Minor Products of Philippine Fo - Brown, William Henry

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Edwin B. Matzke
Library
Chief, Division (tf hiv.
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OI UME I
Bureau of Forestr
Minor Products of Philippine
Forests
EDITED BY
William H. Brown, Ph. D.,

Chief, Division of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry; Professor of Botany
University of the Philippines;and Plant Physiologist,
Bureau of Science
VOLUME I
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Bureau of Forestry
Bulletin No. 22
Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry
MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1920
^1
Vi
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Bureau of Forestry
Bulletin Xo. 2 2, Volunie I
Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry

PREFACE
By minor forest products is meant all the products of the
forest other than timber, the latter being regarded as the prin-
cipal product. In the Philippines, as in other tropical countries,
the minor forest products, while of less importance than the
timber, are very varied and of great economic value. Up to the
present time no attempt has been made to give a popular and
general account of these products such information as is avail-
;
able concerning them being for the most part in inaccessible,

technical publications. In preparing a work of this kind there
are always points concerning which further information would
be desirable, and in the Philippines there is a great lack of data
which would be necessary to make the treatment of the minor
forest products reasonably thorough. It is believed, however,
that the presentation of such data as we have is advisable, partic-
ularly as it can then serve as a better starting point for obtaining
further information.
The preparation of the present publication on minor forest
products was begun in April, 1918, and at the time that this
is written the volumes dealing with plant products are in
press. It is hoped that in the near future a volume dealing
with animal products will be added. The rapidity with which
this work has been prepared, by people whose time is largely
taken up with other duties, has precluded the possibility of
anything but the most casual investigation. This will account
for the absence of definite data which could evidently have been
obtained with but little time and effort. However, the advan-
tages of, and necessities for preparing a publication quickly,
outweighed the objections which could be raised as to the lack
of data which might have been included. Without a general
work as a basis on which to start, it would be very difficult to
undertake a systematic collection of the knowledge concerning
forest products which is possessed even by the employees of the
Bureau of Forestry, and in the preparation of this bulletin no
attempt has been made in that direction.
The idea of preparing a work on minor forest products is due
to Mr. Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry, at whose request
it was undertaken. The whole enterprise has continuously had
3
4 MINOR PRODUCTS OF PHILIPPINE FORESTS
Mr. Fischer's enthusiastic support and assistance, which has

contributed greatly to such value as it may have.
These volumes on forest products have been written to meet
several needs, but particularly to give an account of the products
which would be accessible and useful to people without any
special scientific training. Local names and descriptions have
been given for all species and figures of the more important ones.
The descriptions are intended merely to give an idea of the kind
of plant concerned, and sufficient data to enable one to check an
identification made from a local name or from a special use. The
local names are very valuable aids in identifying species, but
are by no means infallible guides, as there is much confusion in
local names, and the same names are frequently applied to dif-
ferent species or groups of species even in the same locality.
By the use of the local names, the descriptions, and the figures,
however, it is believed that in most cases it will be possible to
correctly identify the plants.
As the work of the present publication has proceeded changes
have been made in the manner of presentation, and as a result
there is a certain lack of uniformity. In the second volume, and
to some extent in the first, we have used
the following system
in discussing the various species of plants: On the left of the
page is given the scientific name, and on the right the local name
adopted as official by the Bureau of Forestry. This is followed
by a list of local names The first part

in the various dialects.
of the discussion takes up the general uses and importance of
the products concerned. This is followed by a more technical
description of the products, after which is given a description
of the species, followed by a short account of its distribution
and abundance.
In preparing these volumes I have been greatly indebted to a
number of people, but particularly to Mr. E. D. Merrill, Botanist
and Director of the Bureau of Science, who has not only con-
sented to be joint author of the section on palms, but has been
of great help throughout this work. Although he is a very busy
man, I have found him at all times not only willing, but anxious
to give any possible assistance. The special assistance which
he has given in this work is, however, only a small portion
of the indebtedness which not only I, but all people working
on subjects appertaining to botany, owe to him. When he ar-
rived in the Philippine Islands, the status of botanical classifica-
tion was chaotic. Largely by his own efforts, he has straightened
out the tangle, described as many new species as there were plants
then known from the Archipelago, identified many more, and has
PREFACE 5
brought the knowledge of the plants in the Islands into such a
shape as to make it readily accessible to workers in botany. This
together with the advantages of being able to consult him in
doubtful cases, may be truly said to have made possible the
appearance of this or any other general work on Philippine
plants. The Bureau of Forestry is pleased to take this occasion
to publicly acknowledge their indebtedness to Mr. Merrill for
the scientific classification of the miscellaneous, useful plants
and timber trees, and for much other assistance which he has
rendered to the Bureau.
The spelling of the native names throughout this work has
been revised and made uniform by Mr. E. E. Schneider of the
Bureau of Forestry, who is well acquainted with several Philip-
pine languages. Mr. Schneider has also collected much informa-
tion, and owing to his continued interest has been of great as-
sistance. In preparing the sections on bamboos and mangrove
swamps we have made considerable use of information gathered
by Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, particularly of records of growth and
planting. For all of the above assistance I desire here to express
my grateful appreciation.
William H. Brown.
CONTENTS
Page.
Philippine Mangrove Swamps. William H. Brown and Arthur F.
Fischer 9
Philippine Palms and Palm Products. William H. Brotvn and
Elmer D. Merrill 127
Philippine Bamboos. William H. Brotvn and Arthîr F. Fischer 249

Philippine Fiber Plants. William H. Brotvn 311
Philippine Forest Products as Sources of Paper Pulp. William
H. Browyi and Arthur F. Fischer 413
Abridged Index 427
7
PHILIPPINE MANGROVE SWAMPS
By William H. Brown and Arthur F. Fischer
10 MANGROVE SWAMPS
CONTENTS
Fage.
Illustrations 13
Introduction 17
List of Species 28
Local Names in Various Countries 29
Keys to Genera 30
Description of Species 32
Acrostichum 32
Nipa 32
Oncosperma 36
Xylocarpus 36
Excoecaria 40
Brownlowia 40
Camptostemon 40
Heritiera 42
Sonneratia 44
Bruguiera 48
Ceriops 60
Rhizophora 62
Lumnitzera 68
Osbornia 72
Aegiceras 72
Cerbera 76
Avicennia 80
Acanthus 82
Scyphiphora 84
Pluchea 84
Stands in Mangrove Swamps 86
Cultivation of Rhizophora (Bakauan) 100
Firewoods HI
Tanbarks and Dye Barks 118
Regulations and Charges 125
Forest Regulations and Charges 125
11
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate I
Page.
Rhizophora candelaria invading: a mud flat 10
Plate II
Fig. 1. Looking across a mangrove swamp at head of Tubugan Bay,

Port Banga, Zamboanga. Yakal forest on hills in back-
ground. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI,
No. 1 18
2. Swamps along coast, under water at high tide. Guinayan-
gan, Tayabas. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.
VI, No. 1 18
Plate III
Interior view of a mangTove swamp. The large tree is

Sonneratia caseolaris (pagatpat), those trees with prop
roots are Rhizophora conjugata (bakauan), and the smaller
without pi'op roots are mainly Bruguiera parviflora.
Bongabon, Mindoro 19
Plate IV
Interior view of a mangrove swamp. The large tree is
Sonneratia caseolaris (pagatpat), otherwise the stand is
almost purely Bruguiera parviflora. Bongabon, Mindoro.... 21
Plate V
Roots of Avicennia officinalis exposed by wave action 23
Plate VI
Fig. 1. Myrmecodia, a plant inhabited by ants 25
2. A section through the base of a Myrmecodia 25
Plate VII
Fig. 1. Hydnophytum, a plant inhabited by ants. Diameter of base
40 centimeters 27
2. Polypodium sinuatum, a plant inhabited by ants 27
Plate VIII
AcrosHchum aureum 33
Plate IX
Nipa palm with flowers and fruit. From Philippine Agr.
Rev., Vol. IX, No. 3 (1916) 34
Plate X
Fig. 1. Fruit of nipa. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.
VI, No. 2 35
2. Section of fruit of nipa. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec.
A, Vol. VI, No. 2 35
13
14 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Plate XI
Page.
Fig. 1. Xylocarpus granatum with immature fruit 37
2. A germinating seed of Xylocarpus granatum 37
Plate XII
Xylocarpus moluccensis 39
Plate XIII
Fig. 1. Excoecaria agallocha with fruits 41
2. Camptostemon philippinense with fruits 41
Plate XIV
Heritiera littoralis, fruits and flowers 43
Plate XV
Sonneratia alba, fruit and flower 45
Plate XVI
Fig. 1. Sonneratia caseolaris on an open coast. An old beach has
been eroded, leaving a lagoon containing a mangrove
swamp on the open coast. Bongabon, Mindoro. Reprint
Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 47
2. Air roots of Sonneratia caseolaris. Trees growing in salt
water. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No 1.. 47
Plate XVII
Sonneratia caseolaris, flower and fruits 49
Plate XVIII
Brniguiera conjugata with flowers 51
Plate XIX
Bruguiera sexangula with flowers 53
Plate XX
Bruguiera sexangula with immature fruit 55
Plate XXI
Bruguiera cylindrica, fruits and flowers 56
Plate XXII
Bruguiera cylindrica with flowers 57
Plate XXIII
Bruguiera parviflora with flowers 59
Plate XXIV
Fruit of Bruguiera parviflora 61
Plate XXV
Ceriops roxhurghiana with flowers 63
Plate XXVI
Ceriops roxhurghiana with fruits 64
ILLUSTRATIONS 15
Plate XXVII
Page.
Rhizophora candelaria, fruit and old flowers from which
petals have fallen 65
Plate XXVIII
Rhizophora mucronata, inflorescences and flower 67
Plate XXIX
Rhizophora mucronata with fruit 69
Plate XXX
Lumnitzera littorca, flowers and fruit 71
Plate XXXI
Osbornia octodonta with fruits 73
Plate XXXII
Aegiceras corniculatuni with flowers 74
Plate XXXIII
Flowers of Aegiceras corniculatuni 75
Plate XXXIV
Aegiceras comiculatum with fruits 77
Plate XXXV
Aegiceras floridum with immature fruits 78
Plate XXXVI
Cerbera manghas, flowers and fruit 79
Plate XXXVII
Avicennia officinalis with fruits and flowers 81
Plate XXXVIII
Avicennia officinalis with air roots 83
Plate XXXIX
Acanthus ilicifolius, flowers and fruit 85
Plate XL
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, fruits and flowers 87
Plate XLI
Fig. 1. Pototan tree, on the seacoast at low tide. From Philippine
Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 91
2. Pototan; lower trunk and roots. From Philippine Journ.
Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 91
16 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Plate XLII
Page.
Fig. 1. Mangrove swamp Limbagujan. Stumps of tangal
at sitio
(Ceriops) in foreground. Trees of Rhizophora (bakauan)
and Bruguiera. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol.
VI, No. 1 95
2. Mangrove swamp. View of pieces of bakauan rajas (fire-
wood) . Masbate. From Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. A,
Vol. VI, No. 1 95
Plate XLIII
Fig. 1. Piled firewood cut mainly from sawed species of tangal and
bakauan. Southwest coast of Camarines. From Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 113
2. Lorcha load of rajas (firewood) three hours consumed in
,
loading, two for discharging. From Philippine Journ. Sci.,

Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 113
Plate XLIV
Fig. 1. Marketing firewood in Manila. From Philippine Journ. Sci.,
Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 115

2. Firewood piled for sale in the Manila market. From Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 115
INTRODUCTION
The mangrove swamps of the Philippine Islands apparently

occupy between 400,000 and 500,000 hectares. No accurate
survey of them has been made and the estimate of the area is
based on reports from forest officers, Coast and Geodetic Survey
maps, and forest maps. The area may exceed what is here
given, but it is believed that it will not be less. The figure
given includes also most of the areas of nipa swamps, as the
classification has not, in most cases, been exact enough to show,
in detail, how much of the swamp was in mangrove and how
much in nipa.
The term mangrove swamp is applied to the type of forest
occurring on tidal flats along sea coasts. They are found fring-
ing the shores of the islands of the Philippine Archipelago
and extending inland along the streams where the water is
brackish (Plate II). The conditions most favorable for their
development are found in quiet bays into which flow large rivers
whose lower reaches have little fall.
The descending waters of the river are checked when they
meet tidewater and deposit their sediment in the form of broad
mud flats or deltas near the mouths of the rivers.
These flats are usually cut by a network of channels through
which the advancing and receding waters of the sea move. At
extreme low tide the flats are exposed and often even the larger
channels are dry.
On these mud flats the trees and other plants which form the
mangrove and nipa-swamp vegetation find conditions favorable
to their development and, as the seeds of these species are
distributed by water and can be transported for long distances
without injury, the formation of flats and their seeding are
practically simultaneous. The growth of all species is very
rapid and the flats soon become dense forest, and remain so
as long as the conditions which produced them are not disturbed
(Plates III, IV). When the shore formation is favorable, new
flats are formed beyond the old and the forest advances year
169644 2 17
18 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Fig. 1. Looking across a mangrove swamp at head of Tubugan Bay. Port Banga, Zamboanga.
Fig. 2. Swamps along coast, under water at high tide.

PLATE II.
INTRODUCTION 19
20 MANGROVE SWAMPS
by year its area diminishing or increasing as the lands drained

;
or filled in by the action of the river are of greater or less

extent than those newly formed. The draining and filling in
of the lands on the upper limits of the swamp is very gradual,
so that although the change from mangrove to dry forest is
characteristic of these areas the process is extremely slow and
less noticeable than the advance of the forest over newly formed
flatson the sea edge of the swamp.
The mangrove forests may contain trees 1.35 meters in diam-
eter; and when fully stocked, with mature timber, compare
favorably with the commercial forests of the land. Areas with
650 cubic meters per hectare are found in the older swamps.
These forests are not swamps and marshes, as we think of them
in temperate regions, where trees grow in wet places that are
periodically covered with standing water; but are literally
forests of the sea with their roots in a stratum in which salt
water isalways present. For the greater part of the time the
roots and even the lower part of the trunks of the trees are
submerged in from 0.5 to 1 meter of salt water, while at high
tide the lower limbs and foliage of the trees on the edges of
the swamp are often submerged for a short time without injury
(Plate II, fig. 1) conditions of life that would absolutely destroy
;
ordinary forest trees.

Their character as forests of the sea is emphasized by the
fact that when they form narrow strips, coral and sand beaches
are often found back of the swamps on exposed coasts. The
vegetation on these mud flats can be divided into two classes;
mangrove swamps, in which large trees are present, and nipa
swamps, which are characterized by a growth of the stemless
palm, Nipa fruticans.
Mangrove-swamp forests, or "mangles," as they are called
locally, are usually made up of thick stands of medium-sized
and even-aged trees. Normally they are very free from under-
growth other than seedlings, and are characterized by the pres-
ence of roots showing on or above the surface of the ground
(Plates I, III, IV, V, XVI, XXXVIII, and XLI). Depending
upon the species in question, these may take the form of erect
roots, knees, high prop roots, or mere swollen roots with side
branches extending along the surface of the ground. The air
roots have a spongy texture and absorb air which serves for
the aeration of the root system. These peculiar roots are one
of the most distinguishing characteristics of mangrove swamps.
When the mud flats are not covered with water, the roots give
a very peculiar appearance to the vegetation.
INTRODUCTION 21
22 MANGROVE SWAMPS
The main tree species in a virgin swamp are few in number,

and the principal ones are of the botanical family Rhizopho-
raceae. In this family there are found: Rhizophora candelaria
and R. mucronata; Ceriops tagal and C. roxburghiana; and
Bi'ugidera conjugata, B. parviflora, B. cylifidrica^ and B. sexmv-
gula. While these eight species are the ones most numerous
in nearly all virgin swamps, scattered trees of pagatpat (Son-
ner-atia caseolaris) often occur mixed with them or growing
along exposed coral beaches. Api-api {Avicennia spp.) is some-
times found scattered in the more open places. Occasionally,
this last-mentioned tree grows in pure stands along the inland
edge of a mangrove swamp. Trees of the genus Rhizophora
are frequently the first to seed upon and occupy the newly
formed mud flats (Plate I). They are prop-rooted species, and
normally grow on those portions of the swamp most deeply
flooded by the tides. Such places are usually confined to the
area along or close to water channels, although on low swamps
Rhizophora forest extends farther inland. Rhizophora miicro-
7iata predominates in the fringe of trees bordering on water-
ways, while Rhizophora candelaria is by far commoner in the
main forest within this outer fringe.
Trees of the genus Bruguiera occupy the portion of the swamp
in which the ground is barely, if at all, flooded at high tide.
Such places are usually toward the inland portions of the
swamp and often, probably in the majority of cases, comprise
a large percentage of its total area. As the ground level is
raised by the natural filling in of the delta, it often happens
that areas occupied by these Bruguiera forests become so high
that they are seldom, if ever, flooded.
In open bays where the soil is mixed with considerable sand
or coral limestone, there is a distinct frontal zone of Sonneratia
caseolaris (Plate XVI), with some Avicennia officinalis. Wave-
cut coral terraces often contain nearly pure stands of Sonneratia
caseolaris.
Several other trees occur in these salt swamps, usually along
their inner edges or in places where the stands are light. These
include Xylocarpiis moliiccensis, X. granatum, Lumnitzera lit-
torea, and Aegiceras corniculatum. Heritiera littoralis (dungon-

late) is common on the higher ground which is still within
the zone affected by salt water.
In swamp areas in which cutting has long been carried on
the original and more valuable species are often largely replaced
by Avicennia spp. (api-api). These species were considered to
be of little value until the present fuel shortage.
INTRODUCTION 23
24 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Skirting the inland portions of the water channels, through

which the tide ebbs and flows, is often found a strip of nipa
palm (Nipa fruticans) usually narrow, although sometimes
,
itoccupies areas of considerable extent (Plates IX, XLV). In

Pangil Bay, Mindanao, there is a single area of nipa covering
9,000 hectares. Nipa grows farther up the streams flowing
through the mangrove forests than do the trees forming them,
being found along streams where the eff"ect of tide is barely
noticeable. In some places the mangrove trees have been killed
or cut out and nipa planted over wide areas of swamp. Such is
the case north of Manila Bay, where much of the original tree
growth has been entirely replaced by nipa.
Nipa has a large, branching, horizontal rhizome, or under-
ground stem, which grows just below, or on the surface of, the
soil and sends up short branches with a cluster of pinnate
leaves, which rise 7 meters or more above the ground. Nipa
frequently forms a dense mass of vegetation which is difficult
to penetrate.
Undergrowth in a heavy virgin swamp is usually scanty, but
in places where stands are light, in cut-over areas, and along
the outer edges of the swamp, a fairly heavy undergrowth of
vines, shrubs, ferns, and herbs is developed. Very noticeable
in this are a swamp fern, Acrostichum aureiim, and two spiny-
leaved undershrubs, Acanthus ilicifolius and A. ebracteatus.
Among the commonest woody vines are Derris trifoliata
Lour. {D. uliginosa Benth.) Tristellateia australasiae L. C. Rich.,
,
Dalbergia candeiiatensis Prain, Caesalpinia nuga Ait., Caesal-

pi7iia crista Linn., and Finlaysonia obovata Wall. Herbaceous
vines are represented by the epiphytes Hoya and Dischidia.
Epiphytes are fairly numerous throughout the swamps. Per-
haps the most conspicuous elements are the orchids, especially
species of Cymbidium and Dendrobium. Epiphytic ferns are
represented by Drynaria quercifolia J. Sm., Polypodium sinua-
tum Wall., and sometimes Asplenium nidus L. The most pecu-
liar epiphytes are those containing cavities which are inhabited
by ants. These are very abundant and are represented by
Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum, and Polypodium sinuatum Wall.
The bases of the stems of Hydnophytum and Myrmecodia are
greatly enlarged and contain labyrinthine cavities in which ants
are found in large numbers (Plates VI, VII). The stems of
Polypodium sinuntum are swollen and hollow, the cavities being
inhabited by ants (Plate VII). Dischidia saccata Warb. is
INTRODUCTION 25
&«&^
Fig. 1. Myrmecodia, a plant inhabited by ants.
Fig. 2. A section through the base of a Myrmecodia.
PLATE VI.
26 MANGROVE SWAMPS
found in some swamps. This plant has hollow leaves in which

ants are found.
Reproduction is prolific in almost all places where seed trees
are found, except along the higher inland portions of the swamp.
Back of the swamps are found numerous characteristic
strand plants, and representatives of nearly all such plants in
the region may be found in such situations. Among the com-
mon trees and shrubs back of the swamps are Glochidion littorale
Blume, Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn., Thespesia popidnea Corr., and
Barrmgtoyiia racemosa Roxb. The sedge Fimhristylis ferru-
ginea Vahl practically always occurs in such places, while along
muddy banks Cyperiis malaccensis Lam. is very common.
The chief commercial value of mangrove-swamp trees is for
the production of firewood, charcoal, tannin, and dye barks.
Some of the woods are also used for ship timbers, posts, ties,
telegraph poles, piling, construction, finish, and furniture.
The nipa palm is very valuable as a source of thatching and
alcohol and ofi'ers considerable possibilities for the production
of sugar. For a discussion of the products of mangrove trees
and the nipa palm, see the sections on these various subjects.
Mangrove trees serve a useful purpose in preserving water
courses through the deltas at mouths of rivers. That they
may be used to advantage to retain soil in engineering projects
is shown by the following quotation:*
The latest use of the mangrove in a practical way and one of which
the writer has personal knowledge is the use of these trees as ballast
retainers. This has been effectively demonstrated by the Florida East
Coast Railway which has used the peculiar habit of the mangrove to
advantage in their great feat of engineering, viz., the Oversea extension.
At certain places these keys are connected by embankments supporting
the road bed or where the bed is built high over a low flat key, the
mangroves have been planted to prevent the erosive action of the sea
on the ballast. This has been of greatest importance to the railroad and
has protected the dykes just as the mangroves naturally sown have
formed and protected young islands. Still more recently the writer has
been of some small service to a large asphalt company concerning their
engineering projects in Venezuela in which it is proposed to plant Rhizo-
p}wra mangle along the dykes and jetties, etc., as a ballast retainer. This,
it is hoped, will prove as efficient as the plantings of the Florida East
Coast Railway have been in aiding the engineer in the tropics.
Mangrove swamps occur in similar situations in the tropics
* Bowman, H. H. M., Ecology and physiology of the red mangrove.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. LVI (1917) pp.

589-672.
INTRODUCTION 27
28 MANGROVE SWAMPS
of both hemispheres. The Rhizophoraceae are the most prom-

inent trees in all cases, but the species are different in America
and in the Indo-Malayan regions. The composition is, however,
very similar in East Africa and the Indo-Malayan regions. The
tree species are few in number. In the Philippines twenty-five
dicotyledonous trees have been reported from the mangrove
swamps. The wide distribution of the species and the number
of individuals of single species in the swamps make these forests
unique among tropical forests.
LIST OF SPECIES IN PHILIPPINE MANGROVE SWAMPS WITH NATIVE

AND FAMILY NAMES
Acrostichmn anreiim Linn. Lagolo. Polypodiaceae.
Nipa fruticans Wurmb. Nipa. Palmae.
Oncosperma filamentosa Blume. Anibong. Palmae.
Xylocarpus granatum (obovatus) Koen. Tabigi. Meliaceae.
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. Piagau. Meliaceae.
Excoecaria agallocha Linn. Buta-buta. Euphorbiaceae.
Brownlowia lanceolata Benth. Maragomon. Tiliaceae.
Camptostemon (Cnmingia) philippinense {Yida\)Becc. Gapas-gapas. Bom-
bacaceae.
Heritiem litto7-alis Dryand. Dung-on-late. Sterculiaceae.
Sonneratia alba (acida) Sm. Pedada. Sonneratiaceae.
Sonneratia caseolaris ipagatpat) (Linn.) Engl. Pagatpat. Sonneratiaceae.
Bmigtdera conjugata {gymnorrhiza) (Linn.) Merr. Busain. Rhizopho-
raceae.
Bruguiera cylindrica (caryophylloides) (Linn.) Blume. Pototan-lalaki.
Rhizophoraceae.
Bruguiera parviflora W. & A. LaiTgarai. Rhizophoraceae.
Bruguiera sexangula (eriopetala) (Lour.) Poir. Pototan. Rhizophoraceae.
Ceriops roxburghiana Arn. Tangal. Rhizophoraceae.
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob. Tangal. Rhizophoraceae.
Rhizophora candelaria (conjugnta) DC. Bakauan-lalaki. Rhizophoraceae.
Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Bakauan-babae. Rhizophoraceae.
Lumnitzera littorea Voigt. Tabau. Combretaceae.
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Kulasi. Combretaceae.
Osbornia octodonta F. Muell. Tawalis. Myrtaceae.
Aegiceras corniculatum (Linn.) Blanco. Saging-saging. Myrsinaceae.
Aegiceras fioridum R. and S. Tinduktindukan. Myrsinaceae.
Cerbera manghas (odoUam) Linn. Baraibai. Apocynaceae.
Avicennia alba Blume. Api-api. Verbenaceae.
Avicennia officinalis Linn. Api-api. Verbenaceae.
Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl. Tigbau. Acanthaceae.
Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. Diliuariu. Acanthaceae.
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. Nilad. Rubiaceae.
Phfchea indica Linn. Kalapini. Compositae.
LOCAL NAMES 29
<u bo
B M § 3
-w
s =5 3 J= -c . bo M S 5 ^ i5
q; ^ cd ^ tj t-
^ (^ 3 >i >i
H iJ < Eh Dh P^ Q •Z Z Z Z »^ O W P5 CL,
.
M ea c8 3
•M s
3 « .S ft
ra
"g
ra
bo
—
ctf
' 4->
* -
a fci m S 3
<; m < O li, ^ O z :z; o
(i( pQ <i; H fe (i( Q 2 2
5 .=
fq Eh
'p, bo o! 05
n >}
J fQ «ij a lie (i! o 2; z s 2 I?
s
C9
P3 m
03
Q o
0! Ul J3 _0
g ^
!>2 X! bo -a S 2 fta-g= hoboti Sf
Cl, J <J h CL( Cl, Q
r M
2 ~S ^
8 o
to 5 5^
•| § 'S . -s s e g
Si ft
s ~
ft s e p e
^ Si 5) Q
a; OCQCqcq'<»5co«ii;!^!^0^0'^t^^Sl'^
30 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Key to the genera of mangrove-sicamp plants.

[Based on superficial characters.]
1. Palms.
2. Stemless, with underground rhizomes; without spines.. Nipa, page 26
2. Trunlis erect with numerous, long, slender spines.. Oncosperma, page 30
1. A large coarse fern with pinnate leaves rising in a cluster from the
base Acrostichinn, page 26
1. Not palms or ferns.
2. Leaves pinnate with one to three pairs of leaflets. Large trees with
round fruit 8 to 25 centimeters in diameter and containing a few,
very large, angular seeds Xylocarpus, page 30
2. Leaves not pinnate; fruits not as above.
3. Leaves opposite.
4. Herbs or shrubs with spiny-margined leaves.... Acanthus, page 76
4. Leaves not spiny.
5. Leaves usually pointed at the tip.
6. Tip of leaf with prominent projection of the midrib.
Rhizophora, page 56
6. Tip of leaf without projection of the midrib.
7. Petioles usually not over 2 or 3 millimeters in length.

Sonneratia, page 38
7. Petioles usually more than 6 millimeters in length.
8. Lower surface of leaves green with long, slender
; seedling
projecting from the fruit Bruguiera, page 42
8. Lower surface of leaves gray or white; fruit a capsule
up to 2.5 centimeters in length and containing
a single
seed Avicennia, page 74
5. Leaves rounded at apex and not notched; mature leaves usually
more than 3 centimeters in breadth.
6. Petioles usually more than 1.5 centimeters long; flowers
about 1 centimeter in length Scyphiphora, page 78
6. Petioles usually much less than 1.5 centimeters in length;
flowers about 5 centimeters long Sonneratia, page 38

5. Some or all of the leaves slightly or conspicuously notched at
apex.
6. Petioles very short, much less than 5 millimeters in length.
Osboryiia, page 66
6. Petioles more than 1 centimeter in length.... Ceriops, page 54
3. Leaves alternate.
4. Small shrubs; leaves with toothed margin Pluchea, page 78
4. Margin of leaves smooth or nearly so.
5. Tips of leaves usually pointed, or lower surfaces of leaves with
a silvery appearance.
6. Petioles more than 2 centimeters in length; plants with
abundant milky juice.
7. Leaves more than 15 centimeters long; flowers large, white,
terminal Cerbera, page 70

7. Leaves less than 12 centimeters and usually less than 10
centimeters long; flowers very small, from branches below

the leaves Excoecaria, page 34
6. Petioles less than 2 centimeters in length; plants without
milky juice.
7. Leaves rounded at the base Heritiera, page 36
7. Leaves pointed at the base Broivnloivia, page 34
KEYS TO GENERA 3]^
5. Apex of leaves rounded and usually notched.

6. Petioles usually about 2 or more centimeters
in length leaves, ;
stems, and fruits densely covered with small round scalea.

Camptostemon, page 34
6. Petioles 1 centimeter or less in length.
7. Fruits shaped like a banana except that the tips are sharply
pointed Aegiceras, page 66
7. Fruits not shaped like a banana Lumnitzera, page 62
Key to the genera of mangrove-stvamp plants.
[Based on floral characters.]
1. Plant without flowers or seeds, reproduced by means of spores.

Family 1, Polypodiaceae; Acrostichum.
1. Plants with flowers that produce seeds.
2. Cotyledon one; leaves parallel-veined Family 2, Palmae.
3. With erect spiny trunk Oncosperma.
3. Without trunk and without spines Nipa.
2. Cotyledons two leaves netted- veined.
;
3. Corolla none.
4. Ovary inferior Family 10, Combretaceae ; Lumnitzera.
4. Ovary superior.
5. Flowers dioecious; plants with milky juice.
Family 4, Euphorbiaceae; Excoecaria.
5. Flowers monoecious plants without milky juice.
;
Family 7, Sterculiaceae; Heritiera.

3. Calyx and corolla both present; the corolla of distinct and separate
petals.
4. Ovary superior.
5.Stamens numerous, more than twice as many as the petals.
6. Filaments united, stamens on the outside of a column.
Family 6, Bombacaceae; Camptostemon.
6. Filaments free Family 5. Tiliaceae; Broxvnlowia.
5. Stamens few, never more than twice as many as the petals;
inside of small cup-shaped tube.
Family 3, Meliaceae; Xylocarpus.
4. Ovary inferior.
5.Stamens numerous, many times as many as the petals.
6. Flowers small; calyx lobes imbricate in bud; leaves usually
with glandular dots Family 11, Myrtaceae; Osbornia.
6. Flowers large; calyx lobes valvate in bud; leaves not gland-
ular dotted Family 8, Sonneratiaceae; Sonneratia.
5. Stamens usually twice as many as the petals.
Family 9, Rhizophoraceae.
6. Petals four Rhizophora.
6. Petals five or six Ceriops.
6. Petals eight to fourteen...; Bruguiera.
3. Calyx and corolla both present; the petals more or less united.
4. Ovary superior.
5. Stamens opposite the lobes of the corolla, as many as the lobes.
Family
Myrsinaceae; Aegiceras.
12,
5. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla in regular flowers
and alternate with the lobes, or sometimes fewer in irreg-
ular flowers.
32 MANGROVE SWAMPS
6. Carpels distinct, at least below, sometimes united at apex by

the styles; plants with milky juice.
Family 13, Apocynaceae; Cerbera.
6. Carpels entirely united; plants with watery juice.
7. Fruits drupaceous; flowers small.
Family 14, Verbenaceae; Avicennia.

7. Fruits capsular, dehiscent; flowers large.
Family 15, Acanthaceae; Acanthus.
4. Ovary inferior.
5. Flowers not dense heads; leaves opposite.
in
Family 16, Rubiaceae; Scyphiphora.
5. Flowers in dense heads; leaves alternate.
Family 17, Compositae; Pluchea.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES
Family 1, POLYPODIACEAE
Genus ACROSTICHUM
ACROSTICHUM AUREUM Linn. (Plate VIII). Lagolo.
Local names: Piai (Agusan) ;

pakupakiian (Manila); lapole (Tayabas).
Acrostichum aureum occurs in great abundance on open mud

flats in the swamp and along tidal streams. The leaves are
pinnate, leathery, and from 50 to 200 centimeters in length. The
leaflets are from 20 to 50 centimeters long and from 4 to 6
centimeters wide. Acrostichum aureum is distributed in the
tropics of both hemispheres.
Family 2, PALMAE
Key to the genera.
Stemless, with underground rhizomes; without spines Nipa.

Trunks erect with numerous, long, slender spines Oncosperma.
Genus NIPA
NIPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (Plates IX, X). Nl'PA.
Local names: Sasd, Idsa, j)duid (Tagalog) ; saga (Sambali) ; tdta, anipa
(Cagayan) nipa (Bikol).
;
This palm at once distinguished from all others in the Philip-

is
pines by habit and habitat. It occurs along tidal streams

its
throughout the Philippines and, from an economic standpoint,
is one of the most important palms in the Archipelago. It is
of special interest from the fact that it thrives only in brackish

swamps. Nipa has a stout, creeping, subterranean stem or
rhizome. The leaves are pinnate, 7 meters or more in length,
and occur in erect clusters. Nipa frequently forms a dense
mass of vegetation which is very difficult to penetrate. The
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES 33
PLATE VIII. ACROSTICHUM AUREUM (LAGOLO).

169644 3
34 MANGROVE SWAMPS
m-îw
Fig. 1. Fruit of nipa.
Fig. 2. Section of fruit of nipa.
PLATE X.
.
36 MANGROVE SWAMPS
fruits are and about 12 centimeters long by 10 centi-

flat-
meters broad. The inflorescence is very characteristic, notably

the large, globose, fruiting head, which is up to 30 centimeters
in diameter and borne on a special erect stalk. This plant ap-
parently has no very definite blooming season, but as a general
rule, at least in Bulacan and Pampanga Provinces, flowers during
the months of February and March. It takes about four months
for the fruit to ripen.

The methods of cultivation of nipa and its economic value as
a source of thatching material, alcohol, and sugar are discussed
in the section on Palms.
Genus ONCOSPERMA
ONCOSPERMA Fl LAM ENTOSU M Blume. Anibong.
Local name: Anibong (Tagalog and Bisaya).

Anibong can be at once recognized by the numerous, long,
slender, horizontally spreading, stiff, sharp spines borne on the
trunk throughout its length.
Like the other species of the genus, this is a rather tall, slender
palm. It often grows subgregariously in favorable habitats,
in ravines, or in lowlands back of the mangrove and often within
the influence of brackish or salt water. The outer part of the
trunk very hard and durable; and split into narrow pieces is
is
extensively used by the Filipinos, in the regions where it grows,
for house floors. It is also used for spear shafts. The bud is
edible, either raw or cooked while in the Malay Archipelago,
;
perhaps also in the Philippines, the fruits are sometimes used as

a substitute for areca fruits in preparing buyo for chewing.
Family 3, MELIACEAE
Genus XYLOCARPUS
Key to the species.
Bark light colored, smooth; fruit 17 to 25 centimeters in diameter.

Xylocarpiis granatum.
Bark dark brown, very rough; fruit about the size of a small orange.
Xylocarpiis moluccensis
XYLOCARPUS GRANATUM Koen. (Plate XI). Tabi'gi.
Local names: Tabigi (Lanao, Cebu, Tayabas, Guimaras Island, Zam-

boanga, Negros, Dinagat Island, Camarines, Masbate, Agusan, Sorsogon,
Leyte, Marinduque, Panay, Basilan, Palawan, Samar, Cotabato, Culion) ;
pulit (Basilan Island) kulimbdning (Culion Island) tambo-tambo (Zam-

; ;
boanga) ; lubandyong (Cagayan) nigi (Mindoro, Camarines, Palawan,

;
Zambales, Tayabas); piagdu (Masbate, Zamboanga).

.
38 MANGROVE SWAMPS
This is a medium-sized to large tree, reaching a diameter of

100 centimeters, with thin, smooth, and light-colored bark. The
bark contains a large amount of tannin. The inner bark is dark
red and furnishes a dark-red dye. The trunk is usually crooked
and very often rotten. The roots frequently extend for a con-
siderable distance through the mud. They are crooked, and the
projecting parts are very narrow on top.
The wood is moderately hard and moderately heavy. The
sapwood is small in amount, whitish the heartwood red. The
;
grain is straight or slightly crossed the texture fine and glossy.

;
The wood seasons very well, shrinking little and checking or

warping hardly at all works easily. It is rarely, if ever, at-
;
tacked by beetles. It is used for poles ties posts beams, joists,

; ;
;
rafters doors flooring all interior finish high-grade furniture

; ; ; ;
and cabinetwork; among the best and most beautiful cabinet

woods in the Islands.
The leaves are alternate and compound with one to three
pairs of leaflets. The flowering branches are usually from 3.5
to 7 centimeters in length. The flowers are about 6 millimeters
long. The stalks are from 7 to 13 millimeters in length. The
calyx has four rounded lobes. The four petals are much longer
than the calyx, rounded, the edges overlapping. The fruit is
from 17 to 25 centimeters in diameter and round, with a thick,
corky, leathery covering, w^hich usually splits into four pieces as
the fruit dries. The fruit contains a number of corky, more
or less pyramidal seeds, which float, with the small end up, until
after germination.
XYLOCARPUS MOLUCCENSIS (Lam.) M. Roem. (Plate XII). PiAGAU.
Local names: Piagdu (Mindoro, Zamboanga, Negros, Cotabato, Palawan,

Guimaras Island) lagut-ut (Guimaras Island) tabigi or tibigi (Mindoro
; ;
and Cotabato) puyugdu (Ticao Island)

;
scnigknyong (Moro and Jolo)
; ;
piadak ( Palawan )
This species differs from the last in being straighter and

taller; with dark, flaky bark; smaller fruits, about the size of an
orange and erect air roots. The wood is generally a little
;
harder and darker in color than that of Xylocarpus granatiim.

The heartwood at the base of the trunk is often rotten. This
tree reaches a diameter of 65 centimeters. The wood has the
same uses as that of Xylocarpus granatum.
The leaves are compound, with two or three pairs of leaflets.
The flowering branches are slender and from 7 to 25 centimeters
in length. The flowers are similar to those of Xylocarpus gra-
natum, but have rather broader petals and a shorter style. The
fruit is rounded and about the size of a small orange.
40 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Family 4, EUPHORBIACEAE
Genus EXCOECARIA
EXCOECARIA AGALLOCHA Linn. (Plate XIII). Buta-BUTA.
Local names: But'dno (Pangasinan and Cagayan) buta (Basilan, Ba- ;
taan, Mindoro, and Palawan) buta-hntd (Bataan and Palawan)

; lipdta ;
(Palawan, Agusan, and Camarines) lipdtang-biihai (Palawan)

; alijmta ;
(Negros) kuldsi (Tayabas and Lanao).

;
Excoecaria agallocha is a small tree, usually not more than
8 meters in height, growing on firm mud or sand at the edge

of the swamp or on relatively firm spots in swamps. The bark
is light gray and broadly checked with darker streaks. It con-
tains copious milky sap which is very poisonous, being said
even to cause blindness when it touches the eyes.
The leaves are alternate, shiny, pointed at the tip and some-
what rounded at the base, and about 6 to 12 centimeters long.
The flowers are very small and are densely crowded on slender
flowering branches. The male flowers are found on spikes which
grow singly in the axils of the leaves and are from 5 to 10
centimeters long. The female flowers occur on branches which
are 2 to 3 centimeters long. There are three sepals, no petals,
and three stamens. The fruits are composed of three sections,
are somewhat rounded, smooth, and about 5 millimeters in diam-
eter. The wood is pale brownish white, soft, and probably
not used for any purpose but fuel.
Family 5, TILIACEAE
Genus BROWNLOWIA
BROWNLOWIA LANCEOLATA Benth. Maragomon.
Local name: Maragomon (Bisaya).
This species is a shrub or a small tree. The leaves are pointed

at both ends; 9 to 15 centimeters long, 3 to 4.5 centimeters wide;
the upper surface when mature is smooth and shiny, the lower
covered by a dense layer of minute, whitish-yellow scales. The
inflorescences have few flowers. The flowers are about 6 milli-
meters long; the stalks about the same length. The calyx is
5 millimeters long, bell-shaped, and divided into three to five
lobes. There are five petals, which are longer than the calyx.
Family 6, BOMBACACEAE
Genus CAMPTOSTEMON
CAMPTOSTEMON PH I LI PPI N ENSE (Vidal) Becc. (Plate XIII). Gapas-
GAPAS.
Local names: Bungdlon (Tayabas); gapas-gdpas (Negros, Capiz, Zam-
boanga) dandi'dit (Zamboanga)
; ; baluno (Zamboanga) ;
Hbdto-puti', nigi-
putV (Tayabas).
42 MANGROVE SWAMPS
A small tree, 6 to 10 meters high, the vegetative parts, buds,

and numerous small round scales. Leaves
fruits covered with
alternate, rather thick, crowded at the ends of the branches,
margin smooth, apex rounded, base narrowed, 5 to 10 centi-
meters long, 3 to 6 centimeters wide, petioles 2 to 5 centimeters
long. Flowers small, crowded at the tips of short axillary stalks,
nearly white, and with five petals. The anthers are few in
number and crowded at the apex of a short tube. The fruit is
a small, pear-shaped capsule, about 1.5 centimeters long, and
contains a few small seeds densely covered with a cottonlike
substance.
The wood is moderately hard; of smooth, fine texture; pure
creamy-white, but bluing easily in seasoning. It is a pretty
wood, but little known and rarely cut except with mixed firewood.
Family 7, STERCULIACEAE
Genus HERITIERA
HERITIERA LITTORALiS Dryand. (Plate XIV). Dungon-late.
Local names: Diiugon-ldte and cbrngon (Tayabas, Baler, Negros, Butuan,
Camarines, Masbate, Lanao, Palawan, Zamboanga, Mindoro, Bataan, Cota-
bato, Zambales, Manila, Misamis, Leyte, Basilan, Surigao, Palaui Island,
Sorsogon, Ticao, Guimaras, Agusan) paundpin (Cagayan)
;
magdyao (Ca- ;
gayan) palugdpig, palingdpoi, parondpin, parondpoi (Cagayan, Panga-

;
sinan, Zambales) bant (Moro)

; malarungon (Tayabas)
;
paloffgdpui ;
(Iloko) ; dunfjon-lalao (Tayabas) ; hdrit (Zamboanga) ; cliimon (Cagayan) ;
baydg-kabdyo (Manila).
This is a tree which grows on the inner part of the swamp
and sometimes on dry land just back of the swamp. The bark
is light colored and coarsely furrowed. There is a thin outer
layer which peels off readily and leaves a dark-brown color.
Most of the trees are small and useless, though occasionally
large-sized trees are found. It may reach a diameter of about
90 centimeters and have a clear length of 13 meters.
The wood is very hard, heavy, very tough and flexible, but
not resilient. The sapwood is up to 6 or 8 centimeters in
thickness; in mature trees sharply marked ofi" from heartwood.
The heartwood is reddish brown to dark chocolate, often con-
taining masses of stony deposits in old knots and heart cracks.
The grain is crossed and sometimes curly; texture fine, dense,
smooth, but not glossy. Logs and large timbers are liable to
split deeply in seasoning boards less liable to split, but must
;
be piled carefully and heavily loaded to prevent warping. It

is very difficult to work, both on account of its hardness and
toughness, and because it dulls tools badly, even when no stony

deposits are met. The heartwood is rarely attacked even by ter-
mites and only eaten slowly by teredos. The sapwood is rapidly
PLATE XIV. HERITIERA LITTORALIS (DUNGON-LATE), FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

.
44 MANGROVE SWAMPS
attacked by both insects and fungi. The wood is used for piling;
posts; foundation sills; ties, paving blocks, bridges, wharfs,
and ship buildings beams, joists, rafters hubs, spokes, felloes,
; ;
and axles capstan bars and other levers ax, pick, and other
; ;
tool handles; mallets and other wooden tools; recommended for

steamed bent work where great strength and durability are
required.
The leaves are 10 to 20 centimeters long, alternate, simple,
dark shiny green on the upper surface and silvery below. The
flowering branches are borne in the axils of the leaves and are
hairy and from 7 to 15 centimeters long with numerous flowers.
The flowers are 5 millimeters long, unisexual, yellowish green,
and beli-shaped. The flower has no petals. The calyx is usually
5-toothed. The anthers are borne in a ring. The fruit is hard,
woody, smooth, shiny, 4 to 8 centimeters long, and boat-shaped.
Family 8, SONNERATIACEAE
Genus SONNERATIA
There are two species of Sonneratia in the Philippine man-
grove swamps, Sonneratia alba and Sonneratia caseolaris. These
two species can be readily distinguished by the shapes of the
leaves. The leaves of Soyineratia alba are narrow and pointed
at the apex, while those of Sonnei-atia caseolaris are about as
broad as long and rounded at the apex.
Key to the species.
Leaves pointed at apex Sonneratia alba.

Leaves rounded at apex Sonneratia caseolaris.
SONNERATIA ALBA Sm. (Plate XV). Pedada.

Local names: Payar (Pangasinan) palapdt, pnlata, pugatpdt, and
;
hikau-hikduan (Bataan) pagatpdt (Manila, Bataanj lukabbdn, ilukabbdn

; ;
(Cagayan)
This speciesa small tree occurring along the upper stretches

is
of tidal streams. The fruit is slightly acid and is used as an

article of food and also for making vinegar. This tree rarely
reaches a height of more than 9 meters. One individual with
a diameter of 80 centimeters has been reported. The air roots
and leaves are distinctly smaller than those of Sonneratia caseo-
laris. The air roots are sometimes used for the manufacture
of wooden soles of shoes. The bark contains a moderate pro-
portion of tannin, but is not often used as other species richer
in tannin aremore readily available.
The wood is whitish and moderately hard. It rarely, if ever,
forms heartwood and is cut only with mixed inferior firewoods.
The smallest branches are jointed and four-angled. The leaves
PLATE XV. SONNERATIA ALBA (PEDADA). FRUIT AND FLOWER.

46 MANGROVE SWAMPS
are thick and leathery, narrow, and taper to a broad, short

petiole. They are from 4 to 10 centimeters long and from 2
to 4 centimeters wide. The flowers occur singly; the calyx is
green, 2.5 to 3 centimeters long, and divided into six to eight
angular lobes which are longer than the calyx tube. The petals
are six in number, narrow, pink or white, and about as long
as the calyx segments. The stamens are very numerous and
the style long. The fruit is hard, 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter,
rounded but depressed at the apex; the base is surrounded by
the calyx tube, the lobes of which still persist when the fruit
is mature. The fruit contains many seeds.
SONNERATIA CASEOLARIS (Linn.) Engl. (Plates XVI, XVII) Pagatpat.
.
Local names: Pagatpat (Cebu, Camarines, Tayabas, Cagayan, Samar,

Agusan, Basilan, Zambales, Cotabato, Palawan, Mindoro, Zamboanga, Pa-
nay, Guimaras Island, Negros, Leyte, Bataan, Lanao) hundyon (Dinagat
;
Island) patpdt (Butuan)

;
lukabhdn, ilukabbdn, lukabbadn (Cagayan)
; ;
pirara and palalan (Cotabato); buiJgdlon (Masbate).
This is a tree of the outer part of the swamp, and often occurs
even on exposed reefs. The trunk is swollen at the base, at
least when young. The air roots are usually from a few centi-
meters to 60 centimeters in length. In some places along river
banks, where the tree is growing in soft mud, they are much
longer, and have been known to reach a length of more than
2 meters. The bark is very dark gray. Sonneratia caseolaris
may reach a diameter of 175 centimeters and a clear length of
26 meters.
The wood is moderately hard and moderately heavy to heavy.
The sapwood is 3 to 8 centimeters thick, light grayish brown;
the heartwood light brown to dark chocolate. When wet or
under varnish, the heartwood of old mature trees looks almost
black. The grain is straight or very slightly crossed the texture;
fine, very homogeneous, smooth, but not glossy it has a distinct

;
salty taste and a fishy or swampy odor, especially when fresh.

Boards season fairly well, but logs and heavy planks are liable
to check internally. It is easy to work. It lasts well in the
ground and even the sapwood is rarely attacked by insects; the
heartwood is said to resist teredos very well. It is used for
piles posts, poles ties paving blocks ship, bridge, and wharf
;
;
;
;
building; general strong construction; doors; siding, sheathing,

ceiling, flooring, and all kinds of interior finish; ship planking
and decking; furniture and cabinetwork; and musical instru-
ments. The wood contains a small amount of salt, making the
use of copper nails and screws necessary. The air roots are
used as floats for fish nets and, being corky in texture, are
Fig. 1. Sonneratia caseolaris (PAGATPAT) on an open coast.
Fig. 2. Air roots of Sonneratia caseolaris (PAGATPAT).

PLATE XVI.
48 MANGROVE SWAMPS
employed in the manufacture of inner soles for shoes and can

be used as a substitute for cork or pith.
The small branches are more rounded than in Sonyieratia alba.
The leaves are thick and leathery, rounded at the apex, 6 to 10
centimeters long, and nearly as wide as long. Two or three
flower buds are usually found together. The calyx is green,
leathery, 3 to 4 centimeters long, and divided into six to nine
narrow segments, which are equal in length to the calyx tube
or longer. The petals are white, narrow, and fall off very
early; they are nearly as long as the calyx segments. Some-
times there are no petals. The stamens are very numerous and
the style long. The fruit is hard, rounded, depressed at the
apex, 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter, and surrounded nearly
to the middle by the calyx tube, the lobes of which are still
present when the fruit is mature. The fruit contains many
seeds.
Family 9, RHIZOPHORACEAE
The family Rhizophoraceae is the most important one in the
mangrove swamps and contains by far the largest number of
species. The members of this family in the swamps are dis-
tinguished at once from all other species by the fact that the
seed germinates and produces an elongated seedling before the
fruit drops from the tree. This character is shown clearly in
the illustrations of the members of this family. The conspicuous
part of the seedling that projects from the fruit is the radicle
or young root, which is very much longer than the plumule
or young shoot. The family Rhizophoraceae is represented in
the swamps by three genera Rhizophora, Briiguiera, and Ceriops.
;
Trees of the genus Rhizophora are easily distinguished from

all other trees in the swamps by the very numerous prop roots
which grow out from the trunk and branches. These are shown
very clearly on Plate I. The genera Bruguiera and Ceriops can
be separated by the shapes of the leaves, which in Bruguiera are
pointed at the apex and in Ceriops are rounded and notched at
the apex.
Key to the genera.
1. Leaves pointed at apex.

2. Tip of leaves with prominent projection of midrib
Rhizophora.
2. Tip of leaves without projection of midrib
Bruguiera.
1. Leaves rounded and notched at apex Ceriops.
Genus BRUGUIERA
The genus Bruguiera represented in the Philippines by
is
four species: Bruguiera conjugata (busain), B. cijlindrica (poto-

tan-lalaki), B. sexangula (pototan), and B. parviflora (Ian-
169644 4
50 MANGROVE SWAMPS
garai) . The wood is hard and heavy to very heavy the sap wood
;
2 to 4 centimeters thick, sometimes merging gradually into the

darker heartwood, but often almost indistinguishable from it;
the heartwood is pale dull red. or reddish brown, sometimes with
very irregular, narrow but ill-defined,dark streaks. The grain
is straight and the texture fine. Beautiful conspicuous silver
grain occurs on radial sections. Logs check badly in seasoning,
but sawn lumber seasons without much checking and warping
if properly stacked under a roof. The wood is hard to saw, but
otherwise easy to work. It is said to last well in wet situations,
is rarely attacked by insects, and is said to resist teredos for
as much as seven or eight years. It has much the same uses

as that of the genus Rhizophora.
The leaves of Bvuguiera are usually leathery in texture, oblong,
and entire. The flowers are rather large and are found in the
axils of the leaves. The calyx is split into eight to fourteen
lobes. The petals are oblong, and equal in number to the calyx-
lobes, two-lobed or notched at the apex, embracing the stamens
by pairs. There are sixteen to twenty-eight stamens. The
ovary is two- to four-celled. The fruit is included in or joined
to the calyx tube, is one-celled, one-seeded. The seed germinates
on the tree.
The different species of Bruguiera are readily distinguished
either in flower or fruit except in the case of Bruguiera conjugata
and Bruguiera sexangula, which have forms intermediate in
character between typical specimens of the two species. The
flowers of Bruguiera conjugata and Bruguiera sexangula are
large, 2.5 to 5 centimeters long; while those of Bruguiera par-
viflora and Bruguiera cylindrica are small and about a centimeter
in length. The flowers of Bruguiera conjugata are typically
red with the calyx divided into twelve to fifteen lobes while ;
the flowers of Bruguiera sexangula are usually yellow with the

calyx divided into ten lobes. As the calyx-lobes of Bruguiera
are persistent, the fruits of these two species can be readily
distinguished from those of the other two species of the genus
by the long calyx-lobes, while the two species themselves can
be separated according to the number of the lobes of the calyx.
Bruguiera cylindrica and Bruguiera parviflora can easily be dis-
tinguished by the fact that the inflorescences of Bruguiera cylin-
drica bear two or three flowers, while those of Bruguiera
par vi flora have two to five flowers. The petals of Bruguiera
par viflora are yellow with a brown border at the tip and those
of Bruguiera cylindrica white. The fruits of these two species
are readily distinguished by the fact that in Bruguiera cylin
PLATE XVIll. BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA (BUSAIN) WITH FLOWERS.

52 MANGROVE SWAMPS
drica the calyx-lobes are bent away from the tip of the fruit,
while those of Brugiera parviflora are erect.
Key to the species.
1. Flowers yellow or red, 2.5 to 5 centimeters long; seedlings more than 6

millimeters in diameter; inflorescences with one flower each.
2. Flowers usually red Brugidera conjugata.
2. Flowers usually yellow Brugidera sexangula.
1. Flowers greenish yellow, about 1 centimeter in length seedlings less
;
than 6 millimeters in diameter. Inflorescences with two to five flowers.

2. Sepals bent back from the apex of the fruit Brugidera cylindrica.
2. Sepals erect on fruit, less than one-fourth the length of the ovary.
Brugidera parviflora.
BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA (Linn.) Merr. and B. SEXANGULA (Lour.)
Poir.
These species are very similar, the chief difference between

the two being in the color of the flowers, red in the first case
and yellow in the second. These are the largest trees among
the true mangroves. Full-grown individauls are from 40 to 65
centimeters in diameter and from 18 to 23 meters in height.
The trees have an erect habit and thick-ridged, very dark,
almost black bark, which contains many large, brown, corky
pustules. The inner bark is of much the same character and
appearance as that of bakauan and contains about the same or
a slightly larger amount of tannin.
The wood is very much the same in structure and appearance
as that of bakauan, except that it is lighter red. At a short
distance from the base of the trees and extending out to a dis-
tance often as great as 5 or 6 meters are many air roots or
knees, which are formed by roots bending upward and may ex-
tend 45 centimeters into the air. The seedlings are stouter and
blunter than in the other trees of the family. They germinate
and grow to a length of 15 to 25 centimeters before dropping
from the tree.
BRUGUIERA CONJUGATA (Linn.) Merr. (Plate XVIII). Busain.
Local names: Pototan (Mindoro, Bataan, Tayabas, Negros, Leyte, Zam-

boanga, Basilan, and Cagayan) busai-ing (Tayabas)
;
bakdu (Tinago
;
Island and Zambales) bakauan (Mindoro)

;
busi-ing (Mindoro)
;
bakdu ;
(Negros); busain or similar forms (Mindoro and Tayabas).
The leaves of Brugidera conjugata are elliptic or elliptic-

oblong, pointed at the the base
tip, wedge-shaped. When dry
the upper surface is shiny, the lower surface dull. The flowers
occur singly in the axils of the leaves and are 3 to 4 centimeters
in length and when fully opened slightly over 3 centimeters
in breadth. The calyx is bell-shaped, leathery in texture and
53
PLATE XIX. BRUGUIERA SEXANGULA (POTOTAN) WITH FLOWERS.

54 MANGROVE SWAMPS
cut for half its length into narrow pointed teeth, usually twelve
to fifteen in number. The petals are slightly shorter than the
calyx-lobes and equal to them in number, two-lobed at the apex
and with two to four bristles at the point of each lobe, hairy
at the base, otherwise smooth or nearly so. Opposite each
petal are two stamens, which are shorter than the petals. Each
alternate filament is short. The fruit is small it is found in ;
the bottom of the calyx tube and contains a single seed which
germinates in situ, forming a cylindrical root 30 to 60 centi-
meters in length. Brugidera gymnorrhiza Lam. is a synonym
of B. conjugata (Linn.) Merr.
BRUGUIERA SEXANGULA (Lour.) Poir. (Plates XIX, XX). Pototan.

Local names: Pototan or pututan (Tayabas, Zamboanga, Mindoro, Mas-
bate, Misamis, Cotabato, and Palawan) tagdsa (Bataan) busdin, busding,
; ;
etc. (Mindoro, Tayabas, Lanao, and Zamboanga) sagdsa (Cagayan) ; ;
dlai (Palawan) lagdsak (Palaui)

; bakduan (Manila) sagdsak (Palaui
; ;
Island) ;langdri (Basilan) pototan-babde (Palauan and Bataan)

;
ba- ;
kduan-laldki (Bataan); kalabayuan (Bataan); balinsardyan (Tayabas).
The leaves of Briiguiera sexangida are pointed at the tip, and

wedge-shaped at the base; the upper surface is shining, the
nerves faint; the lower surface is reddish-brown when dry, the
veins are very faint or obsolete, but the midrib is prominent.
The flowers are yellow, sometimes tinged with orange, and occur
singly in the axils of the leaves. They are usually 3 to 4 centi-
meters in length and when fully opened about 2.5 centimeters in
breadth. The calyx is similar to that of Brugidera conjugata,
but the lobes are usually only ten in number. The petals are
about half the length of the calyx-lobes and deeply divided into
two parts, with a stout bristle in the angle between the two
narrow lobes, and sometimes with two bristles at the end of
each lobe. The edges are densely clothed with stout white
hairs. The fruit is similar to that of Bruguiera conjugata,
except that the germinating root is shorter.
Brugidera eriopetala W. & A. is a synonym of Brugidera
sexangula (Lour.) Poir.
BRUGUIERA CYLINDRICA (Linn.) Blume (Plates XXI, XXII). Pototan-
LALAKI.
Local names: Bakduan (Mindoro); bins (Cotabato); busdin (Mindoro);
hingdli (Negros) langdrai (Cotabato)
; magtongog (Masbate) pototan
; ;
and pototan-laldki (Tayabas and Mindoro) tangdl-bahde (Mindoro) ka-

; ;
lapinai (Union) biiis (Moro)

; taiigdlan (Mindoro)
; biids (Pangasinan) ; ;
magtangud (Masbate); biuas (Bataan).

Bruguiera cyUndrica has flowers intermediate in size between
those of Bruguiera conjugata and Bruguiera parviflora. The
tree is usually of low growth, otherwise it is much like Bruguiera
PLATE XX. BRUGUIERA SEXANGULA (POTOTAN) WITH IMMATURE FRUIT.

56 MANGROVE SWAMPS
PLATE XXI. BRUGUIERA CYLINDRICA (POTOTAN-LALAKI) , FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

58 MANGROVE SWAMPS
parviflora. This species occurs in the Philippines in an exceed-

ingly small amount. Swamps are frequently found which do
not contain it, and it is usually of small size,
Brugiiiera cylindrica has rather thin leaves. They are soft,
7 to 12 centimeters in length, shiny, and narrowed at both ends.
The flowering stalks are found in the axils of the leaves they are ;
usually shorter than the petioles and bear two to three flowers.
The flowers are greenish, about 1 centimeter long and slightly
over a centimeter broad. The calyx is green and divided into
seven or eight narrow fleshy lobes. The petals are white, equal
in number with, but shorter than, the calyx-lobes. The apex
of each petal is divided into two lobes the margins have scanty
;
white hairs outside the apices are rounded and each is crowned
;
with from three to five brown bristles, while one bristle is

found in the angle between the two lobes. The stamens are
sixteen in number and unequal in length. The germinating
root is cylindrical and reaches a length of 15 to 20 centimeters
before the seed falls from the tree. Bi'uguiera caryo'phylloides
Blume is a synonym of Bruguiera cylindrica (Linn.) Blume.
BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA W. & A. (Plates XXIII, XXIV). Langarai.

Local names: Pototan (Tayabas, Cagayan, Zamboanga) liangdlai or ;
hangdrai (Mindoro, Masbate, Leyte, Iloilo, Negros) hingdlai (Polillo)

; ;
langarai or langdrV (Zamboanga, Tayabas, Masbate, Negros, and Zamba-

les) ;bakduan-laldki (Batangas) bubutigan, biosaî (Samar).
;
Bruguiera parviflora is a tall, slender tree which

is often found
in solid stands in the interior of the swamp.

Trees 15 to 30
centimeters in diameter and 12 to 18 meters in height are full
grown, but trees up to 55 centimeters in diameter are found.
The bark is gray, hard, and thick, and has broad, smooth ridges.
The air roots are similar to those of Bruguiera conjugata and
B. sexangida, but usually smaller; the wood, except for being
lighter in color, is also much like that of these two species.
The seedling is of the same color as the leaves, slender and
nearly cylindrical. The roots of the seedling grow to about 10
or 12 centimeters in length before the seed drops from the tree.
The leaves of Bruguiera parviflora are yellowish green, 6 to
10 centimeters in length, and rather narrow, particularly at the
base. The upper surface is shiny, the lower dull. The flowering
shoots are in the axils of the leaves and bear two to five yellowish-
green flowers. The whole flowering shoot, including the flowers,
is considerably longer than the petioles of the leaves. The
flowers are about a centimeter in length and about 6 millimeters
in breadth. The calyx tube is cylindrical and ends in eight
pointed lobes about one-fourth the length of the calyx tube.
PLATE XXIII. BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA (LANGARAI) WITH FLOWERS.

60 MANGROVE SWAMPS
The petals are the same in number as the calyx-lobes but shorter.
They are yellow with a dark brown border at the tip. They are
two-lobed and each bears three or four hairs, while a single hair
is found between two lobes; otherwise the petals are smooth.
The stamens are sixteen in number and of unequal size two ;
are embraced by each petal.

Genus CERIOPS
The two species of Ceriops, C. tagal and C. roxhurghiana, are
known as tangal. They are separated only by very minute floral
characters. Tangal is a small tree with rather smooth, light
gray or brown bark, which is perforated in many places by dark-
colored lenticels. Below the outer corky layer, there is more or
less orange color. The bark contains a high percentage of tan-
nin. The trunk flares at the base. A short distance from the
trunk some of the roots bend upward to form small knees.
The sapwood is small in amount and scarcely distinct from
the heartwood. The heartwood is very hard and heavy, orange
red, changing on exposure to reddish brown. It gives an irides-
cent orange-red color to water. The grain is straight and the
texture fine and dense, taking a smooth, almost polished surface
under sharp tools. It does not check badly, but is somewhat
liable to warp in seasoning and is not difficult to work except for
its hardness. The wood is used for much the same purposes as
that of Rhizophora.
The leaves are leathery in texture, opposite, and wider toward
the apex than near the base. They are notched at the apex. The
flowers are small and light greenish yellow. The calyx has five
or six lobes. The petals, five or six in number, are inserted at
the base of a ten- to twelve-lobed fleshy disk. There are ten to
twelve stamens, whose stalks are inserted between the lobes of
the disk. The style is short and the stigma simple. The seed-
lings are angled in cross section and may reach a length of about
35 centimeters before falling from the tree.
Taiigal is found near the mouths of tidal streams. Full-grown
trees are from 15 to 40 centimeters in diameter and from 8 to
11 meters in height.
Key to the species.
Flowers few on an inflorescence, each with a short stalk; apex of petals
with three to four club-shaped appendages _ Ceriops tagal.
Flowers few on an inflorescence, without individual stalks; apex of petals
lacerate, that is with a torn appearance Ceriops roxhurghiana.
CERIOPS TAGAL (Perr.) C. B. Rob. Tangal.
Local names: Tangal (Tagalog, Bisaya, Zambales, and Zamboanga) ;
tungod (Bisaya in Negros) tanghdl (Mindoro)

; magtoiigod (Mindoro)
; ;
PLATE XXIV. FRUIT OF BRUGUIERA PARVIFLORA (LAN6ARAI).

g2 MANGROVE SWAMPS
tangdl-lalaki (Mindoro);tungud (Jolo) toiigog (Masbate) tagdsa (Ba-

; ;
taan);
pakat (Palawan) tonggui (Culion)
;
tungog (Visayan)
;
rongon ;
(Zambales) rungon (Pangasinan).

;
The leaves of Ceriops tagal are from 5.5 to 7 centimeters in

length and from 2 to 4.5 centimeters in breadth the petioles,
;
from 2 to 3 centimeters in length. The flovêrs are about 6

millimeters long and are borne on short stalks. The calyx-lobes
are oblong and somewhat blunt. The petals are oblong; the
apex flat or notched and with three or more club-shaped append-
ages. Stamens ten, nearly as long as the petals.
Ceriops candollcana H. & A. is a synonym of Ceriops tagal
(Perr.) C. B. Rob.
CERIOPS ROXBURGHIANA Arn. (Plates XXV, XXVI). Tangal.
Local names: Mataiigdl (Bataan) taiigdl (Tayabas and Camarines)

; ;
tungu7ig (Surigao) hakdiian (Bataan and Mindoro) bulubadidng (Panay)

; ; ;
tungug (Negros).
Ceriops roxhurghiana has leaves up to 11 centimeters in length

and 6 in breadth, petioles 1.5 to 3 centimeters in length. The
flowers are about 5 millimeters long and about 5 millimeters
broad and do not have individual stalks. The five or six calyx-
lobes are short and somewhat pointed. The petals are oblong,
white when young, turning to brown the apex notched or ;
slightly flattened and with a torn appearance.
Genus RHIZOPHORA
Bakauan is the name given to the species of Rhizophora.
These make up a very large part of the swamp and are often
the most conspicuous constituent of it.
These trees are distinguished from all others by their much-
branched prop roots, which hold the trees up out of the water.
This is perhaps the reason why the wood of these trees is usually
sounder than that of others from the swamp. Besides the roots
which come out from the base of the trunk, there are often large
numbers of roots developed from the lower branches. The bark
is very dark, almost black, coarsely ridged, and about 2 centi-
meters thick. It contains a high percentage of tannin.
The sapwood is yellow or whitish the heartwood dark orange
;
to reddish brown. The transition from sapwood to heartwood

may be either gradual or abrupt. The wood is hard and heavy.
The sapwood is 3 to 5 centimeters thick, and in old trees very
sharply distinguished from the dark heartwood. The grain is
straight and the texture fine and dense. It has a conspicuous
64 MANGROVE SWAMPS
PLATE XXVI. CERIOPS ROXBURHIANA (TANGAL) WITH FRUITS.

