10459867-P. Psidii

United States Department of Agriculture
Risk and Pathway Assessment for

the Introduction of Exotic Insects
and Pathogens That Could Affect
Hawai‘i’s Native Forests
Gregg A. DeNitto, Philip Cannon, Andris Eglitis, Jessie A. Glaeser,
Helen Maffei, and Sheri Smith
Forest Pacific Southwest General Technical Report December

Service Research Station PSW-GTR-250 2015
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DE PA
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Authors
Gregg A. DeNitto is a forest pathologist, Forest Health Protection, 200 E Broadway,
Missoula, MT 59807. Philip Cannon is a forest pathologist, Forest Health Protection,
1323 Club Drive, Vallejo, CA 94592. Helen Maffei is a forest pathologist, and Andris
Eglitis is a forest entomologist, Forest Health Protection, Central Oregon Insect and Dis-
ease Field Office, 63095 Deschutes Market Road, Bend, OR 97701. Jessie A. Glaeser is a
forest mycologist, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI
53726-2398. Sheri Smith is a forest entomologist, Forest Health Protection, 2550 Riverside
Drive, Susanville, CA 96130.
Abstract
DeNitto, Gregg A.; Cannon, Philip; Eglitis, Andris; Glaeser, Jessie A.; Maffei, Helen;
Smith, Sheri. 2015. Risk and pathway assessment for the introduction of exotic insects
and pathogens that could affect’s Hawai‘i’s native forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-
GTR-250. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific South-
west Research Station. 171 p.
The unmitigated risk potential of the introduction of exotic insects and pathogens to
Hawai‘i was evaluated for its impact on native plants, specifically Acacia koa, Cibotium
spp., Dicranopteris linearis, Diospyros sandwicensis, Dodonaea viscosa, Erythrina sand-
wicensis, Leptecophylla tameiameiae, Metrosideros polymorpha, Myoporum sandwicense,
Pandanus tectorius, Scaevola spp., Sophora chrysophylla, and Vaccinium spp. Assessments
were made by estimating the likelihood and consequences of introduction of representative
insects and pathogens of concern. Likely pathways of introduction were assessed. Twen-
ty-four individual pest risk assessments were prepared, 12 dealing with insects and 12 with
pathogens. The selected organisms were representative examples of insects and pathogens
found on foliage, on the bark, in the bark, and in the roots and wood of the native hosts of
interest—or closely related host species—in other parts of the world.
Among the insects and pathogens assessed, high risk potentials were assigned to the
following 16 organisms or groups of organisms: apple stem borer (Aeolesthes holosericea),
coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros; during the analysis this insect was identi-
fied as present in Hawai‘i), keyhole ambrosia beetle (Amasa truncata), summer fruit tortrix
moth (Adoxophyes orana), West Indian sugarcane borer weevil (Diaprepes abbreviatus),
white wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor), Acacia gall rust pathogen (Uromycladium
tepperianum), Armillaria root disease pathogens (Armillaria luteobubalina, A. tabescens,
A. limonea, A. novae-zelandiae), Calonectria morganii, Fomitiporia spp. (Fomitiporia
australiensis, F. mediterranea, F. punctata species complex, F. robusta species complex,
F. sonorae), guava rust/eucalyptus rust pathogen (Puccinia psidii), Phellinus noxious, pink
disease pathogen (Erythricium salmonicolor), ramorum blight/sudden oak death pathogen
(Phytophthora ramorum), Uromyces rust pathogens (Uromyces scaevolae, U. sophorae-ja-
ponicae, U. truncicola), and white thread blight pathogen (Ceratobasidium noxium). A
moderate risk potential was assigned to the following eight organisms or groups of organ-
isms: Botany Bay diamond weevil (Chrysolopus spectabilis), coconut stick insect (Graeffea
crouanii), Erythrina scale (Toumeyella erythrinae), Eugenia psyllid (Trioza eugeniae),
lemon tree borer (Oemona hirta), Platypodid ambrosia beetle (Megaplatypus mutatus),
Aecidium rust pathogens (Aecidium atrocrustaceum, A. calosporum, A. carbonaceum, A.
diospyri, A. mabae, A. melaenum, A. muelleri, A. miliare, A. myopori, A. ramosii, A. reyesii,
A. rhytismoideum, A. royenae, A. ulei, A. yapoense) and Pestalotia/Pestalotiopsis leaf and
fruit pathogens (Pestalotia acacia, P. cibotii, P. diospyri, P. dodonaea, P. pandani, P.
vaccinii, Pestalotiopsis sp., P. breviseta, P. glandicola, P. palmarum, P. photiniae, P. theae,
P. uvicola, P. versicolor).
Six priority findings resulted from the analysis:
1. Inspection alone is not 100 percent effective in preventing introductions.
2. The primary sources of introductions are the mainland the United States and
Asia-Pacific.
3. There is a strong need to make visitors aware that they are a significant potential
source of unwanted introductions.
4. Plant materials, especially live plants, are by far the most important source of pest
problems for Hawai‘i.
5. The solid wood packing material pathway needs more scrutiny. Many pests using
this pathway have already become established in Hawai‘i, and many more are on the
list of potentials. Because Hawai‘i Department of Forestry can only inspect wood
packing material that is associated with agricultural commodities, and because
wood packing material is not necessarily specified as associated with cargo, this is
potentially a pathway that is being insufficiently inspected and regulated.
6. The interstate movement of certain plant materials from Hawai‘i to the mainland
is restricted without treatment and certification. Similar restrictions on interstate
movement into Hawai‘i are not in place. For the most part, Animal Plant and Health
Inspection Service regulations do not discriminate between the mainland and
islands of Hawai‘i as far as potential threats. This includes some organisms that are
native or commonly found on the mainland.
Numerous other observations, both specific and general, are included in the pest risk
assessment concerning detection surveys, regulations, and public education/public aware-
ness of the dangers of introduced pests and pathogens.
Keywords: Pest risk assessment, Hawai‘i, invasive species, Acacia koa, Cibotium,
Dicranopteris linearis, Diospyros sandwicensis, Dodonaea viscosa, Erythrina sandwi-
censis, Leptecophylla tameiameiae, Metrosideros polymorpha, Myoporum sandwicense,
Pandanus tectorius, Scaevola, Sophora chrysophylla, Vaccinium.
Executive Summary
Background, Objectives, and Scope
Hawai‘i is unique amongst the 50 states; it was formed and developed over the millennia
independently of any other land mass. This has resulted in very unique and distinct species
and ecosystems on each island. Because of its geographic isolation, the state also has a rare
economic situation, with almost all goods needing to be imported. Over the past decades,
insects and pathogens accidently introduced into Hawai‘i threaten native forest ecosystems
and urban forest trees. These introductions have increased awareness of the vulnerability
of island ecosystems and the need for vigilance regarding invasive species beyond those
affecting agricultural crops.
In September 2010, the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry and Wildlife (HDOFAW)
requested the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service to prepare a pest risk
assessment. The specific objectives of the risk assessment are to:
• Identify specific insect pest and pathogen species that could attack species of con-
cern in Hawai‘i.
• Determine possible pathways for the introduction of insect pests and pathogens to
selected native flora of Hawai‘i.
• Provide risk assessments for selected pathway/pest or pathogen combinations that
are determined to be of most risk to Hawai‘i forest ecosystems.
The insect and pathogen threats identified in this assessment should represent hereto
unknown threats that use similar transport pathways and occupy similar ecological niches.
Our expertise did not include other types of pests, such as invasive plants, and these are not
included in this assessment.
The scope of this risk assessment is limited to insect and mite pests and disease threats
to 13 plant species/genera (hereafter referred to as “taxa”) identified by HDOFAW.
Species of interest identified by Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources,

Division of Forestry and Wildlife, included in this pest risk assessment:
Species of interest Family Native name Common English name
Acacia koa A. Gray Fabaceae Koa Koa
Cibotium spp. Kaulf. Cibotiaceae Hāpu‘u Hawaiian tree fern
Dicranopteris linearis Gleicheniaceae Uluhe False staghorn fern
(Burm. F) Underwood
Diospyros sandwicensis Ebenaceae Lama Hawaiian ebony
(A. DC.) Fosberg
Dodonaea viscosa Sapindaceae ‘A‘ali‘i Hawaiian hopseed bush
(L.) Jacq.
Erythrina sandwicensis Fabaceae Wiliwili Hawaiian coral tree
O. Deg.
Leptecophylla Ericaceae Pūkiawe Hawaiian heather
tameiameiae
(Cham. & Schltdl.)
C.M. Weiller
Metrosideros Myrtaceae ‘Ōhi‘a lehua Ohia
polymorpha Gaud.
Myoporum sandwicense Scrophulariaceae Naio False-sandalwood
(A. DC.) A. Gray
Pandanus tectorius Pandanaceae Hala Hawaiian screwpine
Parkinson ex Zucc.
Scaevola spp. L. Goodeniaceae Naupaka Naupaka
kuahiwi
Sophora chrysophylla Fabaceae Māmane Mamani
(Salisb.) Seem.
Vaccinium spp. L. Ericaceae Ōhelo Ohelo
Risk Assessment Team

The USDA Forest Service Wood Import Pest Risk Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation
Team (WIPRAMET) conducted the assessment. The team was originally chartered by
the Chief of the Forest Service to provide a permanent source of technical assistance to
the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service in conducting pest risk assessments on
forest trees. The team was chosen to perform this assessment because of its expertise and
previous experience with similar assessments. Additional members with local knowledge
of Hawai‘i and its resources were added to the WIPRAMET to supplement the original risk
assessment team.
Pest Risk Assessment

The approach taken for this project followed protocols established by international plant
protection organizations. The team evaluated the risk potential of the introduction of exotic
insects and pathogens that could affect 13 native plant taxa.
We identified known pests on the hosts known to exist in Hawai‘i. We compiled a
similar list of worldwide insects and pathogens not known to occur in Hawai‘i and recorded
in association with the 13 taxa or other species of the same genera. These insects and
pathogens were identified, listed, and targeted for further analysis as “agents of potential
concern.”
We assessed information on commodities associated with pathways of introduction.
This included a variety of data from U.S. and foreign sources. This aided in determining
the likelihood of pests associated with commodities and their likelihood of introduction to
Hawai‘i.
Because major emphasis was placed on pests with the potential to be transported on,
in, or with a variety of commodities, these insect and pathogen agents of concern were
evaluated with respect to the four principal pathways by which introduction of these insects
and pathogens might occur: (1) plant material, (2) wood products, (3) hitchhikers, and (4)
potting media/compost/soil.
Analysis of transport and establishment pathways also included assessment of the

following:
1. Identify probable major geographic sources of potential pest introductions (based on
the origin of foreign trade by all means of transportation to Hawai‘i.
2. Determine the likelihood of different pathways introducing exotic pests.
3. Evaluate pest interception records at Hawaiian ports of entry.
4. Evaluate historical information on the transport and establishment of damaging
insects and pathogens in Hawai‘i or areas with similar climates and ecosystems.
Insect pests and pathogens not known to occur in Hawai‘i and associated with a likely
commodity were identified to aid the team in performing more detailed risk assessments.
Individual pest risk assessments (IPRAs) were then developed for the highest ranked
agents: 12 dealing with insects and 12 dealing with pathogens. These 24 agents are intended
to serve as examples of specific pests that presently pose a significant threat to native
Hawaiian shrubs and trees. They are also representatives of general types of damaging
insect and disease agents, following select pathways, specific modes of establishment,
and causing damage that is unknown to presently occur in Hawai‘i, but may emerge in
the future. Ranking was based on the following overall criteria: the probability of pest
introduction (likely pathway to Hawai‘i), including association with a commodity; transit
success; colonization success; and potential for spread; and the consequence of introduc-
tion, including economic, environmental, and sociopolitical. The individual elements were
ranked and an overall risk potential was assigned to each of the 24 species.
Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

The archipelago of Hawai‘i consists of 132 islands, reefs, atolls, and shoals, over a distance
of 2400 km, in the North Pacific Ocean. There are eight major islands. Hawai‘i is covered
by about 707 400 ha of forest, which is 43 percent of the total land area. About 1,200 taxa of
flora are native to the Hawai‘i Islands, including 1,158 that are endemic. The species chosen
for this assessment include pteridophytes, woody trees and shrubs, and a monocotyledon-
ous species. The 13 taxa are ecologically important forest species that provide habitat for
native fauna and flora in Hawaiian forest ecosystems. If extirpated, it is assumed that any
one of these species could have cascading deleterious effects on many other native species.
It follows that improving biosecurity for these species will better protect Hawai‘i’s remain-
ing biodiversity.
Numerous insects and pathogens have been identified on these 13 taxa, some of which
are native and others introduced to Hawai‘i. For each of the 13 forest taxa, we examined
the literature and consulted with other scientists and specialists to determine the insects
and pathogens that occur on them in Hawai‘i. Nearly 500 insects and over 500 pathogens
and saprobes were identified during this process. Although every effort was made to be
complete, likely a number of species were missed.
Commodities and Pathways
Hawai‘i receives all of its commodities and visitors either by ship or aircraft. This provides
many pathways and commodities to transit invasive species. Several pathways may exist
for a single organism. We developed a means to identify pathways based on the location on
the host plant where the pest can occur. Pathways included plant material, wood products,
hitchhikers, and potting media/compost. Each of these pathways has multiple commodities
in which exotic pests may find transport.
A significant source of potential pest entry is on solid wood packing material. This
includes dunnage, crating, pallets, packing blocks, drums, cases, and skids. The origin
of this material is not necessarily the same as that of the shipment it accompanies, as it
is routinely reused and reconditioned. On September 16, 2005, the United States started
enforcing the International Plant Protection Convention’s standard ISPM No. 15 to reduce
the risk posed by solid wood packing material.
Airline passengers are another major source for potential pest entry. Over 70 percent
of airline passengers arriving by air to Hawai‘i from 2007 to 2011 were from the mainland
United States. The principal country of origin for foreign arrivals was Japan, followed
by Canada. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) intercepted over
7,400 reportable pests at airports from 1984 through 2010. Many of these came in with
passengers and their baggage.
Plants for horticultural use are continually arriving in Hawai‘i from foreign and domes-
tic locations. Many of these have become invasive and are affecting native ecosystems. In
addition, they may be carriers for invasive insects and pathogens. The primary and most
consistent exporting countries for this material are Australia and the Netherlands.
During the period 2008 to 2010, the top countries exporting to Hawai‘i based on value
of exports were Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Russia, Thailand, and China. Eight
of the top 10 are in the Asia-Pacific region. Using commodity value may not be the best
measure to evaluate potential origins of pests but are the only data readily available.
Insects and Pathogens Posing Risk

The probability of pest introduction is determined by several related factors, including the
likelihood of (1) a pest traveling with and surviving on a shipment from the place of origin,
(2) a pest colonizing suitable hosts at the point of entry and during transport to processing
sites, and (3) subsequent pest spread to adjacent territories. Many insects and pathogens
could be introduced on various commodities into Hawai‘i from any origin in the world.
Nearly 500 insects and 400 pathogens were identified in this assessment as potentially
posing risk. These were narrowed down to 12 insect species and 12 pathogens to do indepth
IPRAs. The following table provides a summary of the ratings for the individual risk
elements and the overall risk potential for each of the 24 species evaluated.
Summary of risk potentials for pests of concern to 13 Hawai‘i forest taxa
Likelihood of introduction Consequences of introduction
Common name Host Entry Colonization Spread Economic Environmental Social/ Pest risk
(scientific name) association potential potential potential damage damage political potential
Insects:
Apple stem borer Ha H H H H H M H
(Aeolesthes holosericea)
Botany Bay M H M M M M L M
diamond weevil
(Chryosolopus spectabilis)
Coconut rhinoceros beetle H H H H M M M H
(Oryctes rhinoceros)
Coconut stick insect M M M L L L M M
(Graeffea crouanii)
Erythrina scale M H L M M M M M
(Toumeyella Erythrinae)
Eugenia psyllid M H H M M M M M
(Trioza eugeniae)
Keyhole ambrosia beetle H H H H M L M H
(Amasa truncata)
Lemon tree borer M M H M M M L M
(Oemona hirta)
Platypodid M H H H M M M M
ambrosia beetle
(Megaplatypus mutatus)
Summer fruit H H H H M H M H
tortrix moth
(Adoxophyes orana)
West Indian sugarcane H H H H H H M H
borer weevil
(Diaprepes abbreviatus)
White wax scale H H H H H H M H
(Ceroplastes destructor)
Pathogens:
Acacia gall rust H H H H M M M H
(Uromycladium
tepperianum)
Aecidium rusts M H M H L M L M
(Aecidium
atrocrustaceum,
A. calosporum,
A. carbonaceum,
A. diospyri,
A. mabae,
A. melaenum,
A. muelleri,
A. myopori,
A. ramosii,
A. reyesii,
A. rhytismoideum,
A. royenae, A. ulei,
A. yapoense)
Armillaria root disease H H H H H H H H
(Armillaria limonea,
A. luteobubalina,
A. novae-zelandiae,
A. tabescens)
Calonectria morganii H H H H M M L H
Fomitiporia spp. H H H H M H H H
(Fomitiporia australiensis,
F. mediterranea,
F. punctata,
F. robusta,
F. sonorae)
Guava rust/eucalyptus rust H H H H H H H H
(Puccinia psidii)
Pestalotia and Pestalotiopsis H H M H L M L M
(Pestalotia Acacia,
P. cibotii, P. diospyri,
P. dodonaea, P. pandani,
vaccinii; Pestalotiopsis sp.,
P. breviseta, P. glandicola,
P. palmarum, P. photiniae,
P. theae, P. uvicola,
P. versicolor)
Phellinus noxius H H H H M H H H
Pink disease H H H H H H H H
(Erythricium salmonicolor)
Ramorum blight H H H H H M H H
/sudden oak death
(Phytophthora ramorum)
Uromyces rusts M H M M L H L H
(Uromyces scaevolae,
U. sophorae-japonicae,
U. truncicola)
White thread H H H H M M M H
blight/black rot
(Ceratobasidium noxium)
a H, M, and L = high, moderate, and low risk, respectively.
Conclusions
A major challenge of this analysis was to determine which of the world’s 400,000 fungal
species and 900,000 insect species known to feed on plant/plant parts are not yet found
in Hawai‘i and pose a risk to 13 native forest taxa in the Hawaiian Islands. Although this
process may seem straightforward, the lists that were produced of potential pests and
pathogens for each of the 13 taxa are considerable. For some species, like Acacia koa, this
process produced lists of literally thousands of fungi and insect species that have been
associated with Acacia species. This is, in large measure, due to the abundance of land area
worldwide covered by the 700 different species of Acacia and the fact that thousands of
forest health personnel, mycologists, entomologists, etc. have spent large portions of their
careers looking at the flora and fauna that affect species in this genus. Metrosideros poly-
morpha was another key species that had a lot of fungi associated with it, no doubt because
there are so many Metrosideros species scattered across the Pacific. By contrast, some of
the other species, like Sophora chrysophylla, Myoporum sandwicensis, and Scaevola spp.,
had very short lists associated with them because their genera hold relatively small numbers
of species and individuals.
We examined the lists of exotic fungal and insect species for those considered to have
capacity to be effective pathogens or pests on living trees. We relied on information pre-
sented in the literature, where this was available, and also on the experience of the authors
and reviewers of this document. This helped us narrow the list to the 400 insect pests and
300 pathogens shown in tables 11 and 12, respectively (app. 7). These tables represent what
we consider the insect pests and pathogens with the most potential for damaging the 13 taxa
should they gain entry into Hawai‘i.
We identified 12 insect pests and 12 pathogens to do indepth analyses or IPRAs. The
objective was to include in the IPRAs representative examples of insects and pathogens
found on seeds, roots, bark, sapwood, and heartwood that would have the greatest poten-
tial risk to forests and other tree resources of Hawai‘i. These agents were highly diverse
ranging from leaf rollers and scales to root diseases, stem decay, and leaf blights.
Among the insects and pathogens assessed, high pest risk potentials were assigned to
the following 16 organisms or groups of organisms: apple stem borer (Aeolesthes holoser-
icea), coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros; during the analysis, this insect was
identified as present in Hawai‘i), keyhole ambrosia beetle (Amasa truncata), summer fruit
tortrix moth (Adoxophyes orana), West Indian sugarcane borer weevil (Diaprepes abbre-
viatus), white wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor), Acacia gall rust pathogen (Uromycladium
tepperianum), Armillaria root disease pathogens (Armillaria luteobubalina, Armillaria
tabescens, A. limonea, A. novae-zelandiae), Calonectria morganii, Fomitiporia spp.
(Fomitiporia australiensis, F. mediterranea, F. punctata species complex, F. robusta spe-
cies complex, F. sonorae), guava rust/eucalyptus rust pathogen (Puccinia psidii), Phellinus
noxious, pink disease pathogen (Erythricium salmonicolor), Ramorum blight/sudden oak
death pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum), Uromyces rust pathogens (Uromyces scaevolae,
U. sophorae-japonicae, U. truncicola), and white thread blight pathogen (Ceratobasidium
noxium). A moderate pest risk potential was assigned to the following eight organisms or
groups of organisms: Botany Bay diamond weevil (Chrysolopus spectabilis), coconut stick
insect (Graeffea crouanii), Erythrina scale (Toumeyella erythrinae), Eugenia psyllid (Trioza
eugeniae), lemon tree borer (Oemona hirta), Platypodid ambrosia beetle (Megaplatypus
mutatus), Aecidium rust pathogens (Aecidium atrocrustaceum, A. calosporum, A. carbona-
ceum, A. diospyri, A. mabae, A. melaenum, A. muelleri, A. miliare, A. myopori, A. ramosii,
A. reyesii, A. rhytismoideum, A. royenae, A. ulei, A. yapoense), and Pestalotia/Pestalotiopsis
leaf and fruit pathogens (Pestalotia acacia, P. cibotii, P. diospyri, P. dodonaea, P. pandani,
P. vaccinii, P. glandicola, Pestalotiopsis sp., P. breviseta, P. glandicola, P. palmarum, P.
photiniae, P. theae, P. uvicola, P. versicolor).
As part of our process, we solicited input on existing and potential pests, as well as
comment on a draft risk assessment, from scientists and specialists around the world. We
received over 400 comments. These were extremely helpful and informative to our assess-
ment.
Six priority findings resulted from the analysis. Some of them have been reported in
other assessments (Culliney et al. [n.d]., Meissner et al. 2009) and have been adopted by us
as appropriate for Hawai‘i because they are integral to invasive species transport and risk
around the world. Some are more peculiar to Hawai‘i.
The six findings discussed in detail are:
1. Inspection alone is not 100 percent effective in preventing introductions. In fact,
some studies have shown that port inspections, alone, have relatively low intercep-
tion efficiency.
2. The primary sources of introductions are the mainland United States and
Asia-Pacific.
3. There is a strong need to make visitors aware that they are an important potential
source of unwanted introductions. Given what we know about plant materials as an
important pathway of pest introduction, there needs to be increased efforts to per-
suade visitors to voluntarily stop bringing live plant material into Hawai‘i.
4. Plant materials, especially live plants, are by far the most important source of pest
problems for Hawai‘i.
5. The solid wood packing material pathway needs more scrutiny. Many pests using
this pathway have already become established in Hawai‘i, and many more are on
the list of potentials. Because Hawai‘i’s Department of Agriculture can only inspect
solid wood packing material that is associated with agricultural commodities, and
because solid wood packing material is not necessarily specified as associated with
cargo, it seems as if this could potentially be a pathway that is being insufficiently
inspected and regulated.
6. Some pests not posing a risk to the mainland United States, or already present in the
mainland, may be a potential threat to Hawai‘i. The interstate movement of certain
plant materials from Hawai‘i to the mainland is restricted without treatment and cer-
tification. Similar restrictions on interstate movement into Hawai‘i are not in place.
For the most part, APHIS regulations do not discriminate between the mainland and
islands of Hawai‘i as far as potential threats. This includes some organisms that are
native or commonly found on the mainland.
Numerous other observations, both specific and general, are included in the “Pest Risk
Assessment” concerning detection surveys, regulations, and public education and aware-
ness of the dangers of introduced pests and pathogens.
Contents
1 Chapter 1: Introduction
1 Background
2 Objectives
2 Scope of Assessment
3 Existing Import Regulations and Practices
4 Previous Hawai‘i Pest Risk Assessments
4 Pest Risk Assessment Process Overview
4 Outreach
5 Chapter 2: Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

5 Introduction
6 Description of Taxa Analyzed
6 1. Acacia koa Gray; Fabaceae (Bean family)
8 2. Cibotium spp. Kaulf.; Cibotiaceae (Dicksoniaceae) (Tree fern family)
9 3. Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. F.) Underwood; Gleicheniaceae (Forked
fern family)
9 4. Diospyros sandwicensis (A. DC.) Fosberg; Ebenaceae (Ebony family)
10 5. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.; Sapindaceae (Soapberry family)
10 6. Erythrina sandwicensis O. Deg.; Fabaceae (Bean family)
11 7. Leptecophylla tameiameiae (Cham. & Schltdl.) C.M. Weiller; Ericaceae
(Heath family)
11 8. Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud.; Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
12 9. Myoporum sandwicense (A. DC.) A. Gray; Scrophulariaceae (Figwort family)
12 10. Pandanus tectorius Parkinson ex Zucc.; Pandanaceae (Screwpine family)
13 11. Scaevola sp. L.; Goodeniaceae (Goodenia family)
14 12. Sophora chrysophylla (Salisb.) Seem.; Fabaceae (Bean family)
14 13. Vaccinium calycinum Sm., V. dentatum Sm., V. reticulatum Sm.; Ericaceae
(Heath family)
15 Known Insect and Disease Pests in Hawai‘i
15 Previous Interceptions of Quarantine Organisms
17 Chapter 3: Pathways and Commodities for Pest Entry

17 Pathways
17 Significant Pathways for Potential Pest Entry
17 Wood Packing Material
18 Airline Passengers
18 Live Plant Material
19 Commodities Entering Hawai‘i
21 Potential Origins of Pests
24 Known Pests at Potential Origins
25 Chapter 4: Insects and Pathogens Posing Risk
25 Introduction
25 Analysis Process
25 Potential Insects and Pathogens of Concern
26 Individual Pest Risk Assessments
26 Insect IPRAs
26 Apple Stem Borer
28 Botany Bay Diamond Weevil
29 Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle
34 Coconut Stick Insect
36 Erythrina Scale
37 Eugenia Psyllid
39 Keyhole Ambrosia Beetle
42 Lemon Tree Borer
45 Platypodid Ambrosia Beetle
48 Summer Fruit Tortrix Moth
50 West Indian Sugarcane Borer Weevil
53 White Wax Scale
54 Pathogen IPRAs
54 Acacia Gall Rust
57 Aecidium Rusts
61 Armillaria Root Disease
69 Calonectria morganii
74 Fomitiporia spp.
78 Guava Rust/Eucalyptus Rust
83 Pestalotia and Pestalotiopsis
87 Phellinus noxius
91 Pink Disease
96 Ramorum Blight/Sudden Oak Death
104 Uromyces Rusts
106 White-Thread Blight/Black Rot
109 Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions
109 Summary
113 Issues and Findings
121 Additional Issues and Findings
121 General
122 Ecology
122 Detection Surveys
124 Regulations
124 Education/Public Awareness
125 Acknowledgments
125 English Equivalents
125 References
Appendix 1—Reviewers and Contributers
Appendix 2—Scientific Authorities, Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5
Appendix 3: Host Scientific Authorities, Potential Insects and
Potential Pathogens
Appendix 4: Pest Risk Assessment Process
Appendix 5: Known Insect and Disease Pests in Hawai‘i
Appendix 6: Pest Interceptions at Hawai‘i Ports of Entry From 1984
Through 2010
Appendix 7: Potential Insects and Pathogens of Concern
Assessment Team
Dr. Gregg A. DeNitto, Team Leader
Forest Pathologist/Field Office Leader
USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection
Missoula Field Office
P.O. Box 7669
Missoula, MT 59807
Dr. Andris Eglitis

Forest Entomologist
Central Oregon Insect and Disease Field Office
63095 Deschutes Market Road
Bend, OR 97701
Dr. Jessie A. Glaeser

Research Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
Forest Products Laboratory
One Gifford Pinchot Drive
Madison, WI 53726-2398
Dr. Philip Cannon

Regional Forest Pathologist
1323 Club Drive
Vallejo, CA 94592
Dr. Helen Maffei

Forest Pathologist
Central Oregon Insect and Disease Field Office
63095 Deschutes Market Road
Bend, OR 97701
Sheri Smith
Regional Forest Entomologist
2550 Riverside Drive
Susanville, CA 96130
Risk and Pathway Assessment for the Introduction of Exotic Insects and Pathogens That Could Affect Hawai‘i’s Native Forests
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background For example, the two-spotted leafhopper (Sophonia
As a tourist destination, military base, and center for com- rufofascia1) was discovered on O‘ahu in 1987 after being
merce at the “crossroads of the Pacific,” Hawai‘i is espe- detected on plants exported to California (Fukada 1996). By
cially vulnerable to the introduction and establishment of 1995, the insect was widespread on the six largest Hawaian
exotic organisms. The likelihood is especially high because Islands, and causing major damage to uluhe (Dicranopteris
Hawai‘i imports 80 percent of its consumable goods and has linearis), ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), and
a climate favorable to many insects and pathogens year- hāpu‘u (Cibotium spp.), as well as significant damage to
round. An estimated 9,277 terrestrial arthropod species are ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa) and ‘ōhelo (Vaccinium spp.)
known from Hawai‘i; 3,432 (37 percent) are nonindigenous (Conant et al. 2010). Ornamental Erythrina species were all
(Eldredge 2006). Some 500 species of arthropods and but wiped out when the Erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastichus
mollusks in Hawai‘i can be classified as pests (Beardsley Erythrinae) invaded Hawai‘i in 2005 and escaped into the
1991). Of these, 98 percent have been introduced. It is forests, killing the native Erythrina species as well. Myopo-
estimated that 20 to 40 new terrestrial arthropod intro- rum sandwicense, which comprises nearly half of the plant
ductions occured in Hawai‘i each year from 1937 through biomass in the māmane-naio forest type, is now threatened
1967 (Beardsley 1979a), with about 10 percent becoming by a recently introduced myoporum thrips (Klambothrips
significant pests. In recent years, the rate of new pest arthro- myopori). Although the strain of guava rust (Puccinia psi-
pods and mollusks establishing in Hawai‘i has averaged dii) recently found in Hawai‘i is not significantly impacting
3.5 species annually (Beardsley 1991). In addition, over native ecosystems, the threat is great that new genotypes
1,100 plant parasitic and pathogenic species (nematodes, of the rust will invade and threaten ‘ōhi‘a lehua, one of
bacteria, fungi, and other micro-organisms) are known Hawai‘i’s dominant forest tree species. Koa wilt, caused
to occur in Hawai‘i (Raabe et al. 1981). Most of these are by the fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. koae,
nonindigenous. The islands of Hawai‘i have a large number is of unknown origin. The wilt disease is greatly affecting
of endemic species. Because most of these endemic species survival, growth, and reforestation of koa (Acacia koa), a
have evolved in isolation—free from pressures such as dominant canopy tree and important in native culture. As
grazing, predation, virulent pests, and diseases (Westbrooks this assessment was being completed, coconut rhinoceros
1998)—the biota lacks defenses against introduced grazers, beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) was trapped at Joint Base Pearl
predators, parasites, and pathogens (Simberloff 1995). Thus, Harbor-Hickam on O‘ahu (HDOA 2014). The source of this
like other oceanic islands, Hawai‘i is particularly vulnerable introduction has not been determined, but the insect has
to biological invasions. For example, although Hawai‘i been on Guam at least 6 years. Hawai‘i has a long history of
is one of the smallest U.S. states, comprising just 0.2 implementing quarantines to protect key agricultural crops.
percent of its total land mass, more than 25 percent of the The same level of effective quarantines is sought for native
endangered species in the United States occur there (U.S. forest species.
Congress OTA 1993). In September 1995, the Chief of the U.S. Department of
Over the past decade, insects and pathogens accidently Agriculture, Forest Service (USDA FS) chartered the Wood
introduced into Hawai‘i threaten native forest ecosystems Import Pest Risk Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation
and urban forest trees. These introductions have increased Team (WIPRAMET), made up of USDA FS employees,
awareness of the vulnerability of island ecosystems, and to provide a permanent source of technical assistance to
the need for vigilance regarding invasives beyond those the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
affecting agricultural crops.
1 Scientific authorities for insects, pathogens, and plants mentioned
in chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5 are given in appendix 2. Appendices for this
report are available online at: http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/
documents/psw_gtr250/psw_gtr250_appendix.pdf.
1
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-250
(APHIS) in conducting pest risk assessments of exotic pests This information may be used to support quarantine
that may move with logs. In September 2010, the Hawai‘i protection, prioritize inspections, implement early detection
Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) made a request surveys, develop rapid response plans, and educate the
of the USDA FS to provide assistance in developing a public. Alternatives from this assessment will be made
pathway risk assessment for forest pests. They requested available to regulatory personnel.
assistance in identifying high-risk pest species that are
likely to become established in Hawai‘i upon arrival, as Scope of Assessment
well as the pathways through which they could enter the As the native flora of Hawai‘i includes over 1,100 species
state. This report is a response to that request. Because of (Eldredge and Evenhuis 2002), conducting risk analyses for
the expertise within WIPRAMET, and the similarity with all species is beyond the scope of this effort. For feasibility,
previous work, the request from DOFAW was assigned to the scope of this risk assessment is limited to insect and
this team. mite pests and disease threats to 13 plant species/genera
(hereafter referred to as “taxa”) identified by DOFAW
Objectives (table 1). While much attention is paid to the recovery of
The specific objectives of this risk assessment are to: threatened and endangered species in Hawai‘i, the dominant
• Identify insect pest and pathogen species that could forest species that provide habitat for them are vulnerable
attack species of concern in Hawai‘i. to pest outbreaks. The species chosen for this assessment
• Determine possible pathways for the introduction of include pteridophytes, woody trees and shrubs, and a mono-
insect pests and pathogens to selected native flora cotyledenous species, all of which make up the foundation
of Hawai‘i. of remaining Hawaiian ecosystems, and if extirpated, would
• Provide risk assessments for selected pathway/pest have cascading effects on those ecosystems. Although
or pathogen combinations that are determined to be there are other species that should arguably be included, to
of most risk to Hawai‘i forest ecosystems. make the task manageable, the list was limited to these 13.
Table 1—Species of interest identified by Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of
Forestry and Wildlife, included in this pest risk assessment
Species of interest Family Native name Common English name
Acacia koa A. Gray Fabaceae Koa Koa
Cibotium spp. Kaulf. Cibotiaceae Hāpu‘u Hawaiian tree fern
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. F) Underwood Gleicheniaceae Uluhe False staghorn fern
Diospyros sandwicensis (A. DC.) Fosberg Ebenaceae Lama Hawaiian ebony
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Sapindaceae ‘A‘ali‘i Hawaiian hopseed bush
Erythrina sandwicensis O. Deg. Fabaceae Wiliwili Hawaiian coral tree
Leptecophylla tameiameiae Ericaceae Pūkiawe Hawaiian heather
(Cham. & Schltdl.) C.M. Weiller
Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud. Myrtaceae ‘Ōhi‘a lehua Ohia
Myoporum sandwicense (A. DC.) A. Gray Scrophulariaceae Naio False-sandalwood
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson ex Zucc. Pandanaceae Hala Hawaiian screwpine
Scaevola spp. L. Goodeniaceae Naupaka kuahiwi Naupaka
Sophora chrysophylla (Salisb.) Seem. Fabaceae Māmane Mamani
Vaccinium spp. L. Ericaceae Ōhelo Ohelo
2
This list originated with the Natural Area Reserve System infection of an insect, pest, or disease that is detrimental
Commission, an independent group that advises the state on or potentially harmful to agriculture, horticulture, the
managing special lands that have been set aside because of environment, or animal or public health. All agricultural
their unique biological qualities. The list was reviewed by items, including plants, plant parts, nondomesticated
various resource managers, botanists, as well as the state animals, micro-organism cultures, microbial products,
forestry agency. By improving biosecurity for these species, arthropods, and soil require inspection upon arrival in
a large portion of Hawai‘i’s remaining biodiversity will be Hawai‘i. These items must be checked before the shipment
better protected. can be released to ensure they are free of pests or will not
This risk assessment estimates the qualitative likeli- become pests themselves. People arriving in Hawai‘i from
hood that exotic pests will be introduced into Hawai‘i as a the U.S. mainland must declare agricultural items brought
direct result of the importation of a variety of commodities. into the state on the “Plants and Animals Declaration Form”
Pests addressed in this report are phytophagous insects and and present these items for inspection to a HDOA plant
plant pathogens. Major emphasis is placed on pests with the quarantine inspector in the baggage claim area at airports
potential to be transported on, in, or with a variety of com- and maritime ports.
modities. This assessment also estimates the economic and Commodities moving domestically from the U.S. main-
environmental impact of potentially destructive organisms land are under the rules and regulations of HDOA. Shippers
if introduced into Hawai‘i. Our expertise does not include of these domestic commodities are required to notify
other types of pests, such as invasive plants, which are, HDOA of incoming shipments that require inspection. The
therefore, not included in this assessment. HDOA inspects cargo based on assigned risk categories;
This risk assessment is developed without regard to all cargo does not receive inspection because of staffing
available mitigation measures already in place. Once poten- capacity. Risk categories are determined based on the type
tial risks are identified, other suitable mitigation measures of commodity, records of past interceptions, and specific
may be formulated, if needed, to reduce the likelihood that pests potentially associated with the commodity.
destructive pests will be introduced into Hawai‘i and pose a
General guidelines for the importation of plants from
risk to the above 13 host taxa. The prescription of mitigation
the U.S. mainland to Hawai‘i are as follows:
measures, however, is beyond the scope of this assessment
• All plants require inspection upon entry into the
and is the responsibility of APHIS and the Hawai‘i Depart-
state (however, because of limited staffing, this
ment of Agriculture (HDOA).
is not always achieved).
Additional information became available and condi-
• Plants must be apparently free of insects
tions changed as this report was in preparation. The authors
and diseases.
attempted to keep up to date with these changes, but not all
• Plants do not need to be bare-rooted, but the grow-
were timely in their receipt or our awareness and could not
ing media cannot contain soil.
be fully incorporated.
• Parcels brought into the state by mail or cargo must
be clearly labeled with the words “Plant Materials”
Existing Import Regulations and Practices
or “Agricultural Commodities.”
The HDOA is legally mandated to protect the agricultural
• Shipments must be accompanied by an invoice or
and natural resources of the state of Hawai‘i (Hawai‘i
packing manifest, listing the contents and quantities
Revised Statutes Chapter 150A 2010). This statute provides
of the commodities imported.
HDOA with the authority to identify specific plants that
may be detrimental or potentially harmful to agriculture, The USDA regulates the introduction of plants and
horticulture, the environment, or animal or public health, plant products into the United States from foreign origin
or that spread or may be likely to spread an infestation or under the authority of the Plant Protection Act of 2000
3
(Plant Protection Act 2000). The Department of Homeland which they are introduced into the state, must be exam-
Security, Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) ined. To date, no pathway analysis has been conducted to
is authorized to inspect foreign travelers and nonpropaga- assess and quantify the risks posed by invasive insect and
tive agricultural commodities for potential harmful pests. pathogen species to Hawai‘i’s native forest systems. Such
Officers and specialists within CBP inspect arrivals by air an assessment is essential to provide a sound basis for
and sea using procedures similar to the HDOA’s. The USDA science-based decisionmaking. Unfortunately, we did not
APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) performs the have access to sufficient data to properly do a quantitative
inspection of propagative plant materials. analysis.
Previous Hawai‘i Pest Risk Assessments Pest Risk Assessment Process Overview
In 2007, APHIS conducted a pathway risk assessment A team of USDA FS and DOFAW specialists were respon-
for Hawai‘i (Culliney et al., n.d.), focusing on invasive sible for producing this assessment. They received input
species that threaten the state’s economy and environment. and assistance from HDOA and U.S. Geological Survey
That assessment reviewed risks associated with airline personnel. The risk assessment complies with general
passengers, cargo, hitchhikers, wood packaging material, standards set by the international plant protection organi-
and the military. It listed imminent pest threats to Hawai‘i zations—for example, North American Plant Protection
agriculture. Although never finalized, the draft assessment Organization (RSPM 2012), and the International Plant
provides a foundation to build upon for analyzing the Protection Convention (IPPC) of the Food and Agriculture
invasive pest threat to native forest species. This current Organization of the United Nations (IPPC 2007), as well
assessment relied heavily on the draft 2008 APHIS assess- as U.S. government regulations (7 CFR 319.40-11) (APHIS
ment for background information and for data on Hawai‘i 1998). These standards are the same as have been used for
and its trade. the most recent pest risk assessments prepared by the USDA
In addition to the APHIS assessment (Culliney et al., FS for APHIS (Kliejunas et al. 2001, 2003; Tkacz et al.
n.d.), HDOA prepared a pest risk assessment for the Kahului 1998).
Airport in 2002 (HDOA 2002). That assessment was based The general process followed can be found in appendix 4.
on inspection “blitzes” conducted during 2000 and 2001,
where HDOA inspectors and detector dogs examined Outreach
checked and carry-on baggage, aircraft cabins and cargo To gather information pertinent to the pest risk assessment,
holds, and 100 percent of all agricultural products shipped WIPRAMET contacted scientists and specialists in the
by air cargo. They found an average of one new invertebrate fields of forestry, forest entomology, forest pathology, and
or plant pathogen per day arriving in agricultural cargo plant quarantine around the world, but especially in the
through a port that receives only 2 percent of Hawai‘i’s Pacific (app. 1). A preliminary list of potential organisms
incoming goods. Although primarily focused on inspection of concern was compiled for the 13 hosts of concern and
of agricultural products, that 2002 assessment does provide sent to individuals for review (app. 1). Suggested revisions
critical information regarding entry pathways, interception to the list were incorporated into the final list prepared by
rates, and commodities entering the state, some of which WIPRAMET. A draft of the assessment was also sent to sci-
may be relevant to the current investigation. entists and specialists. Over 400 comments were returned,
To address the invasive species problem in Hawai‘i, the evaluated, and incorporated into the final assessment where
origins of alien species, and the means or “pathways” by the team felt appropriate.
4
Chapter 2: Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

Introduction 1000 m. Above this elevation, the temperature decreases
The archipelago of Hawai‘i consists of 132 islands, reefs, 4 °C per 1000 m (Schnell 1998).
atolls, and shoals, over a distance of 2400 km, in the North Hawai‘i is covered by about 707 400 ha of forest,
Pacific Ocean. There are eight major islands, comprising which is 43 percent of the total land area (Smith et al. 2001).
more than 99 percent of the total land area, and supporting About 1,200 taxa of flora are native to the Hawai‘i Islands,
almost all of the human population there and forest cover including 1,158 that are endemic (Loope 1998). Over
(Loope 1998) (fig. 1). The largest of these islands is Hawai‘i. one-fourth of these are considered at some risk of becoming
The other seven islands are Kaho‘olawe, Maui, Lāna‘i, extinct. In total, 319 species of plants are listed by the U.S.
Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, Kaua‘i, and Ni‘ihau. All of the land area Fish and Wildlife Service as endangered (USFWS 2012).
is volcanic in origin. The main islands range in age from The Web database maintained by the Smithsonian National
600,000 years (Hawai‘i) to about 5.5 million years (Ni‘ihau). Museum of Natural History (2012) includes over 2,400 taxa
The climate of Hawai‘i is varied, with significant of flowering plants on the islands, about half of which are
changes of rainfall, solar radiation, temperature, humid- not native.
ity, and wind over short distances (Schnell 1998). Mean Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources
monthly temperature only varies about 5 °C at sea level (DLNR) identifies four native and five introduced forest
over a year. The mountainous topography influences these cover types: (1) ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u; (2) koa/‘ōhi‘a, (3) māmane/
temperatures because of increased cloudiness in windward naio, (4) a mixture of species comprising the native dry
locations and decreasing temperature with elevation. The land forest, (5) eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), (6) mixed
rate of temperature decrease with elevation is fairly con- introduced hardwoods, (7) guava (Psidium cattleianum),
stant. Below about 1250 m, temperature drops 6.5 ˚C per (8) kiawe/Leucaena, and (9) mixed-conifer plantations
Figure 1—The major islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago.
5
(DLNR 2001). These communities were first identified and 1. Acacia koa Gray; Fabaceae (Bean family)
mapped by Little and Skolmen (1989) (fig. 2).
Common name—koa
Hawai‘i recently completed an assessment of the state’s
forest resources to meet requirements of the 2008 Farm Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
Bill (Cannarella 2010). In that document, the state‘s forest Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu. The potential range has been iden-
resources, the benefits they provide, and the threats that tified across most of each of these islands except at the
they face were identified. Consult that document for more highest elevations and along much of the coast (Grünwald et
details on forests, their benefits and threats. al. 2012).
Distribution worldwide—The species is endemic to the
Description of Taxa Analyzed Hawai‘i Islands. The genus Acacia previously contained
While much attention is paid to the recovery of threatened roughly 1,300 species, about 960 of them native to Aus-
and endangered species in Hawai‘i, the dominant forest tralia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to
species that provide habitat for them are vulnerable to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including
pest outbreaks. Recent incursions have spurred resource Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas. In 2005,
managers to seek improvements of the biosecurity system the genus was divided into five separate genera; instead of
to prevent an ecosystem instability or collapse that would the name Acacia being retained for the majority of the Aus-
occur if such important species were eliminated from tralian species and a few in tropical Asia, Madagascar, and
the landscape. The species chosen for this assessment the Pacific Islands. Koa’s closest relatives may be Acacia
include pteridophytes, woody trees and shrubs, and a species on Rénuion and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, or
monocotyledonous species, all of which make up the A. melanoxylon in Australia.
foundation of remaining Hawai‘i ecosystems, and if Ecology—Koa is a large, nitrogen-fixing, shade-intolerant
extirpated, would have cascading effects on them. tree, typically attaining a height of 15 to 25 m and a spread
Although there are other species that could arguably be of 6 to 12 m. Height and spread are greater in deep volcanic
included, the list was limited to 13 species/genera to make ash. The tree is capable of reaching 6 to 9 m in height in
the task manageable. This list originated with the Natural 5 years on a good site. The species grows at elevations
Area Reserve System Commission, an independent group of 100 to 2300 m on acidic to neutral soils, and requires
that advises the state on managing special lands that have 850 to 5000 mm of annual rainfall. Koa and ‘ōhi‘a lehua
been set aside because of their unique biological qualities. dominate the canopy of mixed mesic forests. Koa is second
The list was reviewed by various resource managers, bota- in abundance to ‘ōhi‘a lehua in native Hawai‘i forests, and
nists, and the state forestry agency (Hawai‘i Department of frequently grows co-dominantly with it. Koa provides
Forestry and Wildlife [DOFAW]). By improving biosecurity important habitat to native birds and invertebrates, and is
for these species, a large portion of Hawai‘i’s remaining regenerated for restoration, both by scarifying areas where
biodiversity will be better protected. a seed bank persists, and by outplanting seedlings (Baker et
Because of the broad distribution of these 13 species/ al. 2009).
genera across the islands and their importance to native
Human uses—Ancient Hawaiians used koa for voyaging
ecosystems, we refer to them on the whole as taxa. What
canoes and surf boards. The resurgence in Hawaiian
follows is more detailed information on each of the 13
culture, and specifically traditional navigation, has created
species/species groups analyzed in this report, including
an interest in growing koa for canoe building; however,
geographic distribution, ecology, uses, and known pests
few canoe-sized trees exist today. Koa wood is valuable
in Hawaiʽi.
for high-quality wood carvings and furniture making,
6
Figure 2—Generalized forest types mapped on the eight major islands of Hawai‘i (Little and Skolmen 1989).
7
especially if the piece being worked has strongly expressed Cibotium chamissoi (Chamisso’s manfern) is a large,
curly grain. There are several small koa mills, mainly on the upright tree fern found in mesic to wet forests from 150 to
island of Hawai‘i. 1200 m on all major islands except Kaua‘i. It is common
Because of the high value of koa wood, and the general on O‘ahu and uncommon and scattered on Moloka‘i, Maui,
acceptance of this tree as an important part of Hawaiian Lāna‘i, and Hawai‘i (Palmer 2003).
culture, there is considerable interest in growing koa in Cibotium glaucum (Hāpu‘u pulu) is a large tree fern
plantations. Although the species produces large amounts of with leathery fronds. Although the trunk usually does not
seed that germinate easily, and grows quickly on some sites, surpass 3.7 m in height, the arching fronds can reach a great
it has problems as a plantation tree. It does not stand up well length. It is abundant in mesic to wet forests, from 300 to
in competition, especially from itself, so mortality rates 1700 m on all major islands. This species is usually found
tend to be high (greater than 60 percent) at higher elevations than the other Hawai‘i species (Palmer
2003). Hapu‘u pulu is one of the most commonly used of
2. Cibotium spp. Kaulf.; Cibotiaceae Hawai‘i’s native tree ferns in landscape plantings and is
(Dicksoniaceae) (Tree fern family) an excellent understory plant to help control erosion. The
Common names—hāpu‘u, tree fern species can occasionally be found for sale in California.
Cibotium menziesii (Hāpu‘u ‘i‘i) can grow up to 11 m
Distribution in Hawai‘i—four species are endemic to the
tall, but is typically 2.1 to 7.6 m in height with a diameter of
Hawai‘i Islands—
nearly 0.91 m, making it Hawai‘i’s largest tree fern. Cibot-
C. chamissoi; Hawai‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu.
ium menziesii is locally abundant on the windward portions
The potential range of C. chamissoi is primarily coastal and
of the main Hawai‘i Islands. It is found in rainforests,
mid elevations (Grünwald et al. 2012).
occasionally in mesic forests, at elevations of 305 to 1830 m,
C. glaucum; Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i,
and can grow on the ground or on trees as an epiphyte.
O‘ahu. The potential range of C. glaucum is primarily
Cibotium nealiae (Neal’s manfern) is a 1-m-tall dwarf
coastal and mid elevations (Grünwald et al. 2012).
variety, restricted to the island of Kaua‘i between 135 and
C. menziesii; Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui Moloka‘i,
1300 m. It is never seen in the horticultural trade.
Oʽahu. The potential range of C. menziesii is primarily
The three large Cibotium species, locally important as
coastal and lower elevations (Grünwald et al. 2012).
ecosystem dominants, are also important for biodiversity
C. nealiae; Kaua‘i. The potential range of C. nealiae is
preservation in Hawaiì, as their trunks serve as substrates
primarily coastal and mid elevations (Grünwald et al. 2012).
for epiphytic growth of many other ferns and flowering
Distribution worldwide—The genus Cibotium is endemic plant species. In forest areas where feral pig damage is mod-
to northeast India, southern China, Taiwan, Malaysia, erate, allowing hāpu‘u to persist, many native herbaceous
Indonesia, New Guinea, the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), the species survive pig rooting by growing epiphytically on the
islands of the Pacific (including Hawai‘i), El Salvador, fern, out of reach of pigs, and can recolonize the forest floor
Guatemala, Honduras, and southern Mexico (Chiapas, if pigs are controlled.
Oaxaca, and Veracruz).
Human uses—The starchy core is an important food
Ecology—The genus consists of 11 species of large tree source for feral pigs (Anderson 1994). Parts of C. menziesii
ferns (plus a naturally occuring hybrid, Cibotium x hele- have been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of
niae [C. chamissoi x C. menziesii]). Some species have illnesses and ailments. The fibers are used in handcrafted
tall trunks and may reach a height of 8 m with a crown of pillows that are sold as souvenirs on the islands. The trunk
spreading fronds up to 6 m in length. Others have a pros- was hollowed out by native Hawaiians and used as a planter
trate habit. for uhi (Dioscorea alata); this practice continues today.
8
3. Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. F.) Underwood; a laxative (Palmer 2003). The aqueous extract from D.
Gleicheniaceae (Forked fern family) linearis fronds was shown to have antinociceptive, anti-in-
A form of D. linearis, D. linearis (Burm.) Underw. forma flammatory, and antipyretic properties in experimental
emarginata, is endemic to Hawai‘i. animals (Zakaria et al. 2008). It has been used for erosion
control and for building materials. Fiber from the plant is
Common names—uluhe, old world forked fern, false
used in the production of various domestic and personal
staghorn fern
items. It can be formed into ropes for lashing posts. It is also
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Indigenous to Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, used for the construction of leis.
Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu. The potential range of
D. linearis has been identified on all of the major islands 4. Diospyros sandwicensis (A. DC.) Fosberg;
from the coast to mid elevations, including near Hilo and Ebenaceae (Ebony family)
Līhu‘e (Grünwald et al. 2012). Common names—lama, ēlama
Distribution worldwide—The genus Dicranopteris Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
contains about 22 species of terrestrial ferns. Dicranopteris Moloka‘i, O‘ahu. The range of this species is primarily
linearis is pantropical, widely distributed throughout wetter coastal and low elevations. It can grow near Hilo, Honolulu,
parts of the Old World tropics and subtropics, including all Kawaihae, and Kona (Grünwald et al. 2012).
of Polynesia. Distribution worldwide—The species is endemic
Ecology—Uluhe is a very common terrestrial fern in mesic to Hawai‘i.
to wet forests, often covering steep slopes, near sea level Ecology—Diospyros is a genus of about 450 to 500 species
to above 2000 m, on all major islands. It is intolerant of of deciduous and evergreen trees. The majority are native
drought, shade, and frost and is an early invader on dis- to the tropics, with only a few species extending into
turbed sites. It is an important soil-binding pioneer species temperate regions. They are commonly known as ebony
that volunteers after a landslide or other erosion (Follett et or persimmon trees. Diospyros sandwicensis is a small,
al. 2003). Uluhe forms dense thickets, often more than 3 m slow-growing tree generally not more than 15 m tall and 3
deep, over large areas of wet Hawai‘i rainforests. Rhizomes, m wide. It occurs, sometimes as a dominant plant, in dry
which aid in its spread, can climb other vegetation up to to moist forests and occasionally in wet forests. Lama was
several meters. once a primary component of Hawai‘i dry forests, but habi-
After establishment, this fern can persist for an tat degradation owing to wildfire and grazing by cattle and
extended period but is eventually shaded out by overstory goats have drastically reduced the extent of dry forests and
trees. It plays a large role in structuring plant communities the abundance of lama. It grows at elevations ranging from
in many habitats of Hawai‘i. In typical succession on new almost sea level to 1220 m (Wagner et al. 1990). Currently,
lava or cinder surfaces, uluhe mats eventually give way the Hawai‘i species is treated as endemic, but the closeness
in succession to Metrosideros forest (Follett et al. 2003, to other Pacific species should be recognized.
Mueller-Dombois 2000).
Human uses—Lama is considered sacred in Hawaiian
Human uses—Dicranopteris linearis has numerous uses culture. It is not a primary medicinal plant but can be found
around the world. It has been used medicinally for asthma, as a secondary ingredient in many remedies. The berries
women’s sterility, and as an antihelmintic (Perumal 2010). are edible.
Hawaiians drank an infusion brewed from the fronds as
9
5. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.; Sapindaceae 6. Erythrina sandwicensis O. Deg.; Fabaceae

