Reddy 2016

P.
Parvatha Reddy
Sustainable
Crop Protection
under Protected
Cultivation
Sustainable Crop Protection under
Protected Cultivation
P. Parvatha Reddy
Sustainable Crop
Protection under
P. Parvatha Reddy
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
ISBN 978-981-287-950-9 ISBN 978-981-287-952-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957262
Springer Singapore Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. is part of Springer Science+Business

Media (www.springer.com)
Foreword
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

KRISHI ANUSANDHAN BHAWAN-II
PUSA, NEW DELLHI-110 012
Dr. N. K. Krishna Kumar
DEPUTY DIRECTOR GENERAL (HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE) June 10, 2015
Indian agriculture is passing through transition in this century under the influ-
ence of globalized trade and liberalization of Indian economy during early
1990s. Horticulture in particular has attained a pride place contributing
28.65 % to GDP from merely 8.5 % of area and has a high potential for
further value addition and foreign exchange. In view of the competitive world
environment in the context of the WTO agreement, renewed concentration on
productivity, quality, and value addition has become imperative. To keep pace
with the growing population, we need to increase horticulture production to
540 million tons by 2050 from the current level of 277.35 million tons (NHB
2014). The prospect of enhancing horticultural production by increasing area
is limited. Thus, it becomes absolutely essential to increase the productivity.
Adoption of modern technologies in horticulture (protected cultivation,
micro-irrigation, fertigation, micro-propagation, high-tech postharvest man-
agement including cold chain, etc.) has become essential to enhance produc-
tivity. Protected cultivation has a tremendous potential to increase productivity,
especially under peri-urban horticulture.
Reducing the cost of production, a cropping pattern to minimize pest dam-
age and reduced application of pesticides will significantly contribute to sus-
tainable production, profitability, and food safety of vegetables produced in
protected structures. The concept of sustainability should address holistically
economic sustainability, soil health, and food safety.
In this context, the book on Sustainable Crop Protection Under Protected
Cultivation by Dr. P. Parvatha Reddy provides valuable information. Such a
v
vi Foreword
commendable work comprehensively deals with important basic and applied

aspects on integrated pest management in greenhouse crops using eco-
friendly components.
I am sure that the book will be of immense value to policy makers and the
scientific community involved in teaching, research, and extension activities
on protected horticulture. It would also be useful for teaching at postgraduate
level as well as for growers engaged in greenhouse cultivation in the
country.
(N.K. Krishna Kumar)

Preface
The prospects of increasing production of horticultural crops by increasing

land under cultivation are very much limited. The average productivity of
most horticultural crops in India is low. There is a wide gap between yields
obtained and potential yields with improved varieties and technologies. The
productivity enhancing technologies include the use of high-yielding variet-
ies/F1 hybrids, high-density planting, integrated nutrient and pest manage-
ment, micro-irrigation and fertigation, use of bioregulators, genetically
modified crops, and protected cultivation. Among the productivity enhancing
technologies, protected cultivation has a tremendous potential to increase the
yield of vegetables and flower crops by several-folds. Hence, it is essential to
increase productivity of horticultural crops through protected cultivation in
order to meet the future demand and fulfillment of commitment to the sus-
tainable horticultural development.
High-tech production of high-value horticultural crops under protected
conditions adopting modern technology is the recent development in this
field. Greenhouse crop production is now a growing reality throughout the
world with an estimated 405,000 ha of greenhouses spread over in more than
55 countries in the world where cultivation of crops is undertaken on a com-
mercial scale under cover and it is continuously growing at a fast rate
internationally.
Tomato, capsicum, cucumber, lettuce, rose, carnation, gerbera, orchids,
and anthuriums are the most extensively grown vegetable and ornamental
crops under greenhouses to achieve higher returns. The purpose of growing
crops under greenhouse conditions is to extend their cropping season and to
protect them from adverse environmental conditions, such as extreme tem-
peratures and precipitation, and from diseases and pests. Quality is a high
priority for greenhouse crops, requiring much care in pest and disease man-
agement, not only to secure yields but also to obtain a high cosmetic standard.
Historically, not enough attention has been paid to exploiting and amending
production technology for the control of pests and diseases. This makes the
control of pests and diseases in protected crops even more challenging, with
many important problems being unresolved and new ones arising as the
industry undergoes more changes in production systems.
Pests and diseases are one of the major challenges to protected cultivation
(glasshouses and plastic houses and tunnels). Year-round warm temperatures
and relatively high humidity and abundant food make the protected environ-
ment of greenhouses highly favorable to pests and diseases. While much is
vii
viii Preface
known about disease epidemiology and insect behavior, scant attention, how-
ever, has been paid to the manipulation of greenhouse environments expressly
to avoid disease epidemics and insect infestations, which together can easily
account for 30 % crop losses. This is a significant factor in a grower’s balance
sheet which is often overlooked and usually dealt with simplistically by indis-
criminate pesticide applications. Hence, integrated management must be
incorporated into the present production systems, and appropriate research
and experimentation programs must be developed in order to generate a pest
and disease control technology adapted to the ecological conditions and pre-
dominant species.
The information on pest and disease management under protected cultiva-
tion of horticultural crops is very much scattered. There is no book at present
which comprehensively and exclusively deals with the above aspects. This
book deals with pests (insect and mite) and diseases (fungal, bacterial, viral,
and nematode) in protected horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, and orna-
mentals) in detail using physical, cultural, chemical, biological, host resis-
tance, and integrated methods. This book is divided into 35 chapters which
comprehensively cover all the aspects of pest management in horticultural
crops in greenhouse.
The book opens with initial chapters describing the scenario where inte-
grated pest and disease control operates, that is, the greenhouse and its envi-
ronment. Ensuing chapters provide the basic strategies and tactics of different
control methods including integrated control, with special reference to green-
house crops. Further chapters include the different facets of biological pest
and disease control – its scientific bases, its development in practice, and its
commercialization and quality control. The preeminence of biological con-
trol in the book is not surprising since without doubt it is the cornerstone of
integrated insect pest control and is also becoming increasingly more impor-
tant in disease control. The concluding chapters of the book show us the pres-
ent situation of integrated pest and disease control in the most important
greenhouse crops (fruits, vegetables, and flower crops) worldwide. The final
chapter deals with the future challenges assigned to researchers to identify
non-pesticide methods and integrate sustainable pest management technolo-
gies that can contribute to increased productivity, such as breeding for dura-
ble resistance, biological control, and cultural methods, and which will have
minimal adverse environmental and social impacts.
This is a reference book which attempts to provide postgraduate and pro-
fessional readers already familiar with the subject with a means to acquire
deeper knowledge on integrated control of pests and diseases in greenhouse
crops and furthermore suggest possible roads to take in future tasks. Another
decisive stimulant for this endeavor was the realization of the growing need
to incorporate integrated systems of protection from arthropod pests and dis-
eases for the thousands of hectares of protected crops in the world. The fruit,
vegetable, and ornamental plant markets and the technical and economic effi-
ciency of crop protection require these integrated control systems. The book
adopts multidisciplinary approach (involving entomology, plant pathology,
nematology, and horticulture) in addressing both basic and applied aspects of
integrated pest management in greenhouse crops.
Preface ix
This book will be of immense value to the scientific community as a whole

involved in teaching, research, and extension activities. The material can also
be used for teaching postgraduate courses. The book can serve as a very use-
ful reference for policy makers and practicing farmers. Suggestions to
improve the contents of the book are most welcome (e-mail: reddy_par-
vatha@yahoo.com). The publisher, Springer (India) Pvt Ltd, New Delhi,
deserves commendation for their professional contribution.
Bangalore, India P. Parvatha Reddy

June 25, 2015
Contents
1 Protected Cultivation .................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 1
1.2 Protected Cultivation .......................................................... 2
1.2.1 Need for Protected Cultivation ........................... 3
1.2.2 Advantages and Limitations ............................... 4
1.2.3 Increase in Productivity ...................................... 4
1.3 Present Status ..................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Global Scenario .................................................. 5
1.3.2 Indian Scenario ................................................... 5
1.4 Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops ..................... 6
1.4.1 Flower Crops ...................................................... 6
1.4.2 Vegetable Crops .................................................. 7
1.5 Conclusions ........................................................................ 10
References ....................................................................................... 11
2 Greenhouse Technology ................................................................ 13
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 13
2.2 Agroclimate ........................................................................ 14
2.2.1 Sunlight .............................................................. 14
2.2.2 Temperature ........................................................ 15
2.2.3 Relative Humidity .............................................. 15
2.2.4 Carbon Dioxide Enrichment............................... 15
2.2.5 Soil ..................................................................... 15
2.3 Types of Glazing Materials ................................................ 15
2.3.1 Glass ................................................................... 15
2.3.2 Polyethylene ....................................................... 16
2.3.3 Fiberglass-Reinforced Panel (FRP) .................... 16
2.3.4 Polycarbonate Panels .......................................... 16
2.4 Types of Greenhouses ........................................................ 16
2.4.1 Glasshouse .......................................................... 16
2.4.2 Polyhouse ........................................................... 16
2.4.3 Trench (Underground Greenhouse) .................... 17
2.4.4 Plastic Low Tunnel ............................................. 18
2.4.5 Double-Wall Polyench ....................................... 18
2.4.6 Multipurpose Nets .............................................. 19
xi
xii Contents
2.5 Greenhouse Environmental Control ................................... 19

2.5.1 Ventilation .......................................................... 19
2.5.2 Cooling Systems ................................................. 20
2.5.3 Humidity Control ............................................... 21
2.5.4 Greenhouse Heating ........................................... 21
2.6 Future Thrusts .................................................................... 21
References ....................................................................................... 22
3 Crop Protection ............................................................................. 23
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 23
3.2 Location and Orientation of Greenhouse ........................... 25
3.3 Structures and Equipment .................................................. 25
3.3.1 Greenhouse Design............................................. 26
3.3.2 Cladding Material/Covers .................................. 26
3.3.3 Heating Systems ................................................. 27
3.3.4 Misting Systems ................................................. 27
3.3.5 Ventilation Systems ............................................ 27
3.3.6 Thermal/Shade Curtains ..................................... 27
3.3.7 Insect Screening ................................................. 28
3.3.8 Whitefly Exclusion ............................................. 29
3.3.9 Thrips Exclusion ................................................ 29
3.3.10 Operation and Maintenance of Equipment......... 29
3.3.11 Worker Education ............................................... 30
3.4 Factors Favorable to Pest and Disease Development ......... 30
3.5 Managing Crop Pests and Diseases.................................... 31
3.5.1 Sanitation ............................................................ 31
3.5.2 Crop Scheduling ................................................. 31
3.5.3 Spacing ............................................................... 31
3.5.4 Growing Medium ............................................... 31
3.5.5 Nutrition ............................................................. 32
3.5.6 Pruning and Training .......................................... 32
3.5.7 Fruit Load ........................................................... 33
3.5.8 Managing Pesticides ........................................... 33
3.6 Managing the Crop Environment ....................................... 33
3.6.1 Temperature ........................................................ 33
3.6.2 Humidity............................................................. 34
3.6.3 Water Stress ........................................................ 35
3.6.4 Light ................................................................... 35
3.6.5 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen .............................. 36
3.6.6 Air Movement .................................................... 36
3.6.7 Integration of Environmental Factors ................. 36
3.6.8 Environments for Microbial Controls ................ 38
3.7 Cultural Techniques............................................................ 39
3.8 Factors Stimulating Sustainable Crop Protection .............. 40
3.8.1 Consumer Concern about Chemical Residues ... 40
3.8.2 Pesticide Resistance in Pests and Pathogens ...... 41
3.8.3 Side Effects of Chemical Application ................ 41
3.8.4 Efficacy ............................................................... 41
3.9 Conclusions ........................................................................ 42
References ....................................................................................... 43
Contents xiii
4 Disinfestation of Soil and Growth Media for Management

of Soilborne Diseases..................................................................... 47
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 47
4.2 Methods of Soil Disinfestation........................................... 48
4.2.1 Steaming ............................................................. 48
4.2.2 Soil Fumigation .................................................. 49
4.2.3 Soil Solarization (SSOL) .................................... 51
4.3 Combining Disinfestation Methods ................................... 55
4.3.1 SSOL and Reduced Rate of Pesticides ............... 56
4.3.2 SSOL and Organic Amendments ....................... 56
4.3.3 SSOL and Bioagents .......................................... 57
4.4 Limitations ......................................................................... 57
4.5 Difficulties in Soil Disinfection ......................................... 57
4.6 Future Thrusts .................................................................... 57
4.6.1 Economics .......................................................... 57
4.6.2 Development in Plastic Technology ................... 58
References ....................................................................................... 58
5 Biological Control of Plant Pathogens ........................................ 61
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 61
5.2 Biocontrol in Greenhouses ................................................. 62
5.2.1 Suitability of Biological Control
for Greenhouses.................................................. 62
5.3 Products Registered for Biological Control ....................... 62
5.3.1 Coniothyrium minitans ....................................... 63
5.3.2 Gliocladium virens (Trichoderma virens) .......... 63
5.3.3 Trichoderma harzianum ..................................... 63
5.3.4 Streptomyces griseoviridis.................................. 63
5.3.5 Gliocladium catenulatum ................................... 63
5.3.6 Nonpathogenic Fusarium oxysporum ................ 63
5.3.7 Bacillus subtilis var. amyloliquefaciens ............. 63
5.3.8 Opticure .............................................................. 64
5.4 Biological Control of Greenhouse Diseases ...................... 64
5.4.1 Ecology of Biocontrol Agents ............................ 64
5.4.2 Interactions between Plants
and Rhizobacteria ............................................... 65
5.4.3 The Rhizosphere Microbiome ............................ 67
5.4.4 The Root Microbiome to the Rescue.................. 67
5.4.5 Limitations with the Use of Biocontrol .............. 68
5.4.6 Biocontrol of Foliar Plant Pathogens ................. 68
5.5 Future Prospects ................................................................. 69
Reference ........................................................................................ 69
6 Compost in Disease Management ................................................ 71
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 71
6.2 Disease Management ......................................................... 73
6.2.1 Pythium Root Rot ............................................... 75
6.2.2 Chili Wilt ............................................................ 75
6.2.3 Ashy Stem Blight and Root Rot ......................... 75
xiv Contents
6.3 Nematode Management ..................................................... 77

6.4 Mortality Composting ........................................................ 77
6.5 How Compost Works ......................................................... 77
6.6 Enrichment of Compost with Biopesticides
(Tailored Compost) ............................................................ 79
6.7 Determining and Monitoring Compost Quality ................. 79
6.8 Commercial Products ......................................................... 79
6.9 Conclusions ........................................................................ 80
References ....................................................................................... 80
7 Grafted Vegetables for Management of Soilborne
Pathogens ....................................................................................... 83
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 83
7.2 Objectives of Grafting Vegetables ...................................... 84
7.3 Cultivation Statistics for Selected Vegetables
and Grafted Seedlings ........................................................ 84
7.4 Grafting Methods ............................................................... 84
7.5 Grafting for Management of Soilborne Pathogens ............ 86
7.5.1 Soilborne Fungal Diseases ................................. 88
7.5.2 Other Fungal Diseases ........................................ 88
7.5.3 Soilborne Bacterial Diseases .............................. 90
7.5.4 Viral Diseases ..................................................... 92
7.5.5 Root-Knot Nematodes ........................................ 92
7.6 Problems Commonly Associated with Grafted Plants ....... 92
7.7 Grafting-Conferred Defense Mechanisms ......................... 93
7.7.1 Using Nonhost Resistance .................................. 93
7.7.2 Developing Transgenic Rootstocks .................... 93
7.7.3 Shift in Rhizosphere Microbial Diversity
as a Result of Grafting ........................................ 94
7.7.4 Vigorous Root Systems of Grafted Vegetables
to Plant Defense.................................................. 94
7.7.5 Nutrient Uptake in Relation to Disease
Development....................................................... 94
7.7.6 Grafting-Induced Systemic Defense .................. 94
7.8 Conclusions ........................................................................ 95
References ....................................................................................... 95
8 Biorational Pest Management ...................................................... 99
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 99
8.2 Biorational Insect Control Products ................................... 100
8.2.1 Botanicals ........................................................... 100
8.2.2 Minerals .............................................................. 103
8.2.3 Synthetics ........................................................... 104
8.2.4 Hot Pepper Wax and Garlic Extract ................... 105
8.2.5 Minimum Risk Pesticides................................... 106
8.3 Biorational Disease Control Products ................................ 106
References ....................................................................................... 108
9 Drip Chemigation for Insect Pest Management ......................... 109
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 109
Contents xv
9.2 History of Drip Chemigation ............................................. 110

9.3 Why Drip Chemigation? .................................................... 111
9.3.1 Advantages ......................................................... 111
9.3.2 Disadvantages ..................................................... 112
9.4 Effectiveness of Insectigation ............................................ 113
9.5 Selection of Chemicals....................................................... 114
9.6 Chemigation System .......................................................... 114
9.7 Considerations for Drip Chemigation
with Insecticides in Vegetable Crops.................................. 116
9.7.1 Crop Growth Stages and Root Types ................. 116
9.7.2 Soil Properties .................................................... 117
9.7.3 Physiochemical Properties of the Pesticide ........ 117
9.7.4 Type of Drip/Trickle Irrigation System .............. 117
9.8 Conclusions ........................................................................ 117
References ....................................................................................... 118
10 Selective Pesticides in IPM ........................................................... 121
10.1 Importance of Selective Pesticides in IPM Programs ........ 121
10.2 Effects of Chemical Pesticides on Beneficial
Organisms........................................................................... 122
10.2.1 Effect on Beneficial Predators ............................ 123
10.2.2 Effects on Beneficial Parasitoids ........................ 123
10.2.3 Entomopathogens ............................................... 124
10.2.4 Sublethal Effects on Natural Enemies ................ 124
10.3 Influence of Pesticide Application
on the Selectivity of a Pesticide ......................................... 124
10.4 Pesticide Resistance and Anti-resistance
Strategies in IPM ................................................................ 126
10.5 Future Prospects and Conclusions ..................................... 127
References ....................................................................................... 129
11 Plant Diseases and Their Management ....................................... 133
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 133
11.1.1 Factors Favorable to Disease Development........ 134
11.1.2 Problems in Protected Cultivation ...................... 134
11.2 Diseases .............................................................................. 134
11.2.1 Fungal Diseases .................................................. 134
11.2.2 Bacterial Diseases............................................... 134
11.2.3 Viral Diseases ..................................................... 135
11.3 Disease Management Strategy ........................................... 135
11.3.1 The Root Environment ....................................... 136
11.3.2 The Aerial Environment ..................................... 137
References ....................................................................................... 141
12 Fungal Diseases and Their Management .................................... 143
12.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 143
12.2 Damping-Off, Crown and Root Rots ................................. 144
12.2.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 144
12.2.2 Management ....................................................... 145
12.2.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 145
xvi Contents
12.3 Wilts ................................................................................... 145

12.3.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 145
12.3.2 Management ....................................................... 146
12.3.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 146
12.4 Powdery Mildews ............................................................... 146
12.4.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 146
12.4.2 Management ....................................................... 147
12.4.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 147
12.5 Downy Mildews ................................................................. 147
12.5.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 147
12.5.2 Management ....................................................... 148
12.5.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 148
12.6 Botrytis Diseases ................................................................ 149
12.6.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 149
12.6.2 Management ....................................................... 149
12.6.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 150
12.7 Sclerotinia Rot, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor ........... 150
12.7.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 150
12.7.2 Management ....................................................... 150
12.7.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 150
12.8 Alternaria Diseases ............................................................ 151
12.8.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 151
12.8.2 Management ....................................................... 151
12.9 Didymella Diseases ............................................................ 151
12.9.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 151
12.9.2 Management ....................................................... 151
12.10 Rust Diseases ..................................................................... 152
12.10.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 152
12.10.2 Management ....................................................... 152
12.10.3 Main Fungicides ................................................. 152
References ....................................................................................... 152
13 Bacterial Diseases and Their Management ................................ 153
13.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 153
13.2 Bacterial Leaf Spot, Xanthomonas campestris
pv. vesicatoria .................................................................... 154
13.2.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 154
13.2.2 Survival and Spread ............................................ 154
13.2.3 Management ....................................................... 154
13.3 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia solanacearum ............................ 154
13.3.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 155
13.3.2 Bacterial Ooze Test............................................. 155
13.3.4 Management ....................................................... 156
13.4 Bacterial Soft Rot, Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora .... 157
13.4.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 157
13.4.3 Management ....................................................... 157
Contents xvii
13.5 Angular Leaf Spot, Pseudomonas syringae

pv. lachrymans ................................................................... 157
13.5.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 157
13.5.3 Management ....................................................... 158
13.6 Bacterial Wilt, Erwinia tracheiphila .................................. 158
13.6.1 Symptoms ........................................................... 158
13.6.2 Transmission....................................................... 158
13.6.3 Management ....................................................... 159
13.7 Management of Bacterial Diseases .................................... 159
References ....................................................................................... 159
14 Viral Diseases and Their Management ....................................... 161
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 161
14.2 Plant Virus Dispersal Mechanisms ..................................... 162
14.2.1 Sources of Infection............................................ 162
14.2.2 Vector Transmission ........................................... 164
14.3 Major Virus Diseases.......................................................... 165
14.3.1 Aphid-Transmitted Viruses................................. 165
14.3.2 Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses............................. 167
14.3.3 Thrips-Transmitted Viruses ................................ 168
14.3.4 Beetle-Transmitted Viruses ................................ 169
14.3.5 Fungal-Transmitted Viruses................................ 170
14.3.6 Mechanically Transmitted Viruses ..................... 170
14.4 Management Strategy for Virus Diseases .......................... 172
14.4.1 Production of Virus-Free Vegetables
by Using Insect-Proof Nets ................................ 172
14.4.2 Integrated Management ...................................... 172
14.4.3 GAP Recommendations ..................................... 174
References ....................................................................................... 175
15 Nematode Diseases and Their Management ............................... 177
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 177
15.2 Nematode Management ..................................................... 178
15.2.1 Exclusion ............................................................ 178
15.2.2 Sanitation ............................................................ 179
15.2.3 Physical Approaches........................................... 180
15.2.4 Host Plant Resistance ......................................... 183
15.2.5 Chemical Nematicides........................................ 184
15.2.6 Biological Control .............................................. 185
15.2.7 Integrated Methods ............................................. 185
References ....................................................................................... 185
16 Insects Pests and Their Management .......................................... 187
16.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 187
16.2 Aphids ................................................................................ 188
16.2.1 Monitoring .......................................................... 188
16.2.2 Management ....................................................... 188
16.2.3 Main Insecticides................................................ 189
xviii Contents
16.3 Caterpillars ......................................................................... 189

16.3.1 Tobacco Caterpillar, S. litura .............................. 189
16.3.2 Tomato Fruit Borer, H. armigera ....................... 189
16.3.3 Management ....................................................... 190
16.4 Leaf Miners ........................................................................ 190
16.4.1 Management ....................................................... 190
16.5 Thrips ................................................................................. 191
16.5.1 Monitoring .......................................................... 191
16.5.2 Management ....................................................... 191
16.6 Whiteflies ........................................................................... 192
16.6.1 Monitoring .......................................................... 192
16.6.2 Management ....................................................... 192
16.7 Leaf Rollers (Tortricidae) ................................................... 192
16.7.1 Management ....................................................... 193
16.8 Scale Insects and Mealybugs ............................................. 193
16.8.1 Management ....................................................... 193
16.9 Weevils, Otiorhynchus spp ................................................. 193
16.9.1 Management ....................................................... 193
16.10 Sciaridae ............................................................................. 194
16.10.1 Management ....................................................... 194
16.11 Slugs ................................................................................... 194
16.11.1 Management ....................................................... 194
16.11.2 Main Molluscicides ............................................ 194
16.12 Management Strategies ...................................................... 194
16.12.1 Avoidance ........................................................... 194
16.12.2 Early Detection ................................................... 197
16.12.3 Curative Measures .............................................. 198
16.13 Future Thrusts .................................................................... 199
17 Aphids and Their Management ................................................... 207
17.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 207
17.2 Crop Scouting and Trapping .............................................. 207
17.3 Biological Control .............................................................. 208
17.4 Biorational Pesticides ......................................................... 210
17.5 Insect Growth Regulators ................................................... 210
17.6 Conclusions ........................................................................ 211
References ....................................................................................... 211
Contents xix
18 Thrips and Their Management.................................................... 213

18.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 213
18.2 Biology and Identification .................................................. 213
18.4 Sanitation............................................................................ 215
18.5 Insect Screening ................................................................. 215
18.6 Cultural Controls ................................................................ 216
18.7.1 Notes on Biological Control of Thrips ............... 216
18.8.1 Notes on Biorational Control of Thrips .............. 219
18.10 Integrated Management ...................................................... 219
18.11 Conclusions ........................................................................ 220
References ....................................................................................... 220
19 Whiteflies and Their Management .............................................. 221
19.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 221
19.3 Biology ............................................................................... 222
19.5 Biopesticides ...................................................................... 223
19.8 Controlled Atmosphere ...................................................... 226
19.9 Integrated Management ...................................................... 226
References ....................................................................................... 226
20 Pest and Predatory Mites ............................................................. 227
20.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 227
20.2 Pest Mites ........................................................................... 228
20.2.1 Spider Mites ....................................................... 228
20.2.2 Tarsonemid Mites ............................................... 231
20.2.3 Eriophyid Mites .................................................. 235
20.2.4 Acarid Mites ....................................................... 236
20.2.5 General Management of Pest Mites ................... 237
20.3 Predatory Mites .................................................................. 238
20.3.1 Introduction ........................................................ 238
20.3.2 Phytoseiid Mites ................................................. 238
20.3.3 Laelapid Mites .................................................... 243
References ....................................................................................... 244
21 Strawberry ..................................................................................... 245
21.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 245
21.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 246
21.2.1 Early and Midsummer Varieties ......................... 246
21.2.2 Midsummer Varieties.......................................... 246
21.2.3 Late Summer Varieties ....................................... 246
xx Contents
21.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 246

21.3.1 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea ............................... 246
21.3.2 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum fragariae,
C. gloeosporioides, and C. acutatum ................. 247
21.3.3 Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca macularis ........ 248
21.3.4 Red Stele, Phytophthora fragariae..................... 249
21.3.5 Verticillium Wilt, Verticillium dahliae ................ 250
21.3.6 Leaf Scorch, Diplocarpon earlianum................. 251
21.3.7 Angular Leaf Spot, Xanthomonas fragariae ...... 252
21.4 Insect and Mite Pests.......................................................... 254
21.4.1 Spider Mites, Tetranychus urticae,
and T. turkestani ................................................. 254
21.4.2 Armyworm, Spodoptera exigua ......................... 255
21.4.3 Aphids (Peach Aphid, Potato Aphid,
Melon Aphid, and Strawberry Aphid),
Myzus persicae, Macrosiphon
euphorbiae, Aphis gossypii,
and Chaetosiphon fragaefolii ............................. 256
21.4.4 Whiteflies, Trialeurodes vaporariorum .............. 257
21.4.5 Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica ..................... 257
21.4.6 Loopers (Cabbage Looper), Trichoplusia ni ...... 258
21.4.7 Thrips (Western Flower Thrips),
Frankliniella occidentalis ................................... 258
21.4.8 Weevils (Strawberry Root Weevil,
Rough Strawberry Root Weevil,
and Black Vine Weevil), Otiorhynchus spp. ....... 259
21.4.9 Slugs, Arion hortensis,
and Deroceras reticulatum ................................. 259
22 Tomato............................................................................................ 261
22.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 261
22.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 261
22.3.1 Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci .................................... 262
22.3.2 Serpentine Leaf Miner, Liriomyza trifolii .......... 262
22.3.3 Fruit Borer, Helicoverpa armigera ..................... 263
22.3.4 Tobacco Caterpillar, Spodoptera litura .............. 263
22.3.5 Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis,
and Thrips tabaci ................................................ 263
22.3.6 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae ................ 264
22.3.7 Flow Chart for Insect Pest Management ........... 265
22.4 Diseases .............................................................................. 265
22.4.1 Early Blight, Alternaria solani ........................... 265
22.4.2 Late Blight, Phytophthora infestans ................... 266
22.4.4 Leaf Mold, Fulvia fulva
(Cladosporium fulvum) ...................................... 268
22.4.5 Powdery Mildew, Oidium neolycopersici .......... 268
Contents xxi
22.4.6 Cercospora Leaf Spot, Cercospora sp. .............. 269

22.4.7 Corky Root Rot, Pyrenochaeta lycopersici ........ 269
22.4.8 Crown and Root Rot, Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici................... 270
22.4.9 Bacterial Canker, Clavibacter michiganensis
ssp. michiganensis (Corynebacterium
michiganense ssp. michiganense)....................... 270
22.4.10 Soft Rots, Erwinia carotovora ssp.
carotovora, E. carotovora ssp. atroseptica......... 271
22.4.11 Pith Necrosis, Pseudomonas viridiflava,
P. corrugata, and P. cichorii ............................... 272
22.4.12 Bacterial Speck, Pseudomonas syringae
pv. tomato ........................................................... 272
22.4.13 Bacterial Spot, Xanthomonas vesicatoria .......... 273
22.4.14 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) ............................ 273
22.4.15 Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV) ........................... 274
22.4.16 Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) ........................ 275
22.4.17 Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV) ......... 275
22.4.18 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) .................. 276
22.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 276
22.5.1 Root-Knot Nematodes, Meloidogyne spp .......... 276
22.6 IPM Package for Management of Insect Pests,
Diseases, and Nematodes ................................................... 277
22.6.1 Implementation of IPM Scouting Programs....... 278
22.6.2 Soil Solarization to Control Root-Knot
Nematodes .......................................................... 278
22.6.3 Integrated Fungicidal Control Programs ............ 279
References ....................................................................................... 281
23 Bell Pepper ..................................................................................... 283
23.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 283
23.2 Varieties Suitable for Greenhouse Production ................... 284
23.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 284
23.3.1 Damping-Off, Pythium spp,
and Rhizoctonia solani ....................................... 284
23.3.2 Fusarium Stem and Fruit Rot,
Fusarium solani.................................................. 285
23.3.3 Cercospora Leaf Spot, Cercospora capsici ........ 285
23.3.4 Gray Mold, Botrytis sp ....................................... 285
23.3.5 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum capsici ................. 286
23.3.6 Powdery Mildew, Leveillula taurica .................. 286
23.3.7 Phythopthora Blight, Phytophthora capsici ....... 287
23.3.8 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia solanacearum ............. 287
23.3.9 Bacterial Spot, Xanthomonas vesicatoria .......... 288
23.3.10 Bacterial Soft Rot, Erwinia carotovora .............. 289
23.3.11 Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMV) ................... 289
23.3.12 Tobacco Mosaic Virus ........................................ 290
23.3.13 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) .................. 290
xxii Contents
23.4 Insect Pests ......................................................................... 290

23.4.1 Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis ...................... 290
23.4.2 Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae ....................... 291
23.4.3 Aphids, Myzus persicae...................................... 291
23.4.4 Tobacco Caterpillar, Spodoptera sp.................... 292
23.4.5 Whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum................. 293
23.4.6 Leaf Miners, Liriomyza spp................................ 293
23.4.7 Flow Chart for Insect Pest Management
in Capsicum ........................................................ 293
23.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 295
References ....................................................................................... 296
24 Cucumber ...................................................................................... 297
24.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 297
24.2 Greenhouse Cucumber Varieties ........................................ 297
24.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 298
24.3.1 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum orbiculare ............ 298
24.3.3 Gummy Stem Blight, Didymella bryoniae or
Mycosphaerella cucumis .................................... 299
24.3.4 Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca fuliginea .......... 299
24.3.5 Root Rot, Pythium spp ....................................... 300
24.3.6 Black Root Rot, Phomopsis sclerotioides .......... 300
24.3.7 Scab, Cladosporium cucumerinum..................... 301
24.3.8 Downy Mildew, Pseudoperonospora cubensis .. 301
24.3.9 Angular Leaf Spot, Pseudomonas syringae
pv lachrymans .................................................... 303
24.3.11 Cucumber Green Mottle Mosaic Virus
(CGMMV) .......................................................... 304
24.3.12 Cucumber Vein Yellowing Virus (CVYV) .......... 305
24.3.13 Cucurbit Yellow Stunting Disorder Virus
(CYSDV) ............................................................ 305
24.4.1 Sciarid Fly, Bradysia paupera ............................ 306
24.4.2 Whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum................. 307
24.4.3 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae ................ 308
24.4.4 Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis ...................... 309
24.4.5 Aphids, Aphis gossypii ....................................... 309
24.4.6 Slugs and Snails ................................................. 309
24.5 Pest and Disease Management ........................................... 310
References ....................................................................................... 311
25 Cole Crops ..................................................................................... 313
25.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 313
25.2 Diseases .............................................................................. 314
25.2.1 Black Rot, Xanthomonas campestris ................. 314
25.2.2 Black Leg, Phoma lingam .................................. 315
Contents xxiii
25.2.3 Wire Stem/Damping-Off, Rhizoctonia solani .... 316

25.2.4 Leaf Spot, Alternaria brassicae, and Alternaria
brassicola (Mycosphaerella brassicicola).......... 316
25.2.5 Downy Mildew, Hyaloperonospora parasitica .. 317
25.2.6 Club Root, Plasmodiophora brassicae............... 318
25.2.7 Stem Rot (White Mold), Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum ........................................................ 318
25.2.8 White Rust, Albugo candida .............................. 319
25.2.9 Powdery Mildew, Erysiphe cruciferarum .......... 319
25.2.10 Broccoli Head Rot, Pseudomonas marginalis.... 320
25.3 Insect Pests ......................................................................... 320
25.3.1 Flea Beetle, Phyllotreta crucifera ...................... 320
25.3.2 Cabbage Worm, Pieres rapae ............................. 321
25.3.3 Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella ............. 322
25.3.4 Thrips (Western Flower Thrips, Onion
Thrips), Frankliniella occidentalis,
and Thrips tabaci ................................................ 323
25.3.5 Cabbage Maggot, Delia radicum ....................... 323
25.3.6 Cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon .................................. 324
25.3.7 Aphids, Brevicoryne brassicae ........................... 324
25.3.8 Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus lineolaris................ 325
25.3.9 Slugs ................................................................... 325
25.4 Nematodes .......................................................................... 326
25.4.1 Root-Knot Nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. ......... 326
References ....................................................................................... 326
26 Lettuce............................................................................................ 327
26.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 327
26.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 327
26.2.1 Butterhead Vatieties ............................................ 327
26.2.2 Loose Leaf Varieties ........................................... 327
26.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 328
26.3.1 Downy Mildew, Bremia lactucae ....................... 328
26.3.2 Bottom Rot, Thanatephorus cucumeris,
Sclerotinia spp, and Botryotinia fuckeliana ....... 328
26.3.3 Lettuce Big-Vein Varicosavirus........................... 329
26.3.4 Cucumber Mosaic Cucumovirus (CMV) ........... 330
26.3.5 Lettuce Mosaic Potyvirus (LMV) ....................... 330
26.4 Insect Pests ......................................................................... 331
26.4.2 Noctuids, Agrotis ipsilon .................................... 332
26.4.3 Leaf Miners, Liriomyza spp................................ 332
26.4.4 Slugs ................................................................... 333
26.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 333
26.6 Good Plant Protection Practices (GPP) .............................. 334
26.6.1 Difficulties in Protected Cultivation
of Lettuce Crop................................................... 334
26.6.2 Guidelines for Good Plant
Protection Practices ............................................ 334
xxiv Contents
27 Rose ................................................................................................ 337

27.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 337
27.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 337
27.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 337
27.3.1 Dieback, Diplodia rosarum ................................ 337
27.3.2 Black Spot, Diplocarpon rosae .......................... 338
27.3.3 Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca pannosa
var rosae ............................................................. 338
27.3.4 Rust, Phragmidium mucronatum ........................ 338
27.4.1 Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis ............................... 339
27.4.2 Two Spotted Spider Mite,
Tetranychus urticae ............................................ 340
27.4.4 Tobacco Budworm, Spodoptera litura ............... 343
27.4.5 Aphids, Macrosiphum rosae............................... 343
Reference ........................................................................................ 344
28 Carnation ....................................................................................... 345
28.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 345
28.2 Types and Varieties ............................................................. 345
28.2.1 Standard Type ..................................................... 345
28.2.2 Spray Type .......................................................... 346
28.2.3 Dianthine Type ................................................... 346
28.2.4 Mignon and Microtype ....................................... 346
28.3.1 Thrips, Frankliniella schultzei ............................ 346
28.3.2 Two-Spotted Spider Mite,
Tetranychus urticae ............................................ 347
28.3.3 Bud Borer, Helicoverpa armigera ...................... 348
28.4 Diseases .............................................................................. 349
28.4.1 Powdery Mildew, Oidium dianthi ...................... 349
28.4.2 Black Spot, Alternaria dianthi ........................... 349
28.4.4 Foot Rot, Phytophthora sp ................................. 350
28.4.5 Root Rot, Pythium sp ......................................... 350
28.4.6 Stem Rot and Wilt, Fusarium sp ........................ 350
28.4.7 Rust, Uromyces dianthi
(= Uromyces caryophyllinus) ............................. 351
28.4.8 Bacterial Wilt, Burkholderia caryophylli ........... 351
28.4.9 Slow Wilt/Bacterial Stunt,
Dickeya dianthicola ............................................ 352
28.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 352
28.5.1 Root-Knot Nematode,
Meloidogyne incognita ....................................... 352
28.5.2 Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus dihystera ..... 353
References ....................................................................................... 354
Contents xxv
29 Gerbera .......................................................................................... 355

29.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 355
29.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 356
29.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 356
29.3.1 Powdery Mildew, Golovinomyces
(Erysiphe) cichoracearum .................................. 356
29.3.2 Collar Rot, Phytophthora cryptogea .................. 356
29.3.3 Root Rot, Pythium sp ......................................... 356
29.3.4 Stem Rot, Fusarium solani................................. 357
29.3.5 Leaf Spot, Alternaria sp ..................................... 357
29.4.2 Aphid, Myzus persicae ....................................... 358
29.4.3 Leaf Miner, Liriomyza trifolii............................. 360
29.4.4 Thrips, Thrips palmi ........................................... 360
29.4.5 Mites, Polyphagotarsonemus latus ..................... 361
29.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 361
29.5.1 Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne incognita .. 361
29.5.2 Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus dihystera ..... 361
References ....................................................................................... 362
30 Chrysanthemum............................................................................ 363
30.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 363
30.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 363
30.2.1 Large Flowered (Exhibits) .................................. 363
30.2.2 Small Flowered (Cut Flowers) ........................... 364
30.2.3 Small Flowered (Pot Culture)............................. 364
30.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 364
30.3.1 Root Rot, Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp ........ 364
30.3.2 Leaf Spot, Septoria chrysanthemella ................. 364
30.3.3 Wilt, Verticillium dahliae ................................... 365
30.3.4 White Rust, Puccinia horiana ............................ 365
30.3.5 Powdery Mildew, Oidium chrysanthemi ............ 365
30.3.6 Chrysanthemum Stunt Virus............................... 365
30.4.1 Aphid, Macrosiphoniella sanborni .................... 366
30.4.2 Thrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis ........... 367
30.4.3 Leaf Miner, Phytomyza syngenesiae .................. 367
30.4.4 Leaf Folder, Omiodes indicata ........................... 373
30.4.5 Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae ....................... 373
30.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 373
30.5.1 Foliar Nematode, Aphelenchoides
ritzemabosi ......................................................... 373
References ....................................................................................... 374
31 Gladiolus ........................................................................................ 375
31.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 375
31.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 375
xxvi Contents
31.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 375

31.3.1 Fusarium Yellows and Corm Rot,
Fusarium oxysporum f sp gladioli ..................... 375
31.3.3 Corm Rot, Fusarium sp ...................................... 377
31.3.4 Curvularia Blight ................................................ 377
31.4.1 Aphids, Aphis gossypii, and A. craccivora ......... 378
31.4.2 Thrips, Taeniothrips simplex .............................. 378
31.4.3 Cutworms, Agrotis segetum ................................ 378
31.4.4 Leaf Eating Caterpillar, Spodoptera litura ......... 379
31.4.5 Mealybug ............................................................ 379
31.4.6 Borer, Helicoverpa armigera ............................. 379
31.4.7 Mites, Tetranychus equatorius ........................... 379
31.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 380
References ....................................................................................... 380
32 Lilies ............................................................................................... 381
32.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 381
32.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 381
32.3.1 Aphids, Neomyzus circumflexus ......................... 381
32.3.2 Bulb Mites, Rhizoglyphus echinopus ................. 382
32.3.3 Beetle, Lilioceris lilii .......................................... 383
32.3.4 Thrips, Liothrips vaneeckii ................................. 384
32.3.5 Weevil, Agasphaerops nigra .............................. 384
32.3.6 Slugs and Snails ................................................. 384
32.3.7 Symphylids ......................................................... 384
32.4 Diseases .............................................................................. 385
32.4.1 Basal Rot, Fusarium oxysporum var lilii............ 385
32.4.2 Botrytis Blight, Botrytis elliptica,
and B. cinerea ..................................................... 386
32.4.3 Root Rot, Rhizoctonia solani ............................. 387
32.4.4 Southern Wilt, Sclerotium rolfsii
var delphinii ........................................................ 387
32.4.5 Damping-Off, Pythium, Phytophthora,
and Rhizoctonia spp ........................................... 388
32.4.6 Viral Diseases ..................................................... 388
32.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 389
32.5.1 Root-Knot, Lesion, and Foliar Nematodes ......... 389
33 Orchids ........................................................................................... 393
33.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 393
33.2 Species and Hybrids ........................................................... 393
33.2.1 Vandas ................................................................ 394
33.2.2 Dendrobiums ...................................................... 394
33.2.3 Phalaenopsis ....................................................... 394
33.2.4 Cattleyas ............................................................. 394
Contents xxvii
33.2.5 Cymbidiums ....................................................... 394

33.2.6 Oncidiums .......................................................... 394
33.2.7 Epidendrums....................................................... 394
33.3.1 Scale, Diaspis boisduvalii .................................. 394
33.3.2 Mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus .................. 396
33.3.3 Thrips, Anaphorathrips orchidii ......................... 396
33.3.4 Aphids, Macrosiphum luteum ............................ 397
33.3.5 Whiteflies, Aleurothrix sp. ................................. 397
33.3.6 Caterpillars ......................................................... 397
33.3.7 Mite, Brevipalpus sp. ......................................... 398
33.3.8 Snails and Slugs, Achatina fulica ....................... 399
33.4 Diseases .............................................................................. 399
33.4.1 Black Rot, Pythium
and Phytophthora spp. ....................................... 399
33.4.2 Fusarium Wilt, Fusarium sp. ............................. 401
33.4.3 Root Rot, Rhizoctonia sp. .................................. 401
33.4.4 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum
and Glomerella spp. ........................................... 402
33.4.5 Leaf Spots, Cercospora, Septoria,
Guignardia/Phyllosticta spp. ............................. 402
33.4.6 Petal Blight, Botrytis sp. .................................... 403
33.4.7 Bacterial Soft and Brown Rot, Erwinia spp. ...... 403
33.4.8 Bacterial Brown Spot, Acidovorax sp.
(syn Pseudomonas sp.) ....................................... 404
33.4.9 Viral Diseases ..................................................... 405
34 Anthuriums.................................................................................... 409
34.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 409
34.2 Varieties .............................................................................. 409
34.3.1 Whitefly, Aleurotulus anthuricola ...................... 410
34.3.2 Thrips, Chaetanaphothrips orchidii ................... 410
34.3.3 Mites, Brevipalpus spp ....................................... 411
34.3.4 Citrus Red Mite, Panonychus citri ..................... 411
34.3.5 Caterpillars ......................................................... 412
34.3.6 Snails .................................................................. 412
34.4 Diseases .............................................................................. 412
34.4.1 Bacterial Blight, Xanthomonas axonopodis
pv dieffenbachiae (Syn Xanthomonas
campestris pv dieffenbachiae) ............................ 412
34.4.2 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia solanacearum ............. 415
34.4.3 Rhizoctonia Root Rot, Rhizoctonia solani ......... 416
34.4.4 Root Rot, Phytophthora/Pythium ....................... 417
34.4.5 Black Nose, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ..... 417
34.5 Nematodes .......................................................................... 419
34.5.1 Burrowing Nematode, Radopholus similis ......... 419
References ....................................................................................... 421
xxviii Contents
35 The Way Forward ......................................................................... 423

35.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 424
35.4 Management of Soilborne Pathogens................................. 425
35.4.1 Solarization......................................................... 426
35.4.2 Grafting Technology........................................... 426
35.5 Host Resistance .................................................................. 426
35.6 Guided Chemical Control .................................................. 426
35.7 Genetic Engineering ........................................................... 427
35.8 Integrated Pest Management .............................................. 427
35.9 Conclusions ........................................................................ 428
Index ....................................................................................................... 429

About the Author
Dr. P. Parvatha Reddy obtained his Ph.D. degree jointly from the University
of Florida, USA, and the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy served as the Director of the prestigious Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research (IIHR) at Bangalore from 1999 to 2002 during which
period the Institute was honored with “ICAR Best Institution Award”. He also
served as the Head, Division of Entomology and Nematology at IIHR and
gave tremendous impetus and direction to research, extension and education
in developing bio-intensive integrated pest management strategies in horti-
cultural crops. These technologies are being practiced widely by the farmers
across the country since they are effective, economical, eco-friendly and res-
idue-free. Dr. Reddy has about 34 years of experience working with horticul-
tural crops and involved in developing an F1 tomato hybrid “Arka Varadan”
resistant to root-knot nematodes.
Dr. Reddy has over 250 scientific publications to his credit, which also
include 30 books. He has also guided two Ph.D. students at the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy served as Chairman, Research Advisory Committee, Indian
Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi; Member, RAC of National Research
Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi; National Research
Centre for Citrus, Nagpur and the Project Directorate of Biological Control,
Bangalore. He served as a Member, QRT to review the progress of AICRP on
Nematodes; AINRP on Betelvine; Central Tuber Crops Research Institute,
Trivandrum and AICRP on Tuber Crops. He also served as a Member of the
Expert Panel for monitoring the research program of National Initiative on
Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) in the theme of Horticulture includ-
ing Pest Dynamics and Pollinators. He is the Honorary Fellow of the Society
for Plant Protection Sciences, New Delhi; Fellow of the Indian
Phytopathological Society, New Delhi and Founder President of the
Association for Advancement of Pest Management in Horticultural
Ecosystems (AAPMHE), Bangalore.
Dr. Reddy has been awarded with the prestigious “Association for
Advancement Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems Award”, “Dr.
G.I. D’souza Memorial Lecture Award”, “Prof. H.M. Shah Memorial Award”
and “ Hexamar Agricultural Research and Development Foundation Award”
for his unstinted efforts in developing sustainable, bio-intensive and eco-
friendly integrated pest management strategies in horticultural crops.
xxix
xxx About the Author
Dr. Reddy has organized “Fourth International Workshop on Biological

Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata”, “National Seminar on
Hitech Horticulture”, “First National Symposium on Pest Management in
Horticultural Crops: Environmental Implications and Thrusts” and “Second
National Symposium on Pest Management in Horticultural Crops: New
Molecules and Biopesticides”.
1
Abstract
Among the productivity-enhancing technologies, protected cultivation has
a tremendous potential to increase the yield of vegetables and flower crops
by several folds. Greenhouse crop production is now a growing reality
throughout the world with an estimated 405,000 ha of greenhouses spread
over all the continents. There are more than 55 countries now in the world
where cultivation of crops is undertaken on a commercial scale under
cover, and it is continuously growing at a fast rate internationally. The
need for protected cultivation, present status, and different vegetable and
flower crops grown in greenhouse are discussed.
Keywords
Protected cultivation • Flowers • Vegetables • Advantages • Limitations
1.1 Introduction lion by 2020. India plans to increase the produc-

tion of horticultural crops to 200 million tons by
Horticulture in India is fast emerging as a major 2020 from the current level of 125 million tons
commercial venture, because of higher remuner- (NHB 2008).
ation per unit area. Through the “Green The average productivity of most horticultural
Revolution” in the late 1960s, India achieved crops in India is low. There is a wide gap between
self-sufficiency in food production, which was yields obtained and potential yields with
hailed as a breakthrough on the farm front by improved varieties and technologies. The pros-
international agricultural experts. But still the pects of increasing production of horticultural
country has not achieved self-sufficiency in pro- crops by increasing land under cultivation are
duction of horticultural crops. There is an urgent very much limited. Hence, it is essential to
need to increase horticultural production in order increase productivity of horticultural crops in
to provide nutritional security to the fast-growing order to meet the future demand and fulfillment
population of the country (increasing at 1.6 % of the country’s commitment to the sustainable
annually) which is expected to reach 1331 mil- horticultural development.
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1

P.P. Reddy, Sustainable Crop Protection under Protected Cultivation,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_1
2 1 Protected Cultivation
The productivity-enhancing technologies 1.2 Protected Cultivation

include use of high-yielding varieties/F1 hybrids,
high-density planting, integrated nutrient and Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a
pest management, micro-irrigation and fertiga- cropping technique wherein the microenviron-
tion, use of bioregulators, GM crops, and pro- ment surrounding the plant body is controlled
tected cultivation. Among the partially/fully as per the plants’ need during their
productivity-enhancing technologies, protected period of growth to maximize the yield and
cultivation has a tremendous potential to increase resource saving. The greenhouse is the most
the yield of vegetables and flower crops by sev- practical method of achieving the objectives of
eral folds. protected horticulture, where natural environ-
Indian agriculture is passing through a transi- ment is modified by the use of sound engineering
tional era in this century due to globalization of principles to achieve optimum plant growth and
trade and liberalization of the Indian economy yield (more produce per unit area) with increased
during the early 1990s. Horticulture in particular input use efficiency (Nagarajan et al. 2002).
has attained pride status in the field of modern The greenhouse is generally covered by a trans-
agriculture as horticulture crops contribute about parent or translucent material such as glass or plas-
28.65 % to GDP from merely 8.5 % of area and tic. The greenhouse covered with simple plastic
have a high potential for value addition and for- sheet is termed as a polyhouse. The greenhouse
eign exchange earnings. High-tech production of generally reflects back about 43 % of the net solar
high-value horticultural crops under cover as radiation incident upon it allowing the transmit-
well as in open conditions adopting modern tech- tance of the “photosynthetically active solar radia-
nology is the recent development in this field. tion” in the range of 400–700-nm wavelength. The
In view of the competitive world environment sunlight admitted to the protected environment is
in the context of the WTO agreement, renewed absorbed by the crops, floor, and other objects.
concentration on productivity, quality, and value These objects in turn emit long-wave thermal radi-
addition is one of the concerns of the farmers of ation in the infrared region for which the glazing
our country. Hence, adoption of modern technol- material has lower transparency. As a result, the
ogies in horticulture (greenhouse technology, solar energy remains trapped in the protected envi-
micro-irrigation, fertigation, micro-propagation, ronment, thus raising its temperature. This phe-
nursery technology, high-tech postharvest tech- nomenon is called the “greenhouse effect.”
nologies including cold chain, etc.) has become Tomato, bell pepper, cucumber, rose, carna-
necessary to increase the productivity of horticul- tion, and gerbera are the most extensively grown
tural crops. vegetable and ornamental crops under green-
Protected cultivation in India has started dur- houses to achieve higher returns (Chandra et al.
ing the early 1990s and Karnataka is the leading 2000). Growing of crops using cost-effective
state in adoption. Earlier it was started around plastic greenhouses provides an alternative for
Bangalore and surrounding districts, and recently raising crop in the period of scarcity. This also
progressive farmers in North Karnataka around ensures to meet year-round supply of fresh pro-
Belgaum, Dharwad, Hubli, Bagalkot, Sirsi, etc. duce with more efficient resource utilization
have started protected cultivation of flowers and (Sharma et al. 2009). New features added to these
vegetables, besides high-tech production of high- structures have cut down the requirement of
value horticulture crops under open field. Day by water and energy in such cultivation through
day, many progressive farmers, youngsters, and novel means like micro-irrigation-cum-
educated unemployed youth are taking keen fertilization (fertigation) and rainwater
interest in this field. harvesting.
1.2 Protected Cultivation 3
1.2.1 Need for Protected Cultivation • Tropical vegetables like cucurbits, capsicum,
brinjal, okra, etc. are rare in hilly regions, but
Talukdar et al. (2003) reported the following these crops can be grown in the greenhouse.
major factors (Fig. 1.1) in protected cultivation: • The greenhouse provides an excellent oppor-
tunity to produce quality crops for export.
• Productivity in the greenhouse is increased • Raising nursery earlier and advancing the
manifold in comparison to open field (Tables availability are also possible by use of
1.1 and 1.2). greenhouse.
• Better-quality produce – protection from pests • Conservation of valuable planting materials
and diseases. and its cultivation are also possible under the
• Early maturity (Table 1.3). greenhouse.
• Round-the-year cultivation. • The greenhouse can also be used for growing
• Cultivation is possible in hostile climates. of flower plants, strawberries, and grapes and
• Create microclimate for optimum plant per- propagation of quality fruit plants.
formance – controlled temperature, humidity, • Pest and weed management is easier in the
and light as per plant requirement. greenhouse than in open field.
• Cultivation of crops during off-season when it • The greenhouse conserves the moisture.
is not possible to grow in open fields. Hence, frequency of watering of plants is
reduced.
• The greenhouse is ideally suited for Indian
farmers having small holdings.
• Productivity per unit area and time can be
increased by adopting suitable crop sequences.
Table 1.1 Comparative performance of Solanaceous

vegetable crops in greenhouse
Fruit yield (kg/m2)
Fiberglass-
Crop reinforced panel Trench Open
Capsicum 1.82 0.83 0.54
Brinjal cv. PH-5 1.25 1.09 0.63
Chili cv. BSS 344 1.35 1.24 0.13
Tomato cv. BSS 12.69 – 7.25
347
Table 1.2 Yield of capsicum and tomato under green-

house at different locations in India
Capsicum Tomato Cucumber
Location (t/ha) (t/ha) (t/ha)
Pune 203 124 –
Coimbatore 148 186 –
Bangalore 147 152 –
Solan 79 95 –
Fig. 1.1 The need for protected cultivation Hissar 302 211 151
Table 1.3 Effect of greenhouse in achieving earliness in some Solanaceous vegetables

Days for first picking Harvesting period (days)
Crop Fiberglass-reinforced panel Open Polycarbonate Open
Tomato 70 105 100 50
Capsicum 90 127 90 45
Brinjal 92 128 – –
1.2.2 Advantages and Limitations • Controlled environmental conditions are used

for early raising of nurseries, off-season
1.2.2.1 Advantages production of vegetables, seed production,
Protected production can reduce the amount of and protecting the valuable germplasm.
water and chemicals used in production of high- • Crops can be grown under adverse weather
value crops compared to open-field conditions. conditions round the year and off-season.
The comparative advantages are: • Management and control of insect pests, dis-
eases, and weeds is easier.
• Year-round production of crops. • Maintenance of stock plants and cultivation of
• Adverse climate for crop production can be grafted plantlets and micro-propagated plants
overcome by different systems of protected are easy.
cultivation.
• Multiple cropping on the same piece of land is
possible. 1.2.2.2 Limitations
• Off-season crop production to get better return
to growers. • Manual or hand pollination in cross-pollinated
• Production of high-quality and healthy seed- vegetables like cucurbits or development of
lings for transplanting in open field supporting their parthenocarpic hybrids/varieties.
early crop and strong and resistant crop stands. • Expensive, short life, and nonavailability of
• Use of protected cultivation can increase pro- cladding materials.
duction as well as productivity per unit of • Lack of appropriate tools and machinery.
land, water, energy, and labor. It supports the • Structure cost initially looks unaffordable.
production of high-quality and clean Farmers with zero risk affordability do not
products. come forward to adopt it.
• It makes cultivation of crops possible in areas
where it is not possible in open conditions
such as high-altitude deserts.
• It makes vertical cultivation of crops possible 1.2.3 Increase in Productivity
using technologies like hydroponics, aeropon-
ics, etc. and by use of vertical beds for The yield under polyhouse cultivation can be
production. achieved to the level of 5–8 times as compared to
• Disease-free seed production of high-tech crops the open crop cultivation. Various trials con-
becomes easy under protected structures. ducted at agro-research centers in northern India
• The potential of polyhouse production tech- indicate that capsicum (planted in mid-
nology to meet the demand of producing good September), cucumber (planting in mid-October),
nutrition and healthy foods and quality vege- and tomato (planted in November) under the
tables free from pesticides can be fully polyhouse produced 1060, 1460, and 1530
exploited. kg/100 m2. The duration of these crops was 4–9
1.3 Present Status 5
months, and more than 90 % of total yield were Greenhouse crop production is now a growing
obtained during off-season (during winter before reality throughout the world with an estimated
the start of summer) which fetches a significantly 405,000 ha of greenhouses spread over all the
higher market price (2–4 times than normal sea- continents (FAO 2013). There are more than 55
son). Further, the crop duration can be extended countries now in the world where cultivation of
up to July–August with the application of micro- crops is undertaken on a commercial scale under
irrigation and fertigation and yield can be cover and it is continuously growing at a fast rate
achieved to the level of 20–25 kg/m2. Therefore, internationally. China is the largest user of green-
it is possible to harvest a single crop round the houses. The development of greenhouse technol-
year with minimum additional inputs and higher ogy in China has been faster than in any other
income can be generated. Further cut flowers like country in the world. With a modest beginning in
carnations, gerbera, lily, rose, orchids, anthur- the late 1970s, the area under greenhouses in
ium, etc. can be grown under polyhouses/net China has increased tremendously. The world
houses giving high returns and top-quality pro- scenario of greenhouse production is given in
duce. The potential of floriculture under pro- Table 1.4.
tected cultivation is huge for Indian and global In Europe, Spain is leading in protected agri-
markets. culture with 52,170 ha mostly under low-cost
polyhouses. In Asia, China has the largest area
under protected cultivation, 2.76 million ha under
1.3 Present Status polyhouse/greenhouse. Protected vegetable pro-
duction is an important component of protected
1.3.1 Global Scenario agriculture. Protected vegetable production is
practiced throughout the world irrespective of the
The idea of growing plants in environmentally altitude of the place since several hundred years
controlled areas had existed since the Roman ago.
times. The Roman Emperor Tiberius (42–37
BC) daily ate cucumber grown through artifi-
cial methods (similar to the greenhouse sys- 1.3.2 Indian Scenario
tem). The gardeners planted cucumbers in
carts that were wheeled into the sunlight by Protected cultivation technology is a relatively
day and brought indoors by night to protect new technology for India. The total area cov-
them from the elements. This was an innova- ered under protected cultivation is approxi-
tive form of the greenhouse. In the sixteenth
century, European explorers brought back
exotic plants acquired in the course of their Table 1.4 Worldwide total area in major greenhouse
travels. Many were tropical plants that could production (Kacira 2011)
not survive the cold European climates. The Countries Greenhouse area (ha)
result was the creation of greenhouses that China 2,760,000
would progress from the Italian “botanical Korea 57,444
gardens” to wooden structures to the more sta- Spain 52,170
ble cast-iron frames and eventually to glass- Japan 49,049
houses. Later, with the advent of plastics Turkey 33,515
during World War II, a new phase in the green- India 30,000
house technology emerged. At present, nearly Italy 26,500
90 % of the new greenhouses are being con- Mexico 11,759
structed by utilizing ultraviolet (UV)- Netherlands 10,370
stabilized polyethylene sheets as the glazing France 9,620
material. USA 8,425
mately 30,000 ha. There has been a very good 1.4 Protected Cultivation
development in this area during the last 5 years. of Horticultural Crops
The leading states in the area of protected cul-
tivation are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Himachal Greenhouses are often used for growing flowers
Pradesh, northeastern states, Uttarakhand, (rose, carnation, gerbera, chrysanthemum, orchids),
Tamil Nadu, and Punjab. The major crops vegetables (tomato, bell pepper, cucumber, cab-
grown in the protected cultivation are tomato, bage), fruits (strawberry), and transplants (Figs. 1.2
bell pepper, cucumber, melons, rose, gerbera, and 1.3). Special greenhouse varieties of certain
carnation, and chrysanthemum. Nursery grown crops are generally used for commercial produc-
in the protected cultivation is becoming a very tion. Many vegetables and flowers can be grown in
popular venture for income and employment greenhouses in late winter and early spring.
generation.
India’s first exposure to truly high-tech pro-
tected farming of vegetables and other high-value 1.4.1 Flower Crops
horticultural produce came through the Indo-
Israel project on greenhouse cultivation, initiated 1.4.1.1 Rose
at the New Delhi-based Indian Agricultural In an evaluation of rose varieties for commercial
Research Institute (IARI) in 1998, shortly after cultivation under polyhouse conditions, red vari-
the establishment of diplomatic ties with that ety Tropical Amazon produced higher productiv-
country. However, the Israeli experts left India in ity of 127.00 flowers/m2 and was found suitable
2003 at the end of the 5-year project; IARI con- for polyhouse cultivation.
tinued to maintain the facility, calling it the
Centre for Protected Cultivation Technology 1.4.1.2 Carnation
(CPCT). It has, in the past 10 years, managed to In an evaluation trial on carnation varieties under
refine and upscale the system to reduce costs, a greenhouse, it was found that variety Yellow
besides designing greenhouse structures to suit Firato produced maximum number of flowers
local conditions. (8.45/plant and 280.60/m2) followed by Firato
(8.37/plant and 277.58/m2).
Fig. 1.2 Crops under

protected cultivation
1.4 Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops 7
Fig. 1.3 Crops under

shade net house
1.4.1.3 Gerbera The study on the influence of growing media

In an evaluation of gerbera varieties for commer- and system for cultivation of orchids (variety
cial cultivation, the red variety Savannah pro- Sonia-17) under a greenhouse revealed that a pot
duced higher productivity of 235.20 flowers/m2 system having wider openings and growing
and was found profitable for polyhouse media as brick pieces + charcoal was best for
cultivation. higher productivity of 74.44 flower spikes/m2
with superior-quality flowers.
1.4.1.4 Alpinia
In a nutritional study on alpinia grown under a 1.4.1.7 Anthurium
shade house (Fig. 1.4), it was observed that a In an evaluation of anthurium varieties for com-
higher level of NPK (15 g/plant) showed mercial cultivation under a greenhouse, variety
higher vegetative growth and produced maxi- Esmeralda produced higher productivity of 83.36
mum flower yield of 27.50 stems/m2 with flowers/m2 and was found to be a highly profit-
superior-quality flowers having maximum able variety for polyhouse cultivation.
stem and flower length (132 and 26 cm, The standardization trial for cultivation of
respectively). anthuriums under greenhouse condi-
tions revealed that a growing system of 90 %
1.4.1.5 Bird-of-Paradise shading net as medium holding material was best
In a trial on crop geometry for cultivation of bird- for high productivity of 126.50 flowers/m2 with
of-paradise (BOP) under a shade house (Fig. superior-quality flowers.
1.5), it was noticed that closer spacing of
75 × 60 cm produced maximum mean flower
stem yield of 11.66/m2 with a higher benefit-to- 1.4.2 Vegetable Crops
cost ratio of 2.75.
1.4.2.1 Tomato
1.4.1.6 Orchids In a study on standardization of training systems
In a varietal evaluation of orchids for commercial for tomato under a shade house, the results
cultivation under a greenhouse, purple variety revealed that, among the two training systems,
Sonia-17 produced higher productivity of 88.50 the double-stem method recorded maximum
flowers/m2. yield of 160.55 t/ha.
Fig. 1.4 Alpinia under protected

cultivation
Fig. 1.5 Bird-of-paradise

under protected cultivation
1.4.2.2 Bell Pepper In a standardization trial of training of plants

In an evaluation trial of bell pepper hybrids for for cultivation of bell pepper hybrids under dif-
commercial cultivation under protected ferent growing conditions, training of four stems
conditions, green hybrid Indra produced a per plant for bell pepper was found best for a
higher yield of 85.69 t/ha with a benefit-to-cost higher yield of 77.25 t/ha with superior-quality
ratio of 2.75, but colored hybrids red Bomby produce under all different growing conditions
and yellow Orobelle produced an average yield and hybrids tried.
of 75.83 t/ha with a higher benefit-to-cost ratio
of 3.25. 1.4.2.3 Lettuce
In a planting geometry study for cultivation of In a study on the influence of spacing on lettuce
bell pepper hybrids under different growing con- grown under open and protected conditions, let-
ditions, planting at 45 × 30 cm under polyhouse tuce leaf yield per hectare was maximum under
conditions produced a higher yield of 95.72 t/ha shade house (24.0 t/ha) followed by polyhouse
with superior-quality produce, while, under (19.60 t/ha) and least under open field (13.45 t/
shade house conditions, planting at 45 × 45 cm ha). With respect to planting geometry, leaf yield
produced a higher yield of 81.70 t/ha with per hectare was maximum in 30 × 30-cm spacing
superior-quality produce. (24.30 t/ha).
1.4 Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops 9
1.4.2.4 Chinese Cabbage mum under shade house (23.15 t/ha) followed by
In the spacing trial of Chinese cabbage grown polyhouse (20.02 t/ha) and least under open field
under open and protected conditions (Fig. 1.6), (14.10 t/ha). With respect to planting geometry,
Chinese cabbage head yield per hectare was max- leafstalk yield per hectare was maximum in
imum under shade house (63.65 t/ha) followed 30 × 15-cm (30.0 t/ha) spacing.
by polyhouse (52.20 t/ha) and least under open
field (24.35 t/ha). With respect to planting geom- 1.4.2.7 Red Cabbage
etry, head yield per hectare was maximum in In a trial on influence of spacing on red cabbage
45 × 45-cm (51.76 t/ha) spacing. under open and protected conditions (Fig. 1.8),
head yield was maximum under shade house
1.4.2.5 Broccoli (35.75 t/ha) followed by polyhouse (32.85 t/ha)
The study on influence of spacing on broccoli and least under open field (16.10 t/ha). With
grown under open and protected conditions respect to planting geometry, head yield was
revealed that broccoli flower head yield per hect- maximum in 45 × 30-cm (34.0 t/ha) spacing.
are was maximum under shade house (15.05 t/ha)
followed by polyhouse (13.10 t/ha) and least 1.4.2.8 Zucchini
under open field (6.7 t/ha). With respect to plant- In a trial on influence of spacing on zucchini
ing geometry, flower head yield per hectare was grown under open and protected conditions (Fig.
maximum in 45 × 45-cm (14.5 t/ha) spacing. 1.9), the zucchini fruit yield was maximum under
shade house (23.45 t/ha) followed by polyhouse
1.4.2.6 Celery (19.00 t/ha) and least (8.40 t/ha) under open field.
In a trial on influence of spacing on celery grown With respect to planting geometry, fruit yield per
under open and protected conditions (Fig. 1.7), hectare was maximum in 100 × 90-cm spacing
the celery leafstalk yield per hectare was maxi- (22.15 t/ha).
Fig. 1.6 Chinese cabbage

Fig. 1.7 Celery under

Fig. 1.8 Red cabbage

Fig. 1.9 Zucchini under protected

cultivation
1.4.2.9 Leek eral advantages to grow high-value crops with

In a trial on influence of spacing on leek under improved quality even under unfavorable and
protected conditions (Fig. 1.10), the yield per marginal environments. However, high training
hectare was maximum under shade house (39.41 needs of the greenhouse growers and some
t/ha) followed by polyhouse (33.75 t/ha) and poor-quality produce with pesticide residues
least (19.55 t/ha) under open field. With respect have been a matter of great concern. These
to planting geometry, yield per hectare was maxi- issues can easily be addressed by integrating
mum in 20 × 15-cm spacing (30.5 t/ha). various production and protection practices
including location-specific designing and con-
struction of the polyhouses for efficient input
1.5 Conclusions use. Creating awareness among the greenhouse
growers for judicious use of pesticides for safe
The protected cultivation of high-value crops production can be instrumental in providing
has become irreplaceable both from economic quality products without polluting the
and environmental points of view. It offers sev- environment.
References 11
Fig. 1.10 Leek under

Nagarajan M, Senthilvel S, Palanysamy D (2002) Material

References substitution in greenhouse construction. Kisan World
11:57–58
Chandra P, Sirohi PS, Behera TK, Singh AK (2000) National Horticulture Board (2008) National Horticulture
Cultivating vegetables in polyhouse. Indian Hort Board data base. (http://nhb.gov.in/)
45:17–25 Sharma M, Negi S, Kumari S (2009) Effect of different
FAO (2013) Good agricultural practices for greenhouse growing media and fertigation levels on production of
vegetable Crops. FAO plant production and protection cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) under protected condi-
paper 217. Food and Agriculture Organization of the tions in the hills. Indian J Agric Sci 79(10):853–856
United Nations, Rome Talukdar MC, Sarma B, Das S, Mahanta S (2003)
Kacira M (2011) Greenhouse production in US: status, Evaluation of spray chrysanthemum cultivars under
challenges, and opportunities. In: Presented at CIGR open and polyhouse conditions. In: National sympo-
2011 conference on sustainable bioproduction WEF sium on recent advances in Indian floriculture, Kerala
2011, Tower Hall Funabori, Tokyo Agricultural University, Kerala
Greenhouse Technology
2
Abstract
The purpose of growing crops under greenhouse conditions is to extend
their cropping season and to protect them from adverse environmental
conditions, such as extreme temperatures and precipitation, and from dis-
eases and pests. Greenhouse production normally requires a high level of
technology to obtain adequate economic returns on investments. Quality is
a high priority for greenhouse crops, requiring much care in pest and dis-
ease management, not only to secure yields but also to obtain a high cos-
metic standard. Agroclimate, types of glazing materials, types of
greenhouses, and greenhouse environmental control are some of the topics
discussed in this chapter.
Keywords
Greenhouse production • Agroclimate • Glazing materials • Greenhouse •
Environmental control
2.1 Introduction “A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated struc-

ture covered with a transparent or translucent
Greenhouse technology implies production of material which permits at least partial control of
plants for economic use in a covered structure plant environment and which are large enough to
that allows rapid harvesting of solar radiation and permit a person to carry out cultural operations”
modification of agroclimatic conditions condu- (Chandra and Panwar 1987). While full advan-
cive for plant growth and development. The tech- tage is taken of the available sunshine for crop
nology embraces infrastructure modeling, production by way of selecting proper covering
selection of plants for adaptation, production materials, the enclosure provides an opportunity
economics, agronomic management and com- to control the other environmental parameters.
mercial potential, etc. As a result, greenhouse crop productivity is

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_2
14 2 Greenhouse Technology
largely independent on outdoor environmental Growing of vegetable and floriculture crops

conditions. under protected cultivation is receiving utmost
The purpose of growing crops under green- attention and gaining popularity among farming
house conditions is to extend their cropping sea- community across India. The government of
son and to protect them from adverse India launched the Horticulture Technology
environmental conditions, such as extreme tem- Mission Project, and under this program, a large
peratures and precipitation, and from diseases number of polyhouses in the states of Kerala,
and pests (Hanan et al. 1978). Greenhouse struc- Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, the
tures are essentially light scaffolding covered by northeastern hill region, Haryana, Gujarat, Tamil
sheet glass, fiberglass, or plastic. Such materials Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and the NCR region have
have a range of energy-capturing characteristics, come up in a big way. The protected cultivation
all designed to maximize light transmission and has shown promise in respect of higher crop pro-
heat retention. Crops may be grown in ground ductivity both in terms of quality and quantity of
bed soil, usually amended with peat or farmyard the produce.
manure, in benches, in pots containing soil or soil Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, has
mixtures or soil substitutes, and in hydroponic achieved the productivity of 302 t/ha in tomato,
systems, such as sand or rock wool cultures and 211 t/ha in bell pepper, and 151 t/ha in cucumber
flowing nutrient systems, without a matrix for the per crop cycle.
roots.
Modern technology has given the grower
some powerful management tools for production. 2.2 Agroclimate
Generally, added-value crops are grown under
protection. Most of them are labor intensive and There are several climatic factors that need care
energy demanding during cold weather. in the management of a greenhouse. The following
Greenhouse production therefore normally factors are important for greenhouse cultivation.
requires a high level of technology to obtain ade-
quate economic returns on investments. Quality
is a high priority for greenhouse crops, requiring 2.2.1 Sunlight
much care in pest and disease management, not
only to secure yields but also to obtain a high cos- The direction of the greenhouse should be such
metic standard. Although technological changes that it receives sunlight for maximum hours. In
are ultimately intended to reduce production hilly regions, greenhouse should face the south-
costs and maximize profits, precise environmen- east direction and its location should not be under
tal and nutritional control push plants to new lim- shade. However, under the tropical condition,
its of growth and productivity. This can generate temperature retention can be reduced by choos-
chronic stress conditions, which are difficult to ing a less sunny site. Sunlight is essential for aug-
measure but apparently conducive to some pests mentation of the process of photosynthesis and
and diseases. Historically, not enough attention minimum sun requirement of crop should be kept
has been paid to exploiting and amending pro- in mind. In addition, sunlight also provides requi-
duction technology for the control of pests and site thermal environment for various other physi-
diseases. This makes the control of pests and dis- ological processes including photosynthesis.
eases in protected crops even more challenging, Hilly regions receive clear sunny days in winter
with many important problems being unresolved so sunlight as such may not be a limiting factor,
and new ones arising as the industry undergoes but its tapping and conservation could be a major
more changes in production systems. concern for further investigation.
2.3 Types of Glazing Materials 15
2.2.2 Temperature 1992), and in the closed structures like green-

houses, it may drop down further because of its
Sunlight is the major rather than the sole source consumption by the plants. At relatively high
of temperature. Examples of providing external sunlight intensities and temperature, photosyn-
heat source other than sunlight are rare in hilly thetic rate is directly proportional to CO2 concen-
regions. Temperature during night hours may tration up to 2400 ppm. Hence supplementary
drop down to below 0 °C and heat obtained from application of CO2 will boost plant productivity
trapped solar radiation is not properly conserved. inside the greenhouse. Under the hilly region
The following steps are advantageous to maintain situation, appropriate air circulation is a better
a thermal environment of the greenhouse: and economic means to prevent undesirable
lowering of CO2, while for conservation of CO2
• Blackening of internal surface of brick wall produced at night, a tightly closed greenhouse is
and soil bed surface a prerequisite.
• Providing insulation by doubling the brick
wall
• Covering polyethylene or glass external sur- 2.2.5 Soil
face with multilayer covering during night
hours Soil serves as growth medium for plants. Sandy
• Mud plastering in the case of stone walls loam soil is the best choice. It should be supple-
• Placing of black-colored stones in the mented with well-rotten FYM, compost, or bio-
greenhouses fertilizers. Inorganic fertilizers need to be used as
• Keeping containers filled with water per recommendations. Continuous cultivation
inside the greenhouse may give rise to buildup of
pathogens. To destroy pathogens, pasteurization
of soil is recommended (steam aeration) before
2.2.3 Relative Humidity every crop and soil replacement is recommenced
after every 3 years. Steam aeration temperature
The minimum limit of relative humidity for nor- of 60 °C for 30 min is good enough to accom-
mal physiological functioning of the plants is 50 plish the task. Chemical fumigation can also be
%. Extreme xeric conditions hardly allow relative used but steam is the best as it is not selective
humidity to rise to this level in the outer environ- thus attacking all sort of pathogens.
ment, but inside the greenhouse, sufficient water
application and restricted air circulation gear up
and maintain relative humidity at higher level. It 2.3 Types of Glazing Materials
may be increased by keeping pan evaporation. A
mechanical device automatically controls rela- 2.3.1 Glass
tive humidity by periodical sprinkling of water.
Cooling pads are usually installed in low- Glass has been the preferred covering material
humidity and tropical areas. for greenhouses worldwide because of its light
transmissivity characteristics. Transmissivity of
40–50-year-old glass differs a little from that of
2.2.4 Carbon Dioxide Enrichment new glass. Temperature retention in a glasshouse
is pretty good. However, high installation cost is
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the basic ingredient a major limitation. Moreover, due to transporta-
required for manufacturing of organic matter by tion of materials and frequent damage of glasses
process of photosynthesis. In cold arid regions, due to high wind velocity, a glasshouse is
CO2 concentration is below normal (NAEDB discouraged.
2.3.2 Polyethylene 2.4.1 Glasshouse
Plastic polyethylene is the most widely used As its name indicates, glass is used as glazing
greenhouse film around the globe. It is produced material (Fig. 2.1) in this greenhouse. Perhaps
by mixing homopolymers of ethylene with or this is the first and oldest among all types of
without an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor package, greenhouse structures. Glass panels are fitted
but only a UV-stabilized polyethylene sheet is with the help of a wooden or metal frame. It can
recommended because non-UV inhibitor be of any shape and size and it is pretty effective
package-added polyethylene will break down for winter cultivation, but due to increase in day
after 3–5 months due to photochemical reactions. temperature in summer, it becomes unfit for cul-
Polyethylene film is tough, flexible, and rela- tivation during summer. High initial cost, diffi-
tively inexpensive. It can withstand as low as −50 culty in construction, and frequent damage of
°C but 80−90 °C temperature will cause it to glass panels by strong winds are other discourag-
melt. Above 60 °C, it loses much of its strength ing factors. In hilly regions, only a few of such
and may stretch markedly. The life of structures are found for research.
UV-stabilized polyethylene film is 1–3 years.
However, Rigidex polyethylene sheet may be
used for 5–6 years on a trench. 2.4.2 Polyhouse
Ideal features of polyethylene have increased the

2.3.3 Fiberglass-Reinforced use of polyhouses (Fig. 2.2) in place of the glass-
Panel (FRP) house throughout the globe. It has not only
reduced the initial cost but also increased the
These panels consist of fiberglass-reinforced popularity of the greenhouse by simplifying the
polyester. The panels have been very popular in installation technology. Generally, there are two
areas of high light intensity such as Southern types of polyhouses in the hilly region.
USA, but about 10−15 % heat loss due to
increased exposed area makes it unfit for most of 2.4.2.1 Prefabricated Polyhouses
the Indian region. Further, with its age under use, A prefabricated metal structure of convenient
the transparency gets reduced due to yellowing. size is installed and a polyethylene film is cov-
ered over it. This structure is not recommended at
all for the hilly region because of poor tempera-
2.3.4 Polycarbonate Panels ture retention, low crop yield, and high installa-
tion cost (Singh et al. 1998a).
The panels are available in double-skinned
sheets. SDP polycarbonate sheets are similar in 2.4.2.2 Ladakh Polyhouse
physical dimension to the SDP acrylite but are This is one of the innovative and low-cost green-
stronger and have a lower light transmissivity. Its houses of the Ladakh region. It is similar to nor-
price is approximately 25 % higher than SDP mal, but the only difference is its surrounding
acrylite. mud brick wall in place of polyethylene sheets
which not only cuts down the installation cost but
also reduces the adverse effects of strong winds
2.4 Types of Greenhouses and also increases temperature retention and ulti-
mately increases net profit. This is generally the
Various types of greenhouses are also seen in lean type and has three sides made of mud bricks.
India. The brief description of each type is being The back wall is 7 ft in height, while the front has
discussed below. no wall. The length is 32 ft with a width of 16 ft
2.4 Types of Greenhouses 17
Fig. 2.1 Glasshouse
Fig. 2.2 Polyhouse
(Singh et al. 2000). The polyethylene is sup- ene film. The polyethylene is also covered by an
ported on wooden poles and sidewalls. The two additional or woolen or cotton sheet polyethylene
sidewalls are descending toward the front. Jammu film during night to reduce the heat loss during
and Kashmir State Department of Agriculture/ extreme winter. The damage of blowing off the
Horticulture provides cash subsidy besides the polyethylene film by strong winds is minimized
32 × 16-ft polyethylene sheet. This has brought a by putting stones along the sides. Cultural prac-
boost to the greenhouse revolution in Ladakh. tices and other operations are done by removing
the polyethylene sheet from the top of the trench.
The structure does not require much skill in its
2.4.3 Trench (Underground construction and management. Its cost is lowest
Greenhouse) among all other greenhouses, and being an under-
ground structure, heat loss is minimal and
This is a unique, innovative, very simple, cheap, temperature retention is high (Singh and
and useful underground greenhouse structure for Dhaulakhandi 1998) and thus yields good crop.
the hilly region and thus has unlimited potential Strong winds do not affect polyethylene cover
in the region. This may be of any convenient much and hence it is long lasting. This structure
dimension. However, a trench of 30 × 10 × 3-ft is therefore being recommended as the most suit-
size is ideal. In this pit type of structure, wooden able greenhouse for the hilly region (Singh et al.
poles are used to hold UV-stabilized polyethyl- 1998, 2000).
Fig. 2.3 Nylon netting

single-bed tunnels
2.4.4 Plastic Low Tunnel 2.4.5 Double-Wall Polyench
It is a small semi-spherical structure frame made This structure is designed by the Forest Research
of metal, wood, or plastic and covered with poly- Laboratory (FRL), Leh, to harness the soil and
ethylene or fiber-reinforced plastics to create a solar heat for growing the vegetables especially
protected environment (Fig. 2.3). Plastic low tun- during winter months. The polyench refers to a
nels are flexible transparent coverings that are polyhouse erected over a trench where back walls
installed over rows of individual beds of trans- and sidewalls are made up of mud bricks. The
planted vegetables to enhance the plant growth sidewalls are provided with double walls filled
by warming the air around the plants (microcli- with insulating material available locally, i.e.,
mate) in open field during winters. These help in sawdust for better retention of heat inside the
warming the soil and protect the crop against the polyench. The inner walls are painted black to
hails and snow and advance the crop by 30–60 absorb more solar radiation during morning hours.
days than their normal season. This low-cost The structure is also like gable uneven span with
technology is very simple and highly profitable modified roof having a polythene sheet toward
for off-season cultivation and catching the early the sun-facing side and grass thatch support over
market. Generally galvanized iron arches are a wooden frame opposite to the sun-facing side
fixed manually 1.5–2.0 m apart to support the with provision of ventilators in the roof. Since
plastic tunnel. Width and height is kept about locally available material has been used in this
45–60 cm to cover the plant as per the crop greenhouse, the cost is reduced drastically com-
requirement. Transparent non-perforated plastic pared to a normal greenhouse with better efficiency
of 30–50 thickness is sufficient. It partly reflects of temperature retention than the trench and
infrared radiation to keep the temperature of the polyhouse. Considering the wear and tear that
low tunnel higher than outside. Small vents can occurred due to high wind velocity in the hilly
be made at the side of the tunnel to facilitate regions, the polythene sheet has been replaced
proper aeration in tunnel. These structures serve with FRL sheets to increase the life span of the
as a mini greenhouse. This is a temporary struc- structure. The structure has been accepted by the
ture which can easily be shifted to any place. Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council
However, a major problem in tunnels is faced in (LAHDC), and the state government is providing
watering, weeding, and harvesting which involves a subsidy of 50% to the farmers for promoting
removal of cover and again putting them back. the protected cultivation in the Ladakh region.
2.5 Greenhouse Environmental Control 19
Fig. 2.4 Net houses
2.4.6 Multipurpose Nets trol over all these parameters makes a greenhouse
a completely controlled structure.
Shade nets are used to reduce the adverse effect
of scorching sun and heavy rain (Fig. 2.4). Shade
houses are becoming popular for growing crops 2.5.1 Ventilation
and nursery during summer season. Net houses
are used for raising vegetables/fruits/flowers/ A greenhouse is ventilated for either reducing the
medicinal plants in high-rainfall regions. The very high greenhouse air temperatures or for
roof of the structure is covered with suitable clad- replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moder-
ding material, mostly HDPE, which does not ating the relative humidity in the greenhouse. It is
absorb moisture. Slides are made of wire mesh of quite possible to bring greenhouse air tempera-
different gauges 25–90% shade depending upon ture down during spring and autumn seasons by
requirements. Such structures are popular in the providing adequate ventilation for the green-
northeastern region of the country. Similarly house. The ventilation in a greenhouse could
weed nets are made of HDPE and covered on the either be natural or forced. In the case of a small
ground to control the weeds by reducing light on greenhouse (less than 6 m wide), natural ventila-
the soil. Insect-proof nets are effective to reduce tion could be quite effective during spring and
the incidence of a number of pests and viral dis- autumn seasons. However, fan ventilation is
eases in crops. These nets are used like a mos- essential to have precise control over air tempera-
quito net around the crops, having 40–50-mesh tures, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels.
size. Other similar nets include bird protection Orientation of the greenhouse is another impor-
nets to control the bird damage of plants/crops, tant factor. An east–west-oriented freestanding
hail protection nets, reflector nets, etc. greenhouse maintains better winter light level as
compared to a north–south-oriented greenhouse.
Therefore, in northern India, a greenhouse should
2.5 Greenhouse Environmental be oriented in the east–west direction. Gutter-
Control connected greenhouse should be oriented north–
south to avoid continuous shading of certain
A greenhouse is essentially meant to permit at portions of the greenhouse due to structural
least a partial control of microclimate within it. members.
The control of greenhouse environment means A greenhouse structure has three distinct seg-
the control of temperature, light, air composition, ments, i.e., frame, glazing material, and control/
and nature of the root medium. Obviously, a con- monitoring equipment. All the three components
have different designed life periods. Whereas a house roof, it is limited to about 0.05 cm which is
metallic greenhouse frame is designed for a ser- not thick enough. Cooling is most effective when
vice period of 15–25 years, glazing materials cold water is used in the water film.
have a life span of 2–20 years. Control and moni-
toring equipment normally wear out in 5–10 2.5.2.2 Evaporative Cooling (EC)
years. In the prevailing economic conditions, The degree of cooling obtained from an evapora-
where capital is a scarce input, the choice often tive system is directly related to the wet-bulb
favors a low-initial-investment greenhouse. depression that occurs with a given set of climate
Galvanized mild steel pipe as a structural mem- conditions. EC systems are most effective in
ber in association with wide-width UV-stabilized areas where a consistently low relative humidity
polyethylene film is a common option selected exists.
by greenhouse designers.
A 600–800-gauge-thick polyethylene film can 2.5.2.3 Fan and Pad System (F & P)
safely withstand normal wind loads prevailing in It is adaptable to both large and small green-
most parts of the country. A single-piece polyeth- houses. In this system, low-velocity and large-
ylene film to cover a greenhouse is preferred due volume fans draw air through wet fibrous pads
to material economy, easy handling, and mounted on the opposite side or end wall of the
improved environmental control. An 800-gauge- greenhouse. The outside air is cooled by evapora-
thick polyethylene film costs approximately Rs. tion to 20 °C of the wet-bulb temperature. Either
60–80/m2 and has a service span of 2–5 years. vertical or horizontal pads can be used in the F &
The selection of greenhouse equipment P systems. However, vertical pads accumulate
depends on local climate conditions and the crops salts and sag rand; thus, they create openings that
to be grown. A heating unit is a must in cold allow hot air to enter the greenhouse. Various
regions and a cooling unit is required in almost materials, viz., gravel, pine bark, straw, burlap,
all climates in India. aspen wood fiber (shredded Populus tremuloides
mats), honeycomb paper, etc., can be used for the
pad. However, pumice and volcanic rock (1–4 cm
2.5.2 Cooling Systems in diameter) are reported to function very
satisfactorily.
While ventilation may be used for cooling during
autumn and spring seasons, other methods have 2.5.2.4 High-Pressure Mist System
to be employed for cooling during summers. Water is sprayed into the air above the plants at
Roof shading helps in cooling the greenhouses. pressures of 35–70 kg/cm2 from low-capacity
The amount of solar radiant energy entering the nozzles (1.8–2.8 L/h). Although most of the mist
greenhouse can be reduced by applying opaque evaporates before reaching the plant level, some
coatings directly to the glazing or by placing of the water settles on the foliage where it reduces
wood or aluminum over the glazing. Commercial leaf temperatures.
shading compounds or mixtures prepared with
paint pigments are preferred for this purpose. 2.5.2.5 Low-Pressure Mist System
White compounds are preferred for they reflect a Misting with water pressure at less than 7 kg/cm2
maximum amount of sunlight, 83 % versus 43 % has achieved an air temperature that is 5 °C cooler
for green and 25 % for blue or purple. in a greenhouse compared to natural ventilation.
The water droplets from a low-pressure misting
2.5.2.1 Water Film system are quite large and do not evaporate
on the Greenhouse Cover quickly. Leaching of nutrients from the foliage
To absorb infrared radiation, a water layer must and the soil is a serious drawback of using this
be at least 1.0 cm thick. But on a sloping green- technique.
2.6 Future Thrusts 21
2.5.3 Humidity Control house. The heating systems should not only raise
the greenhouse temperatures but should also
For most crops, the acceptable range of relative achieve uniformity of temperature distribution.
humidity is between 50 % and 80 %. However, Therefore, placement of heating units and the
for plant propagation work, relative humidity up type of distribution system to be selected are
to 90 % may be desirable. Humidification in important.
summers can be achieved in conjunction with
greenhouse cooling by employing appropriate 2.5.4.2 Heating Systems Based
evaporative cooling methods, such as fan–pad on Nonconventional Energy
and fogging systems. Sometimes during winters, Sources
when sensible heat is being added to raise the A number of active solar heating have been
greenhouse air temperature during nights, the developed for the greenhouse during the last two
relative humidity level might fall below the decades in order to reduce the dependence of the
acceptable limit. greenhouse industry on conventional fuels. The
normal components of a solar heating system are
solar collector, heat transfer medium, heat
2.5.4 Greenhouse Heating exchanger, and heat storage. Biogas, generated
from agricultural wastes/residues, can also be
There are essentially three main categories of used for greenhouse heating.
efforts needed to maintain desirable greenhouse
temperatures during winter: 2.5.4.3 Design of Passive Solar
Greenhouse
• Design of energy-efficient greenhouse with A passive solar greenhouse is one which not only
passive solar heating components. attempts to capture maximum solar energy but
• Design of active heating systems based on also minimizes the unwanted thermal exchange
renewable energy sources such as solar and between the greenhouse and the surroundings in
biogas. order to maintain desirable temperatures. The
• Design of an active heating system based on following points summarize the useful results so
conventional fuels. far:
• While the conventional fuel-based heating
systems are many and dependable, the other • A greenhouse should be oriented east–west.
two categories of efforts are still evolving. • The north side of a greenhouse structure
should be thermally insulated.
• The north side of a greenhouse facing the crop
2.5.4.1 Heating Systems Based should be covered with a reflective surface so
on Conventional Fuels that the sunlight incident on it from the south
Traditionally, glass greenhouses have been side is reflected on to the crops.
heated by hot water systems. Most of the larger
commercial greenhouses are heated with some
type of boiler system. Gas-fired unit heaters for
greenhouse heating deliver heat at approximately 2.6 Future Thrusts
half of the cost of the steam/hot water systems.
The hot air is distributed through a perforated Greenhouse technology development has made
polytube running along the greenhouse length. good progress in India during the last two
Electric heaters, both radiative and convective, decades, and steps necessary for promoting
are simple and convenient to control. But, the greenhouse cultivation of flower and vegetable
nonavailability of electricity and its high cost crops have been started. Energy-efficient green-
limit its use to small and/or experimental greenhouse cultivation continues to be an area of active
research and development, and this is sought to • Vocational training to the unemployed youth
be achieved through precision equipment and and greenhouse practitioners in remote areas
protocols. While the gap between the demand to update their skills in this technology.
and supply of most horticultural crops remains • Financial assistance such as low-interest loans
wide and the country plans to double the produc- should be made available for poor farmers to
tion of horticultural crops by 2012, the protected adopt this technology.
cultivation technology holds the key to meet the • Insurance of greenhouse structure and crop to
targets. It clearly emerges that greenhouse tech- protect the farmers against the loss caused by
nology has multipurpose application for sustain- natural calamities.
able development of a hilly zone. During harsh • Rigorous extension program to disseminate
winter which otherwise threatens the survival of the technology information to the poorest of
human beings in these remote hilly areas, popu- the society.
larization and further improvements in green-
house management could provide a sign of relief
in solitude of white snow cover. Thrust areas for
future research are enumerated below: References
• Conservation of more thermal radiation in Chandra P, Panwar J (1987) Greenhouse technology and
winter. its scope in India. In: Proceedings of the national sym-
• Durable infrastructure modeling. posium on use of plastics in agriculture, New Delhi,
pp 62–66
• Development of successful commercial Hanan JJ, Honey WD, Goldsberry KL (1978) Greenhose
models. management. Springer, New York
• Modernization of polygreenhouse to permit NAEDB (1992) Action plans on cold deserts: an inte-
agroclimatic manipulations of higher grated approach for sustainable development.
NAEDB, UHF, Solan – 173230 (HP)
magnitude. Singh B, Dhaulakhandi AB (1998) Application of solar
• Identification of new crops/varieties suitable greenhouse for vegetable production in cold desert. In:
for cultivation inside the greenhouse. Proceedings of world renewable energy congress,
• Socioeconomic impacts of polygreenhouse Florence, V:2311–2314
Singh B, Dwivedi SK, Paljor Eli (1998a) Studies on suit-
technology in hilly region/cold arid zone. ability of various structures for winter vegetable pro-
• Plastic films of suitable grades need to be duction at subzero temperatures (Abstr). In: 25th
made available in adequate quantity. Indian horticulture congress, Belgium, p 290
• Development of area-specific suitable green- Singh B, Dwivedi SK, Singh N, Paljor Eli (1998b)
Sustainable horticultural practices for cold arid areas.
house designs. In: International symposium on sustainable agricul-
• Standardization of package of practices for ture in Hill areas (Abstr). Himachal Pradesh Krishi
growing various crops in greenhouse for spe- Vidyapeeth, Palampur, pp 35–36
cific regions. Singh B, Dwivedi SK, Sharma JP (2000) Greenhouse
technology and winter vegetable production in cold
• Varieties suitable for greenhouse cultivation arid zone. In: Sharma JP, Mir AA (eds) Dynamics of
need to be made available to enhance the cold and agriculture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,
productivity. pp 279–293
Crop Protection
3
Abstract
Year-round warm temperatures and relatively high humidity and abundant
food make the protected environment of greenhouses highly favorable to
pests and diseases. While much is known about disease epidemiology and
insect behavior, scant attention, however, has been paid to the manipula-
tion of greenhouse environments expressly to avoid disease epidemics and
insect infestations, which together can easily account for 30 % crop losses.
This makes the control of pests and diseases in protected crops even more
challenging, with many important problems being unresolved and new
ones arising as the industry undergoes more changes in production sys-
tems. The topics discussed in this chapter include location and orientation
of greenhouse, structures and equipment, factors stimulating sustainable
crop protection, managing crop pests and diseases, managing the crop
environment, cultural techniques, and factors favorable to pest and disease
development.
Keywords
Pests • Diseases • Structures • Equipment • Pest management
3.1 Introduction technological changes are ultimately intended to

reduce production costs and maximize profits,
The purpose of growing crops under greenhouse precise environmental and nutritional control
conditions is to extend their cropping season and pushes plants to new limits of growth and pro-
to protect them from adverse environmental con- ductivity. This can generate chronic stress condi-
ditions, such as extreme temperatures and pre- tions, which are difficult to measure but
cipitation, and from diseases and pests (Hanan apparently conducive to some pests and diseases.
et al. 1978). Quality is a high priority for green- Historically, not enough attention has been paid
house crops, requiring much care in pest and dis- to exploiting and amending production technology
ease management, not only to secure yields but for the control of pests and diseases. This makes
also to obtain a high cosmetic standard. Although the control of pests and diseases in protected

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_3
24 3 Crop Protection
crops even more challenging, with many impor- insecticides, native natural enemies become very
tant problems being unresolved and new ones rare, and natural control loses effectiveness.
arising as the industry undergoes more changes Unexpected and high pest pressure from the out-
in production systems. side makes biological control very difficult.
Greenhouses were initially built in areas with Under such conditions, a more holistic approach
long, cold seasons to produce off-season vegeta- would consider the fields outside the greenhouse
bles, flowers, and ornamental plants. Northern and the crop inside the greenhouse as a single
Europe is the paradigm of pioneering areas of entity for applying integrated strategies against
greenhouse cultivation. The development of pests and diseases. Programs for conserving
international exchanges of agricultural products native or introduced natural enemies in the area
and the availability of a variety of cheap plastic should both lower pest pressure on greenhouse
materials for covering simple structures have led crops and incorporate beneficial fauna into the
to a spectacular increase in the area of protected outside–inside greenhouse cycle of the pest–nat-
crops in warmer regions like the Mediterranean ural enemy complex.
basin and East and Southeast Asia (Wittwer and Additionally, the international trade in orna-
Castilla 1995). These new regions are commonly mental and flower plants facilitates the spread of
characterized by low or irregular annual precipi- pests and diseases around the world and their
tation and poor vegetation development. The establishment in new areas. In Europe, for exam-
insertion of greenhouse patches leads to drastic ple, at least 40 new pests have been recorded in
changes in the structure and ecology of the land- protected crops in the last 25 years. The increas-
scape. In early stages of greenhouse cultivation in ing complexity of pest and disease problems and
a new area, greenhouses are isolated spots, like the high cosmetic standards of vegetable, orna-
oases, where some phytophagous insects find mental, and flower products have led growers to
good seasonal conditions for rapid increases in apply intensive preventive chemical programs,
density. But optimal weather and host plant con- which result in pests and pathogens becoming
ditions rarely last throughout the year and for a resistant to the most frequently used pesticides in
few months – usually the hottest – the increase in a few years, which, in turn, increases control
the herbivore population is interrupted. When costs. In southern Spain, the average cost of pes-
greenhouses become more common in the area, ticide application in 1992 in protected vegetables
the mosaic pattern may evolve to a large area of was estimated as US$ 0.14/m2 (16.5 % of the
protected crops, with a succession of crops total production cost) (Cabello and Cañero 1994),
throughout most of the year and with polypha- and several whitefly, thrips, aphid, and fungus
gous pests. These pests are able to feed on many species are suspected to be resistant to several
agricultural plants and migrate between green- active ingredients. A similar figure is valid for
houses. Additionally, field crops may be excel- Italy, where the most sophisticated structures are
lent refuges for pests in hot seasons, when the located in the northern part of the country: pesti-
temperature is too high for greenhouse cultivation. cides are widely applied and pest and disease
This has several consequences, as the immigra- resistance is quite widespread (Gullino 1992). In
tion of pests into the greenhouse causes sudden the Netherlands, pest and disease control costs
and largely unpredictable pest density increases. for vegetables are still limited and are normally
Exotic pests quickly become established, below 3 % of the total costs to produce a crop
especially if ornamental plants are cultivated. (van Lenteren 1995).
Polyphagous pests (like whiteflies; spider mites; As control costs increase, pesticide resistance
thrips; leaf miners; several aphid species, espe- spreads, and consumers become aware of the
cially Aphis gossypii; leaf-eating caterpillars; and risks of pesticide residues in fresh vegetables, a
soil worms), which may exploit several crops strong demand for nonchemical control methods
successively, become prevalent. As pest densities is emerging in many countries. Integrated sys-
increase, crops are increasingly sprayed with tems for greenhouse pest and disease control
3.3 Structures and Equipment 25
have been developed and implemented in north- insects and diseases proliferate in shaded areas
ern Europe and Canada, but implementation is and on stunted plants.
still cumbersome in other parts of the world. The environs of the greenhouse may be reser-
voirs of pathogens and pests. Greenhouses are
often in an arable area, with trash piles, weeds,
3.2 Location and Orientation and crops botanically related to the crop being
of Greenhouse grown in the greenhouse to provide ample inocu-
lums and infestations of pathogen vectors (Jarvis
On a worldwide basis, commercial greenhouse 1992). Entry into the greenhouse can be rapid
production is concentrated in regions between and on a massive scale: windblown dust carries
25° and 65° latitude where the climate is moder- spores and bacteria, air currents with or without
ate and local weather patterns are favorable. At forced ventilation carry spores and viruliferous
high latitudes solar irradiance is low, day length insects from trash piles and weeds, water runoff
is short, and temperatures are low during the win- into the greenhouse can carry soilborne patho-
ter months resulting in poor growth and increased gens such as Pythium and Phytophthora species
susceptibility to disease. Under such conditions, and chytrid vectors of viruses, and dirt on feet
diapauses of predatory insects may make biologi- and machinery carries pathogens. A foot bath
cal control difficult. At low latitudes, high solar containing a disinfectant reduces this latter risk
irradiance stresses crops making them more sus- when placed at the doorway. To surround green-
ceptible to disease. More outside ventilation air is houses by a 10-m band of weed-free lawn and to
required which brings with it more pathogen eliminate trash piles may prevent or delay pest
propagules and insect pests. and pathogen inoculum entrance into green-
Within any given region, the location of a par- houses. Though whitefly-proof screens can keep
ticular greenhouse operation makes a significant out most insects (and keep in pollinator insects),
difference in the management of disease and fungal spores and bacteria cannot be excluded.
insect problems. Field crops and natural vegeta- Diseases of tomato such as Verticillium wilt,
tion growing in close proximity to a greenhouse Fusarium crown and root rot, and bacterial can-
create disease and insect pressure, especially if ker are often first noticed directly beneath root
those crops and the vegetation are susceptible to vents or just inside doorways, as is the Diabrotica-
the same disease and insect pests as the green- borne bacterial wilt of cucumber (Erwinia
house crop. This pressure is intensified when tracheiphila).
pathogen propagules are stirred up by field oper- Overlapping of cropping, i.e., raising seed-
ations or when the outdoor crop is harvested or lings and transplants alongside production crops,
senesces and insects are forced to find a new host. is unsound hygiene, inviting infection and infes-
Low temperatures force insects to seek out tation of the new crop from large reservoirs in the
warmer climates indoors. On the other hand, old crop.
freezing outdoor temperatures reduce pest pres-
sures by inactivating pathogens and arthropod
pests. Insects and pathogen propagules are car- 3.3 Structures and Equipment
ried into greenhouses through vents and doors by
wind. By locating a greenhouse away from and/ The low-cost, low-height, plastic film-covered
or upwind of outdoor crops, many pest problems structures that are often first built by growers
can be reduced to manageable levels. provide some protection from outdoor weather
Out of concern for maximizing productivity and pests, but without any means for climate con-
and crop uniformity, greenhouses are oriented trol, conditions inside are often more favorable
toward east–west for maximum light penetration. for diseases and pests than outside. Higher struc-
Achieving good lighting uniformity over the tures with more substantial framing members
course of a day is important for IPM because are required to accommodate climate control
equipment. Increased gutter heights have also of climate influence on pests and natural enemies
been beneficial for IPM because they increase the concerns the spider mite and its predator
height that insects and pathogen propagules must Phytoseiulus persimilis: low humidity regimes
be transported by wind to find their way into may constrain effective use of P. persimilis
greenhouses through vents. With larger com- (Stenseth 1979). In high-tech greenhouses, regu-
plexes and the economies of scale they provide, it lation of temperature and water pressure deficit
is feasible to incorporate features in a greenhouse enables the creation of conditions less favorable
design that favor IPM. to pathogens and, in some cases, more favorable
Separate foot baths, refuse handling facilities, to biocontrol agents. The use of heating to limit
concrete floors, mat, etc. which reduce the trans- development of a number of pathogens is well
port of insects and pathogen propagules into the known (Jarvis 1992): however, heating is not
growing areas can be justified. The costs of pres- economically feasible in all greenhouse systems.
sure washing equipment and specialized potting Recently, with the development of soilless sys-
and growing medium sterilizing equipment are tems, the effect of managing the temperature of
easier to justify. Also, for large-scale operations, the circulating solution has been studied and has
it is feasible to have separate propagation facili- proven to be effective against certain pathogens.
ties specially designed for the production of The use of high root temperatures in winter-grown
disease-free transplants. On the other hand, tomatoes in rock wool offers a nonchemical
because of the increased number of nooks and method of controlling root rot caused by
crannies, it is more difficult to eradicate insects Phytophthora cryptogea. The high temperature
and disease propagules from large complexes was shown to enhance root growth while simulta-
once they have gained a foothold. neously suppressing inoculum potential and
infection and, consequently, reducing or prevent-
ing aerial symptoms (Kennedy and Pegg 1990).
3.3.1 Greenhouse Design Careful control of the temperature also proved
important in the case of hydroponically grown
The greenhouse design (particularly its height, spinach and lettuce, in which it prevented or
shape, opening systems, and cladding material) reduced attack by both Pythium dissotocum and
strongly influences climatic conditions inside, P. aphanidermatum (Bates and Stanghellini
thus having a profound impact on pest and dis- 1984). Recently, attacks of P. aphanidermatum
ease development. Plastic houses almost always on nutrient film technique (NFT)-grown lettuce
have a more humid climate and large diurnal tem- in Italy were related to the high temperature (>29
perature variation and are more difficult to venti- °C) of the nutrient solution. Root rot was inhib-
late. Typically, they result in more problems with ited by reducing the temperature below 24 °C
high humidity-dependent diseases, such as gray (Carrai 1993).
mold, downy mildews, and rusts (Jarvis 1992).
Regulating the atmosphere throughout the day
and night is important for disease control and for 3.3.2 Cladding Material/Covers
reducing the total amount of chemicals sprayed.
This has been demonstrated in the case of gray With respect to the cladding material used, in
mold (Botrytis cinerea) in tomato (Gullino et al. some cases a possible effect on diseases has been
1991) and cucumber (Yunis et al. 1994) and of reported, mostly through the direct influence of
downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) in lettuce radiation on sporulation (Jarvis 1992). Certain
(Morgan 1984). UV-absorbing plastic coverings for greenhouses
The influence of greenhouse structures and that absorb light at 340 nm have been exploited to
covers on greenhouse climatic regimes may have inhibit the sporulation of Sclerotinia sclerotio-
strong consequences for pests and their natural rum (Honda and Yunoki 1977) and species of
enemies, as they have for diseases. A typical case Alternaria and Botrytis squamosa (Sasaki et al.
1985). Reuveni et al. (1989) observed a reduction around the perimeter and under gutters in hot
in the number of infection sites of B. cinerea on water and steam-heated greenhouses is required
tomato and cucumber when a UV-absorbing to prevent cold spots where diseases are prone to
material was added to polyethylene film to develop.
increase the ratio of blue light to transmitted UV
light. Recently, blue photoselective polyethylene
sheets have been suggested for their ability to 3.3.4 Misting Systems
reduce gray mold on tomato (Reuveni and Raviv
1992) and downy mildew on cucumber (Reuveni A common reason for failure of biological dis-
and Raviv 1997). Green-pigmented polyethylene ease and insect controls early in the greenhouse
reduced the conidial load and gray mold in com- growing season, and later on when outdoor con-
mercial tomato and cucumber greenhouses by ditions become hot and dry, is very low humidity
35–75 %. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on cucumber, levels in the greenhouse air. Under these condi-
Fulvia fulva (= Cladosporium fulvum) on tomato, tions, transpiration of the crop is not adequate to
and cucumber powdery mildew were also maintain humidity levels in the optimum range
reduced (Elad 1997). for biological controls, and it is necessary to add
Ideally, a cover material should have a low humidity to the air. Under hot and dry conditions,
ultraviolet (UV) transmission to inhibit sporula- addition of humidity to the greenhouse has the
tion of fungi. Depending on latitude and local added benefit of evaporative cooling the green-
climate, some cover materials have been found house air.
better than others for IPM. Glass, as a covering
material, does transmit the UV radiation neces-
sary for the sporulation of fungi and has rela- 3.3.5 Ventilation Systems
tively high air leakage which can lead to very low
humidity during cold periods with high heat In actively and passively ventilated greenhouses,
demand. During these periods, it is necessary to the pressure differential between inside and out-
humidify glass greenhouses to ensure the contin- side is usually negative, and it is easy for airborne
ued activity of biological control agents. pathogens and insects to enter the greenhouse,
Polyethylene is the preferred greenhouse cover particularly if doors and ventilators are left open
material at lower latitudes where high photosyn- in hot weather. In special circumstances where it
thetically active radiation (PAR) transmission is is essential to exclude pests and disease propa-
not as critical and where retention of humidity for gules, it may be necessary to maintain a positive
IPM is important. Some manufacturers include pressure differential. With such a ventilation
admixtures in their polyethylene films to block system, air can be filtered as it is drawn into the
the UV wavelengths necessary for sporulation of greenhouse to remove insects, but removing air-
fungi. During cool wet periods, high humidity borne fungal spores and bacteria is impracticable.
and condensation on the underside of polyethyl- With a positive pressure differential, there are
ene films is a problem that can lead to indiscrimi- fewer tendencies for infiltration of insects and
nate dripping and spread of diseases in the crop. disease propagules from outside through cracks
in the greenhouse cover.
3.3.3 Heating Systems

3.3.6 Thermal/Shade Curtains
A carefully designed heating system to maintain
air and root zone temperatures close to recom- Thermal curtains and shade curtains are gener-
mended levels is essential for an effective IPM ally beneficial for IPM because they reduce the
program in greenhouses. During very cold extremes in climate that stress the crop and
weather, operation of additional heating pipes biological controls. Moveable shading systems
(Jewett and Short 1992) are also useful for tion, but this only helps to pull whiteflies through
acclimatizing crops and biological controls to the screen, while exhausting air from the screen-
rapidly changing solar radiation conditions. house increases the intake of small insects.
Currently available greenhouse control soft- Application of positive air pressure, pushing
ware enables greenhouse operators to schedule air into the structure through an insect-proof fil-
climate set points for the conditions that they ter, reduces whitefly influx (Berlinger and
believe are best for production and IPM. Lebiush-Mordechi 1995).
Thus, while screens can reduce immigrant
populations of pests, they also reduce the immi-
3.3.7 Insect Screening gration of beneficial arthropods. In neither case
exclusion is total. Screens are disadvantageous in
In the Mediterranean basin, protecting crops that temperatures and humidities tend to rise,
from arthropods is regarded as more important promoting plant stress and susceptibility to dis-
than protecting them from the weather, so the eases, and they also reduce light. Access to the
physical exclusion of insects from the green- greenhouse by workers and machinery is more
house should help in reducing the incidence of difficult.
direct crop damage and also of insect-transmitted Various types of screens and plastic covers
virus diseases; theoretically, this exclusion can be have been developed to protect crops from
done by fitting fabric screens of mesh aperture insects; the challenge for the grower is to match
smaller than the insects’ body width over ventila- the proper type of screen to local insect
tors and doorways or by insect-repellent fabrics, populations.
but in practice there still can be significant insect
penetration. Moreover, screens impede ventila- 3.3.7.1 Woven Screens
tion and reduce light transmission, so compro- The conventional woven screens are made from
mises in the management of light, temperature, plain woven plastic yarns. Weaving leaves gaps
and humidity are necessary to avoid adverse (slots) between the yarns both in the warp and in
effects on crops and their susceptibility to the weft. In commercial screens the slot is rectan-
diseases. gular whose width must be smaller than the
Screens do not suppress or eradicate pests; whitefly’s body size, about 0.2 nm, but it must
they merely exclude most of them. Therefore, allow maximum air and light transmission.
they must be installed prior to their appearance, Elongating the slot to improve ventilation is not
and supplementary pest control measures, such feasible, since the threads slide apart, allowing
as biocontrol, are still required (Berlinger et al. insect penetration.
1988). Insect parasitoids and predators that are Bethke and Pain (1991) found that screens
smaller than their prey can still immigrate designed to exclude Bemisia tabaci still permit-
through pest screens into the greenhouse, but ted some to penetrate and they failed to exclude
larger ones have to be introduced. Since they Frankliniella occidentalis. They did, however,
offer an economical method of biological control exclude larger insects such as moths, beetles, leaf
of pests, they must be preserved, and destructive miners, aphids, and leafhoppers, and they
insecticides should be avoided. Screens impede retained bumble bee pollinators.
ventilation (Baker and Shearin 1994), resulting in
overheating and increased humidity. Increased 3.3.7.2 Unwoven Sheets
humidity necessitates more frequent fungicide These are made of porous, unwoven polyester
sprays than were required previously in an and polypropylene or of clear, micro-perforated,
unscreened greenhouse. In Israel, 5–6 sprays per polyethylene fabric. All are very light materials
season (as opposed to 2–3 previously) are which can be applied loosely and directly over
required in screened greenhouses. To minimize transplants or seeded soil, without the need of
these harmful effects, growers add forced ventila- mechanical support. They have been used primarily
in the open field, in early spring, and as spun- 1995), the insect’s ability to pass through any
bonded row covers, to enhance plant growth and barrier could not be predicted solely from tho-
to increase yield. At the same time, they also racic width and mesh size (Bethke and Pain
proved to protect plants from insects. A polypro- 1991). There is an unexpectedly high rate of
pylene perforated sheet protected tomatoes from whitefly penetration resulting from a great vari-
tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) transmis- ability among the samples of the same screen
sion by B. tabaci (Berlinger et al. 1988). resulting from uneven and slipping weave.
3.3.7.3 Knitted Screens

Because of irregularity in the shape of the holes, 3.3.9 Thrips Exclusion
whiteflies are not excluded. Reducing slot size to
block whiteflies reduced ventilation to an imprac- Whitefly-proof (50-mesh) woven screens are by
tical level. However, knitted screens can exclude far the most widely used covers for the exclusion
larger insects. of whiteflies and bigger insects. In laboratory
tests, thrips, with a body width of only 245 μm,
3.3.7.4 Knitted–Woven Screen moved freely through this screen. However, in
This plastic screen is produced by a technique the field, a high proportion (50 %) is excluded,
that combines knitting and weaving. The slot is possibly because of the optical features of the
almost three times longer than in the commercial plastic (Berlinger et al. 1993).
woven screen, while the width is smaller than the Western flower thrips are strongly affected by
whitefly body size. The insect cannot pass, but color. Loose shading net of aluminum color,
ventilation is improved. A laboratory test con- through which even whiteflies penetrated freely
firmed the screen’s high blockage capacity for in the laboratory test, was tested in the field and
whiteflies, which was similar to that of a conven- in a walk-in tunnel. The aluminum screen reduced
tional screen (0.1 % vs. 0.5 % penetration, thrips penetration by 55 % over an identically
respectively). shading net but white in color (Berlinger et al.
1993). The closer aluminum fabric is placed
3.3.7.5 UV-Absorbing Plastic Sheets around the entrance, the more effectively it works
The unconfirmed reports claim that UV-absorbing (Mcintyre et al. 1996).
plastic sheets protect crops from insect pests and
virus diseases vectored by insects, by modifying
insect behavior (Antignus et al. 1996). 3.3.10 Operation and Maintenance
Nevertheless, these UV-absorbing plastic sheets of Equipment
have become available for commercial use.
Proper operation and maintenance of climate
control equipment is essential for healthy crops
3.3.8 Whitefly Exclusion and avoidance of disease and insect problems in
greenhouses. Mistakes in climate control settings
The sweet potato whitefly (B. tabaci) is a small or failures of key pieces of equipment can lead to
insect, about 0.2 mm wide, which transmits devastating losses in a matter of minutes. Even if
TYLCV, and has become the limiting factor in such events do not cause immediate crop losses,
vegetable and flower production in Israel (Cohen physiological, disease, and insect problems often
and Berlinger 1986). Its physical exclusion from show up some time later. The key to avoiding
greenhouses is crucial, and accordingly whitefly- such problems is skilled operators and preventive
proof screens were developed (Berlinger et al. maintenance programs. Insect screens have to be
1991). While the rate of whitefly exclusion is repaired if damaged. Also, insect screens have to
generally proportional to the screen’s mesh be cleaned periodically to prevent blockages of
(R2 = 0.85) (Berlinger and Lebiush-Mordechi light and airflow.
3.3.11 Worker Education Some soil substitutes and soilless systems do not
always provide sufficient competition for patho-
For an effective IPM program, greenhouse work- gens, due to their limited microflora.
ers have to be trained to recognize nutrient defi- High host plant densities and the resulting
ciencies and disease and insect problems and to microclimate are favorable to disease spread. Air
take appropriate action. Personal protective gear, exchange with the outside is restricted, so water
disinfectants, disposal bins, markers, etc. have to vapor transpired by the plants and evaporated
be made available to workers so that they can from warm soil tends to accumulate, creating a
play their part in an IPM program. In large opera- low vapor pressure deficit (high humidity).
tions, it is necessary to have a large site map of Therefore, the environment is generally warm,
the greenhouses and a good record keeping sys- humid, and wind free inside the greenhouse.
tem so that disease and pest outbreaks as well as Such an environment promotes the fast growth
control actions that have been taken can be noted of most crops, but it is also ideal for the develop-
for the information of all greenhouse staff. New ment of bacterial and fungal diseases (Jarvis 1992),
decision support software programs (Clarke et al. of insects vectoring viruses, and of herbivorous
1994) offer great potential for education of work- insects. For bacteria and many fungi (causal
ers and record keeping of all greenhouse activi- agents of rusts, downy mildews, anthracnose, gray
ties, including IPM. mold, etc.), infection is usually accomplished in a
film or drop of water on the plant surface. Unless
temperature, humidity, and ventilation are well
3.4 Factors Favorable to Pest regulated, this surface water can persist in the
and Disease Development greenhouse until infection becomes assured.
Many of the energy-saving procedures
Well-grown and productive crops are generally adopted during the past three decades are favor-
less susceptible to diseases, but in many cases able to disease development, since they favor
compromises have to be made between optimum increases in relative humidity (Jarvis 1992), but
conditions for economic productivity and condi- they may lead to pest suppression as tempera-
tions for disease and pest prevention. Well- tures are generally somewhat lower.
fertilized and irrigated crops are, however, often Most greenhouse crops are labor-intensive
more sensitive to pests, like aphids, whiteflies, and for long periods require daily routine opera-
and leaf miners. tions (such as tying, pruning, and harvesting).
Ground bed crops are rarely rotated, so soil- The risks of spreading pathogens through work-
borne pathogens and pests pupating in the soil ers and machinery are increased by the risks
accumulate if the soil is not disinfested. Soil dis- deriving from accidental wounds and from the
infestations, although effective, create a “biologi- exposure of large areas of tissues by pruning.
cal vacuum” (Katan 1984). Major changes in Greenhouses are designed to protect crops
cultural techniques include the use of hydroponic from many adverse conditions, but most patho-
and soilless cultures and artificial substrates con- gens and several pests are impossible to exclude.
trolled by computerized systems. Although these Windblown spores and aerosols containing bac-
changes are ultimately intended to reduce pro- teria enter doorways and ventilators; soilborne
duction costs and maximize profits, precise envi- pathogens enter in windblown dust and adhere to
ronmental and nutritional control that pushes footwear and machinery. Aquatic fungi can be
plants to new limits of growth and productivity present in irrigation water; insects that enter the
can generate chronic stress conditions, which are greenhouse can transmit viruses and can carry
difficult to measure but are apparently conducive bacteria and fungi as well. Once inside a green-
to diseases caused by pathogens such as house, pathogens and pests are difficult to
Penicillium spp. or Pythium spp. (Jarvis 1989). eradicate.
3.5 Managing Crop Pests and Diseases 31
3.5 Managing Crop Pests warmed up, and insulating mulch materials put
and Diseases down later.
Where two or more monocrops are grown
3.5.1 Sanitation each year, overlapping of transplant production
and marketable crop production means that pest
After genetic resistance, prophylaxis is by far the and pathogen populations are perpetuated unless
most effective and cheapest way of escaping special care is taken to keep the young and crop-
major disease epidemics and pest infestations. It ping plants entirely separate. There is further risk
reduces the need for multiple applications of pes- if adjacent field crops constitute a reservoir of
ticides (which stress the crop), the risks of pesti- pathogens and pests.
cide resistance, and pesticide contamination of
the produce, the operator, and the environment.
Physical screening against immigrant pests, 3.5.3 Spacing
which is coupled with aggressive control of
insects in the environs of the greenhouse and in Close horizontal and vertical spacing of plants
adjacent weeds and field crops, is very effective both on the bench and in the ground bed invites
prophylaxis against both direct damage and rapid plant-to-plant spread of walking insects and
insect-transmitted diseases. Some growers rely of pathogens as diverse as Pythium spp., tomato
on old crop prunings to perpetuate populations of mosaic virus, Clavibacter michiganensis ssp.
biocontrol insects. This is not a good practice michiganensis (= Corynebacterium michi-
because they constitute a reservoir of pathogens ganense ssp. michiganense), the downy mildews,
and non-parasitized pests. New introductions of and B. cinerea (Burdon et al. 1989). The agents
biocontrol insects are a better practice. of virus spread are mainly water and soil splash,
Reducing inoculum is also important in early insects, and workers handling plants with con-
crop management (Jarvis 1992), with such tactics taminated tools and fingers (Thresh 1982). Since
as quarantine, seed disinfestations, the use of air movement is restricted in dense plantings, the
healthy mother plants for cuttings, micro- movement of airborne propagules is restricted,
propagation, removing and properly disposing of giving patchy distribution of diseases (Burdon
all previous crop debris, pasteurizing or solariz- et al. 1989) and insects.
ing soil and soilless media, and disinfesting the
greenhouse structure, benches, trays, stakes, and
other materials. 3.5.4 Growing Medium
Disinfectants include formaldehyde (as for-
malin) and hypochlorites, but both materials are Soilborne diseases are no less prevalent in soil-
hazardous to humans and residues are phyto- less substrates than in soil (Jarvis 1992). All sub-
toxic. A persulfate oxidizing agent (Virkon; strates must be substantially free of insects and
Antec International), however, destroys viruses pathogens at planting and must be kept so
and microorganisms without such side effects throughout the life of the crop, thus demanding a
(Avikainen et al. 1993). high standard of hygiene.
Soils are usually heavily amended with peat,
farmyard manure, straw, or crop residues.
3.5.2 Crop Scheduling Plowing or rotovating the soil should be done in
order to comminute plant root debris and other
Where there is risk of diseases more destructive organic matter and so expose pathogen propagules
in cool soils, for example, Fusarium crown and to natural biological control. Getting the soil into
root rot and corky root rot of tomatoes, trans- good tilth with optimum temperature, water con-
planting should be delayed until the root zone has tent, and aeration promotes this microbial activity.
Soils also harbor several insects, such as pupae of foliage density at the expense of flowers and fruit
leaf miners and thrips, as well as fungus gnat and not only reduce yield but tend to lower the vapor
shore fly larvae, both of which vector Pythium pressure deficit (VPD) in the boundary layer by
and Fusarium spp. Their populations, as well as restricting transpiration and wind-assisted evapo-
populations of predatory microarthropods, are ration and consequently increase the risks of
determined by soil organic matter, soil type, and infection.
pore size (Vreeken-Buis et al. 1998). Populations High nitrogen rates in fertilizers generally
of omnivorous Collembola and non-cryptostig- increase foliage density and softness, with
matic mites, for example, are enhanced by the increasing susceptibility to leaf and flower patho-
organic matter usually plentifully added to green- gens. For example, Hobbs and Waters (1964)
house soils. Fungal parasites of insects and nem- found a quadratic increase in gray mold (B. cine-
atodes are also encouraged in soils of good tilth. rea) in chrysanthemum flowers (Dendranthema
The root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita, grandiflora) with nitrogen supplied with 1.5, 3.8,
however, survives at 1–2 m well below soil dis- and 6 g/m2. Nitrate nitrogen combined with lim-
turbance levels (Johnson and McKeen 1973). ing gives excellent control of Fusarium wilt of
Most substrates can be fumigated or heat- several crops (Jones et al. 1989). Because of its
sterilized, but pasteurization to about 70 °C role in the integrity of cell walls, calcium imparts
(Baker 1957) or solarization to about 40–55 °C resistance if balanced with potassium in a high
(Katan 1981) is preferred over total steam steril- ratio. A low Ca/K ratio permits susceptibility to
ization to 100 °C because it preserves thermo- B. cinerea in tomato (Stall et al. 1965). The K/N
philic biocontrol organisms. The whole ratio is important in the susceptibility of tomato
greenhouse can be closed in sunny conditions for stems to the soft rot bacterium Erwinia carotov-
solarization of both substrate and superstructure ora ssp. carotovora (Dhanvantari and
(Shlevin et al. 1995). High temperature and vapor Papadopoulos 1995). The incidence of soft rot
pressure deficit in closed greenhouses can kill the was low at a K/N ratio of 4:1, increasing at 2:1
western flower thrips (F. occidentalis) but unfor- and 1:1. Verhoeff (1968) noted similar trends in
tunately also its predator Neoseiulus (= tomato stems infected by B. cinerea.
Amblyseius) cucumeris (Shipp and van Houten Paradoxically, Verhoeff (1968) noted that high
1996). soil nitrogen can delay the development of latent
As with the original ideas that soilless cultiva- lesions of B. cinerea in tomato, possibly because
tion would eliminate soilborne pathogens, crops stem senescence is delayed.
in rock wool or other inert substrates or in NFT Over-luxuriant foliage is conducive to greater
are no less free of soilborne arthropods. Fungus damage by sap-sucking insects such as aphids
gnats, leaf miners, and thrips are numerous in (Scriber 1984).
rock wool, and shore flies are always present in
pools of water on plastic sheets. Even if soil is
covered with plastic sheet, there are always gaps 3.5.6 Pruning and Training
around stems, and tears and displacement of the
cover readily permit insect access. Pruning and training tall staked and wire-
supported crops like peppers, tomatoes, and
cucumbers not only modify the microclimate by
3.5.5 Nutrition altering spacing and the disease susceptibility of
various tissues.
Deficiencies and excesses of macro- and micro- Removal of leaves bearing prepupal and pupal
nutrients and imbalances in relative amounts of stages of pests can reduce their populations, but
fertilizers can predispose plants to most diseases premature removal of leaves bearing parasitized
(Jarvis 1992). In addition, fertilizers that increase stages can result in loss of biocontrol.
3.6 Managing the Crop Environment 33
3.5.7 Fruit Load Unlike the pesticides on crops outdoors, pesti-

cides in the greenhouse remain unweathered and
Closely related to the management of pruning is persist longer, thus putting edible produce at risk
the distribution of photosynthates in heavily of exceeding legally tolerated residues and expos-
cropping plants (Gifford and Evans 1981) in rela- ing workers to higher concentrations for longer.
tion to the susceptibility of tissues to fungal and There are no well-established economic thresh-
bacterial pathogens (Grainger 1968). As Jarvis old populations of insect pests and pathogens,
(1989) pointed out, modern technology has and the grower must thus rely largely on his own
increased yields of greenhouse vegetables sever- experience and on the experience of his advisors.
alfold in the last two decades, with accompany- It is at present difficult, if not impossible, to pre-
ing source–sink stresses on cultivars that have not dict the course of disease epidemics in the green-
changed very much. Thus, diseases such as house because the complex sequence of events in
Fusarium crown and root rot (Fusarium oxyspo- the life cycles of pathogens is dependent on a
rum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici) of tomatoes and succession of different microclimates occurring
Penicillium stem and fruit rot (Penicillium oxali- in the correct order. At best, therefore, fungicides
cum) of cucumbers have become serious in that can be used only in expensive and often unneces-
same period. Both have been shown to be stress sary insurance programs or within a very few
related (Jarvis 1988), and there has been resur- hours of the requisite microclimate for spore ger-
gence in the incidence of corky root rot mination occurring. On foliage this can usually
(Pyrenochaeta lycopersici) of tomatoes that simply mean leaf wetness.
might be related to a diminished flow of photo-
synthates to roots. Grainger (1968) referred the
“plunderable” carbohydrates available to certain 3.6 Managing the Crop
pathogens – the so-called high-sugar pathogens Environment
(Horsfall and Dimond 1957) – which include B.
cinerea, whereas other pathogens, notably 3.6.1 Temperature
Fusarium spp., are classed as low-sugar patho-
gens principally attacking tissues starved of pho- In very general terms, diseases as well as arthro-
tosynthates. It is therefore incumbent on the pods can be said to have optimum temperatures
grower to manage the nutrition, light, and prun- for their dispersal and development (Jarvis 1992),
ing of fruit and foliage so that a balanced parti- but these cardinal points are the integral of the
tion of assimilates is attained without unduly optima of several growth phases of the pathogen
compromising yield. as well as of different defense reactions of the
host. Jarvis (1992) cited different temperature
optima for different growth processes in the gray
3.5.8 Managing Pesticides mold pathogen B. cinerea: mycelium growth,
sporulation, conidium germination, germ tube
Pesticides are a component of integrated pest growth, appressorium formation, sclerotial for-
management systems but are used too freely as mation, and sclerotial germination. All have dif-
insurance applications rather than judiciously as ferent temperature optima, most of which lie
almost agents of last resort. Pesticides are signifi- above the general optimum range for gray mold
cant agents of stress (Schoenweiss 1975) whose development, 15–20 °C. In most of its hundreds
overuse leads to problems of resistance (van of hosts, resistance to B. cinerea is probably least
Lenteren and Woets 1988), to interference with within that range.
microbial, insect biocontrol organisms and bee Temperatures of leaves, flowers, and fruit can
pollinators, and so to an increase in iatrogenic be considerably decreased by shading from direct
diseases, diseases normally held in check by sun and by increasing evaporative cooling by
indigenous biological controls (Griffiths 1981). adequate ventilation and forced airflow (von
Zabeltitz 1976). Eden et al. (1996) discussed the serious constraint for P. persimilis in warmer
possibilities of raising flower truss temperatures Mediterranean areas. Shipp and van Houten
in tomato crops to avoid gray mold. Higher tem- (1996) determined optimum temperatures and
peratures resulted in increased numbers of flow- VPD for the use of N. cucumeris in Canadian
ers infected by B. cinerea; the fungus was less cucumber houses, and these types of studies serve
likely to grow proximally to the main stem where as guides to more intelligent biological control.
the damage would be far more severe than one Much less exploited are the effects of temper-
infected flower. On the other hand, higher tem- ature and water pressure deficit on biocontrol
peratures (20–25 °C) resulted in fewer infections agents, although the first models, resulting in
of stem wounds than at 15 °C. Eden et al. (1996) advice for optimal climate control for insect
interpreted these results in terms of changing bal- natural enemies, are now becoming available
ances between fungal aggression and host (van Roermund and van Lenteren 1998). In the
defense reactions. case of biological control of plant pathogens,
Just as with diseases of shoots, temperatures most of the studies carried out are related to the
can be to some extent selected to minimize dis- effect of environmental conditions on
eases of roots; for example, corky root rot (P. Trichoderma harzianum, used as biocontrol
lycopersici) of tomato can be largely avoided by agent of B. cinerea and of several hyperparasites
transplanting into warm media at 20 °C (Last and of Sphaerotheca fusca (= Sphaerotheca fuligi-
Ebben 1966), as can Fusarium crown and root rot nea). In the case of T. harzianum, populations of
(F. oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici) (Jarvis the antagonist are promoted by low vapor pres-
1988). By contrast, the optimum temperature for sure deficit; in commercial greenhouses signifi-
the expression of Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxys- cant control of gray mold of cucumber has been
porum f. sp. lycopersici) is 27 °C. Similarly, correlated with low water pressure deficit but not
Pythium aphanidermatum is most pathogenic to with conditions of air saturation and dew deposi-
spinach in hydroponic culture at 27 °C, whereas tion (Elad and Kirshner 1993). In the case of
P. dissotocum is most pathogenic at 17–22 °C Ampelomyces quisqualis, hyperparasite of S.
(Bates and Stanghellini 1984). It is therefore fusca, a period of 24 h with low vapor pressure
important to know exactly which of closely deficit is necessary. Low vapor pressure deficit
related pathogens is present. also favors the activity of Sporothrix flocculosa
Insects and mites, like diseases, have also an (Hajlaoui and Bélanger 1991). More studies in
optimum temperature for their activity, dispersal, this field are necessary, both in order to keep con-
and development. Generally, greenhouse pests ditions close to the optimum for biocontrol agents
are thermophilic and perform best within 20–30 within the greenhouse and for selecting biocon-
°C night–day ambient temperatures. The pre- trol agents more adapted to the greenhouse envi-
ferred temperature for aphids and the greenhouse ronment (Elad et al. 1996).
whitefly is somewhat lower, 15–25 °C. The inter-
action between temperature and VPD on the sur-
vival of western flower thrips was determined by 3.6.2 Humidity
Shipp and Gillespie (1993).
Of course, temperature affects not only arthro- Predicting the onset of condensation and its evap-
pod pests but also their natural enemies. Natural oration is even more difficult using atmospheric
enemies may perform poorly if temperatures are variables such as relative humidity, temperature,
too high or too low which may occur during sum- air speed, and radiation. Most predictions have
mer and winter, respectively, in the Mediterranean errors in excess of 0.8 h and as much as ±3 h
area. Then, the more temperature-tolerant Diglyphus (Wei et al. 1995). Clearly this is unacceptable in
isaea or Dacnusa sibirica can be used according a cucumber house where infection of flowers by
to thermal regimes expected in greenhouses. Didymella bryoniae can occur in 1–2 h (van
Excessive heat, combined with high VPD, is a Steekelenberg 1985).
While free water and low VPD are to be their predators. Early diapauses may be a major
avoided if pathogens are present, those very con- constraint in their use. Nondiapausing strains
ditions are needed to establish epidemics of fun- can, to some extent, overcome this problem.
gal pathogens of insects, such as Verticillium Light also has direct effects on fungal sporula-
lecanii, Beauveria bassiana, and Paecilomyces tion, germination, and sclerotial formation. In B.
fumosoroseus (Quinlan 1988). cinerea, most isolates are stimulated to form
Similar contrary indications have been conidia by light in the near-UV band (320–380
obtained for arthropod pests and their predators. nm), an effect temporarily reversed by blue light
While spider mites are most active at relatively (Epton and Richmond 1980). Some isolates,
high temperatures and low VPDs, their predator however, form conidia in the dark (Stewart and
P. persimilis is inhibited in those same condi- Long 1987). All fungi grow mycelium in the
tions. Optimum humidity conditions for the pred- dark, and B. cinerea forms its sclerotia in dark-
atory activity of N. cucumeris have been ness, or in yellow or red light, or when irradiated
established by Shipp and van Houten (1996). for less than 30 min with near-UV light (Tan and
Epton 1973).
The requirement of B. cinerea and some other
3.6.3 Water Stress fungi for near-UV light for sporulation has led to
the development of greenhouse covering materi-
Guttation results when the rate of water supply als that screen out that band as a means of disease
osmotically pumped by the roots exceeds the rate control. Tuller and Peterson (1988) found fiber-
of water lost by transpiration and used in growth glass to transmit much less light of 315–400 nm
(Hughes and Brimblecombe 1994). Wilson than did polyethylene, but in a comparative
(1963) described how reversal of transpiration assessment of gray mold in Douglas fir seedlings
flow permits conidia of B. cinerea to enter tomato (Pseudotsuga menziesii), it was concluded that
stem xylem, there to remain a latent inoculum. the principal effect of low irradiance transmitted
Water accumulating and evaporating alter- by fiberglass was in inducing needle senescence
nately from hydathodes leaves toxic deposits of in dense canopies and thus susceptibility to gray
salts (Ivanoff 1963), with a ready entry point for mold, rather than on any direct effect on fungal
necrotrophic pathogens (Yarwood 1959). Lesions sporulation. In both types of greenhouse, the
of gummy stem blight (D. bryoniae) are fre- mean intensity of light that inhibited sporulation
quently seen originating from such points on (430–490 nm) exceeded that promoted sporula-
cucumber leaves. tion (300–420 nm). In those greenhouses, too,
predisposing conditions of temperature (15–20
°C) and humidity (>90 % RH) persisted 14.5
3.6.4 Light times longer in fiberglass than in polyethylene-
covered houses.
Low and high light intensities are important Humidity effects also seem to have out-
agents of stress in crops (Schoenweiss 1975) that weighed effects of light wavelength in a series of
induce physiologic strains predisposing the crops trials with colored clothes covering strawberries
to disease. Particularly important are the effects (Jordan and Hunter 1972). Gray mold was most
of light combined with crop management proce- severe under pink and blue plastic covers, where
dures, such as plant spacing; row orientation; VPDs were lower (0.41 and 0.64 kPa, respec-
training and pruning systems; irrigation and tively), than under clear plastic (1.14 kPa) or
nutrition, on the partition of assimilates; and the under glass (1.74 kPa). The effects of light are
relative susceptibility of different tissues and evidently not simple. Nevertheless, attempts have
organs to disease (Jarvis 1989, 1992). been made to filter out the near-UV light that
Day length, however, is important in deter- induces sporulation in some fungi. Reuveni et al.
mining diapauses in both arthropod pests and (1989) incorporated hydroxybenzophenone into
polyethylene, which increased the ratio of inhibi- 3.6.6 Air Movement