PLATE XXVII. RHIZOPHORA CANDELARIA (BAKAUAN-LALAKI), FRUIT AND OLD

FLOWERS FROM WHICH PETALS HAVE FALLEN.
1(59644 5
66 MANGROVE SWAMPS
silver grain. Logs and large timbers are liable to check badly;
but if the wood is properly sawn and carefully stacked, it seasons
with little warping and splitting. It is hard to saw, but not
otherwise difficult to work. It lasts well in wet situations and
is rarely attacked by insects.
The wood is used for salt-water and foundation piling, mine

timbers, house posts, furniture, and cabinet-work; if properly
sawn and carefully seasoned, it would make an excellent flooring.
On account of its shape, great strength, and durability when
submerged in fresh water, it is specially recommended for sub-
merged foundation piles.
The pear-shaped fruit is brown, with a granular or roughened
surface. The seedling is long, spindle-shaped, and green. It
grows downward and out of the fruit before the latter falls from
the tree. The surface of the seedling is very smooth, except
for occasional dark-brown lenticels which project from the sur-
face. The seedling grows to a length of 75 to 100 centimeters
before dropping into the mud, where it promptly takes root.
The maximum diameter attained by bakauan is about 60 centi-
meters; exceptional trees sometimes have a clear length of 25
meters. The average dimensions are, however, much smaller
than the figures just given. Where there is an abundance of
light, the bole is usually crooked, low branched, and practically
worthless except for firewood. In the interior of the forest
bakauan is fairly straight, round boled, and has a moderately
spreading crown.
The calyx is four-lobed. The petals are four in number, and
slightly shorter than the calyx-lobes.
The two species of Rhizophora are easily distinguished, either
in flower or fruit. The inflorescence stalks of Rhizophora can-
delaria are very short, being shorter than the petioles, occur
below the leaves, and each bears two flowers. The inflorescence
stalks of Rhizopho7'a mucronata are among the leaves, as long
as the petioles, and each bears from three to seven flowers. The
fruits of the two species are easily separated by the length of
the stalks. All of these characters are shown plainly in the
illustrations of the species.
Key to the species.
Flowers below the leaves; inflorescences with two flowers; stalks of in-
florescences shorter than the petioles Rhizophora candelaria.
Flowers among the leaves; inflorescences with three to seven flowers; stalk
of inflorescences as long as the petioles Rhizophora mucronata.
PLATE XXVIIl. RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA (BAKAUAN-BABAE^ INFLORESCENCES AND

FLOWER.
68 MANGROVE SWAMPS
RHIZOPHORA CANDELARIA DC. (Plates I, XXVII). Bakauan-lalaki.
Local names: Bakduan (Tagalog) bakdu (Visayan) bakduan-babde ; ;
(Tagalog and Bisaya, Zamboanga) uakatan (Mindoro) bakduan-Ialdki

; ;
(Mindanao) bakad (Zambales)

; bakhdu (Samar, Capiz) ;bakdu-laldki ;
(Pampanga) bangkdu (Davao).

;
The leaves of Rhizophora candelaria are 10 to 16 centimeters

in length, leathery in texture, green and shiny, and oblong-
elliptic in shape. The apex is pointed or ends in a thornlike pro-
longation of the midrib. The stalks of inflorescences are found
in the axils of fallen leaves and are shorter than the petioles
of the leaves. Two flowers are borne on each inflorescence stalk.
The flowers are pale greenish yellow.
This species is usually known by the erroneous name Rhizo-
phora conjugata.
RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA Lam. (Plates XXVIII, XXIX). Bakauan-
BABAE.
Local names: Bakdiiati (Tagalog) bakhdu (Surigao) bakuu (Negros)
; ; ;
bakduan-Ialdki (Zambales) bakduang-laldki (Zamboanga) bangkdu (Taga-

; ;
log in Tayabas).
The leaves of Rhizophora mucronata are leathery in texture,

oblong-elliptic, shiny, and up to 16 centimeters in length. The
apex of the leaf terminates in a slender, thornlike prolongation
of the midrib. The among the leaves.
inflorescence stalks are
They are from centimeters in length, about as long as
2.5 to 4
the petioles of the leaves, forked at the apex, and bear from tnree
to seven flowers. The flowers are white to cream color.
Family 10, COMBRETACEAE

Genus LUMNITZERA
Key to the species.
Flowers scarlet Lumnitzera littorea.

Flowers white Lumnitzera racemosu.
LUMNITZERA LITTOREA Voigt. (Plate XXX). Tabau.
Local names: Bating or bakt'ing (Tawi-tawi, Jolo) daluru-babde (Taya- ;
bas) ; sagdsa' (Dinagat Island) maoro (Surigao) kolasirnan (Culion

; ;
Island) libdto (Tayabas, Polillo, Palawan)

; panting-panting (Basilan) ; ;
kalapini' (Zambales) knldsi (Mindoro)

; bulokbidok (Negros Occidental)
; ;
ugndia (Zambales) karifurug (Cagayan) anildi (Mindoro) papdsil (Ta-

; ; ;
yabas) niagalolo (Polillo) sauting (Moro and Tawi-tawi)

; ; tabdu (Capiz, ;
Negros, Zamboanga, Sorsogon, Masbate) dulokdulok (Masbate) sala'sd ; ;
(Occidental Negros).
This species is a tall tree found along rivers in the swamps.

PLATE XXIX. RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA (BAKAUAN-BABAE) WITH FRUIT.

.
70 MANGROVE SWAMPS
and a smaller where conditions for growth are

tree or shrub
less favorable. reaches a diameter of 50 centimeters and a
It
height of 18 meters. The bark is gray when the tree is young
and often nearly black when mature, coarsely furrowed, rather
thick and corky. The air roots are few in number and similar
to those of Bruguiera coiiiugata, B. sexangula, and B. cylindrica.
The wood has a distinct roselike odor when fresh. The sap-
wood and heartwood are not very different in color; the wood
is pale brown, straight grained, dense and smooth, with a fine
texture, and takes a silky finish under a sharp plane. It seasons

well and is easy to work. It is used for piles, poles, house posts,
ties, paving blocks, bridges, and wharves, general strong con-
struction, ship planking and decks, handles, and cabinet-work.
The leaves are 5 to 8 centimeters long, alternate, very thick
and fleshy, rounded at the apex and notched, and clustered
toward the ends of the twigs. The petioles are very short. The
flowers are bright scarlet and about 8 millimeters in length.
They are borne in considerable numbers at the ends of branches.
The calyx tubes terminate in five lobes. The petals are scarlet,
five in number, and about 7 millimeters long. There are five
to ten, but usually seven stamens, which are the same color and
twice as long as the petals. The fruit is woody, elongated, about
2 centimeters long and 7 millimeters wide, narrowed at each end,
crowned by a persistent calyx rim, and contains a single seed.
LUMNITZERA RACEMOSA Willd. KuLASi'.
Local names: Tabou (Iloilo, Tayabas) ; suldsi' (Rizal, Manila) ; kuldsi'

(Bataan)
This species differs from the last in being of much smaller size
and in having white flowers. This tree grows in mud in the
swamp or in sand at the edge of the swamp. The wood is like
that of Lumnitzeiâ littorea.
The leaves are fleshy, green, shiny, 2.5 to 7 centimeters in
length, the apex rounded and notched, the base pointed, the
petioles very short. The flowering shoots are borne in the axils
of leaves and are from 2 to 6 centimeters long. The calyx is
green, 5 to 6 millimeters long, with five short lobes. The petals
are white, about 4 millimeters long, and five in number. The
stamens are white, about as long as the petals, and five to ten
in number. The fruit is woody, green, oblong, about 1.5 centi-
meters long, narrowed at both ends, crowned by the persistent
calyx rim, and contains a single seed.
PLATE XXX. LUMNITZERA LITTOREA (TABAU), FRUITS AND FLOWERS.

. .
72 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Family 11, MYRTACEAE

Genus OSBORNIA
OSBORNIA OCTODONTA F. MuelL (Plate XXXI). Tawalis.
Local names: Tuaivis (Palawan); thvayos (Masbate) gtoihun (Basi- ;
lan) ; maligdng (Polillo Island)tawalis (Tayabas, Camarines)

; sagasd' ;
(Iloilo) ; tabdii (Negros) dtdnk-duliik and sagasd' (Negros)

; monotbonot ;
(Leyte) ; kuldsi' (Zamboanga)
Osbornia octodontais a small tree with a very crooked trunk.
The bark reddish brown and very shaggy, and is sometimes

is
used in the caulking of boats. The wood is light grayish brown,

fine grained, and exceedingly durable.
All parts of the plant are smooth except the flowers, which
are hairy. The leaves are opposite, rounded at the tip, pointed
at the base, about 4 centimeters long, and 1 to 2 centimeters
wide. The flowers are white, less than a centimeter in length,
without stalks, and are borne either singly or in groups of a
few flowers either in the axils of the leaves or at the ends of
branches. Petals are lacking. The calyx is bell-shaped and ter-
minates in eight lobes. The fruit is included within the calyx
tube and contains one or two seeds.
Family 12, MYRSINACEAE

Genus AEGICERAS
Key to the species.
Leaves up to 4.5 centimeters wide; flowers in rounded clusters, all of the

flower stalks joined at about the same point Aegiceras corniculatum.
Leaves 3 centimeters wide or less; flowers in compound inflorescences.
Aegiceras floridum.
AEGICERAS CORNICULATUM (Linn.) Blanco. (Plates XXXII-XXXIV)

Saging-saging.
Local names: Timhamhdkis, pildpil, pagatpdt, pipisik (Bataan) saging- ;
saging (Capiz, Negros, Lanao, Surigao, Mindoro) kindug-kindtig, suldsig, ;
tinduk-tindukan (Tayabas) dumanm (Cagayan) tindok-tindok (Leyte,

; ;
Tayabas) tindok (Mindoro)

; tunduk-tundukan (Polillo Island)
;
batag- ;
batdg (Zambales) bulali (Negros); tayokon (Surigao).

;
Aegiceras corniculatum is a small tree or shrub which is found

along streams in the inner part of the swamp and, occasionally,
on more or less sandy spots in the outer part of the swamp. The
bark is dark browTi. The tree rarely exceeds 8 meters in height
and is usually much smaller.
The leaves are alternate, leathery, smooth, rounded and
notched at the apex, somewhat pointed at the base, usually from
4 to 10 centimeters in length, and 2.5 to 6 centimeters wide; the
PLATE XXXI. OSBORNIA OCTODONTA (TAWALIS) WITH FRUITS.

74 MANGROVE SWAMPS
76 MANGROVE SWAMPS
midrib is slender; the petioles are usually about a centimeter or

less in length. The flowers are fragrant and borne in rounded
clusters, the bases of the stalks all risingfrom nearly the same
point. The flower stalks are slender and 1 to 2 centimeters in
length. The calyx has 5 lobes, which are leathery, twisted to the
left and overlapping to the right, and about 6 millimeters long.
The corolla is white and has a short tube about 6 millimeters long
with five pointed lobes, which overlap to the right in the bud and
are about as long as the tube. There are five stamens, which are
inserted on the corolla tube and are longer than the corolla lobes.
The fruit is shaped like a miniature banana except that it usually
ends in a sharp point. It is up to 7 centimeters in length and
contains a single, elongated seed which fills the cavity of the
fruit.
AEGICERAS FLORIDUM R. and S. (Plate XXXV). Tinduktindukan.
This species is much less abundant than Aegiceras cornicu-

latiim and differs from it having smaller leaves, which are
in
3 centimeters or less in width, and in having branched inflores-
cence stalks.
Family 13, APOCYNACEAE

Genus CERBERA
CERBERA MANGHAS Linn. (Plate XXXVI). BARAIBAI.
Local names: Buto-buto (Surigao, Dinagat Island) bayag-usd, pan- ;
dakdki (Camarines) baraibdi (Baler)

; biita-bidd (Bataan) ; bat'dno ;
(Camiguin Island) kubi (Zambales)

; ditd (Moro) lipdta (Palawan)
; ; ;
panabulon (Negros) dungds (Cotabato).

;
Cerbera manghas is usually a shrub, although it may some-

times grow into a small tree. occurs in situations similar to
It
Excoecaria agallocha. Cerbera manghas has milky sap like that
of Excoecaria.
The leaves are shiny, narrowed at both ends, and about 20
centimeters long. The flowers are white, fragrant, about 5 centi-
meters in diameter, and occur on terminal branches. The calyx
tube is short and ends in five lobes, which are spreading, pale
green, pointed, and about 2 centimeters long. The corolla tube
is slender, greenish white, large above, and about 4 centimeters
long. The upper part of the corolla is spreading, about 5 centi-
meters in diameter, white with a purple center, and divided into
five lobes. The fruit is smooth, green, rounded, and about 6
centimeters long.
Cerbera odollam Gaertn. is a synonym of Cerbera manghas
Linn.
PLATE XXXIV. AEGICERAS CORNICULATUM (SAGING-SAGING) WITH FRUITS.

MANGROVE SWAMPS
78
.1fe3 z
80 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Family 14, VERBENACEAE

Genus AVICENNIA
Trees of Avicennia are distinguished from all others in the
swamps by the lower surface of the leaves being light gray or
white. This character is most nearly approched in Heritiera,
the lower surfaces of the leaves of which have a silvery
appearance.
Key to the species.
Tips of leaves usually somewhat rounded Avicennia officinalis.

Tips of leaves pointed Avicennia alba.
AVICENNIA OFFICINALIS Linn. (Plates XXXVII, XXXVIII). Api-api.
Local names: Midpi (Samar, Leyte, Masbate) api-dpi (Capiz, Ba-

;
taan, Davao, Zamboanga, Cotabato, Palawan, Mindoro) kalaphii mangit-

;
it (Zambales) ; biingdlon (Marinduque, Tayabas, Pangasinan, Zambales,

Mindoro, Capiz, Iloilo, Camarines, and Negros) kuldsi (Cotabato)
; ka- ;
lapini' (Pangasinan, Bataan, and Zambales) pipisig or pipisik (Tayabas,

;
Camarines, Mindoro) pidpi (Iloilo, Capiz, Agusan, Tayabas)

;
lingog ;
(Cagayan) ;
jnksik (Mindoro).
This species a tree of the outer part of the swamp.

is The
bark is usually light gray orbrown and rather smooth but
finely checked by small cracks. The air roots are numerous,
small, 8 to 20 centimeters high, and conical. This species is of
little value. In swamps where cutting has been excessive, and
more valuable species removed, the latter are often largely re-
placed by Avicennia officinalis.
The wood is hard, heavy, brittle, but difficult to split, having
an exceedingly crossed spiral grain. The sapwood is 4 to 6
centimeters thick, whitish, turning in drying to gray or light
brown, in large trees sharply marked off" from heartwood. The
heartwood is purplish gray. The grain is very conspicuous from
alternate bands of hard and soft tissue, very strongly crossed,
often irregularly wavy. The texture of the hard tissue is ex-
tremely fine and dense of the soft tissue, somewhat coarser. The
;
wood seasons well, but the sapwood is liable to stain badly if

not seasoned quickly. It is not diflficult to work. The durability
is said to be poor, but the wood is rarely attacked by beetles.
It is used locally for rice mortars is a favorite in some regions

;
for smoking fish a wood that for its peculiar color and attractive
;
grain should find a good place in small cabinetwork; recom-

mended for trial in creosoted paving blocks.
The leaves are leathery, opposite, dark green above, very pale
and hairy beneath, usually somewhat rounded at the apex,
narrow at the base, 5 to 10 centimeters long and 2.5 to 5 centi-
meters broad; midrib stout and very prominent. The flowers
PLATE XXXVII. AVICENNIA OFFICINALIS (API-API), FLOWERS AND IMMATURE FRUIT.

169644 6
.
82 MANGROVE SWAMPS
are small, without individual stalks, and are in small heads on

stiff angular flowering- stalks, which occur either two together
in the axils of the upper leaves or several at the end of a branch.
There are three to seven flowers in each head. The corolla is
orange-yellow. The corolla tube is very short, cylindrical, and
has four lobes. The lobes are 5 millimeters in length, hairy
without, and nearly smooth within. The calyx has five lobes,
which are 2 to 8 millimeters long, hairy on the margins the ;
lower part of the back hairy, the rest smooth. There are four
stamens, which are inserted on the throat of the corolla and
extend beyond the corolla. The fruit is a capsule, 2.5 to 4 centi-
meters long, and contains a single seed which completely fills
the capsule.
AVICENNIA ALBA Blume. Api-api.
Local names: Kuchiichis (Surigao) ;

pidpi (Misamis) ;
pundung (Co-
tabato)
This species is less abundant than Avicennia of-

apparently
ficinalis and from it largely in inconspicuous floral
differs
characters. The wood appears to be identical with that of
Avicemiia officinalis.
The leaves are leathery, pointed at the apex, narrowed at the
base, either smooth on both surfaces or with whitish hairs be-
neath, especially when young; 5 to 7 centimeters long, 2.5 to
5 centimeters broad. The midrib is prominent. The flowers,
without individual stalks, grow either in small heads or in
spikes. The calyx has segments, which are thick, 2.5 milli-
meters long, fringed with hair, and slightly hairy at the back
near the base. The corolla tube is very short and sometimes
almost lacking. It has four smooth pointed lobes, 2.5 milli-
meters long. There are four stamens inserted on the corolla
throat. These do not reach to the end of the corolla. The
fruit is a capsule 1 to 2 centimeters in length and contains one
seed which completely fills the lower part of the capsule.
Family 15, ACANTHACEAE

Genus ACANTHUS
Key to the species.
Flowers blue; corolla about 4 centimeters long Acanthus ilicifolius.

Flowers white; corolla about 2 centimeters long: Acanthus ebracteatus.
ACANTHUS ILICIFOLIUS Linn. (Plate XXXIX). DiLIUARIU.
Local names: Lagoiloi (Agusan) gregorio (Bisaya) ;

dagudri, galura, ;
tindoi,tinlui (Tagalog) dahidri (Bataan)

;
s anting -santing (Moro) ; ;
duludrm (Mindoro) dUmariu (Manila).

;
83
84 MANGROVE SW AMI'S
AranthuH ilicifoliuH is a shrub 0.5 to 1.5 meters high. It has

prop roots. 'J'he kiaves are opposite and up to 18 centimeters
in length and 8 in })readth. They have very short petioles,
"i'he f!ow(!rs are about 4 centimeters long, borne on spikes, and
are surrounded by two bracts and a bracteole. The calyx is

divided near the base into four i)arts, two of which are much
longer than the other two. The; fruit is a capsuk; from 2 to 2.5
centimet(Ts long.
ACANTHUS EBRACTEATUS Vahl. Tkjmau.
This species is also known by the same names as Accmthus

iMcif()lius. surrounded
Th(! flowers of Acanthiis chractcalvH are
by two bracts but no bracteole. The corolla is white and about
2 centimeters long. The calyx is shorter than in Acanthvs ilici-
foliuft. Otherwise the species is similar to Acanthufi ilicifoliufi.
Family 16, RUBIACEAE

Genus SCYPHIPHORA
SCYPHIPHORA HYDROPHYLLACEA Gacrtn. (Plate XL). NlLAU.
Local names: AHnaya (Ilocos Norte); landing (Culion, Tayabas) ;
tiif/isak (('otahato) ; hal(inidi (Zaml)ales) ; kuhhi' (Tayabas) ; /iavhnlali,

iahdu (Ne^Tos) ; s(ujit»d (ZamboariKa) ; nilad or n'dar ('lâgalofj).
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea is a small tree growing along

streams in the swamps. It has dark-colored bark. All parts of
the i)lant except the inside of the corolla tube are without hairs.
The leaf blades are smooth, leathery, rounded at the apex,
and pointed at the base, 4 to 10 centimeters long, and 2 to 5
centimeters wide. The petioles are usually 1 to 2 centimeters
long. The flowers are small, white, often tinged with red, and
borne in compact groups. The calyx is about 4 millimeters long.
The calyx tube ends in four or five small teeth. The corolla
tube is cylindrical, about as long as the calyx with four or five
lobes which are about half as long as the tube. The fruit is
somewhat with eight to ten grooves, and usually a

cylindrical,
little less than a centimeter in length.
Family 17, COMPOSITAE

(Jenua PLUCHEA
PLUCHEA INDICA Linn. Kalai'INI'.
TiOcalnames: liauui-hamg (Moro) ; knlapinV (Manila); manzaniUn

(Batanpas) lagiindi'-ldte (Zambales).
;
Pluchca indica is a small shrub meters in height. The

1 to 4
leaves are 1 to 7 centimeters long and widest toward the tip,
which is slightly pointed the base narrows to a point; the margin
;
86 MANGROVE SWAMPS
is toothed. The flowers are light blue and are in dense heads
arranged in compact inflorescences at the ends of branches. The
fruit is minute and crowned with white hairlike projections.
STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS
The present condition of the mangrove swamps in the Philip-

pines is very variable. In places close to centers of population,
as in the immediate vicinity of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu, the
swamps have been so closely cut over as to make them almost
valueless. In many other places the most valuable trees have
been largely removed, in other areas the swamps yield a large
quantity of good material, and still others are practically un-
touched. The largest remaining virgin swamps in the Islands
are probably in Palawan and Mindanao, although in both of
these islands a considerable amount of cutting and bark collecting
has been carried on.
A careful study of the swamps near Port Banga, Mindanao,
has been made by Dr. H. N. Whitford and Forester W. I. Hut-
chinson. The following extracts from their report describes
this forest:
The mangle forests of thePort Banga tract cover an area of 2,463

hectares (6,086 acres). The largest continuous body of swamp, varying
in width from 0.5 to 2 kilometers (0.31 to 1.42 miles), extends from the
head of Balon Bay northward to the Baluan River. Scattered areas, some
of considerable extent, also occur near the Tungauan River, and in Ticbucay
Bay and Port Banga.
Light cuttings have been made in these swamps for many years, and
since 1902 certain situations have been heavily culled for posts and poles.
Tanbark has also been extensively exploited, many areas being practically
stripped of Tangal, the species from which the bark is obtained.
The mangle forest is made up of a dense stand of small and medium-
sized trees, many of which are raised on stilt roots from 1 to 3 meters
(3 to 10 feet) above the ground. The characteristic species of the stand
are Pagatpat, Bakauan, and Pototan. In certain localities Piagau and
Langarai form pure stands, to the practical exclusion of all other trees.
Tangal and several minor species occur scattered throughout all the swamps.
The soil is soft, black mud of unknown depth. Underbrush and litter
are entirely absent. The only method of travel through many of the
swamps is by climbing along on the stilt roots of the trees.
In the area surveyed, Pagatpat and Bakauan formed over 90 per cent
of the stand. The average diameter of all trees over 40 cm. (16 inches)
is 47 cm. (18 inches). The largest tree is Pagatpat, which reaches a
maximum diameter of 80 centimeters (31 inches) or more, with a maximum
clear length of 17.50 meters (57 feet). The clear leng-th of Bakauan
almost equals Pagatpat, and that of Pototan exceeds it, but the greater per-
centage of these species falls below 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter.
STANDS IN MANGROVE SWAMPS 87
—
88 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Where the stand is dense, the trees are tall, straight, and clean-boled.
In open situations, they are low-branched and crooked. Bakauan is the
only important swamp tree with stilt roots.
Table I. Stand table for 1 hectare of mangrove swamp forest near

Port Banga, Mindanao. Average of 6.25 hectares.
[Data from H. N. Whitford and W. I. Hutchinson.]
AVERAGE NUMBER OF TREES 30 CENTIMETERS AND OVER IN DIAMETER.
Diameter at breast height iri„i,-„__ Pagat- Other Grand

oaKauan. Tangal. Pototan. Total.
or above buttresses. pat. species. total.
30. 72.96 8.00 6.08 0.80 87.84

40.. 22.24 10.88 2.24 0.48
50-. 3.04 7.84 0.32 0.16
60,. 0.32 5.44 0.32 0.32
70. 2.56
80-. 2.08
90. 0.48
100. 0.32
——
Table II. Stand of poles on one hectare in ynangrove swamp forest, Port
Banga area, Mindanao. Average of 6.25 hectares.
[Data from H. N. Whitford and W. I. Hutchinson.]
Average number of poles per hectare.
Pole class. Aver-

Miscel- age
Baka-
iTangal.
Pagat- Po-
Total. laneous
Grand Per stand
uan. pat. totan. total. cent.
per
acre.
Small, 6 to 15 cm. di
ameter 57.75' 7.52 5.44 0.64 71.35 1. 92 73. 27 43.5 29.65
Large. 16 to 25 cm. di- '
ameter 74.88 7.04 1.12 I

94.08 1
1.12 95.20 56.5 38.53
Total 132.63 18.56 12.48 1.76 165.43 3. 04 168. 47 68.18

I
Percent '
78.73 11.02 7.41 1.04 1 98.20 1.80 100.00
Dr. F. W. Foxworthy has found stands of from 300 to 650

cubic meters per hectare in large swamps in Mindanao.
Tables III to V, taken from a report by Ranger Vicente Castillo
on a virgin mangrove swamp on Basiad Bay in Tayabas Prov-
ince, give a good idea of the original composition of a mangrove
swamp. In these tables cords are calculated by allowing 30 per
cent for air space in stacking. One cord is the equivalent of 3.62
cubic meters.
An examination of these tables shows that the stand of timber
in a virgin forest is comparatively heavy.
Table III. Stand of firetvood 10 centimeters and over in diameter on

2.3 hectares. Survey applicable to UhO hectares between Mapinghil
and Poctol Point, Capalonga, Luzon.
[Data from report by Ranger Vicente Castillo.]
Species.
. —
90 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table III. Stand of firewood 10 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.

NUMBER OF TREES AND VOLUME BY DIAMETER CLASSES.
Diameter class in centimeters.
Species. 10. 15. 20. 25.
Trees. Volume. Trees. Volume. Trees, Volume. Trees. Volume.
cu. m. cu. m. I cu. m. CM. m.

Busain 100 3.55 124 10. 11 267 42.84 237 58.00
I
Langarai _ 273 17.17 236 30. 76 86 18. 15 25 !

7.25
Bakauan .. 60 1.58 49 3. 54 71 10.04 67 I
15.40
Tabigi 49 L61 19 1.45 0.84
Tangal 29 0.78 13 0.91 0.52
Pagatpat . 0.55
Total 511 24.69 72.39 331 81.20
Species. 30.
Trees. Volume. Trees. Volume. Trees. Volume.
cu. m. cu. m. cu. m.

Busain 72 24. 17 14 6.55 1.00
Langarai ...
Bakauan ..
Tabigi
Tangal
Pagatpat ..
Total 29.21 7.61 LOO
In Table III busain {Bruguiera conjugata) is represented by-

more individuals and about twice the volume of any other
species, and contains more than half the total volume. Langarai
{Bruguiera parviflora) is the next most numerous species and
after busain is represented by a larger volume than any other
species. These two species of Bruguiera compose 83.5 per cent
of the total volume of the stand. Bakauan (Rhizophora spp.)
contains 13.9 per cent of the total stand. The other species are
present in small quantities. The greatest volume is found within
the 20- and 25-centimeter diameter classes, these classes com-

posing 58 per cent of the total volume.
—
92 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table IV. Stayid of firewood 10 centimeters and over in diameter on 3.S

hectares, bettveen Mapinghil Point and Basiad River, Capulonga, Lu-
zon, Survey applicable to 890 hectares.
Species o-,-.,-,
bynum-.Spec.es
Volume.
^!r°/ volume,
trees.
Tangal
Bakauan
Busain
Langarai
Pagatpat
Tabigi
Total
Stand per hectare.
—
In Table IV tangal (Ceriops roxburghiana) is the most nu-

merous species and is represented by the largest volume. Ba-
kauan {Rhizophora spp.) ranks next to tangal, while busain
{Brugidera conjugata) and langarai (Bruguiera parvi flora) are
third and fourth, respectively. The other two species present
occur in small quantities. In this table the largest percentage
of volume is the 15-centimeter diameter class. In both Tables III
and IV the number of individuals is greatest in the smallest
diameter class and decreases in the larger classes.
Table V. Stayid of fireivood 10 centimeters and over in diameter on 3

Jiectares, hetiveen Basiad and Angus Rivers, Calauag, Luzon. Survey
applicable to 720 hectares.
Species. Trees.
94 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table V. —Stand of fireiuood 10 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.
Species.
—
96 MANGROVE SWAMPS
an average volume of 22.37 cubic meters in trees more than 40

centimeters in diameter. No trees produce on the average more
than one log 5 meters in length. The most numerous tree was
api-api (Avicennia) and the next was bakauan (Rhizophora
,
spp.). The third most numerous species was busain {Bruguiera

sexangula). The wood of api-api (Avicennia) is of compar-
atively little value, but is extensively used as firewood. That of
the other species is very valuable.
Forester Medina has also made valuation surveys of other
stands in Samar. The results are given in Tables VII to XL
In all of these tables, bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) is the most
numerous tree. The second most numerous is api-api (Avi-
cennia) This species, however, is very much less numerous
.
than bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) and is represented by a much

smaller volume. In Table VIII, langarai (Bruguiera parviflora)
ranks next to bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) and api-api (Avi-
ceymia) third. The average volume per hectare in the different
areas varies from 13.77 to 120.87 cubic meters. These tables
represent swamps which have been used to some extent for
the collection of firewood.
Table VII. Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between

Pinatnacdayi River and Matnog Creek, Samar. Valuation survey taken
on 6.35 hectares. Applicable to 2,710 hectares.
[Data from report by Forester Rafael Medina.]
Per cent
of Average
Species.
each spe- Trees. Logs.
number Volume.
cies by of logs
number per tree.
of trees.
Cords.
Bakauan 70.02 1,009 3.1 68.63 27.45
Api-api 13.88 200 449 2.2 9.78 3.91
Pagatpat 9.58 138 249 1.8 3.64 1.45
Pototan 2.08 30 94 3.1 1.84 0.74
Langarai 2.29 33 125 3.8 1.60 0.64
Tabigri L66 24 59 2.5 1.50 0.60
Tabau 0.21 3 13 4.3 0.22 0.09
Tangal 0.28 4 7 1.8 0.20 0.08
Total 100.00 1,441 4,084 87.41 34.96

Stand per hectare. 227 643 13.77 5.50
— .
Table VII. — Stand of firetvood 5 centimeters and over, etc. — Continued.

NUMBER OF LOGS BY DIAMETER CLASSES.
Diameter class in
centimeters.
Species.
5-10. 20-30.
Bakauan ._. 1,152 1,611 325

Api-api 199 188 62
Pagatpat __ 146 103
Pototan .-- 48 43
Langarai -. 95 27
Tabigi 14 38
Tabau 5
Tangal 7
Total 2,022 400
Table VIII. Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, betiveen

Motiong Creek and Pinamacdan River, Sa/mar. Valuation survey taken
on 9.05 hectares. Applicable to 3,110 hectares.
Per cent
of each Average
Species.
species
Trees. Logs.
number I
Volume.
by num- of logs
ber of per tree. '
trees.
cu. m.
Bakauan 50.93 3,988 11, 879 3.0
Langarai 27.19 2,129 7,086 3.3
Api-api 10.38 813 2,066 2.5
Pagatpat 4.23 331 926 2.8
Tabigi 6.47 507 992 1.9
Dungon-late. 0.49 39 105 2.7
Pototan 0.22 17 38 2.2
Tabau 0.09 7 16 2.3
Total 100. 00 7,831 23, 108
Stand per hectare 865 2,553

—
98 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table IX. Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between

Dapdap River and Motiong Creek, Samar. Valuation survey taken on
IJf. hectares. Apj)licable to 1,080 hectares.
Species.
—
Table X. Stand of firewood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between
Carayman or Bongon River and Dapdap River, Saniar. Valuation
survey taken on 11.5 hectares. Applicable to U,360 hectares.
Per cent
of each Average
Species.
species
Trees. Logs. number
by of logs Volume.
number per tree.
of trees.
cu. m. Cords.
Bakauan 63.09 2,748 6.202 2.2 335. 47 134. 19
Api-api-- 15.15 660 1,334 2.0 74.35 29.74
Langarai 8.10 353 1.070 3.0 67.77 27.11
Tabigi 5.26 229 505 2.2 60.14 24.06
Dungon-late 3.67 160 364 2.3 26.49 10. GO
Pagatpat 3.67 160 401 2.5 26.41 10.56
Pototan 1.06 46 147 3.2 11.82 4.73
Total 100.00 4,356 10,023 602. 45 240. 99

Standard per hectare. 379 872 52.38 20.96
Species.
10-20. 20-30. 30-40, 40-50. 50-60. 60-70. 70-80. 80-90.
i
Bakauan 2,058 1,445 1.155 1.544

Api-api 401 315 260 358
Langarai .-- 136 365 296 273
Tabigi 57 135 129 135 26
Dungon-Iate 75 70 70 149
Pagatpat -__ 89 91 132
Pototan 14 60 65
Total . 2,830 2.437 2,061 2,646

: —
100 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table XI. Starid of firetvood 5 centimeters and over in diameter, between

Barrio Pena and Carayman or Bong on River, Samar. Valuation
survey taken on 1 hectare. Applicable to 300 hectares.
Per cent
of each |
Average
Species.
species
Trees. Logs. ^
number Volume.
by I
of logs
number : [ per tree.
of trees.
CM. m. Cords.
Bakauan 55.77 266 619 2.3 33.83 13.53
Api-api 24.74 118 195 L6 1L96 4.78
Pagatpat 9.22 44 129 2.9 6.76 2.70
Tabigi 8.38 40 88 2.2 6.31 2.52
Dungon-late 1.89 9 18 2.0 L32 0.53
Total . 100. 00 477 1,049 60.18 24.06

Species.
10-20. 20-30. 30-40. 40-50.
Bakauan 150 175

Api-api 60 56
Pagatpat -.- 43 32
Tabigi 15 31
Dungon-late 2 6
Total . 270 170 300
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA (BAKAUAN)

Cultivated swamps are found in the whole region around
the upper part of Manila Bay, from Malabon on the east to
Balanga on the west side; here, the virgin mangle has long
since disappeared. The extent of the area covered by this
cultivation has not been determined; but, in places, extends it
20 or more kilometers inland from the bay. Extensive reports

on the cultivation of bakauan (Rhizophora spp.) in the above
region have been made by Dr. F. W. Foxworthy and Ranger
De Mesa. The following information is taken from their
reports
Nipa and bakauan are planted extensively in solid stands,
but there is little planting of other swamp species.
Hundreds, and may be thousands, of hectares are planted to
bakauan, which is grown for firewood, and sold principally in
the Manila market, this wood being preferred to almost all
others for fuel. The Manila supply is inadequate, as is indicated
by the remarkably complete utilization of the swamps in the
vicinity, and by the use of other and inferior species.
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA IQl
No records seem to exist as to how, when, and where bakauan
was but it is safe to say that the present plant-
first cultivated,
ing methods have been in use for at least three generations.
An evident reason for the cultivation is the large agricultural
population on the level lands of Pampanga Province and the
accessibility of the Manila market.
In the municipalities of Macabebe, Guagua, Lubao, Sexmoan,
and Orani there are a number of barrios along the rivers which
have a population that divides its labor among the fishing,
bakauan, and nipa industries.
PLANTING AND CULTIVATION
The land chosen for planting bakauan is brackish or salt

swamp, at or near the edge of a river in places which are affected
by the tide. Nipa and bakauan are often planted in the same
kind of mud. Very soft muddy soil is said to be the best for
bakauan; and on such soil it makes its most rapid growth.
On comparatively firm mud, it grows far more slowly, some-
times requiring much more than twice as long to produce a
crop as when grown on the very soft mud. Freshly deposited
soft mud at the edge of a stream, even though the strip may
be no more than 2 meters in width, is eagerly appropriated
for new planting.
The unit of area used in the mangrove cultivation is the
''luang," which is 279.56 square meters. There are thus 35.77
luangs in 1 hectare.
If the ground which is to be planted has not been in cultivation
for some time, it is covered with a dense tangle of low shrubs
and vines. These are, for the most part, the low shrubby
diliuariu (Acanthus ilicifolhis L.) the spiny, woody vine known
;
as sapinit [Caesalpinia nuga (L.) Ait.] and several small, low-

;
growing vines.
The land must be thoroughly cleared before planting. This
is a difficult task and usually costs 2 pesos per luang, some-
times 2.50 pesos per luang. This would mean the work of two
men for about two days. The clearing consists in cutting off
the brush, pulling up or digging up the roots, if this is possible,
and filling and leveling crab holes.
Clearing is reduced to a minimum by promptly replanting
cut-over areas. After bakauan has been harvested, the ground
may be left idle for from four months to a year, or until the
bark on the roots is evidently rotten. The area can then be
replanted without any new clearing being necessary.
The seedlings are frequently gathered from special seed trees
which are left for this purpose. Often low-growing or dwarf
102 MANGROVE SWAMPS
trees near the edge of the stream are selected for the production
of seed, as it is easier to collect seed from small than from large
trees. This results in the use of rather small seedlings.

These are gathered at a cost of from 2 to 3 pesos per
thousand. The higher price is given for prompt delivery and
when cash payment is made. The smaller sum is paid when
the money is given as an advance, several months before the
performance of the work. The advance-payment method seems
to be the one in commoner use. In some places, bakauan-lalaki
seedlings are paid for at the rate of 2 or 3 pesos per thousand
and bakauan-babae at 3 or 4 pesos per thousand. The bakauan-
lalaki seedlings are smaller and more numerous and are, there-
fore, easier to collect than those of bakauan-babae. If the
seedlings were placed 100 centimeters apart, 10,000 would be
required to plant a hectare. If they were only 20 centimeters
apart, 250,000 would be required.
After gathering, the seedlings are placed in a shady place and
allowed to wilt for about two weeks. This is said to render
them resistant to the attacks of crabs and other marine animals,
which would eat them if they were planted perfectly fresh.
The principal planting season appears to be from May to
August. May seems to be considered a less desirable month
for planting than are the others, as the seedlings are said to
be rather small during that month.
In planting, the seedlings are simply shoved a short distance
into the mud, so that they will stand erect. They are spaced
40 to 100 centimeters apart. In some of the places visited,
the seedlings were as close together as 20 centimeters. The
most usual spacing seemed to be from 40 to 60 centimeters.
The planting may be done very rapidly, as a man can go
almost at a run and plant two luangs or more per day. From
50 centavos to 1.20 pesos are paid for the planting of 10,000
plants.
The young plants are killed, if they are submerged for as
long as three days or if there is a flood while the plants are
;
young, the excess of fresh wâter will kill many.

Young plantations at the edge of the river are protected from
damage from floating objects by a fence of branches stuck in
the mud or by a planted hedge of pagatpat (Somieratia spp,).
Sometimes a line of older bakauan trees is left to protect a
new plantation. Bakauan-babae is usually planted along the
edge next the stream, while bakauan-lalaki makes up most of
the stand back of the bakauan-babae.
After the first year, it is customary to replant any blank
spaces left by the death or destruction of any of the stand.
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA \Q^
Cultivation consists principally in keeping the plantation clear
of vines. It is said that it is sometimes necessary to cut out
the vines each year. Usually there is very little of this to do;
and, in many cases, there is no occasion to do it at all. The
cost of this weeding is hard to estimate, because the man who
does the work usually devotes only a part of his time to it.
A man is able to do all the weeding for a large plantation, guard
the plantation from thieves, and still have a considerable part

of his time to spend in fishing. It seems that the cost of weed-
ing is never a large item.
In some cases, where it is considered that the plants are too
far apart, the terminal bud is split during the second year.
This is said to cause the plants to form two or more trunks, thus
filling up the space more completely.
During the first year, a plant produces from two to four pairs
of leaves and does not grow much more than half a meter in
height. At this time rather fleshy underground roots are formed
and the whole plant is more herbaceous than woody in texture.
In the second year the plant begins to branch at the top and
to send out prop roots, while the stem become partly woody.
During the third year the plant becomes stout and woody, while
in succeeding years it makes height growth and thickens more
symmetrically.
With the very close planting which is the rule, the plants
grow very slender and straight. The dense shade produced,
in time, causes self-pruning. Self-pruning is regarded as in-
dicating that the bakauan is ready for cutting. Self-pruning
takes place seven to twelve or more years after planting, accord-
ing to the character of the soil.
Only small firewood sizes are grown. Material large enough
for rajas is very rarely seen.
^
Hacenderos all agree that the individual tree will grow more
rapidly and will reach a larger size, if it is given more room.
They feel confident, however, that they would lose money if
they planted at a greater interval; as they would have fewer
trees. However, planting at an interval at least twice as wide
as is commonly used would probably be a profitable experiment.
Bakauan-babae is said to grow more rapidly than does baka-
^
Rajas are sticks of firewoods split from sections of trunks 8 to 15
centimeters in diameter and 80 to 100 centimeters in length. Trunks
10 centimeters in diameter are split into four pieces; those 20 centimeters
in diameter into six or eight pieces. Rajitas are smaller and are split
from sections of trunks, branches, and roots ranging from 1 to 3 centi-
meters in diameter and from 60 to 70 centimeters in length. Three centi-
meter sticks are split into two or four pieces.
104 MANGROVE SWAMPS
uan-lalaki; but it is much more inclined to be crooked, and its
wood not so good.

is
Bakauan-babae begins to flower in its third year, but is said
not to bear fertile fruit till the fourth or fifth year.
In going hurriedly through the swamp in a boat, one gets the
impression that more bakauan-babae is planted than bakauan-
lalaki. This is because the bakauan-babae is planted at the
edge of the stream.
CUTTING
Different practices in cutting are followed in diff'erent local-

ities. In the Sexmoan and Guagua neighborhoods, the cutting
is often done by contract. The owner gives the contractor one-
half of the cut and furnishes the bancas for transportation.
In such cases, the woody prop roots do not enter into the
contract and are the property of the cutter, if he chooses to
take them. It is said, however, that the owner can make a
larger profit by employing his own men to do the cutting.
The firewood is regularly of three grades. The first grade
is about 60 centimeters in length and 2 or 3 centimeters in
thickness. It is split from the pieces of larger diameter and,
locally, has a value of 2 pesos per thousand. The second grade
is of the same length as the first, but is split from pieces of
smaller diameter. It sells locally for 1 peso per thousand. The
third grade is made of pieces which are shorter and of still
smaller diameter. This grade sells locally for 2 pesos per 10,000
pieces.
Woodcutters, who cut the trees in the swamp, transport the
poles to the wood yard, and split them
there, are paid 0.625
peso per 1,000 pieces of the first grade, 0.625 peso per 2,000 of
the second grade, and 0.625 peso per 10,000 pieces of the third
grade. Consequently the cutter does not know just how much
he will receive until the pieces have been split. The cutter
takes the poles from the swamp in a banca and delivers them
at his own or some other wood yard, where they are cut into
firewood size. This splitting into firewood is often done by
women and children. Only the straight pieces are cut up for
firewood. The splitting is either done with a special, heavy-
bladed, long-handled bolo, which is used with a chopping move-
ment like an ax; or with a special, short-bladed, narrow ax.
The small air-roots of the bakauan are sometimes sold after
being split once. They then bring about 50 centavos per thou-
sand. They are not regularly classified, and often are not cut
but are left to decay in the swamp.
The straight and slender tops of the bakauan, which are
about 4 meters long, a centimeter in diameter at the top, and
—
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA 105
2 or 3 centimeters in diameter at the base, are often sold to
planters of ikmo (betel pepper) at 12 pesos per 100.
The very rough pieces, particularly those that occur where
the prop roots are joined to the trunk, are used in making
charcoal. The bark is also occasionally used for cooking, espe-
cially in the roasting of corn. This use does not seem to be
general enough to have fixed a market price.
Ranger De Mesa has made a careful count of the number of the
trees on several plots in bakauan plantations. The results are
given in Tables XII to XIV. These tables show the number of
trees of different lengths and diameters and the volume according
to the length and diameter of the trees, also, the total number of
trees and the total volume, and the percentage of trees and volume
in the different length classes. In the lower portion of the table
are shown the number, grades, and volume of the rajitas ob-
tained by cutting and splitting the trees.
Table XII. Measurements of planted bakauan-lalaki near Orani, Bataan,

at age of 7 years on 0.1 hectare (50 by 20 meters).
[Data from report by Ranger De Mesa.]
—
106 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table XIII. Measurements of planted bakauans, near Orani, Bataan, at

age of 8 years on 0.1 hectare {50 by 20 meters).
Species.
—
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA 107
Table XIV. Measurements of planted bakauan-lalaki, near Sexmoan, Pavi-

panga, at age of 7 years on 0.1 hectare (50 by 20 meters).
Diameter class in cm.

——
108 MANGROVE SWAMPS
The first-grade rajitas sell in Manila and Malabon at from 3

to 4 pesos per 1,000 pieces; the second grade, from 3 to 4 pesos
per 2,000 pieces; the third grade, from 3 to 4 pesos per 10,000
pieces; and the fourth grade, from 3 to 3.50 pesos per 4 cubic
meters.
In Table XV are given the figures on cost of transporation from
Bataan to Manila.
Table XV. Cost of transportation of fireivood from Bataan to Manila.
Pesos.
Second-class casco with a load of 70,000 first-grade rajitas (7 to 14
"
days' trip) 1..50
Crew of 5 men at 3 pesos each and 1 pilot at 6 pesos (1 trip) 21.00

Subsistence of crew while on trip 8.00
First-class casco with a load of 100,000 first-grade rajitas (7 to 14
days' trip) "
2.00
Crew of 6 men at 4 pesos each and 1 pilot at 8 pesos (1 trip) 32.00
Subsistence of crew while on trip 10.00
From the figures given in Tables XII and XIII, we have made
rough estimates of the total cost, selling price, and profits derived
from 1 hectare of a bakauan plantation. These figures are
given in Tables XVI and XVII.
Table XVI. Cost and sale value in Manila of the crop of bakauan on
1 XII for crop 7 years old.
hectare, based on figures in Table
PLANTING COST.
Pesos.
Clearing at 2 pesos per luang 72.00
Seedlings, 25,620 at 2 pesos per 1,000 51.00
Planting at 0.75 peso per 1,000 19.00
Compound interest on planting cost for seven years at 5 per
cent 58.00
Total planting cost 200.00
HARVESTING AND SELLING COST.
Cutting and splitting 126,500 first-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso

per 1,000 79.00
Cutting and splitting 221,900 second-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso
per 2,000 69.00
Transportation 126,500 first-grade rajitas at 62 pesos per
100,000 78.00
Transportation 221,900 second-grade rajitas at 40 pesos per
100,000 89.00
Total harvesting and selling cost 315.00
Total cost 515.00
" Daily.
—
CULTIVATION OF RHIZOPHORA 1Q9
SELLING PRICE.
126,500 first-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 1,000 443.00
221,900 second-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 2,000 388.00
Total selling price 831.00

Total cost 515.00
Total profit 316.00

Profit for one year 45.00
Profit per year based on cost of original planting (per cent) 32
Table XVII. Cost mid sale value in Manila of the crop of bakauan on 1
hectare, based on figures in Table XIII for crop 8 years old.
PLANTING COST.
Pesos.
Clearing at 2 pesos per luang 72.00
Seedlings, 22,060 at 2 pesos per 1,000 44.00
Planting at 0.75 peso per 1,000 17.00
Compound interest on planting cost for 8 years at 5 per cent.. 64.00
Total planting cost 197.00
HARVESTING AND SELLING COST.

Cutting and splitting 134,000 first-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso
per 1,000 84.00
Cutting and splitting 234,000 second-grade rajitas at 0.625
peso per 2,000 73.00
Cutting and splitting 18,000 third-grade rajitas at 0.625 peso
per 10,000 1.00
Transportation of 134,000 first-grade rajitas at 62 pesos per
100,000 83.00
Transportation of 252,000 second- and third-grade rajitas at 40
pesos per 100,000 101.00
Total harvesting and selling cost 342.00

Total cost 539.00
SELLING PRICE.
134,000 first-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 1,000. 469.00
234,000 second-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 2,000 409.00
18,000 third-grade rajitas at 3.50 pesos per 10,000 6.00

Total cost 539.00
Total profit 345.00

Profit per year 43.00
Profit per year based on original planting cost (per cent) 32
The value of the land is not taken into consideration, because

the area in cultivation is really a part of the shore line, or perhaps
of the sea, and properly belongs to the Government. No account
is taken of the cost of supervision, as it is very difficult to arrive
at an estimate of this. However, a bakauan plantation requires
—
110 MANGROVE SWAMPS
but supervision and so this item is probably very small.

little
From the figures given in Tables XVI and XVII, it would appear
that raising bakauan should be profitable. It would appear
further that it is much more profitable to market the crop in
Manila than where it is grown. This is brought out in Table
XVIII, in which the cost and selling price in Bataan are shown.
Table XVIII. Cost and selling prices in Bataan of the crop of bakauan
on 1 hectare, based on figures in Table XIII for crop 8 years old.
SELLING PRICE.
Pesos.
134,000 first-grade rajitas at 2 pesos per 1,000 268.00
234,000 second-grade rajitas at 1 peso per 1,000 234.00
18,000 third-grade rajitas at 2 pesos per 10,000 4.00
Stumps, 34.2 cubic meters at 2 pesoS per cubic meter 17.00

Cost of clearing, seedlings, planting, and harvesting, with interest
on planting - 355.00
Total profit 168.00

Profit per year 21.00
Profit per year based on original planting cost (per cent) 16
If sold in Manila, it will be seen that the profit per year, based
on the planting cost, is 32 per cent plus 5 per cent compound
interest, which is calculated in the tables as a part of the cost.
When the wood is sold where grown, the calculated profit per
year is 16 per cent plus the interest on the planting cost.
About half of the original planting cost as calculated is due
to clearing, which is frequently not necessary, perhaps never so
for the second crop, if the planting is done at the right time.
Where clearing is unnecessary, the percentage of profit would
be much greater than that calculated.
When bakauan is planted on bare ground in shallow water,
the roots by holding sand or mud on the area have a tendency
to raise the level of the ground. When the land has been raised
to about the level of high tide, the bakauan is frequently cut
for firewood and the area made into fish ponds by the construction
of dikes. The water in these ponds is usually brackish. In the
Philippines, there is a considerable industry in the raising of the
fish Chanos chanos Forskal, locally known as bangos, in such
ponds. As the raising of fish is a very profitable business, old
bakauan plantations are frequently converted into fish ponds.
In many places the growing of a crop of bakauan and the sub-
sequent use of the land for fish ponds should be an exceptionally
profitable investment. There are large areas in Manila Bay
where this could be undertaken.
—
FIREWOOD 111
MANGROVE-SWAMP FIREWOOD
The demand for fuel in the Philippines, excepting in the case
of transportation companies and manufacturing plants, is met
almost entirely by the use of firewood, as up to the present time
comparatively little coal has been mined in the Archipelago and
most of the supply comes from Japan. The coal industry in the
Philippines is being developed, and 3,200 tons were mined in
1917.t The demand forfuel in a tropical country, such as the
Philippines, not nearly so great as in a temperate region;
is
nevertheless, there is a large demand for domestic purposes, such
as cooking, washing, etc., and for the smaller industries.
The most highly prized firewood is furnished by various
species of mangrove-swamp trees. However, the available, ac-
cessible supply of these is not great enough to satisfy the demand
and dry-land species have to be substituted. The amount of
firewood of both classes on which taxes were paid in the Archi-
pelago from 1914 to 1918, inclusive, is given in Table XIX.
Table XIX. Amount of firewood on tvhich taxes were paid in the Philip-
pine Islands from 1914- to 1918.
Year.
—
112 MANGROVE SWAMPS
determinations made by him on air-dried wood without

calorific
bark. In this table the dried wood is taken as the basis on which
to compute the percentages of moisture and ash. From the table
Table XX. Analyses and calorificdeterminations of air-dried wood
without hark.
[The numbers and common names are those given by Cox in the original table. The
scientific names have been inserted by Mr. E. E. Schneider, wood expert of the Bureau
of Forestry, after a recent examination of specimens of the wood used by Cox.]
No.
FIREWOOD
Fig. 1. Piled firewood cut mainly from tafigal and bakauan.
Fig. 2. Lorcha load of rajitas.
PLATE XLlll.
169644 8
. — -. .
114 MANGROVE SWAMPS
it would appear that the moisture content is fairly constant for

the different species. Cox found that in the Philipines, where
the humidity is high and fairly constant, the variations in the
moisture content are much less than where the climate is hot
or cold, moist or dry, according to the season. He concluded that
the moisture content of wood seldom falls below 12.5 or 13 per
cent of the dry weight, and that these figures may be taken
as good averages for thoroughly seasoned firewoods. The ash
content varies considerably in different species. Cox says of
the ash content that this is of comparatively little importance
from the standpoint of firewood because the amount of ash is
usually small. The calorific value based on the dry weight of
the various species is fairly constant, as might be expected
from the fact that the part of the wood left after deducting
the water and ash would be almost the same in all cases.
Table XXI. Specific gravities of Philippine fireivoods.

Specific
No. Common name. Scientific name. Moisture.! Ash. gravity.
Per cent. Per cent.

13.58 1.46 0. 7671
Pototan Bruguiera C07iju(jata
13.51 1.44 0. 7441
bl2. 10 2.29 : 0.9861
Bacauan Rhizophora mucronata.-
dll.46 2.23 c 0.9801
1.81
Bacao Bruguiera sp
1.74
12.26 5.75 0. 8799
Bacauan-tubig Bruguiera sp
11.88 5.57 0. 8732
13.24 1.29 0. 9136
Catutan Bruguiera sp
13.03 1.28 0. 8868
13.71 2.80 0.7412
Tabigue Xyloearpus moluccensis.
12.73 0. 7333
13.07 2.12 0.996
Bacauan Bruguiera sp.-.
12.77 2.05 0.991
bl3. 00 2.72 0. 5954
Tambu-tambu i
Xyloearpus moiuccensis
dl2. 50 2.71 0. 5668
12.94 2.65 0. 6688
Pagatpat Soymeratia raseolaris ..
12.83 2.62 0. 5867
12.78 2.41 el. 071
Bacauan . Rhizophora candelaria
12.45 2.26 el. 002
13.25 1.60 0.890
Tangal--- Ceriops tagal
13.09 0.880
13.24 1.55 0. 9426
Pototan .- Bruguiera conjugata...
12.63 0. 9336
13.37 0. 8936
Lenggadi Bruguiera parvijiora
13.32 0. 8881
Pagatpat Sonneratia caseolaris , 0.8186
Pagatpat Sonneratia caseolaris (0 0. 8447
' Air-dry. <"

Sapwood.
•> Heartwood beginning to form. e Heavier than water.
•=
The heartwood sinlcs. ' Unseasoned.
FIREWOOD 115
Fig. 1. Marketing firewood in Manila.
Fig. 2. Firewood piled for sale in tlie Manila market.

PLATE XLIV.
.
116 MANGROVE SWAMPS
In Table XXI are given the specific gravities of various man-

grove-swamp woods as determined by Cox. From this table it
will be seen that the woods of the Rhizophoraceae have a high
specific gravity, averaging about 0.9. Usually the mature heart-
wood of all Rhizophoraceae sinks in water. As all well-seasoned
woods have very nearly the same calorific value per unit of
weight, the specific gravity is highly important in determining
the relative fuel value of different woods. The specific gravity
also indicates certain other factors. In general it may said of
woods otherwise equal, that those with low specific gravities
kindle easily and flash quickly, the fire spreading rapidly while ;
those of high specific gravity behave in the opposite way.

From the determinations of specific gravity. Cox has made
comparisons of the fuel value of certain North American woods
and of the mangrove-swamp species of the Philippines. Good
woods include those having specific gravities between 0.60 and
0.75. Among the North American species classed as good are
hard pines, maple, ash, beech, birch, elm, black walnut, and a
number of different oaks. The only mangrove-swamp wood
placed by Cox in this class is tinductinducan {Aegiceras cornicu-
latum). Very good woods are those with specific gravities be-
tween 0.75 and 0.90. North American woods included in this
class are some of the oaks and various species of hickory. In
this class Cox includes tabigue (Xulocarpus moluccensis) pagat-
,
pat {Sonneratia caseolaris) and langarai (Bruguiera parviflora)

,
Cox does not mention any of the North American species as

having excellent woods, that is with a specific gravity greater
than 0.9. In this class are included pototan {Bruguiera conju-
gata), bacauan (Rhizophora mucronata) catutan {Bruguiera
,
sp.), tangal {Ceriops spp.). This comparison emphasizes the

very high value of the mangrove-swamp species for firewood.
In Table XXII are given the analyses and calorific determina-
tions made by Cox on air-dried bark.
—
FIREWOOD 117
Table XXII. Analyses and calorific determinations of air-dried bark.
No.
118 MANGROVE SWAMPS
In view of the data given above it is not surprising that the

mangrove-swamp species are highly prized for firewood, that
the swamps near the centers of population have been largely
depleted of the more valuable species, and that bakauan is raised
in plantations.
TANBARKS
The mangrove barks constitute the greatest single source of
tanning material in the Philippines.The species of mangrove
trees which are used commercially for tanning purposes grow
in the Philippines in large numbers. The export of mangrove
tanbarks and of the bark extract, known as cutch, is an im-
portant industry in some tropical countries. In the Philippines
this industry has never been developed, and the barks are used
locally to only a limited extent; although there are extensive
swamps in the Archipelago. The Philippines possess an ad-
vantage over such countries as Borneo in that owing to a large
population the wood can be used as firewood; so that it would
seem advisable to combine the bark collection with the cutting
of firewood.
Extensive analyses of Philippine mangrove-swamp barks have
been made by Bacon and Gana * and by Williams.f In Table
XXIII are given the results of analyses made by Bacon and
Gana of barks from Mindanao; and in Table XXIV analyses
of barks from Mindoro made by the same workers. Table XXV
gives the results of analyses of barks submitted by the Bureau
of Forestry to the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington.
These figures are published by Williams. In Table XXVI are
given the results of analyses made by Williams. Table XXVII
shows the results of analyses made on barks from Sarawak,
Borneo.
* Bacon, R. B., and Gana, V. Q., The economic possibilities of the man-
grove swamps of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A,

Vol. 4 (1909), pages 205 to 210.
t Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove
swamps
of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A, Vol. 6 (1911),
pages 45 to 61.
—
TANBARKS 119
Table XXIII. Analyses of mangrove-swamp barks from Port Banga,
Zamboanga.
[Data from Bacon and Gana.]
Common name.
—
120 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Table XXV. Analyses of Philippine mangrove-swamp harks submitted by

the Bureau of Forestry to the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washi^Lgton.
[Data from Williams.]
Common name.
—
TANBARKS 121
Table XXVIII. Yield of bark from mangrove trees of different sizes.
[Data from Foxworthy and Matthews.]
—
122 MANGROVE SWAMPS
whether or not bark of the same age has a different tannin con-
tent in different regions. The barks from East Africa are,
however, reported to be richer in tannin than those from the
Indo-Malayan region. The Philippine barks certainly appear
to be as rich as those in Borneo which have been used in cutch
factories.Owing to the relatively low price that the crude
barks command and the expenses of shipping, it would probably
be advisable to export cutch rather than the crude barks.
Cutch is not only used as a tanning material but also as a dye.
A short history of the uses of cutch has been given by Fox-
worthy.* The name cutch was originally applied to a product
of the heartwood of Acacia catechu Willd., which has been
known from India and Burma for many years.
Table XXIX. Amount of tanbarks and dye barks on tvhich forest charges
were paid in the Philippine Islands from 191i to 1918, inclusive.
Year.
. :
TANBARKS 123
Many mangrove swamps in the Philippines have been so thor-

oughly depleted of the larger-sized and more valuable trees that
even though they cover extensive areas they would not be cap-
able of supporting a cutch factory. However, there are areas
in Mindanao, Mindoro, and Palawan which, although they may
not be as large as some in Borneo, still offer promising sites
for cutch factories. In Sibuguey Bay, Mindanao, there is a
well-developed swamp covering an area of 25,000 hectares. Con-
cerning this area Williams f says
I have found that this area will yield about 20 metric tons per hectare of
fresh bark of mature trees of selected species averaging about 28 to 30 per

cent of tannin on the dry weight. Only four species are included in this
estimate, all others being negligible from a commercial standpoint. The
natural resources are sufficient for a profitable industry, the swamps being
fully as valuable, hectare for hectare, as many now being worked in the
East Indies.
A survey of the data shows that only four species can be depended upon
to furnish a supply of bark. They are Rhizophora mucronata, R. con-
jugata \_candelari(i] Bruguiera gymnorrhiza \^conjugata'\, and B. eriopetala
,
[sexangula] the two former commonly known as "bacauan" [bakauan-

,
lalaki and bakauan-babaye respectively], the two latter as "pototan" or

"pitutan." Taiigal, which is the "teiigah" bark of Borneo upon which the
manufacturers there depend to a considerable extent, is scarce on Sibuguey
Bay. Both Xylocarpus granatum [^moluccensisl and X. obovatus [grana-
tum] yield too small quantities of bark per tree to be remunerative. Bni-
guiera parviflora has a very low tannin content, as has Sonneratia pagatpat
\^caseola7ns]
However, a use may be found for the last mentioned for blending with
the more valuable barks, since it produces a leather of good, brown color,
very different from any tanned by barks of the Rhizophoraceae.
In calculating the yield of bark in the area examined, only bacauan and
pototan tree 20 centimeters or more in diameter have been counted. For
this purpose seven rectangular areas of about one-fourth hectare each were
selected as representative after a fairly thorough exploration of the sur-
rounding swamp. These areas are distributed at approximately regular
intervals between the mouths of the Vitali and Buluan Rivers. The yield
of bark per tree was determined by felling three representative trees each
of bacauan and pototan and stripping and weighing the bark. Bacauan
averaged 140 kilograms per tree, pototan 190 kilograms. On this basis the
area will yield 20.6 metric tons of bacauan bark per hectare, and 5.8 tons
of pototan. We may safely state the yield at 20 tons per hectare of bark . . .
In Mindoro there is a tract of 10,000 hectares and in Palawan

a fairly compact area of good swamp. The swamps in the
other islands of the Archipelago are so scattered as to make the
success of a cutch factory doubtful,
t Williams, R. R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps

page 47.
. f :
124 MANGROVE SWAMPS
Concerning the manufacture of cutch from Philippine mate-

rials Bacon and Gana * write as follows
There are three large cutch factories in Borneo using tan barks from
the same species of mangrove as those found in the Philippines. These
factories regard the process of manufacturing cutch as a trade secret, but
we can not believe that these so-called trade secrets are of a very formidable
nature, as we have succeeded in preparing very good grades of cutch with-
out any complicated processes in this laboratory. Our cutch is a dry,
brown solid with a brilliant, almost metallic, fracture. It is easily and
completely soluble in water and the analysis shows the following con-
stituents :
In parts per 100

of water-free
material.
Constituent.
Per cent. Per cent.

<
Moisture 2.6 5.7

Insoluble --- 1.9 1.3
Soluble 98.1 i 98.7

Non-tannin 28.8 26.1
Tannin 69.3 72.6
The following was the method used to prepare the cutch:

The finely ground bark was leached with cold water, and this solution
evaporated to dryness in vacuo. Hot water extracts too much of the
coloring matter, and no more tannin than cold water. The evaporation,
at least the latter stages, must always be made in vacuo to avoid burning
the cutch. It is sufficiently obvious that the extraction on a large scale
would be carried out in such a manner that strong solutions would be
employed to leach fresh bark while weak ones would be used to extract
the last percentages of the tannin from the partly exhausted bark. All
the parts of the factory, except the vacuum dryers, could be built on the
ground, and it is evident that the fuel for the boilers and for the dryers
would cost very little, so that it would appear that if the cutch manufacture
were taken up in connection with the lumbering or firewood industry that
it would be exceedingly profitable.
The chief objection to the use of cutch as a tanning material

seems to be that it produces a reddish-brown leather which is
somewhat harsh and thick-grained, due to the high astringency
of the tannin; but when mixed with other materials it gives a
very satisfactory tannage.
* Bacon, R. F. and Gana, V. Q., The economic possibilities of the man-
grove swamps of the Philippines, Philippine Journal of Science, Sec. A,

Vol. 4 (1909), pages 206 and 207.
t Williams, R, R., The economic possibilities of the mangrove swamps
page 56.
FOREST CHARGES 125
FOREST REGULATIONS AND CHARGES
The mangrove-swamp areas are property of the Philippine

Government and are not sold but developed under a license sys-
tem. Usually small operators work under an ordinary yearly
license for definite small areas. Exclusive licenses (or con-
cessions, as they are popularly called) are generally in the form
of a twenty-year exclusive license to cut and extract timber,
firewood, dye and tanbarks and other minor forest products
from a specific tract. The land is in no way aff'ected, as merely
the timber and minor forest products are included. Areas of
10 hectares are leased for factory or mill sites free of charge, as
are also all rights of way for the operation of a concession. The
charges are only nominal and are collectable after the products
have been gathered.
A charge of 20 centavos per cubic meter is paid on wood cut
for firewood; if cut for lumber, the charge is according to the
group, Philippine woods being divided into four groups. Lum-
nitzera belongs to the second group, which is assessed at
1.50 pesos per cubic meter. Sonneratia caseolaris and Xylo-
carpus moluccensis belong to the third group, on which
there is a charge of 1 peso per cubic meter. All of the other
timbers from the mangrove swamps belong to the fourth group
on which a charge of 50 centavos per cubic meter is paid. Tan-
barks are assessed at 30 centavos per hundred kilograms, and
dye barks at 50 centavos per hundred kilograms.
PHILIPPINE PALMS AND PALM PRODUCTS
By William H. Brown and Elmer D. Merrill
127
128 PHILIPPINE PALMS
CONTENTS
Page.
Illustrations 131
Introduction 135
Key to Genera of Philippine Palms 136
List of Species 137
Description of Species:
Actinorhytis 139
Adonidia 139
Areca 140
Arenga , 14S
Calamus (rattans) 158
Caryota 180
Cocos (coconut) 184
Coelococcus (ivorynut palm) 192
Corypha (buri) 192
Daemonorops 205
Elaeis (oil palm) 208
Heterospathe 208
Korthalsia 212
Licuala 212
Livistona 214
Metroxylon (sago palm) 220
Nipa 222
Oncosperma 231
Orania 232
Oreodoxa (royal palm) 234
Phoenix 236
Pinanga 236
Plectocomia 242
Ptychoraphis 242
Zalacca 242
Summary of Useful Products 243
169644 9 129
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate I
Page.
Coconut trees on the beach, Camiguin Island 128
Plate II
Adonidia merrillii. From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. C, 5 (1909) 141
Plate III
Fruit of Adonidia merrillii. From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. C, 5

(1909) - 142
Plate IV
Fruits of Areca catechu. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14 (1919) 145
Plate V
Fruits of Areca catechu. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14 (1919) 146
Plate VI
Fig. 1. Fruit of Areca parens. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14 (1919).. 149
2. Fruit of Areca macrocarpa. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14
(1919) 149
3. Fruit of Areca camarinensis. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14
(1919) 149
4. Fruit of Areca ipot. From Philip. Journ. Sci., 14 (1919).... 149
Plate VII
Arenga pinnata. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 49 151
Plate VIII
Fruits of Arenga pinnata. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 49 153
Plate IX
Arenga tremida 157
Plate X
Rattans (Calamus) in forest 159
Plate XI
Male inflorescence of Calamus usitatus (mollis). From Ann. Bot.
Gard. Calcutta 161
Plate XII
Fruits of Calamiis usitatus. From Philip. Ag. Rev., 6 (1913),
No. 10 163
131
1^2 ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate XIII
Page.
Fruits of Calamus ornatus var. philippinensis . From Ann. Bot.
Gard. Calcutta 165
Plate XIV
Rattans {Calamus) forming the bulk of the undergrowth in a forest
in Camarines 169
Plate XV
Caryota i-umphiana 179
Plate XVI
Inflorescence of Caryota rumphiana 181
Plate XVII
Leaf of Caryota rumphiana 183
Plate XVIII
Coconut palm in fruit, Mindanao 185
Plate XIX
Coconut plantation in the Philippines. From Philip. Agi\ Rev., 9
(1916) 186
Plate XX
Coconut grove with bamboo poles in trees for gathering tuba. From
Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. A, 6 (1911) 187
Plate XXI
Coconut palm tapped for sap. On the left of the trunk at the level
of the man's head is hung a bamboo tube for collecting the sap.
The tube is almost hidden by the leaves. From Philip. Journ.
Sci., Sec. A, 6 (1911) 189
Plate XXII
Coconut palm tapped for sap 191
Plate XXIII
Rafts of coconuts. From Philip. Agr. Rev., 1 (1908) 193
Plate XXIV
Corypha elata and two specimens of Caryota. From Philip. Bur.
Ed. Bull. 49 195
Plate XXV
Corypha elata in flower. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 49 197
Plate XXVI
Young specimen of Corypha elata. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 49.... 199
ILLUSTRATIONS 133
Plate XXVII
Page.
Fig. 1. Outer and inner halves of one Calasiao hat. From Philip.
Journ. Sci., Sec. C, 6 (1911) 201
2. Completed buri-midrib (Calasiao) hat. From Philip. Journ.
Sci., Sec. C, 6 (1911) 201
Plate XXVIII
Portions of Philippine hats magnified four diameters. From Philip.
Journ. Sci., Sec. C, 6 (1911) 203
Fig. 1. Buntal (Lukban) 203
2. Buntal (Baliuag) 203
3. Calasiao 203
4. Buri leaf 203
Plate XXIX
Daemonoro'ps mollis (gaudichaudii) . From Ann. Bot. Gard. Cal-
cutta 207
Plate XXX
Elaeis guineensis 209
Plate XXXI
Fruit of Elaeis guineensis 211
Plate XXXII
Heterospathe elata. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 53 213
Plate XXXIII
Licuala spinosa 215
Plate XXXIV
Livistona sp. in a clearing. From Philip. Bur. Sci., Pub. 13 217
Plate XXXV
Livistona cochinchinensis 218
Plate XXXVI
Livistona rotundifolia. From Philip. Bur. Ed. Bull. 53 219
Plate XXXVII
Metroxylon sagu. From Philip. Agr. Rev., 9 (1916) 221
Plate XXXVIII
Nipa fruticans on mud flats 223
Plate XXXIX
Fig. 1. View from top of San Esteban distillery. Nipa swamps as
far as the eye can reach. Nipa houses in the foreground.
From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. A, 6 (1911) 225
2. Uncultivated nipa swamp. Legaspi, Albay Province. From
Philip. Joui-n. Sci., Sec. A, 6 (1911) 225
134 ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate XL
Page.
Cultivated nipa swamp. Bulacan. From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. A,
6 (1911) 227
Plate XLI
Fig. 1. Collecting the nipa sap. Showing a native collector and two
bamboo joints (tuquils) in position to receive the sap.
From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. A, 6 (1911) 229
2. Nipa palms in fruit. From Philip. Journ. Sci., Sec. A, 6
(1911) 229
Plate XLII
Orania palindan 233
Plate XLIII
Oreodoxa regia 235
Plate XLIV
Pinanga philippinensis 237
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
Extensive accounts of the alcohol and sugar possibilities of the more
prominent species of palms have been given by Gibbs (The alcohol industry
of the Philippine Islands, parts I, II, and III. Philippine Journal of
Science, Vol. 6, 1911, and Vol. 7,1912); while hats made f rom palm '
fibers have been discussed at length by Miller and Robinson (Miller: Phil-
ippine Hats. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 35, 1910. Robinson: Phil-
ippine Hats. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 6, 1911). Arnold (Rat-
tan supply of the Philippines, Special Agents Series, No. 95, Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington) has written a long discussion
of the rattan supply. These sources have been drawn on extensively in
the preparation of the present paper. The systematic consideration of
Philippine palms has been much simplified by the appearance of a recent
paper by Beccari (Philippine Palms. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol.
14, 1919). The keys to, or rather the conspecti of, the species of the
various genera are taken from that paper, with only slight changes in
nomenclature.
PHILIPPINE PALMS
By William H. Brown and Elmer D. Merrill
INTRODUCTION
The palm family is well represented in the Philippines, and

from an economic standpoint is a very important group of plants.
They furnish alcohol, starch, sugar, oils, fibers, building mate-
rials, edible fruits and buds, numerous substances used in in-
dustrial work, and other minor products.
The species of palms known to be native to the Philippines
number 123. Besides these there are five widely cultivated spe-
cies, some of which may be native. More than 100 of the native
species have not been reported from other countries.
The one large genus is Calamus, the climbing or rattan palms.
Most of the other genera are represented by few species and in
several cases by a single one. Some of the most important eco-
nomic palms, such as the coconut palm, are not natives of the
Philippines, but were introduced in prehistoric times. The
native species are mostly sylvan. Palms grow from sea level
to altitudes of at least 2,200 meters.
There are very few species of palms in the settled areas, but
they are frequently conspicuous either on account of their
abundance (coconut palm) or their great size (buripalm). One
of the very few strictly gregarious species is the nipa palm.
This occurs over considerable areas of salt-water swamps, to
the almost entire exclusion of all other vegetation. In a few
places the buri palm (Conjpha) is dominant and gregarious,
while Livistona cochinchinensis (tarau) is gregarious and occurs
in immense numbers in the Cagayan valley. The coconut palm
is artificially gregarious on account of its cultivation over vast
areas. In ordinary forests, the palms, with the exception of the

climbing species Calamus and Daemonorops, are not usually
numerous, most erect palms being of local occurrence. The
climbing palms (rattans) are usually very numerous and con-
spicuous in most forests, except where they have been exten-
sively cut for commercial purposes. In fact, the most con-
spicuous plants in the ground covering of virgin forests at low
altitudes often are immature specimens of rattans.
135
Key to the genera of Philippine palms.
1. Leaves simple, fan-like.