(Soapberry family) (Bean family)
Common names—‘a‘ali ‘i, ‘a‘ali‘i ku makani, ‘a‘ali‘ ku ma Common names—wiliwili, Hawaiian erythrina, Hawaiian
kua, kumakani, hopbush. coral tree
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaho‘olawe, Kaua‘i, Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaho‘olawe, Kaua‘i,
Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i, Ni‘ihau, and Oʽahu. This species Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i, Ni‘ihau, and O‘ahu. This species
can be found almost anywhere on all of the islands except principally occupies coastal and very low elevations. It may
the highest elevations of the island of Hawai‘i (Grünwald et be found near Kawaihae, Kona, Honolulu, and Kahului
al. 2012). (Grünwald et al. 2012).
Distribution worldwide—The species is indigenous Distribution worldwide—The wiliwili tree is endemic
and widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics, to Hawai‘i. About 115 species of Erythrina have been
particularly in the Southern Hemisphere, including described, with centers of distribution in South and Central
Australia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, America, and Africa. Two native Erythrina exist on the
India, Africa, Southern United States, Mexico, Caribbean, U.S. mainland—E. herbacea and E. flabelliformis. Eryth-
Central and South America. It has been introduced to rina herbacea (redcardinal) is widespread throughout the
Israel. The evolutionary origin of the genus is Australia; 59 Southeastern United States, and E. flabelliformis (coralbean)
of the 61 species of Dodonaea are restricted to Australia. is found in arid environments in Arizona and New Mexico.
In Australia, D. viscosa has seven subspecies that are The Neotropics are a center of endemism for Erythrina; 24
geographically distinct. species are native to Mexico.
Ecology—The species is found in almost every habitat from Ecology—Erythrina sandwicensis is a small deciduous tree
near sea level to 2347 m. Tree-sized plants are mostly in the characterized by short spines, leaves with three broadly
upper elevation forests of Hawai‘i and Maui, but are also triangular leaflets, and showy orange, yellow, salmon,
observed occasionally in the Wai‘anae and Ko‘olau Ranges greenish or whitish flowers when leafless. Trees are 4.5 to
on O‘ahu. It is often found in open locations, such as ridges, 9 m tall, with a short, stout, crooked or gnarled trunk 0.3 to
and is an early colonizer of lava fields and pastures. 0.9 m in diameter, stiff spreading branches, and broad thin
Human uses—Dodonaea viscosa is used extensively in crown becoming wider than high. Wiliwili was once an
dry forest restoration in Hawai‘i. The flowers of D. vicosa abundant endemic tree in the now much-reduced dry forests
are unspectacular, but its winged fruits can become red at low elevations of 152 to 610 m on the lee side of the
and purple as they mature, making it an attractive garden Hawai‘i Islands. It is locally common in dry forests up to
plant in the tropics and subtropics. One cultivated variety 600 m on leeward slopes of all main islands (Wagner 1990).
develops purple leaves when grown in direct light and is At present, native dry forests have been largely replaced by
a popular ornamental. Fruits and seeds were traditionally kiawe (Prosopis pallida), but wiliwili may still be seen in
used for dye. The dense, hard, and durable wood is used the dry gullies on the leeward side of all islands (Little and
for specialty products, lumber, and fuel wood by native Skolmen 1989). Wiliwili is used as a restoration species in
cultures. The plants have medicinal properties that have dry forests, especially following the success of a biological
been used by native populations throughout the world. control release to control the Erythrina gall wasp.
10
Human uses—Erythrina spp. are important to native 8. Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud.; Myrtaceae
cultures and are keystone species in many tropical and (Myrtle family)
subtropical ecosystems. The bright reddish-orange seeds
Common names—‘ōhi‘a lehua, ‘ōhi‘a
are used in leis. On Moloka‘i, trees produce an especially
treasured yellow seed. Coral trees are cultivated for their Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
showy flowers, and countless numbers exist as high-value Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu. Metrosideros polymorpha occurs over
ornamentals. Some Erythrina spp. are used widely in the much of the islands except for the driest sites (Grünwald et
tropics and subtropics as street and park trees, especially al. 2012).
in drier areas. Distribution worldwide—Metrosideros polymorpha is
endemic to the Hawai‘i Islands.The genus Metrosideros has
7. Leptecophylla tameiameiae (Cham. & Schltdl.) about 50 species of trees, shrubs, and vines; native to the
C.M. Weiller; Ericaceae (Heath family) islands of the Pacific Ocean, from the Philippines to New
Common name—pūkiawe Zealand, and including the Bonin Islands, Polynesia, and
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, Melanesia, with an anomalous outlier in South Africa.
Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu. Leptecophylla tameiameiae occurs Ecology—‘Ōhi‘a lehua is the most common of Hawai‘i
over much of the islands except for the driest sites (Grün- trees, and makes up about 80 percent of the remaining
wald et al. 2012). native Hawai‘i forest (Friday and Herbert 2006). The
Distribution worldwide—Indigenous to Hawai‘i and species exhibits tremendous morphological variation and
Marquesas Islands (Nuku Hiva) occurs over a wide range of habitats. The tree typically
reaches 20 to 24 m in height. It grows over a wide elevation
Ecology—Now in the Ericaceae, pūkiawe was formerly
range, from sea level to 2500 m, and over a wide range of
known as Styphelia tameiameiae and placed in the Family
precipitation, from 40 to 1000 cm. The largest components
Epacridaceae (Wagner et al. 1990). Pūkiawe, or Hawaiian
of ‘ōhi‘a are in lowland and montane wet and mesic forests,
heather, is a common indigenous shrub that is often the
dry forests, subalpine shrublands, and new lava flows. Past
principal vegetation component in mixed mesic forests,
land use practices have resulted in the reduction of ‘ōhi‘a’s
wet forests, bogs, and alpine shrublands. It occurs, from
range. It tends to be slow growing and shade intolerant. It
15 to 3200 m elevation, on all the main Hawai‘i Islands
does not regenerate in its own shade or under other tree
except Ni‘ihau and Kaho‘olawe. Pūkiawe is an exceedingly
canopy, but regenerates rapidly and prolifically from wind-
variable species, both morphologically and ecologically.
blown seeds after site disturbance. The species is a critical
The largest wild specimens of pūkiawe, generally in wet
food source to endemic nectivorous and insectivorous birds
forest situations, grow to 3 m in height and have a spread of
(Berger 1981, Smith et al. 1995) and critical specific habitat
about 2 m. The species is found in areas where the annual
to endemic Achatinella and Partulina tree snail species
precipitation ranges from 12 to 250 cm or more.
(Hadfield and Miller 1989, Hadfield and Mountain 1980).
Human uses—The entire pūkiawe plant was highly
Human uses—There are many ancient and modern uses for
esteemed by early Hawaiians. Second-stage kapa beaters,
the flowers, leaves, and wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. Ōhi‘a lehua is
called kua kala, were made from several native woods
an important landscape tree and provides shade and wind
including pūkiawe. The leaves were used medicinally for
protection. The flowers provide nectar for honey production.
cold or headaches. The new leaves (liko) and berries were
The wood is very hard and dense. The most common uses
used by lei makers, and the boiled and mashed berries were
of the wood include wood strip flooring, decking, decorative
used as a dye for coloring kapa cloth.
posts, and round wood construction.
11
9. Myoporum sandwicense (A. DC.) A. Gray; Distribution worldwide—The genus Pandanus contains
Scrophulariaceae (Figwort family) about 600 species of palm-like monocots native to the Old
Common names—naio, false sandalwood World tropics and subtropics. Pandanus tectorius naturally
occurs in strandline and near coastal forests in Southeast
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Indigenous to Hawai‘i (endemic
Asia, including the Philippines and Indonesia, extending
to Hawai‘i and Mangaia, a small island in the Cook Islands).
eastward through Papua New Guinea and northern Austra-
In Hawai‘i, naio is found on Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
lia, and throughout the Pacific islands, including Melanesia
Moloka‘i, Ni‘ihau, and O‘ahu. This species can be found
(Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji),
almost anywhere on all of the islands except the highest
Micronesia (Palau, Northern Marianas, Guam, Federated
elevations of the island of Hawai‘i (Grünwald et al. 2012).
States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu,
Distribution worldwide—Myoporum is a genus of and Nauru), and Polynesia (Wallis and Futuna, Tokelau,
flowering plants in the Scrophulariaceae (formerly placed Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Cook Islands,
in Myoporaceae). There are about 32 species in the genus, French Polynesia, and Hawai‘i).
which is found from Mauritius, across Australasia to the
Ecology—Hala is common to abundant in many Hawai‘i
Pacific Islands, and north to China. Myoporum spp. are
coastal ecosystems. Hala was generally believed to have
widely planted as ornamentals.
been first introduced to Hawai‘i by the Polynesians (Abbot
Ecology—Naio is common in dry upland forest and shrub- 1992), but in 1993, was proved to be native to the Hawai‘i
lands and near sea level. It is uncommon in many areas it Islands when a rockslide uncovered a 1-million year-old
formerly occupied because of site disturbance. On Hawai‘i fossilized impression on a Kaua‘i beach (TenBruggencate
and Maui, trees, some large, occur in mesic and dry forests, 1993). Polynesians undoubtedly brought selected cultivars
whereas on the other islands it is mostly a shrub. Along with with them, increasing the variation of this species in
mamane (Sophora chrysophylla), naio is an integral part of Hawai‘i (Staples and Herbst 2005).
palila (an endangered honeycreeper) habitat on Mauna Kea. Pandanus tectorius grows in maritime (usually less
Naio is planted as an ornamental shrub. than 20 m above sea level), tropical, humid and subhumid
Human uses—Timber of this species was among those pre- climates. Pandanus mainly occurs in localities with 1500
ferred for frames of Hawaiian homes. It was also used for to 4000 mm annual rainfall, and with no or a short dry
fishing torches because of its good burning characteristics. season (i.e., no or a few months receiving less than 40 mm
Naio is considered good firewood by most upland ranchers. on average). In its native habitats, temperatures are warm
The lumber cut from large trees in recent years has been to hot throughout the year and show little variation, both
used for flooring, furniture, and craftwood items. seasonally and diurnally. It is adapted to an extraordinarily
wide range of light to heavy-textured soil types, including
10. Pandanus tectorius Parkinson ex Zucc.; brackish/saline soils, light-colored, infertile coralline atoll
Pandanaceae (Screwpine family) sands, alkaline sands, thin soils over limestone, and peaty
Common names—hala, pū hala swamps. In Hawai‘i, it is an important component of the
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, few remaining intact lowland wet forests on the islands of
Moloka‘i, Ni‘ihau, and O‘ahu. This species principally occu- Hawai‘i and Kaua‘i.
pies coastal and very low elevations. It may be found near Human uses—Hala is an extremely important cultural
Hilo, Kawaihae, Kona, Honolulu, and Kahului (Grünwald et plant species for native Hawaiians, who traditionally used it
al. 2012). for cordage, thatching, healing, decoration, and other uses
(Abbot 1992, Thompson et al. 2006). The plant is prominent
12
in Pacific culture and tradition, including local medicine. Distribution worldwide—Goodeniaceae consists of more
Hundreds of cultivated varieties, collectively recognized in than 130 tropical species, with the center of diversity being
the Pacific, but specific to numerous independent cultural Australia and Polynesia, including Hawai‘i. Scaevola
traditions, are known by their local names and characteris- taccada is the only Hawai‘i species that is found outside of
tics of fruits, branches, and leaves. All parts are used, from the Hawai‘i Islands. It is widely distributed throughout the
the nutritious fruits of edible varieties, to the poles and tropical and subtropical Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is an
branches used in construction, to the leaves for weaving introduced species in Florida and certain Caribbean islands,
and garlands. including the Cayman Islands and the Bahamas. Many spe-
cies of Scaevola, and all other genera of the Goodeniaceae,
11. Scaevola sp. L.; Goodeniaceae are limited to Australia where they are herbaceous and have
(Goodenia family) little commercial value.
Common name—naupaka
Ecology—The Hawai‘i Islands are home to nine endemic
Distribution in Hawai‘i—The species of Scaevola and Scaevola species, most of which are short shrubs. The
their distribution in the Hawai‘i Islands are listed in table 2: mountain naupaka, S. gaudichaudiana, is a small tree
that grows up to 4.9 m tall and 7.6 cm in diameter. Beach
Table 2—Scaevola spp. and their distribution in the Hawai‘i Islands

Common name/
Botanical name Hawai‘i name Hawai‘i distribution (when known)
Scaevola chamissoniana Naupaka kuahiwi Hawai‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i
Gaudich. endemic
Scaevola coriacea Dwarf naupaka Maui, Moloka‘i (Mokuho‘oniki Islet);
Nutt. endemic historically on five additional
islands. Endangered species.
Scaevola gaudichaudiana Mountain naupaka, Kaua‘i, O‘ahu
Cham. endemic Naupaka kuahiwi
Scaevola gaudichaudii Ridgetop naupaka; Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
Hook. & Arn. endemic Naupaka kuahiwi Moloka‘i, O‘ahu
Scaevola glabra Hook. ‘Ohe naupaka Kaua‘i, O‘ahu
& Arn. endemic
Scaevola kilaueae O. Huahekili uka, Hawaiʽi (Ocean View Estates,
Deg. endemic Papa’ahekili; Ka‘u District; Kilauea). Rare.
Naupaka kuahiw’i
Scaevola mollis Hook. & Naupaka, Kaua‘i, Moloka‘i (rare), O‘ahu
Arn. endemic Naupaka kuahiwi
Scaevola procera Forest naupaka, Kaua‘i, Moloka‘i
Hillebr. endemic Naupaka kuahiwi
Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Beach naupaka, Kure atoll, Midway atoll, Pearl and
Roxb. indigenous Naupaka kahakai, Hermes atoll, Lisianski Island,
Aupaka, Huahekili Laysan Island, French Frigate
Shoals, Hawaiʽi
13
naupaka, S. sericea (= S. taccada), is a densely branched, Māmane is essential for the endangered palila bird, a
woody shrub that can grow more than 3 m tall. Hybridiza- Hawai‘i honeycreeper that feeds almost exclusively on the
tion occurs among some of the nine species. plants’ immature seeds when these are in season and nests
Human uses—Species of Scaevola are abundantly planted in māmane branches. Caterpillars of Cydia moths eat the
in Hawai‘i as landscape trees and shrubs, with different māmane’s seeds, and, in turn, are eaten by the palila.
species being suited for different habitats—from arid Human uses—The flowers were used as an astringent.
wastelands to wet areas. The flowers of Scaevola are valued The hard, durable wood was used by the native Hawaiians
owing to traditional folklore tales, and flowers and seeds are for house-building material, digging sticks, sled runners,
used in lei making. Fabric dyes can be made from fruits. tools, firewood, and fence posts. The wood was also used in
religious rituals to ward off evil.
12. Sophora chrysophylla (Salisb.) Seem.;
Fabaceae (Bean family) 13. Vaccinium calycinum Sm., V. dentatum Sm., V.
Common names—māmane, māmani reticulatum Sm.; Ericaceae (Heath family)
Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i Common names—‘ōhelo, tree ohelo

(extinct?), Maui, Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu; it is rare on Kaua‘i, Distribution in Hawai‘i—Endemic to Hawai‘i. The poten-
Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu but common at higher elevations on tial ranges of V. calycinum and V. dentatum are mainly at
Maui and Hawai‘i. It primarily may be found at lower to low elevations. Vaccinium reticulatum extends elevationally
mid elevations on the islands (Grünwald 2012). to near the highest points of the island of Hawai‘i (Grün-
Distribution worldwide—The species is endemic to wald et al. 2012).
Hawai‘i. Sophora is a genus of about 45 species of small Vaccinium calycinum—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
trees and shrubs. The species are native to Southern Asia, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu
Australasia, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, western South Vaccinium dentatum—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui,
America, and southeast Europe. One species, S. tomentosa Moloka‘i, O‘ahu
(necklace pod), has a native distribution in coastal areas of Vaccinium reticulatum—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Maui,
subtropical and tropical climates around the world—Ameri- Moloka‘i, O‘ahu
cas, Africa, Australia, Japan, and other Pacific islands. Ecology—About 450 species of Vaccinium are found in
Ecology—Māmane is a large shrub or medium-sized tree north temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions around
up to 15 m tall. This species is one of the most widely the world. Numerous species are grown for fruit production
distributed trees in Hawai‘i and is a dominant species and as ornamentals. Vaccinium calycinum is a woody
in subalpine forest types on east Maui and Hawai‘i. It is shrub or small tree that is slow growing and long lived.
common mainly in dry mountain forests at 1219 to 2438 It ranges from 500 to 1800 m elevation in wet forests and
m elevation, ranging down almost to 30 m and up to 2896 bogs in its natural habitat. Vaccinium dentatum is a small,
m at the treeline on the highest mountains of the island of sprawling shrub. Vaccinium reticulatum is a small shrub
Hawai‘i (Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai). It reaches that is long lived and grows on disturbed sites from 640 to
its best development as a tree on the higher slopes of Mauna 3700 m elevation. It is rare on Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, and Moloka‘i
Kea and Mauna Loa. Elsewhere, except for portions of but common on Maui and Hawai‘i. The berries provide an
Haleakala on Maui, it grows predominantly as a shrub. important food source for the endangered nēnē or Hawaiian
goose (Branta sandvicensis), Hawai‘i’s state bird.
14
Human uses—The early Hawaiians believed that the ‘ōhelo to species. The severity of the infestation is not reported. A
was sacred to Pele, the goddess of fire. Various parts of difficulty in interpreting these data is that foreign ship-
‘ōhelo have been used for their medicinal properties. The ments undergo inspection at the first port of U.S. entry. If
flowers and fruit were (and are to this day) used in lei mak- a shipment first makes entry at a U.S. mainland port then
ing. The berries produced are similar to other Vaccinium is shipped to Hawai‘i, the port of entry for the interception
species and are edible. They are used to make jams, jellies, is the mainland port, not the final destination port. Any
and pie filling. Research on production of ornamental ‘ōhelo associated pest is then recorded associated with the com-
has been done to provide an agricultural source of berries modity at the mainland port and not with any Hawai‘i port.
and lessen the impact of extensive berry harvesting on Much of the international trade destined for Hawai‘i occurs
native populations. through U.S. mainland ports and is, therefore, not included
in this pest data.
Known Insect and Disease Pests Most of the interceptions were in Honolulu, either at the
in Hawai‘i airport or seaport. A very small number were intercepted
Numerous insects and pathogens have been identified on at the Kailua and Kahului airports and harbors. Most of the
these 13 taxa, some of which are native and others intro- pests were intercepted in baggage at the Honolulu Interna-
duced to Hawai‘i. These are of obvious interest in our analy- tional Airport. The second largest source of interceptions
sis because of their presence already in the state. We did an was with cargo. Citrus sp. and Alyxia sp. had the largest
extensive literature search and consulted with local forest number of interceptions of all commodities. Most of these
health specialists to identify known insects and pathogens. were either fruit and leaves of Citrus and leaves of Alyxia.
The known insects and pathogens are listed in tables 5-1 This is most likely because of the volume of these materials
and 5-2 (app. 5)1, including the species they attack, whether imported. Figure 3 identifies the commodities with more
they are native or introduced, the part of the plant on which than 100 interceptions each. Several of this assessment’s
they are found, and which islands they inhabit. species of concern had related host species with intercep-
tions reported, including Acacia, Diospyros, Erythrina,
Previous Interceptions of Quarantine Pandanus, and Vaccinium. The imported commodity for
Organisms Acacia was cut flowers and seed. The two interceptions on
A search of the APHIS Pest-ID database was made for Erythrina were on plants. Interceptions on the remaining
pests identified at Hawai‘i ports of entry from 1984 to 2010 three species concerned fruit. Most intercepted pests came
(APHIS 2007a). This does not include military ports of from countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The largest source
entry. The search included insects and pathogens on all was the Phillipines (1,540), followed by Japan (1,032), and
plant hosts and other means of entry. Over 10,000 items Thailand (1,002). The majority of these interceptions were
were reported at least once transporting a pest (table 6-1, insects (7,580), followed by pathogens (1,637), mites (76),
app. 6). More than 9,800 pests were intercepted on these and nematodes (4). This supports the idea that most inspec-
commodities during this period (table 6-2, app. 6). The tions more readily find and identify easily visible pests.
majority of the pests were insects and often not identified
1
Appendices for this report are available online at: http://www.fs.fed.
us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr250/ psw_gtr250_appendix.
pdf.
15
1,600
1,400
Number of interceptions
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
Host genus
Figure 3—Number of pest interceptions on commodities arriving in Hawai‘i, 1984–2010.
In addition to surveying the APHIS database, HDOA perseae) and Cercosporidium sequoiae, cause of needle
performed a risk assessment for Kahului Airport in 2000 blight of Leyland cypress and related conifers, neither of
to 2001 (HDOA 2002). Intensive inspections of baggage, which was established in Hawai‘i.
aircraft, and air cargo from the continental United States A previous pathway risk analysis for Hawai‘i by
and foreign areas were done. During this time period, APHIS listed intercepted pests on agricultural commod-
nearly 2,200 insects were intercepted in all ports across ities between 2004 and 2006. The data source was the
the state. Over 1,400 insects were intercepted in air cargo Agricultural Quarantine Activity System (Culliney et
at Kahului Airport. The family Aphididae was the most al., n.d.). An unidentified pest on Erythrina was reported
commonly recovered, although most of these were species in an air shipment of cut flowers from South Africa, and
already established in Hawai‘i. Most of the insects that were on plant material from South Africa at a port inspection
intercepted that were not established in Hawai‘i included station. An unidentified pest on Pandanus was discovered
members of Aphididae, Lygaeidae, Staphylinidae, Gracil- in 129 air shipments of cut flowers and several shipments
lariidae, Chrysomelidae, and Cicadellidae. A total of 156 of plant material from Thailand. Unidentified pests were
plant pathogenic organisms were intercepted during these intercepted on Scaevola plant material from Micronesia. No
same inspections. The most common interceptions were interceptions were reported on any of the other hosts being
avocado scab disease (caused by the fungus Sphaceloma evaluated in this assessment (Culliney et al., n.d.).
16
Chapter 3: Pathways and Commodities for Pest Entry

Pathways as that of the shipment it accompanies, as it is routinely
The principal pathways considered for this assessment reused and reconditioned. It is also not reported on ship-
follow. Other pathways are likely, but we believe the ones ping manifests, so it cannot be tracked and quantified. On
listed are sufficiently inclusive to cover other, unidentified September 16, 2005, the United States started enforcing
pathways. the International Plant Protection Convention’s standard
• Plant material ISPM No.15, “Guidelines for Regulating Wood Packaging
• Seeds for sowing and consumption Material in International Trade” (IPPC 2009). The standard
• Nursery stock requires fumigation or heat treatment for all wood packag-
• Cut flowers ing material entering the United States.
• Fruits and vegetables
• Living plant material Table 3—Location of pest on host and potential
pathways of pest entry
• Christmas trees
• Cut foliage Location of pest on host Pathway
• Dried plant material Seeds Seeds for sowing
• Tissue culture Seeds Hitchhikers
Roots Nursery stock
• Wood products
Roots Live plant material
• Unmanufactured wood products
Roots Potting media
• Manufactured wood products Foliage/other Nursery stock
• Jewelry and handcrafts Foliage/other Cut flowers
• Pallets, crating, dunnage Foliage/other Cut foliage
• Hitchhikers Foliage/other Live plant material
Foliage/other Propagative plant cuttings
• Privately owned vehicles
Foliage/other Fruit
• Maritime ship superstructures Foliage/other Christmas trees
• Aircraft Foliage/other Hitchhikers
• Containers Foliage/other Decorative dried plant material
• Potting media/compost/soil Foliage/other Jewelry and handicrafts
Bark/cambium Nursery stock
Several pathways may exist for a single organism. Bark/cambium Cut flowers
We developed a means to identify pathways based on the Bark/cambium Live plant material
location on the host plant where the pest can occur. Table 3 Bark/cambium Propagative plant cuttings
identifies likely relationships between the parts of the host Bark/cambium Christmas trees
Bark/cambium Hitchhikers
that are affected and probable commodity pathways. This
Bark/cambium Unmanufactured wood products
simplified and streamlined the analysis, as many of the Bark/cambium Wood packing material
pathways for specific organisms are difficult to predict. Bark/cambium Manufactured wood products
Bark/cambium Decorative dried plant material
Significant Pathways for Potential Bark/cambium Jewelry and handicrafts
Pest Entry Sapwood Christmas trees
Sapwood Unmanufactured wood products
Wood Packing Material
Sapwood Wood packing material
A significant source of potential pest entry is on solid Sapwood Manufactured wood products
wood packaging material (SWPM). This includes dunnage, Heartwood Unmanufactured wood products
crating, pallets, packing blocks, drums, cases, and skids. Heartwood Wood packing material
The origin of this material is not necessarily the same Heartwood Manufactured wood products
17
Culliney et al. (n.d.) estimated that between 3 and 11

3,000,000
percent (95 percent binomial confidence interval) of all
Other
shipments with SWPM arriving at the port of Honolulu 2,500,000
Oceania
are infested with live pests based on an evaluation of 2,000,000 Other Asia
Total seats
Agricultural Quarantine Inspection Monitoring (AQIM) Canada
1,500,000
Japan
data records for the period between October 2005 and April
1,000,000
2007 (APHIS 2011a).
500,000
Airline Passengers
0
Airline passengers are another major source for potential 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
pest entry. The total number of visitors arriving by air in Year

Hawai‘i from 2007 to 2011 was over 34 million (fig. 4). Figure 5—Total passenger seats to Hawai‘i by international air
Over 70 percent were from the mainland United States. The travel, 2007 to 2011 . Source: Hawai‘i Department of Business,
Economic Development and Tourism 2013.
principal country of origin for foreign arrivals was Japan,
followed by Canada (fig. 5) (HDBDET 2013). From 1984 consistent exporting countries for this material are Aus-
through 2010, The U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal tralia and the Netherlands (U.S. Department of Commerce
and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) intercepted Census Bureau 2013). Data on interstate movement of live
over 9,800 reportable pests of foreign origin at Hawai‘i plant material from the continental United States were not
ports of entry. Almost 7,400 of these interceptions were available for comparison.
associated with airports (APHIS 2007a).
Restrictions on importation of plants and plant parts—
Live Plant Material The importation of plants and plant parts is regulated by
Annual imports— APHIS and Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture (HDOA),
Plants for horticultural use are continually arriving in depending on the place of origin. APHIS has a plant
Hawai‘i from foreign and domestic locations. Many of these inspection station at the Honolulu International Airport
have become invasive and are affecting native ecosystems. where plants and seeds are inspected for plant pests and
In addition, they may be carriers for invasive insects diseases. Plants known to be invasive, or known to carry
and pathogens. Figure 6 provides information on recent unwanted insects or pathogens, may be restricted entry
foreign imports of live plant material into Hawai‘i. The or require quarantine prior to release. However, these
majority consists of live trees, shrubs, and plants without restrictions are established based on known issues and do
soil attached to roots. The quantity imported has remained not cover unknown or unexpected insects and pathogens.
stable during the past 5 years. The primary and most Current regulations (7 CFR part 319.37) prohibit or restrict
the importation of certain plants and plant products into the
United States (APHIS 2013a). Those allowed entry must
8,000,000 be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate of inspec-
Number of visitors
7,000,000 All others

6,000,000 Canada
tion issued by the national plant protection service of the
5,000,000
4,000,000 Japan exporting country.
3,000,000
2,000,000
Continental U.S. Plants and plant parts in the following genera and
1,000,000 families related to species covered by this risk assessment
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 are either prohibited from importation into the United
Year
States (7 CFR 319.37-2), require specific treatment prior
Figure 4—Number of airline passenger arrivals to Hawai‘i by to importation (7 CFR 319.37-6), or have a postentry
air from 2007 to 2011. Source: Hawai‘i Department of Business,
Economic Development and Tourism 2011. quarantine requirement (7 CFR 319.37-7). Although they
18
Annual Imports of live 300,000

Thailand
plant material (kg) 250,000 Taiwan
200,000 Netherlands
Indonesia
150,000
Hong Kong
100,000
China
50,000 Canada
Australia
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Herbaceous Trees and Plants, Trees and Plants,
perennials shrubs live, with shrubs live,
without soil with soil soil live without
sttached attached without soil
to roots soil attached
attached to roots
Live plant material
Figure 6—Annual import of live plant material from foreign countries to Hawai‘i, 2007 to 2011.
are not the species of interest in this pest risk assessment, • Vicia (Fabaceae) from all countries except
their close relationship indicates the potential for harboring North and Central America
insects and pathogens that could attack the 13 taxa. Any • Restricted postentry quarantine
species not listed must have a phytosanitary certificate and • Acacia spp. from all countries except Australia,
be inspected at the port of entry, but is then released if no Canada, and Oceania
pests are identified. • Blighia sapida (Sapindaceae) from all countries
except Canada, Cote d’Ivoire, and Nigeria
Species, genus, or family of plants with restrictions on
• Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae) from all coun-
importation of plants or plant parts into the United
tries except Canada, Europe, Sri Lanka, and
States from foreign countries—
Uruguay
• Prohibited from importation
• Fruit and nut articles and other propagules of:
• Acacia from Australia and Oceania
• Ceratonia (Fabaceae)
• Eucalyptus spp. from Europe, Sri Lanka, and
• Diospyros (Ebenaceae)
Uruguay
• Euphoria (Sapindaceae)
• Herbaceous species in Fabaceae (=Leguminosae)
• Eugenia (Myrtaceae)
from all countries except Canada
• Feijoa (Myrtaceae)
• Vaccinium spp. from Canada not meeting the
• Litchi (Sapindaceae)
conditions for importation in §319.37–5(t)
• Melicoccus (Sapindaceae)
• Specific treatment required
• Nephelium (Sapindaceae)
• Lathyrus (Fabaceae) from all countries except
• Psidium (Myrtaceae)
North and Central America
• Rhodomyrtus (Myrtaceae)
• Lens (Fabaceae) from all countries except North
• Syzygium (Myrtaceae)
and Central America
• Vaccinium (Ericaceae)
19
In 2011, APHIS established new regulations (7 CFR receive most of the foreign and continental U.S. shipments.
319.37-2a) on importation of plants for planting (APHIS Excluding interisland service, Hawai‘i has five principal
2011c). In addition to the existing categories of prohibited commercial airports (Hilo, Honolulu, Kahului, Kona,
and restricted plants, a third category called Not Authorized Lihue); most overseas visitors arrive through the Honolulu
Pending Pest Risk Analysis (NAPPRA) was established. International Airport. In addition to these commercial ports
This category identifies plants for which scientific evidence of entry, military ports, both air and sea, are significant
indicates they are quarantine pests or hosts of quarantine places for commodity imports.
pests and pose a risk to the United States. The current
Maritime cargo—
NAPPRA list contains 107 genera of hosts of quarantine
In 2010, maritime ports in Hawai‘i received 8 million
pests that are not allowed entry into the United States from
metric tons of cargo on over 600 vessels from foreign
certain countries. Plants on this list are prohibited entry
points of origin. They also received 8 million metric tons
pending pest risk analysis. Three genera, Acacia, Sophora,
on more than 7,000 vessels from domestic sources, which
and Vaccinium, which are part of this analysis, are included
include mainland United States, Alaska, Puerto Rico and
in this list. In addition, the following genera are in the same
the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, Wake Island,
families of some of the 13 species being assessed in this
and the United States Trust Territories (U.S. Army Corps
pest risk assessment and are in the NAPPRA list: Albizia
of Engineers 2010). This includes military cargo shipped
(Fabaceae), Cajanus (Fabaceae), Cercis (Fabaceae), Litchi
as ordinary commercial cargo but does not include what is
(Sapindaceae), Maackia (Fabaceae), Psidium (Myrtaceae),
shipped on Department of Defense vessels. A breakdown
Rhododendron (Ericaceae), Robinia (Fabaceae). Although
by harbor illustrates the volume of cargo arriving by ship at
these are not the same species as those being analyzed,
each port in 2010 (table 4).
some pests do occur on multiple species, often of the
The arrival of cargo on commercial maritime vessels
same family.
was about equally split between domestic and foreign
Commodities Entering Hawai‘i sources in 2010 when considering the quantity of goods
(table 4). The number of vessels was considerably higher
Hawai‘i receives all of its commodities and visitors either
from domestic ports. However, this is somewhat misleading
by ship or aircraft. Six principal maritime ports (Honolulu,
as the majority of foreign cargo is not shipped directly
Hilo, Barbers Point, Kahului, Kawaihae, and Nawiliwili)
Table 4—Foreign and domestic commercial traffic arriving at Hawai‘i maritime ports in 2010a

Number of
vessels inboundb Total Cargo (short tons)c
vessels Total cargo
Harbor Foreign Domestic inbound Foreign Domestic (short tons)
Barbers Point, O‘ahu 127 772 899 7,336,838 307,614 7,644,452
Hilo, Hawai‘i 64 673 737 26,322 833,309 859,631
Honolulu, O‘ahu 398 3,010 3,408 836,902 5,010,833 5,847,735
Kahului, Maui 19 968 987 94,218 1,243,508 1,337,726
Kawaihae, Hawai‘i 1 643 644 28,175 604,613 632,788
Nawiliwili, Kaua‘i 37 542 579 10,475 586,135 596,610
Total 646 6,608 7,254 8,332,930 8,586,012 16,918,942
a
Data source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2010. http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/index.htm.
b Inbound self-propelled and non-self-propelled vessels, which includes dry cargo, tanker, and tow or tug vessels ranging in draft.
c Cargo includes agricultural and nonagricultural freight. Short ton = 2,000 lbs. (907.18474 kg).
20
to Hawai‘i, but arrives at the U.S. mainland and is then

10,000.00
shipped as domestic cargo. This results in different phy- 9,000.00
Shipping weight (mil. kgs.)

8,000.00
tosanitary inspections upon arrival in Hawai‘i. All foreign
7,000.00
imports are cleared by the U.S. Department of Homeland 6,000.00
5,000.00
Security, Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP),
4,000.00
whereas domestic shipments (including shipments of 3,000.00
2,000.00
foreign origin arriving from the U.S. mainland) are cleared
1,000.00
by HDOA at the port of arrival (Culliney et al., n.d.). 0.00
1997
2007
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Much of this cargo is nonagricultural and would only
Year
carry insects and pathogens as hitchhikers or in material
used for packing, crating, and dunnage. Data on categories Figure 7—Foreign cargo arriving in Hawai‘i via maritime vessels
between 1992 and 2012. Source: Hawai‘i Department of Business,
of commodities of direct interest to our analysis are not Economic Development and Tourism 2010, 2012.
available, but volumes of some likely commodities of inter-
est are reported. Honolulu Harbor received all of the forest
product type commodities from foreign sources in 2010. 45.00
This included fuel wood (28 short tons), rough wood (218 Shipping weight (mil. kgs.) 40.00
35.00
short tons), lumber, (2,652 short tons), and forest products 30.00
not classified elsewhere (576 short tons) (U.S. Army Corps 25.00
20.00
of Engineers 2010). Even there, the quantity is a small
15.00
proportion of the total maritime cargo received. Most of this 10.00
was identified as lumber. Regardless of form, this material 5.00
0.00
needs to meet APHIS importation requirements (7 CFR
2007
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
319.40), which restrict certain types of lumber from impor- Year
tation and require mitigation measures (kiln dried, heat
treated, or fumigated) for the remainder (APHIS 2013b). Figure 8—Foreign cargo arriving in Hawai‘i via aircraft between
1992 and 2012. Source: Hawai‘i Department of Business, Eco-
During the past several decades, the amount of foreign nomic Development and Tourism 2010 and 2012.
imports into Hawai‘i has been on a general increase, but
the recent economic downturn has seen this trend reversed.
in 2010 (fig. 8), and this foreign air importation is expected
There was stabilization in maritime importation in 2010
to continue to increase as economic conditions improve.
(fig. 7), and this foreign importation will likely continue and
Inspection of international arrivals is the responsibility
increase as economic conditions improve.
of the U.S. Customs and Border Patrol (CBP). Officers with
Air cargo— CBP meet arriving foreign transports and inspect a per-
Hawai‘i is a resort destination and receives most visitors by centage of passengers, crew, luggage, and cargo to prevent
air. Preliminary estimates for 2011 indicate over 7,284,000 entry of agricultural pests and diseases. Domestic travelers,
visitor arrivals to Hawai‘i, with about 98 percent arriving by including those from the U.S. mainland, are the responsibil-
air (USDOT BTS 2011). Table 5 displays data for 2011 on ity of HDOA for inspection. Interception data from HDOA
air traffic into Hawai‘i. Most foreign passengers and cargo quarantine inspections of passenger carry-on baggage iden-
arrive through Honolulu International Airport. tified over 300 pest interceptions between 1995 and 2006 in
Foreign cargo arriving by air has had a similar trend as domestic travelers (HDOA 2007). Currently, HDOA does
foreign cargo arriving by sea. As with maritime importation not have a program in place to routinely inspect passenger
of foreign goods, there was stabilization in air importation carry-on baggage.
21
Table 5—Number of aircraft, passengers, cargo, and mail arriving at Hawai‘i airports from January through
August 2011a
Number of aircraft Number of passengers Cargo (short tons) Mail (short tons)
Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic
Airport origin origin origin originb origin originb origin origin
Hilo 0 4,692 1 12,643 0 70 0 0
Honolulu 5,882 42,113 1,296,599 414,778 56,494,828 14,185,243 277,002 2,207,421
Kahului 592 19,127 102,416 937,175 7,114 10,261,229 0 196
Kona 53 11,431 8,178 354,401 32,234 9,563,835 0 80,703
Lihue 35 8,806 4,758 306,900 0 657,765 0 2,797
Total 7,042 86,169 1,411,952 2,025,897 56,534,176 34,668,142 277,002 2,291,117
a
Data Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics 2011. www.transtats.bts.gov.
b
Interisland traffic excluded.
Potential Origins of Pests the Asia-Pacific region. Using commodity value may not
The above information on potential pathways provides an be the best measure to evaluate potential origins of pests
idea of the quantity of importation, but not the origin. The but are the only data readily available. Measures of volume
origin of foreign trade by all means of transportation to or shipments could provide a better measure, but were not
Hawai‘i is tracked by the U.S. Department of Commerce available to the authors.
Census Bureau. During the period 2008 to 2010, the top In 2010, over 8.3 million tons of cargo arrived at
countries exporting to Hawai‘i based on value of exports Hawai‘i ports on marine vessels from foreign sources (U.S.
have been identified. The top 14 are shown in figure 9. The Army Corps of Engineers 2010). About 95 percent of that
cumulative 3-year total is valued at over $14.7 billion from arrived from 11 countries, primarily in Asia or the Pacific.
these countries (USDC CB 2013). Eight of the top 10 are in This includes Australia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Russia,
South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam (fig. 10).
United Kingdom, Taiwan, 0.9%

Canada, 2.5% New Zealand, 1.0% 0.8%
France, 3.9% Indonesia, 13.4%
South Korea, 3.7%
Australia, 3.6% Vietnam, 11.6%
Japan, 5.5%
China, 7.2%
Thailand, 9.3% Saudi Arabia, 11.8%

Russia, 10.2%
Figure 9—Top countries exporting to Hawai‘i based on 3-year average, 2008 to 2010, dollar value. Source:
USDC CB 2013.
22
Vietnam Argentina
4% Australia
8% Canada
Thailand 8%
10% 3%
China
3%
South Korea
17%
Indonesia
27%
Saudi Arabia
10% Japan
Russia
8% 2%
Figure 10—Origin of foreign freight arriving by sea to Hawai‘i in 2010. Source: U.S Army Corps of
Engineers 2010.
The Bureau of Transportation Statistics collects data on Known Pests at Potential Origins
movement of trade by aircraft in the United States. In 2010, A principal means of determining potential pests for
Japan was the major exporter by air to Hawai‘i, with about introduction is the evaluation of the host plant and its pests
75 percent of the total cargo. Almost all of the remaining in other geographic areas. Of the 13 host taxa in this assess-
25 percent arrived from sources in the Pacific and Asia ment, nine are endemic to the Hawai‘i Islands. Exposure
(fig. 11). A total of over 50,200 tons arrived by air from to foreign pests only occurs where these plants have been
foreign sources in 2010 (USDOT RITA 2010). In addition introduced to foreign environments. Most of these have not
to foreign sources, a considerable amount of freight arrives been planted in other locations and have not been exposed
by air from the U. S. mainland. In 2011, over 239,300 tons to potential insect pests and pathogens. To better assess
of freight was shipped by air to Hawai‘i from the continen- what pest organisms might be a threat, we went beyond
tal United States and its territories (USDOT BTS 2011). the species level and looked at the genus and family to
The majority of the domestic freight arrived through the provide a list of potential pests around the world. In some
Honolulu International Airport (fig. 12). Of this, 1,830 tons cases this was a daunting task. For example, Diospyros and
were shipped from Guam, American Samoa, and Saipan. Vaccinium are genera with members that produce agricul-
Material from these three territories may present particular tural commodities. Because of the economic value of these
concern because of their similar environment to Hawai‘i crop plants, extensive lists of pests have been identified
and the increased potential of exotic pests to find habitable and evaluated. These crops have also been planted in many
conditions in Hawai‘i. areas around the world. The list of insects and pathogens for
these species is considerably longer and more complete than
those lists of species with more limited host distribution.
23
Canada
Philippines South Korea Australia Federated States
New Zealand Taiwan of Micronesia
Marshall Islands
Malaysia
Japan
Figure 11—Origin of foreign freight arriving by air to Hawai‘i in 2010. Source: USDT BTS 2011.
1000
100
Freight (thousand tons)
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
Hilo Honolulu Kahului Kaneohe Kona Lihue
Freight airports in Hawai‘i

Figure 12—Destination of air freight arriving in Hawai‘i from the continental United States and its
territories, 2011. Source: USDT BTS 2011.
24
Chapter 4: Insects and Pathogens Posing Risk

Introduction of concern in Hawai‘i. Lists of insects and pathogens that
The probability of pest introduction is determined by have been reported to inhabit these species or closely
several related factors, including the likelihood of a pest related species outside of Hawai‘i were compiled from the
traveling with and surviving on a shipment from the place literature, information provided by Hawaiian entomologists
of origin, a pest colonizing suitable hosts at the point of and plant pathologists, information received from reviewers
entry and during transport to processing sites, and subse- of a preliminary list prepared by the team, and information
quent pest spread to adjacent territories. Many insects and described in appendix 4. These organisms were catalogued
pathogens could be introduced on various commodities into in one of the categories of quarantine pests defined in the
Hawai‘i from any origin in the world. Because it would be log import regulations. The team broadened some of the
impractical to analyze the risk of all of them, some form categories to include a broader definition of genetic varia-
of selection was necessary. Selection was based on the tion (table 6). The part of the plant the organisms affect was
likelihood of the pest being on or in a commodity, and on also noted: seeds, roots, on foliage or bark, in or under the
potential risk the pest poses to resources in Hawai‘i. The bark, in sapwood, or in heartwood. From these lists, organ-
pest risk assessment team compiled and assessed pertinent isms were selected for further analysis. Organisms were
data using the methodology outlined in “Pest Risk Assess- selected from each of the plant parts affected. Organisms
ment Process” in appendix 4,1 and as used in previous pest were selected based on the amount of damage they may
risk assessments (Kliejunas et al. 2001, 2003; Tkacz et al. cause in Hawai‘i, the availability of information available
1998; USDA FS 1991, 1992, 1993). on the organism, and the pathway the organism represents.
For each organism selected, a thorough individual pest
Analysis Process risk assessment (IPRA) was developed as described in
The general analysis process used is explained in appendix appendix 4.
4. For this risk assessment, information was collected from
Potential Insects and Pathogens of Concern
an array of sources on the organisms associated with or
The species of insects and pathogens associated with the
considered a risk to any of the 13 taxa identified as hosts
13 taxa in Hawai‘i and identified as potential pests of
1Appendices for this report are available online at: http://www.fs.fed. concern are presented in appendix 7 (tables 7-1 and 7-2).
us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr250/ psw_gtr250_appendix.pdf. The organisms listed are not meant to be all-definitive or
Table 6—Pest categories and descriptions

