Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gary F. Margrave
Geophysics 557/657
Course Lecture Notes, Winter 2006
by
G.F. Margrave, Associate Professor, P.Geoph.
The CREWES Project
Department of Geology and Geophysics
The University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, T2N-1N4
403-220-4604
gary@geo.ucalgary.ca
Table of Contents
Lecture Notes
Geophysics 557
Chapter 1
Synthetic Sei sm ogram s
T h e s i m p l es t m o d e l o f s ei s m i c d at a i s t h at o f a w av e le t
c on v o lv e d wi t h re f l ec t i v it y . T h e p i c tu re i s s i m p l e a n d
a p pea li n g . A c om p a c t p uls e o f so u n d i s s e n t d ow n in t o
t h e e ar t h a n d s ca l ed c op i e s o f i t a re re f l ec t e d f r om t h e
m a j or f or m a ti o n b ou n da ri e s .
T he s e e c ho e s ar e r e c o r de d o ve r t he e xt en t o f t he
s e i s m i c ex pe r i m e nt an d a na l yz e d . S i nc e e a c h e c ho i s a
s c a l e d c o py of t h e s o ur c e w av e f o rm , s i mp l e c o m pa r i s o n
m ak e s i t i s e a s y t o de d uc e t he re l a t i v e s t r e ng th o f t he
di f f e r e nt r e f l e c t i n g ho r i z on s . T he e s t i m at e d s e t o f
r e f l e c t i o n c oe ff i c i e nt s i s c a l l e d t h e r ef l e c t i vi ty f unc t i o n
o f t he e a r t h b e ne a t h t he s ur ve y .
I t s a n i c e c o n c ep t bu t is i t v a li d ? H o w c a n i t b e
d e f en ded f ro m ba si c p h ys i c al p r i n c i p le s ? W h at
a s s u m p t i on s ( t h er e a r e a l w ay s a s su mp t io n s i n p h ys i cs )
a r e re q u i r ed ? W h e n a r e t h ey j u s t i fi e d a n d w h en a re t h e y
n ot ?
O n c e w e s ta r t t o t hi n k ab o u t th e i de a , w e c a n i mm e d i at e l y
c o m e up w i th a l o t o f q ue sti o ns suc h as:
• How can we procede if we don't know the source waveform?
• What if several echos are very closely spaced?
• How can we tell where the echo came from?
• I s n't th e r e at te n ua ti o n o f se i s m i c e ne r g y a nd do e s n ' t t hi s
c h an g e th e s o ur c e w a vef o r m?
• What is convolution anyway? (And why should I care?)
• What about multiple bounce echos? Don't they confuse things?
• If things are so simple, how come seismic processing is so
complicated? Maybe those processors are just fooling us ...
• How can I decide how much source energy I need?
• What are the limits of the detail that can be resolved?
• What are the tradeoffs with Vibroseis and dynamite?
• What is reflectivity anyway? (And why should I care?)
• What's this band-limited stuff?
• W h y c a n' t I j u st t ru st t h e s eis m ic p ro c es so r t o take c a re
o f t he se m es sy d e ta i ls ?
I 'm su r e th a t y o u ca n th in k o f m o r e q u e st io n s a s w e ll . A l l
o f t he se q ue s ti on s h a ve t h e ir r e l e va n ce a n d I h o p e to
a d dr ess m an y of t h e m in th is co u r se . A t t he e n d , y o u
sh o u ld h av e a g o o d u nd e r s ta n di ng o f t h e st r e n g th s a nd
w e a k n e ss e s o f th e c o nv o lu ti on a l m o de l a n d t hi s s ho u ld
h e lp y ou fo r m a h e a lt h y , sce p t ica l v ie w o f f in al s e is mi c
im a g e s .
S e is m i c d at a p r oc e ss i n g i s t y p ic a ll y d i v i d e d i n t o m a n y
st e p s t h ou g h t h e r ea li t y i s t h at t h e s e is m i c re f l ec t i on
p ro c es s d oe s n ot c le an ly se p ar at e i n t o d i s cr e t e
p ac ka ge s . W e h a v e a so u rc e w h i c h s e n d s o u t a
co m p l i c at ed , l ar ge l y u n k n ow n wa v ef or m w h i ch e x p an d s,
a t t en ua t es , r ef l ec t s , t ra n s m it s , c h an g e s m od e s , a n d
ge n e ra l l y s c at t er s a bo u t w h i l e a s et o f re c ei v e rs
p la c id ly r e c or d s w h at e v er co m e s t h e ir wa y. A n d
ge n e ra l l y w h at h i t s t h e re c or d er s is f ar mor e
co m p l i c at ed t h an t h e s i m p l e d i re c t e c h os t h at w e w an t :
Receivers
Surface wave
All kinds of waves
sweep across the
receivers
P-wave
reflection S-wave
reflection
G o d wo u l d n ot p r oc e ss s ei s m i c d at a t h e wa y we d o . ( I' v e
r ec e iv e d a r ev e l at i on o n t h at p oi n t . ; - } ) I n s t ea d , H e
w ou l d b ac k t h e wa v e s d ow n i n t o t h e e ar t h u n d o in g a l l
p h y si c al e f f ec t s a t t h e p oi n t w h e re t h e y o c c u rr e d . W e
a r e p r ev e n t ed f ro m d o in g t h i s l ar ge l y b e c au s e o f
i gn o ra n c e o f t h e s u b s u rf ac e st r u c t u re . T h at i s, i n o rd er
t o u nd o t h e p h ys i c al e ff e c t s o f wa v e p r op a ga t io n , we
r eq u i r e k n ow l ed g e o f t h e s u b s u rf a ce p r op e r ti e s th a t
c on t r ol t h o se e f f ec t s . U n fo rt u na t el y , th o s e a re t h e v e ry
p r op e r ti e s w h ic h we h o p e t o d i sc o v er w i t h t h e s ei s m i c
e x p er i m e n t in th e f i rs t p l ac e . P ro bl e m s o f t h i s so rt a re
c om mo n in g eo p h ys i c s a n d a r e c al l ed " i n v e rs e p r ob l em s" .
1-4 Synthetic Seismograms
The Big Picture
S o , f ac e d w i t h t h e n e e d t o f i n d a s ol u t i on i n s p i t e o f
a l m o st t o t al ig n or an c e , we su b d i v i d e,
c om p ar t m en t a li z e, a s s u m e , a n d a p p r ox i m at e u n t i l w e
r ea ch a r es t at e m e n t o f t h e p r ob l em wh i c h i s s o v as t l y
s i m p l if i e d t h a t w e c an a c t u al l y so l v e it . A n ex a m p l e o f
such a t r e m en do u s o v e r si m p l i f i ca t io n is th e
" c o n v ol u t i on al m o d el " o f th e s e is m i c t ra c e w h i ch is o f
c e n t ra l im p or t an c e t o d e c on v o lu t i on t h e or y.
C on ti n u i n g w it h sw e ep i n g g en er al i ti e s , we c an gr ou p
m o st p h y si c al l y ba se d s ei s m i c p r oc e s se s i n t o o n e o f t wo
g ro u p s : im a gi n g p r oc e ss e s a n d d ec o n v ol u t i on p r oc e s se s .
I m a gi n g p ro c es s e s a tt e m p t t o d et e rm in e t h e co rr e c t
s p at i al p os i t io n o f t h e e c h os a n d a r e t yp i f i ed b y n m o
r em o v al , c m p s t ac ki n g , a n d m i gr at i on . D e c on v ol u t i on
p r oc e ss e s a t t e m p t t o r e m ov e t h e i l l u m i n at i n g w av ef o rm
a n d m ax i m i ze t h e r e so lu ti o n o f t h e s e i sm ic i m ag e .
E x am p l e s a r e g ai n r ec ov e r y, s t at i s t i ca l d e c on v o lu ti o n ,
i n v er s e Q f i l t er i n g, a n d wa v e l et p r oc e ss i n g .
Deconvolution
techniques
I n o r d e r t o u n der s t an d t h e i m p l i c at i on s o f o u r si m pli f i ed
t h e or ie s , it is i m po rt a n t t o u n d e rs t an d a s m u c h a s
p o ss i bl e a bo u t t h e m or e r ea li s t ic p h ys i c s t h at w e a r e
a p pro x im a t i n g. T h e r ef or e , i n a d d it i on t o st u dy i n g
m a th em a t ic a l s i m p l i fi c at i on s s u c h a s t h e c on v ol u t i on a l
m o d el , w e wi l l n ot h es i t at e t o ex a m i n e o f t h e m o s t
i m p o rt an t p h ys i c al m e c h an i s m s i n v ol v ed i n s ei s m i c w av e
p r op a ga t io n .
T h e si m ple s t e la st i c m a t er i al r eq u ir e s 2 f u n d a m en t a l
c on st a n t s t o d e s c ri b e t h e re la t io n be t we e n st r e ss a n d
s t ra in k n ow n a s H oo ke ' s l aw :
H e re σ i j d e n ot e s t h e c om p o n e n t s o f t h e s t r es s t e n so r
a n d e i j t h e c o m p on e n t s o f t h e s tr ai n t en so r. λ a n d μ a r e
c al l ed t h e L a m e co n s t an t s a n d μ is a ls o o f t en kn o wn a s
t h e s h ea r m o d u l u s. μ i s z er o f or a f lu id . O t h er c o n st a n t s
a r e o f t e n a l s o re f er e n c ed s u c h a s Yo u n g' s m o d u l u s , E ,
P oi s s on ' s r at io , σ , a n d t h e bu l k m od u lu s, k . T h e s e
c on s t an t s a r e a l l r e la t ed i n v ari o u s w ay s a n d a n y t wo
s u ff i c e t o d e sc r i be t h e el as t i c m a t er ia l .
μ 3λ+2μ λ 3λ+2μ
σ = k =
E = 2 λ+μ
λ+μ 3
λ+2μ μ
α = β =
ρ ρ
α2–2β2 α 21 –σ
λ = ρ α2–2β 2 μ = ρβ 2
σ = =
2 α –β
2 2
β 1 – 2σ
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Poisson's ratio
6 6
10 10
α = β =
son sson
Units for density logs can vary. Be careful to work with consistent
units.
Digital well logs are usually packaged in ascii flat files in either GMA
or LAS format. The LAS format is more modern and flexible and is
to be preferred.
mannville mannville
1450 1450
coal_3 coal_3
glauc_1 glauc_1
glauc_ss_top glauc_ss_top
glauc_base glauc_base
1600 1600
miss miss
base base
1650 1650
3 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 1
5 0 5 0 5 0 8 6 4 2 0 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Units of log SON Units of log RHOB
Faster More dense
W e l l l og s a re o f t en i n ad e q u at e , i n c om p l et e , o r m i s si n g .
O n e c om mo n e x am p le o f t h i s c om e s f ro m t h e f ac t t h a t
s on i c lo gs ( SO N ) a re ru n m u c h m or e f r eq u en t l y t h an
d e n s it y l og s. T h u s we a re o f t e n f ac e d w it h t h e n ee d t o
c re at e a s e is m o gr am w it h o u t d e n s i t y i n f or m a ti o n .
G a rd ner et a l. ( 1 ) , f ol l ow ed th e r ea so n ab l e a p p r oa c h o f
s ee ki n g a n em pir i c al r el at i o n sh i p b et w ee n P - w av e
v e lo c it y a n d d en si t y. B e lo w i s a c r os sp lo t o f a a n d r fo r
B l ac k fo ot 8 - 8 w h i ch i n d i c at es a re as on a bl e c or r el at i on
e x is t s :
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
P-wave velocity
ρ = a αm
T h e c on s t an t s a a n d m c an be d et e rm in e d f ro m fi t t i n g a
s t ra ig h t l in e t o a n p l ot o f lo g(ρ ) v e rs u s l og ( α ) . B e l ow
a r e t h e r es u l t s o f s ev e ra l s u c h f i t s t o B l ac kf o ot 8- 8 .
3200
m=.46
3000
m=.30
2800
m=.25
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
P-wave velocity
G a rd ner et a l . d et e rm in e d a n d r e co m m e n d e d m = . 2 5 a s a
r ea so n ab le v al u e . H ow e v er , a s we c an s e e, t h e d at a
s u p p o rt q u i t e a ra n ge o f a lt e rn a t i v es . ( Th e v al u e o f α i s
l ar ge l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e u n it s u s e d a n d i s n ot q u o t ed
h e re . ) T h u s , th e c ar ef u l a p pli c at i on o f G ar d n er ' s r u l e
r eq u i r es a bi t o f a n a l ys is .
Here are the three pseudo density logs from the three fits on the
previous page.
T h e g re at s u c c es s o f p h y si c s in e x p l ai n i n g o u r w or l d a n d
f u e li n g t h e gr ow t h o f t ec h n o lo gy i s ba se d f u n d am en t a ll y
u p o n d i f f er en t i al e q u a t io n s a n d m or e sp ec i f ic a ll y p ar t ia l
d i f f er en t i al e q u a t io n s . P D E ' s a r e t h e m a t h em a t i ca l
s t at e m en t o f t h e a p p l ic at i o n o f b as i c p h y si c al l a ws t o
c om ple x s ys t e m s . F or e x am p l e , a c on s i d e ra ti o n o f a
c on s t an t d e n s i t y f lu id l e ad s t o t h e 's c al ar w av e
e q u at i on ' wh i c h i s c en tr al t o m os t ge op hy s ic a l i m ag i n g
a l g or it h ms. T h e S W E i s a d i r ec t c o n s eq uen c e o f
N e w to n ' s s e co n d l aw a n d H oo ke 's l aw a s a p p l ie d t o t h e
f l u id .
∂2 Ψ ∂2Ψ ∂2 Ψ 1 ∂2 Ψ
2
+ 2
+ 2
– 2 2
= f x,y,z,t
∂x ∂y ∂z v x,y,z ∂t
H e re Y i s t h e p r e ss u r e , v i s t h e v el o ci t y o f w av e
p r op a ga t io n , a n d f ( x ,y ,z , t) r e p re s en t s a n y p os s ib l e
s ou r c es .
T h o u g h i t is h ar d l y o b v i ou s , t h e s o lu t i o n s t o t h i s
e q u at i on a re t ra v el i n g w av e s . A gr e at d e al o f in te r es t i n g
p h y si c al ef f e ct s ca n b e s t u d i ed w it h t h e S W E i n c lu din g :
T h e t e rm o n t h e ri g h t o f t h e eq u al s ig n i s a D i ra c d el t a
f u n c t i on a n d r ep re s en t s a m at h e m a ti c al i m p u l s e a t a
s i n gl e p o i n t i n s p ac e , ( xo ,y o , zo ) , a n d a t a n in st a n t o f
t i m e , t o . T h e s o lu t i on to t h e G re e n ' s f u n c t i on p ro bl e m ,
G ( x, y ,z ,t ) , i s k n ow n e x ac t l y f or c o n st a n t v e lo c it y a n d
a p pro x im a t el y fo r a n u m b e r o f m or e c o m p l i ca t ed
s i tu a t i on s . G c on t a in s a l l p h y si c al e f fe c t s d u e t o t h e
i m p u l s iv e s ou r c e a n d i s p r op e rl y c al le d a n " i m p u l s e
r es p o n se " .
T o o b t ai n t h e r es p o n s e t o g en e ra l s ou r ce c o n fi g u ra t io n s ,
w e im a g in e t h e so u r ce to b e c om p os e d o f a s et o f s c al e d
i m p u l s es . T h en co n s t ru c t t h e G re en ' s f u n c t i on s f or a ll o f
t h e se i m p uls e s a n d si m p l y s u p e ri m p o se t h e s e G r ee n ' s
f u n c t i on s . T h i s i s a n e x am p l e o f t h e m a t h em a t i ca l
p r oc e ss o f " co n v ol u t i on ". W e w il l l ea rn m o re a b ou t
c on v o lu ti o n l at e r i n t h i s c ou r s e. F o r n ow , it i s e n ou g h t o
v i su a l iz e i t a s a ge n e ra l s u p e r p os i t io n o f s c al e d " i m p u l s e
r es p o n se s " .
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 1 -15
The Wave Equation
T he r e s ul t w e ha ve j us t o b t a i ne d i s s o i m po r t a nt t h at w e
r e s t a t e i t i n d i f f e r e nt t er m s :
T h e w a v ef ie ld d u e to a so u r ce ha vi n g e xt en d e d sp a t ia l
a n d te m p o ra l f o rm c a n b e co n s id e re d t o be t h e
c o n v o lu t io n o f t h e e a rt h 's i m p u ls e res p o n se w it h t h e
e xt en d e d so ur ce . T h is re su l t h o l d s fo r a n y l i ne a r w a v e
e qu a t i o n a n d e x te n d s t o el a st i c, a n is o t ro p i c a n d
a t t en u a t in g m ed ia .
T h e t wo c om p o n en ts o f t h i s r e su lt , t h e e ar t h ' s i m p u l s e
r es p o n se , I r , a n d t h e s ou r c e wa v ef or m , w s , a re b ot h
a b s t ra ct e n t i t ie s th a ta r e d i f f ic u l t t o q u a n t if y . I r i s
g en e r al ly ve r y c om p l i c at e d a n d c on t ai n s a l l p h ys i ca l
e ff e c t s. w s i s a c om p l e t e ch a ra c t er iz at i on o f t h e s ou r c e
w av e fi e ld a n d c an be co n s id er ed a s t h e sp ec i f ic a t io n o f
t h e wa v ef i e ld a t a ll p o i n t s o n a s u rf a ce s u r ro u n d i n g t h e
s ou r c e.
Impulse response
Response to 3 sources
1-16 Synthetic Seismograms
Traveling Waveforms
∂2 ψ 1 ∂2 ψ
2
= 2 2 (1)
∂z v ∂t
∂f 1 ′ ∂2 f 1 ′′
= ± f , = 2f
∂z v ∂z
2
v
∂f
2
′ ∂ f ′′
= f , = f
∂t ∂t
2
2 2
w τ = 1–2 πfdomτ exp – πfdomτ τ->
-0.05 0 0.05
Note that the Ricker wavelet is centered where its argument equals
zero. Thus w(t+z/v) represents a wavelet centered at t+z/v = 0 or
z = -vt. So we conclude:
Wa vef o r m tr a vel i ng
w t–z/v =
i n t he +z d i r e c ti o n z=vt
-0.5
-1
400 450 500 550 600
z-> (meters)
cos 2π30 t–z/1000 Plotted versus z for t=1.0 and 1.01 (sec)
1-18 Synthetic Seismograms
Normal Incidence Reflection Coefficients
(Adapted from E.S. Krebes, Course Notes in Theoretical Seismology)
Incident Reflected
Consider a v e r ti c a l l y displacement displacement
tr a ve li ng com pr es s i o na l Z f t–z/α1 g t+z/α1
w a ve incident o n a
h or i z o nt a l i nterface. I n
α1,ρ 1
o r de r t o d e s c r ib e the
r e f l e cti o n a n d α2,ρ2
tr a n s mi ss i o n t ha t o c c u r ,
i t can b e s ho w n tha t t w o
c o n di t i o ns m us t b e h t–z/α2
s a ti sf i e d : Transmitted
displacement
Force ∂u
stress = pressure = = k
area ∂z
2
l
force units mass sec2 mass l
pressure = = 2
= 3
(length units)2 l l sec
∂f ∂g ∂h
ρ 1α21 + ρ1α21 = ρ2 α22 (evaluated at the interface)
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂f –1 ′ ∂ g 1 ′ ∂h –1 ′
But since = f, = g, = h
∂z α1 ∂z α1 ∂z α2
I1–I 2
g = f = –Rf
I1+I 2
Similarly, we can obtain:
2I 1
h = f = Tf
I1 +I2
I 2–I1+2I1
Note that: R+T = = 1
I1+I 2
I2–I 1 2I 1
R = , T =
I1+I 2 I1+I 2
1 d ln I
ΔI
R = ≈ Δz
2I 2 dz
I–.5ΔI
T = 1–R =
I
Δ ρα ρΔα+αΔρ 1 Δα Δρ
R = = = +
2ρα 2ρα 2 α ρ
V1,R 1 *R1
t=Δt
k=1 *R1
V2,R 2
1 –R * * 1–R1 *R2
1
t=2Δt
2
k=2 *1– R1 *R2
V3,R 3
1– R * 1– R * * 1– R1 1– R2 *R3
1 2
t=3Δt 2 2
k=3 *1– R1 1– R2 *R3
1– Rk * * 1–Rk *Rj
k = 1
k = 1
j–1
t=jΔt
2
k=j * 1– Rk *Rj
k=1
1– Rk * * 1–Rk *Rn
k = 1 k=1
n–1
t=nΔt 2
k=n * 1– Rk *Rn
k=1
R1
z
R2
R3
E ar th model i s bui lt of
l ay er s of e qua l tr a ve lti me
" thic kness" Δ t
R4
R5 Completed node
Current node
R6
Note: All Raypaths are
actually vertical. They are
R7 shown slanted for illustrative
purposes.
R8
R9
At the designated point, 6D4 and 6U5 The c omp le te s e is mogr am i s
are known and we wish to compute obta ined by r ecur s ive ca lcula tion
6U4 and 6D5: be ginning i n the up pe r le f t. All
nod es on a ny up war d tr ave ling r a y
6U4 = R4*6D4 + (1+R4)*6U5 ar e comp le tel y ca lc ul ate d bef ore
pr oc ed ing to the nex t d e pth.
6D5 = (1-R4)*6D4 -R4*6U5
t=Δt *R 1 t=Δt *R 1
2
t=2Δt * 1–R1 *R2 t=2Δt * 1–R1 *R2
2
2 2
t=3Δt * 1–R1 1–R2 *R3 t=3Δt 2
* 1–R1 1–R2 *R3
2
j–1 j–1
2
t=jΔt * 1–Rk *Rj t=jΔt *
2
1–Rk *Rj
k = 1 k = 1
n–1 n–1
2
t=nΔt * 1–Rk *Rn t=nΔt *
2
1–Rk *Rn
k = 1 k = 1
T h e " p r i m ar ie s o n l y"
T o o b t ai n t h e s o u rc e
impulse re s p on s e
wa v ef o rm re s p on s e
c on s i s ts of a time
f ro m the i m pu ls e
s er i es o f s c al ed a n d
re s p on s e , s im ply
d e la ye d im pu ls e s
re p l ac e ea c h s p i ke o f
t h e i m pu ls e re s p on s e
by t h e p r od uct o f t h e
s p i ke and s o u rc e
wa v ef o rm . T h i s i s t h e
m at h e m a ti c al p ro c es s
o f co n v ol u t i on
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 1 -25
Impulse Responses and Seismograms
F o r a li n e ar ea rt h , i t c an be s h ow n t h at i f w e a re g i v en
t h e w av e fo rm s i gn a t u re o f a n on - im p u l si v e so u rc e a n d
t h e i m p u l se re s p on s e o f a n ea rt h m od el , t h e n :
s t = Ir t •ws t
where:
Ir t is the earth impulse response
n o rm a l i n c i d en ce re f le c t i on co ef f i c ie n t s
rt =
p o s it i o n ed i n 2 - w ay v e rt i c al t r av e l t im e
Thus: s t = r t •ws t
s( t ) g i v en b y t h i s re s u lt i s th e m o st c om m on 1-D
se i s m og ra m c o m p u t e d i n ex p l o ra ti o n g eo p h y si c s .