tory blue light (480 nm) to UV (310 nm) and
reduced the sporulation of B. cinerea in polysty- The primary purposes of directing and regulating
rene Petri dishes. Under the treated plastic, gray air movement in the greenhouse are (i) to reduce
mold lesions were fewer in tomato and cucumber the steepness of gradients in temperature, vapor
(17 and 15, respectively) than under untreated pressure deficits, and CO2, (ii) to assist in the
plastic (41 and 29, respectively) (Reuveni et al. evaporation of infection droplets, and (iii) to
1988). Similarly, plastic coverings absorbing induce thigmomorphogenesis in bench-grown
light at 340 nm inhibited the sporulation and crops. This last results in sturdier plants (Biro
reduced the incidence of gray mold lesions on and Jaffe 1984) and resistance to Fusarium wilts
cucumber and tomato (Honda et al. 1977) as well (Shawish and Baker 1982).
as white mold lesions caused by Scerotinia Counter to the generally beneficial effects of
sclerotiorum (Honda and Yunoki 1977). Many air movement are its effects on pathogen spore
isolates of Alternaria solani also depend on near- dispersal. Most fungi sporulate best in still air at
UV light for sporulation, and Vakalounakis VPD of 1.2–0.6 kPa, but fungi of the
(1991) used vinyl films filtering out light of Peronosporales, like B. lactucae and
<385 nm to reduce the incidence of early blight Pseudoperonospora cubensis, sporulate on wet
in tomato greenhouses to less than 50 % of that surfaces (Crute and Dixon 1981). Airborne
under unamended vinyl film. conidia are often liberated from conidiophores by
Light has little direct effect on the rhizosphere hygroscopic mechanisms (Ingold 1971) and are
microflora, except as an agent of stress on the dispersed by air currents. Both mechanisms rely
host. on disturbance of the microenvironment such as
is readily provided by worker activity (Hausbeck
and Pennypacker 1991).
3.6.5 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen The same mechanisms that control the liberation
and dispersal of pathogen spores also apply to
Carbon dioxide enrichment is a standard proce- spores of biocontrol fungi when control is by
dure in many commercial greenhouses (Porter enhancement of indigenous populations (Jarvis
and Grodzinski 1985). The concentrations of 1992).
CO2 that impair the growth of B. cinerea are 2–3 Air movement also affects the passive trans-
orders of magnitude greater than those found port of spider mites on webs floating through the
even in CO2-enriched greenhouses (Svircev et al. air and being trapped on neighboring plants
1984), and so reports, for example, of Winspear (Avidov and Harpaz 1969). Forced airflows can
et al. (1970), of increased incidences of gray transport larger insects into the greenhouse, even
mold in CO2 – enriched greenhouses can be inter- through some screens. Aggregation of insects is
preted in terms of enhanced levels of assimilates controlled by airborne semiochemicals, while the
(Grainger 1968) or a denser canopy, with its dispersal of pheromones on excessive air currents
increased risks of disease-susceptible wet plants can interfere with mating disruption as a means of
(Grange and Hand 1987). biological control or attraction into sticky traps.
While CO2 is a prominent component of the
rhizosphere atmosphere as a product of root and
microbial respiration, it has little direct effect on 3.6.7 Integration of Environmental
pathogens. Low oxygen tension has been Factors
advanced as an explanation for physiological root
death (van der Vlugt 1989) as well as decreased Epidemics of diseases are the result of a complex
host resistance to root pathogens. sequence of biological events each with a differ-
ent set of permissive environments that have to
occur in sequence and coupled with hosts in a BOTMAN (Steinberg and Elad 1997), an inte-
receptive state. Jarvis (1992) outlined the com- grated chemical and biological control program,
plexity of those events in the case of gray mold in predicting the onset and course of epidemics,
epidemics (Fig. 3.1). Beginning with sporulation, however, is severely compromised by the rapidity
conidia are formed at temperatures around 15 °C with which infection occurs (9–10 h for gray
and in moderate VPD; they are liberated by mold (Yunis et al. 1994) and only 1 h for gummy
hygroscopic movements of the conidiophore in stem blight in cucumber flowers (Arny and Rowe
rapidly changing conditions of humidity and are 1991)) – and by the wide variability of the green-
dispersed on air currents or by watersplash; infec- house climate typically served by only one psy-
tion occurs on wet surfaces at 15–20 °C; and chrometer in several 100 m3 of space (Jarvis
colonization of the host is fastest at 25–30 1992). Steinberg and Elad (1997) found that over
°C. Marois et al. (1988) found that epidemics of 3 years, a rain forecasting system did not enable
gray mold on rose depend as well on inoculum BOTMAN to perform significantly better than a
concentration, a relationship that was different in weekly fungicide insurance program in unheated
winter and summer and affected by temperature, tomato and cucumber crops. However, a 4-day
relative humidity, and VPD, the latter the far weather forecast proved more useful than imme-
more meaningful parameter for describing epide- diate past records of weekly averages of surface
miology of B. cinerea in roses. wetness (calculated from dew point) of 7 h/d and
It has been possible to construct working 9.5 h/d at night temperatures between 9°C and 21
models of gray mold epidemics in cucumber °C. By the time the requisite data have been col-
(Steinberg and Elad 1997), tomatoes (Steinberg lected and analyzed, infection has already begun
and Elad 1997), and gerbera and rose (Kerssies and is an irreversible action even with the use of
1992). The value of epidemic models such as fungicides, which act mostly on germinating
Conidium
dispersal
Conidium Conidium
germination release
Quiescence
Infection Conidiation
Ascospore Aggressive
germination pathogenicity
Sclerotial &
Saprophytism mycelial
dormancy
Microconidia
Ascospore Botryotinia
release fuckeliana
Fig. 3.1 The life cycle of B. cinerea. Each stage is differ- possible with environmental and cultural manipulations
ently affected by microclimate factors, and control of gray (Jarvis 1992)
mold is achieved by interrupting as many pathways as
spores and thus too late to stop infection. Surface system with pre-set points for tomato production;
wetness is the key factor in all infections, and so and Dayan et al. (1993) developed TOMGRO
its prediction from rates of change in surface and that modeled physiological processes in tomato.
ambient air temperatures combined, by data pro- Only Martin-Clouaire et al. (1993) considered
cessor, with simultaneous rates of change in VPD disease escape in their model for tomato. Van
would be timelier in the immediate application of Roermund et al. (1997), however, described the
environmental control measures. opposition of a whitefly control model to a pro-
Powdery mildew epidemics have a somewhat duction model, to which can be added a disease
less complicated sequence of events prior to avoidance model. Clarke et al. (1994) and Jewett
infection than gray mold epidemics, but they, too, et al. (1996) described a holistic Harrow
are ultimately dependent on the deposition of Greenhouse Crop Management System
dew (Powell 1990). (HGCMS) for both greenhouse tomato and
Control of any fungus-incited disease is cucumber. In addition to providing blueprints for
achieved by breaking any of the pathways in life production in which the grower has his own
cycles similar to those of Fig. 3.1 (Jarvis 1992), input, HGCMS provides user-friendly diagnoses
but the denial of water to germinable spores is the for diseases, pests, biological controls, and physi-
most important. ological disorders. It accepts climate monitoring.
Computer models can be used to optimize In addition, HGCMS allows the grower to enter
greenhouse climate for both crop production and economic data and will analyze it for him.
pest and disease control. For example, in the Conflict resolution, as far as can be agreed among
Netherlands, a climate management program was experts, is a feature of HGCMS, but ultimately
developed for optimal production of tomatoes the grower can accept or reject the advice of
and is linked to a model for biological control of HGCMS.
greenhouse whitefly by Encarsia formosa (van The use and analysis of computer models and
Roermund et al. 1997). Further, the model can be controls depends, of course, on a reasonable
extended with a humidity management module degree of computer literacy among growers,
which prevents the development of fungal together with a basic understanding of plant
diseases. growth and pest and disease biology. Otherwise,
Integration of pest and disease control primar- reliance on expert advisory services is
ily by manipulating the environment is a highly obligatory.
complex problem (Shipp et al. 1991). Clarke
et al. (1994), in describing a computer-managed
system, considered the holistic production sys- 3.6.8 Environments for Microbial
tem as a six-hierarchy complex of factors in Controls
which any change at one level affected the other
five levels. Thus, any change in greenhouse cli- In general, the microclimates for the successful
mate, whether engineered or not, effects changes deployment of fungal antagonists and parasites
in pesticide efficacy, biological control agents, are close to those that promote plant infection by
pests and disease vectors, diseases, and ulti- pathogens. Ideally, then, preemptive colonization
mately productivity and profit. of the phylloplane, as it is for rhizosphere, is the
There are a number of electronic decision sup- preferred strategy (Andrews 1992). Adaptation
port systems for various facets of greenhouse to that microenvironment is a prerequisite
pest and disease control and production strategy (Dickinson 1986). This colonization can also be
(Papadopoulos et al. 1997). Jones et al. (1988) achieved by enhancing indigenous populations of
described an expert system with grower selection phylloplane antagonists (Jarvis 1992). Similarly,
of climate set points based on his experience; the use of green manures and composts can
Jacobson et al. (1987) further developed an expert achieve control in the rhizosphere without the
3.7 Cultural Techniques 39
necessity of isolating, registering, and redeploy- tially replaced peat in container media used for
ing specific antagonists (Ebben 1987). production of ornamentals. Recycling of these
wastes has been adopted for economic and pro-
duction reasons. The cost of these composts can
3.7 Cultural Techniques be lower than peat. Production costs may also be
decreased because some of the compost-amended
In most greenhouses of northern Europe, contin- media, particularly those amended with compos-
uous cropping is practiced, without a fallow crop- ted bark, suppress major soilborne plant patho-
free interval. This has profound implications for gens, thus reducing plant losses (Hoitink and
diseases and pests. In the case of plant pathogens, Fahy 1986). Disease suppressiveness is affected
it leads to the buildup of soilborne pathogens and not only by chemical and physical but also by
an increased importance of foliar pathogens with biotic factors. The low pH of sphagnum peat,
a broad host spectrum (B. cinerea). The same can pine bark, and composts could theoretically have
be said for insects that pupate in the soil such as beneficial side effects for some plants. For exam-
leaf miners and thrips. ple, Phytophthora root rot of rhododendron
Greenhouse crops are grown in various soils (Phytophthora cinnamomi) is suppressed at
and soilless media whose physical and chemical pH < 4.0, because the low pH reduces sporan-
properties are adjusted to obtain maximum pro- gium formation, zoospore release, and motility.
ductivity. These properties, such as heat conser- This may be important during propagation of
vation, water holding capacity, fertilizer levels, rhododendron cuttings under mist. Moreover,
and pH can also be manipulated to reduce the chemical inhibitors of Phytophthora spp. have
amount of inoculum of pests and pathogens and been identified in composted hardwood bark.
the probability of infection (Jarvis 1992). These inhibitors do not affect Rhizoctonia solani
Systems for growing crops in the greenhouse (Hoitink and Fahy 1986).
vary widely in terms of complexity. The most Soilless cultivation can affect pests that need
common rooting media are soil and various soil the soil/substrate to complete their development,
mixtures, incorporating peat, vermiculite, perlite, as in the case of leaf miners or thrips.
and several other materials which are added to The thermal and gas exchange properties of
the soil in order to modify its structure. rooting media affect the growth of roots as well
In the 1960s, bench cultivation was adopted as the activities of pathogens. Peat, a common
for high-value crops (carnations), permitting bet- rooting medium, used either alone or in mixture,
ter results in soil disinfestations. In the 1980s and often suppresses pathogen activity, depending on
1990s, soilless substrates gained more and more its origin (Tahvonen 1982). However, pathogens,
importance, particularly in the northern European including species of pathogenic Pythium and
countries, because they eliminate or reduce the Fusarium (including Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
need for soil disinfestations. Among soilless sub- radicis-lycopersici) have been isolated from
strates, rock wool has been widely used in north- commercial peat compost (Gullino and Garibaldi
ern Europe, while in the tropics and subtropics, 1994).
cheaper substrates have been exploited. The Correct spacing prevents the establishment of
nutrient film technique, originally devised to a microclimate conducive to foliar diseases and
improve precision in crop nutrition, reduces soil- the rapid spread of pathogens and pests from
borne diseases and removes the cost of soil disin- plant to plant in crops grown in ground beds.
festations. In fact, it confers relative freedom Altered greenhouse and bench design can
from diseases, although severe epidemics can improve air movement, thus reducing the risk of
still occur (Stanghellini and Rasmussen 1994). diseases. Bottom heating of benches, a traditional
During the past two decades, various compos- means of avoiding Phytophthora, Pythium, and
ted organic wastes and sewage sludges have par- Rhizoctonia root rots, is enhanced in cutting and
seedling trays with upward air movement 3.8 Factors Stimulating

between the young plants. Through-the-bench air Sustainable Crop Protection
movement is perhaps the most neglected and
simplest means of reducing seedling rots in tan- Protected cultivation is an extremely high-input
gled plant masses (Jarvis 1989). procedure to obtain food and other agricultural
Every crop species and cultivar requires a spe- products per unit of land, although inputs are the
cial fertilizer regime in order to obtain maximum lowest when related to the yield per area. Crop
productivity and to prevent stress on the plant. protection activities contribute to the total input
Fertilizer requirements change as the crop ages in variable proportions mainly through the appli-
from seeding to harvest. In general, excessive cation of pesticides. Several features of protected
nitrogen leads to excessive foliage that is intrinsi- cultivation are delaying the adoption of more sus-
cally more succulent and susceptible to damage tainable ways to control pests and diseases. In
by necrotrophic pathogens, such as B. cinerea, areas where protected cultivation is most inten-
and also stimulates development of pests such as sive, crop protection costs rarely exceed 5 % of
aphids and leaf miners. Nitrogen generally has to the total production costs. In these circumstances,
be balanced with potassium; for many diseases, growers are not stimulated to make decisions
susceptibility decreases as the potassium–nitro- based on economically founded criteria, and
gen ratio increases. Calcium generally enhances chemicals are frequently applied to prevent pest
resistance, due to its role in the integrity of the occurrence rather than to control real pest prob-
cell wall. lems. This is particularly true in ornamental and
No general practical recommendations can be flower crops, which can lose their value at
made for controlling diseases by adjusting the extremely low pest densities. In addition, pesti-
fertilizer levels supplied to plants: each host– cides may be applied easily, and little expertise is
pathogen combination reacts differently. needed to spray or to recommend pesticides so
However, optimal (instead of maximal) fertiliza- that no specialized advisory personnel is usually
tion results in lower pest and disease pressure. employed by growers who rely on this “simple”
General recommendations can be given concern- technology.
ing irrigation. First of all, the factors that deter- Consequently, innovative crop protection
mine irrigation demand in greenhouse crops can methods become difficult to implement in prac-
all be closely regulated. From a general point of tice. From a general point of view, vegetable
view, overhead irrigation must be carried out crops, due to their limited diversity, are most suit-
early in the day and should be limited late in the able for IPM. In the case of ornamentals, the
afternoon in order to avoid long periods of leaf enormous crop diversity and the many cultivars
wetness, which favor diseases such as downy per species grown make the development of IPM
mildews, rusts, gray mold, leaf spots, etc. When strategies more complicated.
it is necessary to wet foliage for any reason Several stimuli are pushing growers to use
(including pesticide spraying), it is always essen- fewer pesticides and to adopt more sustainable
tial to maintain environmental conditions under ways to protect crops from noxious organisms as
which the foliage can dry out within a very short world marketing becomes more global. Among
period of time. Also, it is important to avoid the factors stimulating sustainable forms of crop
excess water in the soil: this creates conditions protection are the following:
that are very favorable for the development of
root rots. The effects of irrigation on pests are
mainly through the relative humidity of the envi- 3.8.1 Consumer Concern
ronment or through the water status of the plants. about Chemical Residues
For instance, plants under stress are more easily
colonized by thrips and spider mites. This is a general stimulus for growers wishing to
adopt IPM systems (Wearing 1988), but it is par-
3.8 Factors Stimulating Sustainable Crop Protection 41
ticularly relevant in fresh-consumed products practices allow enhancement of their effective-

like the majority of vegetables grown in green- ness. A first step toward sustainability in green-
houses. Consumers not only demand high-quality house crop protection is to analyze why and
products but are also concerned with how they which phytophages and pathogens are able to
are grown to judge them from the environmental increase their population densities until reaching
aspects. Food marketers and European regional damaging levels. Methods to improve the accu-
administrations are developing auditing proce- racy and speed of diagnosis are needed, particu-
dures to sell vegetables under IPM or Integrated larly for diseases, and may be one of the most
Production (IP) labels. In some cases, a surplus useful applications of biotechnology. Once the
price is achieved by growers who produce vege- pest or disease is correctly diagnosed, environ-
tables under established IPM/IP technology. mental factors that allow or prevent such a pest or
pathogen to reach economic injury levels should
be identified.
3.8.2 Pesticide Resistance in Pests Such knowledge may help us to design inte-
and Pathogens grated methods to take advantage of the whole
environment. If an action threshold is determined,
As protected cultivation allows pest and patho- accurate techniques for pest and disease sam-
gen populations to increase faster than in the pling and monitoring should permit intervention
open air, and as protected crops receive a great at the best moment and prevent unnecessary
number of pesticide treatments, pesticide resis- treatments. The identification of key factors gov-
tance develops rapidly. Dozens of greenhouse erning pest or pathogen population dynamics
pests or pathogens are suspected to have devel- may allow modification of the greenhouse and
oped resistance to the most common active ingre- crop environment – including greenhouse sur-
dients, and this has been observed in many pests roundings – to adversely affect a pest or pathogen
(aphids, whiteflies) and pathogens such as B. or to favor the effectiveness of the natural ene-
cinerea. mies or antagonists.
Sometimes this can be achieved cheaply – in
both economic and energetic terms – by means of
3.8.3 Side Effects of Chemical correct crop and management practices. As men-
Application tioned before, the most damaging pests and many
pathogens in greenhouses are polyphagous;
Because society in general and governments in although they are able to develop on many host
particular are aware of the impact of chemicals on plants, their negative effect on yield varies with
soil, water, and air, several initiatives to restrict host plant species and cultivar. The development
the use of chemicals in Europe and North America of cultivars which are less susceptible to pests
are being undertaken (van Lenteren 1997). and diseases or that favor the activity of pest nat-
ural enemies is undoubtedly one of the most sus-
tainable ways to control diseases in greenhouses,
3.8.4 Efficacy and its potential for pests has been shown in a few
but significant cases.
Some pests and diseases are difficult – sometimes Many of the arthropod pests and diseases that
impossible – to control if an integrated approach affect greenhouse crops are exotic and became
is not adopted. On the other hand, natural control established in greenhouse growing areas from
can prevent several pests from building up high accidental importation of infested crops, mainly
populations under the action of predators, para- ornamentals. In some cases, as for Liriomyza tri-
sitoids, and entomopathogens that naturally folii and L. huidobrensis, native natural enemies
establish on greenhouse crops if chemicals are have been able to greatly contribute to the natural
not intensively applied, and several cultural control of these pests, but in other cases exotic
parasitoids or predators have to be released in the overlooked and usually dealt with simplistically by
environment to control them, as is done for indiscriminate pesticide applications (Regev 1984).
Trialeurodes vaporariorum by means of Encarsia Careful analyses of epidemiological and epi-
formosa. Natural and biological control is nowa- zootic data can indicate environments to be
days the basis of most of the integrated pest man- avoided or encouraged in greenhouse operations,
agement strategies adopted in northern Europe but integrating the desired environments into
(van Lenteren 1995), and its practical achieve- those wanted by the grower solely to maximize
ments are particularly emphasized in this book. yields by physiological means is extremely diffi-
The history of biological control of diseases in cult. The solution of these problems requires the
greenhouses is more recent, but significant consensus of several specialized experts, experi-
advances have also been achieved here in the last enced crop advisors, and, not least, good grow-
few years. Given the very high cosmetic demands ers, whose experience and intuition are not to be
and the low pest and disease thresholds applied ignored. The construction of predictive models
by greenhouse growers, the progress in applica- can provide valuable insight into how environ-
tion of integrated pest and disease management is ments affect diseases and insects, but experts can
remarkable. Until recently, biological and inte- differ widely on which environment is best to
grated control was seen as a cost factor. escape, for example, lettuce downy mildew, or
Nowadays, however, it is considered as a benefi- gray mold, or whiteflies or thrips. Resolution of
cial marketing factor. these apparent conflicts can now be attained or at
least reasonable compromises achieved, by the
inference engine in a computer expert system.
3.9 Conclusions One developed by Clarke et al. (1994) and Jewett
et al. (1996) is a decision support system for
The greenhouse industry faces many new crop greenhouse tomatoes and cucumbers that collates
protection problems as a consequence of modifi- expert opinions on all aspects of crop production,
cation of production procedures and crops. The including disease and pest management, the
major changes will include more widely adopted grower’s own input, and internal and external
mechanization and automation systems for environmental parameters.
improved crop management and the use of bio- It can also provide the financial consequences
technology in plant production. These modifica- of various actions, as well as of no action.
tions will affect the severity of pests and Ultimately, the grower, whose brain no one can
diseases. replace, has the final decision.
The primary objective of the commercial Strong cooperation among plant pathologists,
greenhouse grower is to obtain maximum yield entomologists, and horticulturists is necessary in
per unit area of space with the least financial order to assure that new management practices
input. However, in order to achieve this, certain have a beneficial effect on plant health. Methods
minimum standards in environment management to improve the accuracy and speed of diagnosis
have to be maintained in such matters as crop are needed, and monitoring and diagnosis sys-
spacing, pruning and training, irrigation, fertil- tems to determine the degree of infestation and
ization, CO2 supplies, and temperature and economic thresholds of pathogens and pests will
humidity regimes. While much is known about enable rational management decisions. A high
disease epidemiology and insect behavior, scant priority should be given to the production of
attention, however, has been paid to the manipu- pathogen- and pest-free propagation material,
lation of greenhouse environments expressly to obtained through sanitation. The use of pest- and
avoid disease epidemics and insect infestations, pathogen-free material and growing media disin-
which together can easily account for 30 % crop fested with steam or naturally suppressive to soil-
losses (Pimentel 1991). This is a significant fac- borne pathogens will help to reduce the impact of
tor in a grower’s balance sheet which is often important pests and diseases considerably. When
References 43
all such measures are integrated with the use of Burdon JJ, Jarosz AM, Kirby GC (1989) Pattern and
patchiness in plant-pathogen interactions – causes and
resistant germplasm, with modern techniques for
consequences. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:119–136
applying pesticides and with biological control of Cabello T, Cañero R (1994) Technical efficiency of plant
several diseases and pests, a greatly reduced protection in Spanish greenhouses. Crop Prot
input of chemicals becomes realistic for pro- 13:153–159
Carrai C (1993) Marciume radicale su lattuga allevata in
tected cultivation.
impianti NFT. Colture Protette 22(6):77–81
Clarke ND, Shipp JL, Jarvis WR, Papadopoulos AP,
Jewett TJ (1994) Integrated management of green-
References house crops – a conceptual and potentially practical
model. Hortic Sci 29:846–849
Cohen S, Berlinger MJ (1986) Transmission and cultural
Andrews JH (1992) Biological control in the phyllo-
control of whitefly-borne viruses. Agr Ecosyst Environ
sphere. Annu Rev Phytopathol 30:603–635
17:89–97
Antignus Y, More O, Ben Yoseph R, Lapidot M, Cohen S
Crute JR, Dixon GR (1981) Downy mildew diseases
(1996) UV-absorbing plastic sheets protect crops from
caused by the genus Bremia. In: Spencer DM (ed) The
insect pests and from virus diseases vectored by
downy mildews. Academic, London, pp 421–460
insects. Environ Entomol 25:919–924
Dayan E, van Keulen H, Jones JW, Zipori I, Shmuel D,
Arny CJ, Rowe RC (1991) Effects of temperature and
Challa H (1993) Development, calibration and valida-
duration of surface wetness on spore production and
tion of a greenhouse tomato growth model: i descrip-
infection of cucumbers by Didymella bryoniae.
tion of the model. Agr Syst 43:145–163
Phytopathology 81:206–209
Dhanvantari BN, Papadopoulos AP (1995) Suppression of
Avidov Z, Harpaz I (1969) Plant pests of Israel. Israel
bacterial stem rot (Erwinia carotovora subsp. caroto-
Universities Press, Jerusalem
vora) by high potassium-to-nitrogen ratio in the nutri-
Avikainen H, Kopenen H, Tahvonen R (1993) The effect
ent solution of hydroponically grown tomato. Plant
of disinfectants on fungal diseases of cucumber. Agric
Dis 79:83
Sci Finl 2:179–188
Dickinson CH (1986) Adaptations of micro-organisms to
Baker KF (ed) (1957) The U.C. system for producing
climatic conditions affecting aerial plant surfaces. In:
healthy container-grown plants. Manual 23. California
Fokkema NJ, van den Heuvel J (eds) Microbiology of
Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley
the phyllosphere. Cambridge University Press,
Baker JR, Shearin BA (1994) Insect screening: ornamen-
Cambridge, pp 77–100
tals and turf. Cooperative Extension Service, NC State
Ebben MH (1987) Observations on the role of biological
University, Raleigh, Information Note
control methods with integrated system, with refer-
Bates ML, Stanghellini ME (1984) Root rot of hydroponi-
ence to three contrasting diseases of protected crops.
cally grown spinach caused by Pythium aphaniderma-
In: Cavalloro R (ed) Integrated and biological control
tum and P dissotocum. Plant Dis 68:989–991
in protected crops. AA Balkema, Rotterdam,
Berlinger MJ, Lebiush-Mordech S (1995) Physical meth-
pp 197–208
ods for the control of Bemisia. In: Ceding D, Mayer
Eden MA, Hill RA, Beresford R, Stewart A (1996) The
RT (eds) Bemisia 1995: taxonomy, biology, damage
influence of inoculum concentration, relative humid-
control and management. Intercept Ltd, Andover,
ity, and temperature on infection of greenhouse toma-
pp 617–634
toes by Botrytis cinerea. Plant Pathol 45:795–806
Berlinger MJ, Dalian R, Mordechi S (1988) Integrated
Elad Y (1997) Effect of filtration of solar light on the pro-
pest management of organically grown tomato in
duction of conidia by field isolates of Botrytis cinerea
Israeli greenhouses. Appl Agric Res 3:233–238
and on several diseases of greenhouse-grown vegeta-
Berlinger MJ, San M, Leeper A (1991) Application of
bles. Crop Prot 16:635–642
screens to prevent whitefly penetration into green-
Elad Y, Kirshner B (1993) Survival in the phylloplane of
houses in the Mediterranean Basin. IOBC/WPRS Bull
an introduced biocontrol agent (Improved and widely
14(5):105–110
used Trichoderma harzianum may be one of the best
Berlinger MJ, Lebiush-Mordechi S, Fridja D, Neta M
applications of biotechnology) and populations of the
(1993) The effect of types of greenhouse screens on
plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea as modified by abiotic
the presence of western flower thrips: a preliminary
conditions. Phytoparasitica 21:303–313
study. IOBC/WPRS Bull 16:13–16
Elad Y, Malathrakis NE, Dik AJ (1996) Biological control
Bethke JA, Pain TD (1991) Screen hole size and barriers
of botrytis-incited diseases and powdery mildews in
for exclusion of insect pests of glasshouse crops.
greenhouse crops. Crop Prot 15:229–240
J Entomol Sci 26:169–177
Epton HAS, Richmond DV (1980) Formulation, structure
Biro RL, Jaffe MJ (1984) Thigmomorphogenesis: ethyl-
and germination of conidia. In: Coley-Smith JR,
ene evolution and its role in the changes observed in
Verhoeff K, Jarvis WR (eds) The biology of botrytis.
mechanically perturbed bean plants. Physiol Plant
Academic, London, pp 41–48
62:289–296
Gifford RM, Evans LT (1981) Photosynthesis, carbon Jarvis WR (1988) Fusarium crown and root rot of
partitioning and yield. Annu Rev Plant Physiol tomatoes. Phytoprotection 69:49–64
32:485–509 Jarvis WR (1989) Managing diseases in greenhouse
Grainger J (1968) C/R and the disease potential of plants. crops. Plant Dis 73:190–194
Hortic Res 8:1–40 Jarvis WR (1992) Managing diseases in greenhouse crops.
Grange RK, Hand DW (1987) A review of the effects of American Phytopathological Society Press, St Paul
atmospheric humidity on growth of horticultural Jewett TJ, Short TH (1992) Computer control of a five
crops. J Hortic Sci 62:125–130 stage greenhouse shading system. Trans ASAE
Griffiths E (1981) Iatrogenic plant diseases. Annu Rev 35:651–658
Phytopathol 19:69–82 Jewett TJ, Clarice ND, Shipp JL, Papadopoulos AP, Jarvis
Gullino ML (1992) Integrated control of diseases in WR (1996) Greenhouse climate control: past, present
closed systems in the sub-tropics. Pestic Sci and future (Abstr). Can Agric Eng 38:239
36:335–340 Johnson PW, McKeen CD (1973) Vertical movement and
Gullino ML, Garibaldi A (1994) Influence of soilless cul- distribution of Meloidogyne incognita (Nematodea)
tivation on soil-borne diseases. Acta Horticult under tomato in a sandy loam greenhouse soil. Can
361:341–354 J Plant Sci 53:837–841
Gullino ML, Aloi C, Garibaldi A (1991) Integrated control Jones P, Jacobson BK, Jones JW (1988) Applying expert
of grey mould of tomato. IOBC/WPRS Bull systems concepts to real-time greenhouse controls.
14:211–215 Acta Horticult 230:201–208
Hajlaoui MR, Bélanger RR (1991) Comparative effects of Jones JP, Engelhard AW, Woltz SS (1989) Management of
temperature and humidity on the activity of three fusarium wilt of vegetables and ornamentals by
potential antagonists of rose powdery mildew. Neth macro- and micro-element nutrition. In: Engelhard
J Plant Pathol 97:203–208 AW (ed) Soil-borne plant pathogens: management of
Hanan JJ, Holley WD, Goldsberry KL (1978) Greenhouse diseases with macro- and micro-elements. American
management. Springer, Berlin Phytopathological Society, St Paul, pp 18–32
Hausbeck MK, Pennypacker SP (1991) Influence of Jordan VWL, Hunter T (1972) The effects of glass cloche
grower activity and disease incidence on concentra- and coloured polyethylene tunnels on microclimate,
tions of air-borne conidia of Botrytis cinerea among growth, yield and disease severity of strawberry plants.
geranium stock plants. Plant Dis 75:798–803 J Horticult Sci 47:419–426
Hobbs EL, Waters WE (1964) Influence of nitrogen and Katan J (1981) Solar heating (solarization) of soil for
potassium on susceptibility of Chrysanthemum mori- control of soil-borne pests. Annu Rev Phytopathol
folium to Botrytis cinerea. Phytopathology 19:211–236
54:674–676 Katan J (1984) The role of soil disinfestation in achieving
Hoitink HAJ, Fahy PC (1986) Basis for the control of high production in horticulture crops. In: Proceedings
soil-borne plant pathogens with composts. Annu Rev of brighton crop protection conference, BCPC,
Phytopathol 24:93–114 Farnhan 3, pp.1189–1196
Honda Y, Yunoki T (1977) Control of Sclerotinia disease Kennedy R, Pegg GF (1990) Phytophthora cryptogea root
of greenhouse eggplant and cucumber by inhibition of rot of tomato in rock wool nutrient culture. III. Effect
development of apothecia. Plant Dis Rep of root zone temperature on infection, sporulation and
61:1036–1040 symptom development. Ann Appl Biol 117:537–551
Honda Y, Toki T, Yunoki T (1977) Control of gray mold of Kerssies A (1992) Epidemiology of Botrytis cinerea in
greenhouse cucumber and tomato by inhibiting sporu- gerbera and rose grown in glasshouses. In: Verhoeff K,
lation. Plant Dis Rep 61:1041–1048 Malathrakis NE, Williamson B (eds) Recent advances
Horsfall JG, Dirnond AE (1957) Interaction of tissue in Botrytis research. Pudoc Scientific Publishing,
sugar, growth substances, and disease susceptibility. Wageningen, pp 159–166
Zeitschrift für flanzenkrankheiten Pflanzenpathol Last FT, Ebben MH (1966) The epidemiology of tomato
Pflanzenschutz 64:415–421 brown root rot. Ann Appl Biol 57:95–112
Hughes RN, Brimblecombe P (1994) Dew and guttation: Marois JJ, Redmond JC, MacDonald JD (1988)
formation and environmental significance. Agr Forest Quantification of the impact of the environment on the
Meteorol 67:173–190 susceptibility of Rosa hybrida flowers to Botrytis cine-
Ingold CT (1971) Fungal spores: their liberation and dis- rea. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 113:842–845
persal. Clarendon, Oxford Martin-Clouaire R, Kovats K, Cros M (1993)
Ivanoff SS (1963) Guttation injuries of plants. Bot Rev Determinations of greenhouse set points by
29:202–209 SERRISTE: the approach and its object-oriented
Jacobson BK, Jones JW, Jones P (1987) Tomato green- implementation. Al Appl 7:1–15
house environment controller: Real-time expert sys- McIntyre JA, Hopper DA, Cranshaw WS (1996)
tem supervisor. Paper no. 87–5022, American Society Aluminized fabrics deter thrips from entering green-
of Agricultural Engineers, Univ Florida, Gainesville houses. Southwestern Entomol 21:135–140
References 45
Morgan WM (1984) Integration of environmental and Shlevin E, Katan J, Mahrer Y (1995) Space solarization
fungicidal control of Bremia lactucae in a glasshouse for sanitation of inocula of plant pathogens in the
lettuce crop. Crop Prot 3:349–361 greenhouse structure (Abstr). Phytopathology 85:1209
Papadopoulos AP, Pararajasingham S, Shipp JL, Jarvis Stall RE, Hortenstine CC, Iley JR (1965) Incidence of
WR, Jewett TJ, Clarke ND (1997) Integrated manage- Botrytis gray mold of tomato in relation to a calcium-
ment of vegetable crops. Hortic Rev 21:1–39 phosphorus balance. Phytopathology 55:447–449
Pimentel D (ed) (1991) Handbook of pest management in Stanghellini ME, Rasmussen SL (1994) Hydroponics a
agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton solution for zoosporic pathogens. Plant Dis
Porter MA, Grodzinski B (1985) Enrichment of protected 78:1130–1137
crops. Hortic Rev 7:345–398 Stenseth C (1979) The effect of temperature and humidity
Powell CC (1990) Studies on the chemical and environ- on the development of Phytoseioulus persimilis and its
mental control of powdery mildew on greenhouse ability to regulate populations of Tetranychus urticae
roses. Roses Inc Bull Sept: 57–65 (Acarina: Phytoseiidae, Tetranychidae). Entomophaga
Quinlan RJ (1988) Use of fungi to control insects in glass- 24:311–317
houses. In: Burge MN (ed) Fungi in biological control Stewart TM, Long PG (1987) Sporulation of Botrytis
systems. Manchester University Press, Manchester, cinerea in the dark. N Z J Exp Agric 5:389–392
pp 19–36 Svircev AM, McKeen WE, Berry JW (1984) Sensitivity
Regev U (1984) An economic analysis of man’s addiction of Peronospora hyoscyami f sp tabacina to carbon
to pesticides. In: Conway GR (ed) Pest and pathogen dioxide, compared to that of Botrytis cinerea and
control: strategic, tactical and policy models. Wiley, Aspergillus niger. Phytopathology 74:445–447
Chichester, pp 441–453 Tahvonen R (1982) The suppressiveness of finnish light
Reuveni R, Raviv M (1992) The effect of spectrally- colored sphagnum peat. J Sci Agric Soc Finland
modified polyethylene films on the development of 54:345–356
Botrytis cinerea in greenhouse grown tomato plants. Tan KK, Epton HAS (1973) Effect of light on the growth
Biol Agric Hortic 9:77–86 and sporulation of Botrytis cinerea. Trans Br Mycol
Reuveni R, Raviv M (1997) Control of downy mildew in Soc 61:145–147
greenhouse-grown cucumbers using blue photoselec- Thresh JM (1982) Cropping practices and virus spread.
tive polyethylene sheets. Plant Dis 81:999–1004 Ann Rev Plant Pathol 20:195–218
Reuveni R, Raviv M, Allingham Y, Bar R (1988) Tuller SE, Peterson MJ (1988) The solar radiation envi-
Development of a solar radiation-selective greenhouse ronment of greenhouse-grown Douglas-fir seedlings.
cover for foliar plant pathogen control (Abstr). Agric Forest Meteorol 44:49–65
Phytoparasitica 16:74 Vakalounakis DJ (1991) Control of early blight of green-
Reuveni R, Raviv M, Bar R (1989) Sporulation of Botrytis house tomato, caused by Alternaria solani, by inhibit-
cinerea as affected by photoselective sheets and filters. ing sporulation with ultraviolet absorbing vinyl films.
Ann Appl Biol 115:417–424 Plant Dis 75:795–797
Sasaki T, Honda Y, Umekawa M, Nemoto M (1985) van der Vlugt JLF (1989) A literature review concerning
Control of certain diseases of greenhouse vegetables root death in cucumber and other crops. Nor J Agric
with ultraviolet-absorbing vinyl film. Plant Dis Sci 3:265–274
69:530–533 van Lenteren JC (1995) Integrated pest management in
Schoenweiss DF (1975) Predisposition, stress, and plant protected crops. In: Dent D (ed) Integrated pest man-
disease. Ann Rev Plant Pathol 13:193–211 agement. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 311–343
Scriber JM (1984) Nitrogen nutrition of plants and insect van Lenteren JC (1997) Benefits and risks of introducing
invasion. In: Hauck RD (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. exotic macrobiological control agents into Europe.
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, pp 441–460 OEPP/EPPO Bull 27:15–27
Shawish O, Baker R (1982) Thigmomorphogenesis and van Lenteren JC, Woets J (1988) Biological and inte-
predisposition of hosts to Fusarium wilt. grated pest control in greenhouses. Annu Rev Entomol
Phytopathology 72:63–68 33:239–269
Shipp JL, van Houten YM (1996) Effects of temperature van Roermund HJW, van Lenteren JC (1998) Simulation
and vapor pressure deficit on the rate of predation by of the whitefly Encarsia formosa interaction, based on
the predatory mite. Amblyseius cucumeris, Entomol foraging behaviour of individual parasitoids. In:
Exp Appl 78:31–38 J Baumgaertner J, Brandmayr P, Manly BFJ (eds)
Shipp JL, Boland GJ, Shaw LA (1991) Integrated pest Population and community ecology for insect man-
management of disease and arthropod pests of green- agement and conservation. Proceedings of interna-
house vegetable crops in Ontario: current status and tional congress of entomology, Florence/Balkema,
future possibilities. Can J Plant Sci 71:887–914 pp 175–182
Shipp JL, Gillepsie TJ (1993) Influence of temperature van Roermund HJW, van Lenteren JC, Rabbinge R (1997)
and water vapor pressure deficit on survival of Biological control of greenhouse whitefly with the
Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera:Thripidae). parasitoid Encarsia formosa on tomato: an individual-
Environ Entomol 22(4):726–732 based simulation approach. Biol Control 9:25–47
van Steekelenberg NAM (1985) Influence of humidity on control applications in post-harvest and processing
incidence of Didymella bryoniae on cucumber leaves technology. Ostend, pp 51–56
and growing tips under controlled conditions. Neth Wilson AR (1963) Some observations on the infection of
J Plant Pathol 91:277–283 tomato stems by Botrytis cinerea (Abstr). Ann Appl
Verhoeff K (1968) Effect of soil nitrogen level and meth- Biol 51:171
ods of deleafing upon the occurrence of Botrytis cine- Winspear KW, Postlethwaite JD, Cotton RE (1970) The
rea under commercial conditions. Neth J Plant Pathol restriction of Cladosporium fulvum and Botrytis cine-
74:184–194 rea, attacking glasshouse tomatoes, by automatic
von Zabeltitz C (1976) Temperaturverteilung bei einer humidity control. Ann Appl Biol 65:75–83
Luft-Vegetationsheizung aus PE-Schläuchen. Wittwer SH, Castilla N (1995) Protected cultivation of hor-
Deutscher Gartenbau 30:7–8 ticultural crops worldwide. HortTechnology 5:6–23
Vreeken-Buis MJ, Hassink J, Brussaard L (1998) Yarwood CE (1959) Microclimate and infection. In:
Relationships and soil microarthropod biomass with Holton CS, Fischer GW, Fulton RH, Hart H, McCallan
organic matter and pore size distribution in soils under SEA (eds) Plant pathology: problems and progress
different land use. Soil Biol Biochem 30:97–106 1908–1958. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
Wearing CH (1988) Evaluating the IPM implementation pp 548–556
process. Annu Rev Entomol 33:17–38 Yunis H, Shtienberg D, Elad Y, Mahrer Y (1994)
Wei YQ, Bailey BJ, Thompson AK, Stenning BC (1995) Qualitative approach for modeling outbreaks of grey
Prediction of condensation on tomatoes. In Proceeding mould epidemics in non-heated cucumber green-
of the IFAC/CIGR/EURAGENG/ISHS workshop: houses. Crop Prot 13:99–104
Disinfestation of Soil and Growth
Media for Management 4
of Soilborne Diseases
Abstract
Soilborne plant pathogens constitute a major problem of plant protection
in greenhouses. The management of soilborne pathogens in glass or plas-
tic greenhouses can be achieved through a wide range of chemical and
physical treatments as well as soil solarization. Soil solarization applied to
soil or growth media alone or in combination with reduced doses of soil
fumigants or other amendments can also control most soilborne plant
pathogens effectively. Methods of soil disinfestation, combining disinfes-
tation methods, limitations, and difficulties in soil disinfection, are
discussed.
Keywords
Soilborne plant pathogens • Soil solarization • Soil fumigation • Bioagents
4.1 Introduction ment strategies. Therefore, any new method of

disease management is of value since it adds to
Several methods have been developed for the our rather limited arsenal of control methods.
management of soilborne diseases incited by var- This is particularly true with innovative non-
ious plant pathogens, which include fungicidal chemical approaches which are needed to replace
application, breeding for disease resistance, sani- hazardous chemicals.
tation, crop rotation, biological control, and soil The concept of managing soilborne pathogens
disinfestations. The need for different methods of has now changed. In the past, control of these
plant disease management stems from the fact pathogens concentrated on eradication. Later, it
that usually none of them is perfect nor can any- has been realized that effective control could be
one be used under all circumstances. Moreover, achieved by interrupting the disease cycle, plant
the life cycles of pathogens may vary in different resistance, or the microbial balance leading to
crop systems, thus requiring different manage- disease reduction below the economic injury

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_4
48 4 Disinfestation of Soil and Growth Media for Management of Soilborne Diseases
level, rather than absolute control. The integrated physical damages incurred to their resting struc-
pest management concept encompasses many tures, even in cases of heavy soil contamination.
elements. Moreover, steaming usually shows a growth
Soilborne plant pathogens constitute a major stimulation effect on the following crop.
problem of plant protection in greenhouses. This The “classic” steaming by pipes, dug into the
is basically due to the pathogens’ ability to sur- soil, is no longer used. This holds true also for
vive for several years in the soil (or in used con- heating the soil to 80–100 °C as this treatment
tainer media) as dormant resting structures results, in many cases, in a biological vacuum in
(sclerotia or microsclerotia, chlamydospores, and the treated soil. Heating the soil or growth sub-
resting mycelia) until a susceptible crop is intro- strate to 70 °C – mainly by aerated steam – is
duced again into the same field. These structures now favored; this treatment leaves part of the sap-
are able to withstand adverse environmental con- rophytic population uncontrolled (Bollen 1985).
ditions and chemical applications, thus creating Careful soil preparation is essential for good
major control problems in the world agriculture. steam penetration. The soil should be tilled as
The same holds true for other soilborne pests deep as possible, preferably by a shovel plow,
such as arthropods, nematodes, parasitic plants, and then left for complete drying before steam-
and weeds, although different mechanisms of ing. It is important to reduce amount of plant
persistence are involved. To date, fumigation (or debris, especially when steaming growth
steaming) is the most effective approach to con- medium. Good preparation permits good steam
trol soilborne pests. Soil solarization (SSOL), penetration and enables pest control in heavy
applied to soil or growth media alone or in com- soils, but might still result in only partial control
bination with reduced doses of soil fumigants or in very light sandy soils. Steaming of aerated
other amendments, can also control most soil- growth substrates, such as tuff stones, vermicu-
borne plant pathogens effectively. lite, etc. is usually good, but peat soils pose dif-
The management of soilborne pathogens in ficulties due to their high water content.
glass or plastic greenhouses can be achieved Soil steaming is done either by “passive” or
through a wide range of chemical and physical “active” techniques. In passive steaming, steam
treatments as well as SSOL, taking into consider- is blown to the surface, under a covering sheet,
ation the ban on the use of methyl bromide (MBr) and left to heat the upper layer. Lower layers are
and the current lack of alternatives for some of its then heated by heat transmission. This process
current uses {although some combinations of continues until 100 °C is reached at a depth of
those chemicals [e.g., ethyl dipropil thiolcarba- 10 cm (Runia 1983). Disinfestation of deep lay-
mate (EPTC)] with SSOL have been found to be ers, especially in sandy soil, might be only
highly effective}. partial.
Active steaming can be done by either positive
or negative pressure. Both techniques employ
4.2 Methods of Soil drainage systems, based on pipes laid at a
Disinfestation 50–70 cm depth and approximately 80 cm apart.
With the “positive pressure” technique, the steam
4.2.1 Steaming is blown through holes located along the pipes.
The “negative pressure” involves an improved
Steaming, aerated steam (Dawson and Johnson technique, utilizing the advantages of the two
1965), overheated, and hot water treatments are abovementioned application methods. The steam
used in greenhouses, especially when container is released over the treated area under plastic
(growth) media are used. Steam has been applied sheeting, as for passive steaming, assuring rapid
for soil disinfestation for almost a century. Plant and even distribution throughout the plot surface,
pathogens (as well as other pests) are eliminated followed by active suction to the deeper layers of
by steaming due to heating to lethal levels or to the soil, achieved by negative pressure applied
4.2 Methods of Soil Disinfestation 49
through the drainage system. This technique, capacity,” and a tight covering of the fumigated
widely used in the Netherlands, is much cheaper soil with plastic (mostly polyethylene) sheeting.
than the two others, due to energy saving caused MBr is applied to the soil at a rate of 50–150 g/m2
by the faster heat transfer (Runia 1983). Despite either by injection as a cold liquid just before
this, steaming treatments are expensive and are covering or by distribution as a cold or hot gas
feasible mainly in places where there are heating under the mulch released through a manifold of
systems (used mainly for heating the greenhouse perforated pipes or from 0.3 to 1 L disposable
during the cold season) or if applied by contrac- containers which are opened under the mulch.
tors (Anonymous 1994). Steaming, however, can The duration of the application depends on soil
be useful and economical for disinfestation of temperature (1–2 days at 18 °C, 3 days at 10–15
shallow layers of growth media placed on tables, °C at the 0–20-cm-deep soil layer, but more than
as is usually done in nurseries. 4 days at 8–10 °C at the same depth) (Klein
1996). Possible problems due to the toxicological
hazards of MBr are related mainly to the health
4.2.2 Soil Fumigation danger for applicators and to the increase in inor-
ganic bromine residues in edible plant products.
Soil fumigation is done by applying toxic pesti- MBr was found in a few cases in water near
cides to the soil by various means, and these greenhouses in the Netherlands, where PVC
fumigants move down and across the soil profile water pipes were improperly placed only 10 cm
and reach the target organisms directly or by a deep in the ground.
very efficient secondary distribution due to their In 1992, MBr was listed by the Montreal
relatively high vapor pressure. Methyl bromide Protocol as an ozone-depleting material, and a
(MBr) is by far the most effective fumigant procedure for banning its use was initiated
(Klein 1996). However, current concerns regard- (Gamliel et al. 1997b). According to this deci-
ing the possible role of MBr in ozone depletion sion, MBr will not be available in developed
and its forthcoming phaseout have triggered countries after 2005, and its consumption will be
research efforts to develop optional methods for gradually reduced during the period remaining
soil disinfestation. Other soil fumigants used for until the ban goes into effect (Anonymous 1997).
greenhouses include methyl isothiocyanate There are some MBr uses without any known
(MIT), CS2-releasing compounds, formaldehyde, substitute yet (Anonymous 1994). Continuous
dichloropropene, etc. (Anonymous 1994; efforts are now under way, to reduce MBr dos-
Ristaino and Thomas 1997). ages and minimize its emission and negative side
effects on the environment. Most solutions are
4.2.2.1 Fumigation with Methyl based on using improved, virtually impermeable
Bromide (MBr) mulching films. Common low- and high-density
MBr is the most powerful soil fumigant with a polyethylene films are poor barriers and allow the
very broad spectrum of activities. Many soil- escape of MBr at very high rates, especially
borne fungi (e.g., Rhizoctonia spp., Pythium spp., where the film temperature is higher than 40 °C
Phytophthora spp., Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. (as is the case in most greenhouses when the film
minor, Sclerotium rolfsii, Verticillium spp., and is exposed to solar irradiation). The permeability
many Fusarium spp.) are sensitive to MBr. In of MBr through impermeable film (normally co-
contrast, some soilborne bacteria, such as extruded with a barrier layer protected by poly-
Clavibacter michiganensis ssp. michiganensis ethylene coating from both sides) is only
(= Corynebacterium michiganense ssp. michi- 0.001–0.0001 g/m2/h depending on the barrier
ganense), are not satisfactorily controlled at reg- formula, compared with emission of 5 g/m2/h for
ular (commercial) rates of application (Antoniou regular low-density polyethylene. Control of a
et al. 1995a). The effectiveness of MBr fumiga- pest is a factor of pesticide concentration (C) and
tion also depends on proper soil preparation, irri- exposure time (T). Thus, extending MBr reten-
gation reaching approximately 60 % of “field tion in soil under impermeable films for a longer
period allows the use of reduced MBr dosages races of Fusarium oxysporum, S. sclerotiorum,
with the same CT values, without reducing con- S. rolfsii, and V. dahliae; and species of
trol efficacy. Fungal pathogens such as Fusarium Phialophora, Phoma, Botrytis, etc. Since resting
oxysporum f. sp. dianthi, F. oxysporum f. sp. structures are present mainly in the upper 40 cm
radicis-lycopersici, F. oxysporum f. sp. cuc- of the soil profile, MES (100 % water soluble) is
umerinum, etc. were controlled by reduced dos- most effective when applied via the sprinkler irri-
age of MBr at 25–50 % of the recommended dose gation system. The chemical is used at various
under impermeable films (Antoniou et al. 1997; doses according to the target pathogen and/or the
Gamliel et al. 1997b, c). Further reduction is pos- soil type to be disinfected. The recommended
sible by deeper burying of the film edges into the dosages for sandy, heavy, and very heavy soils
soil and by continuous mulching or by combina- are 490–650, 800, and 1000 l/ha, respectively.
tion with SSOL (Grinstein et al. 1995; Antoniou Soil temperature is also a critical factor in the
et al. 1997; Gamliel et al. 1997b). effective application of the chemical: fluctuating
between 10 °C and 30 °C at a soil depth of 10 cm
4.2.2.2 Fumigants with Methyl is best. Use of MES for chemigation is an effec-
Isothiocyanate (MIT) tive procedure against soilborne pathogens.
However, side effects may arise under certain
4.2.2.2.1 Dazomet conditions, such as when the irrigation water is
[3,5,-Dimethyl-tetrahydro-l,3,5,- contaminated with urban sewage. Fusarium oxy-
(2H)-thiodiazino-thione] sporum f. sp. cepae on onion has been controlled
Dazomet is a product formulated either as a pow- by MES application, but fumigation resulted in
der (85 % a.i.) or as granules (98 % a.i.). The the eradication of endomycorrhizal fungi,
chemical is gradually hydrolyzed to at least four reduced onion growth, and increased the popula-
subproducts, MIT being the main one. Dazomet tion of another bacterial pathogen of onions,
is effective against Verticillium dahliae, V. albo- Pseudomonas gladioli pv. allicola, which
atrum, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotio- replaced fusaria and caused very serious damage
rum, Phytophthora spp., and Pythium spp. at (Kritzman and Ben-Yephet 1990).
400–600 kg a.i./ha. The fumigant can be used for
the control of several diseases in seedbeds and 4.2.2.3 Alternatives to Methyl
greenhouses. It is applied to the soil by spreading Bromide (MBr)
or irrigating followed by mechanical mixing Fumigants other than MBr, having a much nar-
(such as rotovator cultivation or shovel plow) into rower range, are registered and used in various
the soil. The chemical, which is not applicable at cropping systems. These include nematicides
temperatures lower than 8 °C, is also partially (dichloropropene), fungicides (CS2-releasing
effective against insects, various nematodes, and pesticides), and others. These are used on rela-
weed seeds. One of the disadvantages of dazomet tively small scale (Anonymous 1994). It is clear
is the long period (3 weeks) needed after applica- that with the currently available fumigants, there
tion of the chemical before planting or sowing is is no satisfactory replacement to MBr. The use of
permissible (Anonymous 1994; Middleton and other fumigants involves the identification of
Lawrence 1995). causal agent and in many cases the use of a mix-
ture of two or more chemicals to control a wider
4.2.2.2.2 Metam Sodium (Sodium range of disease agents, pests, and weeds in the
Methyldithiocarbamate) (MES) treated plot (Anonymous 1994). Di-Trapex
MES is effective against several soilborne patho- (methyl isothiocyanate 20 + dichloropropane–
gens in both covered and open outdoor cultiva- dichloropropene 80) may serve as an example to
tion. In water solutions MES rapidly changes to this tendency, as this pesticide was formulated to
methyl isothiocyanate (MIT). The broad spectrum control both pest controlled by MES and the root-
of controlled pathogens includes pythiaceous fungi; knot nematode. Furthermore, data regarding
residual effect of the abovementioned fumigants mulching of soil have been used to describe this
before planting is needed while their environ- method. Since this method involves repeated
mental impact is not yet fully clear. daily heating at relatively mild temperatures, the
term solar pasteurization has also been
suggested.
4.2.3 Soil Solarization (SSOL) SSOL represents one of the very few cases
where a new nonchemical control procedure has
Soil solarization is a nonchemical soil disinfesta- been adopted by greenhouse growers in several
tion method applied worldwide for the control of parts of the world, within a relatively short period
soilborne plant pathogens, weeds, and nema- of time (Katan et al. 1987). SSOL is based on
todes. In Israel, extension workers and growers trapping solar irradiation by tightly covering the
suggested that the intensive heating that occurs in wet soil, usually with transparent polyethylene or
mulched soil might be used for disease control. other plastic sheets (Grinstein and Hetzroni
By mulching the soil with transparent polyethyl- 1991). This results in a significant elevation (10–
ene sheets in the hot season prior to planting, a 15 °C above normal, depending on the soil depth)
team of Israeli workers developed a solar heating of soil temperatures up to the point where most
approach for soil disinfestation. Soil solarization pathogens are vulnerable to heat when applied
is a method of controlling soilborne pests and for 4–6 weeks and controlled either directly by
pathogens by raising the temperature of the soil the heat or by chemical and biological processes
through application of transparent polyethylene generated in the heated soil (DeVay and Katan
sheet to a moist soil surface. With solarization, 1991).
vast possibilities for disease control are possible.
Soil solarization as a disinfestation method has 4.2.3.1 Principles
potential advantages. It is a nonchemical method Heat is used as a lethal agent for the control of
which is not hazardous to the user and does not plant pathogenic organisms through the use of
involve substances toxic to the consumer, to the transparent polyethylene soil mulches (tarps) for
host plant, or to other organisms. In the right per- capturing solar energy. Polyethylene covering of
spective, it is less expensive than other methods. soil induces greenhouse effect and raises soil
This technology can easily be transmitted to the temperature. The following recommendations
farmers and can be applied in large areas manu- are made to bring about effective solar heating of
ally and mechanically. It may have a long-term soil:
effect, since effective disease control lasts for
more than one season. This method has the char- • Transparent (clear), not black, polyethylene
acteristics of an integrated control, since physi- should be used since it transmits most of the
cal, chemical, and biological mechanisms are solar radiation that heats the soil. Black poly-
involved and because the control of a wide vari- ethylene, though it is greatly heated by itself,
ety of pests is achieved. is less efficient in heating the soil than trans-
Use of this method has been reported to reduce parent sheet.
the population of many soilborne pathogens • Soil mulching should be carried out during the
including fungi, bacteria, and nematodes as well period of high temperatures and intense solar
as weeds (Pullman et al.1981; Barbercheck and irradiation.
von Broembsen 1986; Verma et al. 2005). Soil • Soil should be kept wet during mulching to
solarization applied singly or in combination increase thermal sensitivity of resting struc-
with biocontrol agents or reduced doses of soil tures such as sclerotia, chlamydospores, etc.
fumigants/fungicides has shown a remarkable and to improve heat conduction.
destructive effect on most soilborne plant patho- • The thinnest possible polyethylene tarp (25–
gens. Various terms like solar heating, plastic or 30 μm) is recommended, since it is both
polyethylene tarping, and polyethylene or plastic cheaper and more effective in heating, due to
better radiation transmittance, than the thicker demonstrated by Waggoner et al. (1960). If ther-
one. Polyethylene reduces heat convection mal processes occurring in mulched soil are
and water evaporation from the soil to the considered, then soil temperatures at the desired
atmosphere. As a result of the formation of depth can be predicted. Mahrer (1979) developed
water droplets on the inner surface of the poly- a one-dimensional numerical model for such pre-
thene film, its transmissivity to long-wave dictions. As per this model in wet, polyethylene-
radiation is highly reduced, resulting in better mulched soil, increased temperatures are due
heating due to an increase in its greenhouse primarily to the elimination of heat loss by evap-
effect. Ideal plastic mulch should be 100 % oration and heat convection during the day time
transparent to solar radiation and completely and partially to the greenhouse effect (preventing
opaque to long-wave radiation. This ideal part of the long-wave radiation from leaving the
mulch can increase soil temperature by 6–8 °C ground). By predicting the temperatures at any
over ordinary polyethylene. depth of the mulched soil, the model enables us
• Since temperatures at the deeper soil layers to select the suitable climatic regions and the
are lower than at the upper ones, the mulching time of year most adequate for solarization of
period should be sufficiently extended, usu- soil, provided data on the heat sensitivity of the
ally 4 weeks or longer, in order to achieve pathogens and their population density at various
pathogen control at all desired depths. depths are available. Relative importance of type
of mulching material, soil type, moisture, and cli-
The solar heating method for disease control matic factors can also be evaluated. Analysis of
is similar, in principle, to that of artificial soil the spatial soil temperature regimes in mulched
heating by steam or other means. There are, how- soil showed that heating at the edges of the mulch
ever, important biological and technological is lower than at the center and that a narrow
differences: mulch strip is less efficient in heating than a
wider one (Mahrer and Katan 1981).
• With soil solarization there is no need to trans-
port the heat from its source to the field. 4.2.3.2 Mechanisms
• Solar heating is carried out at relatively low Reduction in disease incidence occurring in
temperatures as compared to artificial heating; solarized soils results from the effects exerted on
thus, its effects on living and nonliving com- each of the three living components involved in
ponents are likely to be less drastic. disease (host, pathogen, and soil microbiota) as
• Negative side effects observed with soil well as the physical and chemical environment
steaming such as phytotoxicity due to release which in turn affects the activity and interrela-
of manganese or other toxic products and a tionships of the organisms. Although these pro-
rapid soil reinfestation due to the creation of a cesses occur primarily during solarization, they
biological vacuum have not been reported so may continue to various extents and in different
far with solar heating. ways, after the removal of the polyethylene sheets
and planting. The most pronounced effect of soil
Absorption of solar radiation in different soils mulching with polyethylene is a physical one,
varies according to the color, moisture, and tex- i.e., an increase in soil temperatures, for several
ture of the soil. In general, the soil has high ther- hours of the day. However, other accompanying
mal capacity and is a poor heat conductor thus processes such as shifts in microbial populations,
resulting in a very slow heat penetration in soil. changes in chemical composition and physical
The energy is lost from the soil in the form of structure of the soil, high moisture levels main-
long-wave radiation through conduction, convec- tained by the mulch, and changes in gas composi-
tion, and water evaporation. The principles of tion of the soil should also be considered
solar heating in polyethylene-mulched soil were while analyzing mechanisms of disease control.
The following equation proposed by Baker of proteins, resulting in a decreased heat resistance.
(1968), for relating the various factors involved Heating dry soils is therefore not effective in
in biological control, should be adopted for this pathogen control (Katan et al. 1976).
analysis: Microbial processes, induced in the soil by
solarization, may contribute to disease control,
• Disease severity = inoculum potential × disease since the impact of any lethal agent in the soil
potential extends beyond the target organisms. If induced
• where inoculum potential is the energy avail- by solarization, biological control may affect the
able for colonization of a substrate (infection pathogen by increasing its vulnerability to soil
court) at the surface and disease potential is microorganisms or increasing the activity of soil
the ability of the host to contract disease. microorganisms toward pathogen or plant, which
• More specifically, the equation becomes: will finally lead to a reduction in disease inci-
• Disease severity = (inoculum density × capac- dence, pathogen survivability, or both. Thus, both
ity) × (proneness × susceptibility) short- and long-term effects might be expected.
• where capacity is the effect of the environ- Biological control may operate at any stage of
ment on energy for colonization and prone- pathogen survival or disease development during
ness is the effect of the environment on the or after solarization, through antibiosis, lysis,
host. Of these four components, inoculum parasitism, or competition.
density (ID) is the one most affected by solar-
ization either through the direct physical effect 4.2.3.3 Disease Management
of the heat or by microbial processes induced Protected structures on the one hand provide
in the soil. The other components, however ambient growing conditions to the plant, and on
(except for susceptibility which is genetically the other hand this condition is favorable to the
determined), might also be affected. plant pathogens also. Though protected farming
has advantage that pathogens do not enter easily
Whenever microorganisms are subjected to from outside, once a pathogen has been intro-
moist heat, at temperatures exceeding the maxi- duced, it is very difficult to manage. Control of
mum for growth, their viability is reduced. The particularly soilborne plant pathogens is a chal-
thermal death rate of a population of an organism lenge, as traditional practices like crop rotation,
depends on both the temperature level and expo- fallow, mixed cropping, etc. usually cannot be
sure time, which are inversely related. At a given applied under polyhouse conditions. Solarization
temperature and time of exposure, mortality rate appears to be of major use in greenhouse culture.
is related to the inherent heat sensitivity of the Many greenhouse and nursery crops worldwide
organisms and to the prevailing environmental now utilize solarization. The ability of green-
conditions. In general, populations of soilborne house operators to close up greenhouses during
fungal pathogens are drastically reduced at tem- the hot summer months allows higher solariza-
peratures of 40–50 °C, exposure time ranging tion temperatures than achievable in treatment of
from minutes to hours for the higher tempera- open fields. Another application for which solar-
tures and up to days for the lower temperatures. ization may come into common use, particularly
The response of the population to elevated tem- in developing countries, is for disinfestation of
peratures depends on propagule type, age, and seedbeds, containerized planting media, and cold
environmental factors like pH, presence of ions, frames. As with use in greenhouses, these are
etc. Presence of moisture is a crucial factor since ideal niches for solarization, since individual
microorganisms are much more resistant to heat areas to be treated are small, soil temperature can
under dry conditions. The effect of water can be be greatly increased, the cost of application is
explained by the dependence of the heat stability low, the value of the plants produced is high, and
of proteins on hydration. In the presence of water, the production of disease-free planting stock is
less energy is required to unfold the peptide chain critical for producing healthy crops.
4.2.3.3.1 Effect of SSOL on Fungal Table 4.1 Soilborne fungal pathogens controlled by soil
solarization
Diseases
Ecological observations and quantitative mea- Selected
Pest Crop references
surements carried out after the application of the
Fusarium spp. Cucumber, Kodama et al.
technique have differentiated the pathogens into
melon, tomato, 1980; Kodama
two main categories. It should be pointed out that strawberry, and Fukui 1982;
a pathogen could be effectively controlled by watermelon Tjamos and
solarization in one region but less effectively in Malcrynakis
1990; Grinstein
another depending on environmental and cultural
and Ausher 1991;
parameters. A partial list of soilborne pathogens Oliveira 1992;
and pests which are controlled by solarization as Antoniou et al.
reported for greenhouses and open fields is listed 1997
in Table 4.1. It is important to mention that appli- Phoma lycopersici Tomato Cartia 1989
cation of SSOL in a close greenhouse or by Phytophthora spp. Tomato Cartia 1989;
Grinstein and
employing two-layer mulch further improves its Ausher 1991
effects (Kodama and Fukui 1982; Garibaldi and Pyrenochaeta spp. Onion, Malathrakis et al.
Tamietti 1984; Garibaldi and Gullino 1991). tomato 1983; Garibaldi
Soil solarization has been demonstrated to and Tamietti
control diseases caused by many fungal patho- 1984; Tjamos
1984; Grinstein
gens such as Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp., and Ausher 1991
Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., Verticillium Pythium spp. Various Hilderbrand 1985;
spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, etc. Stapleton and
Garza-Lopez
4.2.3.3.2 Partial Control of Fungal 1988
Diseases by SSOL Rhizoctonia solani Various Grinstein and
Ausher 1991
The heat-tolerant Monosporascus sp. and
Sclerotinia spp. Lettuce Porter and
Macrophomina phaseolina, root-knot nematode Merriman 1985;
Meloidogyne spp., and some weeds, e.g., Cyperus Materrazzi et al.
rotundus and the annual weed Melilotus sulcatus, 1987; Vannacci
are only partially controlled by SSOL. Fusarium et al. 1988;
Phillips 1990
oxysporum f. sp. dianthi is also considered as one
Sclerotinia Onion Abdel Rahim
of the wilt pathogens not easily controlled by cepivorum et al. 1983; Porter
SSOL (Rubin and Benjamin 1983; Gamliel and and Merriman
Stapleton 1997). 1985
Verticillium spp. Eggplant, Katan et al. 1976;
tomato, Cartia 1989;
4.2.3.3.3 Bacterial Diseases Controlled by
strawberry Tjamos et al.
SSOL 1989; Grinstein
Relatively, only few reports about SSOL and bac- and Ausher 1991
terial diseases were published. Application of
SSOL (1–2 months soil mulching with transpar-
ent polyethylene films) in tomato plastic houses Garza-Lopez 1988). Bacterial populations of cul-
drastically reduced symptoms caused by tures of C. michiganensis ssp. michiganensis
Corynebacterium michiganense ssp. michiganen- infiltrated into tomato stem segments were
sis (Antoniou et al. 1995b), while MBr (68 g/m2) embedded at various soil depths prior to the
was ineffective in controlling the disease. application of SSOL. A sharp decrease or elimi-
Populations of Gram-positive bacteria were nation of the pathogen in solarized compared to
reduced by 64–99 % by SSOL (Stapleton and MBr-treated plots was observed. Streptomyces
4.3 Combining Disinfestation Methods 55
spp., causing deep-pitted scab of potatoes, was 4.2.3.4 Increased Growth Response
successfully controlled (Grinstein et al. 1995). Plant growth in solarized infested soil is enhanced
Negative effects, due to control of beneficial as compared to untreated, infested soil as a result
Rhizobia, were also reported (Abdel-Rahim of pathogen control, but solarization of soil which
et al. 1987). is apparently free of known pathogens often
Soil solarization has been demonstrated to results in improved plant growth. This could be
control diseases caused by many bacterial patho- attributed to increased micro- and macronutrients
gens such as Agrobacteria and Pseudomonas. in soil solution, elimination of minor or unknown
pathogens, destruction of phytotoxic substances
4.2.3.3.4 Nematode Diseases Controlled in the soil, release of growth regulator-like
by SSOL substances, and stimulation of mycorrhiza,
Soil solarization has been demonstrated to con- PGPR, and other beneficial microorganisms. The
trol diseases caused by many species of nema- effect of soil solarization on earthworm’s popula-
todes. Diseases caused by Meloidogyne spp., tion has not received much attention, but it is
Heterodera spp., etc. have been successfully con- thought that they retreat to lower depths to escape
trolled by soil solarization (Rao and Krishnappa the effect of soil heating. The increased growth
1995; Grinstein et al. 1995). response of plants in solarized soil is a well-
documented phenomenon and has been verified
4.2.3.3.5 Biological Control Aspects both in greenhouse experiments and under field
of SSOL conditions (Katan 1987; Chen et al. 1991).
Disturbances in the biological equilibrium of the
soil microflora, following soil fumigation or
steaming, are known to be drastic and undesir- 4.3 Combining Disinfestation
able. Application of SSOL, however, favors the Methods
survival and increase of several heat-tolerant
microorganisms able to act as antagonists against One of the major limitations of SSOL is its cli-
soilborne pathogens, such as Talaromyces flavus, mate dependence. Another problem diverts from
Aspergillus terreus, fluorescent pseudomonads, the need to keep the treated area for 35–60 days
and others (Tjamos et al. 1991). Solarization without any crop. Solarization use in many places
favors establishment of added antagonists such as is limited by partial control of some pests, as well
Trichoderma spp. and A. terreus, saprophytic as reduced efficacy in marginal seasons. These
fusaria, and others (Martyn and Hartz 1986; constraints can be reduced, or solved, by combin-
Triolo et al. 1988). ing solarization with other control measures at
The survival of thermophilic genera of reduced dosages. The control efficacy may be
Bacillus and Actinomyces, as well as the buildup increased due to additive effect. More likely, it is
of fluorescent pseudomonads and other popula- due to synergistic effect caused by the hotter
tions of rhizosphere bacteria, was reported environment which increases vapor pressure and
(Gamliel and Katan 1991; Antoniou et al. 1995a). chemical activity of the added pesticide. Another
The effect of SSOL can be improved also by reason for the improved activity of the pesticide
combination with no pesticide organic amend- is the weakening of the resting structure by the
ments incorporated into the soil before mulching. heat (Freeman and Katan 1988).
This can be related both to the release of toxic Despite the successes achieved with solariza-
materials by combination of heating and biologi- tion when used singly, this method may be use-
cal activity and to positive changes in soil micro- fully aided by combination with other methods of
flora. Gamliel and Stapleton (1997) reported disinfestation. As soil solarization is dependent
control of root-knot nematodes by mixing upon local climatic conditions, sometimes even
chicken manure or dry cabbage leaves in the plot during conducive periods of the year, local
(biofumigation) before mulching. weather conditions will not permit an effective
solarization treatment. Therefore, we must come dependent on combinations with other pesticides
up with integrated uses of solarization in order to or with nonchemical procedures. Sublethal fumi-
increase the predictability of the treatment and gation is considered here in combination with
thus make it more acceptable to growers. SSOL (Gamliel et al. 1997b). Combining sub-
Combining solarization with pesticides, organic lethal fumigation with solarization could be
amendments, or biocontrol agents improves dis- focused on the following:
ease control. Whenever a pathogen is weakened
by heating, even reduced dosages might suffice • MBr fumigation followed immediately by
for improved control combining with biocontrol solarization
agents, organic amendments, etc. • Simultaneous application of solarization with
reduced doses of various fumigants
• Solarization followed by fumigant for patho-
4.3.1 SSOL and Reduced Rate gens that are heat tolerant
of Pesticides
Recent studies show that the control efficacy
Low application rates of fungicides, fumigants, of reduced dose of MBr combined with solariza-
or herbicides have been successfully combined tion was highly increased when applied after a
with soil solarization to achieve better pest con- short heating period, 2–3 days after the mulching
trol (Hartz et al. 1993). Simultaneous application (Gamliel et al. 1997a). Application of MBr after
of chemicals and tarping the soil for solarization the termination of the SSOL, however, can con-
have been shown to increase the effectiveness of trol some of the beneficial microorganism popu-
both the methods because of synergism (Ben- lations which remain in the solarized plot and has
Yephet et al. 1988; Tjamos 1984). to be considered carefully.
Reduced doses of metam sodium (12.5 or 25 Current reports mainly deal with combinations
ml/m2) applied singly or in combination with soil of chemicals with SSOL. They include MES for the
solarization synergistically reduced to 1 week the control of V. dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum f.
time needed to kill sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclero- sp. vasinfectum (Ben-Yephet 1988), dazomet
tiorum in the top 10 cm of soil in a lettuce field either alone or in combination with SSOL to con-
and reduced apothecia production. Carbendazim trol Phoma terrestris on onions (Porter and
has shown slower degradation rates after solar- Merriman 1985), and MBr and SSOL for the
ization, possibly because of changes in the popu- control of Pyrenochaeta lycopersici on tomatoes
lations of soil microorganisms after solarization. (Tjamos 1984). Dazomet (750 kg/ha) either alone
Reduced doses of MBr, impermeable plastics, or in combination with solarization reduced dis-
and solarization were applied against a variety of ease incidence and severity of pink root rot
diseases, e.g., F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum (caused by P. terrestris) and white rot (caused by
of cucumbers, C. michiganensis ssp. michiganen- Sclerotium cepivorum) of onions and increased
sis of tomatoes (Antoniou et al. 1997), the melon yield by at least 100 %. Reduced rates of MBr
sudden wilt (Gamliel et al. 1997b), Verticillium (34 g/m2) combined with simultaneous solariza-
of potatoes (Grinstein et al. 1979), deep-pitted tion effectively controlled corky root rot disease
scab of potatoes, Fusarium crown rot in toma- of tomatoes (Tjamos 1984) and Verticillium wilt
toes, and soil sickness of Gypsophila sp. Reduced of globe artichokes (Tjamos and Paplomatas 1987).
rates of MBr (34 g/m2) combined with simultane-
ous solarization effectively controlled corky root
rot disease of tomatoes (Tjamos 1984) and 4.3.2 SSOL and Organic
Verticillium wilt of globe artichoke (Tjamos and Amendments
Paplomatas 1987).
Reduced doses of chemicals are recommended Solarization may also be combined with applica-
as an alternative approach to the acute toxicity of tion of crop residues and green and farmyard
full fumigation. However, their effectiveness is manures. There is increasing evidence that these
materials release volatile compounds in the soil tolerance to lethal agents is not likely to
that kill pests and help stimulate the growth of develop with disinfestation methods which are
beneficial soil organisms (Deadman et al. 2006; not target specific.
Gamliel and Stapleton 1993). • Another possibility would be an increase in
pathogen population due to a harmful effect
on its antagonists.
4.3.3 SSOL and Bioagents
Soil solarization has also been successfully com-

bined with biological control. The use of 4.5 Difficulties in Soil
Trichoderma harzianum with solarization in Disinfection
fields infested with Rhizoctonia solani has been
shown to improve disease control while delaying Soil fumigation with chemicals may have nega-
the buildup of inoculum (Chet et al. 1982). tive effects on the environment, could be
Greenberger et al. (1987) concluded that solar- extremely dangerous to humans, and may leave
ized soils are frequently more suppressive and toxic residues in plant products. Thus, innovative
less conducive to certain soilborne pathogens approaches are desperately needed by the farm-
than non-solarized soils. An increase in popula- ers and are under great demand by the consum-
tion of green fluorescent pseudomonads along ers. Research toward exploiting SSOL by
with an increase of Penicillium and Aspergillus combining reduced doses of allowed fumigants,
spp. following solarization has been demon- or various antagonists, could be one of the most
strated (Stapleton and DeVay 1982). promising approaches. This could also result in
Synergism in reducing disease incidence can reducing duration of solarization thus making the
be observed between fumigants and fungal antag- method more acceptable by the farmers.
onists of soilborne pathogens. Solarization in Furthermore, sublethal fumigation in combina-
combination with Gliocladium virens proved to tion with solarization could solve many prob-
be a potential control strategy against southern lems, since the combination is suitable for areas
blight of tomatoes (Ristaino et al. 1991). marginal for the application of solarization and is
able to reduce the duration of solarization to one
half. SSOL in combination with biocontrol agents
4.4 Limitations could exploit the weakening effect imposed by
solar heating and could prolong its effectiveness.
Solarization involves the following limitations,
difficulties, and possible negative effects:
4.6 Future Thrusts
• It is weather dependent and can only be used
in regions where the climate is suitable (hot) 4.6.1 Economics
and the soil is free of crops for about 1 month
or more at a time of tarping with PE sheets. The economic profitability of disease control
The soil heating effect may be limited depends on the additional income obtained and
on cloudy days. Wind or air movement across the cost of application. The additional income
the plastic sheet rapidly dissipates the obtained through solarization far exceeds with
trapped heat. Strong winds may also lift or high-value crops, but with other crops, the situa-
tear the sheets. tion may not be the same. There are several pos-
• It is too expensive for some crops and sibilities for reducing the cost of mulching:
ineffective in the control of certain diseases.
• Heat-tolerant pathogens might develop after • Used polyethylene may be as effective as the
repeated application, though selection for new, thus reducing the cost to nearly zero.
• Reusing the polyethylene is possible, provided Antoniou PP, Tjamos EC, Andreou MT, Panagopoulos
CG (1995a) Effectiveness, modes of action and com-
it is durable.
mercial application of soil solarization for control of
• If required during the growing season, durable Clavibacter michiganensis s sp michiganensis of
sheets may be used for both solarization and tomatoes. Acta Hortic 382:119–124
mulch. Antoniou PP, Tjamos EC, Panagopoulos CG (1995b) Use
of soil solarization for controlling bacterial canker of
• The production of thinner polythene sheets (of
tomato in plastic houses in Greece. Plant Pathol
an adequate strength) will reduce the amount 44:438–447
needed per hectare. Antoniou PP, Tjamos EC, Panagopoulos CG (1997)
Reduced doses of methyl bromide, impermeable
plastics and solarization against Fusarium oxysporum
f sp cucumerinum of cucumbers and Clavibacter
michiganensis s sp michiganensis of tomatoes. In:
4.6.2 Development in Plastic Proceedings of the 10th congress of the mediterranean
Technology phytopathological union, Montpellier, pp 83–86
Baker R (1968) Mechanisms of biological control of
soil-borne pathogens. Annu Rev Phytopathol
Developments in this field may provide improved 6:263–294
and economical mulching materials with greater Barbercheck ME, von Broembsen SL (1986) Effect of soil
heating efficiency and increased durability. This solarization on plant parasitic nematodes and
Phytophthora cinnamomi in South Africa. Plant Dis
may include:
70:945–950
Ben-Yephet Y (1988) Control of sclerotia and apothecia
• Biodegradable plastic that decomposes in the of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by metham-sodium,
natural environment. methyl bromide and soil solarization. Crop Prot
7:25–27
• Further development of polyethylene recy-
Ben-Yephet Y, Melero-Varo JM, DeVay JE (1988)
cling processes. Interaction of soil solarization and metham-sodium in
• Developing economic, novel plastic or other the destruction of Vertcillium dahliae and Fusarium
materials more efficient than polythene in oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum. Crop Protect
7:327–331
trapping solar energy, thus reducing our
Bollen GJ (1985) Lethal temperatures of soil fungi. In:
dependence on climate and making this avail- Rovira AD, Moore KJ, Wong PTW, Parker CA (eds)
able to cooler regions. Ecology and management of soilborne plant patho-
• Possibility of plastic material that can be gens. APS Press, St Paul, pp 191–193
Cartia G (1989) La solarizzazione del terreno: Esperienze
sprayed on the soil, instead of polyethylene
maturate in Sicilia [Soil solarization: experiments in
mulching, should be explored. Sicily]. Informatore Fitopatologico 39:49–52
Chen Y, Gamliel A, Stapleton JJ, Aviad T (1991) Chemical,
At present, biodegradable plastic products physical and microbial changes related to plant growth
in disinfested soils. In: Katan J, De Vay JE (eds) Soil
available in the market are more expensive than
solarization. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 103–129
traditional plastics. Their cost needs to be reduced Chet I, Elad Y, Kalfon A, Hadar Y, Katan J (1982)
to make them economical. Integrated control of soilborne and bulbborne patho-
gens in iris. Phytoparasitica 10:229
Dawson JR, Johnson RAH (1965) Influence of steam air-
mixtures, when used for heating soil, on biological and
References chemical properties that affect seedling growth. Ann
Appl Biol 56:243–247
Abdel-Rahim MF, Satour MM, Mickail KY, El-Eraki SA, DcVay JE, Katan J (1991) Mechanisms of pathogen con-
Grinstein A, Chen Y, Katan J (1987) Effectiveness of trol in solarized soils. In: Katan J, DeVay JE (eds) Soil
soil solarization in furrow-irrigated Egyptian soils. solarization. CRC Publications, Boca Raton,
Plant Dis 72:143–146 pp 87–102
Anonymous (1994) Montreal protocol on substances Deadman M, Al Nasani H, Al Sa’di A (2006) Solarization
which deplete the ozone layer. Report of the methyl and biofumigation reduce Pythium aphanidermatum
bromide technical options committee, Nairobi induced damping-off and enhance vegetative growth
Anonymous (1997) Ninth meeting of the ponies to the of greenhouse cucumber in Oman. J Plant Pathol
montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone 88:335–337
layer. UN environmental program, UNEP/OzL. Pro 9/12
References 59
Freeman S, Katan J (1988) Weakening effect on propagules Hartz T, DeVay J, Elmore C (1993) Solarization is an
of Fusarium by sublethal heating. Phytopathology effective soil disinfestation technique for strawberry
78:1656–1661 production. Hort Sci 28(2):104–106
Gamliel A, Katan J (1991) Involvement of fluorescent Hilderbrand DM (1985) Soil solar heating for control of
Pseudomonas and other micro-organisms in increased damping-off fungi and weeds at the Colorado State
growth response of plants in solarized soils. Forest Service Nursery. Tree Planters’ Notes
Phytopathology 81:494–502 36:28–34
Gamliel A, Stapleton J (1993) Effect of chicken compost Katan J (1987) Soil solarization. In: Chet I (ed) Innovative
or ammonium phosphate and solarization on pathogen approaches to plant diseases control. Wiley, New York,
control, rhizosphere organisms, and lettuce growth. pp 77–105
Plant Dis 77:886–891 Katan J, Greenberger A, Alon H, Grinstein A (1976) Solar
Gamliel A, Stapleton JJ (1997) Improved soil disinfesta- heating by polyethylene mulching for control of dis-
tion by biotoxic volatile compounds generated from eases caused by soil-borne pathogens. Phytopathology
solarized, organic amended soil. In: A Grinstein, KRS 66:683–688
Ascher, G Mathews, J Katan, A Gamliel (eds) Katan J, Grinstein A, Greenberger A, Yarden O, DeVay JE
Improved application technology for reduction of pes- (1987) First decade (1976–1986) of soil solarization
ticide dosage and environmental pollution. (solar heating) – a chronological bibliography.
Phytoparasitica 25S:31–38 Phytoparasitica 15:229–255
Gamliel A, Grinstein A, Eshel D, Di Primo P, Katan Klein L (1996) Methyl bromide as a soil fumigant. In:
J (1997a) Combining solarization and fumigants at Bell CH, Price N, Chakrabarti B (eds) The methyl bro-
reduced dosages for effective control of soil-borne mide issue. Wiley, Chichester, pp 191–235
pathogens: controlled environment study Kodama T, Fukui T (1982) Solar heating in closed plastic
I. Phytoparasitica 25:252–253 house for control of soil-borne diseases. V. Application
Gamliel A, Grinstein A, Katan J (1997b) Improved tech- for control of Fusarium wilt of strawberry. Ann
nologies to reduce emissions of methyl bromide from Phytopathol Soc Jpn 48:570–577
soil fumigation. In: A Grinstein, KRS Ascher, G Kodama T, Fukui T, Matsumoto Y (1980) Soil steriliza-
Mathews, J Katan, A Gamliel (eds) Improved application by solar heating against soil-borne diseases in a
tion technology for reduction of pesticide dosage and closed vinyl house. III. Influence of the treatment on
environmental pollution. Phytoparasitica 25S:21–30 the population level of soil microflora and on the
Gamliel A, Grinstein A, Peretz Y, Klein L, Nachmias A, behavior of strawberry yellows pathogen, Fusarium
Tzror L, Katan J (1997c) Reduced dosage of methyl oxysporum f. sp. fragariae. Bull Nara Agric Exp
bromide for controlling Verticillium wilt of potato in Station 11:41–52
experimental and commercial plots. Plant Dis Kritzman G, Ben-Yephet Y (1990) Disease exchange in
81:469–474 onions as influenced by metham-sodium. Hassadeh
Garibaldi A, Gullino ML (1991) Soil solarization in 1:26–29
southern European countries, with emphasis on soil- Mahrer Y (1979) Prediction of soil temperature of a soil
borne disease control of protected crops. In: Katan J, mulched with transparent polyethylene. J Appl
DeVay JE (eds) Soil solarization. CRC Publications, Meteorol 18:263–267
Boca Raton, pp 228–235 Mahrer Y, Katan J (1981) Spatial soil temperatures regime
Garibaldi A, Tamietti G (1984) Attempts to use soil solar- under transparent polyethylene mulch-numerical and
ization in closed glasshouses in northern Italy for con- experimental studies. Soil Sci 131:82–87
trolling corky root of tomato. Acta Horticult Malathrakis NE, Kapetanakis GE, Linardakis DC (1983)
152:237–243 Brown root rot of tomato and its control in Crete. Ann
Greenberger A, Yogev A, Katan J (1987) Induced suppres- Appl Biol 102:251–256
siveness in solarized soils. Phytopathology Martyn RD, Hartz TK (1986) Use of soil solarization to
77:1663–1667 control Fusarium wilt of watermelon. Plant Dis
Grinstein A, Ausher R (1991) The utilization of soil solar- 70:762–766
ization in Israel. In: Katan J, DeVay JE (eds) Soil Materrazzi A, Triolo E, Vannacci G, Scaramuzzi G (1987)
solarization. CRC Publications, Boca Raton, The use of soil solar heating for controlling neck rot of
pp 193–204 greenhouse lettuce. Colture Protette 16:51–54
Grinstein A, Hetzroni A (1991) The technology of soil Middleton LA, Lawrence NJ (1995) The use of dazomet
solarization. In: Katan J, DeVay JE (eds) Soil solariza- via the “planting through” technique in horticultural
tion. CRC Publications, Boca Raton, pp 159–170 crops. Acta Hortic 382:86–103
Grinstein A, Katan J, Abdul-Razik A, Zeidan O, Elad Y Oliveira H (1992) Evaluation of soil solarization for the
(1979) Control of Sclerotium rolfsii and weeds in pea- control of Fusarium wilt of tomato. In: Tjamos EC,
nuts by solar healing of the soil. Plant Dis Rep Papavizas GC, Cook RJ (eds) Biological control of
63:991–994 plant diseases: progress and challenges for the future.
Grinstein A, Kritzman G, Hetzroni A, Gamliel A, Mor M, NATO ASI series A, Life Sciences, 230. Plenum
Katan J (1995) The border effect of soil solarization. Press, New York, pp 69–73
Crop Prot 14:315–320
Phillips AJL (1990) The effects of soil solarization on Tjamos EG (1984) Control of Pyrenochaeta lycopersici
sclerotial populations of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. by combined soil solarization and low dose of methyl
Plant Pathol 39:38–43 bromide in Greece. Acta Hortic 152:253–258
Porter IJ, Merriman PR (1985) Evaluation of soil solariza- Tjamos EC, Malcrynakis N (1990) Control of fungal wilt
tion for control of root diseases of row crop in Victoria. diseases of melon by application of soil solarization in
Plant Pathol 34:108–118 the field. In: Proceedings of the 8th congress of the
Pullman GS, Devay JE, Garber RH, Weinhold AR (1981) mediterranean phytopathological union, agadir,
Soil solarization on Verticillium wilt of cotton and Morocco, pp 423–425
soil-borne population of Verticillium dahliae, Pythium Tjamos EC, Paplomatas EJ (1987) Effect of soil solariza-
spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Thielaviopsis basicola. tion on the survival of fungal antagonists of Verticillium
Phytopathology 71:954–959 dahliae. Eur Medit Plant Protect Organ Bull
Rao VK, Krishnappa K (1995) Soil solarization for the 17:645–653
control of soil-borne pathogen complexes with special Tjamos EC, Karapappas V, Bardas D (1989) Low cost
reference to M. incognita and F. oxysporum f sp ciceri. application of soil solarization in covered plastic
Indian Phytopath 48:300–303 houses for the control of Verticillium wilt of tomatoes
Ristaino JB, Thomas W (1997) Agricultural MBr, and the in Greece. Acta Hortic 255:139–149
ozone hole: can we fill the gaps? Plant Dis 81:964–977 Tjamos EC, Bins DA, Paplomatas EJ (1991) Recovery of
Ristaino JB, Perry KB, Lumsden RD (1991) Effect of solar- Verticillium wilted olive trees after individual applica-
ization and Gliocladium virens on sclerotia of Sclerotium tion of soil solarization in established olive orchards.
rolfsii, soil microbiota and incidence of southern blight Plant Dis 75:557–562
of tomato. Phytopathology 81:1117–1124 Triolo E, Vannacci G, Materazzi A (1988) Solar heating of
Rubin B, Benjamin A (1983) Solar heating of the soil: the soil in vegetable production. Part 2. Studies of pos-
effect on soil incorporated herbicides and on weed sible mechanisms of the effect. Colture Prottete
control. Weed Sci 31:819–825 17:59–62
Runia WT (1983) A recent developments in steam steril- Vannacci G, Triolo E, Materazzi A (1988) Survival of
ization. Acta Hortic 152:195–200 Sclerotinia minor sclerotia in solarized soil. Plant Soil
Stapleton JJ, DeVay JE (1982) Effect of soil solarization 109:49–55
on populations of selected soil-borne microorganisms Verma RK, Singh Y, Soni KK, Jamalluddin (2005)
and growth of deciduous fruit tree seedlings. Solarization of forest nursery soil for elimination of
Phytopathology 72:323–326 root pathogens and weeds. Indian J Trop Biodiv
Stapleton JJ, Garza-Lopez JG (1988) Mulching of soil 13:81–86
with transparent (solarization) and black polyethylene Wagonner PE, Miller PM, DeRoo HC (1960) Plastic
films to increase growth of annual and perennial crops mulching principles and benefits. Conn Agric Exp Stn
in Southern Mexico. Trop Agric 65:29–35 Bull 623, 44 pp
Biological Control of Plant
Pathogens 5
Abstract
The protected nature, expensive crops, and microclimatic conditions in the
greenhouse make it rather imperative to suitably alter the disease manage-
ment strategies. There is lack of specific chemicals suited for greenhouse
conditions. Hence, agriculture in greenhouses and protected structures
offers a unique niche for the development and use of biological control
agents. Biological control of greenhouse diseases and commercial prod-
ucts registered for biological control are discussed.
Keywords
Biological control • Greenhouse diseases • Commercial bioagents
5.1 Introduction light, and fertilizer maximize not only plant

growth but also favorable conditions for patho-
The ideal and stable environment with warm, gens. Moreover, warmth and humidity, due to the
humid, and abundant food under greenhouse pro- water vapor transpired by the plants and the lack
vides an excellent platform for the development of air exchange with the outside, provide ideal
of diseases often more than field conditions. conditions for foliar pathogens such as Botrytis
Most pathogens cannot be excluded from the and powdery mildews. Because of high-energy
greenhouse environment, for example, airborne costs, ventilation is often reduced to prevent loss
spores enter through doors and screens; soilborne of heat. Disinfested soil or soilless substrates
pathogens enter through dust or contaminated such as peat or rock wool lack the microbial
soil on shoes, tools, or equipment; and many diversity and biological buffering present in a
pathogens are introduced on seeds or contami- natural soil. In this biological vacuum, soilborne
nated propagating materials. Zoosporic patho- pathogens such as Pythium and Rhizoctonia can
gens get entry through irrigation water, and quickly grow and spread. High-density planting
insects transmit both fungal inoculum and of greenhouse crops increases the relative
viruses. The optimum conditions like temperature, humidity and the chances of disease spread, and

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_5
62 5 Biological Control of Plant Pathogens
management practices such as pruning and har- agriculture in greenhouses and protected struc-
vesting increase the spread and infection through tures offers a unique niche for the development
wounds. Hydroponic systems (rock wool, nutri- and use of biological control agents.
ent film, or ebb and flow) present another set of
disease problems. In this closed recirculating sys-
tem, zoosporic pathogens can easily spread in the 5.2.1 Suitability of Biological
water system. Control for Greenhouses
Of the commercial biocontrol products, over half

5.2 Biocontrol in Greenhouses have applications in nurseries or greenhouses,
and many were specifically developed against the
The protected nature, expensive crops, and soilborne pathogens Pythium and Rhizoctonia,
microclimatic conditions in the greenhouse make which are major greenhouse pathogens. The use
it rather imperative to suitably alter the disease of biocontrol is more prevalent in greenhouse and
management strategies as per the requirements. protected structures than in field crops, even
There is lack of specific chemicals suited for though greenhouses account for only 0.02 % of
greenhouse conditions. High registration and the area used in agriculture. Some of the very
development costs and the lack of return on conditions that favor disease also favor the man-
investment act as deterrents to chemical compa- agement of diseases with biological control
nies in registering products for the relatively agents. Environmental conditions such as tem-
small greenhouse market. Containment of toxic perature and relative humidity can be tightly con-
fumes from pesticides is hazardous to greenhouse trolled. Like the pathogen, biocontrol agents are
workers. Workers are at greater risk of fungicide also sensitive to environmental conditions, and
exposure in the greenhouse because of the inten- an unfavorable environment in the field has been
sive nature of crop management. cited as a reason for failure or inconsistent per-
Most fungicides require a reentry period formance. Conditions in the greenhouse can be
before the workers can return to a treated crop optimized for the biocontrol agent. For instance,
and there is a waiting period, a period of time biocontrol agents of powdery mildews are much
between the last application and harvest. more efficient when relative humidity can be
Moreover, many greenhouse crops are continu- maintained above 80 %, a condition that is easily
ously harvested and therefore cannot use most monitored under glasshouse conditions. The bio-
fungicides. Due to frequent harvesting and direct logical vacuum in soil substrates can also favor
table value of the produce, pesticides with lower the establishment of biocontrol agents, provided
waiting periods only can be used. Breakdown, they are applied before pathogen introduction.
weathering, and wash-off of chemicals on the
leaves or in substrates are all lower in green-
houses than in the field, so fungicides may have a 5.3 Products Registered
longer residual activity. Finally, the development for Biological Control
of fungicide resistance in the pathogen may be
exacerbated by the intensive use and limited Nematodes and fungi are the most serious
choice of fungicides in the greenhouse. There is disease-causing organisms of the various vegeta-
increasing societal concerns about the environ- bles and fruits grown under protected cultivation.
mental and health effects of fungicides. Large Nematodes can be very abundant in soils; there
sprayers cannot be used in greenhouses due to the are thousands of known species that cause dis-
limitation of space. Therefore, the grower must eases. Plant parasitic nematodes also often limit
be extra careful in the long-range planning, selec- crop productivity by predisposing plants to attack
tion, use, and application of pesticides in green- by fungi or bacteria and by serving as vectors of
house crop cultivation systems. That’s why a number of plant viruses. Yield losses world-
5.3 Products Registered for Biological Control 63
wide from plant parasitic nematodes have been β-1,3-glucanases and β-1,4-glucanases, antibiot-
estimated to range from 5 % to 12 % of annual ics, competition, solubilization of inorganic plant
production (Sasser and Freckman 1987). nutrients, induced resistance, and inactivation of
Several formulations of either of the fungi the pathogen’s enzymes involved in the infection
Gliocladium and Trichoderma or the bacteria process.
Pseudomonas and Bacillus have been widely
used for biocontrol of soilborne pathogens. These
products are not only registered as biofungicides 5.3.4 Streptomyces griseoviridis
but also used as plant strengtheners. In European
countries, plant strengtheners include inorganic This culture is marketed in Europe and the USA,
compounds such as SiO2, NaHCO3, organic con- under the name of Mycostop. It was originally
stituents such as compost, homeopathic com- isolated from sphagnum peat and was tested as a
pounds, and some containing microorganisms biocontrol agent against Fusarium wilt of carna-
such as Trichoderma harzianum, Bacillus subti- tions in commercial greenhouses.
lis, Pseudomonas, and Pythium oligandrum.
5.3.5 Gliocladium catenulatum

5.3.1 Coniothyrium minitans
It is a mycoparasite effective against damping-
Coniothyrium minitans is a mycoparasite which off, seed rot, root rot, and wilt pathogens. It is
destroys sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and sold as a wettable powder that can be applied to
S. minor. It is used for the control of Sclerotinia the soil, roots, or foliage. In glasshouse trials
wilt of lettuce in greenhouse. C. minitans reduced with ornamental bedding plants, application by
the sclerotial populations at the soil surface, sur- incorporation into the growing mix or drench
vived at least 39 weeks at a density of 104–105 reduced damping-off caused by Pythium and
CFU/g, and spread to infect sclerotia in control Rhizoctonia. In some cases, G. catenulatum was
plots. as effective as the fungicides propamocarb or
tolclofos.
5.3.2 Gliocladium virens

(Trichoderma virens) 5.3.6 Nonpathogenic Fusarium
oxysporum
It is a soilborne fungus, developed for control of
Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani in soil- It is effective against Fusarium wilt diseases on
less mixes. The fungus produces two fungitoxic carnation, tomato, cyclamen, and Fusarium
compounds, glioviren and gliotoxin compounds. crown and root rot on tomato. Mechanisms of
action include competition for carbon, direct
competition with pathogenic strains, and induc-
5.3.3 Trichoderma harzianum tion of host defenses.
Trichoderma harzianum reduces Fusarium

crown and root rot of tomatoes grown in potting 5.3.7 Bacillus subtilis var.
mix containing T. harzianum and transplanted amyloliquefaciens
into the field. In greenhouse trials, T. harzianum
controlled R. solani in poinsettia, geraniums, and Several strains of B. subtilis were tested on
Catharanthus and Pythium on geraniums, impa- cucumber and tomato against Pythium aphanider-
tiens, and petunias. It inhibits the pathogens by matum and Phytophthora nicotianae in a series
mycoparasitism via production of chitinases, of greenhouse trials. It shows growth promotion
effect on corn and radish. FZB C and FZB G nematicide (Vydate) and an untreated control. Of
strains of B. subtilis produced peptide antibi- the three treatments, Vydate showed highest effi-
otics active against F. oxysporum f. sp. cacy. Opticure was also found to be effective
radicis-lycopersici. against Meloidogyne sp. and significantly reduced
number of infected plants in comparison to the
control treatment, although it was less effective
5.3.8 Opticure than the synthetic nematicide (Fig. 5.1).
Opticure was also tested against Fusarium sp.
Russell IPM has developed a biological pesti- in tomato (Fig. 5.2). Two consecutive applica-
cide, Opticure. It is a natural extract, including tions of Opticure reduced the number of dead
dairy derivatives, which is treated with a microplants compared with an untreated control. The
bial flora exclusively developed by Russell number of dead plants was reduced by a single
IPM. Opticure includes five types of microorgan- application, but a second application, 15 days
isms, each with specific activity against nema- after the first, significantly reduced the number of
tode or fungal pests: dead plants. Because Opticure is nontoxic, crops
can be harvested the day after the product has
• Natural Lactobacillus: Improves the micro- been applied. There is a zero waiting time to har-
bial activity of the soil when applied to the vest once applied.
soil. Biological control agents formulated for spe-
• Nematode larvae–parasitic bacteria: Inhibit cific diseases are listed in Table 5.1.
the development of young larvae (stages 1, 2,
and 3) and prevent their development to adult-
hood in crops in temperate and warm areas. 5.4 Biological Control
• Two strains of parasitic fungi of the genus of Greenhouse Diseases
Trichoderma: This type of fungus easily colo-
nizes plant roots. It can also act as biocontrol In India, integrated pest management research
agent by attacking and parasitizing other has not matched the progress and problems of
fungi, especially in soil. The mechanism plant protection at large and greenhouse cultiva-
involved includes micro-parasitism; antibio- tion in particular. Trichoderma harzianum and T.
sis; secreting-specific enzymes that attack viride are the most common fungal bioagents
fungi, competition for nutrients and space; used for suppression of soilborne plant patho-
stress tolerance in the plant, aiding the devel- gens. Pseudomonas fluorescens is used as adden-
opment of the root system; absorption of inor- dum to FYM, effective against Fusarium
ganic nutrients; induced resistance; and oxysporum, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani,
deactivation of pathogen enzymes. Phytophthora spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, and nema-
tode parasites. The following table shows impor-
The active ingredients of Opticure together tant diseases of greenhouse crops in India and
with amino acids and its special formulation their biocontrol (Table 5.2).
improve soil structure, promote development of
the soil microbial flora, and reestablish the natu-
ral balance of the soil. Opticure acts as root stim- 5.4.1 Ecology of Biocontrol Agents
ulant and increases plant root resistance to
nematodes and has been proven effective against The use of living organisms to combat other liv-
soil fungi such as Armillaria, Pythium, ing organisms presupposes a thorough knowl-
Rhizoctonia, Alternaria, Phytophthora, and edge of their ecology. Efficient root colonization
Fusarium. and establishment of biocontrol bacteria is of key
The efficacy of Opticure against Meloidogyne importance for effective suppression of deleteri-
sp. in tomato was compared with a chemical ous organisms. Once biocontrol bacteria are
5.4 Biological Control of Greenhouse Diseases 65
Fig. 5.1 The efficacy of Opticure against 10 a
Number of infected plant

Meloidogyne sp. in tomato. Common
letters indicate treatments did not differ 8
from each other at P ≤ 5 % (ANOVA, 6
LSD test)
4 b
C
2
0
Control Opticure Vydate
Fig. 5.2 The efficacy of 60 Control

Opticure on Fusarium sp.
on tomato 50
Opticure 1st application

40
Dead
plants
30
Opticure 2nd application

20
10
0
13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24
Days after seedling transplantation
established in the rhizosphere, a wide variety of fumarate, oxalate, and acetate and sugars such as
mechanisms can result in suppression of plant glucose, xylose, fructose, maltose, sucrose,
pathogens. Accordingly, except in the case of galactose, and ribose and constitute the “main
induced resistance, a biocontrol agent must course,” whereas variable amounts of amino
occupy an ecological niche similar to that of the acids, nucleobases, and vitamins (such as thiamin
plant pathogen, and its mode of action (competi- and biotin) provide the “entrée” or “dessert.” The
tion, parasitism, antibiosis, induction of SAR) ability of rhizobacteria to use organic acids as
must interfere both spatially and temporally with carbon sources correlates with rhizosphere com-
precise steps in the development of the pathogen. petence. The rhizosphere, which is the narrow
zone of soil that is influenced by root secretions,
can contain up to 1011 microbial cells per gram
5.4.2 Interactions between Plants root and more than 30,000 prokaryotic species.
and Rhizobacteria The collective genome of this microbial commu-
nity is much larger than that of the plant and is
The rhizosphere is a narrow zone of soil that is also referred to as the plant’s second genome.
influenced by root secretions. The structure of Chemotaxis, flagellar mobility, lipopolysaccha-
rhizobacterial communities is determined by the ride (LPS) structure, the outer membrane protein
plant species, and differences in the composition OprF, and, to a lesser extent, pili are all important
and amounts of root exudates probably account for competitive root colonization. A root glyco-
for the differences in microbial populations. Root protein complex – agglutinin – is involved in the
exudates offer a carbon-rich diet to the rhizo- short-term adherence of pseudomonads to the
sphere microorganisms which includes organic plant roots. Once biocontrol pseudomonads have
acids such as citrate, malate, succinate, pyruvate, moved and attached to a root zone, microcolonies
Table 5.1 Commercial products for biological control of pathogens under protected conditions
66
Biorational pesticides Supplier Pests controlled REIa Application/comments

AQ10 (Ampelomyces quisqualis) Plant Health Care Powdery mildew 4h Begin application as soon as host tissue
emerges. Apply at least two sequential
sprays 7–14 days apart. Works best under
conditions of high humidity
SoilGard (Gliocladium virens) Thermo Trilogy Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Pythium, 4h Incorporate into soil before planting
Phytophthora, Thielaviopsis
DiTera (Myrothecium verrucaria) Abbott Plant-pathogenic nematodes 4h Can be used before or after planting
Sporodex (Pseudozyma flocculosa) Powdery mildew Cucumber, tomato, rose
Bio-Trek HB (Trichoderma harzianum) Wilbur-Ellis Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia 12 h Apply to seed
Bio-Trek Nursery Drench (Trichoderma harzianum) Wilbur-Ellis Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, 12 h –
RootShield (Trichoderma harzianum) BioWorks Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia – –
Trichodex (Trichoderma harzianum) Abbott Botrytis – –
TopShield (Trichoderma harzianum) BioWorks Botrytis, powdery mildew – –
PlantShield (Trichoderma harzianum) Gray mold Vegetables, ornamentals
Ketomium (Colletotrichum globosum, C. cuperum) Colletotrichum leaf spot Vegetables
Prosper Nema (pathogenic fungi) Arbico Nematodes 0h Apply as needed to maintain control
Deny [Pseudomonas (Burkholderia) cepacia] Stine Seed Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Pythium – –
Intercept [Pseudomonas (Burkholderia) Soil Technologies Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Pythium, nematodes – –
cepacia]
Cease (Bacillus subtilis) Anthracnose, gray mold, powdery mildew, Spore powder
5
leaf spots (Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas)

(vegetables, ornamentals)
Serenade (Bacillus subtilis) Powdery mildew, downy mildew, Spore powder
Cercospora leaf spot, early and late blight
(cucurbits, grapes, vegetables, ornamentals)
Bio-save (Pseudomonas syringae) Gray mold (ornamentals, vegetables)
BlightBan (Pseudomonas fluorescens) Erwinia amylovora, russet-inducing bacteria
(strawberry, tomato)
Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis) Green Spot Fusarium, Alternaria, Phomopsis 4h Can be incorporated into medium or
applied to seed
Actinovate (Streptomyces lydicus) Green Spot Pythium, Fusarium, Phytophthora, Sclerotinia – Can be incorporated into medium or
applied to seed
a
REI – reentry intervals
Biological Control of Plant Pathogens
5.4 Biological Control of Greenhouse Diseases 67
Table 5.2 Biological control diseases of greenhouse evidences suggest that plant genotype also deter-
crops
mines microbiome composition. Differences in a
Diseases Crops Management single gene between plant genotypes can have a
Powdery mildew Capsicum, Bacillus subtilis significant impact on the rhizosphere microbi-
cucumber (10 g/m2)
ome. The production of a single exogenous glu-
Downy mildew Cucumber Bacillus subtilis
cosinolate significantly altered the microbial
(10 g/m2)
Fusarium wilt Tomato, Trichoderma spp.
community on the roots of transgenic Arabidopsis.
cucumber (10 g/m2)
Pseudomonas
fluorescens (10 ml/m2) 5.4.4 The Root Microbiome
Damping-off Capsicum, Trichoderma spp. to the Rescue
cucumber (10 g/m2)
Pseudomonas
fluorescens (10 ml/m2) Microbiome changes upon defense activation,
Fruit rot Tomato Bacillus subtilis i.e., the interactions between a plant and its root
(10 g/m2) microbiome might change when the plant is
Root-knot Capsicum, Trichoderma spp. attacked. Recently, it was demonstrated that
nematode cucumber, (10 g/m2) infection of citrus by Candidatus Liberibacter
tomato Pseudomonas
fluorescens (10 ml/m2) asiaticus, associated with huanglongbing, drasti-
cally altered the composition of citrus rhizo-
sphere communities. Changes in rhizosphere
form in a few days. Other bacteria can reach the composition upon infection might be the result of
same site at a later time and intermingle with pre- the induced excretion of antimicrobial com-
existing microcolonies. The root collar, where pounds by infected roots. However, infection
the root joins the main stem, is a site of intense does not only lead to the secretion of pathogen
exudation and is more strongly colonized by bac- deleterious compounds. It is also found that
teria than is the root tip. infected roots also induced excretion of pathogen
spore germination stimulators. For example,
infection of watermelon plants by F. oxysporum
5.4.3 The Rhizosphere Microbiome enhanced the stimulation of Fusarium spore ger-
mination by root exudates.
The microflora of most soils is carbon starved. In addition to this, recent researches show that
Because plants secrete up to 40 % of their photo- plants recruit plant-beneficial microbes to their
synthates into the rhizosphere, the microbial pop- roots in response to the attack. For example, col-
ulation densities in the rhizosphere are much onization of the roots of Arabidopsis by the
higher than in the surrounding bulk soil. This plant-beneficial soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis
phenomenon is known as the “rhizosphere FB17 was greatly improved when aboveground
effect.” In general, rhizosphere microbial com- plant tissues were infected by Pseudomonas
munities are less diverse than those of the bulk syringae pv. tomato. A mutually beneficial rela-
soil. It appears that, from the reservoir of micro- tionship exists between Arabidopsis and FB17:
bial diversity that the bulk soil comprises, plant FB17 is recruited to aid in plant defense, and the
roots select for specific microorganisms to pros- plant provides the bacterium with maleic acid.
per in the rhizosphere. Together with the plant Activation of beneficials and inoculation of
genotype, soil type is an important driver of the strawberry plants with Verticillium dahliae stim-
microbial community composition in the rhizo- ulated the expression of cyanide biosynthetic
sphere. Plants can determine the composition of genes in the biocontrol bacterium Pseudomonas
the root microbiome by active secretion of com- sp. LBUM300. These changes in gene expression
pounds that specifically stimulate or repress could be a result of nutrients leaking from dam-
members of the microbial community. Recent aged roots.
5.4.5 Limitations with the Use • Controlled environment of greenhouses favors

of Biocontrol the survival and growth of biocontrol agent.
• Of the availability of limited number of regis-
Because of the high value of the crop and empha- tered fungicides.
sis on quality in floriculture, vegetable crops, and • Most of the fungicides cannot be used due to
ornamentals, there is less acceptance of damage preharvest waiting period of most of the
and thresholds for disease are very low. If bio- vegetables.
control agents cannot perform with the consis- • Of environmental awareness and consumer
tency and efficacy of fungicides in these crops, concern due to the ill effect of the fungicides
they may not be adopted. The success of bioag- and for the production of organic and export-
ents depends on the quality, timely availability, oriented products.
and appropriate release timing and methodology • Of reduced area and high density of planting.
of bioagents. Given that a biological control strat- • It is safe and nontoxic to humans and animals.
egy is scientifically feasible, the successful • It is rapidly biodegradable.
grower is most likely to adopt the strategy if it is
an economically feasible decision for the green- Biopesticides currently represent about 1.5–
house. The adoption decision is economically 2.0 % of the world pesticide market. However,
feasible for the grower if expected profits are the growth rate of biopesticide over the next 10
greater than zero (i.e., expected revenues are years has been forecast at 10–15 % annually in
greater than expected costs). If growers habitu- comparison to 2 % of chemical pesticides. During
ally make decisions where expected profits are the last 10 years, over 80 biocontrol products
less than zero, the greenhouse will not be a viable have been marketed worldwide. A large of these
business in the longer run. has been developed for greenhouse crops.
However, not all of these products are registered
as biocontrol agents, but some are also marketed
5.4.6 Biocontrol of Foliar Plant as plant growth promoters, plant strengtheners,
Pathogens or soil conditioners. Most of these products are
formulations of either of the fungi Trichoderma
Insects and diseases are the major challenges and Ampelomyces or the bacteria Pseudomonas
under protected cultivation as it provides favor- and Bacillus. Because of the high value and
able environmental conditions. The greenhouse emphasis on quality of greenhouse crops, a bio-
environment presents a unique situation that control agent should be recommended, if it can
makes conditions more favorable for foliar dis- perform with the consistency and efficacy of
eases especially powdery mildew, downy mil- fungicides.
dew, and gray mold caused by fungi and bacterial The increased use of biological controls has
diseases (Xanthomonas and Pseudomonas). led to a reduction in pesticide applications and
Some of the conditions that favor diseases also leads to environmentally responsible, intensive
favor the biocontrol agents for the management crop production. The primary strategy of biologi-
of foliar diseases. Biocontrol in greenhouses may cal control for greenhouse plant diseases is to
have a greater potential because: introduce bacterial or fungal parasites to control
disease-causing bacteria or fungi in the green-
• Of the development of fungicide resistance in house environment so that pathogens are unable
the pathogen. or have a reduced ability to infect the plants.
• Workers are at greater risk of fungicide expo- Research in developing biological controls for
sure in the greenhouse as most fungicides greenhouse crop diseases is ongoing, and it is likely
require a reentry period. that more potential products of the biological
• Fungicides have a longer residual activity. control will be available in the near future for
Reference 69
greenhouse diseases. Biocontrol agents should be compatible with their current pest management
used as preventative measures and/or in combi- strategies. Knowledge of epidemiology and ecol-
nation or alternating with compatible fungicides ogy of pathogens in the greenhouse, which may
for the effective management of foliar diseases. be different from the field, is required. Low-cost
There is a growing demand for sound, biologi- methods for rapid detection of pathogens in the
cally based pest management practices. Recent greenhouse are important research priorities.
surveys of both conventional and organic grow- Finally, the challenge of production and formula-
ers indicate an interest in using biocontrol prod- tion of biocontrol agents remains, with each
ucts, suggesting that the market potential of organism bringing its own set of problems.
biocontrol products will increase in the coming Effective production and formulation protocols
years. Applications of diverse biological control are usually proprietary, involving substantial
strategies have been successful in the greenhouse investment to develop economic production and a
industry and continue to increase. The formulation with adequate shelf life, stability,
Biopesticide Industry Alliance has been formed, and titer.
and it is now actively promoting the value and Greenhouses offer a privileged environment
efficacy of biopesticides. Clearly, the future suc- for disease biocontrol, but implementation is still
cess of the biological control industry will depend very limited. However, if we have anything to
on innovative business management, product learn from our crop protection scientists, it is that
marketing, extension education, and research. this will change. Indeed, from a modest and
uneven start in the early 1970s, biocontrol has
grown to a standardized approach throughout the
5.5 Future Prospects greenhouse market. Plant pathologists and com-
panies investing in biocontrol products should
In Britain, although protected crops represent a likewise view the future of biological control of
small fraction of the total area, they account for plant diseases in greenhouse systems with opti-
two-thirds of all biologicals. At the same time, mism. A few products have already been regis-
the use of pesticides in greenhouses has declined tered and several more should be commercialized
from 4866 treated ha in 1981–2292 ha in 1995. A within the next few years. Success stories against
combination of economic, political, and environ- a number of diseases will be important both to
mental factors has probably contributed to the validate biocontrol of plant diseases and, most
transition to biological due to the loss of insecti- importantly, to gain acceptance by growers.
cide registrations, insect resistance, and concern
for worker safety.
More scientific efficacy trials with proper rep-
lication and statistical analysis are needed under Reference
commercial or near-commercial conditions.
Sasser JN, Freckman DW (1987) A world perspective on
Biocontrol registrations now request data on the
nematology: the role of the society. In: Veech JA,
interaction of pesticides with beneficial insects. Dickson DW (eds) Vistas on nematology. Society of
Growers need to know whether new products are Nematologists, Hyattsville, pp 7–14
Compost in Disease Management
6
Abstract
The main advantage of exploring the role of microbiologically rich com-
post in reducing biotic and abiotic stresses is that it is a novel way to imi-
tate the natural system occurring in ecosystems. Utilization of compost
with disease-suppressive properties is a relatively new biological way of
decreasing stress in plant production. The compost-enriched soil can also
help suppress diseases and ward off pests. These beneficial uses of com-
post can help growers save money, reduce their use of pesticides, and con-
serve natural resources. Disease and nematode management, mortality
composting, how compost works, enrichment of compost with biopesti-
cides, and commercial products are discussed.
Keywords
Compost • Diseases • Nematodes • Enriched compost • Mortality
composting
6.1 Introduction tribute to controlling foliar diseases, such as

Puccinia spp., Alternaria solani, and
Plant abiotic and biotic stresses represent the Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. Disease
principal cause of crop failure, decreasing aver- suppression by composts has been explained
age yields of major crops by more than 50 %. mainly by biotic mechanisms. The severity of
Compost can be considered as a soil conditioner soilborne plant diseases is often reduced when
that contributes to soil fertility, structure, poros- microbiologically improved compost is used as
ity, organic matter, water holding capacity, and growth media. A wide variety of rhizosphere
disease suppression (Fig. 6.1). Composts sup- microorganisms have been isolated and used as
press soilborne diseases, and this suppression has microbiological inoculants for improving plant
been widely reported for Pythium spp., growth and health. These include arbuscular
Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia spp., and mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth-
Fusarium spp. Compost amendments also con- promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), nitrogen fixers,

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_6
72 6 Compost in Disease Management
Fig. 6.1 Compost and its possible responses toward reducing plant stresses and in improvement of soil quality by
enhancing nutrient availability and stabilizing microbial population
and phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms humus-rich product (compost) which could be

(PSM). Utilization of compost with disease- used as a soil conditioner and an organic fertilizer
suppressive properties is a relatively new biologi- (Popkin 1995). Composts of various origins are
cal method of decreasing biotic stress in plant also used to provide biological control against
production. The main advantage of exploring the various plant pathogens (Hoitink and Grebus
role of microbiologically rich compost in reduc- 1994). The addition of composts to agricultural
ing biotic and abiotic stresses is that it is a novel soils has beneficial effects on crop development
way to imitate the natural system occurring in and yields by improving soil physical and bio-
ecosystems. Under saline conditions, compost logical properties (Zheljazkov and Warman
was not completely efficient in correcting the det- 2004). Poultry manure application in Java citro-
rimental effects of salt but was able to mitigate nella plants significantly increased the herbage,
them. Such an amendment may be used to essential oil content, and dry matter yield
enhance crop yield irrigated with saline waters or (Adholeya and Prakash 2004). Compost is also
grown on saline soils. Compost amendments in an inhabiting place for various microbes due to
soil are also efficient in combating the pH stress. which biological activities are markedly enhanced
The amendment of alkaline soils with composts in the rhizosphere of plants (Tilak and Reddy
has a positive effect on plant vigor. Molecular 2006). Such syntrophic associations are of eco-
studies also showed a different profile of micro- logical importance with implied agricultural sig-
organisms in disease-suppressive composts. This nificance. Aqueous extracts of compost have also
study shows a good approach to add up value to been efficient in replacing synthetic fungicides
compost and make it more efficient in reducing (Zhang et al. 1998). Utilization of compost with
biotic and abiotic stresses (Mehta et al. 2012). disease-suppressive properties is a relatively new
Compost is organic matter that has been biological way of decreasing stress in plant
decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and a key production.
ingredient in organic farming. Composting is a Compost technology is a valuable tool already
biological process in which various organic bio- being used to increase yields by farmers inter-
degradable wastes are converted into hygienic, ested in sustainable agriculture. Now, profes-
6.2 Disease Management 73
sional growers are discovering that Phytophthora crown and root rots of nursery and
compost-enriched soil can also help suppress dis- fruit crops produced in container media (Aryantha
eases and ward off pests. These beneficial uses of et al. 2000) and field soils (Downer et al. 2001).
compost can help growers save money, reduce Addition of compost serves two possible pur-
their use of pesticides, and conserve natural poses significant for the biological control of
resources. In the poultry industry, composting Phytophthora cinnamomi: it provides a substrate
has also become a cost-effective method of mor- for the growth of fungal antagonists and creates
tality management. It destroys disease organisms an environment that promotes enzyme activity
and creates a nutrient-rich product that can be (Downer et al. 2001). Several potential biocon-
used or sold. trol agents of Phytophthora root and crown rots
Compost has been used effectively in the nurs- have been identified from compost-amended
ery industry, in high-value crops, and in potting growing media, including Pseudomonas spp.
soil mixtures for control of root rot diseases. (Aryantha et al. 2000), Pantoea spp. (formerly
Enterobacter spp.) (Krause et al. 2003),
Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. (Downer et al.
6.2 Disease Management 2001), actinomycetes (Aryantha et al. 2000), and
Trichoderma spp. (Downer et al. 2001).
Composts have long been known to improve soil Pythium is also a destructive, soilborne para-
fertility and plant disease management. sitic root fungus, which causes damping-off dis-
Previously it has been shown that components of ease in seedlings and root and crown rot of plants.
composts improve the ability of plants to resist The suppression of diseases caused by Pythium
disease caused by root pathogens, like Fusarium, spp. has been well documented (Stone et al.
Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, etc., and 2003). The severity of diseases caused by the
foliar pathogens, like Pseudomonas, fungus Pythium was reduced by 30–70 % when
Colletotrichum, Xanthomonas, etc. growing media were amended with various com-
Among soilborne root pathogens, suppression post products. Adequately mature composts have
of Fusarium using composts has been reported large microbial populations and high microbial
by several researchers (Punja et al. 2002). The activity, which have been directly linked to the
severity of various diseases caused by Fusarium suppression of Pythium (Ringer et al. 1997), but
has been reduced between 20 % and 90 % using this may not hold true for all composts (Craft and
compost amendments. Microbial activity has Nelson 1996).
been considered a key factor in suppression of Similarly, Rhizoctonia is a soilborne patho-
Fusarium wilt. Composts increased microbial genic fungus which causes a range of soilborne
populations and microbial activity in composts diseases as well as diseases of aerial parts of
and composted peat mixes increased by 50 % plants. Composts have been used with varying
(Cotxarrera et al. 2002). Several microorganisms success to suppress Rhizoctonia diseases of sev-
or biocontrol agents have been isolated from eral crops (Tuitert et al. 1998). Amendment of
composts or shown to contribute to suppression soil or container media with composts reduced
of Fusarium spp. including populations of non- diseases caused by the soilborne pathogenic fun-
pathogenic strains of Fusarium oxysporum and gus Rhizoctonia by up to 70 %. Higher levels of
fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. (Kannangara et al. microbial biomass and microbial activity have
2000) and Trichoderma and Flavobacterium been reported to suppress Rhizoctonia by increas-
(Hoitink and Fahy 1986). ing competition between compost-inhabiting
Phytophthora is another soilborne pathogenic microorganisms and R. solani for cellulose or
fungus that causes a variety of problems includ- other available nutrients (Diab et al. 2003). The
ing root rot, a form of “dieback,” crown rot, or increase in microbial count (MBC) and microbial
Phytophthora blight of plants. Composts have number (MBN) indicated growth of saprophytic
been used successfully for suppression of microorganisms. The high population density of
fluorescent pseudomonads, actinomycetes, and needed to understand the role and mechanism of
heterotrophic fungi in growing media amended compost against plant diseases so that a strategy
with adequately matured compost has been found can be made to minimize the compost variability.
to better suppress Rhizoctonia spp. than the use In the future, attention also needs to be paid to
of less matured (immature) composts (Diab et al. non-culturable members of the root-associated
2003). and soil communities because these microorgan-
Composts are considered able to induce sys- isms may be numerically dominant and have not
temic resistance, which can reduce the severity of been studied. Molecular methods developed for
some plant foliage diseases (Stone et al. 2003). the study of microorganisms in their environ-
However, Krause et al. (2003) report that only a ments are key tools for the study of the influences
small proportion of composts have the ability to of the microbial community on biocontrol, and
suppress foliar diseases. Some pathogenic also in the future, there is a need to understand
Pseudomonas species cause several plant foliar the mechanism behind the compost-based dis-
diseases including bacterial speck and bacterial ease suppression.
canker. Compost application has resulted in Each year, more than 10 % of the vegetables
reduced bacterial speck of Arabidopsis (mustard planted in the USA are lost to root rot alone,
family) and tomatoes. In tomatoes, different according to researchers at the University of
types of paper mill residue-based composts Florida’s Tropical Research and Education
resulted in the reduction of bacterial speck Center. Additional crop losses are caused by
between 47 % and 62 % (Vallad et al. 2003). other soilborne plant pathogens, such as the
Similarly pathogenic Xanthomonas spp. microorganisms that cause ashy stem blight and
causes many plant diseases, including such foliar chili pepper wilt. Compost can help control plant
diseases as bacterial leaf spot or speck, bacterial disease and reduce crop losses. Disease control
blight or angular leaf spot, and stem rot. Two with compost has been attributed to four possible
studies report a reduction in bacterial leaf and mechanisms:
fruit spot of vegetables (radish and tomato)
caused by Xanthomonas spp. (Krause et al. • Successful competition for nutrients by bene-
2003). Abbasi et al. (2002) found that, in tomato ficial microorganisms
production, application of composted garden • Antibiotic production by beneficial
organics resulted in reduced bacterial spot inci- microorganisms
dence on fruit by 28–33 %, although the severity • Successful predation against pathogens by
of disease on foliage was increased. Bacillus spp. beneficial microorganisms
has been identified as most effective in suppress- • Activation of disease-resistant genes in plants
ing bacterial leaf spot (Krause et al. 2003). by composts
Some fungi like Colletotrichum also cause
foliar diseases such as anthracnose fruit rot or Scientists have enhanced the natural ability of
lesions. Research has shown that amendment of compost to suppress diseases by enriching it with
soil or container media with composts can reduce specific disease-fighting microorganisms or other
the severity of anthracnose (Abbasi et al. 2002). amendments. This amended or “tailored” com-
Composted cannery waste applied at a high rate post can then be applied to crops infected by
(24–30 t ha−1) reduced the incidence of anthrac- known diseases. Research has shown that tailored
nose in organic tomatoes by 40 % (Abbasi et al. compost significantly reduced or replaced the
2002). application of pesticides, fungicides, and nemati-
These studies indicate that compost amend- cides – which could adversely affect water
ments play a valuable role in reducing disease. resources, food safety, and worker safety.
However, the variability among composts makes The use of tailored compost can also be more
it difficult for frequent use of composts in agri- cost-effective than chemical soil treatments, such
culture field. In the future, a lot of studies are as methyl bromide. Soil treated with compost
6.2 Disease Management 75
retains irrigation water better, which lowers water

costs. Chemicals also must be applied more often
than compost. In addition, some chemicals have
reentry requirements that prohibit workers from
entering the greenhouse immediately after chem-
icals have been applied, reducing worker
productivity.
6.2.1 Pythium Root Rot
Hoitink and Fahy (1986) of the Ohio State

University has conducted compelling research on Fig. 6.2 The plant on the right was treated with compost.
The plant on the left was not and suffered the effects of
compost’s effects on plants afflicted with Pythium Pythium root rot. Photo courtesy of Dr. Harry Hoitink,
root rot. As the photo below illustrates, the appli- University of Ohio
cation of tailored compost had a dramatically
positive effect on plant growth and impeded the
spread of the disease (Fig. 6.2). the bush bean project. The field was also fertil-
ized according to accepted local agricultural
practices.
6.2.2 Chili Wilt The health and yields of the bush bean crops
were significantly improved by compost. Beans
Researchers from New Mexico State University grown in the Agrisoil compost were larger and
applied compost made from municipal wastewa- healthier. Yields from the 36 and 72 t/ac applica-
ter sludge and yard trimmings to chili crops in a tion areas were both 25 % higher than control
field known to be infested with Phytophthora area yields. Beans grown in the Daorganite mix
root rot or chili wilt. The study showed that the showed low yields similar to those grown in the
10-t and 20-t compost applications provided the control areas. In addition, ashy stem blight
greatest suppression of chili wilt and the highest severely affected beans grown in both the control
yields. and Daorganite-treated areas but not the plots
with Agrisoil compost.
The health and yields of the black-eyed pea
6.2.3 Ashy Stem Blight and Root Rot crops grown in compost were also significantly
improved. These crops had greener foliage and
University of Florida researchers tested the were larger than those grown in the control or
effects of Agrisoil (compost made of mixed Daorganite-treated plots. Yields from the
municipal solid waste) and Daorganite (a heat- compost-enriched areas were more than double
treated biosolids mix), on test plots in a field in the control yields in the 72 t/ac application sec-
Homestead, Florida. The Agrisoil compost was tions and also significantly higher in the 36 t/ac
applied at rates of 36 and 72 t/ac, and the sections. By comparison, yields in the Daorganite-
Daorganite sludge was applied at rates of 0.67 treated areas were only slightly higher or compa-
and 1.33 t/ac. Sections of the field also were left rable to those in the control sections. Rhizoctonia
untreated as a control. Six weeks after the materi- root rot severely affected plants in the Daorganite-
als were incorporated into the soil, researchers treated and control areas, but the disease was
planted bush beans throughout the field. A sec- considerably less prevalent in the compost-
ond crop, black-eyed peas, was planted following enriched areas.
the bean harvest, and Agrisoil compost and In this particular study, yields and disease
Daorganite were applied at the same rates as in infection proved to be directly related in both the
bean and pea crops. Mature Agrisoil compost ac. Bush beans were planted 6 weeks after the
was more effective at disease suppression than organic treatments were applied and tilled in.
the Daorganite heat-treated biosolids mix. Thus, After the bush beans were harvested, a second
yields were uniformly higher in the Agrisoil- crop of southern peas was planted. A standard
treated areas than in the Daorganite-treated and fertilizer program was used. Plant damage from
control areas. ashy stem blight was given a rating of slight,
Successful disease suppression by compost moderate, or severe. Rhizoctonia root rot disease
has been less frequent in soils than in potting ratings were made using a scale from 0 to 10,
mixes. This is probably why there has been much where 10 represented the most severe symptoms.
more research (and commercialization) concern- Bean size from the compost treatment, at both
ing compost-amended potting mixes and grow- application rates (36 and 72 t/ac), was larger and
ing media for greenhouse plant production than yields 25 % higher than those from areas receiv-
research on compost-amended soils for field crop ing no organic amendment. Ashy stem blight was
production. Below is a table that outlines some of severe in areas with no compost applied. The dis-
the (mostly) field research done on compost- ease was reduced under the sludge treatment but
amended soils and the effects on plant disease almost eliminated where compost had been
(Table 6.1). applied. Leaf wilting and leaf death were pro-
In some further research, University of Florida nounced in that portion of the field where com-
field trials (Ozores-Hampton et al. 1994) showed post was not applied.
disease-suppressive effects of compost and heat- Southern peas as a second crop had greener
treated sewage sludge on snap beans and southern foliage and larger plants under both rates of com-
peas (black-eyed peas). The compost was applied post. Pea yields were significantly higher with 36
at 36 or 72 t/ac and the sludge at 0.67 and 1.33 t/ t of compost. Where 72 t of compost when used,
Table 6.1 Compost treatment and disease management

Vegetable Pathogen/disease Treatment Comments
Beans (CA black-eyed Rhizoctonia sp. Compost added to soil at Disease reduced to 80 % in
pea No. 5) varying rates (36–72 t/ac) areas with highest compost
rates and 40 % where
intermediate rates applied.
Control plots yielded 75
bushels/acre, and compost
plots yielded 200 bushels/
acre (Hudson 1994)
Cucumber Powdery mildew, Young cucumber plants 1:1 soil/compost mix
Sphaerotheca sp. grown in soil/compost mix decreased powdery mildew
at variable rates by 20 % over control; 1:3
mix decreased infection by
40 % (Trankner 1992)
Pea (Pisum sativum) Damping-off, Pythium sp. Seed treatment; seeds Pea seed treatment with
soaked in dilute compost compost extract germinated
extract, dried before significantly better than
sowing untreated seed in soil
artificially inoculated with
Pythium ultimum (Trankner
1992)
Bell pepper Phytophthora sp. 40 tons of compost/acre Compost in combination of
hilling plant rows is best
practice to reduce
Phytophthora (Hudson
1994)
6.5 How Compost Works 77
yields were more than double the non-amended right there. The difference was as plain as night
plots. With the sludge treatment, yields were and day.”
comparable or slightly higher than where no
amendment was added. Rhizoctonia root rot
caused severe infections, plant stunting, and pre- 6.4 Mortality Composting
mature death where no compost was applied.
Plants growing under the sludge treatment suf- More than 7.3 billion chickens, ducks, and tur-
fered severe root infection. Disease was reduced keys are raised for commercial sale in the USA
considerably as compost rates increased from each year, according to the US Department of
36 t/ac to 72 t/ac (Ozores-Hampton et al. 1994). Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics
Service. About 37 million birds (18–25 %) die
from disease or other natural causes before they
6.3 Nematode Management are marketable. As more poultry is consumed,
these numbers are expected to climb.
Compost also can eradicate some types of pests, Composting is a viable and cost-effective
such as parasitic nematode infections, in addition option for disposing of poultry mortalities as
to its use in controlling diseases. Specially for- compared to incineration or burial. Pathogens in
mulated (tailored) compost can include chemi- poultry carcasses are destroyed during
cals that actually kill nematodes or prevent their composting by the high temperatures (130–
eggs from hatching. Most types of compost help 155 °F) inherent in the process.
control parasitic nematodes by providing During composting, various odor control tech-
nutrients to the soil, which encourage the growth niques can be used. As a result, this type of com-
of fungi and other organisms, which, in turn, post is not only safe for crop application, but it
compete with or destroy nematodes. Compost also can be safely sold by farmers. In fact, selling
also contributes to plants’ basic health, making excess compost could even be a source of addi-
them less susceptible to pests. tional income for farmers. Markets for high-
Compost’s ability to halt soil nematode inva- quality compost include professional growers
sion was identified by the staff of Dr. Herbert (such as horticultural greenhouses and nurseries),
Bryan of the University of Florida. While study- homeowners, turf growers, and crop farmers
ing plant response to different compost applica- (such as corn and wheat farmers). Professional
tions and irrigation rates, the staff, who had a growers alone purchase $250 million per year in
background in nematology, noted the unexpected compost products.
results while conducting routine observations.
“Where compost was used, even without a fumi-
gant, there was a significant reduction in root- 6.5 How Compost Works
knot nematodes,” said Dr. Bryan.
Later research by Dr. Tom Obreza, a soil and Compost is effective because it fosters a more
water scientist at the Southwest Florida Research diverse soil environment in which a myriad of
and Education Center, turned up with similar soil organisms exist. Compost acts as a food
results. Dr. Obreza’s experiment consisted of source and shelter for the antagonists that com-
growing tomatoes in composts from several dif- pete with plant pathogens, for those organisms
ferent sources and comparing them to control that prey on and parasitize pathogens, and for
plots treated with the usual fertilizers. Dr. Obreza those beneficials that produce antibiotics. Root
found no disease problems in any of the plots rots caused by Pythium and Phytophthora are
except one. Dr. Obreza noted, “We had a little generally suppressed by the high numbers and
invasion of root-knot nematode in one corner of diversity of beneficial microbes found in the
the field. The infection was evident in the plants compost. Such beneficials prevent the germina-
right up to the compost treated plots and stopped tion of spores and infection of plants growing on
the amended soil (Harrison and Frank 1999). To added during the composting process to avoid a
get more reliable results from compost, the com- dry condition. Compost pH below 5.0 inhibits
post itself needs to be stable and of consistent bacterial biocontrol agents (Hoitink et al. 1991).
quality. Compost made in the open air near trees has a
Systemic resistance is also induced in plants higher diversity of microbes than compost made
in response to compost treatments. Hoitink has under a roof or in vessel (Granatstein 1998).
now established that composts and compost teas Three approaches can be used to increase the
indeed activate disease resistance genes in plants suppressiveness of compost: first, curing the
(Goldstein 1998). These disease resistance genes compost for 4 months or more; second, incorpo-
are typically “turned on” by the plant in response rating the compost in the field soil several months
to the presence of a pathogen. These genes mobi- before planting; and third, inoculating the com-
lize chemical defenses against the pathogen inva- post with specific biocontrol agents (Hoitink
sion, although often too late to avoid the disease. et al. 1997). Two of the more common beneficials
Plants growing in compost, however, have these used to inoculate compost are strains of
disease-prevention systems already running Trichoderma and Flavobacterium, added to sup-
(Goldstein 1998). Induced resistance is some- press Rhizoctonia solani. Trichoderma harzia-
what pathogen specific, but it does allow an addi- num acts against a broad range of soilborne
tional way to manage certain diseases through fungal crop pathogens, including R. solani, by
common farming practices. production of antifungal exudates.
It has become evident that a “one size fits all” The key to disease suppression in compost is
approach to composting used in disease manage- the level of decomposition. As the compost
ment will not work. Depending on feed stock, matures, it becomes more suppressive. Readily
inoculum, and composting process, composts available carbon compounds found in low-
have different characteristics affecting disease quality, immature compost can support Pythium
management potential. For example, high carbon- and Rhizoctonia. As these compounds are
to-nitrogen ratio (C/N) tree bark compost gener- reduced during the complete composting pro-
ally works well to suppress Fusarium wilts. With cess, saprophytic growth of these pathogens is
lower C/N ratio composts, Fusarium wilts may dramatically slowed (Nelson et al. 1994).
become more severe as a result of the excess Beneficials, such as Trichoderma hamatum and
nitrogen, which favors Fusarium (Hoitink et al. T. harzianum, were unable to suppress
1997). Compost from sewage sludge typically Rhizoctonia in immature composts, which are
has a low C/N ratio. Some of the beneficial extremely effective when introduced into mature
microorganisms that reinhabit compost from the composts.
outside edges after heating has subsided include For Pythium suppression, there is a direct cor-
several bacteria (Bacillus species, Flavobacterium relation between general microbial activity, the
balustinum, and various Pseudomonas species) amount of microbial biomass, and the degree of
and several fungi (Streptomyces, Penicillium, suppression. Pythium is a nutrient-dependent
Trichoderma, and Gliocladium virens). The pathogen with the ability to colonize fresh plant
moisture content following peak heating of com- residue, especially in soil that has been fumigated
post is critical to the range of organisms inhabit- to kill all soil life. The severity of diseases caused
ing the finished compost. Dry composts with less by Pythium and R. solani relates less to the inocu-
than 34 % moisture are likely to be colonized by lum density than to the amount of saprophytic
fungi and, therefore, are conducive to Pythium growth the pathogen achieves before infection
diseases (Hoitink et al. 1997). Compost with at (Cook and Baker 1983). Consequently, soils that
least 40–50 % moisture will be colonized by both are antagonistic to saprophytic growth of
bacteria and fungi and will be disease suppres- Pythium – such as soils amended with fully
sive (Hoitink et al. 1997). Water is typically decomposed compost – will lower disease levels.
6.8 Commercial Products 79
Rhizoctonia is a highly competitive fungus eventual stabilization. However, good disease

that colonizes fresh organic matter (Chung et al. suppression may not develop due to other factors.
1988). Its ability to colonize decomposed organic For example, highly saline compost actually
matter is decreased or nonexistent. There is a enhances Pythium and Phytophthora diseases
direct relationship between the compost’s level of unless applied months ahead of planting to allow
decomposition and its suppression of for leaching (Hoitink et al. 1997).
Rhizoctonia – again pointing to the need for high- Dr. Harry Hoitink at Ohio State University has
quality mature compost. Like immature compost, pioneered much of the work associated with
raw manure is conducive to diseases at first and disease-suppressive composts. He notes that suc-
becomes suppressive after decomposition. In cess or failure of any compost treatment for dis-
other words, organic amendments supporting ease control depends on the nature of the raw
high biological activity (i.e., decomposition) are product from which the compost was prepared,
suppressive of plant root diseases, while raw the maturity of the compost, and the composting
organic matter will often favor colonization by process used. Failure to assess compost quality
pathogens. may be responsible for some of the failures in
using compost for disease suppression (Hoitink
and Fahy 1986). High-quality compost should
6.6 Enrichment of Compost contain disease-suppressive organisms and
with Biopesticides (Tailored mycorrhizal inoculum (Sances and Elaine 1997).
Compost) Furthermore, high-quality compost should con-
tain very few if any weed seeds.
Biopesticides are becoming effective alternatives
to chemical pesticides. Biopesticides are made by
adding controlled amounts of pest-fighting 6.8 Commercial Products
microorganisms to compost, which results in
“tailored” compost with a specific pesticidal There are a number of commercial products con-
capability. Biopesticides must be registered with taining beneficial, disease-suppressive organ-
the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) isms. These products are applied in various
and undergo the same level of testing as chemical ways – including seed treatments, compost inoc-
pesticides to determine their effectiveness and ulants, soil inoculants, and soil drenches. Among
their safety for public health and the environ- the beneficial organisms available are
ment. Although one type of tailored compost that Trichoderma, Flavobacterium, streptomycetes,
is inoculated by a patented process is already reg- Gliocladium spp., Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas
istered as a biopesticide with EPA, many more spp., and others.
are expected to follow suit. Trichoderma and Gliocladium are effective at
parasitizing other fungi, but they stay alive only
as long as they have other fungi to parasitize. So,
6.7 Determining and Monitoring these fungi do a good job on the pathogenic fungi
Compost Quality that are present when you inoculate them, but
then they run out of food and go to sleep. In soils
It is clear that compost’s maturity is a key factor with low fungal biomass (soils with low organic
in its ability to suppress disease. The challenge matter and plenty of tillage), these two beneficials
involved in achieving and measuring that matu- have nothing to feed on. Compost is a great
rity is the primary reason that compost is not source of both the organisms and the food they
more widely used. Certainly, immature compost need to do their jobs. A great diversity of bacteria,
can be used in field situations, as long as it is fungi, protozoa, and beneficial nematodes exists
applied well ahead of planting, allowing for in good compost (Ingham and Molina 1991).
6.9 Conclusions Harrison UJ, Frank JL (1999) Disease management

through suppressive soils. Department of Plant
Pathology, North Carolina State University (draft doc-
Soilborne diseases result from a reduction in the ument), 23 Sept, pp 14
biodiversity of soil organisms. Restoring impor- Hoitink HAJ, Fahy PC (1986) Basis for the control of
tant beneficial organisms that attack, repel, or soil-borne plant pathogens with composts. Annu Rev
Phytopathol 24:93–114
otherwise antagonize disease-causing soil organ-
Hoitink HAJ, Grebus ME (1994) Status of biological con-
isms will reduce their populations to a manage- trol of plant diseases with composts. Compost Sci Util
able level. Beneficial organisms can be added 2:5–12
directly, or the soil environment can be made Hoitink HAJ, Inbar Y, Boehm MJ (1991) Status of
composted-amended potting mixes naturally suppres-
more favorable for them with compost and other
sive to soil-borne diseases of floricultural crops. Plant
organic amendments. Compost quality deter- Dis 75:869–873
mines its effectiveness at suppressing soilborne Hoitink HAJ, Stone AG, Han DY (1997) Suppression of
plant diseases. plant diseases by composts. HortSci 32(2):184–187
Hudson BD (1994) Soil organic matter and available
water capacity. J Soil Water Conserv, Mar–Apr,
pp 189–194
References Ingham ER, Molina R (1991) Interactions among mycor-
rhizal fungi, rhizosphere organisms, and plants. In:
Abbasi PA, Al-Dahmani J, Sahin F, Hoitink HAJ, Miller Barbosa P, Krischik VA, Jones CG (eds) Microbial
SA (2002) Effect of compost amendments on disease mediation of plant-herbivore interactions. Wiley,
severity and yield of tomato in conventional and New York, pp 169–197
organic production system. Plant Dis 86:156–161 Kannangara T, Utkhede RS, Paul JW, Punja ZK (2000)
Adholeya A, Prakash A (2004) Effect of different organic Effects of mesophilic and thermophilic composts on
compost/manures on yield and yield component of suppression of Fusarium root and stem rot of green-
bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L). Bioresour Technol Tanu house cucumber. Can J Microbiol 46:1021–1028
92:311–319 Krause MS, De Ceuster TJJ, Tiquia SM, Michel FC Jr,
Aryantha IP, Cross R, Guest DI (2000) Suppression of Madden LV, Hoitink HAJ (2003) Isolation and charac-
Phytophthora cinnamomi in potting mixes amended terization of rhizobacteria from composts that sup-
with uncomposted and composted animal manures. press the severity of bacterial leaf spot of radish.
Phytophthology 90:775–782 Phytopathology 93:1292–1300
Chung YR, Hoitink HAJ, Lipps PE (1988) Interactions Mehta CM, Gupta V, Singh S, Srivastava R, Sen E,
between organic-matter decomposition level and soil- Romantschuk M, Sharma AK (2012) Role of micro-
borne disease severity. Agric Ecosyst Environ biologically rich compost in reducing biotic and abi-
24:183–193 otic stresses. In: Satyanarayana T, Johri BN, Prakash A
Cook RJ, Baker KF (1983) The nature and practice of bio- (eds) Microorganisms in environmental management.
logical control of plant pathogens. APS Press, St Paul Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg, London/New York,
Cotxarrera L, Trillas-Gay MI, Steinberg C, Alabouvette C pp 113–134
(2002) Use of sewage sludge compost and Trichoderma Nelson EB, Burpee LL, Lawton MB (1994) Biological
asperellum isolates to suppress Fusarium wilt of control of turf grass diseases. In: Leslie AR (ed)
tomato. Soil Biol Biochem 34:467–476 Handbook of integrated pest management for turf and
Craft M, Nelson EB (1996) Microbial properties of com- ornamentals. Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor,
posts that suppress damping-off and root rot of creep- pp 409–427
ing bentgrass caused by Pythium graminicola. Appl Ozores-Hampton, Monica HB, McMillian R Jr (1994)
Environ Microbiol 62:1550–1557 Suppressing disease in field crops. BioCycle, July,
Diab HG, Hu S, Benson DM (2003) Suppression of pp 60–61
Rhizoctonia solani on impatiens by enhanced micro- Popkin R (1995) Good news for waste watchers: recy-
bial activity in composted swine waste-amended pot- cling, composting show results for the future. Environ
ting mixes. Phytopathology 93:1115–1123 Prot Agency J 21:188–190
Downer A, Menge JA, Pond E (2001) Association of cel- Punja ZK, Rose S, Yip R (2002) International Organisation
lulytic enzyme activities in eucalyptus mulches with for Biological and Integrated control of Noxious
biological control of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic
Phytopathology 91:847–855 Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France 25:
Goldstein J (1998) Compost suppresses disease in the lab 93–96
and on the fields. BioCycle, Nov. pp 62–64 Ringer CE, Millner PD, Teerlinck LM, Lyman BW (1997)
Granatstein D (1998) Suppressing plant diseases with Suppression of seedling damping-off disease in pot-
compost. Good Fruit Grower, 1 May, pp 9–11
References 81
ting mix containing animal manure compost. Compost and challenges for the future, vol 230, NATO ASI
Sci Util 5:6–14 Series No. Plenum Press, New York, pp 35–42
Sances FV, Elaine RI (1997) Conventional organic alter- Tuitert G, Szczech M, Bollen GJ (1998) Suppression of
natives to methyl bromide on California strawberries. Rhizoctonia solani in potting mixtures amended with
Compost Sci Util 5:23–37 compost made from organic household waste.
Stone AG, Vallad GE, Cooperband LR, Rotenberg D, Phytopathology 88:764–773
Darby HM, James RV, Stevenson WR, Goodman RM Vallad EG, Cooperband L, Goodman RM (2003) Plant
(2003) Effect of organic amendments on soil-borne foliar disease suppression mediated by composted
and foliar diseases in field-grown snap bean and forms of paper mill residuals exhibits molecular fea-
cucumber. Plant Dis 87:1037–1042 tures of induced resistance. Physiol Mol Plant Pathol
Tilak KVBR, Reddy BS (2006) Bacillus cereus and B. cir- 63:65–77
culans novel inoculants for crops. Curr Sci Zhang W, Han DY, Dick WA, Davis KR, Hoitink HAJ
5:642–644 (1998) Compost and compost water extract-induced
Trankner A (1992) Use of agricultural and municipal systemic acquired resistance in cucumber and
organic wastes to develop suppressiveness to plant Arabidopsis. Phytopathology 88:450–455
pathogens. In: Tjamos EC, Papavizas GC, Cook RJ Zheljazkov VD, Warman PR (2004) Source-separated
(eds) Biological control of plant diseases: progress municipal solid waste compost application to Swiss
chard and basil. J Environ Qual 33:542–552
Grafted Vegetables
for Management of Soilborne 7
Pathogens
Abstract
Grafting as a technique is gaining wide attention throughout the world,
especially for greenhouse cultivation of vegetable crops, mainly the sola-
naceous (against bacterial wilt) and cucurbitaceous (against Fusarium
wilt) ones, from the viewpoint of resistance against the soilborne patho-
gens in addition to obtaining better yield and quality. Cucurbits are com-
monly grafted to gourds or to interspecific hybrids. Grafting methods,
grafting for management of soilborne pathogens, problems commonly
associated with grafted plants, and grafting-conferred defense mecha-
nisms are discussed.
Keywords
Grafting • Rootstocks • Cucurbits • Solanaceous vegetables • Fusarium
wilt • Bacterial wilt
7.1 Introduction in the field or in greenhouses (Ito 1992; Kurata

