Africa, Asia, and
spp., tephrosia (fish poison, medicine); Trigonella Australia; none is native to the U. S. Large, tree-like
foenum-graecum, fenugreek (flavoring); Vicia faba, herbs. Flowers unisexual. Sepals 3; petals 3; stamens
broad bean, fava bean, or Windsor bean (food); Vigna 6; carpels 3. Fruit a leathery berry. Useful plants
spp., adzuki bean, cow pea, black-eyed pea, mung include Ensete ventricosum, Abyssinian banana or
bean (food). ensete (food); Musa spp., banana, plantain or platano
(food) and Manila hemp (fiber).
Liliaceae (Lily Family)
Myrtaceae (Myrtle Family)
312 genera and 5130 species, treated here in the
broad sense that includes plants often assigned to the 121 genera and 3850 species. Chiefly native to
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Australia and New World tropics. Trees or shrubs. stamens 8-10; carpels 4-5. Fruit a drupe, berry,
Sepals 4-5; petals 4-5; stamens many; carpels 2-3. samara, schizocarp, or hesperidium. Useful plants
Fruit a capsule or berry. Useful plants include include Casimiroa edulis, white sapote (food); Citrus
Eucalyptus spp., gum, karri (timber); Eugenia spp., bergamot, citron, grapefruit, lemon, lime,
uniflora, pitanga (food); Feijoa sellowiana, feijoa mandarin, orange, tangerine (food and flavoring);
(food); Melaleuca spp., cajeput (essential oil, Dictamnus albus, dittany (medicine); Fortunella spp.,
medicine); Pimenta spp., allspice, bay (flavorings); kumquat (food); Galipea officinalis, angostura
Psidium guajava, guava (food); Syzygium spp., clove, (flavoring); Pilocarpus jaborandi, jaborandi
jambolan, mountain apple, rose apple (food). (medicine); Poncirus trifoliata, trifoliate orange (food);
Ruta graveolens, rue (medicine).
Palmae or Arecaceae (Palm Family)
Solanaceae (Nightshade Family)
207 genera and 2675 species. Tropics and subtropics
of the Old World and New World. Mostly trees and 90 genera and 2600 species. Tropical and subtropical;
shrubs (rarely vines). We commonly recognize two center of distribution is New World. Herbs, shrubs,
groups of palms ("fan palms" and "feather palms") lianas, and trees. A number of species contain highly
based upon the general appearance of the leaves. toxic alkaloids. Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 5; carpels
Flowers small, but typically aggregated into large, 2. Fruit a berry or a capsule. Useful plants include
branched clusters. Sepals 3; petals 3; stamens 3; Atropa belladonna, belladonna (cosmetic, medicine);
carpels 3, only one of which may be functional. Fruit Brugmansia spp., tree datura (narcotic, ritual);
a berry or drupe. Useful plants include Areca catechu, Brunfelsia uniflora, manaca (medicine); Capsicum
betel nut (narcotic); Arenga pinnata, sugar palm spp., chilis, peppers (food and flavorings);
(sugar, beverage); Bactris gasipaes, peach palm Cyphomandra betacea, tree tomato (food); Datura
(food, beverage, oil, construction); Borassus spp., datura, jimson weed, thorn apple (narcotic and
flabellifer, palmyra palm (timber, fiber, drink, food); ritual use); Duboisia spp. (poison); Hyoscyamus spp.,
Calamus spp., rattan (furniture); Caryota urens, toddy henbane, black henbane (medicine); Lycium spp.,
palm (beverage); Cocos nucifera (food, building matrimony vine (food); Lycopersicon esculentum,
materials); Copernicia spp., carnauba wax palm, tomato (food); Mandragora spp., mandrake (narcotic,
Caranday palm (wax); Elaeis guineensis, African oil medicine); Nicotiana spp., tobacco (poisons, narcotic);
palm (oil); Metroxylon spp., sago palm (food); Physalis spp., ground cherry, husk tomato, tomatillo
Phoenix dactylifera, date palm (food); Raphia spp., (food); Solanum spp., aubergine or eggplant, potato,
raffia or wine palm (fiber, beverage); Sabal spp., naranjilla (food); Withania spp. (medicine, narcotic).
palmetto (food, fiber), Serenoa repens, saw palmetto
(medicine).
Umbelliferae or Apiaceae
(Carrot or Umbel Family)
Rosaceae (Rose Family)
420 genera and 3100 species. Primarily northern
107 genera and 3100 species. Cosmopolitan, temperate region. Herbs, sometimes woody (rarely
especially well-represented in Europe, Asia, and North trees). A characteristic odor and flavor are imparted
America. Trees, shrubs, and herbs. Sepals 5; petals 5; by a series of essential oils in the plant tissues.
stamens many; carpels 1 or 5 or many. Fruit an Flowers small, but occurring in conspicuous clusters.
achene, drupe, pome, follicle, or false (as in the Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 5; carpels 2. Fruit a
strawberry and raspberry). Useful plants include schizocarp. Useful plants include Anethum graveolens,
Cydonia oblonga, quince (food); Eriobotrya japonica, dill (flavoring); Angelica archangelica, angelica
loquat (food); Fragaria spp., strawberry (food); (flavoring); Apium graveolens, celeriac, celery (food);
Mespilus germanica, medlar (food); Malus domestica, Carum carvi, caraway (flavoring); Coriandrum
apple (food); Prunus spp., almond, apricot, cherry, sativum, coriander (flavoring); Cuminum cyminum,
nectarine, peach, plum (food); Pyrus communis, pear cumin (flavoring); Daucus carota, carrot (food); Ferula
(food); Quillaja saponaria, soapbark (soap, medicine); assafoetida, asafetida (medicine); Foeniculum vulgare,
Rubus spp., blackberry, dewberry, loganberry, fennel, finochio (flavoring); Levisticum officinale,
raspberry (food). lovage (flavoring); Pastinaca sativa, parsnip (food);
Petroselinum crispum, parsley (flavoring); Pimpinella
anisum, anise (flavoring).
Rubiaceae (Madder Family)
637 genera and 10,700 species. Tropical and Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family)
subtropical regions of both the Old World and the New
World. Trees and shrubs, sometimes herbs (as in most 53 genera and 1200 species. Tropics and subtropics;
of our North American plants). Sepals 4-5; petals 4-5; none is native to the U. S. Herbs, sometimes large.
Stamens 4-5; carpels 2. Fruit a capsule or berry. Sepals 3; petals 3; stamens 2-3; carpels 3. Fruit a
Useful plants include Cephaelis ipecacuanha, ipecac capsule. Useful plants include Aframomum melegueta,
(medicine); Cinchona spp., quinine (medicine and grains of paradise (food); Alpinia spp., galanga
flavoring); Coffea spp., coffee (beverage); Morinda (flavoring, medicine); Curcuma spp., arrowroot,
citrifolia, Indian mulberry, noni (dye, food, medicine); turmeric, zedoary (flavoring); Elettaria cardamomum,
Rubia tinctorum, madder (dye); Uncaria gambir, cardamon (flavoring); Kaempferia spp. (flavoring,
gambier (tanning, dye). medicine); Zingiber spp., ginger (flavoring).
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single tree produced enough cork for 100,000 bottles
of wine. The average yield is closer to 4000 corks.
1.6 ! PLANT KINGDOM Fastest growing plant: Chaparral yucca (Yucca
RECORDS whipplei). It grew 12 ft. in 14 days.
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Heaviest gourd: 196 lbs., grown in England Most paid in modern times for a tulip bulb:
$480,000 in 1987!
Heaviest watermelon: 262 lbs., grown in Tennessee
Most paid for a bottle of Scotch: $79,552 for a 50
Heaviest pumpkin: 990 lbs., grown in Canada yr. old Glenfiddich
Heaviest squash: 900 lbs., grown in Canada Most paid for an herbal medicine: $18,678,624 for
1 oz. of ginseng from the Chan Pak Mtn. area in China
Heaviest tomato: 7 lbs. 12 ozs., grown in Oklahoma
Herbal remedy in longest continuous use:
Heaviest grapefruit: 61 lbs. 8.5 ozs., grown in ephedra or mahuang (Ephedra sinica), a
Arizona gymnosperm, has been in use for 10,000 years
Heaviest potato: 18 lbs. 4 ozs., grown in England Most commonly used herbal remedy worldwide:
leaf extract of the ginkgo or maidenhair tree (Ginkgo
Heaviest sweet potato: 40 lbs. 12 ozs., grown in biloba).
Georgia
Most commonly purchased herbal remedy in the
Heaviest radish: 37 lbs. 15 ozs., grown in Australia United States: echinacea or coneflower (Echinacea
spp.), a member of the sunflower family.
Most expensive spice imported into the United
States: saffron (Crocus sativus), costing $2600 per
lb. ... and finally, the ugliest, least nutritious, most
distasteful, and generally worthless member of
Most paid for a white truffle: $8820 per pound for the entire plant kingdom: the eggplant (Solanum
specimens from Alba, Italy melongena), a relative of the much more useful potato
and tomato.
Most paid for unusual coffee beans: $300 per lb.
for Indonesian beans whose special flavor comes from
having been passed through the intestinal tract of a
civet cat (yes, really!)
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SECTION 2 ! DOMESTICATION
“Economic botany is a necessity for human survival
but a potential hazard to the survival of Nature.”
2.1 - AN OVERVIEW [G. Kunkel]
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In other words, this monumental event (or process) Size of Plants/Plant Parts:
that has so changed the way we live on this planet ' Increase (as in maize and potato)
occurred one minute before midnight on the very last ' Decrease (as in dwarf wheats)
day of the "Cosmic Year."
Chemical Constituents:
' Increase (as in % of corn oil, THC, etc.)
' Decrease (as in % of nicotine, HCN, etc.)
THE PROCESS OF DOMESTICATION
Aesthetics:
“Domestication is a biological process that invokes ' Palatability
changes in the genotype and physical characteristics ' Uniformity
of plants and animals as they become dependent upon ' Color and texture
humans for reproductive success.”
[Price & Gebauer, 1995]
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rapidity of the phenomena of vegetation -- whence We probably owe our knowledge of the uses of almost
often results the quality of ligneous [woody] or all plants to man having originally existed in a
herbaceous plants, and of perennial, biennial, or barbarous state, and having been often compelled by
annual." severe want to try as food almost everything which he
could chew and swallow."
"The classification of varieties made by agriculturists
and gardeners are generally based on those
characters which vary most (form, size, colour, taste WHEN DID IT OCCUR?
of the fleshy parts, beard in the ears of corn, etc.).
Botanists are mistaken when they follow this example; The answer is reasonably straightforward – at various
they should consult those more fixed characters of the times in different places around the world. The
organs for the sake of which the species are not question also implies that domestication is a past
cultivated." event. We continue to guide the evolution of plants
and animals around us.
"No distinctive character is known between a
naturalized plant which arose several generations back DOMESTICATED PLANTS
from a cultivated plant, and a wild plant sprung from
plants which have always been wild." B. C. E. Where ?
"A species may have had, previous to cultivation, a 9000 Emmer wheat Near East
restricted habitation, and subsequently occupy an 9000 Barley Near East
immense area as a cultivated and sometimes a 8500 Lima bean South America
naturalized plant." 8000 Potato Peru
8000 Pumpkin Central America
"In the history of cultivated plants, I have noticed no 8000 Sweet potato Peru
trace of communication between the peoples of the 8000 Common bean South America
old and new worlds before the discovery of America by 7500 Rice Indochina
Columbus.... Between America and Asia two 7500 Rye Syria
transports of useful plants perhaps took place, the one 7000 Einkorn wheat Syria
by man (the Batata, or sweet potato) the other by the 7000 Durum wheat Anatolia
agency of man or of the sea (the cocoa-nut palm)." 7000 Yam Indonesia
7000 Banana Indonesia
CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN (1809-1882) is 7000 Coconut Indonesia
probably best known for his great work, “The Origin of 7000 Sugar cane New Guinea
Species by Means of Natural Selection.” Another of his 6500 Gourds Mexico
most important contributions to the field of natural 6500 Flax Central Europe
history is "The Variation of Animals and Plants under 6300 Quinoa South America
Domestication." In these quotes from the second 6000 Bread wheat Southwest Asia
edition, you will see that Darwin took a very different 6000 Citrus Indochina
approach to the problem. 6000 Lentil Southwest Asia
6000 Squash Mexico
"The subject is involved in much difficulty. Botanists 6000 Finger millet Ethiopia
have generally neglected cultivated varieties, as 5500 Maize Mexico
beneath their notice. In several cases the wild 5500 Foxtail millet China
prototype is unknown or doubtfully known; and in 5500 Peach China
other cases it is hardly possible to distinguish between 5000 Avocado Mexico
escaped seedling and truly wild plants, so that there 4500 Date palm India
is no safe standard of comparison by which to judge 4500 Sorghum Sudan
of any supposed amount of change. Not a few 4300 Upland cotton Mexico
botanists believe that several of our anciently 4300 Tepary bean Mexico
cultivated plants have become so profoundly modified 4000 Grape Turkestan
that it is not possible now to recognise their aboriginal 4000 Oil palm Sudan
parent-forms." 3500 Olive Crete
3300 Jack bean South America
"... M. De Candolle concludes that plants have rarely 3300 Coca South America
been so much modified by culture that they cannot be 3000 Cotton India
identified with their wild prototypes. But on this view, 3000 Peanut Peru
considering that savages probably would not have 2500 African yam West Africa
chosen rare plants for cultivation, that useful plants 2000 Alfalfa Iran
are generally conspicuous, and that they could not 1500 Soybean Manchuria
have been the inhabitants of deserts or of remote and 1500 African rice West Africa
recently discovered islands, it appears strange to me 1300 Cassava South America
that so many of our cultivated plants should still be 1300 Sunflower North America
unknown or only doubtfully known in the wild state. If, 1000 Oats Europe
on the other hand, many of these plants have been 500 Tea Tibet
profoundly modified by culture, the difficulty 500 Cloves Indonesia
disappears. The difficulty would also be removed if 500 Currant Eurasia
they have been exterminated during the progress of 400 Tobacco South America
civilisation; but M. De Candolle has shown that this 100 Sieva bean Mexico
probably has seldom occurred."
C. E.
"From innumerable experiments made through dire
necessity by the savages of every land, with the 200 Potato Peru/Bolivia
results handed down by tradition, the nutritious, 500 Sweet potato Polynesia
stimulating, and medicinal properties of the most 1400 Coffee Arabia
unpromising plants were probably first discovered....
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1800 Jute India charge of over 400 research units and experiment
1801 Sugar beet Silesia stations in the U. S. S. R. from 1921 to 1934. He
1958 Kiwi fruit engaged in extensive field work in Afghanistan,
1972 Wild rice North America Ethiopia, China, Central America, and South America.
It was the detailed knowledge from this vast amount
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS of field work that formed the basis of many of his
theories.
B. C. E.
Much of Vavilov’s work on the origin of cultivated
15,000 Dog East Asia plants is summarized in "Phytogeographic Basis of
9000 Sheep Iran/Afghanistan Plant Breeding" (1951). Vavilov recognized eight
8000 Goat Near East independent areas that are now variously referred to
7500 Water buffalo Indochina as centers of origin or as centers of diversity. The
7500 Pig East Asia two concepts are not the same, although the terms
7000 Cattle Turkey are often used interchangeably. These centers are
5000 Chicken Asia separated from one another by extensive deserts or
5000 Llama Peru mountain ranges that acted as barriers to the
5000 Alpaca Peru movement of plants and primitive peoples. Taken as
4500 Horse Ukraine a whole, the eight areas occupy only 1/40th of the
4000 Silkworm China land surface of the earth.
3000 Donkey Palestine
3000 Arabian camel Iran Vavilov's early work, resulting in his designating these
3000 Elephant India eight centers of origin, rests on the premise that the
3000 Mule Palestine place of origin of a particular kind of cultivated plant
2500 Cat Egypt is that area where we encounter the greatest number
2500 Yak Tibet of genetic varieties or strains of that plant. This idea
2000 Guinea-pig Peru was not original with Vavilov, but he did much to
500 Reindeer Central Asia substantiate it by collecting tremendous amounts of
300 Turkey Mexico data on his numerous expeditions. At first, the
concept was widely accepted. In recent years,
however, Vavilov's work has come under increasing
WHERE DID IT FIRST OCCUR? criticism.
In 1807, Baron Alexander von Humboldt observed, Vavilov himself recognized the validity of some of
"The birthplace, the original homeland of plants most these criticisms and made certain basic changes in his
useful to man is as impenetrable a secret as the theories. Probably the major improvement in his
question of the origins of domestic animals... We do theories involves recognizing that what he called
not know in what region first appeared in their wild "centers of origin" should have been called "centers of
form wheat, barley, oats and rye." diversity." The Abyssinian Center of Vavilov contains
many plants that had their origins elsewhere. Crops
Habitat. Since that time, a variety of habitats have such as wheats, barleys, peas, flax, and lentils have
been suggested, including (1) arid hillsides or great diversity there, but their sites of origin may well
mountainous regions; (2) grasslands; (3) edges of be in the Middle East. None of the wild counterparts of
forests; (4) rubbish heaps; (5) stream terraces; and these plants occurs in Ethiopia. This presents a serious
(6) edges of lakes and rivers. problem, unless we accept the idea that domesticated
plants arise de novo. In an attempt to answer this
Geography. In attempting to locate the geographic criticism, Vavilov distinguished between "primary
region where domestication arose, attention was first centers" where domestication began and "secondary
directed to locations in the Old World. Fossil remains, centers" where cultivated plants may be found after
although scanty, were there. The earliest come from the initial domestication.
present-day Iraq and Iran, from sites in the Zagros
Mountains. The fossils have been dated at 8000 B. C. A summary of Vavilov's eight centers, their geographic
E. They consist of grinding stones, obsidian tools, delimitations, and their most important plant species
bones of domesticated sheep and goats, and a few is presented below.
grains of two kinds of domesticated wheat and one of
domesticated barley. Three or four thousand years I. The Chinese Center. This is the largest center of
later, a second major center of domestication origin. It covers the mountainous regions of central
appeared in China or Southeast Asia. The people of and western China and the adjacent lowlands. 136
that region first domesticated a small-grained cereal species, including the peach, apricot, cherry, walnut,
called millet. Rice and the soybean came later. kumquat, loquat, persimmon, litchi, water chestnut,
taro, soybean, rhubarb, eggplant (now you can see
In the New World, studies have centered on this hideous creature in its true light -- a communist
Mesoamerica and South America, especially sites in plot against all right-thinking citizens!), cucumber,
Mexico and Peru. The great Indian civilizations of broomcorn millet, tea, mulberry, paper mulberry,
these areas were based upon the domestication of opium poppy, ginseng, sesame seeds, tung nut oil,
maize, squashes, beans, quinoa, and the potato. China berry, cassia, ramie, and hemp.
CENTERS OF ORIGIN II. The Indian Center. This center includes Burma
and Assam, but it excludes northwest India, the
Nickolay Ivanovich Vavilov (1887-1943) was one Punjab, and the northwestern frontier region. 117
of the leading investigators of the origin of cultivated species, including many peas and beans, mango,
plants. He held several high positions in the Soviet orange, jack fruit, betel nut, chaulmoogra oil tree,
scientific establishment, including President of the rice, sorghum, madder, Indian rubber tree, yam,
Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Director henna, madder, black pepper, cardamon, cumin,
of the Institute of Plant Industry. Vavilov was in cinnamon, coconut, safflower, black mustard, gum
Arabic, and sandalwood.
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IIa. The Indo-Malayan Center. This area includes
the Malay Archipelago, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, the Near East 83 12.5
Philippines, and Vietnam. 55 species, including the Mediterranean 84 12.6
banana, plantain, mangosteen, durian, air potato, Abyssinian 38 5.7
pokeweed, ginger, vetiver, clove tree, nutmeg, black Mesoamerican 49 7.4
pepper, sugar cane, Manila hemp, gutta-percha, Job's S. American 62 9.3
tears, and candlenut tree.
Certain facts are immediately apparent from these
III. The Central Asiatic Center. The area includes lists. First, the vast majority of the 666 species
northwest India, Afghanistan, the Soviet Republics of treated by Vavilov are of Old World origin. Only 111
Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan, and western Tian-Shan. are New World plants. About 80% of the Old World
42 species, including the pistacio, apricot, pear, plants had their origin in southern Asia. The
almond, Russian olive, grape, English walnut, apple, mountains and tropical regions of Asia are the home
lentils, mung bean, flax, coriander, carrot, turnip, of many plants that we use today. Second, there are
onion, garlic, spinach, bread wheat, and cotton. major continental areas that are particularly poor in
major endemic cultivated plants. They are North
IV. The Near-Eastern Center. This center occupies America, Europe, Africa, and Australia. This is not to
the Near East. 83 species, including nine endemic say that these areas are devoid of cultivated plants
wheats, fig, pomegranate, cherry, hazelnut, chestnut, that played some role in the ethnobotanical
pistachio, Russian olive, rye, oats, cantaloupe, development of peoples. It is just that they are
pumpkins, cabbage, carrot, leeks, lettuce, alfalfa, impoverished in major cultivated plants. Can you
vetch, anise, anisette, sumac, and coriander. name, for instance, a major crop plant that is native
to the United States?
V. The Mediterranean Center. This center occupies
the Mediterranean region. 84 species, including the
garden beet, turnip, chives, asparagus, celery,
chicory, parsnip, salsify, Spanish oyster, caraway, VAVILOV AND LYSENKO
fennel, thyme, hyssop, hops, lavender, peppermint,
rosemary, sage, laurel, three kinds of wheat, black As Vavilov’s fame grew around the world, he found
and white mustards, carob, madder, and sumac. himself the target of scientific and political opposition,
especially from one of his staff members, an ambitious
VI. The Abyssinian Center. This center includes charlatan named Trofim D. Lysenko. He claimed that
Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is limited in both size and in chromosomes did not exist and that the field of
the number of endemic species. 38 species, including genetics was just some silly notion of a Catholic monk
teff, raggi, pearl millet, fenugreek, cow pea, hyacinth (Mendel). His bizarre ideas of crop breeding included
bean, castor bean, khat, coffee, okra, myrrh, and the belief that one species of plant could be
indigo. transformed into another in a matter of months.
Unfortunately for Soviet agriculture in general, and for
VII. South American & C. American Center. In Vavilov in particular, Lysenko had a very powerful
addition to southern Mexico and Central America, this patron -- none other than Josef Stalin himself.
center also includes the Antilles. 49 species, including Lysenko finally decided that his position was strong
the prickly pear, soursop, sapodilla, three kinds of enough to bring down Vavilov, who was accused of
sapote, papaya, avocado, guava, star apple, cashew, being a British spy, accepting the concepts of western
yam bean, sweet potato, arrowroot, chayote, agave, scientists, and rejecting those of Soviet workers,
cherry tomato, cacao, annatto, tobacco, lima bean, including Lysenko. Vavilov was arrested, tried, and
tepary bean, upland cotton, sisal, henequen, maize, sentenced to death. He was put in one of the infamous
and various peppers. Siberian labor camps. He became a “non-person.” One
of the 20th century’s most distinguished scientists
VIII. The South American Center. This center simply failed to exist. The circumstances surrounding
includes Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Many of the Vavilov's death remained unclear for many years. Now
endemic plants occur in the high mountains. The we know that he died in 1943 of starvation and heart
region is characterized by unusual potatoes and other disease.
tuber-bearing plants. 45 species, including potatoes,
oka, nasturtium, tomato, tree tomato, ground cherry, Lysenko became a dominant figure in Soviet
pumpkin, peppers, marigold, coca, passion flowers, agriculture, which accounts, at least in part, for
quinoa, Egyptian cotton, quinine, and tobacco. decades of food shortages as the collective farms were
forced to adopt his scientifically discredited
VIIIa. The Chiloe Center. This is the smallest center procedures. Lysenko fell from grace when Nikita
of origin, a small island off southern Chile. 4 species, Khrushchev was ousted. A few years later, the Soviet
including the white potato and wild strawberry. government not only acknowledged that Vavilov had
existed, but it restored his reputation and accorded
VIIIb. The Brazilian-Paraguayan Center. Although him great honors.
rich in wild plants, this center is poor in its number of
cultivated species. 13 species, including manioc, TIMELINE: N. I. VAVILOV
peanut, cacao, the rubber tree, Paraguay tea,
pineapple, Brazil nut, and cashew. 1887 Born in Moscow
1913 Studies in England
NUMERICAL SUMMARY OF CENTERS 1917 Becomes Professor at Univ. of Saratov
1921 Heads All-Union Inst. of Plant Industry
1922 Publishes “Law of Homologous Series”
Center Number of % of Total 1926 Publishes “Centers of Origin...”
Species 1932 Visits U. S.
1938 Visits U. S.
Chinese 136 20.4 1938 Replaced by Lysenko as President of Academy of
Indian 172 25.8 Agricultural Science
Central Asia 42 6.3 1939 Elected President of International Congress in
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Edinburgh North American
1940 Arrested for being a spy for England
1941 Sentenced to death Hawkes (1983)
1943 Dies in Soviet labor camp at Saratov
1967 Vavilov’s rehabilitation begins Nuclear Centers:
Northern China
TIMELINE: T. D. LYSENKO The Near East
Southern Mexico
1898 Born in Ukraine Central to southern Peru
1933 Presents paper at All-Union Collective
1936 First public attack on western genetics Regions of Diversity:
1938 President of Agricultural Academy China
1939 Appointed Academician India
1940 Director of Institute of Genetics Southeast Asia
1945 Becomes “Hero of Soviet Labor” Central Asia
1948 Publishes “Agrobiology” The Near East
1948 Begins purge of opposing scientists The Mediterranean
1949 Awarded Stalin Prize for “Agrobiology” Ethiopia
1953 Joseph Stalin dies West Africa
1955 Awarded Michurin Gold Medal Meso-america
1956 Forced to resign from some posts Northern Andes
1965 Forced from power
1976 Dies in Moscow Outlying Minor Centers:
Japan
New Guinea
THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE
Northwestern Europe
De Candolle, Darwin, Vavilov and other scientists of United States & Canada
the 19th and early 20th century used a number of The Caribbean
different sources of evidence in their investigations of Southern Chile
the origins of our domesticated plants. They include: Brazil
Chinese-Japanese
Indochinese-Indonesian
Australian CURRENT VIEW OF ANCESTRAL
Hindustani HOME OF OUR MAJOR CROPS
Central Asian
Near Eastern
Mediterranean Using the latest information at our disposal, what is
African the ancestral home of many of our better known
European-Siberian domesticated plants?
South American
Central American & Mexican
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NORTH AMERICA Tomate Physalis ixocarpa
Tuna Opuntia megacanthos
Chestnut Castanea dentata Vanilla Vanilla planifolia
Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon Yam, Mexican Dioscorea floribunda
Devil’s claw Proboscidea parviflora Yam bean Pachyrrhizus erosus
Ground nut Apios tuberosa
Jerusalem artichoke Helianthus tuberosus
Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis SOUTH AMERICA
Mulberry, red Morus rubra
Pecan Carya illinoensis Achiote Bixa orellana
Persimmon Diospyros virginiana Achira Canna edulis
Pokeweed Phytolacca americana Achis Amaranthus caudatus
Strawberry, Virginia Fragaria virginiana Añil Indigofera suffruticosa
Sumpweed Iva axillaris Annatto Bixa orellana
Sunflower Helianthus annuus Añu Tropaeolum tuberosum
Walnut, black Juglans nigra Arracacha Arracacia xanthorrhiza
Wild rice Zizania aquatica Arrowroot Maranta arundinacea
Banana passion fruit Passiflora mollissima
MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Bean, common Phaseolus vulgaris
Bean, jack Canavalia ensiformis
Aguacate Persea spp. Bean, Lima Phaseolus lunatus
Amaranth Amaranthus hypochondriacus Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria
Arrowroot Maranta arundinacea Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa
Avocado Persea americana Brazilian pepper tree Schinus molle
Bean, common Phaseolus vulgaris Caapi Banisteriopsis caapi
Bean, scarlet runner Phaseolus coccineus Cacao Theobroma cacao
Bean, sword Canavalia ensiformis Cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule
Bean, tepary Phaseolus acutifolius Cashew Anacardium occidentale
Calabash tree Crescentia cujete Cassava Manihot esculenta
Capulín Prunus serotina Cherimoya Annona cherimola
Cassava Manihot esculenta Coca Erythroxylum coca
Castilloa rubber Castilla elastica Cotton, sea island Gossypium barbadense
Century plant Agave spp. Guaraná Paullinia cupana
Ceriman Monstera deliciosa Inca-wheat Amaranthus caudatus
Chan Hyptis suaveolens Ipecac Cephaelis ipecachuana
Chayote Sechium edule Jícama Pachyrrhizus spp.
Chia Hyptis suaveolens Lulo Solanum quitoense
Chia Salvia spp. Maca Lepidium meyenii
Chiclé Manilkara zapota Manioc Manihot esculenta
Cotton, upland Gossypium hirsutum Maté Ilex paraguariensis
Custard apple Annona squamosa Mesquite Prosopis juliflora
Grain amaranth Amaranthus hypochondriacus Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus
Guava Psidium guajava Oca Oxalis tuberosa
Guayule Parthenium argentatum Pará rubber Hevea brasiliensis
Henequen Agave fourcroyes Peanut Arachis hypogaea
India-fig Opuntia ficus-indica Pineapple Ananas comosus
Jícama Pachyrrhizus erosus Potato Solanum tuberosum
Kapok Ceiba pentandra Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa
Maguey Agave atrovirens San Pedro cactus Echinopsis pachanoi
Maize Zea mays Squash Cucurbita maxima
Manioc Manihot esculenta Tannia Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Marigold Tagetes patula Tobacco Nicotniana tabacum
Mescal Agave tequilina Tobacco, Aztec Nicotiana rustica
Mescal bean Sophora secundiflora Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
Nance Byrsonima crassifolia Tree-gourd Crescentia cujete
Panic grass Panicum sonorum Tree-tomato Cyphomandra betacea
Papaya Carica papaya Ulluco Ullucus tuberosus
Pepper, aji Capsicum frutescens Yacón Polymnia sonchifolia
Pepper, bell Capsicum annuum Yam, cush-cush Dioscorea trifida
Pepper, chile Capsicum annuum Yaupón Ilex vomitoria
Pepper, tabasco Capsicum frutescens Yautia Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Pimento Pimento dioica Yoco Paullinia yoco
Prickly-pear Opuntia spp.
Prickly-poppy Argemone mexicana EUROPE & SIBERIAN ASIA
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo
Ramón Brosimum alicastrum Asparagus Asparagus officinalis
Sapodilla Manilkara zapota Barberry Berberis vulgaris
Sapote, black Diospyros ebenaster Beach grass, European Ammophila arenaria
Sapote, white Casimiroa edulis Brussel sprouts Brassica oleracea
Sea-grape Coccoloba uvifera Buckthorn Rhamnus catharticus
Sisal Agave sisalana Burdock Arctium lappa
Soursop Annona muricata Caraway Carum carvi
Squash Cucurbita spp. Chamomile Anthemis nobilis
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas Chicory Cichorium intybus
Sweet sop Annona squamosa Crested wheat grass Agropyron cristatum
Teosinte Zea spp. Dame’s rocket Hesperis matronalis
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Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Psyllium Plantago psyllium
Fescue, meadow Festuca pratensis Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum cineriaefolium
Fescue, sheep Festuca ovina Radish Raphanus sativus
Fescue, tall Festuca arundinacea Rape Brassica napus
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis
Good King Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus Saffron Crocus sativus
Gorse Ulex europaeus Sage Salvia officinale
Gromwell Lithospermum officinale Salsify Tragopogon porrifolius
Hens-and-chickens Sempervivum tectorum Scorzonera Scorzonera hispanicus
Hops Humulus lupulus Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris
Horse radish Armoracia rusticana Squill Urginea maritima
Lamb’s quarter Chenopodium album Squirting cucumber Ecballium elaterium
Madder Rubia tinctoria St. John’s bread Ceratonia siliqua
Meadow foxtail Alopecurus pratensis Subterranean clover Trifolium subterranea
Monkshood Aconitum napellus Thyme Thymus vulgaris
Mountain-spinach Atriplex hortensis Turnip Brassica rapa
Orchard grass Dactylis glomerata
Parsnip Pastinaca sativa AFRICA
Pear Pyrus communis
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Abyssinian banana Ensete ventricosum
Reed canary grass Phalaris arundinacea Abyssinian oat Avena strigosa
Rye grass Lolium perenne African oil palm Elaeis guineensis
Sea kale Crambe maritima Air-potato Dioscorea bulbifera
Soapwort Saponaria officinalis Akee Blighia sapida
Sweet flag Acorus calamus Bambara groundnut Voandzeia subterranea
Sweet vernal grass Anthoxanthum odoratum Baobab Adansonia digitata
Valerian Valeriana officinalis Bean, hyacinth Lablab niger
Velvet grass Holcus lanatus Black-eyed pea Vigna unguiculata
Watercress Nasturtium officinale Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria
Bowstring hemp Sansieveria trifasciciata
MEDITERRANEAN COAST Butter tree Butryospermum paradoxum
Calabar bean Physostigma venenosa
Aloe Aloë vera Castor bean Ricinus communis
Anise Pimpanella anisum Coffee, Arabian Coffea arabica
Artichoke Cynara scolomus Coffee, Liberian Coffee liberica
Balm Melissa officinalis Coffee, robusta Coffea canephora
Bean, broad Vicia faba Cowpea Vigna unguiculata
Bean, fava Vicia faba Date palm Phoenix dactylifera
Beet Beta vulgaris Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum
Belladonna Atropa belladonna Ensete Ensete ventricosum
Black henbane Hyoscyamus niger Fonio Digitaria spp.
Borage Borago officinalis Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Cabbage Brassica oleracea Gum arabic Acacia senegal
Cardoon Cynara cardunculus Hottentot-fig Mesembryanthemum edule
Carnation Dianthus caryophylleus Iboga Tabernanthe iboga
Carob Ceratonia siliqua ?? Indigo Indigofera tinctoria
Carrot Daucus carota Jaragua grass Hyparrhenia rufa
Capers Capparis spinosa Kafir-potato Plectranthus esculentus
Celery Apium graveolens Karité Butryospermum paradoxum
Chard Beta vulgaris Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus
Chaste tree Vitex angus-caste Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum
Coriander Coriandrum sativum Kola nut Cola acuminata
Dill Anethum graveolens Kola nut Cola nitida
Esparto Stipa tenacissima Melegueta pepper Aframomum melegueta
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Millet, bulrush Pennisetum typhoides
Garden cress Lepidium sativum Millet, finger Eleusine coracana
Garlic Allium sativum Millet, Guinea Brachiaria deflexa
Giant reed Arundo donax Millet, pearl Pennisetum glaucum
Grape Vitis vinifera Molasses grass Melinis minutiflora
Harding grass Phalaris tuberosa Mongongo nut Schinziophyton rautanenii
Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis Musk melon Cucumis melo
Laurel Laurus nobilis Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
Lavender Lavandula officinale Natal plum Carissa grandiflora
Leek Allium porrum Oyster nut Telfairia spp.
Lettuce Lactuca sativa Periwinkle Catharanthus roseus
Mangle Beta vulgaris Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan
Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis Qat Catha edulis
Mustard, black Brassica nigra Rhodes grass Chloris gayana
Myrtle Myrtus communis Rice, African Oryza glaberrima
Oat Avena sativa Sesame Sesamum indicum
Oleander Nerium oleander Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Olive Olea europaea Tamarind Tamarindus indica
Onion Allium cepa Teff Eragrostis tef
Opium poppy Papaver somniferum Tree cotton Gossypium arboreum
Papyrus Cyperus papyrus Watermelon Citrullus lanatus
Parsley Petroselinum crispum Weeping lovegrass Eragrostis curvula
-41-
Yam, white Dioscorea rotundata Kikuyu Aleurites moluccana
Yam, yellow Dioscorea cayenensis Lemon Citrus limon
Lime Citrus aurantiifolia
NEAR EAST Longan Nephelium lappaceum
Mandarin orange Citrus reticulata
Alfalfa Medicago sativa Mango Mangifera indica
Barley Hordeum vulgare Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana
Cabbage Brassica oleracea Manila hemp Musa textilis
Caraway Carum carvi Nutmeg Myristica fragrans
Coriander Coriandrum sativum Orange, sour Citrus aurantia
Cumin Cuminum cyminum Orange, sweet Citrus sinensis
Filbert Corylus spp. Pommelo Citrus maxima
Flax Linum usitissimum Pummelo Citrus grandis
Goat grass Aegilops ovata Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum
Garden pea Pisum sativum Rice, common Oryza sativa
Grape Vitis vinifera Rice, red Oryza rufipogon
Grass pea Lathyrus sativus Sago-palm Metroxylon sagu
Hazelnut Corylus spp. Salak palm Salacca zalacca
Hyacinth Hyacinthus orientalis Sandalwood Santalum album
Indian lotus Nelumbo nucifera Senna Cassia angustifolia
Leek Allium porrum Shaddock Citrus maxima
Lentil Lens culinaris Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Sugar palm Arenga pinnata
Melon Cucumis melo Tangerine Citrus reticulata
Pea Pisum sativum Taro Colocasia esculenta
Plum Prunus domestica Vetiver grass Vetiveria zizanioides
Pomegranate Punica granatum Wax gourd Benincasa hispida
Quince Cydonia oblonga Yam, greater Dioscorea alata
Radish Raphanus sativus Yam, lesser Dioscorea esculenta
Rye Secale cereale Yam, winged Dioscorea alata
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
Sloe berry Prunus spinosa HINDUSTANI
Teasel Dipsacum sylvestris
Vetch Vicia sativa Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
Walnut, English Juglans regia Black pepper Piper nigrum
Wheat, bread or common Triticum aestivum Bo tree Ficus religiosa
Wheat, durum Triticum durum Cajan pea Cajanus cajan
Wheat, einkorn Triticum monococcum Cardamon Elettaria cardamomum
Wheat, emmer Triticum dicoccum Cotton, tree Gossypium arboreum
Wheat, macaroni Triticum durum Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Eggplant Solanum melongena
SOUTHEAST ASIA & PACIFIC ISLANDS Giant taro Alocasia macrorrhizos
Ginger Zingiber officinalis
Banana, common Musa x paradisiaca Hindu datura Datura metel
Banana, dwarf Musa acuminata Indian clover Medicago indicus
Bean, mat Vigna acontifolia Indian rubber tree Ficus elastica
Bean, mung Phaseolus radiata Indian snakeroot Rauvolfia serpentina
Bean, rice Vigna calcarata Jack fruit Artocarpus heterophyllus
Bean, urd Phaseolus mungo Jungle-rice Echinochloa colona
Bean, winged Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Jute Corchorus spp.
Betel nut Areca catechu Luffa Luffa aegyptiaca
Betel pepper Piper betle Mango Mangifera indica
Bilimbi Averrhoa bilimbi Marijuana Cannabis sativa
Breadfruit (breadnut) Artocarpus altilis Mat bean Phaseolus acontifolius
Carambola Averrhoa carambola Radish Raphanus sativus
Cardamon Elettaria cardamomum Spiny bamboo Bambusa arundinacea
Chaulmoogra Hydnocarpus kurzii Strychnine tree Strychnos nux-vomica
Citron Citrus medica Sugar cane, wild Saccharum spontaneum
Citronella grass Cymbopogon nardus Sunn hemp Crotalaria juncea
Clove Eugenia caryophyllus Turmeric Curcuma longa
Croton oil Croton tiglium Urd bean Phaseolus mungo
Derris root Derris elliptica Vegetable sponge Luffa aegyptica
Durian Durio zibethinus Watermelon Citrullus lanatus
East Indian arrowroot Tacca leontopetaloides Zedoary Curcuma zedoaria
East Indian arrowroot Curcuma angustifolia
Elephant-ear Cyrtosperma chamissonis
Elephant-yam Amorphophallus campanulatus CENTRAL ASIA
Emblic Phyllanthus emblica
Galanga Alpinia galanga Alfalfa Medicago sativa
Gutta percha Palaquium gutta Almond Prunus dulcis
Henna Lawsonia inermis Bread wheat Triticum aestivum
Indian-almond Terminalia catappa Chick pea Cicer arietinum
Indian-spinach Basella rubra Durango root Datisca glomerata
Jambos Eugenia spp. Flax Linum usititissimum
Java-almond Canarium commune Garlic Allium sativum
Job’s tears Coix lacryma-jobi Grape Vitis vinifera
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Jasmine Jasminum officinale Ti tree Cordyline fruticosa
Mulberry, black Morus nigra
Onion Allium cepa Did you notice that some centers of diversity are rich
Opium poppy Papaver sominferum in species, while others are less so. Which are in the
Pistacio Pastacia vera latter category? Consider the array of plants that we
Rhubarb Rheum x hybridum use in this country today. Where are they native?
Rye Secale cereale
Tamarisk Tamarix gallica
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus
Walnut Juglans regia WAS DOMESTICATION A MISTAKE?
CHINA & JAPAN Let’s end this topic by pointing out that not everyone
is convinced that the domestication of plants and
Abutilon-hemp Abutilon avicinnae animals has been such a fine thing. How is it possible
Apricot Prunus armeniaca to hold such a position? Are we not better off now
Bamboo Arundinaria spp. than the people in the Middle Ages? The cavemen?
Bamboo Bambusa spp. The apes? Jared Diamond (1987) argues the
Bamboo Phyllostachys spp. following:
Barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli
Bean, adzuki Vigna angularis ' We are now much more dependent upon a few high
Bean, velvet Mucuna pruriens carbohydrate crops, such as rice and the potato.
Buckwheat, common Fagopyrum esculentum
Buckwheat, Tartar Fagopyrum tataricum ' We are more susceptible to famine and crop failure.
Cabbage, Chinese Brassica chinensis
Camphor Cinnamomum camphora ' Studies show an increase in tooth enamel defects
China berry tree Sapium sebiferum associated with malnutrition, an increase in iron-
China-grass Boehmeria nivea deficiency anemia, an increase in bone lesions, and
Chinese gooseberry Actinidia chinensis until recently a decrease in life expectancy.
Chinese quince Chaenomeles spp.
Chinese water-chestnut Eleocharis dulcis ' The population densities that are now possible with
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba agriculture encourage the spread of parasites and
Ginseng Panax ginseng infectious disease.
Ginseng Aralia quinquefolia
Hazelnut, Chinese Corylus spp. ' Agriculture led to deep class divisions and
Hemp Cannabis sativa accentuated the inequality of the sexes.
Hickory, Chinese Carya spp.
Jujube Zizyphus jujuba
Kudzu vine Pueraria montana
Kumquat Fortunella japonica ORIGIN VERSUS PRODUCTION ?
Leek, Chinese Allium ramosum
Litchi nut Litchi chinensis As we move through our review of useful plants, you
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica will notice an interesting pattern. The places around
Maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba the world where we now grow these plants is typically
Millet, foxtail Setaria italica far removed from their ancestral home. At first, this
Millet, Japanese Echinochloa frumentacea may seem to make little sense. Here are some
Millet, proso Panicum miliaceum reasons why we grow the crops where we do:
Mulberry, white Morus alba
Onion, Welsh Allium fistulosum ' Better growing conditions;
Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera
Peach Prunus persica ' Competition from weeds, pests, and diseases;
Ramie Boehmeria nivea
Rhubarb, Chinese Rheum palmatum ' Availability of land;
Rice Oryza sativa
Shallion, Chinese Allium chinense ' Cost, supply, and efficiency of labor;
Soybean Glycine max
Tea Camellia sinensis ' Availability of capital;
Timber bamboo Phyllostachys bambusoides
Trifoliate-orange Poncirus trifoliata ' Existence and proximity of markets;
Tung oil Aleurites fordii
Turnip Brassica rapa ' Economic/governmental stability;
Varnish tree Rhus vernicifera
Walnut, English Juglans regia ?? ' Government subsidies;
Wasabi Wasabia japonica
Water chestnut Trapa natans ' Industrial subsidies;
Wild rice Zizania latifolia
Yam, Chinese Dioscorea esculenta ' Role of botanical gardens, experiment stations,
etc.;
AUSTRALIA
' Role of an individual (botanist, politician,
Beefwood Casuarina equisetifolia monarch, etc.) in identifying a region.
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Fe’i banana Musa trogodytarum
Macadamia nut Macadamia integrifolia
New Zealand flax Phormium tenax
Pituri Duboisia hopwoodii
Tea tree Leptospermum laevigatum
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THE SYNDROME OF WEEDINESS
2.3 ! WEEDS:
There are certain biological features that many weedy
OUR COMPANIONS plants have. These include:
“What is a weed? A plant whose virtues have not yet ' ability to reproduce vegetatively, thereby allowing
been discovered.” (Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1878) plants to spread quickly and efficiently;
“A weed is more than a flower in disguise.” ' ability to germinate in many different
(James Russell Lowell) environments;
A weeds is “... a plant which has an innate disposition ' producing flowers early in its life cycle;
to get into the wrong place.” (Celia Thaxter, 1894)
' long-lived seed;
“... a weed is a plant out of place.”
(Willis Blatchley, 1912) ' high seed production;
Weeds are “wild plants that interfere with human ' setting seed in a wide variety of conditions;
objectives.” (Ellstrand, et al., 1999)
' rapid seedling growth;
“... the history of weeds is the history of Man.”
(Edgar Anderson) ' having a "general purpose" set of genes that will
enable plants to compete very effectively against
''''' native plants when they are competing on
disturbed sites;
It might strike you as a little peculiar that a discussion
of economically important plants would include weeds. ' self-pollination or some other asexual means of
They are of great economic importance, mostly in the reproduction;
negative sense. It is estimated that weeds cost the
American farmer several billion dollars each year by ' if cross-pollinated, then by wind or some
reducing both the amount and quality of crops unspecialized insect visitor; and
produced. Their damage causes a loss as large as
insect injury and disease combined. Another reason ' being unpalatable or even toxic to livestock or
for studying weeds is their intimate association with herbivores.
our own species. Many of them are essentially our
wards and they would perish without our Can we say anything positive about weeds? Yes,
encouragement. indeed. In ruined and abandoned areas, weeds make
up much of the flora. Many of the more attractive
There are many definitions of a weed. Inherent in plants that city folks see these days are weeds. They
most of them is the idea that a plant is a weed if it is also retard or prevent erosion along many of our
growing where we do not wish it to be. The picture of roadsides.
a well-manicured lawn dotted with dandelions comes
easily to mind. There are problems with this approach. Why have I linked this subject to domestication?
If I am growing irises, then a rose that appears in my
garden is a weed. Bermuda grass is a highly prized
lawn grass in much of the southern United States. SOME OF OUR COMMON WEEDS*
Elsewhere it tends to live in disturbed areas. Is
Bermuda grass a weed?
Aster Aster pilosus
A good botanical definition of a weed is that of the late Barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli
Herbert Baker, a botanist at the University of Bedstraw (cleavers) Galium aparine
California at Berkeley. A plant is a weed, "... if, in any Beggar’s ticks Bidens spp.
specified geographical area, its populations grow Bind weed, field Convolvulus arvensis
entirely or predominately in situations markedly
disturbed by man (without, of course, being Bind weed, hedge Calystegia sepium
deliberately cultivated plants)." Remember that Bindweed, black Polygonum convolvulus
disturbed sites include not only relatively undesirable Black berry Rubus allegheniensis
vacant lots and roadsides, but also our prime Black medic Medicago lupulina
agricultural lands. Some weeds invade one or the Blue grass, annual Poa annua
other; some live in both. Bouncing bet Saponaria officinalis
Box elder Acer negundo
Weeds are such a problem in the agricultural states
that there is legislation against them. Many states Bur cucumber Sicyos angulatus
have weed laws that require the farmer to use varying Burdock Arctium minus
degrees of control against weedy plants. The "primary Butter weed Packera glabella
noxious weeds" are considered so bad that the land Buttercup, small-flowered Ranunculus abortivus
owner is required to destroy them if he discovers Butterprint (velvet leaf) Abutilon theophrasti
them on his property.
Carolina cranesbill Geranium carolinianum
Cheat grasses (chesses) Brtomus spp.
Cherry, black Prunus serotina
Chickweed Stellaria media
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Chicory Cichorium intybus Sheep sorrel Rumex acetosella
Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris
Cinquefoil Potentilla recta Smart weeds Polygonum spp.
Clovers, Japanese Kummerowia spp. Snakeroot, black Sanicula canadensis
Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium Snakeroot, white Eupatorium rugosum
Confederate daisy Helianthus porteri
Crab grasses Digitaria spp. Sow thistles Sonchus spp.
Speedwells Veronica spp.
Daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Spring beauty Claytonia virginica
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Spurges Euphorbia spp.
Day flower Commelina communis St. John’s wort Hypericum perforatum
Day lily Hemerocallis fulva
Dock, curly Rumex crispus Star-of-Bethlehem Ornithogalum umbellatum
Sumac, smooth Rhus glabra
Dodder Cuscuta pentagona Sump weed Iva annua
Elderberry Sambucus canadensis Sunflower Helianthus annuus
Evening-primrose Oenothera biennis Sweet clover, white Melilotus albus
False nut sedge Cyperus strigosus
Fireweed Erechtites hieracifolia Sweet clover, yellow Melilotus officinalis
Teasel Dipsacus sylvestris
Fleabane Conyza canadensis Thistle Cirsium vulgare
Fleabane Erigeron annuus Timothy Phleum pratense
Foxtail grasses Setaria spp. Unicorn plants Proboscidea spp.
Gama grass Tripsacum dactyloides
Garlics Allium spp. Venus’s looking glass Triodanus perfoliata
Goldenrod Solidago canadensis Violet, dooryard Viola sororia
Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Goosefoots Chenopodium spp. Virginia rock cress Sibara virginica
Gout weed Aegopodium podagraria Whitlow-grass Draba verna
Grape, frost Vitis vulpina
Ground-cherry Physalis philadelphica Winter creeper Euonymus fortunei
Ground-ivy Glechoma hederacea Winter cress Barbarea vulgaris
Witch grass Panicum capillare
Henbit (dead nettle) Lamium amplexicaule Wood sorrels Oxalis spp.
Honey vine Cynanchum laeve Yarrow Achillea millefolium
Honeysuckle, Japanese Lonicera japonica
Horse-nettle Solanum carolinense * After Heiser, C. B. 2003. Weeds in my garden. Timber
Indian hemp Apocynum cannabinum Press. Portland, OR. 247 pp.
-45-
SECTION 3 ! EXPLORATION FOR PLANTS
-46-
and turkey. The Food and Agriculture Organization of importance of the earlier oceanic explorations made
the United Nations cites four principal plants that feed by Asians who traveled to the far outposts of what we
our species: wheat, rice, maize, and the potato -- now call Polynesia. The spread of these Proto-
three cereals and a root crop. Two are of New World Polynesians and their plants and animals across
origin. thousands of miles and taking thousands of years to
complete is one of the great events in human history.
A more complete listing of the two-way traffic that
constitutes the Columbian Exchange follows:
Cosmetics:
3.3 ! THE POLYNESIAN Tiare Tahitian gardenia Gardenia taitensis
EXCHANGE
Industrial:
Hala Screwpine Pandanus tectorius
Hau Hawaiian tree hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus
While much has been made, and justifiably so, of the Ipu Bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria
voyages of Columbus and their consequences, less Kou Cordia Cordia subcordata
attention is often paid to the cultural and biological
-47-
Kukui Candle nut Aleurites moluccana His three voyages (1534-1542) provided an early
Milo Pacific rosewood Thespesia populnea inventory of the natural products of the New World.
Ohe Bamboo Schizostachyum glaucifolium
Ti, ki Cordyline fruticosa Francisco Hernandez [1515-1578], Spanish
Wauke Paper mulberryBroussenetia papyrifera physician and natural historian. His work was
compiled into 16 folio-sized volumes that were sent
Medicinal, Psychoactive, & Toxic: to King Philip II. He deposited them in the library at
Auhuhu Tephrosia purpurea the Escorial. A terrible fire would later destroy most
Awa Kava Piper methysticum of Hernandez's work.
Kamani Calophyllum inophyllum
Noni Indian-mulberry Morinda citrifolia Jan Pieterszoon Coen [1587-1629], Dutch
explorer. He sailed to the Spice Islands, where he
attempted to control the sales of cloves, nutmeg,
and pepper.
-48-
Society. Sir Joseph sailed with Cook on the of slaves, falls from precipices and the branches of
Endeavour, but refused to go on the second voyage towering trees, fording of rivers and torrents... and
to the Pacific because the ship would not be modified the most touching of all, the loss of manuscripts."
to meet his needs. It was Banks who recommended
to King George III that William Bligh be sent to Mathew Flinders [1774-1814], English navigator
Tahiti for breadfruit, and who named Botany Bay in and explorer. He served with Bligh on a second
Australia. The genus Banksia of Australia is named voyage to the Society Islands (1801-1803). Robert
in his honor. Brown, a leading English botanist, accompanied him
on his exploration of the coasts of Australia. The
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander, Baron artist was Ferdinand Bauer.
von Humboldt [1769-1859], Prussian scientist
and explorer of Central and South America (1799- Meriwether Lewis [1774-1809], personal
1804). The Baron has been described as the "last secretary to President Thomas Jefferson and
great universal man." Darwin called him "the American explorer, and William Clark [1770-
greatest scientific traveler who ever lived." As to his 1838], U. S. soldier and explorer. The Lewis & Clark
mission, von Humboldt said "I shall make collections Expedition (1804-1806) had as its primary goal the
of fossils and plants. I intend to institute chemical discovery of a waterway from the Mississippi River to
analysis of the atmosphere and I shall make the Pacific coast. Other, less publicized, objectives
astronomical observations. My attention will be ever were more commercial and military, including finding
directed to observing harmony among the forces of the best farmland for future settlers in the West.
nature...." Intense! He and Aimée Bonpland (1773- Along the way, the party of 48 collected plant,
1858) traveled about 40,000 miles, made 1500 animal, and geological specimens, and Native
measurements, collected about 60,000 plant American artifacts. Daniel Boone was asked to go
specimens in South America and they were the first along, but he declined. The early plant collections
Europeans to observe the preparation of the curare were sent back to Thomas Jefferson, who sorted
arrow poisons. He also investigated the connection them. In the Bitterroot Mtns., Lewis found the the
between the Amazon and the Orinoco rivers and plant that was later named after him (Lewisia
discovered the ocean current that bears his name. rediviva). The genus Clarkia, of the evening-
primrose family, commemorates William Clark.
After leaving Central America, the Baron had dinner
one evening in Washington, D. C. with another man J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville [1790-1842], French
very much interested in natural history – President naval officer and explorer of the South Pacific and
Thomas Jefferson! Once back in Europe, von Antarctic (1826-1829; 1837-1840).
Humboldt spent 23 years preparing the manuscript
of his 29 volume narrative! George Vancouver [1757-1798], English
navigator of the Pacific coast of North America and
Samuel Wallis [1728-1795], English navigator of the South Pacific (1791; 1792-1794). Dr.
and explorer (1766-1768). Sailing on H. M. S. Archibald Menzies served as the naturalist. He was
Dolphin, he discovered Tahiti in 1767, naming it King the first European to collect the coast redwood and
George the Third's Island. to find the madrone tree (Arbutus menziesii).
Vancouveria, a member of the barberry family, is
André Michaux [1746-1803], French botanist. He named after him.
concentrated on eastern North America, sending
back some 5000 tree seedlings and thousands of Zebulon M. Pike [1779-1813], American explorer
seed packets to Versailles. Michaux delivered gifts of of the headwaters of the Mississippi, Arkansas and
seeds from Lafayette to Washington. He would die of Red Rivers, and of the American Southwest (1805;
a fever in Madagascar. 1806-1807).
William Bligh [1754-1817], English navigator. Jedediah Smith [1798-1831], American explorer
Bligh was sent by George III to transport breadfruit of the Great Basin, Great Salt Lake, California and
from Tahiti to England. First voyage: 1787-1789 Oregon (1826-1829).
("Operation Breadfruit") on H. M. S. Bounty. The
botanist was David Nelson. The famous mutiny Charles Wilkes [1798-1877], Rear admiral in the
occurred on 28 April 1789. Nelson sided with Captain United States Navy. He headed the U. S. Exploring
Bligh. We botanists are establishment people. A Expedition of 1838-1842. The botanists were William
second voyage in 1791 on H. M. S. Providence Brackenridge and William Rich. The party visited 280
successfully transported the breadfruit plants back islands and collected 50,000 botanical specimens.
to England. Bligh explored Tahiti, Tasmania, and Fiji. The botanical work of the expedition was published
He rose to the rank of Vice Admiral in the Royal by Asa Gray of Harvard Univ. Wilkesia
Navy and was later appointed Governor of New gymnoxiphium, a silver-sword relative known only
South Wales in Australia. An edible and toxic fruit from Hawai'i, is named after the admiral. It was also
tree, Blighia sapida, is named in his honor. on this expedition that Darlingtonia californica, the
California pitcher plant or cobra-lily, was first
Hipolito Ruiz Lopez [1754-1816] and Antonio collected.
Pavon y Jimenez [1754-1840], Spanish explorers
in South America. They are known in the botanical Stephen Harriman Long [1784-1864], American
literature as Ruiz and Pavon. Trained as Army officer and explorer of the Great Plains of
pharmacists, they collected 55 cases of specimens of North America (1820).
economic plants and would coauthor the "Flora
Peruviana et Chilensis." A fire destroyed much of Thomas Nuttall [1786-1859], English naturalist
their material. Ruiz once complained that he had who explored the Ozarks, Arkansas River, Hawaii,
suffered from "... heat, fatigue, hunger, thirst, and California. He was one of the founders of the
nakedness, want, storms, earthquakes, plague of Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. Most of
mosquitos and other insects, continuous danger of Nuttall's botanical discoveries were "appropriated"
being devoured by jaguars, bears and other wild and published by Frederick Pursh. After botanizing in
beasts, traps of thieves and disloyal Indians, treason the San Diego area, Nuttall returned to the East
-49-
Coast on the Pilgrim, accompanied by one of his known as quinine." He went on to collect 30,000
former students, Richard Henry Dana. Who was botanical specimens in South America and become
Dana? one of England's best known field botanists. The
spruce tree is not named for him, nor vice versa.
David Douglas [1799-1834], indefatigable Spruce died in obscurity on a tiny government
Scottish collector, especially of horticulturally pension.
important plants. By the time he was 28, Douglas
had been elected to the Linnean Society, the Alfred Russel Wallace [1823-1913], English
Zoological Society, and the Geological Society in naturalist and explorer of South America (1848-
England. His specimens are deposited at the Natural 1852). In addition to his explorations, Wallace is also
History Museum in London. Douglas was the first credited with originating a theory of evolution similar
European to collect the California laurel, the sugar to the one proposed by Darwin.
pine, chinquapin, Ponderosa pine, and the Douglas-
fir. He died under mysterious circumstances, John Wesley Powell [1834-1902], American
presumably being killed by a wild bull in a pit in geologist and ethnologist who explored the Rocky
Hawai'i. Mountains (1869-1879).
Charles Darwin [1808-1882], English naturalist Ernest Henry Wilson [1876-1930], an English
and explorer. He served as the naturalist on H. M. S. botanist who became known as "Chinese Wilson"
Beagle (1831-1836), under the command of Robert because of his collecting trips to that country. He
FitzRoy. Darwin made numerous collections and died, along with his wife, in an automobile accident
observations while exploring South America, in the United States.
Galapagos, Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia.
Frank Kingdon-Ward [1885-1958], English
David Livingston [1813-1873], Scottish botanist and avid collector in China, Burma, and
missionary and explorer of Africa (1849-52; 1853- Tibet. His first job was as a teacher in Shanghai,
56; 1858-64; 1866-71; 1871-73). He became an where he fell in love with the country.
expert on African arrow poisons.
Richard Evans Schultes [1915-2001], American
John Charles Frémont [1813-1890], American botanist and explorer of South America. He was
soldier, politician, map-maker and explorer (1842; Director Emeritus of the Botanical Museum at
1843-44; 1845-46) of the Mississippi and Missouri Harvard University. Schultes was the modern day
Rivers, and of California. Fremontodendron, a equivalent of Darwin and Wallace. His many
California shrub, is named after him. expeditions focused on Pará rubber, quinine, and the
psychoactive, medicinal, and toxic plants of the New
Richard Spruce [1817-1893], English explorer of World tropics. See Davis (1996) for an excellent
South America. He was commissioned by the English biography.
government "to procure seeds and plants of the red
bark tree, which contains the chemical ingredient
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SECTION 4 ! TWO MODERN REVOLUTIONS
' Two highly significant advances occurred in the TIMELINE: GREEN REVOLUTION
20th century. The Green Revolution and genetic
engineering can be thought of as second and third 1839 U. S. begins to collect plant germplasm
agricultural revolutions. 1873 U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture sees dwarf
wheat
' Both are based on recent advances in genetics 1898 Section of Seed & Plant Introduction
and technology. established in U. S. D. A.
1917 Japanese develop dwarf wheat (Norin 10)
' Both have already demonstrated great successes 1926 Henry A. Wallace founds Hi-Bred Corn Co.
in increasing the world’s food supplies and the 1936 U. S. D. A. warns of genetic uniformity of
quality of plant resources available to us. crops
1940 Henry Wallace visits Mexico
' The Green Revolution has also been called the 1943 Office of Special Studies established
“Revolution That Failed” and has been criticized 1944 Norman Borlaug joins wheat research project
for its negative economic impact, especially in the 1949 Borlaug develops 4 new rust-resistant cvs.
Third World. 1954 High-yielding varieties (HYVs) of wheat
developed
' Genetic manipulation of plants remains very 1958 IRRI established in The Philippines
controversial, with critics expressing concerns 1959 National Seed Storage Laboratory established
about the effects of genetically engineered 1961 Cytoplasmic sterile wheat developed
organisms on the human body, on nutritional 1964 High lysine maize developed
quality of foods, and on the environment. 1966 CIMMYT established in Mexico
1966 “Miracle rice” (IR8) released
1969 Robert S. McNamara urges financial support
for network of research centers CGIAR)
1970 Borlaug wins Nobel Peace Prize
4.2 ! THE GREEN 1970 Southern leaf blight hits U. S. maize crop
REVOLUTION ($1B!)
'''''
“It is as if man had been appointed managing director The genetic manipulation of plants and of animals is a
of the biggest business of all, the business of fairly recent development. After all, the field of
evolution... whether he is conscious of what he is genetics is only about a century old. Gregor Mendel's
doing or not, he is in point of fact determining the work on garden peas was published in 1866 in a
future direction of evolution on this earth. That is his relatively obscure journal. It was rediscovered in
inescapable destiny, and the sooner he realizes it and 1900. A few years later, the terms "gene" and
starts believing in it, the better for all concerned.”[Sir "genetics" were first used. This does not mean,
Julian Huxley, 1957] however, that our attempts to control and to take
advantage of desired traits in plants is also something
relatively new. Grafting is an ancient technique used
“We are now in a position where we must not only to combine the tissues of two or more plants. The
manage our crop plants, our domestic animals, our plant that provides the root system and lower portion
fisheries, out forests and range lands, but the whole of the stem is called the stock; the new section of
globe is in our care, ready or not, competent or not. plant that is added to the stock is called the scion.
We are affecting the atmosphere, the oceans, the The interaction between the different genetic systems
forests, rainforests, deserts, and even the climate. We can influence the appearance of the plant (e. g. yield
are woefully unprepared for this awesome a dwarf fruit tree), affect its hardiness, or modify its
responsibility. This is an age of great knowledge and resistance to disease. Unlike higher animals, plants
little wisdom, but we have no choice; we must blunder have not developed the antibody mechanisms that can
on. Who is in charge here? God h[eJlapcu
ksH,a
wrelaa
nr,e1!”992] lead to tissue rejection. However, if the stock and
“Twenty-seven years ago, in my acceptance speech scion are too structurally and physiologically different,
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graft incompatibility may occur. Grafting of fruit trees The Ford and Rockefeller Foundations sponsored the
is very common. On your next Napa Valley winery International Rice Research Institute in Los Banos, The
tour, look carefully at the grape vines. You will see Philippines. New strains matured earlier, had more
where European grape vines have been grafted on to than one crop per year, and had more grains per
American stocks. head.
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success. Its harsher critics label it as a major failure. crop in Ireland was decimated by a fungus, the late
What has cast such a pall over the early optimism? blight of potato. In 1892, coffee rust, another fungal
infection, wiped out the plantations in Ceylon. The
To begin with, these high yield varieties require a maize varieties in this country that contained the gene
great deal of tender, loving care -- more water, more for cytoplasmic male sterility were hit badly by the
fertilizer, more pesticides, and more equipment to corn leaf blight in 1970. A bacterial infection of citrus
plant and to harvest them. The newer fertilizers may trees in Florida killed millions of trees. New resistant
require two or three times more nitrogen and cultivars were needed. Where do plant breeders go for
phosphorus. There has been a three fold increase in the genes they need? To the germplasm reservoir
the use of pesticides, leading to environmental stored in the land races.
pollution. Much more irrigation water is required.
Massive irrigation projects may be needed. Aquifers,
underground water supplies, become depleted. The SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
machinery needed for harvesting crops is
technologically advanced and expensive. Developing Modern agriculture has tended to substitute: (1)
countries often find themselves deeply in debt to pay continual culture of a single crop for crop rotation and
for the seed, fertilizer, equipment, etc. diversification; (2) herbicides and pesticides for
biological control; (3) inorganic fertilizers that must be
The new cultivars are in some ways nutritionally purchased, rather than organic ones or green manure;
inferior to those planted before the Green Revolution. and (4) larger agricultural fields in place of smaller
The protein content of Kansas wheat declined by family farms.
44.7% in the period 1940-1969. Prehybrid maize had
82% more crude protein; 37% more copper; 113% The perils are obvious. What do we do? One solution
more manganese than current hybrids. In rice, protein has been called "organic farming," "alternative
content is down from 9-10% to 7-8%. The appearance agriculture," or "sustainable agriculture." The basic
and taste of bread and other products made from the principle underlying this approach is that a plot of land
new cultivars was sometimes disappointing. has to be seen as a small ecosystem, not as a factory.
It is an ecosystem that must be maintained in
The Green Revolution has also favored the practice of balance.
monoculture, the growing of a single strain of a
particular crop year after year, and often over large The techniques include:
expanses of farm land. As our plant breeding
techniques improved, it was possible to plant seed of ' switch from monoculture to polyculture;
these new high yielding strains that produced genetic ' switch from annual to perennial crops;
carbon copies of one another. It was wonderful! The ' crop rotation;
plants all looked alike, came into flower and fruit at ' biological pest control;
the same time, could be harvested at the same time, ' working the soil to minimize erosion;
and they all had the same set of desirable features. ' use of animal manure and green manure; and
This all sounds very positive. ' control weeds and disease.
Our increasing reliance on the monoculturing of high Plant breeders are now developing perennial forms of
yield varieties is dangerous. As the 21st century sorghum by crossing the annual (Sorghum bicolor)
begins, we find ourselves dependent upon a handful with the common Johnson grass (S. halepense), a
of cultivars for each of our major crops. As Levitin & perennial weed. Similar efforts may produce a new
McMahon (1996) point out, in the United States half form of maize by crossing the annual crop (Zea mays)
our wheat crop is derived from only nine cultivars; 4 with a recently discovered perennial, wild teosinte
cvs. of potato account for 75% of the crop; 3 cvs. (Zea diploperennis).
yield half of our cotton crop. In this country, we no
longer grow about 90% of the different varieties of Sustainable agriculture sounds like a return to the
crops that we grew before the Green Revolution. This techniques of long ago, but it is much more than that.
means that the genetic variability that was stored For a farm to be sustainable it must produce adequate
away in those thousands upon thousands of cultivars amounts of high-quality food, it must be
is lost to us. environmentally safe, and it may even turn a profit.
Such enterprises must minimize what they purchase
If we have these spiffy high-yielding varieties, why are externally and rely upon the renewable resources of
we concerned about losing the genes in these cultivars the farm itself. About 90% of the farms that practice
that we are not growing because they are inferior to these alternative methods are in poorer parts of
the HYV's? Because these traditional varieties or land world.
races, as they are sometimes called, are the
reservoirs of the genetic heritage of the new strains.
They are the source of the germplasm, the library of
the genetic codes needed by plant breeders to
maintain, to modify, and to create new strains of
4.3 ! GENETIC
these critical crops. Some of the first high yield ENGINEERING
cultivars of the Green Revolution, such as IR-8 rice,
have already shown signs of genetic deterioration.