1-26 Synthetic Seismograms
1 - D S y n th e ti c S ei s mog ram Su m ma r y
• A c o m p l et e s ol u t i on , g en er at i n g a l l m u l t ip le s a n d
t ra n sm is s i on ef f e c t s, c an b e c on s t r u c te d . S o m e
m et h o d s a ls o i n c l u d e a t t e n u at i on .
• A ss u m pti o n s: ra y th eo ry , 1 - D , n o rm a l i n c id en c e
• G e o p h ys i c al w el l l og s , p r ov i d i n g P - w av e v e l oc i t ie s
a n d d e n si t i es , a re u se d . T h e y a re u su a ll y r es am p l ed t o
a v a ri ab l e d e p t h l a ye ri n g w it h e q u al D t s te p s .
• M e t h od i s i n h er e n t ly a lg or i t h m i c . N o a n a l yt i c c l os ed
fo rm s ol u t i on a v ai l ab l e.
• I n p r ac t ic e , m ult i p l es a n d t ra n s m is s i on lo s se s a re n o t
u s u al ly in cl u d e d . R e f le c t i on c oe f fi c i en ts i n t im e a r e
si m ply c on v ol v ed w it h a so u rc e r e sp o n s e.
Wavelet
Synthetic Seismogram
Reflection Coeficients
-10
-20
Reflectivity
-30
-40 Wavelet
-50
-60
-70
-80
Synthetic Seismogram
-90
-100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
Free
2) Zoeppritz PP AND surface
RCs PS P
S S
Primary reflections
3) Map RCs to to,
Input
apply wavelet.
wavelet
Re s pons e of
Next layer l ay e r k
+
Accumulated
gather after k-1
layers
= Accumulated
gather aft er k
la yer s
Lecture Notes
Geophysics 557
Chapter 2
Sign al P rocessi ng
0 -.5 1 -.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 -.25 .5 -.25 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 .5 -1 .5
s = r•w
s = r• w
sj = Σ rk wj–k
k
T o s ee t h a t t h i s s u m m a t io n e x p r es s i on is eq u iv a le n t t o
t h e t ab u la r m e t h od , co n s id er t h e e x am p l e o f j =4 :
N ot e t h at t h e le n g t h o f s i s t h e c om b i n ed l en g t h s o f
r a n d w le s s 1 :
T h u s , m a t h em a t i ca ll y , e v er yt i m e a c o n v ol u t i on i s
p er f or m ed t h e r es u l t i n c re as e s i n l e n gt h . T h i s c re at e s a
b i t o f a h e ad e r ( bo okk e ep i n g ) p r ob l em in se i s m i c d at a
p ro c es s in g a n d i s n ot u s u al l y a l lo we d . T h a t i s, i f a
s e i sm ic t r ac e is c on v ol v ed wi t h a f i l t er o p e r at or , t h e
r e su lt i s t r u n c at e d a t t h e s a m e l e n gt h a s t h e se i sm ic
t r ac e .
sj = Σr w
k
k j–k
st = r τ w t–τ dτ
–∞
0.1
0.05 r 1
0 • 0.5 b
-0.05 0
0 2 4
-0.10 2 4 6 8 10 12
E ac h i n p u t sa m p l e i s c on s i d e re d se p a ra te l y. T h e
b ox c a r i s m u lt i p l i ed by t h e i n p u t sa m p l e re s u lt i n g i n a
s c al e d b ox c ar . T h e s c al e d b ox c a r c o n t ri b u t es t o
o u t p u t sa m p l e lo c at i on s b eg i n n i n g a t the
p os i t io n o f t h e i n p u t sa m p l e . T h us t h e
b ox c ar i s sc a le d b y ea c h sa m p l e o f r
0.1
a n d re p l ic a t ed a t t h e lo c at i on o f
0.05 th e r s am ple . E ac h o u t p u t
sa m p l e r ec e iv e s m u lt i p l e
0
co n t ri b u t i on s w h i c h a r e s u m m e d .
-0.05 I n p u t s am ple s 1 ,2 a n d 6 a r e
sh o wn e x p l ic i t l y c o n t ri b u t in g.
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.1 0.1
0 =0
-0.1 -0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0.1
0.05 r 1
0 • 0.5 b
-0.05 0
0 2 4
-0.10 2 4 6 8 10 12
T o co m p u t e a n o u t pu t 0.
s am p l e , p o si t i on t h e 1
b ox c ar o v e r s om e r
s am p l e s , m u l t ip ly t h e r 0
s am p l e s b y t h e bo x c ar
w ei g h t s, a n d s u m . T h e -0.05
c om pu t at i on o f o u t pu t -0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
s am p l e s 1 a n d 7 i s
i ll u s t r at ed . T h i s i s a
p r oc e ss o f s m o ot h i n g
0.1
o r a v er ag i n g t h e i n p u t .
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
a 11 a12 a13 a 14 b1 c1
a 21 a22 a23 a 24 b2 c2
= eqn 1
a 31 a32 a33 a 34 b3 c3
a 41 a42 a43 a 44 b4 c4
M at r i x m u l t i p li c at i on " b y c ol u mn s" i s l e s s we l l k n ow n
t h an th e c o rr es p o n d i n g p ro c es s " b y r ow s" bu t i t
p r ov i d e s a u s ef u l in tu it i v e i n s i gh t t o co n v ol u t i on .
E x am i n at i on o f e q u at i on s 2 a - 2 d s h ow s t h at t h e c ol u m n s
o f A h a v e b ee n m u l t ip li e d by a si n g l e c or re s p on din g
e le m e n t o f B . T h u s w e ca n e x p r es s t h e m a t ri x
m u l t i p l ic a t io n a s a su m o f c o lu m n v ec t or s , e ac h o n e
b ei n g a s c al ed v e rs i on o f a c o lu m n o f A .
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 14 c1
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 24 c2
b1 + b2 + b3 + b4 =
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 34 c3
a 41 a 42 a 43 a 44 c4
W ri t t en a s c om p u t at i on l o op s , t h i s a m o u n t s t o r e v er s in g
t h e o rd er o f t h e l oo p s i n t h e m u l t ip l i c at i on s " by r ow s "
c=zeros(1,4);
for jcol=1:4
for irow=1:4
c(irow)=c(irow) + a(irow,jcol)*b(jcol);
end
end
C on si d e r t h e c on v o lu t i on o f a re f l ec t i v it y se q u e n c e , r ,
w it h a w av e le t , w , to y i e l d a se i s m i c t ra c e , s . T h i s i s
u s u al l y wr i tt e n a s t h e c o n v ol u t i on in t e g ra l:
W h e n we h a v e d i s c re t e, fi n i t e l en gt h a p p r ox i m a t io n s t o
t h e se q u a n t i ti e s , th e c o n v ol u t i on i s u s u al l y w ri t t e n a s a
s u m m a ti o n . I f r j i s t h e re f le c t i vi t y se r ie s wi t h j = 0 , 1 ,. . . n ,
an d wk is t h e p o ss i b ly n o n - c au s al wa v el e t w it h k =-
m . . .0 . . . m , t h e n :
k–m
s k = Δt Σ
j = k+m
wk–jr j
U s u al l y, in t h e se e xp re s si o n s, t h e Δ t t e rm i s d ro p p e d o r
s et t o u n i t y. I t i s u se f u l t o w r it e o u t a fe w t e rm s o f t h i s
s u m m a ti o n :
N ot e t h e s ym m e t ry o f t h e W m a t ri x w h i c h h as t h e
w av e le t s am ple s c on s t an t a l on g t h e d i ag on al s . A n o t h er
w ay t o v i e w W i s t h at e ac h c o lu mn c on t a in s t h e w av e le t
w i th t h e z er o t i m e s am ple a l ig n e d o n t h e m ai n d i ag on a l.
N ow , im a gi n e d o i n g th e m a t r ix m u l ti p l i c at i on by c ol u m n s
i n s t ea d o f r ow s a n d we ge t t h e m o s t i n t u i t iv e v i e w o f
c on v ol u t io n " by r ep la c em e n t " .
w0 w–1 s0
w1 w0 s1
r0 + r1 + =
w2 w1 s2
w3 w2
sn
A s a n e x am p l e o f c o n v ol u t i on by m at r ix m u l t i p l ic a ti o n ,
h e re i s a n i l l u st r at i on o f t h e c on v ol u t i on o f a r e fl e c t iv i t y
s er i es a n d a m i n i m u m p h as e wa v le t t o y i e ld a 1 -D
s ei s m o gr am .
A s a s ec o n d ex am p l e, h er e i s th e c on v o lu t i on o f a
r ef l ec t i v i t y s er i es a n d a z er o p h as e wa vl e t t o y ie l d a
z e r o p h as e s ei s m og r am .
W h en t h e a ss u m p t i o n o f s t at i on a ri t y i s m a d e i n t h e
c on te x t o f s t at is t i c al d ec o n v ol u t i on t h e or y, it m e an s
p r e ci s e ly t h e s a m e t h i n g. W e a s s u m e t h a t t h e t i m e s e ri e s
w e m ea su re d ( t h e s ei s m i c t ra c e ) i s re l at e d t o t h a t wh i c h
w e w an t ( th e r ef l e ct i v i t y) b y a s ta t io n ar y c o n v ol u t i on
o p er at i on . G i v en t h at , we e x p e c t t h at a st a ti o n ar y
i n v e rs e o p er at o r wi l l s u f fi c e t o r ec o ve r t h e r e fl e c t iv i t y.
iωu
Now, let g be a complex sinusoidal function: gu = e
∞
iω t–τ iωt
Then: ht = fτe dτ = e F ω (1)
–∞
∞
–iωτ
where Fω = fτe dτ (2)
–∞
T h i s r em a rk ab l e r es u l t s h ow s t h at i f we c on v o lv e A N Y
f u n c t i on , f , wi t h a co m p l e x s in u s o id , t h e r es u l t i s t h e
s am e c om p l e x si n u s o id m u lt i p l i ed by a c o m p l ex
c oe f f ic i e n t . T h i s c o m p l ex c o ef f i ci e n t , F ( w ) , i s c om pu t ed
f ro m f( t ) a n d i s k n ow n a s t h e F o u ri e r T r an s f or m o f f ( t ) .
T h o s e w h o h av e st u die d m a t h em a t i c al p h ys i c s wi l l
r ec og n i ze t h at t h i s m e an s t h at t h e c om ple x s in u so i d s
a r e e ig e n f u n c t io n s o f t h e c on v o lu ti o n o p er at o r a n d t h e
F o u ri e r T r an s f or m p ro v id es t h e ei g en v a lu e s .
0 0
-1 -1
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0 30Hz Ricker 0
-1 -1
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Convolve
0 0
-1 -1
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
IN OUT
2-14 Signal Processing Concepts
Fourier Transforms and Convolution
H e r e i s t h e a c t u al F o u ri e r a m p l it u de s p e ct r u m o f t h e
3 0 H z R ic k er w av e l et .
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency (Hz)
Since "decibels down" are computed by
dbdown = 20*log10(F(ω)/Fmax)
we can use the results from the previous figure to compute:
S o F ( w ) , t h e F ou r ie r T ra n s fo rm o f a fu n ct i o n f ( t ) , i s a
q u ic k wa y o f c om pu t in g t h e re l at i v e a t t e n u at i on o f
d if f e re n t s i n u s oi d s w h e n t h e y a r e c on v o lv e d wi t h f ( t ) .
0.1 0.1
0.05
0.05
0
0
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.1 -0.15
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
30 Hz. Ricker zero phase 30 Hz Ricker 90o phase
N o t e t h at z e ro p h a se wa ve f or m s a re a l wa y s s ym m et r i c
w h il e 9 0o p h as e r e su lt s i n a n a n t i s ym m e t ri c w av e f or m .
W e m i gh t e x p ec t t h e 9 0o R i ck e r t o h av e t h e s am e ef f e c t
o n th e a m p l it u de o f s i n u s oi d s b u t so m e a n d d i t i on a l
e ff e c t a s we l l. T o s ee , w e re p e at th e a n al y si s o f p as s i n g
c om ple x si n u s oi d s th ro u gh i t .
0 0
-1 -1
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
30Hz Ricker
0 0
90 o
-1 -1
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 Convolve 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
-1
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
IN OUT
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -17
Fourier Transforms and Convolution
H e r e i s a c om p le t e d e s c ri p t i on o f t h e 9 0o , 30 H z . R i c ke r
i n t h e t i m e d o m ai n a n d a m p l it u de a n d p ha s e s p ec t r u m i n
t h e F o u ri e r d om a in . W e h av e s ee n t h at th e F ou r ie r
d o m ai n p r ov i d e s a c on v e n i en t d e s cr i p t i on o f t h e e ff e c t
o f c on v o lv i n g t h e wa v e l et wi t h c om p l e x s i n u s oi d s .
0.1
0.05
Time Domain 0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Time
-20
Fourier Domain
Amplitude -40
Spectrum
-60
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency
100
Fourier Domain 0
Phase Spectrum
-100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency
2-18 Signal Processing Concepts
&OURIE R ! NALYS IS AND 3 Y NT HES IS
4 H E G R EA T U T IL I T Y O F T H E & OU R I ER T RA N S FO RM C O M E S F R OM
I T S A B I LI T Y T O D E CO M P O SE A N Y F U N C T IO N I N T O A S E T O F
C OM P L EX S I N U S OI D S ) N T H E C O N T IN U O U S C AS E T HE
F R EQ U E N C I ES O F T H E S I N U S OI D S R A N GE F R OM
d T O d A N D
H A V E A M P L IT U DE S A N D P H AS ES W H I C H A R E C OM P U T ED F R OM
T H E F OR W AR D & OU R IE R T R AN S F OR M
d
nI WT
(W HT E DT
nd
4 H IS E Q U AT I ON C OM P UT ES T H E C OM P L E X C O EF I C I EN T S ( W
OF T HE C OM PLE X S I N U SO I D S WHIC H WH E N S UMMED
I N T E GR AT E D W IL L Y IE L D H T 5 S U AL L Y ( W I S D EC O M P OS E D
I N T O T WO S E P AR AT E R EA L F U N C T IO N S
AMPLIT UDE S PEC TRUM !W (W 2E ( W )M ( W
n
)M ( W
PHAS E S PE CT RUM F W TAN
2E ( W
4 HE I N V ER S E & O U RI E R T RA N S FO RM E X P R ES S ES T HE
C ON S T R U C T IO N O F H T A S A S U P E R P OS I T IO N O F C O M P L EX
S I N U S OI D S
d
I WT
HT (W E DW
P nd
) F W E W I S H T O U S E C YC L IC A L F RE Q U E N C Y F I N S T E AD O F A N GU L A R
F R EQ U E N C Y W W P F T H E & O U RI E R T RA N SF O RM P AI R I S
d
n PIFT
(F HT E DT
nd
d
PIFT
HT (F E DF
nd
A s a n e x am p l e c on s i d er t h e G a u s s i an fu nct i on :
2
–α 2 t
ht = e
U s in g s t an d a rd t e c h n i q u es o f i n t e gr al c al c u lu s , t h e
F o u ri e r t ra n s fo rm o f t h e G a u ss i an c an be s h o wn t o be :
π – ω /4α 2
Hω = α e
h(t) H(ω)
N o t e t h at t h e h a l f wi d t h s , a s re p re s e n t ed by t h e i r 1 / e
p o in t s a re in v e r se l y p ro p or t i on a l. I n f ac t :
ΔtΔω = α 2α = 2
–1
T h i s i s a n e x am p l e o f a g en e r al p r op e rt y wh i c h s ay s t h a t
t h e " wi d t h " o f a ti m e d om a i n fu n c ti o n is i n v er s el y
p r op o rt i on a l t o it s wi d t h i n f re q u e n c y. I t ca n be s h ow n ,
g iv e n a s u i t ab l e m e as u re o f w i d t h , t h at :
( w id th i n t i m e ) ( w id th i n f r eq u en c y ) > = a co n s t an t
B r ac e we l l ( 1 9 7 8 , T h e F o u ri e r T ra n sf o rm and its
A p p l ic a ti o n s) s h ow s t h e c o n s ta n t t o b e 1 /2 a n d t h at t h e
e q u al i t y h ol d s f or th e G a u s s i an .
A t t h i s po i nt , F o ur i e r an a l ys i s m a y l o o k l i k e an e xe r c i s e i n
g r a ph m a ki n g ; ho w e ve r , i t s ut il i t y w i l l b e c o m e c l e ar o n t h e
n e xt pa g e .
A
B
60 60
40 40
20 20
H e re we s ee t wo e q u i v al e n t wa y s o f v i e wi n g t h e F o u r ie r
t ra n s fo rm in fo rm a t i on o n t h e p r e v io u s p ag e. I n A , t h e
i n d i v id u al F ou r ie r c om po n e n t s a r e s h ow n f r om 1 0 t o 7 0
H z , p ro p er l y s c al e d f or t h ei r a m p l i t u d e a n d p h as e . T h e
s u m o f a l l 1 3 c om p on e n t s y i e ld s th e w av e l et a t t h e t op
w h ic h i s q u i t e si m i l ar t o t h e t r u e w av e l et s h o wn o n t h e
p r ev i o u s p a g e. A d d i n g i n t h e r em a i n in g f r eq u e n c y
c om po n e n t s ( 0 - > 1 0 H z a n d 7 0 - > 5 0 0 H z ) wi l l re c on s t r u c t
t h e wa ve l e t e x ac t l y. T h e f i gu r e o n t h e ri g h t c on t ai n s t h e
s am e in fo rm a t i on ex c e p t t h at ea c h tr ac e is t h e s u m o f
t h e f re q u e n c y c om p o n en ts be t we e n i t s f re q u e n c y a n d 1 0
H z . T h i s g i v es a g oo d i ll u s t ra t io n o f h o w t h e wa v el e t
t ak es fo rm a s it s sp ec t r u m i s s u m med .
8
A se ri e s o f b ox c ar s w i t h
7
b4
u nit a r ea c on v e rg e s i n
6 t h e l im it t o t h e d e lt a
f u n c t i on :
5
4 b∞ = δ t
b3
3
b2 It can be thought of as:
2
b1
1 0, t≠0
δt =
0
-0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 ∞, t=0
T h e m os t i m p o rt a n t p r op e rt y o f t h e d e l t a f u n c t i on i s i t s
be h av i or u nd er i n t e gr at i on . I f f ( t ) is a n y f u n c t i on , t h e n :
b f t0 , if a<t0<b
f t δ t–t0 dt =
a 0, otherwise
T h us i t h a s a c on s t an t , u n i t a m p l i t u d e s p ec t r u m ( a ls o
kn o wn a s a " wh i t e " s p e c t ru m) a n d l i n e ar p h a se .
–iωt o
e
T h at i s , a s t at i c sh i f t i s e q u i v al en t t o a l i n e ar p h as e
sh i f t . F i n a ll y, if we i n v e rs e F o u ri e r t ra n sf o rm t h e
eq u a t io n a t t h e to p o f t h e p ag e, w e en d u p w i t h a
d ef i n i t io n o f t h e d e lt a f u n c t io n i n t e rm s o f i t s F o u ri e r
co m p o n en t s :
1 ∞ ∞
δ (τ − t 0 ) =
2π
∫ −∞
e
iω (τ − t0 )
= ∫ −∞
e
2 π i f ( τ −t0 )
T h us t h e d e l ta f u n c t i on h as u n i t a m p li t u d e sp e c t ru m
a n d a p h as e s p e c t ru m t h at is li n e ar i n f r eq u en c y a n d
w it h s lo p e p r op o rt i on a l t o t h e t i m e s h i ft .
C o n s id er t h e c o n t in u ou s c o n v ol u t i on o f f a n d g:
∞
ht = f τ g t–τ dτ (1)
–∞
W e c an r e p re s en t f a n d g i n t er m s o f t h e i r sp ec t r a
a s: ∞ ∞
1 i ωτ 1 iϖ t–τ
fτ = F ω e dω an d g t–τ = Gϖe dϖ
2π –∞ 2π –∞
S u bs t i t u t in g t h es e i n t o ( 1 ) :
∞
∞ ∞
1 1
iωτ iϖ t– τ
ht = F ω e dω Gϖe dϖ dτ
2π –∞ 2π –∞
–∞
∞
Interchanging ∞
1 1 i ω– ϖ τ iωt
FωGϖ dτ e dωdϖ
the order of
integration ht = e
2π 2π –∞
–∞
∞
1 i ωt
The term in [ ] is the
ht = F ω G ϖ δ ω–ϖ e dωdϖ
Dirac delta function.
2π –∞
∞
The d el ta functi on 1 iωt
col lap ses one of the ht = F ω G ω e dω
f r eq uency inte gra ls 2π –∞
H er e w e h a ve h ( t ) re p r es e n t ed a s t h e i n v e r se F o u r i er
t r an s f or m o f " s om e t h i n g " . B y i n fe r en c e , t h a t so m e th in g
m u st be t h e F o u ri e r t ra n sf or m o f h . T h u s :
Hω = FωGω
FFT FFT
F(ω) G(ω)
Multiply
H(ω)
IFFT
h(t)
N o t e t h at m u l t ip l y in g co m p l e x s p e c tr a i s:
iφF ω iφG ω
H ω = F ω G ω = AF ω e AG ω e
i φ F ω + φG ω
= AF ω AG ω e
T h a t i s w e c an v i ew i t a s m u l t i p l yi n g t h e a m p l it u de
s p e ct r a a n d a d din g t h e p h as e s p e c tr a.