2.Leaves divided almost to base into 14 to 20 segments; stems tufted,
small. 13. Licuala.
2. Leaves not deeply divided; trunk stout, never tufted.
•3. Trunk smooth, with annular scars; inflorescences axillary, pen-
dulous. 14. Livistona.
3. Trunk without annular scars, often 60 centimeters or more in diam-
eter; flowering-shoot terminating the trunk, the plant flowering once
and then dying. 8. Corypha.
1. Leaves bipinnate, leaflets cuneate at the base, rhomboid, oblique, the

tips resembling the fins or tails of fish. 6. Caryota.
1. Leaves pinnate.
2. Climbing spiny palms; leaf sheaths and midribs armed; fruit covered
with scales, usually shiny.

3. Leaflets rhomboid or wedge-shaped, whitish beneath; leafsheaths
usually inflated and occupied by ant nests. 12. Korthalsia.
3. Leaflets elongated, never rhomboid.
4. Branches of the inflorescences covered with very large, broad,
overlapping bracts concealing the flowers; the plant flowers once

and then dies. 22. Plectocomia-
4. Branches of the inflorescences only slightly expanded, bracts not
concealing the flowers; the plant flowers many times.
5. Spikelets in the axils of tubular or funnel-shaped spathels; flag-
ellae from end of midrib or from the leafsheaths. 5. Calamus.
5. Spikelets in the axils of large boat-shaped or open deciduous
spathels; flagellae always from end of the midrib.

9. Daemonorops.
2. Not climbing.
3. Tufted, spiny palms.
4. Growing in fresh-water swamps, the inflorescences terminating
the tall, mature trunks; the sago palm. 15. Metroxylon.
4. Growing on dry ground; stem short or none; inflorescence from
base. Rare, known only from Lanao. 24. Zalacca.

3. Stems creeping in the mud of salt-water swamps; trunks none; in-
florescences on short, erect stalks from the rhizomes, the infruc-
tescence a large globose head; the nipa palm. 16. Nipa.
3. Erect, simple palms, the stems never tufted (except some species of
Arenga) the inflorescences always lateral, never terminal.
,
4. Inflorescences from the trunk at the base of the leafsheaths.

5. Trunks covered with long, slender spines. 17. Oncosperma.
5. Spineless palms.
6. Trunks large, swollen in the middle; the royal palm, cul-
tivated only. 19. Oreodoxa.
6. Trunks small or of medium size.
7. Female flowers few, at the base of the branches of the
inflorescences, much larger than the much more numerous

male ones. 3. Areca.
7. Flowers of both sexes alike in shape and size, or flowers
perfect.
8. Flowers in groups of threes on the spike-like branches
of the compound inflorescence. 2. Adonidia.
.
KEY TO GENERA OF PHILIPPINE PALMS 137

8. Flowers in two or three rows on the primary branches
of the once-branched inflorescence; sylvan species.
21. Pinanga.
8. Flowers spirally arranged on the branches; fruits large.
1. Actinorhytis.
4. Inflorescences axillary.
5. Leaf-sheaths with coarse, black fibers, the leaflets usually lobed
and usually auricled at the base, whitish beneath. 4. Arenga.
5. Not as above.
6. Petioles spiny.
7. Fruits in dense head; the oil palm, cultivated only.
10. Elaeis.
7. Inflorescences lax. 20. Phoenix.
6. Petioles unarmed.
7. Fruits large, 15 to 30 centimeters in diameter; the coco-
nut palm, cultivated. 7. Cocos.
7. Fruits smaller, never exceeding 10 centimeters in diameter.

8. Fruits 5 to 8 centimeters in diameter. 18. Orania.
8. Fruits less than 1 centimeter in diameter.
9. Fruits globose. 11. Heterospathe.
9. Fruits more or less ovoid. 23. Ptychoraphis.
LIST OF SPECIES
All of the palms known to be natives of, or naturalized in,

the Philippine Islands are given in the following list.
Actinorhytis calapjmria Wendl. et Calamus cumingianus Becc.
Drude. Calamus diepenhorstii var. exulans
Adonidia merrillii Becc. Becc.
Areca caliso Becc. Calamus dimorphacanthus Becc.
Areca camarinensis Becc. Calamus dimorphacanthus var. vion-
Areca catechu L. Betel palm. talbanicus Becc.
Areca catechu var. batanensis Becc. Calamus dimorphacanthus var. zam-
Areca catechu var. longicarpa Becc. balensis Becc.
Areca catechu var. silvatica Becc. Calamus discolor Mart.
Areca costulata Becc. Calamus discolor var. negrosetisis
Areca hut chins oniana Becc. Becc.
Areca ipot Becc. Calamus elmerianus Becc.
Areca ipot var. poHIlensis Becc. Calamus filispadix Becc.
Areca macrocarpa Becc. Calamus foxworthyi Becc.
Areca parens Becc. Calam,us grandifolius Becc.
Areca vidaliana Becc. Calamus halconensis Becc.
Areca whitfordii Becc. Calamus jenningsianus Becc.
Areca whitfordii var. luzonensis Calamus tnanillensis H. Wendl.
Becc. Calamus maxi7nus {merrillii) Blanco
Arenga ambong Becc. (forma typica)
Arenga piyinata (Wurmb) Merr. Calamus maximus var. merrittiaîus
Kaong or sugar palm. Becc.
Arenga tremula (mindorensis) Calamus inaximus var. nanga Becc.
(Blanco) Becc. Calamus megaphylltis Becc.
Calamus arugda Becc. Calamus melanorhynchus Becc.
Calaynus bicolor Becc. Calamus ineyenianus Schauer.
Calamus blancoi Kunth. Calamus microcarpus Becc.
Calamus microcarpus var. diminu- Daemoyiorops mollis (gaudichaudii)

tus Becc. (Blanco) Merr.
Calaynus tnicrosphaerion Becc. Daemonorops ochrolepis Becc.
Calamus microsphaerion var. spino- Daemonorops oligolepis Becc.
sior Becc. Daemonorops pannosus Becc.
Calam,us mindorensis Becc. Daemonorops pedicellaris Becc.
Calamus mitis Becc. Daemonorops urdanetanus Becc.
Calamus moseleyanus Becc. Daemonorops virescens Becc.
Calamus m,ultinervis Becc. Heterospathe elata Scheff.
Calamus ornatus Blume var. phil- Heterospathe negrosensis Becc.
ippinensis Becc. Heterospathe philippinensis Becc.
Calamus ramulosus Becc. Heterospathe sibuyanensis Becc.
Calavius reyesianus Becc. Korthalsia laciniosa Mart.
Calam,us samian Becc. Korthalsia merrillii Becc.
Calamus sim.physipus Mart. Korthalsia scaphigeroides Becc.
Calamus siphonospathus Mart. Korthalsia squarrosa Becc.
Calamus siphonospathus var. bata- Licuala spinosa Wurmb.
nensis Becc. Livistona cochinchinensis Mart.
Calamus siphonospathus var. oligo-
Livistona merrillii Becc.
lepis, majo7- Becc. Livistona robinsoniana Becc.
Calam,us siphonospathus var. oligo- Livistona rotundifolia Mart. Ana-
lepis, minor Becc. hau.
Calamus siphonospathus var. poly- Livistona rotundifolia var. luzonen-
lejris Becc. sis Becc.
Calamus siphonospathus var. .S!/6- Livistona rotundifolia var. micro-
laevis Becc. carpa Becc.
Calamus spinifolius Becc. Livistona rotundifolia var. mindo-
Calamus trispermus Becc. rensis Becc.
Calamus usitatu^ (mollis) Blanco. Metroxylon sagti Rottb.
Sago.
Calamus usitatus var. major Becc. iV?p«. fruticans Wurmb.
Nipa.
Calamus usitatus var. palaivaniciis Oncosperma filametitosum Blume.
Becc. Oncosper^na gracilipes Becc.
Calamus vidalianus Becc. Oncosperma horrida Scheff.
Calamus vinosus Becc. Oncosperma platyphylla Becc.
Calamus viridissimus Becc. Orania decipiens Becc.
Caryota cumingii Lodd. Orania decipiens var. mindanaoensis
Caryota majestica Linden. Becc.
Caryota merrillii Becc. Orania decipiens var. montana Becc.
Caryota mitis Lour. Orania paraguaensis Becc.
Caryota rumphiana var. o.vyodonfa Orania palindan (Blanco) Merr.
Becc. Orania palindan var. sibuyanensis
Caryota nanphiana var. philippinen- Becc.
sis Becc. Orania rubiginosa Becc.
Cocos nucifera L. Coconut palm. Phoenix hanceana var. philippinen-
Corypha elata Roxb. Burl. sis Becc.
Daemonorops affinis Becc. Pinanga barnesii Becc.
Daemonorops clemensianus Becc. Pinanga basilanensis Becc.
Daemonorops curranii Becc. Pinanga batanensis Becc.
Daemoyiorops gracilis Becc. Pinanga copelandii Becc.
Daemonorops loherianns Becc. Pinanga curranii Becc.
Daemonorops margaritae var. paZa- Pinanga elmerii Becc.
ivanicus Becc. Pinanga geonomaeformis Becc.
. .
Pinanga heterophylla Becc. Pinanga rigida Becc.

Pinanga insignis Becc. Pinanga
(forma samarana Becc.
typica) Pinanga sclerophylla Becc.
Pinanga insignis var. gasterocarpa Pinanga sibuyanensis Becc.
Becc. Pinanga speciosa Becc.
Pinanga insignis var. leptocarpa Pinanga urdanetana Becc.
Becc. Pinanga urosperma Becc.
Pinanga insignis var. loheriana Pinanga woodiana Becc.
Becc. Plectocomia ehnerii Becc.
Pinanga isabelensis Becc. Ptychoraphis cagaya7iensis Becc.
Pinanga maculata Porte. Ptychoraphis elmerii Becc.
Pirianga modesta Becc. Ptychoraphis intermedia Becc.
Pinayiga negrosensis Becc. Ptychoraphis microcarpa Becc.
Pinanga philippinensis Becc. Zalacca clemensiana Becc.
DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES
Genus ACTINORHYTIS Wendland et Drude
ACTINORHYTIS CALAPPARIA Wendl. et Dr. TANGALO.
Local name: Tangalo (Bagobo).
This is a handsome, tall, slender, pinnate-leafed palm, widely

distributed in the Malay archipelago. Reported from Davao
district, Mindanao, where it was probably introduced.
Genus ADONIDIA Beccari
ADONIDIA MERRILLII Becc. (Plate II, III) BUNGA DE China.

Local names: Bmiga de China, hunga de Jolo (Span.-Fil.) ; oring-oring
(Tagbanua)
This species is the only representative of the genus and is

known only from the Philippines. In Manila it is extensively
cultivated for ornamental purposes. The species was originally
described from material taken from cultivated specimens in Ma-
nila, its origin being unknown. Since then its original home
has been located, as it occurs in abundance on limestone forma-
tions in Palawan and the Calamianes Islands (Coron). In
habit this palm resembles the betel palm, but it is not so tall,
and its leaves are much more strongly arched. It reaches a
height of 8 meters and a diameter of 10 to 15 centimeters.
The leaves are about 2 meters long with 40 to 50 pairs of leaf-
lets. Its inflorescence, too, is quite different from that of the
betel palm. The bright-crimson fruits, contrasting with the
whitish fruit-stalks and sheaths, are very ornamental. The
fruits are said sometimes to be used as a substitute for the betel
nut, in preparing buyo (fruit of Areca catechu, leaves of Piper
betle,and lime) for chewing. The name "Bunga de Jolo,"
which is very seldom used, may indicate the true origin of the
trees that now occur in Manila, as the palm may grow on the
island of Jolo (Sulu), and does occur in the part of Palawan
inhabited by the Sulu Moros.
Genus ARECA Linnaeus
This genus of pinnate-leaved palms is represented by the

widely cultivated Areca catechu L. and nine endemic species.
The endemic species are of little economic value, but Areca ca-
techu is extensively cultivated throughout the Archipelago.
Conspectus of the Philippine species.

a\ Floriferous branches bearing only one or very few female flowers,
sessile on their basal thickened part, and the geminate male flowers
in distichous alternate indentures in their upper slender part.
b\ Spadices spreadingly twice or thrice branched; palms with tall slender
stems and relatively large fruits. (§ Euareca.)
c\ Male flowers narrowly lanceolate (unknown in A. Whitfordii) ;
rudimentary ovary conspicuous, trifid, as long as, or longer

than, the stamens; anthers acute or acuminate. Female flowers
with broadly imbricate sepals about as broad and long as the
petals. Fruit with the pericarp finally entirely disintegrating
into very fine and soft fibers.
d\ Fruit having the mesocarp considerably thicker at both ends
than at the sides, and the seed inserted considerably above the
base.
e\ Seed having the vascular bundles of the integument arching
on the sides, and strongly anastomosing immediately from
its base, even on the raphal side 1. A. Catechu.
f. Fruit orange-red; globose-ovoid or ovoid-ellipsoid, not more

than one-third or one-fourth longer than broad (4 to 5
cm long, .3 to 4 cm broad). Seed subglobose with a more
or less flattish base A. Catechu (forma communis.)
p. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, rather ventricose, smaller than usual
(4 cm long and 3 cm or a little less broad) ; seed globose-
depressed or broader than high, the base flat.
A. Catechu var. silvatica.
f. Stems thicker and shorter than in forma communis; spadix
denser and with shorter floriferous branches.
A. Catechu var. batanensis.
f\ Fruit narrowly ellipsoid; twice, and even more, as long as
broad (5.5 to 7 cm long, 2.5 cm broad). Seed ovoid-conical
with a blunt apex and flat base, slightly longer than broad.
A. Catechu var. longicarpa.
e-. Seed having the vascular bundles of the integument arising
straight, almost erect, from the raphal side and slightly
branching. Fruit elongate-ellipsoid, twice as long as broad
(7 cm long, 3.2 to 3.5 cm broad). Seed ovoid-conical with
a blunt apex 2. A.macrocarpa.
d-. Fruit ellipsoid-fusiform, twice and more as long as broad, having

the mesocarp not much thicker at the ends than at the sides.
Seed placed nearly in the middle of the pericarp and equally
narrowing to both ends.
PLATE II. ADONIDIA MERRILLIl (BUNGA DE CHINA).

PLATE III. FRUIT OF ADONIDIA MERRILLII (BUNGA DE CHINA).

e'.Fruit 4 to 4.5 cm long, 1 to 2 cm broad 3. A. Whitfordii.
e^ Fruit larger, 5.5 cm long, 2 cm broad.
A. Whitfordii var. luzonensis.
C-. Male flowers relatively large, ovoid-subtrigonous or trapezoidal;
rudimentary ovary small, slender, entire, subulate, shorter than
the stamens; anthers very obtuse. Sepals of the female flower
considerably smaller than the petals. Fruit large, ovoid, about
6 cm long, 3.5 cm
broad, the pericarp fibrous in its outer half,
woody in inner half. Seed broadly ovoid, its vascular
the
bundles very numerous, parallel and almost undivided, ascending
from the raphal side 4. A. parens.
b'. Spadices simply branched. Female flowers clustered around the main
axis, solitary, sessile or nearly so, at the base of the branchlets;
the latter slender and bearing alternately distichous male flowers.
(§ Balanocarpus.) (Of A. camarinensis the detached fruits only
are known, and it is doubtfully placed here.)
c\ A palm with the habit of Areca Catechu but smaller (stem about
4 m
high, 7 to 12 cm in diameter) fruiting spadix dense,
;
cylindraceous-oblong, about 14 cm long, 6 to 7 cm thick. Fruit

ovoid, very similar to that of A. Catechu, 5 cm long, 3 cm broad.
Seed globose with rounded (not flat) base and with the vascular
bundles of the integument very close together, much anastomosing
and forming very narrow loopholes all around the seed.
5. A. Ipot.
d\ A smaller plant, the stem 5 cm in diameter, the

spadix smaller,
with fewer female flowers, and forming a shorter mass.
A. Ipot var. polillensis.
c'. Fruit ovoid, 4 to 5 cm long, 3 cm broad. Seed conical-ovoid; the
vascular bundles of the integument forming a uniform network
all around the seed with lozenge-shaped loopholes. Otherwise
the fruit is similar to that of A. Catechu 6. A. camarinensis.
'.
Floriferous branches bearing several female flowers on their basal parts,
gradually narrowing above and bearing male flowers only in pairs
on alternating notches. Low palms with relatively small or medium-
sized fruits. (§ Arecella.)
b\ Spadix simply branched, with thickish floriferous branches appressed
to the main axis, and bearing in their basal part numerous,
approximate, alternate, female flowers. Male flowers hexandrous,
the calyx with three small, distinct sepals; anthers acute. Fruiting
perianth cupular, truncate, the petals exactly equaling the sepals.
Fruit ellipsoid, 3 to 3.5 cm long, 20 to 22 mm
thick, the pericarp
entirely dissolving into very fine, soft fibers 7. A. Caliso.
b-. Spadix twice loosely branched; floriferous branches slender, bearing

in their basal part three or four alternate, rather distant, female
flowers, and in the upper and slenderer part alternate male flowers.
Calyx of the male flowers subpedicelliform, shortly 3-dentate with
a solid base; anthers bifid at the apex. Fruit small, pluricostulate,
ellipsoid, the pericarp formed by only two layers of rigid com-
planate fibers 8. A. costidata.
'.
Spadix diffusely, two or three times branched, the floriferous branches
bearing one or more female flowers in their lower part, and above
male flowers in pairs in unilateral notches. Low slender palms having
very small male flowers, with the calyx completely divided into three
sepals. Fruit small. (§ Arecopsis.)
b\ Male flowers 2.5 to 3 mm stamens

6; rudimentary ovary as
long;
long as the stamens, three points. Female flowers
divided into
ovate, obtuse, 8 mm
long, 4.5 to 5 mm
broad. Fruit small, oblong-
ellipsoid or subfusiform, 17 to 19 mm
long and broad; pericarp
rather thin, the mesocarp formed by only two layers of slender,
but rigid, flattened, parallel fibers 9. A. Vidaliana.
b'. Male flowers smaller than in A. Vidaliana (2 mm or a little longer) ;
stamens 6 rudimentary ovary as long as the stamens, trifid. Fe-

;
male flowers ovoid, conical, narrowing to an acute point, larger

than in A. Vidaliana, 13 to 14 long, 7 mm mm
broad at the base.
Fruit also larger, ellipsoid-elongate or subfusiform, about 3 cm long,
9 mm
broad 10. A. Hutchinsoniana.
ARECA CATECHU L. (Plates IV, V). BuNGA or Betel palm.

Local names: Boa (Iloko) ; buiiga (Tagalog, Bisaya, Bikol) ; bna (Ca-
gayan) ; ddpiau (Bataan) ; h'lgos (Zamboanga) ; luyos (Fampanga) ;
pasd
(Basilan) ; takobtob (Bikol).
This and slender tree is one of the characteristic palms

tall
found and about towns throughout the settled areas of the
in
Philippines. Areca catechu reaches a height of 10 meters and
a diameter of 10 to 15 centimeters. It has dark-green, pinnate
leaves about 3 meters long. The reddish-yellow fruits are
found on the stem below the leaves. It is frequently sponta-
neous and occurs in second-growth forests, but is rarely found
distant from cultivation. In the Philippines it has been re-
ported from the virgin forest in only a single locality in Palawan,
and there where an old trail crossed a small stream.
Beccari * says that Areca catechu, variety silvatica, may pos-
sibly represent the original plant from which the commonly cul-
tivated palm has been derived. According to Beccari there are
in the Philippines various forms of Areca so closely related to
Areca catechu as to afford good reason to believe that in these
Islands Areca catechu finally assumed the specific character
which it now exhibits. In no other part of southern and eastern
Asia or Malaysia is there any species of Areca which in any way
approaches Areca catechu.
In the Philippines, as in all the Indo-Malayan and Polynesian
region, the fruits of this palm are extensively utilized for chew-
ing with lime and the leaves of the betel pepper (Piper betle
Linn.), locally known as ikmo. The mixture is known in dif-
ferent parts of the Philippines as buyo, maman, or mamon. The
areca fruit is cut into rather thin slices, sprinkled with lime,
and the slices wrapped in fresh ikmo leaves. Tobacco is some-
times added to the mixture. The chewing of buyo, which is
exceedingly prevalent in the Philippines, colors the expectorated
* Beccari, O., Palms of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of

Science, Volume 14 (1919), pages 295-362.
2. A. catechu var. silvatica. 3. A. catechu (communis).

Fig. 1. Area catechu (semisilvatica) .
PLATE IV.
169644 10
catechu var. longicarpa. 3. A. catechu var. portori-

Fig. 1. Areca catechu var. alba. 2. A.
censis.
saliva a characteristic red; and its continued use blackens the

teeth and gums, eventually destroying the teeth themselves.
Buyo is very generally regarded as a tonic and a general stim-
ulant, but its excessive use is certainly harmful. Tavera cites
as symptoms of excessive use of buyo loss of appetite, salivation,
:
and general degeneration of the organism. He notes also that

beginners usually experience a disagreeable combination of
symptoms, including constriction of the esophagus, a sensation
of heat in the head, red and congested face, dizziness, etc. The
fruits contain about 18 per cent tannin, and from 14 to 17 per
cent of fatty material. They are used to some extent in the
Philippines in dyeing red and black shades. In the Indo-Malayan
region they are generally used as a vermifuge. The active
principle, arecaine, according to Jahns, is poisonous. It affects
the respiration, the heart, increases the peristalsis of the in-
testines, and causes tetanic convulsions. The bud or "ubud" is
edible either raw as a salad or cooked, but Tavera states that
disagreeable sensations, corresponding to those experienced
when one first chews the nut, are caused by eating it. The
large, tough, sheathing parts of the leaves are used as a sub-
stitute for cardboard or strawboard, in protecting packages;
for making the odd hats worn by some of the wild people in
Mindanao (Manobos, etc.) for the inner soles of slippers; by
;
school-children for book-covers; and, were they available in

sufficient abundance, would apparently make excellent paper-
pulp material. The husks are used for toothbrushes. These
are made by cutting off one end of a piece of the husk square
across the grain and scraping away the pulp for a short dis-
tance. The stiff fibers remain like a row of short bristles.
While this palm is of considerable importance in the internal
commerce of the Archipelago, the fruits appearing on sale
throughout the Islands, it does not enter at all, or only to a very
slight extent, into the foreign commerce of the Philippines.
The fruit is exported to India in considerable quantities from
Java, Sumatra, Singapore, and other parts of the Malayan region.
A number of forms, such as buiigang-matulia, bungang-
pato, and tagabunga, are distinguished by the Filipinos. These
distinctions are based chiefly, if not entirely, on the shape of
the fruit.
ARECA CALISO Becc. Kaliso.
Local names: Kaliso (Bagobo) ; sakolon (Manobo).
This is growing on mountain slopes and in dense,

a species
humid woods. It is a slender palm about 7 to 15 centimeters in
diameter and reaches a height of 6 meters or more. The leaves
are about 3 meters in length. The Manobos use the fruit as a

substitute for the betel nut. The sap is also collected and used
as a beverage of an inferior quality.
ARECA HUTCHINSONIANA Becc. PiSA.
Local names: Buiiga, pisci (Moro).
A pinnate-leafed palm with a diameter of about 15 centi-

meters. The immature fruit is white; the mature, yellow.
ARECA POTI Becc. (Plate VI). Bungang-IPOT.
Local names: Bungang-ijjot, ipod, tpot, mangipod, saksik, saksig
(Tagalog).
This palm somewhat resembles a dwarfed Areca catechu in

habit. It never exceeds 4 meters in height and is often much
smaller than this. The infructescence is very different from
that of the above species, the fruits being densely crowded. It
is common in the towns surrounding Mount Banajao, in the
provinces of Laguna and Tayabas, Luzon, in various provinces
in southern Luzon, and in Polillo. It is chiefly planted for
ornamental purposes, although the fruit is sometimes used as
a substitute for the true betel nut {Areca catechu), to which it

is, however, considered much inferior.
ARECA VIDALIANA Becc.

Local names: Boga, pita (Palawan).
This is a very slender palm widely distributed in Palawan

and occurring also in Mindoro. Its trunks do not exceed 3 or 4
centimeters in diameter and it rarely exceeds 3 meters in height.
It is a sylvan species, growing at low and medium altitudes,
and is decidedly ornamental, although nowhere utilized.
ARECA WHITFORDII Becc. Bungang-GUBAT.
This species is allied to Areca catechu, but has thicker trunks,
about 20 centimeters in diameter, and differs in numerous other
ways. It grows in the semi-swampy forests in eastern Min-
doro, where it is known as bufigang-gubat, literally "wild
bunga." No special economic use has been reported.
Genus ARENGA Labillardiere
This genus is represented by four species, of which the sugar

palm is by far the most common and widely distributed and the
most valuable economically.
Conspectus of the species.
a\ Leaflets elongate, narrow, having smooth or remotely and minutely

toothed margins, the secondary nerves parallel, all starting from the
base.
Fig. 1. Areoa parens. 2. A. macrocarpa. 3. A. camarinensis. 4. A. ipot.
PLATE VI.
6\ Large, with solitary stems. Fruit more or less turbinate, 3 cm or

more in diameter. Male flowerswith very numerous stamens;
anthers aristate 1. A. pinnuta.
b-. Relatively small and caespitose. Male flowers with 20 to 30 stamens;

anthers blunt or slightly apiculate. Fruit spherical, 15 to 18 in mm
diameter 2. A. tremula.
a". Leaflets elongate, yet broad, margins very irregularly undulate or else
very boldly toothed, or lobed; secondary nerves divergent from the

rachis at diflferent levels.
6'. Caespitose; stem attaining 2 to 3 m in height and 15 cm in diameter.
Male flowers with a rounded top. Stamens about 150. Fruit longer
than broad, rounded at both ends 3. A. tremula.
b". Stem short and thick, about 30 cm in diameter. Male flowers

apiculate. Stamens about 100. Fruit spherical 4. A. Ambong.
ARENGA AMBONG Becc. Ambung.

Local name: A^nbiing (Moro).
This palm, like Arenga tremula, has a very short stem and
grows in large tufts or clumps. It is much larger than the
above species and is characterized by its very much broader
leaflets which are prominently lobed, about 70 centimeters long
and from 6 to 10 centimeters wide. It occurs in Palawan, Ba-
labac, Mindanao, Cebu, southern Luzon, and probably in some
other islands. Arenga ambong is a very beautiful species, but
is never cultivated in the Philippines for ornamental purposes,
although well worthy of being so used. The buds (ubud) are

edible. In Palawan, the aborigines, Tagbanuas, use blowguns
and small poisoned darts made of bamboo. Small obconic plugs
secured from the pith of this palm are put on the upper ends of
the darts for the purpose of making them fit closely the bore of
the blowgun. This species probably has other economic uses,
but no definite ones have been as yet recorded.
ARENGA PINNATA (Wurmb) Merr. (Plates VII, VIII). Kaong or

Sugar palm.
Local names: Bagatbdt (Oriental Negros) ; (Bohol)
batbcttcabo negro ;
(Spanish-Filipino, "black rope"); ebiok, (Bohol); habiok (Capiz)

ibiok ;
hibiok (Capiz, Occidental Negros) hidiok (Camarines, Albay, Antique,

;
Capiz) igok (Antique) irok (Zambales, Cavite, Tayabas, Mindoro) kdong

; ; ;
(Manila, Rizal, Cavite, Laguna) kauing (Bataan)

; ondu, undu (Misamis,
;
Surigao) rapitan (Ilocos provinces).

;
This rather large palm (commonly known as Arenga sac-

charifera Labill.) is characterized among the Philippine species
by its very long, ascending, pinnate leaves, which are up to
8.5 meters in length with 100 or more pairs of linear leaflets
which are whitish beneath, 1 to 1.5 meters long, lobed at the
apex and auricled at the base. The large axillary, pendulous
inflorescence is also characteristic. Arenga piyinata reaches a
PLATE VII. ARENGA PINNATA (SUGAR PALM).

height of from 12 to 15 meters and a diameter of 40 centimeters.

When the tree has attained mature size, a flowering shoot is
usually sent out from the axil of the upper leaf. This is fol-
lowed by others which are produced successively lower down,
until the tree is finally exhausted and dies. Arenga pinnata has
very numerous, crowded, green nuts, which turn yellow when
mature. This palm is widely distributed at low and medium
altitudes throughout the settled areas of the Philippines, in
ravines along streams, and in semi-cultivation. It may not
however be native to the Philippines, but a species purposely
introduced by the Malays in their early invasions. Its occa-
sional occurrence in virgin forest may be due to the fact that
it isnaturally a sylvan species, and that its ripe fruits have been
distributed by wild hogs and fruit bats, both of which eat the
mature fruit.
The sugar palm is one of considerable utility in the Philip-
pines, although no product of it enters into foreign commerce.
It yields sugar, starch, fermented drink, alcohol, thatching
material, various fibers that are utilized in industrial work,
and other minor products.
The fruits are about 5 centimeters in diameter and contain
two or three seeds. Immature seeds are sometimes eaten by
the Filipinos, being usually boiled with sugar to form a kind
of sweetmeat. The buds make an excellent salad.
The outer part of the fruit contains very numerous, micros-
copic, needle-like, stinging crystals or rhaphides; and this part
of the fruit is exceedingly irritating. Blanco relates how, in
former times, the fruits were thrown into the water and allowed
to decay, and the resulting fluid, which causes intense itching
and burning sensations wherever it comes in contact with the
skin, used sometimes to repel the attacks of Mohammedan pi-
rates. Another interesting use of this "Hell water", as de-
scribed by Rumphius, * was to pour the liquid into streams,
thus rendering fish more or less helpless, so that they might
be seized with the hands. At the present time the crushed
fruits are sometimes strewn along the paths on the banks and
dikes of fish ponds to protect them against nocturnal robbers,
as the stinging needles in the pericarp irritate the bare feet.
The leaves are sometimes used for thatching roofs, and are
said to be very durable. For this purpose the leaflets are re-
moved and prepared in a manner similar to that of preparing
the nipa palm. The midribs of the leaflets are frequently used
* Herbarium Amboinense. Volume I (1741), page 57.

PLATE VIII. FRUITS OF ARENGA PINNATA (SUGAR PALM).

for rough brooms, and are sometimes woven into coarse baskets.
Splints prepared from the petioles vary in color from greenish-
white through various shades of brown to nearly black, depend-
ing on the age of the leaf. They are used in making baskets
and for a sort of marquetry work on tables, stands, screens, boxes
and other light pieces of furniture. The bud (ubud) either raw ,
or cooked, makes a fine salad.

The most important industrial yield of this palm is, however,
the black tough fiber locally known as yunot or cabo negro
(eju or gomuto fiber). This stiff", black, tough, horsehair-like
fiber is produced at the base of the petioles in considerable
quantities, and is employed in the Philippines chiefly for manu-
facturing rope for use in salt water, and for thatching houses.
For the latter purpose, it is prized not only for its remarkable
durability against exposure to either fresh or salt water, but
also because it does not readily burn. Well-informed Filipinos
claim that as thatch it will last for 100 years Blanco states that
;
when so used it will last 30 years or more. Its cost is com-

paratively high. This fiber is in demand in Europe for certain
industrial purposes, but there is no record that it ranks among
the exports of the Philippines. Heyne *
quotes its price at
from 12 to 35 pounds per ton, according to grade, length of
fiber, etc., and gives the Javan export for the year 1912 as 31
tons.
In the Philippines, the stiffer fibers are used for making
brushes of various types, such asfloor and hair brushes, brushes
for cleaning horses, etc. A minor local use is for the purpose
of tying epiphytic orchids to pieces of wood in establishing
these plants under cultivation. Thatch-like raincoats are some-
times made of it.
Associated with the black, stiff fibers of the basal parts of
the petiole is an entirely different substance, soft, light, dry,
punky, varying in color from nearly white to rather dark shades.
This material, called barok, is used in caulking boats; formerly,
and perhaps still to a very limited extent, as tinder. For the
latter purpose it is first soaked in the juice of the banana plant
or of talbak (Koloivratia elegans Presl), or in lye made from
the ashes of the lagiindi (Vitex negundo L.), and then dried.f
According to Heyne, from 60 to 75 tons of this material are
exported from Cheribon, Java, to Singapore each year under
the name of zwam Dutch == sponge
( or tinder).
* Heyne, De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indie. Volumrj I (1913),

page 114.
t Blanco, M., Flora de Filipinas. Edicion II (1845), pagina 512
Starch in the form of a kind of sago is secured from this

palm by a general process of extracting quite similar to that used
with Metroxylon, Corijpha, and other palms. The tree is felled
and the interior fibrous part of the trunk cut into chips or
small pieces, which are eventually thoroughly crushed or pul-
verized. The crushed material is then washed in a trough, and
the water, with the starch in suspension, drawn off into a
settling-tank. In practice the starch is usually washed with
several changes of water, but is eventually dried in the sun.
If well prepared, rather white and comparatively pure.

it is
As in the case of the true sago {Metroxylon) and the buri

(Corypha) a kind of tapioca is sometimes prepared from this
,
starch, by dropping wet pellets of it on hot plates. The es-

timated yield per tree is from 50 to 75 kilos of starch. The
debris, after most of the starch is washed out, is sometimes
boiled and used to feed hogs. It claimed by Barrett * and
is
Hines f that in Cavite Province, Luzon, starch is secured only

from the male or sterile trees, and that before the tree is felled
for starch the inflorescences are removed as they appear, for a
period of about one year. Hines states also that the trees are
tested as to the amount of starch present by cutting notches
in the lower part of the trunk and examining the pithy part.
Starch production from this palm is apparently only a local
industry, and the product is perhaps used only when there is
a scarcity of other food. Blanco t speaks of it as miserable
food, and wonders that the natives were content with it, adding
that the civilized ones scarcely used it at all.
The tree is apparently much more commonly tapped for its
sweet sap than utilized as a source of starch. This sap is
used for the production of sugar, a fermented drink called tuba,
vinegar, and sometimes distilled alcohol. The method of tap-
ping is as follows :
—
An inflorescence stalk is selected and beaten
with a stick or wooden mallet for a short period each day. This
beating sometimes extends over a period of two or three weeks,
the object being to produce wound tissue and stimulate the flow
of sap to the injured part. The stalk is then cut off at the
base of the inflorescence, and the exuding sap caught in a hol-
low joint of bamboo. A thin slice is removed from the wounded
end of the stalk once or twice each day during the period of
* Barrett,W., The sugar palm. Philippine Agricultural Review,
O.
Volume pages 216 to 221.
7 (1914),
t Hines, C. W., Sugar-palm sap. Philippine Agricultural Review, Vol-
ume 7 (1914), pages 222 to 228.
t Blanco, M., Flora de Filipinas (1837), page 741.
sap flow. The yield varies greatly, depending on climatic con-

ditions, the age of the tree, and the length of time the sap has
been running. According to Hines, the flow gradually dimin-
ishes from 10 or 12 to 2 liters per day after two and one-half
months. Gibbs,* however, reports a maximum of over 2 liters
per day on two trees tapped under his directions.
Ordinarily the sap is allowed to ferment, the product being
known as tuba. This palm wine is a very popular drink in
the Philippines and corresponds to the tuba of the coconut,
buri, and nipa palms. Tuba is popularly supposed to have
curative properties, especially for persons sufl'ering from tu-
berculosis. Fermentation commences in the bamboo tubes in
which the sap is collected, and is usually well advanced when
the product is gathered.
In some regions much of the tuba gathered from the sugar
palm is converted into vinegar of a good quality. Alcohol is
distilled from the fermented tuba only to a very limited extent.
Sugar is made in some parts of the Philippines by boiling the
sweet, unfermented sap of this palm. The general practice is
to use a new receiver (bamboo joint) for the sap each day,
because old receivers would at once start fermentation. To
prevent rapid fermentation a little crushed ginger or crushed
chile-pepper fruit is sometimes added to the receiver.f In Java,
for the same purpose, the bamboo joints are smoked before
being used for collecting the sap. The general method of man-
ufacturing sugar is to thicken the juice by boiling in an open
kettle until the liquid is of such consistency that a drop of it
will solidify when it falls on a cold surface. Sugar manufacture
on a commercial scale has apparently never been attempted, and
various authors who have investigated the sugar possibilities
of this palm, have considered its commercial cultivation im-
practicable. Both Barrett t and Hines $ give optimistic reports
regarding the possible commercial utilization of this palm
as a source of sugar; the former reporting an estimated annual
yield of 20 tons of sugar per hectare, with from 150 to 200 trees,
the latter that 20 tons of sugar per hectare would be the mini-
mum yield with an average of 160 trees. It seems probable
that these estimates were based on insufficient data, especially
* Gibbs, H. D., The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands, Philippine
Journal of Science, Volume 6 (1911), Section A, pages 147 to 206,

t Barrett, O. W., The sugar palm. Philippine Agricultural Review,
Volume 7 (1914), pages 216 to 221.
$ Hines, C. W., Sugar-palm sap, Philippine Agricultural Review, Vol-
ume 7 (1914), pages 222 to 228.
as Gibbs reports a very much smaller sap flow from Philippine

palms than do Barrett and Hines, while De Vry * and Ta-
chirch,t give the estimated sugar yield at a much lower figure
than do these writers. The small amount of sugar produced
in the Philippines is brown in color, resembles that secured
from the buri palm (Corypha) and enters the local commerce
,
of the Philippines to a very limited degree.

ARENGA TREMULA (Blanco) Becc. {A. mindorensis Becc.)- (Plate IX).
DUMAYAKA.
Local names: Abigi, abiki, gumakd, rumakd (Bikol) ; abiki (Tagalog) ;
banisan (More) bar is (Bagobo)

; batbdt (Tagbanua)
; ; belis, tipon-tipon
(Bisaya) dumaydka, dayumdka, guviaydka (Tagalog).
;
This small-sized, endemic palm, often growing in large clumps

or tufts, is very distinctly ornamental, and on this account
well worthy of extended cultivation. There are now some
beautiful specimens in cultivation in Manila. It is usually only
3 to 4 meters in height, the trunk usually being very short or
almost wanting. The petioles are rather long, while the leaflets
are narrow, linear, 20 to 35 centimeters long and from 13 to
18 millimeters wide, toothed and sometimes slightly lobed at
the apex. It is widely distributed in the central Philippines,
but is of very local occurrence, although abundant in some lo-
calities. The peduncles of the inflorescences are said to be
sometimes tapped for the juice or tuba but as the palm is de- ;
cidedly small, the tuba yield must be slight, so that it is certainly

very little utilized for this purpose. The chief use of the palm
is found in the industrial materials it yields, these being es-
pecially good for the manufacture of certain types of baskets.
Splints are prepared from the petioles and vary in color from
light to dark brown when the epidermis is removed. Parts
showing the epidermis are grayish green.
The bud, if eaten in considerable quantity, is said to cause
a sort of intoxication followed by long and profound sleep.
Genus CALAMUS Linnaeus
The Rattans (Plates X-XIV).

This genus is represented in the Philippines by many species,
while individuals are exceedingly abundant in the forested areas
of the Archipelago. The rattan palms are strictly sylvan, and
individuals are most abundant at low and medium altitudes in
the virgin forest. They are occasionally found in thickets or
in the second-growth forests, but never in the open country. •
* Watt, A dictionary of the economic products of India,

t Indische Heil-und Nutzflanzen.
-^QQ PHILIPPINE PALMS
Locally, the rattan palms are of very great importance, yet

the exports of the prepared cane are negligible at the present
time. The stems vary considerably in size, depending on the
species, the Philippine forms ranging from less than one-half
centimeter to as much as 5 centimeters in diameter. All of
our species are climbing, some of them reaching such lengths
as 100 to 200 meters. In a few species, the slightly swollen
basal part, just above the surface of the ground, contains a
considerable amount of starch and is sometimes roasted and
eaten by woodsmen who run out of food. The bud of some
species is likewise edible, but in most species is too bitter. The
species commonly eaten have a mild bitter flavor, very like that
of dandelion salad. A few species have an edible, gelatinous
pulp, either sweet or sour, surrounding the seed. The stems
of certain forms produce good drinking water, a feature of
considerable importance to the woodsman when drinking water
is not otherwise available.
The real value of the rattan palms, however, is found in the
very long stems, which are of uniform diameter throughout,
except for the very base and apex.
The outer portion of these stems, or so-called canes, has great
tensile strength, while the outer surface is very hard.
The rattan-gatherer enters the forest, selects the cane he
desires, cuts it off" just above the surface of the ground, and
pulls down the entire plant, whose tip is in the tops of the
tallest trees. The palm is then stripped of leaves and the cane
cut into convenient lengths, ranging from 3 to 6 meters, which
are bent sharply at the middle and tied into bundles for con-
venient transportation. The external part may be stripped from
the cane right in the forest, or the entire canes may be trans-
ported, depending on how the product is to be utilized. The
entire stems of species that are of a proper size are used for
making "bent-wood" chair frames, as cables for ferry boats,
for hauling logs, standing-rigging on small sailing-vessels, and
sometimes to support short suspension bridges. The split canes
are used for making mats, hats, baskets, chairs, various types
of fish traps, and the bottoms and backs of the so-called "cane-
bottomed" chairs, these latter being the most familiar products
made from the rattan palm. The interior part of the stem is
softer than the outer part but split into strips, or in the form of
;
round rods left after peeling off the cortex, it is much utilized
in making so-called "reed" furniture. Among the Moham-
medan inhabitants of the Philippines, the entire canes are used
for making a peculiar kind of mat or screen. The canes are
PLATE XI. MALE INFLORESCENCE OF CALAMUS USITATUS (MOLLIS)

(A RATTAN).
169644 11
cut into proper lengths and then attached by their sides to

form an oblong mat or screen that can readily be rolled up.
Buffers of rattan are made in Cavite in enormous numbers by
the United States Navy.
The rattan strips, so familiar as the "cane" in certain types
of chairs, are the most important product of this genus in the
Philippines. They are locally utilized for all purposes for which
rope or cord may be used. Most of the houses in the Archipelago
are of light construction, framed wholly or in part with bam-
boo and thatched with palm leaves or grass. The frames of
these houses are usually tied together with strips of rattan.
Commercially, large quantities of it are used in baling tobacco,
abaka (Manila hemp), etc., and for tying the mat bags in which
practically all the sugar of the Philippines is packed for export.
A species found in Palawan and Surigao furnishes material
for very fine walking-sticks, known in commerce as Malacca
canes.
GENERAL SUPPLY OF RATTAN
The virgin forests of the Philippines, according to Whitford,*
cover 104,000 square kilometers (40,000 square miles), and in
nearly all of the virgin forests, except those near the tops of
high mountains, rattans are abundant in fact, the young rattans
;
are often the most prominent element in the ground-covering

of these virgin forests, while older specimens are very conspicu-
ous and lend character to the appearance of the forest. In some
localities large quantities of rattan have been taken from the
forests, but except in the immediate neighborhood of places
having a considerable population, the amount has not been ap-
preciably reduced. It is practically impossible to make any es-
timate of the total amount available. Some attempt has been
made to determine the actual average yield for a given area.
Two plots in the forest of the eastern portion of Mindoro, each
25 meters square, were cut over and the yield of rattan of com-
mercial grade estimated to be at the rate of 5,000 lineal meters
per hectare, or about 6,700 feet per acre. This yield is believed
to be rather above the average for the forests of Mindoro, but
there are large areas which should be fully as productive.
A compilation of the quantities of rattan on which forest
charges are paid is made each year by the Bureau of Internal
Revenue. These figures, however, may not represent more than
half the actual output, as they do not include the portion cut
* Whitford, H. N., The forests of the Philippines. Bureau of Forestry

Bulletin No. 10 (1911).
PLATE XII. FRUITS OF CALAMUS USITATUS (MOLLIS) (A RATTAN).

—
by the inhabitants of rattan-producing localities for domestic

purposes (this being by law free from forest charges), while a
considerable proportion of that cut for commercial purposes es-
capes the payment of taxes. The annual amount on which forest
charges were paid for a series of years is given in Table I.
Arnold has written a lengthy discussion of the supply of rat-
='
tans, from which much of the following data is taken.
Table I.- Amount of rattan on ivhich forest charges ivere paid from
191i to 1918.
Year.
PLATE XIII. FRUITS OF CALAMUS ORNATUS VAR. PHILIPPINENSIS (A RATTAN).

c-(M«omo5a>coo-ôoooO'*rHio(MC-NN'HeqN
UD D- "^ l^ CO lO-*IM(NC0(MNt-LO U500(>JIM>H
S 2;= ^5 0"3
o £ ca £ -u^ °
CO
CO
lO
•-<
00
i-<
lA
-^
T-H
»-l
Oi
CO
—I
.-H
e- 00
CO
00
i-f
o
»o
c:-
CO
c-
oi.s ;; ? 01
C 5 ^ ^
o
C-t-<MCDU5lflOOCO»-t^'-HOm05
(MOli-Hi-HOOOOO"^
ol
The next to the last column in the table shows what provinces
have an unutilized supply; although, of course, the fact that
rattan is found but not exported in a large proportion of the
municipalities, does not necessarily mean that it is there to be
had in great quantities. Such, however, may be assumed to be"
the case with regard to the Moro Province and Nueva Vizcaya
and, to a less extent, with Mindoro, Palawan, Samar, Misamis,
Bataan, Cagayan, Tayabas, and Leyte. In general, it is prob-
able that these latter provinces offer the best fields for commer-
cial exploitation.
As rattan primarily a plant of virgin forests, the destruc-
is
tion of the forests practically means the end of the supply.

Moreover, heavy cutting of the rattan will at least temporarily
exhaust the supply in a locality, as has happened in the im-
mediate neighborhood of most of the larger towns. It has not
yet been determined whether it is possible to collect rattan in
the forest on a commercial scale and within reasonable cost,
without cutting it faster than it reproduces itself. Unfortu-
nately there is very little information concerning the rates of
growth of rattans under forest conditions. The supply has
been reduced in many countries where it naturally occurs, to
such an extent as to raise prices considerably. As yet the ef-
fects of indiscriminate cutting in the Philippines have been no
worse than to increase the cost and difficulty of putting rattan
on the market in the more thickly populated areas. It has not
yet become necessary, as in the Malay Peninsula, to consider the
question of cultivation on a large scale. The satisfactory sit-
uation in the Philippines may, however, be due to the fact that
hitherto there has been almost no exploitation for foreign
markets.
UTILIZATION AND EXPORT
Only a very small portion of the comparatively large total

production, indicated by the statements and figures in the fore-
going paragraphs, is at present exported. The total ship-
ment of crude rattan from the Islands for the year ending June
30, 1914, was valued at 8,480 pesos and the manufactured rattan
products, chiefly baskets, at about 1,600 pesos. More than half
of the former amount was collected on the island of Palawan,
shipped to British North Borneo, there mixed with the local
product, and then sent to Singapore and Hongkong ready for
shipment to Europe. A certain portion of the supply which
goes to Hongkong, after being prepared or cleaned, is re-im-
ported into the Philippines for use in furniture manufacture.
The original exports are made ranging from 4 centavos

at prices
manufactured prod-
to 20 centavos per kilo; while the partially
ucts are repurchased at from 1 peso to 1.30 pesos per kilo.
The total value of all imports during the year ending June 30,
1914, was 30,730 pesos, or nearly four times the value of the
exports. During the fiscal year 1913 more than one million
dollars worth of rattan was imported into the United States,
while only four hundred dollars worth came directly from the
Philippines. The export business in Palawan is partly con-
ducted by the Palawan Exchange, a government institution for
providing the uncivilized tribes in that island with the means
of disposing of their products on fair terms; and partly by a
few merchants of Puerto Princesa, the capital of the province.
The exports from the other parts of the Islands are insignificant.
Much of the remaining production in the Philippines is used
in or near the localities where it is collected for the many domes-
tic and industrial purposes it serves, and especially in place of
twine or wire for baling hemp, copra, and tobacco. Nearly all
of the comparatively small portion of the total supply which
reaches Manila and the other large centers is brought together
in small quantities by Chinese shopkeepers.
QUALITY AND GRADE
It is widely stated that there are to be had in the Philippines

large quantities of rattan equal in quality to that produced else-
where. The authorities of the Industrial Division of Bilibid
Prison say that the best native product is equal to the best to
be had from Hongkong, and merchants state that American
firms have repeatedly approved samples. Nothing is known
to contradict these statements, except the assertion of the han-
dlers in Singapore that the very finest of all rattans are not to be
had outside of two districts in Dutch Borneo.
Great difficulty is encountered in any attempt to classify the
various grades or to determine the relative plentifulness in the
different localities in which they are found. This is probably
due to a considerable extent to the fact that the various grades
have not been connected with authentically named botanical
specimens. This is not an easy task, as flowering specimens
are rare and commercial canes are, of course, gathered without
flowers, while botanical specimens are usually collected without
canes. An exact classification of the canes seems, therefore,
to be out of the question until an extensive study of them has
been made.
The adoption of a native system of nomenclature or grading
is impractical. Native collectors and dealers recognize certain

grades of rattan in any given locality and are familiar with
something of their abundance, size, and tensile strength. For
different operations of tying and fastening, different sizes are
obviously needed. Some kinds become brittle when dried and
are therefore useless for tying purposes in constructing houses
and for baling hemp, but may serve perfectly well for binding
fish traps and rafts. On the basis of such points of difference
the people of any given locality distinguish a number of dif-
ferent varieties, usually half a dozen to a dozen, to which they
give distinct names. Just how far these distinctions coincide
with botanical ones is uncertain, but these names vary too
greatly in different localities for them to serve a useful purpose
except very locally.
The situation above described raises the question as to what
practical method of classification recourse may be had. Broadly
speaking, it cannot be said that there is any which could be put
into immediate operation in a way that would be of special
assistance either to an exporter or a purchaser. Until a classi-
fication based on a thorough investigation has been devised, the
only safe plan is to purchase by samples from each important
region.
Apparently the only variety of Philippine rattan distinguished
with any degree of definiteness is that which forms the bulk
of the exports from Palawan and which goes under the name
of sika or sicca. It is perhaps the same or nearly the same as
the high-grade Borneo rattan exported as segah and with which
the Philippine product is probably mixed. Sika is generally
agreed to be the best of the Philippine rattans. It is smooth
and very tough, with a fairly light-yellow color, has small nodes,
and a very uniform diameter averaging about a centimeter.
The authorities of Bilibid Prison have stated that if a steady
supply of this rattan could be secured at reasonable prices they
would use it regularly as fully equal to the cane imported from
Hongkong. Very little is known of the available supply or the
extent of territory from which sika can be secured. Palawan
is one of the most sparsely inhabited and least systematically
exploited islands in the Archipelago. The present supply of
sika is collected almost entirely by the unsupervised labor of
the Tagbanuas and other pagan tribes. It is generally believed
among those who handle the product in Manila that rattan of

approximately this quality, whether under the same or other
names, is only to be had from Palawan. There is, however, no
positive evidence of this, although it is knov^n that the flora of

Palawan is more closely related to that of Borneo than is that
of the more northern islands of the Archipelago. The fact
that at present no rattan of equal grade comes in commercial
quantities to the Manila market from other parts of the islands,
and that most of that sold in Manila is large and inferior, can
scarcely, in view of our present ignorance of the subject and
the unorganized nature of the trade, be regarded as proving
much of anything.
While sika is the only single variety of Philippine rattan that
has been definitely distinguished for commercial purposes, there
is another kind, or rather group or class —forit probably in-
cludes a number of species —which to appearances meets

all
the essential specifications for export rattans. This is what

might be called the high-grade mountain rattan and is found
on the spurs and lower ridges of the forested highland portion
of nearly all sections of the Philippines. It probably includes
most of the smaller and less coarse varieties distinguished by

special names in the localities where they are found. Much of
it is cut for ordinary local uses, although in the more thickly
inhabited parts of the Islands the best quality has to be sought

in the less accessible regions. It forms the bulk of the material
used in industrial schools and small factories in Bulacan Prov-
ince for making rattan furniture. It is relatively plentiful and
considerably cheaper than sika. It is generally said to be much
inferior in quality to sika, but the existing data on this subject

are by no means complete, and there is reason to believe that
the better grades are almost, if not quite, as good for ordinary
manufacturing purposes.
The large amount of rattan available in the Philippines does not
imply that a large quantity of high-grade Philippine rattan can
at once be obtained, as no organized industry of any great extent
exists. Most of the rattan cut is sold and used locally. The
lack of a system of classification and of an extensively organized
industry naturally results in great uncertainty as to prices. The
collection of rattan is usually carried on entirely as a side line
during the dry season, either when other local employment is
lacking and a little ready money wanted, or when crops fail
and a living must be had by other means. Under such condi-
tions few men work steadily in gathering rattan and the supply
is The holders of rattan licenses issued
necessarily precarious.
by the Bureau of Forestry are mainly the middlemen, a great
majority of whom are Chinese shopkeepers. With them, rattan.
. .

even when it is not a means of barter, is one of many articles
of trade and they have neither the desire, knowledge, nor fa-
cilities for handling it on a large scale.
From what has been said in preceding pages, it will be seen
that the Philippines offer a promising field for the export of
rattan, but that before success is attained in this direction the
whole industry must be much more highly organized than it is
at the present time. Considerable discussion of the difficulties
and their possible remedies is given by Arnold.*
a}. Leaves noncirriferous (the rachis not prolonged into a filiform, clawed
or aculeate appendix)
b\ Female flowers and fruits sessile or nearly so; that is, not furnished
with a distinct pedicel derived from the lengthened involucrophore.
c'. Leaflets almost equally green on both surfaces.
d}. Leaflets narrow, linear or linear-lanceolate, 1- to 3-costulate.
e\ Spadices shortly flagelliferous, about as long as the leaves;

fruits small, ovoid; seeds with equable albumen.
f. Leaf-sheaths armed with slender straight spines; primary
spathes also spinulous; leaflets very numerous; spathels
of the female spikelets very short, bracteiform. A very
variable plant, of which it is diflicult to establish well-
defined varieties, as one merges into the other by inter-
mediate forms -- - 1. C. nsitatus.
g\ Sheathed stem usually 15 to 20 mm in diameter; leaf-
sheaths more or less densely spinous; leaves 50 to 80 cm
long C. nsitatus (forma typica)
g'. Robust; sheathed stem 2.5 to 3 cm in diameter; leaves
up to 1.2 m long C. usitatus var. major.

y^ Slender; sheathed stem 12 to 15 mm in diameter; leaf-
sheaths almost spineless.-.. C. usitatus var. pala^vanensis.
f. Leaf -sheaths and spathes unarmed; leaflets numerous;
spathels of the female spikelets very short, bracteiform.
2. C. meyenianus.
f. Very slender; leaflets very few and very inequidistant;

spathels of the female spikelets shortly infundibuliform.
3. C. Blancoi.
€'. Spadices (male and female) extremely long, and flagelliform,
considerably longer than the leaves.
/'. Leaflets sparingly spinulous on three nei'ves above, the midrib
alone minutely hairy-spinulous underneath; female spadix

with thickish spikelets drawn together around the main
axis; fruit nearly spherical (13 to 14 by 10 mm), with a
broad, blunt, black beak; seed pitted-ruminate.
4. C. melanorhynchus.
* Arnold, J. R., Rattan supply of the Philippines. Bureau of Foreign

and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. Special Agents Series
No. 95 (1915), pages 3 to 23.
f. Leaflets having three slightly bristly nerves on the upper

surface and covered throughout on the lower surface with
numerous fulvous bristles; female spadix with slender, very
spreading spikelets; fruit small, globose-ovoid (11 to 12.5
by 7 mm), with a narrow beak; seed pitted-ruminate.
5. C. filispadix.
f. Leaflets with two bristly lateral nerves and the midrib
smooth on the upper surface, the midrib bristly and the
lateral nerves smooth underneath; spadices very loosely
branched; male spikelets short, comblike; fruit spherical, 15
to 16 mm in diameter; seed very deeply ruminate through-
out 6. C. Diepenhorstii var. exulans.
dr. Leaflets lanceolate, 5-costulate; very robust; leaflets large, equi-

distant; fruit large, ellipsoid, 3.5 cm long, 2.3 mm thick; seed
quadrangular 7. C. ornatus var. philippinensis.
c". Leaflets conspicuously discolorous, green above, white underneath;
leaf-sheaths flagelliferous ; spadix flagelliferous at its apex;
primary spathes much lacerated in their upper part.
d\ Leaflets bristly on three nerves above and on the midrib alone
beneath 8. C. discolor.
d". Leaflets without bristles or nearly so on the upper surface, densely
sprinkled with numerous subspiny bristles beneath.
C. discolor var. negrosensis.
b'. Female flowers supported by a distinct pedicel derived from the elonga-
tion of the involucrophore; leaves of the upper part of the plant
having the apices with gradually diminishing, pluricostulate leaflets,
and the rachis clawed and subcirriferous.
c\ Leaflets distinctly grouped, broadly oblanceolate and suddenly apic-
ulate, slightly paler below than above; spikelets branched; fruit
pisiform 9. C. Cumingianus.
c'. more or less

Leaflets not grouped, lanceolate, gradually acuminate,
covered underneath with a very thin, adherent, ochraceous coating;
spikelets simple, elongate; fruit pisiform 10. C. shnphysipus.
a'. Leaves having the rachis prolonged into a clawed cirrus.
b\ Male and female spadices having the spikelets provided with a very
distinct pedicellar part which is inserted at the bottom of the
spathes.
c\ Very robust; leaf-sheaths covered with slender spiculae, the latter
individually distinct or more or less confluent by their broadened
bases; leaflets more or less furnished with long bristles, especially
on the midrib underneath; secondary spathes coriaceous, entire;
fruit spherical, 10 to 12 mm in diameter; secondary spathes
smooth 11. C. maximus (forma typica).
d\ Secondary spathes prickly C. maximus var. Merrittiayius.
<i^ Secondary spathes smooth or nearly so; a smaller plant and
with slenderer spikelets than in the species, the fruit also

smaller (9 mm in diameter) C. maximus var. Nanga.
c^ Moderately large; leaf-sheaths very densely covered with blackish
uniform bristles; leaflets vdth long bristles on three costae on
both surfaces; fruit spherical, 10 to 12 mm in diameter.
12. C. Foxivorthyi.
6". Male and female spadices having sessile spikelets inserted at or
near the mouths of their respective spathes.
c\ Primary spathes elongate and closely sheathing.
d\ Fruit containing three seeds.
e\ Robust; leaflets large, subequidistant, lanceolate, long-acum-
inate, plicate-pluricostulate; spikelets thickish, as much as
15 to 16 cm long: fruit spherical, 14 to 17 mm in diameter.
13. C. manillensis.
e". A smaller plant; leaflets broadly lanceolate, shortly acuminate,
subequidistant in the fuU-grow^n plant, in pairs on each side
of the rachis in young plants; fruit obovoid, conspicuously
beaked 14. C. trispermus.
dr. Fruit 1-seeded.
e\ Leaflets equidistant or nearly so.
p. Leaflets broadly lanceolate, pluricostulate.
5r\ Two female flowers at every spathel with a neuter one in-
terposed between the two.