Only an infusion of genes from the very cultivars that “For I have heard it said there is an art which ...
they were to replace can save them. shares with great creating nature.... Yet nature is
made better by no mean but nature makes that
What if something happens to these cultivars? The mean: so, over that art, which you say adds to
very genetic uniformity that makes them so useful to nature, is an art that nature makes.... [T]his is an art
us also makes them potentially vulnerable to disaster. which does mend nature, change it rather, but the art
If one plant of a particular cultivar is susceptible to a is nature.... Then make your garden rich ... and do
fungal pest, then all of them will be. They are not call them bastards.” [Pilixenes and Perdita
genetically identical. This is not simply a theoretical discussing the crossing of flowers in her garden.
concern. It has happened. In the 1840's, the potato
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William Shakespeare. The winter’s tale, 4:4] 1941 Beadle & Tatum propose “one gene - one
enzyme” hypothesis
“... in the near future man will be able, by means of 1944 Avery, McLeod, & McCarty show DNA is basis
crossing, to synthesize forms such as are absolutely of heredity
unknown in nature.” [N. I. Vavilov] 1946 Delbrück & Hershey discover recombinant
DNA
“We, the undersigned delegates of African countries 1947 Congress passes Insecticide, Fungicide, &
participating in the 5th Extraordinary Session of the Rodenticide Act
Commission on Genetic Resources ... strongly object 1948 Alfred Mirsky finds RNA in chromosomes
that the image of the poor and hungry from our 1953 Watson & Crick publish molecular structure
countries is being used by giant multinational of nucleic acids
corporations to push a technology that is neither safe, 1954 George Gamow proposes that genetic code is
environmentally friendly, nor economically beneficial nucleotide triplet
to us.” 1960 Georges Morel clones cultured cells
[Representatives of 19 African countries] 1969 Beckwith isolates single gene
1973 Cohen & Boyer recombine/duplicate DNA
“I personally have no wish to eat anything produced from 2 species
by genetic modification, nor do I knowingly offer this 1975 Schell & Van Montagu find crown gall genes
sort of produce to my family or guests.” occur on plasmids
[Charles, Prince of Wales] 1976 Khorana inserts artificial gene into bacterium
1976 Genetech founded
To which James Watson, Nobel laureate, responded, 1981 Whitely & Schnepf find gene in Bt that kills
“The Crown Prince is a twit!” insects
1982 Binding & Gressel develop protoplast fusion
“Will ‘Frankenfoods’ feed the world? Biotech is not a 1983 Barbara McClintock wins Nobel Prize for
panacea, but it does promise to transform agriculture “jumping genes”
in many developing countries. If that promise is not 1983 Murray & Szostak construct first artificial
fulfilled, the real losers will be their people, who could chromosome
suffer for years to come.” 1987 First genetically-altered bacterium released
[Bill Gates, Chairman of Microsoft] into environment
1988 Carol Rhodes inserts foreign gene into maize
1992 Transgenic cotton patented
TIMELINE: DISCOVERIES IN GENETICS 1992 192 countries sign Convention on
Biodiversity
1580 Prospero Alpino shows plants have two sexes 1995 U. S. D. A. deregulates Bt potato
1590 Hans & Zacharias Janssen invent compound 1995 E. P. A. approves sale of Monsanto’s Russet
microscope Burbank Bt potato
1655 Robert Hook determines structure of cork; 1998 Delta & Pine Land Co. & USDA patent
coins “cell” “terminator gene”
1716 Cotton Mather demonstrates hybridization in 1999 British Medical Association questions safety
maize of GM foods
1763 Josef Kohlreuter discovers pollination 1999 John Losey finds toxicity of Bt corn pollen to
1782 Nehemiah Grew discovers function of stamens butterflies
and pistils
1830 Robert Brown describes cell nucleus
1838 Schleiden & Schwann propose “Cell Theory” THE TECHNIQUES: OLD AND NEW
1856 Nathaniel Pringsheim discovers fertilization
1858 Remak & Virchow propose that cells arise from It is impossible, using the time-honored techniques of
cells cross-breeding to select specifically for the particular
1865 Gregor Mendel publishes results of garden pea trait(s) that you desire. The pollen grains had in them
experiments not only the genes for the desirable feature, but many
1868 Von Sacks & Pringsheim discover plastids others as well. We may not want them. The
1870 Friederich Meischer discovers DNA techniques were also laborious and time consuming.
1876 Eduard Strasburger discovers mitosis What plant breeders wanted was the ability to produce
1883 Edouard J. L.-M. von Beneden discovers offspring that combined specific traits. Once our
meiosis understanding of basic genetics was in place, we
1888 Hugo de Vries proposes mutation theory began to realize that someday we ought to be able to
1900 De Vries, Corren, & Tschermak find Mendel’s control reproduction in plants -- to produce carbon
paper copies of plants that had we found useful to us or to
1902 Fischer & Hofmeister discover proteins made transfer specific genes from one plant to another. We
of amino acids now have a series of new techniques at our disposal to
1903 Sutton & Boveri show chromosomes carry accomplish exactly those goals.
hereditary material
1905 Wilhelm Johannsen coins “gene,” “genotype,” CLONING. The term comes from the Greek word for
and “phenotype” twig. In this procedure, we use individual cells from a
1906 William Bateson coins “genetics” plant with desirable features to produce whole plants
1909 Aaron Levene discovers RNA with the those traits. These are the “twigs” of the
1909 Carl Correns discovers cytoplasmic inheritance parent plant. The process involves:
1910 T. H. Morgan postulates specific genes on
specific chromosomes Removing tissue from plant
1911 Arthur Sturtevant prepares first chromosome L
map Separating cells from one another
1921 T. H. Morgan proposes chromosome theory of L
heredity Dissolving cell walls
1937 Pierre Givaudon uses colchicine to double L
chromosome number
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Putting cells in nutrient solution excess hormones. This results in the growth of tumor
L tissue, the crown gall. The bacterium itself finds this
Cells clumping together to form callus tissue tissue to be a suitable home. These days, we take
L advantage of the bacterial plasmid by using it as the
Nurturing callus tissue into adult plants vector or carrier of the genetic material that we want
to transfer from one plant to another. In the
PROTOPLAST FUSION. The cell membrane and all laboratory, we culture in a petri dish bacteria that
that is inside it is a protoplast. In protoplast fusion, have had the desired gene inserted into their DNA.
we create new forms by combining cells from different The bacteria infect pieces of tissue from the host plant
plants and then regenerating a hybrid from the fused -- the one that will be the recipient of the gene. The
cells. The result is a somatic hybrid. Protoplast host cells are now transformed or we say that
fusion occurs naturally or it can be induced by transformation has occurred. By the way, the
treatment with electrical shock or with certain bacterial plasmids have been “disarmed” genetically
chemicals, such as polyethylene glycol. One gram of so that they will not cause the crown gall tumor
plant tissue may contain as many as 4 million tissues to form, as they do in nature. The transformed
protoplasts that are capable of maturing into adult host tissues are then moved to a new growth medium
plants, either one their own or after being fused with that kills off the bacteria and that induces the
other cells. Sometimes the results are a formation of callus tissue, shoots, and eventually a
disappointment. The “pomato” is a somatic hybrid of whole new plant.
the potato and tomato. It produces both tomato fruits
and potato tubers, but both are small and its seed is Common examples of crops plants that have been
inferior. On the other hand, when a potato protoplast transformed and regenerated by this technique
was fused with one from a triazine-resistant black include maize, rice, wheat, barley, rye, cotton, flax,
nightshade (both members of the genus Solanum), soybean, sunflower, beans, peas, lettuce, potatoes,
the somatic hybrid could be grown in soil that had sugar beet, tobacco, tomato, apples, and walnuts.
been treated with triazine -- a potent herbicide.
Even newer procedures involve injecting genes into a
Crops that have been regenerated through protoplast nucleus using microscopic needles and shooting DNA-
fusion include citrus, the sunflower, cassava, clover, coated pellets fired into host tissues with DNA particle
millets, cabbage, and asparagus. guns. The latter is the technique favored by the
National Rifle Association.
GENETIC ENGINEERING. The most recent and most
controversial technique goes by a variety of names, THE MAJOR PLAYERS
such as genetic engineering, gene splicing, and
biotechnology. This highly advanced technology allows
us to alter the genetic makeup of plants by THE PLANTS THE ENGINEERS
introducing single genes from the nucleus of one plant
into the nucleus of another. The "host plant" then Maize Monsanto
reproduces new cells that contain the genes that have Tomato Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed
been transferred into its nuclei. The new forms are Soy bean Calgene
often called transgenic organisms, or genetically Potato Upjohn
modified or genetically manipulated organisms. Cotton Dupont
In the popular press, they are often called "GM" plants Tobacco De Kalb
and animals, or “GMO’s.” Rapeseed U. S. Dept. Agriculture
Melons/squashes Frito-Lay
The process is easy to describe, but it requires rather Alfalfa DNA Plant Technology
sophisticated techniques. Rice
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-- starch, essential and fixed oils, enzymes, and even The United States Congress passed the Plant Patent
human medicines. Genetic engineers at Michigan State Act. It covered plants that were asexually propagated.
Univ. have produced transformed plants that make a The 1970 Plant Variety Protection Act dealt with
biodegradable plastic that would ordinarily have been sexually reproducing plants -- but not their seeds. In
manufactured by the bacterium itself. Belgian 1980, the United States Supreme Court ruled on a
scientists have developed a procedure for producing case that involved four different plasmids transferred
human neuropeptides in the seeds of the canola oil into a single bacterial cell. It ruled that “novel life
plant. In the popular press, the genetic engineering forms” could be patented, including all parts of the
medicines are called farmaceuticals. plant. That meant the adult plant itself, along with
cuttings, seeds, and tissue cultures. European
countries have taken a much more conservative
Genetic engineering to produce biopesticides is still in approach. The European Patent Convention makes it
its infancy. These newer techniques promise to be all but impossible to patent plants or animals or “...
much more precise than our traditional “spray and biological processes for the production of plants or
pray” approach to pesticide and herbicide application. animals.”
Another bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, known to its
friends simply as “Bt,” makes a protein that is toxic to Another way to protect your investment has been
caterpillars that eat various plants. The gene from Bt developed by Monsanto and its partners. It has been
that makes that protein has been transferred to dubbed the “terminator gene” or the “suicide seed.”
another bacterium (Pseudomonas fluorescens) that You purchase the GM seed, you plant it, and it yields
lives in the roots of corn plants. When corn seeds that the crop that you desired. If you attempt to plant the
have been coated with the transformed bacterium seeds of the crop you have just harvested, you will
germinate, they are protected from the caterpillars discover that they have been engineered to be sterile.
that would have eaten their roots! Last year about 1 You will have to go back to the seed store to buy more
million acres of Bt corn were planted in the Midwest. seed to replant. Developers of the terminator genes
Yield went up 10-15%. point out that you are not permitted to make copies of
videos or books that you have purchased. Why should
AN OVERVIEW the fruit of their work be any different. It is a genetic
form of intellectual property.
Ecological:
Fix their own nitrogen
Increased tolerance of heavy metals THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STORY
Increased tolerance of salty soils or salt water
Increased tolerance of drought/water stress Recent articles in the popular press bear titles such as,
Increased tolerance of freezing temperatures “The Great Gene Escape,” ”Attack of the Gene
Detoxification of contaminated soils Splicers,” “Agricultural Biotech Faces Backlash in
Europe,” “The Suicide Seeds,” and my personal
Pest and Weed Management by Resistance to: favorite, “The Curse of Frankenfood.” Here, and
Herbicides especially in Europe, we are seeing a backlash against
Insects genetic engineering. It is easy to dismiss some of the
Viruses critics as late-20th century versions of Luddites who
Fungi oppose new inventions and technologies. However,
Bacteria there are a number of well-informed critics who raise
legitimate concerns. These include:
Improved Post-Harvest Qualities:
Delay of ripening Unexpected products of genetic engineering.
Improved storage capability GMO’s can go ahead (on their own) to produce new
pathogenic organisms, especially those that have
Improved Nutritional Qualities: viruses incorporated into them. We may also be
High starch potatoes creating “super weeds” without realizing it.
Sweeter fruits and vegetables
Higher amino acid content (lysine) Contamination of traditional strains of crop
plants. Pollen from GMO’s can be carried by the wind,
insects, etc. to non-GMO’s in adjacent fields.
Plant Cells as Molecular Farms:
Starch Reliance on so few transformed plants. We are
Essential oils heading down the same path of monoculturing of our
Biodegradable plastics crops -- millions of acres devoted to one kind of GM
Fixed oils corn, GM cotton, etc. Farmers, especially those in the
Enzymes Third World, will become even more dependent on
Human/veterinary medicines patented seeds, associated pesticides and herbicides,
which they cannot afford.
NEW PLANTS? WHO OWNS THEM? Loss of traditional varieties of crop plants and
their wild relatives. We will become so enamored of
Those of us who are interested in the naming and the GMO’s that we will not continue to grow the old
classifying of plants will fret over whether these new style plants or worry about their wild relatives as
products of genetic engineering should be recognized sources of genetic material. Gene pools of our crops
as distinct and given their own scientific names. will continue to deteriorate.
Another group of people who are also very interested
in these novelties are patent attorneys. When a There will be unexpected and undesirable
corporation or a university has invested millions of consequences. Scientists at Cornell University have
dollars in perfecting these techniques and just found that corn pollen from plants that have Bt
regenerating GMO’s, when can it patent this new plant toxin transferred into them will kill monarch butterfly
or animal to protect its investment, offer it for sale, larvae. The pollen had been sprinkled on milkweed
and earn a profit? This is a very hot issue. In 1930, plants, a favorite food of the butterfly. A major portion
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of the butterfly’s natural distribution overlaps the
“corn belt.”
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SECTION 5 ! FOOD PLANTS
' Most of our food plants are of Old World origin. 01. Rose family - Rosaceae
02. Sunflower family - Compositae
' While many food plants are important items of 03. Yam family - Dioscoreaceae
international commerce, hundreds of others are 04. Bean family - Leguminosae
grown and consumed locally and are little-known 05. Lily family - Liliaceae
outside the immediate region. 06. Mulberry family - Moraceae
07. Ebony family - Ebenaceae
' Very few new food plants have come on the scene 08. Madder family - Rubiaceae
in the last several thousand years. 09. Myrtle family - Myrtaceae
10. Nightshade family - Solanaceae
' Most of the spices and flavorings that we use have
been around since ancient times.
WHAT PORTIONS ARE EDIBLE?
' We devote most of our land to the growing of
cereals.
The following outline is adapted from Roecklein &
' All great civilizations, past and present, are based Leung (1987).
upon the cultivation of cereals.
Entire plant body: algae, fungi, and delicate
' Several plant families that are important sources annuals.
of food plants are also notorious for their toxic
members. In fact, many food plants must be Roots: The carrot, dandelion, radish, and sugar beet
prepared properly to rid them of toxins. are swollen taproots. Horseradish, licorice, and
sarsaparilla are adventitious roots. Cassava, sweet
' Nor is the category "food plant" entirely distinct potatoes, and the true yam are tuberous roots.
from "medicinal plant" or even "psychoactive Sassafras comes from root bark.
plant."
Stems: Asparagus and bamboo shoots are young
' Many of our most important food plants have sprouts. Sugar cane is whole stem. The potato and
significant nutritional deficiencies and do not, in Jerusalem artichoke are swollen tubers. Arrowroot,
and of themselves, provide an adequate diet. calamus, ginger, turmeric, and galangal are rhizomes.
Taro and water chestnut are corms. Sago palm is pith.
' Typically, we see in our markets only a narrow Cinnamon and angostura bitters come from stem
segment of the spectrum of food plants potentially bark.
available.
Root and stem: Beetroot, celeriac, swede, turnip,
' We have often been fearful of and resistant to and kohlrabi are combinations of stem and root.
consuming new foods.
Leaves: Bay leaf, cabbage, dill, grape, lettuce, and
parsley are whole leaves. Cardoon is just from the
midrib. Leek is from the base. Celery and rhubarb
come from the petiole; fennel from the petiole base.
5.2 ! AN INTRODUCTION Cabbage and Brussel sprouts are leafy buds. Garlic
and onion are leafy bulbs.
“Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you
are.” [J. A. Brittat-Savarin, French epicure] Flowers: Capers and cloves are flower buds. The
artichoke, broccoli, and cauliflower are entire flower
“Not all foods are equal. Some are relished, others clusters. Roselle is sepals. Saffron comes from just the
only tolerated, and still others are loathed, being stigmas and styles.
eaten only when necessary.” [Paul Minnis, 2000]
True fruits: Wheat, rice, wild-rice, maize, oats,
''''' barley, and rye are grains (caryopses). Okra,
cardamon, and vanilla are capsules. Beans, peas,
Food plants are those that provide nourishment. They lentils, peanut, carob, and fenugreek are legumes.
provide us with the materials needed to maintain life, Anise, caraway, cumin, dill, and coriander are
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schizocarps. Allspice, banana, peppers, papaya, soaking: in static water, soaking with change(s) of
tomatoes, and grapes are berries. The grapefruit, water, soaking in running water, leaching, soaking in
lemon, lime, orange, and tangerine are hesperidia. salt water, soaking with ashes, lye, acids, and boiling;
The pumpkin, squash, watermelon, cucumber, and
chayote are a kind of modified berry called the pepo. fermentation: spontaneous or using an inoculum
Apples, loquats, pears, and quinces are pomes. The from earlier preparations;
apricot, peach, plum, nectarine, olive, and black
pepper are drupes. adsorption: clay, charcoal, and mud;
False fruits (derived from one flower): The drying: sun, kiln, or hot-air;
custard apple, sweetsop, and bullock's head are
aggregations of berries. The blackberry, raspberry, physical processing: peeling, grating or rasping,
and loganberry are aggregations of small drupes. squeezing, pounding, grinding, and cutting; and
False fruits (derived from several flowers): Hops, changing pH: lye or lime, acidic substances.
breadfruit, jackfruit, mulberry, and pine-apple are
produced by the coalescing of many flowers at
maturity.
WHICH ONES ARE CRITICAL TO US?
Seeds: Sunflower, acorn, chestnut, Brazil nut, poppy,
sesame, beans, peas, nutmeg, almond, coffee, pecan, While the question seems simple enough, the answer
walnut, and pistachio nut are all seeds. remains elusive. What follows are attempts by various
authors to list the most important food plants, the
Sap: Sugar maple, sugar cane, and sugar palms yield ones upon which our continued existence depends.
sugary sap.
Latex: Chiclé, once the basis of the chewing gum Garrison Wilkes. Barley, maize, millets, oats, rice,
industry, is the latex of a tropical tree. rye, sorghum, and wheat. Cassava, potato, sweet
potato, taro, and yams. Beans, chickpea, cowpea,
Gums: Pectins, gum Arabic, guar, gum Karaya, and pea, peanut, and soybean. Coconut, cottonseed, and
gum tragacanth are all gums. sunflower. Sugar beet and sugar cane. Cabbage,
onions, squash, and tomato. Apple and banana.
Melons, orange, and pear.
TOXIC FOOD PLANTS
Marcus Rhoades. Barley, maize, oats, rice, sorghum,
It would seem reasonable to assume that the category and wheat. Cassava, potato, and sweet potato.
“food plants” would be quite distinct from the category Soybean. Sugar cane. Grape.
“toxic plants.” Even our pre-human ancestors must
have discovered by the process of trial and error that Oswald Tippo & W. L. Stearn. Maize, rice, and
this plant is edible, but that plant will make you sick wheat. Cassava, potato, and sweet potato. Beans and
or even kill you. The summary that follows shows you soybeans. Coconut. Sugar beet and sugar cane.
that there are well-known food plants that have toxic Banana.
properties. Sometimes it is a matter of processing; in
other instances the toxicity is a function of individual M. J. Chrispeels & D. Sadava. Barley, maize, rice,
sensitivities or even genetic makeup. sorghum, and wheat. Cassava, potato, and yams.
Beans, peanut, and soybean. Coconut. Sugar beet and
Dermatitis: cashew, mango, pineapple sugar cane. Banana.
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Jack Harlan. Barley, maize, millets, oats, rice, rye, onions, carrot, cucumber, pumpkins, squash, gourds,
sorghum, and wheat. Cassava, potato, sweet potato, lettuce, eggplant, garlic, spinach, and artichoke.
and yams. Beans, chickpea, pea, peanut, and Almond, filbert, mustard seed, safflower seed, walnut,
soybean. Coconut, cottonseed, oil palm, sesame seed. Brazil nut, and pistachio nut. Banana, plantain,
Sugar beet and sugar cane. Tomato. Apple, banana, orange, apple, grape, watermelon, date, avocado,
cacao, grape, melons, and orange. mango, pineapple, tangerine/ mandarin, lemon, lime,
grapefruit, melon, papaya, pear, peach/nectarine,
Paul Mangelsdorf. Barley, maize, rice, sorghum, and plum, fig, strawberry, apricot, cherry, currants,
wheat. Cassava, potato, and sweet potato. Beans, pimento/allspice, star anise, cardamon, pepper, chili
peanut, and soybean. Coconut. Sugar beet and sugar pepper, sweet pepper, and cacao. Coffee, maté, and
cane. Banana. tea.
Richard Evans Schultes. Maize, rice, and wheat. Manioc 14,010 9,676
Cassava, potato, and sweet potato. Bean, peanut, and Sugar 24,676 59,144
soybean. Sugar beet and sugar cane. Coconut. Sweet potato 7,880 14,041
Banana. Sorghum/millets 91,859 1,139
Soybean 52,683 1,914
Prescott-Allen & Prescott-Allen. Wheats, rices,
maize, sorghum, millets, rye, barley, oats, and fonio. Area in 1000 hectares
Quinoa. Potato, cassava, yams, sweet potato, taro, Yield in kilograms/hectare
and yautia. Soybean, peanut, beans, cowpea, pea,
pigeon pea, chickpea, broad bean, lentil, and lupin. [Source: Solbrig & Solbrig,1994]
Coconut, sunflower seed, oil palm, cottonseed, olive,
rapeseed, sesame seed, melon seeds, and shea nut.
Sugar cane and sugar beet. Tomato, cabbages,
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WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL FOOD PLANTS?
Wheat / / / / / / / / / /
Rice / / / / / / / / / /
Maize / / / / / / / / / /
Sorghum / / / / / / / / / /
Millets / / / /
Rye / / /
Barley / / / / / / /
Oats / / / /
Potato / / / / / / / / / /
Cassava / / / / / / / / / /
Yams / / / /
Sweet potato / / / / / / / / /
Taro /
Sugar cane / / / / / / / / /
Sugar beet / / / / / / / /
Soy bean / / / / / / / / /
Peanut / / / / / / / /
Beans / / / / / / /
Pea / / /
Chick pea / /
Cow pea /
Tomato / / /
Squash /
Banana / / / / / / /
Apple / /
Pear /
Citrus / / /
Grape / / /
Watermelon /
Coconut / / / / / / / /
Oil palm /
Cottonseed / / /
Sesame /
Sunflower / /
Key to abbreviations:
JH = Jack Harlan, PM = Paul Mangelsdorf, NM = Norman Myer, NAS =National Academy of Sciences, OTS =
Office of Technology Assessment, GW = Garrison Wilkes, MR = Marcus Rhoades, T & S = Tippo & Stearn, C &
S = Crispeels & Sadava, RES = Richard Evans Schultes.
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stem. The eyes are buds; leaf scars are also evident seen to be a member of the nightshade family
on the surface. The tuber is about 70-80% water, 8- (Solanaceae), a group of plants long known for their
28% starch, and 1-4% protein. The food value varies toxic properties. There were also cultural and religious
greatly with cultivar, growth conditions, storage, and biases against the potato. Later its reputation changed
handling. and it became very popular. Often its planting was the
result of a royal edict. The potato became a dominant
In Solanum tuberosum, x = 12 and there are diploids, food in the diet of the Irish. The "late blight of potato,"
tetraploids, and hexaploids. The Tuberosum Group, to caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans, wiped
which our cultivars belong, is tetraploid (2n= 4x = out the Irish crops two consecutive years (1845-
48). 1847). It is estimated that 1.5 million died as a result
of the famine and that perhaps another million
TIMELINE: IRISH POTATO Irishmen immigrated to the U.S.
1533 First seen by Europeans (Pizzaro) USES.The potato is not just a food plant for us and for
1553 First European reference (“Chronica del Peru”) some of our domesticated animals. Its starch is used
1570 Introduced into Spain in textiles, paper, confections, and adhesives, and to
1585 Introduced into Italy make industrial alcohol. Chicha is a South American
1586 Introduced into England beer made from fermented potatoes. Schnapps is also
1588 Introduced into Ireland made from potatoes.
1590 José de Acosta describes chuño making
1597 First printed illustration (Gerard’s “Herball”)
1601 “It springs from a bulb” (Clusius) SWEET POTATO
1619 Gaspard Bauhin names it Solanum
tuberosum esculentum Ipomoea batatas, a relative of the ornamental
1622 Governor of Bermuda sends them to Governor morning glory and the weedy bindweeds, is a trailing
of Virginia vine of tropical lowlands. The plants are vegetatively
1625 Now a food staple in Ireland propagated; many strains rarely flower. Its origin is
1651 German Grand Elector forces their planting and still a matter of controversy. It was probably used in
consumption both the Old World and New World before Columbus.
1662 Royal Society considers planting throughout Current thinking appears to favor New World tropical
England lowlands as the sweet potato's ancestral home. Note
1664 John Forster publishes “England’s Happiness the similarities in common names:
Increased...”
1697 Introduced into Russia by Peter the Great kumar • Quechua Indians (Andes)
1719 Introduced to U. S. (New Hampshire) kumara • Polynesian islands
1740 Famine in Ireland (to 1741) umara • Tahiti
1753 Linnaeus names it Solanum tuberosum umala • Samoa
1756 Frederick the Great issues pamphlet on uwala • Hawai'i
planting/storing
1761 A. R. J. Turgot eats potato in public ... and The plant is very popular in the southern U.S., where
lives it is often called a yam. The true yams are entirely
1767 George Washington plants them at Mount different species and are rarely seen in this country.
Vernon China is the leading producer of sweet potatoes. It has
1171 A. A. Parmentier wins prize for essay on its 50% more calories than the Irish potato, usually less
value protein (1.5-2.0%), and is a good source of Vitamin A.
1771 Faculté de Paris declares potato innocuous The sweet potato is a polyploid (2n = 4x = 60 and 6x
1786 A. A. Parmentier establishes test plots for Louis = 90).
XVI
1832 Dry rot, a fungal disease, hits potato Henry VIII loved sweet potato pie. He thought that it
1845 “A fatal malady has broken out...” was good for his love life, a common belief of the
1845 Irish potato famine (to 1851) time. William Shakespear makes reference to this
1851 Massachusetts legislature offers $10K for when he has Falstaff hoping that the sky would rain
potato rot cure potatoes.
1853 Potato chip invented
1861 De Bary publishes work on potato blight
1871 Luther Burbank develops “Burbank potato” CASSAVA
1824 Colorado potato beetle discovered
1889 Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate + calcium Manihot esculenta has a number of common names,
hydroxide) developed including manioc and yuca (not to be confused with
1972 Cause of serious birth defects in humans? yucca, an entirely unrelated plant). Cassava is a
1974 Blighted potatoes found to cause abortion/birth member of the spurge family, known for its many
defects toxic species. It is a shrubby perennial of the tropical
1994 Resurgence of blight lowlands. It was originally from South America,
perhaps eastern Brazil. In Africa and in the West
HISTORY. The potato was brought to Europe in the Indies, cassava is cooked and then pounded into a
mid-1500's and was planted extensively in North dough to make fufu, a traditional African pudding.
America by about 1700. The plant was not an The plant is not widely known outside of the tropics,
immediate success, for a variety of reasons. It was
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although there it is a very important plant. While you
may not know a cassava when you see it, you do TARO
know a product made from its roots – tapioca. The
starch from cassava and maize were used to make “One man’s meal is another man’s poi, son.”
postage stamp glue. (Restauranteur in Honolulu Polynesian bistro)
The edible part is a series of swollen roots. With little '''''
care the plants will yield 10 tons of roots/acre. The
roots contain a poisonous glycoside that will yield HCN Colocasia esculenta, a member of the philodendron
(hydrogen cyanide or Prussic acid) when it breaks family, is very widely used by the peoples of
down. We have learned by trial and error that the Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. The plants live
roots must be heated to drive off this toxic gas. The in moist to swampy areas, seldom flower, and
roots are consumed whole after boiling, or pulverized typically have large leaf blades shaped like elephant
and dried to a meal called farinha. The juices are also ears. The fleshy corms are eaten boiled, baked, or
used to make alcoholic beverages and as a component mashed; or they may be dried and pulverized. These
in meat sauces (West Indian pepper pot). treatments destroy the calcium oxalate crystals
present in the underground structures. These crystals
are quite characteristic of the family.
YAMS
In Hawai’i, the plant is known as kalo. Its leaves are
First, please note that yams and sweet potatoes are luau; the same word is also used for a soup made of
not the same thing, and that while all of the sweet taro leaves and for the well known feast. As a soup,
potatoes belong to a single species, there are several “... it is as delicate, wholesome, and agreeable a one
species of yams. Dioscorea spp. are perennial climbing as any in the world.” (Sturvevant, 1919). The leaves
vines of the tropics. Three "Groups" are often are also called callaloo, as is a Caribbean soup made
recognized: Asian, African, and America. Only one, the from taro leaves, okra, yams, chili peppers, and
cush-cush yam, is native to the New World. The vines coconut milk. Po'i, the famous Hawai’ian dish, is
have large storage tubers that can weigh up to several steamed taro that has been crushed and fermented.
hundred pounds. The plants may have aerial tubers as So much of it is grown for local consumption that
well. The yam is a very important food in the West precise production figures are unavailable.
Indies, much of South America, in Asia, and the South
Sea Islands. It is baked, boiled, or ground into flour. Taro is only one of several important root crops
The yam is mostly starch. Several million tons are derived from the philodendron or aroid family. There
produced each year. is much confusion as to their common names.
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TABLE BEET AND SUGAR BEET THREE S. AMERICAN ROOT CROPS
The many cultivars of Beta vulgaris that we now use There are several South American root crops that are
are presumably derived from B. maritima of northern in wide use there, but which are almost completely
Europe. Close relatives include chard (edible leaves) unknown to us in this country. Chief among them is
and the mangelwurzel, all of which freely interbreed. oca (Oxalis tuberosa), a relative of our local redwood
Our own production of the sugar beet increased sorrel or sour-grass. It is used primarily in Peru,
dramatically in the early 1960's, after we boycotted Ecuador, and Bolivia. The tubers are acid when fresh.
cane sugar from Cuba. The sugar in sugar beets is They are usually dried in the sun so that they get
identical to that of cane sugar. The main ingredient in more floury and less acid. If dried for several weeks,
borsch, a Russian soup, is a puree of beets. Beetroot oca takes on the flavor of dried figs.
wine is a popular homemade wine.
Two other crops of note are the añu (Tropaeolum
tuberosum), a relative of the garden nasturtium, and
CARROT ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus), an important Andean food
plant with no well known relatives in North America.
Daucus carota var. sativa is another of our ancient
food plants. It is perhaps native to the Afghanistan
area. It was highly prized by Europeans and was
brought to America by the early colonists. The carrot
is a biennial, although the plant is mature after the
first year. There are many kinds of carrots, some with
enormous root systems three feet long. The carrot is
rich in vitamin A and sugar. At first it was considered
a medicinal plant, its seeds used as a stimulant and as
a diuretic. After many centuries it was considered a
food plant. Eating carrots raw is a very recent habit.
The early cultivars were purple. The orange ones
became popular when they were exported from
Holland in the 17th and 18th centuries.
PARSNIP
Pastinaca sativa, a carrot relative, has been cultivated
as a food plant since the days of the ancient Romans.
However, the development of fleshy roots did not
come until the Middle Ages. The parsnip is high in
sugars and starch. We also make parsnip wine.
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE
Helianthus tuberosus is a close relative of our native
North American sunflower. The common name would
certainly suggest otherwise. According to one
explanation, "Jerusalem" is a corruption of the Italian
word for sunflower. The plants produce tubers that are
somewhat like the potato in appearance. Although
native to the New World, the Jerusalem artichoke is
better appreciated in Europe and China. In the United
States it is most often used as a food for hogs. When
eaten by humans it is usually boiled or baked. The
Jerusalem artichoke contains inulin, a sugar that may
be used by diabetics.
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SURVEY OF ROOT CROPS
chufa (Cyperus esculentus) Sedge Tubers rich in starch, sugar, oil; pantropical
crosne (Stachys floridana) Mint Edible tubers; popular in Europe, esp. France
daikon (Raphanus sativus) Mustard Relative of the radish
dasheen (Colocasia esculenta) Philodendron Important pantropical food
false yam (Icacina oliviformis) Icacina Tubers to 50 kg; West Africa
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ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus) Basella Important Andean root crop
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ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officinalis, a member of the
OTHER EDIBLE LEAVES lily family, is native to the eastern Mediterranean. Its
young shoots, spears, are typically boiled or steamed.
ARUGULA. Also known as rocket, Eruca sativa is a It has been a favorite food plant since the time of the
member of the mustard family. It is native to Eurasia. ancient Greeks and Romans. Originally it was a
I have added it to the syllabus because arugula is medicinal plant, eaten for its diuretic effects. Our most
showing up in our markets, especially in the fancy popular cultivar, “Mary Washington,” was developed
salad mixes. For a long time, its bitter, peppery flavor by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Asparagus has other
was not that popular with Americans. The ancient uses. Its seeds have been used as a coffee substitute
Greeks and Romans enjoyed arugula. They ate it as and its stems for paper-making.
an aphrodisiac, to balance the “dampening” effect of
lettuce. Arugula adorned statues of Priapus, son of And then, there is that little problem associated with
Aphrodite and Dionysus, and himself the Greek god of eating asparagus. As Lemery noted in 1702, “They
fertility. He was also the protector of gardens and cause a filthy and disagreeable Smell in the Urine, as
herbs. every Body knows.” As it turns out, some of us
secrete this smelly urine, and some of us do not.
LETTUCE. Lactuca sativa, a member of the sunflower Perhaps it was under genetic control. It now appears
family, is derived from the weedy wild lettuce (L. that all of us make this sulfur-containing compound
serriola) that is native to southern Europe and Asia. (methyl mercaptan), but we vary in our ability to
As in the cabbages, lettuce is another ancient plant. detect it. In other words, this explains why some of
Early on it was used for a variety of medicinal you know what I am talking about in this paragraph
purposes. The leaves contain alcohols that have a and others are scratching their heads.
soporific effect. Lettuce is 95% water; it has little
food value. Several hundred cultivars are now in use. Caesar Augustus defined haste as “quicker than you
can cook asparagus.”
RHUBARB. Rheum rhabarbaratum is native to Asia.
It is one of the very few food plants in which we eat
the leaf stalk (petiole) and throw everything else FLOWER CLUSTERS/HEADS
away. Many people mistakenly believe that the edible
portion is the stem and that the leaf is poisonous. It is ARTICHOKE. Cynara scolymus is native to the
the leaf stalk that is edible and the leaf blade that Mediterranean and to the Canary Islands. Today it is
must be discarded. The petiole is about 95% water, widely planted and grows best along sea coasts. The
along with citric and malic acids. The blade contains plant is a member of the thistle tribe of the sunflower
oxalic acids, soluble oxalates, and other toxic family. The edible portion is a head of tiny flowers
substances in high enough concentrations to cause surrounded by a series of bracts, modified leaves. We
poisoning and even death in humans. like to eat a coating found on the bracts and the
artichoke heart, the tissue to which the immature
CELERY. Apium graveolens, a member of the carrot flowers are attached. When the artichoke was first
family, is native to coastal marshes in Eurasia. Its grown, it was the regular foliage leaves that were
early history is that of a medicinal plant, touted as a consumed. The plant has little food value. It has been
cure for impotence, hangovers, constipation, and for suggested that, "Eating an artichoke is like getting to
its diuretic effects. Plants contain a family of chemicals know someone really well!"
called psoralens, that can cause severe allergic
reactions in sensitive individuals. It is an occupational CARDOON. A close relative of the artichoke is the
hazard among celery pickers. cardoon (Cynara cardunculus). The blanched leaves
are the edible part of this plant. They are covered with
SPINACH. Spinacia oleracea is probably the most black plastic bags or with newspaper to keep out the
commonly consumed of the "greens." Spinach is sunlight. The pale green leaves are typically harvested
native to Southwest Asia. It was first cultivated in in the fall. They taste like artichoke x asparagus x
Persia, thousands of years ago. It came to Europe via salsify.
the Arab world. Italians are said to be especially fond
of spinach, which gives rise to the phrase a la CAULIFLOWER. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis is an
florentine, which means a dish made with spinach. Old World plant, probably native to the Near East. We
The amount of soluble oxalate in its tissues can be have been eating cauliflower for at least 2500 years.
high enough to cause poisoning under improper It reached the U. S. in the 17th century, being grown
dietary conditions. About half of the U. S. crop is first in Long Island, New York.
grown here in California; Texas is the other leading
producer. The edible portion, the curd, is a mass of undeveloped
flower buds that are attached to branches that are, in
NEW ZEALAND SPINACH. Tetragonia tetra- turn, from a central stalk. They come in white, green,
gonioides is a member of the ice plant family and not and purple. The surrounding leaves are used to cover
at all related to spinach. It is native to the islands of the curd in the cvs. that will be white. Cutting off the
the Pacific and to New Zealand. It was named by sunlight prevents chlorophyll and other pigments from
Captain Cook when he was in that part of the world in forming. The curd may be eaten raw or cooked.
1771. Here in California, you will encounter this plant Broccoflower is a cauliflower x broccoli hybrid.
as a weedy escape along the coast.
As Mark Twain noted, "Cauliflower is nothing more
than cabbage with a college education."
EDIBLE AERIAL STEMS
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EDIBLE FLOWERS, LEAVES, AND AERIAL STEMS
-68-
The caryopsis is found within a very complicated
structure called a spikelet. It is a highly modified and
5.5 ! MAJOR CEREALS reduced flower system. The spikelet is composed of a
central stalk, a series of tiny overlapping bracts, and
very small flowers. Some spikelets, as in those of the
rice plant, may yield only one grain; those of oats will
“All flesh is grass.” (Book of Isaiah, 40:6) produce more than one. The caryopsis is typically
enclosed by two bracts, the palea and lemma. In
“No civilization worthy of the name has ever been common parlance they are called hulls. These bracts
founded on any agricultural basis other than the may be fused to the grain or free from it. This is not
cereals.” (Paul Mangelsdorf) a trivial matter when it comes to the processing of the
cereal grains.
INTRODUCTION WHEAT
The great civilizations, past and present, have been Triticum aestivum is most widely cultivated crop plant.
based upon agriculture. These agricultural systems, in It is the second oldest cereal, after barley.
turn, have been founded upon a handful of cereals or Archeological remains dating to 6700 B. P. have been
grains. Those of the Near and Middle East, notably found in Jarmo, Iraq. These were relatively primitive
those of Greece, Rome, and Egypt, were based wheats. But, even the advanced bread wheat is known
primarily on wheat; as were those of Europe and later from 5000 BCE. from the Nile Valley. Wheat was
North America. The well-developed agriculture of the brought to the New World by the Spanish in 1529. It
Maya, Aztecs, and Incas rested on maize. The great has been in cultivated in the United States since about
societies of China, India, and the Far East were based 1602.
upon rice. While all of the great civilizations cultivated
many different kinds of plants for a variety of Today there are literally tens of thousands of cultivars
purposes, it is almost impossible to overestimate the of wheat. They are classified informally as follows:
importance of the cereals. We devote 70% of our
farmland to growing cereals and we derive about 50% Winter wheats are planted in the fall, remain
of our calories from them. As a group they are, dormant during the winter, and then mature in the
without question, the most important source of our early summer. Winter wheats are grown in the United
food and they have been throughout our entire States from Texas to South Dakota.
cultural history.
Spring wheat is planted in the spring and matures
WHY SO IMPORTANT? There are several features of that same summer. It is adapted for growing seasons
cereals that make them useful to us. They are as short as 90 days. Spring wheat is grown in the
annuals, which means that we can rely on getting a northern regions of the U. S. and Canada. It is are
crop in a relatively short time. They are also adaptable hardy as far north as the Arctic Circle.
and efficient producers of food. The yield per
hectare/acre is high. Cereals are very nutritious. Hard wheat has a protein content of 13-16%, more
Grains can be easily harvested, cleaned, and than does soft wheat. It is typically used to make long
processed. lasting breads. These cultivars are usually grown in
areas of low rainfall.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE. The cereal grain contains a
carbohydrate-rich tissue called endosperm, which Soft wheat grains have about 8-11% protein and
serves as food for the germinating embryo. The they are often used for pastries and breads that will
embryo itself contains oils and about 8-15 % protein. be consumed quickly, such as French bread. They are
Vitamins and minerals are also present. The amino grown in more humid regions.
acids cysteine and methionine occur at levels
adequate to meet our needs. Other amino acids, One of the popular cereals is bulgur wheat. It
notably lysine and tryptophan, may be insufficient, consists of kernels that have been steamed, dried,
depending on the cereal consumed. See the table and then crushed. In that sense, it is a kind of cracked
below for amino acid content. Cereals are also wheat; but not all cracked wheat is bulgur wheat. It is
deficient in calcium and Vitamin C. a staple in the Middle East countries. We also see it in
salads, such as tabbouleh.
TRUE AND FALSE CEREALS Semolina is made from very hard strains of durum
wheat. Its flour is tough and it will not become a
All of the true cereals belong to the grass family. It starchy paste when cooked. Bakery products made
is common to recognize maize (corn), rice, and wheat from it tend to be of a light texture. It is also used to
as the major cereals. Barley, rye, and oats are the make a variety of puddings.
better known minor cereals. In addition to the true
cereals is an artificial group of plants called the false Kamut is a relative of durum wheat. The name comes
cereals. They are characterized by small, grain-like from the ancient Egyptian name for wheat. Its grains
fruits. Sunflower and buckwheat "seeds" are perhaps are two or three times larger than regular wheat, its
the best known examples. protein content much higher, and it also contains
significant amounts of other nutrients. Look for it in
The most important part of the cereal plant is its seed- hippie food stores; otherwise it is not commonly
like fruit, the caryopsis. It is more commonly known encountered.
as a grain or a berry. It contains a single seed whose
outer coat is fused to the inner wall of the fruit. The SPECIES OF WHEAT (TRITICUM)
outer layer of the grain (ovary wall and seed coat) are
often called bran; the embryo within the grain is the There are about 14-16 commonly recognized species
germ. Hulled and crushed grains are called groats. of wheat. They fall easily into three groups, differing
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in chromosome number and morphology. In Triticum, that were AABBDD.
x = 7. Two of the wheats are diploid (2x = 14); eight
are tetraploids (4x = 28); and six are hexaploids (6x Here is the same explanation, this time in the form of
= 42). A more detailed summary is presented below. a diagram.
The diploids and tetraploids are of little economic
importance, except for durum or macaroni wheat. PHASE I: DIPLOID TO TETRAPLOID
-70-
and in every way supe(rSio
iprh
."ilis of Siphonos, 100 BCE) way, since the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans
white bread made from refined flour has been
"Wheat is stronger and more nourishing than barley, considered far superior to the coarser, darker breads.
but both it and its gruel are less laxative. Bread made The upper class has eaten white bread; the poorer folk
of it without separating the bran dries and passes, and those in prison ate unleavened bread made from
when cleaned from the bran it nourishes more, but is barley, oats, or rye.
less laxative." (Hippocrates, ca. 400 BCE)
The invention of the steam engine by James Watt in
''''' 1769 allowed for significant technological
advancements. In 1834, Jacob Sulzburger developed
HISTORY. As Hindu scripture suggests, bread is the steam-powered milling machine that used steel
clearly one of our most important foods. Three rollers. In 1870, Edmund La Croix invented a way of
common English words also speak to its significance. separating the middlings (bran, germ, and other
A "lord" is the keeper of the loaf; a "lady" is the coarse materials) from the starchy endosperm. Rollers
kneader of the loaf; a "companion" is a person with cracked the cereal grain, rather than crushing it. The
whom we eat bread. grains were then passed through a series of screens of
increasingly finer mesh. Air currents blew away
To most of us, bread is a dough made from wheat impurities; the bran and germ were also sifted off.
flour and water that is baked in an oven. A broader
definition recognizes that bread may be made from BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY. When the ancient
carbohydrate sources other than wheat and that it Egyptians noticed that soured dough gave off bubbles
may be deep-fried, cooked on a griddle, or poached and a particular smell, they were observing the
and then baked, in the case of the bagel. Bread is an activity of air-borne, wild yeasts that had gotten into
ancient foodstuff, older than our recorded history. In the dough and were now carrying out their life
its earliest form, bread was probably a gooey dough processes. Yeasts are microscopic, one-celled fungi.
of wild cereal grains mixed with water. It evolved out The particular species that is important in bread
of more watery gruels, grouts, or porridges. The making is the same one used in brewing,
grains had been beaten between two rocks to crack Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The name translates
them. The mass was parched and then formed into roughly as "brewer's sugar fungus." The yeast cells
flat cakes that could be cooked on hot stones. convert the starchy endosperm in the dough to carbon
Crushing and parching also separated the grain itself dioxide and alcohol. The chemical process is starch --
from hulls that adhered to it. The domestication of > glucose --> 2 pyruvic acid --> 2 CO2 + 2 ethyl
wheat brought about a critical improvement -- alcohol. The carbon dioxide is trapped in the dough
varieties that could be easily husked. and forms gas pockets. Baking the dough increased
the generation of carbon dioxide. The alcohol (ethanol
About 6000 years ago, the Egyptians discovered that or ethyl alcohol) escapes from the baking bread and
uncooked dough would begin to bubble and to give off explains, at least partially, the characteristic aroma
a characteristic sour smell if left alone for a few hours. that we find so pleasing. Of course, at a certain stage
When cooked, this version of dough made a lighter, during baking, the temperature rises to a point at
more palatable leavened bread. They quickly found which the yeasts are killed. One pound of dough
that a small piece of the soured dough would produce contains about three billion yeast cells. Did they
this same effect in freshly made dough. So did suffer?
soaking crushed wheat grains in white wine for about
three days. The relationship between brewing and All carbohydrate sources will be worked on by the
bread making has always been an intimate one. The yeast cells in the same fashion. One cereal grain,
Egyptians became master bread makers, adding wheat, is especially well suited to bread making
honey, eggs, and various aromatic substances to their because it contains two proteins, glutenin and
creations. They formed the dough into a loaves of gliadin, that combine when moistened to form an
various shapes and baked them in a ovens of their elastic substance called gluten. When wheat dough is
own design. They were a two-chambered oven, kneaded, gluten will absorb up to twice its weight in
shaped like a bee hive. The fire was maintained in the water and it will form a three dimensional mesh or
lower compartment and the baking occurred in the matrix that traps carbon dioxide and stabilizes it.
upper section. Otherwise, the raised dough would collapse at some
point during the baking process. Kneading strengthens
The Greeks and Romans were also skilled bakers. the gluten structure, increasing its ability to stretch.
Because they drank wine, fermented grape juice was When you purchase lighter, fluffier breads made from
their source of yeast. Pliny noted, however, that the rye or some other grain, these have wheat flour in
barbarians in Spain and France who were beer them to impart this feature. This special feature of
drinkers managed to make a lighter loaf of bread by wheat helps to explain why breadmaking was not an
using scrapings from the beer vats. The Romans important aspect of life in regions where rice
developed the first rotary mill powered by animals, by predominates or starchy root crops are the primary
slaves, or by running water. A thousand years later, carbohydrate source.
Europeans would adopt an Arab invention, the
windmill. Cereal grains were crushed between a The production of carbon dioxide by yeast cells is not
stationary lower mill stone and an upper one that the only mechanism for making raised or leavened
rotated. Milling does two things. It separates the breads. Much later, we discovered that ash made from
endosperm from the bran (the outer layers of the a hardwood, when soaked in water, would yield
grain) and from the germ (the oily embryo). It also carbon dioxide when heated. This hardwood ash is, for
reduces the starchy endosperm to a fine powder, the all practical purposes, lye. In the last century, baking
flour. Flour comes from the same root word as soda was developed. It is sodium bicarbonate
"flower," meaning that it is the best part of the grain. (NaHCO3 ), an alkaline substance that imparts an
The Romans were probably the first to establish unpleasant taste to the bread unless it was neutralized
commercial bakeries. Large stone bowls with wooden by an acid of some sort. Buttermilk and fruit juices
paddles to mix and knead dough allowed large have been traditional sources. French bread is made
quantities of dough to be processed. Knowledge of from milk, butter, and beer leavening. Baking powder,
these techniques spread with the Roman army. By the sodium bicarbonate combined with cream of tartar to
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supply the acidic neutralizer, was developed in the intake of these indigestible cell wall components, the
1840's. The chemical process is sodium bicarbonate + lower the risk of intestinal disorders, hemorrhoids, and
tartaric acid --> sodium tartrate + water + carbon cancer of the colon and rectum. Brown bread has
dioxide. In 1855, packaged baking soda, cream of more nutrients in it than white bread and it clearly has
tartar, and cornstarch to absorb excess moisture was a higher fiber content. The irony is that, "... because
developed. In 1867, Charles and Maximillian the cellulosic material of the bran cannot be digested
Fleischmann, two Austrian bakers, started the yeast- and tends to speed the passage of food through the
making industry in the United States. Yeast cells were human digestive tract, the total nutritive contribution
grown in a sugar solution. Then excess water was of whole wheat flour is less than that found in
removed and the yeast was mixed with starch, enriched white flour products." (Pomeranz, 1973)
compressed into cakes, and packed in balsa wood
boxes. Dry yeast cakes, developed during World War
II, became available for widespread use after 1945. RICE
European scientists had also developed the techniques
needed to grow particular strains of yeasts for a “Grain upon grain, fresh and delightful as frost
variety of special purposes, including those of the a dazzling jewel
baker. to what can I compare this treasure?”
(Yang Ji, Ming Dynasty poet)
The flour that we use today is typically bleached and
aged. Bleaching yields the uniform white color that There are 20-25 species in the genus Oryza, but only
many of us find aesthetically appealing. Chlorine two are of economic significance. Asian rice, Oryza
dioxide is often the bleaching agent. If you allow flour sativa, is the principal food for about 60% of the
to sit around, the oxygen in the atmosphere will world's population. There is some question as to its
accomplish the same result. Unbleached flour has a nativity. Some experts say it is native to India; others
yellow cast to it, the result of pigments called to southwest China or southeast Asia. It has been
xanthophylls. Various products made from semolina cultivated in southeast Asia for at least 7000 years.
wheat, such as pastas, use unbleached flour. The Sealed pots of rice 8000 years old have been found in
bleaching process also destroys small amounts of China. Literally thousands of cultivars have been
Vitamin E. "Aged" or "improved" flour has better developed, 8000 of them in India alone. Asian rice
baking qualities. Aging allows important changes in was introduced into America in 1647. Oryza
gluten to occur. glaberrima, red rice or African rice, is native to Africa
and has been used locally there for about 3500 years.
You might think that bread making is a dull,
noncontroversial subject. You would be wrong! In Unlike wheat, most kinds of rice are diploid (2n = 2x
1861, Eben Horsford, a Harvard professor (there-fore, = 24). It is usually grown in a swampy field known as
immediately suspect) warned that yeast cells were a paddy. This helps to explain why so much rice is
poisonous molds and should not be used. After all, raised in the monsoon belt where heavy seasonal
they were microbes -- germs. Instead, he suggested rainfall is used. In most instances, rice seeds are not
a baking powder made from lime and sodium planted directly in the paddies. Instead there are
phosphate, both of which are found in the human nurseries where seedlings are started and then
body. At about the same time, a pamphlet was transferred. The seedlings are planted in small
distributed that argued that the bread of the day was bunches, each clump about 4-16" from the next one.
"... rotted by fermentation or poisoned with acids and Most cultivated strains require flooding, this being
alkalis, [so that] the staff of life has well become the accomplished by taking advantage of the monsoons
staff of death." The so-called Boston Water Cure urged and by the skillful manipulation of dikes in the
use of an oven that was so hot that dough would be paddies. There are also cultivars called upland rices
puffed up by the sudden expansion of air and that can be grown in drier fields.
vaporized water. The result was a loaf of bread that
was amazingly dense and unpopular. In the 19th At maturity, most rice plants are 4-6 ft. tall; some
century, there was also concern abut the adulteration deep water varieties reach 20 ft. Once the plants have
of bakers' bread with alum, chalk, and ground up flowered, the water level is reduced and finally the
human bones! supply is shut off entirely and the fields allowed to
dry. When the plants begin to wither, it is time to
WHITE OR BROWN BREAD? A rephrasing of the harvest the crop. In the Old World, the harvesting and
quote from Hippocrates cited above suggests that threshing processes are done by hand. In the U.S. and
brown bread has a laxative effect on us and that white other technologically advanced countries, much of this
bread is more nutritious. This is consistent with a view is done by machine. In this country, Arkansas,
espoused by the ancient Greeks and Romans -- white Louisiana, Mississippi, and California are the main rice
bread is better than brown bread made from whole growing states.
wheat grains or from grains other than wheat. This
opinion persisted, more or less unchallenged, until the KINDS OF RICE. We commonly recognize three types
19th century. The Reverend Sylvester Graham and Dr. of rice based upon the length of the grain: long:
John Harvey Kellogg, inventor of the Graham Cracker tropical rices; not too soft nor starchy; grains 7-8 mm
and one of the brothers who founded Kellogg Cereals, long, the length prized by the connoisseur; medium:
were vocal advocates of the superiority of whole grain commonly grown in the U. S.; somewhat softer;
cereals. Graham wrote that separating the endosperm grains averaging about 6.6 mm long; short: grown in
from the bran was akin to "... put[ting] asunder what the more northern climates, often planted in Japan;
God has joined together...." Kellogg focused his even more starchy; grains averaging about 5.5 mm
attention on the laxative effects of the bran long.
component. He believed that we ought to have three
or more bowel movements each day to prevent the Rice cultivars vary in the “stickiness” of their grains.
build up of intestinal poisons. This is a function of the proportion of amylose and
amylopectin, two types of starch. The higher the
The views of Graham and Kellogg gained credibility amylopectin, the stickier the rice. The range is about
with the appearance of studies in the 1970's on 70% in the least sticky to about 83% in the stickiest.
dietary fiber. These suggested that the higher the
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Brown rice has not had its nutrient-rich outer layers female flowers are clustered in the ear, the complex
removed during processing. In other words, it has not fruiting structure that bears an even number of rows
been pearled or polished. Given its nutritional of caryopses, or kernels as they are commonly called.
superiority, why do we eat white rice? Because brown
rice is harder to cook, tougher, not as sticky, goes Maize has many uses. In this country, about 90% of
rancid more rapidly, is more susceptible to insects, the crop goes into livestock food. In many other
and has been considered aesthetically inferior to white countries, maize is a very important food for humans.
rice since ancient times. It is inferior to wheat and to some other cereals in its
protein content. This means that maize flour products
Converted rice has been steeped, steamed, and are less tasty than those made from rye or wheat.
dried before it is milled. The technique was developed Maize flour, however, has been the mainstay of many
about 2000 years ago in India and Pakistan. Several peoples in Central and South America. Hominy is
changes occur, including diffusion of Vit. B from the dried, hulled maize kernels that are cooked in various
bran and germ into the endosperm. ways. The word comes from the Algonquian language.
Hominy was one of the first Native American foods
In the 1904 World’s Fair, Quaker oats introduced that was accepted by the early European settlers in
puffed rice, the “cereal that was shot from guns.” the 17th century. Lime (the mineral, not the fruit) or
They used a canon from the Spanish-American War! lye (from wood ash) is used to help loosen the hulls.
Today’s puffed rice is prepared in pressure cookers, Grits is made from finely ground hominy. It is
with the pressure released at the last minute to puff sometimes called hominy grits. Look for it south of the
the rice. Mason and Dixon Line. I discovered many years ago
on my first collecting trip into the South that grits
Basmati rice was originally grown in the foothills of were served with just about anything that you
the Himalayas, where it has been used for thousands ordered, especially for breakfast.
of years. It is a long-grained rice that is aged to
reduce moisture content. Basmati rice is particularly Other important products from maize include corn
popular in Middle Eastern and Indian markets. The starch, corn oil, alcoholic beverages, and silage. As
grains are yellow and have a characteristic sweet, one author noted, maize is with us from cradle to
nutty aroma and flavor. grave – literally. It is in baby powder and in
embalming fluid!
NUTRITIVE VALUE. The intact grain is a good source
of iron, calcium, magnesium, selenium, vitamin E, the TYPES OF MAIZE
B vitamins, and an essential fatty acid, alpha linoleic
acid. However, people who subsist on polished rice are There are six main types of maize in use today:
more likely to suffer from beriberi, brought on by a
deficiency in vitamin B1 (thiamine). Sensory nerves flint: kernel made of hard starch; in use by Native
are affected, starting with the feet and working Americans at the time of Columbus; widely used in the
upward in the body. In one form of the disease, northern corn belt;
congestive heart failure occurs.
dent: kernel of hard starch, capped by soft starch
that dries to leave a small depression in the top of the
MAIZE OR CORN grain; economically the most important maize; much
used in the corn belt;
“... a sort of grain they called maiz which was well
tasted, bak’d, dry’d and made into flour.” flour: kernel consists almost entirely of soft starch;
(Christopher Columbus, 5 November 1492) used by the Native Americans of the Southwest and
those in South America for hand grinding;
“This Corne is a marveilous strange plante, nothing
resembling any other kinde of grayne.” sweet: kernels with high sugar content, consumed
(H. Lyte, 1578) while immature; most widely grown for human
consumption here and in Europe;
'''''
pop: kernels lacking soft starch, cells burst upon
First, a word about the common name of Zea mays. In heating because of high water content of central cells;
this country, we usually call this plant corn or Indian related to flint corn;
corn. Maize is a better common name (and a perfectly
legitimate one) because corn is used by other English- pod: peculiar type with comparatively little economic
speaking peoples around the world for what we would importance; kernel enclosed by bracts; considered by
call wheat, oats, or as a generic term for cereal some to be the ancestor of modern maize.
grains. This explains the use of the word “corn” in the
Hebrew Bible and other ancient texts, since what we THE RELATIVES OF MAIZE
call corn would have been unknown to them.
Maize has two close relatives -- gama grass and
There are three features of maize that make it teosinte. There are about seven species of gama
different from wheat, rice, or any other cereal. It is grasses (Tripsacum spp.), found from the central
the only important cereal that is native to the New portion of the U. S. to southern Brazil. All of them are
World. Second, maize as we known it today is perennials. The male and female flowers are separate
considerably different in appearance from its wild from one another, as in maize, but they are not in the
ancestors. The progenitors of the other cereals are tassel and ear configuration.
basically the same in general appearance as their
modern derivatives. Maize is strikingly distinct. And There are three kinds of teosinte, all occurring in
third, maize is unique among the major cereals in Mexico and Central America. Traditionally, teosinte
having separate male and female flowers borne on has been placed in its own genus (Euchlaena), but in
entirely different parts of the plant. The male flowers more recent works the species have been put in Zea.
are found on the branches of the tassel, while the The male flowers are borne in a tassel at the top of
the plant; the female flowers are borne on a spike on
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the lower parts of the plant. seed is not true-breeding and must, therefore, be
purchased regularly.
THE ORIGIN OF MODERN MAIZE
CYTOPLASMIC MALE STERILITY
For much of the last century, the identity of the grass
that gave rise to maize has been the subject of much In 1938, Paul Mangelsdorf, a Harvard botanist who
controversy. Most of the botanists and geneticist who devoted his life to the study of maize, discovered a
studied the matter belonged to one of two camps. sweet corn variety in Texas that was male sterile. The
They are either teosinte people, followers of George male flowers of its tassel had shriveled anthers that
Beadle, or pod corn people, followers of Paul did not produce fertile pollen grains. Investigation of
Mangelsdorf and Richard Reeves. Those who believe this plant revealed that the sterility was under genetic
that teosinte was the ancestor of modern maize point control, as opposed to some short-lived environmental
out how easily it can be crossed with maize. They note problem, such as drought. Sterile sex cells typically
that the conversion of the hard bracts surrounding the result from chromosomal abnormalities, either in their
grains on the teosinte "ear" into soft structures would number or structure. However, in this case the corn
produce a maize-like ear. Hugh Iltis, a botanist at the plant produced sterile pollen when a sterility factor [S]
Univ. of Wisconsin, has suggested that it was the in the cytoplasm of the cell was present at the same
conversion of male flowers, with their softer bracts, time that it had a double recessive gene [rf] in its
that was actually involved. nucleus. This same kind of phenomenon was first
found in onions, and is now known to occur in several
The more widely held view was that modern maize crop plants. One possible explanation is that the
originated from a wild form of pod corn and that the cytoplasmic sterility is caused by viruses that can
variety that we see today in maize is the result of past survive only if the rf rf condition exists. If the gene is
hybridization between Zea and Tripsacum, the gama present in the Rf state, fertility is restored. Cytoplasm
grasses. According to the "Pod Corn Theory," teosinte without the sterility factor is designated N, for
is not a maize ancestor at all, but the result of natural "normal." The cytoplasmic factor passes from one
crosses between maize and gama grasses. generation to the next only via the egg.
The results of the archeological, botanical, and genetic Therefore, by using an inbred line that contains the S
research into the origin of maize suggest the rf rf genetic combination, male sterile plants are
following: produced. The corn plants are rendered functionally
female. The difficulty in finding enough workers and
' Maize is native to the New World, more their cost made the male-sterile strains a very
particularly to Mesoamerica. Reports of Pre- attractive alternative to manual detasseling. Within
Columbian maize from the Old World have not twenty years, practically all of the maize grown in the
been substantiated. United States incorporated the male sterility factor
first found in the Texas corn plants.
' Domestication of maize began about 10,000 BP.
Once again we had made one of our major crop plants
' The ancestor of maize is teosinte, its closest more genetically similar to one another, with all of the
relative. advantages and disadvantages associated with that
uniformity. The bill came due in the summer of 1970.
' Teosinte is not a hybrid of maize and gama grass. Our corn fields were invaded by a fungus
(Helminthosporium maydis), which causes the
' Gama grass may have crossed with some southern leaf blight. The disease spread rapidly,
primitive forms of maize and thereby contributed moving from Florida northward at about 150 km per
to the evolution of modern kinds of maize. day. By the end of the summer, the blight had
covered much of the eastern and central United
' Primitive maize became extinct because it could States. It devastated the Texas male-sterile hybrids,
not compete against more successful cultivated causing more than a $1 billion loss in the corn crop.
forms and perhaps because of the introduction of
grazing animals by the Spanish after the “JUMPING GENES”
Conquest.
James Watson, who shared the Nobel Prize with
The Beadle school won and the pod corn people, the Francis Crick for their discovery of the structure of
followers of Paul Mangelsdorf, lost the long battle. He DNA, said, “There are really three main figures in the
was generous in defeat. history of genetics -- the three M’s: Mendel, Morgan,
and McClintock.” Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884),
HYBRID MAIZE an Austrian monk, is often called the father of
genetics. His work on the changes that he observed
One of the great developments in modern agricultural from one generation to the next in pea plants that he
genetics is hybrid corn. The basic principle behind grew in the monastery garden is well known -- a
hybrid corn is that stable inbred lines can be crossed standard fixture in all highschool and college texts in
with one another to produce more uniform plants with biology and genetics. Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-
higher yields. Modern hybrid corn involves a double 1945), of Columbia University, along with his wife
crossing. During the first year, inbred strain A is (Lillian) and his students did research on the fruit fly
crossed with B. Self-pollination is prevented during (Drosophila melanogaster). His lab was the first to
these crosses by removing the male flowers from one show that genes were located on chromosomes in the
strain (detasseling), thereby rendering the plants cell nucleus, that genes were located at specific sites
effectively female. In separate fields, strains C and D on a chromosome, and that traits were passed from
are similarly crossed. The seeds from the A x B and parent to offspring through genes. Morgan won the
from the C x D crosses are planted. These mature into Nobel Prize in 1933 for these fundamental discoveries.
AB and CD individuals. These are then crossed during
the second year, yielding the double cross ABCD The third “M” is Barbara McClintock (1902-1992). She
hybrid seed. It is planted the third year to produce earned her bachelor’s degree in botany from Cornell
tremendous yields of high-quality seed. The ABCD University, where she was also awarded her master’s
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and doctorate. In 1931, McClintock identified the ten technical help of any kind she has by virtue of her
chromosomes of maize, and she co-authored with boundless energy, her complete devotion to science,
Harriet Creighton the first paper to describe the her originality and ingenuity, and her quick and high
genetic phenomenon of crossing-over. In 1944, intelligence made a series of significant discoveries
McClintock identified the seven chromosomes of the unparalleled in the history of cytogenetics. A skilled
bread mold, Neurospora, and began her research on experimentalist, a master at interpreting cytological
mobile genes and controlling elements in maize. She detail, a brilliant theoretician, she has had an
had observed that some plants have leaves with illuminating and pervasive role in the development of
different patterns of pigment in them. In maize, some cytology and genetics.”
kernels were white, some solid purple, and some had
speckles of purple on otherwise white kernels. Transposable elements have since been found in many
plants and animals. They are best known in maize,
After years of detailed study, McClintock developed a fruit flies, yeasts, and humans.
theory to explain what she had seen. The differences
in pigmentation of corn kernels was caused by some
genes moving from one site on a chromosome to
another location, or from one chromosome to another.
Further, it appeared to her that other genes acted as
5.6 ! MINOR CEREALS
switches that turn a gene on and off during plant
development. McClintock presented the results of her
work in 1951 at a Cold Spring Harbor Symposium. The
reaction was mixed. Most of her colleagues failed to By convention, any true cereal other than wheat, rice,
understand her work, others rejected it outright, and or maize is called a minor cereal. Many of them are
others thought that poor Barbara had been out in the unfamiliar to people who live outside the tropics, but
sun too long playing with her corn plants. One said, in those regions they are very important food plants
that “... he had never heard anything as ridiculous.” for us and for our animals.
Another, “I understand that you’re doing something
that’s very strange. I don’t want to hear a word about BARLEY. Hordeum vulgare is the fourth leading
it.” At the other end of the spectrum, the cereal, in terms of world-wide production. Along with
distinguished Caltech geneticist Alfred Sturtevant said, wheat, it was one of the first plants that we
“I didn’t understand one word she said, but if she says domesticated. All of the cultivated species are diploids
it is so, it must be so!” (2n = 2x = 14). Barley differs from wheat, maize, and
rice in having three spikelets per node. If all three
What Barbara McClintock had proposed was heresy! develop, the spike has the appearance of having six
Everyone knew that a chromosome was like a rows of grains, three on each side (the 6-rowed
necklace and the beads were genes. This bead is barleys); if the two lateral spikelets are rudimentary,
always next to that bead in a necklace; this gene is then the spike appears to have two rows of spikelets
always next to that gene on a chromosome. And she (the 2-rowed barleys). The two bracts immediately
was saying that it ain’t necessarily so. In her now surrounding the grain are fused to it. The grain is
classic paper, McClintock concluded that the best pearled, rubbed against abrasive disks to remove the
explanation for what she was seeing was that a gene hulls and some of the outer layers of the grain, during
did, in fact, actually move from one site on a the processing for human consumption. The chief use
chromosome to the site of the gene that controlled of barley is as animal food. It is a relatively
pigment color. She called it Ds, the dissociator gene. unimportant food for humans. About one-third of the
Ds would instruct the color gene. The Ds gene, in crop is used for making malt used in brewing,
turn, was controlled by an activator, Ac. flavoring, cereals, icings, coffee substitutes, infant
foods, flours, medicinal syrups, candies, and industrial
McClintock called these mobile genetic units fermentations.
transposons. Time Magazine called them “jumping
genes.” It explained McClintock’s theory in terms of RYE. Secale cereale is a plant of cool, non-humid
three characters -- a painter, a boss, and a policeman. regions. It is grown chiefly in northern Europe. In the
The painter is the structural gene that makes a kernel U. S., North and South Dakota and Nebraska grow the
have a particular color. The boss (Ds or dissociator most rye. The species is diploid (2n = 2x = 14). It is
gene) can tell the painter to paint or not to paint. The now unknown in the wild. Most rye is fed to cattle. We
boss must follow the directions of the police officer (Ac use it to make flour for "rye bread" or the famous
or activator gene), who can tell the boss to let the blackbread (Schwartzbrot) of Germany, Poland, and
painter do his job or not. The officer can tell the boss Russia. Most of our U. S. ryebread has a very high
to have the painter stop and then later resume wheat flour content. Rye is also used to make whisky
painting. Depending on the interaction of the painter, and industrial alcohol.
boss, and policeman, the kernel will be pigmented,
speckled, or colorless. Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) is an important fungal
parasite of rye. It causes tremendous crop losses and
On 10 October 1983, McClintock learned from the poisoning in both cattle and humans. More on that
radio that she had won the Nobel Prize in Physiology subject when we get to medicinal plants.
or Medicine. The folks in Stockholm had tried to call
her at home, but she didn’t have a telephone. She, SORGHUM. The U. S. is the leading producer of
Marie Curie in 1911, and Dorothy Hodgkin in 1964 are Sorghum bicolor. The species is believed to be Asian
the only three women to receive an unshared Nobel in or African in origin. Sorghum was introduced into the
any field. U. S. in the mid-1800's. The grains are small and
difficult to process. We use the various species mostly
McClintock’s long-time friend and champion, Marcus for forage and silage, but in the Old World the grains
Rhoades, said of her work: are often eaten like rice or made into an unleavened
bread. All of the speciesof the genus are diploids (2n
“One of the remarkable things about Barbara = 2x = 40), except Johnson grass, a very aggressive
McClintock’s surpassingly beautiful investigations is tetraploid weed.
that they came solely from her own labors. Without
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There are four commonly recognized groups of common name may derive from an Old Testament
sorghum species, based upon their use: figure named Job who experienced great suffering.
' syrup or sorgos, whose stem juices are MILLETS. This is the group name for a series of true
abundant and sweet; grasses that have small grains. Most of the common
' broom-corn, used to make old-style ones belong to the genera Pennisetum, Setaria,
brooms; Panicum, and Eleusine. They are also used for forage.
' grain sorghums, such as kaffir, milo, and Most of us in North America and Europe, except for
durra; and college students who frequent hippie co-op food
' grass sorghums, such as Sudan grass, stores, have never eaten any of the millets and we
Tunis grass, and Johnson grass, grown for probably do not appreciate the role that they play in
forage and silage. the diet of about one-third of the world's people. We
see their relatives as roadside weeds or as
OATS. The origin of Avena sativa is still obscure. constituents in bird seed mix. This unfortunately
There are few references to it in the ancient literature; causes us to underestimate their importance as
none, for instance, in the Hebrew Bible. It may have human food.
become domesticated in the cultivated fields of barley
or of some other crop. It is now grown in temperate
regions, chiefly of Europe and North America. The
USSR is the leading producer. As in wheat, there are
diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid oats. We use the
hexaploids more than the others.
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THE MINOR CEREALS
Common Name (Scientific Name) Comment
pod corn (Zea mays) A maize with well-developed bracts around grains; S. America
Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum) S. Europe and n. Africa, not Poland
proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) Ancient; grown mostly in USSR and Asia
ragi (Eleusine coracana) See finger millet
rye (Secale cereale) Probably native to southeast Asia
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an important food plant in South America. According The domesticated pulses of the Old World include
to the Baron Alexander von Humboldt, quinoa was to lentils, peas, vetches, and the soybean. The peoples
the inhabitants of that region what "wine was to the of the New World domesticated a variety of beans. We
Greeks, wheat to the Romans, cotton to the Arabs." have good archeological remains from 5000 BP in
Quinoa seeds are not only rich in protein, but they are Mexico and 3000 BP in Peru.
high in certain essential amino acids (particularly
lysine and methionine) that are deficient in most The fruit, generally called a pod, splits open along a
cereals and legumes. The seeds also contain toxic seam or suture at maturity. We often eat the fruit
saponins that must be leached out or removed by a before it is fully mature because it can become tough,
milling process to render them edible. fibrous, or almost woody. There are usually several
seeds inside. Technically the fruit is called a legume.
GRAIN AMARANTHS (Amaranthus spp.) are Botanists do not recognize "pod" as a fruit type.
sometimes advertised as the miracle grain of the
ancient Aztecs. In North America, we mainly
encounter plants of this genus as undesirable weeds, NUTRITIONAL VALUE
with names such as pigweed and red root. But, in
Mexico the small, one-seeded fruits were an important The primary nutritional significance of pulses lies in
food, especially before the Conquest. Spanish clerics their protein content. The immature pods are often
insisted that the growing and use of the grain about 10% protein; mature pods may be 22-40%
amaranths cease because the Aztec priests used protein! There may also be a complementation
them, combined with human blood, to form figurines between the proteins of the cereals and those in
that were part of their religious ceremonies. The seeds legumes. For example, the alpha and beta globulins in
are quite nutritious; relatively high in protein, rich in black beans complement those of zein, the principal
lysine and oils. Seeds must be boiled, baked, or protein in maize. Lysine is the limiting amino acid in
popped to render them edible. zein. The globulins of black beans are high in lysine.
The protein of one complements the other.
SUNFLOWER. Helianthus annuus, of the aster or
daisy family, is both a food plant and an industrially Although not terribly high in tryptophan (an amino
important one. The familiar stripped sunflower seed of acid), many pulses supplement that found in maize.
our markets is actually a 1-seeded fruit. When we Tryptophan acts as a precursor of niacin and it
crack open the shell, we are discarding the fruit wall successfully replaces the niacin lost in tortilla making.
to gain access to the seed itself. We consume these This helps to explain the lack of pellagra in those
seeds and we feed them to our domesticated animals. areas in Central America where the inhabitants eat
The seeds are also rich in sunflower oil, which is used both beans and tortillas. This disease is brought about
in cooking and in various industrial applications. by a deficiency in niacin (nicotinic acid). It causes skin
Argentina is the world's leading producer of sunflower lesions, inflammation of the soft tissues of the mouth,
oil. diarrhea, and central nervous systems disorders.
Maize and beans were not domesticated together.