Category Description
1 Nonindigenous plant pest not present in Hawai‘i
2 Nonindigenous plant pest present in Hawai‘i and capable of further dissemination in Hawai‘i
2a Native plant pest of limited distribution in Hawai‘i, but capable of further dissemination in Hawai‘i
3 Nonindigenous plant pest present in Hawai‘i that has reached probable limits of its ecological range
but differs genetically from the plant pest in Hawai‘i in a way that demonstrates a potential for greater
damage potential in Hawai‘i
4 Native species of Hawai‘i that has reached probable limits of its ecological range, but differs genetically
from the plant pest in Hawai‘i in a way that demonstrates a potential for greater damage potential
4a Native pest organisms that may differ in their capacity for causing damage, based on genetic variation
exhibited by the species
5 Nonindigenous or native plant pest that may be able to vector another plant pest that meets one of the
above criteria
25
all-inclusive lists but are a result of literature searches and Bombax malabaricum, Bridalia retusa, Butea frondosa,
information provided by colleagues. For an organism to be Careya arborea, Cedrela toona, Chloroxylon swietenia,
listed in table 7-1 or in table 7-1, it must have been iden- Cynometra ramiflora, Duabanga sonneratioides, Euca-
tified with one of the 13 Hawai‘i host species or a closely lyptus robusta, Excaecaria agallocha, Ficus bengalensis,
related species, either in the literature or by communication Grewia oppositifolia, Hardwickia binata, Juglans regia,
amougst other entomologists or plant pathologists. That host Kydia calycina, Lannea grandis, Largerstraemia parviflora,
is listed in the tables, as are any additional hosts known to Mallotus philippinensis, Malus domestica, Mangifera
harbor the insect or pathogen. Bold type is used in the tables indica, Miliusa velutina, Morus alba, Myristica anda-
to highlight the insects or pathogens treated in IPRAS. The manica, Ougenia dalbergioides, Pentacme suavis, Pinus
tables represent a list of potential pests of concern, and longifolia, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, P. communis,
do not represent, or judge, quarantine status of any of the P. domestica, P. persica, Psidium guajava, Pterocarpus
organisms listed. marsupium, Pyrus baccata, P. communis, Quercus incana,
Shorea robusta, Tamarix articulata, Tectona grandis,
Individual Pest Risk Assessments Terminalia balerica, T. myriocarpa, T. tomentosa, Sapium
Twenty-four IPRAS were prepared, 12 dealing with insects sebiferum, Shorea assamica, Soymida febrifuga (Rahman
and 12 with pathogens. The objective was to include in the and Khan 1942).
IPRAS representative examples of insects and pathogens
Distribution: India
found on seeds, roots, bark, sapwood, and heartwood that
would have the greatest potential risk to forests and other Summary of natural history and basic biology of
tree resources of Hawai‘i. The team recognized that these the pest: The apple stem borer, also known as the cherry
might not be the only organisms associated with these stem borer, is widely distributed throughout forested
hosts in Hawai‘i. They, however, are representative of the areas in India (Rahman and Kahn 1942, Tara et al. 2008).
diversity of insects and pathogens that might inhabit the The insect has a very wide host range that includes many
hosts of concern. By necessity, the IPRAS focus on those important fruit trees such as apple (Malus sp.), and several
insects and pathogens for which biological information is Prunus species, including cherry, apricot, plum, and
available. The assessments of risks associated with known peach (Rahman and Kahn 1942). The apple stem borer is
organisms that inhabit a variety of niches can be used by the considered to be one of the most destructive borers of apple
Animal Protection and Health Inspection Service (APHIS) plantations in India (Tara et al. 2008). Larval feeding pro-
and Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture (HDOA) to identify gressively weakens trees, initially causing branch dieback,
effective mitigation measures to eliminate both the known and eventually tree death (Gupta and Tara 2013). As many
organisms and any similar heretofore unrecognized organ- as 70 larvae may be found within infested branches (Tara
isms that inhabit the same niches. A summary table et al. 2008). Rahman and Kahn (1942) reported that a single
(table 11) of the IPRA results can be found in chapter 5. larva could kill a young apple tree. Infested trees are easily
recognized because of the continuous sap flow from the
Insect IPRAs openings of larval feeding galleries and from the frass plugs
Apple Stem Borer on the trunk and branches (Gupta and Tara 2013).
Adult beetles are large and stout, measuring from 38
Assessor: Andris Eglitis
to 45 mm in length and 10 to 13 mm wide (Gupta and Tara
Scientific name of pest: Aeolesthes holosericea 2013). Males are distinctly smaller than females and have
(Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) antennae considerably longer than their body. The insects
Scientific names of hosts: Acacia nilotica, A. arabica, are dark brown or reddish brown and covered by dense
Aegle marmelos, Alnus nitida, Anogeissus latifolia, golden brown pubescence, giving them a silky appearance
Bauhinia acuminata, Bauhinia retusa, B. variegata, (Gupta and Tara 2013).
26
In the field, adult beetles begin emerging from infested Life stages of the wood borer would be well-protected
material in March or April (spring) and emergence contin- within untreated raw wood and could be difficult to detect
ues well into the summer or fall, depending on the area and in packing material made of that wood. Wood-boring
the affected host (Gupta and Tara 2013). For oviposition, insects have been highly successful in gaining entry
females select crevices or injured areas on the bark, where into new environments via the solid wood packing
eggs are laid singly or in groups of two to five. The egg-lay- material pathway.
ing period can occur between May and October (spring and 3. Colonization potential: High (RC) (Applicable
fall) (Rahman and Kahn 1942). Under laboratory condi- rating criteria, from app. 4: b, d, e)
tions, each female is capable of producing 45 to 80 eggs
Hawai‘i occupies the same latitudinal band as parts of
(Gupta and Tara 2013). The eggs hatch within 2 weeks and
India. Within India, the apple stem borer ranges in elevation
young larvae immediately begin feeding on the phloem and
from 1067 to 2438 m and has nearly 40 host plants (Rahman
cambium. As the larvae grow, the later instars move into
and Kahn 1942). Aeolesthes holosericea has a high repro-
the heartwood where they create branched galleries. These
ductive potential, with each female capable of laying up to
“sub-tunnels” are open to the exterior of the tree, allowing
80 eggs (Gupta and Tara 2013).
the insects to expel their excreta as they feed (Gupta and
Tara 2013). The gallery openings are typically plugged with 4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating
frass and oozing sap (Gupta and Tara 2013). Gupta and criteria, from app. 4: a, c, d, e, f, g)
Tara (2013) reported that the period of larval development The apple stem borer has a very broad host range
is extremely variable on fruit trees, ranging from 9 to 32 including plant genera that occur in Hawai‘i (e.g., Acacia,
months. Mature larvae widen the main feeding tunnel to Bauhinia, Eucalyptus, Mangifera, Morus, Psidium, Ptero-
form a pupal chamber that is located near the outer surface carpus, Prunus, Pyrus, Tectona, Terminalia). As evidenced
of the infested tree (Gupta and Tara 2013). Pupation takes by introductions of cerambycids in other parts of the world,
place between September and October (fall), and the insects infestations often go undetected for many years. Typically,
spend the winter in the pupal stage (Gupta and Tara 2013). the lengthy period of time between detection of infestations
The entire life cycle can range from 2 to 3 years (Rahman and response means that eradication is not possible.
and Kahn 1942). B. Consequences of introduction
Specific information relating to risk elements (elements 5. Economic damage potential: High (RC) (Applicable
defined in table 7): rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
A. Likelihood of introduction (untreated wood pathway) The apple stem borer infests a wide variety of fruit
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High trees and is capable of weakening and killing many of its
(VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. hosts through repeated infestation (Gupta and Tara 203).
4: c, e, f, g, h) 6. Environmental damage potential: High (RC)
The insect has a broad host range and is widely distrib- (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d, e)
uted throughout India. All of the life stages of wood-boring This insect is being evaluated because it has hosts in
beetles are well-protected beneath the bark or in the wood of the genus Acacia, which could include the Hawai‘i species
host material, and survival during shipment of at least a few A. koa. Given its wide host range, cryptic nature, and ability
individuals would be expected. Cerambycids are very adept to attack economically important plants, the apple stem
at finding freshly cut or otherwise suitable host material and borer might affect species with limited ranges and could
once inside their host, are not easily dislodged. require aggressive controls once established.
2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
27
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (RU) which have bipinnately compound leaves, and 18 of which
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a) are phyllodinous species. The bipinnate host species occur
Public concerns could be likely if another economically in the more heavily timbered habitats such as the dry sclero-
important pest were introduced into Hawai‘i. phyll forests, and the phyllodinous Acacia species are in the
coastal heathland and open woodland habitats (southeastern
C. Pest risk potential:
Queensland and northern New South Wales, Australia)
High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse- (Hawkeswood 1991). The wattles preferred by C. spectabilis
quences of introduction = high) are usually thick-stemmed, large, shrubby species with
mucilaginous bark (Hawkeswood 1991).
Selected bibliography:
Adults are typically observed on their hosts during
Gupta, R.; Tara, J.S. 2013. First record on the biology
the summer (November, December, January), when they
of Aeolesthes holosericea Fabricius, 1787 (Coleoptera:
feed and mate on stems, branches, and foliage. Hunt et al.
Cerambycidae), an important pest on apple plantations
(1996) described damage caused by this insect in young
(Malus domestica Borkh.) in India. Munis Entomology
plantations of Acacia mearnsii in southeastern Australia.
and Zoology. 8(1): 243–251.
The weevils removed the leading shoots from saplings and
Rahman, K.A.; Khan, A.W. 1942. Bionomics and control hindered the development of a single stem in the affected
of Aeolesthes holosericea F. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). hosts. For egg-laying purposes, the female weevil typically
Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Sec. B. attacks the main stem just above the ground line, where she
15: 181–185. gnaws the bark into small roughened spots and deposits an
Tara, J.S.; Gupta, R.; Chhetry, M. 2008. A study on egg under each spot (Hawkeswood 1991). Some trees may
Aeolesthes holosericea Fabricius, an important pest of have as many as 20 eggs laid in this fashion (Hawkeswood
apple plantations (Malus domestica Borkh.) in Jammu 1991). After the eggs hatch, the small larvae bore down into
region. The Asian Journal of Animal Science. 3(2): the main roots, which are eventually completely hollowed
222–224. out. Host trees can sometimes be killed by this larval
feeding (Hawkeswood 1991). The life cycle is believed to be
Reviewers’ comments: None received. completed in 1 year (Hawkeswood 1991). The adult weevils
are bronze-black to black with three bright green bands on
Botany Bay Diamond Weevil
the pronotum of those emerging early, and metallic blue on
weevils that emerge later in the season (Hawkeswood 1991).
Scientific name of pest: Chrysolopus spectabilis Fabricius The elytra are irregularly mottled with metallic green to
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) blue and covered with dense scales on the underside of
Scientific names of hosts: Acacia decurrens, A. mearnsii; the body.
nearly 30 other Acacia spp. Hawkeswood (1991) points out that even though C.
spectabilis is considered one of the most distinctive and
Distribution: Australia (Queensland, New South Wales,
common weevils in Australia, there is relatively little
Victoria, South Australia)
known about larval food plants and biology of the insect.
Summary of natural history and basic biology of
Only six larval hosts have been recorded, although all of
the pest: Hawkeswood (1991) summarized the biology
them are also adult hosts and Hawkeswood (1991) specu-
of the Botany Bay weevil as described by several Australian
lated that further research would probably expand the list of
authors and added his personal observations. The adult
larval hosts, perhaps to include most of the Acacia species
weevil feeds on at least 28 species of Acacia (wattles), 10 of
utilized by the adults.
28
Specific information relating to risk elements: by killing the leaders through adult feeding. In addition,
A. Likelihood of introduction (wood or plant material Hawkeswood (1991) observed that larval feeding could kill
pathway) host trees.
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MU)
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential:
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: e)
Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating criteria, from
app. 4: c, e, g, h) The chemical controls necessary to eradicate this
weevil could have negative environmental effects.
The larval stage could be harbored within stems
of Acacia, if infested wood were to be transported. 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MU)
Hawkeswood (1991) describes adult behavior, noting that (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none of the
sometimes the weevils firmly grasp the foliage of their hosts rating criteria apply)
and can be very difficult to dislodge. C. Pest risk potential:
2. Entry potential: High (MU) (Applicable rating crite- Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) Consequences of introduction = moderate)
Although C. spectabilis has not often been intercepted,
other curculionids with similar habits are commonly found
Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. 1998. Insect
during port inspections. Criterion “d” would only apply to
pests of Australian forests: ecology and management.
larvae within the wood; adults on foliage would likely be
Melbourne, Sydney, Singapore: Inkata Press. 214 p.
conspicuous.
3. Colonization potential: Moderate (MU) (Applicable Hawkeswood, T.J. 1991. Review of the history, biology
rating criteria, from app. 4: b) and host plants of the Australian weevil Chrysolopus
spectabilis (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae:
Chrysolopus spectabilis occurs in Queensland, Aus-
Aterpinae). Spixiana. 14(1): 17–25.
tralia, which is at latitudes similar to those of the Hawai‘i
Islands. Acacia koa is a potential host in Hawai‘i and occurs Hunt, A.J.; Gullan, P.J.; Reid, C.A.M. 1996.
between the latitudes of 19 and 22 degrees N. Acacia koa Chrysomelidae (Coleoptera) and other phytophagous
belongs in the Acacia subgroup that includes phyllodinous insects in a plantation of black wattle, Acacia mearnsii
and bipinnate species, which are the only Acacia hosts for De Wild., in southeastern Australia. Australian Journal
the Botany Bay diamond weevil. of Entomology. 35: 85–92.
4. Spread potential: Moderate (MU) (Applicable rating Reviewers’ comments: None received.
criteria, from app. 4: d, e)
Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle
If A. koa proves to be an acceptable host for C. specta-
Assessor: Sheri Smith
bilis, then criterion “d” would apply. Infestations would not
likely be detected in the short term. Scientific name of pest: Oryctes rhinoceros Linnaeus
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
B. Consequences of introduction
Scientific names of hosts: Cocos nucifera, Elaeis guineen-
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MU)
sis, Areca catechu, Phoenix dactylifera, Wodyetia bifurcata,
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, e)
Pandanus tectorius, Colocasia esculenta, Ananas comosus,
Hunt et al. (1996) reported that the Botany Bay weevil Musa spp., Saccharum spp., Corypha spp; a variety of other
was capable of affecting the growth patterns of young trees ornamental palms
29
Distribution: Pakistan, India, Maldive Islands, Hainan, its invasion of Guam in 2007, CRB has spread to most parts
Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Vietnam, Malay Peninsula, of the island (Aubrey Moore, entomologist, University of
islands of Java, Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, Kalimantan, Cele- Guam, personal communication). Typhoons produced an
bes, Ceram and Amboina in Indonesia, Philippine Islands, abundance of dead coconut material suitable for breeding
Sri Lanka, Upolu, Western Samoa, American Samoa, sites, and larval food and coconut palms killed by adult
Tonga, Palau Islands, New Britain, West Irian, New Ireland, feeding are adding to the supply of larval food, further
Pak Island and Manus Island (New Guinea), Fiji, Cocos facilitating population growth. In addition, CRB seems to
(Keeling) Islands, Mauritius, Reunion, and Guam. be free of control by natural enemies on Guam. Over 6,000
2014 update: One adult coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB) beetles have been trapped and over 11,000 larvae found.
was found in baggage claim at the Honolulu Airport on Sixty dead or dying coconut palms have been felled and
O‘ahu in November 2013; an additional adult beetle was destroyed. An aggressive eradication program was imple-
detected in a trap in the same vicinity in December 2013. mented on Guam but has failed and is now transitioning to
Breeding sites (piles of green waste) were subsequently a management program. The most likely method of CRB
found on the Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam military introduction onto Guam was as a hitchhiker with con-
facility. It is not known exactly how the beetles arrived struction material from the Philippines (Berringer 2007).
in Hawai‘i. As of June 2014, 423 adults, 531 larvae, and Floating logs can also contain larvae and serve as transport-
16 pupae have been found in the established buffer zone ers to new or already infested locations.
(HDOA 2014). Adults are the injurious stage of the insect. They feed
and aggregate in the crowns of palm trees. They are gener-
Summary of natural history and basic biology of the
ally night-time fliers, and when they alight on a host, they
pest: Coconut rhinoceros beetle is a major pest of coconut
enter the axil and bore into unfurled tissue at the meristem
palm in its Asian homeland, and on the south and western
to feed on sap. Each feeding visit can cause petiole or leaflet
Pacific Islands it has invaded. Adult beetles attack several
injury to three to four fronds (Hinckley 1966). Male beetles
species of endemic and ornamental palms and Pandanus,
produce an aggregation pheromone, attractive to both sexes,
banana, taro, and pineapple. The CRB likely entered
which results in patchy distribution of beetles within stands
Malaysia about 1895 and worked its way throughout the
of palms. Beetle presence is evident through notching,
coconut growing areas of lower Burma over the following
fanning, and breaking of emergent palm fronds. V-shaped
15 years (McKenna and Shroff 1911). In the early part of
cuts in the fronds and holes through the midrib are visible
the 20th century, the major economic activity for most
when the leaves grow out and unfold. If the growing tip is
Pacific Islands was production of copra from coconuts in
injured, the palm will have severe loss of leaf tissue and
natural and managed plantations. The CRB is believed
decreased nut set. High feeding pressure results in mortality
to have entered the Pacific concealed in rubber seedling
of the growing tip, leaving a dead standing stump. Feeding
potted plants from Ceylon in 1909 (Catley 1969). The insect
wounds may also serve as an infection pathway for patho-
established rapidly in Samoa and subsequently spread to
gens or other pests. The effects of adult boring may be more
Tonga and to multiple other locations by the mid-1960s.
severe on younger palms where spears are narrower.
The CRB was first reported from Fiji in 1953, and despite
Almost any log or heap of material soft enough for bur-
intensive attempts to implement quarantine procedures,
rowing, yet firm enough to provide compacted frass, may be
had spread through most of the Fiji Island group by 1971
utilized for oviposition. Large numbers of CRB larvae may
(Bedford 1976). Initial outbreaks of CRB have been
develop in the tops of dead standing coconut palms, coconut
devestating; when it invaded Palau in 1942, coconut palms
stumps, and in logs on the ground. High numbers of palms
were completely eradicated from some islands, and overall
injured or killed in typhoons have served to initiate out-
tree mortality was about 50 percent (Gressitt 1953). Since
breaks in many locations. Gressitt (1953), Cumber (1957),
30
and Paine (1967) all emphasized the correlation between palms are often fatal, either by destruction of the growing
abundance of larval food and damage by adults to palms. tip or from secondary infections by pathogens. The normal
Based on recent information from Guam, CRB is able interval between feedings is probably more than 10 days
to complete the entire life cycle in the crowns of palms, and less than 20 days. Dispersal, mating, and oviposition
negating the need for down material (Aubrey Moore, ento- occur within 2 weeks of emergence, and adults can survive
mologist, University of Guam, personal communication), up to 12 more weeks. A female beetle can lay viable eggs
which would likely increase the establishment potential for several months after one mating. The lifespan of individ-
in Hawai‘i. The CRB is most likely to be of economic uals reaching maturity is 4 to 9 months (Bedford 1980).
importance whenever and wherever suitable breeding sites
Specific information relating to risk elements:
are numerous. On Guam and in other locations, the beetle
is also known to breed in compost piles and shredded A. Likelihood of introduction (hitchhiker)
palm material. Decaying Pandanus trunks have served as 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential:
breeding sites on Palau (Gressitt 1953), and other breeding
Plant material/pots/detritus—High (MC) (Applicable
sites such as cattle dung, decaying cocoa pod shells, and
risk criteria from app. 4: b, c, d, e, f, g)
decaying matter of other host species have been noted.
Hitchhiker in shipping containers/military equip-
Hinckley (1973) described the life cycle of O. rhinoc-
ment—High (RC) (Applicable risk criteria from app. 4: b, c,
eros from Western Samoa, which agreed closely with the
d, e, f, g)
description made by Gressitt (1953) from Palau. Under
A number of risk criteria apply for this element when
favorable conditions, one generation, egg to egg, can be as
movement of plants, detritus, and shipping containers/
short as 20 weeks. The female beetle makes a serpentine
military equipment are considered. The CRB is widely
burrow, laying eggs one by one and compressing the chewed
distributed in the Western and Southern Pacific and Asia.
material behind her. Clutch size averages about 27 eggs
Building populations on Guam are also of great concern,
but can be as many as 62, with more being laid by larger
particularly now that eradication has failed and adult beetles
females. About 11 days are required for development in the
are likely to be numerous, increasing the likelihood of
egg stage. It is not known how many clutches are laid by
accidental transport to other islands in Micronesia, Hawai‘i,
each female but numerous (e.g., five) may be possible. Gres-
and beyond. Guam has more than 13 million coconut palms
sitt (1953) estimated between three or four, totaling 90 to
(Donnegan et al. 2004), so host supply is readily available
120 eggs per female. First instar larvae feed on the burrow
for continued population increase. The most likely method
frass and develop rapidly under favorable conditions. About
of introduction onto Guam was by adult beetle(s) hitchhik-
3 weeks each are spent as first and second instars, and 5
ing in a shipping container from Asia. There is evidence
to 9 weeks as third instars. The late third instar burrows
that Guam and other Micronesian islands have been the
into a firm portion of material prior to pupation, creates a
source of several major insect pests invading Hawai‘i. Ori-
pupal chamber and goes through a nonfeeding stage lasting
ental fruit fly is a prime example (Swezey 1942). Accidental
about 1 week (Gressitt 1953). High mortality rates of larval
transport of other scarab beetles from Guam to Hawai‘i is
instars are common, particularly in the first and third instar.
well documented (Moore 2007).
Teneral adults are found in chambers after about 3 weeks.
After the teneral period, the adult beetle chews out of the 2. Entry potential:
pupal chamber and emerges. Plant material/pots/detritus: High (MC) (Applicable
Adult feeding visits are multiple, and burrowing depths risk criteria from app. 4: b, c, d)
into host crowns vary greatly. Deep burrows on young Hitchhiker in shipping containers/military equipment:
high (VC) (Applicable risk criteria from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
31
The adult stage is most likely to be transported as a 4. Spread potential: High (VC) (Applicable risk crite-
hitchhiker in shipping containers or with military equip- ria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f)
ment. Five adult beetles were detected in maritime ship- Based on laboratory data from tethered adult CRBs,
ments, originating in Indonesia, at the Kahului seaport on flight duration after feeding was between 2 and 3 hours,
Maui during two different time periods in 2003, confirming and distances travelled were between 2 to 4 km; so ability
that previous entries have occurred. Dependent upon the to disperse is high (Hinckley 1973). However, it may be
amount of plant material transported from CRB-infested somewhat lessened by potentially poor fitness of beetles
locations to Hawai‘i, this could also be a mode of entry for upon arrival. The organism does have high reproductive
adults, but less likely than in containers. The most likely potential but is also susceptible to high levels of mortality in
method of introduction onto Guam was by adult beetle(s) the larval stages. Based on beetle distribution and numbers
hitchhiking in a shipping container from Asia. Invasion found initially on Guam in 2007, we estimate that it was
of CRB into Palau in 1942 has been linked to transport of present there 1 to 2 years (three to six generations) before
military equipment/supplies. Adult survival during trans- detection, which could potentially be the case as well in
port would be higher than for other life stages, but it seems Hawai‘i. A single CRB was caught in a seaport warehouse
plausible that other life stages could be transported as well. on Saipan, 241 km to the north of Guam, in September
Adults can live for several months, and several days can 2006. Infestations can be contained, suppressed, and erad-
lapse between sap feeding visits. icated by removing larval breeding sites and mass trapping
3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable risk adults. The CRB was exterminated from the 36 km2 of
criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e) Niuatoputapu Island, between Samoa and Tonga, using
The CRB has already invaded and successfully these methods (Gressitt 1953). However, mass trapping
colonized several western and southern Pacific Islands with coupled with sanitation during 1971 through 1974 failed to
similar climates and hosts as those that exist in Hawai‘i. eradicate CRB on two islands in Fiji, and eradication has
Proximity of hosts to ports of entry would greatly increase failed recently on Guam.
the likelihood of successful colonization. As has occurred B. Consequences of introduction
with other invasive insects in Hawai‘i, nonnative ornamen- 5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (RC)
tal plantings served as initial hosts to facilitate colonization, (Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
and then populations expanded into more distant native
The CRB killed over 50 percent of the coconut palms
hosts; this could easily be the case with CRB as well, with
on Palau after it was introduced in 1942 (Gressitt 1953). In
numerous ornamental palms available in proximity to ports
1968, CRB caused over $1 million in damage to palms in
of entry. In addition to palms, Pandanus tectorius, pineap-
South Pacific countries (Bedford 1980). The damage and
ple, and other hosts exist on several Hawai‘i islands. Panda-
losses to resort, park, and residential and ornamental plants
nus tectorius is thought to be much more common in some
in Hawai‘i will affect the aesthetic appeal of important
parts of Honolulu and on other islands today, and fan palms
properties and tourist areas. Some losses in recreational use
could also serve as hosts. Any type of outbreak can expand
and revenue owing to diminished scenic appeal are likely.
and become self-perpetuating if attacks by adult beetles
Costs associated with hazard tree removal, tree replace-
become frequent enough to kill mature palms. Given that
ment, and regulatory actions are expected to increase. Cur-
females lay an average of 90 eggs, CRB generation time is 4
rent cost of replacing a mature ornamental palm on Guam is
months, and a one to one sex ratio. Gressitt (1953) estimated
$1,000. A permanent infestation could lead to interstate and
that a single gravid female could theoretically produce a
international quarantine restrictions, affecting Hawai‘i, its
progeny, assuming no mortality, of 16,995,293,890 by the
trade partners, and other U.S. states.
end of 2 years.
32
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC) Berringer, D. 2007. Coconut rhinoceros beetle eradication
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: d) program. Environmental Assessment. Tamuning,
Outbreaks of CRB can expand and become self-per- Guam: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and
petuating if attacks by the adult beetles become frequent Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and
enough to kill mature palms and other hosts. Based on Quarantine. 23 p.
CRB’s invasiveness, injury to native host plants is expected Catley, A. 1969. The coconut rhinoceros beetle Oryctes
to be substantial if populations are left untended. Move- rhinoceros (L.). PANS. 15: 18–30.
ment of wood, debris, or infested host plants would likely
Cumber, R.A. 1957. Ecological studies of rhinoceros
increase the rate of spread into native forests. Extensive
beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (L.), in Western Samoa.
mortality of cultivated and wild hosts should be expected.
South Pacific Commission Tech. Pap. 107. Nouméa, New
The consequent changes in composition and age structure
Caledonia: South Pacific Commission. 32 p.
of palms and P. tectorius could have long-term ecological
effects. Donnegan, J.A.; Butler, S.L.; Grabowiecki, W.;
Hiserote, B.A.; Limtiaco, D. 2004. Guam’s forest
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (MC)
resources, 2002. Resour. Bull. PNW-RB-243. Portland
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
The successful introduction of CRB would likely
Pacific Northwest Research Station. 32 p.
result in public concerns regarding the aesthetics of dam-
aged palms in urban plantings. In addition, P. tectorius is Gressitt, J.L. 1953. The coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes
prominent in Pacific culture and tradition, including local rhinoceros) with particular reference to the Palau Islands.
medicine. All parts are used, from the nutritious fruits of Bulletin 212. Honolulu, HI: Bernice P. Bishop Museum.
edible varieties, to the poles and branches in construction, 157 p.
to the leaves for weaving and garlands. Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture. 2014. Coconut
A permanent infestation could lead to interstate and rhinoceros beetle information. Hawai‘i Department of
international quarantine restrictions, affecting Hawai‘i, its Agriculture. http://hdoa.hawaii.gov/pi/main/crb/. (June
trade partners, and other U.S. states. 2014).
C. Pest risk potential (plant material/pots/detritus): Hinckley, A.D. 1966. Damage by coconut rhinoceros
High (Likelihood of introduction = high; beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (L.) to Pacific Island palms.
Consequences of introduction = moderate) South Pacific Bulletin. 16(4): 51–52.
(Hitchhiker in shipping containers/military equipment):
Hinckley, A.D. 1973. Ecology of the coconut rhinoceros
High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Consequences of
beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (L.) (Coleoptera: Dynastidae).
introduction = moderate)
Biotropica. 5(2): 111–116.
Selected bibliography: McKenna, J.; Shroff, K.D. 1911. The rhinoceros beetle
Bedford, G.O. 1976. Use of a virus against the coconut (Oryctes rhinoceros Linn.) and its ravages in Burma.
palm rhinoceros beetle in Fiji. Pest Articles and News Bull. No. 4. Rangoon: Burma Department of
Summaries (PANS). 22: 11–25. Agriculture. 6 p.
Bedford, G.O. 1980. Biology, ecology, and control of palm Moore, A. 2007. Assessment of the rhinoceros beetle
rhinoceros beetles. Annual Review of Entomology. 25: infestation on Guam. http://guaminsects.net/uogces/
309–339. kbwiki/index.php?title=Oryctes_rhinoceros.
(4 May 2013).
33
Paine, R.W. 1967. A search for parasites and predators and adult beetles are numerous, increasing the likelihood of
of Oryctes and related dynastids in the Southeast Asia accidental transport to other islands.
region. Unpublished report. On file with: Noumea, New Since the 2013 CRB detection on O‘ahu, a joint effort
Caldonia: South Pacific Commission. 71 p. between the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Uni-
versity of Hawai‘i at Manoa, the U.S. Navy, the Hawai‘i
Smith, S.L.; Moore, A. 2008. Early detection pest risk
Department of Agriculture, USDA Forest Service, and
assessment–coconut rhinoceros beetle. R5-FHP-2008-01.
other partners have mobilized surveying, trapping and
Susanville, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
control efforts in the area where the beetles were initially
Service, Pacific Southwest Region, Forest Health
found. An Incident Command System has been established
Protection. 6 p.
to help manage the various agencies and activities needed
Swezey, O.H. 1942. Insects of Guam-1. Bull. 172. Honolulu: to efficiently respond to this pest (for more information see
Bernice P. Bishop Museum. 1-218. emergencyhttp://hdoa.hawaii.gov/pi/main/crb/). Breeding
Reviewers’ comments: The economic rating of moderate; sites have been located at several locations on the Joint Base
that seems underestimated. An overhaul of the landscaping Pearl Harbor-Hickam military facility. As of June 2014, 423
in Waikīkī, and other tourist areas seems significant as adults, 531 larvae, and 16 pupae have been found within the
well as the removal of the iconic swaying palms when 50 established buffer zone. Based on the high number of all life
percent are gone. Hawai‘i imports substantial amounts of stages found at the base compost sites and in traps, CRB
taro from the Pacific. It is important if commercial trade has likely been on O‘ahu for at least 2 to 3 years. Based on
in taro corms are likely to harbor CRB. More information visual surveys, 103 palms have injury indicative of CRB
on where we would expect to find CRB in taro, the signs attack; over 66,000 palms have been surveyed (HDOA
for inspectors and field extension agents would be helpful. 2014).
Hawai‘i is active in preserving taro varieties as an import-
Coconut Stick Insect
ant cultural crop.
Response to comments: The economic damage potential Assessor: Andris Eglitis
rating of moderate is an estimate based on the rating Scientific name of pest: Graeffea crouanii (LeGuillou)
criteria determined to be appropriate by the author of this (Orthoptera: Phasmatidae)
assessment. There is no disagreement that economic losses Scientific names of hosts: Mainly coconut palm (Cocos
could be quite high with the loss of high numbers of orna- nucifera); Sago palm (Cycas revoluta), Miscanthus japoni-
mental palms. The CRB is likely to arrive as an adult and cus, Pandanus tectorius, Pandanus spp.
as a hitchhiker “at large,” not correlated with any particular
Distribution: Australia, Solomon Islands, Caroline Islands,
commodity. The adults are attracted to bright lights and like
Cook Islands, Fiji, American Samoa, Western Samoa,
to hide out in dark places during the day, so they are likely
Society Islands, Marquesas, Mangareva, Tokelau, Tonga,
to enter the hold of a ship or aircraft at a loading dock.
French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Niue, Tuvalu
2014 update—Coconut rhinoceros beetle was not estab- Summary of natural history and basic biology of the
lished in Hawai‘i when this pest risk assessment effort was pest: Graeffea crouanii is considered a pest of significance
initiated, although five adult beetles had been detected in on coconut palms in Tuvalu (Hardy et al. 2009), Fiji (Swamy
2003 at the Kahului seaport on Maui. Coconut rhinoceros and Deesh 2012), and other islands in Oceania (Hinckley
beetle was included as a pest for further evaluation in the 1967). The coconut stick insect is one of the most wide-
risk assessment process primarily owing to the building spread species of walkingsticks in Oceania (Nakata 1961).
CRB populations on Guam where eradication has failed Bedford (1978, citing Swaine 1969), described outbreaks
in the Pacific, noting that the most serious damage occurs
34
in palms 24.4 m or more in height, although defoliation The coconut walkingstick is widely distributed
and fall-off in crop production can occur in younger palms throughout the Pacific Islands (Nakata 1961). Dharmaraju
as well. Outbreaks develop from small areas or pockets of (1980) reported that in Tuvalu, G. crouanii was strongly
infestation and gradually spread outwards if conditions associated with green Pandanus fronds that are very widely
remain suitable. The buildup and spread of damaging used for handicrafts.
populations is slow, and a severe outbreak may last a year 2. Entry potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating
or more before it gradually subsides (Swaine 1969, cited by criteria, from app. 4: b)
Bedford 1978). Control of outbreaks in Fiji using chemicals
The egg stage of G. crouanii is long lived and very
has been effective, but is expensive, and some biological
resistant to adverse conditions (Nakata 1961), and if
control approaches have been attempted instead, with
associated with palm or Pandanus fronds being transported
limited success thus far (Paine 1968).
for use in crafts, could gain entry into a new environment.
Female stick insects lay up to 100 eggs, many of which
Nakata (1961) points out that phasmatids, as a rule, have
fall to the ground (MAF Biosecurity New Zealand 2009)
limited powers of dispersal, and probably depend on the egg
while others are trapped in the axils of fronds of coconut
as the stage most likely to be transported to a new envi-
palms (Bedford 1978). The eggs are enclosed in a very
ronment. He stated that the possible spread of the widely
hard protective shell that is resistant to adverse weather
distributed G. crouanii may have occurred through “raft-
conditions (Nakata 1961). There is a lengthy development
ing” where eggs were attached to fronds and transported by
time before the eggs hatch (Nakata 1961), sometimes up
ocean currents to new locations (Nakata 1961).
to 100 days (Hardy et al. 2009). Although the eggs are
well-protected and resist salt water, they are sensitive to 3. Colonization potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable
high temperature and desiccation (Rapp 1995). Thus, pest rating criteria, from app. 4: b)
populations are maintained at higher levels when under- The climatic conditions in Hawai‘i should be suitable
growth beneath palms is high, and decline dramatically for the stick insect, which is widespread throughout many
when cover is removed (Rapp 1995). Nymphs are highly islands in the Pacific.
mobile and can climb from the ground into the fronds of 4. Spread potential: Low (MC) (Applicable rating cri-
palms (Hardy et al. 2009). Feeding by the stick insects strips teria, from app. 4: d)
the palm fronds, leaving only the midribs and branch veins
Pandanus tectorius is widely distributed in Hawai‘i and
(Bedford 1978). Female nymphs pass through six instars
has been identified as a host for G. crouanii (Hardy et al.
(males through five) that collectively last for over 100 days
2009). Phasmatids have limited powers of dispersal unless
(Hardy et al. 2009). Adults are also long lived (167 days for
assisted by human transport (Nakata 1961).
males, 115 for females [Hardy et al. 2009]) and are more
susceptible to adverse environmental conditions than the B. Consequences of introduction
egg stage (Nakata 1961). The males grow to 65 to 70 mm 5. Economic damage potential: Low (MC) (Applicable
in length and females to 116 mm (Swamy and Deesh 2012). rating criteria, from app. 4: c)
The males disperse through flight, while the females do not
Criterion “c” would likely apply if the walkingstick
(Bedford 1978).
were to become established, as mitigation costs for protect-
Specific information relating to risk elements: ing Pandanus would increase.
A. Likelihood of introduction (plant material pathway) 6. Environmental damage potential: Low (MC)
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
Moderate (RU) (Applicable rating criteria, from None of the rating criteria would apply.
app. 4: c, e)
35
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (MC) Erythrina Scale