1992). The purpose of grafting also has been
Growing grafted vegetables was first launched in greatly expanded, from reducing infection by
Japan and Korea in the late 1920s by grafting soilborne diseases caused by pathogens such as
watermelons to gourd rootstocks. After the first Fusarium oxysporum (Itagi 1992; Yamakawa
trial, the cultivated area of grafted vegetables, as 1983) to increasing low-temperature (Tachibana
well as the kinds of vegetables being grafted, has 1989) and salt and wet-soil tolerance (Tachibana
been consistently increased. At present, most of 1989; Park 1987), enhancing water and nutrient
the watermelons (Citrullus lanatus), melons uptake (Heo 1991; Jang et al. 1992), and increas-
(Cucumis melo), Oriental melons (Cucumis melo ing plant vigor and extending the duration of eco-
var. makuwa), greenhouse cucumbers (Cucumis nomic harvest time (Itagi 1992; Ito 1992), among
sativus), and several solanaceous crops in Korea other purposes (Ali et al. 1991; Dole and Wilkins
and Japan are grafted before being transplanted 1992; Matsuzoe et al. 1993). Growing grafted

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_7
84 7 Grafted Vegetables for Management of Soilborne Pathogens
vegetables, compared to growing grafted trees, 7.3 Cultivation Statistics

was seldom practiced in the USA or in other for Selected Vegetables
Western countries where land use is not inten- and Grafted Seedlings
sive, i.e., proper crop rotation is being practiced.
However, it is highly popular in some Asian and Table 7.1 shows the statistics of cultivated area
European countries where land use is very inten- under greenhouse conditions using grafted seed-
sive and the farming area is small (Hartmann and lings and the estimated number of grafted vegeta-
Kester 1975). ble seedlings in Korea and Japan. About 192.6
million grafted seedlings are planted annually in
Korea and 341.4 million in Japan in greenhouses.
7.2 Objectives of Grafting More than 95 % of the watermelons in both coun-
Vegetables tries are grafted. The majority of greenhouse
cucumbers are grafted. Most of the Oriental mel-
The main objective of vegetable grafting is to ons are grafted to squash (Cucurbita spp.) root-
avoid soilborne diseases such as Fusarium wilt in stock (Ito 1992; Jang et al. 1992). It is likely that
Cucurbitaceae (cucumber, melons, etc.) and bac- these quantities will be increased soon with the
terial wilt in Solanaceae (tomato, pepper, etc.). introduction of new uses of grafting for other
Grafting’s early purpose was to avoid or vegetables and the development of rootstock hav-
reduce the soilborne disease caused by F. oxyspo- ing desirable characteristics.
rum, but the reasons for grafting, as well as the
kinds of vegetables grafted, have increased dra-
matically. Watermelons, other melons (Cucumis 7.4 Grafting Methods
spp.), cucumbers, tomatoes (Lycopersicon escul-
entum), and eggplants (Solanum melongena) are Grafting involves the union of suitable varieties
commonly grafted to various rootstocks. of greenhouse crops used as scions over the resis-
Numerous rootstocks also have been developed. tant rootstocks usually from the same family.
Watermelons are commonly grafted to gourds Trials have been conducted on grafting of tomato
(Lagenaria siceraria) or to interspecific hybrids seedlings over the available rootstocks from dif-
(C. maxima x C. moschata). Cucumbers are fre- ferent families. Although the success has been
quently grafted to figleaf gourd (C. ficifolia) or achieved in grafting of greenhouse tomato over
interspecific hybrids (C. maxima x C. moschata). interfamilial plants, however, tomato and cucur-
Table 7.1 Estimated cultivated area under greenhouse of some vegetables being grafted and the number of grafted
seedlings needed annually in Japan and Korea (FAO 1992)
Japan Korea
Cultivated area of No. of grafted Cultivated area of No. of grafted
grafted seedlings seedlings requireda grafted seedlings seedlings requireda
Vegetables (‘000 ha) (millions) (‘000 ha) (millions)
Watermelon 3.2 9.6 7.4 22.1
Cucumber 6.0 216.1 3.3 78.4
Oriental melon 2.0 35.3 5.0 89.4
Melons and muskmelons 0.5 23.8 0.02 1.0
Tomato 0.8 36.9 0.04 1.7
Eggplant 1.6 19.7 – –
Total 14.1 341.4 15.7 192.6
a
The quantity actually needed could be 15 % higher than the numbers listed
7.4 Grafting Methods 85
Fig. 7.2 Vegetable grafting
Grafting methods vary considerably with the

type of crops being grafted, and the sowing time
for scion and stock seeds varies with grafting
method and crop. For example, “hole insertion
grafting” would be convenient for watermelons
because of their small seedling size compared to
the size of stock seedlings, such as gourd and
squash. In cucumbers, however, “tongue
approach grafting” has been used widely, mainly
because of their large seedling size, including
hypocotyl length and diameter, and grafting ease.
In the past, grafting was routinely carried out
by the growers themselves, but it is now rapidly
Fig. 7.1 Common grafting methods. (a) Hole insertion shifting to cooperative operations owing to the
grafting. (a') Grafted seedlings are transplanted in for fur-
efficiency, ease of post-graft care, and recent
ther growth. (a'') Rootstocks are cut just above the root
zone and then grafted as in (a). Grafted seedlings are then expansion of the commercial seedling industry
rooted in rooting medium while healing takes place. (b) (such as sales of plug-grown seedlings) (Figs. 7.2
Tongue approach grafting. (b') Grafting clip is used to and 7.3). Even though the single-edged razor
hold the graft union. The scion’s hypocotyl is cut below
blade is still the most widely used grafting knife
the graft union about a week after grafting. (c) Cleft graft-
ing. (c') Specifically devised grafting clips are used to among farmers today, many other devices, such
hold the scion and stock together tightly as specifically designed knives, clips, tubes, or
glue, have now been developed for easier grafting
and post-graft care (Kurata 1994). Semiautomatic
bits only gave good results. Technology is under- grafting machines and/or fully automatic grafting
way and is proving to be promising for greenhouse machines using robots (Itagi 1992; Ito 1992) are
cultivation in India. being developed. By using the most sophisticated
Various grafting methods have been devel- machine, grafting efficiency could be signifi-
oped and growers must choose their favorite cantly increased from the present 150 seedlings/
methods based on experiences and preferences. hour per expert.
Grafting cucurbitaceous crops is commonly done The grafted seedlings are conditioned (hard-
when scion and rootstock seedlings are young, ened) in the dark and cool shade nets prepared
i.e., before the outgrowth of the first true leaf especially for the purpose before planting in
between the cotyledons. Some of the most widely seedling trays and finally their transplantation in
practiced grafting methods are shown in Fig. 7.1. the greenhouses (Fig. 7.4). Grafting robots are
Fig. 7.3 Nursery production

of grafted vegetables in
greenhouse
Fig. 7.4 A typical timeline for grafting (Rivard and Louws 2006)
being increasingly used for the commercial 7.5 Grafting for Management
production of a healthy nursery. of Soilborne Pathogens
The labor required for intensive post-graft
care, mostly 7–10 days of careful management, Under continuous cropping, soilborne diseases and
could be markedly reduced by using specifically nematode problems are likely to increase. Since
designed conditioning chambers (Ito 1992). soil sterilization can never be complete, grafting
Kurata (1994) describes four methods of robot has become an essential technique for the produc-
grafting in detail. tion of repeated crops of fruit-bearing vegetables.
7.5 Grafting for Management of Soilborne Pathogens 87
Fig. 7.5 Grafting of

watermelon scion on bottle
gourd rootstock to control
Verticillium wilt (L, grafted
plant; R, control)
Table 7.2 Rootstocks for tomato and their specific resistance to some selected soilborne diseases (Yamakawa 1983)
Major tomato diseases
Rootstocks Ralstonia Fusarium Verticillium Pyrenochaeta Root-knot Tomato
for tomato solanacearum oxysporum dahliae lycopersici nematode mosaic virus
BF R R S S S S
LS89 R R S S S S
PFN R R S S R R
PFNT R R S S R R
KNVF S R R R R R
KNVF Tm Signaal S R R R R R
KCFT-N S R S R R R
R resistant, S susceptible
Grafting as a technique is gaining wide atten- such as those caused by Fusarium, Verticillium,
tion throughout the world, especially for green- and Ralstonia (Table 7.2), even though the degree
house cultivation of vegetable crops, mainly the of tolerance varies considerably with the root-
solanaceous and cucurbitaceous ones, from the stock. The mechanism of disease resistance,
viewpoint of resistance against the soilborne however, has not been intensively investigated.
pathogens in addition to obtaining better yield The disease tolerance in grafted seedlings may be
and quality. It is highly successful in cucurbits entirely due to the tolerance of stock plant roots
like melons for resistance against diseases (Fig. 7.5). to such diseases.
Many rootstocks having distinctive character- However, in actual plantings, adventitious
istics are available (Yamakawa 1983), and grow- rooting from the scion is very common (Lee
ers select the rootstocks they think are the most 1989). Plants having the root systems of the scion
suitable for their growing season, cultivation and rootstock are expected to be easily infected
methods (field or greenhouses), soil type, and by soilborne diseases. However, seedlings having
type of crops and cultivars (Lee 1989). For exam- dual root systems often exhibit excellent disease
ple, cucumber grown in greenhouses during the resistance, almost comparable to those having
cool season should be grafted onto figleaf gourd; only rootstock roots. This observation partially
however, those grown during the hot summer supports the previous report that substances asso-
season are usually grafted onto Sintozwa root- ciated with Fusarium tolerance are synthesized
stocks (interspecific hybrid) or others (Lee 1989). in the root and translocated to the scion through
The vigorous roots of the rootstock exhibit the xylem (Biles et al. 1989). The activity of the
excellent tolerance to serious soilborne diseases, substances related to disease resistance may vary
during the developmental stages of the grafted rootstocks contributed to disease resistance of the
plants (Heo 1991; Padgett and Morrison 1990). grafted combinations in watermelons, melons
More research is needed in this regard. It is gen- (Cucumis melo), cucumbers (Cucumis sativus),
erally accepted that the disease-susceptible char- and tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum)
acteristics of the scion are not translocated to the (Paplomatas et al. 2002). Monosporascus sudden
rootstock. wilt, caused by Monosporascus cannonballus, is
Disease resistance researchers around the an important soilborne disease of melon and
world have demonstrated that grafting can be watermelon in hot and semiarid areas. Grafting
effective against a variety of soilborne fungal, scions of susceptible melon cultivars onto C.
bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases. It has maxima and C. maxima × C. moschata rootstocks
been used to eliminate Verticillium and Fusarium improved the resistance of melon (Edelstein et al.
wilt in tomato (Table 7.3) and cucurbit produc- 1999) although Cucurbita is normally regarded
tion systems in Japan, Korea, and Greece. In New as a host for M. cannonballus (Mertely et al.
Zealand, it has been used to reduce levels of 1993). However, the improved resistance and
corky root rot. In Morocco and Greece, grafting better yield with grafted plants was inconsistent.
is used to control root-knot nematodes The variable results might be attributed to differ-
(Meloidogyne species) in both tomatoes and ences in rootstock–scion combinations and
cucurbits. Researchers have proposed using growing conditions. Phytophthora blight, caused
grafted plants instead of methyl bromide to man- by Phytophthora capsici, is regarded as one of
age soilborne diseases in these regions of the the most destructive diseases in production of
world. cucurbits. In P. capsici-infested fields, yields of
Improved resistance to many soilborne fungal, cucumbers grafted on bottle gourd (Lagenaria
bacterial, and nematode pathogens have been siceraria), C. moschata, and wax gourd
reported in grafted solanaceous and cucurbita- (Benincasa hispida) rootstocks were significantly
ceous crops. Moreover, certain foliar fungal and increased, and vegetative growth was more vig-
viral diseases were suppressed when susceptible orous (Wang et al. 2004). Watermelons grafted
scions were grafted onto specific rootstocks onto selected bottle gourd rootstocks also exhib-
(Louws et al. 2010). Diseases controlled by graft- ited resistance to P. capsici (Kousik and Thies
ing in different vegetable crops due to fungi, bac- 2010). Corky root disease caused by Pyrenochaeta
teria, viruses, and nematodes are listed in Tables lycopersici is a severe problem for Solanaceae.
7.4 and 7.5. Tomatoes grafted onto “Beaufort” rootstocks
(S. lycopersicum × S. habrochaites) had lower
disease incidence, higher yield, and larger fruit
7.5.1 Soilborne Fungal Diseases (Hasna et al. 2009). Similar results were also
found in grafted eggplants (S. melongena)
The earliest reported use of vegetable grafting for (Iouannou 2001).
disease control was for management of Fusarium
wilt in cucurbits (Sakata et al. 2005). Commonly
used cucurbitaceous rootstocks are nonhosts to 7.5.2 Other Fungal Diseases
most formae speciales of F. oxysporum, and thus
grafting has been successfully used to control Other fungal diseases that have been controlled
Fusarium wilt in cucurbit production (Louws by grafting include target leaf spot (Corynespora
et al. 2010). Verticillium wilt, primarily caused cassiicola) on cucumbers, black root rot
by Verticillium dahliae, is another vascular wilt (Phomopsis sclerotioides) on cucumbers and
disease that often affects Solanaceae and melons, gummy stem blight (Didymella bry-
Cucurbitaceae. Studies with plants grafted onto oniae) on melons, southern blight (Sclerotium
commercial rootstocks and subjected to infection rolfsii) on tomatoes, brown root rot
with V. dahliae indicated that both scions and (Colletotrichum coccodes) on tomatoes and egg-
7.5
Table 7.3 Disease resistance and vigor of commercial tomato rootstock cultivars (Ratings are based on seed supplier information. Vigor is measured on a scale of one to five,
where one represents poor and five represents excellent)
Disease resistance
Tomato Fusarium wilt Verticillium wilt
Seed supplier/rootstock mosaic virus Corky root Race 1 Race 2 Race 1 Bacterial wilt Nematodes Vigor
De Ruiter seeds
Maxifort High High Moderate High High Susceptible High 5
Grafting for Management of Soilborne Pathogens
Beaufort High High Moderate High High Susceptible High 3

Takii seeds
Anchor-T High Susceptible High High High Moderate High 5
Survivor High Susceptible High High High Moderate High 5
Aegis High Moderate High High High Moderate High 4
Bruinsma seeds
Body High High Susceptible High High Susceptible High 5
Robusta High High Susceptible High High Susceptible Susceptible 3
89
Table 7.4 Rootstock, major grafting methods, and purpose of grafting for some vegetables
Vegetables Popular rootstock species Grafting methodsa Purposeb
Watermelon Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria var. hispida) 1 1
Interspecific hybrids 1, 2 1
Wax gourd (Benincasa hispida) 1, 3 1
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) 2, 3 1
Squash (Cucurbita moschata) 1, 2 1
Bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus) 2 2
Cucumber Figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia) 2 1
Interspecific hybrids 1, 2 1
F1 (Cucurbita maxima x C. moschata) 2 1
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) 2 1
Bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus) 2 2
Oriental melon Interspecific hybrids 2 1
Squash (Cucurbita moschata) 2 1
Melons Cucumis melo 2, 3 1
Tomato Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium 3 2
Lycopersicon hirsutum 3 2
Lycopersicon esculentum 3 2
Eggplant Solanum integrifolium 2, 3 3
Solanum torvum 2, 3 4
a
Grafting methods: 1 = hole insertion; 2 = tongue approach; 3 = cleft grafting (see Fig. 7.1 for details)
b
Purpose of grafting: 1 = Fusarium wilt control; 2 = nematode resistance; 3 = bacterial wilt control; 4 = virus infection
reduction
plants, and Rhizoctonia damping-off (Rhizoctonia tomato bacterial wilt (Matsuzoe et al. 1993). The
solani) on tomatoes (King et al. 2008; Louws improved resistance in grafted plants may result
et al. 2010) (Table 7.1). Grafting has also from limited colonization in the lower stem rather
been reported to improve crop resistance to the than prevention of bacteria from invading xylem
foliar fungal diseases such as powdery mildew tissues (Fig. 7.6) (Grimault and Prior 1994).
(Podosphaera xanthii) and downy mildew Eggplants and relatives can be used as root-
(Pseudoperonospora cubensis) on cucumbers, stocks for tomato. The Asian Vegetable Research
when certain rootstocks were used (Louws et al. and Development Center (AVRDC) has devel-
2010; Sakata et al. 2005). oped S. melongena rootstock resistant to water-
logging as well as bacterial wilt and other
soilborne diseases for grafting tomatoes. Grafting
7.5.3 Soilborne Bacterial Diseases has been essential in Asian horticultural produc-
tion for eliminating bacterial wilt incidence in
Tomato bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia sola- solanaceous crops, such as tomatoes and peppers.
nacearum, is one of the most destructive diseases By the end of the season, none of the control
of tomato. Resistance to bacterial wilt in toma- plants had survived, while 100 % of the grafted
toes is a quantitative trait and is closely associ- plants continued to produce. Furthermore, the
ated with small fruit size (Louws et al. 2010). yield of the tomatoes with resistant rootstocks
Thus, few resistant tomato cultivars are commer- was four times that of the non-grafted susceptible
cially available (King et al. 2008). Grafting sci- plants. Yields increased by as much as 106 %
ons of susceptible tomato cultivars onto resistant with the use of certain rootstocks for watermelon
rootstocks has been successful for managing production in Australia. Grafting can be a valuable
7.5 Grafting for Management of Soilborne Pathogens 91
Table 7.5 Fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases reported to be controlled by grafting in different vegetable
crops
Disease Pathogen Crops
Fungal diseases
Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum Tomato, pepper, watermelon,
melon, cucumber
Fusarium crown and root rot Fusarium oxysporum, Tomato, pepper, watermelon
F. solani
Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae Tomato, eggplant, watermelon,
melon, cucumber
Monosporascus sudden wilt Monosporascus cannonballus Watermelon, melon
Phytophthora blight Phytophthora capsici Tomato, pepper, watermelon,
cucumber
Corky root Pyrenochaeta lycopersici Tomato, eggplant
Target leaf spot Corynespora cassiicola Cucumber
Black root rot Phomopsis sclerotioides Cucumber, melon
Gummy stem blight Didymella bryoniae Melon
Southern blight Sclerotium rolfsii Tomato
Brown root rot Colletotrichum coccodes Tomato, eggplant
Rhizoctonia damping-off Rhizoctonia solani Tomato
Powdery mildew Podosphaera xanthii Cucumber
Downy mildew Pseudoperonospora cubensis Cucumber
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial wilt Ralstonia solanacearum Tomato, pepper, eggplant
Viral diseases
Melon necrotic spot virus Melon necrotic spot virus (MNSV) Watermelon
Tomato yellow leaf curl Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLSV) Tomato
Tomato spotted wilt Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) Tomato
Pepino mosaic virus Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV) Tomato
Nematode diseases
Root knot Meloidogyne spp. Cucumber, melon, watermelon,
tomato, eggplant, pepper
Fig. 7.6 Grafted plants on the

left and non-grafted on the
right in a field severely
infested with bacterial wilt
(Photo by Josh Freeman)
tool for eliminating bacterial wilt in tomato, cially available (Thies et al. 2010). The Mi gene,
pepper, and eggplant production. which provides effective control against RKN in
tomato, has been introgressed into cultivated
tomatoes and rootstock cultivars (Louws et al.
7.5.4 Viral Diseases 2010). Grafting of susceptible tomato cultivars
on RKN-resistant rootstocks was effective in
Vegetable grafting research on resistance to viral controlling RKN in fields naturally infested with
diseases yielded mixed results because of the RKN (Rivard and Louws 2006). However, as a
lack of systematic studies in this area. Wang et al. result of temperature sensitivity of the Mi gene,
(2002) reported improved antivirus performance such resistance may not be uniformly stable
in grafted seedless watermelon plants. In Israel, (Cortada et al. 2009). Pepper (Capsicum ann-
use of resistant rootstocks for controlling the uum) cultivars possessing the N gene, which con-
soilborne melon necrotic spot virus in cucurbits trols resistance to RKNs (M. incognita, M.
was a significant advantage over soil fumigation arenaria, and M. javanica), have been effective
with methyl bromide, which does not control this as rootstocks to control RKNs in pepper (Oka
viral disease (Cohen et al. 2007). Meanwhile, et al. 2004).
tomato yellow leaf curl virus, tomato spotted wilt Several new rootstocks are being developed.
virus, and pepino mosaic virus were also reported For example, bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus)
to be controlled by grafting (Louws et al. 2010). collected near Andong, Korea, showed good
However, some reports indicated that grafted compatibility with cucumbers and watermelons
plants were more vulnerable to viral diseases, for early summer growth and good resistance to
possibly as a result of graft incompatibility that nematodes (Lee 1992; Lee et al. 1992).
weakened the scion plants (Davis et al. 2008).
7.6 Problems Commonly

7.5.5 Root-Knot Nematodes Associated with Grafted
Plants
Root galling of susceptible plants is a typical
response to root-knot nematode (RKN) Various problems are commonly associated with
(Meloidogyne spp.) infection, resulting in poor grafting and cultivating grafted seedlings. Major
absorption of water and nutrients. In cucurbits, problems are the labor and techniques required
resistance to M. incognita was identified in for the grafting operation and post-graft handling
Cucumis metuliferus, C. ficifolia, and bur cucum- of grafted seedlings for rapid healing for 7–10
ber (Sicyos angulatus) (Gu et al. 2006). Using C. days. An expert can graft 1200 seedlings per day
metuliferus as a rootstock to graft on RKN- (150 seedlings per hour), but the numbers vary
susceptible melons led to lower levels of root with the grafting method. Similarly, the post-
galling and nematode numbers at harvest graft handling method depends mostly on the
(Sigüenza et al. 2005). Moreover, C. metuliferus grafting methods. The problems could be mini-
showed high graft compatibility with several mized or easily overcome by careful cultural
melon cultivars (Trionfetti Nisini et al. 2002). management and wise selection of scion and
Cucumbers grafted on the bur cucumber root- rootstock cultivars.
stock exhibited increased RKN resistance (Zhang The introduction of mechanization and auto-
et al. 2006). Promising progress has also been mation technology will help to address large-
made in developing M. incognita-resistant germ- scale production issues. A fully automated
plasm lines of wild watermelon (Citrullus lana- grafting robot for cucurbits was recently devel-
tus var. citroides) for use as rootstocks (Thies oped based on the 1993 version of Iseki’s GR800
et al. 2010). However, at present, cucurbit root- semiautomated robot. The robot (Fig. 7.7) has
stocks with resistance to RKN are not commer- scion and rootstock feeders, which pick, orient,
7.7 Grafting-Conferred Defense Mechanisms 93
Fig. 7.7 Grafting robot
and feed the scion and the rootstock shoots to the often considered the most common and durable
grafting processor, performing 750 grafts per plant disease resistance (Mysore and Ryu 2004).
hour with a 90 % success rate. Solanaceous vegetables and cucurbits are often
Since there is prohibition of methyl bromide grafted onto rootstocks that, although related, are
for disinfecting soils, there is a renewed interest different species or hybrids of different species.
for grafting eggplant (and tomato) on rootstocks Taking advantage of the nonhost resistance in
resistant to soilborne pathogens. these rootstocks is a convenient approach to bat-
Even though there are many problems associ- tling specific pathogens that infect the cultivated
ated with cultivating grafted vegetable seedlings, scion species but not the rootstock species. For
the need for successful grafted seedlings is grow- example, F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum causes dis-
ing rapidly. Breeding multipurpose rootstocks ease specifically on watermelon, and F. oxyspo-
and developing efficient grafting machines and rum f. sp. lagenaria typically infects bottle gourd
techniques will undoubtedly encourage increased (Namiki et al. 1994). Because all of the bottle
use of grafted seedlings in many countries. gourd genotypes offer resistance to all races of F.
Large-scale commercial production of vegetable oxysporum f. sp. niveum (races 0, 1, 2), nonhost
seedlings is expanding rapidly in many devel- resistance has been proven to be a viable mecha-
oped countries, and this will lead to an increased nism to control Fusarium wilt in watermelons
commercial supply and use of grafted vegetable when they are grafted onto bottle gourd root-
seedlings throughout the world. stocks (Yetisir et al. 2007).
7.7 Grafting-Conferred Defense 7.7.2 Developing Transgenic

Mechanisms Rootstocks
7.7.1 Using Nonhost Resistance In addition to use of nonhost-resistant rootstocks

as well as selection and breeding for host resis-
Nonhost disease resistance refers to the resistance from a wide range of germplasms, trans-
tance provided by all members of a plant species genic rootstocks with specific disease resistances
against all races of a certain pathogen, and it is have been developed. For example, a cucumber
green mottle mosaic virus coat protein gene and a 7.7.4 Vigorous Root Systems
cucumber fruit mottle mosaic tobamovirus repli- of Grafted Vegetables to Plant
case gene were introduced into watermelon and Defense
cucumber rootstocks, respectively. Susceptible
scions grafted onto transgenic rootstocks exhib- Many rootstocks developed for vegetable graft-
ited high resistance against viral pathogens ing were selected or bred from wild genotypes. In
(Yi et al. 2009). addition to specific disease resistance, they are
characterized by large and vigorous root systems
(Lee 1994). Soilborne pathogens often infect and
7.7.3 Shift in Rhizosphere Microbial damage plant roots, and, as a result, plant nutrient
Diversity as a Result and water uptake can be affected. Therefore, root
of Grafting system size and vigor may be associated with
resistance to soilborne diseases. Moreover, vigor-
Rhizosphere microorganisms can play critical ous roots help improve nutritional status and thus
roles in suppressing soilborne diseases through a the overall health of plants, which may augment
variety of mechanisms such as nutrient competi- resistance against foliar diseases.
tion, antagonism, and parasitism. Exploring
rhizosphere microbial diversity related to plant
species and genotypes, therefore, is another 7.7.5 Nutrient Uptake in Relation
approach to understanding soilborne disease inci- to Disease Development
dence and severity (Yao and Wu 2010).
Studies on cucumbers grafted onto C. mos- Plant nutrients, in addition to their essential roles
chata indicated that grafting increased the popu- in plant growth and development, can be directly
lation of bacteria and actinomycetes while involved in plant defense pathways. For example,
reducing the total number of fungi in the rhizo- foliar application of phosphate salts can induce
sphere (Dong et al. 2010). Research on grafted systemic protection against anthracnose in
peppers also showed that actinomycete popula- cucumbers (Gottstein and Kuć 1989), and
tions in the rhizosphere were higher in the resis- phosphate-mediated resistance induction has
tant rootstock and grafted plants compared with been associated with localized cell death (Walters
the self-rooted scion control when plants were and Murray 1992). Nitrogen deficiency can com-
inoculated with F. solani (Jiang et al. 2010a). promise elicitor-induced resistance to pathogen
Incidence of Verticillium wilt was reduced when infection (Dietrich et al. 2004), whereas exces-
a susceptible eggplant scion was grafted onto sive nitrogen increases disease incidence by pro-
Solanum torvum rootstock accompanied by moting growth of large plant canopies (Simón
enhanced ratios of bacteria and actinomycetes to et al. 2003). In addition, many other mineral
fungi in the rhizosphere of grafted plants (Yin nutrients such as potassium, calcium, sulfur, and
et al. 2008). Actinomycetes represent a group of micronutrients also play significant roles in plant
soil microorganisms with great potential to pro- defense mechanisms (Walters and Bingham 2007).
tect plants against pathogens (Doumbou et al.
2001). Although it is still uncertain about the
extent to which actinomycetes contribute to plant 7.7.6 Grafting-Induced Systemic
disease control, higher populations of actinomy- Defense
cetes detected in the rhizosphere of grafted plants
could possibly play a role in disease suppression Defense-related enzymes are often induced by a
when susceptible scions are grafted onto certain variety of biotic stresses. Studies have shown that
resistant rootstocks. plants grafted on certain rootstocks generally
References 95
Table 7.6 Enzymes reported with higher activities in grafted vegetables compared with self-rooted plants
Enzymes Scion Rootstock Plant tissue Pathogen Reference
Phenylalanine Eggplant Solanum torvum Roots and Inoculation of Zhou et al. 1998
ammonia-lyase (PAL) leaves V. dahliae
Pepper Pepper Roots and Inoculation of Jiang et al.
leaves F. solani 2010b
exhibit a higher activity of defense-related Biles CL, Martyn RD, Wilson HD (1989) Isozymes and
general proteins from various watermelon cultivars
enzymes compared with self-rooted plants under and tissue types. HortSci 24(5):810–812
certain stressful conditions (Table 7.6). Cohen R, Burger Y, Horev C, Koren A, Edelstein M
(2007) Introducing grafted cucurbits to modern agri-
culture: the Israeli experience. Plant Dis 91:916–923
Cortada L, Sorribas FJ, Ornat C, Andrés MF, Verdejo-
7.8 Conclusions Lucas S (2009) Response of tomato rootstocks carry-
ing the Mi-resistance gene to populations of
Grafting is a valuable disease management tactic Meloidogyne arenaria, M. incognita and M. javanica.
for heirloom tomato growers. This practice origi- Eur J Plant Pathol 124:337–343
Davis AR, Perkins-Veazie P, Sakata Y, LópezGalarza S,
nated as a way to ensure fruit quality while keep- Maroto JV, Lee SG, Huh YC, Sun Z, Miguel A, King
ing disease resistance high for melon production SR, Cohen R, Lee JM (2008) Cucurbit grafting. Crit
systems with soilborne disease pressure. This Rev Plant Sci 27:50–74
same principle lends itself well to heirloom Dietrich R, Plob K, Heil M (2004) Constitutive and
induced resistance to pathogens in Arabidopsis thali-
tomato production. Furthermore, research world- ana depends on nitrogen supply. Plant Cell Environ
wide has demonstrated increased yields from 27:896–906
grafted vegetable plants in comparison to non- Dole JM, Wilkins HF (1992) In vivo characterization of a
grafted plants. As Southeastern growers realize graft-transmissible, free-branching agent in poinsettia.
J Am Soc Hort Sci 117(6):972–975
its potential benefits and relative ease, grafting Dong L, Zuo Y, Li X, Wang Q (2010) Effects of grafting
will become a more popular disease management on cucumber soil biochemistry (in Chinese). J Chin
technique in the USA. Agric Univ 15:51–56
Even though there are many problems associ- Doumbou CL, Hamby Salove MK, Crawford DL,
Beaulieu C (2001) Actinomycetes, promising tools to
ated with cultivating grafted vegetable seedlings, control plant diseases and to promote plant growth.
the need for successfully grafted seedlings is Phytoprotection 82:85–102
growing rapidly. Breeding multipurpose root- Edelstein M, Cohen R, Burger Y, Shriber S, Pivonia S,
stock and developing efficient grafting machines Shtienberg D (1999) Integrated management of sud-
den wilt in melons, caused by Monosporascus can-
and techniques will undoubtedly encourage nonballus, using grafting and reduced rates of methyl
increased use of grafted seedlings not only in bromide. Plant Dis 83:1142–1145
Korea and Japan but also in many other countries. FAO (1992) FAO production yearbook. FAO of the
Large-scale commercial production of vegetable United Nations, Rome
Gottstein HD, Kuć JA (1989) Induction of systemic resis-
seedlings is expanding rapidly in many devel- tance to anthracnose in cucumber by phosphates.
oped countries, and this will lead to an increased Phytopathology 79:176–179
commercial supply and use of grafted vegetable Grimault V, Prior P (1994) Grafting tomato cultivars resis-
seedlings throughout the world. tant or susceptible to bacterial wilt: analysis of resis-
tance mechanisms. J Phytopathol 141:330–334
Gu X, Zhang S, Zhang S (2006) The screening of cucum-
ber rootstocks resistant to southern root-knot nema-
tode (in Chinese). Chin Veg 2:4–8
References Hartmann HT, Kester DE (1975) Plant propagation: prin-
ciples and practices, 3rd edn. PrenticeHall, Englewood
Ali M, Matsuo N, Okubo H, Fujieda K (1991) Resistance Cliffs
of non-tuberous Solanum to root-knot nematode. J Jpn Hasna MK, Ögren E, Persson P, Mártensson A, Rämert B
Soc Hort Sci 60(4):921–926 (2009) Management of corky root disease of tomato in
participation with organic tomato growers. Crop Prot Louws FJ, Rivard CL, Kubota C (2010) Grafting fruiting
28:155–161 vegetables to manage soil-borne pathogens, foliar
Page: 23 Heo YC (1991) Effects of rootstock on exuda- pathogens, arthropods and weeds. Sci Hort
tion and mineral elements contents in different parts of 127:127–146
oriental melon and cucumber (in Korean with English Matsuzoe N, Okubo H, Fujieda K (1993) Resistance of
summary). MS thesis, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, tomato plants grafted on Solanum rootstocks to bacte-
p 53 rial wilt and root-knot nematode. J Jpn Soc Hort Sci
Iouannou N (2001) Integrating soil solarization with 61:865–872
grafting on resistant rootstocks for management of Mertely JC, Martyn RD, Miller ME, Bruton BD (1993)
soil-borne pathogens of eggplant. J Hort Sci Biotech An expanded host range for the muskmelon pathogen
76:396–401 Monosporascus cannonballus. Plant Dis 77:667–673
Itagi T (1992) Status of transplant production systems in Mysore KS, Ryu CM (2004) Non-host resistance: how
Japan and new grafting techniques (in Korean). Symp much do we know? Trends Plant Sci 9:97–104
Protected Hort. Hort Expt Stn, Rural Development Namiki F, Shiomi T, Kayamura T, Tsuge T (1994)
Admin, Suwon, pp 32–67 Characterization of the formae speciales of Fusarium
Ito T (1992) Present state of transplant production prac- oxysporum causing wilts of cucurbits by DNA finger-
tices in Japanese horticultural industry. In: Kurata K, printing with nuclear repetitive DNA sequences. Appl
Kozai T (eds) Transplant production system. Kluwer, Environ Microbiol 60:2684–2691
Yokohama, pp 65–82 Oka Y, Offenbach R, Pivonia S (2004) Pepper rootstock
Jang KU et al (1992) Utilization of sap and fruit juice of graft compatibility and response to Meloidogyne
Luffa cylindrica L. res. rept. Korean Ginseng and javanica and M. incognita. J Nematol 36:137–141
Tobacco Inst, Taejon, p 116 Padgett M, Morrison JC (1990) Changes in grape berry
Jiang F, Liu YX, Ai XZ, Zhen N, Wang HT (2010a) Study exudates during fruit development and their effect on
on relationship among microorganism, enzymes’ mycelial growth of Botrytis cinerea. J Amer Soc Hort
activity in rhizosphere, soil and root rot resistance of Sci 115(2):256–257
grafted capsicum (in Chinese). Scientia Agr Sinica Paplomatas EJ, Elena K, Tsagkarakou A, Perdikaris A
43:3367–3374 (2002) Control of Verticillium wilt of tomato and
Jiang F, Liu YX, Liu W, Zheng N, Wang HT, Ai XZ cucurbits through grafting of commercial varieties on
(2010b) Relationship between root rot resistance and resistant rootstocks. Acta Hort 579:445–449
phenylpropanoid metabolism in graft capsicum (in Park YD (1987) Effect of fertilizer levels, growth regula-
Chinese). Chin Veg 8:46–52 tors and salt treatment on the growth and sex expres-
King SR, Davis AR, Liu W, Levi A (2008) Grafting for sion in cucumbers grafted to different rootstocks. MS
disease resistance. HortSci 43:1673–1676 thesis, Kyung Hee University, Suwon, Korea, 50 pp
Kousik CS, Thies JA (2010) Response of US bottle gourd Rivard CL, Louws FJ (2006) Grafting for disease resis-
(Lagenaria siceraria) plant introductions (PI) to tance in heirloom tomatoes. North Carolina Coop Ext
crown rot caused by Phytophthora capsici. Serv Bul Ag-675
Phytopathology 100:S65 Sakata Y, Ohara T, Sugiyama M (2005) The history and
Kurata K (1992) Transplant production robots in Japan. present state of the grafting of cucurbitaceous vegeta-
In: Kurata K, Kozai T (eds) Transplant production sys- bles in Japan. Acta Hort 731:159–170
tem. Kluwer, Yokohama, pp 313–329 Sigüenza C, Schochow M, Turini T, Ploeg A (2005) Use
Kurata K (1994) Cultivation of grafted vegetables of Cucumis metuliferus as a rootstock for melon to
II. Development of grafting robots in Japan. HortSci manage Meloidogyne incognita. J Nematol
29:240–244 37:276–280
Lee JM (1989) On the cultivation of grafted plants of Simón MR, Cordo CA, Perelló AE, Struik PC (2003)
cucurbitaceous vegetables (in Korean with English Influence of nitrogen supply on the susceptibility of
summary). J Kor Soc Hort Sci 30(3):169–179 wheat to Septoria tritici. J Phytopathol 151:283–289
Lee WY (1992) Use of Sicyos angulatus cv. Andong as Tachibana S (1989) Respiratory response of detached
rootstock for cucurbits (in Korean). Rural Dev Admin roots to lower temperatures in cucumber and figleaf
Suwon, Korea Res Ext 33(4):69–73 gourd grown at 20°C root temperature. J Jpn Soc Hort
Lee JM (1994) Cultivation of grafted vegetables I. Current Sci 58(2):333–337
status, grafting methods, and benefits. HortSci Thies JA, Ariss JJ, Hassell RL, Olson S, Kousik CS, Levi
29:235–239 A (2010) Grafting for management of southern root-
Lee WY, Hwang GS, Shin CG, Ha HT, Hwang JM (1992) knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, in water-
Yield performance test of watermelon (Citrullus melon. Plant Dis 94:1195–1199
vulgaris Schrad) grafted onto the rootstock, Sicyos Trionfetti Nisini P, Colla G, Granati E, Temperini O,
angulatus L in the farm field (Abstr) (in Korean with Crinò P, Saccardo F (2002) Rootstock resistance to
tables and figures in English). Kor Soc Hort Sci Fusarium wilt and effect on fruit yield and quality of
10(2):38–39 two muskmelon cultivars. Sci Hort 93:281–288
References 97
Walters DR, Bingham IJ (2007) Influence of nutrition on Yetisir H, Kurt S, Sari N, Tok FM (2007) Rootstock
disease development caused by fungal pathogens: potential of Turkish Lagenaria siceraria germplasm
implications for plant disease control. Ann Appl Biol for watermelon: plant growth, graft compatibility, and
151:307–324 resistance to Fusarium. Turk J Agric For 31:381–388
Walters DR, Murray DC (1992) Induction of systemic Yi H, Kim HJ, Kim CG, Harn CH, Kim HM, Park S
resistance to rust in Vicia faba by phosphate and (2009) Using T-RFLP to assess the impact on soil
EDTA: effects of calcium. Plant Pathol 41:444–448 microbial communities by transgenic lines of water-
Wang J, Zhang DW, Fang Q (2002) Studies on antivirus melon rootstock resistant to cucumber green mottle
disease mechanism of grafted seedless watermelon (in mosaic virus (CGMMV). J Plant Biol 52:577–584
Chinese). J Anhui Agric Univ 29:336–339 Yin YL, Zhou BL, Li YP, Fu YW (2008) Allelopathic
Wang HR, Ru SJ, Wang LP, Fong ZM (2004) Study on the effects of grafting on rhizosphere microorganisms
control of Fusarium wilt and Phytophthora blight in population of eggplants (in Chinese). Acta Hort Sinica
cucumber by grafting (in Chinese). Acta Agric 35:1131–1136
Zhejiangensis 16:336–339 Zhang S, Gun X, Wang Y (2006) Effect of bur cucumber
Yamakawa B (1983) Grafting. In: Nishi K (ed) Vegetable (Sicyos angulatus L) as rootstock on growth physiol-
handbook (in Japanese). Yokendo Book, Tokyo, ogy and stress resistance of cucumber plants (in
pp 141–153 Chinese). Acta Hort Sinica 33:1231–1236
Yao H, Wu F (2010) Soil microbial community structure Zhou B, Gao Y, Lin G, Fu Y (1998) Relationship between
in cucumber rhizosphere of different resistance culti- disease resistance and electrolytic leakage, proline
vars to Fusarium wilt. FEMS Microbiol Ecol content and PAL activity in grafted eggplant (in
72:456–463 Chinese). Acta Hort Sinica 25:300–302
Biorational Pest Management
8
Abstract
Biorational pest control under protected cultivation is an important tool for
pest control in an economically and ecologically sound way. The term
biorational is derived from the two words biological and rational, referring
to pesticides of natural origin that have limited or no adverse effects on the
environment or beneficial organisms. Biorational pesticides, which include
botanicals, minerals, minimum risk pesticides, hot pepper wax and garlic
extract, and synthetics, are becoming popular owing to environmental
awareness and consumer concern. Biorational insect and disease control
products are discussed in this chapter.
Keywords
Biorational pesticides • Pests • Diseases • Botanicals • Minerals • Synthetics
• Insect growth regulators
8.1 Introduction maximum residue levels set by market regula-

tory bodies.
Insects and diseases are the major challenge to Following the chemical revolution of the
protected cultivation (glasshouses and plastic 1950s, insect control mainly relied on use of
houses and tunnels). It is estimated that, world- chemical insecticides, many of which are effec-
wide, the area of protected crops is 307,000 ha, tive but simultaneously kill natural predators and
with vegetables occupying 65 % (200,000 ha) of parasitoids. Furthermore, cost, availability, and
this area and ornamentals 35 % (107,000 ha). risks to health and the environment impose seri-
Year-round warm temperatures and relatively ous limitations on the use of chemical control by
high humidity make the protected environment growers of protected crops. Therefore, an alter-
of greenhouses highly favorable to arthropod native approach is urgently needed. One possible
pests. In many countries, production from pro- solution is the use of biorational pest control.
tected cultivation is export oriented, and there- Biorational pesticides currently represent only a
fore, the grower has to comply with the small fraction, 1.3 % of the world pesticide mar-

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_8
100 8 Biorational Pest Management
ket. However, owing to growing concern about to the Meliaceae (mahogany) family, which orig-
the use of toxic chemical pesticides, the growth inates from Southern and Southeastern Asia. It is
rate of the biorational pesticide sector over the an evergreen, deciduous, fast-growing plant
next 10 years has been forecast at 10–15 % annu- which may reach a height of 25 m. The fruit are
ally in comparison to 2 % for chemical pesticides the most important source of the ingredients of
(Menn 1996). neem that affect insects in various ways. The
main active ingredient of neem seed oil is azadi-
rachtin which has proven to be effective against
8.2 Biorational Insect Control insects, mites, and phytopathogens (Schmutterer
Products 1990). Neem oil is obtained by cold-pressing
neem seeds, which is typically 0.2–0.6 % of total
Biorational pest control is an important tool to seed content (Isman 2006).
control pests of protected cultivation. The main Azadirachtin is considered nontoxic to mam-
objective of this approach is to optimize pest con- mals (rat oral acute LD50 is >5000 mg/kg), fish,
trol in an economically and ecologically sound and pollinators. It is easily and rapidly degraded
way. The term biorational is derived from the two by sunlight. Russell IPM developed a commer-
words biological and rational, referring to pesti- cial formulation of neem oil, Fytomax. It is
cides of natural origin that have limited or no broad-spectrum emulsified neem oil which con-
adverse effects on the environment or beneficial tains 70 % enriched neem oil, 10 % plant-
organisms. Biorational pesticides are becoming originated emulsifier, 10 % UV stabilizer, and 10
popular owing to environmental awareness and % antioxidant. Fytomax is effective against
consumer concern. mites, whiteflies, aphids, cutworms, fungus
These pest management products (Table 8.1) gnats, shore flies, leaf miners, thrips, and other
generally fit well into an integrated pest manage- types of soft-bodied insects on contact. This
ment (IPM) strategy, which relies on monitoring product is also effective against rots, mildews,
for early detection of pests and emphasizes the rusts, scab, leaf spot, and blights. The multiple
use of selective products that protect crops while modes of action make it unlikely to become
minimizing negative effects on water, air, and soil insect and plant pathogen resistant.
and on pollinators and beneficial insects. Azadirachtin has numerous effects on insects.
It is a powerful insect growth regulator, a feeding
deterrent, and an oviposition deterrent. Insect
8.2.1 Botanicals growth regulators affect the hormonal system of
insects, preventing them from developing nor-
Botanicals are plant-derived materials such as mally into mature insects. However, this property
pyrethrin, azadirachtin, and extract of does not cause the immediate death of an insect
Chenopodium ambrosioides. Plant-derived oils pest. Azadirachtin has two profound effects on
such as neem oil, canola oil, and jojoba oil are insects. At the physiological level, it blocks the
also included in this group. Botanicals are gener- synthesis and release of molting hormones
ally short-lived in the environment, as they are (ecdysteroids) from the prothoracic gland, lead-
broken down rapidly in the presence of light and ing to incomplete ecdysis in immature insects. In
air. Products derived from the seeds of the neem adult female insects, a similar mechanism of
tree, including azadirachtin and neem oil, are action leads to sterility. In addition, azadirachtin
selective and have low mammalian toxicity. is a potent antifeedant to many insects.
Many botanicals are considered “minimum risk” The females of some lepidopterous insects are
pesticides and are exempt from registration by repelled by neem products and will not lay eggs
the EPA. on treated plant parts or other substrates under
Neem, Azadirachta indica (syn. Antelaea aza- laboratory conditions. This has been observed in
dirachta, Melia azadirachta), is a tree belonging Crocidolomia binotalis, Helicoverpa armigera,
8.2 Biorational Insect Control Products 101
Table 8.1 Biorational insecticides and miticides

Insecticides Trade name Target pests Comments
Azadirachtin Agroneem Plus Aphids, caterpillars, An insect growth regulator
(M); Aza-Direct; leafhoppers, leaf extracted from the seeds of the
Azatin XL; Azatrol miners, thrips, neem tree. Works by contact or
EC; Azera (M); whiteflies, beetles, ingestion against immature
Ecozin Plus 1.2 and other insects stages and has antifeedant
ME; Molt-X; properties
Neemix 4.5, 0.25
Chlorantraniliprole Coragen Caterpillars, Colorado May be used as soil or
potato beetle, leaf transplant water treatment at
miners planting, in drip or as foliar.
Avoid runoff in surface waters.
Nontoxic to bees
Clove oil, thyme oil, and Ecotrol G Root maggots, Soil-incorporated volatile plant
cinnamon oil wireworm, cutworm, oils on a corn cob carrier,
symphylans applied before, during, or after
planting. Exempt from
registration and reporting under
federal EPA standards
Cryolite Kryocide Prokil Colorado potato Stomach poison, which must be
Cryolite beetle (larvae only), ingested. Sodium
cucumber beetle, flea aluminofluoride mineral applied
beetle, cutworms, some as spray or dust. Reapply to
caterpillars cover new growth. May cause
extensive wear of nozzles
Neem oil extract Trilogy Primarily labeled for Can be used to control mites.
(but not limited to) mite For best results, use when
control population levels are low to
prevent buildup. Repeat
applications are needed
Flubendiamide Belt SC, Synapse Caterpillars including A diamide, active by insect
WG armyworms, loopers, larval ingestion, leading to a
hornworm, corn rapid cessation of feeding
earworm, European followed by death. Labeled for
corn borer use as a foliar spray on
brassicas and turnip greens,
leafy vegetables, sweet corn,
cucurbits, fruiting vegetables,
and legumes to control
caterpillars
Insecticidal soap (potassium M-Pede, Des-X Aphids, leaf miners, Works on contact. Can be
salts of fatty acids) mites, thrips, whiteflies phytotoxic to some crops; test
on small plot. Avoid treatment
when plants are stressed. May
also harm some beneficials.
Also active against powdery
mildews
Iron phosphate Sluggo Snail and Snails, slugs Bait which causes feeding to
Slug Bait cease. Death occurs over 3–5
days. Exempt from tolerance
and has a zero hour reentry
interval due to low toxicity to
people and wildlife
(continued)
Table 8.1 (continued)

Kaolin Surround WP Flea beetle, striped Interferes with insects’ ability to
cucumber beetle, recognize their host; particles
leafhopper, thrips cling to cuticle. Plant leaves turn
white but growth is not inhibited.
Reapply after heavy rain. To
avoid lumps in mixing, form a
slurry and then dilute. Maintain
agitation
Methoxyfenozide Intrepid Many species of Mimics molting hormone;
caterpillars causes premature molt and
death
Petroleum oil (mineral, JMS Stylet-Oil, Aphids, leaf miners, A horticultural oil (80 %
paraffinic oils) SuffOil-X beetle larvae, mites, petroleum oil) insecticide,
thrips, leafhoppers, miticide, and fungicide. Kills
whiteflies eggs, larvae, and nymphs of
insects and mites and adults of
soft-bodied insects through
suffocation. Registered for use
as a foliar spray on a variety of
crops. Also labeled for certain
diseases
Pyrethrin PyGanic EC 5.0, Asparagus beetle, Botanical insecticide with
PyGanic EC 1.4, blister beetle, cucumber broad-spectrum activity.
Pyrenone (includes beetle, flea beetles, Contact toxin with rapid
piperonyl butoxide) Mexican bean beetle, knockdown but short period of
potato leafhopper, many activity (nonpersistent). Highly
caterpillars, aphids, toxic to fish. Derived from a
stink bugs chrysanthemum species
cultivated in Africa. Some
formulations are approved for
organic crops
Pyriproxyfen Esteem, Distance Thrips, whiteflies, shore Label may include greenhouse
IGR, Knack flies, fungus gnats or field use. An insect growth
regulator that suppresses
development of embryo within
the egg, immature, and pupal
stages of the insect. No activity
against adult insects
Rosemary oil, peppermint oil, Ecotrol EC, Ecotec Aphids, beetles, bugs, A broad-spectrum, plant-based,
other essential plant oils early stages of horticultural oil that acts as an
caterpillars, leaf miners, insecticide and miticide. Works
mites, thrips on contact. Spray when pests
first appear; repeat at 7–10 days.
Greenhouse and field use.
Thorough coverage is needed.
Exempt from registration under
federal EPA standards; label
gives instructions for use
(continued)

Soybean oil Golden Pest Spray Primarily soft-bodied A soybean-derived horticultural
Oil insects oil that works as a contact
insecticide, as well as a feeding
and oviposition deterrent.
Labeled for use in sweet corn
for control of earworm and
armyworm. Also can be applied
as a low-volume application for
mites on eggplant and tomatoes
and other soft-bodied insects on
a range of vegetable crops
Spinetoram Radiant See spinosad below A second-generation spinosyn,
similar to spinosad below
Spinosad Entrust, Seduce Caterpillars, Colorado Acts both as a contact and
Insect Bait, GF-120 potato beetle, asparagus stomach toxin. Derived from
Naturalyte beetle, flea beetle, leaf soil bacterium
miners, thrips. Baits Saccharopolyspora spinosa.
labeled for cutworms, Nondisruptive to most predator
earwigs (Seduce), or insect species and some
fruit flies (GF-120) parasites. Rotate with other
selective biorationals to prevent
resistance
Spiromesifen Oberon Whiteflies, nymphs and Contact insecticide and miticide
pupae, mites
and Spodoptera frugiperda. The fly Lucilia seri- clay, insecticidal soap, copper, and iron phos-
cata was also deterred from egg laying as were phate are examples.
some beetles, Callosobruchus spp. (Isman 2006).
In field experiments, it was found that neem oil 8.2.2.1 Insecticidal Soap
could reduce egg hatch by destroying egg masses Insecticidal soap is another potential biorational
(Fig. 8.1). product for the growers of protected cultivation.
The antifeedant effect of neem is well estab- Insecticidal soap can kill soft-bodied insects and
lished. There are numerous records of the anti- mites. Insecticidal soap is one of the safest insec-
feedant effects of neem derivatives on insects of ticides: it is safe, eco-friendly, and nontoxic to
various orders. Studies on the feeding behavior of animals or humans, and nontarget insects are
larvae of various lepidopterous insects (such as mostly unaffected by it. Though the oil from
Spodoptera littoralis, S. frugiperda, S. exempta, which insecticidal soaps are made may be of
Heliothis virescens, Helicoverpa zea, H. armig- plant origin, they are not generally considered as
era, Trichoplusia ni, and Mamestra brassicae) botanical insecticides. Insecticidal soap acts rap-
revealed that azadirachtin reduced feeding of all idly and does not leave residue on fruit or vegeta-
species tested. Oligophagous species were more bles. Therefore, it can be used right up to the crop
sensitive than polyphagous ones (Simmonds and harvest.
Blaney 1984). In chemical terms, insecticidal soaps are made
from the salts of fatty acids. Russell IPM devel-
oped an insecticidal soap, Fytoclean. Fytoclean is
8.2.2 Minerals a potassium salt of fatty acids and is produced by
adding potassium hydroxide to fatty acids from
Some biorational pesticides are minerals mined plant oils and animal fats, which are saponified
from the earth and minimally processed. Kaolin by the potassium hydroxide. The soap salts are
Fig. 8.1 Effect of

Fytomax (neem oil) as an
antifeedant on insect larvae
derived from fatty acids with chains of 12–18 tion, highly mobile insects may escape by flying
saturated carbons and 18 carbons with one or two away. Fytoclean should be applied for controlling
double bonds (unsaturated). Potassium salt for- soft-bodied insects at the rate of 0.5–1 % of total
mation confers the property of water solubility on spray volume. A full plant cover spray in the
the fatty acids. The lipoprotein matrix of the morning is preferable because this allows the
insect cuticle is disrupted when the lipophilic effect of the product to be maximized during the
carbons of Fytoclean (fatty acids) penetrate it. heat of the day. Fytoclean can be applied at any
This results in evacuation of cellular contents, time right up to the crop harvest and has no pre-
causing the cells to dehydrate and die. harvest interval. In conclusion, these various bio-
Fytoclean disrupts the cuticle of soft-bodied rational crop protection materials give an
insects (e.g., aphids, whiteflies, thrips) which opportunity to manage pest populations without
makes them vulnerable to dehydration. toxic chemicals. A combination of biorational
The efficacy of Fytoclean was compared with pest control products will be a better option for
synthetic insecticides buprofezin and malathion growers of protected crops and also help organic
and biological insecticide Mycotal. In a field growers to manage their crops in a sustainable
experiment, different treatments were evaluated and effective way.
against whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, crawlers on run-
ner beans. The results showed that Fytoclean sig-
nificantly reduced the number of live pupae that 8.2.3 Synthetics
subsequently developed compared to buprofezin
and a control treatment, although the number of Minerals and other natural materials that are
live pupae obtained with Fytoclean was not sig- heated, chemically reacted, or mixed with surfac-
nificantly different from numbers obtained with tants may be considered synthetics. Synthetics
the malathion or Mycotal treatments (Fig. 8.2). also include insect growth regulators (IGRs),
Fytoclean is only effective against those which interrupt or inhibit the life cycle of a pest.
insects that come into direct contact with the They may also work by strengthening plant
spray before it has dried. The dried residues on defenses.
plant surfaces are not insecticidal and they
degrade rapidly. Fytoclean is not very effective 8.2.3.1 Insect Growth Regulators
against insects with thicker cuticles, such as adult Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are another least-
beetles, bees, wasps, and grasshoppers. In addi- toxic pesticide control option for pests.
Fig. 8.2 Efficacy of 14 c

Fytoclean compared with
Number of White fly pupae

two synthetic insecticides 12
and one biopesticide.
Common letters indicate
10
treatments that did not differ 8
from each other at P ≤ 5 %
(ANOVA, LSD test) 6 b ab
ab
4
2
a
0
Control Buprofezin Phytoclean Malathion Mycotal
IGRs typically kill insects by disrupting their tural and biological control measures. When the
development. They have a complex mode of action use of a pesticide is necessary, materials should
that precludes insects from rapidly developing be selected that are least harmful to the predators
resistance. IGRs can work in one of several ways: and parasites released into the greenhouse.
Insecticidal soap, horticultural oils, and the bac-
• They can mimic juvenile hormones, so that terium Bacillus thuringiensis are examples of
insects never enter the reproductive stage of insecticides that can be safely integrated into a
development. biological control program. The advantages of
• They can interfere with the production of chi- biopesticides over conventional chemicals are
tin, which makes up the shell of most insects. their selectivity to a targeted pest, lower toxicity
• They can interfere with the molting process. to beneficial insects and greenhouse workers, and
shorter reentry intervals (REIs).
IGRs usually work through ingestion, so good Enhanced control with pesticides is achieved
spray coverage is essential. They generally do not with thorough spray coverage. Wider plant spac-
affect nontarget species, such as humans, birds, ing and removal of dead lower leaves improve
fish, or other vertebrates. For most IGRs, there pesticide coverage and pest control.
are minimal reentry restrictions. IGRs typically The table below lists some well-known insect
take several days to have an effect on pest popu- growth regulators (Table 8.2).
lations. Because IGRs do not affect mature
insects, adult beneficials released into the green-
house after an IGR application are not likely to 8.2.4 Hot Pepper Wax and Garlic
be affected. Use of IGRs is generally prohibited Extract
by organic certification organizations because the
products are synthesized. These products are actually insect repellents. Hot
IGRs can sometimes be used in conjunction pepper wax contains paraffin (refined wax) and
with biological control efforts and may provide capsaicin (the “hot” in hot peppers). Another
growers with a “safety net” should beneficial fail study at Ohio State showed that hot pepper wax
to keep the pests below economically damaging did not control western flower thrips but was
levels. The integration of biorational pesticides effective against two-spotted spider mite
(also known as least toxic or biopesticides) in (Lindquist 1998). Products containing garlic also
greenhouses is often necessary in addition to cul- work to repel insects.
Table 8.2 Selected insect growth regulators

Brand name Supplier Active against
Adept Uniroyal Chemicals Fungus gnats
Azatin Hydro-Gardens, Olympic White flies, leaf miners, thrips, mealybugs, fungus gnats, aphids,
Horticultural Products cabbage loopers, diamondback moths, armyworms
Citation Novartis Leaf miners, fungus gnats, shore flies
Confirm Rohm and Haas Caterpillars
Dimilin Uniroyal Chemicals Beet armyworm, whiteflies, fungus gnats, shore flies
Distance Valen Whiteflies, fungus gnats, shore flies
Enstar II Wellmark Intl. Whiteflies, fungus gnats, aphids, soft and armored scales,
mealybugs
Insegar Novartis Caterpillars, psyllids, scales
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy Whiteflies, leaf miners, thrips, mealybugs, fungus gnats, aphids,
cabbage loopers, diamondback moths, armyworms
Neemix Thermo Trilogy Whiteflies, leaf miners, thrips, mealybugs, fungus gnats, aphids,
loopers, diamondback moths, armyworms, cabbage loopers
Precision Novartis Whiteflies, soft scales, fungus gnats, shore flies, leaf miners
Preclude Whitmire Micro-Gen Whiteflies, thrips, scales, aphids
Pyrigro Whitmire Micro-Gen Whiteflies, fungus gnats, scales
Trigard Novartis Leaf miners
8.2.5 Minimum Risk Pesticides 8.3 Biorational Disease Control

Products
These are a special class of pesticides that are not
subject to federal registration requirements because Biorational disease control products (fungi-
their ingredients, both active and inert, are demon- cides, bactericides, and nematicides) are listed
strably safe for the intended use. This exemption in Table 8.3. Sulfur, potassium bicarbonate,
falls under section 25(b) of the Federal Insecticide, phosphites, and copper compounds are exam-
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The list ples of minerals or synthetics that can control
of 25(b) exempt materials includes the following: fungal and bacterial diseases. Not all of these
corn gluten meal; sodium chloride; corn, linseed, products are OMRI listed. Botanicals such as
sesame, soybean, and cottonseed oil; garlic and rosemary oil, soybean oil, or garlic extracts
garlic oil; and essential oils including mint, thyme, also appear in this table and are generally
geranium, lemongrass, cinnamon, and rosemary. approved for use in organic production by
Some pest control products listed in this guide OMRI. Products listed in the table require
meet the criteria for exemption and do not have thorough coverage, application at the first signs
EPA pesticide registration or a pesticide label. of disease, and frequent repeated dosages to be
More on this class of pesticides can be found. effective.
8.3 Biorational Disease Control Products 107
Table 8.3 Biorational disease control materials

Active ingredient Target diseases Labeled crops Comments
Acibenzolar-S-methyl Downy mildew, bacterial Crucifers, tomato, Plant defense activator
(Actigard 50 WG) “speck, white rust, spinach
Xanthomonas
Calcium polysulfide Anthracnose, brown rot Apple, blueberries, OMRI listeda
(Rex Lime Sulfur (Monilinia), powdery mildew, caneberries, currants,
Solution, Green Cypress Phomopsis cane blight, scab, gooseberries, quince
Lime Sulfur Solution) rust
Citric acid, fish oil, and Broad-spectrum antifungal All crops
mint oil (Fungastop) compound
Cottonseed oil, corn oil, Powdery mildew Most crops OMRI listed
garlic oil (GC-3,
Mildew Cure)
Copper sulfate (Basic Bacterial blight, powdery Most crops OMRI listed
Copper 53) mildew, downy mildew,
leaf spots, anthracnose,
Cercospora, Alternaria
Cupric hydroxide Bacterial blight, black rot Most crops OMRI listed
(Champ WG) (Xanthomonas), downy
mildew, powdery mildew,
anthracnose, Phomopsis, late
blight, Botrytis, leaf spots
Cuprous oxide (Nordox Bacterial blight, black rot Most crops OMRI listed
75 WG) (Xanthomonas), downy
mildew, powdery mildew,
anthracnose, Phomopsis, late
blight, Botrytis, leaf spots
Hydrogen dioxide Alternaria, Phytophthora, Beans, cucurbits, celery, OMRI listed. Contact
(OxiDate) Pythium, Rhizoctonia, crucifers, leafy activity only
Fusarium wilt, Sclerotinia, vegetables, tomato,
anthracnose, bacterial blight, pepper, onions, potato,
Botrytis, powdery mildew, rust herbs, root crops
Kaolin (Surround WP) Powdery mildew, sunburn All crops OMRI listed
and heat stress
Neem oil (Trilogy, Anthracnose, Botrytis, Most crops OMRI listed
NeemGard, Triact 70OG) downy mildew, powdery
mildew, scabs, rusts, leaf
spots, and blights
Oils, petroleum based Alternaria, gummy stem Most crops OMRI listed
(Organic JMS Stylet-Oil, blight, powdery mildew, rust
Civitas, SAF-T-SIDE,
SuffOil-X)
Potassium bicarbonate Alternaria, anthracnose, Beans, crucifers, Armicarb 100 is not
(Kaligreen, Armicarb 100, Botrytis, downy mildew, cucurbits, eggplant, OMRI listed, but
MilStop) Fusarium, leaf spots, lettuce, peppers, potato, MilStop and
Phytophthora, powdery tomato, spinach, wheat Kaligreen are OMRI
mildew listed
Potassium phosphite Downy mildews, Phytophthora Cucurbits, crucifers, Systemic. Drench at
(Helena ProPhyt) species, Pythium species onion, potato, tomato, transplant
lettuce, spinach
(continued)

Active ingredient Target diseases Labeled crops Comments
Mono- and dibasic Downy mildews, Phytophthora Most crops Use caution when
sodium, potassium, and species, Pythium species using in a tank mix
ammonium phosphites
(Phostrol)
Potassium silicate Powdery mildew, leaf spots Most crops Broad-spectrum
(Sil-Matrix) preventive fungicide
Reynoutria sachalinensis Powdery mildew, Botrytis, leaf Cucurbits, peppers, Plant defense
extract (Regalia spots, bacterial spot, speck, and lettuce, tomato, activator. Use caution
Biofungicide) canker strawberry, grapes in tank mix. OMRI
listed
Rosemary and clove oils Powdery mildews, bacterial spot Most crops
(Phyta-Guard EC)
Rosemary, clove, and Bacterial spot, early blight, gray Most crops
thyme oils (Sporan EC) mold, late blight, powdery
mildew, downy mildew
Saponins from Quillaja Nematodes Brassica crops, OMRI listed
saponaria (c) cucurbits, pepper,
tomato, leafy vegetables
Rosemary, thyme, and Anthracnose, Botrytis, downy Most crops OMRI listed
clove oil (Sporatec) mildew, powdery mildew, leaf
spots, rusts, bacterial spot
Sesame oil (Organocide) Powdery mildew, leaf spots Most crops OMRI listed
Sesame oil Nematodes All crops OMRI listed
(Dragonfire-CPP)
Sesame seed meal Nematodes All crops Ontrol is not OMRI
(Ontrol) listed, but many
sesame seed
formulations are
OMRI listed
Streptomycin sulfate Bacterial diseases Celery, peppers, tomato,
(Agri-Mycin 17) potato
Sulfur (Micro Sulf, Sulfur Powdery mildew, leaf spots Most crops OMRI listed
DF, Kumulus DF, Britz
Sulfur Dust)
Tetracycline Bacterial diseases Tomato, peppers, tree
(MycoShield) fruit
Thyme oil (Proud 3, Pythium, Phytophthora species, Most crops OMRI listed
ProMax) clubroot, Sclerotium, nematodes
a
Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI)
Menn JJ (1996) Biopesticides: has their time come?

References J Environ Sci Health B 31:383–389
Schmutterer H (1990) Properties and potential of natural
Isman MB (2006) Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and pesticides from the neem tree, Azadirachta indica.
repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly Annu Rev Entomol 35:271–297
regulated world. Annu Rev Entomol 45:45–66 Simmonds MSJ, Blaney WM (1984) Some neurophysiologic
Lindquist RK (1998) Evaluations of non-conventional effects of azadirachtin on lepidopterous larvae and their
pesticides for insect and mite control on greenhouse feeding response. In: Natural pesticides from the neem
ornamental plants. Greenhouse Product News, July, tree and other tropical plants. Proceedings of the 2nd
52–55 International Neem Conference, Germany, pp 163–180
Drip Chemigation for Insect Pest
Management 9
Abstract
The application of pesticides through a drip irrigation system has been
used successfully for the control of a variety of vegetable pests. Because
many vegetable growers already use a drip irrigation system for water
management, the injection of a pesticide can easily and inexpensively be
achieved with the addition of an injection pump and the required safety
equipment for the injection of soluble pesticides. The current availability
of novel, systemic insecticides such as neonicotinoids or anthranilic
diamides, as well as additional future pesticides under development, has
advanced the opportunities for drip chemigation as an effective and envi-
ronmentally sound pest management tactic. History, need for drip chemi-
gation, selection of chemicals, chemigation system, and considerations for
drip chemigation with insecticides in vegetable crops are discussed.
Keywords
Drip chemigation • Neonicotinoids • Anthranilic diamides • Vegetable
crops
9.1 Introduction gation” (Johnson et al. 1987), “fungigation”

(Johnson et al. 1987), “drip chemigation”
“Chemigation” is defined as the application of (Wildman and Cone 1986), and “drip/trickle
agricultural chemicals, including herbicides, chemigation” (Certis USA 1999). It is an efficient
insecticides, fungicides, and fertilizers through a and economical means of applying inputs neces-
drip/trickle irrigation system (Chalfant and sary for crop, nursery, greenhouse, and landscape
Young 1984). However, other terms have been management. Chemigation can be applied only if
used to denote the application of agricultural the product label allows such application and
chemicals through an irrigation system including only according to the label directions and restric-
“pestigation” (Larsen 1982), “insectigation” tions. This is possible through application of a
(Owens 1981), “fertigation” (Hall 1982), “herbi- right amount of agricultural chemicals at the

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_9
110 9 Drip Chemigation for Insect Pest Management
right time, at the right place, and in the right

manner:
• To achieve high yield and the quality produce

• To minimize groundwater/surface water
pollution
The three basic crop irrigation systems include

overhead/sprinkler, drip/trickle, and surface/
gravity flow systems. The proper equipment,
Fig. 9.1 Chemigation of staked tomatoes under black
depending on the irrigation system, is essential plastic with trickle irrigation
for successful (as well as legal) chemigation.
Although overhead irrigation and surface flow
systems may be suitable for some vegetable gation are selective to specific pests, and because
crops, drip irrigation is widely used in vegetable they are applied to the root zone, they are gener-
production. ally less toxic to beneficial and nontarget organ-
The application of pesticides through a drip isms. Over a dozen labels currently allow
irrigation system has been used successfully for chemigation via the drip system for a wide range
the control of a variety of vegetable pests. of pests, and several new-chemistry pesticides
Because many vegetable growers already use a are being added to this list every year.
drip irrigation system for water management, the
injection of a pesticide can easily and inexpen-
sively be achieved with the addition of an injec- 9.2 History of Drip Chemigation
tion pump and the required safety equipment
(switches, check valves, drain valves) for the Insecticides were first injected into a drip irriga-
injection of soluble pesticides (Fig. 9.1). The cur- tion system in bell peppers in New Jersey for the
rent availability of novel, systemic insecticides control of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubila-
that are labeled under the EPA Reduced Risk lis) in 1980 (Ghidiu and Smith 1980) and the fol-
Pesticide Program such as neonicotinoids lowing year in lima beans for control of the
(including imidacloprid, clothianidin, thiameth- Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis)
oxam, and dinotefuran) or anthranilic diamides (Ghidiu 1981). However, the insecticides were
(including chlorantraniliprole and cyantranilip- not effective against these pests when applied
role), as well as additional future pesticides under systemically and neither trial resulted in insect
development, has advanced the opportunities for pest reduction. The first successful drip applica-
drip chemigation as an effective and environmen- tion of an insecticide for insect pest reduction
tally sound pest management tactic. was conducted in 1985 (Wildman and Cone
Chemigation via the drip system is a sound 1986), where asparagus aphid (Brachycorynella
and economical option in place of traditional asparagi) numbers in asparagus were signifi-
foliar sprays of pesticides for control of specific cantly reduced using disulfoton (Di-Syston 6E)
vegetable pests. It enables growers to precisely as compared with the untreated. Successful
apply a pesticide under virtually any weather insectigation trials were reported with entomo-
condition for control of many insect pests, includ- pathogenic nematodes for the control of spotted
ing aphids, whiteflies, leafhoppers, beetles, and cucumber beetles (Diabrotica undecimpunctata)
caterpillars while at the same time reducing the in 1986 (Reed et al. 1986), followed by the effec-
total pesticide, labor, and energy inputs as com- tive control of aphid (Aphididae) populations by
pared with foliar sprays. It enhances a pest man- chemigating imidacloprid in vegetables in
agement program because many of the Arizona in the mid-1990s (Palumbo 1997) and
new-chemistry pesticides labeled for drip chemi- effective control of spotted cucumber beetles in
9.3 Why Drip Chemigation? 111
melons in Virginia with drip-applied imidaclo- cific insect pests as compared with multiple
prid and thiamethoxam (Kuhar and Speese 2002). foliar applications (Kuhar et al. 2010).
In a 3-year field trial starting in 2004, chlorantra- • With fewer applications needed, less total
niliprole was shown to be highly effective against energy inputs are required (either by tractor or
the European corn borer in bell pepper when by large horsepower overhead irrigation sys-
applied through a drip irrigation system (Ghidiu tem pumps), and no soil compaction occurs as
et al. 2009). Further, chlorantraniliprole applied a result of heavy spray equipment being oper-
through a drip irrigation system significantly ated within the crop.
reduced armyworms (Spodoptera spp.) and fruit • Certain plant diseases, such as Phytophthora
worms (Helicoverpa zea) in tomatoes in field capsici, a soilborne fungus, which produces
tests in both Virginia (Kuhar et al. 2009) and spores that are spread via water splashing onto
Florida (Schuster et al. 2009). Ghidiu et al. (2009) the foliage by rainfall, tractor wheels, and
reported that chlorantraniliprole and thiameth- other factors, may be reduced because foliage
oxam injected via a drip irrigation system signifi- is not wetted and the soil moisture can be bet-
cantly reduced damage to eggplant foliage caused ter controlled (Ristaino and Johnston 1999).
by flea beetles (Epitrix spp.) and leaf miners • Drip-chemigated fields also reduce potential
(Liriomyza spp.). worker exposure to pesticides by eliminating
the application of insecticides to the plant
foliage.
9.3 Why Drip Chemigation? • Weather is not a factor during or after applica-
tion, as drip chemigation is not affected by
Many growers throughout the vegetable-growing wind and application can be made when fields
regions are already using drip/trickle irrigation as are too muddy to operate ground equipment.
a water management tactic. Chemigation via drip • Allows for flexibility in application timing
irrigation allows growers to apply pest control when injections can be made virtually any
materials through a distribution system they time during the season from stand establish-
already have in place (the drip system), thus sav- ment until harvest.
ing significant time and money over ground- • Drip chemigation can be completed without
applied chemicals. Over the past 10–12 years, spray drift, eliminating “application visibil-
many field tests throughout the USA have dem- ity” that concerns many growers.
onstrated that application of pesticides via the • Since many of the newer insecticides such as
drip system results in highly effective control of the neonicotinoids and anthranilic diamides
specific pests of vegetable crops using low rates are selective to certain insect pests, they are
of labeled insecticides. generally less disruptive to nontarget species
and beneficial organisms.
• No need to spread the agricultural chemicals
9.3.1 Advantages (so coverage is more even, and a lot of work is
saved).
• Chemical placement at right place and better
• The total pesticide input for the control of uniformity.
pests in most crops is reduced using drip • Efficiency is high – saving of chemicals.
chemigation when compared with that of tra- • Controlling the depth of application.
ditional foliar applications. • Prevent chemical leaching to the groundwater.
• The entire plant is protected. • Mechanical damage to the crop by sprayers is
• In many trials with vegetable crops, 1–2 drip reduced by chemigation.
applications of an insecticide per season • It may reduce environmental hazards associ-
resulted in equivalent, or better, control of spe- ated with spray drift.
• Chemical application cost saved by 40 % or capsici, a soilborne fungus, which produces

more. spores that are spread via water splashing up
• Reduces energy consumption by 90 %. onto the foliage by rainfall, operation of field
• The total insecticide input for control of tar- equipment and sprayers, etc.
geted insect pests in most crops is significantly • Weather is not a factor during application, as
reduced when compared with that of tradi- injection of an insecticide into a drip/trickle
tional foliar applications, while at the same irrigation system can be made in wind or rain
time essentially 100 % protection of the plant or when fields are too muddy or soft to operate
is obtained because these materials are root ground equipment without getting stuck.
systemic and translocate throughout the plant, • Applicator exposure, both in terms of physical
resulting in a more even distribution of the contact and time of exposure, to insecticides
pesticide within the plant. For some vegetable during application is significantly reduced.
crops, 1–2 drip/trickle irrigation applications • Plant growth may be enhanced through the
of an insecticide during the season result in use of drip irrigation systems because with
equivalent control, or better control, of insect frequent drip waterings, it is possible to main-
pests than that of multiple foliar sprays. Kuhar tain a more optimum balance between soil
et al. (2009) reported that a single injection of water, plant needs, and aeration. Healthy
the high labeled rate of chlorantraniliprole plants are less susceptible to insect pest prob-
(Coragen) into a drip system was as effective lems than unhealthy plants or plants under
as four foliar applications of the pyrethroid water stress.
lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior II) for control of • Many of these new-chemistry insecticides are
caterpillar damage in fresh market tomatoes, selective to specific insect pests, and they are
and Ghidiu et al. (2009) reported that two generally less toxic or disruptive to nontarget
injections of chlorantraniliprole into a drip species and beneficial organisms, including
system were as effective as seven applications insect predators, parasites, and pollinators.
of a standard grower foliar spray program The injection of insecticides through a drip/
consisting of two applications of acephate trickle irrigation system thus fits well into an
(Orthene 97) followed by five applications of integrated pest management program.
indoxacarb (Avaunt 30WDG) for control of
European corn borer in bell peppers.
• Less energy is required to transport water and
insecticide solutions at the lower pressures 9.3.2 Disadvantages
and velocities in drip/trickle systems as com-
pared with other irrigation systems. Also,
because fewer applications are needed, less • Requires considerable management input and
energy input is required than by tractor or personnel training.
other application methods, and no soil com- • Requires a change in management techniques.
paction occurs that results from heavy tractors • Some chemical may react with irrigation sys-
or spray equipment being operated over the tem components.
field. The fewer times a tractor goes over the • Additional equipment may be required for
field, the less potential for plant damage chemigation.
caused by the tractor operation. • Also, drip irrigation systems generally require
• Pathogen movement through the field via a high level of maintenance and regular moni-
water flowing over the soil surface can be toring of the entire system for pressure fluctu-
reduced through the use of a drip/trickle irri- ations, leaks in the system, plugged emitters,
gation system if plastic mulch is used in com- and other potential problems, all of which are
bination with drip tubing. This is especially even more important when insecticides are
true for plant diseases such as Phytophthora injected.
9.4 Effectiveness of Insectigation 113
• Since some of the new compounds have activation, especially if plastic mulch is not
exhibited long residual activity after chemiga- used over the row.
tion, caution should be taken not to overapply • Salts can accumulate as a result of inadequate
the products to sustain insect susceptibility. flushing of the drip/trickle irrigation system
• The initial capital expenditures for a complete (Dasberg and Or 1999), particularly at the
drip system and additional injection equip- perimeter of the wetted area.
ment can often times be greater than that for
sprinkler, overhead, or other irrigation sys-
tems. However, the more the system is used,
the smaller the costs per hour of operation. 9.4 Effectiveness
And most drip systems have many reusable of Insectigation
components (pumps, filters, tubing, hoses,
injectors, etc.). During the mid-1990s, researchers reported
• Water carries particulates that can clog the effective control of beetles, aphids, whiteflies,
emitters if the filters malfunction or are not and several other insect pests using foliar appli-
maintained properly (backwashing, cleansing, cations of a newly developed class of insecti-
etc.). If plastic mulch is used in combination cides, the neonicotinoids. Neonicotinoid
with the drip/trickle system, clogged emitters insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam,
are sometimes difficult to locate, resulting in dinotefuran, and clothianidin) have been widely
uneven distribution of the insecticide when used on vegetable crops to control leaf-feeding
pumped into the drip system. Also, if plastic beetles and sucking insect pests such as leafhop-
drip lines and tubing are not properly rinsed pers, psyllids, aphids, thrips, and whiteflies.
after each use, it is possible that emitters may Neonicotinoids are neurotoxins that target the
become clogged with residue. nicotinic acetylcholine receptor acting as ago-
• Drip line repairs can sometimes be time con- nists (Maienfisch et al. 2001). Although they are
suming and costly. Bright, direct sunlight may effective as contact insecticides, it is the ability of
affect some plastic tubing used for drip irriga- these chemicals to be taken up by the roots from
tion, shortening their usable life span. Also, the soil as systemic insecticides and transported
small rodents (mice, rabbits, chipmunks, etc.) to the foliage that has been one of the primary
and certain soil insects (crickets, wireworms, reasons for their success. These insecticides are
ground beetles, and others) may chew on drip particularly suitable for application through a
hose, especially in droughts, causing small drip irrigation system because they are effective
leaks that subsequently result in loss of pres- against specific insect groups, they are soluble
sure and uneven distribution of the insecticide. and have systemic properties, they are relatively
Oftentimes, such small leaks are difficult to nonphytotoxic, and they are considered reduced
detect under row covers such as black plastic risk pesticides under the US Environmental
until the row becomes saturated and wet spots Protection Agency (USEPA) Federal Reduced
appear. Risk Pesticide Program. Felsot et al. (1998)
• After the final harvest, cleanup costs of drip/ examined the distribution of imidacloprid in soil
trickle systems may be higher than with other when applied through a drip irrigation system
irrigation systems. Costs may include removal and concluded that imidacloprid was a good can-
of plastic row covers, all drip lines and tubing, didate for drip chemigation. Imidacloprid and
and injection and safety equipment. The dis- other neonicotinoids applied through a drip sys-
posal cost of used plastics (plastic mulches, tem have been shown to provide effective control
drip lines) continually increases. of whiteflies and aphids in desert vegetable crops
• Top-dressed fertilizers and some herbicides (Palumbo et al. 2001) as well as cucumber bee-
may need additional sprinkler application for tles in cucurbit crops (Kuhar and Speese 2002).
A single application of these insecticides through diamide) soon to be registered in vegetables for
a drip irrigation system provided similar control control of an even greater pest spectrum (Kuhar
as multiple foliar sprays. et al. 2011a, b; Palumbo 2011).
More recently, another new class of insecti-
cides, the anthranilic diamides, has been shown
to be highly toxic to numerous caterpillar pests 9.5 Selection of Chemicals
(Lahm et al. 2005). One of these insecticides,
chlorantraniliprole, is xylem mobile through root Application of insecticides through irrigation
uptake and controls caterpillars and other leaf- system depends on the:
feeding pests (Lahm et al. 2007). Like the
neonicotinoid-class insecticides, chlorantranilip- • Nature of insecticides
role is also highly soluble, root systemic, and • Special needs of the crop at various growth
effective against specific insect pests, especially stages
caterpillars, leaf miners, and beetles. Because • Efficacy of the insecticide:
both of these materials are selective against cer- • Insecticides can be injected undiluted or they
tain insect pests, they are ideal materials for a can be diluted with water or oil to a volume
pest management program. necessary for calibrating within the range of
Schuster et al. (2009) reported that a single or the pump. For many insecticides, mixing with
double drip application of chlorantraniliprole oil before injection can improve efficacy and
effectively reduced leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii, residual control.
and armyworm, Spodoptera spp., damage in • Oil carriers should not contain emulsifiers.
tomatoes. Ghidiu et al. (2009) injected chloran- • Studies have shown that insecticide formula-
traniliprole for European corn borer control in tion best suited for chemigation are those
bell peppers over a 3-year period and reported insoluble in water and soluble in oil.
significant reduction of damaged fruit. Further, • Insecticide label must specially state that the
they reported that two injections of chlorantra- product can be applied through an irrigation
niliprole were as effective for European corn system.
borer control as multiple (up to nine) foliar appli-
cations of a standard insecticide program by Currently, the USEPA has approved and
using a ground sprayer. Kuhar et al. (2008) labeled numerous insecticides of different classes
achieved similar levels of European corn borer for application through a drip irrigation system in
control with soil applications of chlorantranilip- fruits and vegetables for the control of a wide
role in pepper. Kuhar et al. (2010) further reported variety of insect pests (Table 9.1).
that two drip applications of chlorantraniliprole Application of nematicides through drip irri-
significantly reduced the percentage of tomatoes gation has been very successful.
damaged by tomato fruit worm, Helicoverpa zea,
as compared with that typically achieved using
multiple foliar applications of insecticides. 9.6 Chemigation System
Palumbo (2008) reported that two drip applica-
tions of chlorantraniliprole during stand estab- Efficiency shall not be less than 85 % where pes-
lishment provided excellent residual control of ticides are applied through the system. Injectors
Trichoplusia ni, Spodoptera exigua, and (pesticides) and other automatic operating equip-
Liriomyza spp. in romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa ment shall be located adjacent to the pump and
var. longifolia), with no significant marketable power unit, placed in accordance with manufac-
yield loss. In addition to chlorantraniliprole, turer’s recommendation, and include integrated
there are additional new-chemistry systemic backflow prevention protection. Chemigation
insecticides such as cyantraniliprole (an anthranilic shall be accomplished in the minimum length of
9.6 Chemigation System 115
Table 9.1 USEPA-approved and labeled insecticides of different classes for application through a drip irrigation
system in fruits and vegetables
Common name US brand name Insecticide class
Azadirachtin Aza-Direct Limonoid insect growth regulator (neem)
Chlorantraniliprole Coragen Anthranilic diamide
Clothianidin Belay Neonicotinoid
Dimethoate Dimate Organic phosphate
Diazinon Diazinon Organic phosphate
Dinotefuran Venom Neonicotinoid
Imidacloprid Admire PRO Neonicotinoid
Malathion Malathion 8 Organic phosphate
Aquamul
Methomyl Lannate Carbamate
Oxamyl Vydate Carbamate
Rosemary + peppermint oils Ecotec Botanical
Thiamethoxam Platinum Neonicotinoid
Thiamethoxam + chlorantraniliprole Durivo Neonicotinoid
time needed to deliver the chemicals and flush the Most growers that currently use some form of
pipelines. Application amounts shall be limited drip/trickle irrigation as a water management tool
to the minimum amount necessary, as recom- can easily, and inexpensively, add the necessary
mended by the chemical label. equipment to properly inject agrichemicals.
Drip chemigation systems that will have insec- The components of the second system, in
ticides injected into them must be properly engi- addition to the typical drip irrigation system
neered, installed, and maintained over the season equipment listed above, include the following
to ensure a uniform distribution of outflow (Ross pieces of equipment that are needed before inject-
2004). Chemigation requires that two separate ing any agricultural chemical into the system:
hardware systems be joined together, operating as
a single system. The components of the first sys- • Chemical mix tank, such as a 19-L plastic jug,
tem, a typical drip irrigation system, include: preferably with an agitator and an outlet filter
to prevent clogging of emitters by the chemi-
• Main water source (well, irrigation pond, cal solution
etc.). Public water supplies cannot be used. • Containment tray or pan to catch any chemical
• Main water pump. solution leakage or spillage
• Water filter system (with sand screens, screen • Positive displacement pump or other reliable
filters, flush valve, or drain). solution metering devices which provide a
• Backflow prevention valve/backwash controller. consistent flow rate at low pressures
• Pressure gauge. • Backflow prevention valve to prevent back-
• Low-pressure shutoff valve. flow of solution into the mixing container
• Low-pressure sensor/shutoff switch. • Additional safety equipment such as a
• Pressure relief valve. solenoid-operated valve on the intake side of
• Various diameter hoses and polytubing carry the injection pump to prevent fluid from being
water to the plant roots (main, lateral, drip lines, sucked out of the supply tank when the system
etc). Drip lines are available with a wide range is not operating
of emitter spacings and can be found with • Low-pressure shutoff valve to shut the injec-
spacings of 4”, 8”, 12”, 18”, or even 24”, with tion system off should a loss of pressure
flow rates of 12–64 gallons or more per hour. occurs
Low
pressure Low pressure
Pressure shutoff switch
regulator valve
Main To
pump field
Sand Backflow Low pressure
filter shutoff valve
check
valve Backflow check
valve
From Pump Positive

Water displacement
Source pump
Insecticide
mix tank
with filter
Containment
Basic injection system
Fig. 9.2 A basic drip/trickle irrigation system with chemigation capabilities using a positive displacement injection
metering pump
A basic drip/trickle irrigation system with an 9.7.1 Crop Growth Stages

additional chemigation system using a positive and Root Types
displacement metering pump for injection of an
insecticide is shown in Fig. 9.2. Plant size at the time of chemigation may deter-
mine how a pesticide is applied (Syngenta 2009).
Early in crop establishment, seedling plants and
9.7 Considerations for Drip transplants generally occupy a small root zone as
Chemigation compared with the well-developed and expanded
with Insecticides root zone of larger, more mature plants. In either
in Vegetable Crops case, insecticide efficacy will occur only if the
soil in the root system has adequate soil moisture
Optimal application timing of a root systemic for plant growth and insecticide uptake. Root
pesticide through a drip irrigation system depends type also will influence the results of chemiga-
on the ability to efficiently deliver the compound tion. For example, broccoli tends to have a rela-
to the actively growing roots. Several agronomic tively shallow and fibrous root system and will
and operational factors should be considered have different irrigation requirements than would
before pesticides are applied through any drip/ a deep, taproot crop like watermelon (Citrullus
trickle irrigation system. lanatus).
9.8 Conclusions 117
9.7.2 Soil Properties tape, coupled with the crop irrigation require-
ments, largely will determine irrigation frequency
Movement of insecticides through the soil during and how the pesticide is delivered to the root sys-
chemigation will depend partially on the soil tex- tem. Ideally, emitter spacing should match up
ture and the amount of organic matter in the soil. with plant spacing whenever possible to maxi-
Irrigation water moves at higher flow rates in mize delivery to plant roots. Drip tape placement
coarse-textured sandy soils than in fine-textured relative to the roots may also influence applica-
clay soils, which tend to hold water longer. tion timing. Drip application of pesticides with
Consequently, soil texture will determine drip low soil mobility (e.g., chlorantraniliprole) in
irrigation frequency and duration as well as when subsurface drip tape buried 12.7 cm below the
a pesticide is applied via drip chemigation. plants should be applied after the root system has
Furthermore, soils with high organic matter may become established near the tape. Drip chemiga-
actually reduce the availability of a pesticide for tion in crops where the drip tape is placed on the
root uptake, depending on the chemical proper- soil surface at the base of plants is more flexible.
ties of the pesticide. Another important factor for optimal pesticide
activity with soil systemic compounds is to
ensure that the correct amount of irrigation water
9.7.3 Physiochemical Properties is applied through the drip system during and
of the Pesticide after the pesticide injection. Insufficient amounts
of water can prevent the pesticide from being
The water solubility and partition coefficient of a adequately available to the roots for uptake, and,
pesticide will influence movement of the pesticide conversely, too much water may result in the
in soil and determine how the pesticide is best compound being moved or leached out of the
applied via drip chemigation. For example, because root zone. Either of these events can delay pesti-
of the low water solubility and low partition coef- cide uptake by the plant and reduce efficacy. It is
ficients of imidacloprid, clothianidin, and chloran- critical that the water–pesticide mixture be
traniliprole insecticides, they have little mobility in applied as uniformly as possible across the entire
soil. Thus, when applying a compound such as field during drip chemigation. Depending on the
chlorantraniliprole through a drip irrigation sys- irrigation system, the amount of time to uni-
tem, it should be injected at the beginning of the formly distribute the pesticide will depend on
irrigation event followed by a long period of irriga- type of drip tape used, the pesticide pumping sys-
tion to push the compound into the root zone tem, the length of time of the pesticide injection,
(DuPont 2008). In contrast, insecticides with a and the length of time the irrigation system is
higher water solubility and high mobility in soil allowed to operate after the injection. Ghidiu
(e.g., oxamyl, thiamethoxam) should be applied (2012) discusses and lists the benefits and disad-
near the middle third of the irrigation cycle to avoid vantages of various drip chemigation pumping
leaching the compound out of the effective root equipment. Growers should be aware of these
zone (DuPont 2008; Syngenta 2009). Currently, factors before making pesticide applications
many pesticide labels that permit drip chemigation through drip irrigation systems.
recommend an optimal injection time during the
irrigation cycle for that particular pesticide.
9.8 Conclusions
9.7.4 Type of Drip/Trickle Irrigation The precision farming and high-tech horticulture
System for the improved input use efficiency, higher
yield, and quality produce in sustainable manner
The type of drip tape used can influence the is incomplete without efficient irrigation and pes-
performance of a drip chemigation treatment. ticide application techniques. Chemigation offers
The flow rate and emitter spacing on the drip growers a sound option in place of traditional
foliar sprays of pesticides for control of specific Felsot AS, Cone W, Yu J, Ruppert JR (1998) Distribution
of imidacloprid in soil following subsurface drip
pests of vegetables produced using a drip/trickle
chemigation. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol
irrigation system. Use of the drip/trickle irriga- 60:363–370
tion system for application of pesticides allows Ghidiu GM (1981) Vydate injected through a trickle
for precise placement of systemic pesticides into irrigation system to control Mexican bean beetle in
pole lima beans. Rutgers Res Dev Cent/NJAES
the root zone of vegetable crops, eliminating the
Rep 2:1
need for multiple foliar sprays of pesticides. Ghidiu GM (2012) Insectigation in vegetable crops: the
Many growers currently use drip irrigation sys- application of insecticides through a drip or trickle
tems for water management, and the addition of irrigation system. In: Larramendy ML, Soloneski S
(eds) Integrated pest management and pest control:
an agrichemical injection system is a cost-
current and future tactics. InTech Press, Rijeka,
effective method of pesticide application. It pp 173–190
enables growers to apply a pesticide under virtu- Ghidiu GM, Smith NL (1980) Trickle irrigation system
ally any weather condition for control of a wide injected insecticides to control the European corn
borer in bell pepper. Results of pest control studies,
range of pests, including aphids, whiteflies, leaf-
Rutgers University Cooperative Extension Service
hoppers, leaf miners, beetles, caterpillars, and Publication report 1:5–6
others while at the same time reducing the total Ghidiu GM, Ward DL, Rogers GS (2009) Control of
pesticide inputs as compared with foliar sprays. European corn borer in bell peppers with chlorantra-
niliprole applied through a drip irrigation system. Int
The overall benefits of using chemigation include
J Veg Sci 15:93–201
less application labor, less energy inputs, less Hall BJ (1982) Row crop fertigation. Am Veg
time needed for application, less pesticide inputs, Grow 2:73
less worker and applicator exposure to the pesti- Johnson AW, Young JR, Threadgill ED, Dowler CC,
Sumner DR (1987) Chemigation’s strong future.
cide, less potential of soilborne disease problems,
Agrichemical Age 30:8–9
a more even distribution of the pesticide, and less Kuhar TP, Speese J (2002) Evaluation of drip line injected
soil compaction. It suits a pest management pro- and foliar insecticides for controlling cucumber fly in
gram well because many of the new-chemistry melons, 2001. Entomol Soc Am Arthrop Manag Tests
27:E46
pesticides labeled for drip/trickle irrigation sys-
Kuhar TP, Doughty H, Hitchner E, Cassell M (2008)
tem application are selective to specific pests and, Evaluation of insecticide treatments for the control of
because they are applied to the plant root zone, lepidopteran pests in bell peppers in Virginia, 2007.
are generally less toxic to beneficial and nontar- Arthropod Manage Tests 33:7
Kuhar TP, Doughty HB, Cassell M, Wallingford A,
get organisms. And in an urban state such as New
Andrews H (2009) Control of Lepidopteran larvae in
Jersey, where urban populations border rural fall tomatoes through drip irrigation systems. In:
populations, chemigation can be conducted with Arthropod pest management research on vegetables in
no spray drift or misapplications, eliminating the Virginia for 2009. VPI&SU Eastern Shore AREC
report #308:7–28
ever-important “application visibility” that con-
Kuhar TP, Walgenbach JF, Doughty HB (2010) Control of
cerns both growers and the public. Helicoverpa zea in tomatoes with chlorantraniliprole
applied through drip chemigation. Online. Plant
Health Prog. doi:10.1094/PHP-2009-0407- 01-RS
Kuhar TP, Schultz P, Doughty H, Wimer A, Wallingford
References A, Andrews H, Philips C, Cassell M, Jenrette J (2011a)
Evaluation of foliar insecticides for the control of
Certis USA (1999) Chemigation Bulletin. Certis USA, green peach aphids in broccoli in Virginia, 2010.
LLC, Columbia Arthropod Manage Tests 36:E4
Chalfant RB, Young JR (1984) Management of insect Kuhar TP, Schultz P, Doughty H, Wimer A, Wallingford
pests of broccoli, cowpeas, spinach, tomatoes and pea- A, Andrews H, Philips C, Cassell M, Jenrette J (2011b)
nuts with chemigation by insecticides in oils, and Evaluation of soil and foliar insecticides for the con-
reduction of watermelon virus 2 by chemigated oil. trol of lepidopteran larvae in bell pepper in Virginia,
J Econ Entomol 77:1323–1326 2010. Arthropod Manage Tests 36:E55
Dasberg S, Or D (1999) Drip irrigation. Springer-Verlag Lahm GP, Selby TP, Freudenberger JH, Stevenson TM,
Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co., New York, p 171 Myers BJ, Seburyamo G, Smith BK, Flexner L, Clark
DuPont (2008) Drip chemigation: best management CE, Cordova D (2005) Insecticidal anthranilic
practices, DuPont Crop Protection Bulletin K-14594. diamides: a new class of potent ryanodine receptor
EI du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington activators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 15:4898–4906
References 119
Lahm GP, Stevenson TM, Selby TP, Freudenberger JH, Reed DK, Reed GL, Creighton CS (1986) Introduction of
Cordova D, Flexner L, Bellin CA, Dubas CM, Smith entomogenous nematodes into trickle irrigation sys-
BK, Hughes KA et al (2007) Rynaxypyr: a new insec- tems to control striped cucumber beetle (Coleoptera:
ticidal anthranilic diamide that acts as a potent and Chrysomelidae). J Econ Ent 79:330–1333
selective ryanodine receptor activator. Bioorg Med Ristaino JB, Johnston SA (1999) Ecologically based
Chem Lett 17:274–6279 approaches to management of Phytopthora blight on
Larsen R (1982) Local need for pestigation will continue bell peppers. Plant Dis 83:1080–1089
to be the rule. Irrig Age 1982:6 Ross DS (2004) Drip irrigation and water management.
Maienfisch P, Angst M, Brandl F, Fischer W, Hofer D, In: Lamont WJ Jr (ed) Production of vegetables,
Kayser H, Kobel W, Rindlisbacher A, Senn R, strawberries, and cut flowers using plasticulture.
Steinemann A et al (2001) Chemistry and biology of Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering
thiamethoxam: a second generation neonicotinoid. Service Cooperative Extension Publication
Pest Manag Sci 57:906–913 NRAES-133, Ithaca, pp 14–35
Owens JC (1981) Insectigation proved effective against Schuster DJ, Shurtleff A, Kalb S (2009) Management of
southwestern corn borer. Irrig Age 68:7–58 armyworms and leaf miners on fresh market tomatoes,
Palumbo JC (1997) Evaluation of aphid control in lettuce Fall 2007. Arthropod Manage Tests 34:E79
with Admire applied through drip irrigation. Arthropod Syngenta (2009) Best use guidelines for drip application
Manage Tests 22:61 of crop protection products, Syngenta Bulletin
Palumbo JC (2008) Systemic efficacy of Coragen applied G&S 409.6026. Syngenta Crop Protection Inc,
through drip irrigation on romaine lettuce, Fall 2007. Greensboro
Arthropod Manage Tests 33:24 Wildman TE, Cone WW (1986) Drip chemigation of
Palumbo JC (2011) Cross-spectrum insect control with asparagus with disulfoton: Brachycorynella asparagi
novel insecticides in cantaloupes 2010. Arthropod (Homoptera: Aphididae) control and disulfoton degra-
Manage Tests 36:22 dation. J Econ Ent 76:1617–1620
Selective Pesticides in IPM
10
Abstract
For control of pest and diseases, the pesticides still act as first line of
defense. The use of pesticides will remain, at least in the short to medium
term, an important strategy, allowing the grower to continue to produce
economically a quality crop. Guided chemical control aims to reduce pes-
ticide use by determining whether a control for a certain pest is necessary
and, if so, when it should be applied (for optimum effect). In guided con-
trol, chemical control is only deemed necessary when the economic ben-
efits counterbalance the costs; it implies the use of curative rather than
preventive pesticides. It is essential that the use of chemicals in IPM be
based on economic threshold and only after considering the impact of the
factors regulating the populations of pests and pathogens, making sure that
there are no other effective management tools. Importance of selective
pesticides in IPM programs, effects of chemical pesticides on beneficial
organisms, influence of pesticide application on the selectivity of a pesti-
cide, and pesticide resistance and anti-resistance strategies in IPM are
discussed.
Keywords
Guided chemical control • Pesticides • IPM • Pests • Diseases
10.1 Importance of Selective range of specific pests (Heitefub 1975). In IPM,

Pesticides in IPM Programs the process of developing the selectivity of a pes-
ticide aims to maximize its specific effect against
The success of released or naturally occurring pests and diseases and minimize its effect on
biological control agents in preventing pest out- nontarget organisms (Hull and Beers 1985).
breaks in protected crops has led the greenhouse Thus, the selectivity of a pesticide is often used to
industry to be particularly conscious of the neces- express its harmlessness for beneficial organisms.
sity of applying selective pesticides. The activity The selectivity of the action and of the toxicity
of a selective pesticide is confined to a narrow of a pesticide is dependent on its physiological

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_10
122 10 Selective Pesticides in IPM
selectivity and/or on the application procedures fumigants, and contact or contamination with soil
(Poehling 1989). Physiological selectivity is disinfectants.
expressed by reduced sensitivity of an organism Indirect or sublethal effects on beneficial
to the pesticide due to pesticide metabolism and arthropods include decreases in reproduction,
to the availability of the appropriate enzymes in oviposition, parasitization, predation, longevity,
the target organisms (Hassall 1982). Application and egg viability and a delay in the development
procedures comprise the dose rate, mode of and shifting of the sex ratio. Morphological and
action, method, and timing. behavioral changes may also occur (Elzen 1989).
The use of chemical pesticides that cause Secondary effects due to pesticides include
undesired side effects on nontarget beneficial killing the prey/host of a beneficial organism or
organisms may lead to pest outbreaks. In toma- of species which produce alternative food like
toes, multiple application of the broad-spectrum honeydew (Huffaker 1990), taking up contami-
carbamate (methomyl) for the control of leaf nated food (Celli et al. 1997), and directly stimu-
miner infestation (Liriomyza sativae) eliminated lating the pest; for example, some pyrethroids
the naturally occurring beneficial parasitoid com- enhance reproduction in Tetranychus urticae.
plex, which, without chemical treatment, reduced Pesticides directly affect entomopathogenic
the pest population to 50 % of the level found in fungal biocontrol agents by inhibition of spore
pesticide-treated plots (Oatman and Kennedy germination and vegetative development (myce-
1976). To avoid these consequences, the harmful lial growth), and they also reduce the viability of
effects of pesticides on the natural enemies of tar- conidia (McCoy et al. 1988) and their survival
get pests must be avoided or minimized for suc- and activity on plant surfaces. Viability and
cessful implementation of biological control infectivity of the infective juveniles (J3) of ento-
agents within IPM strategies. Some pests and mopathogenic nematodes are also adversely
pathogens have developed resistance toward cer- affected (Rovesti et al. 1988).
tain chemical pesticides, and this must also be Side effects of pesticides on natural enemies
considered in order to prevent misuse of may vary between and within taxonomic groups.
pesticides. From their comprehensive data on the side effects
The selectivity of pesticides in relation to their of pesticides, Theiling and Croft (1988) con-
effects on beneficial organisms that can be used cluded that predators were more tolerant to pesti-
in greenhouses, the potential for improving appli- cide treatment than parasitoids, except for
cations for better performance and selectivity, fungicides, toward which susceptibility was not
and the problems of resistance of the pests or dis- greatly affected. The tolerance of aphid natural
eases to the chemicals used in greenhouses need enemies decreases from Coccinellids > Chrysopi
to be worked out. ds > Syrphids > Hemiptera > Hymenoptera
(Hodek 1973). Evaluation of effects within taxo-
nomic groups revealed that the classification of
10.2 Effects of Chemical the effects of 74 compounds tested against the
Pesticides on Beneficial parasitoids Encarsia formosa, Aphidius matri-
Organisms cariae, and Leptomastix dactylopii corresponded
by more than 78 % (Hassan et al. 1994). In a
Pesticides can exhibit primary or secondary comparison of trial results with 81 test com-
effects on predators, parasitoids, and pathogens pounds for predatory mite species occurring in
of target pests. Primary effects are direct or indi- orchards and vineyards with Phytoseiulus persi-
rect, depending on their exposure and on the bio- milis, the same level was reached in 64 % of the
logical parameter influenced. Direct mortality of test compounds.
beneficial organisms may be caused by direct Differences in susceptibility have been
contact during application, pesticide residues, recorded between taxonomically close species
taking up contaminated prey, intoxication by and even between strains within the same species.
10.2 Effects of Chemical Pesticides on Beneficial Organisms 123
Eretmocerus mundus adults were less susceptible severely damaged in residual tests (Reddy and
to residues of amitraz, thiodicarb, and cyperme- Bhat 1993). Even sexes of the same species may
thrin than E. formosa or Encarsia pergandiella present different susceptibility against pesticides.
(Jones et al. 1995). Among Aphidius species, A. In five different populations of Diglyphus begini
matricariae was more tolerant to dimethoate than (Rathman et al. 1992) and in predatory mites,
A. rhopalosiphi or A. colemani (Maise et al. males are less tolerant than females.
1997). Paecilomyces farinosus was more tolerant Generally herbicides, acaricides, and fungi-
than Verticillium lecanii, Beauveria bassiana, cides have less effect than insecticides, although
and Metarhizium anisopliae (Baath 1991). The mycopesticides are highly susceptible to
entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema car- fungicides.
pocapsae, S. feltiae, and Heterorhabditis HP88
exhibited different tolerance levels to nine tested
pesticides (Zimmerman and Cranshaw 1990). 10.2.1 Effect on Beneficial Predators
Repeated exposure of local strains to chemicals
may cause natural enemies to develop tolerance For predatory mites most pyrethroids and carba-
to pesticides. This is the case of P. persimilis and mates were harmful, both in initial toxicity and in
organophosphorus compounds (OPs) (Goodwin reproduction and persistence trials with the sus-
and Wellham 1992) and of Aphidoletes aphidi- ceptible juvenile predators. Aphidoletes aphidi-
myza and azinphos-methyl (Warner and Croft myza showed a similar susceptibility to
1982). Developmental stage may greatly influ- insecticide/acaricide treatments and was also
ence the response of natural enemies to pesti- affected by OPs. OPs caused varying levels of
cides. The susceptibility of A. aphidimyza and mortality in predatory mites. In coccinellids, high
Chrysoperla carnea to pesticides with contact mortality rates were caused by nearly all tested
mode of action increased from the egg stage to compound groups, except the microorganisms
the adults (Bartlett 1964). In contrast, pesticide and soap. Chrysopids were not harmed by acari-
susceptibility was lowest in treated adults of cides, most pyrethroids, soap, or microorgan-
Coccinella septempunctata (Zeleny et al. 1988) isms, but were affected by most of the insect
and in eggs of P. persimilis, while in the coccinel- growth regulators (IGRs) and most of the OPs.
lid the egg stage and in the predatory mite the For predatory bugs, pyrethroids, carbamates,
larvae or protonymph stage were the least tolerant most OPs, and few of the IGRs proved to be
(Blümel and Stolz 1993). However, compounds harmful. Fungicides and herbicides were rela-
with modes of action that regulate or inhibit insect tively harmless for coccinellids, chrysopids, and
growth resulted in high mortality of Chrysoperla predatory bugs, but partly harmful to predatory
carnea larvae but not of the adults, whose fertil- mites.
ity was only slightly affected (Vogt 1992).
The host may offer parasitoids different
degrees of protection against pesticides; unpro- 10.2.2 Effects on Beneficial
tected stages of parasitoids (e.g., adult Parasitoids
Hymenoptera) and protected stages (e.g., differ-
ent developmental stages in aphid mummies) Synthetic pyrethroids and pyrethrin were very
show different levels of mortality after the same harmful to adults, regardless of the test species.
pesticide treatment. Avermectin B killed 50 % of In tests with the protected stages, several pyre-
E. formosa protected in the whitefly scales in a throids were only slightly harmful, but in combi-
direct contact test but 79 % of the adult wasps nation with persistence of more than 1 week, this
after contact with the dried residue (Zchori-Fein advantage was neutralized. OPs were very harm-
et al. 1994). Leptomastix dactylopii protected in ful to the unprotected stages and with few excep-
Planococcus citri were barely affected by topical tions also to the protected life stages and showed
treatment of endosulfan, while the adults were high persistence as residues. Carbamates were
harmful in both types of laboratory tests, but mopathogens, and increased tendency to escape
some had persistence shorter than 3 days. IGRs from treated surfaces. The importance of repel-
and most of the acaricides were harmless to both lence of pesticide compounds for beneficials is
the susceptible and the protected developmental difficult to classify. On the one hand, repellence
stage of the parasitoids. Plant extracts (except may negatively influence natural enemies by
pyrethrin), soap, and microorganisms were harm- expelling them from their host or prey which they
less. Fungicides belonging mainly to the group need for further population development; on the
with a broad-spectrum and protective mode of other hand, beneficials can be protected from
action were harmful to adult parasitoids and possibly hazardous contact with contaminated
revealed detrimental effects which persisted over plant surfaces or prey/hosts. Both effects are
1 week. In tests with the protected life stage, undesirable, especially in greenhouses, where
however, all fungicides were considered harm- mass-reared arthropods are intentionally intro-
less. Very few herbicides were harmful to adult duced as biological control agents and because
wasps, but not for other developmental stages. the natural enemies would cease to be effective as
control agents, particularly when untreated ref-
uges are scarce.
10.2.3 Entomopathogens Insect growth regulators, like diflubenzuron,
chlorfluazuron, fenoxycarb, flufenoxuron, and
Only a small number of carbamates out of the teflubenzuron, which are incorrectly considered
tested insecticides/acaricides affected entomo- as harmless to many beneficials, in fact interfere
pathogenic nematodes, while fungicides proved with the viability of eggs, the molting process,
to be mainly harmless. Insecticides, acaricides, and the reproduction of several predators.
and herbicides in most cases did not adversely The influence of different formulations of pes-
influence the mycelial growth or the sporulation ticides on their effects on natural enemies was
of the fungal species V. lecanii, B. bassiana, and shown for endosulfan, which as an emulsifiable
M. anisopliae in laboratory tests or during infec- concentrate (EC) formulation resulted in up to 17 %
tivity tests in the greenhouse. Half of the fungi- less mortality of P. persimilis than the wettable
cides examined in all types of tests affected at powder (WP) formulation in a residual labora-
least one of the three test fungi, whereas one tory test (Blümel et al. 1993). For E. formosa the
fourth of the fungicides were harmless for all of EC formulation of tebufenpyrad was more toxic
them. Effects could not generally be attributed to than the WP formulation (van de Veire 1995).
the mode of action of the fungicides. Verticillium
lecanii was slightly more affected than B.
bassiana. 10.3 Influence of Pesticide
Application
on the Selectivity
10.2.4 Sublethal Effects on Natural of a Pesticide
Enemies
The relatively small areas in greenhouses – com-
Besides direct toxicity caused by a number of pared to arable agriculture – and high plant den-
“classical” insecticides, sublethal effects were sity dictate in many cases the use of manually
also demonstrated in several investigations. operated spraying equipment. In an enclosed
Among sublethal effects of pesticide application structure, good ambiental conditions can exist for
on natural enemies which are reported in the lit- applying very small particles and using artificial
erature are development prolongation, reduced air movement to improve pesticide distribution
egg production or its total inhibition, decrease in and pest control. Conversely, improved chemical
prey consumption, changes in searching or forag- control can adversely affect bioagents such as
ing behavior, alteration of pathogenicity in ento- bumblebees, antagonistic fungi, and beneficial
10.3 Influence of Pesticide Application on the Selectivity of a Pesticide 125
arthropods, factor which has to be considered and settling of particles of this size is influenced
when choosing a pesticide. Pesticide application by the inside air circulation systems, and they fall
in enclosed areas also imposes the risk of breath- mainly on the upper side of the leaves, rendering
ing air that contains small particles of pesticides. minimal residual effect.
Personal protective clothing is often hot and Alternatives to spray treatments include appli-
uncomfortable, and farmers tend to spray cation of granules or drenches and chemigation
unprotected. by drip irrigation to the soil, when systemic pes-
Unfortunately, many growers continue to use ticides can be used. Specific treatments can be
high-volume (HV) spraying (>1000 l/ha of spray- combined with a pesticide or other types of lure,
ing solution). HV spraying to run off leads to e.g., yellow cards in a “lure and kill” method.
wastage to the order of 70–90 % of the chemical Thrips have been controlled with a polybutene
dripping to the ground (Matthews 1992). The low sticky surface combined with an insecticide
concentration of a.i. with HV applications (Thripstick). Specific baits cause only minimal
reduces the hazard to the operator, who is often damage to nontarget organisms, as their chance
heavily contaminated by the pesticide, but may of exposure is very low.
not give adequate control, and growers are thus The timing of the pesticide treatment is crucial
forced to repeat sprays at frequent intervals. The in order to avoid the susceptible life stage of the
whole area becomes contaminated with pesti- nontarget organism. Where chemical pesticides
cides, making it impossible to integrate biologi- adversely affect the entomopathogenic fungus V.
cal control with chemicals. The volume of spray lecanii, they should not be applied at the same
and wastage due to runoff can be reduced signifi- time, but after a delay (Schuler 1991). Similarly,
cantly by changing nozzles to produce small the alternation of chemical fungicides with the
droplets which do not coalesce on the target fungal biocontrol agent Trichoderma harzianum
(Matthews 1992). A widely used piece of equip- T39 is preferred to the use of a tank mix of this
ment is the knapsack mist blower. biocontrol agent with chemicals for the control of
As an alternative to HV spraying, the use of foliar pathogens (Shtienberg and Elad 1997).
thermal or cold foggers gives the grower clear Selective application can also be carried out by
savings in time and labor, although they are only considering spatial factors and using the systemic
suitable in totally enclosed greenhouses. pesticides as granules or seed treatment to pre-
Deposition is improved with cold fogging, but serve plant-inhabiting beneficials. Limited areas
persistence is less. The shorter persistence can be treated with handheld air-assisted spin-
obtained with cold foggers allows the introduc- ning disk sprayers. Multiple applications of a
tion of natural enemies quicker after treatment pesticide may cause a severe reduction in the
than when a thermal fogger is used, and a green- number of natural enemies, without achieving a
house can be treated when parasitoids are pro- satisfactory control of the target pest. In contrast,
tected inside the infested host stages (Lingappa a single, better timed application of the same pes-
et al. 1972). Additionally, cold fogging allows the ticide can control the pest to the same extent,
use of a wider range of pesticides, e.g., insecti- without seriously damaging the natural enemies,
cides perhaps with higher selectivity, such as thus improving overall control. Keeping the pest
Bacillus thuringiensis which has been used suc- below the economic threshold has been achieved
cessfully by cold fogging. with different use of oxamyl and methamidophos
Another technique, vaporization, is suitable against L. sativae and its parasitoid complex in
for small areas (approximately 100 m2). The pes- tomatoes (Schuster et al. 1979).
ticide (e.g., sulfur) is placed on a small heater Systemic fungicides, which were harmful to V.
installed inside a wide pipe. After evaporation or lecanii when applied as sprays, did not affect the
sublimation, the pesticide condenses to small fungus pathogenicity against Aphis gossypii on
particles (e.g., 2–8 μm) and is carried up by the cucumber when applied as a soil drench (Wilding
heated air directed by the pipe. The dispersion 1972). Another possibility for the partial preser-
vation of natural enemies is the treatment of (Sphaerotheca fuliginea) (powdery mildew of

selected strata of the plants, e.g., flowers, and cucurbits), Puccinia horiana, Uromyces dianthi
leaving the lower part of the canopy untreated, (Uromyces caryophyllinus), and Fusarium oxys-
thus maintaining a significant population of natu- porum f sp gladioli.
ral enemies (Scopes and Biggerstaff 1974). These The benzimidazole fungicides (benomyl, car-
localized treatments are gaining acceptance bendazim, thiophanates) have a high resistance
where insects are used to pollinate crops and potential against pathogens because they have a
growers release natural enemies such as E. for- specific mode of action. The resistance is usually
mosa. In one study, the application of pyriproxy- not associated with a significant loss of fitness of
fen to the upper parts of tomato plants infested the pathogen. It occurs in populations of B. cine-
with greenhouse whitefly effectively reduced the rea, D. bryoniae, Fusarium, and powdery mil-
pest, but did not damage the parasitoid E. for- dews. Mixtures and alternations with multisite
mosa, which, though susceptible to this com- contact fungicides may delay this selection,
pound, was situated in the whitefly pupae on the before resistance becomes apparent.
lower parts of the plants (van de Veire 1995). Acute problems of resistance to dicarboxi-
mide fungicides (e.g., iprodione, procymidone,
vinclozolin) have arisen when fungicides are
10.4 Pesticide Resistance used intensively and exclusively over many sea-
and Anti-resistance sons (Gullino et al. 1989). Isolates are moder-
Strategies in IPM ately resistant and tend to be almost as fit as
sensitive strains in the absence of fungicides. It is
Pests and pathogens may overcome the toxic recommended to restrict the number of dicarbox-
effect of pesticides by metabolizing the active imide treatments to not more than three per crop
ingredient into less toxic components, develop- in greenhouses where resistance is found and
ing a change in the target site, reducing the even in the absence of detectable resistant strains.
absorption of the chemical, or avoiding exposure When infection pressure is high, it is usually rec-
to the compound. Resistance development is the ommended to alternate or mix these fungicides
most severe challenge to pesticide. In green- with protectants such as chlorothalonil, captan,
houses, pesticide-resistant strains of fungi and and TMTD or with biocontrol which do not usu-
pests have appeared frequently. This phenome- ally select for resistance. However, TMTD may
non occurs because the greenhouse is a closed interfere with natural enemies.
system in which the population of selected strains Ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors (EBIs) are a
is not diluted by the outdoor wild population. group of fungicides which include triazole, imid-
Usually, the existence of epidemic conditions in azole, and pyrimidine fungicides which inhibit
greenhouses is a prerequisite for the development C14 demethylation and morpholines. Unlike the
of resistant populations of pathogens and pests. sharp, significant nature of resistance toward
Moreover, the optimal conditions for their devel- benzimidazoles and dicarboximides mentioned
opment in greenhouses prevail for long periods. above, the resistance toward EBIs develops in the
The number of life cycles is increased due to the form of slow shifts in the pathogen population.
optimal conditions or the extended time they pre- For instance, powdery mildews in greenhouses
vail, and control necessitates frequent pesticide were controlled for several years by benzimid-
applications which results in high selection pres- azoles, hydroxypyrimidines, pyrazophos, and
sure toward resistance to pesticides. The main EBIs. Resistance is known in populations of S.
pathogens which are known to develop resistance fusca, but the alternation of fungicides, which is
to fungicides in greenhouses are Botrytis cinerea, practiced in many countries, is helping to deal
Pseudoperonospora cubensis (downy mildew of with the problem. It is generally recommended to
cucurbits), Didymella bryoniae (gummy stem rotate or mix EBI fungicides with fungicides
blight of cucurbits), Sphaerotheca fusca from other groups as well as with biocontrol.
10.5 Future Prospects and Conclusions 127
The failure of disease control in greenhouses talis developed resistance against most pesticide
is exemplified by the history of gray mold epi- groups (Anonymous 1988), resulting in severe
demics. Multiple resistant isolates occur in economic losses in the affected crops. Pesticide
greenhouses that bear the resistance toward benz- resistance can also develop in natural enemies
imidazole, diethofencarb, dicarboximides, and and has been found in all taxonomic groups
ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors (Elad et al. (Croft and Strickler 1983). The differences in the
1992). The extreme summer conditions do not occurrence and the level of pesticide resistance in
interfere with the survival of fungicide-resistant predators and parasitoids can be explained by the
isolates (Yunis and Elad 1989). influence of the factors such as food limitation
Phenylamide fungicides that inhibit RNA syn- and differential susceptibility to the chemical.
thesis were introduced in the late 1970s for Chemical resistance management strategies
Phycomycetes control. During the 1970s, P. for pests comprise different approaches classified
cubensis was controlled mainly with protective as management by moderation (low dosages,
applications of dithiocarbamates and chlorotha- reduced number of applications), management
lonil. In the early 1980s the phenylamide metal- by saturation (suppressing detoxification), and
axyl was released and soon afterward resistant management by multiple attack (application of
strains were selected. Metalaxyl-resistant strains mixtures) (Georghiou 1983). For IPM programs,
seem to be more competitive than wild-type additionally nontarget effects on natural enemies
strains (Cohen et al. 1983). Resistance was found have to be considered, which might not always
also in Phytophthora infestans on tomato and correspond with the aforementioned strategies.
Bremia lactucae on lettuce. Anti-resistance mix- Chemical control of insect pests under pro-
tures of metalaxyl with protectant fungicides tected cultivation using selected pesticides is pre-
were developed to cope with phenylamide resis- sented in Table 10.1.
tance. In order to reduce the pressure toward the
development of resistance in pathogen popula-
tions, it is usually better to limit the exposure of 10.5 Future Prospects
the pathogen to a group of fungicides. The num- and Conclusions
ber of applications of fungicides of the same
mode of action has to be limited, especially Modern techniques used in greenhouses for pes-
against fungi with many cycles during the grow- ticide application allow a low input of chemicals
ing season. Moreover, the application of non- while achieving good coverage of the right part
chemical methods is also recommended. of the plant. Selective application can also direct
Insecticide and acaricide resistance of nearly the active ingredient to the right target, with
all important arthropod greenhouse pests is well lowered effect on beneficial organisms. However,
documented (Georghiou and Mellon 1983). it is important to know the undesired side effects
Besides genetic and operational factors that influ- of chemical use in greenhouses.
ence the selection of resistant individuals, biotic Uniform labeling of the nontarget effects of
reasons such as generation turnover, number of plant protection products during the process of
offspring per generation, and type of reproduc- authorization as proposed in the European Plant
tion have a major impact on resistance develop- Protection Legislation (EU-Directive 414/91,
ment. Most of the pest species on greenhouse including all annexes) is desirable. In view of this
crops favor resistance selection with regard to joint initiative by governmental research centers
these biological parameters. and industry, commercial test laboratories, and
Recently Bemisia tabaci and B. argentifolii contributions from the European and
have developed resistance against a range of con- Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
ventional insecticides as well as against IGRs and (EPPO), a harmonized labeling of plant protec-
juvenile hormone analogues (Cahill et al. 1994; tion products concerning the nontarget effects is
Horowitz el al. 1994), and Frankliniella occiden- expected.
Table 10.1 Chemical control of insect pests in protected cultivation

Major insect pest Crop affected Symptoms Management
Nursery of tomato and Larvae cut young plants Spray the crop with
Cutworm, Agrotis spp. capsicum at ground level chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 2 ml/L
Aphid Tomato, capsicum, Nymph and adult suck sap from Neem oil, 5 ml/L; imidacloprid
cucumber, cole crops plants. Cause stunted growth 17.8SL, 0.4 ml/L; quinalphos
with curled, twisted leaves and 25 EC, 2 ml/L
deformed fruits. Secrete honey
dew which allows the growth of
black sooty molds
Whitefly, Bemisia Capsicum, chillies, Nymph and adults suck sap Imidacloprid 17.8SL, 0.4 ml/L;
tabaci cabbage, cucumber from leaves, and vitality of quinalphos 25 EC, 2 ml/L
plant is lower through loss of
cell sap. Secrete honey dew
which attracts fungus (sooty
mold in capsicum). Transmit
virus diseases in tomato,
capsicum, and cucurbits
Cabbage butterfly, Cole crops First instar larvae scrape leaf Quinalphos 25 EC, 2 ml/L
Pieris brassicae surface; subsequent instars eat
up leaves from margin inward,
leaving intact the main veins
Leaf miner Tomato, capsicum, Larvae mine into tender leaves Methyldemeton 25 EC, 1 ml/L
cucumber in zigzag manner and scrape
chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is
adversely affected, vitality is
reduced, and there is
appreciable reduction in yield
Thrips Capsicum, cucumber, Affected leaves become curled Neem oil, 5 ml/L; imidacloprid
cole crops and wrinkled and gradually dry 17.8SL, 0.4 ml/L; quinalphos
up. Feeding causes flower or 25 EC, 2 ml/L
leaf buds to abort or emerging
leaves to become distorted
Mites Tomato, capsicum, Small brown or yellow dots Dicofol, 2.5 ml/L;
cucumber on leaves are most easily penconazole, 0.4 ml/L; neem
observed sign of mite oil, 5 ml/L; wettable sulfur, 2
infestation. Severely infested g/L
plant leaves become discolored,
producing an unthrifty gray or
bronze look to plant
Other topics for the implementation of side- lead to an accumulation of the product on the
effect data into IPM practice still need to be plants, affecting the beneficial organisms. This
addressed. Most of the data about side effects of situation becomes more complicated when mix-
pesticides on beneficials is derived from labora- tures of different active ingredients are used.
tory tests or even higher test levels with only one Very few chemical pesticides are selective for
application of the product. However, in practice, natural enemies. Improvements in the compati-
even when natural enemies are used against bility of beneficial organisms with pesticide
arthropod pests, chemical treatment can be nec- application by selecting beneficial with some
essary against fungal diseases. Often these fungi- resistance toward chemical pesticides have been
cides have to be applied not once but several attempted, but this is often a cumbersome proce-
times at certain intervals. These applications can dure as the pesticides used may change quickly.
References 129
Besides the degree of resistance, its stability and References

its possible influence on the fitness of the tolerant
organisms are features that must be assessed Anonymous (1988) Meeting-report Adhoc panel-meeting
on Frankliniella occidentalis – its biology and control.
before the selected organisms can be used in pest EPPO Panel Information, Paris
or disease control. For phytoseiids development Baath E (1991) Tolerance of copper by entomogenous
of pesticide resistance against several insecticide fungi and the use of copper-amended media for isola-
groups, acaricides and fungicides, and even tion of entomogenous fungi from soil. Mycol Res
95(9):1140–1142
against sulfur has been extensively described Bartlett BR (1964) Toxicity of some pesticides to eggs,
(Croft and van de Baan 1988). Alternatively, pes- larvae and adults of the green lacewing, Chrysopa car-
ticides are applied spatially to selected areas or in nea. J Econ Entomol 57:366–369
frequencies which reduce the target pest to a suf- Bathon H (1996) Impact of entomopathogenic nematodes
on non-target hosts. Biocontrol Sci Technol
ficient extent, but minimize harm to natural ene- 6:421–434
mies and thus allow a combination or synergized Blümel S, Stolz M (1993) Investigations on the effect of
effect of both the chemical and the biological insect growth regulators and inhibitors on the preda-
controls (Zhang and Sanderson 1990). tory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis AH. with particular
emphasis on cyromazine. J Plant Dis Prot
Another important topic in the assessment of 100(2):150–154
side effects is examining whether natural pesti- Blümel S, Bakker F, Grove A (1993) Evaluation of differ-
cides or natural enemies themselves affect bene- ent methods to assess the side effects of pesticides on
ficial organisms, as reported in studies of the Phytoseiulus persimilis AH. Exp Appl Acarol
17(3):161–169
impact of entomopathogenic nematodes on non- Cahill M, Byrne FJ, Denholm I, Devonshire AL, Gorman
target organisms (Bathon 1996). Fransen and van KJ (1994) Insecticide resistance in Bemisia tabaci.
Lenteren (1993) could not find detrimental effects Pestic Sci 42:135–142
of the entomopathogenic fungi Aschersonia aley- Celli S, Bortolotti L, Nanni C, Porrini C, Sbrenna G
(1997) Effects of the IGR fenoxycarb on eggs and lar-
rodis on the parasitoid E. formosa, while Sterk vae of Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae).
et al. (1995) observed no effect of a commercial Laboratory test. In: Haskell PT, McEwen PK (eds)
strain of Paecilomyces fumosoroseus on P. persi- New studies in ecotoxicology. The Welsh Pest
milis, E. formosa, and Onus insidiosus. However, Management Forum, Cardiff, pp 45–49
Cohen Y, Reuveni M, Samoucha Y (1983) Competition
Pavlyushin (1996) detected direct and sublethal between metalaxyl-resistant and sensitive strains of
effects of entomopathogenic fungi on chrysopids Pseudoperonospora cubensis on cucumber plants.
in the laboratory. Phytopathology 73:1516–1520
The present status of resistance of pests or Croft BA, Strickler K (1983) Natural enemy resistance to
pesticides: documentation, characterization, theory
pathogens in greenhouses is often unknown; and application. In: Georghiou GP, Saito T (eds) Pest
growers tend to apply excess amounts of chemi- resistance to pesticides. Plenum Press, New York,
cal, and control is not achieved. The development pp 669–702
of tools for monitoring resistance should facili- Croft BA, van de Baan HE (1988) Ecological and genetic
factors influencing evolution of pesticide resistance in
tate the assessment of different management Tetranychid and Phytoseiid mites. Exp Appl Acarol
options. 4:277–300
Research efforts are needed for developing Elad Y, Yunis H, Katan T (1992) Multiple fungicide resis-
disease management technology under protected tance to benzimidazoles, dicarboximides and
diethofencarb in field isolates of Botrytis cinerea in
environment with emphasis on avoidance and Israel. Plant Pathol 41:41–46
selective use of pesticides. Safe waiting intervals Elzen GW (1989) Sublethal effects of pesticides on ben-
based on harvest time pesticide residues needed eficial parasitoids. In: Jepson P (ed) Pesticides and
to be established for the crops under protected non-target invertebrates. Incept, Wimborne Dorset,
pp 129–150
environment as this information is lacking com- Fransen JJ, van Lenteren JC (1993) Host selection and
pletely. Apart from this, emphasis to improve the survival of the parasitoid Encarsia formosa on green-
awareness level of the growers for timely diagno- house whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum in the pres-
sis and judicious use of pesticides needs to be ence of hosts infected with the fungus Aschersonia
aleyrodis. Entomol Exp Appl 69:239–249
taken up on priority.
Georghiou GP (1983) Management of resistance in Aphidius rhopalosiphi, A. matricariae and A. cole-

arthropods. In: Georghiou GP, Saito T (eds) Pest resis- mani (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) to Dimethoate 40EC
tance to pesticides. Plenum Press, New York, under worst case laboratory conditions. In: Haskell
pp 769–792 PT, McEwen PK (eds) New studies in ecotoxicology.
Georghiou GP, Mellon RB (1983) Pesticide resistance in The Welsh Pest Management Forum, Cardiff,
time and space. In: Georghiou GP, Saito T (eds) Pest pp 45–49
resistance to pesticides. Plenum Press, New York, Matthews GA (1992) Pesticide application methods, 2nd
pp 1–47 edn. Longman, London
Goodwin S, Wellham TM (1992) Comparison of dimetho- McCoy CW, Samson RA, Boucias DC (1988)
ate and methidathion tolerance in four strains of Entomogenous fungi. In: CM Ignoffo (ed) CRC hand-
Phytoseiulus persimilis (Athias-Henriot) (Acarina: book of natural pesticides, vol V, Microbial insecti-
Phytoseiidae) in Australia. Exp Appl Acarol cides, Part A. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 151–237
16(3):255–261 Oatman ER, Kennedy GG (1976) Methomyl induced out-
Gullino ML, Aloi C, Garibaldi A (1989) Influence of break of Liriomyza sativae on tomato. J Econ Entomol
spray schedules on fungicide resistant populations of 69(5):667–668
Botrytis cinerea Pers on grapevine. Neth J Plant Pathol Pavlyushin VA (1996) Effect of entomopathogenic fungi
95(Suppl.1):87–94 on entomophagous arthropods. IOBC/WPRS Bull
Hassall KA (1982) The chemistry of pesticides. Verlag 19(9):247–249
Chemie, Weinheim Poehling HM (1989) Selective application strategies for
Hassan SA, Bigler F, Bogenschütz H, Boller E, Brun J, insecticides in agricultural crops. In: Jepson PC (ed)
Calis JNM, Chiverton P, Coremans-Pelseneer J, Duso Pesticides and non-target invertebrates. Incept,
C, Grove A, Helyer N, Heimbach U, Hokkanen GB, Wimborne Dorset, pp 151–176
Lewis H, Mansour F, Moreth L, Polgar L, Samsoe- Rathman RJ, Johnson MW, Rosenheim JA, Tabashnik
Petersen L, Sauphanor B, Stäubli A, Sterk G, van de BE, Purcell M (1992) Sexual differences in insecti-
Veire M, Viggiani G, Vogt H (1994) Results of the cide susceptibility and synergism with piperonyl
sixth joint pesticide testing programme carried out by butoxide in the leaf miner parasitoid Diglyphus begini
the IOBC working group “Pesticides and Beneficial (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). J Econ Entomol
Organisms”. Entomophaga 39:107–119 85(1):15–20
Heitefub R (1975) Pflanzcnschutz. Georg Thieme Verlag, Reddy KB, Bhat PK (1993) Effect of endosulfan on the
Stuttgart mealybug parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii How.
Hodek I (1973) Biology of Coccinellidae. Dr W Junk, The J Coffee Res 23(1):19–23
Hague [cited in Horn DJ, Wadleigh RW (1993) Rovesti L, Heinzpeter EW, Tagliente F, Deseo KV (1988)
Resistance of aphid natural enemies to insecticides. In: Compatibility of pesticides with the entomopatho-
Minks AK, Hanewijn P (eds) World crop pests: aphids, genic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
their biology, natural enemies and control, vol Poinar (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae). Nematologica
2B. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 337–347] 34:462–476
Horowitz AR, Forer G, Ishaaya I (1994) Managing resis- Schuler T (1991) Verticillium lecanii (Zimmermann)
tance in Bemisia tabaci in Israel with emphasis on cot- Viegas (Hyphomycetales: Moniliaceae): Geschichte,
ton. Pestic Sci 42:113–122 Systematik, Verbreitung. In: Schuler T, Hommes M,
Huffaker CB (1990) Effects of environmental factors on Plate HP, Zimmermann G (eds) Biologie und
natural enemies of armoured scale insects. In: Rosen Anwendung im Pflanzenschutz, Mitteilungen aus der
D (ed) World crop pests: armoured scale insects, their Biologischen Bundesanstalt für Land- und
biology, natural enemies and control, vol 4B. Elseviers, Forstwirtschaft Berlin-Dahlem 269:118–125
Amsterdam, pp 205–220 Schuster DJ, Musgrave CA, Jones JP (1979) Vegetable
Hull LA, Beers EH (1985) Ecological selectivity: modify- leaf miner and parasite emergence from tomato foliage
ing chemical control practices to preserve natural sprayed with oxamyl. J Econ Entomol 72:208–210
enemies. In: Hoy MA, Herzog DC (eds) Biological Scopes NEA, Biggerstaff SM (1974) Progress towards
control in agricultural IPM systems. Academic, integrated pest control on year round chrysanthe-
Orlando, pp 103–121 mums. In: Proceedings of the 7th British insecticide
Jones WA, Wolfenbarger DA, Kirk AA (1995) Response and fungicide conference, Brighton, 19–22 Nov 1973,
of adult parasitoids of Bemisia tabaci (Hom: BCPC, London, pp 227–234
Aleyrodidae) to leaf residues of selected cotton insec- Shtienberg D, Elad Y (1997) Incorporation of weather
ticides. Entomophaga 40(2):153–162 forecasting in integrated, biological-chemical man-
Lingappa SS, Starks KJ, Eikenbary RD (1972) Insecticidal agement of Botrytis cinerea. Phytopathology
effect on Lysiphlebus testaceipes, a parasite of green- 87:332–340
bug at all three developmental stages. Environ Entomol Sterk G, Bolckmans K, van de Veire M, Sels B, Stepman
1:520–521 W (1995) Side-effects of the microbial insecticide
Maise S, Candolfi MP, Neumann C, Vickus P, Mader P PreFeRal (Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, strain Apopka
(1997) A species comparative study: sensitivity of 97) on different species of beneficial arthropods.
References 131
Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Yunis H, Elad Y (1989) Survival of dicarboximide-

Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit resistant strains of Botrytis cinerea in plant debris dur-
Gent 60(3a):719–724 ing summer in Israel. Phytoparasitica 17:13–21
Theiling KM, Croft BA (1988) Pesticide side-effects on Zchori-Fein E, Roush RT, Sanderson JP (1994) Potential
arthropod natural enemies: a data-base summary. for integration of biological and chemical control of
Agric Ecosyst Environ 21:191–218 greenhouse whitefly using Encarsia formosa and
van de Veire M (1995) Integrated pest management in abamectin. Environ Entomol 23(5):1277–1282
glasshouse tomatoes, sweet peppers and cucumbers in Zeleny J, Vostrel J, Ruzicka Z, Kalushkov PK (1988)
Belgium. PhD thesis, University of Gent Impact of various pesticides on aphidophagous
Vogt H (1992) Investigations on the side effects of insec- Coccinellidae. In: Niemczyk E, Dixon AFG (eds)
ticides and acaricides on Chrysoperla carnea Stph Ecology and effectiveness of Aphidophaga. SPB
(Neuroptera, Chrysopidae). Mededelingen van de Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp 327–332
Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Rijksuniversiteit Zhang ZQ, Sanderson JP (1990) Relative toxicity of abamec-
Gent 57(2b):559–567 tin to the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari:
Warner LA, Croft BA (1982) Toxicity of azinphosmethyl Phytoseiidae) and two spotted spider mite (Acari:
and selected orchard aphid predator, Aphidoletes aphi- Tetranychidae). J Econ Entomol 83(5):1783–1790
domyza. J Econ Entomol 75(3):410–415 Zimmerman RJ, Cranshaw WS (1990) Compatibility of
Wilding N (1972) The effect of systemic fungicides on the three entomogenous nematodes (Rhabditia) in aque-
aphid pathogen Cephalosporium aphidicola. Plant ous solutions of pesticides used in turf grass mainte-
Pathol 21:137–139 nance. J Econ Entomol 83(1):97–100
Plant Diseases and Their
Management 11
Abstract
Some of the major diseases in greenhouse crops are caused by fungi,
bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Greenhouses are designed to protect
crops from many adverse conditions, but most pathogens and several pests
are impossible to exclude. Windblown spores and aerosols containing bac-
teria enter doorways and ventilators; soilborne pathogens enter in wind-
blown dust and adhere to footwear and machinery. Aquatic fungi can be
present in irrigation water; insects that enter the greenhouse can transmit
viruses and can carry bacteria and fungi as well. Once inside a greenhouse,
pathogens and pests are difficult to eradicate. Factors favorable to disease
development; fungal, bacterial, and viral problems in protected cultiva-
tion; and disease management strategy are discussed.
Keywords
Fungal diseases • Bacterial diseases • Viral diseases • Disease
management
11.1 Introduction monoculture cultivation and the use of selected,

high-yielding varieties which sometimes stimu-
Insects and diseases are a major challenge to late pest and disease development. IPM is an
greenhouse production. Pest and disease control important tool in the management of these pests.
is probably the greenhouse crop practice with The primary goal of IPM is to optimize pest
the greatest impact not only on the environment control in an economically and ecologically
and human health but also on public opinion in sound way. IPM involves the integration of cul-
recent years. As agriculture under protected cultural, physical, biological, and chemical prac-
tivation develops, plants become more suscep- tices to grow crops with minimal use of
tible to pests for several reasons, including pesticides.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_11
134 11 Plant Diseases and Their Management
11.1.1 Factors Favorable to Disease damage under protected environment. It was

Development found that the incidence and severity of diseases
vary considerably under protected environment
Well-grown and productive crops are generally when compared to open field. As observed in
less susceptible to diseases, but in many cases tomato, Phytophthora infestans, Pseudo-
compromises have to be made between optimum cercospora fuligena, and Fulvia fulva causing
conditions for economic productivity and condi- late blight, black leaf mold, and leaf mold,
tions for disease prevention. High host plant den- respectively, were observed to be of higher sig-
sities and the resulting microclimate are favorable nificance under polyhouse condition. Further,
to disease spread. Air exchange with the outside the notion of early and late blight was found to
is restricted, so water vapor transpired by the be obscure under polyhouse condition, since it
plants and evaporated from warm soil tends to was observed that late blight appears early in the
accumulate, creating a low vapor pressure deficit crop season, whereas early blight appears late
(high humidity). Therefore, the environment is during crop season. This may be attributed to the
generally warm, humid, and wind-free inside the fact that temperature and humidity are nearly
greenhouse. Such an environment promotes the balanced inside protected structure, even when
fast growth of most crops, but it is also ideal for outside field temperature is comparatively low
the development of bacterial and fungal diseases and so on. Alternaria alternata is found to be a
(Jarvis 1992) and of insects vectoring viruses. major disease affecting fruits. Capsicum is found
to be infected primarily by Colletotrichum cap-
sici; Cercospora capsici; Pythium, Fusarium,
11.1.2 Problems in Protected and Phytophthora spp; Stemphylium solani and
Cultivation S. lycopersici; Sclerotium rolfsii; Verticillium
albo-atrum and V. dahliae; Phytophthora cap-
Greenhouses are designed to protect crops from sici; Leveillula taurica; and Botrytis cinerea
many adverse conditions, but most pathogens are causing anthracnose, leaf spot, damping-off,
impossible to exclude as: gray leaf spot, stem rot, wilt disease,
Phytophthora blight, powdery mildew, and gray
• Windblown spores and aerosols containing mold, respectively. Cucumber also attracts a
bacteria enter doorways and ventilators. considerable quantum of fungal pathogens. Out
• Soilborne pathogens enter in windblown dust of which downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora
and adhere to footwear and machinery. cubensis), powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichora-
• Aquatic fungi can be present in irrigation cearum and Sphacelotheca fuliginea), Alternaria
water. leaf spot (Alternaria cucumerina), anthracnose
• Insects that enter the greenhouse can transmit (Colletotrichum lagenarium), and damping-off
viruses and can carry bacteria and fungi as (Pythium spp) are important. Survival of patho-
well. gen is also enhanced inside polyhouse due to
• Once inside a greenhouse, pathogens are dif- availability of host because of longer growing
ficult to eradicate. season.
11.2.2 Bacterial Diseases

11.2 Diseases
Bacterial diseases are less frequent but under
11.2.1 Fungal Diseases high moisture and poor irrigated conditions may
cause huge damage. Erwinia carotovora ssp car-
Fungal diseases constitute one of the biggest otovora (bacterial soft rot), Xanthomonas camp-
groups of foliar pathogens causing immense estris pv vesicatoria (bacterial spot), Ralstonia
11.3 Disease Management Strategy 135
solanacearum (bacterial wilt), Pseudomonas 11.3 Disease Management

syringae pv lachrymans (angular leaf spot), Strategy
Erwinia tracheiphila, and Ralstonia sola-
nacearum (bacterial wilt) are pronounced to Proper field sanitation is one of the most impor-
name some. tant management strategies, since once the
buildup of inoculum occurs inside the polyhouse,
it is very difficult to manage it. So prevention is
11.2.3 Viral Diseases always better than cure. Use disease-resistant
varieties. Reduced incidence of leaf wetness by
Tomato, cucumber, and capsicum are very sen- staking plants, providing ample spacing between
sitive to viral diseases under protected environ- plants to allow for good air movement, and avoid-
ment. It often spreads in the plantation by insect ing overhead irrigation also helps in disease con-
vectors such as whitefly, thrips, and aphids. The trol. Judicious use of chemicals with least toxicity
damage caused by the virus is usually much recommended specially for polyhouse cultivation
greater than the mechanical injury caused by should be sprayed. Chemicals like chlorothalonil,
the insect vector. Plant tissue damaged by a cymoxanil, and azoxystrobin are prohibited in
viral disease does not die immediately. The polyhouse-grown tomato and thus should be
most important symptom of viral infections is avoided. As for viruses, scouting of fields for the
the light (white or yellow) color of the leaves or first occurrence of virus disease is a prerequisite.
a mosaic pattern of light and darker shades of Where feasible, pull up and destroy infected
green on the leaves. In many cases, viral dis- plants, but only after spraying them thoroughly
ease leads to dwarfed growth, rosette forma- with an insecticide to kill any insects they may be
tion, or other strange stem, fruit, and leaf harboring. Use reflective mulches to repel insects,
deformations. The symptoms of viral infections thereby reducing the rate of spread of insect-
are often not found everywhere in a cultivated borne viruses. Monitor vector population early in
field but rather in patches and also sometimes the season and apply insecticide treatments when
without symptoms. Viruses prevalent among needed. Minimize plant handling to reduce the
greenhouse crops include tobacco mosaic virus amount of virus spread mechanically.
or tomato mosaic virus (TMV or ToMV), Polyhouse disease control may be classified
cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), tobacco etch into two approaches: (i) those aimed at the root
virus (TEV), potato virus-Y (PVY), potato leaf environment and (ii) those aimed at the aerial
roll virus (PLRV), tomato spotted wilt virus environment.
(TSWV), alfalfa mosaic virus, pepper veinal
mottle virus (PVMV), pepper mild mottle virus Table 11.1 Main viral diseases of vegetable crops and
(PMMY), chili veinal mottle virus (CVMV Or means of transmission
ChiVMV), tomato yellow leaf curl virus Crop
(TYLCV), and tomato big-bud mycoplasma Transmission Tomato Pepper Cucumber
(TBB). Seedborne TMV TMV CGMMV
Most viruses are spread by insect vectors, Mechanical TMV TMV CGMMV
such as whitefly, aphid, and thrips; others are Aphids CMV, CMV, CMV,
seedborne and mechanically transmitted PVY PVY ZYMV
(Table 11.1 ). Whiteflies TYLCV – CVYV,
CYCDV
Thrips TSWV TSWV –
11.3.1 The Root Environment These are the chief reasons many growers shifted
to soilless mixes.
Soil disinfection (i.e., sterilization) is an impor- There are three methods of steaming in com-
tant part of soilborne disease control when rais- mon use today (Klassen 1993):
ing vegetables by the ground culture method or
when soil-based potting mixes are used. Soilborne • Tarping an area and piping in steam for 6–8 h,
diseases include damping-off (Pythium and heating and sterilizing the top 8 in. of soil
Rhizoctonia), black root rot (Thielaviopsis), and • Pumping steam into subsurface drainage
several other root rots and wilts caused by pipes, sterilizing the top 60 cm of soil
Fusarium and Phytophthora. Potting mixes based • Negative pressure steaming, where pumps
on compost, peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, and pull steam applied at the surface through pipes
bark are typically pathogen-free and do not buried 60 cm deep and 300 cm apart
require prior sterilization.
Sterilization involves heating the soil to 212
°F for 30 min, a process that kills most organisms 11.3.1.2 Solarization
in the soil. Chemical changes also occur in the Solarization in greenhouses is a proven means of
soil and may affect plant nutrient uptake to the soil sterilization and is practiced worldwide in
following crop. Pasteurization involves heating Japan, Israel, Greece, France, Italy, Belgium,
the soil to only 160 °F for 30 min. While most Portugal, and Spain (Mahrer 1991; Garibaldi and
harmful pathogens are killed at this temperature, Bullino 1991; Horiuchi 1991), in addition to the
many beneficial soil organisms survive. Thus, USA and Canada.
pasteurization is the preferred method in organic Soil solarization is the process of tarping
programs. moist soils with clear polyethylene to trap solar
Chemical biocides, electrical heat, steam heat, radiation and raise soil temperatures to levels
and soil solarization are the primary methods of lethal to most pathogens and weed seeds.
soil disinfection in greenhouse production. A Solarization is most effective when applied for at
fifth method of disease suppression is biological least 30 days in midsummer. Two layers of poly-
control. Soil fumigants such as methyl bromide ethylene, separated by fillers (i.e., PVC pipes of
are, of course, restricted in organic production. 60- to 120-cm length) spaced every few feet to
Electrical heat treatment, which is done inside create an air space, increase the efficiency of
a steel chamber surrounded by heating coils, is solarization.
limited to treating about a cubic yard of soil at a Solarization can also be used to pasteurize
time. Its primary use is in the pasteurization of sand or soil intended for potting media, or to treat
small batches of sand and soil for potting mixes. used media (Gamliel et al. No date). A simple
Accordingly, steam pasteurization and soil technique developed in Florida (Giblin and
solarization are the two most viable options for Verkade 1987) is to fill a black plastic trash bag
sterilizing greenhouse soils or large volumes of with media, which is then sealed in a transparent
soil-based mixes. Biological control is comple- plastic bag. The double-wrapped media is placed
mentary to these two methods. in the open on asphalt or concrete and spread to a
uniform depth of 7.5 cm. As long as the trash bag
11.3.1.1 Steaming received one full day of sunshine from April
Steam was the primary method of soil steriliza- through August, the temperatures reached or
tion in the greenhouse industry prior to the emer- exceeded 113 °F for more than 2 h. This tempera-
gence of soil fumigants. Steam heat is highly ture, which was monitored with a thermometer
effective and environmentally safe. Equipment inserted into the media, was considered the mini-
and fuel costs are expensive, however, and treat- mum treatment period for plant-parasitic nema-
ment between crops is labor and time consuming. todes. This method yields about 24 L of media.
11.3.1.3 Biological Control result in soil improvement through a proliferation

Biological control of pathogens in greenhouse of microflora.
soils and potting mixes is accomplished through Green leaf manures are field-grown cover
natural control via cultural practices and through crops that are chopped and harvested green and
applied biocontrols. The introduction of biocon- then transported inside the greenhouse to be
trol agents, or antagonists, is the next form of incorporated into the soil. Many studies have
biological soil disinfection. Biological fungicides shown that crucifer residues from rapeseed and
are a promising alternative to synthetic oilseed radish cover crops produce toxic gases
fungicides. that suppress soilborne pathogens. Additionally,
There are several new biocontrols available soil solarization, following incorporation of cru-
for suppressing root diseases. One product is ciferous residues, increases the efficiency of soil-
RootShield (contains the fungus Trichoderma borne pathogen control.
harzianum), a biofungicide that controls root dis- The role of composts as a slow-release nutri-
eases caused by Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, ent source in organic production is well estab-
and Sclerotinia. SoilGard 12G (contains the fun- lished. Recently, the role of composts as
gus Gliocladium virens) is another biofungicide amendments for the control of soilborne plant
that controls Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, pathogens has increased interest in similar use in
Phytophthora, and Thielaviopsis (when co- conventional agriculture.
applied with sulfur). Another product is Mycostop In container production, disease-suppressive
(contains the actinomycete Streptomyces griseo- composts are commercially available in both peat
viridis) which controls Fusarium, although it and soil-based media. The disease-suppressive
may control other root diseases. Deny contains properties come from a certain composting tech-
the bacterium Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) nique that yields antibiotic (antagonistic) and
cepacia and controls diseases caused by competitive (saprophytic) responses (Roberts
Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, and Pythium. It also pro- 1992). Natural disease-suppressive potting
vides some nematode control. Intercept also uses mixes – based on composts – are available
B. cepacia to control disease. through several commercial sources. The potting
mixes can also be mixed with mycorrhizae which
11.3.1.4 Cultural Practices colonize plant roots and protect them against cer-
Cultural practices that promote soil health include tain pathogenic fungi, including various Pythium
crop rotation and use of tilled-in crop residues and Fusarium species (Anon 1992).
and green manures or organic amendments
brought in from off site.
The beneficial effect of crop rotation on plant 11.3.2 The Aerial Environment
health and yield is probably due to changes in
soil microflora. These shifts result in increasing Foliar and stem diseases include gray mold
numbers of beneficial microorganisms (including (Botrytis), powdery mildew (Erysiphe spp), early
nitrifying and other useful bacteria, antagonists blight (Alternaria spp), soft rot (Erwinia spp),
of pathogens, etc.) and in decreasing numbers of and several other fungal and bacterial diseases
noxious ones (pathogens and antagonists of ben- caused by Xanthomonas, Fusarium, and
eficial microorganisms) (Gindrat 1979). Pseudomonas.
In some greenhouses, a short-term break Greenhouse climates are warm, humid, and
crop – such as annual ryegrass, oats, buckwheat, wind-free – an ideal environment for the develop-
or rapeseed – may fit into the rotation and be used ment of many foliar and stem diseases. For the
to increase organic matter. Another option is to majority of pathogenic fungi and bacteria, infec-
rely on organic amendments or green leaf tion usually occurs when a film or drop of water
manures brought in from off site. Amendments on the plant surface persists. Unless temperature,
such as fresh residues, composts, and manures humidity, and ventilation are well regulated, this
surface water can remain in the greenhouse until and fish emulsion are the two products most com-
infection becomes assured (Jarvis 1992). monly applied. Although the mechanism for
Integrated disease management, therefore, is resistance is not clear, modification of the leaf
based on climate control for disease infection and surface and enhanced plant nutrition is suspected.
optimum crop yield and quality. It eliminates It has been stated that foliar fertilization indi-
inoculum through high standards of hygiene rectly protects against plant pathogens by increas-
(sterilizing soil or using soilless media, obtaining ing natural plant immunity through improvement
disease-free planting material, chlorine bleach of the plant’s nutritional status (Nowosielski
rinses of footwear and equipment, vegetative- et al. 1988).
free floors, etc.), cultural practices for limiting Evidence is also strong that foliar feeding can
disease spread, biological and pesticidal control, have a dramatic effect on the rhizosphere micro-
and, most important, when available, resistant flora via changes in root exudates (Gindrat 1979).
cultivars (Jarvis 1992). Such changes in root exudates may lead to an
increase of antagonists and thus enhance biologi-
11.3.2.1 Environmental Control cal control of pathogens in the root environment
Temperature regulation and humidity regula- as well (Gindrat 1979).
tion – functions of heating and cooling, ventila-
tion, vapor pressure, and structure – are 11.3.2.4 Baking Soda
increasingly becoming computerized. Expert Baking soda has for many years been used in
software that reduces disease-infective condi- Europe as a mild fungicide by rose growers and
tions while promoting crop growth is available organic gardeners. Recently, plant pathologists at
through commercial vendors. Cornell University confirmed through research
that baking soda exhibits fungicidal activity
11.3.2.2 Foliar Products against powdery mildew and several other dis-
Greenhouse growers have fewer alternative con- eases on ornamentals (Anon 1990). They deter-
trol products for diseases than for insects. mined that a mixture of 0.5 % baking soda (about
Copper- and sulfur-based fungicides are the only 5 level teaspoons per gallon of water) and 0.5 %
commercial fungicides acceptable in certified horticultural oil showed the greatest activity.
organic programs. Coppers exhibit both fungi- A new product containing baking soda, called
cidal and bactericidal properties. Sulfurs are Remedy, is now available for use as a pesticide.
noted for control of mildews. Alternative disease Remedy is effective against black spot, powdery
control strategies, although based more on grow- mildew, leaf spots, anthracnose, Phoma,
er’s experience and limited research, include Phytophthora, scab, and Botrytis. Remedy should
compost watery extracts, biodynamic herbal be applied at the first sign of disease and repeated
extracts, and foliar feeding below. at one- or two-week intervals until the problem
Fungicides are potentially very effective with subsides.
some diseases, but may be ineffective with others
(Table 11.2). 11.3.2.5 Polyethylene Films
Biofungicides for foliar disease control are Reuveni et al. (1989) observed a reduction in the
also available. AQ10 contains the fungus number of infection sites of B. cinerea on tomato
Ampelomyces quisqualis and controls powdery and cucumber when a UV-absorbing material
mildew. Trichodex controls Botrytis. TopShield was added to polyethylene film to increase the
contains Trichoderma harzianum and controls ratio of blue light to transmitted UV light. Blue
Botrytis and powdery mildew (Table 11.3). photoselective polyethylene sheets have been
suggested for their ability to reduce gray mold on
11.3.2.3 Foliar Feeding tomato (Reuveni and Raviv 1992) and downy
Foliar feeding is used by many organic growers mildew on cucumber (Reuveni and Raviv 1997).
to induce resistance to foliar diseases. Seaweed Green-pigmented polyethylene reduced the
Table 11.2 Selected fungicides and bactericides labeled for vegetable plants
Fungicide Targeted pest Labeled crops Comments
Basic copper sulfate Many diseases – angular Many – cucumbers, Crops grown in greenhouse
(Cuprofix Ultra 40 leaf spot, downy mildew, eggplant, peppers, may be more sensitive to
Disperss), 12 h REI, Alternaria blight, tomatoes copper injury. Observe for
Group M1 anthracnose, bacterial 7–10 days for symptoms of
blight, bacterial spot injury
(depending on crop)
Bacillus pumilus Downy mildew, powdery Many – cole crops, Begin applications when
(Sonata), 4 h REI, mildew cucurbits, fruiting, leafy greenhouse conditions favor
Group 44, OMRI listed vegetables disease development
Bacillus subtilis Many diseases – downy Many vegetables – Preventive biofungicide.
(Serenade), 4 h REI, mildew, powdery mildew, broccoli, leafy Thorough coverage
Group 44, OMRI listed bacterial spot, early blight vegetables, cucurbits, essential
peppers, tomatoes
Bacillus subtilis (Cease), Many diseases – leaf spots, Many including cole Begin applications when
4 h REI, Group 44, powdery mildew, Botrytis crops, cucurbits, fruiting greenhouse conditions favor
OMRI listed blight, downy mildew vegetables, leafy disease development.
vegetables Thorough coverage
essential
Copper hydroxide (Champ Leaf spots, anthracnose, See labels for specific See labels for specific usage
DP Dry Prill, Champ bacterial spots, and other crops instructions
Formula 2 Flowable, diseases
Champion WP, Champ
WG [OMRI listed],
Kocide 101, Kocide 2000,
Kocide 4.5LF, Kocide
DF), 24 h REI, Group M1
Copper salts of fatty and Many – bacterial leaf spots, Greenhouse vegetables See label for specific usage
rosin acids (Camelot), 12 leaf spots and blights, instructions
h REI, Group M1 downy mildew, powdery
mildew
Cuprous oxide (Nordox Anthracnose, Phomopsis, Tomato, pepper, Begin applications when
75 WG), 24 h REI, Group Botrytis, various leaf spots eggplant disease first threatens
M1 and blights
Dichloran (Botran 75-W), Botrytis, white mold Cucumber, leaf lettuce, Seedlings or newly set
12 h REI, Group 14 (Sclerotinia) tomato transplants of tomato may
be injured by drenching
Fenhexamid (Decree Botrytis Fruiting vegetables, Thorough coverage needed.
50WDG), 12 h REI, tomatoes, cucumber, Do not make more than two
Group 17 leafy greens (except consecutive applications
spinach)
Horticultural oil, Powdery mildew Cucurbits, melons, Contact fungicide.
paraffinic oil (Ultra-Pure squash, and others Application should be made
Oils), 4 h REI, NC when disease is first
Saf-T-Side (spray oil noticed. Applications
emulsion fungicide, should be preceded by a
insecticide, and miticide), phytotoxicity check to
12 h REI, NC, OMRI ensure that material is safe
listed (Organic JMS Stylet
Oil)
Hydrogen dioxide Many – mildews, leaf Tomato, pepper, leafy Strong oxidizing agent.
(OxiDate), 0 h REI spots, and blights and cole crops, Contact, oxidizing sanitizer
(nonspray), 1 h REI cucurbits, and others
(spray), OMRI listed
(continued)

Fungicide Targeted pest Labeled crops Comments
Insecticidal soap, Powdery mildew Greenhouse cucumber Works by contact
potassium salts of fatty
acids (M-Pede), 12 h REI,
OMRI listed
Kaolin (Surround WP), 4 Powdery mildew Cucurbit vegetables Forms a mineral-based
h REI, Group NC, OMRI particle film resulting in a
listed dry, white film. May be
unsightly for retail sales.
Uniform coverage important
for effectiveness
Table 11.3 Commercial biopesticides

Biopesticide Supplier Pests controlled REI Application/comments
AQ10 Ampelomyces Plant Health Care Powdery mildew 4h Begin application as soon as
quisqualis host tissue emerges. Apply at
least two sequential sprays
7–14 days apart. Works best
under conditions of high
humidity
SoilGard Gliocladium Thermo Trilogy Rhizoctonia, 4h Incorporate into soil before
virens Fusarium, Pythium, planting
Phytophthora,
Thielaviopsis
Mycostop Gliocladium Green Spot Fusarium, Alternaria, 4h Can be incorporated into
virens Phomopsis medium or applied to seed
Deny Pseudomonas Stine Seed Rhizoctonia,
(Burkholderia) cepacia Fusarium, Pythium
Intercept Pseudomonas Soil Technologies Rhizoctonia,
(Burkholderia) cepacia Fusarium, Pythium,
nematodes
Actinovate Streptomyces Green Spot Pythium, Fusarium, Can be incorporated into
lydicus Phytophthora, medium or applied to seed
Sclerotinia
Bio-Trek HB Trichoderma Wilbur-Ellis Fusarium, Pythium, 12 h Apply to seed
harzianum Rhizoctonia
Bio-Trek Nursery Drench Wilbur-Ellis Fusarium, Pythium, 12 h
Trichoderma harzianum Rhizoctonia
RootShield Trichoderma BioWorks Fusarium, Pythium,
harzianum Rhizoctonia,
Sclerotinia
Trichodex Trichoderma Abbott Botrytis
harzianum
TopShield Trichoderma BioWorks Botrytis, powdery
harzianum mildew
conidial load and gray mold in commercial fulva (Cladosporium fulvum) on tomato, and
tomato and cucumber greenhouses by 35–75 %. cucumber powdery mildew were also reduced
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on cucumber, Fulvia (Elad 1997).
References 141
11.3.2.6 Greenhouse Structures Elad Y (1997) Effect of filtration of solar light on the pro-
duction of conidia by field isolates of Botrytis cinerea
and Covers and on several diseases of greenhouse-grown vegeta-
The influence of greenhouse structures and cov- bles. Crop Prot 16:635–642
ers on greenhouse climatic regimes may have Gamliel A et al. No date. Solarization for the recycling of
strong consequences for diseases. In high-tech container media. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Rehovot. Unpublished manuscript, 8 pp
greenhouses, regulation of temperature and water
Garibaldi A, Bullino ML (1991) Soil solarization in
pressure deficit enables the creation of conditions Southern European countries, with emphasis on soil-
less favorable to pathogens and, in some cases, borne disease control of protected crops. In: Katan J,
more favorable to biocontrol agents. The use of DeVay JE (eds) Soil solarization. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, pp 227–235
heating to limit the development of a number of
Giblin RM, Verkade SD (1987) Solarization of small vol-
pathogens is well known (Jarvis 1992). The use umes of potting soil for disinfection of plant-parasitic
of high root temperatures in winter-grown toma- nematodes. Proc Fla State Hortic Soc 100:174–176
toes in rock wool offers a nonchemical method of Gindrat D (1979) Biological soil disinfection. In: Mulder
D (ed) Soil disinfection. Elsevier Scientific Publishing
controlling root rot caused by Phytophthora
Co, New York, pp 253–287
cryptogea. The high temperature was shown to Horiuchi S (1991) Soil solarization in Japan. In: Katan J,
enhance root growth while simultaneously sup- DeVay JE (eds) Soil solarization. CRC Press, Boca
pressing inoculum potential and infection and, Raton, pp 215, 218–223, 225
Jarvis WR (1992) Managing diseases in greenhouse
consequently, reducing or preventing aerial
crops. American Phytopathological Society, St Paul,
symptoms (Kennedy and Pegg 1990). Careful pp 3, 5, 220–221
control of the temperature also proved important Kennedy R, Pegg GF (1990) Phytophthora cryptogea root
in the case of hydroponically grown spinach and rot of tomato in rock wool nutrient culture. III. Effect
of root zone temperature on infection, sporulation and
lettuce, in which it prevented or reduced attack
symptom development. Ann Appl Biol 117:537–551
by both Pythium dissotocum and Pythium Klassen P (1993) Mulling over methyl bromide.
aphanidermatum (Bates and Stanghellini 1984). Greenhouse Grower, August, pp 118, 120
Recently, attacks of P. aphanidermatum on nutri- Mahrer Y (1991) Physical properties of solar heating of
soils by plastic mulching in the field and in glass-
ent film technique (NFT)-grown lettuce in Italy
houses and simulation models. In: Katan J, DeVay JE
were related to the high temperature (>29 °C) of (eds) Soil solarization. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 75,
the nutrient solution. Root rot was inhibited by 81–86
reducing the temperature below 24 °C (Carrai Nowosielski O, Dziennik W, Kotlinska D, Narkiewicz J,
Dobrzanska J (1988) A biological basis for the effi-
1993).
ciency of plant protecting foliar fertilizers in vegetable
production. Acta Hortic 222:105–116
Reuveni R, Raviv M (1992) The effect of spectrally-
References modified polyethylene films on the development of
Botrytis cinerea in greenhouse grown tomato plants.
Biol Agric Hortic 9:77–86
Anon (1990) Baking soda can ward off fungus.
Reuveni R, Raviv M (1997) Control of downy mildew in
Greenhouse Manager, June, p 24
greenhouse-grown cucumbers using blue photoselec-
Anon (1992) Mycori-Mix contains beneficial fungi, sup-
tive polyethylene sheets. Plant Dis 81:999–1004
presses Pythium. Greenhouse Manager, September,
Reuveni R, Raviv M, Bar R (1989) Sporulation of Botrytis
p 68
cinerea as affected by photoselective sheets and filters.
Bates ML, Stanghellini ME (1984) Root rot of hydroponi-
Ann Appl Biol 115:417–424
cally grown spinach caused by Pythium aphaniderma-
Roberts DR (1992) Insect-, disease-suppressive mixers
tum and P. dissotocum. Plant Dis 68:989–991
help growers minimize crop losses. Greenhouse
Carrai C (1993) Marciume radicale su lattuga allevata in
Manager, September, pp 68, 70–71
impianti NFT. Colture Protette 22(6):77–81
Fungal Diseases and Their
Management 12
Abstract
Fungal diseases constitute one of the biggest groups of foliar pathogens
causing immense damage under protected environment. The important
fungal diseases include damping-off, crown and root rots, wilts, powdery
mildews, downy mildews, Botrytis diseases, Sclerotinia rot, Alternaria
diseases, and rust diseases. Proper field sanitation is one of the most
important management strategies, since once the buildup of inoculum
occurs inside polyhouse, it is very difficult to manage it. The use of
disease-resistant varieties, reduced incidence of leaf wetness by staking
plants, providing ample spacing between plants to allow for good air
movement, and avoiding overhead irrigation also help in disease control.
For judicious use, chemicals with least toxicity recommended specially
for polyhouse cultivation should be sprayed.
Keywords
Fungal diseases • Damping-off • Wilts • Powdery mildews • Downy mil-
dews • Botrytis diseases • Alternaria diseases
12.1 Introduction mold, respectively, were observed to be of higher

significance under polyhouse condition. Further,
Fungal diseases constitute one of the biggest the notion of early and late blight was found to be
groups of foliar and soilborne pathogens causing obscure under polyhouse condition since it was
immense damage under protected environment. observed that late blight appears early in the crop
It was found that the incidence and severity of season, whereas early blight appears late during
diseases vary considerably under protected envi- crop season. This may be attributed to the fact
ronment when compared to open field. As that temperature and humidity are nearly bal-
observed in tomato, Phytophthora infestans, anced inside a protected structure, even when
Pseudocercospora fuliginea, and Fulvia fulva outside field temperature is comparatively low
causing late blight, black leaf mold, and leaf and so on. Alternaria alternata is found to be a

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_12
144 12 Fungal Diseases and Their Management
major disease affecting fruits. Capsicum on the weeks later in Rhizoctonia stem rot. Rhizoctonia
other hand is found to be infected primarily by solani may infect at moderate soil moisture
anthracnose (Colletotrichum capsici), leaf spot levels, but Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp.
(Cercospora capsici), damping-off (Pythium, infect only in water-saturated soils (Strider 1985).
Fusarium, and Phytophthora spp.), gray leaf spot
(Stemphylium solani and S. lycopersici), stem rot
(Sclerotium rolfsii, Verticillium albo-atrum, and 12.2.1 Symptoms
V. dahliae), Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora
capsici), powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica), 12.2.1.1 Pythium
and gray mold (Botrytis cinerea). Cucumber also and Phytophthora Rots
attracts a considerable quantum of fungal patho- Various Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp. may
gens, out of which downy mildew damage the lower part of tomato, pepper, cucum-
(Pseudoperonospora cubensis), powdery mildew ber, carnation, poinsettia, gerbera, etc., both in
(Erysiphe cichoracearum and Sphacelotheca soil and soilless cultures.
fuliginea), leaf spot (Alternaria cucumerina), In tomato, a root and crown rot extending to a
anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium), and considerable height above the soil level may
damping-off (Pythium spp.) are important. occur. The infected area has a dark discoloration
Survival of pathogen is also enhanced inside and the pith is usually destroyed. Phytophthora
polyhouse due to availability of a host because of nicotianae var. parasitica is the most common
longer growing season. pathogen. In pepper, a similar disease caused by
P. capsici is very common. Collar, stem, and fruit
rot as well as leaf spots may occur. In cucumber,
a soft rot of the young plants at the soil level may
12.2 Damping-Off, Crown occur soon after transplanting. Infected tissues
and Root Rots shrink and in wet weather a white mycelium
develops. Infected plants wilt and die quickly.
Plants in seedbeds may be diseased, either before Poinsettia grown in pots also suffers from
or after their emergence from the soil, and the Pythium rot. Severe root rot, extending above
disease is called pre- or postemergence damping- ground in succulent plants, and quick death are
off, respectively. In the first case, seedlings do the main symptoms. In cucumber and poinsettia,
not emerge in patches of the seedbeds. In the Pythium ultimum, P. irregulare, P. debaryanum,
second case, plants rot quickly and drop down on and P. aphanidermatum are mostly involved
the soil. Low temperatures and very wet soils, (Tompkins and Middleton 1950). Carnations
which delay the growth of the plants, favor infec- infected by Pythium and Phytophthora species
tion. A large number of fungi may cause damp- develop soft rot at the collar and in the root sys-
ing-off, but Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., tem, resembling Rhizoctonia stem rot.
Fusarium spp., and Rhizoctonia solani are the
most common. Nowadays, due to the use of 12.2.1.2 Rhizoctonia Stem Rot (R.
improved technology, damping-off is no longer a solani)
severe disease in greenhouses (Blancard et al. This infects a large number of plants, such as
1991). However, root rots and crown rots are still tomato, carnation, poinsettia, etc., causing symp-
destructive in soil, though not in soilless cultures toms resembling Pythium or Phytophthora rots.
(Davies 1980). Rhizoctonia stem rot is mainly confined to the
All Pythium and Phytophthora species as well collar. Carnation is very susceptible. Infected
as R. solani are common soil inhabitants. They plants show pale brown dry lesions, with circular
survive in the soil. Infection usually takes place rings, at soil level. Growth is stunted and leaves
at the time of planting and symptoms appear very become dull green. Complete wilting soon fol-
soon in Pythium and Phytophthora rot or several lows. Strands of the pathogen develop on the
12.3 Wilts 145
lesions and stems break easily at the infected area sidered to be high. Seed treatment against these
(Parmeter 1970). fungi is also recommended. Cultivars have dif-
ferent degrees of resistance toward these
diseases.
12.2.2 Management
Prevention is the only effective approach, because 12.2.3 Main Fungicides

damping-off is difficult to stop once symptoms
occur. There are several strategies to prevent Against All the Fungi Concerned Etridiazole,
damping-off: furalaxyl, and propamocarb (by pot soil treat-
ment) and etridiazole, fosetyl-Al, furalaxyl, and
• Use only certified disease-free seed from propamocarb (by spray).
reputed seed companies.
• Use fungicide-treated seed: certain fungicides Against Pythium spp. and Phytophthora
are labeled for damping-off for selected vege- spp. Furalaxyl, metalaxyl, and oxadixyl.
table crops.
• Use pasteurized soil or compost-based or soil- Against Rhizoctonia solani Iprodione, pencyc-
less mixes. uron, and tolclofos-methyl.
• Avoid overwatering, excessive fertilizer, over-
crowding, poor air circulation, careless han-
dling, and planting too deeply. 12.3 Wilts
• Provide adequate light for rapid growth.
All major greenhouse crops suffer from one or
Effective control of the abovementioned dis- more wilts. In several crops, wilts are the main
eases may be obtained selectively by the follow- diseases due to the damage they cause and the
ing means: (i) use of naturally or artificially difficulty of controlling them.
suppressive substrates, (ii) early drenching by
effective fungicides, (iii) soil disinfestation, (iv)
use of resistant cultivars, (v) grafting on resis- 12.3.1 Symptoms
tant rootstocks, and (vi) biological control
(Tjamos 1992). 12.3.1.1 Fusarium Wilt (F. oxysporum)
Hygiene is of utmost importance. Since the The most common Fusarium wilts in green-
fungi concerned are soilborne, it is important to houses appear on tomato (F. oxysporum f. sp.
use disease-free soil, substrates, pots, etc. This is lycopersici), cucumber (F. oxysporum f. sp. cuc-
preferably done by using new or steam-sterilized umerinum), melon (F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis),
material, but cleaning and sterilization of pots, carnation (F. oxysporum f. sp. dianthi), gladiolus
glass, etc., is also possible with chemical disin- (F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli), cyclamen (F. oxys-
fectants, such as copper sulfate, quaternary porum f sp. cyclaminis), and chrysanthemum (F.
ammonium compounds, formaldehyde, and oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemi).
sodium hypochlorite. Moist conditions often Wilting, yellowing, chlorosis, drooping
favor these fungi and should be avoided. In sys- (mostly of the lower leaves), stunting, and brown
tems where recirculated water is used, the dis- discoloration of the vascular bands up to the top
eases can spread rapidly. For these systems, the of the stem are the dominant symptoms. Wilting
water should therefore be disinfected. This can of the lateral shoots and large lesions on the lower
be done by heating, with sand filters, or by UV part of the stem are also common in Fusarium
radiation. Fungicides can be used, by application wilt of carnation and melon. All the above F. oxy-
to soil in pots or by spray. They are generally sporum formae speciales have more than one
used preventively, in cases where the risk is con- race. Each of them infects cultivars of one host
but may colonize the root system of other plants spraying or pouring from a watering can). The
as well. They survive in the soil for several years, sensitivity of the different pathogens to individ-
due to the production of thick-walled chlamydo- ual fungicides varies considerably. Therefore, in
spores, but inoculum is reduced over the years. case of doubt, the problem should be thoroughly
Fusarium wilt in tomato, watermelon, carnation, investigated, the pathogen identified, and expert
cyclamen, chrysanthemum, and gladiolus is advice obtained on suitable fungicides.
favored by higher temperatures than Fusarium
wilt in melon (Sherf and Macnab 1986).
12.3.3 Main Fungicides
12.3.1.2 Verticillium–Phialophora Wilt,
Verticillium dahliae, V. albo- Prophylactic Furalaxyl, metalaxyl, prochloraz,
atrum, Phialophora propamocarb, tolclofos-methyl, and zineb.
cinerescens (Verticillium
cinerescens) Curative Carbendazim, furalaxyl, iprodione,
This infects a huge number of plants and among metalaxyl, prochloraz, and tolclofos-methyl.
them the majority of the plants grown in green-
houses. It is more severe in Solanaceae such as
tomato, eggplant, and pepper. Of the floral crops, 12.4 Powdery Mildews
chrysanthemum seems to be more susceptible.
Symptoms are very similar to those of Fusarium Powdery mildews are very destructive of several
wilt. Verticillium wilt is favored by moderate greenhouse crops. The following are some of the
temperatures. Verticillium dahliae, which is more powdery mildew fungi which mostly attack
common, survives in the soil for many years due greenhouse-grown plants:
to the abundant production of black resistant
microsclerotia, while V. albo-atrum survives by • Cucurbits – Sphaerotheca fusca (Sphaerotheca
producing dark dormant mycelium. A similar fuliginea), E. cichoracearum, and L. taurica
wilt caused by P. cinerescens damages carnations (only on cucumber)
in several areas (Sherf and Macnab 1986). • Solanaceous plants – L. taurica and Oidium
lycopersicum (only on tomato)
• Roses – Sphaerotheca pannosa
12.3.2 Management • Begonia – Microsphaera begonia
• Gerbera – Erysiphe cichoracearum
Hygiene solves many problems and all possible
precautions and actions associated with proper
sanitation and management should be taken. If
there have been previous problems with wilting, 12.4.1 Symptoms
the soil should be steam-sterilized before plant-
ing or use as pot soil and again after harvest. Powdery mildew fungi (except for L. taurica)
Infected plants should be removed. After harvest, may attack all green tissues. The dominant symp-
the pallets, water hoses, glass walls, etc., should toms include initial white powdery spots, which
be cleaned thoroughly. The water table should be enlarge and coalesce to cover large areas.
checked and should be kept sufficiently low. High Leveillula taurica infects only leaves. Light yel-
sodium and nitrogen concentrations should be low or yellow-green spots on the upper leaf sur-
avoided and only healthy planting material should face, which later become brown, and scarce white
be used. Fungicides can be used prophylactically mold on the lower surface are the main character-
(by soil treatment before planting or added to istics. Powdery mildew-infected plant parts may
water for pouring after planting) or curatively (by be chlorotic and distorted. Premature defoliation
12.5 Downy Mildews 147
and poor growth are common features of severely • Maintain proper plant spacing to reduce
infected plants (Braun 1995). relative humidity levels within the plant can-
Infections take place by conidia. Under opy and improve spray coverage.
favorable conditions, powdery mildew pro- • Keep relative humidity levels below 90 % in
gresses rapidly. By the end of the season, some the greenhouse. Heat and ventilate in the late
powdery mildew fungi, such as S. fuliginea, E. afternoon and early morning to reduce high
cichoracearum, etc., may develop cleistothecia relative humidity at night.
with ascospores, but these do not play an impor- • Clean the greenhouse thoroughly between
tant role in the epidemiology of the disease crops, removing all weeds that could be poten-
(Braun 1995). tial hosts.
Conidia are mostly discharged and transferred
by wind currents. Animal pests may also dissem-
inate conidia in greenhouse crops. Young conidia
readily germinate on plant surfaces depleted of 12.4.3 Main Fungicides
nutrients. The relative humidity (RH) favoring
infection by powdery mildew fungi and develop- Benomyl, bitertanol, bupirimate, carbendazim,
ment of the disease differs from species to spe- dichlofluanid, dinocap, dodemorph, fenarimol,
cies. For instance, high RH is more favorable for imazalil, penconazole, propiconazole,
S. fuliginea than for E. cichoracearum. Therefore, thiophanate-methyl, triadimenol, and triforine
the first fungus is more frequent on greenhouse Chemicals such as demethylation inhibitors
cucurbits than the second. High RH may favor (DMIs) (triadimefon, fenarimol, etc.), pyrimi-
spore germination of powdery mildew fungi, but dines (ethirimol, bupirimate, etc.), pyrazophos,
free water may be deleterious. RH at 97–99 % is and dinocap remain the main means of control-
optimal for spore germination of S. pannosa and ling powdery mildews in greenhouses. Biological
S. fuliginea. At RH below 75 %, spores of S. pan- control agents have also been effectively tested
nosa do not germinate, but mycelium develop- against S. fuliginea and S. pannosa. Finally, fully
ment and sporulation may occur at RH as low as resistant cvs of melon and partially resistant cvs
21–22 %. Powdery mildew fungi overwinter on of long-type cucumber are available (Coyier
cultivated plants or weeds, which survive in or 1985b; Molot and Lecoq 1986).
outside the greenhouse (Coyier 1985a).
12.5 Downy Mildews

12.4.2 Management
Downy mildews of tomato (P. infestans), cucurbit
Dense stand of the plants, high nitrogen concen- (Pseudoperonospora cubensis), lettuce (Bremia
trations, and temperature fluctuations should be lactucae), rose (Peronospora sparsa), and snap-
avoided. The plants should be watered at a proper dragon (Peronospora antirrhini) are the most
time (allowing the soil to dry before night) and destructive in greenhouse-grown plants.
frequently ventilated. Affected plants or their
parts (leaves, stems, and flowers) should be
removed. Contrary to most fungal diseases, the 12.5.1 Symptoms
release of conidia of these fungi is stimulated by
low relative humidity. If under these conditions In tomato, leaves and young shoots are infected
an attack develops, the application of a fungicide first. Fruit infection starts mostly near the stalk
spray becomes necessary. The use of resistant and spreads very quickly to the whole fruit.
cultivars can, however, reduce fungicide Infected tissues of fruits and shoots are firm and
treatments: brown (Sherf and Macnab 1986).
In cucurbits, downy mildew appears as yel- Free water on plant tissues is necessary for
low, angular, or circular spots on the upper sur- downy mildew fungi to cause infection. High
face of the mature leaves of the plant. Soon the RH is also required for good sporulation.
tissues at the center of the spots die and become Peronospora antirrhini is favored by low tem-
light brown. Cucumber and melon are more sus- perature and high RH. Free water or high rela-
ceptible than watermelon. tive humidity is not often a factor limiting downy
Downy mildew of lettuce causes scattered mildew development in plastic greenhouses. It
light-green to yellow spots on the upper leaf sur- seems that temperature is more critical. For
face. Old spots become brown and dry up. instance, P. cubensis, with a high maximum tem-
Downy mildew of rose damages all green perature for development and infection, may,
plant parts, but leaves are more susceptible. Leaf under certain conditions, infect all year round,
infection resembles the effect of toxins. Infected whereas P. infestans and P. sparsa do not infect
leaves have purplish red to dark-brown irregular during the hot period of the year. Downy mil-
spots and shed readily (Strider 1985). Snapdragon dews complete a cycle within about 6–8 days.
plants infected by P. antirrhini are stunted and Thus, under favorable weather conditions, they
the top internodes of the young plants are short. may have several cycles and spread rapidly
The borders of the lower leaves curl down and (Strider 1985).
then dry. Eventually the entire plant dies
(Garibaldi and Rapetti 1981). A white fungal
growth (brown for cucurbit downy mildew) on 12.5.2 Management
the infected tissues under moist conditions is
typical of all downy mildews. These fungi like moist conditions, wet leaves,
Plant infection takes place through stomata and and a high relative humidity. Wet crops should
mycelium develops intercellularly. Soon branched therefore be dried as quickly as possible by heat-
conidiophores are produced and protrude through ing or ventilation and temperature fluctuations
the stomata. Infection progresses in the periphery should also be avoided. In many crops, a prophy-
of the spot which gradually enlarges. Conidiospores lactic treatment with fungicides is necessary. In
of downy mildews are ovoid and hyaline, except case of an infestation, a treatment with a curative
for P. cubensis which are brown. They are dis- fungicide should be done, followed by a series of
charged by hygroscopic changes and disseminate prophylactic sprayings.
in greenhouses by wind currents and water Dithiocarbamates, chlorothalonil, and the sys-
splashes. Initial infection may take place by spores temic phenylamides (metalaxyl, Ridomil, etc.)
that are transferred over long distances by the are the most commonly used in greenhouses.
wind. Abundant oospores of P. antirrhini develop There are some tomato cvs fully resistant to
on dead plant stems. Oospores of P. sparsa also downy mildew and some partially resistant
very often develop on infected roses, whereas P. cucumber cvs suitable for greenhouses, but all
cubensis and P. infestans oospores are rare. rose cvs grown for cut flowers are susceptible to
Phytophthora infestans survives on seed potato downy mildew. Ventilation of the greenhouses
tubers and spreads to young potato plants after may also effectively prevent infection (Strider
they have been planted. Inoculum is disseminated 1985).
from potatoes to neighboring tomato crops.
Cucurbit downy mildew can infect several species
of cucurbits, grown either in greenhouses or open 12.5.3 Main Fungicides
fields all year round. There is evidence that P.
sparsa survives as a dormant mycelium on the Prophylactic Chlorothalonil, fosetyl-Al, man-
infected stems of roses. Peronospora antirrhini cozeb, and propamocarb.
perennates as dormant thick-walled oospores in
dead plant parts and soil (Sherf and Macnab 1986). Curative Furalaxyl and metalaxyl.
12.6 Botrytis Diseases 149
12.6 Botrytis Diseases after emergence. Finally, Botrytis spp. may cause
severe postharvest losses in plant products during
Botrytis cinerea, B. tulipae, and B. gladiolorum storage or transportation (Trolinger and Strider
are Botrytis spp. that cause most damage in 1985).
greenhouse crops. Botrytis cinerea develops and sporulates pro-
fusely on any organic material. Spores are dis-
seminated by wind over long distances or by
12.6.1 Symptoms water splashes. Healthy plants are infected
through wounds, through senescent tissues,
Botrytis cinerea causes gray mold on a large directly through the epidermis, and rarely
range of hosts, including nearly all the major through stomata. Symptoms may appear very
greenhouse plants. All plant parts at different quickly or infection may remain quiescent and
growth stages may be damaged. Due to the diver- symptoms appear later when tissues age or dur-
sity of the infected plant parts, several types of ing storage. In greenhouses, initial infection
symptoms appear on one or on various hosts. On depends on spores transferred from outdoors.
young stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, initially Later, the inoculum established in the green-
water-soaked spots occur, which rapidly enlarge house is the main source of infection. In plants
under favorable weather conditions. In tomato grown in non-heated greenhouses, low tempera-
fruits, green-white circular spots called “ghost ture, high RH, and low light intensity, prevalent
spots” also appear. On hard plant parts, such as from late November till late March, create good
stems and collars, B. cinerea causes cankers and conditions for infection by B. cinerea (Elad et al.
parts above them may die. These symptoms are 1992; Jarvis 1992).
very common on vegetables such as tomato, egg-
plant, pepper, and cucumber. Infected tissues die
soon and a gray mold which consists of conidio- 12.6.2 Management
phores with clusters of spores develops on their
surface. In plants, like tomato, black sclerotia Hygiene is very important. Detritus and infected
develop inside the infected stems. Botrytis cine- leaves, stems, and flowers should be removed.
rea also causes very characteristic collar rot in Soil or growing medium should be well drained
lettuce. The infected plants usually develop large and a dense stand should be avoided. The relative
brown necrotic lesions on the stem near the soil humidity should be generally low, without too
surface and the lower leaves. The infection grad- much water sprinkled over the plants. Plants
ually progresses upward. Infected plants may should not be allowed to become wet (e.g., by
wither and die in a short time (Sherf and Macnab condensation) or, if they do, should be dried as
1986). soon as practicable. Fungicides should be applied
Botrytis tulipae causes tulip fire blight. Spots as sprays, as soon as symptoms are seen.
of various types on leaves and flowers, lesions on Management of environmental conditions,
the stem, blossom blight, and bulb rot are the such as temperature, humidity, and duration of
dominant characteristics. Botrytis gladiolorum leaf wetness, together with sound cultural prac-
damages gladiolus and some other Iridaceae. tices and use of fungicides, will help prevent dis-
Large spots on leaves and the stem, pinpoint ease development:
spots on the flowers, neck rot, and soft rot of
corms are the most common symptoms. Botrytis • Remove plant debris between crop cycles and
spp. also infect all types of propagating material, during production.
which are either destroyed before planting out or • Dispose of diseased plants and debris in plas-
become weak plants which may die before or tic bags; keep bags closed to prevent the
spread of spores to uninfected plants as the the heart of the plants. Infected leaves fall onto
bag is removed from the greenhouse. the soil and dry up. The other plants are infected
• Reduce humidity and leaf wetness duration to along the stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. Infected
prevent spore germination, provide good air areas become water-soaked. Stem infection is
circulation, and reduce humidity within the more severe. Leaves above the infected area
canopy. become yellow, then wither, and die. In wet
• Pay attention to proper planting dates, fertility, weather, a white mass of mycelia appears on the
watering, and height management to prevent infected areas, which gradually develops into
plants from becoming overgrown, with the black sclerotia. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, which
aim of reducing humidity within the canopy. is the most common pathogen, produces sclerotia
up to the size of bean seeds, whereas S. minor
Botrytis-incited diseases are prevented by ven- produces smaller sclerotia. Sclerotia fall onto the
tilation and heating of greenhouses. Fungicides, soil where they can survive for several years.
mostly benzimidazoles and dicarboximides, are When weather conditions are favorable, they ger-
also used extensively. Nowadays, due to the pre- minate to produce apothecia which release asco-
dominance of resistant strains of the pathogen, spores and cause new infection. High RH and
they are only marginally effective and growers are moderate temperature are required for infection
advised to combine dicarboximides with other (Fletcher 1984).
means of control such as biocontrol preparations.
New fungicides have recently been released, but
in greenhouses, they are used on a limited scale. 12.7.2 Management
Formulations of biological control agents such as
Trichodex (Trichoderma harzianum T39) are also The spaces between plants should be wide, moist
available (Elad et al. 1992; Gullino 1992). conditions should be avoided, and affected plants
should be removed. If infestation is to be
expected, the soil should be steam-sterilized or
12.6.3 Main Fungicides the soil surface should be covered with mulch.
Fungicides should be applied as sprays, as soon
as symptoms are seen.
Sprays Carbendazim, chlorothalonil, dichloflu- The elimination of sclerotia and the control
anid, iprodione, procymidone, thiram, tolylflua- measures recommended against gray mold are
nid, and vinclozolin. effective against Sclerotinia rot as well:
Space Treatments Chlorothalonil, dicloran, • Practice strict sanitation, removing debris

iprodione, and vinclozolin. from the greenhouse to prevent renewed
infection.
• Control the quantities and the duration of irri-
12.7 Sclerotinia Rot, Sclerotinia gation to reduce soil wetness.
sclerotiorum, S. minor • Adopt sound cultural practices and fungicides
to help prevent disease development.
12.7.1 Symptoms
This is a common greenhouse disease that dam-

ages lettuce, eggplant, tomato, cucumber, pepper, 12.7.3 Main Fungicides
etc. Infection on lettuce begins close to the soil,
where a water-soaked area appears. Infection Iprodione, procymidone, thiophanate-methyl,
may spread downward to the roots or upward to thiram, and vinclozolin
12.9 Didymella Diseases 151
12.8 Alternaria Diseases 12.9 Didymella Diseases
12.8.1 Symptoms 12.9.1 Symptoms
Strains of Alternaria alternata have been Two very severe diseases of greenhouse crops are
recorded: (i) causing cankers in tomato crops, (ii) caused by Didymella spp.: Didymella stem rot or
causing leaf spotting in cucumber, and (iii) caus- canker in tomato and eggplant {Didymella lycoper-
ing mostly postharvest rotting on tomato fruits. sici [teleomorph of Phoma lycopersici (Diplodina
Also A. cucumerina may on occasion infect lycopersici)]} and gummy stem blight in cucurbits
cucumber, melon, watermelon, and squash [Didymella bryoniae (anamorph of Phoma cucur-
(Vakalounakis and Malathrakis 1987). At pres- bitacearum)]. Both diseases damage all aerial plant
ent, none of them has any economic impact on parts of their hosts in greenhouses when weather is
greenhouse crops. cool and RH high. They may infect the collar and
All Alternaria species are facultative para- root system causing yellowing and withering of the
sites mostly infecting weak plants. They sur- plants, which may later die. Cankers along the stem
vive in the soil on plant debris, but their black and the petioles are also very common. Plant parts
spores may also survive on several surfaces in above cankers may die. Both diseases cause large
greenhouses. Alternaria solani may survive on spots on the leaves which may cover the entire leaf
potato, which is an alternative host. Spores surface. Tomato fruits are infected at the stem end.
growing on dead material or on host plants are Initially, the infected area is light brown but it soon
easily disseminated by wind or by splashed turns pink due to the large amount of pycnidio-
water. Plant infection takes place through sto- spores released. Infected parts may cover one-third
mata or directly through leaf surface. Spore of the fruit surface. Infection of cucumber and
germination and subsequent infection take melon fruits by D. bryoniae appears mostly at the
place under a wide range of temperature. RH blossom end. Infection may occur only inside the
needs to be higher than 97 % for rapid germina- fruit without being visible on the surface. Soon
tion, but germination may take place in some after infection, a lot of pycnidia appear on the
cases at RH >75 %. Senescent tissues are pref- infected areas and their color turns dark brown.
erentially infected. The optimal temperature Dark perithecia also appear a little later than pyc-
reported for A. solani is 18–25 °C and for A. nidia produced by D. bryoniae, while those of D.
cucumerina 20–32 °C. However, temperatures lycopersici are rare (Blancard et al. 1991).
prevailing during the growing period of the The inoculum remains in plant residues inside
respective hosts are not a factor limiting and outside greenhouses. In the first case, infec-
infection. tion starts through the collar. There is good evi-
dence that infection of the aerial parts by D.
bryoniae is initiated by ascospores released from
12.8.2 Management infected plant material left outside greenhouses.
In greenhouses, the two diseases are rapidly
Alternaria diseases can be prevented by dithio- spread by water splashes and cultural practices.
carbamates, chlorothalonil, iprodione, etc.
Hygienic measures and use of healthy propa-
gating material are very important, especially 12.9.2 Management
when crops are grown in the soil. Inoculum
surviving on plant debris in the soil and spores Soil disinfestation, destruction of plant residues,
remaining on the greenhouse frames should be and strict hygienic conditions delay the outbreak
eradicated. of the disease. However, disinfested soil is read-
ily reinfested. The fungicides commonly used in Braun W (1995) The powdery mildews (Erysiphales) of
Europe. Gustav Fischer, New York
greenhouse against other fungal diseases are also
Coyier DL (1985a) Powdery mildews. In: Strider DL (ed)
effective. Moreover, the reduction of the RH and Diseases of floral crops, vol 1. Praeger, New York,
of free water on the leaf surfaces is very effective pp 103–140
(Sherf and Macnab 1986). Coyier DL (1985b) Roses. In: Strider DL (ed) Diseases of
floral crop, vol 2. Praeger, New York, pp 405–417
Davies JML (1980) Diseases in NFT. Acta Horticult
98:299–305
12.10 Rust Diseases Elad Y, Shtienberg D, Yunis H, Mahrer Y (1992)
Epidemiology of grey mould, caused by Botrytis cine-
rea in vegetable greenhouses. In: Verhoeff K,
12.10.1 Symptoms Malathrakis NE, Williamson B (eds) Recent advances
in Botrytis research. Pudoc Scientific Publishers,
The rust fungi (Uredinales) form orange or brown Wagenigen, pp 147–158
spots containing spores on stems or leaves. The Fletcher JT (1984) Diseases of greenhouse plants.
Longman, New York
spores are widely dispersed in the air. Examples are
Garibaldi A, Rapetti S (1981) Grave epidemia di peronos-
Coleosporium tussilaginis on cineraria, Puccinia pora su antirrino. Colture Protette 9:35–38
horiana on chrysanthemum, Puccinia pelargonii- Gullino ML (1992) Chemical control of Botrytis spp. In:
zonalis on pelargonium, Pucciniastrum epilobii on Verhoeff K, Malathrakis NE, Williamson B (eds)
Recent advances in Botrytis research. Pudoc Scientific
fuchsia, and Uromyces dianthi on carnation.
Publishers, Wagenigen, pp 217–222
Jarvis WN (1992) Managing diseases in greenhouse
crops. APS Press, St Paul
12.10.2 Management Molot PM, Lecoq H (1986) Les oidiums des cucurbita-
cées. I. Données bibliographiques. Travaux prelimi-
naries. Agronomie 6(4):355–362
Healthy plant material and resistant cultivars Parmeter JR Jr (1970) Rhizoctonia solani: biology and
should be used. If plants are infected or seem to pathology. University of California Press, Berkeley
be infected, they should be removed. Overhead Sherf AF, MacNab AA (1986) Vegetable diseases and
their control. John Wiley and Sons, New York
irrigation should be avoided because high humid-
Strider DL (ed) (1985) Diseases of floral crops, vols 1 and
ity stimulates the disease. Fungicides should be 2. Praeger Special Studies, New York
applied as sprays, as soon as symptoms are seen. Tjamos EC (1992) Selective elimination of soil-borne
plant pathogens and enhancement of antagonists by
steaming, sub-lethal fumigation and solarization.
In: Tjamos EC, Papavizas GC, Cook RJ (eds)
12.10.3 Main Fungicides Biological control of plant diseases. Plenum Press,
London
Bitertanol, oxycarboxin, tolylfluanid, and Tompkins CM, Middleton JT (1950) Etiology and control
of poinsettia root and stem rot caused by Pythium spp.
triforine
and Rhizoctonia solani. Hilgardia 20:171–182
Trolinger JC, Strider DL (1985) Botrytis diseases. In:
Strider DL (ed) Diseases of floral crops, vol 1. Praeger
References Special Studies, New York, pp 17–101
Vakalounakis DJ, Malathrakis NE (1987) A cucumber dis-
Blancard D, Lecoq H, Pitrat M (1991) Maladies des ease caused by the fungus Alternaria alternata.
cucurbitacées. Revue Horticole, INRA, Paris J Phytopathol 121:325–336
Bacterial Diseases and Their
Management 13
Abstract
Some diseases affecting greenhouse-cultivated crops are caused by one or
more bacterial infestations. Some bacteria primarily damage the root sys-
tem (such as Ralstonia solanacearum, Erwinia tracheiphila, R. sola-
nacearum), while others primarily manifest aboveground plant parts (like
Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria, Pseudomonas syringae pv. lach-
rymans). Bacteria cannot be combated using crop protection agents, so
solutions have to be found in prevention and in competition with other
bacteria. As a result, it is necessary to find new methods of crop protection
and disease combating. Greenhouse horticulture researchers are working
on alternative methods and applications based on prevention (hygiene),
antagonism and competition (other bacteria or fungi), climate control
(ventilation), or physical solutions (light) for management of bacterial
diseases.
Keywords
Bacterial diseases • Bacterial wilt • Leaf spot • Disease management
13.1 Introduction (Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora), bacterial

leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicato-
Several bacterial diseases damage all types of ria), angular leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae
greenhouse crops. Bacterial diseases are less fre- pv. lachrymans), and bacterial wilt (Ralstonia
quent but under high moisture and poor irrigated solanacearum, Erwinia tracheiphila).
condition may cause huge damage. The most
common bacterial diseases are bacterial soft rot

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_13
154 13 Bacterial Diseases and Their Management
13.2 Bacterial Leaf Spot, 13.2.3 Management

Xanthomonas campestris pv.
vesicatoria Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria does
not survive well in decayed plant material.
13.2.1 Symptoms Therefore, removal of crop debris and crop rota-
tion are effective for preventing the spread of this
Bacterial leaf spot occurs on tomato and pepper. bacterium. Another important management
The symptoms are water-soaked circular brown method is to eliminate volunteer plants (plants
spots during rainy periods. On green fruits, that grow without being specifically planted or
lesions become slightly raised and surrounded by managed by farmers) as wild pepper and tomato
greenish white halos that eventually turn irregu- plants can harbor the disease in warmer climates
lar and brown, with a sunken scabby surface. (The American Phytopathological Society web-
While it occurs primarily on peppers, all aboveg- site 2012).
round parts of tomatoes are also susceptible. The Diseased seeds may be treated with sodium
spots on the leaves are chocolate brown and hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, or trisodium
irregularly shaped with areas of dead leaf tissue; phosphate to kill bacteria on the surface of the
initially they are less than 0.6 cm in diameter seed (The American Phytopathological Society
(Fig. 13.1). Severely spotted leaves appear website 2012). Infected fields are treated with
scorched and defoliation may occur. It is most multiple application approach involving spraying
prevalent during moderately high temperatures a mixture of copper and mancozeb, which pre-
and long periods of leaf wetness. vents further infection and kills a variety of
pathogens present at the time of spraying
(Obradovic et al. 2004).
13.2.2 Survival and Spread
The bacterium cannot live in soil for more than a 13.3 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia
few weeks. Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesica- solanacearum
toria survives on volunteer tomato, plant debris,
soil, and seeds. It is spread by heavy rainfall, Bacterial wilt caused by R. solanacearum is
wind, and seeds. Disease development is favored highly challenging and one of the most destruc-
by warm temperatures (24–30 °C) and high relative diseases of solanaceous crops including
tive humidity. tomato, potato, chili, and brinjal worldwide. The
disease is predominant in warm humid tropical
and temperate regions of the world (Hayward
2005). In India, it occurs across the country
mainly in states of coastal areas, foot hills, and
lower altitude of hills (Singh et al. 2010). It has a
wide host range of about 200 different groups of
plants with 50 families, which accounts severe
damage to the crops. The damage caused by this
disease to the crop is >60 % depending on envi-
ronmental conditions and variety of crops.
Bringing about severe crop losses worldwide, the
disease is now receiving global profile (Allen
et al. 2005). It is disturbing agriculture and even
Fig. 13.1 Bacterial leaf spot on bell pepper trade negotiations in the developing as well as
13.3 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia solanacearum 155
developed world. It is listed as one of the top ten 25 °C; saturated humidity), epinasty and wilting
microorganisms affecting agriculture in the US of one side or of the whole plant follows within a
Agro-terrorism Protection Act of USDA (2002) few days leading to total plant collapse. Under
and subjected to strict quarantine regulations less favorable conditions (soil temperature below
throughout Europe and America. 21 °C), less wilting occurs, but large numbers of
adventitious roots may develop on the stem. It is
possible to observe water-soaked streaks from
13.3.1 Symptoms the base of the stem, which is evidence of necro-
sis in the vascular system. When the stem is cut
The wilting symptom on solanaceous crops crosswise, discolored brown vascular tissues
(tomato, chili, and brinjal) can be induced by exude white or yellowish bacterial ooze.
bacterial and fungal pathogen, root-knot nema-
tode, and deficit or excess of soil moisture. The
most characteristic symptoms of tomato, chili, 13.3.2 Bacterial Ooze Test
and brinjal are very rapid wilting, especially
where the plants are young and succulent. The Ralstonia solanacearum is a limited xylem-
flowering stage is the most critical stage where a invading pathogen and plants wilted by this
plant shows sudden wilting (Fig. 13.2). pathogen have >108 cfu/g of tissue. A common
The first visible symptom is the flaccid appear- sign of bacterial wilt of tomato observed at the
ance of the youngest leaves in the field. Other surface of freshly cut sections from severely
primary indications of infection are stunting and infected stems is a sticky, milky-white exudate,
downward curling of leaflets and petioles. which indicates the presence of dense masses of
Usually infected plants collapse quickly, but bacterial cells in infected vascular bundles and
where this fails to happen, there is a development particularly in the xylem (Fig. 13.3), which is
of blackening of the vascular system at the junc- responsible for transportation of raw sap (water
tion between the stem and leaf. Further down the and nutrients) from roots to aerial parts of the
stem, the whole vascular system may be com- plant. Ooze also may accumulate on the cut sur-
pletely blackened and when cut oozes creamy face on the infected tissue. Allen et al. (2001)
bacterial slime. reported that, even if ooze does not form sponta-
Under favorable environmental conditions for neously, a streaming test may be positive. Other
the pathogen (soil temperatures of approximately wilt-inducing pathogens do not produce compa-
rable ooze. The ooze is usually an almost pure
culture of R. solanacearum, which can be cul-
tured on standard, low-ionic-strength bacterio-
logical media. This water streaming test (ooze
test) is of presumptive diagnostic value in the
field.
13.3.3 Survival and Spread
Bacterial wilt caused by R. solanacearum can

survive in weeds, in seeds, and in soil for 2–10
years. It is disseminated by running water, soil
movement, or movement of infected transplants.
Disease development is favored by high tem-
peratures (30–35 °C) and high relative
Fig. 13.2 Bacterial wilt symptoms on tomato humidity.
cow dung, 20 g of common salt, and 10 g of

baker’s yeast.
• Biocontrol agents Pseudomonas fluorescens
and Bacillus subtilis were found effective to
control the disease.
• Crop rotation is not effective as the pathogen
can survive for a long period (several years) in
the soil and also attack a wide range of crops
and solanaceous weeds. Crop rotation 2–3
years with wheat and Crotalaria juncea is
helpful.
• Do not grow crops in soil where bacterial wilt
has occurred.
• Rogue out wilted plants from the field to
Fig. 13.3 Exudates of dense masses of bacterial cells reduce spread of the disease from plant to
from infected vascular bundles plant.
• Control root-knot nematodes since they could
13.3.4 Management facilitate infection and spread of bacterial
wilt.
• Where feasible, extended flooding (for at least
• Use disease-free seeds. 6 months) of the infested fields which can
• Treat seeds with streptocycline at 500-ppm reduce disease levels in the soil.
concentration. • Soil amendments (organic manures) can
• Grow bacterial wilt-resistant varieties of the suppress bacterial wilt pathogen in the soil.
following crops: Good results have been encountered by
– Brinjal: Arka Keshav (long type), Arka using biofumigation as soil treatment for
Nidhi (long type), Arka Neelkanth (long bacterial wilt.
type), Pusa Anupam (round type), Hisar • Application of bleaching powder 12–15 kg/ha
Shyamal (round type), and Singnath in the furrows during transplanting in the
– Tomato: Palam Pink, Palam Pride, and F1 field.
7711, Arka Rakshak, Arka Abha, and • Actigard (acibenzolar-s-methyl) has shown to
Swarna Sampada be effective, but only when inoculum densities
– Chili: Surajmukhi are low.
• In India, CRA 66 rootstocks were used in
grafting of tomato to reduce bacterial wilt in
• Disinfecting the cutting knives with suitable tomatoes (Tikoo 1979). Several Hawaiian
bactericide. lines (Hawaii 7996–7998) have been identi-
• Avoidance of surface water for irrigation. fied as suitable candidates for resistance to
• The incidence of wilt diseases in tomato was bacterial wilt. This technique could be a very
reduced by applying panchagavya which con- valuable tool for eliminating bacterial wilt in
tains 20 ml of cow ghee, 50 ml each of cow tomato, pepper, and eggplant production
milk and curd, 40 ml of cow urine, 400 g of systems.
13.5 Angular Leaf Spot, Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans 157
13.4 Bacterial Soft Rot, Erwinia 13.5 Angular Leaf Spot,

carotovora ssp. carotovora Pseudomonas syringae pv.
lachrymans
13.4.1 Symptoms
Angular leaf spot is more or less prevalent in
Bacterial soft rot occurs on potato, tomato, almost every cucumber growing area of the world
cucumber, lettuce, and iris. The disease causes causing heavy losses not only to cucumber but to
the plant to wilt rapidly; the pith usually disinte- other cucurbits as well.
grates, becoming wet and slimy and leaving a
hollow stem (Fig. 13.4). Whole fruit may become
a soft, watery, colorless, decayed mass in 3–5 13.5.1 Symptoms
days. Infected plant parts produce a foul odor that
is very characteristic. Under natural conditions, the disease initially
appears as minute water-soaked spots on leaves,
which became and turn light tan in color (Fig.
13.4.2 Survival and Spread 13.5). With the passage of time, spots turn
necrotic and many of these slough-off giving
Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora survives in leaves a tattered appearance. The spots on
soil, plant debris, and weeds. It is spread by sur- infected fruits lead to rot or malformation of fruit
face irrigation of soil, by wind and seeds, and in case of severe infection.
through cultural practices. Disease development
is favored by warm temperatures (25–30 °C) and
high relative humidity. 13.5.2 Survival and Spread
Both naturally infected as well as the artificially

13.4.3 Management inoculated seed can harbor the pathogen beyond
two sowing seasons. Pathogen survives on dis-
Avoid reuse of irrigation tail water and overhead eased crop debris buried or kept on soil surface
irrigation. Prevent bruising and wounding of from harvesting to next sowing time.
plants during field operations. Copper bacteri-
cides provide some bacterial control when
applied before disease is observed.
Fig. 13.4 Soft rot on lettuce Fig. 13.5 Angular leaf spot on cucumber
13.5.3 Management 13.6.1 Symptoms
The disease is controlled by hot water treatment Bacterial wilt is a disease of the vascular tissue.
(hot water at 50 °C for 30 min as seed treatments When a plant is infected, E. tracheiphila multi-
proved effective), chemical seed treatment plies within the xylem, eventually causing
(immersion of seeds in streptomycin at 80–100 mechanical blockage of the water transport sys-
ppm for 15 min gave good disease control), foliar tem. The first sign of infection, which appears
sprays, and use of systemic resistance inducers. about 5 days after acquisition, is the wilting of
Soak treatment of infected seeds in sodium hypo- individual leaves on a single stem (Fig. 13.6).
chlorite solution at 1: 20 for 20 min or calcium However, the disease will soon spread down the
hypochlorite at 0.25–0.5 % for 60 min was rec- runner and then infect the whole plant, causing it
ommended as effective seed treatments against to shrivel and die. There is a diagnostic test for
the disease (Watanabe and Ohuchi 1983). bacterial wilt that can be done in the field. The
Klimach et al. (2001) reported that, under green- presence of the E. tracheiphila causes the sap to
house conditions, application of bronopol at 0.01 become a milky color and acquire a sticky con-
and 0.02 % significantly decreased the intensity sistency. If the stem is cut near the crown and the
of angular leaf spot of cucumbers. ends are slowly pulled apart, the sap should form
Raupach and Kloepper (1998) reported that a viscous string (Fig. 13.6).
level of systemic resistance induced by seed
treatments with PGPR Bacillus pumilus, B. subti-
lis, and Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens in 13.6.2 Transmission
cucumber against angular leaf spot. Mixtures of
PGPR were able to induce systemic resistance Erwinia tracheiphila is spread between plants by
and offer significant protection with or without two species of insect vectors, striped cucumber
use of soil fumigant methyl bromide also beetles (Acalymma vittatum) and spotted cucum-
(Raupach and Kloepper 2000). ber beetles (Diabrotica undecimpunctata). The
beetles acquire E. tracheiphila by feeding on
infected plants and carry the bacteria in their
13.6 Bacterial Wilt, Erwinia digestive tracts. The disease may be spread to
tracheiphila susceptible plants through feeding wounds, by
way of infected mouthparts or frass. The bacte-
Bacterial wilt is a cucurbit disease, caused by the rium is capable of overwintering in the gut of its
Gram-negative bacterium in the family insect vectors.
Enterobacteriaceae. Cucumber and muskmelon
plants are most susceptible, but squash, pump-
kins, and gourds may also become infected.
Watermelons are immune to the disease.
Fig. 13.6 Symptoms of

bacterial wilt on cucurbit
References 159
13.6.3 Management used correctly (preventively), they can avert

an outbreak, even if the pathogen is present,
The most effective preventative measure is to by keeping bacterial populations low. A num-
keep beetle populations as low as possible ber of copper products are registered for bac-
through careful field monitoring and insecticidal terial disease control.
sprays.
13.7 Management of Bacterial References

Diseases
Allen C, Kelman A, French ER (2001) Brown rot of pota-
A similar management approach can be adopted toes. In: Stevenson WR, Loria R, Franc GD,
for all the above bacterial diseases: Weingartner DP (eds) Compendium of potato dis-
eases, 2nd edn. The American Phytopathological
Society Press, St Paul, pp 11–13
• Use certified seed from a reputed source. Allen C, Prior P, Hayward AC (2005) Bacterial wilt dis-
• If you do not grow your own transplants, ease and the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex.
ensure that the transplant grower follows a The American Phytopathological Society, St Paul
Hayward AC (2005) Research on bacterial wilt: a per-
disease management program (to start a bacte-
spective on international links and access to literature.
rial disease management program at trans- In: Allen C, Prior P, Hayward AC (eds) Bacterial wilt
planting time is far too late). disease and the Ralstonia solanacearum species com-
• Promptly remove infected plants and adjacent plex. The American Phytopathological Society, St
Paul, pp 1–8
plants to prevent further infection.
Klimach A, Kubica S, Owska K, Wieczorek W (2001)
• Avoid unnecessary handling of plant Evaluation of bronopol antibacterial activity against
material. some bacterial diseases of plants. Pestycydy
• Reduce extended leaf wetness: never allow 3–4:39–46
Obradovic A, Jones JB, Momol MT, Balogh B, Olson SM
dew to form on the plants; minimize the length
(2004) Management of tomato bacterial spot in the
of time the leaves are wet; carry out irrigation field by foliar applications of bacteriophages and SAR
early in the day, under conditions in which the inducers. Plant Dis 88:736–740
foliage can dry in 1–2 h; and maintain good Raupach GS, Kloepper JW (1998) Mixtures of plant
growth-promoting rhizobacteria enhance biological
ventilation (one of the most important man-
control of multiple cucumber pathogens.
agement factors in controlling bacterial dis- Phytopathology 88:1158–1164
eases in the greenhouse). Raupach GS, Kloepper JW (2000) Biocontrol of cucum-
• Monitor the plants in the greenhouse: at the first ber diseases in the field by plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria with and without methyl bromide fumi-
sign of bacterial disease symptoms, remove the
gation. Plant Dis 84:1073–1075
affected plants and as many surrounding trays Singh D, Sinha S, Yadav DK, Sharma JP, Srivastava DK,
as possible (plants in surrounding trays may be Lal HC, Mondal KK, Jaiswal RK (2010)
infected and could spread the pathogen even Characterization of biovar/ races of Ralstonia sola-
nacearum, the incitant of bacterial wilt in solanaceous
when not yet showing symptoms).
crops. Indian Phytopath 63(3):261–265
• Disinfect all benches, equipment, flats, and The American Phytopathological Society website (2012)
stakes. Bacterial spot of tomato and pepper. http://www.
• Include copper in the disease management apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/prokaryotes/Pi
Tikoo S (1979) Successful graft culture of tomato in bac-
program: there are no products available to
terial wilt sick soils. Curr Sci 48:259–260
cure bacterial diseases, but copper fungicides Watanabe Y, Ohuchi A (1983) Angular leaf spot of cucum-
can slow bacterial disease development, and if ber in Japan. J Agric Res Q 17:112–119
Viral Diseases and Their
Management 14
Abstract
Viruses are very small, submicroscopic particles that cause plant disease.
There is no control for plants infected with a virus. Some of the more com-
mon viruses that may infect greenhouse crops include (but are not limited
to): impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) and tomato spotted wilt virus
(TSWV) which are also known as tospoviruses, cucumber mosaic virus
(CMV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Viruses can be transmitted by
insects, primarily aphids, thrips, and whiteflies. Major virus diseases are
transmitted by aphids, whiteflies, thrips, beetles, and fungi and mechani-
cally. Management of viral diseases using production of virus-free vegeta-
bles by using insect-proof nets, integrated management, and GAP
recommendations are discussed.
Keywords
Viral diseases • Virus transmission • Management strategy
14.1 Introduction significant progress in knowledge on plant

viruses has occurred, and valuable information
Viruses are a major problem in greenhouse crops has been obtained that will facilitate the develop-
especially in temperate regions. However, most ment of control strategies. Because of difficulties
efforts in programs for integrated pest and dis- and costs of reducing the spread of viruses by
ease management are focused on pest and fungal controlling their vectors and sources of infection,
or bacterial disease control and few recommen- the introduction of resistance to a particular virus
dations are given for viral diseases. In general, into commercially useful cultivars is the best
viruses are not considered at all or are treated in a control method but, unfortunately, the exception.
very simplistic manner. The main reason for this Most virus management programs involve the
is the lack of information about viral disorders to integration of indirect measures to avoid or
give recommendations to deal with plant virus reduce the sources of infection and dispersal of
problems. In addition, in contrast to pests, fungi, the virus or the minimization of the effect of
or bacteria, no direct control methods can be used infections on crop yield. When confronted with a
against viruses. Nevertheless, in recent years, a virus problem, the understanding of the ecology

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_14
162 14 Viral Diseases and Their Management
and epidemiology of the disease will provide the alstroemeria, eremurus, gerbera, ornithogalum,
information needed to make strategic decisions and phlox, tobacco rattle tobravirus (TRV) (free-
for virus disease control. living nematodes); and on alstroemeria, anthur-
Tomato, cucumber, and capsicum are very sen- ium, begonia, chrysanthemum, impatiens,
sitive to virus diseases under a protected environ- kalanchoë, pelargonium, and phalaenopsis,
ment. Virus often spreads in the plantation by tomato spotted wilt tospovirus (TSWV) (thrips).
insect vectors such as whitefly, thrips, and aphids. Virus diseases cause major losses in the qual-
The damage caused by the virus is usually much ity of ornamental plants. Infection by viruses
greater than the mechanical injury caused by the may cause various symptoms such as yellowing,
insect vector. Plant tissue damaged by a viral dis- leaf roll, leaf curl, chlorotic spots and rings,
ease does not die immediately. The most important necrosis, and leaf and flower malformation.
symptom of viral infections is the light (white or In many circumstances, control strategies are
yellow) color of the leaves or a mosaic pattern of based on the dispersal procedures used by viruses
light and darker shades of green on the leaves. In in nature, and similar control measures are rec-
many cases, viral disease leads to dwarfed growth, ommended for viruses with equivalent dispersal
rosette formation, or other strange stem, fruit, and manners. Therefore, virus dispersal mechanisms
leaf deformations. The symptoms of viral infec- and the deduced control methods will be briefly
tions are often not found everywhere in a culti- reviewed in before major diseases caused by
vated field but rather in patches and also sometimes plant viruses in protected crops are described.
without symptoms. Viruses prevalent among
greenhouse crops include tobacco mosaic virus or
tomato mosaic virus (TMV or ToMV), cucumber 14.2 Plant Virus Dispersal
mosaic virus (CMV), tobacco etch virus (TEV), Mechanisms
potato virus Y (PVY), potato leaf roll virus
(PLRV), tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), alfalfa The ability of a virus to be disseminated and per-
mosaic virus (AMV), pepper veinal mottle virus petuated in time and space depends upon which
(PVMV), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMY), chili methods are used for dispersal. Figure 14.1 sum-
veinal mottle virus (CVMV or ChiVMV), tomato marizes the main transmission mechanisms of
yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), and tomato big- plant viruses; one or several of them can be
bud mycoplasma (TBB). exploited by a specific virus. The knowledge
Ornamentals are affected by a great number of about the main dispersal procedures of a virus in
viruses, of which some examples are given below nature will provide a means to prevent and con-
(with their means of transmission in brackets): on trol viral diseases: to minimize sources of infec-
rose, Prunus necrotic ringspot ilarvirus (PNRSV) tion, to reduce dissemination during growing
(vegetatively propagated through rootstocks); on practices, and/or to limit spread by vectors. Some
chrysanthemum, tomato aspermy cucumovirus aspects of virus dispersal and their importance in
(TAV) (aphids); on pelargonium, pelargonium virus control are analyzed below (Fig. 14.1).
leaf curl tombusvirus (PLCV) (mechanically
transmitted) and others; on carnation, carnation
vein mottle potyvirus (CVMV) (aphids), carna- 14.2.1 Sources of Infection
tion ringspot dianthovirus (CRSV) (mechani-
cally transmitted), carnation latent carlavirus As a general rule, virus-infected plants are
(CLV) (aphids), carnation etched ring caulimovi- sources for secondary spread by mechanical or
rus (CERV) (aphids), and carnation mottle car- biological vector means and, therefore, should be
movirus (CarMV) (mechanically transmitted); on eliminated as soon as possible. Mechanical trans-
tulip and other liliaceous bulbs, tulip breaking mission is one of the most dangerous dispersal
potyvirus (TBV) (aphids) and tobacco necrosis methods for viruses in protected crops due to the
necrovirus (TNV) (Olpidium spp); on achimenes, frequent handling of plants during the intensive
14.2 Plant Virus Dispersal Mechanisms 163
Fig. 14.1 Main transmission strategies used by plant viruses
cropping practices. Some viruses are extremely variable depending on the virus/host combination
important in protected crops because of their effi- and is not necessarily a good indicator of the epi-
cient transmission by mechanical inoculation demiological importance; low transmission rates
during cultural operations. If plants infected with combined with efficient secondary spread can be
some of these viruses are suspected to be present very important epidemically. Tolerance levels in
in a crop, secondary spread can be reduced by a seed certification program will depend, there-
adequate treatment of hands and implements dur- fore, on the kind of secondary spread. For exam-
ing plant handling. In these cases, plant debris in ple, only very low infection levels are permitted
soil and greenhouse structures is important in lettuce seed lots for an effective control of the
source for primary infections in subsequent sen- lettuce mosaic virus (LMV) because of its effi-
sitive crops and, therefore, as long as possible, cient secondary spread by aphids; good control
they should be eliminated and soil and structures was obtained in California if less of one seed in
disinfected. The propagation material used for 30,000 was infected (Dinant and Lot 1992).
planting can be a very effective means of intro- For many vegetatively propagated crops like
ducing viruses into a crop at an early stage, giv- ornamentals (carnation, tulip, etc.), the main
ing randomized foci of infection within the virus sources are infected plants themselves and
planting. If other transmission methods (e.g., their vegetative derivatives (cuttings, tubers,
mechanical, insects) are coupled, which may rap- bulbs, corms, rootstocks). In these cases, control
idly spread the virus within the crop, then infected may be done by using virus-free stocks and certi-
seeds, plantlets, etc., can be of significant impor- fication schemes to produce propagation material
tance in the epidemic of the disease. In these free of virus.
cases, certified virus-free material should be used Soil may be another source of virus infection.
as the basis to control the virus. Approximately Soilborne viruses can be transmitted by fungi or
18 % of the known plant viruses are seed trans- nematodes or can have no biological vector like
mitted in one or more hosts (Mink 1993; Johansen tobamoviruses that are very stable and are main-
et al. 1994). The rate of seed transmission is very tained in infected plant debris mixed with the
soil. Control usually is through soil disinfection acquire (acquisition time) and inoculate (inocula-
if no resistant cultivars are available. The mainte- tion time) the virus, on the latent period from
nance of virus-sensitive crops continuously acquisition until the vector is able to transmit the
throughout the year will ensure the permanent virus, and on the retention time during which the
presence of significant levels of inoculum and, vector remains infective following inoculative
then, of virus infection. Therefore, crop rotations feeding without further access to the virus. This
should incorporate nonsensitive species. classification is mainly based on aphid-
However, although a rupture of the infection transmitted viruses. No evidence for virus in the
cycle is done, the presence of alternative hosts for hemocoel or salivary system exists in the noncir-
the virus in the surroundings of the protected culative transmission. In the circulative transmis-
crop can be of special relevance to perpetuate the sion, virus is acquired by feeding, enters the
virus. The management of these hosts will help to hemocoel via the hindgut, circulates in the hemo-
the control of the virus. lymph, and enters the salivary gland. Inoculation
results from transport of virus into the salivary
duct and introduction of saliva into the plant
14.2.2 Vector Transmission during feeding. If virus multiplies in the insect
cells, then the transmission is called
Viral diseases may infect hundreds of plant spe- propagative.
cies including tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, and Insecticide treatments may be ineffective in
cucumber. Most viruses are spread by insect vec- controlling nonpersistently transmitted viruses
tors, such as whitefly, aphid, and thrips; others (short acquisition and inoculation times, no latent
are seedborne and mechanically transmitted period) (Table 14.2), because acquisition, latent,
(Table 14.1). and inoculation times are so short that the virus is
Many important viruses in protected crops are acquired and transmitted before the vector can be
transmitted from plant to plant by invertebrates. affected by most insecticides. However, espe-
Sap-sucking insects are the main vectors, mostly cially in protected crops, chemical treatments can
Homoptera, and among them, aphids are the most help to reduce the overall vector populations and
important, transmitting 43 % of known viruses. therefore secondary spread of the disease. For
Control of insect-transmitted viruses has been nonpersistently transmitted viruses, oils or ten-
traditionally done by spraying insecticides to sioactive film-forming products have been
reduce the vector populations. However, the reported to be effective in controlling virus acqui-
effectiveness of treatments in controlling the sition and inoculation in outdoor crops.
virus depends on virus/vector transmission rela- Insecticidal treatments used to control semiper-
tionships. Table 14.2 summarizes the main prop- sistently (long acquisition and inoculation times,
erties of the different kinds of relationships based no latent period), or circulatively (long acquisi-
on the feeding times needed by the vector to tion and inoculation times, latent period), trans-
mitted viruses can be effective in controlling the
Table 14.1 Main viral diseases of vegetable crops by virus because longer acquisition, inoculation,
host and means of transmission and/or latent times are needed and the vector may
Crop die before the virus can be transmitted. In any
Transmission Tomato Pepper Cucumber case, it should be noted that the small percent-
Seedborne TMV TMV CGMMV ages of insects that usually survive the treatments
Mechanical TMV TMV CGMMV are enough to cause important infections if virus
Aphids CMV, CMV, CMV, sources are present. Accurate knowledge of dis-
PVY PVY ZYMV ease epidemiology in a certain region will pro-
Whiteflies TYLCV — CVYV, vide information about the critical periods of
CYCDV infection, which will facilitate decisions on when
Thrips TSWV TSWV — treatments should be done, or the adjustment of
14.3 Major Virus Diseases 165
Table 14.2 Classification of virus/vector relationships based on time needed for acquisition and inoculation of the
virus, latent period, and time of retention
Noncirculative Circulative (persistent)
Nonpersistent Semipersistent Non-propagative Propagative
Acquisition time Seconds Minutes/hours Minutes/hours Minutes/hours
Latent period 0 0 Hours/days Hours/days
Inoculation time Seconds Minutes/hours Hours Hours
Retention time Minutes Hours Days Entire life
planting dates to avoid high vector populations in age at infection time, and environmental condi-
young plantings (Zitter and Simons 1980). tions. Early infected plants can show marked
stunting. Symptoms in leaves are mosaic, mottle,
and/or distortion. Necrosis is induced by certain
14.3 Major Virus Diseases isolates. Flower abortion and fruit discoloration
and malformations are caused.
14.3.1 Aphid-Transmitted Viruses
14.3.1.1.3 Host Range
14.3.1.1 Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) CMV has an extremely wide host range that
CMV is the type species of the genus Cucumovirus comprises more than 1000 species of dicotyle-
of the family Bromoviridae of plant viruses. CMV dons and monocotyledons. Host range includes
virions are 29-nm icosahedral particles. A great many important vegetable crops like melon,
variability among CMV isolates has been cucumber, zucchini squash, watermelon, tomato,
reported. According to biological properties of pepper, eggplant, lettuce, carrot, celery, spinach,
symptomatology, thermosensitivity in vivo, and pea, etc.; ornamentals like anemone, aster,
molecular and serological characteristics, most dahlia, delphinium, geranium, lily, periwinkle,
CMV isolates have been assigned to two main primula, petunia, viola, zinnia, etc.; and woody
groups. and semi-woody plants like banana, ixora, pas-
sion fruit, etc.
14.3.1.1.1 Distribution and Economic
Importance 14.3.1.1.4 Transmission
CMV is distributed worldwide, predominantly in In nature, CMV is transmitted in a nonpersis-
temperate regions but with increasing importance tent manner by more than 60 aphid species
in tropical countries. It causes serious diseases in including Aphis gossypii, Macrosiphum
many important crops grown in the open but also euphorbiae, and Myzus persicae. Variable rates
in protected conditions (tomato, pepper, cucur- of seed transmission have been described in 20
bits, etc.) (Jordá et al. 1992). Yield reductions are species including some vegetable crops like
mainly due to decreased fruit set and production bean or spinach or weeds like Stellaria media.
of nonmarketable fruits because of reduced size There is no evidence of seed transmission in
or presence of symptoms like mosaics, malfor- cucurbits. CMV can be mechanically transmit-
mations, or necrosis. Control of CMV is difficult ted in experimental conditions.
because of the wide host range and its rapid natu-
ral transmission by aphids. 14.3.1.1.5 Management
Integrated control measures are recommended in
14.3.1.1.2 Symptoms protected crops to reduce CMV incidence:
Symptoms are extremely variable depending on
the CMV isolate, host species or cultivar, plant
• Elimination of infected plants 14.3.1.2.2 Symptoms

• Avoidance of aphid entrance in the green- Potyviruses can induce severe diseases in impor-
house by covering entrances with aphid-proof tant crops. Symptoms may vary depending on
nets host species, virus strain, environmental condi-
• Reduction of aphid populations by using tions, and plant age at infection time. Potyviruses
insecticides like ZYMV, WMV2, and papaya ringspot virus-
• Use of virus-free seeds (e.g., in bean and W strain (PRSV-W) can cause severe diseases in
spinach) zucchini, squash, melon, cucumber, and water-
• Elimination of alternative spontaneous hosts melon, inducing stunting, chlorosis, mosaic, leaf
present in and around the crop malformation, flower abortion, and fruit and seed
malformation. Vein clearing, mosaic, yellow
Resistance to CMV is available in cucumber mottling, and growth reduction are often observed
and programs are in course in melon using in LMV infections of lettuce, endive, and spin-
Korean and Chinese varieties. Sources of resis- ach. Legume-infecting potyviruses like BCMV
tance or tolerance have been found in most culti- cause abnormal formation of seeds that are
vated or related species. However, in most cases, smaller, discolored, and/or distorted.
resistance or tolerance is not absolute and is over-
come by some CMV species. Aphid vector toler- 14.3.1.2.3 Host Range
ance or resistance incorporated in the plant can In nature, most potyviruses have relatively nar-
be combined with other control methods. row host ranges, few species within one genus or
Transgenic melon, cucumber, and squash plants closely related genera; for example, BCMV is
expressing the coat protein gene of CMV offer a restricted to Phaseolus species; potato virus Y
good level of resistance to several strains of the (PVY) to members of the Solanaceae; water-
virus. melon mosaic virus 2 (WMV2), zucchini yellow
mosaic virus (ZYMV), and zucchini yellow fleck
14.3.1.2 Potyvirus Genus virus (ZYFV) mainly to species of the
The Potyvirus genus of the family Potyviridae is Cucurbitaceae; and LMV to species mainly in
by far the largest of the plant virus groups. Many Compositae.
members cause important economic losses in
protected crops and can be a major limiting factor 14.3.1.2.4 Transmission
for production. Virus particles are elongated and Potyviruses are transmitted in nature by aphids in
flexuous (680–900 × 11 nm) rods. Virus infec- a nonpersistent manner. Some aphid species
tions are associated with characteristic cytoplas- (especially those of the genera Myzus, Aphis, and
mic and nuclear inclusions, pinwheels, bundles, Macrosiphum) are associated with high virus
and laminated aggregates (Shukla et al. 1994). incidences in crops. Seed transmission is impor-
tant epidemiologically in certain potyviruses,
14.3.1.2.1 Distribution and Economic like bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) in
Importance French bean or LMV in lettuce. Potyviruses can
The Potyvirus genus is the most devastating be transmitted experimentally by mechanical
among plant viruses. Damaging members like inoculation.
BCMV, bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV),
ZYMV, WMV2, PRSV-W, and PVY are spread 14.3.1.2.5 Management
worldwide and cause economically important Control should be done by an adequate manage-
problems wherever present. Several authors ment of the crop, integrating different control mea-
reported losses up to 100 % in squash, cucumber, sures: if seed transmitted, the use of certified
and watermelon caused by ZYMV. Potyviruses virus-free seeds is the basis for effective control; the
are mainly a problem in outdoor crops; however, use of virus-free plantlets will avoid primary infec-
they can also be a severe threat in protected crops. tions; because transmitted in a nonpersistent man-
ner, spraying insecticides is not effective for 14.3.1.3.4 Management

preventing virus spread; however, effective control Disease management should be by integrating
has been obtained in some cases by spraying with measures to reduce aphid populations within the
light mineral oils in outdoor crops. Successful greenhouse via avoidance of insect entrance (nets
breeding programs for resistant cultivars have been in windows) and chemical spraying, with mea-
done in lettuce to LMV (resistance-breaking strains sures to reduce infection foci (virus-free planting
have recently been described), in French bean to material, elimination of infected plants). Sources
BCMV, and in melon to PRSV-W. Transgenic of resistance have been found for CABYV in
approaches have also been explored, overcoming melon germplasm and for BWYV in lettuce
difficulties associated with conventional breeding (Dogimont et al. 1996).
methods. Cross protection using an attenuate poorly
aphid transmissible strain of ZYMV (ZYMV WK)
have been successfully used to control CMV. 14.3.2 Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses
14.3.1.3 Luteovirus Genus 14.3.2.1 Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus

There are a number of yellowing diseases trans- (TYLCV)
mitted in nature by aphids that are caused by TYLCV is a member of the Geminivirus genus of
viruses in the Luteovirus genus. This is the case plant viruses whose virions have twin isometric
of beet western yellows (BWYV) and cucurbit particle morphology. Based on its transmission
aphid-borne yellows (CABYV) viruses. Viral by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci to dicotyledons,
particles are 25–30 nm and icosahedral in shape. TYLCV belongs to the subgroup III of
geminiviruses.
Importance 14.3.2.1.1 Distribution and Economic
It was first described in France in outdoor and pro- Importance
tected crops and has been found throughout the TYLCV causes devastating damages in tomato
Mediterranean area, Asia, Africa, and California. crops of the Mediterranean basin, subtropical
It has been reported in North America, Europe, Africa, and Central America. Losses are caused
and Asia and is probably distributed worldwide. by reduced fruit yield and by the limitation of the
In melon and cucumber, important yield losses economically feasible growing areas and
are reported, due to reduced number of fruits per periods.
plant caused by flower abortion but not by alter-
ing fruit shape or quality. 14.3.2.1.2 Symptoms
In nature, TYLCV-caused diseases mainly affect
14.3.1.3.2 Symptoms to tomato crops. Symptoms in tomato consist in
BWYV infects lettuce, cucumber, watermelon, stunting, curling of leaflet margins with or with-
squash, sugar beet, carrot, spinach, pepper, and out yellowing, reduction in leaf size, and flower
tomato, symptoms being mild chlorotic spotting, abortion.
yellowing, thickening, and brittleness of older
leaves. CABYV causes a yellowing disease of 14.3.2.1.3 Host Range
melon, cucumber, and zucchini squash; symp- TYLCV has a very narrow host range that covers
toms are initial chlorotic patches, leaf thickening, some Solanaceae species like tomato, Datura
and general bright yellowing of leaves. stramonium, and different Nicotiana spp and has
also been described in French bean and Malva
14.3.1.3.3 Transmission parviflora (Mansour and Al-Musa 1992; Cohen
Transmission in nature is by aphids in a circula- and Antignus 1994).
tive, non-propagative, persistent manner.
14.3.2.1.4 Transmission 14.3.2.2.2 Symptoms

TYLCV is transmitted from plant to plant by B. Symptoms usually consist in interveinal yellow-
tabaci in a circulative manner (Mehta et al. ing of the leaves, stunting, and/or necrosis.
1994); propagation in insect cells is still under
discussion. 14.3.2.2.3 Host Range
Lettuce infectious yellows virus (LIYV) infects
14.3.2.1.5 Management lettuce, sugar beet, melon, squash, watermelon,
Effective control through crop management mea- and carrot. Lettuce chlorosis virus (LCV) does
sures to avoid the vector and inoculum sources is not infect cucurbits.
possible in greenhouse crops. In the semi-
protected crops typical of the Mediterranean 14.3.2.2.4 Transmission
regions, chemical control of vectors is ineffective Beet pseudoyellows virus (BPYV) and tomato
to limit the spread of TYLCV. In these cases, infectious chlorosis virus (TICV) are transmitted
control should be based on crop management fol- by Trialeurodes vaporariorum, and cucumber yel-
lowing recommendations derived from the epide- low stunting disorder virus (CYSDV), lettuce
miological knowledge of the disease and/or the infectious yellows virus (LIYV), and lettuce chlo-
use of the resistant/tolerant cultivars commer- rosis virus (LCV) are transmitted by Bemisia
cially available. tabaci and B. argentifolii (Célix et al. 1996; Duffus
et al. 1996a, b). A semipersistent transmission
14.3.2.2 Closterovirus and Clostero-like manner has been demonstrated in certain cases.
Viruses
In recent years there is an emerging threat in 14.3.2.2.5 Management
worldwide agriculture, particularly in temperate Integrated management of the disease in pro-
regions, that is caused by a number of viruses that tected crops should be based on the early elimi-
are transmitted by whiteflies and induce yellow- nation of primary infected plants, avoidance of
ing symptoms in plants. This is probably related entrance of whiteflies, and rational insecticide
to the increasing importance of whitefly popula- treatments to reduce overall vector populations in
tions worldwide and to changes in the relative the greenhouse. In melon, resistance to BPYV
predominance of existing species. These viruses has been described few years ago and, recently, to
are not generally well characterized; however, CYSDV (Gómez-Guillamón et al. 1995).
most of them seem to be members of the
Closterovirus genus of plant viruses. Whitefly-
transmitted closteroviruses have flexuous parti- 14.3.3 Thrips-Transmitted Viruses
cles of variable length depending on species
(900 × 12 nm). 14.3.3.1 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
(TSWV)
14.3.2.2.1 Distribution and Economic TSWV is the type species of the Tospovirus
Importance genus of the family Bunyaviridae. TSWV has
Most of these viruses have been first described in isometric, membrane-bound particles of approxi-
the USA and cause important diseases in outdoor mately 80 nm in diameter.
and protected crops. Tomato infectious chlorosis
virus (TICV) was found infecting field and green- 14.3.3.1.1 Distribution and Economic
house tomato crops in California. Cucumber yel- Importance
low stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) is present TSWV causes serious diseases worldwide in
in the Mediterranean area, causing disease in both outdoor and protected economically impor-
cucurbits, and has not been described in America. tant crops. Significant yield losses are caused in
Yield losses of up to 50–75 % occur in affected vegetable crops like tomato, pepper, or lettuce
lettuce crops. and in different ornamental species.
14.3.3.1.2 Symptoms resistant crops are going on, control in protected

The symptomatology vary from no symptoms to crops should be done integrating measures to
chlorotic or necrotic local lesions, ring spots, line limit the spread of the disease using certified
patterns, mosaic, mottling, bronzing, chlorosis, virus-free planting material, rouging infected
necrosis, leaf or stem malformation, and stunting. plants, and by biological or chemical control of
Flower abortion is observed and fruits can exhibit thrips.
malformation, necrosis, and abnormal coloration.
Symptoms vary depending on virus/host isolate
combination, plant age at infection time, and 14.3.4 Beetle-Transmitted Viruses
environmental conditions.
14.3.4.1 Squash Mosaic Virus (SqMV)
14.3.3.1.3 Host Range SqMV is a member of the Comovirus genus.
TSWV has a wide host range, infecting more Virions are 30-nm isometric particles. SqMV has
than 250 species in 70 different families of both several pathogenically different strains. Isolates
monocotyledons and dicotyledons including could be grouped into 2 serological groups that
important cultivated species (Edwardson and differ in seed transmissibility and, to a certain
Christie 1986). extent, in host range and symptomatology
(Campbell 1971).
14.3.3.1.4 Transmission
TSWV is transmitted by several species of thrips 14.3.4.1.1 Distribution
of which Frankliniella occidentalis is the most SqMV is widely distributed in the Western hemi-
important worldwide. Transmission is circulative sphere and also occurs in other countries through-
and propagative and is unique in that the virus is out the world, probably introduced through seed
only acquired by first-stage larvae and is trans- lots.
mitted by second-stage larvae and adults. Adults
are the most important epidemiologically because 14.3.4.1.2 Symptoms
they are more mobile and remain viruliferous for In cucurbits, SqMV cause symptomless infection
their entire life (Aramburu et al. 1997). or may induce ringspots, systemic mosaic, mal-
formation, and vein banding, depending on virus
14.3.3.1.5 Management strain, host, and environmental conditions.
Control of TSWV is difficult because of the wide Symptoms in fruits vary from small chlorotic
host ranges of both the virus and the vector and areas to severe malformation with dark green
the efficient natural transmission by thrips. The areas. Isolates in subgroup 1 cause severe symp-
use of insecticides to reduce virus incidence by toms in melon and mild ones in pumpkin; some
controlling the vector is ineffective and crop strains infect watermelon. Subgroup 2 isolates do
management practices are difficult to implement. not infect watermelon and cause mild symptoms
In this situation, the use of resistant cultivars is in melon and severe in pumpkin.
the best solution. Genetic resistance to TSWV
has been difficult to identify, characterize, and 14.3.4.1.3 Host Range
incorporate into commercial cultivars. Some Natural host range is narrow, restricted to the
important progress has been done in this field in Cucurbitaceae, in which most species are suscep-
tomato, where resistant cultivars are available, tible. Experimentally, it also infects plants in
and in pepper and lettuce. However, the durabil- other families.
ity of resistance depends upon the biological
variability that seems to exist among TSWV iso- 14.3.4.1.4 Transmission
lates (Roca et al. 1997). The development of SqMV is naturally transmitted by chewing
genetically engineered virus-resistant plants is insects, especially chrysomelid beetles, in a non-
also under investigation. While efforts to produce persistent manner, and, like all comoviruses, is
seedborne (embryoborne). Subgroup 1 isolates melon isolates failed to infect melon and cucum-
are seed transmitted in pumpkin, squash, melon, ber plants systemically, melon isolates
and watermelon, and subgroup 2 isolates in systemically infect melon plants but not water-
pumpkin and squash. Mechanical transmission melon and cucumber, and cucumber isolates
easily occurs by plant contact and during cultural infect melon and cucumber plants systemically
operations. Commercial and experimental seed and inoculated but not uninoculated leaves of
lots generally yield about 1–10 % infected seed- watermelon plants.
lings but up to 94 % transmission has been
reported in melon. 14.3.5.1.4 Transmission
MNSV is naturally transmitted by the zoospores
14.3.4.1.5 Management of the fungal vector Olpidium bornovanus
Control is achieved by testing seed lots to prevent (Olpidium radicale). Seed transmission is
seed transmission (Nolan and Campbell 1984). If reported: 10–40 % of the seedlings from seeds of
present, mechanical transmission should be muskmelon were affected and plants became
avoided by elimination of symptomatic plants infected when grown in the presence of Olpidium-
and reducing handling and pruning transmission contaminated soil. Mechanical transmission is
possibilities. possible experimentally and has been reported
during cultural operations.
14.3.5 Fungal-Transmitted Viruses 14.3.5.1.5 Management

Apart from recommended control methods for
14.3.5.1 Melon Necrotic Spot Virus soil-, seed-, and mechanically transmitted viruses
(MNSV) (soil, seeds, and tool disinfection, etc.), grafting
MNSV belongs to the genus Carmovirus of the on immune Cucurbita ficifolia rootstocks has
family Tombusviridae. Virions are 30-nm icosa- been used in cucumber to control MNSV. Melon
hedral particles. cultivars resistant to this virus are commercially
available.
Importance
MNSV has been found as a natural pathogen in 14.3.6 Mechanically Transmitted
melon, cucumber, and watermelon protected Viruses
crops in Japan, the USA, and Europe in which it
causes significant yield losses. 14.3.6.1 Tobamovirus Genus
The genus Tobamovirus of plant viruses includes
14.3.5.1.2 Symptoms species that cause devastating diseases in pro-
In melon, cucumber, and watermelon, MNSV tected crops. Virions are elongated rigid rod-
causes small chlorotic spots in young leaves that shaped particles of about 300 × 18 nm. The type
turn into necrotic spots and large necrotic lesions. member is tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
In melon and watermelon, necrotic streaks appear Tobamoviruses cause severe diseases in suscep-
along the stems and petioles and sometimes are tible species especially in protected crops because
the only visible symptoms. In fruits, discolor- of the intensive production that implies high den-
ation, necrosis, and malformation both externally sity of plants and frequent cultural operations
and internally are observed. which favor mechanical transmission.
14.3.5.1.3 Host Range 14.3.6.1.1 Distribution and Economic

MNSV isolates have a narrow experimental host Importance
range mainly restricted to cucurbits and differ in Tobamoviruses are a first-order problem in
the systemic infection of certain hosts: water- protected crops. Most tobamoviruses are easily
distributed worldwide via infected seeds. PMMV 14.3.6.1.4 Transmission

is one of the most destructive pathogens of pro- In nature, tobamoviruses are the most infectious
tected pepper crops; infections may reach 100 % and persistent disease agents; they are transmit-
of the plants and the yield of marketable fruit be ted and easily spread between plants by contact
drastically reduced. Tomato mosaic virus and during cultural operations, through contami-
(ToMV) has been for years a virus of great eco- nated implements. The viruses can survive over
nomic importance in protected tomato crops; years in plant debris that may be source for new
however, the development of resistant cultivars infections via the roots or aerial parts if infected
has reduced considerably the incidence of the remains are present in the greenhouse structures.
disease, but it is still a serious threat where resis- In certain cases, these viruses are seed transmitted:
tant cultivars are not grown. In pepper, ToMV the virus is carried in the external seed surface,
can also cause severe losses on susceptible culti- testa, and sometimes in the endosperm (Johansen
vars (Brunt 1986). et al. 1994). Seed samples with endosperm infec-
tion can remain infected for years. No natural
14.3.6.1.2 Symptoms vectors are known; presence in irrigation water
PMMV induces a faint mosaic in pepper leaves, has been reported for tomato mosaic virus
whereas fruits are severely malformed with dis- (ToMV). Tobamoviruses are easily transmitted
torted coloration and often exhibit depressed experimentally by mechanical inoculation.
necrotic areas. ToMV causes a wide range of
symptoms on tomato depending on virus strain, 14.3.6.1.5 Management
cultivar, plant age at infection time, and environ- In first term, control methods are addressed to
mental conditions: mottle or mosaics are observed eliminate or reduce primary inoculum sources.
in leaves that are malformed, plants are stunted, Virus-free seeds should be used: sanitation of
and fruits show external mottling and, some- seeds can be done by soaking seeds in different
times, internal browning. In pepper, symptoms solutions of active reagents (trisodium phosphate,
vary with cultivar and can be mosaics, systemic hydrochloric acid, sodium hypochlorite) or by
chlorosis, necrotic local lesions, leaf abscission, dry heat treatment (Rast and Stijger 1987).
and/or systemic leaf and stem necrosis. In cucur- Removal of plant debris from previous suscepti-
bits, cucumber green mottle mosaic virus ble crops and steam treatment of the soil and
(CGMMV) causes more or less prominent leaf greenhouse structures will aid to avoid primary
symptoms (mosaic, mottling, and malformation), infections. Secondary spread can be reduced by
stunting, flower abortion, and fruit mottling, dis- washing hands and implements with soap and
tortion, and/or internal discoloration. water before and during plant handling and/or
frequent dipping into skim milk solutions. Cross
14.3.6.1.3 Host Range protection has been largely used in greenhouse
Natural host range is very narrow, usually tomato crops to control ToMV by inoculation of
restricted to specific hosts; however, experimen- tomato seedlings with an attenuated strain
tally can be transmitted to numerous species of obtained by Rast (1972) in the Netherlands, thus
different families. For example, pepper mild mot- avoiding ulterior infection with virulent ToMV
tle virus (PMMV) naturally infects pepper, strains. Other solanaceous crops that are suscep-
ToMV infects tomato and pepper (Brunt 1986), tible to the mild strain (like pepper) must not be
and cucumber green mottle mosaic virus grown in proximity. Resistant genes have been
(CGMMV) infects some cucurbits like cucum- described and incorporated in commercial tomato
ber, watermelon, and melon and spontaneous against ToMV and pepper against different
perennial hosts like Lagenaria siceraria (Okada tobamoviruses [TMV, ToMV, PMMV, and
1986). paprika mild mottle virus (PaMMV)]. However,
resistance-breaking strains can be detected tion. No single method is likely to provide perfect
(Tenllado et al. 1997). control, but if combinations of the management
Table 14.3 summarizes the characteristics of options are utilized, it can be possible to success-
the main virus species that cause diseases in pro- fully implement disease control.
tected crops, for which comprehensive reviews
are available (Shukla et al. 1994; Murphy et al.
1995; Brunt et al. 1996). 14.4.1 Production of Virus-Free
Vegetables by Using Insect-
Proof Nets
14.4 Management Strategy
for Virus Diseases Continuous cropping of vegetables in a particular
area leads to buildup of diseases and their vec-
Proper field sanitation is one of the most impor- tors. To reduce the problem, one of the methods
tant management strategies, since once the is to give a rest period of 60 days during dry sea-
buildup of inoculum occurs inside the polyhouse, son so that the vector’s life cycle is discontinued.
it is very difficult to manage it. So prevention is This also requires clean cultivation so that all the
always better than cure. Use disease-resistant plant and leaves are killed or removed so that the
varieties. Leaf wetness is reduced by staking virus cycle is discontinued. But in many areas
plants providing ample spacing between plants to this practice is not possible. First farmers do not
allow for good air movement and avoiding over- agree to stop cropping. In many areas dry season
head irrigation. For judicious use, chemicals with is the production time, so another alternative is to
least toxicity recommended specially for poly- grow the crop under nets. Normally a 40-mesh
house cultivation should be used. Chemicals like net is used which prevents most of the sucking
chlorothalonil, cymoxanil, and azoxystrobin are insects to get inside.
prohibited in polyhouse-grown tomato and thus Net houses must have double-entry sliding
should be avoided. As for viruses, scout fields for gates so that with the movement of the farmer,
the first occurrence of virus disease. Where fea- the pest does not get an easy chance to get inside.
sible, pull up and destroy infected plants, but Nurseries should also be raised inside the net
only after spraying them thoroughly with an house to prevent the infection. Use of plastic
insecticide to kill any insects they may be harbor- mulching sheet also reduces the population of
ing. Use reflective mulches to repel insects, sucking pests and thus reduces the chances of
thereby reducing the rate of spread of insect- viral diseases in the crop.
borne viruses. Monitor vector population early in
the season and apply insecticide treatments when
needed. Minimize plant handling to reduce the 14.4.2 Integrated Management
amount of virus spread mechanically.
It is essential to start with virus-tested, vector- Greenhouse crops represent a singular case for
free planting material and to ensure continuous disease management. They are closed systems
growth. General hygiene is equally important and where external exchanges are reduced to the min-
means for the removal of affected plants and imum, although the intermediate situation pres-
debris, sterilizing working tools, and the use of ent in the protected crops grown under the simple
sterilized soil and resistant cultivars. The vectors and less hermetic structures typical of the
should be controlled. Mediterranean area should also be considered.
Most viruses infecting vegetables are trans- The most damaging viruses in protected crops
mitted by sap-sucking insects. Weeds and other are soilborne viruses [MNSV, PMMV, ToMV,
hosts are crucial in the life cycle of many viruses tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV)] or those
and their vectors. Infected plants cannot be cured: imported via contaminated seed (TMV, ToMV,
control involves the prevention or delay of infec- PMMV, CGMMV, SqMV, MNSV, BCMV, LMV,
14.4 Management Strategy for Virus Diseases 173
Table 14.3 Major virus species affecting protected crops

Main infected
Natural transmissiona Family Genus Speciesb cropsc
Aphids (np) Bromoviridae Cucumovirus CMV cu, le, me,
pe, to, wa, zu
Aphids (np), seed (be) Potyviridae Potyvirus BCMV be, fa
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus BYMV be, fa
Aphids (np), seed (be) Potyviridae Potyvirus LMV le
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus PVY pe, to
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus PRSV-W cu, me, wa,
zu
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus WMV2 cu, me, wa,
zu
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus ZYMV cu, me, wa,
zu
Aphids (np) Potyviridae Potyvirus ZYFV cu, me, wa,
zu
Aphids (p) — Luteovirus BWYV lu, ce, pe, to,
wa, zu
Aphids (p) — Luteovirus CABYV cu, me, zu
Aphids (p) Bunyaviridae Tospovirus TSWV fa, le, pe,
pea, to
Bemisia tabaci (p) Geminiviridae Geminivirus TYLCV to
Bemisia tabaci (sp) — — CVYV cu, me
Bemisia tabaci — Closterovirus LCV le
Bemisia tabaci (sp) — Closterovirus LIYV le, me, wa,
zu
Bemisia tabaci (sp) — Closterovirus CYSDV cu, me
Trialeurodes vaporariorum (sp) — Closterovirus BPYV cu, me, le
Trialeurodes vaporariorum (sp) — Closterovirus TICV to
Trialeurodes vaporariorum — Closterovirus ToCV to
Beetles (np) Comoviridae Comovirus SMV me, wa, zu
Olpidium bornovanus Tombusviridae Comovirus MNSV cu, me, wa
Olpidium brassicae — LBVV le
Olpidium brassicae — LRNV le
Fungus — PYVD pe
Mechanical — Tobamovirus TMV pe, to
Mechanical, seed (lo) — Tobamovirus ToMV pe, to
Mechanical, seed (pe) — Tobamovirus PMMV pe
Mechanical, seed (cu) — Tobamovirus CGMMV cu, me, wa
Mechanical, fungus — Potexvirus PVX to
Unknown, soil Tombusviridae Tobamovirus TBSV eg, pe, to
Unknown, soil, seed (cu) Tombusviridae Tobamovirus CLSV cu
a
np nonpersistent, sp semipersistent, p persistent
b
CMV cucumber mosaic virus, BCMV beam common mosaic virus, BYMV bean yellow mosaic virus, LMV lettuce
mosaic virus, PVY potato virus Y, PRSV-W papaya ringspot virus-W, WMV2 watermelon mosaic virus 2, ZYMV zucchini
yellow mosaic virus, ZYFV zucchini yellow fleck virus, BWYV beet western yellow virus, CABYV cucurbit aphid-borne
(continued)

yellow virus, TSWV tomato spotted wilt virus, TYLCV tomato yellow leaf curl virus, CVYV cucumber vein yellowing
virus, LCV lettuce chlorosis virus, LIYV lettuce infectious yellows virus, CYSDV cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus,
BPYV beet pseudoyellows virus, TICV tomato infectious chlorosis virus, ToCV tomato chlorosis virus, SMV squash
mosaic virus, MNSV melon necrotic spot virus, LBVV lettuce big vein virus, LRNV lettuce ring necrosis virus, PYVD
pepper yellows vein disease, TMV tobacco mosaic virus, ToMV tomato mosaic virus, PMMV pepper mild mottle virus,
CGMMV cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, PVX potato virus X, TBSV tomato bushy stunt virus, CLSV cucumber
leaf spot virus
c
be French bean, cu cucumber, eg eggplant, fa faba bean, le lettuce, me melon, pe pepper, to tomato, wa watermelon, zu
zucchini squash
etc.) or contaminated plantlets. The precise cautions to be taken to avoid dispersal of the mild
knowledge about which virus problems are strain to sensitive crops grown in the vicinity of
affecting in a specific crop, the dispersal mecha- the protected greenhouse crop. Due to possible
nisms, and the epidemiology of the disease virus mutations, the reversion of the mild strain
induced will help to make strategic management used in the cross protection program to a severe
decisions within an integrated management one must be continuously verified. When using
strategy. cross protection, the risk of coinfection with
The means to prevent and control viral dis- other virus(es) that may have synergistic effects
eases based on the knowledge of their dispersal with the protective strain should also be evalu-
mechanisms have been discussed earlier. Other ated. Cross protection alone is not enough to give
strategies for virus control are focused to the a high level of control of the disease because pro-
minimization of the impact of the infection on tection depends on the homology of the severe
crop yield; breeding for resistance and cross pro- strain and on challenge pressure (Gonsalves and
tection are two of these strategies. When possi- Gamsey 1989). Therefore, the combination of
ble, the best control method against plant viruses various virus management practices compatible
would be the development of resistant cultivars with an integrated management of the green-
(Sherf and Macnab 1986). However, experience house is often desirable. Indirect measures for
has shown that breeding for resistance or the virus control have been discussed, e.g., (i) adjust-
development of transgenic plants is unlikely to ment of planting dates to avoid high vector popu-
give permanent solutions for any particular virus lations in young plantings if epidemiological data
and crop. Variable virus populations may be pres- of the disease are available, (ii) use of virus-free
ent (Luis-Arteaga et al. 1996; Tenllado et al. propagation material, (iii) disinfection of soil and
1997) and/or virus can mutate (Aranda et al. greenhouse structures, (iv) minimization of
1997) in the field with respect to virulence and external entrance of insects, (v) rapid elimination
the range of crops and cultivars they can infect. of virus-infected plants, (vi) adequate plant han-
Cross protection is based in that mild virus strains dling, and (vii) avoidance of overlapping or con-
can be used to protect plants against infection by tinuous cultivation of sensitive species in the
severe strain(s) of the same virus. Basic criteria rotation.
for selection of cross protection as a disease con-
trol strategy are well known (Gonsalves and
Gamsey 1989). Mildness of a strain is usually 14.4.3 GAP Recommendations
relative to a certain target crop, and this should be
taken into account if cross protection is to be 14.4.3.1 Exclusion/Avoidance
used in greenhouses where other crops that may
be sensitive to the protective virus strain are • Plant virus-free seeds and seedling
grown simultaneously. The same applies for pre- transplants.
References 175
• Grow crops in areas where the disease seldom Cohen S, Antignus Y (1994) Tomato yellow leaf curl
virus, a whitefly-borne geminivirus. Adv Dis Vector
occurs or during periods when the virus or its
Res 10:259–288
vector is at a low level. Dinant S, Lot H (1992) Lettuce mosaic virus. Plant Pathol
41:528–542
Dogimont C, Slama S, Martin J, Lecoq H, Pitrat M (1996)
Sources of resistance to cucurbit aphid-borne yellows
14.4.3.2 Reduction in Virus luteovirus in melon germplasm collection. Plant Dis
Inoculum Level 80:1379–1382
Duffus JE, Lin HY, Wisler GC (1996a) Tomato infectious
• Control weeds and other virus hosts and insect chlorosis virus – a new clostero-like virus transmitted
by Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Eur J Plant Pathol
vectors.
102:219–226
• Destroy old crops promptly. Duffus JE, Lin HY, Wider GC (1996b) Lettuce chlorosis
• Separate new crops from maturing crops and virus – a newly whitefly-transmitted closterovirus. Eur
avoid overlapping crops, especially continu- J Plant Pathol 102:591–596
Edwardson JR, Christie RG, Edwardson JR, Christie RG
ous year-round cropping.
(1986) Tomato spotted wilt virus. In: Edwardson JR,
Christie RG (eds) Viruses infecting forage legumes,
vol III, Monograph series no. 14. Florida Agricultural
14.4.3.3 Protection of the Host Experiment Stations, Gainesville, pp 563–580
Gómez-Guillamón ML, Torés JA, Soria C, Sesé AIL
(1995) Searching for resistance to Sphaerotheca fulig-
• Plant virus-resistant or virus-tolerant inea and two yellowing diseases in Cucumis melo and
varieties. related Cucumis species. In: Lester GE, Dunlap JR
• Use highly reflective mulches and oil sprays to (eds) Proceedings cucurbitaceae ‘94: evaluation and
enhancement of cucurbit germplasm. Gateway
deter insects.
Printing, South Padre Island, Tex, pp 205–208
• Use insecticides strategically to protect plants Gonsalves D, Gamsey SM (1989) Cross-protection tech-
from insects. niques for control of plant virus diseases in the tropics.
Plant Dis 73:592–597
Johansen E, Edwards MC, Hampton RO (1994) Seed
transmission of viruses: current perspectives. Annu
Rev Phytopathol 32:363–386
References Jordá C, Alfaro A, Aranda MA, Moriones E, García-
Arenal F (1992) An epidemic of cucumber mosaic
Aramburu J, Riudavets J, Arnó J, Laviña A, Moriones E virus plus satellite RNA in tomatoes in Eastern Spain.
(1997) The proportion of viruliferous individuals in Plant Dis 76:363–366
field populations of Frankliniella occidentalis: impli- Luis-Arteaga M, Rodríguez-Cerezo E, Fraile A, Sáez E,
cations for tomato spotted wilt virus epidemics in García-Arenal F (1996) Different tomato bushy stunt
tomato. Eur J Plant Pathol 103:623–629 virus strains cause disease outbreaks on solanaceous
Aranda MA, Fraile A, Dopazo J, Malpica JM, García- crops in Spain. Phytopathology 86:535–542
Arenal F (1997) Contribution of mutation and RNA Mansour A, Al-Musa A (1992) Tomato yellow leaf curl
recombination to the evolution of a plant pathogenic virus: host range and virus-vector relationships. Plant
RNA. J Mol Evol 44:81–88 Pathol 41:122–125
Brunt AA (1986) Tomato mosaic virus. In: van Mehta P, Wyman JA, Nakhla MK, Maxwell DP (1994)
Regenmortel MHV, Fraenkel-Conrat H (eds) The Transmission of tomato yellow leaf curl geminivirus
plant viruses. Vol. II: the rod-shaped plant viruses. by Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). J Econ
Plenum Press, New York, pp 180–204 Entomol 87:1291–1297
Brunt AA, Crabtree K, Dallwitz MJ, Gibbs AJ, Watson L Mink GI (1993) Pollen- and seed-transmitted viruses and
(1996) Viruses of plants. Descriptions and lists from viroids. Annu Rev Phytopathol 31:375–402
the VIDE database. CAB International, Wallingford Murphy FA, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Ghabrial SA,
Campbell RN (1971) Squash mosaic virus, CMI/AAB Jarvis AW, Martelli GP, Mayo MA, Summers MD (eds)
descriptions of plant viruses no 43, CMI, Kew (1995) Virus taxonomy: classification and nomencla-
Célix A, López-Sesé A, Almarza N, Gómez-Guillamón ture of viruses. Archiv Virol 10(Suppl):268–274
ML, Rodríguez-Cerezo E (1996) Characterization of Nolan PA, Campbell RN (1984) Squash mosaic virus
cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus, a Bemisia detection in individual seeds and seed lots of cucurbits
tabaci-transmitted closterovirus. Phytopathology by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Plant Dis
86:1370–1376 68:971–975
Okada Y (1986) Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus. In: sion of different isolates of tomato spotted wilt tospo-
van Regenmortel MHV, Fraenkel-Conrat H (eds) The virus from Spain. Plant Pathol 56:407–415
plant viruses, vol II, The rod-shaped plant viruses. Sherf AF, Macnab AA (1986) Vegetable diseases and their
Plenum Press, New York, pp 267–281 control. John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York
Rast ATB (1972) MH-16, an artificial symptomless Shukla DD, Ward CW, Brunt AA (1994) The potyviridae.
mutant of tobacco mosaic virus for seedling inocula- CAB International, Wallingford
tion of tomato crops. Neth J Plant Pathol 78:110–112 Tenllado F, García-Luque I, Serra MT, Díaz-Ruiz JR
Rast ATB, Stijger CCMM (1987) Disinfection of pepper (1997) Pepper resistance-breaking tobamoviruses: can
seed infected with different strains of capsicum mosaic they co-exist in single pepper plants? Eur J Plant
virus by trisodium phosphate and dry heat treatment. Pathol 103:235–243
Plant Pathol 36:583–588 Zitter TA, Simons JN (1980) Management of viruses by
Roca E, Aramburu J, Moriones E (1997) Comparative alteration of vector efficiency and by cultural prac-
host reactions and Frankliniella occidentalis transmis- tices. Annu Rev Phytopathol 18:289–310
Nematode Diseases and Their
Management 15
Abstract
The soil conditions are highly conducive for nematode infestations of the
polyhouse crops. Nematode problems arise from contaminated soil or soil
mixture used as a component of the growing medium, monocropping, and
infested planting materials. Nematode management here must be consid-
ered primarily as exclusion or avoidance. Once nematodes are introduced,
it is difficult to manage them. Nematode management using exclusion,
sanitation, physical approaches, host plant resistance, chemical nemati-
cides, biological control, and integrated methods is discussed.
Keywords
Nematode diseases • Exclusion • Sanitation • Host resistance • Nematicides
• Biocontrol • Integrated management
15.1 Introduction nematodes within the greenhouse usually occurs

via movement of infested soil or plant material
The most economically important nematode gen- by workers, water, or greenhouse equipment. In
era of greenhouse production include some greenhouse systems, nematodes can be
Meloidogyne (root knot), Pratylenchus (lesion), introduced into and recirculated quickly via
Radopholus (burrowing), Rotylenchulus (reni- drainage and irrigation water to inoculate most
form), and Aphelenchoides or Ditylenchus (foliar other healthy plants within the greenhouse. The
or stem). They feed on the roots devitalizing the latter scenario clearly defines how nematode
plants ultimately affecting both qualitative and problems can be amplified quickly once intro-
quantitative production. In most cases, problems duced. Commonly followed nematode manage-
with these nematodes arise from planting of ment practices such as summer plowing,
infected seed or planting stocks, in systems uti- fallowing, and crop rotation which are meant for
lizing bare ground or raised ground beds, or nematode suppression in field crops are not prac-
where contaminated soil is used as a component ticable in polyhouses. For greenhouse produc-
of the growing medium. Subsequent spread of tion, nematode management must, therefore, be

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_15
178 15 Nematode Diseases and Their Management
viewed first as one of exclusion or avoidance.