Continuous
Gaussian
Continuous
spectrum
Gaussian
F o ur i er
1/Δt t r a ns fo r m
Sampling
of
Comb
s am pl i ng
c om b
Comb spacing = Δt
Equals Equals
Sampled Gaussian
Gaussian Spectrum
and aliases
1/Δt
Fnyquist = 1/(2Δt)
Spectrum of
sampled
data
showing
aliasing.
S p e ct r u m o f
s am p l ed
d a t a wi t h
m in i m a l
a li as i n g .
Ti me D o ma in F r e q ue n cy Do m a in
Spectrum
S ampled band limited
of sampled,
function
unaliased,
continuous
function
Interpolation
site C on volve d
w i t h a si n c
f un c ti on Mu l t ip l ie d
by a
b oxca r
I n o r d er t o m i n i m i ze a l i as i n g, r aw a n a l og s ei s m i c d at a i s
p as s e d t h r ou g h a n a n al og a n t i al i as f i l t er p r i or t o
d i g it i za t io n . A t y p ic a l a n t i al i as fi l t er h as a n a m p l i t u d e
s p e ct r u m w h i c h be g i n s t o r ol l o f f a t 5 0 % t o 6 0 % o f
f n yq uis t a n d re ac h e s v er y la rg e a t t en u at i on ( > 6 0 d b ) a t
f n yq uis t .
0
H e re is t he
s p ec tr u m o f a n -20
ant ia l ia s f il te r
-40
f o r us e pr io r to
sampli n g a t -60
. 0 04 s ec .
-80
-100
-120
0 2 4 6 8 10 120 140
0 0 0 0 0
Frequency (Hz)
R u l e o f t h u m b : S a m p le y o u r d at a s u c h t h at t h e
e x p e c t ed s ig n a l f re q u e n c ie s a re l e ss t h an h al f f n yqu ist .
s am ple
r at e N y q u i st
.008 s 6 2 .5 H z
C om mo n s a m p l in g
.004 s 125 H z
ra t es and their
N y q u i st f re q u e n c ie s .002 s 250 H z
.001 s 500 H z
A l i as i n g i s a l s o a p o s s ib i li t y w h e n re s am p l i n g se i s m i c
d at a . I f t h e n e w sa m p l e i n t er v al i s m o re c oa rs e t h an t h e
o l d , th en a n a n t i al i as f i lt e r s h ou l d be a p p l i ed .
2-32 Signal Processing Concepts
The Discrete Fourier Transform
T h e gr ea t u t il it y o f th e co nt i nu ous F o u ri er tr a n sf o rm t o
de c o m p o se f un c t io n s in t o f u n d a m en t a l co m p l ex s in u s o id s
ca n be a p p li ed d ir ec tl y to d i sc re t ely s a m p l ed ti m e
do m a in fu n c ti o n s. Co n si d er a fu n c ti o n h( t ) w h ic h i s z e ro
ev ery w h er e ex c ep t a t N t im e s d ef in e d b y t= k Δ t , k = 0 ,1 , 2
.. . N - 1 , w h e re i t t a k e s t he va lu es h k . T h is fu n c ti o n ca n
be w ri tt e n w i th t h e d ira c d e lt a f u n ct i o n a s :
N–1
ht = Σ h kδ t–kΔt
k = 0
N–1
Hω = Σ h ke
–i ωkΔt
k = 0
He r e w e ha v e a n a na l y tic e x pr e ssi o n fo r t he F o ur i e r
tr a n sfo r m o f th e h k sa m p le s w h ic h is d e f in e d f o r a l l ω .
We ha v e a lr e a d y se e n th at t he p h e n o me no n o f a li a sin g
lim it s th e us a b le fr e qu e n cy b a n d t o -π /Δ t - > + π / Δ t .
Fu r t he rmo r e, l in e a r al g e b r a te lls u s th a t N f r e q ue nc ie s in
th is b a n d sh o ul d s uf fic e to d e t e r m in e th e N h k . S o w e a r e
le a d t o c o ns id e r sa m pl in g th e fr e q u e nc y d o m a in a t ω ν =
2πν/(NΔ t) , ν = 0 ,1, 2 .. . N - 1.
N–1
Hυ = Σ h ke
–i2πυk/N
k = 0
D i sc r e te e x p on e n t i al s h av e a w e ll k n ow n o r t h og on a li t y
p r op e r ty s u c h t h at :
U s in g t h i s , i t i s n o t d if f i c u l t t o sh o w t h a t t h e h k s am p l e s
c an be re c ov e re d fr om t h e H ν by :
N–1
1
hk = Σ H υe
i2πυk/N
Inverse DFT
N υ = 1
T h i s r e su lt t og et h e r w it h :
N–1
Hυ = Σ
k = 0
h ke
–i2πυk/N
Forward DFT
f or m t h e d i sc r et e F o u ri e r t r an s f or m p a ir . T h e y a re t h e
d i r ec t a n al og t o th e c o n t in u ou s F o u r ie r t ra n sf o rm
r el at i on s . L i ke t h e F T, t h e DF T i s c om p l e t e i n t h at t h e h k
a r e e x ac t l y r e c ov e ra b l e f ro m t h e i r s p ec t r u m , t h e H ν .
-fnyq fnyq
Co nv o l ve d wi th th e
tr a nsf or m o f t h e 1/Δt
samp li ng c o mb
1/Δf Times a
sampling Δf
comb
Principle
band
T ID FT -fnyq fnyq
The sampled time series
becomes periodic
with period T=NΔt fnyq = 1/(2Δt) T = 1/Δf ΔfΔt = 1/N
Filter operator:
T h e c on v o l u t io n o p e r at i on t h at d up li c at e s m u l t ip li c at i on
w it h t h e D FT i s c al l ed c i rc u l ar c o n v ol u t i on . N ot e t h at t h e
f i lt e r o p er at or p la c ed o n t h e l as t s am p l e o f t h e p r in ci p l e
p e ri o d a p p e ar s t o " wr ap a r ou nd " a n d a f f e c t t h e fi r s t
s am p l e . T o a v o id t h i s p ro bl e m , i t i s c om m o n t o p ad t h e
t i m e s er i es wi t h a l e n gt h o f z e ro s c h os e n w it h t h e l e n gt h
o f t h e f il t e r o p e r at or i n m i n d .
Principle Period
Zero
Pad
Time domain
Convolution
compute time
FFT
Operator Length
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -37
Filtering
W e h av e se e n t h at c on v o lu t i on w it h a wa v e f or m
su r p r es s e s a n d p o s s ib l y p ha s e sh i f t s s om e f re q u e n c i es
re l at i v e t o o t h e rs . T h is f i l t er i n g a c t io n i s o f t en ex p l o it e d
t o e n h an c e s i gn a l a n d su r p r es s n o is e . H e re w e se e a
co m p a ri s on o f f i v e d i ff e re n t z er o p h as e f i l te r s i n b ot h
t h e t im e a n d f re q u e n c y d om a i n s. T h e i n v e rs e r el at i o n sh i p
be t we e n t e m p or al w i d t h a n d f re q u e n c y ba n d wi d t h is
re ad i l y a p p a re n t .
Wavelet 1
Five Wavelet 2
Generic Wavelet3
Wavelets
Wavelet 4
Wavelet 5
-20
-40
Their Wavelet 2 Wavelet3 Wavelet 4 Wavelet 5
-60
Fourier Wavelet 1
-80
Am pl itu de
-100
Spec tra
-120
1 2 1 2
F z = f0 +f1z +f2z + ... G z = g0 +g 1z +g 2z + ...
Hz = FzGz =
1 2
f0 g0+ f0 g1+g0f1 z + f0g 2+f1g 1+g0f2 z + ...
h = f• g
Gz = Σ gkz
k
Gω = Σ gke
–iωkΔ t
k = 0 k = 0
A s wi t h t h e D FT , i f w e n o w c on s i d e r o n l y d i s c re t e
f re q u e n c i es ω ν = 2 πν/( N Δ t ) , ν = 0 , 1, 2 . .. N - 1 , t h en w e
s ee n t h at t h e Z t r an s f or m , w i t h z = e - iω Δt , is p r ec i s el y
t h e D FT .
N–1
Gν = Σ g ke
–i2πυk/N
k = 0
Complex z plane ω2
ω1
ωo
real(z)
ων
ωN-1
ων+1
2-40 Signal Processing Concepts
The Z Transform
C o n s i d e r t h e el e m e n t al c ou pl et F( z) = 1 -a z. N ow i f w e
c o n v ol v e F( z ) wi t h an o t h e r ar b i t ra ry t im e s e ri e s g ( z ) ,
t h e n w e r ep re s e n t t his as : H ( z) = F( z ) G ( z) . Su pp os e t h at
o n l y F( z) an d H ( z) ar e k n o wn t o u s an d w e w i sh t o
r e c ov e r G ( z) . In t h e z t r a n s fo r m d om ai n we c an s im p l y:
Hz
Hz = FzGz ∴ Gz =
Fz
So we define the inverse of any time series as:
–1 1
F z =
Fz
For F(z) = 1 -az, this gives:
–1 1 2 3
F z = = 1+az+ az + az +
1–az
T h i s s er i e s , c a l le d t he g e om et r i c s er i e s , i s k n ow n t o
c o n v e r ge a b so l u t e ly p ro v i d e d t hat | az | < 1 . S i n c e w e ar e
e s p e c i al l y i n t e re s t e d in t h i s re s u l t ev a l u at e d on t h e u n i t
c i r c l e ( | z| = 1 ) t h e n w e n e e d | a| < 1 . It i s c ust o m a ry t o
t a l k a b ou t t he lo c at i o n of t he "ze r o" of t h i s c o u p l e t
d ef i n e d b y:
1
1–az 0 = 0 ⇒ z0 =
a
I f |a | < 1 , t h e n w e se e t h at z o m u st li e o u t s i d e t h e u n i t
c i r c le in o r d e r f or th e i n v er s e t o c on v e rg e . S u ch a n
i n v e r se is sa i d t o b e s t ab l e ( p h y ic a ll y r ea li za bl e ) . N ot e
a l so t h a t F ( z ) i t s el f i s t r i v ia l ly s t ab l e.
Gz = Σ k
g kz = z–z 0 z–z1 z–zN–1
k = 0
W e s a y t h a t G ( z ) i s m i ni m u m p h a s e i f a ll i t s e le m e n ta l
c o u pl e ts a r e m i ni m u m p ha s e . T h a t i s e q ui v a le n t t o
s a y in g t h a t a l l o f t h e r o o ts o f t he p o ly n o mi al G (z ) m us t
l i e o u ts i d e t h e u n it c i r cl e i n t h e c o m pl e x z p la ne . I f a ll
r o o ts l i e i n s i d e t he u ni t c i r c le , G (z ) i s s a id t o b e
m ax im um p ha s e a nd o th e r w is e i t i s m ix e d p h as e .
imag(z) •
z=z0
Complex z plane
real(z)
•
• z=z1
z=zN-1
Az z–α 0 z–α 1
Hz = =
Bz z–β 0 z–β 1
W e s a y t h e c o r r e s p o nd in g t im e s e r ie s i s m i n im um p h as e
i f a ll α i a n d a ll β i l i e o ut s i d e t h e u n it c i r c le . T h e
f ol lo w in g t he o r e m f o ll ow s i m me d ia te l y:
T h e r es ul t an t o f t he s e quent i al c onv ol ut i on o f a n y
nu m ber o f m i n i mu m phas e time series i s al s o
min im um ph a s e.
Conversely:
I f a ny ti m e s e r i e s i n a se qu e nce of co nvo l u ti o n s i s
n ot mi n i m um ph a s e , th e n th e r e s ulta nt is no t
m i nimu m p ha s e .
T h o ug h th e se s ta te me nt s se e m ir o n c la d , k e e p in m in d
t he u n sta t e d a s su mp t io n t ha t al l th e se tim e se r ie s h a ve
t he s am e sa m p le r a te . T hu s th e r e s a mp li ng o f a ti me
s e r ie s is a n o p e r a ti o n w h ic h l ie s o ut sid e t he sco p e o f
t he s e th e o r ems .
T h e c a lc u l at i on o f s ⊗r
Z e ro l ag :
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 •••
F i r s t p o si t i v e l ag :
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 •••
F i r st n e ga ti v e l ag :
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 •••
T h e ge n e ra l f or m f o r t h e c ro s sc o rr el at i on o f s a n d r c an
b e w ri t t en :
cj = Σs r
k
k k+j
O r, fo r c on t i n u o u s s ig n al s :
cτ = s t r t+τ dt
–∞
P r op e rt i e s o f cr os s c or re l at i on s :
• I f ei t h e r s o r r is a n i n f i n it e l en g t h ra n d om s i gn a l ,
t h e n c j = 0 f or a l l j .
• T h e m ax i m u m o f c d e fi n e s t h e " l ag " a t wh ic h s a n d
r a r e m o st s im il ar wh e n a l ig n e d .
• A c r os s c or re l at i on c an be c om p u t e d by ti m e
re v e rs i n g s a n d c o n v ol v in g. C a n y ou p r ov e t h i s ?
• Th e a u t o co rr e la t io n is a sp ec i al c as e of
c ro ss c o rr el at i on w h en r =s .
T h e a u to c o r r e la t io n, φ , of a sig n a l, s, is a
ch a r a ct e r iz a t io n o f i ts se l f sim i la r it y . It c a n b e c o mp u te d
a s f o llo w s:
Z e ro l ag :
A copy of s s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
φ0 = so +s 1+s2+s3 +
2 2 2 2
F i r st p os i t i v e la g:
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
S e c on d p o si t i v e l ag :
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
s0 s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 •••
φj = Σ
k = 0
sk sk+j
• I f s is a n in f i n it e le n gt h r a n d o m se q u en c e , th e n
φ o g iv e s th e s u m o f sq u a r es o f th e s eq u e n ce
a n d a l l o t h er φ j a r e z er o .
length (s)
Σ sks k+j
φj =
k = 0
length (s)
Σ
k = 0
sk
2
T h e s e t wo p ro bl e m s a r i se re p e at ed ly , a n d i n a v ar i et y o f
c on t e x t s , i n s ei s m i c d at a p ro ce s s in g t h e or y. H ow e v er ,
t h e y a re e s se n t i al l y s i m i l ar d i f f er in g o n l y in t h e n at u r e
o f t h e i n p u t : e. g a n a u t o c or re l at i on o r a g e n er al t i m e
s er i es .
W e s h al l c on s i d e r t w o a p p r oa c h e s : t h e wi n d o we d D FT ,
a n d t h e m a x im um e n t ro p y s p ec t r u m ( B u rg s p e c t ru m) .
C on si d e r t h e co n s t ru c t i on o f a n el e m e n t ar y s e is m o gr am
b y co n v ol u t i on :
Wavelet
Seismogram
Reflectivity
I f we c om p u t e t h e a u t o c or re la t io n s of t h es e t h r ee
f u n c t i on s , w e o b t ai n :
Autocorrelation of wavelet
Autocorrelation of seismogram
Autocorrelation of reflectivity
Exact result
Frequency (Hz)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -49
Spectral Estimation
T h e p r e c ed i n g s p e c t ra l es t i m at e i s n o t b ad b u t c an b e
im p ro v ed by t ap e ri n g t h e s am p l es n e ar t h e e d g e o f t h e
ch o s en wi n d o w i n st e ad o f s i m p l y t ru n ca t in g. T h e m e t h od
o f t ap e r in g i s re f er r ed t o a s " w i n d ow i n g " a n d a n u m b e r
o f s p e c i al w in d ow s h av e b e en d e v is e d .
boxcar
hanning mwindow
bartlett
boxcar
mwindow
Hanning
Bartlett
Exact result
H er e a re t h e
r e su l ta n t e st im at e s
f ro m a p p ly in g t he
v a ri o u s w in d ow
p ri or t o e s t i ma t in g
t h e p ow er w it h t h e
D F T. A l l w in d ow s
d o a r ea s on ab l e
j ob t ho ug h t h e
e d ge s e em s t o b e
w i t h B a rt le t t a nd
H an n in g.
F requency (Hz)
0 20 40 60 80 100
2-50 Signal Processing Concepts
Spectral Estimation
The DFT is a polynomial in z containing no denominator terms.
N–1
Gz = Σ g kz
k k
z = e
–i2πυk/N
k = 0
C on s e q u e n t l y, t h e D FT s p e ct r al es t i m at e c o n t ai n s o n l y
z e ro s ( n o p o l es ) in t h e z p l an e a n d is so m e t im es c a ll e d
a n a l l- z e ro s es t i m at e . A n a l t er n at i v e es t i m at e w as
d e v el o p ed by J .P . Burg ( s ee C l aer b ou t , 1976,
F u n da m e n t al s o f G e op hy s ic a l D a t a P r oc es s i n g) wh i c h
s ee ks t o p r od u c e a s p ec t r al m od e l u si n g a Z t r an s f or m
w it h o n ly d en o m i n at o r t e rm s . T h i s m at h e m at i c al
d e v el o p m e n t o f t h e B u r g sp ec t r u m , a l so c a ll e d t h e
m ax i m um en t r op y sp ec t r al e s t im a t e or a ll - p o l es
e st i m a te , i s be yo n d t h e sc o p e o f t h i s p r es e n t at i on .
N e v e rt h e l es s , t h i s i n t u i ti v e c on c e p t o f t h e B u rg
t e ch niq ue h e l p s u s u n d er s t an d i t s ba si c b eh a v i or . A s a n
a l l - p o le s e s ti m a t e, it i s v er y e ff e c t iv e a t m o d e li n g
s p e ct r a wh ic h h av e is o la t ed s p i ke s b u t le s s s o f or
s m oo t h s p ec t r a. F u r t h e rm o re , B u r g d ev e l op e d t h e
m e t h od u s i n g p r ed ic t i on o p er at or s t o p re d i c t t h e t i m e
s er i es o u t s id e o f t h e t r u n c at i on ra n ge s o t h at t h e
c on c e p t o f a wi n d o w d o es n o t a p p l y t o t h e B u rg
s p e ct r u m . T h e F o ur ie r s p ec t r u m p la c e s
z e r os c l o se t o t h e u ni t c i rc l e
a n d s o c a n m o de l a p hy si c a l
p r oc e s s w i t h a s m oo th
s p ec t r u m h a vi n g n ot c h es .
Frequency
T h e B u rg s p ec t ru m p la c e s p o le s c l o se t o t he
u ni t c i rc l e a nd s o c a n m od el s pi k es i n a n
u nd er l yi n g p hy s ic a l p ro ce s s
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -51
Spectral Estimation
A s m ig h t b e ex p e c t ed f ro m t h e p r ec e d i n g d is c u s s io n , t h e
B u r g s p e ct r u m d oe s n o t d o a g oo d j o b i n t h i s c as e :
E xact result
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
H o we v er , th is d oe s n o t m ea n th a t t h e B u r g s p e ct r u m i s
w it h o u t m e ri t . H a t t on e t a l. ( p ag es 3 6 - 3 8 ) gi v e a n
e x ce l l en t a n a l ys is s h ow i n g t h e su per i or it y o f th e B u r g
t e ch n iq u e o v e r t h e D F T i n t h e c a se o f t h e re s ol u t io n o f
t wo c l os e ly s p a ce sp e c t ra l p e ak s. F u r th er m or e , a s w e
s h al l s e e, t h e B u r g t e c h n iq u e l ea d s t o a v e ry e f f ec t i v e
d e c on v o lu t i on m e t h od .
λx
θ X
λz λ
θ
Z
T he di st an c e between w a ve f r o nt s , m e a s ur e d
pe r p e nd i c ul a r t o t h e m, i s de fi ne d as t he w a ve l e n g t h, λ .
We c an a l s o s pe a k o f t h e w av e l e ng t h "c om po ne n t s " i n
t h e va r i ou s c o o r di n at e di r e c t ion s . F or ex am pl e , t he
ho r i z on t a l w a ve l e ng th, λ , i s t he d i s t a nc e b e t w e e n
x
w av e f r on t s me a s u re d i n t h e x c oo r d i na t e di r e c t ion . Th us :
λ λ
λx = and λz =
sin θ cos θ
1 1 1
= +
λ2 λ2x λ2z
I t is o f t e n c o nv en i e nt t o d e a l wi t h v e c t o r q ua nt i t i e s s o
w e d e f i ne t he wa v e nu mb e r , k , a n d i t s c om po ne nt s a s t h e
i nv er s e o f t h e w a v e l en g t h a n d i t s c om po ne nt s .
k = λ k x = λx k z = λz
–1 –1 –1
2 2 2
k = kx + kz
k is th e m a g ni tu de o f a ve c to r , k, w h ic h p o in ts in th e
d ir e c tio n o f w a v e p r o pa g a t io n an d w h os e co m p o ne n t s a r e
th e i nv e r se w a ve l e ng th s.
I n 3- D , w e ha v e p la na r w a v e fr o n ts i ns te a d o f lin e a r b u t a
sim p le e xt e ns io n o f th is r e su lt st ill h o ld s:
1 1 1
= +
λ2 λ2x λ2z
1 1 1
2
= 2
+ 2
v vx vz
f f f
v = vx = vz =
k kx kz
N oth i ng p h y si ca l a c tu a l ly p r o p a ga t es a t a n y o f t he
a p p a r en t v e lo c it i es . R a t h er, th e y a re s im p l y rel a t ed t o
t h e a rbi t ra r y c h o ic e o f c o o rd i n a t e d i re ct i o n s a n d c a n be
v is u a l iz e d a s t h e w a ve le n gt h a lo n g a co o rd i na te d ir ec ti o n
d i vi d ed by t h e ti m e b et w e en w ave cr es ts ( i .e. t h e p e ri o d
o f t h e w a v es .)
x Receivers on surface
z
θ λx
A se ri es o f p la n e
w a v ec res t s a p p r o a c h a λz
h o r iz ont a l a n d a ve rt ic a l
r ec o rd i n g a r ra y . E a ch a rra y
s ee s th e a p p a re nt
w a v ele n gt h a l o n g t h e
s u rf a ce o n w h ic h it i s
d e p lo yed a n d c a n m e a su re
t h e a p p a ren t v el o c it y o f
t h e w a v ef ro n t s a lo n g t h a t
s u rf a ce . T h e a n gle θ i s
c a l le d th e “ em er gen c e
a n g le ”. T h e w a v el en gt h
c o m p o n e nt s a re :
λ λ
λx = and λz =
sin θ cos θ
And the apparent velocities are:
similarly
and in 3-D
2-D
3-D
Th e s e i n v e rs e t r an s f or m s have the p h y si c al
i n t er p r et a t io n of p re s en t i n g a wa v e f i el d as a
s u p e rp o s it i on o f in div i d u a l F ou r ie r co m p o n en t s o r " p l an e
w av e s" .
kx
θ =15o
vt θ =30o f/v
θ =50o
θ =90o θ =90o
θ =50o
θ =30o
θ =0o θ =15o
ω = ωmax
ω ω ω
Principle
Band
He r e w e s ee o n e ev e n t s h o wi n g s p a t i al al i as i n g an d
an o t h e r wh ic h d o es n ot . G i v e n a s p at i a l s am pl e ra t e of Δx
an d an ap p ar e n t v e l oc i t y v a t h e n a l l t e m p o ra l f re q uen c i e s
h i g h er t h an :
va
f = 2 π ωcrit = va k nyquist =
2 Δx
crit
wi l l b e s p a t i al l y al i as e d . Fo r e x c el l e n t i l l u s t r at i on s o f
sp at i al a l ia s i n g se e Ha t t on et al . p p 4 3 - 4 5 an d Y i lm az
p p 6 2 -6 9
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -61
FK Transform Pairs
A si n gl e fl at
ev ent.