''''' FLATULENCE
The edible fruits and seeds that we derive from the "Beans, beans, the musical fruit. The more you eat,
bean or legume family (Leguminosae) are second only the more you toot!" (Kinky children’s verse)
to the cereals in importance as food plants to us. The
term pulse is the collective noun for these edible And, of course, there is the social problem associated
products. The word has been part of the English with eating beans. It is nicely captured in the
language for hundreds of years, as in the biblical children's poem quoted above. Bowel gases are
quote above, but it has almost disappeared from composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
current usage. In common parlance, we typically refer hydrogen, and methane. They are derived from
to various edible members of the family as beans or swallowed air, production within the gut itself, and
peas. While there is no clear botanical distinction diffusion from the blood into the gut. Hydrogen and
between the two, there is a tendency for the seeds of methane are combustible and in proper mixtures with
most kinds of bean to be oval or kidney-shaped and oxygen may even be explosive. The unpleasant odors
for most peas to be spherical, except for the black- that we associate with other people's bowel gases
eyed pea. A gram is a seed or entire legume used for come from skatole, indoles, ammonia, and hydrogen
human food or animal fodder that is grown in Asia or sulfide.
on the Indian Subcontinent. Examples include the
chick-pea, and the black, green, and golden grams. The cause of flatulence is that many of the beans that
we eat are high in raffinose sugars. They escape
It should be noted that not all plants that have "bean" digestion in our intestinal tract because we lack a
as part of the common name are members of the necessary enzyme (alpha-galactosidase). Bacteria in
legume family. The coffee bean is from a plant in the the lower portion of our gut act on these sugars to
madder family (Rubiaceae); the castor bean and form large amounts of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
Mexican jumping bean are from plants in the spurge and to lower the pH of our intestine. Appreciable
family (Euphorbiaceae). amounts of methane are also formed. Navy beans
seem to have the highest yield: 5-465 cc of gas per
-78-
hour, with an average of 179 cc. Hot water treatments BEANS. The genus Phaseolus is the most important
and alcohol extraction may be useful techniques in source of many of our beans, such as the lima, scarlet
lowering gas production. runner, string, shell, white, and black. Most of them
are cultivars of Ph. vulgaris. The plants typically
require hot weather and good moisture. In some
cases, we eat the entire fruit; in others we shell away
TOXICITY the fruit wall and eat only the seeds. Many of our
beans are of New World origin.
“Wretches, utter wretches, keep your hands off
beans!” (Empedocles, 5th century BCE) FAVA BEAN. Also called broad bean (because of its
large, flat seeds), Vicia faba is native to northern
“I tell you too, as did Pythagoras, withhold your hands Africa or to the Near East. It was the only widely
from beans, a hurtful food.” cultivated bean in the Old World before the spread of
(Callimachus, a 3rd century BCE Greek poet) the New World beans after Columbus.
“Avoid beans as you would matricide.” GARDEN PEA. Pisum sativum, also called the English
(Pythagorus, Golden Verses) pea, is native to central and western Asia.
Archeological remains go back to 5700 BCE. An
“One should abstain from eating beans because they ancient Greek play mentions “pease porridge.” A
are full of the material of which our souls are made.” group of cultivars called the marrowfats have large,
(Diogenes Laertius, 1st century, BCE) wrinkled seeds. They are commonly used in canning
and in frozen foods.
'''''
GARBANZO BEAN. Also called the chick pea, Cicer
These quotes may surprise you. But since the days of arietinum is native to western Asia where it has been
the ancient Greeks, legumes have been regarded as cultivated since ancient times. Its seeds are ground
dangerous. Pulses, fresh or dried, are often boiled or into flour from which a very nutritious bread may be
cooked for a sufficiently long time before they are made. Hummus is a thick paste made of mashed
eaten. Several experts recommend at least 10 garbanzo beans, lemon juice, garlic, and tahini oil
minutes. Not only does this render them more (from crushed sesame seeds).
palatable, but the heating process destroys toxins in
the legume seeds. BLACK-EYED PEA. Vigna unguiculata, also called the
cowpea, is native to Africa. It is now grown through
Here are four syndromes of poisoning that can occur much of the tropics and in the southeastern United
from eating improperly prepared legumes, or too States, where it is a very popular regional food plant.
many of them: Sometimes we eat the pods; at other times the seeds.
This genus is also the source of the adzuki bean, from
Lectins are plant proteins that can cause stomach India or Japan, and the mung bean, from India.
cramps, nausea, and diarrhea. They can also cause
red blood cells to clump together. Peas and lentils are LENTILS. Lens culinaris -- what a wonderful scientific
relatively low in lectins and it is generally sufficient to name! -- is native to southwest Asia. It is an ancient
bring them to a brief boil before they are cooked. pulse, being a favorite food plant of the Greeks and
Many beans must be boiled for about 10 minutes Egyptians. We have fossil remains from 8000-9000
before you continue to simmer them. BP. The next time you are preparing or eating lentils,
look at the seeds. They are shaped like little optical
Hydrogen cyanide is present at toxic levels in some lenses. Actually, it is the other way around. Glass
pulses, such as the lima bean and chick pea. The U. S. lenses are called lenses because they are shaped like
Department of Agriculture monitors the HCN content lentil seeds. Lens is the Latin name for the lentil.
of various cultivars and will not allow those above a
certain level to be sold in this country. The Minimum MUNG BEAN. Vigna radiata is also known as the
Lethal Dose (MLD) for HCN taken orally is estimated green, golden, and black gram. Guess what colors its
at 0.5 to 3.5 milligrams per kilogram in humans. The seeds are. It is a tropical crop, often grown in paddies
white Burma cultivar has 100 mg; the black Puerto after the rice has been harvested. Its seeds may
Rican strain has 300 mg! Cyanide, contrary to popular contain 25% protein. Sprouted bean shoots have long
belief, does not kill its victims by paralyzing the lungs. been a favorite in Chinese cooking. Dried seeds have
It works at the cellular level to impair cellular also been ground into a flour and added to various
respiration. dishes.
Favism comes from eating too many fava or broad PEANUT. Also called the goober or groundnut,
beans. It is a form of acute anemia. It occurs Arachis hypogaea is native to South America. Its use
especially in males of Mediterranean extraction. The spread from there to Africa and then to the United
cause is a deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate States via slaves. The seeds are highly nutritious (1 lb
dehydrogenase (G-6-PD). of peanuts yields 2700 calories; 1 lb of beef = 900
calories). Peanut oil and the cake that remains after
Lathyrism, caused by eating too many sweet pea or the oil has been extracted are also important, the
grass pea seeds, again affects primarily males and latter as cattle food.
causes skeletal deformation and loss of bowel and
bladder control. Thousands have died from this In recent years, much concern has been expressed
disorder, particularly in developing countries after about the amount of aflatoxins found in peanut
droughts have killed more desirable food plants and butter. These toxins are not made by the plant itself,
people were forced to eat too many seeds. but by a bread mold fungus (Aspergillus flavus) that
contaminates it. Aflatoxins cause liver damage and
they are carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic;
SURVEY OF PULSES they cause cancers, mutations, and birth defects.
About 5 million Americans suffer from food allergies,
including allergic reactions to the peanut. Symptoms
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include rapid swelling of the breathing passage way, Soak beans
loss of consciousness, and anaphylactic shock, which L
may be fatal. Grind
L
At the other end of the spectrum of things to worry Add water, then boil
about is arachibutyrophobia, the fear of peanut L
butter sticking to the roof of your mouth. This is one Filter
of those vocabulary-building words. L
Curdle
SOYBEAN. Glycine max is an ancient food plant of (add calcium sulfate)
the Orient. While we do not have an especially good L
fossil record, there are references to the plant in Ladle into boxes
literature from 3000 BP. The U. S. is the world's L
leading producer of soybeans; we supply about 70% Press to squeeze out whey
of the world's crop. The seeds contain 38% protein
and 18% fats and oils. Edible soybean cultivars are WINGED BEAN. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus is
becoming popular again. The seeds may be boiled, probably native to southeast Asia. It is well adapted to
baked, or roasted. These processes removed trypsin the humid tropics. The plant, which produces edible
inhibitors that cannot be handled by the digestive tubers and seeds, is the subject of a great deal of
system of non-ruminants. The seeds may also be current research to develop it as a major food plant.
ground into flour. Intact soybean pods and seeds may The tubers contain about 13.5% protein -- much more
also be eaten. They are known as edamame. than other tropical root crops. Mature seeds have
about 33% protein, 18% oil, 30% carbohydrates, and
Soybean oil is the leading source of vegetable oils 8% fiber. They also contain trypsin inhibitors and
used in margarine, shortening, salad and cooking oils. chemicals that can cause blood to coagulate. Heating
Its protein is also being used to enrich foods and as a destroys these substances.
meat substitute. Soybean oil is used in adhesives,
enamels, linoleum, printing ink, and soap. CAROB. Also known as St. John’s bread and the
locust bean, Ceratonia siliqua is an evergreen tree
Perhaps 2000 years ago, the Chinese discovered two native to Syria. It has been cultivated in the Old World
somewhat elaborate ways to prepare soybeans. Miso since antiquity. The dried pods contain about 50%
is a mixture of ground soybean, salt, and a moldy rice sugar and they are eaten as candy. The ground seeds
preparation. It is a paste that may be used to flavor are used to make a nutritious meal and in bread
soups and sauces. Here is the recipe: making. A sweet pulp around the seeds is also eaten.
You may have consumed carob without realizing it. It
Steam beans is a common substitute for chocolate in a variety of
L products.
Add moldy rice or barley
(or innoculate with bread mold) The ancient Greeks prized the seeds for another
L reason – their uniform size. They used them to
Smash beans by foot measure the weight of gold and silver. They called the
L seeds “keration,” from which our modern word “carat”
Mix beans and cereal is derived. The New Testament story of St. John the
L Baptist eating locusts in the desert gives rise to two
Ferment other common names for this plant. Chances are the
(for up to 3 years) locust being referred to in that case was not the
insect, but a locust-shaped fruit.
Tofu or bean curd is a soft, bland, more or less inert
looking substance made from curdled soybean milk.
The procedure is much like that for making cheese.
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chili bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
cluster bean (Cyamopsis psoralioides) India & Pakistan; eaten like string beans
common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Mexico & Guatemala; most widely cultivated
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ssp. u.) See black-eyed pea
cranberry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
mung bean (Vigna radiata var. radiata) India; ancient Old World pulse
navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
peanut (Arachis hypogaea) South America; also many industrial uses
pea bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See asparagus bean
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) See Cajan pea
scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) Mexico & C. America; seeds & pods eaten
Scotch bean (Vicia faba) See fava bean
shell bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
sieva bean (Phaseolus lunatus) See lima bean
snake bean (Vigna unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis) A relative of the asparagus bean
velvet bean (Mucuna deeringianum) Asia; fresh pods and seeds toxic !
wax bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) See common bean
white lupine (Lupinus albus) Mediterranean; fresh seeds toxic !
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Windsor bean (Vicia faba) See fava bean
winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) Mauritius & Malagasy; immature pods eaten
winged pea (Tetragonolobus purpureus) Medit.; young pods eaten, coffee substitute
yam bean (Pachyrhizus ssp.) Africa; seeds and tubers eaten
yard-long bean (Vigna unguiculata) See asparagus bean
yawa (Vigna unguiculata ssp. u.) Another name for the black-eyed pea
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Gherkin. Cucumis anguria is an Old World relative of liver and spleen.
the cucumber. It probably arrived in the New World
via the slave trade. Most gherkins are pickled and I also encourage you to consider the following items
most of what we see in our markets are not really this that I have assembled after many years of research.
species, but small cucumbers. Look for real gherkins I offer them as part of my continuing effort to bring an
in the West Indies and in Brazil. unsuspecting world the truth about the hideous purple
peril.
Chayote. Also known as the vegetable pear or
christophine, Sechium edule is native to Mexico and ' Not a single major religious leader (Moses, Jesus of
Central America where it was widely used by the Aztec Nazareth, Mohammed, the Buddha, etc.) ever
people. Its fruit is 1-seeded and it has a greenish recommended eggplant to his followers, nor is it
flesh. Its tubers are also edible. Once rather mentioned in the sacred writings of any of the
uncommon, chayote is now a standard fixture in many world’s great religions.
of our markets in this country.
' The country that grows the most eggplants is
Cassabanana. Also known as the musk cucumber, Communist China. What more needs to be said?
sikana, or melocotón, Sicana odorifera is found
throughout tropical America. It resembles a very large ' Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, and Saddam Hussein all
cucumber, but with orange-yellow flesh. Fresh fruits ate the eggplant.
are added to soups and stews, but it is more popular
when made into a jam. The specific epithet suggests ' Lord Byron’s “Ode to an Aubergine” was so
that the plant has an odor about it. In this case it is a savaged by literary critics that he destroyed all
pleasant one and the fruits have been used to make existing copies.
linens smell better.
' Martha Stewart was overcome by the fumes of an
Melons. Cucumis melo, native to Africa and perhaps eggplant as she attempted to prepare it on her
also to Southeast Asia, is the source of a number of nationally syndicated television program. She
the “dessert fruits,” such as the honeydew, Persian, recovered fully.
musk, casaba, cranshaw melons and the cantaloupe.
They are not mentioned in ancient Greek and Egyptian ' The Central Intelligence Agency once used a toxic
texts, but do appear later in Roman works. extract from the eggplant in an attempt to kill Fidel
Castro.
TOMATO ' Mama Cass Elliot did not choke to death on a ham
sandwich, as widely reported in the press. An
[The tomato is an] “... evil fruit... treacherous and eggplant became lodged in her throat.
deceitful.” (Henri LeClerc)
' The Monsanto Corporation, using secret techniques
“ ... a person who should eat a sufficient abundance of of genetic engineering, has developed a polyploid
these apples would never die.” eggplant that can cross with wheat, rice, and
(Dr. Siccaary) maize and replace them in the fields.
Lycopersicon esculentum has had several common As if more evidence were needed, consider the
names through the centuries, including love-apple, following astounding statistics:
mala peruviana, tomatl (an Aztec word from which we
derive tomate and tomata), pomi dei Moro, pomme ' 100% of all Americans who ate eggplant in 1880
d'amour, and pomi d'oro. It is a New World plant, subsequently died!
native to the Andes of Ecuador or Peru. Its fame
spread slowly upon its introduction into Europe ' 92.6% of all patients in this country’s mental
because it was recognized as a member of the hospitals ate eggplant.
nightshade family (Solanaceae) and, therefore,
thought to be toxic. The Europeans were correct -- it ' 87.2% of all heroin addicts began by eating
is toxic under certain circumstances. Its use as a food eggplants.
plant is relatively recent.
' 98.4% of all individuals who listen to Rush
Limbaugh on the radio have eaten eggplant.
EGGPLANT
' 82.1% of all divorces occurred in couples who had
consumed eggplant.
Also called the aubergine, mad-apple, spawn of hell,
etc., Solanum melongena is a relative of the potato, ' 78.9% of all fatal automobile accidents happened
tomato, and other nightshades. It is a native of after eating eggplants.
northern India, near Burma. The fruit is a large egg-
shaped berry, typically purple or black in the cultivars ' Only 0.09% of young, innocent children like
that we grow in temperate areas. In tropical regions, eggplant on first eating it.
yellow- and white-fruited forms are common. The
eggplant is a minor crop in the United States, with NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS OF EGGPLANT
Florida being the leading producer.
Water 80.0 %
As with the tomato, the eggplant was not always Carbohydrates 00.0 %
popular as a food plant... and with good reason! Sugars 00.0 %
Through the centuries, various authors have Fat 00.0 %
suggested that it can cause insanity (one of its Calories 00.0 %
common names is mala insana), leprosie, cancer, Inert material 21.0 %
hemorrhoids, melancholy, cancer, pustules, bad Purple Peril Death Factor 02.0 %
breath, changes in skin color, and obstructions in the
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How does the eggplant compare with other edible and to hibiscus and cotton. This is fairly evident when you
inedible material? Here are the results of a blind taste examine the flowers. It is a very popular vegetable,
test conducted on the streets of San Francisco a few especially in French Louisiana where it is used in
years ago. soups, stews, etc. Some people object to its slimy,
mucilaginous nature. We eat the immature fruit, a
BLIND TASTE-TEST PREFERENCES capsule. If you let it mature, it gets almost woody and
splits open. What is the best way to serve okra? To
Choice Offered Ranking someone else!
OKRA
Abelmoschus esculentus [= Hibiscus e. in the older
literature] is native to Africa, perhaps the Upper Nile
Valley. It came to the New World via slaves in the 16th
century. They also brought with them dried peas,
yams, and ackee, an interesting fruit. Okra is related
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FRUITS THAT WE CALL VEGETABLES
Common Name (Scientific Name) Plant Family Origin
Notes:
1. Most of the common kinds of beans are Phaseolus spp., particularly Ph. vulgaris. Others belong to genera
such as Vigna (adzuki bean and mung bean) and Vicia (broad bean or fava bean). See the discussion of
pulses elsewhere in the syllabus for a more complete listing.
2. The garden or English pea belongs to the genus Pisum. The black-eyed pea is a kind of Vigna; the chickpea
or garbanzo bean belongs to the genus Cicer.
3. Most of the commonly encountered squashes (crookneck, banana, summer, scallop, butter, etc.) belong to
Cucurbita or Cucumis.
-85-
STRAWBERRY. The two most important species in
the United States are Fragaria chiloensis, which is
5.10 ! FRUITS OF THE native to the New World from Chile to the western
coast of North America, and F. virginica, a wild
TEMPERATE ZONE strawberry native to the eastern part of the continent.
Both species are octaploids. The European "ever-
bearing strawberry" (F. vesca) is a diploid. Except for
Many of the fruits that we commonly eat, with the this species, the cultivated strawberries are all
exception of the banana, citrus fruits, and the propagated by runners or stolons; they reproduce
pineapple, come from temperate areas of the world. asexually. The "fruit" is very sensitive to pressure and
Most of these fruits are intensively cultivated, rather can be easily bruised. Most strawberries are,
than being fruits easily available in the wild state. The therefore, handpicked. Unlike most other temperate
rose family (Rosaceae) is the single largest source of fruits, the strawberry is the result of an intensive
these species. selection and breeding program.
Most of the temperate fruits are of Old World origin. The edible portion of the strawberry is not the fruit
Many of them have been in cultivation since ancient itself, but the expanded, swollen stem tip that bears
times. In more advanced societies, fruits are not a tiny, hard, seed-like fruits. Most of us would be
staple. They provide interesting flavors and variety to delighted if breeders could only get rid of those pesky
our table. Some of them are high in vitamins, various little fruits so that we could better enjoy the succulent,
organic acids, and mineral content. For the most part, sugary stem.
however, they are nutritionally poor. They are mostly
water. Because of the high water content and their “Doubtless God could have made a better berry, but
texture, many fruits are perishable. Pickling, canning, doubtless God never did.” (William Butler)
and freezing have allowed their shipment around the
world. So has rapid air transportation. BRAMBLES. From the single genus Rubus, we derive
the raspberry, blackberry, thimbleberry, dewberry,
youngberry, loganberry, boysenberry, and a series of
SURVEY OF TEMPERATE FRUITS lesser known kinds. The berry is not really a berry in
the botanical sense, but an aggregation of numerous
APPLE. Malus sylvestris probably ranks first in small, fleshy fruits giving the appearance of a single
economic importance and extent of cultivation. It is structure.
native to the Caucasus Mountains of western Asia. We
have perpetuated, and to some extent developed, CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. We eat both
over 6500 horticultural forms. The Old World species native and introduced species. Gooseberry plants have
were introduced into the United States by colonists bristly branches and 1-3 fruits in a cluster. Currants
who were dissatisfied with the fruits of the native do not have bristles and typically have 4 or more
species. fruits in a cluster. Often currants are used in the form
of jelly. One species, Ribes nigrum, is the alternate
A ripe apple is about 84% water, 11% sugar, and host for the white pine blister rust. The common name
0.3% protein. It is usually harvested ripe, because it "currant" is also used for a kind of grape grown
will not ripen well after being picked. Apples are very principally in Greece.
sensitive to a variety of insect and fungal pests.
MULBERRY. The mulberry is a false fruit -- an
PEAR. Pyrus communis is native to Eurasia. The plant aggregation of many tiny fruits put together in such a
is similar to the apple in appearance. It is propagated way as to simulate a single, larger fruit. The black
either by seed or by grafting. The United States mulberry (Morus nigra) is native to Asia Minor. It has
produces about one-quarter of the total output. Pears been in use there for thousands of years. The white
are picked before they reach full maturity. mulberry (M. alba), also from Asia, is used as food for
the silkworm. The red mulberry (M. rubra) is native to
APRICOT. Prunus armeniaca is an Asian species. It North America.
has been used in China since about 2000 BC. Because
the flowers are sensitive to frost, apricots are grown CRANBERRY. The American cranberry, Vaccinium
in warmer climates. They were introduced into macrocarpon, is a low-growing shrub of the heath
California in the 18th century. Sun dried fruits are family (Ericaceae). It is usually cultivated in a low,
very popular. acidic bog. It is related to our local huckleberries and
salal. At present, the organized cranberry industry is
PEACH. Prunus persica is native to China. Like the mainly in the United States. Another species, V.
apricot, it is an ancient fruit. It was introduced into oxycoccus, is native to the northern portions of
the United States by the early colonists. Today it is Europe, Asia, and North America.
second only to the apple in importance in this country.
The nectarine, sometimes distinguished as P. persica GRAPES. Vitis vinifera is native to Southwest Asia,
var. nectarina is a peach without fuzz, often with a where it has been cultivated for millennia. Many
richer flavor. It is not a hybrid, as many people cultivars, literally thousands of them, have been
believe. selected. Early attempts by the Colonists to establish
a grape industry in the United States were largely
PLUMS AND PRUNES. Several species of Prunus, a unsuccessful until they started to use the native
member of the rose family, are the source of plums. species. The Concord grape is such an example. The
The ones that reach our tables are derived from wine industry in California is not based upon our
Europe, Japan, or they are native to North America. native grapes, but on the European V. vinifera. I have
The plum industry in this country is centered on the heard one or two tour guides in the Napa Valley
Pacific coast. Prunes are merely plums with a high carefully explain (incorrectly) that they use only good,
sugar content. They can be cured without removing old American grapes! More about this in the lecture on
the stone inside. wine making.
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TEMPERATE FRUITS
bullace (Prunus insititia) rose The term nut may be defined botanically as a hard,
butternut (Juglans cinerea) walnut one-seeded fruit that does not dehisce (split open) at
cherry, sweet (Prunus avium) rose maturity. We usually break through a hard shell to get
chestnut (Castanea sativa) oak to the seed inside. The nut may also be partially to
cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) rose almost completely hidden by a leathery or spiny cup
or husk. The nuts derived from trees in the oak and
cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) heath birch families fit this more restricted definition rather
crabapple (Malus spp.) rose well. Other fruits that are often considered nuts by the
cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) heath general public are technically drupes, as in the
currant (Ribes spp.) gooseberry almond, coconut, pecan, and walnut. Menninger
currant, black (Ribes nigrum) gooseberry (1977) suggests the broadest definition. A nut is “any
currant, red (Ribes rubrum) gooseberry hard shelled fruit or seed of which the kernel is
damson (Prunus insititia) rose eaten....” In other words, sometimes a nut is a 1-
dewberry (Rubus spp.) rose seeded fruit; sometimes a nut is a seed that has been
elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) honeysuckle removed from a multi-seeded fruit, as in the peanut or
filbert (Corylus spp.) alder the Brazil nut. Pine nuts represent a special case
because these edible seeds are not borne in fruits, but
gage (Prunus insititia) rose on specialized woody cone scales of the familiar cone.
gooseberry (Ribes spp.) gooseberry By the way, the Menninger that I just quoted is the
gooseberry, Chinese (Actinidia chinensis) actinidia brother of the founder of the famous clinic in Topeka,
grape (Vitis vinifera) grape Kansas.
green gage (Prunus insititia var. italica) rose
hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) rose Look for the discussion of the peanut under the
hazelnut (Corylus spp.) alder legumes and the coconut under tropical fruits.
hickory (Carya spp.) walnut
huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.) heath
kiwiberry (Actinidia chinensis) actinidia
loganberry (Rubus ursinus) rose
medlar (Mespilus germanica) rose
mirabelle (Prunus insititia var. syriaca) rose
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NUTRITIONAL VALUES to the central and southern parts of the United States
and it is the most important native nut tree in North
America. The common name comes from paccan, the
Fruit % Protein % Fats % Water Algonquin Indian name. A really good pecan tree can
produce 400 lbs. of nuts each year. In addition to the
delectable pecan pie, pecan oil is used in cosmetics
Almond 20 40-60 4 and pharmaceuticals. The pecan belongs to the same
Brazil nut 17-20 65-70 5 plant family as the walnut. In both cases the fruit
Chestnut 2-4 2-5 52 (technically a drupe) is enclosed in a husk.
Filbert 18 68 5
Macadamia 8 70 3 PINE NUTS (PINUS SPP.). Pine nuts are also called
Pecan 18 70 1 piñon, pinyon, and pignolia nuts. A number of
Pistachio 18 55 5 different pines from both the Old and New Worlds
Pine nut 12-31 47-68 3 yield these edible seeds. The ancient Romans ate pine
Walnut 15 70 3 nuts; so did the Indians of North America.
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EDIBLE NUTS
-89-
sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) Europe, N. America
Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra) Europe
terminalia (Terminalia spp.) Tropics
THE BANANA AND ITS ALLIES Modern bananas and their relatives contain five
genomes (A, B, E, F, and T). All edible bananas
-90-
contain either the A (Acuminata) or B (Balbisiana) SUMMARY OF THE GENUS CITRUS
chromosome sets (AAA, AAB, ABB, BBB). The industry
is based upon an AAA triploid [2n = 3x = 33]. Banana Subgenus: Scientific/Common Name. Nativity
fruits are seedless, and therefore sterile, because of
the genetic complications that arise from having three Subgenus Papeda:
identical sets (AAA) of chromosomes competing with
one another as they go through meiosis. Bananas are C. celebica (Celebes papeda) Celebes & Philippines
propagated vegetatively by cuttings taken from the C. hystrix (Mauritius papeda) SE Asia and Malaysia
mother plant. C. ichangensis (Ichang papeda) China
C. latipes (Khasi papeda) India and Burma
A close relative of the banana is the plantain, also C. macroptera (Melanesian papeda)SE Asia/Polynesia
known as the platano or cooking banana. It is very C. micrantha (small-flowered papeda) Philippines
widely used in tropical countries as a food plant, but
was rarely seen in our markets until recent years. The Subgenus Citrus:
plantain must be cooked before use because it stores
carbohydrates in the form of starch, rather than C. aurantifolia (lime) Southeast Asia*
sugar. The cooking process converts starch to sugar. C. aurantium (sour orange) Southeast Asia*
C. grandis (pummelo) Southeast Asia*
The only other economically important species is Musa C. indica (Indian wild orange) E. Himalayas
textilis, the Manila hemp. It is not grown for its edible C. limon (lemon) Southeast Aisa*
fruits, but for its fibers. They are used in heavy ropes C. medica (citron) East Asia*
and in very delicate tea bags. C. paradisi (grapefruit) West Indies*
C. reticulata (Mandarin orange SE Asia/Philippines*
A less known relative is Ensete ventricosum, the C. sinensis (sweet orange) China and Indochina*
ensete or Abyssinian banana. It is grown in Africa for C. tachibana (Tachibana orange) Japan
fiber and for food – not from nice fleshy fruits. The __________________________________________
edible portions are the young shoots, leaf bases, __
flowers, and seeds.
* Now widely cultivated Source: Swingle (1967)
CITRUS FRUITS Hybridization is rampant among the various citrus
fruits. Some common examples include:
The various citrus fruits, excluding the grapefruit and
numerous hybrids, all appear to be native to tangelo (tangerine x grapefruit)
Southeast Asia. The plants are shrubs or small trees limequat (kumquat x lime)
with compound leaves reduced to a single leaflet. The orangequat (kumquat x orange)
plants have a mycorrhizal relationship with fungi in citrange (trifoliolate orange x orange)
the soil. Citrus plants are said to lack root hairs and citrangequat (kumquat x citrange)
this relationship is probably explained on this basis. All tangor (orange x tangerine)
of the species are diploids [2n = 2x = 18]. ugli (grapefruit x tangerine)
Most citrus production is in the New World, in both SCURVY (“SAILOR’S DISEASE”)
temperate and tropical areas. More oranges are grown
than any other citrus fruit. Annual production is about Scurvy is an ancient disease caused by an insufficient
56 million metric tons; Brazil is the leading producer. intake of Vit. C (ascorbic acid) from fresh vegetables
Next comes the tangerine, at about 10 million metric and fruits. Tens of thousands of sailors died from
tons, mostly from Japan. About 13 million metric tons scurvy, especially from the 15th to the 18th centuries.
of lemons, limes, grapefruits, and pomelos are One of the earliest scientific investigations was that of
produced each year. The United States is the leading Dr. James Lind, who published “A Treatise on Scurvy”
producer. in 1753. He concluded that various citrus fruits were
very effective in the prevention and treatment of
Citrus fruits are high in vitamin C, just as you have scurvy. It would take almost a century for the Lords of
always been told. The rind contains numerous oil the Admiralty to approve the use of lime juice on
glands, the basis of a famous parlor trick that I will tell British naval vessels. Now you know why British
you about in lecture. The part of the fruit that we eat sailors are called limeys.
is a series of thick, juicy hairs that line the papery
septations within the fruit. Look very closely next Here are typical symptoms of the disease:
time!
' Longing for land, greenery, home
Some citrus fruits, such as the orange and the ' Uncontrollable weeping
grapefruit, are allowed to ripen on the tree. Others, ' Depression
such a lemons and limes, are harvested green. Many ' Weakening of capillaries
oranges are artificially colored or treated with gases or ' Subcutaneous bleeding
other chemicals to destroy the green chlorophylls in ' Anemia
the flesh of the fruit to give it a better appearance on ' Skin “black as ink”
the market shelf. ' Ulcers on legs
' Loose teeth
The more familiar citrus fruits are the orange, lemon, ' Gums protruding from mouth
lime, mandarin orange, tangerine, kumquat, citron, ' Really bad breath!
pomelo, shaddock, and sour orange. The grapefruit ' Stiffness/soreness of joints
appears to be a spontaneous, recent hybrid between ' Slow healing of wounds
the orange and the pomelo. All of them are various ' Difficult breathing
species of Citrus, except for the kumquat. It belongs ' Overwhelmed by stimuli
to the genus Fortunella. ' Death
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common names, the "tree of life." Wild populations
COCONUT with small, inedible fruits may still be found in Saudi
Arabia and the Sahara. Today the domesticated forms
“He who plants a coconut tree, plants food and drink, are found on the fringes of African and Asian deserts.
vessels and clothing, a habitation for himself, and a The date palm was introduced into California in 1765
heritage for his children.” at Mission San Ignacio. This state and Arizona are
(Polynesian traditional saying) leading producers in the U. S. The palm trees on the
Arcata plaza are Ph. canariensis, a relative of the date
''''' palm native to the Canary Islands.
As inhabitants of the temperate zone, it is all but The leaves of the date palm are used for thatching
impossible for us to appreciate Cocos nucifera, which and matting, and its trunks for building materials. The
has been called "one of Nature's greatest gifts to fruit is a drupe, with a brown skin (exocarp), a sweet
Man," the "tree of life," the "tree of heaven," and juicy pulp (mesocarp), and a thin, bony layer
"Mankind's greatest provider in the tropics." There it (endocarp) surrounding a single seed. The fruits have
provides food, drink, oil, medicine, fiber, timber, a high sugar content. They may be consumed fresh,
thatch, mats, fuel, and domestic utensils. In addition dried, or pounded into a paste. In the Arab world,
to these utilitarian aspects, the coconut has also they are often eaten with milk. If properly dried, they
played a prominent role in the customs and beliefs of will last indefinitely. A single tree can produce about
tropical peoples. 100 lbs. of dates each year. Trees may continue to
bear fruit for 100-200 years. Maturing fruits are often
The home of the coconut remains controversial. It bagged to protect them from birds and insects. We
appears to have been present in both the Old World harvest dates the same way that we did in ancient
and the Americas before 1492. The fruit is able to times -- by hand, with a sharp knife.
float for a hundred days or more in salt water; the
best ocean currents are from Asia to the New World. The Hebrews and Babylonians carried out a ritual
It was probably first domesticated in the Indo-Pacific ceremony to ensure that a good crop of dates would
region. There are no reproductive or genetic be produced. Even though the concept of sexuality in
difficulties here. 2n = 2x = 32. plants would not be discovered until the close of the
17th century, they had found that it was necessary to
The coconut is a kind of palm. The trees can produce bring pollen-bearing flowers into the oases where the
50-100, to as many as 500 fruits per year. The first date palms grew. The cultivated date palm is a female
crop typically comes on in about 6-8 years. The fruit plant and it must be fertilized with pollen from a male
is single-seeded. The fruit wall is clearly differentiated date palm tree if it is to produce fruit. For thousands
into an outer layer (exocarp) that is woody; a middle of years, we have maintained a few, isolated male
layer (mesocarp) that is fibrous; and an inner, bony trees wherever we cultivate the date palm for this
layer (endocarp) that is more or less fused to the seed purpose. Although its seeds are fertile, we usually cut
coat. When we see coconuts in our markets, the off sucker shoots at the base of the trunk to grow new
exocarp and mesocarp have been removed during date palms.
processing. The coconut "seed" is the true seed, plus
the innermost layer of the fruit wall, the endocarp. We also discovered that we could ferment the sap of
the date palm and produce arrak, which one sixteenth
After harvesting, the fruits are cut in half and the century traveler called "the strongest and most
coconut meat is gouged out. It will be cured in the sun dreadful drink ever invented."
or in kilns to yield copra. It contains about 60-68%
oil. Coconut oil is about 90% saturated and it is one of
the "tropical oils" that manufacturers are increasingly PINEAPPLE
proud to say they are no longer using in their foods.
Once the oil has been removed from copra, the Ananas comosus, native to the New World, was
residue (coconut cake) is used for cattle feed. It is a unknown to Europeans until it was first seen by
rich source of protein and carbohydrates. Curiously, it Columbus in 1493 on Guadaloupe Island. By that
is rarely eaten by humans, even in areas where time, the inhabitants of tropical America had already
protein is otherwise deficient. selected seedless varieties for their use. Their wild
counterparts with numerous seeds could still be seen
The middle portion of the fruit wall, the fibrous growing in the vicinity of villages. When the pineapple
portion, is the source of coir. This fiber, sometimes was introduced to Europe, it was considered an
sold under the name coco fiber, is used for mats, interesting oddity, but certainly not an edible fruit.
rugs, filters, stuffing, and rope. Various plant parts Leading growers include Costa Rica, the United States
yield sennit fiber used to make ropes, hats, and (principally in Hawaii), Thailand, Brazil, Mexico, and
other items. South Africa.
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are harvested, the growing point divides once again, a drop of a special secretion that will stimulate the
and four even smaller pineapples are produced. These sterile flower to develop gall tissue. This will nourish
are often used to make pineapple juice. After the 4- the newly-hatched wasp larvae. She then dies. The
pineapple stage, replanting occurs. Except for eggs hatch, with male wasps appearing first. They
handpicking, the pineapple industry is now almost have poorly-developed legs and eyes, and they have
completely automated. no wings. The males roam around in the interior of the
fig, looking for flowers that contain female wasps. The
Modern cultivars are also seedless. Unlike the banana, males bore through the ovary wall, find the females,
however, there are no genetic difficulties that prevent and fertilize them right then and there. Talk about
sexual reproduction from occurring. We see to that by cradle-robbing. The males then die. The females
excluding the pollinators needed for cross-polination. emerge from the flowers and find their way to the
opening, and exit the fig. The scales around the
The fruits contain about 15% sugar, some organic osteole will often damage their wings and antennae.
acids, minerals, and a proteolytic enzyme called As they pass through the opening, they are dusted
bromelain. Because it can digest animal tissue, with the pollen of the male flowers, which have just
workers in the pineapple fields and processing plants matured. It is June. The gravid female wasps now
must wear protective clothing. Test the power of migrate to a second generation of figs that has been
bromelain yourself by allowing the juice of a maturing on the tree. They leave behind the earthly
reasonably fresh pineapple to remain on your lips. remains of their mother and their brothers.
Note the tingling sensation as the enzyme begins to
dissolve the delicate tissue of your buccal orifice! The second generation of figs contains a mixture of
female flowers and sterile flowers, or it may contain
only female flowers. The wasp will lay her eggs in both
FIG types of flowers, but only those laid in the sterile
flower type will develop. They have a hollow, short
The ancestral home of Ficus carica is probably neck (style) that sits on top of the ovary. It is short
southern Arabia. It spread quickly to the enough that when the female wasp attempts to lay
Mediterranean. There are now several kinds of figs in eggs in the sterile flower, her egg-laying apparatus
cultivation, notably the common fig, the Capri fig, and (ovipositor) is long enough to reach the chamber in
the Smyrna fig. As in the pineapple, the sap of the fig the flower’s ovary. That location is essential for proper
contains a proteolytic enzyme that is the cause of an maturation of the wasp’s eggs. The female flowers, on
occupational hazard called "fig-pickers disease." the other hand, have a much longer, solid style -- too
long for the wasp’s ovipositor. However, when the
FIG RELATIVES wasp attempts to lay her eggs in the female flowers,
she coats the stigma with the pollen that she has
Banyan tree Ficus benghalensis brought on her body from the first generation of figs.
Weeping fig Ficus benjamina That pollen will fertilize the female flowers and they
Indian rubber tree Ficus elastica will set seed. It is now autumn. Following the same
Bo tree Ficus religiosa plan, gravid female wasps emerge from the sterile
Sycamore fig Ficus sycamorus flowers, leave the second generation of figs, and
Creeping fig Ficus pumila migrate to the third generation of figs. It has a smaller
Strangler fig Ficus spp. receptacles and it contains only sterile flowers. Egg
Mulberry Morus spp. laying and fertilization occur, as before. A new
Osage-orange Metopium toxiferum generation of wasps emerges in the winter and the
Breadfruit Artocarpus altilis cycle repeats itself.
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus
FIG POLLINATION
FRUIT STRUCTURE
[February]
The fig is a false fruit. What appears to be the skin
and much of the flesh of the “fruit” is a receptacle, Gravid female wasp enters fig
which is stem tissue. If you cut a fig in longitudinal L
section (down the middle), you can see that it has a Deposits egg + injects special secretion
hollow interior. At the top of the fig is a small opening L
(osteole) lined with scales. The inner wall of the vase- Gall forms (food for her young)
like structure is lined with hundreds of unisexual L
flowers. The upper section is covered with male She dies
flowers; the middle and lower portions with female L
flowers. Figs produce two kinds of female flowers. One Larvae hatch
type is sterile and the other fertile. The latter will L
produce a tiny, one-seeded fruit. These are the true Male wasp emerges first
fruits of the fig. As in the strawberry, it is easy to L
assume that the tiny fruits are the seeds of the plant, Pierces flower - fertilizes female wasp
located within a fleshy fruit. L
Male wasps die
POLLINATION
Let’s focus on the wild form of the edible fig (Ficus [May or June]
carica). It will form three different versions of figs
during the year. The first one appears during the Fig has ripened, but tough/bitter
winter months. It contains male flowers and sterile Male flowers shed pollen
flowers. Tiny female wasps (Blastophaga psenes) will Gravid female emerges
enter the opening at the top of this fig, penetrate the L
wall of the ovary, and deposit their eggs inside the She leaves fig - dusted with pollen
sterile flowers. When she lays an egg, she also injects L
Enters 2nd generation of figs
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L Caribbean, calledthe “Vomiting Sickness of Jamaica.”
Lays eggs
L DURIAN. Durio zibethinus is native to western
She dies Malaysia. Its green, spiny fruits usually weigh up to
2 kg (5 lbs.) and grow high up on trees 30 m tall.
Falling fruits have killed people! We are not the only
[September or so] fan of the durian; elephants, tigers, and monkeys are
particularly attracted to its fruits.
Fertilized females emerge
L The durian may be the world’s most notorious fruit.
Enter third generation of figs Most people find its smell and taste repulsive. The
L odor of mature fruits is so strong that they are banned
Insects emerge in winter in subways, on airplanes, and in public buildings.
What does it smell like?
In the fig, we see a complex inter-relationship
between a plant and its pollinator. Because it involves ' French custard passed through a sewer;
pollination and fertilization, it is an example -- a ' stale vomit;
complicated one -- of sexual reproduction. In the ' a civet cat;
domesticated figs, many cultivars produce figs with ' a fermented papaya after a fruit-eating bat has
only female flowers that set seed without pollination pee’d on it; and my personal favorite;
and fertilization have occurred. These figs, like the ' a garbage truck that has run over a skunk in a
bananas, have replaced sexual reproduction with paper mill town on a damp day!
asexual reproduction and have parthenocarpic fruits.
We have maintained them through the centuries Others express something akin to adulation when
because we like their predictably tasty figs. discussing its unique qualities. The great naturalist
Alfred Russel Wallace, who described himself as a
FIG CULTIVARS “confirmed durion eater,” put it this way:
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TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS
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granadilla, purple (Passiflora edulis) Passion Flower Brazil, juice produced comercially
granadilla, sweet (Passiflora ligularis) Passion Flower Tropical America
granadilla, yellow (Passiflora laurifolia) Passion Flower Tropical America & West Indies
grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi) Rue West Indies; a pummelo mutant?
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manzanilla (Crataegus spp.) Rose Central America
peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) Palm New World tropics; plum-like fruits
pejipaye (Guilielma utilis) Palm Tropical America; eaten as vegetable
pera do campo (Eugenia klotzschiana) Myrtle Native to central Brazil
pineapple (Ananas comosus) Bromeliad Native to New World tropics
pineapple guava (Feijoa sellowiana) Myrtle Same as the feijoa
Queensland nut (Macadamia ternifolia) Protea Also called the macadamia nut
rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) Soapberry Malaysia; seeds also roasted
ramontchi (Flacourtia indica) Flacourtia Asia; used mainly in preserves
rose-apple (Syzgium jambos) Myrtle Native to East Indies
rukam (Flacourtia rukam) Flacourtia Madagascar and Southeast Asia
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tree-tomato (Cyphomandra betacea) Nightshade Native to Peru
trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) Rue Native to northern China
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Eat plants that are growing in uncontaminated areas.
Avoid plants growing in stagnant waters, those
5.13 ! WILD EDIBLES growing in the immediate vicinity of agricultural areas
that might have been sprayed, or those growing in
soils high in nitrates or selenium.
If you drop into almost any bookstore and look in the
natural history section, you are likely to find a recently In some plants, only certain parts are edible, while in
published book on the identification and preparation others the entire plant body may be eaten with
of wild edible plants. There is a tremendous interest in impunity.
this subject, particularly on the part of impoverished
students and others fascinated by a return to a more Also, some plants may be eaten without any
simple way of living. preparation, while others require cooking, sometimes
involving a change of waters. Consult the recipes for
We might begin with a simple question. What is an details.
edible plant? The answer is not as easy as you might
think. Consider our personal preferences in cultivated Never eat large quantities of any wild plant that you
edible plants. Are we all in agreement that okra, have not tried before. Place a small portion in your
eggplant, and hominy grits are edible? To many of us mouth, chew it up, and then spit it out. Wait for a few
they are comparable to slime, cardboard, and minutes to see if any unpleasant taste or stinging
wallpaper paste. About all we can do is talk about sensation occurs. If not, chew and swallow a small
plants that most of us consider edible, realizing there piece of the plant. This time, wait for an hour or so. If
are many others that we might add to the list. the plant passes your personal test, then proceed with
some of the fancy recipes.
SOME PRECAUTIONS You should also ignore much of the folklore associated
with wild edible plants. One of the most dangerous
myths is that you can use other animals' food habits
Be sure of the identification of any plant that you eat. as a guide. After all, if a bird can eat that plant or if
It is not only important to avoid poisonous plants, but you see Bambi browsing on some herb, then it must
to know the identity of the plant that you are about to be safe to eat. The digestive system of birds, other
consume. mammals, and insects are sufficiently different from
ours that they should not be viewed as reliable guides.
Make certain that you know the toxic plants of your
area. Excellent technical and popular references are The notion that plants come color-coded (certain
available to assist you in telling the edible from the colors indicate edibility; others toxicity) is also without
poisonous. It can be difficult. The edible plants of the foundation. Also be leery of the stories about telling
carrot family are amazingly similar to ones that are mushrooms from toadstools by the latter's ability to
lethal. The toxic plants of the lily family closely discolor silver spoons or coins.
resemble some of the popular wild edible ones. People
make these mistakes all the time; some only once!
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false Soloman's seal Smilacina racemosa Aromatic rootstocks; soak in lye
fawn lilies Erythronium spp. Bulbs; boiled or dried
fritillaries Fritillaria spp. Bulbs; raw, boiled or dried
green brier Smilax californica Roots in soups; also ground into flour
green-gentians Frasera spp. Roots; raw, boiled or roasted
hedge nettle Stachys palustris Tubers; raw or cooked
Indian-potato Orogenia spp. Roots; raw, roasted or baked
lilies Lilium spp. Bulbs; raw or cooked
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fireweed Epilobium angustifolium Stems and leaves as potherb
glasswort Salicornia spp. Succulent stems used; salty taste
goldenrod Solidago missouriensis Leaves used as a potherb
EDIBLE FRUITS
bastard toadflax Comandra umbellata Raw; best when fruits are green
blackberry Rubus spp. Berries; raw or cooked
buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea Raw or cooked; tart
bunchberry (dogwood) Cornus canadensis Raw or cooked
California fan palm Washingtonia filifera Pulp around seeds edible
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crabapple Malus fusca Good for jellies
crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis Fruits may be ground into flour
datil yucca Yucca baccata Fleshy fruits edible
wild strawberry Fragaria spp. Fruits edible; quality varies with species
wintergreen Gaultheria humifusa Raw or cooked
wolfberry; boxthorn Lycium fremontii Fresh or dried in the sun
EDIBLE SEEDS
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balsam root Balsamorhiza spp. Roasted
beach pea Lathyrus japonicus Raw when immature; best in soups later
bedstraw Galium aparine Roasted; coffee substitute
black medick Medicago lupulina Ground into meal
blazing star Mentzelia albicaulis Red seeds used to make gravy
peppergrass Lepidium spp. Mix with vinegar and salt for dressing
pickleweed Salicornia subterminalis Seeds ground into flour
pinyon pine Pinus edulis Seeds edible
prince's plume Stanleya pinnata Parched; ground into flour
purslane Portulaca oleracea Seeds may be ground into mush
red maids Calandrinia ciliata Raw or cooked and ground into meal
sagebrush Artemisia spp. Raw or cooked and ground into meal
saltbush Atriplex spp. Ground into meal
Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius Roasted; coffee substitute
screw bean Prosopis pubescens Seeds ground into meal
BEVERAGE PLANTS
bird's foot fern Pellaea mucronata Stems and leaves make an aromatic tea
buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea Fruits crushed in water
California-lilac Ceanothus spp. Leaves and flowers; boil 5-10 minutes
creosote bush Larrea divaricata Leaves as a tea
Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Needles as a tea
elderberry Sambucus spp. Blue and black berries made into wine
false buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum Leaves as a tea
goldenrod Solidago missouriensis Leaves and mature flowers steeped for tea
ground ivy Glechoma hederacea Leaves dried; prepared as a tea
hoarhound Marrubium vulgare Tea/broth from leave; also a laxative
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saltbushes Atriplex spp. Seeds in water
selfheal Prunella vulgaris Fresh or dried leaves in cold water
sissop; winter fat Ceratoides lanata Leaves as a tea
yerba buena Satureja douglasii Steep leaves 15-20 minutes in hot water
yerba santa Eriodictyon californicum Leaves as a tea
MISCELLANEOUS USES
horsetails Equisetum spp. Peel away tough outer stem; pulp sweet
licorice fern Polypodium vulgare Leaf axis chewed
pussy's toes Antennaria spp. Stalks may be chewed as gum
red osier Cornus stolonifera Inner bark-leaves as tobacco substitute
reed grass Phragmites australis Stems may be ground into flour
GRASSES:
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon Also an aggressive weed and lawn grass
Brome grasses Bromus spp. Very important in dry, cool regions
Buffalo grass Buchloë dactyloides Native grass of cool, dry prairies
Fescues Festuca spp. Well adapted to warm summers
Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratensis One of the best and most palatable
Love grasses Eragrostis spp. Widely used in southern Great Plains
Orchard grass Dactylis glomerata Does well in cool, humid regions
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LEGUMES:
Alfalfa Medicago sativa Excellent protein source
Bird's-foot trefoil Lotus corniculatus Grows well on poor soils
Bush clovers Lespedeza spp. Plants of poor soils
Clovers Trifolium spp. Good protein and very palatable
Crown vetch Coronilla varia Eurasian; also used for erosion control
Sweet clovers Melilotus spp. Drought resistant; good soil builders
Vetches Vicia spp. Often used as winter cover crops
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SECTION 6 ! SPICES, FLAVORINGS, AND SUGAR
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1460 Portuguese bring back grains-of-paradise has a long history of medicinal uses to cure cancer,
from Africa tuberculosis, athlete's foot, hemorrhoids, and to treat
1492 Columbus sails for the Indies in search of its high blood pressure, and as an aphrodisiac.
precious spices
1498 Vasco de Gama reaches Calicut, India Sacks of garlic worn about the neck have been
1510 Portuguese gain control of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) considered by some people to be useful in warding off
1522 Magellan arrives in Spice Islands trolls and vampires. All I can say in this matter is that
1560 Overland trade route to Asia re-established not a single friend of mine who uses garlic has ever
1574 Uprising against Portuguese in Spice Islands been the attacked by either of these creatures.
1579 Sir Francis Drake reaches East Indies
1600 British East India Company founded OTHER “ROOTS”
1602 United (Dutch) East India Co. founded
1605 Dutch drive Portuguese out of Spice Islands GINGER (Zingiber officinalis) is the most important of
(to 1621) the root spices. It is actually the rhizome that contains
1641 Dutch capture Spice Islands the spice. Ginger, a member of the ginger family
1651 Dutch begin destroying nutmeg and cloves (Zingiberaceae), is native to Southeast Asia.
1770 Pierre Poivre smuggles cloves, etc. from Spice
Islands TURMERIC (Curcuma longa) is native to Southeast
1795 U. S. sails for Sumatra – enters pepper trade Asia. It is also a member of the ginger family. The
1795 English plant clove trees on Malay Peninsula spice is derived from rhizomes with blunt tubers.
1796 English gain control of East Indies Turmeric is immensely popular because it is a principal
1799 English end control by Dutch East India Co. ingredient in curry powder.
1955 Hurricane Janet destroys 90% of Grenada’s
nutmegs HORSERADISH (Armoracia rusticana) roots contain
1983 International Spice Group founded a very potent glycoside called sinigrin. The plant, a
member of the mustard family (Cruciferae), is native
to southeastern Europe, where it can be a weed.
ROOTS, RHIZOMES, AND BULBS WASABI (Wasabia japonica) is related to the
horseradish, but it is not a kind of horseradish. It is
ONIONS AND THEIR ALLIES also known as the Japanese horseradish, which adds
to the confusion in common names. This perennial
Common Name Scientific Name member of the mustard family grows naturally next to
mountain streams; it is cultivated in flooded terraces.
Canadian garlic Allium canadense The roots are ground to make a green powder or
Ch'iao t'ou Allium chinense paste. Most of the wasabi that we are served is
Chinese chives Allium odorum horseradish + mustard + green food coloring. The real
Chives Allium schoenoprasum wasabi is far too expensive for general use.
Egyptian onion Allium cepa It is very pungent! One fellow who did not know about
Elephant garlic Allium ampeloprasum wasabi thought that it was strange that a Japanese
Eschalot Allium cepa restaurant would be serving guacamole. After
Garlic Allium sativum consuming a hearty bite, he ended up in the hospital.
Giant garlic Allium scorodoprasum
SARSAPARILLA (Smilax spp.) is a trailing, prickly
Kurrat Allium ampeloprasum vine native to the New World tropics. The roots yield
Leek Allium ampeloprasum the spice, once widely used in various health tonics
Levant garlic Allium ampeloprasum and beverages. The hero in the old western movies
Nodding onion Allium cernuum always ordered this when he found himself in a
Onion Allium cepa saloon. The plant belongs to the lily family (Liliaceae).
ONION (Allium cepa) is one of our oldest food and CASSIA (Cinnamomum cassia), an ancient spice, is
flavoring plants. It is the most popular of the group of often confused with true cinnamon. The tree is native
related species shown in the table. Onions are to Burma. Its bark is loosened, stripped off, and dried.
probably native to southwestern Asia. Their Cassia is used in medicine, flavorings, soaps, and
characteristic flavor and aroma come from a sulfur- candies. A significant portion of the cassia crop is sold
containing compound, allicin. The onion is also held as cinnamon.
in high regard as a medicinal plant.
SASSAFRAS (Sassafras albidum) comes from a tree
GARLIC (Allium sativum) is second only to the onion native to eastern North America. It has been used to
in popularity as a flavoring. It is also native to Asia. flavor medicines, root beers, soaps, etc. It has
Garlic cloves are segments (axillary buds) of the industrial applications in floor oils and polishing oils.
parent bulb, surrounded by a papery sheath. Garlic The once popular sassafras tea is now rarely
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encountered because of its recently discovered call these plants "capsicums" or "capsicum peppers."
carcinogenic properties.
A SUMMARY OF CAPSICUM PEPPERS
LEAVES
Common Name Scientific Name
BASIL comes from Ocimum basilicum, a mint native
to India and Africa. It is much used in stews, Aji C. baccatum var. pendulum
dressings, and in mock turtle soup. Aji C. chinense
Anaheim C. annuum var. a.
PEPPERMINT is also derived from a mint, Mentha Ancho C. annuum var. a.
piperita. It grows wild in Europe, Asia, and North Banana C. annuum var. a.
America. The plants yield menthol, an essential oil Bell C. annuum var. a.
with wide applications. Bird C. annuum var. glabriusculum
Bird C. frutescens
SPEARMINT is derived from Mentha spicata, a mint Cascabel C. annuum var. a.
native to Europe and Asia. It is a widely used flavoring Cayenne C. baccatum var. baccatum
material.
Cayenne C. frutescens
SAGE (Salvia officinalis) is a mint native to the Chamburoto C. pubescens
Mediterranean region. It has been a popular culinary Chile manzana C. pubescens
herb since ancient times. The generic name, derived Chili C. frutescens
from the Latin verb "to save," tells us of its reputation Chili C. annuum var. a.
as a medicinal plant. The specific epithet indicates that Chilipiquin C. annuum var. glabriusculum
the plant was listed officially and approved for medical Chiltepine C. annuum var. glabriusculum
use. Green C. annuum var. a.
Habanero C. chinense
WINTERGREEN comes from the leaves of a birch Hungarian wax C. annuum var. a.
tree, Betula lenta. The flavoring derives from a
glycoside, methyl salicylate. Originally this popular Jalapeno C. annuum var. a.
spice came from Gaultheria procumbens, a plant of Mango C. annuum var. a.
the heath family. Mirasol C. annuum var. a.
Paprika C. annuum var. a.
TARRAGON (Artemisia dracunculus) is an Asian herb Peperoni C. annuum var. a.
that belongs to the daisy or sunflower family. It is in Pepperoncini C. annuum var. a.
the same genus as the sagebrush of our western Peter C. annuum var. a.
states. Its distinctive bittersweet flavor has made it Pimiento C. annuum var. a.
one of the most popular culinary herbs. Tarragon's Poblano C. annuum var. a.
popularity appears to go back only to about the Middle Rocotillo C. chinense
Ages. Rocoto C. pubescens
Serrano C. annuum var. a.
CLOVES are the unopened flowers and attached The volatile agent is capsaicin. Our tongue can detect
section of stem from Eugenia caryophyllata, a tree concentrations of as little as 1 part per million.
native to the Spice Islands. Most cloves now come Capsaicin can produce burns that are so severe that
from Zanzibar and the Malagasy Republic. Oil of cloves they require medical attention. The greatest
is obtained by distillation. Eugenol is used in the concentration of capsaicin is in the placenta, the tissue
synthesis of vanillin, the artificial vanilla flavoring. where the seeds are attached. Relative “heat” is
traditionally expressed in terms of Scoville Heat Units.
SAFFRON, from the stigmas and styles of Crocus Wilbur Scoville was a pharmacist. The delicate
sativus, a relative of the garden crocus, is the most scientific instrument that he used to quantify
expensive of the commonly used spices. It takes “hotness” was his tongue.
about 70,000 flowers to yield one pound of saffron.
The material has also been used as a plant dye. RELATIVE INTENSITIES OF PEPPERS
PEPPERS is the common name used for the fruits of El Paso 100-500
various species of Capsicum, New World members of Cherry 100-500
the nightshade family. Because they can be confused Big Jim 500-1000
with black and white pepper, some authors prefer to Anaheim 500-1000
-108-
Ancho 1000-1500 known as "savory seeds." Some examples are:
-109-
cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) seeds Used in curries, pickles, and cakes
cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum) bark Often confused with cinnamon
celery (Apium graveolens) fruits* Many culinary uses
chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) leaves Native to Asia
pepper tree (Schinus molle) fruits Used in baked goods and candies
poppy seeds (Papaver somniferum) seeds From opium poppy; no opiates
quassia (Quassia amara) bark A bitter flavoring
rue (Ruta graveolens) leaves Culinary and medicinal uses
saffron (Crocus sativus) flowers Only stigmas and styles used!
-110-
zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria) rhizome Flavoring in liqueurs
* These seed-like fruits from plants of the carrot family (Umbelliferae) are often called savory-seeds.
-111-
literature. It spread from its ancestral home to China, and the high temperature during boiling.
then to Java, and to the islands of the Pacific. Sugar
cane was brought to the New World by Columbus on Refining
his second voyage. It was first planted in the United
States in New Orleans in 1751. Now it is grown in The refining of raw sugar typically occurs in a separate
warm areas around the world. facility, often located somewhere far removed from
the mill.
Sugar cane is vegetatively propagated by planting
sections of stems with buds. It generally takes about Raw sugar melted to reform syrup
1 to 1.5 years to get a crop. Current production is L
almost 1 billion metric tons per year worldwide. Cane Filtered twice to yield a colored syrup
requires a great deal of water -- 2 metric tons of L
water to produce 1 kg of sugar. Plants are subject to Boiled in vacuum pans
a number of diseases and pests, including rats. L
Centrifuged
PROCESSING. The crop was traditionally harvested L
by hand, often by slaves. Because of the terrible Air-dried
conditions under which they worked, one authority L
estimated that 1 ton of sugar cost the life of one Filtered again
slave. Today, manual labor is still used, but so is a (diatomaceous earth, carbon black,
great deal of specialized equipment. and ground bone)
The processing of sugar cane consists of two phases: Brown sugar is a form of refined sugar. Syrup has
been added to the processed sucrose and it is
Milling redissolved and recrystallized. A fine molasses film
remains on the sugar crystals. The sugar industry
Stems washed, chopped, shredded, and once claimed brown sugar was so contaminated that
pressed between giant rollers it should never be eaten.
L
Stems chopped more finely Average consumption of sucrose in the United States
L is about 136 lbs per person annually or about 450
Soaked in hot water calories per day. Large amounts of sugar, and some
squeezed to extract more sugar people eat about 4 lbs/week, can meet the body's
L energy needs. Consuming sugar in this amount can
Crushed stem fiber remains (bagasse) inhibit starch and fiber-converting enzymes. Our
burned to make steam to run mill stomachs then find it more difficult to digest starch
L and fiber. Some argue that we can become addicted
Lime added and the mixture heated to refined sugar. Some authorities believe that there
L is a strong correlation between high sugar
Fibers and soil settle out or float to surface consumption that high alcohol intake outside of
L regular meals.
Juice pumped to evaporators
L
Loss of water yields a thick, dark syrup BEET SUGAR
L
Pumped to vacuum pans Beet sugar is derived from the swollen taproots of
L Beta vulgaris var. altissima, a relative of the edible
More evaporation occurs table beet. The wild beet of northern Europe, Beta
maritima, is presumably ancestral to both of them. It
L was not until the latter part of the 18th century that
Syrup boiled down to form massecuite the potential of the sugar beet was realized. In the
(solid sugar crystals and liquid molasses) following years, the chemical nature of its sugar was
L found to be identical to that of sugar cane and
Massecuite centrifuged to separate intensive breeding programs began. In 1993, we grew
solid and liquid phases 282 million metric tons of sugar beets. Sugar beets
L are grown in the temperate parts of the world. France
Sugar crystals washed is the leading producer, which is not unexpected when
(removes film of molasses) we recall the edict of Napoleon Bonaparte.
L
Spinning and drying Extraction Process
(just what it sounds like)
Topping (removal of the leaf cluster)
All of the steps so far are accomplished at the mill, L
often located in a tropical or subtropical area close to Thorough washing
the sugar cane plantations. Most of them were built L
many years ago and they tend to look pretty Shredding taproots
disreputable. The product at this stage is unrefined L
raw sugar. It is about 96% sucrose, a disaccharide Soak material in hot water
consisting of fructose and glucose. It also contains (most soluble sugar diffuses into water)
soil, microbes, and various other contaminants. The L
Food and Drug Administration says that it is unfit for Remove impurities
human consumption. Turbinado is a partially refined (add lime, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide)
form of sugar. It is washed with steam during L
centrifugation. Molasses, from the Latin for honey- Filter
like, is the syrup that remains after sucrose has been L
crystallized. Its darker color comes from carmelization
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Concentrate clear liquid that results to yield Maple sugar is mostly sucrose. The sugar content of
crystalline sucrose. the sap is only about 2-6%, much lower than that of
cane or beets. One reason why maple sugar is so
The residue that remains makes an excellent cattle expensive is that it takes about 40 gallons of sugar
feed. As in sugar cane, the raw sugar obtained from maple sap to make one gallon of maple syrup. One of
sugar beets is brown and must be refined to create the major users of maple syrup is the tobacco
white sugar. Two hundred years ago, sugar beets industry, as a flavoring in its products.
contained about 6% sucrose. Today's improved
varieties can produce up to 20% sugar.
OTHER SWEETENERS
MAPLE SUGAR Perhaps fueled by the controversy about the health
hazards of sucrose, some attention has been turned to
The indigenous peoples of North America had used the plants that yield sweeteners other than ordinary
sugar maple (Acer saccharinum), and to a lesser sugars. The West African plant Thaumatococcus
extent, the black maple, as the source of a sweetening daniellii, an herb in the prayer plant family
agent. They made cuts in the bark of the trees in the (Marantaceae), contains a protein that is up to 4000
early spring. The sap that oozed out was collected and times sweeter than sucrose. From that same region,
concentrated by dropping hot rocks into it or by a second plant called Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii,
freezing the sap and removing the layer of sugary ice yields another protein that is 800-3000 times sweeter
that formed each day. Early European settlers than cane sugar. Stevia rebaudiana, a South American
modified the procedure by drilling holes in the trees member of the sunflower family, contains stevioside,
and by boiling the sap down in iron kettles. Today we a glycoside up to 300 times as sweet as sucrose. A
use power drills, perhaps even the battery-powered little closer to home, Lippia dulcis, of the vervain or
models! Final processing occurs in the "sugar house," verbena family native to Mexico, has a compound in
where the maple sap is concentrated even more in an its leaves and flowers that is 1000 sweeter.
evaporator to yield maple syrup. If boiled even
further, the product will be the crystalline solid called
maple sugar.
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SECTION 7.0 ! BEVERAGE PLANTS
about 211 milligrams per person per day (about three
times the world's average).
7.1 ! AN OVERVIEW
Two other chemically similar alkaloids may also be
found in caffeine-bearing plants. They are
theobromine and theophylline. Collectively they are
' There are three major groups of beverages that often called the xanthine alkaloids.
we derive from plants: fruit juices and those that
contain caffeine or alcohol. CAFFEINE CONTENT
' Many widely used beverage plants are relatively We encounter caffeine in various foods, beverages,
unknown here in the United States. medicines, and weight-control aids.
' The ethyl alcohol in beer, wine, and distilled Product Caffeine in mg
beverages is a byproduct (which sounds better
than waste product) of microscopic yeasts. coffee (5 oz) (drip) 115-175
coffee (5 oz) (perked) 60-125
' Caffeine acts as a stimulant to the central coffee (5 oz) (instant) 40-105
nervous system. coffee (5 oz) (decaffeinated) 2-5
' Alcohol is not so easily categorized. It can be a tea (5 oz) (steeped 3 minutes) 20-50
depressant or a stimulant, and has other effects tea (5 oz) (steeped 5 minutes) 40-100
as well. tea (5 oz) (instant) 12-28
tea (5 oz) (iced) 22-36
' Both caffeine and alcohol fit comfortably within
the usual definition of a drug. maté 25-150
guaraná 58
' The ill effects of alcohol abuse are well-
established. cocoa (5 oz) 2-8
milk chocolate (1 oz) 1-15
' Linkage of caffeine consumption with heart baking chocolate (1 oz) 35
disease, high blood pressure, etc. remains dark chocolate (1 oz) 5-35
controversial.
"Jolt" cola (12 oz) 72
Coca Cola (12 oz) 46
Dr. Pepper (12 oz) 40
Pepsi Cola (12 oz) 38
7.2 ! CAFFEINATED RC Cola (12 oz) 36
BEVERAGES
[Source: Inst. Food Technol., 1987]
“It is probably significant that the most widespread PERCENTAGE OF XANTHINE ALKALOIDS
words in the world – borrowed into virtually every
language – are the names of the four great caffeine
plants: coffee, cacao, cola, and tea.” Plant Source Caffeine Theobrom- Theophyl
(E. N. Andes, “The Food of China”) l-
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' insomnia Yoshimasa
' restlessness 1559 First mention in European text
' tinnitus (ringing in the ears) 1610 Introduced into Europe by Dutch East India
' tremors Co.
' scintillating scotoma ("island of blindness") 1638 Russian Czar receives 140 lbs from Mongolia
' rapid heart action 1657 First public sale in England
' irregular heart beat, and 1706 Thomas Twining founds “Tom’s Coffee House”
' diuresis. 1753 Linnaeus names it Thea sinensis
1773 Boston Tea Party boards East India Co. ships
Tolerance and habituation may develop from 1788 Joseph Banks declares Indian climate
prolonged use. There is considerable debate as to favorable
whether caffeine is outright addictive and should be 1793 George III sends trade mission to China
classed as a drug. 1818 British introduce into India
1824 John Cadbury opens tea/coffee house in
CAFFEINE-BEARING PLANTS Birmingham
1833 Earl Grey, British Prime Minister, ends East
India Co. monopoly
Plant Source Part Used 1834 J. G. Gordon collects 80,000 seeds in China
1840 Anna, Duchess of Bedford establishes
afternoon tea ritual
cassine=Ilex vomitoria leaves and shoots 1849 Henry Charles Harrod, tea wholesaler, opens
cocoa=Theobroma cacao seeds grocery shop
coffee, Arabian=Coffea arabica seeds 1859 Great American Tea Co. opens in New York; it
coffee, Congo=Coffea canephora seeds became the A & P
coffee, Liberian=Coffea liberica seeds 1867 British introduce into Ceylon
coffee, robusta=Coffea canephora seeds 1869 Cutty Sark, English clipper ship, sails to
Shanghai
guaraná=Paullinia cupana seeds 1876 Thomas Johnstone Lipton, Glasgow grocer,
khat (qat)=Catha edulis leaves opens his 1st shop
kola (cola)=Cola nitida seeds 1878 Caleb Chase & James Sanborn found
maté (yerba maté)=Ilex paraguariensis leaves coffee/tea company
tea (cha)=Camellia sinensis leaves and buds 1889 Thomas Lipton blends/packages tea
yaupon=Ilex vomitoria leaves and shoots 1904 Iced tea created at a St. Louis fair
yoco=Paullinia yoco bark 1909 Joseph Krieger invents hand-sewn muslin tea
bag
1993 Natl. Cancer Inst. reports inhibitory effects on
growth of tumors
TEA Tea or cha, from the leaves of Camellia sinensis, was
once the most widely consumed caffeinated drink in
“Tea is better than wine for it leadeth not to the world. Now it is second only to the cola beverages.
intoxication, neither does it cause a man to say foolish The plant is native to Southeast Asia, perhaps China.
things and repent thereof in his sober moments. It is Tea has had a long history. At first it was strictly a
better than water for it does not carry disease; neither medicinal plant. It was not until about the 5th century
does it act like poison does when the wells contain foul A.D. that tea became popular in Asia as a drink. It
and rotten matter.” remained relatively unknown in Western Europe until
(Attributed to Shen Nung, Emperor of China) the 16th or 17th century. Today China remains the
leading producer; India and Ceylon the chief
"There are few hours in life more agreeable than exporters.
afternoon tea." (Henry James. Portrait of a Lady)
The tea plant is a small tree that is usually kept
"Thank God for tea! What would the world do without pruned back as a shrub. It is often grown under the
tea? -- how did it exist? I am glad I was not born shade of some other plant on the hillsides of tropical
before tea.” (Sydney Smith) and subtropical areas. The leaves are produced in
flushes. After the third or fourth year, the flushes are
“We had a kettle; we let it leak. Our not repairing it plucked. This consists of removing a section of the
made it worse. We haven’t had any tea for a week.... young shoot bearing three or four young leaves and
The bottom is out of the Universe.” the terminal bud. The plucking stimulates the lateral
(Rudyard Kipling. Natural Theology) buds to produce shoots. After about ten years, the
plant is cut back to the ground and sucker shoots take
''''' over. The harvesting is done by hand in most
instances, although machinery is used in some areas.
TIMELINE: TEA It is important not to bruise the young leaves.
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Sorting
L COFFEE
Fermentation
L “One need only compare the violent coffee-drinking
Drying societies of the West to the peace-loving tea drinker
L of the Orient to realize the pernicious and malignant
Sorting effect that bitter brew has upon the human soul.”