Once nematodes are introduced and damage
becomes visible, it is currently not possible to
chemically or nonchemically resolve the problem
to avoid potentially significant yield losses there-
after. Some of the most important sources of con-
tamination and hence major factors to consider
include (i) seed and planting stocks, (ii) irrigation
water, (iii) soil and potting media, and (iv) gen-
eral cleanliness.
The ideal conditions provided by protected
cultivation and continuous availability of the host
plant round the year often result in high popula-
Fig. 15.1 Root-knot nematode and Fusarium wilt dis-
tion buildup of soilborne pathogens including ease complex on tomato plants
plant-parasitic nematodes. Indiscriminate use of
agrochemicals in crop ecosystems has affected
the beneficial microflora and has adversely Generally, not a single pathogen but a com-
altered the natural biological suppression which munity of pathogens, which might interact each
has hitherto been operating in Indian soils. This other, is the cause of crop failure (Fig. 15.1).
serious situation has led to emergence of nema- Therefore, control means must be effective
tode problems and nematode-induced disease against all soilborne pathogens occurring in the
complexes caused by several nematodes and soil to be cropped.
pathogenic fungi or bacteria in various crops.
There are numerous reports mentioning the diffi-
culties faced by the polyhouse growers due to 15.2 Nematode Management
severe infestation of various nematodes.
The root-knot nematode has been a major pest Greenhouse nematode management strategies
of vegetable and floricultural crops under pro- include exclusion, sanitation, protection, and
tected cultivation. The yield losses to the extent eradication (Table 15.1).
of 25–27% have been recorded due to the infesta-
tion of root-knot nematodes in various vegetables
and ornamentals. The population buildup is very 15.2.1 Exclusion
rapid in the polyhouses, and nematode popula-
tion reaches 5–6 times of threshold levels within 15.2.1.1 Site Selection
18–24 months, making the polyhouses useless. Many different factors should be considered in
Crops such as capsicum, tomato, okra, gherkins, selecting a suitable site for greenhouse place-
muskmelon, watermelon, carnations, and gerbera ment, such as proximity to water, labor, road sys-
are being grown under protected cultivation (in tems, and agricultural markets. There are also
polyhouses/greenhouses/shade nets). These important pest management considerations.
crops grown in all the states of India are seriously Whenever practical, the site should be removed
infested with nematodes such as Meloidogyne from major open-field areas of commercial fruit
incognita, M. javanica (root-knot nematodes), and vegetable production. This will serve to min-
Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform nematode), imize opportunity for pest introduction into
and Pratylenchus spp. (lesion nematodes). greenhouse facilities. If ground-based production
Nematode problems on all these crops under pro- systems will be used, then soils free of economi-
tected conditions have assumed alarming propor- cally important plant-parasitic nematodes should
tions leading to huge crop losses of up to 80% in only be selected for greenhouse placement. Once
some cases. nematodes are introduced, it is currently not
15.2 Nematode Management 179
Table 15.1 Greenhouse nematode management tactics water that has drained from an infested field,
Management growers should avoid use of ditch or pond waters
tactic Management tactic description for greenhouse irrigation or for spray mixtures.
Exclusion Tactics that prevent the introduction Recycling of greenhouse irrigation water should
and spread of nematodes into the
also be avoided since nematodes can be recircu-
greenhouse
Nematode-free planting materials – lated quickly via the reused irrigation water to
use plug transplants produced from inoculate most other healthy plants within the
soilless culture devoid of nematodes greenhouse. If greenhouse water must be reused,
Sanitation Removal and disposal of nematode- it should be decontaminated by heating to 90 °C
infected plant materials
or greater. Given the small, microscopic size of
Protection Chemical control – no fumigant or
non-fumigant nematicides currently
nematodes, irrigation screens and filters should
registered for greenhouse use not be relied upon as means of nematode exclu-
Solarization – trapping of solar sion or control.
energy under clear plastic panels to
heat soil to lethal levels of
nematodes
Soilless substrates – use of 15.2.2 Sanitation
pathogen-free artificial substrates for
crop production (e.g., perlite, rock 15.2.2.1 Nematode-Free Planting
wool)
Host plant resistance – crop varieties
Materials
which reduce nematode In most cases, greenhouse problems with both
reproduction, typically with reduced soilborne and foliar nematodes arise from plant-
crop damage ing of infected seed or planting stocks. At present
Eradication Elimination of nematodes from soil no chemical or nonchemical management tactics
or plant materials within greenhouse
structure. Generally not feasible
are available that can resolve nematode problems
from natural soil-based greenhouse within the greenhouse once introduced into the
systems crop. As a result, nematode-free transplants or
Steam pasteurization – 60 °C for plug plants that rely upon soilless substrates from
30 min
Steam sterilization – 100 °C (not
production are increasingly used to exclude foliar
recommended) and soilborne species of nematodes but also to
Hot water dips – plants emerged in expedite plant establishment and crop produc-
hot water to kill internal nematode tion. In addition, hot water dips have been devel-
parasites of roots or foliar tissue
oped as a control strategy to eliminate
plant-parasitic nematodes form both roots and
possible to eliminate or eradicate the problem. foliar tissues of infested plant materials to be
Greenhouses structures should also be situated to used as transplants (e.g., strawberry). The dip
avoid introduction of nematodes and other soiltreatment consists of submerging plants in hot
borne pests via downstream movement of drain- water for a specified time and then immediately
age or runoff water and soil. transferring the treated plants into cold water for
an additional time period. The temperature at
15.2.1.2 Irrigation which different species of nematode are killed is
Another primary source of plant-parasitic nema- variable and depends upon temperature and time
tode spread and introduction into greenhouse of exposure (a dosage concept of concentration x
structures has been demonstrated via irrigation time). Plants that have been treated with hot
water from streams, ditches, and ponds. water generally require additional care and water
Nematodes have even been found in irrigation after planting than non-treated plants, but the hot
waters from shallow wells also indicating that water treatment has been used to successfully
they can be from those sources as well. Since eliminate nematodes from planting stock.
nematodes can be carried through irrigation Rouging infected plants when early symptoms
are first recognized may also help minimize any 30-min exposure at temperatures as low as 120
plant introduced-nematode problem within the °F. Within the range of 120–140 °F, most plant-
greenhouse. pathogenic fungi and bacteria are killed. Certain
weeds and viral pathogens compose the most tol-
15.2.2.2 Other Sanitation Practices erant group, requiring 30-min exposures at tem-
Other cultural measures that reduce nematode peratures of 160 °F or greater for pest elimination.
problems in the greenhouses include rapid A 30-min exposure of 180 °F or greater is gener-
destruction of infested crop root systems follow- ally recognized as the recommended soil pasteur-
ing harvest. Discarding infected potted plants ization temperature and the period of exposure to
will help prevent spread of nematode. Entry provide a broad spectrum measure of soilborne
points for greenhouse structures should also con- pest and disease control. The following section
tain sanitizing stations for hands, shoes, boots, defines specific pest control systems that rely on
tools, and other equipment. heat to control nematodes in greenhouse
production.
15.2.3 Physical Approaches 15.2.3.1 Steam

Steam is a well-established and effective tech-
Because of the relatively low thermal sensitivities nique for soilborne pest and disease control and
of nematodes and other soilborne pests, physical is extensively used for bulk soil, substrate, or
approaches which utilize heat have generally even small-scale field treatments within green-
proved to be the most effective and widely used houses and nursery plant operations. Steaming,
management strategies within greenhouses. In as defined here, is the introduction of water vapor
general terms, the thermal sensitivities of a wide (>212 °F:100 °C) into soil to elevate soil tem-
range of soilborne crop pests that can be encoun- peratures to levels lethal (160–180 °F) to soil-
tered are relatively broad (Fig. 15.2). On a rela- borne pests. Soil temperature and treatment
tive temperature scale, nematodes and water duration determine whether complete elimina-
molds would be considered relatively intolerant tion (sterilization) or only partial removal of soil
of high temperature, being effectively killed by microflora (pasteurization) occurs.
Fig. 15.2 Generalized

relationship of soil
temperatures for 30-min
exposures to kill various
soilborne pests and
pathogens (After Baker and
Rolstacher 1957)
Since its inception in 1888, various methods pasteurized with steam at reduced temperatures
have been developed to deliver and apply steam of 160–180 °F.
for soilborne pest and disease control. The most Other disadvantages of steam include (1) the
common methods include systems in which soil large capital investments in steam equipment, (2)
is brought to the boiler where steam was intro- permanently installed duct/drain systems, and (3)
duced into bins or chambers for bulk soil treat- time-consuming treatment involving moving,
ment. For other systems, a small portable steam burial, or repositioning of pans or tarpaulin cov-
boiler is brought to the treatment site where the ers each time the system needs to be relocated to
steam is introduced directly, via a conduit, into a new steaming site. Steam also cannot be effec-
buried perforated pipe or tile or winch-drawn tively used in heavier soils with slow vapor and
plows or directly under an inverted pan, tray, or water percolation, soils with high organic matter
tarpaulin cover. For the latter systems, the soil content, or those with high water soil-water table.
needs to be covered with a pan, tray, or canvas Steam also does not uniformly heat the soil in
sheet to conserve energy and minimize heat loss open-field uses nor always heat ground beds (Fig.
from soil. As a general rule, it is recommended 15.3) deeply enough to control major wilt dis-
that steam treatment is maintained so that the eases such as Verticillium or Fusarium. Steam
coldest spot in the ground bed or substrate is held has proven effective when a limited amount of
at 180 °F for 30 min. A negative pressure steam- substrate is treated but not ground soil. This is
ing system has also been developed in which due to the depth at which harmful organisms can
steam is blown under a tarpaulin cover. The steam be found in the soil, which too often is either out
is pulled into the soil by negative pressure created of the reach of steam or can be reached only at
by an exhaust fan that pulls air out of the soil extremely high costs. Heating the soil to depths
through buried perforated pipes. This process has of more than 12 in. requires much longer use of
not only proved to be effective in greenhouses but the boiler, more hand labor, and fuel quantities.
has expedited the steaming treatment process. To improve the temperature range in deeper
Self-propelled soil steaming systems are also soil layers, a permanent steam sterilization sys-
commercially available for small-scale field tem has been developed in which steam is intro-
treatments. duced into drain pipes buried at a depth of 60 cm,
Due to the high costs, heating inefficiencies, after which the steam moves to the soil surface.
pest control inconsistencies, and other treatment This method is an improvement over sheet steam-
impracticalities, steam is not currently used for ing, especially on sand and loam soils. As men-
large-scale, open-field greenhouse uses. In most tioned earlier, the most recent development in
cases, where comparisons have been made,
greenhouse uses of steam have proven to be as
effective as chemical soil sterilant approaches
(e.g., methyl bromide). Problems have devel-
oped, however, when soils have been sterilized,
practically when the complete elimination of all
soil microorganisms occurs after prolonged
exposures to temperatures in excess of 200
°F. These problems include increased soil aggre-
gation and destruction of soil structure and
release of phototoxic substances from soil and
organic matter including soluble salts, ammo-
nia, and heavy metals such as manganese.
Fortunately, some of these adverse side effects Fig. 15.3 Use of steam applied under tarpaulin cover via
can be remedied when the soil is only partially buried perforated pipe for nematode control in a raised
sterilized, generously irrigated afterward, or bed, greenhouse production system
steam sterilization is a combination of sheet nursery potting mixes was also recently certified
steaming and steaming via drain pipes, a so- in California as an alternative to steam or fumiga-
called negative pressure steaming. With this tion with methyl bromide. This technique has not
method, steam is introduced under the steaming been extensively tested in Florida. It is known
sheet and pulled into the soil by negative pressure that soils with poor water holding capacity and
(created in the soil through buried perforated rapid drainage can significantly inhibit heat
pipes). The temperatures achieved with negative transfer to deeper soil horizons. As a result, loss
pressure steaming are considerably better than of pest control is oftentimes directly correlated to
those obtained with sheet steaming. soil depth. The depth to which lethal temperature
can be achieved (15–20 cm) is also dependent on
15.2.3.2 Soil Solarization the intensity and duration of sunlight and ambi-
Soil solarization is a nonchemical technique in ent temperature. At present, the only time to con-
which transparent polyethylene plastic mulch is sider soil solarization for pest control is during
laid over moist soil for a 4–6-week period to heat hot summer months.
non-cropped, greenhouse soils to temperatures
lethal to nematodes and other soilborne patho- 15.2.3.2.1 Effect of Soil Solarization
gens. Soil temperatures are magnified because of on the Nematode Population
the trapping of incoming solar radiation under Densities (Tomato)
the clear polyethylene plastic. To be effective, In tomato, soil solarization treatment markedly
soils must be maintained at high soil moisture reduced the root-knot nematode, M. incognita,
content to increase the susceptibility (thermal larval density per 100 ml of soil compared with
sensitivity) of soilborne pests and thermal con- the untreated control (Fig. 15.4). The soil
ductivity of soil. Moist plastic mulched soils solarization method had a significant influence
increase soil temperatures due primarily to the to reduce the severity of root damage. Root
elimination of heat loss by evaporation and upper galling index is dramatically reduced in both
heat convection, in addition to a greenhouse solarized greenhouses compared with untreated
effect by prohibiting dissipation of radiation from control where the highest root galling index was
soil. found (Fig. 15.5).
On a global scale, the most successful use of The growth of tomato plants, as indicated by
soil solarization has been reported in ground beds visual assessment and plant height measure-
of greenhouses within sunny Mediterranean ments, was significantly improved by the soil
countries with heavier (loamy to clay soils) rather solarization. Tomato fruit yields in solarized
than sandy soils, as well as in closed plastic greenhouses were fourfold higher than those
houses in cooler climates. Solarization of bags of obtained in untreated control (Fig. 15.6). Such
Fig. 15.4 Effect of soil

solarization on nematode
population densities in
100-ml soil
Fig. 15.5 Effect of soil

solarization on root gall
index due to root-knot
nematode
significant increases were consistent with effec-

tive control of nematode provided by
solarization.
Solarization is also known to improve plant
growth and yield through the release of nutrient
induced by high soil temperatures. The soil solar-
ization treatment reduced nematode populations
more than 90% also in lettuce. The yield of let-
tuce was about twofold higher in solarized soil as
compared with untreated control in several
Fig. 15.6 Effect of soil solarization on tomato yield
experimental plots.
Soil solarization should be done during the
hottest period of the year. Soil solarization offers increasingly becoming available as emphasis
a satisfactory and environmentally friendly solu- increases on nonchemical forms of nematode
tion for the control of root-knot nematode. This management. In many European and
method is easily to be used into organic, conven- Mediterranean countries, grafting of susceptible
tional, and integrated control growing system. plants onto nematode-resistant rootstocks is
This technique at the same time shows good being used in protected culture systems for a
results to reduce the infection of a severe tomato number of annual greenhouse crops including
disease like corky root disease (Pyrenochaeta tomato, eggplant, and various cucurbits. This
lycopersici). technology has yet to be fully developed for field
or greenhouse production systems of the US
greenhouse growers who should consult their
15.2.4 Host Plant Resistance local county Cooperative Extension Service
agent for new nematode-resistant crop varieties
Use of nematode-resistant crop varieties is often suitable for greenhouse production that may have
viewed as the foundation of a successful inte- become available.
grated nematode management program. In a Resistant rootstocks may also provide good
resistant variety, nematodes fail to develop and control of soilborne pathogens of vegetables. In
reproduce normally within root tissues. Italy, satisfactory control of root-knot nematodes
Commercially available nematode-resistant veg- was obtained by grafting tomato on resistant
etable varieties are currently available for tomato, rootstocks (Renzoni and Lamberti 1974). Later,
pepper, southern pea, and sweet potato. However, because of the availability of resistant cultivars of
new nematode-resistant crop varieties are this crop, the use of resistant rootstocks did not
receive further attention. However, because of Aldicarb, a carbamate compound with sys-
other useful traits (Morra 1998), rootstocks are temic activity, is one of these nematicides.
stimulating interest and some of tomato, egg- Although aldicarb seems more effective than
plant, and melon may also possess resistance to other non-fumigant nematicides against cyst-
nematodes. forming nematodes, its efficacy against a wide
range of nematodes and insects is well docu-
mented. It might show phytotoxicity to some
15.2.5 Chemical Nematicides crops even at the suggested rates.
Oxamyl is also a carbamate which shows good
15.2.5.1 Fumigants nematicidal activity in acid soils, while in those
Nematicides containing or developing methyl with pH ≤ 7 it is degradated in a few days in com-
isothiocyanate after being incorporated into the pounds with no nematicidal activity. For this rea-
soil against nematodes also exhibit herbicide and son this chemical is not popular in Italy. Oxamyl
fungicide activities. is also systemic and effective against soil insects.
For nematode control dazomet is the most Usually, accumulation of its residues in plant tis-
effective of these compounds. Being a granular sues is low if properly applied.
product it is relatively easy to apply. However, it Carbofuran is also a carbamate compound
is effective only at high rates (500–700 kg/ha) of with systemic activity, although used as a soil
application, requires appropriate soil moisture insecticide, and also shows nematicidal activity,
content to hydrolyze, and releases methyl iso- but it may be phytotoxic to some crops. Its nema-
thiocyanate. Therefore, several irrigations might ticidal activity lasts shortly but, usually, accumu-
be necessary during a 4–6-week period prior to lation of its residues in plants is not a problem.
planting to improve efficacy and facilitate degra- Cadusafos is among the last compounds with
dation of by-products into non-phytotoxic sub- nematicidal activity that has become available. It
stances. Usually, this nematicide does not cause is a phosphorganic compound which acts only as
severe residue problems. contact pesticide, has low mobility in the soil,
Metam sodium is a liquid product which also and does not seem to accumulate in soil and
develops methyl isothiocyanate. However, it has a plants. According to preliminary investigations,
rather slow nematicide activity and is effective only cadusafos appears as effective as the previously
at very high application rates (1000–2000 L/ha). It known nematicides. However, further investiga-
must be injected into the soil or diluted in water and tions are necessary to obtain more insights on its
drenched or, better, used in chemigation. efficacy as a nematicide and its fate in the
environment.
15.2.5.2 Non-fumigants Fenamiphos is probably the most widely used
These nematicides are generally less effective non-fumigant nematicide. It is a phosphorganic
than the best fumigants. They kill only active compound possessing also systemic activity and
stages of the nematodes but not eggs of which is effective against nematodes, especially root-
they may only delay hatching. Nevertheless, they knot nematodes, and insects. It has medium per-
are not phytotoxic and, therefore, can be used on sistence in the soil and, therefore, provides good
established crops. Their use is suggested when protection of the crops for 1–2 months after
nematode soil population densities at planting are planting. It is not phytotoxic at the suggested
from low to medium. They possess also insecti- rates.
cide activity. In general, these nematicides are Prophos (ethoprophos) is another phosphor-
formulated as granules containing 5–10% active ganic which acts as a contact nematicide and,
ingredients and, therefore, their application is therefore, is effective only against nematodes liv-
rather simple. The suggested rates are 10–20-kg ing free in the soil. It has also insecticidal activity
active ingredient/ha. and sometime may show phytotoxicity.
References 185
15.2.6 Biological Control 1 kg + T. harzianum at 1 kg + neem or

Pongamia cake at 50 kg/t.
Many of the fungi that parasitize nematodes are • Apply P. fluorescens/Trichoderma viride at
common soil inhabitants such as Purpureocillium 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50-kg farmyard manure
lilacinum (syn. Paecilomyces lilacinus), Pochonia 10 days before sowing/planting and use of
chlamydosporia (syn. Verticillium chlamydospo- chemical pesticide like carbofuran 3G at 1 kg
rium), and trapping fungi. Bacteria in the genus a.i./ha.
Pasteuria are also regularly found parasitizing
nematodes in soil. The use of the biocontrol agent Preplant treatment of beds with dazomet fol-
Pasteuria penetrans was found to be effective lowed by the application of neem cake (1 kg/m2,
against root-knot nematode species Meloidogyne 15 days later) along with P. lilacinus or P. chla-
javanica and M. incognita. mydosporia significantly reduced populations of
M. incognita and the mortality of plants and sup-
pressed the nematode infection for nearly 2 years.
15.2.7 Integrated Methods On a long-term basis, soil management with pre-
plant treatment of dazomet, followed by the
The following integrated methods can be utilized application of oil cakes plus antagonistic fungi,
to manage plant nematodes under greenhouse was more effective against M. incognita than
conditions: post-plant treatment with carbofuran, carbosul-
fan, and chlorpyrifos in polyhouses.
• Treat the bed with neem or Pongamia cake at
50 g + T. harzianum or Pochonia chlamydo-
sporia both at 25 g + Paecilomyces lilacinus at References
25 g/m2 at an interval of 2 months.
• Apply 2 t of farmyard manure enriched with Baker KF, Rolstacher CN (1957) Heat treatment of soil.
In: The UC system for producing healthy container-
biopesticide Trichoderma harzianum per acre
grown plants. UC Manual 23, University of California,
before planting, along with 100–200 kg of Agric Expt Stn
neem or Pongamia cake. Morra L (1998) Potenzialità e limiti dell’innesto in orti-
• Treat the seeds with biopesticide Pseudomonas coltura. Inf Agrar 54(49):43–46
Renzoni G, Lamberti F (1974) Innesti erbacei e nemato-
fluorescens at 10 g/kg seed.
cidi nella lotta contro I nematodi galligeni
• Raise the seedling in the coco peat or any sub- (Meloidogyne spp.) su pomodoro. Nematol Mediterr
strate by treating it with P. fluorescens at 2:83–90
Insects Pests and Their
Management 16
Abstract
Well-fertilized and irrigated greenhouse crops are, however, often more
sensitive to pests, like aphids, whiteflies, and leaf miners. The environ-
ment is generally warm, humid, and wind-free inside the greenhouse
which promotes the fast growth of most crops, but it is also ideal for the
development of herbivorous insects. Some of the important pest groups
affecting greenhouse crops are aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii),
caterpillars (Spodoptera spp., Helicoverpa armigera), leaf miner
(Liriomyza trifolii), mites (Tetranychus urticae, Polyphagotarsonemus
latus), thrips (Thrips tabaci, Scirtothrips dorsalis), and whiteflies
(Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Bemisia tabaci). Insects that enter the green-
house can transmit virus diseases (like tomato spotted wilt virus) and can
carry bacteria and fungi as well. Management strategies involving avoid-
ance, early detection, and curative measures are discussed.
Keywords
Insect pests • Aphids • Thrips • Whiteflies • Mites • Integrated pest
management
16.1 Introduction damage inflicted by arthropod pests on green-

house crops varies with the pest and season. The
The warm, humid conditions and abundant food level of damage that can be tolerated is greatly
under protected conditions provide an excellent, dependent on the type of crop. Producers of veg-
stable environment for pest development. Often, etable crops generally can accept a higher level
the natural enemies that keep pests under control of damage than those of ornamental crops that
outside are not present under protected environ- are produced for their aesthetic value.
ment. For these reasons, pest situations often Integrated pest management (IPM) is a sys-
develop in the indoor environment more rapidly tematic approach to manage pests that combines
and with greater severity than outdoors. The a variety of techniques and strategies to either

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_16
188 16 Insects Pests and Their Management
reduce pest populations or lessen their economic tects the aphids from contact insecticides. They
impact. It is a site-specific strategy for managing also secrete honeydew on which black sooty
pests that relies on correct pest identification and mold develop in the periods of high atmospheric
understanding the pest biology. With a long-term relative humidity which interferes with photo-
perspective, it is easier to see that an investment synthetic activity. They also act as vectors of
in IPM can pay for itself in a higher-quality crop many viral diseases. Common aphid species on
and a cleaner environment. ornamentals include the polyphagous
The growing conditions within the protected Aulacorthum circumflexum, Macrosiphum
environment of greenhouse/polyhouse are highly euphorbiae, Myzus ornatus, M. persicae, A. gos-
favorable to arthropod pests. In India, about 20 sypii, Macrosiphoniella sanborni on chrysanthe-
insect species have been recorded to be associ- mum, Aulacorthum solani on pelargonium,
ated with the crops under a protected environ- Macrosiphum rosae on rose, and Dysaphis tuli-
ment. Some of the important pest groups are pae on bulbs.
aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii), cater-
pillars (Spodoptera spp., Helicoverpa armigera),
leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii), mites (Tetranychus 16.2.1 Monitoring
urticae, Polyphagotarsonemus latus), thrips
(Thrips tabaci, Scirtothrips dorsalis), and white- Examine the foliage, stems, and new growth of
flies (Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Bemisia key plants such as peppers, eggplants, cole crops,
tabaci). In addition to damaging the crop, some and leafy greens for early detection of aphid
insects vector diseases like tomato spotted wilt infestation. Signs of aphid activity include shed-
virus. The detailed account of the insect pests ding of white skins, shiny honeydew, curled new
associated with crops under a protected environ- leaves, distorted growth, and the presence of ants.
ment is being presented in Table 16.1. Yellow sticky cards help detect the entrance of
Each crop has a set of typical pests that attack winged aphids into the greenhouse from out-
under certain conditions. This information should doors. Yellow cards will not, however, permit the
be available with the grower to aid in diagnosis monitoring of aphids within the crop, as most of
and to help understand the life cycle of the pest. the aphids will be wingless.
Correct identification is critical to selection of
appropriate management tactics, because indi-
vidual species can display different susceptibili- 16.2.2 Management
ties to chemical and other measures.
Starting with plant material free from aphids at
least delays the development of the population.
16.2 Aphids So does netting of openings of the glasshouse.
Yellow traps and regular inspection of the crop
Aphids or plant lice are small, soft-bodied, sed- provide information concerning presence, popu-
entary insects that form colonies on the leaves lation increase, and the need for treatment.
and stems of the host plants. They suck the cell Chemical treatment, by spray or trickle irriga-
sap from leaf or apical growing parts and prefer tion, is widely used against aphids. Repeated
to feed on tender, young growth. Aphids multiply treatments may be needed to keep populations at
at a rapid pace completing one generation in low levels. Treatment should be started as soon as
7–10 days. They give birth to six to ten young aphids are detected. There is considerable resis-
ones per day with 50–100 in total life span. Thus, tance of aphid populations (especially A. gossypii
enormous populations can build up in a relatively and M. persicae) to pirimicarb and organophos-
short period. phorus compounds. In these cases, active sub-
Feeding by aphids can cause leaves or stems stances with a different mode of action, such as
to curl or pucker. This leaf distortion often pro- imidacloprid or nicotine, can be used.
16.3 Caterpillars 189
Table 16.1 Insect pest scenario under a protected environment in India

Group Insect and mite pests Host Distribution
Aphids A. gossypii Capsicum Punjab, Delhi
M. sanborni Chrysanthemum Karnataka, Himachal
Pradesh
Macrosiphum luteum Orchid Sikkim
Myzus escalonicus Strawberry New Delhi
M. persicae Capsicum, gerbera Punjab, Maharashtra
Toxoptera aurantii Orchid Sikkim
Caterpillars H. armigera Capsicum, tomato, carnation Punjab, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh
S. litura Rose, tomato, capsicum, Karnataka, Punjab, HP
cucumber
Leaf miner L. trifolii Tomato, cucumber, Karnataka, Himachal
chrysanthemum, gerbera, and Pradesh
many ornamentals
Thrips S. dorsalis Rose Karnataka
Thrips palmi Gerbera Karnataka
T. tabaci Gerbera Maharashtra
Whiteflies B. tabaci Gerbera, capsicum Karnataka, Punjab
T. vaporariorum Tomato, cucumber, capsicum, Himachal Pradesh,
beans, gerbera, and more than Nilgiri hills (TN)
30 hosts
Biological control agents like Aphidoletes 16.3.1 Tobacco Caterpillar, S. litura

aphidimyza, Aphidius matricariae, A. colemani,
and Verticillium lecanii are available. They are They are mainly foliage feeders but occasionally
generally used preventively but V. lecanii can damage fruits. Eggs are deposited by female
also be used curatively. moths that have made their way into the green-
house and lay eggs in large masses. A single
female lays about 300 eggs in clusters covered by
16.2.3 Main Insecticides brown hair. They pupate in soil. Heavy infesta-
tions may occur in isolated areas within the
Acephate, bifenthrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, greenhouse, and timely spot treatments can often
diazinon, dichlorvos, dimethoate, formothion, provide effective control.
heptenophos, imidacloprid, malathion, metho- Spodoptera exigua caterpillars feed on young
myl, mevinphos, oxamyl, permethrin, phosalone, leaves, shoots, and flowers. Young larvae may
pirimicarb, propoxur, resmethrin, and thiometon skeletonize leaves near the soil. Moths are brown-
ish gray and hide during the day.
Space Treatments Diazinon, dichlorvos, nico-
tine, pirimicarb, propoxur, or sulfotep
16.3.2 Tomato Fruit Borer,
H. armigera
16.3 Caterpillars
Tomato fruit borer is one of the most significant
Two species of caterpillars are associated with insect pests of field-grown crops. They are less
the crops under protected environment. These are common in greenhouses, but when infestations
tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) and do occur, they can cause serious losses. This is
tomato fruit borer (H. armigera). because, as their name implies, this caterpillar
feeds directly on the fruit. This insect attacks 16.4 Leaf Miners
many other crops.
Tomato fruit borer feed on blooms, as well as The adults of L. trifolii and L. huidobrensis cause
immature and mature fruits. The individually laid small white feeding spots on leaves, normally of
eggs are most often deposited on leaves near little significance. The larvae of both L. huidob-
upper bloom clusters. If not controlled, heavy rensis and L. trifolii leave the mines to pupate in
infestations of these caterpillars can destroy the the soil; however, the pupae of L. trifolii can
crop. Because large larvae that have already sometimes also be found on the leaves. These
bored into fruit are very difficult to control, it is organisms are quarantine pests. Therefore, plants
important to detect infestations and begin treat- for export have to be free from these insects.
ment when caterpillars are small. Leaf miners are larvae of small flies. They
Eggs hatch within 3–7 days, depending on damage plants by feeding between the upper and
species and temperature. The small caterpillars lower surface of the leaf by forming mines. The
begin feeding on leaf tissue. The caterpillar stage mines increase in width as the larva grows. When
lasts about 11–17 days with larvae eating more fully grown, the larva emerges from the leaf and
and causing proportionally more damage as they fall to the ground to pupate. Each female fly lays
become larger. Upon completion of its larval 50–100 eggs by making punctures in the leaf
development, the caterpillar transforms to a pupa tissue.
on the foliage or in the soil, depending on spe- Damage is caused by larvae mining the leaves.
cies. Moths may emerge from these pupae in If the infestation is severe, photosynthetic activ-
7–11 days. ity is reduced affecting plant vigor. Because the
damaging stages of the insects occur entirely
inside the leaf, control with contact insecticides
16.3.3 Management is ineffective once the damage appears.
Infestations can be avoided through the use of
Infestation may develop very rapidly because of good cultural practices, hand removal and dis-
the short generation time. Frequent inspection of posal of infested leaves, and use of chemical con-
the crop is thus necessary. The glasshouses trols when necessary.
should be kept closed at night to prevent the
moths from entering. Application of insecticides
may be necessary, but only young larvae are sus- 16.4.1 Management
ceptible. Spodoptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovi-
rus can be used as a biological insecticide, but Infestation in the glasshouse is caused by infested
also in that case only larvae are susceptible. After planting material and by the entering of flies
ingesting the insecticide, they will die within 3–6 through doors and windows. The use of different
days. traps (yellow, sticky, water) or frequent inspec-
tion of the plants can indicate the presence of the
pest. The use of healthy seedlings is important.
16.3.4 Main Insecticides Insect nets are effective in keeping the flies out
and the crop clean.
Against Young Larvae Spodoptera exigua Chemical treatment, by spraying against the
nucleopolyhedrovirus, diflubenzuron, lufenuron, larvae or space treatment against the adults, is
methomyl, and teflubenzuron widely used against leaf miners. Treatment
should start as soon as damage due to adults (lit-
Against Adult Moths Space treatment with tle white dots) is detected. Repeated treatments
dichlorvos or pyrethroids may be needed to keep populations at low levels.
However, chemical control of L. huidobrensis
16.5 Thrips 191
larvae in a crop is not very effective. The same are especially prone to thrips infestations. Blue
applies to killing the pupae in the soil. L. trifolii sticky cards, key plants, and indicator plants are
is easier to handle. The parasitic wasps Dacnusa all effective for the detection of onset of an infes-
sibirica, Diglyphus isae, and Opius pallipa are tation. Yellow sticky cards should be placed just
being developed as biological control agents in above the crop canopy, near doors and vents, and
ornamental crops in glasshouses. Where possible over thrip-sensitive cultivars to monitor the
and when available, these parasites should be movement of the thrips. Recent research has
used. shown that light- to medium-blue sticky cards
catch more thrips than yellow ones. However, it
is more practical to use yellow cards for general
16.4.2 Main Insecticides pest monitoring to attract fungus gnats, white-
flies, and winged aphids. The number of thrips
Abamectin, cyromazine, methamidophos, metho- per card should be recorded and graphed weekly
myl, oxamyl, pyrazophos, thiocyclam hydrogen to monitor population levels and movement in or
oxalate, and triazophos out of the greenhouse and thus help make control
decisions.
Against Adult Moths Space treatment with
dichlorvos or pyrethroids is effective.
16.5.2 Management
Against L. huidobrensis Larvae Abamectin,
cyromazine, oxamyl, and thiocyclam hydrogen It is important to start with thrips-free planting
oxalate material. Yellow or blue (especially for
Frankliniella occidentalis) sticky traps can indi-
cate the presence of thrips. The yellow traps also
16.5 Thrips indicate the presence of other pests (e.g., white-
flies, aphids, and leaf miners).
Thrips are tiny, slender insects about 1–1.5 mm The predatory mites Neoseiulus cucumeris and
long. Female thrips insert eggs into slits in the Amblyseius degenerans and the predatory bugs
tissue. Eggs hatch in 2–7 days. Nymphs feed Orius spp. should be used for preventive biologi-
much like adults and molt four times during cal control where possible. The fungus V. lecanii
development. They pupate in debris or soil. has a side effect on thrips. If population densities
Winged adults are carried into the greenhouse on increase, single or repeated spray with an insecti-
contaminated plant material, or they fly in. cide is necessary. If only chemical control is used,
Thrips infest the leaves, flowers, buds, and the first spray is applied as soon as thrips are
young fruits of a crop. They feed by rasping the detected. In the case of F. occidentalis, this is not
plant surface and sucking up the exuding sap. easy because of resistance to many products.
Heavily infested leaves have a mottled or silvery Because of the hidden way of life of many thrips,
appearance. including F. occidentalis, space treatment may be
necessary, particularly if the thrips have infested
the flower buds. Although pyrethroids are effec-
16.5.1 Monitoring tive, they can destroy all biological control efforts
for weeks (e.g., N. cucumeris).
Early detection of thrips infestation is critical for
effective management because populations are
lower and it is easier to obtain good coverage 16.5.3 Main Insecticides
when plant canopies are small. Symptoms of
feeding are often not noticed until the damage Abamectin, acephate, acrinathrin, chlorpyrifos-
has occurred. Eggplant, tomatoes, and peppers ethyl, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, fenpropathrin,
malathion, methamidophos, methomyl, mevin- 16.6.2 Management

phos, oxamyl, pirimiphos-methyl, pyrazophos,
and thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate Cultural methods or resistant cultivars are of no
importance for the control of these pests in orna-
Space Treatments Dichlorvos or sulfotep mental plants. The use of traps (yellow, sticky, or
water) or frequent inspection of the plants can
For Thrips Other Than F. occidenta- indicate their presence. Control is essential as
lis Imidacloprid and several organophosphates soon as populations are detected and can be
and pyrethroids may be used. assured by single or repeated sprays or space
treatments with insecticides or biologically.
Encarsia formosa, a parasitic hymenopteran well
16.6 Whiteflies known for its effective control of whiteflies in
vegetables, is now also used successfully in pro-
Whiteflies are serious pests in the greenhouse. tected ornamentals. E. formosa should be used
Two species of whiteflies are prevalent under when available and effective and, in that case,
protected environment, namely, greenhouse any insecticides used should be known to be
whitefly (T. vaporariorum) and cotton whitefly harmless to this natural enemy. The fungus V.
(B. tabaci). The former is prevalent in temperate lecanii or the predatory ladybird Delphastus
regions, whereas the other is a serious pest in pusillus can also be used for the biological con-
tropical and subtropical parts of the country. trol of whiteflies. V. lecanii has a side effect on
Both the nymphs and adults of whitefly feed thrips.
on phloem cell sap and causes chlorotic spots.
The leaves dry up prematurely and plant growth
is affected. Nymphs also secrete a sticky sub- 16.6.3 Main Insecticides
stance known as honeydew, which covers leaf
surfaces and flowers on which the sooty growth
takes place under humid weather conditions. Sprays Abamectin, bifenthrin, buprofezin,
The lower surface of the leaves is infested cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, diazinon,
with all life stages of whiteflies. The female of dichlorvos, fenazaquin, fenpropathrin, imidaclo-
these sap-sucking insects may lay up to 150 eggs prid, malathion, methomyl, mevinphos, nicotine,
at the rate of 25 per day. The entire life cycle oxamyl, permethrin, pirimiphos-methyl, and
takes 21–36 days, depending on the greenhouse propoxur
environment. They can complete more than 12
generations in a year. Space Treatments Buprofezin, diazinon,
dichlorvos, pyrethrins, and teflubenzuron
16.6.1 Monitoring
16.7 Leaf Rollers ( Tortricidae)
To monitor whiteflies, check susceptible plants,
such as tomatoes, at ten locations in an area of They are mainly brown or green caterpillars of
100 m2, examining plants on each side of the tortricid leaf rollers, like Adoxophyes orana,
aisle. Look on the undersides of one or two leaves Cacoecimorpha pronubana, Clepsis spectrana,
per plant, for nymphs, pupa, and adults. Yellow and Epichoristodes acerbella, which live between
sticky traps can also be used to detect adult white- leaves spun together. They feed on leaves and
flies once populations have reached higher densi- buds.
ties. Begin treatments as soon as the first sign of
infestation is noted.
16.9 Weevils, Otiorhynchus spp 193
16.7.1 Management growth stages and direct contact between them.

Multiplication of these insects is rather slow.
Tortricids normally enter the glasshouse through Direct movement of the larvae is limited and
openings in spring and summer during cultiva- slow, and adults are (almost) sedentary. Their
tion or are imported with planting material. way of life is often hidden, and a thorough and
Where pheromone traps are available, monitor- regular, but not necessarily frequent, inspection
ing of adult moths by trapping can provide infor- is necessary to be sure to detect them. If scale
mation on the appropriate timing of application, insects or mealybugs are detected, a chemical
when the sensitive stages of the pests are exposed treatment is required. Biological control is pos-
(i.e., larvae before leaf rolling or flying adults). sible, e.g., with Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Chemical control can be necessary, by spraying against mealybugs. The parasitic wasps
against larvae or by use of space treatment against Leptomastix dactylopii and Metaphycus helvolus
adults. Trichogramma evanescens can be used as can be used against Planococcus spp.
a biological control agent.
16.8.2 Main Insecticides

16.7.2 Main Insecticides
Acephate, buprofezin, bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos-
Against Larvae Acephate, bifenthrin, cyperme- ethyl, deltamethrin, etrimfos, methidathion, mev-
thrin, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, diflubenzuron, inphos, mineral oil, oxamyl, pirimiphos-methyl,
fenpropathrin, lufenuron, methomyl, permethrin, and propoxur
teflubenzuron, and trichlorfon
Against Adult Moths Space treatment with 16.9 Weevils, Otiorhynchus spp
dichlorvos or pyrethroids
These are gray- to black-colored weevils of about
1 cm that feed on leaves and stems. More impor-
16.8 Scale Insects and Mealybugs tant are the whitish larvae that live in the soil and
feed on roots.
A large number of species belong to this group.
Larvae and adults feed on stems and leaves by
puncturing the vascular bundles of woody or 16.9.1 Management
annual plants. Many of them produce a waxy
secretion and/or honeydew, thus reducing the Sanitation and general hygiene are important.
ornamental value of the plants. Examples include Larvae are spread with soil, e.g., potted plants.
the polyphagous mealybugs Planococcus citri, Detritus should be removed and hiding places
Pseudococcus affinis, and P. longispinus and the should be kept free from adult weevils. The soil
polyphagous scale Coccus hesperidum and should be sterilized/treated before planting or pot-
Diaspis boisduvalii on orchids. ting or should be drenched after potting. If in spite
of these precautions infestation occurs, a chemical
or biological treatment may be necessary. Larvae
16.8.1 Management can successfully be controlled by the entomo-
pathogenic nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae
It is important to use healthy planting material and Heterorhabditis spp. The nematodes are most
and to avoid growing plant batches of different effective at soil temperatures higher than 13 °C.
16.9.2 Main Insecticides be removed. The soil should be free from weeds
and also under the tables and along the walls.
Moist conditions favor the development of a slug
Against Larvae Carbofuran, chlorpyrifos-ethyl, population. Biological control is possible with
and fonofos Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita.
Against Weevils Acephate, cypermethrin, del-

tamethrin, diflubenzuron, methamidophos, 16.11.2 Main Molluscicides
methomyl, and pirimiphos-methyl
Mercaptodimethur pellets and metaldehyde
pellets
16.10 Sciaridae
The larvae live in the soil and feed on young 16.12 Management Strategies
plants.
Since greenhouse conditions allow rapid devel-
opment of pest populations, successful control of
16.10.1 Management insect pests on greenhouse vegetables and orna-
mentals depends on several factors. The IPM pro-
Larvae can successfully be controlled by entomo- grams for protected cultivation can be described
pathogenic nematodes of the genus Steinernema as a pyramid constructed having three key com-
spp. The nematodes are most effective at soil ponents, namely, avoidance of problem, sam-
temperatures higher than 13 °C. The predatory pling and early detection, and curative measures.
mite Hypoaspis can also be used for biological With “avoidance” as the foundation, virtually
control. Chemical control is also possible, by all the non-curative preventive management com-
spraying against the larvae as soon as detected or ponents (e.g., physical, mechanical, and cultural
space treatment against the adults. means) can be fitted. Confronted with a pest cri-
sis, short-term function depends on the upper two
levels of the pyramid. However, sustainable,
16.10.2 Main Insecticides long-term strategies must depend on the develop-
ment of this solid foundation. At the same time, a
Permethrin and teflubenzuron pyramid strategy developed for one pest must be
compatible with like strategies in place for all
pests of a system.
16.11 Slugs Although physical and cultural measures do
not have a curative effect after heavy infestations
Slugs (e.g., Arion spp., Deroceras spp., and of greenhouse pests, their preventive and delay-
Lehmannia spp.) may inflict considerable dam- ing effect on the rapid increase of pests is of great
age to young plants and occasionally the leaves importance in integrated pest management.
of older plants by feeding and by forming slimy
tracks.
16.12.1 Avoidance
16.11.1 Management 16.12.1.1 Use of Physical Barriers
General hygiene is important. All plant debris, 16.12.1.1.1 Use of Insect-Proof Screens
leftover plastic, growing medium, etc., that may One strategy particularly suited to greenhouse
serve as hiding places or oviposition sites should IPM programs is the use of physical barriers to
16.12 Management Strategies 195
exclude insect pests. Screening removes an Table 16.2 Screen mesh sizes needed to exclude major
greenhouse pest species
important variable from a grower’s pest manage-
ment program – the movement of pests into the Mesh (number
Hole size of threads per
greenhouse from outside. This includes common
Insect pest (micron) linear inch)
greenhouse pests such as thrips, aphids, leaf min-
Leaf miner (L. trifolii) 610 34
ers, and whiteflies but also some less common
Cotton whitefly 462 42
pests such as fruit borers. Screening vents and (Bemisia tabaci)
doorways can greatly limit the movement of Aphid (M. persicae) 340 52
insect pests into the greenhouse. However, selec- Greenhouse whitefly (T. 290 58
tion of proper screen size mesh and assuring ade- vaporariorum)
quate airflow are more important. Thrips (Thrips spp.) 192 76
Mesh size depends upon the targeted insect
(Table 16.2). Mesh with holes less than 200 μm is
required for complete exclusion of thrips; how- Insects perceive light signals through their
ever, screening with holes as large as 600 μm is compound eyes. The anatomy and physiology of
sufficient for excluding leaf miners. the compound eye is adapted to sense UV wave-
For the exclusion of thrips, a screen mesh of lengths alone or a mixture of UV and visible
76 is required. Obviously, screening that keeps radiation. The UV part of the solar spectrum
out thrips also keeps out larger pests, such as plays an important role in the ecological behavior
aphids and whiteflies. However, selection of of insects, including orientation, navigation,
screen with particular mesh size is site specific feeding, and interaction between the sexes.
and depends on the prevalent pests of the crop in Spectrally modified sheets are produced com-
the locality. The smaller the holes in the mesh, mercially by the introduction of a UV-absorbing
the more reduction there will be in airflow. This additive into the raw material which blocks the
reduction can be counteracted by increasing the transmission of most wavelengths in the UV
surface area through which air flows. Screening range below 370–380 nm without interfering
can be stretched from gutter to gutter to increase with the transmission of photosynthetically active
surface area. radiation (400–700 nm).
The manipulation of the UV vision of insects
16.12.1.1.2 Provision of Double Door by using UV-blocking greenhouse cladding
Limited access to screened areas is beneficial materials has been shown to be effective in pre-
since insects may come in the protected structure venting the immigration of a wide range of insect
on clothing or be swept in with the wind. Building pests (whiteflies, aphids, thrips, and leaf miners)
a screened foyer to create a double-door entry from the external environment into the protected
partially solves the problem of wind-carried crop. It was found that populations of aphid (A.
insects. Special efforts must be put in for repair- gossypii), greenhouse whitefly (T. vaporario-
ing holes or tears immediately and cleaning the rum), thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis and
screens to maintain airflow. Scirtothrips dorsalis), and leaf miner (Liriomyza
sp.) were lower on tomatoes grown in a plastic
16.12.1.1.3 Ultraviolet Radiation- house made of polyethylene treated to exclude
Absorbing Sheets UV wavelengths than on crops grown in an ordi-
Altering the visual behavior of insects has been nary plastic house. The number of whiteflies,
used successfully as a tool in IPM programs aphids, and thrips trapped on sticky yellow cards
directed to protect crops from insects and insect- under a UV-absorbing film were 10–100 times
borne viral diseases. The first evidence that lower than the number trapped under regular
UV-absorbing films may reduce insect invasion films. The use of UVA films also helped in reduc-
of greenhouses came from Japan. ing the number of insecticide applications by
50–80 % for the management of S. littoralis.
16.12.1.2 Sanitation and Cultural 16.12.1.2.2 Inspection on Arrival

Practices One of the most important points in protected
Many of the methods incorporated in an IPM cultivation is to begin with insect-free planting
strategy are logical greenhouse operating proce- material. When new plants arrive at the green-
dures and basic horticultural practices. The fol- house, examine them closely for signs of pest
lowing methods produce a healthier crop, prevent infestation. If necessary, remove lower or dam-
many pest problems, and isolate pests to smaller aged leaves to avoid spread of pests. Make the
areas in the greenhouse. Some of the important decision whether treatment is needed from the
ones are: first sign of symptoms of insects or mites. It is
much easier to manage a pest infestation by treat-
16.12.1.2.1 Preseason Cleanup ing a group of small plants (in seedling stage)
A basic component of cultural practices is sanita- rather than larger plants where the dense canopy
tion. Infestations are easier to prevent than to prevents thorough coverage.
cure. It has been observed that insects can enter
the protected structure in the following three 16.12.1.2.3 Balanced Use of Fertilizers
ways: Fertilization schedules based on balanced use of
nutrients should be followed. Nitrogen should be
• Introduction of infested seedlings/planting applied only as needed for optimal growth.
material Periodic heavy applications set up nitrogen sur-
• Infestation from other plants within the pro- pluses that cause excessive growth, which favor
tected structure the population growth of aphids and other pests.
• Infestation from host plants outside but near Application of potassium at desired levels has
the protected structures been found to reduce the incidence of insect
pests.
Before introducing a new crop into the green-
house, it is extremely important to eliminate pests 16.12.1.2.4 Pinching and Pruning
from the previous crop. Remove all plant debris Pinching off damaged plant parts, flowers, and
and weeds from the greenhouse. Many pests also spotted leaves (and those with insect larvae or
occur on other crops or broadleaf weeds. For this egg deposits) can be a very effective way of
reason, it is important to avoid growing other reducing the spread of pests in the greenhouse.
crops next to the greenhouse and to prevent heavy The plant debris should be placed immediately in
growths of broadleaf weeds around the outside a covered container before being disposed off.
edges of the greenhouse. Under a protected envi- This practice can be helpful in reducing the pest
ronment, monoculture is suggested; however, if population of all the targeted pests.
one has to go for polyculture, then avoid stag- Pruning lower leaves after harvesting lower
gered planting. fruit clusters is a helpful measure in removing
A fallow period of 2–4 weeks reduces the pest large numbers of developing leaf miners and
load considerably. To determine the presence of whiteflies.
thrips, whiteflies, leaf miners, or other insects, set
up yellow sticky cards and indicator plants after 16.12.1.2.5 Plant Quarantine
watering. Observe for any insects that are trapped Workers in the greenhouse are frequently the
on the cards after 2 days and continue till the mechanism for dispersal of insects and mite
activity is ceased and only thereafter that the pests. One should try to avoid moving plants with
decision regarding plantation of new crop be mites or thrips and they should not be touched or
made. moved immediately before handling clean,
healthy plants.
16.12 Management Strategies 197
16.12.1.2.6 Trap Crop/Indicator Plants weekly interval. A thorough greenhouse inspec-

For early detection and trapping of the target tion reveals the location and severity of any cur-
pests, some of the preferred hosts of the target rent pest problems. One should use a field data
pests can be used. Planting border rows of sheet to record the identification, location, and
Portulaca oleracea in rose can be used as a trap severity of all pests present and record the effec-
crop for tobacco caterpillar under a protected tiveness of any treatments.
environment.
16.12.2.2 Monitoring
It is a relative method of insect population esti-
16.12.2 Early Detection mation where no direct observations on the plants
for the presence of insect pests are needed.
Scouting and early detection are critical to man- However, the pest population is estimated with
age the insect infestation successfully. Monitoring the help of attractant traps. For whitefly, aphid,
or scouting is the regular, systematic inspection thrips, and leaf miner adults, yellow sticky cards
of the plants and exteriors to identify and assess (10 × 20 or 20 × 30 cm) are an excellent supple-
pest problems. It includes inspection of foliage ment to pest observation in the protected
and flowers and the use of insect traps. Many environment. Additionally, for thrips, blue-col-
insect infestations begin in isolated spots within ored sticky traps can also be used. Though the
the greenhouse. Timely crop monitoring identi- sticky traps are available commercially, however,
fies situations where pests are absent or are at they can also be fabricated indigenously at grow-
levels well below those necessary to cause dam- ers’ level by using pieces of fluorescent yellow
age, thus preventing unnecessary control applica- chart paper and pasting castor oil/mustard oil or
tions and expenditures. the commercial grade adhesive, the polybutene,
on both the surfaces. The traps are placed in a
16.12.2.1 Scouting grid pattern and 1–2 yellow sticky cards per 100
Scouting procedures for most greenhouse-grown square meter of floor area are used. If the target is
crops are based on visual observations and are mass trapping, then the number of traps can be
used to provide estimates of the pest population increased to five or more. Hang the yellow sticky
in protected environment. The common pests that cards/traps in the crop with the help of strings
attack greenhouse crops do not distribute them- about 10–15 cm above the plant canopy. As the
selves evenly throughout the crop. Therefore, it is crop grows, cards can be moved up. Designate
imperative to scout the entire greenhouse in a the location of each sticky card on a map of the
consistent, uniform pattern. Inspect the entire greenhouse. Check the sticky cards every scout-
plant, including the soil surface, for the presence ing visit (twice a week if possible) and record the
of arthropod pests. Look at the plant systemati- total number of whiteflies, thrips, winged aphids,
cally each time. Begin at the bottom and work up. and leaf miner flies from each card on the field
Look at the older leaves, the young, tender leaves, data sheet. Change the cards when more than
and the flush growth. When the crop is young, it 60–70 % of the area is covered by trapped insect.
is important to check all the leaves on the plant. Apart from this, sex pheromone-baited traps
Because a majority of arthropod pests associated can also be used for detecting moths of tobacco
prefer the underside of a leaf, it is important to caterpillar and tomato fruit borer. These traps
turn the leaves over to check for pests. The allow visualizing population trends and can be
detailed account of observations to be recorded is used to time the application of pesticides or
presented in Table 16.3. release of bioagents. The detail of the scouting
Scout the crop on a regular basis and at least and monitoring plan is given in Table 16.3.
1–2 % of the total plants should be inspected at
Table 16.3 Monitoring and scouting technique for pests under a protected environment
Leaf Yellow Spider
Aphids miners mites mites Thrips Whiteflies Caterpillars
Scouting
Inspect underside of leaf x x x x x x
Inspect upper surface for x x
stippling/small white
spots
Inspect leaves for mines x
within tissue
Inspect new growth or x x x
terminal for feeding
Tap flowers over white x x x
surface and look for
movement
Press lower leaf surface x x
on white card and look
for spots on cards
Observe for
Honeydew or sooty mold x
Small black spots on x
leaves (fecal drops)
Holes/skeletonized spot x
in/on leaves
Frass on leaves x
Small black spots on x
leaves (fecal drops)
Chlorotic (yellow) spots x x x
on upper leaf surface
Casted-off skins on leaf x
Curling of leaves x x
Distortion of new growth x x x
Buds fail to open or x
uneven opening of
flowers
Webbing on leaves/ x
flowers
Monitoring
Yellow sticky card at top x x x x
of plant canopy
Blue sticky card at top of x
plant canopy
Pheromone traps x
16.12.3 Curative Measures conditions under which the naturally occurring

agents can act effectively. In field situations,
16.12.3.1 Biological Control some very outstanding successes have been
Practically every crop pest has its natural enemies achieved by using biocontrol agents, but the
in the form of parasitoids or predators. The bio- method suffered a setback owing to the large-
logical control involves a large-scale multiplica- scale and indiscriminate use of insecticides.
tion and release of such agents or creating
The basics of biological control to manage persistence and adopting the suggested waiting
pests include use of specific predators and para- period between last insecticidal application and
sitoids in greenhouse ecosystems. But to be harvesting can be followed.
effective, biological control must be well planned Another challenge with pest managers is to
and begun when the target populations are low. In minimize the development of resistance in pest
Western Europe and North America, the bioag- species to the pesticides. This can be checked or
ents are commercially available and being used delayed by avoiding repeated application of the
successfully for the management of pest prob- same insecticide and also from the same group.
lems under protected situations (Tables 16.4 and Incorporating botanicals, microbials, and others
16.5). in the management schedule proves better in the
However, under Indian conditions, this tech- insecticide resistance management program
nique though is having potential but have the fol- (IRMP).
lowing limitations: Apart from this, the safety of the pesticide
applicator should also be taken into consideration
• Temperature extremes and the effect of chem- as the chemical pesticides become more volatile
ical pesticides affecting the capabilities of under high-temperature regimes of the protected
natural enemies environment. One should apply the pesticides by
• Low tolerance of pest damage among con- taking all safety measures including the protec-
sumers especially in ornamentals tive kit to avoid the direct effect of pesticides to
• Lack of a system for supplying natural ene- the applicator. A reentry period of at least 12 h
mies of good quality should be observed after application of pesti-
cides. Insecticides with fumigant action need to
be avoided under protected structures.
16.12.3.2 Chemical Control The following are some of the insecticides
The insecticides are curative in action and are one labeled for the management of insect and mite
of the important tools to check the flaring pest pests (Table 16.6).
populations. Insecticides belonging to different
groups, namely, botanical pesticides, microbial
pesticides, insect growth regulators (IGRs), syn- 16.13 Future Thrusts
thetic chemical pesticides, etc., are in use. Some
of the serious limitations of the insecticides have Research efforts are needed for developing pest
been highlighted in recent years. Out of these, the management technology under a protected envi-
problems of insecticides residues on crops have ronment with emphasis on avoidance and selec-
been agitating the minds of people in developed tive use of pesticides. Safe waiting intervals
and developing countries of the world due to based on harvest time pesticide residues need to
indiscriminate use of pesticides. However, the be established for the crops under a protected
sensible approach suggested and generally environment as this information is lacking com-
accepted is for need-based judicious and safe use pletely. Apart from this, emphasis to improve the
of insecticides. awareness level of the growers for timely diagno-
Under a protected environment, in order to sis and judicious use of insecticides needs to be
avoid the contamination of produce from pesti- taken up on priority.
cide residues, the use of pesticides having less
Table 16.4 Predators and parasitoids of insect pests

Organism Supplier Pests controlled Application/comments
A. degenerans or Iphiseius Intl. Technology Aphids Release when pest levels are
degenerans (predatory mite) Services, IPM Labs., low. Prefer high humidity
Green Spot
Amblyseius fallacis or Neoseiulus IPM Labs., Rincon- Mites
fallacis (predatory mite) Vitova, Green Spot
Anagyrus pseudococci (parasitic Praxis Mealybugs
wasp)
Aphidius colemani (parasitic wasp) Florikan, IPM Labs., Aphids Release 5–2/m2; humidity
Harmony Farm should be 70–85 %, temp.
Supply, Praxis, 65–77 °F. Release at first sign
Rincon-Vitova, Green of pests and for three
Spot consecutive weeks thereafter.
Sensitive to pesticides
A. matricariae (parasitic wasp) Arbico, Hydro- Aphids 1250–7500/ha. Can be used in
Gardens, Green Spot greenhouses all year long
A. aphidimyza (predatory midge) Nature’s Control, Aphids 1–3/3 m2; humidity should be
Intl. Technology 50–90 %, temp
Services, IPM 60–80 °F. Release when
Laboratories, aphids are first observed;
Hydro-Gardens, release lower numbers for
Arbico, Praxis, preventive control; apply
Rincon-Vitova, every 2 weeks. Active at
Harmony Farm night; sensitive to day length
Supply, Green Spot
Aphytis melinus (parasitic wasp) Arbico, Sespe Creek Many scales 25,000–250,000/ha; humidity
Insectary, Harmony, should be 20–80 %, temp.
Hydro-Gardens, IPM 65–95 °F
Labs., Natural Pest
Controls, Praxis,
Green Spot
Chilocorus spp. (beetle) Praxis Scales
Chrysoperla carnea (predator) Natural Pest Aphids, 1 lacewing/5–30 aphids; 1000
Controls, Beneficial caterpillars, eggs/200 m2. Apply every 1–3
Insectary, Caltec, mealybugs, scales, weeks as needed. May arrive
Arbico, A-1 Unique spider mites, thrips, as eggs, immatures, or adults
Insect Control, whiteflies
Praxis, Rincon-
Vitova,
Hydro-Gardens
Chrysoperla rufilabris (predator) Arbico, Beneficial See above
Insectary, IPM Labs.,
A-1 Unique Insect
Control, Nature’s
Control, Praxis,
Rincon-Vitova
Chrysoperla spp. (predator) M&R Durango, See above
Florikan, Green Spot
Coccophagus lycinnia (parasite Praxis Scale
wasp)
Coleomegilla maculata (pink Arbico Aphids, mites, 1/m2; shipped as larvae and
ladybird beetle) caterpillars, scales, eggs
thrips, whiteflies
(continued)

C. montrouzieri (predatory beetle) Arbico, Caltec, Intl. Aphids, mealybugs, 2–5/infested plant; humidity
Technology Services, soft scales should be 70–80 %, temp.
IPM Laboratories, 70–80 °F. Larvae are
Natural Pest cannibalistic; repeat as
Controls, Nature’s necessary for control; do not
Control, Florikan, wear white while distributing
Harmony Farm
Supply, Hydro-
Gardens, Praxis,
Rincon-Vitova, Green
Spot
Dacnusa sibirica (parasitoid) Arbico, Intl. Leaf miners 1250–2500/ha; humidity
Technology Services, should be 50–90 %; temp.
Natural Pest 60–85 °F. Apply at first
Controls, Praxis, appearance of pests
Koppert, Green Spot
Deraeocoris brevis (predator) Green Spot Aphids, whiteflies,
thrips
Delphastus pusillius (predatory Arbico, IPM Greenhouse 2000/3000 m2; temperature
beetle) Laboratories, whitefly, sweet should be 60–85 °F. Will feed
Nature’s Control, potato whitefly on spider mites if no whiteflies
Harmony Farm are available Should be used
Supply, Hydro- along with E. formosa and
Gardens, Rincon- traps
Vitova, Praxis, Green
Spot
Diaeretiella rapae (parasitoid) Arbico, Praxis Aphids Release rates vary
Diglyphus isaea (parasitoid) Arbico, Harmony Leaf miners Temps. should be 75–90 °F
Farm Supply, Natural and humidity around 80 %
Pest Controls, Praxis,
Intl. Technology
Services, Green Spot
E. formosa (parasitic wasp) Arbico, Nature’s Greenhouse Release 1/m2 weekly for 3
Control, IPM whitefly, sweet weeks when pest numbers are
Laboratories, Intl. potato whitefly, low. Release 2–4/m2 when
Technology Services, silver leaf whitefly pest numbers are high. Apply
Florikan, Harmony when pests are first observed.
Farm Supply, Should be used in conjunction
Hydro-Gardens, with traps. May be used along
Natural Pest with other beneficials. E.
Controls, A-! Unique formosa is very susceptible to
Insect Control, chemicals. Temps should be at
Praxis, Rincon- least 64 °F. Reapply every 2
Vitova, Green Spot weeks
Encarsia luteola or E. deserti Beneficial Insectary, Whiteflies
Hydro-Gardens, IPM
Laboratories, Arbico,
Praxis, Green Spot
(continued)

Eretmocerus californicus or E. Hydro-Gardens Greenhouse Capable of handling hot, dry
eremicus (parasitic wasp) whitefly, silver leaf temperatures. Introduce when
whitefly, sweet whiteflies are first observed.
potato whitefly May be used in combination
with other beneficials such as
green lacewings. Eretmocerus
is more tolerant of pesticides
than E. formosa
Euseius spp. (predatory mite) Praxis Scale, mites
Harmonia axyridis (Asian lady Green Spot Scale, whiteflies, Temperatures should be
beetle) mealybugs, aphids 70–85 °F; humidity around
70 %
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora M&R Durango, Fungus gnats, Application rate varies;
(beneficial nematode) Arbico, BioLogic, crown borers, 1 million/3000 m2 is
Hydro-Gardens, thrips, grubs, suggested. Nematodes need a
Harmony Farm cutworms, Japanese moist environment to survive
Supply, Plant Health beetles, black fine and move through soil. Apply
Care, Green Spot weevil in evening directly into
growing medium
Hippodamia convergens (lady A-1 Unique Insect Aphids, mites, Release at dusk near an
beetle) (predator) Control. Arbico, whiteflies immediate food source. Spray
Caltec, IPM plants with water prior to
Laboratories, Natural release
Pest Controls,
Nature’s Control,
Harmony Farm
Supply, Hydro-
Gardens, Praxis,
Green Spot
Hypoaspis miles (predator) Florikan, Harmony Thrips 100–300/m2
Farm Supply, Green
Spot
Iphiseius degenerans or A. Intl. Technology Aphids
degenerans (predatory mite) Services, IPM Labs.,
Green Spot
Leptomastida enormis (parasitic Praxis Mealybug
wasp)
Leptomastix dactylopii Praxis, Arbico, IPM Mealybug
Labs.
Lindorus lophanthae or Rhyzobius Harmony Farm Armored scales 1–2/m2. Release as soon as
lophanthae (black lady beetle) Supply, Arbico, scales are detected. Temps.
Green Spot should be 59–77 °F, humidity
20–90 %
Lysiphlebus testaceipes (parasitic Praxis Aphids
wasp)
Mesoseiulus longipes or Arbico, Nature’s Spider mites Introduce at first sign of pests.
Phytoseiulus longipes (predator) Control, Harmony Can tolerate hot, dry
Farm Supply conditions (humidity 40 %,
temp. 70–90 °F). Tolerates
extremes of temp. and
humidity better than other
mite predators
(continued)

M. helvolus (parasitoid) Arbico, IPM Labs., Scale Temps. should be 73–87 °F;
Harmony Farm RH 50 %. Do not overwinter
Supply, Natural Pest in cold climates. They are
Controls, Praxis, attracted to lights and sticky
Sespe Creek traps
Insectary, Green Spot
Neoseiulus spp. or Amblyseius spp. IPM Laboratories, Broad mites, thrips 10–30/plant per week
(predatory mites) N. barkeri Arbico
N. californicus Arbico, Beneficial Spider mites Can tolerate hot conditions
Insectary, Caltec, (humidity 60 % min.; temp.
IPM Labs., Nature’s 70–90 °F). Introduce at first
Control, Harmony sign of spider mites. Can
Farm Supply, survive absence of prey longer
Hydro-Gardens, than other predatory mites
Rincon-Vitova
N. cucumeris Arbico, Natural Pest Thrips, mites Humidity should be 70–90 %,
Controls, Nature’s temp 50–85 °F. Introduce at
Control, Intl. first sign of pests
Technology Services,
Florikan, IPM Labs.,
Harmony Farm
Supply, Hydro-
Gardens, Rincon-
Vitova, Green Spot
N. cucumeris and N. barkeri Hydro-Gardens Thrips, aphids, 1 predator/m2; humidity
mites should be moderate, temp.
70 °F. Establish population
early. Repeat every month
during periods of warm, dry
weather
Neoseiulus fallacis or Amblyseius IPM Labs., Rincon- Mites Release when pest levels are
fallacis Vitova, Green Spot low. Prefer high humidity
(predatory mite)
Orius insidiosus (minute pirate Florikan, IPM Labs., Aphids, 1/10 m2 (preventive), 1 every
bug) (predator) Harmony Farm caterpillars, thrips, 2 m2 when pests are present.
Supply, Arbico, whiteflies, mites Temperature should be
Hydro-Gardens, 70–90 °F. Orius are dormant
Praxis, Koppert, Intl. during September–April.
Tech. Services, Green Reapply every 2–3 weeks.
Spot Very susceptible to pesticides.
Works well in combination
with N. cucumeris
Phytoseiulus longipes or Arbico, Nature’s Spider mites Introduce at first sign of pests.
Mesoseiulus longipes (predator) Control, Harmony Can tolerate hot, dry
Farm Supply conditions (humidity 40 %,
temp. 70–90 °F). Tolerates
extremes of temp. and
humidity better than other
mite predators
(continued)

Phytoseiulus persimilis (predatory Arbico, Beneficial Spider mites 2000 mites/3000 m2 or 1/5 m2.
mite) Insectary, Hydro- Apply at first sign of spider
Gardens, Intl. mites. If pests persist, reapply
Technology Services, every 3–5 weeks. Can be used
Natural Pest in combination with either
Controls, Nature’s Galendromus occidentalis or
Control, Caltec, Neoseiulus californicus. May
Florikan, IPM Labs., be used in combination with
Harmony Farm Bt or Enstar II. Also available
Supply, Praxis, Green in P. persimilis Ht for higher
Spot temperatures. Humidity
should be 60–90 %, temps.
65–80 °F
Propylea quatuordecimpunctata Praxis Aphids
(predatory beetle)
Rhyzobius lophanthae or Lindorus Harmony Farm Armored scales 1–2/m2. Release as soon as
lophanthae (black lady beetle) Supply, Arbico, scales are detected. Temps.
Green Spot should be 59–77 °F, RH of
20–90 %
Stethorus punctillum (spider mite Nature’s Control, Spider mites 100 spider mite destroyers
destroyer) Green Spot start a colony. These lady
beetles live 4–5 weeks
Steinernema spp. (beneficial Hydro-Gardens, Cutworms, thrips, 1 million/3000 m2;
nematodes) Nature’s Control white grubs, shore temperature should be above
flies, fungus gnats, 55 °F. Apply in evening,
etc. directly to growing media.
Water in after application.
Needs moist environment to
thrive
Steinernema spp. and Florikan, Green Spot See above See above
Heterorhabditis spp. (beneficial
nematodes)
S. carpocapsae (beneficial BioLogic, Thermo Moths, borers, 11,000–35,000/m2. Work in
nematodes) Trilogy, Arbico, earworms, moist soil at temps. from
Harmony Farm rootworms, beetles, 50 °F to 85 °F. For best
Supply, M&R cutworms, fungus results, apply at dusk
Durango, Hydro- gnats, crickets,
Gardens, IPM Labs., grubs, shore flies,
Praxis, Green Spot weevils, maggots,
etc.
Steinernema feltiae (beneficial BioLogic, Geiger, See above Apply when media temps. are
nematodes) M&R Durango, IPM 55–90 °F
Laboratories
Stethorus punctillum (lady beetles) Praxis Spider mites
Thripobius semiluteus (parasitoid) Arbico, Nature’s Thrips
Control
Source: Greer, Lane. 1999. ATTRA Technical Specialist. Compiled from magazine articles, extension bulletins, and
product literature
Table 16.5 Biopesticides for key greenhouse pests

Insecticide Target pests Labeled crops Comments
Bacillus thuringiensis Leaf miner, Greenhouse Stomach poison that
caterpillars vegetables, e.g., must be eaten by target
tomatoes, cole crops, insect to be effective.
peppers Most effective against
small, newly hatched
larvae. Insects stop
feeding and die 1–5
days later
Beauveria bassiana Aphids, thrips, Many vegetables incl. Contains a fungus that
whitefly eggplant, peppers, must contact target
squash pest. Thorough spray
coverage needed for
contact material to be
effective. Treat when
insect population is
low. Repeated
applications may be
needed
V. lecanii White fly, mealybug, See above See above
leafhopper
Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) Tobacco caterpillar, Many vegetables HaNPV for tomato
tomato fruit borer fruit borer, SlNPV for
tobacco caterpillar
Table 16.6 Selected insecticides labeled for insects and mites on vegetable plants
Azadirachtin Many incl. aphids, thrips, Many vegetables incl. Insect growth regulator
caterpillars, leafhopper, cucurbit, eggplant, tomato, for immature stages of
leaf miner, whitefly, peppers insects. Repeat
mites applications needed.
Repels some insects and
can be used as an
antifeedant
Fenazate Spider mites Many vegetables Compatible with
beneficial predatory mites.
Rapidly degraded in
high-temperature alkaline
water. Use solutions
promptly or add a
commercial buffering
agent
Buprofezin Whitefly, leafhopper Many vegetables Active against nymph
stages. Chitin synthesis
inhibitor and suppresses
oviposition of adults and
reduces viability of eggs.
Treated pests may remain
alive for 3–7 days, but
feeding damage is low.
Apply no more than two
applications per season
(continued)

Chlorfenapyr Caterpillars, spider mites, Many vegetables – do not Do not apply more than
broad mites, western use on tomato varieties three times during crop
flower thrips <2.5 cm in diameter when cycle. Do not make more
mature than two consecutive
applications before
rotating to a chemical in a
different class
Dinotefuran Aphids, leaf miner, Vegetable transplants Do not make more than
thrips, whitefly one application per crop
Imidacloprid Aphids, leafhopper, leaf Vegetable bedding –
miner, thrips, whitefly
Pyrethrins Many incl. aphids, Many vegetables Flushes insects from
caterpillars, thrips, hiding with knockdown
leafhopper, whitefly effects
Pyriproxyfen (distance Whitefly, aphids See supplemental label for Do not apply to tomato
insect growth regulator) indoor-grown fruiting varieties <2.5 cm in
vegetables diameter or to non-bell
peppers
Do not make more than
two applications per
season
Spinosad Leaf miner, caterpillars, Many vegetables See label for resistance
thrips management guideline
Spirotetramat Aphids, spider mites, Vegetable transplants Will not control heavy
whitefly population of spider mites
Sucrose octanoate esters Aphids, caterpillars, Vegetables Contact insecticide with
(SucraShield) leafhopper, mites, thrips, limited residual activity
whitefly
Aphids and Their Management
17
Abstract
This chapter summarizes IPM for greenhouse aphids on both vegetable
and ornamental crops. Focus is on monitoring, sanitation, biological con-
trols, biorational pesticides, and insect growth regulators. Supplemental
tables include information on the newest biopesticides and biological con-
trol organisms.
Keywords
Aphids • Scouting • Monitoring • Biocontrol • Biorational pesticides
17.1 Introduction Aphid management relies on understanding

that the females of many aphid species do not
There are approximately 4000 aphid species in have to mate in order to reproduce, and they typi-
the world. Life cycles and preferred hosts vary cally produce live young rather than eggs. These
with each type of aphid. Common aphid pests of characteristics contribute to the tendency of
greenhouse crops include the green peach aphid aphid populations to “explode.”
(Myzus persicae), the melon/cotton aphid (Aphis
gossypii), the chrysanthemum aphid
(Macrosiphoniella sanborni), the rose aphid 17.2 Crop Scouting and Trapping
(Macrosiphum rosae), the potato aphid
(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), and the foxglove Plants should be visually inspected for signs of
aphid (Aulacorthum solani) (Lindquist 1991). an aphid infestation. Look especially carefully
The green peach aphid is probably the most at plants prone to aphid problems and at plant
notorious aphid pest of greenhouse crops parts like the undersides of leaves, stems, and
because of its wide host range, worldwide dis- new growth. Choose plants randomly through-
tribution, and difficulty of control and the num- out the greenhouse and inspect undersides of
ber of viral diseases it vectors (Sunderland leaves, buds, or tip growth and watch for hon-
et al. 1992). eydew and cast skins. Since aphids are difficult

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_17
208 17 Aphids and Their Management
to see on plants with fine foliage, hold such 17.3 Biological Control
plants over a white piece of paper and gently
tap to dislodge any aphids. Avoid moving There are several biological control options for
infested plants to new areas where susceptible greenhouse aphid pests. Some common biologi-
plants are growing. Locations where aphids are cal control agents (BCAs) include green lace-
found should be flagged, so that population wings (Chrysoperla carnea, C. rufilabris,
development and control efforts can be Chrysopa spp.), aphid midges (Aphidoletes aphi-
evaluated. dimyza), parasitic wasps (Aphidius colemani and
Different aphid species tend to infest differ- A. matricariae), and lady beetles (Hippodamia
ent parts of their host plants. Green peach aphids convergens) (Table 17.2).
tend to cluster on the succulent young growth, A 1998 study showed that green lacewing lar-
whereas melon aphids are usually evenly dis- vae did not disperse as well as the parasitic wasp
tributed along the plant stems. Melon aphid Aphidius colemani (Heinz 1998). To achieve
populations also have fewer winged adults than equal aphid suppression, more of the slower-
do green peach aphids. Knowing which species moving species need to be introduced and from
is infesting the crop is very important in suc- more points (e.g., lacewings have to be released
cessful detection and monitoring of aphid on each bench because they cannot move to adja-
populations. cent benches). A study performed at Colorado
Yellow sticky cards placed horizontally at State University compared the effectiveness of
the top of the pot or container (if you are grow- parasitic wasps, aphid midges, lady beetle larvae,
ing containerized plants) can be used for moni- and green lacewing larvae (Anon 1999). The
toring winged aphids. However, since winged researchers found that lacewings performed bet-
aphids caught during the summer months may ter in hot temperatures, while aphid midges and
have blown in from the outdoors; sticky cards lady beetles were better in cooler temperatures.
are not as reliable as visual inspections. Sticky At all temperatures, Aphidoletes was the best of
cards are more useful in the winter months the four at controlling aphids.
when aphids caught on the cards are not likely Strains of the fungus Beauveria bassiana pro-
to have come in from the outside. It is better to vide good control of aphids, including green peach
rely primarily on visual inspections for aphid aphids. The fungus works by attaching to the out-
detection, and use sticky cards as a backup side of the pest and then penetrating into the body
method (Table 17.1). and killing it. The fungus is available commer-
Signs of an aphid infestation include honey- cially for greenhouse ornamentals as Naturalis-O
dew or sooty mold on leaves, yellow spots on and for vegetables as BotaniGard (Table 17.3).
upper leaf surfaces, cast skins on leaves, curling Another fungus, Verticillium lecanii, can also pro-
of leaves, and distortion of new growth. vide good biological control of aphids.
Formulations of this fungus are currently being
Table 17.1 Monitoring and scouting techniques for
sold in some European countries under the names
aphids of Vertalec and Mycotal, but neither of these prod-
Aphids
ucts is yet registered for use in the USA.
Scouting
Verticillium lecanii often occurs naturally in
Inspect underside of leaf x
greenhouses, so it may be possible to encour-
Inspect new growth or terminal for feeding x age its growth and distribution in the green-
Tap flowers over white surface and look for x house without the benefit of a commercially
movement available product. V. lecanii spores require at
Observe for least 93 % relative humidity at temperatures
Chlorotic (yellow) spots on upper leaf x between 59 °F and 81 °F to germinate and
surface grow. High humidity must be present for at
17.3 Biological Control 209
Table 17.2 Predators and parasitoids for biocontrol of aphids in greenhouses

Organism Supplier Application/comments
Chrysoperla carnea Natural Pest Controls, Beneficial 1 lacewing/5–30 aphids; 1000
Insectary, Caltec, Arbico, A-1 Unique eggs/200 m2. Apply every 1–3 weeks
Insect Control, Praxis, Rincon-Vitova, as needed. May arrive as eggs,
Hydro-Gardens immatures, or adults
Chrysoperla rufilabris Arbico, Beneficial Insectary, IPM Labs.,
A-1 Unique Insect Control, Nature’s
Control, Praxis, Rincon-Vitova
Chrysoperla spp. (predator) M&R Durango, Florikan, Green Spot
Coleomegilla maculata Arbico 1/m2; shipped as larvae and eggs
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Arbico, Caltec, Intl. Technology 2–5/infested plant; humidity should be
(predator beetle) Services, IPM Laboratories, Natural Pest 70–80 %, temp. 70–80 °F
Controls, Nature’s Control, Florikan,
Harmony Farm Supply, Hydro-Gardens,
Praxis, Rincon-Vitova, Green Spot
Deraeocoris brevis (predator) Green Spot
Diaeretiella rapae (parasite) Arbico, Praxis Release rates vary
Harmonia axyridis (Asian Green Spot Temperatures should be 70–85 °F;
lady beetle) humidity around 70 %
Hippodamia convergens A-1 Unique Insect Control, Arbico, Release at dusk near an immediate
(lady beetle) (predator) Caltec, IPM Laboratories, Natural Pest food source. Spray plants with water
Controls, Nature’s Control, Harmony prior to release
Farm Supply, Hydro-Gardens, Praxis,
Green Spot
Iphiseius degenerans or Intl. Technology Services, IPM Labs.,
Amblyseius degenerans Green Spot
(predatory mite)
Lysiphlebus testaceipes Praxis
(parasitic wasp)
Neoseiulus cucumeris and N. Hydro-Gardens 1 predator/m2; humidity should be
barkeri moderate, temp. 70 °F. Establish
population early. Repeat every month
during periods of warm, dry weather
Orius insidiosus (minute Florikan, IPM Labs., Harmony Farm 1/10 m2 (preventive), 1 every 2 m2
pirate bug) (predator) Supply, Arbico, Hydro-Gardens, Praxis, when pests are present. Temperature
Koppert, Intl. Tech. Services, Green Spot should be 70–90 °F. Orius are dormant
during September–April. Reapply
every 2–3 weeks. Very susceptible to
pesticides. Works well in combination
with Neoseiulus cucumeris
Propylea Praxis Harmony Farm Supply, Praxis,
quatuordecimpunctata Rincon-Vitova, Green Spot
Table 17.3 Biopesticides based on Beauveria bassiana

Brand name Supplier REI Application/comments
Naturalis-O SePro 4h Apply when insects first appear and
repeat every 7–10 days. Good spray
coverage is needed. Not compatible
with other fungicides
BotaniGard Mycotech 12 h See above
210 17 Aphids and Their Management
least 10–12 h/day. Unfortunately, most plant 17.5 Insect Growth Regulators
disease-causing fungi also grow best at these
same temperature and humidity ranges. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are another least-
Fungicides used to control the plant disease- toxic pesticide control option for pests. IGRs
causing fungi would probably also kill any typically kill insects by disrupting their develop-
beneficial fungi present. Insecticides may also ment. They have a complex mode of action that
be harmful to V. lecanii. precludes insects from rapidly developing resis-
tance. IGRs can work in one of several ways:
• They can mimic juvenile hormones, so that

17.4 Biorational Pesticides insects never enter the reproductive stage of
development.
Least-toxic pesticides used against aphids in • They can interfere with the production of chi-
greenhouses include insecticidal soap (M-Pede), tin, which makes up the shell of most insects.
horticultural oil (SunSpray Ultra-Fine Spray • They can interfere with the molting process.
Oil), and botanical insecticides such as neem
(Azatin, Neemazad, and Neemix) or natural IGRs usually work through ingestion, so good
pyrethrums (Table 17.4). spray coverage is essential. They generally don’t
Table 17.4 Biorational pesticides

Azadirachtin – extract of neem seed; IGR that works through contact or ingestion
Azatin Green Spot 4h Apply when pests first appear
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy 12 h Cannot be applied through irrigation. Low
rate can be used as a preventative
Garlic extracts
Garlic Gard Soil Technologies
Garlic Barrier Green Spot 4h Use late in the day. Can be mixed with fish
oil or horticultural oil. Do not use in
combination with bumble bees or honeybees
Horticultural oil – includes dormant and summer superior oils
All Seasons Green Spot 4h Use on sunny days to promote rapid drying
and decrease chance of phytotoxicity. Not
compatible
Hot pepper wax – contains capsaicin, paraffin, and mineral oil
Hot Pepper Wax Green Spot 4h Also contains herbal essential oils. Not
compatible with beneficials
Hot Pepper Wax Hot Pepper Wax, Inc. 0h
Insecticidal soap – contains potassium salts of fatty acids
M-Pede Mycogen 12 h Phytotoxicity is often a concern, esp. after
repeated applications
Safer Green Spot 4h See above
Insecticidal Soap Olympic
Neem oil – multipurpose organic insecticide/fungicide/miticide; kills eggs and larval and adult stages of insects
Trilogy 90EC Thermo 4h Apply at first signs of damage. Repeat every
Trilogy 7–10 days as needed
Triact 90EC Thermo 4h For ornamental crops only
Trilogy
Soybean oil
Golden Natural Stoller 12 h
Spray Oil
References 211
affect nontarget species, such as humans, birds, fish, 17.6 Conclusions

or other vertebrates. For most IGRs there are mini-
mal reentry restrictions. IGRs typically take several Greenhouse aphids are tiny insects, but they
days to have an effect on pest populations. Because demand serious attention on the part of the green-
IGRs do not affect mature insects, adult beneficials house grower. Integrated pest management offers
released into the greenhouse after an IGR applica- a sustainable approach for dealing with green-
tion are not likely to be affected. Use of IGRs is house aphids, and safer pest control products
generally prohibited by organic certification organi- facilitate the adaptation of least-toxic control
zations because the products are synthesized. measures that dovetail very nicely with the IPM
IGRs can sometimes be used in conjunction philosophy.
with biological control efforts and may provide
growers with a “safety net” should beneficial fail
to keep the pests below economically damaging References
levels. The table below lists some well-known
insect growth regulators (Table 17.5). Anon (1999) Efficacy of four biocontrol agents on the
green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, in greenhouse pep-
pers. Midwest Biological Control News, Jan–Feb, p 7
Heinz KM (1998) Dispersal and dispersion of aphids and
Table 17.5 Selected insect growth regulators
selected natural enemies in spatially subdivided green-
Brand name Supplier house environments. Environ Entomol
Azatin Hydro-Gardens, Olympic Horticultural 27(4):1029–1038
Products Lindquist R (1991) A guide to aphid control. Grower
Talks, Oct, p 75
Enstar II Wellmark Intl.
Sunderland K et al (1992) Integrated pest management of
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy greenhouse crops in Northern Europe: aphids. In:
Neemix Thermo Trilogy Janick J (ed) Horticultural reviews, 13th edn. Wiley,
Preclude Whitmire Micro-Gen New York, pp 23–30
Thrips and Their Management
18
Abstract
This chapter summarizes IPM for greenhouse thrips on both vegetable and
ornamental crops. Monitoring, biology and identification, sanitation,
insect screening, cultural controls, biological controls, biorational pesti-
cides, and insect growth regulators are discussed. Supplemental tables
include information on the newest biopesticides and biological control
organisms.
Keywords
Thrips • Biology • Scouting • Sanitation • Insect screening • Biocontrol •
Biorational pesticides
18.1 Introduction There are at least 6000 species of thrips in the

world. A few of the main species of thrips known
Thrips are one of the most difficult pests to con- to injure greenhouse crops are summarized in
trol in greenhouses. They are tiny insects that Table 18.1.
reproduce rapidly, congregate in tight places
that make pesticide coverage difficult, and feed 18.2 Biology and Identification
with rasping–piercing–sucking mouth parts,
resulting in deformation of flowers and leaves. It is important to understand the life cycle and
Tolerance to thrips on floriculture crops is par- behavior of thrips in order to develop an effective
ticularly low. In addition, when the western control strategy. Knowledge about the weak link
flower thrips (WFT) feed on plants infected with in a pest’s life cycle can help in choosing the
the tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) or impa- most appropriate control strategy. Table 18.2 and
tiens necrotic spot virus (INSV), the insect vec- Fig. 18.1 summarize the life cycle of thrips.
tors these diseases to other plants in the As an aid to managing thrips species infesting
greenhouse. Once plants are infected, it is too late greenhouse, positive identification needs to be
to do anything except dispose of diseased plants. obtained. Because they are extremely small, the
Thus, the best way to prevent virus infection is to best way thrips can be identified is by a trained
control thrips. entomologist with the aid of a microscope.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_18
214 18 Thrips and Their Management
Table 18.1 Main species of thrips in greenhouses Table 18.2 Life cycle of thrips
Common name Species name Duration at temperatures
Greenhouse thrips Heliothrips Stage between 68 °F and 98 °F
haemorrhoidalis Egg 2–4 days
Banded greenhouse thrips Hercinothrips femoralis 1st instar 1–2 days
Flower thrips Frankliniella tritici 2nd instar 2–4 days
Western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis Prepupal 1–2 days
(WFT) Pupal 1–3 days
Onion or tobacco thrips Thrips tabaci Adult 30–45 days
Fig. 18.1 Thrips life cycle
18.3 Crop Scouting and Trapping tion when 5 thrips/trap/week are detected, and
chrysanthemums make up 80 % of its crop mix
To detect early infestations, a crop scouting pro- (Aylsworth 1994). When biological control
gram that includes both sticky trap cards and organisms are used to control thrips, they should
visual inspection is critical. Scouting should be be released as soon as the first adult thrips have
done once a week and more often when an infes- been trapped. Certain plants are especially
tation is detected. Regular scouting is also neces- appealing to thrips and can be used as “biological
sary to monitor the efficacy of control measures. indicators” to detect the presence of thrips in the
A hand lens is a useful tool to detect live thrips as greenhouse. Majestic, Blue Magic, and Calypso
well as signs of thrips activity – e.g., black feces petunias are recognized as thrips indicators
and silvery, flecked areas on leaves. Lightly because they will exhibit viral symptoms of
blowing on blossom and growing point aids in TSWV within just a few days after feeding.
visual inspection as it causes thrips to become Fortunately, the virus remains localized in the
mobile, apparently because of the carbon dioxide plants and does not become systemic, so that
contained in exhalation. Hot-pink sticky cards spread of this disease from infected petunias to
have been found to be the most attractive color other plants in the greenhouse is not a problem.
for trapping thrips, though blue is often still used. Symptoms of thrips-vectored TSWV on petunias
Sticky traps should be placed 2.5–5.0 cm above include a distinct brown rim at the feeding site
the crop canopy so that the bottoms of the traps within 3–4 days after feeding. This is followed by
are just above the crop, at the rate of one or two a localized circular lesion in about a week.
per 400 m2. The economic threshold, or number Flowers should be removed from the petunias to
of thrips found on each trap in relation to crop discourage adult thrips from feeding on the flow-
injury, is not yet available for every greenhouse ers instead of the foliage, because viral lesions
crop. A threshold level of 20 WFT/trap/week was will not show up on flowers (Anon 1993). The
figured to be appropriate for chrysanthemums in following suggestions on effective integration of
Switzerland (Parella 1995). In contrast, a green- sticky cards and indicator plants are provided
house in New Mexico initiates pesticide applica- (Pundt et al. 1992):
18.5 Insect Screening 215
• Place sticky cards throughout your operation 18.4 Sanitation

to detect where thrips are located and to moni-
tor their numbers. Sanitation is the key for controlling pests in green-
• Place indicator plants among crops at bench or houses. The goal of sanitation is to eliminate all
floor level. One plant every 20–30 ft seems to possible sources of the pest. Weeds inside and near
work well. the outside of the greenhouse can harbor pests. It is
• Place incoming plant material with indicator best to pull weeds inside the greenhouse rather
plants and isolate for at least 3–4 days to allow than spray them, since insects may survive the
thrips scars to develop and show viral lesions. spray and migrate onto crops. Bag all weeds and
dispose them off outside the greenhouse.
The following additional points are provided In addition, a 3–10-m vegetation-free zone
on use of sticky cards and indicator plants (Allen around the outside perimeter of the greenhouse
1991): especially near vents and openings can provide a
dramatic decrease in pests. A heavy-duty geotex-
• Indicator plants are not intended as a substitute tile weed barrier (e.g., DeWitt Sunbelt weed bar-
for sticky cards, but rather they are an additional rier) covered with bark mulch or gravel can
component to an effective monitoring system. provide a pleasant vegetation-free zone and elim-
• While sticky cards monitor only flight activity inate the need for herbicides.
and relative population of thrips, indicator Plant debris from previous crops can also be a
plants monitor feeding activity and the pres- source of both immature and adult pests. Clean
ence of virus-carrying thrips near those plants. up all debris from previous crops and dispose off
• Studies show that attraction to indicator plants infested plants or any infested growth. Ideally,
can be significantly increased if hot-pink or the greenhouse should be thoroughly cleaned and
blue insect-monitoring cards, without adhesive, left empty for 1 week prior to beginning the next
are attached to the petunia pots. In addition to crop. This enables removal of all pest stages and
increased attractiveness to thrips, the colored starves any remaining adults. Closing up the
cards serve as location markers and reminders greenhouse when it is empty in summer will
that the plants should be examined frequently. increase the temperature and help eradicate pests.
Inside the greenhouse, a clean stock program
A summary of monitoring and scouting tech- should be in place. This includes temporary quar-
niques for greenhouse insects is provided in antine and inspection of all plants upon arrival from
Table 18.3. other greenhouses and regular monitoring of stock
plants used for propagation. If a separate section of
Table 18.3 Monitoring and scouting techniques for
the greenhouse cannot be dedicated to this purpose,
thrips flag all incoming plants. All new plant material
should be thoroughly inspected (with a 10× hand
Thrips
Scouting:
lens) for the presence of pests to ensure that no
Inspect underside of leaf x
infested plants are introduced into the greenhouse.
Inspect upper surface for stippling/small white x Workers in the greenhouse should avoid wear-
spots ing yellow clothing, since many pests are
Inspect new growth or terminal for feeding x attracted to this color and may hitch a ride on the
Tap flowers over white surface and look for x fabric from one greenhouse to the next.
movement
White or brown spots on flowers x
Dark area on buds that are just opening x 18.5 Insect Screening
Observe for:
Small black spots on leaves (fecal drops) x In the spring, adult thrips migrate from host
Chlorotic (yellow) spots on upper leaf surface x plants and relocate to new host plants. Though
Buds fail to open or uneven opening of flowers x thrips are not strong fliers, they are easily borne
by the wind, which facilitates their movement. 18.7 Biological Control

Prevention of airborne entry of thrips into green-
houses can be greatly aided with the use of an Biological control of greenhouse thrips can be
insect screen. Growers in New York, North achieved through release of biocontrol agents
Carolina, and Florida estimated a 30–70 % reduc- such as predators (predatory mites, lady beetles,
tion in pest problems after installation of insect soil-dwelling mites), parasitoids, and pathogens
screening (Gill and Ross 1994). (Tables 18.4 and 18.5).
Thrips are so tiny and elusive that the brand Certain crops are better adapted to biological
of insect screening you choose can make a big control of thrips than others. Greenhouse vegeta-
difference in how well it excludes thrips. In bles, bedding plants, and tropical house plants
1995, researchers from North Carolina reported are better adapted to biological control than are
that 27 types of insect screens were evaluated floriculture crops. Thrips preferentially feed on
for thrips exclusion. Only three brands flowers and leaves and cause little or no damage
(FlyBarre, BugBed, No-Thrips) were effective to fruits themselves. Thus, while fruit-bearing
in preventing the entry of thrips into green- vegetable crops like tomatoes, cucumbers, and
houses (Grossman 1996). peppers are well suited to low populations of prey
food (i.e., thrips), tolerance in floriculture crops
is greatly reduced because feeding results in cos-
18.6 Cultural Controls metic injury on the marketable portion of the
crop. When TSWV or INSV are present, toler-
One option to consider is a fallow period in ance is nil in either case.
summer. To perform this operation successfully, A recent study showed that beneficial insects
the grower should first remove all plants and can control western flower thrips on bedding
then all weeds and then heat the greenhouse plants, even though bedding plants have such a
(either artificially or naturally) until soil tem- short turnaround time (Gill et al. 2000). Treatments
peratures reach 60 °F. This temperature should consisted of BotaniGard (a Beauveria bassiana-
be maintained for 3 weeks. During this time, based product) applied at 1 kg/ha, Neoseiulus
any thrips eggs will hatch and the nymphs will cucumeris mites applied weekly at a rate of
starve for lack of food. 12,000 mites per 1000 m2 of growing area, and a
This strategy has worked for western flower combination of the two. Plants treated with B.
thrips. Researchers found that an air tempera- bassiana had between 0.16 and 0.5 thrips/plant,
ture of 104 °F with a relative humidity of 10 % while plants treated with predatory mites had a
was sufficient to kill WFT (an environment that maximum of 0.15 thrips/plant. The untreated con-
was fatal to plants within 4 days). However, trol plants had 0.75–1.25 thrips/plant.
when sufficient water was made available to
keep plants alive in the greenhouse (whether
weeds or crop plants), mortality of WFT was 18.7.1 Notes on Biological Control
only 50 % (Anon 1992). Another recommended of Thrips
strategy for controlling thrips is to remove all
flowers and buds, if not crucial to the crop. The
flowers and buds should be put into plastic • Release of biocontrol agents should begin as
bags, sealed, and disposed off outside the soon as thrips are detected on sticky traps, or
greenhouse. even before detection, as part of a planned
A large greenhouse grower in the Netherlands biocontrol release program on sensitive crops.
found that garlic plants are an effective way to • Adult female predatory mites (Neoseiulus) con-
repel thrips. He uses three potted garlic plants for sume from 1 to 10 young thrips per day and
every 30 ft2 of bench area (Shipp and Gillespie have a 30-day life span. They can also survive
1993). on pollen and spider mites in the absence of
18.7 Biological Control 217
Table 18.4 Predators for the management of insect pests

Chrysopa carnea Natural Pest Controls, Beneficial 1 lacewing/5–30 aphids; 1000 eggs/67 m2.
Insectary, Caltec, Arbico, A-1 Apply every 1–3 weeks as needed. May
Unique Insect Control, Praxis, arrive as eggs, immatures, or adults
Rincon-Vitova, Hydro-Gardens
Chrysoperla rufilabris Arbico, Beneficial Insectary, IPM
Labs, A-1 Unique Insect Control,
Nature’s Control, Praxis,
Rincon-Vitova
Chrysoperla spp. (predator) M&R Durango, Florikan, Green
Spot
Coleomegilla maculata Arbico 3 predators/m2; shipped as larvae and eggs
Neoseiulus cucumeris Hydro-Gardens 3 predators/m2; humidity should be
and N. barkeri moderate, temp. 70 °F. Establish population
early. Repeat every month during periods of
warm, dry weather
Orius insidiosus Florikan, IPM Labs., Harmony Farm 1/3 m2 (preventive), 2 every m2 when pests
(minute pirate bug) (predator) Supply, Arbico, Hydro-Gardens, are present. Temperature should be 70–90 °F.
Praxis, Koppert, Intl. Tech. Services, Orius are dormant during September–April.
Green Spot Reapply every 2–3 weeks. Very susceptible
to pesticides. Works well in combination
with Neoseiulus cucumeris
Table 18.5 Pathogens for biological control of insect pests

Beauveria bassiana SePro 4h Apply when insects first appear and repeat every 7–10 days. Good
Naturalis-O spray coverage is needed. Not compatible with other fungicides
Beauveria bassiana Mycotech 12 h See above
BotaniGard
thrips. Repeat applications of predators must be Hypoaspis mites are usually applied only once
made to establish a predator to prey of 1:2 ratio. per crop or season.
Neoseiulus attacks first instar (very young) • Thripobius semiluteus is a parasitoid of green-
thrips only and does not move long distances house thrips nymphs.
from where it is first placed. They are most often • In laboratory trials and caged rose trials,
applied in small piles at the base of plants or in Beauveria bassiana sprays killed up to 82 %
paper bags. Usually, a small hole is made in the of the thrips on rose foliage (Murphy et al.
bag, and mites move out of the bag slowly. 1998). Mortality increased along with humid-
• Adult pirate bugs (Orius) consume 5–20 thrips ity. Oil formulations of B. bassiana worked
(all stages) per day. They can survive on pol- more quickly than wettable powders.
len in the absence of prey. Both adults and • BotaniGard and Naturalis-O, both of which
nymphs are predacious. Orius is the only use Beauveria bassiana, have been effective
predator that attacks thrips in tight places like on a schedule of three to five applications at
flower buds. Since Orius is a strong flyer, it 3–5-day intervals. The addition of Azatin (a
moves easily throughout the greenhouse. neem product) may increase effectiveness
• Soil-dwelling predacious mites (Hypoaspis) (Sanderson 1999).
attack thrips in their prepupal and pupal stages • Dr. Richard Lindquist at Ohio State University
when they inhabit the soil or growing medium. found that four applications of Naturalis-O
over a period of 15 days controlled thrips well still be instances when pesticides are necessary.
on gerbera (Gilrein 1999a). Biorational pesticides – also known as least-toxic
• In another study, Lindquist found that Conserve or “soft” pesticides – are emphasized in biologi-
(a new biopesticide formulated from the soil- cally intensive IPM programs and by growers
inhabiting actinomycete Saccharopolyspora depending on organic pest management (OPM)
spinosa) was significantly better than Orthene as part of certified organic production (Table
at controlling western flower thrips (Lindquist 18.6). Thrips control can still be difficult even
1999). Plants treated with Conserve also had with the use of biorational pesticides. During
higher numbers of beneficial insects and much of their life cycle, thrips exist as eggs, as
mites – such as minute pirate bugs, predatory pupae in the soil, or as extremely mobile adults.
mites, and green lacewing larvae. Once thrips infest a crop, the adult females begin
feeding and laying their eggs. Thrips usually con-
centrate on rapidly growing tissues such as young
leaves, flowers, and terminal buds. This affinity
18.8 Biorational Pesticides for tight places makes thorough coverage with a
pesticide difficult. Just prior to pupation, the lar-
While the practices of inspection, sanitation, vae move down the plant to pupate in the soil or
physical exclusion, and biological control will go leaf litter. They are most vulnerable just after
a long way toward managing thrips, there may hatching and before pupation.

Azatin Green Spot 4h Apply when pests first appear
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy 12 h Cannot be applied through irrigation. Low rate can be used as a
preventative
Garlic extracts
Garlic Gard Soil Technologies
Garlic Barrier Green Spot 4h Use late in the day. Can be mixed with fish oil or horticultural oil.
Do not use in combination with bumblebees or honeybees
All Seasons Green Spot 4h Use on sunny days to promote rapid drying and decrease chance of
phytotoxicity. Not compatible
Hot pepper wax – contains capsaicin, paraffin, and mineral oil
Hot Pepper Wax Green Spot 4h Also contains herbal essential oils. Not compatible with beneficials
Hot Pepper Wax Hot Pepper Wax, 0h
Inc.
M-Pede Mycogen 12 h Phytotoxicity is often a concern, esp. after repeated applications
Insecticidal soap Olympic
Neem oil – multipurpose organic insecticide/fungicide/miticide; kills eggs, larval, and adult stages of insects
Trilogy 90EC Thermo Trilogy 4h Apply at first signs of damage. Repeat every 7–10 days as needed
Triact 90EC Thermo Trilogy 4h For ornamental crops only
18.10 Integrated Management 219
18.8.1 Notes on Biorational Control adult beneficials released into the greenhouse
of Thrips after an IGR application are not likely to be
affected. Use of IGRs is generally prohibited by
• Neem extracts (trade names Azatin, organic certification organizations because the
Neemazad, and Neemix) prevent development products are synthesized.
of flower thrips in the early larval stages but IGRs can sometimes be used in conjunction
have no effect on adults. Repeat applications with biological control efforts and may provide
are most effective. growers with a “safety net” should beneficials
• Biorational control of flower thrips was fail to keep the pests below economically damag-
achieved with either (i) M-Pede insecticidal ing levels. The table below lists some well-known
soap mixed with an emulsified crop oil or (ii) insect growth regulators.
weekly applications of neem seed oil (NSO)
for 4 straight weeks.
18.10 Integrated Management
The fungus Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (PFR),

18.9 Insect Growth Regulators the predatory mite Neoseiulus cucumeris, and an
azadirachtin insecticide (neem) could be used
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are another least- alone or in combination for control of WFT in
toxic pesticide control option for pests (Table greenhouses (Grossman 1997).
18.7). IGRs typically kill insects by disrupting Dan Gilrein (1999b) of Cornell Extension
their development. They have a complex mode of tested several biopesticides for their effect on
action that precludes insects from rapidly devel- western flower thrips, including Avid (contains
oping resistance. abamectin), Conserve (spinosad), Sanmite (the
IGRs can work in one of several ways: synthetic chemical pyridaben), BotaniGard
(Beauveria bassiana), a combination of
• They can mimic juvenile hormones, so that BotaniGard + Azatin (neem) + M-Pede (insecti-
insects never enter the reproductive stage of cidal soap), and Alsa (a garlic product) (Gilrein
development. 1999b). Although Conserve performed best,
• They can interfere with the production of chi- other treatments also provided control.
tin, which makes up the shell of most insects. Researchers at Ohio State University are cur-
• They can interfere with the molting process. rently testing combinations of B. bassiana with
the biorationals Azatin, Adept (an insect growth
IGRs usually work through ingestion, so good regulator), Conserve, Fulex SO-2000, Hot Pepper
spray coverage is essential. They generally do not Wax, Garlic Barrier, yeast extract, and white
affect nontarget species, such as humans, birds, sugar (Brownbridge et al. 2000). So far, they have
fish, or other vertebrates. For most IGRs there are shown that spray mixes combining B. bassiana
minimal reentry restrictions. IGRs typically take with Adept, sugar, yeast extract, or Azatin pro-
several days to have an effect on pest popula- duce higher levels of infection and mortality in
tions. Because IGRs do not affect mature insects, western flower thrips.
Specifically, white sugar at a rate of 1 lb/100
Table 18.7 Selected insect growth regulators gal and yeast extract at a rate of 0.25 % wt/vol-
Brand name Supplier ume increased mortality by about 20 %, presum-
Azatin Hydro-Gardens, Olympic Horticultural ably due to their ability to induce feeding. The
Products opposite was true for plants treated with Hot
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy Pepper Wax, an insect repellent and antifeedant.
Neemix Thermo Trilogy BotaniGard + Azatin showed excellent results:
Preclude Whitmire Micro-Gen inclusion of Azatin at 1/10 or 1/4 the
Table 18.8 Control of western flower thrips on References

Chrysanthemum “Linda” after four weekly applications
of biorational pesticides (Gilrein 1999b)
Allen WR (1991) Get the jump on thrips and
Flower TSWV. Greenhouse Grower, July, pp 78, 80, 82
Treatment Thrips/plant damagea Anon (1992) Informed sources. Greenhouse Manager,
Avid 19.3 0.6 Aug, p 12
Anon (1993) Indicator plants give TSWV warning signs.
Conserve 3.6 0.6
Greenhouse Manager, Mar, p 70
Sanmite 17.3 0.8 Aylsworth J (1994) Taking care of number one.
BotaniGard ES 51.3 3.0 Greenhouse Grower, Feb, pp 52, 54, 56
BotaniGard + Azatin + 25.2 2.6 Brownbridge M, Skinner M, Parker BL (2000) Enhancing
M-Pede the activity of insect-killing fungi for floral IPM. Ohio
Alsa drench 4x rate 43.0 2.7 Florists’ Association Bulletin, Jan, pp 14–16
Gill SA, Ross DS (1994) Insect microscreening: its time
Alsa drench 1x rate 43.4 3.0 has come. Greenhouse Growerp, May, pp 77–82
Water (control) 47.9 3.7 Gill S et al (2000) Biological thrips control on bedding.
a
Flower damage was based on a 0–5 scale, 0 = no damage GrowerTalks, Feb, pp 84–86
and 5 = all flowers entirely brown Gilrein D (1999a) Control thrips from the start.
Greenhouse Management and Production, Jan,
pp 72–74
Gilrein D (1999b) Tips on controlling western flower
recommended rate led to a 50 % and 100 % thrips populations. GMPro, Sept, pp 81–82
increase, respectively, in infection and mortality Grossman J (1996) Conference notes: screening out
greenhouse pests. The IPM Practitioner, Sept, p 12
(Brownbridge et al. 2000). Biorational pesticides Grossman J (1997) Conference notes. The IPM
for the management of greenhouse pests are Practitioner, Sept, p 13
summarized in Table 18.8. Please note that thrips Lindquist RK (1999) Evaluation of conserve for Western
are listed as target pests for each product in the flower thrips control. Ohio Florists’ Association
Bulletin, Mar, p 8
Table 18.8. Murphy BC, Morisawa TA, Newman JP, Tjosvold SA,
Parella MP (1998) Fungal pathogen controls thrips in
greenhouse flowers. California Agriculture, May–
18.11 Conclusions June, pp 32–36
Parella MP (1995) Thrips management guide – part 1:
prevention and control. GrowerTalks, Apr, pp 30, 32,
Greenhouse thrips are tiny insects, but they 34, 36, 38
demand serious attention on the part of the green- Pundt LP, Sanderson J, Daughtrey M (1992) Petunias are
house grower. Integrated pest management offers your tip-off for TSWV. GrowerTalks, Nov, pp 69,
71–72
a sustainable approach for dealing with Sanderson J (1999) Thrips tips. GrowerTalks, July, p 128
greenhouse thrips, and safer pest control products Shipp JL, Gillespie TJ (1993) Influence of temperature
facilitate the adoption of least-toxic control mea- and water vapor pressure deficit on survival of
sures that dovetail very nicely with the IPM Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).
Environmental Entomology, Aug, pp 726–732
philosophy.
Whiteflies and Their Management
19
Abstract
This chapter focuses on integrated pest management for greenhouse
whitefly on both vegetable and ornamental crops. The techniques for good
greenhouse supervision, monitoring of whiteflies, biological controls,
biopesticides, insect growth regulators, controlled atmosphere, and inte-
grated management of whiteflies are discussed.
Keywords
Whiteflies • Scouting • Monitoring • Biocontrol • Biorational pesticides •
Controlled atmosphere • Integrated management
The various whitefly species and biotypes look

19.1 Introduction very much alike, but they have subtle physiologi-
cal differences. These differences can cause them
Whiteflies began showing resistance to synthetic to respond differently to control strategies.
insecticides early on, and by the 1980s they were Because control measures must be selected
very serious greenhouse pests. Not only do they according to the type of whitefly present, accurate
feed on plants, but they also produce honeydew, identification is critical for successful control.
which detracts from the plants’ appearance and
attracts other insects and sooty mold. Whiteflies
can also transmit plant viruses. The mere presence 19.2 Crop Scouting and Trapping
of whiteflies in a greenhouse will stop customers
from buying your product. Several species of Plants should be visually inspected for signs of a
whiteflies attack greenhouse plants, and they typi- whitefly infestation, e.g., off-color or stunted
cally have a wide host range and resist insecticides. plants. A hand lens is useful for systematically
Greenhouse tomatoes and poinsettias are espe- inspecting a number of individual plants for the
cially plagued by whiteflies. The most common presence of eggs, nymphs, or adults. Both the
whiteflies on greenhouse crops are the greenhouse upper and lower leaf surfaces should be inspected
whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), sweet (Table 19.1). It is important to check the green-
potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), and the silverleaf house in the same pattern on each scouting trip.
whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii) (Fig. 19.1). Locations where whiteflies are found should be

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_19
222 19 Whiteflies and Their Management
Fig. 19.1 Adult silverleaf whiteflies, Bemisia argentifo- Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Note wings held wider and
lii. Note wings held closer to sides of the body, pupae more flat on body and pupae with long spines (right),
without spines (left), and Greenhouse whitefly, feeding on the underside of leaves
Table 19.1 Monitoring and scouting techniques for enhanced trapping of whiteflies, relative to con-
aphids trols with sticky traps only.
Whiteflies Greenhouse plastics themselves may have sig-
Scouting: nificant influence on the initial attraction of
Inspect underside of leaf x insects into greenhouses. A study from the late
Observe for: 1990s showed that silverleaf whiteflies preferred
Chlorotic (yellow) spots on upper leaf x to enter greenhouses covered with film that trans-
surface mitted higher levels of ultraviolet light (Costa
and Robb 1999).
flagged so that population development and con-

trol efforts can be evaluated. Scouting frequency 19.3 Biology
should be increased during warm weather as
whitefly populations multiply faster then. At 70 °F, the greenhouse whitefly life cycle takes
Trapping with yellow sticky cards, both inside 6–10 days for eggs to hatch, 3–4 days as nymph
and outside the greenhouse, is essential for a suc- I, 4–5 days as nymph II, 4–5 days as nymph III,
cessful whitefly management program. The cards and 6–10 days for the pupa. Adults can live for
are used to detect and monitor population levels. 30–40 days (Fig. 19.2).
As a general rule, one to four cards spaced evenly
throughout 1000 square feet of greenhouse are
sufficient (McHugh 1991). A generally accept- 19.4 Biological Control
able threshold for whiteflies is 0.5 per card per
day when the crop is young and two per card per Several types of beneficial organisms are avail-
day as the crop reaches maturity (Gill 2000). able for biological control of whiteflies. The para-
Traps should be hung level with the tops of the sitic wasp Encarsia formosa preys on immature
plants since whiteflies are most attracted to young whiteflies and is commonly used for greenhouse
foliage. Doors, vents, and other openings where whitefly. Encarsia wasps kill whitefly nymphs in
whiteflies can enter the greenhouse are other one of two ways: they either lay an egg inside the
good sites to hang yellow sticky cards. nymph, providing food for their young, or they
Researchers in California have successfully kill the nymph right away and feed on the fluids
used silver-painted pot spaces and silver polyeth- inside of it (Price 1999). Greenhouse whitefly
ylene mulch to control whiteflies on greenhouse pupae that have been parasitized by E. formosa
poinsettias (Price 1999). The reflective materials turn black; silverleaf whitefly pupae turn amber
were used in conjunction with yellow sticky brown (Price 1999). The cost of E. formosa is
cards or tape and resulted in significantly comparable to foliar pesticides (Price 1999).
19.5 Biopesticides 223
Fig. 19.2 Life cycle of greenhouse whitefly
Sweet potato and silverleaf whiteflies are not within clusters of whitefly eggs. Adults can con-
well controlled by E. formosa. Two other wasp sume 160 eggs or 12 large nymphs every day. A
parasites, E. luteola and Eretmocerus californi- larva consumes 1000 whitefly eggs during its
cus, are commercially available for control of development. These beetles perform best at tem-
these species, but E. formosa remains the main- peratures between 65 and 90 °F, with relative
stay of most whitefly biological control pro- humidity above 70 %. These predators can be
grams due to the expense and intermittent used in combination with Encarsia species
availability of these other beneficials (Anon (Cloyd 1999). A complete listing of biological
1995a). Researchers are also examining different controls for whiteflies has been presented in
strains of E. formosa to determine their effec- Table 19.2.
tiveness against sweet potato and silverleaf
whiteflies.
Biological control should be used only at low 19.5 Biopesticides
whitefly levels (less than one nymph per ten cut-
tings) and must be regularly evaluated (Daughtrey Some microorganisms also control whiteflies.
and Casey 1998). For instance, the fungus Beauveria bassiana
Mark has also compared the effectiveness of (trade names Naturalis-O and BotaniGard) is
Encarsia formosa and Eretmocerus californicus effective against eggs and immature and adult
on silverleaf whitefly. In a 1996 study, both para- whiteflies. Thorough coverage of leaf under-
sitoids controlled whiteflies at a 99 % control sides and correct timing of applications result in
rate. However, fewer numbers of E. californicus best control.
had to be released, which would result in cost Another fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoro-
savings for growers. Another benefit, fewer seus (trade name PFR-97), is now commer-
parasitoids meant more food for each, so the cially available. It controls whiteflies, aphids,
reproduction rate was much higher (Grossman and spider mites. Both B. bassiana and P.
1996). fumosoroseus need high humidity for best
Delphastus pusillus, sometimes called the results.
whitefly destroyer, is a very small, black ladybird A complete listing of biopesticides available
beetle that attacks all stages of whiteflies, but pre- for whitefly management is presented in
fers eggs and nymphs. The females lay their eggs Table 19.3.
Table 19.2 Beneficial organisms used in greenhouses

Chrysopa carnea Natural Pest Controls, Beneficial 1 lacewing/5–30 aphids; 1000
Insectary, Caltec, Arbico, A-1 Unique eggs/200 ft2. Apply every 1–3 weeks as
Insect Control, Praxis, Rincon- needed. May arrive as eggs, immatures, or
Vitova, Hydro-Gardens adults
Chrysoperla rufilabris Arbico, Beneficial Insectary, IPM
Labs., A-1 Unique Insect Control,
Nature’s Control, Praxis,
Rincon-Vitova
Chrysoperla spp. (predator) M&R Durango, Florikan, Green Spot
Coleomegilla maculata Arbico 1/ft2; shipped as larvae and eggs
Harmonia axyridis (Asian Green Spot Temps. should be 70–85 °F; humidity
lady beetle) around 70 %
Hippodamia convergens A-1 Unique Insect Control, Arbico, Release at dusk near an immediate food
(lady beetle) (predator) Caltec, IPM Laboratories, Natural source. Spray plants with water prior to
Pest Controls, Nature’s Control, release
Harmony Farm Supply, Hydro-
Gardens, Praxis, Green Spot
Orius insidiosus (minute Florikan, IPM Labs., Harmony Farm 1/10 sq. ft. (preventive), 1 every 2 ft2 when
pirate bug) (predator) Supply, Arbico, Hydro-Gardens, pests are present. Temperature should be
Praxis, Koppert, Intl. Tech. Services, 70–90 °F. Orius are dormant September–
Green Spot April. Reapply every 2–3 weeks. Very
susceptible to pesticides. Works well in
combination with Neoseiulus cucumeris
Table 19.3 Biopesticides effective against whiteflies

Beauveria bassianaa SePro 4h Apply when insects first appear and repeat every 7–10 days. Good
Naturalis-O spray coverage is needed. Not compatible with other fungicides
Beauveria bassianaa Mycotech 12 h See above
BotaniGard
a
Beauveria bassiana – fungus that works through contact; exposure to nontarget insects should be avoided
19.6 Biorational Pesticides A 1995 study conducted in Florida compared

the effectiveness of Sunspray Ultra-Fine Spray
Several least-toxic, or biorational, pesticides Oil, M-Pede insecticidal soap, a sucrose ester
have been evaluated for their effectiveness against extract surfactant derived from tobacco, and Garlic
the different whitefly species. These include Barrier for killing and repelling silverleaf white-
neem-based formulations (Neemazad and Azatin flies (Bemisia argentifolii) on tomatoes. Sunspray
are two registered products), insecticidal soap provided the best control, followed by M-Pede and
(M-Pede), and horticultural oil. Enhanced white- the tobacco surfactant. The Garlic Barrier did not
fly control is achieved with thorough spray cover- provide any control (Williams and Pat 1995).
age. Wider plant spacing and removal of dead A complete listing of biorational pesticides
lower leaves improve pesticide coverage and pest available for whitefly management is presented
control. in Table 19.4.
19.7 Insect Growth Regulators 225

Azatin Green Spot 4h Apply when pests first appear
Neemazad Thermo Trilogy 12 h Cannot be applied through irrigation. Low rate can be used as a
preventative
All Seasons Green Spot 4h Use on sunny days to promote rapid drying and decrease chance of
phytotoxicity. Not compatible
Hot Pepper Wax – contains capsaicin, paraffin, and mineral oil
Hot Pepper Wax Green Spot 4h Also contains herbal essential oils. Not compatible with beneficials
Hot Pepper Wax Hot Pepper 0h
Wax, Inc.
M-Pede Mycogen 12 h Phytotoxicity is often a concern, esp. after repeated applications
Insecticidal Soap Olympic
Neem oil – multipurpose organic insecticide/fungicide/miticide; kills eggs and larval and adult stages of insects
Trilogy 90EC Thermo Trilogy 4 h Apply at first signs of damage. Repeat every 7–10 days as needed
Triact 90EC Thermo Trilogy 4 h For ornamental crops only
Soybean oil
Golden Natural Stoller 12 h
Spray Oil
19.7 Insect Growth Regulators IGRs usually work through ingestion, so

good spray coverage is essential. They gener-
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are another ally do not affect nontarget species, such as
least-toxic pesticide control option for pests. humans, birds, fish, or other vertebrates. For
IGRs typically kill insects by disrupting their most IGRs there are minimal reentry restric-
development. They have a complex mode of tions. IGRs typically take several days to have
action that precludes insects from rapidly devel- an effect on pest populations. Because IGRs do
oping resistance. IGRs can work in one of sev- not affect mature insects, adult beneficials
eral ways: released into the greenhouse after an IGR appli-
cation are not likely to be affected. The use of
• They can mimic juvenile hormones, so that IGRs is generally prohibited by organic certifi-
insects never enter the reproductive stage of cation organizations because the products are
development. synthesized. The table below lists some well-
• They can interfere with the production of known insect growth regulators (Table 19.5).
chitin, which makes up the shell of most IGRs can sometimes be used in conjunction with
insects. biological control efforts and may provide growers
• They can interfere with the molting with a “safety net” should beneficial fail to keep the
process. pests below economically damaging levels.
Table 19.5 Selected insect growth regulators effective horticultural oil, Fulex SO-2000, glycerol, and
against whiteflies
yeast extract (Brownbridge et al. 2000). In most
Brand name Supplier cases, the rate of infection and kill was faster than
Adept, Dimlin Uniroyal Chemicals with BotaniGard alone. This is important because
Azatin Hydro-Gardens, Olympic it would allow more biopesticides and biorationals
Horticultural Products
to be used retroactively. When several substances
Citation, Precision Novartis
are used together, they are applied at lower-than-
Distance Valent
recommended rates (one-tenth to one-half). The
Enstar II Wellmark Intl.
researchers are trying to develop management
Neemazad, Neemix Thermo Trilogy
guidelines on spray-tank mixes that would
Preclude, Pyrigro Whitmire Micro-Gen
enhance fungal efficacy (Brownbridge et al. 2000).
Eretmocerus eremicus was effective for silver-
19.8 Controlled Atmosphere leaf whitefly control and is best used in combina-
tion with the insect growth regulators Precisionô
Changing the composition of the atmosphere in or Applaudô. Enstarô was not compatible with
the greenhouse by either reducing oxygen or natural enemies tested.
increasing carbon dioxide appears to provide
some control of greenhouse whiteflies, especially
adults. Reduced-oxygen experiments by Dr. References
Susan Han at the University of Massachusetts
resulted in 100 % adult mortality after less than Anon (1995a) Biological pest control. Greenhouse
Product News, July, p 17
2 h of exposure, though 8-h treatments were
Anon (1995b) Controlled atmosphere to manage whitefly.
needed to control most (about 80 %) of the eggs Cut Flower Q, July, pp 14–16
and pupae (Anon 1995b). Brownbridge M, Skinner M, Parker BL (2000) Enhancing
Horticulturists at North Carolina State the activity of insect-killing fungi for floral IPM. Ohio
Florists’ Association Bulletin, Jan, pp 14–16
University reported that whitefly population lev-
Cloyd RA (1999) Know your friends: Delphastus pusil-
els were lower in greenhouses where carbon lus: whitefly predator. Midwest Biological Control
dioxide enrichment occurred daily for about 8 h. News, Oct, p 3
The likely reason for the population reductions is Costa HS, Robb KL (1999) Effects of ultraviolet-
absorbing greenhouse plastic films on flight behavior
that plants grown in atmospheres with high car-
of Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) and
bon dioxide levels tend to have higher concentra- Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).
tions of carbohydrates in the plant tissue relative J Econ Entomol 92:557–562
to nitrogen, resulting in a nitrogen-dilute diet for Daughtrey M, Casey C (1998) Highlights from SAF’s
pest conference. Grower Talks, Apr, pp 44, 46
the whiteflies. Lower dietary nitrogen would
Gill S (2000) Pest control: whitefly control for cut flower
slow the growth and reproduction of the pests, growers. Cut Flower Q 12(1):26–30
without adversely affecting crop yields or quality Grossman J (1996) Conference notes. The IPM
(Tripp and Peet 1993). Practitioner, Mar, p 14
McHugh J (1991) Monitoring the first line of defense.
Greenhouse Grower, Feb, p 66
Price RP Jr (1999) Reflective mulches and yellow sticky tape
19.9 Integrated Management control whiteflies in greenhouse poinsettia (Euphorbia
pulcherrima). As reported in Williams, Greg and Pat.
From the 1999 ASHS conference HortIdeas, Aug, p 85
Researchers at Ohio State University showed that
Tripp K, Peet M (1993) New use for CO2: slowing white-
mortality rates of silverleaf whitefly were higher flies. American Vegetable Grower, Nov, pp 43–44
when BotaniGard was used together with Adeptô Williams G, Pat M (1995) Oil, soap, surfactant, and garlic
(an insect growth regulator), insecticidal soaps, vs. whiteflies on tomatoes. HortIdeas, May, pp 55–56
Pest and Predatory Mites
20
Abstract
Mites feature prominently in greenhouses, both as pests causing economic
injury to crops and as predatory mites used in biological control of mite
and insect pests.
Spider mites, false spider mites, tarsonemid mites, and eriophyid mites
injure both vegetable crops and ornamental plants. Acarid mites damage
the bulbs of flowers and stored roots of many crops. Their damage symp-
toms, biology, and management are discussed.
The predatory phytoseiid and laelapid mites are used in the biological
control of mite pests and thrips on many crops in greenhouses. Their biol-
ogy and use in biocontrol of insect and mite pests of greenhouse crops are
discussed.
Keywords
Pest mites • Predatory mites • Damage • Biology • Management •
Biocontrol
20.1 Introduction houses, which facilitate the dispersal of pests

among plants and rapid development of pest pop-
Greenhouses are maintained under relatively sta- ulations. The lack of natural enemies in the
ble environmental conditions for optimal growth enclosed artificial environment and the rapid
of plants. Unfortunately, these conditions also development of pesticide resistance in green-
favor the rapid growth of pests, especially small houses are also important factors for the pest sta-
pests such as mites, which develop rapidly and tus of plant mites.
can increase their population quickly over a short Mites, although much smaller in size than
period before notice by growers. Cultural meth- many insects, feature prominently in green-
ods commonly adopted in greenhouses also houses, both as pests causing economic injury to
encourage pest development. For example, crops crops and as predatory mites used in biological
are often cultivated in monoculture in green- control of mite and insect pests.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_20
228 20 Pest and Predatory Mites
20.2 Pest Mites A couple of species of Eutetranychus also occa-

sionally attack greenhouse plants, as does one
Spider mites (Tetranychidae) are among the most species of Panonychus and another of Oligonychus.
important pests on many greenhouse plants. False
spider mites (Tenuipalpidae), which are related to 20.2.1.1 Two-Spotted Spider Mite,
spider mites, sometimes also become pests on Tetranychus urticae
greenhouse plants. Several species of tarsonemid The two-spotted spider mite is the most common
mites and eriophyid mites injure both vegetable name and is also known informally by many
crops and ornamental plants. Acarid mites of the other names (e.g., the glasshouse spider mite, the
genus Rhizoglyphus damage the bulbs of flowers yellow spider mite). Not very appropriately, it is
and stored roots of many crops (Table 20.1). often called “red spider mite” or “red spider.” It is
the most polyphagous species of spider mites and
has been reported from over 150 host plant spe-
20.2.1 Spider Mites cies of some economic value. It attacks over 300
plant species in greenhouses.
Spider mites belong to the family Tetranychidae
of the order Prostigmata. They are so named 20.2.1.1.1 Damage Symptoms
because many members of this family produce Two-spotted spider mites often feed on cell chlo-
silk webbing on host plants. Spider mites are roplasts on the undersurface of the leaf. The
without doubt the most important mites attacking upper surface of the leaf develops characteristic
plants. Most spider mite species are polypha- whitish or yellowish stippling, which may join
gous. They occur on virtually every major food and become brownish as mite feeding continues.
crop and ornamental plant. They include some of As mites move around, their webbing can span
the most important pests on economic plants. leaves and stems. Heavy damage may cause
Most spider mites attack outdoor plants and a leaves to dry and drop, and the plant may be cov-
few of them regularly occur in greenhouses. Only ered with webbing and may die prematurely.
Tetranychus urticae and T. cinnabarinus are wide-
spread and frequently reach economic injury lev- 20.2.1.1.2 Life Cycle
els on many plants in greenhouses. A few species Development occurs between 12 °C and 40
of the genus Bryobia are occasionally found in °C. Developmental time from egg to adult
greenhouses and sometimes cause injury to plants. decreases with increasing temperature (Fig. 20.1)
Table 20.1 Common pest mites of importance under greenhouse conditions

Pest mites Mite species Affected crops
Spider mites Tetranychus urticae Many vegetables (e.g., tomato, cucurbits, capsicum, French
Two-spotted spider mite bean, strawberry, etc.) and ornamentals (rose, carnation,
cyclamen, gerbera, etc.)
Tetranychus cinnabarinus Mainly tomato and carnation
Carmine spider mite
Tarsonemid mites Polyphagotarsonemus latus Many vegetables and ornamentals
Broad mite
Phytonemus pallidus Mainly cyclamen and strawberry
Cyclamen mite
Eriophyid mites Aculops lycopersici Tomato
Tomato russet mite
Acarid mites Rhizoglyphus echinopus Mainly lily
Bulb mite
Rhizoglyphus robini Attack bulbs of Narcissus, Eucharis, lilies, orchids,
Robine bulb mite gladioli, hyacinth, and tulip
20.2 Pest Mites 229
Fig. 20.1 Life cycle of (left), and developmental time for Tetranychus urticae from egg to adult in relation to tempera-
ture (Drawn from data in Carey and Bradley 1982)
and is less than a week at optimal temperatures are mosquito-like but smaller in size. They mate
for development (30–32 °C). Under a diurnal within 24 h of emergence and locate spider mite
temperature cycle of 15–28 °C, developmental colonies, where they lay about 30 eggs over a
time is about 16 days. Males develop slightly 5-day life span. Development occurs over a range
faster than females. of 15–25 °C and is slowed down at 27 °C. The
eggs and larvae are killed at 30 °C and above.
20.2.1.1.3 Management The larvae hatch from eggs in a couple of days
and feed on all stages of spider mites. They feed
(a) Biological control: biological control of T. for 4–6 days and consume a total of about 150
urticae by phytoseiid mites is now widely spider mite eggs. They develop best when food is
used by the greenhouse industry in Europe, abundant but can also pupate at a reduced size in
some parts of Asia and Africa, Australasia, times of food shortage. This predator can control
and North America. The most commonly spider mites on tomato and cucumber, and the
used species are P. persimilis, P. macropilis, effects are enhanced by high humidity and a
Neoseiulus californicus, N. fallacis, N. lon- source of sugar droplets or honeydew. Repeated
gispinosus, and Galendromus occidentalis. releases may be needed, and rates will depend on
They are often released repeatedly for bio- prey density and crop and environmental condi-
logical control but also inoculatively (such as tions. This predator can also be used year round
in “pest in first” methods, in which predators due to the absence of diapauses.
and spider mites were introduced together Lady beetles of the genus Stethorus are spe-
early in the season). The rates at which pred- cialist predators of spider mites and are also use-
ators are released vary with the density of the ful for the control of T. urticae in greenhouses. A
spider mites, crop species, the temperature, common species, S. punctillum, is a voracious
and other environmental conditions. predator and is commercially available. This spe-
cies can consume over 1000 spider mite eggs
Predatory midges are also useful biocontrol over a developmental span of 2–3 weeks in
agents against spider mites. A common species, greenhouses. It is able to find small colonies of
Feltiella acarisuga, is commercially available for spider mites and has very good dispersal ability.
use in many countries. Release of cocoons is car- It is active and performs well within 33–90 % RH
ried out in the early morning or late evening, and 20–30 °C. In greenhouses, it can establish
when it is cool and humid. Adults of F. acarisuga well on pepper and cucumber, but not on tomato.
Because of their voracious appetite, these lady pesticide was detected; abamectin is one of
beetles are best released in “hot spots” of spider the most widely used chemicals in green-
mite infestation. houses. However, development of resistance
Some other generalist predators also feed on of T. urticae to this pesticide has now been
spider mites and may be of some use. Predatory reported in some populations.
Hemiptera used in biocontrol of whiteflies (e.g.,
Macrolophus caliginosus) and other insects are
also useful biocontrol agents against spider mites (c) Integrated management: more and more
to some degree. Lacewings are generalist preda- greenhouse pests are now under integrated
tors and also used to control spider mites by peri- pest management (IPM) programs, and T.
odic releases. A predatory ant, Tapinoma urticae is one of these. The key to the success
melanocephalum, is known to attack T. urticae of IPM programs is careful monitoring of
on Salvia splendens in central Florida green- pest populations and the application of con-
houses and has been shown to be a significant trol measures only when necessary. That is,
predator of T. urticae. control measures are applied only when spi-
Thrips are generally considered to be harmful, der mite densities exceed the action thresh-
but Scolothrips sexmaculatus attack spider mites old. In IPM programs, the use of pesticides is
and are used in biological control of spider mites. minimized, and the use of biological control
This species is adapted to hot and dry conditions. and other environmentally sound methods is
It is commercially available for spider mite con- encouraged. It is important that chemical
trol. Other thrips are also known as facultative control, when it is used, should be integrated
predators of spider mites. with other control methods such as biological
Entomophagous fungi may also be the biocontrol.
logical control of two-spotted spider mites. Two
species, Entomophthora thaxteriana and E. adja- Chemical control of T. urticae can be inte-
rica, can cause a heavy epizootic in populations grated with biological control by using selective
of T. urticae and may be useful in greenhouses chemicals that are less or not toxic to natural
when humidity can be maintained near saturation enemies or by using chemicals in selected areas
for a period of time. of the crop. In greenhouses in Belgium, for
example, a stable equilibrium between T. urticae
(b) Chemical control: chemical control of spider and the predator P. persimilis is achieved by
mites is becoming more and more difficult selective use of chemicals and creating an asyn-
due to the rapid development of resistance in chronous development in the predator popula-
mites and decrease in the number of regis- tion. The predators are introduced into one end of
tered acaricides for use. For example, clofen- the greenhouse, while acaricides (Torque 50 %
tezine resistance in T. urticae was recorded [fenbutatin oxide] and hexythiazox [Nissorun 10
in Australia in 1987 after mites in Queensland %]) are sprayed into the other end. Only 3300
greenhouse roses had been exposed to 40 predators per 100 m2 combined with three acari-
applications of clofentezine over a 10-month cide treatments applied to half the plants are
period; clofentezine resistance in this strain required to control the pest for 30 weeks. Once
was extremely high (>2500×) and conferred the system is established, it is self-regulating and
high level of cross-resistance to the chemi- so the use of acaricides is needed only initially.
cally unrelated compound hexythiazox. Likewise, it may also be possible to apply chemi-
However, some chemicals appear to be less cal control to part of the plants while giving bio-
susceptible to resistance development in logical control a chance in other parts. For
mites. T. urticae was subjected to 4, 6, or 15 example, integrated control might be possible for
times of artificial selection of resistance to spider mites on roses if different injury levels are
abamectin, and no increased resistance to the assigned to the upper and lower canopies and
20.2 Pest Mites 231
sprays are confined to upper canopies. The upper carmine spider mite is often more phytotoxic
portion of a rose canopy has an extremely low than the two-spotted spider mite, especially on
injury level because it bears the flowers and foli- tomato plants. The necrotic symptoms consist of
age which are cut for sale. Although low densi- premature chlorosis of infested leaflets which
ties of spider mites may not affect the quantity of subsequently wither and die.
the product, they may damage its aesthetic
appearance. However, the lower canopy can have 20.2.1.2.2 Life Cycle
a much higher injury level and aesthetic damage Development is faster at higher temperatures and
is of no concern on the lower canopy. Confining can be completed in less than a week at 35 °C
pesticide applications to only a portion of the (Fig. 20.2).
canopy may create refugia for pesticide-
susceptible individuals of T. urticae that may 20.2.1.2.3 Management
breed with resistant ones and thereby retard the Control methods for T. cinnabarinus are similar
development of pesticide resistance. This also to those for T. urticae, although on some plants
allows P. persimilis to be used for biological con- (e.g., tomato), T. cinnabarinus is sometimes
trol of spider mites on lower canopies. more difficult to control because they induce
Pesticide-resistant predatory mites can also be damage at lower population densities than T.
used in IPM, and some strains of P. persimilis and urticae.
G. occidentalis have been developed for control- Phytoseiulus persimilis is the most effective
ling T. urticae in greenhouses. predator of T. cinnabarinus and T. urticae,
Some plant cultivars are naturally less suscep- although some preference for T. cinnabarinus has
tible to spider mites and plant resistance may be been reported. N. californicus and N. longispino-
used as a component in spider mite IPM. This sus have also been used effectively against T.
will reduce the need for control measures. cinnabarinus.
Sometimes, resistant plants have lower yield and Predatory insects are also effective natural
other undesirable features, but plant breeding is enemies, including predatory midges (e.g.,
helping to overcome some of these. Feltiella), lady beetles (e.g., Stethorus), preda-
Cultural and physical methods may also be tory Hemiptera (e.g., Orius), and predatory thrips
used. For example, spider mites thrive in hot, dry (e.g., Scolothrips). Spiders are also considered
conditions. Increasing the humidity level by significant predators. Entomophagous fungi (e.g.,
misting plants can reduce the growth of spider Hirsutella thompsonii) can also be effective if
mites. However, care should be taken because humidity can be maintained very high for a
increasing humidity may increase the possibility period of time and temperature is lower than
of fungal diseases. 37 °C.
Chemical and other control methods are also
20.2.1.2 Carmine Spider Mite, similar to those used against T. urticae.
Tetranychus cinnabarinus
This species is commonly known as the carmine
spider mite, the red spider mite, the cotton spider
mite, and the carnation mite. This species attacks 20.2.2 Tarsonemid Mites
both vegetables (especially tomatoes, cucumbers,
eggplants) and ornamentals (e.g., carnation, ger- Tarsonemid mites belong to the family
bera) in greenhouses. Tarsonemidae of the order Prostigmata. Some
phytophagous tarsonemids are pests of agricul-
20.2.1.2.1 Symptoms tural crops and are important in greenhouses.
Symptoms caused by T. cinnabarinus vary Most plant-feeding species belong to a few genera
slightly on different plants but in general are very in the Tarsonemidae, except Polyphagotarsonemus,
similar to symptoms caused by T. urticae. The which is a member of the Pseudotarsonemoidinae.
Fig. 20.2 Developmental

time for Tetranychus
cinnabarinus from egg to
adult in relation to
temperature at RH of 80 %
(Drawn from data in Hazan
et al. 1973)
20.2.2.1 Broad Mite, for males and females, respectively. Adult female
Polyphagotarsonemus latus and male longevity is 11 and 15 days, respec-
This species is widely known as the broad mite. It tively. Adult females lay 25 eggs.
is also known as the yellow (tea) mite, white
mite, citrus silver mite, or tropical mite. It is a 20.2.2.1.3 Management
major mite pest throughout the tropics and also in
greenhouses in temperate regions. As its name (a) Biological control: several phytoseiid species
suggests, P. latus is polyphagous; it attacks plants are known to attack the broad mite, and some
belonging to 60 families, among which are eco- of them have been demonstrated to be effec-
nomic crops and ornamental plants such as pep- tive in greenhouses.
per, tomato and cucumber, African violet,
begonia, chrysanthemum, cyclamen, dahlia, Neoseiulus barkeri, which is commercially
Gloxinia, Fuchsia, Gerbera, Hibiscus, Impatiens, available in many countries, can effectively
and ivy (Hedera). reduce populations of P. latus from more than
100 mites per leaf to zero in a week on Capsicum,
20.2.2.1.1 Symptoms when released at the rate of ten or more predatory
Broad mites are often found on young leaves and mites per plant. Three weekly releases of five
feed mostly on the undersurface of the leaves. predatory mites per main stem provide adequate
Damaged leaves of Gerbera may split or crack protection of the plant from mite injury for over 7
open and have a rugged appearance. Injured weeks. Another commercially available species,
flowers have distorted and discolored rays. There N. cucumeris, is also effective in a similar way.
is often sudden curling and wrinkling of leaves Neoseiulus californicus and Euseius ovalis
followed by discoloration or blistering. Plant feed and reproduce very well on P. latus. The lat-
growth may stop and survival of the plant may be ter, when released at the predator/prey ratio of
threatened when severely injured. Damage of 1:20, can cause a rapid decline in adult popula-
cucumber, eggplants, and Solanum aviculare tion of P. latus. They are promising candidates
includes crinkling, cracking, discoloration, malfor use in greenhouses for P. latus control.
formations, swelling, and necrosis. The symp- Neoseiulus agrestis can consume P. latus and
toms can persist for many weeks after the removal reproduce on it in the laboratory, but it cannot
of mites. reduce the abundance of P. latus on azalea plants
in the greenhouse. Augmentative releases may
20.2.2.1.2 Life Cycle work for this species. Neoseiulus longispinosus
Developmental time decreases with temperature and Typhlodromus peregrinus are able to con-
and is often less than a week in greenhouses (Fig. sume adults and immature stages of P. latus, and
20.3). On pepper, the developmental period from their potential as biocontrol agents should be
egg to adult averages 4.1 and 4.1 days at 25 °C investigated.
20.2 Pest Mites 233
Fig. 20.3 Developmental

time for
Polyphagotarsonemus
latus from egg to adult at
different temperatures on
Phaseolus vulgaris (Drawn
from data in Lee et al.
1992)
Conidia of Beauveria bassiana can cause In Korea, dicofol EC, chinomethionat WP,
88 % mortality of P. latus in controlled laboratory pyridaben WP, and pyraclofos WP gave effective
conditions and may be tried in greenhouses. control of this mite on pepper. Elsewhere, bromo-
propylate 50 % at 0.5 %, hexythiazox 10 % at
(b) Chemical control: because biological con- 0.4–0.5 %, dicofol 21 % + tetradifon 7.5 % at
trol works well for this species, the use of 1.5–2 %, and endosulfan 35 % at 2 % are recom-
chemicals should be minimized. Some mended for preventive control of this mite on
chemicals may sometimes induce mite Capsicum.
problems instead of suppressing them. An In Brazil, two applications (spaced 7 days) of
example is the use of dichlorvos, cyperme- abamectin (5.4 g a.i./ha) and triazophos (400 g
thrin, fluvalinate, monocrotophos, methyl- a.i./ha) gave significant control for up to 28 days.
O-demeton [demeton-O-methyl],
formothion, thiometon, and ethion on (c) Integrated management: selective acaricides
Capsicum in India. This mite may be diffi- such as abamectin can be used together with
cult to control using nonsystemic pesticides biological control. Organic material such as
on certain plants because mites may be able manipueira, a liquid extract from cassava
to hide in curly leaves, which make full cov- roots, can provide effective control of P. latus
erage of sprays difficult. when diluted in water (1:3) and sprayed three
times at weekly intervals. Plant resistance is
In India, dicofol, bromopropylate, azocyclo- not yet employed as a component in broad
tin, and avermectin (abamectin) can eliminate the mite control, but there is good potential. In
mite population in 2 weeks, and abamectin (at 18 Cuba, for example, a double haploid of sweet
g/l, applied at 25 ml/100 l water) remains effec- pepper that has higher mean fruit weight and
tive for up to 3 weeks. Wettable sulfur is also yield is known to be tolerant of P. latus.
known to be effective.
In Thailand, 0.07 % prothiofos, 0.075 %
formetanate, 0.072 % triazophos, and 0.071 % 20.2.2.2 Cyclamen Mite, Phytonemus
methiocarb provide effective control of P. pallidus
latus. This species is most commonly known as the
In China, liuyangmycin (an antibiotic prepara- cyclamen mite. It is also known as the strawberry
tion from Streptomyces griseolus) applied at 25 mite because it is a major pest of strawberries. It
ppm gave good control of this mite on Capsicum, is a pest of many ornamental plants such as cycla-
with an efficiency equivalent to control by dico- men, African violet, azalea, begonia, carnation,
fol applied at 200 ppm. chrysanthemums, gerbera, and ivy.
20.2.2.2.1 Symptoms (b) Chemical control: on strawberries, effective

This species prefers young leaves or flower buds. control can be achieved using endrin at 0.025
Eggs are often laid within unopened buds and % or endosulfan at 0.05 % at 4-week inter-
between adpressed halves of the dorsal surfaces of vals before the opening of the first flower;
folded leaves. On leaves they feed on the upper side. triazophos, amitraz, and pyridaben with two
Infested leaves are twisted, curled, distorted, brittle, applications at 7-day intervals after fruit har-
and reduced in size. Damaged gerbera produces vest and leaf mowing; pirimiphos-methyl
bronzed patches along the midribs and slight curl- applied at 1.6 kg/ha; and abamectin at 1.12
ing of the leaf. Rays of flower are deformed when and 2.24 kg a.i./ha.
flowers are attacked in the bud stage. Damaged
strawberry leaves have wrinkled upper surfaces, On cyclamen, control can be achieved using
irregular folding, and fluting of the leaf margin; endrin at 0.025 % or endosulfan at 0.05 % or
veins bulge upward like blisters. Mildly damaged dicofol at 0.03 % at 4-week intervals at the first
plants have an unnatural dense appearance because sign of damage.
petioles fail to elongate. Severely damaged leaves On Saintpaulia, dienochlor, triazophos, fen-
become brittle, turn brown or silvery, and eventually butatin oxide, and oxamyl are effective when
die, and flowers and young fruits become brown applied at first sign of damage.
near the base and may turn black and die. On Peperomia and Saintpaulia, mites can be
controlled by drenching plants in 0.05 % schradan
20.2.2.2.2 Life Cycle at the rate of 142 ml per pot (10.2 cm) at 3- or
The life cycle is completed in 1–3 weeks depend- 4-week intervals.
ing on temperature and is usually completed in
10–14 days in greenhouses. (c) Integrated management: it helps greatly to use
healthy plants, with good hygiene in plant pro-
20.2.2.2.3 Management duction. Strawberry planting material can be
kept free of mites or completely disinfected on
(a) Biological control: Neoseiulus cucumeris is acquisition by immersing them in warm water
used in many parts of Europe to control of P. at 45 °C for 13–15 min and then in cold water.
pallidus on strawberries and can provide Immersion of plants in hot water at 43.5 °C for
effective control at lower cost than chemical 30 min kills all the mites. A better alternative
control. It should be released at 10–20 mites is to treat loosely stacked plants with saturated
per plant or the predator/prey ratio of 1:10 as air at 44.5 °C for 1 h. After the treatment,
soon as the symptoms of mite damage are plants should be dried before packing and
noticed. Another two phytoseiid species, planted as soon as possible.
Neoseiulus reductus in Russia and N. reticu-
latus in the USA, are also effective for P. pal- Immersion of cyclamen, Crassula, and
lidus control on strawberries. Like N. Saintpaulia in water at 15 °C for 7 min is effec-
cucumeris, N. californicus can also signifi- tive against this mite but may also injure plants.
cantly reduce P. pallidus densities on straw- It is important to monitor the level of infesta-
berries as well as provide effective control of tion and introduce predatory mites at the right
T. urticae on the same crop in greenhouses. In time and rates. Biological control should be inte-
Northwest USA, N. fallacis and N. cucumeris grated with chemical control for other pests by
are both effective predators of P. pallidus on careful and selective use of pesticides to prevent
strawberries, but the former performs slightly harmful effects on predatory mites.
better than the latter regardless of whether T. Plant resistance has not yet been used in cycla-
urticae is present on the crop. Although N. men mite control, but there is evidence that the
fallacis can provide more rapid control of potential exists. Some varieties of strawberry are
both pests, N. cucumeris seems to give lon- known to have higher levels of resistance to
ger-term regulation at lower densities. cyclamen mite.
20.2 Pest Mites 235
20.2.3 Eriophyid Mites 20.2.3.1.2 Life History and Biology