Wa vel et i s
30 Hz
( domi nan t)
and m in i mum
phas e
S ix even ts with
e me rgen ce
a ngle s: 0, 10,
30, 50, 70, &
90 degr ees .
V elo city i s 20 00
m /se c.
S ix e v en ts w it h
e m e r g en c e
a n gl es : 0 , - 10 ,
- 30 , - 50 , - 7 0 , &
- 90 d e g re e s .
V el oc i ty i s
2 0 0 0 m / se c .
A single
diffraction
hyperbola.
Veolocity is
2000 m/sec
Many
diffraction
hyperbolae.
Veolocity is
2000 m/sec
W e h a v e se en h ow t h is e xp r es si o n t ra n s fo r m s li ne a r
ev en t s in ( x ,t ) i n to li n ea r ev en t s in ( kx ,f ) :
sin θ sin θ ω
t = x kx =
v v
θ =0o
x kx
θ =15o
vt θ =30o ω /v
θ =50o
θ =90o θ =90o
θ =50o
o
o θ =15o θ =30
θ =0
(x,t) space (ω,kx) space
∞
kx
φ(p,f ) = Ψ(x,t)e
2π i f (p x – t)
dx dt where p= (2)
–∞ f
H e re p h a s b e en ex pli c i t ly i n t r od u c e d a s t h e ra ti o o f k x
a n d f a n d h e n c e i s c on st a n t a l on g ra d i al l i n es in ( kx , f)
s p ac e . S o φ ( p , f) c an b e re g ard ed a s a " p ol ar c oo rd in a t e"
r ep r e se n t at i on o f φ ( kx , f ) . N o w, co n s id er t h e m e an i n g o f
e q u at i on 2 f o r c on s t an t p b y p e rf o rm i n g t h e t
i n t eg r at i on fi r st :
∞
φ(p,f ) = ψ(x,f)e
2π i f p x
dx (3)
–∞
where
∞
ψ(x,f) = Ψ(x,t) e
–2π i f t
dt (4)
–∞
Equat io n (6 ) i s th e c o nv e nt io na l e qu a tio n fo r t he τ- p
transform (c o mpare w i th Y il ma z (Seis m ic Da t a Processing ,
1 987 ) equat io n 7 .5) . S e veral th in g s ca n b e learned from th is
d e velo pment:
• T h e τ- p t ra ns f o rm c a n b e c o m p u t e d f ro m t h e f - k
( F o u ri e r) t ra ns f o rm by a c o o r d in a t e ch an ge fr o m ( f ,k x )
to ( f, p ) f o l lo w ed b y a n i n v er se F o u r ie r t r a n sf o r m f ro m
f- >τ . T h i s a m o u n t s to c h a n gi n g t o p o la r c o ord i n a te s in
th e F ou ri er d o m ain .
• T h e τ - p t r an s f or m m ay e q u i v al e n t ly b e c o m p u t e d b y
e q u at i on ( 6 ) wh i c h is a p ro c es s k n ow n a s " sl an t
s t ac ki n g " x
F o r f ix e d ( p ,τ ) , eq u a t io n 6
r ep r ese n ts a su m m a t io n
t h ro ug h the f un c t io n t
Ψ ( x ,t ) along a l in e a r
t ra j ec to r y . H en c e it i s
c a l le d sl a n t st a c k i ng .
Ψ(x,t)
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 2 -65
τ-p Transforms
• S i n c e t h e a n al yt i c τ- p t r an s f or m i s c o m p u t ab l e f r om
the 2 - D F ou r ie r t r an s f or m ( a n d v ic e - v e rs a) t h e
i n f om a ti o n c o n t en t i s t h e s am e in e it h e r d o m ai n . T h e
f ac t t h a t t h e 2 - D F o u r i er t r an s f or m i s c o m p l et e m ea n s
t h at t h e a n a ly t i c τ - p t ra n s fo rm is a ls o. W e w i ll s e e t h a t
t h i s i s n o t t ru e fo r t h e d i g it a l τ- p t ra n sf o rm .
-kxnyquist kx kxnyquist
H e re w e s e e an illustration o f th e r ep r e sentation of ( f , kx )
space i n b ot h re ct an gu l a r an d p o lar co ordinates . T h e ra dial
l in e s a r e li n e s o f c onstant p an d a r e a ll s h ow n t o t er m ina t e
( w h er e p o ss i bl e ) a t t h e s a m e c onstant f . T o c ompute t h e
d i s cr et e τ- p t ransfor m transfo rm , spectra l v alu e s a r e
i n t er p olated f r om t h e r ectangular ( f ,k x ) g r id t o re g u larl y
sampled f l ocation s on e a c h ra dia l li n e :
0 p
A f t e r i nt er p ola t i on o n t o ra di a l li nes , ( f ,k x ) s p ac e b ec om es
( f, p ) s p ac e . A n inverse Fourier t ransform f r om f t o τ
complet e s t h e journey t o (τ, p) s pa c e .
C l o s e i ns pe c ti on o f t he f i g ur e o n t h e p r e v i ou s p a ge
s h ow s w hy t he d i s c r et e τ - p t ra ns f o r m h a s d i f f i c u l t y e v e n
t h ou gh t h e a na l yt i c τ - p t r a ns f o rm i s c o mp l et e. I t i s
i m po s s i bl e t o p i c k a s e t o f d i s c re t e p v a l ue s w hi c h c ov er
t h e ( f , kx ) g r i d u n i f o r ml y . E i t he r t h e y a r e t o o f a r a p ar t a t
t h e g r i d e d ge s o r t h e y a r e t o o c r o w de d n e ar t he c e nt er .
I n e i t he r c a s e, it c an b e s h ow n t ha t t he r e i s a l w a ys
" i nf o rm at i on l os s " i n g o i ng t o t h e d i s c r e t e ( τ , p ) s p ac e
a nd b a c k a g ai n . P u t a no t he r w ay , m e r e l y t ra ns f o r mi ng
d at a t o ( τ , p) s p ac e a n d b ac k ( w i t ho ut a ny τ - p
p ro c e s s i ng ) w i l l a l w a ys a l t e r t h e d at a i n s om e w a y. T hu s
t h e d i s c r e t e τ - p t ra ns f o r m i s n o t c o mp l e t e i n t h e s a me
s e ns e t ha t t he d i s c r e t e ( f , kx ) t ra ns f o r m i s .
T h e m o st o b v io u s p r o p e r t y o f a τ-p t r a ns fo r m i s t h at i t
m a ps a lin e a r e v e n t in ( x, t) to a p o in t in (τ- p ).
x p
το po
το
τ
Δx
t
Δt
Δt –1
= vapp = p o
Δx
x p
το το
τ
t
p kx
f=fmax
f f
T hu s w e e x pe c t t ha t a p pa r e nt v e l o c i t y f i l t e r i ng c a n be
d on e in e i t h er d o ma i n by e s s e nt i a l l y m ut i ng
( s ur pr e s s i ng ) t h a t p o r t i on o f t he d o ma i n c o r r es p on di ng
t o t he u n d e s i ra b l e v el o c i t i e s .
A l ia si n g a f fe c t s t h e (τ,p ) t r a n sf o r m m u ch a s it d o e s t he
( f, k ) t r a n sfo rm . I f t h e (τ,p ) t r a n sf o r m i s co n st r u ct e d by
s la n t st a ck i ng i n ( x, t) o r ( x ,f ) th e n it i s no t di r e c tl y
a f fe c ted b y ho r iz o n ta l a l ia si ng. Bu t t he c ho i ce o f Δp a n d
t he n um be r o f p v a lu e s is a d iff ic ul t o ne a nd l e a d s di r e c tl y
t o p a li a sin g .
A rule of thumb for Δp is
1 Δk x
Δp = ≈
fmax (xmax – xmin) fmax
T uner, G., 1 99 0, Al i asin g i n t he tau- p t ransform and the remov al of spati al al iased
c oherent noi se: Geophy sic s, 5 5 , 1 49 6- 1 50 3
• S in c e a s la n t s ta ck is l es s a ff ec t ed by s p a t ia l a l ia si ng
t h a n a n f - k t ra n s fo r m , i t ca n b e u s ed t o i n te rp o l a te t o
f i ne r t ra c e sp a c in g s a n d " u n a li a s " d a ta . U se d in t h is
f a s h io n it i s o f te n c a ll ed a " s m a rt i n te rp o l a t o r" . (Y ilmaz ,
O. , 1987, S eism ic Dat a P roces sing , p435. )
• I t c an b e s ho w n th a t m u lt ip le s a r e n o t p e r i o di c o n a n
of fse t tr a c e i n th e (x ,t ) d o ma i n b u t a r e in t he (τ, p) .
(T rei tel et al. , 1982, Pl ane- wav e dec ompo si ti on of sei sm ogram s, Geophysi c s,
47, 1375- 1401) T h is m e a ns th a t p r e d ict iv e de c o nv o lu ti o n
fo r mu lt ip le su r p r e ss io n o f te n w o r k s b e t te r o n (τ ,p )
g a th e r s.
• M i g r at i on c an a ls o b e d on e in t h e (τ, p ) d o m ai n . (Die bol d,
J.B. , a nd Stoffa , P.L., 198 1, The tr av el time e qua ti ons, ta u-p ma ppi ng, a nd
inve r sion of common midpoi nt da ta , Geophysi cs, 46 , 23 8-2 54 )
T h e p r o c es s o f re co n st r uc t i o n o f t h e s ei sm i c d a t a i n ( x , t )
s p a c e gi v en it s τ- p t ra n s fo rm is ca l l ed a n in v er se τ- p
t ra n s f o rm . T h er e a r e a n u m be r o f wa ys t o d o th i s p r o c es s
t h o u gh we sh a l l d i s cu s s o n l y t wo : F o u ri er m et h o d s a nd
f il t er ed ba c k p ro j e c ti o n .
T he F o u ri er m et h o d i s o bv io u s f ro m t h e d is c u ss io n o f
t h e f o rw a rd τ - p t r a n s fo rm . T he m a jo r s t ep i s t h e
r e c o n st ru ct io n o f t h e 2 - D ( f, kx ) t ra n sf o rm w h i ch
r e q u ir e s a n i nt er po l a t io n o nt o a r ec t a n gu la r g ri d f r o m a
p o l a r o n e . T h is w i ll o bv io u s ly h a v e n u m er i ca l d if fi cu lt ie s
t h o u gh t he y a re c o n t ro ll a bl e. F o ll o w in g the
i n te rp o la t io n , an i n v er s e 2- D F o ur ie r t ra n sf o rm
c o m p le te s t h e p ro c es s.
F il t e r e d b a ck p r oj e ct io n a vo id s t h e ( f, k x ) d o ma in a n d
r e c o ns t r uc ts t h e i m a g e d ir e ct ly w it h a c o nv o lu ti o na l
f i lt e r f o ll o w e d b y a n i n ve r s e s la n t s ta ck . C o n s id e r t he
e x pr es s io n f o r t h e i n v e r s e 2 -D F o u r ie r t r a n s fo r m :
∞
–2π i (k xx – f t)
Ψ(x,t) = φ(k x,f )e dk x df (1)
–∞
∞
Ψ(x,t) = f φ(p,f )e
–2π i f p x 2π i f t
e dp df (2)
–∞
T h e t er m i n b ra c ke ts c a n be c o n si d e re d t o b e th e p r o d u c t
o f t w o f u n ct i o n s o f f . H e n ce , it m u st b e a c o n v o l u t io n in
t im e :
∞
∞
2 π i f (t –p x)
β(p,x,t) = φ(p,f )e df = ϕ(p,t –px) (5)
–∞
T o us e (7 ) f o r t he i n ve r s i o n, w e f i r s t t r an s f o rm ϕ (p,τ) t o
φ( p, f ) . T he n, f o r e a c h x, w e m ul t i p l y φ(p , f ) b y a p
d e pe n de nt p ha s e s hi f t an d i nt e gr a t e o ve r p a nd t he r e s ul t
i s s c a l e d b y f . A f t e r c o ns t r u c t i n g ψ (x, f ), an i n ve r s e
F o ur i e r t r an s f o r m f r o m f - > t c o mp l e t e s t h e p r oc e s s .
W e h av e s e e n t hat a c o n v e n i e n t m et hod of i m p l e m e n t i n g
f or w ar d a n d i n v e r s e τ-p t ra n s f or m s i s i n t he f r e q u e n c y
d o m ai n : ∞
φ(p,f ) = ψ(x,f)e
2π i f p x
dx (1)
–∞
ψ(x,f) = f φ(p,f )e
–2π i f p x
dp (2)
–∞
H e r e (1 ) is th e fo r w a r d t r a ns fo r m f r o m ( x,f ) to (p ,f ) a nd
( 2) is t he in ve rse t r a ns fo r m . V ir tu a ll y a ny in te g rat io n c an
b e i mp le me n t e d a s a n e q ui va le nt ma t r ix op e r a t io n fo r
d isc r e te da t a . C or r e sp o n di ng t o (1 ) a nd ( 2) w e h a ve :
ψ k (f) = fΣ R k j φj (f)
* *
Rk j = exp(– 2π i f p j x k) (4)
j
ψ = fR φ
*T
(6)
φ1 (f) ψ 1(f) R1 1 R1 2 R1 3
φ2 (f) ψ 2(f) R2 1 R2 2 R23
φ= ψ= R= etc
φ3 (f) ψ 3(f) R3 1 R3 2 R3 3
R at h e r t ha n c o mp ut e t h e f or w a rd t r an s f or m d i r e c t l y , t he
l e a s t s qu ar e s t e c hn i qu e u s e s e q ua t i on ( 6 ) t o p os e a n
i n v e rs e p r o b l e m f or t he τ - p s pe c t r um .
ψ = fR φ
*T
(6)
R f ψ = RR φ
–1 *T
–1
φ = RR Rf ψ
*T –1
(7)
E qu a ti o n (7 ) is t he st a nd a r d le a st sq u a r e s e sti m at e o f
th e τ- p s pe ctr um . I t is u su a lly su p e r io r in th e se n se t ha t
th e (x ,t ) d o ma in d at a ca n b e r eco n str u c te d fr o m it w it h
fe w e r a r t ifa c ts . T hi s fo r m ul a tio n a ssu m e s th a t t he
nu m b e r o f p t r a ce s e x ti ma t e d w il l b e n o la r ge r t ha n t he
nu m b e r o f x t r a ce s. E ve n w he n th e d a ta is p e r fe c tl y
r e g u la r in x a n d th e nu m b e r o f p a nd x tr a c e s ar e t he
sa me , th e le as t sq u a r e s m e t ho d is u su a lly s up e r io r
b e ca u se th e τ-p t r a n sfo r m i s i nc o mp le t e . T hi s m e a n s t ha t
th e fo r w a r d a n d r e v e r se τ- p pr o c e ss e s le a ve a r t ifa c ts in
th e d a ta . T he le a st sq u ar e s a p p r o a ch m in im iz e s su ch
ar tif a cts .
T h e m o re i n co m p le te a n d i n co n si st e n t a tr a n s fo rm p a i r
a r e, t h e m o r e t h e le a s t s q u a re a pp ro a c h be co m es u s ef u l .
T h i s m ea n s i t is e sp e ci a l ly p re f err ed fo r s la nt s t a c ks a l o n g
p a r a bo li c a n d h y p er bo li c t ra j ec t o ri es w h ic h a re i n c o m p l et e
ev e n i n t h e a n a l y t ic s en s e .
A n o t h e r e x a m pl e o f a n i n c om p l e t e t ra n s f or m i s t h e
d i s c r e t e F ou r i e r t r an s f or m f or i rr e g u l ar l y s am p l e d d a t a .
I t c a n a l s o b e p o s e d a s a n i n v e r s e p r o bl e m :
ψ=F ϕ
*T
–1
ϕ = FF Fψ
*T
where
F1 1 F1 2 F1 3
F F F
F = 2 1 2 2 23 Fm n = exp(2π i k x mxn )
F3 1 F3 2 F3 3
S e e M a r f ur t, e t a l. , ( 199 6, P i tf al ls of u si ng co n v e nt io n a l R a do n
t r a nsf o r ms on p o o rl y s a mpl ed d at a: G e oph y sic s, 6 1, 1 46 7- 148 2) f or a
m o r e c o mp le t e d i s cu s s io n .
Lecture Notes
Geophysics 557
Chapter 3
Amplitude Effects
E t 2 = ε t 2 A 2 = E t 1 = ε t1 A 1 Surface A1
w h e re ε i s t h e e n e rg y p e r u n i t
ar e a. Si n c e t h e d i s p l ac e m e n t
w av e am p l i t u de, u, is
p r op or t i on a l t o t h e s q u a r e
r oo t o f ε , w e d e d uce :
u2 A1 R1 t1 u0
= = = or
ut =
u1 A2 R 2 t 2 Rt
T h e p r o p er i n t erp r et a ti o n o f th i s r esu l t is t h a t th e w a v e
a m p l it u d e d ec a y s a s 1 / R w h er e R i s t h e r a d iu s o f
c u rv a tu r e o f t h e w a v e fr o n t. I n t h e c a se o f a co ns t a n t
v el o ci t y m e d iu m , R i s si m p ly th e d is t a n ce t ra v el le d ;
h o w e v er, i n a l a y er ed m e d iu m , R c a n b e s h o w n t o b e
p ro p ort io n a l to ( V2 r ms / V 1 ) t w h e re V 1 i s t h e v elo ci t y o f
t h e f irs t la yer. ( N ewm an, Geo phys ics, 1971, p 481-488, Hu br al, P ., and
Krey, T., In te rv al V elocit ies f rom Seism ic Refle ct ion Time Meas ure men ts , 1980,
So ciety o f Ex plor atio n G eoph ysicist s)
2
G t spreading = G0Vrms t t (Compare with Hatton et al., page 56)
I n a p e rf e ct l y el as t i c m ed iu m, t h e t ot a l en e rg y o f t h e
p r op a ga t in g w av e fi e l d re m a in s a c on s t an t . H o we v er , t h e
e ar th is n o t p er f ec t l y e l as t ic a n d p r op ag at i n g s ei s m i c
w av e s g ra d u al l y d i e o u t o v e r t i m e . T h e p ri m ar y
m e c h an i s m f or t h i s i s th e c o n t in uo u s c on v e r si on o f a
s m al l p o r ti o n o f t h e s e is m i c en e r gy t o h e at d u e t o
i rr e v er s ib l e a n el as t i c b e h av i or o f ro c ks . I t is c u s t om ar y
t o t al k a b ou t t h e p a ra m et e r Q wh i c h c h ar ac t er i ze s t h i s
e n er g y l o ss :
energy
Q = per frequency cycle
energy loss
V ar i o u s at t e nu at i on t h eo r i e s e x i s t w i t h t h e s i mp l e s t b e i n g
t h e "c o n s t an t Q " t h e or y o f K j ar t a ns son 1 a nd o t he r s . M os t
e mp i r i c a l e v i de n c e i s c o ns i s te nt w i t h t h e a s s um pt i on t ha t
Q i s i n de p e nd e nt of f r e qu e nc y at l e a s t o ve r t he s e i s m i c
b a ndw i d t h . T he c on s t a nt Q t h e o ri es a l l p re d i c t an
a mp l i t ud e l os s g i v e n b y :
1 Kjar tan ss o n, E, 1 979, C o ns tan t Q-Wave P ro pa ga tion an d A tten u atio n, JGR , V 84,
p4 737-474 8
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 3 -3
Seismic Wave Attenuation
f t
R a n do m s c a tt e r in g o ff s m a ll i r r e g ul ar i ti e s c au s e s t he
d is p e r s a l o f s e is m ic w a v e fi e l ds a n d a n a pp a r e nt l o s s o f
e n e r g y . I f a f u ll 3 -D w a ve fi e ld h a s b e e n r e co r d e d t h e n
s u c h s ca t te r e r s c an b e i m a g e d b y m ig r a ti o n b ut t h e l o s t
w a v e fi e ld e n e r g y i s n ot r e s t or ed .
θ θ
sin θ sin φ
=
v1 v2
φ
I n t h e n o r m al c as e wh er e v 2 > v 1 , t h e re ex is t s a "c r i t i c al
a n g le " o f i n c i d e n c e b e yo n d wh ic h n o t r a n s m i s si o n o c c u r s .
v1
sin θ crit =
v2
En e rgy in c id en t a t o r be y o n d t h e cr it i ca l a n gl e i s t h ro w n
ba c k to th e su rf a c e a s p o s t- c ri t ic a l r ef le ct i o n s a n d
re fr a ct i o n s. I t is n o t a v a i la b le t o i ll um i n a t e d ee pe r
re fl ec t o rs . T h i s i s e sp e ci a ll y n o t ic a b le in t h e n ea r su r fa c e
w h e re th e v el o c it y c o n t ra s t a t t h e b a se o f t h e
w e a t he ri n g ca n a p p ro a ch 1 / 2 o r l es s. S in c e t h e a rc si n o f
1 / 2 i s 3 0 d eg ree s, t h is m ea n s o n l y a n a rr o w co ne o f
en e rgy p en et r a te s to th e su b su rf a c e.