L (Anonymous Hindu dietary tract)
Grading
After the leaves have been removed from the plant, “Coffee should be black as Hell, strong as death and
they are spread out on trays to wilt. Once again it is sweet as love.” (Turkish proverb)
essential to prevent bruising so as to avoid
fermentation. Temperature during the withering phase "They have in Turkey a drink called coffee. This drink
must be precisely controlled. Once the leaves have comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth
wilted, they are rolled under pressure to separate digestion." (Sir Francis Bacon)
them from the stem tips and to crush them. The
crushing helps to distribute the sap within the leaf. “Coffee makes us severe, and grave, and philo-
This also initiates fermentation. A preliminary sizing or sophical.” (Jonathan Swift, 1722)
sorting also occurs at this point. The partially
fermented and sized leaves are placed on screen- The “...damned infidells [drink] a certaine liquor,
bottom trays. During this fermentation phase the which they do call Coffe.” (Anthony Shirley, 1599)
temperature is kept between 21-25EC and the relative
humidity at about 90%. Many very important bio- “Everybody is using coffee. If possible, this must be
chemical changes occur during the fermentation prevented. My people must drink beer.”
process. The tea leaves are then dried for 20-25 (Frederick the Great, 1777)
minutes at 90-100EC. The final grading involves
judging the aroma, uniformity, and appearance of the “Wherever it has been introduced it has spelled
leaves along with the taste, color, and aroma of the revolution. It has been the world’s most radical drink
infusion made from the leaves. in that its function has always been to make people
think. And when the people began to think, they
Green tea is processed much the same as black tea, became dangerous to tyrants.”
except that the freshly plucked leaves are heated to (William Ukers, 1935)
inhibit fermentation. The oolong teas are partially
fermented. Black tea is the most commonly produced
type. TIMELINE: COFFEE
Because of local variation in quality, differences in 1000 Arabs prepare hot drink from boiled beans
quality over a period of time, and local taste 1400 Domesticated (Arabia)
preferences, most of the commonly consumed teas 1511 Coffee houses in Mecca closed
have leaves from a wide variety of sources blended 1573 Leonhard Rauwolf publishes directions for
together. preparation of Turkish coffee
1601 “Coffee” appears in English for first time
Bubble tea or boba milk tea or tapioca milk tea is a 1616 Introduced into Europe
recent fad imported from Taiwan. It is tea, milk, 1650 Oxford opens first coffee house
sugar, and black tapioca pearls, served cold. 1652 London opens first coffee house
1658 Dutch grow in Ceylon
Tea leaves contain up to 5% caffeine or theine and 1674 “Women’s Petition Against Coffee”
about 20% tannins. There are also dextrins, pectins, published
cellulose, and other structural materials. After a five 1675 Charles II bans coffee houses in London
minute infusion the tea leaf yields about half of the 1688 Edward Lloyd founds “Lloyd’s Coffee
tannins, 3/4 of the caffeine, and about half of the House”
other extractable solids. 1689 Paris opens first coffee house
1696 Dutch grow in Japan
THE TEA CEREMONY 1696 New York opens first coffee house
1714 Jardin des Plantes receives coffee tree from
The Japanese tea ceremony, adapted from an earlier Dutch
ritual developed by the Chinese, is based on the Zen 1727 Coffee trees planted in Brazil
principle of adoration of the beautiful and the routine. 1732 J. S. Bach composes “Coffee Cantata”
The setting is a tea house in a garden or special room 1777 Frederick the Great exhorts Germans to
made of specific materials and configuration. Typically drink beer
there are hanging scrolls, flowers, and a sunken 1821 Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolates caffeine
fireplace. Participants enter along path of paving 1825 Cultivation begins in Hawai’i
stones, walk silently, and leave behind their worldly 1827 Nicolas Felix Durant invents modern
concerns. The host extends a silent greeting. A light percolator
meal is served. Water is heated over a charcoal stove. 1878 Caleb Chase & James Sanborn found
The host presents the tea utensils that will be used. coffee/tea company
Green tea (matcha) is now prepared. Everyone drinks 1893 Charles Post invents Postum, a coffee
from a communal bowl, usually taking three servings. substitute
The teapot, spoon, and other implements are washed 1901 Satori Kato develops soluble instant coffee
and put away. The host now offers cake and a weaker 1903 Ludwig Roselius develops Sanka
tea. This sets the stage for silent contemplation of the 1905 Ludwig Roselius develops decaffeination
fire and the surroundings. The host now takes guests process
to threshold of the tea house where there is a ritual 1908 Melita Bentz invents coffee filter (a linen
rinsing of mouth and hands. towel)
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Dry
1938 Nestlé Co. invents instant coffee (drying floor or oven)
1970 Rust causes $3B loss in Brazilian crop L
1971 First Starbucks opens Milling and polishing
1975 Soft drinks now more popular than coffee (remove parchment and silver skin)
1984 International Olympic Committee once L
again declares caffeine as “doping agent” Final grading
1985 FDA rules solvent-processed decaffeinated L
coffee safe Shipped
1994 Caffeine Anonymous founded L
Roasted
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By the way, café is the French, Spanish, and Spaniards. It was not until the Dutch broke a virtual
Portuguese word for coffee and the place where it is Spanish monopoly that cacao even became known to
sold is called a caféteria. most Europeans. Cacao did not become popular in
Europe until someone discovered that it could be
COFFEE AND YOUR HEALTH improved by adding sugar, cinnamon, and vanilla.
“The divine drink which builds up resistance and fights Extract seeds
fatigue. A cup of this precious drink permits a man to L
walk for a whole day without food.” Ferment
[Hernán Cortés] L
Clean/dry seeds
“This cacao, when much is drunk, when much is L
consumed, especially that which is green, ... makes Roast (121E C)
one drunk,... dizzy, confuses one, makes one sick, L
deranges one. When an ordinary amount is drunk, it Separate nibs from shells
gladdens one, refreshes one, consoles one, in- L
vigorates one. Thus it is said: ‘I take cacao. I wet my Grind
lips. I refresh myself.” L
[Bernardino de Sahagun, 16th century] Cake + liquor
L
“The beverage of the gods was ambrosia; that of man Second grind
is chocolate. Both increase the length of life in a L
prodigious manner.” Press
[Louis Lewin, “Phantastica”] L
Cocoa butter + cake
'''''
Final Processing:
First, a word about easily confused common names.
The plant itself is a cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). By Option 1:
processing its seeds, we obtain products that we call Cocoa butter
cocoa and chocolate. The South American shrub that L
bears the coca leaf, the source of cocaine, is a Add liquor and sugar
completely unrelated plant. L
Conch
Cacao is a small tree native to the New World tropics. L
The Aztecs made a drink from it called xocoatl; the Sweet chocolate
Mayans made kakaw. These were very popular drinks
long before the Conquest. They also used it as a Option 2:
money substitute. The usual Aztec recipe called for Cocoa butter
cacao, maize, water, and capsicums. The maize was L
used because the cacao seeds contained so much fat. Add liquor, sugar, milk solids
This concoction was relatively unpalatable to the L
Conch
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L “Classic Coke.” The recipe that failed had no coca leaf
Milk chocolate flavoring in it.
Option 3:
Cocoa cake MINOR CAFFEINATED
L BEVERAGES
Pulverize
L
Cocoa powder MATÉ. Ilex paraguariensis, also called yerba maté and
Jesuit tea, is a shrub related to English holly. It is
probably the world's 4th most popular drink. It is very
widely used in South America, where it is native. The
leaves contain about 1.5% caffeine. Maté is becoming
COLA BEVERAGES more popular in the U.S.
Cola nitida is a tree native to the rain forests of Africa. GUARANÁ. This is the “Brazilian cocoa” or the "cola"
Its seeds contain caffeine (up to 3.5%), theobromine of Brazil. Paullinia cupana is a twining shrub that has
(less than 1%), and kolanin, a glycoside. Cola nut long been used by the local Indians. It has 3-4 times
extracts were once used to flavor the various cola more caffeine than either tea or coffee. In recent
drinks. Now most of these use flavorings, years it has found its way into North American
theobromine, and caffeine from other sources. Most of markets, often as one of the ingredients in beverages
the cola nuts are produced in Africa and Jamaica. that health-conscious folks drink.
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(oxygen-free) condition. Yeasts ingest sugar and '''''
nitrogenous compounds produced by other organisms.
They metabolize 6-carbon simple sugars. They cannot Alcohol is a non-selective depressant of the central
break down starch directly; it must be metabolized for nervous system. At first, it has a slightly stimulating
them. This usually means that one or more enzymes effect, but this is followed by a much more prolonged
must be present. dulling of the senses. In low to moderate doses, there
is little evidence of long lasting, harmful effects. What
During fermentation, sugars are broken down into constitutes "low to moderate" remains a matter of
ethanol (ethyl alcohol), carbon dioxide, fusel oils debate. Several experts have spoken of the efficacy of
(alcohols of long chain-lengths), acetaldehyde, acetic one or two glasses of red wine per day.
acid, and various sulfur-containing compounds. About
47% of the sugar is converted into alcohol. With an Ethanol is soluble in water and fats. It moves easily
unlimited supply of sugar, the alcohol level can reach through membranes. Almost all of the alcohol that we
about 14-18%. In a sense, the yeasts are swimming imbibe is absorbed in our stomach and large intestine.
about in alcohol, a waste product of their life Typically we drink alcohol faster than our system can
processes. When the alcohol concentration reaches break it down to carbon dioxide and water. The
approximately 18-19%, the yeasts are killed by it and alcohol levels in our body simply rise. This leads to a
the fermentation process stops. This is the reason for feeling of general numbness, which we perceive as a
the comparatively low alcohol content of beer, wine, sense of relaxation.
and other fermented drinks.
Drinking can produce disorientation, reduced
FERMENTATION: THE RECIPE judgmental ability, and loss of reasoning. It can also
(Joseph Gay-Lussac, 1810) lead to permanent physical damage characterized by:
Beverage % Alcohol
BEER
Fermented:
Beer 3.5-6.0 “A meal of bread, cheese and beer constitutes the
Ale 6.0-8.0 chemically perfect food.” [Queen Elizabeth I]
Hard cider 8.0-12.0
Wine and fortified wine 10.0-22.0 “Beer is proof that God loves us and wants us to be
happy.” [Benjamin Franklin]
Distilled:
Whiskey 40.0-55.0 '''''
Brandy 40.0-55.0
Rum 40.0-55.0 Beer, in the broad sense, is an alcoholic beverage that
Gin 40.0-55.0 is made by fermenting the carbohydrates found a wide
Vodka 40.0-55.0 variety of plants. In its simplest form:
[After Der Marderosian & Liberti (1988), p. 32] carbohydrate + water + enzymes û beer
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washed and cleaned, then steeped in vats of water for L
about two days. The grains are then germinated under Ferment
controlled conditions. This stage usually lasts four to (8-11 days for beer)
six days. When the primary root has emerged, (5-6 days for ale)
germination is stopped by drying the grains in kilns. L
Grains are steeped in water, germinated, ground up, Skim to remove yeast
and dried. The result is malt. The enzymes in these L
sprouted grains break down the carbohydrate material Green beer
that is added to it. L
Add yeast, sugar, or fresh wort
A carbohydrate source (adjunct), such as rice, corn, L
wheat, or potatoes, is added to the malt. The mixture Ferment
often consists of about 65% malt and 35% adjunct. L
This combination is called the mash. The liquid Clarify
portion of the mash is the wort. After it is drawn off, L
the barley grains are collected, dried, and used as Bottle or can
cattle feed. L
Pasteurize (keg)
Most American beers are not only malted, but also or
hopped, which means that the wort is boiled with hops Unpasteurized (draft beer)
for two or three hours. Hops is made from the bracts
surrounding the female flowers of Humulus lupulus, a [After McGee, 1984]
vine in the hemp family (Cannabaceae). California is
one of the main producers of hops in the U. S. It
imparts the characteristic bitter flavor to beer and TYPES OF BEER
helps to clarify it. Clarification is the coagulation of
nitrogen-containing materials in the wort. Most of our MALTED BEERS
beers do not have a high hops content; European
versions are usually much higher. Ale has a higher hops concentration and a higher
alcohol content (4-7%). It is brewed at a higher
The cooled wort is now placed in large tanks where it temperature and it is made by yeasts floating on the
is inoculated with a select strain of Saccharomyces surface of the wort, rather than those on the bottom
cerevisiae, a yeast. It will act on the wort to produce of the tank.
carbon dioxide, ethyl alcohol, and minor organic
constituents. At this stage, the fermented beer is Bock is a potent dark beer. It is often made from the
called green beer. After a couple of days of initial first hops and malt of the season.
fermentation, the green beer is transferred to lagering
vats where a secondary fermentation occurs. During Porter is a dark, sweet, bock-like ale. It is usually
this several day process, various organic materials aged for six to eight weeks. It is often made from an
coagulate as scum. The beer is then aged for a period inferior malt and then colored with caramel or licorice.
lasting from a few weeks to a few months. Young beer
may be added just before bottling to bring the Stout is a porter-like beer of high alcohol content and
carbonation to a desired level or carbon dioxide may with a strong hop flavor. It is heavier than porter
be artificially added. The beer is then filtered and beers and it is usually aged for about a year.
usually pastuerized. Draft beer is not pastuerized. The
final product is about 5% ethyl alcohol (ethanol), 90% Kvass or quass is a Russian beer made from barley
water, along with maltose (a sugar), gums, dextrins, and rye and flavored with peppermint.
and various nitrogenous substances.
Pombe or bousa is an African beer made from millet
THE BREWING PROCESS grains.
Barley soaked and germinated Weiss is a light, malty ale made mostly from wheat.
L
Steeped in warm water 2-3 days UNMALTED BEERS
L
Partly germinated grain (malt) heated and dried Chicha is a very popular South American beer that is
L practically unknown in the U. S. It can be made from
Store 20-30 days a variety of carbohydrate sources, including maize,
L potatoes, manioc, plantain, and palms. The enzymes
Malt + warm water (mashing) needed for fermentation to occur are provided by
L human saliva using the ancient "chew and spit"
Sweet, brown liquid (wort) process.
L
Add adjuncts (cereal, potato, etc.) Ginger beer is produced by allowing a sugar solution
L containing ginger rhizomes to be acted upon by yeast
Filter and bacteria.
L
Add hops Hard cider is based upon the fact that many kinds of
L fruits, especially the apple, ferment quickly. A large
Boil (2+ hours) proportion of the apple cider that we make is allowed
L to undergo acetic acid fermentation that will yield
Cool commercial vinegar.
L
Centrifuge Mead is made with fermented honey. It is so
L concentrated that fungi and bacteria cannot live easily
Add cultured yeast
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in it, which explains its long shelf life. It played an the world, but only one of them, the European Vitis
important role in the 30 day wedding ceremonies, the vinifera meets all of the requirements for making an
"honeymoon," of the Scandi-navians. excellent wine. Its fruit contains enough of the right
kinds of sugars with the properly low acidity so that
Pulque is a favorite Mexican beer made from the sap the juices can be made into a stable and balanced
of several different century plants (Agave spp.). wine without having to add large amounts of sugar or
water. We have domesticated thousands of cultivars
Root beer is made from herbs, barks, roots, sugar, of this single species and they provide most of the
and yeast. Sarsaparilla, ginger, and wintergreen are world's wine.
often used. There is, of course, the non-alcoholic
version sold by Hires, and others. DEFINITION
Sake (also spelled saki) is a Chinese and Japanese Many authorities restrict the term "wine" to fermented
favorite made by fermenting steamed rice. grape products. Other fruit sources, such as cherries,
Fermentation is accomplished by Aspergillus oryzae, blackberries, and elderberries, often referred to as
rather than Saccharomyces. The alcohol content is wines, are then considered to be hard ciders. While
higher than that of typical wine or beer. Sake is the definition of "wine" may be a broad one in the
sometimes treated as a kind of wine. study of economically important plants, it often is very
narrow in the legal sense. California restricts the term
to only those products with a minimum percentage of
WINE grapes used in their manufacture.
In 1863, the vineyards of the Rhone Valley in France ' Madeira, named after an island off the coast of
were attacked by a root louse (Phylloxera vastatrix), Portugal; usually served after a meal or as a
imported accidently from the United States. This dessert wine
insect caused the grape vines to loose their leaves and
it eventually killed them. The European cultivars were ' Port is a fortified sweet, red wine named after the
highly susceptible and the plague spread through the Portuguese city of Oporto. It is usually drunk after
vineyards with appalling speed. Many treatments were dinner. There are also brown and white versions
attempted, but the one that proved to be most available.
successful involved grafting European cultivars onto
American strains that were resistant to Phylloxera. ' sherry, made from white palomino grapes and
The insect has never been eradicated from the named after Jerez (Xeres) de la Frontera, a town
vineyards. Almost all of today's wines are made from in southern Spain. Sherries range from very dry to
grafted vines. very sweet.
Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Chile, France, Vermouth is a wine to which aromatic herbs have
Germany, Italy, Portugal, the Soviet Union, Spain, and been added. The name comes from the German word
the United States are the leading wine-producing for wormseed (wermut), one of the original flavorings.
countries. France, Italy, and Spain are the top three,
usually in that order. VARIETALS. I mentioned earlier that there were
thousands of cultivars of Vitis vinifera. A few of them,
There are many species of grapes known throughout called the "noble grapes," produce the world's best
wines.
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White Noble Grapes (White Wines): tannins. Grapes may be fermented with the stems
intact, partially removed, or completely absent. Today
Chardonnay, makes champagne and our best white there are machines that stem and crush the grapes,
wines in California, the Pacific Northwest, and New thereby allowing the skins and juices to be pumped
York; into vats and the stems to be discarded. Vats are
made of wood, concrete, or stainless steel. If the
Chenin blanc, makes both dry and sweet wines; grape skins remain in the must, the result is a red
wine. Many of them are named after the areas where
Gewurtztraminer, produces a highly scented wine; they were first developed or they are associated with
the wine industry of a particular country. Some
Riesling, also yields a highly scented grape that common examples of red wines are Burgandy, claret,
produces Germany's finest wines, and its best sweet Chianti, Cabernet, and zinfandel.
wines when infected by the noble rot;
If the skins are not allowed to remain on the grapes
Semillon, when infected with the noble rot, yields during fermentation, a white wine will result. While
sweet white wines of the Bordeaux region of France. the skins may be left on long enough to impart some
color and flavor, the juices will lack the tannin content
Black Noble Grapes (Red Wines): of red wines. These tannins inhibit the growth of
bacteria. Sulfur dioxide is used in its place. White
Cabernet Sauvignon, yields wines that are high in wines are typically fermented at lower temperatures
acidity and tannins and that are long-lived; than are red wines. Common examples include
Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Tokay,
Gamay, from the Beaujolais district of Burgundy in Chablis, champagne, sauterne, and white burgundy.
France, produces wines highly regarded for their
fresh, fruity flavors; Rosé wines are made by leaving the grape skins in the
must for a short period of time and then removing
Grenache, a black grape that does well in hot them. Really cheap rosé wines may be mixtures of red
climates of France, Spain, North Africa, and California; and white wines.
Merlot, from the Bordeaux region of France, produces The high malic acid content of new wine can be
a robust, long-lived wine; reduced by a secondary fermentation or malolactic
fermentation. The process is mediated by select
Pinot noir, yields fine red burgundies; and strains of yeast. It is used extensively in the
processing of California chardonnays.
Syrah, which produces a robust red wine.
Better wines are then aged in wood for a period of
Other grapes of note include: barbera, made from an about six months to several years. The casks are
Italian black grape; catawba, a black grape native to typically made of oak and hold 225-228 liters (about
North America; colombard, a white grape used in 60 gallons). Alcohol and water diffuse into the wood
California to make French colombard and, in France, and then evaporate. These processes concentrate the
to make some cognac; Concord, a black grape native wine at the same time that a number of highly
to North America used to make both a dry wine and a complex biochemical changes are occurring. During
sweet kosher wine; lambrusco, an Italian black maturation, wine is decanted from one vessel to
grape; mission, the first European grape introduced another. Racking, as it is known in the trade, allows
into the New World and the main one used in a clear liquid to be drawn off and for the lees (dead
California until the late-1800's; petite sirah, a black yeasts, tartar crystals, small pieces of grape skin, and
grape introduced into California from France; other solids) to remain behind. Wines may also
sylvaner, a white grape grown in Germany and in undergo clarification or fining. This process also
California; and zinfandel, a black grape, possibly removes microscopic solids. They coagulate around
from Italy, now planted in California where it yields fining substances, such as egg white, gelatin, or
fruity, red wines. bentonite, a kind of clay.
PROCESSING WINE MAKING
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Filter
L
Bottle
L
Sell at an extravagant price
FERMENTED BEVERAGES
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Gin is distilled to obtain nearly pure alcohol. The mash wormwood (from a kind of sagebrush, Artemisia
is usually of maize and rye. Various aromatics, such as absinthium), fennel, star-anise, and other aromatics.
the juniper berry (Juniperus spp.) or sloe berry Sale of absinthe was banned in France in 1915, with
(Prunus spinosa) are added for flavor. the United States and many other countries adopting
similar restrictions. Curiously, in 2005 Switzerland will
Vodka is from the Russian word for water. For all once again allow limited production.
practical purposes, it is pure ethanol. It is made from
a wheat-malt mash and it is unflavored and unaged. The toxic principles appear to be l-thujone and d-
isothujone. On the other hand, a mixture of absinthe
Rum (rhum or ron) is distilled from sugar-cane juice and anisette is reported to be excellent in treating
or from molasses to which water and yeast are added. motion sickness. A reformulated version of absinthe,
It is then distilled to yield an alcohol content of about called pernod, appeared in 1922. It lacks the
80-150 proof. It is aged in oak, usually for 1 to 10 wormwood, but retains the anise base.
years. Various flavorings are often added. Most of our
rum comes from the Caribbean. Over indulgence causes:
' mania;
Tequila, a favorite Mexican drink, is made by distilling ' convulsions;
the fermented juice from a century plant (Agave ' irritation of the gastrointestinal tract;
spp.). The highest quality is obtained by using 100% ' stupor;
blue agave, a cultivar of A. tequileana. Plants that are ' hallucinations;
about 10-12 years old are harvested. After the leaves ' extreme nervousness;
have been cut off, what remains is a 75-150 lb. plant ' loss of hearing and sight;
part that the locals call a "piña" or "cabeza." It is ' coma; and
sometimes called the fruit of the plant, but that is ' death.
incorrect. The agave heads are cooked in ovens,
cooled, and then put through mechanical crushers that Akvavit is a favorite Scandinavian drink made from
separate the juice from the solid material. Yeasts are grains or potatoes flavored with caraway seeds.
added to the agave juice to begin the fermentation
process. The fermented mash will then be distilled. Bitters is made from various herbs and flavorings.
Tequila is a very popular drink these days. Premium The alcohol content is about 40%. Angostura bitters
labels sell for as much as $300 a bottle; $20 a shot at contains quinine and several aromatic substances,
your fancy upscale bars down in The City. including the angostura bark from Galipea, a member
of the citrus family.
Brandy is made by distilling wine or fermented fruits
other than grapes. It is usually aged in wood. The Liqueurs or cordials are made by combining brandy
alcohol content is about 40-50%. Cognac, named after with a series of flavorings, often by simply adding
the French city, is probably the best known brandy. dried fruits. Common examples include apricot
cordials, creme de cacao, and creme de menthe.
Absinthe is the most dangerous and notorious of the
distilled beverages. It is a green liqueur made of oil of
DISTILLED BEVERAGES
Product Plant Source Comment
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8.0 • INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS
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3-8 weeks, usually in the dew of fields. They are then
HOW DO WE USE FIBERS? scutched. Hemp is used in cordage, in rather coarse
fabrics, and to caulk wooden sailing ships, a need that
Fibers may also be classified according to their uses: seems to be declining. Until the latter part of the 19th
century, hemp was a major source of fiber for
textile fibers are used primarily in the fabric manufacturing paper. Its present day advocates have
industry. Cotton, flax, ramie, hemp, and jute are launched an educational campaign to grow it once
common examples. again for that purpose, thereby saving our forests.
cordage fibers are used to make twines and ropes. A COMPARISON OF HEMP & PINE PAPER PULP
Jute, cotton, hemp, abacá, sisal, and New Zealand flax
are common examples. Hemp Pine trees
brush, plaiting or braiding fibers are used to make 80% conversion to pulp 43 % conversion
brooms, brushes, mats, hats, baskets, rugs, screens, 3-20% lignin 30% lignin
etc. In this category, the fiber strand can be braided Requires less bleaching Requires more
or folded. Examples include a variety of palms, 3-8 tons dry wt. per acre 2-4 tons
bamboos, herbaceous grasses, and sedges.
filling fibers are used for stuffing, caulking, and TIMELINE: HEMP FIBER
reinforcing. Kapok, cotton, several of the hard fibers,
Spanish moss, and many grasses fall into this BCE:
category.
8000 Earliest fiber remains at Çatal Hüyük
paper-making fibers are used to make paper. Who 4500 Spreads from Central Asia to China
would have guessed it? There are purists, however, 2800 Emperor Shen Nung teaches Chinese to
who will argue that hemp, paper mulberry, papyrus, cultivate
kenaf, rice paper, and various bamboos do not give us 2700 Use widespread in Old World
“paper,” but only a writing surface. Real paper, they 170 Oldest extant specimens of hemp paper
say, can be made only out of wood fibers and rags
that have been reduced to a pulp and then CE:
reconstituted. See Section 8.3 for a discussion of
paper-making. 100 Chinese first to make paper from hemp
1150 Moors open factory in Spain (first in
Europe)
FLAX 1533 Henry VIII requires farmers to grow hemp
1545 Spanish introduce hemp to New World
1563 Elizabeth I renews Henry’s decree
Flax is one of the oldest fibers. It comes from Linum 1564 Philip I of Spain orders use in Central &
usitatissimum, a member of the flax family (Linaceae). South America
From the time of the ancient Egyptians until about the 1611 King James Bible printed on hemp
19th century, it was the leading fiber plant. Now it is 1619 Jamestown colonists directed to grow
relatively unimportant. Flax seeds are the source of hemp
linseed oil. 1637 Families in Hartford, CT ordered to plant 1
tsp. of seed
Flax is retted, either in dew or it is immersed in water 1645 Puritans introduce into New England
for one or two weeks. After retting, the fibers are 1753 Linnaeus publishes Cannabis sativa as
scutched. The central core and bark are separated scientific name
from one another. Commercial flax is derived from the 1776 Drafts of Declaration of Independence
bark. The fiber is superior to cotton in many ways. written on hemp
Flax fibers can absorb up to 20% of their own weight 1807 Treaty of Tilset controls sale of hemp
in water and they are stronger wet than they are dry. 1812 U. S. war with England over access to
For this reason, hey are prized as towels. Russian hemp
1812 Napoleon invades Russia to devastate
hemp crop
HEMP 1841 U. S. Congress orders Navy to buy
domestic hemp
“Hemp is intertwined with American history. We grew 1850 U. S. census records 8327 hemp farms
it to rig the great New England sailing ships, traveled (2000 + acres)
west in Conestoga wagons covered in hemp cloth, 1916 U. S. D. A. publishes “Hemp ... As Paper-
dressed in homespun hemp cloth when we got there Making Material”
and wound up wearing hemp jeans. We tied our cargo 1929 Ford Motor Co. investigates use of hemp in
with hemp rope and fed the poultry with hemp seed. car plastic body
We used hemp to help develop this country.... George 1937 Mechanical Engineering declares hemp a
Washington said, ‘Make the most of hemp seed. Sow “most ... desirable crop...”
it everywhere.” (Willie Nelson) 1937 U. S. Congress passes Marijuana Tax Act
1938 Popular Mechanics publishes “New Billion
''''' Dollar Crop”
1942 U. S. D. A. distributes 400,000 pounds of
Like flax, hemp (or hempen) fiber is another plant hemp seed in war effort
with a long history of use. Its fiber is similar to that of 1942 U. S. D. A. releases film “Hemp for Victory”
flax and it may be used as a substitute for it. Hemp 1957 Last hemp fields planted in U. S.
(Cannabis sativa) is native to Asia. The plant is not (Wisconsin)
only the source of a valuable fiber, but it also yields 1984 Ralph Lauren begins secret use of hemp in
edible seeds (used for birdseed), oils, and clothing line
psychoactive resins. The stems are allowed to ret for 1988 European Economic Community subsidizes
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seed production King Cotton! This is the world's most important fiber
1989 Imported hemp garments once again plant. In addition, its seeds yield cottonseed oil and
available in U. S. they are used for fodder cake. The mature fruit, the
1993 Great Britain lifts hemp ban boll, splits open to reveal the fibers, outgrowths of
1994 Presidential Order declares hemp a the seed surface. These unicellular hairs are
strategic crop essentially pure cellulose. The hairs may be 1000-
1995 North American Industrial Hemp Council 6000 times longer than they are wide. They occur in
formed two forms: (1) fuzz, also called linters, that are thick
1997 North Dakota legalizes hemp at the base and firmly attached to the seed itself; and
1998 Canada legalizes non-drug cultivation (2) lint, with a narrow, delicate base that is easily
1998 Australia legalizes hemp detached. Lint can be spun. The linters are removed
1998 Oregon State University publishes by special machinery and they are used to make nitro-
feasibility study cellulose and rayon. What do we use nitrocellulose
1999 Hawai’i Legislature authorizes test plots for? (A hint: it is the N in TNT.)
2002 California Legislature fails to pass bill to
study feasibility There are three major groups of cotton species, based
on the length of the seed fibers:
Because of the confusion in many people’s minds,
hemp fibers contain about 0.1-1.0% psychoactive ' Long-staple (2.5-6.5 cm long) cottons are the
materials; marijuana has about 3-20%. most difficult to grow, but they yield a fine,
lustrous fiber. Examples include sea island, pima,
Manila-hemp, Indian-hemp, and sunn-hemp are not and Egyptian cottons.
kinds of hemp. See the “Survey of Fiber Plants” table
for more details. ' Medium-staple (1.3-3.3 cm long). American up-
land cotton is an example.
PAPYRUS ' Short-staple (1.0-2.5 cm long) yield coarser
fibers that end up in blankets and carpets, or
“Papyrus sheets preserve the thoughts and deeds of blended with better quality material.
man.” (Leonardo Da Vinci)
PROCESSING. The processing of cotton fibers
This writing material of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, involves several stages, including:
and Romans was prepared from the stems of an
aquatic sedge, Cyperus papyrus. The plant is native to ' ginning, the removal of the lint fibers from the
central Africa and the Nile Valley. It is naturalized in seeds;
southern Europe. The plant is a typical member of the
family, in that its stems are solid, rather than hollow, ' carding, the straightening of fibers;
as in the grasses. The Egyptians perfected the
technique of cutting strips of tissue, placing them ' combing, which brings the fibers in parallel,
parallel to one another, smashing them together with equal-sized groups; and
a smooth rock and water from the Nile, and then
drying them to form papyrus. The process was ' spinning, which is the twisting of fibers into a
recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus, in the 5th continuous thread.
century B. C. E.
SPECIES OF COTTON. Cottons are derived from
Although our modern word “paper” comes from various species of Gossypium, plants related to okra
papyrus, purists on the subject do not refer to and the ornamental hibiscus. The genus is represented
papyrus as paper. They restrict the term to writing in both the Old World and in the New World. The
surface prepared from cloth or wood that has been leading Asiatic species are Gossypium arboreum and
pulped, which means that the fiber tissues have been G. herbaceum. The Old World cottons have 13 pairs of
smashed and macerated (soaked in water to soften large chromosomes. Gossypium barbadense and G.
them), and then trapped on a screen to form flat hirsutum, the leading New World cottons, have 26
sheets of writing material. pairs of chromosomes -- 13 pairs of large
chromosomes and 13 pairs of small ones.
Papyri have amazing durability. Scholars have access
to texts from the early dynasties that tell us of ancient GENETICS OF COTTON. There is some controversy
wars, political matters, day-to-day life, and that also as to the number of species of cotton. About 30 of
document their uses of plants. It is customary to give them are diploids (2n = 2x = 26) and four are
them names. The Ebers Papyrus, discovered in tetraploids (2n = 4x = 52). Only four of them are of
Thebes, Egypt in 1872, lists several hundred medicinal significant economic importance. Gossypium hirsutum
plants, along with how they were prepared and used. (cotton, upland cotton) provides about 95% of our
cotton fibers; G. barbadense (sea island cotton, pima,
Papyrus fibers were used to make sails, clothing, Egyptian cotton) most of the remaining 5%.
mats, and cords. In about the 9th century, it was
replaced by paper as a principal writing material. AN OVERVIEW OF COTTON SPECIES
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that separate the fiber bundles from the softer, pulpy
Genome(s) Distribution leaf tissues. A decorticator consists of a set of rotating
wheels armed with blunt knives. The fibers are
typically washed, dried on racks in the sun or by hot
Diploids: air, and cleaned. The various agave fibers are used to
make strong, inexpensive ropes and twines. They are
AA 1 (G. herbaceum); S. Africa also used in paper, matting, and building panel
BB 3 in Africa; Cape Verde Island materials. The waste pulp is used as a fertilizer.
CC 7 in Australia
DD 11 in Mexico, U. S., Peru, & Galapagos The sap of other Agave species is fermented to yield
EE 4, Africa to Pakistan maguey or mezcal, or distilled to produce tequila.
FF 1 (G. longicalyx) in East Africa
SURVEY OF THE AGAVE FIBERS
Tetraploids:
THE AGAVE FIBERS The fibers are extracted from the sheaths at the base
of the banana-like leaves. They are strong, light, and
can be 2-4 meters long! They are the strongest of the
These fibers are derived from plants of the agave or structural fibers.
century plant family (Agavaceae). Most are sterile
polyploids. They are called century plants based on
the mistaken belief that they bloomed every 100 MINOR FIBER PLANTS
years. The agaves yield about 90% of all of the hard
fibers used in commerce. About half is derived from
sisal, named after a port city in Mexico. After 3-8 BARK CLOTH. Early European explorers of the South
years, depending on the species, the plants will have Pacific found the natives wearing various article of
produced about 300 thick, juicy, sword-shaped leaves clothing that they made from bark fibers. The best
that are ready to be harvested by machetes or similar known of these is tapa or kapa, which is a Polynesian
implements. word meaning “the beaten thing.” Tapa can be made
from several plants, including the paper mulberry,
Leaves are inserted into mechanical decorticators breadfruit, milo, and hau tree.
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PAPER MULBERRY (Broussonetia papyrifera), yields dome, it may remind you of a large nettle. They are in
the best known of the bark cloths. It is a tree native the same plant family. Ramie does not sting, however.
to southeast Asia. The Polynesians carried the plant Most members of the nettle family (Urticaceae) do
with them as they colonized the South Pacific. The not.
inner bark of the plants is used, after the outer layer
has been scrapped away. While the fibers are still JUTE. Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius, relatives
damp, they are spread evenly into strips. Now they of our popular basswood tree, come from eastern
are placed on a smooth surface and beaten with a Asia. The latter has become a widespread tropical
wooden mallet (hence the name, “beaten thing”). The weed. About 98% of the world’s production comes
fibers spread out and mat with one another. Mucilage from Asia. Jute is a very widely used fiber, although it
from plants such as the taro and hibiscus is used to is of poor quality. Much of it will be used for packing
increase adherence of fibers. Sections of tapa are material and spun into a coarse yarn. About three-
attached to one another by pounding together quarters of the crop will be used to make sacks.
overlapping edges. In this way, it is possible to create Although you may not have heard of jute fibers, you
wrap-around garments, mats, and panels of know of two products that are made from them --
considerable size, and writing materials. Tapa cloth is burlap bags and gunny sacks. By the way, what is a
often elaborately dyed -- brown, red (from annatto), gunny? How many will fit in a sack? Also, look on the
yellow (from turmeric), and black (from the kukui or underside of carpets and linoleum. You may well find
candlenut tree). The patterns are characteristic of the jute fibers in the backing.
various islanders who made them and have assisted
anthropologists in determining the sequence of KENAF. Hibiscus cannabinus is a related to the
inhabiting the islands of the South Pacific. ornamental hibiscus, cotton, and okra. Plants were
domesticated first in Africa, probably before 4000
KAPOK. The kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra), native to B.C.E. Through the millennia, kenaf has been used in
the American tropics, is the source of valuable stuffing the Old World as a substitute for jute. Shortly after
or filling fibers used in life preservers, cushions, World War II, production increased dramatically.
mattresses, sleeping bags, and as an insulating India, China, and Thailand are the main producers
material. The fibers line the interior fruit wall and today.
surround the seeds. Relatives of the kapok tree whose
fibers are used in a similar fashion include the silk- Kenaf is an easily grown, annual crop. One acre of
floss tree and the red silk-cotton tree. kenaf can yield 7-10 tons of dry fibers -- five times
what an acre of pine trees would produce. The fibers
RAMIE. Ramie or China-grass (Boehmeria nivea) is are increasingly popular for paper pulp. The newsprint
native to the Old World, probably to China. The fiber made from kenaf is brighter, requires less ink, and the
is one of the finest known, but problems in getting it ink sticks to the paper better. This is a minor blessing
out of the stem and degumming the fibers have made to those of us addicted to the Los Angeles and New
it difficult to process economically. Ramie has about York Times.
8X the tensile strength of cotton and 4X that of flax.
When you look at our specimen in the subtropical
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cotton, short staple (Gossypium herbaceum) Mallow See: Arabian cotton
cotton, tree (Gossypium arboreum) Mallow India and Africa; short fibers
cotton, upland (Gossypium hirsutum) Mallow Almost all U. S. cotton of this type
crin vegetale (Chamaerops humilis) Palm Mediterranean; leaves used
Cuba-jute (Sida rhombifolia) Mallow Tropical; fibers from stem
Cuban-hemp (Furcraea hexapetala) Century Plant West Indies; lustruous, good fiber
danicha (Sesbania bispinosa) Bean Mostly Old World; also food and forage
Decan-hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus) Mallow See: kenaf
esparto (Stipa tenacissima) Grass Old & New World; fine fiber for paper, etc.
fique (Furcraea macrophylla) Century Plant Central America; sisal-like fiber
flax (Linum usitatissimum) Flax Stem fiber finer than cotton
lechiguilla (Agave lecheguilla) Century Plant Mexico & Texas; brushes and cordage
lechiguilla, Juamave (Agave lecheguilla) Century Plant Mexico; used in fine brushes
letona (Agave letonae) Century Plant Used in El Salvador
linden (Tilia americana) Basswood Used by Native Americans
maguey (Agave atrovirens) Century Plant See: sisal
maguey, Manila (Agave cantala) Century Plant See: cantala
Manila-hemp (Musa textilis) Banana See: abaca
Mauritius-hemp (Furcraea foetida) Century Plant Old & New World; twine and cordage
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Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) Pineapple A stuffing fiber
sunn (san) hemp (Crotalaria juncea) Bean Ancient fiber; fish nets and canvas
tikus (tikug) (Fimbristylis umbellaris) Sedge Asia; basketry, mats, bags, and hats
yaray (Sabal causiarum) Palm See: Puerto Rican hat palm
yucca, banana (Yucca baccata) Century Plant Southwestern U. S.; basketry
yucca, chaparral (Yucca whipplei) Century Plant U. S. & Mexico; long, white fibers
yucca, Mohave (Yucca mohavensis) Century Plant Southwestern U. S.; leaf fibers
yucca, soapweed (Yucca glauca) Century Plant Soft, fine fibers from leaves
zacaton (zakaton) (Muhlenbergia macroura) Grass Texas to C. America; brushes
zamadoque (Yucca funifera) Century Plant Mexico; used in twine and sacks
zapupe (Agave zapupe) Century Plant Mexico; attractive, but weak fibers
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The industry standard calls for measuring an oven- cell walls of the xylem itself begin to burn or glow.
dried cube of wood 1 cm on each side. Because 1 cm3 This is the stage of maximum heat production.
of water weighs 1 gram, any wood that has a density
of less than 1.0 will float in water; those with a For most of us, burning wood is not a necessity, but
density of greater than 1.0 will sink. Balsa wood is an option that we enjoy. We buy cords of wood for our
probably the lightest, with a density of 0.13 fireplaces or we burn charcoal in our cookouts. A cord
grams/cm3 . You have probably seen balsa wood of wood is a stack 8' wide, 4' high, and 4' deep. A face
without knowing it. Think about the thin, light wood cord has the same width and height, but the individual
used to make model airplanes. At the other end of the logs may be only 16" or 24" long, as opposed to 48"
scale are lignum vitae and quebracho with densities of in the full cord. Charcoal is wood that has been burned
about 1.25 grams/cm3. Densities for woods from in a contained area where only enough oxygen occurs
various North American trees include: incense cedar, for partial combustion, as in an underground pit. In
0.35; Douglas-fir, 0.45; redwood, 0.41; ponderosa other words, it has gone through the first and second
pine, 0.38; white ash, 0.55; black cherry, 0.47; stages of burning that I described in the last
American elm, 0.46; white oak, 0.60; sycamore, 0.46; paragraph. Charcoal can produce very high
and black walnut, 0.51. temperatures, hot enough to smelt some metals. In
this country we see charcoal in the form of briquets.
Durability. Woods vary greatly in the kinds of They are molded from wood waste and often contain
chemicals, such as phenolic and terpenoid coal. Before you get too upset about learning that you
compounds, that they deposit in their heartwood. This were cooking with coal at your last picnic, have you
determines the durability of the wood. In some trees, ever considered that coal is, for the most part, wood?
such as redwood and bald-cypress, the deposition of Yes, very, very old wood. Fossil wood.
various compounds retards the growth of fungi and
bacteria that would otherwise decompose the wood LUMBER. About 0.5 billion m3 of timber are harvested
over a period of time. On the other hand, basswood each year as sawlogs for the production of lumber for
and poplar (usually misspelled and mispronounced the construction. The United States and Canada are
"popular") decay comparatively rapidly. Because most the leading consumers of timber for this purpose, with
woods will last much longer if they are kept dry, we Europe close behind. In the U. S., we harvest about
have developed a series of preservatives, such as 38 billion board feet or almost 0.25 billion m3 each
paints, varnishes, creosotes, and tar oils that we apply year for lumber. There is little of this activity in Asia,
to their surfaces. Africa, and Latin America. Logging and milling
operations are often geographically close to one
Moisture content. The amount of moisture in wood another because 50-70% of the cost of producing
ranges from about 70% to 7%, with the sapwood lumber is in getting the logs to the mill. In a highly
having a higher water content than the heartwood. In efficient, modern mill about 60-70% of the log will
most instances, woods with a lower water content are eventually become lumber. The rest is shavings,
preferable to those with more moisture. sawdust, trimmings, etc. In the United States, most of
our timber comes from forests in the West and in the
Mechanical Properties. Cleavability is an index of Southeast. Lumber production is about 40 billion
how easily wood can be split. When we want to chop board feet per year, with about 75% of it being
firewood, we want a wood that cleaves easily. When derived from softwoods. The demand of lumber for
we are constructing something that requires us to use the housing industry is a major use. A typical frame
nails or screws in the wood, we want low cleavability. house contains about 10,000 board feet. Each year
about 3 billion board feet of lumber go into the
In addition, there are a number of mechanical manufacture of furniture, handles, baseball bats,
properties of wood that must be taken into account. musical instruments, caskets, and an almost endless
They include stiffness, tensile strength, shear list of other items. Here both utility and beauty of the
strength, crushing strength, and cross-breaking wood are critical factors.
strength. The particular use intended for the wood will
determine which of these features is critical. A particular piece may be may of solid wood or a
veneer, a thin (0.25 mm to 1 cm thick) sheet of wood
of uniform thickness that is either shaved (sliced
THE USES OF WOOD veneer) from a flat surface of a log or more commonly
peeled from it as the log is revolving (rotary-cut). The
FUEL. Until the development of alternate energy techniques may suggest to you that advanced
sources, such as coal, oil, gasoline, electricity, and technology is needed to produce veneers, but this is
nuclear materials, we burned wood. Even today, about not the case. We find them in the tombs of the
1 billion m3 of wood is consumed by burning it as fuel. Pharaohs who lived 3500 B. P. How they did it is
In North America, only about 10% of our annual something of a mystery. Yet another example, some
timber harvest goes for fuel, but in Latin American would say, of extraterrestrial intervention. Because
and Africa that figure is much closer to 90%. In this they can be laminated onto the surface of a cheaper
country, wood is a primary fuel in some of the more wood or composite material, veneers are very popular.
rural areas. Woods vary considerably in the way that When considering the purchase of some piece of
they burn. This is a function of their physical and furniture, most of us would select something made
chemical structure. Obviously the density and dryness from solid wood, as opposed to a veneer. Obviously,
of the wood are important factors. Most woods will solid wood is better than an item where only the
yield about 4 calories of heat for each gram burned. surface is the real thing. Perhaps not! An expert
When we burn a piece of wood, the first phase veneer cutter can produce an exterior beauty that the
involves evaporation of water. This requires heat. vast majority of solid woods cannot match. Furniture
Then comes the vaporization of volatile materials in made of a solid wood is also more likely to warp,
the wood at we observe as the flame of the fire. Many crack, and split. Of course, if the wood is to be carved,
conifers are a problem in this regard because their then solid wood is the choice.
wood is impregnated with resins that will form
flammable deposits on the interior of stove pipes and The most utilitarian use of veneer is in the
chimneys. Once enough heat has been reached, the manufacture of plywood. Douglas-fir is the principal
source of plywood veneer in this country. To make
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plywood, an odd number of sheets of veneer are glued augmented by acetyl groups during the manufacturing
to one another, each so that the grains run at right process. The cellulose comes from wood or from fibers
angles to the sheet immediately above and below it. left on cottonseeds are they have gone through the
Recent development of synthetic resins have ginning process. Because the fibers resist wrinkling,
permitted very effective gluing of the plies to one they are popular in the manufacture of permanent
another. The chances of failure and peeling are much press clothing. They are also used to make cigarette
reduced. Pound for pound, modern plywood are filters.
stronger than steel.
Turpentine is a mixture of essential oils and resins.
OTHER USES OF RAW WOOD. Some logs are We extract it from a variety of trees in a variety of
stripped of their bark, allowed to dry, often after ways. About one-quarter of what we produce in this
having been impregnated with chemicals. This country comes from distilling wood, especially old
unmilled material is called round wood. It finds its way stumps and roots of pine trees. About half is produced
into a variety of products, including poles, posts, as a byproduct of the sulfate paper-making process
pilings, and timbers for mines. Over 6 million new described above.
poles for telephone and telegraph wires are produced
each year; about 300 million new posts annually. We PAPER. One of the most important byproducts of the
also cut these logs into shingles and shakes. If one timber industry is paper. Before outlining the
end is thicker than the other, it is a shingle. manufacturing process, a definition is in order. Various
civilizations used plant tissues to create a surface for
I have no idea how many railroad ties there are in this their writings. We also used animal skins and silk
country. Because we have been unable to come up cloth. The Egyptians cut strips of pith from the stems
with anything better, we still use about 1 billion board of the papyrus sedge (Cyperus papyrus). Our word
feet per year to replace worn out ties. That translates "paper" comes from papyrus. Asians also used the
into about 30 million per year. pith of the rice paper plant (Fatsia papyrifera), which
is not a kind of rice; and the Polynesians and the
Most of the need in this country for wooden barrels Mayans both pounded the bark of the paper-mulberry
has disappeared because of metal, plastic, and paper (Broussonetia papyrifera) into sheets. This same
substitutes. But, barrel-making, technically known as species is the source of tapa cloth worn by the
cooperage, remains as a minor industry. If you need Polynesians. Early Spanish colonials in the New World
a watertight container, you want a tight cooperage used century plants and fig leaves. However useful
barrel; otherwise a slack cooperage one will do. The these materials might have been, they are not
best wood for tight cooperage is white oak because "paper," according to the narrow definition. True
the xylem cells of its wood are clogged up so badly paper, a Chinese invention from about A. D. 100, is
that water will not pass through them. The wood also made by separating plant fibers from one another and
has no undesirable smell or taste to it. The vast then reconstituting them into thin sheets on a mat or
majority of the white oak goes for whiskey barrels and screen. It has been suggested that observing the
to age red wine. Some large redwood tanks have been paper-making wasp construct its nest from macerated
in use in California wineries for almost a century. wood provided a helpful clue! After drying, the sheets
of paper are peeled away from the surface of the
LUMBER BYPRODUCTS. Pieces of wood that are too screen. The earliest true papers were often mixtures
small, poorly shaped, or simply ugly have their uses, of flax, hemp, paper-mulberry, and rags. Until about
as well. They are made into particle board, fiberboard, 200 years ago, paper making was labor intensive and
and chipboard. The first two require that these pieces therefore expensive. It comes as a surprise to learn
of wood be reduced to smaller chips, sorted, and that since Colonial times until the close of the last
graded. The particles are then mixed with glues, century, much of our paper in this country was made
pesticides, fire retardants, etc. and then pressed into of hemp (Cannabis sativa). Other forms of this same
the required size and shape. Fiberboard, as the name species are the source of psychoactive materials and
suggests, are made from wood fibers, not from small are called marijuana, etc. Therefore, there is no need
wood chips. Pieces of wood are placed in chemical to mutilate pre-Civil War books by smoking them. The
solvents to separate the fibers, resins, and other invention of movable type by Gutenberg and of paper-
additives are mixed with them, and the resulting making machines made it necessary to look for new
product then pressed into sheets and dried. sources of plant fibers. Those from wood pulp were an
obvious choice.
Masonite is manufactured by subjecting wood chips to
high pressure in a steam chamber and then exploding Processing consists of stripping the bark from logs and
them by a quick release of the pressure. This change then turning them into pulp. In mechanical pulping,
tears the fibers apart and it reactivates the lignin, debarked logs are forcefully pressed against a
which will act as a glue to fix and bind the wood fibers revolving grindstone to yield a mush of short wood
in their new orientation. Further application of heat fibers and fragments. Various agents (bleaches, gums,
and pressure will produce a grainless, synthetic board starches, etc.) may be added. These additives, called
that is hard and water resistant. sizings, will produce a paper with a smoother surface
and one that will accept the printer's ink more readily.
Rayon, cellophane, and acetate are also wood The mixture is then floated onto the surface of
byproducts, in that they come from wood cellulose. screens. The slurry of fibers begin to interlock with
The first two differ only in their final form -- a sheet or one another, forming a thin mat of plant fibers. After
a thread. Wood chips are placed in a chemical bath draining and pressing, the paper is wound up in large
that reduces them to a pulp that is washed, ground rolls. One cord of wood will produce about a ton of
up, and oxidized in the air. Carbon bisulfide is mixed pulp. The paper that comes out of this mechanical
in, along with caustic soda. The product sits until it pulping process is inexpensive and of poor quality. It
reaches the proper consistency, at which time it is soon acquires a yellow tinge to it and crumbles
pressed into sheets of cellophane or extruded through rapidly. You encounter it daily (at least I hope you
small openings to yield threads of rayon. Some of the do!) in the form of newsprint used to make your
newer rayon fibers rival natural ones in many of their favorite newspaper. Most of the books manufactured
physical attributes. Acetate is a more synthetic fiber, after about 1850 employed paper made by the sulfite
in the sense that the pure cellulose has been process. The world's libraries are now discovering that
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their vast holdings of older books are now crumbling most famous pine. It is native from southern Canada
as the paper disintegrates. The Library of Congress, through New England across to the Great Lakes. When
probably the world's largest library, is attempting to we were a British colony, this species was protected
save its books from this era by moving them into a on royal reserves because the trunks were used to
large chamber where the books are treated with make the masts for sailing ships. After we gained our
diethyl zinc. This chemical neutralizes the acid residue independence, we set about logging vast tracts of
on the paper. eastern white pine, making it the most often cut
timber tree in the New World. Only about 2% of the
There are three chemical processes used to produce original forests remain. Today it is relatively
paper pulp. In the sulfite process, wood chips are unimportant because so little remains and because it
placed in a large metal digester and heated under has become the victim of the white pine blister rust,
pressure with bisulfites and hot acid. The dissolved a fungal infection introduced from Europe.
lignins are drained off. The softened fibers of
essentially pure cellulose are then washed and dried. Longleaf pine. Pinus palustris (Pinaceae) is the best
They may be stored in this form or sent on to beaters known pine from the southeastern United States.
and the paper-making screens and presses. The Longleaf pine is the heaviest of the commercial
strong and durable paper is used in many different softwoods. It is very important economically because
products, as in kraft wrapping paper. In the sulfate it yields lumber for heavy construction and it is pulped
process, wood chips are reduced in an alkaline to make paper. This is the world's leading source of
solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. rosin and turpentine.
These chemicals are able to remove resins, waxes,
and fats from wood chips. This means that a wider Ponderosa pine. Pinus ponderosa (Pinaceae) is the
variety of woody plants may be used, including the source of more lumber than any other North American
softwoods (conifers). Most of our paper these days is pine. It is the most widely distributed and important
made this way. In the soda process, sodium pine in the West. Its wood is light, hard, and strong.
hydroxide is the only digester used. The paper that
results here is often used in books and magazines. Douglas-fir. Pseudotsuga menziesii (Pinaceae)
accounts for about half of the standing timber in the
Ninety percent of today's paper is made from wood western United States and is the source of about 20%
pulp. Cigarette paper and banknotes are still made out of the timber cut each year. It is native to western
of the linen fibers from flax. Paper made from hemp, North America from British Columbia southward along
straw, and other fibers are produced on a very small the Pacific coast and the Rocky Mountains into Mexico.
scale. In the United States, we consume about 600 It reaches its greatest size in our local forests (the
lbs. of paper and paperboard per person each year; largest being almost 300 ft. tall and 14 ft. in
200 lbs in Britain, under 100 lbs. in France; about 50 diameter). The wood is highly prized for all kinds of
lbs. in Japan, and 25 lbs. in Russia, and only 2 lbs. per construction. Much of our plywood is made from this
person per year in The Peoples Republic of China. As species.
our demand for paper increases -- the computer age
notwithstanding -- there is renewed interest in Redwood. Sequoia sempervirens (Taxodiaceae)
traditional pulp sources (hemp, bamboo, etc.) and in grows along the Pacific coast of southern Oregon and
new ones. Two new ones of particular interest are California. Its wood is valuable because it is relatively
kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), a cotton relative, and soft, light, and resistant to decay. Swellings on the
sunn (Crotalaria juncea), a member of the bean trunk (burls) are valuable because they yield
family. decorative lumber that can be turned into table and
counter tops, along with a myriad of strange novelty
OTHER ODDS AND ENDS. If you subject a piece of items that tourists love to purchase.
wood to rapidly moving knives or teeth, the result is
excelsior. These thin, curled strands can be made White oak. Quercus alba (Fagaceae) is probably the
from almost any light weight, lightly-colored, odorless most valuable of several oaks that yield timber. Its
wood. Basswood is especially prized. We use excelsior wood is used in furniture-making, flooring, and to
for packing and for stuffing mattresses and furniture. make staves for tight cooperage for red wines and
One cord of wood will produce about 1500 lbs. of that most elegant of alcoholic beverages, Scotch
excelsior. Shavings, especially those from white pine, whiskey! We import white oak from Europe. It is very
are also used as packing material. Sawdust is used for expensive.
fuel, bedding, as a packing material, as a soil
amendment, and as an ingredient in a number of Black walnut. Juglans nigra (Juglandaceae) is native
industrial products. Wood flour is finely ground to much of the eastern United States. On favorable
sawdust, shavings, and wood waste. It finds its way sites it can reach a height of 150 ft. and a diameter of
into linoleum, plastic, nitroglycerin, veneer, flooring, 4 ft. The wood is so valuable that I read of walnut tree
and many other products. I am reminded of the old rustling a few years ago. The lumber is heavy, strong,
joke about the cow. The only part that isn't used is the and durable. It is popular in cabinet making and for
moo. interior finishes. The wood from its roots is used to
make gunstocks.
SURVEY OF TIMBER TREES Black cherry. Prunus serotina (Rosaceae) is native to
much of the eastern United States and southeast
TEMPERATE WOODS Canada. It also occurs in North America in Arizona and
Texas. While many cherry trees are small, black
Scots pine (Scotch pine). Pinus sylvestris cherry can reach a height of 60-80 ft. Its wood is
(Pinaceae) is probably the most important conifer valued for high quality furniture and interiors. It is
through northern Europe and Asia. It is used in also used in such specialty items as the wooden blocks
furniture, poles, veneers, and it is pulped for making that support the electrolyte plates used in printing.
kraft paper.
Sweet gum. Liquidambar styraciflua (Ham-
Eastern white pine. Pinus strobus (Pinaceae) is our melidaceae) is a 50-120 ft tall tree native to the
eastern United States. Its wood is used to make a
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beautiful veneer, lumber, plywood, boats, toys, slack Boxwood Gossypiospermum praecox
cooperage, and boxes. We also chew its sweet sap. Brazilian tulipwood Dalbergia frutescens
Brazilwood Caesalpinia echinata
Tulip tree. Liriodendron tulipifera (Magnoliaceae) is
native to the eastern portion of the United States. It Cedar, incense Calocedrus decurrens
is commonly used in plywood, veneer, wood pulp, Cedar, Atlas Cedrus atlantica
wood flour, and it is a favorite of wood carvers. Cedar, Chinese Toonia sinensis
Cedar, cigar box Cedrela odorata
TROPICAL WOODS Cedar, deodar Cedrus deodara
Teak. Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae) is native to the Cedar, East African pencil Juniperus procera
seasonally dry rain forests of southeast Asia. Its wood Cedar, pencil: See red cedar
is one of the world's strongest, most beautiful, most Cedar, Port Orford Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
durable, and most stable. It is used in flooring, Cedar, red Juniperus virginiana
plywood, veneer, and in a variety of marine situations, Cedar, Virginia: See red cedar
including shipbuilding.
Cedar, West Indian Cedrela odorata
Mahogany. Swietenia mahogani (Meliaceae) is a Cedar, western red Thuja plicata
large tree native to the West Indies. Soon after its Cedar, white Thuja occidentalis
discovery by Spanish explorers, it became popular for Cedar-of-Lebanon Cedrus libani
shipbuilding and for fine furniture. In fact, its Cherry, black Prunus serotina
beautifully colored wood is so valuable that we have
been using other species of Swietenia and other Chestnut, sweet Castanea sativa
genera in the same family and other families Cocobolo Dalbergia retusa
(Leguminosae and Burseraceae) and calling all of Cottonwood Populus deltoides
them mahogany. Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Ebony, black Diospyros mannii
Rosewood. This is a collective common name for
various species of Dalbergia and Pterocarpus of the Ebony, Ceylon Diospyros reticulata
Leguminosae. Its scarcity these days limits its use for Ebony, East Indian Diospyros ebenum
solid wood items, but it is more widely available in the Ebony, Gaboon Diospyros dendro
form of a strikingly beautiful veneer. The Brazilian Elm, American Ulmus americana
rosewood (D. nigra) has a red-brown wood with black Elm, Dutch or Holland Ulmus x hollandica
streaks.
Elm, English Ulmus procera
Ebony. Diospyros spp. (Ebenaceae) yields a Elm, rock or hickory Ulmus thomasii
magnificent black wood or one that combines black Elm, slippery Ulmus rubra
with brown, grey, and green. The trees are native to Fir, balsam Abies balsamea
India and southeast Asia. It is an ancient wood. The Fir, Cascade Abies amabilis
Romans used to purchase it from the East. In addition
to its popularity in luxury cabinets, it shows up in Fir, giant Abies grandis
specialty items, such as door knobs, violin finger Fir, noble Abies procera
boards, bagpipe chanters, castanets, and guitar Fir, red Abies magnifica
backs. Fir, silver Abies alba
Gaboon Aucoumea klaineana
COMMERCIAL TIMBER TREES
Gedu nohor Entandrophgrama angolense
Greenheart Ocotea rodiaei
Common Name Scientific Name Gum, blue Eucalyptus botryoides
Hemlock, eastern Tsuga canadensis
Afara, limba Terminalia superba Hemlock, western Tsuga heterophylla
Afzelia Afzelia spp.
African teak Pericopsis elata Hickory Carya ovata
Ash, American Fraxinus americana Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum
Ash, European Fraxinus excelsior Idigbo Terminalia ivorensis
Incense-cedar Calocedrus decurrens
Ash, Manchurian Fraxinus mandschurica Iroko Chlorophora excelsa
Ash, red Fraxinus pensylvanica Ironbark Eucalyptus spp.
Aspen, quaking Populus tremuloides Jarrah Eucalyptus marginata
Avodire Turraeanthus africanus Jelutong Dyera costulata
Bald-cypress Taxodium distichum Kapur Dryobalanops spp.
Karri gum Eucalyptus diversicolor
Balsa Ochroma pyramidale
Basswood Tilia americana Katsura Cercidiphyllum japonica
Beech, American Fagus grandifolia Kauri Agathis spp.
Beech, European Fagus sylvatica Kauri-pine Agathis spp.
Beech, Japanese Fagus crenata Keruing Dipterocarpus spp.
Kingwood Dalbergia cearensis
Beech, Oriental Fagus orientalis
Birch, European or silver Betula pendula Koa Acacia koa
Birch, cherry or black Betula lenta Krabak Anisoptera spp.
Birch, white Betula pubescens Larch, eastern Larix laricina
Birch, yellow or gray Betula alleghaniensis Larch, European Larix decidua
Larch, western Larix occidentalis
Black tulepo Nyssa sylvatica
Blackwood, Australian Acacia melanoxylon Laurel, Chilean Laurelia sempervirens
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Laurel, Indian Terminalia spp. Spruce, white Picea glauca
Lignum vitae Guaiacum spp.
Lime, American Tilia americana Stinkwood Ocotea bullata
Lime, European Tilia x vulgaris Sweet gum Liquidambar styraciflua
Sycamore, American Platanus occidentalis
Lime, Japanese Tilia japonica Tasmanian-oak Eucalyptus delegatensus
Mahogany, African Khaya senegalensis Teak Tectona grandis
Mahogany, Honduras Swietenia macrophylla
Mahogany, Nyasaland Khaya nyasica Tulip tree Liriodendron tulipifera
Mahogany, red Khaya ivorensis Utile Entandrophragma utile
Wallaba Eperua falcata
Mahogany, true Swietenia mahagoni Walnut, black Juglans nigra
Mahogany, Venezuelan Swietenia candollea Walnut, Japanese Juglans spp.
Maple Acer spp.
Maple, Queensland Flindersia brayleyana Wenge Millettia laurentii
Maple, sugar Acer saccharum White peroba Paratecoma peroba
Yew Taxus baccata
Meranti Shorea spp. Zebrano Microberlinia brazzivillensis
Monkey puzzle Araucaria arauana
Mora (morabukea) Mora excelsa * Based primarily upon Heywood, V. H. & S. R. Chant. 1982.
Moreton Bay-pine Araucaria cunninghamii Popular encyclopedia of plants. Cambridge Univ. Press. P.
Muhimbi Cynometra alexandri 329.
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TYPES OF LATEX they made highways of rivers whose very existence
was unknown to the government authorities, or to
The basic building block of the industrially important map-makers. Whether they succeeded or failed, they
latexes is the isoprene molecule C5 H8 -- thousands of left everywhere behind them settlers who toiled,
them linked to one another to form polyisoprene. The married and brought up children. Settlement began;
difference in physical linkage is the basis for the conquest of the wilderness entered on its first
recognizing the two basic kinds of latex: rubber is cis- stage.”
polyisoprene and gutta or balata is trans-polyisoprene. [Theodore Roosevelt]
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engine The technological discovery that made rubber critically
1888 John Boyd Dunlop invents pneumatic tire important was vulcanization. Charles Goodyear or
1903 Christian Gray & Thomas Sloper invent cross- Thomas Hancock (accounts vary, depending upon
ply rubber tire whether you are American or English) discovered that
1906 Henry Ford begins mass production of “tin by treating the latex with sulfur at high temperature
lizzies” and pressure, these troublesome changes in its
1909 Karl Hofmann invents synthetic rubber from consistency could be overcome. Carbon black and zinc
butadiene oxide are added, together with antioxidants to retard
1909 Over 40 million trees now planted in Malaya deterioration caused by oxygen and ozone. It was
1912 Kaiser Wilhelm II presented with car with recently dis-covered that irradiation with cobalt-60
synthetic rubber tires can replace the use of sulfur.
1919 British establish rubber plantations in Ceylon
1922 Stevenson Plan stabilizes world latex prices Vulcanized rubber was used in the pneumatic tires
1926 I. G. Farben Co. invents Buna S, a synthetic reinvented by John Lloyd Dunlop in 1888. André
rubber Michelin in France and Benjamin Franklin Goodrich in
1929 E. Murphy & W. Chapman invent foam rubber the U. S. began making automobile and bicycle tires
1931 Wallace Carouthers invents Duprene (now on a commercial scale. The need for rubber latex was
called Neoprene) now immense!
1934 International Rubber Regulation Agreement
1940 President Roosevelt declares rubber a A few farsighted individuals had seen that the
“strategic and critical material” haphazard methods of collecting the latex from wild
1942 U. S. government establishes American trees of the Amazon Basin would not be sufficient to
Synthetic Rubber Research Program meet these new demands. They saw, instead, huge
1943 U. S. distilleries produce alcohol for synthetic plantations where rubber trees could be grown and
rubber manufacture harvested under precise control. Starting such an
1943 U. S. has 15 synthetic rubber plants operation would require getting thousands of seeds
1986 O-rings of natural rubber fail on Challenger out of South America. But, the Brazilian government
space shuttle clamped heavy restrictions on the export of rubber
2001 Centers for Disease Control warns of latex trees, seedlings, and seeds in an attempt to keep
toxicity absolute control of the latex market. They were not
altogether successful. Farris sent 2000 seeds back to
the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in 1872. Four years
During the rediscovery and conquest of the New later Henry Wickham "acquired" 70,000 seeds and
World, the Spanish found several Indian tribes using sent them home to Kew. They were germinated and
the latex of local trees to make shoes and balls for the seedlings then sent to the English colonies in the
games. The Spaniards did not seem terribly impressed Far East where plantations were begun. A grateful
by all of this and they did not see the potential of the Queen Victoria would make him Sir Henry Wickham.
"weeping woods." Perhaps the first reference to
rubber in the European literature appeared in "De Today over 90% of all rubber comes from Southeast
Orbo Novo," written by Pietro d'Anghiera (1530). He Asia and rubber's ancestral home in Brazil is of
described the Aztec game balls, "... made of the juice secondary importance.
of certain herbs ... (which) being stricken upon the
ground but softly (bounced) incredibly into the ayer." PROCESSING
Although there is still some question, the rubber trees
that the Spaniards saw and the samples that were Rubber plantations are a marvel of organization and
later sent back to France were from the Panama efficiency. Work begins very early each day. The
rubber plant (Castilla elastica), a member of the workers tap the trees by making cuts into the trunk,
mulberry family. Uncertainty as to identification and just deep enough to sever the ends of the latex
conflicting reports of the latex content of trees were vessels that lie in the inner bark. Cuts made too
finally settled by later expeditions into South America. deeply will damage the underlying tissues of the tree.
We now know that the principal latex trees of the The herringbone pattern of cuts soon begins to ooze
Amazonian basin are various species of Hevea, the rubber latex. It is collected and taken to a factory
especially H. brasiliensis. for processing. The latex is cleaned, filtered, and
diluted. It is also coagulated in large tanks of formic,
Rubber remained relatively unknown in Europe until acetic, or sulfuric acid. A liquid phase, the serum
the French astronomer Charles Marie de la Condamine (accounting for about 70% of the latex) is drained off.
sent samples of "caoutchouc" from Peru to France in The latex is then sent to mills to be rolled into sheets.
1736. At first the latex was regarded as nothing more
than a curiosity. Joseph Priestley used it to rub out Processing is far from finished. The latex sheets are
unwanted pencil marks and supposedly gave the latex washed, freed from impurities, and dried. They are
its common name of rubber. put into large machines called masticators that chew
them up into small chunks of latex. The next stage
Although the potentials of rubber latex were realized involves mixing the latex with a wide variety of fillers,
by workers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, antioxidants, plasticizers, and coloring materials. This
it remained an unimportant commodity. There were stage is critical and the exact proportions are a closely
definite drawbacks to the use of rubber. It got brittle guarded secret of each company. The treated latex is
and cracked when exposed to the cold, it became now put into a machine that produces sheets of stock
somewhat fluid and sticky on hot days, and it had a of a desired size and thickness. If strips of rubber or
most unpleasant aroma. Caoutchouc became a tubes are wanted, then the treated latex is put
household item when Macintosh rediscovered that the through an extruder. It is then vulcanized.
latex could be dissolved in naphtha cheaply and
efficiently. This made it possible to waterproof
garments. In England, a raincoat is still called a
mackintosh.
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PROCESSING OF LATEX World, but introduced into Mexico and North America.
[Initial Processing]
MINOR LATEX-BEARING PLANTS
Tap trees
L AFRICAN OR RED RUBBER. Landolphia gummifera
Collect latex and other species of the same genus yield red rubber.
L It is also called African and Madagascar rubber. The
Add ammonia to prevent coagulation large woody vines are members of the dogbane family
L (Apocynaceae). The fact that they produced a latex
Dilute with water, filter was discovered in 1850 by T. L. Wilson, a missionary
L to Africa. By the turn of the century, the profits from
Coagulate these vines would finance the first stage of formal
(old: over a fire) colonial rule in Central Africa.
(new: acetic/formic acid)
L One of the more horrendous chapters in the history of
Concentrate latex that continent involves Leopold II, King of the
(evaporation or centrifugation) Belgians, who personally owned most or all of tropical
L west Africa. The region may have been called the
Roll into sheets Belgian Congo, but the land belonged to the King, not
L the country. He leased huge portions of it to outside
Wash, clean, & dry commercial interests. Those folks paid him tribute and
L taxes. It is estimated that Leopold received 1/5 of all
Smoke the profits made on ivory tusks and red rubber.
L Villages had quotas of latex assigned to them. The
Grade native Africans who failed to meet their quotas were
L flogged, tortured, mutilated by having their hands cut
Store or transport off, or simply killed. The wives and children of the
male workers were held as hostages. This happened
[Final Processing] to tens of thousands of Africans. In 1908, the Belgian
government, reacting to world outrage, confiscated
Mastication the holdings of King Leopold.
(machines reduce stored latex)
L “The worst feature in connection with this particular
Blend rubber industry, however, was the barbarous
L treatment of the natives. The story of the operations
Additives in the Belgian Congo during the reign of Leopold II will
(carbon black, plasticizers, coloring agents) always remain one of the bleake(sA t lp
baeg
rtes
F.inHihlli,st1o9r5
y2.”)
L
Vulcanization GUAYULE. Parthenium argentatum is the only native
U. S. plant that has been used commercially as a latex
source. It was studied intensively during World War II.
NATURAL RUBBER PRODUCTION The latex is much inferior to its competitors,
(metric tons) principally because of its resin content. The juice is
extracted by macerating the plants.
1826 16
1870 15,000 CHICLÉ. Manilkara zapota is native to the New World
1900 52,000 tropics. It used to be the principal source of chewing
1920 302,000 gum latex. The industrial demands were so great that
1940 1,127,000 other sources were also used. Today's chewing gum
1947 1,275,000 uses polyvinyl acetate and microcrystalline waxes
1950 1,750,000 instead.
1960 2,095,000
1970 2,986,300 The chewing gum industry is an offshoot of the rubber
1980 3,748,108 industry. According to one account, the man
1990 5,223,885 responsible for chewing gum is none other than
2000 6,825,475 General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana. A few years
2003 7,437,129 after his defeat by Sam Houston, the General went to
New York with a piece of chicle that he thought would
NATURAL ALTERNATIVES TO PARÁ RUBBER be a good rubber substitute. There he met Thomas
Adams, who was not that impressed by a series of
During the Second World War, rubber sources were less than successful demonstrations. Adams did note,
cut off from us because of the occupation of certain however, that during their conversations the General
Asian countries. Our government became intensely chewed the latex. The rest is history.
interested in two alternatives -- other latex sources
and the development of synthetic rubber. Other plants GUTTA-PERCHA. Palaquium gutta is native to the
investigated were: Malayan region. The trees are usually cut down during
the extraction process. The latex is hard at room
guayule (Parthenium argentatum), a shrub of the temperature, oxidizes rapidly, and should be kept
sunflower family native to Texas and adjacent Mexico; under water. It is a very poor conductor of electricity.
Gutta-percha is used to insulate submarine cables, in
Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz), of golf ball centers, and in dentistry. If you have had root
Central Asia, which the Russians had been working on canal work, you probably have some gutta percha in
since the 1930's; and the your mouth.
rubber vine (Cryptostegia spp.), native to the Old
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beginning in the 1940's. This was obviously linked to
SYNTHETIC RUBBER the need for rubber by the U. S. military and the
occupation of the plantations of Southeast Asia by the
No other natural latex source has proven satisfactory. Japanese.
Synthetic rubber, on the other hand, has been a great
success. Chemists found that butadiene and styrene SYNTHETIC RUBBER PRODUCTION
can be combined to form a polymer much like that of (metric tons)
natural rubber. Both molecules can be obtained from
coal, petroleum, and alcohol. Much of what we 1940 43,000
purchase today is a mixture of natural and artificial 1945 800,000
rubber. It is often referred to as “SBR,” styrene 1950 583,000
butadiene rubber. 1960 2,021,000
1980 8,690,000
As you will note from the following data, there was a 2002 10,880,000
dramatic increase in synthetic rubber production
LATEX-BEARING PLANTS
Common Name (Scientific Name) Family Comment
Assam rubber (Ficus elastica) Mulberry Another name for India rubber plant
balata (Manilkara bidentata) Sapote Especially good for machine belts
Borneo rubber (Willughbeia coriacea) Dogbane Malaysian; coagulated by salt water
castilla rubber (Castilla spp.) Mulberry C. America; once important source
caucho (Castilla ulei) Mulberry Amazon; tree cut down and bled
rubber vine (Cryptostegia spp.) Milkweed Latex found in stems, leaves, and seeds
Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz) Sunflower Tuberous root yields latex
serapat (Urceola esculenta) Dogbane Malaysian area
sirva (Couma macrocarpa) Dogbane S. America; chicle substitute
tau-saghys (Scorzonera tau-saghys) Sunflower Grown commercially in Russia
Vogel fig (Ficus vogelii) Mulberry Africa; high resin content
West African gum vine (Landolphia owariensis) Dogbane Common West African vine
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that exudes from the plant is called pitch. It is
distilled to separate the resin from the essential oil.