/i\ Female spadix very dense and with short branches;
spikelets short and with few flowers; female flowers
relatively large, 6 mm long; immature fruits fusiform;
fruiting perianth campanulate 15. C. Arugda.
h'. Female spadix very diffusely branched spikelets elongate
;
and with numerous flowers; fruit globose-ovoid; fruit-

ing perianth shortly pedicelliform 16. C. vinosus.
g-. One female flower only at each spathel, with a neuter
flower at its side.
h^. Fruit small, pisiform; seed pitted, the albumen equable
or nearly so.
'P. Leaflets narrowly elliptic-lanceolate, equally narrowed
at both ends, more or less spinulose on some nerves
above, smooth underneath; fruit 8 to 9 in dia- mm
meter, having squarrose scales in twelve longitud-
inal series 17. C. Moseleyanus.
V. Leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, more or less spinulous
on some nerves above, smooth underneath; fruit 6.5
mmin diameter, having appressed scales in 18 to
20 longitudinal series 18. C. mindorensis.
f'. Leaflets lanceolate, very long-acuminate without bris-
tles or spines on either surface; fruit globose-ovoid,
6 mmin diameter, shortly conical-ovoid, and having
squarrose scales; leaf-sheaths quite unarmed.
19. C. multinervis.
h'. Fruit rather large; seed with a deeply ruminated
albumen.
i\ Leaflets large, broadly lanceolate, 40 to 42 cm long,
4 to 4.5 cm wide, pluricostulate and with the nerves
smooth on both surfaces; fruit spherical, 2 cm in
diameter 20. C. grandifolius.
f. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, 22 to 25 cm
5-costulate,
long, 30 32
to mm
wide, with the nerves smooth
on both surfaces; fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, conspicuously
beaked, 25 mm
long, 18 mm
thick.
21. C. Jenningsianus.
/•. Leaflets very narrowly lanceolate, 3-costulate; leaflets more

or less bristly-spinulous on three nerves above and smooth
underneath; fructiferous spikelets curved-scorpioid; fruit
shortly and obtusely beaked, 12 to 13
spherical, in mm
diameter; albumen deeply ruminated; leaf-sheaths armed
with scattered spines 22. C. Samian.
€-. Leaflets conspicuously inequidistant.
/'. Leaflets more or geminate on each side of the
less distinctly
rachis, oblong or lanceolate, the leaflets
5-pluricostulate,
of each pair parallel, that is, not approximate by their
bases and not divaricating; fruiting perianth pedicelliform,
the fruit itself furnished with a short, pedicelliform or
necklike involucrophore.
g\ Robust; leaflets very large, pluricostulate oblong-spathulate
with smooth nerves on both surfaces; 35 to 45 cm long,
6 to 10 cm wide; fruit spherical, 13 mm in diameter;
leaf-sheaths unarmed 23. C. megaj)hyllus.
g'. Rather slender; leaf-sheaths armed with slender spines;
leaflets or oblanceolate, 15 to 25 cm
elliptic-lanceolate
long, 3 to 6.5 cm
wide, with five slender costae almost
smooth on both surfaces 24. C. Ehnerianus.
g^. Slender; unarmed; leaflets oblanceolate-
leaf-sheaths
elliptic oroblong-spathulate, 20 to 24 cm long, 5 to 6.5
cm wide, smooth on both surfaces; fruit globose, 9 to
10 mm in diameter 25. C.mitis.
r. Leaflets 5-costulate, each pair very approximate
those of
by their bases and divaricate; female spikelets having the
involucrophorum (where known) not the least pedicelli-
form or necklike, but immersed within its spathel.
g\ Of medium size; leaf -sheaths strongly spinous; leaflets
elliptic-lanceolate, 22 to 25 cm long, 6 to 6.5 cm wide,
very frequently furnished with one or two rigid spines
on the midrib above near the base, otherwise smooth
on both surfaces; fruiting perianth obconical, almost
spreading 26. C. Reyesianus.
g'. Slender; leaf-sheaths smooth or very sparingly spinulous;
leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, 10 to 16 cm long, 2 to 3.5

cm wide, usually furnished with a few erect needlelike
spines on some of the five costae on the upper surface
and on the margins or else entirely smooth; fruiting
perianth almost explanate; fruit spherical, 10 to 11 mm
diameter
in 27. C. spinifolius.
</\ Leaf-sheaths 2.5 cm in diameter, armed with short spines;
leaflets deep green and smooth when dry, almost equally

shiny on both surfaces, lanceolate-elliptic, quite devoid
of hairs or spinules even at the apex and on the margins,
occasionally furnished above with a robust spinule on
the midrib near the base; male spikelets flattened-
pectinate, with contiguous flowers and very approximate
bracteiform spathels 28. C. viridissimus.
p. Leaflets in distant groups; the latter composed of more than
two leaflets on each side of the rachis; leaf-rachis smooth.
.

g^. Slender; leaf-rachis smooth above; leaflets in groups
of 2 to 4 on each side of the rachis, lanceolate, very
long-acuminate to a filiform tip, 3- sub 5-costulate, 20
to 30 cm long, 15 to 20 cm wide; female spadix very
diffusely paniculate; spikelets filiform; fruit very small,
spherical, 5 mm
in diameter 29. C
viicrosphaerion.
Leaf-sheaths unarmed; leaflets glabrous on both surfaces.
/i\
C. microsphaerion (forma typica)

h'. Leaf-sheaths strongly armed with short spines; leaflets
slightly bristiy-spinulous on one to three nerves on

the upper surface C. inicrospliaerion var. spinosior.
g-. Rather slender; leaflets in distant groups of 3 to 9 on
each side of the rachis, linear, 1-, sub 3-costulate, smooth

on both surfaces, 20 to 25 cm long, 1 cm wide; female
spadix very diffuse and much branched; spikelets fili-
form; fruiting perianth shortly pedicelliform fruit very ;
small, globose 30. C. ramulosus.

f\ Leaflets very inequidistant, yet not distinctly grouped on
each side of the rachis, the latter strongly prickly above,
at least in its lower portion; leaflets elongate, linear-
lanceolate, rigid, 3-costulate, more or less spinuliferous on
the upper surface, smooth underneath, 30 to 32 cm long,
20 to 25 mm
wide; leaf-sheaths about 2 cm in diameter,
armed with scattered, pale, acicular spines; male and
female spadices shorter than the leaves, simply and spread-
ingly branched 31. C. Vidalianus.
c". Primary spathes very loosely sheathing, usually short, and more
or less inflated in their upper part. The species of this group
are diflficult to discriminate if the specimens are not with mature
fruits; the male spadices alone do not offer appreciable characters
,
for specific distinction.
d\ Fruit very small, having convex scales, the latter only slightly
or not at all grooved along the center and with the points not
appressed or subsquarrose.
e\ Leaf-sheaths armed with scattered slender spines or almost
smooth; fruiting perianth pedicelliform, terete.
f. Leaf-sheaths armed with scattered slender spines; primary
spathes aculeolate; fruit ovoid or subobovoid, 6 long, mm
3.5 to 4 mm
thick, the scales arranged in fifteen longi-
tudinal series 32. C. siphonospathus (forma typica).
f. Leaf -sheaths almost spineless; primary spathes smooth;

fruit with scales arranged in fifteen longitudinal series.
C. siphonospathidi var. sublacris.
f. Fruit with scales in twelve longitudinal series; leaflets with
five bristly nerves on the upper surface.
C. siplionospathus var. oUgoIepis major.
f\ Smaller; fruit with scales in twelve longitudinal series;
leaflets with three bristly nerves on the upper surface.
C. siphonospatJiKS var. oligolepis minor.
f. Primary spathes aculeolate; fruit with scales in eighteen
longitudinal series C. siphonospathus var. polylepis.
169644 12
f. Primary spathes very slightly inflated; fruit elongate-ellip-

soid, 10 to 11 mm
long (including the perianth), 5 mm
thick; scales in fourteen or fifteen longitudinal series.
C. sipJionospathns var. batanensis.
e'. Leaf-sheaths very densely armed, at least in their upper part,
with ascending unequal spines.
p. Leaf-sheaths armed with elongate, ascending, very narrowly
laminar spines; the elongate ligula densely armed with
similar spines; petiole and rachis armed irregularly with
unequal spines; leaflets with rigid bristles on the midrib
alone above, smooth underneath; margins conspicuously
spinulous-ciliate; fruit small, ovoid-ellipsoid, 8 to 9 mm
long, 5 mm thick; fruiting perianth campanulate, sub-
pedicelliform 33. C. dhnorphacanthus (forma typica).
</\ Leaf-sheaths armed with unequal long spines, some of
which are very slender and criniform, others laminar;
the very elongate ocrea is also armed with similar
spines; leaflets with rigid bristles on three nerves above
and smooth underneath; margins closely and finely
ciliate-spinulous.
C. dhnorphacanthus var. mo ntalb aniens,
g'. Leaf-sheaths very densely armed, in their upper part mostly,
with very rigid subcriniform spines; leaflets very rigid,
furnished on the upper surface with distant coarse
bristles on the midrib alone, the lower surface smooth,
margins coarsely spinulous; fruit larger than in the
species, globose, 13 mm
long, 10 mm
thick; supported
by the short terete pedicelliform perianth.
C. dhnorphacanthus var. zamhalensis.
d'. Fruit covered by strongly gibbous scales, very deeply gr(j;oved
along the center, and with very appressed points.
e\ Fruit ovoid or subglobose-ovoid, 8 to 12 long, including mm
the short, terete, supporting perianth, and 5 to 8 thick, mm
obtusely beaked.
/'. Leaflets numerous, elongate, 10 to 15 mm
wide; leaves with
subequidistant leaflets, at least in their lower part, and
more or less grooved above.
34. C. microcarpus (forma typica).
/'. Very slender;very narrow, not numerous, and very
leaflets
inequidistant; spadix small.. C. microcarpus var. diminutus.
e-. Fruit ovoid or subovoid, minutely beaked, 17 long, includ- mm
ing the short, terete, pedicelliform perianth, and 12 mm
through 35. C. halconensis.
c^. The primary spathes at first enveloping the partial inflorescences,
then splitting longitudinally and opening flat, becoming laminar
and finally falling in decay; leaflets conspicuously discolorous,
green above and with a chalky coating underneath; fruit small,
ovoid or globose-ovoid, 8 to 9 mm long, including the short,
terete, pedicelliform perianth, and 5 mm thick 36. C. bicolor.
PLATE XV. CARYOTA RUMPHIANA (PUGAHAN).

Genus CARYOTA Linnaeus
(Plates XV-XVII)
Species of the genus Caryota, the so-called fish-tail palms,

are decidedly ornamental, and are well characterized by their
bipinnate leaves, their peculiar, inequilateral leaflets, which are
toothed on the upper margins, and by their axillary, pendulous
inflorescences. Some species of Caryota send up shoots from
the base of the trunk, but in the Philippines only a single species
has this characteristic. When the palm reaches full size, it
sends out a flowering shoot from the axil of the uppermost leaf
and then produces successive shoots in the lower axils until the
tree is exhausted and dies. There are five species known from
the Philippines.
a\ Large trees. Stem tall, solitary. Fruit 1- or 2-seeded. Fruiting pei-i-

anth 10 to 11 mm in diameter. Male flowers large, 15 to 17 mm
long,
with numerous stamens.
6\ Leaflets of the full-grown plant long and narrow, having the upper
margin at times very obsoletely, yet at times rather sharply, and
very unequally toothed, and the lower margin much produced into
a taillike point. Male flowers with 40 to 60 stamens. Stem up to
30 to 40 cm in diameter 1. C. Rumphiana var. philippinensis.
b'. Leaflets having the upper margin deeply and acutely toothed, the
teeth long, narrow, acuminate, and very close together. Male flowers
with 27 to 30 stamens. A smaller plant than var. philippinensis.
C. Rumphiana var. oxyodonta.
a". Of medium size. Fruit always 1-seeded. Male flowers (where known)
small and with few stamens.
6\ Stem solitary. Male flowers with 6 to 9 stamens only.
c^ Trunk 5 to 8 m high, 10 to 20 cm in diameter. Leaflets erect-
spreading, dimidiate-rhomboidal. Male flowers 6 to 7 mm
long,
with 9 stamens. Fruiting perianth 6 to 7 mmin diameter.
Fruit 12 to 17 mm in diameter, spherical. Seed with a chestnut-
brown polished surface. Branches of the spadix strongly hairy-
scurfy 2. C. Cumingii.
c". Leaflets very spreading or horizontal, frequently opposite, very

sharply toothed. Male flowers * * *. Fruit spherical, 12 mm
in diameter. Seed nearly spherical, 8 to 9 mm
in diameter, with
a black, even, and polished surface 8. C. Merrillii.
c^ Leaflets ascending, verynarrow and very deeply and sharply toothed.

Male flowers having 6 stamens only. Fruit 11 to 12 mm
in diam-
eter. Seed slightly broader than high, 9 mm
broad, of a
shiny chestnut-brovra color, the surface slightly grooved.
4. C. majestica.
b\ Soboliferous or with stems in clusters, about 4 m

high and 10 cm in
diameter. Male flowers 8 to 12 mm
long, with 12 to 16 stamens.
Fruit 15 to 16 mm in diameter, frequently broader than high.
Fruiting perianth 8.5 to 9 mm in diameter 5. C. mitis.
'
\î^
PLATE XVI. INFLORESCENCE OF CARYOTA RUMPHIANA (PUGAHAN).

CARYOTA CUMINGII Lodd. PUGAHAN OR FiSH-TAIL PALM.

Local names: Bdhi (Mandaya) ;hdgol (Bikol) patikan (Bisaya)
; ;
pugu-
han (Manobo) ;
pola (Bagobo) ;
pngdhan, tagipan (Tagalog).
This palm is widely distributed in the Philippines. It is
usually about 6 meters in height and 20 centimeters in diameter,

with spreading alternate leaves scattered along a considerable
portion of the upper part of the rather slender trunk. A
kind of sago is sometimes secured from this palm by the method
used in obtaining sago from the buri, sugar palm, and the true
sago palm. Canjota is, however, apparently less utilized for
its starch than are the other palms just mentioned. This and
other species of the genus are occasionally used as a source of
tuba or palm wine. It is claimed that this tuba has a rather
unpleasant odor and flavor, for which reason it is gathered
only when the more desirable palms are not available. The
fruits are globose, small in size, and with a single seed. The
pulpy outer covering contains very numerous, stinging, needle-
like crystals or rhaphides. Blanco states that the mature
seeds are sometimes used by the Filipinos as a substitute for
the Areca fruit for chewing. The lower parts of the petiole
furnish a soft, rather flossy fiber similar to that obtained from
the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) The two fibers are called
.
by the same name, barok, and are used for the same purposes,
that is, as tinder, for caulking boats, and formerly, according
to Delgado, for stuffing pillows. Splints cut from the petioles
are used in making baskets. This palm, like all other repre-
sentatives of the genus, is very attractive andcommonly
is quite
cultivated for ornamental purposes. some of
It is possible that
our species might be relatively as valuable as the toddy palm of
India {Caryota urens Linn.) which is extensively used as a
source of starch, tuba, alcohol, and sugar, although none of the
Philippine species are thus utilized to any great extent.
Among the other species of the genus reported from the
Philippines is Caryota mitis Lour., which has recently been found
in Palawan and which is now occasionally cultivated in Manila
for ornamental purposes. This is a slender palm, and the only
representative of the genus in the Philippines which sends up
shoots from the base of the trunk. Caryota rumphiana Mart,
is a magnificent species much larger in every way than Caryota
ciLYningii, and is planted in Manila for ornamental purposes.

Caryota merrillii Becc. is apparently closely allied to Caryota
cumingii, and Caryota majestica Lodd. to Caryota rumphiana.
The various species do not appear to have specific local names,
but are all designated by names quoted under Caryota cumingii.
. ;
Ig4 PHILIPPINE PALMS
The buds (ubud) of all the species are edible. The outer
part of the trunk of most of them is split and made into very
durable slat flooring.
Genus COCOS Linnaeus
With the exception of the recently introduced Cocos plumosa

Hook., that is now cultivated to some extent for ornamental
purposes in Manila, this genus is represented in the Philippines
by a single species, the common coconut palm.
cocos NUCIFERA L. (Plates I, XVIII-XXIII). Coconut palm.
Local names: Coco or cocotero (Spanish); giragara (Zamboanga) lohi ;
or h'lhi (Pampanga, Bisaya) niog or niug (Ibanak, Iloko, Pampanga, Ta-

;
galog, Bikol, Bisaya); ngotngot (Zambales) oiTgot (Cagayan); punlaing ;
(Basilan)
This palm is the most abundant, most universally distributed,

and from an economic standpoint by far the most valuable in
the Philippines, and for that matter the most important of the
commercial palms of the entire world. It is cultivated in most
parts of the Philippines; and, where favorable conditions are
found, thrives equally well on the seashore and inland up to
altitudes of about 700 meters, and in some regions up to 1,500
meters. The palm can not successfully withstand a long dry
season, such as is found in the region about Manila Bay, Luzon,
but thrives best in those regions where the rainfall is more or
less distributed throughout the entire year, especially on slopes
where moving ground water is constantly available. In the
Archipelago larger areas are devoted to its cultivation than
in any other similar part of the world.
Cocos nucifeia is not a native of the Archipelago, but was
apparently introduced during the prehistoric period. It is never
found wild in the Philippines.
The coconut palm has a multitude of uses, in number and
importance probably not exceeded by any other palm. It yields
timber food ; fermented and unf ermented drinks
; alcohol ;
vinegar thatching material splints strips and fiber for making

; ; ;
baskets, mats, rope, hats, brushes, brooms, etc. fuel caulking ; ;
material utensils for household use, such as cups, bowls, spoons,

;
etc. ; oil for food, cooking, illumination, for making soap, sub-
stitutes for butter and lard, ointments and oil cake for
;
feeding domestic animals and for fertilizer. The bud makes

an excellent salad. The palm is very ornamental and is fre-
quently planted for decorative effect. The fresh leaves are
extensively used for temporary decorations, and large numbers
PLATE XVIII COCONUT PALM IN FRUIT, MINDANAO.

lg§ PHILIPPINE PALMS
of prepared young leaves are used for religious purposes on

Palm Sunday. The leaflets are used for wrapping a rice con-
fection known as suman, as described under Corijpha elata.
While the most valuable crop in the Philippines is rice, the
coconut and abaka (Manila hemp) compete for second place.
The most important product of the coconut palm is coco-
nut oil, which is obtained by pressing the kernels. Formerly
the dried kernels, known as copra, were exported from the
Philippines, but recently a number of factories have been es-
tablished, and it seems that in the future the oil rather than the
copra will be exported. The pressed cake is valuable as a food
for stock or as a fertilizer. With the present high price of fuel
in the Philippines it has been used to a considerable extent as
fuel. The oil is used extensively for the manufacture of food
products and soap.
The shells of the coconut make a very high grade of charcoal
widely used for gas-masks. In 1918 the United States military
authorities had an extensive organization for securing large
quantities of this charcoal in the Philippines. Locally these
shells have been much used as fuel for drying copra.
In the internal commerce of the Philippines the most im-
portant product of the coconut palm, after the fruit and the
derived products, food, copra, and oil, is the fermented sap or
tuba and the alcohol distilled from it. A large number of
palms are devoted entirely to the tuba industry. The general
method of tapping the coconut palm in the Philippines for the
production of tuba is as follows The unopened inflorescences
:
are selected and are bent downward slowly and gradually, this
operation being repeated several times a day for one or two
weeks. The tip of the inflorescence, including the tip of the
spathe and the branches of the inflorescence, is then cut off
with a sharp knife. In general practice the spathe is not re-
moved, and the whole inflorescence may or may not be bound
with string; the wounded end of the inflorescence may or may
not be bruised to stimulate the flow of sap, but usually the cutting
alone is relied upon to produce the flow. When the flow of sap
commences, a bamboo receiver (bamboo joint) is placed in posi-
tion to catch and retain the sap, as with the nipa, buri, and sugar
palms. A thin slice is removed from the wounded end of the
inflorescence twice each day to ensure a continued flow.
The average daily yield of sap from properly managed trees
was found by Gibbs to be about 1.4 liters, and it is estimated
'•=
* Philippine Journal of Science, Section A, Vol. 6 (1911), page 157.

PLATE XXI. COCONUT TREE TAPPED FOR SAP.

that the general annual average per tree under good condi-
tions is about 400 liters. Gibbs says that fresh sap probably
contains about 16.5 per cent sucrose. As with other palm saps,
fermentation commences almost as soon as the sap drips from
the wounded inflorescence. The partly fermented sap, or tuba
as it is locally known, is extensively utilized by the Filipinos
as a beverage. In many parts of the Philippines, an exten-
sive industry has grown up in the fermentation of tuba and
the distillation of its alcohol content, this product being
known in the Philippines as or hbio (the last a
cllak, cirak,
corruption of Spanish ''vino"). Some idea of the extent of the
industry may be gained from the fact that in the year 1910 a
total of nearly 700,000 pesos in internal revenue was collected
on alcohol from this source, and the production of coconut-tuba
alcohol presents a steady annual increase.
If acidicfermentation be allowed to follow alcoholic fermen-
tation coconut tuba, the result will be vinegar, which is
in
said to be of good quality. Care must be taken, however, to
prevent putrefaction of the sap, to guard against which some
bark rich in tannin is usually added to tuba destined for the
manufacture of vinegar. Coconut-tuba vinegar is manufac-
tured in the Philippines only to a limited extent for local use.
As with the sweet, unfermented saps of the buri, nipa, and
sugar palms, fresh coconut-palm sap can be evaporated to a
syrup or sugar. Sugar, however, is but rarely, if at all, manu-
factured in the Philippines from the coconut-palm sap. In
gathering the sap for this purpose, fermentation must be pre-
vented or inhibited, as in other palm saps.
Locally, large quantities of the nuts are utilized for food and
for extracting oil for domestic purposes. The unripe as well
as the mature fruits are utilized in various ways for food.
Some trees produce abnormal fruits, known as makapuno
(from Tagalog puno = iuW) In these the whole interior of
.
the nut is occupied by a soft, rather firm tissue quite different

in texture from the hard flesh of normal nuts. These abnor-
mal fruits are produced on the same tree with normal ones,
and will not germinate. Only a small percentage of coconut
trees in a given area will produce the makapuno nuts, which
are valued as a delicacy and which command a much higher
price than the normal fruits, often selling at a price ten times
as great as the latter.
A commercial product of the coconut that is but slightly
prepared from the husk
utilized in the Philippines is the fiber
Fig. 1. Coconut palm with inflorescences cut and bound to be inserted in bamboo joint for
collecting tuba.
Fig. 2. Coconut palm with bamboo tube for collecting tuba attached to inflorescence stalk.
PLATE XXII.
or pericarp. This is commercially known as coir. It is va-

riously employed for making bags, mattings, door mats, and
for stuffing cushions, especially carriage cushions. In many
parts of the Indo-Malayan region and Polynesia, coir is an im-
portant source of cordage for local use. One of its chief local
uses is for caulking boats. Coir is also locally used for making
a thatch-like raincoat much used by both Filipino and Chinese
teamsters. There is no record that it enters into the external
commerce of the Archipelago.
The leaves are utilized in various ways in the Philippines.
The leaflets are sometimes used to thatch houses, for making
hats, coarse baskets, mats, etc., but are much less durable for
these purposes than the leaflets of some other palms. The mid-
ribs of the leaflets are commonly used for making coarse brooms
and certain types of baskets and trays. Splints prepared from
the outer part of the leafstalk are used in making baskets.
Genus COELOCOCCUS Wendland

COELOCOCCUS AMICARUM Wendl. POLYNESIAN IVORY-.XUT PALM.
The ivory-nut palm is a native of the Caroline Islands, and
was introduced into Guam and the Philippines by the Spaniards.
The flowering shoots grow from the axils of the leaves. The
globose fruits, up to 10 centimeters in diameter, are covered
with closely overlapping, hard, shiny, brownish scales. The
large seeds are very hard, ivory-like in texture and appearance,
and are commercially utilized for making buttons. This spe-
cies apparently occurs as a widely scattered, cultivated palm in
Panay and Zamboanga, in the latter province known as tim-
bfiiigmi.
Genus CORYPHA Linnaeus
CORYPHA ELATA Roxb. (Plates XXIV-XXVIII). BuRi.

Local names: Bagdtai, tciktak (Ibanag, Nueva Vizcaya) Mdi, buri (Ta- ;
galog, Bisaya, Bikol) ehus or ibus (Pampanga, Tarlac) piet (Nueva Ecija,
; ;
Pangasinan) ; serar (Bagobo) ; silad (Bisaya); silug (Iloko, Pangasinan,

Tarlac).
This the largest and most stately palm to be found in the

is
Philippines. Its straight trunk attains a diameter of 1 meter
and a height of 20 meters. The species has very large, fan-
shaped leaves which are rounded in outline and up to 3 meters
in length. The outer part is split into about one hundred nar-
row segments. The very stout petioles are from 2 to 3 meters
long and their margins are armed with very hard, rather large,
black teeth. The plant grows 25 to 30 or more years, during
which tim.e large quantities of starch collect in the trunk.
169644 13
—
It then flowers once and dies, the enormous quantities of stored

starch being used up during the short flowering and fruiting
period. At maturity the leaves wither and there appears an
enormous, pyramidal, terminal, flowering shoot, which may be
7 meters in height.
From an industrial standpoint the buri palm is one of great
local importance. A fermented drink or palm wine (tuba),
alcohol, vinegar, syrup, and sugar are produced from the sap.
The trunk yields large quantities of food material in the form
of starch. The buds (ubud) are used for salads or as a vegetable.
The kernels of the young fruits are edible and are made into
sweetmeats while Blanco states that the outer covering of the
;
mature fruit is eaten by birds and sometimes by children. The

mature seeds are used for beads (rosaries) and buttons. The
wood is practically valueless. The leaf is of special importance.
The petiole yields the so-called buntal fiber of which the famous
Lucban hats are made or which, when crudely extracted, is some-
;
times twisted into rope. The mature leaf is used for covering
tobacco bales, rarely as a thatch for houses, while the ribs are
used for making brooms. From the unopened leaf is obtained a
very fine fiber, corresponding to raffia fiber, which is utilized in
making cloth, fancy articles, and as string. Fibers secured
from the ribs of the unopened leaves are extensively used in the
manufacture of the so-called Calasiao or Pototan hats. Strips
of the unopened leaf are made into hats, mats, bags, sails, bas-
kets, and other articles.
Table III. Stand of buri palms {Corypha elata) on five blocks, aggregating
4-585hectares in the Rio Chico region of Luzon. Data frotn report
by Ranger Rola.
PLATE XXIV. CORYPHA ELATA (BURI) AND TWO SPECIMENS OF CARYOTA

(PUGAHAN).
—
Table III. Stand of buri palms {Corypha elata) etc. — Continued.

[Plants per hectare.]
Number of
block.
197
PLATE XXV. CORYPHA ELATA (BURI) IN FLOWEF

The buntal fiber, derived from the petiole, is especially val-

uable and is extensively used in the manufacture of fine hats
both for local use and for export. The production of buntal
fiber originated in the region about Sariaya, Tayabas Province,
Luzon, while the hats are commonly known in the market as
Lucban hats, being mostly manufactured in the neighboring
town of Lucban. These are the so-called Bangkok hats of the
American trade. Now, however, the production of buntal is
extending to other regions, and buntal hats are being manu-
factured in other towns, sometimes from materials locally
produced, sometimes from fiber purchased in Sariaya or
neighboring towns. Technical Bulletin No. 3 of the Philippine
Bureau of Education * gives minute directions for the produc-
tion of the fiber, for the problem of buntal production is not
only one of method of extraction, but also of proper selection
of petioles. Buntal is extracted from the petioles of young or
immature palms, and apparently the fiber is best obtained
from those plants having considerable sap flow. Buntal fiber
commands a price of about 4.00 pesos per kilo, which in a
country like the Philippines indicates that the cost of extraction
is great and that the yield of fiber of the proper length and
quality is small.
The material prepared from the unopened leaf of the buri
palm is of great local significance; buri strips, which are pre-
pared from the young leaf, being perhaps most important. The
coarser strips are used in weaving sacks, coarse mats, and sails,
which are sometimes of considerable size; the finer, better-
prepared ones in manufacturing various grades of hats, mats,
and baskets. Hundreds of thousands of sugar sacks made from
buri strips and known as bayones, annually convey practically
all the sugar exported from the Philippines.
In some towns the manufacture of buri-strip hats for export

is an important local industry. These hats are chiefly of low
grade and cheap. Buri-strip mat making is an extensive in-
dustry wherever the palm grows. The coarse mats serve for
packing and baling various materials for export. The finer
ones, as the finer hats, are always made from bleached strips.
Frequently the strips are dyed difi"erent colors and combined
to produce various geometric figures.
The unopened leaves are important for another reason. They
produce the so-called buri raffia, variously known in the Phil-
* Philippine Craftsman, Volume III (1914), page 45.

ippines as saguran, daet, hanlo, baijokbok, and hubiik fiber.

This fiber is stripped from the outer part of the petiole. The
material from the upper surface is stronger than that from
the lower, but not so fine in texture. The stripping must be
done not only from young, unopened leaves, but also within a
short time after the leaves are removed from the palm. This
fiber IS the same as the agel fiber of the Dutch East Indies, that
is quite extensively produced in southern Celebes and there com-
mands a price of from 4 to 8 guilders per picul. It is much
used there for making fine matting.'^' This material is now
quite widely employed in the industrial work of the Philippine

schools for all purposes for which true raffia fiber is used.
Comparative tensile-strength tests, made by Saleeby f on rafiia
fiber from Madagascar and the Philippine product of Corypha
elata, showed that the true raffia was about 30 per cent stronger
than the buri product, but that the latter was superior in color,
fineness and lustre. This material was formerly used in many
parts of the Philippines for weaving cloth. The cloth varies
greatly in fineness, is not especially durable, yet in some parts
of the Islands is still used for clothing. The material readily
takes colors and is excellent for making cushion covers, screens,
bags, coiled baskets, etc.
From the ribs of the unopened leaves important fibers are
secured that are used for the manufacture of the Calasiao or
Pototan hats, so called from the two towns where this type
of hat originated, Calasiao in Pangasinan Province, Luzon, and
Pototan in Panay. The ribs are removed from the leaf, graded
as to color, split, the softer interior removed, and the halves
again split once or twice. The strands thus produced are
smoothed, worked down to the required thickness, and are then
ready for weaving. Hats made of this material have a well-
deserved reputation for appearance and durability. Fine bas-
kets, trays, cigarette cases, etc., are also manufactured from
this material. Sometimes the entire ribs are used for making
coarse brooms.
In many parts of the Philippines the leafstalks are gathered,
thoroughly pounded or crushed, and the vascular strands re-
moved for the purpose of manufacturing cordage. The fibers
==
See Heyne, De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indie, Volume I
(1913), page 41.

Volume (1913), page 192; Philip-
t Philippine Agricultural Review, 6
pine Craftsman, Volume 2 (1913), page 422.
Fig. 1. Outer and inner halves of one Calasiao hat.
Fig. 2. Completed buri-midrib (Calasiao) hat.
PLATE XXVll.
are twisted into a rope which is extensively used in some parts

of the Philippines, notably in Panay.
Strips made from the leaves are used for wrapping a con-
fection of glutinous rice, known as suman. The strips are
wrapped in a spiral form around the confection to form a
sausage-shaped package. Whole leaves are regularly brought
for this purpose to Manila, where suman making is an estab-
lished industry. In the provinces it is merely a domestic affair.
For a discussion of the various buri fibers and their products
see the following:
Miller, H. H., Philippine Hats, Philippine Bureau of Educa-
tion Bulletin 33,(1910), pages 1 to 60; Robinson, C. B., Phil-
ippine Hats, Philippine Journal of Science, Section C, Volume
6 (1911), pages 93 to 131; Muller, T., Industrial Fiber Plants
of the Philippines, Bureau of Education Bulletin 49, (1913),
pages 73 to 85; Gibbs, H. D., The Alcohol Industry in the Phil-
ippine Islands, Part I, Philippine Journal of Science, Section
A, Volume 6 (1911), pages 147 to 206; Miller, H. H. and others,
Philippine Mats, Philippine Craftsman, Volume I (1912), pages
194 to 203; Parker, L., Philippine Craftsman, Volume 2 (1913),
pages 376 to 395.
At present, the production of sugar, alcohol, and starch from
the buri palm is only of minor local importance and gives little
promise of future development into industries of great mag-
nitude. The subject has been extensively investigated by
Gibbs * with the following general results.
The sap is obtained from the buri palm in two ways. Ap-
parently the more usual way is to cut an inflorescence near its
base, protecting the cut surface from the sun and rain by a
small covering of leaves, and collecting the sap which flows
from the cut surface, in small earthen jars. The second method,
used in Tayabas and some other provinces, but not known
to a great many localities, is employed on trees which have not
flowered and which may, indeed, be very far from maturity.
The trees are stripped of leaves, the top bound with bamboo
hoops 8 to 10 centimeters apart for a distance of about 1 meter,
and then cut off" so that the heart of the tree is exposed. The
surface thus produced is cut and channeled, furnishing a clean
tissue which is continually exposed to the air, but protected
from the sun by a covering of leaf thatch. In three or four
* Gibbs, H. D., The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands. Part I.
Philippine Journal of Science, Volume 6 (1911), pages 99 to 206.

Fig. 1. Buntal (Lukban). Fig. 2. Buntal (Baliuag).
Fig. 3. Calasiao. Fig. 4. Buri leaf.
PLATE XXVIII. PORTIONS OF PHILIPPINE HATS MAGNIFIED FOUR DIAMETERS.

— . ;
days, sometimes one, the sap begins to flow steadily and rapidly.
In either case, the tree can of course be tapped but once, and
death ensues in a short time. Gibbs observed two trees tapped
by the first method. In one case the flow continued for four
and one-half and in the other for three and one-half months.
An old tree, tapped according to the second method, gave a
flow for 132 days. This tree produced a total of 2,699.65 liters
of sap or an average daily flow of 20.45 liters. The maximum
flow recorded from this tree for a day was 45.2 liters. Another
tree, about 12 years old, produced sap for 55 days. Fresh cuts
should be made at frequent intervals, as the rate of flow may
be thus temporarily increased as much as 50 per cent. The
rate also varies according to the thickness of the slice removed
at least, if the exudation is from the top of the trunk. Gibbs
found that a daily decreasing rate of flow could be changed to
Table IV. Sugar in total sap flow of the buri palm {Corypha elata)
Tree
num-
ber.
out and molded. This is usually done either in coconut shells

or small square boxes made from buri leaves. Gibbs reports
that sugar of excellent quality, polarizing at 94' to 98', has been
produced in the laboratory of the Bureau of Science by boiling
the sap, preserved with lime, in open pans. Although the sap
contains a high percentage of sugar and the yield per tree is
considerable, Gibbs was not of the opinion that buri sap alone
could be successfully employed as a commercial source of sugar.
He says, however, that when a large stand of buri occurs in
the proximity of a sugar mill it seems entirely feasible to use
the sap in connection with sugar-cane juice.
Filipinos make starch from the trunk of the buri. The entire
pithy portion of the trunk is cut into strips, dried, and then
pounded to separate the starch from the fiber. The fine dust
thus obtained is washed in cold water; the starch settles out
in the usual way, and is dried. Bacon * obtained a yield of
6 per cent of starch, and on this basis he calculated that from
an averaged-sized tree about a hundred kilos of starch could
be obtained. The starch is in large grains. According to Ba-
con, it does not wash white, but always has a decidedly red hue.
In view of this fact and of the difficulty in extracting it, he
did not think that the buri palm could be utilized commercially
for starch.
Genus DAEMONOROPS Blume (Plate XXIX).
The species Daemonorops, like those of Calamus, are

of
slender, climbing palms (rattans) having the same sylvan hab-
itat, gro\\i;h-form, general adaptations for climbing, and uses.
As a rule, however, the rattan yielded by Daemonorops is de-
cidedly inferior to that of Calamus. Daemonorops has by some
authors been reduced to Calamus, and there is no single char-
acter that will always distinguish the two genera. However,
they can usually be separated by the following characters In :
DaeynonoTops the leaf sheaths never produce long whip-like

structures; in Calamus they often do. In the former the ocrea
is very short, in the latter often greatly developed; in the for-
mer the upper leaves are always supplied with a whip-like
structure, in the latter the flagellum may or may not be present.
In Daemonorops the spathes are never armed with claws and
the panicle is short, while in Calamus the lower parts of the
spathes are so armed and the spadices are usually greatly
elongated.

Philippine Journal of Science, Section A, Volume 6 (1911), pages 99 to 206.
a\ Cymbospatha. Spadix, c? and ?, contracted. Primary spathes cymbi-

form, beaked, the outermost completely inclosing the inner ones.
1. D. Margaritae var. palcnv aniens.
a^ Piptospatha. Spadix, c^ and ?, elongated. Inner primary spathes

gradually longer than the outermost.
6\ Leaflets very inequidistant, ensiform, the largest 40 to 50 cm long,
2.5 to 3 cm wide; fruit ovoid-ellipsoidal, 25 mm
long, 16 to 17 mm
thick, very shortly pedicellate 2. D. virescens.
b'. Leaflets equidistant.

c\ The mouths of the leaf-sheaths unarmed.
d\ Leaflets lanceolate-ensiform, the largest 30 to 45 cm long, 3 to
3.5 cm wide, the midrib only sparsely bristly below, smooth
above or else minutely spinulous near the apex; fruit spherical,
mammillate-beaked, 18 to 20 mm
in diameter 3. D. ochrolepis.
<f Leaflets less than 3 cm wide, bristly on three to five nerves above.
.
e\ Leaflets 30 cm long, 15 to 16 mmwide (the largest) bristly

,
on three nerves above, and on the midrib only underneath;

the axis of the spadix and spikelets coated with a rusty-
brown scurf; fruit carried on a pedicel 8 to 10 mm long,
globose-ovoid, obtusely mammillate-beaked.
4. D. urdanetanus.
e'-. Leaflets very narrowly lanceolate, 20 to 23 cm long, 14 to 18

mm wide (the largest), bristly on three nerves above, and
with a few long bristles on the midrib only underneath.
Male flowers very long and slender (12 mm long).
5. D. Loherianus.
e'. Leaflets 30 cm long, 15 to 20 mmwide (the largest), bristly

on five nerves above, but only on the midrib beneath, fruit
12 to 17 mm
long, 9 to 11 mm
through, ovoid-ellipsoid, carried
on a pedicel 4 to 6 mm
long 6. D. pedicellaris.
(f. Leaflets less than 3 cm wide, having the midrib alone spinulous,
on only one or on both surfaces.

e\ Leaflets 30 to 32 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide (the largest),
having the midrib alone spinulous on both surfaces; axis of
the spadix and spikelets densely coated with a copious brown
felt; fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, blunt-mammillate, carried on a
thick, 5 to 6 mm
long pedicel 7. D. pannosus.
€'. Leaflets 30 to 40 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide (the largest),

smooth or nearly so on the upper surface, underneath the
midrib alone remotely spinulous; axial parts of the spadix and
spikelets coated with adherent rusty-brown scurf; fruit
globose and obtusely mammillate, 17 to 18 mm in diameter,
with a few well-conformed scales, and carried on a pedicel
10 to 12 mm
long 8. D. oligolepis.
c'. The mouths of the leaf-sheaths armed with erect spines, longer
than those on the body.
d\ Fruit large, over 2 cm in diameter; leaflets narrowly ensiform,
40 to 42 cm long, 13 to 15 mm
broad (the largest), spinulous
on three nerves above and bristly on the midrib alone beneath;
fruit spherical, 20 to 24 mm
in diameter.... 9. D. Clemensianus.
d'. Fruit less than 2 cm in diameter.
DAEMONOROPS MOLLIS (6AUDICHAUDI1) (A RATTAN).

PLATE XXIX.
e\ Leaflets linear-ensiform, 35 to 45 cm long, 16 to 24 broad mm

(the largest) with three bristly nerves on the upper surface,
,
underneath the midrib alone or, occasionally, also three nerves

bristly; partial inflorescences and spikelets spreading; fruit
globose, mammillate-beaked, often slightly depressed, 15 to
18 mm diameter
in 10. D. Gaudichaudii.
e'. Leaflets narrowly ensiform, 55 to 60 cm long, 20 to 22 mm
broad (the largest) almost smooth above and with only a
,
few short bristles on the midrib underneath; partial in-

florescences and spikelets inserted at a very acute angle;
fruit globose, conically beaked, 12 mm in diameter.
11. D. affinis.
e^ Leaflets lanceolate-ensiform, 33 to 40 cm
17 to 20
long, mm
broad, bristly on three to five nerves on the upper surface
and on the midrib alone underneath; spikelets spreading;
fruit globular or shortly ovoid, minutely beaked, 12 mm
in diameter D. Curranii.
12.
e\ Leaflets linear-lanceolate, 25 to 28 cm long, 12 to 14 broad mm
(the largest), sparingly spinulous on three nerves above
and underneath with only a few bristles on the midrib from
the middle upward; fruit small, broadly ovoid-ellipsoid, 12
mm
long, 9 mm
thick. A slender plant, sheathed stem 12 to
15 mm in diameter 13. D. gracilis.
Genus ELAEIS Jacquin
ELAEIS GUINEENSIS Jacq. (Plates XXX, XXXI). Oil palm.

The oil palm, which was introduced into the Philippines some
time after the mJddle of the last centur^% is grown in Manila
and in some of the other larger towns merely for ornamental
purposes. It flowers and fruits abundantly in the Philippines,
but no part of the palm is utilized by the Filipinos. It is of
immense value in tropical West Africa, its original home, and
large quantities of oil and kernels are annually sent to Europe.
Hubert * states that the annual export of oil and kernels from
tropical Africa exceeds in value 40,000,000 dollars. In various
parts of Africa, palm wine, corresponding to our tuba from the
coconut, nipa, buri, etc., is extracted, either by making incisions
in the upper part of the trunks of standing trees by making ;
small incisions just below the insertion of the fruiting peduncle,

or by felling the tree. The yield per tree by the first method
varies from 50 to 200 liters; by the other it is said not to ex-
ceed 26 gallons. The buds, like those of many different kinds of
palms, are edible.
Genus HETEROSPATHE Scheffer
This genus is represented by four species all similar in ap-

pearance and apparently for the most part closely allied. The
* Hubert, P., Le Palmier a huile, Volume 9 (1911), pages 1 to 314.

lK9(i44 14
Philippine species are Heterospathe phiUppinensis Becc, H.

negrosensis Becc, H. sibuya7iensis Becc, and the extra-Phil-
ippine H. elata Scheff. The genus is relatively unimportant
from an economic standpoint and a consideration of the most
common and widely distributed species will suffice,
Cojispecttis of the species.
a'. Large trees.
b\ tree 8 to 10 m high.
A Leaflets with strong secondary nerves, the
midrib without paleolae underneath. Spadix three times branched,
floriferous branches slender. Fruit globular, 7 to 7.5 in diam- mm
eter, excentrically apiculate, the surface granulosa from short
scattered sclerosomes. Seed spherical 1. H. elata.
b-. A tree as much as 9 m high, 12 cm in diameter. Leaflets having

rather distinct secondary nerves, and the midrib furnished under-
neath with conspicuous brown paleolae. Spadix three times
branched; floriferous branches thickish (2.5 thick). Fruit mm
ovoid, 1 cm long, 7 mm
thick, having the point conical and slightly
oblique and the surface shagreened by linear sclerosomes. Seed
globose-ovoid, blunt 2. H. sibuyanensis.
a'. Shrubs or small trees.
b'. Stem slender, 1 to 3 m in diameter.

high, 2 to 3 cm
The largest
leaflets 25 to 30 cm long, 10 to 15 mm
broad, secondary nerves faint.
Spadix twice branched in its basal part, simply branched above.
Fruit ovoid, 10 to 11 long, 6 mm mm
thick, very suddenly, and
nearly centrally, apiculate, the surface closely shagreened by con-
spicuous, shortly fusiform sclerosomes. Seed globose-ovoid, blunt.
3. H. phiUppinensis.
b'-. More robust than the preceding, 3 to 5 high. m

Stem 4 to 5 cm
in diameter. Leaflets 35 to 40 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide, the
secondary nerves rather distinct. Spadix twice branched. Fruit
ovoid-ellipsoid, narrowing above to a conical, nearly symmetrical
point, 9 to 11 mm long, 5 mm thick. Seed ovoid, acute.
4. H. negrosensis.
HETEROSPATHE ELATA Scheff. (Plate XXXII). SaGISI.
Local names: Dayunmka (Cagayan) ; sagisi, segisi (Bisaya) ; salaniog

(Bagobo) ; tagise (Bikol).
This slender palm with pinnate leaves 3.5 to 4 meters

is a tall,
in length, and long, pendulous, branching, axillary fruit stalks

with numerous, small, globose fruits. The palm is widely dis-
tributed in the Philippines from Luzon to Mindanao. In the
Bisaya islands it is not uncommonly planted about houses, either
for ornamental or economic purposes. The small hard seeds
are said sometimes to be chewed as a substitute for the Areca
seed. The buds of this, and apparently of all the species of the
genus, are edible. From the petioles, splints are secured for
use in making baskets. In Bohol the leaflets are extensively
used in the manufacture of the sun-hats known as salokots.
PLATE XXXI. FRUIT OF ELAEIS GUINEENSIS (OIL PALM).

The palm is decidedly ornamental and is worthy of more ex-

tended cultivation for this reason.
Heterospathe negrosensis is known in Visayan as saluai and
Heterospathe sibuyanensis as bills.
Genus KORTHALSIA Blume
This genus is represented in the Philippines by four known
species. Calamus and Daemonorops, but
It is closely allied to
is readily distinguishable by its inflorescence and its broad,
wedge-shaped leaflets which are usually whitish beneath. Like

Calamus and Daemonorops, our species of Korthalsia are climb-
ing palms. They are invariably sjdvan. The stems are of in-
definite length and of the same diameter throughout. These
palms are of some biological interest from the fact that the
more or less inflated sheaths are always inhabited by colonies
of ants. In general the stems of Korthalsia may be used for
the same purposes as those of Daemonorops and Calamus, but
no special use is recorded for any of the Philippine forms.
a'. Spikes amentiform with very closely crowded flowers and appressed
spathels.
6\ Leaf-sheaths produced at the base of the petioles into an inflated
elongate-elliptic ocrea; leaflets more or less nearly white under-
neath 1. K. scaphigeroides.
b'. Leaf-sheaths produced at the bases of the petioles into a closely

sheathing, densely spinous ocrea.
c\ Slender; leaflets of the upper part of the fertile plant small,
rhomboidal, green on both surfaces or slightly paler beneath
than above 2. K. Merrillii.
c'.Robust; leaflets large, cuneate-rhomboidal or trapezoidal, sharply

double-toothed, paler beneath than above 3. K. laciniosa.
a-. Spikes of squarrose appearance, the spathes scarious and not appressed;
leaves furnished with an elongate, cornet-shaped ocrea which is
truncate at the apex; leaflets cuneately rhomboidal, white under-
neath 4. K. squarrosa.
Genus LICUALA Thunberg

LICUALA SPINOSA Wurmb. (Plate XXXIII). Balatbat.
Local names: Balatbat (Bisaya) ; iigsdng (Balabac, Palawan, Moro).
This is the only representative of the genus found in the

Philippines and no special economic uses are recorded for it.
It is found near the sea in Palawan and in the Calamianes Is-
lands, sometimes growing immediately back of the mangrove and
within the influence of salt water, sometimes on banks and in
ravines near the sea. The palm is of small size, has fan-shaped
leaves, and is decidedly ornamental. It is now being grown
considerably in Manila for ornamental purposes.
PLATE XXXII. HETEROSPATHE ELATA (SAGISI).

Genus LIVISTONA Linnaeus
All of our palms of this genus are tall, graceful species, with
fan-shaped leaves pendulous, axillary inflorescences
;
rather ;
small, globose fruits, and decidedly hard wood. Several of the

species ire cultivated for ornamental purposes.
a\ Leaves irregularly parted into primary 2- to 6-costulate segments;

secondary segments 1-costulate, very deeply parted into two very long
flaccid laciniae. Petiole armed, especially in its lower portion, with
very robust spines. Flowers sessile and in small groups on the
branchlets. Fruit globose or very slightly reniform, bluish even when
dry, 11 to 15 mm
in diameter 1. L. cochinchinensis.
a-. Leaves entire in their central part, and with the periphery more or
less deeply divided into always unicostulate segments. Flowers soli-

tary, spirally inserted around the branchlets.
h\ Flowers relatively large, 4 to 4.5 long.mmLeaves of adult plants
having unarmed or, at times, slightly spinose petioles. The dry
mature fruit spherical, 22 to 23 mm
in diameter, with a very dark
brown polished surface. The young fruits are slightly oblong and
narrow a little toward the base 2. L. Merrillii.
b'. Flowers very small, at most 2 mm

in diameter.
c\ Petioles of the adult plant spinose in their basal part, unarmed
elsewhere. Spadix composed of three main inflorescences, free
from their bases and all issuing from a common flattened spathe;
upper spathes very tightly sheathing throughout, truncate at the
mouth, and, as are all the other parts of the spadix, reddish-brown
when dry. Fruit spherical even when young, dark-violaceous
when fresh, quite black when dry 3. L. rotundifolia.
1 Forma typica (not yet found growing in the Philippines) is
especially characterized by the seed having the intrusion of the
raphe penetrating only two-thirds of the albumen.
d\ Fruit 2 cm in diameter. Seed traversed completely from base to
apex by the intrusion of the raphe. Leaves of very young
plants having the petioles armed, in their basal part, with
conspicuous spines, as much as 15 to 20 mm
in length, the
;
leaves of adult plants with the central segments shortly bifid.
L. rotundifolia Mart. var. luzonensis.
d'. Fruit 12 to 15 mm
in diameter, the kernel alone 10 to 13 mm
in
diameter. Seed 8 to 10 mm
in diameter, more or less traversed
by the intrusion of the raphe. Central segments of the adult
leaves shortly bifid at their apices.
L. rotundifolia var. micyocai-pa.
d'. Fruit of medium size. Central segments of the adult leaves
parted into two 15 to 20 cm long laciniae.
L. rotundifolia var. mindorensis.
c'. Petioles of leaves in the adult plant unarmed, at least in their
upper part; in young plants armed with very small spines.
The mature fruit yellowish orange when fresh, yellowish brown
when dry. Spathes straw-colored, slashed at the mouth.
4. L. Robinsoniana.
PLATE XXXIII. LICUALA SPINOSA (BALATBAT).

LIVISTONA COCHINCHINENSIS Becc. (Plate XXXV). Tarau.

Livistona cochinchineiisis is a palm reaching a height of about
20 meters and a diameter of about 20 centimeters. This species
grows gregariously in large numbers in open places in the Ca-
gayan valley. The trunks and leaves are employed for much
the same purposes as are those of Liuistona rotundifolia.
The leaves are used for making a peculiar type of broom.
The young leaves, while still closed, are cut off with the whole
petiole attached. The thin part of the blade is then removed,
leaving the ribs attached to the petiole. Six or eight of these
leaves are then tied together, making a long-fibered, very flexible
broom, about 1.5 meters long.
LIVISTONA ROTUNDIFOLIA (Lam.) Mart. (Plate XXXVI). Anahau.
Local names: Abidng (Pampanga, Pangasinan) anciu (Cagayan, Isa-
;
bela) ; undau Norte and Sur) anahau (Manila, Rizal, Laguna, Ta-
(Ilocos ;
yabas, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon) bagsdng (Samar)

; bdhi (Samar, ;
Leyte, Antique, Capiz, Iloilo, Cebu, Occidental and Oriental Negros, Bohol) ;
baldk (Moro) balld (Bagobo)

; balldng (Cagayan)
; balno (Bicol) labig
; ;
(Ilocos Norte and Sur, Pampanga) luyong (Zambales)

; palnia brava ;
(Spanish-Filipino) pilig (Tagalog)

;
sardu, tardu (Cagayan)
; tikal (Ta- ;
galog) tikis (Zambales).

;
This species is widely distributed, but grows naturally only

in the forested areas, and is of somewhat local occurrence in
the Archipelago. It is sometimes planted for ornamental pur-
poses. The trunks, which are about 20 centimeters in diam-
eter, are frequently used for pillars in houses, as they take
a beautiful finish, and last well when not exposed to dampness.
The outer hard part of the trunk is sometimes removed in the
form of strips and used for floors of houses. These strips
supply the Negritos with the wood for their bows. Anahau
wood is often used also for spear shafts. The wood is hard,
takes a high polish, and is considerably utilized in the Philip-
pines for canes or walking sticks. The buds are edible and
rather highly esteemed as a vegetable, but as with the other
palms, the removal of the bud means the death of the plant.
The leaves are frequently used for thatching houses, being laid
on much like shingles and sewed in place with strips of rattan;
or separated into strips and made into shingles like those of
the nipa palm. According to Delgado, the entire leaves were
formerly sewed together and made into sails for boats. A kind
of raincoat, made of several leaves of this palm sewed together,
is commonly used in many parts of the Philippines; while a
very broad and shallow sun-hat, popular in many provinces,
frame of bamboo or rattan covered with Livistona
consists of a
leaves. The fruits are eaten by various animals and by birds,
PLATE XXXIV. LIVISTONA SP. (ANAHAU) IN A CLEARING.

, , V ^ '
T-''^.
and sometimes by children. Young plants of this and allied

species are very frequently cultivated in pots or tubs in Manila
and other large towns for ornamental purposes. In other coun-
used for making fans.
tries the leaves of Livistoria are
The statements made above regarding Livistona rotundifoUa
will apply to most or all of our Philippine forms.
Genus METROXYLON Rottboell
Only a single species of this genus is definitely known from

the Philippines, and this has been identified as Metroxylon sagu
Rottb. (M. rumphii Mart). At least two forms occur, the
spiny and the spineless ones.
METROXYLON SAGU Rottb. (Plate XXXVII). Lumbia or Sago palm.

Local names: Ambolong, ambulong, bagschig, langddng, lumhai, lumbia,
lumbidg, sagu (Bisaya) lumbia (Bagobo).
;
This palm has pinnate leaves 6 to 9 meters long. The stems

are very thick and grow in clumps. It is widely distributed
in the central and southern Philippines, but in many regions
is only planted, this probably being true of all parts of the
Bisaya islands, north of Mindanao. It has been reported from

Cebu, Negros, Panay, Bohol, Siquijor, and from many parts
of Mindanao. It grows in valleys and along streams, and is
especially abundant in the extensive fresh-water swamps of the
Agusan valley in Mindanao.
Most of the sago of commerce is produced from this tree.
While sago is produced in the Philippines for local use, it does
not enter into the external commerce of the Archipelago; in
fact a considerable amount of sago is annually imported. Ac-
cording to data given by Heyne the annual export of sago from
the Dutch East Indies is at least 15,000 tons.''- Sago is one
of the important exports from Sarawak.
In the Philippines, sago is extracted by the crudest methods.
The tree is felled, and the crushed or macerated pith is washed
in troughs; the starch, which is carried in suspension in the
water, being then allowed to settle. After several washings
the starch is dried and stored for use. Sometimes the pith is
cut into strips and dried, the dried strips pulverized in mortars,
and then washed as needed. Delgado states that occasionally
the fresh pith is toasted and eaten although it is somewhat
bitter. The buds are edible. Delgado f says that tuba is
sometimes secured from this palm, but this practice, described
by him in 1753, is apparently very rare, or perhaps obsolete.
* De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch Indie. Volume 1 (1913), page 61.
t Delgado, J. J., Historia General de Filipinas, pages 666 and 667.
PLATE XXXVII. METROXYLON SAGU (SAGO PALM).

Sometimes the leaves are used to thatch houses, for which pur-
pose they are said to be very durable while the external parts
;
of the trunk are employed for floors and rafters. In some

parts of the Malay Archipelago, the leaflets are split into strips
and extensively used for making mats. Parts of the petioles,
and the midribs of the leaflets, are variously utilized for weaving
mats and baskets; a utilization which has not been recorded
from the Philippines.
This palm is usually propagated by suckers that are produced
in abundance about the base of the trunk, but it can also be
readily grown from seeds.
Genus NIPA Wurmb.

This genus contains only a single species.
NIPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (Plates XXXVIII-XLI). Nipa.
Local names: Ajiipa (Cagayan) ; (Bulacan, Bataan, Rizal, Laguna,
lasd
Cavite, Tayabas) n'lpa (Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Antique, Spanish-
;
Filipino) saga (Zambales)

; sasd (Pampanga, Bulacan, Bataan, Rizal,
;
Manila, Laguna, Cavite, Tayabas, Mindoro) tatd (Cagayan).

;
From an economic standpoint this palm is one of the most im-

portant in the Philippines. It is at once distinguished from
all others in the Islands by its habit and habitat. It occurs
along tidal streams throughout the Archipelago and is of special
interest from the fact that it thrives only in brackish swamps.
Nipa has a stout, creeping, subterranean stem or rhizome. The
leaves are pinnate, 7 meters or more in length and occur in
erect clusters. It frequently forms a dense mass of vegeta-
tion through which it is very difficult to penetrate.
Nipa is usually found further up streams than the trees of
the mangrove swamps and, as a rule, forms narrow strips in
the inland portions of water channels through which tides ebb
and flow. The areas covered by this palm are, however, fre-
quently very extensive. There is in Pangil Bay in Mindanao
a single area of nipa covering 9,000 hectares. In some places
mangrove trees have been killed or cut out and nipa planted
over extensive swamps. Such is the case north of Manila Bay,
where much of the original tree growth has been entirely re-
placed by nipa. (For a further consideration of the habitat
of nipa, see the section of this publication dealing with
mangrove swamps.) Nipa fruits, which are flat, about 12 centi-
meters long by 10 centimeters broad, are crowded in a very
characteristic, large, globose, fruiting head, which is up to 30
centimeters in diameter and borne on a special, erect stalk.
This plant apparently has no very definite blooming season,
but as a general rule, at least in the provinces of Bulacan and
Pampanga, flowers during the months of February and March.

It takes about four months for the fruit to ripen.
THATCHING
Throughout the Islands, except in regions remote from the
sea, the leaves of the nipa palm are by far the most commonly
used material for thatching the light-construction houses in
which most Filipinos dwell. Nipa shingles are also frequently
used for the walls of houses. As nipa roofs take fire readily,
and as a fire in a nipa district spreads with great rapidity and
can be controlled with difficulty, if at all, the use of this ma-
terial for thatching has now been prohibited in large parts of
the city of Manila and other large towns.
Nipa shingles are made by removing the leaflets from the
petiole, and doubling back one-third of the length of the leaflet
over a slender piece of bamboo, placing them so as to overlap.
They are then sewed in position to form an oblong shingle
usually about 70 centimeters in length. In Pampanga a woman
will, at an average, prepare 400 to 500 of these shingles in a
day, some making as many as 800 a day. The shingles are
usually tied in bundles of ten, to facilitate handling.
OTHER USES OF LEAVES

The are also used for making raincoats and sun-hats
leaflets
(salakots), coarse baskets, mats, and bags; the midribs for
making coarse brooms, for tying bundles of rice, and for sewing
nipa shingles. The petioles serve as fuel, while splints pre-
pared from the cortex are sometimes used for making baskets.
The leaflets are used for wrapping a rice confection knowTi
as suman, as described under Corypha elata.
SEEDS
The immature seeds are used for food, their taste and con-
sistency being similar to that of the flesh of immature coconuts.
They are sometimes made into a kind of sweetmeat. The mature
seeds are too hard to be eaten.
ALCOHOL
Nipa is very important as a source of alcohol and vinegar,
and is a promising source of sugar. This subject has been
extensively investigated by Gibbs * from whose article most
of the information on this subject is taken. The production
of proof alcohol in the Philippines exceeds ten million liters

Fig. 1. Nipa swamps as far as the eye can reach.
Fig. 2. Uncultivated nipa swamp.
PLATE XXXIX.
169644 15
:
annually, and considerably over eighty-five per cent of this prob-

ably is the product of the nipa palm. The alcohol is obtained
by distilling the fermented juice which flov^s from a cut inflores-
cence stalk after the fruiting head has been removed. As the in-
florescence of the nipa is near the ground, the flower stalk is
conveniently situated for the gathering of the sap, called tuba.
Some time after the fruit is formed, the stalk is cut across its
top, usually just below the fruit,and each day a thin slice is
removed to keep the wound fresh and to facilitate exudation.
If the plant bears two flower stalks, the usual practice is to
take sap from only one, the other being removed.
Sap is collected in bamboo joints which are hung on the
stem. These containers are about 45 centimeters high and 8
centimeters in diameter, and have a capacity of about 2 liters.
The stalk usually gives a flow for about three months, but it
is not uncommon for it to be cut away, or at least cut so close
to the ground that the daily paring is impracticable, long before

the flow has ceased. In some districts the stem is cut before
the fruit is formed; and under such conditions the daily yield
of sap is said to be increased, but the period of flow reduced
from three to one and one-half months, the total yield being
practically the same in both cases. The juice-gathering season
usually lasts about six months.
Gibbs * came to the conclusion that, with the present method
of caring for a nipa area, an average plant would produce 43
liters of sap during the season, while a conservative estimate f
places the number of palms in a cultivated swamp at between
2,000 and 2,500 per hectare, of which 750 may be depended upon
to produce fruiting stalks and consequently be available for
sap collection.
Gibbs gave the following composition for sap of the best
quality
Density ]ll 1.0720
Total solids 18.00

Ash 0.48
Acidity Trace.
Sucrose 17.00
Reducing sugars Trace.

t Pratt, D. S., Thurlow, L. W., Williams, R. R., and Gibbs, H. D., The
nipa palm as a commercial source of sugar. Philippine Journal of Science,
Section A, Volume 8 (1913), pages 377 to 398.
He found that the inversion of the sucrose began almost im-

mediately after the sap dripped from the stem, and concluded
that it was due to the formation of an enzyme.
Tuba is carried by small boats (bancas) from the place of
collection to the distilleries. According to Gibbs, the inversion
is complete, the alcoholic fermentation well under way and
sometimes completed before the sap arrives at the distillery.
Occasionally the acetic acid fermentation has progressed to a
considerable extent. The yield of alcohol obtained from the sap
varied from 4.1 to 7.5 per cent, the average for 33 distilleries
being 5.6 per cent. Due to faulty methods, the yield of alcohol
is not what it should be. The average price paid for the sap
at the distillery is, according to Gibbs, 0.006 pesos per liter.
Gibbs says that the alcohol produced from the nipa sap should
be about 6 per cent of the tuba, and under favorable conditions
he believes above 7 per cent. With a yield of 6.5 per cent alcohol
the purchase price of the raw material would be equivalent to a
cost of 0.0415 pesos to 0.083 pesos per liter for 90 per cent
alcohol. His estimates would indicate that nipa sap is the
cheapest known source of alcohol. For manufacturing alcohol,
nipa possesses several advantages over grains in that it does not
need purification, pulping, etc. The storage space and fermenta-
tion vats may also be smaller, since fermentation is complete
in from six to ten hours and the material ready to be distilled.
Gibbs estimates that the owner of a nipa area, by selling sap,
clears about 129.00 pesos per hectare per annum.
In some distilleries, especially in those near sugar-cane lands,
molasses is added to the fermenting sap. The molasses, which
usually contains about 60 per cent of fermentable carbohydrates,
is sometimes used in amounts equal to that of the tuba. Accord-
ing to Gibbs the advantages are threefold the invertase and al-
;
coholic ferment in the tuba act with great rapidity upon the
molasses, providing an easy method for the utilization of the
latter; the production of alcohol is greatly increased; and when
there is a shortage in the supply of sap, the uninterrupted run-
ning of the stills is assured. The use of molasses during a
portion of the season enables some distilleries to operate the
entire year.
TUBA
The fermented juice (tuba) of the nipa palm is used exten-
sively by the Filipinos as a beverage.
VINEGAK
Considerable quantities of vinegar are manufactured from
nipa tuba by allowing acetic fermentation to follow alcoholic
fermentation. The methods at present used are very crude and

the product inferior. It contains only from 2 to 3 per cent of
acetic acid.
CULTIVATION OF NIPA
A considerable amount of capital is invested in the nipa-alcohol

industry. Large distilleries exist in various nipa swamps, which
latter have been improved by cultivation. Artificial channels have
been dredged to make the nipa areas more accessible for gather-
ing and transporting the sap, and in some places the areas have
been extended by planting. Yet at the present time only a small
part of the available "nipales" is commercially utilized.
The best publication on the cultivation of nipa is a small
pamphlet published in Manila in 1906 by Enrique Zobel, en-
titled ''Estudio de la planta Nipa". The following information
is taken from this publication:
Nipa is planted in the months from May to July, the seeds
being placed in holes 1.7 to 2 meters apart. The period of
development does not exceed four years, in which time the plant
flowers, and can be utilized for the production of alcohol. During
the first year the plant attains a height of from 1.5 to 2 meters.
At the end of two years a nipa plant has seven or eight leaves and
this number is maintained throughout its life. The seeds carried
by water and deposited on land under shade seem to develop bet-
ter and to produce healthier plants than those artificially planted
in the open, Nipa is not only reproduced by seeds but also by the
branching of the rhizome. In order to keep a nipal (nipa
swamp) in good condition, the plants must be thinned until they
are from 1.5 to 1.7 meters apart. In doing this it is necessary
to cut up the roots of the plants removed, to prevent their regen-
eration. If a nipa swamp is cultivated for the sap, the fresh
leaves should not be cut ; while it is very advantageous to remove
the drooping or drying leaves, which can be used for thatching
houses, etc. When roofing material and not tuba is desired, three
or four fresh leaves may be cut from each plant, but this inter-
feres with the development of the plant and greatly decreases the
flow of tuba.
If nipa is cultivated for alcohol, care should be taken not to
injure the plant at the time of flowering, as an injury at this
time is likely to cause the flower to die. The first thing done
before gathering the sap is the cleaning of the nipal. The ground
is cleared of weeds and vines and any other obstacles that in-
terfere with the workman passing between the plants to collect

tuba. At this time the mature leaves are cut off, tied into
bundles, and transported to the houses where women make the
nipa shingles.
SUGAR
It is possible that the nipa palm may prove to be a profitable

commercial source of sugar. This subject has been quite ex- ,
tensively investigated by chemists of the Bureau of Science,*

with the following general results: With a normal average sap
flow of from 30 to 50 liters per plant per day over a period of
three months, with a sap-collecting period of six months, and
with an average of 750 bearing trees per hectare, it was found
that one hectare would produce an average quantity of 30,000
liters of sap. The cost of collecting and delivery at a sugar
mill was found to be about 3.00 pesos per 1,000 liters, and the
sugar yield about 115 kilos of commercial white sugar, polarizing
at 99° or above, per 1,000 liters of sap. The palm juice has
the advantage over cane juice in that it is free from acids,
waxes, etc., is colorless, with no debris and, when fresh, with
no invert sugar. The chief difficulty in utilizing nipa as a
source of sugar lies in the fact that, normally, fermentation com-
mences with the flow of sap from the cut peduncle that enzymes ;
are present in the sap which will in time cause the complete
inversion of the sucrose, and that it is difficult to prevent this
inversion. With the use
of a modified type of container for
gathering the sap, freshly lined with lime cream and sulphite,
fermentation and inversion can be prevented or inhibited for
at least twelve hours, thus allowing sufficient time to collect and
deliver the sap without undue loss of sucrose.
Genus ONCOSPERMA Blume

This genus is represented by four closely allied species, all
similar in appearance. They are Oncosperma platyphyllum
Becc. and 0. gracilipes Becc, both endemic, and the more widely
Malayan species 0. horridum Scheff". and O. filamen-
distributed
tosum Blume. Among all the erect palms of the Philippines,
Oncosperma can be at once recognized by the numerous, long,
slender, horizontally spreading, stiff, sharp spines borne on the
trunk throughout its length.
a\ Gregarious. Floriferous branches of the spadix numerous, long, slender,

and inserted at different levels on the rachis. Male flowers with 6
stamens. Fruit small, spherical, 11 to 12 mm
in diameter.
1. O. filamentosum.

* Pratt, D. S., Thurlow, L. W., Williams, R. R., and Gibbs, H. D., The
nipa palm as a commercial source of sugar. Philippine Journal of Science,

Section A, Volume 8 (1913), pages 377 to 398.
a\ Stem very tall, solitary. Spathe very densely covered with criniform
spines. Spadix with numerous, long, floriferous branches, which
gradually narrow from a very thick base to a slender apex. Fruit
large, spherical, 20 to 22 mm in diameter 2. O. horridîm.
a^ Rather large and growing in clumps. Spadix with rather short and
thick floriferous branches; the latter clustered together and very
closely scrobiculate. Fruit spherical or very slightly longer than
broad, 15 to 16 mm in diameter, with the remains of the stigmas placed
laterally, about halfway or a little above 3. O. platyphyllum.
a\ Trunk slender. Spadix with relatively few, clustered, thickish, very

closely scrobiculate, floriferous branches. Spathe not densely spinose.
Fruit spherical, 14 to 15 mm in diameter, with nearly apical remains
of the stigmas. Fruiting perianth 12 mm in diameter.. 4. O. gracilipes.
ONCOSPERMA Fl LAM ENTOSU M Blume Ani'bong.
Local names: Anihong (Tagalog, Bisaya) ; anibnng (Tagbanua).

Like the other species of the genus, this is a rather tall, slen-
der palm. It often grows subgregariously in favorable habitats,
in ravines, or in lowlands back of the mangrove and often
within the influence of brackish or salt water. The outer part
of the trunk is very hard and durable and split into narrow
;
pieces is extensively used by the Filipinos, in the regions where

it grows, for house floors. It is also used for spear shafts.
The bud is edible, either raw or cooked; while in the Malay
Archipelago, perhaps also in the Philippines, the fruits are
sometimes used as a substitute for Areca fruits in preparing
buyo for chewing.
Oncosperma horrklmn is known in Bagobo as tanaian and in
Manobo as anibung.
Genus ORANIA Zippel
Four very closely allied species of this genus have been de-
scribed from the Philippines. These are Orania palindan
(Blanco) Merr. (0. philippinensis Scheff.), O. paraguanensis
Becc, 0. ruhiginosa Becc, and 0. decipiens Becc. The genus is
of slight economic value, and a short discussion of the com-
monest species will suffice.
a\ Floriferous branches ultimately glabrous.

b\ Male flowers angular, lanceolate, 6 to 8 mm long, 3 to 3.5 mm
broad,
or about twice as long as broad, having the stamens one-third to
one-half shorter than the petals; anthers linear-oblong. Female
flowers broadly ovate-trigonous, the calyx cupular, very low; petals
triangular, subaequilateral. Fruit spherical or very slightly nai*-
rowed at the base, usually 5.5 to 6 cm in diameter, at times somewhat
less; mesocarp about 5 mmthick 1. O. palindan.
'LATE XLII. ORANIA PALINDAN (PALINDAN).

234 DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES
c\ Fruit exactly spherical, larger than in the species (6.5 cm in

diameter), yet with a thinner mesocarp (3.5 to 4 mm thick).
O. palindan var. sibuyane)isis.
b-. Male flowers narrow, linear, 8 mm long, 2 mm
broad, or about four
times as long as broad, having the stamens nearly as long as the
petals and the anthers very narrowly linear. Fruit spherical,
smaller than in O. philippinensis 4.5 to 4.7 cm in diameter, the meso-
,
carp 3.5 to 4 mm
thick 2. O. paragiianensis.
b\ Male flowers narrowly linear. Fruit slightly narrowing to the base,
or slightly pyriform, considerably smaller than in the preceding
species, 4 to 4.5 cm long, 35 to 37 mm
thick; kernel spherical,
extended at the base into a broadly obconical blunt point; mesocarp
relatively thick (3 to 4 mm) and furnished with many short and
stout woody fibers. Seed about 25 mm
in diameter.. 3. O. decipiens.
c\ Fruit smaller than in the species (37 mm
long, 31 to 32 thick), mm
but always more or less narrowing to the base; mesocarp also
thinner (2.5 mmthick) O. decipiens var. mindanaoensis.
C-. Fruit spherical, not narrowing to the base, 42 in diameter; mm
mesocarp 4 to 5 mm thick O. decipiens var. montana.
«.". Floriferous branches more or less permanently rusty-tomentose. Male
flowers very narrow and long, 1 cm long, 2 to 3 broad. Female mm
flowers pyramidate-trigonous, acuminate, twice as long as broad', calyx
campanulate. Fruit subpyriform, 40 to 45 mm long, 30 to 38 mm
thick; mesocarp thin, 1.5 to 2 mm thick 4. O. rubiginosa.
ORANIA PALINDAN (Blanco) Merr. (O. philippinensis). (Plate XLII).