Surface source
T h er e a r e m a n y r ea l ea r th w a v e p ro pa ga t io n e ff ec t s
w h i ch ca us e t he r a w se is m ic d a t a t o d e vi a t e co n s id e ra b ly
f ro m t h is m o d el . T r u e a m p l it u d e p ro c e ss in g i s a " ho ly
gr a il " o f t he s ei sm i c d a t a p ro c es si n g w o r ld a n d re fe rs t o
a p ro ce ss in g seq u e n ce w h ic h , w h en c o m p le te , y i el d s d a t a
w h i ch is a cc u ra t el y re p res en t a bl e a s b a n d li m it ed
re fl ec t io n c o e ff ic ie n ts .
W h il e n o t y et s tr ic t l y p o ss ib l e, m a n y d a ta p ro ce ss in g
f l o w s c o m e q u it e c l o se t o b e i ng t ru e a m p li tu d e
p ro c es si n g. G e n er a l ly , t ho u g h n o t e x cl u si v el y , t hi s
m ea n s the a vo i d a n ce of s t a ti st ic a l a m p li tu d e
c o rr e c t io n s like AGC in fa v o r of d et er mi n is ti c
c o rr e c t io n s l i k e s p h er i ca l d i ve rg e nc e a nd e x p o n en ti a l
ga i n .
I t i s n ot u n c om m on t o f i n d m od e rn p r oc e s se d s ei s m i c
d at a wh i c h i s r ou g h ly p r op o rt i on a l t o w el l l og d e ri v ed
r ef l ec t i on c oe f fi c i en ts o v e r l im it e d ti m e z o n e s .
T h er e a r e m an y A G C a l g or it h ms in c om m o n u s e . A
s i m p l e , ef f e c ti v e m et h o d i n v ol v e s t h e d e f in it i on o f a
t e m p o ra l w in do w s i ze a n d t h e m e as u re m e n t o f t h e
t r ac e rm s a m p l it u de o v er t h at w i n d ow . T h e wi n d o w i s
t h e n i n c re m e n t e d a n d th e m ea su r m e n t re p e at e d . T h e
r e su l t i s a se t o f rm s a m p l i t u d e m ea s u re m e n t s a t
d i s c re t e t i m es wh i c h d ef i n es a n ' am p l it u d e m o d e l ' o f
t h e t ra c e. T h i s m od el i s t h e n l i n ea rl y i n t e rp o l at e d t o
t h e t r ac e sa m p l e r at e a n d t h e A GC ' d t r ac e i s c o m p u t e d
b y d i v i d in g t h e o r i gi n al tr ac e b y t h e a m p l it u d e m od e l .
r c s w it h t h eo r et i c a l
a mp l it u d e d e c ay
r e f l ec t i o n c o ef fi c i e nt s
i n t er p o l a t ed r m s a m p l i tu d e m o d e l
d i s c re t e r m s m e a s u r e s
A b ov e i s t h e co n s t ru c t i on o f a n r m s a m p l i t u d e m o d e l
f ro m m ea su r e s ev e r y . 1 s e c on d s a n d t h e n i n t e rp o l at e d .
B e l ow i s t h e a p p l ic a ti o n o f t h at m od e l t o t h e t r ac e .
A G C ' d r e s u l t. T r a c e d i vi de d a m p l i tu de m o de l .
r m s a m p l it ud e m o d e l
T r a c e s h ow i ng a m p l it ud e d e c ay
B e l ow i s a c om p ar i so n o f a d e t er m i n i s t ic a m p l i t u d e
r es t or at i on a n d s ev e ra l d if f e re n t A G C p ro d u c t s. N ot e
t h at t h e re l at i v e e v e n t 's t an do u t ' ( t h e a m p l i t u d e r at i o
b et w ee n a n y t wo e v e n t s) i s be s t p re s er v ed b y
d e t er m i n i st i c m e t h od s a n d s ec o n d ar il y by lo n g A G C
o p er at or s .
AGC .4 sec
operator.
AGC .1 sec
operator.
AGC .0 2 5 sec
operator.
D e t er m in i st ic g a i n
S y nt he t i c w it h t - 1
a m p l i tu d e d e c a y
S y nt h e t ic w i th n o
a m p l i t ud e l os s e s
T h e t wo m os t c om m o n m i st a ke s w i th A GC a r e t o u se i t
e x cl u s i v l y fo r a l l g ai n a d j u s t m e n t s o r t o a v oi d i t e n t ir e ly .
I n t h e f i r st c as e , A GC s h ou l d be u s ed w i th c au t io n if t h e
i n t en ded i n t e rp r e t at i on m e t h od p l ac e s e m p ha s is o n
r el i ab le a m p l it u d e i n f or m at i on . I n th e s e c on d c as e , A G C
o f t e n l e ad s t o su per i or r es i d u al st a t ic s a n d v el o ci t y
a n a ly s es si d e f l ow s e v en w h en n e v er u s e d i n a m ai n fl ow .
A co m p a ri s on o f A G C o p e ra t or l e n gt h s o n a r ea l , r aw ,
s e is m i c tr ac e s h o ws h o w t h e c h o ic e o f o p er at or l e n g t h
c a n d r as t ic a ll y a f f ec t t h e e v en t c h ar ac t er . A l s o
a p p ar e n t is t h e e f fe c t kn o wn a s a n A G C sh a d ow z o n e .
T h i s o c c u r s wh en a p ac ka ge o f e n e rg y ( i n t h e c as e t h e
f r is t br ea ks ) h as m u ch h i g h er a m p l i tu d e t h an a d j a c en t
e v e n t s. T h e a d j a ce n t e n e rg y t e n d s t o h av e a
s u r p re s s ed a m p l i t u d e o v er r ou g h ly t h e l e n g th o f t h e
A GC o p e r at or .
A G C " s h a d ow " z on e s
2. 0 se c A GC
1 .0 se c A GC
.5 se c A GC
. 2 5 se c A GC
R a w t ra ce
A m aj o r c on ce r n wh e n u s in g a n A GC i s th a t se r io u s
d i s t or t i on s i n t h e e m be d d e d wa v e l et ca n o cc u r i f t h e
A GC o p e ra t or l e n gt h i s s h or t er t h a n t h e s ou rc e
w av e f or m . T h i s c a n re s u lt i n a s t ro n g d eg r ad at i on o f
t h e p er f or m an c e o f d e co n v ol u t i on a l go ri t h m s . T h i s wi l l
b e co m e m o r e c le ar a f t er t h e re ad e r h a s s t u d i ed
d e c on v o l u t io n i n t h e n e x t c h ap t e r .
3-12 Amplitude Effects
Trace Equalization (TE) or Trace Balancing
T r ac e s fr om r aw f i el d r ec o rd s c an o ft e n h av e w il d l y
v ar yi n g t o ta l ( r m s ) p o we r l ev e l s. T h e re a re m a n y
p o ss i bl e c au s es i n c l u d i n g: s h ot s t re n g t h v ari a ti o n ,
g eo p h on e c ou p li n g v ar i t io n , n ea r s u r f ac e ge ol og y
c h an g e s, so u rc e - r ec e i v er o ff s e t , a n d m o re . ..
E v en i n c a se s wh e r e d et e rm i n i s t i c g ai n i s p r ef e rr e d ,
s om e s or t o f t r ac e b al an c i n g sh o u l d s t il l b e p er f or m e d .
O t h e rw is e , h ig h r m s p ow er t ra c es ( w h i ch a re o f t e n t h e
n oi s i es t tr ac e s ) , w il l d o m i n at e i n st a c ki n g a n d c r os s-
c or re l at i on s .
A s im p l e m e th o d is ca l le d t ra c e e q u a li za t io n , o r T E , a n d
i s u s u a ll y s y n on o m ou s wi t h t r ac e b al an c i n g . T E i s a v er y
s i m p l e p r oc e s s i n w h i ch a l l t r ac e s a re a d ju st e d t o h a v e
t h e s am e rm s p ow er l e v el a c c or d i n g t o:
o u t pu t t r ac e = i n p u t t ra c e/ ( rm s p ow e r o f i n p u t t ra c e)
A c om mo n v ar ia n t o f T E i s t o c om p u t e t h e r m s p o we r
o v e r a p ar t i c u la r t im e z o n e i n st e ad o f t h e en t i r e t ra c e. I f
t h e t i m e z o n e v ar i es in w id t h , t h en c ar e m u s t b e t ak en
t o n or m al i ze t h e rm s p ow er m ea su r e s f or t h i s e f fe c t .
C au t i on sh o u l d a l w ay s b e ex e r ci s e d wh en i n t e rp re t in g
se i s m i c p l ot s wh e r e a t ra ce e q u al i za t io n o r A G C h as
be e n a p p l ie d a s a n o p t i on i n p l ot t i n g . W h i l e t h is m ay b e
a c on v en i e n c e i t m e an s t h a t t h e d a t a d i s p l ay m ay n ot
t ru l y re p r es e n t t h e d a ta a s s t o re d o n d i s k o r t ap e . F o r
ex a m p l e, d at a th a t i s w il d l y u n b al an c e d f ro m t r ac e - t o-
t ra ce m a y a p p e ar t o h a v e g oo d a m p l it u de v a ri at i on ,
le ad in g to e r ro n eo u s p r oc e ss i n g d e c i si o n s.
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 3 -13
Constant Q Effects
S t r i c tl y s p e ak i n g, c on s t an t Q t h e or y r ef e rs t o a Q w h i ch
i s i n d e p en den t o f f r eq uen c y b u t m a y s t i l l d e p en d o n
t i m e . F o r s i m p l i ci t l y, we wi l l a ls o a ss u me time
i n d e p en d en c e . N ot e t h at t h e a t t en u a t io n c an be w ri t t en
as :
exp –πft/Q = exp –πfx/(vQ) = exp –πx/(λQ)
= exp –πn λ/Q
w h e r e w e h a ve us e d λ f= v a n d n λ = x/λ i s t he n um b e r o f
w a v e le n g th s th a t fit i n th e di sta n ce tr av e le d. T h us , a s a
w a v e fo r m p r o p ag a te s, it is co n ta n tl y b e in g at te nu a te d
w it h th e hig he r fr equ e n cie s b e in g a tt e n ua t e d fa s te r . I f
W (f ) is t he sp e c tr u m o f o u r s o ur c e w av e f or m, w ( τ), t he n
a ft e r p r o pa g a t in g a tim e t , t he a m p lit ud e sp e c tr u m o f
th e p r o p a g a tin g w a v e fo r m h a s b e c o m e :
Wp f = W f exp –πft/Q
If w e a ss um e Q=50, a n d a s pecific s h a pe f o r |W (f )| , t h e n w e
c a n c ompu te th e ampl it u de s p ec trum o f t h e pr o pagating
w aveform at any t im e:
0
-50 Wf
.5 sec
-100
1.0 sec
-150
1.5 sec
-200
2.0 sec
-2500
50 100 150 200 250
frequency (Hz)
3-14 Amplitude Effects
Constant Q Effects
T hu s w e se e t ha t s e i s mi c d at a m u s t a c t ua l l y c o nt a i n a
w av el e t w i t h c o nt i nu ou s l y d e c r e a s i ng b a nd wi d t h. T h i s
m e a ns t h e d a t a s i gn al s p e c t r um i s a c t ua ll y a f un c t i o n o f
t i m e a n d i s s a i d t o b e n on s t at i o na r y ( o r, e q ui v a l e nt l y ,
t i m e- v a ri a nt ) . D e pe nd i ng u p on t he v a l ue t a k en t o
c ha r ac ter i z e t h e b ac k g r ou n d n o i s e , we o b t ai n t he s e
s pe c i f i c m ax i m um s i g n al f r e qu e n c y e s t i m at e s ( b a s e d o n
t he p r e c e di n g g r a ph ) :
time .5 sec 1.0 sec
noise 1.5 sec 2.0 sec
25 db down 45 Hz 35 Hz 30 Hz 25 Hz
-50
Wf
.5 sec
1.0 sec
-100
1.5 sec
-150
2.0 sec
-200
50 100 150 200 250
frequency (Hz)
time .5 sec 1.0 sec
noise 1.5 sec 2.0 sec
Ta ble sh o wi ng
100 db down +200 Hz 185 Hz 140 Hz 120 Hz
p re d ic t ed
75 db down 180 Hz 130 Hz 105 Hz 80 Hz sign al ban d
fo r Q= 1 0 0
50 db down 110 Hz 80 Hz 70 Hz 60 Hz
25 db down 60 Hz 45 Hz 40 Hz 35 Hz
in
A three reflector
earth
out
T hr e e s u pe r i mp o s e d w av e f or ms s h ow i ng i nc r e a s i ng
a t t e nu a t i o n wi th i nc r e as i n g t i m e .
T he c on s t r uc ti on o f a n on s t a t i o na r y mu l t i p l e f r e e
s y nt h e t i c s e i smo g r am i s s h ow n f o r a c on s t a nt Q e ar t h
ha vi n g 3 r e f l e c t o r s . Th e ma t r i x m ul t i p l i c a t i o n s h ow n he r e
i s p e rf or m i ng a c o nvo l ut i on as d e s c r i b e d o n pa g e 2 -1 1.
T he c o nvo l ut i on ha s b e e n m ad e n on s t a t i o na r y b y
c h an g i ng t h e w a ve l e t i n e ac h c o l um n o f t h e c on vo l ut i on
m at r i x .
-40
-80
0 100 200
Frequency (Hz)
H o we v er , o n l y a f e w o f th es e h av e a n y p r ac t i ca l u s e. T h e
m i n i m u m p ha s e w av e l et i s d i st i n g u i sh e d f r om a ll o t h e r s
b y be i n g t h e m o st f ro n t- lo ad e d o f t h e " c au s al " wa v e l et s .
in Linear, causal,
out
attenuating
earth
t=0
M in i m u m p h a se w a v el et s a r is e n a t u ra l l y i n t h e ea rt h . O nl y
t h e a ss u m p t io n s o f ca u s a l it y a n d l in e a ri t y a r e n ee d ed t o
s h o w th a t a tt e n u a t io n in th e e a rt h i n a m in i m u m p h a s e
p ro ce s s. ( F utte r ma n, 1 962, JG R vol 73 , p 3 917- 393 5)
T h e a m p l i t u d e s p e ct r u m a l on e i s s u f f ic i e n t t o d e t er m i n e
u n i q u e l y t h e m i n i m u m p h as e w av e le t . T h e p h as e
s p e ct r u m , φ ( f ) , m ay b e c om pu t ed a s :
φ f = H ln A f
T r u e o r F a l s e : If a da t as e t i s min i m um ph a s e a l re a dy , t hen a
z er o ph a s e filter w i l l preserve m in i mu m p h as e b e c aus e i t
do e s not change t he p h as e i n an y wa y.
T rue o r F a l se : I f t he a m p li tu d e s p e ct r u m o f a m i ni m um
p h as e d a ta set is c h a nge d , th e n th e p ha s e sp e c tr u m mu s t
a ls o ch a n g e t o p r e s e r v e t h e m in im u m p ha s e r ela t io n sh ip .
T ru e o r F a l s e : I t h a s b ee n p ro v en be yo n d d ou b t t h a t
s ei s m i c d a t a f r om i m p u l s iv e so u rc e s i s m i n i m u m p h a se .
T r u e o r F als e : A ba n d l i m it e d p r o c es s c a n n e ve r t ru l y b e
m i n im u m p h a se .
h(t)
1 1 1.0
ht = + sgn t
2 2
Graph of the step function h(t)
Thus h(t) is the unit causal function also called the step function.
ft = ftht
1 i
Fr ω + iFi ω = Fr ω + iFi ω • πδ ω –
2π ω
Equating real and imaginary parts gives:
1 1 1
Fr ω = Fr ω + Fi ω •
2 2π ω
1 1 1
Fi ω = Fi ω – Fr ω • ω
2 2π
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 3 -21
Minimum Phase and the Hilbert Transform
T hus , t he s pectrum of a c ausal f unction h as its real a nd
i maginary p arts linked b y t he relations :
1 1 1 1
Fr ω = π Fi ω • and Fi ω = – π Fr ω •
ω ω
If we write out the convolution integrals, we obtain:
∞ ∞
1 Fi ϖ –1 Fr ϖ
Fr ω = π dϖ Fi ω = dϖ
ω–ϖ π ω–ϖ
–∞ –∞
T h e s e i n t e gr al s a r e c al l e d H i lb e rt t r an s f or m s a n d we s ay
t h at t h e re al a n d im a g in a ry p a rt s o f a c au s al si g n al f o rm
a H i l b er t t ra n sf o rm p a ir . I n o u r c as e, w e a c t u a ll y w an t t o
r el at e t h e a m p l it u d e a n d p ha s e o f a c au s al s i gn a l t o o n e
a n o t h er , n o t t h e r ea l a n d i m ag i n ar y p ar t s. H ow e v er ,
r ec al l i n g t h at :
iφ ω
Fω = Aωe ⇒ ln F ω = ln A ω + iφ ω
The answe r s eems immediate that the p has e an d lo g
amplitude spectrum ar e Hilber t t ransfor m p airs. How ever; w e
must as k:
- Under what circumstances c an w e t ak e the log
spectru m?
- Does the l og spectrum still correspon d t o a c ausa l time
domai n function?
T h e a n sw e r to th e f ir st q u e st io n is th a t w e c a n ta k e th e
lo g so l o ng a s A (ω ) ≠ 0 . T his is e q u iva l e nt t o sa y in g th a t
th e t im e se r ie s f (t ) mu st ha v e a st a b le i nv e r se .
Fz = Σ fkz
k
k = 0
F or a c au s a l , s t a b l e f unc t i o n w i th a c au s a l , s t a b l e
i nv e r s e , t h e p ha s e a nd l og am pl i t ud e s p e c t r um f or m a
H i l b e rt t ra ns f or m p a i r . I n pa r t i c u l ar , t h e p ha s e ma y b e
c o mp ut e d a s t he Hi lb er t t r a ns for m o f t he l og o f t he
a mp l i t ud e s p e c t r um . S uc h a f u nc t i o n i s s a i d t o b e
mi ni mu m p ha s e .
w h e r e H d e n o te s t he H il b e rt t r a n s fo r m . W e c a ll e d s uc h a
w a ve f or m m i ni m u m p h a s e . T he r e a s o n f o r t h is n a m e
c o m e s f r o m a t h e o r e m ( R o b in s o n , E. A . a nd Tr ei te l, S. , 1 98 0,
G eo p h ys i ca l S ig n a l A na l ys is , P r en t i ce -H al l) w hi ch s h o w s t ha t, f o r a ll
c a u s a l w a ve le t s w it h t h e s a m e a mp li t ud e s p e ct r um , t h e
m in i mu m p ha s e w av e le t a r r iv e s t he s o o ne st w i th t h e
m o s t e n e r g y . M a th e m at ic a ll y, t hi s i s s t at e d b y p r o vi n g
t h a t t h e p ar t ia l e n e r g ie s : p
Ep = Σ 2
fk
k = 0
a r e l a r g er f o r t h e m i ni m um p ha s e w a ve l e t t ha n f o r a ny
o t he r w a ve l e t f or al l p . T hi s pr o of i s e q ui va l e nt t o s a yi n g
t h at t he p ha s e de l a y o f t h e mi n i mu m p ha s e w av e l e t i s t h e
s m al l e s t po s s i b l e de l a y al l o w e d b y c a us a l i t y , f o r e ac h
f r e qu e nc y .
R e ca l li n g t h a t t h e H i l b er t t r an s f or m i s j u st a c on v ol u t i on
wi t h 1 /ω , i t f ol l ow s th a t t h e m i n i m u m p h as e sp e c t u m
fo r a n y p ar t ic u l ar f re q u e n c y is i n f l u en c e d b y th e
a m p l i t u d e sp ec t r u m a t a ll f re q u e n c i es . P u t a n o t h e r w ay ,
a ch a n g e t o t h e a m p l it u de s p e ct r u m a t a p ar t i cu la r
fr e q u en cy wi l l c h an g e th e m i n i m u m p h as e sp ec t r u m a t
a l l f re q u e n c i es .
–i2πf(t–z/v)
w f,t,z = A f e
W e c an i n fe r t h e v e lo c it y o f t h i s wa v e b y f ol l ow in g t h e
m o t io n o f a p oi n t o f c on st a n t p h as e. W i t h c om ple t e
g en e r al it y , w e c an f ol l ow t h e p o in t o f z e r o p h as e b y
e q u at i n g t h e p h as e t o z er o a n d s o lv i n g fo r z / t . T h u s w e
d e d u c e i t s v el o ci t y t o be z /t = v . I f th e sa m e w av e
p r op a ga t es t h r ou g h a co n s t an t Q m e d i u m , t h e n w e h av e :
–πft/Q + iH(–πft/Q)
wQ f,t,z = w f,t,z e
–πft/Q –i2πf(t–z/v+φQ (f))
or wQ f,t,z = A f e e
t f
where φQ f ≈ ln (Kjartansson, 1979)
πQ f0
t f 1 f
t–z/v+ ln = 0 ⇒ z
t = v f ≈ v 1+ ln
πQ f0 πQ f0
0.05
-0.05
-0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
3-26 Amplitude Effects
Array Theory
T h e u se o f a rr a y s o f so ur c es a n d re ce i ve rs i s c o m m o n p l a c e
i n ex p l o r a t io n se is m o l o g y . T h e es s en t ia l d e t a i ls o f t h ei r
use are s tr a i gh t fo rw a rd c o n s eq u e n ce s of l in e a r
s u p er p o s it i o n a n d si gn al p ro c es s in g . C o n si d e r:
Thr ee single
f re q ue ncy
sour ce s a t hal f -
wa vle ngth
spa ci ngs
v = 2000 m/sec
f = 30 Hz
l = 2000/30 =
67 m
Tw o m o r e so u rc es
at in t er med iat e
lo ca tio ns . T he
s ou r ce s pa cin g
d ecr ea se s to a
q ua rt e r- wav e len g t h
He r e is the summati on of
λ/2 fiv e wav efi e lds fr om the
pr ev ious page .
We increase
the array
length with
two more
sources.
We
in creas e
t he arra y
len gt h
ag ain with
+ t wo m ore
s ou rces.
Thi s is a ve r y l ong ar r a y
wi th 9 e le me nts. The
λ/2 e ffe c ts ar e quite
dr ama tic . We note the
occ ura nc e of seve r a l
str ong r e je cti on
notche s.