The life cycle of this mite passes through egg,
Eriophyid mites belong to the superfamily larva, nymph, and adult stages. The generation
Eriophyidae of the order Prostigmata. Some rust time is about 1 week at 21–25 °C. Males develop
mites and gall mites are important pests on eco- slightly faster than females. Females live for sev-
nomic plants. eral weeks and lay ten to 53 eggs. Fertilized eggs
produce both males and females, whereas unfer-
20.2.3.1 Tomato Russet Mite, Aculops tilized eggs give rise to males only.
lycopersici The optimal conditions for mite development
This species is most commonly known as the are 21–27 °C and 30 % RH, conditions that
tomato russet mite. It is also known as the tomato greenhouses often provide. At higher tempera-
rust mite. This species is a common pest on toma- tures, lower humidity is required; high humidity
toes worldwide. Its occurrence and damage are can cause increased mite mortality.
increasing on greenhouse tomatoes in many
European countries, e.g., Israel, Italy, France, 20.2.3.1.3 Management
Spain, Germany, Moldova, Bulgaria, and
Hungary. This species is exceptionally polypha- (a) Biological control: natural enemies of the
gous for an eriophyid. It is also found on egg- tomato russet mites are many and include
plant, tobacco, potato, Datura, and many other both predatory insects and mites.
Solanaceae (with the exception of Convolvulus
species), but only occasionally on chilies and Two species of predatory thrips, Leptothrips
petunia. mali and Scolothrips sexmaculatus, are known to
be associated with this mite, and the former
20.2.3.1.1 Symptoms and Damage actively feeds on A. lycopersici but is hindered by
The infestation of tomato plants starts from the glandular hairs on tomato. Their predation effects
lower leaves, which curl up and turn silvery on on A. lycopersici are unknown.
the lower surfaces. Later, infested leaves turn A tydeid mite, Pronematus ubiquitus, is known
brown, withered, and paper like, but they do not to be associated with A. lycopersici but nothing is
wilt as they do when they are diseased by the late known about its effectiveness as a predator of A.
blight. As the mite population increases, they lycopersici. Another tydeid mite, Homeo-
spread upward over the stem and upper leaves. pronematus anconai, however, is known to feed on
The lower parts of the stem lose their surface all stages of the tomato russet mite, but it cannot
hairs before damage appears on the upper leaves. develop to the adult stage when fed solely on this
The infested stem changes from green to brown, prey; it needs to feed on alternative foods such as
and its surface cracks longitudinally, displaying a fungal spores to complete development. The ability
characteristic rusty-brown russeted aspect. As to feed on alternative foods may be an advantage
infestation continues, the browning of leaves and because its densities may be sustained by alternative
stems increases and some injured leaves start to foods when eriophyid mites are low in density.
drop. With the defoliation of the plant, fruit pro- A stigmaeid mite, Agistemus exsertus, has been
duction is reduced and fruits sunburned, although evaluated in the laboratory with promising results
they do not usually russet. In very heavily infested and is recommended for releases onto mite-
plants, young leaves may be distorted and fruits infested plants for biological control. However,
bronzed when attacked. this species is not commercially available.
Mite feeding reduces the rate of photosynthe- Euseius concordis develops and reproduces
sis by host plants. This is caused by the destruc- well on the tomato russet mite and is naturally
tion of the guard cells and subsequent reduction associated with the mite on tomato plants.
of leaf gas exchange. However, it is hindered by the webbing produced
by spider mites which occur with the eriophyid on
tomato plants. Only Neoseiulus fallacis seems to 20.2.4 Acarid Mites

be a good biocontrol agent of this mite. It attacks
all stages of the pest, survives well (92 %), devel- Acarid mites belong to the family Acaridae of the
ops rapidly (6.3 days at 22 °C), and reproduces order Astigmata. The genus Rhizoglyphus con-
well on A. lycopersici. This commercially avail- tains several species of pests attacking root crops.
able predator should be effective when released at Some Tyrophagus species can cause economic
a rate of 1000 per acre when the tomato seedlings damage to plants, including both ornamental
are transplanted into the greenhouse. flowers and vegetables grown in greenhouses.
Pathogenic bacteria such as Bt (Bacillus
thuringiensis) may be a new biological weapon 20.2.4.1 Robine Bulb Mite,
for mite control. For example, an exotoxin from Rhizoglyphus robini
B. thuringiensis shows promising experimental No widely accepted common names have been
results in the biocontrol of A. lycopersici on proposed for this species, although some people
tomato plants in Uzbekistan. call it the robine bulb mite. This is a cosmopoli-
tan species. It is often associated with bulbs,
(b) Chemical control: the chemicals that provide roots, and seeds of many plant species and is
good control include binapacryl, bromopro- known to attack bulbs of Narcissus, Eucharis, lil-
pylate, cyhexatin, fenvalerate, flubenzimine, ies, orchids, gladioli, hyacinth and tulip, tubers of
fluvalinate, ethion, dichlorvos, dicofol, for- dahlia, and corms of Freesia in storage, in green-
mothion, karathane, lambda-cyhalothrin, houses, and in the field.
methamidophos, milbex, profenofos, propar-
gite, pyridaphenthion, and zineb. Abamectin 20.2.4.1.1 Damage Symptoms
and sulfur are very effective and widely used Mite infestation of bulbs and corms starts with pen-
and may facilitate biological control of other etration through the basal plate or outer skin layers.
pests on tomato, especially T. cinnabarinus Bruised bulbs and fungus-infected bulbs allow
by predatory mites. more rapid mite establishment than healthy ones.
On Fusarium-infected Rakkyo bulbs, R. robini
Various kinds of oils are also more environ- achieves exponential population growth after 14
mentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can days, whereas on healthy bulbs it takes 60–90 days
be used effectively against the tomato russet mite. to achieve exponential population growth. Infested
plants have dark-brown streaks on roots and develop
(c) Integrated control: in integrated pest control, distorted growing tips and leaves. On an injured
it is essential to monitor the pests. It is useful bulb, R. robini can increase rapidly in number and
to regularly search for bronzing on lower quickly reduce the whole bulb to a rotten pulp.
leaves and stems and then check damaged
leaves and other leaves immediately above 20.2.4.1.2 Life History
them for mites. Damage is typically first The life cycle takes 7–27 days at 13–26 °C exclud-
observed when green fruits reach 5 cm; ing the hypopial stage and is 9 days at 25 °C.
rarely is it first observed when more than 25
% of the fruit are ripe. For effective control, 20.2.4.1.3 Management
treatment is necessary immediately when Several species of predatory mites have been
damage symptoms begin to spread. A thor- tested for biological control of R. robini. Hypoaspis
ough cleanup of the greenhouse and good aculeifer, which is commercially available, is
sanitation will help to prevent the carry-over effective against this mite in small-scale lily bulb
of this mite. propagation at the predator/prey ratio of 1:20 but
in large greenhouse plots at the ratios of 1:2 to 1:5.
Some varieties of tomato are known to be less However, as many as three predators per bulb mite
susceptible to tomato russet mite damage and are needed for the elimination of the bulb mite
may be used in IPM programs. population. In small-scale lily bulb propagation,
20.2 Pest Mites 237
the ascid mite Lasioseius bispinosus is also able to Another laelapid mite, Hypoaspis vacua, can
control the bulb mite, so is the parasitoid mite also develop successfully when feeding on nymphs
Parasitus fimetorum, but for the latter only when of R. echinopus. Immature stages of H. vacua con-
the growing medium is peat. Another acarid mite sume an average total of 33 nymphs of R. echinopus,
Protogamasellus minutus and a digamasellid mite whereas adult females consume 13 nymphs daily.
Dendrolaelaps sayedi also feed on R. robini, but Rhizoglyphus echinopus is insensitive to many
their effectiveness against this mite is unknown. pesticides (at least 9 pyrethroids, 6 organochlo-
This species can be controlled using pirimiphos- rines, 4 formamidines, 14 specific acaricides,
methyl combined with cultural measures such as diflubenzuron, nicotine, and abamectin) but is
hot water treatment (at 39 °C or 41 °C for 2 h) and known to be susceptible to dieldrin, endrin,
storage of the bulbs at −2 °C. In peat growing aldrin, deltamethrin, chlorpyrifos, Diazinon,
media, a combination of hot water treatment and azinphos-ethyl, and carbofuran.
the release of H. aculeifer are also effective against
the bulb mite in lilies during the propagation
phase. Soaking bulbs of lilies in 548 ppm dicofol 20.2.5 General Management
for 30 min can significantly reduce mite numbers. of Pest Mites
Flooding soil with water for 5 days kills 96.1 % of
the mite infesting gladiolus and all the mites are In general, commonsense (Table 20.2) and chem-
killed after 14 days. R. robini is known to be sensi- ical control (Table 20.3) measures should be
tive to sulfur, azocyclotin, cyhexatin, methida- taken whenever appropriate. These are applicable
thion, phosmet, profenofos, and prothiofos, as to the control of many mite pests.
well as to hot and dry conditions.
Table 20.2 Commonsense pest control methods in
20.2.4.2 Bulb Mite, Rhizoglyphus greenhouse crop production (Modified from Dole and
echinopus Wilkins 1999)
This species is known generally as the bulb mite. Production Commonsense pest control methods in
This is a cosmopolitan species. It attacks bulbs and stage greenhouse crop production
roots of many species, including Freesia, Gladiolus, Before Use pest-free plants and containers
production Clean/sterilize benches and irrigation
hyacinth, lily, iris, Narcissus, and tulips. system
Remove weeds in and outside (within
(a) Symptoms: damage symptoms are also simi- 3–9 m) of greenhouses
lar to those caused by R. robini. Damaged Remove fallen plant material, media,
debris, and extra plants
roots of Freesia and Gladiolus develop dark- Use exclusion screens
brown streaks and are often mined internally. During Use pest-resistant species or cultivars
Healthy corms grown in heavily infested soil production Inspect incoming plant material
will have distorted growing tips and leaves. carefully; isolate new ones, if
(b) Management: control methods used against possible. Monitor pest populations
regularly
R. robini should be generally applicable to R. Produce plants at the optimal
echinopus. growing conditions
Change clothes and boots before
When released at relatively high predator/prey entering greenhouses
ratios, Hypoaspis aculeifer should provide effec- If a problem Decide on the threshold of tolerance
occurs or is for each pest
tive control of R. echinopus. A female likely to Remove infested plants or plant parts
deutonymph of Hypoaspis aculeifer can consume occur promptly
60 eggs, 132 larvae, 20 protonymphs, eight Use beneficials when and where
deutonymphs, or four adults of R. echinopus. appropriate
Modify crop environment to
When feeding on the larvae of R. echinopus, an discourage pest growth
adult female of H. aculeifer can lay 2.8 eggs per Use effective chemicals when and
day and a total of 114 eggs during her life. where appropriate
Table 20.3 Chemical control measures for greenhouse 20.3 Predatory Mites
mites
Chemical Trade name Effective on 20.3.1 Introduction
Abamectin Avid Broad mites,
cyclamen mites, The predatory mites of the family Phytoseiidae
eriophyid mites, false
spider mites, and Laelapidae are used in the biological control
two-spotted spider of mite pests and thrips on many crops in green-
mites, mites (general) houses (Table 20.4).
Bifenthrin Talstar Broad mites,
spider mites,
two-spotted spider 20.3.2 Phytoseiid Mites
mites
Bifenazate Floramite Red spider mites, Phytoseiid mites belong to the family Phytoseiidae
two-spotted mites of the order Mesostigmata. They are predators of
Chlorfenapyr Pylon Broad mites, spider mites and other small mites and insects on
cyclamen mites,
plants. Several members of this family are of
spider mites, great importance in the biological control of spi-
two-spotted spider der mites and thrips in greenhouse crop produc-
mites tion. Effective biocontrol agents (most
Chlorofentazine Ovation Two-spotted spider commercially available species) that are com-
mites
monly used in greenhouses belong to the genera
Deltamethrin DeltaGard Mites (general)
Neoseiulus and Phytoseiulus in the Amblyseiinae.
Dicofol Kelthane Broad mites,
cyclamen mites, red Some 20 species of phytoseiids have been
and two-spotted made commercially available for pest control and
spider mites many of these have been applied on greenhouse
Etoxazole TetraSan Red and two-spotted plants. Several genera have been recorded from,
spider mites tried, or used in greenhouses: Phytoseiulus,
Fenbutatin oxide Vendex Two-spotted spider
Neoseiulus, Galendromus, Typhlodromus,
mites
Typhlodromalus, Amblyseius, and Euseius. Seven
Fenpyroximate Akari Red and two-spotted
spider mites species have been proven to be of importance in
Fluvalinate Mavrik Two-spotted spider greenhouses and have been commonly used:
mites Phytoseiulus persimilis, Neoseiulus cucumeris,
Hexythiazox Hexagon Broad and two- N. barkeri, N. californicus, N. fallacis, Iphiseius
spotted spider mites degenerans, and Galendromus occidentalis.
Pyridaben Sanmite Two-spotted spider
mites
20.3.2.1 Phytoseiulus persimilis
Propargite Omite Red and two-spotted
spider mites This mite is a specific predator of Tetranychus
Spinosad Conserve Red and two-spotted spider mites and shows reduced reproduction and
spider mites survival on other spider mites and phytophagous
Spiromesifen Forbid Broad mites, mites. It has been collected in association with
cyclamen mites, tetranychid spider mites of the genera
eriophyid mites, false Tetranychus, Eutetranychus, and Panonychus and
spider mites,
two-spotted spider other predatory mites such as Neoseiulus califor-
mites nicus and Iphiseius degenerans.
20.3 Predatory Mites 239
Table 20.4 Commercially available predatory mites of importance in biological control of pest mites under green-
house conditions
Beneficial mites Mite species Family Pests attacked
Phytoseiid mites Phytoseiulus persimilis Phytoseiidae Spider mites (Tetranychus)
Neoseiulus californicus Phytoseiidae Spider mites (Tetranychus)
N. cucumeris Phytoseiidae Thrips, broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus
latus), cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus)
Iphiseius degenerans Phytoseiidae Thrips, spider mites
Laelapid mites Hypoaspis aculeifer Laelapidae Bulb mites (Rhizoglyphus), sciarid flies, fungus
gnats, thrips
H. miles Laelapidae Bulb mites (Rhizoglyphus), sciarid flies, fungus
gnats, thrips
20.3.2.1.1 Life History and Biology control program uses a leaf damage index
Development from the egg to adult takes 3.6 days system (a score of 4 for a leaf covered with
for males and 4.1 days for females at 26 °C. An mites). When the mean leaf damage index
adult female can consume 10–20 Tetranychus reaches 0.4, two predators are released to
spider mite eggs per day and lay as many as 5 every other plant near the infestation site, and
eggs per day and up to 80 eggs during her life. predators will overrun the spider mites in 30
The sex ratios of offspring are often highly days, eliminate them in 7 weeks, and continue
female biased (>80 % daughters). to survive for at least 3 weeks. In the second
It has been introduced to many countries and is year during late April and early May, 10–20
now used throughout the world for the control of spider mites per plant should be introduced
Tetranychus spider mites on crops such as cucum- first and two predators introduced to every
ber, pepper, tomato, eggplant, strawberry, and cut five plants 10 days later. This “pest in first”
flowers in greenhouses. This mite is a specific program will ensure successful control of
predator of Tetranychus spider mites and shows spider mites during the growing season.
reduced reproduction and survival on other spider
mites and phytophagous mites (type I). This “pest in first” method was later optimized
in Europe during the 1980s with the development
20.3.2.1.2 Use in Biocontrol of a mathematical modeling of the population
Phytoseiulus persimilis can provide effective dynamics of T. urticae and P. persimilis on cucum-
control of T. urticae in greenhouses but control is ber under greenhouse conditions. As a result, the
unsatisfactory at very high temperatures and low optimization of the “pest in first” method enables
humidities. In greenhouses in many countries, the number of T. urticae introduced to be reduced
Tetranychus mites can be controlled by P. persi- 20-fold and that of P. persimilis three- to fourfold.
milis using several release systems, and the use of In Austria, T. urticae are controlled by P. per-
pesticides against them is greatly reduced or similis. In Bulgaria, spider mite populations are
completely discontinued. monitored, and P. persimilis is introduced onto
cucumbers at a predator/prey ratio of 1:20 when
(a) Cucumber: Phytoseiulus persimilis has been there are five to six spider mites per leaf and 20 %
used successfully for greenhouse spider mite leaf damage. This method has been successfully
control on cucumbers in many countries and used against tetranychid mites. In curative con-
for many years. Earlier studies in the 1960s trol, timing and rate of predator release are
in the UK on spider mite control using P. per- important. Releasing too many predators may
similis on this crop led to great success of this result in the lack of food for predators and releas-
species in the greenhouse industries. The ing too few may result in poor control.
Extreme temperature and humidity in green- onto tomatoes at the predator/prey ratio of 1:10
houses can affect predator performance. In green- when there are two to three spider mites per leaf.
houses in Egypt, for example, relative humidity In greenhouses in Belgium, temperatures fre-
can be within 22–68 %, and the temperature fluc- quently increase much above 30 °C with mean
tuates and can get as high as 43 °C, which can kill RH below 57 % in summer. There is a higher
P. persimilis. The greenhouse conditions can be density of glandular trichomes on leaflets at
modified to favor P. persimilis. For example, reg- higher temperatures and a larger percentage of
ular overhead misting can reduce populations of the predators are stuck to leaflet trichomes, espe-
T. urticae (which do well under dry and hot con- cially on some cultivars. Increasing the humidity
ditions) and promote the growth of P. persimilis by using a humidifying system and reducing the
on cucumber greenhouses. A study in Ohio, temperature by whitewashing the roof can reduce
USA, has showed that the western flower thrips mite damage. However, it is better to use preda-
Frankliniella occidentalis can also be signifi- tors that are reared on tomato rather than on
cantly reduced by a regular misting program. The beans. Strains adapted to tomato have been
role of P. persimilis in IPM has been expanded selected and made available commercially for
through the development of resistant strains. In spider mite control on tomatoes.
the former USSR, strains resistant to malathion, Pesticide-resistant strains of P. persimilis have
pirimiphos-methyl, high-temperature, and high- also been used on greenhouse tomatoes. In
temperature plus organophosphorus compounds, Bulgaria, a strain resistant to organophosphorus
respectively, have been developed for use in the pesticides is used in integrated control of toma-
control of T. urticae on cucumbers in green- toes in the greenhouses. Predators can be used for
houses. In Japan, a resistant strain of P. persimilis spider control, while chemical control is
can control T. urticae on cucumbers under seven employed against other pests.
sprays of fungicides and four sprays of fenitro- A relatively new approach has been the use of
thion. The control is successful when they are bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) as indicator plants for
introduced at the rate of one P. persimilis female spider mites in greenhouse tomato production.
per ten T. urticae females. Although spider mite population growth rates are
In Turkey, where Tetranychus cinnabarinus the same on both host plants, spider mites can
also attacks cucumbers in greenhouses, P. persi- become established 5 weeks earlier on beans
milis provides effective control when released at because of the lower-temperature threshold on
the 1:5 predator/prey ratio. beans (7 °C lower) than on tomatoes. T. cinnaba-
rinus can be controlled when P. persimilis is
(b) Tomato: biological control of spider mites on released at the threshold of 12 spider mites per
tomato is generally less successful than on tomato leaf. For some reason, P. persimilis is
cucumber. One reason is the interference of more efficient on the tomatoes than on the beans,
predator searching behavior by the exudating which helps to keep the two predator/prey sys-
hairs on tomato leaves and stems. tems on the two hosts out of synchrony, giving
better persistence of the system.
A practical program similar to that used on
cucumber has been used in the UK. When the (c) Bell pepper: when P. persimilis is introduced
leaf damage index reaches 0.2, five predators to sweet peppers at the predator/prey ratio of
should be introduced to every fifth plant. For a 1:10 when the initial spider mite density is
new crop, one-fifth of the plants should be inocu- two to three per leaf, successful control can be
lated with 30 spider mites 3 weeks before plant- achieved. In Bulgaria, P. persimilis provides
ing. Four predators should then be introduced on effective control of T. urticae and T. turkestani
every infested plant 10 days later. on pepper when released at a rate of 70,000–
In Bulgaria, P. persimilis has been successfully 80,000 individuals per hectare, reducing the need
used against spider mites, when it is introduced for chemical control. In Poland, P. persimilis
is effective against both T. urticae and T. cin- In Iowa, USA, P. persimilis, along with
nabarinus developing separately or together Neoseiulus californicus, is released to control
on plants of two cultivars of greenhouse sweet T. urticae on greenhouse-grown poplar (Populus
pepper. In unheated greenhouses in Sicily, spp.) with spot treatment using pesticides when
releases of P. persimilis from February onward needed. Spider mites are suppressed to accept-
provide good control of T. urticae on chili, able levels and pest management costs are
but control can be disrupted by the application reduced by 81 % compared to chemical control.
of chinomethionat against powdery mildew In Poland, P. persimilis provides good control
from March. of T. urticae on orchids in greenhouses.
(d) Ornamental plants: ornamental plants are In New Zealand, P. persimilis provides good
grown for cosmetic purposes and can tolerate control of T. urticae on Cymbidium but is not
lower levels of mites than other plants. P. effective against T. urticae on greenhouse carna-
persimilis has been used to control spider tions due to its inability to maintain traction on
mites on a variety of ornamental plant spe- the waxy surface of the leaves and stems.
cies with success and is sometimes used with
spot treatment of mite infestations using 20.3.2.2 Neoseiulus cucumeris
acaricides.
20.3.2.2.1 Life History and Biology
On greenhouse roses, T. urticae has been At 25 °C, the egg-to-adult development is com-
effectively controlled by P. persimilis in many pleted in 8–9 days when feeding on thrips larvae
countries. When P. persimilis reaches the level of and about 7 days when feeding on acarid mites.
one predator for every ten spider mites, it can Females produce on an average of 53 eggs during
eliminate spider mites in a few weeks’ time and the oviposition period at the rate of 1.9 eggs/day.
then disperse them. In very large greenhouses, P. The intrinsic rate of increase is 0.203 females/
persimilis can persist in the lower canopies and female per day and the population is able to dou-
can tolerate spot treatment of upper foliage using ble in 3.41 days.
selective chemicals such as abamectin. This species can feed on pollen, and the avail-
Gerbera, being bushier with a more humid ability of pollen on greenhouses enhances the
microenvironment, favors the development of P. development and reproduction of N. cucumeris,
persimilis. In greenhouses in Sicily, Italy, natural although pollen feeding reduces the predation
populations of P. persimilis move in and provide rate on prey.
natural control of T. urticae on Gerbera, provided In temperate areas, the effectiveness of N. cuc-
pesticides toxic to the predator are not used. umeris in autumn and winter may be limited by
In the UK, T. urticae on chrysanthemums is the reproductive diapauses induced under short-
successfully controlled by releasing ten P. persi- day conditions. The critical day length for induc-
milis females per plant 3–4 weeks after treatment ing diapauses at 22 °C is 12.45 h, and most
of the plants with aldicarb. N. cucumeris undergo diapauses only when
In China, T. urticae on Salvia splendens, exposed to diapause-inducing conditions
Ageratum conyzoides, Zantedeschia aethiopica, throughout their juvenile development. A New
and Pelargonium lateripes in greenhouses are Zealand strain with low incidence of diapauses
successfully controlled by releases of P. persimilis has been selected and improved and is now
either at the seedling stage or when mites just widely used in greenhouses around the world.
begin to increase. Such timing of releases is both
effective and economic. The release rate ranges 20.3.2.2.2 Use in Biocontrol
from one to 50 mites/plant depending on the size, This mite is an effective predator of some tarso-
pest density, and plant species. A second release is nemid mites and some spider mites that do not
sometimes necessary when the spider mite popu- produce webbing. It has also been tested against
lations begin to increase on some plants. Bemisia tabaci in the laboratory. It can complete
its development to the adult-stage feeding on a establishment. The predators continue to breed
combination of eggs and first- and second-instar and emerge from the pack for at least 6 weeks.
larvae of B. tabaci with a 72 % survival rate and The technique provides better control of F. occi-
can also reproduce on eggs and larvae of B. tabaci. dentalis and is also less expensive than the tradi-
An adult N. cucumeris can consume an average of tional method. The best control is prevention.
6.6 eggs, 1.9 first-instar larvae, or 0.9 s-instar lar- When N. cucumeris is introduced in good-quality
vae of B. tabaci per day. This species should be culture sachets immediately after planting, thrips
tried for whitefly control in greenhouses. populations do not develop.
N. cucumeris has been used most successfully
against thrips on vegetables and ornamentals in (b) Bell pepper: the effectiveness of N. cuc-
greenhouses. Often repeated releases and high umeris in greenhouses is inconsistent. In the
predator/prey ratios are required for adequate Netherlands, control of thrips on peppers is
control. Preventive releases are also very less successful than on cucumber. In the
effective. USA, 2 introductions of 10– 25 predators per
plant during the growing season are not
(a) Cucumber: in the former USSR, larvae of effective against F. occidentalis in green-
Thrips tabaci are controlled on cucumbers in houses. In Spain, inundative releases of
greenhouses when N. cucumeris is released 50–400 predators/plant on different occa-
at predator/prey ratios of 1:2. In Turkey, sions and controlled releases are unable to
effective control is achieved by releasing control F. occidentalis on sweet pepper in
predators at the rate of four to five individuals unheated greenhouses. However, the com-
per plant as soon as thrips are detected on bined use of N. cucumeris and predatory
host plants. In the UK, good establishment is bugs (Orius) can provide effective control of
possible by either a single release of 250 F. occidentalis on sweet peppers in
predators/plant or three consecutive releases greenhouses.
at 50 predators/plant at two weekly intervals,
starting at the first sign of infestation. N. cuc- The effectiveness of N. cucumeris against thrips
umeris can reduce populations of T. tabaci of the genus Thrips is more consistent. In green-
but cannot eliminate the population of the house sweet peppers in Japan, N. cucumeris
thrips. In Canada, N. cucumeris provides released 3 times at 1-week intervals starting 3 days
effective control of T. tabaci and Frankliniella after planting reduces T. palmi population to one-
occidentalis on seedless cucumber in green- third to one-fifth of its original size for 6 weeks
houses in British Columbia. Adult predators after planting. In New Zealand, three releases of
can persist on plants for 7 weeks in the vir- 10–140 N. cucumeris per plant against Thrips
tual absence of thrips prey and can increase tabaci and T. obscuratus result in low populations
numerically in response to increases in thrips of thrips and high predator numbers for 12 weeks,
populations. with no apparent thrips damage to plants.
Neoseiulus cucumeris can keep Frankliniella (c) Ornamental plants: control of F. occidentalis
occidentalis populations at a low level but some- on chrysanthemums using N. cucumeris has
times do not provide effective control, despite been effective in both Europe and North
repeated releases. This is overcome by the devel- America. In the USA, three predatory mites
opment of controlled release system (CRS), per leaf are released when the density of
which provides better distribution of the predator adult thrips is high, and pollen is released
than the traditional loose bran system. The CRS with the mites to encourage predator survival
consists of a specially formulated bran-based when thrips are low in number. In the UK,
population of N. cucumeris in a waxed paper releasing 100 N. cucumeris in bran per m2
pack of specific porosity and gives more rapid every other week gives effective biological
control of F. occidentalis on chrysanthe- 20.3.2.4 Iphiseius degenerans

mums. In bed-grown year-round chrysanthe- Also known as Amblyseius degenerans, this
mums in greenhouses, effective control can widespread species is a generalist predator (type
be achieved by introducing three predators III). It feeds on small mites, insects, and pollen.
per plant in the third, fourth, and fifth weeks
after planting. 20.3.2.4.1 Life Cycle
Development from egg to adult takes 5.7 days at
In the UK, N. cucumeris is also effective 25 °C. Females lay 2.2 eggs per day or a total of
against F. occidentalis on cyclamen in green- 68 eggs during 30 days of the oviposition period.
houses. In the USA, it provides control of The eggs are relatively tolerant to desiccation.
Frankliniella tritici and F. occidentalis on orna- Deutonymphs of I. degenerans consume 21.1
mental bedding plants in greenhouses when Tetranychus pacificus per day, whereas those of
breeding sachets containing 50 mites are intro- P. persimilis consume 7.5 preys per day. It is a
duced at the rate of 125 sachets per 200 m2 of fast-moving species.
growing area.
20.3.2.4.2 Use in Biocontrol
20.3.2.3 Neoseiulus californicus This species has recently been employed for the
Also known as Amblyseius californicus, N. cali- biological control of thrips in greenhouses.
fornicus is a type II phytoseiid species, mainly Releases of ten predators per plant eliminate cit-
feeding on Tetranychus spider mites and also rus thrips Scirtothrips citri from potted citrus
other mites and pollen. Like type III phytoseiids, trees in greenhouses in the USA. In the
it can also feed on small insects. Netherlands, I. degenerans is introduced to
greenhouse sweet pepper in potted flowering cas-
20.3.2.3.1 Life Cycle tor bean bushes, which serves as a reservoir for
The egg-to-egg generation time is 9.5 days at predatory mites to colonize sweet peppers.
25 ± 1 °C when reared on broad mites, 2 days lon-
ger than when reared on Tetranychus urticae
under the same conditions. The proportion of 20.3.3 Laelapid Mites
females in the offspring is 51.2 %, and each
female lays on an average of over two eggs per The family Laelapidae is a member of the super-
day. The larvae are active and feed on prey. The family Dermanyssidae in the order Mesostigmata.
nymphs of N. californicus can attack 13 eggs of Species of Hypoaspis are free-living predators
T. urticae and 11 eggs of T. cinnabarinus, con- common in soil and have been employed in the
suming over 86 % of the eggs killed. Adult biological control of soil-inhabiting mites and
females can resist starvation for over 10 days and insects in greenhouses. Only two species,
can resume oviposition when food is available. Hypoaspis aculeifer and H. miles, have been used
Female fecundity is 65 eggs when feeding on in greenhouses to control a number of soil-
nymphs of T. urticae. inhabiting pest insects and mites.
20.3.2.3.2 Use in Biocontrol 20.3.3.1 Hypoaspis aculeifer

This species is from arid and semiarid climates and This mite is a polyphagous predator, feeding on
more tolerant to low humidity and low prey den- other mites, small insects, and nematodes.
sity. In perennial greenhouse-grown crops, P. persi-
milis and N. californicus have complementary 20.3.3.1.1 Life History and Biology
effects, and a combination of the two can enhance The developmental time varies with types of food
long-term biological control of spider mites. and temperatures. The egg-to-adult development
This species is also an effective biocontrol takes ten to 13 days at 26 °C with Tyrophagus
agent of broad mites and cyclamen mites. putrescentiae as food. With larvae of Rhizoglyphus
robini as prey, this species reaches adulthood in days when feeding by Tyrophagus. Males live
11–12 days, and females lay an average of 114 twice as long as females.
eggs during an oviposition period of 41 days.
20.3.3.2.2 Use in Biocontrol
20.3.3.1.2 Use in Biocontrol Hypoaspis miles is an effective predator of sciarid
This species is an effective biological control larvae. When released at 55 mites per pot, it pro-
agent against Rhizoglyphus bulb mites. It can also vides satisfactory control of Bradysia in pot-
be released to control sciarid flies (Bradysia spp.) grown Cyclamen and poinsettias in greenhouses.
in growing media of crops such as poinsettia in This species also feeds on thrips pupae, shore
greenhouses. It can also be released to reduce fly larvae (Scatella), and acarid mites
densities of thrips pupae and other acarid mites (Rhizoglyphus and Tyrophagus) and can be
(Tyrophagus) in the soil or growing media. released to reduce densities of these pests in the
soil or growing media.
20.3.3.2 Hypoaspis miles
This mite is a polyphagous species and feeds on
small insects, mites, and nematodes. References
20.3.3.2.1 Life History and Biology Carey JR, Bradley JW (1982) Developmental rates, vital
schedules, sex ratios and life tables for Tetranychus
Developmental time from the egg to adult varies
urticae, T. turkestani and T. pacificus (Acarina: tet-
with temperature and types of food and takes 34 ranychidae) on cotton. Acarologia 23:333–345
days at 15 °C but 9 days at 28 °C when feeding Dole JM, Wilkins HF (1999) Floriculture: principles and
on Bradysia larvae. The developmental threshold species. Prentice-Hall, Simon & Schuster, Upper
Saddle River
temperature is between 10 °C and 12 °C. Females
Hazan A, Gerson U, Tahori AS (1973) Life history and
lay on an average of 44 eggs in 53 days when life tables of the carmine spider mite. Acarologia
feeding on larvae of Lycoriella and 22 eggs in 69 15:414–440
Strawberry
21
Abstract
In greenhouses, strawberry plants are susceptible to threat from various
pests and diseases. A number of precautionary and protective measures are
required in order to achieve maximum production. The major pests (spider
mites, armyworm, aphids, whiteflies, Japanese beetle, loopers, thrips,
weevils, slugs) and diseases (gray mold, anthracnose, powdery mildew,
red stele, Verticillium wilt, leaf scorch, angular leaf spot) of strawberry
and their symptoms, biology, survival, spread, and management are
discussed.
Keywords
Strawberry insects • Mites • Diseases • Biology • Spread • Management
21.1 Introduction saleable fruits) for outdoor production is gen-

erally 50–70 %, while under protection it is
Strawberries are grown in greenhouses in many nearer to 80–90 %.
parts of the world (Fig. 21.1). In Europe they • As the fruit is produced in controlled condi-
have been grown successfully and farmers can tions, there can be reduced use of pesticides
get more than 120 t/ha/per year. In China, there by up to 50 % against Botrytis, downy mil-
are over 24,000 ha of strawberries grown over the dew, and black spot.
winter in energy-saving greenhouses which rely • Provision of an improved environment for the
mostly on solar energy to heat the greenhouses. use of biological control.
The advantages of growing strawberries under • Increased opportunities for organic produc-
greenhouse conditions are: tion due to the reduced incidence of disease
and the enhanced use of predators.
• The extension of the fruiting season to approx- • Guaranteed conditions to carry out production
imately 26 weeks (May to mid-autumn). and harvesting operations and no need to stop
• Improvement in class 1 grade fruits and the pickers in poor conditions or to have long
reduced wastage. Class 1 grade (supermarket waits for early dew to burn off.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_21
246 21 Strawberry
21.3 Diseases
Disease management begins before field prepara-

tion. Proper site selection, fumigation, drainage,
and use of resistant cultivars and certified and
vigorous planting stock will help to establish a
healthy stand. Root and crown diseases are
caused by pathogens present in the soil or water
and/or organisms present on infected transplants.
Soil fumigation and use of certified transplants
are the major ways to avoid disease problems.
Fig. 21.1 Strawberry under protected cultivation

21.3.1 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea
21.2 Varieties 21.3.1.1 Symptoms

Botrytis fruit rot can be a serious preharvest and
21.2.1 Early and Midsummer postharvest disease. Gray mold is a very common
Varieties disease, causing a growth of fuzzy gray mold.
Symptoms include blossoms turning brown and
• Elvira dying; misshapen fruit; patches of rot on fruit
• Honeoye – susceptible to mildew when under which enlarge and often affect the entire fruit;
stress masses of gray mycelium on the surface of rot-
• Pantagruella ting tissue; no leakage of fluid from fruit; and
fruit becomes dried and mummified (Fig. 21.2).
The pathogen infects flowers during wet or foggy
21.2.2 Midsummer Varieties weather, but the disease does not become appar-
ent until the fruit ripens or after harvest in
• Pegasus – resistant to wilt, crown rot, and storage.
mildew
• Elsanta – generally susceptible to disease 21.3.1.2 Spread
• Hapil – susceptible to mildew and Verticillium Disease emergence is favored by extended peri-
wilt ods of high humidity or leaf wetness during flow-
• Cambridge favorite – susceptible to Botrytis ering and moderate temperatures. The conidia of
in wet condition this disease are wind and splash dispersed.
• Alice – resistant to wilt, crown rot, and
mildew 21.3.1.3 Management
Remove dead and dying leaves, buds, flowers,
and fruits promptly. Do not leave dead plant
21.2.3 Late Summer Varieties material lying around. Reduce humidity by
improving ventilation and do not overcrowd
• Symphony – good disease resistance plants. Use plastic mulch to reduce fruit contact
• Florence – good disease resistance especially with soil; apply appropriate fungicides; plant in
mildew and some resistance to vine weevil areas where wind will rapidly dry wet plants
• Sophie and fruit; plow crop debris into soil after
• Rhapsody harvest.
21.3 Diseases 247
Fig. 21.2 Gray mold

symptoms on strawberry
Excess nitrogen has been shown to increase 21.3.2 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum

fruit rot when weather conditions are favorable. fragariae, C. gloeosporioides,
To avoid overfertilization, schedule fertilizer pro- and C. acutatum
grams according to leaf tissue nutrient analysis
reports. Research has demonstrated that increas- 21.3.2.1 Symptoms
ing nitrogen levels beyond an optimum level does
not increase yield but does increase fruit rot 21.3.2.1.1 Leaf Spot
problems. Round black or light-gray lesions on leaves;
Allow adequate spacing between plants to numerous spots may develop but leaves do not
improve airflow in the canopy. However, manage die.
plant spacing for optimum yields rather than to
manage disease. Planting in raised beds improves 21.3.2.1.2 Runners and Petioles
drainage and also increases airflow, resulting in Dark-brown or black sunken, circular lesions on
lower disease levels. Plastic mulch helps protect stems, petioles, and runners; plants may be
against plant and soil-surface contact and weeds stunted and yellow; plants may wilt and collapse
that may harbor Botrytis inoculum and reduces and internal tissues discolored red (Fig. 21.3).
moisture within the canopy. Drip irrigation pro-
vides a direct source of water and eliminates 21.3.2.1.3 Crown Rot
excess moisture on fruit and leaves. Youngest plant leaves wilt during water stress in
Rapid removal of field heat and keeping fruit the early afternoon and recovers in the evening;
at around 1–2 °C and increasing carbon dioxide wilting progresses to the entire plant; plant death;
levels during shipping (12–15 % concentration in reddish-brown rot or streak visible when crown is
gastight storage bags) when harvested will help cut lengthways (Fig. 21.3).
keep B. cinerea problems down.
Antagonistic fungi such as Trichoderma har- 21.3.2.1.4 Bud Rot
zianum and Gliocladium roseum have been used Damp, firm dark-brown to black rot on buds;
in Europe and Brazil as alternatives to fungicides. plants with single buds may die; plants with mul-
In the northeastern matted row production region, tiple crown may wilt as disease progresses.
bees have been used efficiently to deliver
beneficial fungi to flowers resulting in reduced 21.3.2.1.5 Flower Blight
gray mold incidence. Dark lesion extending down the pedicel which
Effective control requires applications of fun- girdles the stem and kills the flower; flowers dry
gicides such as captan, thiram, Switch, and out and die; infection after pollination may result
Elevate during flowering. in small, hard, deformed fruit (Fig. 21.3).
248 21 Strawberry
Fig. 21.3 Top left,

strawberry crown revealing
discoloration; top right
,anthracnose lesion on
strawberry runner; bottom
left, blight symptoms on
flowers; bottom right,
infected fruit displaying
darkening sunken lesions
21.3.2.1.6 Fruit Rot ing to the strobilurin (Quadris and Cabrio) fungi-
Light-brown water-soaked spots on ripening fruit cides. In severe cases, replanting with clean stock
which develop into firm dark-brown or black may be necessary.
round lesions (Fig. 21.3). Fumigating soil may help to reduce soil inocu-
lum; solarizing soil may destroy soil inoculum;
21.3.2.2 Survival and Spread rotate to nonhost crops if fumigation or solariza-
Seedlings that are planted in infected soil become tion is not possible; wash all soil from plant
infected by splashing water and soil; fungus sur- crowns prior to planting; weed around plants
vives in soil for up to 9 months. regularly; plant only disease-free transplants; do
not use excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizer.
21.3.2.3 Management
Use anthracnose-free plants. Use of drip irriga-
tion and between row straw mulch will also help 21.3.3 Powdery Mildew,
to lessen the spread of disease within fields. Early Sphaerotheca macularis
season fruit with infections should be culled and
removed from fields. Anthracnose fruit rot may 21.3.3.1 Symptoms
be partly controlled with protective fungicide White patches of fungus occur on the undersides
applications from flower bud emergence to of leaves. These patches can gradually enlarge
harvest. until entire lower surfaces are covered. The dis-
Washing roots with running water prior to ease causes the leaf edges to roll upward, expos-
planting can remove conidia and appressoria of ing the whitened, fungus-covered lower surfaces.
the pathogen. Dipping plants in Quadris may Purple to reddish blotches can also appear on the
reduce the severity of the disease. Quadris, undersides. Occasionally, leaf petioles, flowers,
Cabrio, Switch, and captan provide fair to good and fruits may also be attacked by the powdery
control, although resistance seems to be develop- mildew fungus (Fig. 21.4).
21.3 Diseases 249
Fig. 21.4 Powdery

mildew symptoms on
lower surface of strawberry
leaf and fruit
21.3.3.2 Survival and Spread the field. Potassium bicarbonate works well but
Fungus overwinters on leaves; spores are spread requires multiple applications and cannot be
by wind. mixed with other pesticides or fertilizers. Mono
potassium phosphate (MKP) works fairly well
21.3.3.3 Management against powdery mildew disease.
Because the powdery mildew fungus apparently
survives the winter on living leaves, removing
leaves that appear infected before flowering 21.3.4 Red Stele, Phytophthora
begins may help reduce disease severity. Many fragariae
widely available commercial cultivars are highly
resistant to powdery mildew. Applying fungicides 21.3.4.1 Symptoms
(e.g., sulfur) at regular intervals from the early Symptoms typically appear a year after planting.
flowering period through the growing season also However, when plants are severely infected
can control the disease and limits its carryover before being planted or where soil conditions
from one growing season to the next. However, strongly favor the disease, symptoms can appear
use of fungicides to control powdery mildew on during the first growing season.
the foliage has not significantly increased yields, Plants with severely infected root systems are
even for highly susceptible cultivars. often stunted in aboveground growth (Fig. 21.5).
Avoid overhead irrigation; remove dead leaves Young leaves may sometimes be bluish green and
at harvest to decrease overwintering of the older leaves may be red, orange, or yellow. Less
mycelium. severely infected plants may show no aboveg-
A biological control agent for powdery mil- round symptoms except reduction in growth rate,
dew is commercially available: Ampelomyces production of runners, and size of fruit.
quisqualis (AQ10), a biofungicide which is a Symptomatic plants tend to be distributed in
selective fungal hyperparasite, works well early irregular patches and the disease is often most
in the season but is less effective in inland grow- severe where the soil is wettest.
ing regions. It works well only under low-to- The soilborne fungus that causes red stele
moderate disease pressures and normally requires attacks the roots. Young roots rot first at the tip.
multiple applications. Other non-fungicidal Above the tip, the stele turns red (Fig. 21.5). As the
materials such as potash soap and chitosan disease progresses the lateral roots are killed, giv-
(Elexa) are available but have only limited effi- ing the main roots a “rattail” appearance (Fig.
cacy. Abound, applied early, provides good dis- 21.5). Eventually the crowns may also take on a
ease control but is very expensive and may stunt red discoloration. The fungus reduces future pro-
plants. Captan provides only poor to fair control ductivity of plants most when soils are wet follow-
of powdery mildew. Rally works fairly well on ing the fruiting period, because new adventitious
powdery mildew, although there is resistance in roots are normally produced at this time.
250 21 Strawberry
Fig. 21.5 Top left, stunted

infected strawberry plants;
top right, strawberry roots
infected with red stele;
bottom, strawberry roots
showing red stele
symptoms
21.3.4.2 Survival and Spread In warmer areas, solarization has been shown
The pathogen can survive in cuttings and spread to be effective for the control of soilborne patho-
to new plants, disease emergence favored by wet gens and weeds. Solarization is carried out after
or moist soils and cool, wet weather conditions; the beds are formed and can be effective if
younger plants generally show more damage to weather conditions are ideal (30–45 days of hot
roots. The fungus thrives well in damp condi- weather that promotes soil temperatures of at
tions; hence, plants should be grown in well- least 122 °F). The effectiveness of solarization
drained soil or raised beds. can be increased by incorporating the cruciferous
crop residue (in particular broccoli or mustards)
21.3.4.3 Management into the soil or application of Metam sodium (40
Improving soil drainage and reducing soil com- gal/acre) before solarization.
paction will help to control red stele. Planting Only resistant cvs should be planted in a field
material that has been tested and certified free of where red stele is known to have caused losses
the red stele fungus should be used. Applying within the last 5–10 years. Resistant cvs include
appropriate soil fungicides after the fruiting Allstar, Earliglow, Guardian, Midway, Redchief,
period ends can protect the development of new Scott, Sparkle, and Surecrop and the day-neutral
roots during the post-fruiting period. cvs Tribute and Tristar.
Cultural control of the fungus includes locat-
ing strawberry fields on well-drained soil, using
raised beds to provide optimum drainage, and 21.3.5 Verticillium Wilt, Verticillium
using less susceptible cultivars. Using drip irriga- dahliae
tion and managing irrigation schedules to mini-
mize soil saturation near plant crowns are key 21.3.5.1 Symptoms
methods to reduce losses from this pathogen. Plants are most severely infected during the first
Aliette and Ridomil Gold also provide good con- year after planting. The outer leaves show inter-
trol of these diseases, although there is resistance veinal browning and ultimately collapse
to these materials. (Fig. 21.6). Inner leaves are stunted but remain
21.3 Diseases 251

Verticillium wilt on
strawberry
green until the plant dies. Initial symptoms Biofumigation is another soil treatment that
appear rapidly in late spring, especially in con- can reduce Verticillium numbers in the soil.
junction with periods of environmental stress, Broccoli crop residues release chemicals that
such as drought and/or onset of high tempera- both directly reduce Verticillium propagules and
tures. Symptoms may continue through summer affect the soil microbial diversity, which can sup-
and fall, although disease spread from plant to press the pathogen. While mustards and other
plant during a growing season is probably mini- cruciferous plants show similar effects, broccoli
mal. The disease may affect plants in clusters of appears to be one of the best choices for this soil
varying size, with healthy plants and diseased biofumigation treatment. A crop rotation that
ones often interspersed. includes broccoli will have the same suppressive
effect, since the harvested broccoli florets are not
21.3.5.2 Favorable Conditions needed for biofumigation to take place.
Cool, overcast weather interspersed with warm, Rotations with broccoli and/or Brussels
bright days is most favorable for the development sprouts followed by incorporation of the crop
of Verticillium wilt. Infection and disease devel- residue for 2 years prior to planting strawberry
opment may occur when soil temperature is from resulted in reduced disease incidence.
21 °C to 24 °C. Satisfactory chemical control has been
obtained by preplant soil fumigation or by pre-
21.3.5.3 Management plant soil drenches with several types of
Remove the plant and its surrounding soil imme- compounds.
diately when the symptoms are spotted. Crop
rotation helps to avoid this problem, as does
never planting strawberries in the same soil twice 21.3.6 Leaf Scorch, Diplocarpon
nor growing them on sites on which potatoes, earlianum
tomatoes, or chrysanthemums have been
cultivated. 21.3.6.1 Symptoms
A number of cultivars are moderately to highly The earlier symptom is the appearance of numer-
resistant to Verticillium wilt. The following June ous small, 1–5-mm diameter, purplish, irregu-
bearing varieties are reported to be resistant to larly shaped blotches on leaves (Fig. 21.7). The
Verticillium wilt: Allstar, Catskill, Delite, centers of these blotches become brownish, not
Earliglow, Guardian, Lester, Redchief, Scott, white or gray as in common leaf spot. When
Sunrise, Surecrop, and Tennessee Beauty. The blotches are numerous they will coalesce, and the
everbearing varieties, Tribute and Tristar, are also entire leaf blade turns purplish or reddish. These
reported to be resistant. discolored leaves later dry up and their margins
252 21 Strawberry
new runners are produced. Use renovation to

maintain narrow beds.
• Renovate strawberry beds every year after
harvest. Following renovation, rake and
remove old leaves.
• Irrigate through drip irrigation or a soaker
hose. If overhead sprinkling is your only
option, water early in the morning on a sunny
day so leaves dry quickly after irrigation.
• Apply nitrogen fertilizers after renovation.
Avoid early spring applications of nitrogen
which encourage overly lush growth which
reduces air flow promoting a moist microcli-
mate in the canopy that is optimal for the
growth of leaf scorch.
Fig. 21.7 Advanced scorch symptoms on strawberry
leaves
• Choose disease-resistant cultivars suitable for
your location.
• Plant only disease-free plants purchased from
curl up, giving a scorched or burned appearance. reliable nurseries.
When conditions are particularly favorable for • Remove older or infected leaves before setting
disease development, plants of susceptible culti- runners in new plantings.
vars can become seriously weakened and defoli- • Removing and burning all debris at renovation
ated by late summer. In such situations, disease (after harvest) helps to reduce overwintering
symptoms can appear on petioles, fruit pedun- inoculum of leaf pathogens.
cles, pedicels, calyxes, flowers, and fruits as well • Follow a fungicide spray schedule recom-
as leaves. Scorched calyxes (“dead cap” or “dead mended for control of leaf diseases and fruit
burr”) can cause fruit to receive a lower market rots to aid in control. Thoroughly cover all
grade. Furthermore, leaf scorch can become pro- aboveground plant parts with spray, especially
gressively more damaging to perennial plantings undersides of leaves.
of susceptible cultivars each year; yields may be
severely reduced by the second year after the dis-
ease initially appeared. Disease emergence is
favored by wet foliage for extended periods of 21.3.7 Angular Leaf Spot,
time. Xanthomonas fragariae
21.3.6.2 Management 21.3.7.1 Symptoms

Very small water-soaked lesions on lower sur-
• Choose sites with full sun and good soil drain- faces of leaves which enlarge to form dark-green
age and air circulation. This fungus requires or translucent angular spots which ooze bacteria;
long periods of continuous wetness to infect lesions may coalesce to form reddish spots with a
plants; thus, any practice that promotes quick chlorotic halo (Fig. 21.8).
drying of leaves and fruit will reduce disease.
• Remove weeds to improve air circulation 21.3.7.2 Survival and Spread
around plants. The bacterium survives in crop debris and over-
• Plant in rows or narrow beds, no wider than wintering plants and can survive for long periods
12–18 in., to promote good air movement in on plant debris but cannot live free in soil; bacte-
and around plants. Patches grow with time as ria can be spread by splashing water.
21.3 Diseases 253
21.3.7.3 Management
Use only certified planting stock; rotate crops
and avoid overhead irrigation, chemical controls
generally ineffective. Preventive, weekly applica-
tions of copper fungicides at 0.3 lb of metallic
copper per acre (such as copper hydroxide, cop-
per oxychloride, basic copper sulfate, cuprous
oxide) were effective in reducing disease symp-
toms without phytotoxicity to the plants.
Some of the common diseases of strawberry
and their symptoms and management are pre-
sented in Table 21.1.
Commonly grown disease-resistant straw-
Fig. 21.8 Angular leaf spot lesions on strawberry leaf berry cultivars are presented in Table 21.2.
Table 21.1 Strawberry fruit rot diseases and their management

Disease Symptoms on berry Cultural control Chemical control
Gray mold fruit Turns light brown; no sharp border with Space plants properly. Spray with mix of
rot healthy tissue. Becomes covered by Avoid fertilizing in systemic and protectant
velvety gray growth spring. Mulch. Minimize fungicides from bloom
cultivation until harvest until harvest
Anthracnose Tan to light-brown lesions; become Mulch. Remove plant Spray protective
fruit rots (black circular, tan to dark brown, compact, debris. Plant resistant fungicides from bloom
spots) shrunken. Pink to buff spore masses in cultivars until harvest
humid weather. Attack ripe or green
fruits
Rhizopus rot Gradually turns light brown. White, Cool fruit rapidly after Spray protectant
(leak) fluffy fungal growth with black spore harvest. Store fruit below broad-spectrum
bodies (pinhead size) in humid weather. 43 °F fungicides or mixtures
Rapid softening, collapse, leakage during ripening
Rhizoctonia Soil adheres to infected area. Infected Mulch Protectant fungicides
fruit rot (hard area brown. Only ripe berries are when disease appears on
rot) attacked. Rot occurs on the side of fruit fruits grown through
touching soil plastic mulch
Powdery Immature berries won’t ripen. Ripe Resistant cultivars. Plant Protectant and systemic
mildew berries – white fungal growth on the in areas with full sun and fungicides during
surface. Attacks blossoms and leaves good air circulation growing season in places
also where powdery mildew
is a problem
Stem-end rot Discoloration at calyx end; distinct line Resistant cultivars. Field Spray as for gray mold
between healthy and diseased tissue. cleanup at renovation fruit rot
Small green fruits – don’t ripen, time (weeds favor this
browning. Large green fruits – pale red disease)
or brownish. Ripe fruits – little color
change. Soft, watery fruits
Leather rot Dull, lifeless green fruits – infected Mulch Mixture of systemic and
areas brown to dark brown. Maturing protectant fungicides
fruits – infected areas bleached to light
purple. Infected areas tough; edges
slightly softened. Bitter taste
254 21 Strawberry
Table 21.2 Disease-resistant strawberry cultivars commonly grown in Illinois

Reaction of strawberry cultivars to different diseasesa
Cultivar Red stele Verticillium wilt Leaf spot Leaf scorch Powdery mildew
Allstar VRa R R R R
Canoga I I R R –
Cardinal S S R R R
Catskill S VR S R R
Delite Rb R R S-R S
Earliglow Rb T-R S-R R I
Guardian Rb T-R S-R R S-R
Honeoye S S R R –
Jewel S S R R –
Lester R R R R R
Midway Rb S-I S S I
Pocahontas S S S-R S-I R
Raritan S S S S S
Redchief Rb R S-R R S-R
Scott R S-R S-R R R
Sparkle S-R S S S-I R
Sunrise Rb R VS R R
Surecrop Rb VR S-R S-R –
Tennessee Beauty S R R S-R S
Everbearing
Tribute VR T-R T T R
Tristar R R T T R
a
VS very susceptible, S susceptible, I intermediate, T tolerant, R resistant, VR very resistant, − unknown. Resistant char-
acteristics of the cultivar usually preclude the need for other controls
b
Resistant to several races of the red stele fungus
21.4 Insect and Mite Pests The most common insect and mite pests and
the damage symptoms are as follows.
Several insects injure strawberries either directly
by attacking the fruit or indirectly by reducing
plant vigor. Unless control measures are fol- 21.4.1 Spider Mites, Tetranychus
lowed, damage may be severe enough to drasti- urticae, and T. turkestani
cally reduce yields and fruit quality. Insect and
mite pressure varies according to location and 21.4.1.1 Symptoms
season. While the single most serious pest of The two-spotted spider mite (Fig. 21.9), a key
strawberries is the two-spotted spider mite, army- pest of strawberries in all California growing
worms, aphids, and whiteflies can also cause con- areas, expresses its damage as stippling, scarring,
cern during this stage of strawberry development. and bronzing of the leaves and calyx. Foliage
Some general predators, such as big-eyed bugs, develops yellow flecking and mottling and fine
minute pirate bugs, damsel bugs, spiders, and webbing between leaves. The other symptoms
ladybird beetles, provide limited biological con- include webbing covering leaves; mites may be
trol of these pests. visible as tiny moving dots on the webs or
21.4 Insect and Mite Pests 255
Fig. 21.10 Spider mite predators
lacewings (Chrysopa spp.); six-spotted thrips

(Scolothrips sexmaculatus); damsel bugs (Nabis
spp.); a cecidomyiid fly maggot (Feltiella aca-
risuga); and a predaceous midge.
Fig. 21.9 Spider mite on strawberry leaf
Horticultural oil kills by suffocation and is
effective against all stages of mites, including
underside of leaves, best viewed using a hand eggs. Some miticides are only active against the
lens, usually not spotted until there are visible mobile stages of mites. These would include
symptoms on the plant; leaves turn yellow and Dicofol (Kelthane), abamectin (Agri-Mek),
may drop from plant. Bifenazate (Acramite), and Vendex (Fenbutatin-
oxide). Hexythiazox (Savey) and similar miti-
21.4.1.2 Survival cides not yet registered for use in strawberries
Spider mites thrive in dusty conditions; water- kill the mite eggs and some of the hexapod
stressed plants are more susceptible to attack. nymphs and sterilize adult females.
The following chemicals also give effective
21.4.1.3 Management control of spider mites:
Spraying plants with a strong jet of water can
help reduce buildup of spider mite populations; if • Agri-Mek is a fairly effective miticide.
mites become problematic, apply insecticidal • Savey, an ovicide, provides very good control
soap to plants; chemical insecticides may actu- of eggs and is a good tool for IPM programs.
ally increase mite populations by killing off natu- • Acramite is also a good material for use in
ral enemies and promoting mite reproduction. IPM.
Conserve or release natural enemies like pred- • Brigade and Danitol provide good mite
atory mites. Biological control agent Phytoseiulus control.
persimilis (Fig. 21.10) gives effective control of • Bifenthrin, plant oils, and fatty acids make a
spider mites if introduced early. It is a specialist good alternative.
predator and is effective early in the season.
Neoseiulus californicus (Fig. 21.10), which toler-
ates warmer temperatures and a wide range of
humidities, is a generalist predator and a predom- 21.4.2 Armyworm, Spodoptera
inant species later in the season. There are several exigua
other natural enemies like minute pirate bug
(Orius tristicolor); a small, black lady beetle 21.4.2.1 Symptoms
(Stethorus spp.); a small, black rove beetle The greatest damage from beet armyworm occurs
(Oligota oviformis); big-eyed bugs (Geocoris to summer- and fall-planted strawberries. Egg
spp.); brown lacewings (Hemerobius spp.), green clusters of 50–150 eggs may be present on the
256 21 Strawberry
21.4.3 Aphids (Peach Aphid, Potato

Aphid, Melon Aphid,
and Strawberry Aphid), Myzus
persicae, Macrosiphon
euphorbiae, Aphis gossypii,
and Chaetosiphon fragaefolii
21.4.3.1 Symptoms
Ahids are small soft-bodied insects on the under-
side of leaves and/or stems of plant, usually green
or yellow in color (Fig. 21.12) but may be pink,
Fig. 21.11 Beet armyworm larva
brown, red, or black depending on species and
host plant. Heavy aphid infestation cause leaves
to turn yellow and/or distorted and have necrotic
leaves; egg clusters are covered in a whitish scale spots on leaves and/or stunted shoots. Aphids
which gives the cluster a cottony or fuzzy appear- secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honey-
ance. Newly hatched beet armyworms are foliage dew which encourages the growth of sooty mold
feeders, skeletonizing the upper or lower leaf sur- on the plants.
faces adjacent to their egg mass. Young larvae Aphids transmit several viruses which can be
feed on foliage before attacking fruit. Larger lar- very damaging to strawberry; the insects rarely
vae can attack the crowns of young plants and kill reach a high enough population to cause severe
them. Young larvae are pale green to yellow in damage directly, but the spread of viruses is a
color, while older larvae are generally darker major concern in strawberry production.
green with a dark and light line running along the
side of their body and a pink or yellow underside 21.4.3.2 Management
(Fig. 21.11). If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves
or shoots, then the infestation can be pruned out
21.4.2.2 Biology to provide control; check transplants for aphids
An insect can go through 3–5 generations a before planting; use tolerant varieties if available;
year. reflective mulches such as silver-colored plastic
can deter aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy
21.4.2.3 Management plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to
Weed control in and near the field minimizes knock aphids from leaves; insecticides are gener-
armyworm populations because the adult moths ally only required to treat aphids if the infestation
are attracted to weeds for egg laying. Organic is very high – plants generally tolerate low- and
methods of controlling armyworms include bio- medium-level infestation; insecticidal soaps or
logical control by natural enemies which parasit- oils such as neem or canola oil are usually the
ize the larvae and the application of Bacillus best method of control.
thuringiensis. Biological control is provided by Cultural controls for aphids include row cov-
the ichneumonid parasite, Hyposoter exiguae, ers and dust reduction in and around fields.
and armyworms often become diseased with a Removing weeds in strawberry and nearby fields
virus that can cause high mortality. that harbor aphids also will help to manage
Lorsban provides fair to good control of worm populations.
pests in strawberries and has only a moderate Biological and natural control of aphids is
effect on beneficial insect and mite species. accomplished using parasitic wasps, lacewings
Lannate provides excellent control of cutworms (especially nymphs), big-eyed bugs, minute
and beet armyworms, and Brigade and Danitol pirate bugs, damsel bugs, and ladybugs; ladybugs
also provide good worm control. are often released into fields to control aphids. In
Fig. 21.12 Strawberry aphid

Fig. 21.13 High numbers of greenhouse whitefly on
strawberry leaf
some circumstances biological control is suffi-
ciently effective to provide an economically via-
ble alternative. Thus, growers should monitor
aphid populations and avoid applications of means. For example, multiple-year plantings
insecticides/miticides that will destroy natural should be avoided in areas where whiteflies are
enemies. especially problematic, and hosts which are no
When aphid pest pressure reaches a trigger longer being harvested should be destroyed
level (sometimes when 30 % of young trifoliate before new strawberry plantings are established.
leaves are infested), chemical treatments are Trap crops have proven only marginally effective
made. Diazinon, malathion, and Lorsban, all and can even serve as bridge hosts; the use of
organophosphate insecticides, provide only fair sticky tapes as a control measure is not very
control of aphids. Azadirachtin works only fairly effective. Released parasitic wasps are costly and
well, requires multiple applications, and is very few survive in strawberry fields.
expensive. Admire provides moderately good control of
whiteflies. Lannate provides fair control of adult
whiteflies, but coverage is an issue since this is a
21.4.4 Whiteflies, Trialeurodes contact insecticide. Danitol in combination with
vaporariorum malathion provides only fair control of adult
whiteflies, and only a limited number of applica-
21.4.4.1 Symptoms tions may be made; also, these materials are
Whiteflies are always present in strawberry fields harsh on beneficials.
(their occurrence has become more widespread
in the past few years for unknown reasons) (Fig.
21.13). Whiteflies suck plant juices and, at high 21.4.5 Japanese Beetle, Popillia
population levels, can excrete large amounts of japonica
honeydew on which a sooty mold fungus grows.
Occasionally populations build up to damaging 21.4.5.1 Symptoms
numbers causing economic loss. Leaves skeletonized (only veins remaining);
flowers and buds damaged; plant damage may be
21.4.4.2 Management extensive; adult insect is a metallic green-bronze
An area-wide approach to whitefly management beetle with tufts of white hair protruding from
is essential for control because of the broad host underwing covers on each side of the body; adult
range and overlapping of crop host cycles. This beetles are approximately 13 mm in length; lar-
approach involves breaking the continuous gen- vae are cream-white grubs which develop in the
eration cycles of this pest by cultural or chemical soil (Fig. 21.14).
258 21 Strawberry
Fig. 21.14 Japanese beetle damage on strawberry leaf Fig. 21.15 Cabbage looper damage
21.4.5.2 Biology
One beetle generation every 1–2 years; phero- 21.4.6.2 Management
mone traps may actually attract more beetles to Looper populations are usually held in check by
home gardens and should generally be avoided; a natural enemies; if they do become problematic,
beetle overwinters as larvae in soil; a beetle has larvae can be handpicked from the plants.
an extensive range of over 300 host plants. Loopers are commonly controlled by parasitic
wasps Hyposoter exiguae, Copidosoma trun-
21.4.5.3 Management catellum, and Trichogramma spp. and by out-
If beetles were a problem in the previous year, breaks of nuclear polyhedrosis virus.
use floating row covers to protect plants or spray An organically acceptable control method is
kaolin clay; adult beetles can be handpicked from the application of Bacillus thuringiensis which
plants and destroyed by placing in soapy water; effectively kills younger larvae. Chemical sprays
parasitic nematodes can be applied to soil to may damage populations of natural enemies and
reduce the number of overwintering grubs; insec- should be selected carefully.
ticidal soaps or neem oil can help reduce beetle
populations.
21.4.7 Thrips (Western Flower
Thrips), Frankliniella
21.4.6 Loopers (Cabbage Looper), occidentalis
Trichoplusia ni
21.4.7.1 Symptoms
21.4.6.1 Symptoms Thrips feeding on strawberry blossoms causes
Young larvae feed primarily on the undersides of the stigmas and anthers to turn brown and wither
leaves, skeletonizing them. High populations can prematurely, but not before fertilization has
damage fruit but this is very uncommon. Large or occurred. As fruit develops, thrips feeding may
small holes in leaves; damage often extensive; cause a russeting (type I bronzing) of the fruit
caterpillars are pale green with white lines run- around the cap, but this injury is seldom eco-
ning down on either side of their body; caterpil- nomic. Damage to strawberry flowers, including
lars are easily distinguished by the way they arch browning of anthers and stigmas; insects may be
their body when moving (Fig. 21.15); eggs are numerous on fruit and may cause bronzing
laid singly, usually on the lower leaf surface close around the cap; the insect is small (1.5 mm) and
to the leaf margin, and are white or pale green in slender and best viewed using a hand lens; adult
color. Insects overwinter as pupae in crop debris thrips are pale yellow to light brown and the
in soil; an adult insect is a dark-colored moth; nymphs are smaller and lighter in color (Fig.
caterpillars have a wide host range. 21.16).
21.4.8.2 Management
Keep strawberry beds free of weeds and grass;
avoid planting close to woodland or blackberry
or elderberry which may harbor weevil popula-
tions; pesticide sprays or dusts which contain
pyrethroids are effective at controlling strawberry
weevils. Apply chemical control Acetamiprid or
Thiacloprid as a liquid drench applied to the
Fig. 21.16 Western flower thrips
compost or the biological control, nematode
Steinernema kraussei.
21.4.7.2 Survival and Spread

Thrips populations build up in spring on weeds 21.4.9 Slugs, Arion hortensis,
and a number of crops and migrate to strawber- and Deroceras reticulatum
ries when crops are harvested or when weeds dry
up. 21.4.9.1 Symptoms
Slugs feed on ripe fruit and produce rough holes
21.4.7.3 Management that render the fruit unmarketable. Slugs also
Avoid planting next to onions, garlic, or cereals feed on the leaves of strawberries, and the effects
where very large numbers of thrips can build up; of the rasping feeding are ragged holes in the
use reflective mulches early in growing season to leaves. Irregularly shaped holes in leaves and
deter thrips; apply appropriate insecticide if stems; rough holes in ripe fruit (Fig. 21.18); if
thrips become problematic. infestation is severe, leaves may be shredded;
Naturally occurring minute pirate bugs (Orius slime trails present on rocks, walkways, soil, and
spp.) feed on thrips. Orius spp. are also available plant foliage; several slug and snail species are
commercially. common garden pests; slugs are dark gray to
black in color and can range in sizes from 2.5 cm
to 10 cm. Slugs prefer moist, shaded habitats and
21.4.8 Weevils (Strawberry Root will shelter in weeds or organic trash; adults may
Weevil, Rough Strawberry deposit eggs in the soil throughout the season;
Root Weevil, and Black Vine damage to plants can be extensive.
Weevil), Otiorhynchus spp.
21.4.9.2 Management
21.4.8.1 Symptoms Practice good garden sanitation by removing gar-
Adult vine weevils eat notches in the edges of den trash, weeds, and plant debris to promote
leaves, while plump, creamy white larvae with good air circulation and reduce moist habitat for
brown heads cause more damage to the roots, on slugs; handpick slugs at night to decrease popula-
which they feed. This can kill the plants. Plants tion; spread wood ashes or eggshells around
are stunted and dark in color with closely bunched plants; attract mollusks by leaving out organic
leaves. An adult insect is a snot-nosed beetle matter such as lettuce or grapefruit skins, destroy
which can vary in color from dark to light brown any found feeding on lure; sink shallow dishes
depending on species; larvae are cream-white- filled with beer into the soil to attract and drown
colored grubs which feed on roots below ground the mollusks; chemical controls include ferrous
(Fig. 21.17). Damage within a field usually phosphate for organic gardens and metaldehyde
affects a circle of plants; weevil attack is sporadic (e.g., Bug-Geta) and carbaryl (e.g., Sevin bait)
and can be very damaging. for nonorganic growers.
260 21 Strawberry
Fig. 21.17 Rough

strawberry grub and weevil
Fig. 21.18 A common

garden slug
Tomato
22
Abstract
Improved flavor and shelf life are the driving force for the increased
demand for greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Greenhouse tomatoes are har-
vested and marketed over a 30-week period. The major insect and mite
pests (whitefly, serpentine leaf miner, red spider mite, tobacco caterpillar,
thrips, fruit borer) and diseases (early blight, late blight, gray mold, leaf
mold, powdery mildew, leaf spot, root rots, bacterial canker, soft rots, pith
necrosis, bacterial speck, bacterial spot, tobacco mosaic virus, tomato
mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic virus, tomato yellow leaf curl virus,
tomato spotted wilt virus) and root-knot nematodes and their symptoms,
biology, spread, survival, and management are discussed.
Keywords
Tomato • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Spread • Biology •
Management
22.1 Introduction 22.2 Varieties
Productivity of tomato in greenhouse (Fig. 22.1) Some of indeterminate elite varieties/hybrids

is increased manifold in comparison to open field which have performed exceedingly under
(Tables 22.1 and 22.2). Improved flavor and shelf low- cost greenhouses are DARL-303, HT-6
life are the driving force for the increased demand Sun- 7611, NS-1237, Naveen, NS-4130,
for greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Consumers love Abiman, COTH-1, NDT-5, NDT-120, Pusa
the taste of a fresh tomato, and they are willing to Divya, Meenakshi, Himsona, Badshah,
pay a premium price, especially in the winter. Vaishali and Lakshmi. Two varieties are suit-
Unlike field-grown tomatoes which require har- able for greenhouse conditions developed
vesting and marketing over a short period of time from Pantnagar, viz., Pant polyhouse bred
(3–4 weeks), greenhouse tomatoes are harvested tomato-2 and Pant polyhouse hybrid
and marketed over a 30-week period. tomato-1.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_22
262 22 Tomato
22.3 Insect and Mite Pests • Remove the leaf curl-infested plants as soon
as disease symptoms are expressed. This helps
22.3.1 Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci in reducing the source of inoculum of the
disease.
22.3.1.1 Symptoms • After transplanting give need-based sprays of
Whitefly infesting vegetables under greenhouse imidacloprid 200 SL (0.3 ml/L) or thiameth-
conditions is a vector of tomato leaf curl virus oxam 25 WP (0.3 g/L) at 15 days after
(Fig. 22.2). Adults and nymphs suck the sap from planting, and do not repeat after fruiting stage
leaves resulting in curling of leaves (Fig. 22.2). If as this may leave harmful residues in fruits.
the infestation is severe, sooty mold develops on • Install yellow sticky traps coated with adhe-
the leaves due to excretion of honeydew by the sive or sticky glue at crop canopy level for
whitefly, which reduces the photosynthetic activ- monitoring adult whitefly population.
ity of the plant and yield gets reduced drastically. • If the traps indicate the whitefly activity, spray
dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or neem seed ker-
22.3.1.2 Management nel extract 4 % (NSKE) or pongamia or neem
oil (8–10 ml/L) or neem soap (10 g/L).
• Raise the seedlings in polyhouse using plastic • Inoculative releases of parasitic wasp Encarsia
seedling trays. formosa and Eretmocerus eremicus have been
• Spray imidacloprid 200 SL (0.3 ml/L) or thia- used successfully to control greenhouse
methoxam 25 WP (0.3 g/L) in nursery at 15 whitefly. Delphastus pusillus is a small beetle
days after sowing. that feeds on whitefly eggs and is ideal for
• Drench the base of the seedlings with imida- complementing Encarsia and Eretmocerus
cloprid 200 SL (0.3 ml/L) or thiamethoxam 25 (Portree 1996).
WP (0.3 g/L) before transplanting.
22.3.2 Serpentine Leaf Miner,

Liriomyza trifolii
22.3.2.1 Symptoms
Serpentine leaf miner is a tiny metallic fly with a
characteristic yellow patch behind the compound
eye. Damage starts in nursery itself. Initially the
adult female punctures the developing leaf and
feeds on the oozing sap. Larvae mine leaves in a
serpentine manner (Fig. 22.3) and on pupation
they drop to soil. Severe damage leads to drying
and dropping of leaves.
Fig. 22.1 Tomato under protected cultivation
Table 22.1 Performance of tomato varieties under polyhouse and open-field conditions in NEH region (Barapani)
Polyhouse yield Open-field yield Polyhouse yield Open-field
Varieties (t/ha) (t/ha) Varieties (t/ha) yield (t/ha)
BT-117-5-3-1 34.200 11.500 Selection-2 23.300 7.383
KT-10 28.360 11.740 Selection-1 20.098 8.403
BT-10 29.400 11.165 KT-15 21.160 5.165
Arka Alok 26.000 5.790 H-24 14.317 5.875
BT-12 30.240 10.100 Arka Abha 19.350 7.033
Table 22.2 Yield of tomato under greenhouse at differ- 22.3.4 Tobacco Caterpillar,
ent locations in India
Spodoptera litura
Location Yield (t/ha)
Pune 124 22.3.4.1 Symptoms
Coimbatore 186 This pest is also important in ill-managed poly-
Bangalore 152 houses. Eggs are laid in clusters on foliage.
Solan 95 Young larvae feed gregariously on leaves. Mature
Hisar 211 larvae migrate and cause extensive damage to
leaves and fruits. They hide in soil and crop
debris during daytime.
22.3.2.2 Management
22.3.4.2 Management
• Apply neem cake at 250 kg/ha to beds while
planting and repeat after 25 days to prevent • Collection and destruction of egg masses and
pupal emergence from soil. gregarious larvae.
• Spray neem seed powder extract (4 %) or • Spray Spodoptera NPV 250 LE/ha + 1 % jaggery
neem soap 1 %. along with sticker (0.5 ml/L) during evenings.
• Frequent spraying of synthetic pesticides • Use poison baiting. Mix 10 kg of rice bran or
should be avoided as it may cause resurgence wheat bran with 2-kg jaggery by adding a lit-
of the pest. At the most, one spray of deltame- tle water in the morning. In the evening add
thrin 2.8 EC at 1 ml/L or cypermethrin 25 EC 250 g of methomyl or thiodicarb formulation
at 0.5 ml/L or triazophos 40 EC at 2 ml/L may and sprinkle over the bed. Caterpillars get
be given if required. attracted to fermenting jaggery, feed, and get
killed (Fig. 22.5).
22.3.3 Fruit Borer, Helicoverpa 22.3.5 Thrips, Frankliniella

armigera occidentalis, and Thrips tabaci
22.3.3.1 Symptoms There are two species of thrips that are common
This is a major problem in improperly main- pests in greenhouse vegetable crops, the western
tained polyhouses. Eggs are laid on young leaves. flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) and the
Initially larvae feed on tender leaves and scrape onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) (Howard et al. 1994;
the leaf surface; later they bore into fruits (Fig. Portree 1996).
22.4). Generally the posterior end of the body
remains outside the hole. The damaged fruits 22.3.5.1 Symptoms
become unmarketable. Thrips (Fig. 22.6) feed by opening wounds on the
plant surface and sucking out the contents of the
22.3.3.2 Management plant cells; the feeding results in small whitish
streaks on the leaves and fruit and can cause dis-
• Spray HaNPV at 250 LE/ha + 1 % jaggery tortions in the young developing fruit (Howard
along with sticker (0.5 ml/L) during evenings et al. 1994; Portree 1996).
when the larvae are young. The adult thrips congregate in the flowers and
• For grown-up larvae spray indoxacarb 14.5 regular monitoring of the flowers will allow for
SC at 0.5 ml/L or thiodicarb 75 WP at the early detection of thrips. Yellow and/or blue
1 g/L. sticky traps placed throughout the crop, as with
264 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.2 Left – whiteflies

on tomato leaf. Right –
tomato leaf curl disease
vectored by whiteflies
In addition to causing direct feeding damage

and resultant yield loss, both thrips species are
vectors of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
which can be a serious disease problem in pep-
pers and tomatoes (Howard et al. 1994; Portree
1996). One of the main control measures for min-
imizing the spread and infection of TSWV within
the crop is to control the thrips vectors.
22.3.5.2 Management
There are a number of predators available for bio-
logical control of thrips: predatory mites
Fig. 22.3 Serpentine leaf miner damage on tomato leaves Amblyseius degenerans, A. cucumeris, Hypoaspis
miles, and H. aculeifer and predatory bugs, Orius
insidiosus, and other Orius species.
22.3.6 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus

urticae
22.3.6.1 Symptoms
Red spider mites are highly polyphagous. They
can cause serious damage by their fast multipli-
cation rate in a very short time. They thrive under
high temperature and dry weather. They are gen-
erally found on the lower surface of older leaves.
However, when the infestation is very high, they
Fig. 22.4 Tomato fruit borer damage attack all parts of the plant and are observed in
colonies covered by white-silky webs (Fig. 22.7).
the other insect pests, will help in the early detec- Adults and nymphs lacerate the leaves causing
tion of thrips infestations. Avoid using yellow yellowing and discoloration. Drying and drop-
traps if Aphidius spp. are being used for the con- ping of attacked leaves is also observed when the
trol of aphids in the crop. infestation is severe.
22.4 Diseases 265
like abamectin 1.9 EC at 0.5 ml/L or dicofol

18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/L or Fenazaquin 10 EC at 1
ml/L in rotation with plant products like
Pongamia oil or neem oil (8–10 ml/L) or neem
soap (10 g/L).
Note Botanicals have very short residual toxic-

ity, particularly when the temperature is high. In
addition, these may cause phytotoxicity. Hence,
sprays with botanicals should be done with cau-
tion and sprays to be given in the evenings when
the temperature is low.
Fig. 22.5 Dead tobacco caterpillar after baiting

22.3.7 Flow Chart for Insect Pest
Management
The calender of operations for integrated pest

management of tomato is presented in the flow
chart (Fig. 22.8).
22.4 Diseases
High humidity and warm temperatures are con-

Fig. 22.6 The western flower thrips
genial for disease development in greenhouse.
Common diseases of greenhouse tomato are as
follows:
22.4.1 Early Blight, Alternaria solani
22.4.1.1 Symptoms
Early blight of tomato is a common foliar disease
of tomato. This disease causes direct losses by
the infection of fruits and indirect losses by
reducing plant vigor.
A collar rot of the young plants before or after
transplanting may be the first symptom. In mature
plants small irregular brown spots, with or with-
out a yellow halo and concentric rings, appear
Fig. 22.7 Red spider mite damage on tomato leaves
mainly on leaves. Severely infected leaves are
ragged and senescent. Similar spots without a
22.3.6.2 Management yellow ring appear along the stem, leafstalks,
peduncles, and calyx. On fruits, brown to black
• Remove the mite-infested leaves and destroy spots with a leathery surface appear at the stem
before spraying. end (Fig. 22.9). Severely infected plants may be
• Spray need-based application of acaricides defoliated (Sherf and McNab 1986).
266 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.8 Flowchart for Raise seedlings in protrays in polyhouse

insect pest management in
tomato
15 DAP Spray the plants with imidacloprid or
thiomethoxam
One day before transplanting Drench the base of seedlings with imidacloprid or
thiomethoxam
At Transplanting Apply neem cake 250 kg /ha
15 DAT Spray the seedlings with imidacloprid or

thiomethoxam
25 DAP Apply Neem cake 250 kg /ha
Monitor for pests like fruit borer, tobacco

caterpillar, leaf miner, whitefly and red spider
mite.
Erect yellow sticky traps to monitor whitefly.
Spray NPV according to the pest.
Post flowering and fruiting stage Remove leaves severely infected with leaf
miner/red spider mite.
Spray neem seed powder/neem soap for leaf
miner.
Spray synthetic acaricide/botanical in rotation to
control red spider mite.
Spray systemic insecticide/botanical to control
whitefly.
22.4.1.2 Management • Soil drenching with Trichoderma culture at 2

The disease can be managed by spray of Bordeaux % before planting.
mixture (1:1:100). • Seedling treatment with Trichoderma culture
at 10 % for 15 min.
• Soil drenching with Bordeaux mixture
22.4.2 Late Blight, Phytophthora (1:1:100) after 15 days of planting.
infestans • Spray of Bordeaux mixture (1:1:100) at fort-
nightly interval after 1 month of planting.
22.4.2.1 Symptoms • In severe infection, application of Ridomil/
Late blight of tomato is the most devastating dis- Matko at 2 g/L manages the disease
ease. It infects and destroys the leaves, stems, and effectively.
fruits (Fig. 22.10). Its infection is most rapid dur-
ing conditions of high moisture and moderate
temperatures (20–25°C). 22.4.3 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea
22.4.2.2 Management 22.4.3.1 Symptoms

Gray mold is an important disease of tomato
• Nursery soil treatment with Trichoderma cul- and its infection occurs after flowering and fruit
ture at 2 %. set. In case of severe infection, flowers and
22.4 Diseases 267

early blight on tomato leaf
and fruit
Fig. 22.10 Symptoms of late blight on tomato leaves and fruits
pedicel start dying and in later stage fruits also new crop is from spores carried by wind coming
start rotting. The infection starts from the from host plants outside the greenhouse or spores
peduncle end and infected fruits are not suitable spread on air currents in the greenhouse.
for consumption. A light-gray fuzzy growth
appears on stems and leaves. Soft rot of the 22.4.3.3 Management
stem end of the fruit can also occur (Fig. 22.11). Increasing ventilation and air circulation to reduce
Gray mold is most severe in greenhouses with humidity levels can be helpful, as well as timely
moderate temperatures, high humidity, and fungicide applications. Spray Bordeaux mixture
stagnant air. Gray mold development is favored (1:1:100) after 1 month of planting. In case of
by cool and humid conditions. These condi- severe infestation, a spray of Kavach (chlorotha-
tions also stress the plants, making them sus- lonil) at 1.5 g/L minimizes the infection.
ceptible to disease. Plants should be supplied with adequate cal-
cium by liming acidic soils and maintaining uni-
22.4.3.2 Survival and Spread form soil moisture. A calcium-to-phosphorus
The gray mold fungus survives on plant debris ratio of 2:1 or higher in leaf petiole tissue
and in the soil. The source of contamination to a decreased plant susceptibility.
268 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.11 Gray mold

symptoms on tomato
22.4.4 Leaf Mold, Fulvia fulva Promote rapid drying of leaf foliage by avoiding
(Cladosporium fulvum) overhead irrigation and dense plantings. Planting
parallel to the prevailing wind direction can has-
22.4.4.1 Symptoms ten leaf drying and reduce leaf mold severity. In
This causes light-green to yellow spots on the greenhouse production, thoroughly sterilize pro-
upper surface of mature leaves in humid green- duction areas by steam to eliminate F. fulva.
houses with poor air circulation. Soon the sporu- Minimize wetting the foliage when irrigating
lating fungus growth appears as an olive-green tomatoes. Maintain night temperatures higher
velvety growth on the underside of the yellow than outside temperatures.
spots (Fig. 22.12). These leaves drop prematurely Fungicides (Captan, copper fungicides,
as the disease progresses upward on the plant. Famoxadone/cymoxanil) control leaf mold but
The pathogen survives for several months on the should be used in combination with as many cul-
greenhouse frame, on the materials used for crop- tural control strategies as possible to be most
ping, and in plant debris. It is disseminated by effective.
wind or splashed by waterdrops. The optimal
temperature for infection is 20–25 °C. If weather
conditions are favorable, leaf mold has several 22.4.5 Powdery Mildew, Oidium
cycles in a season and can destroy the crop neolycopersici
completely. There are several races of the patho-
gen (Jones et al. 1993). 22.4.5.1 Symptoms
It causes powdery white lesions on the adaxial
22.4.4.2 Spread and Survival tomato leaf surface (Fig. 22.13). The fungus can
Wind, splashing irrigation water and rain, work- also infect abaxial surfaces, petioles, and the
ers, tools, and insects readily disseminate spores. calyx but the fruit remains uninfected. Severe
Contaminated seed can also initiate epidemics. infections lead to leaf chlorosis, premature senes-
The pathogen survives between tomato crops in cence, and a marked reduction in fruit size and
and on crop residues and in the soil as spores quality. In severe outbreaks the lesions coalesce
(conidia) or dormant resting structures and the disease is debilitating.
(sclerotia).
22.4.5.2 Management
22.4.4.3 Management
Lowering greenhouse humidity, planting resis- • Increase air circulation and spacing between
tant varieties, and applying fungicide promptly plants.
can be helpful in leaf mold management. • Fungicide sprays also can be effective if used
Eliminate crop debris and culls by deep tillage when symptoms are first noticed. Effective
soon after harvest to reduce pathogen survival. active ingredients include benomyl, Bitertanol,
22.4 Diseases 269
22.4.6.2 Management
The disease can be managed by the application of
Bordeaux mixture (1:1:100).
22.4.7 Corky Root Rot, Pyrenochaeta

lycopersici
22.4.7.1 Symptoms
The pathogen damages mostly tomato but also
Fig. 22.12 Leaf mold symptoms on tomato eggplant, melon, etc. Initially tomato leaves turn
dull green and growth is stunted. Later, leaves
take on a bronze color and curl downward.
Necrosis of the leaflets follows. Young roots are
brown and poorly developed. Scattered lesions
appear on the surface of the larger roots which
become corky with cracks of different sizes (Fig.
22.14). Yield may be severely reduced.

The pathogen survives on the infected root
debris due to the presence of minute sclerotia. It
is a cool weather disease. In subtropical coun-
tries it progresses during the winter and plants
Fig. 22.13 Powdery mildew on tomato leaf
start to recover by early spring (Malathrakis
et al. 1983).
Bupirimate, carbendazim, Fenarimol, pyrazo-
phos, thiabendazole, Triforine, and various 22.4.7.3 Management
sulfur preparations. A compost with a low concentration of ammo-
• Foliar sprays of Sporothrix flocculosa reduce nium nitrogen and a high concentration of cal-
the development of O. neolycopersici on cium reduced corky root disease severity.
tomato in the glasshouse. Fungivorous nematodes (Aphelenchus
avenae) reduced corky root disease severity when
added to P. lycopersici-infested soil.
In greenhouse trials, bacterial antagonists
22.4.6 Cercospora Leaf Spot, such as Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces grami-
Cercospora sp. nofaciens have been found to effectively suppress
corky root disease of tomatoes and enhance plant
22.4.6.1 Symptoms growth, resulting in higher yields (Bochow
Infected leaf has brown spots with curled leaf 1989).
margin and later on, it withers. As the disease The commercial biofungicide Binab TF, based
progresses, the leaflets turn yellow and also with on the antagonists Trichoderma polysporum and
curled margins. Spots on the leaf petioles, stems, T. harzianum, is primarily used in the greenhouse
and flower parts become elongated and have to control soilborne fungal diseases in tomato.
dark-brown color. In heavily infested plant, defo- Another product, Mycostop, a commercial for-
liation may occur. mulation of the antagonist Streptomyces griseo-
270 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.14 Symptoms of corky root disease on tomato
viridis strain K61, has proven effective against

Fig. 22.15 Symptoms of crown and root rot on tomato
P. lycopersici when applied with irrigation water
(Minuto et al. 2006).
22.4.9 Bacterial Canker, Clavibacter
michiganensis ssp.
22.4.8 Crown and Root Rot, Fusarium michiganensis
oxysporum f. sp. (Corynebacterium
radicis-lycopersici michiganense ssp.
michiganense)
22.4.8.1 Symptoms
In plastic greenhouses, a yellowing of the lower 22.4.9.1 Symptoms
leaves appears in infected plants during late win- Initially, infected plants show a sudden unilateral
ter, when many fruits have already set. In severe wilting of leaflets, entire leaves, or shoots. Young
infections the whole plant becomes chlorotic and plants are more susceptible to wilting. Stem ves-
wilts (Fig. 22.15). A dry lesion up to 10 cm long sels at the side of the wilted leaves develop a
appears on part of or all around the collar. There yellow-brown discoloration. In the more severely
is a brown discoloration on the root system, pre- infected places, the cortex splits and several
dominantly at the end of the main root, the base centimeter-long cankers may develop. Such
of the stem, and the vascular region of the central plants usually die prematurely. Systemic infec-
root. A large number of microconidia, which dis- tion leads to yellow or brown discoloration of
seminate the pathogen, appear on the infected vascular strands and infected seeds are often
stem. The fungus survives by chlamydospores shriveled and black. Bird’s-eye spots, up to 6 mm
which develop in the soil. The disease is favored in diameter, often appear on fruits (Fig. 22.16).
by cool weather (Jarvis et al. 1983).
22.4.8.2 Management The pathogen is a typical seedborne organism. It
Plant growth promotion and antifungal activity of can also survive for several months on cultivation
Paenibacillus strains showed its suitability as equipment, on plant debris, and in the soil. It can
potential bio-inoculant agent. also maintain large populations on leaves of
Under greenhouse conditions, the fungicide tomato and other plant species. It may infect at
hymexazol reduces the percentage of dead plants 16–36 °C, with optimum at about 24–28 °C. It is
at 6.4 %. disseminated by seed or transplants, which
22.4 Diseases 271

bacterial canker on tomato
remain symptomless until transplanted. In green- 22.4.10 Soft Rots, Erwinia carotovora
houses, it spreads mostly during cultural prac- ssp. carotovora, E. carotovora
tices (Gleason et al. 1993). ssp. atroseptica
22.4.9.3 Management
In protected crops, strict hygiene measures such 22.4.10.1 Symptoms
as early detection, isolation, and eradication of Infected plants are stunted; their lower leaves
infected plants, destruction of crop residues, rins- show yellowing at the edges and on the veins and
ing hands/gloves and pruning tools with a disin- become flaccid. Initially the pith turns yellow to
fectant after working each row, and disinfection light brown, but later it disintegrates. The stem
of structures and equipment are essential to man- becomes hollow, splits, and may exude bacterial
age canker. slime. Brown to black blotches may also appear
Improved management of bacterial canker in along the stem and the leafstalks. A yellow to
tomato has been shown to be possible by the use light-brown discoloration usually appears along
of healthy seeds, seed treatment, appropriate cul- the vascular system (Fig. 22.17). Plants with
tural practices, chemical sprays where needed, severe stem rot may wilt and die, but very often
and hygiene and sanitation (Gleason et al. 1993). even plants with split stems survive and yield
A substantial reduction of infection can be normally. Plants with lush growth, grown under
achieved by acid extraction of seeds or treatment conditions of high RH, are more susceptible.
of seeds with acid or other disinfectants or hot Infection starts from leaf scars on the lower part
water (Dhanvantari 1994). of the stem but may also appear in plants which
Cultural practices such as deep plowing to have never been pruned (Malathrakis and
bury infected crop residue after harvest to accel- Goumas 1987).
erate decomposition and crop rotation away from
solanaceous crops for at least 2 years are recom- 22.4.10.2 Host Range
mended to reduce the incidence of canker The pathogen causes various rotting, necrotic,
(Gleason et al. 1991). Production of tomato and systemic diseases of several floral crops,
transplants in greenhouses planted in soilless such as chrysanthemum, cyclamen, and
medium in plastic trays has been found to be fea- Saintpaulia, in greenhouses.
sible and more reliable.
Chemical sprays with copper-containing com- 22.4.10.3 Spread
pounds have been found useful in reducing foliar The pathogen comes from affected stock plants
blight and fruit spotting (Shoemaker 1992). and is disseminated by cultural practices.
272 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.18 Symptoms of pith necrosis in tomato
Fig. 22.17 Symptoms of bacterial soft rot on tomato 22.4.12 Bacterial Speck,
stem Pseudomonas syringae pv.
tomato
22.4.10.4 Management
Infected plants should be discarded and knives 22.4.12.1 Symptoms
disinfected (Fletcher 1984). Avoid injuring Bacterial speck causes small dark-brown spots
plants. Disinfect hands and tools when pruning with bright yellow halo on tomato leaves.
tomato plants and wash contaminated clothing. Necrotic tissues tear off and leaves appear ragged.
Prevent the occurrence of insect wounds by con- Small dark-brown spots develop on stem and
trolling the pests. Planting should be taken up in petioles. Spots may coalesce to cause dark-
well-drained soil. brown–black blotches on the surface of the
infected plant parts. Small (up to 1 mm) black
spots also appear on the fruits (Fig. 22.19).
22.4.11 Pith Necrosis, Pseudomonas Severely infected leaves turn yellow and finally
viridiflava, P. corrugata, dry out. The pathogen survives on plant debris in
and P. cichorii the greenhouse or outdoors, as well as on seeds.

22.4.11.1 Symptoms The bacterium is seedborne and can survive in
Tomato pith necrosis affects mature tomato crop residue for up to 30 weeks. It spreads with
plants. Symptoms include a brown discoloration heavy rainfall, by mechanical means and through
and necrosis of the pith, which eventually leads seeds, especially under conditions of high humid-
to hollow chambers in the stem. The pith brown- ity and low temperature (18–24 °C). They are
ing usually extends far up the plant (Fig. 22.18). splashed from plant to plant by waterdrops from
Profuse adventitious roots are associated with the condensation and infect plants through stomata
stem where the pith is affected. Gray or dark- and injuries. Infection requires free water on
brown lesions may appear on the surface of the plant surfaces (Gitaitis et al. 1992).
stem. Affected plants may turn chlorotic and wilt.
22.4.11.2 Management Seed inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense
Tomato pith necrosis may be controlled by avoid- combined with a single streptomycin foliar treat-
ing excessive nitrogen rates. Copper hydroxide ment and two foliar bactericide applications at
was effective in disease reduction (66–72 %). five-day intervals (a third or less of the recom-
Plant activators resulted in disease reductions mended commercial dose) reduced disease sever-
ranging from 58 % for acibenzolar-S-methyl to ity in tomato seedlings by over 90 % after 4
20 % for harpin. weeks and significantly slowed disease develop-
22.4 Diseases 273
damaged from excessive exposure to the sun as a

result of defoliation. This can result in sunscald
on the fruit. Diseased leaves drop prematurely
resulting in extensive defoliation. As newly
emerging leaves become infected and defoliation
of older, diseased leaves continues, plants pos-
sess leaves mostly on their upper stems. Because
the diseased foliage often remains on tomato
plants, affected plants may have a scorched
appearance.
Fig. 22.19 Symptoms of bacterial speck on tomato fruit

Crop rotation should be used in an attempt to
avoid carryover on volunteers and crop residue
ment under mist conditions. Treatment of tomato (tomato and pepper). Use disease- and pathogen-
seeds that were artificially inoculated with P. free transplants.
syringae pv. tomato, with a combination of mild Biological control of the bacterial spot can be
chemothermal treatment [seeds were incubated achieved with antagonistic bacteria such as
in a circulating water bath at 35 ± 2 °C for 1 h. Pseudomonas putida B56 and P. syringae Cit7
One gram of seeds was incubated in 1 liter dis- (Wilson et al. 1997).
tilled water containing: cupric acetate, 2.0 g; gla- Spraying of copper–mancozeb mixtures two
cial acetic acid, 1 ml; pentachloronitrobenzene, or more times per week controlled bacterial
23 % (w/v); 6 % 5-ethoxy-3 spot.
(trichloromethyl)-1,2,4-thiadiazole, 4.5 ml; and Actigard (acibenzolar-S-methyl) and copper-
Triton x-100, 0.2 ml]. This treatment has been mancozeb combination gives effective control.
reported to eradicate P. syringae pv. tomato from Actigard needs to be applied every 14 days. The
tomato seeds (Kritzman 1993) and A. brasilense first application should be started as early as pos-
seed inoculation, and later, a single foliar appli- sible after transplanting. Reduce copper-
cation of a copper bactericide nearly eliminated mancozeb applications if you are using Actigard.
bacterial leaf speck even when the plants were
grown under mist for six weeks (Bashan and de-
Bashan 2002). 22.4.14 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
22.4.14.1 Symptoms
22.4.13 Bacterial Spot, Xanthomonas Typical mosaic marks appear on the foliage and
vesicatoria yield is significantly reduced. The most common
symptoms are light and dark-green mottling and
dark-brown discoloration on tomatoes (Fig.
22.4.13.1 Symptoms 22.21), making them unfit for consumption.
Bacteria attack the foliage, stems, and fruits of
tomatoes (Fig. 22.20). Lesions may form on fruit, 22.4.14.2 Management
including the peduncle, but the major crop loss
results from shedding of blossoms and young, • Remove and destroy infected plants: pull
developing fruit. Fruits that remain are usually plants with mosaic symptoms immediately.
nonmarketable because of poor quality. They Remove the debris from the garden area and
may have lesions and are often misshapen and bury them if possible.
274 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.20 Bacterial spot

on tomato leaves and fruits
ing: petunia, snapdragon, and pepper (Howard

et al. 1994). In tomato crops the virus is very eas-
ily spread from plant to plant during routine han-
dling of the plants (Portree 1996).
22.4.15.1 Symptoms
Typical symptoms include alternating light-green
to dark-green mottling or mosaic of the leaves
and the fern leaf symptom, where the blades of
the leaflets undergo a distorted development into
a very narrow shape (Fig. 22.22) (Howard et al.
1994; Portree 1996).
Fig. 22.21 Tobacco mosaic virus on tomato leaf
ToMV can also reduce fruit quality when fruit
symptoms occur. Infected fruits develop a blotchy
• Keep your garden weed-free: some weed appearance which can increase in severity to
may be harboring the virus. These represent form sunken areas that are dark brown to black in
sources of inoculum. color (Howard et al. 1994; Portree 1996). Severe
• Always wash your hands thoroughly and infections can cause significant yield losses
disinfect tools: before handling plants, wash (Howard et al. 1994; Portree 1996).
hands with soap and water, especially if you ToMV is both seed- and soilborne and can sur-
are a smoker. vive in the crop residue for up to two years
• Plant resistant varieties of tomato: sug- (Portree 1996). There are a number of strains of
gested varieties include “Big Pick,” the ToMV and the symptoms expressed by the
“Celebrity,” “President,” and “Park’s Extra plants can vary with the strain (Howard et al.
Early Hybrid.” Other resistant varieties will be 1994; Portree 1996).
labeled TMV resistant.
Most modern commercial cultivars contain resis-
tance to ToMV and infected plants rarely develop
22.4.15 Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV) severe symptoms. The symptoms of ToMV are
often more severe under low light conditions, and
Tomato mosaic virus is distributed throughout the fern leaf symptom can develop on some of the
the world and is found wherever tomato is grown resistant cultivars under low light conditions. The
(Howard et al. 1994; Portree 1996). Tomato infected plants improve and grow out of the
mosaic virus has a very wide host range that symptom as the light levels increase. There is no
includes a number of greenhouse crops includ- appreciable yield loss in most cases.
22.4 Diseases 275
Fig. 22.22 Shoestring leaf symptom of ToMV
Other control measures include the routine

washing of work cloths and disinfection of Fig. 22.23 Symptoms of cucumber mosaic virus on
pruning tools by dipping in a 10 % trisodium tomato leaves
phosphate solution. A thorough greenhouse
cleanup should be undertaken at the end of the
crop year; growing in soilless substrates and 22.4.17 Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl
ensuring that the soil floors of the greenhouse Virus (TYLCV)
are completely covered and sealed off with plas-
tic serve to limit the year-to-year spread of the
virus. 22.4.17.1 Symptoms
Infected tomato plants initially show stunted and
erect or upright plant growth; plants infected at
22.4.16 Cucumber Mosaic Virus an early stage of growth will show severe stunt-
(CMV) ing. The critical symptom for diagnosis is when
the leaves become small and curl upward; they
show strong crumpling and interveinal and mar-
22.4.16.1 Symptoms ginal yellowing. The internodes of infected plants
The leaves are affected more than the fruit; become shortened and growth is stunted, result-
plants are often stunted, have short internodes, ing in plants having a bushy appearance (Fig.
and may have extremely distorted and mal- 22.24). Flowers formed on infected plants com-
formed leaves (Fig. 22.23), known as fern leaf. monly do not develop and fall off (abscise). Fruit
The most characteristic symptom of CMV is production is dramatically reduced, particularly
extreme filiformity, or shoestringing, of leaf when plants are infected at an early age.
blades. CMV has an extensive host range and is
transmitted by aphids in a nonpersistent 22.4.17.2 Spread
manner. TYLCV is primarily transmitted by the sweet
potato whitefly (Bemisia. tabaci) and the biotype
22.4.16.2 Management B (or silverleaf) whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii).
Control aphids early in the season to reduce ini-
tial infection and spread. Remove and destroy 22.4.17.3 Management
diseased plants early in the season. Control Symptomatic plants should immediately be care-
aphids. fully removed, bagged, and discarded to prevent
276 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.24 Left: typical

foliar symptoms of tomato
yellow leaf curl. Upper
right: new leaflets with
symptoms of yellowing
between veins and an
upward curling of their
margins. Lower right: adult
and nymph of Bemisia
whitefly, a vector of
TYLCV
the spread of whiteflies on them that may be car- stunted growth. The plant may exhibit one-sided
rying the virus. Remove weeds and avoid grow- growth (Fig. 22.25). Tomato fruit set on severely
ing other solanaceous crops near tomato plants infected plants displays very characteristic symp-
whenever possible, as these plants may serve as a toms: immature fruits have mottled, light-green
reservoir of the virus. UV-reflective mulch can rings with raised centers; the unique orange and
also be effective at deterring whiteflies from red discoloration patterns on mature fruits make
landing on crops. Insect exclusion screens rated them unmarketable. The virus is spread primarily
for whitefly can be used for individual plants and by thrips, particularly the western flower thrips.
are now being used for screenhouse construction
in regions where TYLCV is prevalent. 22.4.18.2 Management
Imidacloprid-based systemic insecticides
(e.g., Admire Pro, Provado) are effective for both • Control the virus by controlling thrips vector
adult and nymph stages of whitefly. Pyrethrins through insecticides.
and pyrethroid-based insecticides effectively • Do weed control to minimize the population
control adult whiteflies. Spirotetramat (Movento), of thrips and virus.
with methylated seed oil plus silicone surfactant,
and insecticidal oils, soaps, and other extracts are
effective at suppressing all stages.
Many TYLCV-resistant tomato varieties are 22.5 Nematodes
available for both field and greenhouse produc-
tion systems. These varieties come in many fruit 22.5.1 Root-Knot Nematodes,
shapes (globe, Roma, cherry, etc.) and as both Meloidogyne spp.
determinate and indeterminate plant types.
22.5.1.1 Economic Importance
M. incognita was responsible for 30.57–46.92 %
22.4.18 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus loss in fruit yield of tomato, while M. javanica
(TSWV) caused 77.5 % loss in yield.
22.4.18.1 Symptoms 22.5.1.2 Symptoms

The symptoms appearing on leaves, petioles, Aboveground symptoms are stunting, yellowing,
stems, and fruit vary, depending on the stage at wilting, reduced yield, and premature death of
which plants become infected. Young leaves may plants. Belowground symptoms are swollen or
show small, dark-brown spots and eventually die. knotted roots (root galls) (Fig. 22.26) or a stubby
Dark-brown streaks appear on stems and leaf root system. Root galls vary in size and shape
petioles. Growing tips are usually severely depending on the nematode population levels and
affected with systemic necrosis and greatly species of root-knot nematode present in the soil.
22.6 IPM Package for Management of Insect Pests, Diseases, and Nematodes 277
application in a wide variety of production sys-

tem. Soil solarization should be done during the
hottest period of the year. It offers a satisfactory
and environmentally friendly solution for the
control of root-knot nematode. This method is
easy to be used into organic, conventional, and
integrated control growing system, and it is more
economic than chemical treatments.
Addition of dazomet at 1 kg a.i./ha to the nurs-
ery beds gives effective control of root-knot nem-
atodes. Further, addition of enriched FYM/
compost/vermicompost (with Trichoderma
harzianum/T. viride + Paecilomyces lilaci-
nus + Pseudomonas fluorescens each at 2 kg/t of
organic amendment) at 5 t/ha helps in the man-
agement of root-knot nematodes.
After 15–30 days of planting, addition of
enriched neem cake (with Trichoderma
Fig. 22.25 Wilting caused by TSWV
nus + Pseudomonas fluorescens each at 2 kg/t) at
50 g/m2 gives effective management of nema-
todes under polyhouse conditions. Further, drip
application of neem cake suspension enriched
with bioagents (20 kg neem cake + Trichoderma
nus + Pseudomonas fluorescens each at 2 kg)
helps in keeping the polyhouse beds free from
root-knot nematodes.
22.6 IPM Package

for Management of Insect
Pests, Diseases,
and Nematodes
The IPM package gives the possibility to manage

the key pest and diseases in tomato crops in
greenhouses that causes serious damage reducing
Fig. 22.26 Heavy galling of tomato roots infected with the quantity and the quality of these products.
Meloidogyne incognita The IPM package developed for protected crops
gives sustainable management of the most impor-
tant pests and diseases and helps growers to use
22.5.1.3 Management methods that minimize environmental, health,
Soil solarization to control root-knot nematode is and economic risks. The IPM package consists of
simple and economic in its application and leaves an innovative combination of three different
no toxic residues for humans, animals, and plants. methods for controlling the main pests in
These attributes make solarization suitable for greenhouses:
278 22 Tomato
• Implementing the best monitoring system for

the detection of key pest and diseases
• Selecting the soil solarization as an eco-
friendly method to control root-knot
nematodes
• Using the integrated fungicidal control pro-
grams to maximize economic return on tomato
production in greenhouses
Fig. 22.27 Number of treatments (X - axix) in conven-

22.6.1 Implementation of IPM tional and scouted greenhouse for control of diseases
Scouting Programs
Regular monitoring is the framework of good

integrated pest management (IPM) programs and
must be in place before others control alterna-
tives can be implemented. The backbone of a
good IPM program is the scout who looks regu-
larly for pests and plant abnormalities, records
what is found, summarizes this information, and
reports it to the grower for the final pest manage-
ment decision. Since so many vegetable crop
growers are still mismanaging pesticides because
of the lack of sound monitoring practices, the pri- Fig. 22.28 Number of treatments (X - axix) in conven-
mary objective of this study was to demonstrate tional and scouted greenhouse for control of tomato pests
(Y - axis)
the benefits and economic feasibility of using
scouts in IPM programs. Observation done dur-
ing the scouting program indicated that the moni- ventional and scouted greenhouses, 22 and 11
toring of pests and diseases is an effective tool in treatments were compared. The information
timing pesticide applications and minimizing about the economic analysis of the benefits of
pesticide input. IPM scouting program as compared to the grow-
The chemical treatments done for the control ers’ conventional pests and diseases management
of different diseases and insect pests are shown in is presented in Fig. 22.29. The economic effect of
Figs. 22.27 and 22.28. In the conventional green- scouting program is very clear.
houses the number of treatments used per crop The economic analyses indicate that scouting
cycle is quite variable depending on the type of saved 46.6 % of the applied pesticide volume as
greenhouses, farmer practice, and period of the compared to the non-scouted area and resulted in
year. In the case of tomatoes grown under pro- overall economic savings of 29.37 % (or 6967
tected cultivation, surveys showed that farmer’s lek/ha = about US$ 650).
approaches to chemical control were quite
variable.
The number of pesticide sprays per crop cycle 22.6.2 Soil Solarization to Control
varied between 7.6 for insecticides and 14 for Root-Knot Nematodes
fungicides. In scouted greenhouses these figures
are quite different and the number of insecticides Tomato is susceptible to infection by soilborne
and fungicide application is 2 and 9, respectively. diseases and severe yield losses can result espe-
During the period of tomato cultivation in con- cially by the root-knot nematode. The effective-
22.6 IPM Package for Management of Insect Pests, Diseases, and Nematodes 279
Fig. 22.29 Cost of Scouted Greenhouses Grower control greenhouses

scouting in conventional
and scouted greenhouse Totalpesticide spray applied
Totalpest management cost
ApplicationLabor
Pesticide Costs
ScoutingLabor
ScoutingTools
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Lek
ness of solarization, a soil disinfection technique ments, was significantly improved by the soil
that uses passive solar heating, to control the inci- solarization. Tomato fruit yields in solarized
dence of root-knot nematode under greenhouse greenhouses were fourfold higher than those
condition was studied. Solarization was accom- obtained in untreated control (Fig. 22.33). Such
plished by the application of 0.05–0.06-mm clear significant increases were consistent with effec-
polyethylene sheets to moist soil for four weeks tive control of nematode provided by
during the hot season. solarization.
In closed plastic greenhouses the mulching of Solarization is also known to improve plant
moistened soil with transparent polyethylene growth and yield through the release of nutrient
sheets for four weeks during the hot season induced by high soil temperatures. This technique
induces an increase of temperature. Maximum at the same time showed good results to reduce
soil temperatures achieved under solarization the infection of a severe tomato disease like corky
were 51 ○C in the alluvial soil and 52.4 ○C in the root disease (Pyrenochaeta lycopersici).
heavy clay soil type at depth 20 cm. In the non-
solarization unheated greenhouse soil tempera-
ture achieved was 39 ○C (Fig. 22.30). 22.6.3 Integrated Fungicidal Control
The effect of soil solarization treatments on Programs
the population densities of the root-knot nema-
tode M. incognita was very clear. The larval den- The percentage of severity of gray mold, downy
sity per 100 ml of soil was markedly reduced mildew, leaf mold, and early blight diseases was
compared with the untreated control (Fig. 22.31). significantly higher on the low cost and control
The soil solarization method had a significant treatments compared to the standard and inten-
influence to reduce the severity of root damage. sive fungicide treatment (Table 22.3).
Root galling index is the most important symp-
tom for the root-knot nematode. This index was 22.6.3.1 Economic Costs of Spray
dramatically reduced in both solarized green- Programs
houses compared with untreated control where At the end of the season, the economic costs were
the highest root galling index was found (Fig. significantly lower in the low cost and control
22.32). treatments, moderate in standard treatments, and
The growth of tomato plants, as indicated by higher in intensive fungicide treatments
visual assessment and plant height measure- (Table 22.4).
280 22 Tomato
Fig. 22.30 Maximum temperatures

attained during soil solarization
60
∞C
p 50
m 40
e 52.4 51
T 30 39
x
a 20
M 10
0
Untr. Control Solar. 4 wk Solar. 4 wk
(Greenhouse 1) (Greenhouse 2)
22.6.3.2 Environmental Impact

of Spray Programs
Aside from fungicide costs, growers are con-
cerned with environmental impacts associated
with their production practices, specifically pesti-
cide applications. Environmental Impact
Quotients (EIQ) are a scientific means of assess-
ing pesticide fate in the environment based on
Fig. 22.31 Effect of soil solarization on the population toxicological and environmental data; impacts
densities of root-knot nematode larvae in soil against arthropod natural enemies, honeybees,
and birds; leaching potential; and related human
health issues. EIQ values for fungicides used in
this study have already been calculated in the
paper by Kovach et al. (1992). In general, lower
EIQ scores indicate products with overall lower
environmental impact. Perhaps what is more
important than the raw EIQ score is the Field Use
Rating (FUR), which takes into account the EIQ
score x % active ingredient x rate per ha to get a
more accurate picture of environmental impact.
When comparing spray programs it is important
Fig. 22.32 Effect of soil solarization on root gall index to realize that the EIQ FUR score needs to be
(X - axis) by root-knot nematode multiplied by the number of applications made
over the season to get an accurate overall under-
standing of environmental impacts.
The program EIQ values were lower in con-
trol, moderate in low cost and standard treat-
ments, and higher in intensive treatments (Table
22.5).
The standard fungicide program remains the
best recommendation. It controls the main tomato
diseases better than the others treatments and had
no significant differences with intensive program.
However, it was more expensive than low cost
Fig. 22.33 Effect of soil solarization on tomato yield in control but cheaper and had the lower environ-
tons/ha (X – axix) ment impact than intensive program.
References 281
Table 22.3 The effect of fungicide program on yield and percent infection of main diseases
Downy mildew Early blight
Fungicide program Fruit wt. (g) rating Gray mold rating Leaf mold rating rating
Low cost 120.6 8.0 10.70 24.6 4.83
Standard 151.3 1.7 1.50 3.17 1.67
Intensive 163.4 1.0 1.33 2.67 1.0
Control 114.8 9.2 12.30 27.3 5.33
Table 22.4 Composition, cost, and frequency of four fungicide programs

Segment cost No. of Segment cost/
Fungicide combinations (Leks) applications season Program cost/season
Low cost (Dithane + Kocide) 162 8 1296 1296
Standard (Daconil + Acroblu) 294 4 1176 2448
Standard (Equation pro + Teldor) 318 4 1272
Intensive (Daconil + Acroblu) 294 8 2352 4578
Intensive (Equation pro + Teldor) 318 7 2226
Control (Acrobat) 270 3 810 1301
Control (Bavistin) 75 2 150
Control (Acroblu) 114 1 114
Control (Daconil) 180 1 180
Control (Stoper) 47 1 47
Table 22.5 Rank of fungicide programs by environmental impact and economic and disease factors
No of Partial program
Fungicide combinations EIQ FURa applications EIQ Program EIQ
Low cost (Dithane + Kocide) 55.2 8 441.60 441.60
Standard (Daconil + Acroblu) 103.44 4 413.76 445.92
Standard (Equation pro + Teldor) 8.04 4 32.16
Intensive (Daconil + Acroblu) 103.44 8 827.52 883.80
Intensive (Equation pro + Teldor) 8.04 7 56.28
Control (Acrobat) 32.77 3 98.31 233.13
Control (Bavistin) 14.04 2 28.08
Control (Acroblu) 45.70 1 45.70
Control (Daconil) 57.74 1 57.74
Control (Stoper) 3.30 1 3.30
a
Environmental Impact Quotients for Field Use Rating (EIQ FUR)
Dhanvantari BN (1994) Further studies on seed treatment

References for tomato bacterial canker. In: Proceedings of the
10th annual tomato disease workshop, pp 49–51
Bashan Y, de-Bashan LE (2002) Reduction of bacterial Fletcher JT (1984) Diseases of greenhouse plants.
speck (Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato) of tomato Longman Inc, New York
by combined treatments of plant growth-promoting Gitaitis R, McCarter S, Jones J (1992) Tomato transplants
bacterium, Azospirillum brasilense, streptomycin sul- produced in Georgia and Florida: their diseases and
fate, and chemo-thermal seed treatment. Eur J Plant control. Plant Dis 76:651–656
Pathol 108:821–829 Gleason ML, Braun EJ, Carlton WM, Peterson RH (1991)
Bochow H (1989) Use of microbial antagonists to control Survival and dissemination of Clavibacter michi-
soil-borne pathogens in greenhouse crops. Acta ganensis sub sp. michiganensis in tomatoes.
Horticult 255:271–279 Phytopathology 81:1519–1523
282 22 Tomato
Gleason ML, Gitaitis RD, Ricker MD (1993) Recent Malathrakis NE, Goumas DE (1987) Bacterial soft rot of
progress in understanding and controlling bacterial tomato in plastic greenhouses in Crete. Ann Appl Biol
canker of tomato in eastern North America. Plant Dis 111:115–123
77(11):1069–1076 Malathrakis NE, Kapetanakis GE, Linardakis DC (1983)
Howard RJ, Garland JA, Seaman WL (1994) Diseases and Brown root rot of tomato, and its control in Crete. Ann
pests of vegetable crops in Canada. The Canadian Appl Biol 102:251–256
Phytopathological Society and the Entomological Minuto A, Spadaro D, Garibaldi A, Gullino L (2006)
Society of Canada, Ottawa, Canada Control of soil-borne pathogens of tomato using a
Jarvis WN, Thorpe HJ, Meloche RB (1983) Survey of commercial formulation of Streptomyces griseoviridis
greenhouse management practices in Essex County, and solarisation. Crop Prot 25:468–475
Ontario, in relation to Fusarium foot and root rot of Portree J (1996) Greenhouse vegetable production guide
tomato. Plant Dis 67:38–40 for commercial growers. Province of British Columbia,
Jones JP, Stall RE, Zitter TA (eds) (1993) Compendium of Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Victoria,
tomato diseases. APS Press, St Paul BC, 117 pp
Kovach J, Petzoldt C, Degni J, Tette J (1992) A Method to Sherf AF, McNab AA (1986) Vegetable diseases and their
measure the environmental impact of pesticides. IPM control. Wiley, New York
Program, Cornell University, New York State Shoemaker PB (1992) Evaluation of different materials
Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva for tomato bacterial canker. Fungic Nematic Tests
Kritzman G (1993) A chemi-thermal treatment for control 47:155
of seed-borne bacterial pathogens of tomato. Wilson M, Campbell HL, Jones JB, Suslow TV, Cuppels
Phytoparasitica 21:101–109 DA (1997) Biological control of bacterial speck of
tomato. Phytopathology 86:S49
Bell Pepper
23
Abstract
In greenhouses, capsicum fruits are harvested with full color maturation,
and fruit yields are greater and of high quality and usually produced at a
time of the year when production in the field is not possible and market
prices for capsicum are highest. Capsicum being a relatively long duration
(9–10 months) crop in polyhouse, the plant parts (vegetative, floral, and
fruit) are more exposed to adverse effect of pests and diseases on the yield,
quality, and market value of the produce. Hence their identification and
management at right stage of the crop should be given importance. The
major pests and diseases, their symptoms, and their management in capsi-
cum are discussed. The major focus has been given on adoption of inte-
grated approach in managing pests and diseases that help to reduce the
pesticide load and cost of chemicals and avoid the resurgence of pests and
diseases.
Keywords
Capsicum • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread
• Management
23.1 Introduction the field is not possible and market prices for cap-
sicum are highest (Tables 23.1 and 23.2).
Greenhouses can be a means to economically Colored capsicums are in great demand in
maintain a warm environment during cool season, urban markets. The demand is mostly driven by
to protect bell pepper plants from rain, wind, and hotel and catering industry. The traditionally
high solar radiation, and to retain pollinators and grown green capsicum, depending upon variety
beneficial insects while excluding unwanted insect and season, usually yields 20–40 t/ha in about
pests (Fig. 23.1). In greenhouses, capsicum fruits 4–5 months. In greenhouse, the crop duration of
are harvested with full maturation color and fruit green and colored capsicums is about 7–10
yields are greater and of high quality and usually months and yields about 80–100 t/ha. The advan-
produced at a time of the year when production in tages of protected cultivation are:

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_23
284 23 Bell Pepper
Table 23.1 Yield of capsicum under greenhouse at dif-

ferent locations in India
Location Yield (t/ha)
Pune 203
Coimbatore 148
Bangalore 147
Solan 79
Hisar 302
Fig. 23.1 Colored capsicum under greenhouse
Table 23.2 Performance of capsicum in various protected structures

Days to 50 % Average fruit
Treatments flowering No. of fruits/plant weight (g) Fruit yield/plant (kg)
Greenhouse 63.00 10.40 100.05 93.733
Double wall polyench 82.33 7.30 73.33 60.453
L Polycarbonate 71.33 8.50 83.5 71.927
Polyench 74.33 10.40 67.69 64.213
Open 79.00 8.91 42.19 47.193
• Higher productivity resulting in increased • Arka Mohini

yield • Pusa Deepti
• Provides better growing environment to plants • Solan Hybrid-1
• Protects from rain, wind, and high tempera-
tures and minimizes the damage of insect
pests and diseases, thereby improving the 23.3 Diseases
quality and yield
• Facilitates year-round production coupled 23.3.1 Damping-Off, Pythium spp,
with yield enhancement by 2–3 times com- and Rhizoctonia solani
pared to open cultivation
23.3.1.1 Symptoms
Infection takes place at the base of the young
seedlings just above the ground level which leads
23.2 Varieties Suitable to wilting and later death of seedlings (Fig. 23.2).
for Greenhouse Production Any damage caused to seedlings while trans-
planting can also lead to damping-off or seedling
• Indra wilt besides fresh infection in main field or infec-
• Bharat tion that is carried from nursery.
• Tanvi
• Manhattan 23.3.1.2 Management
• Swarna Drench the base of the plant with carbendazim (1
• Natasha g/L) or Metalaxyl MZ (2 g/L) or copper oxychlo-
• Angel ride (3 g/L) or Captan (3 g/L) at about 25–50 ml/
• California Wonder plant.
23.3 Diseases 285
Fig. 23.2 Damping-off of capsicum seedlings
Fig. 23.4 Cercospora leaf spots on capsicum leaf
23.3.2.2 Management
• Clean greenhouse and follow good sanitation

practices.
• Maintain good air circulation and avoid high
relative humidity conditions (above 85 %).
• Avoid wounding fruit and excessive wounding
to the stems.
Fig. 23.3 External and internal dark brown discoloration 23.3.3 Cercospora Leaf Spot,
of pepper stems due to Fusarium solani Cercospora capsici
23.3.3.1 Symptoms
Maintain proper sanitation practices in green- Cercospora appears initially as tiny yellow spot
house. Provide optimal soil temperature, on leaf surface leading to increased dark grey
watering, etc. to the plants. Avoid the conditions spots (Fig. 23.4) which spreads on entire leaf
where young plants are stressed. resulting in dropping of leaf.
23.3.3.2 Management
23.3.2 Fusarium Stem and Fruit Rot, Spray chloroth alonil (2.5 g/L) or Mancozeb (2.5
Fusarium solani g/L) or carbendazim (1 g/L).
23.3.2.1 Symptoms
Soft, dark brown or black cankers are formed on 23.3.4 Gray Mold, Botrytis sp
the stem, usually at nodes or wound sites. These
may girdle the stem in later stages of disease 23.3.4.1 Symptoms
development. There is a dark brown discolor-
ation of the internal portion of the stem that may • Water-soaked spots that rapidly expand into
extend a considerable distance (Fig. 23.3). The large yellowish green or grayish brown.
lesions may eventually develop cinnamon or • Irregular lesions on fruits which are soft and
light orange-colored, very small (<1 mm diam- spongy in texture (Fig. 23.5).
eter), flask-shaped fruiting structures known as • Velvet-like fungus mycelium and spores are
perithecia, which are the fruiting bodies of the produced on the lesion surface under cool and
fungus. humid conditions.
286 23 Bell Pepper
• The fungus produces overwintering structures inflorescences causes dieback and shriveling.
called sclerotia in addition to other types of Other symptoms include water-soaked lesions on
spores. fruit that becomes soft and slightly sunken and
concentric rings within the fruit spots.
23.3.4.2 Management
23.3.5.2 Management
• Pre-storage dry heat treatment. Avoid alternate host and infected plant debris and
• Hot air treatment at 38 °C for 48–72 h. optimize the humidity in polyhouse.
• Hot water treatment at 50–53 °C for 2–3 min. Various fungicides have been found to be
effective, including 0.2 % Mancozeb, 0.1 %
Ziram, Blitox 50 (copper oxychloride), 0.1 %
23.3.5 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Bavistin (carbendazim), and 0.5 % or 1 %
capsici Bordeaux mixture. Benlate (benomyl) and
Delsene M (carbendazim + maneb) (Alabi and
23.3.5.1 Symptoms Emechebe 1990) are used as seed dressings.
Small or large lesions typical of Colletotrichum
infections (anthracnoses) are formed on leaves
and fruits, but in other cases the disease may 23.3.6 Powdery Mildew, Leveillula
develop as purplish or brown patches without the taurica
formation of definite lesions (Fig. 23.6). Stems
and petioles may be girdled, and necrosis of 23.3.6.1 Symptoms
The disease initially appears as tiny yellow spots on
surface of leaf and powder like material on the
lower surface leading to a powdery growth covering
the entire lower surface of leaf which leads to dry-
ing and dropping of leaves at later stages (Fig. 23.7).
The disease reduces growth of leaves and fruits
leading to low quality and quantity of the produce.
23.3.6.2 Management
Spray pongamia/neem oil (7 ml/L) + Sulfur
WDG-80 (2 g/L) or wettable sulfur (2 g/L) or
hexaconazole (0.5 ml/L) or Myclobutanil (1 g/L)
or Dinocap (1 ml/L) or azoxystrobin (0.5 ml/L)
or Penconazole (0.5 ml/L) or Flusilazole (0.5
Fig. 23.5 Grey mold on sweet pepper fruit (Note peeling
ml/L).
away of epidermis)
Fig. 23.6 Anthracnose

symptoms on leaf and fruit
of sweet pepper
23.3 Diseases 287
Fig. 23.7 Powdery

mildew on bell pepper
leaves. Left – Profuse
sporulation on under
surface of leaves.
Right – Necrotic lesions
develop at later stages of
disease

Phythopthora blight on
capsicum
23.3.7 Phythopthora Blight, Severely infected plant parts should be

Phytophthora capsici destroyed. It is better to avoid capsicum cultiva-
tion in severely affected net houses.
23.3.7.1 Symptoms
This disease appears during fruiting and flower-
ing stage resulting in tiny oil like spot on leaf sur- 23.3.8 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia
face resulting in rotting and blackening of plants solanacearum
(Fig. 23.8). Later plant weakens and dies in 2–3
days. Heavy and continuous rainfall coupled with 23.3.8.1 Symptoms
high humidity favor disease appearance and its Wilting of leaves, sometimes only few branches
quick spread. Phythopthora disease is relatively of the plant, occurs during hot days followed by
more severe in net houses which may lead to recovery throughout the evening and early hours
40–80 % crop damage. of the morning. The wilted leaves maintain their
green color and do not fall as disease progresses.
23.3.7.2 Management Under favorable conditions complete wilt will
Spray copper hydroxychloride (3 g/L) or occur (Fig. 23.9). The vascular tissues in the lower
Bordeaux mixture (1 %) or Metalaxyl MZ (2 g/L) stem of wilted plants show a dark brown discolor-
or Dimethomorph + Mancozeb (1 g + 2.5 g/L) or ation (Fig. 23.9). A cross section of the stem of a
Fosetyl aluminum (2 g/L) or azoxystrobin (0.5 plant with bacterial wilt produces a white, milky
ml/L). strand of bacterial cells in clear water.
288 23 Bell Pepper
Fig. 23.9 Bacterial wilt on

bell pepper. Left – Leaves
droop without yellowing.
Right – Vascular bundle
rotting and white substance
formed
23.3.8.2 Management are initially raised and at the end look scabby
(Fig. 23.10). The pathogen survives on plant
• Plant varieties which are tolerant/resistant, if debris in the greenhouse or outdoors, as well as
available. on seeds. They are splashed from plant to plant
• Seedlings must be free from infection by R. by water drops from condensation and infect
solanacearum. plants through stomata and injuries. Infection
• Do not grow crops in soil where bacterial wilt requires free water on plant surfaces (Gitaitis
has occurred. et al. 1992).
• Remove wilted plants to reduce spread of the
disease from plant to plant. 23.3.9.2 Management
• Control root-knot nematodes since they could
facilitate infection and spread of bacterial • Buy certified seed from a reputed source or
wilt. use seed treatments to reduce transmission.
• Soil amendments (organic manures) can sup- • Produce disease-free plants by raising trans-
press bacterial wilt pathogen in the soil. plants in an area where production does not
• Rotation is of limited value since the disease occur. Inspect all purchased transplants care-
has a wide host range, but still it is recom- fully, and if transplants originate in southern
mended to avoid continuous planting of sola- states, they should be certified.
naceous crops. • Rotate fields to avoid carryover on volunteer
plants or crop residue.
• Keep fields free from volunteer plants, weeds,
23.3.9 Bacterial Spot, Xanthomonas and cull piles.
vesicatoria • Crop rotation with nonhost crops.
• Avoid working in fields when bacterial dis-
23.3.9.1 Symptoms eases are present and the fields are wet.
The symptoms of bacterial spot are similar to • Apply appropriate bactericides or combina-
those of bacterial speck. The spots on the fruits tion of pesticides.
23.3 Diseases 289
Fig. 23.10 Bacterial spot

on capsicum leaf and fruit
23.3.9.2.1 Chemical Recommendations
• Copper Hydroxide: Begin applications when

disease first threatens and repeat at 7–10-day
intervals as needed. Do not apply spray solu-
tion with pH less than 6.0 to prevent
phytotoxicity.
• Mancozeb plus Copper Hydroxide: Begin
applications when disease threatens and repeat
at 7–10-day intervals as needed. Use higher
rates and 3–7-day interval when disease pres-
sure is severe.
• Streptomycin Sulfate (Agrimycin): Use 200
ppm only up to transplant (REI 12 h). Fig. 23.11 Bacterial soft rot on capsicum fruit
• During packing and storage, the fruit should

23.3.10 Bacterial Soft Rot, Erwinia be kept clean and maintained in a cool, dry
carotovora place.
23.3.10.1 Symptoms
23.3.11 Pepper Mild Mottle Virus
• The fleshy fruit peduncle is highly susceptible (PMMV)
and is frequently the initial point of infection.
• Initially, the lesions on the fruit are light to 23.3.11.1 Symptoms
dark-colored, water-soaked, and somewhat
sunken (Fig. 23.11). • Symptoms include the development of obvi-
• The affected fruit hangs from the plant like a ous bumps on the fruit as well as color streak-
water-filled bag. ing and green spotting as the fruit matures.
• Fruit tend to have pointed ends and may also
develop sunken brown areas on the surface
23.3.10.2 Management (Fig. 23.12).
• Use chlorinated water to reduce populations 23.3.11.2 Management

of soft rot bacteria and to reduce the risk of
infection during washing. • The virus is spread by the routine handling of
• Allow fruit to dry thoroughly. the young plants, especially at transplanting.
290 23 Bell Pepper
• Control the virus by controlling the thrips vec-

tor through insecticides.
• Do weed control to minimize the population
of thrips and virus.
23.3.14 Cucumber Mosaic Virus

(CMV)
23.3.14.1 Symptoms
Fig. 23.12 Pepper mild mottle virus symptoms
Severe mosaic forms on the foliage; older leaves
may have large necrotic rings, fruit may be mal-
• Do minimum mechanical activities during formed, and conspicuous yellow concentric rings or
cultivation. spots often appear on the fruit from infected plants.
• Grow resistant varieties.
23.3.14.2 Transmission
The virus is very readily transmitted by mechani-
23.3.12 Tobacco Mosaic Virus cal means. In nature, it is transmitted by several
species of aphid vectors like Aphis craccivora, A.
23.3.12.1 Symptoms gossypii, and Myzus persicae.
• The symptoms of infection first appear on the 23.3.14.3 Management

leaf as a necrosis along the main veins accom-
panied by wilting and leaf drop. • Removal and destruction of infected plants
• New growth on the plants may exhibit mosaic from the field.
symptoms as well as distorted growth. • Removal of all the weeds in and around the
chili field.
23.3.12.2 Management • Spraying 0.05 % Nuvacron or 0.02 % Metasystox
at 10-day interval to control aphid vectors.
• Use disease-free seed. • Soil application of carbofuran at 1.5 kg a.i./ha at
• Grow resistant cultivars. the time of sowing seeds in the seed bed followed
• Destroy any infected plants. by 1–2 foliar sprays of 0.05 % Nuvacron.
• Spraying of 1.5–1.8 % mineral oil at 5–6-day
interval has been found effective in reducing
23.3.13 Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus the disease incidence.
(TSWV)
23.3.13.1 Symptoms 23.4 Insect Pests

The virus may cause sudden yellowing and
browning of young leaves which later become 23.4.1 Thrips, Frankliniella
necrotic. Long necrotic streaks appear on stems occidentalis
extending to the growing tips. Fruits formed after
infection display large necrotic streaks and spots, 23.4.1.1 Symptoms
while younger fruit may be completely necrotic. Thrips cause upward curling of leaves, suck sap,
The virus is spread primarily by thrips, particu- and reduce leaf growth, plant growth, yield, and
larly the western flower thrips. market value of produce. It also reduces leaf area
23.4 Insect Pests 291
Fig. 23.13 Thrips damage

on leaves and fruit of bell
pepper
and hinders absorption of nutrients and water by of the produce. This pest infestation increases
the plants. Other symptoms include white or with increased temperature coupled with high
brown spots on leaves, leaf scars, and distorted humidity.
buds, leaves, or flowers. Increased infestation
leads to blackening and drying of leaves and 23.4.2.2 Management
irregular fruit bearing (Fig. 23.13). Remove the pest damaged plant parts including
leaves, flowers, and fruits and spray pongamia oil
23.4.1.2 Management (5–8 ml/L) or pongamia/neem soap (8–10 g/L) or
Remove affected plant parts including leaves, dicofol (2 ml/L) or wettable sulfur (2 ml/L) or
flowers, and fruits. Keep the plots clean by abamectin (0.5 ml/L) or Ecomite or Propargite or
removing all the dropped plant parts. Spray pon- chlorfenapyr (1 ml/L) or Fenazaquin (1 ml/L).
gamia oil (5–8 ml/L) or neem seed kernel extract
(NSKE 4 %) or pongamia/neem soap (7 g/L) or
fipronil (1 ml/L) or chlorpyrifos (2 ml/L) or 23.4.3 Aphids, Myzus persicae
acephate (1.5 g/L) or imidacloprid (0.5 ml/L).
Drench soil with chlorpyrifos (4 ml/L) or imida- 23.4.3.1 Symptoms
cloprid (0.5 ml/L). Nymphs and adult aphids suck sap from leaf
veins and younger leaves resulting in reduced
plant growth and decrease in yield. Its infestation
23.4.2 Spider Mite, Tetranychus not only causes curling of leaves (Fig. 23.15) but
urticae also spreads viral diseases.
23.4.2.1 Symptoms 23.4.3.2 Management

Young larvae and adults feed on leaves, bud, and Keep a close watch on the plants at regular inter-
fruits and suck sap from plant parts which in turn vals for aphids’ infestation. Spray pongamia/
causes downward curling of leaves (Fig. 23.14). neem soap (8–10 g/L) or imidacloprid (0.5 ml/L)
The size of leaf, fruit, and plants gets reduced; or Thiomethoxam (0.5 g/L) or Dimethoate (2
fruit and flower drop affecting the market value ml/L).
292 23 Bell Pepper
Fig. 23.14 Left – Spider

mite damage on sweet
pepper. Right – Adults and
egg of spider mite
Fig. 23.15 Left – Leaf

distortion after aphid
attack. Right – Aphids on
leaf
Fig. 23.16 Tobacco

caterpillar damage on
capsicum leaves
23.4.4 Tobacco Caterpillar, eggs are laid in group, the larva also feeds gre-
Spodoptera sp gariously on leaves at one place, which can be
easily identified and destroyed.
23.4.4.1 Symptoms
Fruit borers are very active during night. The 23.4.4.2 Management
adults lay eggs on fruits, flowers, and leaves in Pick and destroy nymphs and adult insects.
large numbers, and the nymphs that come out of Generally eggs are laid and hatch in groups,
eggs feed on fruits and leaves (Fig. 23.16) caus- which is easy to identify from a distance. Hence
ing heavy destruction of crops and severely they should be identified and destroyed immedi-
affecting the quality of the produce. Whenever ately. Spray thiodicarb (1 ml/L) or carbaryl (3
night temperature is low, coupled with cool and g/L) or Indoxacarb (1 ml/L) or Rynaxypyr (0.5
high humidity, the infestation is increased. Since ml/L) or Chlorofenfur (1.5 ml/L) or fipronil (1
Fig. 23.17 Whitefly

infestation on bell pepper
leaves
ml/L). In addition to the sprays, grownup adults ing yellow or black in color, depending on the
should be subjected to Methomyl baiting,1 which parasite. Scale parasitized by Encarsia formosa
is a safe, healthy, and effective practice. is black in color. Delphastus pusillus is a small
beetle that feeds on whitefly eggs and is ideal for
complementing Encarsia and Eretmocerus
23.4.5 Whitefly, Trialeurodes (Portree 1996).
vaporariorum
23.4.5.1 Symptoms 23.4.6 Leaf Miners, Liriomyza spp

Whiteflies damage the plant by sucking sap from
the leaves (Fig. 23.17). Large infestations can 23.4.6.1 Symptoms
cause leaf yellowing and a general decline in the Thin, white, winding trails on leaves; heavy min-
plant. Sooty mold is commonly found in associa- ing (Fig. 23.18) can result in white blotches on
tion with whitefly. As with aphids, whitefly feed- leaves and leaves drop from the plant prema-
ing also results in honeydew formation which can turely; early infestation can cause fruit yield to be
reduce fruit quality. The presence of the honey- reduced; adult leaf miner is a small black and yel-
dew and sooty mold can necessitate that the fruit low fly which lays its eggs in the leaf; larvae
be washed prior to going to market. The presence hatch and feed on leaf interior.
of sooty mold on the leaves can reduce the pro-
ductivity of the leaf by reducing the amount of 23.4.6.2 Management
light reaching the leaf surface (Howard et al. Check transplants for signs of leaf miner damage
1994). prior to planting; remove plants from soil imme-
diately after harvest; only use insecticides when
23.4.5.2 Management leaf miner damage has been identified as unnec-
The parasitic wasps, Encarsia formosa and essary spraying will also reduce populations of
Eretmocerus eremicus, are effective against their natural enemies.
whitefly with parasitized whitefly scale becom-
23.4.7 Flow Chart for Insect Pest

1
Methomyl Baiting Procedure: Prepare a mixture of 10 kg Management in Capsicum
paddy husk and 1 kg jaggery solution and store for 6–8 h.
Add ½ kg Methomyl to the mixture. Small sized balls of (Fig. 23.19)
mixture are made which are spread near the root zone of
the plants and also around polyhouse/net house to avoid The calender of operations for insect pest man-
infestation of fruit borer. It should be applied during night agement in capsicum is presented in flow chart
hours, and the domestic or pet animals should not be
allowed to move in and around net-/polyhouse overnight. (Fig. 23.19).
294 23 Bell Pepper
Fig. 23.18 Damage caused by leaf

miners
Fig. 23.19 Flow chart for Raise seedlings in protrays in polyhouse

insect pest management in
capsicum
At Transplanting Apply neem cake 250 kg /ha
15 DAP Spray Acephate for thrips
30 DAP Apply neem cake 250 kg /ha
Monitor for pests like fruit borer, tobacco

caterpillar, thrips and yellow mite.
Spray NPV according to the pest.
Spray Acephate/Fipronil/Ethofenprox/Acephate +
Pongamia oil in rotation for thrips control.
Post flowering and fruiting stage Spray synthetic acaricide/botanical in rotation to
control yellow mite.
Fig. 23.20 Root-knot

nematode infestation on
bell pepper
23.5 Nematodes 295
23.5 Nematodes oat seed medium) at 140 g/m2 a month before

transplantation of capsicum resulted in good
23.5.1 Root-Knot Nematodes, protection against root-knot nematodes.
Meloidogyne spp Among the egg parasites, efficacy of
Paecilomyces lilacinus (commercially for-
23.5.1.1 Symptoms mulated as “Biocon” in the Philippines) has
Root galls caused by root-knot nematodes on been found to be comparatively higher in
sweet pepper are frequently small (Fig. 23.20). suppressing the population of Meloidogyne
spp on capsicum.
23.5.1.2 Management
Treatment of the greenhouse bed with the for-
23.5.1.2.1 Physical Methods mulation of Pochonia chlamydosporia at 50 g/m2
Burning of paddy husk or saw dust on infested was significantly effective in reducing the galling
nursery proved to be reasonably effective. index and number of nematodes in roots and soil
and increasing the percent parasitization of eggs
23.5.1.2.2 Cultural Methods by bioagent and also yields. Seed treatment with
Several cultural methods like selection of P. fluorescens alone and the nursery bed treat-
nematode-free nursery sites; destruction of ment with P. chlamydosporia alone were effec-
infested roots after crop harvest; crop rotation tive (Naik 2004).
with antagonistic crop (marigold) or intercrop-
ping with marigold, onion, and garlic; flooding; 23.5.1.2.5 Host Resistance
fallowing; and deep summer plowing either Capsicum cvs Mississippi-68, Santanka,
alone or in combination proved to be reasonably Anaheim Chile, and Italian Pickling are reported
effective and economical to check multiplica- to be resistant to root-knot nematodes. Black
tion of root-knot nematodes on capsicum. Indica, Naharia, and Pant C1 were reported to be
Plowing not only leads to disturbance and insta- resistant to M. incognita, while All Big was mod-
bility in nematode community but also causes erately resistant. California Wonder and Naharia
their mortality by exposing them to solar heat were resistant to M. javanica, while Early
and desiccation. Use of plastic sheets for cover- California Wonder as moderately resistant.
ing soil in greenhouse further enhances nema- Naharia was reported to be resistant to M.
tode reduction. Such an approach also helps in arenaria.
reducing the intensity of weeds, fungi, and bac- The southern root-knot nematode (M.
teria in the soil. incognita)-resistant ‘Carolina Wonder’ and
‘Charleston Belle’ are recommended for use by
23.5.1.2.3 Chemical Methods greenhouse growers.
Bare-root dip treatment of capsicum seedlings in
0.1 % Carbosulfan/Monocrotophos for 6 h elimi- 23.5.1.2.6 Integrated Methods
nates root-knot infection. Integration of P. fluorescens and P. chlamydospo-
ria in the greenhouse bed has proved significantly
23.5.1.2.4 Biological Methods effective in reducing the root-galling index (M.
incognita) and number of nematodes in the roots
(a) Antagonistic Bacteria: Application of a and soil and increasing the yield of the capsicum
nematicidal B. thuringiensis strain to capsi- crop (Naik 2004).
cum in Puerto Rico reduced galling in roots In capsicum, the seedling stand was good
due to M. incognita and increased yield sig- where the combination of neem-based P. fluores-
nificantly (Zuckermann et al. 1993). cens and T. harzianum was used (4.4), followed
(b) Antagonistic Fungi: Application of “Royal by seed treatment with P. fluorescens + soil appli-
350” (Arthrobotrys irregularis cultured on cation of T. harzianum (Naik 2004).
296 23 Bell Pepper
Phytopathological Society and the Entomological

References Society of Canada, Ottawa
Naik D (2004) Biotechnological approaches for the man-
Alabi O, Emechebe AM (1990) Field evaluation of seed agement of wilt disease complex in capsicum
treatment and foliar spray fungicides for the control of (Capsicum annum L) and egg plant (Solanum melon-
cowpea brown blotch induced by Colletotrichum cap- gena) with special emphasis on biological control.
sici. Samaru J Agric Res 7:151–158 PhD thesis, Kuvempu University, Shimoga
Gitaitis R, McCarter S, Jones J (1992) Disease control in Portree J (1996) Greenhouse vegetable production guide
tomato transplants produced in Georgia and Florida. for commercial growers. Province of British Columbia
Plant Dis 76:651–656 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, victoria
Howard RJ, Garland JA, Seaman WL (1994) Diseases and Zuckermann BE, Dicklow MB, Ascosta N (1993) A strain
pests of vegetable crops in Canada. The Canadian of Bacillus thuringiensis for the control of plant para-
sitic nematodes. Biocontrol Sci Technol 3:41–46
Cucumber
24
Abstract
Cucumber is one of the most important greenhouse crops particularly
because it can be grown round the year. As many as three crops under
subtropical conditions do make it economically very profitable. However,
due to such intensive production systems, the crop is often severely
infested with several insect and mite pests and diseases including the fun-
gal, bacterial, and viral diseases. Their symptoms and damage, biology,
spread, and management are discussed. Integrated pest management
(IPM) in greenhouses is one of the most important approaches for success-
ful pest control.
Keywords
Cucumber • Gherkins • Pests • Diseases • Symptoms • Biology • Spread •
Management
24.1 Introduction and more sugars (3 % versus 2.8 %). They are
smoother and greener and have a finer texture.
Cucumber and gherkins are being extensively The skin is more tender, not peeled, and is easier
grown in greenhouses in many countries. There to digest. The crops produced in greenhouses
are two types of cucumbers grown under pro- fetch higher income due to good-quality produce
tected cultivation. The continental or burpless and higher productivity per unit area and also due
cucumber is the main type of cucumber and has to being available in off season (Table 24.1). The
long fruit (Fig. 24.1), whereas the Lebanese cropping period gets extended, so regular supply
(mini) cucumber has shorter fruit (parthenocar- could be maintained for a long time.
pic). Compared with field cucumbers, these two
types are seedless and do not require pollination
to produce fruits. To ensure they are not polli- 24.2 Greenhouse Cucumber
nated, they must be kept apart from field crops of Varieties
conventional cucumbers. Compared with field
crops, protected cultivated cucumbers have flesh Commonly grown greenhouse cucumber variet-
that has less total acids (0.11 % versus 0.17 %) ies are presented in Table 24.2.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_24
298 24 Cucumber
Fig. 24.1 Cucumber under

Table 24.1 Greenhouse production of cucumber and income

Area under Total yield Av. price of green Gross income
Variety/crop greenhouse Duration of crop (t/1000 m2) fruit Rs/kg (Rs/1000 m2)
First crop of parthenocarpic 1000 m2 08.09.2011– 50 30 1,50,000
cucumber (var. Kian) 12.01.2012
Second crop of 1000 m2 28.01.2012– 75 35 2,62,500
parthenocarpic cucumber 25.5.2012
(var. Hilton)
Between crops, disinfect empty greenhouses torted and severe spotting may cause entire leaves
with 1 % chlorine (dilute sodium hypochlorite, as to blight (Fig. 24.2).
the 12.5 % chlorine product, by 12.5 times). Do Leaf petiole and stem lesions are shallow,
not plant too closely. Practice good hygiene, such elongate, and tan. Lesions on fruit are roughly
as removal of prunings, old leaves, and rejected circular and sunken and contain pinkish spore
fruits. masses in moist weather. It is favored by high
relative humidity and temperatures.
24.3 Diseases 24.3.1.2 Survival and Spread

The fungus may live for 2 years in the absence of
24.3.1 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum a suitable host. The fungus can be seedborne, and
orbiculare this is often the source of primary inoculum. The
spores depend upon water for spread and infec-
24.3.1.1 Symptoms tion; warm and humid rainy weather at frequent
On cucumber leaves the spots start as water- intervals is necessary for disease development.
soaked areas and expand into brown spots which The spotted or striped cucumber beetle can carry
are roughly circular, reaching about ¼ to ½ inch the spores from plant to plant within a
in diameter. Small, growing leaves may be dis- greenhouse.
24.3 Diseases 299
Table 24.2 Greenhouse cucumber varieties and their The plants must be well ventilated especially
characteristics
in mid afternoon, so that moist air is removed.
Greenhouse This will reduce humidity from 4.00 to 9.00 am,
cucumber
as high relative humidity at this time will result in
varieties Varietal characteristics
high spore production. Botrytis will also be less
Carmen Excellent yields, bitter-free fruit,
excellent disease resistance, ideal prevalent in a tall greenhouse which has low
for organic gardeners relative humidity and where the polythene cover
Swing Very good yields, long dark green has good anti-condensate properties.
fruit, very good slicing cucumber, If necessary, use registered chemicals that
excellent disease resistance
contain the active ingredients chlorothalonil or
Baribal Early maturing, heavy yields, short
dark green fruit
mancozeb. If possible, spray immediately after
Prima Top Fairly compact, good disease
removal of leaves and shoots and alternate with
resistance, long bitter-free fruits different chemicals.
Picolino Mini cucumbers, juicy and crisp,
good disease resistance
24.3.3 Gummy Stem Blight,
24.3.1.3 Management Didymella bryoniae or
The registered active ingredient, mancozeb, can Mycosphaerella cucumis
be sprayed to control anthracnose. The resistant
pickling cucumber cvs include Calypso, Chipper, 24.3.3.1 Symptoms
Galaxy, Carolina, and Explorer, and the most Symptoms on leaves begin as water-soaked areas
popular resistant slicing cucumbers are Poinsett and become light brown and irregular in outline.
and Highmark II. Stem symptoms may include cankers which can
girdle the stem and cause total plant loss. These
lesions may occur where leaves or fruit have been
24.3.2 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea removed. Symptoms also begin as water-soaked
areas, often at the blossom end, becoming brown-
24.3.2.1 Symptoms ish and exuding gum (Fig. 24.4). Lesions caused by
Botrytis or gray mold is a disease which is one of this fungus are characterized usually by the abun-
the first problems encountered by the new green- dant production of small black fruiting bodies.
house grower, mainly because of poor ventilation. Infection may be by water splash, but in the
The disease symptoms include soft watery rot greenhouse it is more likely by aerial dispersion
on flowers, stems, leaves, and fruits (Fig. 24.3) of spores. High relative humidity and condensa-
and may also cause damping-off in seedlings. It tion from the polymer roof plus low night tem-
will grow on debris on the greenhouse floor. peratures will increase this disease.
The spores are borne on stalks and result in a
gray fuzzy appearance. The disease often first 24.3.3.2 Management
affects the plant through pruning wounds and old The registered active ingredients, mancozeb or
flowers and then spreads to the rest of the plant. chlorothalonil, can be sprayed to control gummy
stem blight.
24.3.2.2 Management
Gray mold is most prevalent in cool moist climates
and optimum temperatures are 18–23 °C. High 24.3.4 Powdery Mildew,
relative humidity will increase the disease. Check Sphaerotheca fuliginea
the relative humidity with a hydrometer.
A most important means of control is to adopt 24.3.4.1 Symptoms
good hygiene. Do not space plants too closely. Powdery mildew is seen as a white growth under the
Remove old leaves, prunings, and debris from the leaves and later attacks the whole leaf and the upper
greenhouse. Do not overwater. leaves (Fig. 24.5). It is worse in autumn and winter.
300 24 Cucumber
Fig. 24.2 Cucumber anthracnose symptoms on leaf fruits
24.3.5.2 Management
Pythium may be controlled in hydroponic crops
by using calcium hypochlorite at 1.5 g/1000 L (1
ppm) regularly in the water supply and nutrient
solutions. Pythium can also be in the bore water
and can be treated in a holding tank with a high
rate of calcium hypochlorite (20 ppm chlorine)
for 1 day before the water is applied to the cucum-
bers. Application of nutrients in warm water in
winter may help to reduce the disease. Do not
replant into slabs in which plants were infected
Fig. 24.3 Gray mold symptoms on cucumber with the disease.
24.3.4.2 Management 24.3.6 Black Root Rot, Phomopsis

Many varieties have some tolerance to powdery sclerotioides
mildew but may produce lower yields. Registered
pesticides that contain the active ingredient 24.3.6.1 Symptoms
Triadimefon may be needed to control this dis- The disease has been recorded in several countries
ease. The relative humidity should also be not too of northwestern Europe and elsewhere. It infects
high, and good ventilation is needed. Infection cucumber and melon, causing a brown rot in the
begins when surface moisture is present on the cortical tissue of the root system. Soon a large
leaves, but then the fungus grows best under dry number of sclerotia develop and the infected tis-
conditions. sues turn black (Fig. 24.7). Severely infected plants
wither and die. Infection is favored by cool weather.
The pathogen survives in the soil for several years
24.3.5 Root Rot, Pythium spp by means of sclerotia (Blancard et al. 1991).