Palindan.
Local names: Ambobdnga (Cagayan) ; bdnga (Bisaya) ; baranggoi, biuTga,
niogniogan, palindan (Tagalog).
This palm, like others of the genus, is sylvan, growing in

forested valleys at low and medium altitudes. In habit it some-
what resembles the coconut palm and is decidedly ornamental.
It reaches a height of 6 meters and a stem diameter of 30 centi-
meters. Its fruits are globose, hard, and usually about 5 centi-
meters in diameter. No economic use has been indicated for
this palm, although in some parts of the Islands it occurs in
abundance. According to Delgado,* it has poisonous qualities.
Many of the Philippine palms have edible buds, this portion of
the palm being known as ubud in the Archipelago. One of the
Filipino assistants in the Bureau of Science was made violently
sick by eating the cooked ubud of this species, thus bearing out
Delgado's claims regarding the evil properties of the palm.
Genus OREODOXA Willdenow

OREODOXA REGIA HBK. (Plate XLIII). Royal palm.
This species is a native of tropical America and is extensively
grown as an ornamental in the tropics of both hemispheres.
* Historia General de Filipinas (1892), page 685.

PLATE XLIII. OREODOXA REGIA (ROYAL PALM).

It is a stout, erect, stately palm reaching a height of 25 to 30

meters. The trunk is considerably swollen near the base; the
leaves are crowded at the tip of the stem. This palm is ap-
parently not naturalized in the Philippines, but is cultivated in
considerable numbers.
Genus PHOENIX Linnaeus
PHOENIX HANCEANA Naudin. var. PH I LI PPI N ENSIS Becc. VoiAVOI.

Local name: Voidvoi (Batanes).
This is the only representative of the genus in the Philippines,

except the introduced and cultivated Phoenix rupicola T. Anders,
P. canaHensis Hort., and P. dactylifera Linn., and occurs in
the Archipelago only on the small islands north of Luzon. It
grows along mountain streams. Locally its leaves are utilized in

making a peculiar thatched raincoat, extensively used in the
Batanes Islands. The leaflets are split into shreds and woven
into an oblong mat, which is hood-like at one end. The long
free ends of the shreds are arranged like thatch and very
eff'ectively shed even heavy rain.
Phoenix rupicola and P. cayiariensis are recently introduced
palms now considerably cultivated in Manila for ornamental
purposes while old mature trees of the date palm. Phoenix dac-
;
tylifera, are occasionally found. There is no record, however,

that the date palm has ever produced fruit in the Archipelago.
Genus PINANGA Blume
(Plate XLIV)
This genus is represented by over twenty species, none of
them of economic value. They are all sylvan, pinnate-leaved
palms, more commonly found at medium and higher elevations
than at low altitudes. So far as is known, the bud of all the
species is edible, but as the palms are mostly small and slender
the edible part of the bud is small. Some of the species, such
as Pinanga philippinensis Becc, have stems that do not exceed
2 or 3 centimeters in diameter, while others, such as Pinanga
insignis Becc, have stems up to 10 or 15 centimeters in diam-
eter. All the Philippine species are solitary, scattered plants.
None them send up shoots from the base. Some are decidedly
of
ornamental, but cannot be grown in most Philippine towns
on account of the diff"erence in climatic conditions between the
virgin forest at medium and higher altitudes and the open,
settled areas. The seeds of many, perhaps of all the species.
PLATE XLIV. PINANGA PHILIPPINENSIS.

are occasionally used as a substitute for that of the Areca palm

in preparing buyo for chewing.

a^. Very slender plants having simple flabellate leaves or only one or two
segments on each side of the rachis.
b\ Leaves mottled (at least those of young plants), deeply bilobed, other-
wise entire 1. P. maculata.
b". Leaves with a terminal, deeply bilobed flabellum and 1 or 2 acinaciform
segments on each side of the rachis. Spadix simple. Fruit dis-

tichous 2. P. geonomaeformis.
a". Leaves having few (4 to 9), very unequal, inequidistant segments on
each side of the rachis. Spadix branched. Small plants with slender
stems 1 to 3 cm in diameter.
b\ Fruits biseriate.
c\ Leaves short with very few (4 or 5), unequal, sigmoid-acinaciform,
3- to 7-costulatesegments on each side of the rachis, ashy-
puberulous underneath, at least in newly expanded leaves. Spadix
with 3 or 4 branches only. Fruits exactly distichous, narrowly
ovoid, with a conical point, 15 to 16 by 6 to 7 mm. Seed caudic-
ulate at the base; vascular branches of the integument rather
numerous, nearly simple 3. P. modesta.
c". Leaves having on each side of the rachis 8 or 9, narrow, 2- to
4-costulate, distant, ensiform-subfalcate, very acuminate segments,

which are glabrous underneath. Spadix with 5 or 6 branches.
Fruits exactly distichous, narrow, conical-subfusiform, broadest
below their middle, 16 to 18 by 6 mm; seed elongate, conical
in its upper part; vascular branches of the integument very few
(3 or 4), almost simple 4. P. isabelensis.
6". Fruits 3-seriate. Leaves having on each side of the rachis 7 or 8
very inequidistant, unequal, 1- to 4-costulate, narrowly falcate-
sigmoid, long-acuminate segments, which are glabrous underneath.
Spadix with few (5) triquetrous branches. Fruit small, 11 to 12
by 5 to 5.5 mm, narrowly ovoid-ellipsoid, acute, equally narrowed
to both ends. Seed ovoid, with a conical point; vascular branches
of the integument 8 or 9, slightly anastomosing.. 5. P. heterophylla.
a''. Leaves with more numerous segments.
b\ Segments ashy-puberulous underneath; plants of moderate size.
c\ Fruits 3-seriate. Segments relatively not very numerous, very
unequal, inequidistant, 3- to 7-costulate, deeply incised into 3 to 7
bifid laciniae, the latter falcate, acuminate. Spadix with few
(5 or 6) branches. Fruits relatively large, ovoid-ellipsoid, 2.5 to
3.3 cm long. Fruiting perianth low, cupular, not contracted at
the mouth. Stem 3 to 5 cm in diameter 6. P. Barnesii.
c'. Fruits 2-seriate.
cT. Segments rather numerous, very unequal, 1-pluricostulate, sig-
moidal; when with more than one midcosta then deeply cleft at
the apex into falcate-acuminate points. Spadix with the upper
branches spirally scattered. Fruit obovoid, 18 to 20 by 13 mm.
Seed spherical, with a horizontal embryo fovea. Fruiting
perianth very shallowly cupular or almost explanate.
7. P. Copelandii.
d-. Segments numerous, 2- or 3-costulate, almost straight, not deeply
incised at the apex, the divisions 2-toothed, the teeth acute.
Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, obtuse, small, 15 by 9 mm. Seed with a
very oblique embryo fovea. Fruiting perianth shallowly cup-
ular, with nearly vertical walls, not contracted at the mouth.
1
8. P. Curranii.
. Segments glabrous underneath.
c\ Spadix with rather few branches.
(f . Fruits distichous. Small or medium-sized plants.
e\ Stem 2 to 5 cm in diameter.
Leaf-sheaths densely covered with
a grayish tomentum. Segments rather numerous, slightly
sigmoid, acuminate, usually 3-costulate and relatively broad,
or else narrow and 1-costulate. Spadix with few, scattered
or subdistichous branches. Fruit narrowly ovoid-ellipsoid,
acuminate, 11 to 14 by 5 to 8 mm. Fruiting perianth cupular,
contracted at the mouth 9. P. Philippine ns is.
e-. Very similar to the preceding. Stem 2 to 4 m high, 2 to 5 cm
in diameter. Leaf-sheaths covered with appressed rusty
scales (not tomentose). Segments rather numerous and sub-
equidistant; usually 1-costulate, slightly falcate acuminate
or nearly straight. Spadix with a few scattered spreading
branches. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, 12 to 14 by 7 to 8 mm.
Fruiting perianth cupular, contracted at the mouth.
10. P. Elmerii.
e^. Stem 2 to 3 cm Leaf-sheaths sprinkled with dark-
in diameter.
purple scales. Segments rather numerous, equidistant, 8 to
9 cm apart on each side of the rachis, 3-costulate, ensiform,
about 60 cm long, 4 to 4.5 cm wide, paler or subglaucous, and
not sprinkled with microlepidia underneath, the apices acu-
minate-caudate and very slightly falcate. Spadix with 14 or
15 spirally alternate branches. Immature fruits fusiform,
14 to 15 mmlong (ovate-ellipsoid at complete maturity?).
Fruiting perianth contracted at the mouth..ll. P. urdanetana.
e*. Of medium size (?). Segments lancsolate-ensiform, acuminate,
unequal, straight, 60 cm long, 3.5 cm wide, their lower surface
in the dry specimens reddish-brown and densely sprinkled
with extremely minute, light-colored dots (microlepidia).
Spadix with strongly flattened branches. Fruit thickly fusi-
form, equally narrowing to both ends, 15 to 18 mm long, and
about 1 cm thick. Fruiting perianth very low, contracted at
the mouth 12. P. samarana.
e°. Of medium size. Segments very numerous, equidistant, ap-
proximate, long, narrow, slightly falcate, very acuminate, all
unicostulate. Spadix with 5 or 6 much flattened branches.
Fruit relatively large, ovoid-ellipsoid, conical-mammillate at
the apex, the base narrow and subpedicelliform when dry, 23
to 32 mm long, 13 to 14 mm thick. Seed ovoid, suddenly
prolonged at the base into a slender caudiculum; embryo
fovea broad and slightly oblique; vascular branches of the
integument simple on the raphal or dorsal side and anas-
tomosing anticously. Fruiting perianth truncate, not con-
tracted at the mouth 13. P. tirosperma.
d-. Fruits 3-seriate, at least in the lower part of the branches.

e\ Segments straight, not falcate at their apices. Plants of
medium size. Fruits small.
f. Segments numerous, very approximate, inserted at a very
acute angle, unicostulate, lanceolate-ensiform, quite straight,
concolorous, the apex bifid, its divisions acuminate. Spadix
with several spirally inserted branches. Fruits 3-seriate
from the base to the end of the branches, ovoid-ellipsoid,
the apices mammillate, 13 to 15 by 6 to 7 mm. Seed
globular-ovoid, rounded above, not caudiculate at the base;
embryo fovea oblique; vascular branches of the integument
few (5 or 6), not or only very slightly divided. Fruiting
perianth very low, 1.5 mm high, 4 mmbroad, contracted at
the mouth 14. P. rigida.
f. Segments numerous, equidistant, 6 to 7 cm apart on each

side of the rachis, ensiform, 1- or 2-costulate, straight,
rigid, concolorous, very acuminate, bifid at the apex.
Spadix with several, triquetrous, spirally inserted branches.
Fruits 3-seriate in the lower part of the branches, bifarious
near the end, small, 12 to 15 by 7 to 8 mm, ovoid-ellipsoid;
seed ovoid, not caudiculate at the base; embryo fovea
very oblique; vascular branches of the integument 5,
all slightly anastomosing. Fruiting perianth low, 2 mm
high, 4 mm broad, slightly contracted at the mouth.
15. P. Woodiana.
f. Segments numerous, equidistant, thickish and rigid, 1-cost-

ulate, concolorous, narrow, very long-acuminate. Spadix
with several, 3-gonous, spirally inserted branches. Fruit
broadly ovoid, 13 by 8 to 9 mm. Seed broadly ovoid;
embryo fovea almost horizontal; vascular branches of the
integument 8 or 9, of which two are undivided and pass
over the apex, and 2 or 3 on each side are arched and
slightly anastomosing. Fruiting perianth 2 mm high, 4
mm broad, contracted at the mouth 16. P. sclerophylla.
e-. Segments falcate at their apices, numerous, equidistant, rigid,
concolorous, narrow, very long-acuminate, 1- or 2-costulate.

Spadix with several spirally inserted branches, trigonous in
their lower part and flattened above. Fruit 3-seriate in
the lower part of the branches, and bifarious above, rather
narrowly ovoid-ellipsoid, narrowing a good deal to both ends,
12 to 13 by 6 mm. Seed caudiculate at the base; embryo fovea
slightly oblique. Fruiting perianth contracted at the mouth.
17, P. negrosensis.
C-. Spadix large with numerous branches inserted spirally at different
levels. Large arboreous plants.
d\ Fruits biseriate.
e\ Segments very numerous, uniform, equidistant, ensiform, quite
straight, rigid, very acuminate, very strongly 2-costulate,
more or less deeply bifid at their apices, subconcolorous, very
finely granulate-scabrid on the secondary and tertiary nerves
on the lower surface. Fruits rather large, ovoid-ellipsoid,
narrowing to both ends, 24 to 25 by 13 to 14 mm; pericarp
containing several layers of capillary fibers. Seed obsoletely
caudiculate at the base, the embryo fovea very broad, oblique.
Fruiting perianth 3.5 mm
high, 8 mm
broad, not or only
very slightly contracted at the mouth 18. P. insignis.
f. Fruit shorter than in the species and more ventricose, 20 to 22
by 13 to 14 mm P. insignis var. gasterocarpa.
f. Fruit narrower than in the species or thickly fusiform, 20
to 22 by 8 to 9 mm P. insignis var. leptocarpa.
f. Fruit very broadly ovoid, 20 to 22 by 13 to 15 mm. Pericarp
with rigid fibers, rendering the surface of the fruit striate.
Leaflets dusty-subglaucous underneath.
P. insignis subsp. Loheriana.
e'. Segments very numerous, unicostulate, very approximate by
twos on each side of the rachis, ensiform, quite straight,
very acuminate. Fruits ovoid, broad at the base and
suddenly apiculate-mammillate, 20 by 12 mm. Seed ovoid,
blunt; vascular branches of the integument simple on the
raphal side, elsewhere rather closely anastomosing. Fruit-
ing perianth broadening at the mouth 19. P. batanensis.
e^. Segments elongate-lanceolate, 3-costulate, 1 meter long or more,
spadix with slender, strongly flattened, pendulous branches.
Fruit of medium size, 20 by 12 mm, slightly obovoid or
ovoid-olivaef orm pericarp somewhat fleshy, ti-aversed by a
;
few slender fibers. Seed relatively small, 13 by 8 to 9 mm.

Fruiting perianth deeply cupular or subcampanulate, not
contracted at the mouth, 4 mm
high, 6 mm
broad.
20. P. basilanensis.
e\ Segments equidistant, large, straight, 2- to of a
3-costulate,
rather herbaceous texture, the basilar and the intermediate
segments acuminate, the upper with as many not very deep
incisions as there are costae, and with the resulting divisions
shortly 2-toothed. Fruits small, 15 by 9 mm, obovoid,
rounded above. Seed oblong, the embryo fovea very slightly
oblique; vascular branches of the integument almost simple.
21. P. speciosa.
dr. Fruit Segments ensiform, strongly bicostulate, the
3-seriate.
apex divided into two sti-aight points. Fruits rather large,
ovoid-ellipsoid, with a conical apex, 25 to 28 by 15 to 17 mm.
Seed broadly ovoid, rounded above, the embryo fovea some-
what oblique; vascular branches of the integument much
branched and forming a network all around the seed. Fruit-
ing perianth somewhat contracted at the mouth.
22. P. sibiiyanensis.
Various local names for Pinanga spp. are: abiki, hunga-

machhi, hiinga na tukcUjong, hahika, liihici, saramdu, tihangldn
(Tagalog) hagtoan, sakolon, salangisag sarduag (Manobo)
; , ;
karlilei, kastilde, katiddei (Igorot) dapiau (Bataan) das'igan,

; ;
mama (Iloko) hahiki, sarduag, tapira, tibangdn (Bisaya)

; ;
hambuding (Yakan, Moro) irdr, sadduag, timbangdlan, saduag

;
(Bagobo) tigdhui (Bukidnon).

;
169644 :6
PLECTOCOM lA
Genus Martius and Blume
PLECTOCOMIA ELMERI Becc.

Local name: Ungang (Bagobo).
This species is a large, climbing palm with stems 5 to 7,5
centimeters in diameter. The young stems are green, the old
ones, yellowish green. It is reported from the district of Davao,
where it was found in dense woods on the southeastern part
of Mount Apo at an elevation of about 1,000 meters.
Genus PTYCHORAPHIS Beccari
This is a genus of pinnate-leaved palms closely related to

Hydrospathe. The Philippine species are sylvan, apparently
rare, and of little economic importance.

o\ Fruit longer than broad.
6'. Of medium size. Leaflets furnished underneath with a few paleolae
on the midrib only. Spadix twice branched. Fruit narrowly ovoid,
tapering above to a slightly oblique, conical point, 10 to 12 mm
long, 5 mm thick. Seed ovoid-ellipsoid, subacute, 7 mm long, 4
mm thick; vascular branches of the integument loosely anastomosing.
1. Pt. microcarpa-
h'. Of medium size. Leaflets furnished underneath with paleolae, often

on three nerves. Spadix twice branched. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid,
not or very slightly and asymmetrically obtuse-acuminate, 12 mm
long, 7 mm thick. Seed ovoid, rounded at both ends; vascular
branches of the integument very closely anastomosing.
2. Pt. intermedia.
6'. Robust, stem about 15 m
high. Spadix thrice branched. Leaflets
rigid, without paleolae on the lower surface; secondary nerves
well marked; margins somewhat thickened. Fruit narrowly ovoid,
tapering above to a conical, slightly oblique point, 12 to 13 mm
long, 5 mm broad. Seed ovoid-ellipsoid, acute, 9 mm long, 4.5 mm
thick; vascular branches of the integument loosely anastomosing.
3. Pt. Elmerii.
a-. Fruit spherical. Stem about 6 m
high. Leaflets long-acuminate, the
point slightly falcate. Spadix thrice branched, floriferous branches
12 to 15 cm long, 2.5 to 3 mm
thick. The bracteoles of the female
flower form a regular cupular caliculum. Fruiting perianth shallowly
cupular. Fruit spherical, 7 mm
in diameter, with the remains of the
stigmas nearly central and apical, the surface not granulose. Seed
spherical, 5.5 mm
in diameter 4. Pt. cagayanensis.
Ptjjchoj'aphis elmeri is known in Bisaya as belisan, and Pty-

choraphis intermedia in Manobo as marighoi. The buds of
Ptychoraphis elmeri are said to be edible.
Genus ZALACCA Reinwardt
This genus is represented by a single species, Zalacca clemen-
siana Becc. of central Mindanao.
RECENTLY INTRODUCED PALMS 243
ZALACCA CLEMENSIANA Becc.
Local name: Lakaubi (Bagobo).
This palm does not have a trunk, but forms large, dense
clumps with about 7 to 13 shoots in a cluster. The species is
apparently ornamental, but no economic uses are recorded for it.
RECENTLY INTRODUCED PALMS
A number of exotic palms have been introduced into the Phil-
ippines since the year 1905, but have not become sufficiently es-
tablished to warrant their inclusion in a work of this kind or in
any general work on the Philippine flora, as few of them have
matured as yet and it is impossible to determine at the present
;
time those that may persist and those that may die out. Among
these recent introductions are the following: Acoelorrhaphe
ivightii Wendl., Archonto'phoeyiix alexandreae H. Wendl. & Drude,
Attalea cohune Mart., Caryota urens L., ChrysaUdocarpus lutes-
cens Wendl., Coccothrinax garberi Sarg., Cyrtostachys lakka
Becc, Dictyosperma alba Wendl. & Drude, Dypsis madagasca-
rieusis Nichols, Hoiuea belmoreana Becc, Hyophorbe amari-
caulis Mart,, H. verschaffeltii Wendl., Latania commersonii Gmel.,
L. loddigesii Mart., Livistona australis Mart., L. chinensis R. Br.,
Marti7ieziacaryotaefolia HBK., Oncosperma tigillaria Ridl.,
Oreodoxa ochracea HBK., Phoenix canariensis Gaertn., P. pu-
silla Gaertn., P. roebelenii O'Brien, P. rupicola T. Anders., Pi-
nanga kiihlii Bl., Pritchardia gaudichaiidii Wendl., P. pacifica
Seem. & H. Wendl., Ptychosperma macarthurii H. Wendl., Ra-
phia ruffla Mart., Sabal adansonii Guerns., S. blackburneanum
Glazebrook, S. mauritiforme Griseb. & Wendl., S. palmetto Lodd.,
Thrinax argentea Lodd., T. parviflora Sev., T. robusta H. Wendl.,
and Neoivashingtonia filifera (Wendl.) Sudw.
USES OF PALM PRODUCTS
The products of the Philippine palms and their uses have
been discussed under the headings of the various species. For
convenience in reference, the diff'erent products are summarized
in the following section. Numerous minor, local uses are not
included.
Alcohol. A number of Philippine palms are tapped for their
sweet sap from which alcohol and alcoholic drinks are manu-
factured. The most important of these are Nipa, which fur-
nishes more than 85 per cent of the alcohol manufactured in the
Philippines, and the coconut. Alcohol is also obtained from
Arenga pinnata (sugar palm) and Corypha elata (buri). Fer-
mented sap (tuba) is a very popular drink obtained from Nipa
fruticans (nipa), Cocos nucifera (coconut), Corijpha elata

(buri), Arenga tremula (dumayaka), Metroxylori sagu (sago
palm), while an inferior product is produced from Areca caliso
and species of Caryota.
Bags. Stout bags are made in enormous quantities from the
leaves of Corypha elata (buri) and Nijm.
Baskets. Splints for baskets are prepared from the petioles
of Arenga pin7iata (sugar palm), Arenga tremula (dumayaka),
Cocos nucifera (coconut), Corypha elata (buri), Heterospathe
elata, and species of Caryota. Fibers from the husks of coco-
nuts, split leaves of Corypha, and split stems of the rattan palms
are also used in the manufacture of baskets. In many parts of
the Malay Archipelago baskets are made from Metroxylon sagu
(sago palm), but this use is not recorded from the Philippines.
Beads. The mature seeds of Corypha elata (buri) are used
in the manufacture of beads for rosaries.
Blowguns. The hard outer wood of Livistona spp. (and per-
haps others) is used to make blowguns. Two half cylinders
are grooved, the grooves polished (or sometimes a fine metal tube
inserted in the bore) and the two halves firmly lashed together.
Bows. The outer wood of Livistona spp. is the favorite one for
bows among practically all the hillfolk of the islands.
Brooms. Coarse brooms are made from the leaves of Areyiga
pinnata (sugar palm), Corypha elata (buri), Cocos nucifera
(coconut), Livistona cochinchinensis (tarau), and Nipa.
Brushes. The fibers of coconut husks and the bases of the
leaves of Arenga pinnata (sugar palm) are used for making
brushes.
Buttons. The mature seeds of Corypha elata (buri) and Coelo-
coccus amicarum (Polynesian ivory-nut palm) are used in the
manufacture of buttons.
Buyo. The nut of Areca catechu sprinkled with lime and
wrapped with the leaf of Piper betle (ikmo) is called buyo and
is used for chewing. Various other palm nuts are sometimes
substituted for those of Areca catechu. The substitutes include
Adonidia merrillii, Areca caliso, Areca ipot, Heterospathe elata,
Oncosperma, and Pinanga.
Canes. See Rattans and Walking sticks.
Cardboard (substitute for). The sheathing part of the leaves
and also the spathe enveloping the flower stalk of Areca catechu
are used as substitutes for cardboard.
Carriers' poles. On account of its great strength and springi-
ness, the hard outer wood of Livistona spp. is a great favorite
USES OF PALM PRODUCTS 245
for the "pingga", or shoulder-pole, of the Chinese and Filipmo

pack carriers.
Caulking'. Soft fibers obtained from Arenga pinnata (sugar
palm) Caryota
, and the coconut are used for caulking boats.
spp.,
Chairs. The whole stems of the rattan palms are used in
making frames of chairs and the split stems for the bottoms
and backs of the so-called cane-seat chairs. See Rattans.
Charcoal. The shells of the coconut furnish a high grade of
charcoal extensively used in the past European war for gas-
masks.
Cordage. See Fibers.
Dye. The fruits of Areca catechu (betel palm) are sometimes
used for dyeing black and red shades.
Fertilizer. The kernels of the coconut after having the oil ex-
tracted are used as fertilizer.
Fibers. Fibers from the coconut husks are used for mats.
Nipa fibers are employed in tying bundles of rice and sewing
shingles. Caryota spp. and Arenga pimiata (sugar palm) pro-
duce a fiber used in caulking boats and as tinder. Fibers from
the leaves, from the cortex of the petioles and from the interior
of the petioles of Corypha elata (buri) are used for weaving
fine hats. A very fine kind of thatching is made from the fibers
at the base of the leaves of Arenga pimiata. The fibro-vascular
bundles of buri petioles are frequently used in making rope,
as are also the Arenga pimiata fibers (cabo negro). Rattans
are used, twisted two or three together, for logging and towing
cables and for tying logs into rafts.
Fish Traps. Rattan palms are extensively used in making fish
traps. See Rattans.

Fishing rods. The hard outer wood of Livistona spp. is ex-
tremely resilient and therefore makes an excellent material for
fishing rods.
Floors. The hard outer wood of Livistona spp. (anahau), On-
cosperma spp. (anibong), the coconut palm, and perhaps some
other genera, is split into strips from 5 to 10 cm. wide and used
for flooring.
Food. The coconut is the most valuable palm from the stand-
point of food. Both the mature and immature fruits are va-
riously thus employed. The oil pressed from the mature fruits
is used as food, for cooking, and as a substitute for butter and
lard. The kernels from which the oil has been pressed are
used as food for stock. The young seeds of Nipa, Corypha ekita
(buri), and Arenga pimiata (sugar palm) are employed as food,
chiefly in some form of sweetmeat. The seeds of some species
of Calamus are covered with an edible pulp. The young stems of

some species are cooked and eaten as a salad. Some have a
svvôllen basal portion w^hich contains starch and which is eaten
by woodsmen. The bud, locally called ubud, of most palms is
edible. In the Philippines the buds of the following palms are
known to be used for food: Areca catechu (betel nut), Arenga
ambong, Arenga pinnata (sugar palm) some species of Calamus,
,
Cocos nucifera (coconut palm), Corypha data (buri), Heteros-

patJie elata (sagisi), and probably all other species of Heteros-
pathe, Metroxylon sagu (sago palm), the different species of
Livistona (anahau), and Oncosperma (anibong). The buds of
many other palms are certainly edible.
Furniture. Many articles of furniture are manufactured from
the stems of the rattan palms. See Rattans.
Fuel. The kernels of the coconut after having the oil pressed
from them are sometimes used as fuel, while the shells are fre-
quently used for this purpose in the drying of copra,
artificial
and locally as a substitute for coal in various manufacturing
establishments. The petioles of nipa, coconut and other palms
are also used as domestic fuel.
Hats. Corypha elata (buri) is the source of material from
which a number of valuable types of hats are manufactured.
Excellent hats are also made from rattans. Other palms em-
ployed for use in making hats are Areca catechu (betel palm),
Cocos nucifei'a (coconut), Heterospathe elata (sagisi), Livistona
spp. (anahau), and Nipa.
Household Utensils. The shells of the coconut are employed for
various household utensils, as cups, bowls, spoons, etc., and as
molds for cane and buri sugar put up in lenticular cakes for the
retail trade.
Mats. Corypha Nipa, and the rattans are used
elata (buri) ,
in the Philippines for making mats. Mats are also made in

other places from Metroxylon sagu (sago palm), but this is not
recorded from the Philippines.
Oil. The coconut furnishes large quantities of oil for export.
Locally it is used for food, cooking, and illumination. Elaeis
guineensis is an important source of oil in other countries, but
in the Philippines is grown only as an ornamental.
Ornament. Most palms are ornamental, although not always
used for this purpose. Among those extensively planted in the
Philippines ornamental purposes are Adonidia merrillii,
for
Arenga tremula, Caryota spp., Cocos nucifera, Heterospathe
elata, Licuala spinosa, Livistona spp., Orania, Oreodoxa regia,
Pinanga spp., Areca ipot, and Arenga mindorensis. The fol-
USES OF PALM PRODUCTS 247
lowing are very ornamental, but are not as yet cultivated: Areca
vidalimia, Arenga ambong, and Zalacca clemensiana. The
leaves of the coconut are used extensively in temporary decora-
tions and large numbers of them are employed on Palm Sunday.
Raincoats. The leaves of Livistoiia spp., Nipa fruticans, and
Phoenix hanceana are used for raincoats.
Rattans. Rattan is supplied by the climbing palms Calamus,
Daejnonorops, and Korthalsia; the best commercial rattan being
furnished by the genus Calamus. The entire cane of the rattan
is used in the manufacture of chairs and other furniture and
for vâlking sticks. The split canes are used for bale-ties, bas-
kets, hats, fish traps, mats, chairs, bottoms and backs of so-called
cane-seat chairs, parts of beds, tables, etc., and in great quan-
tities for tying together posts, beams, rafters, flooring and
roofing in the majority of light wooden and bamboo houses.
The central portion of the canes is split and used for wicker
(so-called "reed") furniture.
Rope. See Fibers.
Slippers. The lower sheath-like parts of the leaf stalks of
Areca catechu (betel palm) are used for inner soles; and the
outer part of the petioles of Corijpha elata (buri) for soles of
sandals.
Spear shafts. The hard outer wood of LivistoTia spp. and On-
cosperma spp. is a favorite material for this purpose. The en-
tire stems of some of the small erect palms (perhaps Pinanga
spp.) and occasionally some of the hardest and stiff est rattans
are also used.
Starch. This product is obtained from the stems of Corypha
elata (buri), Arenga pimiata (sugar palm), and Metroxylon
sagu (sago palm), and sometimes from species of Carijota.
Stinging Crystals. The fruits of Arenga pinnata (sugar palm)
contain stinging crystals which are sometimes used for the pro-
tection of fish ponds against nocturnal robbers.
Sugar. This product is obtained from Arenga pinnata (sugar
palm) and Corypha elata (buri). The Nipa palm is a very
promising commercial source of sugar, while the juice of Cory-
pha used in connection with the juice of sugar cane might also
be a commercial source. Sugar could be manufactured from the
sap of the coconut palm.
Syrup. This product is manufactured from the sap of Corypha
elata (buri).
Tannin. The fruits of Areca catechu (betel palm) contain a
considerable quantity of tannin.
Thatching Material. The leaves of Nipa are the most widely used
thatching material in the Islands. A very durable thatching is

made from the fibers at the base of the leaves of Arenga pinnata
(sugar palm). The leaves of the following palms are also used
for thatching: Cocos nucifera (coconut), Corypha elata (buri),
Livistona spp. (anahau), and Metroxylon sagu (sago palm).
Timber. The stems of old coconut palms are used for house-
posts, wharves, and bridges the split, outer portion of the stems
;
of Caryota spp., Livistona spp. (anahau) Metroxylon sagu (sago

,
palm), and Oncosperma (anibong) for floors; and the stems of

Metroxylon sagu (sago palm) for rafters. The stems of Liv-
istona spp. (palma brava) take a high polish and, if protected
from the rain, last well. They are used extensively as pillars.
Spear shafts are made from the outer shell of the stems of
Livistona and Ojicosperma and bows from Livistoria.
Tinder. A fine fiber obtained from Arenga pinnata (sugar
palm) and Caryota spp. makes an excellent tinder.
Vermifuge. The fruits of Ai-eca catechu (betel palm) are used
extensively as a vermifuge.
Vinegar. This product is obtained from the sap of Nipa,
Arenga pinnata (sugar palm), Cocos nucifera (coconut), and
Corypha elata (buri).
Walking sticks. Species of Calamus (rattan) found in Palawan
furnish beautiful canes known in commerce as Malacca canes.
The outer parts of the stems of Livistona (palma brava) are also
used extensively as walking sticks, as are occasionally the whole
stems of some of the small species of Pinanga.
Water. Stems of some species of Calamus (rattan) contain
water which is used for drinking purposes.
Water pipes and troughs. Whole or split trunks of Livistona
spp., and probably of other large palms, are used as water
conduits in irrigation, as eave troughs, etc.
PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
249
250 PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
CONTENTS
Page.
Illustrations 253
Introduction 255
Key to Genera 257
Description of Species 258
Arundinaria 258
Bambusa 258
Cephalostachyum 260
Dendrocalamus 261
Dinochloa 261
Gigantochloa 262
Guadua 262
Schizostachyum 263
Planting of Bamboo 266
Growth of Mature Clumps..... 270
Cost of Harvesting and Prices 278
Plates 279
251
PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page.
Plate I. View along a trail in forest of Schizostachymn lu-
manipao 250
II. Arundinaria niitakayamensis Hayata 279
Bamhusa cornuta Munro
III. 280
Bambusa ynerrillii Gamble
IV. 281
V. Bamhusa spinosa Roxb. Clump 282
VI. Bambusa spinosa Roxb. Base of clump 283
VII. Bambusa spinosa Roxb 284
VIII. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Clump 285
IX. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Base of clump 286
. X. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad 287
XL Cephalostachyum mindoreiise Gamble. Cotype specimen.... 288
XII. Dendrocalamus rnerrillianus Elm. Clump 289
XIII. Dendrocalaynus rnerrillianus Elm. Cotype specimen 290
XIV. Dinochloa ciliata Kurz 291
XV. Dinochloa elmeri Gamble 292
XVI. Dinochloa luconiae (Munro) Merr. Type specimen 293
XVII. Dinochloa pubiramea Gamble. Type specimen 294
XVIII. Dinochloa scaridens O. Kuntze 295
XIX. Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr 296
XX. Guadua philippinensis Gamble. Cotj'pe specimen 297
XXI. Schizostachyum brachycladuvi Kurz.. 298
XXII. Schizostachyum dielsianum (Pilger) Merr 299
XXIII. Schizostachyum curranii Gamble , 300
XXIV. Schizostachyum diffusum (Blanco) Merr 301
XXV. Schizostachyum fenixii Gamble. Cotype specimen 302
XXVI. Schizostachyum hirtiflorum Hack. Cotype specimen 303
XXVII. Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr 304
XXVIII. Schizostachyum lumampao (Blanco) Merr 305
XXIX. Interior of mature forest of Schizostachyum lumampao 306
XXX. Schizostachyum luzonicum Gamble. Cotype specimen 307
XXXI. Schizostachyum palawanense Gamble. Type specimen 308
XXXII. Schizostachyum textorium (Blanco) Merr 309
XXXIII. Schizostachyum toppingii Gamble. Cotype specimen 310
253
:
PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
INTRODUCTION
The bamboos form a and contain
section of the grass family
the largest known grasses, many
of which are of tree size.
Bamboos, according to form, can be divided into three classes:
clump-forming erect species; erect ones which send up shoots
singly from an underground stem and climbing bamboos. Erect
;
clump-forming species are characteristic of tropical countries,

while those which send up shoots singly are more charac-
teristic of subtropical or temperate regions. Bamboos are
the most useful plants for domestic purposes in the Philippine
Islands. Their most promising possibilities for export are as
paper pulp, hats, baskets, mats, and matting.
In the Philippine Islands are found about 30 species of bamboo,
17 erect and 13 climbing, as follows
ERECT CLIMBING
Arundinaria niitakayametisis Hayata. I
CephalostacJiyum mindorensc Gam-

Bambusa cornuta Munro. ble.
Bamhusa glaucescens (Willd.) Sieb. Dinochloa ciliata Kurz.
Bambusa Gamble.
vierrillii Dinochloa elmeri Gamble.
Bambusa spinosa Roxb. Dinochloa luconiae (Munro) Merr.
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Dinochloa puhiramea (Merr.) Gam-
Bambusa vulgaris striata Gamble. ble.
Dendrocalamus curranii Gamble. Dinochloa scandens 0. Kuntze.
Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro. Schizostachyum luzonicum Gamble.
Dendrocalamus merrillianus Elm. Schizostachyum curranii Gamble.
Gigantochloa Levis (Blanco) Merr. Schizostachyum dielsianutn (Pilger)
Guadua philippinensis Gamble. Merr.
Schizostachyum, brachycladiun Kurz. Schizostachyum diffusum (Blanco)
Schizostachyum hirtiflorum Hack. Merr.
Schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr. Schizostachyum fenixii Gamble.
Schizostachyum lumampao (Blanco) Schizostachyum palawanense Gam-
Merr. ble.
Schizostachyum iextorium (Blanco) Schizostachyum toppingii Gamble.
Merr.
At present the climbing bamboos are of slight commercial

importance, and are rather a disadvantage than an advantage,
as they occupy space which might be utilized by more valuable
plants. They grow at the edge of the forest or in deserted
caingins,^ or in the forest whenever space has been opened up
'
A word used in the Philippines for a clearing made for temporary
cultivation.
255
by the falling of large trees. They require considerable insola-

tion for their best development —
and then grow very densely so
densely that it is very difficult to penetrate the thickets formed.
In fact climbing bamboo forms the most impenetrable thickets
that are to be found in our forests. They seem to be decidedly
inimical to tree growth, and are hard to eradicate when once
they have fully occupied an area.
The erect species may, for convenience, be divided into thick-
and thin-walled bamboos. The framework of a great majority
of the houses in the Philippine Islands is constructed from the
thick-walled species. Unsplit culms are used for posts, beams,
and rafters. The same species, when split and flattened, are
used for the sides of houses or when split in two employed like
;
tiles for roofing. Most frequently the sides and partitions,

and occasionally the floors, are formed from thin-walled species
split and woven into a coarse matting (sawale).
Sawale is a promising material for the construction of light-
material bungalows even in temperate countries. It is also
very attractive as an interior finish in strong-material houses.
Sawale is of particular advantage in the construction of large
temporary buildings. In Manila there is held an annual Car-
nival, in which very imposing structures are constructed rapidly
and cheaply with the aid of this material. When the Philippine
National Guard was organized, all the barracks were constructed
very quickly on account of the use of sawale. In the entire
Philippine exhibits at the Panama-Pacific International Exposi-
tion at San Francisco, California, various weaves and classes
of sawale were used extensively in the installation of the dif-
ferent booths. This proved so attractive and demonstrated so
clearly its use, that people visiting the Exposition ordered mate-
rial of the heavier weave for summer cottages in California.
These orders, aggregating 3,000 linear yards, were for the kind
of material used in the exhibits. It was only due to a lack
of an organized industry and the subsequent rise in freight
rates that a considerable export trade did not result from this
beginning.
The domestic uses of bamboo are innumerable and include
bridges, fences, rafts, fish traps, vessels for carrying and storing
water, cooking, splints for baskets, hats and mats, vehicle shafts,
chairs, cupboards, tables, beds, benches, flowerpots, etc. In
fact, on account of the ease with which it is worked, bamboo is
used for almost every purpose for which wood is employed in
temperate countries. The young shoots of many species are also
used for food. As an interesting use of bamboo we may mention
that complete bands, in some cases having 32 or more pieces.
KEY TO GENERA 257
are equipped with musical instruments constructed of bamboo.
These pieces are of the same general character as brass instru-
ments and include horns, clarinets, flageolets, saxophones, flutes,
piccolos, and drums. A church in Las Pifias, a few kilometers
from Manila, has a famous organ with bamboo pipes.
For construction purposes bamboo should be cut a year after
it has reached mature size and after the rainy season; that is,
in most parts of the Philippines, after November. If cut during

the rainy season the culms are full of sap, which soon attracts
small beetles in great numbers and these rapidly destroy the
bamboo. In practice, newly cut bamboo is often kept in water
for several weeks in order that the sap, or at least the sugar
and starch contents of the sap, may be eliminated. Filipino
bamboo carpenters say that when flies gather around the newly
worked bamboo, it is a sign that this bamboo is not durable.
The flies, of course, are attracted by the sugar in the bamboo.
Owing to the wide distribution of bamboo and the ease with
which it is worked without any special implements, it ofi'ers
a promising field for the development of local household in-
dustries for the manufacture of various useful and ornamental
articles. If this industry were developed, no doubt considerable
export trade could be secured.
Key to the genera of Philippine bamboos.
1. Climbing.
2. Flowers in widely scattered, dense, globose heads; rare, known
only from Mindoro Cephalostachyum.
2. Flowers not in widely scattered, dense, globose heads.
3. Spikelets very small, ovate Dinochloa.
3. Spikelets elongated, linear or linear-lanceolate.
Schizostachyum.
1. Erect.
2. Two and a half meters in height oronly on high mountains,
less,
wild Arundinaria.
2. Clumps one to three meters in height, leaves small and whitish,
cultivated only Bambusa glaucescens.
2. More than 3 meters in height.
3. Base of clump protected with long, interlaced, spiny branches.-
Bambusa spinosa.
3. Base of clump not protected with long spiny branches.
4. Culms thin walled; mostly small or medium sized bamboos.
5. Keels of palea broadly winged; rare, known only
from Mindanao Guadua.
5. Palea not winged Schizostachyum.
4. Culms thick walled; mostly large bamboos.
5. Pericarp thin, adnate to the seed.
6. Filaments free Bambusa.
6. Filaments connate in a thin tube... Gigantocliloa.
5. Pericarp fleshy or crustaceous, separable from the
seed Dendrocalamus.
169644 17
Genus ARUNDINARIA Michaux

ARUNDINARIA N ITAKAYAM ENSIS Hayata.
I Utod.
Among the Igorots, this bamboo is known as utod. It is
the only representative of the genus found in the Philippines.

This species was originally described from the mountains of
Formosa, and is known only from Formosa and the mountains
of Luzon. very abundant, forming dense thickets,
It is locally
at altitudes from 2,100 to 2,600 meters in the Mountain Province,

Luzon. This bamboo reaches a height of 2.5 meters, but in
unfavorable habitats is frequently only a few centimeters in
height. Its maximum diameter is about 1 centimeter. Its only
recorded use in the Philippines is for pipestems. A flowering
specimen is shown in Plate II.
Genus BAMBUSA Schreber

1. Culms unarmed.
2. Small shrubby species 2 to 3 meters high with glaucous leaves.
B. glaucescens.
2.Coarse species of tree size.
3. Leaf-sheaths with rounded auricles B. vulgaris.
3. Leaf-sheaths with hornlike, erect processes.
4. Leaves large; spikelets glabrous; keels of the palea not
prominently ciliate B. cornuta.

4. Leaves small; spikelets densely hirsute; keels of the palea
prominently ciliate B. merrillii.

1. Cuims spiny B. spinosa.
The genus Bambusa represented by five species, of which

is
at least three appear to have been purposely introduced. It

includes the most valuable single species of the entire group
in the Philippines. With one exception, all of the species have
large, tall culms.
BAMBUSA CORNUTA Munro. LoPA.

Local name: Lopa (Isinai).
Rare in the forests of Nueva Vizcaya and Benguet, known

also from Java. An erect bamboo reaching a height of 7 to 8
meters, and a culm diameter of 3 to 3.5 centimeters, with inter-
nodes 40 to 45 centimeters long. It is characterized by promi-
nent horns at the tip of the leaf sheath. A flowering specimen
is shown in Plate III.
BAMBUSA GLAUCESCENS Sieb. Kawayan-ChinA.

Local names: Kawdyan-china, kawdyan-sina (Tagalog).
Kawayan-china is a native of China or Japan and occurs
in the Philippines only as an introduced and cultivated plant.
The clumps are usually from 1 to 3 meters in height, the culms

up to 2 centimeters in diameter. The culms may be 5 meters in
length but when long are usually much bent. The leaves are
from and whitish in appearance. This
3 to 10 centimeters long
species is planted for ornamental purposes and in some parts
of Manila is used as a hedge plant. The stems are used for
fishing rods.
BAMBUSA MERRILLII Gamble.

This species is known only from from the Caraballo
collections
Sur mountain ranges in Nueva Vizcaya, where it grows in
forests at an altitude of about 600 meters.
It is an erect straggling species about 18 meters in height.
See Plate IV.
BAMBUSA SPINOSA Roxb. {B. blumeana Schultes f.). Spiny Bamboo.
Local names: Dugian,kabugdwan, marurugi, 7'ugian (Bikol) ka- ;
wdyan, kawdyan totoo (i. e. trtie bamboo), kawdyan tinik (Tagalog) ;
aon-o, batdkan, paua, kawdyan-gid (Bisaya) kawdyan si-itan (Iloko)

; ;
bayog (Zambales) ;lam-nuan (Isinai) baugin (Pampanga)

;
pasmgan ;
(Cagayan) caiia espina (Spanish).

;
This bamboo is the one to which the name kawayan is most

frequently applied. It is found throughout the settled areas of
the Philippines at low and medium altitudes, and is apparently
always planted, there being no valid reason for considering it
a native of the Archipelago. This bamboo was apparently pur-
posely introduced at an early date. Spiny bamboo, as well as
the other large, probably introduced species, has been cultivated
quite extensively in clearings which have since been abandoned,
so that considerable areas are now covered by virtual forests
of this species. Spiny bamboo offers considerable possibilities
as a valuable reforestation crop.
Spiny bamboo reaches a height of about 25 meters and a
culm diameter of 20 centimeters. The internodes are usually
hollow, and from 40 to 60 centimeters in length. The culms
have thick walls, becoming progressively thicker toward the
lower part of the culm. It occasionally happens that the lower
internodes are so thick walled that they become almost or quite
solid. The stem contains a large amount of silica and sometimes
an internode is completely filled with a hard, white, siliceous
mass, which damages any instrument used in cutting it. This
bamboo is rarely found in flower and the interval between
flowering periods is not known. It is by far the most commonly
used bamboo in the Philippines, being prized above all others by
the Filipinos for building purposes on account of its great
strength and durability. It is distinguished from all other spe-
cies of Philippine bamboos by the fact that it grows in large

clumps, the basal portions of which are surrounded to a height
of from 2 to 3 meters by a densely interlaced thicket of very
spiny branches, which make access to the culms exceedingly
difficult. The function of these spiny branches, apparently, is
to protect the delicate young shoots from herbivorous animals.
This species is illustrated in Plates V to VII.
The from green stems of this species are used exten-
splints
sively in the manufacture of baskets and hats, it being the
most valuable species for hat making. It also has some com-
mercial possibilities for paper pulp. The basal portions of the
culms have been used as heads for polo mallets and for shuttles
on hand looms.
Distributed in southern China, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula,
and Malay Archipelago.
BAMBUSA VULGARIS Schrad. Kawayan-KILING.
Localnames: Kawdyan-kiling, kawdyan bayihjin, kawdyan hohero,
taiivandk, tewundk (Tagalog) bulinau, hurirau, h'lnas, sinambdng (Bi-
;
saya) ; kaboloan (Bikol).
This is a clump-forming spineless bamboo, which reaches a

height of about 17 meters or more and a diameter of about 12
centimeters. The stems are smooth, usually yellowish or yel-
lowish-green. It is usually smaller than Bambusa spinosa and
has thinner walls. This species is illustrated in Plates VIII
to X.
Kawayan-kiling is one of the building bamboos and is gen-
erally utilized in the regions where it grows for the various
purposes, such as house construction, bridges, furniture, for
which the coarse erect bamboos are adapted. It is much inferior
to Bambusa spmosa. Like the spiny bamboo, it is probably not
a native of the Philippines, but was purposely introduced in
prehistoric times on account of its general utility. The variety
striata Gamble is occasionally cultivated in Manila and in other
large towns for ornamental purposes ; it is readilj^ distinguished
by culms being bright yellow with a few green stripes. This
its
form is a native of China or Japan, but is now widely distributed

in cultivation.
The native country of Bambusa vulgaris is so far unknown;
it is cultivated and half wild in Asia, Africa, and America.
Genus CEPHALOSTACH YUM Munro

CfiPHALOSTACHYUM MINDORENSE Gamble. Bakto.
This species is rare and known only from Mindoro. It is a
climbing species well characterized by having its flowers in
.
dense, globose, widely scattered heads the larger of which are

about 2 centimeters in diameter. See Plate XL
Genus DENDROCALAM US Nees
Spikelets large; leaves large D.latifiorus.
Spikelets medium-sized; leaves long D.curranii.
Spikelets very small D. merrillianus.
This genus of large erect bamboos is represented by three

species. It is economically unimportant and none of the species
are especially abundant.
DENDROCALAMUS CURRANII Gamble.
A rare species known only from Sampaloc, Tayabas, and
the Island of Polillo off the coast of Luzon, and possibly not
distinct from Gigantochloa levis.
DENDROCALAMUS LATIFLORUS Munro. BoTONG.

Local names: Bofong, bolong-sina (Bikol, Bisaya) ; butihi (Bisaya) ;
Icaholoan, patong (Bicol) kmvdyan-sina (Tagalog).

;
This is a tall, tufted, spineless bamboo apparently

of general
distribution in the central Philippines. frequently utilized
It is
for building purposes, but is not considered to be good material
for basketry.
DENDROCALAMUS MERRILLIANUS Elm. Bayog.
Local names: Bayog (Ilocos) ; kawdyan^bayog (Pangasinan)
This bamboo apparently widely distributed in the Philip-
is
pines. bamboo with slender stalks forming

It is a tall graceful
large clumps. The culms have very thick walls and prominent
nodes. They are used for vehicle shafts and for other purposes
where great strength is desired. The green culms of this bamboo
are split and made into ropes, used particularly for hauling logs.
A flowering specimen is shown in Plate XIL
Genus DINOCHLOA Biise
1. Woody.
2. Leaves broad.
3. Lodicules absent; caryopsis globose; floral rachis glabrous.
D. scandens.
3. Lodicules present; caryopsis oblong; floral rachis pubescent.
D. pubiramea.
2. Leaves narrow; no lodicules.
3. Culms smooth; caryopsis globose D. ciliata.
3. Culms rough; caryopsis oblong D. luconiae.
1. Herbaceous, or woody only at the base; lodicules present D. ehneri.
The genus Dinochloa is represented in the Philippines by five

species. With one exception our representatives are all scandent,
thick-walled, sylvan forms and are locally very abundant, form-
ing almost impenetrable thickets under favorable conditions.
No any of the forms,

special economic uses are indicated for
yet like bamboos they are more or less utilized by the Fili-
all
pinos for general purposes. They should be adapted to the same

special uses as the thick-walled scandent species of Schizo-
stachyum. The most common species is Diyiochloa scandens,
zigzag bamboo, (Plate XVIII) which is abundant and widely
distributed in the central and southern Philippines; it is charac-
terized by its very broad leaves and is variously known as
baia in Palawan, bokaue in Balabac, bukau in Basilan, usiu,
timak, and bolokaui in Mindoro. Most of these names are also
used for the scandent species of Schizostachyum. Dinochloa
luco7iiae (Plate XVI) is very similar in general character to
Dinochloa scandens, but has much narrower leaves, which is
also true of Dinochloa ciliata (Plate XIV). Dinochloa luconiae
is known as baito (Tagalog) and esu (Iloko). D. puhiramea
(Plate XVII) is a broad-leaved species similar to D. scandens
and distinguished chiefly by having the branches of the in-
florescence pubescent. Its local names are kandi (Bis.) and
bukau (Moro). Dinochloa elmeri (Plate XV) is a dwarfed,
half-woody form growing in the mossy forest at the summits
of high mountains.
Genus GIGANTOCHLOA Kurz

GIGANTOCHLOA LEVIS (Blanco) Merr. BoLO.
Local names: Kau-dyan-boo, kawayan-sina, kawdyan-puti, boho (Ta-
galog); boko, bold, botong (Bisaya).
Gigantochloa levis is a stout bamboo reaching a height of 20

meters or more and a culm diameter of 20 centimeters. Its
culms are very straight and smooth, dull green, covered with
siliceous pubescence, and entirely unarmed. It is found in and
about towns in the settled areas of the Philippines, and also
in the forests. The stems are used as pipes for temporary
water supplies, as they are usually long and straight, and for
building fish traps. They are, apparently, rarely employed in
building operations, except for walls of houses, perhaps because
they are not especially durable. A flowering specimen is shown
in Plate XIX.
The Philippine specimens referred to Gigantochloa robusta
Kurz and Gigantochloa atter Kurz are not considered by Mr. E.
D, Merrill to be specifically distinct from G. levis.
Genus GUADUA Kunth
GUADUA PHILIPPINENSIS Gamble.

This is a rare species known only from a single collection from
Davao. The nodes are reported to be about 75 centimeters
.

long and 2.5 to 5 centimeters in diameter. The culms are thin
walled and 4 to 6 meters in height. A cotype specimen is shown
in Plate XX.
Genus SCHI20STACHYUM Nees
1. Climbing'.
2. Flowers in long panicles, usually from flower-bearing culms or
axillary on leafy ones.
3. Leaves usually broad, rounded at the base, mouth of leaf
sheaths and ligules long-bristly-ciliate.
4. Spikelets glabrous S. diffusum.
4. Spikelets densely pubescent S. fenixii.
3. Leaves usually narrow attenuate at the base, mouth of leaf
sheaths and ligules not or only slightly bristly.
4. Spikelets very sharply pointed; apicules of anthers
shortly hirsute S. dielsianum.
4. Spikelets acute only; apicules of anthers very long bristly.
S. palawanense.
2. Flowers in short, terminal spikes up to 10 centimeters long; leaves
very narrow S. textorinm.
1. Erect.
2. Spikelets sharply pointed, not in rounded capitula.
S. longispiciilatum.
2. Spikelets sharply pointed, usually in rounded capitula; no lodicules.
3. Spikelets glabrous outside.
4. Internodes about a meter or more in length or longer.
S. lima.
4. Internodes shorter S. brachycladum.
3. Spikelets more or less pubescent outside; anthers obtuse.
4. Spikelets densely white-hairy, both on the empty and
on the flowering glumes; leaves 1 centimeter broad.

S. hirtiflorum.
4. Spikelets shortly white-hairy only on the flowering glume;
leaves over 1.5 centimeters broad S. lumampao.
2. Spikelets hardly sharp-pointed, obtuse or acute, usually in long
panicles; lodicules usually present S.lnzonicnm.
The genus Schizostachyu^n is extensively developed in the Phil-

ippines. Among the bamboos it has by far the largest number
of species, and presents several of the most common and widely
distributed bamboos in the Archipelago. All of the species are
indigenous, and none of them are cultivated. The genus contains
both erect, thin-walled species, and scandent, thick-walled ones,
several of which are used for special purposes. None of the
species are of large size. Most of them are sylvan or subsylvan
and usually do not occur in the open settled areas. Several
of them are gregarious and in some provinces occupy rather
large areas of land to the practical exclusion of other vegetation.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM BRACHYCLADUM Kurz.

Local names: Bolio (Isinai and Mindanao); bngdkai (Leyte) ;
bagdkan
(Palawan)
This is an erect bamboo about 10 meters in height and up

to 5 centimeters in diameter. A gregarious species abundant
in Palawan and Culion on dry open slopes. Reported from
Nueva Vizcaya, Leyte, Butuan, and Palawan. A flowering spec-
imen is shown in Plate XXI.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM DIFFUSUM (Blanco) Merr. BiKAL.
Local names: Bikal (Tagalog, Iloko, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Caga-
yan) usiii (Tagalog)
; balidro, balikdu, bongbong, lo-ob (Bisaya)
; ;
hindi,
indi, inri (Bikol) butor (Isinai) bdbui (Bikol).
; ;
Bikal widely distributed in the forests of the Philippines

is
and is endemic. It is characterized not only by its habit, but

also by its very thick walls. Sometimes the lumen is almost
entirely wanting, especially in the lower parts of the stem.
The plant is well known to all Filipino woodsmen as a source
of drinking water, as water of good quality can be secured
from the internodes. In some parts of the Philippines this
bamboo is extensively used in making baskets, while it is now
beginning to attract attention for the purpose of making chairs,
for which it is adapted on account of its thick stout walls.
A flowering specimen is shown in Plate XXIV. The very closely
allied Schizostachyutn dielsianum, bikal-babui, (Plate XXII) has
the same names, distribution, and uses as S. diffusum, and is
distinguished only by minor characters.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM LIMA (Blanco) Merr. Anos.

Local name: Anos (Tagalog).
This endemic, erect, thin-walled bamboo is distinguished among

allthe Philippine forms by its long internodes, which are usually
about one meter in length. It is sometimes called bolo and
bagakai by confusion with Schizostachijum lumaynpao. It is
used by the Filipinos for making blow guns, while the cortex is
hard and rough and can be used for polishing brass. It is
also used for the various purposes for which all thin-walled
bamboos are utilized, and after boiling, even for wêaving fans,
cushions, and hats; broad splints prepared from it are used in
making the broad shallow baskets used for winnowing rice.
Widely distributed in the Philippines. A flowering specimen
is shown in Plate XXVII.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM LUMAMPAO (Blanco) Merr. BuHO or Cana-bojo.
Local names: Cana-bojo (Spanish-Filipino); bolo, biiho, lumampdu,

bokdid, kaudyan-songsong (Tagalog) bagdkan, bagdkai (Bisaya)
;
bulu, ;
bolo (Bisaya, Iloko); ords (Bikol).
This species is endemic and widely scattered in the Philippines.

It is a thin-walled, erect, gregarious bamboo usually reaching
a height of about 10 meters, and often nearly exclusively occupy-
ing considerable areas. Forester Medina has surveyed two
tracts of thisbamboo in Bataan Province, one containing 1,200
hectares, ofwhich 800 hectares have a dense stand the second
;
containing 650 hectares, of which more than 40 per cent is

covered with Schizostachyum homampao. There are also very
extensive areas in other parts of Bataan, in Zambales, and in
the Cagayan Valley. Fifteen small plots of Schizostachyum lu-
mampao have been measured in Bataan Province back of the town
of Limay. These plots aggregated 3.5 hectares and covered
stands at widely separated intervals. The surveys showed an
average of 8,983 canes per hectare. One of the surveys of one
quarter of a hectare indicated a stand of 19,162 canes per hectare.
This thin-walled bamboo is the species chiefly utilized in mak-
ing the building matting known as sawale. It is also used for
making baskets, fences, fish corrals, fish poles, flutes, and for
many other purposes.
Buho has been thoroughly investigated by Richmond as a
paper-making material, and it is probably the one species of
Philippine bamboo that, without extensive cultivation, promises
commercial possibilities for this purpose. This point is discussed
in the section on paper. Observations on its rate of growth are
given later. This species is illustrated in Plate I and Plates
XXVIII and XXIX.
SCHIZOSTACHYUM TEXTORIUM (Blanco) Merr. Kalbang.
Local name: Kalbang (Tagaloji').
This an erect bamboo with small leaves, which is locally

is
abundant Batangas and Rizal, Luzon. The

in the Provinces of
stems are used in the manufacture of looms, as they are very
straight and smooth. A flowering specimen is shown in Plate
XXXII.
Among the other Philippine representatives of the genus are
Schizostachyum palawanense (Plate XXXI), a scandent species
known from Palawan and Laguna; S. hirtiflorum (Plate XXVI),
a widely distributed species closely allied to and with the same
growth form as S. lumampao ; S. toppingii (Plate XXXIII), erect
or subscandent, reported from Laguna, Rizal, and Mindoro;
S. curranii (Plate XXIII), scandent, a species of higher altitudes
in northern Luzon; S. luzonicum (Plate XXX), known only from
Zambales; and S. fenixii (Plate XXV), reported from Abra,
Cagayan, Benguet, Ilocos Sur, and Panay, known as paua in
Iloilo, and puser in Abra, Luzon, and there utilized in the manu-
facture of baskets.
PLANTING OF BAMBOO
Until very recently almost no reliable information concerning

the rates of growth of planted Philippine bamboo was available.
For this reason, Mr. H. M. Curran and Dr. F. W. Foxworthy
in 1912 started a bamboo plantation at the Division of Investiga-
tion of the Bureau of Forestry at Los Barios, Laguna, the direc-
tion of the planting being intrusted to Rangers de Mesa and
Villamil. This plantation was started on a rather dry hill on
steep slopes, covered with a mixture of tall grass and small
second-growth trees. The material selected for planting was
from shoots 1 to 2 years old or older from poorly grown plants
which were overtopped and not well supplied with light, and
from upper twigs. A few butts were also used. The length
of cuttings was from 60 centimeters to 2 meters. The cuttings
were collected 3 to 36 hours before planting, and were laid in
water at the edge of a stream whenever it was not possible to
plant immediately. During the time that this work was done
the weather was very rainy and so there was less than the usual
amount of drying out. The planting was done between August
29 and October 10, 1912. The implements employed were mat-
tocks and heavy pointed sticks, the mattocks being used only
when rocky soil was encountered or when very large pieces were
to be planted. In all there were planted 1,015 cuttings of
Bambusa spinosa, 145 of Bambusa vulgaris, and 105 of Gigan-
tochloa leris. The area of the plantation was 2.2 hectares.
More than half of the area was covered with a dense tangle of
small trees and climbing bamboo. All of the small brush and
climbing bamboo was cut, but some of the larger trees were
left to shade the young plants. Where the bamboo was shaded
ithas done better than it has in the open. This may perhaps
be due to the fact that the planting was done toward the end
of the rainy season so that the young shoots were exposed to
drier conditions than they would have been if planted earlier.
On January 10, 1914, the living bamboos were counted; these
included 349 individuals of Bambusa spinosa or 34 per cent of
the original number planted, 46 of B. vulgaris or 32 per cent,
and 6 of Gigantochloa levis or 6 per cent. This low percentage
of success was probably due in part to several avoidable causes.
The planting was done toward the close of the rainy season,
so that young plants did not have as favorable moisture condi-
tions as they would have had if planted earlier. Again the
methods of planting, as previously described, were not favorable,
while some of the young plants are known to have been destroyed
by cattle; moreover, the selection of material was poor, and the
— .
PLANTING OF BAMBOO 267

site unfavorable. The best material for planting is from stumps,
which, though harder to prepare, will probably be cheapest in the
long run. Small twigs are much harder to handle than larger
pieces. The cutting should be planted oblique to the ground.
Planting material should be taken from full-sized shoots which
are not fully mature. Subsequent careful planting of small num-
bers of these same bamboos in the early part of the rainy
season gave 100 per cent success.
During the year 1914, blanks in the plantation were filled.
Bamboo cuttings, at first, send up thin whiplike shoots and
it is only after a considerable period that regular culms are
produced. The number and size of these culms increases yearly

until mature size is reached.
In Table 1, from a report by Ranger Oro, is given a summary
of the height of the culms in December, 1915 from this table, ;
it will be seen that in three years some of the culms had reached
a height of from 8 to 9 meters, but that most of them were

much smaller than this.
Table 1. Heights of bamboo clumps at Division of Investigation, Bureau
of Forestry, Los Banos, Lag'una, P. I., December, 1915, three years
after planting.
[The figures in the table give the number of clumps.]
Height in meters.
Species.
Less 2-3. 3-4. 4-5. 5-6.
than 2.
!
Bambusa spinosa . 85 59
Bambusa vulgaris 11 12
Gigantochloa levis. —J I
1
—
size of the bamboo in 1915 and 1917, it may be predicted that

a considerable number of usable canes would be produced in
another two years.
Table 2. Heights of bamboo clumps and diameters of canes at Division
of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry, Los Bancs, Laguna, P. /.,
October, 1917, five years after planting.
[Figures represent number of clumps.]
Species.
—
PLANTING OF BAMBOO 269
The area planted was 22,000 square meters. The time em-
ployed in selecting cuttings was 200 hours, in clearing 207
hours, and in planting 140 hours, making a total of 547 hours.
Assuming labor at 10 centavos per hour, the cost of planting
would be 25 pesos per hectare, planting being at intervals of 2 to
3 meters. During the first four years the plantation was cleaned
twice a year, which included the cutting back of vines and
felling and pruning of trees. This was done at a cost of about
10 pesos per hectare, per year, with labor at 10 centavos per
hour.
A second bamboo plantation was started by Dr. F. W. Fox-
worthy at the Division of Investigation, Bureau of Forestry, at
Los Bahos, during June, 1917. This plantation covered 2 hec-.
tares and was planted with a single species, Bambusa spinosa.
The planting was done in the months of June and July during
the early part of the rainy season. The ground was covered
largely with small trees and climbing bamboos, there being
very little grass. The climbing bamboos were cut, but the trees
left standing. The planting was done with stump and stem
cuttings. The stump cuttings used had roots and were about
a third of a meter in length. They were planted either in
a slanting position or erect. A stem cutting consisted of a
segment with a node at either end. A slit was made in the
internode, and then the whole segment buried in the ground,
except that the slit was left uncovered to permit water being
poured into the internode. In all there were planted 225 stump
cuttings and 800 stem cuttings.
All of the living shoots were counted and measured during
December, 1917, and again at the end of June, 1918, when the
plants were about a year old. The results of the measurements
are given in Table 4. An examination of Table 4 shows that
at the end of the year 59 per cent of the stump cuttings and
40 per cent of the stem cuttings were alive. A comparison of
these figures with those given in Table 3 indicates a greater per-
centage of success in the second than in the first plantation.
Table 4. Record of plantation of Bambusa spinosa at Division of Inves-

tigation, Bureau of Forestry, Los Banos, Philippine Islaiids.
1
Number
of cut-
There is, however, reason to believe that much better results

than those recorded in Table 4 could be obtained as the dry
season of 1918 was unusually severe and the plants were not
irrigated. It will be noticed that there was a high percentage of
mortality between December, 1917, and June, 1918. Moreover,
many of the plants were probably subjected to too much shade,
as they were freed from vines only once during the year and in
general those plants which survived received more light than
those which died.
The total cost of selecting, transporting, and planting the cut-
tings was 72.82 pesos per thousasd. This cost was considerably
more than in the case of the 1912 plantation, which is accounted
for by the greater care used in the selection of cuttings for the
second than the first plantation. The superior cuttings used in
1917, however, gave much better results than the poorer ones
employed in 1912.
It appears from the data derived from the planting at Los
Baiios that the commercial planting of bamboo on a large scale
would be very profitable and that bamboo should be a valuable
reforestation crop.
A number of bamboos, other than those here considered, have
been propagated from hard-v/ood cuttings at the Division of
Investigation of the Bureau of Forestry at Los Baiios, and it is
probable that all or most Philippine bamboos can be thus re-

produced.
GROWTH OF MATURE CLUMPS
Actual measurements of growth of canes in mature clumps
are available for only three species, Bamhusa spinosa, Bambusa
vulgaHs, and Gigmitochloa levis. A clump of Bamhusa spinosa
sends up yearly a number of shoots, the number in some cases
being as large as 130. In clumps from which the mature canes
are harvested, the number of new shoots may exceed the num-
ber left in the clump when the new culms are produced. A
considerable proportion of the young shoots die before reaching
maturity, many of them while still quite small. In Table 5 are
given observations on the number of shoots produced by 8 clumps
of Bambusa spinosa. The greatest number of canes produced
by any clump recorded in Table 5 is 128; these grew from a
clump having 49 mature canes. However, only 24, or 19 per
cent of the 128 canes, reached maturity. The average of all
the canes produced, by the 8 clumps, which reached maturity
is 28.5 per cent. In all, the number of mature canes produced
is 46.5 per cent of the total mature canes originally in the
clumps.
—
GROWTH OF MATURE CLUMPS 271
Table 5. Number of shoots produced and yield of mature living canes
from 8 clumps of Bumbusa spinosa at Division of Investigation, Bureaxi
of Forestry, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippine Islands. Data from report
by Ranger Oro.
'
New shoots.
TotJil
—
Table 7. Niimbej- of shoots produced and yield of mature living canes

from 5 clumps of Gigantochloa levis at Division of Investigation,
Bureau of Forestry, Los Banos, Lagtma, Philippine Islands. Data
fro7n report by Ranger Oro.
\
—
5,1915, while a considerable proportion of the canes were not
measured until after this date. The height at the time of the
measurement is given in the first row of figures in the table.
first
Each column shows the growth figures for a single, culm during
successive weeks, the space in each column being for the
first
week ending June 12. When measurements were not started
until later than June 5, the first measurement of growth is
recorded lower in the column, the number of blanks appearing
before the first measurement of growth indicating the number
of weeks after June 5 that the first measurement was taken.
It will be seen that, as is usual in the growth of plant parts,
the rate is at first slow and gradually increases until it reaches a
maximum, after which it decreases as the culms assume mature
size. The most rapid growth usually occurs nearer the end than
the beginning of the growth period and takes place in the
latter part of the rainy season. Three of the shoots showed
a weekly growth in excess of 3 meters the fastest rate was ;
3.17 meters, or an average of 45 centimeters a day for a week.