8.5 ! GUMS, RESINS, AND The production and processing of pitch is called the
naval stores industry. Turpentine manufacture in
EXUDATES the U. S. started in the Carolinas. Longleaf pine and
slash pine were the principal sources. The tapping
procedures themselves have remained relatively
unchanged. Crude pitch is gathered every week. The
If there is a more familiar term for gums, resins, and pitch is then diluted and filtered. It is then treated
various plant exudates, it would be oozings or gunk. with acid to yield a lighter, more valuable grade of
The discussion that follows is not that satisfactory, resin. Water is added to remove the traces of acid. It
mainly because it is so difficult to distinguish the is then distilled. Oil or spirit of turpentine boils off
categories from one another. first. A heavier residue, rosin, remains behind. The
rosin is screened, cooled, and hardened. The oil will be
used as a solvent. The rosin will be used in soaps,
GUMS varnishes, inks, waxes, and lubricants. It is also
rubbed on violin bows.
Gums are noncrystalline mixtures of carbohydrates
and organic acids that exude from plants. They often AMBER is the resin of an extinct pine (Pinus
harden on exposure to air and swell to produce a succinifer). Its origin remained a mystery for many
viscous dispersion or solution when added to water. centuries. It was once thought to be made by the
They are insoluble in alcohol, ether, and many other sun's rays or to be petrified whale sperm. Amber
reagents. They will char, but will not burn freely. Their varies from yellow to black. The lighter colors will get
role within the plant body is not thoroughly darker upon continued exposure to light. Amber
understood. Some experts believe that gums help to polishes up well and is often incorporated into jewelry.
heal wounded plants and to store water. We are not When rubbed, it takes on a negative charge. One of
able to digest gums completely, so to us they are the most fascinating aspects of amber is that insects
essentially inert substances. that were flying about when the trees were exuding
the resin sometimes became trapped in the viscous
Gums have a variety of uses. Many of them are material, just as they do today. This means that we
sizings, substances spread on cloth or paper to glaze have available to us now the amazingly well preserved
or coat them. They stiffen and strengthen fibers remains of insects, millions of years old, trapped in
during processing. We often wash or steam the sizings the amber. Large chunks of amber are quite
out of clothing before we wear them. expensive. The largest specimen that I know about
weighed 18 lbs. and sold for $30 million.
Four of our most important gums are derived from
members of the bean family (Leguminosae). Gum BALSAMS are oleoresins that contain benzoic or
Arabic (Acacia spp., especially A. senegal) comes from cinnamic acid. They are typically highly aromatic.
a plant that lives in North Africa, India, and Arabia. Balsam-of-Peru, the resin found in Myroxylon
The gum exudes from exposed underbark. It is used balsamum of the New World tropics, has been used to
in adhesives, confections, polishes, inks, and heal persistent sores, as a fixative in perfumes, as a
medicines. Gum tragacanth (Astragalus spp.), comes vanilla substitute, and as an ingredient in arrow
from plants native to western Asia and southeastern poisons, soaps, and consecrated oils.
Europe. It also yields sizings, adhesives, and
medicines. Gum from the locust bean (Ceratonia LACQUER is the resin obtained from Rhus vernicifera
siliqua) is used in papermaking and as a stabilizer in and other plants of the cashew family
foods. Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) is an Indian (Anacardiaceae). These shrubs are native to China,
plant used in salad dressings and ice cream. Japan, and other countries in the Old World. The resin
is milky when it comes out of the plant, but it darkens
upon exposure to the air. Sometimes as many as 300
RESINS AND OTHER EXUDATES layers of lacquer are applied to furniture. Because
these resins are from plants closely related chemically
to those found in poison ivy-oak-sumac group, some
This assemblage of exudates is not easily individuals will have an allergic reaction to furniture
characterized. Many resins appear to be the result of treated with these lacquers.
reduction and polymerization of starches and other
carbohydrates. Others seem to be oxidative products MIXTURES OF GUMS AND RESINS. You have
of essential oils. Resins often have high molecular perhaps heard of three of them that were once more
weights. They are typically brittle, and more or less popular than they are now. Frankincense is an
transparent. Resins are insoluble in water and more or exudate scrapped from the trunk and branches of
less soluble in ordinary reagents. Their function within Boswellia carteri and B. fiereana, trees of the bursera
the plant remains incompletely understood. They are family (Burseraceae). The elephant tree that lives in
usually seen when it is wounded. Resins are typically southern California is one of the few members of this
found in special ducts or canals within the plant. family in our part of the world. Frankincense was once
important as a fumigant and it was used in medicine
Resins have been used since ancient times as a and in embalming. It was also traded. Myrrh is a
caulking material, in all-weather torches, as similar material that comes from Commiphora spp.,
embalming agents, medicine, and materials for African trees in the same family.
painting. While resins are found in many plants, they
come primarily from species in three families -- the Asafetida is a truly foul-smelling, milky juice that
pines (Pinaceae), legumes (Leguminosae), and the exudes from the roots of Ferula assafoetida, an herb
dipterocarps (Dipterocarpaceae). in the carrot or parsley family (Umbelliferae). It
enjoyed limited popularity as a medicine, often by
TURPENTINE is a mixture of the resins and essential hanging a bag of asafetida around the neck. I suspect
oils, an oleoresin, found in the resin canals in the bark that this malodorous gunk did reduce the spread of
and sapwood of various conifers. The crude material illness by keeping people from getting too close to
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someone using it. The most common sources of commercial starch are
maize, the potato, wheat, rice, sorghum, cassava,
GUMS AND RESINS arrowroot, and the sago palm.
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STARCH PLANTS
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techniques that take into account the different boiling
and volatilization temperatures. In this process, there
8.7 ! ESSENTIAL OILS is a gradual increase in temperature, with the more
volatile essential oils distilling off first. Several
distillations may be necessary.
In the section on spices and flavorings, I mentioned ENFLEURAGE (COLD FAT EXTRACTION).
that spices usually owe their desirable qualities to the Distillation can ruin certain oils by the chemical
essential oils that they contain. They are characterized processes of hydrolysis, polymerization, or the loss of
by their ability to evaporate readily, by their aromatic a delicate oil in relatively large quantities of water.
odors, and by their pleasing taste. These essential or Enfluerage is the process of applying fresh flowers or
volatile oils are different from the fatty or fixed oils. other aromatic plant parts to glass plates covered with
From a chemical standpoint, essential oils are pure tallow and lard. These absorb the essential oils
complex. They are often benzene or terpene from the plant. The saturated fat is then subjected to
derivatives or hydrocarbons of intermediate molecular alcoholic extraction. This dissolves the trapped
length. Some contain sulfur and nitrogen. Typically essential oil, but not the insoluble fat. The essential oil
they are liquids. Their function in the plant is still is then concentrated. Much of this process involves
uncertain. Essential oils are often found in flowers, but laborious hand labor in which women with tweezers
they may be found in other plant parts. They are remove wilted petals and replace them with fresh
typically produced in special glands. ones.
Essential oils are widely used in perfumes, SOLVENT EXTRACTION. Fresh flowers and a
deodorants, and soaps. They also flavor many solvent, often petroleum ether, are placed in an
beverages and tobacco mixtures. Industrial uses extractor. The ether dissolves out the essential oil,
include insecticides, solvents for paints, and as an along with other impurities. The ether is then removed
ingredient in glue, paste, and polish. Some have by a vacuum. All of this is done at room temperature.
antiseptic properties and are useful in medicine. The principal drawbacks of this process are the
expensive equipment required and the precise control
EXTRACTION METHODS needed.
ESSENTIAL OILS
Essential Oil (Scientific Name of Source) Family Part Used
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gardenia (Gardenia spp.) Gardenia Flowers
-146-
typically a mixture of several of these fatty acids. The several, it is poly-unsaturated. Saturated fats/oils
distinction between the two is rather simple and come mostly from consuming animal products (meat,
arbitrary: fats are more or less solid at room milk, butter, and cheese), but they also come from
temperate, while oils are liquids. A fat on a summer the “tropical oils,” such as coconut, cocoa, and palm.
day in Humboldt County may be an oil in Redding. Common examples of monounsaturated oils include
olive, avocado, peanut, and canola. Polyunsaturated
An important chemical consideration in vegetable oils fats and oils may be further subdivided into omega-3's
is the degree of saturation of chemical bonds in the that come from flax, seafood, and lean meat; and
fatty acids. The more double bonds, the more likely it omega-6's that come primarily from various fruits and
is that the oil will dry to a waterproof film. Less double seeds.
bonding means that the oil will remain a liquid for a
long period of time after exposure to air. The ability of
a fixed oil to absorb iodine correlates directly with its EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING
drying properties. The higher the number of iodine
ions incorporated into the positions of double bonds A variety of both tropical and temperate plants yield
along the fatty acid chain, the more likely it is that the fixed oils. While vegetable oils are found present in
oil will oxidize to an elastic film. This index is known various plant organs, most of the important ones are
as the iodine number. It is the number of grams of found in seeds. They are extracted in much the same
iodine absorbed by 100 grams of fat. The range in way that we get essential oils out of a plant. The seed
iodine numbers is about 7 to 200+. coat is removed and the interior reduced to a fine
meal. The oil is removed by a solvent or by expressing
IODINE NUMBERS OF FIXED OILS it under pressure. It is then filtered and often purified
further. Higher grades of fixed oils go into food
products; the lower grades have a variety of industrial
Fixed Oil Iodine Number uses. The oils may also be bleached and deodorized.
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Meadowfoam oil (Limnanthes spp.). Various their way into soap, lubricants, and medicines.
species of meadowfoam are native to valley
grasslands and vernal pools in California and Oregon. Linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum). We grow some
It is a current subject of much research. It can be cultivars of flax for their fibers and others for the oil
cultivated as an annual crop and perhaps grown in rice content in their seeds (32-43%). Linseed oil is used in
fields. The plan is to use the oil as a substitute for paint, oilcloth, soft soaps, varnish, ink, linoleum, and
sperm whale oil. The U. S. once imported about 50 to seal various surfaces, including concrete highways.
million pounds per year.
Safflower oil (Carthamus tinctorius). This member
Castor oil (Ricinus communis). The ornamental of the sunflower family is known only in cultivation.
castor bean plant is also the source of an important The ancient Egyptians appear to be the first to have
industrial oil. The United States is the largest used it. The oil content of the seeds is about 40%. It
importer. The oil content of the seed varies from 35- has the highest percentage of linoleic acid. Safflower
55%. Castor oil is found in soap, synthetic rubber, oil has become a very popular cooking oil because it
linoleum, inks, nylons, and as a lubricant in airplane is low in cholesterol. It is also used in shortening,
and rocket engines. About 1% of the production goes margarine, salad oils, and mayonnaise.
into a more refined version that is used in medicine,
where it is called "oleum ricini." It is a very effective Peanut oil (Arachis hypogaea). The peanut is
purgative, an agent that causes evacuation of the native to South America, perhaps to Brazil. It has
bowels. become a major crop in the United States, especially
in the South. The seeds have oil content of 30-45%.
Olive oil (Olea europea). The olive tree, native to The higher grades of peanut oil are used in margarine
western Asia, is another of our most ancient plants. It and shortening, and to pack sardines. The inferior
is probably the most important of the non-drying oils. grades end up in soap, lubricants, and illuminants.
The oil is not extracted from the seed itself, but from
the fruit pulp that surrounds it. Two to four pressings Corn oil (Zea mays). The oil content is about 50%.
are often involved, the first of which yields the Corn oil is used in cooking and salads (Mazola oil), and
greenish-yellow "virgin" oil. If the fruits were from the to make margarine. It smokes when heated to high
highest quality trees, processed in a particular way temperatures. Industrial uses include soap, paints,
(mechanical vs. chemical extraction), meet certain and in rubber substitutes.
aesthetic standards, and have less than 1% free oleic
acid, then the product can be called "extra virgin" Cottonseed oil (Gossypium spp.). Cotton seeds
olive oil. Use of the term is regulated by the contain about 35% oil. Refined oils are used in
International Olive Oil Council (IOOC). The U. S. is not cooking and salad oils, margarine, and shortening.
a member, but California producers have formed the Processing inactivates gossypol, a toxin found in
COOC. Olive oil has a prominent role as a salad and glands within the seed. Inferior grades end up in
cooking oil. It has a long shelf life. Hippies and soaps. Cottonseed oil is the most important of the
Yuppies have been known to get all misty-eyed when semi-drying oils.
discussing the virtues of olive oil. Later pressings find
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China wood oil Aleurites fordii spurge
cocoa butter oil Theobroma cacao sterculia
cohune oil Orbignya cohune palm
colza oil Brassica napus mustard
croton oil Croton tiglium spurge
eng oil Dipterocarpus tuberculatus dipterocarp
gorli oil Oncoba echinata flacourtia
gurgum (gurjun) oil Dipterocarpus spp. dipterocarp
hempseed oil Cannabis sativa hemp
illipe nut oil Shorea macrophylla dipterocarp
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Wattle (Acacia spp.). These trees are usually native
to Australia. They are now widely planted. The bark
8.9 ! TANNINS AND DYES contains about 50% tannins.
-150-
chloroform. Annatto is an orange dye that is widely bramble (Rubus spp.) ripe fruits
used as a food coloring in cheese, butter, and cascara (Rhamnus purshiana) fruit extract
margarine; as a condiment on rice; as a dye; as a skin couch grass (Elymus repens) roots
paint; and as an ingredient in lipstick.
horsetail (Equisetum spp.) stems
Saffron (Crocus sativus). This was the principal maple (Acer spp.) bark
yellow dye of ancient times. It is extracted from the rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.) leaves
stigmas of the flowers. sumac (Rhus spp.) ripe fruits
yarrow (Achillea millefolium) flowers, leaves
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). This thistle-like
plant is native to Asia. The dye is obtained from the GREEN DYES
flowering heads. This dye has been used as a saffron
substitute. Safflower is also the source of an important alder (Alnus spp.) leaves
oil. black walnut (Juglans nigra) bark
brome, chess (Bromus spp.) spikelets
DYE PLANTS OF THE U. S. camomile (Anthemis spp.) flowers
hollyhock (Althaea spp.) leaves
Common (Scientific) Name Part Used iris (Iris spp.) fresh flowers
mistletoe (Phoradendron serotinum) stems/leaves
BLACK DYES morning glory (Ipomoea spp.) fresh flowers
oak (Quercus spp.) bark
alder (Alnus spp.) leaves, bark parsley (Petroselinum crispum) fresh leaves
black walnut (Juglans nigra) bark, hulls, leaves plantain (Plantago spp.) leaves, roots
bramble (Rubus spp.) ripe fruits
Indian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum) plant ragweed (Ambrosia spp.) plant
sumac (Rhus spp.) plant red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) fruits
spinach (Spinacia oleracea) plant
BLUE DYES stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) roots, stems, leaves
yarrow (Achillea millefolium) leaves
blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) ripe fruits zinnia (Zinnia spp.) flowers
elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) fruits, leaves
indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) extract PURPLE DYES
larkspur (Delphinium spp.) flowers
sorrel (Rumex spp.) plant black cherry (Prunus serotina) bark, roots
cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum) aerial parts
dandelion (Taraxacum offincinale) roots
BROWN DYES elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) fruits
gooseberry (Ribes spp.) fruits
alder (Alnus spp.) bark, roots grape, wild (Vitis spp.) fruits, ripe
apple (Malus spp.) bark oak (Quercus spp.) bark, acorns
barberry, common (Berberis vulgaris) roots red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) ripe fruits
bayberry (Myrica cerifera) leaves
beets (Beta vulgaris) "roots" RED DYES
birch (Betula spp.) bark, leaves
black cherry (Prunus serotina) bark bedstraw (Galium aparine) roots, stems
black walnut (Juglans nigra) leaves beet (Beta vulgaris) "roots"
dogwood (Cornus spp.) roots
camomile (Anthemis spp.) flowers hollyhock (Althaea rosea) leaves, flowers
cascara, chittim (Rhamnus spp.) bark madder (Rubia tinctorum) roots
cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum) plant
coffee (Coffea arabica) roasted beans pokeberry (Phytolacca americana) fruits
cutch (Acacia spp.) dried leaves poppy (Papaver spp.) red flowers
sorrel (Rumex spp.) stems, roots
dahlia (Dahlia spp.) flowers, roots St. John's wort (Hypericum spp.) flowers, leaves
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) bark
hickory (Carya spp.) bark, hulls YELLOW DYES
Indian hemp (Apocynum cannbinum) plant
madrone (Arbutus menziesii) bark alder (Alnus spp.) leaves
aster (Aster spp.) flowers
maple (Acer spp.) bark bayberry (Myrica cerifera) leaves
marigold (Tagetes spp.) leaves bedstraw (Galium spp.) roots
oak (Quercus spp.) bark beet (Beta vulgaris) "roots"
pear (Pyrus communis) leaves
plum, wild (Prunus americana) bark birch (Betula spp.) leaves
black cherry (Prunus serotina) bark
privet (Ligustrum vulgare) leaves, twigs bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) roots
sumac (Rhus spp.) fruits bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) straw
sunflower (Helianthus spp.) flowers broom (Cytisus scoparius) plant
willow (Salix spp.) bark
broom sedge (Andropogon virginicus) plant
GRAY DYES camomile (Anthemis spp.) flowers
carrot, wild (Daucus carota) plant
bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) leaves cascara, chittim (Rhamnus spp.) fruits, twigs
blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) fruits catnip (Nepeta cataria) plant
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chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.) flowers to be 47.6 inches in a 24 hour period!
cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum) st./leaves
dahlia (Dahlia spp.) flowers Several authors have stated with some certainty that
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) roots no other single group of plants has so many different
dodder (Cuscuta spp.) entire plant uses – Hans Sporry in 1903 compiled a list of 1048
them. Here are a few, in no particular order of
elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) leaves importance:
goldenrod (Solidago spp.) flowers
hickory (Carya spp.) inner bark ' food (shoots, grains, and animal fodder)
horse chestnut (Aesculus spp.) husks, leaves ' bowls
lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis) leaves ' scoops and ladles
' feeding troughs
madder (Rubia tinctorum) roots ' toothpicks
marigold (Tagetes spp.) flowers ' housing
mullein, common (Verbascum thapsus) leaves ' flag poles
oak (Quercus spp.) powdered bark ' furniture
onion (Allium cepa) onion skins ' flooring
' brooms and brushes
Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) wood extract ' rakes
peach (Prunus persica) bark ' fences and walls
pearly everlasting (Gnaphalium spp.) plant ' fibers
privet (Ligustrum vulgare) leaves, twigs ' weaving shuttles
spruce (Picea spp.) cones ' paper
' writing instruments
St. John's wort (Hypericum spp.) flowers ' cordage
sumac (Rhus spp.) fruits ' shavings for stuffing
sunflower (Helianthus spp.) flowers ' caulking for ships and boats
tomato (Lycopersicon spp.) vines ' mats
tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) fresh leaves ' baskets
willow (Salix spp.) fresh leaves ' sandals & shoe soles
zinnia (Zinnia spp.) flowers ' flails
' whisks
' boats
Based primarily on Krochmal & Krochmal (1974). ' oars
' masts
' spear shafts
' bows and arrows
' ladders
8.10 ! BAMBOOS & ' scaffolding
' rafts
GOURDS ' pails
' churns
' roofing tiles
Plants of industry and technology suggest those that ' carts springs
are the basis of large and sophisticated corporate ' aqueducts
entities, such as rubber, cotton, and timber. There are ' rain spouts and guttering
many other plants that are used locally and ' beehives
individually by peoples around the world. In the ' fans
realms of economic botany and anthropology, these ' umbrella frames
constitute examples of the material culture or ' bird and fish cages
technology of a culture. ' chop sticks
' musical instruments
To my way of thinking, the bamboos and the cucurbits ' acupuncture needles
or squashes, offer us many excellent examples of ' medicines
these “non-corporate” plants of industry. ' tongue depressors
' walking sticks
' phongraphic needles
BAMBOOS ' splints (injuries, torture, etc.)
' waxes
“It is quite possible not to eat meat, but not to be ' light bulb filaments (Edison’s first bulb)
without bamboo.” (Su Dongpo, Song Dynasty poet) ' musical instruments (xylophones, zithers)
' ornamentals
“Bamboo is my brother.” (Vietnamese proverb)
Several genera of bamboos are important sources,
''''' including:
Bamboos, or tree grasses as they are sometimes Arundinaria. Switch cane, Tongking bamboo. Edible
called, constitute one subfamily of the grasses. There shoots, split-cane fishing poles.
are about 1200-1500 species, native to every
continent but Antarctica and Europe. They range from Bambusa. Common bamboo, spiny bamboo. Edible
modest shrubs to large tropical bamboos over 120 ft. shoots, construction, hedging.
tall and about one foot in diameter. Some of them
bloom every year, others on an irregular basis, and Dendrocalamus. Giant bamboos, including the
still others only after several decades. Bamboos grow largest of the clump-forming species. Construction,
more rapidly than any other plant. The record appears paper pulp, charcoal, edible shoots.
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Phyllostachys. Black bamboo, fish-pole bamboo, SURVEY OF GOURDS
madake. A major source of edible shoots. Fishing
poles, timber, paper pulp, walking sticks, umbrella The bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) is probably
handles, musical instruments, and furniture. native to Africa. We have good fossil remains from
Egypt (3500 BCE), from Peru (12,000 BP), and from
Mexico and Thailand (7000 BCE). Was it distributed in
Pre-Columbian times by us or by ocean currents? Both
GOURDS views have their advocates. The exterior of this gourd
is tough, almost woody, and more or less impervious
A gourd is generally defined as the hard-shelled, to water. That explains its ability to float long
durable fruit of the squash family (Cucurbitaceae) that distances and its use as a container. The bottle gourd
is grown for making various utensils, for orna-ment, is also a favorite of artists who paint on or carve
and for a wide variety of minor uses. Here is a far intricate designs in its woody surface.
from complete list of how we have used gourds:
The loofa (loofah, luffa) or vegetable sponge
' bottles (Luffa aegyptiaca) is native to the Old World. Mature
' storage containers fruits the softer outer skin and inner flesh have rotted
' eating utensils away. Once the seeds have been removed, the
' drinking cups remaining vascular system (the plumbing system of
' snuff boxes the fruit) is bleached to yield the familiar luffa sponge.
' bird houses You may have one hanging in your bathroom or you
' cricket containers know someone who does. The next time that you have
' pipes the opportunity, turn the luffa on end and notice the
' masks three chambers that run the length of the fruit. This is
' hats a standard feature of the squash family. They were
' penis sheaths (yes, really) once filled with seeds.
' decoration
' floats Recent magazine advertisements taut the virtues of
' artistry (carving, painting) the vegetable sponge as the “Amazing oriental plant
' musical instruments (rattles, scrapers, etc.) that helps to wipe away ugly cellulite in just minutes
' grown as curiosities because of size/shape a day!” Oh, really?
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Tree gourd* Crescentia cejute
Trumpet gourd Lagenaria siceraria
Turban gourd Cucurbita maxima
Viper’s gourd Trichosanthes cucumerina
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SECTION 9.0 ! POISONOUS PLANTS
' Curiously enough, we knowingly or unknowingly The amount of toxin required to kill a test animal may
experience the symptoms of toxicity from plant be amazingly small. It is typically expressed in terms
poisons when we use plant-derived medicines of an amount of toxin per weight of the victim. The
and psychoactive materials. figures below show the MLD (minimum lethal dose) in
micrograms (1 million micrograms = 1 gram) of toxin
' Many of our most valuable food plants come per kilogram of subject. The poison is administered by
from plant families that are notorious for their injection. Notice that such well known poisons as
toxicity, such as the carrot family, mustard sodium cyanide and strychnine are relatively crude.
family, and nightshade family.
TOXICITY OF SELECTED POISONS
' A poisonous plant is not necessarily a lethal one.
Toxin (source) MLD in micrograms/kilogram
' There are many factors that influence the toxic
effects that a plant will have on its victim. Nicotine (tobacco) 50,000
Ouabain (arrow poison) 14,000
' Many cases of plant poisonings are accidents, Sodium cyanide 10,000
often involving misidentification. Amanitin (mushroom toxin) 1,100
Strychnine 500
' Not all cases of poisoning are accidental. We also Curare (arrow poison) 500
employ toxic plants in purposeful ways, in the
form of arrow, fish, insect, rat, and ordeal BWSP-toxin (black widow spider) 100
poisons. This will be the focus of our look at toxic Tetradotoxin (puffer fish) 8-20
plants. Rattlesnake toxin 0.2
Ricin (castor bean toxin) 0.02
' The abuse of two toxic plant products, alcohol Tetanus toxin 0.0001
and tobacco, are leading causes of death in the Botulinus toxin A 0.00003
United States.
FACTORS INFLUENCING
9.2 ! INTRODUCTION TOXICITY
A number of factors influence the severity of plant
poisonings. They include:
“What is food to one, is to others bitter poison.”
[Lucretius, 99-55 BCE] ' the kind of toxin produced;
' the quantity of material ingested or contacted;
“Unfortunately, the illustrations of edible and ' the part of the plant eaten and its condition;
poisonous mushrooms were reversed on page 14 of ' the time of year;
the Sunday edition.” [Chicago Tribune] ' environmental conditions, such as drought or
frost;
"... there are few more excruciating ways of expiring ' the kind of animal, its age, sex, and general
than to eat a misidentification." health;
[R. S. Cowan, an American botanist] ' personal sensitivities, allergic systems, and
' even the genetic background of the victim.
'''''
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' misuse of herbal or medicinal preparations; ' changes in mental state (nervousness, giddiness,
' abuse of recreational drug plants, such as the depressions, or signs of hallucinations;
jimson weed; and
' direct or indirect contact with toxic plants when ' sleepiness, coma, and
camping, weeding the garden, backpacking, or
playing. ' death.
' Discoloration of a silver spoon or coin is not a ' Call a physician or take the victim to a hospital.
reliable way of telling a mushroom from a
toadstool. ' Be ready to identify the plant or bring some of it
with you. Plant material in vomitus or stools may
' Poisonous plants do not come color-coded. Not all also be useful in identification.
red fruits are poisonous; not all blue ones are
safe. A word of caution. You and I are not medical doctors.
We cannot legally tell a victim that he or she should
' Toxic plants do not always have bitter, follow a particular “cure.”
disagreeable tastes; some are quite pleasant.
' While cooking will destroy some toxic principles, There are roughly 30,000 native, naturalized, and
others are not heat sensitive. ornamental higher plants in North America; but only
a few hundred of them are toxic. Perhaps thirty or
forty species are known to cause serious instances of
SYMPTOMS OF PLANT poisoning or fatalities. One of them, tobacco
POISONING [Nicotiana tabacum] is far and away the most
dangerous toxic plant encountered by most of us in
Symptoms of plant poisoning in humans are manifold modern society. Its use leads to the death of several
and may present themselves in a variety of areas on hundred thousand people each year in this country
and in our bodies. They include: and to billions of dollars in health care expenses and
lost productivity. It seldom receives the attention that
' itching, redness, stinging, burning, blistering of it should in discussions of toxic plants, probably
the skin; because it is a legal drug plant whose use has been
widely accepted and it is the source of tax revenue.
' tingling, numbness, burning, swelling of the lips,
mouth, tongue, or throat; EXPOSURES IN U. S. (1985-1994)
' sweating, salivation, and tears;
Unidentified plants 84,593
' nausea, retching, and vomiting; Unidentified berries 11,384
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Taxus spp. (yews) 11,217 dermatitis. However, this event does initiate a series
Rhododendron spp. (rhodondendrons) 9590 of immunological changes that will render the
Schlumbergia spp. 9423 individual much more likely to present symptoms
when plants are touched on future occasions. That
Chrysanthemum spp. (chrysanthemum) 8058 may be as early as the second encounter. Some of us
Quercus spp. (oaks) 7871 appear to have much higher threshold levels that
Chlorophytum spp. (spider plant) 7790 must be reached before symptoms appear.
Begonia spp. (begonias) 7536
Aloe spp. (aloes) 7505 Contrary to popular belief, poison-oak and poison-ivy
Pelargonium spp. (geraniums) 7021 do not give off mysterious vapors or rays that cause
Eucalyptus spp. (eucalyptus) 7020 rashes. Direct or indirect contact with plants is
Hedera spp. (English ivy) 6982 required. It is the indirect means that most of us tend
Taraxacum spp. (dandelions) 6618 to overlook. We gleefully chop down poison-oak or
Nerium spp. (oleanders) 6581 poison-ivy and then carelessly put away the hoe,
shovel, and rake. We handle the family pet that has
Aglaonema spp. 6196 just run through a patch of these plants. We stand in
Narcissus spp. (narcissus) 6064 the smoke of burning leaves and stems, not realizing
Caladium spp. 6053 that the toxin may be carried in droplets in the smoke.
Lonicera spp. (honeysuckles) 6007
Syngonium spp. 5541 The characteristic streaks of red and vesicles are
Prunus spp. (chokecherries) 5359 indicative of points of contact with the plant. The signs
Dracaena spp. 5110 of itching, burning, and redness are usually seen
Cornus spp. (dogwoods) 4960 within a few hours to about five days after exposure,
Sorbus spp. (mountain-ashes) 4945 depending upon the sensitivity of the victim. In more
Impatiens spp. (forget-me-nots) 4653 severe cases, open running sores may develop. The
fluid from these sores is lymph, not the toxin itself.
Tulipa spp. (tulips) 4647 Urushiol binds with the protein of the skin within
Asparagus spp. 4597 about ten minutes, so that reinfection from the spread
Rosa spp. (roses) 4422 of this lymph is most unlikely. What often passes for
Nandina spp. (heavenly-bamboo) 4337 the spreading of poison-oak or poison-ivy from
Cactus (unidentified) 4259 running sores is actually caused by reinfection from
Nephrolepis spp. (Boston ferns) 3872 plant material beneath the fingernails or contaminated
Pinus spp. (pines) 3776 clothing. Reactions to urushiol in some individuals
Liriope spp. 3768 may be so severe that hospitalization is required.
Iris spp. (irises) 3699
Juniperus spp. (junipers) 3670 There are many time-honored cures for poison-oak
and poison-ivy. Most of them cannot withstand close
scrutiny. One of the more popular is taking a hot
Modified after Krenzelok, E. P. & T. D. Jacobsen. 1997. Plant shower with yellow soap immediately after exposure.
exposures... A national profile of the most common plant This does little more than wash off excess toxin. An
genera. Vet. Human Toxicol. 39(4): 248, 249. ancient preventative, supposedly practiced by Native
Americans, calls for eating a small piece of poison-oak
In the descriptions that follow, I have selected plants to bring about a natural immunity. One person who
that are poisonous to humans or animals. Most of attempted this procedure came down with a serious
them are well known to the general public; one or two inflammation of the mouth and of the anus. Most of
were included to demonstrate particular aspects of the creams, lotions, and pills that are available over-
toxicity. the-counter provide only symptomatic relief; they do
not cure. Those treatments requiring a physician's
prescription have had mixed results.
POISON-OAK AND POISON-IVY
What follows is taken from a handout for a class on
In many ways, it is convenient to treat poison-oak and poisonous plants that I once taught. You might also
poison-ivy as though they were one plant. They are find it helpful.
very closely related structurally, chemically, and
genetically. Western poison-oak (Toxicodendron ' Poison-oak is not a type of oak, nor is poison-ivy
diversilobum) and eastern poison-ivy (T. radicans) a type of ivy. Both are members of the genus
account for most of the million or so cases of Toxicodendron of the cashew family
dermatitis reported in the United States each year (Anacardiaceae), which includes the pistachio,
because most of us do not recognize these plants in cashew, pepper tree, and the mango.
the field and unknowingly come into direct or indirect
contact with them. The plants may grow as low, ' There is no poison-ivy in California, only the
much-branched shrubs or they may be robust and western poison-oak.
erect. They may climb trees by means of aerial
rootlets that fasten them to the trunk. The shape of ' The toxic substance in poison-oak and poison-ivy
the three leaflets is variable. is called urushiol, a complex of four catechols.
All parts of the plant, with the possible exception of ' The toxin is present in all parts of the plant that
pollen grains, are potentially dangerous at any time of contain resin canals.
the year. Plants do not have to be in flower or in fruit
before they can produce symptoms. The main ' The toxins are not contracted via mysterious
constituent of the irritating oil in poison-oak and vapors or rays; direct or indirect contact is
poison-ivy is urushiol, a pale-yellow liquid. It is a required.
mixture of catechol derivatives. The vast majority of
us appear to be initially immune to urushiol, so that ' Urushiol may be present in the smoke of burning
our first encounter with these plants will not produce plants, because it is trapped in dust or ash.
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' The toxins may be spread by animals. Petting a because children like to make teas. Cattle have also
dog that has run through a patch of poison-oak or been poisoned. The toxic principle is aesculin, a kind
poison ivy is a way of contracting it. of glycoside. It causes incoordination, sluggishness,
vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, and may lead to
' Toxins may be spread by articles of clothing. It is paralysis and death.
possible to reinfect yourself by handling the same
items you were wearing in the field. Native Americans realized the toxic properties of the
California buckeye [Ae. californica]. They used the
' The liquid that oozes from broken blisters is seeds and other plant parts to stupefy fish. Also, after
lymph and does not contain the toxins. careful leaching, the seeds were ground up and eaten.
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accumulate in a closed, poorly ventilated room. While and stiff. Again, he felt him, and told us that when it
this particular story has no basis, oleander's general came to his heart, he would be gone. Already the cold
reputation for toxicity is well-founded. Cattle and had come nearly as far as the abdomen, when
humans have both been killed by this plant. Children Socrates threw off the covering from his face – for he
have been poisoned by eating the leaves and by had covered it over – and said, the last words uttered,
sucking nectar from the flowers. Cases of poisoning ‘Criton,’ he said, ‘we owe a cock to Asclepios; pay it
from eating meat that had been skewered on oleander without fail.’
stems are also in the literature.
... after a little time, he stirred, and the man
All parts of the plant are poisonous. Several cardiac uncovered him, and his eyes were still. Criton, seeing
glycosides are present. Symptoms of toxicity in this, closed the mouth and eyelids.
humans include dizziness, drowsiness, irregular and
weak heart-beat, coma, and death. Smoke from This was the end of our comrade...”
burning plants is also dangerous.
[Phaedo, Plato]
POISON HEMLOCK It has been suggested, however, that Plato knowingly
omitted some of the more unpleasant aspects of what
The carrot family (Umbelliferae) is an excellent occurred in an attempt to make the death of Socrates
example of a common and easily recognizable plant seem more dignified and heroic.
family that contains both toxic and edible plants. Most
of them vaguely look like, smell like, and even taste
like carrots. The species are difficult to tell from one WATER HEMLOCK
another. Most of the botanical features reside in
microscopic features of the fruits. It is mistaken If we had to select the most violently poisonous plant
identity that leads most people to eat the poison in North America, it would probably be water hemlock.
hemlock (Conium maculatum), thinking that it is The various species of Cicuta occur over much of the
perhaps a wild carrot of some sort. Plants are common continent. Their most unmistakable diagnostic feature
roadside weeds over much of the United States. They is found in the root-like stems, at or below the surface
have delicate, fern-like foliage and white flower of the ground. When cut lengthwise, the rootstocks
clusters. The best diagnostic feature is purple reveal cross-partitioning that divides them into small
blotching on the stems and leaf stalks. compartments. This is the most toxic part of the plant.
One rootstock is sufficient to kill any large animal,
Poison hemlock contains a series of nicotine-like including humans.
alkaloids, the best known of them being coniine.
Alkaloid concentration is highest in the seeds and The toxic principle is cicutoxin, an unsaturated
lowest in the roots. Their effect is on the central alcohol. It is a violent convulsant to the central
nervous system. The victim experiences progressive nervous system. Symptoms appear within 15 minutes
depression of vital functions. The tips of the fingers to one hour after ingestion. At first, there is excessive
and toes become insensitive; movement of the arms salivation, followed by tremors and convulsions. The
and legs is then impaired. They are finally paralyzed. seizures alternate with periods of relaxation. The
The heart is weakened and slowed. Death comes as tetanic convulsions become more frequent and more
the result of paralysis of the diaphragm and violent. In many victims there is an uncontrollable
subsequent respiratory failure. chewing movement that makes it difficult to
administer treatment. The tongue may be shredded
Circumstantial evidence suggests that one of poison and teeth forced from their sockets. The poisoning is
hemlock's most famous victims was Socrates. There so traumatic in humans, that survivors often have no
remains some uncertainty as to the identity of the recollection of the event.
hemlock used in ancient Greece to dispatch enemies
of the state, but the symptoms reported by Plato in Here is perhaps the earliest account in English of
Phaedo are consistent with much of what we know water hemlock poisoning.
about the plant.
“When about the end of March, 1670, the cattle were
“The boy went out, and after spending a long time, being led from the village to water at the spring, in
came in with the man who was to give the poison treading the river banks they exposed the roots of this
carrying it ground ready in a cup. Socrates caught Cicuta [water hemlock], whose stems and leaf buds
sight of the man and said, ‘Here, my good man, you were now coming forth. A that time two boys and six
know about these things; what must I do? girls, a little before noon, ran out of the spring and the
meadow through which the river flows, and seeing a
‘Just drink it,’ he said, ‘and walk about till your legs root and thinking that it was a golden parsnip, not
get heavy, then lie down. In that way the drug will act through the bidding of any evil appetite, but at the
of itself.’ behest of wayward frolicsomeness, ate greedily of it,
and certain of the girls among them commended the
... he put the cup to his lips and, quite easy and root to the others for its sweetness and pleasantness,
contented, drank it up. wherefore the boys, especially, ate quite abundantly
of it and joyfully hastened home; and one the girls
He walked about, and when he said that his legs were tearfully complained to her mother that she had been
feeling heavy, he lay down on his back, as the man supplied too meagerly by her comrades, with the root.
told him to do; at the same time the one who gave
him the potion felt him, and after a while examined Jacob Maeder, a boy of six years, possessed of white
his feet and legs; then pinching a foot hard, he asked locks, and delicate though active, returned home
if he felt anything; he said no. happy and smiling, as if things had gone well. A little
while afterwards he complained of pain in his
After this, again, he pressed the shins; and, moving abdomen, and scarcely uttering a word, fell prostrate
up like this, he showed us that he was growing cold on the ground, and urinated with great violence to the
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heighth of a man. Presently he was a terrible sight to appears unlikely to produce adverse reactions.
see, being seized with convulsions, with the loss of all However, herbal tea preparations do put a person at
his senses. His mouth was shut most tightly so that it risk and symptoms of poisoning may be severe.
could not be opened by any means. He grated his
teeth; he twisted his eyes about strangely and blood
flowed from his ears.... He frequently hiccupped; at POINSETTIA
times he seemed to be about to vomit, but he could
force nothing from his mouth, which was most tightly Euphorbia pulcherrima, the poinsettia, is named after
closed. He tossed his limbs about marvelously and Joel Poinsett, an American ambassador to Mexico in
twisted them; frequently his head was drawn the 19th century. It is one of this country's most
backward and his whole back was curved in the form popular ornamentals. Because literally millions of
a bow, so that a small child could have crept beneath them are raised each year, especially at the Christmas
him the space between his back and the bed without season, the question arises as to the plant's toxicity.
touching him. It is widely held that the milky latex in the plant can
cause irritation to the eyes and blistering of the skin.
When the convulsions ceased momentarily, he Ingestion of any portion is commonly thought to
implored the assistance of his mother. Presently, produce nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, loss of
when they returned with equal violence, he could be consciousness, and even death.
aroused by no pinching, by not talking, or by no other
means, until his strength failed and he grew pale; and As with mistletoe, it now appears that the poisonous
when a hand was placed on his breast he breathed his properties of the poinsettia have been exaggerated.
last. While many standard references on toxic plants have
more or less the same litany of deleterious effects,
These symptoms continued scarcely beyond a half documentation has been meager. The only fatality
hour. After his death, his abdomen and face swelled cited appears to be that of a two-year-old child in
without lividness except that a little was noticeable Hawaii who died in 1919 after eating a single leaf. The
about the eyes. From the mouth of the corpse even to case is now considered hearsay. Recent studies
the hour of his burial green froth flowed very suggest that the latex has a mildly irritating effect on
abundantly, and although it was wiped away the skin of laboratory rabbits and that it also induces
frequently by his grieving father, nevertheless new photosensitivity. Rats fed 25 gm/kg body weight of a
froth soon took its place. poinsettia suspension showed no significant toxic
effects. Assuming a 50 lb child would react similarly,
he or she would have to consume 500-600 leaves to
DUMBCANE surpass that experimental dose.
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POISONOUS PLANTS OF NORTH AMERICA
Scientific Name [Common Name] Toxic Part Toxic Principle. Symptoms
FUNGI
Agaricus spp. [grayscales, woollystalks] All parts Unknown. GI; most species edible
Amanita bisporigera [destroying angel] All parts Cyclopeptides. GI; cellular; liver/kidney
Amanita muscaria [fly agaric] All parts Muscimol, etc. "SST Syndrome"
Amanita pantherina [panther mushroom] All parts Cyclopeptides. GI; cellular poison
Amanita phalloides [destroying angel] All parts Cyclopeptides. GI; cellular poison
Conocybe spp. [conehead mushrooms] All Indoles; cyclopeptides. CNS; GI; liver/kidney damage
Coprinus spp. [inky caps] All parts Coprine. GI and CV; when consumed with alcohol
Cortinarius spp. [webcaps] All Cyclopeptides (?). GI; cellular; liver/kidney damage
Entoloma spp. [pinkgills] All parts Unknown. GI
Fusarium spp. All parts Zearalenone, etc. GI; reproductive tract
Galerina spp. [skullcaps] All parts Cyclopeptides. GI; cellular; liver/kidney damage
Gomphus floccosus [scaly chanterelle] All parts Unknown. GI; CNS
Gymnopilus spp. [flamecaps] All parts Indoles. CNS
Gyromitra spp. [false morels] All parts Monomethylhydrazine. GI; CNS
Hebeloma spp. [poison pies] All parts Muscarine (?). GI
Pholiota squarrosa [scaly pholiota] All parts Unknown. GI; when consumed with alcohol
Psathyrella foenisecii [haymaker's m.] All parts Indoles. CNS
Psilocybe caerulipes [psilocybe] All parts Indoles. CNS
Ramaria formosa [coral mushroom] All parts Unknown. GI
Russula emetica [sickener] All parts Muscarine (?). GI
Sarcosphaera crassa [violet star cup] All parts Monomethylhydrazine. GI; CNS
Scleroderma citrinum [earthball] All parts Unknown. GI
Stropharia hornemannii [Ringstalk] All parts Indoles. CNS
Tricholoma spp. [cavaliers] All parts Unknown. GI
Verpa bohemica [narrow-capped morel] All parts Unknown. GI; muscular incoordination
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FERNS AND FERN ALLIES
Equisetum spp. [horsetails] Stems Thiaminase. Circulatory failure
Cheilanthes cochisensis [jimmy fern] Foliage Unknown. Nervous disorder ("jimmies")
Dryopteris filix-mas [male fern] Foliage Thiaminase; GI
Onochlea sensibilis [sensitive fern] Foliage Unknown. CNS; lesions in brain
Pteridium aquilinum [bracken fern] All, esp. rhizomes Thiaminase. Circulatory; carcinogenic
GYMNOSPERMS
Cedrus deodara [deodar cedar] Cones, sap Unknown. Dermatitis
Cupressus macrocarpa [Monterey cypress] Foliage Unknown. Abortions in cattle
Cycas circinalis [false sago palm] Most parts Cycasin (glycoside). GI; circulatory; CNS
Cycas revoluta [sago palm] All parts Glycosides and amino acid. GI and circulatory
Ephedra spp. [mahuang, Mormon tea] All parts Ephedrine. CNS disturbances
FLOWERING PLANTS
Aceraceae [Maple Family]
Acer rubrum [red maple] Leaves, twigs Unknown. Circulatory
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Urechites lutea [yellow nightshade] Leaves Urechitoxin (glycoside). GI and CV
Vinca spp. [periwinkle] All parts Glycosides. CV failure; GI
Calla palustris [water arum] All, root! Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Colocasia spp. [elephant ear, taro] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Dieffenbachia spp. [dumbcane] Stem Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Epipremnum aureum [pothos] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Monstera deliciosa [ceriman] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Orontium aquaticum [golden club] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Philodendron spp. [philodendron] Leaves Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Pistia stratiotes [water lettuce] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Schindapsus spp. [ivy arum] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Spathiphyllum spp. [spathe flower] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Sygonium spp. [sygonium] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Symplocarpus foetidus [skunk cabbage] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Xanthosoma spp. [melanga] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
Zantedeschia aethiopica [calla-lily] All parts Calcium oxalate; proteolytic enzyme. M & T
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Caprifoliaceae [Honeysuckle Family]
Lonicera spp. [honeysuckle] Fruits Unknown. GI; CV and respiratory
Sambucus spp. [elderberry] All HCN glycosides and alkaloids. GI; cathartic
Symphoricarpos spp. [snowberry] Fruits Unknown. GI
Centaurea solstitialis [yellow star thistle] All parts Solstitialin. "Chewing sickness" and mechanical
Dugaldia spp. [sneezeweeds] All parts Hymenovin (lactone). CNS; "spewing sickness"
Eupatorium rugosum [white snakeroot] All parts Tremetol (alcohol). "Milk sickness"
Florensia cernua [tar bush] Leaves/fruits Unknown. GI; respiratory
Grindelia spp. [gumweeds] All parts Selenium. Respiratory and cardiac
Osteospermum ecklonis [African daisy] All parts HCN glycoside & saponin. Paralysis; respiratory
Oxytenia acerosa [copperweed] All parts Unknown. GI; liver and kidney damage
Psilostrophe spp. [paper flowers] All parts Psilotropin (lactone). GI and CNS
Senecio jacobaea [tansy ragwort] All parts Pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Liver damage
Silybum marianum [milk thistle] All parts Nitrate. GI; vitamin deficiency
Tanacetum vulgare [tansy] All parts Thujone, etc. (oils). CNS; abortions
Tetradymia spp. [horsebrush] All Tetradymol. CNS; photosensitization ("Big Head"); liver
Xanthium spp. [cocklebur] All parts
Carboxylatractyloside (glycoside). GI; mechanical; dermatitis
Coriariaceae
Coriaria myrtifolia Fruit Coriamyrtin (lactone). CNS; death
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Cruciferae [Mustard Family]
Armoracia lapathifolia [horseradish] Root Glucosinolates. Severe GI
Barbarea vulgaris [yellow rocket] All parts Glucosinolates. GI
Brassica spp. [mustards] Various Glucosinolates. GI
Brassica napus [rape] Various Unknown (bacterial ?). Pulmonary emphysema
Brassica napus [rape] Various Glucosinolates. GI; liver/kidney damage
Hippomane mancinella [manchineel tree] All parts Hippomane A & B (diterpenes). Dermatitis and GI
Hura crepitans [sandbox tree] Seeds, latex Hurin (phytotoxin) and esters. Dermatitis; GI
Jatropha spp. [physic nut] Seeds Jatrophin (phytotoxin). GI
Manihot esculenta [cassava, yuca] Root HCN glycoside. Cellular asphyxiation
Mercurialis annua [mercury] All parts Saponins. GI
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Gramineae [Grass Family]
Avena sativa [oats] All parts Nitrites. "Grass tetany"
Bromus spp. [ripgut grass] Awns None. Mechanically injurious (penetration)
Cynodon dactylon [Bermuda grass] All parts Unknown. CNS; photosensitization; dermatitis
Festuca arundinacea [alta fescue] All parts (fungal endophyte) Alkaloids. “Fescue foot”
Glyceria spp. [manna grass] All parts HCN glycosides. Cellular asphyxiation
Heteropogon contortus [tanglehead] Callus None. Mechanically injurious (penetration)
Sorghum spp. [Johnson grass, sorghum] All parts HCN. Cellular asphyxiation
Stipa robusta [sleepy grass] All parts Unknown. Drowsiness and stupor
Stipa spp. [needle grass] Awns None. Mechanically injurious (penetration)
Zea mays [corn, maize] Stem, leaves Nitrates. Circulatory
Cassia occidentalis [coffee senna] All, seeds! Several, incl. lectin. GI; organ changes
Crotalaria spp. [rattlebox] All parts Alkaloids. CNS and GI
Cytisus spp. [brooms] All parts Cytisine and sparteine. CNS; respiratory failure
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Dolichos lablab [hyacinth bean] Seeds HCN glycoside. GI; cellular poison
Erythrina spp. [coral tree] Seeds, bark Curare-like alkaloids. CNS; paralysis
Lathyrus spp. [sweet peas] Seeds Nitriles, etc. CNS; "lathyrism"; teratogenic
Leucaena leucocephala [lead tree] All parts Mimosine (amino acid). Hair loss; stunted growth
Lonchocarpus violaceus (violet lancepod) All parts Rotenone. GI; circulatory; respiratory failure
Lupinus spp. [lupines] Seeds, etc. Alkaloids. CNS; "crooked calf disease"
Medicago spp. [alfalfa] All parts Saponins/estrogen. Photosensitization; infertility
Melilotus spp. [sweet clovers] All parts Dicoumarin. "The bleeds"
Mucuna deeringiana [velvet bean] Seeds Unknown. GI
Oxytropis spp. [locoweeds] All parts Alkaloids. CNS and respiratory failure
Pachyrhizus erosus [yam bean] Seeds Saponin, rotenone, pachyrrhizin. Catharsis
Phaseolus lunatus [lima bean] Seeds HCN glycosides. Cellular asphyxiation
Phaseolus vulgaris [kidney bean] Seeds Lectins/enzyme inhibitors. GI
Physostigma venenosum [Calabar bean] Seeds Physostigmine (alkaloid). GI; CNS
Pisum sativum [garden pea] Vine, fruits Lectin. CNS (ensilage only); mitogenic
Pongamia pinnata [pongam] Seeds, roots Saponin. GI
Prosopis juliflora [mesquite] All parts Unknown. GI
Robinia pseudoacacia [black locust] Leaves, seeds Robin + robatin. GI; agglutination
Samanea saman [rain tree, saman] Seeds Saponin. GI
Sesbania spp. [coffeeweed, sesbane] Seeds Sesbanine (alkaloid) + saponins. GI; respiratory
Sophora secundiflora [mescal bean] Seeds Quinolizidine alkaloids. CNS and GI
Spartium junceum [Spanish broom] Leaves, seeds Sparteine. GI and circulatory
Stizolobium deeringianum [Florida velvet b.] Seeds Unknown. GI
Trifolium spp. [clovers] All parts Isoflavones, coumarins. Resp.; photosensitivity;
Vicia faba [fava bean] Seeds Lectins. Anemia ("favism") in genetically sensitive
Vicia spp. [vetch] All parts HCN + lectins. "Favism" (hemolytic anemia)
Wisteria spp. [wisteria] Seeds Lycorine and wistarine (glycosides) + lectins. GI
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Magnolia grandiflora [bull bay, magnolia] Wood, leaves Lactone (?). Dermatitis
Eucalyptus spp. [eucalyptus] Leaves HCN glyc. & monoterpenes. GI; CNS; respiratory
Melaleuca quinquenervia [cajeput tree] Stems, leaves Irritating oil. Dermatitis and respiratory
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Proteaceae [Protea Family]
Grevillea spp. [silk-oak] Sap Catechols. Dermatitis
Clematis spp. [virgin's bower] All parts Protoanemonin. M & T; GI and CNS
Delphinium spp. [larkspur, staggerweed] All parts Delphinine, ajacine, etc. GI and respiratory
Helleborus niger [Christmas rose] All parts Protoanemonin; saponins. Dermatitis; GI and CV
Hydrastis canadensis [golden seal] All parts Hydrastine. CNS and GI
Ranunculus spp. [buttercups] All parts Protoanemonin. GI
Datura spp. [datura, thornapple] All parts Tropane alkaloids. CNS; recreational drug use
Hyoscyamus niger [black henbane] All parts Tropane alkaloids. CNS
Lycium spp. [box thorn] Leaves Tropane alkaloids (?). Severe GI
Lycopersicon esculentum [tomato] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI
Nicotiana spp. [tobacco] All parts Nicotine. CNS; respiratory; and teratogenic
Physalis spp. [ground cherry] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solandra spp. [chalice vine] All parts Tropane alkaloids. CNS
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Solanum carolinense [horse nettle] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum dulcamara [European bittersweet] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum elaeagnifolium [silverleaf n.] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum gracile [graceful nightshade] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum nigrum [black nightshade] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum pseudocapsicum [Jerusalem cherry] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum rostratum [buffalo bur] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum triflorum [cut-leaved nightshade] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum tuberosum [potato] All, esp. green tuber Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Solanum spp. [nightshade] All parts Solanine (glycoalkaloid). CNS and GI*
Conium maculatum [poison hemlock] All Coniine. Cardiac and respiratory failure; teratogenic
Cymopterus watsonii [spring-parsley] Sap Furocoumarins. Photodermatitis
Daucus carota [carrot, wild carrot] All parts Furocoumarins. Photodermatitis
Heracleum lanatum [cow parsnip] All parts Unknown. Dermatitis
Oenanthe crocata [water dropwort] All parts Oenanthotoxin (alcohol). GI; convulsions
Notes:
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TOXIC PLANTS OF CALIFORNIA HOMES AND GARDENS
Common Name [Scientific Name] Toxic Parts(s) Symptoms
bird-of-paradise [Strelitzia spp.] fruit and seeds vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, drowsiness
bleeding hearts [Dicentra spp.] leaves and roots trembling, staggering, convulsions
boxwood [Buxus sempervirens] stems and leaves stomach pains, vomiting, diarrhea
buckwheat [Fagopyrum sagittatum] flour from seeds allergic rash in sensitive individuals
caladium [Caladium spp.] all parts irritation of mouth and throat
calla lily [Zantedeschia aethiopica] all parts irritation of mouth and throat
carrot [Daucus carota] foliage rash in sensitive individuals
castor bean [Ricinus communis] all parts, esp. seeds
burning in mouth/throat, vomiting, diarrhea
celery [Apium graveolens] foliage rash in sensitive individuals
chalice vine [Solandra spp.] flowers, leaves vomiting, diarrhea, pupils dilate
cherry [Prunus spp.] stems, leaves, pits twitching, difficult breathing, coma
christmas rose [Helleborus niger] rootstocks, lvs. upset stomach, purging, numbing of mouth
croton [Codiaeum spp.] all parts rash, irritation of mouth and throat
cyclamen [Cyclamen spp.] tuber rash in sensitive individuals
daffodil [Narcissus pseudonarcissus] bulb vomiting, diarrhea, trembling, convulsions
daphne [Daphne mezereum] berries, bark, leaves vomiting, diarrhea, stupor, convulsions
dumbcane [Dieffenbachia spp.] stems irritation of mouth and throat, voice loss
elderberry [Sambucus spp.] most parts nausea, digestive upset
elephant's ear [Colocasia spp.] all parts irritation of mouth and throat
English ivy [Hedera helix] all parts excitement, difficult breathing, coma
oaks [Quercus spp.] acorns, shoots constipation, bloody stools, kidney damage
oleander [Nerium oleander] all parts nausea, irregular pulse, paralysis
parsnip [Pastinaca sativa] foliage rash in sensitive individuals
philodendron [Philodendron spp.] all parts irritation of mouth and throat
pieris [Pieris japonica] all parts vomiting, low blood pressure, convulsions
poinsettia [Euphorbia pulcherrima] most parts rash, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea
poppy [Papaver spp.] most parts stupor, coma, slow breathing
potato [Solanum tuberosum] most parts vomiting, diarrhea, shock, paralysis
primrose [Primula obconica] foliage rash in sensitive individuals
privet [Ligustrum vulgare] berries upset stomach, pain, vomiting, diarrhea
tomato [Lycopersicon esculentum] stems and leaves vomiting, diarrhea, shock, paralysis
tulip [Tulipa spp.] bulb vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain
wisteria [Wisteria spp.] pods and seeds vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain
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yellow oleander [Thevetia peruviana] all parts vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache
yew [Taxus spp.] all parts vomiting, diarrhea, circulatory collapse
__________________________________________________________________________________________
family (Menispermaceae).
9.4 ! PURPOSEFUL USE OF Three basic groups or kinds of curare are often
recognized, based upon the physical form in which
TOXIC PLANTS they are prepared. Tubocurare, also known as tube
curare or bamboo curare, is cylindrical, having been
packed in hollow bamboo stems. The two other kinds
"We did not escape without damage because [the are gourd or calabash curare and pot curare.
Indians] killed another companion of ours ... and in Chondrodendron is the principal ingredient in tube
truth, the arrow did not penetrate half a finger, but as curare; it is also used in pot curare. Strychnos is used
it had poison on it, he gave up his soul to our Lord." in both calabash and pot curare.
(Francisco de Orellana, 1541)
The active ingredient is d-tubocurarine chloride or
We have knowingly used poisonous plants as tubocurarine chloride, a whitish, odorless powder.
instruments of punishment, torture, murder, and Poisoning manifests itself in muscular relaxation by
suicide. As interesting as some of these episodes blocking of impulses between the nerve and the
might be, they are not the subject of this section. I muscle fiber activated by it. Symptoms include:
want to concentrate instead on our use of plant toxins
in arrow poisons, in the little-known ritual known as ' impaired vision
the "ordeal," and on their use to kill fish, insects, and ' bilateral drooping of lips
rodents. ' heaviness of face
' relaxation of jaw
' weakness of head muscles
ARROW & DART POISONS ' inability to raise head
' paralysis of spinal muscles, legs, & arms
Peoples of both the Old World and the New World ' slowed respiration, and
have used many different plants in the preparation of ' death.
these poisons. Native Americans on this continent
used relatively few arrow poisons from plant sources, Curare is rapidly destroyed and excreted. Its action
relying instead on rattlesnake venom and the juices of usually lasts for about 15-20 minutes, during which
the black widow spider. The Indians of South America the victim dies. The flesh of animals killed by curare
and the tribesmen of Africa used arrow poisons both may be eaten.
to hunt wild game and in wars against their enemies.
There are also medicinal uses for curare. Because it is
CURARE. This is probably the most famous arrow a muscle relaxant, it may be used in the treatment of
poison. The name is a phonetic rendering of an Indian convulsive mental patients and in certain types of
phrase meaning, "He, to whom it comes, falls." Other surgery. Curare is also used to diagnose myasthenia
spellings used in the literature are urari, woorari, gravis, a muscular disorder characterized by an overall
woorali, and wourali. Curare is the name for a whole deterioration of muscle tone.
group of arrow poisons used in South America. The
fact that the ingredients and their relative proportions KOMBI. The action of this African arrow poison was
vary from one location to the next hindered any real first described in detail by Dr. David Livingstone, the
understanding of the botanical and chemical nature of missionary to Africa of “Dr. Livingstone, I presume”
the poison. fame. He observed people preparing a poison from the
fruits of Strophanthus, a member of Apocynaceae, the
The Baron Alexander von Humboldt was probably the dogbane family. The action of kombi is much like that
first European to witness the preparation of curare. He of curare. The wounded animal rarely runs more than
wrote that the Indians shredded bark of certain trees about a hundred yards before it falls. Kombi contains
and made an infusion from it. This was further strophanthin, a glycoside with digitalis-like effects. It
concentrated by boiling it. Several other plant must get into the blood stream, which means that the
materials were added to the mixture. flesh of kombi victims is edible.
The Indians have several different ways of assaying Strophanthin also finds limited uses in medicine. It is
the strength of curare. One is to wound a frog with a used on heart attack victims when time is of the
poisoned arrow or dart. If it can jump more than eight utmost importance. It takes effect much faster than
times without the curare taking effect, then the potion digitalis, but it is such a violent poison that the
is deemed too weak. Another test involves a monkey dosages must be carefully controlled.
jumping from tree to tree. When the curare is at its
proper strength, an animal should not be able to jump UPAS. This is an arrow poison used by the natives of
to more than one tree before the toxin takes effect. Java. The chief ingredient is Antiaris toxicaria of
And, a final test is that since the honor of preparing Moraceae, the mulberry family.
curare often falls to the old women of the tribe, if they
are not half intoxicated by the fumes of the boiling OUABAIN. The natives of tropical Africa prepare an
mixture, the brew is not yet ready. arrow poison from Strophanthus gratus. A somewhat
inferior brand can be made from Acokanthera
The exact botanical nature of curare is still in some schimperi and A. deflexa. Ouabain is the most rapidly
doubt. The two principal toxic ingredients are acting heart-glycoside known.
Strychnos spp. (often S. toxifera) of the Logan-iaceae
and Chondrodendron tomentosum of the moonseed
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NEW WORLD ARROW & DART POISONS Conium maculatum (wasia) Mexico
Croton setigerus (turkey mullein) California
Scientific Name (Family) Area of Use Derris elliptica (tuba-root) Asia
Echinocystis fabacea (manroot) California
Aconitum spp. (Buttercup) North America Erythrina piscipula South America
Anemone spp. (Buttercup) North America Hura crepitans (oassucú) South America
Anomospermum spp. (Moonseed) South America Lomatium dissectum California
Capsicum annuum (Nightshade) South America
Cocculus spp. (Moonseed) South America Lonchocarpus spp. (barbasco) Tropical America
Lycopus spp. (horehound) California
Colliguaja odorifera (Spurge) South America Manihot esculenta (cassava) Guiana
Chondrodendron spp. (Moonseed) South America Patinoa sphaerocarpa Amazon
Conium maculatum (Parsley) North America Paullinia spp. (timbó) South America
Cynanchum macrophyllum (Milkweed) N. America
Delphinium elatum (Buttercup) North America Phyllanthus spp. South America
Sapindus saponarius (amolli) Mexico
Dieffenbachia seguine (Philodendron) Cuba Serjania spp. (timbó) South America
Dioscorea spp. (Yam) West Indies Smilacina sessilifolia (Solomon seal) California
Ficus atrox (Mulberry) South America Tephrosia piscatoria South America
Gautteria venificiorum (Annona) South America
Hippomane mancinella (Spurge) West Indies Thevetia peruviana (jorro-jorro) Brazil
Trichstema lanceolatum (blue curls) California
Hura crepitans (Spurge) Central & South America Umbellularia californica (pepperwood) California
Jacquinia spp. (Theophrasta) C. & S.America Wikstroemia spp. Hawai'i
Nicotiana spp. (Nightshade) C. & S. America
Papaver nudicaule (Poppy) North America
Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Spurge) West Indies INSECTICIDES
Piper geniculatum (Pepper) South America
Piscidia piscipula (Bean) North America In addition to the more exotic arrow and ordeal
Ranunculus spp. (Buttercup) North America poisons, the plant kingdom yields useful poisons for
Sapium biloculare (Spurge) Mexico the control of insects. About 1200 different species
Sebastiana palmeri (Spurge) Mexico have been used in this context, although only
rotenone, pyrethrum, and nicotine are of any real
Serjania spp. (Soapberry) West Indies commercial value. One of these, rotenone, was used
Spigelia fruticulosa (Logania) South America for centuries as a fish poison in South America before
Strychnos spp. (Logania) South America its use as an insecticide.
Tabernaemontana spp. (Dogbane) South America
Yucca glauca (Lily) North America Rotenone is a very popular insecticide derived from
the roots of Derris and Lonchocarpus, both members
of the bean family. The former is native to the Old
FISH POISONS World tropics, while the latter is New World in its
distribution. Rotenone was first isolated from Derris in
1902. It is a colorless, crystalline compound extracted
Many different plants have been used to poison, or from the dried roots. Rotenone is insoluble in water,
more precisely, to stupefy fish. The technique is not but soluble in oil. It is about fifteen times more toxic
complex. It typically involves putting the required part than nicotine. The toxic principle has no effect on
of a particular plant in a still body of water. The plant warm blooded animals. Rotenone was isolated from
toxin is released into the water, numbing the fish so the roots of Lonchocarpus in 1926. Its roots are richer
that it comes floating to the surface. in the toxin than those of Derris.
The California buckeye (Aesculus californica) was used Pyrethrum is the name given to the dried flower
by several tribes of Native Americans. Seeds, heads of three species of Chrysanthemum. They yield
sometimes leaves or young stems, were crushed and volatile oils that paralyze insects. This came as no
made into a mash that was floated on the surface of surprise to horticulturists who knew that these plants
the water. The stupefied fish were then gathered by were rarely attacked by insects. Depending upon the
hand or in nets. species, the pyrethrum is often called "Dalmatian
insect powder," "Caucasian insect powder," or
The fish poison tree (Piscidia piscipula) of the bean "Persian insect powder." Pyrethrum has been used
family occurs in Texas, Florida, Mexico, the West successfully in the control of flies, fleas, malarial
Indies, and South America. Its leaves, stems, and root mosquitos, and body lice.
bark are macerated with a rum distillation residue or
lime water. The material is then placed in baskets and INSECTICIDES FROM PLANTS
floated in the water until the stupefied fish surface.
The plant contains piscidin, a mixture of two toxic
glycosides. Scientific Name (Common Name) Comment
FISH POISONS Anabasis ioaphylla Used in Near East
Annona cherimola (cherimoya) Used against lice
Scientific & Common Name Where Used ? Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium Pyrethrum
Croton texensis (croton) Used in New Mexico
Cymbopogon nardus (lemon grass) Citronella oil
Aesculus californica (California buckeye) California Delphinium spp. (larkspur) Seeds used
Chlorogalum pomeridianum (soaproot) California Derris spp. (tuba-root) Root source of rotenone
Clibadium spp. (Cunambi) Amazon Dolichos pseudopachyrrhizus Tropical Africa
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Duboisia hopwoodii Leaves contain nornicotine was dispatched in some novel fashion. If the woman
Eupatorium spp. (boneset) Eastern N. America sank to the bottom of the lake and drowned, her
survivors had the consolation of knowing that she was
Gardenia lucida Used in Asia to ward off flies innocent.
Ipomoea quamoclit (morning glory) Seeds used
Liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum) Fumigant Many of the African tribes employed plant poisons in
Lonchocarpus spp. (barbasco) Source of rotenone their own version of the ordeal. No one really knows
Macuna spp. Seeds contain L-dopa how the use of ordeal poisons began. One plausible
Melia azedarach (China berry) Used against flies explanation is that food gatherers mistakenly picked
Nicotiana spp. (tobacco) Leaf dustings used a toxic plant, assuming it to be edible. The people of
Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) Pine oil used the village ate it; some were poisoned and died, while
Ruta graveolens (rue) Leaves contain volatile oil others lived. Given the philosophical and religious
Schoenocaulon officinale (sabadilla) Seeds used climate, a possible explanation that would come to
mind is that those who ate the plant and died were
Sesamum indicum (sesame) Used with pyrethrum somehow connected with witchcraft or were guilty of
Tanacetum vulgare (tansy) Used on fleas and lice some evil and were being punished.
Xanthoxylum clava-herculis (prickly-ash) Bark
There are several different ways in which the ordeal
poisons were employed. One of the most
RODENTICIDES straightforward involves a plant called the tanghin of
Madagascar (Cerbera spp.) All parts of this tree are
toxic, the fruits especially so. The toxin is a cardiac
These plant toxins are used in poison baits, primarily glycoside. The person undergoing the ordeal is given
to kill rats. Therefore, they are sometimes called a drink of rice water or rice soup. He or she is then
raticides. They are effective in small quantities, and given three pieces of chicken skin to swallow without
appear to taste just fine. chewing, followed by the crushed tanghin fruits mixed
with banana juice and a preparation of cardamom
Squill or sea-onion (Drimia maritima) is a leaves or juice. Incantations are performed. The
Mediterranean member of the lily family. Since ancient concoction acts as an emetic, a substance that will
times, its bulbs and extracts of the bulbs have been cause vomiting. Failure to do so is an immediate sign
used to kill rodents. If you or I eat this material, it will of guilt. The vomitus is carefully examined by tribal
make us sick and we will vomit, thereby ridding the officials to see if all three pieces of chicken skin are
system of the toxin. Rodents, on the other hand, have present. They must be if the suspect is to be judged
no “vomit control center” in their brains so that any innocent. If not, the other members of the tribe kill
plant parts consumed will remain in the stomach and the person, knowing now that he or she is guilty. The
be absorbed. The sea-onion contains a series of toxins significance of the chicken skin lies in the belief that
that affect the heart. They are called cardiac an evil spirit inhabits the body of a guilty person and
glycosides and they are chemically similar to those that it would devour any flesh presented to it,
found in the foxglove plants. The sea-onion toxins, including chicken skin. Before considering this to be a
given by injection in moderation, have medicinal uses quaint custom, consider that in 1830 a series of
as diuretics, emetics, and expectorants. natural disasters and diseases swept Madagascar. This
prompted mass ordeal trials to determine who was
Sweet clover. One of the most pleasant smells of causing these calamities. As many as 6000 people
rural areas is freshly mown pastures. Part of that nice died in one trial!
aroma comes from sweet clovers (Melilotus spp.),
herbs of the legume family. These plants also produce Probably the most famous of the ordeal poisons
a form of coumarin, which inhibits blood clotting. involves the Calabar bean (Physostigma vene-
Given in controlled quantities, coumarins are effective nosum), a vine of the legume family named after a
as blood thinners. Some years ago, the Wisconsin town in Nigeria. It has a long history of use in Africa
Alumni Research Foundation discovered that a as a means of identifying and killing witches. The trial
modified form of coumarin made a very effective rat consisted of the accused drinking water that contained
poison. They named it Warfarin (after themselves). eight smashed Calabar beans. If the person
The poor little rats go off someplace and die from regurgitated the beans or raised his right arm and
internal hemorrhaging. survived, then he was judged innocent. The fast-
acting toxin, physostigmine, rarely pro-duced that
result.
ORDEAL POISONS
In recent years this plant has been the object of
The lives of many peoples through the ages have been medical research. This same toxin is now used to treat
dominated by a complex pantheon of deities, both glaucoma, chronic constipation, and aspects of
good and evil. In many societies, one very important Alzheimer’s disease.
obligation was to placate friendly gods and not to
encourage the evil ones. These were not societies that The "Mauvi tree" of East Africa is used by the natives
were protected by a single omnipotent god who of the Lake Nyassa region. The bark is mixed with
rewarded good deeds and punished the wicked. In other substances and given to the suspects. If you are
many societies, the people developed procedures for guilty, you will vomit and die. There is a certain
determining guilt and innocence. This was a trial or an simplicity to it. The body of the guilty party is spirited
ordeal to which suspects were subjected. If innocent, away by relatives who will cremate the remains, grind
the person would be able to pass the ordeal; but, if up the bones, and put the powder on their faces.
guilty, he or she would fail.