7
notches a t n/L
dx 6
wher e n=1, 2,.. .
5
4
3
L 2
1
L= 9*dx = 9*16.7 = 150.3 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Array in space domain wavenumber (m ) -1
Fourier transform
o f th e array.
S in ce th e a r r a y i s p u r e ly a f un ct io n o f x , its r e sp o n se i s
p ur ely a fu n cti o n o f k x . T ha t is, it w ill b e i nd e p e n de nt o f
k z o r f . H o w e ve r ; in o r d e r t o u se t he ar r a y r e sp o n se
ch a r t, w e n e e d a w a y to e st im a te k x fo r a n e ve nt o f
in te r e st . We c a n d o t hi s b y pi ck in g a h o r iz o n ta l su r f ac e
o f in t e r e st an d me as ur ing t h e ho r i zo n ta l a p p a r e n t
w a v e le n g th a lo n g it :
S i n c e w e u s u a l l y d on ' t h a v e a
m on o c h ro m at i c w a v e f ie ld , t h en λ
w e u s u a l ly m e a s u re a p p ar e n t λx
h or iz o n t a l v e l oc it y and
c om p u t e k x f r om :
kx 1 sin θ
= =
f va v
Thu s, we must pick a f requency of interest t o perform the
analysis
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 3 -29
Array Theory Wavelet: 30 Hz,
Minimum phase
He r e w e se e a n
a rra y s i mul a ti on
fo r a br oa dba nd
w a ve fro nt w i th
the wav el e t
sh ow n at the
ri g ht. T he sa me
a rra ys as
s i m u l a t e d
pre vi ou sl y f or a λ/2
30 Hz si ng le
f r e qu e nc y
so urce a re
sh ow n.
λ/2
λ/2
λ/2
H e re a re b r oa d -b a nd s n a ps h ot s o f t h e s im ul at io n o f a n i mp ul s i ve
s o ur c e a n d f o u r d i f fe re nt a r r ay s. T he s ma l l b o x a t t he t o p o f
e ac h c o l um n g i ve s t h e p h y si ca l s i ze o f t h e a rr ay . I m ag es a r e
p l ot t e d w i th a s li gh t v e r ti ca l e xa gg e ra t io n a nd e ac h w av e f ro n t i s
a ct u a ll y c i rc u l a r. E ac h s o u r ce s o n f i gu r at i on i s s ho w n f ul l- b an d
a nd b ro k e n i n to f i ve d i ff e re nt s ub - b an ds . T he a rr a y s a l w ay s
a ff ec t h ig h f r e qu e nc ie s m or e s t ro n g ly a n d t he l on g e r a r ra y s
p r o du c e a n u n d i s to r t e d w a ve f ro m o n l y f or n e a rl y v e rt i ca l
t r a ve l pa t hs . T he f u ll - ba nd i ma g es a r e t h e s am e a s t ho s e o n t he
p r e vi ou s p ag e.
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 3 -31
Array Theory
A m a j or ef f ec t o f a q u i si ti o n a rr a y s is th a t t h ey r es u lt in
a v a r ia b le ( n o n st a t io n a r y ) em b ed d ed w a v el et . F o r a gi v en
re fl ec t o r, t h e w a v el et w i ll v a r y w i t h o f fs et . F o r a g iv en
t ra c e, th e w a v el et w il l v a ry w it h ti m e. T h is h a s
s ign i fi c a n t im p li c a ti o n s fo r d e co n v o l u ti o n t h eo r y w h i ch
a s su m es a st a t io n a r y w a v e le t.
Lecture Notes
Geophysics 557
Chapter 4
The C onvolutional Model and
Deconvolution
Embedded wavelet
Bandlimited (10-70Hz)
Reflection coefficients
Reflection coefficients
Reflection coefficients
Bandlimited (10-70Hz)
Reflection coefficients
Bandlimited (10-70Hz) and 60°
phase rotated Reflection coeffi-
cients
Phase Spectra
Reflection coefficients
Bandlimited (10-70Hz)
Reflection coefficients
where:
s t = Ir t •ws t
Ir t is the earth impulse response
ws t is the source waveform
s t is the earth response to the source waveform
T h e a ss u m pti o n o f l i n ea ri t y s i m p l y m ea n s t h at a li n e ar
c om b i n at i on o f so lu ti o n s t o t h e g ov e r n in g 1 - D w av e
e q u at i on i s a l s o a s ol u t i on . W h i le th is i s a n i m p o rt a n t
r es u l t f ro m p h y s ic s , f or t h e p u r p os e o f p r ov i d i n g a b as e
f or d ec o n v ol u t i on t h e ory , i t i s p r ac t i c al ly u se l es s . T h e
p r ob l em i s t h at A L L o f t h e p h ys i c s a n d g eo lo gy o f t h e
p r ob l em is c o n t ai n ed i n t h e i m p u l s e re s p on s e . T h at is , i f
w e c o n si d e r a n a tt e n u a ti n g e ar th , w i t h m u l t i p l es a n d
t ra n s m i ss i on l o ss e s , t h e n a ll o f t h e s e ef f ec t s a r e
c on t a in e d in t h e im p u l se r e sp o n s e. I n f ac t , t h e
c on v o lu ti o n al r es u l t a b ov e , is v a li d in 2- D o r 3 - D a n d
t h e re f or e t h e i m p u l s e r es p o n se c an a ls o c o n t ai n s u c h
e ff e c t s a s e l as t ic m od e co n v e rs i on s a n d sp h er i c al
d i v e rg en c e i n a d d i t i on t o th o s e a lr e ad y m en t i on ed . S o ,
a l t h ou gh t h i s re s u l t c an be p ro v en f ro m a v e ry g en e r al
t h e or y, it i s t o o ge n e ra l t o b e o f u s e t o u s. I n s t ea d , w e
m u s t m ak e a n u m b e r o f si m pli f yi n g a s su mp t io n s t o
f ra m e t h e c on te x t o f d e c on v o l u t io n t h e or y.
4-4 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
The Convolutional Model
S h er if f a nd G eldart (Exploration Seismology, 1995, Cambridge
University Press) p re se nt th e convolutional mod el by
d ecomposi n g t h e e a rt h' s impuls e r esponse a s :
Ir t = ns t • p t • e t
where
re presents n e a r surf a c e e f f ect s be nea t h b o t h
ns t t h e source a n d receiver
r epre se n t s a ll e ff e c ts n o t o th e r wise mo d ele d
pt su c h as m u lti p le s , a b s o r p ti o n , mode
c o nv e r s io n s, e t c.
i s t h e "i mp u l s e re s p o n s e" ( t h e i r t e rm ) o f t h e
et t ar g et r ef l e c t or s . " t h i s i s t h e s ig n a l t h a t
s ei s m i c re f l e c t io n wo r k is i n t e n d e d t o f i n d ".
T hi s t e r m in o lo g y i l l u s tr a t e s s o m e o f t h e t y p ic a l
c o n fu s io n s u r r o un di ng t h e c o nv ol ut io na l m o d e l. C on s id e r
t h e ir d e fi n it i o n o f e ( t ) . I f i t i s t r u ly t h e i m p u ls e
r e s p o ns e o f t h e t ar g e t r e fl e ct o r s t h e n i t c o n ta in s a ll
m ul t ip le s , a b s o r pt io n, m o d e c on ve r s io ns a s w e l l a s
p r im ar i e s f r o m t ha t z o ne . T h is m e a ns i t i s N OT t h e
s ig n a l w e w i s h t o u n co ve r a n d t h us t he i r d e f in i ti o n i s
s e l f- c o nt r a d ic t o r y . A ls o , p ( t) i s s up p os e d t o b e a
c o n vo lu ti o n a l o pe r a t or w h ic h m o de l s a d i v e r s e r a n g e o f
e ff e ct s w i th o u t a ny j u s t if i c at io n t h a t t h is i s e ve n
p os s ib le . I n f a ct , m o s t o f t h e m e nt io ne d e f fe ct s a r e
n on s t at io na r y ( s e e 2 - 12 f o r a d e fi n it i on ) a n d t h e r e fo r e
c a n no t b e m o d e le d a s a c o nv o lu t io n. T hi s i s t h e
p r e s e n ta ti o n i n a n e x ce ll e n t, h ig h ly r eg ar d e d r e fe r e n ce
w o r k s o i t i s u nd e r s ta n da b le t h a t t h e r e i s a g r e at d e a l
o f c o nf u s io n s u r r o un di ng t he c o nv o lu t io na l m o d e l i n t h e
i n du s t r y.
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -5
The Convolutional Model
W e n o w m o di f y t h e m o de l o f S he r i f f a nd G e l da r t w i t h
t he i n t e nt o f p re s e r v i ng it s s pi r i t b ut m a ki n g i t l o gi ca l l y
c o ns i s t e nt . F i rs t w e c o m bi n e t h e s o ur c e w a v e f o rm a nd
t he n e a r s u rf a c e e f f e c t s i n t o a n e qu i va l e nt w a v e l et :
we t = ws t • ns t
N e x t we d is c ar d p ( t ) a s c on t ai n i n g n o n s t at i on ar y e ff e c t s
w h ic h a re b ey on d t h e s c op e o f t h e m o d el a n d a l l ow e( t )
t o be a n i m pu ls e r e sp o n s e i n a l i m i te d s en s e o f t h e
t ar ge t r e f le c t or s:
s t = we t • e t + noise t
He r e we h a v e al s o in t ro d u c e d a d d i t i v e , s t at i on ar y, w h i t e
n o i se . T h e ea r t h ' s im p u l s e r es p o n s e i s f u rt her a s su m e d t o
b e:
e t = m t •r t
where:
s t = we t • m t • r t + noise t
W e r e ma r ke d t h a t t h e n o i s e i s m o de l e d a s b e i ng
" s ta t i o na r y" a nd " w hi t e " i n n a t ur e . S t a t i o na ry i n t h i s
c o nt e x t m e a ns t ha t t h e b a s i c f e a t ur e s o f t he s pe c t r um
d o n ot c ha ng e w i t h t i me . T ha t i s , i f we ex t r ac t e d
s pe c t r a f r om s ma l l w i nd ow s r a ng i ng u p a n d d ow n n ( t )
w e w o ul d f i nd e s s e nt i a l l y t he s am e s p ec t r al s ha p e .
G au s s i a n o r u n i f or m l y d i s tri b ut ed n o i s e c a n b e s ho w n t o
h a v e t h i s p r o pe r t y . T h e c on v o l ut i o n o f t w o s t a t i on ar y
s i g na l s i s a l s o s t at i o na r y. A n e x a mp l e o f a n o ns t a t i on ar y
s i g na l i s t h e i m pu l s e r e s p on s e f r om a c o ns t a nt Q e ar t h .
A s we h a v e s e e n, t he s p ec t ra l r e s po ns e c ha ng e s
s y s t e ma t i c al l y wi th t i me .
A w h i t e s p e c t ru m is o n e t h a t h as c on s t an t p o we r a t a l l
f re q u e n c i es ( e . g . " w h i t e n o is e " ) . A n i n fi n i t e l e n gt h
s i gn a l o f G a u ss i an o r u n if o rm l y d i st r i bu t e d n o is e c an b e
s h ow n t o h av e a w h it e s p e c t ru m . F i n it e l e n gt h n oi s e
s eq u en c e s h av e a p p r ox i m at e l y w h i t e sp e c t ra w h en
s m oo t h ed w it h a sh o r t o p er at or .
0.2 -10
-20
0
-30
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 50 100 150
Time (sec) Frequency (Hz)
Re al r cs com pute d fro m a s oni c S pe ctr um o f the re a l rcs . Not e
lo g a t cons ta nt de ns it y the 20db rol l of f f rom 10 0 to 0
Hz .
C o nt r a s t t hi s w i t h a c o mp ut e r g e ne r at e d r a nd o m
r ef le c ti v i t y d e s ig n e d wi th a w hi t e s pe c t r um :
0.2 0
0.1 -10
0
-20
-0.1
-30
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 50 100 150
Time (sec) Frequency (Hz)
C omp u t e r ge n era t ed p se u d o S pe c tr u m o f t h e p s eu d o
r an d om rcs. r a nd om r cs . N o te t he
e s s en ti a ll y f la t ( wh it e)
s pe ct ru m.
4-8 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
The Convolutional Model
I n o u r ba s ic c o n v o l ut i o n a l m o d e l, w e a ss u m ed th e e ff ec t s
o f m u lt i p les c o u ld be tr ea t ed a s a co nv o l u ti o n o f t h e
s o u rc e w a ve fo rm w it h a " m u l ti p le o p er a t o r" :
wm t = w t • m t
I n o u r d e v e l op me nt o f t h e 1 - D s e i s mo g r am , w e e x a mi ne d
a n a l g o ri t h m w hi c h i s c ap ab l e o f g en e ra t i ng a l l p o s s i b l e
m u l t i pl e s . C o u ld t h i s o p e r at i o n h av e be e n p e r f or m e d a s
a c o nv o l ut i o n? T he ge n e ra l a ns w e r t o t hi s q u e s t i o n i s
" n o" b e c a us e t he m ul t i p l e t r a i n gr o w s i n l e ng t h a s t i m e
i nc r e a s es a n d i s t h us f u nd a me n t al l y n on -s t a t i on ar y .
H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n c l as s e s o f m u l ti pl e s c a n b e m od el e d b y
a c o nv o l ut i on i n c l ud i n g s u rf a c e gh os ts a nd w a t e r b o t t o m
m u l t i pl e s . I n g e ne r al , i f w e r es tri c t o u r a t t e nt i on t o t h e
p o r t i o n o f a n i m pu l s e r e s po ns e l a t e r i n t i me t ha n a
m a jo r m ul t i p l e g e ne r at o r , t he n t he m u l t i pl e c o n t ri b u t i on
f r om t h a t g e ne r at i ng i n t e rf a c e c a n b e m od e le d a s t h e
c o nv o l ut i o n o f a m u l t i pl e o pe r at o r w it h t he s o ur c e
w av ef o r m. H o w ev er , a s a no t he r c a v e a t , e v e n wa t e r
b ot t om m u l ti pl e s o n f a r o f f s e t t r a c e s s h ow n o n- pe r i od i c
s pa c i ng a n d s o v i o l a t e o ur m o de l .
Summary of assumptions:
• Ea rt h's i m p u l s e r e s p on se c on s i s t s o f a r e f le c t i v i t y s e ri e s
p o s si b l y c o n v ol v e d w it h a m u l t i p l e o p e ra t or . It is al s o
s t at i o n ar y.
• T h e e ff ec t o f t h e source wavefo rm m a y be modeled a s a
simple s ta t ionary convolu ti o n wit h t he e a rt h' s impuls e
re sponse .
• Any noise is additive, white, and stationary.
• Optionally, Earth's reflectivity series is white and stationary.
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -9
The Convolutional Model
Here we i llust rate the steps involve d i n the const ructio n o f a
multiple-fr ee synthetic s ei smic t race u sing a pseudo random
re fl ectivity:
0.2
0.1 Pseudo
random
0 reflectivity
-0.1
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time (sec)
0.1 0.1
M in i m u m
Minimum
p h as e
0 phase
w a v el e t t o 0
wavelet
s ca l e
enlarged
-0.1 -0.1
0 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Time (sec) Time (sec)
0.02
0.01
Noise free
0
seismogram
-0.01
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time
0.8(sec) 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Amplitude Spectra
0
-20
Wavelet Reflectivity
-40
-60 S eismogram
-80
-100
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Frequency (Hz)
4-10 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
The Convolutional Model
0.02
Noise free
0.01
s e i s m o g ra m
0 with noise
superimposed
-0.01
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time (sec)
0.02
0.01 Noisy
seismogram
0
-0.01
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time (sec)
Amplitude Spectra
-20
Reflectivity
-40
-10
-20
Wavelet
Noisy seismogram
-30
-40
-50
N oise free seismogram
-60
-70
H e r e w e s e e t he b as i c i d e a t ha t u n d e r l i es a l l
d e c o nv o l ut i on c on c e pt s : T he a mp l i t ud e s pe c t r al s ha p e
o f t h e s e i s m i c t ra c e ( s e i s mo g ra m i n t h i s c a s e ) i s
e s s e nt i a l l y s i mi l a r t o t ha t o f t h e u nk no wn w a v e l e t . G i v e n
t hi s , a l l t ha t r e m ai ns i s t o d e du c e t he w av e l e t ' s p h a s e
a nd t h en w e c a n d e s i g n a n i n v e r s e f o r i t. W e o b s e r v e
t ha t t h e n o i s y s e i m og r a m i nt ro du c e s a f u r t he r
c o mp l i c at i o n i n t ha t w e m us t r e s t r i c t o u r a t t e n t i on t o
t he s i g na l f r e q ue nc y ba nd .
N o t e t h a t w e a re re l yi n g o n t h e r ef l e c ti v i t y t o h a v e a
w h it e s p e c t ru m so t h at w e c an a t t ri b u t e a ll s p e c t ra l
" c h ar ac t e r" t o t h e w av e le t .
4-12 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Frequency Domain Spiking Deconvolution
I f w e c a n c o m p u te t he a m p li t u de s pe ct r um o f t h e
w a v e le t b y s m o o t h in g th e a m p li tu d e sp e ct ru m o f t h e
s eis m ic tr a c e, t h en w e ca n i nv o ke th e m i ni m u m p h a s e
a s su m p t io n to c o m p le te ly s p ec if y t h e u n k n o w n w a v el et .
H er e i s t h e h e lp f il e f ro m t h e M a t la b ro u t in e , d ec o n f ,
w h i ch do es fr eq u en c y d o m ain d e co n v o l u ti o n :
% deconf algorithm
% [trout,specinv]=deconf(trin,trdsign,n,stab,phase) • Compute the power
% [trout,specinv]=deconf(trin,trdsign,n,stab)
spectrum of the design trace.
% [trout,specinv]=deconf(trin,trdsign,n)
% Add in th e stab power.
% DECONF performs a frequency domain deconvolution of the • Con volve the power
% input trace spectrum with a boxcar
% smoother to estimate the
% trin= input trace to be deconvolved
wavelet power spectrum.
% trdsign= input trace to be used for operator design
% n= number of points in frequency domain boxcar smoother • Compute the wavelet phase
% stab= stabilization factor expressed as a fraction of the spectrum with the Hilbert
% zero lag of the autocorrelation. This is equivalent to being transform.
% a fraction of the mean power. • Compute the spectrum of
% ********* default= .0001 **********
the input trace.
% phase= 0 ... zero phase whitening is performed
% 1 ... minimum phase deconvolution is performed • Divide the input trace
% ************** default= 1 *************** spectrum by the estimated
% wavelet spectru m.
% trout= output trace which is the deconvolution of trin • Inverse FFT to give
% specinv= output inverse operator spectrum. The time domain
deconvolved trace.
% operator can be recovered by real(ifft(fftshift(specinv)))
W e n ot e t h a t t h e d e c on v ol u t i on o p e r at or c an be
d es i gn e d o n o n e t r ac e a n d a p p l i ed t o a n o t h e r. T h i s i s t o
s i m u l at e t h e p ra c ti c e o f d e s ig n i n g th e o p er at o r o n a
s e gm en t o f t h e t r ac e t o a v o id l e t t in g su ch t h i n g s a s
s u r f ac e wa v es i n f l u en c e t h e d e s ig n . T h e o t h er
s i g n if i c an t p a ra m et e rs a r e : t h e l en g t h o f a b ox c ar
s m o ot h e r, a s t ab i li z at io n f ac t or , a n d a f l ag fo r z er o o r
m in i m um p h a se . I n o r d e r t o s p e c if y n , w e re c al l t h at t h e
f r eq u en c y s am p l e s i ze o f th e D F T s p e c t ru m i s Δ f = 1 / T
w h e re T i s t h e t ra ce l en gt h i n s e co n d s . T h u s , a
s m o ot h e r o f l e n gt h F s mo ot h ( i n H er t z) wi l l h av e a n u m b er
o f p o in ts gi v e n b y: F
n smooth = smooth
= TFsmooth
Δf
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -13
Frequency Domain Spiking Deconvolution
T he s t a b il i z a ti o n f a ct o r i s d e s ig n e d t o p r e ve n t t h e
o pe r at o r d e s ig n f r o m b e in g u n du ly i n fl u e nc e d b y n oi s e
a nd t o a vo id t h e p o s si b il i t y t h a t a d iv i s io n b y z e r o
m ig ht o cc ur w he n t he s pe c tr u m i s i nv e r te d . I t c a n b e
t h o ug h t o f a s w hi t e n oi s e a d de d t o t h e s p e c tr u m w it h a
c e r t a in p o w e r l e v e l. T ha t p o w e r l e v e l i s :
0.1
0.08
0.04
deconf
estimate
0.02
noise free
0
seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0 Exact rcs
-20
-40
-80
-100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
W e c a n s e e t h at t h e e st i m at e is q u i t e go od . W e c an b e
m o re p r e ci s e a b ou t h ow g oo d i t i s b y u si n g t h e M a t la b
f u n c t io n m x c or r wh i c h c om p a re s t w o t i m e s er i es a n d
re t u r n s t h e m ax i m u m o f t h ei r c ro s s co rr e la t io n a n d t h e
l ag a t wh ic h it o c c u r s. T h e r e su l t s i n :
m ax c or re l at i on = . 3 9 a t l ag o f . 1 s am ple s
If w e n o w r u n th e s am e pr o c e ss w it h t he sa m e
pa r a m e t e r s o n t he n o isy se i sm o g r a m w e o b t a in q ui te a
di ffe r e n t r e s ul t a s s ho w n o n th e n e xt p ag e .
0.14
0 noisy seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0.12
High cut filtered: 70-80 Hz rolloff
0.1
deconf stab =.5
0.08
0.04
deconf stab=.0001
0.02
0 exact rcs
-0.02
(1)
w h er e r i s r ef l e ct i v i t y, w i s t h e wa v e l et , a n d n i s a d d i t iv e
n oi s e . I n t h e f re q u e n c y d om a in , t h i s be c om es
(2)
G e n e ra ll y , t h er e w il l b e a r an g e o f fr e q u en ci e s , c al l ed t h e
s i gn a l ba n d , o v er w h i c h t h e R ( f ) W ( f ) t e r m d o m i n at e s
o v e r N ( f ) . D en o t in g t h e b ou n d s o f t h is f re q u e n c y b an d
b y f m i n a n d f m a x, w e c an h av e t h e a p p r ox i m at i on
( 3)
w h er e t h e v er t i c al b ars ( e. g . |S ( f) | ) d e n ot e a b s ol u t e
v al u e s o r a m pli t u d e s p e ct r a. N o t e th a t b y u s i n g
a m p li t u d e s p ec t r a, we a r e d i s c ard in g t h e p o s si b i li t y o f
e st i m a t in g t h e wa ve l e t p h a se d ir e ct l y f ro m t h e d at a.