(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a) Assessor: Sheri Smith
Public concerns could be elevated by the presence of a Scientific name of pest: Toumeyella erythrinae Kondo and
damaging insect on P. tectorius. Williams (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae)
C. Pest risk potential: Scientific name of host: Erythrina coralloides
Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = low; Conse- Distribution: Mexico
quences of introduction = moderate)
Selected bibliography: the pest: Erythrina scale was newly described by Kondo
and Williams (2003) after being observed on twigs and
Bedford, G.O. 1978. Biology and ecology of the
branches of Erythrina coralloides in Mexico in 1991.
Phasmatodea. Annual Review of Entomology.
According to the scale insects database ScaleNet (Ben-Dov
23: 125–149.
et al. 2010), currently there are 14 species of soft scale
Dharmaraju, E. 1980. Pest problems of crops in Tuvalu. insects in the Toumeyella genus, which are distributed in
Alafua Agricultural Bulletin. 5(4): 7–9. Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, and the United States. Toumeyella
Hardy, C.; Anthony, D.; Sathyapala, S. 2009. Import risk species also are reported on erythrina in Guatemala (T.
analysis: fresh coconut (Cocos nucifera) from Tuvalu. sallei is reported on E. corallodendron, and collections of
Wellington, NZ: MAF Biosecurity, New Zealand. 138 p. presumed Toumeyella spp. have been made from E. bertero-
ana and other Erythrina spp.) and in Colombia. Fifty-one
Hinckley, A.D. 1967. Associates of the coconut rhinoceros
species of scale insects have been recorded from Erythrina
beetle in Western Samoa. Pacific Insects. 9(3): 505–511.
spp. worldwide (Ben-Dov et al. 2010).
Nakata, S. 1961. Some notes on the occurrence of The biology and injury caused by the erythrina scale
Phasmatodea in Oceania. Pacific Insects Monograph. were described by Kondo and Williams (2003). The scale is
2: 107–121. ovoviviparous and has one generation per year. It is a large
(up to 2.1 cm long and 2.0 cm wide), bisexual species with
Paine, R.W. 1968. Investigations for the biological control
males developing alongside the leaf veins on the underside
in Fiji of the coconut stick-insect Graeffea crouanii
of leaves. Infestation results in localized chlorosis on leaves,
(Le Guillou). Bulletin of Entomological Research.
defoliation, branch dieback, and often death of the host
57: 567–604.
plant. In some localities in Mexico, it has caused serious
Rapp, I.G. 1995. Eggs of the stick insect Graeffea crouanii injury and plant death; infestation levels have reached 91
Le Guillou (Orthoptera: Phasmidae). Mortality after percent and mortality 56 percent.
exposure to natural enemies and high temperature. About 115 Erythrina spp. have been described. They
Journal of Applied Entomology. 119: 89–91. are globally traded for medicinal and cultural uses and as
Swaine, G. 1969. The coconut stick insect Graeffea crouani ornamentals plantings, owing to their conspicuous and
Le Guillon. Oleagineux. 24: 75–77. beautiful flowers.
Swamy, B.N.; Deesh, A.D. 2012. Management of coconut Specific information relating to risk elements:
stick insect—Graeffea crouanii (LeGuillou) in Fiji. Tech. A. Likelihood of introduction (plants for planting).
Bull. Issue No. 1. Raiwaqa, Fiji: Ministry of Primary
Industries. 3 p. 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential (plants
for planting): Moderate (MC) (Applicable risk crite-
Reviewers’ comments: None received.
ria from app. 4: b, e, h)
36
Scale insects can have large increases in populations, If attacks and subsequent plant injury or mortality of
particularly in the absence of parasites and predators. Erythrina sandwicensis were to occur, impacts could be
Erythrina scale could likely survive and be transported on high, as this species has limited distribution and has already
leaves of live erythrina plants. experienced high mortality rates owing to the invasive
2. Entry potential (plants for planting): High (MC) erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastichus erythrinae) and
(Applicable risk criteria from app. 4: b, c,) reduced seed viability owing to an invasive bruchid beetle
(Specularius impressithorax).
If live erythrina plants are imported, they could easily
harbor scale insects. 7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (MC)
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: a, d)
3. Colonization potential: Low (RU) (Applicable risk
criteria, from app. 4: b) Public concerns could result if moderate to high levels
of tree injury or mortality occur, particularly for native
It is unknown if erythrina scale would attack Eryth-
species. Control with pesticides would likely have limited
rina species in Hawai‘i, in particular the native Erythrina
acceptance or be prohibited as a result of potential second-
sandwicensis. Many of the nonnative Erythrina spp. in
ary impacts to other insect species.
Hawai‘i were killed by the invasive erythrina gall wasp
(Quadrastichus erythrinae) over the past decade. Remain- C. Pest risk potential:
ing ornamentals could serve as potential hosts for scale Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = low; Conse-
insects and, depending on distribution, could serve as a quences of introduction = moderate)
pathway to the more remote native trees. Coccids have
limited inherent powers of dispersal, and thus, once intro-
duced, expansion would most likely be facilitated by people Ben-Dov, Y.; Miller, D.R.; Gibson, G.A.P. 2010. ScaleNet:
moving infested material. a database of the scale insects of the world. http://www.
4. Spread potential: Moderate (RU) (Applicable risk sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm. (6 May 2013).
criteria, from app. 4: c, f) Kondo, T.; Williams, M.L. 2003. A new species of
Likelihood of spread beyond any colonized area would Toumeyella (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) on
depend on host availability and human-assisted transport. Erythrina in Mexico. Revista Especializada en Ciencias
Control techniques have been developed for some scale Quimico-Biologicas. 6(1): 11–15.
insects; however, eradication would be infeasible in a Reviewers’ comments: None received.
natural environment.
B. Consequences of introduction Eugenia Psyllid
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (RC)
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: b, c) Scientific name of pest: Trioza eugeniae Froggatt (Hemip-
tera: Psyllide)
Infestation results in localized chlorosis on leaves,
defoliation, branch dieback, and often death of the host Scientific names of hosts: Syzygium paniculatum (=
plant. In some localities in Mexico, the scale insect has Eugenia myrtifolia), Metrosideros excelsa
caused serious injury and plant death; infestation levels Distribution: Native to southeastern Australia; introduced
have reached 91 percent and mortality 56 percent (Kondo into California (1988) and Florida (1993)
and Williams 2003). Summary of natural history and basic biology of
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (RU) the pest: The eugenia psyllid, Trioza eugeniae, attacks
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: d) the new growth of Syzygium paniculatum, a common
37
ornamental tree in California (Dahlsten et al. 1999). Young the movement of plant material. Two of these psyllids have
(2003) determined that T. eugeniae could also complete its also been introduced into Hawai‘i (Starr et al. 2007). Trioza
development on seven other species of trees belonging to eugeniae first appeared in California in 1988 and has been
three allied genera in the Myrtaceae. The Eugenia psyllid moved via nursery stock to several new counties within the
completes three to five generations per year, determined in state (Dahlsten et al. 1999).
part by temperature and the physiological state of the host
(Dahlsten et al. 1999). The adult psyllid is chocolate brown,
A. Likelihood of introduction (nursery stock pathway)
2 mm long, and membranous-winged (Mead 1994). Mature
nymphs are completely ringed with white waxy filaments, 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential:
a characteristic typical of the Triozinae (Mead 1994). After Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating criteria, from
mating, the females lay yellow football-shaped eggs (more app. 4: b, d, e, h)
than 100 per female) partially inserted into the edges of Female eugenia psyllids produce over 100 eggs per
new terminal leaves of host plants (Dahlsten et al. 1999). female and can complete several generations per year
Small mobile nymphs hatch from the eggs and settle on (Downer et al. 1991). In the past, survival on plant material
newly expanding leaves, primarily on the underside, where has been sufficient to allow this insect to be transported into
they feed and develop in a cup-shaped pit or gall formed new environments (Dahlsten et al. 1999, Starr et al. 2007).
by the plant’s response to the psyllid feeding (Dahlsten 2. Entry potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating crite-
et al. 1999). The feeding of the psyllids produces a sticky ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
substance called honeydew, which is eventually covered by
Light infestations would be difficult to detect, and
a black sooty mold. High densities of psyllids produce acute
insects survive in transit, as evidenced by their successful
plant damage that includes shoot deformation, distortion of
introduction into new environments and further redistribu-
foliage and stems, and inhibition of new shoot formation
tion within California.
(Dahlsten et al. 1999). The long-term effects of sustained
high infestation include severe weakening of plants, poor 3. Colonization potential: High (MC) (Applicable rat-
growth, and reduced economic value (Dahlsten et al. 1999). ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, e)
Dahlsten et al. (1999) noted that in California, some native Trioza eugeniae has become established in Florida and
natural enemies had been found feeding on the eugenia California despite having a narrow host range (Mead 1994).
psyllid, but their effects as control agents were negligible. There is some disagreement in the literature as to this
In its native Australia, T. eugeniae attracts little psyllid’s adaptability to new hosts. Although the host range
attention and is not considered a problem (Mead 1994). may be narrow, it is important to note that T. eugeniae was
Mead (1994) describes the host range of the eugenia psyllid raised to maturity on seven myrtaceous hosts in three gen-
as extremely narrow. era (Young 2003), and that a species of Metrosideros is an
The eugenia psyllid is sensitive to both frost and heat. observed host (Dreistadt and Dahlsten 2001). For Hawai‘i,
In California, population densities drop off when tempera- M. polymorpha is considered a potential host of concern.
tures exceed 32.2 °C. The psyllid does much better in the
4. Spread potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating
cool, mild weather of fall through spring and does best in a
criteria, from app. 4: b, c, e)
cool coastal climate (Mead 1994). In southern California,
A high reproductive potential combined with a cryptic
the eugenia psyllids reproduce the year around (Downer et
nature have allowed this insect to be spread widely within
al. 1991).
California, when moved with infested plant material.
Starr et al. (2007) identify Trioza eugeniae as a
Metrosideros polymorpha, the key host of concern is widely
potential pest of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. Several other psyllids have
distributed in the Hawai‘i Islands.
been introduced into the continental United States through
38
B. Consequences of introduction Downer, A.J.; Koehler, C.S.; Paine, T.D. 1991. Biology
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MC) and management of the Eugenia psyllid (Trioza eugeniae
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: c, d) Froggatt). Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 9(3):
137–141.
If M. polymorpha proves to be a suitable host for T.
eugeniae, feeding damage could lower the value of ‘ōhi‘a Dreistadt, S.H.; Dahlsten, D.L. 2001. Psyllids. Pest Notes.
lehua or increase the costs of managing the pest. The Publication 7423. Davis, CA: University of California,
presence of a quarantine pest is always a factor in trade Davis, Agriculture and Natural Resources. http://www.
involving potentially infested species. ipm.ucdavis.edu/PDF/PESTNOTES/pnpsyllids.pdf. (13
May 2013)
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (RC)
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: e) Mead, F.W. 1994. Eugenia psyllid, Trioza eugeniae
Froggatt (Homoptera: Psyllidae). Entomology Circular
The most effective controls for psyllids have proven
No. 367. Gainsville, FL: Florida Department of
to be biological agents (parasitic wasps). No plants with
Agriculture and Consumer Services. 3 p.
limited distribution are expected to be hosts for T. eugeniae.
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (MC) Starr, F.; Starr, K.; Loope, L.L. 2007. Potential pests of
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a) ohia (Metrosideros polymorpha) and other Myrtaceae.
Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk Project. Draft report. 85 p.
‘Ōhi‘a lehua is an important plant species in Hawai‘i,
and additional pests on this plant would be cause for Young, G.R. 2003. Life history, biology, host plants
concern from the public. and natural enemies of the lilly pilly psyllid, Trioza
eugeniae Froggatt (Hemiptera: Triozidae). Australian
Entomologist. 30 (1): 31–38.
Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;
Consequences of introduction = moderate) Reviewers’ comments: In response to a comment under
“Environmental damage potential” stating “parasitic wasps
Selected bibliography: … would not be expected to have adverse environmental
Dahlsten, D.L.; Rowney, D.L.; Copper, W.A. 1999. effects” a reviewer stated: “is home to several endemic
Eugenia psyllid biological control. University of Trioza species. Introduced biological control agents could
California at Berkeley, Center for Biological Control. 4 devastate populations of these, so there very well could be
p. http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/biocon/dahlsten/eugenia/ detrimental environmental effects.” (Culliney)
eug-web.htm. (4 August 2013). Response to comments: The comment was removed, rating
criterion “e” was added, and the rating for “Environmental
Dahlsten, D.L.; Rowney, D.L.; Robb, K.L.; Downer,
damage potential” was changed from “low” to “moder-
J.A.; Shaw, D.A.; Kabashima, J.H. 2002. Biological
ate.” The overall Pest Risk Potential for T. eugeniae was
control of introduced psyllids on Eucalyptus.
unchanged and remains “moderate.”
Proceedings of the 1st international symposium on
biological control of arthropods. FHTET-03-05. Fort Keyhole Ambrosia Beetle
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service: 356–361. http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/
technology/webpubs/FHTET-2003-05/day5/dahlsten.pdf. Scientific name of pest: Amasa truncata (Erichson) (Cole-
(12 May 2013). optera: Curculionidae)
39
Scientific names of hosts: Acacia spp., Albizia distachya, grandis in 2006 and 2007. They speculate that the pathway
Eucalyptus spp., Knightia excelsa, Kunzea ericoides, Lep- may have been through solid wood packing material in
tospermum scoparium, Metrosideros spp., Pinus radiata, trade from New Zealand or Australia. They estimate that
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Podocarpus spicatus, Weinmannia the ambrosia beetle arrived and became established in
racemosa Brazil around 1996 (Flechtmann and Cognato 2011).
Distribution: Australia, New Zealand, Brazil The keyhole ambrosia beetle is thought to have a life
cycle of less than 1 year and may complete two generations
in a year (Zondag 1977). The adult female of A. truncata
the pest: In Australia, the keyhole ambrosia beetle is mainly
bores an entry tunnel into the wood to a depth of about 30
associated with species of Eucalyptus and closely related
mm. There may be one or two short additional tunnels that
species within the Myrtaceae, and only in live standing
branch from the main tunnel (Zondag 1977). Eggs are laid
trees (Flechtmann and Cognato 2011). Froggatt (1926) listed
in the far end of the tunnel and small larvae make a small
saplings of Eucalyptus saligna and E. rostrata as the key
excavation called a “keyhole chamber” where they feed and
hosts in Australia. Flechtmann and Cognato (2011) summa-
develop. Eggs are apparently laid over a long period of time,
rized the host records reported by other Australian authors
because larvae of all sizes, pupae and young adults can all
and added several species of eucalypts to the host list. The
be found in the gallery at the same time (Zondag 1977).
ambrosia beetle has been in New Zealand since 1930, where
Most of the larvae develop into females, which emerge in
it appears to have acquired additional hosts beyond those
the spring and summer (Zondag 1977). Froggatt (1926)
found in Australia. In New Zealand, A. truncata has been
reported that feeding is typically near damaged areas on the
found breeding in Albizia lophanta, Acacia verticillata, A.
tree, but later Moore (1959) found that healthy trees may
decurrens, Leptospermum ericoides, L. scoparium, Knigh-
also be attacked.
tia excelsa, Metrosideros robusta, M. excelsa, Weinmannia
racemosa, and several species of Eucalyptus including Specific information relating to risk elements:
E. botryoides, E. globulus, E. obliqua, E. ovata, and E. A. Likelihood of introduction (untreated wood pathway)
viminalis (Zondag 1977). Several other hosts including 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
Pinus radiata have also been attacked, but no broods were (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app.
produced in them (Zondag 1977). Zondag (1977) reported 4: a, d, e, f, g, h)
that the only living trees to be attacked by A. truncata are
Ambrosia beetles possess a strong ability to locate
eucalypts, especially E. globulus, in which severe branch
and colonize hosts, be they standing trees or freshly cut
dieback can occur. However, Flechtmann and Cognato
material, and if log moisture remains suitable, they can
(2011) report that New Zealand literature also identifies
survive in this material for a sufficient amount of time to
other live myrtaceous hosts for A. truncata. Attacks on live
be transported to a new environment. Ambrosia beetles are
trees by the keyhole ambrosia beetle are followed by rapid
always common on lists of interception records (Brocker-
wilting of the foliage, leading to the conclusion that an
hoff et al. 2006, Haack 2001).
associated fungus other than the ambrosia fungus may be
responsible for killing the sapwood (Zondag 1977). Despite 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
this capability of producing branch dieback and infesting ria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
numerous hosts, A. truncata is considered of little economic Amasa truncata has demonstrated its ability to survive
importance in New Zealand (Zondag 1977). in transit, as it has become established in at least two new
Flechtmann and Cognato (2011) reported that A. trun- environments, New Zealand and Brazil (Brockerhoff et al.
cata has recently been introduced into Brazil, with several 2003, Flechtmann and Cognato 2011).
individuals trapped in a young plantation of Eucalyptus
40
3. Colonization potential: High (RC) (Applicable rat- Public concerns could arise from the introduction
ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d) of another invasive insect if it were to cause damage to
The keyhole ambrosia beetle has become successfully important native or other aesthetically significant plants
established in at least two new environments (Brockerhoff that are not presently being damaged.
et al. 2003, Flechtmann and Cognato 2011) and has taken C. Pest risk potential:
on new hosts in those settings. Because members of the High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
Mimosaceae (Acacia spp.) and Myrtaceae (Metrosideros quences of introduction = moderate)
spp.) are among the known hosts for A. truncata (Flecht-
mann and Cognato 2011), it is believed the ambrosia beetle Selected bibliography:
could encounter suitable hosts in Hawai‘i. Brockerhoff, E.G.; Bain, J.; Kimberley, M.; Knizek, M.
4. Spread potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating cri- 2006. Interception frequency of exotic bark and ambrosia
teria, from app. 4: b, d, e, f, g, h) beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytinae) and relationship with
establishment in New Zealand and worldwide. Canadian
Redistribution (criterion b) of A. truncata has occurred
Journal of Forest Research. 36: 289–298.
by virtue of its successful introduction into two new
countries. Its host list has become broader than it was in Brockerhoff, E.G.; Knizek, M.; Bain, J. 2003. Checklist
its native environment. The cryptic nature of A. truncata of indigenous and adventive bark and ambrosia beetles
would likely ensure that it could become well-established (Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) of New
before being detected, and thus, would be difficult to erad- Zealand and interceptions of exotic species (1952–2000).
icate once found. There is possible reason for concern that New Zealand Entomologist. 26: 29–44.
the insect has an associated fungus, which may be involved
Flechtmann, C.A.H.; Cognato, A.I. 2011. First report of
in its ability to kill debilitated hosts.
Amasa truncata (Erichson) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae:
B. Consequences of introduction Scolytinae) in Brazil. The Coleopterists Bulletin. 65(4):
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MC) 417–421.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d) Froggatt, W.W. 1926. The ridge-tailed borer, Amasa
In New Zealand, A. truncata is not considered eco- truncata, Erickson. The Australian Forestry Journal.
nomically important (Withers 2001, Zondag 1977). In 9: 144–146.
Australia, however, the ambrosia beetle has been linked to Haack, R.A. 2001. Intercepted Scolytidae (Coleoptera)
the death of healthy trees and others that were debilitated by at U.S. ports of entry: 1985-2000. Integrated Pest
psyllids (Moore 1959). There could be reason for concern Management Reviews. 6: 253–282.
about the potential for increased virulence of the associated
Ceratocystis fungus in a new setting, and the fact that the Moore, K.M. 1959. Observations on some Australian
insect appears to have a broad host range that becomes even forest insects. 4. Xyleborus truncatus Erichson
broader as it becomes established in new environments. In 1842 (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) associated with dying
Hawai‘i, the species of greatest concern as a potential host Eucalyptus saligna Smith (Sydney blue-gum).
is ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales.
84(2): 186–193.
6. Environmental damage potential: Low (RU)
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none) Withers, T.M. 2001. Colonization of eucalypts in New
Zealand by Australian insects. Austral Ecology. 26:
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (RU) 467–476.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a)
41
Zondag, R. 1977. Xyleborus truncatus Erichson pest risk potential (with M. polymorpha as a potential host)
(Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Forest and Timber Insects in is warranted.
New Zealand 21. Rotorua, New Zealand: New Zealand
Forest Service, Forest Research Institute. Lemon Tree Borer
Assessor: Sheri Smith
Reviewers’ comments: “To clarify why a moderate eco-
nomic damage potential is concluded, it would be good to Scientific name of pest: Oemona hirta Fabricius (Coleop-
mention an example of a host species of economic impor- tera: Cerambycidae)
tance which would be affected.” (Martin–GCAPS) Scientific names of hosts: Acacia spp., Acer pseudoplan-
“If the species has demonstrated a capacity to acquire tanus, Aeculus hippocastanum, Albizia spp., Aleurites
new hosts in regions into which it has been introduced, spp., Alectryon excelsus, Alnus glutinosa, Amygdalus spp.,
wouldn’t criterion “f” apply? It’s hard to believe that there Aristotelia spp., Asparagus spp., Avicennia spp., Brachy-
would be no environmental consequences should it become glottis spp., Betula spp., Callistemon spp., Casimiroa spp.,
established in Hawaii.” (Culliney) Cassinia spp., Chaenomeles spp., Choisya spp., Chrysan-
“I suspect this is a tricky species to assess and this may themoides spp., Citrus limon, C. reticulata, C. sinensis,
be why I wasn’t entirely convinced of its risk potential. I Clerodendrum spp., Corylus spp., Coprosma robusta,
think it would be helpful to explain a few things a bit more. Corynocarpus laevigatus, Crateagus spp., Cyphormandra
As a reader I was trying to work things out rather than spp., Cytisusm spp., Dahlia spp., Diospyros spp., Euca-
seeing it clearly laid out. For instance, if the only living lyptus spp., Euonymus spp., Ficus spp., Hebe salicifolia,
trees it attacks are Eucalypts, is it likely A. truncata will Hibiscus spp., Hoheria spp., Juglans spp., Koelreuteria spp.,
attack other genera of living trees? Is the non-eucalypt host Kunzea ericoides, Leptospermum scoparium, Macadamia
range living or fallen or decayed trees? Are there congeners spp., Malus sylvestris, Melicytus spp., Metrosideros spp.,
that might provide some insight into the behaviour of this Myoporum laetum, Oleana spp., Ozothamnus leptophyllus,
species? If there is no information to support or explain Pennantia corymbosa, Persea americana, Phyllostachys
aspects of the assessment, I think it is worth commenting on spp., Pinus radiata, Pittosporum crassifolium, P. eugeni-
that and on areas of uncertainty so the reader understands oides, P. tenuifolium, Platanus spp., Populus spp., Prunus
what has been considered.” avium, P. cerasus, P. domestica, P. dulcis, P. persica,
Response to comments: The “moderate” rating for eco- Punicia spp., Pyrus communis, Quercus spp., Rhus spp.,
nomic damage potential is derived from the fact that three Ribes grosularia, Rosa spp., Salix spp., Solanum beteceum,
of the rating criteria apply for that element. A statement Syzygium spp., Tamarix spp., Telopea spp., Ulex europaeus,
was added to the text, identifying Metrosideros polymorpha Ulmus spp., Vaccinium spp., Vitex spp., Vitis vinifera,
(ohia) as a potential host of economic importance. Wisteria spp.
Perhaps taking on new hosts can be considered the Distribution: New Zealand, Malaysia
same as developing higher virulence or more damaging
biotypes (criterion “f”). However, even if this criterion
the pest: Lemon tree borer, Oemona hirta, is a longhorned
were added and environmental damage potential changed
beetle native to and found throughout New Zealand, where
from low to moderate, the overall pest risk potential would
it is considered to be one of the most common insects. It
remain “high.”
was first recognized as a major pest of citrus trees by Cot-
Flechtmann and Cognato (2011) point out that in New
tier (1938). It is now also reported to be present in Malaysia
Zealand, Amasa truncata has been reported from other live
(APPPC 1987). It is not regarded as established or transient
myrtaceous hosts besides Eucalyptus. Metrosideros excelsa
in the United Kingdom; however, a single larva was inter-
is one of those hosts. On this basis, we believe the “high”
cepted in a Wisteria sp. plant in 1983 and in a number of
42
Wisteria sp. rootstocks in June 2010 and again in a Wisteria and range from 14 to 31 mm in body length. They are larger
sp. plant in July 2010 (Ostojá-Starzewski et al. 2010). than males and have proportionally shorter antennae.
Infested plants were destroyed; however, it is not known if The lines of frass ejection holes are one indication of
some infested hosts went undetected so there is a chance the presence of live larvae, but their feeding also can cause
that O. hirta could have escaped and become established, at small twigs to wilt and die, resulting in clusters of dead
least in the north of England (FERA 2010). leaves. Major damage by larger larvae can weaken branches
Lemon tree borer is highly polyphagous, feeding on to the point that they break under wind pressure or fruit
many tree, shrub, and vine species. Over 130 host genera load or can even be girdled and die.
are listed in New Zealand. The larvae bore into wood of
branches and stems, causing serious damage (Wang et
A. Likelihood of introduction
al. 1998); adult beetles feed on pollen and nectar. In New
Zealand, the native mahoe (Melicytus spp.) is suggested 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential (root
to be its principal native host. Lemon tree borer is of great stock, live plants): Moderate (RC) (Applicable risk
economic importance because it attacks many species of criteria from app. 4: d, e, g, h)
fruit, nut, and vine crops, but also shelter belt trees such as Entry of lemon tree borer into Hawai‘i would most
poplar. Such a wide range of hosts is unusual for a longicorn likely be facilitated via trade of infested host plants for
borer that attacks living hosts (Wang 1995). Oemona hirta planting, as occurred in the United Kingdom in 1983 and
is a species of quarantine importance because it may attack 2010. Likelihood of introduction would increase dependent
tree and vine crops overseas if introduced accidently (Wang on how often host plants are imported into Hawai‘i from
et al. 2002). It is on the European and Mediterranean Plant New Zealand. Oemona hirta larvae have an extended
Protection Organization’s Alert List of Quarantine Pests colonization period of over a year in host tissue, so could
(EPPO 2013). easily be transported in that life stage. Over 130 host genera
In New Zealand, the life cycle takes 2 years to com- are listed in New Zealand.
plete. Adults are active from the beginning of October 2. Entry potential (root stock, live plants): Moderate
through the first week of January, and during this period, (MC) (Applicable risk criteria from app. 4: b, c, d)
they mate and females lay eggs. Eggs are laid singly in leaf/
The larval or pupal stage would be the most likely stage
stem junctions, bark crevices, or in fresh pruning scars with
to be transported in plant material. Both stages would be
each female capable of producing about 82 eggs (Wang et
protected within the host material and would be difficult to
al. 1998), of which 62 percent were oviposited. On hatching,
detect. Adults could potentially be hitchhikers in containers
the larvae bore directly into the sapwood and heartwood
or shipping materials, but survival would be less likely.
of hosts and construct long galleries, with periodic (every
few centimeters) side branches to the surface to eject frass. 3. Colonization potential: High (MC) (Applicable risk
The larval stage takes >1 year and can be found year-round; criteria, from app. 4: b, c, e)
when fully mature (between mid-June and mid-October), Lemon tree borer appears to be reported in Malaysia,
they form a cell within the host to pupate (May to early but establishment cannot be confirmed based on available
November). Newly formed adults remain within the pupal information; so criterion (a) is considered not applicable.
cell until their integument has hardened, after which they Likelihood of colonization will be largely determined
emerge. They do not become sexually mature until 4 days by availability of host plants and climate. Several genera of
postemergence. Adults live for about 2 months and are good host plants exist in Hawai‘i, and the climate is presumed to
fliers. Feeding and reproductive activities take place mostly be suitable. The organism has a broad host range and has
at night (Wang and Davis 1998). Female beetles are brown demonstrated the ability to utilize new hosts. Assuming
43
both sexes would be transported in the same material, there No criteria were selected based on the likelihood of
is some likelihood of reproduction after entry. relatively small social concern and the uncertainty of trade
4. Spread potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable risk implications. High mortality rates of one of the host species
criteria, from app. 4: b, e, f, g) of concern for Hawai‘i could have social implications, but
the uncertainty of level of plant injury limits the ability
The rate of spread of cerambycids through natural
to predict public concern. A permanent infestation could
dispersal varies according to the host within which larvae
possibly lead to interstate and international quarantine
develop (Hanks 1999). Natural spread could be in the order
restrictions, but this is likely to be more applicable to
of a few kilometers per year. If transported within infested
agricultural commodities.
plants, the eggs, larvae or pupae of O. hirta could be spread
to many parts of the Hawai‘i Islands within days. Control C. Pest risk potential:
of this pest is considered very difficult (Wang and Davis Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;
2005). According to Wang and Shi (1999), once the larvae Consequences of introduction = moderate)
enter branches and trunks, chemical control becomes
impractical, which severely limits options for treatments
Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission [APPPC].
and clearly puts the emphasis on destruction of any infested
1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting
host plants. Some of the newer systemic pesticides may be
major crops of the countries in Asia and Pacific region.
efficacious, but this in unknown.
Tech. Doc. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional FAO
Office for Asia and the Pacific. 56 p.
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (RU)
Cottier, W. 1938. Citrus pests: (2) The citrus borer. New
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: a, b, d)
Zealand Journal of Agriculture. 57 : 28–29.
There is limited commercial citrus production in
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
Hawai‘i that might be affected by O. hirta. However, for nut
Organization [EPPO]. 2013a. EPPO alert list. http://
production, Macadamia is listed as a host in New Zealand,
www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Alert_List/alert_list.htm.
and Hawai‘i produced over 49 million pounds of macadamia
(4 August 2013).
nuts in the 2011 to 2012 season, valued at over $38 million
(NASS 2012). For host species of concern for this risk Food and Environment Research Agency [FERA]. 2010.
assessment, Acacia koa would likely be the only one with Rapid assessment of the need for a detailed pest risk
commercial value. Infestations in ornamental nurseries analysis for Oemona hirta, the lemon-tree borer. Version
could also cause some economic loss. 4. The Food and Environmental Research Agency. 7 p.
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (RU) Hanks, L.M. 1999. Influence of the larval host on
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: d) reproductive strategies of cerambycid beetles. Annual
Extent of injury or mortality of hosts of concern for Review of Entomology. 44: 483–505.
Hawai‘i is unknown. Acacia, Metrosideros, Vaccinium spp., National Agricultural Statistics Service [NASS]. 2012.
and Myoporum laetum are listed as hosts in New Zealand; Hawai‘i macadamia nuts: final season estimates.
so if O. hirta established, it is presumed that plant injury or Honolulu: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hawai‘i Field
mortality may occur. Just one, or a few larvae, can kill or Office. 8 p.
severely weaken branches of trees or vines (FERA 2010).
Ostojá-Starzewski, J.; MacLeod, A.; Eyre, D. 2010.
7. Social and political considerations: Low (RU) Lemon tree borer, Oemona hirta, plant pest fact sheet.
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: none) York, United Kingdom: The Food and Environmental
Research Agency. 6 p.
44
Wang, Q. 1995. Australian longicorn beetles plague our alba, S. babylonica, S. nigra, Sebastiana commersoniana,
eucalypts. Australian Horticulture. 93: 34–37. Taxodium distichum, Tilia moltkei, Ulmus pumila, Ulmus
spp., Vitex megapotamica
Wang, Q.; Davis, L.K. 2005. Mating behavior of Oemona
hirta (F.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in laboratory Distribution: Native to South America, more specifically
conditions. Journal of Insect Behavior. 18: 187–191. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, French Guiana, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay, and Venezuela, and introduced in Italy.
Wang, Q.; Shi, G. 1999. Parasitic natural enemies of
lemon tree borer. In: O’Callagan, M., ed. Proceedings Summary of natural history and basic biology of the
of the New Zealand 52nd plant protection conference. pest: Megaplatypus mutatus is a polyphagous ambrosia
Auckland, NZ: New Zealand Plant Protection Society beetle native to the subtropical and tropical areas of South
(Inc.): 60–64. America. Ambrosia beetles are an important insect group in
forest ecosystems. They usually attack felled or weakened
Wang, Q.; Shi, G.; Davis, L.K. 1998. Reproductive
trees, where they bore galleries into the wood. The common
potential and daily reproductive rhythms of Oemona
name “ambrosia beetle” is derived from the symbiotic
hirta (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Journal of Economic
fungus, which beetles introduce into their galleries and on
Entomology. 91(6): 1360–1365.
which the larvae feed. Megaplatypus mutatus is different
Wang, Q.; Shi, G.; Song, D.; Rogers, D.J.; Davis, L.K.; from more typical ambrosia beetles in that it is considered
Chen, X. 2002. Development, survival, body weight, a primary pest; it affects only live trees and does not attack
longevity, and reproductive potential of Oemena hirta cut wood. It attacks the main stems of trees and bores
(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) under different rearing internal tunnels in the xylem, which weakens the stem and
conditions. Journal of Economic Entomology. 95(3): causes breakage during wind events. In addition, the dark
563–569. staining associated with the ambrosial mycelia reduces
wood quality, making it unsuitable for some markets. New
hosts continue to be added to an already large list for this
Platypodid Ambrosia Beetle insect; the endangered brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata,
Assessor: Sheri Smith which is highly resistant to wood decay caused by termites
and rot fungi, was recorded as a host of M. mutatus in
Scientific name of pest: Megaplatypus mutatus
Brazil, and 13 new hosts were confirmed in Argentina in
(= Platypus mutatus Chapuis) (Coleoptera:
2003. In addition, Zanuncio et al. (2010) were the first to
Curculionidae: Platypodinae)
observe M. mutatus in clonal Eucalyptus plantations used
Scientific names of hosts: Acacia spp., Acer negundo, for sawlogs in Brazil.
Ailanthus altissima, Balfourodendron riedelianum, Casu- Megaplatypus mutatus is particularly prevalent in
arina cunninghamiana, Caesalpinia echinata, Cedrela Argentina. It is a serious problem in commercial plantations
tubiflora, Citrus spp., Calophyllum brasiliense, Erythrina of a number of broad leaf trees but is especially damaging
crista-galli, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. dunni, E. euro- to poplars. The beetle’s continuing damage to hybrid poplar
phylla, E. robusta, E. tereticornis, Eucalyptus spp., Fraxi- plantations in Argentina, its wide distribution in South
nus spp., F. excelsior, Grevillea robusta, Oleaceae, Laurus America, and the more recent introduction into Italy have
nobilis, Ligustrum lucidum, Liquidambar styraciflua, raised concerns regarding its potential for becoming a
Luehea divaricata, Magnolia grandiflora, Magnoliacea, globally invasive pest of Populus species. The discovery
Malus sylvestris, Melia azedarach, Pinus spp., Platanus x of an established population in 2000 in Italy in a poplar
acerifolia, Populus alba, P. deltoids, Populus spp., Populus plantation demonstrated that this insect can be transported
x euroamericana, Pyrus communis, Quercus borealis, long distances between countries and therefore presents
Q. palustris, Q. robur, Robinia pseudo-acacia, Salix a threat worldwide (Alfaro et al. 2007). It was probably
45
introduced with a single trial consignment of roundwood of risk, but insect survival may be severely limited as live host
poplar with bark, imported in 2000 from Argentina (EPPO material is required to complete development. It should be
2009). Megaplatypus mutatus was added to the European noted, however, that it was probably introduced into Italy
and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization’s A2 alert with a single trial consignment of roundwood of poplar
list of quarantine pests in March 2007. with bark, imported in 2000 from Argentina (EPPO 2009).
The biology of M. mutatus is summarized in EPPO Its distribution throughout South America provides many
(2009). It is univoltine in South America and Italy. It source populations for potential global transportation. Five
overwinters mainly as mature larvae or teneral adults. adult beetles were detected in wood products at Kahului in
Adults appear in the field in late spring to early summer 2003 arriving from Indonesia (APHIS foreign reportable
(November-December in South America and May-June in raw data).
Italy). Males start emerging a few days before females and 2. Entry potential (plants for planting, wood and wood
fly to tree trunks >15 cm in diameter, in which they bore a products): High (MC) (Applicable risk criteria from
radial gallery directed toward the center of the trunk, and app. 4: b, c, d)
attract females by releasing a specific pheromone. After
Criteria b, c, and d are applicable. Alfaro and others
mating, the two adults bore new galleries inside the trunk,
(2007) concluded that M. mutatus is of concern to Califor-
in which the female lays 100 to 200 eggs over a period of
nia, Oregon, and Washington, where significant plantations
2 to 3 months. Adult beetles inoculate the galleries with
of hybrid poplars and a large fruit industry occur and
Raphaelea santoroi, a symbiotic fungus cultivated for
the temperature regimes are favorable. Detection can be
larval feeding. The first and second instar larvae feed on
difficult, as this insect predominantly resides in the wood
the mycelium; as they grow larger, they feed on the wood.
tissue throughout its life cycle.
Larvae generally reach maturity in 5 months, although
Funes et al. (2011) reported development into pupae in 2 to 3. Colonization potential: High (MC) (Applicable risk
3 months. criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
Megaplatypus mutatus has successfully established in
Italy, over 11 000 m from Argentina, where it is presumed
A. Likelihood of introduction to have come. (EPPO 2009). New hosts continue to be
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential (plants added to an already large list; 13 new hosts were confirmed
for planting, wood and wood products): in Argentina in 2003. Megaplatypus mutatus attacks Euca-
lyptus plantations used for sawlogs in Brazil. Colonization
Moderate (MC) (Applicable risk criteria from app.
potential in Hawai‘i would increase with amount of host
4: e, f, g, h)
material available; many ornamental eucalypts occur
The main pathways for introduction (EPPO 2009) are
in Hawai‘i.
plants for planting with trunks >15 cm diameter, round
wood of host plants >15 cm diameter, sawn wood, and wood 4. Spread potential: High (MC) (Applicable risk crite-
packaging material. Megaplatypus mutatus does not attack ria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f, g)
declining trees or cut wood and will only be present in them The polyphagous nature of this insect and its dispersal
as a result of earlier primary attack. Based on the criteria capability could aid in spread potential once introduced into
in app. 4, the rating is moderate (owing to meeting four a new environment. Its distribution in Italy increased from
criteria); however, the likelihood for M. mutatus reaching 130 km2 in 2000 to over 587 km2 by 2007 (Allegro and
Hawai‘i via live plants would be fairly low, unless importa- Griffo 2008).
tion of plants >15 cm in diameter occurs. Wood packaging B. Consequences of introduction
material or other wood products may present the highest
46
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MC) Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;

(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d) Consequences of introduction = moderate)
Megaplatypus mutatus development in plant tissue Selected bibliography:

weakens trees, reducing yield and causing breakage by
Alfaro, R.I.; Humble, L.M.; Gonzalez, P.; Villaverde,
wind, and even killing highly stressed trees. The galleries
R.; Allegro, G. 2007. The threat of the ambrosia beetle
and staining disqualify the wood from standards required
Megaplatypus mutatus (Chapuis) (= Platypus mutatus
by the plywood industry, thus dramatically lowering its
Chapuis) to world poplar resources. Forestry (Oxford).
value. Some poplar producers in South Africa have lost
80(4): 471–479.
their high-quality wood market (EPPO 2009) owing to M.
mutatus. A permanent infestation could lead to interstate Allegro, G.; Griffo, R. 2008. Risks of spread of
and international quarantine restrictions, affecting Hawai‘i, Megaplatypus mutatus. Edizioni I’Informatore Agrario
its trade partners, and other U.S. states. It is unknown if M. Srl. Verona, Italy: Informatore Agrario. 64(13): 73–76.
mutatus would attack Acacia koa in Hawai‘i; it is reported European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
to attack A. meanmsii in Brazil (Girardi et al. 2006). Organization [EPP0]. 2009. Megaplatypus mutatus.
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC) Data sheets on pests recommended for regulation.
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: d, e) European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
Organization. Bulletin 39: 55–58.
Erythrina crista-galli is listed as a host in South Amer-
ica. It is unknown if M. mutatus would attack or be success- Funes, H.; Griffo, R.; Zerba, E.; Gonzalez-Audino,
ful in other Erythrina species. If attacks and subsequent P. 2011. Mating disruption of the ambrosia beetle
plant injury or mortality of E. sandwicensis were to occur, Megaplatypus mutatus in poplar and hazelnut plantations
impacts could be high as this species has limited distri- using reservoir systems for pheromones. Entomologia
bution and has already experienced high mortality rates Experimentalis et Applicata. 139: 226–234.
owing to the invasive erythrina gall wasp (Quadrastichus
Gimenez, R.; Etiennot, A. 2003. Host range of Platypus
erythrinae) and reduced seed viability owing to an invasive
mutatus (Chapuis, 1865) (Coleoptera: Platypodidae).
bruchid beetle (Specularius impressithorax). Control with
Entomotropica. 18(2): 89–94.
pesticides has been highly effective (EPPO 2009); however,
treatments are costly and could be potentially harmful to Girardi, G.; Giménez, R.; Braga, M. 2006. Occurrence
the environment. of Platypus mutatus (Chapuis, 1865) (Coleoptera:
Platypodidae) in a brazilwood experimental plantation
in southeastern Brazil. Neotropical Entomology. 35(6):
(Applicable risk criteria, from app. 4: a, c, d)
864–867.
Public concerns likely would result if moderate to high
levels of tree injury or mortality occur, particularly for Zanuncio, A.; Pastori, P.; Lino-Neto, L.; Serrão, J.;
native species. Megaplatypus mutatus is on the quarantine Zanuncio, J. 2010. Megaplatypus mutatus (Chapuis)
pest list for several countries (EPPO 2009). A permanent (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Platypodinae) attacks hybrid
infestation could lead to interstate and international Eucalyptus L’Héritier De Brutelle clones in southern
quarantine restrictions, affecting Hawai‘i, its trade partners, Espírito Santo, Brazil. The Coleopterists Bulletin. 64(1):
and other U.S. states. Control with pesticides would likely 8–183.
have limited acceptance or be prohibited owing to potential Reviewers’ comments: None received.
secondary impacts on other insect species.
47
Summer Fruit Tortrix Moth that it feeds upon, and the additional feeding on foliage may
Assessor: Andris Eglitis not be very important to plant growth (Davis et al. 2005b).
Davis et al. (2005b) pointed out, however, that the impact of
Scientific name of pest: Adoxophyes orana (Fischer von
A. orana on forest productivity has not been well-studied.
Roslerstamm, 1834) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
Milonas and Savopoulou-Soultani (2006) described
Scientific names of hosts: Vaccinium spp.; wide the biology of the insect in northern Greece where A. orana
host range with over 50 species in several families, completes three generations in 1 year. Overwintering larvae
especially Rosaceae become active in early spring and complete their develop-
Distribution: Throughout Europe and Asia; successfully ment by the end of April (Milonas and Savopoulou-Soultani
introduced into England and Greece (Davis et al. 2005b). 2006). There are three distinct moth flights, with the first
occurring in early May and others in July and late August.
Summary of natural history and basic biology of the
The females lay eggs in groups (up to 300 eggs per female)
pest: Adoxophyes orana is a multivoltine species that
on host foliage, branches, and sometimes the bole of the tree
is distributed from Asia throughout northern Europe. It
(CPC Report 2011). The eggs hatch within 8 to 14 days, and
is considered the most damaging leaf roller in Europe
young larvae immediately begin feeding on host leaves and
(Kamminga and Maguylo 2011). The summer fruit tortrix
shoots (CPC Report 2011). The larvae pass quickly through
moth is a major pest of fruit crops, particularly apple and
five instars and eventually spin pupal shelters under the
pear, in temperate regions (Davis et al. 2005b). The insect
leaves that have been damaged and stuck together by the
is polyphagous with a host range that includes some forest
larvae (CPC Report 2011).
tree species (Davis et al. 2005b). Adoxophyes orana occurs
Adoxophyes orana is not currently found in the United
in warm, humid climates and could be closely associated
States. However, the insect has established populations in
with biomes characterized as tropical and subtropical moist
geographic areas with climates closely following the USDA
broadleaf forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Plant Hardiness Zones 4 to 11 (Kamminga and Maguylo
(Davis et al. 2005b). Since the 1980s, the insect has spread
2011). On this basis, the majority of the United States has a
throughout southern Europe and has become a serious pest
climate that would support the summer fruit tortrix moth.
in many fruit orchards, primarily cherries, peaches, and
Within the continental United States, Davis et al. (2005b)
apples (Milonas and Savopoulou-Soultani 1999). The sum-
predicted a potential distribution that would range from
mer fruit tortrix feeds primarily on host foliage, but when
Maine to Louisiana and Texas. The similarity of certain cli-
populations are high, the larvae may feed on fruits as well
mates in the continental United States with those of Hawai‘i
(Milonas and Savopoulou-Soultani 2006). High populations
is implied by the fact that many continental U.S. pests have
can defoliate host trees (Dickler 1991, cited by Kamminga
been successfully introduced into Hawai‘i in recent years
and Maguylo 2011). The fruit damage of the first summer
(HDOA 2002).
generation is different from that of the second summer
Davis et al. (2005b) noted that A. orana has moved
generation. For the first, the damage of the fruits consists
through commerce, and introductions of larvae onto trees
of large deep holes. In the second generation, the insects
and shrubs have been particularly problematic in some
make very superficial and small holes of less than 5 mm in
areas.
diameter. Usually, several of these holes are adjacent to each
other (CPC Report 2011). Damage to the fruit is greatest Specific information relating to risk elements:
by fall, coinciding with the time of harvest (Milonas and A. Likelihood of introduction (plant material pathway)
Savopoulou-Soultani 2006). Crop losses attributed to the
summer fruit tortrix range up to 20 percent (Whittle 1985,
High (RC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app.
cited by Kamminga and Maguylo 2011). Most of the import-
4: a, c, d, g, h)
ant damage that this insect causes is directly to the fruits
48
Although A. orana has not specifically been intercepted high reproductive potential, broad host range, and some-
on very many occasions, note that for Hawai‘i, the tortricid what cryptic nature are all factors that could facilitate the
leaf rollers as a group are very commonly intercepted in movement of this insect if introduced into Hawai‘i.
ports. As such, we apply criterion “a.” A wide host range, B. Consequences of introduction
broad distribution, and multiple generations all increase
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MC)
the likelihood that A. orana could be associated with fruits,
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: c, d)
foliage, or planting stock.
Although the host range includes several forest species,
2. Entry potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating
the summer fruit tortrix moth is documented as causing
criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
economic damage primarily to apples, pears, and other
Adoxophyes orana has not often specifically been
rosaceous hosts (Kamminga and Maguylo 2011). Where
intercepted in U.S. ports. However, it has been introduced
fruit is involved, damage from A. orana can be very sig-
into Greece and England, probably via infested plant
nificant. As leafrollers, these insects use foliage for shelter
material or fruit (Davis et al. 2005b). Interception records
while feeding on the outer surface of fruit. The larval
for Hawai‘i from 1985 to 2004 show that members from the
feeding creates a misshapen appearance and can lead to
family Tortricidae are very commonly intercepted (at least
losses of 10 to 50 percent in fruit-growing regions (Davis et
400 times in the past two decades). Within a 20-year period,
al. 2005b). Because this insect is considered a regulated pest
unidentified tortricids were intercepted in the continental
in some countries, its presence in Hawai‘i could result in
United States over 10,000 times (Davis et al. 2005b).
international quarantines or mitigating treatments affecting
The most common pathways for these interceptions were
trade. The effects of A. orana on Vaccinium spp. are not
international airline baggage (44 percent) and permit cargo
likely to be as important as they would be on major fruit
(41 percent) (Davis et al. 2005b). There was not a strong
crops such as those attacked in Europe.
association with a particular plant product, as over 100 plant
6. Environmental damage potential: High (MC)
taxa were involved (Davis et al. 2005b).
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: c, d, e)
3. Colonization potential: High (MC) (Applicable rat-
Adoxophyes orana may have the potential to affect for-
ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, e)
est composition or reduce biodiversity because of its ability
As part of its broad geographical range, A. orana
to utilize many hosts. There might be indirect environmen-
occurs in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.
tal effects if pest-mitigating actions were invoked. There
The summer fruit tortrix has successfully expanded its
are at least 27 endangered species from six plant families
range into the Mediterranean region. A broad host range
(Urtiaceae, Solonaceae, Rosaceae, Malvaceae, Fabaceae,
and high biotic potential increase the chances for successful
and Convulvulaceae) in Hawai‘i that may be hosts for the
colonization by A. orana.
summer fruit tortrix (Kamminga and Maguylo 2011).
4. Spread potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating
criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, e, g)
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b)
The summer fruit tortrix moth has poor capacity for
Because this insect is considered a regulated pest in
dispersal (Kamminga and Maguylo 2011). Adult flights are
some countries, its presence in Hawai‘i could result in
typically of a short distance, and some larval movement
international quarantines or mitigating treatments affecting
may occur when larvae drop from silken threads and are
trade.
carried by the wind. Most of the movement into new areas
has been via infested plant material (Davis et al. 2005b). A
High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
quences of introduction = high)
49
Selected bibliography: West Indian Sugarcane Borer Weevil

Crop Protection Compendium Report. 2011. Adoxophyes Assessor: Andris Eglitis
orana (summer fruit tortrix). http://caps.ceris.purdue.
Scientific name of pest: Diaprepes abbreviatus (Linnaeus)
edu/webfm_send/1441. (2 May 2013).
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Davis, E.E.; French, S.; Venette, R.C. 2005b. Mini risk Scientific names of hosts: Diospyros spp., Citrus spp.,
assessment. Summer fruit tortrix moth, Adoxophyes Acacia spp., Erythrina spp.; many others
orana (Fischer von Roslerstamm, 1934) [Lepidoptera:
Distribution: West Indies, Central and South America,
Tortricidae]. Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey
California, Florida, Texas
(CAPS) Pest Risk Assessment. 48 p.
Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture [HDOA]. 2002.
the pest: The West Indian sugarcane borer weevil is origi-
Kahului airport pest risk assessment. Honolulu: Hawai‘i
nally from the Caribbean, where it is known principally as
Department of Agriculture Plant Quarantine Branch.
a pest of sugarcane, citrus, and other crops (Stansly 2011).
41 p.
The weevil was introduced into Florida in 1964 and was
Kamminga, K.; Maguylo, K. 2011. New pest response commonly collected 4 years later (Woodruff 1968). Since
guidelines: summer fruit tortrix moth (Adoxophyes then, it has become a very serious pest to the citrus industry
orana). Riverdale, MD: U.S. Department of Agriculture, in Florida (Simpson et al. 2011). In 2000, the weevil also
Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection became established in a mature citrus grove in Texas (Graf-
and Quarantine. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_ ton-Cardwell et al. 2004). Since 1974, D. abbreviatus was
export/plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml. intercepted numerous times in California (Grafton-Cardwell
(2 May 2013). et al. 2004) and eventually became established in that state
in 2008 after eradication attempts were ended owing to a
Milonas, P.G.; Savopoulou-Soultani, M. 1999. Cold
lack of funding (Jetter and Godfrey 2009).
hardiness in diapause and non-diapause larvae of the
Diaprepes abbreviatus is a large, colorful weevil,
summer fruit tortrix, Adoxophyes orana (Lepidoptera:
measuring 10 to 19 mm in length with numerous color
Tortricidae). European Journal of Entomology.
forms ranging from gray to yellow to orange and black
96: 183–187.
(Grafton-Cardwell et al. 2004). Adult weevils can live up to
Milonas, P.G.; Savopoulou-Soultani, M. 2006. Seasonal 4 months (Jetter and Godfrey 2009), during which time they
abundance and population dynamics of Adoxophyes can lay up to 5,000 eggs per female (Griffith 1975, Simpson
orana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in northern Greece. et al.1996). Eggs are laid in masses of around 40, placed
International Journal of Pest Management. 52(1): 45–51. between two leaves that are glued together by the female
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosecurity (Griffith 1975). The eggs normally hatch within a week, and
New Zealand. 2009. Import risk analysis: pears (Pyrus the young larvae drop to the ground and work their way into
bretschneideri, Pyrus pyrifolia, and Pyrus sp. nr. the soil to begin feeding on plant roots (Griffith 1975). The
communis) fresh fruit from China. Wellington, New youngest larvae feed on the finest roots, moving to larger
Zealand. 454 p. roots as they develop (Jetter and Godfrey 2009). The larvae
can remain in the soil for a prolonged period, ranging from
Reviewers’ comments: “This assessment reads well with
2 months to as long as 2 years before maturing into the adult
clear rationale” (D. Anthony)
stage (Griffith 1975). The larvae pass through 11 instars,
Response to comments: None needed.
with instars 3 through 9 being the most destructive feeders
50
(Grafton-Cardwell et al. 2004). Late-instar larvae construct Diaprepes abbreviatus has been successfully trans-
a chamber where they transform into pupae. The pupal stage ported into at least three new locations via plant material
lasts for 2 to 3 weeks, and in Puerto Rico, the pupal stage containing life stages. A very broad host range and overlap-
can be found in any month of the year (Woodruff 1968). ping life stages increase the likelihood that the insect will
Young adults may remain in the pupal chamber for an be associated with transported plant material.
extended period of time before emerging (Woodruff 1968). 2. Entry potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating crite-
The adult weevils “typically” emerge from the ground in ria, from app. 4: a, b, d)
late spring and early summer (Stansly 2011, citing Wolcott
The West Indian weevil was intercepted many times
1936), although in Florida, emergence has been found to be
in California before it became established. Even though the
quite variable with adults present nearly year-round (Stansly
weevils are strong fliers, they are probably most effectively
2011). Adults are sometimes difficult to find because they
moved as “hitchhikers,” attached to plants or transported
feed during the early morning and late afternoon, hiding in
through infested nursery containers (Jetter and Godfrey
the foliage during the day (Grafton-Cardwell et al. 2004).
2009). Successful entry has been gained into Florida, Texas,
Adult feeding is typically limited to leaf edges, producing
and California.
irregular and semicircular notches (Jetter and Godfrey
2009). Young and tender leaves are preferred. It is important 3. Colonization potential: High (RC) (Applicable rat-
to locate the actual weevil doing the damage because the ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, e)
feeding of D. abbreviatus is similar to that of other weevils Diaprepes abbreviatus has been introduced into
(Grafton-Cardwell et al. 2004). The most significant losses Florida, Texas, and California. A very broad host range
come from larval feeding, which occurs in the roots. Young and a high reproductive potential (up to 5,000 eggs per
trees may be killed outright by larval girdling, while larger female) increase the chances of successful colonization in a
trees decline rapidly and fall over or become exposed to root new environment. The weevil has hosts within three of the
diseases (Jetter and Godfrey 2009). Many citrus trees do not genera of concern for this risk assessment.
show symptoms of decline until extensive damage has been
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri-
done to the root system (Grafton-Cardwell et al. 2004).
teria, from app. 4: b, c, d, e, f, g)
Although the sugarcane borer weevil is most commonly
Although the West Indian weevil has strong dispersal
associated with citrus and other important crops, it has an
capability on its own, it has most likely been aided in its
extremely broad host range that encompasses nearly 300
spread by human transport. A broad host range, a high
plant species in 59 families (Simpson et al. 1996). Among
reproductive potential, and somewhat cryptic nature have
those hosts are plants from three genera of concern to this
allowed it to spread beyond quarantine areas in Florida
pest risk assessment (Acacia, Diospyros, and Erythrina).
(Griffith 1975). Simpson et al. (1996) believe that the
Most of these host plants are ones where adults have been
weevil could be well established in an area before being
collected and larval feeding has not yet been documented.
detected. Aggressive but unsuccessful attempts were made
Nearly 50 of the species have been verified as larval hosts,
at eradication in both Florida and California once the insect
and many others have been associated with adult feeding or
was detected.
egg laying (Simpson et al. 1996).
5. Economic damage potential: High (MC) (Applicable
A. Likelihood of introduction (plant material pathway)
rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, f)
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
(MC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, Most of the evaluations of damage by this insect have
d, e, g) been associated with the citrus industry, where the eco-
nomic impacts have been devastating (Hall 1995, Simpson
51
et al. 2011). Three of the Hawai‘i genera of concern in this Hall, D.G. 1995. A revision to the bibliography of the
assessment contain plants that are hosts to the West Indian sugarcane rootstalk borer weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus
weevil. If damage in these hosts approached the levels that (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Florida Entomologist. 78
the weevil has inflicted on citrus, then the impacts would (2): 365–377.
be severe. Criterion “f” is applied because of the experience
Jetter, K.M.; Godfrey, K. 2009. Diaprepes root weevil,
with the first introduction of the weevil into the United
a new California pest, will raise costs for pest control
States. When D. abbreviatus was discovered in Florida,
and trigger quarantines. California Agriculture. 63(3):
very aggressive efforts were undertaken to limit the expan-
121–126.
sion of its range. These efforts involved aerial spraying with
assorted insecticides but were not successful and the weevil Simpson, S.E.; Nigg, H.N.; Coile, N.C.; Adair, R.A. 1996.
spread far beyond the quarantine areas (Griffith 1975). Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) host
plant associations. Environmental Entomology. 25(2):
333–349.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d, e)
Simpson, S.E.; Nigg, H.N.; Knapp, J.L. 2011. Host plants
Given a broad host range, it is possible that D. abbre-
of Diaprepes root weevil and their implications to the
viatus could affect hosts with limited distributions. Thus
regulatory process. University of Florida, Florida Citrus
far, eradication programs have been ineffective and could
Resources. 15 p. http://irrec.ifas.ufl.edu/flcitrus/short_
create their own environmental problems.
course_and_workshop/diaprepes/host_plants.shtml. (4
August 2013).
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b)
Stansly, P.A. 2011. Biology of Diaprepes abbreviatus in
Simpson et al. (1996) stated that, given the high repro-
the laboratory and field. Fort Pierce, FL: University of
ductive potential (5,000 eggs per female), a fairly long life
Florida, Indian River Research and Education Center.
cycle, and hidden eggs and larvae, D. abbreviatus would
6 p. http://irrec.ifas.ufl.edu/flcitrus/short_course_and_
probably be well-established before it is detected. The
workshop/diaprepes/biology_of_diaprepes_abbreviatus.
presence of the weevil could lead to quarantine restrictions
shtml. (4 August 2013).
on trade from Hawai‘i.
Wolcott, G.N. 1936. The life history of Diaprepes
abbreviatus at Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Journal of
High (Likelihood of introduction = high;
Agriculture, University of Puerto Rico. 20: 883–914.
Consequences of introduction = high)
Woodruff, R.E. 1968. The present status of a West
Selected bibliography: Indian weevil (Diaprepes abbreviata (L.)) in Florida.
Grafton-Cardwell, E.E.; Godfrey, K.E.; Peña, J.E.; Entomology Circular No. 77. Gainsville, FL: Florida
McCoy, C.W.; Luck, R.F. 2004. Diaprepes root Department of Agriculture, Division of Plant
weevil. IPM Publication 8131. Davis, CA: University Industry. 4 p.
of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural
Reviewers’ comments: In response to High rating for “Pest
Resources. 7 p.
with host-commodity at origin potential”] “I find this a
Griffith, R.J. 1975. The West Indian sugarcane rootstalk bit surprising—the adults are large and often colourful,
borer weevil in Florida. Proceedings of the Florida State therefore one would expect they would be readily detectable
Horticultural Society. 88: 87–90. during routine inspections, (allowing for very low numbers
in large consignments being harder to detect). Are they
likely to move or fly when disturbed? I would expect eggs
52
to be the most likely lifestage to be accidentally imported produces a partial second generation in the warmer areas
on whole plants, though, depending on the plant, I would of citrus growing regions. In Africa, adults are found from
think leaves stuck together might arouse some curiosity and March to September, and females oviposit from September
masses are more obvious than single or few eggs. If plants to mid-January (Sullivan and Molet 2011). During their
are supposed to come in without soil, wouldn’t this reduce lifetime, females will lay an average of over 1,700 eggs
the likelihood of larvae and pupae entering?” (D. Anthony) (Davis et al. 2005a). Nymphal instars can be found from
Response to comments: Although adults are large and col- mid-November to late March, and overwintering can occur
orful and should be easily detected (as should plant leaves in the third instar or adult stage (Sullivan and Molet 2011).
glued together), the West Indian weevil has been moved into In New Zealand, females begin to lay eggs in November,
several new environments. Several other criteria also apply, and crawlers emerge in December (Sullivan and Molet
leading to the “high” rating for that risk element. 2011). The first instar nymphs initially settle on leaves; later
instars move to twigs where they secrete a waxy covering
White Wax Scale (Davis et al. 2005a). The nymphal feeding reduces the vigor
Assessor: Andris Eglitis and growth of host plants (Sullivan and Molet 2011). Sooty
Scientific names of pest: Ceroplastes destructor Newstead mold growing on honeydew produced by the feeding instars
(Hemiptera: Coccidae) may inhibit photosynthesis (Davis et al. 2005a). Devel-
opmental rate of the scale is dependent on host species,
Scientific names of hosts: Citrus spp., Diospyros spp.,
temperature, and water availability (Davis et al. 2005a).
Acacia spp., Dodonaea spp.; over 150 others
Distribution: Africa, Australasia, Oceania Specific information relating to risk elements:
A. Likelihood of introduction (plant material pathway)
the pest: Ceroplastes destructor utilizes several species 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
of Citrus as primary hosts (Sullivan and Molet 2011) and (RC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, e,
has a long list of secondary hosts including some species f, g, h)
in the genera Acacia, Diospyros, and Dodonaea that have Although Ceroplastes destructor has not been inter-
representatives in Hawai‘i. The white wax scale was once cepted in Hawai‘i or the conterminous United States, the
considered a serious pest of Citrus spp. in several states of third most commonly intercepted insect in Hawai‘i ports
Australia until highly successful biological control agents between 1984 and 2010 was a related scale insect, C. rubens
were introduced from Africa (Sullivan and Molet 2011). (red wax scale) (AQIM Database). Ceroplastes rubens has a
These natural enemies also limit the pest importance of the wider geographical distribution (including Hawai‘i) than C.
white wax scale in its native range of Africa (Sullivan and destructor, but an equally broad host range (Dekle 2001).
Molet 2011).
2. Entry potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating crite-
The white wax scale has three nymphal instars. The
ria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
early stages are morphologically difficult to distinguish
from other Ceroplastes species (Sullivan and Molet 2011). Although C. destructor has not been intercepted in port
Adult females are oval, sometimes with some marginal inspections, it has become established in three new envi-
indentation, and measure from 2.5 to 6.4 mm in length (Sul- ronments, demonstrating that interceptions are only loosely
livan and Molet 2011). The females are immobile and are tied to establishments. Many Ceroplastes interceptions are
covered with a white waxy layer. Adult males are unknown. associated with materials for consumption in passenger
Sullivan and Molet (2011) described the life cycle of the baggage (Sullivan and Molet 2011).
white wax scale in Australia, Africa, and New Zealand. 3. Colonization potential: High (RC) (Applicable rat-
In Australia, C. destructor is univoltine and occasionally ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b)
53
C. destructor has been successfully introduced into C. Pest risk potential:

Australia, New Zealand, and other South Pacific Islands High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
(Sullivan and Molet 2011). The climate in Hawai‘i would quences of introduction = high)
be similar to many locations where the scale now occurs.
In addition, C. destructor has hosts in four of the Hawai‘i Selected bibliography:
genera of concern for this risk assessment (Davis et al. Davis, E.E.; French, S.; Venette, R.C. 2005a. Mini risk
2005a), increasing the likelihood of successful establish- assessment. Soft wax scale, Ceroplastes destructor
ment in Hawai‘i. Newstead (Hemiptera: Coccidae). Cooperative
Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) Pest Risk
4. Spread potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating cri-
Assessment. 35 p.
teria, from app. 4: b, c, d, f, g)
The white wax scale has a very broad host range such Dekle, G.W. 2001. Red wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens
that elements “d” and “g” could apply. In addition, C. Maskell). Entomology Circular 15. Gainesville, FL:
destructor has a very high reproductive potential (1,700 Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
eggs per female) (Davis et al. 2005a). Inherent powers Services, Division of Plant Industry. 2 p.
of dispersal are limited, mainly involving transport Sullivan, M.; Molet, T. 2011. CPHST Pest Datasheet for
of crawlers. Ceroplastes destructor. Raleigh, NC: U.S. Department
B. Consequences of introduction of Agriculture-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST. http://caps.ceris.
purdue.edu/webfm_send/1553. (4 August 2013).
5. Economic damage potential: High (RC) (Applicable
rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d) Reviewers’ comments: “Criteria “a” states the organism
has been intercepted at ports of entry not that an
With a broad host range, economically important host
organism/related organism is intercepted. So is it valid to
plants could likely be affected by C. destructor. The white
state that criterion “a” applies in this case?” (Martin)
wax scale has been a major pest of Citrus in South Africa
(Davis et al. 2005a). Feeding by scales weakens host plants Response to comments: The reviewer makes a valid point.
and may predispose them to mortality agents. Criterion “a” was dropped from the “Pest with host
6. Environmental damage potential: High (MC) commodity potential.” Because numerous other criteria
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, apply, the rating for that element remains “high.”
possibly e)
In their mini risk assessment for the continental United Pathogen IPRAs
States, Davis et al. (2005a) rated the environmental damage Acacia Gall Rust
potential of C. destructor as “high” owing to the potential Assessor: Phil Cannon
for degrading ecosystems, reducing biodiversity, and
Scientific names of pest: Uromycladium tepperianum
jeopardizing endangered or threatened species. They also
(Sacc.) McAlpine
pointed out that new pest introductions typically result in
Scientific names of hosts: Species of Acacia, Albizia, and
greater use of chemical measures to combat infestations or
Racosperma (Fabaceae). The pathogen is known to attack
attempt eradication.
more than 100 species of Acacia in Australia (Wood 2012),
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (RC)
as well as Falcataria moluccana (Molucca albizia) and
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a)
Paraserianthes falcataria (syn. Adenanthera falcataria)
Damage by the white wax scale could lead to increased (albizia). The African species of Acacia are not susceptible
public concerns. In addition, increases in pesticide use are to this fungus (Morris 1987).
often met with public resistance.
54
Distribution: Uromycladium tepperianum is native to Aus- During the infection process, the teliospore germinates
tralia. It has spread through much of the Philippines, Sabah to produce a basidiospore on the host surface. Under favor-
in Malaysia, and Java in Indonesia (Rahayu et al. 2010). It able conditions (relative humidity > 90 percent), the basid-
is also found in New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and New iospore forms a penetration peg, which penetrates the host
Caledonia (Morris 1987). It was introduced to South Africa cells directly through the epidermis (Rahayu et al. 2010).
as a biological control agent for the invasive Acacia saligna After penetration, the mycelia of the rust spread inter- and
(Wood 2012). intracellularly. As a result, the periderm and phloem cells
Summary of natural history and basic biology of become misshapen while the xylem cells become twisted or
the pests: Uromycladium tepperianum is a microcyclic die. Pycnia are formed after about 7 days; they are the small
rust, producing only teliospores (Morris 1987). It does not brown pustules that eventually erupt under the epidermis.
produce urediniospores or aeciospores (Rahayu et al. 2010). Often, no urediniospores are found (Rahayu et al. 2010).
Teliospores, composed of a cluster of three probasidial Galls can persist for several years. However, because
cells at top of a single pedicel, are depressed globose to the rust is an obligate parasite, the rust will die when the
globose, cinnamon brown, thickly vertically striate, margin cells of the host plant die.
crenulate, wall 2 to 3 µm, at apex up to 5 µm thick, 14 to 22 Specific information relating to risk elements:
µm high, 18 to 25 µm wide, one apical germ pore; pedicel A. Likelihood of introduction
hyaline, septate, deciduous (Systematic Mycology and
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
Microbiology Laboratory 2007).
(VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d,
Acacia pycnantha, cultivated in Australia for its bark,
e, g, h)
is severely affected by U. tepperianum; infection causes sig-
nificant yield losses and eventually host death (Gathe 1971). The rust can colonize basically any aerial unlignified
This rust has potential as a biocontrol agent for weedy part of a host plant, and a large number of large, spore-bear-
acacias outside of Australia; it has been highly effective ing galls form on these tissues and persist as the seedling
against A. saligna in South Africa (Morris 1991, 1997, 1999; or tree grows larger. If seedlings of F. moluccana, which
Wood and Morris 2007). had been produced in a nursery near an infected mature
The most characteristic symptom of infection is the tree were to be brought to Hawai‘i, the likelihood of these
formation of reddish brown, globose or irregularly shaped seedlings being infected with this rust would be high. How-
galls at least several centimeters in diameter, on stems and ever, Hawai‘i already has numerous Albizia growing on its
shoots. Witches’ brooms of different shapes and sizes can islands, so this should significantly lessen the motivation of
develop. Flowers, phyllodes, and shoot tips can also be bringing in such seedlings from abroad. Presumably, spores
infected, causing gross malformation (Gothe 1971). Older of this rust could also be introduced with seed or on wood
galls may turn dark brown and become invaded by tunnel- products coming from an infested area, although this would
ing insects (Old et al. 2002). Infected trees can have several be purely casual and the likelihood of spores brought in by
galls per stem, which can lead to girdling, death of the stem this manner, and also infecting a susceptible host and lead-
and repeated branching. Severely infected trees die. ing to the formation of galls, seems quite low. The spores
Fresh galls are covered with powdery, cinnamon-col- of this rust are fairly durable and should be wind dispersed
ored masses of teliospores. Telia develop on galls on leaves, for fairly long distances. Although the possibilities of this
branches, inflorescences, and fruits. The teliospores from rust making it on the wind all the way to Hawai‘i from
the gall are wind blown, can travel great distances, and can someplace like Asia seem remote (and have not happened,
infect virtually any part of a susceptible plant except the to date), once in Hawai‘i, wind dispersal would become
thick bark. important in local spread.
55
2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite- 6. Environmental damage potential: Low (MC)
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
Uromycladium tepperianum can colonize all aerial non- Locally, where there are well-established stands of A.
woody parts of a plant, so it could be brought into Hawai‘i falcataria (= Falcataria moluccana), the environmental
on any infected plant. Presumably spores of this fungus damage could be considerable as many of these trees in
could also be introduced with seed, although this would be these stands are huge (50 to 100 cm dbh and 35 m in height).
purely casual; it should not be a risk on wood products. The potential for environmental damage to native Hawai‘i
3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable rat- acacia species is not yet known.
ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e) 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC)
There is a fair amount of Albizia on all of the Hawai‘i (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
Islands (Dave Bakke, regional pesticide coordinator, USDA The social and political impact of having U. teppera-
Forest Service, personal communication), so presumably nium become established in Albizia in the state would be
U. tepperanium could rapidly build up inoculum levels a mixed bag. One segment of the Hawaiian population
and also very quickly colonize entire stands of these trees would probably applaud any damage to Albizia because
as well. it is an invasive species. On the other hand, the impact
The ability of this fungus to infect and colonize A. koa, that this fungus has on Albizia is to make it an incredibly
or any other leguminous trees in Hawai‘i, has not yet been ugly tree with an even higher than usual propensity for
evaluated. More than 100 species of Acacia in Australia are branch breakage.
at least somewhat susceptible to this fungus; Acacia saligna The segment of the Hawaiian population that does not
has proven to be exceptionally vulnerable to this rust object to Albizia, and basically all visitors who are unaware
(Wood 2012). that this is not a native species, would probably be appalled
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri- at the disfiguration that this rust would be causing to both
teria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f, g) individual trees and stands of Albizia.
As it is not yet known how this rust might affect koa
Spread in stands of Albizia could be expected to be
or other leguminous trees currently found on the Hawai‘i
exceptionally high. Spread in locations where this species
islands, it is premature to speculate on the social or political
was absent would probably be much lower.
impacts that the introduction of this rust fungus might have
B. Consequences of introduction in Hawai‘i.
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (RC) C. Pest risk potential:
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: c, d, f)
Locally, where there are well-established stands of quences of introduction = moderate)
Albizia, the economic damage could be considerable, as
many of these trees in these stands are huge (50 to 100 cm
dbh and 35 m in height). As many of these Albizia trees Burges, A. 1934. Studies in the genus Uromycladium
are in semiurban settings, infected trees would become (Uredinaceae) I. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
hazard trees as the rust galls will make their branches more New South Wales. 59: 212–228.
malformed and weaker. Dick, M. 1985. Uromycladium rusts of Acacia. Forest
The potential for economic damage to native Hawai‘i Pathology in New Zealand, No. 15. Rotorua, New
Acacia species is not known. Pathogenicity tests to Zealand: New Zealand Forest Service. 8 p.
determine whether A. koa is susceptible would be
worth conducting.
56
Gathe, J. 1971. Host range and symptoms in Western Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory.
Australia of gall rust, Uromycladium tepperianum. 2007. Invasive fungi. Uromycladium tepperianum
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. on Acacia spp. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
54: 114–118. Agricultural Research Service. http://nt.ars-grin.
gov/taxadescriptions/factsheets/pdfPrintFile.
Lee, S.S. 2004. Diseases and potential threats to Acacia
cfm?thisApp=Uromycladiumtepperianum. (8 May 2013).
mangium plantations in Malaysia. Unasylva. 217: 31–35.
Wood, A.R. 2012. Uromycladium tepperianium (a gall
McAlpine, D. 1906. The rusts of Australia: their structure,
forming rust fungus) cause a sustained epidemic on the
nature and classification. Melbourne, Australia: Brain,
weed Acacia saligna in South Africa. Australasian Plant
Department of Agriculture, Victoria. 349 p.
Pathology. 41: 255–261.
Morris, M.J. 1987. Biology of the Acacia gall rust,
Wood, A.R.; Morris, M.J. 2007. Impact of the gall-
Uromycladium tepperianum. Plant Pathology. 36:
forming rust fungus Uromycladium tepperianum on the
100–106.
invasive tree Acacia saligna in South Africa: 15 years of
Morris, M.J. 1991. The use of plant pathogens for monitoring. Biological Control. 41: 68–77.
biological weed control in South Africa. Agriculture,
Reviewers’ comments: ”Wind dispersal is another means
Ecosystems and Environment. 37: 239–255.
of introduction but this depends on the prevailing wind
Morris, M.J. 1997. Impact of the gall-forming rust fungus directions.” (Su See Lee)
Uromycladium tepperianum on the invasive tree Acacia “Don’t think there are any studies or reports of this rust
saligna in South Africa. Biological Control. 10: 75–82. on other Albizias—perhaps it may not attack other Albi-
Morris, M.J. 1999. The contribution of the gall-forming zias? It has been found on some acacias but not on others.
rust fungus Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) McAlp. In Malaysia, it is present on F. moluccana but absent on
to the biological control of Acacia saligna (Labill.) adjacent Acacia mangium.” (Su See Lee)
Wendl. (Fabaceae) in South Africa. African Entomology “In Sabah (Malaysia) and the Philippines infection is
Memoir No. 1: 125–128. much more serious in areas of higher elevation (400 m asl)
with persistent early morning fog, low wind speed, and high
Old, K.M.; Vercoe, T.K.; Floyd, R.B.; Wingfield,
relative humidity (>90 percent). It is absent in low lying and
M.J.; Roux, J.; Neser, S. 2002. FAO/IPGRI Technical
open areas. So it may not be a threat in semiurban setting.”
Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm No. 20.
(Su See Lee)
Acacia spp. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, International Plant Genetic Response to comments: Comments by the reviewer were
Resources Institute. 88 p. incorporated.
Rahayu, S.; Lee, S.S.; Shukor, N.A.A. 2010. Aecidium Rusts

Uromycladium tepperianum, the gall rust fungus from Assessor: Gregg DeNitto
Falcataria moluccana in Malaysia and Indonesia.
Scientific names of pests: see table 7
Mycoscience. 51: 149–153.
Scientific names of hosts: see table 7
Savile, D.B.O. 1971. Generic disposition and pycnium type
Distribution: see table 7
in Uredinales. Mycologia. 63: 1089–1091.
the pests: Species of Aecidium are rust fungi that infect
primarily foliage of deciduous hosts. The species identified
in this analysis likewise affect host foliage, but some species
57
Table 7—Hosts, country of origin and citations for Aecidium spp. on Diospyros and Myoporum species
Pathogen Host(s) Country of origin Citation

Aecidium atrocrustaceum Syd. & P. Diospyros discolor Philippines Watson 1971
Sydow (Pucciniales:
Incertae sedis)
Aecidium calosporum Juel Diospyros sp., Diospyros Brazil Hennen et al. 2005
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) hispida, Diospyros
liriosmoides
Aecidium carbonaceum W.T. Dale Diospyros inconstans South Africa, Trinidad & Dale 1955, Hennen et al. 2005
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) Tobago
Aecidium diospyri A.L. Sm. Diospyros mespiliformis Angola, South Africa Watson 1971
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis)
Aecidium mabae Diospyros piscatorial, Ivory Coast, Watson 1971
Mabea abyssinica Ethiopia
Aecidium melaenum Syd. & P. Syd. Diospyros sp. India, Philippines Bagyanarayana and Ramesh
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) 1995, Watson 1971
Aecidium muelleri Thurst. Diospyros sp. Brazil Hennen et al. 2005
Aecidium miliare Berk. & Broome Diospyros embryopteris, D. India, Ivory Coast, Sri De 2000, Watson 1971
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) ovalifolia, Lanka
D. xanthochlamys,
Aecidium myopori G. Cunn. Myoporum acuminatum, M. Australia, New Zealand Birch 1938, Cunningham 1924,
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) laetum, McKenzie 1998
M. parvifolium,
M. tetrandrum
Aecidium ramosii Syd. & P. Syd. Diospyros sp. Philippines Watson 1971
Aecidium reyesii Syd. & P. Syd. Diospyros discolor Philippines Watson 1971
Aecidium rhytismoideum Berk. Diospyros sp., D. discolor, Eritrea, Ethiopia, India, Hosagoudar 1985, 2006;
& Broome (Pucciniales: D. embryopteris, D. Ivory Coast, Java, Watson 1971
Incertae sedis) malabaricus, Philippines, South
D. melanoxylon, Africa, Sri Lanka
D. mespiliformis,
D. ovalifolia,
D. paniculata,
D. tomentosa
Aecidium royenae Cooke & Massee Diospyros pallens, South Africa Farr and Rossman, n.d.
(Pucciniales: Diospyros sp.
Incertae sedis)
Aecidium ulei Henn. Diospyros sp. Brazil Hennen et al. 2005, Watson
(Pucciniales: Incertae sedis) 1971
Aecidium yapoense Vienn. Bourg. Diospyros gabonensis Ivory Coast Watson 1971
58
also infect branches, trunks, petioles, inflorescences, and their fruit, timber, or ornamental purposes, depending on
drupes. Some cause the formation of branch swellings and the species. There does not appear to currently be a trade in
witches’ brooms. For the most part, they are limited to this genus, other than for persimmons and ebony. Neither of
species of Diospyros or Myoporum as hosts. In Malaysia, these commodities would likely transport Aecidium species.
species of Aecidium have been recorded on various hosts, Some Diospyros species are suggested for use in ornamen-
but not Diospyros or Myoporum (Lee et al. 2012). There are tal plantings, especially as producers of food for wildlife.
few known rust fungi on the 13 species of concern in this Myoporum has potential uses for ornamental plantings
risk assessment in Hawai‘i. Three species of Atelocauda, (Richmond and Ghisalberti 1995) and ground covers. Plants
two species of Endoraecium, and one species of Uromyces for planting could become traded commodities with either
have been reported on Acacia koa (Gardner 1994). Puc- of these genera and, would provide a means of transport of
ciniastrum vaccinii has been reported on Vaccinium spp. Aecidium to Hawai‘i.
(Gardner and Hodges 1989) and Uredo myopori on Myopo- 2. Entry potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating crite-
rum sandwicense (Gardner 1994). ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
The aecia produced by Aecidium are cupulate with a
Aecidium could readily survive transport on live host
defined peridium. This form-genus houses anamorphs of
tissue, and reproductive structures, aeciospores, could sur-
members of the Order Pucciniales. The associated teleo-
vive on dead tissue. Commodities such as plants for planting
morph has not been identified for the species in table 7,
could certainly contain and carry fruiting structures of
and the life cycle is not known. Most of the above species
Aecidium. Although aecia of these fungi could be visible
have been identified and reported in the literature, but no
because of their color, they likely would not be readily
further information or examination has been completed.
visible in the mass of foliage that would be in transport.
There is little biological information published on the spe-
Witches’ brooms that may be present with the infection
cies identified in the above table, so much of the following is
could be detected upon arrival at the port.
based on what is known about other Aecidium species.
The only consistent reproductive body identified in 3. Colonization potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable
most Aecidium species is the aeciospore. These are pro- rating criteria, from app. 4: b, e)
duced in cup-like structures, usually on the underside of The Aecidium species evaluated occur in tropical or
the leaf. Transmission of A. mori to new hosts is mainly subtropical climates similar to that of Hawai‘i. Environ-
by aeciospore transport through the air or by rain splash mental conditions upon arrival would likely be conducive to
(Mordue 1991). Infection by aeciospores of A. mori from fungal survival and spread. A limiting factor is the amount
tree to tree has been demonstrated (Mordue 1991) and they of host material near maritime ports. Diospyros sandwicen-
are considered to function as an uredinial stage (Hernández sis does occur down to basically sea level. Also, species of
2005). Aecidium are somewhat host specific, and native hosts of
Hawai‘i may not be as susceptible as the rust’s native hosts.
A. Likelihood of introduction 4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri-
teria, from app. 4: a, c, d, e, f)
Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating criteria, from Diospyros sandwicensis and Myoporum sandwicense
app. 4: b, d, e, h) occur on all of the islands with significant maritime ports
that deal with imports. Diospyros hillebrandii only occurs
Aecidium species are somewhat common on host plants
on Kaua‘i and O‘ahu, both having maritime ports. Because
in their native ranges. Diospyros are used by humans for
59
of the moderate temperatures, it is expected that infection visible symptoms, the likelihood of public response is
in Hawai‘i can occur year-round, and available moisture considered low.
can accelerate spread. Airborne spread of fungal spores C. Pest risk potential:
seems to be the primary means for spread of the fungus, so
Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;
overland movement may be substantial and wide-ranging.
Consequences of introduction = moderate)
Because these fungi do not usually cause host mortality,
recognition of their presence could be delayed numerous Selected bibliography:
years from introduction. Bagyanarayana, G.; Ramesh, P. 1995. Notes on rust fungi
B. Consequences of introduction from Andhra Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Botanical
Society. 74: 227–230.
5. Economic damage potential: Low (RU) (Applicable
rating criteria, from app. 4: f) Birch, T.T.C. 1938. Synopsis of forest fungi of significance
in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Forestry.
Diospyros species are grown as native plants in some
4: 109–125.
Hawai‘i nurseries. Their slow growth rate may limit their
production by these nurseries and their outplanting. Nonna- Cunningham, G.H. 1924. The Uredinales, or rust-fungi,
tive species that grow faster could become more desirable of New Zealand: Supplement to Part 1; and Part 2.
to the Hawaiian population if planting of Diospyros as an Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand
ornamental came to be in greater demand. Other economic Institute. 55: 1–58.
uses of either Diospyros or Myoporum are very limited.
Dale, W.T. 1955. New species of Uredinales from Trinidad.
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC) Mycological Papers. 59: 1–11.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d)
De, A.B. 2000. Parasitic fungi of Ramna forest (Burdwan,
Diospyros sandwicensis can be a principal or minor West Bengal). Annals Forestry. 8: 270–273.
part of the dry and mesic forests of Hawai‘i. It once covered
large portions of the lowlands on several islands as part of Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology
the dry forest community. It can also be found growing in and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/
wet forests and open lava fields. Myoporum sandwicense fungaldatabases/. (13 March 2012).
grows in mesic to wet forests on all of the major islands. It Gardner, D.E. 1994. The native rust fungi of Hawaii.
is a dominant tree species with both cultural and ecological Canadian Journal of Botany. 72: 976–989.
significance. Impacts on either of these species could
Gardner, D.W.; Hodges, C.S., Jr. 1989. The rust fungi
have significant ecological effects on already altered and
(Uredinales) of Hawai‘i. Pacific Science. 43: 41–55.
degraded ecosystems.
Hennen, J.F.; Figueiredo, M.B.; deCarvalho, A.A.,
7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC)
Jr.; Hennen, P.G. 2005. Catalogue of the species
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
of plant rust fungi (Uredinales) of Brazil. 490 p.
The introduction of any Aecidium species that infects
http://200.20.168.5/publica/livros_pdf/catalogue.pdf.
Diospyros or Myoporum would likely not have significant
(13 August 2013).
social or political impacts. Myoporum sandwicense is
currently being affected by an introduced thrips species that Hernández, J.R. 2005. Systematic Mycology and
will likely cause more damage than a species of Aecidium. Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. 31 March
Therefore, introduction of Aecidium likely will not increase 2005. Invasive fungi. Mulberry rust—Aecidium mori.
the current concern. Because a foliar and branch pathogen http://nt.ars-grin.gov/taxadescriptions/factsheets/index.
like Aecidium will not cause tree mortality or other highly cfm?thisapp=Aecidiummori. (26 March 2013).
60
Hosagoudar, V.B. 1985. Teliomycetes of South India. Scientific names of hosts: Species of Armillaria have broad
Indian Phytopathology. 38: 278–281. host ranges and can often colonize both hardwoods and
conifers (table 8). Genera of Hawai‘i native plants at par-
Hosagoudar, V.B. 2006. Additions to the fungi of Kerala.
ticular risk to Armillaria root rots are Diospyros, Acacia,
Zoo’s Print Journal. 21: 2322–2330.
Dodonaea, Vaccinium, Metrosideros, and Erythrina.
Lee, S.S.; Alias, S.A.; Jones, E.G.B.; Zainuddin, N.;
Chan, H.T. 2012. Checklist of fungi of Malaysia. Forest
the pests: The genus Armillaria contains both primary,
Research Institute of Malaysia Research Phamphlet No.
virulent pathogens and secondary, facultative pathogens.
132. Kepong, Malaysia: Swan Printing. 556 p.
Armillaria luteobubalina and A. tabescens are generally
McKenzie, E.H.C. 1998. Rust fungi of New Zealand—an considered primary pathogens, but the amount of disease
introduction, and list of recorded species. New Zealand that occurs may be influenced by the nature of the host and
Journal of Botany. 36: 233–271. the environment of the fungus. Armillaria limonea and A.
Mordue, J.E.M. 1991. Aecidium mori. IMI descriptions novae-zelandiae are often secondary pathogens but can
of fungi and bacteria No. 1031. Mycopathologia. 114: also cause significant disease and damage, either alone or in
45–46. combination with other agents when the host is stressed by
factors such as soil compaction, injury, nutrient deficiency
Richmond, G.S.; Ghisalberti, E.L. 1995. Cultural, food, or imbalances, drought, wind damage, and other unfavor-
medicinal uses and potential applications of Myoporum able environmental conditions. All species of Armillaria
species (Myoporaceae). Economic Botany. 49: 276–285. are facultative necrotrophs that can colonize living roots,
Watson, A.J. 1971. Foreign bacterial and fungus diseases kill root tissue, and then use the dead tissue as a source of
of food, forage, and fiber crops: An annotated list. Agric. nutrition, persisting as saprotrophic white rot decay fungi
Handb. 418. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of (Baumgartner et al. 2011).
Agriculture. 111 p. Armillaria luteobubalina is native to Australia and is an
agent of mortality in natural ecosystems, forest plantations,
Reviewers’ comments: The rationale was clear and easy
fruit crops, and ornamental plants (Kile 1981; Shearer et
to follow.
al. 1997, 1998). It is commonly found in drier, more open
Response to comments: No response needed.
eucalypt forests (Guillaumin and Legrand 2013, Kile and
Armillaria Root Disease Watling 1981, Podger et al. 1978) and is thought to be the
most pathogenic and most widespread Armillaria species
Assessors: Helen Maffei and Jessie A. Glaeser
native to Australia (Guillaumin and Legrand 2013, Kile and
Scientific names of pests: Armillaria luteobubalina Wat-
Watling 1981, Smith and Kile 1981). Stressors, including
ling & Kile; A. tabescens (Scop.) Emel; A. limonea G. Stev.;
drought or flooding, can also predispose trees to infection.
Armillaria novae-zelandiae G. Stev. (Agaricales: Physalac-
The fungus is a primary cause of Eucalyptus spp. death
riaceae); Armillaria sp., a currently unnamed species from
and forest dieback. Rainfall appears to govern the patho-
Mexico (Elías-Román et al. 2013). Phylogenetic studies are
genicity of A. luteobubalina. In intermediate and lower
clarifying species relationships within the genus (Klopfen-
rainfall zones of Australian jarrah forest, the fungus is an
stein et al. 2012, Maphosa et al. 2006, Pildain et al. 2010,
aggressive pathogen but causes only minor disease on the
Ross-Davis et al. 2012, Tsykun et al. 2013) and resolving
same hosts in the wetter, western coastal forests. Armillaria
cryptic species (Baumgartner et al. 2011, Elías-Román et
luteobubalina has also been reported from southern South
al. 2013). Species identifications and distributions in older
America, in Argentina, Chile, and southern Brazil (Guil-
literature are highly suspect.
laumin and Legrand 2013, Pildain et al. 2009). A 2003 study
of the molecular phylogenetics and pattern of its distribution
61
Table 8 —Armillaria species of concern, their hosts and distribution
Hosts from genera

Species Hosts of concern Distribution Citation
Armillaria Wide host range of hardwoods Acacia melanoxylon; New Zealand Farr and Rossman,
limonea and conifers from multiple Metrosideros robusta n.d.; Hodges and
families, including species Hildebrand 2005a;
of Acacia, Chamaecyparis, McKenzie et al. 1999
Citrus, Cryptomeria,
Cupressus, Eucalyptus,
Larix, Malus, Metrosideros,
Nothofagus, Pinus,
Pseudotsuga, Podocarpus,
Pyrus, Salix, Tsuga
Armillaria lute- Wide and poorly defined. At Acacia browniana, A. Australia, CABI 2011a; CIPM
obubalina least 50 families, primarily cyclops, A. dealbata, A. Argentina, 2012a; Falk and
hardwoods. Includes species extensa, A. howittii, A. Chile Parbery 1995; Farr and
of Acacia, Banksia, Cassinia, longifolia, A. mearnsii, Rossman, n.d.; Shaw
Cedrus, Eucalyptus, Malas, A. melanoxylon, A. and Kile 1991; Shearer
Melaleuca, Nothofagus, mucronata, A. pulchella, et al. 1998
Pinus, Prunus, Pyrus, A. saligna, A. urophylla,
Vaccinum, Vitis A. verticillata; Dodonaea
amblyophylla, D.
viscosa; Scaevola nitida;
Vaccinium ashei, V.
corymbosum
Armillaria Wide host range from multiple Acacia mangium, Widespread, Farr and Rossman,
novae- families of hardwoods and A. melanoxylon; especially n.d.; Hodges and
zelandiae conifers. Includes species Metroosideros Oceania Hildebrand 2005b;
of Acacia, Chamaecyparis, kermadecensis (Australia, Shearer et al. 1998
Cedrus, Citrus, Cryptomeria, New Zealand,
Cupressus, Eucalyptus, Malaysia),
Larix, Malus, Metrosideros, South
Nothofagus, Pinus, America
Podocarpus, Prunus,
Pseudotsuga, Pyrus, Salix,
Tsuga, Vitis
Armillaria Wide host range from Acacia farnesiana; United States Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
tabescens multiple families; Diospyros sp., D. (primarily Lenné 1990; Lushaj
primarily hardwoods but kaki var. domestica; South, et al. 2010
some conifers. Includes Erythrina sp., E. crista- Central, and
species of Acacia, Acer, galli, E. subumbrans, E. South East),
Cedrus, Citrus, Cupressus, variegata Mexico,
Diospyros, Erythrina, India,
Eucalyptus, Malus, Malaysia,
Melaleuca, Metrosideros, Tanzania,
Pinus, Podocarpus, Prunus, Trinidad
Pyrus, Quercus, Salix, and Tobago,
Thuja, Vitis Europe,
China
62
in South America and Australia indicate that A. luteobuba- luteobubalina (Coetzee et al. 2003). A study of P. radiata
lina is an ancient species, originating before the separation colonized by A. novae-zelandiae showed that trees younger
of the precursor supercontinent Gondwana (Coetzee et than 5 years old usually died upon infection and coloniza-
al. 2003). At least four distinct polymorphic groups exist tion. Colonization in older trees was restricted to bark so
within the species, which may eventually be separated into that the cambium and living inner phloem were left largely
different taxa (Dunne et al. 2002). intact, allowing tree survival. Small areas of the cambium
Armillaria tabescens is widely distributed (North were penetrated during the dormant season, but the tree’s
America, the Caribbean, Europe, India, Africa, Japan, defenses were able to compartmentalize the area with callus
and Malaysia) with a very broad host range. It can act as a tissue. These trees survived until harvest with a small loss
primary, aggressive pathogen on highly susceptible hosts or of growth. The stumps of infected trees can serve as a
be an opportunistic pathogen on those trees with more resis- source of inoculum for the succeeding plantation, resulting
tance. It can persist for many years on dead roots, infecting in the death of young trees (van der Kamp and Hood 2002).
and colonizing adjacent healthy roots as they grow through In other hosts, the fungus most commonly occurs as a sec-
the soil. It grows rapidly in a new host if colonization begins ondary pathogen characterized by epiphytic rhizomorphs
in root tissue already dying or recently dead. Symptoms in or root lesions (Kile et al. 1983). When a large foodbase
woody ornamentals are often observed 3 to 4 years after becomes available through logging or wildfire, massive root
transplant, indicating that wounded roots may be the source and stump infection can result, but little mortality occurs
of infection. Vigorous plants with undamaged roots often in the regenerating stands of eucalypts and other species.
avoid attack. The fungus is favored by higher temperatures. Disease is restricted to the footprint of the preexisting stand
The disease was previously known as “Clitocybe root (Kile 1980).
disease” or “mushroom root rot” (Sinclair and Lyon 2005, Armillaria sp. is a new, currently unnamed species of
Tainter and Baker 1996). Armillaria that has recently been associated with high inci-
Armillaria limonea is restricted to New Zealand dence of root disease mortality in peach (Prunus persica)
(Coetzee et al. 2001, Hood et al. 1992, McKenzie et al. and other woody species in south-central Mexico (Elías-
1999). It occurs in wet, indigenous podocarpus-hardwood Román et al. 2013). This species is genetically distinct from
and Nothofagus forests where it colonizes stumps, logs, other North American species of Armillaria and could
and dead trees and causes a butt rot in living trees (Hood represent a serious threat to Hawai‘i and other regions of the
1989). Armillaria limonea often occurs together with A. world (Klopfenstein 2014, personal communication). Little
novae-zelandiae on Pinus radiata (Shaw et al. 1981). Both is known about its distribution or host specificity.
fungi are most prevalent on sites once occupied by native The infection biology and epidemiology of Armillaria
forests and can cause losses of up to 30 percent in the first root disease has been reviewed by Guillaumin and Legrand
5 years of P. radiata plantations grown on land cleared of (2013). Wood, primarily tree roots, provides the major
indigenous forests, with additional losses in subsequent source of inoculum for all species of Armillaria. The fungi
rotations (Hood et al. 1991). can survive for long periods of time saprotrophically in old
Armillaria novae-zelandiae is indigenous to Australia, stumps and other woody debris (Kile 1980, Rishbeth 1972,
New Zealand, and the higher elevations of Papua-New Shaw 1975). Infection usually occurs via the roots from
Guinea. It causes root and butt rot of many native species. It contact with infected roots or colonized woody debris in the
has also been reported from Chile, although differences in soil. These fungi also form hard, melanized rhizomorphs
internal transcribed spacer sequences suggest that the fungi that facilitate movement between food sources while
have been separated for a long period, as observed for A. preventing desiccation. Although rhizomorphs are seldom
63
observed for A. tabescens, Mihail et al. (2002) demon- Although species of Armillaria are found all over the
strated that they can form under conditions of high oxygen world, their natural distribution reflects the Holartic or
availability and moisture near saturation and are capable of non-Holarctic floral kingdoms that have relatively uniform
establishing new infection centers. Most pathogenic species compositions of plant species. Thus, species from the Hol-
produce limited rhizomorphs (CABI 2011a), primarily arctic region (North America, Europe, China, and Japan)
spreading to a new hosts through infected roots/stumps or form one cluster; species from Australia, South America,
contaminated wood or mulch (Baumgartner et al. 2011). and New Zealand form a second grouping, and species from
Several studies have shown that the spread of Armillaria Africa represent a third group. Introductions have become
root rot in eucalypt forests is associated with infected established in new areas. North American strains of A. mel-
stumps that remain after an area has been logged (Edgar et lea are present on planted hosts in South Africa, probably
al. 1976, Kellas et al. 1987, Pearce et al. 1986). Armillaria arising from European stock. The spread of these strains
luteobubalina can persist on these stumps, using them as is restricted, however, spreading to neighboring plants in
a source of food, for up to 25 or more years (Kile 1981). In urban gardens but not becoming widespread. Similarly,
one case reported in Ovens, Victoria, the disease spread to other strains of A. mellea in Africa originated in Asia; these
blueberry plants (Vaccinium spp.) via buried fragments of could have spread from a single infection center as far as
infected Eucalyptus that remained following preparation 4000 km, probably by basidiospore dispersal (Baumgartner
of the previously forested site for planting (Falk and et al. 2011).
Parbery 1995). Some species of Armillaria already occur in Hawai‘i.
The potential importance of basidiospore infection in Past surveys have noted A. mellea sensu lato and A.
the spread and establishment of Armillaria root disease is nabsnona on numerous hosts in Hawai‘i, including Sophora
circumstantial. Infection rates in the relatively dry forest chrysophylla (māmane) (Burgan and Nelson 1972, Hodges
of western North America and the dry sclerophyll euca- et al. 1986). Kim et al. (2010b) identified A. gallica in
lypt forest appear to be low, possibly because of limited Hawai‘i, where it was found on Sophora chrysophylla
infection courts. Conversely, spore establishment may be (māmane), Pinus radiata, P. taeda, and Prunus salicina
more common in wetter forests where moisture conditions (Methley plum). Recent studies (Brazee and Wick 2009,
are more favorable for frequent and abundant mushroom Klopfenstein et al 2014, Nelson et al 2013) suggest that A.
production and the basidiospore survival on stumps and gallica can be highly pathogenic and may be an important
other infection courts (Kile 1986). Basidiospores may be component of forest decline, especially under increasing
responsible for long-distance spread and are effective at stressors such as climate change. The isolation of A. gallica
establishing disease in natural stands that lack competitors from declining stands on both introduced and endemic
(Guillaumin and Legrand 2013). Localized spread is usually hosts under drought conditions suggests this pathogen is a
vegetative, by contact of healthy roots with infected wood contributing factor to forest decline on the island of Hawai‘i.
debris and by the spread of infected roots and rhizomorphs.
This is particularly common when plantation stands are
Pest risk assessments have been done previously for A.
planted in previously colonized forest soils (Baumgartner
limonea (Hodges and Hildebrand 2005a), A. novae-zelan-
et al. 2011, Kliejunas et al. 2001). Variations in virulence
diae (Hodges and Hildebrand 2005b), and for the genus as a
among species of Armillaria have been observed among
whole (Kliejunas et al. 2001, 2003).
isolates of A. solidipes from coastal and interior British
Columbia (Morrison and Pellow 2002), as well as with A. A. Likelihood of introduction
limonea and A. novae-zelandiae on Pinus radiata in New 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential:
Zealand (Shaw et al. 1981). High (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app.
4: c, d, e, g, h)
64
Species of Armillaria have broad host ranges and can Tree decline and mortality over a broad host range
survive in both living and dead wood for extensive periods could severely affect forest and agricultural hosts,
of time. They can colonize the roots, cambium, and lower especially those stressed by other factors. Economic
boles of host material and can be present in logs, solid wood impact might be slow to develop unless basidiospore
packing material, chips and mulch, and living nursery dispersal results in long-distance establishment of
stock. Incipient infections are unlikely to be detected. numerous infection centers.
2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite- 6. Environmental damage potential: High (VU)
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: c, d)
The vegetative forms of the fungi, living as sap- Armillaria species may have indirect impacts on threat-
rotrophs, can survive harvest and transport and could ened and endangered species by disrupting sensitive and
continue to grow under conditions of high humidity during critical habitat owing to decline and death of native forests,
transport. Rhizomorphs and mycelia can survive beneath although spread might be slow from a single infection site.
the bark on poorly debarked material and in living plants. The broad host ranges of these fungi endanger native hosts
3. Establishment potential: High (MC) (Applicable with limited distribution. Variations in virulence have been
rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, f) noted in A. limonea, A. novae-zelandiae, and other species
of Armillaria, so the ability to evolve more virulent strains
Genetic research in Africa has shown that species of
is always possible.
Armillaria from both Europe and Asia have become estab-
lished after introduction, probably from contaminated nurs- 7. Social and political considerations: High (VU)
ery material (Baumgartner et al. 2011). Suitable climate and (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, c, d)
host species are found at ports of entry in Hawai‘i. The wide Damage from Armillaria species and subsequent
host range of these fungi and their ability to utilize new death or decline of native Hawai‘i tree species would result
hosts increases the probability of establishment. Infection in public concerns about aesthetics and recreation as well
centers may arise either from contact with infected roots as urban plantings. Removal of affected trees would have
from live plants or from contaminated woody material. limited acceptance by the public. Armillaria luteobubalina,
4. Spread potential: High (VU) (Applicable rating cri- a serious pathogen in Australia, is not yet present in North
teria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f, g) America, and its broad host range includes many important
ornamental species. Introduction of the fungus to Hawai‘i
Although the role of basidiospores in the spread of
would interfere with domestic interstate commerce, trade,
Armillaria species is debated, most studies have concluded
and traffic.
that they are responsible for long-distance spread once
the fungus becomes established. This likely occurred in C. Pest risk potential:
spreading Asian isolates of A. mellea throughout Africa High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
from infected planting materials (Baumgartner et al. 2011). quences of introduction = high)
Newly established infections are likely to go undetected for
many years as other agents, including drought and other soil
Baumgartner, K.; Coetzee, M.P.A.; Hoffmeister, D. 2011.
fungi, are thought responsible for forest declines (Hodges et
Secrets of the subterranean pathosystem of Armillaria.
al. 1986).
Molecular Plant Pathology. 12: 515–534.
5. Economic damage potential: High (VU) (Applicable
rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e, f)
65
Brazee, N.J.; Wick, R. 2009. Armillaria species Elías-Román, R.D.; Guzmán-Plazola, R.A.;
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Ecology and Management. 258: 1605–1612. Espinosa, R. 2013. Incidence and phylogenetic analyses
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Smith, L.; Kile, G.A. 1981. Distribution and hosts of (Lombard et al. 2010a), Malaysia (Lee and Manap 1983),
Armillaria root rot in Melbourne suburban gardens. and India (Old et al. 2000).
Australasian Plant Pathology. 10: 41–42. Summary of natural history and basic biology of the
Tainter, F.H.; Baker, F.A. 1996. Principles of forest pest: To understand Ca. morganii, a cursory understanding
pathology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 805 p. of the whole genus is useful. Fungi in the genus Calonectria
were initially regarded as saprobes, as no disease symptoms
Tsykun, T.; Rigling, D.; Prospero, S. 2013. A new
could be induced by inoculating a suspected host (Graves
multilocus approach for a reliable DNA-based
1915). The first proof of pathogenicity of these fungi was
identification of Armillaria species. Mycologia.
provided by Massey (1917), and subsequently by Anderson
105: 1059-1076.
(1919), who proved pathogenicity of Ca. morganii (as Cy.
van der Kamp, B.J.; Hood, I.A. 2002. Armillaria root scoparium). Subsequently, Calonectria spp. have been
disease of Pinus radiata in New Zealand. 2: Invasion and reported worldwide from agricultural and forestry nurseries
host reaction. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science. (Crous 2002; Crous et al. 1991; Lombard et al. 2009, 2010a,
32: 103–115. b, c), whereas in Europe, they have only been reported from
Reviewers’ comments: No comments received except commercial ornamental nurseries (Crous 2002; Henricot
corrections of citations. and Culham 2002; Lombard et al. 2010a; Polizzi 2000;
Response to comments: Citations corrected. Polizzi and Crous 1999; Polizzi et al. 2007a, 2007b; 2009;
Vitale and Polizzi 2008). At present, 52 Cylindrocladium
Calonectria morganii spp. and 37 Calonectria spp. are recognized based on sexual
Assessor: Phil Cannon compatibility, morphology, and phylogenetic inference
(Lombard et al. 2010a).
Scientific names of pest: Calonectria morganii Crous,
Calonectria morganii and Ca. pauciramosa are the
Alfenas & M.J. Wingf. (anamorph = Cylindrocladium
most common Calonectria spp. found in ornamental nurs-
scoparium Morgan (imperfect form)). In most locations,
eries in the Northern Hemisphere (Polizzi 2000; Polizzi and
it is much more common to find this fungus in the
Catara 2001; Polizzi and Crous 1999; Polizzi et al. 2006a,
imperfect state.
2006b, 2007a, 2007b) and of these two, C. pauciramosa has
Scientific names of hosts: The pathogen occurs on a wider global distribution and is adapted to a wider array of
number of hosts but has been particularly common on different environmental conditions (Chen et al. 2011, Crous
Eucalyptus spp. and Rhododendron spp. Other host genera 2002, Lombard et al. 2010b). Calonectria pauciramosa
include Dodonaea, Magnolia, Juniperus, Mangifera, Pista- was also regarded as the dominant pathogen in nurseries
cia, Melaleuca, Trifolia, Ilex, Pinus, Callistemon, Cuphea, in Australia and South Africa (Crous 2002, Lombard et al.
Picea, Juglans, Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Anacardium, 2010b, Schoch et al. 2001).
Quercus, Cornus, Cercis, Erica, Arachis, Azalea, Solanum, Species of Calonectria are common pathogens of a
Glycine, Beta, Fragaria, Cucumis, Mahonia bealei, Calluna wide range of plant hosts cultivated through seedings or
vulgaris, Metrosideros spp., and Leucotheae catesbaei. vegetative propagation in nurseries (Crous 2002, Lombard
Distribution: Based on phylogenetic studies, Calonectria et al. 2010a). Nursery disease symptoms associated with
(Ca.) morganii has been reported in Brazil, Europe, and these fungi include crown, collar and root rot, leaf spots,
the United States (Crous et al. 1993, Overmeyer et al. 1996, and cutting rot (Crous 2002, Lombard et al. 2010a, Polizzi et
Schoch et al. 2000). Cylindrocladium (Cy.) scoparium is al. 2009, Vitale and Polizzi 2008). Infection causes damp-
especially prevalent in the Eastern United States, Canada, ing-off, root rot and blight, stem lesions, stem canker, stem
and Brazil. It has also been recorded in the United King- dieback, stunting, leaf spots, wilted leaves, defoliation, and
dom, Poland, Italy, Panama, Brunei, New Zealand, Tunisia fruit rot (Alfenas et al. 2004, Cordell and Rowen 1975).
69
In the past, several authors have indicated that Calonec- with Calonectria populations in a nursery is to swap nurs-
tria species cause one or more of these kinds of disease ery locations (Thies and Patton 1966) or to simply insist that
symptoms on plants residing in about 30 plant families soil substrates used in beds or for potting media are free of
(Booth and Gibson 1973, Peerally 1991). Upon closer the microsclerotial propagules. Although these microsclero-
inspection, the number of susceptible plant families is actu- tia are resistant to many common fungicides, good control
ally closer to 100, and includes about 335 plant host species has been achieved by using tabuconazole, epoxyconozole,
(Crous 2002). The plant hosts include important forestry, tetraconazole, triamendol, and a mix of epoxyconozole and
agricultural, and horticultural crops, and the impact of these pyraclostrobin (Alfenas et al. 2004).
plant pathogens has likely been underestimated.
Perithecia and ascospores, indicative of the perfect state
of Ca. morganii, may occasionally be produced, but they are
rare. Far more common are the imperfect spore stages of Cy. 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential:
scoparium, which in addition to microsclerotia, include the High (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app.
fairly long, uniquely-shaped conidia, which have a single 4: b, c, d, e, g, h)
septation. Both of these spore types are much more likely to The transportability of Ca. morganii has been clearly
be produced under conditions of high humidity and rainfall demonstrated by the fact that it can colonize basically any
and can be spread by wind and rain. part of a small host plant. It is capable of infecting a broad
Cylindrocladium spp. can also survive drought and range of host plants, several of which are brought to Hawai‘i
cold as microsclerotia for up to several years in infected as cut plants and some as whole plants. Its highly viable
and dead plant tissues and in infested soil (Overmeyer et al. microsclerotia can survive in a dormant state for years in
1996). When seedling roots come in contact with the micro- organic matter or soil; so potentially this pathogen could be
sclerotia, the microsclerotia germinate and infection occurs. introduced into Hawai‘i in infested soil, as well as through a
Inadvertent transport of microsclerotia is the main means broad range of plants.
by which this fungus is distributed to new environments. 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
Hodges and May (1972) first identified Ca. morganii in ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
Brazil, although at that time, they called it by its imperfect
Calonectria morganii can colonize any part of a plant,
name Cy. scoparium. In 1993, Crous et al. (1993) found
so it could be brought into Hawai‘i on any infected plant.
the teleomorph and gave it the name Calonectria morganii
Also, its ability to form microsclerotia, which can survive
(to honor Dr. Morgan). Since 1973, it has received a lot
in infested soil for long periods of time and endure great
of attention in the forest nurseries of Brazil but has never
drought, and its tolerance of a wide range of pH make it
been so intensively studied as in recent years. Alfenas et
hard to sanitize with many fungicides.
al. (2013) published a report on Ca. metrosideri, which was
given that name because it was an exceptionally aggressive 3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable rat-
pathogen growing on and occasionally killing some ‘ōhi‘a ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e)
lehua seedlings growing in a nursery in Vicosa. Subsequent The capacity of this fungus to colonize host plants will
work has shown that there are at least another 24 new spe- vary by the species of plant being infected, the physiological
cies in the Ca. morganii complex of phylogenetic species, condition of that plant, and the environmental conditions
and most of these are expected to be highly pathogenic on that are prevailing at the time that infection is taking place.
the Myrtaceae (A. Alfenas, Univesidade Federal de Viçosa, Some susceptible tree species are found in abundance in
Viçosa Brazil, personal communication). Hawai‘i nurseries where the environmental conditions will
At present, the only key to disease control is the use be optimal for infection by this pathogen.
of healthy cuttings, seedlings, and plants. One way to deal
70
The exact colonization potential cannot be known, but conducive to the development of this fungus. If introduced
the fact that natural Hawai‘i forests are largely populated into Hawai‘i, impacts on native forests could be significant.
with species in genera that have been shown to be highly If ‘ōhi‘a lehua were to be a host of Ca. morganii, damage to
vulnerable to fungi in the Ca. morganii complex suggest native forests across the islands could affect water quantity
that the colonization potential might be fairly high. and quality, as well as wildlife habitat.
The greatest opportunity for colonizing wide areas of 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC)
Hawai‘i would come through the infestation of nurseries. (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
Nurseries, with their millions of young susceptible plants
Although it is not known if M. polymorpha may be a
per acre and high soil and air humidities, provide the perfect
host of Ca. morganii, if the pathogen was introduced and
conditions for a rapid buildup of this pathogen and the
infected M. polymorpha, some public concern could be
formation of large numbers of microsclerotia.
raised similar to that raised during the 1960s and 1970s
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating when M. polymorpha underwent dramatic diebacks.
criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, e, f) Impacts to D. viscosa may receive somewhat less public
Spread under natural forest circumstances in most parts concern because of its more limited distribution across the
of Hawai‘i would not be especially high because air condi- islands.
tions are not near the point of saturation much of the time. C. Pest risk potential
However, Hawai‘i nurseries are producing fairly large num-
bers of seedlings of tree species that are susceptible to Ca.
morganii, and if several crops of infected seedlings were to
Although this brief pest risk analysis has focused on
be produced, the subsequent distribution of these seedlings
Ca. morganii, there are two other closely related species of
might quickly hasten the distribution of this fungus around
Calonectria that might also present a tremendous problem
the islands. This spread potential could easily be reduced to
for Hawai‘i. One of these is Ca. metrosideri, which was
moderate by using nursery practices that would limit the
found vigorously attacking (and commonly killing) a large
buildup and distribution of the microscletrotia.
proportion of ‘ōhi‘a lehua seedlings in a nursery in Viçosa,
B. Consequences of introduction Brazil (Alfenas et al. 2013). This fungus was slightly less
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (RC) pathogenic on Metrosideros tremuloides. The other is Ca.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, d, f) pauciramosa, which has an even more global distribution
than Ca. morganii, and which has been a dominant patho-
Loss of flower production and wood for timber could
gen in nurseries of South Africa and Australia (Crous 2002,
have some economic impact in Hawai‘i. Damage to land-
Lombard et al. 2010a).
scape trees around the islands may have more significant
impacts. Because of the wide host range of Ca. morganii, Selected bibliography:
introduction to Hawai‘i could result in quarantines put in
Alfenas, A.C.; Zauza, E.A.V.; Mafia, R.G.; de Assis,
place by a number of countries of potential export goods.
T.F. 2004. Clonagem e doencas do eucalipto. Viçosa:
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC) Universidade Federal do Viçosa. 442 p.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d)
Alfenas, R.F.; Pereira, O.L.; Ferreira, M.A.; Jorge,
The capacity that this fungus has to destroy seedlings V.L.; Crous, P.W.; Alfenas, A.C. 2013. Calonectria
of eucalypts is quite substantial (Alfenas et al. 2013). metrosideri, a highly aggressive pathogen causing leaf
However, this is under nursery conditions, which are blight, root rot, and wilt of Metrosideros spp. in Brazil.
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Old, K.M.; Wingfield, M.J.; Yuan, Z.Q. 2003. A manual
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different accessions of bottlebrush cuttings in Italy. Plant Reviewers’ comments: “In Malaysia, on seeds of Maesop-
Disease. 91: 769. sis eminii and Shorea roxburghii” (Su See Lee)
“Cy. reteaudii is a major foliar pathogen of eucalypts in
Polizzi, G.; Vitale, A.; Aiello, D.; Parlavecchio, G.
areas of high humidity and frequent rainfall in SE Asia, par-
2006a. First record of crown and root rot caused by
ticularly in Vietnam. Old KM, Wingfield MJ & Yuan ZQ.
Cylindrocladium pauciramosum on California lilac in
2003. A Manual of Diseases of Eucalyptus in South East
Italy. Plant Disease. 90: 1459.
73
Asia. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia; Thu PQ et al. 2010. Healthy Scientific names of hosts: The genus Fomitiporia is
plantations. A field guide to pests and pathogens of Acacia, widespread on conifers and hardwoods worldwide. Hosts
Eucalyptus and Pinus in Vietnam. DEEDI, Queensland, that have been associated with F. australiensis and the F.
Australia.” (Su See Lee) punctata and F. robusta species complexes include:
Response to comments: References for report on seeds Acacia spp. (wattle), Acer negudo (box elder), Actinidia
in Malaysia added to text and bibliography. Reference chinensis (Chinese gooseberry), A. deliciosa (kiwi fruit),
for Cy. reteaudii on Acacia, Eucalyptus, and Pinus in Celtis spp., Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry), Corylus spp.,
Vietnam added. Dodonaea viscosa (hop bush), Eucalyptus spp., Fraxinus
excelsior (European ash), Juniperus phoenicea (Phoenician
Fomitiporia spp.
juniper), Lagerstroemia indica (Indian crepe myrtle),
Assessor: Jessie A. Glaeser
Laurus nobilis (sweet bay), Ligustrum spp. (privet), Myopo-
Scientific names of pests: Fomitiporia australiensis M. rum acuminatum (waterbush), Olea europaea (olive), Pinus
Fisch., J. Edwards, Cunningt. & Pascoe, F. mediterranea halepensis (aleppo pine), Quercus spp. (oak), Rhamnus
M. Fisch., F. punctata (Pilát) Murrill–species complex, F. cathartica (common buckthorn), Robinia spp., Salix spp.
robusta (P. Karst.) Fiasson & Niemelä–species complex, F. (willow), Sorbus aucuparia (European mountain ash), Syr-
sonorae (Gilb.) Y.C. Dai. ingea vulgaris (lilac), Vitis vinifera (grapevine), Ulex spp.
F. australiensis, F. punctata, and F. robusta make (gorse) (CABI 2011c, Decock et al. 2007, Farr and Rossman,
up a cluster of sibling species with F. mediterranea that n.d.; Fischer 2002, Fischer et al. 2005)
are genetically distinct but cannot be distinguished using Distribution: Fomitiporia australiensis is limited to
traditional characters, including fruiting body macro- or Australia and has been reported only on V. vinifera and
microscopic morphology (Fischer 2000, Fischer et al. 2005). Dodonaea viscosa (Fischer et al. 2005). Fomitiporia
The taxonomy of Fomitiporia is largely unresolved with mediterranea is found on numerous hardwood hosts in
many new species being described by phylogenetic analysis Italy and southern Europe, but seems to be confined to V.
from what used to be the F. punctata and F. robusta species vinifera throughout the rest of Europe. The F. punctata and
complexes (Amalfi and Decock 2013, 2014; Amalfi et al. F. robusta species complexes are widespread in tropical,
2012; Brazee 2013; Campos-Santana et al. 2013; Decock et semitropical, and temperate climates, and are polyphyletic,
al. 2005, 2007; Fischer 2006; Ota et al. 2014; Pollastro et al. consisting of many undescribed and newly described
2000; Terashima 2013; Vlasák and Kout 2011). Fomitiporia species. Fomitiporia sonorae, reported as a possible root rot
sonorae is a member of the F. robusta complex (Gilbertson pathogen on D. viscosa in Arizona, is part of the F. robusta
and Ryvarden 1987). Because of this taxonomic uncertainty, species complex (Gilbertson and Ryvarden 1987). Fomiti-
the host lists and geographical distributions reported in the poria punctata has been reported on Acacia in Portugal
older literature are highly suspect. Three of these “spe- and is cosmopolitan on Myoporum accuminatum (Farr and
cies”—F. mediterranea, F. australiensis, and F. punctata— Rossman, n.d.).
have been associated with the white heart rot associated
with esca disease of grapes (Vitis vinifera), in Australia and
the pests: These species of Fomitiporia, including those
Europe. A pest risk assessment has been prepared for esca
in the F. robusta and F. punctata species complexes, are
disease by the Centre for Agricultural Bioscience Interna-
strong white-rot fungi of both living and dead hardwoods.
tional (CABI 2011c).
Fomitiporia sonorae is associated specifically with dead
74
and dying D. viscosa and fruits at the base of dead and Specific information relating to risk elements:
dying plants, suggesting that it could be a root rot pathogen Pest risk assessments for root-, sapwood- and heart-rots
(Gilbertson and Ryvarden 1987). Esca disease of grapes is (Kliejunas et al. 2001) and for esca disease (CABI 2011c) are
the most economically important disease associated with available in the literature and were consulted in assessing
Fomitiporia and has been the focus of most research on the risk elements.
basic biology of the pathogen (Fischer 2000). The fruiting A. Likelihood of introduction
bodies of Fomitiporia species are perennial and long lived 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
(Fischer 2002). In Central Europe, spore production by F. (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d,
mediterranea occurs throughout the year with maximum e, g, h)
spore production occurring when average daily tempera-
Root- and stem-rot fungi have a good chance of being
tures are above 10 °C. Fruiting body formation is preceded
present in the heartwood or sapwood when logs are har-
by a vegetative phase, where the fungus grows within the
vested and could survive drying if kiln temperatures are
host for several years. Dispersal of the fungus is believed
not uniform during the drying process. They could also
to be airborne, through the production of basidiospores.
survive saprotrophically in wood chips and noncomposted
Genetic testing through the use of random amplified poly-
mulch. Most stem decays are associated with older plants,
morphic DNA (RAPD) markers and somatic incompatibility
so “Plants for Planting” seedlings are probably not an issue,
types have revealed a large degree of genetic diversity of F.
although esca disease seems to be spreading throughout the
mediterranea within Italian vineyards, indicative of sexual
world with the establishment of viticulture. Mycelium and
reproduction, even when fruiting bodies were not observed
spores could be present in soil.
in large numbers within the vineyard. That amount of
genetic diversity did not indicate that the pathogen was 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
spread by root grafts or pruning utensils. It is thought that ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
other hosts outside of the vineyards could be the source of These fungi are capable of surviving saprotrophically
airborne spores (Cortesi et al. 2000, Fischer 2002) as these and would remain viable during transport. They would
fungi have a broad host range. Basidiospores enter the tree be difficult to detect, especially if being transported in
through wounds. Decay is evident in the trunk and in the the mycelial stage within wood. Fruiting bodies are dark,
main branches and is usually associated with older plants. resupinate, and difficult to observe.
Mycelium and basidiospores may also survive in the soil 3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable rat-
(CABI 2011c). Fruiting bodies are resupinate (crust-like) and ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
difficult to observe. They form on standing, mostly dead,
To become established, the pathogen would have to
plants or plant parts, and can persist on dead standing or
fruit, and wind-dispersed basidiospores would need to find
fallen trees, stumps, or branches (Fischer 2002, Fischer and
susceptible hosts. Many Fomitiporia species are distributed
Kassemeyer 2003). Fomitiporia mediterranea is able to act
throughout tropical and subtropical areas and have broad
as a primary pathogen. Artificial inoculations have resulted
host ranges, so conditions in Hawai‘i would favor fruiting
in white rot formation within 2 years at the infection site
and spore release from infected material.
(Sparapano et al. 2000). The fungus can survive and be
transmitted in the bark, stems, sapwood and heartwood of 4. Spread potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating cri-
infected hosts, as well as infested soil (CABI 2011c). teria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, f, g)
75
Wind dispersal of spores is the common means of C. Pest risk potential:

spread for most basidiomycete decay fungi. This has High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
been demonstrated for Fomitiporia through genetic quences of introduction = high)
testing, which has shown that esca disease of grapes is
spread by air dispersal of basidiospores rather than by Selected bibliography:
root grafts or infected pruning tools. The disease has Amalfi, M.; Decock, C. 2013. Fomitiporia castilloi sp. nov.
followed the establishment of viticulture throughout and multiple clades around F. apiahyna and F. texana
most countries where wine is produced. Eradication efforts in Meso- and South America evidenced by multiloci
are difficult, as the disease takes many years to become phylogenetic inferences. Mycologia. 105: 873–887.
established and is often confused with other declines and Amalfi, M.; Decock, C. 2014. Fomitiporia expansa, an
saprotrophic wound decays. undescribed species of French Guiana. Cryptogamie,
B. Consequences of introduction Mycologie. 35: 73–85.
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (VC) Amalfi, M.; Raymundo, T.; Valenzuela, R.; Decock, C.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c) 2012. Fomitiporia cupressicola sp. nov., a parasite on
These Fomitiporia species would threaten Hawai‘i Cupressus arizonica, and additional unnamed clades
native plants, including Dodonaea, Acacia, and Myoporum, in the southern USA and northern Mexico, determined
which are important components of the native forest and by multilocus phylogenetic analyses. Mycologia. 104:
also landscape trees. These fungi would also threaten the 880–893.
small Hawai‘i viticulture industry. Brazee, N. 2013. Phylogenetic and differentiation analysis
6. Environmental damage potential: High (VC) of the trunk rot pathogen Fomitiporia tsugina in North
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d) America. Forest Pathology. 43: 407–414.
The danger towards native Hawai‘i plant species is Campos-Santana, M.; Amalfi, M.; Robledo, G.; Borges
significant, resulting in direct impacts on those species da Silveira, Decock, C. 2013. Fomitiporia neotropica,
(Acacia, Dodonaea, and Myoporum). These fungi have a new species from South America evidenced by
broad host ranges and could affect other trees in native multilocus phylogenetic analysis. Mycological Progress.
forests and landscapes, thus indirectly affecting the health doi:10.1007/s11557-013-0943–1.
of native species.
7. Social and political considerations: High (VC) [CABI]. 2011c. Crop protection compendium:
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, d) Fomitiporia mediterranea (esca disease). Wallingford,
Damage from the organisms and subsequent death United Kingdom: CAB International. http://www.cabi.
or decline of native Hawai‘i tree species would result org/cpc. (27 March 2013).
in public concerns in aesthetics and recreation, as
Cortesi, P.; Fischer, M.; Milgroom, M.G. 2000.
well as in urban plantings. Removal of affected trees
Identification and spread of Fomitiporia punctata
would have limited acceptance by the public.
associated with wood decay of grapevine showing
symptoms of esca. Phytopathology. 90: 967–972.
76
Decock, C.; Bitew, A.; Castillo, G. 2005. Fomitiporia Kliejunas, J.T.; Tkacz, B.M.; Burdsall, H.H., Jr.;
tenuis and Fomitiporia aethiopica (Basidiomycetes, DeNitto, G.A.; Eglitis, A.; Haugen, D.A.; Wallner,
Hymenochaetales), two undescribed species from W.E. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation
the Ethiopian highlands: taxonomy and phylogeny. into the United States of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs
Mycologia. 97: 121–129. and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-
Decock, C.; Figueroa, S.H.; Robledo, G.; Castillo,
G. 2007. Fomitiporia punctata (Basidiomycota,
Hymenochaetales) and its presumed taxonomic Ota, Y.; Hattori, T.; Nakamura, H.; Terashima, Y.;
synonyms in America: taxonomy and phylogeny Lee, S.; Miyuki, Y.; Sotome, K. 2014. Taxonomy and
of some species from tropical/subtropical areas. phylogenetic position of Fomitiporia torreyae, a causal
Mycologia. 99: 733–752. agent of trunk rot on Sanbu-sugi, a cultivar of Japanese
cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) in Japan. Mycologia. 106:
Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology
66–76.
and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/
fungaldatabases/. (19 June 2014). Pollastro, S.; Abbatecola, A.; Dongiovanni, C.; Faretra,
F. 2000. Use of molecular markers (PCR-RAPD) for
Fischer, M. 2000. Grapevine wood decay and lignicolous
studying genetic variability in Phellinus (Fomitiporia)
basidiomycetes. Phytopathologia Mediterranea. 39:
sp. Phytopathologia Mediterranea. 39: 107–111.
100–106.
Sparapano, L.; Bruno, G.; Ciccarone, C.; Graniti, A.
Fischer, M. 2002. A new wood-decaying basdiomycete
2000. Infection of grapevines by some fungi associated
species associated with esca of grapevine: Fomitiporia
with esca. I. Fomitiporia punctata as a wood-rot inducer.
mediterranea (Hymenochaetales). Mycological Progress.
Phytopathologia Mediterranea. 39: 46–52.
1: 315–324.
Terashima, U. 2013. Influence of stem rot pathogen
Fischer, M. 2006. Biodiversity and geographic distribution
Fomitiporia sp. on “Sanbu-sugi” cultivar of the Japanese
of basidiomycetes causing esca-associated white rot in
cedar Cryptomeria japonica. Journal of Wood Science.
grapevine: a worldwide perspective. Phytopathologia
59: 80–87.
Mediterranea. 45: S30–S42.
Vlasák, J.; Kout, J. 2011. Pileate Fomitiporia species in
Fischer, M.; Edwards, J.; Cunnington, J.H.; Pascoe,
the USA. New combinations Fomitiporia calkinsii and F.
I.G. 2005. Basidiomycetous pathogens on grapevine: a
bakeri. Mycological Progress. 10: 445–452.
new species from Australia—Fomitiporia australiensis.
Mycotaxon. 92: 85–96. Reviewers’ comments: “The table presentation (as used
in tables [10] and [11]) showing distribution and reference
Fischer, M.; Kassemeyer, H.H. 2003. Fungi associated
attached per species is helpful.” (DJE338).
with esca disease of grapevine in Germany. Vitis. 42:
109–116. Response to comments: The description of distribution and
hosts of Fomitiporia species was kept in a textual format.
Gilbertson, R.L.; Ryvarden, L. 1987. North American
Many of the described species are actually polyphyletic
polypores. Oslo: Fungiflora. 885 p. Vol. 2
species complexes that will be changing as more research is
conducted on this genus.
77
Guava Rust/Eucalyptus Rust al. 2013). It has been reported once in Taiwan (Wang 1992)
Assessor: Phil Cannon but has not been found there since. Very recently it has been
found in New Caledonia (Giblin 2013).
Scientific names of pest: Puccinia psidii Winter (anamorph
= Uredo psidii) Summary of natural history and basic biology of
the pests: Puccinia psidii is an autoecious, macrocyclic
Synonyms/ variants of the P. psidii sensu lato complex:
rust fungus that infects plants of the family Myrtaceae.
Aecidium glaziovii P. Henn., Bullaria psidii G. Winter
Evidence of host specialization exists within the pathogen,
(Arthur & Mains), Caeoma eugeniarum Link, Puccina
so isolates from one host genus may or may not infect other
grumixamae Rangel, P. rochaei Putt., P. actinostemonis
genera within Myrtaceae (Old et al. 2003). Many variants
H.S. Jackson & Holway, P. barbacensis Rangel, P. brittoi
have been recognized and collectively are known as the P.
Rangel, P. camargoi Putt., P. cambucae Putt., P. eugeniae
psidii sensu lato (s.l.) complex (Carnegie et al 2010). The
Rangel, P. jambolana Rangel, P. jambosae P. Henn., P.
complex includes the newly described taxon Uredo rangelii,
neurophila Speg., Uredo cambucae P. Henn., U. euge-
which was detected in Australia in April 2010.
niarum P. Henn., U. flavidula Wint., U. goeldiana P. Henn.,
Under natural conditions, P. psidii produces abundant
U. myrciae Mayor, U. myrtacearum Paz., U. neurophila
urediniospores, with teliospores and basidiospores being
Speg., U. puttemansii P. Henn., U. rangelii J.A. Simpson,
relatively rare. Aecia and aeciospores are morphologically
K. Thomas & C.A. Grgurinovic, U. rochaei Putt., U. seclua
identical to the uredinia and urediniospores (Glen et al.
H.S. Jackson & Holway
2007). The dominant phase of the life cycle is the produc-
Scientific names of hosts: About 130 species in 45 genera tion of uredinia and urediniospores, with the urediniospores
of the family Myrtaceae (including the former Heteropyxi- being responsible for aerial spread and infection. The
daceae) are hosts for P. psidii (Carnegie and Lidbetter 2012, urediniospores infect young tissues of new leaves, fruits,
Clark 2011, Simpson et al. 2006). All genera in the family flowers, shoots, and succulent twigs. Infection first appears
are potentially susceptible (Old et al. 2003). Some econom- as chlorotic specks that develop into uredinial pustules,
ically or environmentally important genera with species which produce yellow masses of urediniospores. The
affected by the rust include Eucalyptus (eucalypts), Eugenia uredial pustules—pale yellow to yellow-orange dusty spots,
(Surinam cherry; others, including the endangered Eugenia 0.1 to 0.5 mm in diameter—often coalesce, and parts of the
koolauensis), Melaleuca (paperbark tree), Metrosideros plant can be completely covered with pustules (Liberato et
(‘ōhi‘a lehua), Myrciaria (jaboticaba), Pimenta (allspice), al. 2006). Uredinia occur mostly on the underside of leaves,
Psidium (guava), Syzygium (rose apple). on stems, and on flowers and fruit. Urediniospores are
Distribution: First reported in 1884 on guava in Brazil globose and ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, measuring 19 to 27
(Winter 1884), the rust has since been detected in other by 15 to 26 µm. The spore cell walls are echinulate, hyaline
South America countries (Argentina, Colombia, Paraguay, to yellowish in color, and 1.5 to 2.5 µm thick with germ
Uruguay (Telachea et al. 2003), Venezuela); Central pores obscure (Hernández 2006).
America (Costa Rica and Panama); the Caribbean (Cuba, Urediniospore germination and infection are affected
Dominica, Dominican Republic, Jamaica [MacLachan by temperature, leaf wetness, light intensity, and photope-
1938] Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands); riod (Ruiz et al. 1989). Temperatures in the range of 15 to 25
Mexico (Gallegos and Cummins 1981); the United States °C favor infection (Carvalho et al. 1994, Ruiz et al. 1989).
including Florida [Marlatt and Kimbrough 1979], California High humidity or leaf wetness and low light for a minimum
[Zambino and Nolan 2011], and Hawai‘i [Uchida et al. of 6 hours following inoculation are necessary for success-
2006]); and most recently Australia (Carnegie et al. 2010), ful germination and infection (Piza and Ribeiro 1988, Ruiz
Japan (Kawanishi et al. 2009), and South Africa (Roux et et al. 1989).
78
The rust pathogen causes deformation of leaves, defoli- branches. It does not colonize seed, but it can infect
ation of branches, dieback, stunted growth, and sometimes capsules; seed produced on eucalypts may have chance
death. Puccinia psidii s.l. has caused severe damage in some contamination with infections that might be taking place on
years on Pimenta dioica (allspice) in Jamaica (MacLachlan the same or neighboring trees from where the seed collec-
1938), Eucalyptus grandis (Junghans et al. 2003) and Psid- tions take place.
ium guajava (guava) in Brazil (Ribeiro and Pommer 2004), 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
Syzygium jambos (rose apple) in Hawai‘i (Uchida and Loope ria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
2009), and Melaleuca quinquenervia in Florida (Rayach-
Recent introductions of the rust to Australia, Califor-
hetry et al. 1997). Several races or biotypes of P. psidii
nia, Florida, Hawai‘i, and Japan are evidence that the bio-
exist, differing in host specificity, environmental tolerances,
logical characteristics of P. psidii make it a pathogen easily
characteristics of sporulation and spore survival, and
moved to new environments. The most dangerous pathway
virulence (Glen et al. 2007, MacLachlan 1938, Marlatt and
for spread of the pathogen to a new region is by germplasm,
Kimbrough 1979). Studies by Costa da Silva et al. (2014)
including rooted cuttings and other vegetatively propagated
have demonstrated that these different strains of P. psidii
trees, seed, and pollen (Old et al. 2003). In 2007, P. psidii
can have remarkably different levels of pathogenicity on a
arrived in Japan, on Metrosideros polymorpha cuttings
given host species such as Metrosideros polymorpha. Based
imported from Hawai‘i. The likelihood of this fungus being
on analysis of microsatellite markers, P. psidii populations
introduced on a living seedling of the family Myrtaceae or a
from South America are distinct from the rust populations
recently cut branch or flower would be high.
that became established in California and Hawai‘i, suggest-
ing that the Hawai‘i and California isolates did not come 3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable rat-
directly from South America (Graça et al. 2011b). ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e)
Quarantine restrictions are the most effective means The potential for P. psidii to colonize new hosts in
of preventing introductions of potentially virulent strains Hawai‘i has already been demonstrated. One introduction
of Puccinia psidii (Loope and La Rosa 2008). In 2007, the of the pathogen into Honolulu resulted in spread to, and
Hawai‘i State Board of Agriculture passed an interim rule, colonization of, hosts on all of the major islands within 6
which banned any plant or plant products of the Myrtaceae months (Killgore and Heu 2007). The moist tropical and
family from California, Florida, and South America that montane tropical climate of Hawai‘i is an ideal environment
could be disease hosts; the ban expired, however, 1 year for P. psidii infection.
later (Loope 2010). A long-term rule is in development. 4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri-
The ban includes any plants of the Myrtaceae family (GISD teria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f)
2010b).
The occurrence of numerous Myrtaceae in Hawai‘i,
Specific information relating to risk elements: the rust’s known ability for natural spread, and its high
A. Likelihood of introduction reproductive potential would result in a high spread poten-
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High tial. The current strain of the rust in Hawai‘i has spread to
(VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, all parts of the state that have a favorable environment for
d, e, g, h) infection.
The rust has a wide host range, and can infect basically B. Consequences of introduction
any part of the aerial parts of a myrtaceous plant, including 5. Economic damage potential: High (RC) (Applicable
succulent tissue in leaves, flowers, and small-diameter rating criteria, from app. 4: a, c. d, e, f)
79
Currently, only a single P. psidii genotype has been native fauna have evolved to live in these ‘ōhi‘a lehua
found in Hawai‘i; introduction of new P. psidii genotypes to forests. Outbreaks of P. psidii, which affect these dominant
Hawai‘i represents an additional threat to native and exotic trees could result in significant changes to the structure,
myrtaceous species by potentially increasing the host range composition, and potentially, the function, of forests on a
and the severity of the disease. landscape level. This would likely affect the biodiversity of
There are many species of Myrtaceae in Hawai‘i other flora and fauna in these ecosystems (Loope and La
(about 80) and, so far, 37 of these have shown that they are Rosa 2008).
susceptible, at least to some degree, to the strain of P. psidii 7. Social and political considerations: High (MC)
currently in Hawai‘i. One species, Syzygium jambos, an (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c)
invasive species that occupies tens of thousands of hectares
Presence of the current strain of P. psidii in Hawai‘i has
in the Hawai‘i Islands, is exceptionally vulnerable to this
affected export of hosts to countries where the rust is not
strain of the rust; especially on the more humid sides of the
yet present. Occurrence of additional strains would increase
Hawai‘i Islands. The endangered Eugenia koolauensis has
public concern and export restrictions.
also shown a high vulnerability to this strain of the rust.
Fortunately, most other Myrtaceous species—including C. Pest risk potential:
Metrosideros polymorpha, which is very widely distributed High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
in Hawai‘i and comprises about 80 percent of the native quences of introduction = high)
forests—have shown only a slight susceptibility to this
strain of the rust.
This situation could change substantially if other Booth, T.H.; Old, K.M.; Jovanovic, T. 2000. A
strains of the rust were introduced into Hawai‘i. Costa da preliminary assessment of high risk areas for Puccinia
Silva et al. (2014) have shown that some of these strains can psidii (Eucalyptus rust) in the Neotropics and Australia.
be especially virulent on M. polymorpha under environmen- Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 82: 295–301.
tal conditions favorable for the development of the fungus. Cannon, P.G.; Alfenas, A.C.; Britton, K.O. 2009.
There is probably very little financial loss that would Understanding the potential of guava rust (Puccinia
occur directly as a result of having less lumber being psidii) to destroy a myrtaceous tree, ohia (Metrosideros
produced from ‘ōhi‘a lehua trees; this species is not used polymorpha), in Hawaii. Bulletin No. 233. Rotorua,
significantly for wood products, in part because only a very New Zealand: New Zealand Forest Research Institute:
small percentage of its trees reach merchantable dimen- 213–214.
sions; however, a massive loss of ‘ōhi‘a lehua trees, which
Carnegie, A.J.; Cooper, K. 2011. Emergency response to
currently comprise about 80 percent of all trees in Hawai‘i’s
the incursion of an exotic myrtaceous rust in Australia.
native forests, could have some very unfortunate environ-
Australasian Plant Pathology. 40: 346–359.
mental consequences (see next section), and some of these
could be costly. Carnegie, A.J.; Lidbetter, J.R. 2012. Rapidly expanding
host range for Puccinia psidii sensu lato in Australia.
Ausralasian Plant Pathology. 41: 13–29.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, f)
Eucalyptus rust threatens to disrupt ecosystems by Carnegie, A.J.; Lidbetter, J.R.; Walker, J.; Horwood,
causing damage to dominant forest trees, such as the ‘ōhi‘a M.A.; Tesoriero, L.; Glen, M.; Priest, M.J. 2010.
lehua in Hawai‘i. The ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree is a cornerstone spe- Uredo rangelii, a taxon in the guava rust complex, newly
cies in the natural forests of Hawai‘i and most of the islands recorded on Myrtaceae in Australia. Australasian Plant
Pathology. 39: 463–466.
80
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pathogens of eucalypts. Collingwood, VT, Australia: affect leaves or fruit. They cause leaf blights and spotting
CSIRO Publishing. 241 p. and fruit rot. Often fruit rot occurs postharvest during
storage and transport (Kwon et al.2004). They are usually
Winter G. 1884. Repertorium. Rabebhorstii fungi europaei
considered weak pathogens, often found on stressed or
et extraeuropaei exsiccate cura. Dr. G. Winter, Centuria
weakened host plants (Pirone 1978).
XXXI. Hedwigia. 23: 164–172.
A sexual stage for many of these species has not been
Zambino, P.J.; Nolan, P.A. 2011. First report of a rust identified. Initial infection usually occurs from conidia
caused by Puccinia psidii on paperbark, Melaleuca contact with the host. Secondary infections can occur and
quinquernervia, in California. Plant Disease. 95(10): increase disease severity. Conidia disperse in the air and
1314. in rain splash. Maharachchikumbura et al. (2011) provide a
generalize disease cycle for Pestalotiopsis. Pestalotia likely
Zauza, E.A.V.; Alfenas, A.C.; Old, K.; Couto, M.M.F.;
has a similar life cycle.
Graça, R.N.; Maffia, L.A. 2010. Myrtaceae species
resistance to rust caused by Puccinia psidii. Australasian Specific information relating to risk elements:
Plant Pathology. 39: 406–411. A. Likelihood of introduction
Zhong, S.; Yang, B.; Alfenas, A.C. 2007. Development 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
of microsatellite markers for the guava rust fungus, (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d,
Puccinia psidii. Molecular Ecology Resources. 8: e, g, h)
348–350. Many of the species of Pestalotia and Pestalotiopsis
Reviewers’ comments: “Most recent report is have a wide host range and are usually found associated
from Africa.” with foliage and other nonwoody green tissue. They are
Response to comments: The 2013 citation for report in among the most commonly isolated endophytic fungi of
South Africa was added, as was a report of the pathogen in tropical plants (Yang et al. 2012). These same authors state
New Caledonia. that, globally, Pestalotiopsis may represent one of the larg-
est biomasses of any plant-associated endophytic fungus.
83
Table 9 —Hosts, country of origin, and citations, for Pestalotia and Pestalotiopsis species
of concern (continued)
Pestalotia acaciae Acacia crassicarpa, A. longifolia, A. Australia, China, Japan, Farr and Rossman, n.d.
Thüm. (Xylariales: comosus, Chamaecyparis pisifera, Philippines, Portugal
Amphispaeriaceae) Cucumis sativus, Diospyros kaki,
Durio zibethinus, Musa spp., Pachira
macrocarpa, Pinus thunbergii,
Quercus glauca
Pestalotia angustata (Pers.) Vaccinium spp. Chile Espinoza et al. 2008
Arx (syn. Truncatella
angustata (Pers.) S.
Hughes)
Pestalotia cibotii R.P. Cibotium schiedei, Araucaria imbricata, United States (New White 1935
White (Xylariales: Illicium verum Jersey), China,
Amphisphaeriaceae) Scotland
Pestalotia diospyri Syd. & P. Diospyros chinensis, D. kaki, D. China, India, Japan, Blanco et al. 2008; Farr
Syd. (syn. Pestalatiopsis kaki var. domestica, D. peregrina, Korea, Spain and Rossman, n.d.;
diospyri (Syd. & P. Syd.) Euonymus alatus, E. japonicus, Kobayashi 2007
Rib.) Souza (Xylariales: E. sieboldianus, Podocarpus
Amphisphaeriaceae) macrophyllus, Rhus javanica, R.
javanica var. roxburghii, Smilax china
Pestalotia dodonaea Dodonaea viscosa Eritrea, Ethiopia Farr and Rossman, n.d.
Canonaco (Xylariales:
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotia pandani Pandanus tectorius, P. tessellatus, P. Taiwan, Cook Islands, Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
Verona (Xylariales: pedunculatus var. stradbrookeensis, Australia, Loyalty McKenzie and Hyde
Amphisphaeriaceae) P. pedunculatus f. lofuensis, P. Islands 1996
odoratissimus
Pestalotia vaccinii (Shear) Vaccinium angustifolium, V. ashei, New Zealand, United Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
Guba (Xylariales: V. australe, V. corymbosum, V. States (Maine, Vilka et al. 2009
Amphisphaeriaceae) macrocarpon, Vaccinium sp., V. Michigan), Latvia
stamineum
Pestalotiopsis Scaevola hainanensis Hong Kong Farr and Rossman, n.d.

sp. (Xylariales:
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis Vaccinium ashei, Viburnum awabuki, Japan, United States, Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
breviseta (Sacc.) Diospyros kaki var. domestica, Russia, Italy Kobayashi 2007
Steyaert (Xylariales: Podocarpus macrophyllus, Prunus
Amphisphaeriaceae) tomentosa, Rhaphiolepis umbellata,
Rhododendron ponticum, Arenga
engleri, Celastrus orbiculatus, Cercis
chinensis, Trochodendron aralioides
84
Table 9 —Hosts, country of origin, and citations, for Pestalotia and Pestalotiopsis species
of concern (continued)
Pestalotiopsis clavispora Vaccinium spp. Chile Espinoza et al. 2008
G.F. Atk. (Xylariales:
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis glandicola Diospyros kaki, Pandanus tectorius, China, India, Japan, Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
(Castagne) Steyaert (syn. Quercus ilex, Q. acuta, Mangifera Bangalore Kobayashi 2007;
Robillarda glandicola indica, Vaccinium oldhamii; Ullasa and Rawal
Cast.; Pestalotia numerous others 1989; Yasuda et al.
glandicola (Castagne) 2003
Guba) (Xylariales:
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis neglecta Vaccinium spp. Chile Espinoza et al. 2008
Pestalotiopsis Pandanus whiteanus American Samoa Brooks 2006
palmarum (Cooke)
Steyaert (Xylariales:
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis photiniae Acer palmatum, Camellia japonica, C. Australia, China, Japan, Farr and Rossman, n.d.
(Thüm.) Y.X. sasanqua, C. sinensis, Dendrobium Korea, Viet Nam
Chen (Xylariales: devonianum, D. thyrsiflorum, Fragaria
Amphisphaeriaceae) spp., Photinia glabra, P. serrulata,
Pinus massoniana, Podocarpus
macrophyllus, P. nagi, Roystonea
regia, Taxus chinensis, Vaccinium
angustifolium, Vaccinium spp.
Pestalotiopsis theae Diospyros kaki, D. kaki var. domestica, Asia, Australia, Europe, Farr and Rossman, n.d.;
(Sawada) Steyaert Diospyros sp., D. samoensis, Camelia USSR, Africa, South Kobayashi 2007;
(syn. Pestalotia theae sinensis, Illicium religiosum, Turpinia America Watson 1971
Sawada) (Xylariales: ternate; numerous hosts
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis uvicola Metrosideros kermadecensis Italy Grasso and Granata

(Speg.) Bisset (Xylariales: 2008
Amphisphaeriaceae)
Pestalotiopsis Pandanus tectorius, Tamarindus indica, Europe, Australia, South Farr and Rossman, n.d.
versicolor (Speg.) Acacia melanoxylon, Oryza sativa, America, Central
Steyaert (Xylariales: Musa sp., Jatropha curcas, Mangifera America, Asia,
Amphisphaeriaceae) indica; numerous hosts Africa, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon
Islands, Caribbean
Islands
85
It is probable that inoculum can increase rapidly through 6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC)
secondary infections when environmental conditions are (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d) Damage
met. Once infection occurs, these fungi can survive easily from these fungi is limited and does not normally
within host tissue; conidia can survive during harsh weather result in significant growth or mortality impacts.
conditions (Maharachchikumbura et al. 2011). Likely Some of the hosts of concern have limited distri-
pathways for introduction include cut foliage, live plants, bution; therefore, if they were to become infected,
fruit, and live cuttings. some ecosystem damage might occur.
2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite- 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC)
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
They can readily survive transport in infected leaves Most damage from the presence of these fungi would
or fruit with limited symptoms expressed. For example, P. be aesthetic. None of the hosts are currently involved in any
longiseta was isolated from blackberry seedlings with shoot trade. It is unlikely their presence in Hawai‘i would cause
blight shipped from the United States to Japan (Dai et al. significant public response.
1990). Detection of leaf spots or fruit rot from these fungi
is difficult, especially in larger shipments of foliage and
foliage-bearing material. Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;
Consequences of introduction = moderate)
3. Colonization potential: Moderate (VC) (Applicable
rating criteria, from app. 4: b, e) Selected bibliography:
Most of the host plants of concern exist at or near likely Blanco, C.; Romero, F.; De los Santos, B. 2008. First
ports of entry. Because of the wide host range of some of the report of Pestalotiopsis dyospiri causing calyx blight
species, it is possible other species could become infected of sweet persinnon in Huelva Province (Southwestern
around ports with subsequent spread to the host species Spain). Plant Disease. 92: 176.
of concern in this report. Weather conditions favorable for Brooks, F. 2006. List of plant diseases in American Samoa.
infection occur most of the year. Conidia of these fungi are Land Grant Tech. Rep. No. 44. Pago Pago, AS: American
known to spread through the air to cause infection. Samoa Community College. 53 p.
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri-
Dai, K.; Kimura, S.; Gotoh, M.; Kobayashi, T. 1990.
teria, from app. 4: a, c, d, e, f)
Shoot blight and its causal pathogen of blackberry
These fungi spread readily and rapidly through the air seedling imported from the United States. Research
and in rain splash. Spread distance is not known but may be Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service, Japan. 26: 1–6.
considerable. Spread between islands may be limited unless
Espinoza, J.G.; Briceño, E.X.; Keith, L.M.; Latorre,
human movement of infected material occurs.
B.A. 2008. Canker and twig dieback of blueberry caused
B. Consequences of introduction by Pestalotiopsis spp. and a Truncatella sp. in Chile.
5. Economic damage potential: Low (RC) (Applicable Plant Disease. 92: 1407–1414.
rating criteria, from app. 4: f)
Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology
These fungi are generally not known as significant and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/
pathogens in their native range. The hosts of concern have fungaldatabases/. (13 March 2012).
limited direct economic benefit and, except for some orna-
mental plantings, are not commercially produced. Control
techniques for these fungi would be limited to greenhouse
and potted plant situations.
86
Grasso, F.M.; Granata, G. 2008. First report of stem Yang, X.; Zhang, J.; Luo, D. 2012. The taxonomy, biology
blight on Metrosideros kermadecensis induced and chemistry of the fungal Pestalotiopsis genus. Natural
by Pestalotiopsis uvicola in Italy. Journal of Plant Product Reports. 29: 622–641.
Pathology. 90: 587.
Yasuda, F.; Kobayashi, T.; Watanabe, H.; Izawa, H.
Guangcai, Z.; Nan, L. 1995. Thirty-four species of 2003. Addition of Pestalotiopsis spp. to leaf spot
Pestalotiopsis in Yunnan. Journal of Northeast Forestry pathogens of Japanese persimmon. Journal of General
University. 23(4): 21–33. Plant Pathology. 69: 29–32.
Kobayashi, T. 2007. Index of fungi inhabiting woody Reviewers’ comments: A reviewer was interested in
plants in Japan. Host, distribution and literature. Tokyo: pathways that these fungi might follow.
Zenkoku-Noson-Kyiku Kyokai Publishing Company, Response to comments: Likely pathways were identified in
Ltd. 1227 p. the IPRA.
Kwon, J.H.; Park, C.S.; Ahn, G.H. 2004. Leaf blight of
Phellinus noxius
sweet persimmon tree in the field and fruit rot in the
Assessor: Jessie A. Glaeser
storage caused by Pestalotia diospyri. Korean Journal
of Mycology. 32: 130–133. Scientific name of pest: Phellinus noxius (Corner)
G. Cunn.
Maharachchikumbura, S.S.N.; Guo, L-D.; Chukeatirote,
Synonym: Fomes noxius Corner
E.; Bahkali, A.H.; Hyde, K.D. 2011. Pestalotiopsis–
Phellinidium noxium (Corner) Bondartseva & S. Herrera
morphology, phylogeny, biochemistry and diversity.
Fungal Diversity. 50: 167–187. Scientific names of hosts: More than 120 genera and nearly
300 species of tropical forest, plantation and landscape
McKenzie, E.H.C.; Hyde, K.D. 1996. Index of fungi trees, and woody shrubs. Economically important planta-
described from the Pandanaceae. Mycotaxon. 57: tion hosts of P. noxius include the conifer genera Araucaria
125–143. and Pinus, and the hardwood genera Eucalyptus, Swietenia,
Pirone, P.P. 1978. Diseases and pests of ornamental plants. and Acacia. Other economically important crops include
New York: Wiley Interscience. 584 p. Artocarpus altilis (bread fruit), Camellia sinensis (tea),
Elaeis guineensis (oil palm), Heavea brasiliensis (rubber),
Ullasa, B.A.; Rawal, R.D. 1989. Occurrence of a new
and Theobroma cacao (cocoa). Host lists are available at
post-harvest disease of mango due to Pestaloptiopsis
the Crop Protection Compendium (CABI 2011d) and the
glandicolis. Acta Horticulturae. 231: 540–543.
Global Pest and Disease Database (CIPM 2012b). Genera
Vilka, L.L.; Rancane, R.L.; Eihe, M.L. 2009. Fungal of Hawai‘i native plants that are known to be susceptible
diseases of Vaccinium macrocarpon in Latvia. include Acacia, Diospyros and Erythrina. The species
Agronomijas vestis. 12: 125–133. within these genera that have been reported as hosts are A.
Watson, A.J. 1971. Foreign bacterial and fungus diseases aulacocarpa, A. auriculiformis, A. confusa, A. crassicarpa,
of food, forage, and fiber crops: an annotated list. Agric. A. decurrens, A. mangium, A. mearnsii, D. decandra, D.
Handb. 418. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of ferrea var. buxifolia, D. kaki, D. oldhamii, D. samoensis, E.
Agriculture. 111 p. variegata, and E. variegata var. orientalis (CIPM 2012b).
The pathogen is nonspecialized with a very broad host
White, R.P. 1935. Pestalotia spp. on Aucuba, Cibotium, range. Other Hawai‘i native plants may prove to be suscepti-
and Leucothoe. Mycologia. 27: 342–346. ble but have not yet been exposed to the pathogen.
Distribution: Phellinus noxius is pantropical and subtropi-
cal. It has been reported in east and central Africa, east and
87
southeast Asia, Australasia and the South Pacific, including The principal mode of infection among neighboring
many of the islands, Central America and the Caribbean, trees is by root-to-root contact (Hattori et al. 1996, Lewis
but not from North or South America (Hodges 2005). It and Arentz 1988). Fruiting bodies are often rare or absent,
is found on species of Acacia in Taiwan and the Solomon depending on the specific host but may form on dead and
Islands, on Diospyros in Taiwan, and on Erythrina in and dying trees and stumps. Airborne basidiospores can initiate
from Japan (Farr and Rossman, n.d.). new infection centers on freshly cut stumps or through
Summary of natural history and basic biology of wounds on living trees, with subsequent spread to neighbor-
the pests: Phellinus noxius causes a severe root rot in many ing trees through root to root contact (Hattori et al. 1996).
different tree species throughout the tropics and subtropics. Although asexual conidiospores have been formed in cul-
It occurs within native forests but is particularly damaging ture, they do not appear to occur in the field (Brooks 2002a).
in plantations of forest trees and commercial crops, such as Differences in virulence have been detected from within the
breadfruit, rubber, cocoa, and oil palm (Pegler and Water- same host and between different hosts (Nandris et al.1987,
ston 1968). The fungus is a strong white rotter, although it Nicole et al. 1985, Sahashi et al. 2010). The fungus does
is commonly referred to as “brown root rot” owing to the not seem to exhibit host specificity or physiological spe-
dark color of the fungal mycelium and fruiting body. Two cialization. Cross inoculation studies with isolates from 12
forms of fruit bodies, only forming after extended periods different hosts were able to uniformly colonize all 12 hosts
of rainfall, can be produced. The resupinate form is smooth, (Chang 1995). Woody horticultural species vary greatly in
flat, and grows flush with the underside of logs or roots. The their susceptibility to P. noxius (Ann et al. 1999).
bracket form—with a dark brown to black, rough textured, Phellinus noxius is present in many isolated islands in
upper surface, and a charcoal grey undersurface—can be the Pacific, and has likely been introduced there by human
leathery or woody and hard. The most striking character- activities. On the island of Rota, the oldest disease center
istic of the disease is the presence of a brown encrustation, is located next to the airport and was likely introduced
composed of fungal mycelium and incorporated soil and through imported woody material (Hodges and Tenorio
debris, that covers the surface of colonized roots. This 1984).
crust grows toward the root collar of the tree and may be Phellinus noxius is also associated with a serious heart
visible above ground level, in some cases reaching 2 m or rot problem in young plantations of Acacia mangium in
more from the root collar. It can eventually girdle the tree Malaysia (Lee and Yahya 1999, as described by Hodges
and kill the cambium and sapwood (Brooks 2002b). Dark 2005). In this host, the disease manifests as a heartrot that
lines are present in the wood resulting from the presence of may extend for several meters within the tree. Infection
pigmented hyphae. The fungus can colonize both sapwood occurs from airborne basidiospores through pruning
and heartwood of most hosts. The wood eventually becomes wounds or broken branches. Pathways for possible intro-
light, dry, and friable and honeycombed; windthrow is duction would include seedlings grown in infested soil, soil,
common in trees with advanced root decay. The disease is and wood products.
often first recognized by an overall wilting of the canopy or Specific information relating to risk elements:
a more gradual dieback owing to loss of water transport by Phellinus noxius is the subject of previous pest risk assess-
the root system. The fungus can survive for up to 10 years ments (Hodges 2005; Kliejunas et al. 2001, 2003). Informa-
in colonized roots and stumps after the death of the host but tion summaries also appear in the Global Invasive Species
declines quickly in the absence of wood debris or in heavy, Database (GISD 2006), the Crop Protection Compendium
wet soils. One type of preventive control measure is to flood (CABI 2011d), and the Global Pest and Disease Database
fields before the establishment of new plantations (Chang (CIPM 2012b). Phellinus noxius is on many different
1996). targeted pest lists, including the CAPS FY2012 Priority
88
Pest List–Commodity and Taxonomic Surveys List, and the Eradication efforts are difficult since the disease takes many
CAPS FY2009 Pest of National Concern, and is considered years to become established, and the indicative brown crust
of quarantine significance (CIPM 2012b). may escape notice.
A. Likelihood of introduction B. Consequences of introduction
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High 5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (VC)
(VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e,
e, g, h) f) Phellinus noxius would threaten Hawai‘i native
Phellinus noxius can colonize roots, sapwood, and plants, including species of Acacia, Diospyros,
heartwood of affected plants, and has a good chance of Erythrina, and possibly others. These are important
being present when logs are harvested. It could also survive components of the native forest and also landscape
saprotrophically in wood chips and noncomposted mulch. trees. The very broad host range of P. noxius would
Seedlings could transmit the pathogen if they are grown in make this fungus also a threat to other commodities,
infested soils. Mycelium and spores could be present in soil. forests, and landscape plantings.
2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite- 6. Environmental damage potential: High (VC)
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e,
The fungus is capable of surviving saprotrophically in f) The danger towards native Hawai‘i plant species
wood or in soil and would remain viable during transport. is significant, resulting in direct impacts on those
It would be difficult to detect, especially if being trans- species (Acacia, Diospyros, and Erythrina). The
ported in the mycelial stage within wood. Fruiting bodies fungus has a broad host range and could affect other
are relatively conspicuous when present, but they can be trees in native forests and landscapes, thus indirectly
remarkably rare or even totally absent in many cases. affecting the health of native species. Eradication
program would involve large-scale tree destruc-
3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable
tion and probably not be effective once the fungus
rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e)
becomes established in the soil.
To become established, the pathogen would have to
fruit and wind-dispersed basidiospores would need to 7. Social and political considerations: High (VC)
find susceptible hosts. Conditions in Hawai‘i would favor (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
fruiting and spore release from infected material, and Damage from P. noxius and subsequent death or
the broad host range would make it likely that the fungus decline of native Hawai‘i tree species would result
could become established. It is likely that this has already in public concerns in aesthetics and recreation as
occurred on other Pacific islands (Hodges and Tenorio well as in urban plantings. Removal of affected
1984). trees would have limited acceptance by the public.
Phellinus noxius is not yet present in North America,
4. Spread potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating
and its broad host range includes many important
criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f, g)
ornamental species. Introduction of the fungus to
Wind dispersal of spores is the common means of Hawai‘i would interfere with domestic interstate
spread for most basidiomycete decay fungi. This has been commerce, trade, and traffic.
demonstrated for P. noxius, where it has been shown that
tree-to-tree spread is usually through root contact but C. Pest risk potential:
that disease centers are initiated with genetically diverse High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse-
basidiospores (Hattori et al. 1996, Lewis and Arentz 1988). quences of introduction = high)
89
Selected bibliography: Hodges, C.S. 2005. Exotic forest pest information system
Ann, P.J.; Lee, H.L.; Huang, T.C. 1999. Brown root rot for North America: Phellinus noxius. North American
of 10 species of fruit trees caused by Phellinus noxius in Forest Commission. http://spfnic.fs.fed.us/exfor/data/
Taiwan. Plant Disease. 83: 746–750. pestreports.cfm?pestidval=50&langdisplay.
(8 May 2013).
Brooks, F.E. 2002a. Brown root rot. The plant health
instructor. doi: 10.1094/PHI-I-2002-0923-01. http://www. Hodges, C.S.; Tenorio, J.A. 1984. Root disease of Delonix
cals.ncsu.edu/course/pp728/Phellinus/Phellinus_noxius. regia and associated tree species in the Mariana Islands
html. (6 May 2013). caused by Phellinus noxius. Plant Disease. 68: 334–336.
Brooks, F.E. 2002b. Brown root rot disease in American Kliejunas, J.T.; Burdsall, H.H., Jr.; DeNitto, G.A.;
Samoa’s tropical rain forests. Pacific Science. 56: Eglitis, A.; Haugen, D.A.; Haverty, M.I.; Micales,
377–387. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/psc/summary/ J.A.; Tkacz, B.M.; Powell, M.R. 2003. Pest risk
v056/56.4brooks.html. (7 May 2013). assessment of the importation into the United States of
unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen eucalypt species
Center for Integrated Pest Management [CIPM]. 2012b.
from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-137. Madison, WI:
Global pest and disease database: Phellinus noxius.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest
https://www.gpdd.info/display.cfm?pest_id=2095.
Products Laboratory. 206 p.
(12 August 2013).
Kliejunas, J.T.; Tkacz, B.M.; Burdsall, H.H., Jr.;
[CABI]. 2011d. Crop protection compendium:
W.E. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation
Phellinus noxius. Wallingford, United Kingdom: CAB
International. http://www.cabi.org/cpc. (6 May 2013).
Chang, T.T. 1995. Decline of nine tree species associated GTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
with brown root rot caused by Phellinus noxius in Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 134 p.
Taiwan. Plant Disease. 79: 962–965.
Lee, S.S.; Yahya, N.S. 1999. Fungi associated with heart
Chang, T.T. 1996. Survival of Phellinus noxius in soil rot of Acacia mangium trees in Peninsular Malaysia and
and in the roots of dead host plants. Phytopathology. East Kalimantan. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 11:
86: 272–276. 240–254.
Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology Lewis, D.J.; Arentz, F. 1988. Technical note on a computer
and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/ intensive analysis method. Klinkii. 3: 60–61.
fungaldatabases/. (12 August 2013).
Nandris, D.; Nicole, M.; Geiger, J.P. 1987. Variation in
Global Invasive Species Database [GISD]. 2006. Phellinus virulence among Rigidoporus lignosus and Phellinus
noxius. http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology. noxius isolates from West Africa. European Journal of
asp?si=1007&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN. (6 May 2013). Forest Pathology. 17: 271–281.
Hattori, T.; Abe, Y.; Usugi, T. 1996. Distribution of clones Nicole, M.; Nandris, D.; Geiger, J.P.; Rio, B. 1985.
of Phellinus noxius in a windbreak on Ishigaki Island. Variability among African populations of Rigidoporus
European Journal of Forest Pathology. 26: 69–80. lignosus and Phellinus noxius. European Journal of
Forest Pathology. 15: 293–300.
90
Pegler, D.N.; Waterston, J.M. 1968. Phellinus noxius. Botryobasidium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Venkatar.
CMI descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria. No. Corticium javanicum (Henn.) Sacc. & P. Syd.
195. Kew, Surrey, United Kingdom: Commonwealth Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Broome
Mycological Institute. 2 p. Corticium zimmermannii Sacc. & P. Syd.,
Necator decretus Massee
Sahashi, N.; Akiba, M.; Ishihara, M.; Mivazaki, K.
Pellicularia salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Dastur
2010. Cross inoculation tests with Phellinus noxius
Terana salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Kuntze
isolates from nine different host plants in the Ryukyu
Islands, southwestern Japan. Plant Disease. 94: 358–356. The taxonomic position of this fungus has been
debated; some authors still recognize Phanerochaete
Reviewers’ comments: “CABI doesn’t reference its host
salmonicolor as the current name. Molecular biosystematic
lists so is useful as a starting point but probably better to
studies (Diederich et al. 2011, Ghobad-Nejhad et al. 2010,
use referenced hosts. I would also be cautious about using
Roux and Coetzee 2005) have shown that it groups with
the word ‘complete’.” (DJAE)
other species of Erythricium in the Corticiales. Phaneroch-
“I suspect this record is incorrect as current records
aete is now known to be in the Polyporales (Wu et al. 2010)
state it is absent from New Zealand. Will have confirmation
so is not closely related.
after Oct 3.” (DJAE)
“Certain fungal synonyms are incorrect.” (Yuko Ota) Scientific names of hosts: More than 140 species in
“I could not find the result showing “in light, well- 104 genera including those from the following families:
drained soils” in Chang’s paper.” (Yuko Ota) Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Bombacaceae,
“I could not find the result that there is no evidence Buxaceae, Casuarinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae,
of root decay and no external mycelial sheath in Acacia Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae,
mangium in Malaysia in Lee and Yahya, 1999 or that tree Pittosporaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Sterculi-
growth was not affected.” (Yuko Ota) aceae, Theaceae, and Verbenaceae. Important commodity
“Additional literature suggested.” (Yuko Ota) crops include Hevea brasilliensis (rubber), Coffea spp.
(coffee), Camellia sinensis (tea), Theobroma cacao (cocoa);
Response to comments: The word “complete” has been
fruits such as Citrus spp., Malus spp., and Litchi chinensis;
removed in connection with the list of hosts. New Zealand
woody ornamentals such as Cercis canadensis, Gardenia
has been removed as a geographic location of the pathogen
spp., and Ilex spp.; commercial forest plantations species
pending confirmation. Fungal synonyms were rechecked
such as Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., and Paraserianthes
and corrected. The reference to “light, well-drained soils”
falcataria (Hodges 2004). Erythrina spp. include Erythrina
has been removed. It was an inference based on the authors’
lithosperma, E. subumbrans (India) (CABI 2012; Farr and
data about decay in heavy, wet soils. This information has
Rossman, n.d. Acacia spp. include A. confusa, A. mangium,
been deleted pending reexamination of the original paper.
A. auriculiformis, A. aulacocarpa, A. crassicarpa, A.
The reference by Sahashi et al. 2010 was added.
decurrens, and A. mearnsii (Farr and Rossman, n.d.; Old
Pink Disease and Davidson 2000).
Assessor: Jessie A. Glaeser Distribution: Throughout the humid tropics of Africa,