In some instances, the suspects at an ordeal will be
We have used similar devices in the United States and asked to perform some task. Inability to do so is taken
Europe. Consider the witch trials of the 17th century. as a sign of guilt. In one tribe, the medicine man
A woman suspected of being a witch was bound, draws a line on the ground about ten feet in front of
placed in a bag, and tossed in a lake. If she floated, it the suspects. If you can walk across the line, you are
was concluded that she was indeed a witch and she innocent. In another tribe, the suspect is asked to
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jump over a stick held about 50 cm above the ground. The belief in the accuracy of the ordeal poisons was so
One tribe that occupied what used to be called the powerful that perfectly innocent people who were
Ivory Coast in Africa used the white latex from a subjected to the ritual would confess to the most
member of the spurge family. A latex-soaked piece of horrible crimes if they felt the toxin taking effect. As
cotton was placed under the eyelid and allowed to with so many useful social institutions, corruption
remain there for a required period. Damage to the soon tainted the ordeal rituals. The priests and witch
cornea was taken as evidence of guilt. doctors found that they could guarantee the outcome
of an ordeal by careful preparation of the poisons.
Many of the ordeal poisons were simple preparations Their friends received weak doses; their enemies
involving a toxic plant and one or two other seldom survived. The witch doctor would make a
ingredients. Some were complex preparation of a conspicuous display of drinking a weak dose of the
plant poison, lizards, crushed snakes, toads, hearts ordeal poison before a large crowd to strengthen his
from previous victims, miscellaneous human organs, position in the community and to show that the
blood, and bile. The various ingredients were then innocent had nothing to fear.
fermented for one year to bring them up to proper
strength.
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SECTION 10 ! MEDICINAL PLANTS
WHAT IS AN HERB?
10.1 - AN OVERVIEW
The word has several meanings. As a general term
used in botany, an herb is a non-woody plant. In the
kitchen, an herb is a plant or plant part, such as dill or
' Medicinal plants act in two ways. Some actually oregano, used to flavor food. What we are about to
cure, while many others provide symptomatic examine are the medicinal herbs. Here the term, as
relief. defined by Varro Tyler (1994) means "... crude drugs
of vegetable origin utilized for the treatment of
' Our most famous medicinal plants are also disease states, often of a chronic nature, or to attain
poisonous ones. We have discovered how to or maintain a condition of improved health."
administer the toxin in controlled quantities to
achieve the desired result.
' The power of the mind to effect cures and the BCE:
placebo effect are important factors in evaluating
the medicinal properties of plants. 2000 Here, eat this root!
“Within the infant rind of this small flower poison hath Code of Hammurabi, the Babylonian legal code of
residence, and medicine power.” about 1770 BC, lists cassia, henbane, licorice, and
[William Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet] mints.
"El venemo de ayer es el medicamento de mañana." Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian text from 1500 BC lists
[K. Mezey, 1946] 700 drug plants and 876 formulas in use at the time.
This 67 ft. long document was discovered by Georg
“The desire to take medicine is perhaps the greatest Ebers in 1874 near Luxor. The papyrus cites hemp,
feature which distinguishes man from animals.” opium, frankincense, myrrh, aloe, juniper, linseed,
[Sir William Osler] castor oil, fennel, cassia, senna, thyme, and henna.
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De Materia Medica was written about AD 78 by the The English Physician and Complete Herbal,
Greek physician Pedianos Dioskurides, better known published by Nicholas Culpeper in 1653, is
to us now as Dioscorides. It lists the medicinal uses of contaminated by his beliefs in astrology and alchemy.
600 plants, including opium, ergot, black nightshade, It remains popular even to this day, having gone
and cinnamon. An illustrated version, the Codex through more than 100 editions.
Juliana, appeared in AD 512. De Materia Medica
remained an authoritative reference for 19 centuries! Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae (1615) was
written by Francisco Hernandez (1514-1587),
Physica is the only ancient herbal that I know of physician to King Philip II of Spain. It first appeared as
written by a woman, Hildegard of Bingen (1098- 16 folio volumes. An illustrated edition was published
1179). It is also the first book on natural history done in 1651.
in Germany. Hildegard established a convent at
Rupertsberg and served there as Abbess until her New Herball was written by William Turner (1510-
death. She said that God had commanded her to write 1568). Part 1 appeared in 1551; Pt. 2 in 1562.
her herbal.
Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629) was
written by John Parkinson (1567-1650), apothecary to
THE AGE OF HERBALS (1470 to 1670) King James I of England.
An herbal is a compilation of plants used in a medical Theatrum Botanicum: the Theater of Plantes, or
context. Some had few, if any illustrations. Others had an Universall and Compleate Herball (1640) was
crude drawings; a few were lavishly illustrated. the other major contribution made by John Parkinson.
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shaped leaf, it is a sign that it is good for the heart; a ' Reducing the dose of a medicine increases its
plant with a scorpion-shaped flower cluster is effective therapeutic activity.
in the treatment of scorpion bites. Kidney beans
should be good for the kidneys and walnuts ought to ' Astrological influences are significant.
make us smarter. Such nonsense persists today.
' Physiological tests in animals are not applicable to
human beings.
MORE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
' Anecdotal evidence is highly significant.
Until the early part of this century, the practicing
physician derived most of his standard cures from the ' Herbs were created by God specifically to cure
plant kingdom. Medical botany was a required course disease.
in a physician's formal training. The intimate
relationship between medicine and botany yielded an
interesting side effect. Many of our outstanding TERMS USED IN HERBAL MEDICINE
botanists, including Linnaeus Himself, were trained in
medicine. A number of them gave up their medical astringent: an agent, often rich in tannins, that
practices to go into botany full-time. precipitates proteins and thereby leads to the
contraction of tissues and the checking of bleeding;
The use of drugs of botanical origin began to decline
as they were replaced by synthetic substitutes. In bitter: an agent that aids in digestion by promoting
1820, 82% of the drugs listed in the National salivation and the secretion of stomach acids and
Formulary were from plants. In 1946, only 38% were digestive enzymes;
of plant origin; 56% were chemical; and 6% animal.
Today the plant kingdom is once again a major source carminative: an agent that soothes the digestive
of interest to both the major drug houses and the U.S. system by relieving gas, spasms, and distention;
government. Large screening programs are underway
to test thousands of species for their ability to control cathartic: an agent with a laxative effect, thereby
cancer and leukemia. Other programs are causing an evacuation of the bowels;
investigating plants, such as the yams of Mexico, that
manufacture the chemical components that are vital demulcent: an agent, often mucilaginous, that
to the biosynthesis of steroidal hormones. Several are soothes irritated or inflamed tissues, especially
being looked at as useful in the treatment of AIDS. mucous membranes;
The shelves of our local bookstores and articles in the diaphoretic: an agent that promotes perspiration;
popular press provide strong evidence of a renewed
interest in herbal remedies. A number of reasons have emmenegogue: an agent that stimulates menstrual
been suggested, including dissatisfaction with modern flow;
health care systems, the costs of commercial drugs,
and returning to a more natural way of treating our emollient: an agent that softens or smooths the skin;
illnesses. A recent study cited in Brevoort (1994)
showed that about half of the people who purchase febrifuge: an agent that lowers fever;
medicinal herbs use them every day, 70% buy them
regularly, and about a third of people have been using galactagogue: an agent that promotes the flow of
herbs for 15 years or more. Regular users of medicinal milk;
herbs spend about $30 per month on them. nervine: an agent stimulates or depresses the
nervous system;
Herbal remedies constitute a major industry in this
country. The following data are from Blumenthal purgative: an agent with strong laxative effect
(2001). Total retail sales declined about 15% over the
previous year. Of the top ten herbs shown below, only stomachic: an agent that supports gastric functions
soy and valerian sales were up. and promotes appetite;
The late Varro Tyler, one of our most respected vulnerary: an agent that supports the healing of
experts on the use of medicinal herbs, offered some wounds
words of caution. He suggests that if we accept any of
the following precepts, then we have adopted [After Boon & Smith, 1999]
irrational beliefs about herbal medicine.
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remedies” with varying degrees of demonstrated '''''
effectiveness.
MALARIA & FEVER BARK: TIMELINE
MANDRAKE BCE:
Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) is not really a 200 “Marshes produce small creatures...”
medicinal plant. I have included it because of its long
history in folk medicine and its bizarre reputation. CE:
From the beginning it has been considered one of the
best aphrodisiacs and cures for sterility. A reference to 1633 “A tree which they call ‘the fever tree’
one or both of these uses is found in the Hebrew Bible 1717 Lancisi suggests transmission by mosquitos
(Genesis 30:14-16). This is probably the first 1807 Crawford suggests malaria caused by eggs
reference to the plant in western literature. These 1882 King finds malaria transmitted by mosquitos
notions as to the power of mandrake arise from the 1897 Ronald Ross identifies Plasmodium vivax as
appearance of its root system, as viewed by someone the cause
with a little imagination. The root system is carrot- 1820 Pelletier & Caventou isolate quinine
like, but it is often branched. To many people the 1858 J. Schweppe patents quinine tonic water
branched roots represent tiny humans, complete with 1932 Atabrine synthesized
sex organs. To others the unbranched root clearly 1939 Chloroquine synthesized
represented a man's penis. In either case, the belief 1944 Doering & Woodward synthesize quinine
was that the Lord, in His Infinite Wisdom, constructed 1976 Quinine sulfate synthesized
the root in such a way to give an indication of its use.
This view was in keeping with the "Doctrine of The World Health Organization estimates that one
Signatures." third of the world's population is constantly
endangered by malaria. The annual death toll is about
In the Middle Ages, mandrake became a cure-all. 2 million and another 200-800 million are chronic
Preparations were also used in drinks to stupefy the sufferers. We tend to think of malaria as a disease of
victim. One recent author has also claimed that the tropics, but until control procedures became
perhaps Jesus of Nazareth was given a mandrake effective, 4-6 million people in the southern U.S. were
drink to produce a death-like trance while on the malaria-ridden.
cross. Mandrake wines were used in this fashion in
Palestine. Malaria is caused by several species of the protozoan
Plasmodium, particularly P. vivax. The protozoan is
Harvesting such a powerful plant was fraught with carried in the stomach of a female Anopheles
peril. The plants were so full of strong magic that they mosquito which, in turn, brings the organism to us.
could not be pulled from the ground by mere mortals. Plasmodium enters the body when the mosquito
One way of extracting a mandrake was to draw three pierces the skin. It gets into the blood stream where
circles around the plant with a sword or stick and dig it attacks red blood cells. Their destruction and the
only while looking west. Stuff your ears before doing subsequent release of waste products bring on the
this because the plant will produce horrible, deafening characteristic "chills-fever-sweat" cycle of malaria.
screams as it is pulled from the ground. It is also best
to stand upwind because of the foul stench the plants For centuries there was little known about its cause or
give off. The most favorable time for doing all of this possible treatment. The method of choice used by
was a Friday evening. Apparently so many people physicians was bloodletting. This only tended to
were deafened or killed by extracting mandrakes that hasten the end because the malaria victim was
dogs were later substituted. One end of a rope was anemic. Another treatment was to drink wine
tied around the dog, the other end around the containing three drops of blood from the ear of a cat.
mandrake. The dog was struck and it ran away, This must be administered by a woman of high birth
pulling the mandrake from the ground. Naturally, the to be effective. But, even in the days of ancient Rome
dog died. scholars suggested that malaria was caused by some
sort of invisible creature associated with marshes.
The sedative properties of mandrake result from a These suggestions were ignored. They were contrary
series of alkaloids, principally hyoscyamine, scopol- to the accepted religion and science of the day. In the
amine, and mandragorine. The aphrodisiac qualities Middle Ages, malaria was thought to be the result of
are yet unsubstantiated. breathing bad night air. Look again at the word
“malaria.” Doctors recommended closing all windows
and doors at night to exclude these foul vapors.
Closing the house did help, because it kept some
QUININE AND MALARIA mosquitos out.
While the Old World was busy worrying about the bad
"The great gift of malaria is utter apathy." night air, the Indians in the New World were using the
(Sir Richard Burton, noted explorer; not the actor) "fever bark" tree or "quina" to control malaria. There
is some question as to whether the Indians really
"Malaria can strike anyone, but history and experience knew of the advantages of the bark. Some suggest
show that it affects primarily the poorest, most that they knew quite well that it would control
peripheral and most marginal groups of a population." malaria, but were somewhat reluctant to share this
(World Health Organization) knowledge with the Spanish conquerors. After all,
“The only good Spaniard ....”
"A tree grows which they call 'the fever tree' in the
country of Loxa, whose bark, the color of cinnamon, The most famous story of how the fever bark became
is made into a powder amounting to the weight of two known to the Europeans involves the Countess of
small silver coins and given as a beverage, cures the Chinchon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru. In 1638 she fell
fevers and tertians; it has produced miraculous results victim to malaria and was on the verge of death when
in Lima." (An Augustinian monk writing in 1633) the Governor of Loja heard of this and sent her some
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of the bark of "quinaquina" (Quechuan for "bark of (Digitalis purpurea + other spp.). For centuries it was
barks"). This bark effected a miraculous cure and she a favorite ornamental. In the 1700s, foxglove was
returned to Spain, extolling the virtue of the Indian used by witches and others to treat dropsy. This
cure. Linnaeus, being aware of this popular story of disorder was characterized by an accumulation of
the fever bark tree, named the tree Cinchona, after liquids in the chest and abdomen, and a swelling of
the Countess. He misspelled her name. the legs and ankles. William Withering, an English
doctor, after hearing stories about the success of local
Unfortunately, the story is a complete myth. The first witches, experimented with treating dropsy patients
Countess died three years before her husband was with pulverized foxglove leaves and found that they
appointed Viceroy, and the second never had malaria did correct the disorder. In 1785 he published "An
and died of other causes in Colombia, without ever account of the foxglove and some of its medical uses:
returning to Europe. with practical remarks on dropsy and other diseases,"
which remains one of the most famed monographs in
The Jesuits played an important role in the spread of medical history.
knowledge and use of the fever bark tree. They had
intimate contact with the Indians who used it regularly The real importance of foxglove was not realized until
and did much to bring it to the attention of Europeans. research showed that dropsy was a symptom of a
Some people were convinced that fever bark was more serious problem, heart disease. Today foxglove
actually a Jesuit poison used to kill Protestants. Oliver remains an important tool in the treatment of heart
Cromwell died of malaria in 1685, rather than using patients. The leaves yield cardiac glycosides, known
the "Jesuit bark." collectively as the digitalis glycosides. Two of them
are digitoxin (C41 H64 O13 ) and digitalin (C35 H36 O14).
The active ingredient in the bark is a series of
alkaloids. The best known is quinine. It is extracted The digitalis glycosides have not been synthesized.
from several species of Cinchona and from Remijia We grow large fields of foxglove plants and use
pedunculata, another member of the madder or coffee alcohol to extract the glycosides from leaves.
family (Rubiaceae). The extraction of the alkaloid
allowed standardization of doses. This eliminated The effects of the digitalis glycosides are:
much of the trial and error treatment of malaria. The
exact mode of action is still incompletely known. One ' the intervals between cardiac contractions are
suggestion is that quinine interferes with an enzyme lengthened;
system of the Plasmodium. This has not been ' the contractions are stronger and more regular;
demonstrated, however. ' the pulse is more regular;
' blood pressure is increased;
Although Cinchona is native to South America, the ' kidney functioning improves; and
chief site of production for most of this century has ' urine is passed in copious quantities.
been Java. At the time of the Second World War, 95%
of the world's quinine supply came from Java. This Dr. Withering also recognized the toxic nature of
source was eliminated from the Allies by the Japanese foxglove when he noted, "... when given in very large
occupation. This initiated an intensive search for and quickly repeated doses, [it] occasions sickness,
quinine substitutes and for new sources of high grade vomiting, purging, giddiness, confused vision, objects
material in the New World. appearing green or yellow, increased secretion of
urine with frequent motions to part with it; slow pulse,
In 1944, Doering and Woodward synthesized quinine. even as low as 35 in a minute, cold sweats,
Unfortunately, it cost about $1000 per gram. Atabrine, convulsions, syncope [fainting as a result of depriving
synthesized by the Germans in 1928, was used by the the cerebrum of oxygen], and death."
U.S. Army at the rate of a billion pills per year. During
the Korean War, the U.S. used chloroquine. Since then
several other quinine substitutes have been BELLADONNA
developed. Unfortunately, not all malaria strains can
be controlled by these alkaloids. New ones are known "Belladonna, n. in Italian a beautiful lady; in English a
that are resistant to quinine or any of its synthetic deadly poison. A striking example of the essential
derivatives. Malaria remains our costliest disease. identity of the two tongues."
(Ambrose Bierce. The Devil's Dictionary)
FOXGLOVE AND HEART DISEASE '''''
"In the year 1775 my opinion was asked concerning a Atropa belladonna, also called the deadly nightshade,
family recipe for the cure of dropsy. I was told it had has been known for many centuries. For most of this
long been kept a secret by an old women in time, belladonna was a favorite poison. The plant is
Shropshire, who had sometimes made cures after the native to central and southern Europe and Asia. The
more regular practicioners had failed. I was informed, common name comes from the Italian for "beautiful
also, that the effects produced were violent vomiting woman," and the generic name from Atropos, the Fate
and purging; for the diuretic effects seem to have who cuts the thread of life.
been overlooked. This medicine was composed of
twenty or more different herbs; but it was not very The leaves contain a series of alkaloids, known
difficult for one conversant in these subjects to collectively as the belladonna alkaloids. These are
perceive that the active herb could be no other than extracted after the leaves have been dried from 2-15
the Foxglove." weeks. Ether or ethyl acetate solvents are often used.
(Dr. William Withering,1785) The alkaloids are then crystallized. Some of the chief
alkaloids are atropine, hyoscyamine, and
''''' scopolamine.
One of the most important heart drugs is obtained Atropine is used to stimulate the sympathetic nervous
from a plant of the snapdragon family, the foxglove system, to dilate the pupils of the eye during
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examinations, to relieve pain, and to reduce muscle
spasms. Scopolamine, a depressant, is used as a ERGOT
sedative, in the treatment of insomnia, and to help
reduce the symptoms of motion sickness. You may ERGOT POISONING/USE: TIMELINE
have noticed people wearing scopolamine skin patches
behinds their ears. BCE:
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GINSENG INDIAN SNAKEROOT
Ginseng (Panax quinquefolia + other spp.) is another Rauvolfia serpentina has been used for thousands of
plant highly regarded because of its almost limitless years in India to treat the mentally ill, to rid oneself of
powers. In Asia, it is used to treat anemia, diabetes, intestinal worms, and to cure insect bites. Until
insomnia, gastritis, and impotency. It is, "... a tonic to recently the plant was largely ignored as just another
the five viscera, quieting animal spirits, establishing example of quaint plant mythology. Today it is of
the soul, allaying fear, expelling evil effluvia, great importance in the treatment of hypertension and
brightening the eye, opening up the heart, benefitting certain kinds of mental illness, particularly
the understanding, and if taken for some time it will schizophrenia. The roots contain the alkaloid
invigorate the body and prolong life." Not bad! reserpine. It is similar to serotonin, a naturally
occurring chemical in our brain. It has been suggested
It is the root that is so highly prized. The United that schizophrenia is the result of a serotonin
States exports about 200,000 tons of three to six year imbalance.
old plants each year; about 90% goes to Hong Kong.
This is nothing new. We have been exporting ginseng Reserpine occurs in several other species of Rauvolfia.
root since Colonial times. Recent biochemical studies In addition to perhaps correcting a serotonin
show that the roots contain a complex mixture of imbalance, reserpine also decreases blood pressure
triterpenoid saponins that affect the midbrain, heart, and pulse rate. Its action appears to be on all parts of
internal secretions, and blood sugar levels. the central nervous system, particularly the
hypothalamus.
GINKGO
ECHINACEA OR CONE FLOWER
One of the more important medicinal herbs of the last
decade is the maidenhair tree, Ginkgo biloba, a widely Echinacea or coneflower (Echinacea purpurea + other
planted ornamental tree. We use a concentrated spp.) is a 19th century "blood purifier" derived from
extract made from the dried leaves. The extract North American Indian herbal medicine. The term
contains a mixture of flavonoids and diterpenes, the blood purifier was often a euphemism for treating
latter known as ginkgolides A, B, and C. venereal disease. Echinacea's claim to fame is that it
stimulates our body's own ability to heal itself. Studies
Two things make ginkgo exciting. It appears to be carried out in the last 50 years would seem to show
effective in the treatment of reduced blood flow to the that echinacea does cause a number of changes that
brain and as a scavenger of free radicals. Some claims could lead to enhanced resistance to disease,
suggest that GBE is also effective in the prevention of particularly colds and flu. It is also sold as a cream or
strokes and of Alzheimer's disease, but these lotion for the treatment of wounds and burns.
assertions have not yet been properly demonstrated.
FEVERFEW
ST. JOHN’S WORT
Tanacetum parthenium, a member of the sunflower
Hypericum perforatum is a European herb of the family, has been used for over 2000 years to treat
garcinia family (Guttiferae). The common name is headaches. It has been rediscovered and it is now
based on the belief that the plant has been observed widely used for migraine and the associated nausea
to release a blood red oil on 29 August, the day that and vomiting. The active ingredients include a number
John the Baptist was decapitated. It has long had of sesquiterpene lactones that are found in the leaves.
magical powers associated with it, including the ability In the olden days, people simply ate the leaves, but
to ward off evil spirits. It has been a popular herbal this often resulted in ulcers and inflammation of the
remedy since ancient times. Hippocrates and mouth and lips. Today it is put up as a tablet or
Dioscorides recommended its use. capsule.
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arrest nuclear division. They have been very Taxus brevifolia is a coniferous tree of the Pacific
successful in treating childhood leukemia, Hodgkin's Northwest, It contains taxol, now considered very
Disease (a cancer of the lymphatic system), cancer of promising in the treatment of ovarian and breast
the testicles, and Kaposi's sarcoma. cancers. Taxol is found in bark of about 80 year old
trees; it is also in the needles.
PACIFIC YEW
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Common Name (Scientific Name) Active Ingredient(s) Therapeutic Use(s)
Indian snakeroot (Rauvolfia serpentina) Reserpine Treat mental illness; high blood pressure
ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha) Emetine Induce vomiting; treat persistent coughs
jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandi) Pilocarpine Treat glaucoma; diuretic
Jamaica quassia (Picrasma excelsa) Quassin Stimulates stomach/intestines; pesticide
karaya (Sterculia urens) Gum karaya Laxative
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rue (Ruta graveolens) Skimmianine Induce menstruation; produce abortion
saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) Oils, acids, glucosides Treat enlarged prostate
sea onion (Urginea maritima) Scillaren* Heart stimulant; powerful emetic
senna (Cassia senna) Sennosides (anthraquinones) Laxative
Solomon's seal (Polygonatum officinale) Allantoin Anti-inflammatory; lowers blood pressure
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ASTHMA Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
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BURSITIS/TENDINITIS Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Forsythia Forsythia suspensa
Willow Salix spp. Honeysuckle Loniceera japonica
Ginger Zingiber officinale Onion Allium cepa
Echinacea Echinacea spp. Ephedra Ephedra sinica
Horsetail Equisetum spp. Anise Pimpanella anisum
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Pineapple Ananas comosus Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Mullein Verbascum thapsus
Turmeric Curcuma longa Seneca snakeroot Polygala senega
Slippery elm Ulmus rubra
CANKER SORES Watercress Nasturtium officinale
Willow Salix spp.
Myrrh Commiphora spp.
Tea Camellia sinensis CONSTIPATION
Canker root Coptis groenlandica
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis Flax Linum usititissimum
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Psyllium Plantago ovata
Sage Salvia officinalis Aloe Aloë vera
Wild geranium Geranium maculatum Buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica
Cascara sagrada Rhamnus purshianus
CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIA Frangula Frangula alnus
Senna Cassia senna
Angelica Angelica archangelica Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum
Cinchona Cinchona spp. Rhubarb Rheum officinale
Hawthorn Crataegus spp.
Canola Brassica spp. CORNS
Khella Ammi majus
Astragalus Astragalus spp. Celandine Chelidonium majus
Barberry Berberis vulgaris Fig Ficus carica
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Papaya Carica papaya
Horehound Marrubium vulgare Pineapple Ananas comosus
Motherwort Leonurus cardiaca Willow Salix spp.
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens
Reishi Ganoderma lucidum
Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius COUGHING
Valerian Valeriana officinalis
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME Elderberry Sambucus nigra
Ginger Zingiber officinale
Willow Salix spp. Lemon Citrus limon
Camomile Matricaria recutita Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Pineapple Ananas comosus Slippery elm Ulmus rubra
Red pepper Capsicum spp. Anise Pimpanella anisum
Turmeric Curcuma longa Burnet-saxifrage Pimpinella major
Comfrey Symphytum officinale Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis
Cumin Cuminum cyminum Mullein Verbascum thapsus
Sage Salvia officinalis Primrose Primula veris
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
CATARACTS Sundew Drosera spp.
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus CUTS, SCRAPES, & ABSCESSES
Catnip Nepeta cataria
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis Tea tree Melaleuca spp.
Brazil nut Bertholettia excelsa Calendula Calendula officinalis
Carrot Daucus carota Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Onion Allium cepa Echinacea Echinacea spp.
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Gotu kola Centella asiatica
CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME Horse balm Monarda punctata
Aloe Aloë spp.
Asian ginseng Panax ginseng Arnica Arnica montana
Siberian ginseng Eleutherrococcus senticosus Clove Syzygium aromaticum
Maté Ilex paraguayensis Garlic Allium sativum
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis
Spinach Spinacia oleracea Melilot Melilotus officinalis
Wheat grass Agropyron spp.
DANDRUFF
COLDS AND FLU
Soybean Glycine max
Echinacea Echinacea spp. Burdock Arctium lappa
Garlic Allium sativum Celandine Chelidonium majus
Ginger Zingiber officinale Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Black cherry Prunus serotina Ginger Zingiber officinale
Citrus Citrus spp. Sesame Sesamum indicum
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Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Gentian Gentiana officinalis
Plantain Plantago spp. Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica
Tea tree Melaleuca spp. Mullein Verbascum thapsus
Peppermint Mentha piperita
DEPRESSION Tea tree Melaleuca spp.
DIZZINESS FEVER
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GALLSTONES & KIDNEYSTONES Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium
Willow Salix spp.
Beggar-lice Desmodium styracifolium Evening-primrose Oenothera biennis
Celandine Chelidonium majus Garlic Allium sativum
Couch grass Elymus repens Onion Allium cepa
Ginger Zingiber officinale Ginger Zingiber officinale
Horsetail Equisetum arvense Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Peppermint Mentha piperita Red pepper Capsicum spp.
Spearmint Mentha spicata Lemon balm Melissa officinalis
Turmeric Curcuma longa Peppermint Mentha piperita
Goldenrod Solidago virgaurea Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Java tea Orthosiphon aristatus Tansy Tanacetum vulgare
Lovage Levisticum officinale Thyme Thymus vulgaris
Milk thistle Silybum marianum Turmeric Curcuma longa
Parsley Petroselinum crispum
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
HEARTBURN
GENITAL HERPES & COLD SORES
Angelica Angelica archangelica
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis Camomile Matricaria recutita
Echinacea Echinacea spp. Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Red pepper Capsicum spp. Peppermint Mentha piperita
St. John's wort Hypericum perforatum Cardamom Eucalyptus spp.
Garlic Allium sativum Dill Anethum graveolens
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare
GINGIVITIS (GUM DISEASE) Gentian Gentiana officinalis
Papaya Carica papaya
Bloodroot Sanguinaria canadensis Pineapple Ananas comosus
Camomile Matricaria recutita
Echinacea Echinacea spp. HEART DISEASE
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Purslane Portulaca oleracea Pigweed Amaranthus spp.
Sage Salvia officinalis Willow Salix spp.
Tea Camellia sinensis Angelica Angelica archangelica
Calendula Calendula officinalis Grape Vitis vinifera
Peppermint Mentha piperita Hawthorn Crataegus spp.
Rhatany Krameria triandra Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis
Tea tree Melaleuca spp. Chicory Cichorium intybus
Watercress Nasturtium officinale Olive Olea europea
Peanut Arachis hypogaea
GLAUCOMA
HEMORRHOIDS
Jaborandi Pilocarpus spp.
Kaffir-potato Coleus forskohlii Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Oregano Origanum vulgare Plantain Plantago spp.
Pansy Viola spp. Psyllium Plantago ovata
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana
Shepherd's purse Capsella bursa-pastoris Aloe Aloë spp.
Butcher's broom Ruscus aculeatus
GOUT Horse-chestunut Aesculus hippocastanum
Celery Apium graveolens HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
Chiso Perilla frutescens
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Celery Apium graveolens
Turmeric Curcuma longa Garlic Allium sativum
Avocado Persea americana Hawthorn Crataegus spp.
Cat's claw Uncaria spp. Kudzu Pueraria lobata
Cherry Prunus spp. Onion Allium cepa
Devil's claw Harpagophytum procumbens Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
Oat Avena sativa Broccoli Brassica oleracea
Olive Olea europea Carrot Daucus carota
Pineapple Ananas comosus Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Saffron Crocus sativus
Willow Salix spp. Valerian Valeriana officinalis
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Safflower Carthamus tinctorius Chinese angelica Angelica sinensis
Sesame Sesamum indicum Ginseng Panax spp.
Shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes Quebracho Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco
Yohimbe Pausinystalia yohimbe
HIVES Anise Pimpinella anisum
Chocolate Theobroma cacao
Jewel weed Impatiens capensis Cola Cola nitida
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Epimedium Epimedium spp.
Parsley Petroselinum crispum Fennel Foeniculum vulgare
Amaranth Amaranthus spp. Ginger Zingiber officinale
Ginger Zingiber officinale Parsley Petroselinum crispum
Saw palmetto Serenoa repens
HIV INFECTION Wild yam Dioscorea villosa
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LIVER PROBLEMS Purslane Portulaca oleracea
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Black haw Viburnum prunifolium SHINGLES
Blue cohosh Caulophyllum thalictroides
Jute Corchorus olitorius Lemon balm Melissa officinalis
Parsley Petroselinum crispum Red pepper Capsicum spp.
St. John's wort Hypericum perforatum Baikal skullcap Scutellaria baicalensis
Shepherd's purse Capsella bursa-pastoris Chinese angelica Angelica chinense
Spinach Spinacia oleracea Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Passion flower Passiflora incarnata
PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME Bergamot Citrus bergamotia
Pear Pyrus spp.
Chaste berry Vitex agnus-castus Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Chinese angelica Angelica chinense Soybean Glycine max
Evening-primrose Oenothera biennis Watercress Nasturtium officinale
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
Burdock Arctium lappa SINUS INFLAMMATION
Raspberry Rubus idaeus
Skullcap Scutellaria lateriflora Garlic Allium sativum
Valerian Valeriana officinalis Onion Allium cepa
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
PROSTATE ENLARGEMENT Echinacea Echinacea spp.
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Oregano Origanum vulgare
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Saw palmetto Serenoa repens Horseradish Armoracia rusticana
Pygeum Pygeum africanum Pineapple Ananas comosus
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica
SKIN PROBLEMS
PSORIASIS
Aloe Aloë spp.
Bishop's weed Ammi visnaga Evening-primrose Oenothera biennis
Red pepper Capsicum spp. Avocado Persea americana
Angelica Angelica archangelica Calendula Calendula officinalis
Avocado Persea americana Camomile Matricaria recutita
Brazil nut Bertholettia excelsa Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Camomile Matricaria recutita Gotu kola Centella asiatica
Flax Linum usitatissimum Wild pansy Viola tricolor
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana
Oat Avena sativa Carrot Daucus carota
Oregon grape Mahonia repens English plantain Plantago lanceolata
Purslane Portulaca oleracea English ivy Hedera helix
Fumitory Fumaria spp. Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis
Lavender Lavandula spp. Pineapple Ananas comosus
Milk thistle Silybum marianum Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Walnut Juglans spp.
SCABIES
SORES
Evening-primrose Oenothera biennis
St. John's wort Hypericum perforatum Calendula Calendula officinalis
Neem tree Azadiracta indica Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Turmeric Curcuma longa Dragon's blood Croton lechleri
Onion Allium cepa Camomile Matricaria recutita
American pennyroyal Hedeoma pulegioides Country mallow Sida cordifolia
Mountain mint Pycnanthemum muticum Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Oat Avena sativa Tea tree Melaleuca spp.
Star anise Illicium verum Gotu kola Centella asiatica
Tea tree Melaleuca spp. Tea Camellia sinensis
Walnut Juglans spp.
Aloe Aloë spp. SORE THROAT
Five-leaved chaste tree Vitex negundo
Peppermint Mentha piperita Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
SCIATICA Slippery elm Ulmus rubra
Balloon flower Platycodon grandiflorum
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Burnet-saxifrage Pimpinella major
Willow Salix spp. Garlic Allium sativum
Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens Ginger Zingiber officinale
Chinese angelica Angelica chinense Marsh mallow Althaea officinalis
Country mallow Sida cordifolia Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens
Mustard Brassica nigra Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria
Mustard Sinapis alba Anise Pimpinella anisum
Sciatica cress Lepdium spp. Knotgrass Polygnum aviculare
Ginger Zingiber officinale Myrrh Commiphora spp.
Sesame Sesamum indicum Plantain Plantago spp.
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STIES Red pepper Capsicum spp.
Toothache tree Zanthoxylum americanum
Echinacea Echinacea spp. Willow Salix spp.
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis Rhubarb Rheum officinale
Potato Solanum tuberosum Sesame Sesamum indicum
Thyme Thymus vulgaris
Camomile Matricaria recutita TOOTH DECAY
Garlic Allium sativum
Tea Camellia sinensis
STROKES Bay leaf Laurus nobilis
Bloodroot Sanguinaria officinalis
Garlic Allium sativum Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Peanut Arachis hypogaea
Pigweed Amaranthus spp. Stevia Stevia rebaudiana
Willow Salix spp. Toothache tree Zanthoxylum americanum
Carrot Daucus carota Wild bergamot Monarda fistulosa
English pea Pisum sativum Creosote bush Larrea divaricata
Pineapple Ananas comosus Myrrh Commiphora spp.
Scurfy pea Psoralea corylifolia
Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus TUBERCULOSIS
Evening-primrose Urtica dioica
Ginger Zingiber officinale Echinacea Echinacea spp.
Spinach Spinacia oleracea Forsythia Forsythia suspensa
Turmeric Curcuma longa Garlic Allium sativum
Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica
SUNBURN Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
Tea Camellia sinensis Onion Allium cepa
Aloe Aloë spp.
Black nightshade Solanum nigrum ULCERS
Calendula Calendula officinalis
Cucumber Cucumis sativus Ginger Zingiber officinale
Eggplant Solanum melongena Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Plantain Plantago spp. Yellowroot Xanthorrhiza simplicissima
Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana Banana Musa x paradisiaca
Cabbage Brassica oleracea
SWELLING Calendula Calendula officinalis
Camomile Matricaria recutita
Ginger Zingiber officinale Garlic Allium sativum
Pineapple Ananas comosus Gentian Gentiana officinalis
Turmeric Curcuma longa Pineapple Ananas comosus
Aloe Aloë spp. Red pepper Capsicum spp.
Arnica Arnica montana Bilberry Vaccinium spp.
Cat's claw Uncaria spp. Blueberry Vaccinium spp.
Maize Zea mays Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Rhubarb Rheum officinale
Multiflora rose Rosa mutiflora Turmeric Curcuma longa
Spanish needles Bidens pilosa
VAGINITIS
TINNITUS
(Ringing in ears) Garlic Allium sativum
Tea tree Melaleuca spp.
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
Sesame Sesamum indicum Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Black cohosh Cimicifuga racemosa Comfrey Symphytum officinale
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis Lavender Lavandula spp.
Lesser periwinkle Vinca minor Yellow dock Rumex crispus
Spinach Spinacia oleracea
VARICOSE VEINS
TONSILLITIS
Horse-chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum
Echinacea Echinacea spp. Violet Viola spp.
Garlic Allium sativum Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana
Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Butcher's broom Ruscus aculeatus
Sage Salvia officinalis Lemon Citrus limon
Citrus fruits Citrus spp. Onion Allium cepa
Blackberry Rubus spp. Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus
Persimmon Diospyros virginiana Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Gotu kola Centella asiatica
Elderberry Sambucus nigra Peanut Arachis hypogaea
New Jersey tea Ceanothus americanus
VIRAL INFECTION
TOOTHACHE
Echinacea Echinacea spp.
Clove Syzygium aromaticum Astragalus Astragalus spp.
Ginger Zingiber officinale Dragon's blood Croton lechleri
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Garlic Allium sativum WRINKLES
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Juniper Juniperus spp. Horse-chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum
Lemon balm Melissa officinalis Witch hazel Hamamelis virginiana
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Carrot Daucus carota
Shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes Cocoa Theobroma cacao
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp. Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Forsythia Forsythia suspensa Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis
Sage Salvia officinalis
WARTS Almond Prunus dulcis
Aloe Aloë spp.
Birch Betula spp. Avocado Persea americana
Bloodroot Sanguinaria officinalis Castor bean Ricinus communis
Castor bean Ricinus communis Grape Vitis vinifera
Celandine Chelidonium majus Olive Olea europea
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Pineapple Ananas comosus
Fig Ficus carica
Milkweed Asclepias spp. YEAST INFECTIONS
Pineapple Ananas comosus
Soybean Glycine max Echinacea Echinacea spp.
Willow Salix spp. Garlic Allium sativum
Yellow cedar Thuja occidentalis Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon
Banana Musa x paradisiaca Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis
Basil Ocimum basilicum Oau-d'arco Tabebuia spp.
Papaya Carica papaya Purslane Portulaca oleracea
Goldenrod Solidago virgaurea
WORMS English ivy Hedera helix
Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra
Ginger Zingiber officinale Sage Salvia officinalis
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo Spice bush Lindera benzoin
Wormseed Chenopodium ambrosioides
Garlic Allium sativum
Papaya Carica papaya Source: Duke, J. A. 1997. The green pharmacy.
Pineapple Ananas comosus Rodale Press. Emmaus, PA. 507 pp.
Turmeric Curcuma longa
Clove Syzygium aromaticum
ANESTHETICS:
Coca (Erythroxylum coca) Used by Inca in skull surgery ?
ASEPSIS (FREE FROM DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS):
Balsam-of-Peru (Myroxylon pereirae) Antiseptic and for open wounds
CAUTERY AND MOXA (SUBSTANCES FOR SEARING OR BURNING AWAY DISEASED TISSUE):
Shoestring plant (Amorpha canescens) Omahas burned stems on skin
CONTRACEPTIVES:
Antelope-sage (Eriogonum jamesii) Roots boiled
Dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium) Roots boiled
Deer's tongue (Frasera speciosa) "A half cupful taken once in while"
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Indian-turnip (Arisaema triphylla) Powdered roots used
Milkweed (Asclepias hallii) Infusion used
Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) Roots and rhizomes used
Stoneseed (Lithospermum ruderale) Nevadas used root infusion
Wild ginger (Asarum canadense) Roots and rhizomes boiled
DENTISTRY:
Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) Choctaws used bark for toothache
Compass plant (Silphium spp.) Used to clean teeth
Dogwood (Cornus paniculata) Tea made from roots used for toothache
Prickly-ash (Xanthoxylum americanum) Bark widely used to treat toothache
Sweet bay (Myrica asplenifolium) Iroquois remedy for toothache
Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) Root bark used for toothache
EYE PROBLEMS:
Cicimatic (Canavalia villosa) Aztecs used chopped roots
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) Root infusion used
Osage-orange (Maclura pomifera) Comanches boiled roots
Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Brazilian cure for eye pain
Prickly-poppy (Argemone spp.) Comanches applied sap to eyes
RESPIRATORY AILMENTS:
Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) Rappahannocks used berries for asthma
Wild ginger (Asarum canadense) Rappahannocks used for asthma
RHEUMATISM AND ARTHRITIS:
False lupine (Thermopsis rhombifolia) Plains Indians used dried flowers
Greasewood (Larrea tridentata) San Carlos Apaches used tops of plants
Ololiuqui (Turbina corymbosa) Mexican Indians used to cure rheumatism
URINARY DISORDERS:
Devil's shoestring (Tephrosia virginiana) Creeks used for bladder trouble
Hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) Ojibwas used as diuretic
Pepper (Capsicum frutescens) Mayan cure for discolored urine
Puccoon (Lithospermum pilosum) Utes used root decoction
Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana) Sap used for kidney ailments
VENEREAL DISEASES:
Blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya) Used to treat gonorrhea
Blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica) Famous Iroquois remedy
Guaiacum (Guaiacum officinale) Widely used to treat syphilis
Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) Ashes used to treat syphilis sores
Prickly-ash (Xanthoxylum americanum) Used to treat gonorrhea
Thistle (Cirsium undulatum) Comanches used roots for gonorrhea
Yerba mansa (Anemopsis californica) Pimas made tea from roots
VEBRMIFUGES:
Horsemint (Monarda mollis) Ojibwas boiled roots
Pinkroot (Spigelia marilandica) Famous Cherokee cure
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Turkey-pea (Tephrosia virginiana) Used by several western tribes
Wild plum (Prunus americana) Ojibwas boiled roots
Wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides) Used by Nastches and Mayans (?)
[Source: Vogel, V. J. 1970. American Indian medicine. Univ. Oklahoma Press. Norman]
Dandelion leaves & roots Taraxacin, inulin, Diuretic, cholagogic, relieves gastric stress
(Taraxacum officinale) levulin, taraxasterol
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Hops flowers Volatile oil containing Relieves indigestion, sleeplessness
(Humulus lupulus) humulene, resins,
humulon, lupulon
Linden flowers Volatile oil, glycosides Fragrant tea, remedy for indigestion,
(Tilia europaea) tannins, carotene, Vit. C dyspepsia
Papaya fruits & leaves Papain, carpaine, Vits C & E Protein digestant; back pain
(Carica papaya)
Peppermint leaves Volatile oil containing amyl Digestive aid, prevents flatulence/colic
(Mentha piperita) alcohol, pinene, limonene,
menthol, etc.
Yarrow flowers Volatile oil, achilleine, Hair and scalp care, relieves colds,
(Achillea millefolium) achilleic acid, cineol hemorrhoids
*[After Der Marderosian, A. 1977. Medicinal teas -- boon or bane? Drug Therapy February: 178-186]
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SECTION 11 ! PSYCHOACTIVE PLANTS
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' to go along with peers Phantastica. "... I mean the action of chemical
' to establish an identity substances capable of evoking such transitory states
' to aid in religious experiences. without any physical inconvenience for a certain time
in persons of perfectly normal mentality who are
partly or fully conscious of the action of the drug...
HOW DO WE USE THEM? These phenomena may be accompanied or followed by
unconsciousness or other symptoms of altered
We have discovered a variety of ways of introducing cerebral functioning." Examples: marijuana, fly agaric,
psychoactive materials into our bodies. Eating, sacred mush-rooms, nutmeg, Jimson weed, and
drinking, and smoking of plant materials come quickly peyote
to mind. Less obvious methods include mastication
(chewing on plant material without swallowing it), You may be surprised to find coffee, tea, chocolate,
inhaling/snuffing, applying materials to the skin (often and the various alcoholic beverages classed as
mixed with animal fat), putting finely ground powders psychoactive. How could it be otherwise? These plants
under our eyelids, injecting via the hypodermic needle have been discussed elsewhere and will not be treated
(a 19th century invention), and inserting material into further here. The remaining three categories
the nostrils, rectum, and vagina. constitute the subjects for this section. The last class,
the Phantastica, is probably the most interesting.
These different approaches have something in These plants, in particular, have been afforded a very
common. They are designed to bring the psychoactive special place in both primitive and advanced societies.
substance into contact with capillary-rich tissues or to They are the plants that bring about hallucinations.
introduce them directly into the circulatory system. We can perceive an external object or stimulus with
This is their pathway to chemical binding sites in the any of our five senses. There are visual (sight),
central nervous system. Depending on the method auditory (hearing), olfactory (smell), tactile (touch),
employed and the chemicals involved, it can take only and gustatory (taste) hallucinations.
a few seconds to a few minutes for these psychoactive
substances to reach the brain.
SOME CHEMICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
THEIR EFFECTS
The chemical basis of the activity of the many plants
We are dealing here with plant materials that have classed as psychoactive is incompletely understood.
profound or significant effects on our mental Many species have had their active principles analyzed
processes. They affect our mental activity, our in great detail. Others remain completely unknown.
behavior, and even our perceptions of the world The chemical nature of the Excitantia and Inebriantia
around us. Many of these substances are intoxicants have been discussed elsewhere. Kava of the Hypnotica
that either dull the senses or stimulate them. Others contains methysticin and other components in a series
are narcotics. In the popular sense, this term is used of related substituted 5,6-dihydro-á-pyrones. Coca of
for any dangerous drug. In the narrower sense, the "Euphorica" contains about 25 alkaloids, of which
narcotics are those materials that induce drowsiness, cocaine is the best known. The hallucinogens of
sleep, or anesthesia. Some of these plants can Lewin's "Phantastica" contain a variety of active
produce addiction. You can become enslaved to its principles, most of them containing nitrogen. A few of
use. Addiction is characterized by craving for the the hallucinogens are partly or wholly synthetic.
material, developing a tolerance to it, and suffering Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), for instance, does
reasonably serious trauma when we attempt to cease not occur naturally in plants, although LSD-like
using it (withdrawal). substances are found.
The classification developed by Louis Lewin (1931) CHEMISTRY OF THE PSYCHOACTIVES
may be helpful in understanding the breadth of effects
of psychoactive plants. He recognized five classes: Group: Plant Chemical Group
Excitantia. "Their action, which extends to the brain Excitantia:
and particularly to the cerebral cortex, is a purely Tobacco Alkaloids (nicotine)
exciting or stimulating one, which, even if highly Coffee Alkaloids (caffeine)
concentrated and intense, produces these effects Tea Alkaloids (caffeine)
without calling forth serious symptoms of fatigue or Chocolate Alkaloids (caffeine)
inhibition of the functions." Examples: tobacco, Khat Alkaloids (d-norpseudoephedrine)
caffeinated beverages
Inebriantia:
Inebriantia. "A primary phase of cerebral excitation Alcoholic beverages Alcohol (ethanol)
is followed by a state of depression which may
eventually extend to complete temporary suppression Hypnotica:
of functions." Examples: alcoholic beverages Kava kava Dihydro-á-pyrones
Hypnotica. These are the sleep-producing agents. Euphorica:
Example: kava Coca leaf Alkaloids (cocaine)
Opium Alkaloids (morphine codeine)
Euphorica. "These substances diminish or even Betel nut Alkaloids (arecoline)
suspend the functions of emotion and perception in
their widest sense, sometimes reducing or Phantastica (Hallucinogens):
suppressing, sometimes conserving consciousness, Ayahusaca Alkaloids (tryptamine carboline)
inducing in the person concerned a state of physical Belladonna Alkaloids (tropane)
and mental comfort." Examples: coca and opium Datura (Jimson weed) Alkaloids (tropane)
Fly agaric Alkaloids (muscimol)
Marijuana Resins (tetrahydrocanninols)
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Mescal bean Alkaloids (quinolizidine)
Nutmeg Phenylpropenes (myristicin)
Ololiuqui Alkaloids (ergoline)
Peyote Alkaloids (mescaline)
Sacred mushrooms Alkaloids (tryptamine)
Snuffs Alkaloids (tryptamine)
PSYCHOACTIVE PLANTS
Group: Family Scientific Name (Common Name) Part Used Where Used (Type)
FUNGI
Aquifoliaceae Ilex paraguariensis (maté, Paraguay tea) Leaves (drink) South America (S)
Aquifoliaceae Ilex vomitoria (yaupon) Leaves (drink) North America (S)
Araceae Homalomena spp. (ereriba) Leaves and bark tropical Asia (H)
Bignoniaceae Tanaecium nocturnum (koribo) Leaves (snuff) Brazil & Colombia (H)
Campanulaceae Lobelia tupa (tupa, tabaca del diablo) Leaves (smoked) Andes (H)
Celastraceae Catha edulis (khat, kat, qat) Leaves (drink) Africa & M. East (N)
Compositae Calea ternifolia (thle-pelakano, zacatechichi) Leaves Mexico & Costa Rica (H)
Compositae Tagetes lucida (yahutli) Leaves Mexico (H)
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Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum novogranatense Leaves South America (N)
Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum coca (coca) Leaves South America (N)
Leguminosae Anadenanthera colubrina (huilca, vilca, sebil) Seeds (snuff) South America (H)
Leguminosae Anadenanthera peregrina (yopo, paricá) Seeds (snuff) South America (H)
Leguminosae Cytisus canariensis (genista) Seeds Mexico (H)
Leguminosae Erythrina spp. (colorines) Seeds Mexico (H)
Leguminosae Mimosa hostilis (jurema, vinho do jurema) Roots Africa (H)
Leguminosae Rhynchosia spp. (piule) Seeds Mexico (H)
Leguminosae Sophora secundiflora (mescal bean, red bean) Seeds North America (H)
Malpighiaceae Banisteriopsis caapi (ayahuasca, caapi, yajé) Bark, leaves smoked Amazonia (H)
Malpighiaceae Tetrapterys methystica (caapi-pinima) Bark Amazonia (H)
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Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) Lvs. (smoked/snuff) World-wide (S)
Solanaceae Petunia violacea (shanin) Leaves? Ecuador (H)
Solanaceae Scopolia carniolica (nightshade-leaved henbane) Root Eurasia (H)
Solanaceae Solandra grandiflora (chalice vine) Sap Mexico (H)
Solanaceae Solandra guerrerensis (chalice vine, hueipati) Fruits + New World tropics (H)
Sterculiaceae Cola spp. (kola nut, cola nut) Seeds (drink) cosmopolitan (S)
Sterculiaceae Theobroma cacao (cacao) Seeds (drink) New World tropics (S)
TIMELINE: OPIUM
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1857 Opium Act of 1857 regulates cultivation new official in charge of watching over the port at
and manufacture of opium Canton. He immediately confiscated all of the opium
1858 Treaty of Tientsin legalizes importation of on British and American ships and seized thousands of
opium into China cases in warehouses on docks. The British were
1860 Charles Baudelaire publishes “Les Paradis infuriated. The result was the "Opium War." Britain,
Artificiels ...” the leading naval power of the world, soon defeated
1874 C. R. Wright synthesizes heroin by boiling the Chinese. They forced a treaty opening China to
morphine trade, creating the British Crown Colony of Hong
1874 San Francisco restricts smoking opium in Kong, and made the Chinese pay about $6,000,000 in
city limits damages for destroying the opium. The Opium War is
1878 Indian Opium Act attempts to reduce its use not remembered today by many who associate the
in country problem of opium with China.
1890 U. S. Congress imposes tax on opium and
morphine In 1839, Lin Zexu, Chinese High Commissioner, wrote
1898 Heinrich Dressler synthesizes heroin the following letter to Queen Victoria. “The Way of
1905 U. S. Congress bans opium smoking Heaven (Tao) is fairness to all. It does not suffer us to
1909 First International Opium Conference harm others in order to benefit ourselves. Men are
1909 Congress enacts Smoking Opium Exclusion Act alike in this all the world over; that they cherish life
1910 China and England agree to end India-China and hate what endangers life. Your country lies twenty
opium trade thousand leagues away; but for all that the Way of
1942 Congress passes Opium Poppy Control Act Heaven holds good for you as for us, and your
1953 Opium Protocol authorizes seven countries instincts are not different from ours.
to export opium
1978 U. S. & Mexico use Agent Orange to We have heard that in your honorable nation, too, the
eradicate “Mexican mud” people are not permitted to smoke [opium]... Though
1992 Colombian drug lords introduce high-grade not making use of it one's self, to venture
opium into U. S. nevertheless to manufacture and sell it, and with it to
1995 Golden Triangle now leader in world opium seduce the simple folk of this land, is to seek one's
production own livelihood by exposing others to death, to seek
2003 Afghanistan once again a major producer of one's own advantage by other men's injury.... We now
opium poppies wish to find, in cooperation with your honorable
sovereignty, some means of bringing to a perpetual
HISTORY end this opium, so hurtful to mankind; we in this land
forbidding the use of it, and you, in the nations of you
The poppy plant (Papaver somniferum), from which dominion, forbidding its manufacture.
opium is derived, is native to Asia. It is now widely
cultivated and escaped. The opium poppy is closely Let us suppose that foreigners came from another
related to the ornamental garden poppies and to our country, and brought opium into England, and
state flower, the California-poppy. The history of seduced the people of your country to smoke it. Would
opium use is an ancient one. By the 16th century, not you ... look upon such a procedure with anger,
opium was used in several standard medical and in your just indignation endeavor to get rid of it?
treatments. The physician Paracelsus concocted Now we have always heard that Your Highness
laudanum, a mixture of opium and alcohol possesses a most kind and benevolent heart. Surely
(technically referred to as tincture of opium). English then you are incapable of doing or causing to be done
literature is filled with characters who used laudanum unto another that which you should not wish another
for one thing or another. In 1732, Thomas Dover, an to do unto you.
English physician, invented a gout remedy, Dover's
Powder. In the 18th century a very popular home I now give my assurance that we mean to cut off this
remedy for diarrhea was paregoric, a mixture of harmful drug forever. What is here forbidden to
opium and camphor. It remains a popular treatment consume, your dependencies [India] must be
today, although it must be purchased by prescription forbidden to manufacture, and what has already been
since it contains a narcotic. By the end of the 19th manufactured, Your Majesty must immediately search
century, opium-containing medicinals were so out and throw to the bottom of the sea.... The laws
commonly used that it is estimated that 1/400 against consumption of opium are now so strict in
Americans were addicted, many of them housewives. China that if you continue to make it, you will find that
no one buys it.
THE OPIUM WARS
Do not say you have not been warned in time. On
“... a war more unjust in its origin, a war more receiving this, Your Majesty will be so good as to
calculated to cover this country with permanent report to me immediately on the steps that have been
disgrace, I do not know and I have not read of.” taken at each of your ports.”
(William Gladstone)
TIMELINE: THE OPIUM WARS
'''''
1000: Opium introduced into China
Opium has been involved in the statecraft of many 1729: Emperor of China prohibits sale of opium
great powers. In the 19th century, Great Britain 1793: British East India Co. establishes opium
wished to make trade agreements with the Chinese. monopoly
The English were interested in buying tea from China, 1796: Emperor prohibits importation of opium
and would in turn sell the Chinese opium. The 1799: Emperor bans opium cultivation
Emperor of China objected strenuously and told his 1833: British Parliament ends East India Co.
court officials to have no dealings with these monopoly
foreigners. The British made "informal arrangements" 1838: China confiscates British/American opium at
with certain officials in Canton, and soon British and Canton docks
American ships were taking opium into China and 1839: High Commissioner Lin Zexu writes to Queen
bringing out tea. Finally in 1838, the Emperor put a Victoria
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1839: First Opium War: Britain vs. China (to 1842) Codeine is generally like morphine, but much milder.
1840: Lord Palmerston affirms China’s right to The effects of codeine are approximately 1/6 to 1/10
prohibit use those of morphine. Codeine is a common ingredient in
1841: British fleet arrives at Canton cough preparations. It is a narcotic and produces both
1842: Wm. Gladstone writes of a “national iniquity physical and psychological dependence. Withdrawal
towards China” symptoms are present, but they are much milder than
1842: China forced to sign Treaty of Nanking those associated with morphine. Tolerance to codeine
(“Unequal Treaty”) also develops.
1843: Treaty of Bogue opens 5 Chinese ports
1856: Second Opium War: Britain & France vs. China THE SYNTHETIC DERIVATIVES
(to 1860)
1858: Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin) legalizes Heroin is a semisynthetic derivative of morphine. It
importation is not, therefore, a naturally occurring alkaloid. Heroin
1910: England and China agree to end India-China is made by adding acetic anhydride or acetylchloride
opium trade to morphine. The result is a white, odorless,
crystalline powder that is very bitter. It is soluble in
PROCESSING water. Heroin was developed in Germany in 1898 as
an analgesic more powerful than morphine. An
Opium is the dried milky latex that exudes from analgesic is a painkiller that does not render the
incised fruits of Papaver somniferum, the opium patient unconscious, unless it is administered in large
poppy. All parts of the plant seem to contain the latex, doses. Heroin is three or four times stronger than
but the leaves lack the alkaloids that are the active morphine. Strangely enough, it was widely used to
principle. The seeds are essentially devoid of alkaloids help morphine addicts through their difficult
as well, so poppy seed rolls may be eaten without fear withdrawal periods and was hailed as a cure for
of addiction. morphine addiction. Several years passed before it
became apparent that heroin was itself addictive.
A few days after the delicate petals have fallen from Today heroin plays no significant role in medicine. It
the poppy flowers, workers enter the fields and make is under strict government supervision. Heroin addicts
incisions in the fruits. These cuts are not deep and do either inject the material, as with morphine, or they
not pierce the seed chamber. The incisions bleed a may inhale it. Heroin is the only opiate that has an
latex that hardens in about a day. The latex is then effect on the mucous membranes of the nose.
scraped from the fruits, removing some of the
epidermis as well. This crude dried exudate is opium. Methadone is to heroin what heroin was once
thought to be to morphine. Methadone is a synthetic
Externally opium is a pale olive-brown or gray, with a drug used to break addiction to heroin. It is slightly
coarse surface. It is often covered with poppy leaves more potent than morphine and it is nearly as
or the plant parts from other packing material. Inside effective taken orally as it is by injection. Methadone
it is reddish-brown and granular. It has a very bitter is both physically and psychologically addictive.
taste. The use of crude opium has declined greatly in Former heroin addicts who are using methadone must
recent years, although the tincture and camphorated continue to use methadone in its place.
tincture of opium are still popular.
THE EFFECTS OF THE OPIATES
THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLES
The naturally occurring and synthetic derivatives have
Opium contains about 25 alkaloids. Morphine and the following effects in humans:
codeine are probably the best known. Their relative
percentages vary. Opium may be 5-15% morphine ' pleasant drowsiness
and 0.1-2% codeine. The function of these alkaloids in ' muscular relaxation
the plant is uncertain. It has been suggested that the ' freedom from anxiety
bitter latex may protect the plants against insects or ' shortens sense of passage of time
that the alkaloids provide a nitrogen reserve for ' increased ability to discriminate
making proteins. ' decreased ability to concentrate
' lessened physical activity
Morphine is the chief narcotic principle in opium. There ' contracted pupils
are various ways of separating it and purifying it. In ' dimness of vision
one of these, macerated opium is mixed with water ' lethargy
and the morphine precipitated by ammonia. The ' slowed respiration
crystals are then purified. A similar process involves ' sleep
ammonia and sulfuric acid. Morphine was first isolated ' delays in emptying of stomach
in 1803. The effects of the alkaloid are a state of ' slows peristalsis in small and large intestines
pleasant drowsiness and muscular relaxation. There is ' stimulates, then depresses the central nervous
a freedom from anxiety, a shortening of the sense of system
time, an increased ability to discriminate, a decreased ' pain-killing, hypnotic, and narcotic effects
ability to concentrate, a lessening of physical activity,
dimness of vision, and lethargy. Finally the subject ADDICTION & WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS
drifts into a restful sleep. The advantages to medicine
of such an alkaloid are immediately apparent. A number of studies have focused on the long term
Morphine became one of the chief pain killers, effects of addiction to opiates. One of the best known
permitting surgery under greatly improved conditions. of these is the “Philadelphia General Hospital Study.”
Unfortunately, morphine exhibits both physiological It concluded that:
and psychological dependence. The subject becomes
tolerant of it so that increased dosages are required to ' addiction is not characterized by physical
achieve desired results, and the withdrawal from deterioration;
morphine is especially painful. ' there is no evidence of changes in circulatory,
hepatic, renal, or endocrine functions;
' addiction does not cause emaciation;
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' pale complexions are result of sedentary life 1894 Indian Hemp Commission Report
styles; 1890 Queen Victoria’s physician prescribes its use
' 60% had gum disease and carries; 1899 T. B. Wood et al. isolate cannabinol
' chronically-inflamed throats resulted from 1901 British Royal Commission concludes it is more or
cigarette use; less harmless
' sexual potency and libido normal; 1924 Janischewsky publishes C. ruderalis
' pupils were constricted, which impairs night 1924 Geneva Conference on Opium outlaws cannabis
vision 1928 Dangerous Drug Act outlaws cannabis use in
' chronic constipation was common. Britain
1937 Congress passes Marijuana Tax Act
We have tended to confuse the effects of using opiates 1943 U. S. D. A. plants 146,000 acres of hemp for
over a long period of time with those that occur from war effort
withdrawal. They include: 1944 La Guardia Report
1965 Mechoulan & Gaoni isolate delta-1-THC
' constant flow of mucous; 1968 Wootton Report
' chills and sweats; 1970 Le Dain Report
' delusions; 1972 Shafer Commission Report
' nausea; 1973 Oregon minimizes penalty for possession of
' diarrhea; small amounts
' hemorrhaging; and 1973 Drug Enforcement Agency set up; vows to rid
' death. country of cannabis
1974 Frederich Blanton reports use to treat glaucoma
1976 New York Acad. Sci. Conference on Chronic
MARIJUANA Cannabis Use
1976 Dutch legalizes sale of cannabis
"They have a sort of hemp growing in this country, 1982 National Academy of Sciences Report
very like flax, except in thickness and height; in this 1996 California voters pass Proposition 215
respect hemp is far superior.... When therefore the 1999 National Inst. of Medicine calls for clinical trials
Scythians [inhabitants of a region in southeast Europe 2000 British P. M. Tony Blair supports use for medicial
and Asia] have taken some seed of this hemp, they purposes
creep under the cloths, and then put the seed on the 2001 Canada becomes first country to allow medical
red hot stones; but this being put on smokes, and use
produces such a steam, that no Grecian vapour-bath 2001 U. S. Supreme Court rules medicinal use
would surpass it. The Scythians, transported with the violates federal law
vapour, shout aloud; and this serves them instead of
washing, for they never bathe the body in water.... Marijuana (or marihuana, hemp, Indian hemp, grass,
(Herodotus. Ca. 425 B. C.) pot, weed, reefer, boo, Maui Wowie, muggles, mooter,
greefa, griffo, Mary Warner, Mary Meaver, Mary Jane,
''''' Indian hay, loco weed, love weed, joy smoke, giggle
smoke, bamba-lacha, mohasky, mu, moocha, etc.) is
TIMELINE: MARIJUANA native to Central Asia, although it is now widely
cultivated and escaped. Marijuana does very well in
BCE: disturbed, nitrogen-rich wastelands near humans. The
plant has been used for about 12,000 years as the
2800 Hemp used for rope (China) source of fibers, oils, food, medicine, and it remains
2700 First recorded use as medicine (China) one of the most widely used psychoactive plants.
1200 Cited as a sacred plant in Hindu text Historical references to the use of marijuana abound
500 Zoroaster puts hemp at top of his list of in the literature. One of the more interesting tales,
medicinal plants perhaps an apocryphal one, concerns Hassan-Ibn-Al-
430 Herodotus observes ritual/recreational uses Sabbah, the 12th century leader of a band of
of hemp by Scythians mountain raiders who swooped down on unsuspecting
caravans and Crusaders. According to legend, Hassan
CE: used to instill courage and the ability to endure pain
by having his men take one of the stronger
70 Dioscorides writes of widespread use of preparations from the hemp plant. The group became
medicinal hemp in Rome known as Hashishins, from which our modern word
800 Prophet Mohammed permits its use assassin is derived.
1100 Smoking cannabis now widespread in Middle
East CLASSIFICATION
1378 Ottoman Emir Soudoun Scheikhouni issues edict
against eating cannabis Hemp was named by Linnaeus. He recognized only
1430 Joan of Arc accused of using cannabis to hear one species, Cannabis sativa, a view that is still widely
voices held. Other competent experts in the field of plant
1484 Pope Innocent VIII condemns use in Satanic systematics argue that there are at least three species
masses of: C. sativa, a taller plant of the northern latitudes;
1545 Spanish introduce into Chile C. indica, a low-growing plant of more southern
1597 John Gerard warns that cannabis will “dryeth up distribution; and C. ruderalis, a small, unbranched
seed” (semen) plant native to Russia and Europe. At various times,
1611 British introduce into Virginia Cannabis has been placed in the mulberry family
1621 Robert Burton suggests use against depression (Moraceae), the nettle family (Urticaceae), and in its
1653 Nicholas Culpeper claims cannabis cures a own family (Cannabaceae). The last opinion has
variety of diseases prevailed and now most botanists put marijuana in
1753 Linnaeus publishes Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae, along with hops (Humulus lupulus).
1783 Lamarck publishes Cannabis indica
1798 Napoleon bans use by his soldiers in Egypt The plants are large perennials, with male and female
flowers occurring on separate plants. The active
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principle is concentrated in the bracts associated with
the female flowers, although the leaves and stems ' Vague dread/anxiety (among inexperienced)
also contain the resinous material. ' Disorientation of thinking
' Disturbance to memory
PREPARATIONS ' Euphoria, giggling, hilarity
' Desire to speak more freely
The marijuana cigarette is the only form known to ' Depersonalization
most users in this country. The leaves, flowering tops, ' Spatial/temporal distortions
and sometimes the stems are often mixed with ' Floating sensation
tobacco and then smoked. In the Old World, however, ' Detachment
where Cannabis has been in use for thousands of ' Drowsiness
years, several different preparations and modes of use ' Stimulation or depression or both
are employed. ' Heightened perception of colors, music, etc.
Hasheesh or hashish, derived from the resin of The effects of a single, inhaled marijuana cigarette
recently fertilized female flowers, is popular among appear to reach their maximum intensity within about
the Muslim peoples of northern Africa and western 30 minutes, to be diminished after about 1 hour, and
Asia where it is smoked (often through a water pipe), to be dissipated after about 3 hours according to Weil,
eaten, or drunk. Zinberg, and Nelson (1968).
In India, Cannabis is used in a variety of ways. Three EFFECTS FROM CHRONIC USE
preparations are commonly encountered.
There have been numerous studies looking at the long
Bhang, is prepared from uncultivated plants. The term effects of Cannabis on the human body. Here
dried parts are powdered and then mixed with water are some of the conclusions reached in two classical
or milk. It is smoked or drunk. It is the weakest studies:
preparation.
The India Hemp Commission Report (1894):
Ganja or ganjah is prepared by gathering the
flowering tops of very carefully selected female plants. ' no substantial evidence that moderate use will
It is usually smoked with tobacco, but it may be eaten produce mental or moral injury;
or drunk like bhang. It is considered superior to bhang ' no proof of connection between moderate use of
in its psychoactive effects. Cannabis and disease; and
' no proof that moderate use leads to excess any
Charas is prepared from pure resinous material more than in alcohol.
collected from especially cultivated female plants. It is
normally smoked, but it may be eaten. It is The Laguardia Report (1944), named after the famous
considered the most potent preparation, in that it mayor of New York City, concluded that marijuana
contains the highest percentage of active resins. does not:
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' does not cause any permanent damage to the by priests who lived in centers remote from each
male or female reproductive system; other.... Some of the hymns are [of] so exalted, even
' may affect chromosome segregation during cell delirious, a tenor that the modern reader is led to
division; exclaim: 'This surely was composed under the
' has no effect on the health of offspring; influence of a divine inebriant.' It takes little
' can suppress the immune system, but only in perception to sense the difference in tone between the
doses much higher than humans consume; awe-inspired hymns to Soma and the rowdy drinking
' may lead to tolerance and dependence in some songs of the West prompted by alcohol." (R. Gordon
users. Wasson. 1971. Soma. Divine Mushroom of
Immortality)
MEDICAL USE OF MARIJUANA
'''''
One of the controversies raging in the medical and
legal communities centers on whether marijuana has Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a mushroom that is
any use in the treatment of disease or in providing common in the north temperate zone of both
relief to those suffering from serious, even terminal hemispheres. It was once probably widely employed
diseases. As recently as 1995, Governor Wilson vetoed from Siberia through northern Europe. The use of the
legislation here in California that would have made mushroom by the Siberians came to the attention of
marijuana legally available to certain individuals. In Westerners in the 18th century. One of the earliest
1996, the electorate passed Proposition 215 that reports is that of a Swedish officer who was held
would permit limited medicinal use. In 2001, the prisoner by the Siberians for about twelve years. They
United States Supreme Court ruled that medicinal use apparently had no other intoxicant until the Russians
of marijuana violated federal law. introduced alcohol.
Advocates of its medical use argue that it is effective The fly agaric is usually eaten by the men of the
in the treatment of glaucoma, side effects of cancer community. It is not eaten fresh, but only after it has
chemotherapy, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, AIDS, been dried in the sun or over a fire. The dose varies,
chronic pain in general, migraine headaches, but often three are eaten; one large mushroom and
osteoarthritis, severe itching, premenstrual syndrome, two small ones. Some have reported consumption of
menstrual pain, labor pain, and depression. Less as many as twelve. The fly agaric may be eaten
commonly marijuana has been used to treat asthma, separately or incorporated into soups, stews, reindeer
insomnia, severe nausea, Adult Attention Deficit milk, or mixed with the juices of certain plants, such
Syndrome, schizophrenia, Crohn’s Disease, ringing in as fireweed. It may even be added to alcohol.
the ears, violence, post-traumatic stress syndrome,
phantom limb pain, alcoholism, scleroderma, and As with all of the psychoactive plants, the mental and
terminal illnesses (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1997). physical state of the user plays an important role in
determining the effects of fly agaric. Early symptoms
include a twitching, trembling, and slight convulsions
of the arms and legs. This is followed by a numbness
FLY AGARIC of the feet, euphoria, and a strong desire to dance.
Subjects often carry on elaborate conversations with
"... [This] puts me in mind of a custom among the people who are not present and recount fantastic tales
Tartars.... The Russians, who trade with them, carry of courage and prowess. In some, there is a strong
thither a kind of mushroom, which they exchange for urge to confess misdeeds and sins in general. Some
furs of squirrels, ermines, sables, and foxes. These people occasionally become violent and dash about
mushrooms the rich Tartars lay up in large quantities until they are exhausted and fall into a deep sleep.
for the winter, and when a nobleman makes a
mushroom feast all the neighbors around are invited. One of the more fascinating features of fly agaric use
The mushrooms are prepared by boiling, by which the is that the intoxicating effect can be obtained by
water acquires an intoxicating quality, and is a sort of drinking the urine of a person who has eaten Amanita.
drink which the Tartars prize beyond all other. When One can only speculate as to how this was discovered.
the nobility and ladies are assembled, and the There are stories of poor people waiting outside the
ceremonies usual between people of distinction over, huts of the wealthy members of the community who
the mushroom-broth goes freely round; they laugh, could afford the fly agaric. When a gentleman came
talk double entendre, grow fuddled, and become out of his hut to urinate, someone was there with a
excellent company. The poorer sort, who love bowl to collect his urine. Fly agaric users also saved
mushroom-broth to distraction as well as the rich, but their own urine in containers to take with them on
cannot afford it at the first hand, post themselves on long trips.
these occasions round the huts of the rich, and watch
the opportunity of the ladies and gentlemen as they The psychoactive properties of Amanita have been
come down to pass their liquor; and, holding a attributed to muscarine, but more recent work by
wooden bowl, catch the delicious fluid, very little Eugster and Waser indicate the active principle is
altered by filtration, being still strongly tinctured with muscimol(e), unsaturated hydroxamic acid. This is
the intoxicating quality. Of this they drink with utmost formed by the decarboxylation and loss of water from
satisfaction, and thus they get as drunk and as jovial ibotenic acid.
as their betters."
(Oliver Goldsmith.1762) The late Gordon Wasson, a most respected amateur
botanist associated with Harvard University,
"Soma was at the same time a god, a plant, and the suggested that the fly agaric is the famous "soma."
juice of that plant. So far as we know, Soma is the About 3500 years ago, the Aryan peoples moved into
only plant that man has ever deified.... In the course the Indus Valley from the north. They brought with
of the Soma sacrifice the juice was pounded out with them the cult of soma. To them the plant was divine.
stones on resounding planks and was drunk by the The Aryans composed over a thousand hymns to it.
officiating priests. Soma -- the three somas -- inspired The problem is that no one today knows the identity
hymns vibrant with ecstasy, composed over centuries of the plant. The cult is now dead and no physical
descriptions of the plant have been uncovered.