Pythium root rot destroys fine feeder roots, so Reduce plant density and increase ventilation.
that the plant has difficulty obtaining water and Soil treatment with thiram at 5–7.5 g/m2 or car-
nutrients. Plants wilt and appear nutrient defi- bendazim at 2–4 g/m2 before “macking up” the
cient. Roots are yellow to brown and the base of beds of fresh substrate and spraying the fungi-
the stem may rot (Fig. 24.6). Root rots are cides over beds at intervals prevented the sub-
induced by overwatering and poor aeration. strates from quick reinfestation by the pathogen.
24.3 Diseases 301
Fig. 24.4 Gummy stem

blight on cucumber
pathogen survives on plant debris, and spores are

air disseminated. The disease development is
favored by temperatures of about 15–25 °C and
RH over 86 % (Blancard et al. 1991).
24.3.7.2 Management
For disease control, greenhouse ventilation is the
best control measure. The disinfestation of green-
house soil and frames is also very important.
Regular application of dithiocarbamates, iprodi-
one, benzimidazoles, etc. is recommended as
well. There are several resistant cvs against some
races of the pathogens.
Fig. 24.5 Powdery mildew symptoms on cucumber leaf

24.3.8 Downy Mildew,
Application of bark pellets containing Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Trichoderma spp. to greenhouse soil infested
with Phomopsis sclerotioides reduced black root 24.3.8.1 Symptoms
rot of cucumber for 2 months. Symptoms are usually seen first on the lower,
older leaves. Initial symptoms of downy mildew
typically consist of angular, yellow spots on the
24.3.7 Scab, Cladosporium upper leaf surfaces (Fig. 24.9). On the undersides
cucumerinum of such spots, a purplish-gray fungal growth may
be visible when there is high relative humidity or
24.3.7.1 Symptoms moist conditions prevail (Fig. 24.9). As the disease
Scab mostly attacks cucumber, but also squash, progresses, the yellow spots enlarge and become
melon, etc. It causes nearly circular or angular necrotic or brownish in the center, with the brown-
leaf spots on the leaves, which look water soaked. ing spreading to the margins of the spots. Such
Fruit infection is more serious. Initially, water- spots may merge to form large brown areas on the
soaked lesions about 1 cm long, with gummy leaves. Diseased leaves are killed in this manner, if
exudations, develop. A corky tissue usually the disease is allowed to develop unchecked. Lack
develops around the lesions, which finally of photosynthetic tissue results in stunting of
develop a scabby appearance (Fig. 24.8). The plants, reduced fruit size, and poor fruit set.
302 24 Cucumber

Pythium root rot on
cucumber
Fig. 24.7 Black root rot symptoms on

cucumber
24.3.8.2 Management
The following control measures are recommended:
• Avoid dew formation by providing adequate

heating and ventilation. This is critical to
reducing the conditions for infection and dis-
ease development.
• Remove all sources of infection, such as
infected leaves and plants, and discard them,
in garbage bags, away from the site.
• Ensure that plants are sufficiently spaced and
that the canopy is well pruned and thinned to
provide for adequate air circulation.
• Overwatering not only leads to overly soft,
Fig. 24.8 Scab symptoms on cucumber fruit more vulnerable plants, but also to production
24.3 Diseases 303
Fig. 24.9 Left – Yellow

angular spots defined on
upper surface of cucumber
leaf. Right – Fungal growth
of Pseudoperonospora
cubensis on lower surface
of cucumber leaf
of droplets of moisture at the margins of leaves Under high humidity, there is often a bacterial
(guttation) early in the morning that provide gum exudate from the scabs. Lesions caused by
perfect infection sites for the downy mildew this disease do not contain the black fruiting bod-
pathogen. ies characteristic of gummy stem blight.
• Any cultural practice (e.g., misting) that
increases surface leaf moisture will increase 24.3.9.2 Survival and Spread
disease development when downy mildew Angular leaf spot on cucumber is seedborne and
spores are present in the air. survives beneath the seed coat and on the infected
• If only a few spots are evident on a few leaves plant debris, and upon germination the cotyle-
of one plant, the disease is in the early stages dons become infected. It can also survive in crop
of development. Implement appropriate con- residues for 10 months and in the soil for about
trol procedures immediately. Ensure good 140 days at 5–15 °C. It is spread by rainfall and
coverage, particularly with protectant fungi- insects, and through cultural practices. Disease
cides. Wherever possible, rotate fungicides to development is favored by warm temperatures
reduce the chances of developing resistance in (24–27 °C) and high relative humidity.
the fungus to the material applied. Generally, The bacterium is splashed from the soil by
use systemic fungicides in combination with water and infects plants. It spreads from plant to
protectant fungicides. plant during the cultural practices (Fletcher
1984). The bacteria are spread in water and are
more common under overhead irrigation. It is
worse in areas with high relative humidity.
24.3.9 Angular Leaf Spot,
Pseudomonas syringae pv 24.3.9.3 Management
lachrymans Strict hygiene, soil disinfestation, use of healthy
seeds, and reduction of the wetness period are
24.3.9.1 Symptoms recommended measures against bacterial dis-
Symptoms on leaves begin as small dark water eases in greenhouses. Reduction of nitrogen fer-
spots which enlarge and become light brown and tilizers is also important for tomato soft rot.
finally a pale bleached color. The larger lesions Copper fungicides are the most effective chemi-
are restricted by the leaf veins giving an angular cals. Some resistant cultivars have also been
appearance to them (Fig. 24.10). Old lesions released for tomato speck and bacterial spot of
frequently become tattered and holes develop on tomato, but none of them is suitable for green-
the leaf. Yellow haloes may be seen around the houses (Fletcher 1984).
lesions. The registered active ingredients, Propineb
Fruit lesions are often slightly raised and and copper oxychloride, can be sprayed to con-
corky and may produce a white crusty deposit. trol angular leaf spot.
304 24 Cucumber
Fig. 24.12 Symptoms of cucumber green mottle mosaic

Fig. 24.10 Angular leaf spots of cucumber virus
gers. Avoid handling healthy plants after working

with suspected infected ones until tools or hands
have been washed with soapy water. Destroy sus-
pect plants promptly to reduce the risk of trans-
mission. Keep the garden weed-free. Groundsel
and chickweed are particularly likely to harbor
CMV. Choose resistant cultivars such as ‘Bush
Champion’, ‘Crispy Salad’, ‘Jazzer F’, ‘Paskia
Fi’, ‘Petita’, and ‘Country Fair’.
Fig. 24.11 Symptoms of cucumber mosaic virus on

leaves and fruits 24.3.11 Cucumber Green Mottle
Mosaic Virus (CGMMV)
24.3.10 Cucumber Mosaic Virus 24.3.11.1 Symptoms

(CMV) In the early stage of infection, pale yellow spots
develop on the leaves at the top of the plant.
24.3.10.1 Symptoms Stunting is common in the infected plants. In the
Fruits and leaves are both affected, as the leaves late stage of infection, leaf mosaic and fruit mot-
become mottled, distorted, and wrinkled, and tling can be seen (Fig. 24.12).
their edges begin to curl downward (Fig. 24.11); In cucumber (Cucumis sativus) the type strain
the internal part of the fruit turns brown, making causes leaf mottling, blistering, and distortion
it unfit for consumption or processing. (Fig. 24.12), with stunted growth. Yield losses
may be 15 % (Fletcher et al. 1969); fruits are usu-
24.3.10.2 Transmission ally unmarked (Smith 1972), but some strains
Cucumber beetles and over 60 species of aphids cause severe fruit mottling and distortion (Inouye
can pick up CMV from infected plants while et al. 1967). Some Asian cvs show no leaf symp-
feeding. Some of the most efficient aphid vectors toms but suffer yield losses (Kooistra 1968).
are the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, and the
green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. 24.3.11.2 Management
Cucumber seeds heat treated at 70 °C for up to 3
24.3.10.3 Management days were free from active virus particles and
Apart from the aphid vectors, CMV is easily were still able to germinate (Fletcher et al. 1969).
transmitted on garden tools and gardeners’ fin- Transplants and grafted cucurbits should be
24.3 Diseases 305
tested for the virus before being sold to growers. month between two cucurbit crops, monitoring of
If the virus is found, all infected plant and plant B. tabaci populations). Control of CVYV
debris must be removed and destroyed and the depends on the control of its whitefly vector, B.
facilities cleaned. tabaci. Regarding chemical control, B. tabaci
appears to develop resistance to all groups of pes-
ticides that have been developed for its control. A
24.3.12 Cucumber Vein Yellowing rotation of insecticides that offer no cross resis-
Virus (CVYV) tance should therefore be used to control B.
tabaci infestations. The parasite Encarsia for-
24.3.12.1 Symptoms mosa is used as a biological control agent to con-
The virus causes pronounced vein clearing, chlo- trol T. vaporariorum, but it is less efficient against
rosis (Fig. 24.13), and finally general necrosis. A B. tabaci. Repeated introductions of larger num-
light to dark green mosaic appears on the fruit. bers of E. formosa are necessary if eradication is
The virus is transmitted mechanically and by the required. The predatory beetle Delphastus pusil-
whitefly Bemisia tabaci, in a semi-persistent lus is very effective against B. tabaci (Anonymous
manner (Mansour and Al-Musa 1993). 2000).
24.3.12.2 Transmission
Cucumber vein yellowing virus (CVYV) is trans- 24.3.13 Cucurbit Yellow Stunting
mitted by Bemisia tabaci. Although a single Disorder Virus (CYSDV)
whitefly can transmit the disease, the efficiency
of transmission was low. At least 15–20 insects 24.3.13.1 Symptoms
per plant were required to cause an infection of Interveinal chlorotic spots appear on mature
55 % of inoculated plants. The minimum acquisi- leaves. The yellow spots enlarge and may eventu-
tion and inoculation feeding periods were 30 and ally coalesce, resulting in the yellowing of the
15 min, respectively. entire leaf except for the veins which remain
green. The leaves may roll up and turn brittle
24.3.12.3 Management (Fig. 24.14).
In protected crops, control relies on preventive
and cultural practices (use of pest-free seedlings, 24.3.13.2 Transmission
adequate glasshouse window screens, double Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus is spread
doors, treatment of infected vegetable residues from plant-to-plant exclusively by the whitefly
and the introduction of a rest period of at least 1 vector, Bemisia tabaci. All biotypes of B. tabaci
known to exist in North America can transmit the
Fig. 24.14 Symptoms of cucurbit yellow stunting disor-

Fig. 24.13 Symptoms of cucumber vein yellowing virus der virus
306 24 Cucumber
virus efficiently, including biotypes A, B, and 24.4 Insect and Mite Pests
Q. Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus is not
transmitted by the greenhouse whitefly 24.4.1 Sciarid Fly, Bradysia paupera
(Trialeurodes vaporariorum).
24.4.1.1 Symptoms
24.3.13.3 Management It is similar to a sandfly in appearance and has
Currently, a number of management strategies long legs (Fig. 24.15). It may eat the roots of
are recommended to minimize the chance of this cucumbers planted in media such as coco peat. It
virus becoming established and/or causing sig- has also been found on cucumber grown in rock
nificant losses to cucurbit production. wool. Mushroom flies are worse in spring and
autumn. The larvae normally feed on organic
i) Before Growing Season matter and fungi. They will also hollow out the
stems of young seedlings at the base of the plant
• Although the virus is not seed transmitted, it is and cause plants to fall over. They also attack
important to use pathogen-free, high quality older plants. The pest has caused severe damage
seed. in some greenhouses and may also spread
• Use virus- and whitefly-free transplants. Pythium fungus disease. The fly lays its eggs in
• Do not import cucurbit (or any potential algae. If the trickle outlet is placed further down
whitefly host) transplants from areas known to into the pot, the surface of the media may be drier
have the virus. and result in fewer algae.
• Manage whiteflies on transplants.
24.4.1.2 Management
ii) During Growing Season Prevent entry to the growing area by using an
insect-proof glasshouse or tunnel. Placement of
• Plant immediately after any cucurbit-free insect-proof screens can increase the humidity in
period (either an arranged regional host-free the structure, causing ventilation problems. It is
period or true winter season). recommended to use a protected cropping con-
• Soil application of a neonicotinoid insecticide sultant/designer before retrofitting or building an
(imidacloprid, dinotefuran, or thiamethoxam) at insect-proof tunnel or glasshouse. This method
transplanting. Recent research results indicate will only be successful if growing media and
that dinotefuran may slow the spread and devel- incoming plants are free of fungus gnats.
opment of the disease, whereas imidacloprid
and thiamethoxam may be less effective.
• Monitor whitefly populations throughout the
growing season and implement insecticide
application as needed. Rotate insecticides with
different modes of action group members to
minimize development of insecticide resistance.
• Practice good weed management.
iii) After Growing Season
• Sanitation is very important; remove and

destroy old crops/volunteers on a regional
basis.
• Implement a voluntary or enforced regional
cucurbit-free period to eliminate the virus Fig. 24.15 Adult sciarid fly has a yellow band running
from the cropping system. below its wing (see arrow in photo) and is relatively large
Avoid excess watering. Fungus gnat numbers 24.4.2.2 Management

are lower when moisture levels are relatively low.
The active ingredient Bacillus thuringiensis • It is essential to start with a clean crop at the
israelensis is an organic product (under per- beginning of the season; therefore destroy all
mit) that can be used to control fungus gnats. crop residues and dispose of them at a site
Other biocontrol agents include Geolaelaps remote from the greenhouse.
aculeifer, Stratiolaelaps scimitus, Dalotia • If the previous crop was infested with white-
coriaria, and entomopathogenic nematodes flies, leave the greenhouse entirely empty of
(Table 24.3). plants for 5 days, with heat, to starve white-
flies; or, kill them with cold by allowing the
greenhouse to freeze below −1 °C for a week.
24.4.2 Whitefly, Trialeurodes • If a plant-free period is not possible between
vaporariorum crops, use a short-residual fumigant such as
naled (Dibrom). Apply at the end of the crop,
24.4.2.1 Symptoms before removing plant debris, and again to the
The main pest in greenhouse cucumbers is the empty greenhouse. Add insecticidal soap or
greenhouse whitefly. It is a small sucking pest dormant oil to the spray used to wash down the
which may build up to large numbers (Fig. 24.16). greenhouse structure and floor between crops
Whiteflies damage greenhouse cucumbers by to kill whitefly and other pests that often move
covering fruit and leaves with the sticky honey- to the walls or ceiling or hide in protected areas.
dew as they feed. High whitefly populations also • Keep the greenhouse weed-free and maintain
reduce the vigor of plants. It is favored by warm a 3-m-wide, weed-free border around the
temperatures and high relative humidity. greenhouse.
Table 24.3 Biological management of sciarid fly

Biological management Low populations < 20 per Moderate populations High populations 50+ per
option week 20–50 per week week
Biological management Release Geolaelaps Release G. aculeifer, S. Release S. scimitus or G.
option 1 aculeifer, Stratiolaelaps scimitus, or D. coriaria at aculeifer and nematodes
scimitus, or Dalotia coriaria moderate ratea weekly for at a relatively high ratea, b
on a regular basis at a three consecutive weeks for three consecutive
preventative ratea. weeks
Preferably, release when
potting up and once 2 weeks
later
Biological management Apply nematodes Release nematodes three If the population is
option 2 (Steinernema feltiae)b or Bti consecutive weeks at particularly high, apply
(Bacillus thuringiensis moderate ratesb Bti once per week in
israelensis) on a regular addition to predatory
basis at a preventative rateb, mites and nematodes
preferably starting when
first potting up. Alternate
between Bti and nematodes
at fortnightly intervals
a
Spread 1 L of G. aculeifer, S. scimitus, or D. coriaria over 100–150 m2 for preventative rates, 50–75 m2 for moderate
rates, and 30 m2 for high rates
b
Low pressure nematodes spray to drench. Use one 55 million pack of nematodes in 100–200 l of water covering 200,
150, and 100 m2, at low, medium, and high rates, respectively. Nematodes may also be applied through irrigation lines,
but filters must be removed
308 24 Cucumber
• Do not keep ornamental plants in a cucumber

greenhouse as these are also whitefly hosts.
• If greenhouse whitefly numbers are high, hang
yellow sticky tapes (up to 1 tape per plant) at
the top of the plant canopy to trap adult white-
flies. If sweet potato whitefly is present, hang
traps about 1 m below the top of the plants.
• If whiteflies are present on outdoor plants,
screen all entry points.
It may be controlled by spraying with endo-

sulfan. This has a 1-day withholding period. Fig. 24.16 Whiteflies on cucumber leaf
Whiteflies can be controlled by the parasitic
wasp, Encarsia formosa, and the predatory bee-
tle, Delphastus.
24.4.3 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus

urticae
24.4.3.1 Symptoms
Red spider mite is a major problem in warm
weather, especially where the relative humidity is
low. Once two-spotted mites are well established
in a crop, major yield loss is inevitable. Two-
spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae), also known
as “red spider” (Fig. 24.17), is a destructive pest
and is usually found on the underside of the
Fig. 24.17 Adult male (smaller individual) and adult
leaves. In severe infestations, large numbers of
female of T. urticae
mites and eggs occur on the leaves and are pro-
tected by webbing. The development from egg to
adult varies from a fortnight in cool conditions, to them in late winter/early spring and keep plants
5 days during a heat wave. Two-spotted mites cool by misting in summer. Introduce 100 preda-
cause the leaves to become mottled, yellow, and tors per 1,000 plants each week throughout the
shriveled. They prefer hot and dry conditions and growing season. Optimum temperatures are
the use of overhead sprinklers during high tem- 25–30 °C, with high relative humidity. The pred-
peratures may reduce populations and also cool atory mite is tolerant to most fungicides and
the plants. some miticides and insecticides. Propargite
(active ingredient) may be used in conjunction
24.4.3.2 Management with predatory mite to control two-spotted mite,
A predatory mite (Phytoseiulus persimilis) can especially in temperatures above 30 °C, which is
help to reduce numbers of two-spotted mite. tolerated more by two spider mites than the pred-
These are fost, bright orange and the adults are a atory mite. Other pesticides may have a severe
little larger than two-spotted mite. They are dif- effect on predatory mites and should not be used.
ficult to manage as they do not like cold or hot Predatory mites are killed by some classes of
conditions, and it will take 6–8 weeks to control pesticides such as synthetic pyrethroids. Avoid
a well-established population of two-spotted using these chemicals.
mites. They must be introduced when the first If biological control is not used, spraying is
two-spotted mites are seen. It is best to introduce necessary as soon as the mites appear on the
leaves (1–2 per leaf). If the infestation is not The biological agent, Encarsia formosa wasps
noticed at an early stage, huge populations soon are about 0.6 mm in size, and they lay their eggs
build up and are difficult to control. Applications on the small whitefly nymphs. They can be con-
of spray material must be thorough with both trolled with the biological agent, Typhlodromips
sides of the leaves wetted. The active ingredient montdorensis, which is a mite.
abamectin (permit) and botanical oils (registered) They may be controlled with the pesticide
can be used to control two-spotted mites, but do Buprofezin under permit. The active ingredients
not overuse the botanical oils. imidacloprid (permit) and Spinosad (registered)
TSSM can be successfully managed on green- can be used under permit to control thrips.
house cucumbers by a combination of biological
and chemical control. When TSSM were treated
with Bifenthrin and Phytoseiulus persimilis, pop- 24.4.5 Aphids, Aphis gossypii
ulations remained at a low level (Saeid and Sultan
2010). 24.4.5.1 Symptoms
The melon aphid, Aphis gossypii (Fig. 24.20),
can be a serious problem in greenhouse cucum-
24.4.4 Thrips, Frankliniella bers. New infestations are usually detected first
occidentalis on cucumber leaves and stems. The melon aphid
reproduces very rapidly on cucumber.
24.4.4.1 Symptoms
These are small insects that may cause bent fruits 24.4.5.2 Management
and scarring. Whiteflies are small delicate insects All three biological control agents listed below
(Fig. 24.18) that feed on the leaves and may cause should be released as soon as possible.
curled fruit and black, sooty mold deposits on the
leaves. • Release parasitic wasp (Aphidius matricariae)
to parasitize the melon aphid.
24.4.4.2 Management • Release aphid midges (Aphidoletes aphidi-
Releasing the beneficial Amblyseius cucumeris myza) between March 15 and August 15, at a
was able to effectively control thrips in green- high rate, weekly, until aphids are controlled.
house cucumbers (Fig. 24.19). • Release parasitic wasp (Aphidius matricariae)
to parasitize the melon aphid.
• Release the lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis, to
control all species of aphids. If the aphid
infestation is widespread, also release field-
collected Hippodamia convergens as well.
The active ingredients imidacloprid (under

permit), botanical oils (registered), and Spinosad
(registered) can be used to control aphids.
24.4.6 Slugs and Snails
24.4.6.1 Symptoms
Slugs and snails are a danger to young cucumber
plants. They feed on cucumber leaves and fruits
Fig. 24.18 First and second larval instars and adult of (Fig. 24.21) and destroy them in one night, and
western flower thrips there is nothing more disheartening than seeing
310 24 Cucumber
Average Number of Thrips per Leaf

Fig. 24.19 Biological 8
control of thrips on
7
cucumber using Amblyseius
cucumeris 6
5
4
3
2
Cucumeris
1
released June
0
9 2 & 26
09
09
09
9
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
20
20
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
1/
8/
6/
18
25
15
22
29
13
20
6/
6/
7/
5/
5/
6/
6/
6/
7/
7/
Date
Fig. 24.20 Aphid infestation on cucumber leaf
Fig. 24.21 Slug feeding damage on cucumber fruit

the heads of tray seedlings fall victim to the noc-
turnal slippery slimes.
viruses. Inadequate ventilation, particularly
24.4.6.2 Management during periods of high humidity, increases
Slugs and snails love decaying leaves – indeed damage from Botrytis. Powdery mildew is
that is their main diet, not your plants. So remove encouraged by high humidity and the excessive
pulled weeds, fallen leaves, and the like. Planting use of nitrogen fertilizers. Removal of a plant’s
out small plants rather than seedlings and a tray lower leaves to increase air flow around the
or two of beer for any passing slugs is the solu- plant, controlling greenhouse humidity, and
tion. Snails and slugs love the malty smell of avoiding over application of nitrogen fertiliz-
beer, yet alcohol is a poison for them. ers can help reduce the damage caused by these
plant diseases.
Many viruses are transmitted to crops from
24.5 Pest and Disease other hosts or plants by insect pests. Aphids,
Management commonly encountered in greenhouse growing
situations, are able to transmit a number of
Diseases commonly encountered in green- viruses that affect cucumbers.
house cucumber production include Botrytis, Developing and following IPM practices is
or gray mold, powdery mildew, and mosaic the most effective method for dealing with
References 311
pests. Examples of IPM strategies for green- References

house cucumber production include using
sticky traps to monitor for pest presence, con- Anonymous (2000) Current recommendations for eradi-
cation and containment, PHSI handbook of instruc-
trolling unwanted vegetation in and around the tions. MAFF, York
greenhouse to help exclude aphids from the Blancard D, Lecoq H, Pitrat M (1991) Maladies des
area, and positively identifying insects as pests cucurbitacées. Revue Horticole/INRA, Paris
to determine the most appropriate control Fletcher JT (1984) Diseases of greenhouse plants.
Longman Inc, New York
methods. Fletcher JT, George AJ, Green DS (1969) Cucumber
The best “cure” is prevention and sticking to green mottle mosaic virus, its effect on yield and its
the following points will help. control in the Lea Valley, England. Pl Path 18:16
Inouye T, Inouye N, Asatani M, Mitsuhata K (1967)
Studies on cucumber green mottle mosaic virus in
• Keep your plants as free of aphids as you Japan. Nogaku Kenkyu 51:175–186
can – they spread diseases. Kooistra E (1968) Significance of the non-appearance of
• Avoid cold or overly wet growing visible disease symptoms in cucumber (Cucumis sati-
conditions. vus L) after infection with Cucumis virus 2. Euphytica
11:136–140
• Avoid splashing the fruit when you water. Mansour A, Al-Musa A (1993) Cucumber vein yellowing
• Avoid cucumbers resting on the ground. virus; host range and virus vector relationships.
Provide a tile or flat stone for them to rest J Phytopathol 137:73–78
on. Saeid A, Sultan C (2010) Integrated control possibilities
for two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch
• Keep the greenhouse or polytunnel well (Acarina: Tetranychidae) on greenhouse cucumber. Int
ventilated. J Acarol 36:259–266
• Water regularly, but avoid overwatering – the Smith KM (1972) A textbook of plant virus diseases.
soil should never be soggy. Longman, London, 684 pp
Cole Crops
25
Abstract
Cultivation of cole crops under controlled environments or greenhouse is
one of the most promising measures. Temperature plays a vital role with
regard to growth and development of cole crops. The major insect and
mite pests (flea beetle, cabbage worm, diamondback moth, thrips, cabbage
maggot, cutworms, aphids, tarnished plant bug, slugs), diseases (black rot,
black leg, wire stem/damping-off, leaf spot, downy mildew, club root,
stem rot, white rust, powdery mildew, broccoli head rot), and root-knot
nematodes (their symptoms, biology, spread, and management) are
discussed.
Keywords
Cabbage • Cauliflower knol-khol • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes •
Symptoms • Biology • Spread • Management
25.1 Introduction inside the greenhouse, and the same was lowest
in outside of greenhouse. No. of leaves and
The performance of cole crops (cauliflower, spread in both directions was higher inside the
knol-khol, and cabbage) under protected envi- greenhouse as compared to outside of the
ronment and in open-field conditions was stud- greenhouse. Early flowering was also obtained
ied. The seedlings transplanted outside the under protected environment. The growth and
greenhouse germinated late due to low temper- yield of all these vegetable crops were found
ature and chilling injury in winters. Greenhouse encouraging due to utilization of high rate of
culture leads to 10–15 times higher yield than carbon dioxide inside the greenhouse (Chandra
that of outdoor cultivation, depending upon the et al. 2000). Circumference of curd, gross
greenhouse design, availability of environment weight of plant, and curd weight for cauli-
control facilities, cropping systems, greenhouse flower, knol-khol, and cabbage were found
management, and crop type. The cauliflower higher inside the greenhouse, and the same was
(cv Aghani), knol-khol (cv Earliest white), and found lower in open field (Table 25.1) (Agrawal
cabbage (cv Pride of India) gave higher yield et al. 2003).

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_25
314 25 Cole Crops
Table 25.1 Performance of cauliflower, knol-khol, and cabbage inside the low-cost greenhouse and in open-field
condition
Cauliflower Knol-khol Cabbage
Observation Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside
No. of leaves 18.20 15.42 19.18 16.65 11.20 10.25
Spread EW (cm) 85.16 80.92 40.35 38.12 42.90 48.18
Spread NS (cm) 92.00 89.20 45.70 42.23 39.32 42.70
Length of leaves (cm) 49.68 38.10 30.12 22.80 40.22 31.69
Width of leaves (cm) 28.75 24.62 20.15 19.50 32.17 29.26
Circumference of curd 49.65 44.60 27.28 23.95 48.63 42.35
(cm)
Av. gross wt. of plant 2.240 1.860 0.506 0.415 2.123 1.885
(kg)
Av. curd wt. (kg) 0.985 0.796 0.291 0.220 1.540 1.206
Yield (kg/m2) 5.47 4.42 3.61 2.22 8.55 6.70
25.2 Diseases Kishun 1986), 100 ppm streptocycline, or

0.01 % Aureomycin (Trivedi and Patel 1972).
25.2.1 Black Rot, Xanthomonas • Drenching of seed beds with 5 % commercial
campestris formalin or 1 % Bordeaux mixture.
• Spraying cauliflower with 100–200 ppm
25.2.1.1 Symptoms Agrimycin-100 (Bera 1986) and 500 ppm car-
Black rot lesions first appear at margins of leaves. bendazim (Saini and Parashar 1981) and cab-
The tissue turns yellow and the lesion progresses bage with erythromycin (Mondel and
toward the center of the leaf, usually in a V-shaped Mukherjee 1978) was found effective in
area with the base of the V toward the midrib. reducing the disease incidence.
Lesions may coalesce along the leaf margin to • Strict field sanitation will help in checking the
give plant a scorched appearance. The veins disease.
become dark and discoloration frequently extends • Rouging of diseased plants helps in reducing
to the main stem and proceeds upward and down- the disease incidence.
ward (Fig. 25.1). • Destroy Brassica weeds and thoroughly incor-
porate plant debris and plant-resistant
25.2.1.2 Survival and Spread varieties.
Black rot bacterium is capable of surviving in the • Good air circulation and water drainage is
soil for 3 years without another cole crop present. critical in controlling this disease, along with
Pathogen is spread via infected seed or by splash- avoiding water on the crop in the afternoon
ing rain or irrigation water and insect movement; and evenings.
disease emergence favored by warm and humid
conditions.
25.2.1.3.1 Biomanagement
25.2.1.3 Management Bacillus subtilis was found effective in managing
The following practices are recommended: black rot of cabbage when applied as seed treat-
ment, seedling root dip treatment, and soil
• Hot water treatment of seeds at 50 °C for drenching (Bhattacharya 1996).
30 min (Shekhawat et al. 1982). Jalali and Parashar (1995) reported that Hsb-
• Seed treatment with 0.1 % mercuric chloride 19 strain of Bacillus was an effective and safe
for 30 min, 100 ppm Plantomycin (Kishun means to suppress the progression of black rot
1984), 100 ppm Agrimycin-100 (Rao and disease. They recorded higher protection than
25.2 Diseases 315

black roton cabbage leaves
that obtained with the application of streptocy-

cline when the antagonist was applied 24–74 h
before inoculation with X. campestris pv campes-
tris. This provided 83.15 % disease control over
the pathogen inoculated check.
25.2.2 Black Leg, Phoma lingam
25.2.2.1 Symptoms
Early signs of blackleg appear as small spots on
leaves of young plants. On stems the spots are
more linear and often surrounded by purplish bor-
ders. Stem lesions at the soil line usually extend to
the root system causing dark cankers (Fig. 25.2).
The fibrous root system may be destroyed Fig. 25.2 Symptoms of black leg on crucifers
although new roots sent out above the lesion may
keep the plant alive. Many plants wilt abruptly
and die. Damping-off of seedlings; round or irreg- abundant amounts of spores which exude from
ularly shaped gray necrotic lesions on leaves with the pycnidia in long coils and are splashed to
dark margins; lesions may be covered in pink nearby plants to initiate new infections. The dis-
masses in favorable weather conditions. ease is favored by wet, rainy weather.
25.2.2.2 Favorable Conditions 25.2.2.4 Management

Favored by warm, wet conditions; higher tem- Use disease-free seed or treat with hot water to
peratures result in the development of more visi- remove fungus prior to planting; remove and
ble symptoms. destroy crop debris after harvest or plow deeply
into soil.
25.2.2.3 Survival and Spread Use clean, certified seed or seed which has
This organism is capable of surviving in the soil been hot water treated. Practice a 4-year crop
for 3 years without another cole crop present. rotation, destroy Brassica weeds, and thoroughly
This disease can be seedborne. The pathogen incorporate plant debris. Good air and water
infects seedlings, forms pycnidia, and produces drainage is critical in controlling this disease,
316 25 Cole Crops
along with avoiding water on the crop in the field rotation with non-Brassica crops should be
afternoon and evenings. practiced for at least 3 years. Avoid mounding of
soil onto lower leaves when cultivating.
25.2.3 Wire Stem/Damping-Off, 25.2.3.3.1 Biomanagement

Rhizoctonia solani Good control of damping-off was obtained
through soil incorporation of wheat bran prepara-
25.2.3.1 Symptoms tion of Trichoderma harzianum in commercial
The soilborne fungi Rhizoctonia and Pythium nursery. Seed treatment with 0.2 % carbendazim
cause two diseases of broccoli including or benomyl or Trichoderma spp. was found to be
damping-off and wire stem. as effective as soiltreatment for managing the dis-
Pre-emergence damping-off occurs when ease. Seed treatment with Trichoderma spp. was
seeds are attacked and decay, as well as when found to be as effective as soil application for
plants germinate, but fail to emerge. Post- managing pre- and post-emergence damping-off
emergence damping-off occurs when the stem of in cabbage (Dar et al. 1997).
2–5-cm tall plants is attacked. A water-soaked Seed treatment or soil application of
area completely encircles the stem near the soil Aspergillus niger, which multiplied in the rhizo-
line and the seedling wilts and topples over. Wire sphere of cauliflower, gave effective control of
stem results from an extension of the damping- damping-off (Majumder 2000).
off process, but new infections may occur on
plants 10–15 cm tall. The stem above and below
the soil line darkens, and the outer cortex tissue 25.2.4 Leaf Spot, Alternaria
decays and sloughs off in sharply defined area brassicae, and Alternaria
encircling the stem (Fig. 25.3). The stem is thin brassicola (Mycosphaerella
and wiry at the lesion but remains erect. The brassicicola)
plant may survive, but will perform poorly.
25.2.4.1 Symptoms
25.2.3.2 Favorable Conditions A. brassicae (gray leaf spot) causes small and light
Disease emergence in seedlings is favored by brown or gray lesions and A. brassicola (black leaf
cool temperatures. spot) causes larger and darker lesions. These dis-
eases are seed- and soilborne. Small black spots
25.2.3.3 Management (1–2 mm in diameter) appear on leaves, later turn-
Management strategies include planting ing into a tan color with target-like concentric
pathogen-freeseed or transplants that have been rings (Fig. 25.4). When the spots dry out, the tissue
produced in sterilized soil, applying fungicide to falls from leaves, resulting in a “shot-hole” appear-
seed to kill fungi, shallow planting of seeds, or ance. Cool temperatures, rain, and high humidity
delaying planting until soil warms. favor the development of this disease. Spots usu-
For damping-off and wire stem in seedbeds, ally are most conspicuous on the outer, older
only sterilized soil or soil that has not previously leaves. The disease causes small brown sunken
had Brassicas for several years should be used. lesions and decay of broccoli heads, under very
Seeds should be hot water treated and also treated wet conditions. The spots enlarge in storage to
with a suitable fungicide. Plant density should sunken, black areas. Alternaria is a secondary fun-
permit adequate light and air penetration. Factors gus; it usually invades the plant after it has been
such as deep planting, reduced seed vigor, and injured by other pests or management practices.
excessively cold, hot, moist, or saline soils that
delay seed emergence should be avoided. 25.2.4.2 Favorable Conditions
Deficiencies of calcium, potassium, and nitrogen Disease emergence is favored by warm, rainy
or excessive nitrogen may promote disease. A weather. The pathogen requires cool, moist
25.2 Diseases 317
Fig. 25.3 Constricted

stem of broccoli seedlings
caused by damping-off/
wire stem

black spot on broccoli
leaves
conditions to survive; disease symptoms typi- 25.2.5 Downy Mildew,

cally develop in the fall and the peak of the infec- Hyaloperonospora parasitica
tion occurs in winter.
25.2.5.1 Symptoms
25.2.4.3 Management Small angular lesions develop on upper surface
Seed treatment with hot water maintained at 50 of leaves which enlarge into orange or yellow
°C for 30 min is effective. Giving wider spacing necrotic patches. White fluffy growth develops
(60 × 50 cm) and removal of basal leaves from on undersides of leaves (Fig. 25.5).
time to time help to reduce the disease incidence. Once infected, the plant shows white, fuzzy
Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride and masses in patches on the underside of leaves,
Pseudomonas fluorescens and soil treatment of stems, and heads. The tops of leaves turn purple
nursery beds with neem cake enhance seed ger- and then later turn yellow or brown. Internally,
mination and seedling stand. Spraying with the broccoli heads may show brown and black
Captan or copper oxychloride both at 0.3 % is streaks on the main stalk and branches leading to
effective in controlling the disease. the florets.
Practice long rotations between cole crops,
avoid overhead irrigation, and make sure to 25.2.5.2 Survival
incorporate plant debris. Good air circulation is This fungus overwinters in seed and can survive
needed in the field, as well as in storage. Keep for at least 2 years. It also overwinters on infected
storage temperature at 0 °C and relative humidity plants and can survive in the soil for at least 1
at 92–95 %. year.
318 25 Cole Crops
Fig. 25.5 Downy mildew

symptoms on broccoli
leaves
25.2.5.3 Favorable Conditions 25.2.6.2 Survival and Spread

Infection is favored by wet, cool weather, espe- When club root-affected plants rot and breakdown
cially during prolonged periods of leaf wetness, in the fall, the fungus spores are released into the
such as during dew or fog. soil, where they may live for 10–20 years, ready to
infect any cole crop subsequently planted. Since
25.2.5.4 Management the fungus spores are in the soil, movement of the
Good air and water drainage is critical in control- soil by any means (boots, tools, wheels, wind and
ling this disease, along with avoiding water on water, etc.) also spread the disease. The disease
the crop in the afternoon and evenings. Crop rota- can also be spread by movement of contaminated
tion with non-Brassica plants and incorporating soil and irrigation water to uninfected areas.
plant debris will also aid in controlling this dis-
ease. Spraying with Ridomil MZ or Aliette both 25.2.6.3 Management
at 0.2 % or copper oxychloride at 0.3 % gives Once the pathogen is present in the soil, it can sur-
effective control of the disease. vive for many years, and elimination of the patho-
gen is economically unfeasible. Plant only certified
seed and avoid field-grown transplants unless pro-
25.2.6 Club Root, Plasmodiophora duced in a fumigated bed. Applying lime to the
brassicae soil can reduce fungus sporulation. Apply lime to
raise the pH of the soil to at least 7.2.
25.2.6.1 Symptoms
Club root is a soilborne disease which affects
broccoli. Early infections are difficult to detect as 25.2.7 Stem Rot (White Mold),
symptoms begin underground. Symptoms include Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
small to large swellings and other malformations
of the roots (Fig. 25.6). As a result of these swell- 25.2.7.1 Symptoms
ings, water and nutrient flow are restricted within Leaves when infected turn light green and later
the plant, which causes the aboveground parts to yellow and are shed prematurely. Black soft rot
wilt, turn color, and look stunted. Wilting is most often appears on petioles and midrib touching the
common on warm sunny days; plants may show soil and is covered with fluffy growth of the fun-
little wilting early in the morning or late at night. gus. Stem at the ground level shows girdling.
The club root fungus enters the plant through Fluffy mycelium of the fungus grows on these
the many fine hairs on the roots. The extent of the infected plant parts with numerous sclerotia
disease is affected by many factors. Moist, cool embedded.
soils usually produce more diseased plants than
dry, warm soil. The disease also thrives best in 25.2.7.2 Favorable Conditions
acid soils; that is when the pH is below 7. Once Cool (20–25 °C) and humid (95–100 % RH) con-
land becomes infested with this disease, it will ditions are ideal for disease initiation and spread
remain so for several years. (Sharma and Sharma 1985).
25.2 Diseases 319
Fig. 25.6 Club root-affected cabbage roots
Fig. 25.7 White rust on crucifer leaf

25.2.7.3 Management
Avoiding excess moisture with less frequent irri-
gation and reducing the plant populations by fol-
lowing wider spacing will create microclimate
less congenial for disease development.
Application of FYM or saw dust reduces the dis-
ease incidence. Soil amendment with sunflower
inflorescence, rapeseeds, and pine needles reduce
the disease incidence (Gupta et al. 1986). Remove
diseased leaves and destroy them.
Application of benomyl and MBC both at 0.1
% was found effective in reducing the disease
incidence. Soil application of T. harzianum (TH
4) andA. niger (Sanjeevini and Kalisena) was
highly effective (Sharma et al. 2001).
25.2.8 White Rust, Albugo candida Fig. 25.8 Powdery mildew on cabbage leaf
25.2.8.1 Symptoms
White pustules on cotyledons, leaves (Fig. 25.7), a problem. Spray fungicide metalaxyl
stems, and/or flowers which coalesce to form (Ridomil), Blitox, wettable sulfur, Maneb, and
large areas of infection; leaves may roll and Captan.
thicken.
25.2.8.2 Survival and Spread 25.2.9 Powdery Mildew, Erysiphe

Fungus can survive for long periods of time in cruciferarum
dry conditions; disease spread by wind. Oospore-
contaminated seeds and zoospore-infected flower 25.2.9.1 Symptoms
buds perhaps are the most important sources of Small white patches appear on upper and
primary infection of white rust. lower leaf surfaces (Fig. 25.8) which may also
show purple blotching; patches coalesce to
25.2.8.3 Management form a dense powdery layer which coats the
Rotate crops; plant only disease-free seed; leaves; leaves become chlorotic and drop from
apply appropriate fungicide if disease becomes plant.
320 25 Cole Crops
25.2.9.2 Favorable Conditions Head rot develops most rapidly at high tempera-
Disease emergence is favored by dry season, tures (28 °C). Frost injury and infection by downy
moderate temperatures, low humidity, and low mildew may also bring rise to this disease.
levels of rainfall.
25.2.9.3 Management Avoid high levels of nitrogen and avoid applying
Plant-resistant varieties; rotate crops; remove all pesticides during head formation. Use resistant cul-
crop debris after harvest; remove weeds; avoid tivars whenever possible and large plant spacings to
excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer which increase air movement through the crop. Cultivars
encourages powdery mildew growth; powdery Green Defender and Shotgun consistently appeared
mildew can be controlled by application of sulfur highly resistant, while cv. Green Valiant was rated
sprays, dusts, or vapors. moderately resistant (Canady et al. 1991).
25.2.10 Broccoli Head Rot, 25.3 Insect Pests

Pseudomonas marginalis
25.3.1 Flea Beetle, Phyllotreta
25.2.10.1 Symptoms crucifera
Symptoms appear after periods of rain when
heads remain wet for several days. The bacteria 25.3.1.1 Symptoms
are splashed up from the soil to the head. When Flea beetles are small shiny black beetles, about
heads are colonized by the bacteria, some areas 2 mm in length. They are very active early in the
appear water soaked (because a bio-surfactant is growing season, especially during periods of dry
released by the bacteria) in contrast to unaffected sunny weather. Flea beetles can seriously damage
areas where the waxy surface of the florets causes seedlings and transplants and to a lesser extent
water to form in beads. Small black lesions may larger plants, by chewing small pinholes through
develop in these water-soaked florets. During the leaves (Fig. 25.10). There is one generation per
long periods of wetness, decay spreads rapidly, year. The larvae live in the soil and feed on roots.
resulting in a sunken area on the head (Fig. 25.9). Small holes or pits in leaves that give the foli-
age a characteristic “shot-hole” appearance; young
plants and seedlings are particularly susceptible;
plant growth may be reduced; if damage is severe,
the plant may be killed; the pest responsible for the
damage is a small (1.5–3.0 mm) dark-colored bee-
tle which jumps when disturbed; the beetles are
often shiny in appearance. Younger plants are
more susceptible to flea beetle damage than older
ones; older plants can tolerate infestation.
25.3.1.2 Survival
Flea beetles may overwinter on nearby weed spe-
cies, in plant debris, or in the soil; insects may go
through a second or third generation in 1 year.
25.3.1.3 Management
Plant seeds early to allow establishment before
the beetles become a problem – mature plants are
Fig. 25.9 Head rot on broccoli less susceptible to damage; application of a thick
Large ragged holes in leaves (Fig. 25.11);

green-brown frass (insect feces) on leaves; cater-
pillar is green in color and hairy, with a velvet-
like appearance; may have faint yellow to orange
stripes down back; slow-moving compared with
other caterpillars.
Butterfly larvae cause damage by feeding on
plants; can be distinguished from other caterpil-
lars by its sluggish movement; in large numbers
larvae can cause extensive damage very quickly.
25.3.2.2 Biology
Fig. 25.10 Damage to broccoli leaf caused by crucifer
flea beetle The cabbage worm overwinters as a chrysalis in
or near cruciferous crops. In Virginia, the adults
emerge in March. Mating and egg laying occur
layer of mulch may help prevent beetles reaching within 24 h of emergence. Eggs are laid singly on
surface; application on diatomaceous earth or the underside of the outer leaves of the host plant.
oils such as neem oil are effective control meth- Hatching occurs in 4–8 days. The larvae pass
ods for organic growers. Using white or yellow through 5 instars in 12–33 days and then form a
sticky traps every 4.5–9.0 m and making sure to chrysalis. Adults emerge in 8–20 days and have a
destroy plant debris are also good cultural control life span of approximately 3 weeks. Female cab-
practices. bage worm butterflies generally lay 200–300
Biological control options for flea beetle eggs. In southwestern Virginia, the cabbage
include using a braconid wasp that will parasitize worm has 2–3 generations per year on cabbage.
and kill adult flea beetles and using nematodes In the piedmont of North Carolina, it has 5–7
that attack the larvae. generations per year.
If using chemical controls, scout plants fre-
quently and treat when the threshold has been 25.3.2.3 Management
reached. One flea beetle per plant (up to the sixth Handpick caterpillars from plants and destroy;
leaf stage) is the threshold number. After the scrape eggs from leaves prior to hatching; apply
sixth leaf stage, feeding will not interfere with appropriate insecticide if infestation is very
plant growth. Application of insecticides contain- heavy.
ing carbaryl, spinosad, bifenthrin, and perme-
thrin can provide adequate control of beetles for 25.3.2.3.1 Biological Control
up to a week but will need to be reapplied.
(a) Cotesia glomerata (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae): C. glomerata (formerly
25.3.2 Cabbage Worm, Pieres rapae Apanteles glomeratus) was the most com-
mon larval parasite of imported cabbage
25.3.2.1 Symptoms worm in southwestern Virginia. It attacks the
The adult of the cabbage worm is a white butter- first three instars of cabbage worm, oviposit-
fly, easily seen going from plant to plant laying ing 20–50 eggs per host. Parasite larvae
eggs during the summer. The eggs hatch into emerge en masse from the late fifth instar and
velvety-green larvae with one thin yellow stripe spin characteristic yellow cocoons. Masses
down the centre of its back (Fig. 25.11). The cab- of yellow cocoons of parasite are seen on
bage worm larvae do not loop when they walk. Brassica leaves.
They are generally the most prevalent of the cat- (b) Pteromalus puparum (Hymenoptera:
erpillars found on cole crops. Pteromalidae):P. puparum is the most com-
322 25 Cole Crops
Fig. 25.11 Left, cabbage

worm larva on broccoli
leaf; right, broccoli plant
damaged by cabbage worm
while feeding
mon parasite of cabbage worm in southwest- holes on leaf undersides, may leave the upper
ern Virginia. In surveys conducted from 1981 surface intact; larvae may drop from the plant on
to 1984, parasitism of cabbage worm by P. silk threads if the leaf is disturbed; larvae are
puparum in southwestern Virginia was small (1 cm) and tapered at both ends; larvae
greater than 50 %. P. puparum is a gregarious have two prolegs at the rear end that are arranged
internal parasite of the cabbage worm, attack- in a distinctive V shape (Fig. 25.12).
ing the newly formed pupa. Larvae develop Larvae take between 10 and 14 days to mature
within the host and emerge as adults through and spin a loose, gauze-like cocoon on leaves or
a small hole cut in the pupal case. stems to pupate.
(c) Bacillus thuringiensis:B. thuringiensis is a
Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium, 25.3.3.2 Biology
which is very pathogenic to a large number It overwinters in the pupal stage, with adults
of lepidopterous larvae. Different caterpillar emerging in early to mid-May. Mating occurs at
species exhibit varying responses when fed dusk on the day of emergence and lasts about 1 h.
these crystals and/or B. thuringiensis spores. Egg laying begins shortly after dusk and reaches
The imported cabbage worm is highly sus- its peak about 2 h later. Eggs are oviposited sin-
ceptible to B. thuringiensis. gly or in small groups (two to eight), mainly on
the upper surface of the host plant leaves.
Hatching occurs in 4–8 days. The larval period
varies from 9 to 30 days, during which the larva
25.3.3 Diamondback Moth, Plutella passes through four instars. The mature larva
xylostella constructs its cocoon typically on the lower
leaves. Adults emerge in 5–15 days. The life span
25.3.3.1 Symptoms of the adult averages 2 weeks and during that
The diamondback moth is much smaller than the time the female oviposits an average of 159 eggs.
previous insects. Three to six generations of In Virginia, three generations of diamondback
1.1 cm yellow-green larvae may develop each moth are known to occur on cabbage; however,
year. The larvae squirm actively when disturbed the potential for more generations exists in areas
and produce many small holes on the host plant. of southwestern Virginia or the Carolinas where
This pest can bore into the heads of cabbage. cabbage is in continuous cultivation or wild
Diamondback moths do not survive the winter in Cruciferae are present.
this region. Adult moths migrate in throughout
the growing season. Hence, there is often an 25.3.3.3 Management
overlap in generations, and all stages may be Cultural controls include pheromone emitters to
present at one time. disrupt mating and evening overhead sprinkler
Young larvae feed between upper and lower irrigation.
leaf surface and may be visible when they emerge If using chemical controls, scout plants fre-
from small holes on the underside of the leaf; quently and treat when the threshold level has
older larvae leave large, irregularly shaped shot been reached. To determine the threshold level,
Fig. 25.12 Diamondback moth larva, pupa, and adult and damage to cabbage head
count the number of plants out of 25 randomly weeds. Populations increase quickly when the air
selected plants that have one or more caterpillars temperature is over 21 °C.
and then multiply by 4. This will give the per- If population is high, leaves may be distorted;
centage of plants infested. For broccoli, the leaves are covered in coarse stippling and may
threshold guidelines are 20–30 % before heading appear silvery; leaves speckled with black feces;
and 5–10 % after heading. insect is small (1.5 mm) and slender and best
Larvae can be controlled organically by appli- viewed using a hand lens; adult thrips are pale
cations of B. thuringiensis or Entrust; application yellow to light brown and the nymphs are smaller
of appropriate chemical insecticide is only neces- and lighter in color.
sary if larvae are damaging the growing tips of Thrips transmit viruses such as tomatospotted
the plants. wilt virus; once acquired, the insect retains the
ability to transmit the virus for the remainder of
25.3.3.3.1 Biological Control its life.
Diadegma insulare (=Diadegma insularis)
(Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is the major par- 25.3.4.2 Management
asitoid of diamondback moth in Virginia. The Destroy refuse and control weeds. It is critical to
female attacks diamondback moth larvae, espe- control them at early head formation (7.5 cm leaf
cially the later instar larvae. A solitary parasite ball).
emerges from the prepupa shortly after the host If using chemical controls, check plants fre-
has spun its cocoon. This parasitoid can control quently and treat when damage is first observed.
diamondback moth populations. Use reflective mulches early in growing sea-
son to deter thrips; apply appropriate insecticide
if thrips become problematic.
25.3.4 Thrips (Western Flower Thrips,
Onion Thrips), Frankliniella
occidentalis, and Thrips tabaci 25.3.5 Cabbage Maggot, Delia
radicum
25.3.4.1 Symptoms
Thrips (T. tabaci) are slender, yellow-brown 25.3.5.1 Symptoms
insects about 1 mm long (Fig. 25.13). They feed The cabbage maggot or cabbage fly adults fly
by puncturing the leaves and sucking up the close to the ground near Brassica plants and lay
exuding sap. This causes the appearance of dark elliptical white eggs on the stems of crops or in
warts or blisters on the leaves. They also feed on nearby crevices in the soil. The adult is a two-
broccoli heads, damaging them and making them winged, ash grey fly, with black stripes on the
unmarketable. They overwinter on refuse and midsection. It is half the size of a housefly, but
has longer legs. Eggs hatch in 3–7 days. Larvae
324 25 Cole Crops
Fig. 25.13 Western flower thrips
are white, legless maggots (Fig. 25.14) that enter

the roots and feed by rasping the plant tissue with
a pair of hooklike mouth parts and tunneling into
the roots. Feeding damage by the cabbage mag- Fig. 25.14 Cabbage maggot larvae on cauliflower stem
got causes roots to be misshapen and allows the
entry of decay organisms and other species of and may be damaged higher up by climbing cut-
maggots, resulting in stunted or killed young worms. Most of the cutworm damage is to newly
plants. Maggots mature in 3–4 weeks and pupate. set plants in the field, but they are often found
The pupae are 6 mm long, oval, hard shelled, and attacking seedlings in plant bed and greenhouses.
dark brown. Pupae overwinter in the soil near the Late infestation of variegated cutworm occasion-
roots of the host plant. Adult flies emerge in 2–3 ally occurs.
weeks; the first generation usually emerges in
late May to early June. The presence of adult flies 25.3.6.2 Management
can be determined by looking for eggs which are Prepare the soil 2 weeks before planting to culti-
laid at the base of plants. Generally, there are two vate in cover crops and destroy weeds. Check
to three generations a year. plants frequently and treat when damage is first
observed.
25.3.5.2 Management
Natural enemies for the cabbage maggot include
ground beetle, rove beetle, spiders, harvestmen 25.3.7 Aphids, Brevicoryne brassicae
or daddy longlegs, and ants.
If using chemical controls, scout plants fre- 25.3.7.1 Symptoms
quently and treat when damage is first observed. The cabbage aphid is a major pest of cole crops
worldwide. Aphids are small, soft bodied, slow-
moving insects. A colony consists of winged and
25.3.6 Cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon wingless adults and various sizes of nymphs.
Aphids may be black, yellow, or pink, but mostly
25.3.6.1 Symptoms are various shades of green. They are often found
Cutworms are grayish, fleshy caterpillars up to in large colonies on the undersurface of leaves
5 cm long, which curl up when disturbed. Plants (Fig. 25.15); however, aphids will feed on heads,
may be chewed off above or below ground level flower stalks, as well as leaves, resulting in
Fig. 25.16 Tarnished plant bug on leaves

Fig. 25.15 Cabbage aphids
unmarketable produce. Aphids feed by piercing

plants and sucking out plant sap, resulting in
distorted plant parts and a slowing of plant growth.
The plants may be covered by a sticky substance,
called honey dew, which is excreted by the aphids.
25.3.7.2 Management
There are many natural enemies that will feed on
aphids, thus helping to reduce the populations of
this pest in the field. Natural enemies that pro-
duce larvae which will feed on aphids include
syrphid flies, lacewings, and the predaceous
midge. Adults and larvae of minute pirate bugs, Fig. 25.17 Slug damage on cabbage head
big-eyed bugs, lady beetles, soldier beetles, and
parasitic wasps like Diaeretiella rapae will also
consume aphids. 25.3.8.2 Management
Cultural controls include using high-pressure Keep plantings and adjacent areas weed-free.
sprinkler irrigation to knock the insects off of plants. Check plants frequently and treat when damage
If using chemical controls, check plants fre- is first observed. For vegetable crops, dimethoate,
quently and treat when damage is first observed. endosulfan, and several of the synthetic pyre-
throids are labeled for tarnished plant bug
control.
25.3.8 Tarnished Plant Bug, Lygus
lineolaris
25.3.9 Slugs
25.3.8.1 Symptoms
Adult tarnished plant bugs are light brown to red- 25.3.9.1 Symptoms
dish brown in color and about 5–6 mm in length Slugs exist in various sizes up to 10 cm. They eat
(Fig. 25.16). They occur throughout the season holes in the leaves and leave a trail of mucus,
and are very active and quick moving. They feed which makes plants unsightly (Fig. 25.17). The
on broccoli heads causing dry, shriveled, and control of slug populations has been a continuing
grayish to brown florets, which reduces the mar- problem in the cole crop industry.
ketability of the head. Bacterial and fungal rots
may invade these damaged tissues.
326 25 Cole Crops
25.3.9.2 Management Bhattacharya AK (1996) Management of black rot of cab-

bage caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv campes-
Slugs prefer areas which are cool, moist, and
tris (Pammel) Dowson. M.Sc. thesis, Assam
high in organic matter. Since slugs can overwin- Agricultural University, Jorhat
ter fairly easily, cultural practices aimed at con- Canady CH, Wyatt JE, Mullins JA (1991) Resistance in
trolling them should begin at least 1 year before broccoli to bacterial soft rot caused by Pseudomonas
marginalis and fluorescent Pseudomonas species.
the susceptible crop is put in. If urea (4 kg/ha) is
Plant Dis 75:715–720
sprayed on this cultivated strip, slug movement Chandra P, Sirohi PS, Behera TK, Singh AK (2000)
may be further impeded. The salt irritates the Cultivating vegetables in polyhouse. Indian Hortic
slugs as they move over it. Repeated applications 45(3):17
Dar GH, Zargar MY, Beigh GM (1997) Biocontrol of
are necessary. Slugs are usually more numerous
Fusarium root rot in the common bean (Phaseolus vul-
in heavy, moist soils; sandy soils usually have garis L) by using symbiotic Glomus mosseae and
fewer slug problems. Rhizobium leguminosarum. Microbial Ecol 34:74–80
Gupta PK, Agarwal RK, Sharma SL (1986) Efficacy of
soil amendments in managing ‘stalk rot’ (Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum) of cauliflower. Indian J Plant Path
25.4 Nematodes 4:129–131
Jalali I, Parashar RD (1995) Biocontrol of Xanthomonas
25.4.1 Root-Knot Nematodes, campestris pv campestris in Brassica juncea with
phylloplane antagonist. Plant Dis Res 10:145–147
Meloidogyne spp. Kishun R (1984) Seed treatment for control of cabbage
black rot. J Turkish Phytopath 13:81–88
25.4.1.1 Symptoms Majumder S (2000) Biological control of Rhizoctonia
Galls on roots which can be up to 3.3 cm in diam- solani and Pythium aphanidermatum on vegetables by
Aspergillus niger v Tieg Strain AN27. Ph.D. thesis,
eter but are usually smaller; reduction in plant
Bidan Chandra Agriculture University, West Bengal,
vigor; yellowing of plants which wilt in hot weather. p 110
Mondel R, Mukherjee N (1978) Sensitivity of plant bacte-
25.4.1.2 Favorable Conditions ria to some antibiotics, antibactericides and other
drugs. Z Pfenkh Pflaschutz 85:607–616
Galls can appear as quickly as a month after
Rao ANS, Kishun R (1986) A note on the control of bacte-
planting; nematodes prefer sandy soils and dam- rial black rot [Xanthomonas campestris (Pammel)
age in areas of field or garden with this type of Dowson] of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata
soil is most likely. Linn) by seed treatment. Pesticides 20:47
Saini LC, Parashar RD (1981) Comparative efficacy of
stable bleaching powder with other antibacterial for-
25.4.1.3 Management mulations in controlling black and soft rot of cauli-
Plant-resistant varieties if nematodes are known flower. Indian Phytopath 34:465–469
to be present in the soil; check roots of plants Sharma RC, Sharma SL (1985) Correlation of meteoro-
logical factors with stalk rot of cauliflower caused by
mid-season or sooner if symptoms indicate nem-
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Indian J Ecol 12:327–330
atodes; solarizing soil can reduce nematode pop- Sharma P, Singh L, Adlakha D (2001) Antagonistic poten-
ulations in the soil and levels of inoculum of tial of Trichoderma and Aspergillus species on
many other pathogens. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib) de Bary causing rots in
cabbage and cauliflower. Pestic Inform 2:41–44
Shekhawat PS, Jain ML, Chakravarti BP (1982) Detection
and seed transmission of Xanthomonas campestris pv
References campestris causing black rot of cabbage and cauli-
flower and its control by seed treatment. Indian
Agrawal N, Mehta N, Sharma HG, Dixit A, Dubey P Phytopath 35:442–447
(2003) Cultivation of cole crops under protected envi- Trivedi BM, Patel PN (1972) In: Patel PN (ed) Plant bac-
ronment. Karnataka J Agril Sci 16(2):332–334 teriology: vol. I. Bacterial diseases of plants in India.
Bera SC (1986) Control of black rot disease of cauliflower Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi,
by some chemicals. Pesticides 20:51–52 p 260
Lettuce
26
Abstract
The productivity and quality of lettuce under greenhouse is much higher
compared to open field, and it is available from November to May. Various
insect pests, such as cutworms, aphids, slugs and snails, American boll-
worm, Plusia looper, thrips, and whitefly, may attack lettuce. Lettuce is
also affected by several diseases, such as Septoria leaf spot, Sclerotinia
rot, bacterial rot complex, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and various
virus diseases being the most important. Lettuce is also susceptible to
attacks by nematodes, of which the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne
spp, are the most important. Their symptoms, biology, spread, and man-
agement are discussed.
Keywords
Lettuce • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread •
Management
Greenhouse-grown lettuce (Fig. 26.1) is of better 26.2.1 Butterhead Vatieties

quality than outdoor crops, and it is available
from November to May when the outdoor Floribibb, Florida butter crisp, Ermosa, Margarita,
crops are not available. The variety ‘Kwiek’ is Red Rouge, Carmona, Ostinata, Rex
suitable for sowing in late August for winter let-
tuce and ‘Emerald’ and ‘Kloek’ in September/
October for late winter and spring supplies. The 26.2.2 Loose Leaf Varieties
productivity of lettuce under greenhouse is much
higher compared to open field (Table 26.1). Red (New Redfire, Vulcan), Green (Two Star),
Oakleaf green (Saladbowl), Oakleaf red (Cerize)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_26
328 26 Lettuce
the crop. Lettuce cultivars with resistance to B.

lactucae are available. This is often through the
combination of several vertical resistance genes,
but numerous corresponding pathotypes of B.
lactucae exist. It is not advised to use a resistant
cultivar, without chemical treatment, relying on
the absence of the matching pathotype, as the
pathotypes which occur on the crop may not cor-
respond to the resistance of the plant. However,
under such circumstances, the number of treat-
ments could be reduced, if no downy mildew is
seen.
26.3.1.2.1 Problems with Fungicide

Resistance
Resistance to phenylamides has been found in B.
lactucae. It is recommended in general not to use
phenylamides more than twice on a crop, prefer-
Fig. 26.1 Rows of lettuce grown under protected
cultivation
ably only once. They should not be used cura-
tively, i.e., when disease is visibly present. The
number of treatments is more important than the
26.3 Diseases timing in reducing resistance risk.
26.3.1 Downy Mildew, Bremia 26.3.1.2.2 Main Fungicides

lactucae
Sprays Cymoxanil, folpet, fosetyl-aluminum,
26.3.1.1 Symptoms mancozeb, maneb, metalaxyl, oxadixyl, propa-
Bremia lactucae causes the most serious disease mocarb, thiram, zineb.
of lettuce under protected cultivation. It persists
as oospores in soil and is air dispersed as sporan-
gia. Lettuce plants can be infected at the seedling 26.3.2 Bottom Rot, Thanatephorus
stage and all the way through the growing period. cucumeris, Sclerotinia spp,
Lesions on leaves are first discolored (Fig. 26.2) and Botryotinia fuckeliana
and finally rot after sporulation of the pathogen.
26.3.2.1 Symptoms
26.3.1.2 Management Several fungi [Thanatephoruscucumeris (ana-
The treatments applied to seedling compost or morph Rhizoctonia solani), Sclerotinia sclerotio-
soil against fungal pathogens is not very effective rum, and S. minor] cause a collar rot of lettuce,
against B. lactucae oospores. If possible, soils in the inoculum coming from sclerotia in the soil.
which significant downy mildew was seen on a These rots then spread to the basal leaves and
previous lettuce crop should be avoided. may eventually destroy the heart of the lettuce
Treatment of seedlings is essential, usually with (Fig. 26.3). Botryotinia fuckeliana (anamorph
sprays of dithiocarbamates (zineb or mancozeb), Botrytis cinerea) can also persist as soilborne
and continues after planting out. Because the sclerotia, but, unlike the others, produces abun-
dithiocarbamates are the fungicides most likely dant air-borne conidia which can infect leaves
to present residue problems, it is most usual to directly, especially if these are damaged. Because
use them on seedlings, or in the first 2 weeks after of the close relationship between Botryotinia and
planting, and then use a systemic fungicide on Sclerotinia, the same fungicides are generally
26.3 Diseases 329
Table 26.1 Yields of lettuce under greenhouses and open fields

Greenhouses Open fields
Crop Yield/crop (t/ha) No. of crops/year Total yield t/ha/year Total yield t/ha/year
Lettuce 31.3 10 313.0 52
rounding soil, should be carefully removed to

reduce any soil inoculum for future crops.
Foliar sprays can be applied to minimize air-
borne infection by B. fuckeliana and the spread of
Sclerotinia spp between young plants.
26.3.2.2.1 Problems with Resistance

Resistance to benzimidazoles (as Benomyl) and
dicarboximides (e.g., iprodione, procymidone,
vinclozolin) is fairly common in B. fuckeliana, in
view of their use on the many different hosts it
Fig. 26.2 Downy mildew symptoms on lettuce leaf attacks. It is possible then to substitute a fungi-
cide from a different group, e.g., Tolylfluanid. If
effective against them (in particular, those of the as many as three or four treatments are made, it is
dicarboximide group). T. cucumeris, a basidio- advisable to alternate fungicides from different
mycete, requires quite distinct fungicides. The groups.
fungicides used against B. lactucae have little
useful action against any of the fungi considered 26.3.2.2.2 Main Fungicides
here.
Seed Treatments Mancozeb, maneb, mepronil,
26.3.2.2 Management thiram.
With soilborne fungi, it is essential to ensure that
both the compost used for seedling production Soil Treatments Coniothyrium minitans,
and the soil are free from the inoculum. Seedling dazomet, mepronil.
compost should be based on new peat. If there is
any indication that the soil may be infested, it Sprays Benomyl, dichlofluanid, dicloran (or
should be treated by steam sterilization (to 10 cm fog), iprodione, mepronil, procymidone, thiram,
depth for 15 min) if possible. Such treatment will tolclofos-methyl, tolylfluanid, vinclozolin.
also destroy Olpidium brassicae, the fungal vec-
tor of several lettuce viruses (lettuce big-vein
varicosavirus, lettuce ring necrosis virus) and 26.3.3 Lettuce Big-Vein Varicosavirus
Pythium spp which may cause damping-off.
If steam sterilization is not an option, mepro- 26.3.3.1 Symptoms
nil, pencycuron, or tolclofos-methyl can be used The most common symptom in big-vein affected
as a specific preplanting treatment against T. cuc- lettuce is a clearing along the veins (Fig. 26.4).
umeris. Alternatively, a single treatment may be Infected head of lettuce plants grow like leaf let-
used, immediately after planting, with mepronil tuce. Many lettuce types can be severely stunted.
or pencycuron or tolclofos-methyl. The virus is associated with the soilborne fungus
For partial control of the sclerotia of Olpidium brassicae. The fungus persists in soils
Sclerotinia spp, the antagonist Coniothyrium for very long periods of time. It is spread by soil
minitans may be applied before planting. Any and irrigation water. It also transmits the unchar-
plants affected by Sclerotinia spp, and the sur- acterized Lettuce ring necrosis virus.
330 26 Lettuce
Fig. 26.3 Left – Bottom

rot, Thanatephorus
cucumeris. Right – Lettuce
drop, Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum
CMV is transmitted by aphids in the nonpersis-

tent manner.
26.3.4.2 Management
Because CMV is acquired and transmitted by
aphids in a matter of seconds and because of its
wide host range, it is a difficult virus to control.
Thus, spread may occur rapidly and regular con-
trol of aphids is necessary. Lettuce should not be
grown near autumn crops of cucumber or near
infected plants. CMV cannot be spread by
mechanical means. The most effective method of
control is the use of resistant cultivars.
Fig. 26.4 Lettuce big-vein symptoms
Lettuce big-vein varicosavirus can be espe- 26.3.5 Lettuce Mosaic

cially severe when lettuce is grown under cool Potyvirus (LMV)
conditions (<16 °C) and the soil moisture is
favorable for spread of O. brassicae. 26.3.5.1 Symptoms
Lettuce mosaic potyvirus is one of the common-
26.3.3.2 Management est and potentially most damaging pathogens of
There are attempts to control the fungal vector by lettuce. Symptoms vary depending on the type of
steaming of the soil. Use of uncontaminated lettuce and cultivar, the growth stage when
water is recommended. It is possible to use infected, and environmental conditions. Seedling
Carbendazim against O. brassicae. leaves originating from infected seeds appear
irregular in shape and develop a light green mot-
tle or mosaic (Fig. 26.6).
26.3.4 Cucumber Mosaic
Cucumovirus (CMV) 26.3.5.2 Management
All types of lettuce are susceptible. The virus is
26.3.4.1 Symptoms seed transmitted and sap transmissible. Effective
Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus is usually a control is provided by the use of virus-free seed
minor pathogen of lettuce, but it can be a signifi- and/or resistant cultivars. An annual lettuce-free
cant problem in glasshouses. Symptoms can be period of 2 weeks is recommended. The virus is
very difficult to differentiate from those induced also transmitted in a nonpersistent manner by
by Lettuce mosaic potyvirus. They include many species of aphids; therefore their control is
stunted plant growth and yellow mottling, distor- needed. Alternate hosts should be removed, in
tion, and necrotic spots on leaves (Fig. 26.5). particular the weed host Senecio vulgaris.
(Fig. 26.7). Their physical presence is not accept-

able on the marketed product, even after treat-
ment when dead insects and shed skins remain.
Myzus persicae is also the vector of lettuce
mosaic virus and cucumber mosaic virus, and
one of the objectives of aphid control is to treat
early so as to prevent any virus transmission
within the crop.
26.4.1.2 Management
The need to treat against aphids is determined by
their appearance in the crop. Yellow sticky traps
can be used to monitor aphid flight, but this is not
Fig. 26.5 Lettuce CMV symptoms
as reliable as monitoring the plants. Treatments
should not be carried out routinely. Nevertheless,
because of the virus-vector risk, it is important to
be vigilant in aphid detection during the period
immediately after planting. This is particularly
important at times when aphids are most likely to
be viruliferous. A single early treatment may be
sufficient, but if more aphids appear, up to three
treatments may be needed. Exclusion of aphids by
insect-proofing is technically feasible but costly.
The range of insecticides which can be used is
very wide. Pirimicarb is favored as a specific
product against aphids, but some strains of some
species are known to be resistant. Myzus persicae
and Nasonovia ribisnigri strains found on pro-
tected crops in Europe are likely to be resistant to
commercially available insecticides. Therefore,
Fig. 26.6 LMV symptoms insecticides with different modes of action should
be used in alternation. Biological control agents
should be used wherever possible.
26.4 Insect Pests
26.4.1.2.1 Main Insecticides
26.4.1 Aphids, Myzus persicae
Sprays Cypermethrin, deltamethrin, dimetho-
26.4.1.1 Symptoms ate, dichlorvos, heptenophos, malathion, mevin-
Lettuce in protected cultivation is attacked by phos, pirimiphos-methyl, pymetrozine.
aphids, mainly Myzus persicae, Macrosiphum
euphorbiae, Aulacorthum solani, Nasonovia Fogs Diazinon, dichlorvos, pirimicarb (aerosol
ribisnigri, and Hyperomyzus lactucae. These dispenser), pirimiphos-methyl.
aphids feed on the lower side of the leaves and
even in the heart of the plant. They cause poor Smoke Diazinon, pirimicarb (smoke generator),
growth, malformation, and discoloration sulfotep (fumigant/vapor-releasing product).
332 26 Lettuce
Fig. 26.7 Lettuce leaves

infected with aphids
Sprays (Against Leaf-Feeding

26.4.2 Noctuids, Agrotis ipsilon
Noctuids) Acephate, alpha-cypermethrin,
Bacillus thuringiensis s sp aizawai, cyperme-
26.4.2.1 Symptoms
thrin, deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin.
The most important insect pests of lettuce in pro-
tected cultivation, apart from aphids, are the lar-
vae of noctuid moths, especially Agrotis ipsilon,
A. segetum (cutworms, i.e., soil-inhabiting noc- 26.4.3 Leaf Miners, Liriomyza spp
tuid larvae feeding on the roots), and Autographa
gamma, Mamestra brassicae, and Mythimna uni- 26.4.3.1 Symptoms
puncta (leaf-feeding noctuid larvae, whose eggs Several Liriomyza sppinfest lettuce: L. bryoniae, L.
are laid directly on the foliage) (Fig. 26.8). trifolii, and L. huidobrensis. The last was introduced
However, these pests are only sometimes impor- into the EPPO region in 1987 and is still absent, or
tant, occurring especially in crops grown in soil under eradication, in some countries. Where the
rather than in soil-less culture. pest is considered established, however, chemical
control is needed. Liriomyza trifolii has limited
26.4.2.2 Management potential to survive outdoors in northern Europe.
Trapping adult moths can be used to determine the Phytomyza horticola may also attack lettuce.
time of application of irrigation and/or sprays. This leaf-mining species (Fig. 26.9) is polypha-
Where there is regular irrigation, there are few gous and very common in Europe.
problems with cutworm damage. For the soil noc-
tuids, a single treatment (bait, granule, or spray) 26.4.3.2 Management
should be done if a pest problem is detected, or if Since leaf miners in general are mainly pests of
pheromone-trap catches indicate a risk, just before protected crops, at least in northern Europe, the
or after planting. When pyrethroids are used, it is first point in the strategy is to exclude them by
recommended to avoid the products to be used general hygienic precautions and to use seedlings
later against aphids or leaf-feeding noctuids. free from infestation. Weekly observations with,
For leaf-feeding noctuids, a single treatment is for example, sticky traps should be used to detect
recommended, when damage is seen. This should not imminent outbreaks. Seedlings can be covered
normally be applied later than the 15–17-leaf stage, with insect nets (0.8-mm mesh) during the harden-
but emergency treatments are available for later use. ing period before planting. A single spray when
the pest is detected may be sufficient, but treat-
26.4.2.2.1 Main Insecticides ment may be repeated at 3–5-day intervals if nec-
essary. Leaf miner resistance can sometimes make
Against Soil Noctuids Acephate, Bacillus control difficult. Biological control with Diglyphus
thuringiensis s sp aizawai, bifenthrin, chlorpyri- isaea, Dacnusa sibirica, and Opius pallipes is also
fos, deltamethrin, diazinon, fenitrothion, mala- possible and recommended as GPP. The mines in
thion, tralomethrin. the leaves disfigure the crop for marketing but are
26.5 Nematodes 333
Fig. 26.8 Cut worm

damage on lettuce
26.4.4.2 Management
General hygiene is important. All plant debris,
leftover plastic, growing medium, etc. that may
serve as hiding places or oviposition sites should
be removed. The soil surface should be clod-free
and free from weeds, also along the walls. Moist
conditions favor the development of slugs.
Biological control is possible with nematode,
Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita. If problems
with slugs persist, molluscicides formulated as
baits can be used until 1 week before sowing or
planting, but not during the growing period.
Fig. 26.9 Leaf miner damage on lettuce leaf 26.4.4.2.1 Main Molluscicides
Metaldehyde, Methiocarb.
usually confined to the lower leaves, so that they
can be trimmed off at harvest.
26.5 Nematodes
26.4.3.2.1 Main Insecticides
26.5.1 Root-Knot Nematodes,
Sprays Abamectin, cypermethrin, cyromazine, Meloidogyne spp
dichlorvos, mevinphos, oxamyl, propoxur,
pirimiphos-methyl. 26.5.1.1 Symptoms
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita,
M. hapla, M. arenaria, M. javanica) are polypha-
26.4.4 Slugs gous nematodes causing characteristic knots
(galls), swellings, and other malformations on
26.4.4.1 Symptoms the roots of lettuce (Fig. 26.10), which results in
Slugs (Agriolimax spp, Arion spp, Deroceras poor growth and occasional wilting leading to
spp) may inflict considerable damage to lettuce poor yields. The smaller discrete galls with
seedlings and established plants by feeding and adventitious root proliferation formed by M.
by forming slimy tracks. They can be particularly hapla are distinctive. Although M. hapla prefers
troublesome in autumn. coarse-textured soils, it also occurs in organic
334 26 Lettuce
Fig. 26.10 Root-knot

nematodes, Meloidogyne
incognita and M. hapla on
lettuce roots
soils, and it is a major pest of lettuce which is • The product is the leafy vegetable as such, and
commonly grown in this kind of soil. market standards tolerate no spotting, discolor-
ation, visible insect damage, etc. (in contrast to
26.5.1.2 Management other important vegetables in protected cultiva-
Nematode-free planting material and non-infested tion like tomatoes or cucurbits, where fruits are
soil are normally sufficient to keep lettuce free the marketed product and a certain amount of
from these nematodes. Weeds should be thoroughly damage to the foliage can be tolerated).
controlled, throughout the areas where lettuces • There is no practicable biological control of
may be grown. The broad host range of Meloidogyne pests in lettuce at present.
spp adds to the problem of selecting suitable rota- • Residue tolerances are very low, as the part of
tion crops. Steam sterilization of the soil is an the plant treated is the part consumed, and it is
effective curative measure. It is not GPP to treat consumed fresh (without a significant storage
soil systematically with nematicides. Such treat- period).
ments should be limited to what is strictly neces-
sary and may be subjected to official limitations.
26.5.1.2.1 Main Nematicides 26.6.2 Guidelines for Good Plant

Preplanting soil treatment, allowing for the above Protection Practices
considerations (that nematicide use should be
restricted rather than recommended): dazomet, GPP in lettuce implies good management of the
oxamyl. protected environment, for the incidence of pests
can be much affected by general cultural condi-
tions. In particular, crops should be well spaced,
26.6 Good Plant Protection conditions favoring very high RH should be
Practices (GPP) avoided, plants should be well watered during hot
dry periods to prevent marginal leaf necrosis
26.6.1 Difficulties in Protected (which favors Botrytis rot) but should not be
Cultivation of Lettuce Crop watered late in the day when the crop might stay
wet for a long time (possibly overnight), infected
plants should be carefully removed (avoiding
• As a monoculture under protected conditions, spore dispersal as far as possible), and general
lettuce is liable to rapidly spreading pest attacks. hygiene should be high. Special attention should
26.6 Good Plant Protection Practices (GPP) 335
be given to the control of weeds (using herbicides or tolerant cultivars should be used. Normal pre-
or other means of control) around the glass- cautions should be taken against damping-off
houses, as they can be reservoirs for many pests diseases, including the use of seed treatments.
and also sources of weed seeds. Cultural conditions can markedly affect dis-
Soil sterilization is a common practice for pest ease risk in lettuce. Planting large or damaged
control (including weed control) in protected plants or planting into dry soil should be avoided
crops. It is GPP to use steam sterilization for this to reduce Botryotinia fuckeliana. Watering is car-
purpose. ried out mostly early in crop growth, creating a
Viruses are also important pests of lettuce, and reserve in the soil, so that there is less need to
control of their vectors (soil fungi, aphids) is water later on, when watering is likely to encour-
essential. Some viruses can be partially con- age downy mildew. Balanced nutrition with ade-
trolled by using tolerant cultivars. Use of virus- quate potassium is also believed to reduce
free planting material is essential. Plants should Botrytis risk.
be regularly inspected for virus symptoms and Finally, it may be noted that most glasshouse
infected plants immediately removed. lettuces are grown in soil, so that appropriate pre-
Lettuces for protected cultivation are mostly cautions have to be taken to avoid carry-over of
grown from seedlings raised in small peat pots pests in the soil, including pathogens and weed
(or similar containers) or peat blocks and trans- seeds. However, some lettuces are grown in soil-
planted as a whole into the final growing medium. less media or by liquid-film methods. In many
Seedlings should be produced in high-quality countries in the EPPO region, lettuce is grown
compost. They should be raised in an isolated under the protection of plastic tunnels. Under
location, away from lettuce crops or other crops these conditions, general hygiene standards need
(to prevent infection especially by downy mildew to be maintained at a very high level, but the basic
and viruses). The seeds should meet normal cer- strategies to control pests remain broadly the
tification standards for lettuce mosaic potyvirus same.
Rose
27
Abstract
With the advent of state-of-the-art greenhouse cultivation in early 1990s,
large-scale cultivation of export quality cut flower of roses in protected
condition started, thereby totally altering production dynamics. Cut flower
trade is worldwide dominated by Hybrid Tea roses. Roses are attacked by
many pests and diseases that can lower quality and yields. Among the
insect pests, thrips, white fly, red spider mites, tobacco budworm, and
aphids are important. The major diseases affecting roses are dieback, black
spot, rust, and powdery mildew. Their symptoms, biology, spread, and
management are discussed.
Keywords
Rose • Insects • Mites • Diseases • Symptoms • Biology • Spread • Management
27.1 Introduction 27.3 Diseases
Previously commercial rose cultivation in India 27.3.1 Dieback, Diplodia rosarum

was mainly in open-field conditions. However,
with the advent of state-of-the-art greenhouse 27.3.1.1 Symptoms
cultivation in early 1990s, large-scale cultivation This is the most serious of the rose diseases in
of export quality cut flower in protected condi- India. As the term dieback implies, the disease
tion started, thereby totally altering production causes the death of the plant from top downward.
dynamics (Fig. 27.1). Cut flower trade is world- The disease starts from the pruned surface of the
wide dominated by Hybrid Tea roses. twigs (Fig. 27.2). Initially it may be observed to
the extent to a few centimeters below the pruned
end, but in the severe cases, the disease spreads
27.2 Varieties further and kills the entire plant.
The rose varieties suitable for growing under 27.3.1.2 Management

greenhouse cultivation are presented in Table Soil drenching with 2 g/L bavistin, benomyl, or
27.1. demosan, has been reported to control the dis-

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_27
338 27 Rose
Fig. 27.1 Rose under

Table 27.1 Rose varieties used for cut flower purpose (0.1 %) at fortnightly intervals and Benlate or
Flower Bayleton (0.1 %) applied just before the appearance
color Variety of the spots helps in managing the disease. Bavistin
Red Jaguar, Gabriella, Sasha, Grand Gala, (0.1 %) was found to be the most effective fungi-
First Red, Dallas, EG Hill, Happiness cide against leaf spot caused by Diplocarpon rosae.
Pink Kiss, Europe, Prophyta, Royal, Nobles,
Pink, Aristocrat, Better Times
Bicolor Amour, Rodeo, Confetti, Ambience,
Lionides, Yellow Gloria
27.3.3 Powdery Mildew,
Orange Indian Puma, Candid, Mercedes, Jazz,
Sphaerotheca pannosa var
Orange Delight, President Herbert rosae
Yellow Golden Time, Golden Gate, Frisco,
Golden Rapture, Golden Scepter 27.3.3.1 Symptoms
Cream Prestige, Vivaldi, Verselia, Florence It is a major disease of the rose all over the world.
Purple Jakaranka, Souvenier The disease affects all the aerial parts of the plant,
White Eskimo, Double White Killarney, White though the leaves are found to be affected more.
Pearl The younger leaves get curled, exposing the
lower surface, and such leaves are likely to be
ease. Spraying with 0.2 % captan or 0.2 % man- purplish than the normal leaves with raised
cozeb or 0.2 % copper oxychloride immediately blister-like areas developing in these leaves,
after pruning and then twice at 10-day interval is which becomes coated with the white powdery
also effective for controlling dieback of rose. growth of the fungus (Fig. 27.4).
27.3.3.2 Management
27.3.2 Black Spot, Diplocarpon rosae Apply chlorothalonil, propiconazole, piperalin,
fenarimol, sulfur, copper hydroxide, neem oil,
27.3.2.1 Symptoms azoxystrobin, kersoxim methyl, ziram, or triforine.
This disease is also called as leaf blotch, leaf
spot, blotch, and star sooty mold. Characteristic
black spot 2–12 mm in diameter develops on 27.3.4 Rust, Phragmidium
upper leaf surfaces. These leaf spots are circular mucronatum
or irregularly coalescent with characteristic
feathery, radiate, fibrillose margins of subcuticu- 27.3.4.1 Symptoms
lar mycelial strands (Fig. 27.3). The disease is easily identified by the yellow
orange rust pustules which develop profusely on
27.3.2.2 Management the lower surface of older leaves (Fig. 27.5). In
The infected leaves as they are observed should be greenhouses it is not very destructive. Several spe-
clipped off and burnt. Preventive sprays of Ferbam cies of Phragmidium have been reported to infect

dieback on rose stem and
leaves
benches and propagation rooms with an

appropriate greenhouse disinfectant.
• Keep the humidity within the greenhouse at
less than 80 %. Increasing air movement by
adding fans will prevent moisture from con-
densing on the foliage.
• Practice only surface watering and avoid
splashing water onto foliage. If overhead irri-
gation is necessary, early morning irrigation is
recommended when plants will dry quickly.
• Space plants to allow for good air circulation.
• The fungicides Myclobutanil, Tebuconazole,
and Triticonazole are approved for rust control.
Rose diseases under greenhouse conditions,

their symptoms, and management are presented
in Table 27.2.
Fig. 27.3 Symptoms of black spot on rose leaf
27.4 Insect and Mite Pests

rose, but P. mucronatum is the most common. It is
an autoecious, macrocyclic fungus producing telia 27.4.1 Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis
by the end of the crop season in the same place as
uredospores. They serve as overwintering struc- 27.4.1.1 Symptoms
tures and initiate infection during spring. Free Thrips are a serious problem on roses grown in
water and temperature 9–27 °C are necessary for polyhouses almost round the year except during
the uredospores to germinate (Horst 1989). November–December and July–August. Both
nymphs and adults suck cell sap from tender leaves,
27.3.4.2 Management growing buds, and flowers. Curled leaves with
brown streaks appear on the young leaves. When
• Frequently remove all rust-infected leaves and they feed on the young buds, scorchy appearance
badly infected plants and destroy by burning, of sepals and petals is seen. Later the deformed
rapid composting, or burying. Severely flowers with burnt margins are very common.
infected roses can be dramatically pruned. When thrips populations are high on roses,
• At the end of the growing season, carefully flower buds may become deformed and fail to
clean up and destroy all crop debris. Sterilize open. Petals may be covered with brown streaks
340 27 Rose
Fig. 27.4 Powdery

mildew symptoms on rose
and spots (Fig. 27.6). Western flower thrips can

also vector certain tospoviruses including impa-
tiens necrotic spot virus and several strains of
tomato spotted wilt virus.
27.4.1.2 Management
• Spray insecticides like imidacloprid 200 SL at

0.4 ml/L or fipronil 5 SC at 1.5 ml/L or
acephate 75 SP at 1.5 g/L or dimethoate (0.15
%) at 10–15-day interval.
• Drench the beds after raking up with chlorpy-
rifos 20 EC at 4 ml/L for killing resting pupae. Fig. 27.5 Rose leaves infected with rust pustules
• Spray jatropha or pongamia oils at 10 ml/L.
drying. Due to their feeding, white specks appear
on the leaves, and these specks coalesce and
appear as white patches. Ultimately, affected
27.4.2 Two Spotted Spider Mite, leaves become mottled.
Tetranychus urticae
27.4.2.2 Management
27.4.2.1 Symptoms
The mite is found initially in colonies on lower • Cutting and burning of infested plant parts.
surface of mature leaves. In case of severe infes- • Proper ventilation and watering to reduce
tation, population spreads to entire foliage includ- temperatures.
ing flowers and buds (Fig. 27.7) covering them • Spray abamectin 1.9 EC at 0.5 ml/L followed
with webs. Hot and dry conditions (mainly sum- by flufenoxuron 10 DC at 1 ml/L or fenaza-
mer) favor mite multiplication. Cream-colored quine 10 EC at 1 ml/L or difenthiuron 50 SC
nymphs and red colored adults with two lateral at 0.6 ml/L during export season.
black spots feed on leaves resulting in discolor- • Spray dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/L or wettable
ation, bronzing, and drying. Damage to buds and sulfur 80 WP at 3 g/L or profenofos 50 EC at
flowers leads to discoloration, retardation, and 1 ml/L or Ethion 50 EC at 1 ml/L followed by
Table 27.2 Rose diseases and their management in greenhouse

Disease/pathogen Symptoms Management
Anthracnose, Sphaceloma rosarum Dark purple to black spots are Maintain good sanitation. Black spot
bordered by a narrow, dull control procedures (below) also
brown band. Centers of spots control anthracnose
turn gray and fall out. Spots
form on canes, similar to leaf
spots
Black spot, Diplocarpon rosae Brown to black round spots Remove infected canes. Remove and
with feathery edges form on destroy fallen leaves. Water in a
leaves. Leaves yellow and manner that keeps foliage surfaces
fall. Small, purplish spots dry. Apply one of the following to
form on canes protect new foliage: chlorothalonil,
propiconazole, neem oil, mancozeb,
thiophanate methyl, thiophanate
methyl + mancozeb,
chlorothalonil + thiophanate methyl,
copper hydroxide, ziram, captan,
trifloxystrobin, or triforine.
Triadimefon can stunt some cultivars
Botrytis blight, Botrytis cinerea Small water-soaked lesions Space plants and provide ventilation
form on petals. Gray fungal to avoid excessively high humidity.
growth covers infected petals. Remove fading flowers and yellowing
Stubs left after harvest leaves. Apply chlorothalonil,
become infected. The fungus dichloran, trifloxystrobin, iprodione,
then moves down to girdle the fenhexamid, or azoxystrobin to protect
cane healthy tissue. Heat and ventilate to
maintain low humidity
Cankers, Coniothyrium fuckelii, Reddish-brown spots on canes Do not plant stock with cankers.
Cryptosporella umbrina, Coniothyrium turn light to dark brown and Remove infected canes making the cut
wernsdorffiae, Cylindrocladium become covered with tiny immediately above a bud. Apply a
scoparium black dots. Cankers girdle and fungicide (see black spot) after
kill the cane pruning. Sterilize the shears with
bromine disinfectant between cuts.
Maintain even soil moisture and
fertilization
Crown Gall, Agrobacterium tumefaciens Small white to cream-colored Do not plant infected material. Steam
galls form on stems. Galls sterilized beds where infected plants
may enlarge to 15 cm in were grown. Remove and destroy
diameter. Galls can form on infected plants. Apply Agrobacterium
roots or stems radiobacter to protect healthy plants
Damping-off, Pythium spp. Cuttings fail to root, defoliate, Pot and propagate in pasteurized
and die. Roots are killed media. Use clean, disinfested tools.
Discard infected plants. Do not leave
cuttings in mist beds for excessive
periods. Pot as soon as rooted
Downy Mildew, Peronospora sparsa Purplish-brown spots form on Heat and ventilate to maintain low
leaves. Leaves yellow and humidity. Water in a manner that
fall. Small spots or long keeps leaf surfaces dry. Apply
purplish areas may form on potassium phosphate, potassium salts
canes and may kill twigs of phosphorus acid, trifloxystrobin,
mancozeb, azoxystrobin,
dimethomorph, or
mancozeb + thiophanate methyl
(continued)
342 27 Rose

Disease/pathogen Symptoms Management
Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca pannosa Spots on leaves, stems, and Apply chlorothalonil, propiconazole,
flower parts expand and piperalin, fenarimol, sulfur, copper
become covered with white hydroxide, neem oil, azoxystrobin,
fungal growth. Small dead kersoxim methyl, ziram, or triforine.
spots form on some cultivars Triadimefon can stunt many cultivars
used in greenhouse production
Viruses – rose mosaic, mottle, yellow Leaves may exhibit mosaic, Destroy infected plants. Plant only
mosaic, ring pattern, tobacco streak, rose mottling, yellow line, or ring healthy, virus-free plants. Maintain
rosette, rose wilt, spring dwarf, color patterns. Veins may turn good insect and mite control
break or strawberry latent ringspot virus yellow
Fig. 27.6 Thrips damage on rose flowers Fig. 27.7 Red spider mite damage on rose
pongamia or neem or jatropha oil at 5 ml/L dew secreted by nymphs and significantly affects
during off-season. the growth of the plants resulting in production of
• Release predatory mite Amblyseius tetranych- small flowers.
ivorus at 20 mites/plant when T. urticae popu-
lations are at moderate levels. 27.4.3.2 Management
• Spray Verticillium lecanii formulation at 5 g/L
during evening hours. • Removal and burning of heavily infested
shoots.
• Clean cultivation and use of insect proof nets.
• Spray triazophos 40 EC at 1.5 ml/L or metho-
27.4.3 Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci myl 40 SP at 2 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at 1.5
g/L at 15-day interval alternating with pon-
27.4.3.1 Symptoms gamia oil at 10 ml/L for nymphs.
The pest is active during January–June. Small • A management package of spraying
and fragile white adults lay eggs on lower surface Dichlorvos 76 EC at 1 ml/L followed by
of young leaves. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC at 1 ml/L or delta-
from lower side of leaves resulting in yellowing methrin 2.8 EC at 1 ml/L at 5–7-day interval
and dropping of leaves (Fig. 27.8). In case of and installing yellow sticky traps effectively
severe infestation sooty mold develops on honey- controls whitefly adults.
Fig. 27.8 Whiteflies on

rose leaves and flower bud
Fig. 27.9 Tobacco bud worm damage on rose flower
Fig. 27.10 Aphids on rose flower bud

27.4.4 Tobacco Budworm,
Spodoptera litura
• Spray indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 1 ml/L or thiodi-
27.4.4.1 Symptoms carb 75 WP at 1 g/L, if the incidence is high.
Adult moths lay eggs in groups on lower surface • Spray Sl NPV at 250 LE/ha followed by neem
of leaves, and damage is seen throughout mon- formulations at 1–2 ml/L.
soon period in polyhouses. Early instars are gre- • Spread poison bait made of wheat/rice bran,
garious in nature and feed on leaves by scraping jaggery, and chlorpyrifos (10:1:0.5) for killing
chlorophyll. Black colored mature larvae damage grownup larvae.
growing buds and flowers during nights resulting
in qualitative loss to flowers (Fig. 27.9).
27.4.4.2 Management 27.4.5 Aphids, Macrosiphum rosae
• Collection and destruction of egg masses and 27.4.5.1 Symptoms

gregarious early instar larvae. Large, dark green or pink brown aphids feed on
• Spray quinalphos 25 EC at 2 ml/L or endosul- buds (Fig. 27.10), shoots, and leaves. Colonies may
fan 35 EC at 2 ml/L at 15-day interval. persist throughout the year but are most numerous
344 27 Rose
and troublesome in late spring and early summer. ate (0.15 %) should be sprayed to control
Foliage of infested plants is coated with sticky hon- aphids.
eydew on which sooty mold grows. Aphid popula-
tions tend to increase most rapidly on soft and
sappy growths. Reference
27.4.5.2 Management Horst RK (ed) (1989) Compendium of rose diseases. APS

Press, St Paul
Use of nitrogenous fertilizers should be
restricted. Systemic insecticides like dimetho-
Carnation
28
Abstract
Carnation is one of the most popular cut flowers of commercial impor-
tance in the world market ranking next only to rose. The major insect and
mite pests (thrips, spider mites, bud borer, aphids), diseases (powdery mil-
dew, black spot, gray mold, foot rot, root rot, stem rot and wilt, rust, bacte-
rial wilt, slow wilt/bacterial stunt), nematodes (root-knot, spiral), and their
symptoms, biology, spread, and management are discussed. Maintenance
of adequate aeration inside the polyhouse and proper hygiene of the beds,
implements, and workers would help prevent most of the pests and
diseases.
Keywords
Carnation • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread
• Management
28.1 Introduction 28.2 Types and Varieties
Carnation is a half-hardy perennial with branch- At present enormous varieties are available with
ing stems and tumid joints. Leaf blades are sim- many attractive colors, remarkable ranges of
ple, entire, and usually narrow. Each stem forms shapes and sizes, and delicate fragrance.
a terminal flower and hence inflorescence is
generally a terminal cyme. The flowering shoots
28.2.1 Standard Type
can be marketed in one or two forms like stan-
dard and spray or miniature. Perpetual flowering
Flowering buds formed on short lateral shoots
and greenhouse carnations are of modern origin
arising from the axis of the upper leaves are
(Fig. 28.1). The present-day flower shop carna-
removed to leave one large, terminal flower on a
tions are the result of a series of complicated
long leafy stem. It has one large flower on an
crosses over a period of many years.
individual stem (Table 28.1).

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_28
346 28 Carnation
Fig. 28.1 Protected cultivation of carnations
28.2.2 Spray Type Table 28.1 Type and varieties of rose suitable for green-
house cultivation
Terminal flower bud is removed at an early stage Color Varieties of standard-type carnation
to encourage more even development of the lat- Red Aicardi, Barbarot, Balance, Corba,
eral flowers, which then produce a multiple flow- Domingo, Gaudina, Hilwarda, Kooij,
Santamaria, Selecta, Turbo
ered stem (Table 28.1).
Pink Charmant Pink Dona, Famosa Pink Dover,
Pink Shiva, Pink America, Pink
Monterama
28.2.3 Dianthine Type White Angelica, Baltico, Hydra White Liberty,
Madame Coletta, Viking
They are more or less similar to the spray variet- Yellow Diana, Hermes, Salamanca, Tobago,
ies, but in this type flowers are smaller and pro- Yellow Solar
duce more flowers on long stems. Market of these Cream Kamar, Sablia, Sagres, Shanteng
types of carnations is small. Cerine Cherry Solar, Dona, Maxi, Rubesco, Shiva
Orange Malaga, Nabita, Nova Scollia, Olymbia,
Solar
Green Green Elegance, Lady Green, Lenny,
28.2.4 Mignon and Microtype Nokia, Pradorova
Lidae Farida, Remo
These types have much in common with the nor- Fancy Alibaba, Garuda, Rindez Sonya
mal spray varieties. The stems, however, are Color Varieties of spray-type carnations
smaller and yield is higher than spray varieties. Red Etna, Karma, Rony
Demand for these types in the market is less. Pink Anne Lies, Barbara, Silvery Pink
Carnation cultivars grown in different parts of Yellow Alicetta, Lior, Odeon
India are presented in Table 28.2. White Excel, Royalette, Tibet
Others Exquisite, Kissi, Scarlet Elegance
Micro Eolo, Pink Eolo, Wiko
28.3 Insect and Mite Pests Mini Lima, Onia, Roland
28.3.1 Thrips, Frankliniella schultzei

severe cases with burnt margins leading to qual-
28.3.1.1 Symptoms ity reduction. They excrete brown droplets, which
Both the nymphs and adults suck the sap from afterward turn black. Leaves may fade and shrivel
leaves, buds, and flower (Fig. 28.2). Damaged in case of heavy infestation, and foliage becomes
buds show brown streaks and get distorted in silvery.
28.3.1.2 Favorable Conditions 28.3.2 Two-Spotted Spider Mite,

Mainly temperature affects the thrips Tetranychus urticae
population.
28.3.2.1 Symptoms
28.3.1.3 Management It is a devastating pest on carnation grown
under protected conditions especially during
• Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or oxy- September–November and February–May.
demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L at 15-day Mite colonies are found on lower surface of
interval. leaves, covered by dirty webs. Affected leaves
• Drench the soil with chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 4 get discolored and dry up. Infestation spreads
ml/L to reduce pupae. to buds, flowers (Fig. 28.3), and entire plant in
• Spray imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or severe cases. They suck sap from the leaves
fipronil 5 SC at 1 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at which results in tiny yellow or white speckles.
1.5 g/L. Once the foliage of a plant becomes bronze, it
• Spray Asatap (acephate) at 1.0 gm/L or Decis often drops prematurely. Attacked plants lose
(deltamethrin) at 0.5 ml/L or Exodust at 1.0 vigor and get stunted in growth and dry in
g/L. severe cases.
28.3.2.2 Favorable Conditions

Table 28.2 Carnation cultivars grown in different parts
of India • High temperature and low relative humidity
State/region Cultivars • More populated crop (dense crop)
Maharashtra – Pune Aristo, Flair, Fambo, Stylo,
Scania, William Sim
Himachal Arthur Sim, Candy, Espana, 28.3.2.3 Management
Pradesh – Solan Pamir, White Candy
Punjab – Ludhiana Arthur Sim, Sam’s Pride,
Scarlet Elegance • Cutting and burning of infested plant parts.
Tamil Arthur Sim, Scania, Scarlet • Thorough spraying of water on the plant dis-
Nadu – Kodaikanal Elegance, Star Light lodges the webs.
West Arthur Sim, Dusty, Scania • Spray wettable sulfur 80 WP at 3 g/L or profe-
Bengal – Kalimpong nofos 50 EC at 1 ml/L or ethion 50 EC at 1
Fig. 28.2 Thrips damage on carnation. Left, healthy; right, infested

348 28 Carnation
Fig. 28.4 Bud borer infestation on carnation

Fig. 28.3 Mites damage on carnation flower bud
ml/L at 15-day interval followed by 10 ml/L 28.3.3.3 Management

pongamia or neem oil.
• Spray abamectin 1.9 EC at 0.5 ml/L followed • Collection and destruction of larvae.
by flufenoxuron 10 DC at 1 ml/L or fenazaquin • Spraying of quinalphos 25 EC at 2 ml/L or
10 EC at 1 ml/L during summer when infesta- methyl parathion 50 EC at 1 ml/L or endosul-
tions are high. fan 35 EC at 2 ml/L at 15-day interval.
• Release predatory mite, Amblyseius tetranych- • Spray indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 1 ml/L or thiodi-
ivorus at 20 mites/plant. carb 75 WP at 1 g/L if the incidence is severe.
• Application of HaNPV at 250 LE/ha followed
by neem formulations at 1–2 ml/l or neem
seed kernel extract (40 g/L).
28.3.3 Bud Borer, Helicoverpa • Spray Bacillus thuringiensis at 2 g/L.
armigera • Release 25 million Trichogramma egg parasit-
oids/ha.
28.3.3.1 Symptoms • Set up Helilure sex pheromone traps at 10 No. /ha.
Eggs are laid singly on growing buds during • Spray spinosad at 0.75 ml/l or thiodicarb at
September–October, and damage continues up 0.5 ml/L.
to February–March. Larvae bore into young
buds and feed on developing petals making
them hallow (Fig. 28.4). Larvae also attack open
flowers resulting in dropping of petals and sig- 28.3.4 Aphids, Myzus persicae
nificant yield loss. Plant growth is affected
adversely. 28.3.4.1 Symptoms
These are the sucking insects. Feeding usually
28.3.3.2 Favorable Conditions occurs on buds and undersides of leaves. Feeding
on young leaves resulted in distorted leaves as they
• Warmer climate in polyhouse continue to grow. Older leaves may display patches
• Fluctuation of relative humidity in the of chlorotic spots. Nymphs and adults suck the sap
polyhouse from the leaves, stems (Fig. 28.5), and flower buds
• Fluctuation of temperature in the in colonies. Aphids excrete honeydew, which
polyhouse results in black fungus development on plants.
28.4 Diseases 349
Fig. 28.5 Aphid

infestation on carnation
28.3.4.2 Favorable Conditions 28.4.2 Black Spot, Alternaria dianthi
• Cloudy weather favors rapid buildup of aphid 28.4.2.1 Symptoms

population. This mostly infects carnation cuttings during
• Low temperature favors development of mist propagation and in wet parts of greenhouses.
young aphids. Small purple spots on the leaves are the first
symptoms. Soon they enlarge, and their center
turns brown and then black due to the masses of
28.3.4.3 Management spores which develop (Fig. 28.6). Stem infection
Spray the plants with thiamethoxam 1 ml/L or usually appears on the knots (Strider 1978). The
imidacloprid @ 2 m l/L or Asatap (acephate) at leaf tissues surrounding this spot turn yellow;
0.5–1.0 gm/L of water. severe infection leads to premature death of the
leaves.
28.4 Diseases 28.4.2.2 Management

Spray chlorothalonil at 1.5 g/L of water.
28.4.1 Powdery Mildew, Oidium
dianthi
28.4.3 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea
28.4.1.1 Symptoms
On the top of the leaves, white, powdery fungal 28.4.3.1 Symptoms
growth develops consisting of hyphal threads and The fungus is usually identified by the develop-
spore carriers. The fungus is also observed on the ment of fuzzy, grayish spore over the surface of
underside of leaves. Malformation of young leaves the rotted tissues. The fungus causes a brown rot-
takes place due to infection of powdery mildew. ting and blighting of affected tissues. Blooms are
Brown spots develop on full-grown leaves. worst affected resulting in poor quality (Fig.
28.7).
28.4.1.2 Management
Spray thiophanate methyl (Roko) at 2.0 g/L or 28.4.3.2 Management
bitertanol at 2.0 g/L of water. Spray carbendazim/capton at 2 g/L of water.
350 28 Carnation
Fig. 28.6 Black spot-

infected carnation flower
buds
Fig. 28.7 Blossom blight

caused by Botrytis cinerea
28.4.4 Foot Rot, Phytophthora sp 28.4.5.2 Management

Spray carbendazim (Bavistin) at 2.0 g/L or Alleite
28.4.4.1 Symptoms at 1.5 g/L or chlorothalonil (Kavach) at 1.5 g/L of
Withering and yellowing of foliage, leaf death, water.
external browning of stems, and internal
browning at nods appear. Stem and root rot
may take place. Lower leaves become purple 28.4.6 Stem Rot and Wilt,
and dry, shortening and blackening of stems Fusarium sp
take place, and rotting of stems can be observed
(Fig. 28.8). 28.4.6.1 Symptoms
Infection takes place through wound. The lower
28.4.4.2 Management leaves start becoming yellow followed by wither-
Apply Alleite at 1.5 g/L or chlorothalonil at 1.5 ing of leaf bases and yellowing of midribs and
g/L of water. eventually the branch wilts. The pathogen also
causes browning, discoloration, and shredding of
vascular bundles (Fig. 28.10).
28.4.5 Root Rot, Pythium sp
28.4.6.2 Management
28.4.5.1 Symptoms Spray Alleite at 1.5 g/L or Kavach (chlorothalo-
Its infection results in stunted growth and ulti- nil) at 1.5 g/ L of water. Soil drenching with car-
mately drying of the entire plant (Fig. 28.9). bendazim at 0.1 % or difenoconazole at 0.05 %
28.4 Diseases 351
Healthy crops are infected by uredospores

transferred from neighboring crops. They are wind
or watersplash disseminated and germinates read-
ily on free water. The cycle of the pathogen lasts
about 2 weeks. In greenhouses, where leaves may
remain wet for several hours, there may be many
disease cycles per crop season (Strider 1985).
28.4.7.2 Management
Good hygiene should be adhered to, including:
• Ensure that cuttings taken are from uninfected

plants.
Fig. 28.8 Phytophthora blight of carnation
• Sterilize border soil to destroy any overwin-
tering spores.
• Ensure that glasshouses are well ventilated to
prevent damp/humid patches occurring which
can encourage infection. Space plants out to
encourage good airflow.
• Do not wet the leaves when watering.
• Remove and destroy infected leaves (do not
put on domestic compost heaps).
• Ensure that hands and implements are cleaned
before using on uninfected plants.
• The use of the fungicide mancozeb can pro-
vide protection from infection and, used fort-
nightly from the first signs, can prevent spread
Fig. 28.9 Root rot of carnation. Left, healthy plant; right, to some extent.
infected plants • Use of a high potash fertilizer can help plants
recover from an attack.
or Pseudomonas fluorescens as soil application at • A myclobutanil-based fungicide can be effec-
25 g/m2 and foliar application at 0.5 % at monthly tive on infestations. Alternatives to myclobut-
intervals or soil drenching with Bacillus amylo- anil are penconazole, mancozeb (also used for
liquefaciens at 0.5 % at monthly intervals is also prevention), or triticonazole.
effective.
28.4.7 Rust, Uromyces dianthi 28.4.8 Bacterial Wilt, Burkholderia

(= Uromyces caryophyllinus) caryophylli

The disease is more severe on leaves, but other The upper parts of established plants turn pale
green plant parts are infected as well. Initially, and wilt (Fig. 28.12). The stem develops elon-
small light green spots appear. They gradually gated, discolored stripes, and split. The roots are
turn to powdery brown blisters due to the devel- rotted partially and the cortical tissue becomes
opment of uredospores (Fig. 28.11). Severely sticky and shows discoloration. The leaves are
infected plant parts are twisted. twisted. The roots remain discolored.
352 28 Carnation
28.4.8.2 Management
Disease-free mother plants should be used and
rooting beds and soil should be fumigated.
Sanitary procedures which can prevent further
infestation include picking up infected host
debris and careful handling of tools. Checking
for signs of infected plant before plant cutting
and checking the soil for the presence of bacteria
will ensure that further dissemination is signifi-
cantly decreased, if not prevented.
28.4.9 Slow Wilt/Bacterial Stunt,

Dickeya dianthicola
28.4.9.1 Symptoms
Fig. 28.10 Stem rot of carnation
Infected plants become gray green and may be
stunted without any obvious wilting. Plants even-
tually wilt and in a period of 6–8 months may die.
Vascular tissues, and pith mainly at the base of
the stem, may show a yellow discoloration.
Occasionally, stem cracks and root rot may occur
(Fig. 28.13) (Fletcher 1984).
28.4.9.2 Management
Soil disinfestation, use of resistant cvs, grafting
on resistant rootstocks, use of clean propagating
material, and application of strict hygienic condi-
tions are recommended against wilts (Sherf and
Macnab 1986).
28.5 Nematodes
Fig. 28.11 Carnation plant showing rust pustules

Meloidogyne incognita
28.5.1.1 Symptoms
Root-knot nematode is a serious pest. Infected
plants usually appear stunted and tend to wilt on
warmer days. When such plants are dug, the root
galls are generally conspicuous and easily identi-
fied (Fig. 28.14).
28.5.1.2 Management
Preplant treatment of beds with dazomet fol-
lowed by the application of neem cake (1 kg/m2,
15 days later) along with Paecilomyces lilacinus
Fig. 28.12 Symptoms of bacterial wilt of carnation or Pochonia chlamydosporia significantly
28.5 Nematodes 353
Fig. 28.13 Dickeya

dianthicola causing disease
on carnation. (a) Stem
necrosis on carnation. (b)
Brown discoloration of
vascular bundles. (c)
Brown discoloration of
stems. (d) Field symptoms.
(e) Brown discoloration of
vascular bundles
term basis, soil management with preplant treat-

ment of Dazomet, followed by the application of
oil cakes plus antagonistic fungi, was more effec-
tive against M. incognita than post-plant treat-
ment with carbofuran, carbosulfan, and
chlorpyrifos on carnation grown in polyhouses.
28.5.2 Spiral Nematode,

Helicotylenchus dihystera
28.5.2.1 Symptoms
Helicotylenchus dihystera was found to be the
most predominant nematode as revealed by the
community analysis of carnation rhizosphere sam-
ples. An initial inoculum level of 1000 nematodes
of H. dihystera per plant was found to be patho-
genic to carnation. H. dihystera was responsible
Fig. 28.14 Carnation roots infected by root-knot
nematodes
for the reduction in growth parameters as well as
for delay in flowering. Staining of the affected car-
reduced populations of M. incognita and the mor- nation root system showed the presence of this
tality of plants and suppressed the nematode nematode pathogen in the cortical tissues.
infection for nearly 2 years. The antagonistic
fungi established themselves better in the beds 28.5.2.2 Management
treated with Dazomet than in untreated beds. Pseudomonas fluorescens and Paecilomyces
Chlorpyrifos and carbofuran (each applied twice lilacinus (at 2.5 g and 10 g/m2, respectively)
in 6 months) significantly reduced nematode effectively reduced the population of
populations in roots and soil. However, there was Rotylenchulus reniformis and H. dihystera. These
a buildup of nematode populations in beds treated treatments were followed by farm yard manure,
with these two chemicals after 1 year. On a long- neem powder, and carbofuran.
354 28 Carnation
References Strider DL (1978) Alternaria blight of carnation in the

greenhouse and its control. Plant Dis Rep 62:24–28
Strider DL (ed) (1985) Diseases of floral crops. Vols 1 and
Fletcher JT (1984) Diseases of greenhouse plants.
2, Praeger Special Studies, New York
Longman Scientific and Technical, London, 351 pp
Sherf AF, MacNab AA (1986) Vegetable diseases and
their control. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 728 pp
Gerbera
29
Abstract
Gerberas are especially known for their wide spectrum of colors and
shapes, and the popularity of this flower has also increased worldwide.
Protection of the crop is of major importance when growing gerbera
plants. First, focus on prevention of diseases and insect pests so that they
do not have the chance to develop. The major pests (whitefly, aphid, leaf
miner, thrips, mites), diseases (powdery mildew, collar rot, root rot, stem
rot, leaf spot), nematodes (root-knot, spiral), and their symptoms, biology,
spread, and management are discussed. Hygiene should be on top priority
as well as a requirement. The use of chemicals should be the last resort.
Integrated pest management in gerbera is feasible. The combination of
biological products, natural predators, and insect growth regulators has
had a lot of success in the last few years.
Keywords
Gerbera • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread
and management
29.1 Introduction disease and pests and ensures round the year pro-
duction of cut blooms.
Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), being a shade- A day temperature of 22–25 °C and night tem-
loving plant, needs about 50 % shade for quality perature of 12–16 °C are ideal for cultivation.
bloom production. Moreover, the covered struc- Poor light during winter adversely affects the
ture protects the plant from storms, winds, frosts, flower production. The average yield under
dews, gales, and other adverse effects of the envi- greenhouse is around 200 cut flowers/m2/year,
ronment (Fig. 29.1). It also helps to maintain a with 85 % of flowers being first grade quality,
constant and optimum temperature and humidity while it is 180 cut flowers/m2/year under open
as required by the plant during the period of condition with only 15–20 % of flowers being
growth. It provides an active protection against of first grade.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_29
356 29 Gerbera
29.3.1.2 Management
The plants should be lightly irrigated by drip irri-
gation system so that they can be protected by
excessive humidity. Destroy the affected plants
and the leaves. This disease can be controlled by
spraying fenarimol at 0.5 ml/L or Dianocab at
0.3 ml/L.
29.3.2 Collar Rot, Phytophthora

cryptogea
29.3.2.1 Symptoms
The infection occurs just at the soil surface on the
collar portion of the stem. In some cases the
Fig. 29.1 Gerbera under protected cultivation leaves turn yellow and the entire plant wilt
(Fig. 29.3).
29.2 Varieties 29.3.2.2 Management

Phytophthora cryptogea was eradicated up to
A large number of commercially important vari- 30 cm in soil by solarization as well as by
eties are grown in different parts of the world. fumigation.
Among them, Regina, Nero, Parade, Mix, The disease can be controlled by drenching
Alsmeera, Ibiza, Gold Spot, Sunset, Tara, the soil in the root zone of plants either with
Lyonella, Ornella, Rosetta, Gloria, Alexias metalaxyl or with contact fungicide such as cap-
Ginna, Monique, and Anneke are grown in India tan and copper oxychloride at 0.2 mg/L. Adorn as
under protected cultivation for export purpose. a drench at 2 fl oz/100 gal prevented Phytophthora
crown and root rot in two of three trial years.
Red Ruby Red, Sangria Fenstop as a drench at 14 fl oz/100 gal or Orvego
Yellow Doni, Supernova, Mammut, Talasa as a drench at rates of 22.5–34 fl oz/100 gal con-
Rose Rosalin, Salvadore sistently controlled disease in 3 years of trials
Pink Pink Elegance, Marmara, Esmara (Benson and Parker 2011).
Orange Carrera, Goliath, Marasol
Cream Farida, Dalma, Snow Flake, Winter
Queen 29.3.3 Root Rot, Pythium sp
29.3.3.1 Symptoms
29.3 Diseases Several fungi, namely, Pythium, Sclerotium rolf-
sii, and Rhizoctonia solani, affect the root system
29.3.1 Powdery Mildew, of gerbera and cause root rot (Fig. 29.4).
Golovinomyces (Erysiphe)
cichoracearum 29.3.3.2 Management
Sterilizing the soil before planting and regular
29.3.1.1 Symptoms application of fungicide like copper oxychloride
The infection causes white powdery coating on at 0.2 mg/L to soil may help in controlling the
the foliage and flowers (Fig. 29.2). disease.
29.3 Diseases 357
Fig. 29.2 Powdery

mildew on gerbera leaves
and flower
29.3.4 Stem Rot, Fusarium solani
29.3.4.1 Symptoms
Petiole of leaves blacken at the base as the plant
collapses. When leaf stem is cut, the black ves-
sels can be seen (Fig. 29.5).
29.3.4.2 Management
Plant in pasteurized potting media. Discard
infected plants. Spray Topsin/Roko at 2 g/L,
Aliette at 2 g/L, Kavach at 1.5 gm/L, and Kocide
at 1.5 g/L.
Fig. 29.3 Comparison of healthy plant and root system
with white roots (right) with a diseased plant exhibiting
necrotic foliage and complete necrosis of root system 29.3.5 Leaf Spot, Alternaria sp
(root rot rating = 5, dead) (left)
29.3.5.1 Symptoms
Symptoms develop when moisture persists on
leaf surface for a longer duration. Brown specks
form on florets. Black circular spots appear on
the leaves. Centers become white on the leaf
spots (Fig. 29.6).
29.3.5.2 Management
Maintain low relative humidity and do not wet
leaves when watering. Spray Dithane M 45 at 1.5
g/L, Quintol at 0.5 g/L.
Diseases of gerbera, their symptoms, and
management in greenhouse are presented in
Fig. 29.4 Root rot causing foliage dieback on gerbera Table 29.1.
358 29 Gerbera
Severely damaged plants produce small and

deformed flowers with crooked stalks.
29.4.1.2 Management
• Excessive dampness and dark conditions

should be avoided.
• Removal and burning of infested leaves.
myl 40 SP at 2 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at 1.5
g/L followed by pongamia or neem oil 10
ml/L at 15-day interval for nymphs.
• Spray dichlorvos 76 EC at 1 ml/L followed by
Fig. 29.5 Fusarium stem rot on gerbera
lambda-cyhalothrin 5 EC at 1 ml/L or delta-
methrin 2.8 EC at 1 ml/L at 10-day interval for
adults.
• Install yellow sticky traps for attracting adults.
29.4.2 Aphid, Myzus persicae
29.4.2.1 Symptoms
Mainly growing buds and flowers are attacked
during cool months (October–January). Both
nymphs and adults colonize on lower side of
petals and suck the sap (Fig. 29.8) leading to dis-
Fig. 29.6 Alternaria leaf spot on gerbera
coloration, withering, and deformation of flow-
ers. Development of sooty mold on honeydew
secreted by aphids makes flowers look sticky
29.4 Insect and Mite Pests with black dots.
29.4.1 Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci 29.4.2.2 Management
29.4.1.1 Symptoms • Spray pongamia or neem oil at 10 ml/L at

The pest is active during moderately hot and early infestation levels.
humid conditions (February–July). Small and • Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or oxy-
fragile white adults lay eggs on lower surface of demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L or imidaclo-
young leaves. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap prid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or cartap
(Fig. 29.7) resulting in discoloration, deforma- hydrochloride 50 SP at 1.5 g/L or acephate
tion, and withering of leaves. In case of severe 75 SP at 1.0 g/L.
infestation, sooty mold develops on honeydew • Application of Verticillium lecanii at 3 g/L
secreted by nymphs affecting the plant growth. also reduces aphid population.
Table 29.1 Diseases of gerbera and their management under greenhouse

Disease Symptoms Control measures
Root rot, Pythium Root skin is easily removed and Avoid excess watering. Plant in
finally the plants wilt and die as pasteurized potting media. Drench
roots rot with Benlate or Bavistin or Topsin/
Roko all at 2 g /lit
Crown rot, Phytophthora cryptogea Plants wilt suddenly. Leaves turn Plant in pasteurized potting media.
brown. Roots are rotted and a Avoid overhead and excess
crown rot develops. Crown of the watering. Drench with Benlate or
plants become black Bavistin or Topsin/Roko or Aliette
all at 2 g /lit
Fusarium stem Petiole of leaves blacken at the Plant in pasteurized potting media.
rot, Fusarium base as the plant collapses. If leaf Discard infected plants. Spray
solani stem is cut, you can see the vessels Topsin/Roko or Aliette both at 2 g/
are black lit, Kavach or Kocide both at 1.5 g/
lit
Leaf spot, Alternaria sp Develops when moisture persists Maintain low relative humidity and
on leaf surface for a longer do not wet leaves when watering.
duration. Brown specks form on Spray Dithane M 45 at 1.5 g/lit,
florets. Black circular spots appear Quintol at 0.5 g/lit
on the leaves. Centers become
white on the leaf spots
Botrytis blight, Botrytis cinerea Occurs especially when relative Space plants to ensure good air
humidity of the air is above 90 % circulation in the polyhouse.
for 2 hr in the morning. Petioles Maintain low humidity. Avoid
have long brown spots. Leaves watering late in the day. Remove
turn yellow and die. Gray spots on crop debris. Spray Dithane M 45 at
the flower petals and rot in the 1.5 g/lit or Quintol at 0.5 g/lit
heart of flowers. Stems at soil
level are killed. Infected tissues
become covered with gray fungal
growth
Bacterial blight, Pseudomonas cichorii Small to large spots are circular at Maintain low relative humidity.
first and then become irregular and Avoid overhead watering. Spray
dark brown to black. May have a streptocycline at 0.2 g/lit or
concentric ring pattern. Brown kasugamycin at 1.25 ml/lit
discoloration along the main vein
Powdery mildew, Golovinomyces White powdery fungal growth Avoid excess humidity and maintain
(Erysiphe) cichoracearum develops on the surface of leaves. proper air circulation in the
In case of severe attack, leaves polyhouse. Spray sulfur at 1 g/lit or
start curling Dithane M 45 at 1.5 g/lit or Quintol
at 0.5 g/lit
Rhizoctonia crown rot, Rhizoctonia Stems at the soil level have a Plant in pasteurized media. Apply a
solani brown lesion. Plants wilt and die fungicide to protect plants
Thielaviopsis root rot, Thielaviopsis Plants yellow, wilt, and die. Roots Plant in pasteurized media. Apply a
basicola are dark brown to black fungicide to protect plants
Viruses (tobacco rattle, gerbera Leaves may be mottled, have Maintain good insect and mite
mosaic, impatiens necrotic spot, and yellow spotting, dead flecks, line control. Plant in pasteurized media.
cucumber mosaic viruses) or ring spot patterns. Plants may Destroy infected plants
be distorted or have flower color
breaking
360 29 Gerbera
Fig. 29.9 Leaf miner infestation on gerbera

Fig. 29.7 Whiteflies on gerbera leaf
29.4.3.2 Management
• Remove and burn mined leaves.

myl 40 SP at 2 ml/L or profenofos 50 EC at 1
ml/L followed by spray of pongamia or neem
oil 1 % at 15-day interval.
• Drench the beds after raking up with chlorpy-
rifos 20 EC at 4 ml/L for killing pupae.
• Spray of deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 1 ml/L for
managing adults.
• Install yellow sticky traps.
Fig. 29.8 Green peach aphids, Myzus persicae on ger-
bera leaf
29.4.3 Leaf Miner, Liriomyza trifolii 29.4.4 Thrips, Thrips palmi

Incidence starts on newly planted crop at 3–4- Thrips cause damage by sucking sap from leaves,
leaf stage. Small black flies lay eggs by punch- buds, and flowers from July to February.
ing the young leaves. The larvae feed inside Damaged leaves develop brown streaks, become
leaves on the palisade mesophyll by leaving brittle, and curl up. Affected buds and flowers get
characteristic serpentine mines (Fig. 29.9) discolored and distorted in shape affecting the
(Parrella et al. 1985) and decrease photosyn- quality and quantity of flowers (Fig. 29.10).
thesis and yield, directly affecting the market-
able produce. Damaged leaves bear extensive 29.4.4.2 Management
mining marks and become brittle and dry in
case of severe attack affecting the growth of • Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or oxy-
the plants. demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L at 15-day
interval if the incidence is low.
29.5 Nematodes 361
29.5 Nematodes

Meloidogyne incognita
29.5.1.1 Symptoms
Symptoms include stunting of plants, yellowing
of leaves (Fig. 29.12), wilting of plants, and
heavy galling on roots.
29.5.1.2 Management
Preplant treatment of beds with dazomet fol-
lowed by the application of neem cake (1 kg/m2,
15 days later) along with Paecilomyces lilacinus
Fig. 29.10 Thrips damage on gerbera flower or Pochonia chlamydosporia significantly
reduced populations of M. incognita and the mor-
• Drench the soil with chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 4 tality of plants and suppressed the nematode
ml/L to reduce resting stages. infection for nearly 2 years. The antagonistic
• Spray imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or car- fungi established themselves better in the beds
tap hydrochloride 50 SP at 1.5 g/L or fipronil treated with dazomet than in untreated beds.
5 SC at 1 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at 1.5 g/L Chlorpyrifos and carbofuran (each applied twice
followed by pongamia or neem oil 10 ml/l in in 6 months) significantly reduced nematode
case of severe incidence. populations in roots and soil. However, there was
a buildup of nematode populations in beds treated
with these two chemicals after 1 year. On a long-
term basis, soil management with preplant treat-
29.4.5 Mites, Polyphagotarsonemus ment of dazomet, followed by the application of
latus oil cakes plus antagonistic fungi, was more effec-
tive against M. incognita than post-plant treat-
29.4.5.1 Symptoms ment with carbofuran, carbosulfan, and
These are small brown-colored insects which are chlorpyrifos on gerbera grown in polyhouses.
normally not seen by naked eyes. They are Soil application of Bacillus subtilis (BbV 57)
located on the lower surface of the leaves. They or Pseudomonas fluorescens at 2.5 kg/ha at the
suck the sap and brown spots appear on the leaves time of planting is effective for the management
(Fig. 29.11). In case of higher incidence of mites, of root-knot nematode.
weblike structure is formed. The incidence is
more on hot and dry areas.
29.5.2 Spiral Nematode,
29.4.5.2 Management Helicotylenchus dihystera
Mites can be controlled by spray of endosulfan
(2.0 ml/L) or dicofol (1.5 ml/L). Spray abamectin 29.5.2.1 Symptoms
1.9 EC at 0.4 ml/L or propargite at 1 ml/L of Helicotylenchus dihystera was found to be the most
water. predominant nematode as revealed by the commu-
nity analysis of gerbera rhizosphere samples.
362 29 Gerbera
Fig. 29.11 Left, healthy

and mite-infested gerbera
plants. Right, mite damage
on gerbera leaves
respectively) effectively reduced nematodes

number of R. reniformis and H. dihystera, respec-
tively. These treatments were followed by the
application of farm yard manure, neem powder,
and carbofuran.
References
Benson DM, Parker KC (2011) Efficacy of fungicides and
biopesticides for management of Phytophthora crown
Fig. 29.12 Symptoms of root-knot nematode infection
and root rot of gerbera daisy. Plant Manag Network.
on gerbera plants
doi: 10.1094/PHP-2011-0512-01-RS
Parrella MP, Jones VP, Youngman RR, LeBeck LM (1985)
29.5.2.2 Management Effect of leaf mining and leaf stippling of Liriomyza
spp on photosynthetic rates of chrysanthemum. Ann
Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens and
Entomol Soc Am 78:90–93
Paecilomyces lilacinus (at 2.5 kg/ha and 10 g/m2,
Chrysanthemum
30
Abstract
Chrysanthemum, also known as “Queen of East,” occupies a place of pride
as a commercial flower crop and popular exhibition flower. It is also the
leading commercial flower, important both as cut flower and as potted
plant in the international market. Chrysanthemums are attacked by many
insect pests and diseases. The major pests (aphids, thrips, leaf miner, leaf
folder, spider mite), diseases (root rot, leaf spot, wilt, white rust, powdery
mildew, chrysanthemum stunt virus), foliar nematodes, and their symp-
toms, biology, spread, and management are discussed.
Keywords
Chrysanthemum • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology •
Spread • Management
Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora), 30.2.1 Large Flowered (Exhibits)

also known as “Queen of East,” is a flower crop
next to rose in importance in the international flo- 30.2.1.1 White Color
rists’ trade and holds third position in India after Snow Ball, Kasturba Gandhi, Beauty, and
jasmine and rose. It is also the leading commer- Innocence
cial flower, important both as cut flower and as
potted plant in the international market. Protected 30.2.1.2 Yellow Color
cultivation is beneficial for quality production of Chandrama, Sonar Bangla, Super Giant, and
flowers for export (Fig. 30.1). Evening Star

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_30
364 30 Chrysanthemum
30.2.3.3 Mauve Color

Sharad Prabha, Mohini, Hemant Sagar, and
Fantasy
30.2.3.4 Red Color

Rakhee, Gem, Jaya, Flirt, Arun Singar, and Suhag
Singar
30.3 Diseases
30.3.1 Root Rot, Pythium spp.,

Phytophthora spp.
Fig. 30.1 Chrysanthemum under protected cultivation
30.3.1.1 Symptoms
30.2.1.3 Mauve Color In this disease, stems turn dark brown to black at
Mahatma Gandhi, Peacock, Raja, and Pink Giant the soil line. Plants are stunted, wilt, and die
(Fig. 30.2).
30.2.1.4 Red Color
Diamond Jubilee, Alfred Wilson, and Distinction 30.3.1.2 Management
• Providing good drainage conditions to prevent

30.2.2 Small Flowered (Cut Flowers) water logging.
• Soil drenching with thiram or captan or mix-
30.2.2.1 White Color ture of both at the rate of 2.5 g/m2 to prevent
Birbal Sahni, Apsara, Himani, and Baggi the infection.
• Mancozeb, metalaxyl, and fosetyl are also
30.2.2.2 Yellow Color effective.
Nanako, Jayanti, and Kundan
30.2.2.3 Mauve Color

Sharad Prabha, Nilima, and Ajay 30.3.2 Leaf Spot, Septoria
chrysanthemella
30.2.2.4 Red Color
Jaya, Flirt, and Jubilee 30.3.2.1 Symptoms
Grayish brown spots appear on leaves which turn
surroundings yellow (Fig. 30.3). When flowering
30.2.3 Small Flowered (Pot Culture) starts, the infection occurs on flower buds, which
results in complete rotting. The disease spreads
30.2.3.1 White Color from down upward.
Sharad Shoba, Shweta Singar, Jyotsana, and
Niharika 30.3.2.2 Management
30.2.3.2 Yellow Color • Spraying with mancozeb at fortnightly inter-

Indira, Archana, Sonali Tara, and Sharad Kanti val helps in controlling the disease.
30.3 Diseases 365
30.3.4.2 Management
Healthy plant material and resistant cultivars
should be used. If plants are infected or seem to
be infected, they should be removed. Overhead
irrigation should be avoided because high humid-
ity stimulates the disease. Fungicides should be
applied as sprays, as soon as symptoms are seen.
Spraying of plants with sulfur and other fungi-
cides such as zineb or captan is effective in reduc-
ing the disease incidence.
Regular applications of protective fungicides,
such as dithiocarbamates and chlorothalonil, or
systemic fungicides, such as bitertanol, oxycar-
boxin, tolylfluanid, and triforine, are mostly rec-
ommended for rust control. Prevention of water
Fig. 30.2 Pythium root rot on chrysanthemum
condensation is also very effective (Horst 1989).
• Burning and destroying of infected leaves.