Table 8. Growth of culms of Bambusa spinosa, at Division of Investiga-
tion,Bureau of Forestry, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippine Islands.
Data from report by Ranger Oro.
Height in meters at first measurement.

—
Table 8. Growth of culms of Bamhusa spinosa, etc. — Continued.

—
Table Growth of culms of Bavihusa vulgaris, at Division of Inves-
9.
Bureau of Forestry, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippine Islands.

tigation,
—
measurements of culms given Table 9 is July 3. Except for

in
the later development of the culms, Gigantochloa lev is shows the

same general growth phenomena as Bambusa sphiosa and Bam-
busa vulgaris, but the rates of growth, according to our tables,
are intermediate.
Table 10. Grotvth of culms of Gigantochloa levis, at Division of Inves-

Bureau of Forestry, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippine Islands.
tigation,
Height in meters at first measurement.

—

Table 10. Growth of cubns of Gigantochloa levis, etc. — Continued.
Ranger Mabesa has made counts of the number of shoots

produced in one season on two areas of Schizostachyum lu-
mampao, each area consisting of 100 square meters. The two
areas together contained 340 canes and produced 35 shoots,
or 10 per cent of the original number. All canes were cut from
two smaller-sized plots in May, 1917, and the number of new
canes counted in November, 1917. These two plots originally
contained 221 canes. After the clearing they sent up a large
number of shoots about the size of a lead pencil and 10 usable
canes, which is only 4.5 per cent of the original number. This
would indicate that it requires some years for this bamboo to
regain its original density when once completely cut-over.
COST OF HARVESTING AND PRICES
Data on the cost of harvesting were collected during the year

1916 on the College of Agriculture farm at Los Banos, Laguna.
One man was employed for a total of 91 days, during which
time 1,000 canes of Bambusa spinosa were harvested, an average
of 11 canes per day. The cost of labor was 80 centavos per day,
making the total cost of harvesting 1,000 canes 72.80 pesos or
an average per cane of 7.28 centavos. In the same locality
these canes sold at 4 pesos per dozen.
Bamboo sold in Manila is floated down the river from the
country behind or across Manila Bay. In Manila the present
prices for canes in the river are: First-class canes, 32 pesos
per hundred; second-class canes, 27 pesos per hundred; and
third-class canes, from 18 to 20 pesos per hundred. The cost
of floating bamboo to Manila is very small, as rafts containing
large numbers of canes can be operated by a very few men.
PLATES 279
PLATE II. ARUNDINARIA NIITAKAYAMENSIS (UTOD).

PLATE III. BAMBUSA CORNUTA (LOPA).

PLATES 281
PLATE IV. BAMBUSA MERRILLII. TYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATE V. BAMBUSA SPINOSA (SPINY BAMBOO).

PLATES 283
PLATE VI. BAMBUSA SPINOSA (SPINY BAMBOO).

PLATE Vll. BAMBUSA SPINOSA (SPINY BAMBOO).

PLATES 285
PLATE VIII. BAMBUSA VULGARIS ( KAWAYAN-KILING).

.
PLATE IX. BAMBUSA VULGARIS KAWAYAN-KILING)

(
.
PLATES 287
PLATE X. BAMBUSA VULGARIS ( KAWAYAN-KILING)

PLATE XI. CEPHALOSTACHYUM MINDORENSE (BAKTO). COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATES 289
PLATE XII. DENDROCALAMUS MERRILLIANUS (BAYOG).

169644 19
PHILIPPINE BAMBOOS
290
PLATE XIII. DENDROCALAMUS MERRILLIANUS (BAYOG). COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATES 291
PLATE XIV. DINOCHLOA CILIATA.

PLATE XV. DINOCHLOA ELMERI.

PLATES 293
PLATE XVI. DINOCHLOA LUCONIAE,

v \ /
I
'^^*
PLATE XVII. DINOCHLOA PUBIRAMEA. TYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATES 295
PLATE XVIll. DINOCHLOA SCANDENS (ZIGZAG BAMBOO).

PLATE XIX. GIGANTOCHLOA LEVIS (BOLO).

PLATES 297
PLATE XX. GUADUA PHILIPPINENSIS. COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATE XXI. SCHIZOSTACHYUM BRACHYCLADUWI.

.
PLATES 299
PLATE XXII. SCHIZOSTACHYUM DIELSIANUM (BIKAL-BABUI )

PLATE XXIII. SCHIZOSTACHYUM CURRANII.

PLATES 301
PLATE XXIV. SCHIZOSTACHYUM DIFFUSUM (BIKAL).

PLATE XXV. SCHIZOSTACHYUM FENIXII (PUSER). COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATES 303
PLATE XXVI. SCHIZOSTACHYUM HIRTIFLORUM. COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATE XXVII. SCHIZOSTACHYUM LIMA (ANOS).

PLATES 305
PLATE XXVIII. SCHIZOSTACHYUM LUMAMPAO (BUHO).

169644 20
PLATES 307
PLATE XXX. SCHIZOSTACHYUM LUZONICUM. COTYPE SPECIMEN,

PLATE XXXI. SCHIZOSTACHYUM PALAWANENSE. TYPE SPECIMEN.

PLATES 309
PLATE XXXIl. SCHIZOSTACHYUM TEXTORIUM (KALBANG).

PLATE XXXIII. SCHIZOSTACHYUM TOPPINGII. COTYPE SPECIMEN.

PHILIPPINE FIBER PLANTS
By William H. Brown
311
312 PHILIPPINE FIBER PLANTS
CONTENTS
Page.
Illustrations 317
Introduction 319
Descriptions of Species 323
Family Polypodiaceae 323
Dryopteris 323
Nephrolepis 323
Stenochlaena 323
Family Gleicheniaceae 326
Gleichenia 326
Family Schizaeaceae 326
Lygodium 326
Family Gnetaceae 328
Gnetum 328
Family Typhaceae 330
Typha 330
Family Pandanaceae 332
Pandanus 332
Family Gramineae 338
Andropogon 338
Apluda 339
Coix 339
Eleusine .....; 340
Imperata 340
Ischaemum 340
Miscanthus 342
Oryza 342
Phragmites 342
Saccharum 344
Sporobolus 344
Thysanolaena : 346
Family Cyperaceae 346
Cyperus 346
Fimbristylis 348
Rhynchospora 352
Scirpiodendron 352
Scirpus 353
313
Descriptions of Species — Continued. Page.
Family Araceae 353

Epipremnum 354
Pothoidium 354
Pothos 354
Raphidophora 356
Scindapsus 356
Family Flagellariaceae 356
Flagellaria -. 356
Family Bromeliaceae 356
Ananas 356
Family Juncaceae 360
Juncus - 360
Family Liliaceae 360
Sansevieria 360
Family Amaryllidaceae 362
Agave 362
Curculigo 362
Family Musaceae 364
Musa 364
Family Zingiberaceae 365
Amomum 365
Family Marantaceae 365
Donax 365
Family Orchidaceae 365
Dendrobium 365
Vanilla 366
Family Ulmaceae 366
Trema 366
Family Moraceae 368
AUaeanthus 368
Antiaris 368
Artocarpus 369
Ficus 372
Malaisia 373
Family Urticaceae 373
Boehmeria 373
Leucosyke 373
Family Menispermaceae 375
Anamirta 375
Pericampylus 375
CONTENTS 315
Descriptions of Species — Continued. p^^^-
Family Annonaceae 375

Goniothalamus 375
Phaeanthus 376
Polyalthia 376
Family Connaraceae 376
Agelaea 376
Rourea 378
Family Leguminosae 378
Abrus 378
Bauhinia 379
Pongamia 379
Family Vitaceae 379
Cissus 379
Family Sapindaceae 380
Sapindus 380
Family Rhamnaceae 380
Alphitonia 380
Family Elaeocarpaceae .»
381
Elaeocarpus 381
Family Tiliaceae 381
Columbia 381
Corchorus 382
Diplodiscus 383
Grewia 384
Muntingia 385
Triumfetta 386
Family Malvaceae 386
Abelmoschus 386
Bombycidendron 386
Hibiscus 387
Malachra 387
Malvastrum 388
Sida - 390
Thespesia 391
Urena - 391
Family Bombacaceae 392
Bombax 392
Ceiba 394
Family Stei'culiaceae 395
Abroma 395
Commersonia 396
31g PHILIPPINE FIBER PLANTS
Descriptions of Species — Continued. Page.
Family Sterculiaceae — Continued.

Helicteres - 396
Kleinhovia - 397
Melochia - 397
Pterocymbium ..-- 398
Pterospermum 398
Sterculia 400
Family Thymelaeaceae 403
Aquilaria --. 403
Phaleria 403
Wikstroemia .- 403
Family Myrsinaceae 406
Maesa 406
Family Loganiaceae 406
Strychnos 406
Family Apocynaceae 406
Ichnocarpus 406
Parameria 407
Urceola 407
Family Asclepiadaceae 407
Asclepias 407
Streptocaulon 408
Family Convolvulaceae 408
Merremia 408
Operculina 408
Family Boraginaceae 409
Cordia 409
Family Caprifoliaceae 409
Lonicera 409
List of Species Used for Various Purposes 410
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate I
Page.
Stenochlaena palustris (diliman) 324
Plate II
Gleichenia linearis (kilob) 325
Plate III
Gleichenia linearis (kilob) 327
Plate IV
Lygodiiini circinnaUim (nito) 329
Plate V
Typha angustifolia (cat-tail) 331
Plate VI
Pandanus sabotan (sabutan) 333
Plate VII
Fig. 1. Pandayuis simplex (karagomoi) 335
2. Pandanus tectorius (common pandan) 335
3. Pandanus simplex (karagomoi) 335
Plate VIII
Pandanus tectorius (common pandan) 337
Plate IX
Ischaemum angustifoUum (kobboot) 341
Plate X
Phragmites vulgaris (tambo) 343
Plate XI
Phragmites vulgaris (tambo) 345
Plate XII
Thysanolaena maxiina (lasa or tiger grass) 347
Plate XIII
Cyperus malaccensis (balanggot) 349
Plate XIV
Cyperus malaccensis (balanggot) 350
Plate XV
Fimbristylis globulosa (utilis) (tikug) 351
317
3][g
Plate XVI
Page.
Pothos rumphii 3^5
Plate XVII
Raphidophora merriUii (amlong) 357
Plate XVIII
Raphidopliora merriUii (amlong) 358
Plate XIX
FlageUaria indica (baling-uai) - 359
Plate XX
Jiincus effusus (pinggot) - - - 361
Plate XXI
Musa textilis (Manila hemp or abaka) - 363
Plate XXII
Fig. 1. Dendrohiiitn crurnenatum (irau) 367
2. Donax cannaefortnis (bamban) 367
Plate XXIII
Artocarpus comiminis (antipolo) - 371
Plate XXIV
Perieampyl'ns glaucus (pamago) 377
Plate XXV
Hibiscus tiliaceus (malubago) 389
Plate XXVI
Urena lobata (kollokollot) - 393
Plate XXVII
Pterocymbium tincto)-iii)u (taliito) 399
Plate XXVIII
Wiksfroemia meyonana (large-leaf salago) 405
;

By William H. Brown
INTRODUCTION
With the great variety of plants occurring in the Philippines
it is not surprising to find a large number which produce useful
fibers. Most of the fibers derived from the wild plants are,
however, of little economic value and are used very locally for
making inferior grades of ropes or for other minor purposes.
However, some of them, as in the case of the buri, pandan,
rattans, and bamboos, are the bases of considerable industries;
while abaka (Manila hemp), which produces the premier cord-
age of the world, is a native of the Philippines. The use of
Philippine fibers in the manufacture of hats has been extensively
discussed by Miller * and Robinson.t Muller has written a i:
very good account of the various Philippine fibers used in the

industrial work of the schools. A short account of some plants
producing bast used in making ropes is given by Mendiola §
while King " has written a very extensive and detailed discussion
of the mechanical properties of a large number of bast fibers
used in rope manufacture.
Some of the fibers which can be considered as
most useful
from palms and bamboos, and have
forest products are derived
been discussed in sections dealing with these plants. They
are used in the manufacture of hats, baskets, mats, furniture,
ropes, thatching, etc.
* Miller, H. H.. Philippine hats. Bureau of Education Bulletin Number

33 (1910).
t Robinson, C. B., Philippine hats. Philippine Journal of Science,
Volume VI (1911), pages 93 to 131.
1 Muller, T., Industrial fiber plants of the Philippines. Bureau of Edu-
cation Bulletin Number 49 (1913).
§Mendiola, N. B., A Philippine Agri-
study of Philippine bast fibers.
culturist and Forester, Volume VI (1917), pages 6 to 39.
King, A. E. W., Mechanical properties of Philippine bast fiber rope.
i
Philippine Journal of Science, Volume XIV (1919).

319
Philippine bast fibers are derived from plants ranging in

size from small shrubs to large trees and belonging chiefly to
the families Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, and Moraceae.
As yet none of these fibers have entered into the external
commerce of the Islands, but their manufacture into ropes is
an important local industry. Mendiola has made a microscopic
study of a number of these fibers and has given some data on
the cost of production and the tensile strength of ropes made
from them. The fibers studied by Mendiola were the basts of
Abroma fastuosa, Kleiyihovia hospita, Melochia umbellata, Urena
lobata, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Malachra capitata, Triumfetta bar-
trartiia, Greivia multiflora, Pipturus arborescens, Sesbania
grandiflora, Columbia serratifolia, Malachra fasciata, and Wiks-
troemia ovata. From the figures given by Mendiola it would
appear that, with labor at 80 centavos a day, the cost of manu-
facture (not including the collection) of these fibers into rope
would be greater than the present selling price; from which
itwould appear that there is little prospect of any considerable
industry in the manufacture of such rope. However, as a local
industry between seasons, it does afford a man an opportunity
to utilize his spare time profitably. Some of these bast fibers,
notably Abroma fastuosa and Ure7ia lobata, have been considered
as having great commercial possibilities. This subject has been
extensively dealt with by King.
In Table I, taken from King, is shown the relative strength
and wet, as compared with abaka
of various bast fibers both dry
and other standard fibers. Except where noted, the ropes were
made by the plane-stripping process and so the strands con-
tained considerable extraneous tissue in addition to the bast.
Data from King are given in discussions of the various fibers
studied by him.
Table II gives the dimensions of the various fibers studied
by Mendiola.
—
INTRODUCTION 321
Table I. Ro-pe made of Philippine fibers arranged in the order of mean
dry tensile strength, beginning tvith the strongest and ending with
the weakest.
[Data from King.]
Mean tensile strength.
ROPE MADE OF BAST FIBERS.

1 Gnetum sp.
2 Ficus palawanensis
3 Abroma fastuosa (retted)
4 Malachra fasciata
5 Bombycidendron vidalianum
6 Abroma fast iiosa (crude strips)
7 Corchorus olitorius
8 Urena lobata
9 Ficus benjamina
10 Sida acuta
11 Ficus pachyphylla .-
12 Helicteres hirsuta
13 Bombax ceiba
14 Sterculia oblongata
15 Sterculia crassiramea
16 Greivia eriocarpa
17 Commersonia bartramia
18 Cordia cumingiana
19 Pterocymbium tinctoriiun
20 Grewia multiflora
21 Artocarpus comviunis (old bast)
22 Artocarp%i>> communis (young bast)
23 Goniothalamus amuyon
24 Cordia myxa ._ ;
25 Greivia bilamellata
26 Kleinhovia hospifa
27 Columbia blancoi
28 Sterculia stipularis
29 Thespesia lanipas
30 Pterospermum. diversifolium
31 Allaeanthus glaber
32 Sterculia foetida
33 Ficus forstenii
34 Trema orientalis
—
Table I. Rope made of Philippine fibers arranged, etc. — Continued

DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES
Family POLYPODIACEAE
Genus DRYOPTERIS
DRYOPTERIS PTEROIDES O. Kuntze. LOKDO.
Local name: Lokdo (Samar).
In some parts of the Philippines the stems of this fern are

crushed and the cord-like vascular bundles extracted for use
as decorative weaves in baskets. The fibers, however, are of
inferior quality.
This species is common and widely distributed, usually grow-
ing in thickets on hillsides and in valleys at low and medium
altitudes. The fronds are tufted, pinnate, and usually about 1
meter in height.
Genus NEPHROLEPIS
NEPHROLEPIS HIRSUTULA Presl. Alolokdo.
Local names: Alolokdo, lokdo, pako-pako (Bisaya) ; bayangbdng (Ba-
tanes Islands) hagndya (Tayabas)
; korokalasdg ; (Bikol) ; lagiinton
(Abra) ;
pako (Polillo).
The fibro-vascular bundles of the stems of this plant are some-

times extracted and used to a very limited extent in the
manufacture of hats, mats, and baskets.
Xephrolepis hirsutula is a coarse fern with creeping root-
stocks. The narrow pinnate fronds are from 0.3 to 1.2 meters
in length and 8 to 15 centimeters wide. The plant grows
both in the ground and as an epiphyte, and is commonly cul-
tivated for ornamental purposes. It is widely distributed at
low and medium altitudes in the Philippines.
Genus STENOCHLAENA
STENOCHLAENA PALUSTRIS (Burm.) Bedd. (Plate I). DiLlMAN.
Local names: Agndya, hagndya (Laguna, Tayabas, Marinduque, Leyte,
Camarines, Capiz, Iloilo, Palawan, Agusan) dilimdn (Pangasinan, Pam-
;
panga, Bataan, Bulacan, Laguna, Iloilo, Occidental Negros) gilimdn (Pam- ;
panga) lanas (Apayao).

;
The stems of this fern are noted for their durability when
submerged in salt water, and for this reason are in great de-
mand for tying together the bamboo frames of which fish
traps are made. The stems are usually from 2 to 4 meters
323
324
PLATE I. STENOCHLAENA PALUSTRIS (DILIMAN).

PLATE II. GLEICHENIA LINEARIS (KIL6B).

in length. They are gathered, dried, tied into bundles, and in

this form are brought to Manila in considerable quantities.
From a commercial standpoint Stenochlaena palustris is un-
doubtedly the most important of the ferns in the Philippines,
as the stems supply by far the best local material for the
special purpose mentioned above. As fishing with traps is a
very important local industry, Stenochlaeiia enters into the
economic life of the Filipinos to a considerable extent. During
the year 1918, forest charges were paid on 156,456 kilos of dili-
man. This fern is also used for making ropes and occasionally
baskets, but it is inferior for the latter purpose.
The young shoots are eaten either raw as a salad or cooked.
Stenochlaena palustris is a coarse, climbing fern of indefinite
length. The stems are brown, smooth, somewhat less than 1
centimeter in diameter and sparingly branched. The sterile
fronds are up to 80 centimeters in length and pinnate, with
pinnae 10 to 12 centimeters long and about 8.5 centimeters wide.
The fertile fronds are somewhat shorter than the sterile ones and
about 3 millimeters wide. This fern is widely distributed in
thickets, usually in swampy places near the sea.
Family GLEICHENIACEAE
Genus GLEICHENIA
GLEICHENIA LINEARIS (Burm.) Clarke. (Plates II, III). KiLOB.
Local names: Gapingoi (Benguet) ; kilog, Icilob and tilub (Tagalog).
Splints are prepared by cracking the outer covering of the

very long leafstalks and pulling out the ribbon-like vascular
bundles. The splints are excellent weavers for coiled baskets
and are also used in making belts.
Gleichenia linearis is characterized by very large leaves which
fork repeatedly and have a bud-like structure in the forks.
This fern is common and widely distributed in the Philippines
and frequently forms dense tangles in open places on mountains.
Family SCHIZAEACEAE
Genus LYGODIUM
LYGODIUM spp. (Plate IV). NlTO.
Local names The name nito, for the different species of Lygo-
:
dium, is reported from the following provinces: Ilocos Norte —

and Sur, Cagayan, Isabela, Union, Zambales, Pangasinan, Ca-
vite, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Sorsogon, Samar,
Occidental and Oriental Negros, Cebu, Capiz, Antique, Iloilo,
Bohol, Surigao, and Misamis. Lygodium circinnatum is also

known as agsdm in Albay, nitong-puti in Tayabas and Cama-
rines, and nciui in parts of Mindanao; Lygodium flexuosum as
katdk in Cagayan, nitong-puti in Rizal, nito a dadakkel (Iloko)
in Benguet, 7iitu and kalulung (Ibanak) and sasitang (Iloko)
in Isabela ; Lygodium japonicum as agsdm in Camarines and
karekai (Ibanak) in Isabela, kulot in Cavite. and nitong-puti in
Rizal, Cavite,and Batangas; Lygodium scandev.s as agsdm in
Camarines, nito-nitoayi in Laguna and niiong-pdrayig in Rizal;
and Lygodium semihastatum as anion in Albay. The com-
monest and most widely known and used species is Lygodium
circinnatum.
Splints prepared from Lygodium are used in the manufacture
of baskets, hats, and fancy boxes. In several provinces, nito
splints are combined wath buri or some other fiber to make
various fancy articles such as cigarette cases or pocketbooks.
The effect is very pleasing, particularly when the nito is black.
The species of Lygodium are slender, climbing ferns. The
climbing portion is the leaf, which is of indefinite growi:h and
length. The genus Lygodium is distinguished from all other
Philippine ferns by these characteristics of the leaves.
Family GNETACEAE
Genus GNETUM
GNETUM GNEMON L. Bago.
Local names: Bdgo, magatungdl (Lanao, Cotabato) kugitas (Butuan)
; ;
bdgo or bdgu (Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines) bcnidgo (Bisaya)

; human ;
(Davao).
The bark of this tree ismade into rope. The fruits are edible
when cooked, while the young leaves are cooked and eaten as a
vegetable.
Gnetum gnemon is a tree reaching a height of about 10 meters.
The leaves are opposite, oval, 10 to 20 centimeters in length,
and usually pointed at both ends. The fruits are red, ovoid or
ellipsoid, and about 2 centimeters long.
GNETUM INDICUM (Lour.) Merr. (G. latifolium Bl.).

Local names: Edging (Butuan); bids (Rizal); kalidt (Benguet); kulidd
(Cagayan); kulidt (Pampanga, Bataan, Rizal, Lanao).
The bark is used for tying purposes and for making rope.
The vine is also utilized as a source of drinking water in the
forest. The fruits are edible when cooked.
Gnetum indicum is a coarse vine. The leaves are large,
pointed at the apex, usually rounded at the base, and from 10
PLATE IV. LYGODIUM CIRCINNATUM (NfTO).

to 22 centimeters in length. The fruits are red, oval in shape,

and about 3 centimeters in length. This species is common and
widely distributed in the Philippines.
GNETUM sp. Kaliat.

Local names: Kadiat (Itneg) ; kaliat dloko).
This species is a small tree with thin, glossy, elongated, pointed

leaves. Rope made from the bark had the greatest tensile
strength of all the bast ropes tested by King. It was, more-
over, exceptionally pliable. In both the dry and wet conditions
this bast stood first as regards both tensile strength and break-
ing length. The bast strips have a rich, brown color, are free
from irregularities, and have a rather waxy appearance.
Rope made from Gnetmn is held in high esteem on account of
its great strength, pliability, and lightness, and is considered by
the Igorots and Ilocanos to be superior to that made of any
other local fiber. King found the rope to have a tensile strength
of 773 kilos per square centimeter. Concerning its strength
King says:
Gnetum sp. I'ope is stronger than machine-laid maguey rope made of
government grade Cebu No. 2 fiber and in tenacity approaches closely
cordage made of the most superior grade of abaca fiber. When wetted
for twenty-four hours this bast rope increases 31 per cent in strength
and is actually stronger than machine-laid abaca rope made of "F" grade
fiber.
Several other species of Gnetum are used in making ropes.
Family TYPHACEAE
Genus TYPHA
TYPHA ANGUSTIFOLIA L. (Plate V). Cat-TAIL.
Local names: Anibong (Bontok) halanggot (Tagalog) buhai-biihai (Ne-
; ;
gros Occidental); lampakanai (Bisaya); tubol-tubol (Bikol, Bisaya).

The stems and leaves of the cat-tail are used for tying pur-
poses, while the entire or split culms are utilized for making
coarse bags and baskets. The straw is well adapted for making
slippers. The stems and leaves are occasionally twisted into
coarse ropes which, however, have little tensile strength. The
floss from the protruding heads is sometimes used for stuffing
pillows.
This species reaches a height of 2 meters. The leaves are
long and from 10 to 12 millimeters wide. The spikes are
cylindrical the female ones when mature are brown, 12 to 20
;
centimeters long, and up to 2 centimeters in diameter. This

plant is locally very abundant in low, wet places and shallow,
stagnant, fresh water. It is widely distributed in the Phil-
ippines.
PLATE V. TYPHA ANGUSTIFOLIA (CAT-TAIL).

Family PANDANACEAE
Genus PAN DAN US
PAN DAN US spp. The Pandans.
The pandans, or screw-pines, are characteristically tropical
trees or shrubs, may be found in subtropical
although they
countries. Philippines there are over forty known
In the
species. A few are generally distributed in the various islands
and are likewise widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan region.
Most of the species are, however, of decidedly local occurrence.
The Philippine from small shrubs less than
species vary in size
more meters in height, and are always
a meter high to trees 15 or
erect and never climbing. They are characterized by a peculiar
spiral arrangement of the elongated, spiny leaves. The common
English name, screw-pine, refers to the spiral arrangement of
the leaves and the pineapple-like fruits of the more common
and widely distributed species. The leaves can be readily dis-
tinguished from those of the pineapple or maguey by the presence
of a middle row of spines in the pandan leaves. The leaves are
never thick like those of maguey. Most of the Philippine species
have prominent prop roots, and the trunks almost invariably bear
small, short, and scattered spines. Pandans occur in such
widely separated habitats as along sandy beaches and in virgin
forests.
The fresh wood of the pandan is hard; that of some species
is durable. The larger stems are used as temporary posts.
Pandans are moreover frequently cultivated for ornamental
purposes. Their chief value, however, lies in the leaves, which
are used for making coarse and fine baskets, bags, coarse and
fine hats, mats, etc.
All of the species having long leaves are potential sources of
strips that may be used in weaving baskets, mats, and other
articles but there is a great deal of difference in the texture
;
of prepared strips, due to the diflference in the thickness and

other characteristics of the leaves. Some forms have been found
by the Filipinos to be superior for special purposes and thus only
a few of the numerous Philippine species are at present utilized.
PANDANUS COPELANDII Merr. Bari'u.
Local names: Alasds (Tayabas) baleau (Occidental Negros)

;
baleo,
;
balewe, balm (Capiz, Romblon, Bohol, Surigao) balikit (Surigao)

; baloi, ;
bayôi (Agusan, Surigao) bareu (Samar); bariu, bar en, buriiiu (Albay,
;
Sorsogon) lagutlut (Laguna) pandan (Cagayan, Zambales, Nueva Ecija)

; ; ;
pangddn (Benguet, Pangasinan) pataga (Ibanag-, Apayao subprovince)

; ;
sere (Cagayan).
This species is widely distributed at low and medium altitudes

from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao. It reaches a height
PLATE VI. PANDANUS SABOTAN (SABUTAN).

of from 3 to 9 meters. The leaves are about 2 or 3 meters long

and about 5 to 8 centimeters wide. It is claimed that the fibers
from this species are tougher than those from Pcmdanus radi-
cans. The leaves are used for making coarse mats and baskets.
PANDANUS DUBIUS Spreng. Taboan.
Local names: Bdkong (Bohol) ; taboan (Surigao).
This is a large pandan found in the southern Philippines.
It is used locally for making coarse mats.
PANDANUS LUZON ENSIS Merr. Alasas.

Local names: Alasds (Zambales, Rizal) ; dasa (Rizal) ;
pandan de China
(Bulacan).
This species is widely distributed in central Luzon. It reaches
a height of about 7 meters. It is economically of little value,
but the leaves are used for weaving baskets and mats.
PANDANUS RADICANS Blanco. Oyango.
Local names: Olango (Leyte) oivango
; (Surigao); oyango (Albay) ;
tiyango (Sorsogon) loaiigo (Bohol).

;
This species is apparently widely distributed in the Philip-

pines. It reaches a height of 8 meters, and has long, wide
leaves and dark, brick-red fruits. It is used for making coarse
mats, bags, and sometimes hats. According to Delgado, in the
year 1750, fibers were extracted from the long prop roots and
used for weaving a fine cloth; but Blanco, writing in 1837,
states that these fibers were no longer utilized. In Mindanao
the wood has been found to be excellent for the manufacture
of splints used in making baskets; in fact, they are reported
to be superior to rattans for this purpose.
PANDANUS SABOTAN Blanco. (Plate VI). Sabutan.

Local name: Sabntdn (Laguna, Rizal, Tayabas).
According to Mr. E. D. Merrill, the botanical status of this spe-
cies is doubtful. It seems probable that it is a cultivated form
or variety of the common and widely distributed Pcmdanus
tectorius. This plant, from which the sabutan fiber is obtained,
is well known and has been cultivated in Laguna province for
at least two centuries. It greatly resembles the common Pan-
danus tectorius in appearance, but the fruits have never been
collected. The plant is from 2 to 4 meters in height. The
leaves resemble those of Pandanus tectorius, but are of finer
texture. Sabutan is cultivated in and about towns along the
eastern and northern shores of Laguna de Bay, in parts of
Tayabas province, and on the island of Polillo; but has never
been found wild, although it not infrequently occurs where
cultivation has been abandoned. It is easily propagated by
axillary suckers which grow from the lower parts of the stems.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^î
>^^^^^^^^^ Q. ^
.
The chief use of this plant is in the production of the fiber

used in manufacturing sabutan hats. Hats made of sabutan
are strong and durable, and in texture more nearly resemble
the Panama hat than any other kind manufactured in the Phil-
ippines. The unbleached hats are a light green color, and the
chief objection to them is that they do not bleach readily. Good
sabutan hats, however, command high prices in the Philippines.
Sleeping mats of excellent quality are made from sabutan
fibers either in natural or dyed shades,
PAN DAN us SIMPLEX Merr. (Plate VII). Karagomoi.

Local names: Kalagimai (Tayabas) karagomoi (Tayabas, Camarines,
;
Albay, Catanduanes, Sorsogon, Lej'te, Cebu) panddn or panddn-totoo (La-

;
guna) ; Luisiana pandan, Cavinti pandan, Majayjay pandan (from towns

in Laguna where it is much used) bangkodng (Laguna, Tayabas, hat trade
;
in Manila, mat trade in Camarines and Albay)
This species is found in the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Rizal,

Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Leyte, Cebu,
and on the islands of Polillo and Catanduanes. It is usually
planted in the Banahao region, where it is of great economic
importance, and is frequently cultivated in Camarines. The
karagomoi variety, of the Bikol provinces, has leaves 6 to 10
centimeters wide and up to 3.5 meters long; the variety cul-
tivated in the Banahao region, the "Majayjay pandan," has
leaves up to 20 centimeters wide and 5 meters long.*
The prepared strips of the leaves are very extensively used for
making coarse and fine mats, hats, bags, and telescope baskets.
They are also used extensively for making fancy articles such as
picture frames, wall pockets, hand bags, and fancy slippers.
In preparing the fiber, the spiny margins and the midribs
of the leaves are removed and the leaves cut into strips of
desired width. The strips are then dried in the sun and allowed
to wilt. To make them pliable they are rolled under one end
of a heavy log. They are further dried in the sun and are then
ready for use.
PANDANUS TECTORIUS Soland. (Plates VII, VIII) . Common or Beach
PANDAN.
Local names: Baroi (Sorsogon); panddn (Pampanga, Tarlac, Rizal,
Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Mindoro, Iloilo, Antique, Oriental
Negros, Leyte, Cebu, Surigao, Davao, Zamboanga) pangdan (Abra, Pan-
;
gasinan, Camiguin Island) ;

pangldn (Iloko and Sambali in Zambales) ;
sabutan (Rizal); uhango (Batanes Islands).
This species is the commonest and most widely distributed pan-

dan in the Islands. It is abundant along the seashore and
* The "pandan of Majayjay" is described by Muller and Robinson as
Pandamis utilissimus Elmer: this is a synonym of P. simplex.

169644 22
usually forms a stand immediately back of the beach. It is

never found very far inland. Under favorable conditions it
reaches a height of 5 to 6 meters. The size and length of the
leaves vary greatly.
This pandan is of comparatively little economic value. The
leaves are split into strips and this material is used, to a limited
extent, for making mats when
bleached, for weaving hats.
or,
The longer leaves are sometimes utilized for weaving coarse,
temporary baskets. Material from a form of this species is
extensively used in Formosa and Liukiu for making imitation
Panama hats.
The lower part of the mature fruit is covered by a yellowish-
red pulp. This is rarely eaten, although its flavor is excellent.
Family GRAMINEAE
Genus ANDROPOGON
ANDROPOGON HALEPENSIS var. PROPINQUUS (Kunth) Merr. Batad-
BATARAN.
Local names: Aroro (Camarines) ; batdd (Bukidnon) ; batdd-batdran
(Tagalog) uginai (Bukidnon).
;
The stalks of this grass are split into strips and occasionally
making hats.
utilized in
Andropogon halepensis is a coarse, perennial grass reaching
a height of 3 meters. It has stout, cylindrical, solid stems,
broad leaves, and open panicles.
This species is found in thickets and open, damp places, and
is common and widely distributed in the Philippines.
ANDROPOGON ZIZANIOIDES (L.) Urb. MoRAS or Vetiver.

Local names: Amora (Cebu)
amoras (Ilocos Norte); anias or anias
;
de moras (Pampanga) anis de mdro (Ilocos Sur, Abra, Pangasinan)

; ;
geron, giron (Iloilo) ilib (Pampanga)

; mora or moras (Pampanga, Tar-
;
lac, Rizal, Manila, Laguna, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Antique, Cebu,

Occidental Negros) ; rimodas (Capiz) ; rimora (Zambales) ; rimoras (Ca-
marines) ; tres moras (Capiz).
The roots are used for weaving fans which are prized on
account of their agreeable odor. For this purpose the roots
are prepared by dipping them in water for about 20 minutes
and then pounding them with a light, wooden club to remove
the outer portion. They are then pressed and woven into fans.
These are sometimes sold in oriental curio shops in America as
"sandal-root" fans.
The stalks are used in making hats. For this purpose flower
stalks of suitable size are selected, and the inflorescence and
outer covering removed. They are then put in boiling water

for about twenty minutes, after which they are dried in the sun
for two or three days. The stalks are then scraped with a
sharp knife until smooth and clean. Brooms are also occa-
sionally made from the stalks. The leaves are sometimes used
for thatching.
Vetiver oil is obtained from this grass.
Andropogon zizanioides is a coarse, tufted grass 1 to 2 meters
in height. It is commonly planted on the dikes of rice fields
and is frequently abundant in uncultivated rice lands, especially
in low, damp soil. It is sometimes planted on river banks to
prevent erosion.
This species is widely distributed in the settled areas of the
Archipelago.
Genus APLUDA
APLUDA MUTICA L. KURUKAUAYAN.
Local names: Kauakaudyan (Rizal) kolokaudyan (Laguna) kurnka-
; ;
udyan (Camarines) magkaudyan (Bohol) maykaudyan (Samar).

; ;
The stalks of this grass are occasionally utilized for making

hats, but such hats never or seldom enter even the local trade.
Apluda mutica is a tall, erect or half climbing, somewhat
slender grass 1 to 2 meters in height. The stems are smooth,
branched, and solid. The leaves are 10 to 30 centimeters long,
5 to 10 centimeters wide, pointed at the apex and with a narrow
base. The spikes are about 8 millimeters long and green or
purplish.
This grass is widely distributed in the Philippines in thickets.
Genus CO IX
COIX LACHRYMA-JOBI L. TiGBI OR Job'S TEARS.
Local names: Abukai (Palaui Island) aclldi (Bicol) agagai (Batanes

; ;
Islands) agldi (Misamis) apagi (Lepanto) attakai (Bontoc) balantakan

; ; ; ;
(Pampanga) ; bintikdi,huruhayoko (Bikol) diimaii (Cebu) kalabugau ; ;
(Bukidnon); kambot (Abra) katigbl (Bohol); kolddsan (Bikol); kudldsan

;
(Polillo, Balabac Island) palids (Mindoro)

;
puyds, lamudids or alimudids
;
(Negros Occidental) pintakd (Bikol, Bisaya)

; tigbi (Samar, Bukidnon, ;
Camarines, Laguna, Manila, Rizal, Batangas, Bontoc) tigbikai (Bikol). ;
The chief value of this coarse grass hard fruits. is in the

These are gathered and strung as beads, sometimes used as
rosaries, sometimes in making bead curtains, or on various
kinds of ornamental baskets, trays, etc.
This species is widely distributed in the settled areas of the
Philippines. It is probably not a native of the Archipelago, but
of prehistoric introduction.
.
Genus ELEUSINE
BLEU SINE INDICA Gaertn. Palagtiki or Yard grass.
Local names: Balili hardngan (Camarines)
(Bontoc) ; hilabila (La- ;
guna) ;damo (Cagayan) gagabutan (Tagalog) kabit-kabit (Bataan)

; ; ;
palagtiki (Bisaya) parangis-sabuiigan (Pampanga)

; sabung-sabungan ;
(Pampanga)
This grass is apparently introduced in the Phihppines, but is
widely distributed, and especially abundant in and about towns
and along roads and trails throughout the settled areas. The
culms are sometimes used in making hats, but this industry
is very local and irregular.
Eleusine inclica is a rather stout, tufted, erect, smooth, an-
nual grass 10 centimeters to 1 meter in height. The leaves
are 10 to 30 centimeters long and 3 to 7 millimeters wide. The
flowering stalk has three to six spikes, 2.5 to 10 centimeters
long, 3 to 5 millimeters thick, and all occurring in a terminal
whorl, or one or two somewhat lower down on the stem.
This species is distributed throughout the Philippines and is
very common in waste places, along roads, etc.
Genus IMPERATA
IMPERATA EXALTATA Brongn. KOGON.
A description of this species is given in the section on paper
pulp.
The leaves of this grass are extensively used for thatching
in all of the interior parts of the Archipelago, where it is dif-
ficult to transport nipa shingles.

The tender shoots of kogon are used for grazing, and kogon
areas are frequently burned over so that the young shoots may
be utilized for this purpose.
Kogon stems are used locally to a limited extent in the man-
ufacture of hats, while some of the industrial schools have
utilized the plant for making round, braided mats suitable for
bathroom use.
Genus ISCHAEMUM
ISCHAEMUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Hack. (Plate IX). Kobboot.
Local names: Danu, pueng, puenig (Bontoc) ; kobboot (Iloko).
In the parts of Luzon where this grass grows it is utilized for

making rope, on account of its tensile strength. Owing to its
durable qualities it is also used for making both the soles and
uppers of grass slippers. The straw is prepared by simply
drying it in the sun.
This grass varies in height from 0.6 to 1 meter. It is tufted
and the swollen bases of the stems are densely woolly. Ischae-
PLATE iX. ISCHAEMUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM (K0BB60T).

. .
mum angiistifolium is widely distributed in northern Luzon,

growing on open slopes, but it is not known from other parts of
the Philippines.
Genus MISCANTHUS
MISCANTHUS SINENSIS Anders. BiGAO.
Local names: Biaii (Batanes Islands) bigdo, bigdho, ; gciJio, g'lsa (Bikol) ;
bi-idu (Benguet) runo (Igorot)

; taldhib (Zambales).
;
This coarse grass is used for thatching houses. The stems

are used like wattles for making side walls of houses and some-
times even for covering the floors. In Sorsogon, splints made
from the stems are used in making screens and window shades.
The stems are sometimes employed for making shafts of arrows.
Miscanthus sinensis is a coarse, erect, gregarious grass 1 to 3
meters in height. It occurs in abundance at medium and high
Mountain Province of Luzon. When
altitudes, especially in the
repeated fires have occurred this grass frequently occupies an
area to the almost entire exclusion of other vegetation, just as
Imperata exalta (kogon) and Saccharum spontaneum (tala-
hib) do at lower elevations.
Genus ORYZA
ORYZA SATIVA L. RiCK.
Rice straw is used in Ilocano districts for making hats for

home and in schools in Ilocos Norte for the upper soles of
use,
slippers. Sometimes rice straws are tied into bundles and are
used as brooms for rough housework.
Genus PHRAGMITES
PH RAG MITES KARKA (Retz) Trin. LuPI.
Local names: Lupi (Camarines) ; sabunog (Negros Occidental); tanu-

bong (Bontoc Subprovince)
This species is larger and rarer than Phragmites vulgaris and
apparently is used for the same purposes.
PHRAGMITES VULGARIS Trin. (Plates X, XI). Tambo.

Local names: Bagang, tabnnak, tangbo (Bisaya);lupi (Bikol) tambo
;
(Tagalog, Bisaya, Bikol) tagisi (Ibanag)

; ;
tambu (Bulacan, Rizal, Manila
vicinity, Batangas) ; tcniobong (Pangasinan)
The chief use of this grass appears to be in the manufacture
of a peculiar type of dust broom used for sweeping highly
polished floors. The panicles arranged in a fan-like manner
form the broom, while the culms tightly bound to a central
strengthening piece of bamboo form the handle. These brooms
are of great utility and are extensively used in the Philippines.
The best grade of Phragmites broom is manufactured from the
PLATE X. PHRAGMITES VULGARIS (TAMB6).

verj' young panicles, gathered before the flowering glumes have

developed. Better grades are made from Thysanolaena panicles.
In some of the islands the stems are used in manufacturing
coarse hats.
Phragmites vulgaris is a coarse, erect grass attaining a height
of at least 3 meters. The stems are cylindrical and hollow.
It is locally very abundant in shallow swamps and along muddy
streams; and is often gregarious, occupying considerable areas
to the exclusion of other vegetation. It is widely distributed
in the Philippines at low and medium altitudes.

Genus SACCHARUM
SACCHARUM OFFICINARUML. SuGAR CANE.
The flowering stalks of the sugar cane are sometimes used for
making picture frames.
SACCHARUM SPONTANEUM L. TalaHIB.
Local names: Bugdng, tigbdo (Bisaya) ; sikdl (Isabela) ; sidda (Iloko) ;
taldhib (Tagalog, Bikol).
From an economic standpoint this plant ranks very low. The

very young shoots are grazed by domestic animals, but the
mature plant is too hard and harsh for forage. In some regions
the culms are used for shafts of arrows, while they are very
frequently utilized for making temporary fences, and for wings
or runs to fish weirs. In some provinces they are used as
wattles for making house walls. The stalks, entire or split,
have been utilized by some schools in industrial work for making
brooms, hats, screens, picture frames, and wall pockets. The
panicles are occasionally utilized for stuflflng pillows. As su-
perior material for the above purposes is usually to be had
all
in the Philippines, most of the uses for this coarse grass here
indicated are apparently very limited and very local.
A description of this plant is given in the section on paper
pulp.
Genus SPOROBOLUS
SPOROBOLUS ELONGATUS R. Br. Bakuit.
Local names: BaJadt, bangkuit (Iloilo) ; sangsangitan (Bontoc).

Afairly fine straw of medium length is obtained from the
flower stalks and utilized at times in Iloilo as a hat material.
Sporobohis elongatus is a grass with slender stems, numer-
ous, rather long and narrow leaves, and long narrow panicles.
It reaches a height of 1 meter, but is usually shorter. This
species is distributed from northern Luzon to southern Minda-
nao, but is most abundant in the Mountain Province.
,
^.^
^>. K- fiSi' "T/ ;.€ . W '^'"^

N >
^- ~y
i
PLATE XI. PHRAGMITES VULGARIS (TAMB6),

SPOROBOLUS INDICUS R. Br.
The tough culms of this grass are used in Panay for the
manufacture of hats,
Sporobolus indicus is usually a rather densely tufted, peren-
nial, slender,wiry grass with erect, branched stems, 1 meter or
less in height. The leaves are 10 to 20 centimeters long, and
flat; when dry, rolled up lengthwise. The panicles are slender,
erect or somewhat nodding, and 10 to 35 centimeters in length.
This species is widely distributed in the Philippines in waste
places, along roadsides, etc.
Genus THYSANOLAENA
THYSANOLAENA MAXIMA Kuntze. (Plate XII). Lasa or Tiger grass.
Local names: Bngiibi, hngilbni (Pampanga) ; buibui (Iloko, Bontoc) ;
gatbo (Camarines) ; Idsa (Tagalog) ; tagddeu (Bontoc) ; tagisa (Misamis) ;
tambu (Bulacan, Rizal, Mindoro).
In the Philippines a very characteristic, light dust broom is
made of the panicles of several of the coarser grasses, notably

Thijsanolaena and Phragmites. These brooms are extensively
used for sweeping the highly polished hardwood floors so
characteristic of the better houses in the Philippines. Thijsa-
yiolaena panicles make the best grade of these brooms, and for
this purpose they are gathered extensively in some parts of the
Islands. The handles of the brooms are made of the flowering
stems variously interwoven or bound together, the panicles being
arranged in a fan-like fashion to form the broom itself. The
brooms are decidedly pretty and very effective for their special
purpose. Thysanolaena brooms are more durable than those
made from Ph^âgmites and command a higher price.
Thysanolaena maxima is widely distributed in Luzon, but is
of local occurrence, especially at low and medium altitudes. At
higher altitudes it is much more abundant, and in the pine region
of the Mountain Province it is one of the characteristic, coarse
grasses of ravines. It is distinguished by its ample, open panicle
and its very numerous, minute spikelets.
Family CYPERACEAE
Genus CYPERUS
CYPERUS MALACCENSIS Lam. (Plates XIII, XIV). Balanggot.
Local names: Bagd-as (Bisaya)balanggot (Tagalog, Bisaya)
; ; balonggdt
(Pampanga); baranggot (Camarines); tikog (Agusan).
The stems of this sedge are used for tying purposes, for
making coarse hats, slippers, mats, and perhaps for baskets.
For coarse work the entire stem is employed, but for the finer
PLATE XII. THYSANOLAENA MAXIMA (LASA OR TIGER GRASS).

grades the stems are split. The spHtting is done when the
stems are fresh or, at least, before they become dry. Mats made
from balanggot are very attractive. The manufacture of slip-
pers of this material is carried on to a considerable extent in
some towns of Bulacan Province, Luzon.
Cyperus malaccensis is a rather coarse, usually gregarious,
perennial sedge reaching a height of from 0.5 to 1.5 meters.
The stems are leafless and sharply three-angled, almost three-
winged near the top. This sedge occurs in brackish swamps,
along tidal streams, bordering nipa areas, and is often abundant
back of the mangrove swamps when this area is not wooded.
In some regions it is very plentiful.
CYPERUS RADIATUS Vahl. Ali'nang.
Local names: Alinang (Bikol, Bisaya) balabalanggutan (Tagalog)
; ;
bal-laayang (Union); dagko, obod-obod (Bisaya); upopi (Cagayan).
In some parts of the Philippines the outer portions of the

stems are stripped, dried in the shade, and used for weaving
mats, mattings, and screens. This utilization is apparently
local.
Cyperus radiatus is a coarse sedge 0.2 to 1 meter in height.
The leaves are one-half to two-thirds as long as the stems and
7 millimeters or less in width. The inflorescence is subtended
by long, leaf-like bracts. It is widely distributed in the settled
areas of the Philippines at low altitudes, and occurs in shallow
swamps and open wet places.
Genus Fl M BRISTYLIS
FIMBRISTYLIS DIPHYLLA Vahl. Tabtabin.
Local names: Muthd (Manila) pauai (Benguet)
; ; tabtabin (Zambales) ;
tayok-tayok (Zambales, Panay, Occidental Negros).
The stems of this species are used for much the same pur-
poses as those of Fimhristylis globulosa, but are inferior to
them. The material is prepared by drying in the sun.
Fimhristylis diphylla is a small, slender sedge growing in
wet situations. The leaves are slender and grow in considerable
numbers from the base of the stem.
This species is found throughout the settled areas of the
Philippines and is the commonest representative of the genus.
FIMBRISTYLIS GLOBULOSA Kunth (Plate XV). Ti'kug.

Local names: Anahiuan, tdyok-tdyok, tikog, tikiig, pilokong (Bisaya) ;
badang-baddng (Ilocos Norte) rnwid (Pampanga) pakupakuan (Bulacan)

; ; ;
sud-sud (More).
This is apparently the most important matting sedge in the

Philippines. It is extensively utilized in the Bisaya Islands
PLATE XIII. CYPERUS MALACCENSIS (BALANGG6T).

PLATE XV. FIMBRISTYLIS GLOBULOSA (TfKUG).

for the manufacture of sleeping mats, floor mats, and to a less

extent for hats, slippers, tobacco cases, cushions, etc. The
stems are used either whole or split. After being gathered
they are bleached for several days by spreading in the sun.
They cannot be woven when too dry as they are then brittle.
Fimbristijlis globulosa is widely distributed in the Philippines
and although of somewhat local occurrence, is frequently found
in great abundance. It occurs at low altitudes in the settled
areas,and grows in low, wet, swampy places and in rice lands.
In favorable habitats it is said to attain sometimes a height
of 3 meters, but is usually less than half this height. This
species is much more common the central and southern
in
Philippines than in Luzon. It claimed that when once
is
established in rice lands, it is diflîcult to eradicate but in spite ;
of this it would seem that, in some places, its cultivation would

be justified as a source of material for mats.
Genus RHYNCHOSPORA
RHYNCHOSPORA CORYMBOSA ( L. ) Britt. Ragiu.
Local names: Agds (Bisaya, Bikol) ; bdriu-harm, ragiu-diu, rngiu,
rakido, piso-piso (Bikol).
In the provinces of southern Luzon this sedge is utilized to

some extent in the manufacture of mats, sandals, baskets, and
screens. The stems are used either whole or split. From an
economic standpoint this plant is probably of little value.
Rhynchospora corymbom is a coarse sedge, about 1 meter in
height. The stems are distinctly triangular and the leaves broad
and long. This species is widely distributed in open, wet places
at low and medium altitudes.
Genus SCIRPIODENDRON
SCIRPIODENDRON GHAERI (Gaertn.) Merr. Gaas.
Local name: Gdas (Bisaya).
In Leyte the leaves of this sedge are used to some extent in

making hats, but the material is apparently of inferior quality.
Scirpiodendron ghaeri is the largest and coarsest sedge in the
Philippines, greatly resembling a narrow-leaved pandan in ap-
pearance. The leaves are from 1 to 4 meters in length and
very numerous. The edges are armed with numerous short
spines. The fruits are distinctly ridged, over a centimeter in
length, and borne in compact clusters subtended by large leaf-
like bracts. The plant is gregarious and often found in large
quantities in open ravines, along small streams, in swamps at
low altitudes, and sometimes around the borders of lakes.
Genus SCIRPUS
SCIRPUS GROSSUS L. f. Ti'kiu.
Local names: Agds, bangkuAng (Bikol) baga-ds, bdki-bdki (Bisaya)
; ;
ragiudiu (Camarines) tikug (Agusan)

; tikiu, titiu (Tagalog).
;
The whole stems of this sedge are used to a slight extent in

making thick sleeping mats, and the split stems for making
fine mats. The stems are also used for making special types of
bags or baskets.
Scirpics grossus is one of the coarsest sedges found in the
Philippines. has triangular stems up to 2 meters in height.
It
The large inflorescences are subtended by broad leaflike bracts
up to 60 centimeters in length. This species is abundant in
open swamps at low altitudes, and is widely distributed in the
Philippines.
SCIRPUS LACUSTRIS Linn. Ti'ker.
Local name: Tiker (Iloko).
This species occurs in northern Luzon, where it is utilized

for weaving mats. In Formosa it is said to be cultivated for
this purpose.
Scirpus lacustris grows in swamps, and in the shallow ponds
of the Ilocos provinces and Cagayan. The rounded stems are
a meter or more in height.
This species has been reported only from northern Luzon.
Family ARACEAE
In the Philippines, as in other tropical countries, there are
many monocotyledonous vines which climb up in the trees and
send down aerial roots, which may stretch from the tops of tall
trees to the ground. These air roots are frequently very stout
and in their natural state are used for tying purposes, or are
variously prepared and used industrially. In the Philippines,
the air roots used are chiefly those of aroids. Woodsmen have
undoubtedly used air roots for tying purposes for ages, but it
has remained for the public schools to show that they are useful
for industrial purposes. They are employed chiefly in the man-
ufacture of baskets. They were first tried for baskets in the
schools of the Bikol peninsula, and the Bikol name ''amlong"
has come into general school use.
The only part of the roots used in making baskets is the inner
part or central cylinder. This cylinder should be removed from
the surrounding tissue immediately after collection, as it is then
easier to pull out. This, moreover, obviates the necessity of
carrying superfluous tissue. The central cylinder furnishes a
strong, round, pliable material with a unifonn diameter. It is
169644 23
.
used either entire or split. Amlong is white, brown, or black,

depending on the species from which it is obtained. Brown
and black amlong can be bleached by treating with a solution
of sodium peroxide.
Genus EPIPREMN UM
EPIPREMNUM spp.
This genus very similar to Raphidophora in appearance and

is
in the situations in which it grows. Material secured from

the air roots is used for weaving baskets. It is apparently
mostly white.
Epipremnum is distributed from Luzon to Mindanao.
Genus POTHOIDIUM
POTHOIDIUM LOBBIANUM Schott. Balongkahi'naI.
Local names: Ariman (Cagayan) halongkahinai (Negros Occidental);
;
baralta (Cavite, Rizal, Batangas) nuigntapilak (Butuan)

; malagaydmav ;
(Zambales).
This species is used as tying material for fish corrals. It is
collected in considerable quantities in Negros and some of it
reaches the market.

Iloilo
Pothoidium lobbianum is very similar in appearance to Pathos,
and grows in similar situations. It can be distinguished from
Pathos by the fact that the inflorescences are compound, while
those of Pathos are simple.
This species is apparently common and widely distributed in
the Philippines.
Genus POTHOS
POTHOS spp. (Plate XVI).
Local names: Bagi, malagaydman (Tayabas) bagu-baldnak (Samar)
; ;
mala-ang lako lakop (Samar) palipe (Camarines)

;
tibdtib (Bulacan)
; ;
iiarat-uarat (Camarines)
The diff"erent species of Pothas are vines which climb up the

trunks of trees and produce numerous, long, tough, aerial roots
which are uniform in diameter and frequently straight. The
central cylinders of these aerial roots are extensively used in the
Philippines in making coiled baskets. The color varies from
white to brown or even black, depending on the species.
This genus is characterized by its peculiar leaves the petioles ;
being, for the most part, leaflike. In some species they are
broader and longer than the blades and in others smaller than
the blades. The joint between the blade and petiole is, however,
always very evident.
Pathos is distributed in forests throughout the Philippines.
355
PLATE XVI. POTHOS RUMPHll.

Genus RAPHIDOPHORA
RAPHIDOPHORA spp. (Plates XVII, XVIII).
The central cylinders of the long aerial roots of Raphidophora

are used in making coiled baskets. They are also utilized in
some places for making hammocks and cradles, and for tying
purposes.
The species of the genus Raphidophora are stout, fleshy vines,
which climb by means of numerous aerial roots. The leaves of
old plants are very large and pinnately lobed. The inflorescence
is a stout, club-shaped structure.
Genus SCINDAPSUS
SCINDAPSUS spp,
Local names: Loomoi (Tayabas) ; maragaydman (Pangasinan) ;

puto-
putohan (Laguna).
These plants produce air roots like those of Raphidophora
and Pathos. They are used in making baskets.
Family FLAGELLARIACEAE
Genus FLAGELLARIA
FLAGELLARIA INDICA Linn. (Plate XIX). Baling-UAI.
Local names: Annuad (Union); auai (Batanes Islands); audi si ga-
ydng (Isinai in Nueva Vizcaya) halingudi (Laguna, Pampanga, Bataan,
;
Nueva Ecija, Rizal, Tayabas, Polillo, Batangas, Mindoro, Basilan) hoho- ;
dya (Agusan) bulakdui (Mindoro, Cebu) hodg (Camarines, Albay, Sor-

; ;
sogon, Iloilo, Capiz, Antique, Cebu, Agusan) hoag-udi (Sorsogon)

; ;
inudd, inudl (Pangasinan) kaliuduai, tewung

; (Ibanag in Isabela) ;
kaluudiuai (Cagayan) udi ti udk (Iloko in Isabela) paua, taud (Negros

; ;
Occidental) ;sagakap (Capiz) uS na gaydng, anuad (Iloko in Nueva

;
Vizcaya); udg (Camarines, Butuan, Zamboanga) uog (Culion). ;
The split stems of this vine are used for tying purposes,
as in sewing nipa shingles and tying them in place, or for
tying fences. They are also used for baskets where better mate-
rial is not available.
Flagellaria indica is a slender vine with alternate leaves,
the bases of which surround the stem. The leaves are slender
and terminate in a curled tendril. The flowers are borne in
rather large clusters at the ends of branches. The fruits are
rounded, white, and about 5 millimeters in diameter.
This species is very common and widely distributed in the
Philippines.
Family BROMELIACEAE
Genus ANANAS
ANANAS COMOSUS (Linn.) Merr. PINEAPPLE.
The pineapple was introduced into the Philippines by the
Spaniards at an early date, and is now widely cultivated
PLATE XVII. RAPHIDOPHORA MERRILLII.

PLATE XIX. FLAGELLARIA INDfCA (BALlNfe-UAl).

throughout the Archipelago, In some islands, particularly in

parts of Palawan, it has become thoroughly naturalized. In
the Philippines a very fine and highly prized cloth, known as
piiia, is made from the fibers of the pineapple leaves. The
production of the fiber and the manufacture of the cloth is
chiefly confined to the island of Panay, the center of the in-
dustry being the towns in the vicinity of Iloilo. When grown
for fibers, pineapples are closely crowded in planting, the ob-
ject being the production of long leaves. Pina cloth, either
plain or embroidered, is exported in considerable quantities.
Family JUNCACEAE
Genus JUNCUS
JUNCUS EFFUSUS L. (Plate XX). Pinggot or Matting rush.
Local name: Pinggot (Bontoc).
According to Muller *, experiments conducted at Baguio

showed that a fine straw could be prepared from the coarse
stalks. This is done by splitting them, removing the pulp, and
drying the straws quickly in the sun so as to make them curl
up. Flat straws can be prepared by removing the pulp, flat-
tening the stalks, and drawing them between the thumb and
a piece of wood.
Juncus effusus has round stalks a meter or more in length.
The base of the stalk is surrounded by short sheathing leaves.
The seeds are small and yellow and occur in brownish capsules,
which ultimately divide into three parts.
This species is found growing in marshes on the mountains
from Luzon to Mindanao.
Family LILIACEAE
Genus SANSEVIERIA
SANSEVIERIA ZEYLANICA (L.) Willd. SiNAWA.
Local names: Aspe-dspe (Pampanga) banydt, kaliot, sigre (Nueva
;
Vizcaya) ;buntut-palos (Tayabas) kakarohai, pakarohai, tigi (Isabela)

; ;
lengua de leon (Sorsogon) 7-abo de leon (Ilocos Norte, Union) rabo de

; ;
tigre (Antique) sabild (Iloilo)

; sinawd (Nueva Ecija)
;
tigre (Laguna, ;
Bohol).
The fiber of this plant is used only occasionally in the Philip-

pines. It is sometimes mixed with piria in weaving fabrics.
The fiber is very strong and, according to Dodge t, is used by
* Muller, T., Industrial fiber plants of the Philippines. Bureau of

Education Bulletin Number 49 (1913), page 60.
t Dodge, C. R., A descriptive catalogue of useful fiber plants of the
world. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Fiber investigations. Report
No. 9 (1897), page 290.
PLATE XX. JUNCUS EFFUSUS (PINGG6T).

the Singhalese for making string, rope, mats, and a coarse kind
of cloth. It is generally prepared by retting, or by simply beat-
ing and washing.

Sansevieria zeylanica is an herb with erect, fleshy, flat,
pointed leaves which are mottled with gray, and are .4 to 1.5
meters in height. The flowering shoot is up to 80 centimeters
in height. It bears numerous, pale, straw-colored flowers
which are usually tinged with green, and are from 2.5 to 3
centimeters in length.
This species is widely distributed in the Philippines. It is
frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes, and is occasionally
half wild.
Family AMARYLLIDACEAE
Genus AGAVE
AGAVE CANTALA Roxb. MAGUEY.
This species was introduced into the Philippines by the
Spaniards at an early date. In the Philippines, maguey is most
extensively grown in the Ilocano provinces, Luzon, and the is-
land of Cebu. Most of the plantations are on a small scale,
and modern methods of cultivation are scarcely used. The
fiber is, for the most part, extracted by retting the leaves,
usually in salt water, which unfortunately detracts from its
value. A considerable amount is, however, exported. The
chief use of the fiber is in the manufacture of binder twine,
rope, etc. In the Philippines it is used locally for textiles,
cordage, for making fish nets, hammocks, slippers, and some
types of baskets.
AGAVE SISALANA Perrine. SiSAL.
This species very similar to the maguey plant and in the

is
Philippines is usually confused with it. It was not introduced

into the Philippines until about 1905, but is now widely dis-
tributed. Its culture, treatment, and fiber are generally similar
to that of Agare cantala. The fiber is, however, much more
valuable than that of Agave cantala.
Genus CURCULIGO
CURCULIGO RECURVATA Dryand. Abang-ABANG.
The hill people of Camarines use the fiber of this species
for making false hair. According lo Heyne '"
several species
of this genus are reported to give a tough fiber which is used
by Dyaks for cordage, and in Borneo for sacking and clothing.
* Heyne, K., De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indie, Volume 1,
page 187.
PLATE XXI. MUSA TEXTILIS (MANILA HEMP OR ABAKa).

Curculigo recurvata an herb with a few, rather narrow,

is
long, longitudinally folded, boat-shaped leavesgrowing from the

base of the plant. The flowers are yellow and in dense heads.
This species is distributed from the Batanes Islands to Min-
danao. It is common in the Mountain Province of Luzon.
Family MUSACEAE
Genus MUSA
MUSA PARADISIACA L. BANANA.
Fibers from the sheathing leafstalks of the banana are em-
ployed in the manufacture of a light, transparent cloth known
locally as sinamay. In a few regions, this is the principal
material from which are made the waists of the native dress
of the Filipino women. It is also used extensively in making
shirts for men. But wherever abaka is abundant it takes
the place of banana fiber for the above purposes, the finer and
coarser fibers being sorted by hand into as many as five grades
for different textiles.
MUSA TEXTILIS Nee. (Plate XXI). Manila hemp or Abaka.

Musa textilis probably the most important cultivated plant
is
endemic in the Philippines. It produces the premier cordage
fiber of the world. In appearance it is almost identical with
the banana, to which it is closely related. The fiber was known
to the Filipinos long before the Spanish occupation. When
Magellan arrived at Cebu the weaving of the fiber was wide-
spread in the Islands, and the plant is reported to have been
wild in much the same places as those in which it is now cul-
tivated. At the present time, carried on to such
cultivation is
an extent that it is questionable as to whether there are any

wild plants. Miller * has given a concise history of the abaka
industry.
The commercial fibers are the fibro-vascular strands of the
sheathing leafstalks that make up the so-called trunk of the
abaka plant. In stripping the fiber the trunk is cut down, the
leaves removed, and the fiber-producing portion slit into strips.
These are pulled under a knife applied to a piece of smooth
hard wood. The extracted fibers are then hung up and dried.
The chief uses of abaka are for the manufacture of ropes,
binder twines, the so-called tagal braids, and textiles. Locally
abaka is used for manufacturing textiles, baskets, hats, trays,
bags, laces, lamp shades, belts, matting, and furniture. The
* Miller, H. H., Abaca. Philippine Craftsman, Volume 1 (1912), pages
120 to 140.
waste left after the fiber is stripped is a promising source of

paper pulp.
Abaka has been introduced into other tropical countries, but
up to the present time practically the entire supply of the
fiber has come from the Philippine Islands. In 1918 the
expoi-ts amounted to 169,260,377 kilos, valued at 116,383,100
pesos.
Family ZINGIBERACEAE
Genus AMOMUM
AMOMUM sp.
The leaf stalks of this plant are split and made into a light
rope. King found this rope, when wet, to have a tensile
strength of 325 kilos per square centimeter.
Family MARANTACEAE
Genus DON AX
DONAX CANNAE FORMIS (Forst.) K. Sch. (Plate XXII). Bamban.
Local names: Aratan (Gaddanes in Nueva Vizcaya) bamban or bayibdn ;
(Cagayan, Pampanga, Bataan, Tarlac, Cavite, Laguna, Tayabas, Mindoro,

Camarines, Sorsogon, Albay, Iloilo, Capiz, Antique, Cebu, Occidental Ne-
gros, Oriental Negros, Bohol, Palawan) barasbardsan (Iloko in Tarlac)
; ;
bonbon, (Cavite, Mindoro) darumaka (Union, Iloko in Nueva Vizcaya,

;
Zambales, Tarlac, Camiguin Island) garomaka (Union, Pangasinan) lang-

;
;
kuds (Iloko) ;manban (Tayabas, Leyte) matalbdk (Bataan, Bulacan)

; ;
viattapal (Isinai in Nueva Vizcaya); mini (Benguet).
The split stems of this herb are used to weave baskets,

usually in combination with other materials. The stems are
occasionally used to make fish traps and hats, and for sewing nipa
shingles.
Donax cannaeformis is a half-woody herb reaching a height
of 1 to 3 meters. The bases of the branches are somewhat
swollen. The leaves are usually rounded at the base and
pointed at the tip. The leaf bases are very long and sheathe
the stem. The flowers are white. The fruits are rounded and
about a centimeter in diameter. This plant is common and
widely distributed in the Philippines and also occurs in Java,
Celebes, and New Guinea.
Family ORCHIDACEAE
Genus DENDROBIUM
DENDROBIUM CRUMENATUM Sw. (Plate XXII). Irau.
Local names: Ddpo (Tayabas); irdu (Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon);

karamosi (llocos Norte) karausi (Cagayan) karulai (Isabela)
; ; ; magimpdl,
magimapaii (Bohol); manau (Lejrte) sanggumai (Laguna).
;
Fibers from the stems of this orchid are used as decorative

material on baskets and other articles. This use is very an-
cient Fray Marcos de Lisboa, author of ''Vocabulario de la

;
Lengua Bicol" written about 1590-1620, says: "YRAO. A

plant that grows on trees and sends out a sort of cord, which
is yellow and is used for tying and for making straw hats."
The stalks are cut when they are very old and partially yellow.
The stalk of Dendrobium crumenatum is 60 centimeters or
more in length and, for a distance of about 20 centimeters from
the base, is bulbous and fluted. The flowers are white with
yellow markings and are very fragrant.
This orchid is common and widely distributed in the Philip-
pines, and is frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes.
Genus VANILLA
VANILLA OVALIS Blanco.
Vanilla oralis is a vine reaching a great height, and is locally

abundant in some parts of central Luzon. The stems give some
promise of yielding fibrous products of value in making baskets
and similar articles.
Family ULMACEAE
Genus TREMA
TREMA ORIENTALIS Blume. AnaBIONG.
Local names: Agandiing (Cagayan); alindagon (Moro) anabiong (Ta- ;
galog and Bisaya) anagdung, hanagdung, tatagtdg (Guimaras Island)

; ;
anagum (Bikol) anariong (Batanes Islands); anarong (Zambales)

; ;
arandon, lamai (Abra) balibdgo, lagod, daliniot, hanadiong (Tagalog);

;
dahinit, malnsikongdoron, hinlaldong (Pampanga) hagod (Laguna, Ta- ;
yabas) hnnadgong (Samar, Camarines) hanagdong (Tayabas) hinagdung

; ; ;
(Bisaya) kubulos (Bontoc) inangdon (Mindoro)

; ;indai luging (Lanao) ; ;
malanirung (Igorot and Tagalog) nagdon (Occidental Negros) ; mala- ;
rurang (Bataan) pangarandongen (Benguet, Pangasinan).