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Various workers have suggested that it was Ephedra, Traditionally, kava ceremonies follow very precise
a peculiar gymnosperm; others that the soma is rules. It is important that you know how to sit, when
marijuana; still others that the plant is completely to sing, when to clap your hands, etc.
mythical. Wasson, using certain linguistic devices and
references to urine-drinking believes that soma is '''''
Amanita muscaria.
"Kava drinking on Tongariki is a relatively relaxed and
unceremonious affair, without the strict adherence to
NUTMEG prescribed etiquette characteristic of kava drinking in
much of the Pacific. It is prepared entirely by chewing,
The nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, is native to the never by the use of mortars, graters, or other
East Indian Archipelago. In addition to providing mechanical aids. Boys from pre-adolescent age to
nutmeg and mace, the seeds have been used for young adulthood usually do the chewing for their
hundreds of years as an hallucinogen. The plant has kinsmen or guests, or out of courtesy to others. Older
enjoyed a recent popularity among college students in youths or young men mix, wash, and wring the kava
the United States and Europe. It must certainly be the from the chewed pulp. Girls and women may
most easily accessible of the hallucinogens. occasionally participate in the chewing, whereas this
was not so in the past. Adolescents and, more rarely,
One teaspoon or so taken orally will usually produce women may drink kava without censure. It is drunk in
some response. The effects are variable, but they various places within the village proper, usually in a
often include some distortion of space and time and a quiet house, and strict exclusion of children and
feeling of detachment. Visual hallucinations are not women from the proximity and view of the
common, but do occur in some users. Some are proceedings has lapsed.
disappointed because they get no reactions at all,
while others describe illusions similar to those produce Usually, half of a cocoanut shell or a bowl of the same
by LSD. Users complain of headaches, dry mouth, capacity is used to prepare kava and the full contents
dizziness, and a general malaise. The oil in the seeds -- about 100 ml -- drunk slowly in one draught.
contains safrole, myristicin, and elemicin. Sometimes twice this quantity is drunk. A kava drinker
usually eats immediately after taking the kava; the
kava is prepared while the evening meal is being
cooked. The effects come on in a half our or less, and
KHAT the drinking is thus usually postponed until food is
ready. Those who have drunk kava find a comfortable
place to sit, often beside a dying fire in the dark
Catha edulis is a shrub native to East Africa. It is house, where they remain hunched over and avoiding
variously called khat, kat, and qat. It is the least light and sound disturbances of all sorts. Conversation
known of the masticatories in the West. Most ceases, and slowly they fall into a kava-induced
American had not heard of this stimulant until the stupor, which is not true sleep. This stage occurs
"Desert Storm" operation when our newspapers about an hour after drinking. From it they can be
reported that enemy soldiers were getting hopped-up aroused by being addressed or gently shaken, but this
on some exotic drug plant over there. Its leaves have ruins the effect they are seeking from the kava. A few
been chewed by the inhabitants of that region and the hours after they have drunk kava they arise and walk
Arabian peninsula for centuries. It is a stimulant that to their own houses to fall asleep promptly again;
Muslims are permitted to use. The leaves contain others remain where they have first 'fallen.' In early
about 1% d-norpseudo-ephedrine, a stimulant to the morning they appear fresh and without any 'hangover-
central nervous system. 'like sequelae. Those whom we have seen walking a
few hours after the drinking are usually somewhat
ataxic [loss of motor coordination], photophobic
[sensitive to light], and slowed in their reactions. A
few who have had a higher dose are extremely ataxic
11.4 ! SOUTH PACIFIC and could return to their homes only with assistance
from the children or myself. There is no belligerency
or irritability -- only a quiet and friendly somnolence
Although the South Pacific is a botanist's delight associated with the weakness of the lower limbs and
because of its rich flora, it is relatively poor in the accompanying ataxia.
psychoactive plants. The three species described here
are relatively unknown to those who have not visited The drinkers reply rationally and are well oriented to
the region. They are very popular masticatories. time, place, and person; they respond intelligently,
even sometimes quickly, to complex questions. Bright
or moving lights, noise or other sound, touch, and
KAVA even the subdued bustle of nearby activities annoy
them, and the villagers of all ages have extreme
respect for this. In discussions the kava users refer to
Kava goes by several other names, including kava- a heaviness and weakness of their extremities,
kava, yangona, yaqona, and grog. It is prepared from particularly of the feet and legs, and to an earlier
the masticated roots of Piper methysticum, a relative paresthesia ascending from their feet to their trunk
of black pepper. The shrub is widely cultivated in the and described with such words as 'numbness,'
South Pacific. A mildly intoxicating drink is prepared. 'tingling,' and 'coldness.' ... I have taken pulse rates
Outsiders compare its flavor to dirty dish water. Its and blood pressure measurements on a number of
active principles, a series of pyrones, act on the kava drinkers at varying intervals from one to three
central nervous system and the skeletal system to hours after drinking and found no significant change
produce a feeling of relaxation and reduced irritability, in either from that observed on the same subjects
along with localized anesthetic effects. The lips and during examinations in the daytime, when they had no
tongue go numb. The use of kava is often associated kava for the preceding eighteen hours or more.
with important events in the life of a village, such as Respiration is shallow and regular; deep tendon
a wedding or the visit of an important person. reflexes remain intact."
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(D. C. Gajdusek in Holmstedt & Kline, 1967) and some dry leaves which must be a thing very much
appreciated among them..."
[Christopher Columbus, 13 October 1492]
BETEL NUT
"One of the merveilles of the Hearbe, and that whiche
"She had few teeth... and had thin ravines running out doeth bryng most admiration, is the maner how the
from the corners of her mouth... usually filled with priests of the Indias did use it.... [He] toke certain
betel juice which made her look as if her mouth had leaves of the Tabaco, and caste theim into the fire,
been gashed by a rusty razor.” and did receive the smoke of them at his mouthe, and
(James A. Michener. Tales of the South Pacific) at his nose with a cane, and in takyng of it, he fell
doune uppon the grounde, as a dedde manne, and
"Bloody Mary's chewing betel nuts; She is always remainyng so, accordyng to the quantitie of the smoke
chewing betel nuts; Bloody Mary's chewing betel nuts, that he had taken, and when the hearbe had doen his
and she don't use Pepsodent." woorke, he did revive and awake, and gave theim
(Oscar Hammerstein II. South Pacific) their aunsweres, accordyng to the visions, and
illusions which he sawe.... [Nicolas Monardes. 1557]
'''''
"... in this island [Hispaniola], as also in other
Betel nut is the world's most popular masticatory. It provinces of these new countries, there are some
is estimated that about 10% of the world's people use bushes, not very large, like reeds, that produce a leaf
it regularly. In Hindi, it is called pan. The betel nut is ... which (where it is used) is held in great esteem by
the seed of Areca catechu, a member of the palm the natives, and very much prized by the slaves whom
family. A sliver of seed is placed on the leaf of Piper the Spaniards have brought from Ethiopia. When
betle, a close relative of the more familiar black these leaves are in season, they pick them, tie them
pepper. A layer of lime is sprinkled over this. The up in bundles, and suspend them near their fireplace
whole thing is rolled up and placed in the mouth till they are very dry, and when they wish to use
where we use our tongues to move it around, without them, they take a leaf of their grain (maize) and
being chewed up or swallowed. Early writers claimed putting one of the others into it, they roll them round
that the betel nut would, "... expel wind, remove tight together; then they set fire to one end, and
phlegm, kill germs, subdue bad odors, beautify the putting the other end into the mouth, they draw their
mouth, remove impurities and induce love...." On the breath up through it, wherefore the smoke goes into
other hand, lime deposits on the teeth of old betel nut the mouth, throat, the head, and they retain it as long
users and the revolting habit of spitting red-stained as they can, for they find a pleasure in it, and so
saliva make it fairly easy to spot the habitué. much do they fill themselves with this cruel smoke,
that they lose their reason. And there are some who
The seeds contain several pyridine alkaloids, with take so much of it, that they fall down as if they were
arecoline being the most common and the most dead, and remain the greater part of the day or night
physiological active. The plant is used in human and stupefied. Some men are found who are content with
in veterinary medicine to expel tapeworms. imbibing only enough of this smoke to make them
giddy, and no more. See what a pestiferous and
wicked poison from the devil this must be.... I have
PITURI entered the house of an Indian who had taken this
herb, which in the Mexican language is called tabacco,
and immediately perceiving the sharp fetid smell of
Douboisia hopwoodii is a member of the nightshade this truly diabolical and stinking smoke, I was obliged
family. Plants of the genus are known for their to go away in haste, and seek some other place. In La
toxicity, and the Australian aborigines have used them Española and other islands, when their doctors wanted
as fish and emu poisons, and as insecticides. They are to cure a sick man, they went to the place where they
commercial sources of one of the belladonna alkaloids, were to administer the smoke, and when he was
scopolamine. thoroughly intoxicated by it, the cure was mostly
effected. On returning to his senses he told a
Vegetative plant parts are smoked, often after having thousand stories, of his having been at the council of
been mixed with charcoal. Leaves are also formed into the gods and other high visions."
a quid and then chewed as a masticatory. The quid is [Girolamo Benzoni, 1565]
typically passed from one user to another, and stored
temporarily in the ear. "And now good Countrey men let us (I pray you)
consider, what honour or policie can moove us to
imitate the barbarous and beastly maners of the
wilde, godlesse, and slavish Indians in so vile and
stinking a custome....? Why doe we not as well
11.5 ! NEW WORLD imitate them in walking naked as they doe? in
preferring glasses, feathers, and such tpyes, to golde
and precious stones, as they do? yea why do we not
denie God and adore the Devill, as they doe....? Have
In that we have occupied the Old World for a much you not reason then to be ashamed, and to forbeare
longer time, it would be tempting to assume that the this filthie noveltie, so basely grounded, so foolishly
list of psychoactive plants is much longer than that of received and so grossly mistaken in the right use
the New World. For reasons that have not been fully thereof? ... A custome lothsome to the eye, hateful to
explained, just the opposite is true. the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the
Lungs, and the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest
resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit is
TOBACCO bottomlesse.
[King James I. 1604. A Counterblaste to Tobacco]
"In the middle of the gulf... I found a man in a canoe
carrying a little piece of bread... a gourd of water... “If I cannot smoke cigars in Heaven, I shall not go!”
[Mark Twain]
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“Tobacco is an indispensable as the daily ration; we 1907 U. S. government uses American Tobacco
must have thousands of tons of it without delay.” under anti-trust, anti-monopoly laws
[General John “Blackjack” Pershing] 1911 Supreme Court dissolves American Tobacco
Co.
''''' 1918 War Department buys entire output of Bull
Durham Tobacco for use by American troops
The genus Nicotiana, of the nightshade family 1920 U. S. consumes 100 billion cigarettes for first
(Solanaceae), is composed of about 60 species; 45 of time
them native to the New World, 14 to Australia, and 1945 Alton Ochsner correlates smoking and lung
one to the Pacific. The plants are usually small trees. cancer
Only two species, both of them tetraploids (2n = 4x = 1939 Franz H. Müller links smoking and lung cancer
48), are of any economic importance. Nicotiana 1950 Morton Levin confirms link between smoking
tabacum is the source of smoking tobacco leaves and and lung cancer
N. rustica, with its higher alkaloid content, is the 1954 U. S. tobacco industry publishes “Frank
source of nicotine used as an agricultural insecticide. Statement to Cigarette Smokers”
Both are of hybrid origin. Neither species is known in 1962 British Royal College of Physicians issues
the wild today. “Smoking & Health”
1964 U. S. Surgeon General issues report on
TIMELINE: TOBACCO “Smoking & Health”
1966 Congress passes Cigarette Labeling and
BCE: Advertising Act
1971 U. S. bans cigarette ads on television
5000 Tobacco first cultivated 1991 FDA declares second-hand smoke dangerous
2500 Reaches northern regions of North America 1995 FDA declares nicotine a drug
400 Tobacco domesticated in South America 1997 The Liggett Group admits tobacco addictive
1998 Master Settlement Agreement reached
CE: between tobacco industry and various states
1999 Japan bans tobacco ads on television
500 Shamanistic use (enemas)
1492 Columbus records use of leaves in his diaries '''''
1519 Tobacco introduced into Spain
1542 Tobacco introduced into Japan via a shipwreck HISTORY
1556 Cultivation begins in Europe
1556 Andre Thevet introduces seeds to Europe When Europeans arrived in the New World in 1492
1561 Jean Nicot sends tobacco to Catherine de they found the indigenous peoples using what the
Medici Carib Indians called “ tobacco.” Whether it was their
1565 John Hawkins introduces tobacco from Florida word for the plant itself or one of the ways that they
to England prepared it is unclear. These uses were largely
1565 Nicolas Monardes extols healing properties religious, medicinal, and ceremonial. They either rolled
1571 Mathias L’Obel describes plant and its use the leaves into cigars and inhaled through the mouth
1588 Ecclesiastical decree forbids use or nostrils, or they inhaled the smoke of burning
1598 Ben Johnson satirizes tobacco use in “Every tobacco leaves through long hollow tubes inserted into
Man in His Humour” the nostrils. The Indians also put tobacco in clay
1602 First English anti-tobacco tract published pipes, some of them with other plants in them that
1604 King James I of England publishes acted to filter the smoke. We have extensive
“Counterblaste to Tobacco” archeological remains of these pipes. The Spanish
1609 Japan bans tobacco were much amazed at these sights and wrote
1612 John Rolfe begins cultivation in Virginia accounts of the savages who drank fire and whose
1615 Coin-operated dispensing machines appear in navels belched smoke.
English taverns
1616 John Rolfe takes first shipment to London The fame of tobacco spread quickly to Europe. By
1620 King James I forbids domestic production 1519 it had been introduced to Spain, and from there
1624 Pope Urban VIII threatens users with it spread to the rest of the continent. It was
excommunication introduced into France by Jean Andre Thevet in 1557.
1624 Greek Orthodox Church bans use Three years later it was brought to the attention of the
1629 Cardinal Richelieu imposes customs duty French Court by Jean Nicot, the ambassador to
1632 Massachusetts bans public smoking Portugal. It is Nicot who is commemorated in the
1633 Charles I of England issues proclamation generic name Nicotiana. Tobacco was introduced into
similar to that of his father, James I England by Sir John Hawkins, who brought it from
1635 French restrict sale to physician’s prescription Florida. Hawkins' tobacco was different from that
1636 Tabacalera, world’s first tobacco company, discovered by the Spanish. Sir Walter Raleigh did
founded much to popularize the use of tobacco in England.
1640 Ming Emperor imposes death penalty for use
1641 Czar Michael Romanov forbids sale and use The smoking of tobacco became controversial almost
1642 Pope Urban VIII bans use immediately in England and Europe. In 1604, King
1697 Czar Peter permits open sale/use James I of England wrote an unsigned pamphlet called
1753 Linnaeus names plant Nicotiana tabacum "Counterblaste to Tobacco," in which he referred to
1760 P. Lorillard Tobacco Co. founded the plant as the "precious stink." (Look at the quote at
1761 John Hill notes abnormal growths after snuffing the beginning of the this section. He also slapped a
1790 Vatican opens its own tobacco factory tax on tobacco to discourage its use. Such taxes
1809 Louis Vauquelin isolates nicotianine continue to this day and have become a most lucrative
1828 Ludwig Reimann & Wilhelm Heinrich isolate source of income for many countries.
nicotine
1875 Richard Joshua Reynolds founds company The English colonies in America, particularly Virginia,
1880 James A. Bonsack invents cigarette machine were in the tobacco business almost since their
1889 James B. Duke founds American Tobacco Co. founding. The English began with N. rustica, a species
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native to the area, but much inferior to the N. leading producers include The People's Republic of
tabacum used by the Spanish. In about 1610-12, John China, India, and Pakistan.
Rolfe "procured" seeds of the Spanish tobacco for use
by the English colonial planters. This was the Tobacco is planted from seed and requires a great
beginning of the tobacco industry in the United States. deal of care. The seedlings are subject to many
In 1615, Virginia exported 2300 lbs. of tobacco; in diseases with exotic names. At a certain stage in their
1629, 1,500,000 lbs., and 86,000,000 lbs. at the turn growth, the plants are "topped" by cutting off the
of the century. growing point. This prevents flowering and promotes
the enlargement of leaves and the accumulation of
The tobacco industry has remained a southern materials, including nicotine. Individual leaves are
institution. The oldest tobacco company in the U.S. harvested from the plants, usually two or three at a
and the world is P. Lorillard, founded in 1760 time, from the bottom upward. The tobacco leaves are
supposedly with tobacco from George Washington's then dried or cured. This process is done is two
Virginia plantations. Liggett and Meyers Co. was principal ways. One is to air cure the leaves in
begun in 1822 and the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. in ventilated barns, a common sight in the South. The
1875. other method is fire curing the leaves in smoke to add
flavor. Curing over artificial heat also occurs. After
In 1890, W. Duke and Sons combined with four other curing the leaves are gathered into "hands" and then
tobacco companies to form the American Tobacco sold to buyers. After the purchase they are usually
Company. The company soon absorbed P. Lorillard, allowed to age for a period of six months to three
Brown and Williamson, Liggett and Meyers, and Phillip years. Fermentation occurs during this period, and the
Morris. By 1910, 82% of the 8.6 billion cigarettes sold characteristic aroma develops. The percentage of
in the U.S. were made by the American Tobacco nicotine in the leaves also decreases.
Company. In 1911, the government declared it a
monopoly. Most of today's major companies were NICOTINE
carved out of the American Tobacco Co. in the legal
settlement that followed. Many of the desirable and undesirable effects of
tobacco may be attributed to the alkaloid nicotine
James Buchanan Duke retained the American Tobacco (C10H14 N2 ). Its effects on the human body are
Co. In 1924, Duke offered Trinity College in Durham, complex. It can:
North Carolina, $40 million if it would change its name
to Duke University. Trinity College agreed. Duke died ' stimulate autonomic ganglia;
in 1925, leaving an additional $40 million to his ' stimulate skeletal neuromuscular junctions;
university. ' stimulate sympathetic nervous system;
' increase heart rate (10-20 bpm);
HOW IS IT USED? ' increase blood pressure (5-10 mm mercury);
' increase cardiac stroke volume/output;
Tobacco is used in several ways. It may be smoked, ' increase coronary flow;
snuffed, chewed, drunk, or even eaten. Today, only ' produce initial arousal, then relaxation;
smoking, snuffing, and chewing (“smokeless tobacco”) ' cause changes in brain wave patterns;
remain popular. Because the leaves are smoked, ' act on midbrain “reward system” region; and
tobacco is a fumatory; because it is chewed, it is also ' cause the release of dopamine.
a masticatory. Here is a more comprehensive look at
how tobacco has been used. The amount in a cigarette, though not particularly
high, is still harmful. Nicotine is a potent poison
Smoked causing:
Snuffed
Chewed ' vomiting;
Dipped ' nausea;
Eaten ' evacuation of the bowels and bladder;
Drunk ' mental impairment;
Licked ' twitching and convulsions;
Smeared over body ' blood to coagulate more easily, which can lead to
Blown over warrior’s faces the formation of thromboses; and
Blown over women’s faces ' inflammation and chronic lung disease.
Eye drops
Enemas Forty to fifty milligrams taken orally can be fatal in an
Offered to the gods adult. The dependence of the body on nicotine is still
Offered as a gift being investigated. Last year the U. S. Food and Drug
Narcotic Administration declared nicotine to be an addictive
Medicine substance. As you are aware, multi-billion dollar
Initiation ceremony lawsuits are working their way through the courts that
rest, at least in part, on that very point. Did the
TOBACCO AS A MEDICINE tobacco companies not only know of the addictive
nature of nicotine, but engage in practices that would
You may have been surprised to see tobacco listed as enhance it?
a medicine. Historically, it has been used to treat
wounds, rashes, rabies, head injuries, plague, SMOKING AND HEALTH
syphilis, insomnia, thirst, hunger, toothache, scorpion
bites, and migraines. "Smoking is the largest single cause of chronic disease
and premature death in our society."
PRODUCTION
Recent work indicates that nicotine may be only one
The United States leads the world in growing tobacco, part of the problem. Tobacco smoke contains over
with most of it grown in North Carolina, Kentucky, 4000 combustion products, 400 of them toxic, and 40
South Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. Other of those are carcinogenic. They include: nitrogen,
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oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, heights, are not addictive and they do serve a useful
ammonia, various resins, essential oils, methyl purpose enabling undernourished, debilitated persons
alcohol, acetone, formic acid, butyric acid, and acetic to do a day's work and thus, at least, survive. The
acid. In December 1997, the Liggett Tobacco Group energy expended upon punitive international
released additional ingredients used in its L & M legislation against coca leaves might better be
cigarettes. They include molasses, patchouli oil, supplanted by an all-out attack upon the basic
licorice flavoring, valerian root extract, vanilla extract, problems of malnutrition, disease, and a system which
and cedarwood oil. in many respects resembles paid slavery.”
Smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer and it is "A spoonful or two is put into the mouth. Conversation
a major factor in deaths from coronary heart disease, is impossible, until the powder has slowly been
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and other diseases. It moistened and packed with the tongue between the
is also involved in cancer of the pancreas, esophagus, gums and the cheeks. It is not chewed but is allowed
mouth and throat, larynx, bladder, kidneys, and gradually to mix with saliva and pass into the
cervix. Over 400,000 Americans die each year from stomach. When the amount of powder is thus
tobacco-related causes. Another 6000 will die from the diminished, it is replenished with an additional supply.
effects of second hand smoke. By comparison, 30,000 Normally, a supply is kept in the mouth throughout
die each year from sexually-transmitted diseases, the day.... Coca powder has an initial bitter taste
25,000 from motor vehicle accidents, and 20,000 from which puckers up the mouth. The first noticeable
abuse of illicit drugs. effect is a slight anaesthetizing of the tongue and
mouth; this is followed by a general stimulation....
Bidis (also called beedies or beadies) are cigarettes The stimulation and capacity for performance and
imported from India. They are very popular with endurance which coca affords the individual and its
younger smokers. Bidis have the tobacco wrapped in ability to suppress hunger pangs gives the drug the
leaves from a relative of the persimmon tree, and role of an indispensable vademecum in the more or
tied with colored thread. They are typically flavored less itinerant life of deprivation which many Indians of
with chocolate or strawberry. The Center for Disease the northwest Amazon must undergo.”
Control cautions that bidis have about three times [Richard Evans Schultes, Harvard ethnobotanist]
more carbon monoxide and nicotine and about five
times the tar found in regular cigarettes. "Woe to you, my Princess, when I come, I will kiss you
quite red and feed you to you are plump. And if you
are forward you shall see who is the stronger, a gentle
COCA LEAF little girl who doesn't eat enough or a big wild man
who has cocaine in his body...."
"Which is it today," I asked, "morphine or cocaine?"... [Sigmund Freud. 1884. Letter to his fiancée]
It is cocaine," he said ... "would you care to try it?"
"No, indeed," I answered brusquely... "Perhaps you '''''
are right, Watson... I suppose that its influence is
physically a bad one. I find it, however, so TIMELINE: COCA & COCAINE
transcendently stimulating and clarifying to the mind
that its secondary action is a matter of small BCE:
moment." [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]
3300 Coca plant domesticated (Peru)
"They may have found a substitute for its [tobacco's]
narcotic qualities in the coca ..., or cuca, as called by CE:
the natives. This is a shrub which grows to the height
of a man. The leaves when gathered are dried in the 1533 Francisco Pizarro reports general use in Peru
sun, and, being mixed with a little lime, form a 1567 “appears to give strength only by a deception
preparation for chewing, much like the betel-leaf of of the Evil One.”
the East. With a small supply of his cuca in his pouch, 1565 N. Monardes publishes first European
and a handful of roasted maize, the Peruvian Indian of description
our time performs his wearisome journeys, day after 1750 Joseph De Jussieu sends first specimens back
day, without fatigue, or, at least, without complaint. to Europe
Even food the most invigorating is less grateful to him 1802 Baron von Humboldt writes of use by his
than his loved narcotic. Under the Incas, it is said to native guides
have been exclusively reserved for the noble orders. 1859 Paulo Mantegazza recommends use for
If so, the people gained one luxury by the Conquest; toothache, etc.
and, after that period; it was so extensively used by 1860 Albert Niemain isolates cocaine
them, that this article constituted a most important 1862 Wilhelm Lossen determines chemical formula
item of the colonial revenue of Spain. Yet, with the of cocaine
soothing charms of an opiate, this weed so much 1863 Angelo Mariana patents coca/wine drink
vaunted by the natives, when used to excess, is said (Vin/Thé Mariana)
to be attended with all the mischievous effects of 1878 W. H. Bentley recommends use to cure
habitual intoxication." [William H. Prescott. 1847. morphine addiction
History of the Conquest of Peru] 1880 Cocaine admitted to U. S. Pharmacopeia
1884 William Halsted discovers anesthetic
"I naturally learned to chew ... toasted coca leaves properties
and, finding it to be a most helpful custom when one 1884 Sigmund Freud uses it for first time
must work hard and there is little food, I used coca for 1884 Freud publishes Über Coca
eight years while in these remote areas, with 1885 John Pemberton markets Coca Cola
absolutely no desire to continue upon my return. 1885 Karl Koller discovers local anesthetic property
Cocaine, the powerful alkaloid extracted from the 1885 Louis Lewin & Albrecht Erlenmeyer attack
leaves is, of course, a very dangerous addicting drug. Freud’s paper
But coca leaves, as they are used by the South 1887 Freud publishes Bemerkungen über Cocaïsucht
American Indians, particularly in the bleak Andean und Cocaïnfrucht...
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1887 Oregon becomes first state to restrict cocaine getting endorsements from the rich and famous. A
use very incomplete list would include Thomas Edison,
1888 Arthur Conan Doyle publishes The Sign of Henrik Ibsen, Auguste Bartholdi (who built the Statue
Four (see first quote) of Liberty), Jules Verne, H. G. Wells, President William
1890 Angelo Mariana publishes Coca and Its McKinley, Pope Leo XIII, and General U. S. Grant.
Therapeutic Application
1898 R. Willstatter determines chemical structure of Vin Mariana was so successful that he created an
cocaine entire line of coca leaf products, including a throat
1901 W. Golden Mortimer publishes Peru: History of lozenge, a non-alcoholic tea, and Elixir Mariana, with
Coca added alcohol.
1902 R. Willstatter synthesizes cocaine
1903 Cocaine removed from Coca Cola One of the major figures in the history of cocaine is
1904 Procaine discovered Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the Austrian physician
1907 New York State passes law severely restricting who developed the theory of psychoanalysis. Early on
medicinal use in his career, he began reading about coca leaves and
1914 The Hauge Opium Convention restricts opium how they enabled Indians in South America to “resist
and cocaine production privations and hardships.” He started using it
1922 Congress declares cocaine narcotic and himselfand was so pleased with the results that he not
prohibits most imports only recommended cocaine to his friends and
1929 C. Ricketts offers plan for cutting cultivation to colleagues, but he supplied them with it. One such
Peruvian government recipient was Martha Bernay, his future wife. Freud,
1961 Peru & Bolivia sign U. N. convention on who had not seen Martha for over a year, wrote to her
abolishing coca cultivation in 1864 of his upcoming visit:
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pleasure. Dopamine is a naturally occurring it pleasanter to lie down.... The appearance of visions
neurotransmitter, a category of chemicals that carry with closed eyes was very gradual. At first, there was
messages between nerve cells or between nerve and merely a vague play of light and shade which
muscle cells. The intense euphoria that results from suggested pictures, but never made them. Then the
these higher concentrations of dopamine is the “rush” pictures became more definite, but too confused and
that coke users describe. It is followed by the “crash” crowded to be described.... Then, in the course of the
that comes when cocaine is flushed out of our system. evening, they became distinct, but still undescribable
Even natural dopamine levels are reduced, which -- mostly a vast field of golden jewels, studded with
means that you will feel worse after cocaine wears off red and green stones, ever changing. This moment
than you did before. So what do we do? We soon find was, perhaps, the most delightful of the
ourselves in a feedback loop. experience....” [Havelock Ellis. 1898]
Cocaine was once widely used as a local anesthetic. "A vase containing a rose, iris, and carnation...
When applied topically, it paralyzes sensory nerve nothing more, and nothing less than they actually
endings. It can produce a profound feeling of well- were, a transience that was yet eternal life, a
being, alertness, increased self-confidence, perpetual perishing that was at the same time pure
magnification of normal pleasures, reduction in social Being, a bundle of minute particulars in which, by
inhibitions, and an enhancement of emotions and some unspeakable and yet self-evident paradox, was
sexual feelings. Abuse of cocaine, which has become to be seen the divine source of all existence."
a major health problem in this country, is [Aldous Huxley. 1954. The Doors of Perception]
characterized by:
“The white man goes into his church house and talks
' headaches about Jesus; the Indian goes into his teepee and talks
' seizures to Jesus.”
' strokes (especially in young people) [Quanah Parker, leader of the Comanche People]
' severe complications in pregnancy and childbirth
(abortions, fetal death, premature birth, small TIMELINE: PEYOTE
babies)
' paranoia BCE:
' loss of weight and appetite
' pallor 5000 Earliest use (?)
' insomnia, and
' what amounts to an all-consuming focus on its CE:
use, to the exclusion of concerns about eating,
sleeping, money, responsibilities, and loved ones. 1560 Bernardino de Sahagún publishes first
description
Mood swings may be dramatic -- from elation to 1591 Juan de Cárdenas describes effects of
mania and delusions. There is reasonably decent peyote
evidence that Robert Louis Stevenson wrote "The 1620 Holy Office of Inquisition denounces as act
Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" while under of superstition
the influence of cocaine. 1845 Plant described as Echinocactus williamsii
1847 Curtis’ Botanical Magazine publishes first
Crack is a highly addictive form of smokable cocaine image
hydrochloride. It is made by adding ammonia or 1887 Louis Lewin receives samples of “muscale
sodium bicarbonate and water, and then heating the buttons”
mixture. When it cools to room temperature it forms 1891 James Mooney participates in ceremony in
pebble-sized crystals. The term “crack” refers to the the Oklahoma Territory
sound made when it is smoked. It takes only about 7- 1894 Plant described as Lophophora williamsii
10 seconds for the active principles to reach the brain 1897 Weir Mitchell publishes first account of
and heart. intoxication
1897 Havelock Ellis publishes account of his use
1897 Arthur Heffter isolates mescaline
PEYOTE 1918 Native American Church incorporates in
Oklahoma
"[There] is another herb, like native tunas [a prickly- 1919 Ernst Späth synthesizes mescaline
pear cactus]; it is called peyotl; it is white; it grows in 1927 Weston La Barre publishes The Peyote Cult
the north region.... Those who eat or drink it see 1933 BIA prohibits interference with Indian
visions either frightful or mirthful; the intoxication practices
lasts two or three day and then ceases. It is a 1953 Aldous Huxley takes mescaline sulfate
common food of the Chichimecas, for it sustains them 1960 Judge Yale McFate sanctions its use
and gives them courage to fight and not to feel hunger 1962 California says peyote has no religious
nor thirst; and they say that it protects them from all significance
dangers." [Bernardino de Sahagun. General History of 1994 American Indian Religious Freedom Act
Things of New Spain] amended to allow use by Indians for
religious purposes
"On Good Friday, I found myself entirely alone in the
quiet rooms in the Temple which I occupy when in Peyote or the peyotl cactus (Lophophora williamsii) is
London and judged the occasion a fitting one for a a member of the cactus family. It grows in the deserts
personal experiment. I made a decoction ... of three of the American Southwest and in adjacent Mexico. Its
buttons, the full physiological dose, and drank this at natural distribution is centered in the Valley of the Rio
intervals between 2.30 and 4.30 p.m. The first Grande. Peyote is one of the most fantastic vision-
symptom observed during the afternoon was a certain inducing plants of the New World. Perhaps because of
consciousness of energy and intellectual power. This this and the associated belief in its therapeutic
passed off, and about an hour after the final dose I properties, it is the most sacred hallucinogenic plant
felt faint and unsteady; the pulse was low, and I found of this hemisphere.
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The common name of the plant is derived from the purification ceremonies. The worshipers are led in
Nahautl word "peyotl," meaning a silk cocoon or prayer, meditation, and chanting by a cult leader or
caterpillar's cocoon, a reference to the hairs present "roadman." The peyote ceremony ends with a ritual
on the upper part of the plant. breakfast consisting of parched corn, fruits, water,
and boneless meat. In most cases the ceremony
HISTORY. No one knows exactly how far back in the combines elements of both Christian worship and
history of the New World the peyote use goes. Indian belief.
Sahagún suggested that the plant was in use in 300
B.C. The Spanish historians make numerous Peyote is usually consumed in the form of mescal
references to the plant. The missionaries tried to buttons the dried brown tops of the cactus. The
stamp out the peyote cults of Mexico with little button is the above ground photosynthetic portion of
success. After almost 400 years of both religious and the plant. Much of the plant body is below the surface.
governmental sanctions, peyote is still widely used. In The dried buttons may be stored indefinitely. The
the past one hundred years its use by American mescal buttons are usually taken into the mouth and
Indians has dramatically increased. softened by rolling them in saliva. They are swallowed
without chewing. Some users prefer to soak them in
Early opposition to the plant was directed mostly at water and make a drink from the buttons. The number
the pagan connotations that it had, rather than any of buttons consumed varies from three or four to
physical or mental harm that it might be doing to the about thirty.
Indians. In a religious manual of the late 1700's
entitled "El Camino del Cielo" the priest is instructed EFFECTS. The resulting intoxication is one of the most
to ask prospective converts if they had eaten the flesh complex known from any psychoactive plant. It is
of man, eaten the peyotl, or sucked the blood of characterized particularly by brilliant color
others. A "yes" answer to any of the above apparently hallucinations. These are often accompanied by tactile,
eliminates one as a serious candidate. Even Indians auditory, and olfactory hallucinations. Many users
who were thought to be converted to the new religion describe a sensation of weightlessness, doubling of
still retained remnants of their old ways. It was not the ego, and depersonalization. Alteration or loss of
uncommon for parents to tie small bags of peyote time is common. Symptoms of hallucinating vary
around the necks of their children to keep them greatly from individual to individual and with the
healthy. Older Indians also bowed when passing a source of material. Injection of any one of the
plant. Combinations of peyote cults and Christianity alkaloidal principles can produce some of the
appear, as seen in such titles as "El Niño de Peyotl," sensations, but the effects of intoxication from the
and "El Santo de Jesus Peyotes." entire button should be distinguished from the results
of injecting any one of these principles.
The earliest uses of peyote in the United States go
back to about 1760 in the territory that would become ACTIVE PRINCIPLES. The peyote cactus contains at
Texas. The plant was in common use by Indians least fifteen different alkaloids. The most famous of
during the Civil War. The spread of knowledge of these is mescaline (3, 4, 5-trimethoxy-
peyote may have involved the Plains Indians' raiding phenylethylamine). It is the alkaloid responsible for
parties that went into the Mescalero Indian territory of the pronounced color visions.
the Southwest. They saw the plant being used and
brought the information back with them. In the late
1800's the Kiowa and Comanche Indians had MESCAL BEAN
formulated a ceremony that was to become the basis
of the peyote cult in more than thirty tribes. They While I suspect that most everyone has heard of
formed semiofficial groups, such as the "Peyote peyote, the mescal bean or red bean is a new plant for
Society," and finally organized into the legally most of us. Sophora secundiflora, a member of the
constituted body known as the Native American bean family, is native to the American Southwest and
Church. Present membership of this group is the adjacent regions of Mexico. Early reports by
estimated at 250,000, including members from Cabeza de Vaca (1539) indicate that the plant was in
essentially all states and some of the provinces of trade. The Stephen Long expedition in 1820 reported
Canada. At first the Native American Church that the Arapaho and Iowa Indians using it as a
encountered difficulty from the U.S. government medicine and a narcotic. The mescal bean is known
because of the use of peyote during religious from archaeological sites in the Southwest from about
ceremonies. In 1933 John Collier, the Head of the A.D. 1000.
Bureau of Indian Affairs, succeeded in getting a
regulation passed that "...prohibited absolutely any Well-developed mescal bean cults were known in
interference by the Indian Bureau with the religious many Indian tribes, including the Apache, Comanche,
practices of the Native American Church." In 1962, Delaware, Iowa, Kansa, Omaha, Oto, Osage, Pawnee,
the State of California decided that peyote had no Ponca, Tonkawa, and Wichita. In most cases the
religious significance and attempted to prosecute the beans were used in initiation ceremonies and for
Indians. The American Civil Liberties Union entered divination. The hallucinogenic effects were apparently
the case and the Indians were ultimately victorious. not pronounced and much of the mescal bean fervor
declined rapidly with the introduction of peyote
RITUAL USE. In northern Mexico, the peyote ceremonies. Today most of the details concerning the
ceremony usually involves a long meeting with lots of nature of mescal bean ceremonies is unknown.
dancing. In the U.S., the Indians use a rather
standardized ritual patterned after the Kiowa- The use of the mescal bean did not completely die
Comanche ceremony of the late 19th century. There when the peyotl cactus cults began. Even today the
are, of course, certain tribal variations. Often special leaders of the peyote ceremonies sometimes wear
clothing must be worn and certain taboos must be necklaces of Sophora secundiflora. The Comanche,
observed. The peyote ceremony consists of an all Oto, and Tonkawa Indians have mixed peyote and
night meeting in a special teepee or other specially mescal beans together, perhaps leading to some of
designated structure. The worshipers sit in a circle the confusion in names that now exists.
around the peyote altar. Special drums, gourd rattles,
and a carved staff are passed around after certain
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THE SACRED MUSHROOMS THE DATURAS
"As I was perfectly well aware that my knowledge of “Datura stramonium acts very powerfully upon the
the Mexican origin of the mushrooms would lead me cerebrospinal system, causing a line of symptoms
to imagine only Mexican scenery, I tried deliberately showing it to be a narcotic-irritant of high degrees.
to look on my environment as I knew it normally. But The symptoms collated from many cases of poisoning
all voluntary efforts to look at things in their by this drug are: vertigo, with staggering gait, and
customary forms and colours proved ineffective. finally unconsciousness; stupor and deep sleep, with
Whether my eyes were closed or open, I saw only stertorous breathing; mania, with loquaciousness or
Mexican motifs and colours. When the doctor melancholia; hallucinations of terrifying aspect, the
supervising the experiment [Hofmann had ingested patient bites, strikes, and screams, and throws the
Psilocybe mexicana] bent over me to check my blood arms about, or picks and grasps at unattainable
pressure, he was transformed into an Aztec priest, objects; congestive headaches, with dull beating and
and I would not have been astonished if he had drawn throbbing in the vertex. The pupils are dilated, and
an obsidian knife. In spite of the seriousness of the the patient suffers from photophobia [sensitivity of
situation, it amused me to see how the Germanic face light], diplopia [double vision], and hemeralopia [day
of my colleague had acquired a purely Indian blindness]; the eyes are wide open, staring and set, or
expression. At the peak of the intoxication, about 1½ are contorted, rolling, and squinting. The face
hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, the rush of becomes red, bloated, and hot, the mouth
interior pictures, mostly changing in shape and colour, spasmodically closed, and the tongue dry and swollen;
reached such an alarming degree that I feared that I the patient suffers greatly from thirst, but the sight of
would be torn into this whirlpool of form and colour water throws him into a spasm and causes great
and would dissolve. After about six hours, the dream constriction of the throat, foaming at the mouth, but
came to an end. Subjectively, I had no idea how long seldom vomiting. The sexual functions are often
this condition had lasted. I felt my return to everyday excited, more especially in women, in whom it causes
reality to be a happy return from a strange, fantastic nymphomania. Spasms of the muscles of the chest
but quite really experienced world into an old and are of frequent occurrence; inspiration is slow and
familiar home." (Albert Hofmann, Swiss biochemist expiration quick. Paralysis of the lower limbs and loss
and discoverer of LSD] of speech, with twitchings and jerkings of the muscles
often mark a case. Its action will be seen to be similar
''''' to that of Belladonna, yet differing in many respects.
[Mitilda Cox Stevenson. 1915. Ethnobotany of the
When the Spanish conquered Mexico, they found the Zuñi Indians....]
Aztecs using certain mushrooms as a sacrament in
their religious ceremonies. The Aztecs referred to the "The James Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny
plants as teonanacatl, which translates roughly as Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is
the "flesh of the gods." The Roman Catholic clergy supposed to be one of the greatest Coolers in our
was strongly anti-mushroom because these fungi World. This being an early Plant, was gather'd very
presented a stumbling block for the establishment of young for a boil'd Salad, by some of the Soldiers sent
Christianity in the New World. The Aztecs could see thither, to pacifie the Troubles of Bacon; and some of
little advantage to this new religion when the use of them eat plentifully of it, the Effect of which was a
the sacred mushroom allowed them to speak directly very pleasant Comedy; for they turn'd natural Fools
to their deities. upon it for several Days; One would blow up a Feather
in the air; anoyther would darts Straws at it with
There are ancient references to the use of the sacred much Fury; and another stark naked was sitting up in
mushrooms. Artifacts from Guatemala show clear a corner, like a Monkey, grinning and making Mows at
representations of them. These pieces are about 3000 them; a Fourth would fondly kiss, and paw at his
years old. When first discovered they were thought to Companions, and snear in their Faces, with a
be phallic symbols. Countenance more antick, than any in a Dutch droll.
In this frantick Condition they were confined, lest they
Most of our knowledge of the sacred mushrooms has should in their Folly destroy themselves; though it was
come from investigations done in Mexico in the past observed, that all their Actions were full of Innocence
few decades. In 1915 William Safford, a noted and good Nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly;
American ethnobotanist, suggested that the sacred for they would have wallow'd in their own Excrements,
mushrooms were not really fungi at all, but peyote. if they had not been prevented. A Thousand such
Safford pointed out that no one had seen any simple Tricks they play'd, and after Eleven Days,
Mexicans eating mushrooms for over four hundred return'd to themselves again, not remembering any
years, but that the peyote cult was well known. Since thing that had pass'd." [Robert Beverley. 1705. The
that time, extensive field work has shown the use of History and Present State of Virginia]
mushrooms by the Indians of the State of Oaxaca.
'''''
The Indians of Mexico use at least 24 species of
Psilocybe, Stropharia, Conocybe, and Panaeolus. Species of Datura, a member of the nightshade family,
Collectively we refer to them as the sacred mush- are native to both the Old World and New World. They
rooms. have been used since prehistoric times. In the Old
World, Chinese and Sanskrit literature make several
The chemistry of the mushrooms is not completely references to the use of these plants. The generic
known. Psilocybe mexicana contains psilocybine (4- name is derived from the Hindi word "dhatura." In
hydroxy-dimethyltriptamine), which is allied to Asia the seeds of Datura are still used by thieves to
bufotenine and serotonin. stupefy their victims. A group of thugs called the
Dhatureas once used the plant to kill their victims.
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USES OF THE DATURAS months; giving them no other sustenance, but the
Infusion, or Decoction of some Poisonous Intoxicating
Medicinal: Roots [Datura stramonium or wysoccan]; by virtue of
“cureth all inflammation whatsoever” which Physick, and by the severity of the discipline,
Treat bruises and wounds which they undergo, they become stark raving Mad;
Asthma preparations In which raving condition they are kept eighteen or
Anesthetic (surgery) twenty days.... When the Doctors find that they have
Aphrodisiac drank sufficiently of the Wysocccan, (so they call this
Toxic plant (stun, punish, stupefy, or kill victims) mad Potion) they gradually restore them to their
Recreational drug use Senses again, by lessening the Intoxication of their
Ritual/ceremonial use: Diet; but before they are perfectly well, they bring
Divination them back to their Towns, while they are still wild and
Visionary journeys crazy, through the Violence of the medicine. After this
Shape-shifting (birds) they are very fearful of discovering any thing of their
Clairvoyance former remembrance; for if such a thing should
Initiation ceremonies happen to any of them, they must immediately be
Funeral ceremonies Huckanaw'd again; and the second time the usage is
Magic (“herbe aux sorciers”) so severe, that seldom any one escapes with Life.
Discipline unruly children Thus they must pretend to have forgot the very use of
Zombification (making zombies) their Tongues, so as not to be able to speak, no
understand any thing that is spoken, till they learn it
The real ethnobotanical center of Datura is the New again. Now whether this be real or counterfeit, I don't
World. Here the plants assume great medicinal, know; but certain it is, that they will not for some
religious, and magical importance. In North America time take notice of any body, nor any thing, with
the plants are used mostly in the American Southwest which they were before acquainted, being still under
and in adjacent Mexico. However, the Algonquins and the guard of their Keepers, who constantly wait upon
other Indian tribes of the eastern woodlands used the them every where, till they have learnt all things
Jimson weed (Datura stramonium) in initiation perfectly over again. Thus they unlive their former
ceremonies for the young males of the tribe. lives, and commence Men, by forgetting that they
ever have been Boys...." (Robert Beverly. 1705. The
The species most commonly employed in the History and Present State of Virginia.)
Southwest and Mexico is the sacred datura, D. inoxia
(= D. meteloides in the older literature). Among the
Zunis, for instance, the plant was used as a narcotic, ACTIVE PRINCIPLES. The daturas manufacture a
an anaesthetic, and a poultice for wounds and bruises. series of the tropane or belladonna alkaloids. They are
The rain priests of the tribe put the powdered root of responsible for the effects on the central nervous
the sacred datura in their eyes and ate the root to system.
enable them to talk with the dead and ask for rain.
Their belief was that the plant was divine and could SYMPTOMS OF TOXICITY. Symptoms appear within
only be used by members of the priest caste. The use a few minutes to a few hours after ingestion of plant
of the plant in Mexico antedates the Conquest. The material. They include:
Aztecs used "toloatzin" as both a medicine and
narcotic. ' intense thirst
' dilated pupils; avoidance of light
RITUAL USE. In South America, different species are ' flushed skin
employed in weird and wonderful ways. Several of ' delirium
these plants, belonging to the genus Brugmansia ' picking at imaginary objects on clothing or in air
(once part of Datura ), are large shrubs or small trees. ' convulsions
In Ecuador the plants are used to produce a deep ' coma
sleep in children who have been misbehaving. During ' death from respiratory paralysis
the sleep the children hear the voices of their
ancestors who admonish them for their poor behavior.
In Pre-Conquest Bogotá, the wives and slaves of dead HALLUCINOGENIC SNUFFS
chieftains and warriors were drugged with Brugmansia
before being buried alive with their departed husbands Tobacco leaves are not the only plant that we snuff.
or employers. Among the Jivaro Indians the plant is The indigenous peoples of South America have
used as part of an initiation ceremony for the young discovered that they could reduce dried leaves, bark,
boys of the tribe. A boy is expected to take a sip of an and seeds to a fine powder and sniff it into the
infusion from the plant from each member of the nostrils, with dramatic effects.
tribe. Soon he is unable to drink any more. The ritual
does not cease, however. He is given an enema of the EPÉNA, also known as yakee, parica, and nyakwana,
infusion. During the unconscious period that follows, is one of the widely used hallucinogenic snuffs of the
the boy is supposed to forget all of his boyhood ways Amazonian region. It goes by various names,
and awake a man. depending upon the tribe that prepares it. Although
the use of snuffs probably goes far back into the
"The Solemnity of Huskanawig is commonly practis'd history of the New World Indians, detailed botanical
once every fourteen or sixteen years, or oftener, as and ethnobotanical knowledge is relatively recent.
their young men happen to grow up. It is an They were first described in detail after an expedition
Institution or discipline which all young men must to Colombia in 1954.
pass, before they can be admitted to be of the number
of the Great Men.... The whole Ceremony is performed In some tribes, particularly those that refer to the
after the following manner. snuff as yakee, only the witch doctors are allowed to
prepare and use the plant. It is felt that during the
[The] principal part of the business is to carry them hallucinogenic phase they are better able to diagnose
into the Woods, and there keep them under disease and to see into the future. Yakee is often
confinement, and destitute of all Society, for several
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prepared from Virola calophylla and V. calophylloidea, off his drowsiness by renewing the dance." [Richard
species of the family Myristicaceae. Nutmeg and mace Spruce, noted explorer of South America]
are also derived from this family.
"My own experiences from participation in many
In other tribes, the epéna or nyakwana snuff is Amazonian Banisteriopsis rituals might be summarized
prepared from V. theiodora. Generally speaking, any by saying that the intoxication began with a feeling of
male member of the tribe may use epéna. The giddiness and nervousness, soon followed by nausea,
preparation of the Virola snuffs involves removing the occasional vomiting and profuse perspiration.
bark from trees, scraping off the inner bark that Occasionally, the vision was disturbed by flashes of
contains a resinous exudate, mixing the resin with light and, upon closing the eyes, a bluish haze
water, and boiling it down into a thick syrup. The sometimes appeared. A period of abnormal lassitude
syrup is sun-dried, pulverized, sifted, and mixed with then set in during which colours increased in intensity.
the ashes of other plants. The exact recipe and choice Sooner or later a deep sleep interrupted by dream-like
of supplementary plants varies with the tribe. sequences began. The only uncomfortable after-effect
noted was intestinal upset and diarrhoea on the
The effects of intoxication vary, but usually include an following day. At no time was movement of limbs
initial phase of excitability, numbness of the limbs, adversely affected. In fact, amongst many Amazonian
twitching of the facial muscles, loss of coordination, Indians, dancing forms part of the caapi-ritual."
visual hallucinations, including macroscopia, and [Richard Evans Schultes]
finally a deep sleep.
'''''
The Virola plants contain tryptamines in relatively high
percentages. These are believed to be the active Ayahuasca, also called caapi and yajé, is a
principle. These same plants are also used to make psychoactive drink made by the Indians of the
arrow poisons. western Amazon region. One of the earliest written
accounts of the use of ayahuasca is that of
YOPO or PARICÁ is a strong hallucinogenic snuff Villavicencio. He reported that the drink helped the
prepared from the seeds of Anadenanthera peregrina, Indians to decipher enemy war plans, to formulate
a South American legume. Records from 1511 relate replies to ambassadors in matters of war and peace,
the inhaling of the snuff through long tubes. This to interpret illness, and to help young men endure the
species is probably the basis of many reports of physical pain associated with certain initiations into
snuffing by the South American Indians. Many of manhood.
these reports are now thought to be unfounded and
the use of yopo is more restricted than once believed. Ayahuasca is the bark of Banisteriopsis caapi and B.
inebrians, sometimes fortified with the bark of B.
Yopo contains various tryptamine derivatives as the rusbyana. These plants belong to Malpighiaceae, a
psychoactive principle. Bufotenine, once thought to be family little known to us in North America. As with so
in the material, is apparently not involved. One of the many of the South American preparations, various
more pronounced symptoms of hallucination is seeing additives are often included. These confuse the
people and other objects upside down. ethnobotanist and chemist and delay a true
understanding of the formulae used.
AYAHUASCA The effects of caapi are an early feeling of
nervousness and giddiness, sometimes nausea and
"I had scarcely dispatched one cup of the nauseous vomiting, profuse perspiration, and flashes of light
beverage, which is but half the dose, when the ruler before the eyes. There follows a deep sleep with
of the feast -- desirous, apparently, that I should taste hallucinations. Early chemical work by Fischer-
all his delicacies at once -- came up with a woman Cardenas isolated an alkaloid called telepathine. More
bearing a large calabash of caxiri (mandioca beer), of recent work shows the active principle to be another
which I must needs take a copious draught, and as I alkaloid, harmine, and perhaps harmaline.
knew the mode of its preparation, it was gulped down
with secret loathing. Scarcely had I accomplished this
feat when a large cigar, 2 feet long and a thick as the OLOLIUQUI
wrist, was put lighted into my hand, and etiquette
demanded that I should take a few whiffs of it -- I The early Spanish historians reported the use of
who had never in my life smoked a cigar or a pipe of hallucinogenic seeds by Aztec priests who used them
tobacco. Above all this, I must drink a large cup of as an analgesic. They were commonly employed
palm-wine, and it will readily be understood that the before making sacrifices on mountain tops and when
effect of such a complex dose was a strong inclination communication with the gods was required. Today
to vomit, which was only overcome by lying down in these morning glory seeds may be the most widely
a hammock and drinking a cup of coffee which the used hallucinogen of the Mexican Indians. Until
friend who accompanied me had taken the precaution recently, their use was relatively unknown outside
to prepare beforehand." ethnobotanical circles.
"In two minutes or less after drinking it, its effects The identity of ololiuqui remained in doubt for about
begin to be apparent. The Indian turns deadly pale, 400 years. Crude drawings and descriptions gave the
trembles in every limb, and horror is in his aspect. strong impression that the plant was a member of the
Suddenly contrary symptoms succeed; he bursts into morning glory family. Other experts suggested that it
a perspiration, and seems possessed with reckless might be the "sacred datura," Datura inoxia. In
fury, seizes whatever arms are at hand ... and rushes Mexico, botanists and anthropologists working on the
to the doorway, where he inflicts violent blows on the problem believed that the plant was Rivea corymbosa
ground.... In about ten minutes the excitement has (now called Turbina corymbosa). In 1939, Richard
passed off, and the Indian grows calm, but perhaps Schultes found it growing next to the doorway of a
exhausted. Were he at home in his hut, he would Zapotec witch-doctor in Oaxaca. This was not
sleep off the remaining fumes, but now he must shake accepted as sufficient proof of the identity of ololiuqui
-217-
until Albert Hofmann (the discoverer of LSD-25)
isolated lysergic acid derivatives from the seeds.
-218-
SECTION 12 ! ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES
' What is a fair compensation to a people whose “Contemporary ethnobotany examines the dynamic
knowledge translates into a multi-million dollar interdependencies between humans and plants,
product, such as a new medicine? recognizing that plants permeate materially,
symbolically, and metaphorically every aspect of
' More than ever, there is a sense of urgency. culture and that nature is by no means passive to
Everyone has heard of endangered species. What human actions. The subject matter of ethnobotany
about “endangered knowledge? encompasses traditional primitives and prehistoric
” people as well as literate societies, acknowledging that
we have much to learn about our society’s folk botany
quite apart from the economic botany of modern
industry and agrobusiness.... Thus, ethnobotany is
12.2 ! GOALS &TECHNIQUES more than simply an examination of plants useful to
non-Western people, for it is devoted to
understanding the limitations and behavioral
consequences of human actions on their botanical
“The best ethnobotanist would be a member of an environment.” (Ford, 1981)
ethnic minority who, trained in both botany and
anthropology, would study ... the traditional
knowledge, cultural significance, and the management QUESTIONS THAT NEED ASKING
and uses of the flora. And it would be even better --
for him and his people -- if his study could result in
economic and cultural benefits for his own Alcorn (1995) suggested the following:
community.” (A. Barrera)
' Which plants are available?
“Our challenge is to salvage some of the native ... lore ' Why are they available?
before it becomes forever entombed with the cultures ' What factors cause a plant to be viewed as a
that gave it birth.” (Richard Evans Schultes) resource?
' How is knowledge distributed in the population?
''''' ' What do the people think about plants?
' How do they differentiate and classify elements in
We have looked at the scope of economic botany or their environment?
ethnobotany, its history, the domestication of plants, ' From which resource zone(s) are plants
exploration for useful ones, and the plants harvested?
themselves, grouped by how they are used. The ' How are they used?
purpose of this section is to introduce you to how ' What economic/financial benefits are derived?
ethnobotanical studies are carried out and in the
“Selected References” section to show a reasonably
comprehensive list of the published results of this
research.
RELATED DISCIPLINES
To a considerable degree, ethnobotany is not a stand
alone discipline. In other words, much of the
information that it uses, and the analytical
approaches that it employs are those of other
-219-
' How are the plant populations managed? practical
' What is the effect of this management on the local ' Knowledge generated by resource users on a long-
vegetation and on local institutions? term time scale
' How have human activities influenced the ' Nature and status of particular knowledge
evolution of local plants? influenced by sociocultural factors, such as
spiritual beliefs, and communally held
' Explanations behind perceived phenomena often
KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS spiritually-based and subjective
' Knowledge used to make suitable decisions under
In carrying out ethnobotanical research, it is important variable conditions
to realize that although all cultures have studied the
natural world around them, they have done so using WESTERN SCIENTIFIC SYSTEMS
different values and approaches. The following
comparison of knowledge systems is based on the ' Human life generally regarded as superior, with
work of Johnson (1992). While useful in drawing a moral right to control other life forms
point by point contrast between two world views, I ' Knowledge transmitted largely through written
suspect that our scientific methods of conducting word
ethnobotanical research have been modified in recent ' Knowledge generally learned in situation remote
years as the result of a better understanding of how from its applied context
traditional knowledge of plants and their uses is ' Knowledge essentially reductionist, quantitative,
generated. analytical, and theoretical
' Knowledge generated largely by specialists on a
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS short term time scale
' Nature and status of particular knowledge
' All parts of natural world regarded as animate; all influenced by peer review, and held by individuals
life forms as interdependent ' Explanations behind perceived phenomena
' Knowledge transmitted largely through oral media essentially rational and objective
' Knowledge developed and acquired through ' Knowledge used to put forward hypotheses and to
observation and practical experience verify underlying laws or constants.
' Knowledge is holistic, intuitive, qualitative, and
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SECTION 13 ! PLANTS BY GROUP/FAMILY
This list began as a updating and expansion of one and-miss basis, plants that are sometimes eaten only
prepared by Albert F. Hill (1952) for his introductory locally or that have been used medicinally in some
textbook in economic botany... and, I’m afraid it just fashion. I have included only those food plants that
got out of hand! I also thought it would be useful to enjoy wider use and those medicinal plants that have
add a brief description of how the plant is used and demonstrated properties. There is an emphasis on
what part yields the product. There are a number of plants of the New World.
more or less encyclopedic references on this subject.
The number of plants and the details of their uses are The listing of nonvascular plants, ferns, and their allies
simply overwhelming. In the list below, I have is short enough to scan quickly to find a particular
attempted to focus on plants that are of direct plant. The much more extensive coverage of flowering
economic importance to us, and to present them by plants is arranged by plant family.
groups or families. I have not included ornamentals,
weeds, and toxic plants (unless we knowingly use If you are not familiar with their technical names, look
them to kill something or someone). The various at the end of this section for assistance.
dictionaries of economic plants also include, on a hit-
''''''''''
BACTERIA
ALGAE
Alaria esculenta. Murlin Food [plant body]
Ascophyllum nodosum. Knotted wrack Gum (algin) [plant body]
Bangia fusco-purpurea. Cow hair, hair seaweed Food [plant body]
Chondrus crispus. Irish-moss Gum (carrageenan) [plant body]
Eisenia bicyclis. Arame Food [plant body]
Furcellaria fastigiata Gum (furcellaran) [plant body]
Gelidium spp. Agar-agar Gum (agar) [plant body]
Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria Gum (agar) [plant body]
Hijikia fusiformis. Hijiki Medicine (goiter, high blood pressure) [plant body]
Laminaria digitata. Kelp Food [plant body]
Laminaria saccharina. Kelp, sugar wrack Food [plant body]
Laminaria spp. Kombu, oarweed Gum (algin) [plant body]
Macrocystis pyrifera. Kelp Food [plant body]
Nostoc spp. Star jelly Food [plant body]
Palmaria palmata. Dulse Food, salt substitute [plant body]
Porphyra spp. Nori, laver Food; wrap sushi [plant body]
Spirulina spp. Spirulina Food [plant body]
Ulva lactuca. Sea-lettuce, green laver Food [plant body]
Undaria pinnatifida. Wakame Food; medicine (suppress tumors) [plant body]
FUNGI
Agaricus bisporus. Button mushroom, field mushroom, portobello mushroom Food [sporocarp]
Agaricus campestris. Meadow mushroom Food [sporocarp]
Agrobacterium tumifaciens Cause of crown gall disease; used in genetic engineering
Amanita muscaria. Fly agaric, soma Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Aspergillus flavus. Bread mold Fermentation: sake and soy sauce [all]
Aspergillus oryzae. Miso mold Fermentation: sake [all]
Auricularia auricula-judae. Wood ear, Judas's ear Food [sporocarp]
Boletus spp. Boletes Food [sporocarp]
Botrytis cinerea Flavoring (wine grapes) [all]
Candida albicans Disease (yeast infections, thrush) [all]
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Cantharellus cibarius. Chanterelle Food [sporocarp]
Claviceps purpurea. Ergot fungus Medicine (vasoconstrictor), psychoactive [sclerotium]
Conocybe spp. Sacred mushroom, teonanacatl Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Cortinellus edodes. Shitake Food [sporocarp]
Cryphonectaria parasitica Cause of chestnut blight
Drechslera oryzeae Cause of southern leaf blight in maize
Flammulina velutipes. Enoki mushroom, velvet shank Food [sporocarp]
Fusarium oxysporum Cause of banana wilt and Panama disease
Hemileia vastatrix Cause of coffee rust
Lactarius deliciosus. Orange agaric Food [sporocarp]
Lentinus edodes. Shitake mushroom Food [sporocarp]
Lycoperdon marginatum. Gi-i-sa-wa Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Lycoperdon mixtecorum. Gi-i-wa Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Lycoperdon spp. Puffball Food [sporocarp]
Monilinia fructicola Cause of brown rot in stone fruits of rose family
Morchella esculenta. Morel Food [sporocarp]
Mycosphaerella spp. Cause of sigatoka disease in banana
Ophiostoma ulmi Cause of Dutch elm disease
Paneolus spp. Sacred mushrooms Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Penicillium camemberti Ripening and flavoring of cheese [all]
Penicillium chrysogenum Antibiotic (penicillin) [all]
Penicillium notatum Antibiotic (penicillin) [all]
Penicillium roquefortii Ripening and flavoring of cheese (Roquefort) [all]
Phytophthora infestans Cause of late blight of potato
Phytophthora palmivora Cause of pod rot in cacao
Plasmopara viticola Cause of downy mildew in grapes
Pleurotus spp. Oyster mushroom Food [sporocarp]
Psilocybe spp. Sacred mushrooms Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Puccinia graminis Cause of stem rust in wheat
Rhizobium leguminosarum Nitrogen fixation symbiont
Russula spp. Food [sporocarp]
Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. Beer yeast Alcohol production (brewing) [all]
Saccharomyces cervisieae. Baker’s yeast, brewer’s yeast Alcohol production (brewing) [all]
Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. Wine yeast Alcohol production (wine making) [all]
Saccharomyces theobromae. Cacao yeast Fermentation process (cacao) [all]
Streptomyces spp. Antibiotics [all]
Stropharia spp. Sacred mushrooms Psychoactive [sporocarp]
Taphrina deformans Cause of peach leaf curl
Tolypocladium inflatum Medicine (cyclosporin) [all]
Torulaspora delbrueckii. Sherry yeast Used in fermentation phase in sherry making [all]
Torulaspora holmii Used in fermentation of sour dough bread [all]
Tuber spp. Truffles Food [sporocarp]
Ustilago maydis. Corn smut Cause of corn smut in maize; food
Volvariella volvacea. Straw mushroom Food [sporocarp]
Zygosaccharomyces soyae Alcoholic fermentation [all]
LICHENS
Cetraria islandica. Iceland-moss Food, medicine [all]
Evernia prunastri. Oak-moss Perfume stabilizer; dye [all]
Evernia sp. Yellow lichen Arrow poison [all]
Evernia vulpina Dye [all]
Lecanora esculenta. Manna Food, sugar [all]
Parmelia conspera. Jevud hiosig Fumatory/masticatory [all]
Rocella tinctoria. Archil, orseille Dye (litmus paper); food coloring [all]
Umbilicaria pustulata. Blistered umbilicaria Dyes (red, purple, brown) [all]
Urceolaria spp. Dyes [all]
Usnea spp. Old man’s beard Dyes, powder (cosmetic) [all]
BRYOPHYTES
Sphagnum spp. Sphagnum, peat moss Fuel (peat), insulation, packing material [all]
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Matteuccia struthiopteris. Ostrich fern Food [frond]
Osmunda cinnamomum. Cinnamon fern Food; fibers for orchid growing [frond]
Pteridium aquilinum. Bracken fern, brake fern Food [rhizome, crozier]
CONIFERS
ARAUCARIACEAE (ARAUCARIA FAMILY)
Agathis australis. Kauri, kauri-pine Timber
Araucaria araucana. Monkey puzzle Food [seed]
Araucaria columnaris. Cook-pine, New Caledonia-pine Timber
Araucaria cunninghamii. Moreton Bay pine Timber
Araucaria excelsa. Norfolk Island pine Timber
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Pseudotsuga menziesii. Douglas-fir Timber; balsam (Oregon balsam); beverage [leaf]
FLOWERING PLANTS
ACANTHACEAE (ACANTHUS FAMILY)
Justicia pectoralis. Masha-hari Psychoactive (snuff) [leaf]
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Harpephyllum caffrum. Kaffir-plum Food [fruit]
Mangifera indica. Mango, mango powder Food [fruit]; flavoring
Melanorrhoea usitata. Burmese lacquer tree Lacquer
Metopium toxiferum. Poison wood Medicine (purgative) [sap]
Pistacia lentiscus. Mastic tree Resin (mastic)
Pistacia vera. Pistachio, green almond Food [fruit]; fixed oil [seed]
Rhus coriaria. Sumac Flavoring [fruit]
Rhus verniciflua. Lacquer tree Lacquer
Rhus spp. Lemonade berry Beverage [fruit]
Schinopsis spp. Quebracho Tannins; wood
Schinus lorentzii. Quebracho Tannins
Schinus molle. Pepper tree Flavoring [fruit]
Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra. Maroola plum, marula nut Food [fruit]
Semecarpus anacardium. Marking nut Black ink/dye [fruit]; Food [fruit]
Spondias cytherea. Golden-apple, Otaheite apple, ambarella Food [fruit]
Spondias dulcis. Vi-apple Food [fruit]
Spondias mombin. Yellow mombin, hog-plum Food [fruit]
Spondias purpurea. Red mombin, Spanish-plum Food [fruit]
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Aralia nudicaulis. Wild sarsaparilla Beverage (root beer) [root]
Aralia racemosa. American spikenard Medicinal tea [root]
Eleutherococcus senticosus. Siberian ginseng Medicine (tonic) [root]
Oplopanax horridus. Devil’s club Medicine (various) [roots, inner bark, berries]
Panax ginseng. Ginseng Medicine [root]
Panax quinquefolium. American ginseng Medicine [root]
Tetrapanax papyriferum. Rice paper plant Fiber [pith]
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BURSERACEAE (BURSERA FAMILY)
Boswellia carteri. Frankincense, olibanum Medicine [ sap]
Bursera spp. Essential oil (linaloe) [wood]
Canarium spp. Pili nut, damar Food [seed], resins
Commiphora gileadensis. Balm-of-Gilead Medicine, incense [sap from stem wounds]
Commiphora myrrha. Myrrh Medicinal , incense (myrrh) [sap from stem wounds]
CARYOCARACEAE
Caryocarya amygdaliferum. Mani, swarri nut Food [fruit]
CERCIDOPHYLLACEAE
Cercidiphyllum japonicum. Katsura Wood
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COMBRETACEAE (TERMINALIA FAMILY)
Anogeissus latifolia. Gum ghatti Industrial gum [stem]; dye (black) [leaf]; timber
Terminalia chebula. Myrobalan Tannin [root/bark]
Terminalia catappa. Indian-almond Food [fruit]; oil [seed]
Terminalia superba. Afara Timber
Terminalia spp. Myrobalan, terminalia Food [fruit]
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Eruca vesicaria. Garden rocket Food [leaf], fixed oil [seed]
Eruca sativa. Arugula Food [leaf]
Eutrema wasabi. Wasabi, Japanese horseradish Essential oil [root]
Isatis tinctoria. Woad Dye and body paint [leaf]
Lepidium meyenii. Maca Food [root]
Lepidium sativum. Garden cress Food [leaf]
Nasturtium officinale. Water cress Food [leaf]
Raphanus sativus. Radish Food [root]
Sinapis alba. White mustard Flavoring [seed]
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Fraxinus quadrangulata. Blue ash Dye [leaf/twig]
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GENTIANACEAE (GENTIAN FAMILY)
Gentiana lutea. Yellow gentian Medicine (tonic), flavoring [root]
GOMORTEGACEAE
Gomortega keule. Keule Psychoactive [fruit]
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HIMANTANDRACEAE
Galbulimima belgraveana. Agara Psychoactive snuff [leaf]
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Lecythis ollaria. Monkey pod, monkey pot, paradise nut Food [seed]
Lecythis usitata. Monkey nut Food [seed]
Lecythis spp. Paradise nut Food [seed]
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Phaseolus aureus. Mung bean Food [seed]
Phaseolus coccineus. Scarlet runner bean Food [seed]
Phaseolus limensis. Lima bean Food [seed]
Phaseolus lunatus. Butter bean, sieva bean, sugar bean Food [seed]
Phaseolus vulgaris. Black bean, chili b., common b., cranberry b., garden b., green b., haricot
b., kidney b., navy b., pea b., pink b., pinto b., red b., snap b., string b., wax b., white b.