• Spraying with copper oxychloride (0.2 %). 30.3.5 Powdery Mildew, Oidium
chrysanthemi
30.3.5.1 Symptoms
30.3.3 Wilt, Verticillium dahliae Powdery mildew is characterized by a white to
ash-gray powdery growth on leaves and occa-
30.3.3.1 Symptoms sionally stems. Foliage may become puckered or
The leaves turn yellow to gray and the branch or distorted; severely infected leaves will shrivel
whole plant wilts gradually. and die which may lead to defoliation (Fig. 30.5).
The disease is most serious during hot, humid
30.3.3.2 Management weather. Unlike most fungal diseases, free water
is not required for powdery mildew infection;
• Soil solarization by using black polythene high humidity encourages disease development.
mulch during summer months
• Soil treatment with Dithane M-45 (0.2 %) 30.3.5.2 Management
• Dipping of rooted cuttings in benomyl sus- Powdery mildew can be avoided by proper plant
pension before planting spacing, good air circulation, low relative humid-
• Use of resistant varieties ity, and adequate light levels. Apply preventive
fungicides at the first sign of disease with the
active ingredients such as copper, azoxystrobin,
pyraclostrobin, fludioxonil, triflumizole,
30.3.4 White Rust, Puccinia horiana myclobutanil, triadimefon, propiconazole, sulfur,
potassium bicarbonate, or thiophanate-methyl
30.3.4.1 Symptoms according to label instructions.
Chrysanthemum white rust is a new and destruc-
tive disease of chrysanthemum in Europe and the
Mediterranean. Initially, circular white or yellow 30.3.6 Chrysanthemum Stunt Virus
cushions develop on the lower leaf surface and
then soon turn brown (Fig. 30.4). The disease is 30.3.6.1 Symptoms
favored by high RH and moderate temperatures There is an overall reduction in plant size, foliage
(Strider 1985). becomes pale in color, and flower may open pre-
Fig. 30.3 Septoria leaf

spot on chrysanthemum
leaves
maturely (Fig. 30.6). This disease occurs during

pinching.
30.3.6.2 Management
Use of cuttings from virus-free plants.
Chrysanthemum diseases, their symptoms,
and their management in greenhouse are pre-
sented in Table 30.1.
30.4.1 Aphid, Macrosiphoniella

Fig. 30.4 White rust on chrysanthemum leaf sanborni
30.4.1.1 Symptoms
Greenish-black nymphs and chocolate-brown
adults suck the cell sap from tender growing ten-
der parts like stem tips, flower buds, and lower
surface of leaves (Fig. 30.7) during cool and
cloudy months. The affected flower buds fail to
open and dry up before opening. Damage results
in loss of vigor, yellowing, premature leaf fall,
and stunted growth. Heavy infestations affect bud
and flower development considerably. Damage
begins in December and is in peak during
February–March.
30.4.1.2 Management
• Spray pongamia or neem oil at 10 ml/L at

Fig. 30.5 Powdery mildew on chrysanthemum leaves early infestation.
Fig. 30.6 Chrysanthemum stunt viroid infected and healthy plants (left), healthy and infected flowers (right)
• Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or oxy- 30.4.3 Leaf Miner, Phytomyza

demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L or imidaclo- syngenesiae
prid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at
1.5 g/L at 15-day interval, if the aphid inci- 30.4.3.1 Symptoms
dence is severe. The larvae feed inside the leaves and create long
• Spray Verticillium lecanii at 3 g/L during sinuous tunnels that show on the upper leaf sur-
evening face as white or brown meandering lines (Fig.
30.9). The females scrape leaf surface to feed on
exuded sap, which causes small pale spots on the
upper leaf surface. The leaf mines created by the
30.4.2 Thrips, Microcephalothrips fly’s larvae disfigure the leaves, and heavy infes-
abdominalis tations can cause a significant loss of the foliage.
Incidence of leaf miner is maximum during
30.4.2.1 Symptoms March–June. The infestation is more severe in
Slender white nymphs and black adults feed on polyhouse.
tender leaves causing bronzing and mottling of
leaves. Damaged flowers get discolored, dis- 30.4.3.2 Management
torted, and dry due to feeding by thrips resulting
in reduction in quality and quantity of flowers 30.4.3.2.1 Nonchemical Control
(Fig. 30.8). Thrips cause damage to summer Light infestations can be dealt with by removing
blooming varieties. the affected leaves or crushing the larvae or pupae
at the ends of the tunnels.
30.4.2.2 Management
30.4.3.2.2 Biological Control
• Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or oxy- Parasitic wasps (Dacnusa and Diglyphus spp.)
demeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L at 15-day are available for chrysanthemum leaf miner con-
interval. trol in glasshouses.
• Drench the soil with chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 4
ml/L to reduce resting populations. 30.4.3.2.3 Chemical Control
• Spray imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or If plants become extensively infested, it may be
fipronil 5 SC at 1.5 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at necessary to use a systemic insecticide that can
1.5 g/L, if the incidence is severe. kill the larvae inside the leaves. Suitable insecti-
Table 30.1 Chrysanthemum diseases and their management

Survival of pathogen and
Disease (causal agent) Symptoms favorable conditions Management
Gray mold (Botrytis Light brown, water- In plant debris. Favored by Keep humidity low (below
cinerea) soaked spots on lower high humidity, low 98 %); avoid overhead
petals. Woolly gray temperatures (50°–60 °F), irrigation. Protect foliage
fungal spores form on and water on plant with a fungicide, especially
decayed tissues. Rotting lower-dense foliage. Mist
of lower leaves. Fungus blooms with chlorothalonil,
may enter and girdle iprodione, or fenhexamid
stem
Cottony rot (Sclerotinia Stems rotted; flower rot Sclerotia in soil. Spores Same as for gray mold.
sclerotiorum) is similar to gray mold. produced from sclerotia are Also, treat soil with PCNB
Cottony, white fungal airborne but infect only before planting and spray
mass may occur on through flowers and dead foliage with iprodione or
rotted tissues. Black tissues. Favored by high thiophanate-methyl
sclerotia may form humidity
inside or outside stems
Verticillium wilt Yellowing and wilting Soilborne for many years. Plant in pasteurized soil or
(Verticillium dahliae) of foliage, may be Carried in cuttings and root soilless mix free of the
one-sided. Leaves die divisions. Favored by cool pathogen. Use resistant
and dry upward from weather followed by hot cultivars and pathogen-free
the base of the plant. weather during flowering plants. Fumigate with
Vascular tissue may be chloropicrin-methyl
discolored bromide combination. In
sunny climates, soil
solarization might be
considered
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium Unilateral chlorosis of Soilborne and carried in Use disease-free cuttings in
oxysporum f sp. one or more leaves near cuttings. Favored by high clean soil. Treat soil (see
chrysanthemi and F. the apex, followed by soil temperatures (80 °F). Verticillium wilt). Adjust
oxysporum f sp. curvature of the stem pH of soil to 6.5–7.0 and
tracheiphilum) toward the affected side. use nitrate nitrogen. Apply
As the disease a fungicide to protect
progresses, there is a healthy plants. Avoid
general chlorosis and planting highly susceptible
wilt and stunting of cultivars (‘Bravo’,
leaves. The vascular ‘Cirbronze’, ‘Illini Trophy’,
system becomes a ‘Orange Bowl’, ‘Royal
reddish brown. Trophy’, ‘Yellow
Yellowing of leaves, Delaware’)
wilting, and
discoloration of the
vascular tissue develops
on one side of the plant
Powdery mildew White powdery growth Airborne spores produced Spray with piperalin to
[Golovinomyces on leaves and stems. only on living plants. eradicate existing
(Erysiphe) cichoracearum] Found mainly on older Favored by high humidity, infections. Protect foliage
leaves crowding of plants, and with myclobutanil,
cool weather fenarimol, or triadimefon
(continued)

Pythium root rot and basal Girdling black lesions Soilborne pathogen. Spores Treat soil as for Verticillium
stem rot (Pythium spp.) occur on stems near soil spread in water or in soil. wilt. Drench plants with
line. Plants stunted as a Favored by excess soil mefenoxam
result of reduced root moisture and poor drainage
system caused by root
rot. Plants wilt and may
die
Ray blight (Phoma Basal leaf and stem rot. In chrysanthemum refuse. Use disease-free cuttings.
chrysanthemi) Belowground stem Waterborne spores. Favored Avoid wetting foliage and
infection may cause a by rainy weather keep humidity low. Protect
one-sided distortion and foliage with chlorothalonil
necrosis of foliage.
Blackish rot of petals
(ray blight) may extend
into flower stalk
Rhizoctonia stem rot Stem rotted at soil line Soilborne fungus. Favored Plant in pasteurized soil or
(Rhizoctonia solani) and girdle the plant. by warm, moist conditions a soilless mix free of the
Reddish-brown dead pathogen. Avoid deep
areas develop at the soil planting. Spray base of
line. Plants stunted. transplants with
Dark fungal strands thiophanate-methyl,
may be visible with chlorothalonil, or iprodione
hand lens. May kill after planting, or treat soil
plants. Young infected with PCNB before planting
plants wilt during the
day and recover at night
Septoria leaf spot Irregular or circular, In plant debris and in soil Protect foliage with a
(Septoria obesa, S. brown or black dead debris for 2 years. Spores fungicide at first sign of
chrysanthemi) spots develop spread in splashing water. disease. Greenhouse: avoid
progressively upward Favored by wet weather wetting foliage. Keep
from base of plant. Tiny humidity low
black fungal fruiting
bodies in centers of
spots
White rust (Puccinia Whitish pustules on the This microcyclic rust Requires 3–5 applications of
horiana) lower leaf surface. On survives on living myclobutanil (Eagle or
the upper surface, the chrysanthemum foliage. Hoist). Repeated treatments
infection is evident as Teliospores in the leaf with myclobutanil can cause
pale-green to yellow pustules germinate in place stunting of growth. Growers
spots up to an inch in producing basidiospores in nonregulated areas can
diameter. Raised, waxy, that are airborne and infect rotate with mancozeb
pink-colored pustules by direct penetration. (Dithane) and chlorothalonil
are formed on lower Favored by the cool, damp (Daconil) as a protectant
leaf surface. As they weather, except that direct treatment program. Combine
mature and produce sunlight destroys airborne fungicide treatments with
spores, they turn whitish basidiospores. Principally a destruction of infected
in color greenhouse disease plants and crop-free periods
of 8 weeks. Cleanup of
infestations in quarantined
areas must be done
(continued)

Ray blight [Ascochyta Flower development is Avoid overhead irrigation.
(Mycosphaerella)] retarded on one side of Apply a fungicide to protect
the bud. Petals exhibit a healthy plants
brown discoloration.
Browning and
blackening extends
down the stem, causing
the flower to droop.
Brown to black
irregularly shaped spots
develop on leaves
Ray speck (Alternaria sp. Pinpoint dead spots Avoid overhead irrigation.
or Stemphylium sp.) develop on petals. These Maintain greenhouse
spots may not enlarge. humidity below 98 %.
If enough spots are Apply a fungicide to protect
present, the entire healthy plants
flower dies
Bacterial blight (Erwinia Water-soaked lesions; In plant debris. Favored by Use disease-free cuttings.
chrysanthemi) pith becomes jellylike; high temperatures (80°–90 Reduce humidity in
tops turn black and °F), absence of free water, growing areas. Dip cuttings
exude drops of liquid. and high humidity in streptomycin. Disinfect
Stem may break or split. propagation beds between
Cuttings turn dark crops. Destroy infected
brown and collapse. cuttings
Established plants wilt
during the day when
infected and recover at
night
Hollow stem (Erwinia Pith of rooted cuttings Bacteria may be present in Use disease-free cuttings.
carotovora) deteriorates and vascular bundles of Reduce humidity in
collapses. Affected symptomless growing areas.
tissues are brown. chrysanthemums. Bacteria Streptomycin dips may be
Surviving plants do not also present in helpful
grow satisfactorily and undecomposed debris.
pith collapse may Favored by high
extend upward temperatures and high
involving several moisture
internodes. ‘Red Torch’,
‘Tempo’, and ‘Tempter’
are very susceptible
Crown gall Irregular or round galls Soil and galls. Infection Destroy infected plants
(Agrobacterium on stems and sometimes favored by moist conditions
tumefaciens) leaves
(continued)

Bacterial leaf spot Small dark brown to Do not plant infected
(Pseudomonas cichorii) black spots on lower cuttings. Avoid overhead
leaves enlarge and irrigation. Water in a
become irregular in manner that keeps leaf
shape. When infected surfaces dry at all times.
leaves dry, the spots Protect plants grown
become brittle and outdoors from splashing
crack. The disease often
spreads in one side of
the plant, eventually to
the flowers
Foliar nematode Dark green, angular Adults can survive up to 3 Use disease-free plants.
(Aphelenchoides spots in leaves develop years in dead leaves. Spread Discard infected plants.
ritzemabosi) progressively upward by splashing water. Leaves Avoid overhead irrigation.
from base of plant. need to be wet for infection Control weeds. Submerge
Leaves turn yellow to take place infected plants in hot water
(115 °F) for 10 min
Virus or virus like Symptoms Host range and natural Management
diseases spread
Aspermy (Tomato Flower distortion and Transmitted by handling, Use disease-free cuttings.
aspermy virus) reduction in flower size. cutting tools, and vegetative Control aphids; remove
Color break in florets of propagation. Also infected plants
red, bronze, and pink transmitted by aphids
cultivars. Foliar
symptoms not apparent.
Some cultivars are
symptomless
Chlorotic mottle Mottling followed by Spread by handling, cutting Use disease-free cuttings.
(Chrysanthemum chlorotic complete chlorosis. tools, and vegetative Remove infected plants and
mottle viroid) May be confused with propagation disinfest tools used to
nutritional problems. handle them. Do not handle
Symptoms somewhat healthy chrysanthemums
masked under low light after handling infected
and cool temperature plants
conditions below 70 °F
Spotted wilt (tomato Frequently one-sided in Thrips-transmitted; not Eliminate nearby
spotted wilt virus, plant. Ring patterns on spread by cutting knife, but susceptible ornamental
impatiens necrotic spot leaves of some cultivars. can be spread by vegetative plants and weeds. Control
virus) Leaf distortion and propagation. Many weeds thrips inside and outside
necrosis. Dark necrotic and perennial ornamental growing areas. Use
streaks on stems. plants act as reservoirs of virus-free cuttings
Flowers may be virus (dahlia, calla,
distorted and with some nasturtium, mallow,
necrosis knotweed, plantain, and
others)
Stunt (Chrysanthemum General stunting of Viroid is easily transmitted Purchase virus-indexed
stunt viroid) plants. Foliage may be by handling, cutting knives, plants that are free of the
pale with upright, vegetative propagation, etc. pathogen. Destroy infected
young leaves. Flowers Viroid has a wide host plants and disinfest tools
are smaller than normal range. Symptomless in used to handle them. Do not
and some cultivars may some plants handle healthy
flower 7–10 days early chrysanthemums after
handling infected plants
Fig. 30.7 Chrysanthemum aphid infestation on leaf (left) and adult aphid (right)
Fig. 30.8 Thrips damage on chrysanthemum leaf, flower, and adult thrips
Fig. 30.9 Leaf miner on

chrysanthemum leaf (left)
and adult leaf miner (right)
30.5 Nematodes 373
Fig. 30.10 Leaf folder

larva and adult
cides include thiacloprid or acetamiprid or

0.05 % monocrotophos or 0.05 % triazophos.
30.4.4 Leaf Folder, Omiodes indicata
30.4.4.1 Symptoms
All the larval stages attack the plant with the help
of silky threads (Fig. 30.10); the larva folds the
leaves and starts feeding on leaves from inside.
Young larvae live between two leaves spun Fig. 30.11 Two-spotted spider mites
together. Later instars may spin several leaves
together. They feed on the mesophyll of the
leaves, but the final instar larvae completely skel-
etonize the leaves. 30.4.5.2 Management
30.4.4.2 Management • Spray of dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/L or triazo-

Spray 0.02 % cypermethrin or 0.02 % decame- phos 40 EC at 1.5 ml/L or profenofos at 50 EC
thrin or 0.05 % quinalphos at fortnightly 1 ml/L or ethion 50 EC at 1 ml/L at 15-day
interval. interval followed by pongamia or neem oil at
10 ml/L.
• Spray Verticillium lecanii formulation at
30.4.5 Spider Mite, Tetranychus 3 g/L.
urticae
30.4.5.1 Symptoms
Mites mainly feed on the undersurface of leaves 30.5 Nematodes
(Fig. 30.11) and spread to entire plant in case of
heavy infestations. Damage starts in March and 30.5.1 Foliar Nematode,
reaches a peak during April–June (in hot dry sea- Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
son). Affected leaves become discolored and dry
and fall off, while attacked flowers get discolored 30.5.1.1 Symptoms
and dry. The affected flower buds fail to open and The symptoms on chrysanthemum include char-
dry up even before opening. acteristic brown spots limited to the veins and a
Fig. 30.12 Foliar nematode symptoms

on chrysanthemum leaves
progressive yellowing of the whole leaf. These Treatment of chrysanthemum nursery soil
symptoms are due to combined action of the with an organophosphorus nematicide was very
nematode and other organisms (Cayrol and effective in control of this nematode (Fukazawa
Combettes 1972). Leaf symptoms on infested and Kobayashi 1971).
chrysanthemum include reddish-yellow lesions
on the lower leaves of young plants; in older
plants these leaves are markedly chlorotic and a References
large area of the leaf surface becomes necrotic
(Fig. 30.12). The foliage is scanty and the flowers Cayrol JC, Combettes S (1972) Histopathological study
of the chrysanthemum leaf eelworm disease in monox-
are few and deformed. Leaves in the upper part of
enic cultures. Ann de Zool-Ecol Animale
plants have shown slightly higher resistance than 4(2):119–128
those in the lower part (Cid del Prado and Sosa Cid del Prado I, Sosa Moss C (1978) Occurrence of
Moss 1978). Direct effects are mechanical dam- Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi on the foliage of
Chrysanthemum maximum in Mexico. Nematropica
age caused by the stylet and damage due to hor-
8:6
mones of growth and division (Cayrol and Fukazawa N, Kobayashi Y (1971) Chemical control of
Combettes 1972). abnormalities of summer flowering chrysanthemum
caused by Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi Schwartz. Proc
Kanto Toxan Plant Prot Soc 18:126
30.5.1.2 Management Gill JS (1981) Fighting the foliar nematode of chrysanthe-
Suggested control measures include cleaning and mum. Indian Hortic 25(4):21–22
burning infested leaves, submerging infected cut- Horst RK (ed) (1989) Compendium of rose diseases. APS
tings in hot water, and spraying of foliage with Press, St Paul
Strider DL (ed) (1985) Diseases of floral crops. Praeger
chlorpyrifos (Gill 1981).
Special Studies, New York
Gladiolus
31
Abstract
Gladiolus is becoming a leading cut flower crop and is gaining popularity
due to its beautiful and attractive colored flowers. It is cultivated in poly-
houses/polytunnel in order to get quality flowers throughout the year. The
major pests (aphids, thrips, cutworms, leaf eating caterpillar, mealybug,
borer), diseases (Fusarium yellows and corm rot, gray mold, corm rot,
Curvularia blight), and their symptoms, biology, spread, and management
are discussed.
Keywords
Gladiolus • Pests • Diseases • Symptoms • Biology • Spread • Management
31.1 Introduction 31.3 Diseases
Off-season flowering using portable polythene 31.3.1 Fusarium Yellows and Corm
tunnels of size (3 × 1.5 × 1.5 m) placed over the Rot, Fusarium oxysporum f sp
crop planted in October–November produced gladioli
quality flowers in February–March. Off-season
flowers of gladiolus can be produced under mid- 31.3.1.1 Symptoms
hill conditions successfully (Fig. 31.1). Wilt is a major fungal disease in gladiolus. It is
soilborne and spread through corms from season
to season. The fungus development is favored by
31.2 Varieties high temperature, high level of nitrogen, anaero-
bic condition, and accumulation of carbon diox-
Cultivars, viz., ‘White Friendship’ and ‘Suchitra’, ide (CO2). Yellowing of older leaves, browning
produced quality flowers from February onward of vascular tissue, and wilting of whole plant are
under polyhouse conditions (Table 31.1). the symptoms of the disease (Fig. 31.2). Roots

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_31
376 31 Gladiolus
Table 31.1 Cultivars of gladiolus for protected

cultivation
Color Cultivars
Yellow Aldebaron, Jester, Nova Lux, Top Brass,
Topaz, Vink’s Glory
White American White Friendship, White
Prosperity
Pink Friendship Pink, Suchitra, Spic, and Span
Red American Beauty, Oscar, Red Majesty
Purple Blue Lilac, Red Beauty, Interpid, Trader
Horn, Mayur, Marvellous
• Spray zineb (Indofil M-45) at 2 g/L in combi-

nation with carbendazim (Bavistin) at1g/L at
fortnight interval against corm rot throughout
the cropping season after plants are 15 cm tall.
• Soil solarization is reported to give good
Fig. 31.1 Gladiolus under protected cultivation results, but it is laborious and not practical in
large areas.
cannot absorb nutrients and water due to damage

of vascular tissues.
Roots may show discrete brown lesions or a 31.3.2 Gray Mold, Botrytis cinerea
general rotting, and leaf infection is basal and
associated with corm rot (Fig. 31.2). Leaf yel- 31.3.2.1 Symptoms
lowing, starting with oldest leaves, is seen occa- On leaves, large oval to round, brown spots
sionally. Corm rot in the field is soft, invaded by appear (Fig. 31.3). Spots occur on flowers and
other organisms and is associated with brown stems also. At first the spots are pale brown and
wiry roots. In storage, rotting may begin any- then become dark. A soft, brown rotting at the
where on corm surface, but most spots are found base of florets may develop after rainfall (Fig.
at base next to the core; by scrapping, browning 31.3). In a moist, cool atmosphere, the whole
can be seen. flower becomes covered with brownish gray
growth of the fungal spores.
31.3.1.2 Management
31.3.2.2 Management
• Use disease-free corm stock.
• The best way to control the wilt is to follow • Remove old flower spikes and destroy.
crop rotation. • Hot water treatment (52 °C) of corms with
• Treat corms in hot water (38–40 °C) contain- carbendazim (1 g/L water) added to the water
ing 2.5 g each of Benlate and captan for is effective in eradicating the pathogen from
30 min for effective management of wilt. planting stock.
• Farmers should avoid the use of infected/sick • Control of the disease on flowers depends on
soils for cultivation. controlling leaf infection. Spray of carben-
• Drench the soil around the infected plant base dazim (1 g/L of water) and mancozeb (2 g/L
with carbendazim (1 g/L water) when the dis- of water) during all stages of plant growth pre-
ease appears. vents disease infection.
31.3 Diseases 377
Fig. 31.2 Left, symptoms

of Fusarium wilt on
gladiolus plants; Right,
healthy (top) and infected
gladiolus corms (bottom)
Fig. 31.3 Gray mold

symptoms on gladiolus
leaves and flowers
31.3.3 Corm Rot, Fusarium sp lifting, improper curing, and dampness in storage
should be avoided.
31.3.3.1 Symptoms
Corm rot is a common problem caused by group
of fungi, namely, Fusarium, Curvularia, 31.3.4 Curvularia Blight
Stromatinia, and Penicillium spp. It causes heavy
loss particularly during storage. Anaerobic con- 31.3.4.1 Symptoms
ditions, storage in airtight rooms, and more It is caused by many fungi but the most important
humidity favor the infection. Black, brown, are Curvularia trifolii and C. eragrostidis. Water-
greenish, or yellowish moldy growth on corms is soaked oval to elongated brownish spots appear
seen during the storage (Fig. 31.4). Under poor on leaves, sheaths, and petals, and later they
air circulation, the corms may rot and emit foul coalesce in advanced stage. The patches turn to
smell. brown and finally black (Fig. 31.5). Moist and
warm conditions spread the blight very fast.
31.3.3.2 Management
Hot water treatment (38–40 °C) containing 2.5 g 31.3.4.2 Management
each of Benlate and captan for 30 min has been It is effectively controlled by mancozeb 0.2 %
quite effective. Damage to corms at the time of spray at 10-day interval.
378 31 Gladiolus
Fig. 31.4 Corm rot due to Fusarium sp
Fig. 31.6 Aphid infestation on gladiolus leaf
31.4.1.2 Management
It can be controlled by spraying of malathion at
0.1 % or Rogor at 0.1 % at fortnightly intervals.
31.4.2 Thrips, Taeniothrips simplex
31.4.2.1 Symptoms
This is a major pest in gladiolus and causes seri-
ous damage to the crop. Yellow nymphs and
black adults damage leaves and spikes by rasping
tissue and sucking the sap. Affected leaves and
spikes develop silver-colored streaks (Fig. 31.7)
which later turn brown, get deformed, and dry if
the damage is severe. It also attacks corms in
Fig. 31.5 Curvularia blight on gladiolus leaf storage, and infected corms become sticky,
shrivel, and produce weak plants when planted.
31.4 Insect and Mite Pests 31.4.2.2 Management

It can be controlled by weekly spraying of
31.4.1 Aphids, Aphis gossypii, and dimethoate (Rogor) at 0.2 % or malathion at
A. craccivora 0.1 %.
31.4.1.1 Symptoms
Aphids suck the sap from tender parts of the plant 31.4.3 Cutworms, Agrotis segetum
(Fig. 31.6), and the infected plants become weak
and get deformed. They excrete honeydew which 31.4.3.1 Symptoms
attracts sooty mold and ants. Incidence of aphids Incidence of cutworms is normally observed in
is commonly seen during February and March. the first month of crop. Eggs of moth are seen
Fig. 31.7 Thrips

damage to gladiolus
leaf and flower
near the ground level on plant parts. Larvae starts in the field during dry conditions, and then
feed on emerging shoots and cut the plants at it is carried to the storage. Movement of ants on
the ground level during night. Sometimes they plants is the sign of mealybug infestation.
damage underground corms and developing
spikes. 31.4.5.2 Management
Methyl parathion at 0.04 % or dimethoate at 0.04
31.4.3.2 Management % or acephate 0.1 % at fortnight interval can be
Spraying of methyl parathion at 0.05 % or quinal- applied to effectively control mealybugs.
phos at 0.05 % at fortnight interval provides
protection.
31.4.6 Borer, Helicoverpa armigera
31.4.4 Leaf Eating Caterpillar, 31.4.6.1 Symptoms

Spodoptera litura Larvae feed on leaves and unopened buds.

Egg masses covered with hair are seen on under Spraying of Thiodan at 0.5–0.8 % or endosulfan
surface of the leaves. Early instar larvae feed on at 0.07 % or methyl parathion at 0.05 % or Ekalux
lower surface of leaves by scraping, while mature at 0.5–0.8 % at fortnight interval can control the
larvae eat leaves voraciously (Fig. 31.8) during pest. Neem kernel extract 4 % or neem oil at 1 %
nighttime. Skeletonization of leaves is the main can also control the pest.
symptom.
31.4.4.2 Management 31.4.7 Mites, Tetranychus equatorius

Spraying of quinalphos at 0.05 % or chlorpyrifos
at 0.05 % or carbaryl at 0.1 % at 10-day interval 31.4.7.1 Symptoms
controls the incidence effectively. Spraying with Attack by the mite begins at an early stage when
neem oil at 1 % or neem kernel extract 4 % plants are young. Green-colored nymphs with
checks the damage caused by early instar larvae. lateral specks and reddish-brown-colored adults
colonize on leaves and suck the sap causing dis-
coloration and wilting. The affected leaves fall
31.4.5 Mealybug off.

Both nymphs and adults attack corms by sucking Methyl parathion 0.05, fluvalinate 0.012 %, and
sap causing shriveling and drying of affected diazinon at 0.4 % offer significant control of
corms in severe cases. Incidence of mealybugs mites.
380 31 Gladiolus
Fig. 31.9 Yellowing of leaves due to root-knot nematode

infection on gladiolus plant
Fig. 31.8 Caterpillar damage on gladiolus leaves

31.5.1.3.2 Chemical Methods
31.5 Nematodes Dipping of gladiolus corms in thionazin or fensul-
fothion solution (0.5 g a.i. per liter) gave reduced
31.5.1 Root-Knot Nematodes, root-knot nematode infestation (Overman 1970).
Meloidogyne spp Application of Vorlex (35 gal/acre) by broadcast
method also resulted in better flower yield.
31.5.1.1 Symptoms
Severe galling on roots results in yellowing of 31.5.1.3.3 Integrated Methods
leaves (Fig. 31.9) which subsequently leads to Soil application of neem cake enriched with
stunted growth. The nematode invades roots, Trichoderma harzianum at 1 t/ha is effective.
daughter corms, and cormels which develop after Application of 5 t of FYM enriched with
flowering. Pseudomonas fluorescens (with 1 × 109 cfu/g) per
ha significantly reduced M. incognita by 61–76
31.5.1.2 Survival % and Rotylenchulus reniformis by 65–70 % in
The nematodes would survive in corm tissue in the roots of gladiolus and increased the flower
the soil as a source of inoculum for next season. yield by 19–22 %.
31.5.1.3 Management
References
31.5.1.3.1 Physical Methods
Hot water treatment of corms at 58 °C for 30 min Overman AJ (1970) Gladiolus corm dips for root-knot
nematode control. Proc Fla State Hortic Soc
eliminates root-knot nematode infection.
82:362–366
Lilies
32
Abstract
Lilies, both Asiatic and Oriental, along with their hybrids, are more pro-
ductive and lucrative than any other commercially grown cut flowers.
Lilies are prone to attack by several insect pests and diseases. The major
pests (aphids, bulb mites, beetle, thrips, weevil, slugs and snails, symphy-
lids), diseases (basal rot, botrytis blight, root rot, southern wilt, damping-
off, viral diseases), nematodes (root-knot, lesion, and foliar), and their
symptoms, biology, spread, and management are discussed.
Keywords
Lilies • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread •
Management
32.1 Introduction and Pergamo in case of Orientals are highly prom-

ising. Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum) var. Osant
Lilies, especially Asiatic and Oriental types (white) is also grown under polyhouses.
grown in greenhouse (Fig. 32.1), are most fasci-
nating in international floriculture trade.
32.2 Varieties 32.3.1 Aphids, Neomyzus

circumflexus
Lily varieties Connecticut King, Gran Paradiso,
Elite, Pollyanna, Prato and Solemio (yellow flow- 32.3.1.1 Symptoms
ers), Navona (white flowers), and Prunello (orange The most important pests are aphids. The
flowers) among Asiatics, while Star Gazer, Marco crescent-marked lily aphid is one of the common
Polo, Casablanca, Siberia (white flowers), Samour, aphids to attack lily plants in the field and green-

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_32
382 32 Lilies
Fig. 32.1 Lily flowers
can be combined with most insecticides and

fungicides.
Aphids can be prevented from migrating into
the greenhouse by covering vents and doors with
a 300-hole-per-inch mesh screening.
It is important to destroy any dead plant mate-
rial that may harbor overwintering eggs.
Fig. 32.2 Lily aphids with crescent markings

32.3.2 Bulb Mites, Rhizoglyphus
echinopus
house (Fig. 32.2). Several species of aphids that
colonize lilies not only spread virus disease, but 32.3.2.1 Symptoms
they also debilitate the plants physically, causing Bulb mites (Fig. 32.3) are troublesome but usu-
twisted leaves and distortion of flower buds. ally secondary pests. In warm climates they are
usually present in large numbers, particularly just
32.3.1.2 Management above the basal plate and between the scales.
Insecticidal soaps offer some control against They attack the roots and basal plate and eventu-
aphids. Applications should be made at regular ally enter the center of the bulb.
intervals for maximum efficacy. Growers with
aphid problems can apply foliar or soil drenches 32.3.2.2 Management
of a labeled neonicotinoid. The following methods of control may be used
Systemic insecticide sprays should be applied against bulb mites:
to plantings on a regular basis. They can be com-
bined with a fungicide. The insecticide acephate • Treat bulbs with hot water at 44 °C for 1 h.
(e.g., Orthene) has been used quite successfully • Fumigate dry bulbs with paradichlorobenzene
for aphid control, and malathion, which is sprin- (the active substance in mothballs) in an air-
kled on the soil and watered in, can protect plants tight container. Spread the fumigant over the
from aphids for an entire growing season. bottom of the container, using 4 g per liter of
Oil spraying should be just before sundown. air space and exposing the bulbs for 12 h.
Light summer oil, used at about 1 % dilution, is • Dust the bulbs with flowers of sulfur.
usually effective. Oils are quite safe to use and • Destroy badly infested bulbs by burning them.
beetles emerges from midsummer onward. These

beetles add to the feeding damage, but there is
only one generation a year, and these late sum-
mer adults will not mate and lay eggs until the
following year.
32.3.3.3 Management
32.3.3.3.1 Nonchemical
• Where only a few lilies and fritillaries are

being grown, the plants should be regularly
inspected from late March onward so that
adult beetles, larvae, and eggs can be removed
by hand.
Fig. 32.3 Lily bulb mite adult

32.3.3.3.2 Chemical
32.3.3 Beetle, Lilioceris lilii • For extensive infestations, it may be necessary

to use an insecticide, such as thiacloprid (e.g.,
32.3.3.1 Symptoms Bayer Provado Ultimate Bug Killer), acet-
Young grubs graze away the underside of amiprid (e.g., Bug Clear Ultra), deltamethrin
leaves, resulting in white or brown dried up (e.g., Bayer Sprayday Greenfly Killer, Bayer
patches (Fig. 32.4). The older grubs eat entire Provado Ultimate Fruit & Vegetable Bug
leaves, starting at the tips and working back to Killer), or lambda-cyhalothrin (e.g., Westland
the stem; they will also feed on the petals, stem, Resolva Bug Killer). Organic gardeners can
and seed pods. Adult beetles make rounded use pyrethrum (e.g., Py Spray Garden Insect
holes in the leaves and will also feed on petals Killer, Doff All in One Bug Spray, Bug Clear
and seed pods. Gun for Fruit & Veg, Pyrol Bug & Larvae
Killer, or Growing Success Fruit & Veg Bug
32.3.3.2 Biology Killer). Pyrethrum should control newly
Red lily beetle overwinters as adult beetles in hatched larvae but will be less successful
soil, leaf litter, and other sheltered places. This against the adult beetles.
could be anywhere, not necessarily in the vicinity • Drench soil with an insecticide such as
of lilies and fritillaries (consequently, there is no acephate (e.g., Orthene) or neonicotinoid to
advantage in attempting to treat the soil below kill the mature larvae that live just under the
lily plants). The beetles begin emerging on sunny soil surface in winter. Also, avoid transporting
days in late March and April when they seek out infested soil to other sites.
the foliage of host plants. Eggs are laid in small • Use a neem-based insecticide such as Azatin,
batches on the underside of leaves during April to Aza-Direct, or BioNeem. Neem works best on
midsummer. The eggs hatch and the larvae feed early instar (young) larvae.
on the foliage. When fully fed, the larvae go into • Plants in flower should not be sprayed to avoid
the soil to pupate. The next generation of adult harming bees and other pollinating insects.
384 32 Lilies
Fig. 32.4 The lily beetle damage on leaf (left) and beetle adult (right)
32.3.4 Thrips, Liothrips vaneeckii
32.3.4.1 Symptoms
Feeding seems to be localized at the bases of the
scales, where thrips (Fig. 32.5) seriously weak-
ens the bulb, rendering it flabby. This allows the
entry of bacteria and fungi, frequently resulting
in the bulb rotting away.
Fig. 32.5 Adult lily thrips
32.3.4.2 Management
The following controls can be used:
32.3.6.2 Management
• Treat bulbs with hot water treatment at 44 °C
for 1 h to eradicate the pest. • Limit habitat around lily plantings by control-
• Dust bulbs with benzene hexachloride (BHC). ling weeds and using mulch instead of ground
• Wash or dip bulbs in a solution of an insecticide. cover planting.
• These can be destroyed by frequent cultivation
of the top few inches of soil, bringing the eggs
to light and exposing them to frost and birds.
32.3.5 Weevil, Agasphaerops nigra • Place bait containing metaldehyde among
plantings in the early evening hours. This is
32.3.5.1 Symptoms crucial at the time when lily shoots are emerg-
The larvae burrow into the lily stem and bulb. ing and during damp weather. Bait should be
Adult weevils (Fig. 32.6) emerge in March and renewed after heavy rain. Liquid bait such as
April, feeding on the leaves of plants. Deadline may be less attractive to pets than
pelletized bait. Beer traps have been used suc-
32.3.5.2 Management cessfully by some enthusiasts: simply pour the
Systemic insecticides are highly effective in con- beer into a shallow dish and place it near the
trolling weevils. lily plantings in the early evening.
32.3.6 Slugs and Snails

32.3.7 Symphylids
32.3.6.1 Symptoms
Slugs and snails (Fig. 32.7) feed voraciously on lilies 32.3.7.1 Symptoms
when the shoots emerge. Later in the season they can Symphylids (Fig. 32.8) can damage lily crops
climb the stems, stripping the leaves completely. severely if their populations get out of control.
32.4 Diseases 385
32.4 Diseases
32.4.1 Basal Rot, Fusarium

oxysporum var lilii
Fusarium, however, is the most serious soilborne

disease in North America and should be consid-
ered a primary pathogen.
32.4.1.1 Symptoms
The usual symptoms of basal rot in growing
Fig. 32.6 Adult lily weevil plants are premature yellowing of the foliage,
stunting, and premature senescence. All are typi-
cal reactions to ethylene, a gas produced by the
decaying bulb tissues. Infected bulbs tend to pro-
duce many new scale bulblets, usually on the sev-
ered scales (Fig. 32.9); however, such bulblets
form at the infected end of the scale and are thus
readily infected in turn. The main bulb is fre-
quently destroyed, but masses of stem bulblets
often form.
32.4.1.2 Spread and Survival

The pathogen is readily disseminated by
spores, which can be carried in the soil or on
the surfaces of bulbs, tools, agricultural equip-
Fig. 32.7 Baby slug and eggs ment, or packing crates. Released from the
debris of the decayed bulbs, the fungus can
remain viable in garden soil for at least 3 years
without a host.
32.4.1.3 Management
Avoid fertilizers high in nitrogen, such as ammo-
nium salts; these promote soft, rapid bulb growth
and make bulbs very vulnerable to infection. Use
well-rotted manures and compost as a mulch; an
added benefit is that mulch helps keep the soil
cool, which discourages Fusarium.
Control soil moisture. Fusarium is always
more active in low, wet sites, so lilies should be
Fig. 32.8 Symphylid maggots planted in well-drained positions. Avoid overwa-
tering during the warm summer months. Since
acid soils may also aggravate the disease, an
32.3.7.2 Management application of lime to increase pH may be advis-
The usual control is soil fumigation. able in some soils. Avoid mechanical damage
386 32 Lilies
Fig. 32.10 Botrytis damage to lily flower and foliage

Fig. 32.9 Basal rot on lily bulb
during weeding, cleaning up, or transplanting the 32.4.2.1 Symptoms

lilies, and control biting insects such as grubs and The first signs of Botrytis can be white spots on
nematodes. Any lesion provides easy entry for the leaves; these become teardrop-shaped marks
basal rot organisms. on the upper surface. They are lighter on the mar-
The high temperatures necessary for scale gin and darker in the center, so they are often
propagation favor Fusarium infection, and bulbs called “pheasant eye” marks. In severe attacks
can perish in infancy. It is therefore critical to during wet weather and warm, muggy condi-
scale only the healthiest bulbs, to wash them tions, the spots eventually coalesce, and the
thoroughly before scaling, and to dip the scales in whole leaf collapses and decays (Fig. 32.10).
a fungicide before incubation. Lily hybridizers in Botrytis does not spread internally through a
the commercial field must make greater efforts to plant; instead, it continues to appear on new sur-
breed varieties specifically for Fusarium resis- faces on the same and neighboring plants as more
tance. This is even more crucial because key spores are produced and distributed. In severe
chemical controls are becoming unavailable. cases it enters the stem and the plant collapses.
The destruction of foliage can be very rapid.
Brown spots appear on open flowers when
32.4.2 Botrytis Blight, Botrytis Botrytis and moisture are present. These are
elliptica, and B. cinerea believed to be caused by B. cinerea rather than B.
elliptica, but this has not been conclusively
Botrytis blight is caused by two species of the demonstrated.
fungus Botrytis that attack the aboveground parts
of the plant. Both B. elliptica and B. cinerea can 32.4.2.2 Survival and Spread
be present on the same plant, but the former is the The fungus overwinters as small black sclerotia
more destructive. Botrytis cinerea flourishes in that formed on the leaves in the previous season.
cool temperatures and is more apt to infect leaves, These produce spores, which are blown about by
open flowers, and seedpods in cool summer the wind and splashed by rain onto the newly
weather and late fall. Botrytis is often considered developing foliage in spring.
the most important disease of lilies, especially in Moisture is essential for the spread of Botrytis.
“Botrytis climates” such as the warm, moist The formation of spores, liberation, and germina-
coastal areas. tion all take place within 12 h; thus, 24 h of wet,
32.4 Diseases 387
moderately warm weather may lead to a consid- root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans)
erable outbreak. Prolonged rains, frequent show- opens up roots to infection by rots.
ers, fog, and heavy dew accompanied by warm
temperatures, with moisture persisting on the 32.4.3.1 Symptoms
foliage, produce perfect conditions for the Rhizoctonia is a soilborne fungus and a mild par-
disease asite of lily bulbs. The symptoms are dark yellow
discolorations around the minute lesions caused
32.4.2.3 Management by the fungal mycelia. The lesions are numerous
With Botrytis disease, an ounce of prevention is and give the scales a yellow tint (Fig. 32.11).
worth a pound of cure. Therefore, early spraying Damage to the scales is slight, but the lesions can
is critical where environmental conditions tend to become entry points for other pathogens.
favor the disease. At the end of the growing sea- Rhizoctonia is favored by warm temperatures,
son, remove all plant debris, pulling the old stems especially in greenhouses. There are many strains
when they come away easily. Following a severe that can become pathogens in lilies.
infection, remove the debris as soon as possible.
Pull or cut the stems and rake off as many leaves 32.4.3.2 Management
as possible; all carry the resting sclerotia, which The best control for root rots is to improve cul-
will rise up to bring new infection next spring. tural practices, primarily drainage. Overwatering
Destroy the debris if possible, but do not incorpo- must be avoided at all costs.
rate it in a compost pile. An application of fresh If the bulbs are treated annually in a dip con-
mulch is very beneficial at this time. Many grow- taining quintozene, the Rhizoctonia is eliminated
ers spray the ground with a copper fungicide dur- and the bulbs become white.
ing the dormant season, but there is no proof that
this kills resting or germinating spores.
Infection can occur at temperatures between 2 32.4.4 Southern Wilt, Sclerotium
°C and 24 °C and is most likely in mild, moist, or rolfsii var delphinii
foggy weather. It is advisable to remove spotted
leaves when they are still wet in the morning; this 32.4.4.1 Symptoms
can stop or at least inhibit further spread. Southern wilt disease can be very serious in
Finally, spraying is only effective when the Dutch iris. The fungus produces characteristic
leaves are dry. Pay particular attention to cover- round brown or reddish resting bodies, the scle-
ing the undersides of the leaves, for this is where rotia, which resemble turnip or cabbage seeds.
infection takes place. The disease attacks the bulbs of actively growing
Many lilies are highly resistant to Botrytis. plants during the warm summer months. The
Orientals and Aurelians are much less suscepti- warm temperatures cause the sclerotia to germi-
ble than Asiatics. Lilium lankongense and its nate and attack plant tissues. Affected lily bulbs
hybrids have shown remarkable resistance; how- develop a white chalky or light brown rot (Fig.
ever, L. davidii and some of its hybrids are par- 32.12), accompanied by conspicuous white
ticularly susceptible. The new tetraploid hybrids, strands (mycelia) of the invading fungus. The
with their thicker epidermis, seem more resistant white, fanlike patches of coarse mycelia are a
to both Botrytis and leaf scorch. sure sign of the disease. Affected rows of com-
mercial plantings display telltale patches of
brown plants.
32.4.3 Root Rot, Rhizoctonia solani
Root rot is associated with poor drainage, lack of The disease spreads quickly under ideal condi-
soil aeration, and planting in soils that are too tions, and at harvest time all the bulbs will have
finely textured, such as heavy clays. Injury by turned to mush. The sclerotia are abundant in the
388 32 Lilies
Fig. 32.11 Rhizoctonia stem

rot on lily
32.4.5.2 Management
Growers should use pasteurized soil mixes or
soilless mixes when growing seedlings indoors.
Since damping-off fungi are present in all natu-
ral soils, they must be destroyed by heating or
chemical treatment before the soil is safe to use.
Growers should use only clean, sterilized pots
or other containers for growing seedlings. This
can be accomplished by dipping containers in a
10 % solution of household bleach (sodium
hypochlorite). Growers should use freely drain-
Fig. 32.12 Symptoms of southern blight on lily ing soil mixes and water very sparingly in the
early stages of seedling growth. The surface of
the soil should be allowed to become dry.
soil around plants dying from the disease and can Because high humidity and wet soil provide
survive without a host for as much as 10 years. ideal conditions for damping-off, plants should
be watered early in the day so that the soil can
32.4.4.3 Management dry somewhat before nightfall. Growers should
If Sclerotium is detected, lift and wash the healthy provide seedlings with good air circulation and
bulbs surrounding the infection; remove and as much light as possible. Damping-off is sel-
destroy infected bulbs and all surrounding soil to a dom a problem under conditions of cool tem-
depth of at least 30 cm. Quintozene has been used perature and ample light. Thiophanate-methyl is
as an effective control. A solution of this fungicide widely available and combines several
can be watered around infected areas to stop fur- fungicides.
ther spread. This is done when small pockets of
infection occur in commercial plantings.
32.4.6 Viral Diseases
32.4.5 Damping-Off, Pythium, Three of the most common viruses found in lilies
Phytophthora, are often transmitted from plant to plant by
and Rhizoctonia spp aphids that have bitten into the plant and ingested
the virus. When they land on a noninfected plant,
32.4.5.1 Symptoms they pass the virus to it when they bite into it.
The cotyledon or first true leaf simply topples These viruses are Lily symptomless virus (LSV),
over and decays because the fungus has attacked Tulip breaking virus (TBV), and Cucumber
the tissues near the soil line, and the seedlings mosaic virus (CMV).
quickly die.
32.5 Nematodes 389
32.4.6.1 Symptoms
32.4.6.1.1 Cucumber Mosaic Virus

This can cause very streaked foliage color and
distorted, brittle leaves and flowers. Leaves may
become very pale and plants stunted. It is proba-
bly the most obvious and widespread virus, one
that also infects many other garden plants such as
tulips, dahlias, and delphiniums.
32.4.6.1.2 Tulip Breaking Virus

This virus causes the broken color which excited
Dutch tulip growers centuries ago. In lilies it
causes mottling of the foliage, the lessening in
intensity of darker flowers, and sometimes the
Fig. 32.13 Symptoms of viral disease on lily flower
breaking of the color.
32.4.6.1.3 Lily Symptomless Virus of the stem grew. So, they were able to take
This difficult-to-spot, creeping disorder must be cuttings from the uninfected tips to produce
suspected if the plants look less lively, lacking the new, virus-free plants.
joie de vivre of their neighbors (Fig. 32.13). They
are on the slippery slope to extinction, and if you Easter lily diseases, their symptoms, and man-
feel sure that you have discovered cases, they agement in greenhouse are presented in Table
should be helped on their way without delay. Be 32.1.
careful to differentiate between plants that may
not be flourishing as well as they might because of
other reasons, such as overcrowding, competition 32.5 Nematodes
from neighboring plants, damage from rabbits or
slugs, or distress from drought conditions. 32.5.1 Root-Knot, Lesion, and Foliar
Nematodes
32.4.6.2 Management of Viral Diseases
32.5.1.1 Symptoms
• Insect control: Try to minimize the number The root-knot nematode can infect lilies. This
of aphids feeding on your lilies. nematode (several species in the genus
• Sanitation: Remove plants that have been Meloidogyne) dwells in the soil and infects roots.
diagnosed with virus. They will never get bet- Infected roots have swellings (knots), which
ter. Destroy them away from the garden and house the female root-knot nematode.
do not use them in a compost pile. The most harmful nematodes to lilies are the
• Disinfect: If you have a virus problem, be root lesion or meadow nematode (Pratylenchus
sure to disinfect tools used to prune or cut lil- spp) and the leaf-lesion nematode (Aphelenchoides
ies or their bulbs. You can use 1 part bleach to spp). These microscopic pests cause serious dam-
9 parts water solution. age to lily crops in some regions if their popula-
• Propagation: During the early part of the tions are not under control.
twentieth century, a serious virus infection Nematodes penetrate root tissues, killing cells
threatened the entire Easter lily crop. as they move. They move inside the root, feeding,
Eventually, they figured out that the virus laying eggs, and destroying additional cells. The
moved up the plant at a slower rate than the tip roots become soft and flabby, eventually suc-
390 32 Lilies
Table 32.1 Easter lily diseases and their management Table 32.1 (continued)
Disease/pathogen Symptoms Management Disease/pathogen Symptoms Management
Bulb basal rot, The basal Use Scale tip rot, The tips of Do not plant
Fusarium and plate is dark pasteurized Pseudomonas, scales turn affected bulbs
Cylindrocarpon brown and potting soil. Fusarium and tan or dark
dead. Scales Do not plant Cylindrocarpon brown to
fall off bulbs that have black in color
a rotted basal Lily symptomless Plants Maintain
plate. Dip virus (LSV) emerge later greenhouse
bulbs in a than normal. aphid-free
fungicide Soon after since LSV is
before planting emerging, carried by
Bulb storage rot, Bulb scales Do not plant leaves twist aphids from
Penicillium and have brown affected bulbs and have plant to plant
Rhizopus spots and a white stripes.
severe rot. Tops are
Bulbs may be crooked.
soft and Mildly
covered with affected
a blue-green plants grow
mold or on and
white fungal appear
growth normal
Botrytis blight, Oval to Maintain except for the
Botrytis cinerea circular humidity lower leaves
reddish- below 85 %. Cucumber mosaic Short white Maintain
brown spots Apply a virus (CMV) in lines develop greenhouses
form on fungicide to combination with on the leaves. aphid-free
leaves. protect healthy LSV Entire plant since CMV
Brown spots plants and flowers and LSV are
develop on are stunted carried by
flowers aphids from
Pythium root rot, Lower leaves Use plant to plant
Pythium sp yellow and pasteurized
die. Roots potting soil.
are limp and Drench potted cumbing to infection that moves into the basal
dark brown. bulbs with a plate, turning it into mush. River water often car-
Flowers abort fungicide. Or
apply a
ries nematodes, which can then enter croplands
fungicide as a through irrigation. These pests also host bacteria;
soil drench some species even carry virus diseases. Nematode
Rhizoctonia stem Bulbs are Use infestation causes stunting of growth and can
rot, Rhizoctonia sp yellow rather pasteurized severely reduce commercial production. Crops
than the potting soil.
normal Drench potted
parasitized by nematodes are seldom uniformly
white. Stems bulbs with a affected.
and scales fungicide. Foliar nematodes move through the stem in a
where the Repeat surface film of moisture to invade the leaves and
stem emerges treatment as
develop a stated on the
flowers. The foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides
soft rot, fungicide label spp) produces discolored streaks in lily foliage
causing the (Fig. 32.14) and will cause the bulbs to decline.
plant to The stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus
topple
dipsaci) causes individual bulb scales to rot and
(continued)
eventually can kill the bulb.
32.5 Nematodes 391
mercial plantings. Steam sterilization of

greenhouse soils is very important.
• Avoid planting lilies continuously in the same
site; this prevents harmful nematode popula-
tions from building up in the soil.
• Apply a granular nematicide such as fenami-
phos (e.g., Nemacur) when planting bulbs.
• Try adding carnivorous nematodes to the soil.
32.5.1.2.1 Soil Sterilization
• In heavily contaminated soils where lilies

have been grown for years, soil fumigation or
solarization may be the only recourse to elimi-
Fig. 32.14 Foliar nematode damage on Easter lily leaves
nate pathogens. Soils are solarized mainly to
kill fungi, nematodes, perennial weeds, and
32.5.1.2 Management weed seeds. The treatment is applied during
The following controls are used for nematodes: the summer when soil temperatures are high
and moisture levels relatively low; however,
• Keep the foliage as dry as possible to control the soil must be moist for optimal results.
foliar nematodes by preventing movement of • The chemicals can be either injected or
the organisms. Systemic insecticides are very watered into the soil. A tarp or plastic cover is
effective. usually necessary to prevent the chemicals
• Treat bulbs with hot water at 44 °C for 1 h. from evaporating out of the soil.
• Fumigate soil with methyl bromide, chloro- • The soil must be well tilled before solariza-
picrin, and metham sodium (e.g., Vapam). tion, free from clods and coarse organic mat-
This is a highly successful technique in com- ter. The tools used should also be clean.
Orchids
33
Abstract
Orchids are one of the world’s most fascinating and beautiful creations of
God which are valued for their exquisite flowers and long keeping quality,
exhibiting a wide range of diversity in form, size, color, and texture of
flowers. Commercial production of cut flowers in orchids has expanded
tremendously and has become a very profitable occupation. Orchids are
relatively sturdy and have few serious problems of pests and diseases. Pest
problems include mealybugs, spider mites, scales, and thrips. Fungal (root
rot, leaf spots, leaf blights, and spots on flowers) and bacterial diseases of
orchids are common because of the high levels of humidity they need to
survive. Their symptoms, biology, spread, and management are discussed.
The best defense against pests and diseases is growing healthy plants
through sound culture and proper sanitation.
Keywords
Orchids • Pests • Diseases • Symptoms • Biology • Spread • Management
33.1 Introduction 33.2 Species and Hybrids
Orchidaceae, commonly known as the orchid The following orchid species and hybrids are rec-
family, is a diverse and widespread family of ommended because of their adaptability, ease of
flowering plants grown in greenhouses with growing, and beautiful flowers: Cattleya,
blooms that are often colorful and fragrant Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, Oncidiums, Vanda,
(Fig. 33.1). Epidendrum, and Cymbidium (Fig. 33.2).

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_33
394 33 Orchids
Fig. 33.1 Orchids under

33.2.1 Vandas 33.2.6 Oncidiums
Blue Magic, Manuvadee, Miss Joaquim, Golden Shower, Waimanola Sunset Claire,
Nelson Mandela, Pakchong Blue, and Golden Anniversary, Passionata Red Galaxy, and
Rothschildiana Lalita Pia
33.2.2 Dendrobiums 33.2.7 Epidendrums
Mini Brown, Margaret Thatcher, Lucky Seven, Meridith Ann, Messenger, Memory, Spring Fuji,
and Noble Dendrobium Anna Bibus, Lady Hamilton, and King
33.2.3 Phalaenopsis 33.3 Insect and Mite Pests
Abendrot, Aphrodite, Bokeh Cream, Everspring 33.3.1 Scale, Diaspis boisduvalii

King Lee, Gaucho, New Stripes, and Taiwan
Glory 33.3.1.1 Symptoms
Scales are sucking insects that attach to and feed
on the underside of leaves, in leaf axils, on pseudo
33.2.4 Cattleyas bulbs, and on rhizomes. They often are hidden
under old leaves and pseudo bulb sheaths
Aquinii, Suzie, Snow Queen, Barbara Belle, New (Fig. 33.3). Severe infestations cause chlorotic
City, Chloris, Helan, and Hermine areas to appear on the leaves and plant surfaces
which will turn yellow and may darken and can
cause the leaf to drop prematurely. The scale is
33.2.5 Cymbidiums round flat and yellow in color. The young and
mature scales suck the juice from the leaves, peti-
Best Pink, Golden Leaf-edge Orchid, Yellow oles, and shoots resulting in stunted growth and
Margin Orchid, and Miscanthus Orchid drying of shoots in case of severe attack.
Vandas Dendrobiums
Oncidiums Epidendrums Phalaenopsis
Cattleyas Cymbidiums
Fig. 33.2 Different groups of orchids
33.3.1.2 Management 2 ml/L or ethion 50 EC at 1 ml/L followed by

Pongamia or neem oil 10 ml/L. Be sure to
• Selection of scale-free planting material. spray all plant surfaces, particularly the under-
• Cutting and burning of infested parts. sides of leaves and leaf axils.
• Application of carbofuran 5–7 g/pot. • Remove old leaves and flower sheaths to elim-
• Spray malathion 50 EC at 1 ml + dimethoate inate scale hiding places and allow easy
30 EC at 1 ml/L or chlorpyrifos 20 EC at inspection.
396 33 Orchids
Fig. 33.3 Scale infestation on orchid leaf
33.3.2 Mealybug, Pseudococcus

maritimus
33.3.2.1 Symptoms
Mealybugs are sucking insects that attack any part
of the plant but tend to stay tucked away at the junc-
tion of leaf and stem (Fig. 33.4). Severe infestations
cause chlorotic areas to appear on the leaves, which Fig. 33.4 Mealybug infestation on orchid
may darken, causing the leaf to turn yellow and
drop prematurely. Both nymphs and adult mealy-
bugs suck the sap from the plant parts and secrete Check new plants carefully before adding to
honeydew leading to sooty mold development. the growing area.
33.3.2.2 Management
• Prompt collection and destruction of infested 33.3.3 Thrips, Anaphorathrips

parts. orchidii
• Crawling of ants on the plants is a sign of
mealybug infestation when spraying should 33.3.3.1 Symptoms
be taken up. Thrips are very small sucking insects that feed on
• Spray dichlorvos 76 EC at 1 ml/L followed by flowers and occasionally leaves and can transmit
methyl parathion 50 EC at 1 ml/L or metho- virus diseases from plant to plant. Infested buds
myl 40 SP at 2 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at 1.5 may not open and flowers may be deformed
g/L at 15 days interval. Be sure to spray all exhibiting water-soaked spots. Leaves may
plant surfaces, particularly the undersides of appear pitted, stippled, silvery, or bleached
leaves and leaf axils. (Fig. 33.5). Both adults and nymphs suck the cell
• Pongamia or neem oil sprays at 10 ml/L are sap from growing leaves and buds. Affected
also effective. leaves curl with brown streaks. Damage to devel-
• Remove old leaves and flower sheaths to elim- oping buds results in discoloration, distortion,
inate hiding places and allow easy inspection. and drying.
insects is attractive to ants and is an ideal medium

for sooty mold (Fig. 33.6). When sooty mold is
present, inspect the plants for aphids, mealybugs,
scale, and mites.
33.3.4.2 Management
Wash aphids away from the plant with a jet of
water. Plants can be sprayed with pesticides like
malathion, Orthene, or safer soap using the prod-
uct in accordance with label instructions.
33.3.5 Whiteflies, Aleurothrix sp.
Fig. 33.5 Thrips infestation on orchid

33.3.5.1 Symptoms
Whiteflies are small, moth-like insects that attack
buds, flowers, and new growth. The tell-tale sign
33.3.3.2 Management of whiteflies is a cloud of tiny white insects aris-
ing from an affected plant when it is moved or
• Spray oxydemeton methyl 25 EC or dimetho- disturbed (Fig. 33.7).
ate 30 EC each at 2 ml/L at 10 days interval
when the infestation is noticed. 33.3.5.2 Management
• If the incidence is severe, spray cartap hydro- Good sanitation and elimination of weeds will
chloride 50 SP at 1.5 g/L or fipronil 5 SC at help prevent infestation as well as keeping plant
1.5 m/L or imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L hosts separate from orchids.
followed by Pongamia or neem oil at 10 ml/L. Plants can be sprayed with malathion, Orthene,
• Plants and flowers can be sprayed with pesti- or safer soap following label instructions. Repeat
cides like Orthene, malathion or safer soap, applications at 4 days intervals until whiteflies
applied in accordance with label instructions. are no longer present.
Repeat applications will be required because
thrips remain hidden on the plant or can be
reintroduced to the plant from other flowers in 33.3.6 Caterpillars
the landscape.
• Good sanitation will help prevent infestation 33.3.6.1 Symptoms
as well as keeping plant hosts (flowers, citrus, Caterpillars are the immature stage of moths and
gardenias, eucalyptus, etc.) separate from butterflies. While not common, they are vora-
orchids. cious feeders that can do a great deal of damage
to flowers and leaves in a short period of time
(Fig. 33.8).
33.3.4 Aphids, Macrosiphum luteum 33.3.6.2 Management

Caterpillars can be physically picked off the
33.3.4.1 Symptoms plant and destroyed; check the underside of
Aphids are sucking insects that attack buds, flow- leaves for their presence. Bacillus thuringiensis
ers, and new growths and transmit virus diseases or Bt is a naturally occurring bacterium of
from plant to plant. Buds and flower may fail to insects; it is a safe and natural product that can
open and leaves may have a sticky deposit. The be sprayed in the growing area following label
honeydew excreted by aphids and other sucking instructions.
398 33 Orchids
Fig. 33.6 Aphid

infestation on orchid
Fig. 33.7 Whitefly

Fig. 33.8 Caterpillar

leaf and flower
Keep the growing area clean of fallen leaves upper surface of a damaged leaf may have a
and debris in which insect pests and their eggs silvery sheen that eventually becomes sunken
can hide. Keep the landscape free of caterpillars. and turns brown. Leaves may be streaked, stip-
pled, or spotted due to lack of chlorophyll
(Fig. 33.9). When the incidence is severe, the
33.3.7 Mite, Brevipalpus sp. affected leaves turn brown and dry.

Mites typically feed on the underside of the
leaves and can be found under the leaves as small, • Spray of dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/L or triazo-
red to brown pests. A hand lens may be needed to phos 40 EC at 1.5 ml/L or ethion at 50 EC at 1
see them. Leaf undersides may have webbing and ml/L followed by Pongamia or neem oil at 10
brown splotches from the mite excrement. The ml/L at 15 days interval.
33.4 Diseases 399
Fig. 33.10 Slugs and snails infestation on orchid leaves

and flower
• Sprinkling of salt crystals in the paths or

Fig. 33.9 Mite infestation on orchid leaf around pots.
• Spread Snail Kill (3 % metaldehyde pellets) at
• When infestations are severe, spray abamectin 50 kg/ha.
1.9 EC at 0.5 ml/L or fenazaquine 10 EC at 1 • Spray neem oil at 10 ml/L or soap nut extract
ml/L. at 60 g/L on foliage.
• Plants can be sprayed with a miticide like • Chemical baits may be placed in the growing
Kelthane being particularly careful to contact area. Ash and diatomaceous earth can be
all the undersides of the leaves. During warm spread on horizontal surfaces to create a bar-
weather, new generations mature every 6 rier though water will deactivate it.
days, so repeat applications will be required, • Beer in shallow tins can be spread in the grow-
perhaps three applications at 4 days ing area and the drowned pests removed the
intervals. next day.
• Mites appear during warm, dry weather.
Increasing humidity and leaf wetness and, if Common orchid pests and their management
possible, decreasing temperature help prevent are presented in Table 33.1.
infestations.
33.4 Diseases
33.3.8 Snails and Slugs, Achatina 33.4.1 Black Rot, Pythium

fulica and Phytophthora spp.

These molluscs will leave holes and notches in The infection usually starts on the leaves, new
the leaves, flowers (Fig. 33.10), and roots and leads or roots, though all plant parts are suscep-
may chew off the growing tips. Adult and young tible. The disease spreads rapidly and will kill the
ones devour plants during nights. Snail’s attack is plant unless treated promptly.
seen mainly during monsoon period when high Leaf symptoms first appear on the underside
moist conditions prevail. as small, irregular, watery, brown spots which
rapidly become purplish-brown or purplish-
33.3.8.2 Management black. The spots may have a yellowish advancing
margin. The lesions enlarge with age and may
• Handpicking and killing of snails by dropping ooze water if pressed. Old lesions sometimes
them in 5 % salt solution. become dry and black (Fig. 33.11), often allow-
400 33 Orchids
Table 33.1 Common orchid pests and their management

Pest First line of defense Second line of defense Comments
Aphids Wash off with warm water Insecticidal soap, Orange If aphids are on the flower buds of
Guard (orange oil), orchids, try repeatedly washing
horticultural oil, isopropyl them off with warm water
alcohol
Mealybugs Use a cotton swab Insecticidal soap, For orchids with mealybugs on
drenched with isopropyl horticultural oil, neem their roots, remove the orchid
alcohol products from the pot, soak the roots in a
solution of insecticidal soap for a
few hours, then repot in a clean
new pot with new potting material
Thrips Neem, horticultural oil, Malathion, Orthene Malathion and Orthene are
insecticidal soap effective on a broad range of
insect problems but they both
reek; apply outside of living area
Scale Orange Guard; or dip Insecticidal soap, neem, Difficult to eradicate. Apply
cotton swab in isopropyl horticultural oils controls repeatedly to get rid of it
alcohol and wipe across
the armored shell of this
insect. Make sure to
penetrate this shell
Spider mites Wash off with a strong Insecticidal soap, Prevent spider mites with proper
stream of warm water horticultural oils, Orthene watering; avoiding excessively hot
growing temperatures
Snails and slugs Put out a shallow platter
of old beer, and wait for
these creatures to belly
up to the bar at nightfall
Fig. 33.11 Black rot

infection on orchids
ing other diseases to attack the plant. The disease Pseudo bulbs, roots, or rhizomes show infec-
may spread rapidly to the rhizome and roots, par- tions as purplish-black, often sharply delineated,
ticularly when the temperature and humidity are discolored area in the center of the plant. The
high. infection often starts in the roots and may spread
New leads show a purple or purple-brown area upward to the base of the pseudo bulb or leaf,
with a yellowish advancing margin and may be causing the plant to wilt.
pulled off easily. Cattleyas may show a creamy yellow discolor-
ation on one or both sides of the pseudo bulbs.
33.4 Diseases 401
The discoloration eventually turns black or brown 3–9 weeks, while mildly infected plants gradu-
and softens, and the bulb rots. ally decline over a year or so.
33.4.1.2 Management 33.4.2.2 Management

Unless the plant is valuable, the best approach is Prevention is a simple matter of following proper
to discard it, as the disease is highly contagious hygiene. Discard infected part of rhizome and
and will spread from plant to plant from splash- pseudo bulb if the purple band is evident. Repot
ing water. If the plant is valuable, isolate it from only the part of plant showing no purple discolor-
other plants, remove infected tissue with a sterile ation. Drench sanitized plants in a thiophanate
tool, and drench with a suitable fungicide like methyl following label instructions. Be diligent
Subdue or Banrot following label instructions. in disinfecting growing area and cutting tools.
High temperatures and humidity contribute to Each time the cutting tool contacts infected tis-
the spread of the disease. Consider using a pre- sue, it should be sterilized before making a sec-
ventative fungicide spray, particularly during hot ond cut, preferably through flame sterilization.
humid periods.
33.4.3 Root Rot, Rhizoctonia sp.

33.4.2 Fusarium Wilt, Fusarium sp.
33.4.3.1 Symptoms
33.4.2.1 Symptoms Root rot occurs when the medium breaks down,
Fusarium blocks the flow of moisture through the drainage is poor, and/or plants are overwatered.
plant’s vascular system plugging the phloem. Rot sets in quickly when roots are damaged by
Infected leaves are yellow, thin, shriveled, wrin- injury or salt buildup from hard water or over fer-
kled, or wilted and eventually die. tilizing. Rhizoctonia is very contagious and if the
The diagnostic symptom in the plant is a circle disease is not controlled immediately, infected
or band of purple or pinkish-purple discoloration plants develop brown root rot and die.
on the outer layers of the rhizome evident when Rhizoctonia is primarily a root disease, but the
the rhizome is cut (Fig. 33.12). If the disease is symptoms can be noticed on aerial parts of the
extensive, the entire rhizome may turn purple, plant. Leaves and pseudo bulbs become yellow,
and the discoloration may extend to the pseudo shriveled, thin, and twisted, and new growths
bulbs. The pathogen is spread through improper become progressively smaller. The roots usually
hygiene, generally as a result of using non-sterile show a brown rot (Fig. 33.13) with white or
cutting tools, which transfers the fungus from brown fungal growth. In severe infections, the
plant to plant. Severely infected plants may die in fungus girdles and kills the plant. The infection
quickly invades the lower leaves and rhizomes of
small seedlings.
33.4.3.2 Management
Remove infected part of roots and leaves using a
sterile cutting tool; drench the remaining plant in
a protectant fungicide like thiophanate methyl or
systemic fungicide (such as Subdue) following
label instructions. Disinfect growing area with
10 % bleach solution.
Make sure that potting media is fresh and
plants are not overwatered. When disease is sus-
pected in other plants or when repotting is over-
Fig. 33.12 Fusarium wilt symptoms on orchid due, depot the plants, check their roots, and repot
402 33 Orchids
pathogen is most active in warm weather when

light is low and moisture is high.
Systemic fungicide like thiophanate methyl or
protectant fungicides like mancozeb should be
sprayed following label instructions. Alternate
systemic and protectant fungicide use.
33.4.5 Leaf Spots, Cercospora,

Septoria, Guignardia/
Phyllosticta spp.
Fig. 33.13 Root rot symptoms on orchid 33.4.5.1 Symptoms
33.4.5.1.1 Cercospora Symptoms

as necessary. In hard-water areas, pots should be Infection shows first as a yellow spot on the
flushed at least monthly to prevent root damage underside of the leaf. Soon after the infection
by watering heavily to solubilize the salts and occurs, the yellow-green area may be noted on
then watering heavily an hour later to flush the the top surface of the leaf. The spots continue to
salts from the pot. enlarge in a circular or irregular pattern and may
eventually cover the entire leaf. With age, the
spots become slightly sunken and necrotic and
33.4.4 Anthracnose, Colletotrichum change to purple-brown or purple-black (Fig.
and Glomerella spp. 33.15). The advancing margin remains yellow.
Heavily infected leaves usually fall from the
33.4.4.1 Symptoms plant prematurely, especially if the infection
This fungal disease infects the aerial portion of started near the base of the leaf. As the spots
the plant. The leaves are most often attacked. enlarge in irregular patterns, they become sunken
Leaf tips turn brown beginning at the apex and and turn purplish-brown to purplish-black. The
proceeding toward the base (Fig. 33.14). Dark top surface of the leaf first becomes chlorotic and
brown or light gray patches develop, sometimes finally necrotic.
as concentric rings or as numerous dark bands
across the leaf. The affected area is usually 33.4.5.1.2 Guignardia/Phyllosticta
sharply defined and somewhat sunken, while the Symptoms
remainder of the leaf appears normal. Spore bod- Spotting from Guignardia/Phyllosticta may start
ies develop in the infected area. anywhere on the leaf or pseudo bulb. The lesions
Flowers develop watery, black or brown pus- are tiny, yellow, and slightly sunken. As they
tules which are usually raised and occur on the enlarge, they become round to oval and more
underside of older sepals and petals. The spots sunken, especially if the infection is on the leaves.
may merge and cover the entire flower. With age, they turn tan to dark brown and develop
a slightly raised, red to purple-black margin
33.4.4.2 Management (Fig. 33.16). Eventually, tiny black, raised spore
Normal sanitation, good air movement, lower structures develop in the center of the spots.
temperatures (if possible), and increased light Individual spots are about 0.35 cm across.
may help to reduce the spread of this disease. The Severely infected leaves may drop prematurely.
33.4 Diseases 403
Fig. 33.14 Symptoms

of anthracnose on
orchid leaves
ing problem, monthly fungicide sprays may offer

effective prevention.
33.4.6 Petal Blight, Botrytis sp.
33.4.6.1 Symptoms
Very small, black or light brown, spots appear on
the flowers. The spots may enlarge and cover the
entire flower (Fig. 33.17). If conditions are moist,
a gray fungal growth may appear on severely
Fig. 33.15 Cercospora leaf spot on orchid
infected or decaying flowers.
33.4.6.2 Management
Its presence may indicate insufficient light. This This fungus is common in the environment and
blight is also known as Guignardia; the names cannot be eradicated. Remove infected flowers
apply to two different sexual stages of the same since these are reservoirs of infection, then spray
fungus. with a protectant fungicide like Daconil in
enclosed areas. Always follow label instructions.
33.4.5.1.3 Septoria Symptoms Infection may be reduced through careful san-
The tiny spots may start on either leaf surface as itation, increased air circulation, reduced humid-
sunken, yellow lesions. They continue to enlarge, ity, and warmer night temperatures (>68 °F).
becoming dark brown to black, circular or irregu-
lar lesions. Spots may merge to form large, irreg-
ular patches on the leaf. Heavily infected leaves 33.4.7 Bacterial Soft and Brown Rot,
fall prematurely. Erwinia spp.
33.4.5.2 Management of Leaf Spot 33.4.7.1 Symptoms

Diseases Small water-soaked spots appear on the leaves and
Remove infected leaves with a sterile instrument often are surrounded by yellow halos (Fig. 33.18).
and reduce leaf wetness. Spray with a systemic If unchecked, the infection will rapidly rot the
fungicide such as thiophanate methyl or a protec- leaves and roots and spread more slowly into the
tant fungicide like mancozeb, following label rhizomes or pseudo bulbs. This wet rot may have a
instructions. Alternate the use of systemic and foul odor and has water-soaked appearance.
protectant fungicides. In Phalaenopsis, the disease spreads so rapidly
Provide good sanitation with good air move- that plants may be completely rotted in 2–3 days.
ment. Reduce leaf wetness; water on the leaves The bacteria are opportunistic organisms that can
may lead to infection. If the fungus is a continu- enter through wounds.
404 33 Orchids
Fig. 33.16 Guignardia/

Phyllosticta leaf spot on
orchids
per compounds on infected and adjacent plants

following label instructions (copper should not be
used on dendrobiums or blooming plants), disin-
fect growing area with 10 % bleach solution. Treat
nearby plants as well as those that are diseased.
The disease is spread by splashing water, so
avoid overhead watering if the disease is present.
The pathogen is favored by hot and moist condi-
tions, so if infection occurs, keep leaves dry,
increase air circulation, and reduce temperature
and humidity (if possible). Periodic preventive
sprays with copper compounds help to prevent
infection, particularly during hot and humid
Fig. 33.17 Botrytis petal blight on orchid weather.
Dendrobium leaves appear yellow and water- 33.4.8 Bacterial Brown Spot,
soaked and become black and sunken. Acidovorax sp. (syn
Vanda leaves develop translucent patches Pseudomonas sp.)
which become black and sunken.
Paphiopedilum leaves develop small, round 33.4.8.1 Symptoms
spots that are initially yellow and water-soaked The symptoms may appear anywhere on the leaf
but eventually become reddish brown and sunken. as a small, soft, water-soaked blister. Initially
The spot enlarges in all directions and may reach dirty green in color, the infected spot enlarges,
the growing crown before the leaf tip is affected. coalesces, and eventually becomes brown or
If untreated, the disease quickly spreads through- black, dried up, and sunken (Fig. 33.19). It oozes
out the plant, leaving it a dark, shriveled mass. bacteria-laden liquid, particularly when the dis-
Grammatophyllum leaves have water-soaked, ease reaches the tip of the leaf. It is most preva-
browning spots which become black and sunken. lent during the warmer weather.
In Cattleya, the infection enters through
33.4.7.2 Management wounds on older plants and usually affects only
Immediately remove infected tissue using a sterile older leaves. It advances slowly and is rarely
instrument, spray bactericides like physan or cop- fatal.
33.4 Diseases 405
Fig. 33.18 Symptoms of bacterial soft and brown rot on orchid
Fig. 33.19 Bacterial

brown spot symptoms on
orchid leaf and stem
In Phalaenopsis, the blister-like spots may be 33.4.9.2 Management

surrounded with a yellowish or pale green halo. There is no treatment for a virus infected plant.
Spots coalesce, and the infection spreads rapidly. Destroy the plant to prevent it from infecting
If the diseased area invades the crown, the plant other plants. If the plant is valuable, isolate it
will die. completely from other plants and follow precau-
tions to prevent infecting other plants.
33.4.8.2 Management
Immediately remove infected tissue and spray the 33.4.9.2.1 Use Sterile Cutting Tools
plant with a bactericide like physan or copper Viruses are spread by transmitting the plant sap
compounds following label instructions. Disinfect from one plant to another via mechanical means.
growing area with 10 % bleach solution. The primary means by which viruses are spread
Pseudomonas cattleya is a water-borne patho- from plant to plant is by improperly sterilized
gen that prefers warm, moist conditions. Reduce cutting tools. There are two ways to keep cutting
humidity and temperature (if possible), eliminate tools sterilized, either use sterile single-edged
overhead watering, and increase air circulation. razor blades that are discarded after each and
every use or use a hot flame to sterilize cutting
tools after using the tools on a given plant. The
33.4.9 Viral Diseases cutting tool should be sterilized for 15–20 s with
a hot flame on each side.
33.4.9.1 Symptoms
Symptoms include chlorotic and necrotic spots, 33.4.9.2.2 Control During Repotting
streaks, lines, and rings in the leaves. Flowers Viruses can be spread whenever there is mechan-
may show necrotic spots and streaks as well as ical transmission of sap from an infected plant to
color break (Fig. 33.20). The virus is present in another plant, even by leaves rubbing against one
all parts of the plant. another. Observe these additional controls:
406 33 Orchids
Fig. 33.20 Top row – Cymbidium mosaic virus (left), tobacco mosaic virus (right), bottom row – tobacco spotted wilt
virus (left), orchid fleck virus (middle), and tospovirus (right)
(a) Latex Gloves: Wear latex gloves when han- remove residual organic matter, then soak-
dling a given plant and discard those gloves ing them for an hour in a 20 % bleach solu-
when you are done handling the plant. Your tion, then soaking them for an hour in
bare hands can come into contact with plant physan mixed as per label instructions. Clay
sap containing the virus and infect the next pots are porous and cannot be sterilized
plant. against viruses by using bleach and physan
(b) Newspaper on Potting Surface: Keep the pot- alone. Follow the normal disinfection rou-
ting surface sterile. Keep a stack of newspa- tine for plastic pots above and then bake
pers handy and when repotting, place them in the oven at 350 °F for an hour to kill
newspaper under the potting area. Upon any residual virus.
completion, wrap up the newspaper, gloves
and other detritus and discard them before
touching the next plant. 33.4.9.2.3 Control During Routine
(c) Disinfect Pots Prior to Use: Make sure your Activities
pots are sterile. Plastic pots can be disin- Viruses can be spread whenever there is mechan-
fected by first washing them with soap to ical transmission of sap from an infected plant to
33.4 Diseases 407
another plant, even by leaves rubbing against one shears, you should flame sterilize them
another. Observe these additional controls: between each inflorescence.
(b) Do Not Remove Inflorescences by Hand: A
(a) Cutting Inflorescences: Use a sterile tool to virus, if present, can be unknowingly trans-
cut each inflorescence from the plant. The mitted to your hand and you can infect the
easiest way to do this is to use a sterile, next plant when you touch it or remove the
single-edged razor blade to remove the inflo- next dead flower bud by hand. Instead, use a
rescence and discard it after each use (or sterile razor blade and discard it after each
bake in a 35 °F oven for an hour). If you use use.
Anthuriums
34
Abstract
Anthurium is one the most valued cut flowers which has a great export
potential. Successful production of anthuriums requires the management
of numerous pests and diseases. The major diseases (bacterial blight,
anthracnose, bacterial wilt, root rot, and black nose), pests (scales, mealy-
bugs, thrips, whiteflies, caterpillars, mites, and snails), and the burrowing
nematode and their symptoms, biology, spread, and management are
discussed.
Keywords
Anthurium • Pests • Diseases • Nematodes • Symptoms • Biology • Spread
• Management
34.1 Introduction The most popular and economically important

species are Anthurium andraeanum and A. scher-
Anthurium is one of the beautiful cut flowers cul- zerianum which posses attractive long-lasting
tivated mostly in tropical humid climate inflorescence.
(Fig. 34.1). It is the largest and probably the most
complex genus of arum family. The word anthur-
ium is derived from the Greek words “anthos” 34.2 Varieties
and “oura,” which means “bloom” and “tair”,
respectively. The genus Anthurium belongs to the There are many varieties of anthurium with dif-
complex family of Araceae. This family has eight ferent colors like dark red, orange, white, pink,
subfamilies, among them anthurium belongs to and bicolor (two colors on the spathe). Varieties
Pothoideae. Anthurium occupies important posi- of anthurium in the Netherlands are well known
tion in cut flower trade on account of its beauty. It as private companies from this country have
is grown for its attractive flowers as well as foli- developed many varieties. Tissue-cultured plants
age. It is an evergreen tropical herbaceous plant. of these varieties are available in India. Some of

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_34
410 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.1 Anthuriums under protected cultivation
the varieties, viz., Ivory (white), Chichas

(Maroon), Aymara (pink), and Jewel (red with
green), can perform well in India.
The popular cultivars grown throughout the
world both for cut flowers and in pots are Abe
(bright pink), Avo-Jose (white), Haga White,
Nova Aurora (red), Ozaki (red), Red Elf, Rico
(rose), Sun Burst (bright orange), Sarina (white
and rose), and Uniwai (white).
34.3.1 Whitefly, Aleurotulus Fig. 34.2 Anthurium spiraling whitefly

anthuricola
• Dichlorvos 76 EC at 1 ml/L or malathion 50
34.3.1.1 Symptoms EC at 1 ml/L spray checks adult flies.
White and waxy-coated adults and nymphs colo- • Install yellow sticky traps for attracting and
nize under surface of the leaves (Fig. 34.2) and killing adults.
petiole sheath. The pest sucks the sap from
infested parts causing yellowing, wilting, and
drying of affected plant parts.
34.3.2 Thrips, Chaetanaphothrips
34.3.1.2 Management orchidii
• Remove and burn infested leaves. 34.3.2.1 Symptoms

• Spray Methomyl 40 SP at 2 ml/L or acephate Damage starts in March and reaches to a peak in
75 SP at 1.5 g/L alternating with triazophos 40 August to September. Thrips produce white- or
EC at 1.5 ml/L at 15 days interval for manag- brown-colored streaks and distortion of spathe by
ing nymphs. sucking cell sap (Fig. 34.3). Severe damage
occurs especially on young leaves.
Fig. 34.3 Damage to anthurium spathe by thrips (left) and adult thrips
34.3.2.2 Management 1 ml/L at 15 days interval followed by

Pongamia or Neem oil at 10 ml/L.
• Spray oxydemeton methyl 25 EC at 2 ml/L or • If the incidence is severe, spray abamectin 1.9
dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L or Profenofos 50 EC at 0.5 ml/L or flufenoxuron 10 DC at
EC at 1 ml/L or acephate 75 SP at 1.5 g/L. 1 ml/L.
• Spray Vertimec at 0.4 ml/L at least 1–2 sprays • Spray Kelthane at 1 ml/L or Vertimec at
early in the morning. 0.4 ml/L at least 1–2 sprays early in the
• After 15 days give a follow-up spray of morning.
Pongamia or Jatropha oil at 10 ml/L.
• Spray Imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml/L or Fipronil
5 SC at 1.5 ml/L, if the incidence is severe.
34.3.4 Citrus Red Mite, Panonychus
Malathion and Topcide, a pyrethroid, pro- citri
vided good control of thrips, and flowers had
very little or no injury (Fig. 34.4). 34.3.4.1 Symptoms
On leaves, citrus red mite (Fig. 34.6) feeding
results in a pale stippling visible primarily on the
34.3.3 Mites, Brevipalpus spp upper surface of the leaf. Attacked tissue becomes
yellow or white or takes on a bronzy appearance.
34.3.3.1 Symptoms In severe infestations, the stippling enlarges to
Mite (Fig. 34.5) colonies are seen on lower sur- dry necrotic areas (commonly called mesophyll
face of mature leaves. They suck sap and cause collapse). Eventually, leaves may drop and twigs
severe specking, mottling, and wilting of affected dieback.
leaves in severe cases. Bronzing occurs on upper
and lower surfaces of leaf. 34.3.4.2 Management
Avid and Floramite gave good initial and residual
34.3.3.2 Management control of citrus red mite (CRM) up to 28 days
after treatment (DAT) with lower mite counts per
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/L or triazo- leaf than Conserve and untreated controls
phos 40 EC at 1.5 ml/L or ethion 50 EC at (Fig. 34.7) (Yogi et al. 2000).
412 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.4 Effect of

chemicals on anthurium
flower quality against
thrips
Fig. 34.6 Citrus red mite
Fig. 34.5 False spider mite
34.3.5 Caterpillars 34.4 Diseases
34.3.5.1 Symptoms 34.4.1 Bacterial Blight, Xanthomonas

Makes large holes on the tender leaves (Fig. 34.8). axonopodis pv dieffenbachiae
(Syn Xanthomonas campestris
34.3.5.2 Management pv dieffenbachiae)
Spray with Lannate at 1 ml/L
34.4.1.1 Symptoms
Early foliar symptoms start as water-soaked spots
34.3.6 Snails visible near the margins where hydathodes, filled
with guttation fluid, serve as the most common
34.3.6.1 Symptoms port of entry. Tissues surrounding the infected
They eat root tips and damage flowers and buds areas turn yellow. Water-soaked spots coalesce,
(Fig. 34.9). eventually forming large necrotic zones at leaf
margins (Fig. 34.10). The pathogen quickly
34.3.6.2 Management moves into vascular tissues of petioles and stems,
Spray metaldehyde with mixture of chick feed by preventing the translocation of nutrients and
which snails are attracted which can be collected water and producing symptoms of water stress
in the morning and killed. that may resemble natural senescence. The main
34.4 Diseases 413
Fig. 34.7 Efficacy of

chemicals against citrus
red mite
since plant materials which show no symptoms

have the potential for latent infection and the
pathogen is spread during harvest. These two
approaches, while useful, are insufficient for
stopping disease spread.
Chase (1988) suggested that lower fertilizer
rates for potted anthuriums could result in
reduced disease and greater flower production.
Sakai (1990) reported that higher levels of ammo-
nium fertilizer led to higher amounts of amino
compounds in guttation fluid when compared to
Fig. 34.8 Large holes made by caterpillar pests on nitrate fertilizers. He suggested that this pro-
anthurium leaf
moted bacterial multiplication in the guttation
stem of systemically infected plants turns dark fluid. The use of nitrate or inorganic fertilizers for
brown, and the growing point deteriorates, even- plant growth was expected to reduce the amount
tually leading to death of the plant. When the of amino compounds in guttation fluid and
spathe is infected, the disease is often called thereby reduce blight incidence (Sakai 1991,
“flower blight” (Fig. 34.10). Less frequently, bac- Sakai et al. 1992). Greenhouse trials indicated a
teria enter stomates, forming circular water- relationship between fertilizer treatments and
soaked lesions surrounded by chlorotic zones. blight susceptibility (Higaki et al. 1990, 1992).
Stomatal invasion often results in limited coloni- Growing plants under plastic or glasshouses
zation of mesophyll tissues and does not neces- coupled with drip irrigation rather than overhead
sarily lead to systemic infection. or sprinkler irrigation reduced the spread of the
bacteria through aerosols and water splash and
34.4.1.2 Management significantly reduced the incidence of blight in
anthurium-seedling culture (Kamemoto and
34.4.1.2.1 Cultural Controls Kuehnle 1989). Growing anthuriums under cool
Field sanitation, which involves removal of and shaded conditions slows the progression of
leaves showing early infections and elimination the disease. Inoculated plants exposed to temper-
of systemically infected plants, was the principal atures greater than 31 °C were more susceptible
method of reducing anthurium blight in early to disease than inoculated plants exposed to
years (Nishijima 1988). Disinfection of cutting 26 °C or lower temperatures (Alvarez et al. 1990).
tools is important to prevent the spread of blight, This difference in temperature can be regulated
414 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.9 Snails on

anthurium spathe (left) and
leaf (right)
Fig. 34.10 Bacterial

blight symptoms on leaves
and spathe
in commercial shade houses by strategically 34.4.1.2.4 Development of Resistant

increasing airflow. Cultivars
Genetic engineering serves as a means of intro-
34.4.1.2.2 Chemical Methods ducing resistance genes from non-plant origins
Products containing copper (CuPro, Phyton 27, into anthurium plants. Agrobacterium-mediated
Camelot), mancozeb (Protect T/O, Dithane), and gene transfer has been used to successfully trans-
Bacillus subtilis (Cease, Companion) are effec- form anthuriums (Kuehnle et al. 1991). Genes that
tive against Xanthomonas. code the antibacterial peptides attacin and cecro-
pin have been isolated from the cecropia moth
34.4.1.2.3 Tissue-Cultured Anthuriums (Hyalophora cecropia) and genetically engineered
The best single means for blight disease manage- into anthuriums (Kuehnle et al. 1992, 1993, 2004).
ment entails the use of plant material which is Transgenic anthurium plants expressing attacin
guaranteed to be pathogen-free. Tissue-cultured were less susceptible to X. axonopodis pv dieffen-
plants, although highly regarded and recom- bachiae and had fewer numbers of bacteria pres-
mended to growers, have the potential of latent ent when compared to non-transgenic plants
infection with X. axonopodis pv dieffenbachiae (Kamemoto and Kuehnle 1996).
(Norman and Alvarez 1994, Norman et al. 1993). Kuehnle et al. (2004) reported that two culti-
Triple indexing protocol developed for anthur- vars transformed to express the Shiva-1 lytic pep-
iums ensures that tissue-cultured plants do not tide (a synthetic analog of cecropin B)
serve as sources of inoculums (Tanabe et al. significantly resisted anthurium blight. Disease
1992). progression in a transgenic line of ‘Paradise Pink’
34.4 Diseases 415
was significantly reduced compared to the non- planting stocks in vitro, use of resistant cultivars,
transgenic control, indicating increased and biological control.
tolerance.
34.4.1.2.5 Biological Control 34.4.2 Bacterial Wilt, Ralstonia

Foliar applications of the bacterial community solanacearum
reduced infection of anthurium leaves through
hydathodes and wounds (Fukui et al. 1999). The 34.4.2.1 Symptoms
strains were identified as Sphingomonas chloro- Leaf yellowing (chlorosis) is usually the first
phenolica, Microbacterium testaceum, symptom observed. The disease spreads rapidly
Brevundimonas vesicularis, and Herbaspirillum throughout the vascular system of the plant, turn-
rubrisulbalbicans. All four species survived on ing veins in the leaves and stems a brown, bronze
the surfaces of microplants up to 2 months and color (Fig. 34.13). Bacterial ooze (brown slime)
were effective in protecting microplants against will be present if cuts are made into the stems of
infection (Alvarez and Mizumoto 2001). Striking highly infected plants. Plants will exhibit wilt
differences were observed when susceptible cul- symptoms even though adequate soil moisture is
tivar ‘Rudolph’ was inoculated with X. axonopo- available. Wilt symptoms are the byproduct of
dis pv dieffenbachiae and either treated (sprayed Ralstonia bacteria clogging the vascular system
weekly) or not treated with the biocontrol agents. of the plant.
Non-treated plants developed typical blight
symptoms after inoculation with the pathogen 34.4.2.2 Factors Favoring the Disease
and died. In contrast, 75 % of the treated plants Cool greenhouse temperatures may temporarily
survived (Fig. 34.11) and produced flowers after mask symptoms and give bacteria time to spread.
22 weeks (Fig. 34.12). In repeated trials disease Symptoms appear rapidly during hot weather.
was reduced by 25–40 % on treated plants,
whereas all non-treated plants died within 28–35 34.4.2.3 Management
days after inoculation. A strict sanitation program is the most successful
Biostimulation was observed as an unexpected way to stop the spread of this pathogen and even-
outcome in studies involving anthurium treat- tually eradicate it from a production facility.
ment for biological control (Alvarez and Fungicides that contain phosphorous acid have
Mizumoto 2001). Stage 4 tissue cultured micro- also been shown to be effective in preventing
plants treated with the bacterial consortium disinfection; however, they do not cure systemically
cussed above had stronger root systems and infected plants (Norman et al. 2006).
greater survival rates during transplant to indi- Bacterial wilt is spread via contaminated soil,
vidual pots than non-treated plants. Treated water, tools, or worker contact. Use disease-free
plants were more vigorous, flowered sooner, and propagation material. The bacterial wilt pathogen
were larger in plant height, leaf area, leaf num- is easily spread via infected cuttings. Because the
ber, and shoot and root dry weights. Growth bacteria survive well in soil, both contaminated
effects were most striking on A. andraeanum cul- plant material and the supporting soil should be
tivars ‘Rudolph’, ‘Marian Seefurth’, and several discarded. If pots and trays from contaminated
numbered cultivars. infected plants are to be reused, they should be
scrubbed free of adhering soil and then soaked in
34.4.1.2.6 Integrated Methods a disinfectant to kill the remaining bacteria.
Components of an integrated management pro- Knives and clippers should be sterilized between
gram for anthurium blight include sanitation, dis- plants with a disinfectant containing a quaternary
infection of harvesting implements and ammonium compound (Physan 20, Green-
containers, chemical sprays, modification of cul- Shield) or diluted solution of bleach to prohibit
tural practices, production of pathogen-free spread.
416 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.11 Disease

reduction on ‘Marian
Seefurth’ plants treated
with beneficial bacteria
(four plants on right)
compared to four
non-treated plants (left) 28
days after inoculation with
X. axonopodis pv
dieffenbachiae (Photo by A
Alvarez)
Fig. 34.12 ‘Marian Seefurth’ plants after continued

weekly post-inoculation treatments. Diseased plants even-
tually recovered and produced flowers (Photo by A
Alvarez)
Fig. 34.13 Ralstonia bacterial wilt causes yellowing
34.4.3 Rhizoctonia Root Rot, (chlorosis) of anthurium leaves (Credit: D Norman, UF/
Rhizoctonia solani IFAS)
34.4.3.1 Symptoms Sclerotia are irregular in shape and brown in

The term “damping-off” is used to describe these color and resemble particles of soil. Sclerotia
classical symptoms. Young, tender stems are gir- provide a seedlike mechanism for the fungus to
dled, become water soaked, and are unable to survive unfavorable conditions, such as drought
support the weight of the plant. Rhizoctonia or cold weather. These small sclerotia stick to
attacks the roots and lower stems of plants trays and pot surfaces and are one of the ways the
(Fig. 34.14), but under wet conditions it can also fungus spreads through nurseries.
attack and spread in the upper leaf canopy.
Discolored brown roots are one of the symptoms 34.4.3.3 Factors Favoring the Disease
observed with Rhizoctonia infections Water-saturated soils are conducive for disease
development.
34.4.3.2 Spread and Survival
Rhizoctonia can survive within soil for years 34.4.3.4 Management
without a host plant. The fungus produces small Never incorporate native soils into media mixes
mats of tightly woven mycelia called sclerotia. without steam sterilizing. Use well-drained soil
34.4 Diseases 417
These symptoms are similar to symptoms

caused by Rhizoctonia; however, fungal strands
(mycelial growth) are rarely observed with
Phytophthora and Pythium infections.
34.4.4.2 Factors Favoring the Disease

Water-saturated soils are conducive to disease
development. These diseases can usually be
avoided by using light, well-drained soil mixes.
34.4.4.3 Management
Use well-drained, synthetic soil mixes. Use
disease-free stock plants. Plants with symptoms
of disease should be discarded, and the rest of the
Fig. 34.14 Rhizoctonia root rot symptoms on Anthurium production facility should be treated with a fungi-
(Credit: D Norman, UF/IFAS) cide drench. If potting containers are reused, they
should be scrubbed and sterilized. Cutting shears,
mixes. Never store peat moss, sphagnum moss, knives, and tools should be dipped in an appro-
chips, or potting media mixes directly on soil sur- priate disinfectant between plants.
faces where they can be colonized by the fungus. Fungicides such as Mefenoxam (Subdue
Plants should be cultivated on raised benches to Maxx) and Aluminum tris/Fosetyl-AL (Aliette
limit root contact with soil. Rhizoctonia fre- WDG), Dimethomorph (Stature), fluopicolide
quently gains access to production facilities via (Adorn), and phosphorous acid (Alude, K-Phite,
infected propagation material. Vital) may be used to control Phytophthora and
Many fungicides are effective against out- Pythium.
breaks of Rhizoctonia. Examples include Clearys
3336, Fungo/Allban (Thiophanate methyl),
Medallion (Fludioxonil), and Contrast 34.4.5 Black Nose, Colletotrichum
(flutolanil). gloeosporioides
In Anthurium the pathogen is highly specific,

34.4.4 Root Rot, only attacking the spadix portion of the flower
Phytophthora/Pythium (the nose).
Phytophthora and Pythium species cause sub- 34.4.5.1 Symptoms

stantial damage to Anthurium and numerous Black nose can cause havoc in cut flower and
tropical foliage crops. potted-plant production. Flowers and flowering
potted plants cannot be sold with this condition.
34.4.4.1 Symptoms If left uncontrolled, this disease could cause sig-
Plants infected with either of these pathogens nificant cut flower loss.
(Phytophthora and Pythium) exhibit wilting, leaf Symptoms start as tiny brownish spots on the
yellowing (chlorosis), and root dieback. flower spadix. During high humidity these spots
Phytophthora and Pythium infections primar- enlarge, appear water-soaked, and turn necrotic
ily attack root systems. Plants will wilt even (Fig. 34.16). Sometimes the entire spadix will
though adequate soil moisture is available. Root turn black as lesions coalesce. The shape of most
sloughing is the primary diagnostic tool. Under lesions is, however, angular due to the shape of
severe conditions, the foliage may exhibit black the spadix tissue. As the disease becomes more
to brown leaf lesions (Fig. 34.15). severe, masses of orange colored spores form on
418 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.15 Anthurium wilt

caused by Phytophthora
(left). Pythium and
Phytophthora cause root
sloughing (right) (Credit:
D Norman, UF/IFAS)
Fig. 34.16 Black nose

disease on Anthurium
causes spadix darkening
(Credit: D Norman, UF/
IFAS)
necrotic areas. Leaves and spathes are rarely if control the spread of this pathogen in a
ever infected. The spadix may eventually fall off. production facility.
Growers may also observe black, spore- Mancozeb (Manzate 200) and Benomyl
containing structures (acervuli) on dead leaves (Benlate) at the recommended dosages can easily
and stems. control the disease at an economic level. Some
other fungicides that can be used include chemi-
34.4.5.2 Factors Favoring the Disease cals such as Tilt, Bayleton, Baycor, and
This disease is most severe during humid, warm Prochloraz, but they are a bit expensive. Fungicide
conditions. Colletotrichum readily invades plant applications are usually discouraged because
tissues previously damaged by pesticides, fertil- chemical residues diminish the marketability of
izer, or bacterial blight (Xanthomonas). flowers and plants.
Anthurium plant-breeding programs both in
34.4.5.3 Management Hawaii and Florida have incorporated disease
The Colletotrichum fungus produces thousands resistance into many of the current cultivars.
of small hot-dog-shaped spores that can readily Newer cultivars are highly resistant to this patho-
be moved by splashing water, air movement, and gen and rarely exhibit black nose. It is worth-
workers. A strict sanitation program is crucial to while to note that several anthurium varieties
34.5 Nematodes 419
grown by Caribbean farmers are indeed resistant the soil line. They maybe splashed onto or
to anthracnose disease. migrate up stems to aerial roots, where they pen-
etrate the soft, fleshy root tips. Invasion of the
root tips frequently cause cessation of root
34.5 Nematodes growth. Infected tips are brown (Fig. 34.18) and
may be missing. When the environment is dry,
34.5.1 Burrowing Nematode, nematodes either migrate back into the soil or
Radopholus similis desiccate, and many rotted tips are devoid of
nematodes. The tips produce a callus, stop grow-
34.5.1.1 Symptoms ing, and have a rounded form that suggests the
Root rots and plant decline are well-known description “stubby root.” When the environment
symptoms of burrowing nematode infection. becomes favorable for root growth, a new lateral
Anthurium root rots caused by R. similis are root is produced at or near the tip of the original
brown or dark brown to black. The rots develop root. This new tip can be infected and become
relatively slowly. Initially, although older roots stubby also. Repetition of this cycle results in a
are infected and rot, new roots are produced and short aerial root with several stubby tips
the plant often continues to grow well. But com- (Fig. 34.18). Stubby roots and branched aerial
pared to healthy plants, the amount of functional roots are not normal in anthurium. While this
roots in diseased plants is greatly reduced. With condition is not always caused by nematodes,
time, fewer new roots are produced, and gradu- these abnormal roots should be a clue to the pos-
ally the entire root mass is destroyed (Fig. 34.17). sible presence of burrowing nematodes.
The steady and progressive destruction of the The first symptom of rot on roots growing in
root system usually causes plant decline in the cinder potting medium are small, pink,
second to fourth years. The leaves turn yellow orange-brown or light brown streaks or elongated
and may have other symptoms of nutrient defi- rots. These develop into brownish streaks, with or
ciency. The plants become smaller and lose vigor, without yellow borders, and then become dis-
producing fewer and smaller flowers. tinctly long, blackish-brown rots. With time,
In moist environments, the nematodes are able these rots expand, and large sections of the root
to migrate short distances outside the plant, above are destroyed. At times, if the nematodes feed
and grow deep into the root, only a gray streak is
visible on the external surface of a white or light
colored root.
34.5.1.2 Biology
Burrowing nematodes emerge from eggs and
mature in 18–20 days (Shurtleff and Averre
2000). A typical female may produce as many as
100 eggs in her lifetime.
34.5.1.3 Management
Drenching potted anthuriums at 49–50 °C for
15–20 min eliminated 95–100 % of burrowing
nematodes, infecting the roots and stems of
Fig. 34.17 Burrowing nematode infected (left) and plants to ≤1 g−1 in infested roots of potted
healthy roots (right) of anthurium
anthuriums.
420 34 Anthuriums
Fig. 34.18 (Left) Typical

stubby roots on an
anthurium plant: A, petiole;
B, sheath; C, node; D,
stubby roots. (Right) Early
stages of root rot on
anthurium. Note the
missing root tips with
exposed vascular strands
Table 34.1 Pest management strategies (non-chemical and chemical controls) for anthuriums
Pest Damage or problem Nonchemical control Chemical controls
Aphids Sooty mold caused by Highly parasitized by Discus, Marathon, Neem
honeydew secretions; wasps and predated on products, Orthene, pyrethrins,
spotting caused by sucking by lady beetles and pyrethroids, oils, soaps, TriStar
mouth parts lacewings. Remove
severely infested
flowers and leaves
Thrips (Anthurium White streaking of flower Remove severely Avid, Conserve, Discus,
and banana rust spathe; damage inflicted infested buds. Thrips Malathion, Marathon, TriStar,
thrips) early in bud stage. Thrips pupate in media below pyrethroids
may be present on mature, plant; apply control
open flowers. Banana rust measures to media and
thrips may be more emerging bud area
prevalent than anthurium
thrips; gross characteristics
of damage may be
indistinguishable between
species
Whitefly, anthurium Waxy secretions in leaf Remove severely Discus, Distance, Marathon,
sheath area; quarantine infested plants Orthene, Talus, Tristar
problem
Beetle, black twig Tiny hole in petiole Strict sanitation; fallen Discus, Dursban/DuraGuard,
borer associated with death of petioles contain live Marathon, pyrethroids
petiole and leaf distant to beetles. Dispose of all
hole infested petioles prior
to insecticide
application
Mite, false spider and Bronzing of upper and lower Monitor plants for Avid, Floramite, Hexygon,
citrus red surfaces of leaf and flower mite damage on upper Ovation, Sanmite, Tetrasan
spathe. Citrus red mite cause and lower surfaces of
bronzing primarily on the flower spathe. Initiate
upper leaf surface control measures if
damage is detected. If
unsprayed, fast-
moving brown
predatory mites and
lady beetles may be
present especially at
high pest population
(continued)
References 421

Pest Damage or problem Nonchemical control Chemical controls
Nematode, burrowing Stunting of plants due to A 3–6 month bare, Avid, DiTera
root damage and rot weed-free fallow
period with well-
decomposed plant
parts will eliminate
nematodes. Plant only
nematode-free stocks.
Hot water treatment at
50 °C for 15 min will
disinfest stems. Tests
show that hot air at
50 °C, 60 % R.H. for
15 min may also
disinfest stem
blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res,

The following Table 34.1 gives important University of Hawaii, Honolulu, p 10
insect, mite, and nematode pests of anthuriums Kamemoto H, Kuehnle A (1996) Breeding anthuriums in
and their management. Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu
Kuehnle AR, Chen FC, Sugii N, Jaynes JM (1991)
Engineering of blight resistance in anthurium. In:
Alvarez AM, Deardorff DC, Wadsworth KB (eds)
References Proceedings of the 4th anthurium blight conference,
Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res, University of
Alvarez A, Mizumoto C (2001) Bioprotection and stimu- Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 42–43
lation of aroids with phylloplane bacteria. Kuehnle AR, Chen FC, Jaynes JM, Norman D, Alvarez A
Phytopathology 91:S3 (1992) Engineering blight resistant anthurium: a prog-
Alvarez A, Lipp R, Norman D, Gladstone L (1990) ress report. In: Delate KM, Tome CHM (eds)
Epidemiology and control of anthurium blight. In: Proceedings of the 5th anthurium blight conference,
Alvarez AM (ed) Proceedings of the 3rd anthurium Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res, University of
blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res, Hawaii, Honolulu, pp17–18
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 27–30 Kuehnle AR, Chen FC, Jaynes JM (1993) Status of genet-
Chase AR (1988) Chemical and nutritional aspects of con- ically engineered anthuriums. In: Delate KM,
trolling Xanthomonas diseases on Florida ornamen- Yoshimura ER (eds) Proceedings of the 6th Hawaii
tals. In: Alvarez AM (ed) Proceedings of the 1st anthurium international conference, Hawaii Inst Trop
anthurium blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Agric Human Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Human Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 32–34 pp 7–8
Fukui R, Fukui H, Alvarez AM (1999) Suppression of Kuehnle AR, Fujii T, Mudalige R, Alvarez A (2004) Gene
bacterial blight by a community isolated from the gut- and genome mélange in breeding of Anthurium and
tation fluids of anthuriums. Appl Environ Microbiol Dendrobium Orchid. Acta Hortic (ISHS)
65:1020–1028 651:115–122
Higaki T, Imamura J, Tanabe M, Nishijima W, Hara A, Nishijima WT (1988) Anthurium blight: an overview. In:
Deardoff D, Sewake K (1990) Nutritional and cultural Alvarez AM (ed) Proceedings of the 1st anthurium
effects on anthurium bacterial blight. In: Alvarez AM blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res,
(ed) Proceedings of the 3rd anthurium blight confer- University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 6–8
ence, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res, University Norman DJ, Alvarez AM (1994) Latent infections of
of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 7–11 in vitro anthurium caused by Xanthomonas campestris
Higaki T, Imamura JS, Moniz D (1992) Nutritional and pv dieffenbachiae. Plant Cell Tiss Organ Cult
cultural effects on bacterial blight of anthurium. In: 39:55–61
Delate KM, Tome CHM (eds) Proceedings of the 5th Norman D, Alvarez A, Lipp R (1993) Latent infections of
anthurium blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Xanthomonas campestris pv dieffenbachiae in tissue-
Human Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 44–45 cultured anthurium. In: Delate KM, Yoshimura ER
Kamemoto H, Kuehnle A (1989) Breeding for blight (eds) Proceedings of the 6th Hawaii anthurium inter-
resistance: a progress report. In: Fernandez JA, national conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human
Nishijima WT (eds) Proceedings of the 2nd anthurium Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 12–16
422 34 Anthuriums
Norman DJ, Chen J, Mangravita-Nova A, Yuen JMF glutamine production, and systemic blight on anthur-
(2006) Control of bacterial wilt of geranium with ium cultivars Ellison, Onizuka and Calypso. In: Delate
phosphorus acid. Plant Dis 90(6):798–802 KM, Tome CHM (eds) Proceedings of the 5th anthur-
Sakai DS (1990) The effect of nitrate and ammonium fer- ium blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human
tilizer on the contents of anthurium guttation fluid. In: Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 47–50
Alvarez AM (ed) Proceedings of the 3rd anthurium Shurtleff M, Averre C (2000) Diagnosing plant diseases
blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric Human Res, caused by nematodes. APS, St Paul
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp 18–19 Tanabe M, Fernandez J, Moriyasu P, Crane S, Wolff W,
Sakai DS (1991) The effect of nitrogen fertilizer levels on Liu RW (1992) Anthurium in vitro triple indexing.
amino compounds in guttation fluid of anthurium and In: Delate KM, Tome CHM (eds) Proceedings 5th
incidence of bacterial blight. In: Alvarez AM, anthurium blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop Agric
Deardorff DC, Wadsworth KB (eds) Proceedings of Human Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
the 4th anthurium blight conference, Hawaii Inst Trop pp 8–11
Agric Human Res, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Yogi JT, Jacobsen CM, Hara AH (2000) Efficacy of cin-
pp 51–52 namite, conserve, avid and floramite against citrus red
Sakai WS, Okimura S, Hanohano T, Furutani SC, Sakai mite on anthuriums, 1999. Arthropod Manage Tests
DS (1992) A detailed study of nitrogen fertilization, 25:345–346
The Way Forward
35
Abstract
Among the productivity-enhancing technologies, protected cultivation has
a tremendous potential to increase the yield of vegetables and flower crops
by several folds. Greenhouse crop production is now a growing reality
throughout the world with an estimated 405,000 ha of greenhouses spread
over in all the continents. The purpose of growing crops under greenhouse
conditions is to extend their cropping season and to protect them from
adverse environmental conditions, such as extreme temperatures and pre-
cipitation, and from diseases and pests. Quality is a high priority for green-
house crops, requiring much care in pest and disease management, not
only to secure yields but also to obtain a high cosmetic standard.
Historically, not enough attention has been paid to exploiting and
amending production technology for the control of pests and diseases.
This makes the control of pests and diseases in protected crops even more
challenging, with many important problems being unresolved and new
ones arising as the industry undergoes more changes in production sys-
tems. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a systematic approach to man-
age pests that involves the integration of cultural, physical, biological, host
resistance including transgenic plants, and chemical practices to grow
crops with minimal use of pesticides. With a long-term perspective, it is
easier to see that an investment in IPM can pay for itself in a higher-quality
crop and a cleaner environment.
Keywords
Productivity • Protected cultivation • Biocontrol • Pests • Diseases •
Integrated pest management

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3_35
424 35 The Way Forward
35.1 Introduction make adaptive changes in pests and pathogens

less likely. IPM has become the general crop pro-
The complex control systems of modern green- tection policy in greenhouse crops and is the wise
houses are designed to maintain an ideal environ- answer to the overuse of chemical pesticides.
ment for the crop, both economically and Modern protection technologies will play an
physiologically. These conditions also provide a important role to meet the challenge of produc-
protected, favorable environment for pests and tivity enhancement in vegetable and ornamental
pathogens: optimal humidity and temperature, no crops under greenhouse conditions. In the con-
rain and no wind. The warm, humid conditions text of ensuring environmental safety and eco-
and abundant food under protected conditions nomic input use pattern, crop pest and disease
provide an excellent, stable environment for pest management techniques under protected condi-
development. Often, the natural enemies that tions need to be reoriented to achieve the sustain-
keep pests under control outside are not present able crop production.
under protected environment. The same crop or
crops are grown year after year; particular care
must therefore be exercised, especially regarding 35.2 Biological Control
pests which persist in the soil or on the structure
of the greenhouse itself. For these reasons, pest Natural enemies may be scarce or entirely absent
situations often develop in the indoor environ- in greenhouses, unless accidentally or purpose-
ment more rapidly and with greater severity than fully introduced; on the other hand, the stability
outdoors. Producers of vegetable crops generally of the greenhouse environment allows natural
can accept a higher level of damage than those of enemies of pests to be used as an effective means
ornamental crops that are produced for their aes- of control.
thetic value. Greenhouses offer a privileged environment
Maintaining a healthy greenhouse crop is for disease biocontrol, but implementation is still
more than essential for an economic and sustain- very limited. However, insect biocontrol has
able greenhouse vegetable and ornamental pro- grown to a standardized approach throughout the
duction. This requires first consistent monitoring, greenhouse market. Crop protection scientists and
which involves systematically checking the companies investing in biocontrol products should
greenhouse crop at regular intervals and at criti- likewise view the future of biological control of
cal times to gather information about the crop, pests in greenhouse systems with optimism. A
pests and their natural enemies, diseases, and few products have already been registered and
their antagonists. Visual observation of symp- several more should be commercialized within
toms, laboratory analyses of soils or plant parts, the next few years. Success stories against a num-
weather data, sticky color traps, and pheromone ber of pests will be important both to validate bio-
traps are some of the available tools which should control of pests and, most important, to gain
be used to collect the maximum information nec- acceptance by growers. The biological control of
essary for an informed decision to make sure insects and mites has resulted in a significant
there is a clear distinction between non-parasitic reduction (over 60 %) in pesticide use.
afflictions (plant stress and other physiological Biological control of pests will probably
disorders) and those caused by pests and patho- become more widespread in the next few years.
gens. The more often a crop is monitored, the However, it is unlikely that biological control
more information a grower has about what is will be able to completely control plant diseases
happening in the greenhouse. and therefore it is important to research the pos-
A multifaceted approach to greenhouse crop sibilities for integrating biological control with
protection, with integration of chemical, cultural, other control measures. Integrated production
biological, mechanical, and physical control of and protection (IPP) means integration of bio-
pests and diseases, will be more successful and logical control with chemical control but also
35.4 Management of Soilborne Pathogens 425
with alternative control measures, such as appli- isms, is an important tool to control pests under
cation of plant extracts and use of good agricul- protected cultivation. The main objective of this
tural practices (GAP). Partially resistant cultivars approach is to optimize pest control in an eco-
used in combination with biological control offer nomically and ecologically sound way.
better prospects than very susceptible cultivars. Biorational pesticides which include botanicals
It is generally accepted that insect resistance (neem products, insecticidal soap, rosemary oil,
in plants is compatible with biological control. soybean oil, garlic extracts), minerals (sulfur,
New activities in plant breeding research should potassium bicarbonate, phosphites, and copper
aim at (i) combining aspects of host-plant resis- compounds), and insect growth regulators
tance with biological control, (ii) selecting plant (Azatin, Dimilin, Neemazad, Trigard) are becom-
cultivars that are able to attract natural enemies ing popular owing to environmental awareness
after they have been attacked by pest organisms, and consumer concern.
and (iii) selecting plant cultivars that produce a A combination of biorational pest control
better “working environment” for biological con- products will be a better option for growers of
trol agents. Because of specific advantages of protected crops and also help organic growers to
biological control for the growers, greenhouse manage their crops in a sustainable and effective
crops will be produced without the need to use way.
conventional pesticides in the very near future. At Biorational pesticides currently represent only
the same time, this results in a cleaner environ- a small fraction, 1.3 % of the world pesticide
ment, in satisfying the demand of consumers for market. However, the growth rate of the biora-
pesticide-free food, and in sustainable crop tional pesticide sector over the next 10 years has
protection. been forecasted at 10–15 % annually in
More scientific efficacy trials with proper rep- comparison to 2 % for chemical pesticides.
lication and statistical analysis are needed under Biorational crop protection materials give an
commercial or near-commercial conditions. opportunity to manage pest populations without
Biocontrol registrations now request data on the toxic chemicals.
interaction of pesticides with beneficial insects.
Growers need to know whether new products are
compatible with their current pest management 35.4 Management of Soilborne
strategies. Knowledge of epidemiology and ecol- Pathogens
ogy of pathogens in the greenhouse, which may
be different from the field, is required. Finally, Soilborne pathogens can be a problem in green-
the challenge of production and formulation of houses, because of limited possibilities for crop
biocontrol agents remains, with each organism rotation. Earlier, methyl bromide (MBr) was
bringing its own set of problems. Effective pro- widely used for chemical soil disinfestation,
duction and formulation protocols are usually but due to its negative effects on the ozone
proprietary, involving substantial investment to layer, it is being phased out. Other alternatives
develop economic production and a formulation include soil solarization, biofumigation, use of
with adequate shelf life, stability, and titer. antagonists, and use of grafted seedlings.
Incorporation of antagonist Verticillium,
Pochonia, Paecilomyces, and Pseudomonas in
35.3 Biorational Pesticides the soil in the greenhouses was found effective
to reduce the disease pressure. The use of
Biorational pest control, referring to pesticides of grafted seedlings in combination with chemical
natural origin that have limited or no adverse disinfestation (but not with MBr) is more
effects on the environment or beneficial organ- effective.
35.4.1 Solarization grafted and self-grafted rootstock and scion treat-

ments in addition to the scion–rootstock grafts.
Solarization to control of soilborne pathogens is Because crosstalk may exist among pathways
simple and economic in its application and leaves that cope with biotic and abiotic stresses, a com-
no toxic residues for humans, animals, and plants. prehensive understanding of the defense mecha-
These attributes make solarization suitable for nisms in grafted plants will greatly assist with the
application in a wide variety of production sys- effective development of desirable rootstocks to
tems. Soil solarization should be done during the serve sustainable agriculture.
hottest period of the year. It offers a satisfactory Even though there are many problems associ-
and environmentally friendly solution for the ated with cultivating grafted vegetable seedlings,
control of soilborne pathogens. This method is the demand for successfully grafted seedlings is
easily used into organic, conventional, and inte- growing rapidly. Breeding multipurpose root-
grated control growing system, and it is more stock and developing efficient grafting machines
economical than chemical treatments. and techniques will undoubtedly encourage
Solarization is easily combined with other increased use of grafted seedlings in many coun-
control methods to reduce the need for chemical tries. Large-scale commercial production of veg-
control. Together with reduced dosages of chemi- etable seedlings is expanding rapidly in many
cal fumigants, it allows better management of developed countries, and this will lead to an
soilborne pathogens, which are otherwise diffi- increased commercial supply and use of grafted
cult to control. Solarization followed by use of vegetable seedlings throughout the world.
biocontrol agents has good potential, facilitating
the introduction of antagonists, especially in
warm regions. 35.5 Host Resistance
Host-plant resistance to disease is widely used;

35.4.2 Grafting Technology plant resistance to insects and nematodes is
increasingly the focus of research and develop-
Grafting technology has evolved into a unique ment. A more logical approach, albeit more dif-
component in the production of several ficult and time-consuming, is to combine as many
Solanaceous and Cucurbitaceous vegetables for genes as possible into each cultivar. Resistance of
pest management and for improvement of crop this type shall break down only if the pathogen
productivity. The ready availability of disease- evolves a complex race capable of overcoming
resistant rootstocks and development of highly all the resistant genes at once. Some plant breed-
efficient grafting techniques have led to expan- ers have followed this approach by combining all
sion in the use of grafted plants worldwide. the known sources of TMV resistance into tomato
Previous studies have provided an enhanced cultivars. These cultivars have been grown com-
understanding of grafting-conferred defense mercially for a number of years and so far no
mechanisms from inherent resistance within TMV strain capable of overcoming their resis-
rootstocks to induced systemic resistance. tance has been found. Resistance as an IPM com-
However, there is still a lack of in-depth research ponent remains the most effective way of
on rootstock–scion interactions and long-distance combating viral diseases.
signaling as related to improved resistance in
grafted plants. In addition to resistance to soil-
borne diseases and nematodes, foliar and virus 35.6 Guided Chemical Control
disease resistances of grafted plants warrant more
studies. To differentiate the grafting effect per se For control of pest and diseases, the pesticides
from rootstock–scion interactions, well-designed still act as first line of defense. The use of pesti-
studies should include a complete set of non- cides will remain, at least in the short to medium
35.8 Integrated Pest Management 427
term, an important strategy, allowing the grower control is to introduce traits with a nontoxic mode
to continue to produce economically a quality of action for emission of semiochemicals that
crop. Guided chemical control aims to reduce repel pests or attract their natural enemies.
pesticide use by determining whether a control Genetically modified (GM) crops are already
for a certain pest is necessary and, if so, when it widely used to control Lepidopteran pests and
should be applied (for optimum effect). In guided virus-resistant GM crops. The coat protein (CP)
control, chemical control is only deemed neces- gene of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was
sary when the economic benefits counterbalance cloned from a Chinese CMV isolate, the CaMV
the costs; it implies use of curative rather than promoter and NOS terminator added, and the
preventive pesticides. It is essential that the use of gene construct was transformed into sweet pep-
chemicals in IPM be based on economic thresh- per plants to confer resistance to CMV.
old and only after considering the impact of the
factors regulating the populations of pests and
pathogens, making sure that there are no other 35.8 Integrated Pest Management
effective management tools. IPM is foreseen as a
way to keep pesticide applications to the mini- Integrated pest management (IPM) offers a prac-
mum required and at the lowest effective dose tical method for the effective management of
with the most selective products, while observing pests under greenhouses. Through the adoption
the necessary safety intervals before harvest. of sound cultural practices and monitoring tech-
Select pesticides which least interfere with niques, accurate problem identification, and
natural enemy activity. If selective pesticides are timely implementation and evaluation of appro-
not available, alternatives, such as selective priate management strategies, growers can
spraying, exist. Attempts have been made to improve crop production while minimizing their
improve the compatibility of beneficial organ- reliance on routine pesticide applications. IPM
isms with pesticide application by selecting ben- makes use of many different management
eficials with resistance to chemical pesticides. options: cultural, physical, mechanical, biologi-
The increasing awareness on the harmful cal, and chemical. Routine crop inspection alerts
effects of pesticides on human health and envi- growers to developing pest and cultural problems
ronment are warring to the fore and there is a while they are still minor and easily manageable.
need to popularize eco-friendly crop protection Early detection and intervention is the foundation
technologies. of an IPM program.
In the greenhouses, efforts should be made to
introduce and enhance biological control. IPM
35.7 Genetic Engineering provides a doorway toward sustainable crop pro-
duction intensification – the “Save and Grow”
Genetic engineering (GE) approaches to crop approach promoted by FAO for greenhouse
breeding can greatly facilitate the introgression crops. Integrated management of pests and dis-
of novel resistance traits into elite crop cultivars. eases without conventional chemical pesticides is
This could increase the genetic diversity of pest a goal that should be realized for most of the
resistance traits and reduce the negative impact of important vegetables and ornamentals within a
pests on crop yields. Crucially, it would provide a decade.
means of introducing resistance traits at a faster To adopt the IPM package, a combined inter-
rate than that by which the pests evolve counter- disciplinary action must be implemented by a
resistance. This is why GE could provide a route consortium of competent institutions. The insti-
to sustainable crop protection. However, the tutions that could be involved include State
strength of this approach relies on discovery of Agricultural Universities, ICAR Research
novel resistance genes to incorporate using GE Institutes, and State Agriculture and Horticulture
techniques. Another new direction for insect pest Departments (for transfer of technology). The
consortium shall carry out identification of poten- venting their establishment and minimizing their
tial area of IPM implementation, monitoring of development and spread to prevent their estab-
key pests, controlling the soilborne pathogens lishment in the crop. The presence of pests and
through soil solarization, controlling the key diseases is a facet of crop production, and grow-
pests through integrated pest management pro- ers must use all available options and strategies to
grams, and IPM package designing, based on the avoid serious pest and disease problems.
previous steps. Research efforts are needed for developing
disease management technology under protected
environment with emphasis on avoidance and
35.9 Conclusions selective use of pesticides. Safe waiting intervals
based on harvest time pesticide residues needed
Greenhouse production is rapidly growing to be established for the crops under protected
throughout the world providing plentiful food environment as this information is lacking com-
and ornamental crops. At the same time, the pub- pletely. Apart from this, emphasis to improve the
lic is demanding greenhouse-grown food to be awareness level of the growers for timely diagno-
produced with minimal pesticide applications. sis and judicious use of pesticides needs to be
IPM provides an avenue to meet these demands taken up on priority.
by heavily relying on alternatives to pesticides The challenge ahead for researchers is to iden-
such as biological control and good horticultural tify non-pesticide methods and integrate sustain-
practices and turning to pesticides only when able pest management technologies that can
absolutely necessary. contribute to increased productivity, such as
Successful crop production requires that crop breeding for durable resistance, biological con-
pests and diseases be managed so that their trol, and cultural methods and which will have
effects on the plants are minimized. The manage- minimal adverse environmental and social
ment of crop pests and diseases is directed at pre- impacts.
Index
A B
Acarid mites, 236–237 Beetle-transmitted viruses
bulb mite, 244 squash mosaic virus, 169–170
robine bulb mite, 236–237 Bell pepper, 2, 6, 8, 14, 76, 110–112, 114, 154,
Achatina fulica, 399 240–242, 283–295
Acidovorax sp., 404–405 Bell pepper diseases
Agasphaerops nigra, 384 damping-off, 284–285
Agrotis ipsilon, 324, 332 Bell pepper nematodes
Agrotis segetum, 332, 378–379 root-knot nematodes, 295
Albugo candida, 319 Bell pepper pests
Aleurothrix sp., 397 aphids, 291, 292
Aleurotulus anthuricola, 410 leaf miners, 293
Alpinia, 7, 8 spider mite, 291
Alternaria brassicae, 316–317 thrips, 290–291
Alternaria brassicola, 316–317 tobacco caterpillar, 292–293
Alternaria dianthi, 349 whitefly, 293
Alternaria solani, 151, 265–266 Bemisia tabaci, 262
Alternaria sp., 357–358 Biorational pesticides-synthetics
Anaphorathrips orchidii, 396–397 garlic extract, 105, 425
Anthurium diseases hot pepper wax, 105
bacterial blight, 412–415 insect growth regulators, 104–105
bacterial wilt, 415–416 Bird-of-paradise, 7, 8
black nose, 417–419 Botryotinia fuckeliana, 328–329
Rhizoctonia root rot, 416–417 Botrytis cinerea, 266–268, 349–350
root rot, 417 Botrytis elliptica, 386–387
Anthurium nematodes Botrytis sp., 285–286, 403
burrowing nematode, 419–421 Bradysia paupera, 306–307
Anthurium pests Bremia lactucae, 328
caterpillars, 412 Brevicoryne brassicae, 324–325
citrus red mite, 411–412 Brevipalpus spp., 411
mites, 411 Broccoli, 9
snails, 412 Burkholderia caryophylli, 351–352
thrips, 410–411
whitefly, 410
Anthuriums, 409–421 C
Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi, 371, 373–374 Carnation, 345–353
Aphid-transmitted viruses, 165–166 Carnation diseases
cucumber mosaic virus, 165–166 bacterial wilt, 351–352
luteovirus genus, 167 black spot, 349
potyvirus genus, 166–167 foot rot, 350
Aphis craccivora, 290 gray mold, 246–247
Aphis gossypii, 24, 125, 256–257, 290, 309 powdery mildew, 349
Arion hortensis, 259, 260 root rot, 63, 144–145, 350–352

DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-952-3
430 Index
Carnation diseases (cont.) Colletotrichum acutatum, 247–248

rust, 351 Colletotrichum fragariae, 247–248
slow wilt/bacterial stunt, 352 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, 247–248
stem rot and wilt, 350–351 Colletotrichum sp., 74
Carnation nematodes Cooling systems
root-knot nematode, 352–353 evaporative cooling, 20
spiral nematode, 353 fan and pad system, 20
Carnation pests high-pressure mist system, 21
aphids, 348–349 low-pressure mist system, 21
bud borer, 348 water film on the greenhouse cover, 20
thrips, 346–347 Cucumber diseases
two spotted spider mite, 228–231, 347–348 angular leaf spot, 303–304
Celery, 9 anthracnose, 298–299
Cercospora spp., 269 black root rot, 300–301
Chaetanaphothrips orchidii, 410–411 cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, 304–305
Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, 256–257 cucumber mosaic virus, 304
Chinese cabbage, 9 cucumber vein yellowing virus, 305
Chrysanthemum diseases cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus, 305–306
chrysanthemum stunt virus, 365–366 downy mildew, 301–303
leaf spot, 364–365 gray mold, 299
powdery mildew, 365 gummy stem blight, 299
root rot, 364 powdery mildew, 299–300
white rust, 365 root rot, 300
wilt, 365 scab, 301
Chrysanthemum nematodes Cucumber pests
foliar nematode, 373–374 aphids, 309
Chrysanthemum pests red spider mite, 308–309
aphid, 366–367 sciarid fly, 306–307
leaf folder, 373 slugs and snails, 309–310
leaf miner, 367, 372–373 thrips, 309
spider mite, 373 whitefly, 307–308
thrips, 367
Cladosporium cucumerinum, 301
Clavibacter michiganensis ssp. michiganensis, 31, 49, D
270–271 Delia radicum, 323–324
Cole crops, 313–326 Deroceras reticulatum, 259, 260
Cole crops diseases Diaspis boisduvalii, 394–396
black leg, 315–316 Dickeya dianthicola, 352
black rot, 314–315 Didymella bryoniae, 299
broccoli head rot, 320 Diplocarpon earlianum, 251–252
club root, 318 Diplocarpon rosae, 338
downy mildew, 317–318 Diplodia rosarum, 337–338
leaf spot, 316–317
stem rot (white mold), 318–319
white rust, 319 E
wire stem/damping-off, 316, 317 Eriophyoid mites
Cole crops nematodes tomato russet mite, 235–236
root-knot nematodes, 326 Erwinia spp., 403–404
Cole crops pests Erysiphe cruciferarum, 319–320
aphids, 324–325
cabbage maggot, 323–324
cabbage worm, 321–322 F
cutworms, 324 Frankliniella occidentalis, 309
diamondback moth, 322–323 Frankliniella schultzei, 346–347
flea beetle, 320–321 Fungal-transmitted viruses
slugs, 325–326 melon necrotic spot virus, 170
tarnished plant bug, 325 Fusarium oxysporum f sp gladioli, 375–376
thrips, 323 Fusarium oxysporum f sp radicislycopersici, 270
Index 431
Fusarium oxysporum var lilii, 385–386 I

Fusarium solani, 285 Insect management-avoidance
Fusarium sp., 64, 377, 378, 401 sanitation and cultural practices, 196–197
use of physical barriers, 194–195
Insect management-curative measures
G biological control, 198–199
Gap recommendations–virus control chemical control, 199
exclusion/avoidance, 174–175 Insect management-early detection
protection of the host, 175 monitoring, 197
reduction in virus inoculum level, 175 scouting, 197
Gerbera, 355–362 Insect screening, 28–29
Gerbera diseases knitted-screens, 29
collar rot, 356 knitted-woven screen, 29
leaf spot, 357–358 unwoven sheets, 28–29
powdery mildew, 356 UV-absorbing plastic sheets, 29
root rot, 356–357 woven screens, 28
stem rot, 357 Iphiseius degenerans, 200, 202, 209, 238, 239, 243
Gerbera nematodes
root-knot nematode, 361
spiral nematode, 361–362 L
Gerbera pests, 358–361 Laelapid mites
aphid, 358 Hypoaspis aculeifer, 239, 243–244
leaf miner, 360 H. miles, 239, 244
mites, 361 Leek, 10, 11
thrips, 360–361 Lettuce, 8, 26, 54, 56, 63, 107, 108, 127, 141, 147, 148,
Gladiolus diseases 150, 157, 163, 168, 183, 327–335
corm rot, 377 Lettuce diseases
curvularia blight, 377–378 bottom rot, 328–329
fusarium yellows and corm rot, 375–376 cucumber mosaic cucumovirus, 330
gray mold, 376–377 downy mildew, 328
Gladiolus nematodes lettuce big-vein varicosavirus, 329–330
root-knot nematode, 380 lettuce mosaic potyvirus, 330–331
Gladiolus pests Lettuce nematodes
aphids, 378 root-knot nematodes, 333–334
borer, 379 Lettuce pests
cutworms, 378–379 aphids, 331–332
leaf eating caterpillar, 379 leaf miners, 332–333
mealybug, 379 noctuids, 332
mites, 237, 379 slugs, 333
thrips, 378 Lily diseases
Glomerella spp., 402 basal rot, 385–386, 390
Golovinomyces (Erysiphe) cichoracearum, 356 botrytis blight, 386–387, 390
Greenhouse heating damping-off, 388
conventional fuels, 21 root rot, 387, 390
design of passive solar greenhouse, 21 southern wilt, 387–388
non-conventional energy sources, 21 viral diseases, 388–389
Guignardia, 402–403 Lily nematodes
root-knot, lesion and foliar nematodes,
389–391
H Lily pests
Helicotylenchus dihystera, 353, 361–362 aphids, 381–382
Helicoverpa armigera, 263, 348, 379 bulb mites, 382–383
Heliothis armigera, 103, 189–190 symphylids, 384–385
Hyaloperonospora parasitica, 317–318 thrips, 384
Hypoaspis aculeifer, 236, 237, 239, 243–244 weevil, 384
Hypoaspis miles, 244 Liothrips vaneeckii, 384
Liriomyza spp., 111, 114, 332–333
432 Index
Liriomyza trifolii, 41, 114, 188, 190, 195, 262–263, scale, 394–396
332, 360 snails and slugs, 399
Lygus lineolaris, 325 thrips, 396–397
whiteflies, 397
Orchids, 5–7, 193, 236, 241, 393–407
M Otiorhynchus spp., 193–194
Macrosiphon euphorbiae, 256–257
Macrosiphoniella sanborni, 188, 366–367
Macrosiphum luteum, 397 P
Macrosiphum rosae, 188, 207, 343–344 Panonychus citri, 411, 412
Management of aerial pathogens Phoma lingam, 315–316
baking soda, 138 Phragmidium mucronatum, 338–339
environmental control, 138 Phyllosticta spp., 402–403
foliar feeding, 138 Phyllotreta crucifera, 320–321
foliar products, 138 Phythomyza syngenesiae, 367, 372–373
greenhouse structures and covers, 141 Phytophthora cryptogea, 26, 141
polyethylene films, 138, 140 Phytophthora fragariae, 249–250
Management of soil-borne pathogens Phytophthora spp., 25, 39, 49, 50, 54, 64, 71, 107, 108,
biological control, 137 134, 144, 399–401
cultural practice, 137 Phytoseiid mites
solarization, 136, 426 Iphiseius degenerans, 238, 243
steaming, 48–49 Neoseiulus californicus, 239, 243, 255
Mechanically-transmitted viruses N. cucumeris, 34, 35, 191, 232, 234, 241–243
Tobamovirus genus, 170–172 Phytoseiulus persimilis, 238
Meloidogyne incognita, 32, 178, 276, 333, 334, Phytoseiulus persimilis, 26, 34, 122, 231, 255, 308, 309
352–353, 361 Pieres rapae, 321–322
Meloidogyne spp., 54, 55, 91, 92, 326, 333–334 Plasmodiophora brassicae, 318
Microcephalothrips abdominalis, 367 Plutella xylostella, 322–323
Mycosphaerella cucumis, 299 Polyphagotarsonemus latus, 188, 228, 232, 361
Myzus persicae, 165, 188, 207, 291–292, 304, 331–332, Popillia japonica, 257–258
348–349, 358, 360 Pseudococcus maritimus, 396
Pseudomonas marginalis, 320
Pseudomonas sp., 68, 404–405
N Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, 67
Neomyzus circumflexus, 381–382 Pseudoperonospora cubensis, 36, 90, 91, 126, 127, 134,
Neoseiulus californicus, 232, 241, 243, 255 147, 148, 301–303
Neoseiulus cucumeris, 34, 35, 191, 216, 217, 219, 232, Puccinia horiana, 126, 152, 365, 369
234, 238, 241–243 Pyrenochaeta lycopersici, 33, 56, 88, 91, 183, 269,
270, 279
Pythium spp., 30, 31, 49, 50, 54, 64, 71, 73, 134, 300,
O 329, 341, 364, 369
Oidium chrysanthemi, 365
Oidium dianthi, 349
Omiodes indicata, 373 R
Orchid diseases Radopholus similis, 419–421
anthracnose, 402 Ralstonia solanacearum, 87, 90, 91, 135, 153–156,
bacterial brown spot, 404–407 287–288, 415
bacterial soft and brown rot, 403–404 Red cabbage, 9, 10
black rot, 399–401 Rhizoctonia solani, 39, 50, 54, 57, 63, 64, 78, 90, 91,
Fusarium wilt, 401 144, 145, 284–285, 316, 328, 356, 359, 369,
leaf spots, 402–403 387, 416–417
petal blight, 403 Rhizoctonia spp., 49, 71, 74, 388
root rot, 401–402 Rhizoglyphus echinopus, 228, 237, 382
viral diseases, 405–407 Root rots, 387
Orchid pests Pythium and Phytophthora rots, 417
aphids, 397 Rhizoctonia stem rot, 144
caterpillars, 397–398 Rose, 2, 5, 6, 37, 66, 138, 146–148, 162, 188, 189, 197,
mealybug, 396 207, 217, 228, 230, 231, 241, 337–344, 346, 356,
mite, 398–399 363, 410
Index 433
Rose diseases T
black spot, 338 Taeniothrips simplex, 378
die-back, 337–338 Tarsonemid mites
powdery mildew, 338 broad mite, 232–233
rust, 338–339 cyclamen mite, 233–234
Rose pests Tetranychus equatorius, 379
aphids, 343–344 Tetranychus turkestani, 254–255
thrips, 339–340 Tetranychus urticae, 122, 188, 228–231, 243,
tobacco budworm, 343 254–255, 264–265, 291, 308–309, 340–342,
two spotted spider mite, 340–342 347–348, 373
whitefly, 342 Thanatephorus cucumeris, 328–330
Thrips palmi, 189, 360–361
Thrips tabaci, 188, 214, 242, 263–264, 323
S Thrips-transmitted viruses
Scirtothrips dorsalis, 188, 195, 339–340 tomato spotted wilt virus, 168–169
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, 26, 27, 49, 50, 56, 63, Tomato, 2–4, 6, 7, 14, 25–27, 31, 32, 34–38, 54, 63–67,
140, 150, 318–319, 328, 330, 368 74, 84, 87, 88, 90–93, 95,107, 114, 126–128, 134,
Sclerotinia spp., 54, 328–329 135, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 154–157,
Sclerotium rolfsii var delphinii, 387–388 162, 172, 178, 182, 183, 188, 189, 232, 235, 236,
Septoria chrysanthemella, 364–365 239, 240, 305, 323, 426
Septoria sp., 366, 369 Tomato diseases
Soil fumigation bacterial canker, 270–271
methyl bromide, 49–51 bacterial speck, 272–273
methyl isothiocyanate, 50 bacterial spot, 273
soil solarization, 51–55 cercospora leaf spot, 269
Soil solarization, 51 corky root rot, 31, 33, 34, 56, 88, 269–270
disease management, 53–55 crown and root rot, 270
increased growth response, 55 cucumber mosaic virus, 275
mechanisms, 52–53 early blight, 265–266
principles, 51–52 gray mold, 266–267
Sphaerotheca fuliginea, 299–300 late blight, 66, 107, 108, 134, 143, 235, 266, 267
Sphaerotheca macularis, 248–249 leaf mold, 268
Spider mites pith necrosis, 272
carmine, 231 powdery mildew, 268–269
two spotted spider mite, 228–231, soft rots, 271–272
340–342 tobacco mosaic virus, 273–274
Spodoptera exigua, 114, 189, 190, tomato mosaic virus, 274–275
255–256 tomato spotted wilt virus, 275–276
Spodoptera litura, 189, 263, 343, 379 tomato yellow leaf curl virus, 276
Strawberry diseases Tomato nematodes
angular leaf spot, 252–253 root-knot nematodes, 276–277
anthracnose, 247–248 Tomato pests
gray mold, 246–247 fruit borer, 263
leaf scorch, 251–252 red spider mite, 264–265
powdery mildew, 248–249 serpentine leaf miner, 263–264
red stele, 249–250 thrips, 263–264
Verticillium wilt, 250–251 tobacco caterpillar, 263
Strawberry pests whitefly, 262
aphids, 256–257 Trialeurodes vaporariorum, 42, 168, 173, 188, 221, 222,
armyworm, 255–256 257, 293, 306–308
Japanese beetle, 257–258 Trichoplusia ni, 103, 114, 258
loopers, 258 Types of polyhouses
slugs, 259–260 Ladakh polyhouse, 16–17
spider mites, 228–231, 239, 254–255 polyhouse, 2, 4–10, 14, 16–18, 53, 134, 135,143, 144,
thrips, 258–259 172, 177, 178, 185, 188, 261–263, 277, 286, 294,
weevils, 259 339, 343, 348, 353, 359, 361, 367, 375, 381
whiteflies, 257 prefabricated polyhouses, 16
434 Index
U Wilts
Uromyces caryophyllinus, 126, 351 Fusarium wilt, 32, 34, 36, 63, 67, 73, 78, 84, 88, 89,
Uromyces dianthi, 126, 152, 351 91, 93, 107, 145–146, 178, 368, 377, 401
Verticillium–phialophora wilt, 146
V
Verticillium dahliae, 50, 67, 87, 88, 91, 146, 250–251, X
365, 368 Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachia,412–415
Xanthomonas campestris, 135, 314–315
Xanthomonas fragariae, 252–254
W Xanthomonas vesicatoria, 273, 288–289
Whitefly-transmitted viruses
Clostero and Clostero-like viruses, 168
tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Z
167–168 Zucchini, 9, 10, 165–167

Reddy 2016

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Reddy 2016

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

P.

ISBN 978-981-287-950-9 ISBN 978-981-287-952-3 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957262

Springer Singapore Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. is part of Springer Science+Business

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

commendable work comprehensively deals with important basic and applied

(N.K. Krishna Kumar)

The prospects of increasing production of horticultural crops by increasing

This book will be of immense value to the scientific community as a whole

Bangalore, India P. Parvatha Reddy

1 Protected Cultivation .................................................................... 1

2.5 Greenhouse Environmental Control ................................... 19

4 Disinfestation of Soil and Growth Media for Management

6.3 Nematode Management ..................................................... 77

9.2 History of Drip Chemigation ............................................. 110

12.3 Wilts ................................................................................... 145

13.5 Angular Leaf Spot, Pseudomonas syringae

16.3 Caterpillars ......................................................................... 189

18 Thrips and Their Management.................................................... 213

21.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 246

22.4.6 Cercospora Leaf Spot, Cercospora sp. .............. 269

23.4 Insect Pests ......................................................................... 290

25.2.3 Wire Stem/Damping-Off, Rhizoctonia solani .... 316

27 Rose ................................................................................................ 337

29 Gerbera .......................................................................................... 355

31.3 Diseases .............................................................................. 375

33.2.5 Cymbidiums ....................................................... 394

35 The Way Forward ......................................................................... 423

Index ....................................................................................................... 429

Dr. Reddy has organized “Fourth International Workshop on Biological

1.1 Introduction lion by 2020. India plans to increase the produc-

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1

The productivity-enhancing technologies 1.2 Protected Cultivation

Table 1.1 Comparative performance of Solanaceous

Table 1.2 Yield of capsicum and tomato under green-

Table 1.3 Effect of greenhouse in achieving earliness in some Solanaceous vegetables

1.2.2 Advantages and Limitations • Controlled environmental conditions are used

Fig. 1.2 Crops under

Fig. 1.3 Crops under

1.4.1.3 Gerbera The study on the inﬂuence of growing media

Fig. 1.4 Alpinia under protected

Fig. 1.5 Bird-of-paradise

1.4.2.2 Bell Pepper In a standardization trial of training of plants

Fig. 1.6 Chinese cabbage

Fig. 1.7 Celery under

Fig. 1.8 Red cabbage

Fig. 1.9 Zucchini under protected

1.4.2.9 Leek eral advantages to grow high-value crops with

Fig. 1.10 Leek under

Nagarajan M, Senthilvel S, Palanysamy D (2002) Material

2.1 Introduction “A greenhouse is a framed or an inﬂated struc-

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 13

largely independent on outdoor environmental Growing of vegetable and ﬂoriculture crops

2.2.2 Temperature 1992), and in the closed structures like green-

2.3.2 Polyethylene 2.4.1 Glasshouse

Ideal features of polyethylene have increased the

Fig. 2.1 Glasshouse

Fig. 2.2 Polyhouse

Fig. 2.3 Nylon netting

2.4.4 Plastic Low Tunnel 2.4.5 Double-Wall Polyench

Fig. 2.4 Net houses

3.1 Introduction technological changes are ultimately intended to