;
The dry rope made from the bast of Trema orientalis was
the weakest of all the ropes tested by King. However, when
wet its resistance was nearly doubled. The tensile strength
of dry rope was only 134 kilos per square centimeter. Owing
to its poor qualities it is seldom used. This species furnishes
a soft, light-colored wood, in great demand for the manufacture
of wôoden shoes (zuecos).
Trema orientalis is a small tree, b to 8 meters in height, with
a very open crown. The leaves are 5 to 8 centimeters long,
alternate, hairy, the base heart-shaped, the apex rounded, the
margins toothed. The flowers are numerous in the axils of
the leaves, white, and about 3 millimeters long. The fruits
are ovoid drupes about 3.5 millimeters long.
This tree is a very frequent invader of open ground and in
some places, where the virgin forest has been removed, forms
: a
almost pure stands over large areas. It is a common second-

growth tree at low altitudes throughout the Philippines.
Family MORACEAE
Genus ALLAEANTHUS
ALLAEANTHUS GLABER Waib. Malambingan.
Local names: Alokon, bungon (Benguet, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra) ;
alibabdg (Cagayan, Itneg) alibabdi (Cagayan)

; alitagtag, balitagtdg
;
(Camarines) ; alokon,baeg, bongon (Pangasinan) babayan, ; imkabao

(Nueva Ecija) ;kabdg (Mindoro, Misamis) karud (Misamis)
; ; liba(Da-
vao) ; malakadios (Masbate) malambingan (Basilan).
;
The crude bast of this tree shows great variations in color

and size. Rope made from it is very weak. King found it to
have a tensile strength of 231 kilos per square centimeter.
Wetting increased the strength 10 per cent. This rope is said
to be more durable than the average during the wet season.
Young leaves and flowers of this species are cooked for food.
Allaeanthiis glaber is a medium-sized tree reaching a height
of 30 meters and a diameter of 60 centimeters. The leaves
are alternate, 5 to 15 centimeters long, the apex pointed, the
base somewhat rounded.
This species is distributed from northern Luzon to Basilan.
Genus ANTIARIS
ANTIARIS TOXICARIA Lesch. Lata or Upas-tree.

Local names: Dalit (Tagalog in Mindoro); ditd (Cagayan, Apayao) ;
laid (Cagayan); salogon (Bisaya in Mindoro).
Concerning the fiber Watt * says

The natives strip the bark of this tree into large pieces, soak them
in water, and beat them well, when a good white fibre is obtained —
natural cloth worn by the natives. It is in Western India well known
as the sacking tree, on acount of the tough, inner, fibrous, felted bark,
being removed entire, thus forming natural sacks. Small branches are
made into legs of trousers and arms of coats, the larger ones forming
the bodies of the garments. In this way felt costumes are made which
require no more sewing than is necessary to connect the parts together.
If passed through rollers, and at the same time dyed and tanned, these
natural cloths or felts are very interesting. The samples exhibited at
the late Calcutta International Exhibition (contributed by the Bombay
Committee) were very much admired, and proved very attractive. In
making sacks sometimes a disk of the wood is left attached to the fibre
so as to form the bottom of the sack. At other times a vertical incision
is made on thetree and a transverse cut around the stem at the top and
bottom of this vertical one. The bark is then peeled off, and after being
beaten in water and dried, the top and bottom are sewed up (forming
the sides of the sack) These sacks are extensively used for storing rice.
.
Watt, Dictionary of the economic products of India, Volume I, page 268.

In Ceylon ropes are made of the bark. "The bark yields strong fibre
suited for cordage, matting, and sacking. In making sacks a branch or
trunk is cut to the required length, soaked in water, and beaten till the
fibre separates from the wood. It is then turned inside out and the
wood sawn off, except a small piece at the bottom." {Bombay Gazetteer,
XV, Part I., 62, Konkan District.) There seems every likelihood that
the bark of this tree may come into use as a paper fibre.
The sap of this tree is used as an arrow poison.

Antiaris toxicaria is a tree reaching a height of about 15
meters and a diameter of 30 centimeters or more. The leaves
are opposite, pointed at the tip, rounded or heart-shaped at the
base, and from 8 to 15 centimeters in length.
This species is apparently widely distributed in the Philip-
pines, but is not common.
Genus ARTOCARPUS
ARTOCARPUS COMMUNIS Forst. (Plate XXIII). Antipolo.
Local names: Antipolo (Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Laguna, Mindoro, Ba-
silan,Palawan) antipolong laMki (Rizal)
; chipiihu (Batanes)
; pakdk ;
(Cagayan, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Union, Zambales) kamansi (Leyte) tipolo

; ;
(Camarines, Negros).
A rather weak rope is made from the bast of this tree. Rope
made from the bast of old trees is stiff from the bast of young ;
trees much more pliable. King found rope made of the bast
of old trees to have a tensile strength of 367 kilos per square
centimeter; and rope made from young trees, 356 kilos per
square centimeter. Wetting decreased the strength only 2 per
cent. Rope made is said to be very
of the bast of old trees
durable. stands long wetting or alternate wetting and dry-
It
ing. It is used in the form of traces, to yoke carabaos for
field work. The Ilokos of Sappar, according to King, believe
it to be more durable than rawhide.
Artocarpus communis is a tree reaching a diameter of 90

centimeters. It has an abundant milky juice. The leaves are
very large and pinnately lobed. The fruits are rounded and
very rough. The wood is soft to moderately hard.
This species is common and widely distributed both cultivated
and wild in the Philippines.
ARTOCARPUS ELASTIC A Reinw. GumIhan.
Local names: Antipolo (Tayabas, Samar) ;
gumihan (Camarines, Albay,
Sorsogon) tugiip (Surigao, Davao).
;
Heyne * gives quite a discussion of the bast of this species,

which has been exported from Java to Europe. In 1902 it was
page 48.
169644 24
worth 60 to 70 cents per kilo in Holland in 1904 a lot of a ;
thousand kilos was sold in Rotterdam. Heyne says that old

bast is much harder than young bast.
Artocarpus elastica is a stately tree with a trunk 60 to 90
centimeters in diameter. The leaves are alternate, crowded,
obtuse at both ends, occasionally lobed towards the apex, the
larger ones 20 to 30 centimeters wide, and 60 to 90 centimeters
long. The male spikes are cylindrical, oblong, soft or spongy,
and yellowish. The female heads are somewhat rounded or
elliptical. The fruit is heavy, at least 10 centimeters long, and
covered with brownish, hairy appendages. The seeds are em-
bedded in a whitish, more or less gummy pulp of a delicious,
tart flavor. They are about the size of peanuts, are eaten
roasted, and in flavor also resemble peanuts.
ARTOCARPUS INTEGRA (Thunb.) Merr. Nangka.

Local names: Lamjkd (Bontoc, Bataan, Mindoro, Iloilo, Leyte) nangka ;
(Cagayan, Bontoc, Laguna, Pampanga, Tayabas, Mindoro, Surigao).
Heyne f reports that the bast of this species is used for the
same purposes as that of other species of Artocarpus ; that is,
for rope, bark clothing, etc.

Artocarpus integra is a tree reaching a height of from 8 to
15 meters. The leaves are alternate, leathery, broadest near the
tip, with a pointed base, entire or sometimes three-lobed, shiny,
and 7 to 15 centimeters long. The fruits are green, fleshy,
edible, 25 to 60 centimeters long, covered with pyramidal pro-
jections,and grow on the trunk or large branches.
This species is distributed throughout the Philippines both
cultivated and wild.
ARTOCARPUS RUBROVENIA Warb. Kalulot.

Local names: Anabling (Camarines) annbing (Laguna, Bataan, Taya-
;
bas) amibling (Rizal) baynko (Negros)

; ; bnngd (Cagayan) hamugi, ka-
; ;
lulot (Mindoro) kili-kili (Samar)

; kilbi (Tayabas, Mindoro, Sorsogon, Sa-
;
mar) tagap (Baler) tumolubo (Isabela) iibien (Benguet, Pangasinan).

; ; ;
The bark of this tree was formerly used in making cloth.

Artocarpus riibrovenia is a tree reaching a height of about 30
meters and a diameter of about 40 centimeters. The leaves are
alternate, smooth, oval, pointed at the apex, and rounded or
pointed at the base.
This species is distributed from the northern to the southern
limits of the Archipelago.
t Heyne, K., De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indie, Volume 2,
page 53.
JVilan 0.1
PLATE XXIII. ARTOCARPUS COMMUNIS (ANTIP6L0).

Genus FICUS
FICUS BENJAMINA Linn. Balete.*
Local names: Anuiiga (Isabela) ; balete (Ilocos Norte, Abra, Pangasinan,
Nueva Pampanga, Bataan, Manila, Cavite, Laguna, Camarines)
Ecija, ;
baleteo7i(Nueva Vizcaya) balete-puld (Tagalog) baliting-ibon (Batan-

; ;
gas) gisi (Ibanag and Subprovince of Apayao) kolv^ (Bataan) kuliamot

; ; ;
(Negrito, Bataan) salisi (Nueva Vizcaya)

; tibi (Camarines) sirisiu
; ;
(Cagayan).
The strips of bast of this species are salmon-buff; some are

soft and pliable, others hard and stiff. Rope made from the
bast possesses a fair degree of tenacity. King found it to have
a tensile strength of 480 kilos per square centimeter. Wetting
reduced the strength only 2 per cent.
Ficus benjamifm is a strangling fig with smooth, leathery
leaves. The leaves are alternate, somewhat oval, 8 to 15 centi-
meters long, pointed at the tip, and rounded at the base. The figs
occur singly in the axils of the leaves, are dark purple, and about
1 to 2 centimeters in diameter.
This species is common and widely distibuted at low altitudes,
from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao.
FICUS FORSTENII Miq. BaletE.
Local names: Balete (Zambales, Bataan, Rizal, Mindoro, Moro) basakld ;
(Iloko, Abra) daldkit (Negros) langaban (Moro, Cotabato) puos (Itneg)

; ; ;
puspiis (Iloko, Abra).
The bast is ochraceous salmon. A very weak rope is made

from it. King found the rope to have a tensile strength of only
154 kilos per square centimeter. Immersion in water for
twenty-four hours increased the strength 44 per cent.
Ficus forstenii is a strangling fig with leathery leaves. It
reaches a height of about 30 meters. The leaves are alternate,
smooth, pointed at the apex, rounded at the base, wider near the
apex than near the base, and from 7 to 17 centimeters in length.
The figs are yellow and about 2 centimeters in diameter.
This species is distributed from northern Luzon to southern
Mindanao.
FICUS PACHYPHYLLA Merr. Balete.
Local names: Balite (Laguna); lumlg (Occidental Negros); pasakld
(Abra, Itneg).
Strips of bast of this fig are colored a uniform pecan brown.

Rope made from it is said to be very durable and is fairly strong.
* Balete or baliti is a broadly generic term used in a number of the
Philippine languages for all the "strangling figs" of the genus Ficus and
is very rarely, if ever, used for any other epiphytic or climbing plants.
King found itto have a tensile strength of 464 kilos per square
centimeter. Immersion in water for twenty-four hours increased
the strength 17 per cent.
Ficus pachi/phylla is a strangling fig with alternate, very
leathery, smooth, somewhat elliptical leaves, which are 9
to 15
centimeters in length. The figs are red with yellow scales
at the
base, and are about 1.5 centimeters in diameter.
This species is widely distributed at low altitudes from
northern Luzon to southern Mindanao.
FICUS PALAWAN ENSIS Merr. Balete.
Local names: Agamid (Itneg) ; agamit (Abra) ; balete (Cavite, Laguna,
Tayabas, Lanao).
The bast from this species is stronger than that of any of

the other species of Ficus tested by King. The rope made from
it is very strong. On account of its great strength, toughness,
and durability the fiber is used for making wild-hog traps.
King found the rope to have a tensile strength of 752 kilos per
square centimeter. Wetting increased the strength.
Ficus palaivanensis is a large, strangling fig with alternate,
smooth, leathery, elliptical leaves, pointed at the apex, usually
rounded at the base, and 15 to 22 centimeters in length. The
fig is red, oval, and about 1.5 centimeters in diameter.
This species is found throughout the Philippines at low
altitudes.
Genus MALAISIA
MALA I SI A SCAN DENS (Lour.) Planch. Malaisi's.

Local names: Hinggiu (Mindoro) ; sddak (Abra); sigid (Negros) ; ma-
laisis (Tagalog).
This vine is used for tying purposes, as in the construction

of fish corrals.
The leaves of Malaisia scandens are alternate, smooth, some-
what oval, pointed at the tip, and from 5 to 12 centimeters in
length. The flowers are small and greenish white. The fruits
are oval, red, and about 7 millimeters long.
This species is common and widely distributed in the Phil-
ippine forests.
Family URTICACEAE
Genus BOEHMERIA
BOEHMERIA NIVEA Gaudich. RaMIE OR CHINA GRASS.
Local name: Lipang-dso (Manila).
Ramie is a well-known fiber. It is extensively cultivated in

China, and has also been grown in other countries. The fiber
is white, lustrous, and very strong and durable. It is woven

into very fine and beautiful fabrics. The fiber lacks the elastic-
ity of wool and silk and the flexibility of cotton. Cloth made
from it is therefore rather harsh. The chief objections to a
more extensive use of ramie are that it is very difficult to separate
the fiber from the tissue in which it is embedded, and that the
process requires considerable manual labor. In the Philippines
the fiber is used in making strings, blankets, and cloth.
Watt * gives an extensive account of ramie. He says that
Boehmeria demands the best soil, and that the fields have to
be manured and carefully tended.
Ramie has been the subject of very extensive investigations,
and the literature concerning it is voluminous. The yield of
fiber is apparently very much greater in temperate and sub-
tropical countries than in tropical ones. Owing to this fact
and to the greater cost of labor in the Philippines than in
China, it would appear that the growing of ramie on a com-
mercial scale in the Philippines is impracticable.
Boehmeria 7iirea is a hairy shrub reaching a height of about
2 meters. The leaves are alternate, pointed at the tip, abruptly
pointed at the base, have toothed margins, and are from 7 to 16
centimeters in length. The flowers are small.
This species is quite extensively cultivated in the mountain
region of northern Luzon, particularly by the non-christian
tribes. In Ifugao and neighboring subprovinces nearly every
family cultivates a small amount. It is occasionally cultivated
in central Luzon, where its value as a fiber plant is not appre-
ciated, and it also occurs in the Batanes Islands.
Genus LEUCOSYKE
LEUCOSYKE CAP IT ELL AT A (Poir.) Wedd. Alagasi.
Local names: Alagdsi, hanlagdsi, hilagdsi (Mindoro) alangdsi, ism-

;
mdya (Rizal) anagdsi, hinagdsi, laydsin, li-d-sin (Tayabas) anugau (Sor-

; ;
sogon) ; aragdsi, tinagdsi (Camarines) isis-ngipin (Laguna)

; karikasin ;
(Nueva Ecija) lagdsi (Laguna, Mindoro).

;
This species produces strong bast fibers.

Leucosyke capitellata is a tree reaching a height of 8 to 10
meters. The leaves are alternate, pointed at the apex, abruptly
pointed at the base, hairy, the lower surface whitish, the margins
toothed. The flowers are small and whitish, and borne in com-
pact heads.
This species is distributed from Luzon to Palawan.
* Watt, Commercial products of India.
.
Family MENISPERMACEAE
Genus ANAMIRTA
ANAMIRTA COCCULUS W. & A. LiGTAXG.
Local names: Bay-yating (Abra) ; lahtdng (Abra, Ilocos Sur) ; lagtdng
(Masbate) ligtdng (Tagalog).
;
The bark of this vine is made into rope used for tying animals
and for hauling. It is used particularly during the rainy
season. The entire stems are also twisted into rope. The fruit
is used as a fish poison and is also poisonous to other animals.
Anamirta cocculus is a vine with smooth, alternate, heart-
shaped leaves which are from 12 to 24 centimeters in length.
The flowers are small, yellowish white, very fragrant, and borne
on compound inflorescences. The fruits are round, and about 1
centimeter in diameter.
ippines.
Genus PERICAMPYLUS
PERICAMPYLUS GLAUCUS Merr. (Plate XXIV). Pamago.
Local names: Hahun (Basilan) pamago (Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon)
; ;
silong-pugo (Batangas) tugi-tugian (Mindoro).

;
The central cylinders of the stems of this vine are used for
weavers of baskets. According to Heyne t this species is used
for rope in Java.
Pericampylus glaucus is a vine occurring in thickets, waste
places, or along thebanks of streams throughout the Philippines.
The leaves and young stems are very hairy. The leaves are
heart-shaped and 5 to 10 centimeters in length. The flowers are
small, greenish, and occur in small, compound, axillary inflores-
cences. The fruits are flattened and about 5 millimeters in
diameter.
Family ANNONACEAE
Genus GONIOTHALAM US
GONIOTHALAMUS AMUYON (Blco.) Merr. Amuyoxg.
Local names: Amuyong (Batangas); Za?u<fa>i (Negros) ; sagidt (Iloko,
Union)
The bast of this tree has an attractive apricot-buff color.

Rope made from it is weak. King found the rope
to have a
tensile strength of 345 kilos per square centimeter. Wetting
reduced the tensile strength 15 per cent.
Goniothalamus amuyon is a tree reaching a height of 15 meters
t Heyne, K., De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indie, Volume 2,

page 1.
and a diameter of 20 centimeters. The leaves are alternate,

smooth, rather narrow, pointed at both ends, and from 18 to 25
centimeters in length. The flowers are greenish yellow, about 5
centimeters long, and have long narrow petals. The fruits are
cylindrical, aromatic, and about 3 centimeters in length. They
contain 1 to 3 seeds.
This species is of local occurrence and widely distributed at
low altitudes in the Philippines.
Genus PHAEANTHUS
PHAEANTHUS EBRACTEOLATUS (Presl) Merr. Kalimatas.
Local names: Amiiyong (Polillo Island); dalinas (Bataan) kalimatds ;
(Laguna, Bataan) langlangds (Ilocos Norte) lanutan (Bataan, Mindoro,

; ;
Cotabato) manggasinoro (Tayabas) piiropagai (Nueva Ecija) takulau

; ; ;
(Ilocos Norte); yambdn (Zambales).
The bark of this vine is used for tying purposes and also
medicinally.
The leaves of Phaeanthus ebracteolatus are alternate, oval,
pointed at both ends, and 10 to 15 centimeters in length. The
flowers are yellow and about 2 centimeters long. The fruits are
oval, red, and are borne in rounded clusters.
ippines.
Genus POLYALTHIA
POLYALTHIA FLAVA Merr. YELLOW Lanutan.
Local name: Lanutan (Tayabas, Bataan).
The bast fiber of this tree is used for making rope.

Pohjalthia flava is a tree which reaches a height of about 20
meters and a diameter of about 40 centimeters. The leaves ^re
alternate, smooth, pointed at both ends, and from 6 to 16 centi-
meters long. The flowers are yellowish green with petals about
2.5 centimeters long. The fruits are oval and occur in rounded
clusters.
This species is distributed from Luzon to Mindanao.
Family CONNARACEAE
Genus AGELAEA
AGELAEA EVERETTII Merr. Ongall
Local names: Ongdli (Negros) ; kamagsd (Polillo); kamaksd (Laguna).
This vine is used for tying purposes.
Agelaea everettii is a woody vine. The leaves are alternate,
pinnate, and have three leaflets, which are 2.5 to 15 centimeters
long. The flowers are white and fragrant, the petals about
5 millimeters long. The flowers occur in short racemes. The
DESCRIPTION OP SPECIES 377
PLATE XXIV. PERICAMPYLUS GLAUCUS (PAMAGO).

fruits are very rough and 1.5 to 2 centimeters long; the seeds
about 1 centimeter long.
This species is fairly common in the forests, and is distributed
from northern Luzon to Basilan.
Genus ROUREA
ROUREA VOLUBILIS (Blanco) Merr. Kamaksa.

Local names: Baralang (Cagayan) ; bitog (Benguet) ; kamaksa (Rizal,
Laguna) pdlosdnto (Pangasinan).
;
This vine is used for tying fish corrals. The fruits are also
used for poisoning dogs.
Rourea volubilis iscommon and widely distributed
a vine
in the Philippine forests. The leaves are alternate, smooth,
somewhat oval in shape, rounded at the base, and have prom-
inent projections at the tips. The flowers are small, white,
fragrant, and occur in large numbers on compound inflorescences.
Family LEGUMINOSAE
Genus ABRUS
ABRUS PRECATORIUS L. KansASAGA or PraYER-BEAN.
Local names: Agunandng, agunyanydng (Zamboanga) bdhai (Ticao) ; ;
hugayong or hugayiing (Camiguin Is., Cagayan, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Tarmac,

Pangasinan, Zambales) bughugayong (Union); kansasdga (Pampanga,
;
Tarlac, Camarines) kasasdga (Pampanga, Bataan)

; lago (Culion Is.) ; ;
Idsa (Batanes Islands); mutang-uldng (Pampanga); sdga (Laguna, Ba-

tangas, Tayabas) sagambdghig (Polillo Is.)
; sagasdga (Bulacan, Bataan,
;
Rizal, Manila, Batangas, Tayabas); xdaiigid (Cuyo Islands).
According to Watt,* this plant yields beautiful bast fibers.

These fibers are said to be suitable for cordage.
Abrus precatorius is a slender, branched, annual vine which
reaches a length of 9 meters or less. The leaves are alternate,
5 to 10 centimeters in length, and compound with twenty to
forty leaflets, which are 1 to 3 centimeters long. The flowers
are borne in axillary racemes which are usually shorter than
the leaves. The flowers are numerous, often crowded, pink
to pale purple or salmon, and about 1 centimeter long. The
pod is oblong, 2.5 to 5 centimeters long, about 1.5 centimeters
broad, and contains three to five seeds which are shiny, 6
millimeters long, and partly black and partly scarlet.
This species is common and widely distributed in Philippine
thickets.

Genus BAUHINIA
BAUHINIA CUMINGIANA (Benth) F. Vill. Agpoi.
Local names: Agkui (Pampanga)
agpoi (Bataan, Camarines)
; agpor, ;
ugpoi (Bataan) hcmot or banitt (Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas)

; impid, impig ;
(Camarines) libang-bdng (Masbate)

; lupig (Nueva Ecija) niogniogan
; ;
(Cotabato) oplig (Abra)

; salibangbdng (Negros, Leyte) umpig, umpik
; ;
(Cagayan) upling (Union).

;
This vine is used for tying purposes, especially for hanging

tobacco sticks and hauling logs. It is very durable. The bast
is very strong and is used by the Negritos of Bataan Province
for making bowstrings. It is also used for making rope.

Bauhinia ciimingiana is a huge, woody vine growing in virgin
forests. The leaves are alternate, smooth, heart-shaped, divided
at the apex, and 8 to 12 centimeters in length. It has brownish-
yellow flowers in large clusters and large, flat seed pods.
This species is widely distributed from northern Luzon to
southern Mindanao.
Genus PONGAMIA
PONGAMIA PINNATA (L.) Merr. Bani.
Local names: Balikbalik (Tagalog) balobalo (Zamboanga, Basilan)

; ;
balukbaluk, bahitbahit, magit (Cotabato) baobao (Agusan) bdni (Pan- ; ;
gasinan, Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan, Cotabato) kadel (Tayabas) ; ;
marokbarok (Camarines); salingkugi (Zamboanga).

The bark of this tree is used for making strings and ropes.
Pongamia pinnata is a tree reaching a height of 15 meters and
a diameter of about 45 centimeters. The leaves are alternate
and compound with three to seven leaflets, which are smooth,
pointed at the apex, usually rounded at the base, and 7 to 10
centimeters in length. The flowers are purplish, about 1.5 cen-
timeters in length, and borne in racemes. The pods are some-
what flattened, somewhat oval in outline, and with a single
seed.
Mindanao,
Family SAPINDACEAE
Genus SAPINDUS
SAPINDUS SAPONARIA L. TiKASTIKAS,

Local names: Amugduen (Union) kasibai, kasiboen (Ilocos Norte)
; ;
katikis (Bataan) ;(Pangasinan, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas)

teka-teka ;
tekistekis (Rizal) tikas-tikas (Laguna)

; kusibeng (Cagayan, Ilocos Sur,
;
Abra, Union) mamalis (Pampanga)

; malahito (Nueva Ecija) palikpik-
; ;
hito (Nueva Ecija, Pampanga).

According to Dodge:* "The bast of this species yields a

coarse fiber, suitable for native cordage."
The bark is used for washing the hair. Tobacco workers in
Abra use the crushed leaves for removing the stain of tobacco
leaves from their hands.
Sapinchis saponaria is a tree reaching a height of about 20
meters and a diameter of about 60 centimeters. The leaves
are alternate, smooth, and compound the main stalk is expanded
;
and leaflike. The flowers are small, white, and are borne in
considerable numbers on compound inflorescences. The fruits
are rounded and about 1.5 centimeters in length.
This species is distributed from northern Luzon to Mindanao.
Family RHAMNACEAE
Genus ALPHITONIA
ALPHITONIA EXCELSA Reiss.

Local names: Anildu (Guimaras Island); dunglu (Mindoro) ; tangguldi
(Mindoro) tulo (Samar) tiakdtan (Surigao).
; ;
The bark of this tree is used for making rope,

Alphitojiia excelsa a tree which reaches a height of 20
is
meters. It has alternate, hairy, narrow leaves which are pointed
at the apex, rounded at the base, about 9 centimeters long, and
5 centimeters broad. The flowers are small and borne on com-
pound, axillary or terminal inflorescences. The fruits are
somewhat rounded, black, and over a centimeter in diameter.
This species is distributed in forests from northern Luzon
to Mindanao.
Family VITACEAE
Genus CISSUS
CISSUS REPENS Lam. Kalitkalit.
Local names: Ayo (Batangas) ; kalitkalit (Rizal, Balabac Island) ;
rigini (Ticao Island).
This species is used for tying carabaos.

Cissus repens is a smooth vine reaching a length of 10 meters
or less. The leaves are 7 to 12 centimeters long, the apex
pointed, the base frequently heart-shaped. The flowers are
small and greenish, and borne on inflorescences which are
opposite the leaves or terminate the branches. The fruit is
fleshy, purple, about 6 millimeters long, and with a single seed.
This species is distributed from the Mountain Province of
Luzon to southern Mindanao.
Dodge, C. R., A descriptive catalogue of useful fiber plants of the

*

No. 9, page 290.
. .
Family ELAEOCARPACEAE
Genus ELAEOCARPUS
ELAEOCARPUS CALOMALA (Blanco) Merr. Kalomala.
Local names: Bunsilak, maglumhoi (Mindoro) hungo, ungo (Tayabas,
;
Mindoro); kundkun (Surigao) malanopit (Rizal) kaloyndla (Batangas,

; ;
fide Blanco)
The inner bark is used for making rope. The fruit is edible.
Elaeocarpus calomala is a tree reaching a height of about
25 meters and a diameter of about 60 centimeters. The leaves
are alternate, smooth, oval, pointed at both ends, 6 to 15 cen-
timeters in length, and with toothed margins. The flowers are
white, fragrant, about a centimeter in diameter, and borne in
axillary racemes. The fruit is red, oval, and contains a single,
rough, hard stone.
This species is distributed from the Mountain Province, Luzon,
to southern Mindanao.
Family TILIACEAE
Genus COLUMBIA
COLUMBIA BLANCO! Rolfe. Mamaued.
Local names: Anildu, mamadling, mamaued, mamued (Rizal) ; keddeng
(Iloko, Benguet).
A weak rope is made from the bast of this tree. It is a

good rope during the rainy season on account of its durability
when wet. King found it to have a tensile strength of 302
kilos per square centimeter. Wetting increased the strength
about 1 per cent.
Columbia blancoi is a small tree attaining a height of about
10 meters. The leaves are hairy, pointed at the apex, rounded
or heart-shaped at the base, from 12 to 30 centimeters long,
and with toothed margins. The flowers are pink or yellow
and are in large terminal panicles. The fruits are ovoid cap-
sules about 1 centimeter long and with two to four wings.
This species has been reported only from Luzon.
COLUMBIA LANCEOLATA Warb. Kadii'n.
Local names: Anildu (Zambales) ; baliudn (Pangasinan) ;

kadiin, lapnit
(Pangasinan)
The bark of this tree is used for making rope.

Columbia lanceolata is a tree reaching a height of 25 meters
and a diameter of 40 centimeters. The leaves have toothed
margins, a conspicuous pointed tip, and an oblique base. They
are hairy, and from 8 to 15 centimeters in length. The fruits

have five wings.
This species is found in second-growth forests in Luzon.
COLUMBIA MOLLIS Warb. Keddeng.
Local name: Keddeng (Ilocos Sur, Abra, Nueva Vizcaya).
Columbia mollis is a tree reaching a height of about 18 meters
and a diameter of about 40 centimeters. The leaves are alter-
nate, hairy, rounded and somewhat oblique at the base, prom-
inently pointed at the tip, from 8 to 20 centimeters in length,
and with toothed margins. The fruits have two or three wings.
This species occurs in Luzon.
COLUMBIA SERRATI FOLIA (Cav.) Pers. Anilau.

Local names: Alindu (Camarines) anildu (Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas,
;
Camarines, Sorsogon, Mindoro, Masbate, Iloilo, Lej-te, Surigao, Butuan,

Cotabato, Zamboanga) bagarildu (Bataan)
; banilad (Laguna) ; banlot ;
(Iloilo) ; (Mindoro)
baini'td hanagdong
; (Palawan) ;
Idho (Cagayan) ;
laidsin (Marinduque) mamaued (Rizal).

;
Judging from Mendiola's figures, the bast is very weak. A

red dye obtained from the bark.
is
Columbia serratifolia is a small tree, 3 to 10 meters high.

The branches and leaves are hairy. The leaves are 10 to 20
centimeters in length, pointed, with a very oblique base, and
toothed margins. The flowers are 6 to 7 millimeters long, with
pink and yellowish or reddish petals, and borne in panicles.
The fruits are about 1 centimeter long and with three or four
wings.
This species is common in second-growth forests throughout
the Philippines.
Genus CORCHORUS
CORCHORUS CAPSULARIS L. PaSAU NA BI'LOG.
Local names: Panigbin, sumpa (Samar) ;

pdsau na bilog (Tag.).
For a discussion of the fiber of this plant see Corchorus
olitorius.
Corcho7'us capsularis is an erect, branched, annual herb 1
to 2 meters in height. The stems are usually purplish. The
leaves are alternate, the apex pointed, the base rounded with
a tail-like projection on each side of the midrib, the margins
toothed. The flowers occur in small groups in the axils of
the leaves and are about 4 millimeters long. The petals are
yellow and the sepals often purplish. The fruit is a somewhat
rounded capsule, about a centimeter in diameter and with longi-
tudinal ridges.
.
This species is widely distributed in the Philippines in open,

low grasslands and waste places.
CORCHORUS OLITORIUS L. PAsAU or JuTE.
Local names: Pcisau (Zambales, Tagalog) sahiyot, saluyut or saloyot
;
(Ilocos Sur, Union, Pangasinan) tagabang (Manila, Bisaya) taka magin-

; ;
danau, yaka (Cotabato).

Corchoriis olitorius and Corchorus capsularis are grown in
India on a large scale to furnish most of the jute of commerce.
Corchorus olitorius is found in all tropical countries, but it is
only in India that the fibers are extracted in commercial quan-
tities. King tested rope made from the crude bast of wild
Philippine plants and found it to have a tensile strength of 503
kilos per square centimeter. Wetting decreased the strength
28 per cent.
In the Philippines the plant is better known as a vegetable,
the leaves being edible, than on account of its fibers.
Corchorus olitorius is a smooth, erect, half-woody shrub, 1 to
1.5 meters in height. The leaves are pointed at the tip and have
tail-like projections at the base. The flowers are small and
yellow. The fruit is a rather slender pod about 3 to 3.5 centi-
meters long.
Corchorus olitorius is a weed found in wet places in the
settled areas of the Philippines.
Genus DIPLODISCUS
DIPLODISCUS PANICULATUS Turcz. Balobo.
Local names: Balobo (Rizal, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines,
Agusan, Cotabato, Basilan, Zamboanga) barobo (Camarines) barubo, ki-
; ;
deng (Cagayan) bulugai (Cotabato) bum, bukad (Lanao) maobo (Ce-

; ; ;
bu); Tnaramani, onanaring (Isabela) 7nariib6 (Samar, Leyte, Albay,

;
Ticao Island, Masbate, Iling Island) mayubo (Antique) muling -muling

; ;
(Tayabas) puyiis
;
(Laguna) talu-talu, mangalri, tagpdn, dupdiipan
;
(Zamboanga)
The bast of this species is sometimes used for making rope.
The bast is, however, small in amount and difficult to extract,
and so is seldom employed.
Diplodiscus paniculatus is a tree reaching a height of about 20
alternate, smooth, pointed at both ends, and from about 12 to 25
centimeters in length. The flowers are rather small, whitish or
yellowish, and borne on large compound inflorescences. The
fruit is edible.
This species is very common and widely distributed in the
forests from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao. In some
places it is the most numerous under-story tree in the forest.
It is not cultivated except at the Lamao Experiment Station.
. ;
Genus GREWIA
GREWIA ACUMINATA Juss. AmboI-UAN.
Local names: Alldgat, alinau (Union) alagosi (Negros) bacjun, balagan
; ;
(Palawan); halongo dilang-dhas (Zamboanga) amboi-udn (Union). ;
Bast fibers are extracted from the bark of this tree and made
into ropes and strings.
Grewia acumifiata is a tree reaching a height of about 10
alternate, somewhat hairy, pointed at the apex, rounded at the
base, with toothed margins, and 8 to 15 centimeters long. The
flowers have whitish petals and prominent yellow stamens, and
are borne on compound inflorescences. The fruit is green, about
2 centimeters in diameter, frequently somewhat four-lobed, four-
seeded, and very hairy.
This species is distributed from La Union Province in Luzon
to southern Mindanao.
GREWIA BILAMELLATA Gagnep. Benglareng.
Local names: Benglareng (Iloko, Itneg) ; dongrareng (Iloko) ; durareng
(Abra).
The bark is used for making a rope of slight strength. King
found the tensile strength to be 320 kilos per square centimeter
wetting decreasing it 44 per cent. The rope is said to be durable
during the dry season, but to deteriorate rapidly during wet
weather.
GREWIA ERIOCARPA Juss. (G. negrosensis) Bariu-AN.

Local names: Anildu (Cebu) balibdgo, kanas-kands (Batangas)
; bali- ;
liuan (Zambales) balitnong (Ilocos Norte, Capiz)

; baria-an (Union) ; ;
bariu-dn (Iloko, Itneg, Abra, Union, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija) baruan ;
(Lepanto) ;danli (Tayabas) dirdn (Union)

; durdn (Pangasinan) ked-
; ;
deng (Ilocos Sur, Abra, Union) lapi, lapni, lapnit (Cagayan) Tnasapldk
; ;
(Pampanga).
A rope of average strengthis made from the bark of this tree.
The from the bark as soon as it is removed from
fiber is extracted
the tree. The rope is used for hauling, tying cattle, and binding
rice bundles. In Abra the fiber is used to some extent in making
hat braids. King found rope made from the bast to have a
tensile strength of 394 kilos per square centimeter. Wetting
weakened it about 3 per cent.
Grewia eriocarpa is a shrub or small tree. The leaves are
alternate, densely hairy, pointed at the tip, oblique at the base,
from 5 to 15 centimeters in length, and with the lower surface
white or nearly The flowers are small and yellow. The
so.
fruit is small, round, bluish, and edible.
. :
GREW! A MULTI FLORA Juss. DanglIN.

Local names: Al-alinau (Union); alinau (Amburayan, Ilocos Sur, Pan-
gasinan, Union, Zambales, Laguna, Sorsogon) anildu (Benguet, Ilocos ;
Norte, Ilocos Sur, Union, Abra, Pangasinan) aplit (Pampanga) bagolion ; ;
(Mindoro, Guimaras Island) benglaling (Abra) bulnbukhon (Guimaras

; ;
Island) dalldg (Gaddan in Nueva Vizcaya)

; dangli, kalit-kalit (Laguna, ;
Tayabas) dcmgl'm (Pangasinan, Tagalog, Guimaras, Nueva Ecija, Bataan,

;
Rizal, Pampanga) danglog (Cagayan) ; durarong (Ilocos Sur) imbu-

; ;
buiukan (Palawan) kanaroset (Palawan) langosig (Bohol) Idnut (Ne-

; ; ;
grito in Pampanga) lapnis (Batangas, Cavite); ligad (Mindoro) siapo ; ;
(Mindoro); taroi (Camarines, Albay)
The bast is pale yellow-orange and is a non-staining fiber.

Rope made from it is rather weak, but is said to be very durable
for dry-weather use. It is a very commonly used rope. King
found have a tensile strength of 376 kilos per square cen-
it to
timeter. Immersion
in water for twenty-four hours caused
a decrease in strength of 12 per cent.
Greivia multiflora is a shrub or small tree. The leaves and
branches are nearly smooth. The leaves are alternate, 4 to 14
centimeters in length, pointed at the tip, rounded or pointed at
the base, and with toothed margins. The flowers are yellowish
green and about a centimeter in diameter. The fruits are ovoid
and about 6 millimeters long.
This species is common and widely distributed throughout the
Philippines.
Genus MUNTINGIA
MUNTINGIA CALABURA L. DaTILES.
Local names: Cereza (Spanish, "cherry," in Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pam-
panga, Pangasinan, Bulacan, Zambales, Cuyo Islands) ddtiles (Spanish, ;
"dates," in Tarlac, Pangasinan, Camarines, Albay, Capiz) ; Idtris (La-

guna) manzanitas (dim. of Spanish manzana, "apple," in Ilocos Norte
;
and Sur, Abra, Cagayan, Union) rdtiles (Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Batangas^
;
Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Marinduque, Zamboanga, Cuyo Islands).

'
The bark of used for making rope.

this tree is
Concerning the fiber Dodge * says

Its bast is very soft and pliable, twists easily, and if used in this
manner, without attempting to separate or clean the fibers, is possessed
of ordinary strength. The fibrils are exceedingly fine and silky, so much
so that the bast, when broken, exhibits at the point of rupture the
flossy appearance always seen at the raw ends of skein or embroidery
silk. Separating the fiber would undoubtedly diminish its strength. It is
employed slightly in Santo Domingo for cordage.
* Dodge, C. R., A descriptive catalogue of useful fiber plants of the

No. 9, page 244.
169644 25
Muntingia calabiira is a tree from 5 to 10 meters in height.

The leaves are 8 to 13 centimeters long, hairy, sticky, the base
oblique, the apex pointed, and the margins toothed. The flowers
are white and about 2 centimeters in diameter. The fruit is a
rounded, red, smooth, fleshy, sweet, edible berry about 1.5 cen-
timeters in diameter and contains numerous small seeds.
This species is a native of tropical America, but is naturalized
in the Philippines.
Genus TRIUMFETTA
TRIUMFETTA BARTRAMIA L. KULOT-KULOTAN.
Local names: Balanggot (Camarines) hulagun (Basilan)
; ; kolo-kolot
(Ilocos Norte, Bataan) ; kulot-kulotan (Bataan, Palawan) ; moropoto
(Leyte) pallopallot (Itneg, Iloko)
;
sauag-caballo (Mindoro).
;
The bast of this species is fairly strong.

Triumfetta bartramia is an erect, more or less hairy annual,
which reaches a height of from 0.5 to 1.5 meters. The leaves

are alternate, hairy, entire or three-lobed, and with toothed
margins. The flowers are yellow and about 6 millimeters long.
The fruits are small, rounded, and covered with smooth, hooked
spines.
This species is not a native of the Philippines, but it is tho-
roughly naturalized and is widely distributed in the Archipelago.
It is found in tropical Asia, Africa, and Malaya.
Family MALVACEAE
Genus ABELMOSCH US
ABELMOSCHUS M ULTI LOBATUS Merr.
Local name: Annabo a dadakkel (Union).
White fibers used for making rope are extracted from the bark
of this plant.
Abelmoschus multilobatus is a shrub reaching a height of 2 to
3 meters. covered with long, stiff, irritating hairs.
It is usually
The leaves are alternate, about 8 to 12 centimeters long, and
divided into five or seven lobes which are in turn divided into a
number of lobes. The flowers are very large and yellow.
This species has been reported from Ilocos Norte, La Union,
and Bataan.
Genus BOM BYCIDENDRON
BOMBYCIDENDRON VIDALIANUM Merr. and Rolfe. LanutAN.
Local names: Lani'dan (northern Luzon to Bulacan and Bataan); losu-
ban (Iloko, Itneg, Abra) pangardisen (Cagayan, Ilocos Sur)
;
tdkulau ;
bianco (Ilocos Norte).

;

Rope made from the bast possesses considerable strength and
is considered as pHable, durable, and fitted for service throughout
the year. King found it to possess a tensile strength of 630
kilos per square centimeter. Immersion in water reduced the
strength by about 26 per cent.
The bark is also woven into hats.
Bomhycidendron vidalianum is a medium-sized tree reaching
a diameter of 50 centimeters or more. The leaves are alternate,
somewhat oval, pointed at the tip and rounded at the base, and
8 to 15 centimeters long. The flowers are white and about
8 centimeters in length. The fruits are oval, pointed, red, and
about 4 centimeters long. The trunk is short and often crooked.
The wood is rarely sawn. Its chief uses are for vehicle shafts
and musical instruments.
This species has been reported from Luzon, Mindoro, and Pa-
lawan, and is common and widely distributed in Luzon.
Genus HIBISCUS
HIBISCUS TILIACEUS Linn. (Plate XXV). Malubago.

Local names: Alum (Zambales) bdgo (Ilocos Norte, Abra) ; balibdgo ;
(Bontoc, Zambales, Tarlac, Bulacan, Manila, Tayabas, Polillo, Tarlac, Ley-

te) ;balobdgo (Leyte) dangliw (Bulacan)
; danglog (Balabac Island) ;
hdnot (Batanes Islands) malabdgo (Pangasinan, Sorsogon, Masbate, Ca-

;
marines, Albay, Iloilo, Capiz, Mindoro, Lanao) 'malibdgo (Marinduque, ;
Bataan, Tayabas, Davao) malubdgo (Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon) ma-

; ;
pold (Batangas) maymnbd go (Camarines, Surigao) mulabdgo (Cotabato).

; ;
The bast fibers make a fairly strong rope. The fiber is used
for string, for tying cattle, and for making hog traps.
is a much-branched tree 4 to 12 meters in
Hibiscus tiliaceus
height. The leaves are 10 to 15 centimeters long, alternate,
hairy, somewhat rounded, the apex pointed, the base heart-
shaped. The flowers are yellow with a purple center. The
petals are about 5 centimeters long and wide.
This species is common throughout the Philippines. It is very
easily propagated by means of cuttings.
Genus MALACHRA
MALACHRA CAPITATA Jacq. BakembakeS.
Local names: Annabo (Union) bakembdkes (Abra, Ilocos Sur, Union)
; ;
bulbulin (Pampanga) buhihan, bulubuluhan (Cavite) labug-labug (Iloilo,

; ;
Occidental Negros) sipit-uldng (Bulacan); pdang-baliwis (Manila, Rizal).

;
The bast is strong and is used in the manufacture of rope.

Watt * says that the fiber is excellent, 8 to 9 feet long, and that
experts have declared it little, if at all, inferior to jute.
* Watt, G., Commercial products of India.

Malachra capitata is a coarse, erect annual 0.5 to 2 meters

in height and is covered with very coarse hair. The leaves
are alternate, from 5 to 15 centimeters in diameter, somewhat
rounded, and slightly lobed. The base is heart-shaped. The
petals are yellow and about 1 centimeter long.
This species is common in waste places throughout the
Philippines. It is a native of tropical America.
MALACHRA FASCIATA Turcz. PaaNG-BALIWIS.

Local names: Ayindbo (Union); bakembdkes (Itneg, Ilocano) ; malabitis-
pdpa (Bataan) paang-balhvis (Tagalog).
;
The bast of this species is colored olive buff. A strong rope

used for clotheslines and general purposes is made from it.
The bast is prepared by retting. The entire plant is cut and
kept in fresh water for about ten days, after which the bast
is easily stripped and the fiber largely freed from extraneous
matter by washing. King found the rope to have a tensile
strength of 637 kilos per square centimeter, which wetting
decreased 15 per cent.
Malachra fasciata is a coarse, half-woody herb reaching a
height of 0.5 to 1 meter. The leaves are 10 to 15 centimeters
long, very hairy, have a rounded base, and are cut nearly to the
base into five narrow lobes which have toothed margins. The
corolla is pink and about 1 centimeter long.
The species is a native of tropical America, but is now tho-
roughly naturalized and widely distributed in the Philippines
at low altitudes, and is locally very abundant in wet places.
Genus MALVASTRUM
MALVASTRUM COROM ANDELI N U M Garke. Salsaluyut.
Local names: Babara (Pangasinan) ;
gagabuten (Union) ; salsaluyut
(Union); tachin-kabayo (Batanes Islands); tdkim-bdka (Ilocos Norte).
The stems of this plant are used in making brooms.

Malvastrum coromandelinum is an erect, somewhat hairy,
branched, half -woody perennial, 1 meter or less in height. The
leaves are 2 to 5 centimeters long, the apex pointed, the base
usually rounded, the margins irregularly toothed. The flowers
are yellow with petals about 8 millimeters long. The fruit
consists of eight to twelve kidney-shaped divisions, 2 to 3 milli-
meters long, and has three short, straight projections.
This species is a native of tropical America, but is now widely
distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres. It is common
in waste places throughout the Philippines.
PLATE XXV. HIBISCUS TILIACEUS (MALUBAGO).

Genus SI DA
SI DA ACUTA Burm. f. Takling-BAKA.
Local Attdi-na-bdka (Ibanak)
names: basbdsot (Bontoc) escobilla ; ;
(Laguna, Bisaya) herbara (Ilocos Sur) kastule (Bulacan) maratakkim-

; ; ;
bdka (Iloko in Tarlac) salik (Basilan) surusighid (Camarines) takkim-

; ; ;
bdka (Ilocos Norte, Abra, Isabela, Pangasinan, Union) takhig-bdka ;
(Tarlac) iakling-bdka (Pangasinan)

;
uaualisin (Bulacan) ualis-rialisan
; ;
(Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan).
The fiber of Sida acuta is very pretty; its color marguerite

yellow. It is fine, filamentous, soft, and very lustrous, having
an appearance like silk. It possesses only medium strength,
but makes a handsome rope. Ilokos consider this rope a superior
product on account of its durability, its pleasing color, and its
gloss. It is used for general purposes and particularly where
nonstaining fiber is desired. King tested rope made from fiber
which had been retted about ten days in fresh water and sub-
sequently cleaned. He found it to have a tensile strength of
475 kilos per square centimeter, which wetting increased about
6 per cent.
The stems are used for making brooms and baskets.
Sida acuta is a slender shrub reaching a meter in height. It
has elongated, slender branches. The leaves are alternate, 3 to
5 centimeters long, and with toothed margins. The flowers are
yellow and about 1.3 centimeters in diameter.
This species is abundant in wet places throughout the Phil-
ippines.
SIDA CORDIFOLIA L.
Local name: Albahdca (Spanish in Surigao).
According to Watt,* this plant yields a fine, white fiber.

Sida cordifolia is an erect, half-woody shrub, 0.4 to 1 meter
in height. It is covered with soft, velvety hairs mixed with
which are numerous longer hairs. The leaves are alternate,
heart-shaped at the base, somewhat rounded at the apex, with
toothed margins, and from 1.5 to 4.5 centimeters in length. The
flowers are yellow and occur in the axils of the leaves.
This species occurs in open waste places and is common and
widely distributed in the Philippines.
SIDA MYSORENSIS W. & A. Lagkitan.

Local names: Damong-mabdho, lagkitan, mdrbas (Rizal) ; mdrabas (Ba-
taan) ; the last two corruptions of Spanish "malvas".
The bast fiber from this species is used for making rope.
Sida mysorensis is a hairy shrub about a meter in height.

The leaves are alternate, 5 to 8 centimeters long, somewhat

heart-shaped, and with notched margins. The flowers are yellow
and about 1 centimeter in diameter.
SI DA RHOMBI FOLIA L. Ualis-UALI'san.
Local names: Basbdsot (Bontoc) singitan, takkit-vdca, nangnangisit
;
(Union) smiitan (Cagayan)

; takim-vcica
; (Pangasinan) takling-vctca ;
(Pang'asinan, Batanes Islands); ualis-iialisan (Bataan).
This species yields a good fiber to which considerable attention

has been paid in India and other countries. It is claimed that
the fiber is too good to be used as a substitute for jute. For the
literature on this subject see Watt's "Commercial products of
India" and the bulletins of the Imperial Institute.
Sida rhomhifoUa is an erect, branched shrub 0.5 to 1.3 meters
in height. The leaves are alternate, 1 to 4 centimeters long, the
apex pointed or rounded, the lower surface covered with very
short, pale hairs, the margins toothed. The flowers occur singly
in the axils of the leaves the corolla is yellow and 1.5 to 1.8
;
centimeters in diameter.
This species is common in open waste places throughout the
Philippines.
Genus THESPESIA
THESPESIA LAM PAS D. and G. Marakapas.
Local names: Amagong (Nueva Ecija) bidak-biddkan (Tagalog) dal-
; ;
dallupang, maratcu-ong (Iloko, Abra, Itneg) kapas-kdpas (Union); kastule

;
(Tagalog); marakapas (Amburayan, Abra, Zambales).
Rope made from the bast of this species is very weak. King
says that it moulds readily. He found it to have a tensile
strength of 268 kilos per square centimeter, which wetting
increased about 8 per cent.
Thespesia lampas is an erect, slightly branched shrub, 2 or 3
meters in height. The leaves are alternate, somewhat three-
lobed or nearly entire, 10 to 20 centimeters long, and somewhat
hairy. The flowers are large, 6 to 8 centimeters long, and yellow
with a purple center. The fruit is an ovoid capsule about 3
centimeters long.
This species is widely distributed in Luzon and the Visa^ân
Islands.
Genus URENA
URENA LOBATA Linn. (Plate XXVI). Kollokollot.
Local names: Afidut (Gaddan in Nueva Vizcaya) anonongkot, barang- ;
got (Bikol) dahipau, kahit-kalntan, kolot-kolotan, kulutkulutan (Bataan,

;
Tagalog, Bisaya, Culion Island) kollokollot (Amburayan, Ilocos Sur, Pan-

;
gasinan, Nueva Vizcaya, Tarlac) kollolot (Abra)

; kuldt, kidet (Panga-
;
sinan) kulhikidliik (Iloko in Isabela) mangkit (Tayabas) poot-si-miang

; ; ;
(Isinai in Nueva Vizcaya) puriket (Abra).

;
The bast fiber of JJrena lobata is of the jute type and is said
to be more easily extracted than the latter. It has been re-
peatedly recommended as a substitute and has been sold in

London at prices equal to those paid for jute. A large mill for
the treatment of this fiber was put up in Brazil. In this case
the wild supply proved to be wholly insufficient, and it is said
that under cultivation the plant lost a great part of its fibrous
nature.
In India considerable attention has been paid to the fiber of
JJyêna lobata, and various writers have expressed the opinion
that when as much care has been spent on it as on jute, Urena
may be equally as valuable or more valuable than jute.
References to the literature on this subject are given by King.*
The bulletins of the Imperial Institute should also be consulted.
Rope made from the fibers of Urena lobata is fairly strong.
In India and other countries the product is used as a cordage
material. In the manufacture of coffee bags it is said to be an
excellent substitute for jute, because the fiber has no influence
on the aroma of the coffee. Urena lobata fibers can be made
into exceedingly strong paper, said to be almost twice as strong as
Bank of England note pulp.
Urena lobata is an erect, branched, somewhat hairy shrub 0.6
to 2.5 meters in height. The
leaves are alternate, pale beneath,
3 to 9 centimeters long, heart-shaped at the base, usually lobed,
and with toothed margins. The flowers are pink or purplish
and about 1.7 centimeters in diameter. The fruits are about
7 millimeters in diameter and are covered with short, barbed
spines.
This species is common in waste places throughout the Phil-
ippines, and thrives under adverse conditions.
Family BOMBACACEAE
Genus BOMBAX
BOMBAX CEIBA Linn. Malabulak.
Local names: Bobor, taroktok (Iloko) ;buhui-guhat (Rizal, Mindoro) ;
malabulak (Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Laguna).
The bast of this tree is colored orange buff and is used for
making ropes. It has a fair degree of tenacity, but is too scarce
to be commonly used for rope making. Ropes made from it are
said to be suitable for use in the dry season. King found the
rope to have a tensile strength of 405 kilos per square centi-
meter, which was decreased 13 per cent by wetting.
* King, A. E. W., Mechanical properties of Philippine bast fiber rope.
Philippine Journal of Science, Volume XIV (1919).

C. Samanieô 8c G.Vicencio
D
PLATE XXVI. URENA LOBATA (K0LL0K0LL6T).

The seeds are surrounded by silky hairs which are similar

to kapok from Ceiba pentandra, but whiter. The fiber is often
confused with kapok and has been shipped from Indo-China to
France under that name. A very detailed account of this
fiber is given by Crevost and Lemarie.* They say that it
is less waxy than that of Ceiba pentandra and so does not
behave in the same way in the presence of water.

Dodge t also mentions the use of the hairs for stuffing pillows,
Bombax ceiba is a very large tree, leafless in the dry season.
The trunk is covered with large pyramidal spines. The leaves
are palmately compound with five to seven leaflets, which are
smooth, oval, pointed at both ends, and from 10 to 20 centimeters
in length. The flowers are 8 to 10 centimeters long, red, and
appear while the tree is leafless. The capsules are about 15
centimeters long.
This species is found at low altitudes throughout the Philip-
pines.
Genus CEIBA
CEIBA PENTANDRA (L.) Gaertn. Kapok OR SiLK COTTON TREE.
Local names: Balios (Bulacan) hasangldi (Ilocos Sur, Abra)

;
hoboi,
;
biibi'ii (Bulacan, Bataan, Cavite, Batangas, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Min-
doro) boiboi (Capiz)

; ;biUak (Abra, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Cavite,
Batangas, Rizal, Manila, Laguna, Tayabas, Mindoro) bulak-dondol (Cebu)
; ;
bulak-kastUa (Pampanga) bnlak-siyw (Bulacan, Bataan, Cavite, Batan-

;
gas, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Mindoro) dogdol (Cebu) doldol (Leyte, Sa-
; ;
mar, Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Bohol, Cebu, Cuyo Islands) dondol (Cebu)
; ;
gdpas (Misamis) ;kdpah (Zambales) kdpak (Bulacan, Rizal, Bohol)

; ;
kdpas (Ilocos Norte and Sur, Zambales) kdpas-sangldi (Ilocos Norte and
;
Sur, Abra) kdpok or kapok (Tarlac, Sorsogon, Masbate, Davao and other
;
parts of Mindanao, Basilan, Sulu group) kapos, kasangldi (Pangasinan)

; ;
kdyo (Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Samar, Leji:e, Capiz, Antique, Iloilo,

Cebu, Bohol); sangldi (Abra).
The fibers from the seed pod of this tree are very extensively
used for stuffing pillows and mattresses, and are excellent for
these purposes. They are also employed in making life pre-
servers. During the past three years, 56,632 kilos of this ma-
terial, valued at 20,194 pesos, have been exported from the
Philippines.
Ceiba pentandra is a slender, erect tree, 15 meters or less in
height. The trunk is usually armed with scattered, large spines.
* Ch. and Lemarie, Ch., Plantes et Produits filamentaux et

Crevost,
textiles de L'Indochine. Bulletin Economique de L'Indochine, No. 137,
New Series, July-August, 1919.
t Dodge, C. R., A descriptive catalogue of useful fiber plants of the
No. 9.
The branches are in distinct whorls and spread out horizontally.

The leaves are compound with five to eight leaflets which are
borne at the end of the petiole. The leaflets are 6 to 15 centi-
meters long and pointed at both ends. The flowers are numerous,
whitish, and about 3 centimeters long. The capsule is pendant,
about 15 centimeters long, 5 centimeters thick, and contains very
abundant fiber surrounding the seeds.
This species is distributed at low altitudes throughout the
settled areas of the Philippines. It is probably a native of
tropical America.
Family STERCULIACEAE
Genus ABROMA
ABROMA FASTUOSA Jacq. (A. cmgusta L.) Anabo.
Common names: Ahroma, devil's cotton (English); abrome (French);
kakaomalve, abrome (German).
Local names: An-nabo, anabo (Apayao, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Benguet,
Abra, Union, Tarlac, Zambales, Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas,
Negros) anahx'i (Pampanga)
; anafu (Nueva Vizcaya)
;
anabong (Rizal,
;
Oriental Negros, Bohol) labon (Oriental Negros, Bohol)

; sayapo (Cota- ;
bato) ambong (Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, Bataan, Laguna, Rizal, Ta-

;
yabas) bdgo (Sorsogon)

; bodobodo (Ilocos Norte)
; nabo (Cagayan, Ne-
;
gros, Bohol) negegan (Batanes Islands) pakalkdl (Pampanga) sayapti

; ; ;
(Moro).
The bast fiber of Ahroma fastuosa is silky and very strong.

It is used in the Philippines for making rope, twine, fish lines,
pouches, etc. The rope is valued on account of its strength, and
is used for clotheslines because it does not stain.
King tested rope made from crude strips of bast and also
from fibers that had been retted in water for about 10 days.
In the first case the tensile strength was 545 kilos per square
centimeter and in the second, 643 kilos. Wetting lowered the
strength of the rope made from crude strips nearly 50 per cent.
A number of writers have believed that this plant off'ers con-
siderable in agricultural and industrial enter-
possibilities
prises.* grows vigorously under adverse conditions. Men-
It
diola found that a plant one year old yielded 67 grams of fiber.
He believed that Abroma should be planted as close as 2 meters
and that on this basis one hectare should produce 115 kilos of
fiber. The fiber is sold in considerable quantities in Cotabato,
Mindanao, at from three to ten pesos a picul. In Cebu it is
quoted at from 6.50 to 10.00 pesos a picul. However, extensive
* See Watt, G., The commercial products of India. John Murray, Lon-
don, 1908.
attempts in India to make this fiber a commercial success have

not succeeded.
Abroma fastuosa is a shrub or small tree. The leaves and
stems are covered with stiff, irritating hairs. The leaves are
alternate, heart-shaped, 10 to 30 centimeters in length, and with
toothed margins. The flowers are yellow and about 5 centi-
meters in diameter. The fruits are thin-walled, five-angled
capsules.
This species is widely distributed at low and medium altitudes
in the settled areas and brush lands of the Philippines. It is
sometimes cultivated.
Genus COMMERSONIA
COMMERSONIA BARTRAMIA (L.) Merr. Kakaag.
Local names: Anitaj) (Itneg) ; kakaag (Iloko).
The crude bast strips examined by King "varied from light

ochraceous salmon to a warm buff." Rope made from this plant
is said to be used considerably for general purposes. King
found the dry rope to have a mean tensile strength of 392 kilos
per square centimeter. Wetting the rope decreased its strength
32 per cent. However, King says that the residents of Benguet
state that this rope is more durable during the rainy season than
any of the other bast ropes which are commonly used.
Commersonia bartramia is a small tree. The leaves are alter-
nate, hairy, heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the tip, 12 to 18
centimeters long, and with toothed margins. The flowers are
small, white, and are borne on compound inflorescences. The
fruits are rounded capsules which are densely covered with
slender, soft, hairy processes.
This species occurs at low altitudes throughout the Philippines.
Genus HELICTERES
HELICTERES HIRSUTA Lour. TONGTONGKING.
Local names: Balibdgo, bulbuKn (Pampanga) buntot-usd (Rizal)
; ;
danglin-dso (Bisaya) danglin-kalabdu (Abra, Nueva Ecija)

; kakadb, ;
kakaag (Union, Abra, Pangasinan) koUokollot ti bad (Benguet) lailai-

; ;
ginan (Rizal) ; inalamansanita (Ilocos Norte, Tagalog) malatakon ;
(Abra) pakin-bdkir (Iloko) sagingsagingan (Tagalog) sarnugdr d da-

; ; ;
dakkel (Ilocos Sur) talakau (Negrito in Pampanga) talosan (Tayabas)

; ; ;
tolosan (Iloko); tongtongking (Amburayan).

The crude strips of this fiber are light buff, and harsh and stiff.
King found that the tensile strength of rope made from them
averaged 438 kilos per square centimeter. Immersion in water
for twenty-four hours decreased the strength about 10 per cent.
The rope appears to be durable during the rainy season.
Helicteres hirsiita is a shrub with alternate, pointed, hairy-

leaves, 10 to 15 centimeters in length, the bases of which are
obliquely heart-shaped and the margins toothed. The flowers
are pink or purplish, slender, and about 2 centimeters long.
The fruits are cylindrical, pointed, 3 to 4 centimeters long, and
covered with numerous hairy protuberances.
This species occurs at low altitudes throughout the Philippines
and is locally very abundant.
Genus KLEINHOVIA
KLEINHOVIA HOSPITA L. Tan-AG.
Local names: Apung-dpung (Basilan) ; bafe iiga biinsiing (Nueva Viz-
caya) ;biknong (Union, Zambales) biludng (Negros) ; ; bi'ndng (Nueva
Ecija, Abra, Pangasinan) bitandg (Agusan, Surigao, Basilan)
;
bitnong ;
(Cagayan, Benguet, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Nueva Vizcaya, Tarlac) ;
bitonog (Lanao) butnong (Ilocos Norte)

;
hamitandgo (Albay, Samar,;
Leyte, Cebu, Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Occ. and Or. Negros, Bohol) hunung ;
(Cagayan) vialibdgo (Palawan) malobdgo, lapnis (Negros) marakdpas

; ; ;
(Ilocos Sur) ;
palong-manok (Culion) pampdr, panampdt (Pampanga)
; ;
tadg, tang-dg (Rizal) tagndg (Zamboanga) tamayidg (Cotabato, Davao)

; ; ;
taloktdk (Ilocos Norte) tan'dg or tan-dg (Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Bataan,

;
Tarlac, Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Capiz, Iloilo) ;
tandk (Tayabas).
The bast fiber is widely used for tying bundles. It is also

made into rope which is used for tethering carabaos and horses,
and for making halters. King found it to have a tensile strength
of only 309 kilos per square centimeter. However, immersion
in water for twenty-four hours decreased the strength only 7
per cent. The rope is said to be durable during rainy weather.
Kleinhovia hospita is a small or medium-sized tree with large,
alternate, heart-shaped leaves which have toothed margins. The
flowers are small, pink, and are borne in panicles terminating
the branches. The fruit is a thin-walled, inflated capsule about
2 centimeters long. The young leaves are eaten as greens.
This species is found at low altitudes throughout the Philip-
pines and is locally very abundant.
Genus MELOCHIA
MELOCHIA UMBELLATA (Houtt) Stapf. LabAyo.
Local names: Anabiong (Rizal) anabo (Nueva Ecija) baliknong,
; ;
bunot-bunot, siapo (Mindoro) bignon (Pangasinan)

; binunga (Cagayan, ;
Negros Occidental) bingdbing, lapnis (Laguna) labdyo (Laguna) malaa-

; ; ;
chuete (Bataan).
The bark used for making string or rope.

of this tree is
Melochia umhellata a small tree, and is one of the most
is
rapidly growing species in the Archipelago. The leaves are 12
to 20 centimeters long, heart-shaped, and have toothed margins.

The flowers and fruits occur in dense clusters.
This species is very abundant in second-growth forests
throughout the Philippines.
Genus PTEROCYM BIUM
PTEROCYMBIUM TINCTORIUM (Blanco) Merr. (Plate XXVII). Taluto.
Local names: Abigon, taoto, tautu (Bataan, Leyte) bangdt (Zambales) ; ;
bayao, takung (Surigao) balulau (Agusan) duidi'd (Tayabas)

; ; huligdno ;
(Nueva Ecija) libttik (Cagayan) malasaps-dp (Pampanga) marakdpas

; ; ;
(Calayan Island, Ilocos Sur, Benguet) mayuo (Manobo) taloto or taluto

; ;
(Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Mindoro, Negros,

Palawan, Cotabato) tagiingtungan (Cebu) takung (Surigao).
; ;
The bast of this tree is pale orange-yellow. King found that

rope made from it had a tensile strength of 381 kilos per square
centimeter. Immersion in water for twenty-four hours increased
the strength about 7 per cent.
Pterocymbium tinctorium is a tall tree reaching a height of
from 45 to 50 meters and a diameter of 90 centimeters. It has
a straight, regular trunk from 25 to 30 meters in length. It
occurs in the virgin forests and usually on the drier soils. For
a short period during the dry season it is leafless. Typical
leaves are heart-shaped. The fruits are oval, over a centimeter
long, and with prominent wings 7 to 10 centimeters in length.
The wood is white, light, and very soft.
Genus PTEROSPERMUM
PTEROSPERMUM Dl VERSI FOLI U M Bl. BaYOK.
Local names: Bdloi, bdroi (Ilocos Sur, Pangasinan, Benguet, Itneg) ;
bayog, bayok or bayuk (Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Zambales, Bataan, Rizal,

Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Camarines,Catanduanes Island, Min-
doro, Masbate, Ticao, Negros, Cotabato, Zamboanga, Palawan) bayog- ;
bayog (Zamboanga) bayong, biyiig (Tayabas) dibudl (Basilan) kabisldk

; ; ;
(Davao) talingd'an (Ilocos Norte).

;
The bast of this species has very little tensile strength and is
not commonly used for rope making. The color of the bast is
pinkish cinnamon. King found rope made from it to have a
tensile strength of 263 kilos per square centimeter, which wetting
did not affect. The bark is also used for dyeing purposes.
Pterospermum diversifoliuTn is a tree reaching a diameter of
50 centimeters. The leaves are alternate, hairy, oblong, heart-
shaped at the base, abruptly pointed at the tip, and 11 to 25
centimeters in length. The flowers are white, 12 to 14 centi-
meters long, and occur either singly or in pairs in the axils of
the leaves. The fruit is a woody, five-angled capsule about 15
centimeters long.
PLATE XXVII. PTEROCYMBIUM TINCTORIUM (TALOTO).


ippines.
PTEROSPERMUM NIVEUM Vid. Bayok-bayokan.
Local names: Bdroi (Abra, Pangasinan, Tarlac) ; buyog (Zambales, Ba-
bayok (Nueva Ecija, Pampanga,
taan, Rizal, Laguna, Camarines, Mindoro) ;
Bataan, Laguna) bayok-bayokan (Camarines)

; bayugtin (Tayabas) ; ;
kantingan (Mindoro); tamok (Bataan); ting anting an (Tayabas).
The bark of this species is used for making rope and for tying
purposes.
Pterospermum niveum is a tree reaching a diameter of 60
centimeters. The leaves are alternate, hairy, oblique at the
base, pointed at the tip, and 7 to 17 centimeters in length. The
flowers are large, white, and fragrant. The fruit is oval,
pointed, 6 to 8 centimeters long, splits into four or five segments,
and contains winged seeds.
This species is widely distributed in the forests of the Phil-
ippines.
Genus STERCULIA
STERCULIA CRASSIRAMEA Merr. Tapinag.
Local names: Adupong (Benguet) balinad (Ticao, Palawan); banikad
;
(Mindoro) banilad (Rizal^ Mindoro, Guimaras Island)

; baniakalau or ;
bannakalau (Benguet, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra) kahikalum- ;
pdngan (Rizal) palak-pdlak (Bulacan) malakapdi, malapapdya, tapinag

; ;
(Bataan).
Rope made from the bast of this tree is fairly strong. King
found the tensile strength to be 398 kilos per square centimeter.
Wetting decreased it about 23 per cent.
Sterculia crassiramea is a large tree reaching a diameter of
60 centimeters. The smallest branches are much thickened.
The leaves are very large, usually more than 35 centimeters long,
heart-shaped at the base, and very hairy. The flowers are
yellow and 4 millimeters long. The fruits are large, red, and
inflated.
This species is widely distributed in forest areas of Luzon.
STERCULIA CUNEATA R. Br. Malabonot,

Local names: Balinad (Palawan) baydyat, tambobonot (Isabela)
;
bu- ;
Idkan, malakakdo (Laguna) kakao-kakdo, sulimbubu (Mindoro)

;
kahika- ;
lumpdngan (Rizal) ; kalumpdng, upak (Pampanga) malabonot (Nueva ;
Ecija^ Rizal, Manila) ; maratarong (Ilocos Sur) opong-opong (Camarines).