Food [seed, fruit]
Physostigma venenosum. Calabar bean Ordeal poison/medicinal [seed]
Piscidia piscipula. Fish poison tree Fish poison [bark, root]
Pisum sativum. English pea, garden pea Food [seed]
Pongamia pinnata. Pongam Essential oil; medicine [seed]
Prioria copaifera. Copaiba balsam Resin, timber
Prosopis glandulosa. Mesquite, algaroba Wood
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Asparagus pea, Goa bean, winged bean Food [seed, tuber]
Pterocarpus spp. Barwood, rosewood, sandalwood Wood
Pueraria lobata. Kudzu Erosion control; medicine (fever, alcoholism) [flower, root]
Robinia pseudoacacia. Black locust Wood
Sesbania exaltata. Colorado River hemp Fiber [stem]
Sophora secundiflora. Mescal bean, red bean Psychoactive [seed]
Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Yam bean Food [tuber]
Tamarindus indica. Tamarind, tamarindo Food [fruit, seed, pulp]
Tephrosia spp. Tephrosia Fish poison, insecticide, medicine [root]
Trifolium spp. Clovers Fodder [stem, leaf]
Trigonella foenum-graecum. Fenugreek Essential oil [seed, leaf]
Vicia faba. Broad bean, fava bean, horse bean, Windsor bean Food [seed]
Vigna acontifolia. Mat bean, moth bean Food [seed, fruit]
Vigna angularis. Adzuki bean Food [seed]
Vigna mungo. Black gram bean, urd bean Food [seed]
Vigna radiata. Golden gram bean, mung bean Food [seed]
Vigna umbellata. Rice bean Food [seed]
Vigna unguiculata. Asparagus bean, black-eyed pea, cowpea Food [seed]
Voandzeia subterranea. Bambara groundnut Food [seed]
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MALVACEAE (MALLOW OR COTTON FAMILY)
Abelomoscus esculentus. Okra, gumbo Food [fruit]
Abutilon esculentum Food [flower]
Abutilon theophrasti. China jute, Indian mallow, velvet weed Fiber [stem]
Althaea officinalis. Marsh mallow Food, medicine [root]
Gossypium arboreum. Tree cotton Fiber [seed]
Gossypium barbadense. Sea-island cotton, Egyptian c. Fiber [seed]
Gossypium herbaceum. Arabian cotton, Asiatic c., levant c., short-staple c. Fiber [seed]
Gossypium hirsutum. Upland cotton Fiber; fixed oil [seed]
Gossypium nanking. Khaki cotton Fiber [seed]
Hibiscus cannabinus. Decan hemp, kenaf Fiber [stem]
Hibiscus tomentosum. Hawaiian cotton Fiber [seed]
Hibiscus sabdariffa. Roselle, Jamaican sorrel Fiber; fiber [shoot]
Hibiscus tiliaceus. Majagua, mahoe Fiber [stem]
Malva spp. Mallow Food; medicine; beverage [fruit]
Sida acuta. Queensland hemp Fiber [stem]; medicine [leaf]
Thespesia populnea. Milo, tulip tree wood, fiber [bark]
Urena lobata. African hemp, aramina, cadillo Fiber (aramina) [stem]
MORINGACEAE
Moringa oleifera. Horseradish tree Food [fruit], fixed oil (oil of Ben) [seed]
Moringa pterogyosperma Fixed oil [seed]
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Musa textilis. Manila hemp, abacá Fiber [leaf]
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Borassus flabellifer. Palmyra palm
Fiber [leaf]; beverage; food; building material; food [fruit]; beverage [fruit]
Butia capitata. Jelly palm Food [fruit]
Calamus spp. Rattan Furniture (wicker) [stem]
Caryota urens. Toddy, fish-tail, or sago-palm Sugar, wine [stem]; food (starch) [stem; fiber [leaf]
Ceroxylon spp. Wax palm Wax [leaf]
Cocos nucifera. Coconut
Food [seed]; building/thatching [leaf]; fiber [fruit]; fixed oil [seed]; sugar [sap]
Copernicia prunifera. Carnauba wax palm Industrial wax [seed]
Daemonorops spp. Rattan Resin (Sumatran dragon's blood) medicine/varnish [fruit]
Elaeis guineensis. African oil palm Industrial & cooking oil [fruit]
Elaeis oleifera. American oil palm Industrial & cooking oil [fruit]
Euterpe oleracea. Cabbage palm Food [palm heart]
Hyphaene ventricosa. Vegetable ivory palm Industrial [seed]
Jubaea chilensis. Honey palm Sugar [sap]
Leopoldiana piassaba. Piassaba Fiber [leaf]
Metroxylon amicarum. Ivory nut palm Buttons [seed]
Metroxylon sagu. Sago palm Starch [stem]
Nypa fruticans. Nypa palm Sugar [inflorescence]
Orbignya cohune. Cohune palm Oil (cosmetic) [seed]; food [buds]; thatch, fiber (hats) [leaf]
Orbignya phalerata. Babassu palm Oil (cosmetic, margarine) [seed]
Phoenix dactylifera. Date palm Food [fruit]
Phoenix sylvestris. Wild date palm Sugar [stem]
Phytelephas macrocarpa. Tagua nut, ivory nut Industrial (buttons, dice, etc.) [seed]
Raphia spp. Raffia palm Fiber [leaf], beverage (palm wine) [stem/inflorescence]
Roystonea oleracea. American cabbage palm Food (starch) [palm heart]; thatch [leaf]
Roystonea regia. Royal palm Food (starch) [palm heart]; thatch [leaf]
Sabal palmetto. Cabbage palmetto, palmetto Fiber [leaf]
Sabal causiarum. Puerto Rican hat palm Fiber [leaf]
Serenoa repens. Sabal palmetto Food [fruit]; medicine (prostate) [fruit]
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Rheum rhabarbarum. Rhubarb Food [petiole]
Rheum palmatum. Chinese rhubarb Medicine [rhizome]
Rumex crispus. Dock Food [leaf]; medicine [root]
Rumex hymenosepalus. Canaigre, tanner's dock Tannins [root]
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Uncaria gambir. Gambier, white cutch Dye, masticatory, medicine [leaf]
Uncaria spp. Cat’s claw, uña de gato Medicinal tea [stem, leaves, bark]
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Quassia cedron. Cedron Vermifuge [seed]
Quassia indica Medicine/insecticide [seed]
Quassia simarouba. Acietuna Vermifuge [seed]
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TRAPACEAE (WATER CHESTNUT FAMILY)
Trapa bicornis. Water caltrop Food [seed]
Trapa natans. Water chestnut Food [seed]
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WINTERACEAE (WINTER’S BARK FAMILY)
Drimys winteri. Winter's bark Medicine (scurvy) [bark]
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PLANT FAMILIES: COMMON NAMES TO TECHNICAL NAMES
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Pine û Pinaceae Screw-pine û Pandanaceae Thrift û Plumbaginaceae
Pineapple û Bromeliaceae Scroph û Scrophulariaceae Touch-me-not û Balsaminaceae
Pink û Caryophyllaceae Sedge û Cyperaceae
Piper û Piperaceae Sesame û Pedaliaceae Umbel û Umbelliferae
Pipewort û Eriocaulaceae She-oak û Casuarinaceae Unicorn plant û Martyniaceae
Pittosporum û Pittosporaceae Silk tassel û Garryaceae
Plane tree û Platanaceae Silverbell û Styracaceae Verbena û Verbenaceae
Plantago û Plantaginaceae Smartweed û Polygonaceae Vervain û Verbenaceae
Plantain û Plantaginaceae Smilax û Smilacaceae Violet û Violaceae
Podocarpus û Podocarpaceae Snapdragon û Scrophulariaceae
Poison-oak û Anacardiaceae Soapberry û Sapindaceae Walnut û Juglandaceae
Pokeweed û Phytolaccaceae Sorrel û Oxalidaceae Water chestnut û Trapaceae
Pomegranate û Punicaceae Soursop û Annonaceae Water clover û Marsileaceae
Poplar û Salicaceae Spiderwort û Commelinaceae Water hawthornAponogetonaceae
Poppy û Papaveraceae Spikenard û Araliaceae Waterleaf û Hydrophyllaceae
Potato û Solanaceae Spikenard û Valerianaceae Water-lily û Nymphaeaceae
Prayer plant û Marantaceae Spindle tree û Celastraceae Water-lily û Cabombaceae
Protea û Proteaceae Spurge û Euphorbiaceae Water milfoil û Haloragaceae
Pulse û Leguminosae Squash û Cucurbitaceae Water nymph û Najadaceae
Pumpkin û Cucurbitaceae Star anise û Illiciaceae Water plantain û Alismataceae
Purslane û Portulacaceae Stinging nettle û Urticaceae Water poppy û Limnocharitaceae
St. John's wort û Guttiferae Water starwort û Callitrichaceae
Quassia û Simaroubaceae Stonecrop û Crassulaceae Waterwort û Elatinaceae
Styrax û Styracaceae Wax myrtle û Myricaceae
Rock-rose û Cistaceae Sumac û Anacardiaceae Wild cinnamon û Canellaceae
Rose û Rosaceae Sunflower û Compositae Willow û Salicaceae
Rose imperial û Cochlosperm- Sweetgale û Myricaceae Wintergreen û Pyrolaceae
Rue û Rutaceae Sweetsop û Annonaceae Winter's bark û Winteraceae
Rush û Juncaceae Sycamore û Platanaceae Witch hazel û Hamamelidaceae
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SECTION 14 ! GLOSSARY & WHO’S WHO
adventitious. Originating from mature tissues of a amatoxins. A group of toxic substances produced by
plant, rather than from meristematic ones, as in aerial Amanita mushrooms that can cause severe
roots and tubers arising from older stems. disturbances to the stomach, intestines, liver, and
kidneys, and that can be lethal.
aerobic. The term applied to organisms and
processes that require oxygen to function properly. amino acids. The basic building blocks of peptides
and amino acids. These organic compounds are
aflatoxins. A group of toxins produced by the fungus composed of an acidic carboxyl (-COOH) group and a
Aspergillus, especially A. flavus, from which the name basic amino (NH2 ) group.
is derived. In animals, aflatoxins can cause cancers
and mutations. amphora. A clay vessel with a narrow neck and two
handles used in ancient Egypt, Rome, and Greece
agar. A complex polysaccharide found in several kinds used to store wines and oils.
of algae. When heated in water and then cooled, agar
forms a gel that can be supplemented with nutrients amylose. A long, unbranched polysaccharide
to form a medium suitable for growing bacteria and composed of many glucose sugars held together by
other micro-organisms. chemical bonds. They are the building blocks of
starches.
aggregate fruit. A kind of false fruit in which the
separate pistils or carpels of a single flower appear to
form a single fruit, as in the raspberry. anaerobic respiration. The kind of respiration that
can occur only in the absence of oxygen.
agronomy. The science that deals with the theoretical
and practical production of crops and with analgesic. A substance that relieves pain without
management of soils. causing unconsciousness.
ale. A fermented alcoholic beverage, similar to beer, annual. A plant that germinates, flowers, and sets
but typically with a stronger, more bitter flavor seed in a single growing season.
because of its hops content.
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annual ring. One of the concentric rings in a tree’s astringent. A substance, such as a tannin, that
wood, when viewed in cross-section. It represents the causes tissue contraction in animals. They have
spring-summer cycle of wood tissue growth. medicinal uses, as in the healing of wounds and
reducing the flow of blood. They often cause us to
anthocyanins. A class of water soluble, nitrogenous “pucker up” when we eat them.
pigments. They account for the colors that we
associate with fall foliage. atropine. An alkaloid produced by Atropa belladonna
and other members of the nightshade family. It is
antibiotic. A substance produced by bacteria, fungi, toxic and it has important medicinal properties.
or higher plants that will prevent or retard the growth
of another organism, usually a bacterium or fungus. autotroph. A plant that uses atmospheric carbon
dioxide as its source of carbon in its life processes.
antibody. A blood protein produced as a result of the
presence of a foreign protein (antigen), such as those auxin. A hormone that promotes elongation of cells.
found in pollen.
axillary. Of or pertaining to the interior angle formed
anticonvulsant. A substance that prevents or by a stem and the leaf that it bears. It is derived from
reduces the severity of convulsions. the Latin word for armpit.
anthelmenthic. A substance or agent that expels or awn. A substantial hair or bristle that arises from a
kills intestinal worms. plant part. The term is most commonly applied to
such bristles on grass spikelets.
antigen. A molecule, usually a protein but sometimes
a polysaccharide, that causes an animal to produce an -B-
antibody in reaction to the molecule. The reaction
between a particular antibody and antigen is typically backcross. The result of hybridization between a first
very specific. generation offspring and either one of its parents. The
term is also used for the process itself.
antihistamine. A substance that counteracts the
effects of histamines. bacteriology. The science that deals with the study
of bacteria.
antipyretic. A substance that prevents or reduces
fevers. bacterium. Any of the microscopic, unicellular
organisms that lack nuclei and other subcellular
aphrodisiac. A substance that promotes or arouses organelles typical of other kinds of plants and animals.
sexual desire. Bacteria are of great economic importance because of
their role in fermentation, spoilage and decay, and as
apomixis. Any form of asexual reproduction that the source of antibiotics.
plants use in place of sexual reproduction. Many of our
crops are propagated asexually because they will have bagasse. The dry, fibrous byproduct that remains
genetically uniform offspring. Plants that demonstrate after juice has been extracted from sugar cane stems.
apomixis are called apomicts. It may be burned as fuel or used to make paper.
arboretum. A botanical garden that specializes in balsam. A fragrant, thick, oily or resinous exudate
woody plants. derived from various plants, as in Canada balsam and
balsam of tolu. Many are used to make medicinal
aril. A fleshy, often brightly-colored outgrowth of a ointments.
seed’s surface or its stalk. It is often associated with
seed dispersal. Examples include the cup-like aril of Banks, Sir Joseph (1743-1820). British aristocrat,
the yew and the more delicate mace that lies on the explorer, botanist, and long-time President of the
surface of the nutmeg seed. Royal Society. Banks explored the South Pacific on
one of Captain Cook’s voyages. His herbarium is at
aromatherapy. The practice of using various plant the Natural History Museum in London.
extracts, particularly essential oils, in message
treatments and to treat illness. barbasco. A general term for fish poisons.
artificial selection. The procedure that we employ of bark. The tough, dead outer covering on the trunks
selecting offspring of desirable kinds of plants and and branches of woody plants and on the exterior of
animals that possess traits that we find pleasing or some roots. It includes the epidermis, cork, cortex,
useful in breeding future generations of those forms. and phloem tissues.
ascomycetes. Those fungi that reproduce by means base. A chemical substance that in solution combines
of sexual spores formed within an ascus, typically a with and removes hydrogen and protons, and which
membranous, club-shaped structure. They are often reacts with an acid to yield a salt and water; most
called the sac fungi. The group is of significant have a pH of greater than 7.
economic importance. Common examples include the
ergot fungus, bread mold, brewer’s yeast, and the basidiomycetes. Those fungi that reproduce by
penicillin mold. means of basidiospores and that form the familiar
mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, and shelf or bracket
asexual reproduction. The type of reproduction that fungus at some point in their life cycle. They are
does not involve the union of egg and sperm or other collectively known as club fungi. The less familiar rust
sexual spores. and smut fungi also belong here.
ascorbic acid. A vitamin found in various citrus fruits bast fibers. Any of various plant fibers derived from
and green vegetables, a deficiency of which causes stem tissue. Common examples include hemp and
scurvy. flax.
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Beadle, George Wells (1903-1989). American bryophytes. The collective term for mosses and
botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading liverworts; multicellular, vessel-less plants with true
students of the origin of maize. Beadle won the Nobel stems and leaves, but that lack true roots.
Prize in 1958 for his development of the “one gene-
one enzyme” hypothesis. Bt. A shorthand notation for Bacillus thuringiensis, the
bacterium that causes crown gall disease in crop
beautiful. Of or pertaining to plants of the grass plants and that is now used in genetic engineering as
family (Gramineae). the vehicle for transferring a gene from one plant to
another.
B. C. E. Before the Current (or Common or Christian)
era. bud. An immature shoot, typically covered by
protective bracts (bud scales). It will elongate into a
beer. A fermented beverage made from water, yeast, stem that bears leaves and, in some cases, flowers.
and a carbohydrate. A more restricted definition calls
for malt and hops to be used, as well. bulb. An underground structure consisting of a series
of overlapping leaf bases inserted on a much-reduced
belladonna alkaloids. The group name given to stem axis, as in the onion.
atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, and similar
alkaloids derived from Atropa belladonna and related -C-
plants. They are known more technically as the
tropane alkaloids. caffeine. The xanthine alkaloid found in tea leaves,
coffee beans, and several other plants.
beri-beri. A disease characterized by inflammation of
the nerves. It is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1. cake. The solid portion of a fruit, seed, or other plant
part that remains behind after oils have been pressed
berry. A multi-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the from them.
fruit wall is fleshy throughout, as in the tomato and
grape. The term is also used for certain cereal grains, calabash. A kind of gourd used to store materials or
as in the wheat berry. as a drinking vessel.
biennial. A plant that lives for two years, often callus. The undifferentiated plant tissue that forms
flowering and setting seed during the second year. during tissue culturing. The term is also used for the
tissue that forms over a wound.
binomial system of nomenclature. A system of
naming, popularized by Carolus Linnaeus, in which calorie. The amount of heat needed to raise the
each plant or animal bears a two word name -- the temperature of 1 gram of water 1O C. It is often used
genus and specific epithet. to measure the energy value in food.
biotechnology. The use of biological processes, Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de
especially genetic manipulation, for industrial or (1806-1893). Professor of Natural History at the
medical purposes. University of Geneva. Author of numerous important
taxonomic works and the author of Origine des Plantes
blight. Any one of a variety of plant diseases caused Cultiveés, an encyclopedic survey of crop plants and
by fungi or insects, as in the late blight of potato that their origins.
caused the potato famine in Ireland.
caoutchouc. The aboriginal name for the latex from
bolting. The premature onset of flowering caused by various trees native to Central and South America.
genetic control or environmental stimulus, such as a
change in day length. capsaicin. The oleoresin found in the fruits of chili
peppers and their relatives (Capsicum spp.) that
Borlaug, Norman (1914-). American agronomist. causes the sensation of heat and pain. It also has
He developed strains of dwarf wheat and is one of the become popular in the treatment of arthritis pain and
fathers of the Green Revolution. Borlaug won the as an ingredient in pepper-spray.
Nobel Prize for Peace in 1970.
capsule. A dry, multi-seeded, dehiscent fruit derived
botany. The science concerned with the study of from 2 or more united carpels. It opens by various
plants. Ambrose Bierce, in his The Devil’s Dictionary means to release the seeds.
defined it as “... the science of vegetables -- those
that are not good to eat, as well as those that are. It carbohydrate. An energy producing organic
deals largely with their flowers, which are commonly substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
badly designed, inartistic in color, and ill-smelling.” oxygen, typically in the form of Cx (H2 O)y . Common
examples include starch, cellulose, and a wide variety
BP. Before the present time, which by convention, is of sugars.
set as 1950.
Carboniferous. The portion of the Paleozoic Era that
bract. A much-reduced leaf, particularly one located lasted from about 360 to 286 million years ago. It was
just below a flower or associated with a flower cluster. preceded by the Devonian and followed by the
Permian. It is the compressed vegetation of this
bran. The outer fibrous layers of cereal grains. It is period that formed coal deposits around the world.
often removed during processing.
carcinogen. A substance that causes cancer.
brandy. A beverage made by distilling wine or some
other fermented fruit. carminative. A substance that reduces gas formation
and relieves flatulence, as in ginger and peppermint.
bromelain. An enzyme found in the pineapple. It is
an ingredient in meat tenderizers.
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carpel. The female reproductive organ in a flower. It clarify. To make clear by removing impurities, as in
is typically differentiated into a terminal stigma, a wine making.
neck-like style, and a basal ovary where the seeds are
borne. A flower typically has 1 or more carpels, which clone. A group of genetically identical individuals or
may be separate from one another or united. cells derived asexually from a single ancestor.
caryopsis. A dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which CMS. Cytoplasmic male sterility.
the seed coat and fruit wall are more or less
completely fused to one another, as in the various cocaine. An alkaloid present in the leaves of coca
cereal grains. This fruit type is characteristic of the plant (Erythroxylum coca) and related species of
grass family (Gramineae). South American shrubs. It is a powerful psychoactive
substance and is used in medicine as a local
catalyst. A substance that initiates or speeds up a anesthetic.
chemical reaction, but that is not itself consumed
during the process. cocarcinogen. A non-cancer causing substance that
activates or enhances the effects of one that does.
cathartic. A substance that causes a purging of the
bowels, as in castor oil. codeine. An alkaloid present in the latex of the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum). It is used to relieve pain
C. D. C. Centers for Disease Control. and to control coughing.
C. E. Current or common or Christian Era. An codex. An ancient manuscript, usually in book form.
alternative to A. D.
coir. The fiber obtained from the middle layer of the
cell theory. The fundamental biological principle fruit wall (mesocarp) of the coconut. It is used for
developed by Schleiden and Schwann that states, in stuffing and to make ropes, mats, etc.
part, that all living organisms are composed of cells
and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. colchicine. An alkaloid found in the autumn crocus
(Colchicum autumnale) and related plants. It is a
cellulose. An insoluble straight-chain polysaccharide powerful mitotic poisoner and causes hair loss and
composed of repeating glucose units. It is the basic other symptoms if ingested.
building material in plants and has been called the
most common organic compound on earth. colloid. A mixture of microscopic or ultramicroscopic
particles (0.1 to 0.0001 microns) uniformly
Cenozoic. The era of geologic time that began about suspended or dispersed through a second substance,
65 million years ago and continues to the present. often forming a viscous solution. Examples include
milk and the various latexes found in plants.
center of diversity. The geographic region of the
world where a crop shows its greatest genetic complementation or complementarity. The
diversity. principle of nutrition that recognizes that one food or
plant may provide one of the eight essential amino
center of origin. The geographic region of the world acids that is missing in another, such that eating the
where a crop is thought to have originated. This two will provide the complete set, as in a diet that
concept is not distinct from that of “center of includes both maize and black beans.
diversity,” in that the primary criterion for determining
site of origin cited by N. I. Vavilov, who developed the compound. A mixture with two or more ingredients,
concept, is the degree of diversity found there. as in certain medicines.
cereal. Any kind of grain used for food. The term also compound leaf. A leaf in which the blade is divided
refers to any grass, such as wheat, rice, or maize, into two or more discrete segments, as in the walnut
that yields these grains and to breakfast foods made and many plants of the bean family.
from these grains.
conifers. The largest and economically most
chaff. The dry, papery bracts (husks) that separate important group of gymnosperms. Most are resinous
from cereal grains or from seeds during winnowing trees with needle-like leaves. Their wood lacks vessel.
and threshing. Reproductive structures are borne in separate male
and female cones. Conifers are the source of timber,
chicha. A fermented beverage made from various paper pulp, and resins. Common examples include
plants, especially maize. pines, spruces, and hemlocks.
chlorophyll. A green pigment in plants. During convergent evolution. The process of evolving
photosynthesis, light falling on the plant removes an similar features in unrelated plants as an adaptation
electron from the chlorophyll molecule. Most terrestrial to living in the same environment. The succulent
plants make chlorophyll a and b. growth form seen in cacti and spurges offer an
excellent example.
chloroplast. A subcellular organelle that consists of
stacks of membranes that bear photosynthetic Cook, James (1728-1779). English naval captain
pigments. It also contains genetic material used to and one of history’s greatest explorers and
direct its protein synthesis. cartographers. Cook’s voyages brought to light new
knowledge of the world’s plants and its peoples.
chromosome. A thread-like structure found in the
cell nucleus. Each contains a series of features, copal. A resin derived from a variety of tropical trees
including a linear sequence of genes. used to make varnish.
citric acid cycle. See Kreb’s cycle. copra. The dried inner fruit wall (endocarp) of the
coconut. It is processed to yield coconut oil. Fresh
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endocarp is the source of shredded and flaked coconut that bear male and female reproductive structures in
used in cooking. separate cones.
coprolite. Fossil poop. Human fecal material often cytology. The science that deals with the study of
contains seeds or seed-like fruits that reveal what the cells.
long dead person ate.
cytoplasm. The portion of a cell inside the plasma
cork. A layer of protective tissue that forms inside the membrane, but excluding the nucleus.
bark of woody plants. At maturity it is composed of
dead cells that are impregnated with suberin, which -D-
renders them waterproof. Commercial cork comes
from the cork oak (Quercus suber). dammar. A hard resin derived from various Southeast
Asian trees. It is used in oil paints, varnishes,
corm. An underground plant structure consisting of a lacquers, and inks.
reduced stem axis that bears dry, papery leaves, as in
the gladiola “bulb.” Darwin, Charles Robert (1809-1882). English
naturalist and one of the greatest figures in the
cortex. The region of a stem, as seen in cross- history of the biological sciences. He is best known for
section, that lies between the epidermis and the his book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
vascular bundles. Selection, which set forth his theory of the evolution
of life on earth. It remains today the core concept in
cortisone. A steroidal hormone derived originally explaining the diversity of life around us. Darwin
from yams (Dioscorea spp.), used medicinally to treat contributed significantly to our knowledge of economic
inflammations and as the basis for oral contraceptives. plants in his Voyage of the Beagle and “The
Domestication of Plants and Animals....”
cotyledon. An embryonic leaf of a seed plant.
Flowering plants typically have one or two, which is dead. In today’s politically correct environment, we
the basis for the terms monocots and dicots. do not say “dead.” The organism is metabolically
challenged.
coumarin. An aromatic compound with a vanilla-like
odor made by various grasses and legumes. It gives deciduous. Falling from a plant, as in leaves that fall
the smell to freshly mown fields. Coumarin is a blood at the end of the growing season.
thinner used in medicine and in rat poisons.
decoction. The process of boiling down a liquid to
crack. The crystalline form of cocaine that is broken extract an essence from it. The term is also used for
into small pieces and inhaled or smoked. the material that is extracted.
crop. The product of a cultivated plant or the plant dehiscent. Opening at maturity by slits, pores, etc. to
itself. release seeds, as legumes and various fruit types
commonly called “pods.”
crop rotation. The practice of raising different crops
in a field, often to replenish soil nutrients. dendrochronology. The science that deals with the
study of tree-rings as a means of determining the age
cross-pollination. The transfer of pollen from one of trees and of past climatic conditions.
flower to the stigma of another flower, usually of the
same species. The transfer is accomplished by wind, denitrification. The conversion by bacteria of nitrate
insects, birds, etc. and nitrite to nitrogen and/or nitrous oxide. It occurs
typically in the absence of oxygen.
cultivar. A cultivated strain or variety of plant. The
word is a contraction of cultivated variety. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). A nucleic acid
composed of a sugar and a series of four bases. It is
cultivation. The act or process of caring for a plant, the genetic material of all living organisms. The exact
which involves preparing the soil, watering, fertilizing, sequence of the four bases determines the genetic
weeding, pruning, etc. code for that individual.
curandero. A native healer proficient in the use of dermatitis. An inflammation of the skin.
medicinal herbs.
diaphoretic. A substance that induces perspiration.
curare. Any of various arrow and dart poisons
containing alkaloids derived from the bark of South dicots. The semitechnical name for those flowering
American Chondrodendron and Strychnos. Curare plants that typically have two seed leaves on their
recipes vary with tribe. The toxins paralyze motor embryos, net-veined leaf blades, and flower parts in
nerves, thereby blocking the transmission of impulses 4's, 5's, or multiples thereof.
to muscles, including the diaphragm.
digestion. The process by which heat, enzymes, or a
cure. To preserve by means of drying, salting, etc., solvent decompose a substance. For us, it is the
as in tobacco leaves and animal skins. process of breaking down food stuffs in the stomach
and bowels.
cuticle. The thin, waxy protective covering on stems
and leaves. digitalis. A group name for a series of related
glycosides, often called the digitalis glycosides,
cv. Cultivar. derived from the leaves and roots of Digitalis purpurea
and related species. They have powerful effects on the
cycad. A small group of gymnosperms (about 100 heart.
species) that are palm-like in general appearance and
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dioecious. The condition of having male and female edaphic. Of, related to, or influenced by soil.
flowers on separate plants of a species, as in the
papaya. Edison, Thomas Alva (1847-1931). American
inventor. Although known primarily for his various
Dioscorides (Pedanius Dioscorides) (c. 40-c.90). electrical devices, Edison also studied useful plants
Greek military physician and author of De Materia and conducted extensive research on latex plants at
Medica, a compendium of medicinal plants and their his laboratory in Ft. Meyers, Florida.
uses that remained authoritative for many centuries.
egg. The female reproductive structure in higher
diploid. A nucleus that contains two complete sets of plants. A fertilized egg will develop into a zygote.
chromosomes. The term is also applied to cells and
individuals. Most common animals and birds have eggplant. A reputedly edible plant with no known
diploid nuclei in all of their cells, except for egg and nutritional or aesthetic qualities. People who like the
sperm. The non-sex cells of many plants are also eggplant should be watched carefully to see if they
diploid, but a significant percentage have three or exhibit other serious personality defects.
more sets (polyploids).
embryo. In higher plants, an immature individual
disaccharide. A carbohydrate, such as sucrose or contained within a seed.
maltose, composed of two simple sugars (monosac-
charides). emetic. A substance that induces vomiting (emesis),
such as syrup of ipecac or much of modern popular
distillation. The process of purifying a liquid by music.
converting it to a vapor, condensing the gas at a
colder temperature, and then trapping the resulting emmenagogue. A substance that stimulates
liquid in a container. The distillation of fermented menstrual flow.
beverages is based on the different boiling
temperatures of water and alcohol. The term is also endemic. Restricted to a particular geographic region.
applied to the extraction of volatile oils from various
plant parts for use in perfumes, etc. endocarp. The innermost layer of the fruit wall
(pericarp). It may be fleshy, fibrous, or bony.
distilled spirit. The alcoholic beverage that results
from distillation. endosperm. The nutritive tissue (often triploid) found
within the seed and used by the developing embryo
DNA. See desoxyribonucleic acid. until it is mature enough to produce its own food by
photosynthesis. It is typically starchy or oily.
doctrine of signatures. The belief that plants were
created with indications (signatures) as to their enfleurage. A technique for making perfume by
intended uses. A plant with leaves resembling the exposing oils to floral scents, typically by using petals.
lobes of the liver, therefore, is to be used to treat liver
disease. enology. The study of wine and wine-making.
domestication. To tame or modify to meet human enzyme. A protein that acts as a catalyst during
needs. Some fully domesticated plants are now unable biochemical reactions, thereby controlling various
to live independently of us because of these aspects of cellular metabolism.
modifications.
ephedrine. An alkaloid derived from ma huang or
Douglas, David (1798-1834). Scottish botanist and Mormon tea (Ephedra spp.) used to treat asthma by
plant collector for the Horticultural Society of London. dilation of bronchial tubes and by athletes to enhance
He is the Douglas of the Douglas-fir. He died under physical performance.
mysterious circumstances while botanizing in Hawai’i.
epidermis. The outermost layer of cells covering
drug. A medicinal preparation, narcotic or other form stems, roots, leaves, etc.
of psychoactive substance derived from a plant.
epiphyte. A plant that grows on another plant for
drupe. A fleshy fruit with a bony layer that encloses position or support, but which does not parasitize it.
its single seed, as in the avocado.
ergotism. The disease of rye and other grasses
dry measure. A system of measuring dry products, caused by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea and
such as grains and other fruits, by volume. related species). It occurs in two forms, one that
affects the central nervous systems and leads to
dyspepsia. Indigestion, especially when it occurs in convulsions, and the other that constricts blood
the wealthy or well-educated. vessels and leads to loss of extremities.
Dunlop, John Boyd (1840-1921). Scottish inventor essence. The product obtained by distillation or other
of the pneumatic tire. Its development was a major extraction procedures.
factor in the growth of the rubber latex industry.
essential oil. A volatile oil extracted typically from
-E- flowers or leaves that bear specialized glands.
Because of their pleasant aroma and taste, essential
ecology. The branch of the biological sciences that oils are widely used in cooking and the manufacture of
deals with the relationships of plants and animals to cosmetics.
their environment and to one another.
ethanol. Ethyl alcohol, the inebriating principle in
economic botany. The branch of botany that deals beer, wine, etc.
with “... production, distribution, and consumption of
plants useful to people...” (Charles B. Heiser, 1985).
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ethnobotany. The branch of botany that deals with surface of seeds for a number of different industrial
the interaction of plants and people. uses.
F1 generation. Literally, the first filial generation. The forage. Food for horses and cattle. The term also
first generation of offspring resulting from the crossing means the search for food.
of two parents.
forestry. The science that deals with the theoretical
false fruit. The structure that results from the fusion and practical aspects of managing forests.
of separate true fruits, thereby appearing to be a
single fruit, as in the pineapple. formication. The sensation that ants or other
creatures are crawling over the skin. It is a standard
FAO. The Food and Agriculture Organization, a branch symptom of intoxication from certain psychoactive
of the United Nations. It publishes a number of useful plants. The term is based on the Latin word for an ant,
books and pamphlets, and compiles annual reports of formica.
world-wide and national crop production data.
fossil. The remains of once-living plants or animals,
fat. A triglyceride that is typically solid at room such as bones or carbonized material, or other
temperature. Most fats come from animals. evidence of their existence, such as impressions,
tracks, etc.
fatty acid. A typically long, unbranched chain of
hydrocarbons with a terminal carboxyl group. If the frond. A leaf. The term is used especially for the leaf
carbon atoms on side chains carry the maximum of a fern, cycad, or palm.
number of carbon atoms in their structure, the fatty
acid is said to be saturated; if fewer, it is unsaturated. fructose. A simple sugar (monosaccharide) that
occurs widely in plants, especially in fruits. It is also
favism. A disease caused by the consumption of fava called levulose. It combines with another
beans by sensitive individuals. It is characterized by a monosaccharide, glucose, to form sucrose.
severe form of anemia.
fruit. A ripened ovary, along with any other structures
fermentation. A series of chemical and physical that mature along with it.
changes resulting from the action of microorganisms
and enzymes. It accounts for the change in color, fumatory. A plant material that is smoked for
taste, and aroma of tobacco leaves, tea leaves, and recreational or medicinal purposes, as in tobacco.
coffee beans during processing. Alcoholic fermentation
involves the breakdown of a carbohydrate source by fungicide. A substance that kills fungi.
microorganisms to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide. fungus. A microscopic to conspicuous, non-vascular,
non-photosynthetic organism that derives its
Fertile Crescent. A region of fertile land between nourishment from organic matter in the soil , or
Israel and the Persian Gulf. It is one of the earliest through parasitic or symbiotic relationships. Fungi
sites of plant and animal domestication. were once considered to be plants, but now are seen
as a distinct form of life. Common examples include
fertilization. The fusion of male and female gametes molds, rusts, smuts, yeasts, mushrooms, and
(egg and sperm in higher plants) to form a zygote. toadstools. They are of considerable economic
The term is often incorrectly used as a synonym for importance as causes of human and plant diseases, as
pollination. players in fermentation, as the source of medicines,
and as the source of psychoactive substances.
fiber. A type of plant cell, typically many times longer
than wide, thick-walled, and dead at maturity. They -G-
are typically composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin. Within the plant body, they provide structural gall. A swelling or other abnormal growth in a plant
support. We extract fibers from stems, leaves, and the caused by bacteria, fungi, insects, worms, etc. Some
galls do little damage to the plant, while others, such
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as club root and crown gall, cause serious economic graft. A shoot or other piece of tissue that is inserted
losses in crops. into a slit on a host plant, from which it derives
nourishment. The term is also used for the process of
gamete. A sex cell (egg or sperm in higher plants) uniting two compatible plants.
whose nucleus (and cytoplasm in some cases) fuses
with another sex cell of a different type in the process grain. The fruit type of the grass family. See
of fertilization. caryopsis for a more complete definition. The term
also refers to the more conspicuous fibers and other
gene. The basic physical unit of heredity, composed tissues in processed wood.
of DNA or RNA, and occupying a specific site on a
chromosome or in other subcellular organelles. grappa. A brandy made by distilling the remains of
grapes after they have been used to in wine making.
gene pool. All of the genes in a particular population It is especially popular in Italy.
of plants or animals.
GRAS. The abbreviation for the phrase, “generally
genetics. The science that deals with the study of regarded as safe,” as applied to foods and medicines.
genes, heredity, and variation of inherited features.
Green Revolution. The term coined to describe the
genome. All of the genetic material contained in a coordinated effort to increase crop production through
single set of chromosomes in a plant or animal. The genetic development of high-yielding varieties that are
term is also used for all of the genetic information pest-resistant.
carried in all of the sets of chromosomes if they are
different from one another. grist. Grains that will be ground at a mill.
genotype. The genetic constitution of an organism. groats. Hulled or crushed cereal grains.
genetic engineering. The purposeful modification of gruel. A soup made of a cereal and water.
an organism to render it more useful or valuable to
humans by manipulation of its DNA or by introduction guarapo. A Peruvian drink made from fermented
of DNA from another source. sugar cane juice.
genus. A rank in the taxonomic hierarchy of closely gum. The viscous sap from a variety of woody plants
related species. It is the first component of the that dries to a crystalline solid. Gums are soluble in
scientific name of a plant or animal. water and become mucilaginous.
germ. The embryo within a seed. A cereal grain gunny. A coarse fiber, often jute, used to make
consists of the germ, endosperm, and bran. The term sacks.
is also used, of course, for any disease causing
microorganism. gymnosperm. The semitechnical name for the group
of seed plants whose ovules are not enclosed in an
germplasm. The hereditary material transmitted ovary. Common examples include the pines, spruces,
from one generation to the next. Also spelled germ firs, redwoods, cycads, and the ginkgo or maidenhair
plasm. tree.
gin. A device invented by Eli Whitney to separate habitat. The home of an individual plant or animal or
cotton fibers from the attached seeds. community of them.
glucose. A widely occurring, simple, 6-carbon sugar hallucinogen. A substance that causes the mind to
(monosaccharide) that is a major source of energy perceive the presence of an object or other stimulus
required in cellular metabolism. More complex that is not actually present. Remember, it is not just
carbohydrates yield glucose on hydrolysis. the eyes that can be fooled.
gluten. Any one of the proteins in the endosperm of haploid. A nucleus, cell, or organism that contains
cereal grains. Their chemical and physical properties only one set of chromosomes.
determine the bread-making properties of flour.
hardwood. The kind of wood found in woody
glycoside. The product that results when a sugar flowering plants.
reacts with an alcohol or a phenol. Many are
physiologically important because of the non-sugar hashish. The purified resin derived from the flowering
component. bracts of female marijuana plants. It is smoked or
chewed.
GMO. Genetically modified organism.
heartwood. The dense wood found toward the middle
Goodyear, Charles (1800-1860). American of a tree trunk, when viewed in cross-section.
inventor who developed the process of vulcanization
of rubber. hemicellulose. A group of carbohydrates found in
plant cell walls that forms a matrix in which cellulose
gossypol. The toxic principle found in the seeds of fibers are embedded. It cross-links cellulose chains.
cotton (Gossypium spp.).
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hemolysis. The rupture of blood cells caused by knowledge of the natural history of our planet. His
various chemical or physical agents. extensive exploration in South America uncovered a
wealth of botanical information.
herb. A non-woody plant whose aerial portion
typically dies back to the ground at the end of a hunter-gatherers. The term applied to a people who
growing season. The term is also used for: (1) acquire most or all of their food by hunting animals
aromatic and/or flavorful plants used in cooking and and gathering edible plants from their surroundings.
medicine. Some authors distinguish cooking herbs
from spices on the basis of geographic origin; spices hybrid. In the most widely used sense, a plant or
are from tropical or subtropical regions; and (2) plants animal that is the offspring of two parents that belong
with demonstrated or presumed medicinal properties. to different species, subspecies, or varieties.
herbal. A book, often lavishly illustrated, that hydrolysis. The chemical reaction between water and
describes the medicinal uses of plants. In earlier a substance, resulting in the decomposition of that
times, it was a bound collection of medicinal plant substance.
specimens.
hydroponics. The procedure of growing plants in
herbarium. A collection of dried and pressed plant water, sand, or gravel that has had nutrients added,
specimens. The term is used for the specimens rather than soil.
themselves or for the room or building that houses
them. hyoscyamine. One of the belladonna alkaloids found
in Atropa belladonna and related plants.
herbicide. A substance that is toxic to plants.
hypnotic. A substance that induces sleep.
herbivore. An animal that feeds on plants.
HYV’s. High yielding varieties.
heroin. A synthetic alkaloid manufactured from
morphine, a naturally occurring alkaloid in the opium -I-
poppy. It was originally developed as a powerful pain
killer, but now has become a major recreational drug. ibotenic acid. The substance in the fly agaric
(Amanita muscaria) that causes hallucinations.
hesperidium. A fleshy, indehiscent fruit with
conspicuous fibrous compartments or segments lined inbreeding. The type of breeding that involves only
with juicy hairs, as seen in the various citrus fruits. very closely related individuals, as in members of the
same population or cultivated strain.
hexaploid. A nucleus, cell, or individual that contains
six sets of chromosomes. Hexaploids are a kind of inbred line. A true breeding line that is homozygous
polyploid. at all (or practically all) of its loci.
heterosis. The increased vigor and fertility seen in indehiscent. The term applied to a fruit or other
hybrid offspring when compared to their parents. The structure that does not open at maturity by means of
phenomenon is also called hybrid vigor. sutures, lids, pores, etc.
histamine. A class of substances released by immune indigenous. The term applied to a plant or animal
cells and producing allergic reactions. Common species that occurs naturally in a particular area; one
examples include those produced by our mucous that was not accidentally or purposefully introduced by
membranes when they are exposed to certain pollen humans.
and fungal spores.
indole acetic acid (IAA). A substance, with
Hofmann, Albert (1906-). Swiss biochemist who hormone-like properties, that causes cell enlargement
first isolated LSD from the ergot fungus and later from and that affects cell division.
plants of the morning glory family. Co-author, with R.
E. Schultes, of The Botany and Chemistry of inflorescence. The arrangement of one or more
Hallucinogens. flowers on a floral axis. There are many types of
inflorescences, such as heads, spikes, etc.
Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton (1817-1911). British
botanist and author of numerous taxonomic works of infusion. The process of extracting a substance by
great significance. Hooker was a noted explorer and steeping it in cold or hot (but not boiling) water, as in
served for many years as the Director of the Royal the preparation of a cup of hot tea.
Botanic Gardens at Kew.
inheritance of acquired characters. The theory,
hormone. A naturally occurring regulatory substance, developed by the noted French naturalist J. B. P. A. de
transported via sap throughout the plant, that is Monet, chevalier de Lamarck , that evolution proceeds
stimulates cell and tissue functioning. through the inheritance and passing from one
generation to the next of features or characteristics
horticulture. The science that deals with the acquired during the life of a plant or animal.
cultivation of ornamental plants, vegetables, and fruit
trees. insecticide. A substance that kills insects, such as
DDT and pyrethrum flowers.
Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander, Baron
von (1769-1859). German aristocrat, naturalist, internode. The region on a stem between two
and explorer. The Baron von Humboldt may well have adjacent nodes (points of attachment of leaves or
been the last of his breed -- a botanist, zoologist, bracts).
entomologist, geologist, physicist with an encyclopedic
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involucre. A set of bracts that is attached below a literally thousands of plants and animals. Trained as
flower or an inflorescence. a physician, Linnaeus became the best known scientist
of his time. In addition to writing the Species
-J- Plantarum and Genera Plantarum, he was extensively
involved in the study of economically important
jumping genes. See transposable elements. plants.
laudanum. An alcoholic solution of opium, once macropsia. Seeing objects larger than they actually
widely used as a pain killer. are.
malaria. A disease caused by a protozoan
leaflet. Any one of the discrete segments of a (Plasmodium vivax and related species) and
compound leaf. transported by a mosquito (Anopheles spp.). It is a
recurring disease characterized by chills, sweating,
lectins. A group of toxic proteins, especially common trembling, and damage to internal organs. It is often
in plants of the legume family, that causes clumping regarded as the world’s most debilitating disease.
of red blood cells.
malt. A grain, usually barley, that is steeped in water,
legume. A one- to many-seeded dry, dehiscent fruit allowed to germinate, and then dried. Enzymes
that typically opens along two sutures at maturity. It produced during germination play a critical role in
is the characteristic fruit type of the legume family reducing the carbohydrate used during the brewing
(Leguminosae) and the same term is used to denote process. Beers made in this fashion are said to be
its members. malted.
Lewin, Louis (1850-1929). German pharmacologist maltose. A disaccharide sugar formed from two
and toxicologist. Author of important monographs on glucose units. It is the sugar formed when starch is
kava, betel nut, and the classical survey of broken down by enzymes in malt, saliva, etc.
psychoactive plants, Phantastica.
Mangelsdorf, Paul (1899-1989). American
liana. A woody, climbing vine. botanist, associated with Harvard University for many
years. He was one of the world’s experts on maize and
lichen. A life form composed of a fungus and an alga its origin. Along with Richard Reeves, he developed
living in a symbiotic relationship. They are often seen the theory that the ancestor of our modern maize was
as brightly-colored crusts on rocks, tree trunks, etc. a primitive pod corn.
Others are leafy or resemble small shrubs. Lichens are
very sensitive to atmospheric pollution. mano and matate. Spanish for mortar and pestle.
lignin. A complex, chemically inert polymer found in mash. The mixture of malt or another grain and hot
the cell walls of plants. It binds cellulose fibers water used in brewing; the fermented material that is
toegether and thereby increases structural support. distilled.
Linnaeus, Carolus (1707-1778). Swedish naturalist massecuite. The dense mass of sugar crystals and
who is remembered primarily for his naming of syrup that forms during crystallization of cane sugar.
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masticatory. A plant material that is chewed, morphine. An alkaloid found in the latex of the opium
ground, or otherwise manipulated by the teeth and poppy (Papaver somniferum), widely used in medicine
tongue, but typically not swallowed. One result is the for its pain-killing properties.
mixing of plant material with the enzymes in our
saliva. Most contain psychoactive substances, as in morphology. The branch of the biological sciences
the coca leaf and the betel nut. that deals with the general form or structure of plants
and animals, generally without dissecting them.
materia medica. The body of medical knowledge
developed by a people, including particularly its mortar and pestle. A hard surface or container
inventory of medicinal plants and their uses. (mortar), often made of stone or wood, used in
conjunction with a grinding implement (pestle) to
McClintock, Barbara (1902-1992). American grind food, herbs and spices, or medicines. Primitive
geneticist who developed the theory of transposable versions were stone slabs and rounded rocks; more
elements or “jumping genes.” She was awarded the elegant are the ceramic vessels and pestles used in
Nobel Prize for her work in 1983. pharmacies.
Mendel, Gregor Johann (1822-1884). Austrian mulch. A mixture of plant materials spread on the
monk whose experiments with garden peas that he ground to enrich or insulate it.
grew at the monastery led to the discovery of several
basic principles of genetics. His findings were multiple fruit. A type of false fruit in which many
published in 1865 in a relatively obscure journal and true fruits derived from separate flowers fuse at
went unnoticed until their rediscovery in 1900. maturity to produce a structure that appears to be a
single fruit, as in the pineapple.
mercerize. A process, developed by John Mercer, in
which cotton fibers are treated with sodium hydroxide mutagen. A substance that causes mutations.
to shrink them and to increase their absorption of
dyes. mutation. A change in the structure or amount of
genetic material in the nuclei of a plant or animal.
mericulture. The growing of excised growing tip Most are structural changes to individual genes and
tissue in a sterile culture. are deleterious.
mescal buttons. The dried tops of the peyote cactus. MV. Modern varieties. Also known as HYV’s, high
yielding varieties.
mescaline. An alkaloid found in peyote (Lophophora
williamsii) and a few other cacti. It is responsible for mycology. The branch of botany that deals with the
the vivid color hallucinations associated with ingestion study of fungi.
of this plant.
mycorrhiza. A close physical and symbiotic
mesocarp. The middle layer of a fruit wall (pericarp). relationship between a fungus and the root system of
It is typically seen as the flesh in an edible fruit. a vascular plant, as seen in citrus plants. Attempting
to grow the citrus without its associated fungal
methadone. A synthetic opiate used medicinally to symbiont will fail.
relieve pain and as a substitute for morphine and
heroin. -N-
methanol. Methyl alcohol or wood alcohol. It is a narcotic. A substance that induces drowsiness, sleep,
toxic solvent and unsuitable for use in alcoholic or unconsciousness. The term is also used for any
beverages. dangerously addictive drug and for any drug that has
been legally listed as a narcotic.
mill. A building that contains the machinery required
to crush stems, remove husks from fruits and seeds, natural selection. The process by which a series of
or to grind cereal grains into flour. The term is also biological and environmental factors determines which
used for the crushing and grinding processes. plants or animals in a population will survive and
reproduce themselves. It is often expressed in the
minor cereal. A true cereal, other than wheat, rice, phrase, “survival of the fittest.”
and maize. Common examples include barley, rye,
oats, etc. naval stores. The various resins and other materials
required to caulk sailing ships.
minute. Small, as in the size of your vocabulary if
you found it necessary to look up this word. Neolithic. Of or pertaining to the more recent or later
Stone Age. It began about 10,000 BCE and is the
monocots. The semitechnical group name for those period of time that saw the development of polished
flowering plants with one seed leaf on the embryo, stone tools and the rise of agriculture.
with parallel-veined leaf blades, and with flower parts
in 3's or multiples thereof. neurotransmitter. A chemical substance that is
released at the end of a nerve fiber and that is
monoculture. The agricultural practice of growing a involved with the passage of an electrochemical
single crop over a large area. impulse to another nerve or a muscle.
monoecious. The condition of having male and New World. North America, Central America, and
female flowers on the same plant, as in the banana. South America taken collectively.
monosaccharide. A sugar, such as glucose, that nibs. Roasted cacao beans (seeds).
cannot be broken down to simpler sugars.
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nicotine. An alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana ovary. The typically swollen, lower, central organ of
tabacum) and other related and unrelated species. It the flower that contains one or more seeds.
is a powerful toxin.
ovule. An immature seed.
N. I. H. National Institute of Health
oxidation. A chemical reaction in which atoms or
nitrogen cycle. The biological process of the molecules gain oxygen or lose hydrogen and
interconversion of nitrogen and oxygen to nitrates. electrons.
Bacteria play the critical role of both fixing
atmospheric nitrogen together with oxygen to form -P-
nitrates that are used by plants, and later breaking
them down into nitrogen and oxygen. paan. A psychoactive mixture made from betel nut,
lime, and various flavorings.
nitrogen fixation. The reduction of atmospheric
nitrogen and its incorporation into various nitrogenous paddy. A agricultural field, flooded naturally or
compounds. This conversion occurs during thunder- artificially, used to grow rice. Hence, rice paddy is
storms, via the electrical energy released by lightning; redundant.
during certain photochemical processes in the
atmosphere; and by the action of nitrogen-fixing paleobotany. The study of old dead plants by old
microorganisms, especially bacteria that live dead botanists.
symbiotically in the root tissue of legumes. The plant
derives ammonia from the bacterium and it receives Paleolithic. Of or pertaining to the early or old Stone
carbohydrates in return. Nitrogen fixation is not Age.
limited to legumes and bacteria. A number of other
plants are involved in nitrogen fixation with bacteria, papain. An enzyme found in papaya (Carica papaya),
and with bluegreen algae and lichens. used in meat tenderizers and to aid digestion.
node. The point or region on a stem where one or paper. A thin sheet made of pulped wood or cloth
more leaves or bracts are borne. whose surface is suitable for writing and printing.
nodule. A rounded, irregular swelling or growth. papyrus. A paper-like writing material made from
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria form nodules on legume strips of tissue cut from the stems of papyrus
roots. They are also seen at sites of infection. (Cyperus papyrus). It was used extensively by the
ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.
N. S. F. National Science Foundation
parboil. Although the term originally meant to boil
nut. A 1-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit derived from thoroughly, it now means to boil partially, typically
two or more united carpels, as in the walnut. before frying or roasting.
ouabin. A potent cardiac glycoside that is the pathology. The science that deals with the study of
principal active ingredient in various arrow and dart disease.
poisons. It acts by retarding the movement of sodium
and potassium ions across cell membranes. peat. Partially decomposed and compressed vegetable
matter, commonly formed in waterlogged sites where
outbreeding. Exhibiting cross-pollination on a regular anaerobic respiration occurs. Peat is harvested in
basis. many parts of the world to burn for heat.
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PDC. Pentadecacatachol. Any one of the several plantation. An estate on which trees or crops, such
related toxic principles in poison oak and its relatives. as cotton or tobacco, are grown. Historically the plants
were raised and harvested by resident workers, often
pectins. A group of soluble, gelatinous slaves.
polysaccharides that are rich in galacturonic acid.
They are common in certain fruits. They are used to plasmid. A ring of DNA that reproduces itself
thicken jams and jellies. independently of chromosomal DNA, as in bacteria.
penicillin. An antibiotic derived from the fungus plastid. A subcellular organelle that contains
Penicillium notatum used to treat bacterial infections. pigments or food. One kind of plastid is the
chloroplast.
pepo. A type of berry with a leathery rind, as in the
pumpkin. It is characteristic of the squash or gourd plonk. An inexpensive, poor quality wine.
family (Cucurbitaceae).
plywood. A building material made of two or more
perennial. A plant, woody or herbaceous, that lives layers of wood glued and pressed together, one layer
for three or more years, often flowering and setting alternating with the next in the direction of the grain
fruit each year. pattern.
pericarp. The wall of a fruit, consisting typically of an pod. The common name used for fruit types more
outer (exocarp), middle (mesocarp), and inner technically referred to as legumes or capsules.
(endocarp) layer. The layers may be easy to
distinguish from one another, but not always. poison. A substance that disrupts the normal state of
health of an organism.
pesticide. A substance that kills insects or other
harmful organisms. pollination. The transfer of pollen from an anther to
a stigma of the same or another flower.
Phantastica. A name coined by Louis Lewin for plants
that cause hallucinations. polymer. A compound formed by many repeating
units of smaller molecules that are linked together in
pharmacognosy. The branch of pharmacology that branched or unbranched chains, as in starch and
deals with medicinally active substances derived from cellulose.
plants.
polyploid. A nucleus, cell, or individual with three or
pharmacology. The science that deals with the study more complete sets of chromosomes.
of the action of drugs in humans and other animals.
polysaccharide. A carbohydrate composed of many
pharmacopoeia. A book, often officially sanctioned simple sugars (monosaccharides).
by a government, that lists the medicinal drugs and
how they are to be used. pome. A fleshy, indehiscent fruit with its seeds
enclosed in a fibrous core and which is surrounded by
phenol. An aromatic compound that contains one or a fleshy, edible receptacle, as in the apple and pear.
more hydroxyl groups.
pomology. The science that deals with the study of
phenotype. The observable features of an organism, fruits.
as determined by its genotype and environmental
influences. Pre-Columbian. Of or pertaining to cultures, objects,
or events that occurred in the New World before the
phloem. A type of conductive tissue that transports arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492.
both organic and inorganic substances throughout the
body of vascular plants. proof. The standard for judging the strength of a
distilled beverage, expressed as twice the percentage
photoperiod. The relative periods of light and dark to of ethanol present. A gin or vodka that is 40% alcohol
which plants are exposed under natural or artificial is said to be 80 proof.
conditions.
protein. An organic compound composed of one or
photosynthesis. The process by which green plants more chains of amino acids. They are an essential to
use the energy in sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water the structure and functioning of organisms.
to make carbohydrates.
protoplasm. The living material in a cell, composed
phylogeny. The evolutionary relationships among of the cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. It does
organisms, often expressed in terms of patterns of not include vacuoles and ingested matter.
descent.
protoplast. The living substance within a cell,
physiology. The science that deals with the life exclusive of the cell wall.
processes of organisms or their parts.
prune. To trim by cutting away dead or unwanted
physostigmine. The toxic alkaloid in the Calabar branches, etc.
bean (Physostigma venenosum), used in ordeal rituals
and with several applications in modern medicine. pseudostem. A false stem formed from overlapping
leaf bases, as in the banana.
pith. A tissue, typically composed of parenchyma
cells, that occurs in the center of a stem, as seen in psychedelic. Of or pertaining to a substance or agent
cross-section. that alters the mental state of awareness or that
causes hallucinations.
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psychoactive. A general term for a substance that ribonucleic acid (RNA). A kind of nucleic acid
affects the central nervous system and mental containing D-ribose and uracil. It occurs in three forms
processes. (ribosomal-, messenger-, and transfer-RNA), all of
which are involved in protein synthesis.
pulp. Crushed or otherwise separated fibers used to
manufacture paper. rotenone. A toxin obtained from the roots of Derris
spp. and other tropical legumes, used to stun fish and
pulverize. To reduce to a fine powder. as a powerful insecticide.
purgative. A substance that acts to evacuate the ruminant. An even-toed mammal with a 3- or 4-
bowels. chambered stomach. Ruminants chew cuds of food,
regurgitate the mass from one compartment to
-Q- another, and then rechew it. Common examples
include the cattle, deer, goats, and sheep.
quill. A section of dried, rolled bark, especially of
cinnamon and cassia. runner. See stolon.
quinine. An alkaloid found in the bark of the quina- rust. A rust-colored plant disease caused by fungi,
quina tree (Cinchona spp.) and related plants. It is especially those of the order Uredinales.
used in the treatment of malaria.
-S-
-R-
sago. A kind of edible starch derived from the stem
radicle. The embryonic root. pith of certain palms and cycads. It is used to make a
pudding.
ratoon. A shoot that emerges from a crop plant after
the mother plant has been cut back, as in bananas saki. A Japanese fermented beverage made from rice.
and sugar cane. It is considered a wine by some people and a beer by
others. The word is also spelled sake.
rbc. Red blood cell.
samara. A type of achene or nut that bears a
receptacle. The more or less expanded stem apex on prominent wing, as in the maple, elm, or tree-of-
which the floral parts are inserted. It is typically small, heaven.
but it may be quite conspicuous, as in the strawberry,
apple, and cashew-apple. sanforize. A mechanical process by which fabrics are
preshrunk to limit later shrinkage.
red tide. The phenomenon of a red or reddish
discoloration of marine waters caused by millions of sap. The fluid found in the conductive tissue of a plant
microscopic organisms called dinoflagellates. They and which appears when it is cut or damaged. Sap
produce toxins that can kill fish, invertebrates, and may be watery or milky, sugary, or have other useful
humans that consume them. characteristics.
refine. To process with the goal of removing saponin. A kind of glycoside that forms a soapy
impurities. colloidal mixture with water and that foams when
shaken. They are used to make detergents. Saponins
resin. A viscous, flammable exudate produced in are toxic to many animals, especially cold-blooded
specialized cells by coniferous trees and a few other ones.
plants. It is composed of terpenes and chemically
similar compounds. Resins occur in liquid form in the saprophyte. A plant that derives its nourishment
plant, but turn to solids on exposure to the air. They from dead organic material in the soil.
have a variety of industrial applications, as in
varnishes. sapwood. The outer layer of younger, softer wood
formed between the heartwood and bark of a tree, as
resperine. An alkaloid found in the Indian snakeroot seen in cross-section.
(Rauvolfia serpentina) and related species. It is used
to treat hypertension and schizophrenia. schizocarp. A dry, indehiscent fruit derived from two
or more united carpels that separate from one another
respiration. The cellular metabolic process involving at maturity to yield 1-seeded closed segments
the decomposition of energy-containing compounds to (mericarps), as seen in the parlsey family
form ATP, carbon dioxide, and water. The term is also (Umbelliferae) and the mallow family (Malvaceae).
used for the subcellular process of transporting The condiments known as “savory seeds” are
oxygen to cells and the removal of carbon dioxide schizocarps.
from them.
Schultes, Richard Evans (1915-2001). Long time
retting. The process of separating stem fibers from Professor of Natural History, Director of the Museum
one another through microbial decomposition of of Economic Botany at Harvard University, and
substances that bound them to one another. botanical explorer par excellence. He was the leading
Harvested plant material is spread on the ground or expert on the psychoactive plants of the New World,
put in ponds to allow naturally occurring bacteria to and author of numerous technical and popular works
break down materials that held the fibers together in on that subject. They include, The Botany and
bundles. Chemistry of the Hallucinogens, Plants of the Gods,
Vine of the Soul, and Where the Gods Reign. Earlier in
rhizome. An underground horizontal stem that his career, Schultes was a major figure in natural
typically bears only scaly leaves. rubber research in South America.
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scion. A shoot intended for planting or use in grafting. silage. Green fodder that is stored in a silo for feeding
A scion is the section of stem inserted into the slit or animals at a later date. Naturally occurring bacteria on
opening on the rooted plant, the stock. the plants begin to ferment silage, which preserves its
nutritional value.
sclerotium. The structure formed during the life cycle
of certain fungi that allows them to go into a dormant, silviculture. The branch of forestry that deals with
resting phase during unfavorable environmental the growing and caring for trees.
conditions, as in the grain-like bodies formed by the
ergot fungus. sizing. A gelatinous material made from various
glues, starches, and varnishes used to fill pores in
scopolamine. An alkaloid found in belladonna (Atropa paper and textile fibers.
belladonna) and related plants. It is used in obstetrics
and in spy novels to induce a twilight sleep of semi- slash and burn agriculture. See shifting cultivation.
consciousness. It is also called hyoscine.
smut. Any of several plant diseases, caused by fungi
Scoville Heat Units. A unit of intensity or “hotness” of the order Ustilaginales, that can infect cereals and
of capsicum peppers developed by Wilbur Scoville. other grasses. Many smut fungi produce black spores
that discolor and distort the appearance of the host
scurvy. A disease caused by a shortage of fruits, plant.
fresh vegetables, and other sources of vitamin C. It is
characterized by bleeding gums and skin, and snuff. Dried and powdered tobacco or other plant
swellings. It was serious problem on long voyages material that is inhaled. The practice is called snuffing.
when sailors were limited to salted meat, beer, and It can be rather simple, but it became the habit of
little else. elegant people who developed it into an elaborate
ritual with complex rules.
scutching. The process of beating stems of flax or
other fiber sources to separate the useful fibers from softwood. The type of wood found in conifers.
undesirable plant parts.
solanine. A toxic glycoalkaloid found in nightshades
sedative. A substance that has a calming or quieting (Solanum spp.) and related plants.
effect on the nervous system.
sp. Species (in the singular)
seed. A fertilized and ripened ovule. It consists
typically of a seed coat, embryo, and stored food. spp. Species (in the plural)
seed bank. A collection of seed samples intended to species. A kind of plant or animal, distinguished by
preserve living material for future genetic research anatomical, morphological, chemical, and genetic
and breeding. At least some of the samples are held differences, and presumably maintained by
for long periods at very low temperature. reproductive isolation.
seed plant. The collective term for the gymnosperms specific epithet. The second component in the
and angiosperms, the higher plants that produce scientific name of a plant or animal. The genus (or
seeds at some point in their life cycle. generic name) and specific epithet together form the
species name of an organism.
self-pollination. The transfer of pollen from the
anther of a flower to the stigmatic surface of the same specific gravity. The ratio of the density of a solid,
flower. liquid, or gas to the density of the standard against
which it is compared. Water and air are the standards
seringueiro. A Brazilian rubber tree tapper. for a liquid and a gas.
serotinin. A neurotransmitter derived from sperm. The male gamete or sex cell in higher plants
tryptophan, an amino acid. It has a variety of and animals.
physiological effects.
spice. Any of the various fresh or dried plant parts
sexual reproduction. The type of reproduction that used to flavor and preserve foods because of their
involves the union of egg and sperm. It is the aromatic, pungent, and antimicrobial properties. They
dominant method of reproduction in vertebrate are typically derived from tropical and subtropical
animals, but only one type found in higher plants. plants.
shaman. An individual who acts as a medium spikelet. A group of grass or sedge flowers and
between the real and the spirit worlds and who is seen associated bracts.
as skilled at healing, divination, and con-trolling
natural events. spindle fibers. Microscopic fibers formed from
microtubules that attach to chromosomes and move
sheath. An elongate, tubular structure that surrounds them during mitosis and meiosis.
an organ or plant part, as in the lower portion of the
grass leaf that wraps around the stem. spontaneous generation. The discredited belief that
living creatures can arise from non-living sources,
shrub. A woody plant with multiple trunks. such as mice arising from rags left in a closet or
worms from horse hairs in a watering trough.
shifting cultivation. Also known as “slash and burn
agriculture,” it is the traditional agricultural regime of Spruce, Richard (1817-1893). English botanist and
a semi-nomadic people who clear an area in the explorer. He spent fifteen years botanizing in South
forest, cultivate their crops there for several years, America. His best known work is Notes of a Botanist
and then abandon it when soil fertility and crop in the Amazon.
production decline.
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ssp. Subspecies. tannins. A group of complex organic compounds
derived from tree barks and oak galls used to tan hide
St. Anthony’s fire. The popular name for gangrenous or to make inks.
ergotism.
taproot. The primary, often swollen, descending root,
starch. A polymer composed of many repeating as in the carrot or parsnip.
glucose units, in unbranched or branched chains. It is
a very common carbohydrate storage form in plants. taxonomy. The branch of biological sciences that
Many root crops and cereals are excellent sources of deals with the classification and naming of organisms.
starch. It also has a number of industrial applications, It is practiced by an eccentric bunch of men and
as in making adhesives and stiffening clothing fibers. women called taxonomists.
steroids. Any of a large heterogeneous group of tendril. An elongate, often thread-like structure of
organic compounds that typically contain four rings of stem or leaf origin that climbing plants use for
carbon atoms. Many common vitamins, hormones, support.
and alkaloids are steroids. They produce significant
physiological effects in the human body. teonanacatl. The Aztec name for the “sacred
mushrooms,” a group of psychoactive fungi.
stimulant. A substance that arouses or increases
activity or that produces a sense of well-being. teratogen. A substance that causes an embryo to be
malformed. The term is based on the Greek word for
stock. The rooted plant that is used during the a monster.
process of grafting.
terpenes. A group of unsaturated hydrocarbons
stolon. A horizontal stem at the surface of the ground found in the essential oils and resins of various plants,
that roots at its nodes and is capable of reproducing such as conifers and citrus fruits.
the plant vegetatively.
tetrahydrocannabinol. One of the principal
stone fruit. A fleshy fruit in which one or more seeds psychoactive agents in marijuana (Cannabis sativa).
are enclosed in a fibrous to woody endocarp, as in the
peach, plum, and apricot. tetraploid. A nucleus, cell, or individual that has four
complete sets of chromosomes. It is one kind of
strychnine. A toxic alkaloid, found in the seeds of polyploid.
Strychnos nux-vomica, that stimulates all parts of the
central nervous system to produce violent THC. Tetrahydrocannabinol, one of the active
convulsions. It also has limited medicinal uses. principles in marijuana.
suberin. A waterproof, waxy substance found in plant thebaine. An alkaloid found in the opium poppy and
cells, especially in cork. related species. It can cause severe convulsions. It
can be easily converted to codeine.
suckers. A shoot that originates from the base of a
woody plant and that can give rise to new plants. theobromine. A caffeine-like alkaloid extracted from
cacao seeds (Theobroma cacao). It has medicinal uses
sucrose. A disaccharide composed of glucose and as a stimulant, diuretic, and to dilate arteries.
fructose. It is the most common sugar transported
and stored in plants. We extract it commercially from theophylline. An alkaloid found in the leaves of tea
sugar cane and beets. (Camellia sinensis). It has medicinal uses as a heart
stimulant and to treat bronchial asthma.
sugar. Any of various crystalline, sweet-tasting
carbohydrates of low molecular weight. They are thresh. The process of separating cereal grains from
composed of monosaccharides, either singly or bound their surrounding husks by beating them or having
together to form disaccharides, etc. There are a animals walk over them.
number of sweetening agents other than sugars
derived from plants. tiller. A shoot that emerges from the base of a stem,
especially in a grass.
symbiosis. A mutually advantageous or satisfactory
interaction between two different organisms, as an tincture. An alcoholic solution of a plant or animal
alga and fungus that form a lichen, or between a drug or other chemical, as in tincture of iodine or
legume and a bacterium to fix nitrogen and supply laudanum, a tincture of opium.
carbohydrates.
TMV. Tobacco mosaic virus, which infects many
synapse. The site where a nerve impulse is different species of plants, and can cause small spots
transmitted from one neuron to another or from a on the leaves that can even kill the plant.
neuron to a muscle fiber.
toadstool. A toxic mushroom. The term may be
syndrome. The aggregate of signs or conditions that derived from the German for “death’s seat.”
indicate a disease or poisoning.
toxicology. The science that deals with the study of
-T- poisons.
tan. To convert an animal hide to leather by soaking tranquilizer. A substance used to reduce anxiety.
it in a liquid containing tannic acid or various mineral
salts. transgenic. A plant or animal that has had genetic
material from another organism inserted into its
chromosomes.
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translocation. The movement of dissolved vegetative reproduction. Any form of plant
substances within a plant. propagation or reproduction that does not involve the
union of gametes. Common methods include the
transpiration. The loss of water vapor by a plant to planting of cuttings, suckers, tubers, rhizomes, etc.
the atmosphere.
vein. A strand of vascular tissue in a leaf, stem, or
transposable elements. The region on a other plant part.
chromosome that breaks away and then inserts itself
at a different location of the same chromosome or on vermifuge. A substance that kills worms.
a different one. They are affectionately known as
“jumping genes.” vernalization. The process of germinating seeds or
cereal grains at low temperatures to induce flowering
tree. A perennial woody plant, typically with a single at a particular time, as in winter strains of wheat that
trunk that remains unbranched for several feet above are planted in the spring, and then exposed to
the ground. temperatures above freezing to synchronize their
flowering with spring wheat. The Soviet agronomist T.
triploid. A nucleus, cell, or individual that has three D. Lysenko popularized this technique in the 1930's.
complete sets of chromosomes. It is a kind of
polyploid. Bananas are triploids; so are the cells of the vestigial. Reduced in size; atrophied.
human liver.
vinblastin/vincristine. Two of the vinca alkaloids
triticale. The common name for the various hybrids used to treat childhood leukemia and Hodgkin’s
between wheat and rye. The name is composed of disease.
portions of their generic names, Triticum and Secale.
vinca alkaloids. The group name for a series of
tuber. A swollen underground stem or root that alkaloids derived from the Madagascar periwinkle
functions to store food and water, as in the Irish (Catharanthus roseus). When the alkaloids were first
potato. isolated, the periwinkle bore the scientific name Vinca
rosea.
tubocurarine. An alkaloid extracted from the stems
of South American vines of the genus virus. A microscopic “organism” that straddles the
Chondrodendron. It is the principal active ingredient border between the non-living and living. It consists
in the various curare arrow and dart poisons, which of DNA or RNA enclosed in a protein coat and has no
act by paralyzing neuromuscular transmissions. metabolic processes of its own. Viruses can reproduce
only by infecting a plant or animal. They cause a
Tyler, Varro (1926-2001). Professor of Pharma- variety of diseases in plants and animals.
cognosy at Purdue University. One of the leading
experts on medicinal plants. His Honest Herbal is now vitamins. A group of fat- or water-soluble organic
in its fourth edition. compounds that act in small quantities to foster
growth and maintenance of health in living organisms.
-U- Most vitamins are not manufactured by animals and
are derived from plants that they consume.
U. S. D. A. United States Department of Agriculture.
volatile oil. A type of oil that evaporates quickly.
-V- Many are highly aromatic and are used in cooking,
perfumes, and medicines, as in lemon oil and oil of
vacuole. A membrane-bound sac within the peppermint.
cytoplasm of a cell. It is filled with air, liquids, or
stored solids. vulcanization. The process of combining natural
rubber and other substances, heating the mixture and
vascular plant. A plant that has evolved specialized applying pressure to improve the strength of the latex
conductive tissue (xylem and phloem) for transporting and to reduce its stickiness and odor.
nutrients and water. Vascular tissue is present in
ferns, fern allies, gymnosperms, and flowering plants. -W-
Vavilov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1887-1943). Professor Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913). English
of Botany, University of Saratov and later director of explorer, collector, and early developer of a theory of
the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. evolution based on natural selection. His Travels on
Noted geneticist and explorer who assembled one of the Amazon and Rio Negro contained much
the world’s largest seed collections of economically information about the useful plants of that region.
important plants. Vavilov developed the influential (if
flawed) theory of the centers of origins of cultivated Wallace, Henry Agard (1888-1965). American
plants. After a long scientific and political struggle, he politician, agriculturalist, and early advocate of hybrid
was arrested and eventually died in one of the Soviet maize and the Green Revolution. He also served as
Union’s infamous Siberian prisons. Secretary of Agriculture and Vice President of the
United States under Franklin D. Roosevelt.
vegan. A “real” vegetarian; one who consumes no
animal products whatsoever. warfarin. A rodent poison made from anticoagulants
derived from sweet clover.
vegetable. Any plant, usually an herbaceous one,
that is consumed for food. Most are edible roots, weed. A non-native plant that invades disturbed sites
stems, and leaves. Some fruits are considered or cultivated fields, competes with native plants or
vegetables, usually if they are not brightly colored and crops for nutrients, and otherwise interferes with
are served along with the main course, as in beans human objectives.
and squashes.
-261-
Whitney, Eli (1765-1825). American inventor of the as though spelled “wurt.” The term is also used in
cotton gin. modern times for the infusion of malt that will ferment
to become beer.
Wickham, Sir Henry Alexander (1846-1928).
British explorer who was sent to Brazil in 1876 to -X-
acquire seeds of the Pará rubber tree that would
become the basis of the plantations in Southeast Asia. xylem. A type of plant tissue that transports water
and dissolved material. It is dead at maturity. We
wine. A fermented beverage made from grapes (Vitis refer to significant layers of xylem tissue as wood.
spp.) or, more broadly, from other fruits.
-Y-
winnow. The process of separating seeds or cereal
grains from unwanted husks, etc. by tossing them in yeast. A type of unicellular fungus that reproduces by
the air and allowing air currents to blow away the budding or fission to produce the next generation.
lighter husks, while the heavier seeds or grains fall Yeasts such as Saccharomyces cervesieae are
back into a basket. essential in the brewing process.
-262-
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