T h e n e x t st e p , s p ec t r al s m oo th in g i s d if f i c u l t t o fu ll y
j u s t i fy m at h e m a ti c al l y. D e n ot i n g a sm o o t h e d s p e c t ru m
b y a n o v er b ar , t h e " w h i t e re f le c t i v it y " a ss u mp t io n m ea n s
t h at
R (f ) ≈ 1 (4)
W e t h en a r g u e t h at s m oo t h i n g |S ( f ) | y i e l d s a n e s t im a t e
o f t h e a m p l it u d e s p e c t ru m o f t h e em b e d d e d wa v el e t .
T h o u g h we k n ow t h i s i s n ot p r e ci s e ly t ru e , i t i s
a p pro x im a t el y s o i n m a n y u s ef u l s i t u at i on s .
T h e a m pli t u d e sp ec t r u m o f th e d e c on v ol u t i on o p er at o r i s
j u s t t h e in v e r se o f t h i s
(6)
G e n e ra ll y , th is s p e c t ra l d i v is i on is p r ob l em a t i c i f t h er e
a r e f r eq u e n c i es wh er e t h e e s t im a t ed w av e l et ' s s p e c t ru m
i s v er y sm a l l. W h er e i t is s m a ll u su a ll y m e an s t h at t h er e
w as n ot m u c h ra d i at e d s ou r c e p o w er a n d s o n o is e i s
l i ke ly d o m i n an t . S i n c e t h e s e s m al l v a l u es a r e i n v er t e d ,
t h e y be c om e v er y i m p o rt an t i n D( f) . G i v e n t h e s e
c on s i d e ra ti o n s, i t i s c u s t om a r y t o a d d a s m a ll c on s t an t
t o t h e e s t im a t ed wa v el e t' s a m p l it u d e s p e c t ru m p ri or t o
i n v er s i on . T h en
(7)
w h er e : ( 8)
T h e c o n s ta n t μ i s c al l e d t h e " w h it e n o i se f ac t or " o r
" s t ab i li t y fa c t or" a n d is a sm a l l p os i t iv e n u m b e r u s u a ll y
b et w ee n .0 1 a n d . 0 00 0 0 1 .
L as t l y, w e m ust e s t im a t e th e p h a s e s p e c t ru m o f D ( f ) .
U n d e r th e m in i m u m p h as e a s s u m p t i on a n d u s i n g H t o
d e n ot e t h e H i lb e rt tr an s f or m , w e h a v e
(9)
(10)
I f we s u bs t i t u t e e q u a t io n ( 3 ) in to eq u at i on ( 1 0 ) w e c an
o b t ai n a n ex pre s si on fo r th e e m b ed d ed wa v el e t
r em a in in g a f t er d e c on v o l u t io n
(11)
N e g le c t i n g t h e n oi s e t e rm , we es t i m at e t h e e m b ed ded
w av e le t a s
(12)
As s u m in g a b an d p a ss fi l t er i s a p p l ie d fo l lo wi n g
d e c on v o lu t i on , w e c an r eg ar d W D ( f ) a s ef f e ct i v e ly z e ro
o u ts i d e t h is b an d w i d t h . E q u a t io n ( 1 2 ) c an b e f u r t h er
w ri t t en a s
(13)
I n t h e l as t s t e p , t h e a p p ro x im a t e u n i t y f ol lo ws o n l y i f t h e
a s s u m p t i on s o f s t at i on ar y w av e le t , w h i t e r ef l e ct i v i t y,
a n d m in i m um p h as e a re a p p r ox i m a t el y v al i d . I f th e f i rs t
t w o f ai l th en w e e x p e c t a n on - wh i t e a m p l i t u d e sp ec t r u m
f or W D ( f ) a n d i f t h e l as t f ai ls t h e n we ex p e c t a re s id u al
p h a se sp e c t ru m .
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -19
Finding a Wavelet's Inverse
If w symbolizes a wavelet and x is its unknown inverse, then the
two are related by:
w• x = 1
Here, the • d enotes convolution and 1 i s a unit vector. In
matri x n ot ation, this i s written:
w0 0 0 0 0 x0
1
w1 w0 0 0 0 x1
0
w2 w1 w0 0 0 x2 =
0
w3 w2 w1 0 x3
w0
n
Vector D is the
n X desired output
which, in this
m W = m D
case is a spike
at zero lag.
T h u s w e h a v e c h o s en n <m p r o v id i n g m o r e eq u ati o n s t h a n
u n kn o w n s a n d a r e in a p osi t io n t o s ee k a l ea s t s q u a re s
s o lu t i o n . T h e c la s s ic le a s t s q u a re s a p p ro a c h i s ( se e H att o n
et a l. , 1 9 86 p 3 1 ):
T T
W WX = W D The normal equations
–1
T T
X = WW WD The estimated X
w0 w1 w2 w3 w0 0 0 0 0 x0 w0 w1 w2 w3 1
0 w0 w1 w2 w1 w0 0 0 0 x1 0 w0 w1 w2 0
0 0 w0 w1 w2 w1 w0 0 0 x2 = 0 0 w0 w1 0
0 0 0 w3 w2 w1 0 x3 0 0 0
w0 w0 w0
M u l t i p li c at i on by W T d oe s a cr os s c or re l at i on be c au s e i t
c an b e e as i l y s ee n t o b e c o n v ol u t i on w it h t h e t i m e
r ev e rs e d w av e l et . T h i s c an be se e n t o b e:
φ0 φ1 φ2 φ3 x0
w0
φ1 φ0 φ1 φ2 x1
0
φ2 φ1 φ0 φ1 x2 =
0
φ3 φ2 φ1 x3
φ0
φ0 φ1 φ2 φ3 x0
w0
φ1 φ0 φ1 φ2 x1
0 Where φj is the jth lag of
φ2 φ1 φ0 φ1 x2 = the autocorrelation of w.
0
φ3 φ2 φ1 x3
φ0
• Th e F o ur i e r tr a ns f o r m o f t he a u tocorrelati o n i s t he p o w e r
s p e c tr u m of th e w a ve l e t (Wiener-K h i n tc h i ne Theorem) . T hu s
th e ph a s e i nfor m a ti o n is no t p r e s e nt i n t he a ut ocor r e lat i o n.
5
autocorrelation of wavelet
4
autocorrelation of
3
noisy seismogram
2 a u t oc o r r el at io n
o f n o is e f r ee
s e i sm o gr am
1
autocorrelation of
0
synthetic reflectivity
-1
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
T hu s we are r e m in d e d of the f ac t th a t th e
a ut o co r r e la ti o n o f t he s e is m o g r a m i s v e r y s i mi l ar t o t h e
a ut o co r r e la ti o n o f t he w a ve l e t. T hi s i s a c o n s e q ue n ce o f
o ur a s su m pt io n t ha t t he r ef l e ct iv i ty i s a r a nd o m , w hi t e
s e q ue n c e a n d c an b e d e mo n s tr a t e d m a th e ma ti ca ll y a s
f o ll ow s:
s t = wm t •r t + n t
w hi c h e x pr e s s e s t h e s e i s mi c t r a c e , s , a s a c o n v ol u t i on
b e t w e en a wa v e l e t w i t h a p os s i b l e m u l t i pl e t r a i n, w m ,
a nd a re f l e c t i c i ty , r , p l us a d di t i v e ra nd om n o i s e , n . S i n c e
a n a u t oc o r r e l at i o n i s f o rm e d b y t i m e re v e r s i ng t h e t r a c e
a nd c o nv o l v i ng i t w i t h i t s e l f , w e h a v e :
A s t = s t • s –t = wm t •r t + n t • wm –t •r –t +n –t
= wm t •r t •wm –t •r –t + wm t •r t •n –t +
n t •wm –t • r –t + n t •n –t
S in ce th e o r d e r o f co n vo lu ti o n i s u ni mp o r t a nt , t he f ir s t
te r m in th is e x p r e ss io n c a n b e se e n t o b e th e c o nv o lu tio n
o f th e a ut o co r r ela ti o ns o f w m a nd r . T h e se c o nd a n d th ir d
te r m s b o th inv o lv e th e cr o ss co r r e l at io n s b e t w e e n t w o
r a n do m se q u e n ce s, r an d n, a n d h e n ce a r e z e ro w h il e th e
la st te r m is t he au to c o r r a lt io n o f n . T hu s
A s t = A w t •A r t + A n t
Since r and n are both random sequences by assumption, their
autocorrelations are delta functions and we obtain:
A s t = A w t + pnδ t
w h e r e p n is t he m e a n n o ise p o w e r . S o w e se e th a t th e
a u to co r re la ti o n o f se i sm o g r a m a n d w a v e le t s ho u ld b e
e q u al e xce pt f o r th e p o ss ib i lit y o f a sli g ht i nc r e a se in th e
z e r o la g po w e r.
φ0+λ φ1 φ2 φ3 x0
1
φ1 φ0+λ φ1 φ2 x1
0
φ2 φ1 φ0+λ φ1 x2 =
0
φ3 φ2 φ1 x3
φ0 +λ
W h e r e φ is t h e a u tocorrelati o n o f th e s e is m ic t r a c e , λ i s
t he s ta b f a ct o r , a n d x is t h e un k n o w n in ver se o p e ra to r . In
c o mp a r i ng t hi s a lg o r i th m with fr e q u e n cy d o m a in d e c o n, i t
is n o te d t h a t t h e y a r e nea r ly t h e F o u r ier e q u iv a le n t s o f o n e
a n o th e r . W i nd o w i n g t h e a u t o co r re la t io n i n W iener d eco n i s
e q u iv a le n t to s m o o th in g t h e p o w e r sp e c tr u m in f r e q u e n cy
d e c o n. T he n u m b e r o f la g s i n t h e a u tocorrelati o n a n d th e
n um be r o f p o in ts in t h e fr equ e n c y d o m a in sm o o t her a r e
in v e r s e ly re la t e d . R ea so n in g v e r y lo o sely , w e h a ve:
1 1 T nsamps
nlagsΔt ≈ ⇒ nlags ≈ =
nsmoothΔf nsmooth Δt n smooth
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -25
Wiener Spiking Deconvolution
S i nc e o ur s y nt h e t i c ha s a 2 mi l s a mp l e ra t e , i t h as r o ug h l y
8 0 0 s am pl e s , s o w e e x pe c t t he 1 6 po i n t s mo o t he r w e
us e d t o b e s i mi lar t o 8 0 0/1 6 = 5 0 l ag s o f t h e
a ut o c o r r e l at i on . He r e a r e i s t he h e l p f i l e f r o m t he M a t l a b
r o ut i n e d e c o nw :
% Algo rith m:
% [trout,x]=deconw(trin,trdsign,n,stab) • Co mpu te th e a uto co rre latio n o f
% [trout,x]=deconw(trin,trdsign,n) th e inp u t seismic trace .
%
• Wind ow th e au to correla tion
% routine performs a Weiner style deconvolution of the
% input trace
(bo xca r) to o nly n la gs
% • Se t up th e n o rm al equ a tio n s fo r
% trin= input trace to be deconvolved th e wie ne r in verse, a dd th e sta b
% trdsign= input trace to be used for operator design fac tor to th e d ia gon al, a n d solve
% n= number of autocorrelogram lags to use (and length of
• Co nvo lve th e in ve rse o pe ra to r
% inverse operator
% stab= stabilization factor expressed as a fraction of the
w ith th e se ism ic tra ce.
% zero lag of the autocorrelation.
% ********* default= .0001 **********
%
% trout= output trace which is the deconvolution of trin
% x= output inverse operator used to deconvolve trin
U s i ng e s s e nt i a l l y c o m pa r a b l e p ar a me t e r s to the
f r e qu e n c y d o ma i n e x a mp l e , w e o b t ai n f o r t he n o i s e f r e e
c a s e:
0.1
0.08
0.04
deconw estimate
0.02
0 Noise free
seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
F r o m m a xc o r r , w e o b ta in a m a xi m um c r o ss c o r r e la ti on
c o e f fi c i e nt b e tw e e n t h e e s ti ma te d r cs a n d t h e e xa ct
o ne s o f . 3 9 a t a l a g o f . 2 s e c o nd s . V e r y c l os e t o t h e
r e s u lt f r o m d e co n f.
4-26 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Wiener Spiking Deconvolution
In the frequency domain these results look like: Exact rcs
0
-20
-40
-100
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
H e r e a re so m e sa m p le d e c o ns o f th e n o is y t r a c e w hi ch
h a ve a lr ead y be e n f ilt e r ed b a ck t o 7 0H z .
High cut filtered: 70-80 Hz rolloff
0.14
0.1
deconw stab =.5
0.08
0.04
deconw stab=.0001
0.02
0 noisy seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Filtered results Max corr Lag
Here are some deconw stab=.0001 0.1262 1.4000
results from
deconw stab = .01 0.1414 1.6000
maxcorr:
deconw stab =.5 0.1802 3.0000
0
wm w0 xN wm+1
M u lt iplyin g b o th s id es o f t h is by t he transpose o f t h e
Toepl it z W m a tr ix a n d f o rming t h e normal equations a s w e
d id f o r in v ers e f il te ri ng gi v es:
φ0 φ1 φ2 φN x0 φ1
φ1 φ0 φ1 x1 φ2
φ2 φ1 φ0 x2 = φ3 Eqn 2
φN φ0 xN φN+1
H e r e , i n c on t r as t t o t he n o rm al e qu at i o ns f o r i n v e rs e
f i l t e r i ng , we h a v e t he s i g na l a ut o c o rr e l a t i on a pp e ar i ng
o n b ot h s i d e s o f t he e qu a t i o n. T h e s o l ut i o n t o t h e s e
e qu at i o ns g i v e s a p r e di c tio n f i l t e r x , wh i c h, i n p r a c t i c e ,
i s u s e d t o p r e di c t v a l ue s " o f f t h e e n ds " o f t he s e qu e nc e
o n wh i c h i t w as d e s i g ne d. W e m i g ht s us pe c t t h at s i nc e
t he r e i s n o p ha s e i nf o r ma t i on go i ng i nt o t he p r e di c t i o n
f i l t e r d e s i g n t ha t t he f i l t e r w i l l be m in i mu m p h a s e a n d
t ha t i s i nd e e d t h e c a s e .
4-28 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Prediction and Prediction Error Filters
W e n ow w is h t o d ra w a p ar al l el b et w ee n p r e d ic t i on
f i lt e ri n g a n d t h e d e s ig n o f i n v er s e fi l t e rs . I t t u r n s o u t
t h at t h e r e la t io n s h ip i s n ot wi t h p r ed i c t i on f il t e rs bu t
w it h a c l os el y re l at ed f il t e r, t h e p r ed i c t i on e r ro r f i l t er .
T o d e r iv e t h i s , n ot e t h a t e q u at i on 1 c an be wr it t e n a s
t h e f ol l ow i n g ex pre s si on w it h z t ra n sf o rm s :
–1
w z x z = z w z – w0
Now, we can reformulate this into:
–1 –1
w z x z – z w z = –z w0
N o t e t h a t t h e l e ft h a n d si d e is e s se n ti a l ly t h e d if f ere n c e
be t wee n t h e p re d ic t ed va lu e s, w ( z ) x ( z ) , a n d t h ei r a c tu al
v a lu e s, z - 1w( z ) . H e nc e it i s t er m ed t h e p re d ic t io n e rr o r .
M a n ip u l a t i n g f u rt h e r:
–1 –1
w z z –x z = z w0
T h e o p e ra t o r , 1 -z x (z ), i s c a l l e d a p r e di c ti on e rr o r f i l t e r
o f u n i t l ag b e c a us e i t a s s e rt s t ha t w e c a n o pe r at e o n
w (z ) t o y i el d w 0 f o l l ow e d b y a s eq ue nc e o f z e r os . T h at
i s , w e c a n' t p os s i b l y p r e di c t t he f i r s t v a lu e i n a
s e qu e n c e, s o t he e rr o r i n t ha t p r e di c t i o n m u s t a l w a ys b e
1 0 0 % , h o w e v e r , w e a s s e r t t hr o ug h e qu at i o n 3 , t ha t a l l
o t h e r v a l ue s c an b e p r ed i c t e d w i t ho ut e rr o r . O f c o ur s e
t hi s wo n' t be p o s s i bl e i n g e ne r al a n d w e w i l l o b t ai n a
l e as t s qu a r e s s o l ut i o n w hi ch m i ni mi z e s t h e p r e di c ti on
e rr o r .
w0 0 0 0 1 w0
w1 w0 0 0 –x 0 0
w2 w1 w0 0 –x 1 = 0
0
wm w0 –x N 0
φN φ0 –x N 0
A s ex p e ct e d , eq u ati o n 4 is ne a r ly i d en t i ca l t o t h e n o rm a l
eq ua ti o n s f o r a W i en e r in v e rs e fi l te r. T h u s we m ake t wo
c o n c lu s io n s:
• P re d ic t io n fi lt e rs a n d p re d i ct i o n er ro r f il t ers a r e
m i n im u m p h a se .
• S p i ki n g ( W i en er ) d e co n v o lu t i o n i s i d en t ic a l t o u n it
l a g p re d i ct i o n e rr o r fi l te ri n g.
• T h u s d e c o n v o lu t i o n r em ove s t h e p re d ic t a bl e p a rt o f
t h e tr a c e.
4-30 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Prediction and Prediction Error Filters
H a vi ng d e si g ne d a pr edi ct io n fi lt e r to pr e di ct o n e sa m p le
a h e a d, it is a s im pl e m a tte r to d e s ig n o ne to p r e d ic t α
sa m p le s a h e a d b y m o di fy in g e q u at io n 1 t o g iv e :
w0 0 0 0 x0 wα
w1 w0 0 0 x1 wα+1
w2 w1 w0 0 x2 = wα+2 eqn 5
0
wm w0 xN wα+m
P ro c ed i n g a s be fo r e, w e fo r m t h e no rm a l e q ua t i o n s
eq u i va le nt t o e q u a ti o n 2 :
φ0 φ1 φ2 φN x0 φα
φ1 φ0 φ1 x1 φα+1
φ2 φ1 φ0 x2 = φα+2 eqn 6
φN φ0 xN φα+N
T he s ol u t i o n t o e q ua t i o n 6 g i ve s a N + 1 l on g p r e di c ti on
o pe r a t o r w hi c h a t t e m pt s t o pr e d i c t α s a mp l e s a he a d. It i s
c a l l e d a g a p pe d p r e di c t ion o p e ra t o r an d pl a y s an e s s e n t i a l
r o l e i n t he s ur pr e s s ion o f m ul t i p l e s w h i c h f i t t h e
c o nv ol u t i o na l mo de l .
0.1
Noise free
0.08
seismogram with
water bottom
0.06
multiple
0 Noise free
seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
I t is d if fic u lt to se e t he e f fe c ts o n t h e s e is m o g r a m b u t if
y o u lo o k cl o se l y a t .4 se c o nd s be h in d a m a j o r r e f le c to r,
t hen y o u sh o u ld s e e a r eve rse p o l a r it y im a g e o f it
su p e r i m po s e d o n th e se i sm o g r a m .
A ut o c o r r ela ti o n
3
of wa v ele t
2 A u t o c o r re lat i on of
n o i se fr e e sy nt h et ic
1 p l us wa te r bo t to m
m u lt ip le
0 A u t o c o r re lat i on of
n o is e fr e e sy nt h et ic
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
B a s e d o n t he s e d is p la ys w e a r e l e a d t o s e le ct a
p r ed i c ti o n g a p o f 1 80 s a m pl e s ( . 3 6 s e co n ds ) a nd a n
o pe r a t or l e n g th o f 5 0 s a m pl e s ( a s i n s p ik in g d e c o n) .
H e r e i s t h e h e lp f il e f r o m t h e M a t la b f u n ct io n d e co n pr :
% [trout,x]= deconpr(trin,trdsign,nop,nlag,stab)
% [trout,x]= deconpr(trin,trdsign,nop,nlag)
%
Alg o rit h m:
% DECONPR performs Wiener predictive deconvolution by calling
• De sig n a ga ppe d,
% PREDICT to design a prediction filter, nop long with lag nlag
% and stab factor, using trdsign. The predicted part of trin, min im um ph as e pre dict io n
trinhat, filt er ( w it h st ab f act o r)
% then formed by convolving the prediction operator with trin, fr om t he au toco rr ela tio n of
% and trout is computed by delaying trinhat by nlag samples and tr ds ig n.
% subtracting it from trin. The prediction operator is returned • Co n vo lv e t h e p re dict io n
% in x. op era to r w ith t ri n t o f or m
% th e pre dict ab le pa rt .
% trin= input trace to be deconvolved
• Su bt ract t h e p re dica tb le
% trdsign= input trace used to design the prediction operator
par t of t rin f ro m tr in t o
% nop= number of points in the prediction operator
% nlag= prediction lag distance in samples fo rm t he ou tpu t t ra ce.
% stab= stabilazation factor expressed as a fraction of the zero
% lag of the autocorrelation.
% ************ default= .0001 ***********
%
% trout= deconvolved output trace
% x= prediction operator
%
% See also: Peacock and Treitel, Geophysics vol 34, 1968
% and the description of PREDICT
I f w e e x a m in e t he a ut o co r r ela tio n s, w e se e th a t th e
p e r io d ic ity in th e a ut o co r r e l a tio n s a t la g o f .4 se co n d s
h a s b e e n su r p r e ss e d .