Southeast Asia, Australasia, Oceania, some Pacific Islands,
Scientific names of pest: Erythricium salmonicolor
Central America, South America, and North America.
(Berk. & Broome) Burds.
In North America, it is present in Florida, Louisiana, and
Synonym: Phanerochaete salmonicolor (Berk. &
Mississippi. It has not been reported from American Samoa,
Broome) Jülich
Guam, Hawai‘i, Northern Mariana Islands, or Puerto Rico
Aleurodiscus javanicus Henn.
(Hodges 2004).
91
Summary of natural history and basic biology of 12 µm) (Mordue and Gibson 1976). Conidia are probably
the pests: Pink disease, caused by the fungus Erythricium distributed by rain splash and air currents. The importance
salmonicolor, is widely distributed in the tropics and of this stage varies with host (CABI 2012). Conidia were
subtropics but appears to cause serious disease only in recorded in less than 3 percent of infected cocoa branches
areas that receive over 2000 mm of rain per year (Seth et in Western Samoa (Schneider-Christians et al. 1986) but
al. 1978). The fungus has a very wide host range and would were considered the main means of spread, by rain splash,
be a danger to most endemic tree species. It can infect and on apples in China (Leng et al. 1982). The conidia are
colonize intact, healthy trees (Old et al. 2003) by forming viable for up to 20 days in dry weather, but high humidity
stem and branch cankers. In general, young trees (2 to 8 is required for germination. The conidial stage is followed
years old in rubber, 2 to 6 years old in cocoa) are affected by the “pink incrustation” stage under conditions of high
more severely than older trees (Brown and Friend 1973, rainfall (Giambelluca et al. 2012). This is the sexual stage of
Holliday 1980). The main stem of young trees can be the fungus; basidiospores are hyaline, ellipsoid, inamyloid,
girdled entirely, causing repeated dieback and possible tree and measure 10 to 13 by 6 to 9 µm (Mordue and Gibson
mortality. Nongirdling cankers are formed in older, larger 1976). Basidiospores are also dispersed by rain splash and
trees, decreasing growth and increasing susceptibility to by air currents (Ciesla et al. 1996). Release of basidiospores
branch breakage and other agents of mortality. Eucalyptus occurs after the basidioma has become thoroughly wetted,
plantations in India have suffered 100 percent mortality usually 20 to 80 minutes after heavy rainfall begins. High
from pink disease (Seth et al. 1978), although the disease is humidity or heavy dew is not sufficient to trigger spore
not that severe in other areas. In Brazil, it is estimated that release. Basidiospore release continues for up to 14 hours
citrus crop production is reduced 10 percent by pink disease after rainfall has stopped (Schneider-Christians et al. 1986).
(Sebastianes et al. 2007). Disease incidences of 80 percent Basidiospores rapidly lose viability under conditions of low
or more have been reported in Albizia (Eusebio et al. 1979), humidity and may only be viable for 24 hours after release
cocoa (Schneider-Christians et al. 1986), and Eucalyptus (Hodges 2004, Kliejunas et al. 2001) but are thought to be
(Deo et al. 1986). Pink disease is considered one of the more important than conidia in spreading the disease in
main threats to new timber plantations in Indonesia (Hadi some crops (Almeida and Luz 1986). Relative production
et al. 1996). of basidial and conidial stages on infected apple trees is
Hyphal growth is seasonal and favored by rain. The influenced by air temperature and relative humidity (Verma
fungus survives through dry periods in dormant cankers 1991). Optimum air temperature for growth is 28 °C (Sham-
(Luz 1983). The fungus initially colonizes the outer bark suri et al. 1997). Vegetative propagules may also spread as
surface and enters into the xylem through lenticels or colonized bark flakes from the tree (Seth et al. 1978), and
wounds. Four different growth stages have been observed, the fungus can most likely survive in the soil. It can remain
termed “cobwebby,” “pustule,” “necator,” and “pink viable for lengthy periods of time when affected branches
incrustation.” Growth appears initially as a thin layer are removed from the tree (CABI 2012). In more temperate
of vegetative mycelium on the bark surface during wet climes, the fungus overwinters as dormant mycelium and
weather. Pink to salmon-colored pustules and crusts, sterile pustules (Leng et al. 1982).
composed of sterile tissue, form rapidly on the bark and The genetic and pathogenic variability of the E. sal-
in bark cracks. Cankers develop as the fungus colonizes monicolor is not well understood. Culture filtrates from two
and kills the inner bark, cambial layer, and outer layers of different isolates of E. salmonicolor collected from different
xylem, leading to the death of branches and small stems. parts of India showed differential responses on Eucalyptus
Fruiting occurs as host tissues are dying. Initially the shoots, suggesting differences in pathogenicity (Sharma et
asexual “necator” stage consists of orange sporodochia that al. 1988). RAPD analysis of 19 isolates of E. salmonicolor
form hyaline, unicellular, ellipsoid conidia (10 to 18 by 6 to from different regions of Brazil, primarily from citrus but
92
also from fig, apple, and Psidium cattleianum, revealed six 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating crite-
different genetic groupings. There was no correlation of ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
clades with pathogenicity, geographic region, or host. The Transit of logs, mulch, soil, or colonized rootstock will
same study showed that isolates from different hosts could not affect fungus survival once it is established. The likeli-
undergo hyphal anastomosis, demonstrating that gene flow hood of detection by inspectors is low unless plant material
can occur between isolates from different hosts (Sebastianes is dead. Pustules are relatively small, although their pink
et al. 2007). Phylogenetic analysis of ribosomal large color may attract the attention of inspectors. The fungus can
subunit DNA has shown that isolates from Egypt and South grow through the sapwood in addition to bark and cambium
Africa grouped closely together in a subclade, separate from (Subramaniam and Ramaswamy 1987). Transport of materi-
isolates from South America and Asia, but this was with a als in sealed containers will result in humid conditions that
limited number of isolates (Roux and Coetzee 2005). are favorable for fungal fruiting and spore development.
Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International (2012)
3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable rat-
predicts that the plant parts most likely to carry the fungus
ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, f)
in trade/transport include bark, leaves, and stems, including
shoots, trunks, and branches. Kliejunas et al. (2001) also Pink disease has a very wide host range with many
suggested that long-distance transport of logs and wood hosts that are widespread throughout Hawai‘i in agriculture
chips could harbor the fungus because it invades and kills and landscape plantings. As the fungus is widespread
outer layers of sapwood. throughout the tropics, it has already demonstrated the abil-
ity to become established outside of its native distribution,
Specific information relating to risk elements: which is unknown. There is a high probability of finding
Pest risk assessments for E. salmonicolor are available favorable climatic conditions in Hawai‘i. The most suitable
in the literature (CABI 2012, Hodges 2004, Kliejunas et al. environment for colonization is probably on the southern
2001, Starr et al. 2007) and were consulted in assessing risk and eastern sides of the islands where rainfall is greater than
elements. 2000 mm per year (Giambelluca et al. 2012). Spores could
A. Likelihood of introduction probably spread to suitable habitat from ports in drier areas
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High by westerly wind currents.
(VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, 4. Spread potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating cri-
e, g, h) teria, from app. 4: a, c, d, e, f, g)
Pink disease is widespread throughout the tropics Spread potential is high in the areas of the islands with
and subtropics on many different hosts including common high rainfall as spores can be spread by both rain splash
agricultural commodities. A high incidence of disease and air currents. Host presence will not be a limiting factor
only occurs in climates with very high levels of rainfall, because of the extremely large host range, providing a
but the fungus can survive in soil and sapwood under drier continuous distribution of host species. Newly established
conditions. As the fungus spreads by both conidia and populations may go undetected for years owing to the cryp-
basidiospores, and because it has many potential hosts in tic nature of the pathogen; initial infections may only appear
forests, landscape plantings, agricultural and agroforestry, as minor dieback or a few dead branches before larger
it has a high potential for large-scale population increases. trunk cankers are evident. Control techniques have been
Mycelia and sterile pustules can survive in cankers, cracks developed for some high-value crops using fungicides, but
in the bark, and on the surface of both living and dead trees, widespread application of fungicides in native forests is not
allowing a prolonged release of numerous generations possible and would probably not be effective at eradication.
of spores.
93
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6. Environmental damage potential: High (VC)
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Ramaswarmy, V.; Sharma, J.K.; Nair, C.T.S.;
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7. Social and political considerations: High (VC)
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Canker of Mollucan Sau (Albizia falcataria) in Bislig.
widespread application of fungicides as a control measure
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(Basidiomycota) based on molecular and morphological
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Giambelluca, T.W.; Chen, Q.; Frazier, A.G.; Price, J.P.;
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Chen, Y.-L.; Chu, P.-S.; Eischeid, J.K.; Delparte,
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North American Forest Commission. http://spfnic.
Sebastianes, F.L.S.; Maki, C.S.; Andreote, F.D.; Araújo,
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95
Wu, S.H.; Chen, C.T.; Yu, S.Y.; Nilsson, H.R.; Serbia (parks), Slovenia (nurseries, garden centers), Spain
Hallenberg, N.; Nilsson, H.R. 2010. The white-rotting (imported plants, nurseries), Sweden (imported plants),
genus Phanerochaete is polyphyletic and distributed Switzerland (nurseries), and the United Kingdom (Channel
throughout the phlebioid clade of the Polyporales Islands, England, Wales, Scotland) (nurseries, garden
(Basidiomycota). Fungal Diversity. 42: 107–118. centers, parks, forests). In many cases, these introductions
have stayed largely in nurseries and garden centers, but in
Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Ramorum Blight/Sudden Oak Death Norway, Serbia, and the United Kingdom, these introduc-
Assessor: Phil Cannon tions have led to invasions of managed parks, gardens, or in
some cases, forest plantations and wildlands (most notably
Scientific name of pest: Phytophthora ramorum Werres, de
in Larix kaempferi in the United Kingdom).
Cock, & Man in’t Veld
United States, subject to official control.
Scientific names of hosts: Phytophthora ramorum is a California: established in the environment and quaran-
generalist pathogen with a broad and diverse host range. tined in the counties of Alameda, Contra Costa, Humboldt,
See APHIS (2013c) for the current list of regulated hosts Lake, Marin, Mendocino, Monterey, Napa, San Francisco,
(naturally infected by P. ramorum and Koch’s postulates San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Solano, Sonoma, and
completed) and associated hosts (found naturally infected, Trinity. Regulated in the remainder of the state.
and P. ramorum has been cultured and detected using PCR, Oregon: established in the environment and under
but Koch’s postulates have not been completed or docu- quarantine in about 106 ha within Curry County. Regulated
mented and reviewed). in the remainder of the state.
Of the 13 taxa of concern in Hawai‘i, 3 have been Washington: periodically detected in nurseries;
identified as potential hosts of P. ramorum, namely A. koa, detected in streams or ditches in seven western counties
L. tameiameiae, and Vaccinium spp. (Reeser et al. 2008). (Kitsap, King, Clallam, Clark, Lewis, Pierce, and Thurston)
Distribution: The native distribution of P. ramorum is (Omdal and Ramsey-Koll 2013). Regulated in the state.
not known; it has recently been introduced, separately, to Infected nursery stock has been detected and destroyed
the United States, Canada, and Europe. Current known in the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, Cali-
distribution includes (CABI 2014, EPPO 2014, Sansford et fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana,
al. 2009): Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, New Mexico, New
York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
Canada (British Columbia), restricted to nurseries,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wash-
subject to official control.
ington (APHIS 2005). The number of nursery detections
Europe—under regulatory control. Belgium (nurseries,
through March 31, 2014, was 543 (APHIS 2014).
parks), Croatia (imported plants), Czech Republic (imported
Has been detected in nurseries and waterways in nine
plants), Denmark (imported plants, garden centers),
other states, but has been contained and under eradication:
Estonia (imported plants, garden center, eradicated),
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, Mississippi, New
Finland (imported plants, garden center), France (nurser-
Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina
ies), Germany (nurseries, garden centers, forests, parks),
(Kliejunas 2010, Oak et al. 2013).
Greece (nurseries), Ireland (nurseries, garden centers,
Phytophthora ramorum is a member of Phytophthora
parks, forests), Italy (nurseries), Latvia (imported plants,
Clade 8c. Populations in North America and Europe are
absent), Lithuania (nurseries), Luxembourg, Netherlands
clonal and belong to four distinct lineages (NA1, NA2, EU1,
(nurseries, parks), Norway (imported plants, nurseries,
and EU2). NA1, NA2, and EU1 have been identified in the
gardens), Poland (imported plants, nurseries), Portugal,
United States (Van Poucke et al. 2012).
96
Summary of natural history and basic biology of the the surfaces of infected leaves and twigs of foliar hosts that
pest: Phytophthora ramorum is a fungus-like micro-organ- can be splash-dispersed to neighboring hosts (Davidson et
ism (Kingdom Stramenophila: Class Oomycetes), related al. 2002, 2005), or spread longer distances by wind and rain
to diatoms and brown algae. In culture, the pathogen is (Davidson et al. 2005, Hansen 2008). Phytophthora ramo-
identified by the production of large, abundant chlamydo- rum is also spread downstream of infested areas in rivers
spores and elongated, ellipsoidal, semipapillate, deciduous and streams and can be carried in infested soil. Long-dis-
sporangia (Werres and Kaminsky 2005, Werres et al. 2001). tance dispersal occurs primarily through the movement of
Motile, asexual, zoospores are produced in the sporangia. infected plant material moved in trade, primarily commer-
Phytophthora ramorum is heterothallic and has two mating cial nursery trade (CABI 2014). Inoculum production occurs
types, A1 and A2. under a wide range of temperature and moisture conditions.
The pathogen was first isolated from ornamental In one study, zoospores were produced at a range of
rhododendrons in Germany and the Netherlands in 1993 temperatures from 5 to 25 °C, with the highest numbers
(Werres and Marwitz 1997), and subsequently from dying produced at 15 to 20 °C. The optimum germination range
Notholithocarpus densiflorus and Quercus spp. in Califor- was 20 to 30 °C (Kliejunas 2010).
nia in 2000 (Rizzo et al. 2002). Phytophthora ramorum was Upon contact with a suitable host and environment, the
formally described in 2001 (Werres et al. 2001). sporangia germinate to produce zoospores that encyst, pen-
Symptoms produced by P. ramorum are diverse and etrate the host, and initiate a new infection. The presence
depend on the host and host part infected. In general, the of free water or high humidity favors zoospore germination
pathogen causes three different diseases with differing and infection (Garbelotto et al. 2003). Chlamydospores
symptoms. Stem cankers are formed on oaks and tanoaks are readily produced in infected plant material and can
in native forests of the western coastal United States. Some survive up to 12 months in potting media and soil substrate.
of these cankers can produce bleeding lesions and may be (Osterbauer 2010). They may serve as resting structures in
lethal. Leaf blight and branch dieback symptoms develop in soil, allowing the pathogen to survive adverse conditions.
Rhododendron spp., Pieris spp., Rhamnus spp. and certain Examination of chlamydospore production and survival in
conifer species. Branches develop cankers with associated Umbellularia californica leaves, however, identified large
leaf lesions. Leaf spots, blotches, and scorch are produced numbers of chlamydospore production depending on site,
in some hosts with no associated branch damages. These but germination was not observed (Fichtner et al. 2009).
lesions often have an irregular margin. Umbellularia Moisture is essential for survival and sporulation, and the
californica and Sequoia sempervirens are species that duration, frequency, and timing of rain events plays a key
show these symptoms (Grünwald et al. 2008, Hansen et al. role in inoculum production (Kliejunas 2010).
2002). On some hosts, notably L. kaempferi in forests and Like most Phytophthora species, P. ramorum survives
plantations in England and Wales, foliage infection and during conditions unfavorable for growth—such as hot, dry
twig blight has led to extensive tree mortality (Webber et al. summer months in California—in host tissues or in various
2010). The pathogen has been isolated from asymptomatic nonhost substrates (such as soil, and potting media) as
host tissue, including roots of tanoak seedlings (Parke et hyphae or as asexual structures (Kliejunas 2010).
al. 2006), stems and roots of rhododendron (Bienapfl et al.
Specific information relating to risk elements
2005), and leaves of rhododendron (Werres et al. 2001),
Research on sudden oak death through 2009 has been sum-
camellia (Shishkoff 2006), holm oak (Denman et al. 2009),
marized (Kliejunas 2010). Previous risk assessments have
and Japanese larch (Brasier and Webber 2010).
been completed for P. ramorum in North America (Klieju-
Phytophthora ramorum is considered a cool-tempera-
nas 2003), the United States (Cave et al. 2008), the state of
ture organism, with optimal growth between 18 and 22 °C
Oregon (Osterbauer 2010), Canada (CFIA 2012), the United
(Werres et al. 2001). The pathogen produces sporangia on
Kingdom (Sansford et al. 2003), the European Union (EPPO
97
2013; RAPRA 2009), Norway (Sundheim et al.2009), and tored for P. ramorum and other pathogens and would come
Australia (online at http://pbt.padil.gov.au). from nurseries outside the current P. ramorum quarantine
A. Likelihood of introduction zone; so the risk of this leading to the introduction of the
pathogen into Hawai‘i should be low.
High (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 2. Entry potential: High (VC) (Applicable rating
4: a, b, c, d, e, g, h). criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
Phytophthora ramorum appears to have been trans- Phytophthora ramorum can colonize most aerial parts
ported globally with separate introductions at least four of a plant and could therefore be brought into Hawai‘i
times (Grünwald et al. 2012). Plant import data from 2004 on any infected plant. A fair, but unknown, amount of
to 2010 indicated 30,125 units of high-risk plants arrived in movement of plant species is vulnerable to leaf infections.
Honolulu (APHIS 2011). This was the third leading port of However, phytosanitary regulations for this pathogen are in
entry in the United States. Nursery stock, cut flowers and place for west coast nurseries, and Hawai‘i regulators are
greenery commonly arrive in Hawai‘i from areas of Cal- looking for P. ramorum symptoms. Symptoms, though, may
ifornia where there has been some history of P. ramorum not be easily observed on some hosts. The possible intro-
occurrence. The quantity of material imported into Hawai‘i duction on wood products or seed should be close to nil.
from the regulated area was not available for this assess- 3. Colonization potential: High (VC) (Applicable
ment. Some of this material might possibly be infected or rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e)
might carry P. ramorum spores. Identified host species The ability of this fungus to infect plant species in
from quarantined areas of California and Oregon cannot Hawai‘i has not been thoroughly evaluated. A small test
be exported except with an APHIS-provided certificate or with some of Hawai‘i’s more significant native species
from nurseries with compliance agreements with APHIS. (including koa (Acacia koa), ohelo (Vaccinium calycinum),
Although this material has a high chance of receiving a ohia (Metrosideros polymorpha), and pukiawe (Lepto-
phytosanitary check upon arrival in Hawai‘i, inoculum and cophylla tameiameiae) indicated that all of these species
diseased material could still go undetected. Some of the could be affected by P. ramorum when inoculated with a
known hosts have few if any easily identifiable symptoms heavy load of zoospores under environmental conditions
and could be missed during inspections. conducive for infection. However, P. ramorum could be
Recent regulations by APHIS permit nurseries outside re-isolated from a few of the inoculated leaves of ohelo, koa,
of regulated and quarantined areas in the United States to and pukiawe (Reeser et al. 2008). Of these four potential
move host plants interstate unless P. ramorum has been hosts, only L. tameiameiae, M. polymorpha, and A. koa
detected at the nursery in the previous 3 years (on or after have ranges that coincide with known air and maritime
March 31, 2011) (APHIS Order DA-2014-02). Similarly, ports (Price et al. 2012).
nurseries within regulated areas of California, Oregon, and One feature of this pathogen that would make it
Washington will be allowed to move host plants interstate unlikely to colonize forests in Hawai‘i is that below 700
as long as P. ramorum has not been detected in the nursery m or above 1500 m sea level, temperatures for the growth
on or after March 31, 2011 (APHIS Order DA-2014-02). and sporulation of this pathogen will be outside its optimal
There is also interest in transferring conifer seedlings range of 18 to 22 °C. Much of Hawai‘i is too dry for this
currently growing in nurseries not too far outside of P. pathogen to likely establish. However, there are a number
ramorum-infested parts of the west coast of the mainland of areas on several of the islands where rainfall amounts
United States into Hawai‘i. Hawai‘i is interested in starting are significant, exceeding 2500 mm annually and generally
its own Christmas tree program using conifers from the equally distributed year round. This includes the islands of
west coast. This shipment would be very carefully moni- Hawai‘i, Kauai, Maui, and O‘ahu (Giambelluca et al. 2013).
98
Areas that receive international travel and imports with 5. Economic damage potential: High (RC) (Applicable
higher levels of rainfall (>1600 mm annually) within 6.4 rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d, f)
km include Hilo, Honolulu, and Kahului (Giambelluca et al.
In California, of the 150 species that have shown some
2013). Elevations with higher levels of rainfall range from
susceptibility to P. ramorum, only 5 have any propensity
near sea level to over 1.2 km. There may be some areas in
at all for developing lethal cankers, the most common way
Hawai‘i that are at risk because of having both favorable
that this pathogen can kill. Recent identification of a foliage
temperatures and humidity.
blight causing mortality of L. kaempferi in the United
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating Kingdom (Brasier and Webber 2010) suggests the possibil-
criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, e, f) ity that other hosts could be affected similarly. Grünwald et
Once established around some port areas, this pathogen al. (2012) noted that P. ramorum has had significant impacts
could spread into native forests in more moist areas of on forests because of reductions in recreational, cultural, or
Hawai‘i. Long-distance spread of the pathogen through commodity values and the costs of monitoring and eradica-
human-assisted movement has been identified based on tion efforts.
genetic analysis of distant infection sites in California This combination of very limited environmental
(Grünwald et al. 2012). The amount of inoculum produced windows where P. ramorum would be favored and what will
by hosts in Hawai‘i is not known, so the spread potential probably prove to be a very limited number of susceptible
into native forests is not known. Areas where spread could tree species suggests that the economic damage potential of
occur would most likely be located between 1000 and P. ramorum in Hawai‘i might be very localized and limited.
1400 m above sea level on the windward side of each of Also, the economic value of the possible native hosts in
the Hawai‘i Islands. Of course, even then, the species in Hawai‘i is small. However, establishment of the pathogen in
the forest would also need to be susceptible to infection the state would affect the international and domestic move-
and capable of supporting spore production as well. We ment of plants and plant products and result in restrictions
know the susceptibility of only a few of the most common in trade and movement. Direct costs of eradication, suppres-
Hawai‘i species to P. ramorum to date, and although most sion, and prevention would be high.
of those that were tested were susceptible to colonization 6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (MC)
to some degree, the conditions used for these tests were (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d)
extraordinarily favorable for pathogen development (Reeser
As there are likely to be only a limited number of loca-
et al. 2008). Reeser et al (2008) felt that most plant species
tions in Hawai‘i and a limited number of species that might
would be susceptible to leaf infections with the environ-
be vulnerable within these areas where damage might take
mental conditions that were used. Within limited localities
place, the environmental consequences are expected to be
of Hawai‘i where environmental conditions are conducive
limited. Furthermore, even if one species is heavily affected
for P. ramorum infection and sporulation (approximately
in one of these limited areas, there may well be dozens of
18 to 22 °C temperature and extended periods with high
other tree species that could fill into their space and thereby
humidity), there might be small areas of Hawai‘i that meet
fulfill some of the other key environmental functions. Some
the climatic requirements for this pathogen. But, even then,
of these species may not fulfill all of the functions or may
these areas would have to be composed of a number of trees
be nondesirable invasive species.
of species that were susceptible before there was any risk as
7. Social and political considerations: High (MC)
well, and it is likely that these areas will be fairly localized.
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d)
Mid-elevation sites on the windward (rainy) sides of Hawai‘i
and Kaua‘i might be among the most likely locations to be As a new exotic invasive pathogen that has killed mil-
wary of some P. ramorum activity if there are susceptible lions of tanoaks in the San Francisco Bay Area and millions
species growing in these areas. of Japanese larch in the United Kingdom, P. ramorum has
99
garnered political and social attention resulting in imple- Cave, G.L.; Randall-Schadel, B.R.; Redlin, S.C. 2008.
mentation of quarantines in over 60 countries (Sansford et Risk analysis for Phytophthora ramorum Werres, de
al. 2003. It has caused a significant legislative and media Cock & In’t Veld, causal agent of phytophthora canker
interest in California, Oregon, and the United Kingdom (sudden oak death), ramorum leaf blight, and ramorum
political arenas; and has caused concern in other U.S. states dieback. Revision 1. Raleigh, NC: U.S. Department
and European nations. Thus, if even a small population of of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection
P. ramorum were to get started in Hawai‘i, it would almost Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. 88 p.
certainly cause an immediate alarm amongst Hawaiians and
Davidson, J.M.; Rizzo, D.M.; Garbelotto, M.; Tjosvold,
trading partners.
S.; Slaughter, G.W. 2002. Phytophthora ramorum and
C. Pest risk potential sudden oak death in California. II. Transmission and
High (Likelihood of introduction = high; Conse- survival. In: Standiford, R.B.; McCreary, D.; Purcell,
quences of introduction = high) K.L., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fifth symposium
Although the pest risk potential for this pathogen is on oak woodlands: oaks in California’s changing
high, the environmental conditions optimal for infection, landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-184. Albany, CA:
development, and sporulation by P. ramorum are limited to U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
relatively small areas on any of the Hawai‘i Islands. There- Southwest Research Station: 741–749.
fore, the risk may be limited to the wettest, mid-elevation Davidson, J.M.; Wickland, A.C.; Patterson, H.A.; Falk,
sites, principally on the islands of Hawai‘i, Maui, and Oahu. K.R.; Rizzo, D.M. 2005. Transmission of Phytophthora
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Phytophthora ramorum from asymptomatic stems and Phytophthora ramorum and Phytophthora kernoviae on
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Phytophthora ramorum and Oregon forest trees—
Omdal, D.; Ramsey-Koll, A. 2013. Phytophthora ramorum
one pathogen, three diseases. In: Proceedings of the
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Cock & Man in’t Veld pest risk assessment for Oregon.
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http://www.suddenoakdeath.org/pdf/SOD_PRA_
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Parke, J.L.; Bienapfl, J.; Oh, E.; Rizzo, D.; Hansen, E.; Sansford, C.E.; Woodhall, J.W. 2007. Datasheet for
Buckles, G.; Lee, C.; Valachovic, Y. 2006. Natural Phytophthora ramorum. PPP 11824. Sand Hutton,
infection of tanoak seedling roots by Phytophthora York: Central Science Laboratory, Department of
ramorum. Phytopathology. 96: S90. Environment, Forestry, and Rural Affairs. 43 p. http://
www.suddenoakdeath.org/pdf/pram_PRA_UK.pdf.
Price, J.P.; Jacobi, J.D.; Gon, S.M., III; Matsuwaki,
(April 2010).
D.; Mehrhoff, L.; Wagner, W.; Lucas, M.; Rowe, B.,
2012. Mapping plant species ranges in the Hawaiian Sansford, C.E.; Inman, A.J.; Baker, R.; Brasier, C.;
Islands—Developing a methodology and associated GIS Frankel, S.; de Gruyter, J.; Husson, C.; Kehlenbeck,
layers: Open-File Report 2012–1192. Reston, VA: U.S. H.; Kessel, G.; Moralejo, E.; Steeghs, M.; Webber,
Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. 34 p. 1 J.; Werres, S. 2009. Report on the risk of entry,
appendix (species table). 1,158 maps. http://pubs.usgs. establishment, spread and socio-economic loss and
gov/of/2012/1192/. (June 2014). environmental impact and the appropriate level of
management for Phytophthora ramorum for the EU.
Risk Analysis of Phytophora ramorum [RAPRA].
Deliverable Report 28. Sand Hutton, York, United
2009. Risk analysis of Phytophthora ramorum, a newly
Kingdom: Forest Research, Central Science Laboratory.
recognised pathogen threat to Europe and the cause of
EU Sixth Framework Project, RAPRA. 310 p. http://
Sudden Oak Death in the USA. European Union Sixth
rapra.csl.gov.uk/RAPRAPRA_26feb09.pdf. (April 2010).
Framework Project, deliverable report D28. http://rapra.
csl.gov.uk/RAPRA-PRA_26feb09.pdf. Sansford, C.E.; Jones, D.R.; Brasier, C.M. 2003. Revised
summary pest risk analysis for Phytophthora ramorum
Reeser, P.; Hansen, E.; Sutton, W.; Davidson, J.; Parke,
for the UK. York, United Kingdom: Forest Research,
J. 2008. Susceptibility of some native plant species from
Central Science Laboratory. 23 p.
Hawai‘i to Phytophthora ramorum. In: Frankel, S.J.;
Kliejunas, J.T.; Palmieri, K.M., tech. coords. Proceedings Shishkoff, N. 2006. Susceptibility of Camellia to
of the sudden oak death third science symposium. Gen. Phytophthora ramorum. Online. Plant Health Progress.
Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-214. Albany, CA: U.S. Department doi:10.1094/PHP-2006-0315-01-RS.
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
Shishkoff, N. 2007. Persistence of Phytophthora ramorum
Research Station: 437–438.
in soil mix and roots of nursery ornamentals. Plant
Rizzo, D.M.; Garbelotto, M.; Davidson, J.M.; Slaughter, Disease. 91: 1245–1249.
G.W.; Koike, S.T. 2002. Phytophthora ramorum as
Sundheim, L.; Herrero, M.L.; Rafoss, T.; Toppe, B.
the cause of extensive mortality of Quercus spp. and
2009. Pest risk assessment of Phytophthora ramorum
Lithocarpus densiflorus in California. Plant Disease.
in Norway. Opinion of the Panel on Plant Health of
86: 205–214.
the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety,
Rizzo, D.M.; Garbelotto, M.; Hansen, E.M. 2005. 08/907-3 final, ISBN 978-82-8082-351-9 (Electronic
Phytophthora ramorum: integrative research and edition). Oslo, Norway. VKM.
management of an emerging pathogen in California
and Oregon forests. Annual Review of Phytopathology.
43: 309–335.
102
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Werres, S.; Kaminsky, K. 2005. Characterization of
Health Inspection Service [APHIS]. 2005. Program European and North American Phytophthora ramorum
update for Phytophthora ramorum. U.S. Department isolates due to their morphology and mating behaviour
of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection in vitro with heterothallic Phytophthora species.
Service, Pest Detection and Management Programs. Mycological Research. 109: 860–871.
January 10, 2005. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/ispm/
Werres, S.; Marwitz, R. 1997. Triebsterben an
pramorum. (March 23, 2012).
Rhododendron—Unbekannteb Phytophthora. Deutscher
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Gartenbau. 21: 1166–1168.
Health Inspection Service [APHIS]. 2011b. APHIS-
Werres, S.; Marwitz, R.; Veld, W.; De Cock, A.;
National Plant Board Phytophthora ramorum regulatory
Bonants, P.J.M.; De Weerdt, M.; Themann, K.; Ilieva,
working group reports. Gray Haun and Prakash Hebbar,
E.; Baayen, R.P. 2001. Phytophthora ramorum sp.
Co-Chairs. 70 p. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/
nov., a new pathogen on Rhododendron and Viburnum.
plant_pest_info/pram/downloads/pdf_files/
Mycological Research. 105: 1155–1165.
NPB-RWGR.pdf.
Reviewers’ comments: “This distribution list could be
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant
misleading since it doesn’t state if it is nursery, garden, or
Health Inspection Service [APHIS]. 2013c. APHIS list
wildland.” (S. Frankel)
of regulated hosts and plants proven or associated with
“Not clear what this (infested stock shipped to many
Phytophthora ramorum. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/
states) refers to. What states? Add something about number
plant_health/plant_pest_info/pram/downloads/pdf_files/
of US nursery detections and number of states.” (S. Frankel)
usdaprlist.pdf. (May 2014).
“Nurseries in California, Oregon, and Washington were
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant added to the regulation in 2004/5. The risk from nursery
Health Inspection Service [APHIS]. 2014. APHIS stock movement is not just from within the infested counties
Phytophthora ramorum Program 2014, 1st Quarter of California!!” (S. Frankel)
Summary; March 31st, 2014. http://www.aphis.usda. “Can you provide a map of Hawai‘i showing locations
gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/pram/downloads/ of forests with high rainfall and relatively cool tempera-
updates/2014/1st-quarter.pdf. (June 18, 2014). tures. In all sections, there isn’t much evidence provided for
each rating.” (S. Frankel)
Van Poucke, K.; Franceschini, S.; Webber, J.F.;
“Most of your references and citations are old. There
Vercauteren, A.; Turner, J.A.; McCracken, A.R.;
are many review papers (and other papers) that need to be
Heugens, K.; Brasier, C.M. 2012. Discovery of a fourth
included.” (S. Frankel)
evolutionary lineage of Phytophthora ramorum: EU2.
Fungal Biology. 116: 1178–1191. Response to comments: The first three reviewer com-
ments were addressed by clarifying additions to the text.
Webber, J.F.; Mullett, M.; Brasier, C.M. 2010. Dieback
Information on types of situations where P. ramorum
and mortality of plantation Japanese larch (Larix
occurs in various locations was added. Maps with rainfall
kaempferi) associated with infection by Phytophthora
distribution were evaluated, although not included in this
ramorum. New Disease Reports. 22: 19.
document, and information related to rainfall was added to
the assessment. Elevation was used as a proxy for tempera-
ture distribution. Several recent review papers were added
to the selected bibliography.
103
Uromyces Rusts Pycniospores develop on cankers in late May to early July.

Assessor: Gregg DeNitto Urediospores follow in early June to mid-July. Teliospores
are produced on stem cankers from late July into the fall.
Sporidia are produced the following spring and cause the
Scientific names of hosts: see table 10 primary infection on new shoots. In addition to seedling
Distribution: see table 10 cankers, U. truncicola causes multiple cankers on older
trees, causing branch dieback and eventual tree death
(Kusano 1904).
the pests: Rust fungi, members of the Pucciniaceae, are
Uromyces sophorae-japonicae and U. scaevolae both
found around the world, except Antarctica, in both nat-
affect the foliage only. Uromyces sophorae-japonicae has
ural and human ecosystems. They are obligate parasites,
been reported to have a life cycle similar to U. truncicola
with either one (autoecious) or two (heteroecious) hosts
with the four spore stages (Kusano 1904). However, all of
required for completion of their life cycle. They have been
the spore stages of U. sophoreae-japonicae are found on the
recognized as a group of fungi that cause serious diseases
leaf, blade, or petiole of its host. Information on the biology
affecting many ornamental plants that are produced
of U. scaevolae could not be found, but it is assumed to
commercially (Wise et al. 2004). Spore stages of these fungi
have similarities to these other two species.
are transported naturally either by wind or rain splash. They
Sophora japonica is native to China, Japan, and Korea.
can be readily moved by transport of infected host tissue,
It is grown as an ornamental species for gardens, parks, and
such as cuttings, live plants, and other tissues.
road-side plantings. Several cultivars are available. Exotic
Uromyces truncicola causes a canker of Sophora
plantings include Croatia, Italy, Spain, Thailand, United
japonica nursery seedlings in Japan (Kusano 1904, Orwa
Kingdom, United States, and Vietnam (Orwa et al. 2009).
et al. 2009). It is an autoecious, macrocyclic rust fungus.
Four spore stages—teliospores, sporidia, pycniospores, and Specific information relating to risk elements
urediospores—are produced (Zinno and Hayashi 1980). A. Likelihood of introduction
Table 10—Hosts, country of origin and citations for Uromyces species of concern

Uromyces scaevolae G. Scaevola albida, Australia, New Zealand Farr and Rossman, n.d.
Cunn. (Pucciniales: Scaevola sp., Scaevola
Pucciniaceae) spinescens, Selliera
radicans
Uromyces sophorae- Sophora japonica Japan Kusano 1904
japonicae Dietel
(Pucciniales:
Pucciniaceae)
Uromyces truncicola Sophora japonica China, Japan, Korea Kusano 1904, Orwa et
Hennings & Shirai al. 2009
(Pucciniales:
Pucciniaceae)
104
1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: not known if the native Hawai‘i species are susceptible. The
Moderate (MC) (Applicable rating criteria, from occurrence of Sophora near sea level indicates that it can be
app. 4: b, h) in proximity to areas of trade.
These rust fungi are persistent with their host as long 4. Spread potential: Moderate (RC) (Applicable rating
as the host tissue is living. Uromyces truncicola is perennial criteria, from app. 4: a, c, e, f)
because of its infecting stem tissue, so it is likely to be Once infection of native Hawai‘i Sophora occurs, it is
present on the host year round. The other two species may likely that these fungi could spread farther, at least on the
only be present with their host during the growing season island where they are introduced. Interisland spread is less
when foliage is on the plant. Rust fungi generally have a likely without human assistance.
high population increase potential, and this is expected with
these species. Once these fungi infect their host, mycelium
is buried within the tissue and would not be dislodged 5. Economic damage potential: Low (RC) (Applicable
during any harvesting or handling. rating criteria, from app. 4: f)
2. Entry potential: High (MC) (Applicable rating crite- None of these fungi cause significant economic damage
ria, from app. 4: b, c, d) in their native range. If commercial propagation of Sophora
species came into existence in Hawai‘i, then it is possible
The movement of either infected stems or foliage,
that some economic damage could occur if these fungi were
depending on the fungal species, could transport these
introduced.
fungi to new areas. Mycelium within host tissue would
likely not be a concern with entry, but infective spores that 6. Environmental damage potential: High (RU)
may be carried with the host or be produced upon arrival (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, d)
are the likely forms of subsequent infection. Like many None of these fungi appear to cause significant levels
fungi, cursory examination of infected hosts may not of host mortality unless other stress factors are present.
reveal their presence because they are microscopic and well Impacts to other functions of these plants, such as foliage,
concealed. The probability that a pathogen is detected at a flower, or seed production, do not seem significant. If
port of entry is a function of visible symptoms or signs and branch cankers and dieback became significant, flower
the level of inspection sampling. Uromyces truncicola may and seed production might be affected. This could have a
be more apparent because of the hypertrophy of stem tissue negative effect on the endangered padilla bird.
that can occur.
7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC)
3. Colonization potential: Moderate (MC) (Applicable (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: none)
rating criteria, from app. 4: b, e)
The introduction of any Uromyces species that infects
Sporidia is the only fungal stage to cause new infec- Sophora would likely not have significant social or political
tions. Teliospores can be transported and later germinate to impacts.
produce sporidia that can then cause new infections. Infec-
tion is dependent on the availability of viable sporidia and
the proper temperature and humidity requirements of these High (Likelihood of introduction = moderate; Conse-
fungi. Only Sophora have been identified as hosts, and it is quences of introduction = high)
105
Selected bibliography: Scientific names of hosts: Very wide host range from many
Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology families, including economically important crops such as
and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/ several species of Citrus, Coffea arabica (coffee), Hevea
fungaldatabases/. (13 March 2013). brasiliensis (rubber tree), Malus domestica (apple), Mangif-
era indica (mango), Melia azedarach (chinaberry), Piper
Kusano, S. 1904. Notes on the Japanese fungi. I. Uredineae
nigrum (black pepper), Theobroma cacao (cocoa), and
on Sophora. Botanical Magazine Tokyo. 18: 1–6.
Vanilla planifolia (vanilla). It is also found on many import-
Orwa, C.; Mutua, A.; Kindt, R.; Jamnadass, R.; ant ornamental and forest tree species; for a complete list
Simons, A. 2009. Agroforestree database: a tree see Farr and Rossman (n.d.). Two phylogenetically distinct
reference and selection guide version 4.0. http:// species of Ceratobasidium on tea (Camillia sinensis) and
www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/speciesprofile. Asian persimmon (Diospyros kaki) from Brazil (Ceresini
php?Spid=18098. (13 May 2013). et al. 2012) cause similar disease etiology and may have
Wise, K.A.; Mueller, D.S.; Buck, J.W. 2004. Quarantines been reported as C. noxium or its synonyms in the older
and ornamental rusts. APSnetFeature-2004-0204. literature. Genera of Hawai‘i native plants at particular risk
doi:10.1094/. (13 August 2013). are Diospyros sp. and Erythina sp. Ceratobasidium white
thread pathogens have been reported on D. texana in Flor-
Zinno, Y.; Hayashi, H. 1980. Life history of Uromyces ida, D. virginiana in Louisiana and Tennessee, D. kaki from
truncicola causing the canker disease of Sophora Brazil, and Erythrina sp. in Florida (CABI 2011b; Ceresini
japonica seedlings. Transactions of the Mycological et al. 2012; Farr and Rossman, n.d).
Society of Japan. 21: 87–95.
Distribution: Ceratobasidium noxium is widely distributed
Reviewers’ comments: None received. in tropical and semitropical areas of Asia, Africa, the Amer-
icas, Greece, and Oceania, including American Samoa, Fiji,
White-Thread Blight/Black Rot
Micronesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa,
Assessor: Jessie A. Glaeser and Vanuatu but has not been observed in Australia or
Scientific names of pest: Ceratobasidium noxium (Donk) P. New Zealand. In North America, it has been reported from
Roberts Indiana but is usually associated with Southern states,
Synonym: Pellicularia koleroga Cooke including Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisi-
Corticium koleroga (Cooke) Hőhn ana, Mississippi, Texas, Tennessee, and Puerto Rico. (CABI
Botryobasidium koleroga Venkatar. 2011b; Farr and Rossman, n.d.).
Other species of Ceratobasidium, including C. anceps, Summary of natural history and basic biology of
C. cornigerum, and two unnamed but phylogenetically the pests: Ceratobasidium noxium and closely related
distinct species on tea (Camillia sinensis) and persimmon species are responsible for a number of diseases on a wide
(Diospyros kaki) from Brazil (Ceresini et al. 2012), all cause variety of different hosts in the tropics and subtropics.
similar diseases, termed “white-thread blight” and “black These diseases have been termed “white-thread disease,”
rot.” Ceratobasidium anceps and C. cornigerum are asso- “black rot,” and “koleroga disease.” Although wide-spread,
ciated with temperate climes (Farr and Rossman, n.d.) and it is usually not an overly destructive pathogen except under
have not been reported on genera of host plants of interest in narrowly defined environmental conditions. Humidity
this pest risk assessment.
106
appears to be the most important parameter for fungal Although the two unnamed species in Brazil are phy-
growth and disease development. Heavy mists, poor air logenetically distinct and show host preferences for either
circulation, continuous and persistent light showers, and tea (Camillia sinensis) or Asian persimmon (Diospyros
cloudy skies are more conducive to disease development kaki), they are able to cause disease on both hosts as well
than extremely heavy rainstorms followed by sun. In India, as on coffee and citrus in pathogenicity experiments. Eight
the disease is observed on coffee plants in regions that varieties of D. kaki showed no resistance to the disease
exceed 152.4 cm of rain per year and is severe only in those (Souza et al. 2009).
areas that experience heavy South West Monsoon rains
from June to September or where microclimate provides
Uncertainties in this assessment are due to a lack of
high humidity for extensive time periods (Mathew 1954).
literature on the biology of the fungus. Basic work on dis-
The temperature optimum of C. noxium is 22 to 25 °C
ease physiology is restricted to the fungus on coffee (Coffea
(Matsumoto and Yamamoto 1934). Cool, humid conditions
arabica) in India (Mathew 1954) and on Asian persimmon
favor disease development. The fungus is able to infect all
and tea (Souza et al. 2009) in Brazil.
portions of the plant including young shoots, leaves, and
berries (Mathew 1954).
Disease is characterized by the presence of black, 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin potential: High
rotting leaves that continue to hang on the branches owing (VC) (Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: b, c, d,
to the presence of mycelial threads that run along the twigs g, h)
and petioles. Mycelial mats are formed on the lower sur- The fungus has a very broad host range with a very
faces of the leaves where both basidiospores and sclerotia wide geographic distribution in tropical and subtropical
are formed. The fungus penetrates the leaves through the regions of the world. It is able to survive in soil and dried
stomata on the lower surface and invades the palisade plant material, and can also increase its population rapidly
cells and vascular system, thus spreading throughout the under certain environmental conditions through the forma-
plant. Basidiospore formation on coffee is associated with tion of basidiospores and sclerotia.
continuous rainfall, but the fungus seems to be spread 2. Entry potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating crite-
primarily by mycelial threads carried by wind or by contact ria, from app. 4: b, c, d)
from detached, infected leaves. Basidiospores lose viability
Fungus can survive within vascular tissues of the wood
rapidly on account of desiccation—up to 80 percent of
as well as in leaves and stems. It is difficult to detect as the
spores lost the ability to germinate after 2 weeks on water
mycelial threads are small and only formed during periods
agar—and may only be able to infect and colonize highly
of high humidity. The presence of dead leaves could be due
susceptible hosts in proximity to diseased plants under
to many different causes and would not attract attention.
narrowly defined environmental conditions. The fungus
appears to survive dry periods as vegetative mycelium 3. Colonization potential: High (RC) (Applicable rat-
within dead twigs, branches, and wood. The role of sclerotia ing criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c, e)
in spreading the pathogen is unknown; pathogenicity testing The worldwide distribution of the pathogen, even to
using fresh and 1-year-old sclerotia as inoculum on coffee remote Pacific islands, shows that it is capable of coloniza-
leaves was unsuccessful, but only a small number of plants tion and spread after transport.
were used in the experiment (Mathew 1954).
107
4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri- Selected bibliography:

teria, from app. 4: a, b, c, d, f, g) Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International
This pathogen has many potential hosts with over- [CABI]. 2011b. Crop protection compendium: Corticium
lapping ranges. Newly established populations could go koleroga (thread blight). Wallingford, United Kingdom:
undetected for many years as the disease often occurs at CAB International. http://www.cabi.org/cpc.
a low level and is limited to geographic areas and times (20 May 2013).
of the year of extreme humidity and rainfall. The eastern, Ceresini, P.C.; Costa-Souza, E.; Zala, M.; Furtado, E.L.;
wetter portions of the islands would be particularly suitable Souza, N.L. 2012. Evidence that the Ceratobasidium-
for establishment of the fungus. The uncertainty in this like white-thread blight and black rot fungal pathogens
criterion is due to the lack of information on the role of from persimmon and tea crops in the Brazilian Atlantic
basidiospores and sclerotia in establishing the pathogen. Forest agroecosystem are two distinct phylospecies.
B. Consequences of introduction Genetics and Molecular Biology. 35: 480–497.
5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (VC) Farr, D.F.; Rossman, A.Y. [N.d.]. Systematic mycology
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a, b, c) and microbiology [Database]. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/
The pathogen can cause plant death and decreased fungaldatabases/. (18 June 2014).
production in many different economically important host Mathew, K.T. 1954. Studies on the black rot of coffee:
plants. I. The disease in South India and some general
6. Environmental damage potential: Moderate (RC) considerations. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: d) Sciences-Section B. 39: 133–170.
The pathogen is active and causes leaf death and Matsumoto, T.; Yamamoto, W. 1935. Hypochnus sasakii
defoliation under conditions of extreme humidity, usually Shirai in comparison with Corticium stevensii Burt and
restricted to the monsoon or rainy season. Mortality can Corticium koleroga (Cooke) v. Hőhn. Transactions of the
occur owing to host decline and predisposing the host to Natural History Society of Formosa. 25: 161–175.
other mortality agents, but the fungus does not appear to be
Souza, E.C.; Basseto, M.A.; Boliani, A.C; Takada,
a primary pathogen in most situations.
H.M.; Ceresini, P.C. 2009. Cross pathogenicity of
7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (RC) Ceratobasdium spp. from kaki (Diospyros kaki) and tea
(Applicable rating criteria, from app. 4: a) (Camellia sinensis) and reaction of kaki varieties to the
The public would become concerned with the forma- pathogen. Summa Phytopathologica. 35: 9–14.
tion of dead, rotted leaves on plants in native forests and Reviewers’ comments: None received.
landscapes.
C. Pest risk potential
108
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions

Summary We examined the lists of exotic fungal and insect
Hawai‘i is unique amongst the 50 states. As noted in chapter species for those considered to have capacity to be effective
2, it was formed and developed over the millennia inde- pathogens or pests on living trees. We relied on information
pendently of any other land mass. This has resulted in very presented in the literature, when this was available, and
unique and distinct species and ecosystems on each island. also on the experience of the authors and reviewers of this
Because of its isolation, the state also has a rare economic document. This helped to narrow the list to the about 400
situation, with almost all goods needing to arrive from other insect pests and 300 pathogens shown in tables 7-1 and 7-2,
locations. This status of Hawai‘i has been a driver during respectively (app. 7)1. These tables represent what we con-
this assessment and underlies many of the issues the state sider the insect pests and pathogens with the most potential
faces with respect to invasive species. for damage to the taxa should they gain entry into Hawai‘i.
A major challenge of this analysis was to determine Besides providing lists of which insects and pathogens
which of the world’s 400,000 fungal species and 900,000 have potential to cause damage, it is also important to
insect species known to feed on plant/plant parts are not yet evaluate the potential for these agents to be introduced and
found in Hawai‘i and pose a risk to 13 key forest tree taxa in become established in Hawai‘i and also the amount of dam-
the Hawaiian Islands. age they might cause. This evaluation is done via individual
The approach taken for this exercise followed protocols pest risk assessments (IPRA). We identified 12 insect pests
established by the international plant protection commu- and 12 pathogens to include in the IPRAs, which repre-
nity. For each of the 13 Hawai‘i forest taxa, we examined sent examples of insects and pathogens found on seeds,
the literature and determined the insects and pathogens roots, bark, sapwood, and heartwood that would have the
recorded on them in Hawai‘i. We compiled a similar list greatest potential risk to forests and other tree resources of
of insects and pathogens world-wide and not known to Hawai‘i. They are representative of the diversity of insects
occur in Hawai‘i and recorded in association with the taxa and pathogens that might inhabit the hosts of concern. By
or other species of the same genera. Although this process necessity, the IPRAs focus on those insects and pathogens
may seem straightforward, the lists that were produced of for which biological information was available. The location
potential pests and pathogens for each of the 13 taxa are on the host and a summary of the risk potential for each of
considerable in length. For some species, like Acacia koa, the 24 organisms is presented in table 11.
this process produced lists of literally thousands of fungi We received over 400 comments on the draft risk
and insect species that have been associated with Acacia assessment. These comments came from people in various
species. This is, in large measure, due to the abundance of agencies and countries identified in appendix 1. Our team
land area worldwide covered by the 700 different species is extremely grateful for the time and effort expended by
of Acacia and the fact that thousands of forest health reviewers, who clearly dedicated substantial energy to the
personnel, mycologists, entomologists, etc. have spent large review process and provided thoughtful feedback that made
portions of their careers looking at the flora and fauna that our final report much more robust.
affect species in this genus. Metrosideros polymorpha was The complexity of this project was clearly reflected in
another key species that had numerous fungi associated many of the comments that we received. Some reviewers
with it, no doubt because there are so many Metrosideros felt that the scope of the risk assessment was limited and
species scattered across the Pacific. By contrast, some of should be expanded (not all pathways were considered),
the other species, like Sophora chrysophylla, Myoporum while others stated that the content was overwhelming and
sandwicensis, and Scaevola spp. had very short lists asso- made the document difficult to read. We felt that this project
ciated with them because their genera are composed of a
1Appendices for this report are available online at: http://www.fs.fed.
relatively small number of species, and individuals or pests us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr250/ psw_gtr250_appendix.pdf.
are underreported owing to their noneconomic nature.
109
Table 11—Summary of risk potentials for pests of concern to 13 Hawai‘i forest hosts (continued)
Host Coloni- Environ-
Common name (scientific associ- Entry zation Spread Economic mental Social/ Pest risk
name)/location on host ation potential potential potential damage damage political potential
Insects
Apple stem borer Ha H H H H H M H
(Aeolesthes holosericea)/
bark/cambium, sapwood,
heartwood
Botany Bay diamond M H M M M M L M
weevil (Chryosolopus
spectabilis)/roots,
foliage/other, bark/
cambium
Coconut rhinoceros beetle H H H H M M M H
(Oryctes rhinoceros)/
foliage/other
Coconut stick insect M M M L L L M M
(Graeffea crouanii)/
foliage/other
Erythrina scale M H L M M M M M
(Toumeyella erythrinae)/
foliage/other, bark
cambium
Eugenia psyllid (Trioza M H H M M M M M
eugeniae)/foliage/other
Keyhole ambrosia beetle H H H H M L M H
(Amasa truncata)/bark/
cambium
Lemon tree borer (Oemona M M H M M M L M
hirta)/bark/cambium,
sapwood, heartwood
Platypodid ambrosia beetle M H H H M M M M
(Megaplatypus mutatus)/
bark/cambium
Summer fruit tortrix moth H H H H M H M H
(Adoxophyes orana)/
foliage/other (fruit
surface)
110
West Indian sugarcane H H H H H H M H
borer weevil (Diaprepes
abbreviatus)/roots,
foliage/other
White wax scale H H H H H H M H
(Ceroplastes destructor)/
foliage/other
Pathogens
Acacia gall rust H H H H M M M H
(Uromycladium
tepperianum)/foliage/
other, bark/cambium
Aecidium rusts (Aecidium M H M H L M L M
atrocrustaceum,
A. calosporum, A.
carbonaceum, A.
diospyri, A. mabae,
A. melaenum, A.
muelleri, A. myopori,
A. ramosii, A. reyesii,
A. rhytismoideum, A.
royenae, A. ulei, A.
yapoense)/foliage/other,
bark/cambium
Armillaria root disease H H H H H H H H
(Armillaria limonea, A.
luteobubalina, A. novae-
zelandiae, A. tabescens)/
roots, bark/cambium,
sapwood, heartwood
Calonectria morganii/ H H H H M M L H
seeds, roots, foliage/
other, bark/cambium
Fomitiporia spp. H H H H M H H H
(Fomitiporia
australiensis, F.
mediterranea, F.
punctata, F. robusta,
F. sonorae)/roots, bark/
cambium, sapwood,
heartwood
111
Guava rust/eucalyptus rust H H H H H H H H
(Puccinia psidii)/foliage/
other
Pestalotia and H H M H L M L M
Pestalotiopsis
(Pestalotia acacia, P.
cibotii, P. diospyri, P.
dodonaea, P. pandani,
vaccinii; Pestalotiopsis
sp., P. breviseta,
P. glandicola, P.
palmarum, P. photiniae,
P. theae, P. uvicola, P.
versicolor)/foliage/other
Phellinus noxius/roots, H H H H M H H H
bark/cambium, sapwood,
heartwood
Pink disease (Erythricium H H H H H H H H
salmonicolor)/bark/
cambium
Ramorum blight/sudden H H H H H M H H
oak death (Phytophthora
ramorum)/foliage/other,
bark/cambium
Uromyces rusts (Uromyces M H M M L H L H
scaevolae, U.
sophorae- japonicae, U.
truncicola)/foliage/other
White thread blight/black H H H H M M M H
rot (Ceratobasidium
noxium)/foliage/other
a H = high, M = moderate, and L = low.
112
was very broad in scope and as such, provided a challenge pathogen that needs to be searched for in these inspections.
for concise organization and documentation. The main action that needs to be considered jointly by
Other comments addressed issues of document clarity Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS),
and readability, stating that we sometimes strayed beyond U.S. Customs and Border Patrol (CBP), and the Hawai‘i
our objectives in some of our conclusions. We gathered data Department of Agriculture (HDOA) is whether or not some
from many sources including previous risk assessments for of the pests and pathogens in this present report should be
Hawai‘i and the Caribbean countries. Some reviewers felt put on the “actionable” lists and receive focused attention.
that some of the data were used or interpreted incorrectly or The exact way of getting this to happen is beyond the
were simply erroneous. We made every attempt to correct scope of this report. However, the importance of handling
or clarify those mistakes. Readability was improved by this well is illustrated by Beardsley (1991) who estimated
moving the tables and other information from the body to that an average of 3.5 new pest arthropods and mollusks
appendices. establish in Hawai‘i on an annual basis. This number has
Within the tables of existing and potential insects and likely increased over the past two decades despite increased
pathogens, reviewers identified a number of organisms with inspections and regulatory efforts
incorrect information; the appropriate edits were made by Another way to reduce the odds of an exotic pest or
the team. pathogen becoming established would be to have a survey/
Within our risk assessment process, there was some monitoring program in place for detecting pests and patho-
confusion about regulations that govern movement of gens that might have recently escaped into the environs
commodities and inspection for pests. Reviewers clarified immediately surrounding the ports (e.g., an early detection
the roles of state and federal regulatory agencies for us in system). Potentially invasive insects have often been
order to clear up confusion. trapped in such exercises using traps with species-specific
lures.
Issues and Findings
2. The primary sources of introductions are mainland
We identified a number of issues and findings in this pest
United States and Asia-Pacific.
risk assessment. Some of them have been reported in other
Hawai‘i is located over 3218 km from the nearest conti-
assessments (Culliney et al. [n.d.], Meissner et al. 2009) and
nental coast, resulting in nearly absolute dependence on
were adopted by us as appropriate for Hawai‘i because they
ocean surface transportation or air transport for human
are integral to invasive species transport and risk around the
sustenance. In addition, the tropical paradise is a tourist
world. Some are more peculiar to Hawai‘i. We present these
destination for millions of people via aircraft or cruise
findings in the following pages. We considered six findings
ships. The increasing volume of goods and people coming
most important and discuss at length. Other findings are
into the state each year, combined with the year-round
more briefly mentioned.
tropical/temperate climate, has greatly increased exotic pest
1. Inspection alone is not 100 percent effective in pre- introduction and establishment. There appears to be no end
venting introductions. In fact, some studies have shown in sight. It is estimated that 20 to 40 new terrestrial arthro-
that port inspections, alone, have relatively low intercep- pod introductions occured in Hawai‘i each year from 1937
tion efficiency (Meissner et al. 2009). to 1967 (Beardsley 1979a), with about 10 percent becoming
Inspection success might be improved by assessing com- significant pests. At the Kahului Airport on Maui, there
modities scheduled to arrive in Hawai‘i, including their were 10.8 insect interceptions per day (of species not known
type, source, quantity, and timing, for their potential to to occur in Hawai‘i, known to be established in Hawai‘i,
be carrying actionable pests. This could aid inspectors or of undetermined status) in just 130 days of inspections
in determining where to focus their inspection efforts during 2000-2001 (HDOA 2002).
on arriving shipments and also in indicating the pest or
113
During a good economic period, Honolulu Harbor an analysis of data from 2005 through 2006 shows travel-
accommodated more than 1 million 20-ft equivalent units ers from Japan to be the source of the highest number of
(TEUs) per year. These were distributed on O‘ahu, to other quarantine materials (primarily citrus), followed by Aus-
islands, and shipped to overseas ports. Installation of new tralia and Guam. Although no plant pest interceptions were
facilities could increase capacity from 950,000 to 1,500,000 recorded for the over 7,000 passenger groups sampled, 426
TEUs per year. In addition, in 2013, over 8.2 million people pests were recorded in the PestID database (USDA 2007a)
came to Hawai‘i either on cruise ships or airplanes (Hawai‘i for the same years, potentially indicating a low intercep-
Tourism Authority 2014). The majority of visitors came tion efficiency rate. For visitors from the U.S. mainland,
from the U.S. mainland (60 percent) and Japan (18 percent) quarantine inspections by HDOA resulted in over 300 pest
(Hawai‘i Tourism Authority 2014). interceptions in domestic air passenger carry-on baggage
Increased understanding of the prevalence of pests on between 1995 and 1996 (HDOA 2007), demonstrating that
ships (including military), in cargo containers, and aboard visitors entering by air from the U.S. mainland are a sig-
aircraft (and other high-risk pathways), and their origin, can nificant pathway for introduction of exotic pests. Pests that
lead to more targeted inspections and potentially reduce the were repeatedly intercepted included scales, ants, leafmin-
number of pest introductions and establishments. Eighty ers, noctuids (owlet moths), mealybugs, and codling moths.
percent of all consumer goods are imported into Hawai‘i, Although the pest risk associated with airline passengers
98 percent of which comes through commercial harbors. cannot be completely quantified owing to lack of data, it is
Hawai‘i received 25.3 million metric tons (tonnes) of sea likely significant (Culliney et al., n.d.).
cargo from domestic trade and 7.6 million metric tons Most foreign and domestic fresh agricultural shipments
from foreign trade in 2005 (Culliney et al., n.d.: table 4-1). into Hawai‘i arrive by aircraft. Inspection blitzes were
Any such numbers can be misleading though, as much of conducted between September 2000 and July 2001 at the
the domestic cargo from the U.S. mainland is foreign in Kahului Airport on Maui. Most daily flights originated from
origin and is then shipped to Hawai‘i as domestic cargo the U.S. mainland (81 percent), with the remainder coming
(Kosciuk 2007) and is subject to different phytosanitary from Canada. Each blitz lasted over a 3- to 4-week period
inspection standards. during which intensive inspections were made of checked
Between 2004 and 2006, the majority of shipments of and carry-on baggage, aircraft cabins and cargo holds,
propagative material classified as foreign came from Indo- and all agricultural products shipped by air cargo (HDOA
nesia, Canada, and Thailand. This did not include foreign 2002). In total, 1,897 flights were inspected, 81 percent of
plants shipped to the U.S. mainland and then sent to Hawai‘i which had agricultural commodities (flowers, plants, and
as domestic cargo (see above). Shipments from Indonesia produce) in the baggage or in the cabin.
represented over 100 plant genera and two shipments of The KARA air cargo inspections involved 1,495
lumber products. Shipments from Canada and Thailand shipments containing 168,351 cases of over 400 different
also contained over 100 different plant genera (Culliney et agricultural commodities. Most of the shipments from
al., n.d.). Over 1,500 plant pests, representing 140 species domestic ports were from California. Foreign shipments
not known to occur in Hawai‘i, were on shipments arriving primarily came from Australia, Ecuador, Guatemala,
from the U.S. mainland between 2004 and 2006. This Holland, Mexico, and New Zealand. Pests were found in 9.8
includes pests intercepted on material that originated in a percent of the cases that underwent 100 percent inspection.
foreign country, but was classified as domestic cargo upon Domestic shipments had a higher percentage of pests not
arrival in Hawai‘i (Culliney et al., n.d.). known to exist in Hawai‘i (45 percent) compared to foreign
People can transport pests in checked and carry-on shipments (33 percent). Foreign shipments had a higher per-
baggage as hitchhikers or on goods brought into the state. centage of pests already established in Hawai‘i (52 percent)
For international travelers coming into Honolulu Airport, compared to domestic shipments (37 percent). During the
114
period 1980-2002, two-hundred sixty-six insects and other passengers need to inspect and regulate the contents of their
arthropods were recorded as new state records for Hawai‘i baggage. Public outreach is probably the most efficient way
(HDOA 2002); an average of 12 new arthropods estab- to effect this change with a majority of the visitors, most
lished per year. Most of these are not pests or are of minor of whom presumably want to do the right thing. Important
significance. Some were purposely introduced to control basic topics to address in any outreach should include:
other pests. Of these 266 insects and other arthropods, 46 • Why live plant material brought in by visitors from
are considered moderate to serious pests by the HDOA. outside Hawai‘i threatens native Hawai‘i forests.
Twenty-five of these 46 pests are of foreign origin, and the • What are some of “the really bad actors,” and why is
other 21 pests are known to occur on the U.S. mainland. it important to avoid introducing them.
Although pests in Hawai‘i have come from a variety • What types of behavior inadvertently introduce
of origins, many have come from the U.S. mainland and pests.
Asia-Pacific countries and islands. The lack of ability to • Contact information for questions and information,
inspect everything coming into Hawai‘i (owing to the including how visitors can help.
amount of goods and number of passengers, limited fund- • Understanding why visitors bring live plants into
ing, lack of reliable detection methods, and other reasons), Hawai‘i. While interception statistics show that
and knowing that a significant number of imminent pests visitors bring many potentially problematic live
have the potential to be introduced via multiple pathways, plants into Hawai‘i, there has been little available
combined with the alarming rate of pest establishments, information on the types of motivations visitors have
point to the need to increase inspections and improve for doing so. Understanding different motives for
targeting for pests. Having reliable and accurate data on live plant introduction may in turn result in better
pest interceptions and where pests come from can facilitate techniques to persuade visitors to not bring live
more informed decisions regarding where to use inspection plants to Hawai‘i. For example, many live plants may
resources, while having improved detection methods can reach Hawai‘i simply because of visitor oversight,
decrease the likelihood of pest establishment. while others may be deliberately brought in to fill a
need (e.g., cultural or culinary need) because they
3. There is a strong need to make visitors aware that
are thought to be (or are) unavailable in Hawai‘i. If
they are a significant potential source of unwanted intro-
this is a common situation, providing information on
ductions. Given what we know about plant materials as
local sources of these plants might reduce the incen-
an important pathway of pest introduction, increased
tive to bring these plants from outside Hawai‘i.
efforts are needed to persuade visitors to voluntarily
stop bringing live plant material into Hawai‘i. To encourage visitors to avoid behaviors that place
Hawai‘i receives a large number of visitors each year from a Hawai‘i’s native forests at risk, we suggest an active and
wide variety of geographic regions and cultures. The largest coordinated outreach program to visitors. This outreach
number of visitors come from the U.S. mainland and Japan should ideally start before travelers board their plane or
with minor, but significant, origins including Asian Pacific ship, reinforced during the flight or voyage, and before they
countries like Australia, South Korea (rapidly increasing), disembark into Hawai‘i. International air or cruise ship
and China. Most visitors arrive in the Hawai‘i Islands by travelers as well as travelers from the mainland should be
air; although cruise ship visits also contribute large numbers clearly told the types of plant material that threaten’s native
of people. For all modes of travel, the level of phytosan- forests should they inadvertently or purposely pack them
itary inspection is generally insufficient to mitigate pest either in their luggage or on their person. During their stay,
risk predominantly from live plant material (see previous these ideas could be reinforced again at appropriate attrac-
sections). It is therefore important preemptively to persuade tions that showcase native forest and species, giving visitors
passengers not to bring live plants into Hawai‘i. In essence, an opportunity to feel a connection with what they are being
115
asked to protect. Many of those who visit Hawai‘i return. Reinforce the message at tourist areas when the visitor
Once the message is understood and integrated into routine is actually in a position to see and experience native plants
good practices, these return visitors can be recruited to help or forest ecosystems and develop an appreciation for them:
spread the word to other visitors. Continue to use methods • Post signs at eco-tourism sites describing accept-
currently in place to obtain information from passengers able behavior while visiting the site. Visitors should
(e.g., inspection forms required upon arrival into Hawai‘i). be instructed to remain on marked paths and not to
Suggested specific actions that could be taken include: bring into or take out of the area any plants, plant
Alert visitors prior to boarding: parts, or animals. Botanical gardens that include
• Work with airlines to provide a brief online message native trees can also provide opportunities for inter-
to travelers warning about the dangers of intro- pretation and build an appreciation for the value of
ducing live plant materials from outside Hawai‘i to native plants.
native forest and agriculture (on the boarding pass, • Instruct visitors to clean shoes and clothing when
entering or leaving a natural or agricultural area.
reservation site, luggage tags, etc.). Provide a link
Visitors should remove soil and plant seeds from
to a website with more information about threats to
shoes and clothing and inspect cuffs and Velcro®
Hawai‘i’s forests.
closures. (Where appropriate, consider the use of
• Post signs at marinas and departure gates for flights
water hoses, disinfectant shoe baths, metal grates in
to Hawai‘i to educate visitors about the potential
ground for cleaning shoes, and other measures.)
consequences of transporting exotic insect pests and
• Work with tour guides and other staff at natural
pathogens on vessels.
areas, parks, or agricultural areas to educate visitors
• Increase presence and visibility of inspectors at
on the potential environmental and economic effects
marinas and airports, mainly as a deterrent measure.
of exotic species. Good examples of public education
Publicize interceptions as a warning to potential vio- are increasingly common on the islands in important
lators. wildlife habitat areas and could be applied in some
Educate travelers prior to departure and arrival about cases to raising public awareness of invasive species.
the potential consequences (economic, environmental, and For example, visitors kayaking to Flat Island Bird
personal) of transporting agricultural and other vegetative Sanctuary on O‘ahu are educated on proper behavior
products. Remind travelers to consume or properly with respect to the birds prior to being able to rent a
discard prohibited materials during travel. Implement risk watercraft such as a kayak or paddle board. They are
communication strategies to educate local residents and also charged a fee if they land on the islands, which
is used to protect bird habitat.
business owners on the pest risks associated with trade such
• Raise money by providing products such as post-
as the following:
cards, t-shirts, calendars, or souvenirs to visitors
• Informational brochures available during flight
who give a donation (Johnson 2006). Use the money
(include supporting statistics regarding interceptions
towards the prevention of exotic pest introductions.
of potentially harmful insects or pathogens, as well
The products themselves can be educational by
as several examples of serious pest introductions)
providing information on exotic pests of concern,
• Announcements
dispersal mechanisms, and possible preventative
• Articles in in-flight magazines
actions.
• Hand out free pens with the message about the dan-
• Implement a user fee system for eco-tourist destina-
gers of transporting live pests for visitors who are tions. Funds raised through ecotourism should go to
filling out the declaration form. exotic species prevention and management (Hypolite
et al. 2002).
116
• Conduct biodiversity impact studies for ecotour- two-hundred sixty-six insects and other arthropods were
ism sites to anticipate environmental and economic recorded as new state records for Hawai‘i. Of these 266
impacts of exotic species introduction. introduced insects and other arthropods, 46 are considered
• Limit access to very sensitive sites by restricting the moderate to serious pests by HDOA. Twenty-five of these
number of visitors, access for vehicles, density of 46 pests are of foreign origin, and the other 21 pests are
roads and trails, availability of accommodations, etc. known to occur on the U.S. mainland. Considering the
• Let visitors know they can help by spreading the biology of these “moderate to serious” pests, it is likely
word. that as many as 40 of the 46 species could have had a plant
pathway as their means of entry into Hawai‘i.
After the visitor has returned home:
The high rate of new pest establishment in Hawai‘i
• Visitors returning from Hawai‘i may convey what
is very disturbing and needs to be addressed in new ways
they have learned to future visitors and become
that go beyond existing inspection measures and current
advocates for guarding native forest from invasives.
approaches to regulation. When situations arise in the con-
• Attractive souvenirs may promote discussion with
tinental United States or elsewhere that involve exotic pests
future visitors.
and host plants with representatives on the Hawai‘i Islands,
an aggressive approach should be taken to ensure that
4. Plant materials, especially live plants, are by far the
pests do not gain entry into Hawai‘i. This approach should
most important source of pest problems for Hawai‘i.
include the prohibition of movement of the affected plant
Plant materials include propagative material (seeds, pods,
species into Hawai‘i. A particularly disturbing example
seedlings, cuttings), fruits and vegetables, and cut flowers
would be the establishment in Hawai‘i in 2008 of the highly
and plant parts for crafts or decorations. The sources and
damaging, newly described thrips species associated with
traffic patterns associated with the movement of plant
Myoporum in California (Conant et al. 2009, Loope and
materials into Hawai‘i have been thoroughly addressed in
LaRosa 2010).
other risk assessments in addition to ours. The patterns are
We also believe it is important to strengthen the Pest
very complex and involve international trade and tourism,
Risk Committee, which deals with emerging issues involv-
among other avenues.
ing plant pests (Culliney et al., n.d.).
We examined the APHIS interception records for
Hawai‘i ports between 1984 and 2010. During that time, 5. The solid wood packing material (SWPM) pathway
over 10,000 pests were intercepted. Most of the sources needs more scrutiny. Many pests using this pathway
of these interceptions were Asian countries, Australia and have already become established in Hawai‘i, and many
other countries of the Pacific. Over 20 countries were the more are on the list of potentials. Because HDOA can
sources of at least 100 interceptions each during this time only inspect wood packing material that is associated
period. Passenger baggage was listed nearly two-thirds of with agricultural commodities, and because wood pack-
the time under the category “where intercepted.” Nearly 85 ing material is not necessarily specified as associated
percent of the intercepted pests were connected with plant with cargo, it seems as if this is a pathway that is being
materials, with “fruit” being the source of over 30 percent insufficiently inspected and regulated.
of the total records. Solid wood packing material, ubiquitous in international
Our pest risk assessment focuses on 13 taxa of native trade, is an important pathway for the introduction of poten-
Hawai‘i plants and therefore, it logically follows that the tially invasive species, as described in chapter 3. Because
plant pathway would be the primary source of introduction of international concern and the large number of bark- and
of potential pests. wood-infesting insects that became established outside of
As noted above, a pest risk assessment for the island their native ranges during the 1990s, international efforts at
of Maui (HDOA 2002) found that between 1980 and 2002, standardizing phytosanitary treatments of SWPM resulted
117
in the adoption of ISPM 15, a standard that requires all also found important quarantine insects in or on the wood.
SWPM to be either heat treated for 30 minutes at 56 °C or These included Sinoxylon anale, S. conigerum, Mono-
fumigated with methyl bromide. In the most recent revision chamus alternatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), Pissodes
of ISPM 15 (IPPC 2009), the amount and size of residual castaneus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Tomicus piniperda,
bark remaining on SWPM was also restricted to patches Heterobostrychus aequalis (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), Sirex
less than 50 cm2 as it was determined that bark patches noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), Ips spp. (Coleoptera:
were a prime source of beetle survival and recolonization Curculionidae: Scolytinae), and other Pissodes spp. (San-
after treatment (Haack and Petrice 2009). As of 2011, 70 chez Salinas 2007).
countries require that SWPM meet the standards of ISPM These are disturbing survey results. Possible reasons
15 (Haack and Brockerhoff 2011). for pest survival include tolerance of certain insects to
The efficacy of treatments required by ISPM 15 has the mitigation treatments; recolonization after treatment
been questioned. Surveys of individual pieces of SWPM has occurred, especially when bark is present; improper
treated to ISPM 15 standards in Australia, the European application of treatment owing to defective equipment or
Union, and the United States resulted in the detection of facilities; and outright fraud where the treatment mark is
live beetles in 0.1 to 0.5 percent of the inspected items, applied to nontreated wood (Haack and Brockerhoff 2011).
usually in association with patches of bark (Haack and With the exception of the Australian study, comparable
Brockerhoff 2011). The Australia survey examined 20,000 surveys have not been done for the detection of fungi and
pieces of SWPM in Australia from containerized sea cargo other pathogens. Another concern is that SWPM is usually
that resulted in a 9 percent detection rate for items of overall reused multiple times so it does not necessarily originate
quarantine concern, including 8.5 percent bark, 5.9 percent from the site of the commodity with which it is associated.
fungi, 3.2 percent live insects, 2.8 percent frass, and 1.7 per- Currently, there is no way to track the origin of SWPM and
cent soil–these items not being mutually exclusive (Zahid et the potential pests and pathogens associated with that place
al. 2008). In Honolulu, a 2-year survey from 2005 to 2007 of origin, or when and where it was treated for ISPM 15
conducted randomly by the USDA Agricultural Quarantine compliance (Haack and Brockerhoff 2011).
Inspection Monitoring (AQIM) program resulted in similar The current inspection system is not adequate to
conclusions. Of 116 inspections of SWPM, four shipments detect pests and pathogens associated with SWPM. During
contained live insects; single shipments were also found that the Honolulu AQIM assessment, only about 10 percent
contained soil, unidentified noxious weeds, and an “uniden- of the volume was inspected, but the rate of interception
tified pest.” Five shipments had no ISPM 15 identifying was 10 percent higher than typically seen (HDOA 2007)
marks. Only 50 percent of the wood surface was examined; (as reported in Culliney et al., n.d.). Inspectors from the
however, and no attempt was made to determine whether HDOA cannot inspect nonagricultural shipments unless
pests were inside of the wood or whether dead pests were referred by another agency even though SWPM associated
present at the bottom of the shipping containers (Culliney with nonagricultural commodities is a major risk factor.
et al., n.d.]). Inspections by the New Zealand Ministry of The AQIM data set included pests intercepted on marble
Agriculture and Forestry of about 1,500 containers with slabs, granite and stone from China, and on furniture from
SWPM determined that 16 percent had contaminations Indonesia (Culliney et al., n.d.). Regular phytosanitary
that resulted in phytosanitary action, such as fumigation or inspections of maritime cargo at the port of Honolulu (not
incineration. Organisms that were detected included fungi, AQIM data) by APHIS-PPQ and CBP inspectors from
insects, isopods, millipedes, and mites. Hitchhiking plant October 2005 to April 2007 resulted in 29 interceptions
materials, spiders, mollusks, and reptiles were also found; of insects on or in woody materials, all associated with
these do not represent a failure of ISPM protocols (MAF nonagricultural commodities such as tile, granite, marble,
2003). An evaluation of ISPM 15-treated SWPM in Chile and furniture (Culliney et al., n.d.). It is estimated that
118
most port inspections intercept only 30 percent or fewer of on how to look for pests in SWPM and provide
incoming pests (Meissner et al. 2003). resources for pest identification.
The level of training of all port inspectors is also of • Allow entry of SWPM only if bark free. Solid wood
concern. Often inspectors are not well trained in detecting products material that contains small patches of
pests and pathogens associated with SWPM, which are bark, permissible under ISPM 15, should be specifi-
difficult materials to inspect for the untrained eye. Inter- cally targeted for inspection.
ception rates by inspectors in the Southwestern United • Develop a communication network between HDOA,
States dramatically increased for wood-boring insects after USDA-APHIS, and CBP inspectors to share pest
training in methods to detect scolytid beetles (Meissner et interception data, inspection and diagnostic tech-
al. 2009). Targeted training for inspectors in the detection niques, training materials, pest alerts, and other
of pests associated with SWPM would be an inexpensive information.
and cost-effective way of increasing inspection efficacy and
6. Some pests not posing a risk to the mainland United
could reduce additional introductions of unwanted pests.
States, or already present in the mainland, may be a
Many insects that have been associated with SWPM
potential threat to Hawai‘i. The interstate movement of
are already established and invasive in Hawai‘i and have
certain plant materials from Hawai‘i to the mainland is
probably arrived in the islands via this pathway, thus
restricted without treatment and certification. Similar
demonstrating the dangers associated with SWPM. These
restrictions on interstate movement into Hawai‘i are
insects include the following, as compiled by Culliney et
not in place. For the most part, APHIS regulations do
al., n.d.: Chlorophorus annularis, Euwallacea fornicatus,
not discriminate between the mainland and islands of
Hypothenemus obscurus, Xyleborus perforans, Xylosandrus
Hawai‘i as far as potential threats. This includes some
compactus, X. crassiusculus, and X. morigerus. Many
organisms that are native or commonly found on the
potential pests have not yet reached Hawai‘i but may be
mainland.
introduced by SWPM if steps are not taken to increase the
Invasive pests can be transported to Hawai‘i either from
number and efficacy of inspections. Culliney et al. (n.d.)
domestic or foreign sources. Because most materials needed
listed 81 different species of insects that have the potential
by people of Hawai‘i are imported indicates the potential
to be introduced to Hawai‘i in SWPM, with scolytid beetles
for unintentional introductions is substantial. Both domestic
being predominant. Other potential pests and pathogens
and foreign sources are under federal and state regulation
associated with SWPM are assessed in the current docu-
and inspection. By regulation, HDOA has primary respon-
ment in individual pest risk assessments (chapter 4).
sibility to prevent the introduction of pests that may be
Recommendations made for the Greater Caribbean
injurious to the agricultural industries and natural resources
Region (Meissner et al. 2009) are similarly applicable to
of the state (Hawai‘i Revised Statutes §141). This section
Hawai‘i. These recommendations include:
was amended in HRS §150A Section 3 to provide HDOA
• Develop a strategy to ensure that SWPM in both
the authority to prohibit entry “...into the State, from any
agricultural and nonagricultural commodities are
or all foreign countries, or from other parts of the United
adequately inspected, preferably by random selec-
States, (italics added) or the shipment from one island
tion and thorough inspection.
within the State to another island therein, or the transporta-
• Make the declaration of SWPM mandatory for all
tion from one part of locality of any island to another part or
imports. (This would probably need to be done
locality of the same island, of any specific article, substance,
on a national level, however, and may be beyond
or object or class of articles, substances or objects, among
state authority.)
those enumerated above in this section, which is diseased or
• Increase regionwide inspection and identification
infested with insects or likely to assist in the transmission
expertise among inspectors. Educate inspectors
or dissemination of any insect or plant disease injurious,
119
harmful, or detrimental or likely to be injurious, harmful, commerce are in the law. No exceptions are identified for
or detrimental to the agricultural or horticultural industries, foreign commerce. However, importation of new foreign
or the forests of the State, or which is or may be in itself commodities that may pose a risk are announced by
injurious, harmful, or detrimental to the same.” APHIS with the opportunity for stakeholders, including
The federal authority to regulate plant pest movement states, to provide information to change, support, or cause
is within the Plant Protection Act of 2000 (Pub. L. 106–224, the commodity not to be approved for importation into
title IV, § 401, June 20, 2000, 114 Stat. 438). Specifically, the United States or Hawai‘i, specifically. If the proposed
this act states that “...no person shall import, enter, export, regulations are consistent with federal regulations, “A State
or move in interstate commerce (italics added) any plant or a political subdivision of a State may impose prohibitions
pest, unless the importation, entry, exportation, or move- or restrictions upon the movement in interstate commerce
ment is authorized under general or specific permit and is of articles, means of conveyance, plants, biological control
in accordance with such regulations as the Secretary may organisms, plant pests, noxious weeds, or plant products
issue to prevent the introduction of plant pests into the that are consistent with and do not exceed the regulations
United States or the dissemination of plant pests within or orders issued by the Secretary.” If the State demonstrates
the United States.” a special need, “A State or political subdivision of a State
The Plant Protection Act also states in §7756, “No may impose prohibitions or restrictions upon the movement
State or political subdivision of a State may regulate in in interstate commerce of articles, means of conveyance,
foreign commerce any article, means of conveyance, plant, plants, plant products, biological control organisms, plant
biological control organism, plant pest, noxious weed, or pests, or noxious weeds that are in addition to the pro-
plant product in order—(1) to control a plant pest or noxious hibitions or restrictions imposed by the Secretary, if the
weed; (2) to eradicate a plant pest or noxious weed; or (3) State or political subdivision of a State demonstrates to
prevent the introduction or dissemination of a biological the Secretary and the Secretary finds that there is a special
control organism, plant pest, or noxious weed.” It goes on to need for additional prohibitions or restrictions based on
state, “No State or political subdivision of a State may reg- sound scientific data or a thorough risk assessment.” (italics
ulate the movement in interstate commerce of any article, added).
means of conveyance, plant, biological control organism, Several recommendations are provided:
plant pest, noxious weed, or plant product in order to control • APHIS, in collaboration with HDOA, should con-
a plant pest or noxious weed, eradicate a plant pest or nox- sider the development of quarantine regulations
ious weed, or prevent the introduction or dissemination of a specific to Hawai‘i and their unique situation to
biological control organism, plant pest, or noxious weed, if limit the potential for introduction of potential pests
the Secretary has issued a regulation or order to prevent the from foreign and domestic sources. This should also
dissemination of the biological control organism, plant pest, include intrastate movement between islands
or noxious weed within the United States.” of Hawai‘i.
Department of Homeland Security, CBP, assumed • Manifests of goods from mainland United States to
foreign import inspection duties from APHIS, with the pas- Hawai‘i should indicate whether they are of foreign
sage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. This includes or domestic origin and, if foreign, the port of origi-
inspection of international passengers, luggage, cargo, nation.
and mail carrying nonpropagative material. Propagative
• When inspecting goods on the mainland United
material is still handled by APHIS.
States destined for Hawai‘i, CPB inspectors should
Apparently, when state and federal regulations and stat-
be familiar with those pests that may pose a unique
utes conflict, federal laws take precedence. Two exceptions
threat to Hawai‘i.
to the above restrictions on state regulations of interstate
120
• When APHIS announces draft regulations on poten- Regulations are usually based on restricting the entry
tial quarantines for proposed imports, HDOA should of invasive organisms at the species level. However, genetic
provide a response with specific information that diversity in fungi and other plant pathogens often results
supports the need for specific restrictions on such in the identification of strains, biovars, pathovars, form
importation to Hawai‘i. species, and others. These may differ in their virulence, host
• HDOA should intensify its inspection of goods from range, mating type, and infectiveness. Although species
mainland U.S. and foreign sources. Detailed analysis like Puccinia psidii are present in Hawai‘i, the potential
of the APHIS PestID (formerly Port Information for introduction of new strains that may be more damaging
Network 309) database and other import data should not be ignored.
sources may provide assistance in setting priorities. • Be aware of infestations by new species on
Unfortunately, the team was not able to access the the mainland.
PestID data and cannot provide any analysis. The mainland United States is a major source of intro-
• In addition to coordinated inspections, monitoring duced pests to Hawai‘i. It is suspected that myoporum thrips
for potential newly introduced pests should be initi- arrived from California. Similarly, daylily rust (Puccinia
ated/continued around likely points of entry. hemerocallidis Thuem.) had been identified in the southeast
United States several years prior to being found in Hawai‘i.
Additional Issues and Findings Staying aware of new pests on the mainland can increase
In addition to the six priority findings discussed above, inspection effectiveness and possibly limit introductions.
numerous other findings were made and are presented for
• Do not attempt to develop a comprehensive list of
consideration. We have attempted to group these findings
pest threats to the entire state.
under similar topic areas.
Most invasive pests are not considered significant
General in their home environment. Trying to identify a list of
• The broad range of commodities/hosts and countries pest threats would be of little benefit and could provide
for potential introductions makes it extremely dif- a false sense of security. A more effective approach is to
ficult to accurately characterize pest risk to various utilize data and information from accurate and up-to-date
hosts of concern. databases of interception records and pest surveys. Nonpro-
One of the complexities of qualitative pest risk assess- prietary data need to be shared with stakeholders to better
ments is the uncertainty of which potential pests could focus inspection efforts. This also benefits early inspection,
be introduced to new hosts and ecosystems. This analysis rapid response, and public outreach.
attempted to identify pests and pathogens from other parts • Do not base risk estimates on port interception
of the world that would endanger 13 species and genera of data alone.
native Hawaiian plants. This is an impossible task to do Port interception records are useful for exploring pest
completely and thoroughly; our efforts were directed at risk; however, it is erroneous to assume that a low number
providing enough information and data to guide the state of of interceptions is equivalent to low risk.
Hawai‘i in developing acceptable regulations and restric-
• Strive for transparency in all decisions and analyses.
tions to limit such introductions.
Most decisions concerning safeguarding (e.g., level of
• Although an invasive insect or pathogen may exist in
inspection, inspection methodology, whether something
a location, it should not be considered low risk once
should be considered high or low risk, and others) are made
established, given that strains may exist that are
by some committee or group, either formally or informally.
exotic with different levels of virulence (Palm and
Rossman 2003).
121
All decisions have to be reevaluated periodically as situa- Some nonnative host species may be highly susceptible
tions change or new information becomes available. If the to invasive pests and provide a means for pest establishment
reasoning behind a decision is not clearly documented, it and rapid population increase around ports of entry. This
becomes impossible to evaluate the decision’s validity. For may increase the possibility of transfer and spread onto
the sake of continuous improvement and to reduce the pos- native species. This is a difficult balance between aesthetic
sibility of errors, the reasoning behind all decisions should landscaping around ports and the possible increased
be clearly explained and documented, and this information likelihood of pest establishment. Nonnative hosts could be
should be available. useful detection sentinels if closely monitored, but could
• Provide for greater transparency and sharing of pest also become avenues of spread to native environments.
interception data between all regulatory agencies Monitoring efforts need to be increased if these hosts are
involved in port inspections. identified as detection sentinels.
State and federal agencies both perform inspections Detection Surveys

of visitors and imported goods to identify potential pests • Get more involved with the USDA’s Cooperative
and locate commodities not permitted to enter the state. Agriculture Pest Survey (CAPS) program to expand
A coordinated database of all agencies involved in these beyond agricultural pests to include
efforts that includes data on interceptions could increase forestry pests.
everyone’s ability in identifying commodities and pathways
The HDOA is a participant in CAPS program designed
to target for increased inspection efforts. Limited sharing
for the early detection of significant plant pests: add
or delay in sharing these data decreases the efficiency and
Hawai‘i Division of Forestry and Wildlife as a participant to
efficacy of efforts by all.
increase awareness of and attention to forest pests.
Ecology • Maintain current awareness of the literature for
• Outdoor recreation and ecotourism in Hawai‘i reports of new pests (or outbreaks or rises in pest
increase the chance of introductions and spread populations) in other countries that could potentially
of pests, especially pathogens, because of direct infest/infect the 13 priority species and other native
exposure from visitors. Limit access to very species.
sensitive sites. New invasive insects and pathogens are constantly
identified and reported on commodities in other countries.
A major draw of tourists to Hawai‘i is its natural
Many of these pests could just as easily be transported
environment. Direct access by recreationists to natural
to Hawai‘i. Awareness of these new identifications can
areas significantly increases the risk of introducing invasive
increase vigilance for them during inspection. Maintaining
pests on their equipment and clothing. Educating visitors
good contacts and access to databases with other countries
and guides to this potential and how they can reduce the
pest regulatory authorities, especially those in Asia-Pacific,
risk will aid in reducing the possibility of introduction and
can improve the state’s ability to intercept potential pests.
spread of new and existing invasive species. Pristine natural
areas may be considered for closure to recreational use • Early detection can be increased, particularly for
because of extreme threat of exposure. species where traps/lures have been identified.
Early detection is emphasized as a way to limit spread
• The numerous nonnative plant species that are
of introduced exotics. It is often difficult to achieve,
present (planted around airports, ports, and other
however, because of the lack of efficacious attractants and
areas) serve to harbor pests that can move to the
traps. When individual pests of concern are identified that
native species.
have a high likelihood of introduction, opportunities for
122
detection trapping should be assessed. If detection tools are Information Collection and Analysis of USDA APHIS-Plant
available, they should be implemented around likely places Protection and Quarantine. Examples of initiatives that deal
of introduction, including military installations and training with pest information management are the Global Pest and
sites. Also, vegetation around ports should be monitored at Disease Database and the Off-Shore Pest Information Pro-
least annually to determine if any exotic pest may have been gram of USDA APHIS, as well as the Hawai‘i Biodiversity
introduced. Information Network Early Detection Network, the Global
• Develop surveillance systems for the early detection Invasive Species Database of the Invasive Species Specialist
of pests. Group, and the Invasive Species Compendium of CABI.
The potential usefulness and applicability of these and other
Surveillance programs for the early detection of exotic projects should be evaluated and collaborations should be
species should be implemented. Decisions will need to be developed as appropriate.
made regarding which pests to survey for and which areas
• Increase the use of detector dogs wherever feasible.
to survey. The USDA CAPS Program has developed a
process for making these decisions using the analytical hier- Resources will never allow a thorough inspection of
archy process. Hobby entomologists and botanists, garden- all pathways by human inspectors. Detector dogs make
ers, nursery professionals, and others (e.g., Invasive Species it possible to reliably scan a larger number of items than
Councils), may be important and competent contributors to humans given the same amount of time. Dogs can be used
a regional surveillance system. to increase efficacy of checking incoming mail, luggage,
and cargo.
• Implement surveys to determine the distribution of
• Develop targeting strategies for inspection of airline
pests commonly associated with SWPM outside of
passenger baggage.
their native range.
Possible targeting criteria include origin of passenger,
Collaborate with state and federal forest management
seasonality, and holidays. For this to be possible, a system-
agencies, not-for-profit organizations (e.g., Centre for
atic data collection program has to be implemented.
Agricultural Bioscience International [CABI] and the CAPS
• Conduct periodic data collection efforts (“blitzes”).
Program. Involve the public. Use the help of hobby biolo-
gists. Do not exclude countries that are enforcing ISPM 15 Carry out statistically sound data collection to answer
from these survey efforts. specific questions. Consider regionwide coordination and
• Develop an effective integrated biosurveillance and sharing of resources with others in Asia-Pacific for carrying
pest information system, also to be used as a mecha- out blitzes. Share results regionwide.
nism for official pest reporting • Foster collaboration between customs officials, agri-
Both safeguarding against and responding to pest cultural officials, mail facility staff, and any other
introductions depend strongly on the availability of current groups. With limited resources, all parties can bene-
pest information. Of special importance is information fit by sharing both resources and information.
on distribution, host range, trapping and identification • Monitor interisland trade via small vessels.
tools, control methods, and port interception records. The Any commodities that are reshipped to other islands
sheer amount of pest information available throughout the should be monitored for the possible shipment of invasive
world and the fast pace at which new information appears species to reduce the risk of spread and establishment to
make it impossible for any individual to stay abreast of additional locations.
it. The collection, analysis, dissemination, and storage of Monitor areas on and near the perimeter of the ports
pest information must occur in an efficient and organized regularly for introduced pests of particular interest (Robin-
manner. An on-line database is indispensable. One example son et al. 2008). To reduce costs, employ the help of amateur
of an existing biosurveillance system is the Exotic Pest taxonomists, university students, and qualified volunteers.
123
Avoid attracting pests into the area (e.g., through lures, The origin of SWPM usually cannot be determined.
lights, others). Having shippers identify the presence of SWPM may
• Develop a strategy to ensure adequate inspection of increase the effectiveness of inspection. This includes
SWPM on all agricultural and nonagricultural cargo. material as part of the shipment, as well as associated mate-
rial, such as dunnage. Ensure that SWPM meets ISPM 15
Simply checking for treatment seals is not a sufficient
standard. Inspection of SWPM should include looking for
inspection method. A certain percentage of SWPM should
actual pests, boring holes, boring dust and frass, staining,
be randomly selected and thoroughly searched for pests,
and other indicators of pest presence.
both on the surface and inside the wood. All pertinent infor-
mation (type of cargo, origin of cargo, presence of treatment • Record information on propagative material
seal, types and number of pests found, and other) should be imported by plant species, with information on vari-
recorded and shared regionwide. ety, type of material (roots, cuttings, other), country
of origin, growing and inspection practices followed,
• Increase regionwide inspection and identification
date of importation, and amount imported in consis-
expertise on pests associated with SWPM.
tent units.
Educate inspectors on how to look for pests on SWPM.
Ensure that identifiers have the expertise and the necessary Education/Public Awareness
reference material to identify the pests that are found.
• Emphasize a statewide public awareness campaign
Regulations on invasive species focused on transport and intro-
duction from overseas.
• Require phytosanitary certificates for all imports of
Hawai‘i has several active groups involved in invasive
plant materials.
species management and public information distribution.
The certificate should include species and variety of
The Hawai‘i Invasive Species Council provides policy-level
imported plant, if applicable, and should certify that the
direction, coordination, and planning among state depart-
material was pest free at the time of shipping based on
ments, federal agencies, and international and local initia-
specified inspection protocols and issued by appropriate
tives for the control and eradication of harmful invasive
officials. This includes both international and domestic
species infestations through five working groups, including
sources of plant material.
a group for public awareness. The Coordinating Group
• Preshipment pest inspections and treatments. on Alien Pest Species is composed primarily of manage-
Prior to shipment from the country/state of origin, ment-level staff from every major agency and organization
require that plant material be inspected for the presence of involved in invasive species work, including federal, state,
any invasive pest. county, and private entities. They, too, provide information
• Minimize pest contamination on containers by: to the public on invasive species. These groups need to be
• Minimizing time of container storage outdoors. maintained and encouraged in their efforts to inform the
• Avoiding container storage on soil and public on the threats of invasive species
near vegetation. • Develop voluntary codes of conduct for groups
• Avoiding night-time lighting of outdoor involved in the dispersion of and the prevention of
storage areas. the introduction of exotic species.
• Cleaning storage areas on a regular basis.
Draft a voluntary code of conduct for nurseries and
• Cleaning inside and outside of containers after
landscaping businesses to limit spread of any newly intro-
and before each use.
duced invasive species. Draft a voluntary code of conduct
• Make the declaration of SWPM mandatory for all for local governments, resorts, hotels, and other entities that
imports regardless of commodity.
124
engage in large-scale landscaping. Draft a voluntary code English Equivalents

of conduct for botanical gardens and arboreta. Develop a When you know: Multiply by: To find
certification process.
Micrometers (µm) 0.000039 Inches
Millimeters (mm) 0.039 Inches
Acknowledgments
Centimeters (cm) 0.394 Inches
This report was initiated at the request of Paul Conrey, State Meters (m) 3.28 Feet
Forester of Hawai‘i. The support and advice provided by Kilometers (km) 0.6215 Miles
Robert Hauff with Hawai‘i DOFAW were invaluable in the Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres
completion of this assessment. Square kilometers (km2) 0.386 Square miles
Portions of this document were extracted from the Kilograms (kg) 0.0011 Tons
Chilean Pest Risk Assessment (USDA FS1993), the Metric ton 1.102 Tons
Mexican Pest Risk Assessment (Tkacz et al. 1998), the Celsius (°C) 1.8 °C + 32 Fahrenheit
South American Pest Risk Assessment (Kliejunas et al.
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United States Department of Agriculture

Risk and Pathway Assessment for

Forest Pacific Southwest General Technical Report December

Species of interest identified by Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources,

Risk Assessment Team

Pest Risk Assessment

Analysis of transport and establishment pathways also included assessment of the

Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

Insects and Pathogens Posing Risk

5 Chapter 2: Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

17 Chapter 3: Pathways and Commodities for Pest Entry

Dr. Andris Eglitis

Dr. Jessie A. Glaeser

Dr. Philip Cannon

Dr. Helen Maffei

Chapter 2: Forest Resources of Hawai‘i

Figure 1—The major islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago.

5. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.; Sapindaceae 6. Erythrina sandwicensis O. Deg.; Fabaceae

Table 2—Scaevola spp. and their distribution in the Hawai‘i Islands

Distribution in Hawai‘i—Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, Lāna‘i Common names—‘ōhelo, tree ohelo

Figure 3—Number of pest interceptions on commodities arriving in Hawai‘i, 1984–2010.

Chapter 3: Pathways and Commodities for Pest Entry

Culliney et al. (n.d.) estimated that between 3 and 11

pest entry. The total number of visitors arriving by air in Year

7,000,000 All others

Annual Imports of live 300,000

Live plant material

to Hawai‘i, but arrives at the U.S. mainland and is then

Shipping weight (mil. kgs.)

United Kingdom, Taiwan, 0.9%

Thailand, 9.3% Saudi Arabia, 11.8%

Freight airports in Hawai‘i

Chapter 4: Insects and Pathogens Posing Risk

Table 6—Pest categories and descriptions

7. Social and political considerations: Moderate (MC) Erythrina Scale

5. Economic damage potential: Moderate (MC) Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = moderate;

Megaplatypus mutatus development in plant tissue Selected bibliography:

Selected bibliography: West Indian Sugarcane Borer Weevil

C. destructor has been successfully introduced into C. Pest risk potential:

Rahayu, S.; Lee, S.S.; Shukor, N.A.A. 2010. Aecidium Rusts

Pathogen Host(s) Country of origin Citation

Table 8 —Armillaria species of concern, their hosts and distribution

Hosts from genera

Wind dispersal of spores is the common means of C. Pest risk potential:

Pestalotiopsis Scaevola hainanensis Hong Kong Farr and Rossman, n.d.

Pestalotiopsis uvicola Metrosideros kermadecensis Italy Grasso and Granata

Assessor: Jessie A. Glaeser Distribution: Throughout the humid tropics of Africa,

B. Consequences of introduction Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International

Uromyces Rusts Pycniospores develop on cankers in late May to early July.

Pathogen Host(s) Country of origin Citation

4. Spread potential: High (RC) (Applicable rating cri- Selected bibliography:

Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions

State and federal agencies both perform inspections Detection Surveys

engage in large-scale landscaping. Draft a voluntary code English Equivalents

Hansen, E.M.; Reeser, P.W.; Sutton, W. 2012.

Omdal, D.; Ramsey-Koll, A. 2013. Phytophthora ramorum

Fort Collins Service Center

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/

Paciﬁc Southwest Research Station

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