;

Sterculia cuneata is a tree reaching a height of 15 meters and
a diameter of 35 centimeters. The leaves are alternate, very
hairy, heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the tip, and from 12
to 28 centimeters long.
This species is widely distributed in the Philippines.
STERCULIA FOETIDA Linn. Kalumpang.
Local names: Bangdr and Itneg) (Iloko
hobo, bobog, bo-bog, bubog ;
(Panay, Balabac Island, Palawan, Negros); bobor, biibiir (Ilocos Sur) ;
bongog (Cagayan) kalumpang (Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Manila,

;
Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Polillo, Camarines, Mindoro, Iloilo, Palawan,

Cotabato, Apo Island); kuruynjmng (Davao).
The bast of
this species is made into a weak rope which King
found have a tensile strength of only 200 kilos per square
to
centimeter. Immersion in water for twenty-four hours did not
affect the strength. The bast is light salmon-orange.
The seeds are edible, but are purgative if eaten raw. They
yield an used locally for illuminating, and which could be
oil
used for culinary purposes.
Sterculia foetida is a large tree reaching a diameter of 100
centimeters. The leaves are palmately compound with seven to
nine leaflets, which are smooth, sharply pointed at the apex, and
12 to 18 centimeters long. The flowers are dull yellowish or
purplish, 2 to 2.5 centimeters in diameter, and have a very fetid
odor. The seeds are borne in very large, red capsules. They
are edible and yield a valuable oil for which the tree is some-
times cultivated. The wood is gray, soft, and little used.
'
STERCULIA LUZON ICA Warb. Malakalumpang.

Local names: Anagds (Masbate) ; balinad, kadlihan (Ticao Island);
(Mindoro)
boboi-giibat kalupdng (Negros)
; lapnit (Cagayan) malaka- ; ;
lumpang (Camarines); tahito (Guimaras Island) lontong (Zamboanga). ;
The inner bark of this species is used for making rope.

Sterculia luzonica a tree reaching a diameter of 60 centi-
is
meters and a height of about 30 meters. Its leaves are some-
what heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the apex, and 10 to
20 centimeters in length. The flowers are small, greenish, and
are borne on compound inflorescences. The fruits are red and
usually occur in groups of from three to five.
STERCULIA OBLONGATA R. Br. Malaboho.

Local names: Bakdii (Mindoro); balinad (Camarines); banilad (Rizal,
Mindoro) bunga, malabunga (Tayabas) hantdk (Batanes Islands) mu-
; ; ;
lakakdo (Bataan, Laguna) malabanilad (Samar) lapnit (Calayan Island,

; ;
Babuyanes Islands) malaboho (Bataan) saripongpong (Camarines) sina-

; ; ;
ligan (Benguet, Abra) 60s or {los (Camarines).

;
Most of the strips of bast of Sterculia oblongata are salmon-

some are tawny and others are light salmon orange.
buff in color,
Rope made from this fiber is of medium strength. King found
it to have a tensile strength of 398 kilos per square centimeter.
Wetting decreased the strength 27 per cent. However, accord-

ing to King, the residents of Disdis, Benguet state that the rope
is preferably used during the rainy season.
Sterculia oblongata is a small or medium-sized tree reaching
a diameter of 70 centimeters. The leaves are alternate, smooth,
oval, 12 to 30 centimeters long, rounded at the base, and pointed
at the tip. The flowers are yellowish white, 5 to 6 millimeters
long, and are borne on compound inflorescences. The fruits are
inflated, hairy, about 5 centimeters long, 3.5 centimeters wide,
with a leathery covering, and contain four to six seeds which
are about 1.5 centimeters long.
This species is widely distributed at low altitudes in the
Philippines.
STERCULIA PHILIPPINENSIS Merr. Bani'lad.

Local names: Bannakdlau (Ilocos Sur) ; banilad, banikad, (Mindoro,
Guimaras) ; malagasdha (Laguna).
Sterculia philippinensis is a tree reaching a height of 30 meters
and a diameter of 65 centimeters. It has very large, heart-
shaped leaves up to 35 centimeters in length. The flowers are
small, pink or red, and are borne in considerable numbers on
compound inflorescences. The fruits are large and red.
This species is widely distributed in Luzon and the Bisaya
Islands.
STERCULIA STIPULARIS R. Br. BONOTAN.

Local names: Bisong (Nueva Vizcaya) ; rapok (Ilocos Norte)
bonotati, ;
bungdt (Cagayan) labndi (Itneg, Abra)

; ; malagasdha (Tayabas).
The strips of bast of this species are perforated with small
holes so that they have a sieve-like appearance. The color is
uniform ochraceous-bufi". Rope made from has very little

it
strength, but is used considerably. It is said to be durable

during the wet season and is employed particularly for making
hog traps. King found the rope to have a tensile strength of
268 kilos per square centimeter, increased 37 per cent by wetting.
Sterculia stipularis is a medium-sized tree. The leaves are
alternate, hairy, pointed at the tip, rounded at the base, wider
near the apex than near the base, and 10 to 30 centimeters
long. The flowers are white and purple, and are borne on com-
pound inflorescences. The fruit capsules are large, red, and
inflated.
This species is widely distributed at low altitudes in the Phil-
ippines.
Family THYMELAEACEAE
Genus AQUILARIA
AQUILARIA MALACCENSIS Lam.

According to Heyne * this tree furnishes a beautiful, silvery
bast used for making rope and cloth. The bast is highly prized
for its strength and durability.
Aquilaria malaccefisis has been collected only once, and then
in Camarines.
Genus PHALERIA
PHALERIA CUMINGII F.-Vill. SalagonG-GUBAT.
Local names: Bari (Mindoro) ; butigan (Masbate) malakakdo, sald-
;
gong-babde, saldgong-giibat (Rizal) ; saldgo (Camarines); tuka (Cagayan).
The bark of this tree is very strong, and is used as twine or

formaking rope.
Phaleria cumingii is a tree reaching a height of 8 meters.
The leaves are opposite, smooth, pointed at the tip, rounded
or pointed at the base, and 8 to 25 centimeters long. The
flowers are white, about 3.5 to 4.5 centimeters long, and occur
in small clusters. The fruits are red.
This species is widely distributed in Luzon and the Bisaya
Islands.
PHALERIA PERROTTETIANA F.-Vill. TuKA.

Local names: Aligpagi (Davao) ; bdgo (Bataan) ; tuka (Cagayan).
The bark is used as a tying material.

Phaleria perrottetiana is a small tree usually about 2 or 3
meters in height. The leaves are opposite, smooth, oval,
pointed at the tip, rounded or pointed at the bage, and from
10 to 24 centimeters in length. The fruits are bright red and
about 1.5 centimeters long.
Mindanao.
Genus Wl KSTROEM lA
WIKSTROEMIA spp. • Salago.
The different species of Wikstroemia are shrubs which are

found scattered in thickets throughout the Philippines. The
common species are Wikstroemia indica, W. lanceolata, W. meye-
niana, and W. ovata.
The bark is collected in considerable quantities and exported
to Japan, where it is said to be used in the manufacture of

page 332.
bank notes and other strong paper. Most of the bark collected
comes from the vicinity of Mount Mayon and from Mindanao.
The bast is light colored and has a somewhat silky appearance.
The bark is used for tying purposes and for making rope.
WIKSTROEMIA IN DIG A (L.) C. E. Mey. Small-LEAF Salago.
Local names: Baleo (Ilocos Norte) ; salago or tdlo (Albay) ; titipuho or
palupo (Batanes Islands).
Wikstroemia mdica a shrub 1 to 3 meters in height. The

is
leaves are opposite, somewhatleathery, widest near the middle,
somewhat rounded at the tip, pointed at the base, and 1.5 to
7 centimeters long. The flowers are small and yellow; the
fruits small and red.
Mindanao.
WIKSTROEMIA LANCEOLATA Merr. Lance-LEAF Salago.

Local names: Salagip (Batangas) ; salago (Abra, Tayabas) ; tiika (Ilocos
Sur).
Wikstroemia lanceolata is a shrub 1 to 2 meters in height.

The leaves are opposite, smooth, pointed at both ends, and 4
to 8 centimeters in length. The flowers are small, light colored,
and borne in small clusters. The fruits are red and less than
a centimeter long.
This species is found in northern and central Luzon.
WIKSTROEMIA MEYENIANA Warb. (Plate XXVIII). Large-leaf

Salago.
Local names: Sdgu (Laguna) ; salago (Albay).
Wikstroemia meyeniana is a shrub 1 to 2 meters in height.

The leaves are opposite, pointed at the tip, rounded at the base,
and 6 to 12 centimeters in length. The flowers are greenish
yellow, about 1.5 to 2 centimeters in length, and borne in small
clusters. The fruits are red and about a centimeter in length.
This species is common and widely distributed from northern
Luzon to southern Mindanao.
WIKSTROEMIA OVATA C. E. Mey. RoUND-LEAF SalaGO.

Local names: Dapnit (Iloko, Bontoc) ; salago (Bulacan, Laguna).
Wikstroemia ovata is a shrub 1 to 3 meters in height. The

leaves are opposite, smooth, rounded at the base, pointed at
the apex, and from 5 to 10 centimeters long. The flowers are
yellow, about 1.5 centimeters long, and borne in small clusters.
The fruits are red and about 1 centimeter long.
PLATE XXVIII. WIKSTROEMIA MEYENIANA (LARGE-LEAF SALaGO).

Family MYRSINACEAE
Genus MAESA
MAESA CUMINGII Mez. Katiput.
Local names: Hanopol (Tayabas) ; katiput (Rizal) ; malalapi (Zamba-
les)
; suliman (Bulacan).

The leaves of Maesa cumingii are alternate, smooth, rounded
at the base, pointed at the tip, and from 6 to 12 centimeters
long. The flowers occur in considerable numbers on long flower-
ing shoots. The fruits are small and rounded.
Family LOGANIACEAE
Genus STRYCHNOS
STRYCHNOS MULTI FLORA Benth. BUKUAN.
Local names: Abukohuko (Apayao) ; bukuan (Cagayan) ; tibangldn
(Laguna).

The leaves of Stnjchnos multiflom are opposite, smooth,
rounded at the base, pointed at the tip, and from 10 to 18 centi-
meters long. The flowers are small, white, and borne on com-
pound inflorescences. The fruit is round, bright orange-red,
and contains one flat seed.
Family APOCYNACEAE
Genus ICHNOCARPUS
ICHNOCARPUS OVATIFOLIUS A. DC. SlGID.
Local names: Hinggm (Cavite, Pangasinan, Rizal, Laguna, Mindoro) ;
saddk (Pangasinan, Ilocos Sur) sig-id (Zambales, Mindoro) uakdk (Ca-

; ;
gayan).
This species is used for tying purposes, especially in making

fences, and also for ropes.
Ichnocarpus ovatifolius is a woody vine, 4 meters or more in
length. The leaves are opposite, smooth, rounded or pointed at
the base, pointed at the tip, and from 5 to 14 centimeters long.
The flowers are white, fragrant, about 6 millimeters long, and
borne on compound inflorescences. The fruits are cylindrical,
5 to 18 centimeters long, about 3 millimeters in diameter, and
densely covered with brown hairs when young.
ippines.
Genus PARAMERIA
PARAMERIA PH ILIPPI N ENSIS Radlk. DuGTONG-AHAS.
Local names: Dugtong-dhas (Rizal) ikding-nga-purdu (Igorot) inggiu-
; ;
na-puti (Bataan) karkarsdng (Benguet) ; kiini-na-puti (Pampanga) lupi-

; ;
it (Ilocos Sur) parugtong-dhas (Bulacan, Zambales, Rizal) partian (Ilocos

; ;
Sur) pulang-pulang (Zambales); saddk (Benguet); taguldiiai (Rizal).

;
The bark of this vine is used for making rope and for tying
rice bundles.
Parameria philippinensis is a large, woody vine. The leaves
are from 7 to 10 centimeters in length, somewhat oval in outline,
and pointed at both ends. The flowers are fairly small, white,
and occur in clusters. The fruits are very long and slender the ;
parts containing the seeds are swollen, while the parts between
the seeds are very narrow. The seeds are crowned with long,
hairlike projections.
ippines, and is one of the rubber-producing plants in the
Archipelago.
Genus URCEOLA
URCEOLA IMBERBIS (Elm.) Merr. HingGIU-kalabau.
Local name: Hinggiu-kalabdu (Laguna).

Urceola imberbis is a woody vine. The leaves are opposite,
smooth, rounded at the base, pointed at the tip, and 8 to 14
centimeters long. The flowers are pale, yellowish green and
borne in considerable numbers on compound inflorescences. The
fruits are cylindrical, long, and slender.
This species is found in Luzon.
Family ASCLEPIADACEAE
Genus ASCLEPIAS
ASCLEPIAS CURASSAVICA L. BULAK-DAMO.

Local names: Anibong, pasangldi (Bontoc) bu-buymi, bidak-damo (Ta-
;
yabas) bulak-kastila, kalalaiidn (Bataan)

; chile-manuk (Bataan)
; coro- ;
nitas (Span., Camarines) dalddl (Batanes Islands)

; kaynantiging-lindu ;
(Batangas) kdpas de F^'ancia (Pangasinan) maismaisan (Rizal).

; ;
The silky hairs of the seed are sometimes used for stuffing
pillows.
Asclepias curassavica is an erect, simple or slightly branched,
smooth, perennial herb 40 to 60 centimeters in height. The
leaves are opposite, narrow, pointed at both ends, and 7 to 13
centimeters in length. The inflorescences are umbrella-shaped,
and occur in the axils of the leaves or terminate the branches.
The flowers are red and yellow, 1.2 to 1.4 centimeters in length.
The fruits are somewhat pointed at both ends, 6 to 8 centimeters
in length, and 1 to 1.3 centimeters in diameter at the middle.
They contain numerous, flat seeds to which are attached nu-
merous, long, silky hairs.

This species is very common and widely distributed in open
places in the Philippines. It is a native of tropical America, but
is now a weed in most tropical countries.
Genus STREPTOCAULON
STREPTOCAULON BAUMII Decne. HlNGGIU-NA-PUTI.
Local names: Duktung-dhas (Rizal) hinggiu-kalabdu (Bulacan)
; ; hing-
giu-na-puti (Manila); mara-ijms (Union); sibut-sibiitan (Rizal).

Streptocaulon haumii is a woody vine. The leaves are oppo-
site, round or heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the tip, and
from 7 to 13 centimeters long. The flowers are numerous and
very small. The fruit is about 6 centimeters long and 5 milli-
meters in diameter, cylindrical, and pointed at the tip. It
contains numerous black seeds crowned with silky hairs.
Family CONVOLVULACEAE
Genus MERREMIA
MERREMIA N YM PHAEI FOLIA Hall. f. BuLAKAN.
Local names: Bidak-buldkan (Camarines) buldkan (Tayabas, Laguna,
;
Mindoro) burdkan (Camarines); tampinita (Misamis).

;
This vine is sometimes used for tying purposes.

MerremixL nijmphaeifolia has alternate, heart-shaped leaves,
which are from 8 to 25 centimeters in length. The flowers are
large and yellow.
This species is distributed throughout the Philippines.
Genus OPERCULINA
OPERCULINA TURPETHUM (L.) Manso.
Local names: Burdkan (Ticao) ; kamokamotehan (Rizal).

Operculina turpethum is a pubescent vine reaching a length of
5 meters or more. The stems are often purplish, prominently 2-
to 4-angled, and narrowly winged. The leaves are alternate,
5 to 15 centimeters long, the apex pointed, the base somewhat
heart-shaped or straight. The corolla is white and 4 centimeters
long and wide. The capsule is rounded and 1 to 1.5 centimeters
in diameter.
This species is found throughout the Philippine Islands.
Family BORAGINACEAE
Genus CORDIA
CORDIA CUMINGIANA Vid. AnONANG-LALAKI.

Local names: Anonang-laldki (Mindoro) ; maratarong (Iloko).
The strands of bast fibers vary considerably in size and color.

Rope made from them possesses only a medium degree of
tenacity.
Cordia cumingiana is a small tree reaching a height of about
7 meters. The leaves are alternate, hairy, heart-shaped, and 8
to 16 centimeters long. The flowers are white, about 4 milli-
meters long, and borne on compound inflorescences. The fruits
are about 1 centimeter long.
This species is of local occurrence at low altitudes in Luzon.
CORDIA MYXA Linn. Anonang.
Local names: Anonang, anihiang, anunong (Ilocos Sur, Benguet, Union,
Pangasinan, Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan, Manila, Rizal, Laguna, Nueva
Ecija, Cavite, Tayabas, Batangas, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Mindoro,
Masbate, Leyte, Guimaras Island, Palawan, Surigao, Cotabato, Misamis) ;
anonang -bdkir, siyiaUgan (Ilocos Sur) gnma (Balabac Island) sahiyong

; ;
(Tagalog).
Rope is made from the bast of this tree. This rope is rela-
tivelyweak and is said to be unsuited for use in a wet condition.
The bast is brown. King found the tensile strength of the rope
to be 324 kilos per square centimeter. Wetting decreased the
strength 19 per cent.
A white, gelatinous substance obtained from the fruits is used
as glue.
Cordia myxa a tree usually 5 to 10 meters in height.
is The
leaves are alternate, smooth or nearly so, pointed at both ends,
and 6 to 15 centimeters long. The flowers are white or yellowish
white, about 7 millimeters long, and borne on compound inflores-
cences. The fruits are yellowish white, 10 to 13 millimeters
long,and soft, with a hard stone in the center.
This species is very common and widely distributed in second-
growth forests and open places at low altitudes in the Philippines.
Family CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Genus LONICERA
LONICERA PHILIPPINENSIS Merr. BuALTlK.
Local name: Bualtik (Benguet).
This vine is used entire in Benguet for tying fences.

The leaves are opposite, pointed at the tip, rounded at the
base, and from 3.5 to 5 centimeters in length. The flowers are
white, occur in axillary or terminal clusters, and are about 2

centimeters in length. The fruit is a small, black, fleshy berry.
This species has been reported only from Benguet.
LIST OF SPECIES USED FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

The following list gives the principal wild species w^hich are
employed in making different articles. No attempt has been
made to include ordinary uses of the cultivated species. The
sections on bamboos and palms should also be consulted, as
fibers from these plants are not included in the present section.
BAGS Oryza sativa

Mtisa textilis Phragmites karka
Pandanus radicans Phragmites vulgaris
Pandanus simplex Saccharuryi spontaneum
Scirpns grossus Thysanolaena maxima
Typha angustifolia
CORDAGE
BASKETS
Abroma fastuosa
Agcwe cantala Ab7-us precatorius
Dendrobium crumenatum Agelaea everettii
Donax cannaeformis Allaeanthus glaber
Dryopteris pteroides Alphitonia excelsa
Epipremnum spp. Amomum sp.
Flagellaria indica Anamirta cocculus
Gleichenia linearis Artocarpus communis
Lygodium spp. Artocarpus integra
Musa textilis A 7'tocarp its ru b rovenia
Nephrolepis hirsutula Bauhinia cumingiana
Pandanus copelandii Boehmeria nivea
Pandanus luzonensis Bombax ceiba
Pandanus radicans Bombycidendron vidalianum
Pandanus simplex Coluynbia blancoi
Pandanus tectorius Columbia lanceolata
Pericampylus glaucus Columbia mollis
Pothos spp. Com mersonia bartramia
Raphidophora spp. Corchorus capsularis
Rhynchospora corymhosa Corchorus olitorius
Scirpus grossus Cordia cumingiana
Stenochlaena palustris Cordia myxa
Typha angustifolia Cyperus rnalaccensis
BELTS Donax cannaeformis
Elaeocarpus calomala
Gleichenia linearis Ficus benjamina
Miisa textilis Ficus forstenii
BOXES Ficus pachyphylla
Lygodium spp. Ficus palaivanensis
Flagellaria indica
BROOMS
Gnetum gnemon
Andropogon zizanioides Gnetum indicum
Malvastrum coromandelinum Gnetiun sp.
USES OF SPECIES 411
Goniothalmnus amuyon FABRICS
Grewia acuminata Agave cantala
Grewia bilamellata Ananas comosus
Greivia eriocarpa Boehmeria nivea
Gretvia multiflora Corchonis capsularis
Helicteres hirsuta Corchorus olitorius
Hibisciis tiliaceus Malachra capitata
Ichnocarpus ovatifolins Muâ textilis
Ischaemum angustifoluitn Musa sp. (a wild banana)
Kleinhovia hospita Sida rhombifolia
Lonicera philippinensis Urena lobata
Maesa cumingii FANS
Malachra capitata
Malachra fasciata Andropogon zizanioides
Malaisia scandens FANCY ARTICLES
Melochia timbellata
Abroma fastuosa
Muntingia calahura
Fimb ristylis diph ylla
Parameria philippinensis
Fimbristylis globulosa
Phaeanthus ebracteolatus
Lygodium spp.
Phaleria cmningii
Musa textilis
Phaleria perrottetiana
Pandanus simplex
Poly alt hia flava
Saccharum spontaneum
Pong a mia pinnata
Pterocym bium tinctoriurti HAMMOCKS
Pterospermum diversifolium Raphidophora spp.
Pterospermum niveum
Raphidophoya spp. HATS
Rourea volubilis Andropogon halepensis
Sapindiis saponaria Andropogon zizanioides
Sida acuta Cyperus malaccensis
Sida cordifolia Donax cannaeformis
Sida mysoreîsis Fimbristylis globulosa
Sida rhombifolia Imperata exaltata
Stenochlaena palustris Lygodium spp.
Sterculia crassiramea Muâ textilis
Sterculia cuneata Nephrolepis hirsutula
Sterculia foetida Oryza sativa
Sterculia luzonica Pandanus radicans
Sterculia oblongata Pandanus sabotan
Sterculia philippinensis Pandanus simplex
Sterculia stipularis Pandanus tectorius
Streptocaulon baumii Phragmites vulgaris
Strychnos multiflora Sacchariim spontaneum
Thespesia lampas Scirpiodendron ghaeri
Trenia orientalis Sporobolus elongatus
Triumfetta bartramia
Typha angustifolia MATS
Urceola imberbis Cyperus malaccensis
Urena lobata Cyperus radiatus
Wikstroemia spp. Imperata exaltata
Musa textilis
CRADLES
Nephrolepis hirsutuLa
Raphidophora spp. Pandanus copelandii
Pandanus dubius Miscanthus sinensis

Pandanus luzonensis Rhynchospora corymbosa
Pandanus radicans Saccharum spontaneum
Pandanus sabotan SLIPPERS
Patidanus simplex
Pandanus tectorius Agave cantala
Rhynchospora corymbosa Cyperus malacceyisis
Scirpus grossu^ Fimbristylis diphylla
Scirpus lacustris Fimbristylis globulosa
Ischaemum angu^tifolium,
PAPER PULP Oryza sativa
Imperata exaltata Pandanus simplex
Saccharum spontaneum Rhynchospora corymbosa
Wikstroemia spp. Typha angustifolia
PICTURE FRAMES THATCHING
Saccharum officinarum Andropogon zizanioides
Saccharum spontaneum Imperata exaltata
PILLOWS TYING FISH TRAPS
Asclepias curassavica Malaisia scandens
Bombax ceiba Pothoidium lobbianum
Ceiba pentandra Rourea volubilis
Typha an gustifolia Stenochlaena palustris
SCREENS WINDOW SHADES

Cyperus radiatus Miscanthus sinensis
PHILIPPINE FOREST PRODUCTS AS SOURCES OF
PAPER PULP
413
PHILIPPINE FOREST PRODUCTS AS SOURCES OF
PAPER PULP
INTRODUCTION
The increasing difficulty of obtaining wood pulp for paper

has led to the examination of a great variety of substances to
be used as substitutes. The possibilities for paper pulp in the
Philippines have been investigated by Richmond and reported
on in a series of articles in the Philippine Journal of Science.*
Since Richmond's articles appeared very little information has
been obtained concerning paper, except in regard to supply and
yield of materials. The Philippines offer a particularly favor-
able site for the establishment of a paper industry, as raw
material of good quality and at cheap prices is available. There
is, moreover, a very considerable local market in addition to that
which can be obtained by export. The Philippine Legislature

has passed a law guaranteeing for a paper plant an interest of
four per cent per annum for three or six years. The local de-
mand is considerable, as can be seen from the fact that during the
year 1917 paper and paper products to the value of 3,778,373
pesos were imported into the islands. In Manila alone there
are eleven daily and eight weekly papers, besides numerous
monthlies and quarterlies. Richmond has shown that there is
not only a considerable amount of material for paper pulp to
be derived from forest products, but that besides there are other
very considerable sources. In the Philippines, clothes are made
largely from cotton which not mixed with wool, and by far
is
the largest part of this cotton is white, so that cotton rags offer
considerable possibilities for the manufacture of paper. Among
the agricultural products may be mentioned abaka (Manila
hemp) waste, banana fiber, sisal, and maguey waste. In the
process of stripping commercial fiber from abaka as much or
more waste fiber is left in the stalk than is extracted. Richmond
has found that this material makes an excellent paper. The
abundance of this waste is shown by the fact that 171,148
metric tons of abaka were exported from the Philippine Islands
* Richmond, G. F., Philippine fibers and fibrous substances: Their suit-

ability for paper-making, Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. I, p. 433;
Part II, Vol. I, p. 1075; Part III, Section A, Vol. II, p. 81.
Philippine fibers and fibrous substances Their suitability for paper-
:
making, Philippine Journal of Science, Section A, Vol. V (1910), p. 233.

415
416 PAPER PLiLP
during the past year. The growing of sisal and maguey is in-
creasing rapidly and these sources should soon offer consider-
able material for paper. Richmond has also shown that banana
fiber makes an excellent paper. He calculated that 33,913 hect-
ares in the Philippines were used for raising bananas. When
a banana stalk once bears fruit, the stalk is then cut down and
usually allowed to decay so that this possible source of paper
pulp is now entirely wasted, except when used as food for stock.
Besides the cultivated bananas there are large tracts of wild
bananas in the Philippines.
Among the forest products which offer immediate prospects
for paper pulp are three plants one a bamboo (Schizostachyum
:
lumampao) and two grasses, kogon (Imperata exaltata) and ta-

,
lahib (Saccharum spontaneum) The other sources will be

.
mentioned later.
BAMBOO FOR PAPER
Perhaps the most promising source of paper material is

offered by the moderate-sized, thin-walled bamboo, Schizosta-
chyum lumampao. For a description of this plant and its pro-
duction, see the section on bamboos.
As is well known, bamboo has long been used for making paper
in China. In fact, it is the chief material in use for this purpose
in that country. Various species of bamboo in other countries
have also been made into good paper as will be seen by referring
to Richmond's articles.
The following excerpt communicated by Consul Henry D.
Baker, of Trinidad, British West Indies, in the United States
Commerce Reports No. 57 of March 9, 1918, shows how favor-
ably bamboo is considered as a paper material.
The publishing house of Thomas Nelson & Sons, of Edinburgh, Scotland,

has an important project under way for manufacturing paper from bamboo
in Trinidad. About 1,000 acres of land near St. Joseph (7 miles from the
capital at Port of Spain) have been planted in bamboo, and a concession
has been obtained giving the firm the right to cut bamboo from the Govern-
ment forests.
It appears that Thomas Nelson & Sons, foreseeing a paper famine
throughout the wôrld within the next few years, have been giving very
serious consideration to the problem of providing adequate paper reserves
for themselves for the future; and although realizing that paper can be
manufactured from any vegetable material containing cellulose, neverthe-
less, it seemed to them that bamboo was most suitable for the purpose.
They selected Trinidad for their bamboo-paper project, as the bamboo
grows here very quickly, having sufficient development vidthin three or
four years for making paper. Moreover, Trinidad is within a I'easonably
short distance by sea from Edinburgh, being, of course, much nearer to
their headquarters than are the bamboo forests of Asia.
BAMBOO ^ 417
Raitt * in discussing the paper sources in India describes

bamboo as an excellent paper material.
As has been shown in the section dealing with bamboo,
Schizostachyum lumampao covers extensive, accessible areas in
the Philippines. A combination of the data given in Bulletin 15
for this bamboo and Richmond's figures for yield of pulp will
enable us to form an estimate of the amount of pulp that can be
secured from a given area. In the discussion of this species,
it was shown that an average hectare of Schizostachyum lurtimi-
pao contains approximately 9,000 canes. Richmond found that

an average green stem weighed 7.2 kilograms an air-dried stem, ;
4 kilograms; and an air-dried one without the nodes, 3.75 kilo-

grams. Using this last figure it will be seen that there would be
33.75 metric tons of dried material per hectare. Richmond cal-
culated that 2 metric tons of dried material would give about 1
short ton of pulp. A hectare should therefore produce about
17 tons of pulp.
No exact figures concerning the cost of collection of Schizo-
stachyum lumampao can be given. It is sold in Orani, Bataan
Province, at from 8 to 12 pesos per thousand stems. Richmond
calculated that a thousand canes could be cut and transported
a distance of 1 to 2 kilometers at a cost of between 6.33 and 8.16
pesos. All of these figures apply, of course, only to the crude,
primitive method at present employed in collecting this material.
However, even at a price of 10 pesos per thousand stems, the
material for a ton of pulp would cost only 2.50 pesos.
Concerning the preparation of paper pulp by the soda process
from Schizostachyum lumampao, we may quote the following
from Richmond:
It was found as the result of repeated trials with caustic soda liquors
under varying conditions of strength, pressure and duration of cooking,
that bamboo chips prepared as outlined above invariably yielded 43 to 45
per cent of air-dry, unbleached fiber under the following conditions:
(o) Upright cylindrical stationary digestors.
(b)Direct live-steam heat.
(c)Fifteen to 20 per cent of 76 per cent caustic soda calculated on the
air-dry weight of the raw material.
(d) A duration of cooking of four to six hours.
(e) A maximum temperature of 160° C. (320° F.) corresponding to a
steam pressure of 45 kilos (90 pounds).
Fiber thus prepared bleached to a splendid white with 12 to 15 per
cent of bleaching powder. The fiber was strong, of good felting capacity,
and it made a more bulky sheet than wood pulp. Bamboo fibers average
2.5 to 3 millimeters in length, so that they are somewhat longer and
materially narrower than spruce fibers.
* Raitt, Wm., New fibers for paper, The Indian Forester, Vol. 36 (1910),
p. 34.
169644 27
:
418 PAPER PULP
That bamboo is readily resolved by the soda process of treatment to a

fiber which is easily blended has been proved beyond doubt, and further
experiment in this direction is scarcely necessary. The fiber possesses
the requisite length, strength, and felting capacity to meet the paper
maker's demands, and the quantity of resistant cellulose per unit weight
of the raw material is sufficient to warrant its extraction.
The following quotations, also from Richmond, give informa-

tion concerning the sulphite process on Schizostachijum lu-
mampao
Bamboo chips prepared as described above, in lengths varying from
1.270 to 2.540 centimeters, but uncrushed, were well screened from dust
and dirt and packed into a stationary, upright, lead-lined digester and
heated with direct fire in the presence of sulphite liquors of different
concentration and under varying conditions of temperature and time.
Thirty-seven separate digestions were made, but in no instance was I
able to produce from bamboo a pulp easy to bleach with bleaching powder,
the universal bleaching agent employed in the industry at the present
time.
The process yields fully 50 per cent of unbleached pulp and with a
much lower sulphur consumption than is required in commercial practice
for wood. Well prepared, but uncrushed chips pulped readily with liquors
of ordinary strength in six to eight hours, but the unbleached fiber was not
as light in color as sulphite spruce and could only be used in the
unbleached condition for wrappings, tags, etc., where strength, rather
than color, is the important consideration. It is needless to say that
I varied all the conditions of the treatments in every conceivable manner
with the main point in view of producing a pulp which would bleach
readily, and with a reasonable consumption of bleaching agent, but with-
out success. If bamboo pulp were most suited for use in an unbleached
state, then the sulphite process should be adopted by all means, but the
material is not sufficiently light in color to be mixed with mechanical
wood pulp in preparing news print paper, besides it is too good a fiber
for the latter or for wrappings, for which it is entirely suited so far as
color is concerned. In my opinion, bamboo fiber is eminently fitted for
paper for books and for certain grades of writing and lithographic papers,
either alone or when blended with rag or sulphite wood pulp.
A few data selected from the more successful sulphite experiments are
given: [Table I.]
Table I.
•a
Conditions of time
Composition of the liquor.
and temperature.
Experiment
No. Time Maxi-
Total ^P^- Free to
Total
mum
Lime. „ -J Dined reach tem-
^""^^ acid. time.
acid. maxi- pera-
mum. ture.
Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct Hrs. Hrs. I

°C.
1. 17 1
3. 87 1.34 2.52 3i 7 145
1.28 i
4.53 1.47 3.04 3 150
1.09 i
3.39 1.25 2.14 4 145
1.12 3.71 1.28 2.43 3 145
GRASS 419
It will be noted that from 24 to 30 per cent of bleaching powder was
required to produce at best a poor white, that is, 12 to 15 kilos of bleach-
ing powder of the standard strength (35 per cent available chlorine) are
required for 50 kilos of unbleached pulp. This consumption is excessive,
and it forms the greatest objection to placing bamboo pulp prepared in
this way on the market. . .
Aside from the poor bleaching properties of bamboo sulphite fiber

prepared under the above conditions, there are other factors, both local
and general, which tend to preclude the use of the sulphite process of
treating bamboo at the present time.
1. Bamboo fiber appears better suited for book printing and lithographic
papers than for wrapping or news printing paper. This being the case,
bulk, softness, and opacity, which are the chief features of soda fiber,
are what is desired. . .
2. It is undoubtedly true that the sulphite process costs less than the
other for chemicals. Sulphur, at present quotations, can be converted

into sulphite liquor and thrown away after use at less expense than the
cost of soda actually consumed plus the cost of its recovery. However,
the local supplies of limestone are better adapted for making soda than
sulphite liquor.. .
The other chemicals, sulphur on the one hand and soda on the other,
used in the two processes, are not produced locally, hence would have to
be imported from the most favorable foreign source.
Richmond also investigated Bambusa spinosa as a source of

paper pulp, and found that this species gave a smaller yield of
cellulose than Schizostachyum lumampao and required an exces-
sive amount of bleach (20 to 25 per cent) to produce at best a
poor v^hite.
GRASS FOR PAPER
Indications are that approximately the whole Archipelago was

originally covered with forest. However, a shifting system of
cultivation has reduced large parts of forested areas to waste
grassland until at the present time about 40 per cent of the total
land surface of the Archipelago is covered by grass, particularly
the two species, kogon (Imperata exaltata) and talahib (Sac-
charum spontaneimi) These grasslands originated in the
.
following manner. When a forest is clear cut and cultivated

by primitive metnods, grass and weeds invade the area. In
order to remove these, it is a common practice to cut all plants
and burn. This effectually kills the tree seedlings and shrubs,
but does not harm the grass, which grows from strong under-
ground stems. The result of several such fires is that the land
is left in the possession of the grass, which is hard to eradicate
by primitive methods of cultivation. Grass areas once estab-

lished are usually burned over every dry season and so remain
almost indefinitely in grass. If these grasses were cut for paper-
pulp manufacture the cutting would have much the same effect
—
420 PAPER PULP
as fire in keeping out other vegetation. Burning or cutting

these grasses seems to have no injurious effect on the stand but
rather causes an increase in the rate of growth. From the fore-
going, it will be seen that abundant grass areas can be found
for the production of tremendous quantities of raw material.
Richmond has investigated both kogon and talahib as sources
of paper pulp and concluded that both species would make
excellent paper.
Kogon a rank-growing, sod-forming grass about 1.5 meters
is
in height. The study of kogon was carried on in connection

with esparto grass, which has long been in use for the manu-
facture of paper. Comparative analyses of these two species
are given in Table II. Table III indicates the yield of paper
cellulose to be expected under factory conditions, and the treat-
ment and amount of soda necesary to produce a well-boiled
paper. All four of the pulps produced by the experiments in
Table III were light gray, clear, and appeared to be well reduced.
An investigation of kogon also showed that no preliminary treat-
ment was necessary, but that after being dried and hand picked
or machine cleaned, it was ready for immediate digestion.
Table II. Analysis of kogon and esparto grass.

Ash, alkaline hydrolysis, and cellulose calculated on dry material.
——
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS 421
Table IIL —Experiments on kogon grass, shoiving amount of caustic soda
used and yield of pulp.''
Percentage of Exper- Exper- Exper- Exper-

iment 1. iment 2. iment 3. iment 4.
Soda liquor 2 2.4 2.5 3

Caustic calculated on weight of material. 10 12 12 15
Yield of pulp •47.34 45.5 45.42 44.25
"Figures from Richmond, G. F., Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 1 (1906) p. 458.
Talahib is a taller grass than kogon and frequently reaches

a height of more than 3 meters. It is a bunch grass and usually
occurs in moister situations than kogon and forms denser
stands.
Table IV. Analysis of talahib grass.^
Moisture 10.23
Ash 5.46
Hydrolysis (a) '
27.44
'
Hydrolysis (b) 40.53
Cellulose 53.90
"Figures from Richmond, G. F., Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 1 (1906). p. 458.
In Table IV, from Richmond's publication, is shown the

percentage of cellulose obtained from this species. The pulp
bleached to a good white with only 2.3 per cent loss in weight
by the use of 5.7 per cent of bleaching powder calculated on the
original weight of the material digested.
Raitt * says that Saccharum sara of India yields an excellent,
easily bleached paper similar to that of wheat straw.
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
Several species of palms, including rattans, nipa, buri, and co-

conut, are widely distributed throughout the Archipelago and
contribute to the local demands of the people for food and
shelter. A discussion of their distribution is given in the
section on palms. The fibrous products of some of these palms
might offer a considerable source of paper. Richmond f made
unbleached paper from buri-palm rope and found it to be strong
and fairly free from shive.
The bark of Wikstroemia ovata, W. indica, W. meyeniana
* Raitt, Wm., New fibers for paper. The Indian Forester, Vol. 36 (1910),
p. 34.
t Richmond, G. F., Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. I, p. 1084.
422 PAPER PULP
and other species of the same genus is collected in considerable

quantities and exported to Japan where it is said to be used for
the manufacture of bank notes and other strong papers. These
plants are small bushes which are scattered in thickets through-
out the Philippines. Most of the bark collected comes from the
vicinity ofMount Mayon and from Mindanao.
In the Philippine Islands there are large numbers of plants
with strong bast fibers. Some of these might be useful for
high-grade paper or for strengthening paper made from weaker
material. These barks are discussed in the section on fibers.
In Table V are given the dimensions of the ultimate fibers of
some of the plants previously discussed.
Table V. —Dimensions of the ultimate fibers of some Philippine fiber plants.
[Taken by Dr. E. B. Copeland. All measurements in millimeters.]

—
favorable as these figures would indicate, as frequently the bulk

of the timber is comprised in only a few species, these species
being usually of the same family. In some forests the compo-
sition is probably uniform enough and the volume of timber
sufficient for pulpwood to be collected economically. How-
ever, the wood in these forests commands such a price that
it is doubtful if it would be profitable to use the wood for paper
pulp. The most feasible means of producing pulp from wood

would probably be in connection with large sawmill units in
using the waste for pulp. In large forests there is always a
considerable proportion of defective timber and besides in the
operations of cutting there is always a large amount of waste
produced. Trees which do not produce commercial lumber
could, moreover, be cut and taken in at the same time as other
logs. Richmond * has investigated several species of trees as
a source of paper pulp. His figures on lauan, palosapis, and
kupang are interesting, as these trees occur in large numbers.
The first two form dense stands and produce a large part of
the lumber cut in the Philippines. Palosapis and lauan are very
similar in structure to other Philippine woods which occur in
large quantities. The length of the ultimate fibers of these
woods is given in Table VI. The figures in this table are taken
from a longer table by Dr. F. W. Foxworthy. The approximate
analyses of these woods is given in Table VII, taken from Rich-
mond. In Table VIII are given data on experiments with the
soda process on lauan, palosapis, and kupang; and in Table IX
are data on the sulphite process.
Table VI. Dimensions of the ultimate fibers of some Philippine ivoods.
[Figures from table by Dr. F. W. Foxworthy.]
Name.
— —
424 PAPER PQLP
Table VII. Proximate analyses of Philippine woods.

[Data from Richmond.]
Alcohol Incrust-
Aqueous Cel-
Kind of wood. Water. extract.
ether
lulose.
ing: Ash.
extract. matter.
Per cent. Per cent. Percent. Per cent. Percent. Per cent.
Lauan 11.23 3.85 2.72 6L71 !
19.57 0.89
Palosapis I 11.50 4.50 L20 55.73 I 28.24 0.83
Kupang --- '

13.33 3.45 1.17 60.56 19.41 2.03
Dita - 10.41 4.19 0.60 49.91 33.87 0.99
Table VIII. E.vperiments with soda process on Philippine woods.
[Data from Richmond.]

—

Table IX. Experiments with sulphite process on Philippine woods.
[Data from Richmond.!
Composition of Duration of
liquor. digestion. 1
Kind of wood and

experiment No. Com- Avail-
Total
bined able
SO2.
SO2.
Lauan: P. ct. P. ct. P. ct.
1 3.6 1.6 2.0

2 3.5 1.2 2.3
3 3.75 1.78 1.97
Palosapis:
1 3.52 1.63 1.89
2 3.45 1.35 2.10
3. 3.75 1.78 1.97
Kupang:
1 3.6 2.4
2 3
3 3.75 1.78 1.97
ABRIDGED INDEX
[This includes only the botanical and the official local names mentioned in
index
Volume I. As
the information concerning a species is frequently distributed in several
sections, and even in different volumes, the complete index should be consulted for all references
to any given species.]
Areca ipot. 143, 148, 244, 246.

Areca niacrocarpa, 140.
Abaka, 319, 364, 415, 422.
Areca parens, 143.
Abang-abang, 362.
Arera vklaliana, 144, 148, 247.
Abelmoschus multilobatus, 386.
Areca ichitfordii, 140, 143. 148.
Abrotna fastuosa, 320, 321, 322, 395.
Arenga ambong. 150, 246, 247.
Abrus precatorius, 378.
Arenga mindorensis, 150, 158, 246.
Acacia catechu, 122.
Arenga pinnata, 150, 182, 243, 244, 245, 246,
Acanthus ebracteatus, 24, 84.
247, 248.
Acanthits ilicifolius, 24, 29, 82, 84, 101.
Arenga saccharifera, 150.
Acoelarrhaphe ivightii, 243.
Arenga tremula, 150, 158, 244, 246.
Acrostichuni aureum, 24, 29, 32.
Artocarpus communis, 321, 369.
Actinorhytis calapparia, 139.
Artocarpus elastica, 369.
Adonidia merrilli, 139, 244, 246.
Artocarpus Integra, 370.
Aegiceras corniculatum, 22, 29, 72, 76, 116.
Artocarpus rubrovenia, 370.
Aegiceras floridum, 76.
Ariindinaria niitakavamensis, 258.
Agave cantala, 322, 362, 422.
Asclepias curassavica, 407.
Agave sisalana, 362.
Asplenium nidus, 24.
Agelaea everetiii, 376.
Attalea cohune, 243.
Agpoi, 379.
Avicennia alba, 82.
Alagasi, 374.
Ai'icennia officinalis, 22. 80, 82.
Alasas, 334.
Avicennia spp., 29, 96.
Alinang, 348.
Allaânthus glaber, 321, 368.
Alolokdo, 323.
Alphitonia excelsa, 380. Bago, 328.
Amboi-uan, 384. Bakauan, 29, 86, 89, 90. 92. 93, 94, 96, 97, 98,
Ambling, 150. 99, 100, 106, 107, 112, 114, 116, 117, 119,
Ainonum sp., 322, 365. 120, 123.
Amuyong, 375. Bakauan babae, 29, 68.
Anabiong, 366. Bakauan lalaki, 29, 68.
Anabo, 395. Bakembakes, 387.
Anahau, 216, 245, 246, 248. Bakto, 260.
Anamirta cocculus, 322, 375. Bakuit, 344.
Ananas comosus, 356. Balanggot, 346.
Andropogon halepensis var. propinquus, 338. Balatbat, 212.
Andropogon zizanioides, 338. Balete, 372.
Ambong, 29, 36, 232, 245, 246, 248. BalinS-udi, 356.
Anilau, 382. Balobo, 383.
Anisoptera thurifera, 423. Balongkahinai, 354.
Anonang, 409. Bamban. 365.
Anonang-lalaki, 409. Bamboo, 422.
Anos, 264. Bambusa blumeana. 259, 422.
Antiaris toxicaria, 368. Bambusa cornuta, 258.
Antipolo, 369. Bambusa glaucescens, 258.
Api-api, 22, 29, 80, 82, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100. Bambusa lumampao, 422.
Apluda mutica, 339. Bambusa merrillii, 259.
Aquilaria malaccensis, 403. Bambusa spinosa, 259, 260, 266, 267, 268, 269,
Archontophoenix alexandreae, 243. 270, 271, 272, 273, 274. 275. 276, 278. 419.
Areca caliso, 143, 147, 244. Bambusa vulgaris, 260, 266. 267, 268. 270, 271.
Areca catiiarinensis, 143. 272. 274, 275, 276.
Areca catechu, 140, 143, 144, 148, 244, 245 Banana, 364.
246, 247, 248. Bani, 379.
Areca costulata, 143. Banilad, 402.
Areca hutchinsoniana, 144, 148. Baraibai. 76.
427
428 ABRIDGED INDEX
Bariu, 232. Cerbera manghas, 76.

Bariu-an, 384. Cerbera odollam, 76.
Barringtonia racemoaa, 26. Ceriops, 48.
Batadbataran, 338. Ceriops candoUearia, 62.
Bauhhua cu»iingiana, 379. Ceriops roxburghiana, 22, 60, 62, 93, 121.
Bayog, 261. Ceriops spp., 29, 116, 122.
Bayok, 398. Ceriops tagal, 22, 60, 112, 114, 119, 120, 121.
Bayok-tayokan, 400. 122.
Beach pandan, 336. China grass, 373.
Benglareng, 384. Chrysalidorarpus lutescens, 243.

Betel nut, 246. Cissus repens, 379.
Betel palm, 144, 245, 246, 247, 248. Coccothrinax garberi, 243.
Betel pepper, 105, 144. Coconut, 244, 245, 246, 248.
Bigao, 342. Coconut palm, 184.
Bikal, 264. Cocos nucifera, 184, 244, 246, 248, 322.
Bills, 212. Coelococcus amicarum, 192, 244.
Boehmeria nivea, 373. Coix lachryma-jobi, 339.
Bolo, 262. Columbia blancoi, 321, 381.
Bombax ceiba, 321. 392. Columbia lanceolata, 381.
Dombycidendron vidalianum, 321, 386. Columbia mollis, 382.
Bonotan, 402. Columbia .-^crratifolia, 320, 322, 382.
Botong, 261. Comtnersonia hartramia, 321, 396.
Browrdowia lanceolata, 40. •
Common pandan, 336.
Bruguiera caryophylloides, 58. Corchorus capsularis, 382.
Bruguiera conjugata, 22. 29, 48, 50, 52, 54, Corchorus olitorius, 321, 383.
58, 70, 90, 93, 112, 114. 116, 117, 119, 120, Cordia cumingiana, 321, 409.
121. Cordia myxa, 321, 409.
Bruguiera cylindrica, 22, 48, 50, 54, 70. Corypha elata, 135, 155. 158, 188, 192, 224,
Bruguiera eriopetala, 54. 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 322, 422.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 54. CurcuUgo recurvata, 362.
Bruguiera parviflora, 22, 29, 48, 54, 94, 96, Cymbidium sp., 24.
112, 114, 116, 119, 120, 123. Cyperus malaccensis, 26, 346.
Bruguiera sexangula, 22, 29, 48, 50, 52, 54, Cyperus rculiatus, 348.
58, 70, 120, 121. Cyrtostachys lakka, 243.
Bualtik, 409.
Buho, 264.
D
Bukiian, 406. Daemonorops spp., 135, 205. 212, 247.
Bulakan, 408. Dalbergia candenatensis, 24.
Biilak-damo, 407. Danglin, 385.
Bunga, 144. Datiles, 385.
Bunga de China, 139. Dendrobium crumenatum, 365.
Bunga de Jolo, 139. Dendrobium sp., 24.
Bungang-giibat, 148. Dendrocalamus curranii, 261.
Bungang-ipot, 148. Dendrocalamus giganteus, 277.
Buri, 135, 155, 158, 192, 243, 244, 245, 246, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, 261.
247, 248, 422. Dendrocalamus merriUianus, 261, 322.
Busain, 29, 48, 52, 89, 9ll, 92, 93, 94, 96, 119, Derris trifoliata, 24.
120. DeTrris uliginosa, 24.
Buta-buta, 29, 40. Dictyosperma alba, 243.
Diliman, 323.
Diliuariu, 29. 82, 101.
Caesalpinia crista, 24. Dinochloa ciliata, 262.
Caesalpinia nuga, 24, 101. Dinochloa luâniae, 262.
Calamus, 135, 246. Dinochloa elmeri, 262.

Calamus spp., 158, 205, 212, 246, 247, 248. Dinochloa pubiramea, 262.
Camptostemon philippinense, 29, 40. Dinochloa scandens, 262.
Cafia-bojo, 264. Diplodiscus panicvlatus. 383.
Caryota cuniingii, 182. Dischidia saccata, 24.
Caryota majestica, 182. Dischidia sp., 24.
Caryota merriUii, 182. Dita, 424.

Caryota mitis, 182. Donax cannaeformis, 365.
Caryota rumphiana, 182. Drynaria quereifolia, 24.
Caryota spp., 245, 246. Dryopteris pteroides, 323.
Caryota urerts, 182, 243. Dugtong-ahas, 407.
Cat-tail, 330. Dumayaka, 158, 244.
Ceiba pentandra, 394. Dungon-late, 22, 29, 42, 97, 98, 99, 100.
Cephalostachyuyii mindorense, 260. Dypsis madagascariensis, 243.
ABRIDGED INDEX 429
E
Elaeis guineensis, 208, 246. Kadiin, 381.
Elaeocarpiis calomala, 381. Kakaag, 396.
Eleusine indica, 340. Kalapini, 84.
Epipremnum spp., 354. Kalbang, 265.
Esparto grass, 420. Kaliat, 330.
Excoecaria agaUocha, 29, 40, 76. Kalimatas, 376.
Kaliso,
F Kalitkalit,
147.
379.
Ficus henjamina, 321, 372.
Kalomala, 381.
Ficus farstenii, 321, 372.
Kalulot, 370.
Ficus pachyphylla, 321, 372.
Kalumpang, 401.
Ficus palawanensis, 321, 373.
Kamaksa, 378.
Fimbristylis diphylla, 348.
Kansasaga, 378.
Fimbristylis ferruginea, 26.
Kaong, 150.
Fiynbristylis globidosa, 348.
Kapok, 394.
Firdaysonia obovata, 24.
Karagomoi, 336.
Fish-tail palm, 182.
Katiput, 406.
Flagellaria indica, 356.
Kawayan-China, 258.
G Kawayan-kiling, 260.
Gaas, 352. Keddeng, 382.
Gapas-gapas, 29, 40. Kilob, 326.
Gigantochloa levis, 261, 262, 266, 267, 268, 270, Kleinhovia hospita, 320, 321, 322, 397.
271, 272, 275, 276, 277. Kobboot, 340.
Gleichenia linearis, 326. Kogon, 340. 342, 416. 419, 420, 421, 422.
Glochidion Uttorale, 26. Kollokollot, 391.
Gnetum gnemon, 328. Koloivratia elegans, 154.
Gnetiuii indicum, 328. Korthalsia spp., 212, 247.
Gnetum latifolium, 328. Kulasi", 70.
Gnetum sp,, 321, 330. Kulot-kulotan. 386.
Goniothalamus amuyon, 321, 375. Kupang, 423. 424, 425.
Grewia bilamellata, 321, 384. Kurukauayan, 339.
Grewia bUameUaia, 321, 384.
Grewia eriocarpa, 321, 384. li
Grewia multiflora, 320, 321, 322, 385.
Labayo, 397.
Grewia negrosensis, 384.
Lagkitan, 390.
Guadua philippinensis, 262.
Lagolo, 29, 32.
Gumihan, 369.
Lagundi, 154.
H Langarai, 29, 48, 58, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96. 97.
Helicteres hirsuta, 321, 396. 98, 99, 112, 114, 116, 119, 120.
Heritiera Uttoralis, 22, 29, 42. Lanutan, 386.
Heterospathe elata, 210, 244, 246. Lasa, 346.
Heterosvathe negrosensis, 210, 212. Lata, 368.
Heterospathe philippinensis, 210. Latania commersonn. 243.
Heterospathe sibuyanensis, 210, 212. Latania loddigesii, 243.
Hibiscus sabdariffa, 320. Lauan, 423, 424, 425.
Hibiscus tiliaceus, 26, 387. Leucosyke capiteUata. 374.
Hinggiu-kalabau, 407. Licuala spinosa, 212, 246.
Hinggiu-na-puti, 408. Ligtang, 375.
Hotvea belnioreana, 243. Livistona australis, 243.
Hoya sp., 24. Livistona chinensis, 243.
Hydnophytum sp., 24. Livistona cochinchinensls, 135, 214, 216, 244.
Hydrospathe, 242. Livistona vierriUii, 214.
Hyophorbe amuricaidis, 243. Livistona robinsoniana, 214.
Hyophorbe verschaffeltii, 243. Livistona rotundifolia, 214, 216.
Livistona spp., 244, 245, 246, 247, 248.
I
Lokdo, 323.
Ichnocarpus ovatifolius, 406.
Lonicera philippinensis, 409.
Ikmo, 105.
Lopa, 258.
Imperata exaltata, 340, 342, 416, 419, 422.
Lumbia, 220.
Irau, 365.
Lumnitzera littorea, 22, 29, 68, 70.
Ischaemuvi angttstifoliutn, 340.
Lumnitzera racemosa, 70.
J Lumnitzera spp., 125.
Job's tears, 339. Lupi, 342.
Juncus effusus, 360. Lygodium circinnatum, 328.
Jute, 383. Lygodium flexuosum, 328.
430 ABRIDGED INDEX
Lygodium japonicum, 328. P-

Lygodiurn scandens, 328.
Lygodium seniihastatum. 328. Paang-baliwis, 388.
Lygodium spp., 326. Pagatpat, 22, 29, 46, 86, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 112, 114. 116.
M Palagtiki, 340.
Maesa cumingii, 406. Palindan, 234.

Maguey. 362, 415, 422. Palma brava, 248.
Malaboho, 401. Palosapis, 423, 424, 425.
Malabonot, 400. Pamago, 375.
Malabulak, 392. Pandanus copelandii, 332.
Malachra capitata, 320, 322, 387. Pandanus dubius, 334.
Malachra fasciata, 320, 321, 322, 388. Pandanus luzonensis, 334.
Malaisia scandens, 373. Pandanus radicans, 334.
Malaisi's, 373. Pandanus sabotan, 334.
Malakalumpanpr, 401. Pandanus simplex, 336.
MalambinSran, 368. Pandanus tectorius, 334, 336.
Malubago, 387. Parameria philippinensis, 407.
Malvastruni coroinandelinmn, 388. Parkia javanica, 423.
Mamaued, 381. Pasau, 383.
Manila hemp, 319. 364, 41.5.
Pasau na bilog, 382.
Maragomon, 40.
Pedada, 29, 44.
Marakapas, 391. Pentacme contorta, 423-
Martinezia caryotaefolia, 243. Pericampylus glaucus, 375.

Matting rush, 360. Phaeanthus ebracteolatus, 376.
Melochia uiiibellata, 320, Phuleria cumingii, 403.
322, 397.
Merremia nymphaeifolia, Phaleria perrottetiana, 403.
408.
Metroxrjlon rumphii, 220. Phoenix canariensis, 236, 243.
Metroxylon sagu, 220, 244, 246, 247, 248. Phoenix dactyUfera, 236.
Miscanthus sinensis, 342. Phoenix hanceana, 247.
Moras, 338. Phoenix hanceana var. philippinensis, 236.
Muntingia calahtira, 385. Phoenix pusiUa, 243.

Miisa paradisiaca, 364. Phoenix roebelenii, 243.
Musa sapientum var. paradisiaca. Phoenix rupicola, 236, 243.
422.
Musa textilis, 322, 364, 422. Phragmites karka, 342.
Myrmecodia Phragmitcs vulgaris, 342.
sp., 24.
Piagau, 29, 38.
X Pinanga spp., 236, 244, 246, 247, 248.
Nangka, 370. Pineapple, 356.
Neowashingtonia filifera. 243. Pinggot, 360.
Nephrolepis hirsutxda, 323. Piper betle, 139, 144, 244.
Nilad, 84. Pipturus arborescens, 320, 322.
Nipa, 20, 24, 29, 32, 222, 243, 244, 245, 246. Pisa, 148.
247, 248. Pitutan, 123.
Nipa fruticans. 20, 24. 29, 32, 222, 243, 247. Plantain, 422,
Nito, 326. Plectocomia dmeri, 242.
Fluchea indica, 84.
O Polyalthia flava, 376.
Oil palm, 208.
Polynesian ivory-nut palm, 192, 244.
Oncospernia filatnentosum, 29, 36, 231, 232. Polyi)odium sinuatum, 24.
Oncosperma gracHipes, 231, 232. Pongamia pinnata, 379.
Oncosperma horridum, 231, 232. Pothoidium lobbianum, 354.
Oncosperma platyphyllum, 231, 232. Pathos spp., 354.
Oncosperma tigillaria, 243. Pototan, 29, 48, 54, 86, 89, 96, 97, 98, 99, 112,
Ongali, 376. 116, 117, 120, 123.
114,
Operculina turpethum, 408. Pototan-lalaki, 48, 54.
Orania decipiens, 234. Prayer-bean, 378.
Orania palindan, 232, 234. Pritchardia gaudichaudii, 243.
Orania paragUanensis, 232, 234. Pritchardia pacifica, 243.
Orania philippinensis, 232. Pterocymbium tinctorium, 321, 398.
Orania rubiginosa, 232, 234. Pterospermum diversifolium, 321, 398.
Oreodoxa ochracea, 243. Pterospermum niveum, 400.
Oreodoxa rcgia, 234, 246. Ptychoraphis elmeri, 242.
Oryza sativa, 342, 422. Ptychoraphis intermedia, 'HI.
Ofibornia octodonta, 72. Ftychosperma macarthurii, 243.
Oyango, 334. Pugahan, 182.
ABRIDGED INDEX 431
R "
Sida mysorensis, 390.
\
Sida rhombifolia, 391.
Ragiu, 352.
Sigid, 406.
Ramie, 373. I
Sika, 171, 172.

Rnphia riiffia 243.
j
Silk cotton tree, 394.

Raphidophora spp., 356.
Sinawa, 360.
Rattan. 135, 158, 247, 248.
Sisal, 362, 415.
Rhizophora candelaria, 22, 66, 68, 112. 114,
Sonneratia alba, 29, 44, 48.
119, 120, 121.
!
Sonneratia caseolaris, 22, 29, 44, 46, 112, 114,
Rhizophora conjuâta, 68, 123.
116, 120.
Rhizophora mangle, 26.
j
Sonneratia pagatpat, 123, 125.

Rhizophon-a miicronata. 22, 66, 68, 112, 114,
Sonneratia spp., 102.
116, 117, 120, 121, 123.
Spiny bamboo, 259.
Rhizophora spp., 29, 48. 60, 62, 90, 93, 94,
Sporobobis elongatus. 344.
96, 100.
Sporobolus indicus, 346.
Rynchospora corymhosa, 352.
Stenochlaena palustris, 323.
Rice, 342, 422.
Sterculia crassirainea, 321, 400.
Rourea volubilis, 378.
Sterculia cuneata, 400.
Royal palm, 234. Sterculia foetida, 321, 401.
Sterculia luzonica, 401.
Stercidia oblongata, 321, 401.
Sterculia philippinensi^ 402.
Sabal adansoîii, 243.
Sterculia stipularis, 321. 402.
Sabal black-burneanum, 243.
Sireptocaulon baumii, 408.
Sabal viauritiforme, 243.
Strychnos multiflora, 406.
Sabal palmetto, 243.
Sugar cane, 344.
Sabutan, 334.
Saccharum spontaneiun, 342, Sugar palm, 150. 182. 243, 244, 245. 246, 247,
344, 416, 419.
248.
422.
Sagasa, 29. T
Saging-saging, 29, 72. Tabau, 29, 68, 96, 97.
Sagisi, 210, 246. Tabigi, 29, 36, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98,
Sago, 155. 99. 100, 112, 114, 116, 117, 119.
Sago palm, 220. 244, 246, 247. Taboan, 334.
Salago, 403. Tabtabin, 348.
Salago, lance-leaf, 404. Takling-baka, 390.
Salago, large-leaf, 404. Talahib, 342, 344. 416. 419, 421, 422.
Salagong-gubat, 403. Talbak, 154.
Salago, round-leaf, 404. Taluto, 398.
Salago, small-leaf. 404. Tambo. 342.
Salsaliiyut, 388. Tan-ag. 397.
Saliiai, 212. Tarigal. 29. 60, 62. 89. 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97
Sansevieria zeylanica, 360. 112, 114, 116. 119, 120. 123.
Sapivdus saponaria, 380. Tangalo, 139.
Sapinit, 101. Tapinag, 400.
Schizostachyuvi brachycladum, 263. Tarau, 135, 216. 244.
Schizostachyunt curranii, 265. Tawalis, 72.
Schizostachyum dielsianum, 264. Thespesia lam.pas. 321. 391.
Schizostachyum diffusum, 264. Thespesia populnta. 26.
Schizostachyum fenixii, 265. Thrinax argentea, 243.
Schizostachyvm hirtiflorum, 265. Thrinax parviflora, 243.
Schizostachyum lima, 264. Thrinax robusta, 243.
Schizostachyum lumampao, 264, 265, 278, 416, Thysanolaena maxima, 346.
417, 418, 419. Tigbau, 84.
luzonicum, 265.
Schizostachy^l1)l Tigbi, 339.
Schizostachyum pala wanense 265. , Tiger gx-ass. 346.
Schizotachyum textoriîm, 265. Tikastikas, 380.
Schizostachyum- toppingii, 265. Tiker, 353.
Scindapsus spp., 356. Tikiu, 353.
Scirpiodendron ghaeri, 352. Tikug. 348.
Scirpus grossus, 353. Tinduktindukan. 76. 116.
Scirpus lacustris, 353. Tongtongking, 396.
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, 29, 84. Trema. orientalifs, 321, 366.
Sesbaîia grandi flora, 320, 322. Tristellateia austraiasiae. 24.
Sicca. 171. Triumfetta bartramia, 320, 322, 386.
Sida acuta, 321, 390. Tuka, 403.
Sida cordifolia, 390. Typha angustifolia, 330.
432 ABRIDGED INDEX
U Wikstroemia meyeniana, 404, 421.

Wikstroemia ovata, 320, 322, 404, 421.
Ualis-ualisan, 391.
Wikstroemia spp., 403.
Upas-tree, 368.
Urceola iinberbis, 407.
Urena lobata, 320. 321, 322, 391. Xylocarpus granatum, 22, 29, 36, 38, 119, 120,
Utod, 258. 122, 123.
A' Xylocarpus moluccensis, 22, 29, 38, 112, 114,
116, 117, 120, 125.
Vanilla ovalis, 366.
Vetiver, 338. Y
Vitex negundo, 154.
Yard grass, 340.
Voiavoi, 236.
Yellow lanutan, 376.
w
Wikstroemia indiea, 404, 421.
Wikstroemia lanceolata, 404. Zalacca clexiensiana, 242, 243, 24'i
o
New York Botanical Garden Library
SD229.B7V.1 gen
Brown, William Henr/Minor products of Ph
5185 00127 9395

Minor Products of Philippine Fo - Brown, William Henry

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SD229

William H. Brown, Ph. D.,

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Arthur F. Fischer, Director of Forestry

able concerning them being for the most part in inaccessible,

Mr. Fischer's enthusiastic support and assistance, which has

by a list of local names The first part

Philippine Bamboos. William H. Brotvn and Arth^ir F. Fischer 249

Stands in Mangrove Swamps 86

Cultivation of Rhizophora (Bakauan) 100

Regulations and Charges 125

Forest Regulations and Charges 125

Fig. 1. Looking across a mangrove swamp at head of Tubugan Bay,

Interior view of a mangTove swamp. The large tree is

Rhizophora mucronata, inflorescences and flower 67

Aegiceras corniculatuni with flowers 74

Flowers of Aegiceras corniculatuni 75

loading, two for discharging. From Philippine Journ. Sci.,

Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1 115

The mangrove swamps of the Philippine Islands apparently

Fig. 2. Swamps along coast, under water at high tide.

by year its area diminishing or increasing as the lands drained

or filled in by the action of the river are of greater or less

ordinary forest trees.

The main tree species in a virgin swamp are few in number,

torea, and Aegiceras corniculatum. Heritiera littoralis (dungon-

Skirting the inland portions of the water channels, through

itoccupies areas of considerable extent (Plates IX, XLV). In

Dalbergia candeiiatensis Prain, Caesalpinia nuga Ait., Caesal-

Fig. 1. Myrmecodia, a plant inhabited by ants.

Fig. 2. A section through the base of a Myrmecodia.

found in some swamps. This plant has hollow leaves in which

Coast Railway have been in aiding the engineer in the tropics.

Mangrove swamps occur in similar situations in the tropics

* Bowman, H. H. M., Ecology and physiology of the red mangrove.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. LVI (1917) pp.

of both hemispheres. The Rhizophoraceae are the most prom-

LIST OF SPECIES IN PHILIPPINE MANGROVE SWAMPS WITH NATIVE

(i( pQ <i; H fe (i( Q 2 2

J fQ «ij a lie (i! o 2; z s 2 I?

Key to the genera of mangrove-sicamp plants.

4. Herbs or shrubs with spiny-margined leaves.... Acanthus, page 76

4. Leaves not spiny.

5. Leaves usually pointed at the tip.

6. Tip of leaf with prominent projection of the midrib.

7. Petioles usually not over 2 or 3 millimeters in length.

flowers about 5 centimeters long Sonneratia, page 38

5. Tips of leaves usually pointed, or lower surfaces of leaves with

terminal Cerbera, page 70

centimeters long; flowers very small, from branches below

5. Apex of leaves rounded and usually notched.

stems, and fruits densely covered with small round scalea.

1. Plant without flowers or seeds, reproduced by means of spores.

Family 7, Sterculiaceae; Heritiera.

6. Carpels distinct, at least below, sometimes united at apex by

Family 14, Verbenaceae; Avicennia.

Local names: Piai (Agusan) ;

Acrostichum aureum occurs in great abundance on open mud

Stemless, with underground rhizomes; without spines Nipa.

NIPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (Plates IX, X). Nl'PA.

This palm at once distinguished from all others in the Philip-

pines by habit and habitat. It occurs along tidal streams