4
True
3 autocorrelation
with out multiples
2 Es t imat e o f
au to c o rr ela tio n
1 w ith o ut
mu lt ipl es
0 A utocorrelation
with multiples
-1
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Max Coeff lag
Re su lts fr om us ing max corr t o com par e
With multiples 0.9358 -0.1000
with t he nois e f ree, m ult iple free
se ismogram After deconpr 0.9736 -0.1000
0.14
0.1
deconw (n 230)
0.08
de conp r (la g 1 80, n
0.06 50) followe d by
de conw ( n 50 )
0.04 Noi se fre e
se ismogram w ith
0.02
mult ipl es
0 No ise f ree
s eis mo gra m
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Autocorrelations
7
6 exact rcs
5
deconw (n 230)
4
d econp r (la g 1 80 ,
3 n 5 0) fol lowed by
d econw (n 5 0)
2 N oise fre e
se i smog ram wi th
1 mul ti pl e s
No is e f re e
0
s eis m ogr am
-1
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Max Coeff lag
Re sults from using maxcor r to compare
the t wo de cons on thi s page w ith the deconpr + deconw 0.3451 -0.3000
e xac t r c s long deconw 0.3892 -0.2000
N ot e t ha t t h e r e i s no s t a b f a c t o r i nv ol v e d ( t he a l g o r i t hm
i s al w a y s s t a b l e ) a nd t h at w e m us t c ho o s e t he l e n g t h o f a
pr e d i c t i o n e r r o r f i l t e r i n s t e ad o f t he n umb e r o f l a g s on an
a ut o c o r r e l at i on f unc t i o n. Ho w e ve r , as a r ou g h g ue s s , w e
m i g ht c o ns i d e r l t o b e s i m i l ar t o t h e n um b e r o f l a g s .
He r e i s t h e r es u l t f r om d ec o n v o lv in g o u r n oi s e fr e e
s yn t h et i c w i t h l = 5 0 . It ac h i e v e s a m a x i m u m c ro s s
c or r e la t i on o f . 4 3 5 5 at a l ag o f ze r o, c o n s id er a bl y be t t e r
t h a n t he ot her al go r it hm s .
0.1
0.08
0.04
estimated rcs
from deconb
0.02
0 noise free
synthetic
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Methods of Seismic Data Processing 4 -37
Burg (Maximum Entropy) Deconvolution
B e lo w i s t h e r es u l t fr o m d ec o n v o l v in g t h e n o is y
s ei sm ogr a m w it h t h r ee d i ff er en t p red ic t io n f il t er le n gt h s .
A l l re su l t s h a v e be en h i gh c ut fi l te re d a t 7 0 H z .
0.16
0.14
0.1
deconb l=12
0.08
0.04
deconb l=50
0.02
noisy
0
seismogram
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
S o w e s ee t h at , a t l e a s t o n t h is s y nt he t ic , t he B u r g
a lg o r it hm d o e s a n e xc e ll e n t j ob , i s v e r y s t a b le , a n d n o t
v e r y s e ns i ti v e t o t h e c h o ic e o f t he p a r am e t e r l .
-
20 Minimum phase equivalent μ=.01
-
40 Minimum phase equivalent μ=.0001
-
60 Minimum phase equivalent μ=.000001
-
80
-100
Original zero phase wavelet
-120
-140
0 5 100 15 200 250
0 Frequency0(Hz)
sweep
Time (sec)
T h e c o n v ol u t i on al m od e l s t il l f i t s t h i s so u rc e e q u a ll y we l l
a s t h e im p u l si v e so u r ce . T h a t i s , gi v e n a r ef l ec t i v i t y r ( t ) ,
w e c an si m u l at e th e ea rt h ' s r es p o n s e by c o n v ol v i n g t h e
s we e p w i t h r ( t ) :
reflectivity
sweep
c on vo l ve d
with
r e f l e c ti vi t y
O b v io u s ly , t h i s is a d i f f er en t s or t o f re c or d t h an t h e
i m p u l s iv e s ou r c e a n d i s m u c h m o r e d i f f ic u l t t o in te r p re t e
b ec au se t h e s ou rc e wa v e f or m i s s o e x t en d ed . W e n e ed a
m e t h od o f co l la p s in g t h e s ou r ce t o a c om p a c t p u l se .
T h a t t u r n s o u t t o b e t h e c ro ss c or re la t io n m et h o d .
M o st o f t h e se t e rm s we re d e f i n ed a l r ea d y i n o u r
d i s c u s si on o f t h e c on v ol u t i on a l m od e l . W e r e p e at t h e
d e f i n it i on s h e re :
the uncorrelated vibroseis record
the vibroseis sweep
near s ur fa c e e ff ec ts a n d v ib rator d i st o rt io n
a convolutional approximati o n t o Q ef fec t s
the subset of all multiples which are convolutional
the desired reflectivity
zero mean, white noise
Now we cross correlate with the sweep and rewrite the model as:
where
is the correlated vibroseis record
R o u gh ly s p ea ki n g , t h i s s ay s t h a t we c an u s e t h e
c on v o lu ti o n al m o d el fo r co rr e la t ed v ib r os e is d a t a i f w e
r eg ar d t h e s ou r c e w av e f or m a s t h e a u t o c or re l at i on o f
t h e s we e p . T h is is o f t en c al l ed t h e K l au d e r wa v el e t .
0.05
-0.05
-0.1
30 Hz minimum
phase pulse
wm t
-0.15
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.5
0.4 wm t • r t
0.3
0.2 wv t • r t
0.1
0 rt
-0.1
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
D e co n v ol u t i on o f t h e v i br os e i s s yn t h e t ic p r es e n t s a
s p e ci a l p r ob le m si n c e w e c an n o t a ss u m e t h e wa v el e t i s
m i n i m u m p h as e. M o st a p p ro ac h e s to t h i s p ro bl e m i n v ol v e
a t t e m p t i n g t o m o d i f y t h e t h e c or re l at ed v i br os e is r ec o rd
s o th a t i t s e m be d d e d wa v el e t i s m or e n e ar ly m i n i m u m
p h a se . A n i m med i at e p ro bl e m a ri s es be c au s e a m i n i m u m
p h a se wa v ef o rm c an no t be ba n d l im it e d y e t t h e v i b ro se i s
w av e le t i s e x p l i ci t l y ba n d l im it e d . T h is m e an s t h at A L L
m e t h od s wh i c h a t t em pt t o p r ec on d it i o n t h e e m b ed ded
v i br os e is wa v ef o rm m u s t em p lo y a wh it e n o i se o r " st a b"
f ac t or t o e x te n d t h e sp ec t r u m . I t i s u s u a ll y go od
p r oc t i c e t o e n s u re t h at t h i s f ac t or i s t h e sa m e a s t h a t
u s ed l at e r i n t h e d ec on a l g or it h m.
G i v e n t h i s, a n d a s su m in g t h at t h e e m be d d e d w av e le t i s
t h e K la u d er w av e le t , i t i s a s t ra i g h t f or wa rd ex e rc i s e in
s i gn a l p ro ce s s in g t o d es i g n a c o n v er s io n o p er at or w h i ch
c on v e r ts th e Kl au der w av e le t t o i t s m i n i m u m p h as e
e q u i v al en t :
0.05
-60
0
-0.05 -80
Spectrum
-0.1
of Klauder
minimum phase equivalent -100
-0.15 wavelet
of Klauder wavelet
-0.2 -120
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency
(Hz)
0 r eflectivity
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.45
A Decon of 30 Hz min phs and
0.4 min phs Klauder wavlets
convolved with reflectivity
0.35
Deco n o f 30 Hz min phs an d
0.3 B Kla ud er wav let s co nv olv ed
wit h ref lectiv it y
0.25
De con of 30 Hz min
0.2 C p hs wa vle t convolve d
wi th r ef le ctivi ty
0.15
D Decon of Klauder
0.1 convolved with
0.05
reflectivity
0
E Klauder convolved
with reflectivity
-0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Max corr Lag
W e c an s ee t h at t h e m in im u m p h as i n g o f A 0.3795 0.8000
t h e v i br os e i s re c or d p ro d u c es a b e t te r
0.3712 -2.3000
d e c on b u t it a p p e ars t h e re s u l t h a s a 9 0 B
d e gr e e p h a s e r ot at i on . I n f ac t t h i s is t h e C 0.4978 -0.1000
c as e : -0.4138 -9.1000
0.15 D
-90° rotation of A
0.1
0.05
E
0
-0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
4-46 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Deconvolution Pitfalls
T h e assumption s behind deconvolution t h e or y h e l p u s t o
u nde rs t a n d i t s b as i s an d , sometimes , t o anticipa t e p r ob lem s
b e f or e t h e y a ri s e . H e re w e w i l l examine s o m e c o m mon
deconvolution "pitfalls".
Mixed-wavetypes in the design gate.
T h e m o st c o mm o n e x a mp le h e r e is th e Surface
waveform
o cc ur an ce o f a su r f ac e w av e o r si mi la r
co h e r e n t n o ise t r a in i n t he d e si g n g a t e .
T h e s im ul a te d su r fa ce w a v e b e g i ns a t . 2 Reflection
waveform
se c o nd s. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.3
Contaminated
0.25 -10 with surface
wave
0.2
-20
0.15 Contaminated
with surface -30
0.1
wave
-40
0.05
Simple S imple
0 -50
synthetic synthetic
-0.05
-60
-0.1 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Frequency
(Hz)
Deconvolution Results
Contaminated
with surface
wave
S imple
synthetic
RCs
Deconvolution Results
Contaminated
with surface
wave
Simple
synthetic
RCs
S o we s e e t h at t he pr e s e n c e o f t h e s ur fac e wa ve ha s
c a us e d a g r e a t de a l o f ph as e d i s t o r t i o n e v e n qu i t e f a r
f r o m t he on s e t of t h e w a ve . S i n c e t he p ha s e c or r e c ti on s
ap pl i e d b y m i ni m um p ha s e d e c o nvo l u t i o n ar e de d uc e d
f r o m a s mo o t he d r e p re s e n t a t i o n of t h e a mp l i t ud e
s pe ct r um , t he pr e s e n c e of t h e s ur f a c e w av e p e ak i n t h e
am p l i t ud e s pe c tru m c a u s e s e rr o ne o us p ha s e s t o b e
c o mp ut e d .
W e w il l s a y t h a t s ei sm i c d a t a i s in t h e " m i ni m u m p h a se
s ta t e " i f t h ere is a s in g le e m be dd e d w a v el et a nd t h a t
w ave le t i s m i n im u m p h a se . I f d a t a is in t he m in i m u m
p h a s e st a t e, t h en a ny f il te ri n g sh o u l d be m i n im u m p h a se
t o t ry t o p r es erv e t h a t st a t e. I f n o t , z er o p h a s e fi lt er in g
m i gh t a ct u a l ly be pr ef er red i f it c a n be a rg u ed t o m o v e
t h e d a t a t o wa rd s t he m i ni m u m p h a se s ta t e .
T he s u r fa ce w a v e s y nt he t ic w h ic h w e p r e se nt e d e a r li e r
i s n o t i n t he m i ni m um p ha s e s ta t e b e ca u s e i t c o n ta in s
t w o e m b e d de d w a ve le t s : t he m in im u m p h as e r e fl e c ti o n
w a ve le t a n d t he n o n -m in im um p h as e s u r f ac e w a v e fo r m .
T he r ef o r e , m in im um p ha s e f i l te r in g before
d e co nv o lu t io n m ig h t n o t b e a p p r op r ia te . I n f a ct , a z e r o
p ha s e f il t e r d e si g n e d t o k no ck d o w n t h e s u r fa ce w a v e
p e ak s h o ul d m o ve t h e d at a t o w ar d s t he m in i mu m p h as e
s t at e . T h e e xa m pl e o n t he n e x t p ag e s h o w s t h at t hi s i s
th e ca s e .
Deconvolved minimum
0.1 phase synthetic
0 RCs
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-20
-30
-40
Uncontaminated spectrum
-50
-60
-80
-90
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency (Hz)
T y p ic a ll y t h e d e c o nv ol ut i o n o p e r a to r i s d e si g ne d o ve r a
s u b s et o f t h e t r ac e c ho s e n f o r i t s h i g h s ig n al t o n o is e
r a t io . C o n s id e r a ti o n s :
1 80 m il o per ato r
0.4
d es igne d o ver .2 to .4
s eco n ds
0 RCs
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-40
-60 noiseless
data
-80 spectrum
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
0.2
noisy
0.1
seismogram
0
noiseless
seismogram
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Deconvoled noisey
0.3
seismogram, filtered
back to 60 Hz.
Deconvoled
0.1
noiseless
seismogram
0 RCs
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
I t i s o f te n a s s u m e d t h at d e c on v o lu t i o n i s s om e t h i n g t h a t
n e ed s d oi n g o n c e a n d i s t h e n b e st f or go t te n . T h i s
a t t i t u d e u su a l ly le ad s t o u n der wh i t e n e d d at a w it h
r es i d u al p h as e ro t at i on s . S i n c e t h e a s s u m p t i on s o f
d e c on v o lu t i on a re n e v er p r ec i s el y m e t, i t i s o f t en u s e f u l
t o a p p l y s ev e r al d i ff e re n t d e c on s f or d i f fe r en t p u r p o se s .
F o r e x am ple , we m ay u se p r ed i c t i v e d e c on t o a t t ac k a
m u l t i p l e a n d t h e n s p i k in g d ec on v ol u t io n t o s h ar p en
r es ol u t i on .
M or e i m p or t an t l y, d ec on v ol u t io n a l g or i th m s c an n o t
d i s t in g u i s h b e tw e en s ig n al a n d n oi s e. T h u s w e m u s t t h in k
o f t h e m a s wh i t e n in g t h e s p e ct r u m o f si g n al p l u s n o is e .
I f d e co n v ol u t i on i s t h e n fo l lo we d b y a n y p r oc e s s w h i ch
c an r ej e c t n oi s e w h i le re t ai n i n g s i g n al , t h e re s u l ti n g d at a
w il l h a v e a n o n - w h it e , l ow e r r e so l u t io n , s p e ct r u m . T h e
m o st c om m o n e x am p le o f t h i s i s C M P s t ac ki n g . T h us i t i s
o f t e n n e ce s s ary t o r u n a p o s t - st a c k d e c on v ol u t i on o r
w h it e n i n g s t e p t o e n su re m ax i m u m r e so lu ti o n . I f p o s t-
s t ac k m in i m u m p h as e d ec o n v ol u t i on i s d es i r ed , c ar e
s h ou l d b e t ak en t o en s u r e t h at z er o- p ha s e f i lt e r in g wa s
n ot d on e a f t er t h e p re - s t ac k d e c on v o lu t i on .
0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)
-10
Anti-alias filter rolloff
-20
-30
Low fr e que ncy de ca y i s ty pi ca l we ll l og
-40 beha vi er a nd indic a tes consi de r abl e
spe ct ra l col or .
-50
-60
0 50 100 150 200 250
Frequency (Hz)
0.25
0.2 A
0.15
0.1 B
0.05
0 C
-0.05
-0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)
4-56 The Convolutional Model and Deconvolution
Reflectivity Color
A: Reflectivity estimate from normal Weiner decon
B: A convolved with a zero phase color restoration operator
C: A convolved with a minimum phase color restoration operator
D: Original well log at 2 ms sample rate
N u m b ers gi ve ( M a x im u m co r re la t io n c o ef f, l a g a t m a x
{ s a m p l es} ) f o r t h e c o rr el a ti o n be tw ee n a n e st im a t e a n d
t h e a n sw e r g iv e n in D
0.35
0.3
A
(.8037,-.2)
0.25
0.2 B
(.8470,-.2)
0.15
0.1
C
(.8816,-1.8)
0.05
0 D
-0.05
-0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0.14 wavelet
0.12 Q=25
0.1 Q=50
0.08 Q=100
0.06 Q=150
0.04 Q=200
0.02 stationary
0 RC's
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
T h e e ff e c t o f Q a t t e n u at i on c an b e s e en t o h a v e a t l ea s t
t h r ee c h ar ac t e ri s t ic s : a p r og r es s iv e l os s o f f r eq u e n c y
c on t e n t w i t h i n c r ea s i n g t i m e , a p ro g re ss i v e l os s o f
o v e r al l a m p l i t u d e , a n d a p r og r es s iv e t i m e d e l ay . T h e
c on s t r u c ti o n o f o n e o f t h e se s yn t h e t i cs i s d et a il e d o n
t h e n e x t p a ge .
input time
RCs in Q= 25
Q Matrix
time seismogram
E a c h c ol u mn o f t h e Q m a t r i x c o nt a i ns t h e Q = 2 5 i m pu l s e
r e s p o ns e f o r t he i np ut t i me o f t he c o l u mn c on vo l ve d w i t h
t he 3 0 Hz m i ni m um pha s e s o ur ce wa ve f o r m . If w e F o ur i e r
t r an s f o rm e a c h c o l um n, w e c a n s e e d i r e c t l y t he Q
a m pl i t u de a nd p ha s e r e s po ns e :
T h e f i rs t s t ep in d ec o n v ol v i n g t he Q s yn th et i c s is t o
d e t er m i n e e x p on e n t i al g ai n c o rr ec t i on s a n d a p p l y t h e m .
T h e re s u lt i s:
0.14
0.02 stationary
0 RC's
-
0.02 0 0. 0.4 0.6 0. 1 1.2
2 8
T h e s e g a i n f ac tor s w er e de t e r m i ne d e m pi r i c a l l y a s i s
s t an da r d p r ac t i c e . I t a pp e ar s t ha t Q =2 5 m ay b e a b i t
u nd e r g a i ne d .
0 R C's
-0.02
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
I t 's c lea r f ro m t h is e xa m p l e t h a t t h e d ec o n v o l ut i o n re su l t
d eg ra d e s s te a d il y w it h d ec re a si n g Q . Kee p in m i n d t ha t
t h is i s a " be st ca s e" sc en a r io : no n o i se , n o m u lt ip l es ,
m i ni m u m p h a s e so u r ce , a n d w h it e re fl ec ti v it y . A l s o , ev en
t h e Q= 2 5 c a se i s n o t a n u n rea s o n a b le a t t en u a ti o n le ve l
be ca us e t he m a x i m u m t im e i n t h e sy n t h et ic is o n l y 1
s ec o n d . S i n ce t/ Q d et er m in e s t h e a c tu a l a t te n ua t i o n ,
1 / 2 5 is t he s a m e a s 2 / 5 0 o r 3/ 75 .
How are midpoint and offset defined in terms of source and receiver coordinate?
Illustrate with a diagram.
The near surface is generally assumed to cause effects which are a function of what
coordinates?
The subsurface effects are often assumed to be a function of what coordinates?
How is a static delay defined? What physical effect is often used to justify the
assumption of static delays in the near surface?
What is the definition of source static? Receiver static?
What is meant by the term "datum"? How does its choice effect the statics application?
What datum is most appropriate for pre stack processing?
What are surface consistent methods? Why are they useful? List some examples of
common surface consistent applications?
What are residual statics? How are they computed? What is their purpose? What
processes should be run on seismic data prior to attempting a residual statics solution?
What is velocity analysis? How is it performed? What processes should be run on
seismic data prior to attempting a velocity analysis?
Do statics and moveout removal commute? That is, do you get the same result regardless
of the order of the processes? If not what is the preferred order?
In the extension of nmo and dip to v(z), what quantity must be measured in addition to
stacking velocity in order to allow the computation of apparent dip and the "dip
correction" of stacking velocities?
What can be said about the staking velocities of multiples? Where will they be found on
a stacking velocity analysis chart?
After stacking, the power of random noise can be expected to be reduced by what factor?
Considered as an "f-k" process, stacking can be said to pass what portion of the offset
wavenumber spectrum?
Are "f-k" filters applied to cmp gathers likely to improve a stack? What if they are
applied to shot or receiver gathers?
What is a zero offset section? How does is serve as a model for a stack?
What is the relation between traveltime gradient measured on a stack and the normal
incidence ray parameter?
What information is needed for the raytrace migration of a normal incidence
seismogram?
What is Kirchoff migration? What is the shape of the Kirchoff migration operator
(constant velocity) when applied post stack? Pre stack?
Describe a general method to determine the shape of the Kirchoff migration operator.
Your method must be valid for any (x,y,z) location, any velocity, and pre or post stack.
What is pre stack time migration? When is it a valid process? Should it be inferior, the
same, or superior to stacking and post stack time migration?
What is DMO? Describe a flow using DMO that should give similar results to pre stack
time migration. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the DMO approach? Under
what circumstance is DMO->stack->migration exactly the same as pre stack migration?
What kind of velocities should be input to the NMO removal step in a flow involving
DMO? How can these velocities be obtained?
Describe, without equations, the essential steps in CSP migration? How does CSP
analysis effect velocity resolution?
What is wavelet processing? What are the essential steps in wavelet processing? When
should it be done in a processing flow? When is it necessary? What are two common
methods of wavelet estimation?
What is impedance inversion? When should it be run in a processing sequence? How can
the convolutional model (from deconvolution theory) be used to justify impedance
inversion? What is the major computation involved in impedance inversion? Describe at
least two common problems with impedance inversions that are difficult to solve.
What is the expected behavior of the amplitude spectrum of the radiated waves from a
dynamite sources as a function of charge size?
Explain how Q effects necessarily lead to a time variant (i.e. non-stationary) signal
bandwidth. What is the relationship between spectral width and wavelet width?
What is a "corner frequency"? When can it be observed? What does it mean?
For a constant velocity earth, what are the equations which express the limits of
observable scattering angle due to aperture, record length, and spatial aliasing? Make a
sketch of their basic form.
Staring from the theory of f-k migration, derive an expression for the maximum kx after
migration as a function of frequency, velocity, and scattering angle. Explain the
relevance of this to the problem of resolving small horizontal features? What steps can be
taken in recording or processing to increase horizontal resolution?
There are a total of 100 marks (points) for the examination. You have about 100
minutes for the exam.
Write all work directly on the examination sheets. If you need more room, you
may attach a work sheet with your name and the question number on it. PLEASE
HAND IN THE EXAMINATION SHEET AND ALL WORK SHEETS WITH
YOUR ANSWERS.
INSTRUCTIONS: For each question, there are two best (most correct) responses.
Choosing both correct responses and no incorrect ones is worth two points. One
correct and one incorrect is worth one point, and any other result (including more
than two selections) is worth zero. Write your answers in the space provided below
each question.
answer _________
answer _________
answer _________
answer _________
1) Deconvolution
Suppose a dynamite dataset has mistakenly had a zero phase bandpass filter
applied before deconvolution. Assuming that the original data was noise free,
with a minimum phase wavelet and a white reflectivity:
a) Write a time domain convolutional expression for a single trace after the bandpass filter was
applied but before deconvolution. Then rewrite this expression in the frequency domain.